gjg^^g8sa VIII.- 5> IX.- » X.- J> XI.- *> XIL- 5J XIII.- » XIV.- JJ XV.- ... Title Page -Shod as it ought to be ... ... ... Frontispiece -Front View of Hoof, exhibiting Coronary Frog Band, and ITS Epithelial Scales ... ... ... Page 5 -Sole OF Foot ... ... ... ... 7 -Section of Foot, showing its Internal Structure ... 8 -Shoe showing Seating to ditto ... ... 18 -Outline Section of Foot, to prove the necessity of Curving the Toe of Foot -Shoe indicating where Curve of Toe should begin -Ground Surface of a Curved Shoe -Shoe for A Draught Horse -Hunting Shoe ... ... ... ... -Shoes to Prevent Cutting and Speedy Cxrr -Shoe TO Prevent Forging ... -High Heeled Shoe, for Lameness ... -Box Seated Shoe -Finis 21 22 23 30 33 35 Zl 38 40 52 The Shoeing of Hoi\ses. SECTION I. ON THE SHOEING OF THE HORSE, AND ON THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF THE FOOT. ' I ^HE art of shoeing the horse properly, and the subject of the -*■ general treatment of his feet, are matters of great practical value and interest to the public. " No foot no horse" is an old adage ; and the more we see of horses, and experience the value of their services, the more obvious becomes the truth of the above proverb. Although the practice of horse-shoeing is of great anti- quity, much ignorance still prevails as to the best mode of doing it, so as to secure the greatest amount of comfort to the foot and safety to the animal. No other department connected with the management of horses is of more supreme importance to the owner, in a pecuniary point of view, than the one in question. Bad feeding, imperfect ventilation, and other matters of a like character, may for a time be partially neglected with some degree of impunity ; but if the animal be not properly shod, the feet are speedily crippled, and the horse, as a natural consequence, is rendered useless. 2 . THE SHOEING OF HORSES. The right application of the shoe to the foot of the horse is confessedly a matter of incalculable importance. The importance of the question is fully understood by the author, and it is to make the best known principles connected with the practice of the art plain and simple to all interested in the subject, that the present treatise is written. The success of the farrier, as a workman, may be said to depend upon the strict observance of a few common-sense principles or rules, the value of which may be made clear to one possessing an ordinary knowledge of the subject, but to carry out these rules the practical workman only has the ability. A clear understanding of such rules, however, will furnish the amateur with grounds whereby he may judge of the skill of the workman, and of the principles upon which the science of his art may be said to depend. The practice of the art of horse-shoeing naturally divides itself into three stages : I St. The preparation of the foot for the shoe. 2nd. The preparation of the shoe. And, 3rd. The securing of the shoe to the foot. We shall first describe the matters necessary to observe in the preparation of the foot. In stating what is the necessary duty of the farrier when preparing the foot for the shoe, perhaps the best plan to pursue would be to state in emphatic terms what should not be done. So much injury accrues to the horse from undue cutting, paring, and rasping the feet, that one is strongly THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 3 tempted to write, Do nothing, but simply secure the shoe well to the foot in that state in which the organ in question may chance at the time to present itself. As this, however, would be deemed by the majority of readers as equivalent to saying nothing, we shall endeavour to deal with the matter in the most satisfactory manner we are able. The first object to be accomplished in pre- paring a foot for re-shoeing is to remove the old shoes. The manner of doing this is a matter respecting which much has been said to the apparent disadvantage of the farrier. Youatt, and other veterinary writers even of a more recent date, speak of the removal of the old shoes from the feet as though our shoeing smiths delighted in brutality, and in the infliction of pain to the horse. The first act is, by the aid of the hammer and a small instru- ment called the buflPer, to knock away the clenches ; after which the operator, by means of his pincers properly applied to the shoe — the sole of the foot forming the fulcrum, and the bow of the pincers the lever — by a dexterous and easy twist of the hand, removes the shoe and the nails at once. This, if done by a skilled workman, is but the effort of a few moments, and can be easily effected without either breaking the hoof or inflicting the least pain on the animal — results so much dreaded by the above author, and by others not practically acquainted with the art. When the shoe is removed, the smith applies his rasp briskly but lightly to the foot, for the purpose of removing all chips of horn or decayed portions of the wall ; having done which, the foot is ready for paring. Here we enter at once into the heart of the THE SHOEING OF HORSES. matter ; and the question prominently presents itself, What is proper for the farrier to cut and rasp from the organ^ in properly preparing it for the shoe? This question we shall best answer by clearly stating to the reader a few essefitlal particulars respecting the following matters : — {a) The names and uses of the various parts which enter into the formation of the foot. {U) The kind of feet peculiar to horses. {c) The manner and the rate at which the foot grows, or is reproduced. After which, the reader will be prepared to fully understand the significance of the answers given. /- Plate / i.* 1« •■ k '•^Sijj'i. «i'o«s^-,asf«ajiijy.„,^«3 .