5i)l IW^i iilnii^nl =3 ^imm \immc{o/:. ^.JOJIIVDJO'^ ^OFCAUF0R(^ ^OFCAlIF0«j5^ ^AHv«an-T^ o ;s u "^/jaaMNfl-awv^ ^10SANCEI% Q /- /T £= "vAaaAiNnivvv 5 ^ C> Q? -^ ^ V "Sri ^J?133KVS01^ c3 _ § "^AJUAINfl^Wv ^iosAiicn% o _ ^lUBRARYQ^ -55J.HIBRARYQ^^ ^•tfOJIWDJO^ < ^OF-CAllFOff^ ^OFCAllFOff^ ^^Aav«an# ^6'Ayvaan-^^ ea =3 - ^^^AuvHani'^ ^^AiivaaniN^ ^riuonvsoi^ ^lOS-ANCEiar^ %a3AINIl-3V\V^ ^lOS-ANCEltr^ o •^/saiAiNn-ivv^ (.3 s ^^EUNIVERS55t. A>cl0SME% .^^-UBRARYQ^^ x^^-UBRARYQ^ ^10SANCEI% o ■/^•Anvnanv^ '^TiuoNvsm^ -5>^^IIBRARYQ^ ^OF'CAIIFO/Xj^ ^OFCA1IFO% ^^AHvaan-'i^ ^ "v/saiAiNn-jwv ^lOSANCEl^^ %a3AiNn-3WV ^^UBRARYO^ ^OF-CAIIFO«^ -5^H1BRARYQ^ ^ >— 'I I" ^ •>&A«vaan-# .l^EUNlVERy^ ^•lOS-ANCEUr^ o ^. ^-ubraryq^ > — I ft u oo «-j 1-1 1 n s »-3 1— 1 1 ti s %a3AINamV^ ^.JOJIWDJO'^ ^(JOJIIVDJO'^ ^lOSANCElTj-^ ^OF'CAUFO/?^ ^OF'CAlIFORj^ /5J\EUNIVER% ^lOS-ANCEl£;r;, «5Jk\E-UNIVER% ^lOSANCElfj> EAGLEHAWK AND CliOW ^> BY THE SAME PUBLISHER AUSTRALIAN LEGENDARY TALES Folk-lore of the Noongahburrahs as told to the Piccaninnies Collected by Mrs. LANGLOH PARKER With Introduction by Andrew Lang, M.A.. Illustrations by a Native Artist, and Specimen of the Native Text Sqtuire demy 8vo. xvi-131 pp. Beautifully printed at the Ballantyne Press on Special Paper, and bound in Attractive Cloth Cover, 3s. 6d. MORE AUSTRALIAN LEGENDARY TALES Collected from Various Tribes Hy MRS. H. LANGLOH PARKER With Introduction by Andrew Lang, M.A., and Illustrations by a Nati%e Artist viii-104 pp. Cloth. 3s. 6d. Some press motfces " The most interesting,' additions to the literature of folk-lore which have come under our notice recently. Her first volume revealed the much-despised Australian black as the possessor of a rich vein of jx)etic humour, while the volume which has now reached us, ' More Australian Legendary Tales,' materially increases our respect for the aborigines of the island continent. As Mr. Andrew Lang, who con- tributes a scholarly introduction, says, quoting Rudyard Kipling, these backward friends of Mrs. Parker are ' very much like you and me,' or rather, are our superiors in poetical fancy. Among the world's dreamers, the Australians, just escaping from the Palaeolithic age, were among the most distinguished." — St. James's Gazette. " Mrs. Parker has added to the gaiety of nations by this collection of Antipodean legends." — Saturday Revieiv. " Extremely interesting and curious." — Antiquary. " To the ethnologist and folk-lorist this book is of great value, but its main use will probably be to provide new and original fairy tales for the juveniles." — Church Revieu.'. •' Mrs. Parker has striven, and not unsuccessfully, to do for Australian folk-lore what Longfellow did in ' Hiawatha ' for the North American tribes." — Sydney Morning Herald. Some iprCSS IROttceS {continued) " Children will delight in the stories as they do in Uncle Remus for the way in which the blacks speak of the birds and beasts as if they were men and women, and the curious little illustrations by a native artist are sure to take their fancy." — South Australian Register. "Not only a valuable contribution to folk-lore, but are sinpfularly interesting for the quaint fancifulness of the Nature-legends, and as a proof that the wild men of that land deserve to occupy a somewhat higher position in the scale of intelligence than that which is generally attributed to them. Some of the metamorphoses are as beautiful as any of those immortalised by Ovid, who, as Mr. Andrew Lang says in his characteristically clever and happy introduction, would have found excellent materials in these fables." — The Westminster Gazette. " In her long and intimate relations with the native races the author appears not only to have won their confidence, but to have gauged their character in ways not possible to the ordinary traveller or globe-trotter, with the result that a fund of native humour and fancy was opened out to her of which these tales and legends and their predecessors are the delightful fruit." — The Manchester Guardian. "Show a poetic mysticism which is an interesting trait of the native Australian mind. Issued in such attractive form they should secure a wide field." — Bookman. " Mrs. Parker is doing very good service to folk-lore, and the more so as she steadily adheres to her determination to tell the tale as it was told to her. An Australian folk-tale is, as is natural, almost always one which shows us the rude attempts of primitive man to account for various phenomena of nature and the wonder of his own existence." — Athenaum. " The poetic and imaginative quality of these tales will surprise readers who are chiefly impressed by the savagery and the degraded condition of the Australian blacks." — The Australasian. " Deux recits, I'un ou la description des rites d'initiation se mele a des traditions totemiques et a des legendes de metamorphoses, I'autre qui est un conte relatif a un sorcier faiseur de pluie ont une particuliere importance. II faut signaler encore I'existence, dans ce recueil de quelques contes a demi facetieux et de veritables petits romans de la vie sauvage ou apparait dans toute sa tragique misere I'existence des indigenes dont la pensee est tendue tout entiere vers la recherche de la nourriture. Le livre de Mrs. Langloh Parker est edite avec une sobre et charmante elegance ; il est precede d'une spirituelle et alerte preface de M. Andrew Lang. Ce livre, qui fait grand honneur a celle qui en a con9U la plan et qui I'a execute, rendra a la mythologie comparee de reels services." — Revue de I'Histoire des Religions. EAGLEHAWK AND CROW A STUDY OF THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES IXCLUDIXG AN INQUIRY INTO THEIR ORIGIN AND A SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES BY JOHN MAT HEW, M.A., B.D. LONDON DAVID NUTT, 270-271, STRAND MELBOURNE MELVILLE, MULLEN AND SLADE 1899 c c J)K1)1 slightly darker complexion, and had hair of very different quality. The objections which these differences raise to com- munity of origin dissolve in the prospect to those who accept the view, that upon the aboriginal Australian stock there was grafted a strong Malayo-Dravidian shoot, for the effect of this graft is of itself sufficient to explain the ultimate divergence of feature. The average height of the Australian male may be set down as 5 ft. 5 in. or 5 ft. 6 in., while that of the Tasmanian was only about 5 ft. 2 in. to 5 ft. 5 in.f Any one who has seen much of the Australian blacks cannot have failed to observe the great disparity in stature to be found among them, whether as comparing together individuals of one tribe or individuals of different communities, their height as well as general physique being dependent upon descent, climate, food-supply. I remember meeting with a tribe on the Nogoa River in Queensland, which seemed to me a remarkably fine body of people, both for stature and for strength of build surpassing any natives I had seen else- * The object here is mainly to refute Mr. Curr's arguments for holding that the Australians and Tasmanians were two absolutely distinct races, hence the peculiar cranial differences are not referred to. t Bonwick, " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 119. 10 r.ACI.KIIAWK AM) (ROW where. W\' are told also that in some parts in the extreme north the natives are conspicuous for their height.* When comnumities are examined in detail, it is found that a man's height will range from about 5 ft. to about 6 ft. i in. in the same tribe. I recall a singular example of this extreme difference in the case of two brothers, sons of the same mother at least. Thev belonged to the Kabi tribe, occupying the head waters of the Mary River, in Queensland. The younger brother, named Kilkaibriu, became a strapping fellow of about 6 ft., the elder brother, Kagariu, was very little over 5 ft. high, and about as unjjrepopsessing, from a European point of view, as it were possible to conceive, in which respect no Tasmanian could suqaass him. He came into public notice as Johnny Campbell, the bush- ranger, and after a singularly daring and villainous career, ended his days on the gibbet at Brisbane. Taken by itself, this great diversity of stature among Australians might only be regarded as something abnormal, but when joined with other evidence does it not form a link in the chain upon which hangs the hypothesis of their descent here advanced ? The offspring of a union between the Australian Papuans and people of greater stature would probably exceed in height the pure aborigines represented by the Tasmanians, and among posterity sprung from two or three distinct races differing fi'om each other in average stature, uniformity of height would hardly be expected, so that fact and theory coincide in this particular. It is freely admitted that the inhabitants of the island differed physically from those of the mainland in important particulars ; the difference, however, may be easily exaggerated. Strange that the colour of the Tasmanians should already be a matter of dispute. Mr. E. M. Curr f describes it as a sooty- black. A like opinion is given by Mr. Jas. Barnard, who had seen them, and calls their, colour bluish-black.| The busts in the Melbourne Public Library are almost jet-black. Topinard § describes it as a chocolate-black, which corresponds fairly with * The Woolna tribe are described as a fine race. My friend, Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, saw two women who were each 5 ft. 10 in. in height, and a young man 6 ft. 4^ in. + "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 603. Z "Report of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science," Melbourne. 1S90, p. 59S. § " Anthropology," p. 501. THE L\DIGKNJ:S 0¥ AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 11 the complexion of the natives in the painting by ]Mr. Dowling in the Launceston Museum. Mr. Dowling was a high-class painter, and as he painted from life I think his representation may be relied upon. Following him therefore, the contrast alleged by Mr. Curr between the sooty-black skin of the Tasmanians and the brownish-black of the Australians entirely disappears. The skin of both was brownish-black but uniform in the Tasmanians, and with marked differences of shade in the Australians, sometimes being copper-coloured, especially in children. Along the maritime lands of Australia on the east, south, and west, the colour in many cases is very dark. The people of both nations had luxuriant heads of hair. Some have called the hair of the Tasmanians woolly, others deny that it could properly be so called, and aver that it was rather excessively curly. The hair of the head was very abundant and generally grew in long thin ringlets. The hair of the continental people is, on the contrary, mostly wavy on the head, but often straight, and occasionally so curly as to resemble woolly hair, while the beard has invariably a great tendency to curl. As telling against the common origin of these peoples, a strong point is made of the difference in the quality of the hair. Mr. Curr has said * of the Australians that their hair is " sometimes straight and at others wavy, but never woolly," and in the next sentence that the hair of the Tasmanians was woolly. As a matter of fact, neither race had the hair woolly in the same sense as the Negro's hair is woolly, and yet the Tasmanians might be called in a sense woolly (or wool-like), and there are cases where a kind of woolly hair has been noticed among the Australians. To corroborate the latter statement I have only to refer to Mr. Curr's own work.t Of a tribe of blacks in the BunyaMountains,the present writer, who contributed the account, says that there were one or two cases of woolly hair. The hair of one of them, named Warun, was so woolly that he used to be teased in consequence and nicknamed "Monkey" (sheep) and "Wool," much to his vexation. Mr. Jardine X (the explorer, I presume) speaks of two types of Australians, one approaching a copper-colour, the other black. * "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 603. f Ibid. p. 153. X Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 19. 12 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW He says the true Australian aborigines are perfectly black, with generally voolhj heads of hair. He speaks also of features of a strong Jewish cast, about which more will be said below. Major ^litchell * saw some natives with a sort of woolly hair, and Mr. Stanbridge speaks j of isolated cases of woolly hair among the men. By the courtes}'^ of a friend I have in my possession the photograph of a black boy whose hair was of the quality generally called woolly ; his name was Wellington, and he belonged to the Culgoa River, New South Wales. In his " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," Mr. Bonwick says,$ regarding them, that their hair was not woolly nor like that of the Negro. He cites the opinion of Dr. Pruner Bey, that two specimens examined resembled the hair of the New Irelanders. If Mr. Curr can hold that, notwithstanding the straightness of his hair, "the Australian is by descent a Negro with a strong cross in him of some other race," theiie should be no difficulty, on the score of difference of hair, in the way of our regarding him as descended from the Austral Papuan or indigenous Australian, with a strong cross of two other races, both straight-haired. The opinion of the Rev. Geo. Taplin, an observer of large experience, is very noteworthy. He says,§ " there is a remarkable difference in colour and cast of features ; some natives have light complexions, straight hair, and a Malay countenance, while others have curly hair, are very black, and have the features I'apuan. It is therefore ^jroZ/c'5/f that there arc tiro races of aborigines." My own theory was formed before I had read this; and besides, Mr. Taplin merely reiterates a supposition based certainly upon personal experience, but already pro- pounded by earlier New South Wales writers, || and, apart from difference of appearance just quoted, he puts forth no proof of his statement. The conclusion of so well qualified an authority that there are probably two races of aborigines in South Australia is in direct conflict with that of Mr. Huxley, who thinks that the natives of the southern and western portions of Australia are * Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. i8. t Jbid. p. 15. + "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 106. § "Native Tribes of South Australia," p. 129. H Mr. Taplin regarded the Narrinyeri as descended from Polynesians and Papuans, and may have been the first to propound this special derivation. ■Z '-3 THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN Vi the most homogeneous of all savages. Observation is certainly against Mr. Huxley, with whose opinion the statement of Dr. A. Lesson* maybe compared, "the individual variations are too great, the study of the crania shows typical differences too accentuated for it to be possible to admit the unity and purity of the Australians." The occurrence of strongly contrasted complexions, copper and almost jet black in the same tribe, is exceedingly common. Some of the fairer skins are accompanied by light-coloured hair, whether faded or natuz-al. At Beemery Station, between Bourke and Brewarrina, the family of the leading black were very fair and had long straw-coloured hair. I have heard of similar cases elsewhere, and have known one or two in southern Queensland. Mr. Bonwick f quotes Mr. Earl as saying, regarding Coburg Peninsula, in the north-west of Australia, " the aboriginal inhabi- tants of this part of Australia very closely resemble the Papuans of New Guinea, or, which is almost the same thing, the aborigines of Van Diemen's Land " ; and on the next page ]Mr. Oldfield is credited with stating that the Papuan race is still showing through the Australian in a part of West Australia ; " the tribes," he says, " inhabiting the country from Murchison River to Shark's Bay possess more characteristics of the Negro family than the aborigines of any part of Australia." To the above evidence, attesting the greater prominence of Papuan characters in West Australia, let the following be added to show the existence of a decided Papuan fringe, at least on the south- eastern and western coasts, with a departure from it landwards and in the north. Of some fishing tribes, Mr. Curr says| that they have very frizzy hair. Mr. A. W. Howitt, speaking of Coopei-'s Creek blacks, says § " the aborigines do not differ much in appearance from the coast blacks, but their hair is straighter, and I think they are slighter in build ; the curly hair so often seen on the Darling and Murray and elsewhere is not common." Mr. Curr quotes Mr. Paul Foelsche as saying, respecting the blacks of Northern Australia: "The majority of the men are * Dr. Lesson, " Les Polynesiens," Paris, 1880, vol. i. p. 104. t "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 262. X " The Australian Kace," vol. i. p. 39. § Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol, ii. \\ 301, 14 EAGI.KITAWK AM) ("ROW well built, but the skin is smooth and the stray covering of hair all over the body, so often met with in the south, is almost absent on the north coast .... the growth of hair on the face is very scanty."* As the character of the present Australian's hair is usuallv wavy, often curly and sometimes woolly, and as there is a special tendency to waviness towards the seaboard on the east, south and west, these considerations encourage rather than forbid the belief that the origin of the Australians was as here maintained. I shall now conclude the argument from physiology by adducing the evidence which may be called nasal, and which, as might naturally be expected, is by no means microscopicaL A feature common to the Papuans, Australians, and Tasmanians is a hooked nose. ^fr. Wallace, who has studied carefully the ]'apuan and the Malay races, saysf "the most universal character of the Papuan race is to- have the nose prominent and large with the apex produced downwards." According to ;Mr. Jardine's description of the true aboriginal features cited above, the nose is that of the Papuans. The Rev. W. Eidley speaks of having met with the Jewish nose among the Australian blacks. The fact is so obvious to any one who has seen many of the natives, as not to require to be pointed out, much less supported by quotations. And Mr. Backhouse observed $ among the Tasnianian captives in Flinders Island, one especially whose features had a Jewish cast, and reminded him of the popular picture of Abraham. So that, besides the resemblances already noted, the Australians and Tasmanians are related by the family likeness of the Jewish PajDuan nose. THE ARGUMENT FROM MYTHOLOGY AND TRADITION. Some myths have been collected, chiefly in Victoria, which at first appear to be wild nonsensical fancies, but which are capable of a beautiful and rational interpretation, and receive a special value when light is thrown upon them by the theory of pre-occupation of the country by a distinct race. While on this point it will be necessary for me to quote freely from Mr. Smyth's " Aborigines of Victoria," vol. iii., beginning at p. 423. * Mr. Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 248. t "The Malaj Archipelago," p. 590. X We.st's " History of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 78. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTllALLV PAPUAN 15 The aborigines of the northern parts of A'ictoria believe that the beings who created all things had severally the form of the crow and the eagle. There had been constant warfare between these two beings, but peace was made at length. They agreed that the Murray blacks should be divided into two classes, the Mokwarra (spelt variously) or Eaglehawk, and the Kilparra or Crow. The conflict had been maintained with o-reat vigfour for a length of time, the crow taking every advantage of his nobler foe, but the latter generally had ample revenge. Out of their enmities and final agreement arose the two classes as has been said, and thence a law regulating marriages between these classes. The Melbourne blacks say that Pundjel made of clay two males. He took stringy bark from the tree, made hair of it, and placed it on their heads, on one straight hair and on the other curled hair. The man with the straight hair he called Ber-rook Boorn, the man with the curled hair Koo-kiu Ber- rook. There is also a myth about Bundjel (or Pundjel), the first man, and Karween (the second man), whom Bundjel made. They quarrelled about wives, but Karween spoke to Waung the Crow and asked him to make a corroboree. And many crows came and they made a great light in the air and they sang. And then there was a fight with spears between Bundjel and Karween, the former being victor. The following legend was current on the Murray. Before the earth was inhabited by the present existing race of black men, birds had possession of it. These birds had as much intelligence and wisdom as the blacks, nay, some say that they were altogether wiser and more skilful. The eaglehawk seems to have been the chief among the birds, and next to him in authority was the crow. The progenitors of the existing tribes, whether birds, or beasts, or men, were set in the sky and made to shine as stars if the deeds they had done were mighty. The eagle is now the planet Mars, and justly so, because he was much given to fighting ; the crow is also a star. The Murray blacks have it that the crow killed the son of the eagle. This made the eagle very angry, so he set a trap for the crow, caught him and killed him, but the crow came to life again and disappeared. 16 EAGLEHA^^K AND CROW The Gippsland blacks vary the legend by saying that the eagle left his son in charge of themopoke while he himself went hunting. The mopoke sewed the eaglet up in a bag and left him. The eagle was irate, got the mopoke enclosed in the cavity of a hollow tree, whence he was able to escape only by breaking his leg and using the bone of it to cut his way out. The eagle and the mopoke afterwards made a solemn agreement and treaty of peace, the conditions of which were as follows : the eagle should have the privilege of going up into the topmost boughs of the trees, so that he might from so great a height see better where kangaroos were feeding ; and the mopoke was to have the right of occupying holes of trees : thus ended the disputes between the eagle and the mopoke. The Rev. Geo. Taplin relates some myths of the Narrinyeri in South Australia, similar to the above.* Nurundere was the wonderful god or chief of this tribe^ When he and his followers came down the Murray they found the country around the lakes in possession of clans of blacks under Wyungare and Nepelle. The last two of these heroes were translated to heaven and became stars. There is also a legend of a fight about fish between the pelicans and the magpies, when the latter were rolled in the ashes of a fire they had made and became black. This myth, like those about birds narrated above, will bear a similar interpretation. Now what is to be made out of these myths ? Are they tales "told by an idiot and signifying nothing?" or are they confused evanescent echoes of a real past history ? I take them to be the latter. Primitive man was fond of representing war- fare carried on between beasts or birds endowed with human faculties, or between men and some of the lower animals, and men were united with beasts in all sorts of relations. A number of these relations are mentioned by Mr. McLennan,! such as the Minotaur and his parentage, Phorbas attaining the supremacy in Rhodes by freeing it of snakes, the conversion in zEgiua of the ants into men, the Myrmidons ; " and a score of suchlike facts." He asks what these relations meant, and suggests that among the Greeks there were tribes with totems — Bull, Boar, * " Native Tribes of South Australia," pp. 55-62. t "Studies in Ancient History." London: Macmillau and Co., 1S96 p. 227, note. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 17 Lion, Snake, Ant, and Dragon tribes, just as tliere are tribes named after animals among the American Indians. The prevalence of the designation of men by names of the lower animals is amply illustrated in the Old Testament scriptures. Take, for instance, the case of Jacob blessing his children,* where Judah is " a lion's whelp," Issachar " a strong ass," Dan " a sequent by the way, an adder in the path," Naphtali "a hind let loose," Benjamin "a ravening wolf." In the book of Daniel f the empires are typified by four beasts. There is also the common appellation for Egypt, "the dragon." J This ancient practice has been handed down to modern times in the heraldic bearings both of families and nations in civilised countries. The eagle has always been a choice crest, and it is scarcely matter of surprise that the king of birds, so swift and fearless, should be chosen as the emblem of a conquering people even in Australia. Standing in close relation to these myths is the division of Australian communities into two classes, represented by the eaglehawk and the crow respectively, this dual division and particular representation occurring in Victoria, and extending with modifications into New South Wales and South Australia. In central and northern Victoria the eaglehawk and the crow are the only names of the two classes. Throughout much of the watershed of the Darling and the Muri-ay, on the authority of Mr. A. W. Howitt,§ the eaglehawk is one of the primary class-names, the second name being usually the crow. In the Turra tribe in South Australia, bordering on the south-west of Victoria, the seal takes the place of the crow. Merung, eaglehaivk, and Yukembruk, crow, are the two class-names on the Upper Murray and at Maneroo, New South Wales. Bearing upon this is the tradition of the blacks on the Lower Darling, first placed on record by Mr. C. G. N. Lockhart in his annual report to the Government of New South Wales in 1852 or 1853, and cited by Mr. Curr.|| The tradition is that the first black man on the Darling had two wives, Kilparra and Mokwarra. The sons of the one married the daughters of the other, and the class-names were inherited from the mothers. At King George * Genesis, xlix. t Daniel, vii. 3. + Isaiah, li. 9. § " Kamilroi and Kurnai," p. 288. II " The Australian Race," vol. ii. p. 165. 18 i:agli:iia\\ K and cuow Sound, among a connnunity of the Meenung blacks, the white cockatoo is substituted for the eaglehawk as one of the primary- divisions, the crow being the other.* In central Victoria, Bunjil {ea;/hha,rk) was the name of a deity as well as a class-name. In Gippsland, N'ictoria. it was a title of respect applied to men. A.t the most easterly point of Australia, between the Albert and Tweed Rivers, the equivalent of "blacks" is Meebin, which also signifies t-aglehawk ; and even farther north still, the name Dippil is applied by the Rev. W. Ridley, who received it from Mr. Davies (- Darumboi"), as an equivalent for Kabi, the name of the blacks in that quarter ; and Dippil is evidently the same word as dibbil (eaglehawk) of the Brisbane River blacks. It is onlv natural to infer that these correspondences between the name of the race and that of the eaglehawk result from the fact that the dominant and predominant race was called after that bird. '^ Among the Kurnai," writes Mr. A. W. Howitt,t *' the eaglehawk is greatly reverenced ; he" is regarded as the type of the bold and sagacious hunter .... He figures in their tales in company with Ebing, the little owl. Were it not too fanciful, we might see in the quarrels of Gwanumerongaud Ebing a trace of the severance of the original community into two classes, or of a special disruption which may have impelled the Kurnai ancestry into Gippsland." AVhen the natives of one tribe or community all belong to one class, and those of another tribe belong to a different class (as in central and northern Victoria and elsewhere), surely we are justified in inteqjreting the mythical bird-warfare as referring to the classes, and therefore, necessarily, to the communities which bear the bird-names. The theory advanced here goes a step farther, identifying the two primary classes with two races ; and if it be accepted, the strife is regarded as not merely inter-tribal but inter-racial. A hatred or dread of crows is evinced in places widely separate. In a note from Mr. Shearer, speaking of the tribe living between the Culgoa and "Warrego Rivers, he says: "If they cut their hair, they are very particular about leaving it, for fear of the crows picking it up. They suppose the hair on their head would turn to grass or sticks if the crows took it. They have a great dread of crows. If they see a flock making a noise they • "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 386. t " Kamilroi and Kurnai," pp. 322-23. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 19 are sure some other tribe are going to fight them or afflict them witli some sickness." When we take a conjunct view of the myths of the eaglehawk and the crow, the widespread currency and imperishable per- sistence of one or other of these names as applied to tribes or divisions of tribes, the Darling tradition of the aboriginal with the two wives, the persisting hatred and dread of crows, is there any better explanation of the facts possible than that the eaglehawk and the crow represent two distinct races of men which once contested for the possession of Australia, the taller, more powerful and more fierce " eaglehawk " race overcoming and in places exterminating the weaker, more scantily equipped sable " crows " ? The struggle for supremacy began in the north and its last smouldering embers died out in Victoria, where traces of the once fierce fire have been left as clearly recognisable as the Victorian evidences of a former volcanic period, and a not inappropriate name, for the south-east of Australia at least, would be The Land of the Eaglehawk and THE Crow. The myths of Looern and Wiwonderrer suggest that they relate to untamable Papuans holding out for some time in the wildest parts of Victoria. Looern had his house at Wilson's Promontory. His country was that tract of heavily timbered ranges lying between the Promontory and Hoddle's Creek. Any who dared to penetrate this country without the permis- sion of Looern died a death awful to contemplate, because the torments preceding death were indescribable. The myth of Wiwonderrer is briefly stated thus :* There is a range north- east of Western Port inhabited, the natives say, by an animal resembling a human being, but with a body as hard as a stone. He used to kill many blacks. He was supported by people' of his own. The blacks would not visit this i-ange on any account. Mr. Stanbridge states that the Boorong tribe, who inhabit the Mallee country in the neighbourhood of Lake Tyrril, have preserved an account of the Nurrum-bung-utrias or old spirits, a people who formerly possessed their country and who had the knowledge of fire. This tribe imagined the star Canopus to be * Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 453. 20 EAGLKIIAWK AND CHOW the male crow, the first to bring fire from space and to give it to themselves, before which they were without it.* There is n great resemblance between the Victorian and Tasmanian legends of the origin of fire and the apotheosis of heroes. Thus, according to the Yarra blacks, Karakarook, a female, was the only one who could produce fire, and she is now the seven stars (the Pleiades presumably). There is another Victorian myth to the effect that Toordt and Trrar came from the sky to show the blacks where the crow (that hostile wicked crow) had liidden fire and returned to the sky again. Pundjel is said to have changed Toordt into Mars for his good deeds. With the foregoing may be compared the legend of the Tasmanian Oyster Bay Tribe preserved by Dr. Milligan. Two strangers are said to have appeared suddenly and to have cast fire among the Tasmauians, and, as the legend goes, '' these two are now in the clouds ; in the clear night you see them like two stars (Castor and Pollux)." The resemblance between these Victorian and Tasmanian myths, little in itself, forms yet another link in the evidence for the relationship of the two races. Mr. West observes f that a New Holland woman taken to Flinders remembered a tradition that her ancestors had driven out the original inhabitants, the fathers, it is conjectured, of the Tasmanians ; but as the navigator could hardly be able to inter- change ideas on such a subject with a native at that time, even with all the resources at his command, the story is of very little weight. Against my interpretation of these bird-myths it may be urged with great show of reason that the most they can suggest in the way of ancient warfare is a feud between two clans having bird-totems, and that in the Australian communities there are always in the one tribe two classes at least, a circumstance favouring the presumption that a duality of classes existed among the race from which the aborigines are sprung for ages before Australia became their home. But my theory is strongly corroborated by the system of classes which prevailed generally in Victoria and in the adjoining ])art of South Australia south of the Murray. Here (in Gipps- • Mr. R. Biough Smyth's *' The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 460. t " Histoiy of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 77. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 21 land) there was the peculiarity of sex-totems, the ongiu of which would be explicable upon the supposition of wives retaining the name of the totem of their kin, their tribe or race being different from that of their husbands. Here there was also the somewhat rare system of local or tribal totems with corresponding classes. All the native-born in the tribe or locality took the name of the father's class, say, Eaglchaivlc ; the tribe was exogamous, wives being taken from, say, a Croiu community, in which the same princi]3le was acted on, the class-names being transposed. The Narrinyeri, south of the mouth of the jNIurray, had eighteen such communities, each having its own totem and forming an exogamous class, the children taking the father's class-name, and thus perpetuating the territorial totem and class. Such a system is quite consistent with a racial dual division characterised by the names Eaglchaivk and Crow — in fact, points to it. And the more complicated systems of Queensland, with four clans and two phratries, can be explained as arising from the simpler Victorian usage. The Queensland east coast systems may be represented briefly thus : Phratryl. | ^^^^ ^- Phratry 11. ( S""'' 5' •^ i Class B. ^ [ Class Y. The identity of the phratries is still marked in some places by distinct names. A and B do not intermarry, nor do X and Y. B marries X, the children are Y, and so on through all the possible combinations. This gives a succession through females of XY XY ad infinitum, and on the other side of AB AB cor- respondingly. Suppose that each phratry represents a fusion of two communities. In one phratry there were the clans A and B, and if Victoria, as being the most primitive in language and most closely related to Tasmania, indicates the early type of community generally, the A and B classes or clans were each tribal or territorial. A had one territory, B another ; they cross- married ; the descent, regarded through males, would run A' A" A" and B' B" W, but through females, AB AB AB. The same order would prevail in phratry II. with X and Y classes. Then, if two compound communities, having lived apart from one another for many years, were to meet and become gradually fused, and if the clan-names of the women were to determine the style of nomenclature of the offspring, there would result 22 EAGLEIIAAVK AND CKOW exactly the system found along the Queensland coast from Jirisbaue to Mackay. Amongst the Kabi, in the south of Queensland, a member of a clan of one phratry could many into either clan of the other phratry. Hence the Queensland system is easily explicable a.s a. natural iltirlopmcnt of the Victorian, and the Victorian is not incon- sistent with the theory of the coalescence of two originally dis- tinct races recognised respectively as Eaglehaioh and Croiv, which names may have been those of their totems. The theory here propounded of the origin of the classes being simple and natural, and supported by the class-systems of the most primitive Australian inhabitants (or at least those who retain most distinct marks of the autochthonous race), is surely much more reasonable than a theory which requires the formation of classes to be due to far-seeing deliberation on the part of savages, such foresight resulting in a complicated scheme. But whether I am right or no in believing the names Eafjlc- hawh and Croiv to have designated two races, they certainly designated clans over so extensive an area that I am quite justified in adopting them as part of the title of this book. THE ARGUMENT FROM IMPLEMENTS. As compared with the implements and weapons of the continent, the paucity of these in the hands of the Tasmanians, the rudeness of the form and the inferiority of the workmanship, suggest a difference of descent in the makers. But the lower skill of the islanders may be easily accounted for by the sup- position that their progenitors had already reached Tasmania before the better-equipped race had reached Victoria, and that after the first settlement of the island, which may have been made when it was much more accessible than now, no further commimication took place with the mainland. It is hardly fair to compare the weapons of the Tasmanian with those of the Australian, and from their dissimilarity to deduce absence of racial affinity in the owners, for the isolation of the Tasma- nians reduced them to dependence for advancement on a very limited number of minds, and they may have made little or no progress after they crossed Bass Strait, whereas their kin on the THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN S'J mainland were overwhelmed by a race bringing with them superior art, which, once introduced, only faint traces of the work of the primitive inhabitants might be expected to linger on. It is futile to ask whether all the Australian implements are represented in Tasmania. If the implements of Tasmania be also found in Australia, although of improved manufacture, that should be sufficient to justify the theory propounded here in so far as the argument from such belongings has any force. The fact that certain weapons of the continental natives are absent from the island forms part of Mr. E. M. Curr's reasons for supposing that the Tasmanians were not of Australian descent, a method of reasoning which would lead inevitably to tbe con- clusion that some of the Australian tribes were not of Australian descent. For instance, neither the shield nor boomerang were known to the Tasmanians, nor were their weapons ornamented. Bufc this ignorance is exactly paralleled by a people on the mainland. In Mr. Curr's own work * we read that among the Wonunda Meening tribe of Eyre's Sand Patch, " Shields and boomerangs are unknown, and their weapons are unadorned with either carving or colouring." This tribe also resembles the Tasmanians in being without the usual message-stick. It is true that for arms the Tasmanian had only a plain spear and club, but these are universal in Australia, where the variety and more artistic make may be ascribed to the influx of a more advanced people and to the greater scope for and stimulus to invention on a territory so much more extensive and populous. The club of the Tasmanians was pointed at both ends, and the part to be grasped was roughly notched so as to afford a secure hold for the hand.f This description would apply equally well to the common club ovhuthar used by the blacks in southern Queensland, which was entirely destitute of ornament. I mention this locality particularly, because I have accurate knowledge of the fact stated, and not because the plain weapon was only in use there. Mr. Curr does not credit the Tasmanians with the ownership of a tomahawk or stone axe, as others have done. They certainly had a stone cutting implement, call it what you like, some * "The Australian Race," vol. i. pp. 395-96. t Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 400. 24 EAGLEH.WVK AM) (HOW specimens being beautifully finished, as ]\Ir. Brough Smyth testifies from inspection. It seems almost incredible, that after the lapse of so short a time we should be unable to determine for certain whether the tomahawks of the Tasmanians had handles or not. There is some strong evidence that they had. Tiius, <\y., while ^fr. (lunn says,* "The tomahawks were held in the hand, and under no circumstances, as far as I know or can loam, were they ever fixed in any handle," a Mr. Eollings, in a letter addressed to Dr. Agnew, and dated May 5, 1873, says that in his youth he was constantly in the habit of seeing the aborigines of Tasmania and of mixing with them occasionally, and he affirms that their tomahawks had handles which were fastened to them in the same way as a blacksmith fastens a rod to chisels, being always well secured with the sinews of some animal. But, even if it be conceded that „the Tasmanians used their axes without handles, the admission does not in the least invali- date the present argument as to their origin, for we find that the natives of the northern tributaries of the river Darling do not in all cases attach handles to their stone hatchets, but may use them in the same manner as the Tasmanians used their rough stone tools. f It is of more consequence to note the difference in the mode of forming the large stone tools. In Tasmania they were usually chipped to an edge, in Australia they were almost universally ground and polished. But even here exceptions in Australia indicate a former more primitive manufacture. The chipped stone tools of the Tasmanian are Palaeolithic ; the usual ground ones of the Australian are Neolithic ; but while as a rule only the one kind (Palaeolithic) is found in Tasmania, both kinds are found side by side on the mainland. The opinion commonly entertained that the Tasmanians had no stone implements ground to an edge must be erroneous. Dr. E. B. Tylor having got possession of genuine specimens thus finished. + " If, therefore," says Mr. Brough Smyth, § "all the stone implements and weapons of the Australians be examined, one set might be put Mr. R. Brongh Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," p. 403. t Ibid. vol. i. p. 55. * "Journ. Anthrop. Inst." vol. xxiv. p. 339. § "The .'Vboripines of Victoria," Introd. p. Iv. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUxVN 25 apart and classed as the equivalents of those of the Palgeolithic period of Europe, and another set as the equivalents of those of the Neolithic ; a man of one tribe will have in his belt a toma- hawk ground and highly polished over the whole of its surface, and not far distant from his country a people will use for toma- hawks stones made by striking off Hakes." I cannot refrain from quoting here the same writer's con- clusions based upon difference of arms used by the two peoples. *'The character of the weapons," he says,* "made by the natives of Tasmania, the absence of ornament, their using their clubs as missiles and throwing stones at their enemies when all their clubs were hurled . . . indicated a condition so much lower than that of the Australians, that one is not unwilling, with Dr. Latham, to seek in other lands than those from which Australia ivas ijcoplcd for their origin." It is a pity that such a conclusion should have been expressed in a book which must always remain an authority upon the Australian aborigines, because it is altogether unwarrantable, inasmuch as the various marks of inferiority which characterise the Tas- manians are found here and there on the mainland. For instance, it has been shown above that in certain parts of Australia the tomahawks are used without handles, and in other parts the shield and boomerang are unknown and the weapons unadorned. Mr. Smyth assumes that the Australians do not throw their ■cluhs, but they do. The club was the proper weapon of the Kabi tribe of Queensland (as of others, no doubt) for hunting the kangaroo, and they usually hurled it in the chase. And moreover, we are told that the natives of Cooper's Creek were in the habit of throwing stones in warfare. So that the logical conclusion to deduce from the arms of the Tasmanians is that they were of the same kind as those of the lowest of the Australians, and it is anything but illogical to infer that the autochthonous Australians once used exactly the same weapons a,nd instruments as those of the islanders, but by circumstances which affected only the continent, the arms and implements there were almost universally improved. One instrument, and a very important one, extensively used by the two nations has hitherto been overlooked as evidence of * Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 401. 26 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW their kinship— I refer to the rope for climbing trees. It is hardly a mere coincidence that this rare and most valuable device should be found on both sides of Bass Strait. The material of which the rope was made differed in different localities in both countries, but the mode of use and the skill of climbing by its aid were pretty much the same. Mr. West Bays* that by this means the Tasmanians ascended almost as quickly as with a ladder and came down more quickly. I have seen an agile black woman on the Bunya Mountains in Queens- land walk up a tall, smooth, perpendicular tree by the aid of the rope at quite a military quick-march pace. In Tasmania the rope was made of kangaroo sinews or grass twisted, and handles were attached. At Twofold Bay, in New South Wales, the material of which it is made is the fibre of some vegetable, and here the rope is also jDrovided with wooden handles.^ In some parts of Victoria it is made of -stringy bark. In the south- east of Queensland a tough vine is used, and I have even seen a very light iron-bark sapling improvised for a climbing- rope. The Tasmanians had also baskets like those of the natives of the continent, and the ovens so common in Victoria are said to be found occasionally in Tasmania.^ THE ARGUMENT FROM CUSTOMS. When we compare the customs we find a veiy marked resemblance — in fact, it may be truthfully said that such customs as are universal in Australia were all followed in Tasmania. The dwellings of the two peoples were identical. Of the Tasmanians it is said,§ " Their huts were of bark, half- circular, gathered at the top and supported by stakes." For houses they also made break-winds of boughs formed in the shape of a crescent with a fire burning in the open space in front, and near Pieman's River, on the west coast of Tasmania, " one tribe was discovered living in a village of bark huts or break-winds of a better description than usual." 1| These notices * " History of Tasmania," vol. ii. p. 86. + Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 151. * Mr. Bonwick's " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 19. g Mr. West's " History of Tasmania," p. 82. II Mr. R. Brough Smyth's "The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 389. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 27 form also a perfect description of the dwellings on the main- land. The following practices were common to both peoples : initiatory rites to manhood, enforced abstinence from certain kinds of food, remedial bleeding, the wearing as charms the bones of deceased relatives, refraining from mentioning the names of the dead, laceration of the body by women in mourning, ornamental cicatrising of the bodies of young men, exogamy, polygamy, burial in hollow trees, accumulation of skulls in cemeteries, carrying of sacred stones for the injury of foes and the benefit of friends, the obtaining possession of an enemy's hair to cause his death, knocking out one or more of the front teeth, ornamentation of the body with charcoal, red ochre, and pipeclay ; climbing trees by means of notches, and also of a climbing-rope ; submitting to the penalty of receiving strokes from a club or casts of spears as expiation of offences against the tribe, making the women beasts of burden and generally ill-treating them, hereditary feuds, sketching living objects in charcoal, the hunting of kangaroos by firing the grass and intercepting retreat. This list of remarkable practices, identical in both countries, is surely sufficiently imposing to establish of itself a very intimate connection, if remote in time. It is a matter of dispute whether the Tasmanians knew how to produce fire, but Mr. Davies states that he was informed that they obtained it by rubbing round rapidly in their hands a piece of hard pointed stick, the pointed end being inserted into a notch in another piece of dry wood.