HISTORIC 
 ATLAS ^^^ 
 
 OF MODERN 
 EUROPE ^-^^ 
 
 -x. 'V 
 
 EDITEi:) BY-v 
 
 F. J. G. HEARNSHA!i5^ 
 
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MACMILLAN'S HISTORICAL ATLAS 
 OF MODERN EUROPE 
 
^0^m. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited 
 
 LONDON • HOMBAY • CALCUTTA • MADRAS 
 MELBOURNE 
 
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 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA,. Ltd. 
 
 TORONTO 
 
MACMILLAN'S 
 
 HISTORICAL ATLAS 
 
 OF MODERN EUROPE 
 
 A SELECT SERIES OF MAPS ILLUSTRATIVE OF 
 THE RECENT HISTORY OF THE CHIEF 
 EUROPEAN STATES AND THEIR DEPENDENCIES 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 F. J. C. HEARNSHAW 
 
 M.A., LL.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN KING's COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON J 
 AUTHOR OF "main CURRENTS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY, 1815-I915," 
 "EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC., ETC. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED 
 ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON 
 
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COPYRIGHT 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The events of recent years have shaken the British peoples out of their insularity, and have 
 caused them to turn as never before to the study of international afiairs. The rumours of 
 war which alarmed them in 1905, 1908, and 1911, still more the actual conflicts which broke 
 the tranquilUty of Europe in 1912, 1913, and 1914, impressed them with a consciousness that 
 there were operating in the world gigantic and elemental forces of which they were ignorant, 
 and filled them with a new desire to know the things that appertained to their peace. Such 
 history as the better educated among them had learned at school had as a rule abruptly 
 ended with the battle of Waterloo and the departure of Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815, and 
 it was clearly evident that most of the acute problems which divided the nations into hostile 
 groups had arisen since that date, and that not a few of them had had their source in that 
 very Vienna Settlement which had followed the fall of the Bonapartist empire. Hence 
 came a demand from thoughtful students of poUtics for text-books of nineteenth-century 
 history from which they should be able to learn the antecedents of those vexing questions 
 and those conflicting claims which were causing so frightful an upheaval among men. The 
 demand called forth an answering supply, and there is now no lack of trustworthy guides to 
 the intricacies of modern history. 
 
 History is, however, intimately bound up with geography. At almost every turn of the 
 narrative the reader, if he desires fully to comprehend what he is perusing, has occasion to 
 refer to an atlas. Although some of the recent text-books are provided with useful sketch- 
 plans, it is felt that there is urgent need of a more complete series of historical maps which 
 may serve as a companion to any or all of the narrative volumes. That series is herewith 
 diffidently presented to the pubHc. Since each map is accompanied by an explanatory 
 introduction, only a few words of general preface seem here to be necessary. First, it will 
 be noted that attention is concentrated on political and ethnographical features. Experience 
 has shown that it is impossible to add physical features to a poUtical or ethnographical map 
 without causing inextricable confusion. Students are, therefore, recommended to have by 
 their side for reference and comparison an atla-s in which physical features alone are given. 
 Secondly, it will be seen that most of the maps restrict themselves to showing the trans- 
 mutations of the century 1815-1914. A few, however, have to go back, for clearness' sake, 
 to an earUer date, e.g. Poland to 1772, France to 1598, and Prussia to 1415. One map, viz. 
 the last, makes an attempt to depict the changes in Europe effected by the peace treaties of 
 1919-20. In some of its details it is necessarily tentative. For, although Western Europe 
 seems to have reached some sort of stability, in the East of the Continent all things continue 
 in a state of flux. No pretence can yet be made to indicate the shape of the cosmos which 
 some day must emerge from the Russian chaos. 
 
 iv,2?8470 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 For the historical portion of the atlas the chief authority has been Hertslet's indispensable 
 Map of Europe hy Treaty ; for the more recent pohtical portion the texts of the peace 
 treaties and the critical summaries provided by the Geographical Journal have proved to be 
 exceedingly usefiil. The drawing of the maps has been in the skilled hands of Mr. J. F. 
 Staton, F.E.G.S., of the firm of Mr. Emery Walker, and if (as is hoped) the atlas is free from 
 grave error the residt is to no small degree due to Mr. Staton's wide knowledge and to the 
 patient care with which he has investigated every available source of information. 
 
 If in spite of diligent revision some mistakes have escaped correction, I shall be greatly 
 obliged if those who detect them will make them known to me, so that they may if possible 
 be corrected in future editions. 
 
 F. J. C. HEARNSHAW 
 
 King's College, 
 
 University of London, 
 
 bth July 1920. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 points liave been settled ; 
 
 Plebiscite Areas. 
 
 East Prussia. — Alleiistein and Marieuwerder returned lieavy German 
 majorities. 
 
 Poland and Czecho-Slovakia.— In the Teschen area rioting prevented a 
 plebiscite. The Ambassadors' Council at Paris fixed the frontier after 
 an agreement had been reached between the Polish and Czecho-Slovak 
 Governments (August 1920). 
 
 Austria. — The Klagenfurt area voted in favour of Austria. 
 
 An agreement has been reached between Italy and Yugo-Slavia concerning 
 their frontier question. (Treaty of Rapallo, Nov. 12, 1920.) The 
 whole of the former Austrian counties of Gorz and Gradisca. the 
 Lordship of Trieste, nearly the whole of the Marquisate of Istria, and 
 a considerable part of Carniola pass to Italy. Fiume is to be an 
 Independent State. 
 
 Courland and Livonia nre now known as the Republic of Latvia (Map XL). 
 
 PACE 
 
 Europe: 1815-1914 ......... 1 
 
 Between the time of going to press and the date of publication the following 
 
 ■nninfo linvo V»oot» cofflorl • 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 For the historical portion of the atlas the chief authority has been Hertslet's indispensable 
 Map of Eurojje by Treaty ; for the more recent political portion the texts of the peace 
 treaties and the critical summaries provided by the Geographical Journal have proved to be 
 exceedingly useful. The drawing of the maps has been in the skilled hands of Mr. J. F. 
 Staton, F.R.G.S., of the firm of Mr. Emery Walker, and if (as is hoped) the atlas is free from 
 grave error the result is to no small degree due to Mr. Staton 's wide knowledge and to the 
 patient care with which he has investigated every available source of information. 
 
 If in spite of diligent revision some mistakes have escaped correction, I shall be greatly 
 obliged if those who detect them will make them known to me, so that they may if possible 
 be corrected in future editions. 
 
 F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, 
 
 King's College, 
 
 University of London, 
 
 bth July 1920. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Europe: 1815-1914 
 
 The Eastern Frontier op France: 1598-1871 
 
 Poland: 1772-1914 
 
 The Growth of Prussia: 1415-1914 
 
 Germany : 1815-1914 
 
 The Austrian Empire: 1815-1914 
 
 Italy : 1815-1914 
 
 The Balkan Peninsula : 1815-1914 
 
 Africa: 1815-1914 
 
 Ethnographical ]\Iap of Central Europe 
 
 Europe after the Peace Treaties: 1919-20 
 
 Index ..... 
 
 >ACE 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 11 
 13 
 15 
 17 
 19 
 21 
 25 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 1. Europe: 1815-1914 
 
 2. The Eastern Frontier of France : 1598-1871 
 
 3. Poland: 1772-1914 . 
 
 4. The Growth of Prussia : 1415-1914 
 
 5. Germany: 1815-1914. 
 
 6. The Austrian Empire : 1815-1914 
 
 7. Italy : 1815-1914 
 
 8. The Balkan Peninsula : 1815-1914 
 
 9. Africa : 1815-1914 
 
 10. Ethnographical Map of Central Europe 
 
 11. Europe after the Peace Treaties: 1919-20 
 
MAP I 
 
 IDDDDD ui □ 
 
 
EUROPE: 1815-1914 
 
 The majD of Europe in 1815 was in its most important features determined by the Treaties 
 of Vienna (June) and Paris (November), both concluded that year after long and anxious 
 deUberations on the part of all the leading statesmen of the Continent. The main purpose of 
 these decisive diplomatic instruments was to undo the work of the French Revolution, 
 dissolve the military empire of Napoleon, and restore Europe, so far as was possible, to the 
 condition in which it had foimd itself in 1789. The Treaty of Paris reduced France to her 
 pre-revolutionary boundaries. The Vienna settlement attempted a general reconstruction 
 of the Continent. Only the broad features of the plan need be indicated here ; the detailed 
 treatment of the separate items will more appropriately be given in connection with the- 
 subsequent maps of the particular states concerned. First, in order to provide a strong 
 barrier supposed to be necessary to prevent the French from breaking out again : (1) Belgium- 
 was joined to Holland under the rule of the Prince of Orange ; (2) the Rhine Provinces of 
 Germany were given to Prussia, which was still further strengthened by the acquisition of 
 parts of Saxony and Poland ; (3) the Swiss Confederation was reorganised and was reinforced 
 by the addition of three new cantons, viz. Valais, Geneva, and Neufchatel ; (4) Nice and 
 Genoa were placed as Transalpine outposts in the hands of the House of Savoy. Secondly, 
 a new constitution was constructed for Germany. No country had suffered so much at the 
 hands of Napoleon. The Holy Roman Empire, which for a thousand years had given an 
 appearance of unity to the distracted German nation, had been dissipated ; the majority 
 of the 360 petty eighteenth-century German states had been usefully extinguished. Out of 
 their remnants thirty-nine states were reconstituted, and were joined together in a permanent 
 alliance called a Confederation or Bund. Thirdly, Poland was repartitioned — although not 
 quite on eighteenth-century lines — between Austria, Prussia, and the Tsar, who was allowed 
 to erect his portion into a constitutional kingdom independent of Russia. Fourthly, Russia 
 was permitted to keep Finland, which she had annexed from Sweden in 1809 ; Sweden in 
 compensation received Norway, which was taken away from Denmark, to whom it had been 
 unwillingly subject since the end of the fourteenth century ; Denmark, by the loss of this 
 tributary kingdom, was punished for her persistent adhesion to the Napoleonic side in the 
 struggles of the preceding fifteen years. Fifthly, Italy, which had attained a virtual unity 
 under French control during the period 1810-15, was spht up once more into eight sections,- 
 over which Austrian influence was dominant. Finally, the Ionian Islands were placed imder 
 British protection. Spain and Portugal were restored to their former rulers, but no territorial 
 adjustments were necessary. South-eastern Europe lav outside the scope of the Treaties of 
 1815. 
 
 The settlement effected at Vienna and Paris was intended to be permanent. No provision! 
 was made for any revision, reconsideration, or modification of its terms. A Quadruple Alliance- 
 was instituted for the express purpose of keeping the " Treaty-system " inviolate. But the- 
 " Treaty-system " had been framed on the lines of legitimacy and precedent, and in complete; 
 if not defiant, disregard of the priniciples of democratic self-determination and national 
 independence, which had become potent during the revolutionary upheaval of the generation 
 of conflict (1789-1815). Hence the history of the century 1815^1914 was to no small extent 
 the record of the process by which the " Treaty-system " was destroyed, and the arrangements 
 made at Vienna superseded. 
 
 The following, in rough chronological order, were the chief territorial changes in Europe 
 during the hundred years in question : (1) Greece revolted from Turkey, 1821, and secured 
 recognition as an independent kingdom in 1831 ; (2) Belgium broke away from Holland in 
 
 1 " B 
 
MAP II 
 
 The Eastern Frontier 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 I598-187I 
 
 English Miles 
 40 60 
 
 The 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE 
 
 under Napoleon, 1810 
 
 RITISH*-K, 
 
 BRITISH 
 ISLES 
 
 Eintry Walker Ltd. 
 
THE EASTERN FRONTIER OF FRANCE : 
 
 1598-1871 
 
 The Empire of Charles the Great at the beginning of the ninth century of the Christian era 
 had included not only the whole of the region now called France and the greater part of that 
 now called Germany, but also all those intervening territories which are at the present day 
 claimed by Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and Switzerland. This immense Carolingian 
 dominion was in a.d. 843 divided up among the three grandsons of Charles, one of whom took 
 " France," another of whom took '' Germany," while the third received the Middle Kingdom, 
 which included the mixed and debatable borderlands that lay between the comparatively 
 homogeneous Romano-Celtic realm on the west and the comparatively homogeneous Teutonic 
 realm on the east. That Middle Kingdom had a short and stormy career of less than half a 
 century, and the frontier districts which it comprised have been a source of conflict between 
 the French and their neighbours during most of the thousand years that have since elapsed. 
 
 It lies beyond our scope to trace the fluctuations of the mediaeval boundaries. Students 
 who wish to pursue this investigation will find useful guidance in the excellent maps of Putzger's 
 Historischer Schul-Atlas. Our study of modern changes begins with the Treaty of Vervins, 
 1598, which, together with the Edict of Nantes of the same date, terminated the French Wars 
 of Religion and established the Bourbons firmly on the French throne. This treaty, concluded 
 between Henry IV. of France and the dying Philip II. of Spain, made no important territorial 
 alterations. It arranged for a general restoration of conquests, a restitution of the status 
 quo ante, a stabilisation of pre-existing frontiers. 
 
 From that time onward for the next two hundred years the power of the Bourbons tended 
 to increase, while the power of the Habsburgs both in Germany and (till 1700) in Spain tended 
 to decrease. Hence French ambitions were directed towards the acquisition of Habsburg 
 territory, and particularly towards the expansion of France up to the limit of her so-called 
 " natural boundaries " of the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees — boundaries which it was 
 never forgotten had been the frontiers of Roman Gaul. These ambitions were never fully 
 realised until for a few brief years under Napoleon (1810-13) they were not only realised 
 but far exceeded. Nevertheless, incessant encroachments by all sorts of means — marriage, 
 conquest, legal chicanery, diplomacy, simj^le grab — led to the transfer of a lot of fragments 
 from the other to the French side of the dividing line. The story is a complex one. The 
 outstanding features are the following : (1) In 1601, as the result of a successful invasion 
 of Savoy, Henry IV. acquired Bresse and Bugey, in return for which he surrendered certain 
 claims that he had to Saluzzo. (2) In 1631 Richelieu, minister of Louis XIII. , who had 
 intervened with decisive effect in Italian politics, was able to dictate to Savoy the Peace of 
 Cherasco, which left the fortress of Pinerolo and its approaches (including Exilles) in French 
 hands. (3) The Thirty Years' War in Germany, into which Richelieu had thrust France in 
 1635, was not over either during the life of the Cardinal himself or the reign of his master. It 
 was left to Mazarin, as minister of Louis XIV., to reap the rewards of French intermeddUng 
 when the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in 1648. By this settlement France secured 
 Austrian Alsace, including Breisach, together with the formal recognition of her possession of 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun (which she had administered and garrisoned since 1552), and of Pinerolo 
 (held since 1631). She also acquired the right to garrison Philippsburg. (4) In 1659 a long 
 war with Spain was brought to a close by tlie Treaty of the Pyrenees. This gave to France 
 Roussillon and Cerdagne on the Spanish frontier, together with Artois from the Spanish 
 
 3 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 Netherlands, and several border fortresses of which. Thionville was the most important. By this 
 treaty also it was arranged that Louis XIV. should marry the eldest daughter of the Spanish 
 king, Philip IV. — a marriage which provided the unscrupulous French monarch with pretexts 
 for predatory raids on Spanish territories during the whole remainder of his long reign. (5) In 
 1661-62 Louis secured by purchase from Charles II. of England the town and vicinage 
 of Dunkirk, which Cromwell had conquered hom Spain four years earlier. (6) In 1667 an 
 invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by powerful French armies seemed likely to result in 
 their complete conquest. This was prevented by the formation of a protective Triple Alliance, 
 consisting of Holland, Sweden, and England. Louis was compelled to evacuate the Low 
 Countries (as well as Franche Comte, which he had also overrun) ; but by the Peace of Aix-la- 
 -Chapelle, 1668, he was allowed to keep the important border fortresses of Charleroi, Binche, 
 Ath, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, Lille, Armentieres, Courtrai, Bergues, and Furnes with their 
 'districts. (7) In 1678 an unprovoked and imsuccessful attack upon the Dutch was concluded 
 by the Peace of Nijmwegen. Spain had become involved in the conflict and most of 
 the territorial changes related to her dominions. On the one hand she recovered Charleroi, 
 Binche, Ath, Oudenarde, Courtrai, and a few other places, but in lieu of them had to surrender 
 Valenciennes, Conde, Maubeuge, Cambrai, Ypres, etc. On the other hand, she was forced 
 to cede to France the large and vitally important province of Franche Comte — the old Free 
 County of Burgundy, part of the vast heritage which the Duchess Mary had conveyed to 
 the Habsburgs by her marriage to Maximilian at the close of the fifteenth century. (8) The 
 period 1678-84 was marked by the establishment of French " Chambres de Reunion," pseudo- 
 legal bodies, whose decisions gave Louis an excuse for the occupation of Strassburg (1681), 
 Luxemburg (1684), and many other places in Alsace, Lorraine, and the Low Countries. (9) The 
 alarm caused by the aggressive reunion pohcy of Louis XIV. led to the formation of the League 
 of Augsburg and to the consequent war of 1688-97. By the Treaty of Ryswick, which ended an 
 inconclusive struggle, France, in return for various concessions, agreed (a) to evacuate all 
 towns taken since 1678 except Strassburg and Landau ; (b) to withdraw from the right bank 
 of the Rhine, yielding Philippsburg, Freiburg, and Breisach ; (c) to restore all Lorraine except 
 Saarlouis ; {d) to restore Pinerolo to Savoy. (10) In 1700, on the death of the last of the 
 Spanish Habsburgs, Charles II., Louis XIV. made an attempt to secure the whole of the Spanish 
 monarchy for his grandson, Philip of Anjou. This design was only partially successful, 
 and by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastadt (1714) the empire of Charles II. was dis- 
 membered. The Spanish Netherlands were transferred to Austria and a slight rectification 
 of frontier was effected. Among the towns which the French were called upon to surrender 
 were Menin, Tournai, Furnes, and Ypres. On the French-Savoy boundary, too, some readjust- 
 ments were made : the French received Barcelonette and Orange on the Rhone, but they had 
 to surrender Exilles, Fenestrelle, and Chateau Dauphin. (11) During the seventy-five years 
 which intervened between the Peace of Utrecht and the Revolution the principal acquisitions 
 of the French were the Duchies of Lorraine and Bar (1766), which came to them under the 
 terms of the Treaty of Vienna of 1738, and the island of Corsica, which they took over from 
 Genoa in 1768. (12) The Revolutionary and Napoleonic changes, 1789-1815, were too numerous 
 and too ephemeral for mention here. (13) The Resettlement of 1815 is described in connection 
 with the preceding map of Europe. (14) Between 1815 and 1914 the most important changes 
 of frontier were the acquisitions of Savoy and Nice by France in 1860 (see Map of Italy, No. 7, 
 below), and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in 1871 (see Map of Germany, No. 5, below). 
 