«„>«***«" SECTION II. ON THE NAMES AND USES OF THE VARIOUS PARTS WHICH ENTER INTO THE FORMATION OF THE FOOT. T3EF0RE the reader can understand the uses of a thing, it is first necessary he should know what the thing is. The figure in Plate II. will illustrate the two essentials in question ; and a careful attention on the part of the reader to the details will enable him to thoroughly comprehend the nature of the matter in hand. Plate II. Plate II., Fig. i, represents a front view of the hoof, includ- ing the coronary frog band and its epithelial or siliceous covering. The frog band is coloured green. The diamond figures repre- sent the epithelial cells or scales which exist upon the surface of the wall. I. The Coronary Frog Band. — This is a substance peculiar in its nature ; it is about one inch in width, and extends from the frog (Fig. 7 7, Plate II.) around the coronary border, forming the junction between the hoof below and the skin above (Fig. 12, 6 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. Plate II). It closely resembles a thin band of vulcanised india- rubber, both in colour and its elastic properties. It maybe readily observed, especially after the foot has been subjected for a day or two to the action of a warm bran or linseed poultice. The uses of the frog band are numerous : — By its elasticity it aids materially in the prevention of con- cussion during the locomotion of the animal. It is the bond of union, as stated above, between the skin and the hoof. It secretes a peculiar substance which principally consists of silex or flint. This substance descends from the coronary frog band, and covers the whole of the external surface of the horny box, similar to a thin coating of glue. (See Fig. 2, Plate II.) It prevents undue evaporation from the surface of the wall, and aids materially the hoof to retain that natural mois- ture and elasticity so essential to its well-being. It is perhaps needless to state, that its removal favours undue dryness and britdeness of the hoof, and in the development of sandcrack. The epithelial cells may be readily obtained by macerating a dead hoof in water ; a small film may then be placed under a microscope having a one-inch object glass, and the cells are at once brought into view. They form very beautiful objects for examination when carefully prepared. Figure 2, Plate II. is a further representation of the cells in question. Plate 11 U^ f'J fi THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 7 Plate III. Represents the ground surface of the foot. III. The Sole of the Foot. — The sole of the foot varies in thickness to a considerable extent. Large feet, having a concave or vaulted form of sole, are not unfrequently one inch or more in thickness ; while in other varieties of feet, especially where the sole is flat, it may not be half an inch in thickness. In feet where the sole is convex, it is sometimes not more than one- eighth of an inch in thickness. These are facts which bear essen- tially upon the question, How much should the farrier pare from the foot at the time of shoeing ? 2 2 2. The Ground Stirface of the Wall of the Foot. — The ground surface of the wall is the part which rests upon the shoe when the latter is nailed to the foot. The wall of the foot, like the sole, varies in thickness. As a rule, the wall Is the thickest at the toe and the outside quarter. Numbers of feet present great thickness of horn at the outside heel of the organ ; as a rule, however, the wall becomes thinner at the heels, so that great care is necessary in driving nails near to the heel. 3333. The Bars. — The bars are a mere continuation or Inflexion of the walls internally. As the wall approaches the heels, it suddenly curves Inward, and takes the form of the letter V inverted, coming to a point near the point of the frog. The bars aid materially in keeping the foot open and broad at its ground surface. 5 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 4 4. The base of the horny frog. 5. The apex or point of the frog. 8 and 9. The wings, or lateral processes of the frog, being the commencement of the coronary frog band. (See Plate II. Fig. TI.) 10. The point of the toe. 12. The junction of the sole with the wall and the bars. The line of junction is coloured blue, the purpose of which will be explained hereafter. Plate IV. Plate IV. represents a section of the right half of the fore foot of the horse. It is divided exactly down the middle ; the division was effected by means of a very fine saw, revolving at great speed. It was made with every possible accuracy, and the right half of the organ was photographed ; from which, and from the divided foot, the present engraving was prepared. It is essential that the reader should clearly understand the use and relative position of the parts delineated ; without this, he cannot fully comprehend the value and importance of carrying out certain principles, to be hereafter stated, respecting the proper form of the shoe when applied to the foot. 1. The large pastern bone. 2. The small pastern bone. THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 9 3. *The coffin bone. 4. The vascular or sensitive laminae of the foot. 5. The vascular villi, or sensitive sole of the foot. The vas- cular sole consists almost entirely of blood vessels, the function of which is to secrete or form — 6 6 6. The horny sole. 7 7. The horny frog. 8. The vascular frog. This, like the vascular sole, is to secrete or form the horny frog. 18. The vascular villi of the coronet. The vascular villi of the coronet consists entirely of blood vessels, the purpose of which is to secrete — TO. The horny wall. The wall is secreted at the top of the hoof, at the junction of the skin and hair surrounding the coronet. 12. The coronary frog band. The coronary frog band is coloured green. The uses of this band we have explained when treating upon the structure, at Plate II. 1919. The cushion of the navicular joint, which principally consists of a strong, elastic, yellow-coloured tissue, of a fibrous nature. It is an abundance of this tissue which gives to the heels and frogs of young horses the round, plump-like appearance, so characteristic of these parts when perfect. This elastic substance is in immediate contact with the termination of the tendon (15), between which and the navicular, bone (16) is formed the navi- cular joint ; this substance, forming (as it does) a cushion, will be seen to act as a buffer to the joint in question ; while 7 7 will be c lO THE SHOEING OF HORSES. seen to perform a similar service to the elastic cushion — thus affording to the joint a double protection. It may also be observed that the paring of the horny frog (7) tends to the injury of the navicular joint. The frog should not be pared. It may also be further seen upon reflection, that the horny sole (6) should be pared no more than is absolutely necessary. It is generally neces- sary to remove some portion of the sole. In strong, vigorous feet the sole, is produced with great rapidity ; and if left alone, as in unshod feet, it will naturally exfoliate in flakes ; but if these flakes are loose upon the sole, as they frequently are upon feet that are shod, they should be removed. It is impossible to nail a shoe securely to the foot if the flakes are left upon the sole. 20. A strip, coloured green, descending from the coronary frog band to the termination of the hoof: this green strip is to represent the epithelial scales covering ^the outer surface of the wall. (See Plate II., Figs, i and 3.) 