HISTORIC ATLAS ^^^ OF MODERN EUROPE ^-^^ -x. 'V EDITEi:) BY-v F. J. G. HEARNSHA!i5^ .T ' MACMILLAN'S HISTORICAL ATLAS OF MODERN EUROPE ^0^m. MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited LONDON • HOMBAY • CALCUTTA • MADRAS MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA,. Ltd. TORONTO MACMILLAN'S HISTORICAL ATLAS OF MODERN EUROPE A SELECT SERIES OF MAPS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE RECENT HISTORY OF THE CHIEF EUROPEAN STATES AND THEIR DEPENDENCIES EDITED BY F. J. C. HEARNSHAW M.A., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN KING's COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON J AUTHOR OF "main CURRENTS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY, 1815-I915," "EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC., ETC. MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON I 920 COPYRIGHT PREFACE The events of recent years have shaken the British peoples out of their insularity, and have caused them to turn as never before to the study of international afiairs. The rumours of war which alarmed them in 1905, 1908, and 1911, still more the actual conflicts which broke the tranquilUty of Europe in 1912, 1913, and 1914, impressed them with a consciousness that there were operating in the world gigantic and elemental forces of which they were ignorant, and filled them with a new desire to know the things that appertained to their peace. Such history as the better educated among them had learned at school had as a rule abruptly ended with the battle of Waterloo and the departure of Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815, and it was clearly evident that most of the acute problems which divided the nations into hostile groups had arisen since that date, and that not a few of them had had their source in that very Vienna Settlement which had followed the fall of the Bonapartist empire. Hence came a demand from thoughtful students of poUtics for text-books of nineteenth-century history from which they should be able to learn the antecedents of those vexing questions and those conflicting claims which were causing so frightful an upheaval among men. The demand called forth an answering supply, and there is now no lack of trustworthy guides to the intricacies of modern history. History is, however, intimately bound up with geography. At almost every turn of the narrative the reader, if he desires fully to comprehend what he is perusing, has occasion to refer to an atlas. Although some of the recent text-books are provided with useful sketch- plans, it is felt that there is urgent need of a more complete series of historical maps which may serve as a companion to any or all of the narrative volumes. That series is herewith diffidently presented to the pubHc. Since each map is accompanied by an explanatory introduction, only a few words of general preface seem here to be necessary. First, it will be noted that attention is concentrated on political and ethnographical features. Experience has shown that it is impossible to add physical features to a poUtical or ethnographical map without causing inextricable confusion. Students are, therefore, recommended to have by their side for reference and comparison an atla-s in which physical features alone are given. Secondly, it will be seen that most of the maps restrict themselves to showing the trans- mutations of the century 1815-1914. A few, however, have to go back, for clearness' sake, to an earUer date, e.g. Poland to 1772, France to 1598, and Prussia to 1415. One map, viz. the last, makes an attempt to depict the changes in Europe effected by the peace treaties of 1919-20. In some of its details it is necessarily tentative. For, although Western Europe seems to have reached some sort of stability, in the East of the Continent all things continue in a state of flux. No pretence can yet be made to indicate the shape of the cosmos which some day must emerge from the Russian chaos. iv,2?8470 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE For the historical portion of the atlas the chief authority has been Hertslet's indispensable Map of Europe hy Treaty ; for the more recent pohtical portion the texts of the peace treaties and the critical summaries provided by the Geographical Journal have proved to be exceedingly usefiil. The drawing of the maps has been in the skilled hands of Mr. J. F. Staton, F.E.G.S., of the firm of Mr. Emery Walker, and if (as is hoped) the atlas is free from grave error the residt is to no small degree due to Mr. Staton's wide knowledge and to the patient care with which he has investigated every available source of information. If in spite of diligent revision some mistakes have escaped correction, I shall be greatly obliged if those who detect them will make them known to me, so that they may if possible be corrected in future editions. F. J. C. HEARNSHAW King's College, University of London, bth July 1920. CONTENTS points liave been settled ; Plebiscite Areas. East Prussia. — Alleiistein and Marieuwerder returned lieavy German majorities. Poland and Czecho-Slovakia.— In the Teschen area rioting prevented a plebiscite. The Ambassadors' Council at Paris fixed the frontier after an agreement had been reached between the Polish and Czecho-Slovak Governments (August 1920). Austria. — The Klagenfurt area voted in favour of Austria. An agreement has been reached between Italy and Yugo-Slavia concerning their frontier question. (Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920.) The whole of the former Austrian counties of Gorz and Gradisca. the Lordship of Trieste, nearly the whole of the Marquisate of Istria, and a considerable part of Carniola pass to Italy. Fiume is to be an Independent State. Courland and Livonia nre now known as the Republic of Latvia (Map XL). PACE Europe: 1815-1914 ......... 1 Between the time of going to press and the date of publication the following ■nninfo linvo V»oot» cofflorl • HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE For the historical portion of the atlas the chief authority has been Hertslet's indispensable Map of Eurojje by Treaty ; for the more recent political portion the texts of the peace treaties and the critical summaries provided by the Geographical Journal have proved to be exceedingly useful. The drawing of the maps has been in the skilled hands of Mr. J. F. Staton, F.R.G.S., of the firm of Mr. Emery Walker, and if (as is hoped) the atlas is free from grave error the result is to no small degree due to Mr. Staton 's wide knowledge and to the patient care with which he has investigated every available source of information. If in spite of diligent revision some mistakes have escaped correction, I shall be greatly obliged if those who detect them will make them known to me, so that they may if possible be corrected in future editions. F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, King's College, University of London, bth July 1920. CONTENTS Europe: 1815-1914 The Eastern Frontier op France: 1598-1871 Poland: 1772-1914 The Growth of Prussia: 1415-1914 Germany : 1815-1914 The Austrian Empire: 1815-1914 Italy : 1815-1914 The Balkan Peninsula : 1815-1914 Africa: 1815-1914 Ethnographical ]\Iap of Central Europe Europe after the Peace Treaties: 1919-20 Index ..... >ACE 1 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 25 LIST OF MAPS 1. Europe: 1815-1914 2. The Eastern Frontier of France : 1598-1871 3. Poland: 1772-1914 . 4. The Growth of Prussia : 1415-1914 5. Germany: 1815-1914. 6. The Austrian Empire : 1815-1914 7. Italy : 1815-1914 8. The Balkan Peninsula : 1815-1914 9. Africa : 1815-1914 10. Ethnographical Map of Central Europe 11. Europe after the Peace Treaties: 1919-20 MAP I IDDDDD ui □ EUROPE: 1815-1914 The majD of Europe in 1815 was in its most important features determined by the Treaties of Vienna (June) and Paris (November), both concluded that year after long and anxious deUberations on the part of all the leading statesmen of the Continent. The main purpose of these decisive diplomatic instruments was to undo the work of the French Revolution, dissolve the military empire of Napoleon, and restore Europe, so far as was possible, to the condition in which it had foimd itself in 1789. The Treaty of Paris reduced France to her pre-revolutionary boundaries. The Vienna settlement attempted a general reconstruction of the Continent. Only the broad features of the plan need be indicated here ; the detailed treatment of the separate items will more appropriately be given in connection with the- subsequent maps of the particular states concerned. First, in order to provide a strong barrier supposed to be necessary to prevent the French from breaking out again : (1) Belgium- was joined to Holland under the rule of the Prince of Orange ; (2) the Rhine Provinces of Germany were given to Prussia, which was still further strengthened by the acquisition of parts of Saxony and Poland ; (3) the Swiss Confederation was reorganised and was reinforced by the addition of three new cantons, viz. Valais, Geneva, and Neufchatel ; (4) Nice and Genoa were placed as Transalpine outposts in the hands of the House of Savoy. Secondly, a new constitution was constructed for Germany. No country had suffered so much at the hands of Napoleon. The Holy Roman Empire, which for a thousand years had given an appearance of unity to the distracted German nation, had been dissipated ; the majority of the 360 petty eighteenth-century German states had been usefully extinguished. Out of their remnants thirty-nine states were reconstituted, and were joined together in a permanent alliance called a Confederation or Bund. Thirdly, Poland was repartitioned — although not quite on eighteenth-century lines — between Austria, Prussia, and the Tsar, who was allowed to erect his portion into a constitutional kingdom independent of Russia. Fourthly, Russia was permitted to keep Finland, which she had annexed from Sweden in 1809 ; Sweden in compensation received Norway, which was taken away from Denmark, to whom it had been unwillingly subject since the end of the fourteenth century ; Denmark, by the loss of this tributary kingdom, was punished for her persistent adhesion to the Napoleonic side in the struggles of the preceding fifteen years. Fifthly, Italy, which had attained a virtual unity under French control during the period 1810-15, was spht up once more into eight sections,- over which Austrian influence was dominant. Finally, the Ionian Islands were placed imder British protection. Spain and Portugal were restored to their former rulers, but no territorial adjustments were necessary. South-eastern Europe lav outside the scope of the Treaties of 1815. The settlement effected at Vienna and Paris was intended to be permanent. No provision! was made for any revision, reconsideration, or modification of its terms. A Quadruple Alliance- was instituted for the express purpose of keeping the " Treaty-system " inviolate. But the- " Treaty-system " had been framed on the lines of legitimacy and precedent, and in complete; if not defiant, disregard of the priniciples of democratic self-determination and national independence, which had become potent during the revolutionary upheaval of the generation of conflict (1789-1815). Hence the history of the century 1815^1914 was to no small extent the record of the process by which the " Treaty-system " was destroyed, and the arrangements made at Vienna superseded. The following, in rough chronological order, were the chief territorial changes in Europe during the hundred years in question : (1) Greece revolted from Turkey, 1821, and secured recognition as an independent kingdom in 1831 ; (2) Belgium broke away from Holland in 1 " B MAP II The Eastern Frontier FRANCE I598-187I English Miles 40 60 The FRENCH EMPIRE under Napoleon, 1810 RITISH*-K, BRITISH ISLES Eintry Walker Ltd. THE EASTERN FRONTIER OF FRANCE : 1598-1871 The Empire of Charles the Great at the beginning of the ninth century of the Christian era had included not only the whole of the region now called France and the greater part of that now called Germany, but also all those intervening territories which are at the present day claimed by Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and Switzerland. This immense Carolingian dominion was in a.d. 843 divided up among the three grandsons of Charles, one of whom took " France," another of whom took '' Germany," while the third received the Middle Kingdom, which included the mixed and debatable borderlands that lay between the comparatively homogeneous Romano-Celtic realm on the west and the comparatively homogeneous Teutonic realm on the east. That Middle Kingdom had a short and stormy career of less than half a century, and the frontier districts which it comprised have been a source of conflict between the French and their neighbours during most of the thousand years that have since elapsed. It lies beyond our scope to trace the fluctuations of the mediaeval boundaries. Students who wish to pursue this investigation will find useful guidance in the excellent maps of Putzger's Historischer Schul-Atlas. Our study of modern changes begins with the Treaty of Vervins, 1598, which, together with the Edict of Nantes of the same date, terminated the French Wars of Religion and established the Bourbons firmly on the French throne. This treaty, concluded between Henry IV. of France and the dying Philip II. of Spain, made no important territorial alterations. It arranged for a general restoration of conquests, a restitution of the status quo ante, a stabilisation of pre-existing frontiers. From that time onward for the next two hundred years the power of the Bourbons tended to increase, while the power of the Habsburgs both in Germany and (till 1700) in Spain tended to decrease. Hence French ambitions were directed towards the acquisition of Habsburg territory, and particularly towards the expansion of France up to the limit of her so-called " natural boundaries " of the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees — boundaries which it was never forgotten had been the frontiers of Roman Gaul. These ambitions were never fully realised until for a few brief years under Napoleon (1810-13) they were not only realised but far exceeded. Nevertheless, incessant encroachments by all sorts of means — marriage, conquest, legal chicanery, diplomacy, simj^le grab — led to the transfer of a lot of fragments from the other to the French side of the dividing line. The story is a complex one. The outstanding features are the following : (1) In 1601, as the result of a successful invasion of Savoy, Henry IV. acquired Bresse and Bugey, in return for which he surrendered certain claims that he had to Saluzzo. (2) In 1631 Richelieu, minister of Louis XIII. , who had intervened with decisive effect in Italian politics, was able to dictate to Savoy the Peace of Cherasco, which left the fortress of Pinerolo and its approaches (including Exilles) in French hands. (3) The Thirty Years' War in Germany, into which Richelieu had thrust France in 1635, was not over either during the life of the Cardinal himself or the reign of his master. It was left to Mazarin, as minister of Louis XIV., to reap the rewards of French intermeddUng when the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in 1648. By this settlement France secured Austrian Alsace, including Breisach, together with the formal recognition of her possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun (which she had administered and garrisoned since 1552), and of Pinerolo (held since 1631). She also acquired the right to garrison Philippsburg. (4) In 1659 a long war with Spain was brought to a close by tlie Treaty of the Pyrenees. This gave to France Roussillon and Cerdagne on the Spanish frontier, together with Artois from the Spanish 3 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE Netherlands, and several border fortresses of which. Thionville was the most important. By this treaty also it was arranged that Louis XIV. should marry the eldest daughter of the Spanish king, Philip IV. — a marriage which provided the unscrupulous French monarch with pretexts for predatory raids on Spanish territories during the whole remainder of his long reign. (5) In 1661-62 Louis secured by purchase from Charles II. of England the town and vicinage of Dunkirk, which Cromwell had conquered hom Spain four years earlier. (6) In 1667 an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by powerful French armies seemed likely to result in their complete conquest. This was prevented by the formation of a protective Triple Alliance, consisting of Holland, Sweden, and England. Louis was compelled to evacuate the Low Countries (as well as Franche Comte, which he had also overrun) ; but by the Peace of Aix-la- -Chapelle, 1668, he was allowed to keep the important border fortresses of Charleroi, Binche, Ath, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, Lille, Armentieres, Courtrai, Bergues, and Furnes with their 'districts. (7) In 1678 an unprovoked and imsuccessful attack upon the Dutch was concluded by the Peace of Nijmwegen. Spain had become involved in the conflict and most of the territorial changes related to her dominions. On the one hand she recovered Charleroi, Binche, Ath, Oudenarde, Courtrai, and a few other places, but in lieu of them had to surrender Valenciennes, Conde, Maubeuge, Cambrai, Ypres, etc. On the other hand, she was forced to cede to France the large and vitally important province of Franche Comte — the old Free County of Burgundy, part of the vast heritage which the Duchess Mary had conveyed to the Habsburgs by her marriage to Maximilian at the close of the fifteenth century. (8) The period 1678-84 was marked by the establishment of French " Chambres de Reunion," pseudo- legal bodies, whose decisions gave Louis an excuse for the occupation of Strassburg (1681), Luxemburg (1684), and many other places in Alsace, Lorraine, and the Low Countries. (9) The alarm caused by the aggressive reunion pohcy of Louis XIV. led to the formation of the League of Augsburg and to the consequent war of 1688-97. By the Treaty of Ryswick, which ended an inconclusive struggle, France, in return for various concessions, agreed (a) to evacuate all towns taken since 1678 except Strassburg and Landau ; (b) to withdraw from the right bank of the Rhine, yielding Philippsburg, Freiburg, and Breisach ; (c) to restore all Lorraine except Saarlouis ; {d) to restore Pinerolo to Savoy. (10) In 1700, on the death of the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, Charles II., Louis XIV. made an attempt to secure the whole of the Spanish monarchy for his grandson, Philip of Anjou. This design was only partially successful, and by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastadt (1714) the empire of Charles II. was dis- membered. The Spanish Netherlands were transferred to Austria and a slight rectification of frontier was effected. Among the towns which the French were called upon to surrender were Menin, Tournai, Furnes, and Ypres. On the French-Savoy boundary, too, some readjust- ments were made : the French received Barcelonette and Orange on the Rhone, but they had to surrender Exilles, Fenestrelle, and Chateau Dauphin. (11) During the seventy-five years which intervened between the Peace of Utrecht and the Revolution the principal acquisitions of the French were the Duchies of Lorraine and Bar (1766), which came to them under the terms of the Treaty of Vienna of 1738, and the island of Corsica, which they took over from Genoa in 1768. (12) The Revolutionary and Napoleonic changes, 1789-1815, were too numerous and too ephemeral for mention here. (13) The Resettlement of 1815 is described in connection with the preceding map of Europe. (14) Between 1815 and 1914 the most important changes of frontier were the acquisitions of Savoy and Nice by France in 1860 (see Map of Italy, No. 7, below), and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in 1871 (see Map of Germany, No. 5, below). POLAND, 1772-1914 MAP III 1772 1793 179s „ I I I I To Prussia To Russia To Austria Boundary of Poland at the Union of Lublin, 1569 Boundary of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 1807-1815 I I 20 (2 Longitude East 24° of Greenwich D National Boundaries in 1914. EmeryWalker l.ld. sc. Approximate Racial Boundaries in 1914. [Z3 Slavonic: Russians -.... Poles [ I Ruthenes _ .. f^ Czechs & Slovaks » ^^-■^■^ Teutonic:- German ' ' '■ " Latin:- .Roumanian h^^li, Ural-Altaic Stock:- Magyars Letts & Lithuanians:-...- m POLAND: 1772-1914 The original home of the Slavonic race, to which the Poles belong, is believed to have been the marshy flats of " Black Eussia," whose surplus waters the Xiemen and the Pripet in vain endeavour to convey, the one to the Baltic, the other to the Black Sea. Amid the morasses of this inhospitable region grew up on scattered islets numerous communities of stunted folk, laborious, prolific, patient, unwarlike, inured to hardship and familiar with death. They were devoid of political organisation, and even of tribal consciousness ; for the unplumbed, rank, estranging swamps kept them apart from one another, and isolated them from the outer world. As population overflowed the narrow limits of this central marshland, it tended to move westward and southward, and this tendency was greatly accelerated by the violent impact from time to time of the nomadic hordes of Huns, Avars, or Tartars, who poured from the Asiatic steppes on the east, and by attacks of Letts and Lithuanians from the north. Before the end of the sixth century of the Christian era the Slavs had reached as far as the Elbe in the one direction, and beyond the Danube in the other. This wide-spread but incoherent and unco-ordinated Slavonic race was soon split into three main sections. The Magyars, by forcing their way up the Danube and occupjTing Hungary in the ninth and tenth centuries, cut off the Southern Slavs from the Northern ; while the Lithuanians from the Baltic coast pressed southward until in the fourteenth century they actually reached the Black Sea. This Lithuanian thrust divided the Poles and other Western Slavs from the Russians or Eastern Slavs. The results of this latter division were decisive and disastrous. While the Russians received their culture and religion from Byzantium, the Poles were evangelised and ci^dlised by Rome ; and while the Russians were moulded into a nation by Viking rulers from Sweden, the Poles passed under the tutelage of the Germans. The differences thus engendered were accentuated by the Tartar incursions of the thirteenth century. For one dreadful year only (1241) Poland was overrun, but Russia actually passed under Tartar domination for two and a half centuries and ceased to coimt as a factor in Christendom. During this Russian ecUpse Poland rose to eminence as the prime Slavonic power. Its capital was Cracow, and the heart of its dominions the modern province of GaUcia. In the fourteenth century it produced a series of able native monarchs ; but it suffered from two grave sources of weakness, viz. its lack of