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EAGLEHAWK AND CliOW
^>
BY THE SAME PUBLISHER
AUSTRALIAN LEGENDARY TALES
Folk-lore of the Noongahburrahs as told to the Piccaninnies
Collected by Mrs. LANGLOH PARKER
With Introduction by Andrew Lang, M.A.. Illustrations by a
Native Artist, and Specimen of the Native Text
Sqtuire demy 8vo. xvi-131 pp. Beautifully printed at the Ballantyne Press
on Special Paper, and bound in Attractive Cloth Cover, 3s. 6d.
MORE AUSTRALIAN LEGENDARY TALES
Collected from Various Tribes
Hy MRS. H. LANGLOH PARKER
With Introduction by Andrew Lang, M.A., and Illustrations
by a Nati%e Artist
viii-104 pp. Cloth. 3s. 6d.
Some press motfces
" The most interesting,' additions to the literature of folk-lore which
have come under our notice recently. Her first volume revealed the
much-despised Australian black as the possessor of a rich vein of
jx)etic humour, while the volume which has now reached us, ' More
Australian Legendary Tales,' materially increases our respect for the
aborigines of the island continent. As Mr. Andrew Lang, who con-
tributes a scholarly introduction, says, quoting Rudyard Kipling, these
backward friends of Mrs. Parker are ' very much like you and me,'
or rather, are our superiors in poetical fancy. Among the world's
dreamers, the Australians, just escaping from the Palaeolithic age, were
among the most distinguished." — St. James's Gazette.
" Mrs. Parker has added to the gaiety of nations by this collection
of Antipodean legends." — Saturday Revieiv.
" Extremely interesting and curious." — Antiquary.
" To the ethnologist and folk-lorist this book is of great value, but
its main use will probably be to provide new and original fairy tales
for the juveniles." — Church Revieu.'.
•' Mrs. Parker has striven, and not unsuccessfully, to do for Australian
folk-lore what Longfellow did in ' Hiawatha ' for the North American
tribes." — Sydney Morning Herald.
Some iprCSS IROttceS {continued)
" Children will delight in the stories as they do in Uncle Remus
for the way in which the blacks speak of the birds and beasts as if
they were men and women, and the curious little illustrations by a
native artist are sure to take their fancy." — South Australian Register.
"Not only a valuable contribution to folk-lore, but are sinpfularly
interesting for the quaint fancifulness of the Nature-legends, and as a
proof that the wild men of that land deserve to occupy a somewhat
higher position in the scale of intelligence than that which is generally
attributed to them. Some of the metamorphoses are as beautiful as
any of those immortalised by Ovid, who, as Mr. Andrew Lang says in
his characteristically clever and happy introduction, would have found
excellent materials in these fables." — The Westminster Gazette.
" In her long and intimate relations with the native races the
author appears not only to have won their confidence, but to have
gauged their character in ways not possible to the ordinary traveller or
globe-trotter, with the result that a fund of native humour and fancy
was opened out to her of which these tales and legends and their
predecessors are the delightful fruit." — The Manchester Guardian.
"Show a poetic mysticism which is an interesting trait of the
native Australian mind. Issued in such attractive form they should
secure a wide field." — Bookman.
" Mrs. Parker is doing very good service to folk-lore, and the more
so as she steadily adheres to her determination to tell the tale as it was
told to her. An Australian folk-tale is, as is natural, almost always
one which shows us the rude attempts of primitive man to account for
various phenomena of nature and the wonder of his own existence." —
Athenaum.
" The poetic and imaginative quality of these tales will surprise
readers who are chiefly impressed by the savagery and the degraded
condition of the Australian blacks." — The Australasian.
" Deux recits, I'un ou la description des rites d'initiation se mele a
des traditions totemiques et a des legendes de metamorphoses, I'autre
qui est un conte relatif a un sorcier faiseur de pluie ont une particuliere
importance. II faut signaler encore I'existence, dans ce recueil de
quelques contes a demi facetieux et de veritables petits romans de la
vie sauvage ou apparait dans toute sa tragique misere I'existence des
indigenes dont la pensee est tendue tout entiere vers la recherche de la
nourriture. Le livre de Mrs. Langloh Parker est edite avec une sobre
et charmante elegance ; il est precede d'une spirituelle et alerte preface
de M. Andrew Lang. Ce livre, qui fait grand honneur a celle qui en a
con9U la plan et qui I'a execute, rendra a la mythologie comparee de
reels services." — Revue de I'Histoire des Religions.
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
A STUDY OF
THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES
IXCLUDIXG
AN INQUIRY INTO THEIR ORIGIN
AND
A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
BY
JOHN MAT HEW, M.A., B.D.
LONDON
DAVID NUTT, 270-271, STRAND
MELBOURNE
MELVILLE, MULLEN AND SLADE
1899
c
c
J)K1)1<ATK1), liY I'KR.MISSIOX, TO
THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
AS A SLltJHT MAUK OF APPRECIATION OE
ITS EEEOKTS TO PROMOTE
"^ KESEAIU'H IN SCIENTIEIC Sl'BJECTS
PECULIARLY AUSTHALIAN
4S1351
PREFACE
In 1889 I contributed a competitive essay upon the Australian
Aborigines to the Royal Society of New South Wales, for which
I was awarded the Society's medal and a prize. The present
work is based upon that essay, and I desire at the outset to
express my warm thanks to the Society for courteously per-
mitting me to make free use of its contents.
But while following the lines of the former work, continued
investigation and access to fresh materials have enabled me to
amend, modify, elaborate and add much that is new.
As a warrant for venturing into the field of Australian
anthropology, I may explain that when a youth I was engaged
in station life in the Burnett District, Queensland, in which
neighbourhood for a period of seven consecutive years I was in
intimate touch with the Kabi tribe. As the fruit of that
intimacy I wrote an account of the tribe (containing a gram-
matical sketch and vocabulary) which is incorporated in the
late Mr. E. M. Curr's large work on the Australian llace.
During the past ten years I have extended my studies to the
aboriginal tribes as a whole.
Compelled by the logic of facts, I have had to take up a
new position on various important points upon which at first
I had accepted the views of others who had preceded me
in writing on the aborigines, especially those of my friend
Mr. Curr,
Mr. Eyre's theory (endorsed by Mr. Curr and generally
holding the ground), that the first settlement was iu the north-
X l^REFACK
west, and that the distribution of population was effected by
the origiual stream of people crossing to the south of Australia
in three broad separate bands, I have found untenable. The
distribution of language proves that settlement was first in the
north-east, for there the lines of language converge.
In my paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of
New South Wales 1889, I demonstrated as I had never seen
done before, that the language of the extinct Tasnianians was
the substratum of Australian languages, leading to the con-
clusion that the Tasmanians were the first occupants of Australia,
and settling, I hope, a question which had previously been in
doubt, viz., the relation of the Tasmanians to the Australians.
Further research confirms the view then advanced.
The amalgamation of two races I offer as a probable ex-
planation of the existence of two primary exogamous classes
throughout at least the greater part of Australia, and pre-
sumably throughout the whole.
My account of Australian Cave Paintings is an expansion of
a paper which appeared in the Journal of the Anthropological
Institute for 1893.
I attach special importance to the linguistic portions of this
work. The classification of Australian languages is new, and
based upon a comprehensive study of them. That Australian
words have a history, and are not mere arbitrary sounds, is, I
trust, clearly proven. I have shown how some of them have
passed from one end of Australia to another, and have traced
their changes. I hope that the original and systematic treat-
ment of the Australian numerals will be acceptable and the
vocabularies helpful to philologists.
Obligations have usually been acknowledged in loco. To
Mr. E. M. Curr's work I am specially indebted.
Authorities for the vocabularies are all given. Several cor-
respondents have contributed valuable information as well as
vocabularies, in response to printed queries. I heartily thank
PREFACE xi
all informants for the help they have rendered, I have digested
the materials and mentioned peculiar facts. To publish all that
has come to my hands would be too expensive an undertaking ;
what is unpublished I shall preserve, cherishing the hope that it
may see the light at some future time,
JOHN MATHEW.
The Manse, Coburg, Victoeia.
December 6, 189S.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE ORIGIN OF THE AUSTRALIAN RACE
Origin, old designation Papuans — Dr. Lesson's theory — M. de Quatrefage's —
Dr, Latham's view — Mr. E. M. Curr's — Dr. Topinard's — The writer's, first
inhabitants Papuan — Dravidian immigration — Malay immigration
Pp. 1-8
CHAPTER II
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN
The Primitive Papuan base — Evidence from physiology, contrast between
Australians and Tasmanians — Statements re mixture of races : Mr.
Jardine's, Rev. George Taplin's — Negro appearance of natives in the
west — Appearance of blacks in north Australia — Shape of nose — Argument
from mythology and tradition — Eagle and crow— Eagle and mopoke —
Mr. McLennan on traditions of primitive man — Scripture metaphors —
Heraldry — Australian classes, eaglehawk and crow — Mr. A. W. Howitt
on classes — Eaglehawk and little owl — Apotheosis of heroes — Argument
from implements — Stone tools — Clubs — Climbing-ropes — Argument from
customs — Argument from language — Common phonology — Papuan lingual
traces in Australia — Tasmanian speech crossed over from Victoria —
Numerals— Idioms — Pronouns — Analogies — Tasmanian and New Cale-
donian . Pp. 8—46
CHAPTER III
THE DRAVIDIAN ELEMENT
The Dravidian element — System of kinship— Linguistic resemblances— The
pronoun — Caldwell on Dravidian numerals— Likeness to Australian —
Dr. Miiller's objections to relationship between Drnvidians and Aus-
tralians Pp. 47— 54
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
THE MALAY ELEMENT
The Malay clement— M:ilay activity— Physical appearance— Rev. J. L. Threl-
keM on dissimilarity of language— Lingual analogies— Circumcision and
mcssjige-stick of Malay introduction— Recapitulation . Pp. 55—63
CHAPTER V
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution of the population— Mr. E. J. Eyre's theory— The three divisions
and their characteristics— The Tasmanians and the first of their suc-
cessors ignorant of circumcision— Its prevalence in Australia reveals
nothing about origin— Tribal nomenclature— Migration from the north-
east— Linguistic evidence —Names of emn traceable to north-east — Words
find explanation there— Numerals traced to north-east— Some traced to
New Guinea— Words for man similarly traced— Two currents of language
cross each other in east central part of continent — Double line of advance
from north to south in extreme east — Besides Papuan and Malay, a
re.sidual race to account for— Summary of evidence on distribution —
Table tracing words from south-west to north-east . . Pp. 64 — 73
CHAPTER VI
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE AUSTRALIANS
Physical, mental, and moral characteristics — Physical appearance — Mental
characters — Ramahyuck school one hundred per cent, of marks for thxee
consecutive years — Imitation — Moral characters — Instability — Sym-
pathetic and affectionate — Gaiety— Improvidence — Native police — Mis-
sionary efforts — Barbarous whites, hiimane pioneers . Pp. 74 — 83
CHAPTER VII
DWELLINGS, CLOTHING, IMPLEMENTS, FOOD
Dwellings, clothing, food, .Sec. — The blackfellow's home — His clothing — Pre-
paration of rugs — Use of bark of native tea-tree — Ornaments — Cicatrices
—Piercing septum of nose— Bags and baskets— Weapons— Food, from
cicada to kangaroo — Method of eating honey— Nardu and nardoo — Bunya
— Pitcheri, comhungie or u-anf/Je — Ovens — Diseases — Caused by sorcery —
Treatment — Longevity Pp. 84 — 92
CONTENTS XV
CHAPTER VIII
GOVEKNMExNT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS
Government, laws, institutions — Aboriginal bondage to tradition— Tribal
cohesion — Leadership — System of kinship and matrimonial restrictions —
Ganowanian classes — Blood-ties or marks of courtesy — Dr. Prison on the
Murdoo legend — Classes not the result of a conscious reformatory effort
— Promiscuous intercourse — Polyandry — Exogamy — Stages of social de-
velopment as marked by marriage — Australian classes, group-marriage —
Negatives as names of communities, class-names and totemism
Pp- 93—112
CHAPTER IX
MAERIAGE, MAN-MAKING, MUTILATIONS, BURIAL CUSTOMS
Marriage, man-making, mutilations, burial — Betrothal — Barter — Marriage by
capture — By agreement — Love-letters — Mutual avoidance of mother-in-
law and son-in-law — Stages of approach to manhood marked — Initia-
tion to manhood, or the Bora — Primary objects of initiation ceremonies —
Mutilations— Circumcision — Amputation of finger-joints — The terrible
rite — Mourning — Relics carried — Burial — Death ascribed to sorcery —
Cutting for the dead — Abstinence Pp. 113 — 124
CHAPTER X
ART, CORROBOREES
Art — Corroborees — Message-sticks of Malay introduction — Rock-paintings,
where found — Mr. Giles' discovery at Lake Amadeus — Captain Stokes'
discovery at Depuch Island — Mr. Norman Taylor's in Cape York Peninsula
— Mr. Cunningham's at Clack's Island — Painting at Nardoo Creek, Queens-
land — Captain Flinders' discovery at Chasm Island — Captain Grey's at
Glenelg River, N.-W. Australia — Authorship — Daibaitah — Mr. Brad-
shaw's discoveries at Prince Regent River described — Explained — Parvati
— Siva — Mr. W. Frcggatt's discoveries— Nauei— Hand-prints— Figures —
Cave-paintings in New South Wales and at Billiminah Creek, Victoria —
Sample of work at Billiminah Creek — Rock-carvings near Sydney — The
Australian muse— Corroborees Pp. 125 — 141
CHAPTER XI
SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELIGION
Sorcery, superstitions, religion — The bane of sorcery — Native magicians or
doctors — Their professed powers — Native phlebotomy — The rainbow —
Spells — Names of deceased persons — Sacred pebbles— Ghosts — Ancient
heroes — Deities Pp. 142 — 148
xv-i CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
AUSTILVLIAN LANGUAGES
Introduction to Australian languages— Bleek's classification— The writer's
classification— Fundamental principle of word-structure agglutination—
Phonic system— Etymology— Formation of compound words— Kaiap,
miowera, koonawara, koondooloo, kangaroo, kagurrin (name of laughing-
jackass), wagan (name of crow), bomerang— Words— Particles— Noun-
Number— Gender - Adjective — Numerals — Table showing relation of
numerals— Pronoun and table— Prepositions and conjunctions— Verb
Pp. 149-174
CHAPTER XIII
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR
Grammatical sketch of Tasmanian and of five- Aiistralian dialects representing
the linguistic classes — Tasnianian — Wimmera, Victoria — Kabi. Queens-
land — Specimen in Kabi, with translation — West Australia — Diyeri, South
Australia — Macdonnell Ranges, Central Australia . . Pp.175 — 204
Foreword to Comparative Table Pp. 205—207
Comparative Table Pp. 208—272
Index Pp. 273—288
ILLUSTRATIONS
^Iruuji of Tiismdiiiau Aboriffines . . Frontispiece
Auttralian Ahorujinen To /ace page 12
( 127
Rock J'lcturci ..... J i^.»
(133
Luiintlxtic JJiij) (if Aii.s/ritlia .... 204
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
A STUDY OF THE AUSTKxVLIAN
ABORIGINES
CHAPTER I
THE ORIGIN OF THE AUSTRALIAN RACE
Origin, old designation Papuans — Dr. Lesson's theory — M. de
Quatrefages' — Dr. Latham's view — Mr. E. M. Curr's — Dr. Topinard's
— The writer's, first inhabitants Papuan — Dravidian immigration —
Malay immigration.
In entering upon a study of the Australian aborigines, the
question " Who are they ? " meets one upon the very threshold.
Is the common belief correct that the lowly barbarians whose
last vestiges are now rapidly melting away are the real indi-
genes ? or is their being so called the result of hasty careless
observation and imperfect knowledge ? To call them the abori-
gines is convenient, especially as they have from their first
appearance in history been so called, and as at a first view they
seem homogeneous and without rival claimants to the dis-
tinction ; but it will be easy to prove that the title does not
strictly belong to them.
At the time when the Australian continent was known as
New Holland, its inhabitants were loosely designated Papuans.
In an old ethnological atlas in my possession they are classed
among the Malays. After British settlement, observers among
the colonists, by comparing the natives with typical Melanesians.
could readily perceive very marked physiological differences, and
« EAGLEHAWK AND CHOW
some colonial writers hit upon the hypothesis that the Austra-
lians were of mixed Papuan and :Malay blood. The evidence in
support ^Yas only the geographical position of Australia and
the physical features of its people superficially scanned, and
was so slight as to leave the allegation little more than a bare
assumption. How, when, or where the fusion took place, if not
insoluble, was not attempted to be solved.
The quite recent theory of Dr. Lesson, clearly and confi-
dently stated, is almost identical with this dimly conceived
one, but is better substantiated. On physiological grounds
Dr. Lesson* denies that the Australians have anything in com-
mon with the people of India, and he argues that in Australia
and Tasmania three different races have combined, two of these
being black, the other light brown or yellow (jaune). One of
the black races was of short stature and brachy cephalic or
mesaticephalic, the other tall and dolichocephalic, while the
third or yellow race was hypodolichocephalic. The Tasmanians
he regards as the issue of the two first, the Australians of the
two last. The brachycephalic race he identifies with the
Negrito, the dolichocephalic with the Papuan, and the fair race
with the Malay. His conclusion is based almost exclusively
upon premises derived from craniometry, which, according to
Huxley, is of little or no value for determining racial origin.
The craniometrical difference, however, is very marked. There
are three skulls of Tasmanian aborigines in the museum at
Launceston. Two belonged to men of short stature ; the third
belonged to an aboriginal criminal whose height was over six
feet. Compared by simple inspection, the last differs strikingly
from the other two, being flattened at the sides and singularly
elongated from front to back.
M. de Quatrefages held that the Tasmanians were a pure
distinct race. A careful study of what is preserved of the
Tasmanian language suggests that, although phonologically it
is uniform, there are some indications that a close analysis
might resolve its constituents into two etymological elements ;
and this may yet be done without proving that the original
possessors of these elements belonged to different races. By
combining the craniometrical and philological evidence, a good
• Dr. A. Lesson, *' Les Polynesiens," Paris, 1880, vol. i. p. 104.
THE ORIGIN OF THE AUSTRALIAN RACE 3
deal of support is given to Dr. Lesson's view that the Tas-
manians were sprung from two dark races ; but as this conclu-
sion is uncertain, little or no stress will be laid upon it in this
work.
The propinquity of Tasmania to the mainland naturally
suggests the inference that both regions were at first peopled by
the same race. Many accept this view off-hand without being
aware how serious the objections are which it raises. Mr. Davies,
quoted by Mr. R. Brough Smyth,* indicates King George Sound
as the part of Australia whence the Tasmanians set forth, but
no proof is given. Dr. Latham mentions the same theory, and
gives some glossarial affinities, the validity of which as evidence
the late Mr. E. M. Curr,t in his work " The Australian Race,"
very severely shakes, showing that a number of the words com-
pared are not authenticated, and that of authenticated words
only one of those given by Latham is represented in both
Australian and Tasmanian speech. But Dr. Latham himself
pronounces against concluding close relationship of races from
contiguity of their abodes, and, by suggesting stronger aflSnities
between the New Caledonian and Tasmanian tongues than
between Australian and Tasmanian, leads his readers to prefer
thinking that the migration to Tasmania had come by way of
New Caledonia rather than from the mainland.
That a true relationship subsists between the Australians
and the Dravidiaus of India is now admitted by various capable
investigators on grounds too firm to be successfully controverted,
as I cannot help thinking, notwithstanding Dr. F. JMiiller's stout
assertions to the contrary.
One of the latest theories of the origin of the Australians is
that advanced by Mr. E. M. Curr. He follows Mr. Hyde Clarke
in citing resemblances between African and Australian words.
Mr. Curr X concludes that the Australians and Tasmanians were
respectively distinct offshoots from the African race ; that the
present occupants of Australia are its aborigines, and are so
homogeneous that the founders of the race may all have arrived
in the one canoe. He is at great pains to prove that Australia
was never inhabited by the same race as the Tasmanians sprang
* "Aborigines of Victoria," Introd. p. Ixx.
t " The Australian Race," vol. iii. pp. 600 et scq.
t Ihid. vol. i. p. 189; vol. iii. p. 604.
4 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
from, that in fact the Australians aud Tasmanians have never
met since first one of the branches was severed from the parent
Negro stock.
The conclusions of Dr. Topinard,* derived mainly from a
study of physical and physiological characters, while, as regards
the monirrel constitution of the Australian race, corroborative of
the theory of origin here enunciated, confess to the presence of
such great difHculties on the (|uestion of origin, and show so much
perplexity and uncertainty, that they may well be quoted as a
warrant for niarshalUug such a mass of evidence as follows in sup-
port of the original occupation of Australia by the ancestors of
the Tasmanians. He says " the Tasmaiiian type is separated
in a most remarkable manner from all the neighbouring types,
negroes or others." The Tasmanians are " absolutely sui generis."
Souie skulls appeared to be the product of a cross between the
Melanesian and the I'olynesian, bnt the Tasmanians " had a
special physiognomy of their own." "The Australian type is
no less paradoxical." " Is the Australian type a pure one?" he
asks. '* We thought that before the present race of Australians
there must have existed on their continent a race much inferior
still, of whom the individuals with woolly hair and the ugly,
deformed tribes were the descendants." " It is clear that the
Australians might very well be the result of a cross between
one race with smooth hair from some other place and a really
negro or autochthonous race. The opinions expressed by Mr.
Huxley are in harmony with this hypothesis. He says the
Australians are identical with the ancient inhabitants of the
Deccan." On the other hand, Topinard thinks that the few
examples of woolly hair in the north " might be accounted for
by the immigration of Papuans from New Guinea, and in the
south by the passage over to the other side of Behring
(jiic for Bass) Strait of some Tasmanians to the continent."
"We are still in ignorance as to whether the present Aus-
tralian race took its origin on the spot with the characters
that we admit as belonging to it, or whether, on the contrary,
it was altogether constituted in Asia, or whether it is a cross
race; and in that case, of what elements it is composed."
He has, therefore, no thought of the Tasmanians as the autoch-
* Dr. Paul Topinard, "Anthropology " (English Trans.). London : Chap-
man and Hall, 1890, pp. 500-505.
THE ORIGIN OF THE AT STIIALIAN RACE 5
thones of Australia. He leaves the origin an open ques-
tion.
The present writer entertains the hope that this work will
contribute to its solution. Topinard considers that no fewer
than seven races of India and one of Ceylon are identical with
the Australian, a most valuable support to the hypothesis
presented here.
The theory which the writer enunciates accounts for the
difficulties which give rise to these divergent views, and may
be stated briefly as follows : Australia was first occupied by a
people, a branch of the Papuan* family, and closely related to
the Negroes. They came from the north, in all likelihood from
New Guinea, but whether from there or any other island of the
Eastern Archipelago is a matter of indifference and impossible
to decide, as probably at the time of their arrival the islands to
the north were all inhabited by people of the same blood.
These first-comers, the veritable Australian aborigines, occupied
all the continent, and having spread right across to the southern
shores, they crossed what is now Bass Strait, but which at
that distant date may have been dry land, and their migration
terminated in Tasmania.
Then followed one invasion, if not two, by hostile people.
The un-Papuan element now discernible in the Australian race
is not the trace of one pure race, but is composite, the con-
stituents being Dravidiau* and Malay* blood. Of these the
Dravidian was the first to arrive, the Malay coming later, and in a
* The three racial terms employed by the writer as distinguishing the
constituent elements of the Australian race may be explained here once for
all. Papuan is applied not in its narrowest application (dark New Guinean),
but as the equivalent of Melanesian, and is meant to include the Tasmanian
Aborigines as the vanguard of the race in the south. The writer is not aware
that an absolute necessity exists for separating the Tasmanian from the
Papuan, as Topinard does, making it a collateral distinct branch of the Negro
family. Hence the Tasmanian Papuans are invariably referred to in this
volume as the substratum of the present Australian race. That in them
there may be a strain of Negrito blood is not questioned ; on the contrary,
I incline to that opinion. Dravidian is not to be understood as indicating
the direct descent of Australians from Dravidians (or Dravirians), but rather
that one strong strain of the Australian people is of common origin with the
Dravidians of ludia and their congeners. Malay refers generally to the
people of that race to the north of Australia without distinguishing nation-
ality. Proof will be given of intimate connection between Sumatra and the
north-west of Australia. The superior physique of the Battaks may account
for that of the natives in the north of Australia.
6 EAGLEIIAWK AND CROW
desultory way by detaclinients at irregular intervals. It is more
convenient tliau accurate to designate one of these components as
Dravidian ; it would be more precise to speak of it of the same stock
as the J)ravidiau. There are features observable in Australian
marriage laws and indelibly fixed in Australian language which
attest a real affinity between the Australians and the people of
Southern and Central India. The different batches of invaders
may have had different landing-places. Mainly from linguistic
evidence I incline to think that the people, who for convenience
may be called Dravidians, first touched on the north-east coast
of Queensland, It seems to me that this ingredient of the
population came not in one boatload, but in an unintermittent
stream for many years, probably being forced southwards by
the attacks of a more powerful race. Coming as a later off-
shoot from the first home of humanity, this invading band was
of higher intelligence and better equipped for conflict than the
indigenes of Australia. Physically they were more lithe and
wirj' and of taller stature. They were lighter in colour, though
a dark race, less hirsute, and the hair of their head was per-
fectly straight. Their language was dissimilar in phonology,
and differed greatly in vocabulary from that of the indigenes.
There is a natural highway easily traversed across Australia from
the north-east to the south and south-west, by first ascending
the rivers on the north-eastern watershed, and then descending
those on the southern watershed until they converge about Lake
Eyre. If we suppose the Dravidian invaders to have gained the
extreme north-east coast of Queensland, thence they would
rapidly pour south-westward in a strong stream, fighting their
way with the aboriginal population, part of which they would
absorb — chiefly by the cajjture of women — part they would
destroy, the remainder would keep retiring. The stream of
invasion would here and there send forth branches which,
reaching the coast at various points, would rebound and eddy
backwards.
As regards Malay incursions, while there may have been a con-
tinuous intercourse between Malays and Australians on the north
chiefly to the west of the Gulf, there are not wanting indications
of occasional descents of Malay parties — even on the east coast
— forming, if not colonies, at least centres of influence, which
have left unquestionable traces on the Australian language.
THE ORIGIN OF THE AUSTRALIAN RACE 7
The theory of occupation which I have sketched differs
widely from that propounded by Mr, Curr, who supposes that
one boatload of people might have been the progenitors of the
whole race. Following Mr. E. J. Eyre, he assumes that the
landing was made near Port Darwin, and that afterwards the
aborigines were by pressure of circumstances divided into three
main advancing lines, two taking the seaboard in opposite
directions, and the third penetrating into the interior, all three
meeting again on the south and south-east coast,
Mr. Bon wick's theory differs toto code from Mr. Curr's. He \
posits the existence of a great southern continent as Dumont 1
d'Urville did, only Mr. Bouwick's continent would require to be
more extensive, girdling almost the whole Southern Hemisphere,
embracing the West Indies on the one side and the Chatham
Islands on the other. Over all this vast continent people of
Negro blood ranged, and were finally separated and isolated by
a general depression and submergence of most of the land in
the ocean. Both the Papuan and Australian branches of the
Negro family advanced from west to east, reaching their per-
manent home at a time before Tasmania was sundered from the
mainland. The Papuans may have moved frcdy hcticcc/i both
lands, but the Australians touched on the south-west of the
mainland and spread northwards and eastwards, Mr, Curr and
Mr, Bonwick are almost diametrically opposed as to direction of
settlement.
We may be disposed willingly enough to adopt Mr. Hooker's
theory, based on botanical considerations, and called in by Mr.
Bonwick as corroborative testimony, that the southern continent
was once of much greater area than it now is (Mr, Wallace holds
a similar opinion *), but it can only be a last resort to account
for the distribution of races by the submergence of hypothetical
regions. It will be conclusively shown in this volume that the
main stream of population entered Australia on the north-east
and crossed in a south-westerly direction.
* "The Malay Archipelago," p. 593.
CHAPTER II
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN
The Primitive Papuan base — Evidence from physiology contrast
hetween Australians and Tasmanians— Statements re mixture of
races : Mr. Jardine's. Rev. George Taplins— Negro appearance of
natives in the west — Appearance of blacks in north Australia —
Shape of nose— Argument from mythology and tradition— Eagle and
crow— Eagle and mopoke — Mr. McLennan on traditions of primitive
man — Scripture metaphors— Heraldry — Australian classes, eaglehawk
and crow— Mr. A.W. llowitt on classes— Eaglehawk and little owl —
Apotheosis of heroes — Argument from implements— Stone tools —
Clubs— Climbing-ropes-Argument from customs — Argument from
language — Common phonology — Papuan lingual traces in Australia —
Tasmanian speech crossed over from Victoria — Numerals — Idioms —
Pronouns — Analogies — Tasmanian and New Caledonian.
Having expressed the conviction that the aborigines of Australia
were Papuan, and that they were the ancestors of the Tasmanian
race so recently extinct, I now propose to verify this hypothesis
hy presenting converging lines of cumulative evidence. There
are proofs adducible from physiology, mythology, implements,
customs and language, some more decisive and striking than
others, but when combined so varied and powerful as, I think,
to render my position incontestable.
EVIDENCE FROM PHYSIOLOGY.
The argument most obvious and first suggested for identity
of origin of two nations is contiguity of habitation, and if con-
siderations were just as favourable to the conclusions that the
Tasmanians had sprung from the mainland as from any other
place, proximity might be called in to turn the balance. Proxi-
mity of abode is here mentioned as a favourable presupposition
to racial aftinity, and with this brief notice it can be passed over
as unnecessary argument and open to the objection of being
sometimes misleading.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 9
With Peron and many others, the most powerful argument
against deriving the Tasmanians from their neighbours across
the Strait has been the extraordinary difference in appearance.
Descriptions of the physique of the Tasmanians vary exceedingly,
BO much indeed that it might easily be imagined that the writers
had seen people of races physically as unlike as the Kafirs and
the Bushmen, But similar divergence of impression is to be
found regarding the appearance of the Australians. One writer
will describe them as emaciated, undersized, disproportioned
creatures hardly human; another will describe them as light
but muscular, firmly knit men about as tall as Europeans.
Much depends upon the subjective standard of comparison, the
tribe met with, the number and circumstances of the individuals
seen, and the season of the year.
By a most careful comparison of various accounts of both
races, and judging from personal observation of the Australians,
I am convinced that the obvious physical differences narrow
down to these : * that as compared with the natives of the con-
tinent the islanders were on the average of shorter stature, of >
slightly darker complexion, and had hair of very different
quality. The objections which these differences raise to com-
munity of origin dissolve in the prospect to those who accept the
view, that upon the aboriginal Australian stock there was grafted
a strong Malayo-Dravidian shoot, for the effect of this graft is
of itself sufficient to explain the ultimate divergence of feature.
The average height of the Australian male may be set down
as 5 ft. 5 in. or 5 ft. 6 in., while that of the Tasmanian was
only about 5 ft. 2 in. to 5 ft. 5 in.f Any one who has seen
much of the Australian blacks cannot have failed to observe the
great disparity in stature to be found among them, whether as
comparing together individuals of one tribe or individuals of
different communities, their height as well as general physique
being dependent upon descent, climate, food-supply. I remember
meeting with a tribe on the Nogoa River in Queensland, which
seemed to me a remarkably fine body of people, both for stature
and for strength of build surpassing any natives I had seen else-
* The object here is mainly to refute Mr. Curr's arguments for holding that
the Australians and Tasmanians were two absolutely distinct races, hence the
peculiar cranial differences are not referred to.
t Bonwick, " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 119.
10 r.ACI.KIIAWK AM) (ROW
where. W\' are told also that in some parts in the extreme
north the natives are conspicuous for their height.*
When comnumities are examined in detail, it is found that a
man's height will range from about 5 ft. to about 6 ft. i in. in
the same tribe. I recall a singular example of this extreme
difference in the case of two brothers, sons of the same mother
at least. Thev belonged to the Kabi tribe, occupying the head
waters of the Mary River, in Queensland. The younger brother,
named Kilkaibriu, became a strapping fellow of about 6 ft., the
elder brother, Kagariu, was very little over 5 ft. high, and about
as unjjrepopsessing, from a European point of view, as it were
possible to conceive, in which respect no Tasmanian could suqaass
him. He came into public notice as Johnny Campbell, the bush-
ranger, and after a singularly daring and villainous career, ended
his days on the gibbet at Brisbane. Taken by itself, this great
diversity of stature among Australians might only be regarded
as something abnormal, but when joined with other evidence
does it not form a link in the chain upon which hangs the
hypothesis of their descent here advanced ? The offspring of a
union between the Australian Papuans and people of greater
stature would probably exceed in height the pure aborigines
represented by the Tasmanians, and among posterity sprung
from two or three distinct races differing fi'om each other in
average stature, uniformity of height would hardly be expected,
so that fact and theory coincide in this particular.
It is freely admitted that the inhabitants of the island
differed physically from those of the mainland in important
particulars ; the difference, however, may be easily exaggerated.
Strange that the colour of the Tasmanians should already be a
matter of dispute. Mr. E. M. Curr f describes it as a sooty-
black. A like opinion is given by Mr. Jas. Barnard, who had
seen them, and calls their, colour bluish-black.| The busts in
the Melbourne Public Library are almost jet-black. Topinard §
describes it as a chocolate-black, which corresponds fairly with
* The Woolna tribe are described as a fine race. My friend, Mr. Joseph
Bradshaw, saw two women who were each 5 ft. 10 in. in height, and a young
man 6 ft. 4^ in.
+ "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 603.
Z "Report of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science,"
Melbourne. 1S90, p. 59S.
§ " Anthropology," p. 501.
THE L\DIGKNJ:S 0¥ AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 11
the complexion of the natives in the painting by ]Mr. Dowling
in the Launceston Museum. Mr. Dowling was a high-class
painter, and as he painted from life I think his representation
may be relied upon. Following him therefore, the contrast
alleged by Mr. Curr between the sooty-black skin of the
Tasmanians and the brownish-black of the Australians entirely
disappears. The skin of both was brownish-black but uniform
in the Tasmanians, and with marked differences of shade in
the Australians, sometimes being copper-coloured, especially
in children. Along the maritime lands of Australia on the
east, south, and west, the colour in many cases is very dark.
The people of both nations had luxuriant heads of hair.
Some have called the hair of the Tasmanians woolly, others
deny that it could properly be so called, and aver that it was
rather excessively curly. The hair of the head was very
abundant and generally grew in long thin ringlets. The
hair of the continental people is, on the contrary, mostly wavy
on the head, but often straight, and occasionally so curly as to
resemble woolly hair, while the beard has invariably a great
tendency to curl. As telling against the common origin of
these peoples, a strong point is made of the difference in the
quality of the hair. Mr. Curr has said * of the Australians that
their hair is " sometimes straight and at others wavy, but never
woolly," and in the next sentence that the hair of the Tasmanians
was woolly.
As a matter of fact, neither race had the hair woolly in the
same sense as the Negro's hair is woolly, and yet the Tasmanians
might be called in a sense woolly (or wool-like), and there are
cases where a kind of woolly hair has been noticed among the
Australians. To corroborate the latter statement I have only
to refer to Mr. Curr's own work.t Of a tribe of blacks in the
BunyaMountains,the present writer, who contributed the account,
says that there were one or two cases of woolly hair. The hair
of one of them, named Warun, was so woolly that he used to be
teased in consequence and nicknamed "Monkey" (sheep) and
"Wool," much to his vexation.
Mr. Jardine X (the explorer, I presume) speaks of two types
of Australians, one approaching a copper-colour, the other black.
* "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 603. f Ibid. p. 153.
X Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 19.
12 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW
He says the true Australian aborigines are perfectly black, with
generally voolhj heads of hair. He speaks also of features of a
strong Jewish cast, about which more will be said below. Major
^litchell * saw some natives with a sort of woolly hair, and Mr.
Stanbridge speaks j of isolated cases of woolly hair among the
men. By the courtes}'^ of a friend I have in my possession the
photograph of a black boy whose hair was of the quality generally
called woolly ; his name was Wellington, and he belonged to the
Culgoa River, New South Wales.
In his " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," Mr. Bonwick says,$
regarding them, that their hair was not woolly nor like that of
the Negro. He cites the opinion of Dr. Pruner Bey, that two
specimens examined resembled the hair of the New Irelanders.
If Mr. Curr can hold that, notwithstanding the straightness of
his hair, "the Australian is by descent a Negro with a strong
cross in him of some other race," theiie should be no difficulty, on
the score of difference of hair, in the way of our regarding him as
descended from the Austral Papuan or indigenous Australian,
with a strong cross of two other races, both straight-haired.
The opinion of the Rev. Geo. Taplin, an observer of large
experience, is very noteworthy. He says,§ " there is a remarkable
difference in colour and cast of features ; some natives have light
complexions, straight hair, and a Malay countenance, while
others have curly hair, are very black, and have the features
I'apuan. It is therefore ^jroZ/c'5/f that there arc tiro races of
aborigines." My own theory was formed before I had read
this; and besides, Mr. Taplin merely reiterates a supposition
based certainly upon personal experience, but already pro-
pounded by earlier New South Wales writers, || and, apart from
difference of appearance just quoted, he puts forth no proof of
his statement.
The conclusion of so well qualified an authority that there
are probably two races of aborigines in South Australia is in
direct conflict with that of Mr. Huxley, who thinks that the
natives of the southern and western portions of Australia are
* Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. i8.
t Jbid. p. 15. + "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 106.
§ "Native Tribes of South Australia," p. 129.
H Mr. Taplin regarded the Narrinyeri as descended from Polynesians and
Papuans, and may have been the first to propound this special derivation.
■Z '-3
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN Vi
the most homogeneous of all savages. Observation is certainly
against Mr. Huxley, with whose opinion the statement of Dr. A.
Lesson* maybe compared, "the individual variations are too
great, the study of the crania shows typical differences too
accentuated for it to be possible to admit the unity and purity
of the Australians."
The occurrence of strongly contrasted complexions, copper
and almost jet black in the same tribe, is exceedingly common.
Some of the fairer skins are accompanied by light-coloured hair,
whether faded or natuz-al. At Beemery Station, between Bourke
and Brewarrina, the family of the leading black were very fair
and had long straw-coloured hair. I have heard of similar cases
elsewhere, and have known one or two in southern Queensland.
Mr. Bonwick f quotes Mr. Earl as saying, regarding Coburg
Peninsula, in the north-west of Australia, " the aboriginal inhabi-
tants of this part of Australia very closely resemble the Papuans
of New Guinea, or, which is almost the same thing, the aborigines
of Van Diemen's Land " ; and on the next page ]Mr. Oldfield
is credited with stating that the Papuan race is still showing
through the Australian in a part of West Australia ; " the
tribes," he says, " inhabiting the country from Murchison River
to Shark's Bay possess more characteristics of the Negro family
than the aborigines of any part of Australia." To the above
evidence, attesting the greater prominence of Papuan characters
in West Australia, let the following be added to show the
existence of a decided Papuan fringe, at least on the south-
eastern and western coasts, with a departure from it landwards
and in the north.
Of some fishing tribes, Mr. Curr says| that they have very
frizzy hair. Mr. A. W. Howitt, speaking of Coopei-'s Creek
blacks, says § " the aborigines do not differ much in appearance
from the coast blacks, but their hair is straighter, and I think
they are slighter in build ; the curly hair so often seen on the
Darling and Murray and elsewhere is not common."
Mr. Curr quotes Mr. Paul Foelsche as saying, respecting the
blacks of Northern Australia: "The majority of the men are
* Dr. Lesson, " Les Polynesiens," Paris, 1880, vol. i. p. 104.
t "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 262.
X " The Australian Kace," vol. i. p. 39.
§ Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol, ii. \\ 301,
14 EAGI.KITAWK AM) ("ROW
well built, but the skin is smooth and the stray covering of hair
all over the body, so often met with in the south, is almost
absent on the north coast .... the growth of hair on the face
is very scanty."* As the character of the present Australian's
hair is usuallv wavy, often curly and sometimes woolly, and as
there is a special tendency to waviness towards the seaboard on
the east, south and west, these considerations encourage rather
than forbid the belief that the origin of the Australians was as
here maintained.
I shall now conclude the argument from physiology by
adducing the evidence which may be called nasal, and which,
as might naturally be expected, is by no means microscopicaL
A feature common to the Papuans, Australians, and Tasmanians
is a hooked nose. ^fr. Wallace, who has studied carefully the
]'apuan and the Malay races, saysf "the most universal
character of the Papuan race is to- have the nose prominent
and large with the apex produced downwards." According to
;Mr. Jardine's description of the true aboriginal features cited
above, the nose is that of the Papuans. The Rev. W. Eidley
speaks of having met with the Jewish nose among the Australian
blacks. The fact is so obvious to any one who has seen many
of the natives, as not to require to be pointed out, much less
supported by quotations. And Mr. Backhouse observed $ among
the Tasnianian captives in Flinders Island, one especially whose
features had a Jewish cast, and reminded him of the popular
picture of Abraham. So that, besides the resemblances already
noted, the Australians and Tasmanians are related by the family
likeness of the Jewish PajDuan nose.
THE ARGUMENT FROM MYTHOLOGY AND TRADITION.
Some myths have been collected, chiefly in Victoria, which
at first appear to be wild nonsensical fancies, but which are
capable of a beautiful and rational interpretation, and receive a
special value when light is thrown upon them by the theory of
pre-occupation of the country by a distinct race. While on this
point it will be necessary for me to quote freely from Mr.
Smyth's " Aborigines of Victoria," vol. iii., beginning at p. 423.
* Mr. Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 248.
t "The Malaj Archipelago," p. 590.
X We.st's " History of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 78.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTllALLV PAPUAN 15
The aborigines of the northern parts of A'ictoria believe that
the beings who created all things had severally the form of the
crow and the eagle. There had been constant warfare between
these two beings, but peace was made at length. They agreed
that the Murray blacks should be divided into two classes, the
Mokwarra (spelt variously) or Eaglehawk, and the Kilparra or
Crow. The conflict had been maintained with o-reat vigfour for
a length of time, the crow taking every advantage of his nobler
foe, but the latter generally had ample revenge. Out of their
enmities and final agreement arose the two classes as has been
said, and thence a law regulating marriages between these classes.
The Melbourne blacks say that Pundjel made of clay two
males. He took stringy bark from the tree, made hair of it,
and placed it on their heads, on one straight hair and on the
other curled hair. The man with the straight hair he called
Ber-rook Boorn, the man with the curled hair Koo-kiu Ber-
rook.
There is also a myth about Bundjel (or Pundjel), the first
man, and Karween (the second man), whom Bundjel made.
They quarrelled about wives, but Karween spoke to Waung the
Crow and asked him to make a corroboree. And many crows
came and they made a great light in the air and they sang.
And then there was a fight with spears between Bundjel and
Karween, the former being victor.
The following legend was current on the Murray. Before
the earth was inhabited by the present existing race of black
men, birds had possession of it. These birds had as much
intelligence and wisdom as the blacks, nay, some say that they
were altogether wiser and more skilful. The eaglehawk seems
to have been the chief among the birds, and next to him in
authority was the crow.
The progenitors of the existing tribes, whether birds, or
beasts, or men, were set in the sky and made to shine as stars if
the deeds they had done were mighty. The eagle is now the
planet Mars, and justly so, because he was much given to fighting ;
the crow is also a star.
The Murray blacks have it that the crow killed the son of
the eagle. This made the eagle very angry, so he set a trap for
the crow, caught him and killed him, but the crow came to life
again and disappeared.
16 EAGLEHA^^K AND CROW
The Gippsland blacks vary the legend by saying that the
eagle left his son in charge of themopoke while he himself went
hunting. The mopoke sewed the eaglet up in a bag and
left him. The eagle was irate, got the mopoke enclosed in the
cavity of a hollow tree, whence he was able to escape only by
breaking his leg and using the bone of it to cut his way out.
The eagle and the mopoke afterwards made a solemn agreement
and treaty of peace, the conditions of which were as follows :
the eagle should have the privilege of going up into the topmost
boughs of the trees, so that he might from so great a height see
better where kangaroos were feeding ; and the mopoke was to
have the right of occupying holes of trees : thus ended the
disputes between the eagle and the mopoke.
The Rev. Geo. Taplin relates some myths of the Narrinyeri
in South Australia, similar to the above.* Nurundere was the
wonderful god or chief of this tribe^ When he and his followers
came down the Murray they found the country around the lakes
in possession of clans of blacks under Wyungare and Nepelle.
The last two of these heroes were translated to heaven and
became stars. There is also a legend of a fight about fish
between the pelicans and the magpies, when the latter were
rolled in the ashes of a fire they had made and became black.
This myth, like those about birds narrated above, will bear a
similar interpretation.
Now what is to be made out of these myths ? Are they
tales "told by an idiot and signifying nothing?" or are they
confused evanescent echoes of a real past history ? I take them
to be the latter. Primitive man was fond of representing war-
fare carried on between beasts or birds endowed with human
faculties, or between men and some of the lower animals, and
men were united with beasts in all sorts of relations. A number
of these relations are mentioned by Mr. McLennan,! such as the
Minotaur and his parentage, Phorbas attaining the supremacy
in Rhodes by freeing it of snakes, the conversion in zEgiua of
the ants into men, the Myrmidons ; " and a score of suchlike
facts." He asks what these relations meant, and suggests that
among the Greeks there were tribes with totems — Bull, Boar,
* " Native Tribes of South Australia," pp. 55-62.
t "Studies in Ancient History." London: Macmillau and Co., 1S96
p. 227, note.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 17
Lion, Snake, Ant, and Dragon tribes, just as tliere are tribes
named after animals among the American Indians.
The prevalence of the designation of men by names of the
lower animals is amply illustrated in the Old Testament
scriptures. Take, for instance, the case of Jacob blessing his
children,* where Judah is " a lion's whelp," Issachar " a strong
ass," Dan " a sequent by the way, an adder in the path,"
Naphtali "a hind let loose," Benjamin "a ravening wolf." In
the book of Daniel f the empires are typified by four beasts.
There is also the common appellation for Egypt, "the dragon." J
This ancient practice has been handed down to modern times
in the heraldic bearings both of families and nations in civilised
countries. The eagle has always been a choice crest, and it is
scarcely matter of surprise that the king of birds, so swift and
fearless, should be chosen as the emblem of a conquering people
even in Australia.
Standing in close relation to these myths is the division of
Australian communities into two classes, represented by the
eaglehawk and the crow respectively, this dual division and
particular representation occurring in Victoria, and extending
with modifications into New South Wales and South Australia.
In central and northern Victoria the eaglehawk and the crow
are the only names of the two classes. Throughout much of
the watershed of the Darling and the Muri-ay, on the authority
of Mr. A. W. Howitt,§ the eaglehawk is one of the primary
class-names, the second name being usually the crow. In the
Turra tribe in South Australia, bordering on the south-west
of Victoria, the seal takes the place of the crow. Merung,
eaglehaivk, and Yukembruk, crow, are the two class-names on the
Upper Murray and at Maneroo, New South Wales. Bearing
upon this is the tradition of the blacks on the Lower Darling,
first placed on record by Mr. C. G. N. Lockhart in his annual
report to the Government of New South Wales in 1852 or 1853,
and cited by Mr. Curr.|| The tradition is that the first black man
on the Darling had two wives, Kilparra and Mokwarra. The
sons of the one married the daughters of the other, and the
class-names were inherited from the mothers. At King George
* Genesis, xlix. t Daniel, vii. 3. + Isaiah, li. 9.
§ " Kamilroi and Kurnai," p. 288.
II " The Australian Race," vol. ii. p. 165.
18 i:agli:iia\\ K and cuow
Sound, among a connnunity of the Meenung blacks, the white
cockatoo is substituted for the eaglehawk as one of the primary-
divisions, the crow being the other.* In central Victoria, Bunjil
{ea;/hha,rk) was the name of a deity as well as a class-name.
In Gippsland, N'ictoria. it was a title of respect applied to men.
A.t the most easterly point of Australia, between the Albert and
Tweed Rivers, the equivalent of "blacks" is Meebin, which also
signifies t-aglehawk ; and even farther north still, the name
Dippil is applied by the Rev. W. Ridley, who received it from
Mr. Davies (- Darumboi"), as an equivalent for Kabi, the name
of the blacks in that quarter ; and Dippil is evidently the same
word as dibbil (eaglehawk) of the Brisbane River blacks. It is
onlv natural to infer that these correspondences between the
name of the race and that of the eaglehawk result from the fact
that the dominant and predominant race was called after that
bird. '^ Among the Kurnai," writes Mr. A. W. Howitt,t *' the
eaglehawk is greatly reverenced ; he" is regarded as the type of
the bold and sagacious hunter .... He figures in their tales
in company with Ebing, the little owl. Were it not too fanciful,
we might see in the quarrels of Gwanumerongaud Ebing a trace
of the severance of the original community into two classes, or
of a special disruption which may have impelled the Kurnai
ancestry into Gippsland." AVhen the natives of one tribe or
community all belong to one class, and those of another tribe
belong to a different class (as in central and northern Victoria
and elsewhere), surely we are justified in inteqjreting the
mythical bird-warfare as referring to the classes, and therefore,
necessarily, to the communities which bear the bird-names.
The theory advanced here goes a step farther, identifying the
two primary classes with two races ; and if it be accepted, the
strife is regarded as not merely inter-tribal but inter-racial.
A hatred or dread of crows is evinced in places widely separate.
In a note from Mr. Shearer, speaking of the tribe living between
the Culgoa and "Warrego Rivers, he says: "If they cut their
hair, they are very particular about leaving it, for fear of the
crows picking it up. They suppose the hair on their head
would turn to grass or sticks if the crows took it. They have a
great dread of crows. If they see a flock making a noise they
• "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 386.
t " Kamilroi and Kurnai," pp. 322-23.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 19
are sure some other tribe are going to fight them or afflict them
witli some sickness."
When we take a conjunct view of the myths of the eaglehawk
and the crow, the widespread currency and imperishable per-
sistence of one or other of these names as applied to tribes or
divisions of tribes, the Darling tradition of the aboriginal with
the two wives, the persisting hatred and dread of crows, is there
any better explanation of the facts possible than that the
eaglehawk and the crow represent two distinct races of men
which once contested for the possession of Australia, the taller,
more powerful and more fierce " eaglehawk " race overcoming
and in places exterminating the weaker, more scantily equipped
sable " crows " ? The struggle for supremacy began in the
north and its last smouldering embers died out in Victoria,
where traces of the once fierce fire have been left as clearly
recognisable as the Victorian evidences of a former volcanic
period, and a not inappropriate name, for the south-east of
Australia at least, would be The Land of the Eaglehawk and
THE Crow.
The myths of Looern and Wiwonderrer suggest that they
relate to untamable Papuans holding out for some time in the
wildest parts of Victoria. Looern had his house at Wilson's
Promontory. His country was that tract of heavily timbered
ranges lying between the Promontory and Hoddle's Creek.
Any who dared to penetrate this country without the permis-
sion of Looern died a death awful to contemplate, because the
torments preceding death were indescribable. The myth of
Wiwonderrer is briefly stated thus :* There is a range north-
east of Western Port inhabited, the natives say, by an animal
resembling a human being, but with a body as hard as a stone.
He used to kill many blacks. He was supported by people'
of his own. The blacks would not visit this i-ange on any
account.
Mr. Stanbridge states that the Boorong tribe, who inhabit
the Mallee country in the neighbourhood of Lake Tyrril, have
preserved an account of the Nurrum-bung-utrias or old spirits,
a people who formerly possessed their country and who had the
knowledge of fire. This tribe imagined the star Canopus to be
* Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 453.
20 EAGLKIIAWK AND CHOW
the male crow, the first to bring fire from space and to give it to
themselves, before which they were without it.*
There is n great resemblance between the Victorian and
Tasmanian legends of the origin of fire and the apotheosis of
heroes. Thus, according to the Yarra blacks, Karakarook, a
female, was the only one who could produce fire, and she is now
the seven stars (the Pleiades presumably). There is another
Victorian myth to the effect that Toordt and Trrar came from
the sky to show the blacks where the crow (that hostile wicked
crow) had liidden fire and returned to the sky again. Pundjel
is said to have changed Toordt into Mars for his good deeds.
With the foregoing may be compared the legend of the
Tasmanian Oyster Bay Tribe preserved by Dr. Milligan. Two
strangers are said to have appeared suddenly and to have cast
fire among the Tasmauians, and, as the legend goes, '' these two
are now in the clouds ; in the clear night you see them like two
stars (Castor and Pollux)." The resemblance between these
Victorian and Tasmanian myths, little in itself, forms yet
another link in the evidence for the relationship of the two
races.
Mr. West observes f that a New Holland woman taken to
Flinders remembered a tradition that her ancestors had driven
out the original inhabitants, the fathers, it is conjectured, of the
Tasmanians ; but as the navigator could hardly be able to inter-
change ideas on such a subject with a native at that time, even
with all the resources at his command, the story is of very little
weight.
Against my interpretation of these bird-myths it may be
urged with great show of reason that the most they can suggest
in the way of ancient warfare is a feud between two clans having
bird-totems, and that in the Australian communities there are
always in the one tribe two classes at least, a circumstance
favouring the presumption that a duality of classes existed
among the race from which the aborigines are sprung for ages
before Australia became their home.
But my theory is strongly corroborated by the system of
classes which prevailed generally in Victoria and in the adjoining
])art of South Australia south of the Murray. Here (in Gipps-
• Mr. R. Biough Smyth's *' The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 460.
t " Histoiy of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 77.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 21
land) there was the peculiarity of sex-totems, the ongiu of which
would be explicable upon the supposition of wives retaining the
name of the totem of their kin, their tribe or race being different
from that of their husbands. Here there was also the somewhat
rare system of local or tribal totems with corresponding classes.
All the native-born in the tribe or locality took the name of the
father's class, say, Eaglchaivlc ; the tribe was exogamous, wives
being taken from, say, a Croiu community, in which the same
princi]3le was acted on, the class-names being transposed.
The Narrinyeri, south of the mouth of the jNIurray, had
eighteen such communities, each having its own totem and
forming an exogamous class, the children taking the father's
class-name, and thus perpetuating the territorial totem and class.
Such a system is quite consistent with a racial dual division
characterised by the names Eaglchaivk and Crow — in fact, points
to it.
And the more complicated systems of Queensland, with four
clans and two phratries, can be explained as arising from the
simpler Victorian usage. The Queensland east coast systems
may be represented briefly thus :
Phratryl. | ^^^^ ^- Phratry 11. ( S""'' 5'
•^ i Class B. ^ [ Class Y.
The identity of the phratries is still marked in some places by
distinct names. A and B do not intermarry, nor do X and Y.
B marries X, the children are Y, and so on through all the
possible combinations. This gives a succession through females
of XY XY ad infinitum, and on the other side of AB AB cor-
respondingly. Suppose that each phratry represents a fusion
of two communities. In one phratry there were the clans A
and B, and if Victoria, as being the most primitive in language
and most closely related to Tasmania, indicates the early type
of community generally, the A and B classes or clans were each
tribal or territorial. A had one territory, B another ; they cross-
married ; the descent, regarded through males, would run A' A"
A" and B' B" W, but through females, AB AB AB. The
same order would prevail in phratry II. with X and Y classes.
Then, if two compound communities, having lived apart from one
another for many years, were to meet and become gradually
fused, and if the clan-names of the women were to determine
the style of nomenclature of the offspring, there would result
22 EAGLEIIAAVK AND CKOW
exactly the system found along the Queensland coast from
Jirisbaue to Mackay.
Amongst the Kabi, in the south of Queensland, a member of
a clan of one phratry could many into either clan of the other
phratry.
Hence the Queensland system is easily explicable a.s a. natural
iltirlopmcnt of the Victorian, and the Victorian is not incon-
sistent with the theory of the coalescence of two originally dis-
tinct races recognised respectively as Eaglehaioh and Croiv, which
names may have been those of their totems.
The theory here propounded of the origin of the classes
being simple and natural, and supported by the class-systems of
the most primitive Australian inhabitants (or at least those who
retain most distinct marks of the autochthonous race), is surely
much more reasonable than a theory which requires the formation
of classes to be due to far-seeing deliberation on the part of
savages, such foresight resulting in a complicated scheme.
But whether I am right or no in believing the names Eafjlc-
hawh and Croiv to have designated two races, they certainly
designated clans over so extensive an area that I am quite
justified in adopting them as part of the title of this book.
THE ARGUMENT FROM IMPLEMENTS.
As compared with the implements and weapons of the
continent, the paucity of these in the hands of the Tasmanians,
the rudeness of the form and the inferiority of the workmanship,
suggest a difference of descent in the makers. But the lower
skill of the islanders may be easily accounted for by the sup-
position that their progenitors had already reached Tasmania
before the better-equipped race had reached Victoria, and that
after the first settlement of the island, which may have been
made when it was much more accessible than now, no further
commimication took place with the mainland. It is hardly fair
to compare the weapons of the Tasmanian with those of the
Australian, and from their dissimilarity to deduce absence
of racial affinity in the owners, for the isolation of the Tasma-
nians reduced them to dependence for advancement on a very
limited number of minds, and they may have made little or no
progress after they crossed Bass Strait, whereas their kin on the
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN S'J
mainland were overwhelmed by a race bringing with them
superior art, which, once introduced, only faint traces of the
work of the primitive inhabitants might be expected to linger
on. It is futile to ask whether all the Australian implements
are represented in Tasmania. If the implements of Tasmania
be also found in Australia, although of improved manufacture,
that should be sufficient to justify the theory propounded here
in so far as the argument from such belongings has any force.
The fact that certain weapons of the continental natives are
absent from the island forms part of Mr. E. M. Curr's reasons
for supposing that the Tasmanians were not of Australian descent,
a method of reasoning which would lead inevitably to tbe con-
clusion that some of the Australian tribes were not of Australian
descent.
For instance, neither the shield nor boomerang were known
to the Tasmanians, nor were their weapons ornamented. Bufc
this ignorance is exactly paralleled by a people on the mainland.
In Mr. Curr's own work * we read that among the Wonunda
Meening tribe of Eyre's Sand Patch, " Shields and boomerangs
are unknown, and their weapons are unadorned with either
carving or colouring." This tribe also resembles the Tasmanians
in being without the usual message-stick. It is true that for
arms the Tasmanian had only a plain spear and club, but these
are universal in Australia, where the variety and more artistic
make may be ascribed to the influx of a more advanced people
and to the greater scope for and stimulus to invention on a
territory so much more extensive and populous.
The club of the Tasmanians was pointed at both ends, and
the part to be grasped was roughly notched so as to afford a
secure hold for the hand.f This description would apply equally
well to the common club ovhuthar used by the blacks in southern
Queensland, which was entirely destitute of ornament. I mention
this locality particularly, because I have accurate knowledge of
the fact stated, and not because the plain weapon was only in
use there.
Mr. Curr does not credit the Tasmanians with the ownership
of a tomahawk or stone axe, as others have done. They certainly
had a stone cutting implement, call it what you like, some
* "The Australian Race," vol. i. pp. 395-96.
t Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 400.
24 EAGLEH.WVK AM) (HOW
specimens being beautifully finished, as ]\Ir. Brough Smyth
testifies from inspection. It seems almost incredible, that after
the lapse of so short a time we should be unable to determine
for certain whether the tomahawks of the Tasmanians had
handles or not. There is some strong evidence that they had.
Tiius, <\y., while ^fr. (lunn says,* "The tomahawks were held in
the hand, and under no circumstances, as far as I know or can
loam, were they ever fixed in any handle," a Mr. Eollings, in a
letter addressed to Dr. Agnew, and dated May 5, 1873, says
that in his youth he was constantly in the habit of seeing the
aborigines of Tasmania and of mixing with them occasionally,
and he affirms that their tomahawks had handles which were
fastened to them in the same way as a blacksmith fastens a
rod to chisels, being always well secured with the sinews of
some animal.
But, even if it be conceded that „the Tasmanians used their
axes without handles, the admission does not in the least invali-
date the present argument as to their origin, for we find that
the natives of the northern tributaries of the river Darling do
not in all cases attach handles to their stone hatchets, but may
use them in the same manner as the Tasmanians used their
rough stone tools. f
It is of more consequence to note the difference in the mode
of forming the large stone tools. In Tasmania they were usually
chipped to an edge, in Australia they were almost universally
ground and polished. But even here exceptions in Australia
indicate a former more primitive manufacture. The chipped
stone tools of the Tasmanian are Palaeolithic ; the usual ground
ones of the Australian are Neolithic ; but while as a rule only
the one kind (Palaeolithic) is found in Tasmania, both kinds
are found side by side on the mainland. The opinion commonly
entertained that the Tasmanians had no stone implements ground
to an edge must be erroneous. Dr. E. B. Tylor having got
possession of genuine specimens thus finished. + " If, therefore,"
says Mr. Brough Smyth, § "all the stone implements and
weapons of the Australians be examined, one set might be put
Mr. R. Brongh Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," p. 403.
t Ibid. vol. i. p. 55.
* "Journ. Anthrop. Inst." vol. xxiv. p. 339.
§ "The .'Vboripines of Victoria," Introd. p. Iv.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUxVN 25
apart and classed as the equivalents of those of the Palgeolithic
period of Europe, and another set as the equivalents of those of
the Neolithic ; a man of one tribe will have in his belt a toma-
hawk ground and highly polished over the whole of its surface,
and not far distant from his country a people will use for toma-
hawks stones made by striking off Hakes."
I cannot refrain from quoting here the same writer's con-
clusions based upon difference of arms used by the two peoples.
*'The character of the weapons," he says,* "made by the
natives of Tasmania, the absence of ornament, their using
their clubs as missiles and throwing stones at their enemies
when all their clubs were hurled . . . indicated a condition
so much lower than that of the Australians, that one is not
unwilling, with Dr. Latham, to seek in other lands than those
from which Australia ivas ijcoplcd for their origin." It is a pity
that such a conclusion should have been expressed in a book
which must always remain an authority upon the Australian
aborigines, because it is altogether unwarrantable, inasmuch as
the various marks of inferiority which characterise the Tas-
manians are found here and there on the mainland. For
instance, it has been shown above that in certain parts of
Australia the tomahawks are used without handles, and in
other parts the shield and boomerang are unknown and the
weapons unadorned.
Mr. Smyth assumes that the Australians do not throw their
■cluhs, but they do. The club was the proper weapon of the
Kabi tribe of Queensland (as of others, no doubt) for hunting
the kangaroo, and they usually hurled it in the chase. And
moreover, we are told that the natives of Cooper's Creek were
in the habit of throwing stones in warfare. So that the logical
conclusion to deduce from the arms of the Tasmanians is that
they were of the same kind as those of the lowest of the
Australians, and it is anything but illogical to infer that the
autochthonous Australians once used exactly the same weapons
a,nd instruments as those of the islanders, but by circumstances
which affected only the continent, the arms and implements
there were almost universally improved.
One instrument, and a very important one, extensively used
by the two nations has hitherto been overlooked as evidence of
* Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 401.
26 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
their kinship— I refer to the rope for climbing trees. It is
hardly a mere coincidence that this rare and most valuable
device should be found on both sides of Bass Strait. The
material of which the rope was made differed in different
localities in both countries, but the mode of use and the skill
of climbing by its aid were pretty much the same. Mr. West
Bays* that by this means the Tasmanians ascended almost as
quickly as with a ladder and came down more quickly. I have
seen an agile black woman on the Bunya Mountains in Queens-
land walk up a tall, smooth, perpendicular tree by the aid of the
rope at quite a military quick-march pace. In Tasmania the
rope was made of kangaroo sinews or grass twisted, and
handles were attached. At Twofold Bay, in New South Wales,
the material of which it is made is the fibre of some vegetable,
and here the rope is also jDrovided with wooden handles.^ In
some parts of Victoria it is made of -stringy bark. In the south-
east of Queensland a tough vine is used, and I have even seen
a very light iron-bark sapling improvised for a climbing-
rope.
The Tasmanians had also baskets like those of the natives
of the continent, and the ovens so common in Victoria are said
to be found occasionally in Tasmania.^
THE ARGUMENT FROM CUSTOMS.
When we compare the customs we find a veiy marked
resemblance — in fact, it may be truthfully said that such
customs as are universal in Australia were all followed in
Tasmania. The dwellings of the two peoples were identical.
Of the Tasmanians it is said,§ " Their huts were of bark, half-
circular, gathered at the top and supported by stakes." For
houses they also made break-winds of boughs formed in the
shape of a crescent with a fire burning in the open space in
front, and near Pieman's River, on the west coast of Tasmania,
" one tribe was discovered living in a village of bark huts or
break-winds of a better description than usual." 1| These notices
* " History of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 86.
+ Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 151.
* Mr. Bonwick's " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 19.
g Mr. West's " History of Tasmania," p. 82.
II Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 389.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 27
form also a perfect description of the dwellings on the main-
land.
The following practices were common to both peoples :
initiatory rites to manhood, enforced abstinence from certain
kinds of food, remedial bleeding, the wearing as charms the
bones of deceased relatives, refraining from mentioning the
names of the dead, laceration of the body by women in
mourning, ornamental cicatrising of the bodies of young men,
exogamy, polygamy, burial in hollow trees, accumulation of
skulls in cemeteries, carrying of sacred stones for the injury
of foes and the benefit of friends, the obtaining possession of an
enemy's hair to cause his death, knocking out one or more of
the front teeth, ornamentation of the body with charcoal, red
ochre, and pipeclay ; climbing trees by means of notches, and
also of a climbing-rope ; submitting to the penalty of receiving
strokes from a club or casts of spears as expiation of offences
against the tribe, making the women beasts of burden and
generally ill-treating them, hereditary feuds, sketching living
objects in charcoal, the hunting of kangaroos by firing the grass
and intercepting retreat. This list of remarkable practices,
identical in both countries, is surely sufficiently imposing to
establish of itself a very intimate connection, if remote in
time.
It is a matter of dispute whether the Tasmanians knew how
to produce fire, but Mr. Davies states that he was informed
that they obtained it by rubbing round rapidly in their hands a
piece of hard pointed stick, the pointed end being inserted into
a notch in another piece of dry wood.* And an ancient ex-
bushranger told Mr. Bonwickt that to produce fire the natives
got two pieces of grass-tree stem, the smaller piece having a
hole in it. " Soft downy inner bark of trees was mixed with
powdered charcoal and placed in the hole, and friction with the
other stick ignited this and produced a flame." Exactly the
same method was used on the mainland.
Mr. Curr denies :{: that the Tasmanians practised the corro-
boree, but there is abundant evidence that they did. Mr.
Davies says that their chief amusement consisted in the
* Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," voL ii. p. 40S.
t Mr. Bonwick's "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 20.
t "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 598.
2S EAGLEHAWK AM) CHOW
corroborees or dances. Mr. Bouvrick writes : " The corroboree
ill the Tasniaiiian woods was very similar to that of the
Australians, being chielly by moonlight, though by no means
confined to that season. A great corroboree took place at the
full moon of November each year."* And Mr. Hill's more
precise description of their singing and dances is well worth
noting. "They sang," he says, "all joining in concert, and
with the sweetest harmony. They began, say in D or E, but
swelling sweetly from note to note, and so gradually that it was
a mere continuation of harmony; their dances are a mere
wrigfrling motion of the hips and loins, obscene in the extreme."
This description would apply exactly to some of the Australian
corroborees, and the abominable motions in dancing are also
precisely like what is common in Australia, and, so far as I
have heard, without parallel elsewhere.
Another example of the invalidity of reasoning from the
absence of certain practices in Tasmania that were found on the
mainland is the following from Mr. Curr's in many respects most
excellent work : " The Tasmanians," he says,t "■ neither skinned
nor disembowelled animals before cooking, but laid them whole
on the fire." In the same work we are toldif that the Muliarra
tribe in Western Australia place the animal to be roasted on the
fire whole, and take out the entrails when it has been partly
cooked. He continues : " Fire was not made by friction of wood
nor cannibalism nor circumcision practised." First-rate testimony
has already been adduced to the knowledge possessed by the
Tasmanians of producing fire by friction. If we afllrm that they
were not cannibals, we must base our opinion upon our ignorance
rather than our knowledge ; but even if they were not, we find
in this respect a likeness between them and certain Australian
communities, as, for instance, a very low tribe at Eucla, in South
Australia, among whom cannibalism was unknown. § The same
statement holds good in respect of Australian tribes widely
distant from this one, such as the tribe at the junction of the
Lachlan and Murrumbidgee,|| and the Murraworry tribe between
the Warrego and Culgoa Rivers.H That circumcision was not
* Mr. Bonwick's " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 38.
t " The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 598.
* Ihiil. vol. i. p. 376. § Jbid. vol. i. p. 402.
II My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy.
H My informant is Mr. William Shearer.
THE INDIGENES OF xVUSTRALIcV PAPFAN 29
obsei'ved in Tasmania is of no consequence to prove different
derivation of peoples, for if it did, the argument would recoil on
Mr.Curr by proving too much. It would split up the inhabitants
of Australia into two races distinct in origin, for the observance
of circumcision in Australia is limited to the people of a broad
central belt crossing from north to south. Farther on in this
memoir the partial distribution of circumcision in Australia will
be accounted for adequately. It is very clear, therefore, that
the inferences based upon alleged dissimilarity of customs are
of little or no weight, and especially when the numerous and
striking points of similarity are taken into account. We may,
however, with" perfect fairness conclude that such peculiar prac-
tices as are common to the two nations have been inherited
from the primitive Papuan Australians.
THE ARGUMENT FROM LANGUAGE.
The last, and perhaps the most important, class of evidence
attesting the community of origin of the Tasmanian and, at any
rate, one element of the mainland race, is that offered by their
language. Upon careful inspection the Australian and Tasmanian
languages will be found to exhibit unmistakable resemblances not
alone in phonology and structure but also in a considerable
number of vocables. When one who has been accustomed to the
dialects of southern Queensland and New South Wales begins to
study those of Victoria, he cannot help being struck with some
entirely new features distinguishing the last named. The
Kamilroi, W^iradhuri, and allied dialects are singularly fluent and
melodious and free from harsh sounds. The initial and final
letters are very limited, and certain combinations of consonants
are avoided. For instance, in these northern tongues no local
word begins with ' 1,' only one or two words with * r,' and only
an odd one, if any, ends with ' k ' ; whereas all over Victoria, and
extending along the Murrumbidgee into New South "\\'ales, a
good many words begin with ' r,' and the initial * 1 ' and final ' k '
are quite common. This is a most conspicuous difference, which
as you travel southward is met first about the Reed Beds on the
Lachlan a little above its junction with the Murrumbidgee. If
a geologist, in tracing a bed of limestone, finds it suddenly trans-
formed into marble, he is sure that metamorphic fires have been
30 KA(iLi:iIAWK AND (ROW
at work; and just as ivasouably does the philologist conclude
the former interference of a powerful disturbing cause when he
finds at a particular line a sudden change in the genius of a
language. The proximate cause of the difference just noted
appears to be a more decided residual Papuan element in
Victorian speech than in the dialects farther north. Of the
latter, let the Kabi dialect of Queensland, spoken in the Bunya
Mountains, stand as a special example. It has no word beginning
either with ' 1 ' or ' r.' Its terminal letters are limited to ' 1/ ' m,'
' n ' • r,' ' n"-,' and vowels. In general it may be said that such
combinations as ' bl,' * br,' 'gr,' common enough in Victoria, are
of very rare occurrence in the north. An examination of the
scanty remains of the Tasmanian speech shows that it is charac-
terised by initial ' 1,' initial ' r,' and final ' k ' ; ' kl,' ' pi,' and ' bl,'
' kr,' and * dr,' ' rt,' and ' rk,' are common Tasmanian unions and
not infrequent in A'ictoria, while they are of comparatively rare
occurrence in other parts of the continent. Where, save in
Victoria, would such forms be found as ' grangurk,' a hill ;
' ngumduk,' tcdh; ' kroombook,' breasts; 'kraigkrook,' mosquito ?
with which compare Tasmanian ' crougana,' aloft ; ' krangboo-
rack.' ripr ; ' neoongyack,' rarjc ; ' crackaneeack,' ill.
In fact, it is obvious beyond any question that, while we
discover positive Papuan (Tasmanian) lingual traces in most
parts of Australia, with slight exceptions they are more distinct
on the coast than inland, more strongly marked on the west
coast than on the east (north of Victoria), still more numerous
on and near the north coast, and they are most abundant and
most conspicuous in ^'ictoria, proving without a doubt that the
Victorian dialects inherit a powerful base of the primitive Papuan
or Tasmanian language, and leading to the conclusion that the
Tasmanian speech crossed over from Victoria.
The most remarkable negative features of both the Australian
and Tasmanian tongues are the absence of sibilants and of the
decided palatal ' ch ' and soft ' g.' The fact is not overlooked
that some writers have introduced an occasional ' s ' or ' z ' into
Australian orthography, as others have into Tasmanian, but the
rarity of these in both cases is so exti'eme as to be phenomenal,
and sometimes rather attributable to the ear of the hearer than
to the tongue of the speaker. I am aware that many spell
Australian words with ' ch ' and English ' j ' or soft ' g,' but the
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 31
sounds thus represented would, it seems to me, be more perfectly
written as 'ty ' or 'dy,' the ' y ' having its consonantal English
value. Thus, instead of ' cha,' it would be more like the native
pronunciation to write ' tya,' alternative mocles often met with,
and instead of ' polaich ' or ' polaitch,' it would be more accurate
to write ' polaity,' the * t ' and ' y' coalescing. Indeed, the
Adelaide 'parlaitye,' tioo, corresponds to Victorian 'polaitch.'
The only sound in the Tasmanian speech which with any show of
reason can be said to be wanting in the Australian is the guttural
'ch,' to which Mr. Curr adds the French ' u.' As these are the
only two sounds adduced by Mr. Curr as indicating dissimilarity
of phonology and forming part of the evidence of alienation of
blood, it may be observed in reply that the French ' u ' to most
English ears varies with the ear, and that among the Australian
aborigines there are j^eculiar modes of enunciating certain
obscure sounds which have never been represented on paper.
I have heard in Queensland a terminal combination of ' iu,'
which some would call a French 'u.' But so subtle a variation
in the pronunciation of a vowel might only be provincial, just
as in some parts of the Lowlands of Scotland the French ' u ' is
found and not in other parts, although the people throughout
are of the very same stock and speak the same language.
The argument based on the absence of this sound in
Australia is completely nullified by the statement of Mr.
Schiirmann* that " the ahorigiiial language requires sounds
like the French * u ' or German ' ii.' " An opinion evidently
shared by another German, a member of the Roman Catholic
Mission at Port Darwin, who has favoured me with a vocabulary
of the Larrikeeya tribe, in which he employs the German vowels
' o ' and ' ii.' The guttural * ch ' is certainly very rare iu Aus-
tralia, but singularly (perhaps I should say naturally) enough
we are told that it is used in Victoria and on the south-east
border of South Australia. On the Upper Richardson ' h,' a
closely related guttural, was sounded t clearly and sharply lilce
' r.' Mr. Hartmann says of the Victorians that the ' h ' of the
third person plural scarcely expresses the sound it is meant to
express, the ' ch ' should be pronounced as the German ' ch ' in
ich, mich, sich ; and the Rev. Geo. Taplin says that * h ' was
* " Parnkalla Vocabulary," p. 2.
t Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," %'o]. ii. p. 3.
32 KACiLKIIAWK AND CUOW
gomulfd clearly and sharply among the Narrinyeri on the Murray
River Iwrdering on \'ictoria.
Unfortunately for a comparison of syntax and general struc-
ture, no Tasinauian grammar was ever compiled, so that we can
only base inductions upon the few brief dialogues and meagre
vocabularies that liave been preserved. However, from these we
glean the following points of resemblance to Australian syntax,
ideology, and word structure. The Tasmanians modified by
post -positions, the usual, though not the universally invariable,
Australian manner. The Tasmanian dialects expressed neither
gender nor number by iufiection or agglutination, a remark
which is generally true of the Australian dialects. The
Tasmanian numerals were limited to one, two, three, four and
five in the most copious dialects; the terms of the mainland
were often enough limited to one and two. By which is not
implied that the particular tribes could count no higher than
the number of their highest numerical term, but that numbers
above that term were expressed by combinations of the lower
terms. Among the Tasmanians some tribes had numerals for
one and two only, in which case the numerical system must
necessarily have been binary, but others had distinct terms up
to five inclusive. One form, however, which is given as the
equivalent of five, seems to be a repetition of the term for one
along with the term iov fovr ; this is the view which Dr. F.