14, 15, 17. Parts coloured yellow, to represent the tendons which pass from above to the bones of the foot, where they become inserted. The reader is especially requested to note the curve of the tendon 15 as it passes under the navicular bone 16. SECTION III. ON THE KIND OF FEET PECULIAR TO HORSES, AND ON THEIR MODE AND RATE OF GROWTH. " I "HE varieties of the foot peculiar to the horse may be said to be innumerable ; but a careful examination of the o'gan, as presented to us in the living animal, will reduce the foot to what may be termed four classes or orders. 1. The concave or vaulted foot. 2. The flat foot. 3. The semi-flat or semi-concave foot. 4. The narrow or elongated foot, common to Arabian horses, the mule, &c. The classes of feet here enumerated are so common and well known that, in a brief treatise like the present, it is perhaps unnecessary to enlarge upon them to any considerable extent. A recital of them, however, is necessary, simply because each class of foot will require a difference in shoeing. A want of knowledge of this fact has brought many a theory of shoeing, having some germs of good sense within it, to oblivion. The 12 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. "concave form of foot is more prone to navicular disease than the other forms ; also to disease of the frog, sandcrack, and to contraction. On the other hand, flat feet are more predisposed to corns, descent of the sole or pumiced foot, and seediness of the toe and quarters. The flatter the feet, the more carefully the shoe requires to be fitted, the greater the care necessary in seating the shoe, and the broader the web for the defence of the sole. Horsemen, as a rule, prefer the concave to any other form of foot: other forms are regarded by them as somewhat abnormal, and the concave is regarded as the model form. In life this is not so : the best feet, generally speaking, are to be found in the semi-concave class. They possess, as a rule, an abundance of horn at the sole and the wall ; are not so liable as the former to seedy toe, navi- cular disease, and sandcrack, as the concave ; nor, on the other hand, are they so liable to seedy toe, seediness of the quarters, corns, and descent of the sole as the flat- formed foot. Growth of Feet. — Ere we conclude the present section a few remarks are necessary respecting the growth of the foot. The rate at which the feet of horses grow or are reproduced will give clear and precise indication to the farrier of the quantity of hoof and sole he may with safety remove from the foot at each shoeing. The wall is formed or reproduced at the coronet, by a mass of blood vessels named the vascular villi. These vessels are situate behind, and to some extent are protected by the frog band. (See Plate I., Fig. i; and also Plate III., Fig. i8.) The wall grows from above downwards, and in the best feet its reproduction will rarely exceed five-sixteenths of an Inch per month, or about one THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 1 3 inch and a quarter in three months. Numbers of feet appear stationary in growth ; and others are not reproduced at a more speedy rate than one-eighth of an inch per month. Thin, flat- soled, or what are usually termed shelly feet, as a rule, are the worst in this respect. Every gentleman taking a right interest in the welfare of his horse, should ascertain the rate at which hoof is reproduced in his own horse. The means of attaining this know- ledge are simple. Procure a small three-edged file, and file a portion of the horn across its substance, a certain distance, say one inch, from the coronet. Do this at the front of the hoof, and also at the quarters ; then, with a pair of compasses, measure the dis- tance of the part filed, from the junction of the hoof with the hair at the coronet. Make a memorandum of the date of the experi- ment, and every time the animal is shod compare with the first measurement ; by this means the rate of growth of the wall of every foot measured will be accurately known. The sole and frog of the foot are produced from a class of vessels similar in many respects to the vessels of the vascular villi. The sole, as a rule, grows more abundantly than the wall, except in feet that are pumiced from disease. The secreting vessels of the sole are shorter and thicker in character. In consequence of the nearness of the vessels secreting the sole to the pressure received by the sole from the ground at all times, the sole is pro- duced in flat or shallow layers, which layers, if not interfered with, dry, and are thrown off in flakes or flat masses ; the rate at which these layers are reproduced is not exactly known. (For the vascular villi of the sole and the frog, see Plate III., Figs. 6, 7 7 7, and 2 2.) 14 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. In concluding the present section, we may state, as a rule to be observed by the farrier, that every form of foot requires a some- what different form, and adaptation of shoe. With regard to the reproduction of the hoof, it may also be stated that the quantity of horn to be removed by paring should be less than the quantity grown during the time between one shoeing and another. By this means, a store of horn, so to speak, is gradually produced — a state of the foot highly desirable. Such feet, if rightly shod, will, in the nature of things, remain sound and durable. The rate at which feet are reproduced is a question of the highest value to the practical farrier ; he ought to know the fact, with reference to every horse he may regularly shoe. At the same time, if gentlemen know this fact, respecting the feet of their own horses, they will then be in a position to demonstrate to their own satisfaction whether or not the farrier exceeds his duties with the knife. SECTION IV. ON THE PREPARATION OF THE FOOT AND THE SHOE. T T AVING stated and clearly illustrated in Section II. the use ■'--'■ of the most important parts entering into the formation of the foot, and also in Section III, the various forms of the foot and its mode and rate of growth, the question, — ;What shall the farrier remove from the organ, to prepare it properly for the shoe? — becomes simple ; and the reader may readily anticipate the answer. It will be evident to the common sense of every one, if more horn is removed from the sole at the end of a month than the blood vessels of the sole has secreted in the same period, or if more wall be removed from the base of the foot at the end of a month than has been secreted during a like period, and if such operation be frequently repeated under similar conditions, the result sooner or later must inevitably be, lameness to the foot, and destruction to the usefulness of the animal. We have stated that the sole is cast from the foot in layers or flakes. Let the farrier