POLAND, 1772-1914 MAP III 
 
 1772 1793 179s 
 
 „ I I I I 
 
 To Prussia 
 
 To Russia 
 
 To Austria 
 
 Boundary of Poland at the Union of Lublin, 1569 
 
 Boundary of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 1807-1815 
 
 I I 
 
 
 
 20 (2 Longitude East 24° of Greenwich D 
 
 National Boundaries in 1914. 
 
 EmeryWalker l.ld. sc. 
 
 Approximate Racial Boundaries in 1914. 
 
 [Z3 
 
 Slavonic: 
 
 Russians -.... 
 
 Poles [ I 
 
 Ruthenes _ .. f^ 
 
 Czechs & Slovaks » ^^-■^■^ 
 
 Teutonic:- German ' ' '■ " 
 
 Latin:- .Roumanian h^^li, 
 
 Ural-Altaic Stock:- Magyars 
 
 Letts & Lithuanians:-...- 
 
 m 
 
POLAND: 1772-1914 
 
 The original home of the Slavonic race, to which the Poles belong, is believed to have been 
 the marshy flats of " Black Eussia," whose surplus waters the Xiemen and the Pripet in vain 
 endeavour to convey, the one to the Baltic, the other to the Black Sea. Amid the morasses 
 of this inhospitable region grew up on scattered islets numerous communities of stunted folk, 
 laborious, prolific, patient, unwarlike, inured to hardship and familiar with death. They were 
 devoid of political organisation, and even of tribal consciousness ; for the unplumbed, rank, 
 estranging swamps kept them apart from one another, and isolated them from the outer 
 world. As population overflowed the narrow limits of this central marshland, it tended to 
 move westward and southward, and this tendency was greatly accelerated by the violent 
 impact from time to time of the nomadic hordes of Huns, Avars, or Tartars, who poured from 
 the Asiatic steppes on the east, and by attacks of Letts and Lithuanians from the north. 
 Before the end of the sixth century of the Christian era the Slavs had reached as far as the 
 Elbe in the one direction, and beyond the Danube in the other. 
 
 This wide-spread but incoherent and unco-ordinated Slavonic race was soon split into 
 three main sections. The Magyars, by forcing their way up the Danube and occupjTing 
 Hungary in the ninth and tenth centuries, cut off the Southern Slavs from the Northern ; 
 while the Lithuanians from the Baltic coast pressed southward until in the fourteenth century 
 they actually reached the Black Sea. This Lithuanian thrust divided the Poles and other 
 Western Slavs from the Russians or Eastern Slavs. The results of this latter division were 
 decisive and disastrous. While the Russians received their culture and religion from 
 Byzantium, the Poles were evangelised and ci^dlised by Rome ; and while the Russians were 
 moulded into a nation by Viking rulers from Sweden, the Poles passed under the tutelage of 
 the Germans. The differences thus engendered were accentuated by the Tartar incursions 
 of the thirteenth century. For one dreadful year only (1241) Poland was overrun, but Russia 
 actually passed under Tartar domination for two and a half centuries and ceased to coimt as 
 a factor in Christendom. During this Russian ecUpse Poland rose to eminence as the prime 
 Slavonic power. Its capital was Cracow, and the heart of its dominions the modern province 
 of GaUcia. In the fourteenth century it produced a series of able native monarchs ; but it 
 suffered from two grave sources of weakness, viz. its lack of defensible frontiers and its want 
 of outlets to the ocean. Its approaches to the Black Sea were prevented by hostile Magyars 
 and Tartars ; its natural harbours on the Baltic had passed into the German control of 
 Teutonic knights or Hanseatic merchants. In order that it might remove tbe German obstruc- 
 tion to its easy access to the Baltic, Poland in the fourteenth century (1325) entered into an 
 alliance with the then powerful but still savage and half-pagan kingdom of Lithuania (capital 
 Vilna). This alliance became a personal union in 1386, when the male Hne of the Polish dynasty 
 died out, and the heiress of the house married Jagello, king of Lithuania. The combination of 
 forces thus effected achieved some remarkable successes over the Germans in the fifteenth 
 century. The Teutonic knights were decisively crushed at Tannenberg in 1410 ; Samogitia 
 was secured in 1411 ; West Prussia with Thorn and Danzig in 1466. In 1526 the Duchy of 
 .Masovia (the region including Warsaw) lapsed to the Polish crown ; in 1561 Courland and 
 Livonia became subject ; in 1569 the summit of success was reached when the personal union 
 between Poland and Lithuania was converted into a real union by the Treaty of Lublin (for 
 boundary see map). 
 
 The cause which thus welded Poles and Lithuanians into a single State was dread of the 
 new and rising power of the Princes of Muscovy. These princes had succeeded in throwing 
 off the Tartar yoke, and had begun the process of reuniting the Russian peoples under a new 
 
 5 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 despotic monarchy. At the same time, moreover, East Prussia, long loosely held by the 
 decadent Teutonic knights, passed as a secularised duchy into the hands of the ambitious 
 Hohenzollerns. Thus Poland-Lithuania found herself confronted by the two powers which 
 were destined ultimately to compass her undoing. Her own mixed peoples, however, greatly 
 facilitated the disintegrating work of Russia and Prussia by their factiousness, turbulence, and 
 treachery. 
 
 In 1572 the Jagellon d)masty died out, and the Polish crown became the prey of contending 
 parties of nobles. Incessant civil commotion left the State a helpless victim to encroaching 
 neighbours. In 1621 Sweden occupied North Livonia ; in 1660 East Prussia repudiated the 
 PoUsh suzerainty ; in 1667 Russia compelled the Poles to surrender the immense strip of 
 White Russian and Little Russian territory (annexed by Litliugnia in the days of the Tartar 
 troubles) which had Smolensk and Kiev as its chief cities. In 1672 the Turks acquired 
 Southern Podolia. 
 
 These frontier nibblings clearly indicated the peril of partition to which Poland finally 
 succumbed. It was the accession of Peter the Great of Russia in 1689, however, which made 
 that peril imminent ; for Peter turned the face of Russia definitely toward the West, and 
 inaugurated a policy of European expansion which involved the elimination of Poland from 
 the map. Peter was not himself able to carry through his policy ; the task of doing so was 
 left to his unscrupulous successor, Catherine II. (1762-1796). She was not, it is true, in a 
 position to achieve Peter's complete design of annexing Poland-Lithuania as a whole, for 
 Prussia and Austria were so jjowerful and so jealous that they had to be placated with portions 
 of the prey. The actual proposal for partition, indeed, came in 1769 from Frederick the Great 
 of Prussia, who was eager to secure West Prussia and Ermeland, in order to knit up his 
 Pomeranian and East Prussian territories. Catherine II. agreed to his doing so, ])rovided that 
 she should be allowed to annex South Livonia together with all the old Russian dominions 
 east of the Dvina and Dnieper. Maria Theresa of Austria tearfully protested against the 
 proposed spoliation, but when she found that she could not stop it, she insisted on having 
 Galicia and Lodomeria as a solace to her wounded sensibilities. In 1793, when Austria w^as 
 involved in war with Revolutionary France, Russia and Prussia effected a second partition ; 
 the former taking the bulk of Podlesia, Volhynia, Northern Podolia, and the Ukraine ; the 
 latter linking up Silesia with East Prussia by annexing a large part of Great Poland with its 
 appurtenances. This flagrant spoliation excited a vain revolt of the Poles under Kosciusko. 
 Its suppression by Russian and Prussian troops prepared the way for the extinction of Poland 
 by the third partition (1795). Russia took Courland, Samogitia, Lithuania, with the remainder 
 of Podlesia and Volhpaia ; Austria received Little Poland with Cracow ; Prussia had all the 
 rest including Warsaw. Thus Poland as a State came to an end. 
 
 Its subsequent history must be briefly indicated. In 1807, after Napoleon's overthrow 
 of Prussia at Jena, and in accordance with the Treaty of Tilsit made with Russia, a Grand 
 Duchy of Warsaw was constituted, dependent on France. It consisted, roughly, of the 
 Prussian and Austrian acquisitions, 1793-95. To these were added Cracow and West Galicia in 
 1809. During the wars of liberation (1813) this Grand Duchy was overrun and occupied by 
 Russian troops, and at the Vienna Settlement of 1815 (after a furious diplomatic conflict) the 
 bulk of it was assigned to the Tsar, Alexander I., to be ruled as a separate constitutional 
 kingdom. Prussia, however, recovered Posen, vnth Thorn and Danzig, while Austria regained 
 West Galicia — from which Cracow and its environs were subtracted in order to form a tiny 
 independent republic. The Vienna arrangement was not a permanent one. The Poles 
 rebelled in 1830 and lost their constitution. In 1847 they were fully absorbed into the 
 Russian Empire. During the preceding year (1846) the Austrian Empire had annexed Cracow. 
 The partition and subjugation of Poland was one of the main causes of the insurgence of 
 European nationalism in the nineteenth century. 
 
MAP IV 
 
THE GROWTH OF PRUSSIA: 1415-1914 
 
 The story of the growth of Prussia during the five centuries covered, by the accompanying 
 map is largely the history of the HohenzoUern dynasty. In no other country in Europe have 
 politics and personality been so closely associated. Prussia was built up by the ability of 
 its early rulers, as it has been destroyed by the lunacy of its later ones. 
 
 In 1415 Frederick of HohenzoUern, Burgrave of Nuremberg, was by the favour of the 
 Emperor Sigismund placed in possession of the Mark of Brandenburg. Two years later he 
 was formally and solemnly invested with the rank and title of an Elector of the Holy Roman 
 Empire. These imperial concessions implied an increase of dignity, but not an enlargement 
 of joy. The electoral office involved the primitive Hohenzollerns in the responsibility of the 
 administration of an exceedingly ramshackle empire ; the removal from Nuremberg to Berlin 
 meant the abandonment of a comfortable little government in a prosperous commercial city 
 for the administration of a desolate frontier province, poor and unprofitable, almost indefensible, 
 and liable to incessant raids by Slavs from the East, Saxons from the South, Scandinavians 
 from the North, and even French from the West. The Mark had originally been created in the 
 tenth century as a defence of the eastern frontier of Germany against the barbarians who 
 dwelt between the Elbe and the Oder. This " Old Mark " had in 1133 passed into the hands of a 
 vigorous line of Margraves known as the Ascanian House, and they before their extinction 
 in 1320 had added to their possessions the " Middle Mark," with its northern appendages of 
 Priegnitz and Ukermark, together with something rather more than a bridgehead across the 
 Oder at Frankfort. It was this enlarged and already composite margravate that Frederick 
 acquired in 1415. It was a territory without natural frontiers, or homogeneous population, 
 or raison d'etre. It demanded either expansion or extinction. That it escaped extinction 
 was due to the successful acquisitiveness of a series of HohenzoUern rulers, among whom the 
 Greab Elector (1640-88) and Frederick the Great (1740-86) rank first. 
 
 To enumerate the pretexts and describe the processes by means of which the HohenzoUern 
 margravate, monarchy, and empire were successively built up would require more space than 
 can here be spared. The student who wishes to pursue this theme must be referred to the 
 excellent volume by Messrs. Marriott and Robertson entitled The Evolution of Prussia (Clarendon 
 Press, 1915). The main steps alone can here be mentioned. They were as follows : (1) The 
 New Mark wr.s added by the Elector Frederick II. in 1455. (2) The Elector Albert Achilles, 1470- 
 1486, acquired numerous small tracts, mainly on his frontiers, such as Krossen, just above 
 Frankfort on the Oder. (3) The Elector John Cicero, 1486-99, secured Zossen, a district not large 
 but valuable as being only some twenty miles south of Berlin. (4) In the sixteenth century 
 the most important additions were Ruppin (1524), which straightened the northern frontier 
 of the Middle Mark, and the secularised bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelburg, and Lebus 
 (1548). (5) The seventeenth century opened with the immensely significant union of the 
 margravate of Brandenburg with the remote duchy of East Prussia. This duchy had been 
 conquered during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from the pagan Wends by the crusading 
 Order of Teutonic Knights. In 1511 the High Mastership of this Order was conferred upon 
 a minor HohenzoUern, Albert of Ansbach. In 1528, the Reformation having broken out in 
 Germany, he sought to make the best of both worlds by becoming Protestant, by marrying, 
 and by appropriating the territory of his Order, agreeing to hold it as a feudal duchy under 
 the king of Poland. The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg were much interested in these pro- 
 ceedings of their relative. They never rested until they secured the reversion of his heritage. 
 In 1618, the Albertine line having come to an end in the imbecile duke, Albert Frederick, 
 they succeeded to the duchy. (6) Meantime, another important question of inheritance had 
 
 7 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 risen in Western Germany. The Elector, John Sigismund of Brandenburg (1608-19), had 
 claims to the succession in the duchies of Cleves and Jtilich. In 1614 a partition was effected, 
 according to which the Elector was to receive Cleves, Mark, and Eavensberg. This settlement, 
 however, was reopened by the Thirty Years' War, and it was not till 1666 that actual occupation 
 of these three territories was obtained. (7) The Thirty Years' War is specially associated with 
 the name of the Great Elector. Before he succeeded to the margravate, Brandenburg suffered 
 severely from the ravages of both the Protestant and the Catholic armies, in the direct track of 
 whose most furious conflicts it unhappily lay. He speedily reorganised his military forces 
 and intervened so effectively on the Protestant side that at the Peace of AVestphaha (1648) 
 he received as his reward Eastern Pomerania, together with the secularised bishoprics of 
 Halberstadt, Minden, and Cammin, and the reversion of the archbishopric of Magde- 
 burg, which actually passed into Prussian hands thirty-two years later (1680). In 1656 he 
 freed East Prussia from its dependence on Poland. (8) Frederick, successor to the Great 
 Elector (1688-1713), took part on the Austrian side in the War of the Spanish Succession, 
 from which he emerged \vith the title of king in Prussia and with the prospect of the addition 
 of Upper Guelderland to his dominions (it was actually ceded 1715). (9) The next Hohenzollern, 
 the soldier-king, Frederick William I., secured from the spoils of the Northern War (1720) a 
 large part of Western Pomerania, including Stettin, Usedom, and WoUin, which gave control of 
 all the navigation of the lower Oder. (10) After the soldier-king came his son, known as 
 Frederick the Great, who began his reign by seizing the Austrian province of Silesia (1740-42). 
 In 1744 he inherited East Friesland, including Emden, and thus became an oceanic potentate. 
 In 1772 he assisted in the first partition of Poland (see the preceding map) and thus secured 
 West Prussia and Ermeland, which linked up his Baltic kingdom with his German Electorate. 
 (11) The second and third partitions of Poland fell in the reign of Frederick William II. (1786- 
 1797). They gave to the Hohenzollern House the immense districts of South Prussia (1793) 
 and New East Prussia (1795). During the same reign, too, Ansbach and Bayreuth fell by 
 inheritance to the Prussian king (1791). (12) The Napoleonic reconstitution of Germany, 1801- 
 1803, deprived Prussia of her territories on the west of the Rhine, but gave her in compensation 
 five times as much on the east side of the river, including the bishoprics of Mtinster, Hildesheim, 
 and Paderborn. 
 
 This steady expansion of Prussia received a rude check as a result of the crushing victory 
 of Napoleon over Frederick William III. at Jena (1806) and the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit 
 (1807). The Prussian monarchy was dismembered and reduced to about one-half its former 
 size. The boundary-line of 1807-15 should be carefully observed on the map. The Congress of 
 Vienna found one of its most difficult tasks to be the reconstitution of Prussia. In the end 
 Prussia had to abandon all her Polish acquisitions under the second and third Partition Treaties 
 except Posen and Thorn ; but she received in compensation the rest of Western Pomerania, 
 about one-third of Sa'xony, and the extensive provinces of Westphalia and the Rhine (including 
 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Coblenz, and Trier). During the half-century 1815-1865, the only 
 noteworthy accretions were Lichtenberg (1834), HohenzoUern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern- 
 Sigmaringen (1845), and Lauenburg (1865). Then came the Austio-Prussian War of 1866, 
 with its extrusion of the Habsburgs from Germany, its dissolution of the Bund, and its recon- 
 struction of North Germany under Prussian leadership. In the midst of this upheaval Prussia 
 was able to annex Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free city of 
 Frankfort. Five years later the Franco-Prussian War broke out. Its result was to absorb 
 all the German peoples into the victorious Prussian monarchy, upon which the name " The 
 German Empire " was bestowed (see next map). 
 