* And an ancient ex- bushranger told Mr. Bonwickt that to produce fire the natives got two pieces of grass-tree stem, the smaller piece having a hole in it. " Soft downy inner bark of trees was mixed with powdered charcoal and placed in the hole, and friction with the other stick ignited this and produced a flame." Exactly the same method was used on the mainland. Mr. Curr denies :{: that the Tasmanians practised the corro- boree, but there is abundant evidence that they did. Mr. Davies says that their chief amusement consisted in the * Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," voL ii. p. 40S. t Mr. Bonwick's "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 20. t "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 598. 2S EAGLEHAWK AM) CHOW corroborees or dances. Mr. Bouvrick writes : " The corroboree ill the Tasniaiiian woods was very similar to that of the Australians, being chielly by moonlight, though by no means confined to that season. A great corroboree took place at the full moon of November each year."* And Mr. Hill's more precise description of their singing and dances is well worth noting. "They sang," he says, "all joining in concert, and with the sweetest harmony. They began, say in D or E, but swelling sweetly from note to note, and so gradually that it was a mere continuation of harmony; their dances are a mere wrigfrling motion of the hips and loins, obscene in the extreme." This description would apply exactly to some of the Australian corroborees, and the abominable motions in dancing are also precisely like what is common in Australia, and, so far as I have heard, without parallel elsewhere. Another example of the invalidity of reasoning from the absence of certain practices in Tasmania that were found on the mainland is the following from Mr. Curr's in many respects most excellent work : " The Tasmanians," he says,t "■ neither skinned nor disembowelled animals before cooking, but laid them whole on the fire." In the same work we are toldif that the Muliarra tribe in Western Australia place the animal to be roasted on the fire whole, and take out the entrails when it has been partly cooked. He continues : " Fire was not made by friction of wood nor cannibalism nor circumcision practised." First-rate testimony has already been adduced to the knowledge possessed by the Tasmanians of producing fire by friction. If we afllrm that they were not cannibals, we must base our opinion upon our ignorance rather than our knowledge ; but even if they were not, we find in this respect a likeness between them and certain Australian communities, as, for instance, a very low tribe at Eucla, in South Australia, among whom cannibalism was unknown. § The same statement holds good in respect of Australian tribes widely distant from this one, such as the tribe at the junction of the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee,|| and the Murraworry tribe between the Warrego and Culgoa Rivers.H That circumcision was not * Mr. Bonwick's " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 38. t " The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 598. * Ihiil. vol. i. p. 376. § Jbid. vol. i. p. 402. II My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy. H My informant is Mr. William Shearer. THE INDIGENES OF xVUSTRALIcV PAPFAN 29 obsei'ved in Tasmania is of no consequence to prove different derivation of peoples, for if it did, the argument would recoil on Mr.Curr by proving too much. It would split up the inhabitants of Australia into two races distinct in origin, for the observance of circumcision in Australia is limited to the people of a broad central belt crossing from north to south. Farther on in this memoir the partial distribution of circumcision in Australia will be accounted for adequately. It is very clear, therefore, that the inferences based upon alleged dissimilarity of customs are of little or no weight, and especially when the numerous and striking points of similarity are taken into account. We may, however, with" perfect fairness conclude that such peculiar prac- tices as are common to the two nations have been inherited from the primitive Papuan Australians. THE ARGUMENT FROM LANGUAGE. The last, and perhaps the most important, class of evidence attesting the community of origin of the Tasmanian and, at any rate, one element of the mainland race, is that offered by their language. Upon careful inspection the Australian and Tasmanian languages will be found to exhibit unmistakable resemblances not alone in phonology and structure but also in a considerable number of vocables. When one who has been accustomed to the dialects of southern Queensland and New South Wales begins to study those of Victoria, he cannot help being struck with some entirely new features distinguishing the last named. The Kamilroi, W^iradhuri, and allied dialects are singularly fluent and melodious and free from harsh sounds. The initial and final letters are very limited, and certain combinations of consonants are avoided. For instance, in these northern tongues no local word begins with ' 1,' only one or two words with * r,' and only an odd one, if any, ends with ' k ' ; whereas all over Victoria, and extending along the Murrumbidgee into New South "\\'ales, a good many words begin with ' r,' and the initial * 1 ' and final ' k ' are quite common. This is a most conspicuous difference, which as you travel southward is met first about the Reed Beds on the Lachlan a little above its junction with the Murrumbidgee. If a geologist, in tracing a bed of limestone, finds it suddenly trans- formed into marble, he is sure that metamorphic fires have been 30 KA(iLi:iIAWK AND (ROW at work; and just as ivasouably does the philologist conclude the former interference of a powerful disturbing cause when he finds at a particular line a sudden change in the genius of a language. The proximate cause of the difference just noted appears to be a more decided residual Papuan element in Victorian speech than in the dialects farther north. Of the latter, let the Kabi dialect of Queensland, spoken in the Bunya Mountains, stand as a special example. It has no word beginning either with ' 1 ' or ' r.' Its terminal letters are limited to ' 1/ ' m,' ' n ' • r,' ' n"-,' and vowels. In general it may be said that such combinations as ' bl,' * br,' 'gr,' common enough in Victoria, are of very rare occurrence in the north. An examination of the scanty remains of the Tasmanian speech shows that it is charac- terised by initial ' 1,' initial ' r,' and final ' k ' ; ' kl,' ' pi,' and ' bl,' ' kr,' and * dr,' ' rt,' and ' rk,' are common Tasmanian unions and not infrequent in A'ictoria, while they are of comparatively rare occurrence in other parts of the continent. Where, save in Victoria, would such forms be found as ' grangurk,' a hill ; ' ngumduk,' tcdh; ' kroombook,' breasts; 'kraigkrook,' mosquito ? with which compare Tasmanian ' crougana,' aloft ; ' krangboo- rack.' ripr ; ' neoongyack,' rarjc ; ' crackaneeack,' ill. In fact, it is obvious beyond any question that, while we discover positive Papuan (Tasmanian) lingual traces in most parts of Australia, with slight exceptions they are more distinct on the coast than inland, more strongly marked on the west coast than on the east (north of Victoria), still more numerous on and near the north coast, and they are most abundant and most conspicuous in ^'ictoria, proving without a doubt that the Victorian dialects inherit a powerful base of the primitive Papuan or Tasmanian language, and leading to the conclusion that the Tasmanian speech crossed over from Victoria. The most remarkable negative features of both the Australian and Tasmanian tongues are the absence of sibilants and of the decided palatal ' ch ' and soft ' g.' The fact is not overlooked that some writers have introduced an occasional ' s ' or ' z ' into Australian orthography, as others have into Tasmanian, but the rarity of these in both cases is so exti'eme as to be phenomenal, and sometimes rather attributable to the ear of the hearer than to the tongue of the speaker. I am aware that many spell Australian words with ' ch ' and English ' j ' or soft ' g,' but the THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALIA PAPUAN 31 sounds thus represented would, it seems to me, be more perfectly written as 'ty ' or 'dy,' the ' y ' having its consonantal English value. Thus, instead of ' cha,' it would be more like the native pronunciation to write ' tya,' alternative mocles often met with, and instead of ' polaich ' or ' polaitch,' it would be more accurate to write ' polaity,' the * t ' and ' y' coalescing. Indeed, the Adelaide 'parlaitye,' tioo, corresponds to Victorian 'polaitch.' The only sound in the Tasmanian speech which with any show of reason can be said to be wanting in the Australian is the guttural 'ch,' to which Mr. Curr adds the French ' u.' As these are the only two sounds adduced by Mr. Curr as indicating dissimilarity of phonology and forming part of the evidence of alienation of blood, it may be observed in reply that the French ' u ' to most English ears varies with the ear, and that among the Australian aborigines there are j^eculiar modes of enunciating certain obscure sounds which have never been represented on paper. I have heard in Queensland a terminal combination of ' iu,' which some would call a French 'u.' But so subtle a variation in the pronunciation of a vowel might only be provincial, just as in some parts of the Lowlands of Scotland the French ' u ' is found and not in other parts, although the people throughout are of the very same stock and speak the same language. The argument based on the absence of this sound in Australia is completely nullified by the statement of Mr. Schiirmann* that " the ahorigiiial language requires sounds like the French * u ' or German ' ii.' " An opinion evidently shared by another German, a member of the Roman Catholic Mission at Port Darwin, who has favoured me with a vocabulary of the Larrikeeya tribe, in which he employs the German vowels ' o ' and ' ii.' The guttural * ch ' is certainly very rare iu Aus- tralia, but singularly (perhaps I should say naturally) enough we are told that it is used in Victoria and on the south-east border of South Australia. On the Upper Richardson ' h,' a closely related guttural, was sounded t clearly and sharply lilce ' r.' Mr. Hartmann says of the Victorians that the ' h ' of the third person plural scarcely expresses the sound it is meant to express, the ' ch ' should be pronounced as the German ' ch ' in ich, mich, sich ; and the Rev. Geo. Taplin says that * h ' was * " Parnkalla Vocabulary," p. 2. t Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," %'o]. ii. p. 3. 32 KACiLKIIAWK AND CUOW gomulfd clearly and sharply among the Narrinyeri on the Murray River Iwrdering on \'ictoria. Unfortunately for a comparison of syntax and general struc- ture, no Tasinauian grammar was ever compiled, so that we can only base inductions upon the few brief dialogues and meagre vocabularies that liave been preserved. However, from these we glean the following points of resemblance to Australian syntax, ideology, and word structure. The Tasmanians modified by post -positions, the usual, though not the universally invariable, Australian manner. The Tasmanian dialects expressed neither gender nor number by iufiection or agglutination, a remark which is generally true of the Australian dialects. The Tasmanian numerals were limited to one, two, three, four and five in the most copious dialects; the terms of the mainland were often enough limited to one and two. By which is not implied that the particular tribes could count no higher than the number of their highest numerical term, but that numbers above that term were expressed by combinations of the lower terms. Among the Tasmanians some tribes had numerals for one and two only, in which case the numerical system must necessarily have been binary, but others had distinct terms up to five inclusive. One form, however, which is given as the equivalent of five, seems to be a repetition of the term for one along with the term iov fovr ; this is the view which Dr. F. M tiller takes of 'puggana marah,' and which I am disposed to take, but it is not affirmable absolutely. The Tasmanians had such expressions as legs-long for tall, and they characterised certain affections, whether of the body or mind — e.g., fear, hunger, fondness, &c., by names which indi- cated their effect upon the stomach or the eyes : features also of Australian speech. Another character common to both languages is the evident relationship of the terms form^, stomach, excrement, and groii'iitl, the names for which appear below. It is common in Australian dialects to find the same w'ord applied to head and hill ; it seems to me that there was in one or two Tasmanian dialects the same idiom. The Tasmanians used diminutives, as for instance, ' pugga,' a man, ' puggetta,' a child. We are told by Mr. Curr* that diminutives were very commop in the dialect • Mr. Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 569. THE INDIGENES OF AUSTRALEV PAPUAN Sii of the Jjangeraug (Victorian) tribe.* Reduplication was a feature of both languages, though more general in the Aus- tralian, perhaps owing to its occurrence in Malay as well as Papuan speech. In both Australian and Tasmanian it was sometimes used to form the intensive mood, like the Heb. ' q^taltal ' or p'^'al'al ' ; cf. Tasmanian ' telbeteleebea,' to cat heart Hi/, from 'tughlee,' to cat, and Australian (Kabi, Queensland) ' yeleliman,' to speak qvAckly, from ' yeli,' to sliov.t ; from ' ya,' to speak. There is a feature of Victorian dialects which should not pass unnoticed : in several of them the first and second personal pronouns depart from the usual Australian (Dravidian) ' nan- nin ' type, a circumstance which supjDorts the presumption of a strong disturbing element having been at work in Victoria. When we come to compare particular vocables, we find certain ancient forms cropping up in places very widely apart in Aus- tralia, a few fossils of an older stratum continuing in one more recent. The prototype of the modern Tasmanian is undoubtedly the stratum of which they are surviving represen]fcatives. While we may pick up one specimen here and another there all over the continent, just as in the case of other features we have noted, by far the largest number of words which are identical with Tasmanian forms or incontestable variants of them are to be found in Victorian dialects. In the following comparisons the English word is usually the exact equivalent of the Papuan, but sometimes it is the general idea, at other times the etymological idea of the root, in which cases the particular meanings of the Papuan (Australian and Tasmanian) words are expressed. These analogies show how remarkably the old language protrudes through the modern Australian, like the primary rocks in mountain regions, piercing through the aqueous formations. The first table exhibits Tasmanian words, which are widely diffused in Australia, some of them appearing in places at great distances apart, and being unknown in the intervening space. * I find that the Australian dialect most like Tasmanian in terminations is that spoken about the junction of the Darling and the Murray. The verbal terminations are in this case practically identical. 34 EAGLEIIAWK AND CROW TABLE I. English. Tasmaniax. Australian. ruitnd or flirt fi Errremetit Foot Eat. Mouth Fire you 1 gunta, gonta, coantana (This may correspond to the Australian gunna or giidnn, the common word for excrement) tiamena, tiannah, tyaner pere* tuwie, dodani, tuggana, tegurner kakanninah, kaneina, canina, canea nne, wighena, winnaleah, weenah, wood neener, neena nguntha (De Grey River) ; kun- tha, mokkera (Murray and Darling Junction) ; mukkara (Tor- rowotto Lake) ; muckaria and mugair (Lachlan and Murrumbidgee Junction) ; moogabaa (Alice River) ; mookorar (Port Jlacquarie); maicheri (Piangil); mittuk (Lake Boga, Victoria). All these Australian words are terms for rain, but their identity with the Tasmanian analogues is perfect, and terms for rain and water respectively are often inter- changed among Australian dialects. birri, man^s breasts (Kamilroi Dialects) ; birring (Heales- ville,Vict.); brim brim (Mor- diyallock,Vic.) ; birrin (War- ren, N.S.W.) ; beergin (For- bes and the Levels, N.S.W). J36 EAGLKHAWK AM) C'KOW TABLE I. — continued. ENeople, who have certainly carried hither sure tokens of Hindoo mythological influence, as will be demonstrated when Art and Religion are dealt with. CHAPTER IV THE MALAY ELEMENT The Malay element — Malay activity — Physical appearance — Rev. J. L. Threlkeld on dissimilarity of language — Lingual analogies — Circum- cision and fnessage-stick of Malay introduction — Recapitulation. Universal and strong though it be, the so-called Dravidian influence is insufficient to account for the great divergence of the Australians from the pure Papuans in physical features and in language. Another cause must be posited, and is to be found in the Malay element. Since British colonisation the Malays are known to have frequented the north and north-west coasts. Mr. Curr is of opinion that their visits are only of recent date, and quotes in support the statement of a Malay named Pobassoo, whom Flinders met at the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1803. He professed to have been one of the first of his countrymen to visit Australia.* The historical knowledge of the Malay would not penetrate many centuries backward, and moreover, his evidence is overborne by the physique of the people, in the north especially but elsewhere as well, by the naturalisation of a number of important Malay words, such as the term for tcetk, a change which mere visitors could not effect ; and further, by faces of the Malay type and pure Malay words appeariug in localities far removed from casual intercourse, as for instance, in the extreme east and west. There are several old camps of Malay Mche-de-mer fishers on the north-west coast. I am informed by Mr. Bradshaw that at one of these, on a small island near Osborn Island, Captain Hilliard saw some old tama- rind-trees, introduced presumably by the Malays, and the age of the oldest tree was apparently some two hundred years. As in the case of most other races, there would have been — * Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. i. p. 271, note. .->« KAGLKHAAVK AND CROW indeed has been with tlie :Malays— a time of special activity and expansion. Coming then to Australia, they would be unable to enter into commercial relations with its poverty-stricken, nomadic, naked people, and those who did not return to their own land would simply settle down to a life of indolence and sensuality and melt like snowflakes in a sea of human life. But a shipload of Malays attaching itself to an Australian community would not be absorbed without leaving some traces of its presence. If the Malays, arriving in Australia even in twos and threes, did not set themselves deliberately to teach and elevate the ])eople, but sank to the same savage level, they could not possibly disappear with their unconscious influence absolutely obliterated. This influence is especially noticeable in the pliysique of the people in the north. They are more slender than the rest of the Australians, have less hair on the body, and their skin is fairer. Sir George Grey, in one of his journeys, saw three men of a fair race resembling Malays, and some of his party saw a fourth.* This was near the cave where he discovered some paintings of clothed people. These four men might, no doubt, be the posterity of one or two castaways. But even in the south of Queensland I have seen several faces distinctly of the Malay type, with the nose snubby and rather small and the skin of a dark copper colour. Occasional instances of sullenness and taciturnity among the Australians are probably the result of Malay ancestry. The admixture of Malay blood goes far to account for the difficulty, that a race such as the Australian with a Papuan basis should have the hair straight or wavy and not woolly. One even cross of a woolly-haired with a straight-haired race would hardly have transmitted such straightness of hair to posterity, but if after a first cross the fresh invasions, though only in scant filtrations, were of straight-haired people, the effect of the mingling of two straight-haired races with one whose hair was woolly would surely be to make the spirals uncurl. Mr. Threlkeld, whose accpiaintance with a New South Wales diah'ct seems to have been very thorough, denies f that the Australian language has any close affinity with the Malay either • Greyji "North-west and Western Australia," vol. i. p. 254. t "Key to the Structure of the Aboriginal Languages," p. 82. THE MALAY ELEMENT 57 in words or construction. This is a somewliat vatrue statement, in reply to which it can be said that, although the traces of Malay influence on Australian language are not numerous, they are unmistakable, and are observable at widely distant places. Duplication is met with in the Tasmanian, and may have been inherited in Australia from the primitive Papuan ; it is not improbable, however, that its excessive use on the continent is due to the Malay, which reduplicates to form the plural. Often existing side by side with the form ' ngai,' a very prevalent alternative term for the first personal pronoun is ' adhu ' or * atoo,' which may perhaps be the equivalent of the Malay 'aku.' JJut I prefer to regard 'adhu' as an inflexion of ' ngai,' designating the subject when an agent. In the extreme north-west, where Malay words might be most naturally expected, very few are distinguishable. Mr. Curr has noted ' unbirregee ' at Port Uarwin and ' engeegee ' in the Coburg Peninsula as the analogues of Malay ' gigi,' meaning tccih. It is rather at unexpected places that Malay words turn up, indicating either that the Malay inroad, if made at the north, took place in long past ages, or that now and again parties of Malays, either from choice or necessity, landed and became naturalised at various spots on the east, north, and west, and modified the sjDeech of the people first immediately round them and then landwards. There are throughout Australia, in the main, two types of terms for father — a ' bapa ' type and a ' mama ' type. As there are similar words for mother, it might at first be conjectured that the terms for father and mother had become loosely transposed. I once thought so, but from the localities in which a particular type of term for father occurs, and from the occurrence of certain words in conjunction with the different typical • father ' terms, I have come to regard the ' bapa ' type of terms as a mark of Malay descent, and the 'mama' type as equally evidential of great predominance of I'apuan blood. Thus, for example, speaking generally, the dialects of \'ictoria * and West * In the chapter on Language it will be seen that Rev. Dr. D. Mac- donald ("The Asiatic Origin of the Oceanic Languages") regards a word •mamjt'as the vocative of 'abab* futhtr in Efatese. It is scarcely credible that the corresponding Australian forms are thus related. They do not occur together. The Maar people who have wedged tliemselvcs in amongst 58 EAGLEllAWK AM) CROW Australia, which are amoug the most pronouncedly Papuan, are characterised by the ' mama ' form ; along the coast of New South Wales and the eastern coast of Queensland, and for some consideraMe distance inland, localities which, as I shall show, possess unquestionable ^lalay words, the 'bapa' type of terms prevails ; whereas in Central Australia there is great variety of terms interspersed with ' bapa ' forms, but without a certain recognisable third type, unless it be the 'nunchun,' which is very probably primitive Papuan. The Dravidian word would approximate closely to the Malay, and it would, therefore, be impossible to say with exactitude that a particular ' bapa ' term was Malay and not Dravidian, but the closeness of likeness to the original Malay, and the • concurrence of other words certainly ^lalay, will raise a presumption in favour of a Malay lineage. According to Marsden, the Malay 'mana' is properly the adverb where, but is used idiomatically to signify v:lio, whom, which, u-hat. In many Australian words used interrogatively ' min ' is a radical syllable. It might, indeed, be said that ' mina ' or • minya ' is an interrogative stem. In the Kabi (Queensland) dialect, for instance, we find ' minyanggai,' ichat ; • minyama,* hov: many; 'mmysLnggo,' hoiv; ' minani,' uVty. In the Kamilroi, according to the Rev. W. Ridley, 'minya' signifies v:hat, and ' minyunggai,' hoiv many. At Barraba, ' menari ' is Kamilroi for v:hcrc ; at Port Macquarie ' minar' stood for both u'liat and u-Jtcrc. The Murra-worry tribe, between the Warrego and Culgoa Rivers, employed the word ' minyan ' to mean -what, and ' minyangor ' to mean ivhy. Even to the north-east of Lake Torrens, in South Australia, this class of interrogative is found. This Australian word may be cognate with Semitic 'mi,' ' mah,' Heb. ' man,' Syr. 'ma,' Arab. In no parts is the Malay type of term for father so general and so stereotyped as in conjunction with the etymon 'min' in interrogatives. But strangest of all is the occurrence of the word ' tungan ' (spelt also 'tongan' and 'tungun'), hand, which is evidently the Malay • taugan.' h"iid, also in the extreme east, and there alone in Australia. This most interesting fossil is found on the basins the Knli in the Western District, Victoria, preserve the 'bapa' type of New South Wales, while the Kuli use the 'mama.' The difference is one of the distinguishing marks of their respective dialects. THE MALAY ELEMENT 59 of the Nerang Creek and the Tweed and Richmond Rivers, at the extreme easterly point of the continent, and reminds one of some great boulder carried by an iceberg from a high latitude thousands of miles from its parent rock and deposited when the iceberg has been overset or dissolved. There is yet another not much less astonishing relic of Malay speech near the same quarter, and nowhere else so distinctly' — viz., the word for Itmd, which in Malay is ' kapala.' In New England the analogue is * kopul,' on the Hunter River it is ' gaberong,' at Sydney it was ' kabura,' on the Castlereagh it is 'ballang,' on the Bogan 'bula'; and surely a better example of a contiguous group of terms, derived unconsciously from ' kapala,' could not possibly be given. The Malay word is the model of which the others are imperfect copies ; it is the bull's- eye fired at, the others are the spots hit, some on one side of the centre, some on the other. The word for shin is also probably Malay, in which language the equivalent is 'kulit'; while in the east and south of New South Wales the term used is some such form as 'yulin,' ' ulan,' ' yoolak.' It might be assumed that two or three Malays were handed as human curiosities from tribe to tribe and found a last asylum near Point Danger, but the con- currence of five such indisputable glossarial vestiges suggests rather that there was a strong infusion of Malay blood added to the Kamih'oi and allied tribes. A track across the centre of Australia from the Gulf of Carpentaria southward is marked by a few Malay words of which the following are examples : ' kako ' (Hamilton River) elder sister, ' kahkooja ' (Darling River), elder hrother, * kaku ' (Evelyn Creek), elder brother, corresponding to Malay 'kaku' elder brotheror elder sister ; ' Kutchiloo,' ' kichalko,' &c. (TDarling River), smedl, - is ' tulang.' and for Ikv'sc ' rumah.' Equiva- lents about Halifax Bay and neighbourhood are ' toola,' hone and irood (Western River) ; ' toa,' ' tulkill,' ' tolkul,' mean hone, and all over that part of the country the word for wood takes such forms as * tula.' ' toolani/ ' tular.' It should be noted that the Australian dialects frequently apply one and the same desig- nation to hone and voud The Australian words corresponding to ' rumah ' occur at Halifax 13ay, where ' ringo ' and ' rongo ' are used in the sense of w?np. I would not adduce this as an analog}' but for the preservation of the initial ' r,' a com- paratively rare initial in Australia, and an anomaly in this particular spot. On the Cloncurry River emptying into the Gulf of Caqientaria the word ' waramboo,' — spelt also 'ooramboo' — is probably a corruption of Malay ' rambut,' both meaning hair. At the same place, and only there, the term for sun is ' mun- tharra,' which comes very close to the Malay ' mata-ari,' and not very far distant — at Burke Town — the Malay ' bulan,' moon, has been the parent of ' ballanichi,' the word now in use for moon. The general term in AVest Australia for ear is ' twink ' or * dwonk,' which is most probably the Australian form of Malay ' duwan,' also meaning ear. Besides these outstanding examples of INlalay influence on the language, occurring at places so far separated, others might be instanced, the origin of which is less clear but probably Malay, and no doubt future research will disentangle many more words similarly derived. There is proof positive that the best cave paintings have been executed by people of Malay blood from the island of Sumatra, a strong presumption also that the rite of cir- cumcision was derived from the same people and place, and I am disposed to think that the Australian message-stick is a childish imitation of ]\Ialay writing upon bamboo and rattan cane as practised in Sumatra. These views will be stated THE MALAY ELEMENT 61 at length aud supported in the proper place, and if they be well founded the extensive prevalence of the practices referred to attests how powerful the ]\[alay influence has been. Before proceeding to a new department of inquiry, it will be well to recapitulate the view of the origin of the Australian race taken by the writer. Australia is first contemplated as occupied by a Papuan people, probably both sparsely and un- evenly distributed. It is not affirmed that they were purely Papuan ; the Negrito and the Melanesian may both have been represented and fused together, but for want of sufficient evi- dence this point is undetermined. Whence they set out and the route by which they came to Australia cannot be discovered ; but, taking it for granted that the cradle of the human race was in Asia, whence all the nations have radiated like successive swarms from a parent hive, then the indigenes of Australia would most naturally come from the north and by way of New Guinea. The lineal descendants of the original Australian natives were the now extinct Tasmanians, who crossed from Victoria perhaps on dry laud. Their migration from Mctoria is held to be fairly established by the manifold forms of evidence already cited. Australia is next regarded as invaded by a more advanced, straight-haired race which arrived at a very early period of the world's history, entered by Cape York Peninsula, and poured into central Australia with a general south-westerly current. Partly driving forward, partly cleaving, partly darken- ing itself by the tide of life upon which it presses, this stream inundates the whole country, but not to an equal depth. Finally, another invasion takes place, also from the north. fir"sFwith some degree of continuity, and then intermittently. This straggling stream winds about here and there, touches the shore at various places, and recoils back inwards. Indeed, this last influx may have come by several little rills, entering at places widely apart, and gradually losing themselves in the life-lake, as Austral rivers, exhausted by percolation and evapo- ration, disappear in the central plains. Australia is thus like a great lake which has been first filled by water of a particular tinge, and into which a clearer stream flows, crossing the lake, remaining purest in the course of its main current, then eddying hither and thither, and leaving the original water least altered 62 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW in the bays arouud the margin. After receiving additions of water of yet another hue from numerous little surface rills at different points, the places of ingress are closed, the water stagnates, and the problem is to distinguish the different con- stituents in the lake's contents, assigning to each its place and relative proportion. Upon the Papuan aborigines the Dravidian influx made a deep and general impression ; the influence of the final arrivals, the Malays, was slighter and more partial. The first tenure by the Papuans, and their subsecpient dispersion and dispossession, t|aalified by partial absorption, are shown by the relation of the ^'ictorians to the Tasmanians, and also by the fact that a more particularly I'apuan people fringes the coast, especially on the north, south-east and west. For example, there is an element in the Victorian tongue which is much more akin to the lan- guage of the people of the extreme west of Australia than to intermediate dialects. The following words are illustrative of this agreement : — English. Victorian. Western Australian. Father maam, mama marm, mam, mama. (hie. kaiap kain. Ear wirn, wing, wiring weening. Sua . nowingi, ngwingi, ngawi nanga, nganga, nonga. Wife layarook, leurook yokka, yawk, york. Walk yanna, yan, yungan (this word is common in east, south, and west of Australia, but not in centre) yenna, yangwa. Opossum . wolangi, wilang, wille, woUert wallambine, wolumber- ree (occurs towards the north). Besides agreement in particular vocables, there is a strong likeness in phonology. Then further, the word ' lar,' signifying tooth, is found in Victoria ; and we have to cross the continent to the Gulf of Carpentaria before the same type with initial ' 1 ' presents itself again, which it does at Caledon Bay in the word ' lerra.' Several words in ' 1 ' may be taken as a class which serve to link together people in the extreme north who have been disparted by a wedge of linguistic influence forced in between. By this, as well as by Papuan physical characters being more pronounced on the coast, is the Papuan coast-fringe THE MALAY ELE:MENT 63 attested. The peopling of Australia, in so far as the succession and distribution or commingling of different races is concerned, has been not very unlike the settlement of Great Britain. The Keltic element in Britain is represented by the Papuan' in Australia, the Saxon by the Dravidian, the Norman by the Malay. In both cases population has jDOured in mainly on one side, the earliest settlers gradually retiring to the farther shore. The second race takes entire possession of the centre, shedding the indigenes to either side. Wales and Cornwall might corre- spond to Victoria, the Isle of Man to Tasmania, not in relative position to the mainland, but in isolation and racial purity ; and the Highlands of Scotland would represent Western Australia. In each case from the first two races the bulk of the people is sprung and the vocabulary and grammar are inherited, while the third race, sprinkled here and there over the land, has left the slightest lingual traces of its presence. CHAPTER V DISTRIBUTION Distribution of the population— Mr. E. J. Eyre's theory— The three divisions and their characteristics— The Tasmanians and the first of their successors ignorant of circumcision— Its prevalence in Australia reveals nothing about origin— Tribal nomenclature— Migration from the north-east— Linguistic evidence— Names of emu traceable to north-east— Words find explanation there— Numerals traced to north-east— Some traced to New Guinea — Words for man similarly traced — Two currents of language cross each other in east central part of continent — Double line of advance from north to south in extreme east— Besides Papuan and Malay, a residual race to account for— Summary of evidence on distribution — Table tracing words from south-west to north-east. Having outlined the relationship between the different races who have settled in Australia, and indicated approximately where they first reached the continent, I shall now offer some observations upon the distribution of the population. Mr. E. J. Eyre propounded the theory that the aborigines reached Aus- tralia on the north-west coast, and settled it by spreading in three main streams — one by the west coast, another by the north and east coasts, a third crossing the centre southwards — and all three meeting again at the southern coast. This theory is adopted by the writer of the article on Australia in the " Encyclopaedia Britaunica " ; it is also accepted, elaborated and strongly confirmed in Mr. E. M. Curr's work. I once enter- tained this view, but have been compelled to abandon it. I accei)t the evidence but reject the conclusion. A theory so deep-rooted and widely current, plausible and yet erroneous, demands strict examination, and if false, careful refutation. That the progress of settlement was from the north southward, and not vin- nrsti, is incontestable. That there are strongly marked differences distinguishing what Mr. Curr calls the Eastern, Western and Central Divisions may also be admitted. DISTRIBUTION 65 Yet these premises do not lead to Eyre's theory of settlement. Mr. Curr's reasoning is vitiated at the start by his unwarrantable assumption that the Australian race is homogeneous. Had he believed that the Tasmanians were the first occupants of the continent, he would have had a powerful factor to account for differentiations, which cannot well be accounted for when the existence of an autochthonous basal race is ignored. The outstanding characteristics of the three assumed divi- sions or streams of population have been indicated as the exist- ence of circumcision and what may be called concision in the Central Division, the absence of these and the practice of naming tribes by negatives in the Eastern Division, and the utter absence of these three peculiarities in the Western Divi- sion. A mere prima facie view of these distinctive features gives a bias against the three-stream theory, which does not even jDretend to account for the rejection of the practices named where they are rejected ; and, in fact, it is inconceivable that so strongly marked practices would have been abandoned in the districts where they do not obtain had they at one period been characters of the original stock. The Tasmanians knew nothing of circumcision or concision : neither did the first-comers of the second immifjratin"- race. Circumcision has been introduced in the north by the influence of Malay Mahometans in comparatively modern times. Con- cision,* or the "terrible rite," as Mr. Sturt called it, probably came after, and was gradually developed for personal adornment. These rites spread rapidly southward, and would, no doubt, have over- run the whole continent but for the advent of Europeans. Hence the prevalence of these rites tells us nothing about whence the aborigines came, nor how they were distributed. How or where the naming of tribes by negatives was introduced is an * This name was suggested to me by the excessive extent of mutilation. Mr. W. E. Roth, in his most admirable work, '"Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines," pp. 177 et seq., gives a full description of the operation which he calls introcision, a name equally applicable to a corresponding mutilation of females. Prof. W. B. Spencer and Mr. F. J. Gillen call the rite subincish>i. They give a legend of the Arunta tribe, Central Australia, to the effect that shortly after men of the ' little hawk ' totem had introduced circumcision by means of a stone knife, ' individuals belonging to the Achilpa or " wild cat " totem introduced the rite of Ariltha or suhincision." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 1S97, p. 146. E ee EAGLEHAWK AND CROW enigma. It may have characterised the early Papuans ; it may have arisen through there having been a greater multiplicity and confusion of tongues in the east than in the centre and west of Australia. Its occurrence in the east favours as much my theory of settlement as it does the other. Elsewhere I show that this form of nomenclature probably originated in the frequent utterauce of negatives or corresponding words express- ing ignorance of what was addressed in a foreign dialect. The linguistic evidence which 3Ir. Curr offers does no more than support the hypothesis of a general movement from north to south in the central part of the continent, which I also affirm. Having shown tlie invalidity of the inferences in favour of settlement from the north-west by three streams, I shall now adduce the proof that the migration was from the north-east south-eastward on the east coast, southward, south-westward, and westward elsewhere. The linguistic evidence for this hypo- thesis is, I think, irrefragable. It may be summed up thus : A number of important words in the south-east, south, and west of Australia may be traced through numerous modifications, and the traced lines are found to converge about the base of Cape York Peninsula, in the north of Queensland. In fact, some of them can be run right across to New Guinea. In no other locality can the languages be thus run to ground, as it were, so that the Igdrasil of Australia may be said to have its roots in the Cape York Peninsula. Besides individual words, other linguistic features can be traced to the same locality. One of the most instructive lines is that which may be formed by various names for the emu. At Albany, in the ex- treme south-west of Australia, the term is ' waitch,' and in the immediate neighbourhood the ordinary form is ' wadgie ' ; on the Great Australian Bight the term is ' warritcha.' On the eastern watershed of Lake Eyre such forms as the following are found : ' waraguita,' ' warrawatty,' ' wargutchie ' ; in the South Gregory District, Queensland, ' warukatchi ' is found ; ' woitte ' is the term for hiy at the Coen River, flowing into the Gulf of Carjjentaria, near Cape York. On Prince of Wales Island, in Torres Strait, 'ure' means lird ; in New Guinea the term is ' ori ' ; and on Saibai Island, on the New Guinea coast, imme- diately opposite Cape York, ' uroi ' means hird, and ' kasa ' or DISTRIBUTION 67 ' kaiza,' large. To derive the West Australian word ' waitch ' we ueed to traverse the whole extent of Australia from the extreme south-west to its most north-easterly point, and then cross Torres Strait to the New Guinea coast, where we find its ety- mology in two words meaning hird, large. It should be observed that a pure sibilant is so rare in Australian languages as to justify the doubt whether it is used at all. Hence an ' s ' or ' z ' in New Guinea would become a ' t ' or ' ty ' or palatal ' eh ' in passing to Australia.* It will be necessary for me to direct attention here to a linguistic phenomenon in a number of Australian dialects which is somewhat puzzling. I refer to the frequent change of initial • w ' or ' wh ' into ' k ' and occasionally ' ku,' or, as it sometimes seems, the prefixing of a ' k ' before either ' o ' or ' u,' which would otherwise be initial vowels. In some cases this peculiarity might be sufficiently accounted for by supposing a natural rela- tion between ' k ' and ' w,' whereby the latter may insensibly merge into the former or vice versa ; cf. uxiv and ' guerre,' ivard and gitard; but in a number of cases it seems pretty certain that the initial ' k ' or ' ku,' and even perhaps ' kura ' or ' kuru,' as in the numerals, possesses or did possess a definitive value. The derivation of ' waitch ' explains many of the names for emu scattered throughout Australia. Thus the word ' korre ' at Adelaide, South Australia, is probably just the bird ; and at Kulkyne, on the Murray, Victoria, ' karawingi ' is the local equivalent for ' ori kaiza ' ; near Ballarat, Victoria, it occurs in the local name ' koraweiuguboora.' A common ^'ictorian form is ' kowir.' In New South Wales and part of Queensland it has been corrupted into ' ngooroon ' and similar forms. There are practically only three names for emu.' in the west of the continent. The first is ' waitch,' already dealt with ; the second, * yalliberri,' is found from the Murchison River north- ward to the Shaw River. Evidence is wantincj for tracinsr this across the continent, but it prevails widely in the north-east, and the lines of prevalence are focused about the western watershed of the Burdekin in such forms as 'koolpurri,' * " The sounds of s and z are wanting in Gudang (Cape York dialect), and when occurring in a foreign language are reijresented by ch or ty" g(McGillivray's "Voyage of the Battlesnake," vol. ii. p. 2S2). 68 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW ♦goberri,' &c. • Kool- ' is just a variant of ' kuro,' bird; and •-piirri' is an adjective signifying mam/ or large. The third West Australian form is 'kullia,' occurring on the outside of the territory where the other words prevail. This is the local form of the Darling ' kulti ' ; ' kul' corresponds to ' kool ' and 'war,' and the termination suggests a decayed adjective. The above derivations supply the key to the derivation of a number of other bird names. Many of the names for sivan, tiujUhmi'k, and initiir tvi-hy have the same meaning as the name for emu. The ' waldja ' and ' warlik,' eaglchawk of West Aus- tralia, are l>oth derived from ' ooreytella,' ' korytella,' 'koretalla,' and siuiilar variants of the north-east, the original form being ♦ koritalka ' or ' oritalkai ' ; ' talkai ' is a common term in the north-east for hvj. This inference is borne out by the name for -J o I I -3^ a. — s *= 2 2 bCae a-5- a s •5 Sol 2 •?-« I . I S =35 ao X 6i H M O . Ik. ss W o ^ .9 3 3 5 e>c -< < I-: a « *< ^ « Li o ^5 I I I I I I I I I &a ? 3 3 I 1 . -14 <«' a >.!