remove only those layers or flakes which are loose, and which would, if left alone, be exfoliated 1 6 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. naturally ; to go beyond this, is to encroach upon what is neces- sarily the proper protection to the sensitive tissues of the organ within. The farrier should be careful to remove any undue ele- vation of the sole within the angle of the heels. Such elevations, if left, may grow, and press upon the inner surface of the shoe ; and corns, as a consequence, will result. The farrier should also carefully remove all loose or broken portions of the wall, if any exist. He should not violently twist or tear them away with his pincers, as is too frequently the case, thus inflicting injury on the sound horn, as well as removing that which is useless ; on the contrary, he should remove such broken portions with the knife. The ground surface of the wall, when practicable, should be left as follows : — The lower border of the hoof, when the animal is standing with his foot upon the ground (supposing the sole to be flat or semi-concave), should be a quarter of an inch below the sole ; the ground surface of this projection of the wall should also be made perfectly level from toe to heel, or the entire circum- ference of the wall.* The frog, if healthy, should be left alone. The knife, in its application to this organ, should be strictly prohibited. It is shown in Section II. (page 6), and at Plate III., Fig. 7 7, that the frog Is the great protector of the navicular joint, a joint if not of greater, is at least of equal importance to any point within or contiguous to * Unless the toe has been previously curved to adapt it to a similar curve given to the toe of the shoe ; a matter to be fully treated upon ere the present section is concluded. When once the toe of the foot has received its due curve, the farrier can work as readily to it as to a foot perfectly level. THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 1 7 the foot. The frog, as previously stated, is really a buffer to the joint in question ; and to cut its horny substance wantonly away, is to inflict what may ultimately prove a fatal injury to the sound- ness of the foot and the usefulness of the animal. Numbers of gentlemen and owners of horses will insist upon the removal of large portions of horn from the frog ; they like, as they express it, to have the foot left neat. To sacrifice this organ from mere caprice, and thus render their horses liable to injury of an irre- parable nature, is a matter of regret. The bars are the only parts left unnoticed in our remarks. The bars, like the frog, should be left untouched with the knife. It is a common matter with dealers and many horsemen to insist upon the farrier paring the bars to a level with the sole, which is done to give the foot a wider appearance than it really possesses ; this, to say the least of it, is a foolish and reprehensible practice. We have thus described — we trust clearly — to the reader the operations necessary in preparing the foot for the shoe. We shall next proceed to treat upon the preparation of the shoe. Seating the Shoe. — By seating the shoe is meant the forma- tion of a level space upon the foot surface of the shoe, varying frotn three-eighths of an inch to half an inch in widths or according to the size of the foot to be shod ; and upon which should rest the inferior border of the wall, when the wall and the shoe are nailed together, and through which the nail holes of the shoe, in all cases ^ should be punched. A clearer explanation may perhaps be afforded to the reader, if reference be made to Plate V. D l8 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. Plate V. This plate gives a diagramic representation of the shoe, with its foot surface properly seated. The seated space is the part coloured blue. The whole extent between the inner border of the blue and the inner border of the shoe (the white expanse) represents that part which requires to be bevelled. The seated or level portion is to receive the wall of the foot, upon which it should exclusively rest ; that is, when the foot and the shoe are nailed together. The toe of the shoe is provided, as every shoe should be, with a clip. For concave or semi-concave forms of feet, the bevelled part does not require to be over carefully worked ; but for a flat or full-soled foot, the bevelling should be executed with great care. In every instance, when practicable, sufficient space should be left between the bevelling and the sole to allow a thin picker to be freely passed around. Seating the shoe ought to be made by Act of Parliament one of the primary and indispensable rules of the farrier's art. To give clearness to the importance of this rule, we shall state a few particulars relating to the union of the wall an*d the sole of the foot ; — particulars which, we trust, will give such plainness and force to our statements, as to render any further arguments upon this matter unnecessary. The wall and the sole of the foot are only united mediately ; that is, no direct union of the two exists. It may appear other- wise to those not conversant with the foot ; but the union of the ^ Plate ^ T / THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 1 9 two Is simply no more than what would exist between the two forefingers of the reader, if pressed together. The wall and the sole are alike in one respect : they yield upon pressure. If pres- sure be applied steadily to the wall, in a lateral or outward direc- tion, it will in time, if such pressure be continued, slowly separate from the sole ; and the sole will as gradually descend, and become altered materially in form. The separating process spoken of is widely in operation, and the majority of those who own horses are perhaps utterly igno- rant of the fact. The shoe, unless properly seated, will sooner or later produce the effect described. The evil in question is not so common amongst horses having feet of the concave class, as with heavy draught horses and those having flat feet. The shoe, if properly made, should be both seated and bevelled in the mode shown in Plate V. ; but if the seating be omitted, and it be bevelled only (and especially if the bevelling extends from the outer to the inner rim of the shoe), the effect which, In time, must ensue to a foot regularly nailed to such a shoe will be evident, if reflected upon. Thousands of feet are daily shod with shoes of the kind described ; and the consequence is, the wall of the foot is forced laterally from the sole in an out- ward direction ; and the sole descending, becomes what Is called pumiced — a condition of the foot which, If not arrested, may