M tiller takes of 'puggana marah,' and which I am disposed to
take, but it is not affirmable absolutely.
The Tasmanians had such expressions as legs-long for tall,
and they characterised certain affections, whether of the body
or mind — e.g., fear, hunger, fondness, &c., by names which indi-
cated their effect upon the stomach or the eyes : features also of
Australian speech. Another character common to both languages
is the evident relationship of the terms form^, stomach, excrement,
and groii'iitl, the names for which appear below. It is common in
Australian dialects to find the same w'ord applied to head and
hill ; it seems to me that there was in one or two Tasmanian
dialects the same idiom. The Tasmanians used diminutives, as
for instance, ' pugga,' a man, ' puggetta,' a child. We are told
by Mr. Curr* that diminutives were very commop in the dialect
• Mr. Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 569.
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALEV PAPUAN Sii
of the Jjangeraug (Victorian) tribe.* Reduplication was a
feature of both languages, though more general in the Aus-
tralian, perhaps owing to its occurrence in Malay as well as
Papuan speech. In both Australian and Tasmanian it was
sometimes used to form the intensive mood, like the Heb.
' q^taltal ' or p'^'al'al ' ; cf. Tasmanian ' telbeteleebea,' to cat
heart Hi/, from 'tughlee,' to cat, and Australian (Kabi,
Queensland) ' yeleliman,' to speak qvAckly, from ' yeli,' to sliov.t ;
from ' ya,' to speak.
There is a feature of Victorian dialects which should not
pass unnoticed : in several of them the first and second personal
pronouns depart from the usual Australian (Dravidian) ' nan-
nin ' type, a circumstance which supjDorts the presumption of
a strong disturbing element having been at work in Victoria.
When we come to compare particular vocables, we find certain
ancient forms cropping up in places very widely apart in Aus-
tralia, a few fossils of an older stratum continuing in one more
recent. The prototype of the modern Tasmanian is undoubtedly
the stratum of which they are surviving represen]fcatives. While
we may pick up one specimen here and another there all over
the continent, just as in the case of other features we have
noted, by far the largest number of words which are identical
with Tasmanian forms or incontestable variants of them are to
be found in Victorian dialects.
In the following comparisons the English word is usually
the exact equivalent of the Papuan, but sometimes it is the
general idea, at other times the etymological idea of the root,
in which cases the particular meanings of the Papuan
(Australian and Tasmanian) words are expressed. These
analogies show how remarkably the old language protrudes
through the modern Australian, like the primary rocks in
mountain regions, piercing through the aqueous formations.
The first table exhibits Tasmanian words, which are widely
diffused in Australia, some of them appearing in places at
great distances apart, and being unknown in the intervening
space.
* I find that the Australian dialect most like Tasmanian in terminations is
that spoken about the junction of the Darling and the Murray. The verbal
terminations are in this case practically identical.
34
EAGLEIIAWK AND CROW
TABLE I.
English.
Tasmaniax.
Australian.
ruitnd or flirt fi
Errremetit
Foot
Eat.
Mouth
Fire
you
1
gunta, gonta, coantana
(This may correspond
to the Australian gunna
or giidnn, the common
word for excrement)
tiamena, tiannah, tyaner
pere*
tuwie, dodani, tuggana,
tegurner
kakanninah, kaneina,
canina, canea
nne, wighena, winnaleah,
weenah, wood
neener, neena
nguntha (De Grey River) ; kun-
tha, <ir(i,'!s (Cooper's Creek) ;
thagound (Barnawatha) ;
dagoon (Wellington) ; dha
or tya (Australia generally).
nguntha (DeGreyKiver);gunda
(Shark's Bay) ; dagga (Bo-
gan) ; duggan (Warren) ;
thugga (Waljeers) ; gunang,
gunna. or gudna (Australia
generally).
mamberie (Lachlan and Mur-
rumbidgee Junction) ; piru,
tki</h (Hopkins River, Vic-
toria) ; pur-ring, knee (Lake
Tyers, Victoria) ; piri, birri,
birring, bret, occur as nail,
finfier, hand, or footprint.
dha or tya (general).
gaad, kaat, kanek, korn, cone
(all Victorian) ; knine (Wal-
jeers) ; ngang (Deniliquin).
These may be regarded as
all embraced in one Papuan
region — viz., the Victorian.
wi, win, wee, ween (general).
indu, ngindu (general). Intro-
duced here, but the writer
regards this word, in its
usual Australian form, to be
Dravidian.
* The introduction of this analogy is justified by the following considera-
tions. In the Tasmanian Vocabulary compiled by M. H. de Charency, ' pere'
is given as a word for foot used in the south-east of the island. Along with
which are given 'perelia' and 'pereloki,' toe-nails. The words 'perring,'
•paring," and variants signify /oo^wrtr/; in west and north-west of Victoria.
In sandstone caves (Mr. Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. ii. p. 476), on the
(Jape River in Queensland, there are red impressions of hands which the
blacks call • beera,' although the local word for hand is *buka.' The word
' beera ' (or words almost identical) still signifies hand or fingers in the south
of Queensland, on the Bogan River in New South Wales, and in Gippsland,
Victoria. As the same word is used in places for breasts, I am inclined to
think that the root, 'bir' or 'pir' originally meant any protuberance or
extremity, and became specialised for such members as hands, feet, toes,
fingers, iic. A Tasmanian terra for tiro given as ' bura,' ' boula ' or ' pooalih ' is
sometimes compared with Australian ' boolla,' tivo. I have omitted this
analogy as doubtful. Several Tasmanian negatives are represented in Aus-
tralia, e.g., Tasmania 'parragara,' 'pothyack,' have analogues in Victorian
' boraka,' ' barapa,' New South Wales ' barre,' Queensland ' bar," also in Queens-
land 'kurra.' Ta.'-maniu 'mallya' is represented by Victorian ' ngalanya,'
South Australian 'madia,' West Australian ' marla.'
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPFAN 35
TABLE I. — continued.
English.
Tasmanian.
Australian.
Smohe
Tongue
Nose
Tlikjh
Walk
Speak
Water
Bosom or Breast
prooana, boorana
tuUana
mudena, minarara, moo-
nar, manewurrar, mu-
nuna, muggenah, muye,
muanoigh (The com-
mon element is ' mu ')
tula, trungermarteener,
teigna
yange (in Milligan's Dia-
logues)
oona (in Milligan's Dia-
logues); oana, oanga-
nah, Inform, tell; ogh-
nemipe, to answer ;
oghnamilee, to ask
mookaria, moga, moka,
mocha, mookenner;
moonghenar, urine,
mungana, tirine
I would ask special
attention to this ana-
logy as being perhaps
the most remarkable
of them all. Just ima-
gine two peoples per-
fectly separated for
many centuries and
without writing, yet
retaining a word of
four syllables in forms
so precisely alike that
even foreigners inde-
pendently can spell
the word ' mookaria '
and ' muckaria '
paruggana (o woman's),
parrungyenah (a
mail's). To these may
be added the first
syllable of proogwal-
lah, a word meaning
milk, and probably
literally breast-icater;
if so, 'wallah' has
an equivalent in Aus-
tralian ' walla ' or
' wolla,' common in
New South Wales for
irater or rain
boort (Victoria); pooya
(Streaky Bay) ; bwoya, boyer
(Western Australia) ; pooyoo
(common).
tallan, tyelling (general).
muntyin (Princess Charlotte
Bay); moolya, moodla,
moolla, mooroo (all com-
mon). The persistent ele-
ment also ' mu.'
dhirang (general).
yango, yanga, yan (general).
wangow (Swan River) ; wan-
gondi (S. Australia >
mokkera (Murray and Darling
Junction) ; mukkara (Tor-
rowotto Lake) ; muckaria
and mugair (Lachlan and
Murrumbidgee Junction) ;
moogabaa (Alice River) ;
mookorar (Port Jlacquarie);
maicheri (Piangil); mittuk
(Lake Boga, Victoria). All
these Australian words are
terms for rain, but their
identity with the Tasmanian
analogues is perfect, and
terms for rain and water
respectively are often inter-
changed among Australian
dialects.
birri, man^s breasts (Kamilroi
Dialects) ; birring (Heales-
ville,Vict.); brim brim (Mor-
diyallock,Vic.) ; birrin (War-
ren, N.S.W.) ; beergin (For-
bes and the Levels, N.S.W).
J36
EAGLKHAWK AM) C'KOW
TABLE I. — continued.
EN<a.lHH.
Tasmanian.
Fly
mongn, mongana, moun-
ga,jiyblotc, also to buzz
Com
tutta watta, todawadda
{come here)
.Shout
Eye
-Imj
palla-kanna (kanna
means to make a noise)
namer-eca, nam-mur-
uck, nubreah, mong-
tena, moygta
wornena,wu'linna,gonna,
houana; wayeninnah,
dbow
•iu n
loina, lojDa
Australian.
mookine. mugguing (on Cul-
goa River, N.S.W.) ; moon-
gin, muggin, mogan, &c.,
forms for mosijuilo in Kamil-
roi ; mungi, iiios(juito (Pian-
gil) ; moaing-moaing, mos-
ifiito (Kulkyne) ; mianong,
myanga. fiy (about Port
Jackson) ; kerramongera,
Jly (Gippsland) ; moneya,
inosquito (Omeo) ; miangan,
jiy (Omeo).
waarta (Lake Hindmarsh, Vic-
toria) ; woti (Talbot, Vic-
toria) ; ouarto(S. Australia);
now-wunty, come on (Gipps-
land) ; wotte, wurte, come
on (The Glenelg, Victoria) ;
kakawattake, come on (Hop-
kins River, Victoria) ; kowa-
thn.,come on (Cooper's Creek);
wat, watto, away, off (W.
Australia)
curn-deeo (Mount Talbot, Vic-
toria) ; kurnda (Swan Hill,
Vic.) ; kanyandiga — gany-
anda, to call (Lower Goul-
burn, Vict. ) ; garnda, co-
erndee (Lake Hindmarsh,
Vic.) ; kinda. to call (Mount
Rouse, Victoria).
mir (common Australian form) ;
numuru (Daly River, North-
ern Territory). For Victo-
rian forms, see Table II.
wooruk (Mount Rouse, Vict.) ;
wing (Upper Murray, Vic-
toria) ; wunyea (Lower
Murray, Victoria, also on
Darling and Murrumbidgee);
wuvt (LakeHindmarsh,Vic.);
whoornang, forearm (Lake
Tyers, Vict.) ; wornick,
forearm (Maryborough, Vic-
toria) ; oona (Mount Free-
ling to Pirigundi Lake, S.
Australia).
laong, laank, eye (between the
Lachlan, Murray and Dar-
ling, N.S.W.) ; arlunya, sun
(Alice Springs, Telegraph
Station, S. Australia) ; al-
lunga,*7<H (Charlotte Waters
Telegraph Station, S. Aus-
tralia).
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 37
In presenting the Victorian-Tasmanian analogies, which are
very numerous, embracing nearly all the words of the preceding
table and including many more, I place in the front those having
' r as the initial letter. This was the class of analogical words
which first arrested my attention. As initial ' 1 ' was a notable
feature of the Victorian dialects distinguishing them from those
of New South Wales and Queensland, and was also a peculiar
feature of the Tasmanian language, I surmised that a common
lineage was the reason for this likeness. After comparing all
the Victorian words beginning with '1' obtainable by me with
Tasmanian words having the same initial, I find so large a
number in the one set, evidently identical with words in the
other as to be very surprising, especially when we think of the
length of time which must have elapsed since the lines of
language divaricated. I have therefore come to the conclusion
that Victorian words with ' 1 ' initial are lineal descendants of the
primitive Papuan.
It is one of the recognised tests of the truth of a hypothesis
that it opens the door to facts other than what was first dis-
covered by it. This test can be applied to verify the hypothesis
here enunciated regarding this class of words having initial ' 1.'
By its means I have discovered that at least in Australia, and
perhaps in Tasmania, ' 1 ' and English consonantal ' y ' have been
at one time confused and perhaps coalescing and interchangeable
sounds.
Professor Max Muller gives* some instances of the "confusion
between two consonants in the same dialect," which he regards
as a characteristic of the lower stage of human speech. There
seems to have been a very ancient confusion of this kind between
the powers of ' 1 ' and consonantal ' y ' in Australia. English ' y '
or ' i,' when consonantal, may very easily, through defects of
hearing or utterance, be confused with ' 1,' and the two sounds
are to the ear closely related. Examples are common enough.
Compare the Indian corruption of ' Les Anglais ' to ' Yankee,'
such forms as Italian * piacere ' for Latin ' placere," and the
French pronunciation of such combinations as ' eille.' That in
Australo-Papuan speech ' 1 ' and consonantal ' i ' have been con-
fused the following examples will make sufficiently clear. In
western and north-western Victoria such forms as these prevail
* Max Miiller's " Lectures on the Science of Language," vol. ii. pp. 1S8-S9.
421351
38 EAGLEIIAWK AND CROW
as equivalents of Hack woman: ' Leyoorook,' ' leurook,' ' liarook,'
♦ leyoor; ' lioo,'* which may be compared with ' yewa' (Cooper's
Creek),' yooratoo ' (Uuyauiootha Tribe), and the following forms
found in Western Australia from Perth southwards: ' Yokka,'
♦ yooko; ' yawk; ' yorka,' ' york.' The next example is a word
which throughout the greater part of Mctoria begins with an
'i; It is the term for teeth, and the following are typical
Victorian forms: ' Lianyook,' 'lea,' ' liia,' ' leor,' ' leurn,' with
which compare such forms as ' yira,' ' ira,' ' eera,' * yeera,' very
widely distributed throughout Australia, except in Victoria.
It is interesting to note that, with over a thousand miles of
country intervening in which the ' y ' prevails, the Victorian
and Tasmauian type in ' 1 ' appears again at Caledon Bay, on
the Gulf of Carpentaria, in the word ' lerra,' indicating the per-
sistence of a I'apuan pronunciation due to a backward and
northward eddying of the Papuan speech. .
Then further, as the word for stone we have in Victoria
' larr,' * laa,' • la,' while on the Murray the same word is repre-
sented by ' yarnda,' on the Lower BuUoo River and at Yelta by
♦ yemda,' and in the Woolna language again, in the far north-
west, the form • luuga ' occurs. A similar word in some places
is used for camp, assuming such forms as ' larrh,' Marrer,'
' lerra,' which even in Victoria is represented by ' ira ' at Lake
Hindmarsh, ' iray ' at Tatiarra, and by ' ieera ' at the Gawler
Range in South Australia. The same interchange of ' 1 ' with
' y ' is observable in certain terms employed to designate skin,
bark, and canoe ; ' look ' and ' looko ' are words for skin ; ' long '
and ' laikoti ' for hark ; * longoi ' and ' longwe ' for canoe, with
which compare ' yangoibi,' ' yongoe,' ' yoongoip,' ' yungoot,' all
meaning canoe. It should be observed that by a radical or
natural metonymy skin and hark, bark and canoe, are frequently
expressed by the same word. The original unity or early
confusion of the letters ' 1 ' and ' y ' is illustrated by several
words meaning thigh — e.y., ' langui ' at the mouth of the
Leichhardt River, • lar ' at the mouth of Norman River, ' yun-
gurra ' at Porter's Range, ' yangara ' at Upper FUnders River,
• I have to point out that the initial syllable in the Victorian words
corresponds to a New Hebridean word for woman — viz., 'lai,' 'lei,' 'le '■ — also
to a Tasmauian word 'Iowa,' hence said first syllable may not be represented
at all in the other Australian words compared, parallels to which are found in
compounds in Victoria in the form ' -goork.'
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 39
'yungera' at Cape River. The most interesting of the above
examples are the words for Uoxkv:oman, stone, and teeth, which
serve as a kind of bridge for crossing to Tasmania, or as links
to unite a particular class of words there with their continental
variants, and to widen the field of comparison while they ensure
the validity of the operation.
I shall begin the comparison of Tasmanian and Victorian
words with the particular class which first suggested their rela-
tionship to me — the words with initial ' 1.' Why should this
class of words be a phonological peculiarity marking a group of
dialects in south-eastern Australia, spoken in a tract of which
the northern boundary almost coincides with the Murray ? Why
should this group of dialects be hedged round landward by
others distinguished by the absence of this very peculiarity?
Why should words of this phonic character exist plentifully
in Victoria and be comparatively rare in most other parts
of Australia, save in the extreme north-west and about the Gulf
of Carpentaria ? Why in Victoria, and be also a pronounced
feature of the Tasmanian tongue ? Why, I ask, unless there
linger in Victoria evidences of the most recent Papuan in-
fluence as compared with other parts of Australia, and sure
proof of the Tasmanians having had a closer affinity to the
Victorians than to the rest of the Australian natives ?
It might at first sight be doubted whether the common
Victorian word ' layarook ' or ' lyarook ' and other variants is
the same as the general Tasmanian word ' Iowa,' both sets of
words meaning woman or hlack woman; but fortunately the
Victorian word has retained the form ' laua ' in Gippsland,
which, being phonetically identical with the Tasmanian word,
establishes beyond the possibility of a doubt the fact that the
words for woman (sometimes wife) in both languages are the
very same. This analogy is subject to the qualification that
the longer form has another element added. Without dwelling
further on particular words, I append a list for comparison,
and in order to indicate as near as may be known the root
form and to show the direction of divergence I give a
number of variants from both sides of the Strait. The
English word, as before, represents the general or etymo-
logical idea of the root, being also usually the exact equiva-
lent of the native word in both columns, and the native words.
40
EAGLEHAWK AND CUOW
with a few exceptions, will be found either in Mr. Curr's
or Mr. Brougli Smyth's work.
TABLE II.
English.
Tasmanian.
Victorian.
Woman
Teeth
Stone
Open or cut
[The members
of this groitj) of
words are al-
most certainly
derived from one
or other of the
two preceding
(/roups']
Home, house,
nest, camp
To sleep .
Tree, stick
Top or p)oint
Serpent .
Le<j .
Coal, charcoal
Water
Child
Big .
Man, black man
Iowa, loa, loalla, loubia
leeaner.yanna; leeanner,
to bite
longa, ionna, loine, lar-
nar
leeang wellerary, leear-
way, laini to untie;
lowgoone, to cut; larre,
to scratch; lowoone,
to scarify ; lergara,
leawarina, to flay; li-
ellowullingana, crevice
ox flssure
line, lenna, liena, liee
loagna, logurner, lony
loyke, loatta ; lottah,
fjuni tree; lerga and
lerina, waddy
lyetta, sltarp or peaked ;
letteene, apeak
loieua, louinabe, loina ;
lollah, earthworm
luggra, leurina, lurere-
ner, langaner ; lure,
ankle; lugh, foot
loarra, loira
lia, leena, legana, lerui,
line; liapota, creek;
loyuleena, spring;
lyaleetea, sea
leewoon, looweinna, chil-
dren ; luena, leuna,
ludawinna, hoy ; ludi-
ning, girl
proina, proingha, paroina
langtha, lackrana, great
pugga, pah, penna (Capt.
Cook) beah
lio, laua, wife (Gippsland) ;
leyoor, leirock, layarook ;
loangko, a wife (Lower Mur-
ray).
lia, lear, leeunger, leanook.
long, a cliff, lang, lak, laugh,
lar, laa ; cf. also woUong or
walking, common in New
South Wales. [• Lung ' is
a common word for stone in
Central India, whatever in-
ferences the fact may in-
invelve. ]
loong gonak, to divide; larl-
gYOO-\\aT,\a]-go-xaak, to split;
Lai Lai, probably Great
Ji'ift. [With this class of
words compare • lalingan-
der,' axe, a word used by
the Woolna Tribe, near Port
Darwin.]
laangy, langi, lar, larr, larnoo,
lingi.
loomai (Woodford) ; loomia
(Dartmoor) ; o/'.alsoyooanan.
lang ; loang, little tree ; lord-
will, lurt, and lead, stick.
lit, point; littia, sharp; lit-
wong, to sharpen.
loowa birri, ivood snake or con-
strictor.
lourko, lourt-am-nook ; lourk,
calf of leg.
lourn (Gippsland).
larra, lajeranyen, sjiring ; loor-
towi, loortokal, creek ; Leag-
hurr, Lalanguite (names of
Lakes) ; ludht, lowtoohk,
river; lamat, sea; lakulang,
salt lake ; cf also yallock, a
common word for creek.
lathe, leed, hoy; leech, son;
lunden, lunduk, landhago-
nert, latingata, sister.
porin, parok, parronk
leengil.
baang, peang (Central Vic-
toria).
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 41
TABLE II.— continued.
English.
Tasmanian.
Victorian.
Kangaroo
terrar, tarrana, tarrleah
tirrar, tyirra, jirrah (all in
Gippsland).
Mother
pawamena, pamena, par-
bawain, parbine, baabin, par-
meny
buk, paab, paapa, papay, papi.
Opossum .
woUimerncr
woliert, wolard.
Head
poyta, poiete
poibi, poko, pooruk, pork.
Month
kaneina, canina, canea
kanek, koorn, gaat, cone.
Lips
wurlerminner
werrong, wuro, woortogno,
wooro (common for mouth).
Eye.
namer-eca, nam-mur-
mirrenyook, mirnook, mir,
uck, mongtena, moy-
mynook, mingi, myng,
gta (initial syllable
mooeh, mirnik [termination
'na,' probably con-
* ook ' may be sign of pos-
nected with Austra-
.sessiun].
lian root 'na,' to see)
Ear
wayee, wegge
wooring, wring, wing, weinye-
duck.
(rt) djereng, dering ; {h) kaar,
Thigh
(a) tula, teigna, trunger-
marteener ; (h) kaar-
karingatuk, karnook, kaar-
werra
cliuk, karip.
Foot
tyentiah, teeantibe, to
tyenna, tyain ; tey-yan, foot
trample — i.e., to foot
ox footmark (Gippsland).
Blood
coccah
cookyangerack, gooak, koor-
kook, krook.
Fire
une, ouane, vvighena,
wee, wein, weeing ; wying,
winnaleah
light (prevalent also out of
Victoria).
Wood
gui, weenar ; weegeena,
ween, we, wing [presumably
dead wood; weena, tree;
firewood].
wiena, winna, flrewood
Smoke
boorana, prooana, pro-
boort, booring, poorin ; boo-
goona ; boora, rain
rang, _/br/ .• boorrarrang, mist
Moon
weeetta, weethae, vena,
huera, wana, waingmil, wyng-
weena ; tooweenyer,
wil, waing, wyrng, light;
.S'?(H or moon
ngiwen, noween, noweyo,
Grass
poene
sun
poon (Omeo) ; booite, boott.
Knife or flint ,
teeroona, trawoota
teer, deer, tirr, taree, all mean-
ing tomahairk.
To eat .
tegurner, tuggana, tuwie
tunganeit, tukkali, thangarth,
thaange, thana [most likely
co-derivatives with ' dhang-
ga,' a common Australian
word for teeth].
Togo . .
tawe ; tangara, go on:
toewaugeit [' -eit,' verbal ter-
tagara, go away
mination], tanna toa, go
((way: tanna, go, in phrase
' tanna noul ? ' will you go
with me i
To walk .
yange, they walk (in
yangan, yannonan, yanga,
phrase * yange me-
yauna.
naye,' they walk along
the river. In Milli-
gan's Dialogues)
/Stomach .
ploner, plaangner
polloin, belanyin, ballingek,
boole, beleni, belangee
(Lachlan and Murrumbidgee
Junction).
42 EAGLEHAWK AND CROAV
A few of the foregoing analogies may not seem to be
sufficiently established, but even if lo per cent, were to be
discredited for want of certainty, a great array of obvious
ones would still remain to attest the kinship of the two
languages. A brief notice of two or three more Tasmanian
words may be helpful to relate the two forms of speech. In
Tasmania there are two general but widely dissimilar classes
of appellations for the kangaroo, one represented by such terms
as ' lyenna,' ' lathakar,' • leigh, ' lurgu,' the other by ' terrar,'
' tarrana,' ' tarr.' The former class seems to be connected
with one of the Tasmanian sets of terms for Ir/j or foot^ exem-
plified by such words as ' luggana,' * lugh,' ' leoonya,' * luggra,'
' lathanama.' I have been unable to discover any similar word
for kangaroo on the mainland except ' langootpa ' at Port
Darwin, and ' loityo ' at Caledon Bay, on the Gulf of Carpen-
taria. The one set of words for kangaroo'being almost identical
with the terms designating the organs of locomotion, it seems
pretty certain that either from superior power in the use of
these or for the long measure of them with which the kangaroo
is endowed, the animal received its name.* And it seems at
least probable that the ' 1 ' words for lerj and kangaroo in Tas-
mania are related to the universal Australian word ' yanna/ or
' yango,' to walk, for which the form • lingo ' is said to occur in
Victoria.! It has already been shown that both in Australian
and Tasmanian speech ' 1 ' and ' y ' when initial have often been
confused.
The words ' locko,' foot, in use at Caledon Bay ; ' langiu,'
thigh, used at the mouth of the Leichhardt River, and ' lar,*
thigh, at the mouth of the Norman, on the Gulf of Carpentaria,
are curious relics of the original terms for either the motors or
the motion, and reach without other connection right across the
continent southwards to claim kin with their Tasmanian friends
having initial ' 1.' This line of argument is powerfully corrobo-
rated by the occurrence of the following terms for thigh in
Queensland ; ' yungurra ' at Porter's Range and Walsh River ;
' yangara ' at Upper Flinders River; 'yungera' at Cape River
* I derive the word ' kangaroo ' (originally spelt ' kanguru ') from ' ka,' nose,
or head, and 'gura,' long.
f Mr. R. Brough Smyth, "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 127;
phrase, " Where are you going ? "
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 43
means lo^rer imrt of leg. At Menindie ' yango ' means left
thigh, and ' yalko ' is the word for thigh on the lower Paroo, the
Warrego, and at Weinteriga, on the Darling. All these are
evidently enough the local equivalents of ' langiu,' used at the
mouth of the Flinders River. What if ' yan,' trj go, be a related
word ? If so, the term ' yungar ' or ' youngar,' applied to
kangaroo throughout the greater part of Western Australia,
may be cognate. Perhaps it may be too fanciful to pass north-
wards to Java and connect the foregoing words with Javanese
' laku,' 'lunga,' ' lingar/ to go, but the likeness in sound and
meaning is very tempting.
The affinity subsisting both in Australian and Tasmanian
between the terms for ordure, intestines, and ground, cannot fail
to force itself upon the investigator's notice. The words are
given in the tables above, and when compared they lead to the
conclusion that they are inter-related in both regions, the
common element being ' ta ' or ' tia.' Alongside of these may
be placed the radical part of the words meaning to eat : * tegur-
ner,' 'tuggana,' ' tuwie ' (Tasmanian); ' tungaueit,' 'thaange,'
' dha,' ' dhoman ' (Australian) ; and perhaps the very prevalent
Australian word for teeth, ' dhangga,' with variants. This last
word may be onomatopoeic and the other vocalics may narrow
down to two roots, perhaps only related in likeness, one meaning
to eat, the other ground. Another class of related words in
both languages, and forming all together a group of related
words, are the equivalents of sun, moon, light, fire, eye. In
both languages the radicals ' na,' ' mir,' ' wi,' the etymological
ideas of which are respectively see, eye, fire, are combined in
numerous ways, making such compounds as 'see-fire' {snii),
'see-eye' {ey(^, 'fire-eye' (moon), and the like. With these may
be compared a second set of words for cgc and sun, taking the
form of ' loina,' ' lunya,' and the like ; also occurring in the
language of both peoples.
Mr. Hyde Clarke has endeavoured to show* the affinity of
the Yarra dialect with dialects of Mozambique, and later Mr. E. ^M.
Curr essays to prove the kinship of African languages generally
with those of Australia and Tasmania. Physical characteristics
* The Yarra Dialect and the Languages of Australia in connection with
those of IMozambique and Portuguese Africa ("' Transactions of the Royal
Society of Victoria," vol. xvi.).
44 KACLEHAWK AM) C ROW
aloue would suffice to obtain acceptance for Mr. Huxley's view
that of all races the I^apuan is most nearly related to the African.
And besides physiological considerations, certain practices an,d
superstitions common to the Australians, Tasmanians, and
Africans point to identity of ancestry at some far distant past
date, but the verbal analogies adduced are rather shaky props
on which to rest the relationship argument. Mr. Clarke
avowedly discards, as Mr. Curr does tacitly, the testimony from
grammatical structure, and they both, present merely phonetic
resemblances, which may be very misleading, as the following
considerations will show.
In the first place, there is a number of vocables which may
be looked upon as universal ; whether they be of ouomatopoiic
origin or no, does not affect the present argument, but the
words are as much European or Asiatic as they are African and
Australian. They occur as equivalents for father, mother,
breasts, milk, teeth, tongue, eat, go, and are such roots as ' ba,'
' pa,' ' ma,' ' ta,' ' yo.' Further, the possibilities of speech are
limited ; all races have virtually the same vocal instrument, and
there is, I believe, in mankind generally an inherent capacity to
name things according to the subjective effect which the obser-
vation of them produces, giving good grounds for recognising
the ding-dong theory as partially (and in large part) accounting
for the origin of language. And therefore, if phonetic likeness
alone were to be taken into account, a very good case could be
made out for the descent of the Australian speech from the
English or rice vcrsd, especially if, when the English dictionary
failed, we might call in the aid of any language on the conti-
nent of Europe to supply the deficiency ; and indeed, for such
comparison, all the Indo-European languages might be regarded
as one family.
With some two hundred dialects to draw upon in Australia,
and dialects innumerable in Africa, it would be strange indeed,
the possibilities of human speech being limited, if close coinci-
dental resemblances were not discoverable here and there in the
compared regions among appellatives for the same object. There
seem to be no solid reasons for deriving the Tasmanians and
Australians independently from the Africans, if it be right to
say that they are sprung from the Africans at all. It is perhaps
nearer the truth to say that the Tasmanians, in common with
THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 45
other Papuans, are of the same stock as the Negroes, the common
ancestry being neither Papuan nor Negro, or as much the one
as the other, and that the Australians are derived from the same
original stock through the Papuans with a strong foreign admix-
ture.
Latham having suggested New Caledonia as the probable
temporary home of the Tasmauians on their way to their last
resting-place, it will be well to inquire here what grounds there
may be for falling in with the suggestion. In physical
appearance, and especially in complexion and quality of hair,
the aborigines of New Caledonia, like other dark Papuans, bear
a strong likeness to the Tasmanians. There is no better basis
for Mr. Latham's suggestion beyond this likeness and the
surmise that, as it seemed improbable that Tasmania had been
peopled from Australia, its inhabitants might possibly have
drifted from the nearest settlement of Papuans most resembling
themselves in appearance. Of the New Caledonian language I
have only been able to see specimens given by Gabelentz in his
Die Melanesischcji Spra.chcn* The phonic combinations resemble
more the Australian than the Tasmanian. The only words
which I can find that might be related to either Australian
or Tasmanian words indifferently are ' mainya,' • mandig,'
' muanden,' ' muala,' nose; ' dendan,' to come av:ay ; and
' adheya,' foot. Certainly few and doubtful analogues. A
peculiarity of New Caledonian is the use of different forms
of numerals according as an object is animated or not. The
pronouns, in having a dual resemble those of Australia, and,
so far as can be known, differ from those of Tasmania.
Viellard mentions that ' -ri ' and ' -ra ' are suffixed to substances
to indicate wliosc and vjJiich respectively, a feature unknown in
the Australian and Tasmanian. There is no necessity for further
comparison. The conclusion from the only available evidence
is not in favour of affinity between New Caledonian and the
other two languages. Its phonetic system is smoother than
that of Victoria and Tasmania, but not so fluent and musical as
* I have since examined the lengthy New Caledonian Yocab. given in
" Vocabulary of Australian Dialects," printed for the Melbourne International
Exhibition of iS66, with the result of finding two or three more words tliat
might be related to Tasmanian equivalents, but no evidence of even so close
a relation between New Caledonian and Tasmanian as between the latter and
Australian.
46 EAGLEHAWK AM) ( KOW
that of central aud northern Australia, and the data, instead of
suggesting that Tasmanian is more nearly akin to New Caledonian
than to the language of the mainland, favour the very opposite
conclusion.
The writer ventures to affirm that future research will only
tend to corroborate the opinion which he has here enunciated
and endeavoured to establish— namely, that Tasmania was first
peopled from the Victorian shores. The point from which the
emigrants left the mainland was probably Wilson's Promontory,
from which a string of islands runs like stepping-stones across
the Strait, which were perhaps at one time larger and more
numerous than they are now, if they did not form an isthmus.
It does not follow, however, that the most distinct vestiges of
the old I'apuan Australians should be found at this point.
From philological considerations it would rather appear that
the Lower Murray, and perhaps the Lower Murrumbidgee,
served for long as a natural defence to the Victorian Papuans,
and that the invaders poured into Victoria across the Upper
Murray, took possession of central Victoria, pressing those who
were being dispossessed back on either flank. At all events,
the most numerous and on the whole the clearest verbal analogies
with Tasmanian are to be found in north-western Victoria from
Lake Boga northwards, and about Bumbang, Tatiarra, and
Piangil on the Murray. This markedly Papuan class of dialect
extends on a line up the Murrumbidgee and embraces a large
tract of country between this river and the Lachlan above their
junction.
Having now demonstrated, beyond all question it is hoped,
that the Tasmanians were the lineal descendants of the primitive
Australian race, that the substratum of the modern Australians
is Papuan of the same blood as the Tasmanians, and, as might
naturally be expected, that the quarter of Australia which lies
nearest to Tasmania retains most distinctly traces of the indi-
genes, the next duty is to attempt to disentangle and identify
the other elements which go to constitute the Australian race as
it now is.
CHAPTER III
THE DRAVIDIAN ELEMENT
The Dravidian element — System of kinship — Linguistic resemblances
— The pronoun — Caldwell on Dravidian numerals — Likeness to
Australian — Dr.MiiUer's objections to relationship between Dravidians
and Australians.
Upon the original Papuan stock of Australia there must
have been grafted a very strong scion from another and in
some respects very different stem, and the union must have
been effected in the remote dim past, the stock from which the
graft came having since then altered by progressive develop-
ment almost beyond identification. The people who formed this
fresh addition to the primitive race had probably a lighter com-
plexion and straight hair. What impelled them thither we
know not. We are familiar with the idea of successive waves
of population starting from a common centre and being arrested
only by an uucrossable ocean. History and philology together
have related to us how Roman and Teuton followed Kelt until
the broad Atlantic stayed their occidental march. A Semitic
population pursued the sons of Ham bearing the ancestral curse
of servitude into the utmost recesses of the dark continent. It
is left on record, both in parchment and in temple ruins, how
the Buddhists were driven out of India in the seventh century
of our era, and had they not found congenial soil in Java they
might have continued their southward course and left their
mark on Australia. But the fact that they came so near to the
southern continent is an indication perhaps of the track of the
line of least resistance to a fugitive people ; at all events, their
migration hints at the channel along which might have flowed
former streams of humanity expelled from India or its neigh-
bourhood by irresistible pressure from the north.
Although the Australians are still in a state of savagery and
the Dravidians of India have been for many ages a people
48 EAGLEHAWK AND CUOW
civilised iu a great measure and possessed of a literature,
the two peoples are affiliated by deeply marked characteristics
in their social system and by sure affinities iu language.
A most striking peculiarity of the Australian system of
kinship had been recognised and published long before the late
Rev. W. Ridley stated it and carefully traced it out, but to
him is due the honour of accurately formulating its details
(as it exists among the Kamilroi), and the Rev. Dr. L. Fisou
is to be credited with having clearly established its identity in
essentials with the Tamulic system. As Australian marriage
and consanguinity will be treated subsequently, it is needless to
do more here than state that in certain important particulars
Dr. Fison, with the aid of Mr. Ridley, has demonstrated the
identity of the Dravidian and Australian systems of kin. The
sum of these particulars is contained in the following proposi-
tion, which is equally true for both peoples, and holds in it the
root principle of the system of kin : " A being a male, his
brother's children are considered his own children, his sister's
children are his nephews and nieces ; his sister's grandchildren
as well as his brother's are considered his grandchildren."* Let
A be a female, then with the interchange of the terms ' brother's '
and ' sister's ' the proposition is also true. The relational nomen-
clature is such as would arise if a group of brothers were joined
in a communal marriage with a group of sisters. And further,
" in Tamil the elder brother is distinguished from all the rest
by the title brother,"! and the Australian practice indicates
some similarity of thought to this.
If so strong a bond unites the aborigines of central and
southern India with the majority of the Australian tribes,
among the latter exceptional departures from the prevailing
type of relationship nomenclature cannot invalidate the conclu-
sion as to its source.
Besides the powerful token of affinity to aborigines of
Uindostan supplied by the possession of the same social ground-
work, Australio bears also linguistic marks of Indian connection
so deeply and widely impressed as to be indelible, and to serve
as one of the most powerful and conspicuous bonds of union
among the Australian dialects.
* Rev. W. Ridlev's " Kamilroi and other Australian Languages," pp. 164,
et seq. f Ibid.
THE DRAVIDIAN ELEMENT 4»
First of these linguistic marks may be mentioned the sylla-
bation preferred by the genius of the Australian tongue. Like
the Dravidian, it is extremely simple and averse to compound or
concurrent consonants. In Tamil,* " double or treble consonants
at the beginning of syllables like ' str ' in ' strength ' are
altogether inadmissible. At the beginning, not only of the
first syllable of every word but also of every succeeding
syllable, only one consonant is allowed. At the conclusion of a
word double and treble consonants like ' gth ' in ' strength ' are
as inadmissible as at the beginning, and every word must
terminate either in a vowel or in a single semi-vowel, as ' 1' or
' r,' or in a single nasal, as ' n ' or ' m.' These observations are
just as true of all the dialects in Australia save those of the
south-eastern and south-western corners, where the softer
syllabation has been unable to displace the older harsher
Papuan.
The next point of contact to be noted is the agreement of
the stems of the Australian first and second personal pronoun?
singular with the Dravidian. Mr. Norris is said to have been
the first to point this out, but on comparison the conclusion is
inevitable to the most casual observer, the fact beinsr self-
demonstrative. Logan says that the roots of the Dravidian
pronouns are * na,' ' en,' ' ne,' ' an,' /, and ' ni,' thou. Speaking
generally, these are the persistent stems of the same pronouns
throughout Australia, the prevailing forms being ' ngai ' or
' ngan,' first person, • in,' ' yin,' or ' ngin,' second person. In
Victoria, again, there are the greatest and most numerous
divergences from the typical forms, evidencing the more recent
clash with another speech.
Caldwell notes that the Telugu forms its pronominal plurals
by prefixing ' lu ' to the singular, and compares this with the
Australian additions ' lu,' ' li,' 'dlu,' ' dli,' &c., employed for a
similar puqDOse. He also adduces a more Australian-like
instance — viz., the Dhimal, on the north-east frontier of India,
which has 'ml,' thou; ' nyel,' you. The same writer further
suggests a likeness between Tamil accusative ' ennei,' mc, and
the Australian ' emmo,' me; but a much better comparison
may be made between ' ennei ' and ' nganna,' the common
* Caldwell's "Dravidian Grammar," p. 13S.
50 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Australian form for mc. Other verbal roots common to both
classes of languages might be cited, but nothing special could
be adduced from them, inasmuch as they are not peculiar to
these two classes. It is different with the pronominal stems
just considered, for in both cases they are distinguishing
features, and it is a very natural inference that the language
which teaches a nation to say ' I ' and ' thou ' must be one of
its very early and most influential pedagogues. Mr, Caldwell
farther shows agreement between Dravidian and Australian in
the following particulars* : The use of post-positions (a feature,
however, on which stress should not be laid, as it was very
pronounced in Tasmanian) ; the use of two forms of the first
person plural, one inclusive of the party addressed, the other
f xclusive (a feature also of South Sea Island languages) ; the
formation of inceptive causative and reflexive verbs by the
addition of certain syllables to the root, and generally, the
agglutinative structure of words and the position of words in
the sentence.
There are other very marked resemblances of which Mr.
Caldwell was unaware. In Telugu, ' yokka ' or ' yoka ' is some-
times appended to the inflection or natural genitive as an
auxiliary suffix of case — c.g.^ from the ordinary possessive ' na,'
my, is formed optionally the equivalent form ' na-yokka,' my,
of me, with which may be compared ' nganyunggai,' my, in
the Kabi (Queensland) dialect, and various forms in ' -yuck '
occurring in Victoria and elsewhere.
Caldwell t calls attention to a marked divergence between
Telugu and Tamil in their respective terms for one, which are
oka and oru. He infers that there existed an original basis
of both of the form okor^ like Samoiedian okur. A similar
etymon — namely, Icuru^ one, varied to hula, uru, gura, koo~
took, &c., with often the affix pa or po — covers nearly the whole
of Australia. It is the regular term for one, introduced by the
second tide of immigration. Another form in Tamil is oruvan,
units. Canarese has o&&rt?Mt = c»/-6-«n. They are quite like the
Australian.
The Dravidian languages | are destitute of any common term
* Caldwell's " Dravidian Grammar," p. 53.
t Caldwell's " Comp. Gram, of the Dravidian Languages," p. 243.
t Caldwell's " Dravidian Grammar," p. 477.
THE DRAVIDIAN ELEMENT 51
for brother, sister, aunt, &c., and use instead a set of terms which
combine the idea of relationship with that of age — I'.fj., elder
brother, younger brother, and so forth. This applies generally
to Australian speech. " In the Dravidian languages the second
person singular imperative is generally identical with the root
or theme of the verb ; this is so frequently the case that it
may be regarded as a characteristic rule of the language."*
The same may be said of some at least of the Australian
dialects. Compare Dravidian ' varu,' to (■(nuc, imperative ' va,'
with Kabi (Queensland) • baman,' to come, imperative 'ba.'
Several years ago I wrote of the verb in this dialect : '• The
simplest part is the imperative, which commonly consists of one
syllable and very rarely exceeds two." "It is a remarkable
feature of the l)ravidian languages that they have no relative
pronoun whatever."! This is also a feature of Australian
speech. " The mode in which a language forms its preterite
constitutes one of the most distinctive features in its gram-
matical character, and one which materially contributes to the
determination of its relationship." | Tamil forms its preterite
by adding ' d,' which for euphony is sometimes preceded by ' n,'
^' owing to the Tamil fondness for nasalisation," says Caldwell.
This may or may not be the reason for the appearance of the
' n,' but the common form of the preterite in Kabi, Wiradhuri,
and other Australian dialects terminates in ' n.' In the
Dravidian the accent is on the first syllable. This is commonly
the case in Australian, and is easily accounted for by the agglu-
tinating character of both languages.
It is a formidable objection to the theory of the relationship
of Dravidian and Austi-alian speech, that so distinguished a
philologist as Dr. F. Miiller, who was on the scientific staff of the
Novara, should have declared emphatically against it. He says
that, viewed even apart from the racial difference, the glossarial
affinities are too weak to support the affirmation that the
languages are genealogically related. There are, he adds,
certain points observable which lead to the conclusion that
such connection is impossible (unvwf/lich). Now for his
argument. He asserts that if a genealogical relationship
existed, it would receive fullest expression in the speech of
* Caldwell's '' Dravidian Grammar." p. 420.
t Jbid. p. 412. t Jbld. p. 390.
52 EAGLKHAWK AND CROW
West Australia, which is geographically nearest the Dravidian
languages. Hut this is an unwarranted assertion, based upon
the assunijition tliat afiinity of speech depends upon proximity
of residence in a bee-line. Whereas it is, I hope, clearly
proven in this essay, that migration was from the north-
east, not from the west, and that the west was one of
the comers into which the purer l^apuan race was forced.
Further, he aftirms that the ' nan-nin ' type of pronoun prevails
more or less in Thibet. China, and elsewhere, as well as in
central India. A good argument, but the likeness is not
generally so close. He further objects to the rules of class-
marriage being introduced as evidence of relationship, because
similar regulations are found in other parts. I think, however,
that the likeness between those of India and Australia is most
marked.
The last resemblance that I shall mention is the occurrence
in both Dravidian* and Australian languages of a negative
imperative or prohibitive particle. For instance, in the Kabi
dialect, most referred to because most familiar to the writer,
with the imperative when prohibitive the word or particle
• bar ' is used preceding the verb ; on all other occasions other
negatives are employed. This is a feature of South Sea
Island languages also.
If there were only one or two resemblances like those
enumerated between the two classes of languages, they
might be passed over as purely coincidental and not due to
a common derivation, but the resemblances are too numerous
and striking to be so lightly dealt with, and can only be
referred to a strong family likeness. As more Australian data
becomes accessible there is no doubt that an exhaustive com-
parison will well repay for the labour, and it may be found
that Dravidian and Australian languages are mutually ex-
planatory.
The famous Australian boomerang may be another means
of establishing connection with India, where the weapon is also
•found, the kind which returns to the thrower being, however, so
far as is known, confined to Australia. We search the Malay
and Papuan armouries in vain for any trace of it, and are there-
fore obliged to credit some other race with its introduction to
* Caldwell's "Dravidian Grammar," p. 36.
THE DRAVIDIAN ELEMENT 53
Australia, unless we unnecessarily assume that it was invented
here independently. The boomerang is used in Africa about
the upper course of the Nile, but we need not travel so far
for it across barriers that might be termed impassable when it
is obtainable so much nearer and in a place from which, as we
have seen, a highway has led thither almost to Australia's
shores. If the framework of society and those terms which are
almost as close to a man as his own name, have both been
introduced from India or its neighbourhood, it requires no
stretch of imagination to suppose that the boomerang came
along with them.
The Australian religious superstitions point rather to a
connection with the South Sea Islands than with India, or
as much to the one as to the other. In each of the three
regions there is veneration for smooth pebbles. This is evidently
a very ancient religious sentiment. Isaiah charged the Jews
with this form of idolatry.* " Among the smooth stones of the
stream," was their portion ; " even to them " had they " poured
a drink offering" and "' offered a meat offering." In India the
worshippers of Vishnu venerate a kind of pebble called Sala-
grama ; specimens that have been seen by Europeans are said
to range from the size of a musket-ball to the size of a pigeon's
egg. The particular sorts have an aperture with four spiral
grooves in the perforation. The Hindoos believe that these
apertures are the traces of Vishnu having entered the stones in
the form of a reptile. It is worthy of note that among the
New Hebrideans, as the Rev. Dr. J. G, Paton has told me, the
sacred pebbles have a small aperture, regarded as the place
of exit and entrance for the spirit which the stone represents.
The Scdcujrama stones are found in the bed of the Gundak
River, and are supposed by Coleman to be mineralised fossils of
the Beleranites or Orthoceratites. The Binlang stones found in
the Nerbudda River are worshipped as emblems of Siva. The
veneration, then, of smooth stones would seem to relate the
Australians equally to the Hindoos and the Kanakas.
There may be another connecting link between the Dravidians
arid the Australians in the emblematic use of a red right hand
daubed on rocks in various parts of Australia, generally about
caves. Dr. Carroll, in an article contributed to the Ccntetmial
* Isaiah, Ivii. 6.
54 EAGLEIIAWK AND CROW
Miujazine (October 1888), affirms a connection. He says the
ivd hand " is still symbolic of the various attributes of Siwa,
the Punisher, Avenger, or Destroyer of the Hindu." My
examination into Indian mythology has failed to make this
quite so cleai', which I admit is only a negative argument, and
therefore not entitled to the weight of a positive argument,
unless the field of negation be exhausted. But I find that in
iigures of the goddess Maha Kali, a form of Parvati the consort
of Siva, a number of red-palmed hands are delineated. There
are seven red hands pointing downwards, forming a cincture
about the waist. The functions of ]\Iaha Kali are variously
explained. Human sacrifices are offered to her. She is said to
represent the active energy of all-renewing time, but sometimes
she personates time as destructive. It is therefore possible that
the red hand blazoned on Australian rocks may relate the Aus-
tralian to the Dravidiau. but, as considerations to be brought
forward later will suggest, the great probability is that this
symbol was introduced, not by an Indian race direct, but by a
Malay j>eople, who have certainly carried hither sure tokens of
Hindoo mythological influence, as will be demonstrated when
Art and Religion are dealt with.
CHAPTER IV
THE MALAY ELEMENT
The Malay element — Malay activity — Physical appearance — Rev. J. L.
Threlkeld on dissimilarity of language — Lingual analogies — Circum-
cision and fnessage-stick of Malay introduction — Recapitulation.
Universal and strong though it be, the so-called Dravidian
influence is insufficient to account for the great divergence of
the Australians from the pure Papuans in physical features and
in language. Another cause must be posited, and is to be found
in the Malay element. Since British colonisation the Malays are
known to have frequented the north and north-west coasts.
Mr. Curr is of opinion that their visits are only of recent date,
and quotes in support the statement of a Malay named Pobassoo,
whom Flinders met at the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1803. He
professed to have been one of the first of his countrymen to
visit Australia.* The historical knowledge of the Malay would
not penetrate many centuries backward, and moreover, his
evidence is overborne by the physique of the people, in the
north especially but elsewhere as well, by the naturalisation of
a number of important Malay words, such as the term for tcetk,
a change which mere visitors could not effect ; and further, by
faces of the Malay type and pure Malay words appeariug in
localities far removed from casual intercourse, as for instance, in
the extreme east and west. There are several old camps of
Malay Mche-de-mer fishers on the north-west coast. I am
informed by Mr. Bradshaw that at one of these, on a small
island near Osborn Island, Captain Hilliard saw some old tama-
rind-trees, introduced presumably by the Malays, and the age
of the oldest tree was apparently some two hundred years.
As in the case of most other races, there would have been —
* Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 271, note.
.->« KAGLKHAAVK AND CROW
indeed has been with tlie :Malays— a time of special activity and
expansion. Coming then to Australia, they would be unable
to enter into commercial relations with its poverty-stricken,
nomadic, naked people, and those who did not return to their
own land would simply settle down to a life of indolence and
sensuality and melt like snowflakes in a sea of human life. But
a shipload of Malays attaching itself to an Australian community
would not be absorbed without leaving some traces of its
presence.
If the Malays, arriving in Australia even in twos and threes,
did not set themselves deliberately to teach and elevate the
])eople, but sank to the same savage level, they could not
possibly disappear with their unconscious influence absolutely
obliterated. This influence is especially noticeable in the
pliysique of the people in the north. They are more slender
than the rest of the Australians, have less hair on the body, and
their skin is fairer. Sir George Grey, in one of his journeys,
saw three men of a fair race resembling Malays, and some of
his party saw a fourth.* This was near the cave where he
discovered some paintings of clothed people. These four men
might, no doubt, be the posterity of one or two castaways. But
even in the south of Queensland I have seen several faces
distinctly of the Malay type, with the nose snubby and rather
small and the skin of a dark copper colour. Occasional instances
of sullenness and taciturnity among the Australians are probably
the result of Malay ancestry.
The admixture of Malay blood goes far to account for the
difficulty, that a race such as the Australian with a Papuan
basis should have the hair straight or wavy and not woolly. One
even cross of a woolly-haired with a straight-haired race would
hardly have transmitted such straightness of hair to posterity,
but if after a first cross the fresh invasions, though only in
scant filtrations, were of straight-haired people, the effect of
the mingling of two straight-haired races with one whose hair
was woolly would surely be to make the spirals uncurl.
Mr. Threlkeld, whose accpiaintance with a New South Wales
diah'ct seems to have been very thorough, denies f that the
Australian language has any close affinity with the Malay either
• Greyji "North-west and Western Australia," vol. i. p. 254.
t "Key to the Structure of the Aboriginal Languages," p. 82.
THE MALAY ELEMENT 57
in words or construction. This is a somewliat vatrue statement,
in reply to which it can be said that, although the traces
of Malay influence on Australian language are not numerous,
they are unmistakable, and are observable at widely distant
places. Duplication is met with in the Tasmanian, and may
have been inherited in Australia from the primitive Papuan ;
it is not improbable, however, that its excessive use on the
continent is due to the Malay, which reduplicates to form the
plural. Often existing side by side with the form ' ngai,' a very
prevalent alternative term for the first personal pronoun is
' adhu ' or * atoo,' which may perhaps be the equivalent of the
Malay 'aku.' JJut I prefer to regard 'adhu' as an inflexion
of ' ngai,' designating the subject when an agent. In the
extreme north-west, where Malay words might be most
naturally expected, very few are distinguishable. Mr. Curr
has noted ' unbirregee ' at Port Uarwin and ' engeegee ' in the
Coburg Peninsula as the analogues of Malay ' gigi,' meaning
tccih. It is rather at unexpected places that Malay words turn
up, indicating either that the Malay inroad, if made at the
north, took place in long past ages, or that now and again
parties of Malays, either from choice or necessity, landed and
became naturalised at various spots on the east, north, and
west, and modified the sjDeech of the people first immediately
round them and then landwards. There are throughout
Australia, in the main, two types of terms for father — a
' bapa ' type and a ' mama ' type. As there are similar words
for mother, it might at first be conjectured that the terms for
father and mother had become loosely transposed. I once
thought so, but from the localities in which a particular type
of term for father occurs, and from the occurrence of certain
words in conjunction with the different typical • father ' terms,
I have come to regard the ' bapa ' type of terms as a mark of
Malay descent, and the 'mama' type as equally evidential of
great predominance of I'apuan blood. Thus, for example,
speaking generally, the dialects of \'ictoria * and West
* In the chapter on Language it will be seen that Rev. Dr. D. Mac-
donald ("The Asiatic Origin of the Oceanic Languages") regards a word
•mamjt'as the vocative of 'abab* futhtr in Efatese. It is scarcely credible
that the corresponding Australian forms are thus related. They do not
occur together. The Maar people who have wedged tliemselvcs in amongst
58 EAGLEllAWK AM) CROW
Australia, which are amoug the most pronouncedly Papuan,
are characterised by the ' mama ' form ; along the coast of New
South Wales and the eastern coast of Queensland, and for some
consideraMe distance inland, localities which, as I shall show,
possess unquestionable ^lalay words, the 'bapa' type of terms
prevails ; whereas in Central Australia there is great variety of
terms interspersed with ' bapa ' forms, but without a certain
recognisable third type, unless it be the 'nunchun,' which is
very probably primitive Papuan. The Dravidian word would
approximate closely to the Malay, and it would, therefore, be
impossible to say with exactitude that a particular ' bapa ' term
was Malay and not Dravidian, but the closeness of likeness
to the original Malay, and the • concurrence of other words
certainly ^lalay, will raise a presumption in favour of a Malay
lineage.
According to Marsden, the Malay 'mana' is properly the
adverb where, but is used idiomatically to signify v:lio, whom,
which, u-hat. In many Australian words used interrogatively
' min ' is a radical syllable. It might, indeed, be said that
' mina ' or • minya ' is an interrogative stem. In the Kabi
(Queensland) dialect, for instance, we find ' minyanggai,' ichat ;
• minyama,* hov: many; 'mmysLnggo,' hoiv; ' minani,' uVty. In
the Kamilroi, according to the Rev. W. Ridley, 'minya' signifies
v:hat, and ' minyunggai,' hoiv many. At Barraba, ' menari ' is
Kamilroi for v:hcrc ; at Port Macquarie ' minar' stood for both
u'liat and u-Jtcrc. The Murra-worry tribe, between the Warrego
and Culgoa Rivers, employed the word ' minyan ' to mean -what,
and ' minyangor ' to mean ivhy. Even to the north-east of Lake
Torrens, in South Australia, this class of interrogative is found.
This Australian word may be cognate with Semitic 'mi,'
' mah,' Heb. ' man,' Syr. 'ma,' Arab. In no parts is the Malay
type of term for father so general and so stereotyped as
in conjunction with the etymon 'min' in interrogatives. But
strangest of all is the occurrence of the word ' tungan ' (spelt
also 'tongan' and 'tungun'), hand, which is evidently the
Malay • taugan.' h"iid, also in the extreme east, and there alone
in Australia. This most interesting fossil is found on the basins
the Knli in the Western District, Victoria, preserve the 'bapa' type
of New South Wales, while the Kuli use the 'mama.' The difference
is one of the distinguishing marks of their respective dialects.
THE MALAY ELEMENT 59
of the Nerang Creek and the Tweed and Richmond Rivers, at
the extreme easterly point of the continent, and reminds one of
some great boulder carried by an iceberg from a high latitude
thousands of miles from its parent rock and deposited when the
iceberg has been overset or dissolved.
There is yet another not much less astonishing relic of Malay
speech near the same quarter, and nowhere else so distinctly' —
viz., the word for Itmd, which in Malay is ' kapala.' In New
England the analogue is * kopul,' on the Hunter River it is
' gaberong,' at Sydney it was ' kabura,' on the Castlereagh it
is 'ballang,' on the Bogan 'bula'; and surely a better example
of a contiguous group of terms, derived unconsciously from
' kapala,' could not possibly be given. The Malay word is the
model of which the others are imperfect copies ; it is the bull's-
eye fired at, the others are the spots hit, some on one side of the
centre, some on the other. The word for shin is also probably
Malay, in which language the equivalent is 'kulit'; while in the
east and south of New South Wales the term used is some such
form as 'yulin,' ' ulan,' ' yoolak.' It might be assumed that two
or three Malays were handed as human curiosities from tribe to
tribe and found a last asylum near Point Danger, but the con-
currence of five such indisputable glossarial vestiges suggests
rather that there was a strong infusion of Malay blood added to
the Kamih'oi and allied tribes.
A track across the centre of Australia from the Gulf of
Carpentaria southward is marked by a few Malay words of
which the following are examples : ' kako ' (Hamilton River)
elder sister, ' kahkooja ' (Darling River), elder hrother, * kaku '
(Evelyn Creek), elder brother, corresponding to Malay 'kaku'
elder brotheror elder sister ; ' Kutchiloo,' ' kichalko,' &c. (TDarling
River), smedl, </., ' kechil,' * kachil ' (Malay), smcdl. With ' kutta '
(Daiyeri, S. A.), louse, compare ' kutu ' (Malay), louse.
Another region where unquestionable Malay lingual traces
exist is a tract on the east coast of Queensland, from about
17° to 21° S. lat., and inland to a distance of some two hundred
miles. Three words diffused in this locality are distinctly of
Malay origin — viz., those iov father, moon, and rain. In Malay
they are respectively • bapa ' (Javanese ' baba '), ' bulan,' ' hujau *
(Javanese ' hudan '), The first is represented by forms such as
'baby,' 'babai,' ' abah,' 'yabba'; 'bulan' has analogues iu
(JO KAl.LKllAW K AM) (ROW
• bullanoo,' • balano,' '.' pallanno.' 'palauoo," ■ bulbim,' and re-
Pembliug the Malay word for rain (' hujan ') are the following :
' Yookun,' • hiigan/ • ukan,' ' yugan,' 'yukan.' The Australian
words are certainly echoes of the Malay. In the same locality,
with perhaps Halifax Jiay as focus, I find two more words of
Malay derivation occurring, and nearly as distinctly recognisable.
Tile Malay for hoit>- is ' tulang.' and for Ikv'sc ' rumah.' Equiva-
lents about Halifax Bay and neighbourhood are ' toola,' hone
and irood (Western River) ; ' toa,' ' tulkill,' ' tolkul,' mean hone,
and all over that part of the country the word for wood takes
such forms as * tula.' ' toolani/ ' tular.' It should be noted that
the Australian dialects frequently apply one and the same desig-
nation to hone and voud The Australian words corresponding to
' rumah ' occur at Halifax 13ay, where ' ringo ' and ' rongo ' are
used in the sense of w?np. I would not adduce this as an
analog}' but for the preservation of the initial ' r,' a com-
paratively rare initial in Australia, and an anomaly in this
particular spot.
On the Cloncurry River emptying into the Gulf of
Caqientaria the word ' waramboo,' — spelt also 'ooramboo' — is
probably a corruption of Malay ' rambut,' both meaning hair.
At the same place, and only there, the term for sun is ' mun-
tharra,' which comes very close to the Malay ' mata-ari,' and not
very far distant — at Burke Town — the Malay ' bulan,' moon, has
been the parent of ' ballanichi,' the word now in use for moon.
The general term in AVest Australia for ear is ' twink ' or
* dwonk,' which is most probably the Australian form of
Malay ' duwan,' also meaning ear.
Besides these outstanding examples of INlalay influence on
the language, occurring at places so far separated, others might
be instanced, the origin of which is less clear but probably
Malay, and no doubt future research will disentangle many
more words similarly derived.
There is proof positive that the best cave paintings have
been executed by people of Malay blood from the island
of Sumatra, a strong presumption also that the rite of cir-
cumcision was derived from the same people and place, and
I am disposed to think that the Australian message-stick is a
childish imitation of ]\Ialay writing upon bamboo and rattan
cane as practised in Sumatra. These views will be stated
THE MALAY ELEMENT 61
at length aud supported in the proper place, and if they
be well founded the extensive prevalence of the practices
referred to attests how powerful the ]\[alay influence has been.
Before proceeding to a new department of inquiry, it will
be well to recapitulate the view of the origin of the Australian
race taken by the writer. Australia is first contemplated as
occupied by a Papuan people, probably both sparsely and un-
evenly distributed. It is not affirmed that they were purely
Papuan ; the Negrito and the Melanesian may both have been
represented and fused together, but for want of sufficient evi-
dence this point is undetermined. Whence they set out and
the route by which they came to Australia cannot be discovered ;
but, taking it for granted that the cradle of the human race was
in Asia, whence all the nations have radiated like successive
swarms from a parent hive, then the indigenes of Australia
would most naturally come from the north and by way of New
Guinea. The lineal descendants of the original Australian
natives were the now extinct Tasmanians, who crossed from
Victoria perhaps on dry laud. Their migration from Mctoria
is held to be fairly established by the manifold forms of evidence
already cited.
Australia is next regarded as invaded by a more advanced,
straight-haired race which arrived at a very early period
of the world's history, entered by Cape York Peninsula, and
poured into central Australia with a general south-westerly
current. Partly driving forward, partly cleaving, partly darken-
ing itself by the tide of life upon which it presses, this stream
inundates the whole country, but not to an equal depth.
Finally, another invasion takes place, also from the north.
fir"sFwith some degree of continuity, and then intermittently.
This straggling stream winds about here and there, touches the
shore at various places, and recoils back inwards. Indeed,
this last influx may have come by several little rills, entering at
places widely apart, and gradually losing themselves in the
life-lake, as Austral rivers, exhausted by percolation and evapo-
ration, disappear in the central plains. Australia is thus like a
great lake which has been first filled by water of a particular
tinge, and into which a clearer stream flows, crossing the lake,
remaining purest in the course of its main current, then eddying
hither and thither, and leaving the original water least altered
62
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
in the bays arouud the margin. After receiving additions of
water of yet another hue from numerous little surface rills at
different points, the places of ingress are closed, the water
stagnates, and the problem is to distinguish the different con-
stituents in the lake's contents, assigning to each its place
and relative proportion.
Upon the Papuan aborigines the Dravidian influx made a
deep and general impression ; the influence of the final arrivals,
the Malays, was slighter and more partial. The first tenure by
the Papuans, and their subsecpient dispersion and dispossession,
t|aalified by partial absorption, are shown by the relation of the
^'ictorians to the Tasmanians, and also by the fact that a more
particularly I'apuan people fringes the coast, especially on the
north, south-east and west. For example, there is an element
in the Victorian tongue which is much more akin to the lan-
guage of the people of the extreme west of Australia than to
intermediate dialects. The following words are illustrative of
this agreement : —
English.
Victorian.
Western Australian.
Father
maam, mama
marm, mam, mama.
(hie.
kaiap
kain.
Ear
wirn, wing, wiring
weening.
Sua .
nowingi, ngwingi, ngawi
nanga, nganga, nonga.
Wife
layarook, leurook
yokka, yawk, york.
Walk
yanna, yan, yungan (this word
is common in east, south,
and west of Australia, but
not in centre)
yenna, yangwa.
Opossum .
wolangi, wilang, wille, woUert
wallambine, wolumber-
ree (occurs towards
the north).
Besides agreement in particular vocables, there is a strong
likeness in phonology. Then further, the word ' lar,' signifying
tooth, is found in Victoria ; and we have to cross the continent
to the Gulf of Carpentaria before the same type with initial ' 1 '
presents itself again, which it does at Caledon Bay in the word
' lerra.' Several words in ' 1 ' may be taken as a class which
serve to link together people in the extreme north who have
been disparted by a wedge of linguistic influence forced in
between. By this, as well as by Papuan physical characters
being more pronounced on the coast, is the Papuan coast-fringe
THE MALAY ELE:MENT 63
attested. The peopling of Australia, in so far as the succession
and distribution or commingling of different races is concerned,
has been not very unlike the settlement of Great Britain. The
Keltic element in Britain is represented by the Papuan' in
Australia, the Saxon by the Dravidian, the Norman by the
Malay. In both cases population has jDOured in mainly on one
side, the earliest settlers gradually retiring to the farther shore.
The second race takes entire possession of the centre, shedding
the indigenes to either side. Wales and Cornwall might corre-
spond to Victoria, the Isle of Man to Tasmania, not in relative
position to the mainland, but in isolation and racial purity ; and
the Highlands of Scotland would represent Western Australia.
In each case from the first two races the bulk of the people is
sprung and the vocabulary and grammar are inherited, while
the third race, sprinkled here and there over the land, has left
the slightest lingual traces of its presence.
CHAPTER V
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution of the population— Mr. E. J. Eyre's theory— The three
divisions and their characteristics— The Tasmanians and the first of
their successors ignorant of circumcision— Its prevalence in Australia
reveals nothing about origin— Tribal nomenclature— Migration from
the north-east— Linguistic evidence— Names of emu traceable to
north-east— Words find explanation there— Numerals traced to
north-east— Some traced to New Guinea — Words for man similarly
traced — Two currents of language cross each other in east central
part of continent — Double line of advance from north to south in
extreme east— Besides Papuan and Malay, a residual race to account
for— Summary of evidence on distribution — Table tracing words
from south-west to north-east.
Having outlined the relationship between the different races
who have settled in Australia, and indicated approximately
where they first reached the continent, I shall now offer some
observations upon the distribution of the population. Mr. E. J.
Eyre propounded the theory that the aborigines reached Aus-
tralia on the north-west coast, and settled it by spreading in
three main streams — one by the west coast, another by the
north and east coasts, a third crossing the centre southwards —
and all three meeting again at the southern coast. This theory
is adopted by the writer of the article on Australia in the
" Encyclopaedia Britaunica " ; it is also accepted, elaborated and
strongly confirmed in Mr. E. M. Curr's work. I once enter-
tained this view, but have been compelled to abandon it. I
accei)t the evidence but reject the conclusion. A theory so
deep-rooted and widely current, plausible and yet erroneous,
demands strict examination, and if false, careful refutation.
That the progress of settlement was from the north southward,
and not vin- nrsti, is incontestable. That there are strongly
marked differences distinguishing what Mr. Curr calls the
Eastern, Western and Central Divisions may also be admitted.
DISTRIBUTION 65
Yet these premises do not lead to Eyre's theory of settlement.
Mr. Curr's reasoning is vitiated at the start by his unwarrantable
assumption that the Australian race is homogeneous. Had he
believed that the Tasmanians were the first occupants of the
continent, he would have had a powerful factor to account for
differentiations, which cannot well be accounted for when the
existence of an autochthonous basal race is ignored.
The outstanding characteristics of the three assumed divi-
sions or streams of population have been indicated as the exist-
ence of circumcision and what may be called concision in the
Central Division, the absence of these and the practice of
naming tribes by negatives in the Eastern Division, and the
utter absence of these three peculiarities in the Western Divi-
sion. A mere prima facie view of these distinctive features
gives a bias against the three-stream theory, which does not
even jDretend to account for the rejection of the practices named
where they are rejected ; and, in fact, it is inconceivable that so
strongly marked practices would have been abandoned in the
districts where they do not obtain had they at one period been
characters of the original stock.
The Tasmanians knew nothing of circumcision or concision :
neither did the first-comers of the second immifjratin"- race.
Circumcision has been introduced in the north by the influence
of Malay Mahometans in comparatively modern times. Con-
cision,* or the "terrible rite," as Mr. Sturt called it, probably came
after, and was gradually developed for personal adornment. These
rites spread rapidly southward, and would, no doubt, have over-
run the whole continent but for the advent of Europeans. Hence
the prevalence of these rites tells us nothing about whence
the aborigines came, nor how they were distributed. How or
where the naming of tribes by negatives was introduced is an
* This name was suggested to me by the excessive extent of mutilation.
Mr. W. E. Roth, in his most admirable work, '"Ethnological Studies among
the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines," pp. 177 et seq., gives a full
description of the operation which he calls introcision, a name equally
applicable to a corresponding mutilation of females. Prof. W. B. Spencer
and Mr. F. J. Gillen call the rite subincish>i. They give a legend of the
Arunta tribe, Central Australia, to the effect that shortly after men of the
' little hawk ' totem had introduced circumcision by means of a stone knife,
' individuals belonging to the Achilpa or " wild cat " totem introduced the rite
of Ariltha or suhincision." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 1S97,
p. 146.
E
ee EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
enigma. It may have characterised the early Papuans ; it may
have arisen through there having been a greater multiplicity
and confusion of tongues in the east than in the centre and
west of Australia. Its occurrence in the east favours as much
my theory of settlement as it does the other. Elsewhere I
show that this form of nomenclature probably originated in the
frequent utterauce of negatives or corresponding words express-
ing ignorance of what was addressed in a foreign dialect. The
linguistic evidence which 3Ir. Curr offers does no more than
support the hypothesis of a general movement from north to
south in the central part of the continent, which I also
affirm.
Having shown tlie invalidity of the inferences in favour of
settlement from the north-west by three streams, I shall now
adduce the proof that the migration was from the north-east
south-eastward on the east coast, southward, south-westward,
and westward elsewhere. The linguistic evidence for this hypo-
thesis is, I think, irrefragable. It may be summed up thus : A
number of important words in the south-east, south, and west
of Australia may be traced through numerous modifications,
and the traced lines are found to converge about the base of
Cape York Peninsula, in the north of Queensland. In fact,
some of them can be run right across to New Guinea. In no
other locality can the languages be thus run to ground, as it
were, so that the Igdrasil of Australia may be said to have its
roots in the Cape York Peninsula. Besides individual words,
other linguistic features can be traced to the same locality.
One of the most instructive lines is that which may be
formed by various names for the emu. At Albany, in the ex-
treme south-west of Australia, the term is ' waitch,' and in the
immediate neighbourhood the ordinary form is ' wadgie ' ; on
the Great Australian Bight the term is ' warritcha.' On the
eastern watershed of Lake Eyre such forms as the following are
found : ' waraguita,' ' warrawatty,' ' wargutchie ' ; in the South
Gregory District, Queensland, ' warukatchi ' is found ; ' woitte '
is the term for hiy at the Coen River, flowing into the Gulf of
Carjjentaria, near Cape York. On Prince of Wales Island, in
Torres Strait, 'ure' means lird ; in New Guinea the term is
' ori ' ; and on Saibai Island, on the New Guinea coast, imme-
diately opposite Cape York, ' uroi ' means hird, and ' kasa ' or
DISTRIBUTION 67
' kaiza,' large. To derive the West Australian word ' waitch ' we
ueed to traverse the whole extent of Australia from the extreme
south-west to its most north-easterly point, and then cross
Torres Strait to the New Guinea coast, where we find its ety-
mology in two words meaning hird, large. It should be observed
that a pure sibilant is so rare in Australian languages as to
justify the doubt whether it is used at all. Hence an ' s ' or ' z '
in New Guinea would become a ' t ' or ' ty ' or palatal ' eh ' in
passing to Australia.*
It will be necessary for me to direct attention here to a
linguistic phenomenon in a number of Australian dialects which
is somewhat puzzling. I refer to the frequent change of initial
• w ' or ' wh ' into ' k ' and occasionally ' ku,' or, as it sometimes
seems, the prefixing of a ' k ' before either ' o ' or ' u,' which
would otherwise be initial vowels. In some cases this peculiarity
might be sufficiently accounted for by supposing a natural rela-
tion between ' k ' and ' w,' whereby the latter may insensibly
merge into the former or vice versa ; cf. uxiv and ' guerre,'
ivard and gitard; but in a number of cases it seems pretty
certain that the initial ' k ' or ' ku,' and even perhaps ' kura ' or
' kuru,' as in the numerals, possesses or did possess a definitive
value.
The derivation of ' waitch ' explains many of the names for
emu scattered throughout Australia. Thus the word ' korre ' at
Adelaide, South Australia, is probably just the bird ; and at
Kulkyne, on the Murray, Victoria, ' karawingi ' is the local
equivalent for ' ori kaiza ' ; near Ballarat, Victoria, it occurs in
the local name ' koraweiuguboora.' A common ^'ictorian form
is ' kowir.' In New South Wales and part of Queensland it has
been corrupted into ' ngooroon ' and similar forms.
There are practically only three names for emu.' in the west
of the continent. The first is ' waitch,' already dealt with ; the
second, * yalliberri,' is found from the Murchison River north-
ward to the Shaw River. Evidence is wantincj for tracinsr this
across the continent, but it prevails widely in the north-east,
and the lines of prevalence are focused about the western
watershed of the Burdekin in such forms as 'koolpurri,'
* " The sounds of s and z are wanting in Gudang (Cape York dialect),
and when occurring in a foreign language are reijresented by ch or ty"
g(McGillivray's "Voyage of the Battlesnake," vol. ii. p. 2S2).
68 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
♦goberri,' &c. • Kool- ' is just a variant of ' kuro,' bird; and
•-piirri' is an adjective signifying mam/ or large. The third
West Australian form is 'kullia,' occurring on the outside of
the territory where the other words prevail. This is the local
form of the Darling ' kulti ' ; ' kul' corresponds to ' kool ' and
'war,' and the termination suggests a decayed adjective.
The above derivations supply the key to the derivation of a
number of other bird names. Many of the names for sivan,
tiujUhmi'k, and initiir tvi-hy have the same meaning as the name
for emu. The ' waldja ' and ' warlik,' eaglchawk of West Aus-
tralia, are l>oth derived from ' ooreytella,' ' korytella,' 'koretalla,'
and siuiilar variants of the north-east, the original form being
♦ koritalka ' or ' oritalkai ' ; ' talkai ' is a common term in the
north-east for hvj. This inference is borne out by the name
for <//< i< in Gudang (Cape York) being 'nichulka.' 'Talkai' is
probably contracted from ' talkari.'
As further illustration of the mode of forming compound
words and the accuracy of the above derivations, I may point
out that in one place * oorumpa ' is the name for v:ild turhcy, in
another ' oorooba ' is the name for emu ; in both instances ' oor '
corresponds to ' ori,' bird, and ' umpa ' is an adjective in various
dialects meaning hig.
The equivalents for the numeral one occurring throughout
the greater part of Australia can also be traced to the north-
east, and three distinct Australian forms are discoverable in
New Guinea and adjacent islands. In West Australia the
prevailing vocable for one is ' kain ' ; in Victoria it is ' kaiup ' or
' kaiap.' The affinity of the two is suggested by their resem-
blance. The one is corrupted from such a form as ' koornoo/
occurriug in the north-east ; and the other is the local variant
of a veiT widespi'ead form, the type of which is ' kurupa,' with
sometimes a final ' na.' An example of the fuller form is
' koorbno,' on the Diamantina lliver, Queensland, which, when
compared with other northern and New Guinea forms, leads to
the above conclusion regarding the etymon. Victorian ' kaiup '
is traced northward thus : Bumbang, Victoria, ' geyabi ' ; Wal-
jeers, New South Wales, ' kooinebine ' ; Wellington, New South
Wales, ' oonboyie ' ; Castlereagh River, New South Wales,
' ngunbeer ' ; Diamantina River, Queensland, ' koorbno.' West
Australian • kain ' has resulted from such changes as follows :
DISTRIBUTION 69
Great Australian Bight, ' kean ' and ' kyunoo ' ; Lake Eyre,
South Australia, ' koono ' and ' koornoo ' ; Cooper's Creek,
'koornoo'; Diainantina River, Queensland, 'koorbno.'
The term ' kuma ' or ' kooma,' one, of Adelaide and neigh-
bourhood, can be traced northward in the same way. At Blount
Remarkable it is ' kooman ' ; Gawler Range, ' goo-o-mana ' ;
eastern shore of Lake Torrens, ' koopmana.' We then reach
the region where ' koornoo ' has held its jolace, but at the head
of the Hamilton River the form is ' gooniba.' The 'm' in
' koopmana ' has probably crept in from its relation to ' p.' I
think there can be no reasonable doubt that both ' gooniba ' and
' koopmana ' are variants of Diamantina River ' koorbno.'