<: ^ a bO o^ O bOo-O w*'^^^ boo O O. be gS ce bo a .M "u a a o o o bo ce a ■«'S^S DISTRIBT^TIOX 73 This theory is held in conjunction with the belief that on the north-west, north, and north-east coasts there have been desultory landings of small bodies of people not in the main currents. There are indications of groups of Melanesians having reached Australia on the eastern Queensland coast perhaps as castaways, and having penetrated inland, leaving their impress upon the practices and language. A table is subjoined showing that a large proportion of West Australian words have crossed the continent by a south- westerly route from the north-east of Queensland. When we keep in mind that a Papuo-Tasmanian influence survives specially in the south, on the west coast and on the north coast of Australia, which cannot possibly be traced to a point of first arrival on Australia, the linguistic evidence given above is so varied in character and so massive in quantity, and in several cases exhibits withal the gradual transformation of words so distinctly, that it leads irresistibly to the one con- clusion, viz., that the chief of the three easily distinguishable elements in Australian language entered Australia on the north-east, and the inference is inevitable that the people who spoke that speech passed to Australia from New Guinea. CHAPTER VI PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE AUSTRALIANS Physical, mental, and moral characteristics — Physical appearance — Mental characters — Ramahyuck school one hundred per cent, of marlcs for three consecutive years — Imitation — Moral characters — Instability — Symimthetic and allectionate — Gaiety — Improvidence — Native police — Missionary effort— Barbarous whites, humane pioneers. The physical appearance of the natives is subject to consider- able variation not only in different localities but even in the same community, and this as regards stature, muscular develop- ment, cast of features, and other particulars. Some of these differences are doubtless attributable to climatic influence, some to the difference of food products, while some are as certainly hereditary racial peculiarities. The wretched emaciated creature whose bones may all be told through his skin, although often presented to us as the picture of the Australian, is not a true picture. Such will be the appearance of parties where the food supply is always scant, or of others at a time of the year or in an unfavourable season when food is much more scarce than usual. It is also true that the inhabitants of the interior and the north are more spare, and perhaps on the average taller than those in the east, south, and west, but men of muscular frame and stout build are common enough in the coast districts other than the north. Taking the continent all over, the average height of the men will not exceed 5 ft. 6 in., and of the women 5 ft. There is, however, hardly a community in which two or three six-footers will not be found. As a rule, the muscles are not largely developed, but there are numerous exce^Dtions. In Southern Queensland I have seen a type of man about 5 ft. 4 in. in height, thick set and powerfully muscular. One man of this stamp received his name from the massiveness of the calves of his legs. But even the lanker men are very strong and wiry PHYSICAL CHARxVCTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 75 in proportion to their weight, both bone and muscle being excessively tough. The colour of the skin is shaded from a dusky copper to a brownish-black. The new-born babe is singularly fair, but becomes gradually darker with age. The natives have a pre- dilection for ebony skins as a mark of beauty, a preference which may be due to the fact that the substratum of the popu- lation was originally darker. In those parts of the country which have already been particularised as more distinctly Papuan, there is usually an abundance of hair on the face and breast, a characteristic which accompanies increased squareness of build and greater muscularity. In the central parts there is less beard and less hair on the breast, and in the north, in some parts at least, the body is smooth and the beard very scanty. Throughout the continent the hair of the head, with some notable exceptions, is of a glossy raven black, very re- dundant and usually wavy. Where the Papuan blood is most predominant the hair is often curly and frizzy and sometimes woolly. I knew one black boy in the south of Queensland whose hair was of a dirty yellowish-brown, and there are several well-authenticated cases of true natives having hair that has been described, perhaps with poetic exaggeration, as golden yellow. A particular instance is given in the family of a man named Teacup, a leading blackfellow among his country- men about Beemery Station, between Bourke and Brewarrina, in New South Wales. His children were copper-coloured and had long straw-coloured hair.* Such cases may arise from poverty in the black pigment, but seem too decided to be ascribable to such a cause. There could hardly be a more striking contrast than that between the lank, tall, smooth, small-featured Northern Territory man and such a Victorian black as Bidhanin, well known at Ballarat under the name of King Billy. The latter was short of stature, not exceeding 5 ft. 4 in. in height, his hair hung in heavy wavy locks or tangles, his face was almost hidden with beard and whisker, and his bosom thickly covered all over with a dense crop of hair of two or three inches in length, so as to have quite a shaggy appearance. This man, born at Ercildoune, was a good specimen of, what I take to be, the Australian * Informant, Mr. Colin Fraser. 76 KAGLEIIAWK AM) CROW Papuan. His features were also of the typical Australian Papuan cast — i.e., the brow comparatively low and retreating, eyebrows prominent and shaggy, eyes fairly large, the iris being dark brown and the white of a smoky-yellowish tinge, the nose large and broad but not to say fiat, indeed sometimes decidedly Jewish, the nostrils wide, the mouth large, the lips thick, but OLD I'ETEK without the swollen thickness of the negro lip, the cheek-bones high, generally small and receding jaw, somewhat prognathous, teeth large. This is the Australian Papuan face, and may be met in many localities. I have a portrait of a black, known as Old Peter, who belonged to ^Milroy Station, on the Culgoa River, New South Wales. This portrait might pass for a presentment of Bidhanin mentioned above. The trunk in front is completely covered with dense hair, which spreads over the shoulders and down the outside of the upper arm. The beard is thick, long. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRAMANS 77 and curly, with a tendency to fall in ringlets. Old Peter was evidently stout and muscular for his height. Alongside of people like those described there may be found others with features which might be called fairly good-looking, judged even by European standards. These have quite a dif- ferent style of forehead, narrow, smooth, rounded, high ; also a much smaller nose, sometimes straight and full, sometimes snub and inclining to be tip-tilted, the lips full but not extra thick, and the facial outline a graceful oval. A poor, unfortunate wretch of a black boy, who went by the name of Dougal, a native of Yabber Station, in the Wide Bay district, Queensland, would be one of the best examples of this latter type. His face as a whole might have been called handsome. He ended his days on the gallows-tree for crimes committed after he had become demoralised through the evil influences that blotch the gold-diggings. Although the eyes of the Australians are rarely, if ever, oblique, a face with a decided Mongolian cast about the brow, cheek-bones and nose is occasionally met with. There are certain peculiarities about the average Australian head which serve to mark it very distinctly. It is of a pyramidal shape, the skull is abnormally thick, the cerebral capacity is about the smallest of all races. Viewed in profile, the tip of the nose is the apex of an angle, the sides of which recede with about equal obliquity from a horizontal passing through that point. The head is well poised, commonly having a backward lean, and is supported on a neck short and comparatively thick. In general appearance the average Australian is symmetrically proportioned. More bone and muscle would undoubtedly be an improvement, for a too common attenuation of limb and fineness of ankles and wrists are suggestive of weakness. His hands are small and bony, the feet by no means large, seeing that they are always bare and used so much and in such varied ways. The aboriginal is very strong for his weight, exceedingly agile, and has an erect, free, and graceful carriage. As he is so largely dependent upon the exercise of his senses they are siugularly acute. His powers of tracking are proverbial. My belief is that they are due as much to exercise as to peculiar natural capacity. While in his native bush, all the blackman's senses are incessantly on the alert, it is therefore no wonder that his faculties of sense-perception should be highly developed. 78 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW MENTAL AND MOKAL CHARACTERISTICS. For a people so low iu the scale of civilisation the Australians exhibit powers of mind anything but despicable. They are very keen observers, of quick understanding, intelligent, frequently cunning, but, as might be expected, neither close, nor deep, nor independent thinkers. In schools, it has often been observed that aboriginal children learn quite as easily and rapidly as children of Juiropean parents. In fact, the aboriginal school at llamahyuck, in Victoria, stood for three consecutive years the highest of all the state schools of the colony in examination results, obtaining unc hiradrid per ant. of marks. While among I'airopeans the range of mental development seems almost un- bounded, with the blacks its limit is soon attained. An inherent aversion to application is generally an impassable barrier to the progress of an aboriginal's education ; in addition to which there is usually the absence of sufficient inducement to severe mental exertion. Unless in the case of those who are so situated that they cannot help attending school, most natives who have been taken in hand to be taught have at best learned to read words of one or two syllables and to write their own names in a very clumsy manner. A common feature in the aboriginal mental make-up is a propensity for mimicry. They are fond of imitating one another with a view to exciting ridicule, and they instantly seize upon salient peculiarities of white men, especially of strangers, and reproduce them with considerable success. It is astonishing how easily and completely young blacks, not cut off from inter- course with their relatives, but living and working constantly among the whites, fall into European modes of thought. To the influences of the white men they move among their mind seems to be a tabula rasa. Give such an aboriginal a white man's features and complexion and he is, to all intents and purposes, a white man of the unreflecting, uneducated class ; some of them, with little or no incentive save the approbation of Europeans, falling into the routine work of the station, doing it with fidelity and pride, and for perhaps only a tithe of the white workman's reward. In the aboriginal character there are many admirable, meri- torious elements, but there is a lack of a strong, inherited, PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 79 combining, marshalling will or self-determination, and, as a natural consequence^ the moral qualities are prone to operate capriciously. The natives are not insensible to promptings of honourable feeling, but generally, unless when repressed or constrained by fear, they act from impulse rather than from . principle, and their best inclinations are easily overpowered by pressure from within or from without. You could rely upon a blackfellow being faithful to a trust only on condition that he were exempt from strong temptation. One of the most condemnatory testimonies that ever has been given of this people is that which was given by Mr. Jas. Davies (known as Darumboi by the aborigines) before a commission of the Legis- lative Assembly of Queensland in 18G1. As far as personal experience went this witness was well qualified to speak, for he had lived continuously among the blacks for fifteen years and three months. He said, very forcibly, " Hundreds of them would take your life for a blanket or a hundredweight of flour. I wouldn't trust them as far as I could throw a bullock by the tail." " They are so greedy that nothing can come up to them." " They are the most deceitful people I ever came across." " The father will beat the son and the son the father. The brother will lie in ambush to be avenged on the brother ; if he cannot manage him in fight he will lie in ambush with a spear or a club." This, I am sure, was stating the case against the poor creatures too strongly. They are not wantonly untruthful ; they are not deficient in courage ; they are not excessively selfish; and they are by no means lacking in natural affection. But Mr. Davies corroborates what I have said of the presence of that defect of character which may be termed instability. It may be said that the whole fabric of their moral character is in a position of unstable equilibrium. The slightest strain will destroy the poise. They have a courage which fits them to perform marvellous feats of tree-climbing, gives them spirit to assert their rights in the face of danger from the white man's superior know- ledge and strength, and, for a time at least, qualifies them to excel as roughriders. But their bravery is neither steady nor deep-rooted. No doubt they are very covetous, but they are also very generous. One of the nuisances which used to 80 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW vex squatters was the good-natured recklessness with which a black bo}' would scatter about among his friends the rations or clothes he had earned by his own labour and which he needed for himself. As a rule, the blacks are sympathetic and affectionate, especially the women. Sufficient evidence of this is the way in which white men have been treated who have been unfortunate enough to be cast upon their mercy. Relatives are usually fondly attached to each other. The attachment between parents and their offspring is very strong, and exhibits itself in kindness to the aged, who are tenderly cared for, and indulgence to little children. One case of filial affection which came under my own notice I cannot forbear to mention. It was that of a boy who had travelled with a stockowner to a considerable distance from his native place, showing his love to his parents, in a way very substantial for a black, by sending them a pound note through the post. An almost universal feature in the aboriginal character is gaiety of heart. This, I believe, is a Papuan inheritance. Open light-heartedness was one of the pronounced features which Wallace observed distinguishing the Papuans from the Malays. Of the Papuan he says:* "They are energetic, demonstrative, joyous and laughter-loving, and in all these particulars they differ widely from the Malay." The open, sunny-hearted qualities are indisputably Australian characteristics. The Australian is good-humoured, enjoys a joke, and does not long harbour resentment. The absence of constraint in the direction of joyousness is accompanied by liability to un- restrained bursts of passion, which lead sometimes to most violent assaults. The black is a very vain man, conceited of himself and conceited of his countrymen, for reasons no doubt sufficient to him if not to us. It is perhaps as much owing to his vanity or his fondness for praise as to any other motive that he has been got to work at all. For, what other inducement is there to him to toil for the white man, and why should it not be to him rather a merit than a disgrace that, from our point of view, he is indolent ? Has not nature dealt bountifully with him ? If he makes his demands upon her at intervals with sufficient urgency, he may loll on her soft warm bosom at * " The Malay Archipelago," p. 592. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 81 his ease without discredit, until hunger compels him to stir. At light kinds of labour he can work well, and if it suits his purpose, he can apply himself diligently for a while, but, as he only has to provide for to-day, he does not trouble about to-morrow. He is not invariably and in every respect improvident, however. If he does not require to rob a bee's nest to satisfy present wants, he will indicate his discovery and assert his ownership by marking the tree which the nest is on, and will take the honey at some future time. In the Bunya Mountains in Queensland it was a common practice, when the Bunyas were in season, to fill netted bags with them, and bury a store in the gravel of a creek-bed, to be exhumed when required. The blacks of ^Vestern Australia store zamia nuts by burying in the ground, but without nets.* In these and various other ways the blacks show that they do not live an out-and-out, hand-to-mouth life. They are not cultivators of the soil, they neither sow nor plant (although I have known a black to plant a tea-tree in a locality where none was growing), but they reap grain, and roots, and fruits, preparing them in various ways for consumption. Settlement by the British has usually proceeded without much resistance. The blacks have kindly assisted in their own dispossession and extermination, guiding the aliens through their forests, giving them much of their own strength at a beggarly rate of recompense, submitting contentedly to indignity and oppression, and rewarding injuries and insults with gentle- ness and service. They have committed robbery, rape, murder, and perpetrated several massacres. True, but they have often been trained to such offences by the lawless, brutal, indecent, tyrannical behaviour of the white men with whom they have come into contact, for as a matter of fact the outskirts of civilisation have a strong admixture of barbarism. The first time that I saw a large number of blacks was at Durundur Station, sixty miles from Brisbane, in the year 1865. A bullock had just been slaughtered by the station hands, the blacks were congregated round the killing-place. A low white, with a feeling of gay superiority, swung the reeking, bleedino- lights and liver with a slap round the neck and on to the naked bosom and shoulders of an unoffending black woman. The * Grey's " Journal of Expeditions of Discovery," vol. ii. p. 64. F 82 EAGLEHAAVK AND C\\0\X gentle creature received this act of gallantry with a smile. I can never forget this disgusting insult and the meekness with which it was borne. It was at once an index and a type of much of the treatment which the natives have received from those who have taken their heritage away from them, and if the weaker side has retaliated is it to be wondered at ? The cruelties perpetrated by the native police upon their own kindred in the name of law, although excessive and often unwarrantable, may be passed over here, because, granted the right to colonise and dispossess, a certain degree of conflict was inevitable, and it has been alleged by humane and competent judges, that where the native police, well-officered, patrolled a district, not only was property secure, but the blacks were exempted from venge- ful and bloody attacks by the settlers. But woe for the lustful and atrocious conduct of individual white men, who, feeling secure from legal penalties and native reprisals, outraged and oppressed and hunted at their will. The small success of missionary effort, with which the unsettled life of the aborigines has had much to do, has led many people to conclude that they are not amenable to spiritual influence, and some settlers have adopted the fantastic, convenient, and self-exculpatory theory that the blacks have no souls. But, on the mission stations especially, there have been numerous proofs that the gospel appeals as much to an aboriginal Australian heart as to that of any other nationality, and that, notwithstanding instability of character, Christ is the power of God to the Australian. It used to be a common maxim among bushmen, "It's no use to hit a blackfellow with your fist, he won't feel it," and the corollary was that a heavy boot, or a stout stick, or an iron bolt, or a stock-whip, were legitimate and suitable instruments for hortatory and punitive purposes. A powerful, heavy bullock- driver would maul a black boy as an elephant might a baboon ; to kick the offender, trample on him, and kneel or tumble on his chest and stomach, were usual courses of procedure, and the brute who could do these things deftly and inspire a whole- some awe in the outraged would be entitled to respect. "I would as soon shoot a blackfellow as a dog," was no uncommon saying which some carried into practice. Concubinage was general, terrorising and murder, both by poison and bullet, plentiful enough on back stations, and used to be spoken about PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF AUSTRALIANS 8^3 freely where not practised. At the bar of God the souls of the aborigines will have a heavy indictment to present against men of our blood who have wronged and brutalised them. While acknowledging and deploring the excesses of which the colonists have been guilty, it would be unjust to overlook the manifold instances of habitual humane treatment at the hands of some of the station owners and their employes. But nothing deserving the name of an equivalent has ever been rendered, whether by individual favour or associated effort in civilising and Christianising, to the weak, peaceful, kindly people from whom Australia's glorious golden laud has been wrested so speedily and at so trifling a cost. CHAPTER VII DWELLINGS, CLOTHING. IMPLEMENTS, FOOD Dwellings, clothing, food, &c.— The blackfellow's home— His clothing Preparation of rugs — Use of bark of native tea-tree— Ornaments- Cicatrices— Piercing septum of nose— Bags and baskets— Weapons- Food, from cicada to kangaroo— Method of eating honey— Nardu and nardoo — Bunya — Pitcheri, comhungle or icantjle — Ovens — Diseases — Caused by sorcery — Treatment — Longevity. The home of the blackfellow is identical with the tract of country over which he ranges ; his dwelling is a structure of the airiest, flimsiest kind. A breakwind of a few boughs proves sufficient in fine weather, and in cold or wet he procures two or three sheets of bark, sets them on end upon a crescent base- line, one sheet overlapping another, the lap increasing upwards so as to gather the sheets at the top. The whole leans upon a few light props placed in front, the lower ends of which are stuck in the ground, the upper ends converging and held together by a natural fork in the end of one of the poles. This description applies to the most common dwelling ; sometimes a booth of boughs suffices, while on the other hand rude little cabins thatched with grass and mud are met with occasionally ; and near the most easterly point of Australia, probably owing to Malay influence, the walls of the houses were of stakes inter- laced with vines. The size of the house is determined by the number of occupants it will have to accommodate in sleeping posture. The floor is the green turf. The open front serves equally for door and window. As the fire is lit far enough out to allow plenty of room for the sleepers to stretch themselves vdth. their feet towards it, a chimney is unnecessary. In rainy weather a small gutter is dug arouud the dwelling. Light huts of this description are peculiarly suitable to a nomadic people, unacquainted with metals, possessing few tools, and rarely ex- posed to severity of climate. They may erect them in the first DWELLINGS, CLOTHING, IMPLEMENTS 85 instance with very little trouble, tenant them for two or three months at most, and then either carelessly leave them standing or lay the bark down flat and place a log or two on top of it to keep it from getting warped or lifted by the wind. If the bark is thus conserved, when the people revisit the locality the house is rebuilt in a couple of minutes. Such a structure constitutes a by no means uncomfortable sleeping apartment, and a resi- dence commodioiis enough for people who can carry all their chattels with them ; it has also this advantage, that it can be shifted as the wind veers and the open front be always on the lee side. When the natives were numerous their camps would contain twenty or thirty huts, and on the occasion of special gatherings there would, of course, be more. Each family would have its own dwelling. Young single men would sleep in groups apart from the families, and it is said that in some tribes the positions taken up by individuals were determined by considerations of kinship. Almost the only real article of clothing worn by the Austra- lians is the opossum rug. In the extreme north it is not in use. About the neighbourhood of Port Mackay, in 8. lat. 21 , it is used,* but in Central Australia, right across the continent, the blacks are destitute of clothing. While travelliug in the north- west Captain George Greyf saw no opossum rugs in use north of 29° S. The opossum rug serves equally well for mantle and blanket, and forms a receptacle on the mother's back in which she can carry her infant when on the march. In making the rugs, the flesh is cleaned thoroughly^ off the skins, which are made pliable by rubbing with pieces of free- stone. They are generally ornamented with rude scratches representing snakes, emu's feet, and the like, the figures being coloured with red ochre. The skins are neatly sewn together, kangaroo sinews serving as thread. I was told by a black boy that his people in the Wide Bay and Burnett Districts, Queens- land, were wont formerly to make the soft papery bark of the native tea-tree supply the place of blankets. It appears that the same practice obtains in the neighbourhood of Halifax Bay4 At the Daly River, in the north-west of Australia, the same * Curr's "The Australian Race,' vol. iii. p. 45. f He is quoted by ]Mr. Curr, but I cannot verify this reference. X Curr's "The Australian Race," vol. iii. p. 426. 86 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW kiud of bark was used for many purposes. lu many parts tlie females, and more especially young girls, wear a fringe sus- pended from a belt round the waist, the fringe being made of various materials, such as vegetable fibre, fur-cord, skin, &c. They are not excessively given to adornment of the person, but a few simple ornaments are very generally worn. Among these may be nientioned chaplets round the head, usually painted with pipeclay or ochre, strings of bright yellow reed beads, dogs' teeth and a piece of shell like mother-of-pearl suspended on a string worn round the neck. On certain occasions feathers are worn in the hair. Ornamentation of quite a different kind is effected by raised cicatrices arranged in rows in various parts of the body. These are commonly made on the back, breast, abdomen, shoulders, and upper part of the arm, and only on males. The incisions are horizontal on the trunk and longitudinal on the arms. When first cut they are filled with ashes, charcoal, or some other innocuous material to keep the sides of the wound from closing, and to make them rise when healed, like a pair of lips. In most tribes the males pierce the septum of the nose. All natives frequently anoint themselves with grease and charcoal. In fact, this anointing is practised on new-born babes, and is doubtless far more beneficial for infants than washing would be in their rude mode of life. On special occasions, such as man- makings, corroborees, and fights, the men smear their bodies with red and white clay in fantastic designs. The women make bags of network, the size of the mesh as also of the whole bag being regulated by the use for which the article is intended. The cord employed in the manufacture is usually made of fur. Baskets, known by the whites as "dillie- bags," are woven of strips of cabbage-tree, tough grass, or the bast-bark of trees like the currajong ; a piece of cord is attached to opposite sides of the edge by its two ends, so as to allow the bag to be carried in the hand or slung upon the shoulder. These were the depositories of their valuables. As regards weapons, I shall content myself with giving little more than a bare enumeration ; for a full and accurate description Mr. Brough Smyth's " Aborigines of Victoria" may be consulted. The characteristic and distinctive Australian weapon is, of course, the boomerang, which is made of various DWELLINGS, CLOTHLN'G, LMPLEAIKN'iS ST sizes and weights and shapes. As already stated, similar weapons are used in Africa and India, but that which distin- guishes one kind of Australian boomerang from every other is the property of returning to the thrower.* In the south of Queensland the blacks had a very singular arm made of wood, about as flat as a boomerang, but considerably larger and heavier, and bent naturally at a right angle about the middle in the plane of its width. It was probably an arm for close fighting, a kind of battle-axe in fact, although in outline proportioned more like a single-headed pick. It resembles the leonile of Victoria figured in Mr. Brough Smyth's work, which was used in single combat. Wooden spears are universal. They are of diverse lengths and differ much in the design of the point, from simple sharpness to many barbs, sometimes cut out of the solid, some- times of bone or flint afflxed. Some tribes make reed spears as well. In many parts the spear is launched by the aid of a " throwing-stick " about two feet in length, now widely known by its aboriginal name ivomcra. One end of the " throwing- stick " is barbed, the tip of the barb rests on a hollow in the end of the spear and the other end of the "throwing-stick" is held in the hand. This auxiliary, like the cord of a sling, increases the velocity with which the weapon flies. The women in some communities have a special kind of spear about four feet long, called by the whites a " yam-stick," which they employ either for digging or for feminine duels, in which they are handled single-stick fashion, while loud threats and recrimina- tions are interchanged. There are clubs of innumerable designs, some comparatively light for the chase, and some very heavy, for hand-to-hand encounter. These latter have sometimes rows of prominences carved upon them at the thick end to increase the severity of the blow. The club tapers to both ends, which terminate in sharp points. Wooden swords, to be wielded with one or both hands, are common, and shields both light and heavy, broad and narrow, the shield-handle being generally formed by scooping out a horizontal groove on the back, and leaving a * Mr. Smyth quotes Mr. Ferguson on the antiquity of the boomeraiier. His evidence is, I think, conchisive as to the use oi a returninix weapon like the boomerang among the Aryan races of Europe at the earliest histcrieal times. ("The Aboriuiiies of Victoria," vol. ii. p. 325.) 88 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW short longitudinal bar intact on the solid sui*face. * Hilaman ' or ' elimang,' now a common name for shield among the European population, originally designated a small bark shield. The Avooden weapons are usually more or less carved, and are often partially coloured, either red or white. The stone tools comprise hatchets, chisels, and knives. The tomahawk is shaped like a rude American axe, and is of all gradations of sizes, from what might be used by a child to a heavy stone head some twelve or fourteen inches long. The most common material is a bluish-green stone which takes a fine polish and has a clayey fracture. Axes made of stone so much alike that a superficial glance could detect no difference in appearance, may be found in places a thousand miles apart.* I have a broken axe-head which I found on the beach at Port- arlington, no doubt the remains of an object that must have been greatly prized. The dark blue ground of the stone is starred over with milk-white specks. It is beautifully polished, and back farther from the edge than usual. The axes were ground to a cutting edge of crescent outline. The axe-handle in some makes tapered almost to a point at the end to be held in the hand. It was made either of a tough vine or of a split sapling of suitable thickness. The piece of vine or wood was doubled. In the loop thus formed, the head was balanced and secured with cord and resin on the side next the haft. The chisels had sometimes handles of bark wrapped round them. Besides the tools already mentioned there were stones for pounding food, whetstones, shells for dressing weapons, bone awls ; twine made of wood-fibre, sinews or fur ; fish-hooks, nets, fishing-lines ; water-vessels, such as koolimans (made of a hollow knot of a tree or from the bend of a limb), calabashes, and even human skulls ; the appliance already described as a climbing-rope ; and various other local or less important im- plements. Except in the case of particular persons or on particular occasions, hardly a living thing was rejected as an article of diet, * Mr. O. R. Rule, of the Technological Museum, Melbourne, has favoured me with the precise names of the stone of four axes. One from the Burnett District, Queensland, and another from the Upper Darling, N.S.W., are aphanite greenstone; a third found at Cheltenham, Victoria, is diorite ; the fourth, mentioned above as found at Portarlington, Victoria, is diabase porphyry. DWELLINGS, CLOTHING, IMPLEMENTS 89 from the cicada to the kangaroo. The black man's table was thus furnished with animal food of all kinds and flavours. Grubs found in green trees were highly esteemed ; so were snakes, bandicoots, porcupines, emus, and men. When hungry, flesh would be eaten raw with avidity, but if time permitted it was roasted. A common practice was to bite off portions as they were cooked, the joint being handed round for each member of the group to take a bite, and then placed on the fire again. Honey, the product of the native bee, a very tiny, in- nocuous, slow insect, was very much in request where it was obtainable. In Queensland there was an ingenious and con- venient way of eating honey which may possibly have been practised elsewhere as well. A sheet of the inner, tough, fibrous bark of a tree was procured. This was rubbed and softened until it became like a piece of thin matting or old bagging two or three feet square. It then formed a spongy i*ag, and part of it would be dipped in the honey and afterwards sucked by one after another of the members of the family from the head of the house downwards. Even when the honey in substance had got exhausted the flavour would cling to the bark for a long time, and would reward the sucker for his exertions, and form a treat to offer a friend. It was certainly a very social form of enjoyment, and an economical mode of taking food ; whether the reader would care to join in it is another question. The supply of vegetable food was much more restricted. A kind of grass-seed called ' nardu ' was used by the natives in the north-west of New South Wales. This is different from the ' nardoo ' of Central Australia, now familiarly known as the food which Burke, Wills and King tried to support themselves upon at Cooper's Creek. Fern roots and the Australian yam, a species of Dioscorea,* are perhaps the most common edible vegetables. Other kinds, whether the roots, stems, or fruits be eaten, are local products, different districts producing food peculiar to them. The zamia nut is eaten within the tropics, certainly in the west, and probably in the east also. In the south of Queensland a plant like the cassava or arrowroot grows on the banks of streams, and its root is eaten when pounded and freed from the juice, which is excessively pungent. * Grej's "'Journals of Expeditions of Discovery," vol. ii. p. 12. 90 EAGLEHAA\ K AND CROAV The same locality is distinguished for the beautiful Bunya-tree, the Bichcillii Araucaria, au ornament of the scrubs on the high lands. The cone of this tree is of gigantic size, and in each scale there is an eatable ovule, which when mature is an inch or an inch and a half long, and about half an inch thick. The ovules are of conical shape, like an almond kernel, and covered with a tough envelope. When tender the fleshy part is all eaten. As the seed matures and the embryo assumes a definite shape, the surrounding tissue is drier and less palatable, and the embryo is rejected. "When matured the natives prefer to eat the bunyas roasted. The kernels are also pounded into a kind of meal called ' nangu.' The bnnya is a wholesome and much relished food. Individuals claimed special favourite trees as their own, but generally everybody had the range of the whole forest. The boles are often from two to three feet thick, per- fectly straight and without a branch for the first fifty or a hundred feet, above which the branches spread into a beautiful dome-shaped top. The climbing-rope is called into requisition for the ascent, which is a difficult process, as the bark is flaky and jagged and the leaves are prickly pointed. The matured cones, as large as pumpkins, fall to the ground with a tremen- dous thud, on which occasions provision is had by picking it off the ground. About the same neighbourhood, and probably elsewhere if obtainable, the core of the top of a sort of cabbage palm forms a very juicy palatable food. The 'nardu' grass seed of New South Wales has been mentioned above ; it is pounded and eaten without separating the husk. The plant known as jntchci'i or 2'^'^tyuTi, which grows in the interior, is very much esteemed by the natives for its stimu- lating property. It is first chewed, and then mixed with wood- ashes and the leaf of a plant known as komhari. Then, after baking, the preparation is complete, and it is carried about for use. It is said to have the effect of sustaining the strength under severe exertion without any other food. The natives now chew it like tobacco, and take turns at the same quid.* Along the marshy grounds of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan Rivers a plant grows profusely which is locally known as ' combungie ' or -wangle.' The plants attain a height of seven or eight feet. They have a tap-root a foot or eighteen * Curr's " The Australian Kace," vol. ii. p. 38. DWELLINGS, CLOTHLNG, LMPLKMKNTS 91 inclies iu length. These roots used to be pulled up and collected by the women of a small community. An excavation of circular outline was made in the ground, averaging three to four feet deep and fifteen to twenty feet across. Half a ton of roots might be gathered for a large oven and placed in the centre on a great pile of dry wood. On the surface were strewn layers of long grass and light sticks. Then the combustibles were kindled and the excavated earth returned as a covering. The time required for cooking depended upon the size of the oven, and might be several days. When the ' wangles ' were thoroughly done, water was continuously baled on to the oven until the whole mass was cooled. It was then opened and the food came out almost white as snow and not unlike parsnips or potatoes cooked.* This wholesale culinary operation was conducted much after the style of meat-roasting by the ovens that are so numerous in Victoria, where I have seen the delris or middens over twenty feet in diameter, with a corresponding height, the slope of the sides being rather less than the angle of deposition, and the top flattened by obvious causes. In Victoria the ovens were used in the following way : A rude paving having been laid, a great quantity of stones and earth was heated by being heaped upon a huge fire of wood. Then the fire was withdrawn, and the game, unskinned, was placed in the centre upon a layer of grass, more grass being strewed over it. The heated stones and earth were next piled on top and the oven was left thus until the meat was cooked, which would then be taken out and the skin would easily peel off. The diseases to which the aborigines are specially subject are rheumatism and ])ulmonary complaints. These, though aggravated by changed habits since contact with the whites, are probably no new troubles. Syphilis, introduced by Europeans, has terribly debilitated the constitution and corrupted the blood, but the scourge which sweeps off most of the natives is con- sumption. Indigestion and toothache are common, dropsy and heart disease also occur. All sickness from internal, unknown causes was attributed to sorcery practised by an enemy. They possessed little or no knowledge of medicine, any remedies being almost exclusively externally a^jplied. A common treat- * My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy, Balranald. 92 EAGLEHAWK AND CHOW uient was for the doctor or sacred man of the tribe to suck the part affected and pretend to extract from it a pebble of the sort used as charms. There seems to be efficacy iu the sucking, for a friend of mine who was suffering severely from an inveterate, inflamed eye, allowed a black '• doctor" to mouth the eyeball, and the result of the treatment was immediate relief and speedy cure. Sometimes the doctor would apply a sacred stone to the part that was aching and profess to extract the cause of pain. From the analogy of a similar practice in the New Hebrides this may have been originally a kind of exorcism. Wounds were often plastered with clay. In the case of sores on the limbs, circulation would be checked by the fastening of a ligature above the sore part. Mange was frequently caught from the dogs. There was a disgusting monkey-like method of dealing with it which I have seen practised. One person, using a short pointed stick, would prick the pustules all over the body of the patient, who would be reclining in a convenient posture and enjoying the operation. For headache a band was fastened tightly round the temples. Besides common remedial measures, such as those mentioned, each community would have methods peculiar to itself. There is considerable difficulty iu determining the length of life of the blacks, the generation born after contact with white people being, on the whole, very short-lived. From numerous instances it would appear that former generations were fairly long-aged. Almost every small community would have in it two or three men or women over seventy years of age, and here and there some centenarians would be met with. The impaired constitutions of the present generation, their unhealthy habits arising from a combination of native with European modes of life, the ease with which many fall into vicious practices, pre- clude the possibility of many of them attaining to hoar hairs. It seems very probable that, in Victoria and New South Wales at least, there will not be a single pure aboriginal surviving fifty years hence. CHAPTER VIII GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS Government, laws, institutions — Aboriginal bondage to tradition — Tribal cohesion — Leadership— System of kinship and matrimonial restrictions — Ganowaniari classes — Blood-ties or marks of courtesy — Dr. Fison on the Murdoo legend — Classes not the result of a conscious reformatory effort — Promiscuous intercourse — Polyandry — Exogamy — Stages of social development as marked by marriage — Australian classes, group-marriage — Negatives as names of communities, class- names and totemism. Various writers have shown that the noble savage is not the child of liberty which he is popularly supposed to be. On the contrary, while roving the forest in apparent security and freedom his life is very uncertain, and from his childhood he is shackled with burdensome ordinances inherited from his ancestors, for the observance of which he usually has no intelli- gent reason to offer. The rules which prescribe the conduct of the Australian aborigines are in every place numerous and strictly obligatory, infraction being followed by penalties which always involve the risk of injury to the person and often the forfeiture of life. The unquestioning obedience which commonly marks submission to these vexatious regulations is very striking. The cohesion of a community depends entirely upon consan- guinity and derives no strength at all from governmental authority. A community is simply an aggregation of families among which the older men have a certain amount of control, derived naturally from age and experience. There is no recog- nised head, whether king or chief,* neither is there any defaiite ruling body, elective or hereditary. Men of preponderating influence are those who are distinguished for courage, strength, * Some writers have recognised a distinct chieftainship, as for instance Mr. James Dawson in the tribes he describes living in the southern watershed of Victoria ("Australian Aborigines,"' p. 5). 94 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW and force of character. These, in conjuuction with the elders, generally advise as to the public actions of the coumiuuity, settle internal disputes, and enforce obedience to traditional law. It is an abuse of language to designate the most influential man by the name of chief or king, as has occasionally been done, and an unwarrantable importation of foreign ideas into descrip- tions of Australian life. People, speaking virtually one and the same dialect, will be spread over from five thousand to ten thousand square miles of territory and sometimes more, and cut up into several small communities which, though usually friendly, may be involved in hostilities. Such a group of related septs would form what Mr. E. M. Curr has designated "associated tribes," association, however, being not entirely dependent upon close approximation of language. As a general rule, dissimilarity of speech connotes mutual internecine enmity, every stranger that falls into one's power being a proper object of slaughter. The so-called associated tribes barter with one another, inter- marry, and unite against a common foe. To one accustomed to think only of the relations in civilised society, perhaps the most singular and conspicuous feature in Australian social life is the system of kinship and the corre- sponding matrimonial restrictions. This point of study is particularly interesting and instructive, as bringing us face to face at the present day with a condition of society and inter- sexual relations which, from numerous instances existing in parts of the world widely separated, are generally believed to have universally prevailed at a prehistoric period, in what are now the most advanced races. Sir George Grey gets the credit of ha%^ug been the first to place on record the Australian ueculiarities of kinship and descent. While innumerable modi- fications are current, there are a few broad characteristics which mark the system and its accompaniments almost every- where : First. — A, being a male, his brother's children are spoken of as his own children, his sister's children are his nephews and nieces, his sister's grandchildren as well as his brother's are spoken of as his grandchildren ; and if A be a female, with the interchange of the terms "brother's" and "sister's" the proposition is also true. Secondly. — Every community is constituted by two or more GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 95 classes, most commonly four, and every individual bears one or other of the class-names. Thirdly. — Descent is usually through the females, and this is especially marked by the class-name of the mother determining the class-name of the child. Fourthly. — Marriage within the class is forbidden on pain of death ; there is consequently exogamy in respect of classes, and usually tribal septs or communities are exogamous as well. Systems of relationship like the Australian have been named by Mr. Morgan "classificatory." Beginning with an examination of a form called the Ganowanian, prevailing among the North American Indians, he made a comparison of other forms in various parts of the world, and came to the conclusion that the names of relationships which at a first glance appear loosely and inappropriately applied, are names of blood-ties, and indi- cate communal marriage, or group allied to group at a more primitive time. He is vigorously opposed by Mr. McLennan, who regards the relationship of the classificatory system as simply " comprising a code of courtesies and ceremonial addresses in social intercourse."* The discussion of the merits of these two hypotheses would require a special monograph. The writer inclines to the opinion that the terms used in the Australian system of kinship denote what were once blood-ties, and that their application was extended by analogy. It does not follow that they are evidential of former group-marriage, unless the connubium of some own brothers with own sisters be understood by that name. What seems to have originated such a theory is the fact that exoga- mous groups or classes are comprehended within one com- munity. The question of the former prevalence of so-called group-marriage will be settled by an accurate account of the origin of these classes, phratries or gentes, as they may be variously called. To explain their origin, Mr. Morgan assumes that, following upon primeval promiscuous intercourse, there was marriage between a set of brothers and a set of sisters, and that a recognition of the resulting evils led society to deliberately partition itself into intermarriageable classes with a view to their prevention. This field of inquiry so far as Australia is concerned has * McLennan's "Studies in Ancient History," p. 273. 