defensible frontiers and its want of outlets to the ocean. Its approaches to the Black Sea were prevented by hostile Magyars and Tartars ; its natural harbours on the Baltic had passed into the German control of Teutonic knights or Hanseatic merchants. In order that it might remove tbe German obstruc- tion to its easy access to the Baltic, Poland in the fourteenth century (1325) entered into an alliance with the then powerful but still savage and half-pagan kingdom of Lithuania (capital Vilna). This alliance became a personal union in 1386, when the male Hne of the Polish dynasty died out, and the heiress of the house married Jagello, king of Lithuania. The combination of forces thus effected achieved some remarkable successes over the Germans in the fifteenth century. The Teutonic knights were decisively crushed at Tannenberg in 1410 ; Samogitia was secured in 1411 ; West Prussia with Thorn and Danzig in 1466. In 1526 the Duchy of .Masovia (the region including Warsaw) lapsed to the Polish crown ; in 1561 Courland and Livonia became subject ; in 1569 the summit of success was reached when the personal union between Poland and Lithuania was converted into a real union by the Treaty of Lublin (for boundary see map). The cause which thus welded Poles and Lithuanians into a single State was dread of the new and rising power of the Princes of Muscovy. These princes had succeeded in throwing off the Tartar yoke, and had begun the process of reuniting the Russian peoples under a new 5 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE despotic monarchy. At the same time, moreover, East Prussia, long loosely held by the decadent Teutonic knights, passed as a secularised duchy into the hands of the ambitious Hohenzollerns. Thus Poland-Lithuania found herself confronted by the two powers which were destined ultimately to compass her undoing. Her own mixed peoples, however, greatly facilitated the disintegrating work of Russia and Prussia by their factiousness, turbulence, and treachery. In 1572 the Jagellon d)masty died out, and the Polish crown became the prey of contending parties of nobles. Incessant civil commotion left the State a helpless victim to encroaching neighbours. In 1621 Sweden occupied North Livonia ; in 1660 East Prussia repudiated the PoUsh suzerainty ; in 1667 Russia compelled the Poles to surrender the immense strip of White Russian and Little Russian territory (annexed by Litliugnia in the days of the Tartar troubles) which had Smolensk and Kiev as its chief cities. In 1672 the Turks acquired Southern Podolia. These frontier nibblings clearly indicated the peril of partition to which Poland finally succumbed. It was the accession of Peter the Great of Russia in 1689, however, which made that peril imminent ; for Peter turned the face of Russia definitely toward the West, and inaugurated a policy of European expansion which involved the elimination of Poland from the map. Peter was not himself able to carry through his policy ; the task of doing so was left to his unscrupulous successor, Catherine II. (1762-1796). She was not, it is true, in a position to achieve Peter's complete design of annexing Poland-Lithuania as a whole, for Prussia and Austria were so jjowerful and so jealous that they had to be placated with portions of the prey. The actual proposal for partition, indeed, came in 1769 from Frederick the Great of Prussia, who was eager to secure West Prussia and Ermeland, in order to knit up his Pomeranian and East Prussian territories. Catherine II. agreed to his doing so, ])rovided that she should be allowed to annex South Livonia together with all the old Russian dominions east of the Dvina and Dnieper. Maria Theresa of Austria tearfully protested against the proposed spoliation, but when she found that she could not stop it, she insisted on having Galicia and Lodomeria as a solace to her wounded sensibilities. In 1793, when Austria w^as involved in war with Revolutionary France, Russia and Prussia effected a second partition ; the former taking the bulk of Podlesia, Volhynia, Northern Podolia, and the Ukraine ; the latter linking up Silesia with East Prussia by annexing a large part of Great Poland with its appurtenances. This flagrant spoliation excited a vain revolt of the Poles under Kosciusko. Its suppression by Russian and Prussian troops prepared the way for the extinction of Poland by the third partition (1795). Russia took Courland, Samogitia, Lithuania, with the remainder of Podlesia and Volhpaia ; Austria received Little Poland with Cracow ; Prussia had all the rest including Warsaw. Thus Poland as a State came to an end. Its subsequent history must be briefly indicated. In 1807, after Napoleon's overthrow of Prussia at Jena, and in accordance with the Treaty of Tilsit made with Russia, a Grand Duchy of Warsaw was constituted, dependent on France. It consisted, roughly, of the Prussian and Austrian acquisitions, 1793-95. To these were added Cracow and West Galicia in 1809. During the wars of liberation (1813) this Grand Duchy was overrun and occupied by Russian troops, and at the Vienna Settlement of 1815 (after a furious diplomatic conflict) the bulk of it was assigned to the Tsar, Alexander I., to be ruled as a separate constitutional kingdom. Prussia, however, recovered Posen, vnth Thorn and Danzig, while Austria regained West Galicia — from which Cracow and its environs were subtracted in order to form a tiny independent republic. The Vienna arrangement was not a permanent one. The Poles rebelled in 1830 and lost their constitution. In 1847 they were fully absorbed into the Russian Empire. During the preceding year (1846) the Austrian Empire had annexed Cracow. The partition and subjugation of Poland was one of the main causes of the insurgence of European nationalism in the nineteenth century. MAP IV THE GROWTH OF PRUSSIA: 1415-1914 The story of the growth of Prussia during the five centuries covered, by the accompanying map is largely the history of the HohenzoUern dynasty. In no other country in Europe have politics and personality been so closely associated. Prussia was built up by the ability of its early rulers, as it has been destroyed by the lunacy of its later ones. In 1415 Frederick of HohenzoUern, Burgrave of Nuremberg, was by the favour of the Emperor Sigismund placed in possession of the Mark of Brandenburg. Two years later he was formally and solemnly invested with the rank and title of an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. These imperial concessions implied an increase of dignity, but not an enlargement of joy. The electoral office involved the primitive Hohenzollerns in the responsibility of the administration of an exceedingly ramshackle empire ; the removal from Nuremberg to Berlin meant the abandonment of a comfortable little government in a prosperous commercial city for the administration of a desolate frontier province, poor and unprofitable, almost indefensible, and liable to incessant raids by Slavs from the East, Saxons from the South, Scandinavians from the North, and even French from the West. The Mark had originally been created in the tenth century as a defence of the eastern frontier of Germany against the barbarians who dwelt between the Elbe and the Oder. This " Old Mark " had in 1133 passed into the hands of a vigorous line of Margraves known as the Ascanian House, and they before their extinction in 1320 had added to their possessions the " Middle Mark," with its northern appendages of Priegnitz and Ukermark, together with something rather more than a bridgehead across the Oder at Frankfort. It was this enlarged and already composite margravate that Frederick acquired in 1415. It was a territory without natural frontiers, or homogeneous population, or raison d'etre. It demanded either expansion or extinction. That it escaped extinction was due to the successful acquisitiveness of a series of HohenzoUern rulers, among whom the Greab Elector (1640-88) and Frederick the Great (1740-86) rank first. To enumerate the pretexts and describe the processes by means of which the HohenzoUern margravate, monarchy, and empire were successively built up would require more space than can here be spared. The student who wishes to pursue this theme must be referred to the excellent volume by Messrs. Marriott and Robertson entitled The Evolution of Prussia (Clarendon Press, 1915). The main steps alone can here be mentioned. They were as follows : (1) The New Mark wr.s added by the Elector Frederick II. in 1455. (2) The Elector Albert Achilles, 1470- 1486, acquired numerous small tracts, mainly on his frontiers, such as Krossen, just above Frankfort on the Oder. (3) The Elector John Cicero, 1486-99, secured Zossen, a district not large but valuable as being only some twenty miles south of Berlin. (4) In the sixteenth century the most important additions were Ruppin (1524), which straightened the northern frontier of the Middle Mark, and the secularised bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelburg, and Lebus (1548). (5) The seventeenth century opened with the immensely significant union of the margravate of Brandenburg with the remote duchy of East Prussia. This duchy had been conquered during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from the pagan Wends by the crusading Order of Teutonic Knights. In 1511 the High Mastership of this Order was conferred upon a minor HohenzoUern, Albert of Ansbach. In 1528, the Reformation having broken out in Germany, he sought to make the best of both worlds by becoming Protestant, by marrying, and by appropriating the territory of his Order, agreeing to hold it as a feudal duchy under the king of Poland. The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg were much interested in these pro- ceedings of their relative. They never rested until they secured the reversion of his heritage. In 1618, the Albertine line having come to an end in the imbecile duke, Albert Frederick, they succeeded to the duchy. (6) Meantime, another important question of inheritance had 7 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE risen in Western Germany. The Elector, John Sigismund of Brandenburg (1608-19), had claims to the succession in the duchies of Cleves and Jtilich. In 1614 a partition was effected, according to which the Elector was to receive Cleves, Mark, and Eavensberg. This settlement, however, was reopened by the Thirty Years' War, and it was not till 1666 that actual occupation of these three territories was obtained. (7) The Thirty Years' War is specially associated with the name of the Great Elector. Before he succeeded to the margravate, Brandenburg suffered severely from the ravages of both the Protestant and the Catholic armies, in the direct track of whose most furious conflicts it unhappily lay. He speedily reorganised his military forces and intervened so effectively on the Protestant side that at the Peace of AVestphaha (1648) he received as his reward Eastern Pomerania, together with the secularised bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Cammin, and the reversion of the archbishopric of Magde- burg, which actually passed into Prussian hands thirty-two years later (1680). In 1656 he freed East Prussia from its dependence on Poland. (8) Frederick, successor to the Great Elector (1688-1713), took part on the Austrian side in the War of the Spanish Succession, from which he emerged \vith the title of king in Prussia and with the prospect of the addition of Upper Guelderland to his dominions (it was actually ceded 1715). (9) The next Hohenzollern, the soldier-king, Frederick