Another set of forms is traceable from Melbourne northwards
along the coast to Gladstone, in Queensland, thus : ^lelbourne,
' karnboo ' ; Gippsland, ' kutupona ' ; Stradbroke Island, Queens-
land, ' kurraboo ' ; Burnett River, Queensland, ' karboon ' ;
Gladstone, ' karboon.' I do not affirm that this last has
necessarily been conveyed southward continuously along the
coast. The different forms may have reached the coast at the
various points, in the speech of natives that had parted in the
north, but obviously they are all derived from the inferred
original type ' kurupona ' or ' kurupana." On the north-east
coast of Queensland the most prevalent term for one is ' woorba,'
which can be traced northwards to Saibai, on the coast of New
Guinea, in the following series : Peak Downs, ■ woorba ' ; Rock-
hampton, 'werpa'; Mackay, ' warpur '; Belyando River, 'wirburra';
Port Denison, ' warpa ' ; Prince of Wales Island, ' warapune ' ;
Warrior Island, ' woorapoo ' ; Saibai Island (New Guinea coast),
' urapon ' ; Bula'a, New Guinea, ' koapuna.' Other forms in the
north-east of Queensland are ' noobun,' ' nupun ' and the like,
represented in New Guinea by ' obuna,' ' abuna.' All the above
belong to the one type. Another type, of which the etymon
is ' kueitan,' can be traced from Victoria through New South
Wales and Queensland, also to the north-east coast, and the
corresponding form ' koitan ' is picked up on Woodlark Island
to the east of New Guinea. The stages of change may be briefly
indicated thus : Piangil (Victoria), ' yaitna ' ; Tintinaligi (New
South Wales), ' ngitya ' ; Cooper's Creek, ' waityu ' ; Paroo and
Warrego, ' itcha ' ; ]Mackay, ' watchin ' ; Belyando, ' wogiu ' ;
Cape River,'-' whych en'; Woodlark Island, 'koitan.' This
70 EAGLEIIAAN'K AND CROAV
treatment of the argument from the distribution of numerals
will have to suffice for the present.
A very important mark for relating tribes and dialects is the
t«rm used for man. The sum total of these is not large, and
witli ffw exceptions they can be traced also to the north-east of
the continent. Thus in ' kerna,' on the Hamilton River, in the
north-west of Queensland, are focused ' koori,' Hawksbury,
New South Wales; ' konai,' Gippsland ; ' kooli,' Victoria gene-
rally ; ' korni,' mouth of Murray Eiver ; ' kurda,' Streaky Bay,
South Australia ; * karoo,' Shark's Bay, West Australia ; ' kurna,
Cooper's Creek. The name ' maar,' or 'marra' (Warrambool,
Victoria), is traceable through New South Wales and Queens-
land, and appears on and near the Queensland coast on the
north-east as ' mari,' Port Denison ; and ' murree,' Porter's Range.
Kvidence of this special kind might be multiplied, but I forbear.
Further corroboration of the north-easterly origin of the natives
is furnished by the fact that a peculiar form of dialect found in
the very heart of Australia at Alice Springs and neighbourhood
is most closely related, phonologicall}-, by vocabulary, and by
the exceptional feature of aversion to initial consonants with
dialects at the Norman and Palmer Rivers, near the south-east
corner of the G ulf of Caipentaria, and, singular to say, with the
Gudang at Cape York.
Again, a particular type of pronoun prevails throughout
almost the whole of Australia. It is more or less mutilated in
New South ^Vales, Victoria, South Australia, and "West Australia,
and its most perfect types, so far as yet made known, are found
in the Kabi and Turrubul of Southern Queensland, the Kaura-
rega of Torres Strait, and the Saibai, near the New Guinea coast.
A striking fact emerging upon philological research is that
two currents of language have actually crossed each other in
the east central part of the continent about the neighbourhood
of Cooper's Creek. The Comparative Table in this work will
nhow that a stream of population has crossed the continent from
the Cloncurry River, a tributary of the Flinders flowing into the
Gulf of Carpentaria, direct to Adelaide and neighbourhood in
the south. The Darling River blacks are perhaps the main
representatives of this migration. The field occupied by dialects
of this east central type has been cloven by the language of one
or more streams of people passing down the rivers from the
distiiibt;tion ti
north-east, the Diamantina, Thomson, Barcoo, Booloo. The
centre seems to have been first occupied and the later streams
seem to have forced their way westward and to have formed
the almost homogeneous people of the extreme south-west before
circumcision or " the terrible rite " was introduced. This strange
phenomenon has not been noticed before. We do not possess
evidence to trace the northern end of the east-central current
back eastward farther than the Cloncurry River on the south
of the Gulf of Carpentaria. I do not doubt that it will yet be
traced northward into Cape York Peninsula. If it was prior to
the westward current it would probably be pressed to the west
as well as cloven by the new immigrations coming from the
north-east coast ; which stream first occupied the centre I
cannot with certainty determine. Lake Eyre is a meeting-
point of northern, western, and east central divisions.
In the east of Australia, the territory which on linguistic
grounds I have divided latitudinally into two divisions, there is
very clear proof that a double line of advance from north to
south was made, the dividing-line corresponding roughly with
the Dividing Range. There are thus two longitudinal sections,
the coast one terminating in Gippsland, the inland one ter-
minating in the rest of Victoria and the south-east corner of
South Australia.
The problem of the intermixture of races may also be dealt
with by determining to what race belong the extremes when
viewed as regards the time of their arrival. The first-comers
being Papuans and the latest arrivals being as distinctly Malays,
an intermediate residuum which is neither the one nor the other,
and which yet has contributed most largely to the population,
requires to be accounted for.
The pronouns and numerals are the main distingaishiug
linguistic features of this racial element, which may be called
the Australian proper. The peculiar type of pronoun in a more
or less perfect form covers nearly all Australia. It is very
distinct and well elaborated. It differs from the Tasmanian
pronoun ; it is certainly not Malay. It approaches closest to
the Dravidian, and along with other marks justifies the inference
that the predominant element in the native Australian I'ace as
now existing is constituted by descendants of a people allied to
the aboriginal race of Central and Southern India.
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DISTRIBT^TIOX 73
This theory is held in conjunction with the belief that on
the north-west, north, and north-east coasts there have been
desultory landings of small bodies of people not in the main
currents. There are indications of groups of Melanesians
having reached Australia on the eastern Queensland coast
perhaps as castaways, and having penetrated inland, leaving
their impress upon the practices and language.
A table is subjoined showing that a large proportion of West
Australian words have crossed the continent by a south-
westerly route from the north-east of Queensland.
When we keep in mind that a Papuo-Tasmanian influence
survives specially in the south, on the west coast and on the
north coast of Australia, which cannot possibly be traced to a
point of first arrival on Australia, the linguistic evidence given
above is so varied in character and so massive in quantity, and
in several cases exhibits withal the gradual transformation of
words so distinctly, that it leads irresistibly to the one con-
clusion, viz., that the chief of the three easily distinguishable
elements in Australian language entered Australia on the
north-east, and the inference is inevitable that the people who
spoke that speech passed to Australia from New Guinea.
CHAPTER VI
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE AUSTRALIANS
Physical, mental, and moral characteristics — Physical appearance —
Mental characters — Ramahyuck school one hundred per cent, of marlcs
for three consecutive years — Imitation — Moral characters — Instability
— Symimthetic and allectionate — Gaiety — Improvidence — Native
police — Missionary effort— Barbarous whites, humane pioneers.
The physical appearance of the natives is subject to consider-
able variation not only in different localities but even in the
same community, and this as regards stature, muscular develop-
ment, cast of features, and other particulars. Some of these
differences are doubtless attributable to climatic influence, some
to the difference of food products, while some are as certainly
hereditary racial peculiarities. The wretched emaciated creature
whose bones may all be told through his skin, although often
presented to us as the picture of the Australian, is not a true
picture. Such will be the appearance of parties where the food
supply is always scant, or of others at a time of the year or in
an unfavourable season when food is much more scarce than
usual. It is also true that the inhabitants of the interior and
the north are more spare, and perhaps on the average taller
than those in the east, south, and west, but men of muscular
frame and stout build are common enough in the coast districts
other than the north. Taking the continent all over, the average
height of the men will not exceed 5 ft. 6 in., and of the women
5 ft. There is, however, hardly a community in which two or
three six-footers will not be found. As a rule, the muscles are
not largely developed, but there are numerous exce^Dtions. In
Southern Queensland I have seen a type of man about 5 ft. 4 in.
in height, thick set and powerfully muscular. One man of this
stamp received his name from the massiveness of the calves of
his legs. But even the lanker men are very strong and wiry
PHYSICAL CHARxVCTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 75
in proportion to their weight, both bone and muscle being
excessively tough.
The colour of the skin is shaded from a dusky copper to
a brownish-black. The new-born babe is singularly fair, but
becomes gradually darker with age. The natives have a pre-
dilection for ebony skins as a mark of beauty, a preference
which may be due to the fact that the substratum of the popu-
lation was originally darker. In those parts of the country
which have already been particularised as more distinctly Papuan,
there is usually an abundance of hair on the face and breast,
a characteristic which accompanies increased squareness of
build and greater muscularity. In the central parts there
is less beard and less hair on the breast, and in the north,
in some parts at least, the body is smooth and the beard very
scanty. Throughout the continent the hair of the head, with
some notable exceptions, is of a glossy raven black, very re-
dundant and usually wavy. Where the Papuan blood is most
predominant the hair is often curly and frizzy and sometimes
woolly. I knew one black boy in the south of Queensland
whose hair was of a dirty yellowish-brown, and there are several
well-authenticated cases of true natives having hair that has
been described, perhaps with poetic exaggeration, as golden
yellow. A particular instance is given in the family of a
man named Teacup, a leading blackfellow among his country-
men about Beemery Station, between Bourke and Brewarrina,
in New South Wales. His children were copper-coloured and
had long straw-coloured hair.* Such cases may arise from
poverty in the black pigment, but seem too decided to be
ascribable to such a cause.
There could hardly be a more striking contrast than that
between the lank, tall, smooth, small-featured Northern Territory
man and such a Victorian black as Bidhanin, well known at
Ballarat under the name of King Billy. The latter was short
of stature, not exceeding 5 ft. 4 in. in height, his hair hung in
heavy wavy locks or tangles, his face was almost hidden with
beard and whisker, and his bosom thickly covered all over with
a dense crop of hair of two or three inches in length, so as to
have quite a shaggy appearance. This man, born at Ercildoune,
was a good specimen of, what I take to be, the Australian
* Informant, Mr. Colin Fraser.
76
KAGLEIIAWK AM) CROW
Papuan. His features were also of the typical Australian
Papuan cast — i.e., the brow comparatively low and retreating,
eyebrows prominent and shaggy, eyes fairly large, the iris being
dark brown and the white of a smoky-yellowish tinge, the nose
large and broad but not to say fiat, indeed sometimes decidedly
Jewish, the nostrils wide, the mouth large, the lips thick, but
OLD I'ETEK
without the swollen thickness of the negro lip, the cheek-bones
high, generally small and receding jaw, somewhat prognathous,
teeth large. This is the Australian Papuan face, and may be
met in many localities. I have a portrait of a black, known as
Old Peter, who belonged to ^Milroy Station, on the Culgoa River,
New South Wales. This portrait might pass for a presentment
of Bidhanin mentioned above. The trunk in front is completely
covered with dense hair, which spreads over the shoulders and
down the outside of the upper arm. The beard is thick, long.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRAMANS 77
and curly, with a tendency to fall in ringlets. Old Peter was
evidently stout and muscular for his height.
Alongside of people like those described there may be found
others with features which might be called fairly good-looking,
judged even by European standards. These have quite a dif-
ferent style of forehead, narrow, smooth, rounded, high ; also a
much smaller nose, sometimes straight and full, sometimes snub
and inclining to be tip-tilted, the lips full but not extra thick,
and the facial outline a graceful oval. A poor, unfortunate
wretch of a black boy, who went by the name of Dougal, a
native of Yabber Station, in the Wide Bay district, Queensland,
would be one of the best examples of this latter type. His face
as a whole might have been called handsome. He ended his
days on the gallows-tree for crimes committed after he had
become demoralised through the evil influences that blotch
the gold-diggings. Although the eyes of the Australians are
rarely, if ever, oblique, a face with a decided Mongolian cast
about the brow, cheek-bones and nose is occasionally met with.
There are certain peculiarities about the average Australian
head which serve to mark it very distinctly. It is of a pyramidal
shape, the skull is abnormally thick, the cerebral capacity is
about the smallest of all races. Viewed in profile, the tip of
the nose is the apex of an angle, the sides of which recede with
about equal obliquity from a horizontal passing through that
point. The head is well poised, commonly having a backward
lean, and is supported on a neck short and comparatively thick.
In general appearance the average Australian is symmetrically
proportioned. More bone and muscle would undoubtedly be an
improvement, for a too common attenuation of limb and fineness
of ankles and wrists are suggestive of weakness. His hands are
small and bony, the feet by no means large, seeing that they are
always bare and used so much and in such varied ways. The
aboriginal is very strong for his weight, exceedingly agile, and
has an erect, free, and graceful carriage. As he is so largely
dependent upon the exercise of his senses they are siugularly
acute. His powers of tracking are proverbial. My belief is
that they are due as much to exercise as to peculiar natural
capacity. While in his native bush, all the blackman's senses
are incessantly on the alert, it is therefore no wonder that his
faculties of sense-perception should be highly developed.
78 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
MENTAL AND MOKAL CHARACTERISTICS.
For a people so low iu the scale of civilisation the Australians
exhibit powers of mind anything but despicable. They are very
keen observers, of quick understanding, intelligent, frequently
cunning, but, as might be expected, neither close, nor deep, nor
independent thinkers. In schools, it has often been observed
that aboriginal children learn quite as easily and rapidly as
children of Juiropean parents. In fact, the aboriginal school at
llamahyuck, in Victoria, stood for three consecutive years the
highest of all the state schools of the colony in examination
results, obtaining unc hiradrid per ant. of marks. While among
I'airopeans the range of mental development seems almost un-
bounded, with the blacks its limit is soon attained. An inherent
aversion to application is generally an impassable barrier to the
progress of an aboriginal's education ; in addition to which there
is usually the absence of sufficient inducement to severe mental
exertion. Unless in the case of those who are so situated that
they cannot help attending school, most natives who have been
taken in hand to be taught have at best learned to read words
of one or two syllables and to write their own names in a very
clumsy manner.
A common feature in the aboriginal mental make-up is a
propensity for mimicry. They are fond of imitating one another
with a view to exciting ridicule, and they instantly seize upon
salient peculiarities of white men, especially of strangers, and
reproduce them with considerable success. It is astonishing
how easily and completely young blacks, not cut off from inter-
course with their relatives, but living and working constantly
among the whites, fall into European modes of thought. To
the influences of the white men they move among their mind
seems to be a tabula rasa. Give such an aboriginal a white
man's features and complexion and he is, to all intents and
purposes, a white man of the unreflecting, uneducated class ;
some of them, with little or no incentive save the approbation of
Europeans, falling into the routine work of the station, doing it
with fidelity and pride, and for perhaps only a tithe of the white
workman's reward.
In the aboriginal character there are many admirable, meri-
torious elements, but there is a lack of a strong, inherited,
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 79
combining, marshalling will or self-determination, and, as a
natural consequence^ the moral qualities are prone to operate
capriciously. The natives are not insensible to promptings of
honourable feeling, but generally, unless when repressed or
constrained by fear, they act from impulse rather than from .
principle, and their best inclinations are easily overpowered by
pressure from within or from without. You could rely upon
a blackfellow being faithful to a trust only on condition that
he were exempt from strong temptation. One of the most
condemnatory testimonies that ever has been given of this
people is that which was given by Mr. Jas. Davies (known as
Darumboi by the aborigines) before a commission of the Legis-
lative Assembly of Queensland in 18G1. As far as personal
experience went this witness was well qualified to speak, for
he had lived continuously among the blacks for fifteen years
and three months. He said, very forcibly, " Hundreds of them
would take your life for a blanket or a hundredweight of flour.
I wouldn't trust them as far as I could throw a bullock by the
tail." " They are so greedy that nothing can come up to them."
" They are the most deceitful people I ever came across." " The
father will beat the son and the son the father. The brother
will lie in ambush to be avenged on the brother ; if he cannot
manage him in fight he will lie in ambush with a spear or a
club."
This, I am sure, was stating the case against the poor
creatures too strongly. They are not wantonly untruthful ;
they are not deficient in courage ; they are not excessively
selfish; and they are by no means lacking in natural affection.
But Mr. Davies corroborates what I have said of the presence
of that defect of character which may be termed instability. It
may be said that the whole fabric of their moral character is in
a position of unstable equilibrium. The slightest strain will
destroy the poise.
They have a courage which fits them to perform marvellous
feats of tree-climbing, gives them spirit to assert their rights
in the face of danger from the white man's superior know-
ledge and strength, and, for a time at least, qualifies them
to excel as roughriders. But their bravery is neither steady
nor deep-rooted. No doubt they are very covetous, but they
are also very generous. One of the nuisances which used to
80 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
vex squatters was the good-natured recklessness with which a
black bo}' would scatter about among his friends the rations
or clothes he had earned by his own labour and which he
needed for himself.
As a rule, the blacks are sympathetic and affectionate,
especially the women. Sufficient evidence of this is the way
in which white men have been treated who have been unfortunate
enough to be cast upon their mercy. Relatives are usually fondly
attached to each other. The attachment between parents and
their offspring is very strong, and exhibits itself in kindness to
the aged, who are tenderly cared for, and indulgence to little
children. One case of filial affection which came under my
own notice I cannot forbear to mention. It was that of a
boy who had travelled with a stockowner to a considerable
distance from his native place, showing his love to his parents,
in a way very substantial for a black, by sending them a pound
note through the post.
An almost universal feature in the aboriginal character is
gaiety of heart. This, I believe, is a Papuan inheritance. Open
light-heartedness was one of the pronounced features which
Wallace observed distinguishing the Papuans from the Malays.
Of the Papuan he says:* "They are energetic, demonstrative,
joyous and laughter-loving, and in all these particulars they
differ widely from the Malay." The open, sunny-hearted
qualities are indisputably Australian characteristics. The
Australian is good-humoured, enjoys a joke, and does not
long harbour resentment. The absence of constraint in the
direction of joyousness is accompanied by liability to un-
restrained bursts of passion, which lead sometimes to most
violent assaults. The black is a very vain man, conceited of
himself and conceited of his countrymen, for reasons no doubt
sufficient to him if not to us. It is perhaps as much owing to
his vanity or his fondness for praise as to any other motive that
he has been got to work at all. For, what other inducement is
there to him to toil for the white man, and why should it not
be to him rather a merit than a disgrace that, from our point of
view, he is indolent ? Has not nature dealt bountifully with
him ? If he makes his demands upon her at intervals with
sufficient urgency, he may loll on her soft warm bosom at
* " The Malay Archipelago," p. 592.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 81
his ease without discredit, until hunger compels him to stir.
At light kinds of labour he can work well, and if it suits
his purpose, he can apply himself diligently for a while, but,
as he only has to provide for to-day, he does not trouble about
to-morrow. He is not invariably and in every respect improvident,
however. If he does not require to rob a bee's nest to satisfy
present wants, he will indicate his discovery and assert his
ownership by marking the tree which the nest is on, and
will take the honey at some future time. In the Bunya
Mountains in Queensland it was a common practice, when
the Bunyas were in season, to fill netted bags with them,
and bury a store in the gravel of a creek-bed, to be exhumed
when required. The blacks of ^Vestern Australia store zamia
nuts by burying in the ground, but without nets.* In these
and various other ways the blacks show that they do not live
an out-and-out, hand-to-mouth life. They are not cultivators
of the soil, they neither sow nor plant (although I have known
a black to plant a tea-tree in a locality where none was growing),
but they reap grain, and roots, and fruits, preparing them in
various ways for consumption.
Settlement by the British has usually proceeded without
much resistance. The blacks have kindly assisted in their own
dispossession and extermination, guiding the aliens through
their forests, giving them much of their own strength at a
beggarly rate of recompense, submitting contentedly to indignity
and oppression, and rewarding injuries and insults with gentle-
ness and service. They have committed robbery, rape, murder,
and perpetrated several massacres. True, but they have often
been trained to such offences by the lawless, brutal, indecent,
tyrannical behaviour of the white men with whom they have
come into contact, for as a matter of fact the outskirts of
civilisation have a strong admixture of barbarism.
The first time that I saw a large number of blacks was at
Durundur Station, sixty miles from Brisbane, in the year 1865.
A bullock had just been slaughtered by the station hands, the
blacks were congregated round the killing-place. A low white,
with a feeling of gay superiority, swung the reeking, bleedino-
lights and liver with a slap round the neck and on to the naked
bosom and shoulders of an unoffending black woman. The
* Grey's " Journal of Expeditions of Discovery," vol. ii. p. 64.
F
82 EAGLEHAAVK AND C\\0\X
gentle creature received this act of gallantry with a smile. I
can never forget this disgusting insult and the meekness with
which it was borne. It was at once an index and a type of
much of the treatment which the natives have received from
those who have taken their heritage away from them, and if
the weaker side has retaliated is it to be wondered at ? The
cruelties perpetrated by the native police upon their own kindred
in the name of law, although excessive and often unwarrantable,
may be passed over here, because, granted the right to colonise
and dispossess, a certain degree of conflict was inevitable, and it
has been alleged by humane and competent judges, that where
the native police, well-officered, patrolled a district, not only
was property secure, but the blacks were exempted from venge-
ful and bloody attacks by the settlers. But woe for the lustful
and atrocious conduct of individual white men, who, feeling
secure from legal penalties and native reprisals, outraged and
oppressed and hunted at their will. The small success of
missionary effort, with which the unsettled life of the aborigines
has had much to do, has led many people to conclude that they
are not amenable to spiritual influence, and some settlers have
adopted the fantastic, convenient, and self-exculpatory theory
that the blacks have no souls. But, on the mission stations
especially, there have been numerous proofs that the gospel
appeals as much to an aboriginal Australian heart as to that of
any other nationality, and that, notwithstanding instability of
character, Christ is the power of God to the Australian.
It used to be a common maxim among bushmen, "It's no
use to hit a blackfellow with your fist, he won't feel it," and the
corollary was that a heavy boot, or a stout stick, or an iron bolt,
or a stock-whip, were legitimate and suitable instruments for
hortatory and punitive purposes. A powerful, heavy bullock-
driver would maul a black boy as an elephant might a baboon ;
to kick the offender, trample on him, and kneel or tumble on
his chest and stomach, were usual courses of procedure, and
the brute who could do these things deftly and inspire a whole-
some awe in the outraged would be entitled to respect. "I
would as soon shoot a blackfellow as a dog," was no uncommon
saying which some carried into practice. Concubinage was
general, terrorising and murder, both by poison and bullet,
plentiful enough on back stations, and used to be spoken about
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 8^3
freely where not practised. At the bar of God the souls of the
aborigines will have a heavy indictment to present against men
of our blood who have wronged and brutalised them.
While acknowledging and deploring the excesses of which
the colonists have been guilty, it would be unjust to overlook
the manifold instances of habitual humane treatment at the
hands of some of the station owners and their employes. But
nothing deserving the name of an equivalent has ever been
rendered, whether by individual favour or associated effort in
civilising and Christianising, to the weak, peaceful, kindly
people from whom Australia's glorious golden laud has been
wrested so speedily and at so trifling a cost.
CHAPTER VII
DWELLINGS, CLOTHING. IMPLEMENTS, FOOD
Dwellings, clothing, food, &c.— The blackfellow's home— His clothing
Preparation of rugs — Use of bark of native tea-tree— Ornaments-
Cicatrices— Piercing septum of nose— Bags and baskets— Weapons-
Food, from cicada to kangaroo— Method of eating honey— Nardu and
nardoo — Bunya — Pitcheri, comhungle or icantjle — Ovens — Diseases —
Caused by sorcery — Treatment — Longevity.
The home of the blackfellow is identical with the tract of
country over which he ranges ; his dwelling is a structure of the
airiest, flimsiest kind. A breakwind of a few boughs proves
sufficient in fine weather, and in cold or wet he procures two or
three sheets of bark, sets them on end upon a crescent base-
line, one sheet overlapping another, the lap increasing upwards
so as to gather the sheets at the top. The whole leans upon a
few light props placed in front, the lower ends of which are
stuck in the ground, the upper ends converging and held
together by a natural fork in the end of one of the poles. This
description applies to the most common dwelling ; sometimes a
booth of boughs suffices, while on the other hand rude little
cabins thatched with grass and mud are met with occasionally ;
and near the most easterly point of Australia, probably owing
to Malay influence, the walls of the houses were of stakes inter-
laced with vines. The size of the house is determined by the
number of occupants it will have to accommodate in sleeping
posture. The floor is the green turf. The open front serves
equally for door and window. As the fire is lit far enough out
to allow plenty of room for the sleepers to stretch themselves
vdth. their feet towards it, a chimney is unnecessary. In rainy
weather a small gutter is dug arouud the dwelling. Light huts
of this description are peculiarly suitable to a nomadic people,
unacquainted with metals, possessing few tools, and rarely ex-
posed to severity of climate. They may erect them in the first
DWELLINGS, CLOTHING, IMPLEMENTS 85
instance with very little trouble, tenant them for two or three
months at most, and then either carelessly leave them standing
or lay the bark down flat and place a log or two on top of it to
keep it from getting warped or lifted by the wind. If the bark
is thus conserved, when the people revisit the locality the house
is rebuilt in a couple of minutes. Such a structure constitutes
a by no means uncomfortable sleeping apartment, and a resi-
dence commodioiis enough for people who can carry all their
chattels with them ; it has also this advantage, that it can be
shifted as the wind veers and the open front be always on the
lee side. When the natives were numerous their camps would
contain twenty or thirty huts, and on the occasion of special
gatherings there would, of course, be more. Each family would
have its own dwelling. Young single men would sleep in
groups apart from the families, and it is said that in some
tribes the positions taken up by individuals were determined
by considerations of kinship.
Almost the only real article of clothing worn by the Austra-
lians is the opossum rug. In the extreme north it is not in use.
About the neighbourhood of Port Mackay, in 8. lat. 21 , it is
used,* but in Central Australia, right across the continent, the
blacks are destitute of clothing. While travelliug in the north-
west Captain George Greyf saw no opossum rugs in use north
of 29° S. The opossum rug serves equally well for mantle and
blanket, and forms a receptacle on the mother's back in which
she can carry her infant when on the march.
In making the rugs, the flesh is cleaned thoroughly^ off the
skins, which are made pliable by rubbing with pieces of free-
stone. They are generally ornamented with rude scratches
representing snakes, emu's feet, and the like, the figures being
coloured with red ochre. The skins are neatly sewn together,
kangaroo sinews serving as thread. I was told by a black boy
that his people in the Wide Bay and Burnett Districts, Queens-
land, were wont formerly to make the soft papery bark of the
native tea-tree supply the place of blankets. It appears that
the same practice obtains in the neighbourhood of Halifax Bay4
At the Daly River, in the north-west of Australia, the same
* Curr's "The Australian Race,' vol. iii. p. 45.
f He is quoted by ]Mr. Curr, but I cannot verify this reference.
X Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 426.
86 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
kiud of bark was used for many purposes. lu many parts tlie
females, and more especially young girls, wear a fringe sus-
pended from a belt round the waist, the fringe being made of
various materials, such as vegetable fibre, fur-cord, skin, &c.
They are not excessively given to adornment of the person, but
a few simple ornaments are very generally worn. Among these
may be nientioned chaplets round the head, usually painted
with pipeclay or ochre, strings of bright yellow reed beads,
dogs' teeth and a piece of shell like mother-of-pearl suspended
on a string worn round the neck. On certain occasions feathers
are worn in the hair.
Ornamentation of quite a different kind is effected by raised
cicatrices arranged in rows in various parts of the body. These
are commonly made on the back, breast, abdomen, shoulders,
and upper part of the arm, and only on males. The incisions
are horizontal on the trunk and longitudinal on the arms.
When first cut they are filled with ashes, charcoal, or some
other innocuous material to keep the sides of the wound from
closing, and to make them rise when healed, like a pair of lips.
In most tribes the males pierce the septum of the nose. All
natives frequently anoint themselves with grease and charcoal.
In fact, this anointing is practised on new-born babes, and is
doubtless far more beneficial for infants than washing would be
in their rude mode of life. On special occasions, such as man-
makings, corroborees, and fights, the men smear their bodies
with red and white clay in fantastic designs.
The women make bags of network, the size of the mesh as
also of the whole bag being regulated by the use for which the
article is intended. The cord employed in the manufacture is
usually made of fur. Baskets, known by the whites as "dillie-
bags," are woven of strips of cabbage-tree, tough grass, or the
bast-bark of trees like the currajong ; a piece of cord is attached
to opposite sides of the edge by its two ends, so as to allow the
bag to be carried in the hand or slung upon the shoulder.
These were the depositories of their valuables.
As regards weapons, I shall content myself with giving
little more than a bare enumeration ; for a full and accurate
description Mr. Brough Smyth's " Aborigines of Victoria" may
be consulted. The characteristic and distinctive Australian
weapon is, of course, the boomerang, which is made of various
DWELLINGS, CLOTHLN'G, LMPLEAIKN'iS ST
sizes and weights and shapes. As already stated, similar
weapons are used in Africa and India, but that which distin-
guishes one kind of Australian boomerang from every other is
the property of returning to the thrower.* In the south of
Queensland the blacks had a very singular arm made of wood,
about as flat as a boomerang, but considerably larger and
heavier, and bent naturally at a right angle about the middle in
the plane of its width. It was probably an arm for close fighting,
a kind of battle-axe in fact, although in outline proportioned more
like a single-headed pick. It resembles the leonile of Victoria
figured in Mr. Brough Smyth's work, which was used in single
combat. Wooden spears are universal. They are of diverse
lengths and differ much in the design of the point, from simple
sharpness to many barbs, sometimes cut out of the solid, some-
times of bone or flint afflxed. Some tribes make reed spears as
well. In many parts the spear is launched by the aid of a
" throwing-stick " about two feet in length, now widely known
by its aboriginal name ivomcra. One end of the " throwing-
stick " is barbed, the tip of the barb rests on a hollow in the
end of the spear and the other end of the "throwing-stick" is
held in the hand. This auxiliary, like the cord of a sling,
increases the velocity with which the weapon flies. The women
in some communities have a special kind of spear about four
feet long, called by the whites a " yam-stick," which they employ
either for digging or for feminine duels, in which they are
handled single-stick fashion, while loud threats and recrimina-
tions are interchanged.
There are clubs of innumerable designs, some comparatively
light for the chase, and some very heavy, for hand-to-hand
encounter. These latter have sometimes rows of prominences
carved upon them at the thick end to increase the severity of
the blow. The club tapers to both ends, which terminate in
sharp points. Wooden swords, to be wielded with one or both
hands, are common, and shields both light and heavy, broad
and narrow, the shield-handle being generally formed by
scooping out a horizontal groove on the back, and leaving a
* Mr. Smyth quotes Mr. Ferguson on the antiquity of the boomeraiier.
His evidence is, I think, conchisive as to the use oi a returninix weapon like
the boomerang among the Aryan races of Europe at the earliest histcrieal
times. ("The Aboriuiiies of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 325.)
88 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
short longitudinal bar intact on the solid sui*face. * Hilaman ' or
' elimang,' now a common name for shield among the European
population, originally designated a small bark shield. The
Avooden weapons are usually more or less carved, and are often
partially coloured, either red or white.
The stone tools comprise hatchets, chisels, and knives. The
tomahawk is shaped like a rude American axe, and is of all
gradations of sizes, from what might be used by a child to a
heavy stone head some twelve or fourteen inches long. The
most common material is a bluish-green stone which takes a
fine polish and has a clayey fracture. Axes made of stone so
much alike that a superficial glance could detect no difference
in appearance, may be found in places a thousand miles apart.*
I have a broken axe-head which I found on the beach at Port-
arlington, no doubt the remains of an object that must have
been greatly prized. The dark blue ground of the stone is
starred over with milk-white specks. It is beautifully polished,
and back farther from the edge than usual. The axes were
ground to a cutting edge of crescent outline. The axe-handle
in some makes tapered almost to a point at the end to be held
in the hand. It was made either of a tough vine or of a split
sapling of suitable thickness. The piece of vine or wood was
doubled. In the loop thus formed, the head was balanced and
secured with cord and resin on the side next the haft.
The chisels had sometimes handles of bark wrapped round
them. Besides the tools already mentioned there were stones
for pounding food, whetstones, shells for dressing weapons,
bone awls ; twine made of wood-fibre, sinews or fur ; fish-hooks,
nets, fishing-lines ; water-vessels, such as koolimans (made of a
hollow knot of a tree or from the bend of a limb), calabashes,
and even human skulls ; the appliance already described as a
climbing-rope ; and various other local or less important im-
plements.
Except in the case of particular persons or on particular
occasions, hardly a living thing was rejected as an article of diet,
* Mr. O. R. Rule, of the Technological Museum, Melbourne, has favoured
me with the precise names of the stone of four axes. One from the Burnett
District, Queensland, and another from the Upper Darling, N.S.W., are
aphanite greenstone; a third found at Cheltenham, Victoria, is diorite ; the
fourth, mentioned above as found at Portarlington, Victoria, is diabase
porphyry.
DWELLINGS, CLOTHING, IMPLEMENTS 89
from the cicada to the kangaroo. The black man's table was
thus furnished with animal food of all kinds and flavours.
Grubs found in green trees were highly esteemed ; so were
snakes, bandicoots, porcupines, emus, and men. When hungry,
flesh would be eaten raw with avidity, but if time permitted it
was roasted. A common practice was to bite off portions as
they were cooked, the joint being handed round for each
member of the group to take a bite, and then placed on the fire
again. Honey, the product of the native bee, a very tiny, in-
nocuous, slow insect, was very much in request where it was
obtainable. In Queensland there was an ingenious and con-
venient way of eating honey which may possibly have been
practised elsewhere as well. A sheet of the inner, tough,
fibrous bark of a tree was procured. This was rubbed and
softened until it became like a piece of thin matting or old
bagging two or three feet square. It then formed a spongy
i*ag, and part of it would be dipped in the honey and afterwards
sucked by one after another of the members of the family from
the head of the house downwards. Even when the honey in
substance had got exhausted the flavour would cling to the bark
for a long time, and would reward the sucker for his exertions,
and form a treat to offer a friend. It was certainly a very
social form of enjoyment, and an economical mode of taking
food ; whether the reader would care to join in it is another
question.
The supply of vegetable food was much more restricted. A
kind of grass-seed called ' nardu ' was used by the natives in
the north-west of New South Wales. This is different from the
' nardoo ' of Central Australia, now familiarly known as the food
which Burke, Wills and King tried to support themselves upon
at Cooper's Creek. Fern roots and the Australian yam, a
species of Dioscorea,* are perhaps the most common edible
vegetables. Other kinds, whether the roots, stems, or fruits be
eaten, are local products, different districts producing food
peculiar to them. The zamia nut is eaten within the tropics,
certainly in the west, and probably in the east also. In the
south of Queensland a plant like the cassava or arrowroot
grows on the banks of streams, and its root is eaten when
pounded and freed from the juice, which is excessively pungent.
* Grej's "'Journals of Expeditions of Discovery," vol. ii. p. 12.
90 EAGLEHAA\ K AND CROAV
The same locality is distinguished for the beautiful Bunya-tree,
the Bichcillii Araucaria, au ornament of the scrubs on the high
lands. The cone of this tree is of gigantic size, and in each
scale there is an eatable ovule, which when mature is an inch or
an inch and a half long, and about half an inch thick. The
ovules are of conical shape, like an almond kernel, and covered
with a tough envelope. When tender the fleshy part is all
eaten. As the seed matures and the embryo assumes a definite
shape, the surrounding tissue is drier and less palatable, and the
embryo is rejected. "When matured the natives prefer to eat
the bunyas roasted. The kernels are also pounded into a kind
of meal called ' nangu.' The bnnya is a wholesome and much
relished food. Individuals claimed special favourite trees as
their own, but generally everybody had the range of the whole
forest. The boles are often from two to three feet thick, per-
fectly straight and without a branch for the first fifty or a
hundred feet, above which the branches spread into a beautiful
dome-shaped top. The climbing-rope is called into requisition
for the ascent, which is a difficult process, as the bark is flaky
and jagged and the leaves are prickly pointed. The matured
cones, as large as pumpkins, fall to the ground with a tremen-
dous thud, on which occasions provision is had by picking it off
the ground. About the same neighbourhood, and probably
elsewhere if obtainable, the core of the top of a sort of cabbage
palm forms a very juicy palatable food. The 'nardu' grass
seed of New South Wales has been mentioned above ; it is
pounded and eaten without separating the husk.
The plant known as jntchci'i or 2'^'^tyuTi, which grows in the
interior, is very much esteemed by the natives for its stimu-
lating property. It is first chewed, and then mixed with wood-
ashes and the leaf of a plant known as komhari. Then, after
baking, the preparation is complete, and it is carried about for
use. It is said to have the effect of sustaining the strength
under severe exertion without any other food. The natives
now chew it like tobacco, and take turns at the same quid.*
Along the marshy grounds of the Murrumbidgee and
Lachlan Rivers a plant grows profusely which is locally known
as ' combungie ' or -wangle.' The plants attain a height of
seven or eight feet. They have a tap-root a foot or eighteen
* Curr's " The Australian Kace," vol. ii. p. 38.
DWELLINGS, CLOTHLNG, LMPLKMKNTS 91
inclies iu length. These roots used to be pulled up and collected
by the women of a small community. An excavation of circular
outline was made in the ground, averaging three to four feet
deep and fifteen to twenty feet across. Half a ton of roots
might be gathered for a large oven and placed in the centre on
a great pile of dry wood. On the surface were strewn layers of
long grass and light sticks. Then the combustibles were kindled
and the excavated earth returned as a covering. The time
required for cooking depended upon the size of the oven, and
might be several days. When the ' wangles ' were thoroughly
done, water was continuously baled on to the oven until the
whole mass was cooled. It was then opened and the food came
out almost white as snow and not unlike parsnips or potatoes
cooked.*
This wholesale culinary operation was conducted much after
the style of meat-roasting by the ovens that are so numerous in
Victoria, where I have seen the delris or middens over twenty
feet in diameter, with a corresponding height, the slope of the
sides being rather less than the angle of deposition, and the top
flattened by obvious causes. In Victoria the ovens were used
in the following way : A rude paving having been laid, a great
quantity of stones and earth was heated by being heaped upon
a huge fire of wood. Then the fire was withdrawn, and the
game, unskinned, was placed in the centre upon a layer of grass,
more grass being strewed over it. The heated stones and earth
were next piled on top and the oven was left thus until the
meat was cooked, which would then be taken out and the skin
would easily peel off.
The diseases to which the aborigines are specially subject
are rheumatism and ])ulmonary complaints. These, though
aggravated by changed habits since contact with the whites, are
probably no new troubles. Syphilis, introduced by Europeans,
has terribly debilitated the constitution and corrupted the blood,
but the scourge which sweeps off most of the natives is con-
sumption. Indigestion and toothache are common, dropsy and
heart disease also occur. All sickness from internal, unknown
causes was attributed to sorcery practised by an enemy. They
possessed little or no knowledge of medicine, any remedies
being almost exclusively externally a^jplied. A common treat-
* My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy, Balranald.
92 EAGLEHAWK AND CHOW
uient was for the doctor or sacred man of the tribe to suck the
part affected and pretend to extract from it a pebble of the sort
used as charms. There seems to be efficacy iu the sucking, for
a friend of mine who was suffering severely from an inveterate,
inflamed eye, allowed a black '• doctor" to mouth the eyeball, and
the result of the treatment was immediate relief and speedy
cure. Sometimes the doctor would apply a sacred stone to the
part that was aching and profess to extract the cause of pain.
From the analogy of a similar practice in the New Hebrides this
may have been originally a kind of exorcism.
Wounds were often plastered with clay. In the case of
sores on the limbs, circulation would be checked by the fastening
of a ligature above the sore part. Mange was frequently caught
from the dogs. There was a disgusting monkey-like method of
dealing with it which I have seen practised. One person, using
a short pointed stick, would prick the pustules all over the body
of the patient, who would be reclining in a convenient posture
and enjoying the operation. For headache a band was fastened
tightly round the temples. Besides common remedial measures,
such as those mentioned, each community would have methods
peculiar to itself.
There is considerable difficulty iu determining the length of
life of the blacks, the generation born after contact with white
people being, on the whole, very short-lived. From numerous
instances it would appear that former generations were fairly
long-aged. Almost every small community would have in it
two or three men or women over seventy years of age, and here
and there some centenarians would be met with. The impaired
constitutions of the present generation, their unhealthy habits
arising from a combination of native with European modes of
life, the ease with which many fall into vicious practices, pre-
clude the possibility of many of them attaining to hoar hairs.
It seems very probable that, in Victoria and New South Wales
at least, there will not be a single pure aboriginal surviving
fifty years hence.
CHAPTER VIII
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS
Government, laws, institutions — Aboriginal bondage to tradition —
Tribal cohesion — Leadership— System of kinship and matrimonial
restrictions — Ganowaniari classes — Blood-ties or marks of courtesy —
Dr. Fison on the Murdoo legend — Classes not the result of a conscious
reformatory effort — Promiscuous intercourse — Polyandry — Exogamy
— Stages of social development as marked by marriage — Australian
classes, group-marriage — Negatives as names of communities, class-
names and totemism.
Various writers have shown that the noble savage is not the
child of liberty which he is popularly supposed to be. On the
contrary, while roving the forest in apparent security and
freedom his life is very uncertain, and from his childhood he
is shackled with burdensome ordinances inherited from his
ancestors, for the observance of which he usually has no intelli-
gent reason to offer. The rules which prescribe the conduct of
the Australian aborigines are in every place numerous and
strictly obligatory, infraction being followed by penalties which
always involve the risk of injury to the person and often the
forfeiture of life. The unquestioning obedience which commonly
marks submission to these vexatious regulations is very striking.
The cohesion of a community depends entirely upon consan-
guinity and derives no strength at all from governmental
authority. A community is simply an aggregation of families
among which the older men have a certain amount of control,
derived naturally from age and experience. There is no recog-
nised head, whether king or chief,* neither is there any defaiite
ruling body, elective or hereditary. Men of preponderating
influence are those who are distinguished for courage, strength,
* Some writers have recognised a distinct chieftainship, as for instance
Mr. James Dawson in the tribes he describes living in the southern watershed
of Victoria ("Australian Aborigines,"' p. 5).
94 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
and force of character. These, in conjuuction with the elders,
generally advise as to the public actions of the coumiuuity,
settle internal disputes, and enforce obedience to traditional
law. It is an abuse of language to designate the most influential
man by the name of chief or king, as has occasionally been done,
and an unwarrantable importation of foreign ideas into descrip-
tions of Australian life. People, speaking virtually one and the
same dialect, will be spread over from five thousand to ten
thousand square miles of territory and sometimes more, and cut
up into several small communities which, though usually friendly,
may be involved in hostilities. Such a group of related septs
would form what Mr. E. M. Curr has designated "associated
tribes," association, however, being not entirely dependent upon
close approximation of language. As a general rule, dissimilarity
of speech connotes mutual internecine enmity, every stranger
that falls into one's power being a proper object of slaughter.
The so-called associated tribes barter with one another, inter-
marry, and unite against a common foe.
To one accustomed to think only of the relations in civilised
society, perhaps the most singular and conspicuous feature in
Australian social life is the system of kinship and the corre-
sponding matrimonial restrictions. This point of study is
particularly interesting and instructive, as bringing us face to
face at the present day with a condition of society and inter-
sexual relations which, from numerous instances existing in
parts of the world widely separated, are generally believed to
have universally prevailed at a prehistoric period, in what are
now the most advanced races. Sir George Grey gets the credit
of ha%^ug been the first to place on record the Australian
ueculiarities of kinship and descent. While innumerable modi-
fications are current, there are a few broad characteristics
which mark the system and its accompaniments almost every-
where :
First. — A, being a male, his brother's children are spoken of as
his own children, his sister's children are his nephews and nieces,
his sister's grandchildren as well as his brother's are spoken of as
his grandchildren ; and if A be a female, with the interchange
of the terms "brother's" and "sister's" the proposition is also
true.
Secondly. — Every community is constituted by two or more
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 95
classes, most commonly four, and every individual bears one or
other of the class-names.
Thirdly. — Descent is usually through the females, and this is
especially marked by the class-name of the mother determining
the class-name of the child.
Fourthly. — Marriage within the class is forbidden on pain of
death ; there is consequently exogamy in respect of classes, and
usually tribal septs or communities are exogamous as well.
Systems of relationship like the Australian have been named
by Mr. Morgan "classificatory." Beginning with an examination
of a form called the Ganowanian, prevailing among the North
American Indians, he made a comparison of other forms in
various parts of the world, and came to the conclusion that the
names of relationships which at a first glance appear loosely
and inappropriately applied, are names of blood-ties, and indi-
cate communal marriage, or group allied to group at a more
primitive time. He is vigorously opposed by Mr. McLennan,
who regards the relationship of the classificatory system as
simply " comprising a code of courtesies and ceremonial
addresses in social intercourse."*
The discussion of the merits of these two hypotheses would
require a special monograph. The writer inclines to the opinion
that the terms used in the Australian system of kinship denote
what were once blood-ties, and that their application was
extended by analogy. It does not follow that they are evidential
of former group-marriage, unless the connubium of some own
brothers with own sisters be understood by that name. What
seems to have originated such a theory is the fact that exoga-
mous groups or classes are comprehended within one com-
munity. The question of the former prevalence of so-called
group-marriage will be settled by an accurate account of the
origin of these classes, phratries or gentes, as they may be
variously called. To explain their origin, Mr. Morgan assumes
that, following upon primeval promiscuous intercourse, there
was marriage between a set of brothers and a set of sisters, and
that a recognition of the resulting evils led society to deliberately
partition itself into intermarriageable classes with a view to
their prevention.
This field of inquiry so far as Australia is concerned has
* McLennan's "Studies in Ancient History," p. 273.
96 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
been ably and comprehensively exploited by tw o distinguished
co-workers, Mr. A. W. Howitt and Rev. Dr. L. Fison. When
writing on this subject in a paper contributed to the Royal
Society of New vSouth Wales in 1889 I felt constrained to
dissent from some of their conclusions, and while I gladly
acknowledge my indebtedness to their writings I am still
unable to go the whole length with them. Dr. Fison* says
they "have found it advisable to drop the term 'communal
marriage ' altogether because of its misleading tendency and to
substitute ' group-marriage ' for it." But while discarding an
objectionable name they still adhere to the hypothesis for which
it stood. Can the hereditary relationship subsisting between
members of two intermarry iug classes be properly designated by
the name of marriage ? I think not. It would involve in
certain of the Australian class-systems the conclusion that
a man was naturally and at the same time the husband of his
recognised wife, his daughter and his mother-in-law. Dr. Fison
says " the word marriage itself has to be taken in a certain
modified sense," " what it implies is a marital right or rather a
marital qualification."' A right and a qualification are very far
from equivalent. The latter term is appropriate, the former
doubtful. An argument in favour of group-marriage based
upon the application of terms designating real relationship to
all the members of a group where there are four or more groups
is met by the objection that in Australia the manifold groups
have been derived from an original pair.
The Rev. Dr. L. Fison, in the work " Kamilroi and
Kurnai," emphasises and corroborates Mr. Morgan's view. Dr.
Fison, in dealing with the rise of the Australian exogamous
classes, lays stress upon the Murdoo legend, an aboriginal
tradition, the substance of which is that the classes restricting
matrimony were constituted to remedy the bad results of in-
cestuous marriage. That these classes do prevent certain close
marriages is true, but is it logical to conclude therefrom that
they were inaugurated for this purpose ? Moreover they require
to be supplemented by other restrictions to prevent alliances
between persons near of kin. The class-barriers would allow
inter-marriage of cousins, and in some of the class-systems
* "Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science," 1892, p. 689.
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 97
those unnatural alliances indicated above. It seems to me that
the Murdoo legend is too flimsy to support such a conclusion, and
if the classes were due to some other cause than a conscious rrfonna-
tory effort, their effects looidd still he the sa.me. I prefer to regard
them as springing from natural conditions of life, having a
reformatory tendency no doubt, but the reformation neither
recognised nor designed by those who were the subjects of it.*
The obstacles presented to intermarriage of persons near of kin
have put inquirers upon what is probably a wrong scent.
Independently I arrived at the view which Mr. McLennan
takes, viz., that the matrimonial classes are memorials and
results of the coalescence of different stocks of people, which
were once distinct and exogamous tribes or races, and this
view is in harmony with the theory of the origin of the
Australian people enunciated in this treatise. Both Mr. Morgan
and Mr. McLennan set society in motion under a condition of
promiscuous intercourse. This is quite an imaginary starting-
point, and reduces mankind to a state of degradation lower than
the brutes, which in many cases, and especially in the case of
the higher apes, go in pairs. With a view to accounting
for the change of kinship through females to kinship through
males, Mr. McLennan finds it expedient to make polyandry
follow promiscuity, and the necessity for polyandry he finds
in the infanticide of female children and the consequent
disturbance of the balance of the sexes. But the prevalence
of infanticide of female infants is only postulated, not proved ;
and although in various countries polyandry has been the
rule, and in others' has been practised to some extent,
nevertheless, a polyandrous stage of society in all races is far
from established. Judging from the propensities of humanity
as witnessed at the present day in savage races, polygyny is a
much more favoured form of connubium than polyandry. And
* " You will find by reference to Kuth's ' Marriage of Near Kin' that the
injurious effects of close intermarrying is a myth and hence cannot be the
basis of the Australian horror of blood alliances." Mr. S. E. Peal, "Australian
Association for the Advancement of Science," vol. v. p. 514. Cf. also
Huth's "Marriage of Near Kin," pp. 13S and 353. Mr. W. E. Roth pro-
nounces emphatically against the Australian classes having been formed to
avert consanguineous marriages ; see Roth's "Ethnological Studies Among the
North- West-Central Queensland Aborigines," p. 69. Westermarckalso rejects
Morgan's theory ; see his "History of Human Marriage," pp. 31S-319, 544.
G
98 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
far more may be said in support of there having been as a rule
a surplus of females in a community than the contrary. Nature
herself tries to maintain the balance of the sexes and compensate
for the greater mortality among males by an excess of male
births. On the occasion of nations meeting in battle the
victorious side slaughters the males and usually preserves the
females, aud then either for the conquerors or the conquered
polyandry would seem too unnatural to be dreamt of.
Polyandry and agnation are bound together in Mr.
McLennan's theory by rights of succession to inheritance; in
other words, by property ; and, moreover, the conditions of life
with which he mainly deals to explain succession through males
are those of semi-civilised peoples among whom both sexes have
accumulated property. There is a stage farther back than this
exemplified in Australian aboriginal life, at which there is
scarcely aught but territory to claim, and it is tribal rather
than personal property ; and as for the women, with exogamy in
regular operation, they possess nothing beyond a few threads,
nets, baskets, or the like, about the succession to which there is
likely to be no quarrel. At such a stage woman possesses
practically nothing but her name and her charms, while she
herself is man's most precious property. It seems to me that
the primitive idea of acquiring and holding woman as one's own
property is at the root of connubial systems, and in the majority
of cases would conduce to polygyny rather than to polyandry.
Let it be assumed that in the rudest state of society men covet
women to be their peculiar possession and the following results,
which obtain in Australia, ensue. The matured males by dint
of force, and the elderly men by the authority of age, contrive
to provide themselves with a plurality of wives, while the younger
men must of necessity remain single, unless they procure partners
by capturing them from an adjoining tribe. Women would thus
be in continual demand, and exogamy would be conducted first
in a purely hostile and predatory manner and later by barter or
agreement of some kind.
From being in a sense inevitable, exogamy would become
the normal mode of marriage, and the result would be that the
wives in a tribe would be of a different tribe from their husbands,
and would have the name or totem of their own tribe clinging
to them. With indefinite paternity and definite maternity the
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 99
children would belong to the mother and be recognised as of her
blood, whatever general or tribal name the foreign mothers bore
would also be attached to their offspring, unless the latter re-
ceived a new special name from their hybrid appearance. Thus
in process of time a homogeneous tribe would become hetero-
geneous in blood and embrace two, if not more, intermarrying
classes, and tend to endogamy as regards the tribe, exogamy
still characterising the classes.
Exogamy would tend to succession through males, even
while there was uterine inheritance of class-names, because the
sons would remain on their father's ground while the daughters
would pass to other tribal territory, at first by capture and
empty handed. But marriage loithin a heterogeneous com-
munity once reached, and personal rights in property admitted,
there might be inheritance either through males or females.
The number of classes in an Australian community may
vary from tico, as among the blacks at Mount Gambler,
to ten,* as among the Kamilroi ; but the most common number
is four, and there is good reason for concluding that at
first there were only two classes which have been multiplied by
subdivision or more probably by communities amalgamating.
Six of the Kamilroi classes are certainly subdivisions of the four
larger ones, and these again were either subdivisions of the two
primary ones or the result of the combination of two different
tribes. Where there are four classes they fall into related
pairs, marriage being prohibited between the sections in one
pair as if they formed just one class. These larger divisions
have been called for convenience phratries. The rule is for
a class of one phratry to marry into a particular class of
the other phratry, the resulting offspring bearing the name
of the remaining class in the mother's phratry, but occasionally
either section of one pair of classes could marry into either
section of the other pair. This is the case with the Kabi
tribe of southern Queensland. The Kabi community has
four classes — Barang, Balkun, Bonda, and Dherwen. Marriage
is prohibited within any of the classes. Barang may not
marry with Balkun, nor Bonda with Dherwen, but either
* Among the Narrinyeri of South Australia there were eighteen divisions
called clans by Mr. Taplin, but which were virtually classes like the above, as
they served the same purpose.
100 EAGLEIIAWK AND CKOW
Barang or Balkuu may marry either Bonda or Dherwen.
There is this peculiarity to be noted about the descent
-which is perhaps also a proof that the four classes are sub-
divisions of a iirimary two, that the class-name alternates
from mother to offspring by a continual recurrence of the same
pair of names ; thus one line of descent will be Barang, Balkun,
and the other Bonda. Dherwen, ad injinititm.
Without postulating a fission of two classes into four, the
existence of the four may be assumed to be due to the coalition
of two communities which had each already two classes. Dr.
Fison suggests* this solution of the multiplication of classes
from two to four, and the writer thinks that no better can be
offered. In support of the theory of multiplication of classes
by fusion of tribes having each two or more class-names, I
would poijit out that the terms ' Bunda,' ' Dherwen ' are no
doubt the same as the Kamilroi words ' bundar,' kangaroo and
' dhina-wan,' cum, and that the other related pair of terms pro-
bably just mean the same, i.e., ' Balkun,' kangaroo, and ' Barang,'
emu. I have it from native authority that ' Barang ' means emu,
and that ' Balkun ' means native hear ; but at the junction of
the Thomson and Barcoo ' balcun ' is the name for kangaroo,
and further, * Balkun ' is displaced by ' Bandur ' on the Brisbane
River, which is probably a variant of Kamilroi 'bundar,' kangaroo.
At the Hastings lliver in N. S. W. ' Bulkoing ' means red
wallahy and ' Bundarra ' hlack wallahy. Thus each related pair
of the Kabi terms would mean kangaroo, emu.
Cohabitation between members of the same class is held
to be grossly criminal, and is in many instances punishable by
death. The union of individuals belonging to classes that cannot
lawfully intermarry is equally abominated. Even in cases of
rape the class rules are respected. The profound regard which
the blacks show for restrictions fettered upon them by tradition,
and for which they can give no better reason than that such is
the practice, points to a veiy powerful originating cause and a
sanction derived from condign and bloodthirsty penalties. To
me at least, it is incredible that the segmentations into exoga-
mous classes could have been deliberately made by agreement
to avoid the evils of incest, for these would not be easily recog-
nisable by nomadic savages. It seems more harmonious with
* "Kamilroi and Kurnai," pp. 71, 72,
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITl'TIONS 101
social development to suppose that the gentes arose in the
following manner. The women of a tribe were highly prized
and jealously guarded by their husbands, whatever the type of
connubium may have been, and bachelors, who, by reason of
youth or other disability, could not obtain wives of their own
tribe (i.e., what subsequently, when two or more tribes were
fused, became their class), were obliged to obtain them by
capture. The danger of tampering with the women of their
own tribe made exogamy the rule in course of time. There
may also be an auxiliary cause to exogamy among barbarians
in what may be called an instinctive hankering after foreign
women.* Some light may be thrown upon the matrimonial
classifications by Hamor's proposal to Jacob,! " And make
ye marriages with us and give your daughters unto us and
take our daughters unto you and ye shall dwell with us."
Had this overture not miscarried, two families might have
amalgamated and become "one people'' as was proposed,
embracing two intermarrying but exoganious classes. In this
instance the cross-marriages would have begun by compact not
by capture, and subsequent historians or ethnologists might
have accounted for the rise of the classes by a supernatural
wisdom like that which characterises the Murdoo legend.
Messrs. Fison and Howitt obliterate the Australian individual
in the distant past, regarding him as merged in his class. The
class is an entity of which one person is only a fragment, and
all the members of a class have marital rights over all the
members of the class or classes with which they may intermarry.
This is the hypothesis founded upon an incomplete induction
from several practices now extant. It is impossible here to
traverse the whole question, but having carefully weighed the
arguments in favour of group-marriage, while admitting that
there is a good deal in them to point to it, I fail to see that
communal or group marriage has been proven to exist ; on the
contrary, the conclusion contains much more than there is in
the premises.
* I am gratified to observe that Westermarck approves of the above
remark as a recognition of a psychological fact, and that it suggests a reason
for exogamy virtually the same as that which he has enunciated. " The
History of Human Marriage," pp. 321 and 546.
f Gen. xxxiv. 9, et seq.
102 EAGLEHAWK AND CRO^V
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108 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
What Dr. Fison's facts go to show is the scrupulously fenced
chastity of classes in respect of those classes with which they clo
not intermarry. As I have no desire to underrate the evidence
for group-marriage, I may mention a practice said to have pre-
vailed among the Kabi, which may be used to support the
theory of group-marriage if it do not rather indicate the
assertion of a right to share in a wife's favours by those who
have helped to capture her. I refer to the occurrence of the
jus primw nodis, which I heard of first from the lips of a white
man who had on occasions lowered himself to the level of the
aborigines, and which was afterwards certified to me by a black
boy. Mr. D. Campbell informs me that the elders of the tribe
claim the same right in the South Gregory District. Mr.
W. E. Roth * mentions the first night's promiscuity as regular
in North-West-Ceutral Queensland. It is also mentioned by
Mr. F. Small f as attending marriage by capture at the Clarence
River, New South Wales. But Dr. Fison seems to have over-
looked that a blackfellow holds his wife as his own special
property against all comers, and allows intercourse with her
only as a favour or for hire. This is the rule, and jealousy
though feeble in some aboriginal communities is well marked in
others, and is stamped not only on custom by the violent beating
of the unfaithful spouse, but on the language by a special
name.
Prof. W. B. Spencer has courteously informed me that the
researches of Mr. Gillen and himself in Central Australia have
yielded results corroborative of Dr. Fison's views.| The forth-
coming work by Prof. Spencer and his colleague will be as
valuable as interesting, but whether it will place the group-
marriage hypothesis beyond question remains to be seen.
The classes are most commonly designated by names of
animals, especially eaglehawk and crow in the south-east ;
and emu, kangaroo, iguana, opossum, turtle, snake, native,
bear, are common names elsewhere. In some parts the names
* " Ethnological Studies Among the North-West-Central Queensland
Aborigines," p. 174.
t "Science" (Australian periodical), March 1898, p. 47.
X The special evidence is, I understand, exact information about the
practice of what has long been known as icomcn hevig gruuted paramours, i.e.,
a woman being allied to a number of men at the same time who possess
graduated preferential rights over her.
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTrLTJTKJNS 109
of plants and various other objects are also employed as class-
names.
An inquiry into several peculiar usages is suggested here,
viz., the mode of naming communities, the nomenclature of the
classes and the occurrence of totemism. In New South Wales and
Queensland especially, but not exclusively there, a community
derives its own name and the name of its language from one of
its verbal negatives. Unless a more reasonable ground for this
style of designation can be adduced, the writer would be disposed
to account for its origin in the frequent repetition of " No, no,"
by persons when addressed in a dialect which was not fully
intelligible to them. It very frequently happens among our-
selves that a man is nicknamed from a word which he is fond
of using, and we need only to extend this mode of naming to a
community having one speech to be able to give a rational
account of the origin of naming tribes from their negatives.
A confirmation of this theory is found in the names of the
languages at Byron Bay, Richmond River and Tweed River,
which are called respectively ' minyung,' irhat ; 'nyung,' u-hat ;
' ngando,' who. One tribe, the Pikumbnl, on the Dumaresque
River, New South Wales, is named from its affirmative, the
reason for the imposition of a name from a negative will suffice
to explain the derivation of one from an affirmative, viz., exces-
sive iteration of some word. Other tribes again are named
after some animal, such as the eaglehawk — e.f/., the Meebin
tribe, near Point Danger.
There must have been a time when all the Australian tribal
names could have been counted on the fingers of one hand.
What was their significance in that primeval day ? It is hardly
probable that they were derived from negative adverbs. It is
more likely that they were names of animals, as appealing vividly
to the imagination, the echoes of which we still hear in the
eaglehawk and the crow of the south-east of the continent. If
the original tribal names were names of animals, and if the
gentes are monuments of distinct ancient races, the gentile
names are at once accounted for. There must have been to the
savage mind a valid reason for the adoption of such names :
perhaps a fanciful resemblance between particular families and
certain animals, perhaps an attempt to explain human origin
on a development theory ; at all events, the principle of nomen-
110 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
clature once adopted, its application could be indefinitely
extended, as it evidently was. Judging from the recognisable
vestiges of this system of designation, it would appear to have
been in vogue in prehistoric times among the whole human
race.
The characterising of gentes or clans or tribes by animal
names is manifestly related to totemism, though not identical
with it.* The animal the name of which is borne by the class,
is not usually venerated by the members of that class, in fact
the significance of the class-name is sometimes lost altogether.
Where totemism prevails — and it is pretty general in Australia
{though its existence may not be known to the whites of the
locality) — each individual in the tribe bears the name of an
animal or plant which is his totem. His totem is revered and
protected by him, and although he may eat of the totems of
others he will not injure or eat of his own, unless compelled by
starvation to do so. Natives of the Narrinyeri tribe do not
scruple to eat their totems. Among them also the bearers of
the same totem constitute an exogamous clan. At Mount
Oambier, Victoria, there are two exogamous classes, Kumait
and Kroki, each divided into five sub-classes f which bear
totems, and under the sub-classes all natural objects are classified.
In this case marriage is independent of the totem. I believe
that totemism in a more or less pronounced form prevails
throughout Australia, even where not recognised by Europeans.
I remember seeing a black boy playing with a little lizard. I
thought he was cruelly using it, and remonstrated. He dis-
claimed hurtful intentions, and declared that it was a friend
of his ; and another black boy confirmed his statement. I
did not know at the time the importance of this admission,
■or I would have followed up the discovery by inquiry, but
I am of opinion that this was a trace of totemism, the existence
of which in the tribe referred to none of the whites had any
idea of.
* The article on Totemism in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " includes
naming of tribes after animals in the system of totemism. Whether this
should be done or no is simply dependent upon the wider or narrower
definition of totemism. The definition in the article requires " superstitious
respect " for the animal after which the group is named.
t Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 461.
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 111
It seems probable that the clan-name and the totem were
once identical, but that in certain places they have become
differentiated and the application of the principle of naming
after animals has become extended. By the Narrinyeri a man's
totem is called his ' ngaitye.' The Rev. G. Taplin refers * to a
statement made by Dr. G. Turner about a form of Samoan
fetichism closely resembling the Australian totemism. A
man's god may appear in the form of some particular animal,
which thenceforth becomes his object of worship and is
protected by him, and the name for such animals is 'aitu,'
i.e., gods.
Whatever may be the local peculiarities of totemism, its
world-wide occurrence proves that it has been inherited from
the common ancestry of the now much differentiated peoples
who retain it, and that therefore it is almost as old as Adam,
and part of the baby-clothes of the human race.
Prof. W. B. Spencer and Mr. Gillen have brought to light
certain most interesting particulars regarding the totemism of
the Arunta tribe of central Australia — notably, (i)t that totems
are attached to localities, the totem of a child being determined
by the place at which it was conceived. The reason given for
this is that in the Alcheringa (a mythical period) one of the
beast-man ancestors died at that spot ; his spirit still dwells
there, and enters into such women as conceive there, coming to
life anew in the child ; the tree or rock which the spirit-child
is supposed to have inhabited before conception is called its
' nanja' tree or rock. (2)X That the imitation of animals at the
initiation ceremonies is the representation by individuals of the
actions of their particular totems and, at the same time, " each
performer represents an ancestral individual who lived in the
Alcheringa. He was a member of a group of individuals, all
of whom, just like himself, were the direct descendants or
transformations of the animals, the names of which they
respectively bear. It is as a re-incarnation of the never dying
spirit, part of one of these semi-animal ancestors, that every
member of the tribe is born, he or she bears of necessity the
* "Native Tribes of South Australia," p. 64.
t "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria," 1S97, pp. 24, 25.
X Ibid. pp. 153, 154.
112 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
name of the animal, or plant, of which the Alcheringa ancestor
was a transformatiou or descendant."
We may reasonably conclude that the general name of these
totems or spirits, ' ngaitye,' ' aitu,' and ' nanja ' * (New Hebridean
* ata,' 'nata,' ^j*'7-.so», sou/, spirit) are radically the same and
constitute a bond of relation between the Australian and Pacific
Islands superstitions.
* ' Nanja ' is strictly the haunt of the totem or spirit.
CHAPTER IX
MARRIAGE, MAN-MAKING, MUTILATIONS, BURIAL CUSTOMS
Marriage, man-making, mutilations, burial — Betrothal — Barter —
Marriage by capture— By agreement — Love-letters — Mutual avoid-
ance of mother-in-law and son-in-law — Stages of approach to man-
hood marked — Imitation to manhood in the Bora— Primary obiects
of initiation ceremonies — Mutilations — Circumcision — Amputation
of finger-joints — The terrible rite — Mourning relics carried — Burial —
Death ascribed to sorcery— Cutting for the dead — Abstinence.
Keverence for age and authority has greatly aided the elderly
men in monopolising the wives of the class with which they
intermarry. Betrothals are exceedingly common, a female child
being usually betrothed by her guardians to some elderly friend
who attaches her to his household when she is perhaps not more
than twelve years of age. Elderly men have been seen actually
nursing children their own prospective wives. Betrothal is, I
think, founded on barter, the father or brother or father's
brother having the right to give the maiden away. Brothers
thus betroth their sisters in exchange for women to be their
own wives. Side by side with the betrothal system is that of
elopement, which nowadays is usually more fictitious than real.
It is in cases of elopement that the guardians of the female
demand satisfaction from the man with whom she has levanted.
A tremendous tempest of wrath is feigned, and no doubt the
combat is not unattended with risk, but after it is over the
cloud of anger and ill-will is completely dissipated. There are,
besides, instances of real elopement, after which the woman, if
caught, will be severely handled, and the paramour will receive
a sound thrashing in real earnest if the injured person be
powerful enough to administer it.
Marriage by capture takes place between members of hostile
communities. Sometimes a surprise party will be organised to
attack a camp, slaughter the males and abduct and appropriate
lU EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
the females. This wholesale abduction is paralleled by individual
cases of forcible abduction, on which occasions the women, if
resisting, will be cruelly beaten.
In Gippsland marriage by agreement is the rule, pursuit and
capture being feigned.* With varying details, marriage by
mutual consent will be found in other parts of Australia as
well, but not reaching consummation exempt from the results
of marriage by elopement. The use of love-letters is perfectly
understood by the Kabi natives of Queensland. The love-letter
is a bit of a twig about an inch and a half in length, and marked
with three small transverse notches, the middle one representing
the ' dhomka ' or postman, the other two the lovers. I have
seen one of these in course of transmission. A black boy fished
it out from the lining of his hat, where he had it sewed up.
He carried it in this receptacle for several months until he had
an opportunity of delivering it to the damsel for whom it was
intended. The aboriginal pair had met and fallen in love at a
great festive gathering some time previous, and the love-letter
was a sort of expression of adhesion to engagement. These
forms, therefore, of marriage occur : marriage by betrothal, by
elopement, by forcible abduction, by capture, and by mutual
consent, the practice varying with the community.
The mutual avoidance of mother-in-law and son-in-law may
be conveniently referred to here. It is noticed throughout the
continent and prevails in the South Sea Islands as well. One
explanation which is offered for it is the abhorrence of incest,
but this is not satisfactory, for if this were the reason there
would be quite as strong grounds for shunning intercourse
between mother and son, father and daughter, brother and
sister. This last condition, the separation of own brothers and
sisters, seems to be fulfilled in Fiji, but as it does not hold else-
where it may be explicable on other grounds. The Rev. Dr. D.
Macdonald supports with warmth the hypothesis that detestation
of incest is at the root of mutual avoidance between a man and
his relatives-in-law, and he gives some interesting facts about
this practice in Oceania.! For instance, a husband has to shun
his father-in-law as well as his mother-in-law, and all the females
of the same gens as his wife. All these persons avoided bear in
* A. W Howitt, "Kamilroi and Kurnai."
. t Rev. D. Macdonald's " Oceania," p. i8i, et seq.
MARRIAGE, MAX-MAKIN(i, .MI'TILATIONS llo
reference to the husband the same term of relationship.*
Perhaps an etymological examination of that term might be of
service. But if clanger of incest be the ground for avoiding
the mother-in-law it cannot be in the case of a man the reason
also for separation from his father-in-law, and the mutual
avoidance of these relatives is required in at least one part
of Australia as well as in Oceania. f Moreover, here is a
very pertinent question to put to the facts surrounding this
peculiar restriction, why is it that the daughter-in-law is not
tabooed in the same way as the son-in-law ? There appears to
be no danger of incest in her case. It seems to me that the
cause of estrangement is that the son-in-law has been in times
long past guilty of an offence which his wife's relatives, and
especially her mother, grievously reprehend, and which custom
forbids the latter to condone, and the offence, it is most natural
to conclude, has been the forcible abduction of his wife. Dr.
Macdonald cannot bear to think of such a brutal state of things
being normally tolerated, even among barbarians, but our moral
sensitiveness should not blind us to the testimony of facts, and
we know that marriage by capture was not uncommon in recent
times even in the Highlands of Scotland, a notable instance in
the last century being the second marriage of the mother of the
celebrated Flora Macdonald.l The Rev. Dr. L. Fison mentions
the fictitious concealment of certain persons after the death of a
Fijian chief. In one place the henchman of the chief keeps
out of sight for a number of days after his master's burial.
" He is supposed to vanish as completely as if he had been
actually buried with the chief (which probably was once the
practice), and if any of the tribes-folk should happen to meet
him he is invisible to them." The same shunning of observation
and intercourse takes place on the j^f^rt of the two head uuder-
* Among the Kabi people of Southern Queensland, 'nulang' means son-
in-law, ' nulanggan ' mother-in-law, ' -gan ' or ' gun ' is the feminine termina-
tion, so that ' nulang ' designates the relationship on both sides. In Victoria,
a word practically identical — namely, ' nalum ' or ' ngulum ' — signifies the
same relationship. The etymology of the aboriginal term is very desirable, as
likely to throw liglit on this obscure subject. I suspect it to be connected
with Malay ' kulawarga,' rekttionship by blood.
t Mr. D. Stewart in Curr's " The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 461.
X " Flora Macdonald : Her Life and Adventures," by her Granddaughter,
p 20. For evidence relating to the practice of capturing wives, the reader
is referred to McLennan's " Studies in Ancient History," pp. 31-49.
IIG EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
takers at A'lmda, after their chief's burial, their term of enforced
retirement being nominally a year. '-They paint themselves
black from head to foot and never take their walks abroad until
after dark. If compelled to go outside during the daytime they
cover themselves with a mat and nobody takes the slightest
notice of them ; in fact, nobody is supposed to be able to see
them. The fiction is kept up that they are invisible or rather
non-existent." * The point of interest in these examples is,
that people who have become obnoxious to their kinsmen are
regarded as out of the way, and if seen are not j^o'ccivcd, the
overlooking being suggestive of a former obligation to take
satisfaction. Surely some such obligation as this explains the
repugnance which a wife's friends are fictitiously regarded as
bearing to her husband more satisfactorily than does the
abomination of incest.
It is interesting to note that the New Hebrideans allege
that the reason for a man and his wife's relatives keeping apart
is that if they touched each other they would " become poor." f
Dr. Macdonald thinks that the poverty would be originally
supposed to be the curse of heaven upon incest. The explana-
tion is conjectural. It appears that the Efatese wife is
purchased from her parents, and that after the death of her
husband she may be disposed of by his friends, but not returned
to her parents until they refund the price that was paid for her.
Thus the present facts of the transaction do not suffice to
account for keeping apart from the dread of contact causing
poverty, and the reason for separation must be looked for in
customs antecedent to those now in vogue.
Subjection to certain rites marks transition periods in the
life of the young. Among some tribes there is a series of
practices to be complied with by the youths, beginning when
they are seven years of age, and ending with their full initia-
tion into manhood. The man-making is a universal Australian
observance, and is attended with more or less ritual and severity,
according to the tribe. The initiation to manhood was the
occasion of immense gatherings to a particular sacred spot.
There was commonly a large circle | made, with not infre-
* Fison's " Burial Customs of Fiji," Centennial Magazine, February 1889.
t Rev. Dr. D. Macdonald's "Oceania," p. 182.
X The ceremony was called by the Kabi people dhur, which means a circle ;
MARRIAGE, MAN-MAKING, MrTILATIONS 117
quently a gigantic human figure sketched upon the ground
within the circle ; but there was besides a secret place adjoining,
where the more important and solemn part of the ceremony
was conducted. The natives had the greatest reluctance to
admit Europeans to witness the proceedings on these occasions,
and if by chance one should be present at the large circle,
he would usually be absolutely forbidden to approach the more
secret place. Almost every tribe had details in the man-making
ceremonies peculiar to itself. The neophyte was generally
required to keep serious and still, all levity being strictly pro-
hibited ; he was sometimes obliged to fast, and various devices
were employed to test his courage. The initiators were of a
different tribe or family from those to be initiat;ed. Fires were
brought into requisition. A great smoke was raised by burning
green leaves, and the novitiates were permitted, if not enjoined,
to view women at a distance through the smoke. Some fires
had to be stamped out by the youths with their naked feet.
The young men were tempted to break the prescribed fasts by
offers of food, to lose their gravity by comic representations, to
exhibit fear by being subjected to treatment which would
naturally excite fear. The severest punishment was tlireatened
for failure to undergo the tests. After the ordeal had been
successfully submitted to, the youth was eligible for marriage.
At the rite of initiation a chip of wood like the toy bull-roarer
was called into requisition, as were also the sacred pebbles.
The stages of initiation have been called by English writers
degrees. At each stage the neophyte receives a new title, and
after the final he enjoys all the rights and privileges of full
manhood. The ceremonies embrace throwing up, plucking out
the hair of the head in handfuls, head-biting by the initiators,
evulsion of one or more teeth, cicatrising, spurting of human
blood on the neophyte from incisions on others, circumcision,
introcision or subincision, fire-treading, and sitting upon green
leaves heaped upon a smouldering fire. These ordeals corre-
spond with practices in the South Sea Islands. Even this
year (1898) the fire ceremony was witnessed by Drs. Hocken
and also liraryeiKjija, man-making. The ceremony first became known to
Europeans by the name hora. Rev. W. Ridley derives this from horii, a belt.
Possibly correct, but from analogy I suspect a connection witli Wiraidhuri,
burbany, a circle also the initiating ceremony.
118 EA(iLKHAA\ K AND CROW
and Colqulion, of Dunedin, at Ubenga, an islet twenty miles
south of Suva, and is described in the Melbourne Argus of
May 24.
The primary objects were evidently to enforce self-restraint
and to try courage. In addition to these, Mr. A. W. Howitt,*
one of the few Europeans who have been privileged with a sight
of the Bora ceremonies, aflirms that instruction was given to
the youths in religion and broad moral principles. The absence
of reference to reUgious and ethical teaching in other accounts
published raise a doubt as to its being usually given.