MAP V 
 
GERMANY: 1815-1914 
 
 Mediaeval Germany in the eleventh century of the Christian era under the Emperor Henry III. 
 had more nearly attained national unity than any other of the tribal or feudal federations of 
 Western Europe. But the promise of imification was not fulfilled. The successors of Henry III., 
 lured by their illusory pseudo-Eoman titles of Caesar and Augustus, neglected their German 
 interests, and wasted their energies on destructive conflicts with the Papacy, or in futile efforts 
 to establish their authority over Italy and Sicily. Hence when, at the end of the fifteenth 
 century, England, France, and Spain became strong, centralised, national states, Germany 
 sank into a chaos of complete feudal disintegration. The name Germany, indeed, ceased to 
 be much more than a geographical expression, under which was included a congeries of some 
 360 almost independent powers or impotencies. True, there was usually an elected '"' emperor " 
 in existence to whom all these petty rulers owed a nominal allegiance ; but his empire was 
 devoid of executive force, and such influence as he had was due to his private resources. After 
 1437 the Habsburg Duke of Austria was regularly chosen to hold the titular headship of this 
 " Holy Eoman Empire of the German nation." The Reformation of the sixteenth century 
 still further weakened the slender authority of the Habsburg emperor, since it alienated 
 from him the majority of the North German princes and cities, who generally adopted some 
 form of Protestant religion. The Treaties of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years' War 
 in 1648 stereotyped the divisions of Germany for a century and a half. 
 
 Although some changes took place in Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries — the most important of which are delineated and described in the map illustrating 
 the growth of Prussia — in the main the arrangements of 1648 held good at the outbreak of 
 the French Revolution in 1789, and indeed until the Revolutionary Wars had raged for some 
 years, and Austria had been defeated and compelled to make peace at Campo Formio in 1797. 
 From 1797 tiU 1809 Germany passed through a rapid and bewildering succession of transforma- 
 tions which it is impossible in our limited space, and also unnecessary, for us to trace in detail. 
 Suffice it to say that at the close of that critical period of twelve years, when conditions had 
 become stabilised once more, (1) France had annexed all Germany west of the Rhine ; (2) the 
 Holy Roman Empire had been swept away and a more limited Empire of Austria set up in its 
 place ; (3) Prussia had been deprived of half her territories ; and (4) all the rest of Germany 
 had been incorporated into a so-called Confederation of the Rhine, the effective control of 
 which lay in the hands of Napoleon. [Vide inset on Map No. 2.] 
 
 The overthrow of Napoleon (1813-15) destroyed this new organisation of Germany, and 
 one of the most difficult of the problems which faced the diplomatists at the Congress of Vienna 
 was the question in what form should Germany be reconstituted. Three schemes were pro- 
 pounded : first, the revival of the Holy Roman Empire — but the Habsburg ruler of Austria declined 
 re-election to the visionary office which he had gladly abandoned ; secondly, the formation 
 of a German Federation — -but against this the princes, jealous of their independence, protested ; 
 thirdly, a mere Confederation or Bicnd, a permanent league of autonomous potentates — and 
 this scheme, the least satisfactory of the three, had to be adopted. The Napoleonic upheaval, 
 however, had not been without its permanent effects. Many of the small states, especially 
 the ecclesiastical principalities, had disappeared beyond the possibility of resuscitation 
 Hence the Bund of 1815 consisted of only thirty-nine states, viz. six kingdoms (Austria, Prussia, 
 Bavaria, Hanover, Wiirttemberg, Saxony) ; one electorate (Hesse-Cassel) ; seven grand- 
 duchies (Baden, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Hesse-Darmstadt, Luxemburg, 
 Oldenburg, and Saxe-Weimar) ; eight duchies (Nassau, Brunswick, Holstein with Lauenburg, 
 Saxe-Gotha, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Kothen, and Saxe-Hildburghausen) ; 
 thirteen principalities (Saxe-Coburg, etc., etc.), and four free cities (Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen,. 
 
 9 c 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 Frankfort-on-Main). The central organ of the Bund was a Diet of diplomatic agents estab- 
 lished in perpetual session at Frankfort-on-Main. It was, however, futile from the first. This 
 futility was due to two chief causes : one was the chronic antagonism of Austria and Prussia ; 
 the other was the stolid refusal of the princes to obey the commands of the Diet, and the absence 
 of any means for enforcing the Diet's authority. Hence anarchy was restored to Germanv 
 under the pseudonym of the constitution — anarchy tempered only by the despotism of Austria 
 and Prussia when they could manage to work together. 
 
 Such was the Bund, or Confederation, of 1815, and such it continued to be until 1848, when 
 for three years it was suspended by revolution. During.this period. 1815-48, however, one not- 
 able movement towards the xmification of Germany under Prussian hegemony took place. In 
 1819 Prussia initiated her famous customs-union or Zolherein by means of an agreement with 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. Similar agreements were made with Hes.se-Darmstadt (1825), 
 Bavaria and Wilrttemberg (1829). and Hesse-Cassel (1831). Saxony and other states acceded 
 in 1833 and a general union was instituted. Later additions included Baden (1835). Frank- 
 fort (1886). Brunswick and Luxemburg (1842). By 1848 Austria and Hanover weie the only 
 imjHjrtant }xnvers of Germany that held aloof. 
 
 The Revolution of 1848 ujxset for a time both Bund and ZoUverein. But Germany was 
 not then ripe for democracy, and in 1851 the old order was restored. With it. however, came 
 Bismarck as a factor in the Prussian Government, and he made the elimination of Austria 
 from (j«rmany and the suppression of democracy within Germany fundamental features of 
 Lis policy. By means of three wars, deliberately planned and waged with ruthless efficiency, 
 be achieved his purpose of the unification of Germany under the milit-ary autocracy of the 
 Prussian House of Hohenzollern. 
 
 The Danish War of 1864 placed the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein with Lauenburg 
 under the joint control of Austria and Prussia. 
 
 The Austro-Prussian War of 1866. precipitated mainly by disputes concerning the 
 disix)sition of the two conquered duchies, on the one hand ex})eiled Austria from Germany 
 altogether, and on the other hand enabled Prussia to annex not only Schleswig-Holstein but 
 also Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. Next year (1867) a new 
 North-Germany Confederation was established under Prussian headship. It consisted of 
 twenty-two states, viz. two kingdoms (Prussia and Saxony), five grand-duchies, five duchies, 
 seven principalities, and three free cities. 
 
 The Southern German States — in particular Bavaria, Baden, Wiirttemberg — held aloof, 
 fearful of loss of independence. They tended, now that their old colleague Austria was over- 
 thrown, to turn to France as an ally against the menacing ascendancy of Prussia. Bismarck 
 by three years (1867-70) of skilful and unscrupulous diplomacy managed to wean them from 
 France and to engineer the war with Najx>leon III., which he saw would be necessary before 
 German unification could be completed. The result of the Franco-Pru.ssian War was, first, 
 the founding of the (rerman Empire, in which the Southern States were joined to the Northern 
 Confederation in a new federal constitution ; secondly, the annexation from France of the 
 pro\-inces of Alsace and Lorraine. No further territorial changes of importance marked the 
 progress of continental Germany from 1871 till the outbreak of the Great War of 1914-1918. 
 In 1884, however, Germany began to establish her colonial empire [vide Map No. 9]. and in 
 1890 she effected with a too-friendly Britain the exchange of Zanzibar for Heligoland. 
 
 One further point may be mentioned in connection with this map. The Netherlands were 
 included in the mediaeval Germanic Empire, and indeed were not formally recognised as 
 independent till 1648. At that time the Dutch Netherlands formed a federal republic under 
 the stadtholdership of the Prince of Orange, while the Belgian Netherlands were included in 
 the Spanish monarchy. In 1714 the Belgian Netherlands were ceded to Austria, and Austrian 
 they remained until they were overrun by the armies of the French Revolutionists and absorbed 
 in the French Republic. They continued to be controlled by the French, under one form 
 of government or another, until 1814, when the allied forces of the Fourth Coalition occupied 
 them. At the Congress of Vienna the Belgian Netherlands were united to the Dutch Nether- 
 lands under the restored House of Orange in order that there might be a strong barrier-state 
 on the north-east frontier of France. The union, however, was not a happy one. In 1830 
 the Belgians revolted and secured their independence. This inde|)endence was recognised 
 by the Great Powers in 1831 (Treaty of London), but not by Holland. Dutch recognition 
 came, however, in 1839, and at that date Belgimii was established as a permanently neutralised 
 state under the protection and suarantee of Britain. Austria, France, Russia, and Prussia. 
 
 10 
 
MAP VI 
 
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE : 1815-1914 
 
 Few relics of the Middle Ages suffered more under the blows of Napoleon than did the House 
 of Habsburg. The possessions of that House, accumulated by a series of diplomatic marriages 
 and politic wars extending over a period of five centuries, were more widely scattered and 
 more heterogeneous than those of any other Great Power. When in 1792 the Emperor Leopold 
 was forced into war by Revolutionary France he was not only the titular head of the Holy 
 Roman Empire, but was also the direct ruler of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, 
 Carinthia, Carniola, Vorarlberg, Tyrol, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, j\Iilan, Mantua, Tuscany, 
 together with far-sundered territories such as Breisgau on the Rhine and the Belgian Nether- 
 lands. These miscellaneous dominions contained inhabitants drawn from more than a dozen 
 different races, among which the chief were German, Magyar, Czech, Croat, Slovene, Slovak, 
 Pole, Ruthene, Roumanian, Italian, Fleming, and Belgian. The government of so varied an 
 assortment of countries and peoples was almost necessarily autocratic and imperial, as opposed 
 to democratic and national. Hence at the close of the eighteenth- century, when the spirit 
 of the French Revolution was abroad, a general discontent was rife throughout the Habsburg 
 monarchy foreboding revolt and dismemberment. In these circumstances it is not remarkable 
 that during the struggle with France the House of Habsburg suff'ered a series of shattering 
 reverses. Four times were the imperial armies overthrown, and four times was the government 
 of Vienna compelled to accept humiliating terms of peace. It lies outside the scope of this 
 note to specify the numerous territorial rearrangements effected successively by the treaties 
 of Campo Formio (1797), Luneville (1801), Pressburg (1805), and Vienna (1809). Suffice it 
 to say that the House of Habsburg lost all its outlying possessions and was reduced to the 
 condition of a purely Danubian principality which had no access to the sea at any point. In 
 1806, too, the Holy Roman Empire (fovmded by Charlemagne a thousand years before) was 
 dissolved, and its ruler forced to restrict himself to the new territorial title of " Emperor of 
 Austria." 
 
 The defeat of Napoleon in 1813-15 brought the Habsburg dominions once more into the 
 melting-pot, and enabled extensive recoveries to be effected. The Emperor Francis, however, 
 and his able minister, Metternich, who together controlled Austrian policy at the Congress of 
 Vienna, had no wish to restore the whole chaotic scheme of 1792. They refused to revive the 
 Holy Roman Empire, and they preferred to abandon for ever their old scattered possessions 
 on the Rhine and in the Netherlands in order to establish a stronger hold over Italy and 
 Dalmatia. Hence in return for their surrender of Belgium, Luxemburg, Breisgau, and various 
 other small territories in the west, they received or recovered Salzburg (in exchange for Tuscany), 
 Lombardy, Venetia, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia with Cattaro. The Germanic portions of this 
 reconstituted Austrian Empire [see boundaries shown in the accompanying map] were included 
 in the new German Confederation or Bund. 
 
 The principal subsequent changes in the Austrian Empire were as follows : In 1846, as a 
 sequel to the Russian absorption of the kingdom of Poland, the small Polish Republic of Cracow 
 (set up in 1815) was annexed. In 1848 there was a general upheaval in the Habsburg dominions, 
 accompanied by the fall of Metternich and the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand — an 
 upheaval which seemed to portend the imminent dissolution of the " ramshacJcle empire." 
 The Magyars of Hungary, the Ci-echs of Bohemia, the Slavs of lUyria, the Italians of Lombardy 
 and Venetia, the Poles of Galicia, the Ruthenes of Ladomeria, all rose in simultaneous revolt. 
 If only they had been united the Habsburg monarchy must have collapsed. But they were 
 divided by irreconcilable antagonisms among themselves : Magyar loathed Slav ; Pole hated 
 Ruthene. Hence the Habsburg by cleverly dividing his foes was able to continue to rule. 
 
 11 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 The revolts were all crushed, although the crushing of the last and most formidable — that 
 of the Magyars in Hungary — required the assistance of the Russian Tsar. The most complete 
 of all the failures of 1848 was that of the Italians. In spite of aid rendered to the rebels by 
 the king of Sardinia, the re-assertion of Austrian authority over Lombardy and Venetia was 
 so emphatic that all clear-sighted Italian statesmen recognised that the expulsion of the 
 " whitecoats " from the peninsula could be effected only by means of foreign help. Hence 
 by the ofier of the surrender of Savoy and Nice [vide Map No. 7] the co-operation of Napoleon III. , 
 Emperor of the French, was secured. The result was the expulsion of the Austrians from 
 Lombardy in 1859. Since nothing further could be hoped for from the French, the Italian 
 patriots next turned to Prussia, which under Bismarck was preparing to oust Austria from 
 Germany. The sequel to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was thus not only the destruction 
 of the German Confederation and the total elimination of Austria from Germany, but also 
 the recovery of Venetia for the new Itaban kingdom. This double disaster to the House of 
 Habsburg necessitated a reorganisation of the whole administration. By the Ausqleicli, or 
 compromise, of 1867, the Hungarians were taken into equal partnership and the Dual Monarchy 
 (which lasted till 1918) was constituted. 
 
 In 1878 Bosnia and Herzegovina were by the Treaty of Berlin placed under Austro- 
 Hungarian rule although they were still regarded as part of the Turkish Empire. In 1908, 
 as a sequel to the Turkish Revolution of that year, Austria-Hungary repudiated Turkish 
 sovereigntv and announced their full incorporation with the Habsburg dominions. This was one 
 of the first of the steps that led to the World War of 1914. 
 
 12 
 
MAP VII 
 
 
 is T R I 
 
 ITALY 
 
 1 8 15-19 14 
 
 English Miles 
 010.03040^ 
 
 Austrian Territory till 7859 I I 
 
 Kingdom of Sardinia (House of I I 
 
 Sauoy) 7815-1859 1 I 
 
 The Kingdom of Italy uias formed bij 
 the union of the various states with 
 the Kingdom of Sard, 
 
 The figures (1859) *'"'"' "■* ''"'^ of 
 union. 
 
 Fortresses of the Quadrilateral ■» 
 
 O S N IJA 
 
 <f \ (TurkishjiUig^ 
 
ITALY: 1815-1914 
 
 In the sixth century of the Christian era Italy lost the unity which for a thousand years she 
 had enjoyed under the Eoman name. In the early part of the century, it is true, the Gothic 
 invaders were overthrown and expelled (533-553), but the declining Roman power was 
 exhausted in the conflict, and when in 568 the Lombards entered the j)eninsula in force they 
 established themselves almost without opposition. But they never made themselves masters 
 of the whole of Italy. Open country rather than cities attracted them, and Rome, Naples, 
 Venice, Genoa, and many other walled towns remained under the authority of the Byzantine 
 Emperor. This authority soon, however, became merely nominal. The Byzantine power 
 decayed ; theological quarrels separated Greek from Latin Christendom ; until finally in 800 
 Pope Leo III. signalised the formal repudiation of the control of the ruler of Constantinople 
 by crowning a new Roman Emperor in the West, viz. Charles the Great, King of the Franks. 
 One cause which undoubtedly contributed to this translation of the Empire was that a few 
 years earlier (774) Charles had overthrown the Lombards and had himself assumed their 
 crown. But not even Charles the Great was able to restore unity to the peninsula. He was 
 never recognised in Venice, or in Naples and the provinces of the South. Disunion was still 
 further increased when in the ninth century the Saracens, having overrun Sicily, attained a 
 foothold on the mainland. In vain throughout the Middle Ages did Emperois and Popes 
 seek to extend their authority over all the peoples of Italy, and when Emperors and Popes 
 began to quarrel with one another (as they did with deadly ferocity in the eleventh century) 
 the task of imification became hopeless. Empire and Papacy destroyed one another as 
 political powers, and each part of Italy was left free to develop its own independence. 
 
 In these circumstances a medley of powers grew up, of which the most important were 
 Naples, the Papal States, Florence, ]\Iilan, and Venice. Their wars, intrigues, alliances, and 
 treacheries fill the history of the later mediaeval period. Finally, they began to call in the 
 greater European powers to aid them in their domestic brawls, and as a result Italy became 
 the battle-ground of French and Spaniards, Swiss and Germans. Thus it continued until the time 
 of the French Revolution. 
 
 By that time, however, a new actor of prime importance had appeared upon the Italian 
 stage. This was the House of Savoy. Estabhshed in 1027 in the Burgundian territories south 
 of the Lake of Geneva, this House had gradually extended its dominion, by the usual means 
 of marriage and war, until it stretched across the Alps and by 1748 reached almost as far as 
 Piacenza down the valley of the Po. It had also, in 1720, acquired (in exchange for Sicily) 
 Sardinia, from which island the head of the House took the title of king. The king of Sardinia 
 became involved in the Revolutionary Wars in 1792. He at once lost his ancestral land of 
 Savoy, and in 1796 Piedmont also was reduced. This conquest of Piedmont was the first 
 notable achievement of Napoleon Bonaparte. The great commander followed it up by a 
 brilliant series of campaigns, in which the whole Italian peninsula was brought under French 
 control. It lies outside our scope to trace them in detail. Suffice it to say that by 1810 Italy 
 had been reduced to three political divisions, all dominated by Napoleon. First : Savoy, 
 Piedmont, Genoa, Parma, Tuscany, and the Papal States had been incorporated into the 
 French Empire. Secondly : Milan, Mantua, Modena, the Legations, and Venice had been 
 combined into a " kingdom of Italy " under Napoleon's step-son, Eugene de Beauharnais. 
 Thirdly : Naples was ruled by Napoleon's brother-in-law, Murat {vide inset on Map 2). 
 
 The semblance of unity thus given to Italy by Napoleon was destroyed in 1815. Eight 
 States were set up on the general principle of the restoration of the status quo ante : (1) Austria 
 received Lombardy and Venetia ; (2) the king of Sardinia came back to Savoy and Piedmont, 
 
 13 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 to which were added Genoa and Nice ; (3) Parma, Lucca, Modena, and Tuscany recovered in- 
 dependence under members of the House of Habsburg ; (4) the Papal States were returned 
 to the Pope ; (5) Naples was handed back to Ferdinand of Bourbon, whose authority for ten 
 years had been limited to Sicily. 
 