96 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW been ably and comprehensively exploited by tw o distinguished co-workers, Mr. A. W. Howitt and Rev. Dr. L. Fison. When writing on this subject in a paper contributed to the Royal Society of New vSouth Wales in 1889 I felt constrained to dissent from some of their conclusions, and while I gladly acknowledge my indebtedness to their writings I am still unable to go the whole length with them. Dr. Fison* says they "have found it advisable to drop the term 'communal marriage ' altogether because of its misleading tendency and to substitute ' group-marriage ' for it." But while discarding an objectionable name they still adhere to the hypothesis for which it stood. Can the hereditary relationship subsisting between members of two intermarry iug classes be properly designated by the name of marriage ? I think not. It would involve in certain of the Australian class-systems the conclusion that a man was naturally and at the same time the husband of his recognised wife, his daughter and his mother-in-law. Dr. Fison says " the word marriage itself has to be taken in a certain modified sense," " what it implies is a marital right or rather a marital qualification."' A right and a qualification are very far from equivalent. The latter term is appropriate, the former doubtful. An argument in favour of group-marriage based upon the application of terms designating real relationship to all the members of a group where there are four or more groups is met by the objection that in Australia the manifold groups have been derived from an original pair. The Rev. Dr. L. Fison, in the work " Kamilroi and Kurnai," emphasises and corroborates Mr. Morgan's view. Dr. Fison, in dealing with the rise of the Australian exogamous classes, lays stress upon the Murdoo legend, an aboriginal tradition, the substance of which is that the classes restricting matrimony were constituted to remedy the bad results of in- cestuous marriage. That these classes do prevent certain close marriages is true, but is it logical to conclude therefrom that they were inaugurated for this purpose ? Moreover they require to be supplemented by other restrictions to prevent alliances between persons near of kin. The class-barriers would allow inter-marriage of cousins, and in some of the class-systems * "Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science," 1892, p. 689. GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 97 those unnatural alliances indicated above. It seems to me that the Murdoo legend is too flimsy to support such a conclusion, and if the classes were due to some other cause than a conscious rrfonna- tory effort, their effects looidd still he the sa.me. I prefer to regard them as springing from natural conditions of life, having a reformatory tendency no doubt, but the reformation neither recognised nor designed by those who were the subjects of it.* The obstacles presented to intermarriage of persons near of kin have put inquirers upon what is probably a wrong scent. Independently I arrived at the view which Mr. McLennan takes, viz., that the matrimonial classes are memorials and results of the coalescence of different stocks of people, which were once distinct and exogamous tribes or races, and this view is in harmony with the theory of the origin of the Australian people enunciated in this treatise. Both Mr. Morgan and Mr. McLennan set society in motion under a condition of promiscuous intercourse. This is quite an imaginary starting- point, and reduces mankind to a state of degradation lower than the brutes, which in many cases, and especially in the case of the higher apes, go in pairs. With a view to accounting for the change of kinship through females to kinship through males, Mr. McLennan finds it expedient to make polyandry follow promiscuity, and the necessity for polyandry he finds in the infanticide of female children and the consequent disturbance of the balance of the sexes. But the prevalence of infanticide of female infants is only postulated, not proved ; and although in various countries polyandry has been the rule, and in others' has been practised to some extent, nevertheless, a polyandrous stage of society in all races is far from established. Judging from the propensities of humanity as witnessed at the present day in savage races, polygyny is a much more favoured form of connubium than polyandry. And * " You will find by reference to Kuth's ' Marriage of Near Kin' that the injurious effects of close intermarrying is a myth and hence cannot be the basis of the Australian horror of blood alliances." Mr. S. E. Peal, "Australian Association for the Advancement of Science," vol. v. p. 514. Cf. also Huth's "Marriage of Near Kin," pp. 13S and 353. Mr. W. E. Roth pro- nounces emphatically against the Australian classes having been formed to avert consanguineous marriages ; see Roth's "Ethnological Studies Among the North- West-Central Queensland Aborigines," p. 69. Westermarckalso rejects Morgan's theory ; see his "History of Human Marriage," pp. 31S-319, 544. G 98 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW far more may be said in support of there having been as a rule a surplus of females in a community than the contrary. Nature herself tries to maintain the balance of the sexes and compensate for the greater mortality among males by an excess of male births. On the occasion of nations meeting in battle the victorious side slaughters the males and usually preserves the females, aud then either for the conquerors or the conquered polyandry would seem too unnatural to be dreamt of. Polyandry and agnation are bound together in Mr. McLennan's theory by rights of succession to inheritance; in other words, by property ; and, moreover, the conditions of life with which he mainly deals to explain succession through males are those of semi-civilised peoples among whom both sexes have accumulated property. There is a stage farther back than this exemplified in Australian aboriginal life, at which there is scarcely aught but territory to claim, and it is tribal rather than personal property ; and as for the women, with exogamy in regular operation, they possess nothing beyond a few threads, nets, baskets, or the like, about the succession to which there is likely to be no quarrel. At such a stage woman possesses practically nothing but her name and her charms, while she herself is man's most precious property. It seems to me that the primitive idea of acquiring and holding woman as one's own property is at the root of connubial systems, and in the majority of cases would conduce to polygyny rather than to polyandry. Let it be assumed that in the rudest state of society men covet women to be their peculiar possession and the following results, which obtain in Australia, ensue. The matured males by dint of force, and the elderly men by the authority of age, contrive to provide themselves with a plurality of wives, while the younger men must of necessity remain single, unless they procure partners by capturing them from an adjoining tribe. Women would thus be in continual demand, and exogamy would be conducted first in a purely hostile and predatory manner and later by barter or agreement of some kind. From being in a sense inevitable, exogamy would become the normal mode of marriage, and the result would be that the wives in a tribe would be of a different tribe from their husbands, and would have the name or totem of their own tribe clinging to them. With indefinite paternity and definite maternity the GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 99 children would belong to the mother and be recognised as of her blood, whatever general or tribal name the foreign mothers bore would also be attached to their offspring, unless the latter re- ceived a new special name from their hybrid appearance. Thus in process of time a homogeneous tribe would become hetero- geneous in blood and embrace two, if not more, intermarrying classes, and tend to endogamy as regards the tribe, exogamy still characterising the classes. Exogamy would tend to succession through males, even while there was uterine inheritance of class-names, because the sons would remain on their father's ground while the daughters would pass to other tribal territory, at first by capture and empty handed. But marriage loithin a heterogeneous com- munity once reached, and personal rights in property admitted, there might be inheritance either through males or females. The number of classes in an Australian community may vary from tico, as among the blacks at Mount Gambler, to ten,* as among the Kamilroi ; but the most common number is four, and there is good reason for concluding that at first there were only two classes which have been multiplied by subdivision or more probably by communities amalgamating. Six of the Kamilroi classes are certainly subdivisions of the four larger ones, and these again were either subdivisions of the two primary ones or the result of the combination of two different tribes. Where there are four classes they fall into related pairs, marriage being prohibited between the sections in one pair as if they formed just one class. These larger divisions have been called for convenience phratries. The rule is for a class of one phratry to marry into a particular class of the other phratry, the resulting offspring bearing the name of the remaining class in the mother's phratry, but occasionally either section of one pair of classes could marry into either section of the other pair. This is the case with the Kabi tribe of southern Queensland. The Kabi community has four classes — Barang, Balkun, Bonda, and Dherwen. Marriage is prohibited within any of the classes. Barang may not marry with Balkun, nor Bonda with Dherwen, but either * Among the Narrinyeri of South Australia there were eighteen divisions called clans by Mr. Taplin, but which were virtually classes like the above, as they served the same purpose. 100 EAGLEIIAWK AND CKOW Barang or Balkuu may marry either Bonda or Dherwen. There is this peculiarity to be noted about the descent -which is perhaps also a proof that the four classes are sub- divisions of a iirimary two, that the class-name alternates from mother to offspring by a continual recurrence of the same pair of names ; thus one line of descent will be Barang, Balkun, and the other Bonda. Dherwen, ad injinititm. Without postulating a fission of two classes into four, the existence of the four may be assumed to be due to the coalition of two communities which had each already two classes. Dr. Fison suggests* this solution of the multiplication of classes from two to four, and the writer thinks that no better can be offered. In support of the theory of multiplication of classes by fusion of tribes having each two or more class-names, I would poijit out that the terms ' Bunda,' ' Dherwen ' are no doubt the same as the Kamilroi words ' bundar,' kangaroo and ' dhina-wan,' cum, and that the other related pair of terms pro- bably just mean the same, i.e., ' Balkun,' kangaroo, and ' Barang,' emu. I have it from native authority that ' Barang ' means emu, and that ' Balkun ' means native hear ; but at the junction of the Thomson and Barcoo ' balcun ' is the name for kangaroo, and further, * Balkun ' is displaced by ' Bandur ' on the Brisbane River, which is probably a variant of Kamilroi 'bundar,' kangaroo. At the Hastings lliver in N. S. W. ' Bulkoing ' means red wallahy and ' Bundarra ' hlack wallahy. Thus each related pair of the Kabi terms would mean kangaroo, emu. Cohabitation between members of the same class is held to be grossly criminal, and is in many instances punishable by death. The union of individuals belonging to classes that cannot lawfully intermarry is equally abominated. Even in cases of rape the class rules are respected. The profound regard which the blacks show for restrictions fettered upon them by tradition, and for which they can give no better reason than that such is the practice, points to a veiy powerful originating cause and a sanction derived from condign and bloodthirsty penalties. To me at least, it is incredible that the segmentations into exoga- mous classes could have been deliberately made by agreement to avoid the evils of incest, for these would not be easily recog- nisable by nomadic savages. It seems more harmonious with * "Kamilroi and Kurnai," pp. 71, 72, GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITl'TIONS 101 social development to suppose that the gentes arose in the following manner. The women of a tribe were highly prized and jealously guarded by their husbands, whatever the type of connubium may have been, and bachelors, who, by reason of youth or other disability, could not obtain wives of their own tribe (i.e., what subsequently, when two or more tribes were fused, became their class), were obliged to obtain them by capture. The danger of tampering with the women of their own tribe made exogamy the rule in course of time. There may also be an auxiliary cause to exogamy among barbarians in what may be called an instinctive hankering after foreign women.* Some light may be thrown upon the matrimonial classifications by Hamor's proposal to Jacob,! " And make ye marriages with us and give your daughters unto us and take our daughters unto you and ye shall dwell with us." Had this overture not miscarried, two families might have amalgamated and become "one people'' as was proposed, embracing two intermarrying but exoganious classes. In this instance the cross-marriages would have begun by compact not by capture, and subsequent historians or ethnologists might have accounted for the rise of the classes by a supernatural wisdom like that which characterises the Murdoo legend. Messrs. Fison and Howitt obliterate the Australian individual in the distant past, regarding him as merged in his class. The class is an entity of which one person is only a fragment, and all the members of a class have marital rights over all the members of the class or classes with which they may intermarry. This is the hypothesis founded upon an incomplete induction from several practices now extant. It is impossible here to traverse the whole question, but having carefully weighed the arguments in favour of group-marriage, while admitting that there is a good deal in them to point to it, I fail to see that communal or group marriage has been proven to exist ; on the contrary, the conclusion contains much more than there is in the premises. * I am gratified to observe that Westermarck approves of the above remark as a recognition of a psychological fact, and that it suggests a reason for exogamy virtually the same as that which he has enunciated. " The History of Human Marriage," pp. 321 and 546. f Gen. xxxiv. 9, et seq. 102 EAGLEHAWK AND CRO^V IT e fc- o Is A be S ie g "^3 .2 ^ ^ ^ ^ r; 17 >; a s .2 '^ " « .^ >? IH II -2 ^* ^ af ^.§3 S o s 3^ j^ o ;.2 a 2 ;, a *« cj c3 a ■ — . — • • — • — .a o S . a- -g CL, pu, -g , es wj eS d a a GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 103 OS a -3 o a ^ ^ •9 =« =« -S '5 - -^ , t5 3 •r* * ^H I— • C3 ••-* t- fl n-^cSSort3^- 3 3- a ^ ;z; C Z S « ^ O ^ ^- "S ' 3 3 ' e- a, ••^ fe = ^ S 3 3 p S ^ ° ^ S fe S ^' S fe S f^" « o O ^ bo "SS -2:3 O H o" Sg" 2Q 3 J _ H o ^ 'c« o 'rt O o ri ^ S ^ S e: ^ rt ' ' ' ' ^ ^ ^j -3 -- S5 am p 3 ^ a^ toSo 00 ^ "o I a -o >^ cr. ^^>. = g § -2^ i a § ^ 1 ;^l -2'S;3 2 I i"M § p > P^rO ^3S3g3.S.S3.-3 S I? SI'S a 2| th%-^ i I |l CO c3 ^J;3ci3 33 33 •" ^ no, o a ^ ■ " . ^ . -T . ^- c a a> ' ' 3 .5 a -; c ^ ° ^ ^4 3 '^ ""^ en rt "" " '"* .2^ «-< 3 O 104 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW m -3 < 5 0) a o 02 D GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITUTIONS 105 ^^ 1 re 3 '^ cs" Z .. be « „ g a s o W "^ << ce (D a xj P 4S " ^ • be H o?=kph ^2sa t3 n S ^ to 3 S « S m p^ fi. « 15 '^ bo > 'O a Q) •S rt o j-< : r ' cs O O O Q ^=^ i 0- be =« 'oj 3 "a ^ ' ~ t x t^ — u g « C3 - § a bo-i4 o I- ^ 'SOS -<• ^ a ■< .oo o S':2So g i i ^ a - ^ ^ ;2 . -s ;§ s So^t« ^« ?^~'-^ -i .v^o ^ > 6"^ « gsJ^J;S-5 •c^i'S -s §a5=^|d| •E-g^l^ '§S>:=a 1 ^Wcl^ tilt. J^ CO rt .-2 > , •- en if a 1=^ 4) qT o o ° a ^ CQ t-^ >- 2 fl ■" — o a H a) . . ^ fr. W O - = :: A O Pi n be eS ° ~> a - o o "S i aj o § a >.g «e . ^ c« o fin W CL, m O HH O '3).-r >. CO ^ a a o o be & "5 t*^ o »3 -U o •« iz; o n g g a -2 * bc'j; 'O VO vo vo rf ^'^ "^ ifi r^, ro r^ ■* •^ ■ a "« J3 O .2 =« M a h; a ^ S -H &H ^ 1-3 M ro ■^ vo vo h-r 'O .a 'S a a M GOVERNMENT, LAWS, INSTITl'TIONS lOT : "-^ -S C3 .t ^ o o o 2 a m fc^ ?= w ::2 (S: § t; - "^ I: o ;z: :2 .„ g ^ eS O 2 6C t)--.g ^Sboa ^-- H.-SOOCS ^ oMq gj|g||5 .^ ^ as .• .■S®r!®C "Oo.iSoO nO t; ^ M p: W pq § ;= .2 a .2 .5 -g _ ^ ■" ^ 5 « .2 O J2 ""' S : a . "^ pqh,>HSa''o ""i-ioS^ui J^li-y 'Oo5aj -. fi1 old-world barbarity which has been perpetuated here. A similar custom is prevalent in Sumatra, where the women have their teeth rubbed or filed down. But the most horrible of all the mutilations is that which Mr. Sturt designated "the terrible rite." This bloody concision is done within the area where circumcision occurs, but is not so widely practised.* It is inflicted with a stone knife. To describe the operation in detail is outside the scope of this work, but we cannot avoid asking what object it is intended to serve. Mr. Rotht has satis- factorily demonstrated that it neither prevents coition nor pro- creation, and suggests that it lias been adopted on the ])rinciple of imitation as a corresponding practice to forcible vaginal rupture. It seems more reasonable to regard the latter practice, which prevails coincidently with snbincision, as a necessary consequence of this. I accept the view of Westermarck that the object is ornamentation and increased virility of appearance. This view is supported by the mode of circumcision followed in Tanna, New Hebrides. The Rev. William Gray:f says that there the prepuce is so cut as to leave a wing on each side, forming a large lump underneath. '• The longer the operation, the more a man does it make the boy." And Prof. W. B. Spencer § mentions that in central Australia, on the occasion of the rite of subincision being undergone, young men who have been operated upon once and even twice previously will voluntarily come forward and call upon the operators to enlarge the incision to the utmost. So that a pride is taken in the enlarged appearance. Where subincision is practised vaginal introcision becomes inevitable. No mutilation is more horribly cruel or disabling, but savages have little or no compunction with respect to their treatment of women. The ornamentation of the body by cicatrices has already been referred to, and needs only to be mentioned here. What the writer has seen done has been solely for adornment, but it has been alleged that the pattern of the incisions serves in some * Curr's "The Australian Race,' vol. i. p. 74. and also map. "Finditur usque ad urethram a parte infera penis " (Eyre's description). t "Ethnological Studies Among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines," p. 179. + "Report of Australian Association for the Advancement of Science for 1892,"' p. 659. § "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria," 1S97, p. 171. 122 i:agli:haa\ K and chow cases as a tribal or gentile badge (au allegation well confirmed), or as a mark of rank, * although what rank an aboriginal could claim I cannot conceive. If by rank is meant stage of initiation to manhood, the observation is correct. These incisions are another link relating the Australians both to the Polynesians and the people of India. 'Nothing could exceed the dolefulness of the lamentations made for the dead. The crying is as much like the howling of the dingo as the wailing of human beings. It is carried on vin-orously and persistently for weeks after the decease, and then broken off by occasional crying fits. Very commonly the coq^se is flayed and certain portions of the flesh eaten. Some parts of the body will be preserved and carried about as relics or charms, such as the knee-caps, the shin-bone, the hand, the skin. In Gippsland the hand of a dead person is worn round the neck as a charm and as au instrument of sorcery, a practice similar to the preservation of the finger-nails (and portions of the fingers attached) of a deceased person by the New Hebri- deans. Mothers will carry the dead bodies of their children on their march, even in a putrefying state. This, according to Mr. Curr, is also a kind of penalty inflicted upon young mothers who are blamed for causing their baby's death by carelessness. I am reluctantly disposed to doubt Mr. Curr's reason. I have other testimony of this and similar practices being followed purely from affection. The women especially cling affectionately to parts of the body of deceased relatives, a very creditable ten- derness in those whose belief p racti cally is that death ends al l. One mode of disposing of the dead is to bundle the bones into a hollow tree. I have found three or four tombs of this kind within an area of about four square miles. Before being thus disposed of, some tribes wrap the corpse in bark. A prac- tice followed on the east coast of Queensland, and at a place so far distant as Encounter Bay, South Australia,! is to stretch the dead on an elevated platform of boughs until the corpse has become desiccated. A very general mode of burial is to prepare the body for interment by doubling the legs so that the knees * Dr. Carroll, Centennial Magazine, October i8S8. The present writer has personal testimony that tribes wear distinctive scars, but he has not been able to verify the statement. f At Encounter Buy. after tue flesh is decayed, the bones are burned. MAIIUIAGE, MAN-MAKING, MT'TILAl'IONS l^.'i will come under the chin ; the hands are then tied by the side, and the corpse is placed in a grave in this sitting position head upwards. I am informed that on the Lachlan and Murrum- bidgee the dead body was deposited with the head towards the south.* In the north of Queensland cemeteries are to be seen where there are accumulations of skulls. Immediately after a death the camp at night is resonant with hideous sounds. When first I heard the howls of despair it made my very flesh creep with horror, and to heighten the effect the mourners might be seen the greater part of the night hurrying hither and thither brandishing torches, with the ob- ject, it was said (I know not how credibly), of frightening away evil spirits. As might be expected, the grave is very shallow. I have seen one in the Burnett District, Queensland, with several short logs placed at the side of it on the surface, which are said by the blacks to represent the number of brothers the deceased had, and to indicate by their position relatively to the corpse the direction in which the brothers resided. Unless w h en the cause of death is very obvious, su ch as a spear- woun d, it i sjield t^* hnvft bppnj^rouglv^j ^ut secre tly by another blac kfellow . Diverse methods are adopted for the discovery of the murderer. For instance, among the Kamilroi an ancient shin- bone relic, wrapped in cord and some greasy matter, is held near a fire, and when it fizzles it is believed to point in the direction of the guilty person, who is then easily identified. In central Victoria a straw would sometimes be inserted in a small ant-hole or other perforation in the covering of the grave, and the direc- tion in which the upper end would point would be the road to take to find the person who had caused the death. And then it might be the first blackfellow of another tribe who might be met that w ould b e_ slauqhtered in cold blood in revenge . Cap- tain Grey testifies that, among the blacks of Western Australia, the drea d of blind vengeance on the occasion of a death was extreme ^ because nothing coul d save an innocent person from bemg ponruWljTpm i eithe?- in o bedience to sorne^fnuynrv or for saitisfact ^n~of spite on the part of a sorcerer. The murderer had~aTways to be sought for, and soinebody would have to satisfy the demand. In many tribes the coiqise is interrogated as to who was the cause of his death, and responses are obtained * My informant is Mr. Humphry Davy. 124 KAGLKIIAAVK AM) CROW generally by spells. "While in the act of lamentation for the (lead, the women would lacerate their bodies from head to foot till blood would be streaming from innumerable small incisions. The blood was allowed to dry upon the skin. The fact that this practice was forbidden to the Israelites shows its great antiquity.* Near relatives of the deceased wore some token of mourning upon the head, the usual practice being to attach tufts of emu's feathers to locks of the hair, and leave them to drop off of them- selves. In some parts clay was plastered over a net upon the head and allowed to harden until the whole assumed the form of a skull-cap.f After being worn for a time it was laid upon the grave. A form connected with mourning as practised by the Murunuda, South Gregory District, was to cover the whole body with lime. Another custom in mourning was a prolonged abstinence from certain kinds of animal food. Mr. Bradshaw informs me that at Ruby Creek, Kimberley, on the occasion of a man's death his wives are clubbed to death with great ceremony by the old married men. This atrocity has not been noticed in other localities. We are not surprised to learn that while in the same neighbourhood the coqjses of men are wrapped up in bark and laid on ledges in caves, those of women are flung under bushes as if not worth attention. My informant is Mr. Froggatt. * Deut. xiv. 1 ; Lev. xix. 28, &c. The making bald is forbidden in the same connection, which is also an Australian sign of mourning, t Curr's " The Australian Race " vol. ii. p. 238. CHAPTER X ART, CORROBOREES Art — Corroborees — Message-sticks of Malay introduction— Rock- paintings, where found — Mr. Giles' discovery at Lake Amadeus — Cap- tain Stokes' discovery at Depuch Island — Mr. Norman Taylor's in Cape York Peninsula— Mr. Cunningham's at Clack's Island — Painting at Nardoo Creek, Queensland— Captain Flinders' discovery at Chasm Island— Captain Grey's at Glenelg River, N.-W. Australia — Author- ship — Daibaitah — Mr. Bradshaw's discoveries at Prince Regent River described — Explained — Parvati — Siva — Mr. W. Froggatt's dis- coveries — Nauri — Hand-prints — Figures — Cave-paintings in New South Wales, and at Eilliminah Creek, Victoria — Sample of work at Billiminali Creek — Rock-carvings near Sydney — The Australian muse — Corroborees. The skill shown in the manufacture of weapons has been already noticed. These were often ornamented with rude colouring and carving. Some of the carvings appear to me to be imitations of letters, and perhaps a careful examination of very old choice specimens may result in an interpretation of the hieroglyph-like characters. A throwing-stick figured in Mr. Smyth's work,* and spoken of by him in terms of warm appro- bation for its artistic merits, bears engravings very like the Sumatran letters, which will be referred to again below. I am strongly of opinion that the native message-sticks are imitations of the old Malay practice, prevailing at least in Sumatra, of writing upon bamboo and rattan canes. It is very natural to suppose that isolated Malays dwelling among the Australians would endeavour to correspond with each other in this way, agreeably to the custom of their native land, and that the Australian aborigines, observing that the characters were legible, would readily imitate the more intelligent race. A careful pre- servation of old message-sticks is desirable ; perhaps some may * Mr. R. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," Tol. i. p. joS, Fig. 88. 126 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW yet be discovered or may already be in our museums or in private possession, bearing legible writing. Those now current convey intelligence purely by sign-writing, not by alphabetical characters, and require the bearer to interpret. The message- sticks vary in length from i^ in. to the length of a walking- stick ; the thickness is also variable, and the figuring consists of pits, notches, strokes, curves and zigzag lines. The inner side of the skins in opossum rugs was also scratched with rough representations of a few common objects, generally drawn in single lines. The art of painting has been so little practised by the aborigines of Australia, that to say they were ignorant of it altogether would not be far from the truth. Some of them, after contact with Europeans, have given evidence of consider- able imitative power, but usually native pictorial art has not risen higher than rude conventional sketches of men, kangaroos, emus, turtles, snakes and weapons, done mostly in charcoal and occasionally cut out on trees or graven on rocks. The linear designs scratched on the inner surface of opossum rugs or carved on weapons, and sometimes coloured red, black or yellow, are of the simplest patterns. But at a few places, very widely apart, specimens of art have been discovered immeasurably superior to the ordinary aboriginal level. The only localities, so far as I can learn, where this higher artistic skill has been exhibited, are the following : Depnch Island, one of the Forestier group, on the west coast of Australia, in latitude 20^ ^y' S. and longi- tude 117° 41' E. ; Cape York Peninsula; Clack's Island, near Cape Flinders, on the north-east coast of Queensland ; Nardoo Creek, Buckland's Tableland, Central Queensland ; Chasm Island, in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; the Kimberley District, Western Australia ; a few other places in that quarter, and especially the Glenelg and Prince Regent Rivers, not far inland, on the north-west coast of Australia. Mr. J. Bradshaw informs me that Lieutenant Oliver, of H.M.S. Penguin, while on a survey expedition on the west coast of Australia, found cave-drawings on Feint Island, near Bigge Point (latitude 14" 30' S., longitude 125^ 3' E.), and took some sketches. I do not know their character. In thrqe places, a few miles distant from each other, Mr. Giles found paintings of inferior workmanship and accompanied '3 or°-,^^ oao o a O C PO O O o o C00l^^^''^<'<'°<^OO^> 0O00 6OC ART, COllROBORKKS 127 by the almost universal hand-prints. He noticed characters like the Roman numerals VI painted red, and dotted over with spots. His discovery was made a little to the north of Lake Amadeus, near the heart of Australia, and the description he has given of the style of art suggests that the artists were of the same race as those who elsewhere have left such memorials of their presence. The paintings on Depuch Island are numerous, but, judging from the sketches made by their discoverer, Captain Stokes, they are much inferior to the other groups in point of subject and treatment ; they represent animals chiefly. In one sketch there is a rude attempt at delineating a corroboree. The artists have been satisfied if what they intended for human figures have been recognisable as such. In the Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost part of Queensland, Mr. Norman Taylor, when exploring, " found a flat wall of rock on which numerous figures were drawn. They were outlined with red ochre and filled in with white. The figure of a man was shown in this manner, and was spotted with yellow." * At Clack's Island, paintings were discovered by Mr. Cunningham, June 23, 1821, when he accompanied the King's Survey Expedition. " They were executed upon a ground of red ochre (rubbed on the black schistus), and were delineated by dots of a white argillaceous earth which had been worked up into a paste." They represented " tolerable figures of sharks, turtles," &c. Besides being outlined by the dots, " the figures were dotted all over with the same pigment, in dotted transverse belts " ; f more than one hundred and fifty figures had been thus executed. The work at Nardoo Creek, Queensland, must be very imposing if it be coi'rectly interpreted. The picture is seventy feet across. It is said to represent a lake of fire, out of which are stretched life-size " dusky brown arms, in hundreds, in every conceivable position, the muscles knotted, and the hands grasp- ing convulsively, some pointing a weird finger upwards, others clenched as if in the agonies of death." :t; * Mr. R. Brough Smrth's "The Aborigines of Victoria." vol. i. p. 292. t King's "Voyages to Australia," vol. ii. pp. 25, (t seq. X T. Worsnop's "The Prehistoric Arts of the Aborigines of Australia." 128 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW Those at Chasm Island were discovered by Flinders, January 14, 1803. They were painted with charcoal, and some kind of red paint on white rock as a background, and represented porpoises, turtles, kangaroos, and a human hand. Mr. Westall found, at the same spot, "the representation of a kangaroo, with a file of thirty-two persons following after it. The third person of the band was twice the height of the others, and held in his hand something resembling the waddy of the natives of Tort Jackson."* The human figures were nude. Thr most notable of the cave-paintings are those found by Captain Grey (the late Sir George Grey), f in :March 1 838, on the Glenelg River, near the north-west coast of Australia, in long. 125' 9' E., lat. 15" 57^' S., and some near the same locality, by Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, in the beginning of 1891, at Prince Regent River, in long. 125° 36' E., lat. 15 40' S., or some thirty-seven miles north-east of Grey's. There can be but little doubt that all these groups of unique specimens of art — the Depuch Island group is somewhat uncer- tain — were produced by people of one and the same race, who were foreigners relatively to Australia. One singular character- istic indicates a unity in style of execution, viz., the decoration of the body of certain of the figures with dots. This was a feature of some of the work seen by Grey, Taylor, Cunningham, and Giles respectively. I shall now restrict my observations to the two most important and wonderful paintings among Grey's discoveries, and the four discovered and sketched by Mr. Bradshaw. Fig. i of Grey's was the upper part of a nude (or apparently nude) human form,J embracing full face, arms and trunk ; the mouth not delineated. or probably worn off the painting. This figure was executed upon the sloping roof of a natural cave, the entrance to which was 5 ft. in height. For the sake of effect the background had been coloured black. The total length was 3 ft. 6f in., the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Brisbane. 1895. The diaper work and medallions figured in the same paper, Plate XII., and occurring at the Ooraminna rockhole on the overland telegraph lines, seem to me either the work of Europeans or done under European influence. * Flinders" "Voyages to Terra Australia," vol. ii. p. 18S. * Sir George Grey's "Journal of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North- Western and Western Australia," 1837-39. * The artist may have meant to represent this figure clothed with a tight- fitting tunic. ART, CORROBOREES 12J> greatest breadth 3 ft. li iu.,the colouring was in the most vivid red and white, the eyes being black, a halo of light red was depicted round the head, its continuity being interrupted by the neck; triple parallel dotted lines of white crossed the halo from the head outwards at regular intervals. All round the halo, rising from its outer rim, there were wavy tongues of flame done in a darker red. The outline of the halo was dark red, that of the eyes yellow, that of the nose red. The trunk of the body, from the level of the armpits down to about the waist, was marked irregularly all over with red ticks, bearing a strong resemblance to Sumatran writing. Grey's Fig. 2 is also of a human form and done on the roof of another cave. It is clad in a red robe, reaching from the neck to the ankles, and having tight-fitting sleeves. The total length of this figure is 10 ft. 6 in. ; the face looks right for- ward ; the background of the face is white, the mouth being indicated by a red streak. No nose appears ; the probability is that the paint has been worn off by the weather. The eyes are outlined with yellow, which is bordered with a thin red line. Surrounding the face, there is a broad band of yellow outlined with red, and outside of this is a broader white band or halo also outlined with red, and interrupted at the neck. The hands and feet are coloured dark red. The figure stands nearly in the military attitude of '"attention," the hands, however, being separated a little from the sides. Immediately over the head on the outer halo or head-dress are six marks, placed in a horizontal line at close regular intervals, bearing a general resemblance to plain Roman letters. To the right of the figure are three perpendicular rows of small irregular rings, seventeen in the line next the figure, twenty-four in the middle line, and twenty-one in the outer line. To the left and close to the shoulder are two marks which may have been intended for similar rings. The upper one is like a crescent with convex side up, the other like a horizontal ellipse, the upper left (to the observer) quarter wanting. For a view of coloured prints of these and other paintings seen by Grey, I would refer to his " North-West and Western Australia," vol. i. p. 201, d sc(2. The colours employed in both Grey's and Bradshaw's discoveries were red, blue, yellow, black and white. In Bradshaw's there was also brown. I 130 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Various conjectures, some of them rather wild, have been made regarding the origin of this group. These paintings have been referred to I'hocnicians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Japanese and Hindus respectively. Mr. R. Brough Smyth* thought that, with the exception of Grey's Fig. i, the authorship of which he con- sidered doubtful, they were the work of natives of Australia, " unassisted by any knowledge gained by intercourse with persons of a different race." As long ago as 1846, Mr. Hull sought to identify Fig. i as Amoun, Cronus or Jupiter.f He says that one Hindu, who was shown a sketch of it, called it Kons ; another called it Koodar or Kadar ; and a Victorian black called it Pundyil, a deity of the Victorian natives. On page 36 Mr. Hull identifies this figure with the Hindu Siva ; his conclusion, I believe, is correct, although hardly justified by bis premises. Now, however, we have got fresh light in Mr. ikadshaw's discoveries, and, when viewed in conjunction with them, it is all but certain that this figure is intended to repre- sent one of the Hindu triad, viz., Mahadeva or Siva (the Destroyer Time), who is sometimes portrayed with a halo round the head. With regard to Grey's Fig. 2, being much struck with the resemblance which the marks on the head-dress bore to the alphabets of Sumatra, I have tried to decipher them, and I believe the result is successful. By comjDaring the characters on the painting with the specimens of Sumatran writing, given in V. D. Tuuk's " Les Manuscrits Lampongs,'" I made out the first four letters to spell D AI B AI ; then I found from Marsden's " History of Sumatra " X that the Battas of Sumatra applied the name Daibattah to one of their deities, and that the Cingalese have a cognate name deioiju ; the Telingas of India employ the word iktit'mnda, the Baijus of Borneo, deivattah, &c. — all to designate a divine being. I ultimately succeeded in deciphering the whole inscription to read DAIBAITAH. The following considerations leave, I think, no room for doubt as to the correctness of my interpretation ; the authenticated letters are from V. D. Tuuk's "Les Manuscrits Lampongs." Assuming * E. Brough Smyth's " The Aborigines of Victoria," vol. i. p. 289. t " Remarks on the Probable Origin and Antiquity of the Aboriginal Natives of New South Wales." X " History of Sumatra," p. 290. ART, CORROBOREES 131 that Grey copied the joainting with perfect accuracy, and that it was in perfect preservation, the characters are : — c; / r / /.< My interpretation is i' A I B A I TAH .^^ / X / "^ * ^^® v.nquesiion- ably corresponding forms in " Les Manuscrits Lampongs." Forms of da are -^^ , -^^ , Q ^^^^^ CZ (^i^*^® above) on pp. 56 and loi). Forms of ta are -^-^ -* — "' ( Q, is given by other writers, therefore \^^ is the persistent part of ta), y^ is the common form for ha; see alphabets, pp. 139-142. / is given as ai in alphabets of Part V. of MS. A. In alphabet drawn from Part I. of MS. A (p. 139) there are two forms for ' h,' of which ^ placed on the right of another consonant represents jinal 'h,' and, like the vowels with which it seems to be classed, is smaller than the consonants. The character as written will be seen in Part I. of ]\rS. A, and in some cases the lines are almost touching at the angle. A considerable amount of information is available about this mythical person. The Battaks (or Battas) of Sumatra " believe in the existence of one Supreme Being, whom they name Debati Hasi Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having wholly com- mitted the government to his three sons, who do not govern in person, but by Vakeels or proxies." * The proxies also get the title of Debata with a modifying word, so that it is the generic name for deity. It seems to me that the myth of Daibaitah and his three sons is an accommodation of the Hindu supreme divine essence Narayana with the triad, derived from him or sometimes represented as his modes Vishnu, Brahma, and Siva. The root of Daibaitah and its variants is evidently the Sanskrit Deva {cf. Daiva, fate), and may be compared with divus and divinity. Mr. Bradshaw saw fifty or sixty pictures or scenes. In a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, September 10, 1891, when referring to the cave-paintings, he * Coleman's " Mythology of the Hindus," p. 364, et scq. 132 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW says : " These sketches seemed to be of great age, but over the surface of some of them were drawn in fresher colours smaller and more recent scenes and rude forms of animals." " In one or two i)laces we saw alphabetical characters somewhat similar to those seen by Sir George Grey." Of Bradshaw's discoveries, Group I. comprises five human figures coloured brown, a snake and kangaroo coloured red, and a legend in characters manifestly of the same type of alphabet as those in Grey's painting. There are also in red two personal ornaments detached : one of these consists of four concentric circles somewhat compressed horizontally, with three discs of like shape, one in the centre and one at each side of the outer- most ring ; the other is a band in the shape of half an ellipse, each end terminating in a round disc. There are four spikes projecting from the upper part of this figure, and five others from the rounded end. This is no doubt a sketch of an elaborate and massive earring, as will be shown farther on. The human figures have long caps on the head.* Three of them have yellow collars, evidently representing gold. One has a girdle with tassels at each side, and armlets at the elbows, from which there are tassels depending. The limbs are poorly executed, both as regards shape and proportion. Total length of scene, from right to left, 12 to 15 feet; greatest height, 6 to 9 feet. Group II. represents two female figures done in brown. The one is in erect posture, the head turned to one side so as to show the face in profile. The full front of the body is shown, the arms being extended sideways. From the knees downwards has not been sketched. There are armlets at the elbows, and tassel-like ornaments hanging down from the head. The other figure is in an attitude of swimming or perhaps supplication. The side of the body is seen, the hands being extended in front. The figure terminates a little below the waist. Both figures have on long, heavy-looking caps. A crocodile, coloured red, stretches across the picture behind the human figures, its length is about 10 feet, the tail and feet are wanting. The erect female figure is about 5 feet in height. * What appear to be caps may really be in some of the instances the style of coiffure like that of the natives of Timor Laut, who dress the hair to hang down in a cataract. C/. Forbes "Eastern Archipelago," p. 308. F. RADSIIA \V Kit;. I BRADSIIAW Jil-IADSIIAW Fi<;. 