William I., secured from the spoils of the Northern War (1720) a large part of Western Pomerania, including Stettin, Usedom, and WoUin, which gave control of all the navigation of the lower Oder. (10) After the soldier-king came his son, known as Frederick the Great, who began his reign by seizing the Austrian province of Silesia (1740-42). In 1744 he inherited East Friesland, including Emden, and thus became an oceanic potentate. In 1772 he assisted in the first partition of Poland (see the preceding map) and thus secured West Prussia and Ermeland, which linked up his Baltic kingdom with his German Electorate. (11) The second and third partitions of Poland fell in the reign of Frederick William II. (1786- 1797). They gave to the Hohenzollern House the immense districts of South Prussia (1793) and New East Prussia (1795). During the same reign, too, Ansbach and Bayreuth fell by inheritance to the Prussian king (1791). (12) The Napoleonic reconstitution of Germany, 1801- 1803, deprived Prussia of her territories on the west of the Rhine, but gave her in compensation five times as much on the east side of the river, including the bishoprics of Mtinster, Hildesheim, and Paderborn. This steady expansion of Prussia received a rude check as a result of the crushing victory of Napoleon over Frederick William III. at Jena (1806) and the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit (1807). The Prussian monarchy was dismembered and reduced to about one-half its former size. The boundary-line of 1807-15 should be carefully observed on the map. The Congress of Vienna found one of its most difficult tasks to be the reconstitution of Prussia. In the end Prussia had to abandon all her Polish acquisitions under the second and third Partition Treaties except Posen and Thorn ; but she received in compensation the rest of Western Pomerania, about one-third of Sa'xony, and the extensive provinces of Westphalia and the Rhine (including Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Coblenz, and Trier). During the half-century 1815-1865, the only noteworthy accretions were Lichtenberg (1834), HohenzoUern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen (1845), and Lauenburg (1865). Then came the Austio-Prussian War of 1866, with its extrusion of the Habsburgs from Germany, its dissolution of the Bund, and its recon- struction of North Germany under Prussian leadership. In the midst of this upheaval Prussia was able to annex Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. Five years later the Franco-Prussian War broke out. Its result was to absorb all the German peoples into the victorious Prussian monarchy, upon which the name " The German Empire " was bestowed (see next map). MAP V GERMANY: 1815-1914 Mediaeval Germany in the eleventh century of the Christian era under the Emperor Henry III. had more nearly attained national unity than any other of the tribal or feudal federations of Western Europe. But the promise of imification was not fulfilled. The successors of Henry III., lured by their illusory pseudo-Eoman titles of Caesar and Augustus, neglected their German interests, and wasted their energies on destructive conflicts with the Papacy, or in futile efforts to establish their authority over Italy and Sicily. Hence when, at the end of the fifteenth century, England, France, and Spain became strong, centralised, national states, Germany sank into a chaos of complete feudal disintegration. The name Germany, indeed, ceased to be much more than a geographical expression, under which was included a congeries of some 360 almost independent powers or impotencies. True, there was usually an elected '"' emperor " in existence to whom all these petty rulers owed a nominal allegiance ; but his empire was devoid of executive force, and such influence as he had was due to his private resources. After 1437 the Habsburg Duke of Austria was regularly chosen to hold the titular headship of this " Holy Eoman Empire of the German nation." The Reformation of the sixteenth century still further weakened the slender authority of the Habsburg emperor, since it alienated from him the majority of the North German princes and cities, who generally adopted some form of Protestant religion. The Treaties of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648 stereotyped the divisions of Germany for a century and a half. Although some changes took place in Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries — the most important of which are delineated and described in the map illustrating the growth of Prussia — in the main the arrangements of 1648 held good at the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, and indeed until the Revolutionary Wars had raged for some years, and Austria had been defeated and compelled to make peace at Campo Formio in 1797. From 1797 tiU 1809 Germany passed through a rapid and bewildering succession of transforma- tions which it is impossible in our limited space, and also unnecessary, for us to trace in detail. Suffice it to say that at the close of that critical period of twelve years, when conditions had become stabilised once more, (1) France had annexed all Germany west of the Rhine ; (2) the Holy Roman Empire had been swept away and a more limited Empire of Austria set up in its place ; (3) Prussia had been deprived of half her territories ; and (4) all the rest of Germany had been incorporated into a so-called Confederation of the Rhine, the effective control of which lay in the hands of Napoleon. [Vide inset on Map No. 2.] The overthrow of Napoleon (1813-15) destroyed this new organisation of Germany, and one of the most difficult of the problems which faced the diplomatists at the Congress of Vienna was the question in what form should Germany be reconstituted. Three schemes were pro- pounded : first, the revival of the Holy Roman Empire — but the Habsburg ruler of Austria declined re-election to the visionary office which he had gladly abandoned ; secondly, the formation of a German Federation — -but against this the princes, jealous of their independence, protested ; thirdly, a mere Confederation or Bicnd, a permanent league of autonomous potentates — and this scheme, the least satisfactory of the three, had to be adopted. The Napoleonic upheaval, however, had not been without its permanent effects. Many of the small states, especially the ecclesiastical principalities, had disappeared beyond the possibility of resuscitation Hence the Bund of 1815 consisted of only thirty-nine states, viz. six kingdoms (Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover, Wiirttemberg, Saxony) ; one electorate (Hesse-Cassel) ; seven grand- duchies (Baden, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Hesse-Darmstadt, Luxemburg, Oldenburg, and Saxe-Weimar) ; eight duchies (Nassau, Brunswick, Holstein with Lauenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Kothen, and Saxe-Hildburghausen) ; thirteen principalities (Saxe-Coburg, etc., etc.), and four free cities (Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen,. 9 c HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE Frankfort-on-Main). The central organ of the Bund was a Diet of diplomatic agents estab- lished in perpetual session at Frankfort-on-Main. It was, however, futile from the first. This futility was due to two chief causes : one was the chronic antagonism of Austria and Prussia ; the other was the stolid refusal of the princes to obey the commands of the Diet, and the absence of any means for enforcing the Diet's authority. Hence anarchy was restored to Germanv under the pseudonym of the constitution — anarchy tempered only by the despotism of Austria and Prussia when they could manage to work together. Such was the Bund, or Confederation, of 1815, and such it continued to be until 1848, when for three years it was suspended by revolution. During.this period. 1815-48, however, one not- able movement towards the xmification of Germany under Prussian hegemony took place. In 1819 Prussia initiated her famous customs-union or Zolherein by means of an agreement with Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. Similar agreements were made with Hes.se-Darmstadt (1825), Bavaria and Wilrttemberg (1829). and Hesse-Cassel (1831). Saxony and other states acceded in 1833 and a general union was instituted. Later additions included Baden (1835). Frank- fort (1886). Brunswick and Luxemburg (1842). By 1848 Austria and Hanover weie the only imjHjrtant }xnvers of Germany that held aloof. The Revolution of 1848 ujxset for a time both Bund and ZoUverein. But Germany was not then ripe for democracy, and in 1851 the old order was restored. With it. however, came Bismarck as a factor in the Prussian Government, and he made the elimination of Austria from (j«rmany and the suppression of democracy within Germany fundamental features of Lis policy. By means of three wars, deliberately planned and waged with ruthless efficiency, be achieved his purpose of the unification of Germany under the milit-ary autocracy of the Prussian House of Hohenzollern. The Danish War of 1864 placed the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein with Lauenburg under the joint control of Austria and Prussia. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866. precipitated mainly by disputes concerning the disix)sition of the two conquered duchies, on the one hand ex})eiled Austria from Germany altogether, and on the other hand enabled Prussia to annex not only Schleswig-Holstein but also Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. Next year (1867) a new North-Germany Confederation was established under Prussian headship. It consisted of twenty-two states, viz. two kingdoms (Prussia and Saxony), five grand-duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, and three free cities. The Southern German States — in particular Bavaria, Baden, Wiirttemberg — held aloof, fearful of loss of independence. They tended, now that their old colleague Austria was over- thrown, to turn to France as an ally against the menacing ascendancy of Prussia. Bismarck by three years (1867-70) of skilful and unscrupulous diplomacy managed to wean them from France and to engineer the war with Najx>leon III., which he saw would be necessary before German unification could be completed. The result of the Franco-Pru.ssian War was, first, the founding of the (rerman Empire, in which the Southern States were joined to the Northern Confederation in a new federal constitution ; secondly, the annexation from France of the pro\-inces of Alsace and Lorraine. No further territorial changes of importance marked the progress of continental Germany from 1871 till the outbreak of the Great War of 1914-1918. In 1884, however, Germany began to establish her colonial empire [vide Map No. 9]. and in 1890 she effected with a too-friendly Britain the exchange of Zanzibar for Heligoland. One further point may be mentioned in connection with this map. The Netherlands were included in the mediaeval Germanic Empire, and indeed were not formally recognised as independent till 1648. At that time the Dutch Netherlands formed a federal republic under the stadtholdership of the Prince of Orange, while the Belgian Netherlands were included in the Spanish monarchy. In 1714 the Belgian Netherlands were ceded to Austria, and Austrian they remained until they were overrun by the armies of the French Revolutionists and absorbed in the French Republic. They continued to be controlled by the French, under one form of government or another, until 1814, when the allied forces of the Fourth Coalition occupied them. At the Congress of Vienna the Belgian Netherlands were united to the Dutch Nether- lands under the restored House of Orange in order that there might be a strong barrier-state on the north-east frontier of France. The union, however, was not a happy one. In 1830 the Belgians revolted and secured their independence. This inde|)endence was recognised by the Great Powers in 1831 (Treaty of London), but not by Holland. Dutch recognition came, however, in 1839, and at that date Belgimii was established as a permanently neutralised state under the protection and suarantee of Britain. Austria, France, Russia, and Prussia. 