Mr. Geo. "^^'. Anderson, of Cowwah, Woodford, Queensland,
has supplied me with an interesting description obtained
from a blackfellow, which, as it has never been published
before, I give here. For brevity's sake I condense. I cannot
vouch for precision as regards the relative time and order of the
ceremonies. This purports to be the old practice of the Kabi
and allied tribes of the Brisbane and IMary Rivers, and differs
in certain particulars from an account which 1 received from a
black boy, and which appears in my notes on the Kabi tribe in
Curr's work, "The Australian Eace."t
Various parties of blacks congregate at one spot, each party
having several candidates for initiation. One party takes the
boys out of one camp, the men there take boys out of the next,
and so forth. The boys are never taken out for initiation by
their own friends.
The boys to be initiated are placed within a circle ; are left
there all night without a fire, but are allowed opossum rugs, and
are taken out in the morning. The rest of the blacks sleep
some distance away, A large fire is made, which has to be
stamped out by the boys jumping upon it. They are provided
with the ' bunandaban ' or bull-roarer, which they frequently
whirl. The boys have to fast ; their heads are wrapped up in
opossum rugs, and they must not look up to the sky. The
presence of women is strictly disallowed for a month. The
novitiates are threatened with death if they laugh. The boys
are brought by stages occupying several days from where the
circle is to the main camp of the blacks, a man having charge
of each boy. At sundown, when they have approached near
* "Journal Anthropological Institute," May 1884, p. 28.
t Vol. iii. pp. 166-67.
MARJtlAGE, MAN-MAKING, Ml -TILATK )NS 11!)
the main camp, a gin, who is painted (red), sings in the hearing
of the boys. This is the signal for the latter to approach the
big camp in a string, but they do not yet enter it. They still
keep a separate camp, round which they and their attendants,
who are painted, march four times. Towards dayliglit they
make a closer advance to the main camp, and in tlic evening
the procedure of the previous evening is repeated. A number
of fires are made in a line, upon which green leaves are placed
to cause smoke. The young men, beginning at one end of the
line of fires, jump upon one fire and clap tlieir hands, and repeat
this process in fire after fire until they reach the end nearest to
where the women are, and there they camp for the night. Two
or three attendants for each boy are now required. They are still
kept separate from the women and watched all day. A huge
fire is made, on which the boys have to jump until its extinc-
tion. Thereafter they are placed in charge of one man, and
the other initiators go to some distance and call out a name to
each of the novitiates in turn, these answering to their names.
The boys are then rushed forward by a number of their attend-
ants and caught by others, who toss them up and let them fall
upon the ground. This is followed by a corroboree rendered by
the men. The faces of the boys are next covered up. They
are carried on the shoulders of the men, who pretend they are
taking them into a fiooded creek. AVhen they go back to the
camp they are let go. The boys are then threatened by a party
prepared to fight them. Hostile cooeys are given on each side.
miamsins, (shields, Unr/. 2)? i'.) o-re painted for the combat. The
day following, the boys are compelled to fight their seniors.
There are other attempts made both to frighten the boys and
to make them laugh. Laughter is threatened with death. A
' manngur,' elsewhere ' koradgi,' i.e., dudor, sorccrn', scars the
novitiate on the shoulder. "When the cut is healed he may go
freely to the big camp, where no notice is taken of him ; he
must still, however, camp apart. A giu, painted red and adorned
with a cockatoo feather in her hair, is brought to the boy's camp ;
the feather is transferred to the boy's head, and the gin retires
again. For several days he is not permitted to look round. At
length the gin goes near where the boy is ; they touch each
other, and are thenceforth man and wife.
Mutilations of some kind or sonu^ cuttincr of the llesh are
1«0 KAGLKllAWK AM) (. KOW
everywhere practised. These vary with different tribes. Piercing
the septum of the nose is the most common practice of the kind.
Circumcision of the young men prevails in the central zone from
nortli to south. It was not observed by the aboriginal Papuans,
for it is unknown in the coast district of "West Australia, in
Victoria, New South Wales, and the greater part of Queensland
from the coast inward. The absence of it, in fact, is a mark of
the indigenes. Of the inhabitants of Sumatra, Marsden says:*
" The boys are circumcised, where Mohammedanism prevails,
between the sixth and tenth year." In dealing with Australian
art and religion, positive demonstration will be given of Sumatran
intercourse and influence, and the perplexing question as to the
origin of circumcision in Australia is now, I think, satisfactorily
settled. Between Sumatra and Australia there is a clear water-
way, which would be easily and rapidly traversed during the
prevalence of the north-west trades. I am confident that cir-
cumcision has been introduced from that island, along with
certain religious or mythological ideas. This theory of its intro-
duction explains its partial distribution and its entire absence
in the more purely Papuan parts, and seriously affects Mr. Curr's
ethnological division, for which one of the leading principles was
the presence or absence of this rite. This principle is manifestly
misleading. The distribution of this rite serves, however, to
show how either an invasion or an influence from the north
would most easily spread. All over Australia circumcision
would probably have prevailed in time but for British settle-
ment.
The amputation of one or two joints of the little flnger of
one hand is practised upon the young women of some tribes on
the Queensland coast, f a form of mutilation followed by some of
the Kanakas of the New Hebrides. At the Daly River, in the
Northern Territory, girls remove the first two joints of the right
forefinger by tying round the joint a thin skein of strong cob-
web, which is left until the joint falls off. + The knocking out
of front teeth — one, two, or four, according to the tribe — is an
* "History of Sumatra," p. 2S7.
t A practice similar to this once prevailed in Japan, but has been sup-
pressed by Government, and survives now only in fiction. The extreme
phalanges of the third and fourth fingers of the right hand of a mother were
amputated before her daughter attained the age of twelve or thirteen.
* Kev. D. McKillop'o " Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia."
MARRIAGE, MAN -^FAKING. MrTILAlIONS 1J>1
old-world barbarity which has been perpetuated here. A similar
custom is prevalent in Sumatra, where the women have their
teeth rubbed or filed down. But the most horrible of all the
mutilations is that which Mr. Sturt designated "the terrible
rite." This bloody concision is done within the area where
circumcision occurs, but is not so widely practised.* It is
inflicted with a stone knife. To describe the operation in detail
is outside the scope of this work, but we cannot avoid asking
what object it is intended to serve. Mr. Rotht has satis-
factorily demonstrated that it neither prevents coition nor pro-
creation, and suggests that it lias been adopted on the ])rinciple
of imitation as a corresponding practice to forcible vaginal
rupture. It seems more reasonable to regard the latter practice,
which prevails coincidently with snbincision, as a necessary
consequence of this. I accept the view of Westermarck that
the object is ornamentation and increased virility of appearance.
This view is supported by the mode of circumcision followed in
Tanna, New Hebrides. The Rev. William Gray:f says that
there the prepuce is so cut as to leave a wing on each side,
forming a large lump underneath. '• The longer the operation,
the more a man does it make the boy." And Prof. W. B.
Spencer § mentions that in central Australia, on the occasion
of the rite of subincision being undergone, young men who
have been operated upon once and even twice previously will
voluntarily come forward and call upon the operators to enlarge
the incision to the utmost. So that a pride is taken in the
enlarged appearance. Where subincision is practised vaginal
introcision becomes inevitable. No mutilation is more horribly
cruel or disabling, but savages have little or no compunction
with respect to their treatment of women.
The ornamentation of the body by cicatrices has already
been referred to, and needs only to be mentioned here. What
the writer has seen done has been solely for adornment, but it
has been alleged that the pattern of the incisions serves in some
* Curr's "The Australian Race,' vol. i. p. 74. and also map. "Finditur
usque ad urethram a parte infera penis " (Eyre's description).
t "Ethnological Studies Among the North-West-Central Queensland
Aborigines," p. 179.
+ "Report of Australian Association for the Advancement of Science for
1892,"' p. 659.
§ "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria," 1S97, p. 171.
122 i:agli:haa\ K and chow
cases as a tribal or gentile badge (au allegation well confirmed),
or as a mark of rank, * although what rank an aboriginal could
claim I cannot conceive. If by rank is meant stage of initiation
to manhood, the observation is correct. These incisions are
another link relating the Australians both to the Polynesians
and the people of India.
'Nothing could exceed the dolefulness of the lamentations
made for the dead. The crying is as much like the howling of
the dingo as the wailing of human beings. It is carried on
vin-orously and persistently for weeks after the decease, and then
broken off by occasional crying fits. Very commonly the coq^se
is flayed and certain portions of the flesh eaten. Some parts
of the body will be preserved and carried about as relics or
charms, such as the knee-caps, the shin-bone, the hand, the
skin. In Gippsland the hand of a dead person is worn round
the neck as a charm and as au instrument of sorcery, a practice
similar to the preservation of the finger-nails (and portions of
the fingers attached) of a deceased person by the New Hebri-
deans. Mothers will carry the dead bodies of their children on
their march, even in a putrefying state. This, according to Mr.
Curr, is also a kind of penalty inflicted upon young mothers who
are blamed for causing their baby's death by carelessness. I am
reluctantly disposed to doubt Mr. Curr's reason. I have other
testimony of this and similar practices being followed purely
from affection. The women especially cling affectionately to
parts of the body of deceased relatives, a very creditable ten-
derness in those whose belief p racti cally is that death ends al l.
One mode of disposing of the dead is to bundle the bones
into a hollow tree. I have found three or four tombs of this
kind within an area of about four square miles. Before being
thus disposed of, some tribes wrap the corpse in bark. A prac-
tice followed on the east coast of Queensland, and at a place so
far distant as Encounter Bay, South Australia,! is to stretch
the dead on an elevated platform of boughs until the corpse has
become desiccated. A very general mode of burial is to prepare
the body for interment by doubling the legs so that the knees
* Dr. Carroll, Centennial Magazine, October i8S8. The present writer
has personal testimony that tribes wear distinctive scars, but he has not been
able to verify the statement.
f At Encounter Buy. after tue flesh is decayed, the bones are burned.
MAIIUIAGE, MAN-MAKING, MT'TILAl'IONS l^.'i
will come under the chin ; the hands are then tied by the side,
and the corpse is placed in a grave in this sitting position head
upwards. I am informed that on the Lachlan and Murrum-
bidgee the dead body was deposited with the head towards the
south.* In the north of Queensland cemeteries are to be seen
where there are accumulations of skulls.
Immediately after a death the camp at night is resonant
with hideous sounds. When first I heard the howls of despair
it made my very flesh creep with horror, and to heighten the
effect the mourners might be seen the greater part of the night
hurrying hither and thither brandishing torches, with the ob-
ject, it was said (I know not how credibly), of frightening away
evil spirits. As might be expected, the grave is very shallow.
I have seen one in the Burnett District, Queensland, with
several short logs placed at the side of it on the surface, which
are said by the blacks to represent the number of brothers the
deceased had, and to indicate by their position relatively to the
corpse the direction in which the brothers resided.
Unless w h en the cause of death is very obvious, su ch as a spear-
woun d, it i sjield t^* hnvft bppnj^rouglv^j ^ut secre tly by another
blac kfellow . Diverse methods are adopted for the discovery of the
murderer. For instance, among the Kamilroi an ancient shin-
bone relic, wrapped in cord and some greasy matter, is held near a
fire, and when it fizzles it is believed to point in the direction of
the guilty person, who is then easily identified. In central
Victoria a straw would sometimes be inserted in a small ant-hole
or other perforation in the covering of the grave, and the direc-
tion in which the upper end would point would be the road to
take to find the person who had caused the death. And then it
might be the first blackfellow of another tribe who might be
met that w ould b e_ slauqhtered in cold blood in revenge . Cap-
tain Grey testifies that, among the blacks of Western Australia,
the drea d of blind vengeance on the occasion of a death was
extreme ^ because nothing coul d save an innocent person from
bemg ponruWljTpm i eithe?- in o bedience to sorne^fnuynrv or for
saitisfact ^n~of spite on the part of a sorcerer. The murderer
had~aTways to be sought for, and soinebody would have to satisfy
the demand. In many tribes the coiqise is interrogated as to
who was the cause of his death, and responses are obtained
* My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy.
124 KAGLKIIAAVK AM) CROW
generally by spells. "While in the act of lamentation for the
(lead, the women would lacerate their bodies from head to foot
till blood would be streaming from innumerable small incisions.
The blood was allowed to dry upon the skin. The fact that this
practice was forbidden to the Israelites shows its great antiquity.*
Near relatives of the deceased wore some token of mourning
upon the head, the usual practice being to attach tufts of emu's
feathers to locks of the hair, and leave them to drop off of them-
selves. In some parts clay was plastered over a net upon the
head and allowed to harden until the whole assumed the form
of a skull-cap.f After being worn for a time it was laid upon
the grave. A form connected with mourning as practised by
the Murunuda, South Gregory District, was to cover the whole
body with lime. Another custom in mourning was a prolonged
abstinence from certain kinds of animal food. Mr. Bradshaw
informs me that at Ruby Creek, Kimberley, on the occasion of a
man's death his wives are clubbed to death with great ceremony
by the old married men. This atrocity has not been noticed in
other localities. We are not surprised to learn that while in
the same neighbourhood the coqjses of men are wrapped up
in bark and laid on ledges in caves, those of women are
flung under bushes as if not worth attention. My informant is
Mr. Froggatt.
* Deut. xiv. 1 ; Lev. xix. 28, &c. The making bald is forbidden in the
same connection, which is also an Australian sign of mourning,
t Curr's " The Australian Race " vol. ii. p. 238.
CHAPTER X
ART, CORROBOREES
Art — Corroborees — Message-sticks of Malay introduction— Rock-
paintings, where found — Mr. Giles' discovery at Lake Amadeus — Cap-
tain Stokes' discovery at Depuch Island — Mr. Norman Taylor's in Cape
York Peninsula— Mr. Cunningham's at Clack's Island — Painting at
Nardoo Creek, Queensland— Captain Flinders' discovery at Chasm
Island— Captain Grey's at Glenelg River, N.-W. Australia — Author-
ship — Daibaitah — Mr. Bradshaw's discoveries at Prince Regent
River described — Explained — Parvati — Siva — Mr. W. Froggatt's dis-
coveries — Nauri — Hand-prints — Figures — Cave-paintings in New
South Wales, and at Eilliminah Creek, Victoria — Sample of work at
Billiminali Creek — Rock-carvings near Sydney — The Australian muse
— Corroborees.
The skill shown in the manufacture of weapons has been
already noticed. These were often ornamented with rude
colouring and carving. Some of the carvings appear to me to
be imitations of letters, and perhaps a careful examination of
very old choice specimens may result in an interpretation of the
hieroglyph-like characters. A throwing-stick figured in Mr.
Smyth's work,* and spoken of by him in terms of warm appro-
bation for its artistic merits, bears engravings very like the
Sumatran letters, which will be referred to again below. I am
strongly of opinion that the native message-sticks are imitations
of the old Malay practice, prevailing at least in Sumatra, of
writing upon bamboo and rattan canes. It is very natural to
suppose that isolated Malays dwelling among the Australians
would endeavour to correspond with each other in this way,
agreeably to the custom of their native land, and that the
Australian aborigines, observing that the characters were legible,
would readily imitate the more intelligent race. A careful pre-
servation of old message-sticks is desirable ; perhaps some may
* Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," Tol. i. p. joS,
Fig. 88.
126 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
yet be discovered or may already be in our museums or in
private possession, bearing legible writing. Those now current
convey intelligence purely by sign-writing, not by alphabetical
characters, and require the bearer to interpret. The message-
sticks vary in length from i^ in. to the length of a walking-
stick ; the thickness is also variable, and the figuring consists of
pits, notches, strokes, curves and zigzag lines. The inner side
of the skins in opossum rugs was also scratched with rough
representations of a few common objects, generally drawn in
single lines.
The art of painting has been so little practised by the
aborigines of Australia, that to say they were ignorant of it
altogether would not be far from the truth. Some of them,
after contact with Europeans, have given evidence of consider-
able imitative power, but usually native pictorial art has not
risen higher than rude conventional sketches of men, kangaroos,
emus, turtles, snakes and weapons, done mostly in charcoal and
occasionally cut out on trees or graven on rocks. The linear
designs scratched on the inner surface of opossum rugs or carved
on weapons, and sometimes coloured red, black or yellow, are of
the simplest patterns. But at a few places, very widely apart,
specimens of art have been discovered immeasurably superior to
the ordinary aboriginal level. The only localities, so far as I
can learn, where this higher artistic skill has been exhibited,
are the following : Depnch Island, one of the Forestier group,
on the west coast of Australia, in latitude 20^ ^y' S. and longi-
tude 117° 41' E. ; Cape York Peninsula; Clack's Island, near
Cape Flinders, on the north-east coast of Queensland ; Nardoo
Creek, Buckland's Tableland, Central Queensland ; Chasm
Island, in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; the Kimberley District,
Western Australia ; a few other places in that quarter, and
especially the Glenelg and Prince Regent Rivers, not far inland,
on the north-west coast of Australia. Mr. J. Bradshaw informs
me that Lieutenant Oliver, of H.M.S. Penguin, while on a survey
expedition on the west coast of Australia, found cave-drawings
on Feint Island, near Bigge Point (latitude 14" 30' S., longitude
125^ 3' E.), and took some sketches. I do not know their
character.
In thrqe places, a few miles distant from each other, Mr.
Giles found paintings of inferior workmanship and accompanied
'3 or°-,^^ oao o a O C PO O O o o
C00l^^^''^<'<'°<^OO^> 0O00 6OC
ART, COllROBORKKS 127
by the almost universal hand-prints. He noticed characters
like the Roman numerals VI painted red, and dotted over with
spots. His discovery was made a little to the north of Lake
Amadeus, near the heart of Australia, and the description he
has given of the style of art suggests that the artists were of
the same race as those who elsewhere have left such memorials
of their presence.
The paintings on Depuch Island are numerous, but, judging
from the sketches made by their discoverer, Captain Stokes, they
are much inferior to the other groups in point of subject and
treatment ; they represent animals chiefly. In one sketch there
is a rude attempt at delineating a corroboree. The artists have
been satisfied if what they intended for human figures have
been recognisable as such.
In the Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost part of
Queensland, Mr. Norman Taylor, when exploring, " found a
flat wall of rock on which numerous figures were drawn. They
were outlined with red ochre and filled in with white. The
figure of a man was shown in this manner, and was spotted
with yellow." *
At Clack's Island, paintings were discovered by Mr.
Cunningham, June 23, 1821, when he accompanied the
King's Survey Expedition. " They were executed upon a
ground of red ochre (rubbed on the black schistus), and
were delineated by dots of a white argillaceous earth which
had been worked up into a paste." They represented " tolerable
figures of sharks, turtles," &c. Besides being outlined by the
dots, " the figures were dotted all over with the same pigment,
in dotted transverse belts " ; f more than one hundred and fifty
figures had been thus executed.
The work at Nardoo Creek, Queensland, must be very
imposing if it be coi'rectly interpreted. The picture is seventy
feet across. It is said to represent a lake of fire, out of which
are stretched life-size " dusky brown arms, in hundreds, in every
conceivable position, the muscles knotted, and the hands grasp-
ing convulsively, some pointing a weird finger upwards, others
clenched as if in the agonies of death." :t;
* Mr. R. Brough Smrth's "The Aborigines of Victoria." vol. i. p. 292.
t King's "Voyages to Australia," vol. ii. pp. 25, (t seq.
X T. Worsnop's "The Prehistoric Arts of the Aborigines of Australia."
128 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
Those at Chasm Island were discovered by Flinders,
January 14, 1803. They were painted with charcoal, and
some kind of red paint on white rock as a background, and
represented porpoises, turtles, kangaroos, and a human hand.
Mr. Westall found, at the same spot, "the representation of a
kangaroo, with a file of thirty-two persons following after it.
The third person of the band was twice the height of the others,
and held in his hand something resembling the waddy of the
natives of Tort Jackson."* The human figures were nude.
Thr most notable of the cave-paintings are those found by
Captain Grey (the late Sir George Grey), f in :March 1 838, on the
Glenelg River, near the north-west coast of Australia, in long.
125' 9' E., lat. 15" 57^' S., and some near the same locality, by
Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, in the beginning of 1891, at Prince
Regent River, in long. 125° 36' E., lat. 15 40' S., or some
thirty-seven miles north-east of Grey's.
There can be but little doubt that all these groups of unique
specimens of art — the Depuch Island group is somewhat uncer-
tain — were produced by people of one and the same race, who
were foreigners relatively to Australia. One singular character-
istic indicates a unity in style of execution, viz., the decoration
of the body of certain of the figures with dots. This was a
feature of some of the work seen by Grey, Taylor, Cunningham,
and Giles respectively.
I shall now restrict my observations to the two most important
and wonderful paintings among Grey's discoveries, and the four
discovered and sketched by Mr. Bradshaw. Fig. i of Grey's
was the upper part of a nude (or apparently nude) human form,J
embracing full face, arms and trunk ; the mouth not delineated.
or probably worn off the painting. This figure was executed
upon the sloping roof of a natural cave, the entrance to which
was 5 ft. in height. For the sake of effect the background had
been coloured black. The total length was 3 ft. 6f in., the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Brisbane. 1895.
The diaper work and medallions figured in the same paper, Plate XII., and
occurring at the Ooraminna rockhole on the overland telegraph lines, seem to
me either the work of Europeans or done under European influence.
* Flinders" "Voyages to Terra Australia," vol. ii. p. 18S.
* Sir George Grey's "Journal of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-
Western and Western Australia," 1837-39.
* The artist may have meant to represent this figure clothed with a tight-
fitting tunic.
ART, CORROBOREES 12J>
greatest breadth 3 ft. li iu.,the colouring was in the most vivid
red and white, the eyes being black, a halo of light red was
depicted round the head, its continuity being interrupted by the
neck; triple parallel dotted lines of white crossed the halo from
the head outwards at regular intervals. All round the halo,
rising from its outer rim, there were wavy tongues of flame
done in a darker red. The outline of the halo was dark red,
that of the eyes yellow, that of the nose red. The trunk of the
body, from the level of the armpits down to about the waist,
was marked irregularly all over with red ticks, bearing a strong
resemblance to Sumatran writing.
Grey's Fig. 2 is also of a human form and done on the roof
of another cave. It is clad in a red robe, reaching from the
neck to the ankles, and having tight-fitting sleeves. The total
length of this figure is 10 ft. 6 in. ; the face looks right for-
ward ; the background of the face is white, the mouth being
indicated by a red streak. No nose appears ; the probability is
that the paint has been worn off by the weather. The eyes are
outlined with yellow, which is bordered with a thin red line.
Surrounding the face, there is a broad band of yellow outlined
with red, and outside of this is a broader white band or halo
also outlined with red, and interrupted at the neck. The hands
and feet are coloured dark red. The figure stands nearly in the
military attitude of '"attention," the hands, however, being
separated a little from the sides. Immediately over the head
on the outer halo or head-dress are six marks, placed in a
horizontal line at close regular intervals, bearing a general
resemblance to plain Roman letters. To the right of the figure
are three perpendicular rows of small irregular rings, seventeen
in the line next the figure, twenty-four in the middle line, and
twenty-one in the outer line. To the left and close to the
shoulder are two marks which may have been intended for
similar rings. The upper one is like a crescent with convex
side up, the other like a horizontal ellipse, the upper left (to the
observer) quarter wanting. For a view of coloured prints of
these and other paintings seen by Grey, I would refer to his
" North-West and Western Australia," vol. i. p. 201, d sc(2. The
colours employed in both Grey's and Bradshaw's discoveries
were red, blue, yellow, black and white. In Bradshaw's there
was also brown.
I
130 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Various conjectures, some of them rather wild, have been made
regarding the origin of this group. These paintings have been
referred to I'hocnicians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Japanese and
Hindus respectively. Mr. R. Brough Smyth* thought that, with
the exception of Grey's Fig. i, the authorship of which he con-
sidered doubtful, they were the work of natives of Australia,
" unassisted by any knowledge gained by intercourse with
persons of a different race." As long ago as 1846, Mr. Hull
sought to identify Fig. i as Amoun, Cronus or Jupiter.f He
says that one Hindu, who was shown a sketch of it, called it
Kons ; another called it Koodar or Kadar ; and a Victorian
black called it Pundyil, a deity of the Victorian natives. On
page 36 Mr. Hull identifies this figure with the Hindu Siva ;
his conclusion, I believe, is correct, although hardly justified by
bis premises. Now, however, we have got fresh light in Mr.
ikadshaw's discoveries, and, when viewed in conjunction with
them, it is all but certain that this figure is intended to repre-
sent one of the Hindu triad, viz., Mahadeva or Siva (the
Destroyer Time), who is sometimes portrayed with a halo
round the head.
With regard to Grey's Fig. 2, being much struck with the
resemblance which the marks on the head-dress bore to the
alphabets of Sumatra, I have tried to decipher them, and I
believe the result is successful. By comjDaring the characters
on the painting with the specimens of Sumatran writing, given
in V. D. Tuuk's " Les Manuscrits Lampongs,'" I made out the first
four letters to spell D AI B AI ; then I found from Marsden's
" History of Sumatra " X that the Battas of Sumatra applied the
name Daibattah to one of their deities, and that the Cingalese
have a cognate name deioiju ; the Telingas of India employ the
word iktit'mnda, the Baijus of Borneo, deivattah, &c. — all to
designate a divine being. I ultimately succeeded in deciphering
the whole inscription to read DAIBAITAH. The following
considerations leave, I think, no room for doubt as to the
correctness of my interpretation ; the authenticated letters are
from V. D. Tuuk's "Les Manuscrits Lampongs." Assuming
* E. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 289.
t " Remarks on the Probable Origin and Antiquity of the Aboriginal
Natives of New South Wales."
X " History of Sumatra," p. 290.
ART, CORROBOREES 131
that Grey copied the joainting with perfect accuracy, and that it
was in perfect preservation, the characters are : —
c; / r / /.<
My interpretation is i' A I B A I TAH
.^^ / X / "^ * ^^® v.nquesiion-
ably corresponding forms in " Les Manuscrits Lampongs."
Forms of da are -^^ , -^^ , Q ^^^^^ CZ (^i^*^® above) on
pp. 56 and loi).
Forms of ta are -^-^ -* — "' ( Q, is given by other writers,
therefore \^^ is the persistent part of ta),
y^ is the common form for ha; see alphabets, pp. 139-142.
/ is given as ai in alphabets of Part V. of MS. A.
In alphabet drawn from Part I. of MS. A (p. 139) there are
two forms for ' h,' of which ^ placed on the right of another
consonant represents jinal 'h,' and, like the vowels with which
it seems to be classed, is smaller than the consonants. The
character as written will be seen in Part I. of ]\rS. A, and in
some cases the lines are almost touching at the angle.
A considerable amount of information is available about this
mythical person. The Battaks (or Battas) of Sumatra " believe
in the existence of one Supreme Being, whom they name Debati
Hasi Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose
him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having wholly com-
mitted the government to his three sons, who do not govern in
person, but by Vakeels or proxies." * The proxies also get the
title of Debata with a modifying word, so that it is the generic
name for deity. It seems to me that the myth of Daibaitah
and his three sons is an accommodation of the Hindu supreme
divine essence Narayana with the triad, derived from him or
sometimes represented as his modes Vishnu, Brahma, and Siva.
The root of Daibaitah and its variants is evidently the Sanskrit
Deva {cf. Daiva, fate), and may be compared with divus and
divinity.
Mr. Bradshaw saw fifty or sixty pictures or scenes. In a
paper read before the Royal Geographical Society of Australia,
September 10, 1891, when referring to the cave-paintings, he
* Coleman's " Mythology of the Hindus," p. 364, et scq.
132 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
says : " These sketches seemed to be of great age, but over the
surface of some of them were drawn in fresher colours smaller
and more recent scenes and rude forms of animals." " In one
or two i)laces we saw alphabetical characters somewhat similar
to those seen by Sir George Grey."
Of Bradshaw's discoveries, Group I. comprises five human
figures coloured brown, a snake and kangaroo coloured red, and a
legend in characters manifestly of the same type of alphabet as
those in Grey's painting. There are also in red two personal
ornaments detached : one of these consists of four concentric
circles somewhat compressed horizontally, with three discs of
like shape, one in the centre and one at each side of the outer-
most ring ; the other is a band in the shape of half an ellipse,
each end terminating in a round disc. There are four spikes
projecting from the upper part of this figure, and five others
from the rounded end. This is no doubt a sketch of an elaborate
and massive earring, as will be shown farther on.
The human figures have long caps on the head.* Three of
them have yellow collars, evidently representing gold. One has
a girdle with tassels at each side, and armlets at the elbows,
from which there are tassels depending. The limbs are poorly
executed, both as regards shape and proportion. Total length
of scene, from right to left, 12 to 15 feet; greatest height, 6 to
9 feet.
Group II. represents two female figures done in brown.
The one is in erect posture, the head turned to one side so as to
show the face in profile. The full front of the body is shown,
the arms being extended sideways. From the knees downwards
has not been sketched. There are armlets at the elbows, and
tassel-like ornaments hanging down from the head. The other
figure is in an attitude of swimming or perhaps supplication.
The side of the body is seen, the hands being extended in front.
The figure terminates a little below the waist. Both figures
have on long, heavy-looking caps. A crocodile, coloured red,
stretches across the picture behind the human figures, its length
is about 10 feet, the tail and feet are wanting. The erect
female figure is about 5 feet in height.
* What appear to be caps may really be in some of the instances the style
of coiffure like that of the natives of Timor Laut, who dress the hair to hang
down in a cataract. C/. Forbes "Eastern Archipelago," p. 308.
F. RADSIIA \V
Kit;. I
BRADSIIAW
Jil-IADSIIAW
Fi<;. 3
BUADSHAW
VH.. 4
ART, COJIROBOIIEES l33
Group III. contains a bright red figure rudely representing
the upjDer part of a human form. The head is surmounted by
nine detached yellow rays. It has three arms or flippers, two
red ones where arms would naturally be placed, and extending
almost at right angles from the trunk; the third arm is brown,
it reaches upwards and outwards from the left side, and at its
extremity is a skull coloured brown, with eye sockets and mouth
left blank. The body is enlarged and rounded at the lower
extremity, which rests on the back of a large serpent, the head
of which rises and projects outwards on the left side of the main
figure just under the death's head. The serpent's mouth is
open, its eyes left blank, the head and neck are coloured yellow,
the rest of the body a dark red, the colours meeting in a zigzag
line with acute deep angles. In front of the rather amorphous
red figure is a human figure without arms. This is of a brown
colour, it stands bolt upright and on tiptoe, the feet reach a
little lower than the body of the serpent, the head is within the
head of the red figure, the latter forming a foil. The brown
figure wears a head-dress, has a girdle round the waist, and
broad bands or rings on the legs at the knees ; from both sides
of the head, of the girdle, and of the leg bauds, tassel-like
ornaments are suspended similar to those already described,
giving the appearance of being made of knotted twine, generally
with three fringes at the knots, sometimes only one or
two ends or fringes. These articles are all the figure wears.
From the lower side of the solitary right arm, and from the
throat of the serpent, there hang similar tassel ornaments of a
dark brown colour. The greatest height of this painting is
about 8 feet, the greatest width about 5 feet.
Group IV. has for background what is evidently a huge
symbolical painting of a sun-god coloured red. It appears to
be placed in a horizontal position ; the bullet-shaped head is
formed of three concentric circles, with a small disc in the
middle. From near the upper part of the head detached red
rays extend outwards. The head rests on a short neck, which
rests on the middle of the convex side of a crescent-shaped
device meant for arms. This consists of two endless bands, one
within the other, bent to form a crescent. The concave side of
this crescent rest ^ on the shaqily- rounded curve of the outer of
three similar bands, one within the other, the six ends forming
134 EAGLEHA^VK AND CROW
the termination of the tiuuk, and completing the symbolical
figure. Drawn perpendicularly across the trunk are portions of
four human figures, one complete except feet and arms, another
minus feet and having the arms extended upwards in an attitude
of supplication, the two others minus arms, neck and feet.
Kach of the first two has three of the tassel-tipped cords or
ribbons han":in<>- outwards from the crown of the head. All
are furnished with belts round the waist, having a tassel at
each side.
It seems to me that the most important of these groups are
Nos. I. and III. The characters are of the same type as the
Lampong letters, and at once suggest Sumatra as the native
home of the artist. This supposition is confirmed by an inspec-
tion of the plates and explanatory letterpress at the end of the
" Bataksch-Nederduitsch Woordenbock," by H, N. Van der
Tuuk. One of the figures is an earring worn by women, the
resemblance of which to the spiked ornament in the Australian
picture is so close as to leave no room for doubt that they both
are delineations of the same kind of personal ornament. And
from ^'an der Tuuk's jjlate we learn both that the ornament on
the Australian picture was not completed and how it would have
looked when finished. In Plate XXII. of the same work there
are illustrations giving us a clear idea of what the tassel orna-
ments in the Australian pictures are meant for.
I have no explanation to offer of the human figures. I would
just draw attention to the fact that the arms of one, if not of
two, of the figures are skeleton arms, a pretty sure indication
that the picture is symbolical. The head-dress of the small
figure beside the kangaroo is surmounted by what appears to be
a head.
The large red figure, with its accessories, is manifestly of
religious significance. It might mean anything or nothing but
for the three most striking features — the skull, the serpent, and
the rays. From time immemorial in mythology the serpent has
been a token of divinity, ancient statues or paintings of deities
were seldom without it. In Indian mythological paintings
Parvati (or Kali or Devi), the consort of Siva, is usually repre-
sented as wearing a necklace of skulls, or holding one or more
skulls in one or other of her hands, or under both of these cir-
cumstances. One or more serpents are also usually associated
ART, CCJUROBOUEES 135
with tliis goddess. As Parvati she has only two hands ; under
other aspects the hands are multiplied.
In Moor's ''Hindu Pantheon," Plate XXVII., Parvati has a ser-
pent hanging from each ear, one round the neck, and another round
the waist. In Plate XXIX., Maha Kali holds a head on the tips of
the forefinger and thumb of each of the two upper hands, and
in each of the two lower ones she suspends a head by the hair ;
she also has on a necklace of skulls. This is the most venerated
goddess of the Hindus, as being most to be dreaded, and most
requiring to be propitiated.
Plate XXIX. gives an Avatara of Siva, seated on the
folds of a serpent, whose head surmounted the god's head. This
figure has four hands, in one of which she holds a head by the
hair. Another mark of Siva is a halo round the head. In
Coleman's "Mythology of the Hindus," p. 91, Parvati is repre-
sented under the form of Kali, the consort of Siva, in his
destroying character of Time. In Plate XIX. she is shown as a
personification of Eternity trampling on the body of Siva, her
consort. Time ; in one hand she is holding a human head.
Hindu pictures in which the god is represented seated cross-
legged, with his consort on his lap and his arms around her, are
frequently to be seen.
These references should, I think, be sufficient to identify
this picture as a combined representation of Siva and Kali.
A conjunct view of these paintings leaves no doubt as to the
nationality of their authors, and the significance of the best of
them is tolerably clear. It is obvious that there has been an
attempt to present pictorial fragments of Hindu mythology in
the confused form which has been developed by naturalisation
in Sumatra. The attributes of both Siva and Kali his consort
are allegorically expressed, whatever the names may have been
by which these deities were known to the artists, ])aibaitali.
with his three sons aud their proxies, may be a version of the
Hindu triad which has been freshly elaborated, perhaps uncon-
sciously, by the Sumatran mind. One is naturally curious to
discover what the three rows of rings on the right of Daibaitah
and the two marks on his left may symbolise. In these, also,
there is an imitation of Hindu sacred allegorical art.
In Moor's "Hindu Pantheon," on Plate XL., there is a figure
of Devi, at the side of which there are two peqiendicular rows
136 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
of oblonjr marks, some oval, some rectangular, five in each
row.
On the same plate Bhavani (or Devi) is represented with
two perpendicular rows of oval marks, three in each row. On
I'late LXI. two different representations of Devi have, round the
border, the one a string of imperfect circles, the other a string
composed partly of circles, partly of squares. A third picture
of her on the same plate has a border of circles at the bottom,
and near the head are a crescent on the right and a circle on
the left, manifestly symbolising the moon and the sun. Other
plates of Devi have rows of rings at the bottom, with a crescent
and a circle near the head. There is doubtless as close a rela-
tion between the circles on the Australian pictures and those on
the Indian ones as between the names Daibaitah and Devi.
They indicate attributes of the particular deity.
Dr. Adam Clarke says that the among the Hindus
is a mystic symbol of the deity signifying silence, which seems
scarcely an adequate explanation. Perhaps the inference that
the two marks standing apart near the left shoulder of Daibaitah
may symbolise the sun and moon is rather bold and unwar-
ranted, but from comparison with the Hindu pictures one cannot
help a surmise that this may be the case.
The artists of these extensive works must have spent an
immense amount of time and mental and physical energy in
their execution, the first impulse being probably imparted by
religious feeling. One cannot but believe that there was a
number of sacred men among the immigrants from Sumatra,
and that some at least of these caves, upon the decoration of
which skill and labour were so lavishly spent, were shrines
where worship was offered. Just under the roof-tree in
Sumatran temples (?) (Sopo), there is a carving of a human
head called ' buwaja-buwaja, ' i.e., the figure of a crocodile, be-
cause in earlier times, and even still in primitive places, instead
of a man's head the figure of a crocodile is placed in that
position* — this is interesting as suggesting a sacred meaning
attaching even to Bradshaw's Group II.
Whatever influence these religious foreigners may have
exerted in the neighbourhood of the Glenelg and Prince
* "Eataksch-Nederduitsch Woordenbock " (H. N. Van der Tuuk). Letter-
press at end of book explanatory of Plate II.
ART, CORROBOREES 137
Regent Rivers, it seems to have all but faded away. Mr.
William Froggatt, of Sydney, New South Wales, visited the
Glenelg River in 1887-8. The aborigines could give no satis-
factory account of the paintings, but said they were pictures of
the " Nauries," black evil spirits, the agents of all ill and of
whom they were afraid. This ignorance as to the origin of the
pictures goes to show that they must have been done at least a
hundred years ago. Mr. Froggatt states that the natives in the
locality wear "tails" on the forehead to keep away the flies and
waistbands made of opossum fur or human hair, which adorn-
ment may correspond to some shown on the figures. As regards
the "Nauries," Mr. Joseph Bradshaw informs me that "the
only religious ceremony practised by the Yuons (in Kimberley,
north-west Australia) is an occasional corroboree in honour of
Nari, of whom they cannot or will not give much information,
but ascribe to him (or it) the creation of all things long ago."
The name Nauri may prove a means of obtaining further light
upon the relation between the Sumatraus and the Australians
of the north-west coast.
The rite of circumcision was probably introduced to Australia
by Sumatran natives, a view which is confirmed by local dis-
tribution of this practice. The making of hand-prints upon
rocks in red mostly, but sometimes in black, which may be
considered universal in Australia, is probably a practice derived
from the same source, for Captain Grey (now Sir George Grey)
saw a hand and arm done in black, and Flinders' party saw a
hand painted presumably in red. In India the print of a hand
is said to be emblematic of taking an oath. Mr. Curr has seen
the blacks making such impressions for pastime, and he is of
opinion that others which have been observed may be also
modern, and of no special significance. From the occurrence
of these " red hands " in places very far apart and from the
peculiar position and arrangement of groups of them.* I cannot
help concluding that they are in the first instance sacred symbols,
however frivolously they may have been imitated by blacks who
had lost the meaning of them.
It is not too much to expect that careful investigation may
demonstrate the religious beliefs and sacred or mysterious rites
* Dr. Carroll's paper. "The Carved and Painted Rocks of Australia,"
Centennial Magazine, October 1888.
1J38 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
of tbe Australian aborigines to liave been largely inspired and
shaped by the settlement of people from the island of Sumatra
deeply imbued with religious feeling.
It is only reasonable to believe that the higher class of
paintings so skilfully executed and so mysterious and varied in
subject have influenced the aboriginal mind towards some degree
of imitation. At any rate, caves and rock-shelters, in other
quarters remote from the superior work, are found to be covered
with much ruder sketches of men, animals, weapons, and symbols.
Whatever secret meaning these may possess has not yet been
discovered. Various parts of Xew South Wales are rich in such
memorials, specially the neighbourhood of Singleton, in the
county of Northumberland. My friend Mr. R, H. Mathews, Mr.
W. J. Enright, and others, are enthusiastically engaged in copy-
ing these remains. Very few specimens have as yet been found
in Victoria. The writer copied one group depicted on the face
of a huge rock- shelter, on the Billaminah Creek, in the Victoria
Range, near Glenisla, Victoria. The width of the smooth face
of the rock is about 50 ft., the height over 60 ft. The greater
part of this southern aspect up to a height of from 6 ft. to 8 ft.
5 in. is covered with figures. The sketching is done in red,
either dry with a very fine-grained red sandstone, or with the
same material powdered, or a red earth mixed with opossum
fat. I have given a full account of the painting in the "Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society of A^ictoria, 1896," in which also
the principal drawings are figured. The figures are not so large
as some of those on the rocks in New South Wales. A sample
is shown here.
In the neighbourhood of Sydney there are numerous carvings
of animals and other objects upon the sandstone rock. Men,
fishes, boomerangs, spears, hatchets, are all delineated, gene-
rally not in single representations but in groups, and mani-
festly with the aim of conveying some kind of knowledge. Dr.
Carroll, referred to above, undertakes to explain these, but his
interpretation is clearly mere conjecture, and has little to re-
commend it beyond possibility. When, for instance, he dis-
tinguishes between ancient and modern carvings by the fact
that one set is overgrown with mosses, and the other not, he is
plainly quite astray. Whether a stone be bare or clothed with
moss or lichens, after the lapse of, say, fifty years from the time
1
Gtovl^ I
*^'M // ^
"'"T'/mr
y
G- raujt Z7
'^^"///^
* t\ih»i»l''
I'lf
/
ip
ABORIGINAL ROCK PAINTINGS IN THE PARISH OI" IHLLAMINAH
County of Dv.npas, Victoria
140 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
of its exposure will be determined by its grain, hardness and
position. It is common enough to see on one side of a road-
cutting basaltic rock overgrown with lichens, while the same
rock on the opposite side may be naked, and a similar contrast
may be observed on the opposite slopes of the roof of a house.
That these rock-camngs were symbolical is almost beyond
(|uestion, and they have parallels in workmanship, although not
in subjects, in carvings that occur upon rocks in the South Sea
Islands. Sir George Grey also speaks of a head carved by scooping
the rock, seen by him near the caves on the Glenelg River.
The Australian muse is cultivated enthusiastically but un-
progressively. The native in this respect, as in a 1 respects,
is conservative to the backbone, so that we have no reason to
suppose that his music and song of to-day are any advance upon
what they were three thousand years ago. In some cases the
words seem designed to run in rhymes, but a decided rhythm
recurring in lines of regular length and invariably chanted,
never recited, is the essential character of Australian poetry.
Almost every blackfellow is a " maker" of lyric verse, and whiles
away the hour with his own compositions about any subject
which lies closest to his heart, but the man who has the talent
to compose a dramatic corroboree is a person of no small
consequence.
The rendering of a corroboree is an occasion of the most
intense enjoyment. The males are usually the sole performers,
the women sitting in front by the fires and beating time by
striking two sticks together or clapping with their hands upon
stretched opossum skin or on the hollow of the thighs formed
by the sitting posture. The dancers are smeared with red or
yellow clay, or with pipeclay, in patterns that give them a
frightful and sometimes a ghastly appearance. Occasionally
the limbs are decked with light sprays. A customary move-
ment is a shaking of the legs and a wriggling of the body.
There is a tramping time to the music and a scarcely recognisable
representation of some action. Some corroborees are lewd in
the extreme, and it is generally understood that at such times
sexual restrictions are shamefully, or from the native point of
view shamelessly, relaxed. Popular corroborees are transmitted
from tribe to tribe and sung where not a word of them is under-
stood. The melody moves at times very andante, and the very
ART, COKIlOIiOllEES
141
same sounds, after a signal given, will be sung in the liveliest
manner. The modulation is exceeding easy and gradual, the
music rising or falling by semitones, save when, after a gradual
descent, there is a sudden vocal leap of an octave upwards.
The close of a piece will be indicated by three great yells, which
do duty for the crashing music indispensable to finish off most
of the compositions in the Hiurtovre of civilisation.
I
CHAPTER XI
SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELIGION
Sorcery, superstitions, religion — Tiie bane of sorcery— Native
magicians- or doctors— Their professed powers— Native philebotomy —
The rainbow— Spells— Names of deceased persons— Sacred pebbles —
Ghosts — Ancient heroes — Deities.
The greatest bane of aborigiual life, as of all savage life, is
sorcery. People reared in absolute ignorance of its bloody
tyranny are unable to understand why the old Mosaic enact-
ments should be so severe against its practice, but the necessity
for such severity lies in the diabolical character of the thing
itself and the proneness of the human mind to submit to its
thraldom. It may be truthfully affirmed that there was not a
solitary native who did not believe as firmly in the power of
sorcery as in his own existence ; and while anybody could practise
it to a limited extent, there were in every community a few
men who excelled in pretension to skill in the art.
The titles of these magicians varied with the community,*
but by unanimous consent the whites have called them
" doctors," and they correspond to the medicine-men and rain-
makers of other barbarous nations. The power of the doctor is
only circumscribed by the range of his fancy. He communes
with spirits, takes aerial flights at pleasure, kills or cures, is
invialnerable and invisible at will, and controls the elements. I
remember a little black boy. when angry, threatening me with
getting his father to set the thunder and lightning a-going.
The same boy told me seriously that on the occasion of a raid
being made upon the blacks' camp by the native police, one of
his fathers — a doctor — lifted him and pitched him a mile or two
into the scrub, and vanishing underground himself, reappeared
* Koroflji was the name applied in the neighbourhood of Sydney, and it
still holds the ground among Europeans.
SORCERY, Sl^PERSTITIONS, RELIGION 143
at the spot where the boy alighted. The doctor has great
healing skill. A common exercise of this is to extract some
object from the seat of pain by sucking. The object may be a
piece of glass, or a plug of tobacco, or a half-brick.
The manngur (plu.), i.e., the doctors of the Kabi tribe,
followed a practice of fictitious bleeding, known also in other
tribes, for the relief of pain. The mcuinf/ur was provided with a
lonfif cord made of fur and a vessel contaiuincr some water.
One end of the cord was fastened round the body of the sick
person immediately over the seat of pain, and the other end
was placed in the water. Seating himself between the patient
and the water-vessel, the manngur held the cord about the middle
with both hands and rubbed it backward and forward across his
own gums, causing them to bleed. As the saliva and blood
accumulated in the mouth it was expectorated into the vessel.
The process was carried on in a slow deliberate fashion until the
water in the vessel became quite discoloured. The blood in the
frothing liquor was supposed to be drawn from the patient, who,
at the close of the operation, had to drink the contents of the
vessel.
I do not know whether there is any uniformity of belief as
to what confers the special gift of sorcery, but the opinion of
the Kabi community (Queensland) was distinct enough. The
doctor might be, as one might say, of two degrees — a • kundir
bonggan,' a sort of M.B., and a • manngi"ir.' a thorough M.D.
A man's power in the occult art would appear to be proportioned
to his vitality, and the degree of vitality which he possessed
depended upon the number of sacred pebbles and the quantity
of yurru (rope) which he carried within him. One kind of
sacred pebble was named ' kundir,' and the man who had an
abundance of them was called ' kundir bnuggan ' {pchhlcs many),
and was a doctor of the lower degree. The ' manncfur ' was a
step in advance. He had been a party to a barter with
'dhakkau,' the rainbow, and the latter had given him so much
rope for a number of pebbles, which he had taken from the man
in exchange. This transaction took place while the black was
in a deep sleep. He would be lying on the brink of a water-
hole — the rainbow's abode. The rainbow would drag him under,
effect the exchange, and deposit the man, now a ' manngur
manngur,' on the bank again. The doctor carried his sacred
k
144 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
apparatus in a small bag, which none but himself might venture
to touch, for fear of sudden death. He could hang the bag up
anywhere in full view, perfectly secure from interference; and
he slung it on his shoulder when on the move. Its contents
would be a few pebbles, bits of glass, bones, hair, cord made
of fur, and perhaps excreta of his foes. Certainly not a very-
formidable artillery, but for him enough to kill at any distance.
In fact, sickness and death were usually attributed to the practice
of sorcery. A blackfellow gets a stitch in his side, and imme-
diately he believes that an enemy has cast a pebble at him from
behind a tree. The reasoning process is simple. The law of
causation requires a cause for everything, and as a man would
not get ill of himself, an enemy must be at the bottom of any-
hurt which he sustains. There was an interminable process of
mutual revenge going on between neighbouring tribes, and the
blow of the club would respond to the challenge which had
come in the form of sickness from sorcery.
There are, or were, numerous superstitions of the nature of
religious belief, inasmuch as they acknowledge invisible super-
natural powers and beings. The blackfellow lived and moved
and had his being in superstition. Unseen instruments and
agents were continually at work. Disease would result from
violation of rules, as, for instance, from eating prohibited food.
To obtain possession of a person's hair or ordure, was to ensure
his death. He declined as these decayed. It was dangerous to
pass under a leaning tree or fence. The reason alleged for
caution in this respect was that a woman might have been on
the tree or fence, and that blood from her might have fallen
upon it. This would seem to point to former regulations re-
garding pollution. But it may be the Australian form of the
mana superstition, said * to be a sure mark of the Polynesian
race.
Akin to this dread of passing under an elevated object, and
due no doubt to the same cause, is the fear of another person's
stepping over one's body. Both these superstitions indicate the
belief that a baneful influence of some kind is liable to fall from
a person, and this influence was probably supposed to be due to
some emanation like the mana of the Fijians.
The objection to pronounce the names of dead people has
• By Rev. Dr. L. Fison, M.A., Centennial Marjazine, Februarj' 1889, p. 457.
SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELKilON 145
been noticed by most writers on the Australian race. The
aversion would seem to be the result of a kind of realisvi among
the natives, whereby a person's name became through confusion
of thought the same as himself.
The veneration of pebbles has already been noticed. It has
been remarked that the blacks were exceedingly loth to permit
white men to see their sacred objects, and they were also
concealed from their own countrywomen. There were local
preferences for certain kinds of pebbles, but in general they
appear to have been simply smooth rounded quartz stones.
The Rev. J. G. Paton secured a small piece of wood painted
red at one end which he says is similar to one kind of idol
worshipped by the New Hebrideans. Mr. Taplin describes * a
practice of sorcery, called 'ngadhungi,' followed among the
Narrinyeri, which bears upon the significance of the piece of
stick coloured red at one end. A bone forming the remains of
a repast of some native is secured and scraped. " A small lump
is made by mixing a little fish-oil and red ochre into a paste and
enclosing in it the eye of a Murray cod, and a small piece of
the flesh of a dead human body. This lump is sturj,- on the top
of the hone and a covering tied over it, and it is put in the bosom
of a corpse that it may derive deadly potency by contact with
corruption ; after it has remained there for some time it is con-
sidered fit for use. Should circumstances arise to excite the
resentment of the disease-maker towards the person who ate
the flesh of the animal from which the bone was taken, he
immediately sticks the bone in the ground near the fire, so that
the lump may melt away gradually. The entire melting and
dropping off of the lump is supposed to cause death." Could
human ingenuity be exercised in a manner more sickening,
horrifying, and repulsive ? A similar demand for the remains
of food or other refuse of what a person has used is a trait of
South Sea Island superstition. Although there is great dis-
similarity in language between the Polynesians and Australians,
such common traits as a community in objects of worship bespeak
a close connection at some time. History proves how easily a
form of worship maybe superposed upon existing forms, whereas
it usually requires violent causes to change language by the
substitution of one tongue for another. It may therefore be
* " Native Tribes of South Australia," p. 24.
K
146 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW
the case that such resemblances in superstitious are due to
independent siir.ilar transitory causes, or say, to the drifting
of a few Kanaka canoes to Australian shores, although from the
fact that stones were objects of veneration among the Tasmanians
the inference would be that this at least was a superstition
common to all primitive Papuans.
The Australians have what may be termed an apprehension
of ghosts rather than a belief in them, the relations of the living
with the spirits being more or less intimate in different tribes.
In the tribe with which I was best acquainted, while the blacks
had a term for ghost and believed that there were departed
spirits who were sometimes to be seen among the foliage,
individual men would tell you upon inquiry that they believed
that death was the last of them. In other words, a man's per-
sonality died with his body and was not continued in his ghost.
A ghost was called a * shadow,' and the conception of its existence
was shadowy like itself. A general feature of Australian
mythology is the peopling of deep waterholes with indescribable
spirits. The Kabi tribe deified the rainbow, a superstition
apparently confined to this people. He lived in unfathomable
waterholes on the mountains, and when visible was in the act of
passing from one haunt to another. He was accredited with
exchanging children after the fashion of the European fays.
He was also a great bestower of vitality, which he imparted in
the form of ' yurru ' — i.e., rope (what this rope was I do not
know), in the manner explained above.
Many tribes revered the names of ancient heroes or demigods,
who were credited with certain wonderful exploits, and who
generally became metamorphosed into stars. The conception
of a supreme being oscillated between a hero and a deity.
Some tribes recognised both a supreme good spirit and a
powerful, dreaded, evil spirit, creation being ascribed to the
former. At the initiation ceremonies of the Darkinung tribes
of New South Wales * two figures are made upon the ground
by heaping up earth. They are represented as like human
beings lying fiat on the back. A quartz crystal called ngooyar
is placed upon the forehead of Dhurramoolun, the good spirit,
and a koolaman (wooden vessel) containing blood just let from
the arms of some men is placed upon the breast of "Ghindaring,
• R. H. Mathews, "Proc. Roy. Soc. of Victoria," vol. x. part i. pp. 2-3.
SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELIGION Ul
a malevolent being," whose body is said to be red and to
resemble burning coals. I was once of opinion that notions
about a divinity had been derived from the whites and trans-
mitted amongst the blacks hither and thither, but I am now
convinced that this belief was here before European occupa-
tion. Although not entertained by every tribe, it is nevertheless
held by one tribe or another in the south-east quarter of the
continent, from the coast to the centre, and we are justified
in concluding that it extends beyond the area where it is
positively known to exist.
By those who have been eager to establish the theory that
there are atheistic races of men the Australians have been cited
as an example, another instance of the unreliability and invalidity
of a deduction from negative evidence. Among the Kamilroi
and allied tribes to the north of New South Wales the character
of a beneficent deity, known as Baiarae, has been well elaborated.
The name, according to the Rev. W. Ridley, is derived from
'baia,' to make or build hy cliopping. Baiame is the creator and
preserver. The Wiradhuri regarded him under a slightly altered
name, Baiamai, as eternal, omnipotent, and good. A supreme
deity was known by the name of Anambu or Miuumbu by the
Pikumbul tribe ; at Illawarra he was called Miriru ; on the
Murray Nourelle, in Victoria, he was generally known as Bundjil
or Pundyil, and also as Gnowdenont ; the Narrinyeri, as we have
seen, called him Nurundere and sometimes Martummere, and by
the Diyeri he was known as Mooramoora.
Dr. Lang* observes, "There are certain traditions among
the aborigines that appear to me to have somewhat of an Asiatic
character and aspect. Buddai, or, as it is pronounced by the
aborigines towards the mountains in the Moretou Bav district,
CD *^
Budjah {quasi Buddah), they regard as a common ancestor of
their race, and describe as an old man of great stature, who has
been asleep for ages." The question may be reasonably asked
is this Buddai not as likely to refer to Daibaitah of the north-
west as to Budha ? In New Guinea, according to Marsden, the
same deity is known as ' Wat,' the first and third syllables of
the name being lopped off. And further, may it not be possible
that Baiame, of New South Wales, and Pundyil, of Victoria, refer
to the same supernatural being ? Baiame, indeed, may be a local
* " Queensland, Australia,"' p. 379.
us i:a(;li:hawk and crow
pc|iiivaleut of Banna, another Sumatrau deity. The blackfellow
Yanjj^alla already mentioned recognised Daibaitah as Pundyil;
the fancied resemblance may have been due to an impression that
both \vt>re supernatural beings, but, on the other hand, the names
may be etymologically related, and if so, a unity is given to the
native belief in a divinity.
The mvths regarding the creation are numerous, and there
are some which refer to a liood, but there is no common fixed
account of either event, and both classes of myths may be quite
modern, the one being an attempt to explain the world's origin,
and so far a reflection of the workings of the native mind, the
other a recollection of an unprecedented local downpour of rain
and consequent inundation. I confess to having failed to obtain
in the south of Queensland any myth about the creation or the
Hood ; the nearest approach to an account of the former was the
personal conjecture which a blackfellow made regarding the
origin of his race, which was that he thought they had sprung
up like the trees — uncommonly like Topsy's " I specs I grow'd."
The Arunta tribe in central Australia have an intensely
interesting myth about the ' Alcheringa,' * the earliest period to
which their traditions refer. " At the very beginning of this
there were no true human beings such as now exist but only
' Inapertwa,' that is, almost shapeless beings in which just the
vague outlines of the different limbs and parts of the body could
be detected. Two spirit beings who lived far away in the
western sky and who were called * Ungambikulla,' a word which
signifies ' made out of nothing,' or ' self-existing,' came down to
earth and transformed the Inapertwa creatures into men and
women." The men and women of the Alcheringa are also said
to be '* direct descendants or transformations of animals " whose
names they respectively bear.
* " Notes on certain of the Initiation Ceremonies of the Arunta Tribe,
Central Australia," bv Prof. W. B. Spencer and Mr. F. J. Gillen, "Proc. Roy.
8oc. Victona," p. 146, d aeij.
CHAPTEll XII
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
Introduction to Australian languages — lileek's classification — The
writer's classification — Fundamental principle of word-.structure
agglutination— Phonic system — Etymology — Formation of compound
words — Kaiap, miowera, koonawara, koondooloo, kangaroo, kagurrin
(name of laughing-jackass), wagan (name of crow), boomerang —
Words — Particles — Noun — Number — Gender — Adjective — Numerals
— Table showing relation of numerals — Pronoun and table — Prepo-
sitions and conjunctions — Verb.
There is need for extreme caution in making sweeping
general statements regarding the languages of Australia, because
they are liable to be invalidated at any time by the discovery of
particular contradictory instances. The judgment of the very
highest authorities is subject to be shaken by exceptions. For in-
stance, in the " Reise der Fregatte Novara," p. 244, Dr. F. Miiller
says that the aspirates ' h ' and ' v ' are wanting, whereas there
are undoubted, though rare, cases of their occurrence. On the
same page he says that these lauguages possess only post-
positions, and that they have no distinction for gender ; whereas
there are instances of prefixes and infixes as well as post- posi-
tions, and some dialects have phonic marks to distinguish sex.
Again, Dr. Codrington,* referring to the numerals in use on
the islands of the Pacific, New Guinea included, says, " Any of
these island numerals will be looked for in vain on the continent
of Asia, Africa, or Australia." Xow I am able to trace
numerals from the most southerly part of Australia northward
into New Guinea and even to Woodlark Island (hc table where
Australian and New Guinea numerals are compared). The term
for tico, ' luadi ' (not in the table), used by the fierce Kalkadoon
tribe in north-west Queensland, is certainly an island word.
"Wheu, therefore, any character is affirmed to be universally
* "The Melanesian Languages, " p. 243.
ir>() EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
true of Australian languages, the statement must imply the
reservation that there may be exceptions, until at least all the
various dialects have been reduced to writing and brought
under sur\'ey.
Dr. Bleek has classified the Australian languages in the
following maimer : —
1. Northern Division.
[ I. Western.
II. Southern Division i 2. Middle.
III. Tasmanian .
3.. Eastern.
No exception can be taken to giving Tasmanian dialects a
place by them.selves, but the other part of the classification is
too loose and arbitrary. It should be borne in mind that at
least one-third of Australia is a terra incognita to the philologist,
the unknown part embracing nearly all the western half of the
continent excepting a strip along the coast. Very important
ethnological revelations may be awaiting disclosure there.
As a geographical classification based upon present know-
ledge, I would suggest the following, which corresponds, as
regards the larger classes, to the arrangement in the Compara-
tive Table at tbe end : —
I. Tasmanian. Subdivisions: (i) Eastern; (2) Central; (3)
Western.
II. Victorian Region, embracing part of Riverina and Murray
Basin in N. S. Wales, also south-east corner of South
Australia. Subdivisions: (i) Eastern (Gipp.%land) ; (2)
Western.
III. N. S. Wales and South, Centre, and East of Queensland.
Subdivisions: (i) Eastern (Coast) ; (2) Western (Inland,
west of Dividing Range).
IV. W Australia and West Central. Subdivisions: (i) Northern;
(2) Southern.
V. South of S. Australia and East Central, including West of
N. S. Wales and North-Vi'est of Queensland.
VI. North Coast and Central Australia, including C. York
Peninsula and North- West Coast. Subdivisions : ( i ) Coast ;
(2) Central.
Notable diversities in words and structure are due in the
main to dissimilarity of original elements, while the shading of
dialects into one another must be ascribed partly to the influence
of exogamy, partly to a very gradual change of old elements,
partly to the introduction of fresh words from the north. Almost
everywhere throughout the continent original elements are
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 131
observable pi^otruding through the more recent, like primary
rocks through all later formations.
If it be asked, what view of Australian settlement does a
study of language lead to ? the reply must be that a general
survey of the languages favours the conclusion that there was
at first a comparative homogeneity of speech in Australia and
Tasmania of simj^le structure, as exhibited in Tasmanian and
Western Australian dialects, and that subsequently there poured
in from the north-east streams of population with a speech more
elaborate in construction. Parallel strips of homogeneous people
still testify to this migration from the northward, and the general
brokenness of language along the east coast betokens disturbing
and overlying influences from the landward streams, and in
some cases most certainly through settlements of people who
have come not overland, but by sea.
The fundamental principle of word structure is agglutina-
tion. There is therefore a general well-marked relationship
with the members of the Turanian branch of human speech,
with at least one contrast, viz., the absence of the law of Vocalic
Harmony. The usual form of modification is by post-positions,
but this mode is by no means invariable ; it is supplemented in
many dialects by preformatives, and sometimes by included
particles. Genuine internal vowel inflection is not observed.
Certain lanofuao-es lean almost as much to external inflection as
to agglutination and tend to analytic structure. Others are
fairly perfect specimens of agglutination. So far as I know,
the simplest and most analytic language is that current in
West Australia ; the most complex, if it have not a rival on
the Daly River, is at Lake Macquarie, at the other extreme of
the continent; and between the east and west extremes the
languages increase in complexity and fineness of elaboration
from west to east. This does not involve the inference that a
process of modification proceeded latitudinally along the con-
tinent, because, as a matter of fact, the language of the south-
west crossed directly from the north-east. The speech of
Western Australia might be taken as the extreme of simplicity,
a dialect of New South Wales or Southern Queensland as the
extreme of elaboration, while the language of the Diyeri, lying
about half-way between, is simple in structure but richly
comj)ounding.
loi> EAGU:HA\\ K AND CROW
In nouns and adjectives there is a conspicuous abundance of
dissyllabic words, as in the South Sea Island languages. In
many cases I am convinced that these are a combination of two
roots, the original sense of one syllable being lost or the sense
of both transmuted. For instance, take the word ' wulwi,'
smoke in the Kabi dialect ; neither of the syllables separate has
any meaning in Kabi, but in other parts ' wolla ' is rain, and
' wi ' is Jirc, so that ' wulwi ' meant originally rain of fire. De-
composition after this manner would no doubt throw much light
upon the primitive speech.
PHONIC SYSTEM.
The phonic system embraces all the pure vowels ; the modi-
fications expressed in German by ii, ij, and ii being also used by
certain European writers. All possible diphthongal combina-
tions are employed in one dialect or another. The consonants
found invariably are k, t, p, ng, fi, n, m, y, w, r, 1. Owing to a
common imperfect enunciation of the mutes, some are doubtful
whether g, d, and b can be credited to Australian languages.
The most certain proof, to my mind, that these sonants should
be included in a complete summary is a remarkable unanimity
in foreign ears recognising them in certain words, as for instance
in ' bulla,' tvjo, ' barang,' a class name. Besides the foregoing,
there are the aspirates ' dh,' ' th ' (as in English father), and
' V ' ; there is a cerebral ' r,' which I shall mark ' rr,' a conjunc-
tion of ' dy ' and of ' ty ' approaching so nearly to English ' j '
and palatal ' ch ' as to be expressed sometimes by these. The
aspirate ' h ' occurs, but is extremely rare, and the rushing
sonant ' gh ' is written in some Victorian dialects, as also in
Tasmauian. Sibilants are occasionally given, but their actual
occurrence in pure form requires confirmation.
An aversion to ' r ' and ' 1 ' as initial letters is very common.
In several New South Wales and Queensland dialects these
letters never begin a word. Introductory vowels are also gene-
rally avoided ; if occurring in considerable number in any dialect
the peculiarity becomes a differential feature. Any of the con-
sonants employed in a dialect, other than the liquids ' 1 ' and ' r,
may commence a word. The nasal ' ng ' and a consonant fol-
lowed by a furtive ' y ' like ' ly,' * ty ' (mouille consonants), are
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 153
common initial letters. Initial combinations in words or sylla-
bles, such as ' kr,' ' gr,' ' dr,' are generally disliked ; and where
frequent, as, for instance, in Victoria, are primitive Papuan
marks. In the dialects of New South Wales, southern Queens-
land, and central South Australia, such forms are exceedingly
rare, and even where they appear to exist there is a disposition
to interpose a short vowel. I am confident, from comparisons
I have made, that originally a vowel separated those consonants
that are now contiguous. In the smoother languages of the
east the possible terminal letters are usually limited to the
liquids, ' ng,' ' ndh ' (a dentated ' n '), and vowels. In Victoria
and West Australia words may end in any consonants and
vowels, and such terminal combinations as ' rk,' ' rn,' ' rt,' are
not objectionable ; another evidence of the closer alliance
between the languages of these places. Another rough mark
of relationship in the Victorian and West Australian languages
is the admission of closed syllables in any part of a word, an
exception to the general rule, which is a preference for open
syllables, unless either a liquid be the closing letter or the final
letter of one syllable be also the initial letter of the succeeding,
an exceedingly common character, in which case both letters are
distinctly enunciated, e.g., ' kokka,' ' kakkal.' The accent
usually falls upon the first syllable, which is also the main
radical. A circumstance which has greatly hindered oiir
acquisition of a perfect knowledge of Australian languages is,
that unless the inquirer be a philologist, we bring in to the
study our European ideas of language, and endeavour to force
aboriginal forms into European grammatical moulds, a practice
which should be at once discarded, as it cramps all inquiry.
It does great injustice to the native languages, on the one hand
making them appear extremely rudimentary, and on the other
leaving many verbal forms unexplained.
POINTS OF CONTACT BETWEEN AUSTRALIAN AND
NEW HEBRIDEAN LANGUAGES.
Hitherto little or nothing has been done in the way uf
showing to what extent the Australian and New Hebridoan
languages are related. The agreement in some grammatical
peculiarities has been noted, but the existence of important
l.-.p
EAGLEHA^Vlv AM) (ROW
TABLE OF ANALOGIES.
yoU.—}\(iV,- Heb. often adds -na, his. The Malay equivalents are
introduced for comparison.
New Hebri-
Enolish
Malay
Tasmaxian
australian dean (chiefly
1 Tannese)
f'atltcr . .
bapa
—
aba, baba, yaha, abab; babu(voc.);
bapo ; mam, mama (voc.)
mama, ama
lobe . .
—
—
nyenni (Kabi, Q.) ani, eni
r.\an . . .
—
—
(liian (Kabi, Q.) ata, ta
to come .
—
—
ba(imperKabi,Q.) ba (to come from)
hdhj . .
—
ploner, ploang-
polloin, belanyin, bala, bele, balau
ner {stomach)
beleni(.sto»?ac/i,
Vic. Keg.)
to kiiitHe .
—
parik
baraio (Kabi, Q.) buria, bauria ;
bara {to be
burned)
h if/, fat
—
paroi, proi
parok, parronk
barna
(Vic.)
h-'.nil . .
—
poyta
bua, poko, bo, bau-na
baukine (Vic.)
th'iH . . .
—
(i) nara; prob.
also affix -na
(2) karina (Kabi,
Q)
(i) nga; (2) ka
nose . . .
—
—
nogro. noor, no- ngore-na
gooroo(N.S.W.)
small . ,
kacbil,
keeta. kaeete
kutchulka and (i) kita; (2) kiki
kete
variants ( Dar-
ling R.)
face (cf. nose)
—
—
ngoo (Kabi, Q.);
ko (nose)
ko
do,/ . . .
—
—
kulli(Q.,N.S.W.);
kori, kuri ; other
kadli (S.A.);! dial., kuli
kal, kalli(Vic.)
nhin .
kulit
—
ula, villi, yulin ) kuli-na, uili-na
(N.S.W.) i
toinahaul ,
kodja (W.A.) ; kut-ia {to cut)
kootva (Wilson ,
K.) ; koocha i
(Up.CapeR.,Q.)
iriniJ
—
lavvlin-na, rallin-
ganunne
willangi (Vic.)
langi, c. art. na-
langi
vornaii .
—
loa, Iowa
laioo.laioor.laurk ! lai, lei, le, li
llijht . .
loina («M»)
arhinya, allunga Una
{xun, Central
Australia)
to be blacl
—
loarra {charcoal)
lourn {charcoal, loa
Gippsland,Vic.)
tIKlU
mari, murri (Q. ma'ani, mani,
and N.S.W.) ; mare(allmean-
maar (Vic); ing male)
mean, main
(N.S.W^)
(dive, to lice,
—
—
moron, murree, mauri {to live) ;
animal
murru {fidl of maurien {life)
life) ; murang
{animal) (Kabi,
Q.)
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
15o
TABLE OF Al^ALOGlES— continued.
New Hebki-
English
3IALAY
Tasmanian
AUSTKALIAN
dean (chiefly
Tannese)
to do
—
-mathi, -maiaio
(verbal termi-
nations, Kabi,
Q.)
mer ia
eye . . .
mata
mo.vgta
ini,mil,mir, miki.
mityi
mita, meta
tongue .
—
mena, mene
mooni (S. of Gulf
of Carp.)
mina
water ,
—
moga, moka,
ngok, nokko,
mok (iritter from
luookaria
mookooa ; muk-
kera, mookorar
(rain)
the ei/e) ; ura
(dew)
this . . .
—
-na (prob. art.);
ngerma (he, she) ;
na (prefixed art.
nara (</</*• that,
ngarma (tliey)
postf. this) ;
he, they)
naga. ra (this)
thet/ . . .
nara
(i) ngerma, ngar-
ma (Kamilroi,
N.S.W.); (2)
tana, thana
(i) mara ; (2) ta
(noni. and verb,
suff. 3 plu.)
excrement .
tai
tiamena, tiannah
gunda. goodna,
dagga
tai
man (vrr) .
giwir, kivar, kip-
pa (after initia-
tion)
takuwer (fr. ta
man ; kuwer
biff, strong)
earth . .
tanam
gunta, coantana
taon (N.S.W.);
dha (Kabi, Q.)
tan, tano
ley . . .
—
tula
tirra, dhirang
tere (calf)
feet . . .
■ —
tyentiali, teean-
tihe {to trample)
dinna, dhinnang,
tinna. &c.
tua na
loherc .
—
—
wendho
uan ue (to, to
rest, dwell, he)
cue . . ,
—
—
wakko, wokkaka,
wakkan
uoki
mallee hen .
—
—
Iowa (Vie. )
lawaig (bird like
a hen)
hmse . .
kutu
—
kutta (Daiveri,
S.A.)
kutu
Interroffative
—
wanarana
%va- or we-
ua. ue
si<jn of
—
—
ngilpung (yoii
ilpu (the, these)
jilnral .
two) ; ngilpuUa
(you) ; ngalpa,
ngalpa (we three,
Saibai. Torres
Strait)
glossarial analogies seems not to have been suspected. For this
failure or omission the absence of published data is no doubt
mainly responsible. Dr. 1). Macdonald's " Etymological Dic-
tionary of the Language of Efate "' throws much new light upon
the new Hebridean languages. From a perusal of this work 1
k
156 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
have been able to detect several analogies with .Vustralian speech,
a few of which are of great interest, and should prove helpful
to further research. An older work, a Dictionary of Aneityu-
mese, by the llev. John Inglis, also adds to our knowledge in
the same direction.
Several of the above analogies demand special notice, not
only as tending to show a radical connection between Australian
and New Ifebridean dialects, but also as suggesting a closer
kinship than has been supposed to exist between some of the
racial constituents in the two regions.
(i) The terras for father are practically identical. Dr. D.
^lacdonald explains Efatese ' mama ' as the vocative of ' abab.'
If he is right, we thus reach the important solution of the same
form (' mama ') which in Victoria and West Australia appears
as a word distinct from its so-called nominative occurring else-
where in Australia,
(2) The terms for hclly, head, black, uo7nan,lir/ht, water, they,
excrement, earth, feet unite the Australian, Tasmanian, and New
Hebridean languages. Of these the first five are peculiar to
Tasmania, the Victorian Eegion (Australia), and the New
Hebrides.
(3) The terms for small, eye, excrement, earth seem to be
common to the four compared languages.
(4) The terms for father, shin are the same in Malay, Austra-
lian, and New Hebridean.
(5) liesides explaining ' mama ' as vocative of ' abab,' the New
Hebridean helps to explain the Tasmanian and Australian
demonstratives and pronouns above particularised. It suggests
the derivation of Australian ' kodja,' ' kootya,' tomahaick, from
' kut ia,' to cut. It shows that the Australian forms ' murri,'
'main,' ' maar,' 'mail,' ' myal,' &c., equivalents of man, are
variants of the same etymon ; and, what is most important, that
the radical meaning is mcde. This last explanation probably
disposes of the supposition that the word for man in Australian
dialects generally is a racial appellative, and favours the pre-
sumption that it should be taken as equivalent to male. We
arc also enabled both to analyse and derive the anomalous form
' namail ' {man) used on the Dumaresque River, New South
Wales, ' na- ' being the definite article unconsciously retained.
The New Hebridean further serves to analyse the Tasmanian
I
ATTSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 157
and Australian 'mookaria' and variants. It also suggests the
true meaning of the term for the youth after initiation to the
status of manhood. Especially valuable is the analysis which it
enables us to make of so common an Australian word as ' wenyo '
or ' wendyo,' %vli,cr<\ into the interrogative particle ' wa ' or ' we '
and ' to ' V. to stand.
The above comparison, so far as it goes, favours the conclu-
sion that the primaeval occujiants of Tasmania, Australia, and
the New Hebrides were of the one race.
ETYMOLOGY.
The Australian languages having no literature, considerable
difficulty is experienced in tracing the derivation of words which
have undergone change. People who have known one dialect
well have declared that Australian words could not be derived,
and that to attempt derivation would be futile. Some writers
have gone to the other extreme of connecting Australian lan-
guages with Aryan or vSemitic by fixing upon mere casual
coincidences.
Apart from such changes as may have been introduced
unconsciously for euphony's sake, I am persuaded that, just
as in European languages, so in Australian, eveiy syllable has its
value and every word its history. We are unable to trace dia-
lects backward in time, but we can track the changes of words
by finding the same vocable occurring in different dialects at
different and graduated stages of its modification, Coo-nate
dialects show well-marked differences in the regular omission,
addition, or substitution of certain letters.
The following are among the more important letter changes.
' S ' or ' z ' in the islands of Torres Strait changes to j^alatal ' ch '
on the mainland. An old Tasmanian ' 1 ' has in manv cases
become ' y ' on the continent. * L,' ' r,' and ' n ' are frequently
interchanged. Initial ' k ' interchanges with 'w,' and either is
elided ; ' k ' occasionally becomes ' t ' and occasionally ' y.' ' K,'
' ug,' ' n,' or ' n ' marks a series of changes ; ' ng ' or ' n ' some-
times becomes ' m ' ; * ch ' changes to * ty ' and ' t ' ; ' r ' changes
to ' t ' or ' d,' and sometimes to ' th ' ; ' p ' is softened to ' m.' A
diphthong indicates the omission of a consonant, mostly a liquid,
between the vowels. A peculiar tendency is for vowels of the
158 i:a(;lkiia\vk and crow
'u' class ("u,' 'o,' ' li ') to change gi-aJaally luto those of the
*a' class ('a,' ' e,' ' i ').
The examples which follow will illustrate the letter changes
instanced. The section on numerals may also be consulted.
Verbs are usually formed, as in Tasmanian, by adding a
verbal termination to a root or stem. The most prevalent
Tasmanian termination, ' gana,' is common in xVustralia, and is
especially noticeable in the Victorian region, where most verbs
end in ' kan,' ' ka,' or ' ki,' sometimes contracted to ' k.'