3 BUADSHAW VH.. 4 ART, COJIROBOIIEES l33 Group III. contains a bright red figure rudely representing the upjDer part of a human form. The head is surmounted by nine detached yellow rays. It has three arms or flippers, two red ones where arms would naturally be placed, and extending almost at right angles from the trunk; the third arm is brown, it reaches upwards and outwards from the left side, and at its extremity is a skull coloured brown, with eye sockets and mouth left blank. The body is enlarged and rounded at the lower extremity, which rests on the back of a large serpent, the head of which rises and projects outwards on the left side of the main figure just under the death's head. The serpent's mouth is open, its eyes left blank, the head and neck are coloured yellow, the rest of the body a dark red, the colours meeting in a zigzag line with acute deep angles. In front of the rather amorphous red figure is a human figure without arms. This is of a brown colour, it stands bolt upright and on tiptoe, the feet reach a little lower than the body of the serpent, the head is within the head of the red figure, the latter forming a foil. The brown figure wears a head-dress, has a girdle round the waist, and broad bands or rings on the legs at the knees ; from both sides of the head, of the girdle, and of the leg bauds, tassel-like ornaments are suspended similar to those already described, giving the appearance of being made of knotted twine, generally with three fringes at the knots, sometimes only one or two ends or fringes. These articles are all the figure wears. From the lower side of the solitary right arm, and from the throat of the serpent, there hang similar tassel ornaments of a dark brown colour. The greatest height of this painting is about 8 feet, the greatest width about 5 feet. Group IV. has for background what is evidently a huge symbolical painting of a sun-god coloured red. It appears to be placed in a horizontal position ; the bullet-shaped head is formed of three concentric circles, with a small disc in the middle. From near the upper part of the head detached red rays extend outwards. The head rests on a short neck, which rests on the middle of the convex side of a crescent-shaped device meant for arms. This consists of two endless bands, one within the other, bent to form a crescent. The concave side of this crescent rest ^ on the shaqily- rounded curve of the outer of three similar bands, one within the other, the six ends forming 134 EAGLEHA^VK AND CROW the termination of the tiuuk, and completing the symbolical figure. Drawn perpendicularly across the trunk are portions of four human figures, one complete except feet and arms, another minus feet and having the arms extended upwards in an attitude of supplication, the two others minus arms, neck and feet. Kach of the first two has three of the tassel-tipped cords or ribbons han":in<>- outwards from the crown of the head. All are furnished with belts round the waist, having a tassel at each side. It seems to me that the most important of these groups are Nos. I. and III. The characters are of the same type as the Lampong letters, and at once suggest Sumatra as the native home of the artist. This supposition is confirmed by an inspec- tion of the plates and explanatory letterpress at the end of the " Bataksch-Nederduitsch Woordenbock," by H, N. Van der Tuuk. One of the figures is an earring worn by women, the resemblance of which to the spiked ornament in the Australian picture is so close as to leave no room for doubt that they both are delineations of the same kind of personal ornament. And from ^'an der Tuuk's jjlate we learn both that the ornament on the Australian picture was not completed and how it would have looked when finished. In Plate XXII. of the same work there are illustrations giving us a clear idea of what the tassel orna- ments in the Australian pictures are meant for. I have no explanation to offer of the human figures. I would just draw attention to the fact that the arms of one, if not of two, of the figures are skeleton arms, a pretty sure indication that the picture is symbolical. The head-dress of the small figure beside the kangaroo is surmounted by what appears to be a head. The large red figure, with its accessories, is manifestly of religious significance. It might mean anything or nothing but for the three most striking features — the skull, the serpent, and the rays. From time immemorial in mythology the serpent has been a token of divinity, ancient statues or paintings of deities were seldom without it. In Indian mythological paintings Parvati (or Kali or Devi), the consort of Siva, is usually repre- sented as wearing a necklace of skulls, or holding one or more skulls in one or other of her hands, or under both of these cir- cumstances. One or more serpents are also usually associated ART, CCJUROBOUEES 135 with tliis goddess. As Parvati she has only two hands ; under other aspects the hands are multiplied. In Moor's ''Hindu Pantheon," Plate XXVII., Parvati has a ser- pent hanging from each ear, one round the neck, and another round the waist. In Plate XXIX., Maha Kali holds a head on the tips of the forefinger and thumb of each of the two upper hands, and in each of the two lower ones she suspends a head by the hair ; she also has on a necklace of skulls. This is the most venerated goddess of the Hindus, as being most to be dreaded, and most requiring to be propitiated. Plate XXIX. gives an Avatara of Siva, seated on the folds of a serpent, whose head surmounted the god's head. This figure has four hands, in one of which she holds a head by the hair. Another mark of Siva is a halo round the head. In Coleman's "Mythology of the Hindus," p. 91, Parvati is repre- sented under the form of Kali, the consort of Siva, in his destroying character of Time. In Plate XIX. she is shown as a personification of Eternity trampling on the body of Siva, her consort. Time ; in one hand she is holding a human head. Hindu pictures in which the god is represented seated cross- legged, with his consort on his lap and his arms around her, are frequently to be seen. These references should, I think, be sufficient to identify this picture as a combined representation of Siva and Kali. A conjunct view of these paintings leaves no doubt as to the nationality of their authors, and the significance of the best of them is tolerably clear. It is obvious that there has been an attempt to present pictorial fragments of Hindu mythology in the confused form which has been developed by naturalisation in Sumatra. The attributes of both Siva and Kali his consort are allegorically expressed, whatever the names may have been by which these deities were known to the artists, ])aibaitali. with his three sons aud their proxies, may be a version of the Hindu triad which has been freshly elaborated, perhaps uncon- sciously, by the Sumatran mind. One is naturally curious to discover what the three rows of rings on the right of Daibaitah and the two marks on his left may symbolise. In these, also, there is an imitation of Hindu sacred allegorical art. In Moor's "Hindu Pantheon," on Plate XL., there is a figure of Devi, at the side of which there are two peqiendicular rows 136 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW of oblonjr marks, some oval, some rectangular, five in each row. On the same plate Bhavani (or Devi) is represented with two perpendicular rows of oval marks, three in each row. On I'late LXI. two different representations of Devi have, round the border, the one a string of imperfect circles, the other a string composed partly of circles, partly of squares. A third picture of her on the same plate has a border of circles at the bottom, and near the head are a crescent on the right and a circle on the left, manifestly symbolising the moon and the sun. Other plates of Devi have rows of rings at the bottom, with a crescent and a circle near the head. There is doubtless as close a rela- tion between the circles on the Australian pictures and those on the Indian ones as between the names Daibaitah and Devi. They indicate attributes of the particular deity. Dr. Adam Clarke says that the among the Hindus is a mystic symbol of the deity signifying silence, which seems scarcely an adequate explanation. Perhaps the inference that the two marks standing apart near the left shoulder of Daibaitah may symbolise the sun and moon is rather bold and unwar- ranted, but from comparison with the Hindu pictures one cannot help a surmise that this may be the case. The artists of these extensive works must have spent an immense amount of time and mental and physical energy in their execution, the first impulse being probably imparted by religious feeling. One cannot but believe that there was a number of sacred men among the immigrants from Sumatra, and that some at least of these caves, upon the decoration of which skill and labour were so lavishly spent, were shrines where worship was offered. Just under the roof-tree in Sumatran temples (?) (Sopo), there is a carving of a human head called ' buwaja-buwaja, ' i.e., the figure of a crocodile, be- cause in earlier times, and even still in primitive places, instead of a man's head the figure of a crocodile is placed in that position* — this is interesting as suggesting a sacred meaning attaching even to Bradshaw's Group II. Whatever influence these religious foreigners may have exerted in the neighbourhood of the Glenelg and Prince * "Eataksch-Nederduitsch Woordenbock " (H. N. Van der Tuuk). Letter- press at end of book explanatory of Plate II. ART, CORROBOREES 137 Regent Rivers, it seems to have all but faded away. Mr. William Froggatt, of Sydney, New South Wales, visited the Glenelg River in 1887-8. The aborigines could give no satis- factory account of the paintings, but said they were pictures of the " Nauries," black evil spirits, the agents of all ill and of whom they were afraid. This ignorance as to the origin of the pictures goes to show that they must have been done at least a hundred years ago. Mr. Froggatt states that the natives in the locality wear "tails" on the forehead to keep away the flies and waistbands made of opossum fur or human hair, which adorn- ment may correspond to some shown on the figures. As regards the "Nauries," Mr. Joseph Bradshaw informs me that "the only religious ceremony practised by the Yuons (in Kimberley, north-west Australia) is an occasional corroboree in honour of Nari, of whom they cannot or will not give much information, but ascribe to him (or it) the creation of all things long ago." The name Nauri may prove a means of obtaining further light upon the relation between the Sumatraus and the Australians of the north-west coast. The rite of circumcision was probably introduced to Australia by Sumatran natives, a view which is confirmed by local dis- tribution of this practice. The making of hand-prints upon rocks in red mostly, but sometimes in black, which may be considered universal in Australia, is probably a practice derived from the same source, for Captain Grey (now Sir George Grey) saw a hand and arm done in black, and Flinders' party saw a hand painted presumably in red. In India the print of a hand is said to be emblematic of taking an oath. Mr. Curr has seen the blacks making such impressions for pastime, and he is of opinion that others which have been observed may be also modern, and of no special significance. From the occurrence of these " red hands " in places very far apart and from the peculiar position and arrangement of groups of them.* I cannot help concluding that they are in the first instance sacred symbols, however frivolously they may have been imitated by blacks who had lost the meaning of them. It is not too much to expect that careful investigation may demonstrate the religious beliefs and sacred or mysterious rites * Dr. Carroll's paper. "The Carved and Painted Rocks of Australia," Centennial Magazine, October 1888. 1J38 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW of tbe Australian aborigines to liave been largely inspired and shaped by the settlement of people from the island of Sumatra deeply imbued with religious feeling. It is only reasonable to believe that the higher class of paintings so skilfully executed and so mysterious and varied in subject have influenced the aboriginal mind towards some degree of imitation. At any rate, caves and rock-shelters, in other quarters remote from the superior work, are found to be covered with much ruder sketches of men, animals, weapons, and symbols. Whatever secret meaning these may possess has not yet been discovered. Various parts of Xew South Wales are rich in such memorials, specially the neighbourhood of Singleton, in the county of Northumberland. My friend Mr. R, H. Mathews, Mr. W. J. Enright, and others, are enthusiastically engaged in copy- ing these remains. Very few specimens have as yet been found in Victoria. The writer copied one group depicted on the face of a huge rock- shelter, on the Billaminah Creek, in the Victoria Range, near Glenisla, Victoria. The width of the smooth face of the rock is about 50 ft., the height over 60 ft. The greater part of this southern aspect up to a height of from 6 ft. to 8 ft. 5 in. is covered with figures. The sketching is done in red, either dry with a very fine-grained red sandstone, or with the same material powdered, or a red earth mixed with opossum fat. I have given a full account of the painting in the "Pro- ceedings of the Royal Society of A^ictoria, 1896," in which also the principal drawings are figured. The figures are not so large as some of those on the rocks in New South Wales. A sample is shown here. In the neighbourhood of Sydney there are numerous carvings of animals and other objects upon the sandstone rock. Men, fishes, boomerangs, spears, hatchets, are all delineated, gene- rally not in single representations but in groups, and mani- festly with the aim of conveying some kind of knowledge. Dr. Carroll, referred to above, undertakes to explain these, but his interpretation is clearly mere conjecture, and has little to re- commend it beyond possibility. When, for instance, he dis- tinguishes between ancient and modern carvings by the fact that one set is overgrown with mosses, and the other not, he is plainly quite astray. Whether a stone be bare or clothed with moss or lichens, after the lapse of, say, fifty years from the time 1 Gtovl^ I *^'M // ^ "'"T'/mr y G- raujt Z7 '^^"///^ * t\ih»i»l'' I'lf / ip ABORIGINAL ROCK PAINTINGS IN THE PARISH OI" IHLLAMINAH County of Dv.npas, Victoria 140 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW of its exposure will be determined by its grain, hardness and position. It is common enough to see on one side of a road- cutting basaltic rock overgrown with lichens, while the same rock on the opposite side may be naked, and a similar contrast may be observed on the opposite slopes of the roof of a house. That these rock-camngs were symbolical is almost beyond (|uestion, and they have parallels in workmanship, although not in subjects, in carvings that occur upon rocks in the South Sea Islands. Sir George Grey also speaks of a head carved by scooping the rock, seen by him near the caves on the Glenelg River. The Australian muse is cultivated enthusiastically but un- progressively. The native in this respect, as in a 1 respects, is conservative to the backbone, so that we have no reason to suppose that his music and song of to-day are any advance upon what they were three thousand years ago. In some cases the words seem designed to run in rhymes, but a decided rhythm recurring in lines of regular length and invariably chanted, never recited, is the essential character of Australian poetry. Almost every blackfellow is a " maker" of lyric verse, and whiles away the hour with his own compositions about any subject which lies closest to his heart, but the man who has the talent to compose a dramatic corroboree is a person of no small consequence. The rendering of a corroboree is an occasion of the most intense enjoyment. The males are usually the sole performers, the women sitting in front by the fires and beating time by striking two sticks together or clapping with their hands upon stretched opossum skin or on the hollow of the thighs formed by the sitting posture. The dancers are smeared with red or yellow clay, or with pipeclay, in patterns that give them a frightful and sometimes a ghastly appearance. Occasionally the limbs are decked with light sprays. A customary move- ment is a shaking of the legs and a wriggling of the body. There is a tramping time to the music and a scarcely recognisable representation of some action. Some corroborees are lewd in the extreme, and it is generally understood that at such times sexual restrictions are shamefully, or from the native point of view shamelessly, relaxed. Popular corroborees are transmitted from tribe to tribe and sung where not a word of them is under- stood. The melody moves at times very andante, and the very ART, COKIlOIiOllEES 141 same sounds, after a signal given, will be sung in the liveliest manner. The modulation is exceeding easy and gradual, the music rising or falling by semitones, save when, after a gradual descent, there is a sudden vocal leap of an octave upwards. The close of a piece will be indicated by three great yells, which do duty for the crashing music indispensable to finish off most of the compositions in the Hiurtovre of civilisation. I CHAPTER XI SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELIGION Sorcery, superstitions, religion — Tiie bane of sorcery— Native magicians- or doctors— Their professed powers— Native philebotomy — The rainbow— Spells— Names of deceased persons— Sacred pebbles — Ghosts — Ancient heroes — Deities. The greatest bane of aborigiual life, as of all savage life, is sorcery. People reared in absolute ignorance of its bloody tyranny are unable to understand why the old Mosaic enact- ments should be so severe against its practice, but the necessity for such severity lies in the diabolical character of the thing itself and the proneness of the human mind to submit to its thraldom. It may be truthfully affirmed that there was not a solitary native who did not believe as firmly in the power of sorcery as in his own existence ; and while anybody could practise it to a limited extent, there were in every community a few men who excelled in pretension to skill in the art. The titles of these magicians varied with the community,* but by unanimous consent the whites have called them " doctors," and they correspond to the medicine-men and rain- makers of other barbarous nations. The power of the doctor is only circumscribed by the range of his fancy. He communes with spirits, takes aerial flights at pleasure, kills or cures, is invialnerable and invisible at will, and controls the elements. I remember a little black boy. when angry, threatening me with getting his father to set the thunder and lightning a-going. The same boy told me seriously that on the occasion of a raid being made upon the blacks' camp by the native police, one of his fathers — a doctor — lifted him and pitched him a mile or two into the scrub, and vanishing underground himself, reappeared * Koroflji was the name applied in the neighbourhood of Sydney, and it still holds the ground among Europeans. SORCERY, Sl^PERSTITIONS, RELIGION 143 at the spot where the boy alighted. The doctor has great healing skill. A common exercise of this is to extract some object from the seat of pain by sucking. The object may be a piece of glass, or a plug of tobacco, or a half-brick. The manngur (plu.), i.e., the doctors of the Kabi tribe, followed a practice of fictitious bleeding, known also in other tribes, for the relief of pain. The mcuinf/ur was provided with a lonfif cord made of fur and a vessel contaiuincr some water. One end of the cord was fastened round the body of the sick person immediately over the seat of pain, and the other end was placed in the water. Seating himself between the patient and the water-vessel, the manngur held the cord about the middle with both hands and rubbed it backward and forward across his own gums, causing them to bleed. As the saliva and blood accumulated in the mouth it was expectorated into the vessel. The process was carried on in a slow deliberate fashion until the water in the vessel became quite discoloured. The blood in the frothing liquor was supposed to be drawn from the patient, who, at the close of the operation, had to drink the contents of the vessel. I do not know whether there is any uniformity of belief as to what confers the special gift of sorcery, but the opinion of the Kabi community (Queensland) was distinct enough. The doctor might be, as one might say, of two degrees — a • kundir bonggan,' a sort of M.B., and a • manngi"ir.' a thorough M.D. A man's power in the occult art would appear to be proportioned to his vitality, and the degree of vitality which he possessed depended upon the number of sacred pebbles and the quantity of yurru (rope) which he carried within him. One kind of sacred pebble was named ' kundir,' and the man who had an abundance of them was called ' kundir bnuggan ' {pchhlcs many), and was a doctor of the lower degree. The ' manncfur ' was a step in advance. He had been a party to a barter with 'dhakkau,' the rainbow, and the latter had given him so much rope for a number of pebbles, which he had taken from the man in exchange. This transaction took place while the black was in a deep sleep. He would be lying on the brink of a water- hole — the rainbow's abode. The rainbow would drag him under, effect the exchange, and deposit the man, now a ' manngur manngur,' on the bank again. The doctor carried his sacred k 144 EAGLEHAAVK AND CROW apparatus in a small bag, which none but himself might venture to touch, for fear of sudden death. He could hang the bag up anywhere in full view, perfectly secure from interference; and he slung it on his shoulder when on the move. Its contents would be a few pebbles, bits of glass, bones, hair, cord made of fur, and perhaps excreta of his foes. Certainly not a very- formidable artillery, but for him enough to kill at any distance. In fact, sickness and death were usually attributed to the practice of sorcery. A blackfellow gets a stitch in his side, and imme- diately he believes that an enemy has cast a pebble at him from behind a tree. The reasoning process is simple. The law of causation requires a cause for everything, and as a man would not get ill of himself, an enemy must be at the bottom of any- hurt which he sustains. There was an interminable process of mutual revenge going on between neighbouring tribes, and the blow of the club would respond to the challenge which had come in the form of sickness from sorcery. There are, or were, numerous superstitions of the nature of religious belief, inasmuch as they acknowledge invisible super- natural powers and beings. The blackfellow lived and moved and had his being in superstition. Unseen instruments and agents were continually at work. Disease would result from violation of rules, as, for instance, from eating prohibited food. To obtain possession of a person's hair or ordure, was to ensure his death. He declined as these decayed. It was dangerous to pass under a leaning tree or fence. The reason alleged for caution in this respect was that a woman might have been on the tree or fence, and that blood from her might have fallen upon it. This would seem to point to former regulations re- garding pollution. But it may be the Australian form of the mana superstition, said * to be a sure mark of the Polynesian race. Akin to this dread of passing under an elevated object, and due no doubt to the same cause, is the fear of another person's stepping over one's body. Both these superstitions indicate the belief that a baneful influence of some kind is liable to fall from a person, and this influence was probably supposed to be due to some emanation like the mana of the Fijians. The objection to pronounce the names of dead people has • By Rev. Dr. L. Fison, M.A., Centennial Marjazine, Februarj' 1889, p. 457. SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELKilON 145 been noticed by most writers on the Australian race. The aversion would seem to be the result of a kind of realisvi among the natives, whereby a person's name became through confusion of thought the same as himself. The veneration of pebbles has already been noticed. It has been remarked that the blacks were exceedingly loth to permit white men to see their sacred objects, and they were also concealed from their own countrywomen. There were local preferences for certain kinds of pebbles, but in general they appear to have been simply smooth rounded quartz stones. The Rev. J. G. Paton secured a small piece of wood painted red at one end which he says is similar to one kind of idol worshipped by the New Hebrideans. Mr. Taplin describes * a practice of sorcery, called 'ngadhungi,' followed among the Narrinyeri, which bears upon the significance of the piece of stick coloured red at one end. A bone forming the remains of a repast of some native is secured and scraped. " A small lump is made by mixing a little fish-oil and red ochre into a paste and enclosing in it the eye of a Murray cod, and a small piece of the flesh of a dead human body. This lump is sturj,- on the top of the hone and a covering tied over it, and it is put in the bosom of a corpse that it may derive deadly potency by contact with corruption ; after it has remained there for some time it is con- sidered fit for use. Should circumstances arise to excite the resentment of the disease-maker towards the person who ate the flesh of the animal from which the bone was taken, he immediately sticks the bone in the ground near the fire, so that the lump may melt away gradually. The entire melting and dropping off of the lump is supposed to cause death." Could human ingenuity be exercised in a manner more sickening, horrifying, and repulsive ? A similar demand for the remains of food or other refuse of what a person has used is a trait of South Sea Island superstition. Although there is great dis- similarity in language between the Polynesians and Australians, such common traits as a community in objects of worship bespeak a close connection at some time. History proves how easily a form of worship maybe superposed upon existing forms, whereas it usually requires violent causes to change language by the substitution of one tongue for another. It may therefore be * " Native Tribes of South Australia," p. 24. K 146 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW the case that such resemblances in superstitious are due to independent siir.ilar transitory causes, or say, to the drifting of a few Kanaka canoes to Australian shores, although from the fact that stones were objects of veneration among the Tasmanians the inference would be that this at least was a superstition common to all primitive Papuans. The Australians have what may be termed an apprehension of ghosts rather than a belief in them, the relations of the living with the spirits being more or less intimate in different tribes. In the tribe with which I was best acquainted, while the blacks had a term for ghost and believed that there were departed spirits who were sometimes to be seen among the foliage, individual men would tell you upon inquiry that they believed that death was the last of them. In other words, a man's per- sonality died with his body and was not continued in his ghost. A ghost was called a * shadow,' and the conception of its existence was shadowy like itself. A general feature of Australian mythology is the peopling of deep waterholes with indescribable spirits. The Kabi tribe deified the rainbow, a superstition apparently confined to this people. He lived in unfathomable waterholes on the mountains, and when visible was in the act of passing from one haunt to another. He was accredited with exchanging children after the fashion of the European fays. He was also a great bestower of vitality, which he imparted in the form of ' yurru ' — i.e., rope (what this rope was I do not know), in the manner explained above. Many tribes revered the names of ancient heroes or demigods, who were credited with certain wonderful exploits, and who generally became metamorphosed into stars. The conception of a supreme being oscillated between a hero and a deity. Some tribes recognised both a supreme good spirit and a powerful, dreaded, evil spirit, creation being ascribed to the former. At the initiation ceremonies of the Darkinung tribes of New South Wales * two figures are made upon the ground by heaping up earth. They are represented as like human beings lying fiat on the back. A quartz crystal called ngooyar is placed upon the forehead of Dhurramoolun, the good spirit, and a koolaman (wooden vessel) containing blood just let from the arms of some men is placed upon the breast of "Ghindaring, • R. H. Mathews, "Proc. Roy. Soc. of Victoria," vol. x. part i. pp. 2-3. SORCERY, SUPERSTITIONS, RELIGION Ul a malevolent being," whose body is said to be red and to resemble burning coals. I was once of opinion that notions about a divinity had been derived from the whites and trans- mitted amongst the blacks hither and thither, but I am now convinced that this belief was here before European occupa- tion. Although not entertained by every tribe, it is nevertheless held by one tribe or another in the south-east quarter of the continent, from the coast to the centre, and we are justified in concluding that it extends beyond the area where it is positively known to exist. By those who have been eager to establish the theory that there are atheistic races of men the Australians have been cited as an example, another instance of the unreliability and invalidity of a deduction from negative evidence. Among the Kamilroi and allied tribes to the north of New South Wales the character of a beneficent deity, known as Baiarae, has been well elaborated. The name, according to the Rev. W. Ridley, is derived from 'baia,' to make or build hy cliopping. Baiame is the creator and preserver. The Wiradhuri regarded him under a slightly altered name, Baiamai, as eternal, omnipotent, and good. A supreme deity was known by the name of Anambu or Miuumbu by the Pikumbul tribe ; at Illawarra he was called Miriru ; on the Murray Nourelle, in Victoria, he was generally known as Bundjil or Pundyil, and also as Gnowdenont ; the Narrinyeri, as we have seen, called him Nurundere and sometimes Martummere, and by the Diyeri he was known as Mooramoora. Dr. Lang* observes, "There are certain traditions among the aborigines that appear to me to have somewhat of an Asiatic character and aspect. Buddai, or, as it is pronounced by the aborigines towards the mountains in the Moretou Bav district, CD *^ Budjah {quasi Buddah), they regard as a common ancestor of their race, and describe as an old man of great stature, who has been asleep for ages." The question may be reasonably asked is this Buddai not as likely to refer to Daibaitah of the north- west as to Budha ? In New Guinea, according to Marsden, the same deity is known as ' Wat,' the first and third syllables of the name being lopped off. And further, may it not be possible that Baiame, of New South Wales, and Pundyil, of Victoria, refer to the same supernatural being ? Baiame, indeed, may be a local * " Queensland, Australia,"' p. 379. us i:a(;li:hawk and crow pc|iiivaleut of Banna, another Sumatrau deity. The blackfellow Yanjj^alla already mentioned recognised Daibaitah as Pundyil; the fancied resemblance may have been due to an impression that both \vt>re supernatural beings, but, on the other hand, the names may be etymologically related, and if so, a unity is given to the native belief in a divinity. The mvths regarding the creation are numerous, and there are some which refer to a liood, but there is no common fixed account of either event, and both classes of myths may be quite modern, the one being an attempt to explain the world's origin, and so far a reflection of the workings of the native mind, the other a recollection of an unprecedented local downpour of rain and consequent inundation. I confess to having failed to obtain in the south of Queensland any myth about the creation or the Hood ; the nearest approach to an account of the former was the personal conjecture which a blackfellow made regarding the origin of his race, which was that he thought they had sprung up like the trees — uncommonly like Topsy's " I specs I grow'd." The Arunta tribe in central Australia have an intensely interesting myth about the ' Alcheringa,' * the earliest period to which their traditions refer. " At the very beginning of this there were no true human beings such as now exist but only ' Inapertwa,' that is, almost shapeless beings in which just the vague outlines of the different limbs and parts of the body could be detected. Two spirit beings who lived far away in the western sky and who were called * Ungambikulla,' a word which signifies ' made out of nothing,' or ' self-existing,' came down to earth and transformed the Inapertwa creatures into men and women." The men and women of the Alcheringa are also said to be '* direct descendants or transformations of animals " whose names they respectively bear. * " Notes on certain of the Initiation Ceremonies of the Arunta Tribe, Central Australia," bv Prof. W. B. Spencer and Mr. F. J. Gillen, "Proc. Roy. 8oc. Victona," p. 146, d aeij. CHAPTEll XII AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES Introduction to Australian languages — lileek's classification — The writer's classification — Fundamental principle of word-.structure agglutination— Phonic system — Etymology — Formation of compound words — Kaiap, miowera, koonawara, koondooloo, kangaroo, kagurrin (name of laughing-jackass), wagan (name of crow), boomerang — Words — Particles — Noun — Number — Gender — Adjective — Numerals — Table showing relation of numerals — Pronoun and table — Prepo- sitions and conjunctions — Verb. There is need for extreme caution in making sweeping general statements regarding the languages of Australia, because they are liable to be invalidated at any time by the discovery of particular contradictory instances. The judgment of the very highest authorities is subject to be shaken by exceptions. For in- stance, in the " Reise der Fregatte Novara," p. 244, Dr. F. Miiller says that the aspirates ' h ' and ' v ' are wanting, whereas there are undoubted, though rare, cases of their occurrence. On the same page he says that these lauguages possess only post- positions, and that they have no distinction for gender ; whereas there are instances of prefixes and infixes as well as post- posi- tions, and some dialects have phonic marks to distinguish sex. Again, Dr. Codrington,* referring to the numerals in use on the islands of the Pacific, New Guinea included, says, " Any of these island numerals will be looked for in vain on the continent of Asia, Africa, or Australia." Xow I am able to trace numerals from the most southerly part of Australia northward into New Guinea and even to Woodlark Island (hc table where Australian and New Guinea numerals are compared). The term for tico, ' luadi ' (not in the table), used by the fierce Kalkadoon tribe in north-west Queensland, is certainly an island word. "Wheu, therefore, any character is affirmed to be universally * "The Melanesian Languages, " p. 243. ir>() EAGLEHAWK AND CROW true of Australian languages, the statement must imply the reservation that there may be exceptions, until at least all the various dialects have been reduced to writing and brought under sur\'ey. Dr. Bleek has classified the Australian languages in the following maimer : — 1. Northern Division. [ I. Western. II. Southern Division i 2. Middle. III. Tasmanian . 3.. Eastern. No exception can be taken to giving Tasmanian dialects a place by them.selves, but the other part of the classification is too loose and arbitrary. It should be borne in mind that at least one-third of Australia is a terra incognita to the philologist, the unknown part embracing nearly all the western half of the continent excepting a strip along the coast. Very important ethnological revelations may be awaiting disclosure there. As a geographical classification based upon present know- ledge, I would suggest the following, which corresponds, as regards the larger classes, to the arrangement in the Compara- tive Table at tbe end : — I. Tasmanian. Subdivisions: (i) Eastern; (2) Central; (3) Western. II. Victorian Region, embracing part of Riverina and Murray Basin in N. S. Wales, also south-east corner of South Australia. Subdivisions: (i) Eastern (Gipp.%land) ; (2) Western. III. N. S. Wales and South, Centre, and East of Queensland. Subdivisions: (i) Eastern (Coast) ; (2) Western (Inland, west of Dividing Range). IV. W Australia and West Central. Subdivisions: (i) Northern; (2) Southern. V. South of S. Australia and East Central, including West of N. S. Wales and North-Vi'est of Queensland. VI. North Coast and Central Australia, including C. York Peninsula and North- West Coast. Subdivisions : ( i ) Coast ; (2) Central. Notable diversities in words and structure are due in the main to dissimilarity of original elements, while the shading of dialects into one another must be ascribed partly to the influence of exogamy, partly to a very gradual change of old elements, partly to the introduction of fresh words from the north. Almost everywhere throughout the continent original elements are AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 131 observable pi^otruding through the more recent, like primary rocks through all later formations. If it be asked, what view of Australian settlement does a study of language lead to ? the reply must be that a general survey of the languages favours the conclusion that there was at first a comparative homogeneity of speech in Australia and Tasmania of simj^le structure, as exhibited in Tasmanian and Western Australian dialects, and that subsequently there poured in from the north-east streams of population with a speech more elaborate in construction. Parallel strips of homogeneous people still testify to this migration from the northward, and the general brokenness of language along the east coast betokens disturbing and overlying influences from the landward streams, and in some cases most certainly through settlements of people who have come not overland, but by sea. The fundamental principle of word structure is agglutina- tion. There is therefore a general well-marked relationship with the members of the Turanian branch of human speech, with at least one contrast, viz., the absence of the law of Vocalic Harmony. The usual form of modification is by post-positions, but this mode is by no means invariable ; it is supplemented in many dialects by preformatives, and sometimes by included particles. Genuine internal vowel inflection is not observed. Certain lanofuao-es lean almost as much to external inflection as to agglutination and tend to analytic structure. Others are fairly perfect specimens of agglutination. So far as I know, the simplest and most analytic language is that current in West Australia ; the most complex, if it have not a rival on the Daly River, is at Lake Macquarie, at the other extreme of the continent; and between the east and west extremes the languages increase in complexity and fineness of elaboration from west to east. This does not involve the inference that a process of modification proceeded latitudinally along the con- tinent, because, as a matter of fact, the language of the south- west crossed directly from the north-east. The speech of Western Australia might be taken as the extreme of simplicity, a dialect of New South Wales or Southern Queensland as the extreme of elaboration, while the language of the Diyeri, lying about half-way between, is simple in structure but richly comj)ounding. loi> EAGU:HA\\ K AND CROW In nouns and adjectives there is a conspicuous abundance of dissyllabic words, as in the South Sea Island languages. In many cases I am convinced that these are a combination of two roots, the original sense of one syllable being lost or the sense of both transmuted. For instance, take the word ' wulwi,' smoke in the Kabi dialect ; neither of the syllables separate has any meaning in Kabi, but in other parts ' wolla ' is rain, and ' wi ' is Jirc, so that ' wulwi ' meant originally rain of fire. De- composition after this manner would no doubt throw much light upon the primitive speech. PHONIC SYSTEM. The phonic system embraces all the pure vowels ; the modi- fications expressed in German by ii, ij, and ii being also used by certain European writers. All possible diphthongal combina- tions are employed in one dialect or another. The consonants found invariably are k, t, p, ng, fi, n, m, y, w, r, 1. Owing to a common imperfect enunciation of the mutes, some are doubtful whether g, d, and b can be credited to Australian languages. The most certain proof, to my mind, that these sonants should be included in a complete summary is a remarkable unanimity in foreign ears recognising them in certain words, as for instance in ' bulla,' tvjo, ' barang,' a class name. Besides the foregoing, there are the aspirates ' dh,' ' th ' (as in English father), and ' V ' ; there is a cerebral ' r,' which I shall mark ' rr,' a conjunc- tion of ' dy ' and of ' ty ' approaching so nearly to English ' j ' and palatal ' ch ' as to be expressed sometimes by these. The aspirate ' h ' occurs, but is extremely rare, and the rushing sonant ' gh ' is written in some Victorian dialects, as also in Tasmauian. Sibilants are occasionally given, but their actual occurrence in pure form requires confirmation. An aversion to ' r ' and ' 1 ' as initial letters is very common. In several New South Wales and Queensland dialects these letters never begin a word. Introductory vowels are also gene- rally avoided ; if occurring in considerable number in any dialect the peculiarity becomes a differential feature. Any of the con- sonants employed in a dialect, other than the liquids ' 1 ' and ' r, may commence a word. The nasal ' ng ' and a consonant fol- lowed by a furtive ' y ' like ' ly,' * ty ' (mouille consonants), are AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 153 common initial letters. Initial combinations in words or sylla- bles, such as ' kr,' ' gr,' ' dr,' are generally disliked ; and where frequent, as, for instance, in Victoria, are primitive Papuan marks. In the dialects of New South Wales, southern Queens- land, and central South Australia, such forms are exceedingly rare, and even where they appear to exist there is a disposition to interpose a short vowel. I am confident, from comparisons I have made, that originally a vowel separated those consonants that are now contiguous. In the smoother languages of the east the possible terminal letters are usually limited to the liquids, ' ng,' ' ndh ' (a dentated ' n '), and vowels. In Victoria and West Australia words may end in any consonants and vowels, and such terminal combinations as ' rk,' ' rn,' ' rt,' are not objectionable ; another evidence of the closer alliance between the languages of these places. Another rough mark of relationship in the Victorian and West Australian languages is the admission of closed syllables in any part of a word, an exception to the general rule, which is a preference for open syllables, unless either a liquid be the closing letter or the final letter of one syllable be also the initial letter of the succeeding, an exceedingly common character, in which case both letters are distinctly enunciated, e.g., ' kokka,' ' kakkal.' The accent usually falls upon the first syllable, which is also the main radical. A circumstance which has greatly hindered oiir acquisition of a perfect knowledge of Australian languages is, that unless the inquirer be a philologist, we bring in to the study our European ideas of language, and endeavour to force aboriginal forms into European grammatical moulds, a practice which should be at once discarded, as it cramps all inquiry. It does great injustice to the native languages, on the one hand making them appear extremely rudimentary, and on the other leaving many verbal forms unexplained. POINTS OF CONTACT BETWEEN AUSTRALIAN AND NEW HEBRIDEAN LANGUAGES. Hitherto little or nothing has been done in the way uf showing to what extent the Australian and New Hebridoan languages are related. The agreement in some grammatical peculiarities has been noted, but the existence of important l.-.p EAGLEHA^Vlv AM) (ROW TABLE OF ANALOGIES. yoU.—}\(iV,- Heb. often adds -na, his. The Malay equivalents are introduced for comparison. New Hebri- Enolish Malay Tasmaxian australian dean (chiefly 1 Tannese) f'atltcr . . bapa — aba, baba, yaha, abab; babu(voc.); bapo ; mam, mama (voc.) mama, ama lobe . . — — nyenni (Kabi, Q.) ani, eni r.\an . . . — — (liian (Kabi, Q.) ata, ta to come . — — ba(imperKabi,Q.) ba (to come from) hdhj . . — ploner, ploang- polloin, belanyin, bala, bele, balau ner {stomach) beleni(.sto»?ac/i, Vic. Keg.) to kiiitHe . — parik baraio (Kabi, Q.) buria, bauria ; bara {to be burned) h if/, fat — paroi, proi parok, parronk barna (Vic.) h-'.nil . . — poyta bua, poko, bo, bau-na baukine (Vic.) th'iH . . . — (i) nara; prob. also affix -na (2) karina (Kabi, Q) (i) nga; (2) ka nose . . . — — nogro. noor, no- ngore-na gooroo(N.S.W.) small . , kacbil, keeta. kaeete kutchulka and (i) kita; (2) kiki kete variants ( Dar- ling R.) face (cf. nose) — — ngoo (Kabi, Q.); ko (nose) ko do,/ . . . — — kulli(Q.,N.S.W.); kori, kuri ; other kadli (S.A.);! dial., kuli kal, kalli(Vic.) nhin . kulit — ula, villi, yulin ) kuli-na, uili-na (N.S.W.) i toinahaul , kodja (W.A.) ; kut-ia {to cut) kootva (Wilson , K.) ; koocha i (Up.CapeR.,Q.) iriniJ — lavvlin-na, rallin- ganunne willangi (Vic.) langi, c. art. na- langi vornaii . — loa, Iowa laioo.laioor.laurk ! lai, lei, le, li llijht . . loina («M») arhinya, allunga Una {xun, Central Australia) to be blacl — loarra {charcoal) lourn {charcoal, loa Gippsland,Vic.) tIKlU mari, murri (Q. ma'ani, mani, and N.S.W.) ; mare(allmean- maar (Vic); ing male) mean, main (N.S.W^) (dive, to lice, — — moron, murree, mauri {to live) ; animal murru {fidl of maurien {life) life) ; murang {animal) (Kabi, Q.) AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 15o TABLE OF Al^ALOGlES— continued. New Hebki- English 3IALAY Tasmanian AUSTKALIAN dean (chiefly Tannese) to do — -mathi, -maiaio (verbal termi- nations, Kabi, Q.) mer ia eye . . . mata mo.vgta ini,mil,mir, miki. mityi mita, meta tongue . — mena, mene mooni (S. of Gulf of Carp.) mina water , — moga, moka, ngok, nokko, mok (iritter from luookaria mookooa ; muk- kera, mookorar (rain) the ei/e) ; ura (dew) this . . . — -na (prob. art.); ngerma (he, she) ; na (prefixed art. nara ( Q I^ O O 02 iJ -«, S '-I "> ■> -^ -« '> \,, 1 ■«^ "T* "^ ro V- -fs ^ ~ «i; ^ -* ^^ 170 i:a(;lkhawk and ckow THE PRONOUN. The pronouns are specially remarkable for the almost universal currency of certain forms, both of stem and (less uniformly) of case-ending, notably those of the first and second persons singular. 'Jlie first and second persons singular are generally of the central Indian ' nan-nin ' type (' ngau-ngin ' rather in Australia) ; in some cases the plural has the same base as the singular, with generally a syllable marked by the letter * 1 ' to indicate plurality, this also being an Indian feature. In the first and second persons there is usually a dual, the first dual being, sometimes at least, such a compound as ' we-thou ';the second sometimes is, sometimes contains, the numeral iiuo ; occa- sionally a trjal number for the first person is met with and a dual for the third. In the West Australian siDeech different pairs are indicated by different details in the three persons, significant of such relations as (i) husband and wife or people greatly attached ; (2) parent and child, uncle and nephew, and the like ; (3) brother and sister, or a pair of friends. There is usually no phonic connection between the third persons singular and plural, a common form of the third plural has the etymon ' than ' or ' tin ' ; the distinction of sex is not usually marked in the pronoun, though there are exceptions. Decayed pronouns are frequently incorporated with nouns to indicate possession, in such forms o,^ fathcr-my, fathcr-yonr, and also with verbs as the personal index not yet assimilated so as to obliterate the origin, and in such cases the position is usually terminal, though here again the case of Daktyerat dialect is a clear exception, where the pronominal element may be either initial or medial. The pronoun is also well supplied with cases, and possessive forms are in some dialects capable of declension like nouns. Demonstrative pronouns are also declinable like the personal in certain dialects, as, for example, that of Lake Macquarie in New South Wales. The interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs may be mentioned together as having much in common. The radical elements are usually ' ngan ' in wlio or idud, ' wendyo ' in where, wlien, &c., ' min ' in lioio, ichy, hoio many, v)hat, &c. These are declined to correspond to a variety of shades of meaning, and they are among the most uniform and widespread words. d AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES 171 \ I f < 3 -J ■^3 a M ^§ . 6 P a a c 2 3 1 1 13 1«§ . ■ bX) tfj be S ci a bo bo bos rt ^- 1 a c c a ^ ^ a e3 a a aj2 < fl S a <5 ^ S H >< 1 '3 1 S 1 P 3 '^ '-^ a ^ r3 •^ a - .-- a rt o _r c3 1^ c o o o rX 3 ■•q J OQ s rt ('. a c — c4 .^ CC TJ M M a ^ o c€ <5 M < 3 .;:; .r, Q a t4 C to 1 « 1 1 M cs rt .S .S OJ 3 q !^ 6/0 bfj 6C M bC 00 tf/Eo bO s s a s fl a a a — fl <^ t3 I.I gl bo •S 3 1 o3 :=: c3 3.t: 03 •S .2 I 3 Q< 3:3 H bo bC g bObo bObo bo 9 C > a a a a a Q m W bC br. be bD be bo be 3 ^ 1 a ^ bo O" a a a a a a a^ — a a 'C Q J fq >| " « ^ J S hJ o o __, IH tl O <] -73 o 60 c3 a a> o cq .2.11111 3 ;=! o rt a a o ^ 03 c3 t^. P^ C C rt >> c3 c3 >>4J «J P>3 2 3 -<1 M C4 r^ 3 H <1 i^ 1 •^',^ 1 '^ 1 1 pj ^ n 1 bD i 3 1 a a 1 .- -5 OS o bD bo 3 a'bb n'ag «0 a a a 03 a OS a « ca ^^ o eg s. M W ,_, rs J "d !^ rt O H '3 bo a !s 3 a .^ 3 O g.^ 50 03 a bD 1.1 a bo 13 a c: a a a a c a a a a = bobDbD bD bD bO bo bD bO bDbC*J C( (2 c 3 5 ■o « fe • • • > f; > • • • g -VJ p :; ^ rltJll n, while the western is ' noa-lia.' The terminations are separable. Compare also '-puggaL-lnggan-na' (lit., mnn-foot), footmar Jr. of the east with ' pa-lug ' of the west. It would be rash to attempt the formation of a paradigm of declension from the scanty material jDreserved in Dr. Milligan's dialogues. The examples are, however, sufficiently numerous to indicate the principles of construction. Nouns are modified by affixes as generally in Australian dialects. The sign of the dative is '-to,' '-ta' or 'tu'; thus, 'luna' is lioi'^i, 'luna-tu,' to the house, ' nanga,' father, ' nanga-to,' to {your) father. A sign for the locative is ' -reta,' e.ej., ' luna-reta,' ^?l the house. ' Lia " is ivater, ' lia-titta,' in the water. Pronominal suffixes are also employed. Thus, 'nanga-mea,' my father, ' nang-eentx,' thy father, ' pughera-nymee,' his hair. Where a pronominal and a case-modification are both present the former comes first, e.y., ' luua-mea-ta,' to my house. The language is partial to compound words, of which the constituent elements remain easily distinguishable, as for example : prugh-walla . pugga-lee-na pugga-nubra kul-lugga-na mongta-lin-na gooa-larigta . Ireast-irater milk m(in-U(/ht {the) the sun DKDi-Cj/e •>■«» bird-foot {the) talon eye-house {the) cyc-lash htrd-hig eaylc M 178 KAGLEHAWK AND CROW The above method of word-formation is likewise characteris- tically Australiau. PRONOUN. The informatiou available regarding the pronouns is exceed- ingly meagre. The few authorities who have mentioned them agree pretty closely. The inflectional changes do not appear numerous. Exactly the same forms are given for subjects and objects. The possessive case follows the noun which it qualifies, or is postflxed to it in a contracted form. The pronoun is rarely expressed separately from the verb which by implication it governs. It may be expressed in the verbal form, but this is doubtful. Pronouns.