10 MAP VI THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE : 1815-1914 Few relics of the Middle Ages suffered more under the blows of Napoleon than did the House of Habsburg. The possessions of that House, accumulated by a series of diplomatic marriages and politic wars extending over a period of five centuries, were more widely scattered and more heterogeneous than those of any other Great Power. When in 1792 the Emperor Leopold was forced into war by Revolutionary France he was not only the titular head of the Holy Roman Empire, but was also the direct ruler of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Vorarlberg, Tyrol, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, j\Iilan, Mantua, Tuscany, together with far-sundered territories such as Breisgau on the Rhine and the Belgian Nether- lands. These miscellaneous dominions contained inhabitants drawn from more than a dozen different races, among which the chief were German, Magyar, Czech, Croat, Slovene, Slovak, Pole, Ruthene, Roumanian, Italian, Fleming, and Belgian. The government of so varied an assortment of countries and peoples was almost necessarily autocratic and imperial, as opposed to democratic and national. Hence at the close of the eighteenth- century, when the spirit of the French Revolution was abroad, a general discontent was rife throughout the Habsburg monarchy foreboding revolt and dismemberment. In these circumstances it is not remarkable that during the struggle with France the House of Habsburg suff'ered a series of shattering reverses. Four times were the imperial armies overthrown, and four times was the government of Vienna compelled to accept humiliating terms of peace. It lies outside the scope of this note to specify the numerous territorial rearrangements effected successively by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), Luneville (1801), Pressburg (1805), and Vienna (1809). Suffice it to say that the House of Habsburg lost all its outlying possessions and was reduced to the condition of a purely Danubian principality which had no access to the sea at any point. In 1806, too, the Holy Roman Empire (fovmded by Charlemagne a thousand years before) was dissolved, and its ruler forced to restrict himself to the new territorial title of " Emperor of Austria." The defeat of Napoleon in 1813-15 brought the Habsburg dominions once more into the melting-pot, and enabled extensive recoveries to be effected. The Emperor Francis, however, and his able minister, Metternich, who together controlled Austrian policy at the Congress of Vienna, had no wish to restore the whole chaotic scheme of 1792. They refused to revive the Holy Roman Empire, and they preferred to abandon for ever their old scattered possessions on the Rhine and in the Netherlands in order to establish a stronger hold over Italy and Dalmatia. Hence in return for their surrender of Belgium, Luxemburg, Breisgau, and various other small territories in the west, they received or recovered Salzburg (in exchange for Tuscany), Lombardy, Venetia, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia with Cattaro. The Germanic portions of this reconstituted Austrian Empire [see boundaries shown in the accompanying map] were included in the new German Confederation or Bund. The principal subsequent changes in the Austrian Empire were as follows : In 1846, as a sequel to the Russian absorption of the kingdom of Poland, the small Polish Republic of Cracow (set up in 1815) was annexed. In 1848 there was a general upheaval in the Habsburg dominions, accompanied by the fall of Metternich and the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand — an upheaval which seemed to portend the imminent dissolution of the " ramshacJcle empire." The Magyars of Hungary, the Ci-echs of Bohemia, the Slavs of lUyria, the Italians of Lombardy and Venetia, the Poles of Galicia, the Ruthenes of Ladomeria, all rose in simultaneous revolt. If only they had been united the Habsburg monarchy must have collapsed. But they were divided by irreconcilable antagonisms among themselves : Magyar loathed Slav ; Pole hated Ruthene. Hence the Habsburg by cleverly dividing his foes was able to continue to rule. 11 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE The revolts were all crushed, although the crushing of the last and most formidable — that of the Magyars in Hungary — required the assistance of the Russian Tsar. The most complete of all the failures of 1848 was that of the Italians. In spite of aid rendered to the rebels by the king of Sardinia, the re-assertion of Austrian authority over Lombardy and Venetia was so emphatic that all clear-sighted Italian statesmen recognised that the expulsion of the " whitecoats " from the peninsula could be effected only by means of foreign help. Hence by the ofier of the surrender of Savoy and Nice [vide Map No. 7] the co-operation of Napoleon III. , Emperor of the French, was secured. The result was the expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy in 1859. Since nothing further could be hoped for from the French, the Italian patriots next turned to Prussia, which under Bismarck was preparing to oust Austria from Germany. The sequel to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was thus not only the destruction of the German Confederation and the total elimination of Austria from Germany, but also the recovery of Venetia for the new Itaban kingdom. This double disaster to the House of Habsburg necessitated a reorganisation of the whole administration. By the Ausqleicli, or compromise, of 1867, the Hungarians were taken into equal partnership and the Dual Monarchy (which lasted till 1918) was constituted. In 1878 Bosnia and Herzegovina were by the Treaty of Berlin placed under Austro- Hungarian rule although they were still regarded as part of the Turkish Empire. In 1908, as a sequel to the Turkish Revolution of that year, Austria-Hungary repudiated Turkish sovereigntv and announced their full incorporation with the Habsburg dominions. This was one of the first of the steps that led to the World War of 1914. 12 MAP VII is T R I ITALY 1 8 15-19 14 English Miles 010.03040^ Austrian Territory till 7859 I I Kingdom of Sardinia (House of I I Sauoy) 7815-1859 1 I The Kingdom of Italy uias formed bij the union of the various states with the Kingdom of Sard, The figures (1859) *'"'"' "■* ''"'^ of union. Fortresses of the Quadrilateral ■» O S N IJA v^/ C / / i^ ^Catania Meridian of o Greenwich ~ Malta ^(British) flf MAP XI -».^ Crete Provisional Map of EUROPE after the Peace Treaties, 1919-20 English Miles o 100 200 300 400 500 U..__^ ^ ^ ^ Territory subject to the League of Nations \===, Areas for Plebiscite I ' German territory under Allied military occup^.l International boundaries in August 1914 p Long-itude East 40° of Greenwich Q Emery Walker Ltd. EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE TREATIES : 1919—20 The ethnographical map on the preceding page portrays two important facts with unmistakable clearness. The first is that in the West of Europe the racial and linguistic masses are solid and compact, and that in this region ethnological boundaries broadly coincide with political boundaries. The second is that in the East of Europe precisely the opposite conditions prevail ; there the racial and linguistic units are mixed and scattered ; and there political boundaries show a ruthless disregard of ethnological divisions. While on the one hand England, France, Spain, and even Italy have managed to weld together many disparate elements into compara- tively homogeneous nations, and have succeeded in founding on the basis of nationality com- paratively stable States, on the other hand the empires of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and even Russia remain loose-knit congeries of discordant fragments. Let us note a little more in detail the situation at the outbreak of the war in 1914. Germany, in spite of the appearance of unity produced by the impress of Prussian autocracy, was not only torn by the particularism of the smaller States, but was weakened by the presence of unassimilated and alien national groups of Wends in Lusatia, Poles in Posen and Danzig, Danes in Schleswig, and French in Alsace-Lorraine. Austria-Hungary consisted of two dominant peoples, viz. the German and the Magyar, together with some ten subject peoples, viz. Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes, Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, Roumanians, Italians, and Jews. Turkey, in her truncated European dominions, still held sway over multitudes of Bulgars and Greeks ; while, as a set-off against this, many Turks still lingered in emancipated Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Greece. Russia, beneath the imposing solidarity of the Tsardom, seethed with the dis- sensions of some fifty racial and linguistic groups — to say nothing of the aggravating differences due to religious conflicts and divergent economic interests. The war of 1914 was due to two main causes — the two causes which separately or in combination had again and again during the preceding century defied the efforts of the Concert of Europe to keep the peace. They were (1) imperial ambition, (2) national discontent. There can, of course, be no doubt that imperial ambition played the more prominent role. The Pan-German lust for expansion, for markets, for supremacy at sea, for colonial empire, for lordship of the East, for world-dominion — this was the prime precipitant. But it is unquestion- able that Pan-German militarism was irritated and excited, was enabled to communicate its hopes and fears to the masses of the Teutonic peoples, and so was placed in a position to triumph, by the restless agitation of Latin and Slavonic groups eager to shake off the Teutonic yoke. The French of Alsace-Lorraine longed to escape from the Zabern tyranny ; the Poles of Posen clamoured for reunion with their sundered kinsmen of Warsaw and Galicia ; the Czechs of Bohemia groaned for their long-lost independence ; the Slovaks of Hungary turned wistful eyes towards Prague. So, too, in the Middle East the Roumanians of Transylvania ardently desired re-amalgamation with their compatriots of Walachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; the Serbs of Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia all looked towards the goal of incorporation into a large South-Slavonic State — a goal attainable only by means of the disruption of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary ; in Macedonia and Thrace the disjointed fragments of hostile races and religions waged upon one another a ceaseless war of anathema and extermination. The murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in the streets of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, was but the spark which lit the flame of imperial ambition and exploded the highly-charged mines