 This reactionary settlement was profoundly distasteful to Italian patriots, and at once a 
 movement began to expel the Austrians, to unify the ])eninsula, and to establish constitutional 
 government. Strenuous efforts were made in 1821, 1831, and 18-48 to realise these ideals, but 
 without avail. It became evident that Italy could not accomplish her liberation without 
 external assistance. Hence in 1858 the king of Sardinia made with Napoleon III. the Compact 
 of Plombieres, which secured French aid. Then followed the war of 1859, as the result of which 
 the Austrians were driven out of Lombardy. As a sequel to this great event, Parma, Tuscany, 
 Modena, Eomagna, Umbria, and the Marches (the last three being parts of the Papal States) 
 expelled their rulers and elected to join the growing Sardinian kingdom (1860). Next Sicily 
 and Naples rose in revolt, and, \vith the aid of Garibaldi and his Thousand, expelled the Bour- 
 bons, and sought incorporation with what now began to be called the '' kingdom of Italy " 
 (1860-61). Only Venetia and the States of the Church remained unredeemed. The acquisi- 
 tion of these resulted from the politic alliance of the kingdom of Italy with the rising power 
 of Prussia. In 1866 Italy joined Prussia against Austria, and although she herself suffered 
 some serious leverses by land and sea, she reaped her reward in the occupation of Venetia — 
 Venetia, however, shorn of the important regions of the Southern Tyrol and Istria. In 1870 
 the Franco-Prussian War compelled Napoleon III. to withdraw the garrisons which hitherto 
 he had kept in Rome to support the authority of his ally the Pope. Hence on September 20 
 of that year the Italian troops were able, after a merely nominal struggle, to occupy the 
 Eternal City, and to complete the structure of the kingdom. 
 
 But still the Italia irredenta of the North-East frontier remained as an inducement to Italy 
 to enter the Great War on the side of the Allies in 1915. 
 
 14 
 
MAP VIII 
 
THE BALKAN PENINSULA: 1815-1914 
 
 If one were asked to j^lace in order of demerit the evil men whose machinations helped to 
 precipitate the World War of 1914, one would have to assign a high place in the scale of bad 
 pre-eminence to John Cantacuzenos, the Byzantine usurper of the fourteenth century. For 
 it was he who called the Ottoman Turks into Europe. As the result of his treachery they 
 first established themselves at Gallipoli in 1358. From that date their advance was rapid. 
 They secured Adrianople in 1361 ; overthrew coalitions of the Balkan and other Christian 
 peoples at the Maritza, 1371, Kossovo, 1389, and Nicopolis, 1396 ; secured Salonica, 1428, and 
 completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by the capture of Constantinople in 1453. 
 The conqueror of the imperial city, Mahomet II., before his death in 1481 had extended the 
 Ottoman jjower over nearly the whole of the Balkan Peninsula, over the Danubian principalities 
 of Moldavia and Walachia, and over most of the ^gean islands. But Turkish acquisitions in 
 Europe did not end there. Before the end of the reign of the great sultan, Solyman the 
 Magnificent (1520-66), under whom the Ottoman power reached its meridian height, all 
 Hungary (except a strip west of Komorn and the river Eaab), Transylvania, Bukovina, and 
 Bessarabia, besides many Asiatic territories, had been added to the enormous and menacing 
 Turkish dominion. 
 
 The beginning of the Ottoman decline may perhaps be dated from the defeat of the 
 Sultan's Mediterranean fleet by the Spaniards at Lepanto in 1571. But no marked decadence 
 was evident until a century later, when in 1683 Vienna resisted a determined assault, and 
 when three years later Buda Pest was recovered for the Hungarians. From that time onward 
 the Turkish frontiers were rapidly pushed back. Until the middle of the eighteenth century the 
 task of recovering Christian Europe from the Asiatic oppressor fell upon the House of Habs- 
 burg, and gradually during that period all HuJigary and Transylvania, with much of Slavonia 
 and Croatia, were liberated. Then Russia, as champion of the Greek Church and the Slavonic 
 peoples, entered the arena and claimed to share with Austria the heritage of the " Sick Man." 
 Hence arose unhappy rivalries and disastrous intrigues. By the Treaty of Kutchuk Kainardji, 
 1774, Russia acquired the right of protection over the Greek Christians in the Turkish Empire. 
 
 During the four centuries which separated the fatal field of Kossovo from the French 
 Revolution (1389-1789) the subject Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula had remained 
 for the most part apathetic and inert. True, the Montenegrins in their mountain fastnesses 
 were never fully reduced ; but Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Roumanians seemed to be 
 crushed beyond the possibility of revivification. The French Revolution, however, with its 
 sequel in Napoleonic adventures in the Near East and British occupations, had a remarkable 
 effect in restoring animation. Montenegro asserted complete independence in 1796 and secured 
 its recognition by Turkey in 1799. Serbia rose in revolt in 1804 and by 1817 obtained virtual 
 autonomy, although the Ottoman garrisons were not withdrawn till 1867, nor full recognition 
 of sovereignty given till 1878. Greece began her great struggle for national existence in 1821, 
 and by the aid of Russia, France, and Britain achieved it in 1831. The Danubian prin- 
 cipalities, by the good offices of Russia in the Treaty of Adrianople, 1829, became practically 
 self-governing States, acknowledging a merely nominal Turkish suzerainty. Even this was 
 removed by the Treaty of Paris, 1856, and then the two principalities speedily effected their 
 union into the single State of " Roumania " (1859). The Treaty of Berlin (1878) recognised 
 the complete independence of Roumania, and in 1881 its ruler, Charles of Hohenzollern, assumed 
 the title of King. The Bulgarians were the last of the Balkan peoples to strike for freedom. 
 They were situated too near the centre of the Turkish power to move with impunity. In 
 1875, however, they put their fate to the test. The Turk retaliated with the " Bulgarian 
 
 15 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 atrocities." Russia came to the rescue of the opi^ressed Christian race. The Russo-Turkish 
 War, 1877-78, was followed, first, by the Treaty of San Stefano, which proposed to set up a 
 large autonomous Bulgaria that would have dominated the Balkan Peninsula ; secondly, by 
 the Treaty of Berlin, which drabtically reduced the Bulgarian boundaries and established 
 the condition of things that in the main endured until the Balkan War of 1912. 
 
 The main territorial changes effected during the years 1815-78 were as follows: (1) The 
 Treaty of Adrianople (1829), which bound Turkey to accept any settlement of the Greek 
 question agxeed upon by the Powers, was followed by a Protocol (1830), which fixed the Greek 
 frontier at a line drawn from the river Aspro-Potamo, on the Gulf of Patras, to the mouth 
 of the river Spercheius on the east. This line of partition caused, however, great dissatisfaction, 
 since it left Acarnania and much of iEtoha to the Turk. Hence it was revised in 1831 and 
 the line from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Volo substituted. (2) The Treaty of Paris (185G) 
 compelled Russia to cede to Roumania the southern strip of Bessarabia, which commanded 
 the Danube, and placed the navigation of that river under international control. (3) In 1863 
 Great Britain ceded to Greece her protectorate over the Ionian Islands. 
 
 The Treaty of Berlin (July 1878), which superseded the Russo-Turkish Treaty of San 
 Stefano (March 1878), made profoimd changes in the Peninsula. An independent Bulgaria, 
 extending from the Danube to the Balkan Mountains, was set up ; Serbia received a small 
 accession of territory including Nish ; Montenegro acquired a strip of Bosnia ; Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina were placed under Austrian control ; Roumania (to her great disgust) was required 
 to restore to Russia the portion of Bessarabia which she had secured in 1856 ; in return, the 
 northern part of the Dobruja was bestowed upon her. The principal subsequent modifications 
 of the Balkan maps were : (1) In 1881 the Greek frontier was extended to include Thessaly 
 and part of Epirus ; (2) in 1885 Eastern Rouraelia revolted from Turkey and was joined 
 to Bulgaria ; (3) in 1897 the Greco-Turkish War was followed by a slight rectification of frontier 
 in favour of Turkey ; (4) in 1898 Crete obtained autonomy imder European supervision— 
 the nominal suzerainty of Turkey being still recognised ; in 1908 Austria converted her 
 administrative control over Bosnia and Herzegovina into full sovereignty. This last high- 
 handed act led to the formation of the Balkan League, which was primarily anti-Austrian 
 rather than anti-Turkish. Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece bound themselves together 
 to maintain the freedom of the Peninsula from external control. Hence followed the first 
 Balkan War (1912), which all but expelled the Turk from Europe. This, however, was followed 
 by the suicidal Second Balkan War (1913), in which Bulgaria fought Serbia, Greece, and 
 Montenegro (joined towards the end by Roumania) concerning the partition of the spoil. 
 Bulgaria was defeated and the Treaties of Bucharest and Constantinople (1913) embodied her 
 humiliation. By this settlement of 1913 Serbia acquired parts of Novibazar and Macedonia ; 
 Montenegro, the remainder of Novibazar ; Greece, all Epirus, with the southern portion of 
 Macedonia, including the seaboard from Salonica to Kavala ; Bulgaria, part of Thrace ; 
 Roumania, the sofithern part of the Dobruja ; while Crete proclaimed her union with Greece. In 
 February 1914 Albania became an autonomous principality under Frederick William of Wied, 
 but his rule lasted only until the September of the same year. By that time the Great War 
 had broken out — a war due to no small extent to the unsatisfactory provisions of the Balkan 
 Treaties of 1913. In November 1914 Turkey entered the war on the side of the Central 
 Empires, and thus provided the civilised world with an opportunity to revoke the invitation of 
 John Cantacuzenos. 
 
 16 
 
MAP IX 
 
 r-l S, (M 
 
AFRICA: 1815-1914 
 
 I 
 
 Few maps changed more during the course of the eventful century 1815-1914 than did that 
 of Africa. At the beginning of the period, although the whole of the coast-line was known 
 and much of it was occupied by European settlers, the interior of the Continent was still 
 almost wholly unexplored. Of the four great rivers — the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, the 
 Zambesi — not one had been traced to its source. The vast lakes of the east were undiscovered 
 and unsuspected. The lofty snow-clad equatorial mountains of Uganda had yet to be discerned 
 by the eye of the white man, but instead of them the early nineteenth-century maps showed, 
 south of the Sahara, an enormous range of entirely imaginary " Mountains of the Moon." The 
 natives of the central forests remained undisturbed by civilisation. Four European nations 
 had settlements upon the African littoral. (1) Britain so early as 1631 had planted a station 
 on the Gambia ; in 1667 she had secured a footing at Cape Coast Castle on the Gold Coast ; 
 in 1787 Sierra Leone had been acquired ; and finally, in 1814, the Cape of Good Hope had 
 been taken over by treaty arrangement from its original settlers, the Dutch. (2) Portugal 
 possessed, as the relics of her fifteenth-century voyages of discovery, the Madeira and the 
 Cape Verde Islands, with a portion of the Guinea and Angola coasts on the western mainland, 
 while on the east she held a series of posts along the Mozambique shore facing Madagascar. 
 (3) France, by the peace of 1814, had just recovered Senegal which Britain had taken from 
 her in 1763. (4) Spain held the Canary Islands which she had conquered in 1495, and on the 
 mainland, Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar, which she had seized in 1580. 
 
 II 
 
 There is no space here to summarise, however briefly, the fascinating story of the 
 nineteenth-century exploration of the interior of Africa. An excellent short account of it will 
 be found in Mr. E. Heawood's Geography of Africa, while those who desire fuller information 
 will be able to obtain it from Dr. J. S. Keltic's Partition of Africa or Sir Harry Johnston's 
 History of the Colonisalion of Africa. Suffice it to say that the sources of the Nile and the 
 Great Lakes were opened up by Bourbon, Speke, Grant, Baker, and others ; that the devious 
 course of the Niger was traced by a long series of travellers, among whom Mungo Park, 
 Clapperton, Barth, and Overweg were eminent ; and that the vast basins of the Zambesi and 
 the Congo were explored by a devoted band of missionaries and adventurers, of whom 
 Livingstone and Stanley were pioneers. The newly discovered regions, with their inexhaustible 
 stores of natural wealth, speedily became the subject of dispute between rival European 
 powers. Happily these disputes were prevented from attaining the temperature of war by a 
 series of sedative discussions, of which the Berlin Conference of 1884 was the most general and 
 the most important. By means of negotiation Africa was divided into spheres of influence, 
 and rules were laid down peacefully to regulate all future European expansion. By that time 
 Germany, Italy, and Belgium — three kingdoms new in Europe itself — had appeared upon the 
 African scene. Hence before the close of our period seven European states shared the spoils 
 of the Southern Continent, and of its 11,500,000 square miles of territory, only Abyssinia 
 (350,000 square miles) and Liberia (41,000 square miles) remained wholly free and independent. 
 All that can be attempted here is a cursory enumeration of the main acquisitions of the seven 
 powers during the hundred years under review. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Britain, in the region of her earliest settlements, secured Lagos by cession from a native 
 king in 1861. The Niger Company began its operations in 1879 ; in 1886 it obtained its 
 governing charter ; in 1900 political authority was transferred to the Crown. In South Africa, 
 Dutch discontent with English rule led to the Great Trek in 1833-40. This resulted, directly 
 or indirectly, in the founding of three new colonies, viz. Natal, Orange Eiver, and Transvaal. 
 Over each of them Britain was ultimately compelled, owing to troubles with the natives, to 
 
 17 D 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 assert authority, viz. Natal, 1842 ; Orange Eiver, 1848 ; and Transvaal, 1877. The settle- 
 ment of Natal r?mained permanent ; the other two, however, recovered independence in 1854 
 and 1881 respectively, and not until 1900 were they finally incorporated in the British Emi^ire. 
 Meanwhile the activity of various explorers, pioneers, and merchants had extended British 
 control over Basutoland (1871), Bechuanaland (1885), Rhodesia (1889), and Zululand (1897). 
 In East Africa, on the Gulf of Aden, British Somaliland (1884) and the island of Sokotra (1886) 
 were secured as safeguards to the navigation of the Suez Canal and the sea-route to India. 
 The British East Africa Company began its work in 1887. In 1890 Zanzibar was acquired from 
 Germany in exchange for Heligoland. At the same time Uganda was recognised as falling 
 within the British sphere of influence, and its development was commenced. As to Egypt in 
 the north, the making of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the bankruptcy of the Khedive Ismail 
 in 1876 led to a joint English and French control which lasted till 1882, when France withdrew, 
 leaving England alone. The situation was not fully defined until 1904, and even then the 
 fiction of Turkish suzerainty remained. This last relic of mediaevalism, indeed, was not swept 
 awav until the outbreak of the Great War. On December 18, 1914, the Turkish suzerainty was 
 repudiated, and the Khedive became a Sultan under British protection. The Sudan was 
 brought under Anglo-Egyptian control as the result of Kitchener's campaigns in 1896-98. 
 
 IV 
 
 The French immensely extended their African dominions during the nineteenth century. 
 In 1830 the falling Bourbon monarchy sought popularity by annexing Algeria, but it was left 
 to its Orieanist supplanter, Louis Philippe, to develop its resources (1830-48). In 1855 
 French Somaliland was acquired by purchase from Turkey. In 1881 Tunis was seized and 
 added to Algeria, and then both from the Mediterranean coast and also from the Atlantic base 
 of Senegal a determined effort was made to explore and dominate the whole of North-AVest 
 Africa, as yet unclaimed by whites. As a result the French reached the ocean at three new 
 points, viz. between Portuguese Guinea and Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, and Dahomey. At 
 the same time they p9netrated into the interior, a notable stage of their advance being the 
 occupation of Timbuktu in 1894. They claimed Morocco, too, as within their sphere of influence. 
 This claim caused trouble, both with the native rulers and with rival European powers ; but 
 a series of treaties, 1904-12, regularised their position and delimited their boundaries. 
 During the same period Madagascar was brought under French control. Active operations 
 began in 1883, and the French protectorate was recognised as established in 1890. 
 
 V 
 
 As to the other European powers, Portugal started no new colonies in the nineteenth 
 century, but she vastly extended her Angola and Mozambique settlements into their respective 
 hinterlands. Spain, in the partition of 1884, secured rights over the Rio de Oro, and in the 
 Moroccan settlements was allowed to keep Morocco's strip of Mediterranean coast. Germany 
 in 1884 made her first appearance as a colonising power. In th it year she occupied Liideritz 
 Bay (German South- West Africa), Togoland, the Cameroons, and the German East African 
 littoral. Italy proc'aimed a protectorate over Eritrea on the Red Sea in 1882 ; in 1889 she 
 extended her' claims to Somaliland, south of Cape Guardafui. She tried, also, but without 
 success, to absorb Abyssinia. In 1912 she annexed Tripoli from Turkey. Finally, Belgium 
 became an African power. In 1879 an International Association was formed by the Belgian 
 King Leopold for the development of Central Africa. In 1884 the territories exploited by the 
 Association were erected into the Congo Free State, with (1885) Leopold as their sovereign. 
 In 1907 this state was formally annexed to Belgium as the Belgian Congo. 
 
 VI 
 
 It does not fall within the scope of this s':etch to chronicle the results of the Great War. 
 It may be noted, however, that during 1914-18 Germany was erased from the list of African 
 powers. Togolanl was conquered August 1914, and has been divided between Britain and 
 France. German South- West Africa was reduced by July 1915 ; it has been ceded as a 
 protectorate to Britain. The Cameroons fell in February 1916 ; except for a slight modification 
 of the British Nigerian frontier, they have gone to France. Finally, after a prolonged struggle, 
 German East Africa was reduced in November 1918 ; it has been occupied by Britain under 
 the provisional title of the " Tanganyika Territory." 
 