— F/7's< Person. >^in(jida)\ Plural. JS'om. . . mana, mecna warrander Gen. . . mena, -mea Dat. . . miape, mito Accus. . . pawahi, meena Second Person. JSingidar. Plural. A^om. . , nina, neeto neena, nee, ninga Gen. . . -eena Accus. . . neeto Third Person. Sin KAGLEHAWK AND CROW ADJECTIVE. The article is uot present. The adjective does not seem to be declined. Comparison is denoted by reduplication. The adjective commonly precedes the noun, a somewhat rare position for it to occupy. NUMERALS. The numeral system is binary. The method of enumeration is 'kaiup,' one, ' bulet/ hvo, * bulet kaiup' or 'billet ba kaiup,' three, ' bulet bulet ' or ' billet ba biilet,' foicr, and so on. The natives of this tribe counted up to twenty, which is ' bfiletgedi mafiya ' (apparently huicc-huo hands or both fed and hands). THE VERB. The verb seems simpler than in most dialects, but the apparent simplicity may be due to want of full information. Conjugation is by post-positions. The pronoun abridged is attracted to form an affix, showing number and person, and a different fuller form (apparently an accusative case) of the pro- noun distinguishes the passive from the active voice. The word ' mala ' with the appearance of an auxiliary verb occurs along with the principal verb in perfect tenses and in the potential mood. Of the different writers one places it before the principal verb and joins on the pronominal affix to it, the others make it succeed the principal verb. Time seems hardly distinguished save by this word ' mala ' with the force of have or had, and by a word such as ' maluk,' signifying by-and-by and denoting the future. Certainly in Mr. Spieseke's view of the verb the particle ' in ' is introduced between the stem and the pronominal element to indicate past time, distinguishing the imperfect from the present ; the same particle is affixed in Mr. Hartmann's view to mark the future. This double use raises distrust in its temporal power. There appear to be at least two participial forms, the imperfect ending in '-na,' the perfect in 'n ' with a preceding vowel, as 'prinna' (is), rising, ' prinnon,' risen. The following is a table of the pronominal elements used as post-positions to distinguish number and person in the verb, the first consonant of the affix in the active voice may be ' g,' ' 1' ' ^S'' °^ '^^y ^6 elided as ease of utterance may require. OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 183 In the passive voice the pronominal element is free from accom- modating phonic change, and by comparison with the declension of the personal pronouns it will be recognised as the accusative case. The third person singular of the verb in the present imperfect and future tenses is joined with the various accusatives to form the passive voice in these tenses, so that the present indicative passive would run lie sres me, Jte sees thee^ &c. This mode of forming the passive corresponds with that which pre- vailed at Lake Macquarie, New South Wales. ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. Sinrjidar. I'Uiral. 1st Person . -yan -yango (naing, seen) -naingn i fiaing, SCrs) -niyangoring 2nd 1) . -yar -yat ,, -iiiurnung -niyurding Zrd " . -n, ng, or -kinya -gitch or -gatch >> -uitch " -nityaning For imperfect tense of passive, ' uyain,' lie or tliey saiv, is used throughout; and for the future, ' fiakin,' he will sec, followed in both cases by the pronominal affixes as above. THE KABI LANGUAGE. Author itu, personal observation. A fuller but less systematic notice of this dialect was contributed by me to Mr. Curr's work, '• The Australian Kace,"* which would illustrate and support my remarks here. For two or three points the Rev. W. Ridley's account of Dippil is drawn upon. Kabi is spoken chiefly in the basin of the jNlary River, Queensland. The name is one of the negatives of the language. I have taken this dialect as a specimen of the elaborate dialects of the east, not because it is the most highly developed and richly modified, but because it belongs to that class, showing the various distinctive features of its near relatives the Kamilroi and Wiradhuri, and especially because rather than enter upon other men's labours I prefer, where possible, to tabulate a dialect which has not been systematically treated by any one else. PHONIC ELEMENTS. Vowels. a a it e (as in yet, English) e G n (as in English to)t) o 6 i i u u * Vol. iii. pp. 179-195. 184 EAGLEHAWK AND CKOW Diphthongs. au ai ill oi ou ua ui Comonantg, kg ng t .1 til dh ty (almost like palatal ch) y r rr (muffled cerebral) 1 n u ndh p b V w m Kabi has uo words beginning with ' 1' or ' r,' and its terminal letters are '1/ ' m," ' n,' ' r,' ' ng,' 'ndh,' and vowels. Initial vowels sometimes occur, but very rarely. There are occasionally as initial letters of a syllable such combinations as ' pr,' ' br,' • kr,' but even between these a semivowel steals in. ' S ' occurs oulv in the dog-call ' isG,' * ' h ' only in one or two foreign words. Writing about Dippil, Dr. F. Miiller says, " In the vocabulary of Rev. W. Ridley, there are indeed words in which the ' th ' and ' dh ' appear, but we believe the existence of these sounds in an Australian tongue doubtful and due to imperfect appre- hension."' f Dr. Mliller's distrust is perfectly groundless. An ]'::glish ear cannot be deceived in the sound of ' th,' it is a charac- teristic Australian sound, and in Kabi, of which Dippil is the nearest neighbour and almost the parallel, ' th ' is pronounced exactly as in English /"//<'/•. The sound of ' dh ' would be best illustrated by the value which would result from the ' th ' in English thct being preceded by a distinct ' d.' The Kabi ' v ' is the equivalent of ' b ' in some other dialects. Reduplication of consonants is frequent, each member of the pair being distinctly enunciated. THE NOUN. Number is denoted not by inflection, but by an adjective added. Gender is not marked by inflection excepting that there is a trace of ' -kan ' or ' -gan ' as a feminine termination in proper names and in the term ' nulangun,' a moiher-in-laiv,X perhaps derived froni ' yiran ' or ' yirkan,' a woman. In all other in- stances such words as niaa, vjoman, mother are required to indicate the sex. Case is expressed by abundant terminations. * The dog-call is "ai, ai, air, isi"," aio is a New Guinea word meaning rime. The name of the dog is from New Guinea and no doubt the call was introduced with the animal. t "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft," vol. ii. p. 42. X 'Nulang,' wn-iti-lair, -nulauggan,' mother-in-law. OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 185 Probably the nouns are divisible into declensions distinguish- able by the stem endings, but I am unable so to classify them. In nouns and pronouns the usual duplicate forms of the nomina- tive occur, the one denoting the subject simply, the other the subject as active agent. NOUN DECLENSION. I employ the word * yeramin,' horse, because it is virtually a Kabi word, although applied to an imported animal, and because I am sure of important modifications to which it is subject. The terminations in this particular word about which I am un- certain, but which I have set down from analogy, are indicated by an asterisk, the analogies being supported by verified examples. JSom. simple . . . jeramin, a horse dhakkr, a stone „ agent . . . yeramin-do dhakke-ru Gen. . . yeramin-no * kung-u, of the icater Dat. to . . . . yeramin-nri *' dhakkan-no, to the rainboio to go for . . yeramin-gri Ace. . . . . yeramin-na* nguin-na, the hoy (object) All. hecausc of yeramin-i „ interest in, yeramin-kari * or wabun-gar], ou the stump » along with. gari » or upon » instrument — dhakke-ro, n-lth a stone kuthar-r., n-itk a club Other examples illustrating case are — At or in mjUa-nri, in the u-aterhole ngurun-ni, bij dag kira-mi, at the fire noUa-Di, in the icaterhole kira-ba, luith or in the fire nirim-ba, in the middle According to Eev. W. Kidley the particle • di ' may be pre- fixed to indicate of or from, thus ' dhan di Boppil,' a man of Bopf)il. PRONOUNS. The pronoun is abundantly inflected and is of the common type in first and second persons singular and first and third plural. Gender receives no sound mark. 186 KACiLEIIAWK AND CllOW J^irst J^erson. Sinyular. Plural. Xom. simple . ngai ngali or ngalin „ agent . ngadhu or adhu ngalindo Gen. ofposs. . ngafiunggai ngalinngur or ngalinno Bat ngaib'jla ngalingo Ace. acted on . nganna ngalin tSicond Person. iVVm. aimiAc . ngin ngulam „ emphatic ngindai, nginbilin aycnt , ngindfi Ocn ngifxjnggai ngulamo Dat. motion to nginbijla, nginbango ngulambola Ace. acted upon nginna aUo after yive ngupu, yoti all Third Person. Masculine, Feminine, and Xeutcr. Nom. simple . ngunda dhinabu „ agent . ngundaro dhinaburO Gen ngundano dhinabuno Dat ngundabijla dhinabubola, dhinabunga Duals. ngalinngin, lit. we-thou, used for thou and J ngol'jm, another and I bula, you two There is no relative prcuoun. For demonstrative the third personal is used, and also the words ' karinga,' this one, ' kgra- dhu ' that one. To give a reflexive significance ' mitdhi,' self, follows the personal pronouns. Jntc rroijative \\ 'ords . Xom. simple . ngangai, icJio ,, agent . ngandii Gen. . . . . ngafiunggai Dat. . , . . ngangaibnla, to which place, whither Dat. and Ace. . ngangaimini, lohom or lohich Xom. . .simple . minanggai, lohat agent . ngando, tvhat minani, ivhy minalo, why minama, miiiamba, how many miiiamanij, during minanggo, hoio minanggai, tchat weiio, when or where wenamba, whether or not wenobola, ivhcn, at what time wenomini, ivherc ever wandhurathin. >rhy OTTTLINES OF GRAMMAR 187 ' -amba ' is a termiuatiou denoting uncertainty, 'possibility, and is sometimes affixed to participles as well as to adverbs. THE ADJECTIVE. The language wants the article. The adjective is usually undistinguishable by sound-sign from the noun, but a common adjectival termination is ' -ngur,' shortened sometimes to ' -ngu.' Adjectives can be formed from most nouns by affixing this post- formative, the original meaning of which is not clear, but the affix corresponds with the sign of the Kamilroi genitive, also found in Kabi. Another adjectival ending in Kabi is ' -dhau,' by the addition of which certain nouns become adjectives. The adjective is indeclinable. It is generally compared by the help of such adverbs as ' karva,' very. Another mode of comparison is to single out an individual and say of it tliis (/s- tlic^ laryr. or this (is the) yood, and so on according to the particular attri- bute. With the exception of the interrogatives enumerated already and a few adverbs of place terminating in ' -ni ' and ' -na ' the adverb has no phonic index. Those in ' -ni ' and ' -na ' may be regarded also as locative cases of nouns. When a connective is used, which is rarely, ' nga ' answers for amK and if I mistake not another mode of uniting ideas is to sustain considerably longer than usual the final letter of a word. NUMERALS. The numeral system is binary. To express a number higher than two the terms for one and two are combined as may be necessary. ' Kalim ' or ' kualim,' one, ' bulla,' tico ' bulla kalim,' three, 'bulla bulla' or 'bulla kira bulla,' /o^'/-. The enumeration may be conducted higher after the same manner, but generally numbers above four are expressed by ' gurwinda ' or 'bnnggan/ many. THE VERB. The verb has various forms, as Simple, Ecciprocal, Causative, Intensive. But in certain instances what might be regarded as a special form might e(iually be regarded as a distinct derivative LSh KAC.LKIIAWK AND (ROW word from the simple form. Although regular examples may be f'iveu there is a capricious irregularity about the moods and tenses. Infinitive. Indicative, Suppositional, and Imperative moods are distinguishable with well-marked terminations. The infinitive and indicative may, however, be said to overlap. Tense as indicated by termination is very wavering, the same forms serving on occasions for present, past, and future time. There is a clearly marked preterite, which is also a perfect participle, terminating in ' -n,' with 'a,' 'i,'or 'u'as preceding vowel. The infinitive serves as imperfect participle, and there is also a verbal noun. The shortest and simplest form is the impera- tive. Often it is one open syllable, it rarely exceeds two, but sometimes adds ' -mijrai.' Its termination is always in vowel sounds. The general verbal notion is expressed by the infinitive index, which is usually ' -man,' ' -mathi,' or ' -thin.' Some verbs may have an infinitive in two of these endings, thus there is ' yanman' and ' yanmathi,' to fjo, ' fiindamau' and fiindatliin,' to nittr. The diflference between the significance of '-man 'and ' -mathi ' is slight, if any, but as compared with ' -thin,' the two former indicate >it((tc or inactivity, the latter action or motion. l^erson is not distinguished by sound, but has either to be inferred or the pronoun is expressed and precedes the verb. Conjugation is by means of prefixes, affixes, and what may be called infixes. The prefixes generally are of adverbial force, the affixes impart the modal, temporal, and participial significa- tion, and the infixes may be regarded as possessing formal power, expressing generally causative and intensive variations of the sense, only it should be observed that the index of the reciprocal form is terminal. The following exemplify the use of prefixes — ' biyaboman,' to come had-, from 'biya,' hach, 'baman,' to come; ' ylkiyaman,' to ansuxr, from ' yiki,' the same, likeivise, ' yaman,' to spcalc ; ' wuru- boman,' to corac out, ' wuru,' out, ' baman ' to come ; ' ylvarl,' to put, to maJ:c, is probably derived from ' bar!,' to hrimj, and is varied to ' mivarl,' to put away, ' wuruylvarithini,' to put out. In ' biwathin,' to play, ' wathin ' means to laugh, and ' bl- ' is an intensifying preformative, in 'blyell/^o coocy, 'yell' means to ^hout, ' bl-' has an intensifying or prolonging force. In * bidha- linda.' toivusf to (/rink, the initial syllable transforms the Simple into the Causative Form, or rather helps to do so, for '-li' and i OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 1S9 ' -da ' are also concerned in the change, ' dhathin ' beiui^ the vocable meaning to drink. The following are examples of affixes — 'man,' '-mathl,' ' -thin.' regular signs of infinitive, also of imperfect, indicative, and participle, '-an,' 'un,' '-in,' signs of preterite, perfect participle, and passive sense. '-ra,' ' -thin,' ' -thini," futurity and possibility. ' -na,' ' -nga,' '-ga,' 'da,' '-ngai,' marl-cs of imperative mood. ' -aio,' ' aii ' distinguish the suppositional mood. ' -na,' ' -ba ' are gerundive and participial (imperfect) signs. ' -Ira ' has the sense of forcing or pressing. ' -iu ' implies irregular movement as exemplified in ' kauwaliu,' fo search, 'maliu,' to change, 'yandiriu,' to 'prramhidaU'. * -mathiu,' ' -bathin,' ' -wathin,' transform other parts of speech into verbs and impart the significations respectively of (i) 'purposr, (2) hecoming, (3) holding or making. ' -yulaiyu ' is the index of the Reciprocal Yovm,c.g., 'baiyi,' to stnkc , ' baiyulaiyu,' tnjight. I.e., to strike onr another. Infixes. — Such terminations as 'man,' ' mathi,' &c., express the general verbal sense, having some such force as do or m'lkr. Without removing this general verbal sign one or more syllables may be interposed between it and the stem ; this is the usual mode of indicating the Causative and Intensive Forms. The word ' kari ' means Jicrc or in ; ' karithin' is to enter, with pre- terite ' karin.' The termination ' -thin ' differs little from ' -man ' or '- mathi ' in force ; there is also a verb ' kari-na- man ' and another ' karin-di-mi,' both meaning to put in, ' -na ' and ' di ' are the Causative indices. The woi'd ' buwaudiman " means to herd, lit. to cause to stop; it is thus compounded, ' buwan,' to stand, 'di,' causative particle, '-man,' verbal sio-u. The infix ' -li' is introduced to imply doing vxU, progress, adran- tagc. Examples, ' yangga,' to make, ' yanggallnoman,' to allow, from 'yangga,' '-li,' to advantage, '-no,' perinissivn, 'man' verbal sign. 'Womba' means to lift, ' wombaliman,' to jidl upon, 'womballn,' carrying, the word ' womballmaraio ' may therefore be thus analysed, ' womba,' to lift, ' -li,' ■inotion, • -mara,' sign of futurity, ' -aio,' mark indicating supposition. One kind of modification yet remains to be noticed — viz., reduplication. This is the usual sign of the Intensive Form. e.g., 'yellman,' to shout, ' yelellman,' to sp)eal- qnieklg, ' dhoman,' to eat, ' dhandhoman,' to gnaic, ' dhomma,' means fo catch, • dho- 190 l:AGLEHA^^K AND clU)^^' mathin,' to hold, to grip, ' dhommgman,' to marrt/, i.e., to catch and JiolJ fast ! ls\r. Threlkeld iu his " Key to the Structure of the Aboriginal Language " is overpowered and carried away by a mystic pro- pensity when he affirms that to the aboriginal mind particular letters or syllables ha\e a sense inherent in the sound. How- ever, from examples which he gives, as well as from the above, it is evident that a letter or syllable may be elegantly introduced to shade delicately the meaning of the verb. But such letters or particles are no doubt remnants of words too much broken down to stand alone. yeliman, to call yaman, to sjyeak buwan, to ftand PARADIGMS. Forms. Causative. Intensive. yeleliman, to speak qiiicldy buwandiman Seciprocal, yathulaiyu, to converse Mooch. Inf. and Indic. yeliman, to speah baman, to come buwan, to stand Imperative. yell ba bubai /Suppositional or Subjunctive. bold Verbal Noun. yelinba Preterite, Perfect Participle, and Passive, 'ya'an,' spohen, 'ban,' come. Auxiliary verbs are unknown ; temporal differences are generally expressed by an adverb of time. This may be the best place to show the relation Avhich Kabi bears to the other dialects of the N. S. Wales and S. Queens- land class, chiefly to Kamilroi and Wiradhuri. The very name Kabi is the local equivalent of Kamil ; the Kabi people would drop the final ' 1,' as in the word ' ml,' eye, of which the Kamilroi form is ' mil.' From the sea coast at Maryborough for about 450 miles inland, in a south-westerly direction, the natives may be regarded as virtually one tribe lingually. The following are particular analogies : Kamilboi. andi, n-ho minya, ichat gir, verily yeiil, merely Kabi. ngandu, wlio minyanggai, what givir, verily yul, in vain, f/ratuitously OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 191 Kamilboi. Kabi. guru, round kurT, round baoa, back biya, bach taon, earth dha, earth tulu, tree dhu, tree moron, alive murrumurru, full of life giwir, nia7i kivar, man Many other examples might be adduced. I shall conclude this sketch with a table of case-endings ; for those of the first four dialects I am indebted to Dr. F. Miiller's " Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft," the fifth I add to show the place of Kabi in the group. MACQUAHIK. WIRADUURI. Kamilboi. TUERUBUL. Kabi. Nwn. arjent -to -tu -du -du -do Dative -ko -gu -go -ngu -no and -go Genitive -ko-ba -gu-ba -ngu -nu-ba -no and -ngu Ablative -tin -di -di -ti -ni Locative -tarba — -da -da -ba The verbal definitive elements differ considerably. A com- parison of interrogative words leads to the same conclusion — viz., that all the members of this group are very closely related. SPECIMEN OF KABI WITH TRANSLATION. Dhak'ke' Kunda'ngur. Pebbles (of) Koondangoor (a i^lace). Dhan ngam dhakTceni nol'lanl nyenaman. (To the) blackfellow always pebbles (in his) inside are. Piri nglm buyu karn gillln. (In the) hand bones calres head imils. Ngin karunda yin'maio ngin'bango dhungun kar^thin. Thou floating {]) remain (to) thee (in the) stomach (the ij) enter. Ngin wa bai'yiro yun'maman ngin man'ngurbathin. Thou not aching (vnlt) lie thou (wilt) become-fuU-of -vitality. Ngan'pai Bat'yiman. Pebble Finding. Ngin yun'mai dhu'mo tar'vano. Ngin'du kui'bi vro'nga Thou lie down (a) tree tinder. Thou (a) tchistling irilt hear ngan'pai nginTDola nyin'dathin. Ngun'da dhilll'bangur nyin'daman. the pebble (to) thee (shall) go in. It noisily (shall) go in. Ngin man'ngur nye'naman wa ba'luman. Iliou full of vitality (tcilt) be not (wilt) die. 192 KAGLEHAWK AND CROW BAi'yi Yanggal'ithin. Pain Curing. Ngai we'nyo bai'yingfir ruu'ru muru ngan'na bun'bithin / If {or when) sick (the man) fidl-of-life me (will) fiuck dbaklve ngan'na bun'mathin. (the) pebble (j'rom) me tale out. DllAK'KAN MAN'XGURNGUR. (The) liainbow capable of imparting vitality. Ngin b'ju'na bai'yingur yen'na yunmathin kungu karano. T7iou when sick ffo lie down (at the) water's erhi^. Ngin bai'yi-yang'galithin. Tliou wilt be cured. Dban dhakTcanno ngan'pai wom'ngan (The black) man (to the) rainboio pebble gives dhakTcan dhan'no buTcur wu. the rainbon- (to tJie black) man rope gives. Dhak'kan. ( The) liainbow. Dhak'kan wa'rang ngun'da kor'aman ngu'in (The) rainbow (is) ivicked he stole (a) bog dhi'kui, kar'vana wom'ngan mul'lu. half-caste, (mother gave black. Ngun'daro kom'ngan ngu'ina tun'bano nol'lano JTe took (the) boy (to the) mountain (a ivater)-hole karin'dimi . Nollani ngu'in nye'naman ; (he) put (him) in. (In the) hole (the) boy is ; ngu'runi wfi'ruboman. during the day he comes out. THE LANGUAGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Authorities : Captain (now Sir George) Grey* and Mr. G. F. Moore. f This language is spoken in the neighbourhood of Perth, and with slight diversity in the greater part of the south-west of Western Australia. So far as appears it is the most rudimentary and analytic of Australian languages. PHONIC ELEMENTS. Vowels. a a :i e o o o (as in ton) i ) u u * *' Vocabulary of the Dialects of South West Australia." t " Ten Years in Western Australia." OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 193 DipTitlioiuju. ai au oi ua uo Consonants, kg ng t d tch or tz, dj y r 1 n ii p b V (in one word onlj') w m There is an aversion to 'r ' and ' 1' at the beginning of words. The distinction between surd and sonant letters is undecided. The noun seems destitute of case-endings. The names of social relations have a plural form in ' -mun ' if the singular end in a vowel, in ' -gurra ' if the singular end in a consonant ; ' mun ' is an abbreviation of ' munda,' altogether, colleetively, ' -gurra ' is probably derived from ' garro,' again. ' Migalya ' is the plural of ' migal,' a tear. The comparative of adjectives is formed by reduplication, the superlative by the addition of ' -jil ' or ' buk.' The pronouns, besides having three forms of dual for the three persons, have also a trial number for the first person. Possessive pronouns are formed from the personal b}^ affixing ' -uk,' excepting in the second person singular. This -nk as a sign of possession unites the eastern and western languages. This affix effects the same result in compound expressions, where, however, it sometimes changes to ' -ung.' The verb is exceedingly simple. The preterite is formed by adding ' -ga,' the participle present by affixing ' -een' or '-ween ' to the present tense with the occasional interposition of a vowel at the junction thus : Present indicative . , yugow, stand Preterite . , , yugaga Present participle . . yugoween The preterite has three forms relating respectively to the imme- diate past, the sometime past, and the remote past. These are distinguished by prefixing to the regular preterite the particles ' gori,' ' garum,' ' gora,' respectively. There are two futures, a near and a distant, distinguished by the words ' boorda,' presently, and ' mela,' in the fiiturc, which follow generally the infinitive mood, occasionally the present participle, but are not incor- porated with the verb. The word ' ordak,' signifying to intend, is also affixed to verbs to denote that the action is purposed. There is likewise a past participle which is not specified. There N 194 KAGLKHA^VK AM) CROW is no phonic mark of number in the verb. The different persons are indicated by employing the pronouns. This language favours, the combining of words to an almost indefinite extent. The word commonly employed to give unity to compounds is ' midde,' the ar/cni or agcncij, and all verbs may be rendered substantive by the addition of this word. For example, ' yungar barrang midde ' is the liorsc, or literally the ycoplc-carryin[i ar/nit, ' mungyt barrang midde,' the ' mungyt '- getting-agcnt or stick for hooking down the Bankda cones. There are combinations observable in the verb which seem elementary forms of the more complicated structure in the east of the continent, thus : yugow-murrijo (licerally to he, to go), to run yugow-murrijobin, to run quicJcli/ yulman means in turn, in return wangow, to upeak; yulman-wangow, to ausicer yonga means to give; yulman-yonga, to exchange ' yulman ' is singularly like the reciprocal sign in the eastern dialects, which in Kabi for instance is ' yulaiyu,' but in the east it is affixed to the verbal stem. PRONOUNS. First j^erson. Singular. Plural. Norn, simple . nganya ngannll „ agent . adjo or nadju (ngadju ?) ngadjul Oen. . . . nganaluk, also nganna nganiluk Ace. . . . nganya ngannil Captain Grey gave to nadju the sense of I vnll, but probably as in other cases it expresses the agent ; a similar remark applies to the corresponding form in second person. Second Person. Singular, Plural. Kom. simple agen* . nginni . iiundu or iiundul nurang Gen. . nunoluk nuranguk, ngunuUang, ngunaluk Ace. • • . nginni Third person. Nom. . bal, lie, she, it balgun, bullalel Gen. Ace. Dat. . baluk, her; buggalong, Jiis . bnggalo, to him, ballal, he h balgunuk balgup mself OUTLINES OF GllAMMAll 195 DUALH. Brother and sister, &c. Parent and child, &c. Husband and wife, ice. \Ht iierson . ngalli ngala nganitch 2nd person . nubal iiubal iiubin "^rd peison . boola boolala boolane ngannama, ?ve two [brothers-in-law) Trial i.stj'erson, ngalata, vx three There are only three numerals, 'gain' or 'kain,' one, 'gudjal,' tvjo, 'ngarril,' 'warring,' 'mow,' ' murdain,' t/rrcr. Higher numbers are expressed by ' warring,' a feiv, or ' boola,' man//. ' Boola ' is evidently the same as the eastern term for tico, as it is used for a dual pronoun. Tntcrrofiatlves — Pronovns, Nom. simijJe . nganni, who nait, h-JkU „ agent . ngando, ngandul, nginde yan, „ Gen ngannong, ichose Adverbs. winji winjala (windvi, windyaia), ichere, naitjak, ichcrever. THE DIYERI LANGUAGE. Authority: Mr. Samuel Gason's "The Dieyerie Tribe of Australian Aborigines." The Diyeri language is spoken between Cooper's Creek and the north-east shore of Lake Torrens, in South Australia, but not far from the Queensland and New South Wales boundaries. Mr. Gason's vocabulary does not supply much data for arriving at tlie structure of sentences, the examples of syntax being unfortunately too meagre to admit of our deducing noun declen- sion from them. The verb seems to be conjugated very simply and with a suspicious regularity. The language is of a very elementary, compounding character, and in this respect stands midway between the languages of the extreme west and east respectively, being more closely related to the latter. The personal pronouns and some of the interrogative words unite both extremes with the mean. The reciprocal sign of the west, ' yulman,' is well worth comparing with 'mullauna,' one another, of the Diyeri, ' -ulunni ' of Kamilroi, ' yulaiyu ' of Kabi, ' -Ian ' of Lake Macquarie, and ' lana ' of Wiradhuri, all reciprocal verbal signs ; the Kabi and West Australian forms seem to give the original type as something like ' yulain,' which may be com- 190 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW pounded of two pronouns, ' ngali-ngin,' wc-thcc, or the like. Diyeri is rich in determinant elements, easily recognisable and separable, and usually, but not invariably, post-formative. PHONIC ELEMENTS. Vowels. a a eon (as in Engfish ton) i I fi Diphthongs. ai au Consonants. k g h ng t d 1 r y n th ch P b w m The words terminate with vowel sounds onlji, they begin with vowels or consonants, but the latter must be single. Such com- binations occur internally as rd, rt, rk, kr, dr, Idr, ndr. Diyeri therefore agrees fairly in phonesis with the eastern languages generally, but is even smoother and more vocalic. Sinfjular. Vrosovtsb— First Person. Plural. Xom, {agent ?) . Gen Gen. or dat. . . Ace athu ani akunga ani, ni Second Person. ali, yana, uldra yanani, uldrani ali Singular, Nom. . yondru Gen. . Ace. . ninna Dual. yula Third Person. Plural. yura, yini yinkani Singular. Dual. JiJas. Feminine. Neut. Nom noalia nandroya ninna, bulyia Gen nunkani nankani Gen. or dat.. Ace nulu nania ' ninna ' is also demonstrative, this. Plural. thana thacani wurra, wirri, yinkani thaniya There are definitive elements affixed to substantives to signify my, as 'apini,' my father, '-ni' is a general genitive or OUTLINES OF GRAMMAR 19T possessive termination with ' -li ' as probably an alternative form. Possessive forms are evidently declined, cjj., 'yinkari,' yours, ' yinkani-gu,' of or to yours. It is much to be regretted that data are lacking from which the declension of substantives might be tabulated. The noun is probably rich in cases, as may be inferred from such com- pounds as the following, 'bumpu-nundra,' almost a hlow, ' nundra,' a hloiv, ' bumpu,' almost ; ' moa-pina,' very hungry, ' moa,' hunger, 'pina,' great; ' kurnaundra,' relating to a Uaelcfclloio, ' kurna,' hlachfellow, ' undra,' relating to. A genitive is observable in ' -lu,' e.g., ' pinya,' armed jiarty, ' pinyalu,' of the armed 'party. Jnterroyative Wonh: Nam. . warana, who Gen. . wurni, wurniundru, whose Ace. . wurungu, whom whi, what wodau, tvhat, how wodani, vihat is it like ? wodaru, ^vhat do you say? wodau, hoiu mina, what wodaunchu, hoto many minani, ivhat else wintha, ivhen minandru, why winthuii, lohence minarnani, why wodari, where Adjectives do not seem to be distinguishable by any vocal sign, but comparison is marked by added definitive elements, thus ' wurdu,' short, ' murla,' more ' muthu,' most, ' wurdu- murla,' shorter, ' wurdu-muthu,' shortest. NOTATION. ' Curnu,' one, ' mundru,' two, ' paracula,' three. The numeral system is virtually binary. Twenty is expressed by ' murrathidna,' hands-feet, for any number over twenty an indefinite word signifying multitude is employed. THE VERB. The structure of the verb so far as we can judge is exceed- ingly simple. To indicate the person the pronoun is prefixed unabridged. There are simple and reciprocal forms, the latter having the termination ' muUana.' The simple form has iufini- 198 KAGLEHAAVK AND CROW tive, indicative, and imperative moods, and participles perfect and imperfect. The following is the conjugation of the verb ' yathami,' to spcnl; parallel with which I place the Kabi verb ' yamathi,' also meaning to speak, in order to show the singular liki'uess and close relationship of the word and its modifi- cations : — DiYEiu. Kabi. yathami, to Kpcak yamathi, to sjjeak yathunaori, /tax spoken yamarandh, spoken yathi, have spoken ya'an, apokea yathunawonthi, had spoken wonai yamathi, h(ive done tcith speaking ! yathuh'mi, will speak yathin, icill speak yathala, sjyeak ya, speak yathamarau, speak (imperatively) ya, yamyrai (by analogy of other Kabi verbs), spe(dc (impera- tively) yathuna, speaking yathinba (by analogy as above) sp)eakin(j yathamuUana, quarrelling together yathulaiyu. conversing The stem radical of the above verb is evidently ' yath,' the oriirinal infinitive form containing the theme or notion of the action was evidently ' yathamathi,' the medial ' a ' being intro- duced as a connective. This leads to the conclusion that ' -mi ' or ' -mathi ' is a verbal definitive which was probably once a verb meaning to do or malcc, like the ' -ed ' of the past tense in English regular verbs, which is did phonetically decayed. Another very suggestive comparison may be made between a Diyeri verb and its analogues in Kamilroi and Kabi : — DiYERi. Kamilroi. Kabi. vi'ima, l^ut Viixm, put down womngan, (/(i;e w'omngathi, give ^vimuna, putting in wiyin, given wimarau. WW/ (tt (impera- w'imulla,7J«( eagli:hawk and crow THE VERB. There are three tenses, the present, marked by ' -ma' affixed to the stem, which is also the infinitive ending. The perfect is formed by adding ' -ka ' or ' -kala ' to the root and sometimes '-jita'; the future adds '-jina.' VOICE. The middle voice takes its sign, ' -la ' or ' -li,' in the middle of the verb — <•.//., ' ta nukara tuZama,' / heat myself. The re- ciprocal form terminates in ' -rama ' for dual and ' -rirama ' for plural. There is no proper passive. Passivity is expressed by em- ploying the subject with the active form and having the suffering object in the dative — e.g., atula worana tukala by the riuni to the hoi/ /••>• beaten NUMBER There are three numbers : — singular, dual, and plural. If no pronoun be expressed they can be distinguished by termination of the verb. Person is not noted. In intransitive verbs the dual termination is '-rama,' the plural '-rirama.' With transi- tive verbs the dual and plural are formed by using ' nama ' (to be) and ' lama ' (to go) as auxiliaries. In the middle voice the dual and plural double the particle ' -la' — f.^., 'ilinakara tulala narama,' iw two heat ourselves. MOOD. There are three moods, indicative, conditional, and impera- tive. The conditional is formed by adding '-mara' to the stem, as 'ta ilkumara,' I should eat. The imperative is formed by adding '-ai' to the stem, as 'tu-ai,' heat; 'ilgula nar-ai,' you tifo eat ; ' ilgula narir-ai,' cctt ye. Another form, signifying to do the action quickly, is composed by inserting the syllable '-Iba' between a duplication of the root — e.g., ' tu-lba-tu-ai, heat quiekly. The moods have usually a negative as well as a positive form. Thus : Fositlce. Xcr/ative. ta tuma, I beat ta tuyikana, / beat not „ Tijuka, I (I rfDik ., nyuymakana, I hai:e not drunJc „ gayina, I nhall get „ gayigunia, I shall not get OUTLINES OF GRAMMAll 203 rARTICU'LE. The imperfect is formed by adding '-manga' to the stem, the perfect by adding ' -mala,' the future by adding ' -yinanga ; • — c.fj., 'tumanga,' ivhile heeding ; 'tumala,' after heatiuf/ ; ' tuyi- nanga,' shall he heating. Certain verbs such as ' nama,' to he, and ' lama,' to do, are used by way of auxiliaries. Their use is (i) to change transitive into intransitive verbs, (2) to form verbs from substantives and adjectives. To express such modifications as are usually expressed by adverbs in European languages certain vocables are combined with the verb. For example, ' tula ' is combiued with ' wuma,' to hear, ' nama,' to he, ' lama,' to go, ' albuma,' to return, and so forth, as : tula nama, to heat for « tunc constantlij tula lama, I go to heat, slfjnifieg an action (/oiiiy on tula tula lama, to heat sometimes, quiclcly or hastihj tula uma, lit., I hear to heat, means I heat once tula albuma, /*• arriced at another place heating Certain forms combine with the supine, as : tuyikalama, compounded of supine 'tuyika' and 'lama,' to go, lit., T go to heat, used for I heat doivnward-i ; 'tuyinyama, ' I heat iqnuards. A figurative use of the forms occurs in the modifications of the verb ' ilkuma,' to cat, as : ilkuyikalama, to eat in the evening ilkuyinyama, to eat in the morning tuyikamaniyikana, I heat again tuyikerama, going to heat tuyilbitnima, come to heat tuyalbuma, return to heat tuyigunala, to heat hyand-hy From tutua, meaning / desire to heat, are derived such forms as : ta (I) tuatna lama, I heat arriced at another place ta tualhanama, I heat sometimes arrived at another place ta tualbuntama, I heat running away ta tuatalalbum, returning homewards I heat on the road ta tuatnilbitnilalbuma, returning come near my home I heat Moods and forms connected with moods already given : ta tumalamakana namara, I shotdd not have hcattn. ta tumaranga or tumalanga, I should have heaten. i>0-t KAGLKHAAMv AND CROW The reduplications or augmentations of the verb : tuyinabuta tuyinabuta, I should beat af/atn tulinya tulindama, to beat always tulinya mbura „ „ „ tulatulauma, to beat seldom tuma, I liuve Jinished beatiiKj By the simple verb 300 different phrases can be used ; by modifications of the verb, these can be increased to 9000. By further changes confined to certain moods and tenses an additional 600 verbal phases are obtained, so that 9600 ex- pressions may be derived from one verb. J204 EAGLEHA\VK AND CliOW The reduplications or augmentations of the verb : tuyinabuta tuyinabuta, I should heat ayaiti tulinya tulindama, to beat always tulinya mbura „ „ „ tulatulaunia, to beat seldom tuma. / ItarcJiiiiKhed beatiug By the simple verb 300 diiferent phrases can be used ; by modiiications of the verb, these can be increased to 9000. By further changes confined to certain moods and tenses an additional 600 verbal phases are obtained, so that 9600 ex- pressions may be derived from one verb. FOREWORD TO COMPARATIVE TABLE Ix the following table fifty-two lists of words are given. Of these, forty-two are Australian, three New Hebridean, two Torres Strait, and five Tasmanian. The aggregate number of Englisli words is two hundred and twenty-five. The New Hebridean and a number of the Australian lists are fairly complete. One object of the table is to exhibit the relation subsisting among Australian dialects themselves, and their connection with the languages to the south, east, and north-east of Australia. The Australian dialects are grouped and, on the whole, graduated according to strongly marked resemblances. They are gathered towards the north-east, as the fingers of the hand are gathered towards the wrist. AUTHORITIES Tasmania. — Vocabularies collected in Mr. E. M. Curr's "The Australian Race " and oue from '• Voyage de I'Astrolabe." The capitals in brackets indicate the following names: — D. , Dove; E., Entrecasteaux ; J., Jorgenson ; L., Lhotksy ; N., Norman; P., Teron ; K., Roberts; S., Scott. When not thus distinguished, the authority for the north dialect is " Voyage de I'Astrolabe," and for the others Dr. Milligan's lists. Australian, Victorian Region.— Yarra River, Lai Lai, Ercildoune, Avoca River, Broken River, Gunbower, Warrnambool, were taken down by the writer (Rev. J. Mathew) from the lips of natives. Mortlake, supplied by Miss Hood, Merrang, Hexham, Victoria (now deceased). Booandik, South Australia, compiled from "The Booandik Tribe of South Australian Aborigines," by Mrs. James Smith. Lower Lachlan and Murrumbidgee, contributed by Mr. Humphrey Davy, Glen Dee, Balranald, New South Wales, Gippsland, taken down by Rev. J. Mathew. Barwidgee, Upper Murray, contributed by Mr. John F. H. Mitchell, Khancoban, Corryong. 206 EAGLEHAWK AND CROAV New South Wales and South ; Queensland. —Woorajcry Tribe, con tributeJ by Mr. James Mitchell, Tablo Top, Albury, New South Wales. Wiraidhuri, Giinthcr in Fraser's "An Australian Language." Port Jackson, the vocabularies of Captain Hunter's " Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson," and Lieut. -Colonel Collins " Nev/ South Wales." Awabakal, Threlkeld's " Australian Grammar." Kamilaroi, Rev. W. Ridley's " Kamilroi and other Australian Lan- guages." Kabi, Rev. J. Mathew and Mr. W. Hopkins. Warrego River, contributed by Mr. W. Shearer, T3re\varrina, New South Wales. West Austkalia and West Central. — Toodyay, Newcastle, West Australia, contributed by Mrs. George Whitfield. Pidong ) "Journal of the Elder Scientific Exploring Expedition, Minning )' 1S91-2." Lake Amadeus, Mr. W. H. Willshire's " Aborigines of Central Australia." South of South Australia and East Central.— Narrinyeri, Rev. George Taplin's "Folklore," and Mr. E. M. Curr's ''The Australian Race." Parnkalla, Schiirmann's " Vocabulary of the Parnkalla Language." Adelaide. Teichelmann and Schiirmann's " Grammar Vocabulary, &c.," and Dr. Wyatt from J. D. Wood's " Native Tribes of South Australia." Darling, Mr. E. M. Curr's "Australian Race." Diyeri, Mr. S. Gason's "The Dieyerie Tribe." Murunuda, South Gregory, Mr. Duncan M. Campbell, Glengyle, More- land, Melbourne. Mythergoody, Cloncurry, Mr. W. G. Marshall, Fort Constantino, Queens- land. North Australia and Central Australia. — Larrikeya, Member of the Roman Catholic Mission at Daly River, per Mr. George McKeddie, with some words from T. A. Parkhouse's " Transactions of Royal Society of South Australia," vol. xix. Woolna, Mr. E. M. Curr's "Australian Race," and Mr. T. A. Parkhouse. Daktyerat, Member of the Roman Catholic Mission, Daly River, per Mr. George McKeddie. Kimberley, contributed by Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, Melbourne. Napier Range, contributed by Mr. W. W. Froggatt, Sydney, New South Wales. Sunday Island, contributed by Mr. Joseph Bradshaw, Melbourne, Macdonnell Ranges, Rev. H. Kempe, Mission Station, Finke River, in '•Transactions of Royal Society, South Australia, 1890-91." Walsh River, Rev. J. Mathew. Bloomfield Valley, contributed by Mr. Robert Hislop, Wyalla, Bloom- field River. Palmer River, Mr. E. M. Curr's "The Australian Race." Coen River ) Contributed by Revs. J. Ward (now deceased) and Mapoon I N. Hey. Cape York, McGillivray's "Voyage of H.M.S. RaUlesndke." F0IIP:W()11I) TO C()MPARATI\K TABLi: 207 Torres Strait. — Kowrarega, Prince of Wales Island, McGillivray's "Voyage of H.M.S. Iiattlesnake." Saibai Island, Sir W, MacGregor's "Reports," specially forwarded to the writer. New Hebrides. — Aulua, Malikula, Rev. T. Watt Leggatt, Amy Gertrude Russell Mission House. Nguna, Rev. Peter Milne. Aniwa, Rev. J. G. Paton, D.D., Melbourne. With the view of securing consistency of spelling, I suggested to my correspondents the following values of letters : The consonants may have the same value as in English, only that fj should always be hard, as in ' go ' or ' get.' Ok, j\ or .s should not be introduced unless absolutely necessary ; k or .s should take the place of c ; and neither q nor ./; should be required, k answering for q and ks for x. The initial nasal sound should be expressed by nr/. Dh represents th in ' the.' The vowel sounds are — ff as in ' father,' ' man.' ai like i in • mine.' i like i in ' pit ' or ' ravine.' e as in ' they ' or ' net.' u as in 'rude ' or oo in ' food.' cm is used for the sound of ov; in ' cow.' " There has been a tendency, however, to independence in ortho- graphy. The above represents with fair accuracy the values in the lists which I have obtained myself, and will serve for general guidance in reading the table. 208 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Sun Moon Star / East .... pugganoobranah wiggetena teahbrana T ' South. . . . pallanubranah weeta romtenah Tas- West and. N.W. panubrynah weenah leah rhomdunna mania North. . . . tegoura (?) tegoura inoordunna (J.) Miscellaneous . loina (J.) luina (J.) daledine (K.) f Yarra A'. nyawain niirnian turtbairom Lai Lai . . . inirri yen turtparom Enildoune . . nauwi yen dut bun-nauwi 1 .Avoca K. . . nauwi yen tun S' Broken R. . . ngamaik mirnan durt '<, Cunbower . . nawi wainwil toort 1 W'arrnambool . ngaiiong yathyar ka ka dhirii .\[ortlake. . . dhearn koondarook — V Hooandik, S. A. karo toongooni tumanbangalum (//. ) .•nJ Lower Lachlan nangaye, nung wangupic toorty, tingie "^ and Murrum- bidgee Cippsland . . wurin noran brll / Jiarwidgee, Up- 1 per Murray noweyu bararoo jeenibo =f S 1 castle) W. A tralia i Centr Pidong . . . karong wilarra pundarra (//.) M inning . . Lake Amadeus. jinntu chin-too wiyall peer burunga (//.) pinterry ■^ -^ Narrinyeri nunngi niarkeri tuldi Parnkalla . . yurno pirra purdli, purli Adelaide . . tindo piki purle Darling . . . niengkeeullo bichooka boollee Diyeri . . . ditchie pirra ditchie thandra Murtinuda . tuna nanangi kulaunchi Mythergoody kumba goonogoono ugo Larriktya . . delirra lurier nicmellema Woolna . . ummie loowillea moorlna "p Daklyerat . . miru yuilk numurul < Ruby Ck„ Kim- woloor yelngong wurda ^3 berley Napier Range, wolgar bingar km S-« Kimberley Q ^ Sunday Island . alga kooirdi indi •41 ■{ Macdonnell alinga taia C|uar-allia (W.) gs \ Ranges ^\ Walsh R., Q. . angor palar nyolb Bloomfield Val- woo.ngar geetcher mooloowatchur ley, Q. '5! Palmer R ,Q. . etha thargan ilbanoong ^ CoenR.,Q.. . tsche arroa ngokoot Mapoon R., Q. ngoa arroa ngokwigge Gudang, C. York inga aikana onbi Torres ( Strait \ Kowrarega, Torres St. Saibai L, N.G. gariga gaiga kissuri molpalo titure titoi New 1 Hebri- \ Aulua Malikula niel ambisia mose Nguna . . . elo atalangi ngmasoe des. \ Aniwa . . . teia tumrama tafatu COMPARATIVE TABLE 209 Cloud Sky Rain Rainbow pokana weeytena pona, roona (D.) — porrah wayatih — loila (J.) — — — renn hatara manghelena — bagota (R.) tooreener (N.) toorar (N.) — lak wura wura baari brinbial tunmarng wuruwur mondar tyerm inang wor wor wala derakaworwor marng wuruwur wallah dherakawurwur lak torngor yayal — maing kotai midhak dherake worwor murnong — maiyang — muuong munong maiang dh'dh'barote moorn (//. ) — kowine trum manguay, nurn trailee mukaria worngrie nort nguropblindiworak wilang wirakalundi kaiareyu — noorooma — — — wollong — yurong, iravvari wirr, murrumbir _ gunnung gurran kavTxiiphi. R.) dulka(R.) panna, wallan (C.) — yura, yareil (//.) moroko koiwon gundar, yuro gunakuUa yuro, kollebari yulowirri mundam nguruindh yurung dhakkan yauggan bunda burdoo — mara wolanth gabby dabut — munnditta (pi.) w^llelu burrna uronguru muUga-billdi (//.) willka mullga — ho-too-worry ill-carrie chillberto — tuppathauwe waiirri parni kainggi malko naieri kattari, wirra kuranya makko karra ngaiera kuntoro kuranye ninnda, poondoo korobbyna mukkra mondunbara thularapolkoo purriewillpa tulara kooriekirra dikura kunta kunta nepaulindinka kudo omniugoo (?) murer murer yappo kunjo — koroa balmba — — — mornie — berk an bulk mada giJndyere — piring nopa — — — nimilar, walar - — inra ankata — kwatya umbulara hurkuar kuk yaman ngooipal tcheari kapper yearil — — ogno — aveoo lanna nuaadhoadhanna ndrindeni aveoo aranra agaidotanne andragondhine otera — apura ung-gebanya dapar je ari oripara jia amal — ari borinbor nemar misa tiliara napopouru nakoroatelangi usa asoara apua taragi towa tumutu 210 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Light Dark Morning F.ast . . . _ taggremapack _ Tas- South . . . — nunc meene larraboo — West and N. 11 mania North . . — Misctllaneoiis tretetea (J.) — nigrarua (R.) Yarra R, nguianda burun yiram Lai Lai . . mirriyo niurkal ylrom % Ercildoune . barp burun barp bo barp Avoca R. nyauwi yo burooin berip ^^ liroken R. . , yanggim morpoioin — ^ (luribjiver . dhyulaipuk narom narom nuroin M 'arniatnbool nganong buron — v! Mortlake . yay, aiap booboon neenan ,5 Booandik, S. A — man kin — :~ Lower Lachlan waiange proandia tiia and Murritm bidgee Gippsland . mlank batgalak wurukamerin /iarwidgee. Up per Murray torongoro tiyogolo — "0 5"« I ( 'oorajery Trib e — — — Upper Murra V, « K N.S.W. 5-2 :2S ■ Wiraidhuri balgangal burundang nguronggal Turuwul, Port — — ri N; Jackson co^ Aiuabakal . kirrin — — ^" Kavtilroi turi, burian nguru {darkness) nguruko Kabi,MaryR.Q nguruindhau wuindhau barbiman WarregoR., Q durrey youriugga buddala Toodyay (New bena morrodong benang ^ «"^ S castle) ^•2:^^- ^^^C Pidong . . muggerow mungunnga mungall A fi fining — tunjinnda — -"i ^ Lake Amadeiis chintu-ruigin moong-a — 5 "- Narrinycri . nunkulowi yonguldyi — •^11 Pamkalla . birki ngupinniti yurno vvorta CO ^ S Adelaide tindogadla ngultendi panyiworta vs^ - Darling mengkee wongka wahmbee ^S5 Diycri . , Miiritntida . buralchie pilpaiiiunina pulkara murra murra manathoonka winandinu ^ Mythergoody bertun kabajee genool j Larrikeya . bakuinida lamingua (C.) — ^ Woolna . . — lamongwa — 1 Daktycrat . andara ngu poi'yanggnan e Ruby Ck., Kim C5 berley •« Napier Range — narnbur (very dark) ngimi ngimi 5.« Kimberley iistrali Sunday Island Macdonnell Ranges alta albanata — 5^ Walsh R.,Q. angor anmun -^ Bloomfield Val- tyur ngaul moannotchi ■ Caen R., Q. tscheamboi doannapini keammanne Mapoon R., Q. ngoongbai doannapaini keammanna Gudang, C. Von i — — Torres j Kowrarega, Strait I Torres St. Saibai L, N.G . boia kubil bataigna New t Hebri- \ des \ AuluaMalikul Nguna . Aniwa . . . a nutanrien marama nuta melingko malingo veremose malikpongi merama pouri tapopo COMPARATIVE TABLE 211 Day Night Heat Cold taggre marannye tagrummena peooniac tunack luggaraniale nunc lugrah mallane loyowibba (J.) dayna leah — — tridadie livore — — — burdunya (P.) loina(D.) tenna (D.) yilinbo murpuran wirtnalin tatirrn mirriyo murkal warwTitnyo niunmot nauwi burun katyai monmut nyauwi yo burooin wiripunya niotilan karimin morporondhai woloradat mortarbin ngolakandok buroon wunwundilang buiibundilang — buron kaluin kaingcditch deerung booroon kalloon pallapeek karo moal palawoina {hot) — nangi moorprondi kelali tinangi bruindi bukong kwarakuan nieibuk — — — kaiagutba — — — polathi waddu ngurombang b.illudai carmarroo (C. ) purra (R.) yooroo-ga (C.) tagora (C.) purreung tokoi — takara yeradha nguru — — nguruindhau wuindhau mariman walai yoummundurrey youringgah cowerly niurnda bincha morradong moonak netting muggerow {daylight) mungunnga kullunngu {hot) murdinnga womuburrunn — — nuniulia — war-ringa nunngi yonguldyi waldi murunkun marka, yurno malti pulla {warm) pai alia — ngulti — nianya yuko toongka boyttyee, kahla kahla yerkee kurrurie pulkara wuldrulie kilpalie orrukuli murra murra wiltura kanini kumba kabajing mundara yeanga delirgua damungua erringergum abbulduppi (C. ) irninga (P.) — oorgker ipegwa miranbulk dardarma poiyadu mark — by on - — — igua — dana, erinta angor anno tan woongaier woodjourbu woombul bullur ethuttaga atha — oloorgo tscheamboi doannapini — taidhotnmc ngoakinndi doannapaini moipaini ninnyita — yupalga — ekanba — inur kaman sumein goiga kubilii kuamo sumai nambung nuta melingko kamba kamp melong kas kas aleati kpongi navivitinuana nanialariana nopoge tupo evera mukaligi 212 EAGLEHA^Mv AND CROW Groups DiAt ECTS Fire W.ATKK Milk East .... tonna liena proogwallah 1 Tas- J South .... njjune lia wenee prooga neannah West and N. W. winnaleah lia winne — mania North . . . padrol boiic lakade — Miscellaneous . une(P.) mookaria (S.) — Yarra R. . . wen ban birm birm ImI Lai . . . wing ngo pit pab .