so Increase as in tiijie to render the animal useless. More fully to understand this, the reader should select an old horse shoe, and place It, foot-surface upwards, upon the end of the fingers of the left hand, holding the shoe evenly balanced towards the light, upon a level with the eye ; then place across the shoe a 20 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. rule of sufficient length to reach from one side to the other. Now look under the rule, and observe what width of iron it rests upon. If the shoe be large and properly made, half an inch of level seating ought to exist around its foot surface ; but if the shoe be not seated, the bevelling will be seen to occupy the entire web, or to extend from the outer to the inner rim of the shoe. If the latter, it will be readily seen that in the case of a foot regularly nailed to such a shoe (especially if the sole be flat), its integrity must in time succumb ; the wall will be forced outwards, and the sole must become pumiced ; and unless the system of shoeing pursued be changed, it is equally certain that the animal must become useless. Curving the Toe. — One more essential — an essential the con- sideration of which we have purposely left to the last — is the curving of the toe of the foot, to adapt it to a similar curve to be given by the farrier to the shoe. The question may be asked, Why this curve, and for what purpose given ? The reason is important ; and we shall endea- vour to state our views fully upon the matter. If the reader can procure the forefoot of an unshod colt, that is, a foot which never has been shod, and place it upon a level surface (a board, for example), and hold the same to the light and at a level with the eye, he will observe the light passing between the foot and the board in a manner to show a curve of the foot at the toe. This fact is observable not only upon the foot of the unshod colt, but also upon the feet of horses at grass, that is, if such horses have had their feet for some time untrammelled with shoes. It may THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 2 1 be also stated that with many horses, if shod with shoes made perfectly level (in the first instance) from heel to toe, if such shoes be removed when v/orn out, and placed upon a level surface as above described, the shoe will also be found to be curved at the toe, with a space of sufficient extent to allow the light to pass between the board and the shoe. These facts we regfard as natural indications of zvhat the farrier should do. A more powerful reason, however, still exists why this curve should be given to the foot. The line a b (Plate VL), upon which rests the diagram of the foot, will clearly illustrate the fact stated. Figure 6 is the toe of the foot. Figure 7 is the heel, 16 the navi- cular joint, 1 5 the curve of the tendon in its course over arid behind the navicular bone 16, in passing to its insertion under- the coffin bone 3. Now, in the act of progression, the heel, of necessity, requires to be frequently elevated from the ground. This eleva- tion is mainly effected by the pulley-like action of the tendon in question ; consequently, anything which tends to impede the free and easy action of the tendon is very likely to be a serious cause of injury to that structure. By retaining the foot at a level from 6 to 7 upon the line a b (see Plate VI.), it is clear that a greater exertion of the tendon is of necessity required to elevate the foot than would be the case if the foot was curved at the toe ; and this we regard as a fact of the highest importance if we desire to maintain the foot in efficient health and usefulness. The constant practice of placing upon the foot a shoe level upon its ground surface, from heel to toe, we regard as the most prolific cause of navicular disease — a disease, in its very nature, from, the onset inctirable.* * See Plate IV., and explanation, to Figures 15 and t6. 2 2 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. From the curve given to the foot, we proceed to the con- sideration of Curviitg the Shoe. — The pecuharity to be borne in mind of curving the foot and the shoe is this : the two curves require to be adapted exactly to each other. It is easy to adapt the foot and the shoe to each other, when both are level from heel to toe ; in this case the weight of the limb, when placed upon the ground, is equally distributed over the shoe. Now, in curving the foot and the shoe, it is necessary that this equal distribution of weight should remain the same, or as nearly the same as practicable ; or, as though the foot and the shoe were, so to speak, both level. If the curves are made too suddenly, the action of the limb will be materially altered ; the foot will lose its grasp or pressure upon the ground, and the safety of the animal may be endangered. Perhaps the best rule to adopt in this case will be the following : let the farrier mentally divide the ground surface of the foot and the corre- sponding foot surface of the shoe into three equal spaces, similar to what is represented at Plate VII. The farrier should begin to curve the foot and the shoe a little in advance of line 2 ; the com- mencement should be extremely slight, gradually becoming more and more as he approaches the point of the toe (see Plate VIII., Figs. 1 and 2). The curve at the toe of the foot is obtained by a removal of horn from the space indicated in Plate VI. Having first procured the desired curve of the shoe, apply it hot to the level foot, mark where the curved portion of the shoe scorches the horn, then slightly scorch the hoof again, and in this manner proceed until the two curves are exactly fitted to each other. The Plate VII Plate YIII ^^■. / THE SHOEING OF HOESES. 