of national discontent. Into the details of the great conflict which raged during the five years 1914-1919 it is alike impossible and needless for us here to enter. Enough to say that Germany, with her 21 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE Allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria), after coming within an ace of victory on several occasions, was in the end decisively defeated. She was compelled to beg for an Armistice on November 11, 1918, and to accept the terms of a dictated peace at Versailles on June 28, 1919. By the defeat itself her imperial ambitions were entirely shattered and dissipated. The removal of her oppressive hegemony in Europe made possible the realisation of the national aspirations of many subject peoples. For the collapse of the German military power involved the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian empire, the surrender of Bulgaria, and the utter prostration of Turkey. The task of the representatives of the victorious Allies, who met in Paris and Versailles to draw up the Treaty of Peace, was one of extraordinary difficulty. The complications caused by the rival and incompatible claims of their own members would have been hard enough to unravel, but these were rendered even more than normally tangled by the existence of several secret engagements (entered into under the extreme stress of the war) and by the disintegration of Eussia resulting from the two revolutions of 1917. In the circumstances few of the specific provisions of the Treaties of 1919 can be regarded as permanent. They would in many cases, undoubtedly, be a source not of pacification but of fresh conflict, were it not for the happy fact that the first work of the Peace Conference was to establish an enduring League of Nations, and to create machinery for the treatment of grievances and the settlement of disputes. It is this provision for the pacific accomplishment of necessary territorial changes that most hopefully distinguishes the Treaties of 1919 from those of 1815. Of the readjustments of boundaries effected during 1919 the following are the most important : I. By the Treaty of Versailles with Germany {June 8, 1919). 1. Absolute Cessions. — (1) Alsace-Lorraine to France; (2) Moresnet to Belgium; (3) jjortions of Silesia, Posen, West Prussia, and East Prussia to Poland. 2. Cessions subject to Plebiscite. — (1) Portions of East Prussia, West Prussia, and Silesia, claimed by Poland ; (2) Korthern Schleswig, claimed by Denmark ; (3) Malmddy and Eupen, claimed by Belgium. 3. Provisional Cessions to League of Nations. — (1) Panzig ; (2) the Saar Basin, to be worked in the interests of France for fifteen years, when its destination is to be decided by plebiscite. 4. Temporary Cessions to the Allies. — (1) Mcmel and region round it, to go to either Poland or Lithuania ; (2) German territories west of the Ehine, with bridgeheads, to be occupied for period five to fifteen years as guarantee for execution of the Treaty. II. By the Treaty of St. Germaix-ex-Laye with Austria [Sei^temher 10, 1919). 1. The severance of Austria from Hungary is recognised, save that Austria is allowed to retain a few German districts on the frontier formerly under Hungarian rule. 2. .\ new independent State of Czecho-Slovakiais formed out of the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia (with slight additions from Himgary and Germany). 3. Western Gahcia is ceded to Poland, and Eastern GaUcia to the Ruthenes of the Ukraine. 4. Bukovina is ceded to Roumania. 5. Bosnia, Herzegovina, Eastern Istria,^ and Dalmatia are ceded to the new Croatian-Serbian State of Yugo-Slavia. The region of Klagenfurt, however, is subject to a plebiscite, and the frontier between Yugo-Slavia and Italy (involving the fate of Fiume) has to be fixed by the Powers. 6. The Trentino, with theTyrol as far as the Brenner Pass — thus including a population of 250,000 German peasants — goes to Itah% as does Western Istria -with Trieste. 7. Austria is not to join herself to Germany without the consent of the League of Nations. Note. — Under this disruptive settlement Austria is reduced to the condition of a smaU and poor land-locked State, hardly bigger than the Serbia which in 1914 she attempted to destroy. III. By the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seixe with Bulgaria [November 27, 1919). 1. Yugo-Slavia acquires four sm£fU pieces of territory on the Bulgarian frontier. 2. The whole of the Aegean sea-board of Bulgaria is taken away and placed " at the disposal of the AUied Powers." 3. Some territory west and south of Adrianople — ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey in 1915 — is also taken away and restored to Turkey. The treaties with Hvmgary and Turkey were not concluded at the close of 1919. Hence the boundaries of Yugo-Sla\'ia and Eoumania on their Hungarian sides remained, and at the ^ The fate of this terrilory remains undecided at the time of going to press. 22 EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE TREATIES: 1919-20 date of writing still remain, in some uncertainty. The broad lines of the settlement, however, are fairly clear. Yugo-Slavia recovers on the north the Banat of Temesvar conquered by the Magyars in 1718, and on the south Croatia and Slavonia. Roumania is reunited to the Prin- cipality of Transylvania, which has been held by Hungary since 1699 ; the Dobruja also remains again under her control. It will be seen from the above brief summary that in Central Europe three entirely new States have come into existence as the result of the war. They are named Czecho-Slovakia, Yugo-Slavia, and Poland. (1) Czecho-Slovakia consists of the regions already mentioned as ceded by Austria, together with a small fragment of German Silesia and a portion of Northern Hungary (including the important town of Pressburg). (2) Yugo-Slavia comprises the former kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, together with Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and Eastern Istria from Austria, and Croatia, Slavonia, and parts of the Backa and Banat regions from Hungary. (3) Poland, declared independent on November 5, 1916, as at present constituted consists of (a) the whole of Russian Poland ; (b) part of Galicia from Austria ; and (c) those 23ortions of Posen, West Prussia, Silesia, and East Prussia already enumerated under the Treaty of Versailles. The eastern frontier of Poland as shown on the map is purely provisional. No terms have as yet been agreed upon between the Poles and the Bolshe^ak Russians. Russia, in fact, is at present the one region in which no boundaries can be drawn, and concerning which few- statements can be made. When the unity of the Tsardom was shattered in 1917 some twenty separate republics were proclaimed in different parts of the vast Russian Empire. Of these Poland (as already noted) and Finland seem definitely to have made good. Others, such as the Baltic States of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania, appear likely in some form to survive. Others again, for example the republic of North Russia and the Don republic of South Russia, have been submerged by the Bolshevik flood. Concerning the rest, and in particular the important republic of Ukrainia, at the time of writing all is doubt. In the circumstances it has been found impossible to do more than indicate roughly the main political divisions along the fringe of Russia in Europe. Postscript. — The treaty with Hungary was signed on June 1, 1920 ; that with Turkey on August 10, 1920. By the latter treaty Turkey in Europe is cut back to the Chatalja lines, Eastern Thrace going to Greece. The coast regions of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorns are placed under the control of a " Commission of the Straits " appointed by the League of Nations. , 23 INDEX TO MAPS N.B. — In the foUozving Index each place-name is entered once only, even though it occurs in several maps throughout the Atlas. Students ivho locate the place in the map indicated ivill ha-ve no difficulty in finding it in the others ivhere it appears. MAP MAP Abbeville . . . II Bl Aries II D5 Aberdeen . . . . XI B2 Armenia . . . . XI G3 Abo .... . XI El Amo, River . . . vn C3 Abruzzi . . . . VII D3 Arras II CI Abyssinia . . IX H4 Arta VIII F4 Accra .... . IX DE4 Artois . . . . II CI Adda, River . . . VII B2 Aruwimi, River . IX G4 Aden .... . IX 13 Asia Minor . . . XI EF4 Aden, Gulf of . . IX IKS Aspromonte . . VII E5 Adis Ababa . . . IX H4 Assuan . . . IX H2 Adour, River . . XI B3 Astrakhan XI G3 Adrianople . VIII G3 Atbara, River . . IX H3 Adriatic Sea . . . XI D3 Ath .... II CI Aegean Sea . VIII G4 Athens . . . vni F4 Africa, 1815-1914 . IX — Atlantic Ocean . XI A2,3 Agram . . . . VI BC3 Augsburg . V C2 Agulhas, Cape . IX G8 Austria, 1815-1914 VI — Aire (France) . . II CI Austria, 1920 . . XI D3 Aisne, River . . XI C3 Austria, Lower . VI BC2 Aix-la-Chapelle . . IV B3 Austria, Upper . VI B2 Ajaccio . . . . XI C3 Avesnes . . . II CI Aland Islands . XI DEI Avignon . . . II D5 Albania . . . . VIII EF3 Azerbaijan XI G3 Albert, Lake . . . IX G4,5 Azov, Sea of . XI F3 Aldabra Islands . . IX 15 Alessandria . . . VII B2 Baden .... V C2 Alexandria . . . IX Gl Bagirmi . . . IX F3 Algeria . . . . IX El Bahr-el-Ghazal . IX G4 Algiers . IX El Baku .... XI G3 Algoa Bay . . . IX B8 Balaton, Lake VI C2 Alma, River . . I F2 Balearic Islands . . XI C3,4 Alsace .... II E2 Balkan Peninsula, Alsace-Lorraine . V B2 1815-1914 . . VIII — Amiens II C2 Baltic Sea . . . XI DE2 Amirante Islands . IX K5 Banana . IX F5 Amsterdam . . V Bl Bangweolo, Lake . IX G6 Ancona . . . . VII D3 Bar, Duchy of . II D2 Andorra . . XI C3 Barcelona . . . XI C3 Anglo-Egyptian Su Jan IX GH3 Barcelonette . . II E4 Angola . . . . IX F6 Bari .... . VII F4 Angora . . . XI F4 Bar-le-Duc . . II D2 Angra Pequena . . IX F7 Basel .... V B3 Anhalt . . . V CD2 Basilicata . . . . VII EF4 Annobon, Island . . IX E5 Basuto Land . . . IX C7 Ansbach . . . IV D4 Bathurst (Gambia) IX C3 Antananarivo , IX 16 Batum XI G3 Antwerp . V B2 Bavaria . . . V C2 Apulia .... . VII EF4 Bayonne . , . . XI B3 Arad .... VI D2 Payreuth . . . IV D3,4 Aras, River . . . XI G4 Bechuanaland, Britis h IX B6 Bechuanaland, tectorate Beira . Belfast Belfort . Belgian Congo Belgium , Belgrade . Benevento Benguela . Benue, River Berber Berbera Bergamo . Bergen Bergues Berlin . Bern . Besan(;'on . Bessarabia Beuthen . Binche Biscay, Bay of Black Russia Black Sea . Bloemfontein Blue Nile . Bohemia . Bologna Boma . Bonn . Bordeaux . Bormio Bornholm, Island Bornu . Bosnia Bosphorus Bothnia, Gulf Bouillon . Boulogne . Bourg . Bozen . Braila . Brandenburg Brasov Breisach, Alt Bremen Brescia Breslau Bresse . Pro IX B6 IX H6,7 XI B2 XI C3 IX G5 V AB2 VIII F2 VII E4 IX F6 IX E4 IX H3 IX 13 VII B2 XI CI II CI IV E2 V B3 II E3 vin CD2 IV H3 n Dl XI B3 III DE2 XI F3 IX C7 IX H3 VI B2 VII C2 IX F5 II El XI B3 VII CI XI D2 IX F3 VI C3 VIII H3 XI Dl II D2 II Bl II D3 VI A2 VIII G2 IV EF2 VI E3 II E2 V CI VII C2 IV G3 II D3 25 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE MAP Brest .... XI Brest Litovsk XI Brindisi . . . VII British East Africa IX British Islands . I British Somaliland IX Bromberg . . . XI Bruges II Briinn .... VI Brunswick . . V Brussels V Bucliarest . . . VIII Budapest . . . VI Budweis . VI Buea .... IX Bug, River (Poland) XI Bug, River (Soutl Russia) . . . XI Bugey .... II Bukovina . . . VI Bulawaj'o . . . IX Bulgaria, 1878-1914 VIII Bulgaria, 1920 . XI Burgas . . . VIII Biitow. . . , IV Cabinda . . . IX Cadiz .... XI Cagliari . . . vn Cairo .... IX Calabria . . . vn