Spelling according to English values of letters often dis-
guises the relationship of words. Monosyllables, unless in
pronouns or particles, are usually to be suspected as corrupt.
A remarkable example is the West Australian ' waitch,' already
explained as the contracted form of ' uroi-kaiza.' The West
Australian 'web' would hardly, at first sight, be taken for a
variant of ' kooia,' the more general word for fish, but re-
membering how 'k' is softened to mv,' and that 'kooia' is
sometimes spelt 'queea," and that the corresponding word in the
north-east is ' weenburra,' the origin of 'web' in some such term as
'wianbu' is highly probable. Certain groups of objects are
designated by the same term. Thus u-ood,Jire, and some weapon,
usually the spcnr, are thus designated. The same remark applies
to sw.i, moon, and fire, sun, moon, and eijc, stone and mountain^
hark, skin, and canoe, stone and e(/(/, stone and tooth, erjg and head
(or skull), and probably man and kangaroo. The name for
htvfjaroo in one dialect occasionally corresponds to the name
for man in a dialect adjoining, the reason being that both were
called mtde.
In the formation of compound words the Tasmanian practice
obtains on the continent. A common name stands first and is
joined to a qualifying adjective. I believe this principle of
nomenclature will explain nearly all the words of more than two
syllables, of course leaving onomatopoeic words out of account.
The ideas which the names suggest were called up by features
in animals or things which would most strike the imag-ina-
tion. And these ideas are singularly rudimentary in the
names of animals, being associated with the size, colour, or
shape of some member of the body. In words, the significance
of which is now unknown to the aborigines themselves, we
perceive strange gleams of thought which have struggled down
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES lo9
the ages like light from faint stars in the unfathomable deep of
heaven.
The derivation of Victorian • kaiap,' one, has already been
traced to a form like ' kurupana,' this being divisible into two
equal parts. The first part, ' kuru,' or 'kura/ is the common
type for one. It appears in ' kain ' of West Australia, the •' n '
corresponding to a final ' na ' or ' nu ' to give substantive value.
In connection with this root I would direct attention to AVest
Australian 'mau,' three, which is a contraction for 'mankura,'
three, signifying literally hy-onc or and-one, being the latter part
of the series 2 + i .
'Miowera' is one of those soft, musical words which the
colonists select as names for houses or ships. It is the Gipps-
land word for emu. ' Mio- ' is contracted from ' murrio- ' (as in
Sydney ' marayong '), and this again is a corruption of ' nguruin,'
which is derived from ' kuroi,' already explained as meaning
bird. ' Wera ' is an adjective the meaning of which I do not
know ; by analogy it probably means la7'f/c. ' Koonawara,' a
euphonious Victorian name for black sivan, is formed of • koonna.'
oieck, and ' wara,' erookcd.
' Koondooloo,' a common name for emu in the north-east of
the continent, is probably derived from ' koonna,' neck, and
• dooloo,' icood or tree, the idea suggested being that the bird
was tall like a sapling. ' Kangaroo,' or, as originally spelt,
' kanguru,' now apparently obsolete at Endeavour River, is
probably from ' ka ' or ' kuggan,' nose or hectd, and 'guru," loixj.
The same name is applied in the east to the laughing-jackass,
in such a form as ' kagurrin,' because of its big head or lono-
beak. ' Wagan,' ' wakala,' ' workulla,' &c., variants of the
commonest term for croio, are probably from •' wuro.' ' kala ' or
' kurla,' meaning bird, wooden, or Jirestich. This connection of
the colour of the bird with fire probably accounts for the mvths
abor.t the crows having the secret of making fire, and their
stealing the fire, and so on. Another common name for crow,
exemplified in ' wardung,' West Australia, •' woterkan " in
Queensland, is probably from 'wuro,' bird, and 'tarkoo,' Unck.
Strangely enough, the most prevalent name for the boomerang-,
extending from Cape York Peninsula to Melbourne in the east,
and, as I believe, to the extreme south-west in the contracted
form ' kaili,' appears to be identical with the name for crow •
160 KACiLKIIAWK AND CROW
whether the boomerang was named after the crow, or just named
wooden bird, is not clear. The word ' bomrang,' in south of
Queensland 'bobran.' is probably connected with 'boran,' vAnd,
and has been named from the rushing noise it makes. Another
derivation is from a New South Wales word, ' bargan,' meaning
crooked. This is certainly the name in some places, but it does
not correspond to ' bomrang."
These observations will show that a great deal may be done
in the way of tracing Australian words to their source, and I
hope the principles here enunciated will prove serviceable to
other investigators.
WORDS.
It is a common assertion that in Australian languages single
words carry nothing in themselves whereby they may be distin-
guished as parts of speech. This rough generalisation is not
absolutely correct. In Kabi, for instance, there are several
special adjectival terminations which mark the adjective, and
which in some cases have become inseparably affixed. And
there is in most languages a distinct verbal sign, which in some
of them is as much incorporated in the word as ' -are ' in Latin
' amare.' As a general rule, likewise, interrogative pronouns
and interrogative adverbs are marked, if not by a peculiar
termination, at any rate by a distinctive initial syllable.
There are numerous particles employed in various ways and
positions with modifying force, e.g., the word ' kna,' used in
West Australia as the last word in a sentence to ask a question,
with a value something like the English eh ? The vocable ' inga '
sei-ves the same purpose in the south of Queensland. Compare
also the particle ' ya ' used in the Kabi dialect of the extreme
east with a meaning like come now ! Besides floating independent
particles of this class there are those attached sometimes to a
phrase to give it a substantive value, like the word 'midde' in
Western Australia, meaning the agent. It is said that all verbs
may be rendered nouns by the addition of this particle. Of
this more fixed and dependent class the modifying syllables
attached to verbs may be cited as examples. These are pro-
bably words like ' midde,' but of which the identity and orio-inal
sense are in all stages of evanescence.
General consent denies an article, properly so called, to
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 161
Australian languages. Doubtless the numeral uiu: and the de-
monstratives this or tluit can be filled in to satisfy a demand for
an equivalent to a or tlte. And Mr. Thomas * gives an enclitic
* -arter ' and ' -o ' as elegant definitives for the. But these probably-
mean more. There is one feature of certain dialects, however,
to which I would call attention. It is the disposition to elide
an initial consonant which may possibly be explained as indica-
ting the existence in Australia of what has been called in other
languages, such as the Malay, the unconscioics article. The best
examples of this are to be found in the most central dialects
which we have any knowledge of, vocabularies of which are
given by Mr. E. M. Curr,t received from Alice Springs and
Charlotte Waters Telegraph Stations, and from the Macumba
River. There is a similar peculiarity in a dialect of the l^almer
River,| but there it is excessive. At Alice Springs such words
occur as 'arkoppita,' head, ' ulgana,' eye, 'iniga,' foot.
THE NOUN.
Number is rarely marked save by distinct words. There
are, however, exceptions. In the speech of the Narrinyeri
{South Australia) the plural is indicated by a special terminal
inflection, e.g., 'korni,' a man, dual ' kornengk,' two mm, plural
' kornar,' men. In the verb, number receives no sound-mark.
A fallacious notion which has been widely circulated may here
be referred to with the view of exposing it. The Australians,
it is said, have no general names, but only special terms. There
are scores of words in every dialect testifying to the contrary.
Take the Kabi dialect as an example : it has a general name for
animal, man, tree, stone, creek, mountain, and so forth. The
only grounds for the delusion referred to are the facts that some
classes of objects have not been generalised and that there is a
pi'eference for the special distinctive name, even where a general
one exists. Thus, instead of speaking of a tree, the native
prefers to specialise the particular kind of tree.
Gender is commonly distinguished by the addition of a word
signifying male, female, man, mother, or the like, but, in special
* Mr. R. Brongh Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. iiS.
+ Curr's '* The Australian Race," vol. i. pp. 412, 425.
X Ibid. vol. ii. p. 39S.
162 EAGLEHAWK AM) CHOW
classes of words such as the phratric names, there are occasion-
ally terminations distinctive of sex, as, for instance, about
Brisbane, Queensland, ' baraug,' a male of the class ' barang,'
' barauggan.' a female of the same class. But the most striking
case of phonic indication of gender comes from the Daly River.
I am sorrv to be unable to give my informant's name, as my
infonuation came indirectly, but I believe he is a member of
the Roman Catholic Mission at that place, and I hope he will
publish a memoir upon the very interesting dialect of which I
have received a sketch and a vocabulary. In the dialect referred
to, which is known as the Daktyerat and is spoken on the left
bank of the Daly River, Northern Territory, four genders are
distinguished in nouns, adjectives, and verbs, viz., masculine,
feminine, neuter, and common, or organic and inorganic, the
general distinctive marks being ' y,' ' n,' ' w,' and ' m,' respec-
tively, with sometimes a following vowel, and these inflexions
are initial in adjectives, e.g., 'yidello,' a hig (man), 'nudello,' a
hiy (woman), ' wudello,' a hvj (thing), sex not distinguished,
' mudello,' a big (object of any gender). These marks are pro-
bably the consonantal radical of the third personal pronouns.
In all the languages of more elaborate structure the noun is
exceedingly rich in cases, and as a rule where these are said not
to exist the fact is that they have not been recognised. The
cases comprise such as nominative, genitive, dative, accusative,
ablative (instrumental), abessive, adessive, commorative, locative
(with distinctions of in, toivards, from).
THE ADJECTIVE.
The adjective is usually compared by supplying an adverbial
word with the sense of very ; frequently comparison is effected
by reduplication, complete or partial, the superlative being some-
times marked by a reiteration of the duplicated syllable ; cf.
' worbrinun,' tired ; ' worbrinunun,' very tired ; ' worbrinununun,'
ejxcsivTcly tired — regularly done* This hanging on to a letter or
syllable also implies continuity or intensity in the meaning of
the verb in some dialects. Another mode of comparison in
adjectives is by singling out that object which surpasses the
• Mode used by the Melbourne blacks, vide R. Brough Smyth's " The
Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. ii8.
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 163
otlier or others, and saying 'this big,' 'this good,' and so on.
In opposition to the view that a word may be a noun or adjective
indifferently by tacking on or omitting the case endings, and
that there is no difference in form, I repeat what I have already
remarked, that this is not invariably true, that, for instance, there
are certain recognisable adjectival terminations, such as ' -ngur '
in the Kabi dialect, although they are affixed to only a limited
number of words. This, however, is to be observed, that in Kabi,
nouns may become adjectives by the addition of ' -ngur ' just as
in English by affixing -like, in German -ig or -lich.
NUMERALS.
The Australian aborigines are singularly behind most other
races in their numeral system and the general practice of arith-
metic. The binary system of numbering is almost universal
among the tribes. This is their basis of enumeration. The
simple method of reckoning by the use of only two distinct
terms is varied in some dialects by the possession of a distinct
word for three, in which instances the method is not regularly
trinary, but an irregular combination of the three basal forms
to represent higher numbers. It should be noted that the
seemingly distinct terms for tltree are analysable into the terms
for 2+1 occurring in some locality or another, or are the scarcely
recognisable remains of such a combination. For instance, at
Lake Amadeus the numerals run ' goochagoora,' one, ' godarra,'
two, ' munkuripa,' three. ' Munkuripa ' is compounded of
' mun ' = cmd or hi/, and ' kuripa,' a variant of the commonest
form for one in the east and south of Australia, appearing in
such forms as ' koorbno,' ' kutupon,' ' kaiap.' So that the full
form for three at Lake Amadeus would have been ' godarra mun
kuripa,' unless we suppose that ' munkuripa ' was adopted from
another dialect in which 'kuripa' meant one, which is quite
possible.
We discover by analysis that prior to the binary system
there was a mode of reckoning by simply repeating the unit as
often as required and coupling the terms by a conjunction thus,
I, i + i, I + I + I, and so on. This accounts for the same ex-
pression being used for tico in one place and for three in another.
In process of time one of the terms dropped out of the combina-
Kit EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
tion for (I'v, the conjunction and the remaining term became
fixsed and sometimes worn down. The unit of one locality
being employed to express a higher number elsewhere is
occasionally due, simply to numerical indefiniteness. Compare
• kourapong' = 4, used at Mount Rouse, Victoria ; primarily it
meant oiw. Compare also ' waiiiool ' at Bloomfield Valley,
Queensland, which, though obviously originally meaning one, and
still used for one in other dialects, means there Jive, ten, many.
In a simple binary system, such as the Kabi of Queensland,
the reckoning proceeds thus : ' Kalim,' one, ' boolla,' two, ' boolla-
kalim,' three, ' boolla-boolla ' or ' boolla-kira-boolla,' /owr, ' boolla-
boolla-kalim,' five. On reaching this height of reckoning the
aboriginal brain usually gets puzzled, and all higher numbers
are named by such a term as ' kurwunda' or * bonggan,' which,
in that particular dialect, means many.
In various tribes the terms for hand and foot are introduced
for purposes of enumeration. Thus in the Watty tribe, on the
Murray River, ' kyup ' {kaiitp) ' murnangin,' i.e., one hand, means
^'w, and 'polite' {polait) 'murnangin,' i.e., two hands, means
ten.* Some tribes have reached a stage of decimal enumeration
built upon the binary, and as a further development vigesimal ;
in both cases the terms are those for hands and feet.
So far as the evidence available goes, with the Tasmanians
the lower numerals were not combined to form the higher,
each number being represented by a distinct term. The fol-
lowing conclusions are deducible from the examples preserved,
which vary considerably. The syllable ' wa ' is a common ter-
minal mark. The stem of the term for one is ' mara ' ; that of
the term for tv:o ' poua ' or ' pia.' The termination ' -la ' or
' -lia ' seems to have been sometimes substituted for ' -wa,'
giving forms like ' boula,' or possibly ' -la ' or ' -lia ' may have
been added to such a form as 'poua,' giving 'pouala' or
' poualia.'
The Tasmanian stem ' mara ' has survived in various places
on the continent as the equivalent of one. It assupies the
form ' mal ' or ' marl ' in the Kamilroi dialect of New South
Wales, 'moar' between the Leichhardt and Gregory Rivers,
near the Gulf of Caii-)entaria ; 'mirina' or 'murina' on the
Lower Rarcoo, a form which interchanges with ' matina.' The
* Beveridge's " Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina," p. 175.
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 165
same Tasmanian stem appears in ' barkoola-inama ' (24-1),
three, Lower Diamantina River, ' barkoola-matina ' (2 + i), Lower
Barcoo River, 'boolar-martung ,' (2+ i), Moneroo, New South
Wales ; also in ' polimea ' (2 + mea) tierce, Lake Condah, Victoria.
The other Australian numeral forms not derivable from the
old Tasmanian are reducible to a very small number of bases.
In addition to ' mara,' already dealt with, the distinct terms for
one are chiefly : —
' Kuru-po-na,' the most prevalent. It is not found exactly
in this form, but the immense diversity of variants points to such
an original. One of the nearest approaches to the typos is
* koorbno,' occurring on the Diamantina River, Queensland.
Thence north-eastward to the coast it is worn down to ' nupoon,
' nobin,' and similar forms. Apparently from a focus at the
head of the said river this numeral has been carried south-
westward to the most south-westerly point of Australia, south-
ward to the most southerly point in Victoria, and south-eastward
to the extreme east of the continent. The changes which it has
undergone in transit are still traceable, and will be sufficiently
exhibited on the subjoined table. Some of the extreme variations,
like ' kaiap ' of Victoria, are scarcely recognisable. A very im-
portant variant has made its way along the east of Cape York
Peninsula, and has reached as far south as the tropic of Capricorn.
It assumes such forms as ' warpa ' (Port Denison), ' wirburra,'
Belyando River, &c. ; we pick it up again in Torres Strait as
' warapune ' (Prince of Wales Island), ' woorapoo ' (Warrior
Island), ' urapon ' (Saibai Island). It is thus traced to within
two miles of the New Guinea coast.
In New Guinea again there are other variants, such as
' koapuua ' (Bula'a), ' abuna ' (Aroma), «&c. (see table). This, the
most common term for one, and one of the most ancient, is not
of Tasmanian origin. It has been introduced from New Guinea
by the second tide of human life which overspread Australia,
and yet it is distinct from both the Melauesian and Polynesian
numeral types.
As regards derivation, it seems composed of two radicals,
represented by ' kuru ' or ' kura,' and ' pa ' or ' po ' respectively.
The former appears in West Australian ' kain,' the ' -n ' being
for ' -na ' or ' -nu,' probably to give substantival power, just as
the whole word ' kurupo ' takes on ' -n ' or ' -na ' for the same
im i:a(.li:iia\vx and crow
purpose. What the primitive meaning was would be difficult,
if not impossible, to determine. There are hints that the roots
had demonstrative force ; thus, in the Kabi dialect of south-east
Queensland ' karva ' means other (Lat. alius), it is modified
' karvana ' or ' kai-vano/ and ' v ' in Kabi stands for ' b ' in other
dialects. The local equivalent at the Macdonnell Ranges in the
heart of Australia is ' arbuna,' another. ' Karba ' is also used
there. The syllable ' -pa' I regard as a demonstrative corre-
sponding to the third personal pronoun singular (with ' parna '
plural), Adelaide. 'Panna' is third singular in Parnkalla
dialect.
' Kula,' ' kuala,' ' kualim,' &c., another typical term for one,
is, I feel sure, simply a variant of ' kura.' In the north-west of
New South AVales it occurs simply. In the same neighbourhood
and generally in the east central belt it occurs in ' barkoola,'
firo, where 'bar' has some such meaning as and ovanoihcr ; com-
pare Victorian numerals in which *ba' or 'pa' joins 07ic to a
number preceding. ' Barkolo ' or ' parkula ' also means three in
South Australia, according to a principle already laid down, viz.,
that in the higher numbers the word for one came last, and when
a new term for one was introduced the older term got the higher
value. At Port Darwin ' kula ' occurs as part of * kulagook,' one.
At Hawkesbury lliver. New South Wales, it may form part of
' workul,' one, and at Omeo, Victoria, part of ' warkolala,' tivo.
The identity of ' kula ' with ' kura ' is borne out by its occurring
in such words as ' koolbarro, ' three, which is the local form at
the Upper Burdekin corresponding to 'koorborra,' three, at
places not far distant, the latter being a variant of ' kurupana.'
' Wongara,' 'ungar,' 'onegan,' ' ungal,' 'yongole,' &c. This
seems connected with preceding, but not distinctly. Its range
is comparatively limited. It is doubtless a later term. Its New
Guinea equivalent is ' aungao.' It appears to have been brought
to Australian shores about the neighbourhood of Hinchinbrook
Island in the form of ' yongool.' At Broadsound, some 250
miles to the south-east, it occurs as 'onegan' (i.e., 'wongan').
Inland it has passed in a southerly direction to the Paroo and
Maranoa Rivers, a distance of some 600 miles. Westward it
has reached the mouth of the Leichhardt River. It may be the
same vocable which prevailed at Sydney and neighbourhood in
forms like ' workul,' ' wogul,' &c. ; at :Mount Gambier, South
AITSTRALIAN LANGl'ACiKS 167
Australia, in the form ' woudo,' and at Woodford, \ ictoria, as
' waando.' This view is supported by the terms for three at the
last two places, viz., ' waawong' and ' wrow-wong' respectively.
There is a presumption in favour of its original application
being demonstrative. In the Woolna dialect ' wongalyer ' (stem
'wonga' or 'wongal') means iliat, and on the Cloncurry Kiver
' wallegul ' means this side.
Two other terms for one, ' kutia ' and ' whaityiu,' I regard as
variants of one radical form. I shall indicate their distribution
separately.
' Kutia ' is scattered widely, being most persistent in the
extreme west. ' Guddee,' on the Upper Murray, is probably the
local homologue. ' Kudjua ' occurs at the mouth of the Burdekin,
Queensland, for tlircc, ' kutchoo ' is tltrcc further north at the
Thornborough diggings, ' marukutye ' is three at Adelaide. The
two former are remnants of a combination, 2+1, and ' -kutye '
in the Adelaide word doubtless stands for one, being repre-
sented in the terminal syllables of ' yammalaitye ' ( i j and
' parlaitye ' (2). It is therefore also represented in Victorian
' polaitch ' (2) which in structure corresponds to ' barkula' used
elsewhere. Strange to say, ' goochagoora,' one, at Lake Amadeus
combines this term with the more primitive ' kura."
'Whychen' or ' whaityin,' with variants ' wigin.' ' wogin.'
* watchin,' &c., is more restricted. This word reached Australia
about the mouth of the Burdekin. It is not found north
of Townsville. Its homologue occurs in the form • koitan ' on
Woodlark Island, to the south-east of New Guinea. It has
penetrated inland in the forms ' wogin,' Belyando Kiver ; • itcha '
on the Warrego and Paroo. On the Darling it has displaced
the more ancient ' koola,' and appears thei'e as ' neecha," • ngitya.'
Its furthest south is Piangil, on the Murray, where the form is
' yaitna,' its occurrence here, however, compels us to identify it
with the ' aitch ' in Victorian ' polaitch ' and consequently with
' kutia.' ' Waityu ' is the synonym at Cooper's Creek,
Vwaityuali,' near there, on the "Wilson River. • Xinta," in the
very heart of Australia, is probably the local corresponding
form.
The above three types (regarding ' kura ' and ' kula " as
identical, as also ' kutia ' and ' whaityin ') leave very few terms
for one unrelated.
uiN i:agu:hawk and crow
The etymons for two are fewer than those for one. Four
types especially i^revail — ' boolla ' along the eastern watershed and
headwaters of the Barcoo and Darling Hivers, extending south-
ward from the Burdekin ; ' barkoola ' from watershed of Gulf
rivers over the east-central district ; ' polaitye ' in Victoria
generally and south of South Australia ; and ' kootara ' in the
west. iJut these are reducible to three inasmuch as ' boolla' is
certainly a contraction of 'parakula.' 'Kula' occurs for one
only in the north-west corner of New South Wales along with
' boolla ' ti'-o, and for many miles round in all dirt'ctions the
terms for ti'-o (occasionally ihrc) are such as ' barkula,' ' para-
kula,' ' piakula,' &c.
• Barkoola.' ' rankool ' (Murray River), ' parakula.' ' Bar- ' is
most probably a conjunction signifying and. The full original
form of this numeral would be ' koola-para-koola,' i + i. This
supposition accounts also for its occurrence as tlircc. At Bool-
cooinata. where ' barkoola' is ttco, 'koola' is one.
•Polaitye,' ' polaitch,' 'poolet,' &c., Victoria; ' parlaitye,'
(Adelaide, S.A.), I once thought to be variants of ' boolla,' but am
now convinced that they are aualysable into ' para ' ' aitye '
{ = aiul one) after the manner of 'parakula.'
' Kootara,' ' koodthera.' ' koochal,' ' kujara,' are the prevailing
western terms. In the centre this type occurs with ' koo,' the
numeral index (as we may call it), omitted, as ' tera ' at
Maedonnell Ranges, and 'trurama,' &c., in neighbourhood.
Such forms as ' ooroopoochama,' three, in centre of Australia,
are easily explicable as ' (k)ooroopoo-trama,' i + 2. The homo-
logues of • kootara ' appear in Toi-res Strait as ' quassur ' (Prince
of Wales Island), and ' ukasara,' Saibai Island.
Having already enunciated the principles upon which the
terms for three and higher numbers have been formed, further
analysis is rendered unnecessary.
The subjoined table will show the changes which several types
have undergone, how they may be traced along lines converging
in the north-east of Australia, and that homologous terms are to
be found in Xew Guinea or adjacent islands.
I
AUSTRALIAN LAVilACiliS
16<>
Q
I^
O
O
02
iJ
<J
(4
12;
1— I
O
-CO
C Oh
o «
be
. o ^ <
o 6q
.a n.
^ '^ .
fl OOO
o • o
H cd
3 •
aF4
2 p
r032
t/2 M
CO M
a S
Mo:
o ,
ft/
J4 M
il II
tc9
«S rr O ^ -
'p^,.^ ^ ^ ;^
tU3^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r: ^
< 5 -» tfc ixj/ "a '
- to to 5 5 ir tij
? a a o * ? o
f^ s rt # ? tf js
O ng
■3 fl
o! Oh cS 3 = n ^
S i: '^ t- ^- *- "=
O « CIS .3 C8 1) o
^ ? ^ 5: ^ 5: is
■O'o' 5 o o 3
03 - M o -e s
S^P O 3 2
fc. t- ™
•000
q o o
11
c:
s s
cS
^
^
:|
5.
^^
o g . . . .^
5-».
— ■>-«, S '-I "> ■>
-^ -« '> \,,
1 ■«^ "T* "^ ro
V- -fs ^ ~ «i; ^ -* ^^
170 i:a(;lkhawk and ckow
THE PRONOUN.
The pronouns are specially remarkable for the almost
universal currency of certain forms, both of stem and (less
uniformly) of case-ending, notably those of the first and
second persons singular. 'Jlie first and second persons singular
are generally of the central Indian ' nan-nin ' type (' ngau-ngin '
rather in Australia) ; in some cases the plural has the same base
as the singular, with generally a syllable marked by the letter
* 1 ' to indicate plurality, this also being an Indian feature. In
the first and second persons there is usually a dual, the first
dual being, sometimes at least, such a compound as ' we-thou ';the
second sometimes is, sometimes contains, the numeral iiuo ; occa-
sionally a trjal number for the first person is met with and a
dual for the third. In the West Australian siDeech different
pairs are indicated by different details in the three persons,
significant of such relations as (i) husband and wife or people
greatly attached ; (2) parent and child, uncle and nephew, and
the like ; (3) brother and sister, or a pair of friends. There is
usually no phonic connection between the third persons singular
and plural, a common form of the third plural has the etymon
' than ' or ' tin ' ; the distinction of sex is not usually marked in
the pronoun, though there are exceptions. Decayed pronouns
are frequently incorporated with nouns to indicate possession,
in such forms o,^ fathcr-my, fathcr-yonr, and also with verbs as
the personal index not yet assimilated so as to obliterate the
origin, and in such cases the position is usually terminal, though
here again the case of Daktyerat dialect is a clear exception,
where the pronominal element may be either initial or medial.
The pronoun is also well supplied with cases, and possessive
forms are in some dialects capable of declension like nouns.
Demonstrative pronouns are also declinable like the personal in
certain dialects, as, for example, that of Lake Macquarie in New
South Wales. The interrogative pronouns and interrogative
adverbs may be mentioned together as having much in common.
The radical elements are usually ' ngan ' in wlio or idud, ' wendyo '
in where, wlien, &c., ' min ' in lioio, ichy, hoio many, v)hat, &c.
These are declined to correspond to a variety of shades of
meaning, and they are among the most uniform and widespread
words.
d
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
171
\
I
f
<
3
-J
■^3
a
M
^§ .
6
P
a a c 2 3
1 1
13
1Ǥ
.
■
bX) tfj be S ci a
bo
bo
bos rt
^- 1
a c c a ^ ^
a
e3
a
a aj2
<
fl
S
a
<5
^
S
H
><
1 '3
1
S 1
P
3 '^ '-^ a
^ r3
•^ a
- .-- a rt o
_r c3
1^ c o o o
rX 3
■•q J
OQ
s rt ('. a c
—
c4 .^
CC
TJ
M
M
a
^
o
c€
<5
M
<
3
.;:; .r, Q a t4 C to
1
« 1 1
M
cs rt .S .S OJ 3 q
!^
6/0 bfj 6C M bC 00
tf/Eo
bO
s s a s fl a
a a
—
fl
<^
t3
I.I gl
bo
•S 3
1
o3
:=: c3
3.t: 03
•S .2 I
3 Q<
3:3
H
bo bC g
bObo
bObo bo
9 C >
a a
a a a
Q
m
W
bC br. be bD be bo be 3
^ 1
a
^ bo
O"
a a a a a a
a^
—
a a 'C
Q
J
fq >|
" «
^ J
S hJ
o o
__,
IH tl
O <]
-73 o 60
c3
a a> o
cq
.2.11111
3
;=! o
rt
a
a o ^
03 c3 t^. P^ C C
rt >>
c3
c3 >>4J
«J
P>3
2 3
-<1
M
C4 r^ 3
H
<1
i^ 1 •^',^ 1 '^ 1
1
pj
^
n 1 bD i 3 1
a a
1
.- -5 OS
o
bD bo 3
a'bb
n'ag
«0
a a a
03 a
OS a «
ca
^^
o
eg
s.
M W
,_,
rs
J
"d
!^ rt
O
H
'3
bo a
!s 3 a
.^ 3 O g.^ 50
03
a
bD
1.1
a
bo
13
a c: a a a a
c a
a
a a =
bobDbD bD bD bO
bo bD
bO
bDbC*J
C(
(2
c
3
5
■o
«
fe
• • •
>
f;
> • • •
g -VJ
p
:;
^ rltJll
<o
« J S
17!2 KAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
Besides the paradigms which are given in the treatment of
separate dialects I have prepared a table showing the substantial
unity of the Australian pronoun. The essential features are
obsen-able in the dialect of Saibai, two miles from the New
Ciuinea coast, and understood on the coast. This, to me, is sug-
gestive of the route along which the pronoun was conveyed. The
double subject is noticeable in the Torres Strait singular forms,
the one in ' du ' or ' tu ' indicating action. There is a considerable
amount of agreement in the characteristic vowels of the singular,
I' for the first person, i for the second, u for the third.
J Regarding the radical import of the pronouns a little may
be said. Dr. Latham in a note at the close of McGillivray's
••Voyage of the Hat 1 1 csnakc" connects them with the demon-
stratives. Whether the first and second persons may be thus
connected I shall not venture to conjecture. But it is interesting
to observe that the third person singular of Kamilroi ' ngcrma '
(stem ' nger ') and the third plural of Turrubul ' ngarma ' are
practically identical with the old Tasmanian word ' nara,' he,
tliri/^ and that. A reference to the Comparative Table will show
that ' nara ' is also the equivalent for they at Nguna, New
Hebrides. The very widely prevailing radical for they, viz.,
' tana,' was also, there is good reason to believe, a demonstrative.
In the sketch of the dialect of the Macdonnell Kanges which
follows, ' tana ' is the stem of the demonstrative that, as ' nana *
is the corresponding stem for this. ' Thana ' occurs as the dis-
tinctive mark of the third plural in the Yarra Eiver (Melbourne)
dialect, its identity being obscured by its being attached to the
peculiar pronominal sign ' moromba-.'
The common second person singular ' ngin,' ' ngindu,' may
bf a sui^ival of the Tasmanian ' nina,' ' neeto,' thou.
PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.
Prepositions can scarcely be said to exist except in the sense of
preformatives, and where they are represented as being in use,
as. for instance, in the contribution to Mr. Brough Smyth's work
of the language spoken at Lake Tyers, Gippsland, the statement
is liable to arouse the suspicion that the idea of separate pre-
positions may be due to a straining to conform the native speech
to European types.
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 173
The conjunctions are few and connectives rarely employed,
but occasionally adverbs are very numerous, and they appear in
some instances, as in Kabi, to be formed from nouns after the
manner of the formation of adjectives already cited, but with a
peculiar adverbial ending. In the dialects of central Australia,
and to a large extent elsewhere, the use of adverbs is superseded
by the abundant modifications of the verb.
THE VERB.
The verb is the most complex and elaborate of all the parts
of speech. So numerous and diverse are its modifications that
they astonish and perplex the student and puzzle him in his
endeavour to designate and classify. In fact, European gram-
matical terms will not embrace them in their rich abundance,
or, to vary the figure, are insufficient to clothe them. We gene-
rally find English writers conjugating Australian verbs after the
approved methods of English grammar, which is like an attempt
to spell all the words in the English language by the use of
only half a dozen letters. The verb has what may be called
forms, such as simple, reflexive, reciprocal, and there are several
■moods, as optative, inceptive, infinitive, imperative. Then there
are tenses in considerable variety, as for instance in the Wirad-
huri, indefinite present, definite present, aorist, indefinite perfect,
definite perfect, to-day's perfect, yesterday's perfect, distant
perfect, and so on with future, until, according to Dr. F, Muller
fourteen tenses are enumerated.*
This is, of course, a description of the most complex types,
but the languages generally have such forms, moods, tenses, and
participles besides, although in a great many dialects the number
of changes is much more limited than in the Wiradhuri, And
it is just possible that some writers have needlessly multiplied
forms by incorporating with the verb adverbs which should
have been regarded as separate words. A caution must be
given against supposing that the verbs are generally- regular,
so far asmy personal experience goes, which is confined to the
* Some dialects have an active and passive voice, as the Lake Macquarie,
in which an incorporated pronominal element in the nominative indicates the
active, a similar element in the accusative marks the passive.
174 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
knowledge of one dialect acquired directly from the blacks, there
is great irreq-nlarity and many verbs are defective. The position
of words in" the sentence is subject to considerable variation
according to dialect. Commonly in categorical sentences the
nominative comes first and is immediately followed by the object ;
qualifying words if present succeeding their respective subjects ;
after the object comes the adverb and finally the verb.
CHAPTER XIII
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR
Grammatical sketch of Tasmanian and of five Australian dialects
representing the linguistic classes— Tasmanian — Wimmera, Victoria
— Kabi, Queensland— Specimen in Kabi, with translation — West
Australia — Diyeri, South Australia — Macdonnell Ranges, Central
Australia.
I NOW submit a brief outline of the grammatical forms of
six different languages, furnishing an example (not necessarily
typical) for each of the six classes into which I have divided the
languages of Australia. Absolute consistency in spelling native
names must not be expected.
THE LANGUAGE OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.
Avihorities : The vocabularies and phrases in E. M. Curr's " The Australian
Race," vol. iii. pp. 604-672.
The language of the Tasmanian aborigines became extinct with
Truganini, said to have been the last of her race, who died in
1876. Several vocabularies have been preserved, but most of
them are very brief. No attempt appears to have been made
to master and place on record the grammatical structure of the
language, and the dialogues and phrases that have been handed
down afford but scanty material for the deduction of general
principles. So little has been done in this way and so little
data are to hand for generalisations that it might be considered
hardly worth troubling to attempt to arrive at any order. But
apart from the mere interest attaching to any vehicle of human
thought there are certain special features about the Tasmanian
language that might dispose to a close study of it. First of all
it is the language of the advance-guard of the human race in
the Asiatic hemisphere, and has probably not been much affected
176 i:a(;lkhawk and crow
by the introduction of foreign elements. And then further, it
forms, according to the present writer's view, the substratum
of the Australian languages generally, so that if they are to be
studied with any degree of comprehensiveness the influence of
Tasmanian speech upon them must never be left out of account.
A difliculty has been experienced in finding any relationship
between Tasmanian and Australian dialects ; one reason for this
difficulty has been the assumption that Tasmanian should form
a k-ind of Australian dialect. It is not, strictly speaking, an
Australian dialect at all, but a distinct language, the language
of the real Australian aborigines, but in modern times not
found in Australia except as a barely recognisable ground-colour
of most Australian dialects and more decidedly of those of North
Australia, AVest Australia, Riverina, and Victoria.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Vowels.
Diphthongs.
( 'oiisonants.
kg ng
t d til y 1 r n
z sh j palatal
p b w m
In Peron's list ' b' and ' s ' also occur.
There is a very decided preference for initial consonants
and terminal vowels, the prevailing terminal letter being ' a.'
A few words terminate in ' n,' ' r,' ' 1,' or ' k.' Final ' k ' is
specially a mark of the adjective in the southern dialect. ' L '
and ' r ' occur frequently as initials, a mark also of the Victorian
and Northern Territory dialects on the mainland. ' Ng ' occurs
both initially and in other positions. Such combinations as
'kr,' ' gr,' 'tr,' 'dr,' 'pr,' 'br' are common, but there are clear
indications that originally a vowel intervened — e.ff., 'prugga'
and ' parugga,' hrrast.
A comparison of the local variations of words leads to the
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 177
conclusion that in the west of the island the language was more
decayed phonetically than in the other parts.
THE NOUN.
The Tasmanian agrees with the majority of Australian
dialects in being without inflectional signs to mark number and
gender in the common noun. The noun, as well as other parts
of speech, is modified chiefly if not exclusively by post-positions.
The terminations ' -na ' in the east and a corresponding ' -lia '
in the west are common nominal or definitive signs. From
their being almost invariably affixed to names of organs of the
body, it has been suggested that they may be pronominal affixes,
but the fact that they frequently terminate other kinds of
substantives is fatal to such a supposition.
As exemplifying the above remarks I may cite the terms for
man and woman. In the east the word for man is * pugga-na,'
and in the west ' pa-lia.' ' Lowan-na ' is eastern for v:o'iii'>n,
while the western is ' noa-lia.' The terminations are separable.
Compare also '-puggaL-lnggan-na' (lit., mnn-foot), footmar Jr. of
the east with ' pa-lug ' of the west.
It would be rash to attempt the formation of a paradigm of
declension from the scanty material jDreserved in Dr. Milligan's
dialogues. The examples are, however, sufficiently numerous
to indicate the principles of construction. Nouns are modified
by affixes as generally in Australian dialects. The sign of the
dative is '-to,' '-ta' or 'tu'; thus, 'luna' is lioi'^i, 'luna-tu,' to
the house, ' nanga,' father, ' nanga-to,' to {your) father. A sign
for the locative is ' -reta,' e.ej., ' luna-reta,' ^?l the house. ' Lia " is
ivater, ' lia-titta,' in the water.
Pronominal suffixes are also employed. Thus, 'nanga-mea,'
my father, ' nang-eentx,' thy father, ' pughera-nymee,' his hair.
Where a pronominal and a case-modification are both present
the former comes first, e.y., ' luua-mea-ta,' to my house.
The language is partial to compound words, of which the
constituent elements remain easily distinguishable, as for
example :
prugh-walla .
pugga-lee-na
pugga-nubra
kul-lugga-na
mongta-lin-na
gooa-larigta .
Ireast-irater milk
m(in-U(/ht {the) the sun
DKDi-Cj/e •>■«»
bird-foot {the) talon
eye-house {the) cyc-lash
htrd-hig eaylc
M
178 KAGLEHAWK AND CROW
The above method of word-formation is likewise characteris-
tically Australiau.
PRONOUN.
The informatiou available regarding the pronouns is exceed-
ingly meagre. The few authorities who have mentioned them
agree pretty closely. The inflectional changes do not appear
numerous. Exactly the same forms are given for subjects and
objects. The possessive case follows the noun which it qualifies,
or is postflxed to it in a contracted form. The pronoun is rarely
expressed separately from the verb which by implication it
governs. It may be expressed in the verbal form, but this is
doubtful.
Pronouns.— F/7's< Person.
>^in(jida)\ Plural.
JS'om. . . mana, mecna warrander
Gen. . . mena, -mea
Dat. . . miape, mito
Accus. . . pawahi, meena
Second Person.
JSingidar. Plural.
A^om. . , nina, neeto neena, nee, ninga
Gen. . . -eena
Accus. . . neeto
Third Person.
Sin<iidar. Plural.
Nom. . . uara, narrar (»H. and/.) ; mggwx [neid.) nara
Accus. nara
Inter-rofjatives.
wanaraua, telingha, tebya, pallawaleh, tarraginna, xvhat.
Demonstratives.
narrawa, this {is) ; avere, nara, that.
ADJECTIVE.
The adjective is generally indicated by the termination '-ak,'
or '-iak,' especially in the east; *-e' or *-t^' is a frequent
adjectival termination in the south. Privative forms are dis-
tinguished by an affixed negative, as in the following words :
' lowa-timy,' vjifeless ; ' payea-timy,' toothless; * pugga-timy,'
childless; ' poruttye-mayek,' or 'paruye-noyemak,' or ' paroy-
I
I
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 179
time-na,' leajless. As on the Australian continent some words
have a wide range of application, thus, ' eleebana ' is employed
in such senses as good^ heautifid, svjeet, right, fragrant^ &c.
NUMERALS.
In the general introduction to the language the numerals
have already been noticed.
marrawah ; marai (P) ; marrarwan, borar, parmere (N) ; parmery (J) ;
one.
piawah, pooalih, buwah ; bura (P) ; boula, calabawa (J) ; pyaner-
barwar (N) ; kateboueve (L) ; two.
lia winnawah, talleh ; aliri (P) ; wyandirwar (N) ; three.
pagunta, wullyawa ; four.
pugganna, marah, karde (G) ; five.
[The capitals stand for the authorities Peron, Norman,
Jorgenson, Lhotsky, Gaimard (in " Voyage de 1' Astrolabe ") ; the
other terms are from Milligan.]
VERB.
The verbal termination is usually well marked. The follow-
ing forms at least are determinable. On the east coast '-kuama,'
' -kena,' ' -gena,' ' -guua,' ' -tone ' ; on the south, ' -gana,'
* -gara,' ' -bea,' ' -tone ' ; on the north-west and west, ' -bea.'
As illustrating the variety of termination the following
typical forms of one word will serve : — East ' ton-guama,' south
' ton-gane,' west and north-west ' tona-bea,' all signifying to
gulp.
ADVERB.
namelah, nayeleh, wabbara, when, and where.
ungamlea where.
THE LANGUAGE OF THE WIMMERA DISTRICT IN NORTH-
WEST OF VICTORIA.
Authorities : Revs. F. A. Hagecauer, A. Hartmann, and F. W. Spieseke,
in contributions to Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria,"
vol. ii. pp. 39, 50, 55, 76. The accounts of the two latter contributors fairly
agree. Mr. Hagenauer's shows considerable diiferences.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Voivcls.
a a a
e u 006
i i u u
diphthongs ai au oi
180 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
Consonants,
k g ch ng
t (1 ty or tch dy y r rr 1 n n
p b V w m
As in the N. S. Wales and S, Queensland division there is
a marked preference for consonants at the beginning of words.
Any consonant except ' r' may be initial. There is no restric-
tion as to terminal letters. We find here initial ' 1 ' and medial
combinations as ' rt,' ' pkr,* ' rpk,' ' rmb,' which would not be
tolerated in the dialects of Queensland and N. S. Wales.
THE NOUN.
Difference of number or gender is not marked by sound.
For the plural, above a certain small number a term signifying
tnani/ is added or the word is reduplicated. The noun is thus
declined —
Singular. Singular.
wutye, a man galk, « sticl; wille, opossum
wutyugitg nom. agent willetch
wutyuk
wutye galka and galko
wiityukal, hy a man
wutyenung, _y'/o»i a man
wutyel, v-ith a man galko, willedyal, in an opossum
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
E.rat.
Enj.
THE PRONOUN.
The pronoun shows considerable modifications. It is subject
to be attracted to other parts of speech in abbreviated form, e.g.,
the possessive pronoun is affixed to the noun ' mam,' father,
thus —
mam-ek, my fatlier mam-endak, our fatlmr
mam-in, thy fatlier mam-angngodak, your father
mam-fik, his or her father mam-ennak, their father
Adjectives may become passive verbs by a similar process,
thus 'katyelang,' sick, makes ' katyelang-an,' I am sick,
• katyelang-ar,' tliou art sick, and so on. The importance of the
pronominal element affixed to the verb will be observed further
on. I shall show two tables of the pronouns, the first by Mr.
Spieseke, the second by Mr. Hagenauer, as I think that both
are required for an explanation of the verb and for a fuller
view of the language.
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR
Person iL Pronouns— /'/?•«« Person.
181
Singular.
Plural.
Nom. .
Gen. .
Ace. . .
ngan
ngek
ngerrin
Second Person.
ngo
ngendak
ngandank
Nom. , .
6en. . .
Ace. , .
ngar
ngin
nganung
Third Person.
ngat
ngodak
din
Nom. . .
Gen. . .
Aec. . .
ngait
nguk
ngun
ngaty or ngatch
ngeannak
ngin
Second Table— First Person.
Singular.
. Dual.
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
Abl.
. walfmek, nanon
. walunungek
. walugalik, &// mc
waliinganfik
walfingiingnok
! waliingnungnaluk
walungingorak, ngarra
wallogingorak
wallogaringorak
Mr. Hagenauer also gives a dative singular ' gangek,' for 7)ic ,
and a genitive plural ' gorak,' ours.
Second Person
.
Nom. .
Ace. .
Ahl. .
Voc. .
. walungin
. walungin
. waliigalet
. walungin
Third Person.
bulet will
bulet wul
bulet wiilek
billet wulan
Singidar.
Dual. Plural.
. gUla,
ilogung, no
biilang giang
Nom.
It will be observed that in the first and second persons in
the second table there is an introductory particle, ' walu ' ; this
probably is some word such as self, more exactly defining the
pronoun ; when this is decapitated the likeness of the two tables
is rendered more close.
Interrogatives.
Nom. . . wiiiar wiiiaru, 7fho
Gen. . . winarait
Dat. . . wiiiarangait
Ace. . . wiuer ngan, tchat
ngak, ich)j. ngango, hon
wiiia and gio, where, v/iiiang, how far
winatuk, ichich
18i> KAGLEHAWK AND CROW
ADJECTIVE.
The article is uot present. The adjective does not seem to
be declined. Comparison is denoted by reduplication. The
adjective commonly precedes the noun, a somewhat rare position
for it to occupy.
NUMERALS.
The numeral system is binary. The method of enumeration
is 'kaiup,' one, ' bulet/ hvo, * bulet kaiup' or 'billet ba kaiup,'
three, ' bulet bulet ' or ' billet ba biilet,' foicr, and so on. The
natives of this tribe counted up to twenty, which is ' bfiletgedi
mafiya ' (apparently huicc-huo hands or both fed and hands).
THE VERB.
The verb seems simpler than in most dialects, but the
apparent simplicity may be due to want of full information.
Conjugation is by post-positions. The pronoun abridged is
attracted to form an affix, showing number and person, and a
different fuller form (apparently an accusative case) of the pro-
noun distinguishes the passive from the active voice. The word
' mala ' with the appearance of an auxiliary verb occurs along
with the principal verb in perfect tenses and in the potential
mood. Of the different writers one places it before the principal
verb and joins on the pronominal affix to it, the others make it
succeed the principal verb. Time seems hardly distinguished
save by this word ' mala ' with the force of have or had, and by
a word such as ' maluk,' signifying by-and-by and denoting the
future. Certainly in Mr. Spieseke's view of the verb the
particle ' in ' is introduced between the stem and the pronominal
element to indicate past time, distinguishing the imperfect from
the present ; the same particle is affixed in Mr. Hartmann's
view to mark the future. This double use raises distrust in its
temporal power. There appear to be at least two participial
forms, the imperfect ending in '-na,' the perfect in 'n ' with a
preceding vowel, as 'prinna' (is), rising, ' prinnon,' risen.
The following is a table of the pronominal elements used as
post-positions to distinguish number and person in the verb,
the first consonant of the affix in the active voice may be ' g,'
' 1' ' ^S'' °^ '^^y ^6 elided as ease of utterance may require.
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 183
In the passive voice the pronominal element is free from accom-
modating phonic change, and by comparison with the declension
of the personal pronouns it will be recognised as the accusative
case. The third person singular of the verb in the present
imperfect and future tenses is joined with the various accusatives
to form the passive voice in these tenses, so that the present
indicative passive would run lie sres me, Jte sees thee^ &c. This
mode of forming the passive corresponds with that which pre-
vailed at Lake Macquarie, New South Wales.
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Singular.
Plural.
Sinrjidar.
I'Uiral.
1st Person
. -yan
-yango
(naing,
seen)
-naingn i
fiaing,
SCrs)
-niyangoring
2nd
1)
. -yar
-yat
,,
-iiiurnung
-niyurding
Zrd
"
. -n, ng,
or -kinya
-gitch or
-gatch
>>
-uitch
"
-nityaning
For imperfect tense of passive, ' uyain,' lie or tliey saiv, is
used throughout; and for the future, ' fiakin,' he will sec,
followed in both cases by the pronominal affixes as above.
THE KABI LANGUAGE.
Author itu, personal observation. A fuller but less systematic notice of
this dialect was contributed by me to Mr. Curr's work, '• The Australian
Kace,"* which would illustrate and support my remarks here. For two or
three points the Rev. W. Ridley's account of Dippil is drawn upon.
Kabi is spoken chiefly in the basin of the jNlary River,
Queensland. The name is one of the negatives of the language.
I have taken this dialect as a specimen of the elaborate
dialects of the east, not because it is the most highly developed
and richly modified, but because it belongs to that class,
showing the various distinctive features of its near relatives the
Kamilroi and Wiradhuri, and especially because rather than
enter upon other men's labours I prefer, where possible, to
tabulate a dialect which has not been systematically treated by
any one else.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Vowels.
a a it
e (as in yet, English) e G n (as in English to)t) o 6
i i u u
* Vol. iii. pp. 179-195.
184 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW
Diphthongs.
au ai ill oi ou ua ui
Comonantg,
kg ng
t .1 til dh ty (almost like palatal ch) y r rr (muffled cerebral) 1 n u ndh
p b V w m
Kabi has uo words beginning with ' 1' or ' r,' and its terminal
letters are '1/ ' m," ' n,' ' r,' ' ng,' 'ndh,' and vowels. Initial
vowels sometimes occur, but very rarely. There are occasionally
as initial letters of a syllable such combinations as ' pr,' ' br,'
• kr,' but even between these a semivowel steals in. ' S ' occurs
oulv in the dog-call ' isG,' * ' h ' only in one or two foreign words.
Writing about Dippil, Dr. F. Miiller says, " In the vocabulary
of Rev. W. Ridley, there are indeed words in which the ' th '
and ' dh ' appear, but we believe the existence of these sounds
in an Australian tongue doubtful and due to imperfect appre-
hension."' f Dr. Mliller's distrust is perfectly groundless. An
]'::glish ear cannot be deceived in the sound of ' th,' it is a charac-
teristic Australian sound, and in Kabi, of which Dippil is the
nearest neighbour and almost the parallel, ' th ' is pronounced
exactly as in English /"//<'/•. The sound of ' dh ' would be best
illustrated by the value which would result from the ' th ' in
English thct being preceded by a distinct ' d.' The Kabi ' v '
is the equivalent of ' b ' in some other dialects. Reduplication
of consonants is frequent, each member of the pair being
distinctly enunciated.
THE NOUN.
Number is denoted not by inflection, but by an adjective
added. Gender is not marked by inflection excepting that there
is a trace of ' -kan ' or ' -gan ' as a feminine termination in proper
names and in the term ' nulangun,' a moiher-in-laiv,X perhaps
derived froni ' yiran ' or ' yirkan,' a woman. In all other in-
stances such words as niaa, vjoman, mother are required to
indicate the sex. Case is expressed by abundant terminations.
* The dog-call is "ai, ai, air, isi"," aio is a New Guinea word meaning
rime. The name of the dog is from New Guinea and no doubt the call was
introduced with the animal.
t "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft," vol. ii. p. 42.
X 'Nulang,' wn-iti-lair, -nulauggan,' mother-in-law.
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 185
Probably the nouns are divisible into declensions distinguish-
able by the stem endings, but I am unable so to classify them.
In nouns and pronouns the usual duplicate forms of the nomina-
tive occur, the one denoting the subject simply, the other the
subject as active agent.
NOUN DECLENSION.
I employ the word * yeramin,' horse, because it is virtually a
Kabi word, although applied to an imported animal, and because
I am sure of important modifications to which it is subject.
The terminations in this particular word about which I am un-
certain, but which I have set down from analogy, are indicated
by an asterisk, the analogies being supported by verified
examples.
JSom.
simple . .
. jeramin, a horse
dhakkr, a stone
„
agent . .
. yeramin-do
dhakke-ru
Gen.
.
. yeramin-no *
kung-u, of the icater
Dat.
to . . .
. yeramin-nri *'
dhakkan-no, to the rainboio
to go for .
. yeramin-gri
Ace.
. . .
. yeramin-na*
nguin-na, the hoy (object)
All.
hecausc of
yeramin-i
„
interest in,
yeramin-kari * or
wabun-gar], ou the stump
»
along with.
gari
»
or upon
»
instrument
—
dhakke-ro, n-lth a stone
kuthar-r., n-itk a club
Other examples illustrating case are —
At or in mjUa-nri, in the u-aterhole
ngurun-ni, bij dag
kira-mi, at the fire
noUa-Di, in the icaterhole
kira-ba, luith or in the fire
nirim-ba, in the middle
According to Eev. W. Kidley the particle • di ' may be pre-
fixed to indicate of or from, thus ' dhan di Boppil,' a man of
Bopf)il.
PRONOUNS.
The pronoun is abundantly inflected and is of the common
type in first and second persons singular and first and third
plural. Gender receives no sound mark.
186 KACiLEIIAWK AND CllOW
J^irst J^erson.
Sinyular. Plural.
Xom. simple . ngai ngali or ngalin
„ agent . ngadhu or adhu ngalindo
Gen. ofposs. . ngafiunggai ngalinngur or ngalinno
Bat ngaib'jla ngalingo
Ace. acted on . nganna ngalin
tSicond Person.
iVVm. aimiAc . ngin ngulam
„ emphatic ngindai, nginbilin
aycnt , ngindfi
Ocn ngifxjnggai ngulamo
Dat. motion to nginbijla, nginbango ngulambola
Ace. acted upon nginna
aUo after yive ngupu, yoti all
Third Person.
Masculine, Feminine, and Xeutcr.
Nom. simple . ngunda dhinabu
„ agent . ngundaro dhinaburO
Gen ngundano dhinabuno
Dat ngundabijla dhinabubola, dhinabunga
Duals.
ngalinngin, lit. we-thou, used for thou and J
ngol'jm, another and I
bula, you two
There is no relative prcuoun. For demonstrative the third
personal is used, and also the words ' karinga,' this one, ' kgra-
dhu ' that one. To give a reflexive significance ' mitdhi,' self,
follows the personal pronouns.
Jntc rroijative \\ 'ords .
Xom.
simple
. ngangai, icJio
,,
agent
. ngandii
Gen.
. . .
. ngafiunggai
Dat.
. , .
. ngangaibnla, to which place, whither
Dat.
and Ace.
. ngangaimini, lohom or lohich
Xom.
. .simple
. minanggai, lohat
agent
. ngando, tvhat
minani, ivhy
minalo, why
minama, miiiamba, how many
miiiamanij, during
minanggo, hoio
minanggai, tchat
weiio, when or where
wenamba, whether or not
wenobola, ivhcn, at what time
wenomini, ivherc ever
wandhurathin. >rhy
OTTTLINES OF GRAMMAR 187
' -amba ' is a termiuatiou denoting uncertainty, 'possibility,
and is sometimes affixed to participles as well as to adverbs.
THE ADJECTIVE.
The language wants the article. The adjective is usually
undistinguishable by sound-sign from the noun, but a common
adjectival termination is ' -ngur,' shortened sometimes to ' -ngu.'
Adjectives can be formed from most nouns by affixing this post-
formative, the original meaning of which is not clear, but the
affix corresponds with the sign of the Kamilroi genitive, also
found in Kabi. Another adjectival ending in Kabi is ' -dhau,'
by the addition of which certain nouns become adjectives. The
adjective is indeclinable. It is generally compared by the help
of such adverbs as ' karva,' very. Another mode of comparison
is to single out an individual and say of it tliis (/s- tlic^ laryr. or
this (is the) yood, and so on according to the particular attri-
bute.
With the exception of the interrogatives enumerated already
and a few adverbs of place terminating in ' -ni ' and ' -na ' the
adverb has no phonic index. Those in ' -ni ' and ' -na ' may be
regarded also as locative cases of nouns. When a connective
is used, which is rarely, ' nga ' answers for amK and if I mistake
not another mode of uniting ideas is to sustain considerably
longer than usual the final letter of a word.
NUMERALS.
The numeral system is binary. To express a number
higher than two the terms for one and two are combined as
may be necessary. ' Kalim ' or ' kualim,' one, ' bulla,' tico ' bulla
kalim,' three, 'bulla bulla' or 'bulla kira bulla,' /o^'/-. The
enumeration may be conducted higher after the same manner,
but generally numbers above four are expressed by ' gurwinda '
or 'bnnggan/ many.
THE VERB.
The verb has various forms, as Simple, Ecciprocal, Causative,
Intensive. But in certain instances what might be regarded as
a special form might e(iually be regarded as a distinct derivative
LSh KAC.LKIIAWK AND (ROW
word from the simple form. Although regular examples may
be f'iveu there is a capricious irregularity about the moods and
tenses. Infinitive. Indicative, Suppositional, and Imperative
moods are distinguishable with well-marked terminations. The
infinitive and indicative may, however, be said to overlap. Tense
as indicated by termination is very wavering, the same forms
serving on occasions for present, past, and future time. There
is a clearly marked preterite, which is also a perfect participle,
terminating in ' -n,' with 'a,' 'i,'or 'u'as preceding vowel.
The infinitive serves as imperfect participle, and there is also a
verbal noun. The shortest and simplest form is the impera-
tive. Often it is one open syllable, it rarely exceeds two, but
sometimes adds ' -mijrai.' Its termination is always in vowel
sounds. The general verbal notion is expressed by the infinitive
index, which is usually ' -man,' ' -mathi,' or ' -thin.' Some verbs
may have an infinitive in two of these endings, thus there is
' yanman' and ' yanmathi,' to fjo, ' fiindamau' and fiindatliin,' to
nittr. The diflference between the significance of '-man 'and
' -mathi ' is slight, if any, but as compared with ' -thin,' the two
former indicate >it((tc or inactivity, the latter action or motion.
l^erson is not distinguished by sound, but has either to be
inferred or the pronoun is expressed and precedes the verb.
Conjugation is by means of prefixes, affixes, and what may be
called infixes. The prefixes generally are of adverbial force,
the affixes impart the modal, temporal, and participial significa-
tion, and the infixes may be regarded as possessing formal
power, expressing generally causative and intensive variations
of the sense, only it should be observed that the index of the
reciprocal form is terminal.
The following exemplify the use of prefixes — ' biyaboman,' to
come had-, from 'biya,' hach, 'baman,' to come; ' ylkiyaman,' to
ansuxr, from ' yiki,' the same, likeivise, ' yaman,' to spcalc ; ' wuru-
boman,' to corac out, ' wuru,' out, ' baman ' to come ; ' ylvarl,' to
put, to maJ:c, is probably derived from ' bar!,' to hrimj, and is
varied to ' mivarl,' to put away, ' wuruylvarithini,' to put out.
In ' biwathin,' to play, ' wathin ' means to laugh, and ' bl- ' is an
intensifying preformative, in 'blyell/^o coocy, 'yell' means to
^hout, ' bl-' has an intensifying or prolonging force. In * bidha-
linda.' toivusf to (/rink, the initial syllable transforms the Simple
into the Causative Form, or rather helps to do so, for '-li' and
i
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 1S9
' -da ' are also concerned in the change, ' dhathin ' beiui^ the
vocable meaning to drink.
The following are examples of affixes — 'man,' '-mathl,'
' -thin.' regular signs of infinitive, also of imperfect, indicative,
and participle, '-an,' 'un,' '-in,' signs of preterite, perfect
participle, and passive sense. '-ra,' ' -thin,' ' -thini," futurity
and possibility. ' -na,' ' -nga,' '-ga,' 'da,' '-ngai,' marl-cs of
imperative mood. ' -aio,' ' aii ' distinguish the suppositional
mood. ' -na,' ' -ba ' are gerundive and participial (imperfect)
signs. ' -Ira ' has the sense of forcing or pressing. ' -iu '
implies irregular movement as exemplified in ' kauwaliu,' fo
search, 'maliu,' to change, 'yandiriu,' to 'prramhidaU'. * -mathiu,'
' -bathin,' ' -wathin,' transform other parts of speech into verbs
and impart the significations respectively of (i) 'purposr, (2)
hecoming, (3) holding or making. ' -yulaiyu ' is the index of the
Reciprocal Yovm,c.g., 'baiyi,' to stnkc , ' baiyulaiyu,' tnjight. I.e.,
to strike onr another.
Infixes. — Such terminations as 'man,' ' mathi,' &c., express
the general verbal sense, having some such force as do or m'lkr.
Without removing this general verbal sign one or more syllables
may be interposed between it and the stem ; this is the usual
mode of indicating the Causative and Intensive Forms. The
word ' kari ' means Jicrc or in ; ' karithin' is to enter, with pre-
terite ' karin.' The termination ' -thin ' differs little from
' -man ' or '- mathi ' in force ; there is also a verb ' kari-na-
man ' and another ' karin-di-mi,' both meaning to put in, ' -na '
and ' di ' are the Causative indices. The woi'd ' buwaudiman "
means to herd, lit. to cause to stop; it is thus compounded,
' buwan,' to stand, 'di,' causative particle, '-man,' verbal sio-u.
The infix ' -li' is introduced to imply doing vxU, progress, adran-
tagc. Examples, ' yangga,' to make, ' yanggallnoman,' to allow,
from 'yangga,' '-li,' to advantage, '-no,' perinissivn, 'man'
verbal sign. 'Womba' means to lift, ' wombaliman,' to jidl
upon, 'womballn,' carrying, the word ' womballmaraio ' may
therefore be thus analysed, ' womba,' to lift, ' -li,' ■inotion,
• -mara,' sign of futurity, ' -aio,' mark indicating supposition.
One kind of modification yet remains to be noticed — viz.,
reduplication. This is the usual sign of the Intensive Form.
e.g., 'yellman,' to shout, ' yelellman,' to sp)eal- qnieklg, ' dhoman,'
to eat, ' dhandhoman,' to gnaic, ' dhomma,' means fo catch, • dho-
190
l:AGLEHA^^K AND clU)^^'
mathin,' to hold, to grip, ' dhommgman,' to marrt/, i.e., to catch
and JiolJ fast !
ls\r. Threlkeld iu his " Key to the Structure of the Aboriginal
Language " is overpowered and carried away by a mystic pro-
pensity when he affirms that to the aboriginal mind particular
letters or syllables ha\e a sense inherent in the sound. How-
ever, from examples which he gives, as well as from the above,
it is evident that a letter or syllable may be elegantly introduced
to shade delicately the meaning of the verb. But such letters
or particles are no doubt remnants of words too much broken
down to stand alone.
yeliman, to call
yaman, to sjyeak
buwan, to ftand
PARADIGMS.
Forms.
Causative. Intensive.
yeleliman, to
speak qiiicldy
buwandiman
Seciprocal,
yathulaiyu, to
converse
Mooch.
Inf. and Indic.
yeliman, to speah
baman, to come
buwan, to stand
Imperative.
yell
ba
bubai
/Suppositional
or Subjunctive.
bold
Verbal Noun.
yelinba
Preterite, Perfect Participle, and Passive, 'ya'an,' spohen, 'ban,' come.
Auxiliary verbs are unknown ; temporal differences are
generally expressed by an adverb of time.
This may be the best place to show the relation Avhich Kabi
bears to the other dialects of the N. S. Wales and S. Queens-
land class, chiefly to Kamilroi and Wiradhuri. The very name
Kabi is the local equivalent of Kamil ; the Kabi people would
drop the final ' 1,' as in the word ' ml,' eye, of which the Kamilroi
form is ' mil.' From the sea coast at Maryborough for about 450
miles inland, in a south-westerly direction, the natives may
be regarded as virtually one tribe lingually. The following
are particular analogies :
Kamilboi.
andi, n-ho
minya, ichat
gir, verily
yeiil, merely
Kabi.
ngandu, wlio
minyanggai, what
givir, verily
yul, in vain, f/ratuitously
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 191
Kamilboi. Kabi.
guru, round kurT, round
baoa, back biya, bach
taon, earth dha, earth
tulu, tree dhu, tree
moron, alive murrumurru, full of life
giwir, nia7i kivar, man
Many other examples might be adduced.
I shall conclude this sketch with a table of case-endings ; for
those of the first four dialects I am indebted to Dr. F. Miiller's
" Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft," the fifth I add to show
the place of Kabi in the group.
MACQUAHIK. WIRADUURI.
Kamilboi.
TUERUBUL.
Kabi.
Nwn. arjent
-to
-tu
-du
-du
-do
Dative
-ko
-gu
-go
-ngu
-no and -go
Genitive
-ko-ba
-gu-ba
-ngu
-nu-ba
-no and -ngu
Ablative
-tin
-di
-di
-ti
-ni
Locative
-tarba
—
-da
-da
-ba
The verbal definitive elements differ considerably. A com-
parison of interrogative words leads to the same conclusion — viz.,
that all the members of this group are very closely related.
SPECIMEN OF KABI WITH TRANSLATION.
Dhak'ke' Kunda'ngur.
Pebbles (of) Koondangoor (a i^lace).
Dhan ngam dhakTceni nol'lanl nyenaman.
(To the) blackfellow always pebbles (in his) inside are.
Piri nglm buyu karn gillln.
(In the) hand bones calres head imils.
Ngin karunda yin'maio ngin'bango dhungun kar^thin.
Thou floating {]) remain (to) thee (in the) stomach (the ij) enter.
Ngin wa bai'yiro yun'maman ngin man'ngurbathin.
Thou not aching (vnlt) lie thou (wilt) become-fuU-of -vitality.
Ngan'pai Bat'yiman.
Pebble Finding.
Ngin yun'mai dhu'mo tar'vano. Ngin'du kui'bi vro'nga
Thou lie down (a) tree tinder. Thou (a) tchistling irilt hear
ngan'pai nginTDola nyin'dathin. Ngun'da dhilll'bangur nyin'daman.
the pebble (to) thee (shall) go in. It noisily (shall) go in.
Ngin man'ngur nye'naman wa ba'luman.
Iliou full of vitality (tcilt) be not (wilt) die.
192 KAGLEHAWK AND CROW
BAi'yi Yanggal'ithin.
Pain Curing.
Ngai we'nyo bai'yingfir ruu'ru muru ngan'na bun'bithin
/ If {or when) sick (the man) fidl-of-life me (will) fiuck
dbaklve ngan'na bun'mathin.
(the) pebble (j'rom) me tale out.
DllAK'KAN MAN'XGURNGUR.
(The) liainbow capable of imparting vitality.
Ngin b'ju'na bai'yingur yen'na yunmathin kungu karano.
T7iou when sick ffo lie down (at the) water's erhi^.
Ngin bai'yi-yang'galithin.
Tliou wilt be cured.
Dban dhakTcanno ngan'pai wom'ngan
(The black) man (to the) rainboio pebble gives
dhakTcan dhan'no buTcur wu.
the rainbon- (to tJie black) man rope gives.
Dhak'kan.
( The) liainbow.
Dhak'kan wa'rang ngun'da kor'aman ngu'in
(The) rainbow (is) ivicked he stole (a) bog
dhi'kui, kar'vana wom'ngan mul'lu.
half-caste, (mother gave black.
Ngun'daro kom'ngan ngu'ina tun'bano nol'lano
JTe took (the) boy (to the) mountain (a ivater)-hole
karin'dimi . Nollani ngu'in nye'naman ;
(he) put (him) in. (In the) hole (the) boy is ;
ngu'runi wfi'ruboman.
during the day he comes out.
THE LANGUAGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Authorities : Captain (now Sir George) Grey* and Mr. G. F. Moore. f
This language is spoken in the neighbourhood of Perth, and
with slight diversity in the greater part of the south-west of
Western Australia. So far as appears it is the most rudimentary
and analytic of Australian languages.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Vowels.
a a :i
e o o o (as in ton)
i ) u u
* *' Vocabulary of the Dialects of South West Australia."
t " Ten Years in Western Australia."
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 193
DipTitlioiuju.
ai au oi ua uo
Consonants,
kg ng
t d tch or tz, dj y r 1 n ii
p b V (in one word onlj') w m
There is an aversion to 'r ' and ' 1' at the beginning of words.
The distinction between surd and sonant letters is undecided.
The noun seems destitute of case-endings. The names of social
relations have a plural form in ' -mun ' if the singular end in a
vowel, in ' -gurra ' if the singular end in a consonant ; ' mun ' is
an abbreviation of ' munda,' altogether, colleetively, ' -gurra ' is
probably derived from ' garro,' again. ' Migalya ' is the plural
of ' migal,' a tear. The comparative of adjectives is formed by
reduplication, the superlative by the addition of ' -jil ' or ' buk.'
The pronouns, besides having three forms of dual for the three
persons, have also a trial number for the first person.
Possessive pronouns are formed from the personal b}^ affixing
' -uk,' excepting in the second person singular. This -nk as a
sign of possession unites the eastern and western languages.
This affix effects the same result in compound expressions, where,
however, it sometimes changes to ' -ung.'
The verb is exceedingly simple. The preterite is formed by
adding ' -ga,' the participle present by affixing ' -een' or '-ween '
to the present tense with the occasional interposition of a vowel
at the junction thus :
Present indicative . , yugow, stand
Preterite . , , yugaga
Present participle . . yugoween
The preterite has three forms relating respectively to the imme-
diate past, the sometime past, and the remote past. These are
distinguished by prefixing to the regular preterite the particles
' gori,' ' garum,' ' gora,' respectively. There are two futures, a
near and a distant, distinguished by the words ' boorda,' presently,
and ' mela,' in the fiiturc, which follow generally the infinitive
mood, occasionally the present participle, but are not incor-
porated with the verb. The word ' ordak,' signifying to intend,
is also affixed to verbs to denote that the action is purposed.
There is likewise a past participle which is not specified. There
N
194 KAGLKHA^VK AM) CROW
is no phonic mark of number in the verb. The different persons
are indicated by employing the pronouns.
This language favours, the combining of words to an almost
indefinite extent. The word commonly employed to give unity
to compounds is ' midde,' the ar/cni or agcncij, and all verbs may
be rendered substantive by the addition of this word. For
example, ' yungar barrang midde ' is the liorsc, or literally the
ycoplc-carryin[i ar/nit, ' mungyt barrang midde,' the ' mungyt '-
getting-agcnt or stick for hooking down the Bankda cones.
There are combinations observable in the verb which seem
elementary forms of the more complicated structure in the east
of the continent, thus :
yugow-murrijo (licerally to he, to go), to run
yugow-murrijobin, to run quicJcli/
yulman means in turn, in return
wangow, to upeak; yulman-wangow, to ausicer
yonga means to give; yulman-yonga, to exchange
' yulman ' is singularly like the reciprocal sign in the eastern
dialects, which in Kabi for instance is ' yulaiyu,' but in the east
it is affixed to the verbal stem.
PRONOUNS.
First j^erson.
Singular. Plural.
Norn, simple . nganya ngannll
„ agent . adjo or nadju (ngadju ?) ngadjul
Oen. . . . nganaluk, also nganna nganiluk
Ace. . . . nganya ngannil
Captain Grey gave to nadju the sense of I vnll, but probably
as in other cases it expresses the agent ; a similar remark applies
to the corresponding form in second person.
Second Person.
Singular,
Plural.
Kom.
simple
agen*
. nginni
. iiundu or iiundul
nurang
Gen.
. nunoluk
nuranguk, ngunuUang,
ngunaluk
Ace.
• •
. nginni
Third person.
Nom.
. bal, lie, she, it
balgun, bullalel
Gen.
Ace.
Dat.
. baluk, her; buggalong, Jiis
. bnggalo, to him, ballal, he h
balgunuk
balgup
mself
OUTLINES OF GllAMMAll 195
DUALH.
Brother and sister, &c. Parent and child, &c. Husband and wife, ice.
\Ht iierson . ngalli ngala nganitch
2nd person . nubal iiubal iiubin
"^rd peison . boola boolala boolane
ngannama, ?ve two [brothers-in-law)
Trial i.stj'erson, ngalata, vx three
There are only three numerals, 'gain' or 'kain,' one, 'gudjal,'
tvjo, 'ngarril,' 'warring,' 'mow,' ' murdain,' t/rrcr. Higher
numbers are expressed by ' warring,' a feiv, or ' boola,' man//.
' Boola ' is evidently the same as the eastern term for tico, as it
is used for a dual pronoun.
Tntcrrofiatlves — Pronovns,
Nom. simijJe . nganni, who nait, h-JkU
„ agent . ngando, ngandul, nginde yan, „
Gen ngannong, ichose
Adverbs.
winji winjala (windvi, windyaia), ichere, naitjak, ichcrever.
THE DIYERI LANGUAGE.
Authority: Mr. Samuel Gason's "The Dieyerie Tribe of Australian
Aborigines."
The Diyeri language is spoken between Cooper's Creek and
the north-east shore of Lake Torrens, in South Australia, but
not far from the Queensland and New South Wales boundaries.
Mr. Gason's vocabulary does not supply much data for arriving
at tlie structure of sentences, the examples of syntax being
unfortunately too meagre to admit of our deducing noun declen-
sion from them. The verb seems to be conjugated very simply
and with a suspicious regularity. The language is of a very
elementary, compounding character, and in this respect stands
midway between the languages of the extreme west and east
respectively, being more closely related to the latter. The
personal pronouns and some of the interrogative words unite
both extremes with the mean. The reciprocal sign of the west,
' yulman,' is well worth comparing with 'mullauna,' one another,
of the Diyeri, ' -ulunni ' of Kamilroi, ' yulaiyu ' of Kabi, ' -Ian '
of Lake Macquarie, and ' lana ' of Wiradhuri, all reciprocal
verbal signs ; the Kabi and West Australian forms seem to give
the original type as something like ' yulain,' which may be com-
190
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
pounded of two pronouns, ' ngali-ngin,' wc-thcc, or the like.
Diyeri is rich in determinant elements, easily recognisable and
separable, and usually, but not invariably, post-formative.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Vowels.
a
a
eon (as in Engfish
ton)
i
I fi
Diphthongs.
ai au
Consonants.
k g h
ng
t d
1 r y n
th ch
P b
w m
The words terminate with vowel sounds onlji, they begin with
vowels or consonants, but the latter must be single. Such com-
binations occur internally as rd, rt, rk, kr, dr, Idr, ndr. Diyeri
therefore agrees fairly in phonesis with the eastern languages
generally, but is even smoother and more vocalic.
Sinfjular.
Vrosovtsb— First Person.
Plural.
Xom, {agent ?) .
Gen
Gen. or dat. . .
Ace
athu
ani
akunga
ani, ni
Second Person.
ali, yana, uldra
yanani, uldrani
ali
Singular,
Nom. . yondru
Gen. .
Ace. . ninna
Dual.
yula
Third Person.
Plural.
yura, yini
yinkani
Singular. Dual.
JiJas. Feminine. Neut.
Nom noalia nandroya ninna, bulyia
Gen nunkani nankani
Gen. or dat..
Ace nulu nania
' ninna ' is also demonstrative, this.
Plural.
thana
thacani
wurra, wirri, yinkani
thaniya
There are definitive elements affixed to substantives to
signify my, as 'apini,' my father, '-ni' is a general genitive or
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 19T
possessive termination with ' -li ' as probably an alternative
form.
Possessive forms are evidently declined, cjj., 'yinkari,' yours,
' yinkani-gu,' of or to yours.
It is much to be regretted that data are lacking from which
the declension of substantives might be tabulated. The noun
is probably rich in cases, as may be inferred from such com-
pounds as the following, 'bumpu-nundra,' almost a hlow, ' nundra,'
a hloiv, ' bumpu,' almost ; ' moa-pina,' very hungry, ' moa,' hunger,
'pina,' great; ' kurnaundra,' relating to a Uaelcfclloio, ' kurna,'
hlachfellow, ' undra,' relating to. A genitive is observable in
' -lu,' e.g., ' pinya,' armed jiarty, ' pinyalu,' of the armed 'party.
Jnterroyative Wonh:
Nam.
. warana, who
Gen.
. wurni, wurniundru, whose
Ace.
. wurungu, whom
whi, what
wodau, tvhat, how
wodani, vihat is it like ?
wodaru, ^vhat do you say?
wodau, hoiu
mina, what
wodaunchu, hoto many
minani, ivhat else
wintha, ivhen
minandru, why
winthuii, lohence
minarnani, why
wodari, where
Adjectives do not seem to be distinguishable by any vocal
sign, but comparison is marked by added definitive elements,
thus ' wurdu,' short, ' murla,' more ' muthu,' most, ' wurdu-
murla,' shorter, ' wurdu-muthu,' shortest.
NOTATION.
' Curnu,' one, ' mundru,' two, ' paracula,' three. The numeral
system is virtually binary. Twenty is expressed by ' murrathidna,'
hands-feet, for any number over twenty an indefinite word
signifying multitude is employed.
THE VERB.