 18 ' 
 
MAP X 
 
ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP OF CENTRAL EUROPE 
 
 Ethnography, the science which endeavours to depict on a map the racial and national 
 divisions of mankind, is a branch of knowledge still in its infancy. The preliminary problems, 
 indeed, concerning the meanings of the terms " race "' and " nationality " can as yet hardly 
 be said to be determined. It seems to be generally agreed, however, that originally and as a 
 species mankind is one, and that the differences which now sharply distinguish the three 
 main groups of men, viz. Ethiopian, Mongolian, and Caucasian, are differences due to the 
 influence of climatic and other environment. The Caucasian, or white race, is that which has 
 made itself dominant in Europe. It used to be the custom among writers of a generation 
 ago to distinguish two great subsections of this race, viz. the Turanian and the Aryan, 
 but it is now. recognised that the distinction between the two is linguistic rather than 
 ethnological. Modern investigations incline to a new threefold classification ; they divide the 
 principal European peoples into Mediterranean, Nordic, and Alpine. (1) The Mediterranean 
 race is supposed to have sj)read westward from the primal Indo-Malaysian cradle of humanity 
 until it occupied all the North African littoral. Both Spain and Italy-Sicily were at that remote 
 period joined to Africa, and across these land-bridges the Mediterranean aborigines made 
 their way into Europe. From these were descended the Iberians, who occupied Spain and 
 thence sj)read northward over Gaul and the British Isles ; the Ligurians, who overran Sicily, 
 Italy, and the Eiviera ; and the Pelasgians, who made their home in the Balkan peninsula. 
 The characteristics of this Mediterranean race are long skull, short stature, dark complexion 
 and hair, broad nose. (2) The Nordic race presents striking superficial differences from the 
 Mediterranean race. Its typical representative is the " blond beast " of Nietzsche — the tall, 
 light, flaxen-haired Teuton. But the cranial measurements of, the Nordic man are so nearly 
 proportionate to those of his Mediterranean predecessor that some ethnologists tend to the 
 view that the Nordic man is merely a descendant of Mediterranean ancestors, and that his 
 peculiar features are due to adaptation to the harder conditions of life in Northern Europe. 
 Be that as it may, Scandinavia and North Germany appear to have been his first home. Thence 
 he spread southward up the valleys of the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula ; and westward 
 towards the North Sea, the Rhine, and the Atlantic Ocean. To this race belonged the Goths, 
 the Vandals, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and the many kindred 
 peoples who began to play so great a part in European history in the early Middle Ages. (3) The 
 Alpine race, pressing westward from Asiatic pasturelands, forced its way in between these 
 two groups of peoples, and made good its hold on the uplands of Central Europe. Thence it 
 extended its conquests towards the coast, and succeeded in making itself dominant over the 
 Iberians both of Gaul and Britain. The characteristic feature of the members of this race 
 is the short roimd skull and the broad face. Its western representatives have commonly 
 been known as Celts ; its eastern representatives as Slavs. 
 
 II 
 
 It will be seen that these primitive racial distinctions correspond hardly at all to modern 
 ethnographical divisions. There is, indeed, in present-day Europe no such thing as a pure 
 race. Fusion has been going on for countless ages, and only here and there, mainly in island 
 solitudes or mountain fastnesses, can small groups displaying unmistakable racial characteristics 
 be found. In Britain, for instance, all the three races have domiciled themselves. The Iberian 
 type is dominant in the north and west of the island. The occurrence of a prehistoric Alj)ine 
 
 19 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 conquest is indicated primarily by the fact that the aboriginal Mediterranean language has 
 been displaced by Celtic dialects. The Nordic type is in the ascendant in the south and east. 
 Race, in truth, has played a secondary part in the formation of the modern nations and groups 
 of nations. Language, and the culture which depends on language, have been incomparably 
 more important, and it is upon language that the main divisions shown in the accompanying 
 map are based. Subsidiary influences have been those of religion, economic interest, political 
 community, and mere geographical contiguity. In Western Europe, in spite of the most 
 varied racial intermixture, so powerful was the ancient impress of the Roman Empire, supple- 
 mented by the mediaeval moulding of the Catholic Church, that the term " Latin " marks 
 the fact of the unity that was attained. In Eastern Europe the influence of the Tsars of 
 Muscovy and of the Orthodox Greek Church has similarly consolidated many diverse varieties 
 of Northern Slavs into a cultural community. But Central and Southern Europe is a mass of 
 confused and conflicting groups. Towards the Baltic, Teutonic " Kultur " is dominant. The 
 Letts and Lithuanians, however, represent peoples of Alpine stock that have never been 
 Teutonised in either language or civilisation. The Middle and Lower Danube are held by Magyars 
 and Turks, conquering Asiatic invaders of the Ural-Altaic stock. On the Mediterranean coast 
 Greeks and Albanians retain tongues and traditions, dating from classical days, that keep 
 them ethnologically separate from their Slavonic neighbours. 
 
 In a map of the small scale of the present one, the tiny racial and linguistic groups that 
 perplex the recoustructors of Central and Southern Europe have of course to be ignored. 
 
 Some further notes on the present distribution of the peoples of Europe will be found in 
 the comments on the last map of this Atlas. 
 
 Skull of a long-headed man found at Helperthorpe. 
 
 Skull of a round-headed man found at Cowlam. 
 
 From British Barrows, by William Greenwell, F.S.A., 1877. 
 By kind permission of the Clarendon Press. 
 
 20 
 
3 .. 
 
 V 
 
 
 ■'ienna 
 
 
 
 '^ou;„ 
 
 ''A^O, 
 
 'o«^ 
 
 f^^-^os. 
 
 A;acc,o5 / 
 
 
 \Stirdinia ^ ^^BrmdisiX Valo^/ ? 
 
 p/ L G E R I ^ 
 
 Palermo Messln 
 ya >v^/ C / / i^ ^Catania 
 
 Meridian of o Greenwich 
 
 ~ Malta 
 
 ^(British) 
 
 flf 
 
MAP XI 
 
 -».^ Crete 
 
 Provisional Map of 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 after the Peace Treaties, 1919-20 
 
 English Miles 
 o 100 200 300 400 500 
 
 U..__^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Territory subject to the League of Nations \===, 
 
 Areas for Plebiscite I ' 
 
 German territory under Allied military occup^.l 
 International boundaries in August 1914 
 p Long-itude East 40° of Greenwich Q 
 
 Emery Walker Ltd. 
 
EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE TREATIES : 
 
 1919—20 
 
 The ethnographical map on the preceding page portrays two important facts with unmistakable 
 clearness. The first is that in the West of Europe the racial and linguistic masses are solid 
 and compact, and that in this region ethnological boundaries broadly coincide with political 
 boundaries. The second is that in the East of Europe precisely the opposite conditions prevail ; 
 there the racial and linguistic units are mixed and scattered ; and there political boundaries 
 show a ruthless disregard of ethnological divisions. While on the one hand England, France, 
 Spain, and even Italy have managed to weld together many disparate elements into compara- 
 tively homogeneous nations, and have succeeded in founding on the basis of nationality com- 
 paratively stable States, on the other hand the empires of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, 
 and even Russia remain loose-knit congeries of discordant fragments. Let us note a little 
 more in detail the situation at the outbreak of the war in 1914. Germany, in spite of the 
 appearance of unity produced by the impress of Prussian autocracy, was not only torn by 
 the particularism of the smaller States, but was weakened by the presence of unassimilated 
 and alien national groups of Wends in Lusatia, Poles in Posen and Danzig, Danes in Schleswig, 
 and French in Alsace-Lorraine. Austria-Hungary consisted of two dominant peoples, viz. 
 the German and the Magyar, together with some ten subject peoples, viz. Czechs, Slovaks, 
 Poles, Ruthenes, Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, Roumanians, Italians, and Jews. Turkey, in her 
 truncated European dominions, still held sway over multitudes of Bulgars and Greeks ; while, 
 as a set-off against this, many Turks still lingered in emancipated Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, 
 and Greece. Russia, beneath the imposing solidarity of the Tsardom, seethed with the dis- 
 sensions of some fifty racial and linguistic groups — to say nothing of the aggravating differences 
 due to religious conflicts and divergent economic interests. 
 
 The war of 1914 was due to two main causes — the two causes which separately or in 
 combination had again and again during the preceding century defied the efforts of the Concert 
 of Europe to keep the peace. They were (1) imperial ambition, (2) national discontent. There 
 can, of course, be no doubt that imperial ambition played the more prominent role. The 
 Pan-German lust for expansion, for markets, for supremacy at sea, for colonial empire, for 
 lordship of the East, for world-dominion — this was the prime precipitant. But it is unquestion- 
 able that Pan-German militarism was irritated and excited, was enabled to communicate its 
 hopes and fears to the masses of the Teutonic peoples, and so was placed in a position to 
 triumph, by the restless agitation of Latin and Slavonic groups eager to shake off the Teutonic 
 yoke. The French of Alsace-Lorraine longed to escape from the Zabern tyranny ; the Poles 
 of Posen clamoured for reunion with their sundered kinsmen of Warsaw and Galicia ; the 
 Czechs of Bohemia groaned for their long-lost independence ; the Slovaks of Hungary turned 
 wistful eyes towards Prague. So, too, in the Middle East the Roumanians of Transylvania 
 ardently desired re-amalgamation with their compatriots of Walachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; 
 the Serbs of Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia all looked towards the goal of incorporation 
 into a large South-Slavonic State — a goal attainable only by means of the disruption of the dual 
 monarchy of Austria-Hungary ; in Macedonia and Thrace the disjointed fragments of hostile 
 races and religions waged upon one another a ceaseless war of anathema and extermination. 
 The murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in the streets of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, was 
 but the spark which lit the flame of imperial ambition and exploded the highly-charged mines 
 of national discontent. 
 
 Into the details of the great conflict which raged during the five years 1914-1919 it is 
 alike impossible and needless for us here to enter. Enough to say that Germany, with her 
 
 21 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 Allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria), after coming within an ace of victory on 
 several occasions, was in the end decisively defeated. She was compelled to beg for an Armistice 
 on November 11, 1918, and to accept the terms of a dictated peace at Versailles on June 28, 
 1919. By the defeat itself her imperial ambitions were entirely shattered and dissipated. 
 The removal of her oppressive hegemony in Europe made possible the realisation of the national 
 aspirations of many subject peoples. For the collapse of the German military power involved 
 the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian empire, the surrender of Bulgaria, and the utter 
 prostration of Turkey. 
 
 The task of the representatives of the victorious Allies, who met in Paris and Versailles 
 to draw up the Treaty of Peace, was one of extraordinary difficulty. The complications 
 caused by the rival and incompatible claims of their own members would have been hard 
 enough to unravel, but these were rendered even more than normally tangled by the existence 
 of several secret engagements (entered into under the extreme stress of the war) and by the 
 disintegration of Eussia resulting from the two revolutions of 1917. In the circumstances few 
 of the specific provisions of the Treaties of 1919 can be regarded as permanent. They would 
 in many cases, undoubtedly, be a source not of pacification but of fresh conflict, were it not 
 for the happy fact that the first work of the Peace Conference was to establish an enduring 
 League of Nations, and to create machinery for the treatment of grievances and the settlement 
 of disputes. It is this provision for the pacific accomplishment of necessary territorial changes 
 that most hopefully distinguishes the Treaties of 1919 from those of 1815. 
 
 Of the readjustments of boundaries effected during 1919 the following are the most 
 important : 
 
 I. By the Treaty of Versailles with Germany {June 8, 1919). 
 
 1. Absolute Cessions. — (1) Alsace-Lorraine to France; (2) Moresnet to Belgium; (3) jjortions of 
 Silesia, Posen, West Prussia, and East Prussia to Poland. 
 
 2. Cessions subject to Plebiscite. — (1) Portions of East Prussia, West Prussia, and Silesia, claimed 
 by Poland ; (2) Korthern Schleswig, claimed by Denmark ; (3) Malmddy and Eupen, claimed by Belgium. 
 
 3. Provisional Cessions to League of Nations. — (1) Panzig ; (2) the Saar Basin, to be worked in the 
 interests of France for fifteen years, when its destination is to be decided by plebiscite. 
 
 4. Temporary Cessions to the Allies. — (1) Mcmel and region round it, to go to either Poland or 
 Lithuania ; (2) German territories west of the Ehine, with bridgeheads, to be occupied for period 
 five to fifteen years as guarantee for execution of the Treaty. 
 
 II. By the Treaty of St. Germaix-ex-Laye with Austria [Sei^temher 10, 1919). 
 
 1. The severance of Austria from Hungary is recognised, save that Austria is allowed to retain a 
 few German districts on the frontier formerly under Hungarian rule. 
 
 2. .\ new independent State of Czecho-Slovakiais formed out of the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, 
 and Austrian Silesia (with slight additions from Himgary and Germany). 
 
 3. Western Gahcia is ceded to Poland, and Eastern GaUcia to the Ruthenes of the Ukraine. 
 
 4. Bukovina is ceded to Roumania. 
 
 5. Bosnia, Herzegovina, Eastern Istria,^ and Dalmatia are ceded to the new Croatian-Serbian 
 State of Yugo-Slavia. The region of Klagenfurt, however, is subject to a plebiscite, and the frontier 
 between Yugo-Slavia and Italy (involving the fate of Fiume) has to be fixed by the Powers. 
 
 6. The Trentino, with theTyrol as far as the Brenner Pass — thus including a population of 250,000 
 German peasants — goes to Itah% as does Western Istria -with Trieste. 
 
 7. Austria is not to join herself to Germany without the consent of the League of Nations. 
 
 Note. — Under this disruptive settlement Austria is reduced to the condition of a smaU and poor 
 land-locked State, hardly bigger than the Serbia which in 1914 she attempted to destroy. 
 
 III. By the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seixe with Bulgaria [November 27, 1919). 
 
 1. Yugo-Slavia acquires four sm£fU pieces of territory on the Bulgarian frontier. 
 
 2. The whole of the Aegean sea-board of Bulgaria is taken away and placed " at the disposal of 
 the AUied Powers." 
 
 3. Some territory west and south of Adrianople — ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey in 1915 — is also 
 taken away and restored to Turkey. 
 
 The treaties with Hvmgary and Turkey were not concluded at the close of 1919. Hence 
 the boundaries of Yugo-Sla\'ia and Eoumania on their Hungarian sides remained, and at the 
 
 ^ The fate of this terrilory remains undecided at the time of going to press. 
 
 22 
 
EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE TREATIES: 1919-20 
 
 date of writing still remain, in some uncertainty. The broad lines of the settlement, however, 
 are fairly clear. Yugo-Slavia recovers on the north the Banat of Temesvar conquered by the 
 Magyars in 1718, and on the south Croatia and Slavonia. Roumania is reunited to the Prin- 
 cipality of Transylvania, which has been held by Hungary since 1699 ; the Dobruja also 
 remains again under her control. 
 
 It will be seen from the above brief summary that in Central Europe three entirely new 
 States have come into existence as the result of the war. They are named Czecho-Slovakia, 
 Yugo-Slavia, and Poland. (1) Czecho-Slovakia consists of the regions already mentioned as 
 ceded by Austria, together with a small fragment of German Silesia and a portion of Northern 
 Hungary (including the important town of Pressburg). (2) Yugo-Slavia comprises the former 
 kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, together with Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and Eastern 
 Istria from Austria, and Croatia, Slavonia, and parts of the Backa and Banat regions from 
 Hungary. (3) Poland, declared independent on November 5, 1916, as at present constituted 
 consists of (a) the whole of Russian Poland ; (b) part of Galicia from Austria ; and (c) those 
 23ortions of Posen, West Prussia, Silesia, and East Prussia already enumerated under the 
 Treaty of Versailles. The eastern frontier of Poland as shown on the map is purely provisional. 
 No terms have as yet been agreed upon between the Poles and the Bolshe^ak Russians. 
 
 Russia, in fact, is at present the one region in which no boundaries can be drawn, and 
 concerning which few- statements can be made. When the unity of the Tsardom was shattered 
 in 1917 some twenty separate republics were proclaimed in different parts of the vast Russian 
 Empire. Of these Poland (as already noted) and Finland seem definitely to have made good. 
 Others, such as the Baltic States of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania, appear likely 
 in some form to survive. Others again, for example the republic of North Russia and the 
 Don republic of South Russia, have been submerged by the Bolshevik flood. Concerning the 
 rest, and in particular the important republic of Ukrainia, at the time of writing all is doubt. 
 In the circumstances it has been found impossible to do more than indicate roughly the main 
 political divisions along the fringe of Russia in Europe. 
 
 Postscript. — The treaty with Hungary was signed on June 1, 1920 ; that with Turkey on 
 August 10, 1920. By the latter treaty Turkey in Europe is cut back to the Chatalja lines, 
 Eastern Thrace going to Greece. The coast regions of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, 
 and the Bosphorns are placed under the control of a " Commission of the Straits " appointed 
 by the League of Nations. , 
 
 23 
 
INDEX TO MAPS 
 
 N.B. — In the foUozving Index each place-name is entered once only, even though it occurs in several maps throughout the Atlas. 
 Students ivho locate the place in the map indicated ivill ha-ve no difficulty in finding it in the others ivhere it appears. 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 Abbeville . . . 
 
 II 
 
 Bl 
 
 Aries 
 
 II 
 
 D5 
 
 Aberdeen . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Armenia . . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Abo .... 
 
 . XI 
 
 El 
 
 Amo, River . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 C3 
 
 Abruzzi . . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 D3 
 
 Arras 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Abyssinia . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H4 
 
 Arta 
 
 VIII 
 
 F4 
 
 Accra .... 
 
 . IX 
 
 DE4 
 
 Artois . . . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Adda, River . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Aruwimi, River . 
 
 IX 
 
 G4 
 
 Aden .... 
 
 . IX 
 
 13 
 
 Asia Minor . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 EF4 
 
 Aden, Gulf of . 
 
 . IX 
 
 IKS 
 
 Aspromonte . . 
 