Calais .... XI Calata6mi . . VII Cambrai . n Cameroon . IX Cammin . . . IV Canary Islands . IX Candia vm Canea .... vm Cape Coast Castle IX Cape of Good Hop (Cape Colony) . IX Cape Town . . IX Cape Verde Islands IX Capitinata . . vn Caprera, Island . vn Capua .... VII Carcassonne . . n Carinthia . . . VI Carniola VI Carpathian Russia XI Carpi .... vn Carthagena . . XI Casale .... VII Caserta . . . vn Caspian Sea . . XI Cassel (Flanders) n Cassel (Prussia) . IV Castelfidardo. vn Castellammare . vn Catania vn Cattaro . . . VI Caucasia . . . XI Cavallasca . . . vn Cefalii .... . vn Cettinje . . . . vm Ceuta .... . IX Chad, Lake . . . IX Chalon . . . II Chalons . . . n Channel Islands . . XI B3 E2 G4 H4 Bl 14 D2 CI C2 CI B2 G2 C2 B2 E4 E2 F3 D4 E2 G7 FG3 E3 GH3 Gl F5 B4 B5 GH2 F5 C2 D6 CI F4 FGl C2 G5 G5 D4 AC7 A7 B3 E4 B4 E4 C5 B2 B3 E3 C2 B4 B2 E4 GH3 CI C3 D3 E4 E6 C3 G3 B2 E5 E3 Dl F3 D3 D2 B3 Charlemont Charleroi . Chatalja . Chateau Dauphin Cherbourg Christiania Clermont-en-Argonne Cleves . Coast Land (Austria) Coblenz Colesberg . Colmar Cologne Como .... Comoro Islands Conde .... Congo, River . Congo Free State Constance, Lake Constantinople Constantza Coomassie Copenhagen . Cordova . Corfu .... Corinth Cork .... ComigUano Correggio . Corsica Corunna . Cottbus Courland . Courtrai . Cracow (Republic of) Craiova Crete .... Crimea Croatia-Slavonia . Custozza . Cuxhaven . Cyprus Czecho-Slovakia . Czemovitz Dago, Island . Dahomey . Dalmatia . Damascus . Damvillers Danube, River . Danzig Danzig, Free City of Danzig, Republic of Dardanelles . Dar-es-Salaam Darfur Darmstadt Dauphine . Debreczen Dedeagatch Delagoa Bay Delgado, Cape Denmark, 1815-1866 Denmark, 1920 . Desna, River . Dibra .... Dijon .... Dnieper, River . Dniester, River . Dobruja . 26 MAP II VIII II VII IX II VI vm vm IX xr XI VIII VIII XI VII VII XI XI VI VII IV I XI XI IX VI I II XI IV XI n vm IX IX V II VI VIII IX IX I XI XI vm n Dl Dl H3 E4 B3 CDl D2 B3 B2,3 B3 B7 E2 B3 B2 16 CI G4 G5 A2 H3 H2 D4 D2 B4 E4 F4 B2 B2 C2 C3 B3 F3 CI CI CI F2 E3 F3 BC3 C2 C2 F3 DE3 E2 E2 E4 BC3 F3 D2 DE3 HI D2 C2 G3 15 G3 C2 DE4 D2 G3 D6 16 CDl CD2 F2 F3 D3 XI F2,3 XI E3 vm H2, 3 MAP Don, River . . XI Donetz, River XI Dongola . . . IX Douai , II Doubs, River n Douro, River XI Dover . , XI Dover, Strait of ". XI Drave, River VI Dresden . V Drina, River VI Dublin XI Dundee XI Dunkirk . II Durazzo . VIII Durban IX Diisseldorf IV Dvina, River XI Dvinsk XI Eastern Roumelia VIII East London . . IX East Prussia . IV Ebro, River . XI Edinburgh . . XI Egypt .... IX Eichsfeld . . . IV Eider, River . . IV Ekaterinodar . . XI Ekaterinoslav XI Elba, Island . . VII Elbe, River . . V Ems IV Ems, River . . V England . . . XI English Channel . XI Enos .... vm Erfurt .... IV Eritrea . . . IX Ermeland . IV Eryx, Mt. . . . VII Esbjerg . . . XI Esthonia . . . XI Eszek .... VI Esztergom . . VI Etna, Mt. . . . vn Euboea . . . vm Europe, 1815-1914 I Europe, 1920 . . XI Exilles . . . II Falmouth . XI Falster, Island . IV Fashoda . . . IX Fehmam, Island . IV Fernando Po . IX Ferrara . . . VII Fez .... IX Finland XI Finland, Gulf of . XI Fiume .... VI Flanders . . . n Flensburg . XI Florence . . . vn ForU .... vn Forth, Firth of . XI France, E. Frontier o , 1598-1871 . . 11 France, 1815-1914 I France, 1920 . . XI Franche Comte . n INDEX TO MAPS Frankfort-on-Main MAP IV C3 Hagenau . MAP n E2 Kolozsvar . . . MAP . VI D2 Frankfort-on-Oder IV F2 Hamburg . V CI Komarom . VI C2 Freetown . , . IX C4 Hanover . . IV BD2 Konia . . . . XI F4 Freiburg . . . II E3 Harwich . . . XI C2 Koniggratz . VI Bl French Equatoria Hebrides . . XI B2 Konigsberg . . IV 11 Africa . . . IX F3, 4 Heligoland V Bl Kordofan , . IX GH3 French Somaliland IX 13 Helsingfors . XI El Kovno . XI E2 French West Africa IX CF3 Hermannstadt VI E3 Kremsier . . VI C2 Friedland . . . IV 11 Hemad, River VI D2 Kronstadt (Russi l) . XI El Friesland . . . IV B2 Herzegovina . VI C3 Kronstadt (Trar syl- Frio, Cape . . IX F6 Hesse . . . V C2 vania) . VI E3 Fulda .... IV C3 Hesse-Cassel , IV C3 Krossen . . IV F2 Funen, Island IV Dl Hesse-Nassau IV C3 Kuban, River XI F3 Fiinfkirchen . . VI C2 Hildesheim . . IV C2 Kulm . IV H2 Fumes . . . II CI Hohenzollern . . IV C4 Kulmerland . IV H2 HoUand . . V Bl,2 Kura, River . . XI G3 Gabun .... IX F5 Holyhead . . XI B2 Gaeta .... vn D4 Hull . . . . XI B2 Laaland, Island . IV Dl Galatz .... vm GH2 Hungary, 1815-1914 vi CE2 Ladoga, Lake . XI Fl Galicia . . . VI DE2 Hungary, 1920 . XI DE3 Ladysmith . IX C7 Galicia, New . m C3 Lagos . . . . IX E4 Gallipoli . vm G3 lUyrian Provinces n C2,3 Laibach . . VT B2 Galway . . . XI B2 Inn, River VI B2 Landau . . II F2 Gambia . . . IX C3 Innsbruck VI A2 Landrecies n CI Garda, Lake . . VI A3 Ionian Islands . vin AB4 Langeland, Islanc . IV Dl Garonne, River . XI BC3 Ireland . XI B2 Langres . . II D3 Geneva . . . XI C3 Isar, River . VI AB2 Larissa . vm F4 Geneva, Lake n E3 Isaszeg . . VI C2 Lauenburg, Duch y of IV D2 Genoa .... vn B2 Istria . . . VI B3 Lauenburg (Pome rania) iv Gl Georgia . . . XI G3 Italian SomaUlanc 1 . IX 14 Lausanne , . . VII Al German Confederatio n, Italy, 1815-1914 . vn — Lebus . rv F2 1815-1866 . . V — Italy, Napoleon's King- Leghorn . vn C3 German Confederatio n, dom of . II C3 Legnago . vn C2 North, 1866-1871 V Iviza, Island . XI C4 Leipzig V D2 German East Africa IX H5 Ivory Coast . . IX D4 Lemberg . VI E2 German S.W. Africa IX F7 Lepanto . vm F4 Gex . . . . II DE3 Jagemdorf IV G3 Leuthen IV G3 Ghent .... II CI Jassy . . . . vm G2 Libau . . XI E2 Gibraltar . . . XI B4 Johannesburg . IX C6 Liberia . IX CD4 Gimbome . . . IV B3 Juba, River . . IX 14 Libreville . IX EF4 Girgenti VII D6 Jutland . XI C2 Libyan Desert . IX G2 Glasgow . XI B2 Lichtenberg . . . IV B4 Glatz .... VI CI KafEraria . . . IX C7 Liechtenstein . . . VI A2 Gnessen . . . m B2 Kama, River . XI H2 Liege . . . V B2 Gold Coast . . IX D4 Kamerun. See C ameroon Liguria . VII B2 Gollnow . . . IV F2 Kapolna . . VI D2 Lille . . . II CI Good Hope, Cape of IX A7 Kars . . . I G2 Limerick . . . XI B2 GorUtz . . . IV F3 Kasai, River . . IX F5 Limoges . . . XI C3 Gothenburg . . XI m Kaschau . . VI D2 Limpopo, River . . IX C5 Gothland, Island XI D2 Kassala . . . IX H3 Limpurg . . IV C4 Gottingen . . IV CD3 Kattegat . . XI D2 Lingen . . IV B2 Gran .... VI C2 Kavala . . . vm G3 Linz VI B2 Gravelines . . II CI Kaysersberg . . . II E2 Lipari Islands . . vn E5 Graz .... VI B2 Kazan . . . XI G2 Lippe . . . V CI, 2 Great Fish River IX C7 Kecskemet VI C2 Lisbon , . . . XI B4 Great Kei River . IX C7 Kehl . . . XI C3 Lithuania . . . m D2 Greece, 1830-1878 vni B4 Kenia, Mt. . . IX H5 Little Russia . . . XI EF3 Greece, 1878-1914 VIII F2, 3 Kharkov . . . . XI F2, 3 Liverpool . . XI B2 Greece, 1920 . . XI E3,4 Khartum . . . IX H3 Livonia . . XI E2 Grenoble . . . II D4 Kherson . . XI F3 Loanda . . IX F5 Grodno . . . XI E2 Kiel . . . IV Dl Loango . . IX F5 Grosseto . . . VII C3 Kiel Canal . IV CI Lodi . . . VII B2 Grosswardein . . VI D2 Kiev . . . XI F2 Lodz . III B3 Guadalquivir, River XI B4 Kilimanjaro, Mt. . IX H5 Loire, River . . . XI B3 Guadiana, River . XI B4 Kilwa . . . . IX 15 Lombardy . VII B2 Guardafui, Cape . IX K3 Kimberley . IX B6 London XI B2 Guastalla . . . VII C2 Kishinev . . . XI E3 Longwy . . n D2 Guinea, Gulf of . IX DE4 Kismayu . . IX 15 Lorraine, Duchy of . II E2 Guinea (Portuguese) IX C3 Klagenfurt VI B2 Loureneo Marque S . IX D6 Guinea (Spanish) IX E4 Illausenburg . VI D2 Liibeck . . V CI Gyor .... VI C2 Kolin , . . IV F3 Lublin . . Ill C3 27 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE Lucca . Liideritz Baj- . Liineburg , Lusatia, Lower Lusatia, L'ppcr Liitzen Luxemburg . Lyons , Macedonia Macerata . Macon . Madagascar . Madeira Islands iladrid Mafeking . Magdala . Magdeburg Magenta . Main, River . Mainz . Majorca, Island Majuba Hill . Malaga Malmo Malta . Man, I. of Mansfeld . Mantua Slarburg . March, River . Marches, The (Papal States) Maremma . Maria Theresiopel Marienburg Mark, County of Marmora, Sea of Mame, River Marsala Marseilles Massawa Maubeuge Mauritius Mecca . Mecklenburg-Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz Mediterranean Sea Melitopol . Memel . Memel, River Merseburg Messina Metz . . Meuse, River Mddle Mark denburg) Midia . Milan . Milazzo Minden Minorca, Island JHnsk . . Modena Moen, Island Moero, Lake Mogadisho Moldau, River Moldavia Molise . Mombasa MAP \-n IX IV IV IV IV V XI vrn ^^I n IX XI IX IX IV \TI V V (B: C3 F7 D2 F3 F3 E3 B2 C3 BC3 D3 D3 16,7 CI B3 B6 H3 D2 B2 C2 C2 C4 C6 B4 D2 D4 B2 Monaco Monastir . Monrovia . Montbeliard . ' Mont Cenis Pass Montenegro, 1815- 1878 . Montenegro, 1878- 1914 Montmedy Montpellier Mor Moravia Moray Firtl Morocco . Mortara Moscow Moselle, River Mossamedes Mossel Bay Mostar Mozambique Miilhausen Munich Miinstcr (Alsace) Miinster (Westphalia) MAP XI \aii VII XI C3 F3 C4 E3 A2 A3 EF3 D2 C5 C2 C2 B2 Dl B2 F2 B2 F6 B7 C3 16 E3 C2 E2 B3 IV D3 Nagyvarad \T D2 , vn C2 Nairobi .... IX H5 1 IV C3 Namaqua Land (Little) ix A7 VI C2 Namur .... n Dl Nancv II E2 vn m Nantes .... XI B3 1 vn C3 Naples .... ^^I E4 1 XI C3 Naples, Eongdom of n Dl 1810 .... II C3 IV B3 Narbonne .... II C5 vni GH3 Narva .... XI E2 XI C3 Nassau .... IV C3 vn D6 Natal IX C7 ! XI C3 Navarino . \^II B4 i IX 13 Naze, The (Norway) XI C2 i II CI Netherlands, 1815-1831 v Bl,2 ' IX K7 Netze District . IV G2 ! IX 12 Netze, River . IV G2 1 V CI Neuenburg V B3 ; V Dl Neusatz . VI C3 XI CF4 Neusohl . VI C2 XI F3 Nevers XI C3 IV 11 Newcastle . XI B2 1 TX 11 New East Prussia IV IK2 IV E3 New Mark (Branden vn E5 burg) . . . IV F2 I n E2 New Silesia . . IV H3 B2 Nice II III Eo ' D2 Niemen, River . rv E2 Nigeria . . . IX EF3 vm H3 Niger, River . IX E3 ' vn B2 Nikopol . . . XI F3 i vn Eo Nile, River . . IX H2 IV C2 Nimes .... n D5 ' XI C3, 4 Nish .... vin F3 m D2 1 Nizhni Novgorod XI G2 ; vn C2 ; North Sea . . XI C2 1 IV El 1 Norwav XI CI, 2 IX Go 1 Novara . . . vn B2 1 IX 14 1 Novi .... YU B2 %t: B2 ' Novibazar vm F3 vm C2 , Novi Sad . . . XI C3 ^-n E4 Novocherkask XI F3 IX 15 , Nubian Deser t . IX H2 Nuremberg . . MAP v Nyasa, Lake . . . IX Nyasaland Protec bor- ate ... . . IX Ober Ehnlieim . . n < idenburg . . VI Oder, River . v Odessa . . . . XI Oise, River . XI Oka, River . . . XI Okhrida . . . . ^^II Oland, Island . XI Old Calabar . . . IX Oldenburg . . V Old Mark (Branc len- burg) . . . IV Olmiitz . . . \T Omdurman . IX Onega, Lake . . . XI Oporto \I Orange (France) . II Orange Free State . IX Orange River . IX Orbetello . . . . VII Orenburg . . XI Orkney Islands . XI Orleans . . . XI Orsova . . . VI Orvieto . . . \^I Osel, Island . . XI Osiek . . . . VI Osnabriick . IV Otranto . . . \-n Oudenarde II Paderborn . IV Padua . . . . vn Palatinate (Bavar an) v Palermo . . . vn Palestrina . . . \-n Papal States. See States of the Ch ircn Paris . . . Parma . . . . vn Passau . . . . VI Patras . . . . \t:ii Pecs . . . . Vl Peipus, Lake . . XI Pellegrino, Mt. . vn Pemau . XI Perpignan . . . n Persia . . . . XI Perugia . . . VII Pesaro , . . vu Pescara . . . vn Peschiera . . . vn Philippeville . n Philippopolis . . vm Philippsburg . II Piacenza . . ^^I Piedmont . . . vu Pietermaritzburg . IX Pilsen . . . . VI Pinerolo . . . n Pinsk . . . . XI Pisa . . . . vn Pizzo . . . . vn Plevna . . . vm Plymouth . . . XI 28 INDEX TO MAPS MAP MAP MAP Po, River . . . . VII AD2 Roumania, 1878-1914 vin FH2 Senegal, River . IX 03 Podlesia .... III D2,3 Roumania, 1920 . . XI E3 Serbia, 1817 . . vm B2,3 Podolia .... III DE3 Roussillon . . . II C5 Serbia, 1878-1914 . vm F2, 3 Pola VI B3 Rovigo . . . . vn C2 Seville . . . . XI B4 Polmd 177''-1914 III Rovno .... XI E2 Seychelles, Islands t"s- K5 Poland (Great) . . ni B2, 3 Rovuma, River . IX H6 Shari, River . . IX F4 Poland (Little) . . ni C2,3 Rudolf, Lake . . . IX H4 Shebeli, River . IX 14 Poland, Eangdom of, Riigen, Island . . IV El Shetland Islands . XI Bl 1815-1831 . . . I DEI Ruppin .... IV E2 Shipka Pass . . vm 03 Poland, 1920 . . . XI DE2 Russia, 1815-1914 . I EGl, 2 Sibiu . . . . VI E3 PomerarJa IV EGl Russia, 1920 . . . XI EH2 Sicilies, Kingdom of Pontecorvo . . . vn D4 Rustchuk .... vm G3 the Two . vn DF3,6 Pontremoli . . . \ai B2 Sicily, Island . . VLI DE6 Port Elizabeth . . IX B7 Saar Basin . . . XI 03 Sierra Leone . . IX 04 Port Xolloth . . . IX F7 Saarlouis . . . . n E2 Sigmaringen . . rv . 