The structure of the verb so far as we can judge is exceed-
ingly simple. To indicate the person the pronoun is prefixed
unabridged. There are simple and reciprocal forms, the latter
having the termination ' muUana.' The simple form has iufini-
198 KAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
tive, indicative, and imperative moods, and participles perfect
and imperfect. The following is the conjugation of the verb
' yathami,' to spcnl; parallel with which I place the Kabi verb
' yamathi,' also meaning to speak, in order to show the singular
liki'uess and close relationship of the word and its modifi-
cations : —
DiYEiu. Kabi.
yathami, to Kpcak yamathi, to sjjeak
yathunaori, /tax spoken yamarandh, spoken
yathi, have spoken ya'an, apokea
yathunawonthi, had spoken wonai yamathi, h(ive done tcith
speaking !
yathuh'mi, will speak yathin, icill speak
yathala, sjyeak ya, speak
yathamarau, speak (imperatively) ya, yamyrai (by analogy of other
Kabi verbs), spe(dc (impera-
tively)
yathuna, speaking yathinba (by analogy as above)
sp)eakin(j
yathamuUana, quarrelling together yathulaiyu. conversing
The stem radical of the above verb is evidently ' yath,' the
oriirinal infinitive form containing the theme or notion of the
action was evidently ' yathamathi,' the medial ' a ' being intro-
duced as a connective. This leads to the conclusion that ' -mi '
or ' -mathi ' is a verbal definitive which was probably once a
verb meaning to do or malcc, like the ' -ed ' of the past tense in
English regular verbs, which is did phonetically decayed.
Another very suggestive comparison may be made between a
Diyeri verb and its analogues in Kamilroi and Kabi : —
DiYERi. Kamilroi. Kabi.
vi'ima, l^ut Viixm, put down womngan, (/(i;e
w'omngathi, give
^vimuna, putting in wiyin, given
wimarau. WW/ (tt (impera- w'imulla,7J«(<r7o?£;?«(impera- wijm<jrai, give (impera-
tive) tive) tive)
yinkumullana, giving each wiulunni, to barter wiyulaiya, to exchange
other
In Uiyeri ' wima ' has no reciprocal, I therefore show the
reciprocal of ' yinkuna,' giving. The original infinitive of the
verb to give is probably ' wlyimathi ' or ' wlyingamathi,' ' wi '
or ' wiyi ' being the stem. But what is specially noticeable is
the close agreement of the imperative forms. The Kabi im-
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 199
perative is generally the simplest and shortest form of the verb,
but it has also a form in ' -morai ' as here represented, which
appears to be emphatic, and the force of ' -morai,' as also of the
terminations in the other dialects, ' -marau,' ' -mulla,' is evidently
do. In my contribution on the Kabi in Mr. Curr's work this
jjassage occurs, "The ending '-morai ' appears in some impera-
tives given in the table of conjugations. As we also find an
infinitive termination ' -moraman,' it seems to me that ' -mor '
was the stem of a verb now obsolete which was almost equivalent
to the verb do^ and it now exists merely as an intensifying
ending."* I was not then aware that ' ma' or ' mara' was a
verb in Wiradhuri meaning to do or make, but is it not highly
probable that parts of that verb have become the regular
terminal marks in different parts of the verb in many dialects,
as, for example, ' -ma,' ' -mi,' ' mathi,' ' -man,' indices of the
infinitive, and ' -morai,' ' -marau,' &c., of the imperative, and
further is it not also probable that these terminations are
radically connected with the Malay ' men ' prefixed to words to
transform them into verbs ?
LANGUAGE AT MACDONNELL RANGES.
Authoriti/ : Kev. H. Kempe, by kind permission, '• Transactions Roy. Soc.
S. Australia," 1890-91.
With but slight variations this language is spoken from the
Finke Kiver eastward to Alice Springs and extends south to
the Peake. It is the central language of Australia. Some
of its most striking features are found in the dialects near
the S.E. corner of the Gulf of Carpentaria on the Norman
and Palmer Eivers, notably a preference for initial vowels
and certain vocables uniting these languages and distinguishing
them from others.
PHONIC ELEMENTS.
Vowels.
a o
e c
i u
DipJitJioiif/'i.
au ai oi
* Curr, ''The Australian Race,'' vol. iii. p. 1S9.
200 EAGLEHA^\ K AND CROW
Co)isona»iS.
k g h ng
t d r 1 y n n
p b w m
Any of the letters may be initial. Vowels are preferred,
but in many cases they appear to have become initial by the
elision of a consonant, especially ' k.' The terminal letter —
except in the vocative of nouns and the imperative of verbs
— is always *a,' in which respect the dialect is singular, the
nearest approach to it being the dialect of East Tasmania.
THE NOUN.
The usual three numbers obtain, singular, dual, and plural.
The dual is formed by adding '-ntatera.' With terms for
persons another form is used in ' -nanga,' c.(/., 'wora,' hoi/,
' worananga,' the two hoys. The plural is formed by adding
' -irbera ' or ' -antirbera ' to the singular
There are six cases. When related to an intransitive verb
the nominative is unchanged ; when related to a transitive verb
it takes the termination '-la,' e.g., 'wora-la gama,' the hoy gets.
The genitive is formed by adding ' -ka,' as ' kata-ka,' of the father.
The dative ends in ' -na,' the ablative in ' -nga." For the
accusative there is no change. The vocative is in ' -ai.'
Derivative substantives are formed by adding '-ringa,' lit.,
to he at home at, and by reduplication from verbs.
There is no article.
THE PKONOUN.
All the possessive pronouns are perfectly declined like the
nouns.
The possessive pronoun, first person, is thus declined :
Nom.
Gen.
Dut.
Ace.
All.
nuka
nukanaka
nukana
nuka
nukananga
The dual of the third person possessive is * ekuratera,' their
tu'o. All persons of the plural are declined like the singular.
Of the personal pronouns the forms 'ata' or 'ta,' 'yinga'
(first person), 'unta' (second person), are used only in the
OUTLIxNES OF GRAMMAR 201
nominative case. The third personal are regularly declined
in singular, dual, and plural numbers.
* Nukara,' 'inysclf, and ' etnikara,' one another, are either
reflexive or reciprocal as the verb may determine.
The demonstratives are —
nana, this tana, that
nanatera, these two tanatera, those two
nanirbera, these tanirbera, those
nanankana, these tanankana, those
' Nakuna ' and ' arina ' are also used for thai.
The demonstrative pronouns are declined like the possessive.
The interrogative pronouns are ' nguna,' hoiv, and ' iwuna,'
ivhat ; the dual and plural are formed as in demonstratives, but
when declined the inflections are medial.
As a substitute for the relative pronoun, which, as usual in
Australian languages, does not exist, the demonstrative pronoun
is repeated or else the relation is implied in the participle.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
arbuna and tueda, another nkarba, a few others
arbunatera, two others tueda ka tueda, others
arbunirbera, arbunankana, others ninta mininta, one by one
urbujarbuna, some others
The above are regularly declined. ' Arbuna ' is specially
interesting, as suggesting the original significance of the
commonest Australian term for the numeral one. ' Arbuna '
is the analogue of ' karva ' and ' karvano ' {anoihcr) in the Kabi
dialect of South Queensland.
The following are co-relatives used only in nominative cases.
ntakina, how, !n luhat wai/ lakina, thus, in this nay
ntakinya, how mauy lakinja, .so many
ntakata, lioiv hiy nakakata, so big
ADVERBS.
Derived adverbs are formed by addiag ' -la.' ' Nana ' is here,
'avina,' there. Numeral adverbs are ' arnkula,' the first ; 'ninta
ranga' and 'ninta ngara,' onee ; 'tera ranga,' twiec ; ' urbuja
ranga,' sometimes.
The majority of the conjunctions are combined with the verb.
20i> eagli:hawk and crow
THE VERB.
There are three tenses, the present, marked by ' -ma' affixed
to the stem, which is also the infinitive ending. The perfect
is formed by adding ' -ka ' or ' -kala ' to the root and sometimes
'-jita'; the future adds '-jina.'
VOICE.
The middle voice takes its sign, ' -la ' or ' -li,' in the middle
of the verb — <•.//., ' ta nukara tuZama,' / heat myself. The re-
ciprocal form terminates in ' -rama ' for dual and ' -rirama ' for
plural.
There is no proper passive. Passivity is expressed by em-
ploying the subject with the active form and having the
suffering object in the dative — e.g.,
atula worana tukala
by the riuni to the hoi/ /••>• beaten
NUMBER
There are three numbers : — singular, dual, and plural. If no
pronoun be expressed they can be distinguished by termination
of the verb. Person is not noted. In intransitive verbs the
dual termination is '-rama,' the plural '-rirama.' With transi-
tive verbs the dual and plural are formed by using ' nama '
(to be) and ' lama ' (to go) as auxiliaries.
In the middle voice the dual and plural double the particle
' -la' — f.^., 'ilinakara tulala narama,' iw two heat ourselves.
MOOD.
There are three moods, indicative, conditional, and impera-
tive. The conditional is formed by adding '-mara' to the
stem, as 'ta ilkumara,' I should eat. The imperative is formed
by adding '-ai' to the stem, as 'tu-ai,' heat; 'ilgula nar-ai,'
you tifo eat ; ' ilgula narir-ai,' cctt ye. Another form, signifying
to do the action quickly, is composed by inserting the syllable
'-Iba' between a duplication of the root — e.g., ' tu-lba-tu-ai,
heat quiekly. The moods have usually a negative as well as
a positive form. Thus :
Fositlce. Xcr/ative.
ta tuma, I beat ta tuyikana, / beat not
„ Tijuka, I (I rfDik ., nyuymakana, I hai:e not drunJc
„ gayina, I nhall get „ gayigunia, I shall not get
OUTLINES OF GRAMMAll 203
rARTICU'LE.
The imperfect is formed by adding '-manga' to the stem,
the perfect by adding ' -mala,' the future by adding ' -yinanga ;
• — c.fj., 'tumanga,' ivhile heeding ; 'tumala,' after heatiuf/ ; ' tuyi-
nanga,' shall he heating.
Certain verbs such as ' nama,' to he, and ' lama,' to do, are used
by way of auxiliaries. Their use is (i) to change transitive into
intransitive verbs, (2) to form verbs from substantives and
adjectives.
To express such modifications as are usually expressed by
adverbs in European languages certain vocables are combined
with the verb. For example, ' tula ' is combiued with ' wuma,'
to hear, ' nama,' to he, ' lama,' to go, ' albuma,' to return, and so
forth, as :
tula nama, to heat for « tunc constantlij
tula lama, I go to heat, slfjnifieg an action (/oiiiy on
tula tula lama, to heat sometimes, quiclcly or hastihj
tula uma, lit., I hear to heat, means I heat once
tula albuma, /*• arriced at another place heating
Certain forms combine with the supine, as :
tuyikalama, compounded of supine 'tuyika' and 'lama,' to go, lit., T go to heat,
used for I heat doivnward-i ; 'tuyinyama, ' I heat iqnuards.
A figurative use of the forms occurs in the modifications of the
verb ' ilkuma,' to cat, as :
ilkuyikalama, to eat in the evening
ilkuyinyama, to eat in the morning
tuyikamaniyikana, I heat again
tuyikerama, going to heat
tuyilbitnima, come to heat
tuyalbuma, return to heat
tuyigunala, to heat hyand-hy
From tutua, meaning / desire to heat, are derived such forms
as :
ta (I) tuatna lama, I heat arriced at another place
ta tualhanama, I heat sometimes arrived at another place
ta tualbuntama, I heat running away
ta tuatalalbum, returning homewards I heat on the road
ta tuatnilbitnilalbuma, returning come near my home I heat
Moods and forms connected with moods already given :
ta tumalamakana namara, I shotdd not have hcattn.
ta tumaranga or tumalanga, I should have heaten.
i>0-t KAGLKHAAMv AND CROW
The reduplications or augmentations of the verb :
tuyinabuta tuyinabuta, I should beat af/atn
tulinya tulindama, to beat always
tulinya mbura „ „ „
tulatulauma, to beat seldom
tuma, I liuve Jinished beatiiKj
By the simple verb 300 different phrases can be used ; by
modifications of the verb, these can be increased to 9000. By
further changes confined to certain moods and tenses an
additional 600 verbal phases are obtained, so that 9600 ex-
pressions may be derived from one verb.
J204 EAGLEHA\VK AND CliOW
The reduplications or augmentations of the verb :
tuyinabuta tuyinabuta, I should heat ayaiti
tulinya tulindama, to beat always
tulinya mbura „ „ „
tulatulaunia, to beat seldom
tuma. / ItarcJiiiiKhed beatiug
By the simple verb 300 diiferent phrases can be used ; by
modiiications of the verb, these can be increased to 9000. By
further changes confined to certain moods and tenses an
additional 600 verbal phases are obtained, so that 9600 ex-
pressions may be derived from one verb.
FOREWORD TO COMPARATIVE TABLE
Ix the following table fifty-two lists of words are given. Of
these, forty-two are Australian, three New Hebridean, two Torres
Strait, and five Tasmanian. The aggregate number of Englisli
words is two hundred and twenty-five. The New Hebridean
and a number of the Australian lists are fairly complete.
One object of the table is to exhibit the relation subsisting
among Australian dialects themselves, and their connection
with the languages to the south, east, and north-east of
Australia. The Australian dialects are grouped and, on the
whole, graduated according to strongly marked resemblances.
They are gathered towards the north-east, as the fingers of the
hand are gathered towards the wrist.
AUTHORITIES
Tasmania. — Vocabularies collected in Mr. E. M. Curr's "The Australian
Race " and oue from '• Voyage de I'Astrolabe." The capitals in brackets
indicate the following names: — D. , Dove; E., Entrecasteaux ; J.,
Jorgenson ; L., Lhotksy ; N., Norman; P., Teron ; K., Roberts;
S., Scott.
When not thus distinguished, the authority for the north dialect is
" Voyage de I'Astrolabe," and for the others Dr. Milligan's lists.
Australian, Victorian Region.— Yarra River, Lai Lai, Ercildoune, Avoca
River, Broken River, Gunbower, Warrnambool, were taken down by the
writer (Rev. J. Mathew) from the lips of natives.
Mortlake, supplied by Miss Hood, Merrang, Hexham, Victoria (now
deceased).
Booandik, South Australia, compiled from "The Booandik Tribe of
South Australian Aborigines," by Mrs. James Smith.
Lower Lachlan and Murrumbidgee, contributed by Mr. Humphrey
Davy, Glen Dee, Balranald, New South Wales,
Gippsland, taken down by Rev. J. Mathew.
Barwidgee, Upper Murray, contributed by Mr. John F. H. Mitchell,
Khancoban, Corryong.
206 EAGLEHAWK AND CROAV
New South Wales and South ; Queensland. —Woorajcry Tribe, con
tributeJ by Mr. James Mitchell, Tablo Top, Albury, New South Wales.
Wiraidhuri, Giinthcr in Fraser's "An Australian Language."
Port Jackson, the vocabularies of Captain Hunter's " Historical Journal
of the Transactions at Port Jackson," and Lieut. -Colonel Collins " Nev/
South Wales."
Awabakal, Threlkeld's " Australian Grammar."
Kamilaroi, Rev. W. Ridley's " Kamilroi and other Australian Lan-
guages."
Kabi, Rev. J. Mathew and Mr. W. Hopkins.
Warrego River, contributed by Mr. W. Shearer, T3re\varrina, New South
Wales.
West Austkalia and West Central. — Toodyay, Newcastle, West
Australia, contributed by Mrs. George Whitfield.
Pidong ) "Journal of the Elder Scientific Exploring Expedition,
Minning )' 1S91-2."
Lake Amadeus, Mr. W. H. Willshire's " Aborigines of Central Australia."
South of South Australia and East Central.— Narrinyeri, Rev.
George Taplin's "Folklore," and Mr. E. M. Curr's ''The Australian
Race."
Parnkalla, Schiirmann's " Vocabulary of the Parnkalla Language."
Adelaide. Teichelmann and Schiirmann's " Grammar Vocabulary, &c.,"
and Dr. Wyatt from J. D. Wood's " Native Tribes of South Australia."
Darling, Mr. E. M. Curr's "Australian Race."
Diyeri, Mr. S. Gason's "The Dieyerie Tribe."
Murunuda, South Gregory, Mr. Duncan M. Campbell, Glengyle, More-
land, Melbourne.
Mythergoody, Cloncurry, Mr. W. G. Marshall, Fort Constantino, Queens-
land.
North Australia and Central Australia. — Larrikeya, Member of the
Roman Catholic Mission at Daly River, per Mr. George McKeddie, with
some words from T. A. Parkhouse's " Transactions of Royal Society of
South Australia," vol. xix.
Woolna, Mr. E. M. Curr's "Australian Race," and Mr. T. A. Parkhouse.
Daktyerat, Member of the Roman Catholic Mission, Daly River, per
Mr. George McKeddie.
Kimberley, contributed by Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, Melbourne.
Napier Range, contributed by Mr. W. W. Froggatt, Sydney, New South
Wales.
Sunday Island, contributed by Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, Melbourne,
Macdonnell Ranges, Rev. H. Kempe, Mission Station, Finke River, in
'•Transactions of Royal Society, South Australia, 1890-91."
Walsh River, Rev. J. Mathew.
Bloomfield Valley, contributed by Mr. Robert Hislop, Wyalla, Bloom-
field River.
Palmer River, Mr. E. M. Curr's "The Australian Race."
Coen River ) Contributed by Revs. J. Ward (now deceased) and
Mapoon I N. Hey.
Cape York, McGillivray's "Voyage of H.M.S. RaUlesndke."
F0IIP:W()11I) TO C()MPARATI\K TABLi: 207
Torres Strait. — Kowrarega, Prince of Wales Island, McGillivray's "Voyage
of H.M.S. Iiattlesnake."
Saibai Island, Sir W, MacGregor's "Reports," specially forwarded to
the writer.
New Hebrides. — Aulua, Malikula, Rev. T. Watt Leggatt, Amy Gertrude
Russell Mission House.
Nguna, Rev. Peter Milne.
Aniwa, Rev. J. G. Paton, D.D., Melbourne.
With the view of securing consistency of spelling, I suggested
to my correspondents the following values of letters : The
consonants may have the same value as in English, only that fj
should always be hard, as in ' go ' or ' get.' Ok, j\ or .s should
not be introduced unless absolutely necessary ; k or .s should
take the place of c ; and neither q nor ./; should be required,
k answering for q and ks for x. The initial nasal sound should
be expressed by nr/. Dh represents th in ' the.'
The vowel sounds are —
ff as in ' father,' ' man.'
ai like i in • mine.'
i like i in ' pit ' or ' ravine.'
e as in ' they ' or ' net.'
u as in 'rude ' or oo in ' food.'
cm is used for the sound of ov; in
' cow.' "
There has been a tendency, however, to independence in ortho-
graphy. The above represents with fair accuracy the values in
the lists which I have obtained myself, and will serve for general
guidance in reading the table.
208
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Sun
Moon
Star
/
East ....
pugganoobranah
wiggetena
teahbrana
T '
South. . . .
pallanubranah
weeta
romtenah
Tas-
West and. N.W.
panubrynah
weenah leah
rhomdunna
mania
North. . . .
tegoura (?)
tegoura
inoordunna (J.)
Miscellaneous .
loina (J.)
luina (J.)
daledine (K.)
f Yarra A'.
nyawain
niirnian
turtbairom
Lai Lai . . .
inirri
yen
turtparom
Enildoune . .
nauwi
yen
dut bun-nauwi
1
.Avoca K. . .
nauwi
yen
tun
S'
Broken R. . .
ngamaik
mirnan
durt
'<,
Cunbower . .
nawi
wainwil
toort
1
W'arrnambool .
ngaiiong
yathyar
ka ka dhirii
.\[ortlake. . .
dhearn
koondarook
—
V
Hooandik, S. A.
karo
toongooni
tumanbangalum (//. )
.•nJ
Lower Lachlan
nangaye, nung
wangupic
toorty, tingie
"^
and Murrum-
bidgee
Cippsland . .
wurin
noran
brll
/
Jiarwidgee, Up-
1 per Murray
noweyu
bararoo
jeenibo
=<j
• I i 'oorajery Tribe,
yerai
kupador
—
"§•«
Upper Murray,
« s
N.S. W.
^•§ .
Wiraidhuri
ire
giwang
buddu (//.)
si
Turuwul, Port
coing (H.), wirri (R. )
yennadah (C. )
birrong (C.)
Jackson
.o
Awabakal . .
punnul
—
—
'•n
Kamilroi
yarai
gille
niirri (pi.)
<.
Kabi,MaryK.Q.
nguruindh, tirum
bapun
niiringam, kalbar
\
I Varrego K. , Q.
durrey
gheern
myrring
■ "2 ^ /
Toodyay (New-
nanga
mekar
nangar
5: « >f S 1
castle)
W. A
tralia i
Centr
Pidong . . .
karong
wilarra
pundarra (//.)
M inning . .
Lake Amadeus.
jinntu
chin-too
wiyall
peer
burunga (//.)
pinterry
■^ -^
Narrinyeri
nunngi
niarkeri
tuldi
Parnkalla . .
yurno
pirra
purdli, purli
Adelaide . .
tindo
piki
purle
Darling . . .
niengkeeullo
bichooka
boollee
Diyeri . . .
ditchie
pirra
ditchie thandra
Murtinuda .
tuna
nanangi
kulaunchi
Mythergoody
kumba
goonogoono
ugo
Larriktya . .
delirra
lurier
nicmellema
Woolna . .
ummie
loowillea
moorlna
"p
Daklyerat . .
miru
yuilk
numurul
<
Ruby Ck„ Kim-
woloor
yelngong
wurda
^3
berley
Napier Range,
wolgar
bingar
km
S-«
Kimberley
Q ^
Sunday Island .
alga
kooirdi
indi
•41 ■{
Macdonnell
alinga
taia
C|uar-allia (W.)
gs \
Ranges
^\
Walsh R., Q. .
angor
palar
nyolb
Bloomfield Val-
woo.ngar
geetcher
mooloowatchur
ley, Q.
'5!
Palmer R ,Q. .
etha
thargan
ilbanoong
^
CoenR.,Q.. .
tsche
arroa
ngokoot
Mapoon R., Q.
ngoa
arroa
ngokwigge
Gudang, C. York
inga
aikana
onbi
Torres (
Strait \
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai L, N.G.
gariga
gaiga
kissuri
molpalo
titure
titoi
New 1
Hebri- \
Aulua Malikula
niel
ambisia
mose
Nguna . . .
elo
atalangi
ngmasoe
des. \
Aniwa . . .
teia
tumrama
tafatu
COMPARATIVE TABLE
209
Cloud
Sky
Rain
Rainbow
pokana
weeytena
pona, roona (D.)
—
porrah
wayatih
—
loila (J.)
—
—
—
renn hatara
manghelena
—
bagota (R.)
tooreener (N.)
toorar (N.)
—
lak
wura wura
baari
brinbial
tunmarng
wuruwur
mondar
tyerm
inang
wor wor
wala
derakaworwor
marng
wuruwur
wallah
dherakawurwur
lak
torngor
yayal
—
maing
kotai
midhak
dherake worwor
murnong
—
maiyang
—
muuong
munong
maiang
dh'dh'barote
moorn (//. )
—
kowine
trum
manguay, nurn
trailee
mukaria
worngrie
nort
nguropblindiworak
wilang
wirakalundi
kaiareyu
—
noorooma
—
—
—
wollong
—
yurong, iravvari
wirr, murrumbir
_
gunnung gurran
kavTxiiphi. R.)
dulka(R.)
panna, wallan (C.)
—
yura, yareil (//.)
moroko
koiwon
gundar, yuro
gunakuUa
yuro, kollebari
yulowirri
mundam
nguruindh
yurung
dhakkan
yauggan
bunda
burdoo
—
mara
wolanth
gabby dabut
—
munnditta (pi.)
w^llelu
burrna
uronguru
muUga-billdi (//.)
willka
mullga
—
ho-too-worry
ill-carrie
chillberto
—
tuppathauwe
waiirri
parni
kainggi
malko
naieri
kattari, wirra
kuranya
makko
karra ngaiera
kuntoro
kuranye
ninnda, poondoo
korobbyna
mukkra
mondunbara
thularapolkoo
purriewillpa
tulara
kooriekirra
dikura
kunta kunta
nepaulindinka
kudo
omniugoo (?)
murer murer
yappo
kunjo
—
koroa
balmba
—
—
—
mornie
—
berk
an bulk
mada
giJndyere
—
piring
nopa
—
—
—
nimilar, walar
-
—
inra
ankata
—
kwatya
umbulara
hurkuar
kuk
yaman
ngooipal
tcheari
kapper
yearil
—
—
ogno
—
aveoo
lanna
nuaadhoadhanna
ndrindeni
aveoo
aranra
agaidotanne
andragondhine
otera
—
apura
ung-gebanya
dapar
je
ari
oripara
jia amal
—
ari
borinbor
nemar
misa
tiliara
napopouru
nakoroatelangi
usa
asoara
apua
taragi
towa
tumutu
210
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Light
Dark
Morning
F.ast . . .
_
taggremapack
_
Tas-
South . . .
—
nunc meene larraboo
—
West and N. 11
mania
North . .
—
Misctllaneoiis
tretetea (J.)
—
nigrarua (R.)
Yarra R,
nguianda
burun
yiram
Lai Lai . .
mirriyo
niurkal
ylrom
%
Ercildoune .
barp
burun
barp bo barp
Avoca R.
nyauwi yo
burooin
berip
^^
liroken R. . ,
yanggim
morpoioin
—
^
(luribjiver .
dhyulaipuk
narom narom
nuroin
M 'arniatnbool
nganong
buron
—
v!
Mortlake .
yay, aiap
booboon
neenan
,5
Booandik, S. A
—
man kin
—
:~
Lower Lachlan
waiange
proandia
tiia
and Murritm
bidgee
Gippsland .
mlank
batgalak
wurukamerin
/iarwidgee. Up
per Murray
torongoro
tiyogolo
—
"0
5"«
I ( 'oorajery Trib
e —
—
—
Upper Murra
V,
« K
N.S.W.
5-2
:2S ■
Wiraidhuri
balgangal
burundang
nguronggal
Turuwul, Port
—
—
ri N;
Jackson
co^
Aiuabakal .
kirrin
—
—
^"
Kavtilroi
turi, burian
nguru {darkness)
nguruko
Kabi,MaryR.Q
nguruindhau
wuindhau
barbiman
WarregoR., Q
durrey
youriugga
buddala
Toodyay (New
bena
morrodong
benang
^ «"^ S
castle)
^•2:^^-
^^^C
Pidong . .
muggerow
mungunnga
mungall
A fi fining
—
tunjinnda
—
-"i ^
Lake Amadeiis
chintu-ruigin
moong-a
—
5 "-
Narrinycri .
nunkulowi
yonguldyi
—
•^11
Pamkalla .
birki
ngupinniti
yurno vvorta
CO ^ S
Adelaide
tindogadla
ngultendi
panyiworta
vs^ -
Darling
mengkee
wongka
wahmbee
^S5
Diycri . ,
Miiritntida .
buralchie
pilpaiiiunina
pulkara
murra murra
manathoonka
winandinu
^
Mythergoody
bertun
kabajee
genool
j Larrikeya .
bakuinida
lamingua (C.)
—
^
Woolna . .
—
lamongwa
—
1
Daktycrat .
andara
ngu
poi'yanggnan
e
Ruby Ck., Kim
C5
berley
•«
Napier Range
—
narnbur (very dark)
ngimi ngimi
5.«
Kimberley
iistrali
Sunday Island
Macdonnell
Ranges
alta
albanata
—
5^
Walsh R.,Q.
angor
anmun
-^
Bloomfield Val-
tyur
ngaul
moannotchi
■<!
lev, Q.
k
Pa'lmer R., Q.
—
ilboong
—
:>
Caen R., Q.
tscheamboi
doannapini
keammanne
Mapoon R., Q.
ngoongbai
doannapaini
keammanna
Gudang, C. Von
i —
—
Torres j
Kowrarega,
Strait I
Torres St.
Saibai L, N.G
. boia
kubil
bataigna
New t
Hebri- \
des \
AuluaMalikul
Nguna .
Aniwa . . .
a nutanrien
marama
nuta melingko
malingo
veremose
malikpongi
merama
pouri
tapopo
COMPARATIVE TABLE
211
Day
Night
Heat
Cold
taggre marannye
tagrummena
peooniac
tunack
luggaraniale
nunc
lugrah
mallane
loyowibba (J.)
dayna leah
—
—
tridadie
livore
—
—
—
burdunya (P.)
loina(D.)
tenna (D.)
yilinbo
murpuran
wirtnalin
tatirrn
mirriyo
murkal
warwTitnyo
niunmot
nauwi
burun
katyai
monmut
nyauwi yo
burooin
wiripunya
niotilan
karimin
morporondhai
woloradat
mortarbin
ngolakandok
buroon
wunwundilang
buiibundilang
—
buron
kaluin
kaingcditch
deerung
booroon
kalloon
pallapeek
karo
moal
palawoina {hot)
—
nangi
moorprondi
kelali
tinangi
bruindi
bukong
kwarakuan
nieibuk
—
—
—
kaiagutba
—
—
—
polathi
waddu
ngurombang
b.illudai
carmarroo (C. )
purra (R.)
yooroo-ga (C.)
tagora (C.)
purreung
tokoi
—
takara
yeradha
nguru
—
—
nguruindhau
wuindhau
mariman
walai
yoummundurrey
youringgah
cowerly
niurnda
bincha
morradong
moonak
netting
muggerow {daylight)
mungunnga
kullunngu {hot)
murdinnga
womuburrunn
—
—
nuniulia
—
war-ringa
nunngi
yonguldyi
waldi
murunkun
marka, yurno
malti
pulla {warm)
pai alia
—
ngulti
—
nianya
yuko
toongka
boyttyee, kahla kahla
yerkee
kurrurie
pulkara
wuldrulie
kilpalie
orrukuli
murra murra
wiltura
kanini
kumba
kabajing
mundara
yeanga
delirgua
damungua
erringergum
abbulduppi (C. )
irninga (P.)
—
oorgker
ipegwa
miranbulk
dardarma
poiyadu
mark
—
by on
-
—
—
igua
—
dana, erinta
angor
anno
tan
woongaier
woodjourbu
woombul
bullur
ethuttaga
atha
—
oloorgo
tscheamboi
doannapini
—
taidhotnmc
ngoakinndi
doannapaini
moipaini
ninnyita
—
yupalga
—
ekanba
—
inur
kaman
sumein
goiga
kubilii
kuamo
sumai
nambung
nuta melingko
kamba kamp
melong kas kas
aleati
kpongi
navivitinuana
nanialariana
nopoge
tupo
evera
mukaligi
212
EAGLEHA^Mv AND CROW
Groups
DiAt ECTS
Fire
W.ATKK
Milk
East ....
tonna
liena
proogwallah
1
Tas- J
South ....
njjune
lia wenee
prooga neannah
West and N. W.
winnaleah
lia winne
—
mania
North . . .
padrol
boiic lakade
—
Miscellaneous .
une(P.)
mookaria (S.)
—
Yarra R. . .
wen
ban
birm birm
ImI Lai . . .
wing
ngo pit
pab
.§
Ercildoune . .
wi
katyin
kurni
A~,'oca A'. . .
wl
katyin
kurm
&
Brolen R. . .
win
bain
birm birm
^
Gunbawcr . .
wonap
kadhin
—
5 i
Wamiambool .
wiin
paritch
nga'mo'
X \
Mortlake . .
weean
perreech
—
^
Booandik, S. A.
—
pare
papamboop
l.ouer Lachlan
winapi
kieniie
koimbi
and Murrum-
bidgec
^
Gippsland . .
tauwar
yarn
baag
'
liarwidgee, Up-
per Murray
niambunba
—
—
Woorajcry 1 ribe.
wongi
kolin
—
Upper Murray,
* R
N.S. W.
Wiraidhuri
win, guyang
kaling
ngamon
Turuwul, Port
gvveyong(C.)
bado(C.)
murtin (H.)
Jackson
^.^
A7val>akal .
koiyung
kokoin, kulling
—
Kami hoi . .
wi
kolle, wollun
—
^
h'abi,.\faiyR Q.
kira
kung
among
Warietro R.,Q.
wi
nubba
numma
Toodyay {New-
kalla
gabby
—
castle)
"=•2'^^
-^-C)
Pidoiig . . .
kulla
bubba
—
Mi lining . .
kaiya
kapi, gabi
—
-•i: •.
Lair Amadeus .
war-roo
cobbie
—
3 "s
Narrinycri . ,
keni
nguk, bareki
ngumperi
Panikalla .
gadia
kapi kauo
ngamma
Adelaide . .
gadia
kauwe
ngammi, nganu
Darling . . .
koonyka
nokko
nummaloo
Diyeri
thooroo
apa
yika
Mnriinuda . .
duro
napa
—
Mythergoody
yangour
yappo
thambo
Larrikeya . .
kuiangua
karroa
—
•Sa
Wool n a . . ,
letunga
aakie
—
!S
Daktyerat . .
tyungo
wawk
gnur
■^
Ruby Ck., Kim-
jaba
nopa
—
0)
berhy
•^
Napier Range,
—
walar
—
*-2
Kimberley
» Cl i
Sunday Island
nuro
kara
—
:~ S ■<
Ma ( (ton nc 11
ura
kwatya
ilbatya
l»
Ranges
l'^
Walsh R.,Q. .
angi
kuk
pip
"^
Bloomficld Val-
koongin
banner
bibi
■«t
ley, Q.
1
Palmer R., Q. .
oomar
ogno
oyong
CoenR.,Q.
moi
ngoi
tane
Mapoon R., Q.
moi
tedi
tane
(iudang, C. York
yoko
—
—
Torres '
K'owrarega,
mue
—
ikai
Strait 1
Torres St.
Saibai /., N. G.
moi
nguki
ikai
New 1
! AuluaMalikula
na kamp
nabui
—
Hebri- ■
' Nguiia . .
na kapu
noai
—
des (
. liiiiva .
tiafi
tavai
—
COMPARATIVE TABLE
218
God
Demon
Ghost
Shadow
mienginya
wurrawana
wurrawina tietta
—
ria warrawah nolle
riawarawapah
maydena
pawtening-eelyle
teeananga winne
belanyleah
bundyil
ngarang
murup
mula
—
kutyal
murup
mula
bundyil
yulok
waingar
ngark
barnibinmel
natya
murup
ngark
—
ngarang
murup
—
paindyil
ngatta
munganitch
ngarkuk
pirnmaheal
muurup
muurup
waul'
—
mooroop
boorkoorook
na goe
—
woor, walini
kolandroam
wol
biambule
pongarnoti
popopondi
nouwaki
-
brauwin
mrart
ngauk
—
urakabi
—
-
baiamai
baggin
_
gurruman
—
—
mahn (C.)
bowwan (C.)
mummuya
kommirra
baiame
—
—
—
—
munder
nguthuru
nguthuru
—
—
ninni ninni
gurly gurly
— ■
—
chinga
—
—
budanl
—
mar-moo
—
carn-koo
—
brupe {devil)
—
pangari, lilliri
—
marralye
wilya [spirit)
madio (slittdi)
—
kuinyo
tovvilla
punga, turra
pindee,\vahtta,noorinya
boorree
koylppa
kolyppara
moora moora
kootchie
moongara (spirit)
—
karina
yarkamata
—
tati
—
—
simbingergolun
mungo
niolnganding
berauel
darimiet
—
-
bararang
bararang
molang
—
nouri
nouri
-
nari
—
erinya
mangabara
undoolya (W.
pirkooir
haru
—
tchopo
—
wharbur
—
—
in man in gam
—
—
ngai, tschoa
ngai, tscboa
anndormre
—
amvou, tschoa
anivou, tschoa
anndornire
—
—
umboypu
—
—
—
markai
—
augada
markai
—
atua
temes
nenanta
nenanta
sukpe
natana sa
natemate
mclu
atua
tetua, tiapolo
tctua
noate
au
EAGLEHAWK AND CROAV
Groups
Dialects
Wind
Mist
Smoke
East ....
rawlinna
progoona
Tas-
South. . . .
rallinganunne
—
—
West and -V. \V.
lewan
—
—
man ill
North . . .
legouratina
—
—
Miscellaneous .
llnghenar (N.)
—
boorana (R.)
f
Yarra K.
munniot
burang
burt
Lai /.I I . . .
winnialing
porang
burt
Ercildoune . .
maia
nura
burt
.1
ATOca R. . .
maiya
kairagair
burt
&
liroken K. . .
guron
borang
bort
^
dunhmvr . .
miriny
kua
pordok
5
M arrnanitool .
ngonduk
—
thoiJn
"C
Mori lake . .
noondook
wadawoort
dhung
^
liooandik, S. A.
niricha
—
booloin
,v-
Lower Lachlan
wilangi
takombi
borti
and Miirrum-
bidgee
\
Gippsland . .
kraur
bauindong
dyun
/
Bat-iL'idgee, Up-
per Murray
—
toombaba
1 1 oorajery Tribe.
thowera
—
—
L pper Murray,
« R
N.S.W.
l"^
Wiraiahuri
—
gulbl, guang
—
-1
Turiiwul, Port
gwarra (H.)
—
cudyal(H.)
■~l
Jackson
t/i^
Awabakal . .
wippi
bearing, koropun
poito
^"
Kamilroi
maier, buriar
dhuber
du
K'abi.MaryR.Q.
buran
kuang
wulul
\
WarregoR., Q.
yerga
dunederra
durren
J. "5 ^ 1
Toodvav (New-
nanga
—
kerra
|n^ '
cas'lle)
^•2:>V
Pidong . . .
winnju
muluwa
bungu
^r-^ (
Minning
piriddi
—
kaiya-puya
Lake Amadeus.
wolpa
u-bee-terra (fog)
poy-you
•^ .^
Narrinyeri . .
maiyi
dlomari
kari
-^■^s
Parnkalla .
—
malbara
puyu
t/ •= ?
Adelaide . .
waitpi, warri
madlo
puiyu
?>:SC -
Darling . . .
yertto
poondoo-poondoo
poondoo
:? 3 ">
Diyeri . . .
wathara
thoodaroo
ukardie
1-^
Murunuda . .
chimo
kuinin
kudo
Mylhergoody
murlbunoo
buloothupal
yungoolkar
Larrikeya .
manmanma
—
kuiugua
Woolna . . .
minma
—
lemoogiema
i;
Daklyerat . .
wurrurk
wen
arabul
s
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
*^
berlcy
•^
Napier Range,
wangool
—
—
B ■«
Ktmberley
ft J5
Sunday Island
—
M a c d n n e 1 1
wurinya
in-jeer-may-jeer (W.)
—
^4 1
Ranges
1
Walsh R.,Q. .
—
—
Bloom/leld Val-
moyur
woorpal
gobo
•«
ley, <J.
^
Palmer R., Q. .
olboongol
—
orkoon
^
Cocn R.,Q. . .
woinji
—
A/apoon R.. Q.
tschorita, woinji
—
—
Gudang, C. York
alba
—
ekora
Torrci (
Kowrarega,
guba
—
tuo
Strait 'i
Torres St.
Saibai /.. N.G.
guba
dibagu (fog)
tu
Xrw 1
hebri- \
A iilua Malikula
nelang
veraniet
nakamp basua
A'guKa . . .
nalangi
namavu
nasua
dts I
Aniwa . .
tutr.tagi
tefu
tousafi
COMPARATIVE TABLE
215
Thunder
Lightning
Country
Ground
poimettya
poimettye
pyengana
papatongune
poimataleena
—
mannina
—
rayeepoinee
—
nattie
—
—
—
longa (J.)
nawawn (D.)
nammorgun (D.)
—
gunta (J.)
ngurndavil
baradyuk
bik
bik
mondara
morinyuk
tyakak
dya
maandar
melarkok
tya
tya
mondaia
wilibuk
tyaknak
dya
ngundabil
tyiringingundabil
bek
bek
mondor
dhyulipuk
dhanuk
dha
mondal
—
mering
murang
mundall
yerwun, dherwun
meering
meering
inurndal
minanmum
mraad
niraad
mundari
tolipoie
tongi
tongi
kwaran
mlangbitch
wurak
wurak
mundera
narawahnyo
—
—
tumberumba
mikki
bimble
thugoon
murruberai
migge
ngurangbang
dagun
morungle (H.)
manga (H.)
—
pemall(H.)
niulo
malma
purrai
tulumi
mi, nguiumi
—
—
mumba
bolla
dha
dha
burdoo
wonning
mye
mye
muUigar
winliding
boojar
boojar
kumurdu
kunde
burrna
—
—
bana
toney
pin-pan
—
mun-da
numti
nalin, nalurmi
—
tuni
kuranna
—
yerta
yurra
biturro
karndo
pangkarra, yerta
yerta
bootta
kulla-koonyka, beria
geerra
mundee
thularayiiidrie
thularakinie
—
mitha
pilpamaninkura
wyinina
pala
pala
roonga
roonga
nargee
nargee
lalluelball(C.)
laurba
—
kuiarloa
leuwee
—
teenger
—
darawiya
gwindyuiu
dak
wondyo
—
—
burra
boorar
tamong
idum
kura (earth)
—
kwatyabara
mirror (W. )
arila
milivir
wai
—
—
yamber
bobo
tcharamilli
balpae
—
dragette
—
makootte
ogoa
arrokutti
nrepogono
makwigge
ogoa
wagel
omba
—
ampa
duyuma
baguma
laga (land)
apa
nurvur
nembeli
tipsa
netan
tovae
navila
navanua
natano
tafatihiri
tuptupeia
tageraku
lakere
216
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Stone
Hill
Creek
East ....
loantennina
poimena
Tas-
South ....
loinah, lonna
layete paawe
West and N. W.
loine
mania
North . . .
lenn parena
meledna
Miscellaneous ,
larnar(N.),longa(D.)
neika(D.)
warthanina (J.)
/
Yarra R. . .
long
yurndabil
gurnong
Lai Lai . . ,
la
panyal
yalok
Si
Ercildoime . .
la
kawa
bar
.§
Avoca R. . .
lakh
kauwa
bor
S=
Broken Ji. . .
niordyir
•ngorak
kurnung
^
Guiibower .
laar
ponyul
yalok
Warrnambool .
moral
—
dhartum
Mortlake
inerri
kung, kaa
bur^ng
^
Booandik, S. A.
muri
boopik
yaro
i\
Lower Lachlan
and Murrum-
kwiarpi
porporkui
yerani
\
bidgee
Gippsland . .
walung
krangark
keauwitch
j
Barwidgee, Up-
per Murray
gibba
bubbura
jeringemor
-0
Woorajery Tribe,
gibber
bulga
billabong [big, dry)
Upper Murray,
« s
N.S.IV.
IViraidhuri
—
bangala
gungan, hi\\d^(river)
Turuwul, Port
kibba [rock, H.)
—
turagung (R.)
Jackson
■y ^
Azvabakal .
tunnung
bulka
kirunta
^
Kamilroi
yarul
taiyul
—
Kabi,MaryR.Q.
dhake
kunda, tunba
wirra
\
Warrego /?., Q.
bougal
—
—
■ "^ {
Toodvay (New-
boyye
katta
billou
S §-|
cas'tle)
'^.<=-.^-^-
Pidong . . .
murrda
kurrba
wila
^1-?S
M inning
buri
buri
—
-^ V. ^
Lake A madeus .
pulley
—
car-roo
a ~^ /
Narrinyeri . .
marti
ngurli
kur [river)
Parnkalla .
kanya
purri
parri [riverS
to ^ S
Adelaide . ,
pure
yertamalyo
parri [river]
V2C5 \
Darling . . .
gibba
bolo
kulppa, dalyy
•^ '^"S,
Diyeri . . .
murda
—
—
1^
Murnnuda .
mudra
wyirira
kuri
Mythergoody
niindee
morjo
ooldo
1 Larrikeya . .
belpella
gumarooka (C. )
—
"N4
Woolna . . .
lungea, lunga
lilyerwer
toipunger
1
Daktyerat . ,
wulu
milgning
yaodyer
K
Ruby Ck. , Kitn-
pili
—
—
C5
berley
"«
Napier Range,
wirneguni
—
rurar
» «
Kimberley
Sunday /stand
kolb
porit
idal [river)
Macdonnell
puta
elgata, puta
lara
1 3 1
Ranges
«-> *^
IVals/i R.,Q. .
turn
angguan
algin
'^
Bloomfield Val-
kolgi
mangel
yilgi
^
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R., Q. .
oolkon
jakkaro
—
^
CoenR.,Q.
ogworre
pai
re
Mapoon R. , Q.
ogworre
pal
re
Gudang, C. York
olpa
pada
—
Torres \
Strait 1
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai /., N. G.
kula
kula
pada
pado
kussa [river)
New
Hebri- ■
des
A tilua Malikula
nevit
narah
emburea
Nguna . . ,
vatu
tava
—
Aniwa . . ,
tafatu
aora
teretu, tavai, tafe
COMPARxVTIVE TABLE
217
Grass
Tkee
Bark
Wood
rouninna
loatta
poora, poora-nah
wyena
iiemone
toronna (D.)
warra
weea
probluah
—
poora leah
—
poene (P.)
weena (R.)
moomenc (N.)
weenar (N.)
boait
—
darbo
kalk
baran
gur
garong
kalkalk
boaitch
kalk
bam
kalkkalk
bowatch
kalk
mityak
kalk
banom
kalkponyir
yellani
kalk
boatch
pial
muradyap
pial
bodhun
wurutth
muroitch
wiin
karrawan
—
dhurung
weean
boo-tho
—
moorn-dart
wurnap
worlengi
paila
ngord
pittarkuri
bon
kalak
nondak
kalak
mooro
—
karrayu
toorga
—
yarra (ginn)
—
keegal
buguin
maddan, gidya
_
maddan, win
bumbur
waddy (H.)
—
waddy (H.)
woiyo
kollai
bukkai
kollai
gorar yindal
tulu
tura
tulu
ban
dhu
konibar
dhu
yowwl
wan
biddal
wi
gilba
bonna
yorda
bcnna
bulga
—
winnda
—
bulgarra
—
yannda
putta
er-nar
lick-caraka
wor-rue
kaiyi
yape
yorli
lamatyeri
yutara
vvarndu, wadla
yulti
birka, gadla
—
—
tidli, bakka
gadla
niootto
koombalila (gum)
tulkeroo, pultta
yerra
kunlha
—
pitchie
tiiooroo, pitta
kuntabukra
wewa
wita
turo
kutthree
bargour
simbe
bargour
nierelma
mardpurma
mangguruma (C.)
niarriburma (C. )
lugilyer
—
leemoconana
meurwer
weno
tyungo
dull
wundallo
yuka
—
—
wooroo
—
—
bonar
koorlyo
burduch
naina
—
bailka, irknala
rula
alku
iringkin
harun
angi (log)
karer
choko
toombul
choko
ookin
oonkil
oomar
lainne
—
kaii
ko
lainne
—
kago
ko
untinya
pure
ranga
yoko
burda
prue
purur
mue
bupi)
kaipui
pia
pui
namine
naki
nakalukte naki
naki
nangmenau
nakau
nawili nakau
nakau
tagaferi
terarakou
nokiri terarakou
terarakou
218
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
GKOUI'S
Dialects
Cami'
House
Hole
East ....
lenna
South . . .
line
—
Tas-
IVest and N. IV.
—
—
—
mania
North . . .
—
—
—
Miscelliineous .
—
leebrerne (N. )
—
/
Yarra R. . .
willam
willam
bakporn
ImI L,il . . .
karong
karong
mir
Ercildoune . .
laa
maiam maiam
baam
%
Ai'oca R. . .
lar
lar
mir
h
lirokcn R. . .
yellam
yellam
miring
^
Gunbincer .
lar
lar
ludhuk
•9
Warrnumbool .
wurn
porpomduk
pakweitch
Mortlake . . .
woor
burbunionook
ganung
^
liooandik, S. A.
noorla
ngoorla
—
,\j
Louer Lachlan
lingingi
kundi
ngurngi
and Murritm-
bidgee
\
Gippsland . .
bong
katyun
ngang
Banuidgee, Up-
gunya (?)
—
—
per Murray
t/^
W'oorajeryTribc,
—
gunya (?)
—
■?>i
I 'pper Murray,
« «s
N.SAV.
5-5
Wiraidhuri
—
gawier
milbi, munil
il \
Turuwul, Port
gonyi (hut, H.)
kunje [hut, R.)
gomira (H.)
Jackson
^.Cw
Awabakal . .
koiyong
kokere
—
'
Kamilroi . .
—
kundi
—
^'
Kabi,MarvR.,Q.
kira, kirami
tura
noUa
\
H arrego R. , ().
nurra
gundi
wordu
• ■« ^ /
Toodvay (New-
kalla nanup
mia
—
s§-g
castle)
~.2:EV|
Pidong . . .
—
ngora
igil
^r^l
Mi lining
—
mullga-minntoradd
—
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
—
<0 -N*
Narrinyeri . .
manti, ngauandi
karuturi
merki
^11
Parnkdla . .
yurla, karnko
karnko
tyeka yappa
Adelaide. .
—
wodli
tau, yappa
Darling . . .
yuppara
gooUee
nieengga, wooUee
Diyeri . . .
oora
boonga
willpa
Murunuda .
ura
tua
mikri
Mytlwrgoody .
magier
yitibar
kornjar
Larrikeya .
guinidirk
manoliirra
gauga
1 1 'oi>lna . . .
wylie, mikehr
—
wawee
"^
Dak/ vera t . .
dak
anduk
yalo
£•
RubvCL.Kim-
—
—
—
5
berley
Napier Range,
yalbah
miar
nimilar
^ ^
Kimherley
a^ j
Sunday Island .
ooroorunggari
—
—
■s^ ■<
Ma c don nell
tmara
ilta, lunga
altyura
S3 \
Ranges
2j
Walsh R., Q. .
alpa
polkan
irpen
■^
Bloomfield Val-
bulpa
bian
tchanko
-«!
ley, Q.
1
Painter R.,Q. .
ogae
—
—
:i
CoenR.,Q. . .
nge
wutschu
—
MapoonR.,Q. .
nge
wutschu
—
\ Gudang, C.York
—
eikuwa
—
Torres
Kowrarega,
mudu
laga
—
Strait
Torres St.
Saibai /., N.G.
lago
arkato
New I
A ulua Malikula
vere {village)
nimwa
nambul
Hebri. .
Nguna . . .
—
nasungma
moru
des
.-tniwa .
—
tafare
terua
COMPARATIVE TABLi:
iil9
Lump
Path
Footmark
The Blacks
puggataghana
—
—
pallowa lugganah
—
z
pah lug
jiruin
baring
z
kulin
turung
kandor
kandor
koli
karinga
baring
baring
koli
turung
baring
barkuk
kuli
yulabil
baring
baringidyinang
kulin ba bedyir
dhunkauir
parin
parin
kuli
koreda
taan
—
maar
mamit
dhaarn
dhinnaneong
inaara
—
ware
teena
—
tupatupaule
laimbi
thinangi
woongi
dhanbilan
wanik
wanik
konai
:
karrika
buabuawanna
yabbang
bai, darrambal
main
—
—
—
eora
bulka
yapung
yulo
—
turabul
—
niurri (s.)
wulbo
kuan, ulu
kuati
dhan
curlewru
yourroun
dinnadonybu
myeing (maiiug)
—
—
genna
yunger boola
—
—
kulbia
—
u-\vorra (road)
—
—
—
yarluke
yarluki
narrinyeri
bakkarra
widla
—
—
—
lappa
tainga
—
—
tinna
tinna
wimbaja
—
—
thidna
kurnawara
tunka
waruvvaru
tinbuto
kurna
nambul
wathoo
janner
—
—
kuiatburroa
beaitbar (C.)
belirra
—
—
ya-wehrl
—
povo
eru, widbeldyerang
mel
gnan
-
gurdy, karty
karty, nimblar
-
wola [heap)
tyaia, tnalta
—
—
tel
tel
pama
tchungi
boral
boural
bummer
_
_
amul
patoo
tave
kwe
mrittakke nambarra
poi
rago
kwe
mritakke nambarra
yabugudo
—
napua
nangmele
natangmoli loa maga
—
havila
nieleluan
asamangk miet
lampe (?)
teretu
tuniavai
tagata pouri
!220
KAGIJ^HAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
A Blackfellow
A Black WOMAN
Man
1
East ....
pugganna
lowanna
pugganna
Tas- J
South ....
pullawah
lowanna
pallawah
West and N. W.
pah-leab
nowaleah
pah-leah
mania |
North . . .
—
—
looudouene
1
Miscellaneous .
—
louana (R.)
wibar(N. ) penna (D. )
Y'lirra Jf. . .
kulin
baigurk
kulin
ImI Lai . . .
koh
bagurk
koli
Ercildoune .
koli
bangbanggo
koli
.5
Avoea A". . .
kuH
baibago
kuli
1*
Broken N. . .
kulin
bedyir
kulin
^
Gunbower .
bang
leiruk
wotok
§ (
Warmambool .
niaar
dhanambul
maar
Mortlake . .
mara
dbumdhumboorn
mara
^
liooandik, S. A.
draal
kinekine-nool
druiil
Lower Lachlan
woongi
liorki
kolkorni
and Murrum-
bidgee
\
Gippsland . .
konai
wurukot
konai wadi
/
Barwidgec, Up-
per Murray
—
—
jirri
to
Woorajcry Tribe,
mian
—
—
Upper Slurray,
« s
N.S.W.
•S"^
Wiraidhuri
main
—
gibbir
Turuwul, Port
niul-la
din
—
Jackson
co"^
Awabakal .
—
—
kore
^'
Kamilroi . .
niurri
yinar
giwir
KabiMarvR.Q.
dhan
yiran
kivar
\
Warrego K. , Q.
niyeing
mugging
mying
Toodyay {Nao-
yunger moon
yungar yago moon
mamerup
a «-t; P
castle)
^ .« '^ •$ ■
Pi don ^ . . .
—
—
yammeji
^|-^o
Mi lining. . .
—
—
minninng
Lake Amadcus .
bar-too (man)
ho-carra
bartoo
*-) ^^
Narrinycri , .
komi
mimini
korne
-^"^1
Parnkalla . .
—
pallara
miyerta, yura
to "^ g
Adelaide. . .
—
—
meyu
Darling . . .
wimbaja
burrukka
wimbaja
Diyeri . , .
kurna
widla
—
1^^
1 Murutiiida . .
kurna
punga
karuro
c^ "^
] Mythergoody
moorey
pungar
—
Larrikeya . .
barning (C.)
barning-ceimcur (C. )
molinyo
^
Woolna . . .
looarkieinga
mungedma
kumaol (mankind)
1
i Daktyerat .
gnan
elugur
gnolan
s
Ruby Ck.,Kim-
—
—
wunwa, papa
C5
berley
■«
Napier Range,
wambar
—
—
a an
alia
Kimberley
Sunday Island .
—
—
amba
|l^
Macdonnell
Ranges
—
—
atua, erila, atula
Walsh R.,Q. .
moak
yerkul
lunjin
•^^
Bloom fie Id Val-
bummer
tchalbu
dingar
5
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R. , Q. .
immi
aruntha
—
:^
Coen R. , Q.. .
nambarra
andrommre nambarra
adhetroo
Mapoon R., Q. .
nambarra
andrommre nambarra
annege
' Gudang,C.York
amma
—
unbamo
Torres
Strait
Kowrarega,
garkai
—
turkekai
Torres St.
Saibai /., N. G.
—
—
mabaigo
Nno
.4ulua Malikula
natangmoli loa sikai
nangoroi loa sikai
natangmoli
Hehri-
Nguna . . .
asamangk miet
tambaluk miet
teta, asamangk
des
.Anixva . . .
tase tagata pouri
fatine pouri
tatane, tane
i
COMPARATIVE TABLE
221
Old Man
lowlobengang (J.)
lalubeguna ( L. )
wlkabil
didabil
mati koli
ngambin
dhaingula
wanyim
ngoUa
alungalung
ngiring gee
pokongi
budhan
jirribong
jeeribung
dirribang
bangung (R. )
ngaroniba i
diria (old)
winylr
mutchaburry m.
mongan
winnja
yandiorn
bulka, kulya
pinaroo
karuro mutchuchu
more
lariba
longailinga
bork
darral
ayna
piringga
pinga
oolpa
wattepoi
waggapoi
keturkekai
moroigo
natangmoli matua
tela nurseramp
tatane ituai
Woman
lonanna
lowanna
nowaleah
loubra
lurga (D.)lolna(J.)
baigurk
bagurk
bangbanggo
baibago
bedyir
rembindyuk, leyruk
kuguwitch
dhumdhumboorn
kinekine-nool
moroinsrham
wurukot
jeri
nukung
yinar
ylran
mug-erding
yago
wanndi, nyalo
wurnanng
ho-kana
mimini
pallara, ngammaityu
ngammaitya
buiTukka
widla
kuei
onullaga
mungedraa
wundinigmun
aringa, nama
ihandur
wolnga (youttc
tchalbu
dronnanne
andrommre
undamo
ipikai
ungwakazi
nangoroi
tambaluk
fafine
Old Woman
payana
nena ta poinena
lowla pewanna (J.)
murndigurk
mundagurk
mati bangbanggo
ngunyimgoork
wirk vvirk
vvunyiinkurk
ngarom ngarom
koovvoowetch
porpegngara
kuambiliki
kwerailmina, wurukot
kauwantigba
jeeribung
ballagun
mulda (R.)
ngarongeen
yambuli
marun
burraka
billing
thukurrn
koon-ja-gilbee
yandi-imin
paityabulti
nahnggo
wildapina
kuei mutchuclia
womoora
goomool (C.)
iteburna
miinnallo
tombi
kumber
andorpatroo
andorprigge
keipikai
nangoroi matua
tambaluk nurseramp
fafine itua
Boy
cotty-mellitye
poilahmaneenah
leewoon ( D. )
bobup
golkonkuli
golkongolkon
bupup
bobopdhak
bupang
waran waran
warun warun
koonatgo
piangongi
lidh
uaro
boori
biran, biu-ai
wongerra (C. )
birri
nguin
yungurd
kooling
murdin
yina
oll-ar
mambarna
kurkurra
willya-roonga
kurawulie
wei
jueary (?)
nim, nemerk
notyur
wurkun
warru
pfoimakonne
fopparri
turkekai kaje
magina kazi
piakiki nanoai
tamare
tatane sisi
ooo
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Girl
Baby
Father
East . . .
. lowana keetanna
cottruluttye
noonalmeena
South . . .
. longatyle
puggata riela
nanghamee
Tas-
Westafid N.\
V. —
rikente
latana (J.)
mania
North . . .
—
looiid
nimermina
Miscellaneous
. ludineny(J.)
badnny (J.)
niunlamana (J.)
' Yarni K.
. murnmurndik
bobiip, waiyibo
niaman
ImI Lai . .
. madanmndik
biipup
bitang
ErciUniine .
. bunai bunai
bupup
maamuk
.1
Avoca A*.
. bunya bunya
nilamgiirk
mamuk
S»
Broken R. .
. bornai
bubiipdhark
mamano
^
Gun bower .
, wadhibuk leyruk
biip^ng
niamuk
Warniambool
. paraiparaitch
hupop
l)ipai
Mortlake
. buriburetch
boopoop
pepie, beebie
1
Booandik, S. A
, barite, koonam
—
marm
Lower iMchla)
/ maiwangupi
popopi
niamoma
and Miirrum
Hdgee
,
Gippsland .
dlialu wurukot
dhaliban
monggan
1
Darwidgce, Up
per Murray
- , weki
—
—
^
Woorajcry Trib
e, beelarjeroo
. —
mooma
S->3
Upper Murra
V,
« 5
N.S.W.
^!'
Wiraidhuri
inargung
munga
babbit!
Turuwul, Por
t wero\vey(C.)
nabungay (C.) wui-
beanga (H.)
Jackson
dalliez
^"^
Awabakal .
murrakin
bobog
biyungbai, bintun
Kamilroi
mie
kaingal
buba
^'
A'abi,MarvR.,{
\ wuru
wolbai
pabun
\
IVarrego R., Q
gunney
gudderra
budding
j."2 >.
Toodyay (New
■ yago kooling
nobain
maman
^ «■?! S
castle)
'■ -2 :^ "5 ■
Pidong . .
thura
iiiaiu
murama
^r^i
Minning
—
—
—
Lake Amadeus
cue-on-buntor
—
cartoo
5 -^ /
Narrinyeri .
bami
kelgalli
nanghai
^11
Parnkalla .
kardni
kaitya
pappi
!/:«?:
Adelaide. .
mankarra
tukkutya
yerlimeyu
VSCi -
Darling . .
pulkahly
kichungga
kahmbeeja
:S P"^
Diycri . .
koopa
koopa
apirrie
a-i:.«
Murunuda .
kuei
pula
napira
Mythergoody
mungane
cliurloo
yadthoo
1
Larrikcya .
maneiga
larree (C.)
neganbita
Woolna . .
—
—
bipie
1
Daktverat .
windyarello
miilmulma
ngaolu
s:
Ruby Ck., Kim
—
—
ombuna
c
berley
•«3
Napier Range
yabun
baba
yabellar
«*.«
Kimberley
\ US trail
Sunday Island
—
—
—
Macdonnell
1 kwara
um-bra-coora (W. )
kata, nekua
Ranges
1
5N
Walsh R., Q.
yerkul
tapu
undya
'^
Bloomfield Val
- maral
ouar
andgan
«
lev, Q.
^
Palmer R., Q.
—
awillung
atheem
1
Coen R., Q.
morgatanne
agame
naita
Mapoon R. , Q.
lande, marprenne
agame
naita
\
Gudang.C. York
—
—
epada
Torres J
Strait (
Kowra rega
Torres St.
Saibai L, N.G
ipikai kaje
ngawakazi
muggi kaje
baba, tati
babo, tati
New I
Aulua Malikul
a piakiki nangoroi
pipia
tamana
Hebri- \
Nguna . .
tambaluk kakas
anetana (child)
teta
des I
Aniwa . .
fafine sisi
1
tama sisi
tata
^y^^
COMPARATIVE TABLE
^23
Mother
Husband
Wife
Elder Brother
neingmenna
puggan neena
neemina
pah-neena
—
neena moygh
—
—
—
blemana
—
—
powamena (J.)
—
cuani (P.)
—
bapa
nangguronga
brimbanna
banggon
ngatonyuk
nanabun
nganapunyuk
wamunyuk
bapuk
anyetyuk
tyaptyapuk
waruk
papuk
anityuk
nataguruk
wawuk
babono
nanggorong
bimbarno
banggono
pabuk
anidyuk
motminyuk
wawuk
ngira
ngonabun
malongar
wardai
yurungi
anaboort
mulladh
wartietsh
ngat
nganap
mala
wargul-e
korna
nopa
lileli
mouri woni
yakon
benong
laua
dhandon
—
—
bularjeru
—
bubba
—
—
kokong [brother)
mammadin
mammadin
gagang
wyanga (H.)
—
maugohn (C.)
babunna (C.)
tunkan
poribai
porikunbai
bingngai
ngumba
gulTr
giillr
daiadi
ngavang, ubung
dhandor
malimgan
nuin
kiah
girring
nubba
bauing
jukan
mamon
kardo
kardijet
—
murrdong
murrdong
kurda
yack-hoo
coo-rie
coo-rie
coota (brother)
nainkowa
nape, napalle
nape
gelanowi
ngammi
yerdli
karteti, yungara
yunga
ngankitta
ngubba
karto, yangarra
yunga (brother)
nummaka
mahlee
koombahka
kahkooja
andril
noa
noa
niehie
narmidi
—
—
meerala
narthia
narthia
arboon (brother)
kuding
—
aladig
qualaliva (C. )
kardie
lainelongunya (P.)
—
nulla
gnagnaain
nengl
elngen
pukang
nume
—
wompan
—
kooya
—
—
ba-bellar
—
malardin
irwinya
koira (brother)
maia, makura
noa
noa
uckillya(W.)
hauwa
moa
wau
uping
ngarmo
tchoniu
munyur
yapper
among
—
—
athil
tatoo ,
ngonoongbrange
ngonoome
manaen
adhai
ngioongbrange
ngiamre
maianne
atinya
anba
onda
—
anima, apu
allai
ipi
adoama (brother)
arna, apu
imi
imi
kuikuiga
kpilana
anawota
anangoroi
taina takalapa
nina
asunu
asunu
yeye
mama
nunwane
inahune
noso sore
924
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Younger Brother
Elder Sister
Younger Sister
East ....
_
South ....
—
—
—
Tas-
West and NAV.
—
—
—
mania
North. . . .
—
—
—
AJisciUaneous ,
—
—
—
J
Yarra A'. . ,
dhidliidha
langtang
dhidhidha
La/ Lai . . .
wangatuk
tatyiiruii
bormboranuk
ErcilJounc . .
kortuU
tya'tyuk
kortyuk
1
Avoca A'. . .
kutiik
talyuk
kutruguk
§»
Broken A'. . .
barnan biyu
latligon
banbonok
t^
Giinhnver . .
giumenyuk
dliatyuk
wutenyuk
■ian
W'arrnambool .
kogu
kakai
kokuiir
Mortlake . . .
marti
kaki
kookeer
^
Dooandik, S. A.
nere, doate
date
nere-er
Loiver Lachlan
niaimi \voni
mouri tati
mainni ki
and Murriim-
Hdgec
\
Gippsland . .
dhalitcli
boandhan
landok
/
Baiwidgee, Up-
per Murray
—
—
—
t/
WoorajeryTribc,
—
niyngan (sister)
—
Upper Murray,
« R
N.S. W.
^^
Wiraidhuri
gulmain
mingan {eldest)
muogan
^s \
Turuwul, Port
—
mainunna (G.)
—
S 5
Jackson
^^
Awabakal . .
kumbul
—
—
Kamilroi . .
gulami
boadi
bure
J>
A'abi,MaryR.,Q.
wuthung
yabun
naibar
\
IVarrego A"., Q.
mourn
bubba
gen y era
■ "S -^^
Toodyay {New-
kootadong
katamity
katamity
*! c "S S
castle)
^.2:E^-
Pidong . . .
bua
judo (sister)
bua
^•■S^C)
M inning . .
—
—
—
•S
Lake Amadcus .
—
kongaroo (sister)
—
»i» *s* /
Narrinyeri . .
tarte •
maranovvi
tarti
Parnkalla . .
ngaityaba
yakka (sister)
—
Adelaide . . .
—
yaklcana (sister)
—
V2C; -^
Darling . . .
bahlooja
wahttooka
wahtteeja
Diyeri . . .
athata
kakoo
athata
r*
Murutiuda . .
—
—
—
Mythcrgoody
—
moona (sister)
—
I.arrikcya .
mineemiller (C. )
buerra (C. )
jeramooka (C. )
1 1 'oolna .
wetter
nelami (P.)
wetter, wutta
^
s
Daktycrat
nundang
aldang
nundang
8
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
5
berley
^s
Napier Range,
mallar-kartin
—
—
§-S
Kimberley
Sunday Island .
—
gwira (sister)
—
Macdonnell
itia
urumba
itia
Ranges
5^
Walsh R.,Q. .
uping
abar
hongark
^
Bloom field Val-
yapputchiu
barbar
ginkiur
•«t
li-v, Q
^
Palmer R.. Q .
amoko
thuppa
ejeeja
:|
Cocn R.,Q. . .
otroo
kwitte
otroo
Mapoon R.,Q. .
tanoombanne
loege
tanoombanne
Gudang, C. York
—
—
—
Torres
Strait
1 Kowrarega,
Torres St.
i Saibai I., N.G.
kutaiga
babato (sister)
New
\ AuluaMaliknla
taina takariki
ngorena takalapa
ngorena takariki
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
i Aniwa . . .
atisina
rabina
—
des
noso sisi
nokave sore
nokave sisi
I
COMPARATIVE TABLE
225
Children
Canok
mallanna
Fish
Porcupine
_
mungunna
mungyenna
bevvoon {sing. J.)
nunganah
peeggana
mungye
—
nunghuna
—
mungynna kanagale
looweinna (J. )
—
pinounn
milma (J.)
pagyta (sing. R.)
lukrapani (L.)
penunina (J.)
trewmina (J.)
vvurtona
kurong
towet [blackfish)
kauwarn
burunbalok
yogoip
worapin
monngark
karkar bupup
bam
yurtyuk
yulawil
bupupkalik
yoigoip
wirap
yulawil
bonbonarik
korong
malon
kauworn
bupang
yungutch
wiringal
lipkil
tukui tukui
dhurung
—
wilangalak
dhoie dhoie
dhorong
erigar
goonama
pangongi
yongopi
parndeli
yerendingi
yeailmin
gin
kaiii
kauon
—
doothoo
yum bo
demo
-
murring
munji
-
burai {s.)
_
guya
goroong(C.)
nowey (C.)
magra (H.)
—
wonnai
nauwui
makora
kai
kumbilgal
guiya
—
kumma, wolbai
kombar
bala, undaiya
kakkar ,
gudderrakulgra
kunarew
kewya
— i
koolong
—
kalbart
—
-
-
wabi
kundiwa
—
un-dippin
porlar
meralii
mami
—
—
karnkurtu
kuya
—
wakvvakko
—
kuya
—
berloo-berloo
bocltaroo
tahpooroo, peindoo
kultoo
koopavvura
pirra
paroo
—
churloo
nangool
pal by
wychguine
nemebira
gunoogara (C.)
maddo
—
—
mourty
liyer, lieya
—
bulk
wendu
dugur
menak
yambadi (si?ig. )
—
—
—
-
gundig bourough
pee
—
ali
—
—
irbunga {pi.)
in-nar-ling-er (\V.)
nyolba
—
yu
yierke-yierker
niarakan
kuyu
ngunkin
—
—
oyi
—
—
patr
nia
—
mrittakke agame
patr
nia
—
—
angganya
wawpi
—
—
gul
wawpi
—
niaginakazi [pi.)
gulo
wapi
_
piakirikiri
naki
nika
—
tamare
rarua
naika
—
erecriki
1
tavaka tagata
eika teika " "
1
226
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Native Bear
Native Dog
Kangaroo
1
East ....
_
lyenna
South ....
—
lena, tarrana
Tas- '
West and .V. VV.
—
ku leab, tarr leah
mania 1
North ....
—
moukra [dog)
taramei
I
Miscellaneous .
—
—
lerrar (N. )
/
Yarra R. . .
korbura
wiringwilam
koim
Lai Lai . . .
ngamibulamoom
tarwal
koim
^
Ercililoune . .
badyomom
wilkar
kora
.5
Avoea A". . .
botyunmuin
wilkar
kura
-^
Broken A*. . .
korbil
wiringalam
maram
^
Gunbouvr . .
ngarmbulmum
wirangan
kura
VVarrnambool .
winggal
pornang
kurai
Mortlake. . .
wirringill
burnung gaal
goroite
^
Booandiky S. A.
—
karnachum
koraa, mare {/. )
Lmver Lachlan
—
terilumbi
kuarangi
•^
and Murrum-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
\
kula
ngurain
dhira
1
Barwidgee, Up-
per Murray
—
wehnga
boodjoo
to
\ Voorajery Tribe,
—
merri
womboin
Upper. \lurray,
N.S. W.
^1
Wiraidhuri
—
karingale
bandar
Turuwul, Port
—
waregal (H.)
patagurang (H.)
Jackson
CO*^
Awabakal . .
—
worrikul,yuki,rairri(/.)
moane
Kamtlroi . .
—
murren, maiai
bundar
^'
Kabi,MaryR;Q-
kulla
wiyidha karum
mart
\
Warrego R., Q.
—
yewgee
kulla
■ "^ -.
Toodyay (New-
—
dordoyakain
yunkar
* «t? s
castle)
•••S:^^-
Pidong . . .
—
duthu [dog) waiul
malu
^^■"c; i
Minning
—
doychu
pirkuda
.^ ^
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
mar-loo
Narrinyeri . .
—
turutparni, kel
wangami, tulatyi
\"2|
Parnkalla .
—
kurdninni
kadlukko
to * S
Adelaide . . .
—
warrukadli
kunda, nanto
V2^ -
Darling . . .
—
poolkeja
tultta
^^^
Diyeri . . .
—
kintalo (dog)
chookaroo
Murunuda . .
—
tala
kura
Mythergoody
—
yamby
maijumba
Larrikeya . .
—
meelinga (C. )
melulla
»»
W coin a . . .
—
illaya
marning-an-anya
5
Daktyerat . .
—
barundiru
modth
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
jugi (or) dudi
^
berley
•y
Napier Range,
—
yallar
garabil
§-^
Kimberley
Hi
Sunday Island .
—
ela
piru
Macdonnell
—
i-rinka(W.)
rera
Ranges
Walsh R.,Q. .
mungar
tok (?)
amui
X
Bloomfield Val-
—
ngarnio muramo
wallur
;5
ley, Q.
•:i
Palmer R.,Q. .
—
oota
innar
<
Coen R., Q. . .
—
orke
'mvokoo
Mapoon R., Q. .
—
oa
angai
' Gudang,C.York
—
ing-godinya (do:^)
epama
TOTfCS
Kowrarega,
—
umai
usur
Strait
Torres St.
Saibai I., N. G.
umai [dog)
usaru
New 1
A ulua Malikula
Hebri- ^
Nguna . . .
—
des 1
Aniwa , . .
—
kuri, kuli
—
I
J
COMPARATIVE TABLE
227
Opossum
Emu
Iguana
Eaglehawk
lowowyenna
punnamoonta
gooalanghta
leena
ngunannah
—
weelaty
papnoolearah
—
—
—
—
—
—
cockinna (J.)
wolimmerner (N.)
pandanwoonta)S.)
leenar(N.)
neirana (R.)
walert
poraimil
bujing
bunjil
walart
karwir
tyulin
ngaromgar
wila
yauwir
wirmbil
werpil
wile
yauir
tyulin
narail
walert
—
tulin
bundyel
wila
kauwir
dhulin
wirbil
kuramuk
kaping
yuruk
ngianggar
kooramook
barinmall
urook
neeungura
kooramo
kower
—
ngeere
pondandi
thungati
wainbali
waiapili
wadhan
maiyor
badhalok
kuanamurung
burra
murriawa
goorooda
wannomurra
willi
pettabang
—
mulyan
willei
ngurain, dinnawan
girua
ibbai, muUian
kuruera (R.)
marry-ang (H,)
—
—
willai
kongkorong
—
wirripang
mute
dino-un
dull
mullion
ngarambi
nguruindh
warui
buthar
googie
nurrung
burnna
kurra
koomal
wagie
mulliwa
walga
—
yallebiri
wadebi
warrida
—
tula
galka
—
wye-hoota
cur-lier
ween-dug-a
wol-lowra {eagle)
piltari
pinyali
tiyauwe
wulde
pilla
warraitya
—
yarnu
—
kari
pundonya
pilla, wilto
yarinjy
kulttee
tarkooloo
bilyahra
pildra
woroocathie
kopirrie
curawura
balu
warukatchi
kurininga
witchuhankura
kargoin
jungoobury
muinbooaberry
goorithilla
raacmilla (C.)
langura (C.)
kurara (P.)
—
—
moraqunda
—
—
wiyi
ngurin
tyang
murmello
lungar
kuriningara
-
-
antina
ilia
ad-june-pa (W. )
eritya
adel
pur
konjil
—
yowere
—
tchatti
yelngur
oolon
oorooba
—
—
'nrerandre
toarri
—
—
"nreranji
toarri
—
nichulka
—
—
barit
—
—
agaleg
—
-
tamoi
-
—
mala
1
~~~
—
maruke, nifatu
228
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Crow
Black Duck
Wood Duck
i
East ....
lietenna
_
Tas- '
South ....
taw wereiny
—
—
IVestandN. 11'.
—
—
mania "j
Xorth. . . .
iicnn houtne
—
—
1
Miscellaneous .
ktlla(L.)
—
—
Yarra R. . .
wang
dulum
—
\ Lai Lai . . .
wa
tulum
worowirt
t
Ercildoune .
wa
ngari
biabiarp
Avoca A'.
wa
ngari
beyapyirp
Broken R. . .
wang
dolong
baitmom
a:
Gunbower . .
waa
ngori
ngonok
t:
Warmambool .
waa
dhurubarang
—
Mortlake
wah
thorbran
naook
^
Booandik, S. A.
wa
purner
—
,v»
Lower L.achlan
whalakeli
tolomi
naari
and Murrum-
bidgec
1
Gippsland . .
ngarukol
wrang
naak
1
Barwidgee, Up-
wagara
dooloomoo
ngaru
tX
per .\lurrav
•^
IVoorajery Tribe,
waggan
poothenbong
ngaru
S"^
Upper Murray,
^ »
N.S. W.
■11
Wiraidhuri
vvaggan
wambuain hang
l;^ § \
Turuwul, Port
wagan (H.)
yoorongi (C. )
—
- s
Jackson
^•^
\ Awabakal . .
wakun
Kamilroi . .
waru, waun
karangi
ngurapala
'^
Kabi,MaryR.,Q.
wowa
nar
nar
\
Warrego R. , Q.
woggan
mirri-nurra
mirri-nurra
-^1 - (
Toodyay (New-
wardang
munnie
wonda :
l«al
castle)
Pidong . . .
kaku
—
—
M inning
—
ngarrawa
1
^ 1
Lake Amadens .
carn-ka
chip-pia (duck)
— '
•i) .^
Narr invert . .
marangani
nakkari
wanye (mountain)
^"11
Pamkalla .
wornkarra
—
f/ « S!