 VII 
 
 E5 
 
 Adis Ababa . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H4 
 
 Assuan . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 H2 
 
 Adour, River . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Astrakhan 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Adrianople 
 
 . VIII 
 
 G3 
 
 Atbara, River . . 
 
 IX 
 
 H3 
 
 Adriatic Sea . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 D3 
 
 Ath .... 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Aegean Sea 
 
 . VIII 
 
 G4 
 
 Athens . . . 
 
 vni 
 
 F4 
 
 Africa, 1815-1914 
 
 . IX 
 
 — 
 
 Atlantic Ocean . 
 
 XI 
 
 A2,3 
 
 Agram . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 BC3 
 
 Augsburg . 
 
 V 
 
 C2 
 
 Agulhas, Cape 
 
 . IX 
 
 G8 
 
 Austria, 1815-1914 
 
 VI 
 
 — 
 
 Aire (France) . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Austria, 1920 . . 
 
 XI 
 
 D3 
 
 Aisne, River . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Austria, Lower . 
 
 VI 
 
 BC2 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle . 
 
 . IV 
 
 B3 
 
 Austria, Upper . 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Ajaccio . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Avesnes . . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Aland Islands 
 
 . XI 
 
 DEI 
 
 Avignon . . . 
 
 II 
 
 D5 
 
 Albania . . . 
 
 . VIII 
 
 EF3 
 
 Azerbaijan 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Albert, Lake . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 G4,5 
 
 Azov, Sea of . 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Aldabra Islands . 
 
 . IX 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 Alessandria . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Baden .... 
 
 V 
 
 C2 
 
 Alexandria . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 Gl 
 
 Bagirmi . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 F3 
 
 Algeria . . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 El 
 
 Bahr-el-Ghazal . 
 
 IX 
 
 G4 
 
 Algiers 
 
 . IX 
 
 El 
 
 Baku .... 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Algoa Bay . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 B8 
 
 Balaton, Lake 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Alma, River . . 
 
 I 
 
 F2 
 
 Balearic Islands . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C3,4 
 
 Alsace .... 
 
 II 
 
 E2 
 
 Balkan Peninsula, 
 
 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine . 
 
 V 
 
 B2 
 
 1815-1914 . . 
 
 VIII 
 
 — 
 
 Amiens 
 
 II 
 
 C2 
 
 Baltic Sea . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 DE2 
 
 Amirante Islands 
 
 . IX 
 
 K5 
 
 Banana 
 
 . IX 
 
 F5 
 
 Amsterdam . . 
 
 V 
 
 Bl 
 
 Bangweolo, Lake 
 
 . IX 
 
 G6 
 
 Ancona . . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 D3 
 
 Bar, Duchy of . 
 
 II 
 
 D2 
 
 Andorra . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Barcelona . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Anglo-Egyptian Su 
 
 Jan IX 
 
 GH3 
 
 Barcelonette . . 
 
 II 
 
 E4 
 
 Angola . . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 F6 
 
 Bari .... 
 
 . VII 
 
 F4 
 
 Angora . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F4 
 
 Bar-le-Duc . . 
 
 II 
 
 D2 
 
 Angra Pequena . 
 
 . IX 
 
 F7 
 
 Basel .... 
 
 V 
 
 B3 
 
 Anhalt . . . 
 
 V 
 
 CD2 
 
 Basilicata . . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 EF4 
 
 Annobon, Island . 
 
 . IX 
 
 E5 
 
 Basuto Land . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 C7 
 
 Ansbach . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 D4 
 
 Bathurst (Gambia) 
 
 IX 
 
 C3 
 
 Antananarivo 
 
 , IX 
 
 16 
 
 Batum 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Antwerp . 
 
 V 
 
 B2 
 
 Bavaria . . . 
 
 V 
 
 C2 
 
 Apulia .... 
 
 . VII 
 
 EF4 
 
 Bayonne . , . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Arad .... 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Payreuth . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 D3,4 
 
 Aras, River . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 G4 
 
 Bechuanaland, Britis 
 
 h IX 
 
 B6 
 
 Bechuanaland, 
 
 tectorate 
 Beira . 
 Belfast 
 Belfort . 
 Belgian Congo 
 Belgium , 
 Belgrade . 
 Benevento 
 Benguela . 
 Benue, River 
 Berber 
 Berbera 
 Bergamo . 
 Bergen 
 Bergues 
 Berlin . 
 Bern . 
 Besan(;'on . 
 Bessarabia 
 Beuthen . 
 Binche 
 Biscay, Bay of 
 Black Russia 
 Black Sea . 
 Bloemfontein 
 Blue Nile . 
 Bohemia . 
 Bologna 
 Boma . 
 Bonn . 
 Bordeaux . 
 Bormio 
 Bornholm, Island 
 Bornu . 
 Bosnia 
 Bosphorus 
 Bothnia, Gulf 
 Bouillon . 
 Boulogne . 
 Bourg . 
 Bozen . 
 Braila . 
 Brandenburg 
 Brasov 
 Breisach, Alt 
 Bremen 
 Brescia 
 Breslau 
 Bresse . 
 
 Pro 
 
 IX 
 
 B6 
 
 IX 
 
 H6,7 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 IX 
 
 G5 
 
 V 
 
 AB2 
 
 VIII 
 
 F2 
 
 VII 
 
 E4 
 
 IX 
 
 F6 
 
 IX 
 
 E4 
 
 IX 
 
 H3 
 
 IX 
 
 13 
 
 VII 
 
 B2 
 
 XI 
 
 CI 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 IV 
 
 E2 
 
 V 
 
 B3 
 
 II 
 
 E3 
 
 vin 
 
 CD2 
 
 IV 
 
 H3 
 
 n 
 
 Dl 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 III 
 
 DE2 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 IX 
 
 C7 
 
 IX 
 
 H3 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 VII 
 
 C2 
 
 IX 
 
 F5 
 
 II 
 
 El 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 VII 
 
 CI 
 
 XI 
 
 D2 
 
 IX 
 
 F3 
 
 VI 
 
 C3 
 
 VIII 
 
 H3 
 
 XI 
 
 Dl 
 
 II 
 
 D2 
 
 II 
 
 Bl 
 
 II 
 
 D3 
 
 VI 
 
 A2 
 
 VIII 
 
 G2 
 
 IV 
 
 EF2 
 
 VI 
 
 E3 
 
 II 
 
 E2 
 
 V 
 
 CI 
 
 VII 
 
 C2 
 
 IV 
 
 G3 
 
 II 
 
 D3 
 
 25 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 Brest .... 
 
 XI 
 
 Brest Litovsk 
 
 XI 
 
 Brindisi . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 British East Africa 
 
 IX 
 
 British Islands . 
 
 I 
 
 British Somaliland 
 
 IX 
 
 Bromberg . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Bruges 
 
 II 
 
 Briinn .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Brunswick . . 
 
 V 
 
 Brussels 
 
 V 
 
 Bucliarest . . . 
 
 VIII 
 
 Budapest . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Budweis . 
 
 VI 
 
 Buea .... 
 
 IX 
 
 Bug, River (Poland) 
 
 XI 
 
 Bug, River (Soutl 
 
 
 Russia) . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Bugey .... 
 
 II 
 
 Bukovina . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Bulawaj'o . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Bulgaria, 1878-1914 
 
 VIII 
 
 Bulgaria, 1920 . 
 
 XI 
 
 Burgas . . . 
 
 VIII 
 
 Biitow. . . , 
 
 IV 
 
 Cabinda . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Cadiz .... 
 
 XI 
 
 Cagliari . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 Cairo .... 
 
 IX 
 
 Calabria . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 Calais .... 
 
 XI 
 
 Calata6mi . . 
 
 VII 
 
 Cambrai . 
 
 n 
 
 Cameroon . 
 
 IX 
 
 Cammin . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 Canary Islands . 
 
 IX 
 
 Candia 
 
 vm 
 
 Canea .... 
 
 vm 
 
 Cape Coast Castle 
 
 IX 
 
 Cape of Good Hop 
 
 
 (Cape Colony) . 
 
 IX 
 
 Cape Town . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Cape Verde Islands 
 
 IX 
 
 Capitinata . . 
 
 vn 
 
 Caprera, Island . 
 
 vn 
 
 Capua .... 
 
 VII 
 
 Carcassonne . . 
 
 n 
 
 Carinthia . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Carniola 
 
 VI 
 
 Carpathian Russia 
 
 XI 
 
 Carpi .... 
 
 vn 
 
 Carthagena . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Casale .... 
 
 VII 
 
 Caserta . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 Caspian Sea . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Cassel (Flanders) 
 
 n 
 
 Cassel (Prussia) . 
 
 IV 
 
 Castelfidardo. 
 
 vn 
 
 Castellammare . 
 
 vn 
 
 Catania 
 
 vn 
 
 Cattaro . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Caucasia . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Cavallasca . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Cefalii .... 
 
 . vn 
 
 Cettinje . . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 Ceuta .... 
 
 . IX 
 
 Chad, Lake . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 Chalon . . . 
 
 II 
 
 Chalons . . . 
 
 n 
 
 Channel Islands . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B3 
 E2 
 G4 
 H4 
 Bl 
 14 
 D2 
 CI 
 C2 
 CI 
 B2 
 G2 
 C2 
 B2 
 E4 
 E2 
 
 F3 
 D4 
 E2 
 G7 
 
 FG3 
 E3 
 
 GH3 
 Gl 
 
 F5 
 B4 
 B5 
 
 GH2 
 F5 
 C2 
 D6 
 CI 
 F4 
 
 FGl 
 C2 
 G5 
 G5 
 D4 
 
 AC7 
 A7 
 B3 
 E4 
 B4 
 E4 
 C5 
 B2 
 B3 
 E3 
 C2 
 B4 
 B2 
 E4 
 
 GH3 
 CI 
 C3 
 D3 
 E4 
 E6 
 C3 
 G3 
 B2 
 E5 
 E3 
 Dl 
 F3 
 D3 
 D2 
 B3 
 
 Charlemont 
 
 Charleroi . 
 
 Chatalja . 
 
 Chateau Dauphin 
 
 Cherbourg 
 
 Christiania 
 
 Clermont-en-Argonne 
 
 Cleves . 
 
 Coast Land (Austria) 
 
 Coblenz 
 
 Colesberg . 
 
 Colmar 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Como .... 
 
 Comoro Islands 
 
 Conde .... 
 
 Congo, River . 
 
 Congo Free State 
 
 Constance, Lake 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 Constantza 
 
 Coomassie 
 
 Copenhagen . 
 
 Cordova . 
 
 Corfu .... 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Cork .... 
 
 ComigUano 
 
 Correggio . 
 
 Corsica 
 
 Corunna . 
 
 Cottbus 
 
 Courland . 
 
 Courtrai . 
 
 Cracow (Republic of) 
 
 Craiova 
 
 Crete .... 
 
 Crimea 
 
 Croatia-Slavonia . 
 
 Custozza . 
 
 Cuxhaven . 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Czecho-Slovakia . 
 
 Czemovitz 
 
 Dago, Island . 
 Dahomey . 
 Dalmatia . 
 Damascus . 
 Damvillers 
 Danube, River . 
 Danzig 
 
 Danzig, Free City of 
 Danzig, Republic of 
 Dardanelles . 
 Dar-es-Salaam 
 Darfur 
 Darmstadt 
 Dauphine . 
 Debreczen 
 Dedeagatch 
 Delagoa Bay 
 Delgado, Cape 
 Denmark, 1815-1866 
 Denmark, 1920 . 
 Desna, River . 
 Dibra .... 
 Dijon .... 
 Dnieper, River . 
 Dniester, River . 
 Dobruja . 
 
 26 
 
 MAP 
 II 
 
 VIII 
 II 
 
 VII 
 IX 
 II 
 
 VI 
 
 vm 
 vm 
 
 IX 
 
 xr 
 
 XI 
 VIII 
 VIII 
 XI 
 VII 
 VII 
 XI 
 
 XI 
 VI 
 VII 
 IV 
 
 I 
 
 XI 
 
 XI 
 IX 
 VI 
 
 I 
 II 
 
 XI 
 IV 
 XI 
 
 n 
 vm 
 
 IX 
 IX 
 
 V 
 
 II 
 
 VI 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 IX 
 
 I 
 
 XI 
 XI 
 
 vm 
 n 
 
 Dl 
 Dl 
 H3 
 E4 
 B3 
 
 CDl 
 D2 
 B3 
 B2,3 
 B3 
 B7 
 E2 
 B3 
 B2 
 16 
 CI 
 G4 
 G5 
 A2 
 H3 
 H2 
 D4 
 D2 
 B4 
 E4 
 F4 
 B2 
 B2 
 C2 
 C3 
 B3 
 F3 
 CI 
 CI 
 CI 
 F2 
 E3 
 F3 
 
 BC3 
 C2 
 C2 
 F3 
 
 DE3 
 E2 
 
 E2 
 E4 
 
 BC3 
 F3 
 D2 
 
 DE3 
 HI 
 D2 
 C2 
 G3 
 15 
 G3 
 C2 
 
 DE4 
 D2 
 G3 
 D6 
 16 
 
 CDl 
 
 CD2 
 F2 
 F3 
 D3 
 
 XI F2,3 
 
 XI E3 
 
 vm H2, 3 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 Don, River . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Donetz, River 
 
 XI 
 
 Dongola . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Douai , 
 
 
 II 
 
 Doubs, River 
 
 
 n 
 
 Douro, River 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Dover . , 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Dover, Strait 
 
 of ". 
 
 XI 
 
 Drave, River 
 
 
 VI 
 
 Dresden . 
 
 
 V 
 
 Drina, River 
 
 
 VI 
 
 Dublin 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Dundee 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Dunkirk . 
 
 
 II 
 
 Durazzo . 
 
 
 VIII 
 
 Durban 
 
 
 IX 
 
 Diisseldorf 
 
 
 IV 
 
 Dvina, River 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Dvinsk 
 
 
 XI 
 
 Eastern Roumelia 
 
 VIII 
 
 East London . . 
 
 IX 
 
 East Prussia . 
 
 IV 
 
 Ebro, River . 
 
 XI 
 
 Edinburgh . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Egypt .... 
 
 IX 
 
 Eichsfeld . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 Eider, River . . 
 
 IV 
 
 Ekaterinodar . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Ekaterinoslav 
 
 XI 
 
 Elba, Island . . 
 
 VII 
 
 Elbe, River . . 
 
 V 
 
 Ems 
 
 IV 
 
 Ems, River . . 
 
 V 
 
 England . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 English Channel . 
 
 XI 
 
 Enos .... 
 
 vm 
 
 Erfurt .... 
 
 IV 
 
 Eritrea . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Ermeland . 
 
 IV 
 
 Eryx, Mt. . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 Esbjerg . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Esthonia . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Eszek .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Esztergom . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Etna, Mt. . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 Euboea . . . 
 
 vm 
 
 Europe, 1815-1914 
 
 I 
 
 Europe, 1920 . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Exilles . . . 
 
 II 
 
 Falmouth . 
 
 XI 
 
 Falster, Island . 
 
 IV 
 
 Fashoda . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 Fehmam, Island . 
 
 IV 
 
 Fernando Po . 
 
 IX 
 
 Ferrara . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 Fez .... 
 
 IX 
 
 Finland 
 
 XI 
 
 Finland, Gulf of . 
 
 XI 
 
 Fiume .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Flanders . . . 
 
 n 
 
 Flensburg . 
 
 XI 
 
 Florence . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 ForU .... 
 
 vn 
 
 Forth, Firth of . 
 
 XI 
 
 France, E. Frontier o 
 
 , 
 
 1598-1871 . . 
 
 11 
 
 France, 1815-1914 
 
 I 
 
 France, 1920 . . 
 
 XI 
 
 Franche Comte . 
 
 n 
 
INDEX TO MAPS 
 
 Frankfort-on-Main 
 
 MAP 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 Hagenau . 
 
 MAP 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 Kolozsvar . . . 
 
 MAP 
 
 . VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Frankfort-on-Oder 
 
 IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Hamburg . 
 
 V 
 
 CI 
 
 Komarom . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Freetown . , . 
 
 IX 
 
 C4 
 
 Hanover . . 
 
 IV 
 
 BD2 
 
 Konia . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 F4 
 
 Freiburg . . . 
 
 II 
 
 E3 
 
 Harwich . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C2 
 
 Koniggratz . 
 
 VI 
 
 Bl 
 
 French Equatoria 
 
 
 
 Hebrides . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Konigsberg . 
 
 . IV 
 
 11 
 
 Africa . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 F3, 4 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 V 
 
 Bl 
 
 Kordofan , 
 
 . IX 
 
 GH3 
 
 French Somaliland 
 
 IX 
 
 13 
 
 Helsingfors . 
 
 XI 
 
 El 
 
 Kovno 
 
 . XI 
 
 E2 
 
 French West Africa 
 
 IX 
 
 CF3 
 
 Hermannstadt 
 
 VI 
 
 E3 
 
 Kremsier . . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Friedland . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 11 
 
 Hemad, River 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Kronstadt (Russi 
 
 l) . XI 
 
 El 
 
 Friesland . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 B2 
 
 Herzegovina . 
 
 VI 
 
 C3 
 
 Kronstadt (Trar 
 
 syl- 
 
 
 Frio, Cape . . 
 
 IX 
 
 F6 
 
 Hesse . . . 
 
 V 
 
 C2 
 
 vania) . 
 
 VI 
 
 E3 
 
 Fulda .... 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 Hesse-Cassel , 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 Krossen . . 
 
 IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Funen, Island 
 
 IV 
 
 Dl 
 
 Hesse-Nassau 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 Kuban, River 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Fiinfkirchen . . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Hildesheim . 
 
 . IV 
 
 C2 
 
 Kulm . 
 
 IV 
 
 H2 
 
 Fumes . . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Hohenzollern . 
 
 . IV 
 
 C4 
 
 Kulmerland . 
 
 IV 
 
 H2 
 
 
 
 
 HoUand . . 
 