23 completeness of the matter may be at once known by the perfect fit and the perfectly easy appearance of the adaptation of the foot and the shoe to each other. To curve the foot and the shoe properly requires practice ; but care and a right appreciation of the subject on the part of the smith will speedily give confidence, and that degree of skill neces- sary to its right performance. Plate VIII., Figure i represents the ground surface of the shoe, upon which is shown the necessary degree of curve at the toe. Figure 2 represents a front view of the foot, with the appearance of the shoe curved as directed, when the foot is upon the ground. It is not always practicable for the farrier thus to curve every fore foot. Feet that are flat, weak, and thin at the wall and the sole, cannot, as a rule, be so prepared. All other conditions of the foot, however, will admit of the practice. The curving of the foot and the shoe, and the proper adaptation of the two to each other, are perhaps, of all other operations connected with the art of shoeing, of the greatest importance with reference to the well-being of the foot and the usefulness of the animal. Shoeing the Hind Feet. — The processes necessary to be under- gone in properly shoeing the hind feet do not differ essentially from those already stated with reference to the fore feet. Still, there are peculiarities connected with the hind feet which require a certain degree of special consideration. The great care and skill required rightly to shoe the fore feet are not so absolutely called for in shoeing the hind ones. In the first place, the hind feet, in the act of locomotion, are placed some- what differently upon the ground ; they have not the weight to 24 THE SHOEING OF HOKSES. sustain which is sustained by the fore feet. The hind limbs are the propelHng powers ; the fore limbs and fore quarters are the weight-receivers, in addition to the aid they render in the act of propulsion. The majority of horses place the hind feet flat upon the ground, and appear to progress with a sort of sliding motion ; in proof of which it is very common to find the hind shoes worn level throughout, while those of the fore feet will be found worn most at the toe, and the anterior part of the shoe. The friction and consequent wear of the hind shoe is also greater than what is sustained by the fore shoe. As a rule, numbers of horses, especially cab and draught horses, require three pairs of hind shoes to every two pairs of fore shoes. The navicular joint of the hind foot, although constructed pre- cisely similar to that of the fore foot, cannot have the severe strain upon it which is exerted upon the fore foot; in proof of which it may be stated that while that destructive malady — navicular disease — is so common and baneful in its effects upon the latter, it is entirely unknown as a disease affecting the navicular joint of the former. It is a rule to use shoes for the hind foot having greater thick- ness of iron at the toe, and also caulks at the heel, both of which will be found of great service if used under certain conditions. They are necessary to the draught horse, also to harness horses ; also, when the limbs of horses are affected with spavin, curb, and many forms of weakness and debility affecting the joints, tendons, and ligaments of the limb, caulks aid in supporting the structures. Of the various kinds of shoe necessary to use of an especial kind, such as for the prevention of cutting, forging, and other common peculiarities of a like nature, we shall treat upon hereafter. Plate VIII r ) . \! Jl ^ji|iV,hi\^^ '«^jj»#)?fc^' «^ r-/ .c^w yi r-H THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 4 1 constructed metal may be continued in use. We have elsewhere fully treated upon the destructive consequences which in time will be produced upon the foot by a shoe when merely bevelled, or without a level seating in connection.* It is to remedy the defects and disastrous results established within the foot after the pro- lonsred use of such a shoe, that the box-seated shoe now described is required. The seating of the concave shoe will require to be from three-eighths to half an inch in width, according to the necessities of the case ; the nail holes, as in all other shoes, should be punched through the centre of the seating. It is generally necessary to use leather soles in association with the shoe now described. Bar or Round Shoe. — This is a form of shoe so well known that it is all but superfluous to describe it. It should be carefully seated, and the bearing surface made perfectly level from heel to toe, and, when not used for any special disease of the foot, of a temporary character, it should be curved at the toe in the way described at page 22. It is valuable to use as a regular wearing shoe to fore feet that are thin at the sole, and with low and v/eak heels. It is also of value in cases of side bone ; also to use when the foot is affected with canker ; and wjien required for this pur- pose, the web of the shoe should be made of extra width. It is generally necessary to use a leather sole in association with the Bar Shoe. Clips. — A clip is essential at all times at the toe of the shoe ; • See pages 17 to 19. G 42 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. without such clip the shoe, if nailed to the foot, would be in a state of continual displacement. The dig given by the animal at the toe when the limb is in rapid motion would speedily force the foot over the shoe, and destruction to the wall would as speedily follow. Side-clips are also frequently necessary, where the animal treads more upon one side of the foot than the other. Many valuable horses do this ; but it is more common among horses of inferior breed, such horses commonly treading more on the outer than the inner half of the foot. If the tread be on the outside, a clip is necessary on that side of the shoe, simply to prevent the foot from leaving the shoe ; on the contrary, if the wear be the greatest upon the inner side of the organ, the clip should also be placed on the inner side of the shoe, for the reason stated above. SECTION VII. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE FEET OF HORSES, AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. IV /r UCH has been said and written of late respecting various matters relative to the general management of the foot. Questions are frequently asked, such as the following : — 1. Should the feet of horses be stopped occasionally, for the purpose of keeping them tough and pliant ? 2. Are the sole and the frog so organised as to sustain weight and pressure ? 3. How frequently should a horse in regular work be shod; or, how frequently should the shoes be removed ? 4. What are the best modes to pursue with the foot so that its integrity and usefulness may be retained ? To these, and other questions of a kindred nature, we feel called upon to contribute a few observations. 