Adelaide. . .
kua
i:§^ •
Darling . . .
wahkoo
mingara
koonably
? S"5
Diycri . . .
kowulka
chippala
koodnapina
§-^^
Muntniida .
wakuri
muto
milkipulo
^ ^ I
Mythergoody
womarine
koopery
alowan
Larrikcya .
quagabar (C.)
benaymara (C.)
—
■^
Woolna . . .
—
lermawal
\
£
Daktyerat . .
wangur
pulnirik
"^
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
^
berlcy
■*=
Napier Range,
wingard
—
chibile (whistling)
?-2
Kimberley
ustralia ,
Austral
Sunday Island .
—
Macdonnell
ngapa
—
— 1
Ranges
Walsh R..Q. .
ada
kuir
\
Bloomjield Val-
—
borok
•*
ley, Q.
3
Palmer R., Q. .
atha
onoogi
—
^
CoenR.,Q.
augarilti
moikapoome
—
Mapoon R. , Q.
rarri
moiboome nambarra
— :
Gudang,C. York
—
—
— 1
Torres j
Strait 1
K owrarcga,
Torres St.
Saibat /., N. G.
baga (duck)
I
JVew /
Aulua Malikula
__
NeM. J
Nguna .
—
(/es {
Aniwa . . .
niau ouri
togarei ouri
tagarei agarakou
COMrARATIVE TAliLE
i^29
Wild Turkey
Pelican
Laughing Jackass
Native Comi'Anion
treeoonta langta
_
—
toyne
—
—
treoute
—
lanaba (J.)
—
—
;
wajil
kurung kurung
kurork
toraiwil
Jcolabityin
bortangil
kuark
borangeit
patyangal
kowark
gutyun
kulabityin
bortyangil
kuark
norakuang
!
—
gurng gurng
kurork
hgorau
linanggur
koorng koorng
koodhoon
—
—
kunatth
kurun
barim-barim
gardbarup
koonitthe
kooroon
laa
parangal
kooartung
wandi
nuwe
ninangure
kowari
toorkuangi
buran
kuak
kurakan
nungarawa
goolakgahle
—
brolga
komether
-
kookaburra
berralgen
gambal
_
_
buralgang
—
car-rang-a-bomurray(C.)
gogannegine (C.)
—
—
karong-karong
—
—
burowa
guleale
kukuburra
buralgha
kalarka
bulla wallum
kawung
kunduran
geeyerra
kuggangurru
kurruru
bibilar
talkinyeri
nori
prclggi
walla
widli
—
—
wolta
yetu
—
—
tikkara
booleeja
korrookkahkahka
goolerkoo
kulathoora
thaunipara
—
boo'alkoo
wankinara
malimaro
—
—
thurua
walkuperry
jarungodl
toorka
lamamu (C. )
madaridja (C.)
lanurba (C.)
toluba (C.)
—
lourpita
kargak
—
jruntyumunur
monongur
kulbobuk
elinyunung
itoa
kabilyalkuna
—
—
waloroongur
piluara
wahougoka
kourpal
atharoo
ingibbi
yambanyi
adhaurotte
anjomme
pronjomme
yambinne
adhaurootte
anjomme
prondorme
araunya
—
unbunya
aporega
raon
—
kowon
aporega
surka
—
-
—
malau
—
manu sori
~
~
230
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
White Cockatoo
Black Cockatoo
Swan
East ....
weeanoobryna
menuggana
kelangunya
Tas- .
South ....
nghara
nghay rumna
piigheritta
West and N.W.
—
—
publee (J.)
tncinia
A'orth . . .
—
—
cocha (J.)
Miscellaneous .
—
—
katagunya (J.)
Yarra A'.
ngaiyuk
ngyernong
kunuwara
Lai Lai . . .
dyinap
wiran
kunuwar
1*
Ercildoune .
dyinyap
weran
konawar
§
^
Avoca A'. . .
dyinyap
wiran
kunuwar
Broken A'. . .
gaan
yenggai
kunuwara
ft;
Gitnbower .
tyinap
wiral
kunuar
«
C
IVarrnambool .
ngayuk
wilan
kunuwar
Mortlake . .
nayuk
woolan
koonawarra
^
lioouidik, S. A.
mar, karaal
wiler, treen
koonowor
^
Lower Lachlan
karandi
—
tunapuki
and Murrutn-
bidgee
Gippsland .
braak
ngirnak
kitai
liarwidgee, Up-
gadauna
neanyo
muUewa
.
per Murray
I Voorajery Tribe ^
waima
—
goonak, thunthu
L pper Murray,
« 8
X.SAV.
^1
Wiraidhuri
murrain
billir
—
Turuwul, Port
garaway (H.)
carall (H.
mulgo (C.)
"" «
Jackson
t/i^
Awabakal ,
kearapai
waiila
—
Ka7nilroi . .
biloela
—
burunda
<
Kabi,MaryR.,Q.
gigum
wiyal
kulun, ngiring
Warrego A'., Q.
—
—
—
• "^ —
Toodyay \^New-
munait
—
—
l^^s
castle)
^:2:^^-
Pidong . . .
buUi
biddiarra
kurillthu
:^^"C)
Mintiing . .
—
—
—
;S V ^
Lake Amadeus.
cock-a-lella
yeranda
—
5 •-
Narrinyeri .
kranti
wuUaki
kungari
"^"s -S
Parnkalla . .
yangkunnu
irallu, yaralta
korti
to * s
Adelaide . .
kurraki
tiwa
kudlyo
vi2 ■
Darling . . .
kollybooka
pinnya-koUyja
yoongolee
Diyeri . . .
kudrungoo
—
kootie
^ i .~
Murunuda . .
murumiri
kuitch
—
^. "^
Mythergocdy
karambodla
leepar
—
Larrikeya , .
nangarangwarra (C. )
—
—
^
IVoolna . . .
lunginmununger
laamal
—
~
Daktyerat . .
mangur
milkbir
dyur
t:
RuhyCk., Kim-
—
—
^
berley
•*:
Napier Range,
—
—
—
Kitnberley
II
Sunday Island
—
—
—
Macdonnell
aruilkara
iranta
—
s s
Ranges
a'^
Walsh R.. Q. .
—
"T
Bloowjield Val-
pirmbar
kourmabiner
—
<;
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R., Q. .
enbogunby
—
—
<
Coen R., Q. . .
—
—
—
Mapoon R.,Q. .
yotte
poonjoo (?)
—
Gudang, C. York
aira
—
—
Torres
Kowrarega,
weama
—
Strait
Torres St.
Saibai /., A\ G.
New
A ulua Malikula
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
des i
Aniwa . . .
—
—
—
A
comparativp: table
231
Bird
Fly
Mosquito
Crayfish
puggunyenna
mongana
punna
monga
redpa(J.)
—
iola
mouta mouta (E )
niarnar (N.)
mokerer (N.)
—
kuiap kuiap
—
goguk
talakborong
—
dyodyot
ngoiya ngoiya
bambam
yarboga
bityik
lere
yaabitch
—
bityik
lire
yapitch
—
koreorark
—
ylnanel
wotipir
pittik
liriu
nark (?)
—
minik
—
yaam
—
minik
krukrik
weechuk
tuman tuman
ulul
moon-o-erp
konkro, keler
yarri yarri
yilongoure
mundi
—
bian
nuan
dendong
—
maiangamba
—
tongambalanga
—
—
—
naingan
dibbin
burrimal
muggen
_
—
myanga (H.)
doora (H.)
—
tibbin
wumenkan (//.)
toping
tighara
burulu (// )
niungin
—
dhippi
dhippi, debingo
bunba
Jllrii
widgywidgy
niugguing
buurn
mamuru
jerdie
—
—
gonak
—
kuragura
nuni
—
am-monga
gee-winnia
pulyeri [small]
tyilyi
muruli
meauki
irta
yumbarra
yuwunyu
—
—
lappa
—
—
—
wingoroo, mokay
koondee
koon-gooloo
piya (//.)
moonchoo
koontie
kuniekundi
milkipulo
nango
—
mulpo
—
millua
woonjoin
beekodl
maddo
—
lamda (C.)
—
—
longita
monarongara
—
balbalma
ngatyun
wengnun
-
ngurur
irol
debadeba (//.) |
manga [pi.)
—
Ityanma
—
aigir
—
—
tchekal
kalerwoory
kumu
warkoju
amin
ombolum
omothoo
—
troroo
ngoroo
—
—
adhetanne
ngoroo
—
wuroi
wampa
uma
lang-gunya
ure
buli
iwi
kayer
uroi
bull
iwi
kaiaru
nemin
nelang
tongas
—
manu
lango
namu
—
ta manu
arago, anono
tanamu
touretshi
232
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Worm
Snake
Alive
East ....
loiena
South ....
—
loinah
—
Tas-
West and N.W.
—
rounna rawannah
—
mania
North. . . .
—
powranna (J.)
—
Miscellaneous .
—
katal (L.)
—
1
Yitrra A". . .
dhuro
kolornung (black)
murundak
till ImI . . .
bilitch
kurnmil
muron
Ercildoune . .
kurk
kunmil
moron
.1
Avoca N. . .
tyumbilitch
kurnmil
muron
g:
Broken N. . .
—
kurnmil (■ivliip) kulor-
moronda
^
nong (black)
s
Gunbower . .
tyumbilitch
kurnwil
murun
•2 '
Warrnambool .
—
>juram
—
^
Mortlake . .
krook
korung
pondean
BooanJik, S. A.
—
—
ur-lea
Lower Lachlan
tungali
karni
poorwoki
and Murrum-
Hdgee
\
Gippsland . .
wurwot
dhurung
beakwan
^ {
Barwidgee, Up-
—
murray jooyu
—
per Murray
Woorajery Tribe,
—
kolinjuna (black)
—
Upper Murray
^•3
Wiraidhuri
duronggargar
during
murron
H
Turuwul, Port
cahn(C.)
—
Jackson
co"^
Awabakal . .
—
maiya
moron
^
Kamilroi . .
—
nurai (black)
moron
Kabi,MarvK.,Q.
kularen, niune
murang, wongai
manngur
\
Warrego'Ji., Q.
gowwa
kan
kurrin
j,"S -^
Toodyay {New-
—
wakal
—
^ «'^ s
castle)
^.y^":; .
Pidong . . .
—
millura
—
^|~t3
M inning . .
—
mulawuda
—
■h
Lake Amadeus .
—
wom-mee
—
^.v."e
Narrinyeri . .
tyilye, miningkar
kraiyi
tumbe
Parnkalla . ,
—
nurru (black)
ipi
to ^ S
Adelaide . .
—
—
purunna
V2^ -
Darling , . .
—
meetindy, dahngoo
—
:? ? '^
Diyeri . . .
—
woma
thipie
to
Murunuda . .
—
diramatchi
kuli
Mythcrgoody
booralkar
chinur
karlir
Larrikeya . .
—
midjeera (C. )
medip
^
Woolna . . .
—
lermalyer
—
1
Daktyerat . .
dityaruk
ngundyul
karalla (?)
s
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
c
berley
•«
Napier Range,
—
—
—
M
Kimberley
« s
Sunday Island
—
murodh, thuro
—
trali
\ustr
Macdonnell
tyaba(//.)
up-moa (W.)
etata
Ranges
3^
Walsh R.. Q. .
—
walkui
aber
^
Bloomfield Val-
ulngermo
tcliarper
dorango
:«
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R., Q. .
—
oloor
—
^
CoenR.,Q.. .
—
agoye
jeroome
Mapoon R.,Q. .
—
agearri
loimre
^ Gudang, C. York
—
kanurra (brown)
anading
Torres
Kowrarcqa,
kurtur
karomat
danaleg
Strait '
Torres St.
Saibai /., A'. G.
—
tabu
—
New
Aulua Malikula
—
nemat
maur
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
asulati
ngmata
niauri
des
Aniwa . . .
tanufakere
agata
mouri
COMPARATIVE TABLE
233
Dead
Big
Small
Long
mientuiig bourrack
teeunna, pawpela
canara (J. )
rogoteleebana
moye
papla, proina, n ughabah
teeboack ( J. )
rotuli
kragbaga
elpenia
bodenevoued
wordiock (N.)
marrinook (D.)
teebrack (D.)
—
wiagaidh
buluto
waiyibo
niririmda
dita'a
didibil
nganyagurk
nirirm
ditai
dyangadya
bupuok
dyowang
ditaiyang
motyauk
wortipuk
tyuarng
werigai
wurdhau
waikurkurong
yorbortak
wadhyingdhya
kurumbirt
martuk
karwil
kolpirna
porir
kunye
wurombit
kalpari
meearong
goonioomoneek
wr.oroombit
nooan, woora
woorong
moo-ro-ke
woorongbool-e
berapil
kraii
biabi
tiangi
trartigon
kwerail
dhalitch
wragilman
—
murando
bunyungahai
keenyaro
-
kubborn (?)
pooparjol
kubborn P)
ballun
babbir, burdon
bubbai
bari
boe(H.)
murray (C.)
murruwulung (R. )
kaiun (large, R.)
tetti
kauwul
mitti, warea
balun
burul
kai, but!
gurar
balun
wingwur
dhomarami
guran
ballyah
darda
gidju
bunderra
winading
goombar
batain
welyardy
ngaiarii
yannda
thunthammada
muttharra
—
birdinn
—
ill-loong
bun-tor
wee-ma
wat-tora
pornir
grauwi
muralappi
yulde
kuiiyu, kupa
bumba, mirru
perru
malka
—
parto, witte
kutyo
towinna
bookka
koombaja
kelchelko
berlooroo {/all)
narrie
marpoo, pina
waka
—
palpinda
nurda
waga
puri
miijanoo
murdoo
churloo
ooraniin
belinying
kuillege
mulutjil (C.)
—
moama
meeania
mee-etniea
—
muruneka
yidello
yigbelderang
tyalala
kurdiman, nuniti
weedi
-
—
ill-looka
knira
kurka
tanya
Ion
niolkar
nyolb
wungal
warlan
tcliere
boorpan
kalpe
oolbin
mooute
woitte
pfoimakonne
danagoome
moonte
pari
foppari
danagootte
etora, etolma
intonya
embowa
—
uma
keinga
muggingh
kulalle
umanga
kaiza, kai
magina
kukutaligna
emis
lumbon
kakas
barimbarap
mate
warua
kiki
varau
mate
sore
sisi
palo
2iJ4
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
East ....
Short
Good
Bad
elangoonya
noweiack
Tas-
viania
South ....
—
miree
nolle
West and N. W.
North . . .
—
noangate
ee-ayng-la-leah
Miscellaneous .
—
narrarcooper (N.)
katea (L.)
Yarra A'.
morda
manamidli
nulam
Lai Lai . . .
murt
wen-gyur
nulam
i^
Ercildounc . .
bunyindyok
dhalkok
yatyang
Avoca A*. . .
murt
dalkuk
yatyang
Broken H. . .
waikorone;
burndap
nulamdak
\ (
Gunbower
tuluandok
dhalguk
yataanduk
W'arrnambool .
mulobit
ngutyimg
ngamegalin
"C
Mortlake . . .
mambit
moidhung
amikuUien
^
Booandik, S. A.
mooter
niurtong
wrang
.vj
Lower Lachlan
toonathaigi
primalia
booki
and Murrum-
bidgee
J
Gippsland . .
tukalaban
lean, leanman
muratch
Banvidgce, Up-
koblo
budjeii (?)
—
per Murray
C/f
W oorajery Tribe,
nerangi (?)
murrambung
—
Upper Murray,
e s
N.S. IV.
•5|
Uiraid/iuri
bungulgat
marang
bainguang
t2|
Turmoul, Fort
toomurro (C.)
boodjerre (C.
\vere(H.)
^1
Jackson
^^
Awabakal . .
—
murrorong
yarakai [to be)
-<
Kamilroi . .
bunggudul
muriiiba
kagil
A'a/'i,Ma;yA\,Q.
dhalbur
kalangur
warang
\
Warrcgo A". , Q.
wordda
murring
yourral
<i» S "^
Toodyay (Ntiv-
korrat
kwabba
wendang
^«^s
castle)
^ ^t^t:
Pidong . . .
binnbi
bunndi
wolyi
^|-a
Minning . .
—
puddja
kanung
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
—
*^ "^^
Narrinycri .
kopetikke
nunkerl
wirrangi
^■§1
Parnkalla . .
burtu, kartu
marniti, yuwa
milla, nangka
OO « ?
Adelaide.
kurlto
marni
wadli, wakkinna
V:2^ -
Darling .
kardooka
gunjulla
toollaka
t?: ? "i;
Diycri . . .
wordoo
oomoo
mudlaunchie
T'^
Muruniida .
pula
patchi
dira
' Mythergoody
thamin
margul
marthy
^
: Larrikeya . .
—
petyi
goarra
?:
1 Wool n a . , .
—
mudla
kowarra
^
Daktyerat . .
yindyarok
yimbain
yinetto
G
Ruby Ck. , Kim-
—
—
—
bcrley
t;
Napier Range,
—
—
—
«-2
Kinibcrley
Sunday Island
—
—
—
1^
2 25
Macdonnell
botera, dotadota
mara
kuna, mbala
Ranges
-^^
Walsh R. , Q. .
—
—
nyumaik
?
Bloom/ eld I 'al-
koolger
kombir
booyoun
1^
ley, Q.
<
Palmer R.,Q. .
—
oonge
inthe
Coen R., Q.
beroo
t ran go
tschooyitanne
Mapoon R.,Q. .
bet 00
peroo
niattapfrenne
Gudang, C. York
—
—
—
Torres \
Strait \
Kowra rega,
Torres St.
Saibai I., N. G.
taupainga
kape
kapu
wate
wati
New I
Aulua Malikula
burunk
embu
esamp, umwi
Hebri-
Nguna . .
vuru
wia
sa
des \
Aniwa . . .
poto
erifia
isa
4
\
COxMPARATIVE TABLE
235
Hungry
Thirsty
Red
White
rukannaroonyack
tentya
malleetye
—
kukannaroitee
koka
mallee
—
—
—
mungyanghgarrah
—
—
bolouine
lore
plonerpurtick (N. )
—
—
—
niraburdinan
konboningan
bipidharnin
dharanun
miraiauwirmo
kurtnongin
dirkwarin
tararapil
milaia
koonma
nurong
dardanjtch
mi-laiang
kuunmon
bitudyan
tardarnit
nirebirnang
konbuninyan
dirbarin
dhiraranun
wikanda
borgunyinda
nerwail
dhorathauil
bardubangulanga
—
kirikirigunitch
—
barda-bong-wothone
kookuongbaritha
batkoitch
apkooitch
dritban
koornonine
kro-milit
niarmon
kraibira
koornoman
kooroorgandi
pliandi
kanyugon
kuan-guran
kurrgirik
dhabon
bungunowo
jargenauer
—
—
—
wijela
girri girri
—
ngarran, yuar
ngandabirra
diren direng
barrang, ngalar
yuroo (C.)
--
morjal (H.)
laboa (H.)
kapirri [to be)
tirriki
—
kollengin
koimburra, gue
pullar
gandlio
yallo, ngaiallo
bothar, kuthing
kakal
koundal
biruboliu
murgy murgy
buada
ulup
gabby ulup
noba
—
nyourru
minni
billyini
billon
nan-too
olba [fed oc/ire)
lill-liU
yeyauwi
klallin
kurungulun
balpi
mai-karnba
yernpiti
—
palkara
taityo
—
karro karro
perkanna
wilkahka
yerlkka
nahllkeeka
bichooka
mooalie
murdiealie
niurulyie
booloo
munkuvvaninga
napawapinanie
katachuka
—
pulningoo
urbingoo
cilcilgarco
boonaroo
amanding [I am)
golapping
—
arnarra
unggwerdea
immocaia
mervvaler
lunginmunnunger
manorik
puin
witma
tamarma
marigan
hurra
-
toop, milli
=
ankatala
tataka
—
ongguair
honggir
aiguir
tchakoi
bannerga wahou warli
marun
pingaji
ange
ingky
—
ngoitschi
arrumbre
—
adhaimre
tedikka
arrumbre
arroa
awora
—
—
—
weragi
nuk enei
kulkthung
uru
mitaiginga [hunger)
—
kurkagamulno
ejamiilnga
merangaskas
minrok
miel
embusa
pitolo
maru
miala
tare
tshitage
mate tovai
ouri, ouroura
kego
236
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Black
Full
Empty
East ....
niabanna
rueeleetipla
Tas-
South ....
loaparte
kanna
—
West and, \. IV.
—
yeackanara
—
mania
North. . . .
wadene wine
—
—
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
J
Yarra Ji. . .
wurgarin
tyavbun
dhindivik
Lai Lai . . .
wurkarapil
yirt'no
ngamgarin
Ercildoune . .
worwoganitch
tirnda
—
.5
Avoca K. . .
wurukutyauil
purntya
dakerang
&
Broken R. . .
wurgabil
dyabuin
kalarmun
t^
Gunbower .
kunetyulauil
tyindilauil
dhulkain
Warrntunbool .
niin
—
—
Mortlake . .
meeing
memug bakka
bangathung
A
Booandik, S. A.
woorlo
—
—
i^
Lower Lachlan
waikerimbi
wonounna
terawna
and Murrum-
bid^ee
\
Gippsland . .
ninbon
tandurgon
tenyugon
/
Barwidgce, Up-
—
—
—
to
per Murray
Woorajery Tribe.
—
—
—
S"^
Upper Murray,
C 5
N.S. \V.
Wiraidhuri . .
buggabugga
urrur
bain bain
^1
Turuwul, Port
nand{H.)
boruck (C.)
parrat berri (C.)
Jackson
co^
Awabakal . .
puto (to be b. )
—
—
>:
Kamilroi . .
bului
yularai
—
KabiMarvR .Q.
mullu
gumka
nolla
\Varrego'N.,Q.
kurda
dadh-biru
—
•w
Toodyay (New-
moon
—
—
1 *■?!
castle)
^•2±-5.
Pidong . . .
wiri
—
—
^r^l
; Mi lining
—
—
—
Lake Amadeus .
mar-roo
—
—
5 ■?
Narrinyeri . .
kineman
yalkin
pek
^1 g
Parnkalla . .
mau-urru
bakkamba
karnba
Co ** %S
Adelaide . .
pulyonna
buttonendi
—
v~^ -
Darling . . .
yerrelko
—
—
? ^ "3
Diyeri . . .
muroo
—
—
5 -^[^
1 Murunuda . .
—
waponurda
wapowagina
■J)
Mythergoody
margin
waigillbongo
bulninyu
Larrikeya . .
binyuminnkoe (P.)
gager
kwaotidong (P.)
K^
IVoolna . . .
—
—
—
1
Daktyerat . .
eyukfyuk
arugunuka
pinyuya
KubyCK.,Kim-
—
—
—
5
j berley
•«
Napier Range,
—
manar
—
Kimberley
« P
Sunday Island
—
—
—
'1^
Macdonncll
urbula
—
—
Ranges
P
Walsh R.. Q. .
—
arbun
—
Bloomjield Val-
ngombo
tchakal
yamberkari
-5;
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R. , Q. .
—
—
—
<
Coen R. , Q. .
nambarra
angakapaddi
tschoramme
1 Mapoon R.,Q. .
; nambarra, 'mbre
angapit
arramme
\ Gudang, C. York
1 —
—
—
Torres
Strait
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
^^Saibai /.. N. G.
> kubi-kubi thung
kubikubinga
New
1 AuluaMalikula
miet
embura
nesungun
Hebri- -
Nguna .
j loa
vura
kpalo
dcs
Aniwa . . .
uri
fonu
noaga ana
COMPARATIVE TA1JL1-:
2^31
Quick
Slow
Blind
Deak I
—
—
-
guallengatick
guanghata
wayeebede
yarbok
wariwi
mondap
wariwi
yuarbok
werkuk
bainggongak
bulkal kulne
burfai
bulkal kulne
baingongak
paatoka
bansaalong
turtmirng
nyima
nim nim
iiima
borm borm mirng
bormail
kunditch
krooncheehur
turtwirng
bong bong ;
nga nga ,
nga nga 1
nga Dga wirng |
dhapilaurimbul
ngurdinwin
moorkin wirn
minanaw
yalimongi
kolo porn
panmapil
neiingwrungung
markenki
wedhur
yardoman
murindan
naringon
wungurela
—
megeewanjega
megee murrumbugga
burrabari
woori burrabari
mookeer
megootha
nanan
-
ngamabang
ngia mugga
kaiabur
kalu, dhalli
kurdin
yatta golly
buUo, malo
yul
wuUing
dabicin (?)
muga
mi-gulum
nurndiag
gennang wadder
mugabinna
pinang gulum
mugubinna
dwangoburt
narru narru
maityukka
nooroo
munkaobi
bodlun
kuiUibik
mant
widlara
mantikatpa
munkwapi
niju niju
tonde
mena wapo
padyotti
wontooja
bootchoo
puitchi
waramugu
dlamon-ngapinga ( P. )
i-rita
plombatye
yurre ngundanniti
nahppaja, moko
kootcharabooroo
pingatuda
pcnnekalunu
k waella buelly idong ( P. )
merpur
dama
woin
ngamania
ilkaunkuanta
-
z
i-rita (\V.)
adbel
yeakere
yen da
yambal
libwon
boorer
piarath
milger kari
tre
bwoi
andamu
andamu
woititre
wumreschatli
-
-
-
wate kowrare
biltah turur
ngmaravarave
miloulou
aliali
fakasisi
bugiri
metina embara
kesa
kofu foimata pouri
moamai kuralna
wisina boiimboro
kparo
tuturu
238
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Strong
We.ak
Heavy
East ....
oyngtcratla
koomyenna
miemooatick
Tas-
South ....
ruUa niUanah
mia wayleh
moorah
West and. WW.
ramanarrale
—
mania
Xorth. . . .
—
—
—
Miscillii'ieous .
noomeanner (N.)
—
—
Viirra A'. . .
bonmarart
yaralornin
barnbora
L.I I Lit I . . .
balert
palka ba-ngik
banbon
Ercildoune . .
martuk
dermderm
bunurt
.5
Avoca R.
punurt
kunamilangan
bunurt
Broken K. . .
bomdop
—
barndarbun
^
Gunbinoer .
tormoil
tyipor
kunkimilong
I
Witrrnambool .
—
—
kurgirnitch
X
Mortlake. . .
arakitchung
wahmpehur
parpurnaman
^
Booandik, S. A.
—
—
koon goon
Lmver Lachlan
wongorapi
wongathe
wenthepil
and Murrum-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
tardlman
—
kurkuran
Barwidgce, Up-
per Murray .
matong
mulumbudji
boobobelo
'O
Woorajery Tribe,
metong
woori metong
—
Upper ^Murray,
<s »
y.s.w.
^"5 /
Wiraidhuri
ginnar, wnllan
garaban
maddo
:2|
Turuwul, Port
—
—
—
^ ^
Jackson
^^
Awabakal . .
—
—
porol {to be h.)
:^'
Kamilroi . .
warunggul
—
munan
Kabi, Mary A*.. Q.
bauguthar
naman mokkan
dhikir
\
Warrego R., Q.
murrabinbirra
wallabinbirra
domming
^"2 ^
Toodyay {New-
murdich
—
—
^ «"^ S
castle)
^;S'^V
Pidong . . .
—
—
—
^•r^
M inning. .
—
—
—
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
poonta buckanee
a ^
Narrinycri . .
piltengi
pultne
talin
^11
Parnkalla .
ngalliti
kappara
yukarta
^ ^ S
Adelaide. . .
taingiwilla
mannanya
yuruti
^^5^3 -
Darling , . .
koorkree
eella-koorkree
—
^ ?"^
Diyeri . . .
—
—
murdie
r^i
Muruiittda .
peuri
punchira
nurda
Mythergoody
nowargoodul
nowarkulunga
oolmul
/
Larrikeya ,
kuillege, dangkal
—
mutki
^
Woolna . . .
'.erwinyueker
—
1
Daktyerat .
yingnelek
nganburk
turma
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
5
berley
■«
Napier Range,
—
—
§-s
Kimberley
:2|
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
Macdonnell
ekalta, ntatna
taltya
inbora, yotia
S S
Ranges
3^
Walsh R., Q. .
—
—
mulkar
^
Blootnfield Val-
ngaraji
ngara kari
kolongul
:«
ley, Q.
is
Palmer R., Q. .
—
^
CoenR.,Q.. .
patowoittrekke
patotea
angonoo
Mapoon R. , Q. .
pfui woittrekke
pfui tea
angonoo
\
Gudang, C. York
—
—
—
Torres
Strait
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai /., N.G.
mapule
New
Hebri-
des
Aulua Malikula
bahario
se bahario
merans
Nguna .
kasua
manainai
maranga
Aniwa . . .
tomatua
taru
mafa
A
COMPARATIVE TABLE
239
Light (Not Heavy)
bular-ornin
wulrung
daap
tap
wulurndyak
mormor
dhalap
thalup
tap
naimno
bauugan
baumbaji
ginarginar
nandimathi
walladommiriE
kaikai
yalluru
baltarta
waga
barple
ngalwar
nyolba
boortal
tschora
tschora
memer
masalesale
mama
Afraid
tianna coithyack
tiennawille
camballete
pambun
ngalblinyan
baamba
bambun
bam bun
paamba
kurninba
coninbanon
yinoon
kaingon
dhiragon
giarra {io be)
bargat (C.)
kuita (to be a.)
gial, ghilghil
widhiman
kurra
blukkun
waiinniti
waiwai
oollya
yaupunie
kinindu
kowinjar
nginmar
elindyur
itnora
lim
yinil
adhete
adhete
metah
mataku
kumtacu
Sweet
kiringkirm
kepgip
giagia
kepgip
wityer
woombool
primalia
leanmon
ngarrungarra
kuppa
geyar
wian-kulla
nil
unkuala
kukkan kukkan
inboo
rollamme
rollamme
garabar
mami
mugaro
Right
ngaiabunburndap
waingur
nardodalodye
tatkuk
dhalkungok
oochong
murtonga
primalia
lean
kinpin
nunkeri
ngaltya, nganyara
nalka
—
numma
gunjuUa
alkooelie
windra
patchi
churkulingu
mugle
dadbungua
warkie
Wl
marrombul
yamba
birndal
kwaba
numbaka
ngoulkoor
parlimmi
parliminrimminne
pangase
leana
erefia
240
EAGLEHAWK AND CllOAV
Groups
1
DrALECTS
Wrong
STR.'MGHT
Crooked
Fast ....
miengana
ungoyeleebana
powena J.)
Tas- \
South ....
nuyeko
tunghabe
—
West and \. II'.
—
—
—
mania
\ort/i. . . .
—
—
—
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
/
Yarra A'. . .
ballirt
yurtin
nugim nugimdyirin
Lai Lai . . .
nulani
iiirirm
ngurjng nguring
Ercildoune . .
yatya
yulp
ngoningoning
I
Ai'oca A'. . .
yatyang
yulop
nguning nguning
&
iiroken A'. .
—
—
—
^
GunhLnver . .
nangutan
yulp
widhidyirang
? (
1 1 arrnamfiool .
—
—
—
Mortlake . . .
arnrigullen
dhaarn
wurt vvurt
^
liooandik, S. A.
wrang
—
weriner
Loiver Lack Ian
warta primalia
uiethe
toorapil
^
and Murrum-
bidgec
\
Gippsland . .
denbon
tutburutbon
wait wall
/
Barwidgec, Up-
per Murray
—
~
Woorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
Upper Murray,
C R
.\.S.\V.
^•§ ,
IV'iraidhuri
wammang
duUuwarai
dalgang
:2|
Turuwul, Port
—
—
—
~ ^
Jackson
c^^
Awabakal . .
—
—
warin vvarin {/u be)
Kamilroi
—
vvaragil, gura
—
<^
Kabi,Mary R.,Q.
waa, warang
dhurun
warkun
Warrego K., Q.
ural
bindal
worroungouring
, -fe . /
Toodyay (Ne^v-
windang
—
—
5 s ^ ~
castle)
X.e^-^.
Pidong . . .
—
—
—
Ll'c~'C
Minning.
—
—
—
»-* i^
Lake Amadeus .
—
chu-cowra
que-ar
i "^ /
Narrinycri
wirrangi
thure
kulkuldi
hofS.Ai
alia and
t/ Centra
Parnkalla . .
nanna, wadli
inba, yau-unu
ngurdli
Adelaide. . .
wadli
madurta
yokunna
Darling . . .
—
—
—
Diyeri . . .
chika
thalkoo
koontiekoontie
\^-i
.\Juninuda . .
lira
patchi
tira
c^ '^ ^
Mythergoody
waraburnu
toortoojoo
kungul
Larrikeya .
—
kuinyaici
gurnamadinga ( P. )
U'oolna . . .
—
—
—
"?
Daktyerat .
—
dur
gurrurkgururk
■^
Ruby Ck. , Kim-
—
—
—
C:
berley
t:
Napier Range,
—
—
—
R.C
Kimbcrley
Sunday Island
—
—
—
:^i (
Masdon nel I
bala, mbala
aratya
—
S 3
Ranges
a'''
Walsli R.. Q. .
—
—
—
•^
Blooinficld 1 'al-
buyoun
tchoonke
kuiu kuru
■§
ley, Q.
.
k
Palmer R.,Q. .
—
—
—
!^
Coen R.,Q. . .
anaittakke
brammanjinne
lotroo
Mapoon R., Q. .
aiiaittakke
brammanjinne
loti
Gudang, C. York
—
—
. —
Torres '
Strait (
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai L,N. G.
New
Hebri- -
Aulua Malikula
esamp
mentement
kambakambul
Ngiina . . .
trangele
leana
tragele
des t
Aniwa . .
isa
totonu
safi
COMPARATIVE TABLE
241
Wood Spear
Reed Speak
perenna
pe-na
—
pana, pilhah
racca (j. )
—
—
arlenar (N.)
—
dhar
dhirar
karp
tyark
darbokarok
dyark
kuyun
tyark
koiyon
dyeror
kuiyun
tyirom
ter
terkun
narlmul
dhuruk
kooen
—
noodlii
ponondi
buran
kauat
jerrambahai
yaarga
—
jeered
dullu
kamai (H.)
worai
pilar
konni
kullia
gigie
kulbadi, kurada
cadgee
wundi
kaya, winna
kaya, winda
kulkaroo
kulthie
windra
koonjul
malagirma
mowowie
daruk
kurna
bilara
tyata
yirr
kalka
ulka
vvoitte
alka
kalaka
kubai
sare
naio
tatou
kaiki
tjinbala(C.)
lilcorla
mokalin
koongoon
angame
nalua
tatou tagosau
Shield
kiarm
molka
malka
molka
dyirom
molga
malk
malkar
malkar, brooal
kuaikuli
bamork
birregambo, murga
murka
marga
elimang (H.)
koreil
bumai burin
kunmarim
burgu
wonta
unda
coor-tichie
wakkaldi
woollomburra
pirrauma
kumbura
goonbarra
al-quirta (W. )
pijerikan
koongeri
koolmurra
agai
bada
Tomahawk
niorang
kalpalingork
bartik
bortik
gargen
dhir
muitdyir
par par koort
karkobe
tiennie
kuean
moodewa
thowan
burgu in
mogo (H.)
pukko
yundu
muyum
dowing
koddue
yarrawa
drekurmi
kandi
wokkaka
maree
marangima (C.)
larlinganda
litpurp
wainmil
ti-i
egan
adheagge
aga (axe)
aga (axe)
goba
sip sip, tangata
tangoto
toci fatu
242
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups j Dialects
Stone Knife
Boomerang
Club
1
\East ....
Tas-
1 South ....
—
lerga (D.)
West and N. W.
—
—
—
mania
North. . . .
—
—
rocah (J.)
1
Miscellaneous .
teeroona (S. )
—
Hilar (>I.)
! Varra A'. . .
mung [quartz)
wankim
molka
\ Lai Lai . . .
gurin
wan-gim
warawar
Ercildoune .
—
derm derm
leawil
5
A'coca H. . .
petch
datom datom
birpin
&
Broken A'. . .
kalburn kalburnin
wangim
kudyuron
' c^
Gunbincer . .
dyark
wan
pirbang
« \
Warrnambool .
—
ledam ledam
malinganuk
Mortlake. . .
morijir
lata latup
warawara
^
Booandik, S.A.
—
ketum kelum
booamba, kana
■ ii
Lincer Lachlan
kalingali
onei
moonopi
and Miirrum-
bidgee
^ Gippsland . .
dheradherak
wangin
kalak, donmong
1 Banvidgee, Up-
—
wongewa
goojuroo
per Murray
A
U'oorajery Tribe,
—
bergan
—
«-y
L'pperMurray,
« s
N.S. W.
^-§
IViraidhuri
guingal
bargan
girang
^1
Turuwul, Port
—
—
ngallung ulla (C.)
Jackson
co^
Aiftibakal .
kuUingtiella
turrama
kottirra
A'amilroi
—
burran, burrigul
murula pundi
^"
A'abi,MaryK..Q.
dhakke
boran
kuthar
U'lirrego k., Q.
—
murley
bundy
i,"? «^
Toodyay {^New-
dabba
kilie
dowak
1 ! ^"s
castle)
" ■■i t:^. s: •
Pidong . . .
—
wolanu
—
^"~"*C)
A/inning. . .
—
—
—
— k ^
'■ Lake A madeus .
wom-ba [knife]
—
wonna {stick)
«^ .^
\ Narrinyeri . .
drekurmi
panketyi
plongge, kanaka
^•ss
Parnkalla . .
yakko
wadna
katta
Adelaide. . .
yakko
—
katta
vs^ -
1 Darling . . .
yernda
wonna
poondee, koloroo
s"? ■'s
\Diyeri . . .
yootchoowonda
kirra
—
Mtirunuda . .
kalcichipera
tira
puninanga
i Mythergoody
mindee
kalkarbooey
miraloo
' Larrikeya . ,
maramari (P. knife)
—
—
^
Woolna . . .
—
—
metpadinger
g
. Daktyerat . .
malauer
—
tyantan
■^
\Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
kurli
—
c
1 berley
•y
Napier Range,
—
kaili
—
''•S
kimberley
«"?
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
£3
Macdonnell
irgalla
ulbainya
—
Ranges
3^
Walsh R.,Q. .
—
ongwol
wur
^
Dloomfield Val-
biniu
wangi
doure
:5
ley, Q. . . .
s^
Palmer R., Q. .
—
mulkarra
—
^
CoenR.,Q.. .
—
—
—
Mapoon R.,Q. .
—
—
—
^ Gudang, C. York
—
—
ekara
Torres
Strait
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
—
—
kobai
SaibaiJ., N. G.
giturika [knife)
—
—
New
Aulua Malikula
—
—
menriki, numbot
Hebri-
Nguna . , .
—
—
nakpe
des
Aniwa . . .
tomatshira fatu
—
tererakou
\
COMPARATIVE TABLE
249
Head
Hair
Eye
Face
oolumpta
poinglyenna
mongtena
niengheta
poiete
poiete longwinne
nubre, nubrenah
noienenah
eloura
kide
pollatoola (J.)
manrable(J.)
ewucka (J.)
parba (J.)
elpina
—
cuegi(P.)
lagurnar barnar (N.)
neurikeenar (N.)
niperina (L.)
kauwong
yara kauwong
mimg
mimg-bang
moork
ngarmurk
mi
rairbang
burp
rimbil
mir
niirbaga
burp
ngara
mi
mirpaga
kawang
yirikawang
mimg
minyinbokangin
muranyuk
ngoranyuk
milnuk
milnuk
pirn
ngara t
mir
mir
beam
wirin
meringh
metbin
boop
ngoorla
mir
—
poapi
nouobopi
meingi
biingi
buruk
ledh
mirri
kung
murriawa
murriawa
wunjubba
wahroa
bollong
—
mil
—
kuppura, ballang
uran
mil
ngolong
caberra (H.)
diwarra (H. )
mi(H.)
—
wollung, kuppura
kittung
ngaikung
gha, kaoga
tegul
mil
—
kam
dhilla, bon
ml
ngu, wanggum
bambu
worlba
meel
nunga
katta
katta
meal
wonnul
mugga
kulawil
kuru (//.)
kada
wenndu
meyl
—
cutta
hoo-ray
coo-roo
—
kurli
kuri
pili
petye
kakka
butti kurni
mena, mialla
mangu, ngarri
makarta
padlo, yoka
mena
murki
turtoo
turtoo-woolkky
meeky
—
mongatharida
para
milki (//.)
—
kuncho
nircha
milki
mula
kundra
jamul
euko
—
maloma
bairrijeen (C.)
damorra
darreminndbirra
mudlo
imalgnie
nia
—
pondo
pondomer
numuru
bebema
ungunyangunya
lungga
milwa
—
mandin
lamingar
nimilar
—
nalma
numandadi
nimi
kaputa
gola
alkna
angnera
harui
wir
lipwar
je
tokol
monger
mil
wallau
ambogo
allung
immun
—
drokke
ea
andoa
woikapoo
ranrui
ranrii
andoa
waggapoo
pada
odye
dana
—
quiku
yal
dana
—
kniko
yalbupu
purka
paru
batina
nepol batina
metina
konin
nakpauna
naluluna
namatana
namatana
nouru
toura
foimata
foimata
244
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
DiALfcCTS
Eak
Nose
Smell (Noun)
East ....
mungenna
mununa
—
Tas-
South ....
wayee
muye, muggenah
—
West and N. W.
Ifwlina (J.)
muanoigh
—
mania 1
1
Xorth ....
tilK-ratie
medouer
—
I
Miscellaneous .
NveKge(R.)
mudena ( R. )
—
Yarra A'. . . .
wirng
kang
buang
I.al Lai . . .
wirng
kang
bang
Frcildoiine . .
wirmbol
ka
ngarba
1
Avocii N. . . •
wirbul
kra
buwang
&
Broken A'. . .
wiling
kangin
buang
t^
Guridcm'i-r . .
wirmbulul<
kanuk
buanga
Warrnambool .
wirn
kapung
wapirna
Mortlake . . .
methin
kabo
woomban
^
Booandik, S. A.
wiung
maarki
kow
—
Loioer Lachlan
tiendi
naarota
and Xiurnim-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
wuring
kung
meabilon
/
Ihirwidgee, Up-
murrumbo
denaewa
—
per Murray,
I Voorajery Tribe,
wootha
nierootha
—
Upper Murray,
<= R
N.S. W.
5-§
:2S
Wiraidhuri. .
uda
murru
buddur buddur
Tuniwul, Port
gorai (H.)
nogur (H.)
—
a
Jackson
^^
Awabakal . .
ngureung
nukoro
—
^'
Kamilroi . . .
binna
mum
—
A'abi, MaryR., Q.
pinang
muru
ka
W'arrego R., Q-
binna
nuru
buddley
^1 - (
Toodyav (Ne^v-
dwanga
moolye
—
3 5^?
castl'e)
V. A
alia
We
Cent)
Pidong . . .
kulka(//.)
mulya
—
Minning . . .
gula
mula
—
-^ \
Lake Amadeus .
pinna
am-mou-la
—
a -
Xarrinyeri . .
plombi
kopi
—
"^"2 S
Parnkalla . .
yurre
mudla
kurbo
\ Adelaide . . .
yurre
mudla
marto
VI ^ -
1 Darling . . .
eurree
pulkkapinna
—
^ p 1^
Diyeri. . . .
cootchara (pi.)
moodla
koolie
r^
Murnnuda . .
nura
mula
tunka
Mythcrgoody . .
pinul
yeengar
noomalbunju
Larrikeya . .
banarra (C.)
queeanguar (C.)
—
IVoolna . . .
wal
weer
—
c
Daktyerat . .
monindyaur
yinun
ngeadurkma
fe
Ruby Ck., Kim-
munga
dirdi
—
c
berley
■^
Napier Range,
nilibib
gurmil
—
Kimberley
e P
Sunday Island .
nilimar
nenial
—
"s^
Macdonne 1 1
ilba
ala
—
S a
Ranges
a'^
Walsh R.,Q. .
wi
je
—
X
Bloom/ eld y al-
milger
pujil
ngoumal
?
ley, Q. . . .
k
Palmer R., Q. .
innur
omo
—
'^
Coen A'., Q. . .
woie
kokanne
—
Mapoon R.,Q. .
wogo
ri
—
^ Gudang, C. York
ewunya
eye
—
Torres
Kowrarega,
kowra
piti
ganu
Strait
Torres St.
Saibai /.. N. G.
kaura
piti
ganu
New
Aulua Malikula
ursina
ngunsenda
nebohte
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
naraligana
ragisuna
—
des
Aniwa . . .
tarega
nousu
namu
COMPARATIVE TABLE
245
M0UT)I
Lip
Teeth
Chin
kakannina
wugherrinna
coninienna
kaneinah
—
pay-ee-a
wahba
kapoughy leah
—
yannalope (J. )
—
mona
mona (//,)
iane
—
canea (J.)
wurlerminner (N.)
leeaner {sing. N.)
congcne (R. )
worong
worong
liang
ngorndak
wuru
wuru
liang
ngandak
wurobodhali
wuro
lia
nganyi
wuru
wuru
lia
ngonyi
wurungm
wurungin
liang, lang
—
tarbuk
wurunuk
lianuk
pumaniiiuk
ngulom
wurung
tangam
—
woorong
woorong
dhungun
orine
lo
wro
tunga
—
warongi
belathowongi
naroki
nharlki
kaat
yungaat
ngondok
yien
niwa
—
niyu
lendawa
yabba (?)
—
yeerong
-
ngan
_
irang
yaran
kalga (H.)
willin [pi. II.)
dara(H.)
wallo(H.)
kurrurka
tumbirri, willing (//.)
lira
wattun
—
ille, kumai ( ;>/. )
yira, Ira
tal
dhangka
dambur
dhangka
yikkal
dad
mimml
thir-ra
yernghin
—
—
nannang
—
ira
wuti
willga
nganngu
thumminji
—
iri
—
tar
tar-bin-bimba
car-teta
noo-too
tori
munengk
turar
ngulture
ya
nemi
ira
ngangunge
ta, narparta
tamino, tamandi
tia
nguttoworta
yelka
moonnoo
nunndee
wokka
muna
miemie (//.)
niunathandra
unkachanda
dira
dira
malilku
nancha
yarcharain
tharingar
yerdidther
yanbar
gurbalquar (C. )
—
unbirregee (C.)
gonngonngwa (P.)
waba
waper (//. )
ya
—
aru
aru
dir
tdang
lira
—
—
—
yallar ,
-
-
nilyi
—
—
a-ruck-a-ta (W.)
arinbinba
deta, detya
rotna
jil
wea
artchan
andel
yimbi
tchira
bari
amitting
ookool
anga
kai
adhetroombao
angao
anga
kago
mapibao
angao
angka
angka
ampo
ebu
guda
iraguda
danga
ibu
gudo
iraguda
dang
gunga
bangona
nakulu bangona
nelvanta
mesembrin
nawokana
nangolena
napatina
nasina
rogoutu
nokiri ragoutu
nonifo
nocunicumi
S46
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
GKOL'PS
Dialects
Chekk
Forehead
Beard |
East ....
_
raoonah
comena purennah
Tas-
South ....
—
loee roeerunna
cowinne
West and N.W.
—
rioona
comene waggele
mania
North ....
neprane
nobittaka (D.)
—
kide
Miscellaneous .
monur (N.)
kongine (P.)
Yarra R. . .
wangga
minyin
yaragorndok
Lai ImI . . .
wang
min
ngarangandak
ErcildoHiic . .
murak
gini
nganyibauro
Azoi-a A'.. . .
murak
kinni
ngcnyi
&
Broken A'. . .
wanggik
minyin
ngornang
^
Gunfiotver . .
murakuk
kininuk
ngaranuk
S (
W'lirrnambool .
dhakka
mitdhin
nguran
•^
Morthke . . .
dhurthuk
nethin
—
^
liooandik, S, A.
wuraa
kine
nguria ngerne
Vi
s
Loii'i'r Lachlaii
nurni
kernangi
monangi
and Murriim-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
wong
nil!
lidh :
'
Barwidgee, Up-
per Murray .
—
~
yarangba
lO
l\ 'oorajerv Trite,
—
—
—
Upper Murray,
C R
X.SAV.
1
'1
Wiraidhuri . .
daggal
ngolong
yaran
Tunni'ul, Port
—
nulla (H.)
yarrin (C. )
~ \l
Jackson
c/:^
Awabakal . .
kullo(//.)
yintirri, ngollo
yarrei
.
A'atnilroi . . .
—
ngulu
yare
0f
A'abi,MaryR.,Q.
wanggum
nulun
)eran
\
W'arrego N.. Q.
nummung
bubbal
yerreng
• "^ -.
Toodyay {Scw-
—
—
nanga
I«^S
castle)
^■2:1 -S-
Pidong . . .
—
bulla
nganngul
.|-c|
A/inning . . .
—
—
—
Lake Amadeus .
per-till-leria
nuU-ar
un-gurra
Narrinyeri . .
make
bruye
menaki
'^ R ■;:
Parnkalla . .
kalba, ngulko
ngarnka
kanbanggurru
Adelaide . . .
malaitye
murki, yurlo
malta, yernka
i-sa -
Darling . . .
nuUee
beekkoo
wokka woolkky
? J= ''^
Diyeri . . . ,
—
milperie
unka
l'''^
Murtinuda . .
ulcho
pilpa
uncha
Mythergoody
walindu
themer
mangoora
Larrikeya . .
—
mudpirrma (P.)
gueabalma
^
Woolna . . .
—
—
yaba
c
Daktyerat . .
ngaruk
milk
marabat
R
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
nunga
C;
bcrley
•^
Napier Range,
—
—
alungar
R C
A'imberley "
c P
Sunday Island .
—
—
dhird
^■5 (
Macdonnel I
ilgaia(//.)
litna
minga
II
Ranges
5^
lValshR.,Q. .
gul
halban
alpar
X
Bloomfield Val-
gangool
yiman
wallar
•^
hy, Q.
^
Palmer R.,Q. .
—
—
aworko
<
Coen R.,Q. . .
ngone
pai
nga
Mapoon R.,Q. .
ngone
pai
nga
Gudang, C, York
baga
eprinya
yeta
Torres j
Strait i
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai I.,N. G.
baga
paru
pauto
yeta
yata
New t
Hebri- J
Aulua Malikula
misembinta
nepol niesembrin
Nguna . . .
napupuna
naraena
naluluni nasina
des I
Aniwa . . .
niarigariga
nomugarai
nofurfuri cumu
COMPARATIVE TABLE
247
Tongue
Stomach
Breasts
Akm
kayena
teenah
parugganna
wu'hnna
menne, maynah
teena
parugganah
wuhnna
tullana (J.)
teenah
—
alree ().)
guenerouera
maguelena
pouketalagna
anme (forearm)
kanewurrar (N.)
plaangner (N.)
vvagley{J.)
wornena (R.)
dhalang
boitch
birm birm
dcrak
dyilang
poitch
tyuratn
torak
tyale
wutyop
gurm
datyak
tali
biUi
tyang
tatyak
dyelang
body in
—
—
dhalinuk
wudyumbuk
dyanguk
tafakuk
dhulan
tokung
ngabung
wurk
dhaline
dhogogang
mart
woork
tale
boole
—
woo
turlengi
belangi
koimbi
tarki
dyelan
buluu
bang
brindang
duUingba
—
—
karjenba
-
boorban
—
metrola
dalan
binbin (belly)
duddu
tallang (C.)
barrong (H.)
nabang (H.)
gading(H )
tullun
purrang (belly)
paiyil
—
tulle
mubal (belly)
birri, ngummu
bungun
tunam
dungun, kuri
among
kining
durling
duggu
durley
biggey
dalain
gobbil
bibbi
mara
thallin
warri
katti murrnun
thalidd
mukuUa
—
wanngu
—
weelar
ip-pee
minna
tallanggi
mankuri
ngumpurengk'
tyele (upper arm)
yarli
ngangkalla
n gam ma
Dgando, yurti
tadlanya
ngankimunto
ngammi (s.)
turti
tuUeenna
koonto
poonna
wunyee, mungko
thulie
mundra koodnabidie
auma
cona (//. )
tali
wapunurda
muna
cilka
tumingaroo
uparer
uminar
waljur
kuiamelloa
quallama (C.)
mamabilma (C.)
k\viaverndara(P. )
wee-e
niarna
ngoiya
leuveyer
ngandork
mandulma
wmg
wuru
-
nung
mamini
yarmilar
alinya
idunta
ibatyangna (//.)
inanga
are
pip
dliom
nabil
wahral
bi bi
tchahil
elpin
oroom
onyong
—
ngai
arra
anjoou
aga
lanne
arra
anjoou
mearri
untara
maita (C.)
yongo
—
nai
wera
susu
~
boia
maitarun
da (sing. )
geto
lemen
tamban
nisna
vema
namenana
napoloalapa
nasusuna
naruna
norero
tupewa
afatfata
noritna
248
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Hand
Finger
Nail
j
East ....
riena
riena
tonye
Tas- 1
South ....
reemutta
rye-na
ryeetonye
West and N.W.
—
reeleah
wante leah
mania 'i
Xorth ....
rabalga (J.)
anme
""'^W.r^.
(
Miscellaneous .
anamana (L.)
beguia (E.)
pereloki (E.)
Yarra A". . . .
mornang
mornang
dhirip
Lai ImI . . .
mona
mona
dirip
^
Ercildounc . .
manya
manya
lirn manya
5
Avoca A*. . . .
monya
monya
lilli
&
Broken K. . .
—
—
—
•1 '
Gunbower . .
mananuk
wotit mananuk
lirl mananuk
Warrnambool .
niorang
morang
pirn morang
Mortlake . . .
muruk
muruk
brin muruk
^
Booandik, S. A.
murna
murna (pi.)
—
^
Louver Lachlan
mumangi
naraugori
larimongngi
and Murrum-
bidgee
Gipp'sland . .
brety
dhakirbret
dhakirbret
Banuidgee, Up-
per Murray .
murra
'~~
"
V3
Woorajery J ribe.
murra
—
—
Upper Murray,
« «
N.SAV.
Vales
en sic
Wiraidhuri. .
marra
—
yulla
Turuwul, Port
tatnira (H.)
berrilIc(H.)
carrungen (C. )
"^ 5t
Jackson
t/2^
A~U'abakiil . .
niutturra
—
tirri
:>■
Kiimilivi . . .
murra
—
yulu
A'abi,MaryA'.,(J.
piri
piri, moUa
moUa, gillen
IVarrcgo, A., Q.
murra
murra
pigging
• ■« /
Toodyay {^Neiu-
—
—
—
3«T?5
castle)
^•^^t-
Pidong . . .
murra
—
minndi (//.)
^ ?"*Cj
M inning . . .
murra
murra-kabudd (//.)
—
•^ V. ^
Lake Amadcus .
murra
murra
mill-tee
!r? ^ /
Narrinyeri . .
mari
turnar
perar
S.Au
and
ntra
Parnkalla . .
marra
marra
birri
Adelaide . . .
marra
marra
biri
VSC) ■{
Darling . . .
murra
—
mellinya
South 1
tral
East
Diyeri ....
murra
murramookoo (//.)
murrapirrie (//.)
Murunuda . .
mira
pinga
—
Mythergoody . .
mumbinoor
malbidji
malbidji
J
iMrrikeya . .
kuiaroa (C. )
gwiarrwoa (P.)
daalla(P.)
•^
W'oolna . . .
it pay a
tyanamunger
—
1
LXiktycrat . .
nanyulk
yinbar
pir
R
Ruby Ck. , Kim-
murli
—
nnldha
Ci
bcrley
■«
Napier Range,
—
—
—
*:.«
Kimberley
Sunday Island
nemala
—
oral
•--^
Mac don nel I
iltya, raga
iltyaganya
itapmara
II
Rarnres
3^
Walsh R., Q. .
dhi
dhi
—
^
Bloontfield Val-
mara
mara
petin
:«
ley, Q.
b
Palmer R., Q. .
irre
—
:|
Coen R.,Q. . .
tschuru
a
alanne
Afapoon R., Q. .
tschuru
a
aranne
Gudang, C. York
arta
arta
tetur
Torres \
Strait 'y
LCowrare^a,
Torres St. .
Saibai L,N. G.
geta
geto
geta
kuigursara
tara
New (
A ulna Malikula
verna
ngorongor verna
tangala ngor. ver.
Hebri- -
Nguna . . .
nangmelearuna
nakinina
natapalakisina
des i
Aniwa . . .
norima
matshikorima
taperima
COMPARATIVE TABLE
249
Leg
Thigh
Calk
Foot
leoonyana
_
luggana
lugguna
—
—
lugganali
luggra
tula (J.)
—
lug
langna
—
—
dogna
latanama (L.)
kaarwerrar (N.)
warkellar (N.)
pere (E.)
—
dhiran
guram
dyinang
—
karip
kar
dyinong
karip
karip
kar
dyina
—
karip
kar
dyina
karnuk
korebuk
tyuluk
dyinaiiuk
—
karip
pirn
dhinang
—
kureep
beern
dhenung
prum
krip
—
—
kiangi
kiripi
toolangiani
mamberi
_
dyeran
bom
dyean
karrewa
—
—
jinno
—
—
—
jeenong
buyu
darrang
mungo
dinnang
darra(C.)
—
—
menoe (H.)
bulloinkoro
wolloma (iurra, pi. )
buiyo
durra
wuruka
dinna
terang
terang
buyu
dhinang
dundu
thurra
—
dinna
matta
dowel
matta
jenna
—
thunda
mullatha
jina
gura
—
—
jina
—
chewen-ta
murnoo
chin-na
taruki
ngulde
kur
turni
wita
kanti
—
idna
mitti, yerko
kanti, mitti
yillamuka
tidna
mungka, yelkko
mungka
yelkkerra
tinna
oora (//.)
thara
thilchaundrie
thidna
mura
mufi
kombo
tini
nooldu
nooldu
nooldu
yanar
daonda (P.)
macka (C.)
morna (P.)
queealka (C. )
—
moom
—
ummal
kalar
tyer
kalar piun
mel
—
—
—
burdro
dangalar
namur
—
nimbilar
nimbal
—
lupara
—
inka
gor (below knee)
gudhul
—
tel
malpin
warper
ngar
jinner
amathling
—
annil
teni
vwongge
avarri
kwe
teni
wongge
avarri
kwe
utronya
etena
—
oquarra
tirra, ngar
kapi
—
kuku
tete, ngaro
madu
ubalmadu
azazisana, tsanb
neluan
—
—
neluan
natuana
namaona
natorena
natuana
novai
nobili
kagavai
novai
1
250
KA(;LEHAWK AiND CROW
GROUI'S
Dialects
Toe
Tail
Skin
\East ....
manna poonee
lurentanena
Tas- 1
1 South ....
—
pugghnah
lurarunna
West and X. IV.
—
—
—
mania
Xorth. . . .
rigl {cla-w)
—
kidna
MiiccllaneoHi .
lagiirner (X.)
—
loantagarnar (N.)
i Varra A". . .
bububidyifang
moibo
dhabo
Lai La/ . . .
ngatongi d\ iiiong
dorok
mityuk
Ercildoutie .
dyina
berkuk
mitch
1
Avoca R. . .
bapdyina
birikuk
mityuk
%
lirokin A". . .
—
—
—
Guribmcer . .
dyinanuk
pirikuk
mityuk
1 1 'arrnambool .
—
wirang
murnong
Mori lake . . .
dhenung
weerung
moorn
1
BotHindik, S. A.
teen a
—
moorn
>
Lower Lachlan
parthangi
berkoi
looko
:^
and Miirrum-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
dhakirdyean
wrak
derrauin
Banuidgee, Up-
jinno
—
wahno
per Murray
1 1 'oorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
Upper Slurray,
« R
.X.S. W.
•S-l
W'iraidtiuri
—
don
iren, yulain
:2|
Turuwul, Port
dunna (A'ol, R.)
toon (H.)
baggy (H.)
~l
Jackson
=^-^
Awabakal . .
tinna
—
bukkai
^'
Kamilroi . .
—
—
yuli
Kabi,MaryR.,Q.
dhlnang
dhun
kubar
.1 .^
\ I arrego, R. , Q.
darda-dinna
doon
yourring
Toodvay (A'tw-
—
nandi
booka
^§^S
ca'stle)
^ «.'V$
Pidong , . .
billbu (;>/.)
nundi
wanndu
^1=^c'
Minning. . .
—
nuenndi
waiyul
— ^ ^
Lake Amadcus .
pulca
whip-poo
bung-kee
5 "^ /
Xarrinyeri .
turnar
kaldari
wankandi
■* -wi tt
"^^■S
Parnkalla . .
—
kadla
piyi
00 ^ S
Adelaide.
—
worti
parpa
V2'^ -\
Darling .
merloo
koondara
pultta
:S«'s;
Diyeri . . .
thidnamookoo (//. )
noora
dula
l^-s
Xlurunuda .
tina
kuni
kula
Mythergoody
yanartinjul
waltha
peer
' Larrikeya . .
k^viellg^va
—
beaeeaba (C.)
^
W'oolna . .
tyanumunger
—
—
i^
Daktverat . .
ne (big toe)
vvomo
karalla
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
cS
berUy
•*»
Xapier Range,
—
«:2
Kimberley
« ?
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
1^
M acd on nelt
inkaganya
bara
yinba
5 a
Ranges
g"^
Walsh R., Q. .
—
—
—
'^
liloontfield Vai-
moroon
piji
youlburn
<!
lev, Q.
k
Painter R. , Q. .
—
—
at teen
^
Coen R. , Q. . .
otroo
peanne
kai
Mapoon R., Q. .
otroo
peanne
kago
Gudang, C. York
dyuro
opo
equora
I'ot^cs '
Kowrarega,
—
koba
purra
Strait 1
Torres St.
Saibai I., N. G.
kupalabo
gungau
New 1
Aulua Malikula
ngorongor neluan
garna
nakolukte
Hebri- -
Xguna . . .
nakini ni natuana
napuena
nawilina
des i
Aniwa . , .
matshikovai
nosiku
nokeri
COMPARATIVE TABLE
251
Blood
Bowels
Excrement
Urine
warrgata
tiakrangana
tiamena
mungana
coccah
poine
tiannah
munghate munghabeh
bolouina
balooyuna (S,)
—
tyaner (N.)
moonghenar (N.)
gurk
dhalandhalarm
gunang
balk
kuruk
dyurung dyurung
—
—
korok
winipa
kunna
kyie
kuruk
burakuk
—
—
kurkuk
kulonguk
gunanuk
kenuk
kerek
porantyung
kunang
keink
xoorek
marung
—
—
kro
—
—
—
karku
pilporkeonango
koonangon
keeiuon
kuruk
kraiuk
kuanang
werak
goonoonau
guan
dagu
banarang (H.)
—
—
—
kummara
konung konaring
konung
keilai
guii
—
—
—
kakke
gunang
gunang
kabur
guing
kurrikurri
—
geeya
noba
gabbil
guner
goonba
yallgu
-
—
-
midgee
—
kruwi
mewi waltyerar
kunar
—
kartintye
kudna
kudna, karta
kunibu
karro
kudna
kudna
kunibo
kondara
koonna-wulkka
koonna
tippara
koomarie
koodnaundrie
koodna
—
katchuca
kalo
wapiinga
pura
gooaroo
oondoo
oondoo
kiperer
dumitilla
namanamanak (C.)
moonmar (C.)
—
mumallweer
—
nioonma
—
padawo
wuneru
wuin
wuru
ilga
alua
—
atna
—
yawul
—
mooler
tchool
tchatcher
yiwan
onyel
oothun
—
trellem
loimmi
arri
ambwo
ujima
loimmi
arri
ambwo
etunya
ilpi(C.)
onna
oi.ibo
kulka
~
—
kulka, kirero
maita, gabumaita
menri
mertina
kabakab
nienie
natra
namaritana
natae
namemeana
toto
avava
tai
tavaimenie
HoH
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Food
Live (Verb)
Die
East ....
—
—
Tas- J
South ....
—
—
—
West and N.W.
—
—
—
mania
North. . . .
—
—
—
Miscellaneous .
gibby(N.)
—
mata(E.)
/
Yarra A', . .
dhangitch
murundaka.ngalandl
wegat
Lai Lai . . .
kutkut
muron
dirta'a
Ercihloiine .
tyakol
nioronaia
tidaiin
.^
.4voca A'. . .
dyakitch
muron
titaiang
V?
Broken N. . .
—
—
—
=^
Guildoioer . .
pangguk
niurun
wadhyingdha
? (
Warrnambool .
takyir
buindin
kalpuman
Mortlake . . .
dhukeanu
—
—
^
Booandik, S A.
—
—
—
.v>
Loiuer Lachlan
takoori
pooksomaoki
berathin
*-4
and Murrum-
bidgce
\
Gippsland . .
lok
—
dhatigan
liarwidgee. Up-
—
—
—
~o
per Murray .
-~
\ I 'oorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
KM
Upper Si array
2-3
Wiraidhiiri
dangung
niurronginga
ballunna
Turu7vul, Port
dunmingung (R. )
—
—
Jackson
Awabakal . .
—
moron
tettibuliko
Kamilroi . .
—
—
baluni
:>
A'abi,.Uan'/e.,(J.
bindha
murubaman
baluman
v
ll'arrego. A*., Q.
widgey
kurrin
ballyah
i"S -v. (
Toodvay (jVeu>-
—
—
winnit
ca'stle)
'^ISI
Pidong . . .
—
—
—
-■?-C;
Minuing. . .
—
—
"- s^
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
A ^
Narrinycri .
takuramb
tumbe
porn il
^■§2
Parnkalla . .
mai, bulla
warrirriti
padhutu
Adelaide. . .
mai, paru
purruttendi
padlond
Darling . .
—
—
bookka
•*! "« t!
Diyeri . . .
booka
—
—
«l.5
Muruniida ,
kuti
kuntawanro
balindu
•^ -y
Mythergoody
putthale
—
— ]
/
Larrikcya . .
niayoina
amedip (/ live)
belingying
v^
IVoolna . . .
niuma
—
—
^
Daktyerat . .
niiyu
dukniaadeung
padthadeung
.5
Kuby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
to
berley
Napier Range,
—
—
kurdinian
«:|
. A'imberley
•2 5
Sunday Island .
—
• —
eembal
■g5
M acdonnell
ntutamea
—
iluma
Ranges
Walsh R.,Q. .
j'l
—
Ion
^
Dloomfield Val-
niie
tchakoi
warli
ley, Q.
,^
Palmer R. , (J. .
athenning
—
—
<^
Coen R. , Q. . .
adhou
jeroonie
avoinne
.Mapoon R., (?. .
adhou
loimre
tomandschooni
Gudang, C. York
aiye(C.)
—
—
Torres
Strait
Kowrarega,
—
—
dadeipa
Torres St.
Saibai /., N.G.
ai
_
umanga
New (
Hebri-
des
Aulua Malikula
navangan
t i m aur ( 3 rdper. sing. )
Umis [^rd per. sing.)
Nguna . . .
navinanga
mauri
mate
Aniwa . .
akai
mouri
mate
COMPARATIVE TABLE
253
Eat
Drink
Sleep
Sit
tughlee, tuggana
longhoU-e
lony
niealpugha
tughrah, tuggranah
nugara
roroowa (J.)
crackena (j.)
kible
kible
nenn here
meevenany (J.)
tegurner (N.)
temokenur
logurner (N.)
medi (P.) |
tangarabian
ngubian
yimanan
ngalambanan
gutyilin
ngupilin
kuniba
pura
tyakik
kobilang
komba
nyanga
dyakilan
ngupilan
kumba
pura
tyakalang
kupalangga
kumbanduni
nanok
takin
tatthin
yuwan
kuppa
dhukeino
dhut thunoo
uwona
neenkuka
—
lata
looma
yakandin
koopori
konibathe
yantha
dhaando
dhaando
berndan
Aindu
—
wljela
—
—
dara
—
ulinga
guabinga, winga
patty (C.)
weede (H.)
nangara (H.)
gnalloa(H.)
tukkilliko
pituUiko
ngarabo
yellawolliko
tali
ngarugi
babi
nguddela
dhau, dhoman
dhathin
buandomaihi
ninaman
thennmgga
thenmugga
nunamugga
neamugga
nanang
gabby nanang
bigar
nit
ngulla, ngurma
ngulla, ngurrna
nguba
nyinna
warra-maowud
—
kudnaiella
ningarn
nuU-goonie [pr. p.)
—
—
nin-nanu
takkin
murttun
tantin
lewin
melata
—
meya wanniti
ikkata
niaiendi
—
—
tikkandi
tiee
toonjala
eniargala
neengga
tiami
thapana
mookalie
armuna
tundu
tundu napa
parindo
kunda
—
—
wongil
yinar
gugai {1 eat)
anjarra (C.)
allinmingaligal mudgi
(C.) 1
va-aqua
aginda (C.)
loorl
lakadema
durkadenia
ngurngur adeung
adini
niungari
—
nuinya
— '■
karpe
kuing
kurlin
-
unggarlli
vvoral
unggerlmo
unggalant
al-gooma (W. )
lorilania, nunia
ankuindania
—
yug
—
nog
onjek
ngougal
boumbi
wauni
boundi
athathi
athathi
enthul
—
angvvonogoome
—
—
—
ngwonnokomnie
tediang wonokoniinc
anionokomnie
angea
atedurra
unggin-ga
eremadin
engka
purteipa
wan i pa
uteipa
tanureipa
ai pourtano
wanin
utoi
apatanu
angkani
timin
ien
anibalok
nganikani
nuinu
maturu
tro natano
kakeina
keinu
meio, koniero
1
nofo, konofo
254
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Go
Come
Tell
East ....
tawe
talpeyavvadeno
South ....
tawkwabee
tutta watta
—
■r
fas- '
West and N. W.
tawe
—
—
mama
Xorth . . . .
—
—
—
A/iscel/aneous .
tagurner (N.)
tecaner (N.)
rarne (J.)
1
Yarra A'. . .
yananan
birnun
dhumbak
Lnl l.al . . .
yanno
wata
keaka
Ercildoune .
yaanbang
wardiga
ngalayanik
5
Ai'oca A'. . .
yannga
wataga
kiyaka
1
ft;
Broken A'.
—
—
—
Gunbffwer . .
waranggoni
yukaiyanok
keap manyup (tell
sotnebody)
« \
Warrnambool .
yanan
watta
kaipa
^
Mortlake . . .
yanakie
kaka-watakie (kaka,
leek pukie
^
here)
i^
Booandik, S. A.
yanka
kuki
kepa
lAnver Lachlan fr=
yangalhie
tolanden
ngetthelotoona
Murrumbidgee
^
Gippsland . .
yangon
ngauandhi
dhuna
/
liancidi^ee. Up-
yagamilla
yangabailla
—
^
per Murray
"«
\ Voorajerv Tribe.
ya
—
—
§1
Upper Murray
a-5
Wiraidhuri
yannana
yawai (come here)
—
■5i s; )
Turmcul, Port
jTinda (go awny, R.)
cowee (Come on, H.)
—
Jackson
Awabakal . .
uwolliko
uwolliko
wiyelliko
Kamilroi
—
taiyanani
—
:?►
Kabi.MaryR..Q.
yanman
banian
yaman
\
Wan ego, R., (J.
yenmugga
thineyenmugga
thergara
. ■«
Toodyav (\c-u<-
watow
3'ale
nunda wanka
l«^"B
castle)
^•sl^-
Pidong . . .
yannma
yannaji
—
^|-CJ
.M inning . .
—
. —
—
Lake A made us .
by-enie
al-learie
why-talla
"-> -v.
Narrinyeri .
ngowalour [imper.)
arndu (p. pa.)
rammin
^11
Parnkalla . .
nganimata
budnata
wadlata
Adelaide . . .
murrendi
kawai
pudlondi
Darling ,
—
—
—
Diycri . . .
pulkanii
kapara
worapanii
^^L,^
Murunuda .
cinda
cidinakuma
kawi
^ ^
Mythergoody
wobarloo
kowar
minbar
I.arrikeya . .
began (P.)
nallak (C. come on)
—
Woolna . .
berroque (go muay)
nallak (come on)
—
"g
Daktvcrat . .
boiadung
baadung
taueradema
"::
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
^
berlcy
>j
Napier Range,
yellar-bonar
yellar-bonar
nigra
«-2
Kimberley
« «
Sunday Island
—
—
—
••5i /
M acdonnel I
artyilanania, lama
bityima
albemelama
■ 23
Ranges
3^^
Walsh R., Q. .
lugar
tok
—
^
Bloomfield Gal-
toongi
kutti
milbi
<;
ley, Q.
"1
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—
—
:|
Cocn R„Q. . .
—
—
—
Mapoon R., Q. .
ianganoome
tanoombanne
tschui
Gudang, C. York
—
impebino wai (C.)
ekalkamurra
Torres f
Kowrarega,
—
uleipa
mulepa
Strait \
Torres St.
Saibai I.,N. G.
pa usaru (go away)
aie
New 1
A ulua Malikula
tmben
tipen
bitene
Hebn- \
des \
Nguna . . .
pano
umai, pei
noa
Aniwa . . .
fano, roro
my
ontuena
COMPARATIVE TABLE
Si'EAK
Walk
Run
Bring
pueellakanny
tahlyoonere
rene
kunny u altera
pocerakunnabeh
lawtaboorana
lugara
kunna watia
pooracannaby
—
niella(J.)
—
kane
tagna
tablene pinikta
—
—
tabelti (L.)
noonghenar (N.)
worrar (N.)
durnmin
yaninbulonda
wurwon
tuabongak
geela
yanni
wate
nmtyaka
gyig'
yaanbol
pirpa
muiyaka
worake
yannga
piripa
niutyaka
wurake
yanok
wiri
-
lakkan
purpa
wirakan
woniba
lukukie
yanakie
karowukie
yanbarnan [bring that)
lanka
yanka
wraan
mana
limbi
yena
waiwi
nianakia
dhuna
—
yangon
wonai
—
biela
pinnela
—
-
-
burrabari
burrunia
yarra
yannagagi
bunbanna
bariamalbillinga
byalla(H.)
—
chawa [impcr. R.)
—
wiyelliko
.
murraliko
goalda
—
punagai
taikane
yaman
yannian
bidhaliman
barinian
yarra
yenniugga
thungyniugga
thir.ekammugga
wanka
watow
yatagaly
berrang
wonga
yarra, yanna
bukalli
kunngani
—
ngarallguni
wudnayeri
—
—
yan-ning
—
—
yarnin
ngoppun
kldein
—
wanggata
ngukata
—
kattiti
warrabandi
murrendi
watpandi
kattendi
—
wonga
kolyara
wottolay
yathami
—
—
—
naming!
cinda
namini
kulkini
—
woobar
banjar
buterain
—
akgami (C.)
muddli (P.)
gurimakerk [ P. )
weeyer
mogwerie
moquel
lineter (brim^ here)
lamadung
damadung
tagatadirang
wabagadung
—
urna
—
—
nigra
wongi
mucheri, gurdi
-
_
ungwara
tunggora
—
ankama
—
unti (W.)
ngetyinia
anbel
koko balkal
toongan toongi
jinbal wari
woondil vara ondo
-'
agullaki
-
-
tschonokomme
iange
tschiatschine
wia
ekalkanmrra
watungi (C.)
—
—
—
—
ringa
—
—
gurgu usaru
—
Dgapaniani
tisur
penepen
anrui
ti leverubene
pasa
surata
sava
piragi
kontucua
katakaro
tere
aniyane
iioG
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
DlALFXTS
Take
Lift
Carry
1
East ....
nunne
Tas- 1
South ....
nunnabeli
—
—
West and X. IV.
—
—
—
mania
Xort/i. . . .
—
—
—
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
Yarra A'. . .
kungak
dambok
waronggobok
Lai Lai . . .
mutyaka
waiinok
wamok
Ercildoune . .
mutyake
waivva
mutyaka
%
Avoca N. . .
mutyaka
waiwok
tyulnak
&
Broken A\ . .
—
—
ft;
Gunbower . .
nianakinyok (?)
waiok
wakura
S (
IVarmambool .
maana
keranga
wombangin
Mortlake . . .
natonhatnobe
keeramukie
womburnong
^
Booandik, S. A.
niana
—
kinepa
i^
Lower iMchlan
manapa
warn a
karatha
and Murrum-
bidgee
Gippsland . .
katbokaia
yenna
kortba
Bancidgee, Up-
nunda
—
vvorrongahra
per Murray
<o"
[ V'oorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
Upper Murray,
e R
N.S. W.