§ Ercildoune . . wi katyin kurni A~,'oca A'. . . wl katyin kurm & Brolen R. . . win bain birm birm ^ Gunbawcr . . wonap kadhin — 5 i Wamiambool . wiin paritch nga'mo' X \ Mortlake . . weean perreech — ^ Booandik, S. A. — pare papamboop l.ouer Lachlan winapi kieniie koimbi and Murrum- bidgec ^ Gippsland . . tauwar yarn baag ' liarwidgee, Up- per Murray niambunba — — Woorajcry 1 ribe. wongi kolin — Upper Murray, * R N.S. W. Wiraidhuri win, guyang kaling ngamon Turuwul, Port gvveyong(C.) bado(C.) murtin (H.) Jackson ^.^ A7val>akal . koiyung kokoin, kulling — Kami hoi . . wi kolle, wollun — ^ h'abi,.\faiyR Q. kira kung among Warietro R.,Q. wi nubba numma Toodyay {New- kalla gabby — castle) "=•2'^^ -^-C) Pidoiig . . . kulla bubba — Mi lining . . kaiya kapi, gabi — -•i: •. Lair Amadeus . war-roo cobbie — 3 "s Narrinycri . , keni nguk, bareki ngumperi Panikalla . gadia kapi kauo ngamma Adelaide . . gadia kauwe ngammi, nganu Darling . . . koonyka nokko nummaloo Diyeri thooroo apa yika Mnriinuda . . duro napa — Mythergoody yangour yappo thambo Larrikeya . . kuiangua karroa — •Sa Wool n a . . , letunga aakie — !S Daktyerat . . tyungo wawk gnur ■^ Ruby Ck., Kim- jaba nopa — 0) berhy •^ Napier Range, — walar — *-2 Kimberley » Cl i Sunday Island nuro kara — :~ S ■< Ma ( (ton nc 11 ura kwatya ilbatya l» Ranges l'^ Walsh R.,Q. . angi kuk pip "^ Bloomficld Val- koongin banner bibi ■«t ley, Q. 1 Palmer R., Q. . oomar ogno oyong CoenR.,Q. moi ngoi tane Mapoon R., Q. moi tedi tane (iudang, C. York yoko — — Torres ' K'owrarega, mue — ikai Strait 1 Torres St. Saibai /., N. G. moi nguki ikai New 1 ! AuluaMalikula na kamp nabui — Hebri- ■ ' Nguiia . . na kapu noai — des ( . liiiiva . tiafi tavai — COMPARATIVE TABLE 218 God Demon Ghost Shadow mienginya wurrawana wurrawina tietta — ria warrawah nolle riawarawapah maydena pawtening-eelyle teeananga winne belanyleah bundyil ngarang murup mula — kutyal murup mula bundyil yulok waingar ngark barnibinmel natya murup ngark — ngarang murup — paindyil ngatta munganitch ngarkuk pirnmaheal muurup muurup waul' — mooroop boorkoorook na goe — woor, walini kolandroam wol biambule pongarnoti popopondi nouwaki - brauwin mrart ngauk — urakabi — - baiamai baggin _ gurruman — — mahn (C.) bowwan (C.) mummuya kommirra baiame — — — — munder nguthuru nguthuru — — ninni ninni gurly gurly — ■ — chinga — — budanl — mar-moo — carn-koo — brupe {devil) — pangari, lilliri — marralye wilya [spirit) madio (slittdi) — kuinyo tovvilla punga, turra pindee,\vahtta,noorinya boorree koylppa kolyppara moora moora kootchie moongara (spirit) — karina yarkamata — tati — — simbingergolun mungo niolnganding berauel darimiet — - bararang bararang molang — nouri nouri - nari — erinya mangabara undoolya (W. pirkooir haru — tchopo — wharbur — — in man in gam — — ngai, tschoa ngai, tscboa anndormre — amvou, tschoa anivou, tschoa anndornire — — umboypu — — — markai — augada markai — atua temes nenanta nenanta sukpe natana sa natemate mclu atua tetua, tiapolo tctua noate au EAGLEHAWK AND CROAV Groups Dialects Wind Mist Smoke East .... rawlinna progoona Tas- South. . . . rallinganunne — — West and -V. \V. lewan — — man ill North . . . legouratina — — Miscellaneous . llnghenar (N.) — boorana (R.) f Yarra K. munniot burang burt Lai /.I I . . . winnialing porang burt Ercildoune . . maia nura burt .1 ATOca R. . . maiya kairagair burt & liroken K. . . guron borang bort ^ dunhmvr . . miriny kua pordok 5 M arrnanitool . ngonduk — thoiJn "C Mori lake . . noondook wadawoort dhung ^ liooandik, S. A. niricha — booloin ,v- Lower Lachlan wilangi takombi borti and Miirrum- bidgee \ Gippsland . . kraur bauindong dyun / Bat-iL'idgee, Up- per Murray — toombaba 1 1 oorajery Tribe. thowera — — L pper Murray, « R N.S.W. l"^ Wiraiahuri — gulbl, guang — -1 Turiiwul, Port gwarra (H.) — cudyal(H.) ■~l Jackson t/i^ Awabakal . . wippi bearing, koropun poito ^" Kamilroi maier, buriar dhuber du K'abi.MaryR.Q. buran kuang wulul \ WarregoR., Q. yerga dunederra durren J. "5 ^ 1 Toodvav (New- nanga — kerra |n^ ' cas'lle) ^•2:>V Pidong . . . winnju muluwa bungu ^r-^ ( Minning piriddi — kaiya-puya Lake Amadeus. wolpa u-bee-terra (fog) poy-you •^ .^ Narrinyeri . . maiyi dlomari kari -^■^s Parnkalla . — malbara puyu t/ •= ? Adelaide . . waitpi, warri madlo puiyu ?>:SC - Darling . . . yertto poondoo-poondoo poondoo :? 3 "> Diyeri . . . wathara thoodaroo ukardie 1-^ Murunuda . . chimo kuinin kudo Mylhergoody murlbunoo buloothupal yungoolkar Larrikeya . manmanma — kuiugua Woolna . . . minma — lemoogiema i; Daklyerat . . wurrurk wen arabul s Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — *^ berlcy •^ Napier Range, wangool — — B ■« Ktmberley ft J5 Sunday Island — M a c d n n e 1 1 wurinya in-jeer-may-jeer (W.) — ^4 1 Ranges 1 Walsh R.,Q. . — — Bloom/leld Val- moyur woorpal gobo •« ley, *^ IVals/i R.,Q. . turn angguan algin '^ Bloomfield Val- kolgi mangel yilgi ^ ley, Q. ^ Palmer R., Q. . oolkon jakkaro — ^ CoenR.,Q. ogworre pai re Mapoon R. , Q. ogworre pal re Gudang, C. York olpa pada — Torres \ Strait 1 Kowrarega, Torres St. Saibai /., N. G. kula kula pada pado kussa [river) New Hebri- ■ des A tilua Malikula nevit narah emburea Nguna . . , vatu tava — Aniwa . . , tafatu aora teretu, tavai, tafe COMPARxVTIVE TABLE 217 Grass Tkee Bark Wood rouninna loatta poora, poora-nah wyena iiemone toronna (D.) warra weea probluah — poora leah — poene (P.) weena (R.) moomenc (N.) weenar (N.) boait — darbo kalk baran gur garong kalkalk boaitch kalk bam kalkkalk bowatch kalk mityak kalk banom kalkponyir yellani kalk boatch pial muradyap pial bodhun wurutth muroitch wiin karrawan — dhurung weean boo-tho — moorn-dart wurnap worlengi paila ngord pittarkuri bon kalak nondak kalak mooro — karrayu toorga — yarra (ginn) — keegal buguin maddan, gidya _ maddan, win bumbur waddy (H.) — waddy (H.) woiyo kollai bukkai kollai gorar yindal tulu tura tulu ban dhu konibar dhu yowwl wan biddal wi gilba bonna yorda bcnna bulga — winnda — bulgarra — yannda putta er-nar lick-caraka wor-rue kaiyi yape yorli lamatyeri yutara vvarndu, wadla yulti birka, gadla — — tidli, bakka gadla niootto koombalila (gum) tulkeroo, pultta yerra kunlha — pitchie tiiooroo, pitta kuntabukra wewa wita turo kutthree bargour simbe bargour nierelma mardpurma mangguruma (C.) niarriburma (C. ) lugilyer — leemoconana meurwer weno tyungo dull wundallo yuka — — wooroo — — bonar koorlyo burduch naina — bailka, irknala rula alku iringkin harun angi (log) karer choko toombul choko ookin oonkil oomar lainne — kaii ko lainne — kago ko untinya pure ranga yoko burda prue purur mue bupi) kaipui pia pui namine naki nakalukte naki naki nangmenau nakau nawili nakau nakau tagaferi terarakou nokiri terarakou terarakou 218 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW GKOUI'S Dialects Cami' House Hole East .... lenna South . . . line — Tas- IVest and N. IV. — — — mania North . . . — — — Miscelliineous . — leebrerne (N. ) — / Yarra R. . . willam willam bakporn ImI L,il . . . karong karong mir Ercildoune . . laa maiam maiam baam % Ai'oca R. . . lar lar mir h lirokcn R. . . yellam yellam miring ^ Gunbincer . lar lar ludhuk •9 Warrnumbool . wurn porpomduk pakweitch Mortlake . . . woor burbunionook ganung ^ liooandik, S. A. noorla ngoorla — ,\j Louer Lachlan lingingi kundi ngurngi and Murritm- bidgee \ Gippsland . . bong katyun ngang Banuidgee, Up- gunya (?) — — per Murray t/^ W'oorajeryTribc, — gunya (?) — ■?>i I 'pper Murray, « «s N.SAV. 5-5 Wiraidhuri — gawier milbi, munil il \ Turuwul, Port gonyi (hut, H.) kunje [hut, R.) gomira (H.) Jackson ^.Cw Awabakal . . koiyong kokere — ' Kamilroi . . — kundi — ^' Kabi,MarvR.,Q. kira, kirami tura noUa \ H arrego R. , (). nurra gundi wordu • ■« ^ / Toodvay (New- kalla nanup mia — s§-g castle) ~.2:EV| Pidong . . . — ngora igil ^r^l Mi lining — mullga-minntoradd — Lake Amadeus . — — — <0 -N* Narrinyeri . . manti, ngauandi karuturi merki ^11 Parnkdla . . yurla, karnko karnko tyeka yappa Adelaide. . — wodli tau, yappa Darling . . . yuppara gooUee nieengga, wooUee Diyeri . . . oora boonga willpa Murunuda . ura tua mikri Mytlwrgoody . magier yitibar kornjar Larrikeya . guinidirk manoliirra gauga 1 1 'oi>lna . . . wylie, mikehr — wawee "^ Dak/ vera t . . dak anduk yalo £• RubvCL.Kim- — — — 5 berley Napier Range, yalbah miar nimilar ^ ^ Kimherley a^ j Sunday Island . ooroorunggari — — ■s^ ■< Ma c don nell tmara ilta, lunga altyura S3 \ Ranges 2j Walsh R., Q. . alpa polkan irpen ■^ Bloomfield Val- bulpa bian tchanko -«! ley, Q. 1 Painter R.,Q. . ogae — — :i CoenR.,Q. . . nge wutschu — MapoonR.,Q. . nge wutschu — \ Gudang, C.York — eikuwa — Torres Kowrarega, mudu laga — Strait Torres St. Saibai /., N.G. lago arkato New I A ulua Malikula vere {village) nimwa nambul Hebri. . Nguna . . . — nasungma moru des .-tniwa . — tafare terua COMPARATIVE TABLi: iil9 Lump Path Footmark The Blacks puggataghana — — pallowa lugganah — z pah lug jiruin baring z kulin turung kandor kandor koli karinga baring baring koli turung baring barkuk kuli yulabil baring baringidyinang kulin ba bedyir dhunkauir parin parin kuli koreda taan — maar mamit dhaarn dhinnaneong inaara — ware teena — tupatupaule laimbi thinangi woongi dhanbilan wanik wanik konai : karrika buabuawanna yabbang bai, darrambal main — — — eora bulka yapung yulo — turabul — niurri (s.) wulbo kuan, ulu kuati dhan curlewru yourroun dinnadonybu myeing (maiiug) — — genna yunger boola — — kulbia — u-\vorra (road) — — — yarluke yarluki narrinyeri bakkarra widla — — — lappa tainga — — tinna tinna wimbaja — — thidna kurnawara tunka waruvvaru tinbuto kurna nambul wathoo janner — — kuiatburroa beaitbar (C.) belirra — — ya-wehrl — povo eru, widbeldyerang mel gnan - gurdy, karty karty, nimblar - wola [heap) tyaia, tnalta — — tel tel pama tchungi boral boural bummer _ _ amul patoo tave kwe mrittakke nambarra poi rago kwe mritakke nambarra yabugudo — napua nangmele natangmoli loa maga — havila nieleluan asamangk miet lampe (?) teretu tuniavai tagata pouri !220 KAGIJ^HAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects A Blackfellow A Black WOMAN Man 1 East .... pugganna lowanna pugganna Tas- J South .... pullawah lowanna pallawah West and N. W. pah-leab nowaleah pah-leah mania | North . . . — — looudouene 1 Miscellaneous . — louana (R.) wibar(N. ) penna (D. ) Y'lirra Jf. . . kulin baigurk kulin ImI Lai . . . koh bagurk koli Ercildoune . koli bangbanggo koli .5 Avoea A". . . kuH baibago kuli 1* Broken N. . . kulin bedyir kulin ^ Gunbower . bang leiruk wotok § ( Warmambool . niaar dhanambul maar Mortlake . . mara dbumdhumboorn mara ^ liooandik, S. A. draal kinekine-nool druiil Lower Lachlan woongi liorki kolkorni and Murrum- bidgee \ Gippsland . . konai wurukot konai wadi / Barwidgec, Up- per Murray — — jirri to Woorajcry Tribe, mian — — Upper Slurray, « s N.S.W. •S"^ Wiraidhuri main — gibbir Turuwul, Port niul-la din — Jackson co"^ Awabakal . — — kore ^' Kamilroi . . niurri yinar giwir KabiMarvR.Q. dhan yiran kivar \ Warrego K. , Q. niyeing mugging mying Toodyay {Nao- yunger moon yungar yago moon mamerup a «-t; P castle) ^ .« '^ •$ ■ Pi don ^ . . . — — yammeji ^|-^o Mi lining. . . — — minninng Lake Amadcus . bar-too (man) ho-carra bartoo *-) ^^ Narrinycri , . komi mimini korne -^"^1 Parnkalla . . — pallara miyerta, yura to "^ g Adelaide. . . — — meyu Darling . . . wimbaja burrukka wimbaja Diyeri . , . kurna widla — 1^^ 1 Murutiiida . . kurna punga karuro c^ "^ ] Mythergoody moorey pungar — Larrikeya . . barning (C.) barning-ceimcur (C. ) molinyo ^ Woolna . . . looarkieinga mungedma kumaol (mankind) 1 i Daktyerat . gnan elugur gnolan s Ruby Ck.,Kim- — — wunwa, papa C5 berley ■« Napier Range, wambar — — a an alia Kimberley Sunday Island . — — amba |l^ Macdonnell Ranges — — atua, erila, atula Walsh R.,Q. . moak yerkul lunjin •^^ Bloom fie Id Val- bummer tchalbu dingar 5 ley, Q. ^ Palmer R. , Q. . immi aruntha — :^ Coen R. , Q.. . nambarra andrommre nambarra adhetroo Mapoon R., Q. . nambarra andrommre nambarra annege ' Gudang,C.York amma — unbamo Torres Strait Kowrarega, garkai — turkekai Torres St. Saibai /., N. G. — — mabaigo Nno .4ulua Malikula natangmoli loa sikai nangoroi loa sikai natangmoli Hehri- Nguna . . . asamangk miet tambaluk miet teta, asamangk des .Anixva . . . tase tagata pouri fatine pouri tatane, tane i COMPARATIVE TABLE 221 Old Man lowlobengang (J.) lalubeguna ( L. ) wlkabil didabil mati koli ngambin dhaingula wanyim ngoUa alungalung ngiring gee pokongi budhan jirribong jeeribung dirribang bangung (R. ) ngaroniba i diria (old) winylr mutchaburry m. mongan winnja yandiorn bulka, kulya pinaroo karuro mutchuchu more lariba longailinga bork darral ayna piringga pinga oolpa wattepoi waggapoi keturkekai moroigo natangmoli matua tela nurseramp tatane ituai Woman lonanna lowanna nowaleah loubra lurga (D.)lolna(J.) baigurk bagurk bangbanggo baibago bedyir rembindyuk, leyruk kuguwitch dhumdhumboorn kinekine-nool moroinsrham wurukot jeri nukung yinar ylran mug-erding yago wanndi, nyalo wurnanng ho-kana mimini pallara, ngammaityu ngammaitya buiTukka widla kuei onullaga mungedraa wundinigmun aringa, nama ihandur wolnga (youttc tchalbu dronnanne andrommre undamo ipikai ungwakazi nangoroi tambaluk fafine Old Woman payana nena ta poinena lowla pewanna (J.) murndigurk mundagurk mati bangbanggo ngunyimgoork wirk vvirk vvunyiinkurk ngarom ngarom koovvoowetch porpegngara kuambiliki kwerailmina, wurukot kauwantigba jeeribung ballagun mulda (R.) ngarongeen yambuli marun burraka billing thukurrn koon-ja-gilbee yandi-imin paityabulti nahnggo wildapina kuei mutchuclia womoora goomool (C.) iteburna miinnallo tombi kumber andorpatroo andorprigge keipikai nangoroi matua tambaluk nurseramp fafine itua Boy cotty-mellitye poilahmaneenah leewoon ( D. ) bobup golkonkuli golkongolkon bupup bobopdhak bupang waran waran warun warun koonatgo piangongi lidh uaro boori biran, biu-ai wongerra (C. ) birri nguin yungurd kooling murdin yina oll-ar mambarna kurkurra willya-roonga kurawulie wei jueary (?) nim, nemerk notyur wurkun warru pfoimakonne fopparri turkekai kaje magina kazi piakiki nanoai tamare tatane sisi ooo EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Girl Baby Father East . . . . lowana keetanna cottruluttye noonalmeena South . . . . longatyle puggata riela nanghamee Tas- Westafid N.\ V. — rikente latana (J.) mania North . . . — looiid nimermina Miscellaneous . ludineny(J.) badnny (J.) niunlamana (J.) ' Yarni K. . murnmurndik bobiip, waiyibo niaman ImI Lai . . . madanmndik biipup bitang ErciUniine . . bunai bunai bupup maamuk .1 Avoca A*. . bunya bunya nilamgiirk mamuk S» Broken R. . . bornai bubiipdhark mamano ^ Gun bower . , wadhibuk leyruk biip^ng niamuk Warniambool . paraiparaitch hupop l)ipai Mortlake . buriburetch boopoop pepie, beebie 1 Booandik, S. A , barite, koonam — marm Lower iMchla) / maiwangupi popopi niamoma and Miirrum Hdgee , Gippsland . dlialu wurukot dhaliban monggan 1 Darwidgce, Up per Murray - , weki — — ^ Woorajcry Trib e, beelarjeroo . — mooma S->3 Upper Murra V, « 5 N.S.W. ^!' Wiraidhuri inargung munga babbit! Turuwul, Por t wero\vey(C.) nabungay (C.) wui- beanga (H.) Jackson dalliez ^"^ Awabakal . murrakin bobog biyungbai, bintun Kamilroi mie kaingal buba ^' A'abi,MarvR.,{ \ wuru wolbai pabun \ IVarrego R., Q gunney gudderra budding j."2 >. Toodyay (New ■ yago kooling nobain maman ^ «■?! S castle) '■ -2 :^ "5 ■ Pidong . . thura iiiaiu murama ^r^i Minning — — — Lake Amadeus cue-on-buntor — cartoo 5 -^ / Narrinyeri . bami kelgalli nanghai ^11 Parnkalla . kardni kaitya pappi !/:«?: Adelaide. . mankarra tukkutya yerlimeyu VSCi - Darling . . pulkahly kichungga kahmbeeja :S P"^ Diycri . . koopa koopa apirrie a-i:.« Murunuda . kuei pula napira Mythergoody mungane cliurloo yadthoo 1 Larrikcya . maneiga larree (C.) neganbita Woolna . . — — bipie 1 Daktverat . windyarello miilmulma ngaolu s: Ruby Ck., Kim — — ombuna c berley •«3 Napier Range yabun baba yabellar «*.« Kimberley \ US trail Sunday Island — — — Macdonnell 1 kwara um-bra-coora (W. ) kata, nekua Ranges 1 5N Walsh R., Q. yerkul tapu undya '^ Bloomfield Val - maral ouar andgan « lev, Q. ^ Palmer R., Q. — awillung atheem 1 Coen R., Q. morgatanne agame naita Mapoon R. , Q. lande, marprenne agame naita \ Gudang.C. York — — epada Torres J Strait ( Kowra rega Torres St. Saibai L, N.G ipikai kaje ngawakazi muggi kaje baba, tati babo, tati New I Aulua Malikul a piakiki nangoroi pipia tamana Hebri- \ Nguna . . tambaluk kakas anetana (child) teta des I Aniwa . . fafine sisi 1 tama sisi tata ^y^^ COMPARATIVE TABLE ^23 Mother Husband Wife Elder Brother neingmenna puggan neena neemina pah-neena — neena moygh — — — blemana — — powamena (J.) — cuani (P.) — bapa nangguronga brimbanna banggon ngatonyuk nanabun nganapunyuk wamunyuk bapuk anyetyuk tyaptyapuk waruk papuk anityuk nataguruk wawuk babono nanggorong bimbarno banggono pabuk anidyuk motminyuk wawuk ngira ngonabun malongar wardai yurungi anaboort mulladh wartietsh ngat nganap mala wargul-e korna nopa lileli mouri woni yakon benong laua dhandon — — bularjeru — bubba — — kokong [brother) mammadin mammadin gagang wyanga (H.) — maugohn (C.) babunna (C.) tunkan poribai porikunbai bingngai ngumba gulTr giillr daiadi ngavang, ubung dhandor malimgan nuin kiah girring nubba bauing jukan mamon kardo kardijet — murrdong murrdong kurda yack-hoo coo-rie coo-rie coota (brother) nainkowa nape, napalle nape gelanowi ngammi yerdli karteti, yungara yunga ngankitta ngubba karto, yangarra yunga (brother) nummaka mahlee koombahka kahkooja andril noa noa niehie narmidi — — meerala narthia narthia arboon (brother) kuding — aladig qualaliva (C. ) kardie lainelongunya (P.) — nulla gnagnaain nengl elngen pukang nume — wompan — kooya — — ba-bellar — malardin irwinya koira (brother) maia, makura noa noa uckillya(W.) hauwa moa wau uping ngarmo tchoniu munyur yapper among — — athil tatoo , ngonoongbrange ngonoome manaen adhai ngioongbrange ngiamre maianne atinya anba onda — anima, apu allai ipi adoama (brother) arna, apu imi imi kuikuiga kpilana anawota anangoroi taina takalapa nina asunu asunu yeye mama nunwane inahune noso sore 924 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Younger Brother Elder Sister Younger Sister East .... _ South .... — — — Tas- West and NAV. — — — mania North. . . . — — — AJisciUaneous , — — — J Yarra A'. . , dhidliidha langtang dhidhidha La/ Lai . . . wangatuk tatyiiruii bormboranuk ErcilJounc . . kortuU tya'tyuk kortyuk 1 Avoca A'. . . kutiik talyuk kutruguk §» Broken A'. . . barnan biyu latligon banbonok t^ Giinhnver . . giumenyuk dliatyuk wutenyuk ■ian W'arrnambool . kogu kakai kokuiir Mortlake . . . marti kaki kookeer ^ Dooandik, S. A. nere, doate date nere-er Loiver Lachlan niaimi \voni mouri tati mainni ki and Murriim- Hdgec \ Gippsland . . dhalitcli boandhan landok / Baiwidgee, Up- per Murray — — — t/ WoorajeryTribc, — niyngan (sister) — Upper Murray, « R N.S. W. ^^ Wiraidhuri gulmain mingan {eldest) muogan ^s \ Turuwul, Port — mainunna (G.) — S 5 Jackson ^^ Awabakal . . kumbul — — Kamilroi . . gulami boadi bure J> A'abi,MaryR.,Q. wuthung yabun naibar \ IVarrego A"., Q. mourn bubba gen y era ■ "S -^^ Toodyay {New- kootadong katamity katamity *! c "S S castle) ^.2:E^- Pidong . . . bua judo (sister) bua ^•■S^C) M inning . . — — — •S Lake Amadcus . — kongaroo (sister) — »i» *s* / Narrinyeri . . tarte • maranovvi tarti Parnkalla . . ngaityaba yakka (sister) — Adelaide . . . — yaklcana (sister) — V2C; -^ Darling . . . bahlooja wahttooka wahtteeja Diyeri . . . athata kakoo athata r* Murutiuda . . — — — Mythcrgoody — moona (sister) — I.arrikcya . mineemiller (C. ) buerra (C. ) jeramooka (C. ) 1 1 'oolna . wetter nelami (P.) wetter, wutta ^ s Daktycrat nundang aldang nundang 8 Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — 5 berley ^s Napier Range, mallar-kartin — — §-S Kimberley Sunday Island . — gwira (sister) — Macdonnell itia urumba itia Ranges 5^ Walsh R.,Q. . uping abar hongark ^ Bloom field Val- yapputchiu barbar ginkiur •«t li-v, Q ^ Palmer R.. Q . amoko thuppa ejeeja :| Cocn R.,Q. . . otroo kwitte otroo Mapoon R.,Q. . tanoombanne loege tanoombanne Gudang, C. York — — — Torres Strait 1 Kowrarega, Torres St. i Saibai I., N.G. kutaiga babato (sister) New \ AuluaMaliknla taina takariki ngorena takalapa ngorena takariki Hebri- Nguna . . . i Aniwa . . . atisina rabina — des noso sisi nokave sore nokave sisi I COMPARATIVE TABLE 225 Children Canok mallanna Fish Porcupine _ mungunna mungyenna bevvoon {sing. J.) nunganah peeggana mungye — nunghuna — mungynna kanagale looweinna (J. ) — pinounn milma (J.) pagyta (sing. R.) lukrapani (L.) penunina (J.) trewmina (J.) vvurtona kurong towet [blackfish) kauwarn burunbalok yogoip worapin monngark karkar bupup bam yurtyuk yulawil bupupkalik yoigoip wirap yulawil bonbonarik korong malon kauworn bupang yungutch wiringal lipkil tukui tukui dhurung — wilangalak dhoie dhoie dhorong erigar goonama pangongi yongopi parndeli yerendingi yeailmin gin kaiii kauon — doothoo yum bo demo - murring munji - burai {s.) _ guya goroong(C.) nowey (C.) magra (H.) — wonnai nauwui makora kai kumbilgal guiya — kumma, wolbai kombar bala, undaiya kakkar , gudderrakulgra kunarew kewya — i koolong — kalbart — - - wabi kundiwa — un-dippin porlar meralii mami — — karnkurtu kuya — wakvvakko — kuya — berloo-berloo bocltaroo tahpooroo, peindoo kultoo koopavvura pirra paroo — churloo nangool pal by wychguine nemebira gunoogara (C.) maddo — — mourty liyer, lieya — bulk wendu dugur menak yambadi (si?ig. ) — — — - gundig bourough pee — ali — — irbunga {pi.) in-nar-ling-er (\V.) nyolba — yu yierke-yierker niarakan kuyu ngunkin — — oyi — — patr nia — mrittakke agame patr nia — — angganya wawpi — — gul wawpi — niaginakazi [pi.) gulo wapi _ piakirikiri naki nika — tamare rarua naika — erecriki 1 tavaka tagata eika teika " " 1 226 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Native Bear Native Dog Kangaroo 1 East .... _ lyenna South .... — lena, tarrana Tas- ' West and .V. VV. — ku leab, tarr leah mania 1 North .... — moukra [dog) taramei I Miscellaneous . — — lerrar (N. ) / Yarra R. . . korbura wiringwilam koim Lai Lai . . . ngamibulamoom tarwal koim ^ Ercililoune . . badyomom wilkar kora .5 Avoea A". . . botyunmuin wilkar kura -^ Broken A*. . . korbil wiringalam maram ^ Gunbouvr . . ngarmbulmum wirangan kura VVarrnambool . winggal pornang kurai Mortlake. . . wirringill burnung gaal goroite ^ Booandiky S. A. — karnachum koraa, mare {/. ) Lmver Lachlan — terilumbi kuarangi •^ and Murrum- bidgee Gippsland . . \ kula ngurain dhira 1 Barwidgee, Up- per Murray — wehnga boodjoo to \ Voorajery Tribe, — merri womboin Upper. \lurray, N.S. W. ^1 Wiraidhuri — karingale bandar Turuwul, Port — waregal (H.) patagurang (H.) Jackson CO*^ Awabakal . . — worrikul,yuki,rairri(/.) moane Kamtlroi . . — murren, maiai bundar ^' Kabi,MaryR;Q- kulla wiyidha karum mart \ Warrego R., Q. — yewgee kulla ■ "^ -. Toodyay (New- — dordoyakain yunkar * «t? s castle) •••S:^^- Pidong . . . — duthu [dog) waiul malu ^^■"c; i Minning — doychu pirkuda .^ ^ Lake Amadeus . — — mar-loo Narrinyeri . . — turutparni, kel wangami, tulatyi \"2| Parnkalla . — kurdninni kadlukko to * S Adelaide . . . — warrukadli kunda, nanto V2^ - Darling . . . — poolkeja tultta ^^^ Diyeri . . . — kintalo (dog) chookaroo Murunuda . . — tala kura Mythergoody — yamby maijumba Larrikeya . . — meelinga (C. ) melulla »» W coin a . . . — illaya marning-an-anya 5 Daktyerat . . — barundiru modth Ruby Ck., Kim- — — jugi (or) dudi ^ berley •y Napier Range, — yallar garabil §-^ Kimberley Hi Sunday Island . — ela piru Macdonnell — i-rinka(W.) rera Ranges Walsh R.,Q. . mungar tok (?) amui X Bloomfield Val- — ngarnio muramo wallur ;5 ley, Q. •:i Palmer R.,Q. . — oota innar < Coen R., Q. . . — orke 'mvokoo Mapoon R., Q. . — oa angai ' Gudang,C.York — ing-godinya (do:^) epama TOTfCS Kowrarega, — umai usur Strait Torres St. Saibai I., N. G. umai [dog) usaru New 1 A ulua Malikula Hebri- ^ Nguna . . . — des 1 Aniwa , . . — kuri, kuli — I J COMPARATIVE TABLE 227 Opossum Emu Iguana Eaglehawk lowowyenna punnamoonta gooalanghta leena ngunannah — weelaty papnoolearah — — — — — — cockinna (J.) wolimmerner (N.) pandanwoonta)S.) leenar(N.) neirana (R.) walert poraimil bujing bunjil walart karwir tyulin ngaromgar wila yauwir wirmbil werpil wile yauir tyulin narail walert — tulin bundyel wila kauwir dhulin wirbil kuramuk kaping yuruk ngianggar kooramook barinmall urook neeungura kooramo kower — ngeere pondandi thungati wainbali waiapili wadhan maiyor badhalok kuanamurung burra murriawa goorooda wannomurra willi pettabang — mulyan willei ngurain, dinnawan girua ibbai, muUian kuruera (R.) marry-ang (H,) — — willai kongkorong — wirripang mute dino-un dull mullion ngarambi nguruindh warui buthar googie nurrung burnna kurra koomal wagie mulliwa walga — yallebiri wadebi warrida — tula galka — wye-hoota cur-lier ween-dug-a wol-lowra {eagle) piltari pinyali tiyauwe wulde pilla warraitya — yarnu — kari pundonya pilla, wilto yarinjy kulttee tarkooloo bilyahra pildra woroocathie kopirrie curawura balu warukatchi kurininga witchuhankura kargoin jungoobury muinbooaberry goorithilla raacmilla (C.) langura (C.) kurara (P.) — — moraqunda — — wiyi ngurin tyang murmello lungar kuriningara - - antina ilia ad-june-pa (W. ) eritya adel pur konjil — yowere — tchatti yelngur oolon oorooba — — 'nrerandre toarri — — "nreranji toarri — nichulka — — barit — — agaleg — - tamoi - — mala 1 ~~~ — maruke, nifatu 228 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Crow Black Duck Wood Duck i East .... lietenna _ Tas- ' South .... taw wereiny — — IVestandN. 11'. — — mania "j Xorth. . . . iicnn houtne — — 1 Miscellaneous . ktlla(L.) — — Yarra R. . . wang dulum — \ Lai Lai . . . wa tulum worowirt t Ercildoune . wa ngari biabiarp Avoca A'. wa ngari beyapyirp Broken R. . . wang dolong baitmom a: Gunbower . . waa ngori ngonok t: Warmambool . waa dhurubarang — Mortlake wah thorbran naook ^ Booandik, S. A. wa purner — ,v» Lower L.achlan whalakeli tolomi naari and Murrum- bidgec 1 Gippsland . . ngarukol wrang naak 1 Barwidgee, Up- wagara dooloomoo ngaru tX per .\lurrav •^ IVoorajery Tribe, waggan poothenbong ngaru S"^ Upper Murray, ^ » N.S. W. ■11 Wiraidhuri vvaggan wambuain hang l;^ § \ Turuwul, Port wagan (H.) yoorongi (C. ) — - s Jackson ^•^ \ Awabakal . . wakun Kamilroi . . waru, waun karangi ngurapala '^ Kabi,MaryR.,Q. wowa nar nar \ Warrego R. , Q. woggan mirri-nurra mirri-nurra -^1 - ( Toodyay (New- wardang munnie wonda : l«al castle) Pidong . . . kaku — — M inning — ngarrawa 1 ^ 1 Lake Amadens . carn-ka chip-pia (duck) — ' •i) .^ Narr invert . . marangani nakkari wanye (mountain) ^"11 Pamkalla . wornkarra — f/ « S! Adelaide. . . kua i:§^ • Darling . . . wahkoo mingara koonably ? S"5 Diycri . . . kowulka chippala koodnapina §-^^ Muntniida . wakuri muto milkipulo ^ ^ I Mythergoody womarine koopery alowan Larrikcya . quagabar (C.) benaymara (C.) — ■^ Woolna . . . — lermawal \ £ Daktyerat . . wangur pulnirik "^ Ruby Ck., Kim- — ^ berlcy ■*= Napier Range, wingard — chibile (whistling) ?-2 Kimberley ustralia , Austral Sunday Island . — Macdonnell ngapa — — 1 Ranges Walsh R..Q. . ada kuir \ Bloomjield Val- — borok •* ley, Q. 3 Palmer R., Q. . atha onoogi — ^ CoenR.,Q. augarilti moikapoome — Mapoon R. , Q. rarri moiboome nambarra — : Gudang,C. York — — — 1 Torres j Strait 1 K owrarcga, Torres St. Saibat /., N. G. baga (duck) I JVew / Aulua Malikula __ NeM. J Nguna . — (/es { Aniwa . . . niau ouri togarei ouri tagarei agarakou COMrARATIVE TAliLE i^29 Wild Turkey Pelican Laughing Jackass Native Comi'Anion treeoonta langta _ — toyne — — treoute — lanaba (J.) — — ; wajil kurung kurung kurork toraiwil Jcolabityin bortangil kuark borangeit patyangal kowark gutyun kulabityin bortyangil kuark norakuang ! — gurng gurng kurork hgorau linanggur koorng koorng koodhoon — — kunatth kurun barim-barim gardbarup koonitthe kooroon laa parangal kooartung wandi nuwe ninangure kowari toorkuangi buran kuak kurakan nungarawa goolakgahle — brolga komether - kookaburra berralgen gambal _ _ buralgang — car-rang-a-bomurray(C.) gogannegine (C.) — — karong-karong — — burowa guleale kukuburra buralgha kalarka bulla wallum kawung kunduran geeyerra kuggangurru kurruru bibilar talkinyeri nori prclggi walla widli — — wolta yetu — — tikkara booleeja korrookkahkahka goolerkoo kulathoora thaunipara — boo'alkoo wankinara malimaro — — thurua walkuperry jarungodl toorka lamamu (C. ) madaridja (C.) lanurba (C.) toluba (C.) — lourpita kargak — jruntyumunur monongur kulbobuk elinyunung itoa kabilyalkuna — — waloroongur piluara wahougoka kourpal atharoo ingibbi yambanyi adhaurotte anjomme pronjomme yambinne adhaurootte anjomme prondorme araunya — unbunya aporega raon — kowon aporega surka — - — malau — manu sori ~ ~ 230 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects White Cockatoo Black Cockatoo Swan East .... weeanoobryna menuggana kelangunya Tas- . South .... nghara nghay rumna piigheritta West and N.W. — — publee (J.) tncinia A'orth . . . — — cocha (J.) Miscellaneous . — — katagunya (J.) Yarra A'. ngaiyuk ngyernong kunuwara Lai Lai . . . dyinap wiran kunuwar 1* Ercildoune . dyinyap weran konawar § ^ Avoca A'. . . dyinyap wiran kunuwar Broken A'. . . gaan yenggai kunuwara ft; Gitnbower . tyinap wiral kunuar « C IVarrnambool . ngayuk wilan kunuwar Mortlake . . nayuk woolan koonawarra ^ lioouidik, S. A. mar, karaal wiler, treen koonowor ^ Lower Lachlan karandi — tunapuki and Murrutn- bidgee Gippsland . braak ngirnak kitai liarwidgee, Up- gadauna neanyo muUewa . per Murray I Voorajery Tribe ^ waima — goonak, thunthu L pper Murray, « 8 X.SAV. ^1 Wiraidhuri murrain billir — Turuwul, Port garaway (H.) carall (H. mulgo (C.) "" « Jackson t/i^ Awabakal , kearapai waiila — Ka7nilroi . . biloela — burunda < Kabi,MaryR.,Q. gigum wiyal kulun, ngiring Warrego A'., Q. — — — • "^ — Toodyay \^New- munait — — l^^s castle) ^:2:^^- Pidong . . . buUi biddiarra kurillthu :^^"C) Mintiing . . — — — ;S V ^ Lake Amadeus. cock-a-lella yeranda — 5 •- Narrinyeri . kranti wuUaki kungari "^"s -S Parnkalla . . yangkunnu irallu, yaralta korti to * s Adelaide . . kurraki tiwa kudlyo vi2 ■ Darling . . . kollybooka pinnya-koUyja yoongolee Diyeri . . . kudrungoo — kootie ^ i .~ Murunuda . . murumiri kuitch — ^. "^ Mythergocdy karambodla leepar — Larrikeya , . nangarangwarra (C. ) — — ^ IVoolna . . . lunginmununger laamal — ~ Daktyerat . . mangur milkbir dyur t: RuhyCk., Kim- — — ^ berley •*: Napier Range, — — — Kitnberley II Sunday Island — — — Macdonnell aruilkara iranta — s s Ranges a'^ Walsh R.. Q. . — "T Bloowjield Val- pirmbar kourmabiner — <; ley, Q. ^ Palmer R., Q. . enbogunby — — < Coen R., Q. . . — — — Mapoon R.,Q. . yotte poonjoo (?) — Gudang, C. York aira — — Torres Kowrarega, weama — Strait Torres St. Saibai /., A\ G. New A ulua Malikula Hebri- Nguna . . . des i Aniwa . . . — — — A comparativp: table 231 Bird Fly Mosquito Crayfish puggunyenna mongana punna monga redpa(J.) — iola mouta mouta (E ) niarnar (N.) mokerer (N.) — kuiap kuiap — goguk talakborong — dyodyot ngoiya ngoiya bambam yarboga bityik lere yaabitch — bityik lire yapitch — koreorark — ylnanel wotipir pittik liriu nark (?) — minik — yaam — minik krukrik weechuk tuman tuman ulul moon-o-erp konkro, keler yarri yarri yilongoure mundi — bian nuan dendong — maiangamba — tongambalanga — — — naingan dibbin burrimal muggen _ — myanga (H.) doora (H.) — tibbin wumenkan (//.) toping tighara burulu (// ) niungin — dhippi dhippi, debingo bunba Jllrii widgywidgy niugguing buurn mamuru jerdie — — gonak — kuragura nuni — am-monga gee-winnia pulyeri [small] tyilyi muruli meauki irta yumbarra yuwunyu — — lappa — — — wingoroo, mokay koondee koon-gooloo piya (//.) moonchoo koontie kuniekundi milkipulo nango — mulpo — millua woonjoin beekodl maddo — lamda (C.) — — longita monarongara — balbalma ngatyun wengnun - ngurur irol debadeba (//.) | manga [pi.) — Ityanma — aigir — — tchekal kalerwoory kumu warkoju amin ombolum omothoo — troroo ngoroo — — adhetanne ngoroo — wuroi wampa uma lang-gunya ure buli iwi kayer uroi bull iwi kaiaru nemin nelang tongas — manu lango namu — ta manu arago, anono tanamu touretshi 232 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Worm Snake Alive East .... loiena South .... — loinah — Tas- West and N.W. — rounna rawannah — mania North. . . . — powranna (J.) — Miscellaneous . — katal (L.) — 1 Yitrra A". . . dhuro kolornung (black) murundak till ImI . . . bilitch kurnmil muron Ercildoune . . kurk kunmil moron .1 Avoca N. . . tyumbilitch kurnmil muron g: Broken N. . . — kurnmil (■ivliip) kulor- moronda ^ nong (black) s Gunbower . . tyumbilitch kurnwil murun •2 ' Warrnambool . — >juram — ^ Mortlake . . krook korung pondean BooanJik, S. A. — — ur-lea Lower Lachlan tungali karni poorwoki and Murrum- Hdgee \ Gippsland . . wurwot dhurung beakwan ^ { Barwidgee, Up- — murray jooyu — per Murray Woorajery Tribe, — kolinjuna (black) — Upper Murray ^•3 Wiraidhuri duronggargar during murron H Turuwul, Port cahn(C.) — Jackson co"^ Awabakal . . — maiya moron ^ Kamilroi . . — nurai (black) moron Kabi,MarvK.,Q. kularen, niune murang, wongai manngur \ Warrego'Ji., Q. gowwa kan kurrin j,"S -^ Toodyay {New- — wakal — ^ «'^ s castle) ^.y^":; . Pidong . . . — millura — ^|~t3 M inning . . — mulawuda — ■h Lake Amadeus . — wom-mee — ^.v."e Narrinyeri . . tyilye, miningkar kraiyi tumbe Parnkalla . , — nurru (black) ipi to ^ S Adelaide . . — — purunna V2^ - Darling , . . — meetindy, dahngoo — :? ? '^ Diyeri . . . — woma thipie to Murunuda . . — diramatchi kuli Mythcrgoody booralkar chinur karlir Larrikeya . . — midjeera (C. ) medip ^ Woolna . . . — lermalyer — 1 Daktyerat . . dityaruk ngundyul karalla (?) s Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — c berley •« Napier Range, — — — M Kimberley « s Sunday Island — murodh, thuro — trali \ustr Macdonnell tyaba(//.) up-moa (W.) etata Ranges 3^ Walsh R.. Q. . — walkui aber ^ Bloomfield Val- ulngermo tcliarper dorango :« ley, Q. ^ Palmer R., Q. . — oloor — ^ CoenR.,Q.. . — agoye jeroome Mapoon R.,Q. . — agearri loimre ^ Gudang, C. York — kanurra (brown) anading Torres Kowrarcqa, kurtur karomat danaleg Strait ' Torres St. Saibai /., A'. G. — tabu — New Aulua Malikula — nemat maur Hebri- Nguna . . . asulati ngmata niauri des Aniwa . . . tanufakere agata mouri COMPARATIVE TABLE 233 Dead Big Small Long mientuiig bourrack teeunna, pawpela canara (J. ) rogoteleebana moye papla, proina, n ughabah teeboack ( J. ) rotuli kragbaga elpenia bodenevoued wordiock (N.) marrinook (D.) teebrack (D.) — wiagaidh buluto waiyibo niririmda dita'a didibil nganyagurk nirirm ditai dyangadya bupuok dyowang ditaiyang motyauk wortipuk tyuarng werigai wurdhau waikurkurong yorbortak wadhyingdhya kurumbirt martuk karwil kolpirna porir kunye wurombit kalpari meearong goonioomoneek wr.oroombit nooan, woora woorong moo-ro-ke woorongbool-e berapil kraii biabi tiangi trartigon kwerail dhalitch wragilman — murando bunyungahai keenyaro - kubborn (?) pooparjol kubborn P) ballun babbir, burdon bubbai bari boe(H.) murray (C.) murruwulung (R. ) kaiun (large, R.) tetti kauwul mitti, warea balun burul kai, but! gurar balun wingwur dhomarami guran ballyah darda gidju bunderra winading goombar batain welyardy ngaiarii yannda thunthammada muttharra — birdinn — ill-loong bun-tor wee-ma wat-tora pornir grauwi muralappi yulde kuiiyu, kupa bumba, mirru perru malka — parto, witte kutyo towinna bookka koombaja kelchelko berlooroo {/all) narrie marpoo, pina waka — palpinda nurda waga puri miijanoo murdoo churloo ooraniin belinying kuillege mulutjil (C.) — moama meeania mee-etniea — muruneka yidello yigbelderang tyalala kurdiman, nuniti weedi - — ill-looka knira kurka tanya Ion niolkar nyolb wungal warlan tcliere boorpan kalpe oolbin mooute woitte pfoimakonne danagoome moonte pari foppari danagootte etora, etolma intonya embowa — uma keinga muggingh kulalle umanga kaiza, kai magina kukutaligna emis lumbon kakas barimbarap mate warua kiki varau mate sore sisi palo 2iJ4 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects East .... Short Good Bad elangoonya noweiack Tas- viania South .... — miree nolle West and N. W. North . . . — noangate ee-ayng-la-leah Miscellaneous . — narrarcooper (N.) katea (L.) Yarra A'. morda manamidli nulam Lai Lai . . . murt wen-gyur nulam i^ Ercildounc . . bunyindyok dhalkok yatyang Avoca A*. . . murt dalkuk yatyang Broken H. . . waikorone; burndap nulamdak \ ( Gunbower tuluandok dhalguk yataanduk W'arrnambool . mulobit ngutyimg ngamegalin "C Mortlake . . . mambit moidhung amikuUien ^ Booandik, S. A. mooter niurtong wrang .vj Lower Lachlan toonathaigi primalia booki and Murrum- bidgee J Gippsland . . tukalaban lean, leanman muratch Banvidgce, Up- koblo budjeii (?) — per Murray C/f W oorajery Tribe, nerangi (?) murrambung — Upper Murray, e s N.S. IV. •5| Uiraid/iuri bungulgat marang bainguang t2| Turmoul, Fort toomurro (C.) boodjerre (C. \vere(H.) ^1 Jackson ^^ Awabakal . . — murrorong yarakai [to be) -< Kamilroi . . bunggudul muriiiba kagil A'a/'i,Ma;yA\,Q. dhalbur kalangur warang \ Warrcgo A". , Q. wordda murring yourral : Kamilroi . . bului yularai — KabiMarvR .Q. mullu gumka nolla \Varrego'N.,Q. kurda dadh-biru — •w Toodyay (New- moon — — 1 *■?! castle) ^•2±-5. Pidong . . . wiri — — ^r^l ; Mi lining — — — Lake Amadeus . mar-roo — — 5 ■? Narrinyeri . . kineman yalkin pek ^1 g Parnkalla . . mau-urru bakkamba karnba Co ** %S Adelaide . . pulyonna buttonendi — v~^ - Darling . . . yerrelko — — ? ^ "3 Diyeri . . . muroo — — 5 -^[^ 1 Murunuda . . — waponurda wapowagina ■J) Mythergoody margin waigillbongo bulninyu Larrikeya . . binyuminnkoe (P.) gager kwaotidong (P.) K^ IVoolna . . . — — — 1 Daktyerat . . eyukfyuk arugunuka pinyuya KubyCK.,Kim- — — — 5 j berley •« Napier Range, — manar — Kimberley « P Sunday Island — — — '1^ Macdonncll urbula — — Ranges P Walsh R.. Q. . — arbun — Bloomjield Val- ngombo tchakal yamberkari -5; ley, Q. ^ Palmer R. , Q. . — — — < Coen R. , Q. . nambarra angakapaddi tschoramme 1 Mapoon R.,Q. . ; nambarra, 'mbre angapit arramme \ Gudang, C. York 1 — — — Torres Strait Kowrarega, Torres St. ^^Saibai /.. N. G. > kubi-kubi thung kubikubinga New 1 AuluaMalikula miet embura nesungun Hebri- - Nguna . j loa vura kpalo dcs Aniwa . . . uri fonu noaga ana COMPARATIVE TA1JL1-: 2^31 Quick Slow Blind Deak I — — - guallengatick guanghata wayeebede yarbok wariwi mondap wariwi yuarbok werkuk bainggongak bulkal kulne burfai bulkal kulne baingongak paatoka bansaalong turtmirng nyima nim nim iiima borm borm mirng bormail kunditch krooncheehur turtwirng bong bong ; nga nga , nga nga 1 nga Dga wirng | dhapilaurimbul ngurdinwin moorkin wirn minanaw yalimongi kolo porn panmapil neiingwrungung markenki wedhur yardoman murindan naringon wungurela — megeewanjega megee murrumbugga burrabari woori burrabari mookeer megootha nanan - ngamabang ngia mugga kaiabur kalu, dhalli kurdin yatta golly buUo, malo yul wuUing dabicin (?) muga mi-gulum nurndiag gennang wadder mugabinna pinang gulum mugubinna dwangoburt narru narru maityukka nooroo munkaobi bodlun kuiUibik mant widlara mantikatpa munkwapi niju niju tonde mena wapo padyotti wontooja bootchoo puitchi waramugu dlamon-ngapinga ( P. ) i-rita plombatye yurre ngundanniti nahppaja, moko kootcharabooroo pingatuda pcnnekalunu k waella buelly idong ( P. ) merpur dama woin ngamania ilkaunkuanta - z i-rita (\V.) adbel yeakere yen da yambal libwon boorer piarath milger kari tre bwoi andamu andamu woititre wumreschatli - - - wate kowrare biltah turur ngmaravarave miloulou aliali fakasisi bugiri metina embara kesa kofu foimata pouri moamai kuralna wisina boiimboro kparo tuturu 238 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Strong We.ak Heavy East .... oyngtcratla koomyenna miemooatick Tas- South .... ruUa niUanah mia wayleh moorah West and. WW. ramanarrale — mania Xorth. . . . — — — Miscillii'ieous . noomeanner (N.) — — Viirra A'. . . bonmarart yaralornin barnbora L.I I Lit I . . . balert palka ba-ngik banbon Ercildoune . . martuk dermderm bunurt .5 Avoca R. punurt kunamilangan bunurt Broken K. . . bomdop — barndarbun ^ Gunbinoer . tormoil tyipor kunkimilong I Witrrnambool . — — kurgirnitch X Mortlake. . . arakitchung wahmpehur parpurnaman ^ Booandik, S. A. — — koon goon Lmver Lachlan wongorapi wongathe wenthepil and Murrum- bidgee Gippsland . . tardlman — kurkuran Barwidgce, Up- per Murray . matong mulumbudji boobobelo 'O Woorajery Tribe, metong woori metong — Upper ^Murray, I.) ! Varra A'. . . mung [quartz) wankim molka \ Lai Lai . . . gurin wan-gim warawar Ercildoune . — derm derm leawil 5 A'coca H. . . petch datom datom birpin & Broken A'. . . kalburn kalburnin wangim kudyuron ' c^ Gunbincer . . dyark wan pirbang « \ Warrnambool . — ledam ledam malinganuk Mortlake. . . morijir lata latup warawara ^ Booandik, S.A. — ketum kelum booamba, kana ■ ii Lincer Lachlan kalingali onei moonopi and Miirrum- bidgee ^ Gippsland . . dheradherak wangin kalak, donmong 1 Banvidgee, Up- — wongewa goojuroo per Murray A U'oorajery Tribe, — bergan — «-y L'pperMurray, « s N.S. W. ^-§ IViraidhuri guingal bargan girang ^1 Turuwul, Port — — ngallung ulla (C.) Jackson co^ Aiftibakal . kuUingtiella turrama kottirra A'amilroi — burran, burrigul murula pundi ^" A'abi,MaryK..Q. dhakke boran kuthar U'lirrego k., Q. — murley bundy i,"? «^ Toodyay {^New- dabba kilie dowak 1 ! ^"s castle) " ■■i t:^. s: • Pidong . . . — wolanu — ^"~"*C) A/inning. . . — — — — k ^ '■ Lake A madeus . wom-ba [knife] — wonna {stick) «^ .^ \ Narrinyeri . . drekurmi panketyi plongge, kanaka ^•ss Parnkalla . . yakko wadna katta Adelaide. . . yakko — katta vs^ - 1 Darling . . . yernda wonna poondee, koloroo s"? ■'s \Diyeri . . . yootchoowonda kirra — Mtirunuda . . kalcichipera tira puninanga i Mythergoody mindee kalkarbooey miraloo ' Larrikeya . , maramari (P. knife) — — ^ Woolna . . . — — metpadinger g . Daktyerat . . malauer — tyantan ■^ \Ruby Ck., Kim- — kurli — c 1 berley •y Napier Range, — kaili — ''•S kimberley «"? Sunday Island . — — — £3 Macdonnell irgalla ulbainya — Ranges 3^ Walsh R.,Q. . — ongwol wur ^ Dloomfield Val- biniu wangi doure :5 ley, Q. . . . s^ Palmer R., Q. . — mulkarra — ^ CoenR.,Q.. . — — — Mapoon R.,Q. . — — — ^ Gudang, C. York — — ekara Torres Strait Kowrarega, Torres St. — — kobai SaibaiJ., N. G. giturika [knife) — — New Aulua Malikula — — menriki, numbot Hebri- Nguna . , . — — nakpe des Aniwa . . . tomatshira fatu — tererakou \ COMPARATIVE TABLE 249 Head Hair Eye Face oolumpta poinglyenna mongtena niengheta poiete poiete longwinne nubre, nubrenah noienenah eloura kide pollatoola (J.) manrable(J.) ewucka (J.) parba (J.) elpina — cuegi(P.) lagurnar barnar (N.) neurikeenar (N.) niperina (L.) kauwong yara kauwong mimg mimg-bang moork ngarmurk mi rairbang burp rimbil mir niirbaga burp ngara mi mirpaga kawang yirikawang mimg minyinbokangin muranyuk ngoranyuk milnuk milnuk pirn ngara t mir mir beam wirin meringh metbin boop ngoorla mir — poapi nouobopi meingi biingi buruk ledh mirri kung murriawa murriawa wunjubba wahroa bollong — mil — kuppura, ballang uran mil ngolong caberra (H.) diwarra (H. ) mi(H.) — wollung, kuppura kittung ngaikung gha, kaoga tegul mil — kam dhilla, bon ml ngu, wanggum bambu worlba meel nunga katta katta meal wonnul mugga kulawil kuru (//.) kada wenndu meyl — cutta hoo-ray coo-roo — kurli kuri pili petye kakka butti kurni mena, mialla mangu, ngarri makarta padlo, yoka mena murki turtoo turtoo-woolkky meeky — mongatharida para milki (//.) — kuncho nircha milki mula kundra jamul euko — maloma bairrijeen (C.) damorra darreminndbirra mudlo imalgnie nia — pondo pondomer numuru bebema ungunyangunya lungga milwa — mandin lamingar nimilar — nalma numandadi nimi kaputa gola alkna angnera harui wir lipwar je tokol monger mil wallau ambogo allung immun — drokke ea andoa woikapoo ranrui ranrii andoa waggapoo pada odye dana — quiku yal dana — kniko yalbupu purka paru batina nepol batina metina konin nakpauna naluluna namatana namatana nouru toura foimata foimata 244 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups DiALfcCTS Eak Nose Smell (Noun) East .... mungenna mununa — Tas- South .... wayee muye, muggenah — West and N. W. Ifwlina (J.) muanoigh — mania 1 1 Xorth .... tilK-ratie medouer — I Miscellaneous . NveKge(R.) mudena ( R. ) — Yarra A'. . . . wirng kang buang I.al Lai . . . wirng kang bang Frcildoiine . . wirmbol ka ngarba 1 Avocii N. . . • wirbul kra buwang & Broken A'. . . wiling kangin buang t^ Guridcm'i-r . . wirmbulul< kanuk buanga Warrnambool . wirn kapung wapirna Mortlake . . . methin kabo woomban ^ Booandik, S. A. wiung maarki kow — Loioer Lachlan tiendi naarota and Xiurnim- bidgee Gippsland . . wuring kung meabilon / Ihirwidgee, Up- murrumbo denaewa — per Murray, I Voorajery Tribe, wootha nierootha — Upper Murray, <= R N.S. W. 5-§ :2S Wiraidhuri. . uda murru buddur buddur Tuniwul, Port gorai (H.) nogur (H.) — a Jackson ^^ Awabakal . . ngureung nukoro — ^' Kamilroi . . . binna mum — A'abi, MaryR., Q. pinang muru ka W'arrego R., Q- binna nuru buddley ^1 - ( Toodyav (Ne^v- dwanga moolye — 3 5^? castl'e) V. A alia We Cent) Pidong . . . kulka(//.) mulya — Minning . . . gula mula — -^ \ Lake Amadeus . pinna am-mou-la — a - Xarrinyeri . . plombi kopi — "^"2 S Parnkalla . . yurre mudla kurbo \ Adelaide . . . yurre mudla marto VI ^ - 1 Darling . . . eurree pulkkapinna — ^ p 1^ Diyeri. . . . cootchara (pi.) moodla koolie r^ Murnnuda . . nura mula tunka Mythcrgoody . . pinul yeengar noomalbunju Larrikeya . . banarra (C.) queeanguar (C.) — IVoolna . . . wal weer — c Daktyerat . . monindyaur yinun ngeadurkma fe Ruby Ck., Kim- munga dirdi — c berley ■^ Napier Range, nilibib gurmil — Kimberley e P Sunday Island . nilimar nenial — "s^ Macdonne 1 1 ilba ala — S a Ranges a'^ Walsh R.,Q. . wi je — X Bloom/ eld y al- milger pujil ngoumal ? ley, Q. . . . k Palmer R., Q. . innur omo — '^ Coen A'., Q. . . woie kokanne — Mapoon R.,Q. . wogo ri — ^ Gudang, C. York ewunya eye — Torres Kowrarega, kowra piti ganu Strait Torres St. Saibai /.. N. G. kaura piti ganu New Aulua Malikula ursina ngunsenda nebohte Hebri- Nguna . . . naraligana ragisuna — des Aniwa . . . tarega nousu namu COMPARATIVE TABLE 245 M0UT)I Lip Teeth Chin kakannina wugherrinna coninienna kaneinah — pay-ee-a wahba kapoughy leah — yannalope (J. ) — mona mona (//,) iane — canea (J.) wurlerminner (N.) leeaner {sing. N.) congcne (R. ) worong worong liang ngorndak wuru wuru liang ngandak wurobodhali wuro lia nganyi wuru wuru lia ngonyi wurungm wurungin liang, lang — tarbuk wurunuk lianuk pumaniiiuk ngulom wurung tangam — woorong woorong dhungun orine lo wro tunga — warongi belathowongi naroki nharlki kaat yungaat ngondok yien niwa — niyu lendawa yabba (?) — yeerong - ngan _ irang yaran kalga (H.) willin [pi. II.) dara(H.) wallo(H.) kurrurka tumbirri, willing (//.) lira wattun — ille, kumai ( ;>/. ) yira, Ira tal dhangka dambur dhangka yikkal dad mimml thir-ra yernghin — — nannang — ira wuti willga nganngu thumminji — iri — tar tar-bin-bimba car-teta noo-too tori munengk turar ngulture ya nemi ira ngangunge ta, narparta tamino, tamandi tia nguttoworta yelka moonnoo nunndee wokka muna miemie (//.) niunathandra unkachanda dira dira malilku nancha yarcharain tharingar yerdidther yanbar gurbalquar (C. ) — unbirregee (C.) gonngonngwa (P.) waba waper (//. ) ya — aru aru dir tdang lira — — — yallar , - - nilyi — — a-ruck-a-ta (W.) arinbinba deta, detya rotna jil wea artchan andel yimbi tchira bari amitting ookool anga kai adhetroombao angao anga kago mapibao angao angka angka ampo ebu guda iraguda danga ibu gudo iraguda dang gunga bangona nakulu bangona nelvanta mesembrin nawokana nangolena napatina nasina rogoutu nokiri ragoutu nonifo nocunicumi S46 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW GKOL'PS Dialects Chekk Forehead Beard | East .... _ raoonah comena purennah Tas- South .... — loee roeerunna cowinne West and N.W. — rioona comene waggele mania North .... neprane nobittaka (D.) — kide Miscellaneous . monur (N.) kongine (P.) Yarra R. . . wangga minyin yaragorndok Lai ImI . . . wang min ngarangandak ErcildoHiic . . murak gini nganyibauro Azoi-a A'.. . . murak kinni ngcnyi & Broken A'. . . wanggik minyin ngornang ^ Gunfiotver . . murakuk kininuk ngaranuk S ( W'lirrnambool . dhakka mitdhin nguran •^ Morthke . . . dhurthuk nethin — ^ liooandik, S, A. wuraa kine nguria ngerne Vi s Loii'i'r Lachlaii nurni kernangi monangi and Murriim- bidgee Gippsland . . wong nil! lidh : ' Barwidgee, Up- per Murray . — ~ yarangba lO l\ 'oorajerv Trite, — — — Upper Murray, C R X.SAV. 1 '1 Wiraidhuri . . daggal ngolong yaran Tunni'ul, Port — nulla (H.) yarrin (C. ) ~ \l Jackson c/:^ Awabakal . . kullo(//.) yintirri, ngollo yarrei . A'atnilroi . . . — ngulu yare 0f A'abi,MaryR.,Q. wanggum nulun )eran \ W'arrego N.. Q. nummung bubbal yerreng • "^ -. Toodyay {Scw- — — nanga I«^S castle) ^■2:1 -S- Pidong . . . — bulla nganngul .