 V 
 
 Bl,2 
 
 Kura, River . 
 
 . XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Gabun .... 
 
 IX 
 
 F5 
 
 Holyhead . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 Gaeta .... 
 
 vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Hull . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Laaland, Island 
 
 . IV 
 
 Dl 
 
 Galatz .... 
 
 vm 
 
 GH2 
 
 Hungary, 1815-1914 vi 
 
 CE2 
 
 Ladoga, Lake 
 
 . XI 
 
 Fl 
 
 Galicia . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 DE2 
 
 Hungary, 1920 
 
 . XI 
 
 DE3 
 
 Ladysmith 
 
 . IX 
 
 C7 
 
 Galicia, New . 
 
 m 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 Lagos . . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 E4 
 
 Gallipoli . 
 
 vm 
 
 G3 
 
 lUyrian Provinces 
 
 n 
 
 C2,3 
 
 Laibach . . 
 
 VT 
 
 B2 
 
 Galway . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Inn, River 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Landau . . 
 
 II 
 
 F2 
 
 Gambia . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 C3 
 
 Innsbruck 
 
 VI 
 
 A2 
 
 Landrecies 
 
 n 
 
 CI 
 
 Garda, Lake . . 
 
 VI 
 
 A3 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 . vin 
 
 AB4 
 
 Langeland, Islanc 
 
 . IV 
 
 Dl 
 
 Garonne, River . 
 
 XI 
 
 BC3 
 
 Ireland 
 
 . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Langres . . 
 
 II 
 
 D3 
 
 Geneva . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Isar, River . 
 
 VI 
 
 AB2 
 
 Larissa 
 
 . vm 
 
 F4 
 
 Geneva, Lake 
 
 n 
 
 E3 
 
 Isaszeg . . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Lauenburg, Duch 
 
 y of IV 
 
 D2 
 
 Genoa .... 
 
 vn 
 
 B2 
 
 Istria . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 B3 
 
 Lauenburg (Pome 
 
 rania) iv 
 
 Gl 
 
 Georgia . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Italian SomaUlanc 
 
 1 . IX 
 
 14 
 
 Lausanne , . 
 
 . VII 
 
 Al 
 
 German Confederatio 
 
 n, 
 
 
 Italy, 1815-1914 
 
 . vn 
 
 — 
 
 Lebus . 
 
 
 rv 
 
 F2 
 
 1815-1866 . . 
 
 V 
 
 — 
 
 Italy, Napoleon's 
 
 King- 
 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 
 . vn 
 
 C3 
 
 German Confederatio 
 
 n, 
 
 
 dom of . 
 
 II 
 
 C3 
 
 Legnago 
 
 
 . vn 
 
 C2 
 
 North, 1866-1871 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Iviza, Island . 
 
 XI 
 
 C4 
 
 Leipzig 
 
 
 V 
 
 D2 
 
 German East Africa 
 
 IX 
 
 H5 
 
 Ivory Coast . 
 
 . IX 
 
 D4 
 
 Lemberg 
 
 
 . VI 
 
 E2 
 
 German S.W. Africa 
 
 IX 
 
 F7 
 
 
 
 
 Lepanto 
 
 
 . vm 
 
 F4 
 
 Gex . . . . 
 
 II 
 
 DE3 
 
 Jagemdorf 
 
 IV 
 
 G3 
 
 Leuthen 
 
 
 IV 
 
 G3 
 
 Ghent .... 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Jassy . . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 G2 
 
 Libau . 
 
 
 . XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Gibraltar . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Johannesburg 
 
 . IX 
 
 C6 
 
 Liberia 
 
 
 . IX 
 
 CD4 
 
 Gimbome . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 B3 
 
 Juba, River . 
 
 . IX 
 
 14 
 
 Libreville 
 
 
 . IX 
 
 EF4 
 
 Girgenti 
 
 VII 
 
 D6 
 
 Jutland 
 
 . XI 
 
 C2 
 
 Libyan Desert 
 
 . IX 
 
 G2 
 
 Glasgow . 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 Lichtenberg . 
 
 . . IV 
 
 B4 
 
 Glatz .... 
 
 VI 
 
 CI 
 
 KafEraria . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 C7 
 
 Liechtenstein . 
 
 . . VI 
 
 A2 
 
 Gnessen . . . 
 
 m 
 
 B2 
 
 Kama, River . 
 
 XI 
 
 H2 
 
 Liege . 
 
 . . V 
 
 B2 
 
 Gold Coast . . 
 
 IX 
 
 D4 
 
 Kamerun. See C 
 
 ameroon 
 
 
 Liguria 
 
 . VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Gollnow . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Kapolna . . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Lille . . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of 
 
 IX 
 
 A7 
 
 Kars . . . 
 
 I 
 
 G2 
 
 Limerick . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 GorUtz . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 F3 
 
 Kasai, River . 
 
 . IX 
 
 F5 
 
 Limoges . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Gothenburg . . 
 
 XI 
 
 m 
 
 Kaschau . . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Limpopo, River 
 
 . . IX 
 
 C5 
 
 Gothland, Island 
 
 XI 
 
 D2 
 
 Kassala . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H3 
 
 Limpurg . . 
 
 IV 
 
 C4 
 
 Gottingen . . 
 
 IV 
 
 CD3 
 
 Kattegat . . 
 
 XI 
 
 D2 
 
 Lingen . . 
 
 IV 
 
 B2 
 
 Gran .... 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Kavala . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 G3 
 
 Linz 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Gravelines . . 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Kaysersberg . 
 
 . . II 
 
 E2 
 
 Lipari Islands 
 
 . . vn 
 
 E5 
 
 Graz .... 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Kazan . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 G2 
 
 Lippe . . . 
 
 V 
 
 CI, 2 
 
 Great Fish River 
 
 IX 
 
 C7 
 
 Kecskemet 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Lisbon , . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Great Kei River . 
 
 IX 
 
 C7 
 
 Kehl . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Lithuania . . 
 
 . m 
 
 D2 
 
 Greece, 1830-1878 
 
 vni 
 
 B4 
 
 Kenia, Mt. . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H5 
 
 Little Russia . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 EF3 
 
 Greece, 1878-1914 
 
 VIII 
 
 F2, 3 
 
 Kharkov . . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 F2, 3 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 . . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Greece, 1920 . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E3,4 
 
 Khartum . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H3 
 
 Livonia 
 
 . . XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Grenoble . . . 
 
 II 
 
 D4 
 
 Kherson . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Loanda 
 
 
 . . IX 
 
 F5 
 
 Grodno . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Kiel . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 Dl 
 
 Loango 
 
 . 
 
 . IX 
 
 F5 
 
 Grosseto . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 C3 
 
 Kiel Canal . 
 
 IV 
 
 CI 
 
 Lodi . 
 
 . 
 
 . VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Grosswardein . . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Kiev . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F2 
 
 Lodz . 
 
 
 III 
 
 B3 
 
 Guadalquivir, River 
 
 XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Kilimanjaro, Mt. 
 
 . IX 
 
 H5 
 
 Loire, River . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Guadiana, River . 
 
 XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Kilwa . . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 15 
 
 Lombardy 
 
 . VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Guardafui, Cape . 
 
 IX 
 
 K3 
 
 Kimberley 
 
 . IX 
 
 B6 
 
 London 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Guastalla . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 C2 
 
 Kishinev . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 E3 
 
 Longwy . . 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Guinea, Gulf of . 
 
 IX 
 
 DE4 
 
 Kismayu . 
 
 . IX 
 
 15 
 
 Lorraine, Duchy 
 
 of . II 
 
 E2 
 
 Guinea (Portuguese) 
 
 IX 
 
 C3 
 
 Klagenfurt 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Loureneo Marque 
 
 S . IX 
 
 D6 
 
 Guinea (Spanish) 
 
 IX 
 
 E4 
 
 Illausenburg . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Liibeck . . 
 
 V 
 
 CI 
 
 Gyor .... 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Kolin , . . 
 
 IV 
 
 F3 
 
 Lublin 
 
 . 
 
 . Ill 
 
 C3 
 
 27 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 Lucca . 
 Liideritz Baj- . 
 Liineburg , 
 Lusatia, Lower 
 Lusatia, L'ppcr 
 Liitzen 
 
 Luxemburg . 
 Lyons , 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 Macerata . 
 
 Macon . 
 
 Madagascar . 
 
 Madeira Islands 
 
 iladrid 
 
 Mafeking . 
 
 Magdala . 
 
 Magdeburg 
 
 Magenta . 
 
 Main, River . 
 
 Mainz . 
 
 Majorca, Island 
 
 Majuba Hill . 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Malmo 
 
 Malta . 
 
 Man, I. of 
 
 Mansfeld . 
 
 Mantua 
 
 Slarburg . 
 
 March, River . 
 
 Marches, The (Papal 
 
 States) 
 Maremma . 
 Maria Theresiopel 
 Marienburg 
 Mark, County of 
 Marmora, Sea of 
 Mame, River 
 Marsala 
 Marseilles 
 Massawa 
 Maubeuge 
 Mauritius 
 Mecca . 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 Mediterranean Sea 
 Melitopol . 
 Memel . 
 Memel, River 
 Merseburg 
 Messina 
 Metz . . 
 Meuse, River 
 Mddle Mark 
 
 denburg) 
 Midia . 
 Milan . 
 Milazzo 
 Minden 
 
 Minorca, Island 
 JHnsk . . 
 Modena 
 Moen, Island 
 Moero, Lake 
 Mogadisho 
 Moldau, River 
 Moldavia 
 Molise . 
 Mombasa 
 
 MAP 
 
 \-n 
 
 IX 
 IV 
 IV 
 IV 
 
 IV 
 V 
 XI 
 
 vrn 
 
 ^^I 
 
 n 
 
 IX 
 
 XI 
 IX 
 IX 
 IV 
 \TI 
 V 
 V 
 
 (B: 
 
 C3 
 F7 
 D2 
 F3 
 F3 
 E3 
 B2 
 C3 
 
 BC3 
 D3 
 D3 
 
 16,7 
 CI 
 B3 
 B6 
 H3 
 D2 
 B2 
 C2 
 C2 
 C4 
 C6 
 B4 
 D2 
 D4 
 B2 
 
 Monaco 
 Monastir . 
 Monrovia . 
 Montbeliard . ' 
 Mont Cenis Pass 
 Montenegro, 1815- 
 
 1878 . 
 Montenegro, 1878- 
 
 1914 
 Montmedy 
 Montpellier 
 Mor 
 
 Moravia 
 Moray Firtl 
 Morocco . 
 Mortara 
 Moscow 
 Moselle, River 
 Mossamedes 
 Mossel Bay 
 Mostar 
 Mozambique 
 Miilhausen 
 Munich 
 
 Miinstcr (Alsace) 
 Miinster (Westphalia) 
 
 MAP 
 XI 
 
 \aii 
 
 VII 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 F3 
 C4 
 E3 
 A2 
 
 A3 
 
 EF3 
 D2 
 C5 
 C2 
 C2 
 B2 
 Dl 
 B2 
 F2 
 B2 
 F6 
 B7 
 C3 
 16 
 E3 
 C2 
 E2 
 B3 
 
 IV 
 
 D3 
 
 Nagyvarad 
 
 
 \T 
 
 D2 , 
 
 vn 
 
 C2 
 
 Nairobi .... 
 
 IX 
 
 H5 1 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 Namaqua Land (Little) ix 
 
 A7 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Namur .... 
 
 n 
 
 Dl 
 
 
 
 Nancv 
 
 II 
 
 E2 
 
 vn 
 
 m 
 
 Nantes .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 1 
 
 vn 
 
 C3 
 
 Naples .... 
 
 ^^I 
 
 E4 1 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Naples, Eongdom of 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Dl 
 
 1810 .... 
 
 II 
 
 C3 
 
 IV 
 
 B3 
 
 Narbonne .... 
 
 II 
 
 C5 
 
 vni 
 
 GH3 
 
 Narva .... 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Nassau .... 
 
 IV 
 
 C3 
 
 vn 
 
 D6 
 
 Natal 
 
 IX 
 
 C7 ! 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Navarino . 
 
 \^II 
 
 B4 i 
 
 IX 
 
 13 
 
 Naze, The (Norway) 
 
 XI 
 
 C2 i 
 
 II 
 
 CI 
 
 Netherlands, 1815-1831 v 
 
 Bl,2 ' 
 
 IX 
 
 K7 
 
 Netze District . 
 
 IV 
 
 G2 ! 
 
 IX 
 
 12 
 
 Netze, River . 
 
 IV 
 
 G2 1 
 
 V 
 
 CI 
 
 Neuenburg 
 
 
 V 
 
 B3 ; 
 
 V 
 
 Dl 
 
 Neusatz . 
 
 
 VI 
 
 C3 
 
 XI 
 
 CF4 
 
 Neusohl . 
 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Nevers 
 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 IV 
 
 11 
 
 Newcastle . 
 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 1 
 
 TX 
 
 11 
 
 New East Prussia 
 
 IV 
 
 IK2 
 
 IV 
 
 E3 
 
 New Mark (Branden 
 
 
 
 vn 
 
 E5 
 
 burg) . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 F2 I 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 New Silesia . . 
 
 IV 
 
 H3 
 
 
 B2 
 
 Nice 
 
 II 
 III 
 
 Eo ' 
 D2 
 
 
 Niemen, River . 
 
 rv 
 
 E2 
 
 Nigeria . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 EF3 
 
 vm 
 
 H3 
 
 Niger, River . 
 
 IX 
 
 E3 ' 
 
 vn 
 
 B2 
 
 Nikopol . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 i 
 
 vn 
 
 Eo 
 
 Nile, River . . 
 
 IX 
 
 H2 
 
 IV 
 
 C2 
 
 Nimes .... 
 
 n 
 
 D5 ' 
 
 XI 
 
 C3, 4 
 
 Nish .... 
 
 vin 
 
 F3 
 
 m 
 
 D2 
 
 1 Nizhni Novgorod 
 
 XI 
 
 G2 ; 
 
 vn 
 
 C2 
 
 ; North Sea . . 
 
 XI 
 
 C2 1 
 
 IV 
 
 El 
 
 1 Norwav 
 
 XI 
 
 CI, 2 
 
 IX 
 
 Go 
 
 1 Novara . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 B2 1 
 
 IX 
 
 14 
 
 1 Novi .... 
 
 YU 
 
 B2 
 
 %t: 
 
 B2 
 
 ' Novibazar 
 
 vm 
 
 F3 
 
 vm 
 
 C2 
 
 , Novi Sad . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 ^-n 
 
 E4 
 
 Novocherkask 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 IX 
 
 15 
 
 , Nubian Deser 
 
 t . 
 
 IX 
 
 H2 
 
 Nuremberg . . 
 
 MAP 
 
 v 
 
 Nyasa, Lake . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 Nyasaland Protec 
 
 bor- 
 
 ate ... . 
 
 . IX 
 
 Ober Ehnlieim . 
 
 . n 
 
 < idenburg . 
 
 . VI 
 
 Oder, River . 
 
 v 
 
 Odessa . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Oise, River 
 
 . XI 
 
 Oka, River . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Okhrida . . . 
 
 . ^^II 
 
 Oland, Island 
 
 . XI 
 
 Old Calabar . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 Oldenburg . . 
 
 V 
 
 Old Mark (Branc 
 
 len- 
 
 burg) . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 Olmiitz . . . 
 
 \T 
 
 Omdurman 
 
 . IX 
 
 Onega, Lake . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Oporto 
 
 \I 
 
 Orange (France) . 
 
 II 
 
 Orange Free State 
 
 . IX 
 
 Orange River 
 
 . IX 
 
 Orbetello . . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 Orenburg . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Orkney Islands 
 
 . XI 
 
 Orleans . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Orsova . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 Orvieto . . 
 
 . \^I 
 
 Osel, Island . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Osiek . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 Osnabriick 
 
 . IV 
 
 Otranto . . 
 
 . \-n 
 
 Oudenarde 
 
 II 
 
 Paderborn 
 
 . IV 
 
 Padua . . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Palatinate (Bavar 
 
 an) v 
 
 Palermo . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Palestrina . . 
 
 . \-n 
 
 Papal States. 
 
 See 
 
 States of the Ch 
 
 ircn 
 
 Paris . . . 
 
 
 Parma . . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Passau . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 Patras . . . 
 
 . \t:ii 
 
 Pecs . . . 
 
 . Vl 
 
 Peipus, Lake . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Pellegrino, Mt. 
 
 . vn 
 
 Pemau 
 
 . XI 
 
 Perpignan . . 
 
 . n 
 
 Persia . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Perugia . . 
 
 . VII 
 
 Pesaro , . 
 
 . vu 
 
 Pescara . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Peschiera . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 
 
 Philippeville . 
 
 n 
 
 Philippopolis . 
 
 . vm 
 
 Philippsburg . 
 
 II 
 
 Piacenza . 
 
 . ^^I 
 
 Piedmont . . 
 
 . vu 
 
 Pietermaritzburg 
 
 . IX 
 
 Pilsen . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 Pinerolo . . 
 
 . n 
 
 Pinsk . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 Pisa . . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Pizzo . . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 Plevna . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 Plymouth . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 28 
 
INDEX TO MAPS 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 Po, River . . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 AD2 
 
 Roumania, 1878-1914 
 
 vin 
 
 FH2 
 
 Senegal, River 
 
 . IX 
 
 03 
 
 Podlesia .... 
 
 III 
 
 D2,3 
 
 Roumania, 1920 . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E3 
 
 Serbia, 1817 . 
 
 . vm 
 
 B2,3 
 
 Podolia .... 
 
 III 
 
 DE3 
 
 Roussillon . . . 
 
 II 
 
 C5 
 
 Serbia, 1878-1914 
 
 . vm 
 
 F2, 3 
 
 Pola 
 
 VI 
 
 B3 
 
 Rovigo . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 C2 
 
 Seville . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Polmd 177''-1914 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 Rovno .... 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Seychelles, Islands t"s- 
 
 K5 
 
 Poland (Great) . . 
 
 ni 
 
 B2, 3 
 
 Rovuma, River . 
 