44 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. I , Should the feet be Stopped^ to keep them tough and pliant ? This will depend upon circumstances. Much difference will be found in the feet of horses. Some retain their natural moisture longer than others, and, consequently, will retain their toughness and elasticity for a greater period ; while the feet of others part with moisture rapidly, and, unless supplied occasionally by external means, they become so powdery and brittle, that it is with difficulty a shoe can be retained upon them. Horses regularly worked in soft ground, as when used for agricultural purposes, do not require such aid ; but where horses labour year after year upon the hard granite (as in London, Manchester, and other large cities), and at night stand upon dry litter, such feet require to be stopped and kept moist by artificial modes. The direct application of water to the feet, if long continued, will produce a pasty condition of the horn ; and when the operator ceases to apply it, the evaporation from the surface of the organ becomes so rapid that the foot is speedily left in a highly brittle state — worse, in fact, than before. Hence water alone, as an immediate applicant, is not desirable ; a medium is required, which will only allow of moisture to pass into the pores of the horn slowly and steadily ; or the application of a substance is desirable, which will prevent the internal moisture from escaping. Either of these modes may answer the purpose re- quired ; the latter of the two is to be preferred, the only drawbacks being, it is a little more trouble and a trifle more expensive than the former. In defiance, very likely, of all lecturing and writing to the contrary, the use of cow dung to the feet of horses will be continued. Its application to the feet is dirty and disgusting, but experience, we are told, has found it to answer the purpose THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 45 ntended. One of the best compositions we have found for the purpose of applying to the feet is the following : — R Tar Bees Wax Honey Suet (Beef or Mutton) Whale Oil 2lbs. I Jibs. lib. 2lbs. 4lbs. The above ingredients to be mixed and slowly melted together in a hot water bath. It should be applied freely to the sole and wall of the foot by means of a small brush, at least once or twice a week. It is best applied warm; and the feet at the time should be perfectly clean and dry upon every part. 2. Are the Sole and the Frog capable of Bearing Weight and Pressure ? — There is but one rational answer to this question. The sole and the frog are structures intended to take their due share in sustaining the weight of the body of the horse. If we regard the foot of the wild horse in this respect, we shall find that the sole and the frog are amongst the principal weight-sustain ers of the limb ; these parts, from their position in the economy of the foot, are compelled to receive weight and pressure — indeed, of what use would they be to the animal if they could not ? The sole and the frog are parts capable of bearing great weight and pressure, if equally and fairly distributed over their entire surface. It is only when pressure is severely and irregularly applied to these structures that we find any injurious consequences to result. 46 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. The uses of the frog are numerous : It is a weight-bearer. From its form and position upon the foot, when the animal travels at great speed, the frog will act as a wedge upon the earth, and thus aid very materially in giving firm hold to the foot ; it will also aid in checking or controling the speed. To us these functions of the organ are what may be called its obvious uses. If a shoe could be constructed of a 7naterial of such a nature as exactly to cover the entire ground surface of the foot, and press 2ipon it in a manner precisely similar in all respects to what water would do, if confined to the area in question; and if this material could be secured to the organ without interfering with the outward spread of the wall of the foot ^ or limit the action of the organ in any direction whatever beyond what is perfectly natural^ then the farrier s art would be perfect, and the desire of the most humane realised. 3. How often should the Shoes be Removed? — The average duration at which shoes are allowed to remain upon the feet of horses in large towns engaged in active work is generally from thirty to forty days. With agricultural horses the case is different, and altogether a matter of uncertainty. Many horses exclusively engaged in agriculture have rarely shoes applied to the hind feet ; while the fore feet sometimes retain their shoes three and four months in succession — a practice not, as a rule, to be recommended. So long, however, as the shoes retain their proper place without injury to the sole, and are secure to the wall, it may not be neces- sary to interfere with them. Frequently to remove the shoes is a practice destructive to the feet; and the more lengthened the interval before their removal, unless necessity requires, the better and more efficient is the foot likely to remain. THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 47 4. What are the best modes to pursue for the Preservation of the Foot ? — This is an important question, and one worthy of the attentive consideration of every individual owning horses. To some extent we have treated upon it in our answer to the first question proposed in the present section. It will be proper to regard this question in a twofold relation — first, with reference to the feet of colts in a wild or unbroken state ; and secondly, with reference to the feet of civilised horses. Management of Colts Feet. — It is highly necessary regularly to examine with care the feet of wild colts ; such feet are subject to great irregularity of growth, also to splitting and fracture of the wall, bruising of the sole from hardness and irregularity of the ground, the insinuation of sand, pebbles, and other foreign bodies within the cleft of the frog, injuries to the coronet from treads and over-reaches when playing with each other, or when galloping in herds. Irregularity of Growth is a matter which should receive every attention. Sometimes it manifests itself by an overgrowth of horn at the toe ; sometimes by a similar overgrowth of horn at the inside quarter; either of which, unless checked, will produce a turning in of the toe, and in time an outward projection or bowed state of the fetlock joint. Numbers of horses have this peculiar projection of the fetlock joint, arising, in the first instance, from the want of proper care and attention to the feet when young. All such tendencies of growth in the foot, from whatever cause, should receive prompt attention. In attending to the foot of the colt, avoid paring the frog and the sole. All the horn which 48 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. nature can produce is required by these structures for the preser- vation of the parts within. The feet of wild colts should be carefully inspected at least once every two months ; and all irregularities of growth, if once observed, should be carefully watched for the future. Civilised Horses. — For the preservation of the feet of civilised horses, good shoeing is one — and perhaps the great — essential. First : Avoid all undue cutting, paring, and