^■§
Wiraidhuri
barramarra
—
ganna, dummira
:S§
Turuwul, Port
—
—
—
-S
Jackson
■^^
Aioabakal ,
mantilliko
puromilliko
kurriliko
Kamilroi
—
tiome
wombailona
<
Kabi,MaryR.,Q.
koningan
bunma
wombalithin
\
Warrego R., Q.
thirrykanga
kundamurra
wodderra
^"S -- /
Toodvav (iWic-
—
yermp (lift up)
berrang
Set;?
castle)
Pidong . . .
munnma
—
—
M inning. . .
—
—
—
-i: ^ (
Lake Amadeus .
muni-jeeli
—
—
i, ^ /
Narrinycri . .
pultin
preppin
thuppun
Parnkalla . .
mankutu
pirriti
milliti
Adelaide. . .
—
—
nammandi
Darling .
—
—
—
Diyeri
—
—
wolthami
1^;.^
Murunuda . .
cirka
pardunakamana
circinda
t^ •*-
Mythergoody
goorealu
woolbalamar
weejaramar
/
Larrikeya . .
dap, biner
biddbiddla(P.////zV)
bonani (P.)
Woolna . . .
—
—
—
i;
Daktyerat .
waadema
daUvaadema
karatyadenia
Ruby Ck., A'im-
—
—
—
1
berley
1:
Napier Range,
—
—
—
C-2
Kimberley
^: '2
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
■■^^
M acdonnel I
—
tyunania
ngauia
g s
Ranges
s"^
Walsh R., Q. .
nig
haratik
nig
^
Bloomfield I'al-
woondil
tchara koolpal
woondil
lev, Q.
v;
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—
—
1
Coen R. , Q. . .
—
—
ajannokomme
Mapoon R., Q. .
proe
angapange
lainre
\
Gudang, C. York
—
—
—
Torres (
Strait \
Koiurarega,
Torres St.
Saibai /., A'. (7.
meipa
liridisa
ang-eipa
patauradiso
New I
Aulua Malikula
tilere
intu
ingunta
Hebri- \
des I
Nguna . . .
trape
trape rakate
trape trape, ova
Aniwa . . .
amki, amo
tshicitshia
amounga
COMPARATIVE TABLE
257
Make
Brkak
Strike
Fight
^^^
luggana golunipte
mianiengana
—
—
lunghana
moymengana
—
—
—
memana (J,)
poniale (J.)
crackerpucker (N.)
riagurner (N.)
menana (L.)
iminggok
kalbornangat
dhilbongalin
dhalgak
wangu
bukomo
dyilpo
bityiring
niuyuboga
kalbonga
datyarop
datyarop
niuyapok
kalpaiyang
kilpark
tyiltyarang
borgok
bukain
dhaka
dhakdyarip
muyubam
niambiinga
porta
portapan
koorangong
kindarnong
bardano
burbunallganaka
—
wirlpana (//.)
—
weanban {pr. p.)
konga
muriida
tukka
tikaria
ngunauwa
kolakan
koladyin
bondyin
—
—
—
bieba
—
—
paiam
—
bunmarra, marra
-
bu marra
bumallana
umulliko
kilpaiyilliko
bunkilliko
wuruwai
baia
gunni
bumale
—
yanggoman
buriman
bunbaman, baiyiman
baiyulaiyu
thenarra
dummerra
bungga
bumbarley
binney
dakkan
boomer
bakash (?)
mulla
kurrdagula
binnya
binnya
—
—
yagu'ku
paijaji
—
—
poong-an-yee [pr. p.)
—
winniin
luwiin
mempin
yoyangi
—
kulata
kundata
ya arriti
wappendi
biltilendi
—
—
—
—
pertta
goorinya
_.
dieami, nundra
thirric
kaivi
tricinda
dilpinda
partindra
pini
tutawar
booer
boonjabinju
godlum (ke has made)
—
—
berramellidyini
—
moque
—
wauikatpi
dyenadema
taptadema
eadema
murkadema
mbaiaiiia
kabuluma
ntyilbutilama
—
tog
donyin
donyin
balkal
toombar
koonil
kooniwe
anniingenne
mbwe
tschauogoome
annebe
nringanne
mbwoige
lenyookoome
boipre
—
aterumbanya
untondunya
—
; tatureipa
tideipa
matumeipa
—
f aimano
- . __
urimano
silamai
mugea
niokot, manibur
atanipsea
nabura
; mari
marikpori
kpokati
marimari
, imna, mo
efatshi
ishi
tatowa
258
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Kill
Fall
SliK
East ....
mienemiento
_
mongtone
Tai-
South ....
wanga (U.)
—
nubratone
n est and N. \V.
—
—
—
tnania
North ....
—
lamunika (J.)
A/isceltaneous .
crackerpucker (N.)
—
neunkenar (N.)
1
y.irr.! A'. . .
tirdowak
baurdangak
nangak
La! Lai . . .
ditgundyirin
ba'oorin
naalin
Ercildoiine . .
bandyarang
boika
wari
?
Avoca N. . .
ditguna
boika
nalalang
■?^
liroken A'. . .
—
—
—
si
dundoti'er . .
bumgoonin
boikin
nauwonda
tori an
W'arrnambool .
—
yungyer
nake
Mortlake . . .
balrokonong
yandar burdien
nawhano
liooandik, S. A.
—
—
naa
.»»
Loicer iMchlan
peronmin
poikin
waretemingo
'^
and Murnim-
bid^^ec
\
Gipp stand . .
bu lady in
blakgitdualan
dakan
/
Banvidxee, emp-
tier Murray
—
~
nahga
t^'
Woorajcry Tribe,
binjilgerri
- —
—
"1-^
Upper Murray,
C R
N.S.W.
^■§ J
Wiraidhuri
ballubundambirra
barguranna
—
^1 '
Turuiuul, Port
—
—
gna (C.)
Jackson
!^^
Aivabakal .
tettibungngulliko
ngarongaro
nakilliko
^
Kamilroi . .
balubuina
bundane
ngummi
KabiMaryR.,Q.
baiyiman
bumbilin
nomngathi
^^
Warrego R., Q.
bummurra
warra
na-mugga
• "S -v.
Toodyay {New-
wining
dabat
jenning
1 ^ £ £
castle)
^- ^ ^ ?;
Pidong . . .
—
wannia
—
Al inning. . .
—
—
—
Lake Arnadeus .
poong-an-ie
won-enie (pr. p.)
—
S ~^ 1
Narrinycri . .
mempin
pingkin
nakkin
in and
Centra
Parnkalla . .
kundata
worniti
nakkuttu
Adelaide .
padloappendi
wornendi
nakkondi
Darling . . .
bulka
beekka
bommee
<i'« "Si
Diyeri . . .
—
poorina
—
Muruntida .
partindra
palinda
kalinatu
Mythergoody
booanoo
kalganoo
nungarmunu
/
Larrikeya . .
begilla(P.)
beraddbing (P, )
nagalidja (C.)
W'oolna . . .
—
—
ianungama
1
Daktyerat . .
adinyirkadema
talkadema
dukadema
^
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
C;
berley
t:
Napier Range,
—
—
nigra
R.«
Kimberley
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
■•^^
Maciionnell
tyakama
iknima
airima
ll
Ranges
5^
Walsh R., Q. .
—
—
—
^
Bloomfeld Val-
yarkin boungal
tari
naimer
•5:
ley, Q.
V
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—
tarti
:|
Coen R., (J. . .
norpaini
dshoini
tschini
Mapojn R.,Q. .
noambwini
dshoini
konatschini
^ Gudang, C. York
—
—
ikinya(C.)
Torres .
Strait
Kowrarega,
dadeima
pudeipa
yaweipa
Torres St.
I Saibai /., A'. G.
mataman
_
imano
New
A ulua Malikula
tarapee
wiah
Use
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
maripunue
trowo
punusi
des
Aniwa . . .
tshi mati
kotu, koto
koweitia
COMPARATIVE TABLE
259
Hear
Know
Think
Grow
toienook bourack
wayee
tunapee (J.)
—
myallanga bourack
mangapoiere
mallacka
ngarngak
ngarwilin
yenim
iianili
nonondhangyun
burdu'auan
kapang
dyiangan
nononngarngun
ngyanin
kapang
ngyanin
korin korin
karingga
karinga
karinga
fiarnolanda
wanga
wangano
nangon
fiarnolanda
dheama
ngetgathnaining
fiarnolanda
ngendon {pr. i>. )
nangonraorina
koringa
kareda
papgoobun
krananga
wanggan
kalandanngat
kalandanngat
bernak
-
winnanggaduringa
winnangganna
yuranna
ngurruUiko
winungi
vrongaman
namiyu
dwanga
tirune
vrongaman
namurriu
kattik
koteliko
vrongaman
binnamebiu
kattik
ponikulliko
dhuruman
duri
ngunngula
-
-
-
co-leenie (pr. p.)
kungun
yurranniti
tulleetee
pulo
nungun
baleitong (F.)
nglelin
yungkutu
tampendi
kalinatu
nunthanu
alleitong (P. isl per. s.)
kungullun
paiendi
nioorra
oondrami
kalinatu
nunduanjilingu
kringgun
mirrurriii
yerthondi
boonka
kurinda
janberingu
tauerema
tauerdyaurera
taueradeung
parkmorema
—
-
nillar
-
argutilama
ilbankama
yalania
mankama
milgabonimer
ngatchinger
ngonour tchamal
tchire mal
namenni
koniimenni
parakooti
parkwiggi
worrokwi
tsheritte, abvoru
tsheritte, worn
krangipa
-
-
-
karnaiginga
enrongo
trogo
fakaragua
mulaigo
enrongobisea
atae
keiro
enranea
mitrotroa
mentua
titarump
ulua
somo, vere
260
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Give
Like
Marry
East ....
tyennabeah (in East
or South)
-
-
Tas-
South ....
—
—
—
mania
West and N. W.
—
—
—
Xorth. . . .
—
—
—
^
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
•
Yarra K. . .
wungak
nininbothombunan
birmbonwarin
Lai I.al . . .
wa'ak
botvimoan
kurtak
Ercildounc . .
wokagan
dhalkuk
mandyarup
1
Avoca A*. . .
wukak
wutyapoman
mandirauil
s>
Broken A". . .
—
—
—
^
Gunboicer . ,
wunganda
nuka
nianakina
tori an
Warrnambool .
yungama
—
—
Morthikc . . .
wookakin
noitcho
wogagae
Booandik, S. A,
woa, oka (pr. p.)
kroamona (I love)
manan-woo
Lonuer Lac Man
wooki
gnetemowa
—
and Murrum-
bidgee
Gippsland , .
yuadhai
magleanman
wandyokan
1
Barwidgee, Up-
uga
—
undangyalla
to
per Murray
•«
Woorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
Upper Murray
2-2
Wiraidhuri
ngunna
—
—
•l^
Turu-ivul, Port
—
—
—
^1
Jackson
, -Of
Awabakal , .
ngukilliko
■ —
bumbilliko
«0^
Kamilroi . .
wune
—
—
:si
Kabi,MaryR.,Q.
woningan
ka\vun
bindhamathi
\
Warrego R. , Q.
newa
—
—
i'2 --. /
Toodyay (New-
yunga
mucine
kalla nujet
i«^1
castle)
^•S'l-g.
Pidong . , .
—
• —
—
^ ?~c$
Minning . . .
—
—
—
■!i
Lake Amadeus .
you-i
—
—
5J ^*
Narrinyeri . .
pempin
pornuii
napwallin
-^11
Parnkalla . .
nungkutu
mundalyabmiti
kantyiti
to « ?
Adelaide. . .
—
muiyu mangkondi
—
V2^ -
Darling . . .
—
—
—
Ss't!
Diyeri . . .
yinkuna [pr. p )
—
—
Murunuda . .
nonginta
patchi
nyuaringda
Mythergoody .
yumebain
maiinjerbuthalbu
narthierejergabu
Larrikeya . .
nagok(P. 2ndpers.s.]
budbaleitmaong (P.)
—
^
Woolna . . .
gunmitja (P.)
—
—
1
Daktycrai . .
angadema
elelmok dapadema
—
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
- —
—
c
berley
•«
Napier Range,
younga
■ —
—
«:|
Kimberley
« s
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
■"5^
Macdonnell
ntema
nergama
eknuma
S 3 \
Ranges
"5*N
IVals/i R., Q. .
nyim
—
—
'^
Bloomjield Val-
tchaimer
wahoumal
muniur munmer
<!
ley, Q.
1
Palmer R., Q. .
—
.- —
—
<
CoenR.,Q.. .
naje
njia
nandranne
Mapoon R.,Q..
yia
njia
konoondranne
Gudang, C. York
utera
- —
—
ToTfCS
Kowrarega,
pibeipa, wicpa
■ —
—
Strait
Torres St.
- Saibail., N. G.
paibano
New
Hebri-
Aulua Malikula
levesak
makapsi
elah
Nguna . . .
trua
trakiusi
pitauri, laki
des
Aniwa , . .
tufwa
hepe
masike tafare mari
COMPARATIVE TABLE
261
Sing
Weep
Tired
Yes
lyenny
naoutagh bourack,
tagara toomiack
pryennemkoottiack
narrawallee
lyenne
moi-luggata, tarra toone
kakara wayalee
narra warrah
—
—
—
narro barro
kanewedigda
gnaiele
—
carnerweligurner (N.)
—
—
erre(P.)
yengak
mardun
barnbumguriman
nye
yingile
longga
tirmilin
ye ye
yengarop
yeria
damalang
ye ye
yingile
yirea
burtabaiyang
ye ye
naribilip
lumili
niikonda
ngungoi
lirpin
wirpa
vvavvunga meringa
ku
leit bealun
karartniung
barbuniiango
go
nuripa [impf.)
loonga
toonking
ngan
yarkoi
looma
niailpalooko
yeai
wadboalan
noun
yardoman
nga nga
gudba
—
—
woorri
-
—
-
aarjama
babbirra
mombanna
birra, gunno
ngawa
boraya (H.)
tonga (H.)
yareba (C.)
mo rem me (C.)
wittilliko
ngurrunborbiirrilliko
pirra {to be)
_
bao-illona
yugila
male gini
yo
duppathin
dunginian
ngaiya balun
yauai
youngey
wongey
gilyapairliyon
kairla
wanga baket
dup
winkin
kwa
warrilla
ngola
thallthinnya
ngow, kun
—
milellinug-nginn
—
oh, nadenn
war-rannie (/n /.)
ho-lan-yee [pr- p-)
tarn-tun-nerrin
—
ringbalin
parpin
nguldamulun
katyil ng-ng
kuri kundata
ngattutu
innelli
nga, ya, yandi
palti mutandi
niurkandi
nientanientanendi
ne, tiati
yengko
neerra
—
marrayta
wonka
yindrami
patbuna
kooko'o, kow
eilcinda
youcinda
nocipinda
youi
piaka
paringu
lergingu
ner
gugumal
billuni
annelling (P.)
koo, goo (C.)
nieninyer (pr. p.)
—
inniokiter
gogo
nanama adini
werkniadini
digarap {sick)
ya
—
-
wirigeo {sore)
ku
ilima
itnima
aranta, borka
wa
—
oggui
winy!
—
bouri doudal
bati
bujerbouran
yea
—
—
yowo
ndranagoome
tae
arrauenyunienne
nge
anjanyakomnie
pfie
arraunrunienne
ya
la
sagul piyepa
—
—
\va
_
maiadi
—
\va
engake
antang
nerainbauta k;iskas
e, e
lenga
kai trangi
niawosa
iora, io
feke tagora
tagi, kotagi
tarn
keini, ho
S62
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
No
I
Mine
luist ....
parmgarah, noia
meena
Tas-
mania
South ....
tiiiieh, pothyack
meena, manga (J.)
-mea [suffix)
West and N.W.
Xorth . . .
mallya leah
Miscellaneous .
nendi (P.)
mana ( P. )
—
'
Yarra A'. . .
yuta
marambik
marambaiak
ImI Lai .
boraka
bangangik
bangurdidyik
§
Ercildoiine . .
ngalanya
wangal
wangin
Avoea A'. . . .
ngalan'ya
wan
warnguk
5=
Broken R. . .
—
—
—
<
Gunkncer . .
barapa, brapa
ngai, ngatch
yikek
8 1
Warntambool .
ngingi
ngatuk
ngatunat
"C
M or t lake . . .
bangadong
mathuk
athongmet
^
liooandik, S. A.
ngi-ing
ngatho
ngananine
,»o
Larwer Lack Ian
warti
ynethi
naika
and Murrum-
bidgee
\
Gippsland . .
ngalgu
ngaiyu
ngitalung
/
licini'idgee, Up-
oneugaba, baal
—
—
per Murray
■^
I I'oorajery Tribe,
woori
athoo
—
5 ■«
Upper Murray,
—
<= S
N.s.n:
5<
Wiraidluiri
wirai, barre
ngaddu
—
Turuu'ul, Port
beall (C.)
gnia (C.)
dannai (C.)
Jackson
>-0'
Awahakal . .
keawai
ngatoa
emmongta
Kamilroi . . .
kaniil
ngaia
ngai
''•
A'abi,MarvR.,Q.
kabi, wa waka
ngai, adhu
nganyonggai
\
\Varrego'R.,Q.
walla
nunthey
—
i-.'^ -^ (
Toodvav (A'ew-
wadder
—
—
l^^sl
castle)
^.2£^^
Pidong . . .
waddji
ngutha
ngunnathung
:^"$-^c;i
M inning . . .
yanngun
—
nunnga
-- (
Lake Amadeus .
we-umpa
nij'ouloo
—
Narriiiycri . .
nowaiy ng-ng
ngape
nganauwe
"^"s-S
Parnkalla . .
madia, kutta
ngai, ngatto
ngaitye, ngaityidne
!/^ - S
Adelaide . . .
niadlanna
ngai, ngait3'0
ngaityunna
V2^ -
Darling . . .
nahtta
ahppa
— i
$"? "t;
Diyeri ....
ahi
althoo
nie
Murunuda . ,
waba
ungaro
ungaro
Mythergoody . .
unibi
nigo
nigeringu
J
Larrikeya . .
alika(C.)
ana ananga
anege
"V.
Woolna . . .
leita
tanunga
unggoingee
ii^
Daktyerat . .
aka
nga
nga ngave
t>
Ruby Ck. , Kim-
—
—
S
berley
•^
Napier Range,
marla
ni
—
Kimberley
t- w
Sunday Island .
■
li
Macdonnel I
itya
yinga, ta
nukara
Ranges
5*^
Walsh R.,Q. .
du(?)
—
\
liloomfield Val-
kari
aio
aiko
:*
ley, Q.
j.
Palmer R., Q. .
anuncha
inun
—
<•
Coen R., Q. . .
njianni
yupoo
tanoome
Mapoon R.,Q. .
njee
iange
tamre
Gudang, C. York
untanio
uba (e.)
—
Torres J
Strait 1
Ko7v rarega.
longa, guire
ngai, ngatu
ngow (;«.) udzu (/ )
Torres St.
Saibai /., .V. G.
maigi, launga
ngai
ngau —
A'ew 1
Hebri- J
Aulua Malikula
a, o
anu
tuknu
Nguna . . ,
e
kinau
aginau
des I
Ani7oa . . .
jimra
avou
tshaku
COMPARATIVE TABLE
2(jJ3
Me
Thou
Thine
Thee
mina
mcenah
neeto
-eena (suffix)
neeto
pawahi (P.)
—
—
—
morambina
morambaiak . .
—
bangik
bangin
—
—
—
dalkukar
dalkukwangin
—
wangin
war
—
—
ngyikin
ngindi
ngindi
ngindi
ngatuk
ngutuk
ngutunat
ngutuk
meindook
—
—
—
ngatho
ngooro
nganaon
—
ynethi
ynyaa
—
—
ngidha
-
nginalunga
-
athoo (?)
enoo
—
—
ngannal
ngindoo
—
—
—
—
—
emmong
bi
—
bin
ngunna
nginda
nginnu
nginnuna
nganna
ngin, ngindu
nginyonggai
nginna
nunthey
—
—
—
nanye
—
~~
—
yinnda
yinndong
-
niena
yentoo
—
—
ngan, an
nginte
ngumauwe
nguni
ngai
ninna, nuro
nunko, nurko
ninna
ngai
ninna, ninko
ninkunna
nmna
indoo, imba
—
—
anie
yondru
—
ninna
ungaro
— •
—
~
anannga (P.)
ityenna
ityennege
—
unggoingee
—
—
—
erin
nun
niingbe
nundyu
yingana
lenkina, nga
unkwanga
unkwangana
du
—
—
enya
youndo
youno
yina
tano
andramme
angenoome
ngonoo
tano
andreaninie (?)
angeoomre (?)
ngeanoo
—
—
—
—
ana
ngi, ngidu
yinu
—
__
ngi, ngido
—
—
anu
engko
takengko
engko
au
nigo
anigo
ko
avou
akoi
tshow
akoi
264
KAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
GROurs
Dialects ' Hi.
His
Him
Fast ....
—
Tas-
South ....
nam (J.)
—
—
West and NAV.
—
—
mania
A'orth ....
—
• —
—
Miscellaneous .
narrar (N.)
■ —
—
/
Yarra R. . .
kannuk
kalhup
—
.1
Lai Lai . . .
giawa
wanyuk
—
F.rcildounc . .
—
—
—
?■-
Avocii A*. . . .
kinyuwa
wanyuk
—
ti:
firoken A'. . .
—
—
—
.1
GuNbiicer . .
ma.alu
niaikatch
maalu
II arrnambool .
ngulanipe
—
ngulampe
^
AWtlakc . . .
mange yananee
—
—
,'^
Hihiandik, S. A.
nung
noongerengat
—
I.iUcerLachlanb'
Afiirriiinbidgee
•~
nooka
kikinga
\
Gippsland . .
—
—
—
/
rSiincidgec, Up-
per Murray
—~
—
t/^
\ 1 'oorajery Tribe,
—
—
—
Upper Murrav,
t R
N.S.W.
^ "5
Wiraidhuri . .
nilla
—
—
'^1
Tunm'ul,- Port
—
darringal (C.)
—
^ %-
Jackson
t/jS-
Awabakal . .
—
—
—
Kamilroi . . .
ngernia
ngerngu
— ■
*^
A'abiMnry^-'Q-
ngunda
ngundano
ngunda
\
\\'arregoR.,Q. .
ninnbu
numbuka
numbuka
Toodvav (New-
castle)
—
■ —
—
^•S'--^-
Pidong . . .
ball
ballong
^|-a
M inning . . .
—
.-•• —
—
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
—
'Z ~*
Narrinyeri , .
kitye
kinauwe
kin, ityan
-^■gS
Parnkalla . .
panna, padlo
parnuntyuru
panna
C/j «: ?
Adelaide . . .
parnu, parnuko
parnukunna
parnu
VS^ ■
Darling . . .
wahtta, wahto
—
^ —
?"? ">
Diyeri . . . .
nouliea
noonkanie
nooloo
Murunuda . .
—
—
—
l""^
Mythcrgoody . .
—
—
- —
' Larrikeya . .
bienneba
biennege
yaba (P.)
^
1 1 'oolna . . .
—
owingee
owingee .
^
Daktyerat . .
yundun
yundunde
ne
ft;
Ruby Ck., Kim-
—
—
—
ci
berlcy
•fe
Napier Range,
— ■
■ —
—
R
Kimberley
t ."5
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
^1
Macdonnell
era
ekura
ekurara
Is
Ranges
S'^
Walsh R., Q. .
—
- —
—
^
Bloomfield Val-
nulu
ngongo
ngongonin
:$
ley, Q.
1^
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—
—
<
CoenR.,Q.. .
lopoo
ngonoome
ngorpe
Mapoon R. , Q. .
leo
niamroo
ngoa
^ Gudang, C. York
—
—
Torres
Slrait
K'o7i>rare^a,
nudu, nue
nunue
nudu, nue
Torres St.
Saibai L.,N. G.
ngoi
ngungu
,,
A'nu
AuluaAIalikula
hena
tahena
hena
Hebri-
Nguna . . ,
nae
aneana
a, e, sa, nia
des
Aniwa . . .
aia
tshana
aia
COMPARATIVE TABLE
265
We
Ours
Us
You
_!.
■
neena
z
z
z
neena, nee
warrander (N.)
morombolok
moroniiiyala(/(7«a/Z(//)
bangitok
dhalkukangal
wangu
moronibongata
wangitok
wanginurak
wangitok
morombongata
wuringiting
wuinanding ■ •
ninga (D. )
nioromnguta
yangur
yangurau
yanguren
-
pulijah
ngathoe, ngathoat
youngoun
ngana-anu
—
ngootpaler
—
—
—
-
ngeanni
ngearun
ngeane
ngalin
nunna
nundo, nOTye
ngulli [dual)
ngeanengu
ngalinngur
nurraka
ngullingu
ngalin
nunna
nunda, nanye
ngindugir
ngeene (C.)
hula (dual)
ngindai
ngulani
yindu
nunda
yentoo-nully [dual)
ngurn, ngele (dual)
ngarrinyelbo
ngadlu
ngurnauwe
ngarrinyelburu
ngadlukunna
nam
ngarrinyelbo
ngadlu . •
ngune, loni (dual)
nuralli
na, naako
uldra
jannanie
iana, alie
yoora, yinie
nulyindu
dorendera
unarar
dorennege
unggoingee • •
yundu
gugurangura
neetana
auur, ergur
auure, ergure
erpuro, erguro
nungur
-—
--
■ -
jok
anuna
anunaka
—
arankara, nibala
de
angin, ali (2) ana (3)
anginunger
anginin
youier, youbal (2)
boitti
mboi
arri, albei (dual)
namboome
nianrume
an-ien, albcine (dual)
bomnbwoonune
mbwonoome
■
moo
andrappu
aiidreu
unduba (C.)
ngitana, ngipel (dual)
antil
ngabanu
tahantil
antil
ngitaniura, ngipel
anuintil
ningita
acitin
aningita
tshote
ngita
acitia • •
niiiiu
acowa
26G
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Yours
You (Object)
They
/
Kitst ....
-T—
Tiis- 1
South ....
—
—
nara (J.)
West and N.W.
—
—
—
man til ^
1
\orth. . . .
—
—
—
I
Miscellantons ,
—
—
—
>
Yarra A'. . .
nguta
—
konoit
I.al I.al . . .
—
—
—
Ercildouue . .
—
—
—
1
Ai\Ka A'. . .
—
—
—
■&
Jiroien H. . .
—
—
—
^
Gunhwer . .
ngudhek
ngudhek
—
g
W'arrnambtvl .
—
—
—
■2
Mortlake. . ,
—
—
.—
^
liooandik, S. A.
ngootpalerorong
—
nungpaler
,v^
Laiver luichlan
—
—
—
and Murrum-
bidgcc
\
Gippsland . .
—
—
. —
Banvidgee, Up-
per Murray .
Woorajery Tribe,
—
—
• "^
—
—
. —
Upper Murray,
e R
y.s.\v. _
^1
IViraidhuri
—
—
ngannaingulia
Turuwul, Port
ngeenede (C.)
—
—
M ^
Jackson
^•^
Awabakal . .
—
—
bara
^
Kamilroi . .
—
—
ngarma
Kabi,MarvA'.,(J.
ngulamo
ngulanibola
dhinabu
ll'arregok., Q.
yin-ga
—
thenna
Toodyav (A'tw-
castl'e)
—
—
— "
'^•S- s
Pidona , , .
—
—
—
^^-C!
Minning . . .
—
—
—
•h
Lake Amadcus .
—
—
—
3 -^
Narrinyeri . .
noniauwe
ngune
kar, keengk (dual)
^s^
Parnkalla , .
nuralluru
nuralli
yardna
Adelaide . . .
naakunna
naa
parna, parnako
V^o -
Darling . , ,
—
—
—
Diycri . . .
yinkanie
—
thana
■^ c 5
Muruniida , .
—
—
.5 "" <;
Mylhergoody
—
—
goonulnoorloo
/
Larrikeya , ,
gurennege
—
bedenbera
^
\ \ 'oolna , . ,
netangee
—
—
fs
Daktyerat . .
nunguro
nunguro
wurundun
"::
A'uby Ck., Kim-
—
_
C
berley
Napier Range,
—
—
—
Kimbcrley
Sunday Island ,
—
.
■^ "S (
Mac don nell
aragankara
—
etna, eratera (dual)
s *
Ranges
^^
Walsh R., Q. .
'^
Dloomjield Val-
youninger
yourunin
tanner, buUer (2)
:5
ley, Q.
Palmer R., Q. .
__
i^
CoenR.,Q.. .
yainboome
neappi
lorpe
Mapoon R., Q. .
ranrumnie
neanne
lorpi
,
Gudang, C. York
—
—
inyaba . .
Torres 1
Strait \
Kowrarega,
Torres St.
Saibai I.,N. G.
ngitanaman
ngalpan
tana, pale [dual)
tana
Nero t
Hebri-
Aulua Malikula
tahaniuntul
amuntul
hera
Nguna . . .
animu
mu
nara
des I
Aniwa . . .
tshowa
acowa
acre
COMPARATIVE TAHLE
207
Theirs
moroinbathana
nungpalerat
burunba
dhinabuno
therraka
kandauwe
yardnakkuru
parnakunna
thananie
bedennege
wurundunde
etnika
Them
nara (J.)
thanan
tannunger
taiinunin
nerooinyunoome
lornrumme
neru
lorne
tanaman
tanamunu
tahera
liera
areara
tshare
ra
acre
barun, bulun (dual)
dhinabubola
yellowdirry
kan
yardiia
parna
thaniya
Yesterday
nentegga menyena.
neea nunnawa
imilongmulok
taliyo
dhyaligc
talige
kyilikyilik
ngaangat
akatho
kilonaki
bukang
iigingurain, gambai
boorana (H.)
giniiandi
ngaiiiba
gunda
kuochat bennaiig
To-Day
watangrau
hikkai nunggi
wiltyarra
yatranyarru
yellara
illahgo
urukuli
keilppo
genodljodl
goolawa (C.)
kuri
iUngua
wiiiemegwa
pendyodin
targenail
aniau
-
miliar {now)
tonurka
lata
yili
yen^'iiya
aiiunba
amilniean
angoinne
oragokoo
agwoinye
kaidakke
yulpu (C.)
"gill
ura (C.)
wargaiga
kaiba
nmo
abakal
nanova
niasoso
neinafe
ir.inei
waldea-ponl (J.)
yilnbo
iniriyo
nyawiu
nauwiyo
kilauitch
tigapc
niakateba
keto
kilniaki
dhilai
ngidyigallila
}agoona (C.)
buggai
ilanu
dhali, gilumba
kainyi
yaye'
IGH
KAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Tomorrow
Where are the Blacks
Hast ....
_
_
T,i<-
South ....
West and A'. IV.
—
—
mufiiti
.Vorf/i ....
—
—
Misifllancoiis .
—
—
Yarra A'.. . .
buiburiiing
windya yang golin
ImUmI . . .
yiraniim
\vi ya koli
tf
Ercildounc . .
barpobarp
windyala krutang
.5
Avoca R. . . .
barapa
windya koli
liroken R. . .
—
—
^
Giinbo^uer . .
pirpu
windyalo yuanuk kuli-
Warrnainbool .
tunggat
windana maarban
Mortlake . . .
malungiba
wondha niara
1
Booandik, S. A.
kalapa
winthowoongi tonoro
Ijneer Lachlan
koongonda
—
•^
and Mttrrum-
bidgec
Gippsland . .
brundii
wunman konai
Banuidgee, Up-
—
—
c/
per Murray
>3
IVoorajery Tribe,
—
—
S"«
Upper Murray,
« a
N.S.W.
•S-5
IViraidhuri. .
— .
—
>« ft
Turuwul, Port
parry buga (H.)
ware (where, H.)
"1
Jackson
c/i^
Awabakal . .
kuniba
—
Kamilroi. . .
nguruko
tulla murri
*^
K'abi, MarvK.,Q.
yirki
weno dhan
Warrego R. , Q.
burda
deam bulla maiing
. "^ 1
Toodyay (AVtc-
bennang
yungar wingal
castle)
Pidong . . .
_
— • ■
^|~G
Minning . . .
—
—
Lake Amadeus .
nioong-al-)'er-roo
—
s ■-
Narrinyeri . .
ngrekkald
yangi narrinyeri
t/j « ft
Pamkalla , .
malturlo
—
Adelaide . . .
paninggolo
—
ViSO ■
Darling . . .
wahmbeenya
weendyah winibaja
? C 2
Diyeri ....
—
—
Muruntida . .
— .
—
1^^
Mythergoody . .
wargumurra
wundoo narjerar
I.arrikeya . .
emangua (C.)
arabelidjee belira (C.)
~^
W'oolna . . .
melarnga
looarkieinga ungalooqua
i:
Daktyerat . .
nungoyune
ngan yao ngaran
s;
Ruby Ck., Kim-
mukamukan
__
C
berley
Napier Range,
mini warar (by-and-by)
jenar wamba ■ ■
ft -2
Kitnberley
'"S
Sunday Island .
—
—
■•1^ \
M ac don ne 11
ingunta
—
f
Ranges
Walsh R., Q. .
— .
I —
'^
Bloom/ eld {^al-
woongoon
bummer wonjarin
■<:
ley. Q.
"i;
Palmer R., Q. .
oloong
—
<
Coen R., Q. . .
woingatinimi
^^
Mapoon R^ Q. .
pronganne
nambarra andrangoo
^ Gudang, C. York
achunya
ania undukera (C.)
Torres
Kowrarega,
batteingh
—
Strati
Torres St.
Saibai /., N. G.
bangal
_
Nno
Aulua Malikula
niebko
asamangk miet aranembi
Hebri-
Nguna . . .
niatamai
natang moli loa manga wai
des
.■Iniiva . . .
aratou
togata pouri wehe
co:mparative table
269
I Don't Know
windhongga
wiya
ngalanyanga
windya
-windya
ngurtambu wirn
wangatong
warthenete naagana
ngolangat boangan
manyero (H.)
wa vronga
nai-ma
nanye katti wadder
yurilo
nowaiy ap nglemin
mintiali
yoongahnjy
How
kurndirnar
iiuran
nangura
nonguran
nongurarau
windhigunga
minanggo
dirrasra
thann
niengye
wantye
ngaintya
wodow
unginju
unugunarar
■elabauna (C.)
illebidbanna
anungi dyauermagiere anungenung
yuka
jer
aio natchimul
che(C.)
ngai karawaigo
ien, anu selisembosea
a ta atae a man
avou puspusi
wonjere
niobah
trapale sava
kontucua
Who
What
kunup
wela
windyaro
winyaro
winyar
ngara
nganoo
nenga
gan
audi
ngando, ngangai
narnna
nganggi
nauwe, nganiia
nsrendo, nsranna
urmi
harbira
wonjoungou
andrakoo
aye
ngadii, nga
nga
base
sei
akai
telingha tebya
p)allawaleh
tarraginna
wanarana ( P. )
winnar
winyar
windya
nangomin
nanuk
ngana
nana
nan
nungoa
ngan mandyi
niinyang
minya
niinanggai
niinyan
naJt
na
niinyi
nauwe
ngaintya, nganna
ruinna
mina
uni
anaUa (P.)
nigida
annai
annai
niiai, mida
nepab
nasava
laha
^70
EAGLEHAWK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
When
Where
Why
East ....
Tas-
South ....
wabbara
ungamlea
—
WtstandNAV.
— .
—
—
mania
Xorth ....
—
—
—
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
J
Yarra R. . .
niulugo
windya
winyirangga
Lai Lai . . .
willang
wiya
wekarok
R
Ercildoune , .
pirbanyuin
windyalar
windyaii
Avoca A". . . .
ngirtoge
windya
nangur
V'
liroien K'. . .
—
—
—
<:
Gi/nhnver . .
naturuk
windyalo
naturuk
Warrnambool .
windagadha
winda, windagara
ngangaranuk
Mortlake . . .
—
woonaha
—
1
Booandik, S. A.
nawet
na
nukine-waa
Lmver Lachlan
wutti
narrakanian
nungora
and Murrum-
bidgce
\
Gippsland . .
nara
wunman
nannane
/
Bai-ii-id,^ee, Up-
—
—
—
"A
per Murray
\ I'oorajery Tribe,
—
~~
—
Copper Murray,
s
A.S. IV.
^2 <:
W'iraidhuri
widyunga
—
wargu
--
Turuxi'ul, Port
—
\vare(H.) wutta(R.)
—
~ V.
Jackson
to^
Awabakal . .
ba
—
—
i^i
Kamilroi . . .
wiru
tulla
minyago
Kabi,MatyR.,Q.
weno
wenomini
niinani
\
Warrego A'., Q.
wonding
thirring
minyangor
Toodvav [New-
—
winga
nagook
|«^"H
castle)
^:2:^1
Pidong . . .
nunnga
thuUa
—
^^ C
M inning . . .
—
—
—
»^ >^. ^^
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
—
5 ~-
Xarrinyeri . .
yaral
yangi
mengye,
-^■^5
Parnkalla . .
warpara
watha, wana
ngannaru
Adelaide . . .
nallaalatti
vva, wada
—
Darling . . .
—
weendya
ininna
■«:"? "t;
Diyeri'. . . .
wintba
wadarie
minandroo
1*^
Muninuda . .
—
—
—
Myther^oody . .
ungeebura
wondu
wondare
/
Larrikcya . .
—
hargua arabelidje (C. )
arbiddla (P.)
^
Wool n a . . .
—
ungalooqua
—
^:
Daktyerat . .
anyikading
ngaran
ngandukmane
S
Ruby Ck., A'itn-
—
—
—
c
btrley
•«
Napier Range,
—
—
■—
R.<S
Kimberley
's -5
Sunday Island .
—
—
—
II <
Macdonncll
—
ntana
woka
Ranges
5"^
Walsh R.,Q. .
—
—
—
^
Bloomjield Val-
wunjere wunjere
wondenya
wanuringo
<;
ley, Q.
t
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—
^—
:^
Coen R., Q. . .
andraimenni
andrenne
anaiki
Mapoon R.,Q. .
andraunie
andrangoo
anaikatti
\
Gudang, C. York
—
undukera (C.)
—
Torres
Strait
h'owrarega,
—
anaga
mipa
Torres St.
Saibai /., N.G.
_
nago
New
Hebri- ■
Aulua Malikula
nengesa
ambe, nembe
mebah
A'guna . . .
seve rangi
seve tokora, wai
ekasana
des
lAni-.va . . .
inaia
wehe
tiaha
COMPARATRE TABLE
5271
One
Two
Three
FOL-R
marrawah
pia vvah
lia winnawah
pagunta
marrawah
pooalih
talleh
wullyawa
pammere
kateboueve
z
marai (P.)
bouIa(J.)
wyanderwar (N.)
—
kanbo
bondyira
bindyir ba kannieriig
bindyir ba bindyira
kuimat
buletch
bulrt[)aimot
boletch ba boletch
kaiyap
polaitch
polaitch bo kaiap
polaitch bo polaitch
kaiap
buletch
buletchkaiap
Ixjletch ba boletch
kaiap
buledya
buledya kaiap
bulet bulet
kaiapa
bulaitcha
polininea
bulaitcha bulaitcha
kiapa
bulitha
puligmea
puligmea
wando
boolite
booiite ba wando
boolite ba boolite
yetina
polatol
polatol yata
—
kutupon
bulumon
bulumon kutuk
bulumon bulumon
oonbi
bulla
bulla oonbi
bulla bulla
ngunbai
bula
bula ngunbai
bunga
wogul (C.)
boola (C.)
brevvy (C.)
—
buloara
mal
bular
guliba
bular bular
kalini, kualim
bulla
bulla kalini
bulla bulla
younmiun
kubbo
kubbolana youm
kubbolana kub
kain
guchal
mow
—
kutia
kutharra
niunngul
_
kaiaddnu
kutharra
warrul
gooch-a-goora
go-darra
niun-kuripa
—
yaninia-laityi
ninkaiengk
neppaldar
kukkuk
kubmanna
kuttara, kalbelli
kuppo, kulbarri
—
kuma
parlaitye
marukutye
yerrabula
neecha
boolla
bollaneecha '
bpolla-booUa
koornoo
mundroo, bolya
parkoola
mundro-la mundro-la
ururu
pagoli
pagoli ururu
—
pigundul
gurtho
gurtho gurion
unibigal
kalaguk
galatilik
galatilik kalaguk
galatilik galatilik
tillingita
toloya
toloya thidle
toloya ma toloya
yaunuka
verenuka
wiriityauen
verunverun
yangga
kujara
tilowaji
—
wingair
kujara
kujara lina
kujara kujara
aringk
kvvir
iridhar
kwira kwir
ninta
tera
teramininta
teramatera
gatim
bul
artn
alpun {many)
nupoon
marmara
koloor
kakouar
appool
impa
arooiko
abunji
pemi
anibodhu
tshumajum
—
pemi
adhuti
tshumayum
—
epianiana
elabaiu
dania
—
warapune
quassur
uquassur war
uquassur uq
urapon
ukasara
uka mondobigal
ukauka
bokol
enrua
entil
em bis
sikai
trua
trolu
pati
lase
erua
torn
fa
o-ro
EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW
Groups
Dialects
Fivii
Ten
East ....
pugganna
—
Tas.
South ....
luarah
—
West and N. \V.
—
—
mania
Xorth ....
karde
karde karde
Miscellaneous .
—
—
/
Yarra R. . .
bindyiio ba bindyiro kanbo
wurtona
Lai Lai . . .
boletch ba boletch ba koi-
niotch
bolen mirna
Ercildounc . .
kaiya manga
bolaimanya
'&
Ax-Ma R. . .
boletch ba boletch ba kaiap ■
boletch manya
t^
Broken A'. . .
—
—
•1
Giinhnver , .
billet billet kaiap
—
W'lirmiimbool ,
—
bulatya ba bulatya
^
A/or/laie . . .
puligniea
pulig mara
.>,.
liooandik, S. A.
—
—
■"
Lmt'cr Lachlan b'
Murntmbidgee
ninumanyi
kinoneto murnangi
\
Gippsland . .
yailmon (?)
—
/
Hanoi dgee, Up-
per Murray
to
VVoorajery Tribe,
bulla bulla oonbi
mutto [many)
Upper Murray,
« R
N.S. W.
^•§
U'iraidhuri
—
—
Turuivul, Port
—
—
Jackson
co^
Awahakal . .
—
— - ■
Kamilroi . .
mulanbu
bulariu murra
^
K'abi,MaryIi.,Q.
murin
—
\
Warrego R., Q.
kubbolana k. y.
—
■ ■«
Toodyay {New-
—
—
S^-"?
castle)
^•2:^ 8-
Pidong . , ,
—
—
= 1~'^
Minning . .
—
—
Lake Amadeus .
—
—
a ~^
Xarrinyeri , .
kuk kuk ki, keyakki
i —
^11
CQ « R
Parnkalla , ,
—
—
Adelaide . , .
—
—
VH^ -
Darling , , .
—
—
*"« t;
Diyeri . , ,
mundroo-mundroo-koornoo
—
^ ^ ?:
Murunuda , ,
—
—
1""^
^ Mythergoody
—
—
' iMrrikeya . .
kuiare
binolka
U'oohia . . .
—
—
i;
Daktyerat . .
yangaramotung
mundul {plenty)
Ruby Ck. , Kim-
—
—
c
berley
"«
Napier Range,
—
—
R.«
Kimbcrlcy
Sunday Island .
ara ara
alburi
■•^^
Macdonnell
—
^
1 =»
Ranges
'S'^
Walsh R.,Q. .
—
— .
^
Dloomtield Val-
warpool
warpool {many)
^
ley, Q.
^
Palmer R., Q. .
—
—m
: ^
Caen R., Q. . .
—
Mapoon R., Q..
—
\
\ Gudang,C. York
—
Torres
Kowrarega,
uq. uq. warapune
1 Strait
Torres St.
. SaibaiL.N.G..
ukaukamodobai
Xew
■ Aulua Malikula
Nguna , . .
elinia
sangabul
Hebri-
lima
rualinia
des
■ Aniwa . . .
1 erima
tagahuru
INDEX
N.B. — Words in italicn arc.thost for irliich native equiralents are f/icen.
A
"Aborigines of Victoria," Smyth's ii. 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25. 26, 27.
31, 42, 86, 87, 125, 127, 130, 161, 162
Aborigines, The Papuan, 4
Adelaide dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Afraid, Native words for, 239
African and Australian Words, Resemblance between, 3, 43
Alive, Native words for, 232
Amputation of little finger-joints, 120
Analogies in language. Table of, 154, 155
Anderson's, G. W., descrii)tion of Man-making, 118
Aneityumese, Dictionary of, 156
Animal food, 89
Names of Tribes, no
Animals, Men designated by the names of, 17
Aniwa (N. H.) dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
"Anthropology," Topinard's, 4, 10
Arm, Native words for, 36, 247
Art, Native, 125 (.see also Cave-painting)
Article, The, generally absent from Australian languages, 160
Arunta Tribe, Totemism of the, 1 1 1
Aulua Malikula (N. H.) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Australian Aborigines, Who are they ? i
and New Guinea Numerals compared, 169
and New Hebridean languages. Points of Contact between, 153
and Tasmanian Words compared, 34, 40
Association for the Advancement of Science, Report of, 10, 121
, Proceedings of, 96, 97
languages, as Classified by Dr. Bleek, 150; and by the author, ihid.
, The Etymology of, 157
"Australian Race, The," Refei'ences to, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17. 18, 23. 27, 28,
32, 55, 85, no, 115, 118, 121, 124
Australian Words compared with Malay and Tasmanian, 154, 155
Australians, Personal Appearance of, 9; the colour of, u ; the hair. /?;!</. ;
not Atheistic, 147 ; Physiological Contrast between Tasmanians and, 9
Avoca River dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Awabakal dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Axes, Stone, 88 ; Native words for, 155
S
i274 INDEX
B
Bubij, Native words for, 222
Bail, Native words for, 234
Bag-making, 86
Baiaiue, the good Spirit, 147
Barbarous Treatment of the Natives, 82
Jlarl, Native words for, 217
Barwidgee dialect. Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Battaks, The superior physique of the, 5 ; religious beliefs of, 131
Bear, yatirc, Comparison of words for, 226
Beard. Various names for, 72, 246
Btlli/, Native words for, 154
Betrothals, 113
Beveridge's "Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina," 164
Bhavani or Devi, 136
Bidhanin, A Victorian black. 75
J!i(j, Native words for, 40, 154, 233
Billaminah Creek, Rock-painting in, 138
Bird Myths, 18
-names, Derivation of, 68
of Communities, 18
Bird, Native words for, 231
Black, Native words for, 236
Bhick tit he, Native words for, 154
Blacl-felloii\ A, Native words for, 220
Jllaclwoman, A, Native words for, 220
Blacks, The, Native words for, 219
Bleek's. Dr., Classification of languages, 150
Blind, Native words for, 237
Blood, Various names for, 41, 72, 251
Blood-ties, 95
Bloomfield Valley dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Bonwick's theory of occupation, 7 ; "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," 9, 12,
13, 26, 27, 28
Booandik dialect, Vocabulary of, 28S-272
Boomerang, The, 86; found in India, 52 ; also in Africa, 53 ; Native Words
for, 242; Etymology of, 159; Unknown in Tasmania, 23
BooroDg Tribe, The, 19
Bora, The, or Man-making, 116
Bowtls, Native words for, 251
Boi/, Native words for, 221
Bradshaw, Mr., Cave-paintings discovered by, 131
Bravery of the Blacks unsteady, 79
Break, Native words for, 257
Breasts, Native words for, 35. 247
Br'uKj, Native words for, 255
Broken River dialect. Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Brother, Elder, Native words for, 223
, Younfjer, Native words for, 224
Buddai regarded as the Common Ancestor by the Aborigines, 147
Bundjel the first Man, 15
Banjil the name of a deity and a class name, 18
Bunya-Tree, The, 90
Burial of the Dead, 122
INDEX 275
C
Caldwell's " Dravidian Grammar," 50
Calf, Native words for, 249
Camp, Native words for, 40, 218
Campbell, Johnny, the bush-ranger, 10
Cannibalism, unknown among Tasmanians, 28
Canoe, Native words for, 225
Cape York Peninsula, Drawings found near, 127
Carroll, Dr., on the red hand, 53; on distinctive scars, 1-22; on "The
Carved and Painted Books of Australia," 137
Carry, Native words for, 256
" Carved and Painted Rocks of Australia," Dr. Carroll on, 137
Cave-paintings, 126 ; drawn by Sumatran Artists, 134 ; in N. S. Wales, 138 ;
Malay, 60; in the Parish of Billaminah, 139
Chasm Island, Paintings found at, 128
Charcoal, Native words for, 40
Cheek, Native words for, 246
Child, Native words for, 40
Children, Native words for, 225
Chin, Native words for, 245
Cicatrices as Ornaments, 86, 121 ; as Tribal Marks, 122
Cingalese race identical with Australian, 5
Circles, The, among the Hindus, 136
Circumcision introduced from Sumatra, 120, 137 ; Mode of, in Tanna, 121 ;
Tasmanians ignorant of, 28, 65
Clack's Island, Paintings found at, 127
Clan-names, iii
Class Rules in Marriage, 95, 100
Class-Systems, General View of, 102
Classification of languages, 150
Climbing-Rope, common to both sides of Bass Straits, 26
Clothing, Native, 85
Cloud, Native words for, 209
Club, Native words for, 242
Clubs, War and hunting, 87
Coak Native words for, 40
Coburg Peninsula, Inhabitants of, 13
Cockatoo, Native words for, 230
Cockatoo, The White, as a Totem, 18
Codrington, Dr., on the Melanesian Language, 149
Coen River dialect, "Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Cold, Native words for, 2 1 1
Coleman's "Mythology of the Hindus," 131
Colour, Difference in, of Australians and Tasmanians, 10, 13
Come, Native words for, 36, 154, 254
Companion, Xatire, Native words for, 229
Compound Words, The formation of, 158
Concision, Tasmanians ignorant of, 65
Cooking, The Tasmanian, 28
Corroboree, The 140 ; The Tasmanian, 27
276 INDEX
Corintry, Native words for, 215
CrayjUK Native words for, 231
Creation. Myths regarding the, 148
CrecA-. Native words for, 216
Crooked, Native words for, 240
Crow and the Eagle Myth, The, 15
Tribes, The, 17
Crotr, Various names for, 72, 22S
Crows, a hatred of, iS
Cunningham. Mr., Cave-painting, discovered by, 127
Curr, Mr., The theory of, as to the origin of the Australians, 7, 9
Cnrr's "The Australian Race," 3, 10, 11, 13, 14. 17. >8, 23, 27, 28, 32, 54,
85. 106, no, 115, 118, 121, 124
Customs, The argument from, 26
D
Daibaitah, The name of, discovered in a Cave-painting, 130
under different name?, 147
"Daily Life of the Tasmanians," quoted, 9, 12, 13, 26, 27, 28
Daktyerat dialect. Gender as indicated in the, 162 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272
Dances, The Tasmanian, 28
Dork; Native words for, 210
Darkinung Tribes, Initiation Ceremonies of the, 146
Darling, The first black man on the, 17
dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Davies, Mr. James, Testimony regarding Moral character of the Blacks, 79
Dill/, Native words for, 211
Dead, Lamentations for the, 122 ; Disposal of the, 122 ; Native words for,
72. 233
Deaf, Native words for, 237
Death ascribed to Sorcery, 123
Debati Hasi Asi, the Sumatran deity, 131
Deccan, Ancient inhabitants of, identical with Australians, 4
Deceased persons, Names of, not pronounced, 144
Deities, Native, 146
Demon, Native words for, 213
Depuch Island, Paintings on, 127
Devi, Representations of, 136
Dhimal plurals, 49
"Dhurramoolun," the Good Spirit, 146
Dialects. The Victorian, 29
Die, Native words for, 252
Disease-making, 145
Diseases of the Aborigines, 91
Distribution of Population, The, 64
Diyeri Language, The Range, 195 ; Phonic elements, 196 ; Notation, 197 ;
the Verb, 197; Comparison with Kabi dialect, 198; Vocabulary of,
208-272
"Doctors," Native, 142
Doff, Various names for, 72, 154, 226
"Dougal," 77
I
INDEX 211
Dravidian Element, The, 47 ; Grammar, 49 ; Immigration, The, 62 ; Pro-
nouns, 49 ; Agreement between Australian and, 50
Dravidians of India, The, 3, 5
Drink, Native words for, 253
Duck, Blcicl:, Various words for, 228
Duck, Wood, Various words for, 228
Dwellings of the Blacks, The, 84
Tasmanians and Australians identical, 26
E
Eagle and Crow Myth, The, 15
and Mopoke, 16
Eaglehawk Tribe, The, 17
Eaglehawk, the Totem of the dominant race, iS
Various names for the, 72-227
Ear, Native words for, 41, 62, 244
Earth, Native words for 34, 155
Eat, Native words for, 34, 41, 253
E(j(j, Various names for, 72
Elopements, Feigned and real, 113
Empty, Native words for, 236
Emu, Etymology of Native word for, 159 ; Various names for, 66, 72, 227
Ercildoune dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Etymology of Australian Language, The, 157
Excrement, Native words for, 34, 155, 251
Exogamy, 95, 98, 101
Eye, Native words for, 36, 41, 155, 243
Eyre's, E. J. , theory of distribution, 7, 64
F
Face, Native words for, 154, 243
Fair-haired Natives, 13
Fall, Native words for, 25S
Fat, Native words for, 1 54
Father, typical terms for, 57, 62
Native words for. Compared, 154, 222
FUjht, Native words for, 257
Filial Affection, An instance of. So
Finyer, Native words for, 248
Fingers, Amputations of, 120
Fire, The origin of, amongst Victorians and Tasmanians, 20 ; Tasmanian
methods of producing, 27
Fire, Native words for, 41, 212
Fire-Ceremony, The, 117
Fish, Various names for, 72, 225
Fison, Rev. Dr. L., on Australian Kinship, 48 ; on Marriage Customs, 96 ;
on Polynesian Superstition, 144; on "Burial Customs of Fiji," 116 ;
on Kamilroi and Kurnai, 100
Five, Native words for, 272
Flinders, Capt., Cave-paintings discovered by, 12S
Flood, Myths referring to, uncertain, 148
i»7« INDEX
Fly, Native words tor, i6, 231
Food, Varieties of, S9 ; Native words for, 252
Foot, Native words for, 34, 41, 155, 249
Footmark, Native words for, 219
ForeJtead, Native words for, 246
Four, Native words for, 271
Froggat's, ilr, William, Visit to Glenelg River, 137
Full, Native words for, 236
G
Gaiety of the Aboriginals, So
Generosity of the Blacks, So
'•Ghindaring," the Bad Spirit, 146
(l/tont, Native words for, 213
Ghosts, Native Apprehension of, 146
Giles, Mr., Cave-paintings discovered by, 126
Gippsland dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
legend. A, 16
(iirl, Native words for, 222
Cnve, Native words for. 260
Glenelg lUver, Cave-paintings found on the, 128
Go, Native words for, 41, 254
(io(l, Native names for, 147, 213
(iooil, Native words for, 234
Government of the Natives, 93
Grammar, Outlines of Tasmanian, 175 ; Wimmera District, 179; Kabi, 1S3 ;
Western Australia, 192; Diyeri, 195; Macdonnell Eanges, 199
Grammatical forms of Tasmanian and other dialects, 175
<lrus8, Native words for, 41, 217
Gray, Kev. Wm., on Circumcision in Tanna, 121
Grey's, Sir George, "Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery," 81, 89,
128 ; " North-west and Western Anstralia," 56
Gribble, Rev. E. R., on Phratries of N. Queensland, 107
Qround, Native words for, 34, 215
Group-Marriage, 108
Grow, Native words for, 259
Gudang (Cape York) dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Gunbower dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Hair, Differences in quality of the, 11 ; Colour of the, 75 ; Native words
for, 243
Hand, Emblematic use of, 53 ; a Sacred Symbol, 137 ; Native words
for, 248
J/e, Native words for, 264
Head, The Shape of the Australian's, 77
Jlead, Variou.s names for, 41, 72, 154, 243
Hear, Native words for, 259
Heat, Native words for, 211
Iltavy, Native words for, 238
Heroes, Ancient, 146
\
INDEX 279
/////, Native words for, 216
Him, Native words for, 264
Hindostan, Affinity of Australians with Aborigines of, 48
Hindu god Siva identified in Cave-painting, 130; Mythology, 135 ; Venera-
tion for pebbles, 53
HiH, Native words for, 264
"History of Tasmania," 20, 26
Holt, Native words for, 218
Home, Tasmanian and Victorian words for, 40
Honey, Method of eating, 89
Hooker, Mr., The theory of, 7
House, Native words for, 40, 218
How, Native words for, 269
Howitt's "Kamilroi and Kurnai," 17, 18, 114
Hull's "Remarks on the Probable Origin and Antiquity of the Aboriginal
Natives of N.S.W.," 130
Huiujry, Native words for, 235
Husband, Native words for, 223
Huth's "Marriage of Near Kin," 97
Huxley, on the Natives of South and West Australia, 13
, Opinion of, on the origin of the Australians, 4
1, Native words for, 262
J don't Jcnow, Native words for, 269
Igdrasil of Australia, The, 66
Iguana, Native words for, 227
Ill-treatment of the Natives, 82
Implements, The Argument from, 22
Incest, Abhorrence of, 114
Indian Races identical with Australian, 5
Indolence of the Black, 81
Inglis', Rev. John, "Dictionary of Aneityumese," 156
Instability of the Blacks, 79
" Introcision," The operation of, 65
Isaiah, Ivii. 6, 53
Jardine, Mr., on Mixture of Races, 11
Jewish Nose among the Papuans, 14
Journal of the Anthropological Institute," The 24, n8
Jus primce noctis, 108
K
Kabi Dialect, The, 30, 152; General names in the, 161; Vocabulary
of, 208-272
Kabi Language, Adjectival terminations in, 160; Phonic elements. 1S3 ;
the Noun, 184; Declensions, 185; Pronouns, 185; Adjective?. Numerals.
and Verb, 187 ; Prefixes, 1S8 ; Affixes, 1S9 ; Infixes, 189 ; Paradigms,
189
^,>S0 INDEX
Kabi Language, Specimen of, with translation, 191
Coiupareil with Diyeri language, 19S
Kabi Tribe, Members of the, 10; their Club, 25 ; Love-letters among, 114;
Doctors of the, 143 ; deifies the rainbow, 146
Kabi words, Analogy of, 154, 155
Kali, Koprosentation of, 135
Kalkadoon Tribe, their term for two, 149
Kamilroi and Kabi languages, 190
" and Kurnai,'' by Fison and Howitt, 17, 18, 114
" and other Australian Languages," 48
Dialect, 29 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272
methods of discovering cause of death, 123
words compared to Malay and Tasmanian, 154, 155
Kangaroo, Tasmanian word for, 42; Etymology of native words for, 159;
Native words for, compared, 41, 226
Karween, the second man, 15
KiV, Native words for, 25S
Kilparra Tribe, The, 15
, the wife of the first black man on the Darling, 17
Kindle, Native words for, 154
" King Billy," 75
King George's Sound Natives, 17
King's "Voyages to Australia," 127
Kinship, Australian system of, 48, 51, 94
Kiii/t, Native words for, 41
Kill lie, Native words for, 259
Koratlji, or Native Magicians, 142
Kowrarega (Torres Strait) dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Kundlr hoiujtjcm, or Sorcerer, 143
L, The initial, common to Victorian and Tasmanian Languages, 37
Lake Amadeus, Paintings found near, 127
dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Lal-Lal dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Lang's, Dr., "Queensland, Australia," 147
Language, The argument from, 29 ; Tables of analogies of, 36, 40, 154, 155 ;
of the Tasmanian Aborigines, 175 ; Dr. Bleek's classification of, 150;
The simplest current in West Australia, 151 ; The most complex at
Lake Macquarie, 151
Languages of Australia, The, 149; Number and Gender, 161 ; the Noun,
161 ; the Adjective, 162; Numerals, 163; Pronouns, 171 ; Prepositions
and Conjunctions, 172 ; the Verb, 173
Larrikeya dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Latham's theory, 3 fli
fAuigh'uKj Jackass, Native words for, 229 W^
l.cfj. Native words for, 40, 155, 249
Lesson's, Dr. "Les Polynesiens," 2, 13
fAft, Native words for, 256
Liijht, Native words for, 210
(not heavy), Native words for, 239
L'ujlitnuig, Native words for, 215
1
INDEX 281
Like, Native words for, 260
Lip, Native words for, 41, 245
Linguistic resemblances to Dravidian, 49
Live (verb), Native words for, 154, 252
LjOwj, Native words for, 233
Longevity of the Natives, 92
Love-letters among the Kabi Tribe, 1 14
Looern, The myths of, 19
Louse, Native words for, 155
Lower Lachlan and Murrumbidgee dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Lump, Native words for, 219
M
Macdonald's, Dr., "Etymological Dictionary of the Language of Efate,"
155; "Oceana," 114, 116; "The Asiatic Origin of the Oceanic Lan-
guages," 57
Macdonald, Flora, 115
Macdonnell Ranges, Language at, 199 ; Phonic elements, 199 ; Noun and
Pronoun, 200 ; Adverbs, 201 ; Verbs, Voice, Number and Mood, 202 ;
Participle, 203 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272
McGillivray's "Voyage of the EatileniKdce," 67
McLennan's " Studies in Ancient History," 16, 95
McKillop's "Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia," 120
Magicians, Native, 142
Maha Kali, The Hindu Goddess, 135
Make, Native words for, 257
" Malay Archipelago, The," quoted 7, 14, 80
Malay Element, The, 55 ; Immigration, 6, 62 ; Speech, Relics of, 58 ; "Words
compared with Australian, 154-155
Malayo-Dravidian Shoot grafted on Australian Aborigines, 9
Malays, The, 1-5 ; Physical influences of, 56 ; Linguistic influences of, 57
Man, The term used for, 70 ; Native words for, compared, 40, 154, 220
Man-making, 116
JJana Superstition, The, 144
Jlaungur of the Kabi Tribe, 143
Mapoon River dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Marriage, Communal or Group(?), 96 ; Class rules in, 95, ico, 102 ; by Cap-
ture, 113 ; by Agreement, 114 ; in Queensland, 21
Jlarri/, Native words for, 260
Marsden's "History of Sumatra," 120, 130
Matrimonial restrictions, 94
Mas Miiller's " Three Lectures on the Science of Language,"' 37
3Ie, Native words for, 263
Meenung blacks, The Totem of the, 18
Melbourne blacks. The Myths of the. 15
Mental and Moral Characteristics of the Australians, 78
Message-stick, The, 60; introduced by Malays, 125
Migration from the North-East, 66
Milk, Native words for, 212
Mimicry, The power of, 78
"Min," a radical syllable, 58
Mine, Native words for, 262
^>.SJ> INDEX
Minning dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Missionary Elfort, Small success of, S2
Mist, Native words for, 214
Mokwarra. the wife of the first black man on the Darling, 17
Tribe, The, 15
JIouii, Native words for, 41, 208
Moor's "Hindu Pantheon," 135
Mopoke and Eagle, 16
Moral qualities of the Blacks weak, 79
Morjiinij, Native words for, 210
Mortlake dialect, "\'ocabulary of, 208-272
MuKi/iiito, Native words for, 231
JI(if/ni; N'arious words for, 41, 57, 72, 223
Mother-in-law, Avoidance of, 114
Mourning for the dead, 122, 124
Mintth, Various names for, 34, 41, 72, 245
Muliarra Cooking, 2S
31 tiller. Dr. F., against the relationship of Dravidian and Australian, 51
Mailer's, Dr., '• Keise der Fregatte Novara," 149
Murdoo Legend, The, 96
^Murray blacks, The myths of the, 15
Murrumbidgce dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Murunuda dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Muse, The Australian, 140
Mutilations, 119
Mythergoody dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Mythology, Australian, 146
and Tradition, The Argument from, 14 '
Myths of the Murray blacks, 15
N
-iVa/V, Native words for, 248
Names of Dead People not pronounced, 144
Napier Pange dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Nardoo Creeks, Paintings found at, 127
"Nardu " grass, 89
Nari, The Creation of all things ascribed to, 137
Narrinyeri tribe, The. no; Myths of, 16; Totems, 21 ; Sorcery among,
145 ; Vocabulary, 20S-272
Native Police, The, 82
'• Native Tribes of South Australia,'' 12, 16, iii, 145
" Nauries," Pictures of the, 137
Negatives as names of Communities, 109
Negro appearance of Natives in the West, 13
Negro blood on a great .Southern Continent, 7
Negroes, Australians related to, 5
-\'' s(, Native words for, 40
New Caledonia, the inhabitants and language of, 45
New Guinea and Australian Numerals compared, 169
Immigration from, 4
New Hebridean Words compared with Malay and Australian, 154, 155
New Hebridean's A'eneration for Pebbles, 53
New Holland, Australia once known as, i
INDEX 28,^3
Nguna (N.H.) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Night, Native words for, 211
JVo, Native words for, 262
Nogoa River, A Tribe on the. 9
Northern Australia, The blacks of, 13
Nose, A hooked, common to the three races, 14 ; Native words for, 35,
154, 244; Piercing of the, 86, 120
Numeral System of the Aborigines, 163
Numerals, Dravidian, 50 ; Etymology of Australian, 1 59 ; Tasmanian, 32.
179 ; traced to the North-East, 68 ; traced from South to North, 149 ;
Australian and New Guinea compared, 169
o
Old JIan, Native words for, 22 1
" Old Peter," 76
Old Woman, Native words for, 221
One, Native words used for, 50, 62, 69, 72, 165, 169, 272
Ojjen or cut, Native words for, 40
Opossum Rug Clothing, 85
Opossum, Various names for, 41, 62, 227
Ornamentation, 86 ; Cicatrices as, 121
Ovens, Native, 91
Ours, Native words for, 265
Painting, The art of, 126 (*ee also Cave-paintings)
Palmer River dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Papuan race, The, in Western Australia, 13 ; Characteristics of, So
Papuans the first inhabitants, 4
Parnkalla dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
"Parnkalla Vocabulary," 31
Particles in Native dialects, 160
Parts of Speech in Australian languages, 160
Parvati, the Hindu Goddess, 135
Path, Native words for, 219
Pebbles, Sacred, 53, 73, 143, 145
Pelican, Native words for, 229
Phlebotomy, Native, 143
Phonic System, The, 152
Phonology, Likeness in, 62
Phratries of Queensland, 21 ; of other districts, 102-107
Physical characters of the Australians, 74
Physiological contrast between Australians and Tasmauians, 9
Physiology, Evidence from, 8
Pidong dialect. Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Pikumbul Tribe, The, 109
Plural, Sign of, 155
Poetry, Native, 140
Polyandry, 97
Polynesian and Australians, Community in a objects of worship. 145
5>84 INDEX
J'orciiplne, Native words for, 225
Port Darwin as a landing-place, 7
Preterite, Formation of, in Tamil and Australian, 51
"Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria," m, 121 13S, 146
Pronouns, Dravidian, 49 ; A particular type of, in Australia, 70 ; The
marks of, 160
Proximity of Abode a favourable supposition of aftinity, 8
Q
Qaatrefages, de, on the Tasmanians, 2
Queensland, The marriage system of, 2 1
Quick, Native words for, 237
R
Jialu or Water, Various names for, 72, 209
Rainbow. The, deified by the Kabi Tribe, 146 ; As a "doctor" maker, 143 ;
Native words for, 209
Raniahyuck School, Percentage of Marks, 78
Red Hand, The symbol of, 54, 137
Jieil, Native words for, 235
Jieed i<j)ears, Native words for, 241
Religious Beliefs of the Battaks, 131
Religious Superstitions, Australian, 53
"Report of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science,"
10, 121
Ridley's, Rev. W., "Kamilroi and other Australian Languages," 48
llitjlit. Native words for, 239
Rock-Paintings in N.S.W., 138 (see Cave-painting)
Rope-climbing, Common to both sides of Bass Strait, 26
Roth's, "W. E., "Ethnological Studies among the North-West Central
Queensland Aborigines," 65, 97, 107, 108, 121
Royal Society of Victoria, Proceedings of, in, 121, 138, 146
Ruby Creek dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Jiiiii, Native words for, 255
Saibai Island (N.G.) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
"Science" (Australian periodical), 107, 108
Seal, The, as a Totem, 17
bee, Native words for, 258
Serpent, The, a token of divinity, 134 ; Native words for, 40
Sex-Totems, 21
lihudow, Native words for, 213
>S/iitl(l, Native words for, 241
Shields, 87 ; unknown to Tasmanians, 23
tShort, Native words for, 234
>Shout, Native words for, 36
-SVh</, Native words for, 261
Singing, The Tasmaaian, 28
I
INDEX 2Ho
Singleton, Rock-paintings in the neighbourhood of, 138
Sister, Elder, Native words for, 224
Yoinifjer, Native words for, 224
Sit, Native words for, 253
Siva, Cave-painting identified as, 130
Representation of, 135
Skin, The Colour of the, 75 ; Native words for, 154. 250
Ski/, Native words for, 209
Sleep, Native words for, 40, 253
Slouj, Native woi'ds for, 237
Small, Native words for, 154, 233
Smell, Native words for, 244
Smoke, Native words for, 35, 41, 214
Smyth's "Aborigines of Victoria," 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
31, 42. 86, 87, 125
Snake, Native words for, 232
Son-in-law, Avoidance of, 114
Sorcery, the great bane of the Aborigines, 142
South Sea Island Superstitions, 53
Southern Continent, The, once greater than it is now, 7
Speak, Native words for, 253
Spears, 87 ; Native words for, 241
Speech comparatively homogeneous at first, 151
Spencer and Gillen on Phratries of S. Australia, 105 ; on Creation Mvths
148
Star, Native words for, 208
Stature of the Australians and Tasmanians Compared, 9
Stick, Native words for, 40
Stokes, Capt., Cave-paintings discovered by, 127
Stomach, Various names for, 41, 72, 247
Stone, Native words for, 40, 72, 216
Stone Implements of the Tasmanians and Australians compared, 24
Stone-knife, Native words for, 242
Stone Tools, 88
Straiffht, Native words for, 240
Strike, Native words for, 257
Strong, Native words for, 238
"Studies in Ancient History," 16, 95
Subincision, The practice of, 65, 121
"Sumatra, History of," 120, 130
Sumatra the home of the Cave-painting Artist, 134
Sumatran intercourse and influence, 120
writing discovered in Cave-painting, 130
Sun, Native words for, 36, 62, 208
Sunday Island dialect. Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Succession, Rights of, 98
Superstitions, Native, 144
Supreme Being, Native names for, 147
Sivan, Native words for, 230
Sweet, Native words for. 239
Swords, Wooden, 87
Sydney, Rock-paintings near, 138
Sympathy and Affection of the Blacks, 80
286 INDEX
Tabic of Analogies in language, 34, 40. 154, 155
Tiiil, Native words for, 250
Tiikf, Native words for, 256
Tamarind Trees near Osborn Island, 55
Tamil and Australian, Likeness between, 49
grammar, ihid.
Tanna. Mode of Circumcision in, 121
Taplin's, Kcv. Geo., "Native Tribes of South Australia," 12, 16, in, 145
Tasmania first peopled from Victoria, 46
«« , History of," West's, 14, 26
Tasmanian Aborigines, Language of the, 175 : Australian words compared
with, 34, 154; Cooking, 2S ; dialect, 32; dancing, 27; dwelling, 26;
Papuans, 5 ; Races, 2, 4 ; Singing, 28 ; Weapons and tools, 23
language the substratum of Australian dialects, 176 ; Phonic elements
in, 176; The Noun. 177 ; The Pronoun, 178; Adjective, 178 ; Numerals,
32, 179; Verb and Adverb, 179 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272
Tasmanians, Personal appearance of, 9 ; contrasted with Australians, ibid. ;
the colour of, 10 ; the hair of, 11 ; ignorant of circumcision, 28, 65
Taylor, Mr. Norman, Cave-paintings discovered by, 127
«' Teacup " and his children, 75
Teeth, Knocking out of front, 120 ; Native words for, 72, 245
Tfll, Native words for, 254
Telugu and Tamil, Divergence between, 50
. plurals, 49
Ten, Native words for, 272
"Terrible Rite, The," 65, 121
T/iee, Native words for, 263
T/ifir, Native words for, 267
Them, Native words for, 267
They, Native words for, 155, 2
Thifjh, Native words for, 35, 41, 249
Thine, Native words for, 263
Think, Native words for, 259
Thirst ij, Native words for, 235
Thit, Native words for, 154, 155
Thou, Native words for, 263
Three, Various names for, 72, 271
Threlkeld's " Key to the Structure of the Aboriginal Languages," 56
" Throwing-Stick," The, 87, 125
TJiuniler, Native words for, 215
Tired, Native words for, 261
To be. Native words for, 154
To-day, Native words for, 267
To do. Native words for, 155
Toe, Native words for, 250
Tnmahaick, Various names for, 72, 154, 241
Tomahawks of the Tasmanians, 23 ; of stone, 88
To-morrow, Native words for, 268
Tonfjue, Native words for, 35, 155, 247
Toodyay (Newcastle) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
INDEX 287
Tools of the Tasmanians and Australians compared, 24 ; Stone, 88
Jo/j, Native words for, 40
Topinard's, Dr. Paul, "Anthropology," 4, 10
Totem names, 102, 109
Totems among the Greeks, 16 • Social or Tribal, 21
Tradition and Mythology, The Argument from, 14 ; Bondage of the
Natives to, 93
Tree, Native words for, 2 1 7
Tribal Cohesion, 94 ; nomenclature, 65, 109
Truganini, the last Tasmanian, 175
Turlcey, WM, Native words for, 229
Turra Tribe, The, 17
Turuwul dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Two, Various names for, 72, 271
u
Urine, Native words for, 35, 251
Us, Native words for, 265
V
Vaginal rupture, 121
Van der Tunk's " Bataksch-Nederduitsch Woordenbock," 136 ; " Les Jlanu-
scrits Lampongs," 130
Vegetable foods, 89
Vocabularies of 52 dialects compared, 208-272
"Vocabulary of Australian Dialects," 45
Vocabulary showing analogies in dialect, 154, 155
Victorian Dialect, The, 30, 37
w
Walli, Native words for, 35, 41, 62, 255
Wallace's "The Malay Archipelago," 7, 14, So
Walsh liiver dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272
Warrego River dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
" Wangle " plant, The, 90
Warrnambool dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Water, Native words for, 35, 40, 72, 155, 212
Watty tribe's System of Numerals, 764
Weak, Native words for, 238
Weapons of the Blackfellow, 86 ; Tasmanian and Australian compared, 23
We, Native words for, 265
Weep, Native words for, 261
West's " History of Tasmania, 14, 26
Westall, Mr., Cave-paintings discovered by, 12S
Westermarck's "History of Human Marriage," 97, loi
Western Australia, The language of, 192 ; Phonic elements, 192 ; parts of
speech, 193
What, Native words for, 269
When, Native words for, 270
Where, Native words for, 155, 270
Where are the Blacks ? N ative words for, 269
288 INDEX
White. Native words for, 235
117(0, Native words for, 269
117(1/, Native words for, 270
H7/<r, Various names for, 62, 223
Wilson's Promonton.- the Starting-point for Tasmania, 46
Wimmera District, The language of. 179; Plionic elements, 179; the Noun
and I'ronoun, 180; Adjective, Numerals, and Verb, 1S2 ■
W'tml, Native words for, 154, 214 ^
Wiradhuri dialect. The, 191 ; Vocabulary of, 20S-272
Wiwonderrer, The Myths of, 19
Woman, Native words for, 41. 154, 221
Wonunda Meening Tribe ignorant of shield and boomerang, 23
Wood. Various names for, 72. 217
Woo^l .S/w'rtr, Native words for, 241
Wooden Weapons, 87 i
Woolly-haired Natives, 1 1 j
Woolna Tribe, The, a fine race, 10; Vocabulary of, 20S-272 J
Woorajery Tribe dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272
Word- Structure, The fundamental principle of, 151
Worm, Native words for, 232
Worsnop's "The Prehistoric Arts of the Aborigines of Australia," 127
Wronj, Native words for, 240
"Yam-Stick," The, 87
Yarra River dialect, 43 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272
Yes, Native words for, 261
Vestenlay, Native words for, 267
You, Native words for, 34, 265
(Object) Native words for, 266
Yours, Native words for, 266
Yuons, The only religious Ceremony practised by the, 137
1 urru, or rope used by Native Doctors, 143
Zamia Nut, The, 81, 89
i
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