 IX 
 
 H6 
 
 Shari, River . 
 
 . IX 
 
 F4 
 
 Poland (Little) . . 
 
 ni 
 
 C2,3 
 
 Rudolf, Lake . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 H4 
 
 Shebeli, River 
 
 . IX 
 
 14 
 
 Poland, Eangdom of, 
 
 
 
 Riigen, Island . . 
 
 IV 
 
 El 
 
 Shetland Islands 
 
 . XI 
 
 Bl 
 
 1815-1831 . . . 
 
 I 
 
 DEI 
 
 Ruppin .... 
 
 IV 
 
 E2 
 
 Shipka Pass . 
 
 . vm 
 
 03 
 
 Poland, 1920 . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 DE2 
 
 Russia, 1815-1914 . 
 
 I 
 
 EGl, 2 
 
 Sibiu . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 E3 
 
 PomerarJa 
 
 IV 
 
 EGl 
 
 Russia, 1920 . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 EH2 
 
 Sicilies, Kingdom 
 
 of 
 
 
 Pontecorvo . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Rustchuk .... 
 
 vm 
 
 G3 
 
 the Two 
 
 . vn 
 
 DF3,6 
 
 Pontremoli . . . 
 
 \ai 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 Sicily, Island . 
 
 . VLI 
 
 DE6 
 
 Port Elizabeth . . 
 
 IX 
 
 B7 
 
 Saar Basin . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 03 
 
 Sierra Leone . 
 
 . IX 
 
 04 
 
 Port Xolloth . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 F7 
 
 Saarlouis . . . . 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 Sigmaringen . 
 
 . rv 
 
 . 04 
 
 Porto Santo Stefano . 
 
 vn 
 
 03 
 
 Sadowa .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Bl 
 
 Silesia (Austrian) 
 
 . VI 
 
 01,2 
 
 Port Said .... 
 
 IX 
 
 HI 
 
 Sahara .... 
 
 IX 
 
 0G2 
 
 Silesia (Prussian) 
 
 . IV 
 
 FH3 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B2,3 
 
 St. Etienne . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 03 
 
 Silistria . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 G2, 3 
 
 Portuguese East Africa ix 
 
 H6,7 
 
 St. Helena Bay . . 
 
 IX 
 
 A7 
 
 Simferopol 
 
 . XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Portuguese Guinea . 
 
 IX 
 
 C3 
 
 St. Louis (Senegal) . 
 
 IX 
 
 03 
 
 Sinope 
 
 . XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Posen 
 
 IV 
 
 G2 
 
 St. Omer .... 
 
 n 
 
 01 
 
 Skager Rack . 
 
 . XI 
 
 02 
 
 Potsdam .... 
 
 IV 
 
 E2 
 
 St. Petersburg . . 
 
 I 
 
 Fl 
 
 Smolensk . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 F2 
 
 Prague .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Bl 
 
 St. Pol .... 
 
 n 
 
 01 
 
 Smyrna . . 
 
 . \Tn 
 
 G4 
 
 Pregel, River . . . 
 
 V 
 
 Fl 
 
 St. Thomas, Island . 
 
 IX 
 
 E4 
 
 Socotra, Island 
 
 . IX 
 
 K3 
 
 Pressburg .... 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Salemi 
 
 vu 
 
 D6 
 
 Sofia . . . 
 
 . vm 
 
 F3 
 
 Pretoria .... 
 
 IX 
 
 C6 
 
 Salerno .... 
 
 vn 
 
 E4 
 
 Sokoto . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 E3 
 
 Preveza .... 
 
 vin 
 
 F4 
 
 Salisbury (Rhodesia) 
 
 IX 
 
 H6 
 
 Solferino . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 02 
 
 Priegnitz .... 
 
 IV 
 
 DE2 
 
 Salm 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 Somaliland, British . ix 
 
 14 
 
 Principato . . 
 
 VII 
 
 E4 
 
 Salonica .... 
 
 VUI 
 
 F3 
 
 Somaliland, French . ix 
 
 13 
 
 Pripet, River . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Saluzzo .... 
 
 II 
 
 E4 
 
 SomaUland, Italian . ix 
 
 14 
 
 Provence .... 
 
 II 
 
 DEo 
 
 Salzburg . . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 B2 
 
 Somme, River 
 
 n 
 
 BOl 
 
 Prussia, Duchy of . 
 Prussia, Kingdom of. 
 
 IV 
 
 IK1,2 
 
 Samara . . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 H2 
 
 Sopron 
 
 . VI 
 
 02 
 
 rv 
 
 — 
 
 Samogitia .... 
 
 ni 
 
 02 
 
 Southampton . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Prussia, New East . 
 
 ni 
 
 C2 
 
 Samos, Island 
 
 vni 
 
 G4 
 
 South Prussia 
 
 . IV 
 
 GH2 
 
 Pruth, River . . . 
 
 vni 
 
 GH2 
 
 Samos, River . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Spain . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Przemysl .... 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 San Marino . . . 
 
 vu 
 
 D3 
 
 Spalato . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 03 
 
 Pskov 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 San Stefano, Bound- 
 aries proposed by 
 
 
 
 Spandau . . 
 Spanish Guinea 
 
 . rv 
 
 . IX 
 
 E2 
 E4 
 
 Raab 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Treaty of . . . 
 
 vm 
 
 DE4 
 
 Spezia . . . 
 
 . vu 
 
 B2 
 
 Ragusa .... 
 
 VI 
 
 C3 
 
 Santander 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Spoleto . . 
 
 . vu 
 
 D3 
 
 Ratibor .... 
 
 XI 
 
 D2 
 
 Saone, River . 
 
 n 
 
 D3 
 
 Stanley Falls . 
 
 . IX 
 
 G4,5 
 
 Ravenna .... 
 
 vn 
 
 D2 
 
 Sapri 
 
 vn 
 
 E4 
 
 States of the Ohurch vn 
 
 CD3 
 
 Red Russia 
 
 m 
 
 CD3 
 
 Saragossa .... 
 Sarajevo .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Stavan^er . 
 
 XI 
 
 02 
 
 Red Sea ... . 
 
 IX 
 
 HI2 
 
 VI 
 
 03 
 
 Stavropol . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Regensburg . . . 
 
 V 
 
 D2 
 
 Saratov .... 
 
 XI 
 
 G2 
 
 Stelvio Pass . 
 
 . vn 
 
 01 
 
 Reggio .... 
 
 vn 
 
 E5 
 
 Sardinia, Island . . 
 
 vn 
 
 B4 
 
 Stenay . . 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Reichenberg . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 Bl 
 
 Sardinia, Kingdom of 
 
 vn 
 
 B2, 5 
 
 Stettin . . 
 
 . IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Reims 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Save, River . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 03 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 .. XI 
 
 .D2 
 
 Reunion, Island . . 
 
 IX 
 
 K7 
 
 Savoy 
 
 n 
 
 E4 
 
 Stralsund . . 
 
 V 
 
 Dl 
 
 Reuss 
 
 V 
 
 CD2 
 
 Saxony (Prussia) 
 
 rv 
 
 D2,3 
 
 Strassburg 
 
 V 
 
 B2 
 
 Reval 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Saxony, Kingdom of 
 
 V 
 
 D2 
 
 Stryj . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Rhine, River . . . 
 
 V 
 
 B2 
 
 Scapa Flow . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Stuttgart . . . 
 
 V 
 
 02 
 
 Rhine, Confederation 
 
 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe . 
 
 V 
 
 01 
 
 Styria .... 
 
 . VI 
 
 B2 
 
 of the . . . 
 
 II 
 
 BC2 
 
 Schleswig .... 
 
 IV 
 
 01 
 
 Suakin . . . 
 
 . IX 
 
 H3 
 
 Rhine Province . 
 
 IV 
 
 B3,4 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein . 
 
 rv 
 
 01 
 
 Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian ix 
 
 GH3 
 
 Rhodes .... 
 
 VUl 
 
 H4 
 
 Schlettstadt . . . 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 Suez .... 
 
 . IX 
 
 HI 
 
 Rhodesia .... 
 
 IX 
 
 G6 
 
 Schleusingen . . . 
 
 IV 
 
 D3 
 
 Sundgau . 
 
 II 
 
 E3 
 
 Rhone, River 
 
 u 
 
 D4 
 
 Schmalkalden . . 
 
 IV 
 
 D3 
 
 Swazi Land . ' . 
 
 . IX 
 
 D6 
 
 Riga 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Schwarzburg - Rudol- 
 stadt .... 
 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 . XI 
 
 Dl,2 
 
 Riga, Gulf of . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E2 
 
 V 
 
 02 
 
 Swinemiinde . . 
 
 . IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Rimini .... 
 
 vn 
 
 D2 
 
 Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
 
 
 
 Switzerland . . 
 
 V 
 
 BC3 
 
 Rio de Oro . . . 
 
 IX 
 
 C2 
 
 hausen .... 
 
 V 
 
 02 
 
 Syracuse . . . 
 
 . vn 
 
 E6 
 
 Rochefort .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Schwechat 
 
 VI 
 
 02 
 
 Syria .... 
 
 I 
 
 F3 
 
 Rodosto .... 
 
 vm 
 
 C3 
 
 Schwiebus 
 
 IV 
 
 F2 
 
 Szabadka . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 02 
 
 Rodriguez, Island 
 
 IX 
 
 K6 
 
 Scilly Islands . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 Szeged . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Romagna .... 
 
 \t:i 
 
 GD2 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Szolnok . . . 
 
 . VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Rome 
 
 VII 
 
 D4 
 
 Scutari .... 
 
 \t:ii 
 
 E3 
 
 
 
 
 Rosheim .... 
 
 11 
 
 E2 
 
 Sebastopol . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Tagus, River . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B4 
 
 Rossbach .... 
 
 IV 
 
 D3 
 
 Sedan 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Tanaro, River 
 
 . \TI 
 
 A2 
 
 Rostov .... 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 Seine, River . 
 
 XI 
 
 03 
 
 Tanganyika, Lake 
 
 . IX 
 
 H5 
 
 Rouen 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Senegal .... 
 
 IX 
 
 03 
 
 Tangier . . . 
 
 . XI 
 
 B4 
 
 29 
 
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF EUROPE 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 
 MAP 
 
 
 Taranto .... 
 
 ^^I 
 
 F4 
 
 Tiirkheim .... 
 
 II 
 
 E2 
 
 Vitebsk . . 
 
 . . m 
 
 E2 
 
 Tamopol .... 
 
 VI 
 
 E2 
 
 Tuscany .... 
 
 vn 
 
 C3 
 
 Vladikavkaz . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Tarnov .... 
 
 VI 
 
 Dl 
 
 Tyrrhenian Sea . . 
 
 VII 
 
 c;d4 
 
 Volga, River . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Temesvar .... 
 
 VI 
 
 D3 
 
 
 
 
 Volhynia . 
 
 . . m 
 
 D3 
 
 Terek, River . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Ubangi, River . . 
 
 IX 
 
 F4 
 
 Volo . . . 
 
 . . vm 
 
 F4 
 
 Terra di Lavoro . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Ufa 
 
 XI 
 
 H2 
 
 Volturno, River . . vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Teschen .... 
 
 XI 
 
 D3 
 
 Uganda Protectorate 
 
 IX 
 
 H4 
 
 Vorarlberg 
 
 . . VI 
 
 A2 
 
 Thames, River . . 
 
 I 
 
 Bl 
 
 Ujiji 
 
 IX 
 
 H5 
 
 
 
 
 Theiss, River . . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Uker Mark (Branden- 
 
 
 
 Wadai . . . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 F3 
 
 Theodosia . . 
 
 XI 
 
 F3 
 
 burg) .... 
 
 IV 
 
 E2 
 
 Wadi Haifa . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 H2 
 
 Thionville .... 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Ukraine .... 
 
 XI 
 
 EG2 
 
 Walachia . . 
 
 . . vm 
 
 C2 
 
 Thorn 
 
 rv^ 
 
 H2 
 
 Ulm 
 
 V 
 
 02 
 
 Waldeck . . 
 
 . . v 
 
 C2 
 
 Thuringian States 
 
 v 
 
 C2 
 
 Umbria . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D3 
 
 Wales . . . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Tiber, River . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Union of South Africa 
 
 IX AD6, 7 
 
 Wal6sh Bay . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 F7 
 
 Tibesti .... 
 
 IX 
 
 F3 
 
 Ural, River . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 H2 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 . . ni 
 
 C2 
 
 Ticino, River . 
 
 vn 
 
 B2 
 
 Urbino . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D3 
 
 Warsaw, Grand Duchy 
 
 
 Tiflis 
 
 XI 
 
 G3 
 
 Usedom, Island . . 
 
 rv 
 
 Fl 
 
 of . . . 
 
 . . II 
 
 C2 
 
 Tilsit 
 
 rs- 
 
 11 
 
 Uskiib 
 
 vm 
 
 F3 
 
 Warthe, River 
 
 . . rv 
 
 G2 
 
 Timbuktu .... 
 
 IX 
 
 D3 
 
 
 
 
 Waterford . 
 
 . . XI 
 
 B2 
 
 Togoland .... 
 
 IX 
 
 E5 
 
 Vaal, River 
 
 IX 
 
 C6 
 
 Weissenburg . 
 
 . . n 
 
 E2 
 
 Tortona .... 
 
 vn 
 
 B2 
 
 Vacz 
 
 \i 
 
 C2 
 
 Welle, River . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 G4 
 
 Toul 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Vag, River . . . 
 Valence . . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Weser, River . 
 
 . . V 
 
 CI 
 
 Toulon .... 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 n 
 
 D4 
 
 Westphalia . 
 
 . . IV 
 
 B3 
 
 Toulouse .... 
 
 XI 
 
 C3 
 
 Valencia .... 
 
 XI 
 
 B4 
 
 West Prussia . 
 
 . . IV 
 
 GH2 
 
 Tournai .... 
 
 n 
 
 CI 
 
 Valenciennes . . . 
 
 n 
 
 CI 
 
 Wetzlar . . 
 
 . . rv 
 
 C3 
 
 Transvaal .... 
 
 IX 
 
 C6 
 
 Valona . . . . 
 
 VUl 
 
 E3 
 
 ^Tiite NUe 
 
 . . IX 
 
 H4 
 
 Transylvania . . . 
 
 Vl 
 
 DE2 
 
 Vardar, River . . 
 
 vm 
 
 F3 
 
 ^A^ute Russia 
 
 . . XI 
 
 E2 
 
 Trapani .... 
 
 vn 
 
 D5 
 
 Varese 
 
 VII 
 
 B2 
 
 Windhoek 
 
 . . IX 
 
 F7 
 
 Trebizond . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 r3 
 
 Varna 
 
 vm 
 
 H3 
 
 Wittenberg 
 
 . . rv 
 
 E3 
 
 Trentino .... 
 
 XI 
 
 D3 
 
 VeUetri . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 D4 
 
 Wollin, Island 
 
 . . IV 
 
 Fl 
 
 Treves .... 
 
 n 
 
 E2 
 
 Venetia . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 CD2 
 
 Worms . . 
 
 . . rv 
 
 C2 
 
 Treviso .... 
 
 vn 
 
 D2 
 
 Venice 
 
 vn 
 
 D2 
 
 Wiirttemberg . 
 
 . . V 
 
 C2 
 
 Trient 
 
 VI 
 
 A2 
 
 Vercelli . . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 B2 
 
 
 
 
 Trier (Treves) . . 
 
 IV 
 
 B4 
 
 Verdun . . . . 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 . . XI 
 
 C2 
 
 Trieste .... 
 
 Xl 
 
 B3 
 
 Verona . . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 C2 
 
 Ypres . . 
 
 n 
 
 CI 
 
 Trikkala . . . . 
 
 xm 
 
 F4 
 
 Viborg . . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 El 
 
 Yugo-Slavla 
 
 . XI 
 
 DE3 
 
 Tripoli . . . . 
 Troyes . . . . 
 Tugela, River . . 
 Tula 
 
 IX 
 
 Fl 
 
 Vicenza . . . . 
 
 VII 
 
 C2 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 D2 
 
 Victoria FaUs . . 
 
 IX 
 
 G6 
 
 Zagreb 
 
 . . VI 
 
 BC3 
 
 IX 
 
 D7 
 
 Victoria Nyanza . . 
 
 IX 
 
 H5 
 
 Zambezi, River . . ix 
 
 GH6 
 
 XI 
 
 F2 
 
 Vidin 
 
 vni 
 
 F2 
 
 Zanzibar Protectorate ix 
 
 15 
 
 Tunis 
 
 IX 
 
 El 
 
 Vienna . . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 C2 
 
 Zara . . 
 
 . . VI 
 
 B3 
 
 Turin 
 
 vn 
 
 A2 
 
 Vienne . . . . 
 
 n 
 
 D4 
 
 Zealand, Island (Den- 
 
 
 Turkev (European), 
 
 
 
 Vigo 
 
 XI 
 
 B3 
 
 mark) . 
 
 IV 
 
 Dl 
 
 181»-1878 . . . 
 
 vm 
 
 BC3 
 
 ViUafranca . . . 
 
 vn 
 
 C2 
 
 Ziegenriick 
 
 . . IV 
 
 D3 
 
 Turkey (European), 
 
 
 
 ViUagos . . . . 
 
 VI 
 
 D2 
 
 Zomba . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 H6 
 
 1878-1914 . . . 
 
 vm 
 
 GH3 
 
 Vihia 
 
 m 
 
 D2 
 
 Zulnland . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 D6 
 
 Turkey (European), 
 
 
 
 Vistula, River . . 
 
 V 
 
 El 
 
 Zungeru . 
 
 . . IX 
 
 E4 
 
 1920 . . . . 
 
 XI 
 
 E3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ERRATIBI 
 
 In Map XI, Square D2, for Ratisbon read Ratibor. 
 
 Printed tyy R. Sa R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh. 
 
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