rasping of the feet. Secondly : Treat the feet according to rules laid down in answer to question i of the present section. Preserve, if possible, the natural toughness and elasticity of the horn. Horses having thin, weak feet, the application of cold water by means of swabs to the wall, or bandages loosely fixed to the limb, with occasionally the free use of the composition recommended at page 45, will be found the right course to pursue. Finally : The owner of a large stock of horses would find it greatly to his advantage, if he occasionally had the shoes removed, and his horses turned barefoot into a roomy box, having a layer of sawdust spread over the floor. A change of this kind, if taken advantage of, would be found highly conducive to the welfare of the feet. Where a large number of horses are kept, one or two of the stock might be spared at a time for the purpose sug- gested. THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 49 The practice of fixing tips upon the feet of horses at grass" is bad, and the sooner it is abolished the better. By turning the horse barefoot to grass, the frog and the sole are brought into full use. It is true the wall may in certain instances be broken to some extent, but this will prove in the end of little or no consequence ; besides, with care and management, even that may be greatly obviated, or altogether avoided. The feet of such horses should be frequently inspected, and all broken and fractured portions of horn carefully removed. Numbers who own horses would doubt- less put these suggestions into practice, but their attention is never called to such matters. Let us hope the remarks now offered may not in future be lost sight of. It is too much the practice to regard all destructive influences in operation upon the foot, as arising from causes involved in mystery. Hence men are continually upon the hunt for a new form of horse shoe, or for new modes of a remedial kind ; and hence, again, to meet these supposed wants, we have numbers of " patent" horse shoes and other inventions, the great bulk of which are so worthless and absurd in principle, that it is mere waste of time to bestow a second consideration upon them. Before we commit ourselves so hurriedly to the mere "fads" of amateurs or the worthless inventions of those who have no practical know- ledge of the farrier's art, let us use a little more common sense in availing ourselves of such resources as are in abundance around us. Is every farrier educated to the knowledge we possess ? and, Do our best farriers work, in all cases, to their full power ? We think not. So that, until we have brought into full and efficient play all the forces we possess, it is useless to repine, as all our H 50 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. search after new remedies, under circumstances of this nature, will not be attended with any better result to the comfort and welfare of our dumb servants. Shoeing with Leathers. — Shoeing with leathers is a common practice in large towns like Manchester, especially to horses of the heavy draught breed. There are two modes in general practice by which leathers are applied to the feet of horses. 1. By leather soles cut to the size of the foot, and placed between the shoe and the foot, and made secure with nails. 2, The second mode is by what receives the name of ring leathers. A ring leather is a piece of the article cut of the same form and size as the shoe, and secured to the foot along with the shoe. The ring leather forms a kind of second shoe ; and if properly applied, and carefully secured in a way that its ends cannot become loose, it may prove of great service in modifying concussion. A ring leather elevates the sole and wall further from the ground than these parts otherwise would be. Ring leathers are generally used to the feet of light horses. India-rubber, cut to the form stated, has been tried in place of leather, under the name of " cushion " to the foot, and letters patent have been taken out to secure what pecuniary gain might arise from its use. The best application of india-rubber for this purpose is the one patented by the late John Fowler, engineer, of Leeds. The india-rubber cushion does not answer unless by the mode patented by Mr. Fowler ; the elasticity THE SHOEING OF HORSES. 5 1 or reactive force of the agent is so great as to speedily loosen the shoes, by forcing the clenches, and thus is neutralised any good which otherwise might result. Leathers, when applied to the feet under certain conditions of the organ, are beneficial in several ways. T. The sole and frog of the foot are better to have a moderate degree of pressure, provided such pressure can be equally distributed over the entire surfaces of the frog and the sole. Leather is the best medium yet in use to effect this equalization of pressure on the parts named. 2. The feet of horses in large towns, from rarely or ever coming in contact with soft moist ground, become ex- ceedingly hard, dry, and brittle ; and cows' dung, the substance generally applied to produce a more favourable state of the foot, cannot at all times be readily secured ; a leather sole and a stopping of tar and tow are the best to apply for the purpose. 3. Feet having thin, flat soles, and low, weak heels, are generally tender. Leather soles are the best protectors to such feet. 4. Feet having bad thrushes, corns, bruise of the sole, stabs or injuries from the nails in shoeing, canker, an irregular broken or splintered state of the wall from any cause whatever, pumiced feet, and numerous other types and forms of an abnormal character, require either the per- manent or temporary use of leathers. 52 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. The sole should consist of light but strong leather. Heavy- horses require a leather sole of greater thickness than well-bred and lighter horses. Leather varying from 3-i6ths of an inch to a quarter of an inch in thickness will be of sufficient substance for the feet of any horse, however large and bulky. Along with the application of the leather, at the period of shoeing, it is necessary to use a compound, consisting of tar and ground linseed ; a portion of which is spread evenly over the sole. The foot is then carefully packed with clean tow, the leather placed upon the tow, and the shoe upon the whole, and securely nailed to the foot. Tow and stopping, unless carefully spread, are very likely to collect into small hard lumps, and by undue pressure upon the sole, cause the horse to become lame. Manchester : Printed by A. Ireland & Co., Pall Mall RETURN B!BLRtSuUKa.L.^;^^,^2:^ ,a BOOKS ^AAV BE RECALLED AFTER 7^ DUEASMiw!|DML^ FOR^ANO.DD0, 50m, 1/82