|-c| A/inning . . . — — — Lake Amadeus . per-till-leria nuU-ar un-gurra Narrinyeri . . make bruye menaki '^ R ■;: Parnkalla . . kalba, ngulko ngarnka kanbanggurru Adelaide . . . malaitye murki, yurlo malta, yernka i-sa - Darling . . . nuUee beekkoo wokka woolkky ? J= ''^ Diyeri . . . , — milperie unka l'''^ Murtinuda . . ulcho pilpa uncha Mythergoody walindu themer mangoora Larrikeya . . — mudpirrma (P.) gueabalma ^ Woolna . . . — — yaba c Daktyerat . . ngaruk milk marabat R Ruby Ck., Kim- — — nunga C; bcrley •^ Napier Range, — — alungar R C A'imberley " c P Sunday Island . — — dhird ^■5 ( Macdonnel I ilgaia(//.) litna minga II Ranges 5^ lValshR.,Q. . gul halban alpar X Bloomfield Val- gangool yiman wallar •^ hy, Q. ^ Palmer R.,Q. . — — aworko < Coen R.,Q. . . ngone pai nga Mapoon R.,Q. . ngone pai nga Gudang, C, York baga eprinya yeta Torres j Strait i Kowrarega, Torres St. Saibai I.,N. G. baga paru pauto yeta yata New t Hebri- J Aulua Malikula misembinta nepol niesembrin Nguna . . . napupuna naraena naluluni nasina des I Aniwa . . . niarigariga nomugarai nofurfuri cumu COMPARATIVE TABLE 247 Tongue Stomach Breasts Akm kayena teenah parugganna wu'hnna menne, maynah teena parugganah wuhnna tullana (J.) teenah — alree ().) guenerouera maguelena pouketalagna anme (forearm) kanewurrar (N.) plaangner (N.) vvagley{J.) wornena (R.) dhalang boitch birm birm dcrak dyilang poitch tyuratn torak tyale wutyop gurm datyak tali biUi tyang tatyak dyelang body in — — dhalinuk wudyumbuk dyanguk tafakuk dhulan tokung ngabung wurk dhaline dhogogang mart woork tale boole — woo turlengi belangi koimbi tarki dyelan buluu bang brindang duUingba — — karjenba - boorban — metrola dalan binbin (belly) duddu tallang (C.) barrong (H.) nabang (H.) gading(H ) tullun purrang (belly) paiyil — tulle mubal (belly) birri, ngummu bungun tunam dungun, kuri among kining durling duggu durley biggey dalain gobbil bibbi mara thallin warri katti murrnun thalidd mukuUa — wanngu — weelar ip-pee minna tallanggi mankuri ngumpurengk' tyele (upper arm) yarli ngangkalla n gam ma Dgando, yurti tadlanya ngankimunto ngammi (s.) turti tuUeenna koonto poonna wunyee, mungko thulie mundra koodnabidie auma cona (//. ) tali wapunurda muna cilka tumingaroo uparer uminar waljur kuiamelloa quallama (C.) mamabilma (C.) k\viaverndara(P. ) wee-e niarna ngoiya leuveyer ngandork mandulma wmg wuru - nung mamini yarmilar alinya idunta ibatyangna (//.) inanga are pip dliom nabil wahral bi bi tchahil elpin oroom onyong — ngai arra anjoou aga lanne arra anjoou mearri untara maita (C.) yongo — nai wera susu ~ boia maitarun da (sing. ) geto lemen tamban nisna vema namenana napoloalapa nasusuna naruna norero tupewa afatfata noritna 248 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Hand Finger Nail j East .... riena riena tonye Tas- 1 South .... reemutta rye-na ryeetonye West and N.W. — reeleah wante leah mania 'i Xorth .... rabalga (J.) anme ""'^W.r^. ( Miscellaneous . anamana (L.) beguia (E.) pereloki (E.) Yarra A". . . . mornang mornang dhirip Lai ImI . . . mona mona dirip ^ Ercildounc . . manya manya lirn manya 5 Avoca A*. . . . monya monya lilli & Broken K. . . — — — •1 ' Gunbower . . mananuk wotit mananuk lirl mananuk Warrnambool . niorang morang pirn morang Mortlake . . . muruk muruk brin muruk ^ Booandik, S. A. murna murna (pi.) — ^ Louver Lachlan mumangi naraugori larimongngi and Murrum- bidgee Gipp'sland . . brety dhakirbret dhakirbret Banuidgee, Up- per Murray . murra '~~ " V3 Woorajery J ribe. murra — — Upper Murray, « « N.SAV. Vales en sic Wiraidhuri. . marra — yulla Turuwul, Port tatnira (H.) berrilIc(H.) carrungen (C. ) "^ 5t Jackson t/2^ A~U'abakiil . . niutturra — tirri :>■ Kiimilivi . . . murra — yulu A'abi,MaryA'.,(J. piri piri, moUa moUa, gillen IVarrcgo, A., Q. murra murra pigging • ■« / Toodyay {^Neiu- — — — 3«T?5 castle) ^•^^t- Pidong . . . murra — minndi (//.) ^ ?"*Cj M inning . . . murra murra-kabudd (//.) — •^ V. ^ Lake Amadcus . murra murra mill-tee !r? ^ / Narrinyeri . . mari turnar perar S.Au and ntra Parnkalla . . marra marra birri Adelaide . . . marra marra biri VSC) ■{ Darling . . . murra — mellinya South 1 tral East Diyeri .... murra murramookoo (//.) murrapirrie (//.) Murunuda . . mira pinga — Mythergoody . . mumbinoor malbidji malbidji J iMrrikeya . . kuiaroa (C. ) gwiarrwoa (P.) daalla(P.) •^ W'oolna . . . it pay a tyanamunger — 1 LXiktycrat . . nanyulk yinbar pir R Ruby Ck. , Kim- murli — nnldha Ci bcrley ■« Napier Range, — — — *:.« Kimberley Sunday Island nemala — oral •--^ Mac don nel I iltya, raga iltyaganya itapmara II Rarnres 3^ Walsh R., Q. . dhi dhi — ^ Bloontfield Val- mara mara petin :« ley, Q. b Palmer R., Q. . irre — :| Coen R.,Q. . . tschuru a alanne Afapoon R., Q. . tschuru a aranne Gudang, C. York arta arta tetur Torres \ Strait 'y LCowrare^a, Torres St. . Saibai L,N. G. geta geto geta kuigursara tara New ( A ulna Malikula verna ngorongor verna tangala ngor. ver. Hebri- - Nguna . . . nangmelearuna nakinina natapalakisina des i Aniwa . . . norima matshikorima taperima COMPARATIVE TABLE 249 Leg Thigh Calk Foot leoonyana _ luggana lugguna — — lugganali luggra tula (J.) — lug langna — — dogna latanama (L.) kaarwerrar (N.) warkellar (N.) pere (E.) — dhiran guram dyinang — karip kar dyinong karip karip kar dyina — karip kar dyina karnuk korebuk tyuluk dyinaiiuk — karip pirn dhinang — kureep beern dhenung prum krip — — kiangi kiripi toolangiani mamberi _ dyeran bom dyean karrewa — — jinno — — — jeenong buyu darrang mungo dinnang darra(C.) — — menoe (H.) bulloinkoro wolloma (iurra, pi. ) buiyo durra wuruka dinna terang terang buyu dhinang dundu thurra — dinna matta dowel matta jenna — thunda mullatha jina gura — — jina — chewen-ta murnoo chin-na taruki ngulde kur turni wita kanti — idna mitti, yerko kanti, mitti yillamuka tidna mungka, yelkko mungka yelkkerra tinna oora (//.) thara thilchaundrie thidna mura mufi kombo tini nooldu nooldu nooldu yanar daonda (P.) macka (C.) morna (P.) queealka (C. ) — moom — ummal kalar tyer kalar piun mel — — — burdro dangalar namur — nimbilar nimbal — lupara — inka gor (below knee) gudhul — tel malpin warper ngar jinner amathling — annil teni vwongge avarri kwe teni wongge avarri kwe utronya etena — oquarra tirra, ngar kapi — kuku tete, ngaro madu ubalmadu azazisana, tsanb neluan — — neluan natuana namaona natorena natuana novai nobili kagavai novai 1 250 KA(;LEHAWK AiND CROW GROUI'S Dialects Toe Tail Skin \East .... manna poonee lurentanena Tas- 1 1 South .... — pugghnah lurarunna West and X. IV. — — — mania Xorth. . . . rigl {cla-w) — kidna MiiccllaneoHi . lagiirner (X.) — loantagarnar (N.) i Varra A". . . bububidyifang moibo dhabo Lai La/ . . . ngatongi d\ iiiong dorok mityuk Ercildoutie . dyina berkuk mitch 1 Avoca R. . . bapdyina birikuk mityuk % lirokin A". . . — — — Guribmcer . . dyinanuk pirikuk mityuk 1 1 'arrnambool . — wirang murnong Mori lake . . . dhenung weerung moorn 1 BotHindik, S. A. teen a — moorn > Lower Lachlan parthangi berkoi looko :^ and Miirrum- bidgee Gippsland . . dhakirdyean wrak derrauin Banuidgee, Up- jinno — wahno per Murray 1 1 'oorajery Tribe, — — — Upper Slurray, « R .X.S. W. •S-l W'iraidtiuri — don iren, yulain :2| Turuwul, Port dunna (A'ol, R.) toon (H.) baggy (H.) ~l Jackson =^-^ Awabakal . . tinna — bukkai ^' Kamilroi . . — — yuli Kabi,MaryR.,Q. dhlnang dhun kubar .1 .^ \ I arrego, R. , Q. darda-dinna doon yourring Toodvay (A'tw- — nandi booka ^§^S ca'stle) ^ «.'V$ Pidong , . . billbu (;>/.) nundi wanndu ^1=^c' Minning. . . — nuenndi waiyul — ^ ^ Lake Amadcus . pulca whip-poo bung-kee 5 "^ / Xarrinyeri . turnar kaldari wankandi ■* -wi tt "^^■S Parnkalla . . — kadla piyi 00 ^ S Adelaide. — worti parpa V2'^ -\ Darling . merloo koondara pultta :S«'s; Diyeri . . . thidnamookoo (//. ) noora dula l^-s Xlurunuda . tina kuni kula Mythergoody yanartinjul waltha peer ' Larrikeya . . k^viellg^va — beaeeaba (C.) ^ W'oolna . . tyanumunger — — i^ Daktverat . . ne (big toe) vvomo karalla Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — cS berUy •*» Xapier Range, — «:2 Kimberley « ? Sunday Island . — — — 1^ M acd on nelt inkaganya bara yinba 5 a Ranges g"^ Walsh R., Q. . — — — '^ liloontfield Vai- moroon piji youlburn Loiuer Lachlan takoori pooksomaoki berathin *-4 and Murrum- bidgce \ Gippsland . . lok — dhatigan liarwidgee. Up- — — — ~o per Murray . -~ \ I 'oorajery Tribe, — — — KM Upper Si array 2-3 Wiraidhiiri dangung niurronginga ballunna Turu7vul, Port dunmingung (R. ) — — Jackson Awabakal . . — moron tettibuliko Kamilroi . . — — baluni :> A'abi,.Uan'/e.,(J. bindha murubaman baluman v ll'arrego. A*., Q. widgey kurrin ballyah i"S -v. ( Toodvay (jVeu>- — — winnit ca'stle) '^ISI Pidong . . . — — — -■?-C; Minuing. . . — — "- s^ Lake Amadeus . — — A ^ Narrinycri . takuramb tumbe porn il ^■§2 Parnkalla . . mai, bulla warrirriti padhutu Adelaide. . . mai, paru purruttendi padlond Darling . . — — bookka •*! "« t! Diyeri . . . booka — — «l.5 Muruniida , kuti kuntawanro balindu •^ -y Mythergoody putthale — — ] / Larrikcya . . niayoina amedip (/ live) belingying v^ IVoolna . . . niuma — — ^ Daktyerat . . niiyu dukniaadeung padthadeung .5 Kuby Ck., Kim- — — — to berley Napier Range, — — kurdinian «:| . A'imberley •2 5 Sunday Island . — • — eembal ■g5 M acdonnell ntutamea — iluma Ranges Walsh R.,Q. . j'l — Ion ^ Dloomfield Val- niie tchakoi warli ley, Q. ,^ Palmer R. , (J. . athenning — — <^ Coen R. , Q. . . adhou jeroonie avoinne .Mapoon R., (?. . adhou loimre tomandschooni Gudang, C. York aiye(C.) — — Torres Strait Kowrarega, — — dadeipa Torres St. Saibai /., N.G. ai _ umanga New ( Hebri- des Aulua Malikula navangan t i m aur ( 3 rdper. sing. ) Umis [^rd per. sing.) Nguna . . . navinanga mauri mate Aniwa . . akai mouri mate COMPARATIVE TABLE 253 Eat Drink Sleep Sit tughlee, tuggana longhoU-e lony niealpugha tughrah, tuggranah nugara roroowa (J.) crackena (j.) kible kible nenn here meevenany (J.) tegurner (N.) temokenur logurner (N.) medi (P.) | tangarabian ngubian yimanan ngalambanan gutyilin ngupilin kuniba pura tyakik kobilang komba nyanga dyakilan ngupilan kumba pura tyakalang kupalangga kumbanduni nanok takin tatthin yuwan kuppa dhukeino dhut thunoo uwona neenkuka — lata looma yakandin koopori konibathe yantha dhaando dhaando berndan Aindu — wljela — — dara — ulinga guabinga, winga patty (C.) weede (H.) nangara (H.) gnalloa(H.) tukkilliko pituUiko ngarabo yellawolliko tali ngarugi babi nguddela dhau, dhoman dhathin buandomaihi ninaman thennmgga thenmugga nunamugga neamugga nanang gabby nanang bigar nit ngulla, ngurma ngulla, ngurrna nguba nyinna warra-maowud — kudnaiella ningarn nuU-goonie [pr. p.) — — nin-nanu takkin murttun tantin lewin melata — meya wanniti ikkata niaiendi — — tikkandi tiee toonjala eniargala neengga tiami thapana mookalie armuna tundu tundu napa parindo kunda — — wongil yinar gugai {1 eat) anjarra (C.) allinmingaligal mudgi (C.) 1 va-aqua aginda (C.) loorl lakadema durkadenia ngurngur adeung adini niungari — nuinya — '■ karpe kuing kurlin - unggarlli vvoral unggerlmo unggalant al-gooma (W. ) lorilania, nunia ankuindania — yug — nog onjek ngougal boumbi wauni boundi athathi athathi enthul — angvvonogoome — — — ngwonnokomnie tediang wonokoniinc anionokomnie angea atedurra unggin-ga eremadin engka purteipa wan i pa uteipa tanureipa ai pourtano wanin utoi apatanu angkani timin ien anibalok nganikani nuinu maturu tro natano kakeina keinu meio, koniero 1 nofo, konofo 254 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Go Come Tell East .... tawe talpeyavvadeno South .... tawkwabee tutta watta — ■r fas- ' West and N. W. tawe — — mama Xorth . . . . — — — A/iscel/aneous . tagurner (N.) tecaner (N.) rarne (J.) 1 Yarra A'. . . yananan birnun dhumbak Lnl l.al . . . yanno wata keaka Ercildoune . yaanbang wardiga ngalayanik 5 Ai'oca A'. . . yannga wataga kiyaka 1 ft; Broken A'. — — — Gunbffwer . . waranggoni yukaiyanok keap manyup (tell sotnebody) « \ Warrnambool . yanan watta kaipa ^ Mortlake . . . yanakie kaka-watakie (kaka, leek pukie ^ here) i^ Booandik, S. A. yanka kuki kepa lAnver Lachlan fr= yangalhie tolanden ngetthelotoona Murrumbidgee ^ Gippsland . . yangon ngauandhi dhuna / liancidi^ee. Up- yagamilla yangabailla — ^ per Murray "« \ Voorajerv Tribe. ya — — §1 Upper Murray a-5 Wiraidhuri yannana yawai (come here) — ■5i s; ) Turmcul, Port jTinda (go awny, R.) cowee (Come on, H.) — Jackson Awabakal . . uwolliko uwolliko wiyelliko Kamilroi — taiyanani — :?► Kabi.MaryR..Q. yanman banian yaman \ Wan ego, R., (J. yenmugga thineyenmugga thergara . ■« Toodyav (\c-u<- watow 3'ale nunda wanka l«^"B castle) ^•sl^- Pidong . . . yannma yannaji — ^|-CJ .M inning . . — . — — Lake A made us . by-enie al-learie why-talla "-> -v. Narrinyeri . ngowalour [imper.) arndu (p. pa.) rammin ^11 Parnkalla . . nganimata budnata wadlata Adelaide . . . murrendi kawai pudlondi Darling , — — — Diycri . . . pulkanii kapara worapanii ^^L,^ Murunuda . cinda cidinakuma kawi ^ ^ Mythergoody wobarloo kowar minbar I.arrikeya . . began (P.) nallak (C. come on) — Woolna . . berroque (go muay) nallak (come on) — "g Daktvcrat . . boiadung baadung taueradema ":: Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — ^ berlcy >j Napier Range, yellar-bonar yellar-bonar nigra «-2 Kimberley « « Sunday Island — — — ••5i / M acdonnel I artyilanania, lama bityima albemelama ■ 23 Ranges 3^^ Walsh R., Q. . lugar tok — ^ Bloomfield Gal- toongi kutti milbi <; ley, Q. "1 Palmer R., Q. . — — — :| Cocn R„Q. . . — — — Mapoon R., Q. . ianganoome tanoombanne tschui Gudang, C. York — impebino wai (C.) ekalkamurra Torres f Kowrarega, — uleipa mulepa Strait \ Torres St. Saibai I.,N. G. pa usaru (go away) aie New 1 A ulua Malikula tmben tipen bitene Hebn- \ des \ Nguna . . . pano umai, pei noa Aniwa . . . fano, roro my ontuena COMPARATIVE TABLE Si'EAK Walk Run Bring pueellakanny tahlyoonere rene kunny u altera pocerakunnabeh lawtaboorana lugara kunna watia pooracannaby — niella(J.) — kane tagna tablene pinikta — — tabelti (L.) noonghenar (N.) worrar (N.) durnmin yaninbulonda wurwon tuabongak geela yanni wate nmtyaka gyig' yaanbol pirpa muiyaka worake yannga piripa niutyaka wurake yanok wiri - lakkan purpa wirakan woniba lukukie yanakie karowukie yanbarnan [bring that) lanka yanka wraan mana limbi yena waiwi nianakia dhuna — yangon wonai — biela pinnela — - - burrabari burrunia yarra yannagagi bunbanna bariamalbillinga byalla(H.) — chawa [impcr. R.) — wiyelliko . murraliko goalda — punagai taikane yaman yannian bidhaliman barinian yarra yenniugga thungyniugga thir.ekammugga wanka watow yatagaly berrang wonga yarra, yanna bukalli kunngani — ngarallguni wudnayeri — — yan-ning — — yarnin ngoppun kldein — wanggata ngukata — kattiti warrabandi murrendi watpandi kattendi — wonga kolyara wottolay yathami — — — naming! cinda namini kulkini — woobar banjar buterain — akgami (C.) muddli (P.) gurimakerk [ P. ) weeyer mogwerie moquel lineter (brim^ here) lamadung damadung tagatadirang wabagadung — urna — — nigra wongi mucheri, gurdi - _ ungwara tunggora — ankama — unti (W.) ngetyinia anbel koko balkal toongan toongi jinbal wari woondil vara ondo -' agullaki - - tschonokomme iange tschiatschine wia ekalkanmrra watungi (C.) — — — — ringa — — gurgu usaru — Dgapaniani tisur penepen anrui ti leverubene pasa surata sava piragi kontucua katakaro tere aniyane iioG EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups DlALFXTS Take Lift Carry 1 East .... nunne Tas- 1 South .... nunnabeli — — West and X. IV. — — — mania Xort/i. . . . — — — Miscellaneous . — — — Yarra A'. . . kungak dambok waronggobok Lai Lai . . . mutyaka waiinok wamok Ercildoune . . mutyake waivva mutyaka % Avoca N. . . mutyaka waiwok tyulnak & Broken A\ . . — — ft; Gunbower . . nianakinyok (?) waiok wakura S ( IVarmambool . maana keranga wombangin Mortlake . . . natonhatnobe keeramukie womburnong ^ Booandik, S. A. niana — kinepa i^ Lower iMchlan manapa warn a karatha and Murrum- bidgee Gippsland . . katbokaia yenna kortba Bancidgee, Up- nunda — vvorrongahra per Murray . ) nangonraorina koringa kareda papgoobun krananga wanggan kalandanngat kalandanngat bernak - winnanggaduringa winnangganna yuranna ngurruUiko winungi vrongaman namiyu dwanga tirune vrongaman namurriu kattik koteliko vrongaman binnamebiu kattik ponikulliko dhuruman duri ngunngula - - - co-leenie (pr. p.) kungun yurranniti tulleetee pulo nungun baleitong (F.) nglelin yungkutu tampendi kalinatu nunthanu alleitong (P. isl per. s.) kungullun paiendi nioorra oondrami kalinatu nunduanjilingu kringgun mirrurriii yerthondi boonka kurinda janberingu tauerema tauerdyaurera taueradeung parkmorema — - nillar - argutilama ilbankama yalania mankama milgabonimer ngatchinger ngonour tchamal tchire mal namenni koniimenni parakooti parkwiggi worrokwi tsheritte, abvoru tsheritte, worn krangipa - - - karnaiginga enrongo trogo fakaragua mulaigo enrongobisea atae keiro enranea mitrotroa mentua titarump ulua somo, vere 260 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Give Like Marry East .... tyennabeah (in East or South) - - Tas- South .... — — — mania West and N. W. — — — Xorth. . . . — — — ^ Miscellaneous . — — — • Yarra K. . . wungak nininbothombunan birmbonwarin Lai I.al . . . wa'ak botvimoan kurtak Ercildounc . . wokagan dhalkuk mandyarup 1 Avoca A*. . . wukak wutyapoman mandirauil s> Broken A". . . — — — ^ Gunboicer . , wunganda nuka nianakina tori an Warrnambool . yungama — — Morthikc . . . wookakin noitcho wogagae Booandik, S. A, woa, oka (pr. p.) kroamona (I love) manan-woo Lonuer Lac Man wooki gnetemowa — and Murrum- bidgee Gippsland , . yuadhai magleanman wandyokan 1 Barwidgee, Up- uga — undangyalla to per Murray •« Woorajery Tribe, — — — Upper Murray 2-2 Wiraidhuri ngunna — — •l^ Turu-ivul, Port — — — ^1 Jackson , -Of Awabakal , . ngukilliko ■ — bumbilliko «0^ Kamilroi . . wune — — :si Kabi,MaryR.,Q. woningan ka\vun bindhamathi \ Warrego R. , Q. newa — — i'2 --. / Toodyay (New- yunga mucine kalla nujet i«^1 castle) ^•S'l-g. Pidong . , . — • — — ^ ?~c$ Minning . . . — — — ■!i Lake Amadeus . you-i — — 5J ^* Narrinyeri . . pempin pornuii napwallin -^11 Parnkalla . . nungkutu mundalyabmiti kantyiti to « ? Adelaide. . . — muiyu mangkondi — V2^ - Darling . . . — — — Ss't! Diyeri . . . yinkuna [pr. p ) — — Murunuda . . nonginta patchi nyuaringda Mythergoody . yumebain maiinjerbuthalbu narthierejergabu Larrikeya . . nagok(P. 2ndpers.s.] budbaleitmaong (P.) — ^ Woolna . . . gunmitja (P.) — — 1 Daktycrai . . angadema elelmok dapadema — Ruby Ck., Kim- — - — — c berley •« Napier Range, younga ■ — — «:| Kimberley « s Sunday Island . — — — ■"5^ Macdonnell ntema nergama eknuma S 3 \ Ranges "5*N IVals/i R., Q. . nyim — — '^ Bloomjield Val- tchaimer wahoumal muniur munmer -0' Awahakal . . keawai ngatoa emmongta Kamilroi . . . kaniil ngaia ngai ''• A'abi,MarvR.,Q. kabi, wa waka ngai, adhu nganyonggai \ \Varrego'R.,Q. walla nunthey — i-.'^ -^ ( Toodvav (A'ew- wadder — — l^^sl castle) ^.2£^^ Pidong . . . waddji ngutha ngunnathung :^"$-^c;i M inning . . . yanngun — nunnga -- ( Lake Amadeus . we-umpa nij'ouloo — Narriiiycri . . nowaiy ng-ng ngape nganauwe "^"s-S Parnkalla . . madia, kutta ngai, ngatto ngaitye, ngaityidne !/^ - S Adelaide . . . niadlanna ngai, ngait3'0 ngaityunna V2^ - Darling . . . nahtta ahppa — i $"? "t; Diyeri .... ahi althoo nie Murunuda . , waba ungaro ungaro Mythergoody . . unibi nigo nigeringu J Larrikeya . . alika(C.) ana ananga anege "V. Woolna . . . leita tanunga unggoingee ii^ Daktyerat . . aka nga nga ngave t> Ruby Ck. , Kim- — — S berley •^ Napier Range, marla ni — Kimberley t- w Sunday Island . ■ li Macdonnel I itya yinga, ta nukara Ranges 5*^ Walsh R.,Q. . du(?) — \ liloomfield Val- kari aio aiko :* ley, Q. j. Palmer R., Q. . anuncha inun — <• Coen R., Q. . . njianni yupoo tanoome Mapoon R.,Q. . njee iange tamre Gudang, C. York untanio uba (e.) — Torres J Strait 1 Ko7v rarega. longa, guire ngai, ngatu ngow (;«.) udzu (/ ) Torres St. Saibai /., .V. G. maigi, launga ngai ngau — A'ew 1 Hebri- J Aulua Malikula a, o anu tuknu Nguna . . , e kinau aginau des I Ani7oa . . . jimra avou tshaku COMPARATIVE TABLE 2(jJ3 Me Thou Thine Thee mina mcenah neeto -eena (suffix) neeto pawahi (P.) — — — morambina morambaiak . . — bangik bangin — — — dalkukar dalkukwangin — wangin war — — ngyikin ngindi ngindi ngindi ngatuk ngutuk ngutunat ngutuk meindook — — — ngatho ngooro nganaon — ynethi ynyaa — — ngidha - nginalunga - athoo (?) enoo — — ngannal ngindoo — — — — — emmong bi — bin ngunna nginda nginnu nginnuna nganna ngin, ngindu nginyonggai nginna nunthey — — — nanye — ~~ — yinnda yinndong - niena yentoo — — ngan, an nginte ngumauwe nguni ngai ninna, nuro nunko, nurko ninna ngai ninna, ninko ninkunna nmna indoo, imba — — anie yondru — ninna ungaro — • — ~ anannga (P.) ityenna ityennege — unggoingee — — — erin nun niingbe nundyu yingana lenkina, nga unkwanga unkwangana du — — enya youndo youno yina tano andramme angenoome ngonoo tano andreaninie (?) angeoomre (?) ngeanoo — — — — ana ngi, ngidu yinu — __ ngi, ngido — — anu engko takengko engko au nigo anigo ko avou akoi tshow akoi 264 KAGLEHAAVK AND CROW GROurs Dialects ' Hi. His Him Fast .... — Tas- South .... nam (J.) — — West and NAV. — — mania A'orth .... — • — — Miscellaneous . narrar (N.) ■ — — / Yarra R. . . kannuk kalhup — .1 Lai Lai . . . giawa wanyuk — F.rcildounc . . — — — ?■- Avocii A*. . . . kinyuwa wanyuk — ti: firoken A'. . . — — — .1 GuNbiicer . . ma.alu niaikatch maalu II arrnambool . ngulanipe — ngulampe ^ AWtlakc . . . mange yananee — — ,'^ Hihiandik, S. A. nung noongerengat — I.iUcerLachlanb' Afiirriiinbidgee •~ nooka kikinga \ Gippsland . . — — — / rSiincidgec, Up- per Murray —~ — t/^ \ 1 'oorajery Tribe, — — — Upper Murrav, t R N.S.W. ^ "5 Wiraidhuri . . nilla — — '^1 Tunm'ul,- Port — darringal (C.) — ^ %- Jackson t/jS- Awabakal . . — — — Kamilroi . . . ngernia ngerngu — ■ *^ A'abiMnry^-'Q- ngunda ngundano ngunda \ \\'arregoR.,Q. . ninnbu numbuka numbuka Toodvav (New- castle) — ■ — — ^•S'--^- Pidong . . . ball ballong ^|-a M inning . . . — .-•• — — Lake Amadeus . — — — 'Z ~* Narrinyeri , . kitye kinauwe kin, ityan -^■gS Parnkalla . . panna, padlo parnuntyuru panna C/j «: ? Adelaide . . . parnu, parnuko parnukunna parnu VS^ ■ Darling . . . wahtta, wahto — ^ — ?"? "> Diyeri . . . . nouliea noonkanie nooloo Murunuda . . — — — l""^ Mythcrgoody . . — — - — ' Larrikeya . . bienneba biennege yaba (P.) ^ 1 1 'oolna . . . — owingee owingee . ^ Daktyerat . . yundun yundunde ne ft; Ruby Ck., Kim- — — — ci berlcy •fe Napier Range, — ■ ■ — — R Kimberley t ."5 Sunday Island . — — — ^1 Macdonnell era ekura ekurara Is Ranges S'^ Walsh R., Q. . — - — — ^ Bloomfield Val- nulu ngongo ngongonin :$ ley, Q. 1^ Palmer R., Q. . — — — < CoenR.,Q.. . lopoo ngonoome ngorpe Mapoon R. , Q. . leo niamroo ngoa ^ Gudang, C. York — — Torres Slrait K'o7i>rare^a, nudu, nue nunue nudu, nue Torres St. Saibai L.,N. G. ngoi ngungu ,, A'nu AuluaAIalikula hena tahena hena Hebri- Nguna . . , nae aneana a, e, sa, nia des Aniwa . . . aia tshana aia COMPARATIVE TABLE 265 We Ours Us You _!. ■ neena z z z neena, nee warrander (N.) morombolok moroniiiyala(/(7«a/Z(//) bangitok dhalkukangal wangu moronibongata wangitok wanginurak wangitok morombongata wuringiting wuinanding ■ • ninga (D. ) nioromnguta yangur yangurau yanguren - pulijah ngathoe, ngathoat youngoun ngana-anu — ngootpaler — — — - ngeanni ngearun ngeane ngalin nunna nundo, nOTye ngulli [dual) ngeanengu ngalinngur nurraka ngullingu ngalin nunna nunda, nanye ngindugir ngeene (C.) hula (dual) ngindai ngulani yindu nunda yentoo-nully [dual) ngurn, ngele (dual) ngarrinyelbo ngadlu ngurnauwe ngarrinyelburu ngadlukunna nam ngarrinyelbo ngadlu . • ngune, loni (dual) nuralli na, naako uldra jannanie iana, alie yoora, yinie nulyindu dorendera unarar dorennege unggoingee • • yundu gugurangura neetana auur, ergur auure, ergure erpuro, erguro nungur -— -- ■ - jok anuna anunaka — arankara, nibala de angin, ali (2) ana (3) anginunger anginin youier, youbal (2) boitti mboi arri, albei (dual) namboome nianrume an-ien, albcine (dual) bomnbwoonune mbwonoome ■ moo andrappu aiidreu unduba (C.) ngitana, ngipel (dual) antil ngabanu tahantil antil ngitaniura, ngipel anuintil ningita acitin aningita tshote ngita acitia • • niiiiu acowa 26G EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Yours You (Object) They / Kitst .... -T— Tiis- 1 South .... — — nara (J.) West and N.W. — — — man til ^ 1 \orth. . . . — — — I Miscellantons , — — — > Yarra A'. . . nguta — konoit I.al I.al . . . — — — Ercildouue . . — — — 1 Ai\Ka A'. . . — — — ■& Jiroien H. . . — — — ^ Gunhwer . . ngudhek ngudhek — g W'arrnambtvl . — — — ■2 Mortlake. . , — — .— ^ liooandik, S. A. ngootpalerorong — nungpaler ,v^ Laiver luichlan — — — and Murrum- bidgcc \ Gippsland . . — — . — Banvidgee, Up- per Murray . Woorajery Tribe, — — • "^ — — . — Upper Murray, e R y.s.\v. _ ^1 IViraidhuri — — ngannaingulia Turuwul, Port ngeenede (C.) — — M ^ Jackson ^•^ Awabakal . . — — bara ^ Kamilroi . . — — ngarma Kabi,MarvA'.,(J. ngulamo ngulanibola dhinabu ll'arregok., Q. yin-ga — thenna Toodyav (A'tw- castl'e) — — — " '^•S- s Pidona , , . — — — ^^-C! Minning . . . — — — •h Lake Amadcus . — — — 3 -^ Narrinyeri . . noniauwe ngune kar, keengk (dual) ^s^ Parnkalla , . nuralluru nuralli yardna Adelaide . . . naakunna naa parna, parnako V^o - Darling . , , — — — Diycri . . . yinkanie — thana ■^ c 5 Muruniida , . — — .5 "" <; Mylhergoody — — goonulnoorloo / Larrikeya , , gurennege — bedenbera ^ \ \ 'oolna , . , netangee — — fs Daktyerat . . nunguro nunguro wurundun ":: A'uby Ck., Kim- — _ C berley Napier Range, — — — Kimbcrley Sunday Island , — . ■^ "S ( Mac don nell aragankara — etna, eratera (dual) s * Ranges ^^ Walsh R., Q. . '^ Dloomjield Val- youninger yourunin tanner, buUer (2) :5 ley, Q. Palmer R., Q. . __ i^ CoenR.,Q.. . yainboome neappi lorpe Mapoon R., Q. . ranrumnie neanne lorpi , Gudang, C. York — — inyaba . . Torres 1 Strait \ Kowrarega, Torres St. Saibai I.,N. G. ngitanaman ngalpan tana, pale [dual) tana Nero t Hebri- Aulua Malikula tahaniuntul amuntul hera Nguna . . . animu mu nara des I Aniwa . . . tshowa acowa acre COMPARATIVE TAHLE 207 Theirs moroinbathana nungpalerat burunba dhinabuno therraka kandauwe yardnakkuru parnakunna thananie bedennege wurundunde etnika Them nara (J.) thanan tannunger taiinunin nerooinyunoome lornrumme neru lorne tanaman tanamunu tahera liera areara tshare ra acre barun, bulun (dual) dhinabubola yellowdirry kan yardiia parna thaniya Yesterday nentegga menyena. neea nunnawa imilongmulok taliyo dhyaligc talige kyilikyilik ngaangat akatho kilonaki bukang iigingurain, gambai boorana (H.) giniiandi ngaiiiba gunda kuochat bennaiig To-Day watangrau hikkai nunggi wiltyarra yatranyarru yellara illahgo urukuli keilppo genodljodl goolawa (C.) kuri iUngua wiiiemegwa pendyodin targenail aniau - miliar {now) tonurka lata yili yen^'iiya aiiunba amilniean angoinne oragokoo agwoinye kaidakke yulpu (C.) "gill ura (C.) wargaiga kaiba nmo abakal nanova niasoso neinafe ir.inei waldea-ponl (J.) yilnbo iniriyo nyawiu nauwiyo kilauitch tigapc niakateba keto kilniaki dhilai ngidyigallila }agoona (C.) buggai ilanu dhali, gilumba kainyi yaye' IGH KAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects Tomorrow Where are the Blacks Hast .... _ _ T,i<- South .... West and A'. IV. — — mufiiti .Vorf/i .... — — Misifllancoiis . — — Yarra A'.. . . buiburiiing windya yang golin ImUmI . . . yiraniim \vi ya koli tf Ercildounc . . barpobarp windyala krutang .5 Avoca R. . . . barapa windya koli liroken R. . . — — ^ Giinbo^uer . . pirpu windyalo yuanuk kuli- Warrnainbool . tunggat windana maarban Mortlake . . . malungiba wondha niara 1 Booandik, S. A. kalapa winthowoongi tonoro Ijneer Lachlan koongonda — •^ and Mttrrum- bidgec Gippsland . . brundii wunman konai Banuidgee, Up- — — c/ per Murray >3 IVoorajery Tribe, — — S"« Upper Murray, « a N.S.W. •S-5 IViraidhuri. . — . — >« ft Turuwul, Port parry buga (H.) ware (where, H.) "1 Jackson c/i^ Awabakal . . kuniba — Kamilroi. . . nguruko tulla murri *^ K'abi, MarvK.,Q. yirki weno dhan Warrego R. , Q. burda deam bulla maiing . "^ 1 Toodyay (AVtc- bennang yungar wingal castle) Pidong . . . _ — • ■ ^|~G Minning . . . — — Lake Amadeus . nioong-al-)'er-roo — s ■- Narrinyeri . . ngrekkald yangi narrinyeri t/j « ft Pamkalla , . malturlo — Adelaide . . . paninggolo — ViSO ■ Darling . . . wahmbeenya weendyah winibaja ? C 2 Diyeri .... — — Muruntida . . — . — 1^^ Mythergoody . . wargumurra wundoo narjerar I.arrikeya . . emangua (C.) arabelidjee belira (C.) ~^ W'oolna . . . melarnga looarkieinga ungalooqua i: Daktyerat . . nungoyune ngan yao ngaran s; Ruby Ck., Kim- mukamukan __ C berley Napier Range, mini warar (by-and-by) jenar wamba ■ ■ ft -2 Kitnberley '"S Sunday Island . — — ■•1^ \ M ac don ne 11 ingunta — f Ranges Walsh R., Q. . — . I — '^ Bloom/ eld {^al- woongoon bummer wonjarin ■<: ley. Q. "i; Palmer R., Q. . oloong — < Coen R., Q. . . woingatinimi ^^ Mapoon R^ Q. . pronganne nambarra andrangoo ^ Gudang, C. York achunya ania undukera (C.) Torres Kowrarega, batteingh — Strati Torres St. Saibai /., N. G. bangal _ Nno Aulua Malikula niebko asamangk miet aranembi Hebri- Nguna . . . niatamai natang moli loa manga wai des .■Iniiva . . . aratou togata pouri wehe co:mparative table 269 I Don't Know windhongga wiya ngalanyanga windya -windya ngurtambu wirn wangatong warthenete naagana ngolangat boangan manyero (H.) wa vronga nai-ma nanye katti wadder yurilo nowaiy ap nglemin mintiali yoongahnjy How kurndirnar iiuran nangura nonguran nongurarau windhigunga minanggo dirrasra thann niengye wantye ngaintya wodow unginju unugunarar ■elabauna (C.) illebidbanna anungi dyauermagiere anungenung yuka jer aio natchimul che(C.) ngai karawaigo ien, anu selisembosea a ta atae a man avou puspusi wonjere niobah trapale sava kontucua Who What kunup wela windyaro winyaro winyar ngara nganoo nenga gan audi ngando, ngangai narnna nganggi nauwe, nganiia nsrendo, nsranna urmi harbira wonjoungou andrakoo aye ngadii, nga nga base sei akai telingha tebya p)allawaleh tarraginna wanarana ( P. ) winnar winyar windya nangomin nanuk ngana nana nan nungoa ngan mandyi niinyang minya niinanggai niinyan naJt na niinyi nauwe ngaintya, nganna ruinna mina uni anaUa (P.) nigida annai annai niiai, mida nepab nasava laha ^70 EAGLEHAWK AND CROW Groups Dialects When Where Why East .... Tas- South .... wabbara ungamlea — WtstandNAV. — . — — mania Xorth .... — — — Miscellaneous . — — — J Yarra R. . . niulugo windya winyirangga Lai Lai . . . willang wiya wekarok R Ercildoune , . pirbanyuin windyalar windyaii Avoca A". . . . ngirtoge windya nangur V' liroien K'. . . — — — <: Gi/nhnver . . naturuk windyalo naturuk Warrnambool . windagadha winda, windagara ngangaranuk Mortlake . . . — woonaha — 1 Booandik, S. A. nawet na nukine-waa Lmver Lachlan wutti narrakanian nungora and Murrum- bidgce \ Gippsland . . nara wunman nannane / Bai-ii-id,^ee, Up- — — — "A per Murray \ I'oorajery Tribe, — ~~ — Copper Murray, s A.S. IV. ^2 <: W'iraidhuri widyunga — wargu -- Turuxi'ul, Port — \vare(H.) wutta(R.) — ~ V. Jackson to^ Awabakal . . ba — — i^i Kamilroi . . . wiru tulla minyago Kabi,MatyR.,Q. weno wenomini niinani \ Warrego A'., Q. wonding thirring minyangor Toodvav [New- — winga nagook |«^"H castle) ^:2:^1 Pidong . . . nunnga thuUa — ^^ C M inning . . . — — — »^ >^. ^^ Lake Amadeus . — — — 5 ~- Xarrinyeri . . yaral yangi mengye, -^■^5 Parnkalla . . warpara watha, wana ngannaru Adelaide . . . nallaalatti vva, wada — Darling . . . — weendya ininna ■«:"? "t; Diyeri'. . . . wintba wadarie minandroo 1*^ Muninuda . . — — — Myther^oody . . ungeebura wondu wondare / Larrikcya . . — hargua arabelidje (C. ) arbiddla (P.) ^ Wool n a . . . — ungalooqua — ^: Daktyerat . . anyikading ngaran ngandukmane S Ruby Ck., A'itn- — — — c btrley •« Napier Range, — — ■— R.,. liooandik, S. A. — — ■" Lmt'cr Lachlan b' Murntmbidgee ninumanyi kinoneto murnangi \ Gippsland . . yailmon (?) — / Hanoi dgee, Up- per Murray to VVoorajery Tribe, bulla bulla oonbi mutto [many) Upper Murray, « R N.S. W. ^•§ U'iraidhuri — — Turuivul, Port — — Jackson co^ Awahakal . . — — - ■ Kamilroi . . mulanbu bulariu murra ^ K'abi,MaryIi.,Q. murin — \ Warrego R., Q. kubbolana k. y. — ■ ■« Toodyay {New- — — S^-"? castle) ^•2:^ 8- Pidong . , , — — = 1~'^ Minning . . — — Lake Amadeus . — — a ~^ Xarrinyeri , . kuk kuk ki, keyakki i — ^11 CQ « R Parnkalla , , — — Adelaide . , . — — VH^ - Darling , , . — — *"« t; Diyeri . , , mundroo-mundroo-koornoo — ^ ^ ?: Murunuda , , — — 1""^ ^ Mythergoody — — ' iMrrikeya . . kuiare binolka U'oohia . . . — — i; Daktyerat . . yangaramotung mundul {plenty) Ruby Ck. , Kim- — — c berley "« Napier Range, — — R.« Kimbcrlcy Sunday Island . ara ara alburi ■•^^ Macdonnell — ^ 1 =» Ranges 'S'^ Walsh R.,Q. . — — . ^ Dloomtield Val- warpool warpool {many) ^ ley, Q. ^ Palmer R., Q. . — —m : ^ Caen R., Q. . . — Mapoon R., Q.. — \ \ Gudang,C. York — Torres Kowrarega, uq. uq. warapune 1 Strait Torres St. . SaibaiL.N.G.. ukaukamodobai Xew ■ Aulua Malikula Nguna , . . elinia sangabul Hebri- lima rualinia des ■ Aniwa . . . 1 erima tagahuru INDEX N.B. — Words in italicn arc.thost for irliich native equiralents are f/icen. A "Aborigines of Victoria," Smyth's ii. 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25. 26, 27. 31, 42, 86, 87, 125, 127, 130, 161, 162 Aborigines, The Papuan, 4 Adelaide dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Afraid, Native words for, 239 African and Australian Words, Resemblance between, 3, 43 Alive, Native words for, 232 Amputation of little finger-joints, 120 Analogies in language. Table of, 154, 155 Anderson's, G. W., descrii)tion of Man-making, 118 Aneityumese, Dictionary of, 156 Animal food, 89 Names of Tribes, no Animals, Men designated by the names of, 17 Aniwa (N. H.) dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 "Anthropology," Topinard's, 4, 10 Arm, Native words for, 36, 247 Art, Native, 125 (.see also Cave-painting) Article, The, generally absent from Australian languages, 160 Arunta Tribe, Totemism of the, 1 1 1 Aulua Malikula (N. H.) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272 Australian Aborigines, Who are they ? i and New Guinea Numerals compared, 169 and New Hebridean languages. Points of Contact between, 153 and Tasmanian Words compared, 34, 40 Association for the Advancement of Science, Report of, 10, 121 , Proceedings of, 96, 97 languages, as Classified by Dr. Bleek, 150; and by the author, ihid. , The Etymology of, 157 "Australian Race, The," Refei'ences to, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17. 18, 23. 27, 28, 32, 55, 85, no, 115, 118, 121, 124 Australian Words compared with Malay and Tasmanian, 154, 155 Australians, Personal Appearance of, 9; the colour of, u ; the hair. /?;!8, 23, 27, 28, 32, 54, 85. 106, no, 115, 118, 121, 124 Customs, The argument from, 26 D Daibaitah, The name of, discovered in a Cave-painting, 130 under different name?, 147 "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," quoted, 9, 12, 13, 26, 27, 28 Daktyerat dialect. Gender as indicated in the, 162 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272 Dances, The Tasmanian, 28 Dork; Native words for, 210 Darkinung Tribes, Initiation Ceremonies of the, 146 Darling, The first black man on the, 17 dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Davies, Mr. James, Testimony regarding Moral character of the Blacks, 79 Dill/, Native words for, 211 Dead, Lamentations for the, 122 ; Disposal of the, 122 ; Native words for, 72. 233 Deaf, Native words for, 237 Death ascribed to Sorcery, 123 Debati Hasi Asi, the Sumatran deity, 131 Deccan, Ancient inhabitants of, identical with Australians, 4 Deceased persons, Names of, not pronounced, 144 Deities, Native, 146 Demon, Native words for, 213 Depuch Island, Paintings on, 127 Devi, Representations of, 136 Dhimal plurals, 49 "Dhurramoolun," the Good Spirit, 146 Dialects. The Victorian, 29 Die, Native words for, 252 Disease-making, 145 Diseases of the Aborigines, 91 Distribution of Population, The, 64 Diyeri Language, The Range, 195 ; Phonic elements, 196 ; Notation, 197 ; the Verb, 197; Comparison with Kabi dialect, 198; Vocabulary of, 208-272 "Doctors," Native, 142 Doff, Various names for, 72, 154, 226 "Dougal," 77 I INDEX 211 Dravidian Element, The, 47 ; Grammar, 49 ; Immigration, The, 62 ; Pro- nouns, 49 ; Agreement between Australian and, 50 Dravidians of India, The, 3, 5 Drink, Native words for, 253 Duck, Blcicl:, Various words for, 228 Duck, Wood, Various words for, 228 Dwellings of the Blacks, The, 84 Tasmanians and Australians identical, 26 E Eagle and Crow Myth, The, 15 and Mopoke, 16 Eaglehawk Tribe, The, 17 Eaglehawk, the Totem of the dominant race, iS Various names for the, 72-227 Ear, Native words for, 41, 62, 244 Earth, Native words for 34, 155 Eat, Native words for, 34, 41, 253 E(j(j, Various names for, 72 Elopements, Feigned and real, 113 Empty, Native words for, 236 Emu, Etymology of Native word for, 159 ; Various names for, 66, 72, 227 Ercildoune dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Etymology of Australian Language, The, 157 Excrement, Native words for, 34, 155, 251 Exogamy, 95, 98, 101 Eye, Native words for, 36, 41, 155, 243 Eyre's, E. J. , theory of distribution, 7, 64 F Face, Native words for, 154, 243 Fair-haired Natives, 13 Fall, Native words for, 25S Fat, Native words for, 1 54 Father, typical terms for, 57, 62 Native words for. Compared, 154, 222 FUjht, Native words for, 257 Filial Affection, An instance of. So Finyer, Native words for, 248 Fingers, Amputations of, 120 Fire, The origin of, amongst Victorians and Tasmanians, 20 ; Tasmanian methods of producing, 27 Fire, Native words for, 41, 212 Fire-Ceremony, The, 117 Fish, Various names for, 72, 225 Fison, Rev. Dr. L., on Australian Kinship, 48 ; on Marriage Customs, 96 ; on Polynesian Superstition, 144; on "Burial Customs of Fiji," 116 ; on Kamilroi and Kurnai, 100 Five, Native words for, 272 Flinders, Capt., Cave-paintings discovered by, 12S Flood, Myths referring to, uncertain, 148 i»7« INDEX Fly, Native words tor, i6, 231 Food, Varieties of, S9 ; Native words for, 252 Foot, Native words for, 34, 41, 155, 249 Footmark, Native words for, 219 ForeJtead, Native words for, 246 Four, Native words for, 271 Froggat's, ilr, William, Visit to Glenelg River, 137 Full, Native words for, 236 G Gaiety of the Aboriginals, So Generosity of the Blacks, So '•Ghindaring," the Bad Spirit, 146 (l/tont, Native words for, 213 Ghosts, Native Apprehension of, 146 Giles, Mr., Cave-paintings discovered by, 126 Gippsland dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 legend. A, 16 (iirl, Native words for, 222 Cnve, Native words for. 260 Glenelg lUver, Cave-paintings found on the, 128 Go, Native words for, 41, 254 (io(l, Native names for, 147, 213 (iooil, Native words for, 234 Government of the Natives, 93 Grammar, Outlines of Tasmanian, 175 ; Wimmera District, 179; Kabi, 1S3 ; Western Australia, 192; Diyeri, 195; Macdonnell Eanges, 199 Grammatical forms of Tasmanian and other dialects, 175 S0 INDEX Kabi Language, Specimen of, with translation, 191 Coiupareil with Diyeri language, 19S Kabi Tribe, Members of the, 10; their Club, 25 ; Love-letters among, 114; Doctors of the, 143 ; deifies the rainbow, 146 Kabi words, Analogy of, 154, 155 Kali, Koprosentation of, 135 Kalkadoon Tribe, their term for two, 149 Kamilroi and Kabi languages, 190 " and Kurnai,'' by Fison and Howitt, 17, 18, 114 " and other Australian Languages," 48 Dialect, 29 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272 methods of discovering cause of death, 123 words compared to Malay and Tasmanian, 154, 155 Kangaroo, Tasmanian word for, 42; Etymology of native words for, 159; Native words for, compared, 41, 226 Karween, the second man, 15 KiV, Native words for, 25S Kilparra Tribe, The, 15 , the wife of the first black man on the Darling, 17 Kindle, Native words for, 154 " King Billy," 75 King George's Sound Natives, 17 King's "Voyages to Australia," 127 Kinship, Australian system of, 48, 51, 94 Kiii/t, Native words for, 41 Kill lie, Native words for, 259 Koratlji, or Native Magicians, 142 Kowrarega (Torres Strait) dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Kundlr hoiujtjcm, or Sorcerer, 143 L, The initial, common to Victorian and Tasmanian Languages, 37 Lake Amadeus, Paintings found near, 127 dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Lal-Lal dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Lang's, Dr., "Queensland, Australia," 147 Language, The argument from, 29 ; Tables of analogies of, 36, 40, 154, 155 ; of the Tasmanian Aborigines, 175 ; Dr. Bleek's classification of, 150; The simplest current in West Australia, 151 ; The most complex at Lake Macquarie, 151 Languages of Australia, The, 149; Number and Gender, 161 ; the Noun, 161 ; the Adjective, 162; Numerals, 163; Pronouns, 171 ; Prepositions and Conjunctions, 172 ; the Verb, 173 Larrikeya dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272 Latham's theory, 3 fli fAuigh'uKj Jackass, Native words for, 229 W^ l.cfj. Native words for, 40, 155, 249 Lesson's, Dr. "Les Polynesiens," 2, 13 fAft, Native words for, 256 Liijht, Native words for, 210 (not heavy), Native words for, 239 L'ujlitnuig, Native words for, 215 1 INDEX 281 Like, Native words for, 260 Lip, Native words for, 41, 245 Linguistic resemblances to Dravidian, 49 Live (verb), Native words for, 154, 252 LjOwj, Native words for, 233 Longevity of the Natives, 92 Love-letters among the Kabi Tribe, 1 14 Looern, The myths of, 19 Louse, Native words for, 155 Lower Lachlan and Murrumbidgee dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Lump, Native words for, 219 M Macdonald's, Dr., "Etymological Dictionary of the Language of Efate," 155; "Oceana," 114, 116; "The Asiatic Origin of the Oceanic Lan- guages," 57 Macdonald, Flora, 115 Macdonnell Ranges, Language at, 199 ; Phonic elements, 199 ; Noun and Pronoun, 200 ; Adverbs, 201 ; Verbs, Voice, Number and Mood, 202 ; Participle, 203 ; Vocabulary of, 208-272 McGillivray's "Voyage of the EatileniKdce," 67 McLennan's " Studies in Ancient History," 16, 95 McKillop's "Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia," 120 Magicians, Native, 142 Maha Kali, The Hindu Goddess, 135 Make, Native words for, 257 " Malay Archipelago, The," quoted 7, 14, 80 Malay Element, The, 55 ; Immigration, 6, 62 ; Speech, Relics of, 58 ; "Words compared with Australian, 154-155 Malayo-Dravidian Shoot grafted on Australian Aborigines, 9 Malays, The, 1-5 ; Physical influences of, 56 ; Linguistic influences of, 57 Man, The term used for, 70 ; Native words for, compared, 40, 154, 220 Man-making, 116 JJana Superstition, The, 144 Jlaungur of the Kabi Tribe, 143 Mapoon River dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Marriage, Communal or Group(?), 96 ; Class rules in, 95, ico, 102 ; by Cap- ture, 113 ; by Agreement, 114 ; in Queensland, 21 Jlarri/, Native words for, 260 Marsden's "History of Sumatra," 120, 130 Matrimonial restrictions, 94 Mas Miiller's " Three Lectures on the Science of Language,"' 37 3Ie, Native words for, 263 Meenung blacks, The Totem of the, 18 Melbourne blacks. The Myths of the. 15 Mental and Moral Characteristics of the Australians, 78 Message-stick, The, 60; introduced by Malays, 125 Migration from the North-East, 66 Milk, Native words for, 212 Mimicry, The power of, 78 "Min," a radical syllable, 58 Mine, Native words for, 262 ^>.SJ> INDEX Minning dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Missionary Elfort, Small success of, S2 Mist, Native words for, 214 Mokwarra. the wife of the first black man on the Darling, 17 Tribe, The, 15 JIouii, Native words for, 41, 208 Moor's "Hindu Pantheon," 135 Mopoke and Eagle, 16 Moral qualities of the Blacks weak, 79 Morjiinij, Native words for, 210 Mortlake dialect, "\'ocabulary of, 208-272 MuKi/iiito, Native words for, 231 JI(if/ni; N'arious words for, 41, 57, 72, 223 Mother-in-law, Avoidance of, 114 Mourning for the dead, 122, 124 Mintth, Various names for, 34, 41, 72, 245 Muliarra Cooking, 2S 31 tiller. Dr. F., against the relationship of Dravidian and Australian, 51 Mailer's, Dr., '• Keise der Fregatte Novara," 149 Murdoo Legend, The, 96 ^Murray blacks, The myths of the, 15 Murrumbidgce dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Murunuda dialect, Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Muse, The Australian, 140 Mutilations, 119 Mythergoody dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 Mythology, Australian, 146 and Tradition, The Argument from, 14 ' Myths of the Murray blacks, 15 N -iVa/V, Native words for, 248 Names of Dead People not pronounced, 144 Napier Pange dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272 Nardoo Creeks, Paintings found at, 127 "Nardu " grass, 89 Nari, The Creation of all things ascribed to, 137 Narrinyeri tribe, The. no; Myths of, 16; Totems, 21 ; Sorcery among, 145 ; Vocabulary, 20S-272 Native Police, The, 82 '• Native Tribes of South Australia,'' 12, 16, iii, 145 " Nauries," Pictures of the, 137 Negatives as names of Communities, 109 Negro appearance of Natives in the West, 13 Negro blood on a great .Southern Continent, 7 Negroes, Australians related to, 5 -\'' s(, Native words for, 40 New Caledonia, the inhabitants and language of, 45 New Guinea and Australian Numerals compared, 169 Immigration from, 4 New Hebridean Words compared with Malay and Australian, 154, 155 New Hebridean's A'eneration for Pebbles, 53 New Holland, Australia once known as, i INDEX 28,^3 Nguna (N.H.) dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272 Night, Native words for, 211 JVo, Native words for, 262 Nogoa River, A Tribe on the. 9 Northern Australia, The blacks of, 13 Nose, A hooked, common to the three races, 14 ; Native words for, 35, 154, 244; Piercing of the, 86, 120 Numeral System of the Aborigines, 163 Numerals, Dravidian, 50 ; Etymology of Australian, 1 59 ; Tasmanian, 32. 179 ; traced to the North-East, 68 ; traced from South to North, 149 ; Australian and New Guinea compared, 169 o Old JIan, Native words for, 22 1 " Old Peter," 76 Old Woman, Native words for, 221 One, Native words used for, 50, 62, 69, 72, 165, 169, 272 Ojjen or cut, Native words for, 40 Opossum Rug Clothing, 85 Opossum, Various names for, 41, 62, 227 Ornamentation, 86 ; Cicatrices as, 121 Ovens, Native, 91 Ours, Native words for, 265 Painting, The art of, 126 (*ee also Cave-paintings) Palmer River dialect, Vocabulary of, 208-272 Papuan race, The, in Western Australia, 13 ; Characteristics of, So Papuans the first inhabitants, 4 Parnkalla dialect. Vocabulary of, 208-272 "Parnkalla Vocabulary," 31 Particles in Native dialects, 160 Parts of Speech in Australian languages, 160 Parvati, the Hindu Goddess, 135 Path, Native words for, 219 Pebbles, Sacred, 53, 73, 143, 145 Pelican, Native words for, 229 Phlebotomy, Native, 143 Phonic System, The, 152 Phonology, Likeness in, 62 Phratries of Queensland, 21 ; of other districts, 102-107 Physical characters of the Australians, 74 Physiological contrast between Australians and Tasmauians, 9 Physiology, Evidence from, 8 Pidong dialect. Vocabulary of, 20S-272 Pikumbul Tribe, The, 109 Plural, Sign of, 155 Poetry, Native, 140 Polyandry, 97 Polynesian and Australians, Community in a objects of worship. 145 5>84 INDEX J'orciiplne, Native words for, 225 Port Darwin as a landing-place, 7 Preterite, Formation of, in Tamil and Australian, 51 "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria," m, 121 13S, 146 Pronouns, Dravidian, 49 ; A particular type of, in Australia, 70 ; The marks of, 160 Proximity of Abode a favourable supposition of aftinity, 8 Q Qaatrefages, de, on the Tasmanians, 2 Queensland, The marriage system of, 2 1 Quick, Native words for, 237 R Jialu or Water, Various names for, 72, 209 Rainbow. The, deified by the Kabi Tribe, 146 ; As a "doctor" maker, 143 ; Native words for, 209 Raniahyuck School, Percentage of Marks, 78 Red Hand, The symbol of, 54, 137 Jieil, Native words for, 235 Jieed iS/iitl(l, Native words for, 241 Shields, 87 ; unknown to Tasmanians, 23 tShort, Native words for, 234 >Shout, Native words for, 36 -SVhr— • c= %a3AIN(l-3WV^ IMIii %a3AIN03WV^ ^OJITVD-JO'^ ^l|^ ^5jrttUNIVFRy/^ I' ^lOSANCH^A ^ ^. "^AHvaan-iN^ '^^AavHan^'^ ^lOSANCn^> %il3AINn-3WV 4^iUBRARYa^^ ^VUBRARYO^ g Lfrt i § .5jt\EUNIVERS/A. O ^10SANCEI£; ft: £ '^^/smmi^ IP Q> O ^losAfJcnf/^ ■^/saaAiNn-jvJ^ ^OF-fAllFO)?^ ^.OFCAIIFOI?.^^ < — ^A ^ J3 =3 "^^AavaaiH^ %avasni^ %i3nNv^m^ ^lOSANCEU '<^/smm V ^t'UBRARYO^ ^lOSANCnfx^ o ^tUBRARYi^^ ^UIBRARY^ ' %ojnv3-jo'^ '&Aavaan-i^ ^^Aavaani; ^lOSANCEl^^ -^i-UBRARYQc. ^^UlBRARYp/^ < .5MEUNIVERS/A ^10SAKCEI£ -n O //ruiilitrt 11'