04 Porto Santo Stefano . vn 03 Sadowa .... VI Bl Silesia (Austrian) . VI 01,2 Port Said .... IX HI Sahara .... IX 0G2 Silesia (Prussian) . IV FH3 Portugal .... XI B2,3 St. Etienne . . . XI 03 Silistria . . . vm G2, 3 Portuguese East Africa ix H6,7 St. Helena Bay . . IX A7 Simferopol . XI F3 Portuguese Guinea . IX C3 St. Louis (Senegal) . IX 03 Sinope . XI F3 Posen IV G2 St. Omer .... n 01 Skager Rack . . XI 02 Potsdam .... IV E2 St. Petersburg . . I Fl Smolensk . . . XI F2 Prague .... VI Bl St. Pol .... n 01 Smyrna . . . \Tn G4 Pregel, River . . . V Fl St. Thomas, Island . IX E4 Socotra, Island . IX K3 Pressburg .... VI C2 Salemi vu D6 Sofia . . . . vm F3 Pretoria .... IX C6 Salerno .... vn E4 Sokoto . . . IX E3 Preveza .... vin F4 Salisbury (Rhodesia) IX H6 Solferino . . . vn 02 Priegnitz .... IV DE2 Salm n E2 Somaliland, British . ix 14 Principato . . VII E4 Salonica .... VUI F3 Somaliland, French . ix 13 Pripet, River . . . XI E2 Saluzzo .... II E4 SomaUland, Italian . ix 14 Provence .... II DEo Salzburg . . . . VI B2 Somme, River n BOl Prussia, Duchy of . Prussia, Kingdom of. IV IK1,2 Samara . . . . XI H2 Sopron . VI 02 rv — Samogitia .... ni 02 Southampton . . XI B2 Prussia, New East . ni C2 Samos, Island vni G4 South Prussia . IV GH2 Pruth, River . . . vni GH2 Samos, River . VI D2 Spain . . . . XI B3 Przemysl .... VI D2 San Marino . . . vu D3 Spalato . . . VI 03 Pskov XI E2 San Stefano, Bound- aries proposed by Spandau . . Spanish Guinea . rv . IX E2 E4 Raab VI C2 Treaty of . . . vm DE4 Spezia . . . . vu B2 Ragusa .... VI C3 Santander XI B3 Spoleto . . . vu D3 Ratibor .... XI D2 Saone, River . n D3 Stanley Falls . . IX G4,5 Ravenna .... vn D2 Sapri vn E4 States of the Ohurch vn CD3 Red Russia m CD3 Saragossa .... Sarajevo .... XI B3 Stavan^er . XI 02 Red Sea ... . IX HI2 VI 03 Stavropol . . . XI G3 Regensburg . . . V D2 Saratov .... XI G2 Stelvio Pass . . vn 01 Reggio .... vn E5 Sardinia, Island . . vn B4 Stenay . . n D2 Reichenberg . . . VI Bl Sardinia, Kingdom of vn B2, 5 Stettin . . . IV F2 Reims XI C3 Save, River . . . VI 03 Stockholm .. XI .D2 Reunion, Island . . IX K7 Savoy n E4 Stralsund . . V Dl Reuss V CD2 Saxony (Prussia) rv D2,3 Strassburg V B2 Reval XI E2 Saxony, Kingdom of V D2 Stryj . . . . VI D2 Rhine, River . . . V B2 Scapa Flow . . . XI B2 Stuttgart . . . V 02 Rhine, Confederation Schaumburg-Lippe . V 01 Styria .... . VI B2 of the . . . II BC2 Schleswig .... IV 01 Suakin . . . . IX H3 Rhine Province . IV B3,4 Schleswig-Holstein . rv 01 Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian ix GH3 Rhodes .... VUl H4 Schlettstadt . . . n E2 Suez .... . IX HI Rhodesia .... IX G6 Schleusingen . . . IV D3 Sundgau . II E3 Rhone, River u D4 Schmalkalden . . IV D3 Swazi Land . ' . . IX D6 Riga XI E2 Schwarzburg - Rudol- stadt .... Sweden . XI Dl,2 Riga, Gulf of . . . XI E2 V 02 Swinemiinde . . . IV F2 Rimini .... vn D2 Schwarzburg-Sonders- Switzerland . . V BC3 Rio de Oro . . . IX C2 hausen .... V 02 Syracuse . . . . vn E6 Rochefort .... XI B3 Schwechat VI 02 Syria .... I F3 Rodosto .... vm C3 Schwiebus IV F2 Szabadka . . . . VI 02 Rodriguez, Island IX K6 Scilly Islands . . . XI B3 Szeged . . . . VI D2 Romagna .... \t:i GD2 Scotland .... XI B2 Szolnok . . . . VI D2 Rome VII D4 Scutari .... \t:ii E3 Rosheim .... 11 E2 Sebastopol . . . XI F3 Tagus, River . . . XI B4 Rossbach .... IV D3 Sedan n D2 Tanaro, River . \TI A2 Rostov .... XI F3 Seine, River . XI 03 Tanganyika, Lake . IX H5 Rouen XI C3 Senegal .... IX 03 Tangier . . . . XI B4 29 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE MAP MAP MAP Taranto .... ^^I F4 Tiirkheim .... II E2 Vitebsk . . . . m E2 Tamopol .... VI E2 Tuscany .... vn C3 Vladikavkaz . . . XI G3 Tarnov .... VI Dl Tyrrhenian Sea . . VII c;d4 Volga, River . . . XI G3 Temesvar .... VI D3 Volhynia . . . m D3 Terek, River . . . XI G3 Ubangi, River . . IX F4 Volo . . . . . vm F4 Terra di Lavoro . . vn D4 Ufa XI H2 Volturno, River . . vn D4 Teschen .... XI D3 Uganda Protectorate IX H4 Vorarlberg . . VI A2 Thames, River . . I Bl Ujiji IX H5 Theiss, River . . VI D2 Uker Mark (Branden- Wadai . . . . . IX F3 Theodosia . . XI F3 burg) .... IV E2 Wadi Haifa . . . IX H2 Thionville .... n D2 Ukraine .... XI EG2 Walachia . . . . vm C2 Thorn rv^ H2 Ulm V 02 Waldeck . . . . v C2 Thuringian States v C2 Umbria . . . . vn D3 Wales . . . . . XI B2 Tiber, River . . . vn D4 Union of South Africa IX AD6, 7 Wal6sh Bay . . . IX F7 Tibesti .... IX F3 Ural, River . . . XI H2 Warsaw . . ni C2 Ticino, River . vn B2 Urbino . . . . vn D3 Warsaw, Grand Duchy Tiflis XI G3 Usedom, Island . . rv Fl of . . . . . II C2 Tilsit rs- 11 Uskiib vm F3 Warthe, River . . rv G2 Timbuktu .... IX D3 Waterford . . . XI B2 Togoland .... IX E5 Vaal, River IX C6 Weissenburg . . . n E2 Tortona .... vn B2 Vacz \i C2 Welle, River . . . IX G4 Toul n D2 Vag, River . . . Valence . . . . VI C2 Weser, River . . . V CI Toulon .... XI C3 n D4 Westphalia . . . IV B3 Toulouse .... XI C3 Valencia .... XI B4 West Prussia . . . IV GH2 Tournai .... n CI Valenciennes . . . n CI Wetzlar . . . . rv C3 Transvaal .... IX C6 Valona . . . . VUl E3 ^Tiite NUe . . IX H4 Transylvania . . . Vl DE2 Vardar, River . . vm F3 ^A^ute Russia . . XI E2 Trapani .... vn D5 Varese VII B2 Windhoek . . IX F7 Trebizond . . . XI r3 Varna vm H3 Wittenberg . . rv E3 Trentino .... XI D3 VeUetri . . . . vn D4 Wollin, Island . . IV Fl Treves .... n E2 Venetia . . . . vn CD2 Worms . . . . rv C2 Treviso .... vn D2 Venice vn D2 Wiirttemberg . . . V C2 Trient VI A2 Vercelli . . . . VII B2 Trier (Treves) . . IV B4 Verdun . . . . n D2 Yarmouth . . XI C2 Trieste .... Xl B3 Verona . . . . vn C2 Ypres . . n CI Trikkala . . . . xm F4 Viborg . . . . XI El Yugo-Slavla . XI DE3 Tripoli . . . . Troyes . . . . Tugela, River . . Tula IX Fl Vicenza . . . . VII C2 n D2 Victoria FaUs . . IX G6 Zagreb . . VI BC3 IX D7 Victoria Nyanza . . IX H5 Zambezi, River . . ix GH6 XI F2 Vidin vni F2 Zanzibar Protectorate ix 15 Tunis IX El Vienna . . . . VI C2 Zara . . . . VI B3 Turin vn A2 Vienne . . . . n D4 Zealand, Island (Den- Turkev (European), Vigo XI B3 mark) . IV Dl 181»-1878 . . . vm BC3 ViUafranca . . . vn C2 Ziegenriick . . IV D3 Turkey (European), ViUagos . . . . VI D2 Zomba . . . IX H6 1878-1914 . . . vm GH3 Vihia m D2 Zulnland . . . IX D6 Turkey (European), Vistula, River . . V El Zungeru . . . IX E4 1920 . . . . XI E3 1 ERRATIBI In Map XI, Square D2, for Ratisbon read Ratibor. Printed tyy R. Sa R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh. BY PROFESSOR F. J. 0. HEARNSHAW MAIN CURRENTS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY 1815-1Q15 With Maps. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. SPECTATOR.—'' h valuable and thoughtful volume." NEW EUROPE. — "A very interesting panorama of Europe in the nineteenth century. . . . Cannot fail to do an immense amount of good." DAILY TELEGRAPH. — "Valuable and intensely interesting." DAILY NEWS. — "Interesting and worth reading." OUTLOOK. — "One of the best text-books on the subject that have been written." AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. GUARDIAN. — "A very serviceable and well-written work. ... It is a wonderfully complete and well-arranged sketch, and the period which culminated in the Great War is summarised with great clearness and force." EDUCATION. — "We cannot give this book higher praise than to say that we should like to see a class in every school given up to the study of modern political history and that this volume should be the text-book on which the class teaching should be based." DEMOCRACY AT THE CROSSWAYS A STUDY IN POLI'llCS AND HISTORY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GREAT BRITAIN 8vo. 15s. net. Sir Sidney Low i7i tJie FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. — "A very able and penetrating analysis of the dangers to which democracy is exposed." G. P. GoocH in the CONTEMPORARY REVIEW.— ''\^\\\ impress every reader by its wide learning, its obvious power, and its clearness of statement." OBSERVER. — "A really wise, helpful, and pleasurable book." A FIRST BOOK OF ENGLISH HISTORY Illustrated. Globe 8vo. Sewed, 2s. ; Stiff Boards, 2s. 3d. EDUCATION. — "The author has managed his material with sound judgment and skill, and woven his facts into a narrative that nowhere lacks interest and coherence. The book is excellently illustrated." LONDON : MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. WALL ATLAS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY This is an entirely new series of History Maps designed to show at a glance the chief political changes and national movements from the forma- tion of the Roman Empire to the beginning of the Great War, 1914. Territorial changes are strongly marked in bold and attractive colouring. The physical features are so treated as not to interfere with the effective- ness of the maps from a historical point of view. Place names are given in characters consistent with their relative importance. The exceptionally bold and distinctive treatment renders these maps a most valuable adjunct to the teaching of history. Size, 40 by 30 inches. Containing 24 large Scale Maps with numerous Insets. Price 7s. 6d. net each, on Cloth and Rollers, Varnished, or mounted on Cloth, to fold in sections, and eyeleted. Any Six Selected Maps mounted as a Wall Atlas, on Cloth and fastened together on one Roller, with Metal Rims at foot of Maps to prevent curling, £2 : 2s. The Complete Series of Twenty-four Maps made up into Four Wall Atlases and mounted as above, £8 : 5s. LIST OF MAPS MAP MAP 1. The Formation of the Roman Empire. 12. Europe, A.D. 1 863-1 897. 2. The Roman Empire showing the Barbarian 13. The Growth of Prussia, A.D. 1415-1914. Inroads. 14. The Formation of the Modern German 3. The Roman Empire showing the Teutonic Empire, A.D. 19 1 4- Settlements, A.D. 476. 15. Europe in the Time of Louis XIV., a.d. 4. Europe in the Time of Charles the Great, 1702. A.D. 758-814. 16. Europe under Napoleon, A.D. 18 10. 5. Europe in the Time of Otto the Great, 17. Commercial Map of the British Isles at the A.D. 962. Close of the Middle Ages. 6. Europe in the Time of the Third Crusade, 18. World. Age of Discoveries. .\.D. 1 190. 7. Europe in A.D. 1360. j Confederation. 8. Europe at the Accession of Charles V., 20. The Russian Empire. A.D. I 5 1 9. 9. Europe in a.d. 1648, after the Peace of Charles V., a.d. i543- Westphalia. 22. Italy in a.d. 1859. 10. Central Europe in the Time of the French 23. The Balkan Peninsula after the Treaty of Revolution and Empire. ; Berlin, A.D. 1878. 11. Europe, a.d. 1814-1863. [ 24. Europe in a.d. 191 4. EDINBURGH: W. & A. K. JOHNSTON, Ltd. 19. Switzerland. Showing the Growth of the I. The Netherlands since their Union under UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ^^V. ,1 i^(r\' ^^ \^ 1954 (M JUN181368 LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES co^7^D^^73 i^ii78470 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY