J r Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/comprehensivedicOOsmitrich A COMPREHENSIVE DICTIOMM OF THE BIBLE. MAINLY ABBIDGED FROM DR. TO/. SMITirS DICTIONARY OF TEE BIBLE, u BCT COMPBISINO IMPORTANT ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS FROM THE WORKS OF ROBI.VSON", GESEXIUS, FORST, PAPE, POTT, WINER, KEIL, LAXGE, KITTO, FAIRBAIRN ALEXANDER, BARNES, BUSH, THOMSON, STANLEY, PORTER, TRISTRAM, KING, AYRE, AND MANY OTHER EMINENT SCHOLARS, COMMENTATORS, TRAVELLERS, AND AUTHORS IN VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS. DESTONED TO BE A COMPLETE GUIDE IN BEOABD TO THE PRONTNCIATION AND SIGNIFICATION OF SCRIPTtTRAL NAMES ; THE SOLUTION OF DIFFICULTIES nESPECTINO THE INTERPRETATION, AUTHORITY, AND HARMONY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS ; THE HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF BIBLICAL CUSTOMS, EVENTS, PLACES, PERSONS, ANIMALS, PLANTS, MINERALS, AND OTHER THINGS CONCERNING WHICH INFORMATION IS NEEDED FOR AN INTELLIGENT AND THOROUGH STUDY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, AND OF THE BOOKS Of THE APOCRYPHA. EDITED BY REV. SAMUEL W. BARNUM. ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON & CO., 90, 92 & 94 GRAND STREET. LONDON: 10 LITTLE BRITAIN. 18CS, I r Enteeed, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1S67, by D. APPLETON & CO. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Tork. ,. ■■ ^ PREFACE. Dr. "William Smith's Dictionary op the Bible, published in 1860-63, and containing, i:i its three octavo volumes, nearly 3,200 pages, is a work of acknowledged excellence ; but its size, cost, and scholarly character, untit it for the use of the great mass of those who need a Dictionary of the Bible. The Concise Dictionary of the Bible, abridged from the larger work, under Dr. Smith's superintendence, by Mr. William A. Wright (1.039 pp., 8vo, 1805), is well executed in many respects; but it leaves out a large part of the illustrations, references, tables, and some entire articles ; frequently presupposes a familiar acquaintance with the Script- ures and with the learned languages ; alters, often unsatisfactorily, the pronunciation of hundreds of proper names, and plainly evinces a lack of appreciation of the popular necessities. Dr. Smith's Smaller Dictionary of the Bible (617 pp., crown 8vo, 1866) is characterized, in general, by the same excellences and faults as the Concise Dictionary, and, while it has about twenty valuable maps and plates which are not in either of the other works, it is far from being commensurate with the wants of studious readers of the Bible. The Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible, which is the fruit of three years of editorial labor, is a modified abridgment of Smith's larger Dictionary of the Bible, designed to present the results of modern scholarship in a complete, intelligible, and reliable form for popular use. It aims to bo, in all respects, a Standard Dictionary for the People. The general principles which have guided the Editor in the preparation of the present work are the following : — I. To make every thing intelligible to those who understand only the English language, and to place them as nearly as possible on a level with the scholars who are familiar with the origi- nal languages of the Scriptures. II. To condense the greatest possible amount of valuable information into one volume of convenient size and moderate cost. III. To guard against all influences hostile to Christian faith and love. In carrying out these general principles, the Comprehensive Dictionary is distinguished from Smith's Dictionaries of the Bible, as well as from most others, in respect to — 1. Pronunciation. Tliis Dictionary presents intelligibly and accurately the results of a dili- gent and extended examiiuxtion of the principles, analogies, and prevalent usage in this depart- ment. In some cases, two different modes of pronunciation are given, each of which has a foundation of authority or of reason to support it. All the words in the vocabulary are pro- nounced and divided into syllables, and words or parts of words are also respelled whenever this is needed to indicate the pronunciation. 2. Etymology. The derivation and signification of the proper names are systematically given according to tlie best etymologists. 3. Orthography. The Scriptural names and words in which there are diversities of spelling are inserted in the vocabulary under the diflferent forms which are prevalent, with a reference from the less common to the usual form. 4. Geography. JIany important additions and corrections have been made in this depart- ment, giving the results of the latest investigations, identifying the ancient sites according to the opinions of the best-informed geographers ami travellers, supplying numerous maps, plans, views of places, &c. Among the arlditions in this volume are the Plan of ancient Ant'och in Syria after .Aliiller (from Conybeare & Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul), the Maps of Arabia and Egypt (from Cassell's Bible Dictionary), the Map of the Jordan (from Tristram's 367902 iv PREFACE. Land of Israel), the two maps of Palestine (the first from Smith's Smaller Dictionary, the other from Ayre's Treasury of Bible Kuowledge), and the Map of the Countries visited ))y the Apostle Paul (from the last edition of Kitto's Cyclopsedia of Biblical Literature). In most other cases the authorities are given with the map or other important addition. 5. Ilktory of Cities and Countries. Many articles in Smitli's Dictionaries of the Bible pre- suppose tlie reader's access to Smith's Dictionary of Geography, &c., and thus omit important historical facts which the Comprehensive Dictionary briefly supplies. 6. Theology and Church Order. This Dictionary aims, without inculcating either sectarian or latitudinarian views, to assist its readers in ascertaining for themselves the tc-achings of the Bible in regard to religious doctrines and ecclesiastical organization. It carries into this depart- ment of Biblical investigation the feature, which Smith's Dictionary adopts in respect to nat- ural-history terms and some others, of giving the Hebrew and Greek equivalents of the English words with their exact significations and uses. 7. Consistency of the Dictionary with itself. While no important opinion has been suppressed and no real difiiculty evaded, great care has been taken to harmonize with the best authorities and with one another, if possible, the oft-conflicting opinions and statements of diflerent writers in Smith's Dictionary, or to provide for each having its own proper influence by inserting cross-references and notes, and often giving the name of the original contributor in connection ■with his opinion or statement or article. 8. References. The Scripture references of Smith's Dictionary have been diligently collated, often corrected, and in some articles considerably increased in number. The multitude of new cross-references to other articles in this Dictionary will greatly facilitate the finding of the in- formation contained in the work. 9. Additions to the original Korh. Many new articles have been added, and numerous addi- tions have been made to other articles, in order to give greater value and completeness to this Dictionary. One-third of the cuts and most of the maps are from other sources than Smith's _ Dictionaries. The additions and modifications in every part of this volume, and on every subject in it, make it, indeed, almost a new work. 10. Authorities. The new matter has been drawn from a wide range of first-class anthori- ties. The title-page and list of abbreviations give the names of a few only out of the more than 200 writers whose productions in various forms have been laid under contribution for the improvement of this Dictionary. Much use has been made, not only of Dictionaries of the Bible, Concordances, Lexicons, Commentaries, Cyclopa;dias, Books of Travel, and other bound volumes of the highest character, but also of elaborate essays and reviews in various periodi- cals. Valuable aid in several departments has been received from officers of Yale College. From these and other sources, many of which are mentioned in the body of the work, the Editor has obtained the needed material to make this " A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible." 11. Engravings. It is believed that no Dictionary of the Bible is so well illustrated ; but its abundant Pictorial Illustrations, as well as its numerous Maps, are intended for instruction and general utility rather than for mere ornament. 13. Typography. The large and open page, legible type, and accurate and beautiful me- chanical execution, need no commendation. To all who have aided him in the prosecution of his labors, and especially to the President and Librarian of Yale College, for the unrestricted use of the College Library, the Editor would return his hearty thanks. That the preparation and publication of this volume may promote the cause of true reli- ^on and sound Biblical learning, is the earnest desire and prayer of THE EDITOR. New IUten, June 4, 1668. I LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ORIGINAL WORK. Very Rev. HEN'RY ALFORD, D. D., Dean of Canterbury; Author of an edition of the Greek Testa- ment with a critical and cxegclical Commentary. Rev. HENllY BAILEY, B. D., Warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury. Rev. ALFRED BARRY, B. D., Principal of Cheltenham College. Rev. WILLIAM L. BEVAN, M. A., Vicar of Hay. Rev. JOSEPH W. BLAKE.SLEY, B. D., Canon of Canterbury. Rev. HORATIUS BOXAR, D. D., Kelso ; Author of " The Land of Promise," " The Desert of Si- nai," iic. Rev. THOMAS E. BROWN, M. A., Vice-Principal of King William's CoUege, Isle of Man. Ven. ROBERT W. BROWNE, M. A., Archdeacon of Bath. Right Rev. E. HAROLD BROWNE, D. D., Lord Bishop of Ely. Rev. WILLIAM T. BULLOCK, M. A., Secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Rev. SAMUEL CL.VRK, M. A., Vicar of Bredwardine with Brobury. Rev. F. C. COOK, M. A., Canon of Exeter. Right Rev. GEORGE E. L. COTTON, D. D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta. Rev. J. LLEWELYN DA VIES, M. A., Rector of Christ Church, Marylebone. Rev. GEORCjE E. DAY, D. D., Prof, of Hebrew and Biblical Theology, Yale College, New Haven, Ct. EMANUEL DEUTSCH, M. R. A. S., University of Berlin, and British Museum. Rev. WILLI .\M DRAKE, M. A., Hon. Canon of Worcester. Rev. EDWARD P. EDDRUP, M. A., Principal of the Theological College, Salisbury. Right Rev. CHARLES J. ELLICOTT, D. D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol; Author of "A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles," &c. Rev. FREDERICK W. FARRAR, M. A., Assistant Master of Harrow School. JAMES FERGUS30N, F. R. S., F. R. A. S., Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Author of '• Essay on the Anc. Topography of Jerusalem," " Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," &c. EDMUND S. FFOULKES, M. A., late Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Right Rev. WILLIAM FITZGERALD, D. D., Lord Bishop of Killaloe. Rev. FRANCIS GARDEN, M. A., Subdean of the Chapel Royal. Rev. F. W. GOTCH, LL. D., Hebrew Examiner, University of London ; President of the Baptist College, Bristol. GEORGE GROVE, Crystal Palace, Sydenham. Rev. HORATIO B. HACKETT, D. D., Prof of Biblical Literature, Newton, Mass. ; Author of " A Cora- mentarv ( n t'le Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles," " Illustrations of Scripture," &c. Rev. ERNEST HAWKINS, B. D., Canon of Westminster. Rev. HENRY HAYMAN, M. A., Head Master of the Grammar School, Cheltenham. Ven. LORD ARTHUR C. HERVEY, M. A., Archdeacon of Sudbury and Rector of Ickworth ; Author of " Genealogies of our Lord Jesus Christ." Rev. JAMES A. HESSEY, D. C. L., Head Master of Merchant Tailors' School, Preacher to the Hon. Society of Gray's Inn; Prebendary of St. Paul's; Bampton Lecturer for 1860. JOSEPH D. HOOKER, M. D., F. R. S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Rev JAMES J. HORNBY, M. A., Principal of Bishop Cosin's Hall. Rev. WILLIAM HOUGHTON, M. A., F. L. S., Rector of Preston on the Weald Moors, Salop. iv PREFACE. Land of Israel), the two maps of Palestine (the first from Smith's Smaller Dictionary, the other from Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge), and the Map of the Countries visited Ijy the Apostle Paul (from the last edition of Kitto's Cyelojjsedia of Biblical Literature). In most other cases the authorities are given with the map or other important addition. 5. HMory of Cities and Countries. Many articles in Smith's Dictionaries of the Bible pre- suppose the reader's access to Smith's Dictionary of Geography, &c., and thus omit important historical facts which the Comprehensive Dictionary briefly supplies. 6. Theology and Church Order. This Dictionary aims, without inculcating either sectarian or latitudinarian views, to assist its readers in ascertaining for themselves the tf-achings of the Bible in regard to religious doctrines and ecclesiastical organization. It carries into this depart- ment of Biblical investigation the feature, which Smith's Dictionary adopts in respect to nat- ural-history terms and some others, of giving the Hebrew and Greek equivalents of the English words with their exact significations and uses. 7. Consistency of the Dictionary with itself. While no important opinion has been suppressed and no real difficulty evaded, great care has been taken to harmonize with the best authorities and with one another, if possible, the oft-conflicting opinions and statements of different writers in Smith's Dictionary, or to provide for each having its own proper influence by inserting cross-references and notes, and often giving the name of the original contributor in connection with his opinion or statement or article. 8. References. The Scripture references of Smith's Dictionary have been diligently collated, often corrected, and in some articles considerably increased in number. The multitude of new cross-references to other articles in this Dictionary will greatly facilitate the finding of the in- formation contained in the work. 9. Additions to the original icorh. Many new articles have been added, and numerous addi- tions have been made to other articles, in order to give greater value and completeness to this Dictionary. One-third of the cuts and moat of the maps are from other sources than Smith's . Dictionaries. The additions and modifications in every part of this volume, and on every subject in it, make it, indeed, almost a new work. 10. Authorities. The new matter has been drawn from a wide range of first-class authori- ties. The title-page and list of abbreviations give the names of a few only out of the more than 200 writers whose productions in various forms have been laid under contribution for the improvement of this Dictionary. Much use has been made, not only of Dictionaries of the Bible, Concordances, Lexicons, Commentaries, Cyclopaedias, Books of Travel, and other bound volumes of the highest character, but also of elaborate essays and reviews in various periodi- cals. Valuable aid in several departments has been received from officers of Yale College. From these and other sources, many of which are mentioned in the body of the work, the Editor has obtained the needed material to make this " A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible." 11. Engravings. It is believed that no Dictionary of the Bible is so well illustrated ; but its abundant Pictorial Illustrations, as well as its numerous Maps, are intended for instruction and general utility rather than for mere ornament. 13. Typography. The large and open page, legible type, and accurate and beautiful me- chanical execution, need no commendation. To all who have aided him in the prosecution of his labors, and especially to the President and Librarian of Yale College, for the unrestricted use of the College Library, the Editor would return his hearty thanks. That the preparation and publication of this volume may promote the cause of true reli- gion and sound Biblical learning, is the earnest desire and prayer of THE EDITOR. New IIaven, June 4, 1868. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ORIGINAL WORK. i I Very Rev. HEVRY ALFORD, D. D., Dean of Canterbury; Author of an edition of the Greek Testa- ment with a critical and cxegetical Commentary. Rev. HENllY BAILEY, B. D., Warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury. Rev. ALFRED BARRY, B. D., Principal of Cheltenham College. Rev. WILLIAM L. BEVAN, M. A., Vicar of Hay. Rev. JOSEPH W. BLAKE.SLEY, B. D., Canon of Canterbury. Rev. HORATIUS BONAR, D. D., Kelso; Author of "The Laud of Promise," "The Desert of Si- nai," &c. Rev. THOMAS E. BROWN, M. A., Vice-Principal of King William's CoUege, Isle of Man. Yen. ROBERT W. BROWNE, M. A., Archdeacon of Bath. Right Rev. E. HAROLD BROWNE, D. D., Lord Bishop of Ely. Rev. WILLIAM T. BULLOCK, M. A., Secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Rev. SAMUEL CLARK, M. A., Vicar of Bredwardine with Brobury. Rev. F. C. COOK, M. A., Canon of Exeter. Right Rev. GEORGE E. L. COTTON, D. D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta. Rev. J. LLEWELYN DA VIES, M. A., Rector of Christ Church, Marvlebone. Rev. GEORGE E. DAY, D. D., Prof, of Hebrew and Biblical Theology, Yale College, New Haven, Ct. EMANUEL DEUTj^CH, M. R. A. S., University of Berlin, and British Museum. Rev. WILLI .\M DRAKE, M. A., Hon. Canon of Worcester. Rev. EDWARD P. EDDRUP, M. A., Principal of the Theological College, Salisbury. Right Rev. CHARLES J. ELLICOTT, D. D., Lord Bi.-ihop of Gloucester and Bristol; Author of "A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles," &c. Rev. FREDERICK W. FARRAR, M. A., Assistant Master of Harrow School. JAMES FERGUSSON, F. R. S., F. R. A. S., Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Author of '■ Essay on the Anc. Topography of Jerusalem," " Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," &c. EDMUND S. FFOULKES, M. A., late Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Right Rev. WILLIAM FITZGERALD, D. D., Lord Bishop of Killaloe. Rev. FRANCIS GARDEN, M. A., Subdean of the Chapel Royal. Rev. F. W. GOTCH, LL. D., Hebrew Examiner, University of London ; President of the Baptist College, Bristol. GEORGE GROVE, Crystal Palace, Sydenham. Rev. HORATIO B. HACKETT, D. D., Prof, of Biblical Literature, Newton, Mass. ; Author of "A Com- mentarv en t'lc Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles," " Illustrations of Scripture," &c. Rev. ERNEST HAWKINS, B. D., Canon of Westminster. Rev. HENRY HAYMAN, M. A., Head Master of the Grammar School, Cheltenham. Ven. LORD ARTHUR C. HERVEY, M. A., Archdeacon of Sudbury and Rector of Ickworth ; Author of " Genealogies of our Lord Jesus Christ." Rev. JAMES A. HESSEY, D. C. L., Head Master of Merchant Tailors' School, Preacher to the Hon. Society of Gray's Inn; Prebendary of St. Paul's; Bampton Lecturer for 1860. JOSEPH D. HOOKER, M. D., F. R. S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Rev JAMES J. HORNBY, M. A., Principal of Bishop Cosin's Hall. Rev. WILLIAM HOUGHTON, M. A., F. L. S., Rector of Preston on the Weald Moors, Salop. vi LIST OF COXTIUBLTORS TO THE ORIGINAL WORK. Rev. JOHN S. HOWSOX, D. D., Principal of the Collegiate Institution, Liverpool ; Hulsean Lecturer for 1863 ; Joint-Author with Rev. W. J. Conybeare of " The Life and Epistles of St. Paul." Rev. EDGAR HUXTABLE, M. A., Subdean of Wells. Rev. W. BASIL JONES, M. A., Prebendary of York and of St. David's. AUSTEN H. LAYARD, D. 0. L., M. P., Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ; Author of " Nineveh and its Remains," "Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon," &c. Rev. STANLEY LEATHES, M. A., M. R. S. L., Prof, of Hebrew', King's CoUege, London. Rev. JOSEPH B. LIUHTFOOT, M. A., Hulsean Prof, of Divinity, Cambridge. Rev. D. W. MARKS, Prof, of Hebrew, University College, London. Rev. FREDERICK MEYRICK, M. A., One of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. Prof. JULES OPPERT, of Paris ; Author (in French) of an Assyrian Grammar, Annals of Sargoa, Chronology of Babylon and Assyria, French Scientific Expedition in Mesopotamia, &c. Rev. EDWARD R. ORGER, M. A., Fellow and Tutor of St. Augustine's CoUege, Ca»terbury. Ven. THOMAS J. ORMEROD, M. A., Archdeacon of Suffolk. Rev. JOHN J. S. PEROWNE, B. D., Vice-Principal of St. David's College, Lampeter. Rev. THOMAS T. PEROWNE, B. D., Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Rev. HENRY W. PHILLOTT, M. A., Rector of Staumon-on-Wye. Rev. EDWARD H. PLUMPTRE, M. A., Prof of Divinity, King's College, London. E. ST^VJ^LEY POOLE, M. R. A. S., South Kensington Museum. R. STUART POOLE, M. R. S. L., British Museum; Author of "Hone .(EgyptiacsD," "Genesis of tlie Earth and of Man," &c. Rev. J. LESLIE PORTER, M. A., Author of " Handbook of Syria and Palestine," "Five Years in Damas- cus," &c. ; Prof, of Sacred Literature, Assembly's College, Belfast. Rev. CHARLES PRITCIIARD, M. A., F. R. S., Hon. Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society. Rev. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M. A., Camtlen Prof, of Ancient History, Oxford ; Bampton Lecturer for 1859 ; Author of a new English version of the History of Herodotus, with Notes and Appendices, " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World," &c. Rev. HENRY J. ROSE, B. D., Rector of Hougliton Conquest, Bedford.-hire. Rev. WILLIAM SELWYN, D. D., Lady Margaret's Prof, of Divinity, Cambridge. WILLIAM SMITH, LL. D. (Editor), Classical Examiner in the University of London. Rev. ARTHUR P. STANLEY, D. D., Rcpius Prof of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford ; Dean of Westminster ; Author of " Sinai and Palestine," " History of the Eastern Church," kc. Rev. C.\LV1N E. STOWE, D. D., Hartford, Ct. ; late Prof, of Sacred Literature, Andover, Mass. Rev. JOSEPH P. THOMPSON, D. P., Pastor of the Bioadway Tabernacle Chuich, New York ; Author of " Ejypt, Past and Present," &c. Most Rev. William Thomson, D. D., Lord Archbishop of York. Rev. JOSEPH F. THRUPP, M. A., Vicar of Barrington. SAMUEL P. TREGELLES, LL. D., Author of " An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek Testa- ment," a critical edition of the Greek New Testament, &c. Rev. II. B. TRISTRAM, M. A., F. L. S., Master of Greatham Hospital; Author of "The Land of Israel." Hon. EDWARD T. B. TWISTLETON, M. A., late Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Rev. EDMUND VENABLES, M. A., Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. Rev. BROOKE F. WESTCOTT, M. A., Assistant Master of Harrow School ; Author of " Introduction to the Study of the Gospels." Rev. CHRISTOPHER WORDSWORTH, D. D., Archdeacon and Canon of Westminster ; Author of a Com- mentary on the Bible. WILLIAM ALDIS WRIGHT, M. A., Librarian of Trinity College, Cambridge ; Hebrew Examiner in the University of London. A COMPEEHEIsfSIVE DICTIOJS^AEY OF THE BIBLE. A A'a-lar. Addan. Aaron [air'on] (fr. Htb. = mountaineer? Ges. ; enlightmcd, Fii.), the brother of MosES and Miriam, and son of Ararara and Jochebed (Num. xxvi. 59, xxxili. 39). He was three years older than Moses, and probably several years younger than Miriam (Ex. ii. 4, Tii. 7). He is first mentioned in Ex. iv. 14, as " Aaron the Levite," who "could speak well." He was apparently, like many eloquent men, impulsive and comparatively unstable, leaning almost wholly on his brother ; incapable of that endurance of lone- liness and temptation, which is an element of real greatness ; but earnest in his devotion to God and man, capable of sacrifice and of discipline by trial, and deservedly styled " the saint of the Lord " (Ps. cvi. 16). He was appointed by Jehovah to be the Interpreter and " Mouth " (Ex. iv. 16) of Moses, who was " slow of speech ; " and accordingly he was not only the organ of communication with the Israel- ites and with Pharaoh (Ex. iv. 30, vii. 2), but also the actual instrument of working most of the mir- acles of the Exodus. (See Ex. vii. 19, &e.) Thus on the way to Mount Sinai, during the battle with Anialek, Aaron with Hur held up the weary hands of Moses, when they were lifted up for the victory of Israel, not in prayer, but to bear the rod of God (Ex. xvii. 9). Through all this period he was sub- ordinate to his brother. At Sinai, Aaron only ap- proaches with Nadab and Abihu, and the seventy eld- ers of Israel, by special command, near enough to see God's glory, but not so as to enter His immediate presence. Left then, on Moses' departure, to guide the people, Aaron fails to withstand the demand of the people for visible " gods to go before them " (sec Ex. xxxii. ; Calf ; Idolatry). There can hard- ly le a stronger contrast with this weakness, and the self-convicted shame of his excuse, than the burning indignation of Moses, and his stern, decisive measures of vengeance , although beneath these lay an ardent affection, which went almost to the verge of presumption in prayer for the people (Ex. xxxii. 19-34), and gained forgiveness for Aaron himself (Deut. ix. 20). Immediately after this great sin, Aaron was consecrated by Moses to the new office of iiiGii-PRiKST. The order of God for the consecra- tion is found in Ex. xxix., and the record of its exe- cution in Lev. viii. The solemnity of the office, and its entire dependence for sanctity on the ordinance J ABA of God, were vindicated by the death of his sons, Nadab and Abihu, for " offering strange fire " on the altar (Lev. x.). From this time the history of Aaron is almost entirely that of the priesthood, and its chief feature is the great rebellion of Korah and the Levites against his sacerdotal dignity, united with that of Dathan and Abiram and tlie Kcubenites against the temporal authority of Moses. The true vindication of Aaron's priesthood was, not so much the death of Korah by the fire of the Lord, as the efficacy of his offering of incense to stay the plague, by which he was seen to be accepted as an Inter- cessor for tlie people. The blooming of his rod, which followed, was a miraculous sign, visible to all, and capable of preservation, of God's choice of him and his house. The murmuring of Aaron and Miriam against Moses clearly proceeded from Aaron's trust in his priesthood, and Miriam's in her prophetic in- spiration, as equal commissions from God (Num. xii. 2). It probably originated mainly with Miriam, and seems to have vanished at once before the declaration of Moses' exaltation above all prophecy and priest- hood, except that of One who was to come. Acting with Moses in the guidance of the people, he shared his sin at Meribah, and its punishment (Num. xx. 10-12) Aaron's death, at the age of one hundred and twenty-three years (Num. xxxiii. 39), seems to have followed very speedily. It took place on Mount Hor, after the transference of his robes and office to Eleazar, who alone with Moses was present at his death, and performed his burial (Num. xx. 28). This mount is still called the " Mountain of Aaron." The wife of Aaron was Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23) ; and the two sons who survived him were Eleazar and Itha- MAR. The high-priesthood descended to the former, and was in his family until the time of Eli, and again from Zadok onward. Aar'on-ites [air] = descendants of Aabom (1 Chr. xii. 27, xxvii. 17). Priest. k\> (Ueh. fallier). Abba; Mo.STn. Ab'a-rne (L. ; 2 Esd. i. 40) = Haoakeck. A-bad'don (Heb. dcslrudlon). Rev. ix. 1 1. Apol- LYON. Ab-a-di'as = Obadiah, son of Jebiel (1 Esd. viii. 35). • A-bag'tha (Heb. fr. Sansc. =3 given by fortune, Bohlen, Ges. ; see Bigtha), one of the seven eunuchs in the Persian court of Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10). Ab'a>na (L. fr. Heb. — Aua.na, Ges.), one of the 2 "ABi ABI "rivers of Damascus " (2 K. v. 12), probably the modem Barada, the chief river of the city. This clear and limpid stream is the main source of the beauty and fertility of the plain of Damascus. It rises in the Antilibanus, at about twenty-three miles N. W. from the city, alter flowing through which, in several distinct streams, it runs across the plain and falls by different branches into the Bahret el-Kibliyeh (" South Lake ") and Bahret esh-Shurkiyeh (" East Lake "), two of the three lakes or marshes fifteen or twenty miles E. of Damascus (Rbn. lii. 446 ; Ptr. cbs. V. ix.). Amana ; Pharpar. Aba-rim (Heb. regions beyond, Ges.), a mountain or range of highlands E. of the Jordan, in the land of Moab (Deut. xxxii. 49), facing Jericho, and form- ing the E. wall of the Jordan valley at that part. Its most elevated spot was " the Mount Nebo, ' head ' of ' the ' PisGAH," from which Moses viewed the Promised Land before his death (Num. xxvii. 12, xxxiii. 47, 48 ; Deut. xxxii. 49 ; probably Jer. xxii. 20, A. V. " passages "). Ije-Abarim. Ab'ba (0^a\. father = Heb. As), a term applied to God by the Lord Jesus (Mk. xiv. 36), and by St. Paul (Horn. viii. 15 ; Gal. iv. 6). Ab'da (fr. Heb. = servant, sc. of God, Ges.). 1. Father of Adoniram (1 K. iv. 6).— 2. Son of Sham- mua (Neh. xi. 17) ; = Obadiah in 1 Chr. ix. 16. Ab'de-el (fr. Heb. = servant of God, Ges.), father of Shclemiah (Jer. xxxvi. 26). Ab'di (Heb. servant of Jehovah, Ges.). 1. A Mc- rarite, ancestor of Ethan the singer (1 Chr. vi. 44). — 2. A Merarite, father of Kisn 4 (2 Chr. xxix. 12). —3, One of the sons of Elam in the time of Ezra, who had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 26). Ab-di'as (2 Esd. i. S9) — Obadiah. Ab'di-el (Heb. servant of God, Ges.), a Gaditc, Bon of Guni and father of Ahi (1 Chr. v. 15). Ab'don (Heb. servile, Ges.). 1. A judge of Israel (Judg. xii. 13, 15), perhaps = Bedan in 1 Sam. xii. 11.— 2. Son of Shashak (1 Chr. viii. 23).— 3. First- born son of Jehiel, the father of Gibeon (1 Chr. viii. 30, ix. 35, 36). — 4. Son of Micah, and a contem- porary of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiv. 20) ; = Achbor in 2 K. xxii. 12. — 5< A city of Asher, given to the Ger- shonites (Josh. xxi. 30 ; 1 Chr. vi. 74) ; = Hebron 2. A-bed DC-go (Chal. servant of Kego, perhaps = the Chal. god Nebo), the Chaldean name given to Dan- iel's friend Azariah, miraculously saved from the fiery furnace (Dan. i.-iii.). Azahiah 24. Abel (L. fr. Heb. hebel ■= breath, vapor, transilori- •less ; probably so called from the shortness of his life), second son of Adam, murdered by his brother Cain (Gen. iv. 1-16). Jehovah showed respect for Abel's offering, but not for Cain's, because (Heb. xi. 4) Abel " by faith offered a more excellent sacrifice than Cain." The expression " sin," i. e. sin-offering, " lieth at the ^oor " (Gen. iv. 7), seems to imply that the need of sacrifices of blood to obtain for- giveness was already revealed. Rather, " sin " (per- sonified in this address of God to Cain) " lieth " (lit. crourheth, i. e. lieth in wait for thee, like a wild beast) " at the door " (so Ges., Bush, Fbn., &c.). Our Lord spoke of Abel as the first martyr (Mat. xxiii. 35); so did the early church subsequently. A legend connects his name with Abila (Abile.ne), near which is his reputed tomb, Kebi Habil = Pro- phet Abel'(B,X\. xii. n.). Abel (Heb. meadow, Ges.), the name of several places in Palestine. I. A'bel-betb-ma'a-chah [-kah] (Heb. meadow of Beth-Maachah, Fii.), or A'CEL- ua'im (Heb. Abel on, or meadow of, the waters), or simply A'bel, a town of some importance (" a city and a mother in Israel," 2 Sam. xx. 19), in the ex- treme N. of Palestine ; named with Dan, Cinneroth, Kedesh ; early a prey to the invading kings of Syria (1 K. XV. 20 : '^Chr. xvi. 4) and Assyria (2 K. xv. 29). Here Sheba was overtaken and besieged by Joab (2 Sam. xx. 14, 15); and the city was saved by the exercise, on the part of one of its inhabi- tants, of its proverbial sagacity (18). It was prob- ably at the modem Abil, a village on a hill, one hour N. E. from Jinnin (anciently Rehob ?) (Rbn. iii. 372 ; Thn. i. 324). — 1. A'bel-miz'ra-im (Heb. the mourn- ing of Hgypt), the name given by the Canaanites to the floor of Atad (Gen. 1. 11). — 3> A'bel-shit'tim (Heb. meadow of acacias) in the " plains " of Moab ; on the low level of the Jordan valley, in distinction from the cultivated " fields " on the upper level of the fable-land. Here, their resting-place befcre cross- ing the Jordan, Israel " pitched from Beth-jesimoth unto Abel-Shittim " (Num. xxxiii. 49). The place is most frequently called Shittim. In the days of Josephus, it was known as Abila, the town embos- omed in palms, sixty stadia from the river. Among these palms (so Josephus) Deuteronomy was deliv- ered by Moses. The town and the palms have dis- appeared ; the acacia-groves still lemain. — 4. A'bel- >ie-ho'lah (Heb. meadow of the dance), named with Beth-shean and Jokneam(l K. iv. 12), and therefore in the N. part of the Jordan valley. To " the border of Abel-Meliolah " and to Beth-shittah, the routed host fled from Gideon (Judg. vii. 22). Here Elisha was found at his plough by Elijah (1 K. xlx. 16-19). — 5, A'bel-ce-ra'mim (or A. Crdmim, Heb.; A. V., " the plain of the vineyards' ), a place E. of Jordan, beyond Aroer, to which Jephthah's pursuit of the Ammonites extended (Judg. xi. 33). An Abel is mentioned by Eusebius at six miles beyond Philadel- phia (Rabbah) ; and another, where are now ruins, more to the N., twelve miles E. from Gadara. — C< " The great ' Abel,' in the field of Joshua the Beth- shemite" (1 Sam. vi. 18). Probably (cotr.p. ver. 14, 15) for Abel .should be read Men(m Heb.) = " stone." Some, however, suppose the place named Abel from the "mouming" there (ver. 1 9 ; comp. Gen. 1. 11). The A. V. here mserts " stone of." A'bez (Heb. tin ? Ges.), a town of Issachar, named between Kishion and Remeth (Josh. xix. 20 only). A'bl (Heb. = Abijah, Ges.). mother of king Hez- ekiah (2 K. xviii. 2), called Abijah in 2 Chr. xxix. 1. Her father was Zaehariah, or Zechariah. A-M'a (fr. Heb. = Abijah). 1. Son of Rehoboam; = Abijah 1, or Abijam (1 Chr. iii. 10; Mat. i. 7). — 2. Chief of the eighth course of priests ; a descend- ant of Eleazar (Lk. i. 5) ; = Abijah 3. A-bl'ah (fr. Heb. = Abijah). 1. Son of Becher, Benjamin's son (1 Chr. vii. 8); supposed by Lord A. C. Hervey = Aphiaii (?). — 2. Wife of Ilezron (1 Chr. ii. 24). — 3< Second son of Samuel, whom together with his eldest son Joel he made judge in Beersheba (1 .«am. viii. 2 ; 1 Chr. vi. 28). The cor- ruptness of their administration was the reason al- leged by the Israelites for demanding a king. A-bl-ll ben = Abiel 2. A-bi'a-sapb or E-bi'a-s«pb (Heb. vhose father [Ko- rah, Num. xvi.] God took away, S\m.; father of gath- ering, i. e. the gatherer, Fii. and Ges.), the head of a family of the Korhites. In Ex. vi. 24, he appears to be a son of Koiah and brother of Assir and Elkanah : in 1 Chr. vi. 23, Ebiasaph (probably = Abiasaph) is son of Elkanah, the son of Afsir, the son of Ko- rah (comp. v. 37). Ihe natural inference from this would be that in Ex. vi. 24, " the sons of Korah "= the families into which the bouse of the Korhites ABI ABI a wa» fubdivided (oomp. 1 Chr. ix. 19). Among the remarkable descendants of Abiasaph, according to 1 Ctir. vi. 33-37, were Samuel tlie prophet and El- kana'n his father (1 Sam. L 1), and Heman the Bthjer. A-bi'a-thar (fr. Heb. = whose father survived, so. deceased mother, Sim. ; father of eicellfiice, or of abundance, Fii., Ges.), high-priest of the line of Eli and Ithamar. He was the only one of all the sons of Ahimelkch who escaped the slaughter of his fa- ther's house by Saul (1 Sam. xxii.). Abiathar fled to David " with an cphod in his hand," and was thus enabled to inquire of the Lord for him (1 Sam. xxiii. 6, 9, XXX. 7 ; 2 Sam. ii. 1, v. 19, kc). The fact of David having been the unwilliiig cause of the death of all Abiathar's kindred, coupled with his gratitude to Ahimelech, made him a firm and steadfast friend to Abiathar all his lifs. Abiathar on his part ad- hered to David in his wanderings, was with him in Hebron (2 Sam. ii. 1-3), carried the ark before him to Jerusalem (1 Chr. xv. 11 ; 1 K. ii. 26), continued faithful to him in Absalom's rebellion (2 Sam. xv. 24-36, xvii. 15-17, xix. 11); and " was afflicted iu all wherein David was afflicted." He was also one of David's chief counsellors (1 Chr. xxvii. 34). Abi- athar was, however, one of Adonijah's chief parti- sans, while Zadok wai on Solomon's side. For this Abiathar was supers^ led in the high-priesthood, and banished to his native Anathoth, and his life was spared by Solomon only on the strength of his long and faithful service to Dnvid. " Solomon tlrrust out Abiathar from being priest unto the Lord," and "Zadok the priest did the king put in the room of Abiathar" (1 K. ii. 27, 35). Probably Abiathar did not long survive David, though he is mentioned in 1 K. iv. 4 (comp. ver. 2, and 1 Chr. vi. 10). There are some difficulties connected with Abiathar. (1.) It is difficult to determine the position of Abiathar relatively to Zadok, and to account for the double high-priesthood. Zadok, descended from Eleazar, Aaron's elder son, is first mentioned in 1 Chr. xii. 28, as " a young man mighty of valor," who joined Da- vid while he reigned in Hebron. From this time we read, both in Samuel and Chronicles, of " Zadok and Abiathar the priests," Zadok being always named first. And yet Solomon on his accession put Zadok in the room of Abiathar. Perhaps Abiathar was the first, and Zadok the second priest ; but from the superior strength of the house of Eleazar, which fur- nished sixteen out of the twenty-four courses (1 Chr. XXIV.), Zadok acquired considerable influence with David ; and this, added to his being the heir of the elder line, and perhaps also to some of the passages being written after Zadok's line were eitablished in the high-priesthood, led to the prece Jesse's second son, who fol- lowed Saul to his war against the Philistines (1 Sam. xvi. 8, xvii. 13). — 3t A sen of Saul, slain with his father and brothers on Mount Gilbca (1 Sam. xxxi. 2). — 4. Father of one of Solomon's twelve commis. saries, who is called in the margin Ben-abinadab (1 K. iv. 11). Ab'i-uer, a Hebrew form of Abner (1 Sam. xiv. 50, marg.). A-bin'o-tm (Heb. father of pleasantness, or of grace, Ges.), the father of Baiak (Judg. iv. 6, 12 ; v. 1, 12). A-bi'wm (Heb. father of altitude, Ges.). I. A Eeubenite, son of Eliab, and conspirator with tl.e Keubenites Dathan and On, and the Levite Korah, against Moses and Aaron (Num. xvi.).— 2. Eldest son of HiEL, the Bethelite, who died when his father laid the foundations of Jericho (1 K. xvi. 34). A-blron = Abiram 1 (Ecclus. xiv. 18). Ab-l-sel = Abishua 2 (2 Esd. i. 2). Ab'I-slisg (Heb. father of error, Ges.), a beautiful Shvmammite, taken into David's harem to comfort him in his extreme old age (1 K. i. 1-4). After Da- vid's death Adonijah induced Bathsheba to ask Solomon to give him Abishag in marriiige ; but this imprudent petition cost Adonijah his life (1 K. ii. 13, &c.). A-blsh a-1 or A-bi'shai (Hob. father of a gift, Ges.), son, probably eldest son, of David's sister Zeruiah, and brother to Joab and Asahel (1 Chr. ii. 16). He was an early, courageous, and devoted follower of David, and one of his chief oflSeers. He accoinpa- ABI ABO nieJ David in his desperate night expedition to Saul's camp, and was restrained by David from stabbinf^ the sleeping Iting with his own spear (1 Sum. xxvi. 6-9). lie 13 next mentioned as associated with Joab in pur- suing Abner at Gibeon, burying Asahel, and after- ward slaying Abner (2 Sara. ii. 18, 24, iii. 30). In the war against Hanun, Abishai, as second in com- nianu, was opposed to the army of the Ammonites before the gates of Kabbah, ami drove them before him into the city, while Jcab defeated the Syrians (2 Sam. X. 10, 14 ; 1 Chr. xix. 11, 15). The decisive defeat of the Edomites in the valley of salt (1 Chr. xviii. 12), which brought them to a state of vassal- age, was due to Abishai, acting perhaps under the immediate orders of the king (see 2 Sam. viii. 13), or of Joab (Ps. li. title). He aecompanied the king in his Bight from Absalom, and was eager to punish the insolence of rihimei (2 Sam. xvi. 9, 12, xix. 21). In the battle in the wood of Ephraim Abishai com- manded one-tliird of the army (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 5, 12). In the absence of Amasa he was summoned to as- semble the troops in Jerusalem and pursue after the rebel Sheba (2 Sam. xx. 6, 10). He also rescued David from the gigantic I'hilistine, Ishbi-benob (2 Sam. xxi. 17). His having successfully fought single- handed against three hundred, won for him a place as captain of the second three of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 20). Of the end of liis life we have no record. A-bLsh'a-lom (Hcb. = Absalom), father, or grand- father, of Maachah, who was the wife of Rehoboam, and mother of Abijah (1 K. xv. 2, 10); called Ab- salom in 2 Chr. xi. 20, 21 ; probably David's son (see LXX., 2 Sara. xiv. 27). i-b!sh'a-a (Ilcb. father's welfare, Sim. ; father or lord of happinens, Fii. ; father of wefare, Ges.). 1, Son of B.'la, of tlie tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 4). — 2. Son of Phinelias, and father of Bukki, in the genealogy of the high-priests (1 Chr. vi. 4, 5, 50, 51 ; Ezr. vii. 4, 5); called in the Apocrypha Abisei and Auisctf. High- riest. Ib'l-iihnr (Heb. futher of the wall, Ges.), son of Shammai ( 1 Chr. ii. 28, 29). Ab'l-snm = Abisiiita 2 (1 Esd. viii. 2). Ab'i-tnl (ileb. whose fatlur is the (leu\ Ges.), one of D.ivid's wives (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Chr. ili. 3). Ab'i-tnb (lli'b. father of j/oodnens, Ges.), son of Shah.iT-aim by Hushiin (1 Chr. viii. 11). A-blud (L. = ABiiiun), descendant of Zorobabel in the genealogy of Jesis Christ (Mat. i. 13). Lord A. C. licrvey identifies him with IIodaiaii and Joda 2, and supposes him the grandson of Zorobabel through his daughter Shelomith. • AbJectS (Ps. XXXV. 15), the A. V. translation of the Ileb. pi. nichhn, which (so Ges.) = amitem, sc. with the tongue, i. e. railers, slanderers ; or (so Lu- ther, J. X. Alexander on Ps.) — smitten, sc. in the feet, i. e. the lame, cripples. Ab-lu'tiOD. POBIFICATIOS. Ab'aer (Heb. father of a Uyht = Abiner. Ges.). I. Son of Ner, i^aul's uncle (sec Sahl 2), and com- mander-in-chief of his army (1 Sam. xiv. 50, 51 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 28). He conducted David inio Saul's presence after the death of Goliath (xvii. 55-67); and afterward accompanied his master when he sought David's life at Hachilah (xxvi. 3-14). After Saul's death, he was the main stay of his family. Af- ter the disastrous battle of Mount Gilboa, David was proclaimed king of Judah in Hebron (2 Sam. ii. 4), but the rest of the country being apparently in the hand.-! of the Philistines, five years passed before Abner proclaimed Ishbosueth king of Israel, at Ma- hanaim. Ishbosheth was generally recognized, ex- cept by Judah. War soon broke out between the two rival kings, and a " very sore battle " was fought at Gibeon between the men of Israel under Abner and the men of Juiiah under Joab. When tlie unny of Ishbosheth was defeated, Joab's swill-footed youngest brother Asahel pursued Abner, and in spite of warning refused to leave him, so that Ab- ner in self-defence killed him. After this the war continued, success inclining more and more to the side of David, till at last the imprudence of Ishbosh- eth deprived him of the counsels and generalship of the hero, who was the only support of his tottering throne. Abner had married Kizpah, Saul's concu- bine, and this, according to the views o( Oriental courts, might imply a design upon the throne. (Ab- salom; Adonijah.) Rightly or wrongly, Isliboshcth so understood it, and reproached Abner with it. Ab- ner, alter an indignant reply, opened negotiations with David, by whom he was most favorably re- ceived at Hebron. He then undertook to procure his recognition throughout Israel ; but after leaving his court for the purpose was enticed back by Joab, anil treacherously murdered by him and his brother Abishai, at tlie gate of the city, partly no doubt, as Joab sliowed afterward in the case of Amasa, from fear lest so distinguished a convert to their cause should gain too high a place in David's favor, but ostensibly in retaliation for the death of Asahel. This murder caused the greatest sorrow and indig- nation to David ; but, as the assassins were too powerful to be punished, lie contented himself with showing every public token of respect to Abner's memory, by following the bier and pouring forth a simple dirge over the slain (2 Sam. iii. 33, 34). — 2, The father of Jaasiel, chief of the Bcnjamites in Da- vid's reign (1 Chr. xxvii. 21) ; probably= No. 1. * A-bom-l-na'tion, the A. V. translation of several Heb. words {shlkkuts, shekcts, td'cbuh, &c.), and of the Gr. bddugnta. " These W-crds describe generally any object of detestation or disgust (Lev. xviii. 22 ; Dent. vii. 25); and are applied to an impure or de- testable action (Ez. xxii. 11, xxxiii. 26; Mai. ii. 11, &c.) ; to any thing causing a ceremonial pollution (Gen. xliii. 32, xlvi. S4; Deut. xiv. 3); more esfe- cially to idols (Deut. vii. 26; IK. xi. 5, 7; 2 K. xxiii. 13, &c.); also to food offered to idols (Zceh. ix. 7,) " &c. (Kit.). The " abomin.ation of the Egyp- tians " in Ex. viii. 20, according to some, denotes the cow, which all the Egyptians held sacred ; ac- cording to others, sometliing in the rites of Hebrew worship, which would be peculiarly offensive to the Egyptians. See the next article. A-bom-l-Da'tion «f Bes-o-la'tion, mentioned by our Saviour (Mat. xxiv. 15 ; Mk. xiii. 14) as a sign of the approacliing destruction of Jerusalem, with reference to Dan. ix. 27, xi. 31, iii. 11. The Jews considered the prophecy of Daniel as fulfilled in the profanation of the Temple under Antiochus Epipha- nes, when the Israelites themselves erected an idol- atrous altar upon the saered altar, and offered sacri- fice thereon : this altar is described as "the abomi- nation of desolation " (1 Mc. i. 54, vi. 7). The pro- phecy, however, refciie I ultimately to the destnie- tion of Jerusalem by the Romans, and consequently " the abomination of desolation " must be something connected with that event. But it is not easy to find one which meets all the requirements of the case : the iiitroduclion of the Roman standard into the Temple is not " the abomination of desolation," properly speaking, unless the Jews themselves parti- cipated in the worsliip of them; moreover, this event, ABR ABB as well as several others which have been proposed, e. g. the erection of the statue of Hadrian, &c., fails in regard to the time of occurrence, being subsequmt to the destruction of the city. Probably the pro- fanities of the Zealots constituted " the abomina- tion," which was the sign of impending ruin (so Hug, Stier, Alford, &c.). Abomination. A'bra-bam {Heb. father of a multitude), originally A'bram (Heb. father of elevation), son of Terad, and brother oi Nahor and Haran ; the progenitor of the Hebrew nation and of several cognate tribes, " the father of all them that believe " (Kom. iv. 11), and " the Friend of God " ( Jas. ii. 23). His history is recorded with much detail in the Scriptures as the very type of a true patriarchal life. (Patriarch.) His character is free, simple, and manly ; full of hos- pitality and family affection ; truthful to all who were bound to him by their ties, though not un- tainted with Eastern craft toward aliens ; ready for war, but not a professed warrior or plunderer ; free and childlike in religion, and gradually educated by Gpd's hand to a sense of its all-absorbing claims. Terah was an idolater (Josh. xxiv. 2). Abram ap- pears as the champion of monotheism, and to him are referred the beginnings of the Mosaic polity. — Abram was probably born when his father was one hundred and thirty years old, the statement in Gen. xi. 26, that Terah was seventy years old, probably referring to his age when his eldest sen Haran was born, and both Abram and Nahor being born sub- sequently (comp. Gen. xi. 26, 32, xii. 4, with Acts vii. 2-4). (Chronology.) In obedience to a call of God, Abram, with his father Terah, his wife Sarai, and his nephew Lot, left his native L'r of the Chal- dees, and dwelt for a time in Haran, where Terah died. After his father's death, Abram, now seventy- five years old, pursued his course, with Sarai and Lot, to the land of Canaan, whither he was directed by the divine command (Gen. xii. 5), when he re- ceived the general promise that he should become the founder of a great nation, and that all the fam- iUes of the earth should be blessed in him. He passed through the heart of the country by the great highway to Shechem, and pitched his tent at the oak (A. V. " in the plain ; " see Plain 1) of Moreh (Gen. xii. 6). Here he received in vision from Je- hovah the further revelation that this was the land which his descendants should inherit (xii. 7). An altar to Jehovah perpetuated the memory of this divine appearance. The next halting-place of the wanderer was in a strong position on a mountain E. of Bethel, between Betliel and Ai, where another altar was reared (Gen. xii. 8). But the country was suffering from famine, and Abram, like his descend- ants two centuries later, finding neither pasture for his cattle nor food for his household, journeyed still southward to the rich corn-lands of Egypt. As the caravan approached the entrance to the country, Abram, fearing that the great beauty of Sarai might tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt and expose his own life to peril, adopted a policy which, as on a subsequent occasion, produced the very conse- quences it was intended to avert. Sarai was to rep- resent herself as his sister, which, as she was prob- ably the daughter of his brother Haran, she might do with some semblance of truth. But her fresh northern beauty excited the admiration of the swarth-skinned Egyptians : the princes of Pharaoh saw her and praised her to the king, aiid she was taken into the royal harem, while Abram was loaded with munificent presents. But the deception was discovered, and Pharaoh with some indignation dis- missed him from the country (xii. 10-20). (Gene- sis.) How long Abram remained in Egypt is uncer- tain. It is supposed that he was tlieie during the sway of the Shepherd kings in Memphis, and that from participating in their war of conquest he ac- quired the favor of the reigning prince. But this is mere conjecture, and the narrative in Genesis seems to imply that his residence in Egypt was not pro- tracted. — Abram leil Egypt with great possessions, and, accompanied by Lot, returned by the S. of Pal- estine, to his former encampment between Beihel and Ai. The increased wealth of the two kinsmen was the ultimate cause of their separation. The soil was not fertile enough to support them both ; their herdsmen quarrelled ; and, to avoid dissensions in a country where they were surrcur.dcd by enemies, for " the Cauaanite and Perizxite were then in the land," Abram proposed that each should follow his own fortune. Lot, eager lo quit the nomadic life, chose the fertile plain of the Jordan ; while Abram dwelt in tents, a pilgrim in the land of promise. On this occasion the two promises already icceived were reiterated in one. From the hill-lop where he stood he looked N. and S. and E. and W. upon the country hereafter to be peopled by his numerous descendant.'--. After parting from Lot, Abiaro, strong in numbeis and wealth, quitted the hill-fastness between Bethel and Ai, and pitched his tent among the oak-groves (Oak; Plain 7) of llamre, close to Hebron, where he built a thiid cen.memrrative altar to Jehovah (Gen. xiii.). — The nairative is now interrupted by a remarkable episode in Abiam's life, which vividly represents him in the light in which he was regard- ed by the contemporary chieftains of Canaan. The chiefs of the tribes who peopled the oasis of the Jordan had been subdued in a previous irruption of northern warriors, and for twelve years had been the tributaries of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Their rebellion brought down upon Palestine and the neighboring countries a fresh flood of invaders from the N. E., who swept thiough the regions E. of the Jordan, and, returnir.g, joined battle with the re- volted chieftains in the vale of Siddim. The king of Sodom and his confederates were defeated, their cities plundered, and a host of captives accompanied the victorious army of Chedorlaomer. Among them were Lot and his family. Abram, then confederate with llamre the Amorite and his brethren, heard the tidings from a fugitive, and, hastily arming his trusty servant.', started in pursuit. He followed the track of the conquerors to Dan, and in a night- attack completely routed their host, and checked for a time the stream of northern immigration. The captives and plunder were all recovered, aid Abram was greeted on his return by the king of Sodom, and by Melchizkiip.k, king of Salem, priest of the Most High God, who blessed the patriarch, and received from him a tenth of the spoil. In this episode, Abram "the Hkbeew " (xiv. 13), ap- pears as a powerful emir with numerous retainers, living on terms of equality with others like himself^ who were anxious to court the friendship of so for- midable an ally, and ccmbining with the peaceful habits oi a pastoral life the same capabihty for war- fare which is characteristic of the Arab race. With great dignity he refuses to enrich himself by the re- sults of his victory, and claims only a share of the booty for his Amorite confederates to whom he ap- parently extends his protection in return for permis- sion to reside in their territory (Gen. xiv.). — During his residence at Hebron, and apparently while appre- hending the vengeance of the powerful king of Elam, ABR ABR the tlirice-rcpeated promise that his descendants should become a mighty nation and possess the land in which he was a stran£;cr, was confirmed with all the solemnity of a religious ceremony. A deep sleep fell upon Abram, and in the horror of great dark- ness which shrouded him as he watched the sacri- fices, the future destinies of his race were symbol- ized and revealed with greater distinctness than heretofore. Each revelation acquired greater defi- niteness than the preceding. He is now assured that, though childless, the heir of his wealth and the inheritor of his blessing shall be no adopted stranger, but the issue of his own loins. Ten years had passed since, in obedience to the divine command, he had left his father's house, and the fulfilment of the prom- ise was apparently more distant than at first. But his faith was counted to him for righteousness, and when the lamp of fire had passed between the fragments of the sacrifice, Abram entered into a covenant with Jehovah (Gen. xv.). At the suggestion of Sarai, who despaired of having children of her own, he took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian maid, who bare him Isbmael in the eighty-sixth year of his age (Gen. xvi.). But this was not the accomplishment of the promise. Thirteen years elapsed, during which Abram still dwelt in Hebron, when the Ijst step in the revelation was made, that Sarai's son, and not Ish- mael, should inherit both the temporal and spiritual blessings. The, covenant was renewed, and the rite of circumcision established as its sign. This most important crisis in Abram's life is marked by the significant change of his name to Abraham, while his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. In his ninety- ninth year Abraham was circumcised, in accordance with the divine command, together with Ishmael and all the males of his household, as well the servants bom in his house as those purchased from the for- eigner (Gen. xvii.). The promise that Sarah should have a son was repeated in the remarkable scene described in ch. xviii. Three men stood b^'fore Abraham as he sat in his tent-door in the heat of the day. The patriarch, with true Eastern hos- pitality, welcomed the strangers, and bade them rest and refresh themselves. The meal ended, they foretold the birth of Isaac and went on their way to Sodom. Abraham accompanied them, and pleaded in vain with Jehovah to avert the vengeance threat- ened to the devoted cities of the plain (xviii. 17-3.3). — In remarkable contrast with Abraham's firm faith with regard to the magnificent fortunes of his pos- terity stands the incident which occurred during his temporary residence among the Philistines in Gerar, whither he had, for some cause, removed after the destruction of Sodom.' Sarah's beauty won the ad- miration of Abimelech, the king of the country ; Abraham's temporizing policy produced the same results as before ; and the narrative of ch. xx. is nearly a repetition of that in ch. xii. 11-20. Abime- Icch's dignified rebuke taught him that he was not alone in recognizing a God of justice. It is evident from Gen. xxi. 22-34, that Abraham's prosperity had at this time made him a powerful auxiliary, whom it was advisable for Abimelech to conciliate and court, and his conduct therefore evidences a singular weak- ness of character in one otherwise so noble and chiv- alrous. — At length Isaac, the long-looked-for child, was bom. His birth was welcomed by all the re- joicings which could greet the advent of one whose future was of such rich promise. Sarah's jealousy, ■ Perhaps the }Ilttltes hod driven oat the Amorlles from Hebron (comp. zxUI.). aroused by Ishmasl's mockery of Isaac, whicn per- haps took place at the " great banquet " made by Abraham to celebrate the weaning of her son (Gen. xxi. 9), demanded that, with his mother Hagar, he should be driven out (Gen. xxi. 10). Abraham re- luctantly consented, consoled by the fresh promise that Ishmael too should become a great nation. But the severest trial of his faith was yet to come. After another long period (twenty-/ive years, so Josephus) he receives tlie strange command to take Isaac, and otter him for a burnt-offering at an appointed place. Such a bidding, in direct opposition to the prompt- ings of nature and the divine mandate against the shedding of human blood, Abraham hesitated not to obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, supported him in this final trial, " accounting that God was able to raise up his son, even from the dead, from whence also he received him in a figure" (Heb. xi. 19) — probably the same faith to which our Lord refers, that God promised to be the " God of Isaac " (Gen. xvii. 19), and that he was not a " God of the dead, but of the living." The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of Jehovah, the promise of spiritual blessing for the first time repeated,' and Abraham with his son returned to Beersheba, and for a time dwelt there (Gen. xxii.). But we find him in his one hun- dred and thirty-seventh year again at Hebron, for there Sarah died (comp. Gen. xvii. 17 and xxiii. 1, 2), and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham purchased of Ephron the Hittite, for the exorbitant price of four hundred shekels of silver. (Mo.NEY.) The grasping character of Ephron and the generosity of Abraham are finely contrasted in Gen. xxiii. In the presence of the elders of Heth, the field of Machpelah, with the cave and trees that were in it, were made sure to Abraham : the first in- stance on record of a legal conveyance of property. In his one hundred and fortieth year (comp. Gen. xxi. 5 and xxv. 20), Abraham commissioned the steward of his house (ELifezER l)to seekawife for Isaac from the family of his brother Nahor, binding him by the most solemn oath not to contract an alliance with the daughters of the Canaanltes among whom he dwelt (Gen. xxiv.). For Abraham's marriage with Ketu- rah and her position, see Ketuhah. Her six sons, ZiMRAH, JoKSHAN, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and SiiiTAii, became the ancestors of nomadic tribes in- habiting the countries S. and S. E. of Palestine (Ara- bia). Her children, like Ishmael, were dismissed with presents, and settled in the East country during Abraham's lifetime, and Isaac was left sole heir of his father's wealth (Gen. xxv. 1-6). — Abraham lived to see the gradual accomplishment of the promise in the birth of his grandchildren Jacob and Esau, and witnessed their growth to manhood (Gen. xxv. 26). His last years appear to have been passed in tran- quillity, and at the goodly age of one hundred ivnd seventy-five he was " gathered to his people," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael (xxv. 7-10). From his inti- mate communion with the Almighty, Abraham is distinguished by the high title of " the ' friend ' of God" (2 Chr. xx. 7; Is. xli. 8; Jas. ii. 23); and El-KhalV, " the Irienii," is the appellation by which he is familiarly known in the traditions of the Arabs, who have given the same name to Hebron, the place ' The promise, that "In his seed nil nations should be blessed," would be now understowi very dirterenily, and felt to be far above the temporal promise, in which, per- haps, at first It seemed to be ahsorheil. Now preemi- nently "Abraham saw the day of Christ and was glad" (JQ. vlit. MJ. 8 ABR ABS of his residence. — The legends recorded of him are numerous. According to Josephus he taught tlie worship of one God to the Chaldeans, and instructed the Egyptians in astronomy and mathematics. Tlie Greek tradition related by Nicolaus of Damascus as- signs to him the conquest of that city, and maltes him its king for a time (Jos. i. 7, §§ 1, 2). With the help of Ishmael he is said to have rebuilt, for the fourth time, the Kaaba over the sacred black stone of Mecca. The Rabbinical legends tell how Abraham destroyed the idols which his father made and worshipped, and how he was delivered from the fiery furnace into which he was cast by Nimrod. A'bra-bam's Bosom (Lk. xvi. 22). From the cus- tom of rccl'uing on couches at meals, and consider- ing the guest who was next below the master of the house, and thus lay in his bosom, as especially priv- ileged (Meals), it was natural to speak of being in " Abraham's bosom " in order to convey an idea of one's enjoying the highest feUcity and honor in heav- en (comp. Mat. viii. 11). i'bram. Abraham. *Ab'refh [-rek] (Heb., prob. fr. Egyptian) = " bow the knee," A. V. (Gen. xli. 43, marg.). Ab'sa-lom (L. fr. Heb. = father of pence). I. Third son of David, by Maachah, daughter of Tal- niai, king of Geshur. He is scarcely mentioned till after David had committed his great crime (2 Sam. xi.), and then appears as the instrument by whom was fulfilled God's threat, that " evil should be raised up against him out of his own house, and that his neighbor should lie with his wives in the sight of the sun" (2 Sam. xii. 11). David's polygamy (Marriage) raised up jealousies and conflicting claims between the sons of different mothers, each apparently living with a separate house and establishment (2 Sam. xiii, 8 ; xiv. 24 ; comp. 1 K. vii. 8, &c.). Absalom's sis- ter Tamar was violated by her half-brother Amnon (2 Sam. xiii.) ; but the king, though indignant at the crime, would not punish his first-oom. Absalom, the natural avenger of such an outrage (comp. Gen. xxxiv.), brooded over the wrong for two years, and then invited all the princes to a sheep-shearing feast at his estate in Baal-hazor. Here he ordered his ser- vants to murder Amnon, and then fled for safety to his grandfather's court at Geshur, where he remained for three years. David was overwhelmed by this ac- cumulation of family sorrows, and thought it impos- sible to pardon or recall him. But by an artifice of Joab, a woman of Tekoali (2 Sara, xiv.), having per- suaded David to prevent the avenger of blood from pursuing a young man who, she said, had slain his brother, induced David to recall Absalom from his banishment ; yet David would not see Absalom for two more years, though he allowed him to live in Jerusalem. At last, wearied with delay, and per- ceiving that his exclusion from court interfered with the ambitious schemes which he was forming, the impetuous young man sent his servants to burn a field of corn near his own, belonging to Joab. There- upon Joab, probably dreading some further outrage from his vioience, brought him to his father, from whom he received the kiss of reconciliation. Absa- lom now began to prepare for rebellion, mged partly by his restless wickedness, partly perhaps by the fear lest Solomon should obtain the succession, to which he would feel himself entitlefl as being now David's eldest surviving son, since Chileab was prob- ably dead. It is harder to account for his temporary success, and the imminent danger which befell so powerful a government as his father's. As David grew older he may have become less attentive to in- dividual complaints, and to that personal administra- tion of justice which was one of an Eastern king's chief duties. And now Absalom, by his personal beauty and the luxuriant growth of his hair (2 Sam, xiv. 25, 26), his splendid retinue (xv. 1), .ind many fair speeches and courtesies, " stole the hearts of the men of Israel" (xv. 2-6). Probably too the great tribe of Judah liad taken some offence at David's government, perhaps from finding themselves com- pletely merged in one united Israel ; and hoped se- cretly for preiiminenco under his son. Absalom selects Hebron, tlie old capital of Judah (now supplanted by Jerusalem), as the scene of the outbreak ; Amasa, his chief captain, and Ahithophel of Giloh his principal counsellor, are both of Judah, and after the rebellion was crushed we see signs of ill-feeling between Judah and the other tribes (xix. 41). The date of Absa- lom's rebellion, " after forty years," in 2 Sam. xv. 7, it seems belter to consider a false reading for " four years" (Jos. vii. 9, § 1, has four years), than to in- terpret it of the fortieth year of David's reign. The revolt was at first completely successful ; David fled over the Jordan to Mahanaira. Absalom occupied Jerusalem, and by the advice of Ahithophel took pos- session of David's harem, in which he had left ten concubines. This was considered to imply a formal assumption of all David's royal rights (Abner; Ado- nijah), and was also the fulfilment of Nathan's pro- phecy (2 Sam. xii. 11). But Ahithophel's vigorous counsels were afterward rejected through the crafty advice of Hushai, who insinuated himself into Absa- lom's confidence to work his ruin, and Ahithophel himself went home to Giloh, and committed suicide (xvi., xvii.). At last, after being solemidy anointed king at Jerusalem (xix. 10), and lingering there far longer than was expedient, Absalom crossed the Jor- dan to attack his father, who by this time had rallied round him a considerable force, whereas, had Ahith- Tho ao-called Tomb of Abaalom. ophel's advice been followed, ho would probably have been crushed at once. A decisive battle was fought in the wood of Ephraim. (Ephraim, the Woon OF.) Here Absalom's forces were totally de- feated, and as he himself was escaping, his long hair was entangled in the branches of a terebinth (or oak), where he was left hanging while the mule on which he was riding ran away from under him. He was AB3 ACC 9 dispatched by Joab in spite of the prohibition of DaviJ, who, when he heard of his death, lamented over him in the pathetic words, " my son Absa- lom ! my son, my son Absalom ! would God I had died for thee ! Absalom, my son, my son ! " He was buried in a great pit in the forest, and the con- querors threw stones over his grave, an old proof of bitter hostility (Josh. vii. 26). The sacred historian contrasts this dislionored burial with the tomb ("Absalom's place") which Absalom had raised in tho JCi?ig's dale (comp. Gen. xiv. 17) for the three sons whom he had lost (eomp. 2 Sam. xviii. 18, with xiv. 27), and where he probably had intended that his own remains should be laid. Josephus (vii. 10, 8 3) mentions the pillar of Absalom as two stadia (i mile) from Jerusalem. An existing monument in the valley of Jehoshaphat bears the name of the Tomb of Absalom ; but the Ionic pillars round its base show that it belongs to a much later period, even if it be a tomb at all. (Abishalom ; Tamar 3.) — 2. The father of Mattathias (1 Me. xi. 70) and Jona- than (1 Mc. xiii. 11). ib sa-lon (fr. Heb. = Absalom), ambassador from Judas Maccabeus and the Jews to Ijy3i.is(2 Mc. xi. 17). * ib'shal (Ueb. 1 Chr. xix. 11, marg.) =: Abishai. A-bn'bns (fr. Gr.), father of the I'tolemeus, who was son-in-law and murderer of Simon Maccabeus (I Mc. ivi. 11, 15). ic'a-tan = Hakkatan (1 Esd. viii. 38). At'rad (Heb. band, i. e. fortress, caslle, Ges.), one of the four cities in the land of Shinar, which were the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom (Gen. x. 10). Its position is quite uncertain. Jerome {Onom.) states the belief of the Jews in his day that Nisibis (now Nisibtit) in N. E. Mesopotamia, on the Khabuur, was Accad. The theory of Rawlinson is, that " Ak- kad " was the name of the " great primitive Hamite race who inhabited Babylonia from the earliest time." He identifies the city " with a town in Lower Babylonia, called Kinzi Accad in the inscrip- tions, the site of which is not yet determined." Col. Taylor, Kitto, &c., place Accad, &\,Akk(r-koof, about; fifty miles N.W. of Babylon, where is a remarkable ancient heap of ruins called " Nimrod's Hill." Ae'fa-ron. Ekron. At'elio [ak'ko] (Heb. sand heated by the stin, Ges.) = Ptolemais in 1 Mc. and N. T., now called ^Akka, or by Europeans, St. Jean cTAcre, or Acre, the most important seaport town on the coast of Palestine, about tliirty miles S. of Tyre, on a slightly projecting headland, at the northern extremity of tlie spacious bay formed by the bold promontory of (Jarmel on the opposite side. The hills, which farther N. are close to the sea-shore, recede, and leave round Accho a fertile plain about fifteen miles long and six miles broad, watered by the ."mail liver Belus {NaJir Na^- 'Ak&a or Acre ~ ancient Accho or Ptolemali (trom KUto), m4n), whioh dl'cliarges itself into the sea close nn- der the walls of the town : to the S. E. is a road to the interior in the direction of Sepfhoris. Accho, thus favorably placed in command of the approaches from the N., both by sea and land, has been justly termed the " key of Palestine." — In the division of Canaan, Accho fell to Ashcr, but was never wrested from its original inhabitants (Judges i. 81); and hence it is reckoned by the classical, writers as a Pbenieian city. No further mention is made of it in the 0. T., but after the dismemberment of the Mace donian empire it was the most important town on the coast. Along with the rest of Phenicia it fell to Egypt, and was named Ptolemais, after one of the Ptolemies, prol)ably Soter. In the wars that ensued between Syria and Egypt, it was taken by Antiechus the Great, and attaclied to his kingdom. Wlien the Maccabees established themselves in Judca, it be- came the base of operations against them. Simon drove bis enemies back within its walls, but did not take it 10 ACO ACH (1 Mc. V. 22). Wben Alexander Balas claimed theSyr- ian throne, Demetrius offered to Jonathan the posses- sion of Ptolemais and its district (1 lie. x. 39). At Ptolemais Jonathan afterward had a conferecce with Alexander and the king of Egypt (x. 59-60), and here also he was subsequently slain (xii. 45-48). On the decay of the Syrian power, Ptolemais became inde- pendtnt. Ultimately it passed into the hands of the Eomans, who constructed a military road along the coast, from Berytus to Sepphoris, passing through it, and elevated it to the rank of a colony. Herod's new city of Cesarea, however, far outshone it. The only notice of it in th(? N. T. is in connection with ^t. Paul's return from his third missionary journey (Acts xxi. 1). He came from Tyre to Ptolemais by sea (3), stayed one day with the Christian commu- nity here, then proceeded, probably by land, to Cesa- rea (8), and thence to Jerusalem (15-17). It was afterward the scat of a Christian bishopric, was a famous stronghold dming the Crusades, was be- Bieged unsuccessfully by Napoleon in 1799, and has since been twice (1832 and 1840) bombarded and laid in ruins. Few rem.ains of antiquity are to be found in the modern town. Ac'eos, father of John and grandfather of Eupole- mus the ambassador from Judas Maccabeus to Rome (1 Mc. viii. 17). Ac'coz (1 Esd. V. SB). Hakkoz ; Koz. * Ac-turs'cd. Anathema ; Excommunication. * Ae-fn-sa'tion. Judge; Trial; Witness. * At-tn'scr. Accusation ; Satan. A-ccl'ds-ma [-sel-] (fr. Chal. =fdd of blcod), the name given by the Jews of Jerusalem to a " field " near Jerusalem purchased by Judas Iscariot with the money received for the betrayal of Christ, and so called from his violent death (Acts i. 19). In Mat. xxvii. 8, the " field of blood " was purchased by the priests with the thirty pieces of silver, after they had been cast down by Judas, as a burial-place for strangers, the locality being well known .it the time as " the Potter's Field." These accounts have been reconciled by considering " purchased " in Acts i. 1 8 = gave occasion to purchase, i. e. did that ill consequence of which the field was purchased with the money gained by his treachery. For anal- ogous examples in the N. T., see Mat. ii. 16, xxvii. 60 ; Jn. iv. 1 ; Acts vii. 21 ; Rom. xiv. 15 ; 1 Cor. vii. 16 ; 1 Tim. iv. 16, &c. The great body of Bib- lical critics (Kuinoel, Tholuck, Olshaufen, Rbn., &c.) adopt this view (Ilackett on ^cfe i. 18). Ecclesiastical tradition has distinguished the field for burying stran- gers from the place where Judas committed suicide. The traditional position of the latter has been changed at different times ; the latest makes the tree of Judas stand near the summit of the " Hill of Evil Counsel " (Stl. 105, 183). It is observable, that the passage in Acts does not state where Judas fell headlong or how he came thus to fall ; yet it has been generally supposed that the death took place in the field which was called Aceldama for the double rea- son that it was bought with the price of our Lord's blood and likewise stained with the blood of Judas. The " field of blood " or Aceldama, described by most travellers, and probably the same with that mentioned by Jerome ( Onom.), is on the steep south- em face of the valley of Hinnom, near its eastern end, on a narrow plateau, more than half way up the hillside. Its modem name is Bak ed-damm. It is separated by no enclosure ; a few venerable olive- trees occupy part of it, snd the rest is covered by a ruined square edifice, half built, half excavated, which, perhaps originally a church, was in Maundrcll's time in use as a charnel-house. It was believed in the mid- dle ages that the soil of this place rapidly consumed bodies buried in it, and, in consequence either of this or of the sanctity of the spot, great quantities of the earth were taken away; e. g. by the Pisan Crusaders in 1218 for their Campo /Sari Ancestor of Maaseiah, captain under Jahoiada (2 Chr. xxiii. 1). — 6t A son of Bani and husband of a foreign wife in Ezra's time (Ezr. x. 29) ; = Jedeus in Esd. ix. 30. — 7. A son of another Bani, or another son (de- scendant) of the same (see Bani 3), who had also taken a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 39). — 8. A man of Judah, of the line of Pharez, (Neh. xi. 5) ; perhaps = No. 5. A-da'li-a (L. form of Heb. ; fr. Pcrs. = fre be- longing to Ized, or a fire-god, Fii.), a son of Haman (Esth. ix. 8). Ad'am (Heb.), the name of the first man, apparent- ly from the ground (Heb. Uddnu'ih) of which he was formed. The idea of redness of color seems to be inherent in the word. The Creation of man was the work of the sixth day. It was with reference to him that all things were designed by the Creator. In Gen. i.-x. there appear to be three distinct his- tories relating more or less to the life of Adam. The 1st (i. l.-ii. 3) records the creation ; the 2d (!i. 4-iv. 26) gives an account of paradise, the original sin of man, and the immediate posteiity of Adam ; the 3d (v.-ix.) contains mainly the history of Noah, referring it would seem to Adam and his descendants principally in relation to that patriarch. (Genesis.) —The Mosaic accounts declare Adam created in the image and likeness of God, which probably (so Prof. Leathes, the original author of this article) points to the Divine pattern and archetype after which man's intelligent nature was fashioned ; reason, understand- ing, imagination, volition, &c., being attributes of God. Man alone of the animals of the earth is a spirit, created to reflect God's righteousness and truth and love, and capable of holding direct com- munion with him. As long as his will moved in harmony with God's will, he fulfilled the purpose of his Creator. When he refused submission to God, he broke the law of his existence and fell. Comp. Gen. ix. 6 ; 1 Cor. xi. 7 ; Jas. iii. 9, with Col. iii. 10. — The name Adam was not confined to the father of the human race, but like the Latin homo was ap- plicable to woman os well as man ; e. g. Gen. v. 1, 2, " This is the book of the 'history' (A. V. "gen- erations") of Adam in the day that God created 'Adam' (A. V. "man"), in the likeness of God made He him ; male and female created He them ; and blessed them, and called their name Adam in the day when they were created." — Adam was placed in a garden which the Lord God had planted " east- ward in Eden," " to dress it and to keep it " (Gen. ii.). He was permitted to eat of the fruit of every tree in the garden but one, the " tree of the knowl- edge of good and evil." \Vhat this was, it is impos- sible to say. Its name seems to indicate that it had the power of bestowing the consciousness of the difference between good and evil ; in the ignorance of which man's Innocence and happiness consisted. The prohibition to taste the fruit of this tree was enforced by the menace of death. Another tree was called " the tree of life." Pome suppose this to have acted as a kind of medicine, and that by the con- tinual use of it our first parents, not created im- mortal, were preserved from death. (Abp. Whately.) While Adam was in Eden, he exercised the power of naming animals and objects of sense, a faculty which is generally considered as indicating mature and ex- tensive intellectual resources. There being no com- panion suitable for Adam, the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and took one of his ribs from him, which He fiishioned into a woman and brought her to the man (Eve). At this time they were both naked, without the consciousness of shame. The first man is a true man before the Fall, with the powers of a man and the innocence of a child. He is "the figure of Him that was to come," the second Adam, Christ Jesus (Rom. v. 14). By the subtlety of the Serpent, Eve was beguiled into a violation of the command Imposed upon them. She took of the fruit of the forbidden tree and gave it to her husband. Then their eyes were opened, and they knew that they were naked. The Scrip- tures teach that in consequence of sin Adam and all mankind suffer the death of the body as well as other manifold evil (Gen. iii. 16-19; Rom. v. 12; 1 Cor. XV. 22) ; yet it is a disputed point among theologians whether this death of the body, &c., which come upon all under an economy of grace and upon Jesus Christ, " the second Adam," properly constitute either wholly or in part the threatened penalty (Gen. ii. 17) of Death. The very prohibition to eat of the tree of life after his transgression was probably a manifestation of Divine mercy, because the greatest malediction of all would have been to have the gift of indestructible life superadded to a state of wretch- edness and sin. — In the middle ages discussions w ere raised as to the period of Adam's sinlessness in Eden ; Dante supjiosed Adam to have been in the earthly paradise not more than seven hours ; but, of ABA ADD. 13 course, all this ia conjectural. — Adam lived nine hun- dred and thirty years. (Chronology.) His sons mentioned in Scripture are Cain, Abel, and Seth ; it is implied, however, that he had other eons as well as daughters. Man ; Tongues, Confusion of. Adam (Heb. mrlh ; see above ; firmnens, Fii.), a city oa the Jordan " beside Zaretan," in the time of Joshua (Josli. iii. 16). It is not elsewhere men- tioned. Ad a-mah (Heb. earlh, Ges.), " a fenced city " of Naphtali, named between Cliinnereth and Kamah (Josh. -kw. 36); probably N.W. of the sea of Galilee. Ad'a-mant, the translation of the Heb. shdmir in Ez. iii. 9 and Zech. vii. 12. In Jer. xvii. 1, shcimir is translated " diamond." In these three passages the word = some stone of excessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. Our English adamarU is de- rived from the Greek, and signifies " the unconquer- able," in allusion perhaps to the hard nature of the substance indicated, or because it was supposed to be indestructible by fire. The Greek writers gener- ally apply the word to some very hard metal, perhaps steel, though they do also use it for a mineral. In Eng- lish, adamarU sometimes = the diamond,^ but often any substance of impenetrable hardness. That some hard-cutting stone is intended in the Bible is evident from Jer. xvii. 1 : — " The sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron and with the point of a diamond." Since the Hebrews appear to have been unacquainted with the true diamond, it is very probable from Ez. iii. 9 ("adamant Aan/(T/^a«/m.'"), that thdmir — some variety of corundum, a mineral inferior only to the diamond in hardness. Of this mineral there are two principal groups — the crystalline and the granu- lar ; to the crystalline varieties belong the indigo- blue sapphire, the reJ oriental ruby, the yellow oriental topaz, the green oriental emerald, the violet oriental amethyst, the brown adam.intine spar. But the ih'iinir or " adamant " of the Scriptures most probably =: the granular or missive variety of co- rundum, known by the name of emery, and exten- sively used for polishing and cutting gems and other hard substances. Tiie Greek name for the emery- stone or the emery-powder is smjris or smlria, ani the Hebrew lexicographers derive this word from the Hebrew shdmir. Shamir ; Thoxxs. Ad'a-llll(Heb. human, Ges.), a place on the border of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33) ; connected by some with the next name (Nekeb); called in the postr biblical times Damin. A'dar (Heb. Addar = height, top, Fii.), a place on the southern boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 3);z= Hazar-aduar. A'dar. Month. Ad'a-sa (Gr. — Haoasha, Wr.), a place in Judea, a day's journey from Gazera, and thirty stadia from Bethhoron (Jos. xii. 10, § 5). Here Judas Macca- beus encamped before the battle in which Nicanor was killed (1 Mc. vii. 40, 45). Ad'fc«-el (Heb. miracle of Ood ? Ges.), a son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13 ; 1 Chr. i. 29), and probably the progenitor of an Arab tribe. Ad'dan (Heb. strong, Fii.), a place from which some of the captivity returned with Zerubbabel who c.:)uld not show their pedigree as Israelite.s (Ezr. ii. 69); = Addon (Neb. vii. 61) and Aalar(1 Esd. v. 86). Eden 2. Addar (Heb. mighty one, lord, Fu.), son of Bela (1 Chr. viii. 3). Ard". Ad dcTt This is used in the A. V. as the repre- sentative of four Hebrew names of poisonous ser- pents, viz., 'acliJihub, pelhen, tsepha' or tnipKotii, and thSphiphon. The word " adder " occurs five times in the text of the A. V., viz., Gen. xlix. 17 (marg. arrom-snake) ; Ps. Iviii. 4 (marg. asp), xci. 13 (marg. asp), cxl. 3 ; Prov. xxiii. 32 (marg. cockatrice) ; — and three times in the margin, with tockatriee in the text, viz.. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5. — 1. 'Achs/mb is found only in Ps. cxl. 3 : " They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent ; adder's poison is under their lips." " Asp " is used in the quotation of this Tozicoft of Egypt (JcAw orenico/a.) from the LXX. in Rom. iii. 13. The poison of ven- omous serpents is oflen employed by the sacred writers figuratively to express the evil tempers of ungodly men. Tlie Jews were probably acquainted with only five or six species of poisonous serpents (Serpent) ; and as Pethen and Shfphiphon were probably the Egyptian Cobra and the Horned Viper, 'Achihiib may be the Toxicoa of Egypt and north- ern Africa, called by naturalists the JSchis amiicola. At any rate the Jews were probably acquainted with this species, which ia common in Egypt and probably in Syria. — 3. Pethen. (Asp.) — 3. Tscpha', or 7'siph'- d«», occurs five times in the Hebrew Bible. In Prov. xxiii. 32, it is translated adder (marg. cockatrice'), and in the text (see above) of Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, 111. 6 ; Jer. viii. 17, it is translated cockatrice. From Jeremiah we learn that it was of a hostile nature, and from the parallelism of Is. xi. 8, it appears that • Oar English diamond \i merely a cormptlon of adamant. Compare the French diamante and Chenuau demant. Homed C«nut« ( Ctiuta B Sluphiphin occurs only in Gen. xli.x. 17: "Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horsc-hecls, so that his rider shall fall backward." The habit of lurking in the sand and biting at the horse's heels, here alluded to, suits the character of a well-known species of venomous snake, and helps us to identify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra { Ccrantes Hassel- gimtii), which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The Cerastes is extremely venomous ; Bruce compelled one .to scratch eighteen pigeons upon the thigh as quickly as possible, and they all died nearly iu the same in- terval of time. The species averages from twelve to fifteen inches in length, but ^s occasionally found larger. id'dl (Gr., prob. fr. Heb. = ornameiil). 1. Son of Cosani, and father of Mclchi, in our Lord's geneal- ogy (Lk. iii. 28); probably contracted from Adikl or Adaiah. — 2t The name occurs in a very corrupt verse (1 Esd. ix. 31); comp. Ezr. x. 30. Addo = Inno (1 Esd. vi. 1). Addon (Hcb. strong, Fii.) — Adbak. Ad'dns (L. fr. Gr.) I. Ancestor of a family enu- merated among the children of Solomon's servants in 1 Esd. V. 34 ; not in Ezr. li. or Nch. vii. — 2. An- cestor of a family removed from their priesthood in Ezra's time for being unable to establish their priest- ly genealogy (1 Esd. v. 38). He is there said to have married Augia, daughter of' Berzelus, or Bar- zillai. In Ezra and Nehemiah he is called Barzellai. A'dcr (Heb. Eder =: flock, Ges.), a Benjamite, son of Beriah ( 1 Chr. viii. I's). idi-da (Gr. fr. Heb.), a town on an eminence overlooking the low country of Judah, fortified liy Simon Maccabeus in his wars with Tryphon (1 Mc. xii. 38, xiii. 13) ; probably = Hadid and Adithaim. A'di-Cl (Heb. = ornament of God. Ges.). 1, A prince of Simeon, participant in the murderous raid upon the shepherds of Gedor in the reign of Heze- kiah (1 Chr. iv. 36). — 2, A priest, ancestor of Maasiai (I Chr. ix. 12). — 3, Ancestor of Azmaveth, David's treasurer (1 Chr. xxvii. 25). A'din (Heb. effeminate, voluptneus, Ges.), ancestor of a family of whom 454 (Ezr. ii. 15), or 655 (Neh. vii. 20), returned with Zerubbabel, and 51 with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 6). They (or one of this name) joined with Ne- hemiah in a covenant to separate themselves from the heathen (Neh. x. 16). ■ Ad'i-na (Heb. slender, pHant, Ges. ; a hixurioits, effeminate one, Fii.), a Reubenite chief, one of Da- vid's captains beyond the Jordan (1 Chr. xi. 42). According to the A. V. and the Syriac he had the command of thirty men ; but the passage should be rendered " and over him were thirty," i. e'. the thirty before enumerated were his superiors, just as Be- naiah (1 Chr. xxvii.) was " above the thirty." Ad'i-no (Heb. = AnixA, Fii.) tbe Ez'nite, 2 Sam. xxiii. 8. EzNiTE ; .Tashobeam. Ad'i-nas = Ja.min, the Levite fl Esd. ix. 48). Ad-i-tba'lm (Heb. double ornament, Ges.), a city of Judah, in the low country (Valley 5); named, be- tween Sharaim and Gederah, in Josh. xv. 36 only ; probably = Hadid and Adida. Ad-jn-ra'tlon. F.xorcism ; Oath. Ad lal (Heb. Gods justice, Ges.), ancestor of Shapliat, David's herdsman (1 Chr. xxvii. 29). Ad'mah (HeD. earth, Ges. ; fortress, Fii.), one of the " cities of the plain," always coupled with Ze- boim (Gen. x. 19, xiv. 2, 8; Deut. xxix. 23; Hos. xi. 8). It had a king of its own. Sodom. Ad'ma-tha or Ad-ma'tba (Heb. fr. Pcrs. = givm btj the Highest Being, Fii.), one of the seven princes of Persia (Esth. i. 14). Ad'na (Heb. pleasure, Ges.) 1. One of the family of Pahath-Moab who married a foreign wile in Ezra's time (Ezr. x. SO). — 2. A priest, descendant of Harim in the days of high-priest Joiakim (Neh. xii. 15). Ad'nah (Heb. pleasure, Ges.). 1, A Manassite captain who deserted from Saul and joined David on his road to Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 20). — 2. The captain over 300,000 men of Judah in Jehoshaphat's army (2 Chr. xvii. 14). * A-do'nai (Heb. pi. of excellence) = Lord. A-don-i-lie'zek (Heb. lord of Bezek), the Canaanite king of Bezek, vanquished by the tribe of Judah (Judg. i. 3-7), who cut off his thumbs and great toes, and brought him prisoner to Jenisalem, where he died. He confessed that he had inflicted the same cruelty upon seventy conquered kings. Ad-0-n!'jah (fr. Heb., my Ijord is Jehovah). 1, The fourth son of David, byHaggith, born at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4). On the death of his three brothers, Aranon, Chileab, and Absalom, he became eldest son ; and when his father was visibly declining, put forward his pretensions to the crown. David had promised Bath-shcba in accordance with the appoint- ment of Jehovah (1 Chr. xxii. 9, 10, xxviii. 5) that Solomon should inherit the succession (1 K. i. 30). Adonijah's cause was espoused by Abiathar and Joab, with many capti'.ins of the ro^al army belonging to the tribe of Judah (comp. 1 K. i. 9 and 25) ; and these, with all the princes except Solomon, were en- tertained by Adonijah at a great sacrificial feast held " by the stone Zoiieleth, which is by Ex-rooel." Nathan and Both-sheba apprised David of these pro- ceedings, who immediately gave orders that Solomon should be conducted on the royal mule in solemn pro- cession to GiHON 2. Here he was anointed and pro- claimed king by Zadok, and joyfully recognized by the people. This decisive measure struck teiTor into the opposite party, and Adonijah fled to the sanctu- ary, but was pardoned by Solomon on condition that he should " show himself a worthy man," with the threat that " if wickedness were found in him he should die" (i. 52). The death of David quickly fol- lowed ; and Adonijah begged Bath-sheba (Quee.n) to procure Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag (1 K. i. 3). This was regarded as a fresh attempt on the throne (Absalom ; Abner) ; and therefore Solomon ordered him to be put to death by Benaiah, in accordance with the terms of his previous pardon.— 2. A Levite in the reign of Jeho^haphat (2 Chr. xvii. 8). — 3« A chief who scaled the covenant (Neh. X. 16); according to Ge.s., &c. = Adonikam. Ad-O-nl'kam (Hcb. lord of the enemy, Ges. ; lord is assisting, Fii.), ancestor of a family of whom 666 or 667 returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 13; Neh. vii. 18; 1 Esd. v. 14), others with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 13 ; 1 Esd. viii. 39^ ; = (.so Ges., &c.) Ado- nijah 3. Ad-o-ni'ram (Heb. lord of altitude, Ges.), by con- traction AnoRAM, also Hadoram, chief receiver of the tribute during the reigns of David (2 Sam. xx. 24), Solomon (1 K. iv. 6), and Rehoboam (1 K. xii. 18; 2 Chr. xii. 18). This last monarch sent him to col- lect the tribute from the rebellious Israelites, who stoned him to death. A-don-l-ze'dek (Heb. lord of jns'iee), the Amcrite king of Jerusalem, who with four other Amorite ADO ADR 15 kings having laid siege to Gibeon, Joshua marched to the relief of his new allies and put the besiegere to flight. The five kings took refuge in a cave at Mak- KiDAH, whence they were taken and slain, their bodies hung on trees, and then buried in the cave (Josh. X. 1-27). A-dap lion, an expression metaphorically used by St. Paul in reference to the present and prospective privileges of Christians (Rom. viii. 15, 23; Gal. iv. 5 ; Eph. i. 5). He probably alludes to the Uoman custom of adoption, by which a person, not having children of his own, might adopt as his son one born of other parents. By it the adopted child was en- titled to the name and sacred rites of his new father, and ranked as his heir-at-law : while the adopter was entitled to the property of the son, and exercised toward him all the rights and privileges of a f.ither. In short, the relationship was to all intents and pur- poses the same as between a real father and son. The selection of a person to be adopted implied a decided preference and love on the part of the adopt- er : and St. Paul aptly transfers the well-known feel- ings and customs connected with the act to illustrate the position of the Christianized Jew or Gentile. The Jews themselves had no process of adoption (Esther ; Moses) : indeed, it would have been in- consistent with the regulations of the Mosaic law affecting the inheritance of property : the instances occasionally adduced as referring to the custom (Gen. XV. 3, xvi. 2, XXX. 6-9) are evidently not cases of adoption proper. inlo'ra (Gr.), or A'd»r (L.). Adoraim. id-o-ra'lm (Heb. two mounds, Ges.), a fortified city built by Kehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 9), in Judah, appar- ently in or near the low country (Valley 5), since it is by Josephus almost uniformly coupled with Mare- shah ; probably = Adora or Ador (1 Mc. xiii. 20), unless that he Dor, on the sea-coast below Carmel. Robinson (ii. 215) identifies it with Dura, a large village on a rising ground, 2^ hours VV. of Hebron. A-da'rani. Adoniram. Ad-o-ra'UoR< The acts and postures by which the Hebrews expressed adoration were similar to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple Adoration. ADcient EgyptiaD.— (WilkiDson.) method ; but generally the prostration was more formal, the person falling upon the knee and then gradually inclining the body until the forehead touched the ground. Such prostration was usuil in the worship of Jehovah (Gen. xvii. 3 ; Ps. xcv. 6) ; it was also the formal mode of receiving visitors (Gen. xviii. 2), of doing obeisance to superiors (2 Sam. xiv. 4), and of showing respect to equals (IK. ii. 19). Occasionally it was repeated three times (1 Sam. XX. 41), and even seven times (Gen. xxxiii. 3)- It was accompanied by such acts as a kiss (Ex. xviii. 7), laying hold of the' knees or feet of the per- son to whom the adoration was paid (Mat. xxviii. 9), and kissing the ground on which he stood (Ps. Ixxii. 9 ; Mic. vii. 17). Similar adoration was paid to idols (IK. xix. 18): sometimes, however, prostra- tion was omitted, and the act consisted simply in kissing the hand to the object of reverence (Job xxxi. 27), and in kissing the statue itself (Hos. xiii. 2). The same customs prevailed in our Saviour's time, as appears not only from their being often prac- tised toward Himself, but also from the parable of the unmerciful servant (Mat. xviii. 26), and from Cornelius's reverence to St. Peter (Acts x. 25), to which the apostle objected, as implying too great honor, especially as coming from a Roman, to whom prostration was not usual. Idolatry ; Prayer ; Sacrifice. AdoratloQ. Modem Egyptian.— (Lace.) * A-dorn'ing. Dress ; Hair ; Ornaments, Per- SO.VAL. A-dram'me-lecli [-lek] (Heb.). I. An idol woi^ shipped in Samaria by the colonists from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31) with rites resembling those of Moloch, children being burnt in his honor. Gesenius ex- plains Adrammelech as from Hebrew eder hammelech — splendor of the kinrj. Reland makes the word = fire-king, and regards Adrammelech as the sun-god. Sir H. Rawlinson regards Adrammelech as the male power of the sun, and Anammelech, mentioned with Adrammelech as a companion-god, as the female power of the sun. — 2. Son of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, whom Adrammelech, in conjunction with his brother Sharezer, murdered in the temple of Nisroch at Nineveh, after the failure of the As- syrian attack on Jerusalem. The parricides escaped into Armenia (2 K. xix. 37 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 21 ; Is. xxxvii. 38). Ad-ra-m^t'ti-nm [ad-dra-mit'te-um] (fr. Gr. ; said to have been named from Adramys, brother of Croe- sus, king of Lydia), a seaport in the province of Asia, in tlie district anciently called jEolis, and also Mysia (see Acts xvi. 7). Adramyttiura gave name to a deep gulf on this coast, opposite to the opening of which is the island of Lesbos. (Mitylene.) St. Paul was never at Adramyttium, except perhaps during his second missionary journey, on his way from Galatia to Troaa (Acts xvi.) ; but his voyage from Cesarea was in a ship belonging to this place (Acts xxvii. 2). Adramyttium was in St. Paul's time a Roman assize-town, and a place of considerable traffic, on the great Roman road between Assos, Troas, and the Hellespont on one side, and Perga- mus, Ephesus, and Miletus on the other, and con- nected by similar roads with the interior of the country. The modem Adramyti is a poor village, but a place of some trade and ship-building. A'drt-a, more properly A'dri-as (Gr.), probably de- rived from the town of Adria, near the Po, at first 16 ADR ADU denoted the part of the gulf of Venice which is in that neighborhood, afterward the whole of that gulf. Subsequently it obtained a much wider extension, and in the apostolic age denoted that natural divi- sion of the Mediterranean which Humboldt names the Syrtic basin (see Acts xxvii. 17), and which had the coasts of Sicily, Italy, Greece, and Africa for its boundaries. This definition is explicitly given by al- most a contemporary of St. Paul, the geographer Ptolemy, who also says that Crete is bounded on the W. byAdria. Later writers state that Malta divides the Adriatic sea from the Tyrrhenian sea, and tlie isthmus of Corinth the JSgean from the Adriatic. Thus the ship in which Josephus started for Italy about the time of St. Paul's voyage foundered in Adria {Life, 3), and there be was piclied up by a ship from Cyrene and taken to Puteoli (see Acts xxviii. 13). The apostle also thus passed through Adria (Acts xxvii. 27) before his sliipwreck at Mal- ta. Melita. A'dri-el (Heb. Jlock of God, Ges.), son of Bar- zillai the Meholathite, to whom Saul gave his daugh- ter Merab, previously promised to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19). His five sons were among the seven descendants of Saul whom David surrendered to the GfBEONiTES (2 Sam. xxi. 8). Rizpah. id'n-el (fr. Gr. — Adiel ?), an ancestor of Tobit (Tob. i. 1). i'dnriam (Heb. justice of the people, Sim., Ges.), in the Apocrypha Odollam, a city ol' Judah in the lowland (Valley 5 ; Josh. xv. 35 ; comp. Gen. xxxviii. 1, "Judah went down,^'' and Mic. i. 16, where it is named with Mareshah and Achzib) ; the seat of a Canaanite king (Josh. xii. 15), and evidently a place of great antiquity (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20) ; fortified by Rchoboam (2 Chr. xi. 1), reoccupied by the Jews after their return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 30), and still a city in the time of the Maccabees (2 Mo. xii. 38). — The city of Adullam may have been near Deir Diibban, five or six miles N. of Eloutlieropolis. The limestone cliffs of the whole of that locality are pierced with extensive excavations, some one of which (so Mr. Grove, with Stl., V. de V., &c.) may have been the "cave of Adullam," the refuge of David (1 Sam. xxii. I ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13 ; 1 Chr. xi. 15). Monastic tradition (with which Kit., Fbn., Bonar, Ayre, Thn., &c., coincide) places the cave of Adullam at Khiireilun, where is an immense natural cavern in the side of a precipice, about two hours S. E. of Bethlehem (Rbn. i. 481). A-dDl'lam-ite — a native of Adullam (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). A-dnl'ter-y. The parties to this crime were a married woman and a man who was not her hus- band. The toleration of polygamy, indeed, renders it nearly impossible to make criminal a similar of- fence committed by a married man with a woman not his wife. In the patriarchal period the sanctity of marriage is noticeable from Abraham's fear, not that his wife will be seduced from him, but that he may be killed for her sake, and especially from the scruples ascribed to Pharaoh and Abimelech (Gen. xii., XX.). The woman's punishment, as commonly among Eastern nations, was no doubt capital, and probably death by fire (xxxviii. 24). The Mosaic penalty was that both tlie guilty parties should be stoned, and it applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman, provided she were free (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman so offending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offer- ing (Lev. xix. 20-22 ; Punishments). — The system of inheritances, on which the polity of Moses was based, was threatened with confusion by the doubt- ful offspring caused by this crime, and this secured popular sympathy on the side of morality until a far advanced stage of corruption was reached. Probably, when that territorial basis of polity passed away — as it did after the captivity — and when the marriage tie became a looser bond, public feeling in regard to adultery changed, and the penalty of death was sel- dom or never inflicted. Thus, in the case of the woman brought to our Lord (Jn. viii. 3-11), it is likely that no one then thought of stoning her in fact, though there remained the written law ready for the caviller. It is likely also that a divorce, in which the adulteress lost her dower and rights of mainte- nance, &c., was the usual remedy, suggested by a wish to avoid scandal and the excitement of commisera- tion for crime. The expression (Mat. i. 19) " to make her a public example," probably means to bring the case before the local Sanhedrim, which was the usual course, but which Joseph did not propose to take, preferring repudiation, because that could be man- aged privately. — Concerning the famous trial by the WATER OF JEALOUSY (Xum. v. 11-31), it has been questioned whether a husband was, in case of certain facts, bound to adopt it. The more likely view is, that it was meant as a relief to the vehemence of Oriental jealousy (so Mr. Hayman). The ancient strictness of the nuptial tie gave room for intense feeling : and in that intensity probably arose this strange custom, which no doubt Moses found pre- vailing, and which is said to be paralleled by a (brm of ordeal called the " red water " in western Africa. The forms of Hebrew justice (see Talmud) all tended to limit the application of this test. 1. By prescribing certain facts presumptive of guilt, to be established on oath by two witnesses. 2. By technical rules of evidence which made proof of those presumptive facts difficult. 3. By exempting certain large classes of women (all indeed, except a pure Israelitess mar- ried to a pure Israelite, and some even of them)frora the liability. 4. By providing that the trial could only be before the great Sanhedrim. 5. By invest- ing it with a ceremonial at once humiliating and in- timidating, yet which still harmonized with the spirit of the whole ordeal in Num. v. But, 6. Above all, by the conventional and even mercenary light in which the nuptial contract was latterly regarded. — When adultery ceased to be capital, as no doubt it did, and divorce became a matter of mere conveni- ence, this trial was doubtless discontinued. And when adultery became common, as the Jews them- selves confess, it would have been impious to expect the miracle which it supposed. If ever the Sanhe- drim were constrained to adopt this tiial, no doubt every effort was used, nay, was prescribed to over- awe the culprit and induce confession. Besides, however, the intimidation of the woman, the man was likely to be repelled from the public exposure of his suspicions. Divorce was a ready and quiet remedy. — Adultery is also used in the Scriptures in a wider sense to include fornication and all lewd- ness (Ex. XX. 14 ; Mat. v. 27, 28 j 2 Pet. ii. 14), and oft^ figuratively to denote unfaithfulness to cove- nant obligations toward God, or idolatry, apostasy, &c. (Jer. iii. 8, 9, comp. 20 ; Ez. xxiii. 37 ; I!ev. ii. 22, &c.). Concubine ; Divorce ; Harlot ; Mar- riage. A-darn'mlm, the go'Ing up to or of (Heb. ma'aleh ttdiimmim = the pass of the red) ; a landmark of the boundary of Benjamin, a rising ground or pass " over against Gilgal," and " on the S. side of the 'torrent'" (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 17), where is ADT AGR 17 Btill the road leading up from Jericho and the Jor- dan to Jerusalem, on tlic southeni face of the gorge of the Wudi/ Kelt. Jerome (Onom.) ascribes the mime to the blood shed there by the robbers who infested the pass in liis day, as they do still, and as they did in the days of our Lord, of whose parable of the Good Samaritan this is the scene. But the n.ime is probably derived from some ancient tribe of "red m^n" in the country. * Ad Ter-sa-ry. Satan ; Trial ; War. • Ad TO-t»te (Gr. parakletos = called tu one's aid, axsistini/; hence an advocate, a comforter, Rbn. N. T. Lex.) = one who pleads another's cause before a judge; apphed to Jesus Christ (1 Jn. ii. 1 ; JunoE ; Trial). The same Greek word is also applied to the Holy Ghost, and translated " Comforter." Spirit, THE Holy. • A-e-dl'»8 (1 Esd. ix. 27), probably a corruption of Eli a II. J)gjrpt [eejipt] = Eqtpt. jEne-as [ee ne-as : in L. p.-ox ee-nee'as]=: Eneas. JJnDll [ee'non] =: Enon. Jira feo'ra], now written Era. Chronolosy. Ji-tlil-o'pl-a [ee-the-o'pe-i] — EniioPiA. Af-Su't-tyi Marriaos. Aga-bl (1 Esil. V. 30) = Haoab. Ag'a-b03 (L. fr. Heb. = locust, Drusius ; fp. Heb. z= to looe, Grotius, &3.), a Ciii-istian prophet in the apostolic age (Acts xi. 28, xxL 10). He predicted (Acts xi. 28) a famine in the reign of Clauoius " throughout all the worll." This expression may take a narrower or a wider sense, eitlier of which confirms the prediction. Aii Greek and Roman writers used " the world " of the Groek an 1 the Ro- man world, so a Jewish writer could use it naturally of the Jewish world or Palestine. Ancient writers give no account of any universal famine in the reign of Claudius, but they speak of several severe fam- ines in particular countries. Josephus (xx. 2, § 5, and 5, g 2) mentions one at that time in Judea, whic'.i swept away many of the inhabitants. This probably is the famine to which Agabus refers. It toDk place (Jos. xx. 5, § 2) when Cuspius Fadus and Tibe ins Alexander were procurators ; i. e. it may have be^un about the close of a. d. 44, and lasted three or four years. Fadus was sent into Judea on the death of Agrippa, which occurred A. D. 44. If we attach the wider sense to " world," the prediction may be of a famine throughout the Roman empire during the reign of Claudius (the year is not speci- fied), not nec'ssarily in all parts at the same time. We find mention of three other fanines during this reign : one in Greece, and two in Rome. A'glg(Heb. fr. Ar. root =: lo burn, Gcs.), possibly the title of the kings of Amaiek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7, and another in 1 Sam. xv. The latter Saul spared with the best of the spoil, although the Ainalekites were by divine command to be extir- pate! (Ex. xvii. 14; Deut. xxv. 17-19). For this disobedience Samuel was commissioned to declare to Saul his rejection, and he himself sent for Agag and cut him in pieces. Haman is called the Agaq- iTE(Eilh. iii. 1, 10, viii. 3, 5). The Jews considered Haman a descendant of Agag, the Amalekite, and be ice account for his hatred to their race. A'g.ig-Ue. Auao. A gar = Haoar. A-gar-eucs' [ay-gar-eenz'] (Bar. iii. 23) = Haqar- kses. A^'ate i."! mentioned four times in the A. V. (Ex. xxviu. 19, ixxii. 12 ; la. Uv. 12 ; Ez. xxvii. 16). In Ex. where the Heb. word, shiho is used to denote the second stone in the third row of the high-priest's breastplate, commentators are generally agreed that affale is intended ; in Isaiah and Ezekiel the Heb. word is cadedd, i)iobahly=the ruby (Ges.). In Ez. xxvii. IB, where the text has agate, the margin has chryao- prase. Our English agate derives its name from the river Achates, in Sicily, on the banks of which, ac- cording toTheophrastus and Pliny, it was first found ; but as agates are met with in almost every country, this stone was doubtless from the earliest times known to the Orientals. It is a variety of quartz with stripes or bands of different colors or shades, and is met with generally in rounded nodules, or iu veins in trap-rocks ; specimens are often found on the sea-shore, and in the beds of streams, the rocks in which they had been embedded having been de- composed by the elements, when the agates have dropped out. Age, Old. (For distinctions or exemptions on ac- count of age, see Lev. xxvii. 7 ; Num. viii. 25.) In early stages of civilizntion, when experience ia the only source of piactical knowledge, old age has its special value and honors. Besides, the Jew was taught to consider old age as a reward for piety, and a token of God's favor. In private life the aged were looked up to as the depositaries of knowledge (Job. XV. 10) : the young rose up in their presence (Lev. xix. 32); they gave their opinion first (Job xxxii. 4) : gray hairs were a " crown of glory " and the "beauty of old men" (Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29). The attainment of old age was regarded as a special blessing (Job v. 26), not only on account of the pro- longed enjoyment of life to the individual, but also because it indicated peaceful and prosperous times (Zcch. viii. 4 ; 1 Mc. xiv. 9 ; Is. Isv. 20). In public affairs age carried weight with it, especially in the infancy of the state : under Moses the old men or elders acted as the representatives of the people in all matters of difficulty and deliberation, and thus be- came a class, the title gradually ceasing to convey the notion of age, and being used in an official sense, like the L. Patrcs (= Fathers, the official title of Roman senators), Scnalores (— senators, fr. seiicx = old), &c. (CoNGBEGATioN ; ELDER.) On the descrip- tion of old age iu Eccl. xii. 1-7, see under Medicine. A'gee [g as in get] (Heb. fugitive, Ges.), a Hararite, father of SnAMMAii 3 (2 Sam. xxiii. 11). Ag-ge'ns [g as in get] (1 Esd. vi. 1, vii. 3; 2 Esd. i. 40) = Uaggai. * Ag'o-ny (fr. Gr., lit. a contest, struggle for cic- toni, L. & S.), used in 2 Mc. iii. 14, 16, 21, and Lk. xxii. 44, to denote an inward struggle or conflict, ex- treme mental anguish. Getbsemane; Jksus Christ; Sweat, Bloody. Agri-enWure. This, though prominent in the lives of Adam, Cain, and Noah, wa^ little cared for by the patriarchs ; more so, however, by Isaac and Jacob than by Abraham (Gen. xxvi. 12, xxxvii. 7), in whose time, probably, if we except the lower Jor- dan valley (xiii. 10), there was little regular culture in Canaan. Thus in Gerar and Shechcm pastoral wealth apparently predominated (xxxiv. 28). The herdmen strove with Isaac about his wells; about his crops there was no contention (xxvi. 12-22). In Joshua's time (Num. xiii. 23, 24), Canaan was in a much more advanced agriculturJ state th.^.n when Jacob left it (Deut. viii. 8), resulting probalily from the severi^ experience of famines, and the example of Egypt, to which its people were thus led. The pastoral life kejjt the sacred family distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially in Egypt. 18 AGR AGR Afterward agriculture became the basis of the Mo- saic conimonwealth. It tended to cheek not only the contaminating influence of foreign nations, which commerce would have favored, but also the freeboot- ing and nomad life, and made a numerous offspring profitable, as it was already honorable by natural sentiment and by law. Taken in connection with the inalienable character of inheritances tllEiR), it gave each man and each family a stake in the soil and nurtured a hardy patriotism. Every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure to guard from alienation (Lev. xxv. 23). The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical tear formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by the Di- vine Owner. Landmarks were sacred (Deut. xix. 14), and the heritage reverted to the owner in the year of jubilee. (Jubilee, Year of.) — Agricullural Calendar. — The Jewish calendar, as fixed by the three great testivals, turned on the seasons of green, ripe, and- fully-gathered produce. The year ordinarily consisting of twelve months (Month) was divided into six agricultural periods as follows : — I. Sowing Time. ( beginiiin? about I lisrl, latter halR autumnal I ( equinox > Early rain due. Marcheshvan Cbisleu, former half J II. Uneipe Time. Chlslen, latter half. Tebeth. Sebat, former half. III. Cold Season. Bcbat, latter half "j (Vea'dar)'.. ■■.■.■.'. ■.■.■.'..' '.".'.'.■.■.■.■.■."■.■. f ^^"•"" "^° ''"<'• Kisao, former half J IV. Harvest Time. ( Beginning abont ver- Kisan, latter half I „ nal equinox. I Kariey green. 1 Passover. Ijar. Bivan, former half \ ^^h-' J^pe. V. Summee. Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half. TI. Sultet Season. Ab, latter half. Klnl. Tlsrl, former half Ingathering of fruits. Thus the six mbnths from mid Tisri to mid Nisan were mainly occupied with the process of cultivation, and the rest with the gathering of the fruits. Tlie ancient Hebrews had little notion of green or root- crops for fodder. Barley supplied food both to man and beast, and "\Iillet" was grazed while green, and its ripe grain made into bread. Mowing (Am. vii. 1 ; Ps. Ixxii. 6) and liay-making were familiar processes. (Grass ; Hat.) — Climaie and Soil. — A change in the cUmate of Palestine, caused by in- crease of population and the clearance of trees, must have taken place before the period of the N. T. A further cliange caused by the decrease of skilled agri- cultural labor, e. g. in irrigation and terrace- making, has since ensued. Yet wherever industry is secure, the soil still asserts its old fertility. (For the vari- eties in climate, soil, surface, &c., see Palestine.) Timber. — The IsraeUtes probably found in Canaan a fair proportion of woodland, which their necessities must have led them to reduce (Josh. xvii. 18 ; Fob- est). But even in early times timber seems to have been far less used for building material than among Western nations. (Architecture.) No store of wood-fuel seems to have been kept: ovens were heated with dung, hay, &c. (Ez. iv. 12, 15; Mat. vi. 30) ; and, in any case of sacrifice on an emergency, some source of supply is mentioned for the wood (1 Sam. vi. 14; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22 ; IK. xix. 21 ; comp. Gen. xxii. 3, 6, 7 ; Bread ; Coal ; Cooking, &c.). Jiain and Irrigation. — The abundance of water in Palestine, from natural sources, made Canaan a con- trast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii. 7, xi. 8-12). Rais was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equi- nox or mid Tisri ; and if by the first of Cliisleu none had fallen, a fast w as proclaimed. (Dew ; Famine.) The peculiar Egyptian method of irrigation supposed to be alluded to in Deut. xi. 10— "where thou wateredst it witli thy foot " — was not unknown, though less prev- alent in Palestine. That peculiarity seems to have consisted in making in the fields square shallow beds, like our salt-pans, surrounded by a raised border of earth to keep in the water, which was then turned fiom one square to another by pushing aside the mud, to open one and close the next with the loot. Others (Nie- buhr, Ros., &c.) think Deut. xi. 10 refers to some la- borious method of raising water to the level of gar- dens, &c., by a machine turned by the foot. (See Egypt.) In Palestine iriigation was essential; and for tliis the large extent of rocky surface, easily exca- vated for cisterns and ducts, was most useful. Even the plain of Jericlio is watered not by canals from the Jordan, since the river lies below the land, but by rills converging from the mountains. In these features of the country lay its expansive resources to meet the wants of a multiplying population. The lightness of agricultural labor in the plains set fiee an abundance of hands for terracing and watering ; and the result gave the highest stimulus to industry. Crops. — The cereal crops of constant mention are Wheat and Barley, and more rarely Rye (?) and Millet. The Vine, Olive, Fig, Ccmmin, Fitches (?), Beans, Lentiles, may also be named among the sta- ple produce. To tliese, later writers add many gar- den plants, e. g. kidney-beans, peas, lettuce, endives, leeks, garlics, onions, melons, cucumbers, cabbages, &c. (Garden.) The produce wliicli formed Jacob's present would keep, and had been preserved during the famine (Gen. xliii. 11; Flax). — Pkmghing and Sowing. — The plough probably was like the Egyptian, and the ploughing light, usually with one yoke of oxen. Such is still used in Asia Minor, and its parts are sho\vn in fig. 1 ; a is the pole to which one of the yokes, b, is attached ; c, the share ; d, tlie handle ; e represents three modes of arming the share ; and / is a goad with a scraper at the other end, pioLably for cleaning the share. (Goad; IIaurow.) Mountains Fig. ].— Plough, Ac, as fltni MteA tn Apia .Minor.— (From Fellows'* Alia Minor. j and steep places were hoed. (Mattock.) New ground (broken up in the spring and ploughed a AGR AGR 19 second time ; see Is. xxviii. 24) and fallows (Jer. iv. 3 ; Oos. X. 12) were cleared of stones and of thorns (Is. V. 2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from " among thorns " being a proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v. 5; I'roy. xxiv. 30, 31). Sowuio often took place mlhout previous ploughing. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Is. xxxii. 20), as in Egypt by goats. Some- times, howcvi>r, the sowing was by patches only in wellmauuied spots, as in lig. 4, from Surenhusius on Fig. 3.— Goats treading En the grain, when loim In the Seld, after Ui« water haa lubeided. — (Wilkinton, Tombs, near the Pyramids.) the Mislina. Where the soil was heavier, the plough- ing was best done dry ; but the formal routine of heavy Western soils was not the standard of the naturally fine tilth of Palestine generally. Seventy days before the passover was the time prescribed for Fig. 4.— Ondn growing In patehea.— (Sorenbaalna.) sowing for the " wave-sheaf," and probably, there- fore, for that of barley generally. (Barley; First Vig. £.— Sowing,— ^Snrenhuaina.; Frcits ; Palestise ; Whbai.) The custom of watch ing ripcQing crops and threshing floors against theft or damage, is probably ancient (Ru. iii. 4, 7 ; Is. i. 8). — TItc rotation of crops, familiar to the Egyp- tians, was probably known .to the Hebrews. Sow- ing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9), and minute directions are given by the rab- Fig. 6.— Sowing— i so com- plete that Ben-hadad himself fell into his hands ; but was released (contrary to the will of God as an- nounced by a prophet) on condition of restoring all the cities of Israel which he held, and making " streets " for Ahab in Damascus ; i. e. admitting into his capital permanent Hebrew officers, in an in- dependent position, with special dwellings for them- selves and their retinues, to watch over the commer- cial and political interests of Ahab and his subject?. A similar privilege had been exacted by Ben-hadad's predecessor from Omri in Samaria. After this great success Ahab enjoyed peace for three years, when, in conjunction with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, he attacked Ramoth in Gilead, which was held by the Syrians, but claimed by Ahab as belonging to Israel. But God's blessing did not rest on the expedition, and Ahab was told by the prophet Micaiaii that it would fail. For giving this warning Micaiah was im- prisoned ; but Ahab was led by it to disguise him- self, so as not to offer a conspicuous mark to the archers of Ben-hadad. But he was slain by a " cer- tain man who drew a bow at a venture ; " and, though staid up in his chariot for a time, he died toward evening, and his army dispersed. ' When he was brought to be buried in Samaria, and his chariot n as washed in the pod of Samaria (1 K. xxii. 37, 38), the dogs licked up his blood ; a partial fulfilment of Elijah's prediction (1 K. xxi. 19), which was more literally accomplished in the case of his son (2 K. ix. 26). — 2, A lying prophet, who deceived the cap- tive Israelites in Babylon, and was burnt to death by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxix. 21). i'ha-rab (Heb. after the brother, Ges.), third son of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 1). Aher ; Ahiram. A-har'bel (Heb. behind the breastwork, sc. bom, Ges.), ancestor of certain families of Judah, appar- ently descended through Coz from Ashur, the posthu- mous son of Ilezron. The Targum of Rabbi Joseph on Chronicles identifies him with " Hur the first-boru of Miriam" (1 Chr. iv. 8). Aba-sal (Heb. = Ahaziah? Ges.; holder, pro- lector, Eli.), a priest, ancestor of Amashai (Nch. xi. 13). Jahzeraii. A-has'bal (Htb. Hale refuge vcilh Jehovah, Sini., Gps.; blooming, nhining, &c. Jah is, Fii.), father of Eliphelet, David's captain (2 Sam. xxiii. 34) ; = Ir in I Ohr. xi. 35. * A-bash-Te'rosb (Heb.) =: Ahascerus (Ezr. iv. 6, marg.). A-has-n-e'ms (fr. Heb. Ahashverosh [see above] or Achaxhvcrosh = Siiusc. kshalra, " kiiig,"^ kshenhe in the arrow-headed inscriptions of I'erstpolis = Gr. Xerxes ; see Artaxerxes), the name of one Median and two Persian kings in the 0. T. In the following chronological table of the Medo-Persian king? from Cyaxares to Artaxerxes Longimanus, according to their ordinary classical names, their supposed Scrifi- tural names are added in italics by Bishop Cotton, the original author of this aiticle: — 1. Cyaxares, king of Media, and conqueror of Nineveh (son of Phraortes and grandson of Deioccs), began to reign n. c. fi34 ; = Ahasuerus. 2. Astyages (his son), last king of Met of the table (Gen. xxxvi. 40-43 ; see also 1 Chr. i. 51-54), which we must regard as a list of names of places and not of persons. The district named from Aholi- bamah, or perhaps rather from which she received her married name, was no doubt (as the name in- dicates) in the heights of the mountains of Edora, probably therefore near Mount Hor and Petra. i-bn'mil (Heb. brotlier of [i. e. dwelling near'\ vater, Gcs.), son of Jahath, and head of a family of Zorathitcs (1 Chr. iv. 2). A-bn'zam (Heb. Ahuzzam = Ihcir possemon, Ges.), son of Ashur, the father of Tekoa, by his wife Naa- rah ( 1 Chr. iv. 6). A-bnz'zath (llcb. possession. Ges.), a friend of the Philistine king Abimelech, who accompanied him at his inten-iew with Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 26). A'l (Heb. heap of ruins, Ges.). 1. A royal city (comp. Josh. viii. 2.3, 29, x. 1, xii. 9) of Ctniian, al- ready existing in the time of Abraham (Gen. xii. 8; Hai), and lying E. of Bethel (comp. Josh. xii. 9), and " beside Bcthaven" (Josh. vii. 2, viii. 9). The Israelites, after destroying Jericho, attempted to take Ai, but were at first unsuccessful. (Achan.) Afterward the city was taken by an ambuscade, and ■was " utterly destroyed " (Josh, vii., viii., ix., 3, x. 1, 2, xii. 9). However, the name Aiath (probably = Ar) was still attached to the locality at the time of Sennacherib's march on Jerusalem (Is. x. 28). The " men of Bethel and Ai " (223 in Ezr. ii. 28 ; 123 in Neh. vii. 32) returned from the captivity with Ze- rubbabel; and " Michmash, Aija (probably — Ai), and Bethel," with their " daughters," were among the places reoccupied by the Benjamites (Neh. xi. 31). Travellers differ as to the site of the city which Joshua doomed to be a " heap and a desolation for- ever." Robinson (ii. 573-5) supposes it on a low hill with ruins, about three miles S. S. E. of Bethel ; Van de Veldu (ii. 278-9), on an isolated hill with a great heap of stones, about one mile an 1 a half E. S. E. of Bethel. It is the opinion of some that AviM in Josh, xviii. 23, and Gaza in 1 Chr. vii. 28 are corru|)tion3 of Ai. — 2. A city of the Ammonites, probably attached to Heshbon (Jer. xlix. 3). Al'all [like Isaiah] (Heb. := cry, clamor, Ges.). 1. Son of Zibeon, and brother of Anaii (1 Chr. i. 40); called in Gen. xxxvi. 24, Ajah. — 2. Father of Riz- pah, the concubine of Saul (2 Sam. Ui. 7, xxi. 8, 10, 11). Al'ath (fr. Hub.), probably = Ai (Is. x. 28). A1'J» (fr. Heb.), probably = Ar (Nth. xi. 31). Ai'Ja-loa (fr. Heb. = a place of deer or (jazelles = Deerfield, Ges.). 1, A city of the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 24 ; 1 Chr. vi. 69), originally allotted to Dan (.Josh. xix. 42 ; A. V. " Ajalon "), which tribe, how- ever, could not dispossess the Amorites of the place (Judg. i. 35). Aijalon was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 10) during his conflicts with the new kingdom of Ephraim (1 K. xiv. 80), and we last hear of It as in the hands of the Philistines (2 Chr. xxviii. 18, A. V. •Ajalon;" see also 1 Chr. viii. 13). Being on the frontier of the two kingdoms, Aijalon is spoken of sometimes (1 Chr. vi. 69, comp. with 66) as in Ephraim, and sometimes (2 Chr. xi. 10 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 81) as in Judab and Benjamin. Aijalon is identified with the modem YAlo, a village a little N. of the Jatfa road, about fourteen miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem, on the side of a long hill which (brms the southern boundary of a fine valley of wheat and barley fields. This valley, now Merj Urn 'Oincir, was undoubtedly "the valley of Ajalon" (Josh. x. 12), which witnessed the defeat of the Canaanites by Joshua (Rbn. ii. 253, iii. 145). — 2. A place in Zebu- lun, the burial-place of Elon, one of the judges (Judg. xii. 12). Ai je-lcth 8lia'har (fr. Heb. = (he hind of the morn- ing dawn), found only in the title of Ps. xxii., and variously interpreted. Some take it for the name of a musical instrument : others suppose it to express allegorically the argument of Ps. xxii. ; the Chaldee Paraphrast translates " the power of the continual morning sacrifice," implying a direction to the chief musician respecting the tiiae of chanting the psalm ; but the weiglit of authority predominates in favor of the interpretation which assigns to the phrase the sole purpose of describing to the musician the mel- ody (not now extant, but well known in David's time and afterward) to which the psalm was to be played. A'lii (Heb. ^ayin) = an eye, and also, in the simple but vivid imagery of the East, a spring = fountain, or natural burst of living water, the well or tank of artificial formation being always designated by the Hebrew words Beer and Bor. Ain oftenest occui'S in combination (in the form of En = Heb. 'eyn), as in En-gew, En-gannim, &c. It occurs alone in three cases: — !• One of the landmarks on the eastern boundary of Palestine, as described by Moses (Num. xxxiv. 11), RiBLAU being "on the E. side of the spring" (A. V. "Ain"). This is probably ^Ain el- Azy, the main source of the Orontes, and a fountain remarkaljle for its force and magnitude, about nine miles S. W.'of the modern Ribleh (Rbn. iii. 534; Ptr. ii. 335-6, 358). — 2. One of the southernmost cities of Judab (Josh. xv. 32), afterward allotted to Simeon (Josh. xix. 7 ; 1 Chr. iv. 32), and given to the priests (Josh. x.xi. 16). In 1 Chr. vi., Ashan takes the place of Ain. (En-Rimmon.) — 3. The six- teenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Ps. cxix.). Number; Writing. * Air, the translation in the A. V. of — 1. Hebrew sMmayim ( = heaven) cnly in Prov. xxx. 19, and in the phrases "bird of the air" (2 Sam. xxi. 10; Eccl. X. 20), "fowl of the air" (Gen. i. 26 fT., &c.).— 2. Hebrew ruah or ruach (Job xii. 14 only); usu- ally translated " breath " (Gen. vi. 1 7, &c.), " wind " (Gen. viii. 1, &c.) or "spirit" (Gen. i. 2, &c.). — 3* Greek ouranos ( z=z heaven), only in the phrases " birds of the air " (Mat. viii. 20, &c.), and " fowls of the air " (Jd. xi. 7; Mat. vi. 26, &c.); in LXX. =r No. 1. — 4. Greek pneuma ( = breath, spirit), once in Wis. v. 11, where " the light air .... is passed through " by a bird ; in LXX. =: No. 2. — 5. Greek aer (in Homer, &c. = the lower air, atmosphere, Uie thick air or haze that surrounds the earth ; opposed to Greek aither, i. e. the pure upper air ; hence, misty darkness, mist, gloom ; in later writers, air, L. & S.), uniformly translated "air" in N. T. (Acts xxii. 23 ; 1 Cor. ix. 26, xiv. 9; Eph. ii. 2 ; 1 Th. iv. 17; Rev. ix. 2, xvi. 17), also in Apocrypha (Wis. ii. 3, v. 11, 12, vii. 3, xvii. 10 [Gr. 9]; 2 Me. v. 2).— " The prince of the power of the air " (Eph. ii. 2) = Satan. A-l'ras, one of the " servants of the Temple," or Nethinim, whose sons came up with Zorobabel (I Esd. V. 31); perhaps = Reaiah. A'Jah = AiAH 1 (Gen. xxxvi. 24). 26 AJA ALE ij'a-Ion (Josh. x. 12, six. 42; 2 Chr. xxviii. 18) = AuALON 1, the Hebrew being the same in both. A'kan (Ileb. iwist, turn, Ges. ; criminal, Fii.), son of Ezer, and descendant of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 27); = Jakan and Jaakan. Ak'knb (Heb. insidious, Ges.). 1. A descendant of Zerubbabel and son of Elioenai (1 Chr. iii. 24). — i, A Levite, porter or doorkeeper at the E. gate of the Temple ; =r Dacobi (1 Esd. v. 28). His descend- ants succeeded to his office, and appear among those who returned from Baljylon (1 Chr. ix. 17; Ezr. ii. 42 ; Neh. vii. 45, xi. 19, xii. 25).— 3. One of the Nethinim, whose family returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 45) ; probably = ActJA in I Esd. v. 30. — 4< A Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding the law to the people (Xeh. viii. 7) ; = Jacubus in 1 Esd. ix. 48. A-krab'bim (Heb. scorpions, Ges.), flie as-rent' of, and the going np to ', also " Ma'a-leh-acrabbim " (Heb. tlie scorpion pass). A pass between the S. end of the Dead Sea and Zin, on the southern boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 3) and of the Holy Land (Num. xxxiv. 4). Also the northern (?) boun- dary of the Amorites (Judg. i. 36). Judas Maccabeus gained here a great victory over the Edomites (1 Mc. V. 3 ; " Arabattine "). Perhaps Akrabbim is the steep pass es-Sufdh, by which the final step is made from the desert to the level of the actual land of Palestine. (Zephath.) Robinson (ii. 120) identifies Akrabbim with the line of chalk cliffs, seven or eight miles long, and from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, which cross the Arabah in an irreg- ular curve from N. W. to S. E., six or eight miles S. of the Dead Sea. Akrabbim must not be con- founded with Akrabattene, a district or toparchy, under the Romans, between Neapolis and Jericho (Jos. B. J. ii. 12, § 4, &c. ; Rbn. iii. 296). Arbat- TIS. il'a-bas-ter (Gr. alabaslron or alabastros, original- ly [so Stephanus] the name of the vessels, of pecu- liar shape [see cut], in which ointments were kept, hence applied to the material of which the vessels were commonly made) occurs in the N. T. onlv in the notices of the alabaster-box of ointment with which a woman anointed our Lord when he sat at meat (Mat. xxvi. 7 ; Mk. xiv. 3 ; Lk. vii. 37 ; Mart Magdalene). The modem alabaster includes both AUbaater VeMels.— From the British Moseam. The inscription on the centre vessel denotes the quantity it holds. a granular variety of ffi/psum and the oriental ala- baster. Gypsum is a hydrous sulphate of lime, and forms, when calcined and ground, the well-knpwu plaster of Park. The oriental alabaster, so much valued on account of its translucency, and for its variety of colored streakings, red, yellow, gray, &c., is a carbonate of lime, known in mineralogy as sta- lagmite. The ancient alabaster principally, if not solely = the oriental alabaster (Dana). Both these kinds of alabaster, but especially the latter, are and have been long used for various ornamental pur- poses, such as in the fabrication of vases, boxes, &a The ancients considered alabaster (carbonate of Ume) the best material in which to preserve their ointments. "Unguents," says Pliny, "keep best in alabaster." In Mk. xiv. 3, the woman who brought " the alabaster-box of ointment of spike- nard " is said to break the box before pouring out the ointment, which probably only means breaking tlie seal which kept the essence of the perfume from evaporating. Al'a-metta (Heb. covering, Ges.), a son of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. vii. 8). A-lammc-Ieth [-lek] (Heb. king's oak), a place in Asher, named between Achshaph and Amad (Josh, xix. 26 only) ; site unknown. Al'a-moth (Heb.; Ps. xlvi. title ; 1 Chr. xv. 20), supposed by some to be a musical instrument, by others a particular melody (comp.AijKLETH Shahar). Gesenius interprets the Hebrew 'a/ 'aldmolh (A. V. " upon Alamoth ") to mean ajter the manner of vir- gins, i. e. with the female voice = our treble or soprano. So also J'rof. J. A. Alexander {on Ps. xlvi.). Al'cl-mns [-se-] (fr. Gr. = valiant, a name, as- sumed, according to the prevailing fashion, as rep- resenting Eliakim), a Jewish priest of the Hellen- izing party. On the death of Menclaus, Alcimus, though not of the pontifical family, was appointed high-priest by the influence of Lysias, to the exclu- sion of Onias, the nephew of Menelaus. When Deme- trius Sotcr obtained the kingdom of Syria he paid court to that monarch, who confirmed him in his of- fice, and through his general Bacchides established him at Jerusalem. His cruelty, however, was so great that, in spite of the force left in his command, he was unable to withstand the opposition which he provoked, and he again fled to Demetrius, who im- mediately took measures for his restoration. The first expedition under Nicanor proved unsuccessful ; but upon this Bacchides marched a second time into Judea with a large army, routed Judas (Maccabees), who fell in the battle (161 b. c), and reinstated Al- cimus. After his restoration, Alcimus seems to have attempted to modify the ancient worship, and as he was pulling down " the wall of the inner court of the sanctuary " (i. e. which separated the court of the Gentiles from it) he was " plagued " (by paral- ysis), and " died at that time," 160 B. c. (1 Mc. vii ix. ; comp. 2 Mc. xiv. xv.). At'e-ma (fr. Gr.), a large and strong city in Gilead in the time of the Maccabees (1 Mc. v. 26); site un- known. Are-metb (Heb. covering, Ges.), a Bcnjamite, de- scended from Jonathan the son of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 36, ix. 42). Ale-metb (Heb. 'Allemeth = concealment, Ges. & Fii.), a city of the priests in Benjamin (1 Chr. vi. 60); = Ai.MON ; probably at 'Almil, a low, naked hill about one mile N. E. of 'Andta (Anathoth). * A'lepll (fr. I'henician = ox, Ges.), the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Ps. cxix.). Alpha ; Ndm- BEa ; Writing. Ai-ex-an'der (L. fr. Gr. Alexandros = tJie helper of men) III,, king of Macedon, surnamed the Great, ALE ALE 27 "the son of Philip" (1 Mc. i. 1-9, v\. 2) and Olym- pian, was bom at I'clla, B. c. 356. On his mother's side he claimed descent fr. Achilles. At an early age he was placed under the care of Aristotle ; and while still a youth, he turned the fortune of the day at Cliaeronea, b. c. 338. On the murder of PhiHp (b. c. SStt) Alexander put down the disaffection and hos- tility by which his throne was menaced. In b. c. S34 he crossed the Hellespont to carry out the plans of his father, and execute the mission of Greece to the civilized world. The battle of the Granicus was followed by the subjugation of western Asia, and the next year the fate of the East was decided at Issus. Tyre and Gaza, the only cities in western Syria which offered Alexander any resistance, were reduced and treated with unusual severity (b. c. 332). Egypt next submitted to him ; in b. c. 331 he founded Alexandria, and finally defeated Darius at Gauga- mela ; and in B. c. 330 his unhappy rival was mur- dered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. The next two years Alexander was consolidating his Persian con- quests and reducing Bictria. In b. c. 327 he crossed the Indus, penetrated to the Uydaspes, and was there forced by the discontent of his array to turn West. He reached Susa, b. c. 325, and then pro- ceeded to Babylon, b. c. 324, which he chose as the capital of his empire. There (b. c. 323) he died in the midst of his gigantic plans ; and those who in- herited his conquests left his designs unachieved and unattempted (comp. Dan. vii. 6, viii. 5, xi. 3). — The famous tradition of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem during his Phcnician campaign (Jos. xi. 8, § 1 ff.) has been a fruitful source of controversy. The Jews, it Is said, had provoked his anger by refusing to transfer their allegiance to him, and after the reduc- tion of Tyre and Gaza he turned toward Jerusalem. Jaddua (Jaddus) the high-priest (Neh. xii. 11, 22), who had been warned in a dream how to avert the king's anger, calmly awaited his approach, and when he drew near went out to meet him, clad in his rohes of hyacinth and gold, and accompanied by a train of priests and citizens arrayed in white. Alexanderwas so moved by tlie solemn spectacle that he did rever- ence to the holy name inscribed upon the tiara of the high-priest ; and when Parmenio expressed sur- prise, he replied that " he had seen the god whom Jaddua represented in a dream at Dium, encouraging him to cross over into Asia, and promising him suc- cess." After this, it is said, he visited Jerusalem, offered sacrifice there, heard the prophecies of Daniel which foretold his victory, and conferred important privileges upon the Jews in Judoa, Babylonia, and Media, which they enjoyed under his successors. The narrative is repeated in the Talmud and in later Jewish writers. On the other hand, no mention of the event occurs in Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, or Curtius. But though the details as given by Jose- phus may be ineorreat, the miin fact harmonizes with statements made by Justin and Curtius, and with the subsequent actual possession by the Jews of important privileges ; and internal eviderc3 is de- cidedly in favor of the story even in its details. From policy or conviction Alexander delighted to represent himself as chosen by destiny for the great act which he achieved. The siege of Tyre arose pro- fessedly from a religious motive. The battle of Issus was preceded by the visit to Gordium ; the invasion of Persia by the pilgrimage to the temple of Ammon. And the silence of the classical historians, who noto- riously disregarded and misrepresented the fortunes of the Jews, cannot be conclusive against the occur- rence of an event which must have appeared to them trivial or unintelligible. The tradition, whether true or false, presents an important aspect of Alexander's character. Orientalism (Alexandria) was a neces- sary deduction from his principles. His final object was to " unite and reconcile the world." The first and most direct consequence of his policy was tiie weakening of nationalities, and this prepared the way for the dissolution of the old religions. The spread of commerce followed the progress of arms ; and the Greek language and literature became practically uni- versal. The Jews were at once most exposed to the powerful influences thus brought to bear upon the East (Antiochus II.-VII.), and most able to support them. Their powerful hierarchy, their rigid ritual- ism, and their great doctrine of the unity of God, combined to keep them faithful to the God of their fathers. (Dispersion, Jews op the.) Alexander's conquest furnished them the occasion and the power of fulfilling their mission to the world. — In the pro- phetic visions of Daniel the influence of Alexander is necessarily combined with that of his successors. But some traits of " the first mighty king " (Dan. viii. 21, xi. 3) are given with vigorous distinctness. The he-goat by which he is typified suggests the notions of strength and speed ; and the universal extent (Dan. viii. 5, . . . . from the west on the face of l/ie whole earth) and marvellous rapidity of his conquests (Dan. 1. c, he touched not the ground) are brought forward as the characteristics of his power, which was direct- ed by ilie strongest personal impetuosity (Dan. viii. 6, in the fury of his power). He ruled with great do- minion, and did according to his will (xi. 3), " and there was none that could deliver . . . out of his hand " (viii. 7). Tetradmchm TAttic t-jlpnt) of Lyalmachas, Kin^ ni Thrace. Obverw, Head of Alexander the threat as a young Jupiter Amnion. Raven«, Banleui Lutiwaehua — tif King Lttaimaehus. In Held, mono^pTim and 2 "* S, Patlas seated to left, holding a Victory. Al-ex-an'der Ba'las (L. Alexander, see above ; Balaa =: lord, fr. Aram.?), according to some, a natural son of Antiochds IV. Epiphanes, but more generally regarded as an impostor who falsely as- sumed the connection. He claimed the throne of Syria, 162 B. c, in opposition to Demetrids Soter. After landing at Ptolemais Alexander gained the warm support of Jonathan (Maccabees) ; and though at first unsuccessful, in 150 b. c. he completely routed the forces of Demetrius, who himself fell in the re- treat. Afterward Alexander mariied Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor ; and appointed Jonathan governor of Judea. But after obtaining power he gave himself up to a life of indulgence ; and Demetrius Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter, having landed in Syria 147 b. c, found powerful sup- port. At first Jonathan defeated and slew ApoUo- nius, the governor of Celosyria, who had joined the party of Demetrius, for which exploit he received fresh favors from Alexander; but shortly afterward (b. c. 146) Ptolemy entered Syria with a large force, and after he had placed garrisons in the chief cities on the coast, which received him by Alexander's commands, suddenly pronounced himself in favor of 28 ALE ALE Demetrius, alleginj;, probably with truth, the exist- ence of a conspiracy against his life. Alexander, who had been forced to leave Antioch, was in Cilicia when he heard of Ptolemy's defection. He hastened to meet him, but was defeated, and fled to Abac in Arabia, where he was murdered, b. c. 146. 1 Me. x. xi. and Jos. xiii. show clearly the partiality of the Jews for Alexander "as the first that entreated of true peace with them," and the same feeling was ex- hibited afterward in the zeal with which they sup- ported his son Antiochus VL Al-cx-an'der (L. fr. Gr. ; see above), in N. T. 1. Son of Simon the Cyrenian ; mentioned with his brother Rufus probably as well known among early Christians (Mk. xv. 21). — 2. A kinsman of Annas the high-priest (Acts iv. 6), apparently in some high office ; supposed by some = Alexander the Alabarch at Alexandria, brother of Philo Judaeus, and an old friend of the Emperor Claudius (Jos. xviii. 8, § 1, xix. 5, § 1). — 3, A Jew at Ephesus, put forwani daiing the tumult raised by Demetrius the silver- smith (Acts xix. 3.S), to plead with the mob for ihe Jews, as being unconnected with the attempt to overthrow tlie worship of Diana. Or (so Calvin, &c., suppose) a Jewish convert to Christianity, whom the Jews were willing to expose as a victim to the mob. — 4. An Eplsesian Christian, reprobated by St. Paul (1 Tim. i. 20) as having made shipwreck concerning the faith. This may be the same witl;-^5. Alexan- der, the coppersmith, who had done the apostle many mischiefs, and of whom Timothy was exhorted to beware (2 Tim. iv. 14). il-ex-an dri-a [in L. Al-ex-an-dri'a] (L. fr. Gr. ; named fr. Alkxander ; 3 Sic. iii. 1 ; Acts xviii. 24), the Hellenic, Uoman, and Christian capital of Egypt, was founded by Alexander the Great, B. c. 332, who himself traced the ground-plan of the city, which he designed to make the metiopolis of his Western em- pire. The work thus begun was continued after the death of Alexander by the Ptolemies. Every natural advantage contributed to its prosperity. The climate and site were singularly healthy. The harbors, Plan of Alexandria.— ^Froui Fbn.) formed by the island of Pharos on which was the magnificent light-house, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, and the headland Lochias, were safe and commodious, alike for commerce and for war ; and the Lake Mareotis was an inland haven for the merchandise of Egypt and India. Under the despotism of the later Ptolemies the trade of Alexan- dria declined, but its population and wealth were enormous. Ailer the victory of Augustus (b. c. 31) it suffered for its attachment to the cause of Antony ; but its importance as one of the chief corn-ports of Rome ' secured for it the general favor of the first emperors. In later times the seditious tumults for * Thn Alexflndnan corn-vessels were lar^e and bfindsome. They Kenerully 6.iilcd direct to Puteoll ; but from stress of weather often kept close under the Asiatic coast (Acts xxvli. xxvlii). Suip. which the Alexandrians had always been notorious, desolated the city, and religious feuds aggravated the popular distress. Yet even thus, though Alex- andria Buffered greatly from constant dissensions and the weakness of the Byzantine court, the splen- dor of " the great city of the West" amazed Amrou, its Arab conqueror (a. d. 640); and after centuries of Mohammedan misrule and the loss of trade conse- quent on the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, it promises again to justify the w;sdom of its founder. — The population of Alexan- dria was mixed from the first; and this fact foin:ed the groundwork of the Alexandrian character. The three regions into which the city was divided (Rtgio Judaeorum, Brxuluhtm, Hhacohs) corresponded to the three chief classes of its inhabitants, Jews, Greeks, Egyptians ; but it had also representatives of almcst ALE ALE 29 every nation. According to Joscphus, Alexander himself assigned to the Jews a place in his new city ; " and they obtained equal privileges with the Macedonians," in consideration "of their services against the Egyptians." Ptolemy I., after the cap- ture of Jerusalem, removed a considerable number of its citizens to Alexandria. Many others followed of their own accord ; and all received the full Mace- donian franchise, as men of known and tried fidelity. The numbers and inipcrtance of the Egyptian Jews ""f^ll^a^ T ■i*!'^'" 1 1 AlezandrU from tbt Sontliw*«t.— DcteripUcn da VEgypU.-~(FT Bide by side with the temples of tlie (irecian gods. '■iTrd." The name. "altar" was not strictly appropriate, aa no sacrifices were offered upon it ; but once in the year, on the great day of atonement, the high-priest sprinkled upon its horns the blood of the sin-oSertng 34 ALT AUA (Ex. XXX. 10). — (1.) That in the Tabernacle was of sliittim-woud, overlaid with pure gold, a cubit in length and breadth, and two cubits in height. Like the Altar of Burnt-offering it had horns at the four corners. It had also a lop or roof, on which the incense was laid and lighted. Many, following the Vulgate (cralxndam epis), have supposed a kind of grating to be meant ; but for this there is no author- ity. Round the altar was a border or wreath (" crown," A. V.). Below this were two golden rings " for places for the staves to bear it withal." The staves were of shittim-wood overlaid « ith gold. Its Appearance may be illustrated by the preceding figure. This altar stood in the Holy PUce, " before the veil that is by the ark of the testimony " (Ex. xxx. 6, xl. 5). — (2.) The altar in Solomon's Temple was similar (I K. vii. 48 ; 1 Chr. xxviii. 18), but was made of cedar overlaid with gold (1 K. vi. 20, 22). — (3.) The Altar of Incense is mentioned as removejj from the Temple of Zerubbabel by Antiochus Epiph- anes (1 Mc. i. 21). Judas Maccabeus restored it, with the holy vessels, &c. (1 Mc. iv. 49). On the arch of Titus no Altar of Incense appears. But that it existed in the last Temple, and was richly over- laid, we learn from the Mishna. As the sweet incense was burnt upon it every day, morning and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8), and the blood of atonement was sprinkled upon it (v. 10), this altar had a special im- portance attached to it. It is the only altar which appears in the Heavenly Temple (Is. vi. 6 ; Rev. viii. 3, 4).— C. Other Altars. (1.) Altars of brick. There seems to be an allusion to such in Is. Ixv. 3, though Rosenmiiller (and so Gesenius and Maurcr) supposes the allusion is to some Babylonish custom of burn- ing incense on bricks covered with magic formulse or cuneiform inscriptions. — (2.) An Altar to an Un- known God (Acts xvii. 23). St. Paul mentions in his speech on Mars' Hill that he had himself seen such an altar in Athens. Pausanias and Philostratus mention " altars of unknown gods " at Athens. It is not probable that such an inscription referred to the God of the Jews, as One whose Name it was unlawful to utter, as some have supposed. Diogenes Laertius Various Altars. 1, 2. Egyptian, from bas-reliefs.— (RoaellinJ.) 3. Assyrian, found at Khorsabad.-^Laynrd.) 4. Bnl>- Ionian, Bibli'ih^que NatinnaU. — I Layard.) 6. Assyrian, from Kborsabad. — (Layard.) says that in the time of a plague, when the Atheni- ans knew not wh.at god to propitiate in order to avert it, Epimenides caused black and white sheep to be let loose from the Areopagus, and wherever tbey lay down, to be offered to the respective divini- ties. It was probably on this or similar occasion^ that altars were dedicated to an Unknown God, since they knew not what god was offended and required to be propitiated. Al-tas'thith [-kith] (fr. Heb. = des(roi/ not), in the title of Ps. Ivii., Iviii., lis., Ixxv., probably the begin- ning of sonie song or poem to the tune of which those psalms were to be chanted. Comp. Aijeleth Shahar, &c. A'lnsh (Heb. a crowd of men, Talmud), a station of the Israelites on their journey to Sinai, the last before Rephidim (Num. xx-xiii. 13, 14); given in the Seder 01am as eight miles from Rephidim. Wilder- ness OF THE Wandering. Al'vab (Heb. evil, Ges.), a duke of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40); z= Aliab in 1 Chr. i. 51. Al'van (Heb. tall, thick, Ges.), a Horite, son of Shobal (Gen. xxxvi. 23); = Alian in 1 Chr. i. 40. A'mad (Heb. people of duration. Ges.), an un- known place in Asher, between Alammelech and Misheal (Josh. xix. 26 only.) A-niitd'a-tha (Esth. xvi. 10, 17), and A-mad'a-tbns (Esth. xii. 6) ; = Hammedatha. A'mal (Heb. labor, Ges.), an Asherite, son of Helem (1 Chr. vii. 35). Am'a-Iek (Heb. a people thai licks up ? Fbn., Ayre, &c.). Is Son of Eliphaz by his concubine Timna ; grandson of E.san, and a chieftain ("duke," A.V.) of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16 ; 1 Chr. i. 36).— 8. "Ama- lek " often = Amalekites, as in Ex. xvii. ; Num. xxiv. 20; Deut. xxv. 17-19, &c. Am'a-lck-ites (fr. Amalek), a nomadic tribe which occupied the peninsula of Sinai and the wilderness between the southern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border of Egypt (Num. xiii. 29 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8). Arab historians represent them as origi- nally dwelling on the shores of the Persian Gulf, whence they were pressed W. by the grow th of the Assyrian empire, and spread over a portion of Ara- bia before its occupation by the descendants of Jok- tan. This account of their origin harmonizes with Gen. xiv. 7, where the "country" of the Amalek- ites is mentioned several generations before the birlh of the Edomite Amalek, though the passage does not assert that the Amalekites were then in that " country " : it throws light on the traces of a per- manent occupation of central Palestine in their pas- sage W., as indicated by the names " Amalek " and "Mount of the Amaleldtes" (Judg. v. 14, xii. 15): and it accounts for the silence of Scripture as to any relationship between the Amalekites and the Edomites or the Israelites. That a mixture of the two former races occurred at a later period, would in this case be the only inference from Gen. xxxvi. 16, though many writers have considered that pas- sage to refer to the origin of the whole nation, ex- plaining Gen. xiv. 7, as a case of prolepsis or anti- cipation. The physical character of the district, which the Amalekites occupied, necessitated a no- madic life, and they took their families with them even on a military expedition (Judg. vi. 5). Their wealth consisted in flocks and herds. Mention is made of a " town " (1 Sam. xv. 5), but their towns could have been little more than stations, or nomadic enclosures. The kings or chieftains perhaps had the hereditary title Agag (Num. xxiv. 7 ; 1 Sam. xv. 8). Two important routes led through the Amalekite district, viz., from Palestine to Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez, and to southern Asia and Africa by the Elanitic arm of the Red Sea. It has been conjec- tured that the expedition of the four kings (Gen. xiv.) had for its object the opening of the latter route ; and it was by the former that the Amalekites first came in contact with the Israelites, whose prog- ress they attempted to stop by a guerilla warfare (Deut. xxv. 18), but were signally defeated at Rephi- AMA AHB 35 DIM (Ex. xvii.). In union with the Canatinitos thpy again attacked the Israelites on the borders of Pal- estine, and defeated them near Hormah (Num. xiv. 45). Afterward they were at one time in league with the Moabitcs (Jndg. iii. 13) defeated by Ehud near Jericho ; at another time with the Uidianitea (Judg. vi. 3) defeated by Gidejn. Saul overran their whole district from Havilah to Shur, and inflicted an immense lo4s upon thera (1 Sam. xv.); and an Ama- lekite in turn claimed to have sftiin Saul (2 Sam. i.). T.ie!r power was thenceforth broken, and they do- generated into a horde of banditti. Their contests with David and destruction of Ziklag ended in their 8i;;nal defeat (1 Sam. xxvii., xx.x.). The last notice of the Ara;ilekite3 is that the Simeonites in the days of Hezcki.ih sm'jte " the rest " or the remnant of them (1 Chr. iv. 43). Tlie words of Moses (Deut. XXV. 19) anil of BaLiam (Num. xxiv. 20) seem to have been fulfilled in their complete destruction. Hahan. A'mam (Heb. galhermj-place, Fii.), a city in the S. of Judah, namad wiih Sliema and Moladah in Josh. XV. 28 only. KESiorH 1. A'mm = Haman (Tob. xiv. 10 ; Esth, x. 7, xii. 6, xiii. 3, 12, xiv. 17, xvi. 10, 17). Am'a-nil (fr. Heb. ^ confirmation, Gss. ; (h^ eslab- lis'ied, delermhied, Fii.), a mountain (Cant. iv. 8^; conamonly regarded as the part of Anti-L »binon in which the river Abasa (2 K. v. 12 ; written "Ama- na" in marg. of A. V., Hcb. Keri, &c.)ha3 its source. An-l-rl'th (Heb. whom Jcliunah said, i. e. proin^ i»ed, Gei.). 1. Father of AniTUB 2, and soa of Me- raijth, in the line of the high-priests (1 Chr. vi. 7, 62 ; HioH-PaiEJT ; Zado;:).— I, Hi»h-prie;t in the rjign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xix. 11) ; son of Aza- riah, and the seventh in descent from No. 1 (1 Chr, vL 11).— J. H^ad of a family of Kohathite Levites (1 Chr. xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23). — 1. A priest in Heze- kiah's time (2 Chr. xxxi. 15) ; supposed by Lord A. C. Hervey to be a f imily name ^ Immgr 1.^5. A son of Bani in Ezra's time ; husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. X. 42). — 6. A priest who returned with Zerub- babel (Neli. x. 3, xii. 2, 13). — T. A descendant of Pharez, the son of Julah(Neh. xi. 4) ; probably = Imri in 1 Clir. ix. 4. — 8. An ancestor of Zephaniah the prophet (Zeph. i. 1). Am-a-rl'as (Gr. ; 1 Esd. viii. 2 ; 2 EsJ. i. 2) = Ama- RIAIl 1. Am'a-sa (Heb. burden). 1. Son of Ithra or Jether, by Abigail, David's sister (2 Sam. xvii. 25). He was Abialom's commander-in-chief (Absalom), and was totally defeated by Joab (xviii.). Afierward he was forgiven by David, recognized ijy him as his nephew, and appointed Joab's successor (xix. 13). Joab afterward, when they were both in pursuit of the rebel Slieba, pretending to salute Amasa, stabbed him with his sword (xx. 10), which he held in his left hand. — 2. One of the princes of Ephraim in Pekah's reign, who succored the captives from Judah (2 Chr. xxviii. 12). Aoi'a-Sii(Hcb. burdensome, Gcs.). !• A Kohathite, father of Mahath a!id ancestor of Samuel and Ileman the singer (1 Chr. vi. 25, 35).— 2. Chief of the cap- tains of Judah and Benjamin, who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 18); whether z= Amasa, David's nephew, is uncertain. — 3. One of the priests who blew trumpets before the ark, when David brought k from the house of Obed-edom (1 Chr. xv. 24).— 1. Another Kohathite, father of another Mahath, in the reign of Hezeklah (2 Chr. xxlx. 12), unless the name is that of a family. Am'a-shal (fr. Heb. = Amasai), son of Azareel, and priest in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 1 3) ; ap- parently = Maasiai (1 Chr. ix. 12). Am-a-Si'ab (Ileb. whom Jehovah bears in his arms, Ges.), son of Zichri, and captain of 200,000 warriors of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 16). A'math. IIamath. • Ani'a-thais. Amatiiis. Am-a-the is (1 Esd. ix. 29). Athlat. Am'a-this (or Am'a-thas), "the land of" = the region or district of Hamath (1 Mc. xii. 25). Am-a-zi'ah (fr. Heb. whom Jehovah strengthens, Ges.), son of Joash 1, and eighth king of Judah (Judah, Kingdom of ; Israel, Kingdom of), succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-five, on the mur- der of his father, and punished the murderers, but spared their children, in accordance with Deut. xxiv. 16 (2 K. xiv. 6). He made war on the Edomites, de- feated them in the valley of salt (Salt, Valley of), and took their capital, which he named Joktheel. We read in 2 Chr. xxv. 12-14, that the victorious Jews threw 10,000 Edomites from the cliffs, and that Amaziah worshipped the gods of the country ; an exception to the general character of his reign (comp. 2 K. xiv. 3, with 2 Chr. xxv. 2). In conse- quence of this he was overtaken by misfortune. Having already offended the Hebrews of the north- em kingdom by sending back, in obedience to a prophet, 100,000 troops whom he had hired from it, he had the foolish arrogance to challenge Joasii 2, king of Israel, to battle. But Judah was completely defeated, and Amaziah himself was taken prisoner, and conveyed by Joash to Jerusalem, which opened its gates to the conqueror (so Josephus). A portion of the northern wall of Jerusalem was broken down, and treasures and hostages were carried off to Sa- maria. Amaziah lived fifteen years after the death of Joash ; and in the twenty-ninth year of his reign was murJered by conspirators at Lachish, whither he had retired for safety from Jerusalem. This is recorded as a consequence of his turning away from Jehovah (2 Chr. xxv. 27).— 2. A descendant of Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 34). — 3. A Levite, ancestor of Ethan the singer (vi. 45). — 4. Priest of the golden calf at Bethel, who endeavored to drive the prophet Amos from Israel (Am. vii. 10, 12, 14). Am-bas'sa-dor = an official representative of one sovereign or people at the court or seat of govern- ment of another sovereign or people. Examples of ambassadors occur in the cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx. 14, xxi. 21 ; Judg. xi. 17- 19), aftenvard in that of the fraudulent Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 4, &c.), and in the insUnces mentioned Judg. xi. 12, 14, and xx. 12. They are alluded to more frequently during and after tlie contact of the great monarchies of Syria, Babylon, &c., with those of Judah and Israel, as in the invasion of Sennache- rib. They were usually men of high rank (2 Sam. viii. 10; 2 K. xviii. 17, 18; Is. xxx. 4). Ambassa- dors were employed, not only on occasions of hostile challenge or insolent menace (2 K. xiv. 8 ; 1 K. xx. 2, 5, 6 ; 2 K. xix. 9, 14), but of friendly compliment, of request for alliante or other aid, of submissive deprecation, and of curious inquiry (2 Sam. x. 2 ; 2 K. xvi. 7, xviii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 31 ; Lk. .xiv. 32 ; Alliances). See also Is. xviiL 2; Ez. xvii. 15, &c. —The apostle Paul claims for himself and Timothy in preaching the Gospel the deference due to ambas- sadors of the Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor. v. 20 ; Epb. vi. 20). . Am ber (Heb. hashmal or chashmal) occurs only in Ez. i. 4, 27, viii. 2. (Colors.) It is usually supposed by biblical critics, but by no means certain, that the / 36 AMB Hebrew word denotes a metal, and not the fofsil resin called amber. The LXX. and Vulgate afford ho certain clew to identification, for the Greek word electron (L. e/frfj-uni) employed as its equivalent, was used to express both amber and a certain metal, which was composed of four parts of gold to one of Biiver, and held in very high estimation by the aa- cients. *" Am'bnsh, Am'bnsb-meiit. War. A men' (Heb. firm, trite, truth ; often used in Gr. of N. T., and at tlie beginning of a sentence usually in A. V. translated " verily," i. e. in truth, certainlt/, in other positions usually not translated, and then= so be it, let it be true), a word used in strong assev- erations, fixing aa it were the stamp of truth upon the assertion which it accompanied, and making it binding as an oath (comp. Num. v. 22). In Deut. xxvii. 15-26, the people were to say " Amen," as the Levites pronounced each of the curses upon Mount Ebal, signifying by this their assent to the conditions under which the curses would be inflicted. So among the Rabbins, " Amen " involves the ideas of swearing, acceptai ce, and truthfulness. The first two are illustrated by the passages alreadv quoted ; the last by 1 K. i. 36; Jn. iii. 3, 5, 11 (A. V. "verily"), in which the assertions are made with the solemnity of an oath, and then strengthened by the repetition of " Amen." "Amen " was the prop- er response of the person to whom an oath nas ad- ministered (Neh. v. 13, viii. 6; 1 Chr. xvi. SO; Jer. xi. 5, marg., text of A. V. " so be it "), and the Deity to whom appeal is made on such occasions is called "the God of Amen" (Is. Ixv. 16, A. V. " truth "), as being a witness to the sincerity of the implied compact. With a similar significance Christ is called " the Amert, the faithful and true witness " (Rev. iii. 14 ; comp. Jn. i. 14, xiv. 6 ; 2 Cor. i. 20). It is matter of tradition that in the Temple the " Amen " was not uttered by the people, but that, instead, at the conclusion of the priest's prayers, they responded, " Blessed be the name of the glory of his kingdom for ever and ever." Of this a trace is supposed to remain in the concluding Eentence of the Lord's Prayer (comp. Rom. xi. 36). But in the synagogues and private houses it was custom- ary for the people or members of the family who were present to say " Amen " to the prayers offered by the minister or the master of the house, and the custom remained in the early Christian Church (Mat. vi. 13 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 16). And not only pub- lic prayers, but those offered in private, and dox- ologies were appropriately concluded with "Amen" (Rom. ix. 5, xi. 36, xv. 33, xvi. 27; 2 Cor. xiii. 14, &c.). * A-merte', to, = to punish by inflicting a fine (Deut. xxii. 19). Punishments. Am'e-thyst (Heb. ahtdi,mh or aelilamdh ; Gr. amelhiistos, the origin of amethi/st, generally regarded as thus named from its supposed power of dispelling drunkenness in those who wore it). Mention is made of this precious stone, which formed tha third in the third row of the higli-priest's breastplate, in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12, "And the third row a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst." It occurs also in the N. T. (Rev. xxi. 20 ; Gr. amethiistos) as the twelfth stone which garni.shed the foundations of the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem. Modem mineralo- gists by the term amethyst usually understand the amethystine variety of quartz, or rose quartz, which is crystalline, highly transparent, and of a violet or purplish-violet color. The oriental amethyst is a variety of corundum, of a violet color. (Adamant ; AMM Sapphire.) The Hebrew and Greek terms doubtless denoted one or both of these two minerals. A ml (Heb. prob. corrupted from Amon), one of " Solomon's seiTunts " (Ezr. ii. 57) ; = Amon 3, and Ali.om. A-min'a-dab (Gr. and L. ; Mat. i. 4 ; Lk. iii. 33) = AMiMINAnAB 1. A-mlt'tai (Heb. true, veraeions, Ges.l, father of the prophet Jonah (2 K. xiv. 25 ; Jon. i. 1). Am'mab (Heb. beyinning, head, Gcs. ; icaterfaU, Fii.), the hill of, a hill " facing " Giah by the way of the wilderness of Gibeon ; the point to which Jtab'3 pursuit of Abner extended (2 Sam. ii. 24); site un- known. Metheg-Ammah. Am'ml (Heb. my people), a figurative name, apf lii d to the kingdom of Israel in token of God's reconcilic- fion with them (Hos. ii. 1), in contrast with Lo-ammi. Comp. Ruiiamah and Lo-Kuhamah. im'ml-doi (Gr.), in some copies Am-mld'i-ol (Gr. ; 1 Esd. V. 20). " They of Chadias and Amniidci " are named here, not in Ezra or Nehcmiah, among those who came up from Babylon with ZoioLa- bel. Am'ml-el (^Heh. kindred [i. e. servants or uorship- ]>ers^ of God, Ges.). I. The .'^py selected by Moses from the tribe of Dan (Num. xiii. 12). — i, lather of Maehir of Lodebar (2 Sam. ix. 4, 5, xvii. 27). — 3. Father of Bath-sheba (1 Chr. iii. 5); called Eliam in 2 Sam. xi. 3.-4. Sixth son of Obcd-edom (1 Chr. xxvi. 5), and a doorkeeper of the Temple. kxa'm\-\iriA(Yleh. kindred of Judah,GK9.). 1, An Ephraimite, father of Elishama, the chief of the tribe under Moses (Num. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 4P, 53, x. 22; 1 Chr. vii. 26), and ancestor of Joshua. — 2. A Sim- eonite, father of Shemuel, a prince of the tribe .(Num. xxxiv. 20) at the division cf Canaan.— 3. Father of Pedahel, a prince of Naphtali at the same time (xxxiv. 28). — I. (Heb. text and A. V. murg. Ammihnr = kindred of nobles, Ges. ; Keri, Ammi- /(«st, ancestor of Adaiah in Nehemiali's time (N'eh. xi. 12). A'oab (Heb. — place of cluslcmi Ges.), a town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 50), once belong- ing to the Anakim (Josh. xi. 21). It has retained its ancient name, and lies among the hills six or eight miles S. S. W. of Hebron (Rbn. i. 494). An'a-el (Gr. = Hanikl ?), brother of Tobit (Tob. i. 21). A'nah (Hsb. answer, sc. to prayer, Ges.), son of Zibeon, the son of Seir the Horite, and father of I Aholibamah, one of Esau's wivts (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14, 18, 24, 25, 29; 1 Chr. i. 40, 41). Anah was prob- ably the head (A. V. " duke ") of a tribe independent of, and equal with, his father's tribe ; and Anah is therefore mentioned (Gen. xxxvi. 20 ; 1 Chr. i. 38) among the sons of Seir who were heads of tribes. In Gen. xxxvi. 2, Aholibamah is described as " the daughter of Anah, the daughter (' son ' LXX. and Sam.) of Zibeon the Hivite;" "daughter" in the second ca.i— 3. A Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul (Kom. xvi. 7), together with Junias (Junia), both being called "kinsmen" and " fellow-prisonei's," and "of note among the apostles" (Dr. Alford takes " apostles " here in the wider sense of this term = Christian messensers and teachei-s ; Prof Stuart, Conybeare and Howson, and many others take " apo.stle " in the common meaning, and " of note " as = welt knoian), and described as converted to Christ before himself. One tradition makes him bishop of Panuonia ; another, of Spain. i'nem (Ileb. two foimtaiim, Ges.), a city of Issa- char, allotted to the (Jershonites (1 Chr. vi. 73); perliaps = Es-gan.nim 2. k'ntr {lleh. bill/, G<^s,; juvenilU;/, Fti.), a city of Manasseh W. of Jordan, allotted to the Kohathites (1 Chr. vi. 70) ; = Taanacii ? A'ner (see above), one of the three Amorite chiefs of Hebron who aideJ Abraham in pursuing and rout- ing the four invading kings (Gen. xiv. 13, ^). CuE- DOKLAOMKR. ""A-nfthon (Gr. ; Mat. xxiii. 23, marg.). Anise. An etiiolli-ite (2 Sam. xxiii. 27), Ao'e-totU-itc ( 1 Chr. xxvii. 12), and .in'totll-its (1 Chr. xi. 28, xii. 3) := an inliabitant of Anathoth in Benjamin. An'e-toth-ite = Anetiiothite. An-ga-reu'o (Gr.). Compel. An'gels [ane'jelz] (fr. Gr. = messeiigem = Fleb. maldchim). A race of spiritual beings, exalted above man, although infinitely below God, whose of- fice is " to do Him service in heaven, and by Ills appointment to succor and defend men on earth." I. Seri/ilnral nxe of the word. — In many passages " the angel of God," " the angel of Jehovah," is a mani- festation of God himself. Compare Gen. xxii. 1 1 with 12, and Ex. iii. 2 with 6 and 14; where the " angel of Jehovah " is called " God," and " JeliDvah," and accepts the worship due to God alotie. (Contrast Rev. xix. 10, xxii. D.) SeealsoGen. xvi. 7, 13, xxxi. 11, 13, xlviii. 15, 10; Num. xxii. 22, 32, 35, and eomp. Is. Ixiii. 9 with Ex. xxxiii. It, &c., &c. Side by side with these expressions, we read of God's be- ing manifested in the form of man ; as to Abraham at Mauire (Gen. xviii. 2, 22, eomp. xix. 1), to Jacob at I'eniel (Gen. xxxii. 24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. V. 13, 15), &c. Apparently both sets of pas- 8ages refer to the same kind of manifestation of the Divine Presence. Now, since "no man hath seen God" (the Father) "at any time," and "the only- begotten Son, which is in tiie bosom of the Father, Ue hath revealed Him " (Jn. i. 18), the " Angel of the Lord " in such passages must be He, who is from the beginning the " Word," i. e. the Manifester or Re- vealer of God, and these appearances must be " fore- shiduwings of the Inearaation." Besides this highest application of " angel " or " messenger," it is used of any messengers of God, as the prophets (Is. xlii. 19 ; Hag. i. 13; Mat. iii. 1), the priests (Mai. ii. 7), and the rulers of the Christian churches (Rev. i. 20). Compare .Vposti.e, and see SyNAOOauK. Kev. I. Jen- nings, of Ongar, England, maintains that " the angels of the seven churches" (Rev. i. 20, &c.) = the mes- sengers of the churches to which the epistles were addressed (ii., iii.), whom he supposes those churches sent to the apostle in Patmos (B. S. xii. 346 ff.). — II. Nature of Anr/eU. — Little is said of their nature 08 disUuct from their office. They are termed " ppiilts" (as in Ileb. i. 14). The word is the same (Gr. pneuma) as that used of the soul ot man, when separate from the body (e. g. Mat. xiv. 26 ; Lk. xxiv. 37, 39; 1 Pet. iii. 19). Many of the Christian Fathers and of the philosophers of the middle ages as well as some modern theologians have maintained the corporeality or materiality of the angelic nature. But their arguments — that the word pnuuvia denotes only the supersensuous and rational, yet not necessa- rily immaterial, element of man's nature, that there is a " spiritual (Gr. psiichikon) body " (1 Cor. xv. 44), that men, after the resurrection, having this spiritual body, are yet " like the angels " (Gr. isanggeloi, Lk. XX. 36), and that there is a general resemblance in titles (e. g. " sons of God," " gods ") and appearance (Gen. xviii., xix; Lk. xxiv. 4; Acts i. 10, &c.) be- tween angels and men, and that therefore the angels are now bolh in nature and character what mankind will be in heaven — are all fairly met by arguments drawn from the use of the same word to denote the nature of God (Jn. iv. 24) and designate the Holy Ghost (Spirit, the Holy), from tlie known fact that angels are not ordinarily visible or perceptible to human sense, and hence must be, when they become visible, ditfeient in some important respect from what thoy usually are, from the fact that the spiritual or ttlorified bodies of the redeemed are represented as like Christ's (Phil. iii. 21) and not as angelic, and from the acknowledged imperfection of the figurative human language which the sacred writers must use in attempting to describe all invisible things, inclu- ding the human soul and God Himself (See Prof. Stuart in B. S. for 1843, pp. 88-154, or in Comm. on Apocalypse, ii. 397-409.) — The angels are re- vealed to us as finite, created beings. Holy and lovely, happy and immortal, endowed with power and might, knowledge and wisdom, desires and sym- pathies, affections and wills; in short, as su|)erliu- man moral agents, beings who think and feel and choose, and are capable of unlimited progress, the proper and glorious inhabitants of heaven (Ps. viii. 5, ciii. 20 ; Mat. vi. 10, xviii. 10, xxiv. 36 ; Mk. xiii. 32; Lk. XV. 10; Eph. iii. 10 ; Col. i. 16 ; 2 Th. i. 7 ; 1 Pet. i. 12 ; 2 Pet. ii. 1 1 ; Rev. vii. 1 1, &c.).— The angels are very numerous (Dan. vii. 10; Ileb. xii. 22; Rev. v. 11, &c.), and are called the "holy angelf," "angels of God," " elect angelf," " angels of light," " holy ones," &c. (Gen. xxviii. 12 ; Dan. iv. 13, 23, viii. 13; Mat. XXV. 31 ; Lk. ix. 26; 2 Cor. xi. 14; 1 Tim. v. 21, &e.), in distinction from the angels which "kept not their first estate," or "the devil and his angels," &c. (Apollvon; Demon; Devil; Satan.) — HI. OJiceof the ariffeh. — Of their office in heaven, we have only vague prophetic glimp.»es (1 K. xxii. 19; Is. vi. 1-3; Dan. vii. 9, 10; Kev. v. 11, &c.), which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration. Their office toward man is fiir more fully described. They are represented as, in the widest sense, agents of God's providence, natural uiul fupernalural, to the body and to the soul. The operations of nature arc spoken of, as under angelic guidance fulfilling the will of God. Thus the pestilences which slew the first-bom (Ex. xii. 23; Heb. xi. 28), the disobedient people in the wilderness (1 Cor. x. 10), the Israelites in the days of David (2 Sam. xxiv. 16; 1 Chr. xxi. 16). and the amiy of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 35 ; 2 Chr. xxiii. 21), as also the plague which cut off Herod (Acts xii. 28), arc plainly spoken of as the work of the "angel of the Lord." Nor can the numerous declarations of the Apocalypse be resolved into mere poetical im- agery. (See especially Rev. viii. and ix.) More par- ticularly, however, angels are spoken of as ministeni 42 ANG ANI of the supemalural (or spinfual) providence of God ; as agents in the spiritual redemption and sanctifica- tion of man. In Job (i. 6, ii. 1, xxxyiii. 7) tliey are spoken of vaguely, as surrounding God's throne above, and rejoicing in the completion of His creative work, without any hint of their direct and visible ap- pearance to man. In Genesis, after the call of Abra- ham, the angels mingle with and watch over the chosen famili/, entertained by Abraham and by Lot (Gen. xviii., xix.), guiding Abraham's servant to Pa- dan-aram (xxiv. 7, 40), seen by the fugitive Jacob at Bethel (x.xviii. 12), and welcoming his return at Mahanaim (xxxii. 1). Their miuistry hallows domes- tic life, and is closer, more familiar, and less awful than in after-times. (Contrast Gen. xviii. with Judg. vi. 21, 22, xiii. 16, 22.) In the subsequent history of the chosen nation, the records of their appearance belong especially to the periods of the Judges, and of the Captivity, the former one destitute of direct revelation or prophetic guidance, the latter one of special trial and unusual contact with heathenism. In Judges angels appear to rebuke idolatry (ii. 1-4), to call Gideon (vi. 11, &c.) and consecrate Samson (xiii. 3, &c.) to the work of deliverance. During the prophetic and kingly period, angels ap- pear when needed by the prophets themselves (1 K. xix. 5 ; 2 K. vi. 17), and are (as noticed above) min- isters of God in the operations of nature. But in the Captivity, angels are revealed as watching, not only over Jerusalem, but also over heathen kingdoms, un- der the providence, and to work out the designs, of the Lord. (See Zech.; also Dan. iv. 13, 23, x. 10, 13, 20, 21, &c.) The Incarnation marks a new epoch of angelic ministration. " The angel of Jeho- vah," the lord of all created angels, having now de- scended from heaven to earth, it was natural that His servants should continue to do Him service there. Whether to predict and glorify His birth itself (Mat. i. 20; Lk. i., ii.), to minister to Him after His temp- tation and agony (Mat. iv. 11 ; Lk. xxii. 43), or to de- clare His resurrection and triumphant ascension (Mat. xxviii. 2; Jn. xx. 12; Acts i. 10 11) they seem now to be indeed " ascending and descending on the Son of man," almost as though transferring to earth the ministrations of heaven. The N. T. is the history of tlie Church of Christ, e^ery member of which is united to Him. Accordingly, the angels are revealed now, as "ministering spirits" to each individual member of Christ for His spiritual guid- ance and aid (Heb. i. 14). The records of their visi- ble appearance are unfrequent (Acts v. 19, viii. 26, X. 3, xii. 7, xxvii. 23) ; but their presence and aid are referred to familiarly ever after the Incarnation. They watch over Christ's little ones (Mat. xviii. 10), rejoice over a penitent sinner (Lk. xv. 10), are pres- ent in the worship of Christians (1 Cor. xi. 10) and, perhaps, bring their prayers before God (Rev. viii. 3, 4), and bear the souls of the redeemed into Paradise (Lk. xvi. 22). In one word, they are Christ's minis- ters of grace now, as they shall be of judgment here- after (Mat. xiii. 39, 41, 49, xvi. 27, xxiv. 31, &c.). The mode of their action is not made known to us. (For the evil angels, see Demon ; Demoniac; Devil; Satan.) That there are degrees of the angelic nature, fallen and unfallcn, and special titles and agencies belonging to each, is clearly declared (Eph. i. 21 ; Rom. viii. 38). Archangel ; Chehdbim ; Seraphim ; Michael'; Gabriel. An'gliog. Fishing. A'ni-am ( Heb. sighing of the people, Ges.), a Manas- site, son of Shemidah (1 Chr. vii. 19). A'niin (Heb. fountains, Ges.), a city in the moun- tains of judah, named with Eshtemoh and Goshen (Josh. XV. 50); probably at the ruined village el- Ghuwein, about ten miles south of Hebron (Win. i. 354 ; Rbn. ii. 204). An'ise [annis] (Gr. anethon). This word occurs only in Mat. xxiii. 23, " Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! for ye pay tithe of mint and anise (marg. " Gr. anethon, dill ") and cummin." ^It is by no means certain whether the anise (Prmpinella Anisum, Linn.) or the dill (Anethum graveolens) is here hitended, but more probably the latter. Both the dill and the anise are umbelliferous plants, and iFtmpinilla Antium.) Comjnos 1>U1 {Aneiltum graeeolent.'i ANE ANO 43 are much alike in external character ; tlie seeds of both, moreover, are aromatic, and have been long em- ployed in medicine and cookery, as condiments and carminatives. Both are cultivated, but dill is said to be more a plant of Eastern cultivation than anise. Ank let. Thi.-! word does not occur in the A. V., bat the thins denoted by it is mentioned in the plu- ral (Is. iii. IS, Ilel). 'achasim, A. V. " tinkling orna- ments about their feet ; "' see also Is. iii. IG). Anklets were fastened to the ankle-b md of each leg, were as common as bracelets and armlets, and made of much the same materials ; the pleasant jingling and tink- ling which they made as they knocked against each other, was no doubt a reason why they were admired. They are still worn in the East, and Lane {Mod. MgUpt) quotes from a song, in allusion to the pleas- ure caused by their sound, " the ringing of thine anklets has deprived me of reason." Hence Moham- med forV)ade them in public ; " let them not make a noise with their feet, that their ornaments which they hide may (thereby) be discovered " {Koran, xxiv. 81). Bells; Chain; Ornamesm, Personal. M'h. AnkleU (h, Avre). 1. ?, 9, 4. Ff^ptlsa from pftintiogi. 6. "Modern, Vomby dancioff-grlrl*. t, t. AMyrian, oi iron Ksd brooxe, uom originftU ui the Nineveh Collection, £TitUb Miueum. An'na (G. and L. fr. Heb. = Hannar), the name in Punic of Dido's sister (Virgil, ^neid, iv.); used in the LXX. and Vulgate for Hannah (1 Sam. i. 2 S.) and in the Vulgate for Edna (Tob. vii. 2 ff.). 1. The wife of Tobit (Tob. i. 9 ft.).— 2. An aged widow and " prophetess " in Jerusalem at the time of our Lord's presentation in the Temple (Lk. ii. 36). She was of the tribe of Ashkr. An'Da-«g (I Esd. v. 23) = Senaah. An nas (Gr.). I. Harim (1 E^d. ix. 32).— 8. (fr. Heb. = IIanan, Fit.). A high-priest of the Jews. He was son of one Seth, and was appointed high- priest A. D. 7, by Quirinus, imperial governor of Syria ; but was obliged by Valerius Gratus, procura- tor of Judea, to give way to Ismael, son of Phabi, at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, a. d. 14. But soon Ismael was succeeded by Eleazar, son of Annas ; then followed, after one year, Simon, son of Camithus, and then, after another year, (about A. D. 25), Joseph Calatuas, son-in-law of Annas (Jn. xviii. 13). But in Lk. iii. 2, Annas and Caiaphas are both called high-piiests, Annas being mentioned first. Our Lord's first hearing (Jn. xviii. 13) was before Annas, who then sent him bound to Caiaphas. In Acts iv. 6, Annas is plainly called the high-priest, and Caiaphas merely named with others of his family. Winer sup- poses that Annas retained the title from his former enjoyment of the office. Wiesclcr and Selden main- tain that the two, Annas and Caiaphas, were together at the head of the Jewish people, Caiaphas as actual high-priest, Annas as president of the Sanhedrim. Others again suppose that Annas held the office of sagan, or substitute of the high-priest, mentioned by the later Talmudists. (Comp. Abiathar.) He lived to old age, having had five sons high-priests. An-no'liS (fi-. Gr. ; 1 Esd. vui. 48). Probably a corruption of the Hebrew word illo, A. V. " with him " (Ezr. viii. 19). A-noint'ing in the Scriptures is either I. Material, with 0.1, or II. Sfiirilual, with the Holy Ghost. — I. Material. — 1. Ordinary. Anointing the body or head with oil was a common practice with the Jews, as with other Oriental nations (Deut. xxviii. 40 ; Ku. iii. 3 ; Mic. vi. 15 ; Bath). Abstinence from it was a sign of mourning (2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Dan. x. 3 ; Mat. vi. 17). Anointing the head with oil or ointment seems also to have been a maik of respect some- times paid by a host to his guests (Lk. vii. 40 and Ps. xxiii. 6 ; see also Jn. xi. 2, xii. 3), and was an ancient Egyptian custom at feasts. From the dis- continuance of anointing in times of sorrow and dis- aster, to " be anointed with oil " = to enjoy success or prosperity (Ps. xcii. 10; comp. Eccl. ix. 8 ; Oil; Ointment). — 2. Official (Messiah). (a) Prophets were occasionally anointed to their office (IK. xix. 16), and are called messiahs, or anointed (1 Chr. xvi. 22 ; Ps. cv. 15). (i) Priests, at the institution of the Levitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, Aaron's sons as well as Aaron himself (Ex. xl. 15 ; Num. iii. 3) ; but afterward anointing seems to have been especially reserved for the high-priest (Ex. xxix. 29 ; Lev. xvi. 32) ; so that " the priest that is anointed " (Lev. iv. 3) probably = the high- priest (so the LXX. and most). See also Lev. iv. 6, 16, and vi. 22. (c) The Hebrews were familiar with anointing kings before they had any (Judg. ix. 8, 15). Anointing was the principal and divinely- appointed ceremony in the inauguration of their kings (1 Sam. ix. 16, x. 1 ; 1 K. i. 34, 39) ; indeed, '• the Lord's anointed " was a common designation of the theocratic king (1 Sam. xii. 3, 5 ; 2 Sam. i. 14, 16 ; xix. 21). David was thrice anointed to be king: (l.) privately by Samuel, before Saul's death, to confer on him a right to the throne (1 Sam. xvi. 1, 13); (2.) over Judah at Hebron (2 Sam. ii. 4); (3.) over the whole nation (2 Sam. t. 3). After the sep- aration, the kings both of Judah and of Israel seem still to have been anointed (2 K. ix. 3, xi. 12). So late as the Captivity the king is culled " the anointed of the Lord" (Ps. Ixxxix. 38, 51; Lam. iv. 20). Some, however, think, that after David, subsequent kings were not anointed, except when, as in the cases of Solomon, Joish, and Jehu, the right of succession was disputed or transferred (Jahn, liib. Arehaology). Hazael was to be anointed king over Syria (1 K. xix. 15). Cyrus also is called the Lord's anointed, as raised by God to the throne to deliver the Jews out of captivity (Is. xlv. 1). (rf) Inanimate ohjeets were anointed with oil as set apart for religious service. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel (Gen. xxxi. 13) ; the tabernacle and all its furniture were conse- crated by anointing (Ex. xxx. 26-28). — 3. Eccletioi- 44 ANO ANT Ccal. Anointing nitli oil in the name of the Lord is prescribed by !5t. James to be used together with prayer, by the elders of the church, for the recovery of the sick (Jas. v. 14). Analogous to this is the anointing with oil practised by the twelve (Mk. vi. 13), and our Lord's anointing the eyes of a blind man with clay made from saliva, in restoring him miraculously to sight(Jn. ix. 6, 11). — IL Spiritual. — 1. In theO. T. a dehverer is promised under the title of Messiah, or Anointed {Vs. ii. 2 ; Dan. ix. 25, 26) ; and his anointing is described to ,be with the Holy Ghost (Is. Ixi. 1 ; sec Lk. iv. 1 8). As anointing with oil betoivcned prosperity, and produced a cheerful aspect (Ps. civ. 15), so this spiritual unction is fig- uratively described as anointing " with the oil of gladness " (Ps. xlv. 1 ; lieb. i. 9). In the N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah, or Christ, or Anointed of the 0. T. (Jn. i. 41 ; Acts ix. 22, xvii. 2, 3, xviii. 5, 28); and his being anointed with the Holy Ghost is asserted and recorded (Jn. i. 32, 33 ; Acts iv. 27, x. 38). — 2. Spiritual anointing with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God (2 Cor. i. 21 ; 1 Jn. ii. 20, 27; Spirit, The Holy). To anoint -the eyes with eye-salve figura- tively denotes the process of obtaining spiritual perception (Kev. iii. 18). • A'nos (fr. Gr.), a son of Maani or Bani; perhaps = Vamam(1 Esd. ix. 34). Ant (Heb. nSmuluh). This insect is mentioned twice in the 0. T. : in Prov. vi. 6, " Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise ; " in XXX. 25, " The ants are a people not Etroug, yet they prepare their meat in the summer." , In the former passage the unlbrced diligence of this insect is instanced as an example worthy of imitation ; in the latter the ant's wisdom is especially alluded to, for these insects, though " little upon the earth, are exceeding wise." It is well known that the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the ant stored up food, which it collected in the summer, ready for the winter's ccnsuniplion ; but this is now considered by most naturalists an error. Ants are carnivo- rous, or rather omnivorous, in their habits of living. They eat sweet fruits, crumbs of bread, animal food of various kinds &c. ; but their favorite food is the Kaccharine secretion from the bodies of the aphides or plant-lice. The European species of ants are all dormant in the winter, and consequently require no food ; but until we know more accurately the habits of ants in Palestine and other warm countries " it would be rash to affirm that no ants have maga- zines for provisions" (Kirby and Spence, Iidrod. to Entomology, ii. 46). " Tliey are great robbers ; and the farmer must keep a sharp eye to his floor in harvest, or they will abstract a large quantity of grain in a single night" (Thn. i. 520-1). — The words of Solomon do not necessarily teach that ants store up food for future use, though they have been commonly so understood. Kirby and Spence say : " He does not affirm that the ant, which he proposes to the sluggard as an example, laid up in her maga- zine stores of grain against winter, but that, with considerable prudence and foresight, she makes use of proper seasons to collect a supply of provisions sufficient for her purposes. She prepares her bread and gathers her food (viz., such food as is suited to her) in summer and harvest (i. e. when it is most plentiful), and thus shows her wisdom and prudence by using the advantages offered to her." The accu- racy of Solomon may also be vindicated, if, as is not improbable, the Heb. nSmAluh includes the termites, or " white ants," which, although belonging to a dif- ferent order of insects, are yet popularly associatcll with "ante." " White ants" are especially abundant in tropical regions, but one or more among the nu- merous species may be found in most temperate climes. They form populous societies, and their hab- itations often contain large stores of vegetable food. in'ti-thrlst (fr. Gr. = against CkrUt or instead of Christ). This term is emplryed only by the Apostle John in his second and third Epistles. Nevertheless, by an almost universal consent, the term has been cpplied to the Man of Sin in 2d Thessalonians, to the Little Horn and to the fierce-countenanced King in Daniel, and to the two Boasts of Revelation, as well as to the false Christ spoken of in Mat. xxiv. — I. In Mat. xxiv. 3-31, our Lord is not speaking of any one individual (or polity), but rather of those forerunners of the Antichrist who are his servants and actuated by his spirit. This passage does not therefore elucidate for us the characteristics cf the Antichrist. — II. The Antichrist is mentioned in sev- eral passages in the Epistles of John (1 Jn. ii. 18-23, iv. 1-3; 2 Jn. 5-7). The whole teaching here with regard to the Antichrist himself seems to be confined to the words twice repeated, " Ye have heard (i. e. by oral teaching from the apostle) that the Anti- christ shall come." The lest appears to be rather a practical application of the doctrine of the Anti- christ than a formal statement of it. The apostle wains his readers that the spirit of the Antichrist could exist even then, though tlie coming of the Antichrist himself was future, and that all who de- nied the Messiahship and Sonshii) of Jesus were Antichrists, as being wanting in that divine principle of love wl.iih is the essence of Christianity, and thus being types of the final Antichrist who was to come— IIL St. Paul (2 Th. ii. 1-12; 1 Tim. iv. 1-3; 2 Tim. iii. 1-6) does not employ the term Antichrist, but there can be no hesitation in identifying with the Antichrist who was to come " that Man of Sin, the Son of Perdition, who opposelh and exalted himself above all that is called God or that is worshipped." He also refers to his previous oral teaching, and says that " the mystery of iniquity (i. e. the spirit of Anti- christ or Antichristianism) doth already work." He adds an assurance that the Antichiist should not t e revealed in person until some present obstacle to his appearance should have been taken awa)', and until the predicted " falling away " or apostasy sliould have occurred. From St. John and St. Paul together we learn (1.) that the Antichrist would come; (2.) that he would not come until a certain obstacle to his coming (supposed by the early Christian w liters to be the power of secular law existing in the Roman empire) was removed; (8.) nor till the time of, or rather till after the "falling away;" (4.) that his characteristics would be (a) open opposition to God and religion, (i) a claim to the incommunicable attri- butes of God, (c) iniquity, sin, and lawlessness, (rf) a power of working lying miracles, (e) marvellous ca- pacity of beguiling ^ouls ; (5.) that he would be actuated by Satan ; (6.) that his spirit was already at work, manifesting itself, partially, incompletely, and typically, in the teacliers of infidelity and im- morality already abounding in the Church. Tliis last is considered as referring to such as Cerinthus, Simon Magus, the Gnostics, &c. — IV. The fierce- countenanced King of Dan. viii. 8-25, xi. 36-39, is universally recognized to be Antiochus Epipiianes, who is regarded as the chief prototype of the Anti- christ ; and the prophecy may therefore be consid- ered as typically descriptive of the Antichrist. — V. In the prophecy of the Little Horn (Dan. vii. 7-27) ANT ANT 45 thf four beasts represent four kings, i. e. four king- doin< or empires ( = tlie Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman empires), and tlie last (the Koraan) Ijreaks up into ten kingdoms, among wliich grows up anotlier (the Little Horn) which gets the n.astery over three of tlie ten. This Little Horn is not an individual, but a kinglom or polity, and therefore cannot be identified with the Antichrist of St. John's and St. Paul's Epistles. — VL The Apocalyptic Beast of St. John (Uev. xiii. 1-8, xvii. 1-18)1 is clearly identical with the Little Horn of Daniel, and there- fore is not the Antichrist. But it is evident that the two former sustain some relation to the Antichrist. There are four classes of writers on the Antichrist : — (1.) those who regard him as an individual vet future, among whom are most of the early Christian Fathers, the early Waldenses, &c. ; (2.) those who regard him as a polity now present, among whom are the W'aldenses of the fourteenth century, Wick- liifites, Hussites, Luther, Calvin, Cranmer, &c., all regarding the system of Popery as the Antichrist ; (3.) those who regard him as an inJividu il already past, among whom are Roman Catholics on one side, and Grotius, Eichhorn, Hug, E.vald, Stuart, Davidson, &c., on the other, their general view bemg that the Apoc ilypse describes the triumph of Christianity over Judaism i i the first century and over Heathenism in the third ; (4.) those who consider the Antichrist as an antichristian and lawless principle not embodied either in an individual or in a special polity, e. g. Koppe, Storr, Nitzsch, Pelt. Of theso four opinions the first two appear to contain the truth between them (so Mr. Meyrick). Tlie Apocalyptic Beast may be identified with " the falling away " (2 Th. ii. 3 ; not "a falling away," as in A. V.), and the antitype of both may be found in the corrupted Church of Christ, in which there has been a filling away from her purity and first love into unfaithfulness to God, exhibited especially in idolatry an 1 creature-worship. As a religious defection grows up by degrees, we cannot point to its precise commance nent. Cyril of Jerusalem ( fourth century) considered it already existing. Tiie decrees of tlie second Council of Nice, A. D. 787, and the theory of the Papal Suprem- acy put forth by Pope Gregory VII. (eleventh cen- tury) and subsequently prevalent to the sixteenth century and onward, are noticeable in this connec- tion. According to the view here presented, the fall of Babtlo.n (i. e. of Rome) would be as yet future, as well as tlie still subsequent destruction of the corrupted Church, on the day of the coming of Christ. The period of the three and a half times would con- tinue down to this destruction. — VII. The Apoca- lyptic Beast from the Earth (Rev. xiii. 11-18), or the False Prophet (xix. 11-21 ; comp. xvi. 13), ap- parently repreient the Antichrist, if the Antichrist appears at all in the Apocalypse. The characteris- tics of this Boast are (1.) miracle-working, (2.) a special power of beguiling, (3.) an outward resem- blance to the Messiah ("horns like a lamb"), (4.) the title " The False Prophet," our Lord being em- phatically "The Prophet." Compare 2 Th. ii. 1-12, and III. 4 above. The antitype of this might be an individual person who will nt some future time arise, and ally himself with the corrupted Church, repre- sent himself as her minister and vindicator (Rev. xiii. 12), compel men by violence to pay her reverence (14), breathe a new life into her decaying frame by hi» use of the secular arm in her behalf ( 1 5), forbid- ding civil rights to those who renounce her authority and reject her svmbols (17), and putting them to death by the sword (15), while personally he is an atheistical blasphemer (1 Jn. ii. 22), and sums up in himself the evil spirit of unbelief which has been working in the world from St. Paul's days to his (2 Th. ii. 7). The Antichrist would thus combine the forces, generally and happily separated, of Infi- delity and Superstition. In this would consist the special horror of his reign. Hence also the special sufterings of the faithful believers until Christ Him- self once again appears to vindicate the cause of Truth and Liberty and Religion. " An'ti-Ub'a-nns (L. over against Lebanon; Jd. i. 7), the range of mountains E. of Lebanon, also called Ami-Lebanon. Mount Hermon is its southern and highest summit. Ccelesyria or Celosyria lies be- tween Antilibanus and Lebanon. Ao'tl-oeb [-te-ok] (fr. Gr. ; named from Antiochus, father [son, so some] of the founder). 1, In Syria. The capital of the Grecian kings of Syria, and after- ward the residence of the Roman governor of the pro- vince of Syria ; situated where the chain of Lebanon running N., abruptly meets that of Taurus running E. Here the Orontes breaks through the mountains, and Antioch was placed at a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mo'unt Silpius, which rose abruptly on the S. In the immediate neighborhood was Daphne, the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo, with its temple and fountains Gate of St. Paul. Anttocti. and grove of laurels and cypresses, a nursery of heathenish pollution (2 Mc. iv. 33); whence the city was sometimes called " Antioch by Daphne." Anti- och was founded 300 b. c, by Seleucus Nicator. Jews were settled there from the first in large num- bers, were governed by their own ethnarch, and al- lowed to have the same political privileges with the Greeks. Antioch grew under the Seleucid kings, till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. Some of the most magnificent buildings were on the island. One feature, apparently char- acteristic of the great Assyrian cities — a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end — was added by Antiochus Epiphancs. For some notices of the Antioch of this period, and of its rela- tion to Jewish history, see 1 Mc. ill. 37, xi. 13; 2 Mc. iv. 7-9, V. 21, xi. 36. It is the Antioch of the Roman period with which we are concerned in the N. T. By Pompey it had been made a free city, and such it continued till the time of Antoninus Pius. The early emperors raised there some large and im- 46 ANT ANT portant structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. The citizens of Antioch under the Em- pire were noted for souriilous wit and the invention of nicknames. This perhaps was the origin of the name Christian. — No city, after Jerusalem, is* so intimately connected with the history of the apos- tolic church. These two cities were closely asso- ciated in certain points. One of the seven deacons appointed at Jerusalem, was Nicolas, a proselyte of npTHcatatlve of Antioch in Syria.— From Smith*! Smaller Dictionary. Antioch (Acts vi. 5). The Christians, dispersed from Jerusalem at Stephen's death, preached the Gospel at Antioch (xi. 19). From Jerusalem, Agabus, who foretold the famine, and other prophets, came to An- tioch (xi. 27, 28); and Barnabas and Saul were con- sequently sent on a mission of charity from Antioch to Jerusalem (xi. 30, xii. 25). From Jerusalem the Judaizers came, who disturbed the church at Antioch (xv. 1) ; and at Antioch St. Paul rebuked St. Peter Antioch In FlsldU.— From Amndell'i Diteowria tnAtia Jfin«r.— (Fbn.) for conduct into which he had been betrayed through the influence of emissaries from Jerusalem (Gal. ii. 11, 12). — At Antioch the first Gentile church was founded (Acts xi. 20,21); here the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (xi. 26) ; here St. Paul exercised his ministerial work (xi. 22-26, xiv. 26-28, XV. 35, and xviii. 22, 23) ; here he began and ended his first and second missionary journeys (xiii. 1-3, xiv. 26, XV. 36, xviii. 22), and entered upon the third (23). To the Gentile converts at Antioch weie especially addressed the letters from tlie apostles, &c., at Jerusalem (xv. 23). Antioch was afterward an important centie for Christian progress. Ignatius, who suffered martyrdom under Trajan at Rome, was bishop of Antioch forty years ; Chryso.=tom, the elo- quent preacher, was born at Antioch. The bishop has been styled patriarch of An- tioch since the fourth cen- tury; and this title is now borne by prelates of three Oriental churches (Greek, Syriac, and Maronite), though for a long time none of them have resided at Ai - tioch. Tlie nominal Chiis- tians at Antioch (mod. Anta- kia) were estimalerl at 2,000, and the whole pop- ulation at 20,000, in 1856, ■when American Protestant missionaries began to preach the Gospel there. Antioch has suftered greatly from wars and earthquakes. It was a principality under the Crusaders a. d. 1098- 1269. In 1269 its churches were destroyed by its captor, the Sultan Bibars. — 2. In Pisidia (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 19, 21 ; 2 Tim. iii. 11), on the borders of Phrygia, at the modern Yalobalch, which is distant ANTIOCH. 47 PLAN OP ANCIENT ANTIOCH AFTEK MULLBB. 4-8 ANT ANT from Ak-sher (now known to be the ancient Philo- nielium, but formerly supposed to be the site of Aatioch in Pisiilia) six hours over the mountains. The ruins are very considerable. Tliis city, lilie No. 1, was founded by Seleucus Nicator. Under the Romans it became a colony, and was also called Cesarea. When St. Paul first visited the city, (Acts xiii. 14), in his first missionary journey with* Birnabas, his preaching in the synagogue led to the reception of the Gospel by many Gentiles : and this resulted in a violent persecution by the Jews, who first drove him from Antioch to Iconium (50, 51), and subsequently followed him even to Lystra (xiv. 19). St. Paul, on his return from Lystra, revisited Antioch to strengthen the disciples (21). He prob- ably visited Antioch again at the beginning of his second journey, when Silas was his associate, and Timotheus (TiMornr), a native of this neighborhood, had jujt been added to the party. Phrygia ; Pi- SIDIA. An-tl-O-clira [-ki'ah] (1 Mc. iv. 35, vi. 63 ; 2 Mc. iv 33, V. 21) = AMTtocT 1. Aa-t!-o clli-!in ) [-ke-anz], partisans of Antiocbus Epiplianes (2 Mo. iv. 9, 19J. An-ti'o-tbl3 [-kis] (Gr.) concubine of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Me. iv. 30). Aa-ti'o-elini [-kus] (L. fr. Gr. = the witXitander), father of Nutninius, ambassador from Jonathan to the Rjinaus (1 Mc. xii. 16, xiv. 22). An-ti'o-slliij (see above) II., king of Syria, sur- name! Tlie'03 (Gr. the Ojcl), suocsedei hii fathor Antiochus Soter, b. c. 251. During the earlier part of his reign he was engaged in a fierce war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of E;ypt, in the course of which Parthia and Baetria rjvoltai ani became independent kingdoms. At length {a. c. 250) peace was ravde, and the two monarchs "joined themselves together," and Ptoleaiy (" the king of the Sauth ") give his daug'.iter Baranicei] mirriage to Antiochus (" ;he king of the North "), who set aside his former wife, Laodlce, to receive her. When Ptolemy died (b. c. 247), Antiochus recalled Laodice and her chil- dren Seleucus and Antiochus to court. Thus Bere- nice was " not able to retain her power ; " and Lao- dice, in jeilous fear lest she might again lose her ascendency, poisoned Antiochus (him " that strength ened her," i. e. Berenice), and caused Berenice and her infant son to be put to death, b. c. 216. After the death of Antiochus, Ptolemy Euergetes, brother of Berenice (" out of a branch of her roots "), who succeeded his fither Ptolemy Philadelphu.i, avenged his sister's death by an invasion of Syria, in which Laodice was killed, her son Seleucus Callinicua driven for a time from the throne, and the whole country plundered. The hostilities thus renewed continued many years ; and on the death of Seleu- cus, B. c. 223, after his " return into his own land," his sons Alexander (Seleucus) Ceraunus and Antio- chus "assembled a multitude of great forces" against Ptolemy Philopator, the son of Euergetes, and one of them (Antiochus) threatened to overthrow the power of Egypt (Dan. xi. 6-10). An-tro-ebaj III. (see above), surnamed the Great, succeeded his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, who was assassinated after a short reign b. c. 22i He pros- ecuted the war against Ptolemy Philopator with vii^- or, and at first with success, b. c. 218 he drove the Egyptian forces to Sidon, conquered Samaria and Gilead, and wintered at Ptolemais, but was defeated next year at Raphia, near Gaza (b. c. 217), with im- mense loss, and in consequence made a peace with Ptjiemy, in which he ceded to him the disputed prov- inces of Celosyria, Phenicia, and Palestine. During the next thirteen years Antiochus was strengthen- ing his position in Asia Minor, and on the fron- tiers of Parthia, and by his successes gained his sur- name of t/ie Great, u. c. 205, Ptolemy Philopator died, and left his kingdom to his son Ptolemy Epiph- anes, who was only five years old. Antiochus tlien united with Piiilip III. of Macedon to conquer and divide the Egyptian dominions. Tlie Jews, exasperated by the conduct of Ptolemy Pliilopator both in Palestine and Egypt,' openly espoused his cause, under the influence of a short-sighted policy (" the factious among thy people shall rise," i. e. against Ptolemy). Antiochus occupied the three disputed provinces, but was recalled to Asia by a war with Attahis, king of Pergamus ; and his ally Philip was embroiled with the Romans. Then Ptol- emy, by the aid of Scopus, again made himself mas- ter of Jeru.salem, and recovered the territory which he had lost. B. c. 198, Antiochus reappeared in the field and gained a decisive victory •' near the sources of the Jordan ; " and afterward captured Scopus and the remnant of his forces in Sidon. The Jews, who had suffered severely during the struggle, wel- comed Antiochus as their deliverer, and " he stood in the glorious land which by his hand was to be consumed." His further designs against Egypt were frustrated by Roman intervention ; and his daughter Cleopatra, whom he gave in marriage to Ptolemy Epiphanes, with the Phenician provinces for her dower, favored the interests of her husband rather than those of her father. From Egypt Antiochus turned again to Asia Minor, and after various suc- cesses, crossed over to Greece, and by the advice of Hannibal entered on a war with Rome. His vic- torious course was cheeked at ThermopyUc (b. c. 191), and he was finally defeated at Magnesia in Lydid, B. c. 190. By the peace concluded b. c. 188, he was forced to cede all his possessions " on the Roman side of Mount Taurus," and to pay an enor- mous sum to defray the expenses of the war. Tetmrlmchm f Attic tnlent) of Anti^ohus III. Obverae, Head of King to rlzht. Reverse, j5a»ii"'^ ^n/t'^r^ou (Gr. ~ o^ A'in^ Antiochus), In Held, two mooo^rHma. ApoMo, uaked, seated on eortina (L, ^ a trijfod in the form of a caldron) to left. This last condition led to his ignominious death. B. c. 187 he attacked a rich temple of Belus in Ely- niais, and was slain by the people who rose in its de- fence. Thus " he stumbled and fell, and was not found " (Dan. xi. 11-19). — Antiochus not only as- sured to the Jews perfect freedom and protection in their worship, but made splendid contributions tow- ard the support of the temple ritual, and gave various immunities to the priests and other inhabitants of Je- rusalem. He also transported two thousand families of Jews from Mesopotamia to Lydia and Phrygia, to repress the tendency to revolt manifested in those provinces. Two sons of Antiochus succeeded him, first Seleucus Philopator, then Antiochus IV. Aa-ti'o-chns (see above) IV., E-pipli'a-nes [e-pif 'a- neez] 'Gr. the illustrious), the youngest son of Antio- ANT ANT 49 CHCS THE Great. He was given as a hostage to the KoDians (b. c. 188) alter his father's defeat at Mag- nesia. B. c. 176 he was released by the intervention of his brother Seleuccs, wlio substituted his own eon Demetrius in his place. Aiitiochus was at Athens when Selcueus was assassinated by Heliodorus. By the assistance of Eunienes and Attalus, he easily ex- pelled the usurper Heliodorus, and himself " obtained the kingdom by flatteries," to the exclusion of his nephew Demetrius. The accession of Antioehus was immediately followed by desperate efforts of the Hel- lenizing party at Jerusalem to assert their supremacy. Jason 4 persuaded the king to transfer the high- priesthood from his brother Onias III. to him, and bought permission to carry out his design of habitu- ating the Jews to Greek customs ; but three years afterward Me.nelacs, who offered the king a larger bribe, was appointed high-priest, wlule Jason took refuge among the Ammonites. From these circum- stances, and from the marked honor with which An- tioehus was received at Jerusalem very early in his reign (about B. c. 173), it appears that he easily re- gained the border provinces given as the dosver of his sister Cleopatra to Ptolemy Epiplianes. But his ambition led him to undertake four campaigns against Egypt, B. c. 171, 170, 109, 168, and his complete con- quest of the country was prevented only by Roman interference. The exhaustion of his treasury, and the armed conflicts of the rival high-priests whom he had appointed, furnished the occasion for an assault upon Jerusalem on his return from his second Egyp- tian campaign (b. c. 170), which he had probably planned with Ptolemy Philometor, who was at that time in his power. The Temple was plundered, a terrible massacre took place, and a Phrygian govern- or was left with Menelaus in charge of the city. At the close of the fourth Egyptian expedition, two years afterward, Antioehus detached a force under Apollonius to occupy Jerusalem and fortify it, and availed himself of the assistance of the ancestral ene- mies of the Jews. The decrees then followed which have rendered his name infamous. The Temple was desecrated, and the observance of the law was for- bidden. "On the 15th day of Casleu the Syrians set up the abomination of desolation (i. e. an idol altar) upon the altar." Ten days afterward an offering was made upon it to Jupiter Olympius. At Jerusalem all opposition appears to have ceased ; but Mattathias and his sons organized a successful resistance (" holpen with a little help "). (Macca- bees.) Meanwhile Antioehus turned hia arms tow- ard Parthia and Armenia. Hearing not long after- ward of the riches of a temple of Nanea in Elymais (comp. Antiociius III.), he resolved to plunder it. The attempt was defeated ; and the event hastened his death. He retired to Babylon, and thence to Taboe in Persia, where he died, b. c. 164, the victim of superstition, terror, and remorse, having first heard of the successes of the Maccabees in restoring the Temple-worship at Jerusalem (1 Me. i.-vi. ; 2 Mc. i., iv., v.). " He came to his end and there was none to help him." — The reign of Antioehus was the last great crisis in Jewish history before the coming of our Lord. The prominence given to it in prophecy (Dan. vii. 8, 25, viii. 11 ff., xi. 21-46) fitly accords with its typical and representative character. (Antichrist.) Ihe conquest of Alexander the Great (Alexan- dria) had introduced Greek thought and life into the Jewish nation ; and now, after one hundred and fifty years, an outward straggle must decide whether Judaism was to be merged in a rationalized Pagan- ism, or to become purer and more vigorous. The exposed position of Judea between Syria and Egypt, the terrible crimes of the wars of " the N. and S." and the persecutions first from Egypt and then from Syria, all betokened the approaching struggle. Po- litically the Jews mu.st now either be independent, or abandon every prophetic hope. Nor was their social and religious position less perilous. Foreign influence had made itself felt in daily life ; and be- fore the rising of the Maccabees no opposition was offered, even by the priests, to the execution of the king's decrees. (Jason 4.) Antioehus at first imi- tated the Uberal policy of his predecessors ; and the occasion for his attacks was furnished by the Jews themselves. Able, energetic, and liberal to profu- sion, Antioehus was reckless and imscrupulous in the Tetradrachm (Attic talent) of Antioehus IV. Rpipbanea. Obverse, Head of King to right. Reverse, Basile'i Anticcnott ThtrmEpipk' anov* yilKftAfwm {Gr. j^ of King Anttochua Thtoa Ejitphanei A'icepio- nM, i. e. bringing victory). Jupiter seated, to left, holding a victory. la field, monogram. execution of his plans. He had learned at Rome to court power and to dread it. He gained an empire, and remembered that he had been a hostage. Re- gardless himself of the gods of his fathers, he did not appreciate religion in others ; and he became a type cf the enemy of God (Antichrist) by the disre- gard of every higher feeling. " He magnified him- self above all." His real deity was the Roman war- god ; and fortresses were his most sacred temples. Confronted with such a persecutor, the Jew realized the spiritual power of his faith. The evils of heathen- ism were seen concentrated in a personal shape. The outward forms of worship became invested with a sacramental dignity. Coirmon life was purified and ennobled by heroic devotion. An independent nation asserted the integrity of its hopes in the face of Egjpt, Syria, and Rome. in-tl'o'-tlins (see above) V., En'pa-lor (Gr. of noble dacint), succeeded his father Antiochus IV., B. c. 164, while still a child, under the guardianship of Lysias, though Antioehus had on his death-bed assi(;ned this < flSce to Philip, his own foster-brother. Shortly after his accession he marched against Jeru- salem with a large army, accompanied by Lysias, to relieve the Syrian garrison. He repulsed Judas (Maccabees) at Eethzacharias, and took Bethsura. But when the Jewish force in the Temple was on the point of yielding, Lysias persuaded Antioehus to make peace that he might advance to meet Philip, who had made himself master of Antioch. Philip was speedily overpowered; but the next year (b. c. 162) Antioehus and Lysias fell into the hands of Deuetrius Soter, who caused them to be put to death in revenge for his own wrongs from Antioehus Epiphanes (1 Mc. iiL 32, 83, vi., vii. 2-4 ; 2 Mc. ix. 29, xiv. 1, 2). in-tl'o-chns (see above) VI. was the son of Alex- ander Balas and Cleopatra. After his father's death (146 b. c.) he remained in Arabia; but though still a child, he was soon brought forward by Tbt- piioN (about 146 B. c.) as a claimant to the throne of Syria against Deuetrics Nicator. Tryphon 50 ANT APO succeeded in gaining Antioch ; and afterward the most of Syria submitted to Antiochus. Jonatlian (Maccabees), confirmed by him as high-priest and ruler of Judea, &c., contributed greatly to his suc- cess, occupying Ascalon and Gaza, reducing the country as far as Damascus, and defeating the troops of Demetrius. (Nasor.) Tryphon having now gained the supreme power in Antiochus's name, took Jona- than by treachery and put him to death, b. c. 143 ; and afterward murdered Antiochus, and ascended the throne (1 Mc. xi. 39-xiii. 31). An-tlo-chns (see above) VIL, Sl-de'tes [-teez] (Gr. of Side, in Pamphylia), king of Syria, was the second son of Demetrips I. When his brother, Demetrius Nicator, was taken prisoner (about 141 B. c.) by the king of Parthia (Absaoes VI.), he mar- ried his wife Cleopatra and took the throne (137 B. c.) from the usurper Tryphon. At first he made a very advantageous treaty with Simon (Maccabees), but afterward violated it and sent against him a force under Cendebeus, who occupied Cedron 1, and harassed the surrounding country. After the defeat of Cendebeus by Simon's sons, Antiochus undertook an expedition against Judea in person. He laid siege to Jerusalem, but (so Josephus) granted honorable terms to John Hyrcanus (b. o. 133), who had made a vigorous resistance. Antiochus next turned his arms against the Parthians, and Hyrcanus accoaipa- nied him in the campaign. But after some successes he was entirely defeated by Phraortes II. (Arsaces VII.), and fell in the battle, about B. c. 127-6 (1 Mc, XV., xvi.). in'ii-pas (Gr. = Antipater, Rbn. N'. T. Lex. ; ajainsl all, Fbn.). I. See Herod 2.' — i, Am.aityrat Pergamos (Rev. ii. 13); according to tradition, tlie bishop of Pergamos ; said to have suffered martyr- dom under Domitian by being cast into a burning brazen bull. An-tlp'a-ter (L. fr. Gr. = oiv.r against [i. e. like] his father), son of Jason ; Jewish ambassador to the Lacedemonians (1 Mc. .xii. 16, xiv. 22). An-tip'a-trls (Gr. ; named fr Antipater, Herod's father), a town to which the soldiers conveyed St. Paul by night on their march from Jerusalem to Cesarea (Acts xxiii. 31); anciently namel Caphar- saba ; rebuilt and named Antipatris by Herod. It was (Itin. Hier.) forty-two miles from Jerusalem and twenty-six from Cesarea. The modern village Kefr- Siba answers to the ancient name, and its position is in sufficient harmony with what Josephus says of the position of Antipatris, in a well-watered and well- wooded plain, near a hilly ridge, and with his notices of a trench dug from thence for military purposes to the sea near Joppa by one of the Asmonean princes. An-to'ni-a (L.), a fortress (A. V. " castle," Acts xxi. 34, &c.), built by Herod on the site of the more ancient Baris, N. W. of the Temple, and named by him after his friend Antony. (Jerusalem.) The word nowhere occurs in the Bible. An-fo-tlli'jah (Heb. answers from Jehovah, Ges.), a Benjamite, son of Shashak (1 Chr. viii. 24). An'to-thite (fr. Anathoth), a dweller at Anathoth (1 Chr. xi. 28, xii. 3); = Anethothite. A null (Heb. hound together, Ges.), son of Coz and descendant of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 8). A'nas, a Levite (1 Esd. ix. 48) ; = Baki 7. * Ad'tiI, a smith's iron block (Is. xli. 7 ; Ecclus. xxxviii. 23). Handicraft. Ap'a-me (Gr.), concubine of Darius, and daughter of Bartacus (1 Esd. iv. 29). A-pel'les [-leez] (Gr. given by Apollo, A. F. Pott), a Christian saluted by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 10) as " approved in Christ." Tradition makes him bishop of Smyrna or Heraclea. Apes (Heb. kophim), occur in 1 K. x. 22, " once in three years came tlie navy of Tharshish (Tarshish 2), bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks," and in the parallel passage of 2 Chr. ix. 21. Probably the Hebrew word here used was not intended to refer to any one particular species of ape, biU may have denoted any animals of the mon- key triDe, including apes, baboons, and monkeys proper. A-pbar'sath-ehltes [-kites], A-pbar'sltes, A-phar'- sa-chitcs [a-far'sa-kites] (all fr. Heb.), certain tribes, colonies from which had been planted in Samaria by Asnapper (Ezr. iv. 9, v. 6). The first and last are regarded as the same, and have been supposed to be the PariEtacse or Parsetaceni (= mmmtaitieers), a tribe on tlie borders of Media and Persia ; the second has been referred to the Parrhasii, and by Gesenius to the Persians. A'pbek [-fek] (Heb. strength, fortress, a strong city, Geo.). 1. A royal city of the Canaanites, the king of which was killed by Joshua (Josh. xii. 18); probably = Aphekah. — 2. A city, apparently in the extreme N. of Asher (Josh. xix. 30) ; probably = Aphik, and the city on the N. " border of the Amor- ites," apparently beyond Sidon, identified with the Aphaca of classical times, famous for its temple of Venus, the ruins of which are the modern Afka on the N.W. slopes of Lebanon, midway between Baalbek and Byblus (Jebeil). — 3> A place at which the Phi- listines encamped, before the battle in which Eli's sons were killed and the ark taken (1 Sam. iv. 1); apparently N.W. of, and not far from Jerusalem. — i. The scene of another encampment of the Philistines, before the defeat and death of Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 1); possibly = No. 3. — 5i A walled city on the military road from Syria to Israel, apparently a common spot for engagements with Syria (1 K. xx. 26 ff. ; 2 K. xiii. 17). It was situated in "the plain" (IK. xx. 25 ; Plain 4) E. of the Jordan, where is the modem village of Fik, at the head of the Wady Fik, six miles E. of the sea of Galilee, the great road between Damascus, A^dbulus, and Jerusalem still passing through it. A-phe'kab (Heb. strong place, Ges.), a city of Ju- dah, in the mountains (Josh. xv. 63) ; probably = Aphek 1. A-phcre-ma (fr. Gr.), one of the three "govern- ments," " Apherema, and Lydda, and Ramathem," added to Judea from Samaria by Demetrius Soter, and confirmed by Nicanor(l Mc. xi. 84); probably =: Ephraim and Ophrah 1. A-pber'ra (Gr.) ancestor of some of the sons of Solomon's servants who returned with Zerubbabel (1 Esd. V. 34); not in Ezra and Nehemfeh. A-phi'ah (Heb. rekindled, refreshed, Ges.), ancestor of King Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1); supposed by Lord A. C. Hervey = Abiah 1 (?). A'phik (Heb. strong, Ges.), a city of Asher (Judg. !. 31); probably r= Aphek 2. Aph'rab (Heb. female fawn, Ges.), tbe Hoase of, a place (Mic. i. 10), supposed by some = Ophrah 1. Apb'ses [afseez] (L. fr. Heb. the dispersion, Ges), chief of the eighteenth course of priests (1 Chr. xxi v. 15). A-poc'a-lypse [-I'ps] (fr. Gr. = revelation). Rev- elation OF St. John. A-poe'ry-pha (fr. Gr. ; primarily = hidden, secret, sc. books ; apparently associated, toward the end of the second century, with the idea of spunoua ; APO APO 51 afterward = spurious), a tenii popularly applied to the following fourteen books: 1 Esilras; 2Gsdras; Tobit; Judith; Esther x. 4-xvi. ; Wisdom; Ecclcsi- asticus ; Barueh ; Song of the Three Holy Children ; History of Susanna ; Bel and the Dragon ; Prayer of Manasses ; 1 Maccabees ; 2 Maccabees. These books are treated of under their titles. For their re- lation to the canonical books of the 0. T. see Canon. (Inspiration.) These books represent the period of transition and decay after the return of the Jews from Babylon, and most (perhaps all) were probably written B. c. 300-30. We may notice in them (1.) the absence of the prophetic element ; (2.) the al- most total disappearance of the power shown in the poetry of the 0. T. ; (3.) the appearance of works of fiction resting or purporting to rest on an historical foundation ; (4.) the growth of a purely legendary literature ; (6.) the tendency to pass off supposititious books under the cover of illustrious names; (6.) the insertion of unauthenticated formal documents as au- thentic; (7.) abundant errors and anachronisms; (8.) some peculiarities connected with the religious and ethical development of Judaism, as the manifest influences of the struggle against idolatry under An- tiochus, the growing hostility to the Samaritans, the prominence assigned in Tobit to alms-giving, with the growing belief in the individual guardianship of angels and the germs of a grotesque demonolopy there apparent, and (in Wisdom) the teachings in respect to wisdom, to the kingdom of God and its eternal blessings, and to the love and righteousness of God. ip-ol-lo'ni-a (Gr. fern. = of or from ApoUo), a city of Macedonia, through which I*aul and iv history were known as Ishmaelites and descendants of Keturah. Their roving pastoral life in the desert is alluded to in Is. xiii. 20 ; Jer. iii. 2 ; 2 Mc. xii. 1 1 ; their coun- try is associated with that of the Dedanim, the trav- elling merchants (Is. xxi. 13), with Dedan, Tema, and Buz (Jer. xxv. 24), and with Dedan and Kedar (Ez. xxvii. 21), all of which were probably in the N. part of the peninsula later known as Arabia. During the reign of Jehoshaphat, the Arabians, with the Philistines, were tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xvii. 11); but in the reign of his successor they revolted, ravaged the country, plundered the royal palace, slew all the king's sons except the youngest, and car- ried oif the royal harem (2 Chr. xxi. 16, xxii. 1). The Arabians of Gur-baal were again subdued by Uzziah (xxvi. 1). On the return from Babylon they were among the foremost in hindering Nehemiah's work of restoration, and plotted with the Ammonites and others for that end (N'eh. iv. 7). Geshem, or Gasli- mu, a leader of the opposition, was of this race (ii. 19, vi. 1). In later times theArabians served under Timotheus against JuJas Maccabeus, but were de- feated (1 Mc. V. .39; 2'Mc. xii. 10). The Zabiideans, an Arab tribe, were routed by Jonathan, brother and successor of Judas (1 Mc. xii. 31). Zibdiel, the assassin of Alexander Balas (xi. 17), and Simalcue who brought up Alexander Balas's young son An- tiochus (xi. 39), afterward Antiochus VI., were both Arabians. The "Arabians" in Acts ii. 11, were Jews or Jewish proselytes from Arabia (compare ver. 5-10). A'rad (Heb. wild ass, Ges., Fii.), a Benjamite, son of Beriah (1 Chr. viil. 13). A'rad (Heb. see abore), a royal city of the Ca- naanites, nam:;d with Hormah and Libnah (Josh. xii. 14). The wilderness of Judah was to " the S. of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). It is also undoubtedly named in Num. xxi. 1 (comp. Hormah in ver. 3), and xxxiii. 40, translated properly "the Canaanite king of Arad," A. V. " king Arad the Canaanite." The site of Arad has been identified (Rbn. ii. 101) with " a barren-looking eminence," Tell 'Ardd, one hour and a half N. E. by E. from MUh (Moladah), and eight hours fram Hebron. Ar'a-das (fr. Gr.) = Arvad (1 Mc. xv. 23). A'rali (Heb. perhaps = wayfaring, Ges.). 1. An Ashcritc, of the sons of Ulla (1 Chr. vii. 39). — 2. An- cestor of a family of 773 (Ezr. ii. 5) or 652 (Neh. vii. 10) who returned with Zerubbabel. One, Shechaniah, was fatlier-in-law of Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh. vi. 18). Arab = Ares in 1 Esd. v. 10. Aram (Heb. high region, highlands, Ges.). 1. The name by which the Hebrews designated, generally, the country lying to the N. E. of Palestine ; the high table-land which stretches from the Jordan to the Euphrates ; also the region beyond the Euphrates, especially the mountainous region and high plain be- tween it and the Tigris N. of 35°, called in Hebrew Aramrnaluiraim = Ihe highland of the two rivers (see Haran ; Ps. Ix. trtle ; also in Heb., A. V. " Me- sopotamia," in Gen. xxiv. 10 ; Deut. xxiii. 6 [4] ; Judg. iii. 8 ; 1 Chr. xix. 6), Padan-aram (Gen. xxv- 20, &c.), A)-am simply (Num. xxiii. 7 ; Judg. iii. 10, marg. ; comp. 2 Sam. x. 16, A. V. " Syrians [Heb. Aram] beyond the river "). Aram is usually trans- lated, as in the Vulgate and LXX., "Syria" or " Syrians." The Hebrew derivative Arammi z^ the Aramite, translated " Syrian " in A. V., is used in Gen. xxv. 20, and other parts of the Pentateuch, to designate a dweller in Aram-naharaim ; in 2 K. v. 20, &c., an inhabitant of that part of Syria which had Damascus for its capital. (See Aram-damme-, sek below.) The shortened Hebrew plural Rammirn for Arammim, A. V. " Syrians," occurs in 2 Chr. xxii. 5 ; compare Ram 3. (See Shemitic Languages.) Besides Aram-naharaim and Padan-aram, we meet with the following small nations or kingdoms form- ing parts of* the general land of Aram: — 1. Aram- zobah (Ps. Ix. title ; also in Heb., A. V. " Syrians of Zoba," 2 Sam. x. 6, 8), or simply Zobah (1 Sam. xiv. 47, &c.). 2. Aram hcQi-rehob, A. V. "Syrians of Beth-rehob " (2 Sam. x. 6), or Rehob (x. 8). 3. Aram-maachah, A. V. " Syria-maachah " (1 Chr. xix. 6), or Maacah only (2 Sam. x. 6 ; Maacah 2). 4. Geshcr, "in Aram," A. V. "in Syria" (2 Sam. XV. 8). 5. Aram-dammcsck (Damascus) (2 Sam. viii. 6, 6 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 5, 6). Tlie whole of these petty states are spoken of collectively as "Aram" (2 Sam. X. 9 ft'.), but Damascus gradually absorbed the small- er powers (1 K. xx. 1), and took the name of "Aram" alone (Is. vii. 8 ; also 1 K. xi. 25, xv. 18, &c.). See also IIamatii ; Hamath-Zobah ; Isii-tob. — According to Gen. X., Aram was a son of Shem, and his breth- ren were Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, and Lud. — 2. Son of Kemuel, and descendant of Nahor (Gcn.xxii. 21); probably = Ram 3. — 3f An Aslieritc, son of Shamer (l Chr. vii. 34) I, Son of Esrom, or Hczron ; = Ram 1 (Mat. i. 3, 4 ; Lk. iii. 33). A'ram-l-tess [i as in vine] (fr. Heb.) = a female inhabitant of Aram; a Syrian woman (1 Chr. vii 14). A'ram-na-ba-ra'im (Heb. ; Ps. Ix. title). Asah 1 A'ram-za'bah (Heb. ; Ps. Ix. title). Aram 1. A'ran (Heb. wild goat, Ges.), a Horite, son of- Dishan (Gen. xxxvi. 28; 1 Chr. i. 42). * Ar-a-ni'ah (fr. Heb. ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 18, marg.) = Araunah. Ar'a-rat (Heb. fr. Sansc. = hobj land, Bohlen, Ges.), a mountainous district of Asia mentioned in the Bible — (1.) as the resting-place of the Ark af- ter the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4) : (2.) as the asylum of the sons of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 37, marg; Is. xxxvii. 38, marg. ; A. V. " the land of Armenia ") : (3.) as the ally, and probably the neighbor, of Min- ni and Ashchenaz (Jer. Ii. 27 ; Armenia). In Gen. iji. 2, " from the E." A. V., apparently indicating its position as E. of Mesopotamia, is more correctly in tlie margin " eastward," as in Gen. ii. 8, xii. 8, xiii. 11, with reference to the writer's own country rather than to Ararat. The name Ararat, though un- known to Greek and Roman geographers and to the modem Armenians, was an indigenous and an an- cient name for a portion of Armenia, for Moses of Chorene gives Araratia as the designation of the central province. In its biblical sense Ararat := gen- erally the .\rmenian highlands — the lofty plateau which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on the N., and of Mesopotamia on the S. Various opinions have been put forth as to the spot where the ark rested, as described in Gen. viii. 4. Josephus (i. 'A, § 6) quotes a tradition from Berosus the Chaldean, fixing the spot on the mountains of Kurdistan. Local tra- dition still points to the Jebel Judi, in this range, as ARA ABB 69 the scene of llic event, and reports, with Berosus, that fragments of the ark exist on its summit. Josc- phus also (1. c.) gives another tradition from Nicolaus Damascenus that a mountain in Armenia named Baris, beyond Minjas, was the spot. Josephus stales liimsclf (i. 3, § 5) that the spot where Noah loft tlie ark liad received an Armenian name which he renders Apobaterion ( = the place of descent), and which seems identical with Naehdjevan, on tlie banks of the Araxes. To this neighborhood native Arme- nians now assign all the associations connected witli Xoah, and Europeans have so far indorsed this last opinion as to give the name Ararat exclusively to the mountain called Massu by the Armenians, Agri- Dagh ( = Sleep Mountain) by the Turks, and Kuh- i-yuh ( := A'oah's Mountain) by the Persians. This mountain, the loftiest and most imposiag in the re- gion, rises immediately out of the plain of the Araxes, and tenniuates in two conical peaks, named the Great and Less Ararat, about seven miles apart, the former of which is 17,200 feet above the level of the sea and about 14,0iJ0 above the plain of the Anixes, while the latter is lower by 4,000 feet. The summit of the higher rises about 3,000 feet above the limit of perpetual snow. It is of volcanic origin. The summit of Ararat was first ascended in 1829 by Par- rot, who describes a secondary summit about 400 yards from the highest point, and on the gentle de- pression between the two eminences he sunnises that the ark rested. The region immediately below the limit of perpetual snow is barren and unvisitcd by beast or bird. Arguri, the only village known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Xoah planted his vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of Araxes, is Nachdjevan, where the patriarch is reputed to have been buried. — Taking the Armenian plateau from the base of Ararat in the N. to the range of Kurdistan in the S. as = "the mountains of Ararat" (Gen. viii. 4), we notice— (1.) Its elevation. It rises to a height of from 6,000 to 7,000 feet above the sea, presenting a surface of extensive pluns, whence spring lofty mountain ranges, having a generally parallel direc- tion from E. to W., and connected with each other by transverse ridces of moderate height. (2.) Its geograpliieal poxition. It is equidistant from the Euxinc and the Caspian seas on the N., and between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean on the S. Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the na- tions, Armenia is the true centre of the world : and Ararat is now the great boundary-stone between the empires of liussia, Turkey, and Persia. (3.) Its physical charaetir. Though of volcanic origin, Ar- menia difiers materially from other regions of similar geological formation, for it does not rise to a sharp well-defined central crest, but expands into plains separated by a graduated series of subordinate ranges. It is far more accessible, both from with- out, and within its own limits, than other districts of similar elevation. The fall of the ground in the centre of the plateau is not decided in any direction ; for the Araxes, which flows into the Caspian, lists W. of either brunch of the Euphrates, and runs N. at first; while the Euphrates, which flows to the S. rises N. of tl e Araxes, and runs W. at first. (4.) The climate. Winter lasts from October to May, and is succeeded by a brief spring and summer of intense heat. In April the Armenian plains are still covered with snow ; and in the early part of September it freezes keenly at night. (5.)" The vegetation. Grass grows luxuriantly on the plateau, and furnishes abundant pasture during the summer to the flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat, barley, and vines ripen at iar higher altitudes than on the Alps and the Pyre- nees ; and the harvest is brought to maturity with wonderful speed. These observations show that, while the elevation of the Armenian plateau constituted it the natural resting-place of tho ark after the Deluge, its geo- graphical pcsition and physical character secured an impartial distribution of mankind to the various quarters of the world. The climate furnished a power- ful inducement to sieek the more tempting regions on all sides of it. At the same time the char- acter of the vegetation was re- markably adapted to the nomad state in which Noah's early de- scendants probably lived. ir'a-ratli (Tob. i. 21) = Ara- rat. A-ran'Bab (fr. Heb. various- ly written ; = Jali is strong, Fii.), a Jebusite who sold to David a site for an altar to Jehovah (2 Sam. xxiv. 18-24); = Ornan. Keil (on 1 Chr. xxi. 26, Eng. tr.) says of the apparent discrepancy between 1 Chronicles and 2 Samuel in regard to the price, &c. ; " in 1 Chr, xxi. 25, it is stated that David gave to Oman for the place (prob- ably the hill, Mount Moriah) 600 shekels of gold. On the other hand, in 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, we read that David bought the threshing-foor and the oxen for 50 shekels of silver. The very words of the two pas- sages show that the authors were writing of diff'ertnt things, and, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that there is any error." From 2 Sam. xxiv. 23, " these things did Araunah the king, give unto tho king," it has been inferred that he was one of the royal race of the Jebusites. ir'ba (Heb. giant-Baal or Saal-Hercvles, Fii.), the progenitor of the Anakim, from whom Hkbkon was called KiRjATii-ARnA (Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13, xxi. 11). Ar'bah (= Arra), the tit'}' of = EiRJAxu-ABbA or Hebron Gen. xxxv. 27). 60 ARB ARC Ar'bath-ite (fr. Heb.), the, = a native of the Ara- BAH or Ohor. Gescnius makes Arbathite = one from Beth-arabah. Abi albon the Arbathite was one of David's valiant men (2 Sam. xxiii. 31 ; 1 Chr. li. 32). Ir-bat'tls (fr. Gr.), a district of Palestine (1 Mc. v. 23 only) ; according to Ewald, the district N. of the sea of Galilee, part of which is still called Ard el- Balihah, but perhaps a corruption of Acrabattine = the toparchy between Neapolis and Jericho. Aerab- BIU. Ar-be'la (Gr. fr. Heb. = dtadel of Chd, Wr.), only in 1 Me. ix. 2, defining the situation of Masaloth, which was besieged and taken by Bacchides and Al- cimus. According to Josephus this Arbela was a city of Galilee near the lake of Gennesaret, and remark- able for certain impregnable caves, the resort of robbers and insurgents, and the scene of more than one desperate encounter. Arbela is identified with the existing Irbid, a site with a few ruins W. of Medjel (Magdala), on the S. E. side of the Wady el- Hamdm, in a small plain at the foot of the hill of Kurun Hattiii. The caverns are in the opposite face of the ravine, and bear the name of Kuld'at Ibn Madn. Arbela may be the Betu-arbel of Hos. x. 14. Ar'bite, the (fr. Heb. = native of Arab, Ges.). Paarai the Arbite was one of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 35) ; called in* 1 Chr. xi. 37, Naarai the son of EzBAi. Ar-bo'nat (Gr. Abronas), a torrent, apparently near Cilicia ; possibly the Nahr Abraim or Ibrahim (an- cient Adonis),whicli rises in Lebanon at Afka (ancient Aphek), and falls into the Mediterranean at Jebed (Byblos) ; or a corruption of the Hebrew ''eber han- ndhdr — beyond Ihe river, i. e. Euphrates (Jd. ii. 24). * Areh. The arch was used by the Egyptians at Thebes as early as b. c. 1510 (Wilkinson), and by the ancient Assyrians (Rawlinson). It was therefore probably known to the Israelites. The plural of the Hebrew eylim is translated " arches " in Ez. xl. 16 ff. A. V. (margin, " galleries " or " porches ") ; but the real meaning is doubtful. The 'Targums, LXX., Vulgate, Fairbairn {on Ezekiel), &e., translate /wj-f/iai; but Gesenius says they were carried round an edifice, and are distinguished from the porches. Fiirst de- fines it a sort of hall-like space that reeedea and pro- jects. Temple. * Arch-an'gel [ark-ane'jel] (fr. Gr. =: a chief of the angels) 1 Th. iv. 16 ; Jude 9. Angel ; Gabriel ; Michael ; Raphael ; Uriel. Ar-che-la US f-ke-] (L. fr. Gr. ^ leading the people, a chief, L. & S.), son of Herod the Great, by a Sa- maritan woman, Malthace, and, with his brother Herod Antipas, brought up at Rome. At the death of Herod (b. c. 4) his kingdom was divided between his three sons, Herod Antipas, Archelaus, and Philip. Herod by will gave to Archelaus " the kingdom," but Augustus, though he confirmed the will in gen- eral, appointed Archelaus ethnarch, promising him the dignity of king afterward, if he governed well. He received half of what had been subject to Herod, including Idumea, Judea, Samaria, witli the cities of Cesarea, Sebaste, Joppa, and Jerusalem, the wholei yielding him six hundred talents' income (Jos. xy^| 8, § 1, and 11, § 4). In the tenth year of his q^iigipi (ninth, so Dion Cassius', a. d. 6, a complaint was preferred against him by his brothers and his sub- jects on the ground of his tyranny, in consequence of which he was banished to Vienne in Gaul, where he is generally said to have died. But Jerome re- lates that he was shown the sepulchre of Archelaus near Bethlehem. He seems to have been guilty of great cruelty and oppression (Mat. ii. 22). Josephus relates that he put to death three thousand Jews in the Temple not long after his accession. Archelaus wedded illegally Glaphyra, once the wife of his bro- ther Alexander, who had had children by her. ArcU'e-ry. Arms. Arche-Tites [-ke-] (fr. Heb.), perhaps = inhabit- ants of Erech, placed as colonists in Samaria (Ezr. iv. 9). Ar'ebi [-ki] (Heb.) Josh. xvi. 2. Archite. Ar-chip'pns [-kip-] (L. fr. Gr. = i-uUng horses), a Christian teacher in Colosse (Col. iv. 17), called by St. Paul his " fellow-soliiier " (Phn. 2) ; probably a member of Philemon's family. Some suppose him to have bcQn overseer of the church at Colosse ; others (improbably) a teacher at Laodicea. There is a legend that he was one of the seventy disciples, and suffered martyrdom at Chona, near Laodicea. Ar'thite [-kite] (fr. Heb. as if from a place named Erech), the, the usual designation of David's friend Hushai (2 Sam. xv. 32, xvii. 5, 14 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 33). The same word (in the Hebrew) occurs in Josh. xvi. 2, where " the borders of Archi " (i. e. " the Ar- chite") an; named as somewhere near Bethel. Ar'ehl-tec-ture [-ke-]. Gen. iv. 17, 20, 22, ap' pears to divide mankind into the "dwellers in tents" and the " dwellers in cities." (City ; Fenced City.) The race of Shem (Gen. x. 11, 12, 22, xi. 2-9) founded the cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon, Nineveh, &c., one of which, Resen, is called '• a great city." We have in Gen. xi. 3-9, an account of the earliest recorded building, and of the materials em- ployed in its construction. (Babel, Tower of.) In Esth. i. 2, mention is made of the palace at Susa (Shushan), the spring residence of the kings of Persia (Esth. iil. 15) ; and in Tobit and Judith, of EcBATANA, to which they retired during the heat of summer (Tob. iii. 7, xiv. 14 ; Jd. i. 14). In Egypt the Israelites appear first as builders of cities (Pitliom and Raamses), compelled to labor at the buildings of the Egyptian monarchs (Ex. i. 11). The Israelites were by occupation shepherds, and by habit dwell- ers in tents (Gen. xlvii. 3). They had therefore originally, speaking properly, no architecture. In Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone (Lev. xiv. 34, 45 ; IK. vii. 10); but these were not all, nor indeed in most cases, built by them- selves (Deut. vi. 10; Num. xiii. 19, 22; Josh. xiv. 15). The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solo- mon gave great impulse to architecture ; for besides the Temple and his other great works, he built for- tresses and cities in various places, Baalath, Tadmor, &c. (1 K. ix. 15-24). Subsequent kings are recorded as builders: Asa(l K. xv. 23), Baasha (xv. 17), Omri (xvi. 24), Ahab (xvi. 32, xxii. 39), Hezekiah (2 K. XX. 20 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 27-30), Jehoash, and Josiah (2 K. xii. 11, 12, xxii. 6); and Jehoiakim, whose winter palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii. 14, xxxvi. 22 ; see also Am. iii. 15). On the return from captivity the chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a substan- tial manner, with stone, and with timber from Leba- non (Ezr. iii. 8, v. 8 ; Neh. ii. 8, iii.). Under Herod and his successors not only was the Temple magnifi- cently rebuilt, but the fortifications and other public buildings of Jerusalem were enlarged and embel- lished (Lk. xxi. 5). Herod also built the town of Cesarea ; enlarged Samaria, and named it Sebaste ; built the cities of Agrippeum and Phasaelis ; and even adorned with buildings many foreign cities. His sons built or rebuilt Cesarea Philippi, Tiberias, ARC ABO 61 Bethsaida, &c. These great works were undoubted- ly splendid, and probably formed on Greek and liomun models. For details in regard to the palace of Solomon, the temples, &c., at Jerusalem, see Je- ECSALEM ; Marble ; Palace ; Temple, &c. For the domestic architecture of the Jews, see Handicraft ; House. .Ire-tn'rns (L. fr. Gr. = bear's tail). The Hebrew words 'ii»A and ''ai/ish(^a barrow bearer, the Arabic name of the Great Bear, Ges.), rendered " Arcturus " in the A. V. of Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 32, in conformity with the Vulgate of the former passage, are now generally believed to be identical, and to represent the constellation Ursa Major, known commonly as the Great Bear, or Charles's Wain. The star now known as Arcturus is a star of the first magnitude jn the constellation Bootes, and is nearly in a line with two bright stars in the tail of the Great Bear. The ancient versions differ greatly in their render- ings. The LXX. render 'ash by the " Pleiades" in Job ix. 9 (unless the text which they had before them had the words in a different order), and ^ayish by " Hesperus," the evening star, in Job xxxviii. 32. In the former they are followed or supported by the Chaldee, in the latter by the Vulgate. Ard (Heb. fugitive), son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin (Num. xxvi. 40) ; ancestor of the Ardites ; probably = Ard, the " son " of Benjamin in Gen. xlvi. 21 ; = Addar in 1 Chr. viii. 3. Becheb; Naa- MAN 2. Ar'fUth— "the field called Ardath " (2 Esd. ii. 26). Ard'ites = tbe descendants of Ard (Xam. xxvi. 40). Ar'don (Heb. fw/ilive, Ges.), son, by Azubah, of Caleb the son of Uezron (1 Chr. ii. 18). A-re'll (Heb. sOTi of a hero, Ges. ; see Ariel), a son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16; Num. xxvi. IT); ancestor of the Arelitss. • A-r*'Iltes = a family descended from Areli (Num. xxvi. 17). < A-re-op'a-glte [-jite] = a member of the court of Areopagus (Acts xvii. 34). A-re-op'a-gns (L. fr. Gr. = hill of Ares ; the Gr. Ares = L. Mars ; Acts xvii. 19 ; literally translated Mars' Hill in verse 22), a rocky height in Athens, opposite the W. end of the Acropolis, from which it is separated only by an elevated valley. It rises gradually from the N. end, and terminates abruptly on the S., over against the Acropolis, at which point it is about fifty or sixty feet above the valley already mentioned. Tradition deiives its name from the legendary trial, before the gods assembled here, of Mars for murdering Neptune's son Halirrhothius. This spot was the place of meeting of the celebrated Council of Areopagus, often called simply " the Are- opagus," the mo.st ancient and venerable of the Athenian courts. This court consisted of those who had held the office of Archon, and they were Areopa- gites for life, unless disqualified by misconduct. At first the court tried only cases of wilful murder, wounding, poison, and arson ; but Solon gave it ex- tensive censorial and politic;il powers. It continued to exist under the Roman emperors. Its meetings were held on the S. E. summit of the rock. There are still sixteen stone steps cut in the rock, leading up to the hill from the valley of the Agora or " mar- ket " l)elow ; and immediately above the steps is a bench of stones excavated in the rock, foiaiing three sides of a quadrangle, and facing the S. Here the Areopagitcs sat as judges in the open air. On the E. and W. side are raised blocks, probably those de- scribed by Euripides as assigned, one to the accuser, the other to the accused. — The Areopagus was the spot from which St. Paul delivered his memorable address to the men of Athens (Acts xvii. 22-31). Some commentators suppose that St. Paul was brought before the Council of Areopagus ; but there is no trace in the narrative of any judicial proceed- ings. He " disputed daily " in the " market " (ver. 17), which was S. of the Areopagus in the valley. Attracting more and more attention, " certain philos- ophers of the Epicureans and Stoics " brought him up from the valley, probably by the stone steps al- ready mentioned, to the Areopagus above, that they might listen to him more conveniently. Here the philosophers probably took their seats on the stone benches usually occupied by the members of the Council, while the multitude stood on the steps and in the valley below. A'res (L.) :;; Arah 2 (1 Esd. V. 10). Ar'e-tas (Gr. fr Ar. = a cutter, graver, Pococke, Wr.), a common appellation of many of the Arabian kings or chiefs. (Arabia ; Edom; Nebaioth.) Only two require mention here. — 1. A contemporary of Antiochus Epiphanes (b. c. 170) and Jason (2 Mc. v. 8). — 2. The father-in-law of Herod Antipas, and king of Arabia Petra?a, whose ethnarch ("gov- ernor," A. V.) kept the city of Damascus with a garrison, desirous to apprehend St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32). There is a somewhat difficult chronological question respecting the subordination pf Damascus to this Aretas. Under Augustus and Tiberius the city was attached to the province of Syria ; and it is probable that a change in the rulership took place after the' death of Tiberius. There had been war for some time between Aretas and Herod Aniipas. A battle was fought, and the army of Antipas destroyed. Vitellius, governor of Syria, was sent to his aid against Aretas ; but while on his march he heard of the death of Tiberius (a. d. 37), and remained at Aniioeh. By this change of affairs at Rome a com- plete reversal took place in the situation of Antipas and Aretas. The former was (a. d. 39) banished to Lyons, and his kingdom given to his nephew and enemy Herod Agrippa, who was intimate with the new emperor Caligula. It would be natural that Aretas should be received into favor ; and the more so as Vitellius had an old grudge against Antipas, which, Josephus says, he concealed till he obtained revenge under Caligula. Now in a. d. SB, Caligula is known to have made several changes in the E. ; and these facts, coupled with the non-existence of any Damascene coins of Caligula or Claudius, make it probable that about this time Damascus, which had belonged to the predecessor of Aretas, was granted to him by Caligula. The other hypotheses, that the ethnarch was ouly visiting the city, or that Aretas had seized Damascus on Vitellius's giving up the ex- pedition against him, are very improbable (so Dr. Alford). A-rt'ng (fr. Gr.), a king of the Lacedemonians, whose letter to the high-priest Onias is given in 1 Mc. xii. 20-28. There were two Spartan kings of the name of Areus, of whom the first reigned B. c. 309-265, and the second, grandson of the former, died at eight years old, b. c. 257. The first high- priest of the name of Onias held the office B. c. 323- 800, and probably wrote the letter to Areus I. be- tween 309 and 800. Ar'gob (Heb. the stony), a tract of country on the E. of the Jordan, in Bashan, containing sixty great and fortified cities. Argob was in the portion allot- ted to the half-tribe of Manasseh, and was taken pee- 62 ARQ ARK session of by Jair. (HAVOTn-JAiH.) It afterward formed one of Solomon's commissariat districts under an officer at Raraoth-Gilead (Deut. iii. 4, 13, 14 ; 1 K. iv. 13). In later times Argob was called Tracho- Niris, apparently a mere translation of the older name ; and it is now apparently identified with the Ltjah, a very remarkable district S. of Damascus, and E. of the Sea of Galilee. This extraordinary region — about twenty-two miles from N. to S. by fourteen from W. to E., and of a regular, almost oval, shape — has been described as an ocean of ba- saltic rocks and bowlders, tossed about in the wild- est confusion, and intermingled with fissures and crevices in every direction. " Strange as it may seem, this forbidding region is thickly studded with deserted cities and villages, all solidly built and of remote antiquity " (Ptr. ii. 241). The peculiar He- brew word constantly attached to Argob (hebel, or chehel, literally =r rope, A. V. " region ") accurately designates the remarkably defined boundary of the Lfjahy " sweeping round in a circle clearly defined as a rocky shore line ; " " resembling a Cyclopean wall in ruins" (Ptr. ii. 219). Ar'gab {Heb. ; see above), a man killed with Pek- ahiah, king of Israel (2 K. xv. 25) ; perhaps a Gil- eadite officer, who was governor of Argob ; accord- ing to some, an accomplice of Pekah in the murder of Pekahiah. Sebastian Sohmid makes Argob and Arieh — two princes of Pekahiah, whom Pekah .slew with the king. Rashi makes Argob = tlie royal palace, near which was the castle in which the mur- der took place. A-rUa-ra'thes [theez] (Gr., probably fr. Sansc. = great, or honorable, master) (properly Mithridates) VIi Plll-lop'a-tor (Gr. loviuD his father), king of Cappa- docia, B. c. 163-130. He was educated at Rome, and his subservience to the wishes of the Romans (b. c. 158) cost him his kingdom; but he was shortly afterward restored by the Romans to a share in the government ; and on the capture of his rival Olopher- nes by Demetrius Soter, regained the supreme power. He fell, B. c. 130, in the war of the Romans against Aristoiiicus. Letters were addressed to him from Rome in favor of the Jews (1 Mc. xv. 22), who, in after-timis, seem to have been numerous in his king- dom (Acts ii. 9 ; compare 1 Pet. i. 1). A-rid'a-i or A-ri'dai (Heb. fr. Pers. = the strong? Ges. ; perhaps fr. Zend = giving what is worthy, Fii.), ninth son of Hainan (Esth. ix. 9). A-rld'a-tba or Ar-i-da'tha (etymology = Aridai, Ges.), sixth son of llaraan (Esth. ix. 8). A'rI-ch (Heb. tlie ho;i, probably from his daring as a warrior), cither an accomplice of Pekah in his con- spiracy against Pekahiah, king of Israel ; or (so Se- bastian Schmid) a prince of Pekahiah, who was put to deatli with him (2 K. xv. 25). Rashi explains it literally of a golden lion which stood in the castle. Argob. A'rl-el (Heb. lion, i. e. hero, of Ood, or hearth of Ood ; see below). 1, One of the " chief men " under Ezra in the caravan from B.ibylon to Jerusalem (Ezr. viii. 16). — The Hebrew word occurs also in reference to two Moabites slain by Benaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22). Many with Gesenius and A. V. re- gard the word as an epithet, " lion-like ; " but The- nius, Winer, Fiirst, &c., make it a proper name, and translate " two (sons) of Ariel" (comp. Areli). — 2. A designation of the city of Jerusalem (Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7). Gesenius, Ewald, Havemick, and many others make it =: lion of God ; Umbreit, Knobel, and most ancient Jewish expositors make it = hearth of God, tracing the first part to the Arabic. The latter mean- ing is suggested by the use of the word in Ez. xliii. 15, 16 (where, however, the reading is doubtful), as a synonyme for the altar of burnt-ofiering, though Hiivernick makes it even here = lion of God, Ar-l-ma-tha;'a (L.) = Arimathea. Ar-i-ma-the'a (L. Arimalhasa, fr. Heb. Ramath- ai.m), "a city of Judea;" the birthplace or residence of Joseph ok Arimathea (Mat. xxvii. 57 ; Mk. xv. 43 ; Lk. xxiii. 51 ; Jn. xix. 38); probably = the Ramah of 1 Sam. i. 1, 19. Ramah 2. A'ri-och [-ok] (Assyrio-Chal. fr. Sansc. = vener- able, Bohlen, Ges. ; noble, Fii.). 1. The king of EUasar, an ally of Chedorlaomer in his expedition against Sodom, &c. (Gen. xiv. 1, 9). — 2. The captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard (Dan. ii. 14, &c.). — 3> King of the Elymeans (Jd. i. 6). Junius and Tremellius make him = Deioces, king of part of Media. A-rls'a-i or A-ri'sal (Pers. fr. Sansc. = Vishnn\ arrow, Bohlen), eighth son of Haman (Esth. ix. 9). Ar-is-tar'cbas [-kus] (L. fr. Gr. = excellent ruler, L. & S.), a Thcssalonian, who accompanied St. Paul on his third missionary journey, and with Gains was seized in the tumult at Ephesus (Acts xix. 29). He was with the apostle on his return to Asia (xx. 4) ; and again (xxvii. 2) on his voyage to Rome. He was afterward St. Paul's fellow-prisoner and fellow-laboier in Rome (Col. iv. 10; Phn. 24). Tradition makes him bishop of Apamea. Ai'-is-tO-bu'lns (L. fr. Gr. = best advised, or best advising, L. &. S.). 1« A Jewish priest, who resided in Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy VI. Philometor. In a letter of Judas Maccabeus he is addressed (165 B. c.) as the representative of the Egyptian Jews, and "the master" (i. e. counsellor'?) of the king (2 Mc. i. 10). He was probably the peripatetic philos- opher who dedicated to Ptolemy Philometor his alle- goric exposition of the Pentateuch. Considerable fragments of this work have been preserved by Cle- mens Alexandrinus and Eusebius, but the authenticity of the quotations, though now generally conceded, has been vigorously contested. The object of Aris- tobulus was to prove that the peripatetic doctrines were based on the Law and the Prophets. (Alex- andria.) — 2. A resident at Rome, some of whose household are greeted in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes him one of the seventy disciples, and after- ward a preacher of the Gospel in Britain. • Ark, the A. V. translation of the Heb. dron (see Ark of the Covenant ; Chest 1), and tebdh, and the Gr. kibdtois. The Heb. tebih is used of both Noah's "ark" (Gen. vi. -viii. ; see Noah), and the "ark" in which Moses was put (Ex. ii. 3, 5 ; see Reed 2). The Gr. kibotos in N. T. and Apocrypha denotes both Noah's "ark" (Mat. xxiv. 38, &c.) and the " ark " of the covenant (2 Mc. ii. 4, 5 ; Heb. ix. 4, &c.). Ark of the Cov'e-nant [kuv-]. The first piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for which precise direc- tions were delivered (Ex. xxv.). — I. It appears to have been an oblong chest (Ark) of shittim (acacia) wood, two and a half cubits long, by one and a half broad and deep. Within and witliout gold was over- laid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edged with gold, the Merct Seat (Cherdbim) was placed. Tlie ark had a ring at each of the four corners, and through these were passed staves of the same wood similarly overlaid, by which it wts car- ried by the Kohathites (Num. vii. 9, x. 21). The ends of the staves were visible without the veil in the holy place of the temple of Solomon (IK. viiii 8). The ark, when transported, was enveloped in the " veil " of the dismantled Tabernacle, in the ARK ARM 63 curtain of badger's skins, and in a blue cloth over all, and was therefore not seen (Num. iv. 5, 20). — II. Its purpose or object was to contain inviolate the Divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title. It was alco probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. 1 K. viii. 9 says " there was nothing in the ark save the two tables of stone which Moses put there at Horeb." Vet Ileb. ix. 4 asserts that, besides the two tables of stone, the " pot of manna " and " Aa- ron's rod that budded " were inside the ark ; prob- ably by Solomon's time these relics had disappeared. The A. V. in 1 Chr. xiii. 3, " we inquired not at it," seems to imply a use of the ark for an oracle ; but the LXX. translate " we sought it not." (Ahiah 1.) — Occupying the most holy spot of the sanctuary, it tended to exclude any idol from the centre of wor- ship. It was also the support of the mercy seat, materially symbolizing, perhaps, the " covenant " as that on which " mercy " rested. Jer. iii. 16 predicts the time when even " the ark should be no more re- membered," as tlie climax of spiritualized religion. — III. For the chief facts in the earlier history of the ark, see Josh. iii. and vi. In the decline of religion in a later period a superstitious security was attached to its presence in battle ( 1 Sam. iv.). Yet, though this was rebuked by its permitted capture, its sanctity, when captured, was vindicated by miracles, in its avenging progress through the Philistine cities (v.). After- ward it came back, first to Betii-shemesh (vi.) ; then it sojourned among several, probably Levitical, fam- ilies (vii. 1, 2; 2 Sam. vi. 3, 11 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 13, xv. 24, 25) in the border villages of E. Judah, and did not take its place in the tabernacle, but dwelt in cur- tains, i. e. in a separate tent pitched for it in Jeni- salera by David. Its bringing up by David thither was a national festival. Subsequently the Temple, when completed, received, in the installation of the ark in its shrine, the signal of its inauguration by the effulgence of Divine glory instantly manifested. Several Psalms contain allusions to these events, c. g. xxiy,, xlvii., cv., cxxxii. — When idolatry became more shameless in Judah, Manasseh placed "a carved image " in the " house of God," and probably removed the ark to make way for it. This may ac- count for its being remstated by Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiii. 7, XXXV. 3). It was probably taken or de- stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Esd. x. 22). Pri- dcaux's argument that there miml have been an ark EfTpttaa Ark.— lie Games and religious theatrical spectacles, the ex- penses of which they bore. Their office was thus, in great measure at least, religious, and they are conse- quently sometimes called " high-priests." The office of Asiarch was annual, and subject to the approval of the proconsul, but might be renewed ; and the title appears to have been continued to those who had at any time held the office. As-1-W'as (fr. Gr.), a son of Phoros or Parosh (1 Esd. ix. 26); apparently — Malciiijaii 3. Asl-cl (Heb. created of God, Ges.). 1. A Simcon- ite, ancestor of Jehu 4 (1 Chr. iv. 35). — 2t One of the five swift writers taken by Esdras to write the law and the historv of the world (2 Esd. xiv. 24). As'i-pha (I Esd. V. 29) = Hasupua. As'kr-lon (Judg. i. 18; 1 Sam. vi. 17) — Ashke- LOX. As-mo-de'ns (L., fr. Heb. root = to destroy, or [so Reland] fr. Pers. = to tempt) = Abaddon or Apol- LYON (Tob. iii. 8, 17). Since the Talmud calls him " king of the demons," some identify him with Beel- zebub, and others with Azracl. In Tobit this evil spirit is represented as loving Sara, the daughter of Raguel, and causing the death of seven husbands; but Tobias, instructed by Raphael, having burnt the heart and liver of a fish on " the ashes of the per- fumes," " the evil spirit tied into the utmost parts of Egypt, and the angel bound him" (Tob. viii. 1-3). As'nah (Heb. storehouse or thornbusJi, Ges.), an- cestor of certain Nethinim under Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 50) ; = AsANA. As-nap'per (Heb. Asnappar, fr. Sansc. = leader of an army? Bohlen), in Ezr. iv. 10, the "great and noble " person who settled the Cutheans and others in the cities of Samaria. He has been variously identified with Shalmaneser, Sernacherib, and Esar- haddon, but was more probably a general of the lat- ter king. A'som (Gr. and L.) = Hashum (1 Esd. ix. 33). Asp. !■ The Heb. pethen occurs in Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job XX. 14, 16; Ps. Iviii. 5 (4, A. V), xci. 13 ; Is. xi. 8 ; and is translated in A. V. in Psalms " ad- der" (margin, "asp "), elsewhere "asp." "Asp" among the ancients (Gr. and L. aspis) probably stood for several diftierent kinds of venomous serpents ; in modern zoology it generally — an Alpine species, the Vipera aspis of Linnaius. The " adder" ("asp," margin) of Ps. Iviii. 5, was a snake upon which the serpent-charmers practised their art. In this pas- sage the wicked are compared to " the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear, which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely." From Is. xi. 8, " the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp," it would appear that this serpent dwelt in holes of walls, &c. The true explanation of Ps. Iviii. 5, is that some serpents defy all the attempts of the channer : in the language of Scripture such, may be termed deaf. The point of the rebuke con- sists in the fact that this serpent could hear the charmer's song, but would not. The individual case in question was an exception to the rule. Serpents, though comparatively deaf to ordinary sounds, are no doubt capable of hearing the sharp, shrill sounds which the charmer produces either by his voice or by an instrument ; and this comparative deafness is probably the very reason why such sounds aa the charmer makes produce the desired effect in the sub- ASP ASS 15 ject under treatment. (Serpent-Charmino.) As the Kgyptian cobra is more frequently used than any other species by the serpent-channers of the Bible lands, is fond of concealing itself in walls and in holes, and as tlie probable derivation of the Hebrew word pelhm (from a root 8i;;nifying to distend or ex- pand) may refer to the expanding powers of this serpent's neck when irritated, it appears to have the best claim to represent the " asp " of the A. V. — 2. The (Jr. as]>is, translated " asp,"' occurs in Rom. iii. 13, and in the LXX. of Ps. exl. 3, as = Heb. 'ac7i- thub. {.\dder 1.) See above under No. 1. E^yptuD Cobra.— ^v» //fmi/.piM^.— Specimen in Zoological , GardeoB, London, rode on one when she went to seek Elislia. She- asses fonned the special charge of one of David's officers (1 Chr. xxvii. 30).— 8. 'Ai/ir (A. V. "foal," " ass colt," " young ass," " colt ") =: a young ass (Gen. xxxii. 1(5, A. V. 15, "foals," xlix. 11, A. V. " foal ; " Judg. x. 4, xii. 14 ; Job xi. 12 ; Is. xxx. 6, 24 ; Zcch. ix. 9). Sometimes this is spoken of as being old enough for riding upon, for carrying bur- dens, and for tilling the ground. — 4. I'ere (A. V. "wild ass") = a species of wild ass (Gen. xvi. 12, A. V. " wild man," literally " wild-ass man ; " Ps. civ. 11; Job vi. 5, xi. 12, xxiv. 5, xxxix. 5, first clause J Hos. viii. 9 ; Jer. ii. 24, xiv. 6 ; Is. xxxii. 14). Hosea compared Israel to a wild ass of the desert. — 5. 'ylr<57 and 1687) taken by the Vene- tians, and twice (1470 and 1688) recaptured by the Turks. During the war for Grecian independence, losophy and the fine arts. It has still in the Parthe- non, &c., some of tlie noblest monuments of ancient art. — St. Paul visited Athens in his journey from Ma- cedonia, and appears to have remained there some time (Acts xvii. 14-34; comp. 1 Th. iii. 1). During his residence he delivered his memorable discourse on tlie Areopagus to the " men of Athens " (Acts xvii. 2fi-31). The Agora or " market," where St. Paul disputed daily, was situated in the vaUey between four hills, being liounded by the Acropolis on the N'.E. and E., by the Areopagus on the N., by the Pnyx on the N. W. and W. and by the Museum on the S. The inquisitive character of tlie Athenians (Acts xvii. 21) is at- tested by the unanimous voice of antiquity. Demosthenes rebuked his countrymen for their love of constantly going about in the market, and asking one another. What news ? The "superstitious" chaiacter of the Athenians (Acta xvii. 22) is also confirmed by the ancient writers. Thus Pausanias says that the Athenians surpassed all other states in attention to tlie worship of the gods; and hence the city was crowded in every direction with temples, altars, and other sacred buiidings. On the Unknown God," see Altar. Of Th« Ar«ofM4{tu, or Man' Hill, and Acropolia.— From a vlaw by Bartlatt (Fbo.) Athens was taken by the Greeks (1822) and retaken hy the Turks (1827), who kept possession of it till 1832. Since 1835, it has been the capital of the kingdom of Greece (see New Amur, Cyc, art. Athens). — Athens wag the city of Pericles, Demos- Ihenes, Socrates, Plato, &c. ; long distinguished for its spirit of liberty and its culture of eloquence, phi- 6 "altar to the the Christian church, founded by St. Paul at Athens, according to ecclesiastical tradition, Dionysus the Areopagite was the first bishop. Ath'lai (Heb. = Athaliah, Ges.), a son of Behai, who put away his foreign wife (Ezr. x. 28) ; called Amatheis in 1 Esd. ix. 29. it'i-pha (1 Esd. V. 32) = Hatipha. * A-tonement, in the 0. T. and Apocrypha (see No. 6, below) is an expia- tion or satisfaction for sin by which forgiveness is ob- tained. (Blemish; Sacri- fice.) Several Hebrew and Greek words are thus trans- lated in the A. V.— 1. The Hebrew plural eippiirim is translated "atonement" or "atonements" (Ex. xxix. 36, XXX. 10, 16 ; Lev. xxiii. 27, 28, XXV. 9 [Atonement, Day of] ; Num. v. 8, xxix. II).— 2. The Hebrew verb caphar (literally := to cover over sin, to cover sin, Ges.) is usually translated " to make atonement " (Ex. xxix. 33, 36, 37, xxx. 10, 15, 16, &c.), sometimes " to make reconciliation " (Lev. viii. 16; Dan. ix. 24, &c.), "to purge away" (Ps. Ixv. 3 [4 Heb.], &c.), "to purge" (1 Sam. iii. 14, &c.), "to be merci- ful " (Deiit. xxxii. 43, &e.), " to forgive " (Ps. Ixxviii. 38; Jer. xviii. 23), &c.— 3. The Hebrew noun cdpher is translated " atonement " in the mai^ gin of Job xxxiii. 24, and "ransom " in the text (as in Ex. XXX. 12; Job xxxvi. 18, &c.). (Camphire; Pitch.) — 4. The Greek compound verb exilaskomai 82 ATO ATO ( = to appease or win over, L. & S.) ia translated " to make atoDement " in Ecclus. iii. 3, 30 ; usually in the LXX. = caphar (No. 2, above ; compare No. 6, be- low). — 5. The Greek hilasmos ( = a means of ap- peasing, a propitiation, a sacrifice, L. & S.) is trans- lated " atonement " in 2 Mc. iii. 33, and " propitia- tion " in 1 Jn. ii. 2, iv. 10 ; in the LXX. — cippu- rim (No. 1, above) in Lev. xxv. 9 and Num. v. 8. The Greek verb hilaskomai ( =: to reconcile to one's self, sc. by expiation, to propitiate, Rbn. N. T. Lex.) in the LXX. = cApliar (No. 2, above ; comp. No. 4) in Ps. Ixv. 3 (4, Heb., and Ixiv. 4, Gr.), Ixxviii. 38 (Ixxvii. 38, Gr.) ; it is also used in the N. T. in Lk. xviii. 13 (A. V. '"be merciful") and Heb. ii. 17 (A. V. " to make reconciliation "). The kindred Greek word hilasterlon is translated " propitiation " in Rom. iii. 25, and " Mercy-seat " in Heb. ix. 5, and is com- monly used in the LXX. for the latter (Ex. xxv. 18 if., &c.). — 6. The Greek ialallage (literally exchange, change, sc. of feeling, &c. ; hence settlement of difficul- ties), translated " atonement" in Rom. v. 11, is trans- lated in the margin " reconciliation," as in the text of 2 Cor. V. 18, 19, and is translated "reconciling " in Rom. xi. 15. Jesus Christ; Saviour. A-tonement, the Day of (called "the fast" in Acts xxix. 9, A.V), the great day of national humil- iation, and the only one commanded in the Mosaic law. (Fasts.) The mode of its observance is de- scribed in Lev. xvi. ; the victims offered, besides those strictly belonging to the special service of the day and to the usual daily sacrifice, arc enumerated in Num. xxix. 7-1 1 ; and the conduct of the people is emphatically enjoined in Lev. xxiii. 26-32. — IL It was kept on the 10th day of Tisri, i. e. from the evening of the 9th to the evening of the 10th of that month, five days before the Feast of Tabernacles. (Festivals.) — IIL The observances of the day are thus described in the law. It was to be kept by the people as a solemn sabbath. On this occasion only the high-priest was permitted fo enter into the Holy of Holies. Having bathed his person and dressed himself entirely in tlie holy white linen garments, he brought a young bullock for a sin-offering and a ram for a burnt-offering, purchased at his own cost, for himself and his family, and two young goats for a sin-offering with a ram for a burnt-offering, which •were paid for out of the public treasury, for the people. He then presented tlie two goats before the Lord at the door of the tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On one lot " {or Jehovah'" was inscribed, and on the other " for Azazel " (" for the scape-goat," A. v.). He next sacrificed the young bullock as a sin- offering for himself and his family. Taking with him some of the blood of the bullock, he tilled a censer with burning coals from the brazen altar, took a handful of incense, and entered into the most holy place. He then threw the incense upon the coals and enveloped the mercy-seat in a cloud of smoke. Then, dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it seven times before ("upon," A.V. and Ewald) the mercy-seat eastward. The goat upon which the lot " for Jelwvah''' had fallen was then slain, and the high-priest sprinkled its blood, like the bullock's, be- fore the mercy-seat. He then purified the holy place, sprinkling some of the blood of both the victims on the altar of incense (see Ex. xxx. 10). At this time no one besides the high-priest was sufiered to be present in the holy place. After the purification of the Holy of Holies, and of the holy place, the high- priest laid his hands upon the head of the goat on which the lot ^'- for Azazel" had fallen, and confessed over it all the sins of the people. The goat was then led, by a man chosen for the purpose, into the wilderness, into " a land not inhabited," and was there let loose. The high-priest after this returned into the holy place, bathed himself again, put on his usual garments of office, and offered the two rams as burnt-offerings, one for himself and one for the people. He also burnt upon the altar the fat of the two sin-offerings, while their flesh was carried away and burned outside the camp. They who took away the flesh and the man who had led away the goat had to bathe their persons and wash their clothes as soon as their service was performed. The accessary burnt-offerings mentioned Num. xxix. 7-11, were a young bullock, a ram, seven lambs, and a young goat. — IV. Josephus, giving of course the practice in the second Temple, when the ark of the covenant had disappeared, states that the high-priest sprinkled the blood with his finger seven times on the ceiling and seven times on the floor of the most holy place, and seven times toward it (apparently outside the veil), and round the golden altar; then going into the court he either sprinkled or poured tlie blood round the great altar. The kidneys, the top of the liver, and tlie extremities of the victims were burned with the fat. — V. The Mish- na ( Yoma) professes to give the observances of the day according to the usage in the second Temple. 1. The high-priest himself, dressed in his colored official garments, performed on the Day of Atone- ment, all the duties of the ordinary daily service, lighting the lamps, presenting the daily sacrifices, &c. After this he bathed himself, put on the white garments, and commenced the special rites of the day. 2. The high-priest went into the Holy of Holies four times this day : (1.) with the censer and incense ; (2.) with the bullock's blood ; (3.) with the goat's blood ; (4.) after the evening sacrifice, to bring out the censer and incense-plate. This is not opposed to Heb. ix. 7. Compare Lev. xvi. 12, 14, 15. 3. The blood of the bullock and that of the goat were each sprinkled eight times, once toward the ceiling and seven times on the floor (see above, IV.). 4. After he had gone into the most holy place the third time, and had returned into the holy place, the high- priest sprinkled the blood of the bullock (and so of the goal) eight times toward the veil. Having then mingled the blood of the two victims together and sprinkled the altar of incense with the mixture, ho came into the court and poured out what remained at the foot of the altar of burnt-offering. 5. For seven days before the Day of Atonement the high- priest kept away from his own house, and dwelt in a chamber appointed for his use. To provide further for his incurring some undeanness, a deputy was chosen who might act for him when the day came. Compare Jos. xvii. 6, § 4. During these seven days as well as on the Day of Atonement, the high-priest performed the ordinary duties of the daily service. On the third and seventh days hi was sprinkled with the ashes of the red heifer to cleanse him if he had touched a dead body without knowing it. 6. The two goats of the sin-offering were to be of similar appearance, size, and value. The lots were put into a little box or urn, into which the high-pi-icst put both his hands and took out a lot in each, while the two goats stood before him. The lot in each hand belonged to the goat in the corresponding position. The high-priest then tied a piece of scarlet cloth on the scape-goat's head, called " the scarlet tongne," from its shape. A prayer was then oftcred by the high-priest over the head of the gout, which was led away by the man appointed. As soon as it reached ATO AUG 83 B certain spot, a signal was made to the high-priest, who waited for it. Tlie man who led the goat is said to have taken him to the top of a high precipice and tlirown him down baclcward, so as to dasli him to pieces. Originally, however, the goat was set free (Lev. xvi. 22, a6). 7. The high-priest, on receiving the signal that the goat had reached the wilderness, read some lessons from the law, and offered up some prayers, lie then bathed himself, resumed his col- ored garments, and oifered cither the whole, or a great part, of the accessary offering (Num. xxix. 7- 11) with the regular evening sacrifice. After this, be wa.«hcd again, put on the white garments, and entered the most holy place for the fourth time (see above, T. 2). 8. All (except invalids and children under thirteen years) are forbidden to eat any thing that day so large as a date, to drink, or to wash from sunset to sunset. In the law itself no express men- tion is made of abstinence from food. — VI. In re- gard to the Hebrew word Azazel (" scape-goat," A. v.), the opinions most worthy of notice are — 1. A designation of the goat itself. The old interpreters in general, the Vulgate, Pymmachus, Aquila, Luther, the A. v., &c., supposed it =: the goat sent away, or let loose. But the application of Azazel to the goat itself involves the Hebrew text in difficulty. If one expression in Lev. xvi. 8, &c. :r= for Jehovah, the other naturally =; for Azasel, with the preposition in the same sense. If tiiis is admitted, taking Azazel = the goat itself, an inconsistency appears in Lev. xvi. 10, 26. 2. The name of the place to which the goat was sent. But the place is specified in Lev. xvi. 10, 21, 22(Ges.). 3. A personal being to whom the goat was sent, (a.) Gescnius makes Azazel — averler. expiator, and supposes it to be some false deity who was to be appeased by a sacrifice of the goat. (A.) Others have regarded him as an evil spirit, or the devil himself. Spencer (on the Heb. Ritual Lawn) supposes that the goat was given up to the devil. Hengstenberg, confidently affirming that Azazel = Satan, repudiates the conclusion that the goat was a sacrifice to Satan, and maintains that the goat was sent away laden with the sins of God's peo- ple, now forgiven, in order to mock their spiritual enemy. 4. An explanation of the word which seems less objectionable, if not wholly satisfactory, would render the designation of the lot (Lev. xvi. 8, &c., " foi- the scape-goat," A. V.) " for complete sending away" (Tholuck, Biihr, Winer, &c.).—Vn. The Tal- mndists regiirdcd the Day of Atonement as an oppor- tunity afforded ihom of wiping off the score of their more heavy offences. Philo speaks of the day as an occasion for self-restraint in regard to bodily indul- gence, and for bringing home to our minds the truth that man docs not live by bread alone, but by what- ever God is pleased to appoint. It cannot be doubted that what especially distinguished the symbolical ex- piation of this day from that of the other services of the law, was its broad and national character, with perhaps a deeper reference to the sin which be- longs to the nature of man. — In the particular rites of the day, three points appear very distinctive. 1. The white garments of the high-priest. 2. His en- trance into the Holy of Holies. 3. The scape-goat. Heb. ix. 7-25, teaches us to apply the first two par- ticulars. The high-priest himself, with his person cleansed and dres8e — 3. In Ez. XXX. 17, "Aven" = On, the sacred city of Ueli- opolis in Egypt. * A-ven'gcr of Blood. Blood, Avenger op. A'?iin, A'vims, or A'vites (Heb. Avvim = dwellers among ruins, Ges.). 1. A people among the early inhabitants of Palestine, dwelling in the S. W. cor- ner of the sea-coast, whither they may have made their way N. from the desert. In Deut. ii. 23 we see them dwelling in the villages (" Hazerim," A. V.) in the S. part of the great western lowland (Plain 6), " as far as Gaza." In these rich possessions they were attacked by " the Caphtorim which came forth out of Caphtor," and who after " destroying " them and "dwelling in their stead," appear to have pushed them further N. Possibly a trace of their existence is found in "Avim" (or "the Avim") among the cities of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 23). Yet " Avim " here may = Ai. It is a curious fact that both the LXX. and Jerome identified the Avim with the Hi- vites, and also that the town of Avim was in the actual district of the Hivites (Josh. ix. 7, 17, com- pare with xviii. 22-27). — 2. "Avites," the people of AvA, sent as colonists into Samaria (2 K. xvii. 31). They were idolaters, worshipping Nibhaz and Tar- tak. A'vith (Heb. ruins, Ges.), the city of Hadad, the son of Bedad, an early king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 36 ; 1 Chr. i. 46). * A-way' with is several times used elliptically or peculiarly in the A. V. In Jn. xix. 15 and Acts xxi. 36, " aw ay with him " = go away with him, i. e. take him away, or put him out of the way, viz., by killing him. So also in Lk. xxiii. 18 ; Acts xxii. 22. — In Is. i. 13, "I cannot away with "= I cannot go with, I cannot be in /ellowship with, I cannot endure. Awl, a tool for boring, only noticed in connection with boring the servant's ear (Ex. xxi. 6 ; Deut. xv. 17). The ancient Egyptian awl was much like the well-known modern instrument. Medicine. Ax or Ase. Seven Hebrew words are translated " ax " (thus spelled in the English authorized edi- tions) in the A.V. — 1. Oarzen, from a root .~ignifying to cut or sever. It consisted of a head of iron (com- pare Is. X. 34), fastened, with thongs or otherwise, upon a handle of wood, and so liable to slip off (Dtut. xix. 5 ; compare 2 K. vi. 5). It was used for felling trees (Deut. x.x. 19; Is. x. 15), and also for shaping the wood when felled, perhaps like the modern adze (1 K. vi. 7). — 2. Hereb or chereb, usually translated " sword " (Arms), is used of other cutting instruments, as a " knife " (Josh. v. 2) or razor (Ez. v. 1), or a tool for hewing or dressing stones (Ex. xx. 25), and is once translated " ax " (Ez. xxvi. 9), evidently denoting a weapon for destroying buildings, a pick-axe. — 3. Caslishil occurs but once (Ps. Ixxiv. 6), and is evidently a later word, denoting a large axe. -4. Magzeruh (2 Sam. xii. 31), and, 5, Megerdh (1 Chr. xx. 3) are Ancient Epvpllan nnd Aftsyrian Atpa. — (Fbn.l 1, 9, 3, Egyptian.— Willimaou. 4, 5, ABflyrian.— British MuMatiL found in the description of the punishments inflicted by David upon the Ammonites of Kabbah. The lat- ter word is properly " asaw," and is probaljly a copy- ist's error for the former. — 6. Ma'atsdd, translated " ax" in Is. xliv. 12 (marg.), and Jer. x. 3, was an in.strument employed both by the iron-smith and the carpenter, and is supposed to be a curved knife or bill, smaller than — 7. Kardom, which was a large axe used for felling trees (Judg. ix. 48 ; 1 Sam. xiiL AXL AZA 85 20, 21 ; Ps. Ixxiv. 6 ; Jer xlri. 22).— The " battlc- ax" (Heb. mappeb, Jer. li. 20) was probably u heavy mace or uiaul, like that which gave his French surname to Charles Martel. — The Gr. axine, trans- late J " ax " in the N. T. (Mat. iii. 10; Lk. lii. 9), is used iu the LXX. for the Heb. yanen (No. 1, above) Aodeat Egyptian Battle-azet, Pole-axe, Mocea, and Ciub. — (FbQ.) in Deut. six. 5 and Is. x. 15, and uniformly for kar- dim (Xo. 7, above). — The Gr. pelehis, translated "ax" in Bar. vi. 15 (Ep. Jer. i. 14 in Gr.), and used in the LXX. for garzai once (1 K. vi. 7) and for cash»hil (Kg. 3, above) in Ps. Ixxiv. 6 (Ixxiii. 6 in Gr.) =z an axe or hatchet, usually a carijenter's axe (L&R.). " Axle-tree is the translation in the A. V. of — 1. Heb. plural of ,(/(W (literally, hand) (\ K. vii 32, 33). — 2. Gr. axon (Ecclus. xxxiii. 6). Caet ; CaijuOT ; Later ; Waoon. A'za-«l = ASAHEL 4. Az-a-e Ins, probably merely a repetition of the pre- ceding name Esril (1 Esd. ix, 34) ; perhaps = Aza- REEL 4. A'zal (fr. Heb. = tide, near, Vulg., Henderson), a name mentioned (Zech. xiv. 5 only) as the limit to which the ravine of the Mount of Olives will extend when " Jehovah shall go forth to fight." Several commentators agree with the Vulgate in taking Azal a.s an appellative. Az-a-Uab (Heb. -whom Jehnvah has reserved, Ges.), father of Shaphan the scribe (2 K. xxii. 3 ; 2 Chr. ixxiv. 8). Az-a-ni'ah (Heb. whom Jehovah heart, Ges.), a Levite, father of Jesbua in Nebemiah's time (Neh. X.9). A-za pbl-on (1 Esd. v. 83), possibly a corruption of SOPHERETII. Az'a-ra, one of the "servants of the Temph " (1 Esd. V. 31); not in Ezra. A-za ra-«l (Heb. = Azareel), a Levite-musician (Neh. xii. 36). A-za're-el (Heb. whom Ood helps, Ges.). I. A Korhite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 6). -—2. A Levite musician in David's time ; son of He- man (xxv. 18); called Uzziel in xxv. 4. — 3, Son of Jcroham, and prince of Dan under David (xxvii. 22). — I. A son or descendant of Bani, who put away his foreign wife (Ezr. x. 41); probably =: E.sril or AzAELfs in 1 Esd. ix. 34. — 5> A priest, father of Amashai (Xch. xi. 13). Az-a-rt'ah (fr. Heb. = whom Jehovah helps, Ges. ; L. and Gr. AzARiAs). I. Son of Ahimaaz (1 Chr. vi. 9). He appears from 1 K. iv. 2, to have suc- ceeded bis grandfather Zaooe as Hica-PRiEsr in Sol- omon's reign. To him probably (so Lord A. C. Her- vey), instead of to his grandson (No. 6), belongs the notice in 1 Chr. vi. 10, " He it is that executed the priest's office in the temple that Solomon built at Jeruiialem." — 2. A chief officer of Solomon's, the son of Nathan ; perhaps David's grandson (1 K. iv. 6). — 3> Tenth king of judah, more frequently called Uz- ziAH (2 K. xiv. 21, XV. 1, 6, 7, 8, 17, 23, 27; 1 Chr. iii. 12). — 1. Son of Ethan, and great-grandson of Ju- dah (1 Chr. ii. 8). — 5. A captain of Judah at the in- auguration of Joash ; son of Jehu, and grandson of Obed (1 Chr. ii. 88, 39; 2 Chr. xxiii. 1), compare No. 13.— «. Son of Johanan (1 Chr. vi. 10, 1 1) ; prob- ably high-priest (see No. 1, above) in the reigns of Abijah and Asa, as his son Amariah was in the days of Jehoshaphat ; but we know nothing of his char- acter or acts. — 7. Son.of Hilkiah 2, the high-priest;, and father of Seraiah 2 (1 Chr. vi. 13). This Aza- riali IS by some considered different from the ances- tor of Ezra m 1 Chr. ix. 11 and Ezr. vii. 1. — 8. Son of Zcphaniah, a Kohathite, and ancestor of S.nmiiel the prophet (1 Chr. vi. 36).— 9. Son of Oded(2 Chr. XV. 1), called simply Oded in ver. 8 , a prophet, and a contemporary of Azariah 6, and of Hanani the seer. His brief but pithy exhortation (ver. 2-7) moved king Asa and the people of Judah and Ben- jamin to i)ut away idolatry and renew the national covenant with Jehovah, m which reformation many from the northern kingdom joined them. — 10. Son of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chr. xxi. 2). — 11. Another son of Jehoshaphat, and brother of No. 10 (ib.).— 12. In 2 Chr. xxii. 6, Azariah = Amaziaii 2. — 13. A captain of Judah in Athaliah's time ; son of Jeroham (2 Chr. xxiii. 1) ; compare No. 5. — 14. The HiGH-PRiEST in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah (2 Chr. xxvi. 17-20). When King Uzziah, elated by his groat prosperity and power, " trans- gressed against the Lord his God, and went into the Tem|)le of the Lord to burn incense upon the altar of incense," Azariah the priest, with eighty of his brethren, went in boldly after him, withstood him, and thrust him out after he was smitten with leprosy. Azariah was contemporary with the prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Joel, and doubtless witnessed the great earthquake in TJzziah's reign (Am. i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5). — 15. Son of Johanan ; one of the Ephraimite prin- ces in Pckah's time who succored and sent back the captives from Judah (2 Chr. xxviii. 12). — 16. A Ko- hathite, father of Joel in Hezekiah's time (xxix. 12). — 17, A Merarite in Hezekiah's time; son of Jehal- elel (xxix. 12). — 18. The man-PRiEST in the days of Hezekiah (xxxi. 10, 13). He appears to have co- operated zealously with the king in the thorough purification of the Temple and restoration of the temple-services. — 19. One who repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah's time ; son of Maa- seiah (Neh. iii. 23, 24). — 80. One of those who re- turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (vii. 7) ; also called Seraiah (Ezr. ii. 2) and Zacharias (1 Esd. v. 8). — 21. An expounder of the law with Ezra ; = AzARiAS 3 ; probably a Levite (Neh. viii. 7). — 22. A priest who sealed the covenant with Nehomiah (x. 2), and probably the same who assisted in the dedi- cation of the city wall (xii. 33). — 23. Jezaniah (Jer. xliii. 2.) — 21. The original name of Abed-nego, one of Daniel's three friends (Dan. i.-iii.). (MtsnACii ; SnADRACii). — 25. A priest, father of Amariau 1, and grandfather of Ahitub 2 (Ezr. vii. 3). Az-a-rl'as (U and Gr. = Azariah). 1. Uzziah 3 (1 Esd. ix. 21). — 2. "Urijah 8 (ix.43 ; compare Neh. viii. 4).— 3. Azariah 21 (1 Esd. ix. 48).— 4. Priest in the line of Esdras (2 Esd. i. 1) ; = Azariah 7 and 86 AZA AZZ EzERiAS. — 5i Name assumed by the angel Raphael (Tob. V. 12, vi. 6, 13, vii. 8, ix. 2). — 6. A captain under Judas Maccabeus (1 Mc. v. 18, 56, 60). — 7. AZARIAH 24 (Sg. 3 H. Ch. 2, 26, 66). A'zaz (Heb. strong, Ges.), a Reubenite, father of Bela (1 Chr. v. 8). * A-za'zel (Lev. xvi. 8, marg.). Atonement, Day OF, VI. Az-a-zl'ah (Heb. whom Jehovah strengthem, Ges.). 1 . A Levite in the reign of David, appointed to play the harp when the ark was brought up from the house of Obed-edom (1 Chr. xv. 21).— 8. Father of Hoshea, prince of Ephraira under David (xxvii. 20). — 3. One of the Levites in Hezeljiah's reign, who had charge of the tithes, &c. (2 Chr. xxxi. 13). Az-baz'a-retb (L), king of the Assyrians, probably a corruption of Esar-hadoon (1 Esd. v. 69). iz'bak (Heb. strong devastatimi, Ges.), father of Nehemiah 3 (Neh. iii. 16). A-ze'kall (Heb. a field dug over or hrokeii up, Ges.), a town of Judah with dependent villages, lying in the lowland (Plain 6) near Socoh 1 (Josh. xv. 35). Joshua's pursuit of the Canaanites after the battle of Beth-horon extended to Azekah (Josh. x. 10, 11). Between Azekah and Socoh the Philistines encamped before the battle in which Goliath was killed (1 Sam. xvii. 1). It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 9), was still standing at the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7), and was reoccupied by the Jews after the Captivity (Neh. xi. 30). The site of Azekah is possibly (so Schwarz) at Tdl Zakariya, a hill near 'Ain-shems (Beth-shemesh). A'zel (fr. Heb. = iioble, Ges.), a descendant of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 37, 38, ix. 43, 44). A'zem (fr. Heb. = bone, Ges.), a city in the ex- treme S. of Judah (Josh. xv. 29), afterward allotted to Simeon (xix. 3); = Ezem. Wilton (The Negeb) and Rowlands (in Fairbaim under " S. Country ") connect Azem with the preceding word in xv. 29 as one name (lim-azem or Ije-azem), which they identify with el-'Aujeh or el-'Abdeh, a site with extensive ruins, including a church, strong fortresses, &c., now the headquarters of the Azdeimeh Arabs, thirty to thirty -five miles S.W. of Beer-sheba. Robinson iden- tifies this place with the Eboda of Ptolemy. Az-e-phn'rith, or more properly Ar-si-pbn'rltb, a name which, in the LXX. of 1 Esd. v. 16, occupies the place of Jorau in Ezr. ii. 18, and of Hariph in Neh. vii. 24 ; perhaps a corrupt combination of these names. A-ze'tas (Gr.). " Sons of Ceilan and Azetas " re- turned with Zorobabel according to 1 Esd. v. 1 5, but are not in Ezra and Nehemiah. Az'gad (Heb. strong in fortune, Ges.), ancestor of a family, of whom 1,222 (2,822, so Neh. vii. 17) re- turned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 12); 110, with Joha- nan at their head, with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 12). With the other heads of the people they, or one of this name, joined in the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. X. 15). The name is Sadas in 1 Esd. v. 13, and the number of the family is there given 3,222. In 1 Esd. viii. 38, it is Astath. A-zi'a, a " servant of the temple" (1 Esd. v. 31), = UzzA 3. A-zi'e-1 (2 Esd. i. 2), ancestor of Esdras ; = Aza- RiAii 25 and Ezias. A'zl^l (Heb.) = Jaaziel (1 Chr. xv. 20). A-zi za (Heb. strong, Ges.), a son of Zattu in Ezra's time, husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 27); = Sar- DEiTS in 1 Esd. ix, 28. Az>Dia'veth (Ueb. strottg as death ? Ges.). It One of David's " valiant men," a native of Bahurim (2 Sam. xxiii. 31; 1 Chr. xi. 33); probably a Benja- mite. — 2. A descendant of Mephibosheth, or Merib- baal (1 Chr. viii. 36, ix. 42).— 3. Fatiier of Jeziel and Pelet, Benjamite slingers and archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 3); perhaps = No. 1. Possibly " sons of Azmavetli " here denotes natives of the place of that name (see next article). — 1. Overseer of the royal treasures in the reign of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 23). Az-ma'veth (Heb. ; see above), a place, probably in Benjamin ; according to Mr. Finn, at tlie modern village of Hhmeh S. E. of er-Ram. (Ramah 1.) Forty-two of " the children of Azniaveth " (= " men of Beth-Azmaveth," in Neh.) returned from the Captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 24). The " sons of the singers " seemed to have settled round it (Neh. xii. 29). Az'mon (fr. Heb. = strong), a place named on the S. boundary of Palestine, between Kadesh and " the river of Egypt" ( IVarfv el-Arish) (Num. xxxiv. 4, 5 ; Josh. xv. 4) ; identified by Wiltou (in Fairbaim, art. Karkaa) with Wadg el-Kicsdimeh, about forty- five miles S. S. W. of Beer-sheba. Az notb-ta bor (Heb. ears [i. e. possibly, summits^ of Tabor), a place on the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 34); not identified; mentioned by Euse- bius as in the plain in the confines of Diocsesarea (Sepphoris). A'zor (Gr. and L. fr. Heb. = Azdr), son of Elia- kim, in the line of our Lord (Mat. i. 13, 14). A-ZO'tllS (L.) =: ASHDOD. A-zo'tos (L. = Ashdod), Slonnti In the battle in which Judas Maccabeus fell, he broke the right wing of Bacchides' army, and pursued them to Mount Azotus (1 Mc. ix. 15), which is supposed (Rbn. Phi/s. Geog., p. 47) to be the low round hill ou which Azotus (Ashdod) was, and still is, situated. Az'ri-el (Heb., help of God, Ges.). I. A chieftain and wtirrior of Manasseh E. of Jordan (1 Chr. v. 24). — 3. A Naphtalite, fatlier of Jerimoth in David's time (1 Chr. xxvii. 19). — 3i Father of Seraiah, an officer of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 26). Az-ri'kam, compare Ahikam (Heb. help against the enemy, Ges.). 1. A descendant of Zerubbabel, and son of Neariah (1 Chr. iii. 23). — 2. Eldest son of Azel, and descendant of King Saul (viii. 38, ix. 44). — 3> A Levite, ancestor of Shemaiah in Nehemiah's time (ix. 14 ; Neh. xi. 15). — ^1. Governor of the house, or prefect of the palace to King Ahaz ; slam by Zichri in Pekah's invasion of Judah (2 Chr. xxviii. 7). A-zn'bah (Heb. /orsaAw, deserted, Ges.). I. Wife of Caleb, son of Hezron(l Chr. ii. 18, 19).— 2. Mother of King Jehoshaphat (1 K. xxii. 42; 2 Chr. xx. 31). A'znr (Heb. Azzur = helper, Ges.). 1. A Benja- mite (priest? so Hitzig) of Gibeon, and father of Hananiah the false prophet (Jer. xxviii. 1). — 2« Father of the Jaazaniah against whom Ezekiel pro- phesied (Ez. xi. 1). A-zn'ran, ancestor of 432 enumerated in 1 Esd. v. 15, among those who returned from Babylon with Zorobabel; not in Ezr. u. and Neh. vii. , perhaps = AZZPR. Az'zah (Heb. stronq, fortified, Ges.) = GAZA(Deut ii. 23 ; 1 K. iv. 24 : Jer. xxv. 20). Az'zaa (Heb. strong or sharp, Fii.), a man of Is- sachar ; father of Paltiel (Num. xxxiv. 26). Az'zor (Heb. kel/ier, Ges. ; = AzuR), a chief who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 17) ; probably a family name. BAA BAA 87 B Ba'al (Heb. lord, master, possensor, omter, Ges.), 1. Father of the Reubenite prince Beerah (1 Chr. v. 5). — 2. A Benjaniite, son of Jehiel, the father or founder of Gibeon (viii. 30, ix. 36). Baal (Heb. ; see above), the supreme male divinity of tlie Phcnieian and Canaanitish nations, as Ashto- RETH was their supreme female divinity. Both names are used in the plural to designate, not, as Gesenius maintains, statues of the divinities, but different modifications of the divinities themselves. The plutal Baalim is found frequently alone (Judg. ii. 11, X. 10; 1 K. xviii. 18; Jer. ix. 14; Hos. ii. 17), as well as in coimcetion with Ashtaroth (Judg. x. 6 ; 1 Sam. vii. 4) and with Asherah (A. V. " the groves," Judg. iii. 7 ; 2 Clir. xxxiii. 3). There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the worship of Baal. VVe find it established among the Moabites and their aUies the Midianites in the time of Moses (Num. xxii. 41), and through these nations the Israelites were seduced to the worship of this god under the particular form of Baal-peor (Num. xxv. 8-18; Deut. iv. 3). Notwithstanding the fearful punishment which their idolatry then brought upon them, the succeeding generation returned to the worship of Baal (Judg. ii. 10-13), and, with the ex- ception of the period when Gideon was judge (vi. 25, &c., viii. 33 1, this form of idolatry seems to have prevailed among them up to the time of Samuel (X. 10; 1 Sam. vii. 4), at whose rebuke the people renounced the worship of Baalim Yet afterward the worship of Baal spread greatly, and with that of Asherah became the religion of the court and peo- ple of the ten tribes under Ahab and Jezebel (1 K. xvi. 31-33, xviii. 19, 22; Rom. xi. 4). (Elijah.) And though this idolatry was occasionally put down (2 K. iii. 2, X. 28), it appears never to have been per- manently abolished among them (xvii. 16). In the kingdom of Judah also Baal-worship extensively pre- vailed. During the reign of Ahaziah and the usur- pation of his mother Athaliah, Ahab's sister, it ap- pears to have been the religion of the court (viii. 27 ; temp. xi. 18), as afterward under Ahaz(xvi. 3 ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 2), and Manasseh (2 K. xxi. 3). The worship ol Baal among the Jews seems to have been with much pomp and ceremonial. Temples were erected to him (1 K. xvi. 32 ; 2 K. xi. 18); his images were set up (x. 26) ; his altars were very numerous (Jer. xi. 13), were erected particularly on lofty eminences (1 K. xviii. 20; High Places), and on the roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii. 29); there were priests in great numbers (IK. xviii. 19), and of various classes (2 K. X. 19); the worshippers appear to have been arrayed in appropriate robes (x. 22) ; the worship was per- formed by burning incense (Jer. vii. 9) and offering buint-sacrifices, occasionally of human victims (xix. 6). The olticiatiug priests danced with frantic shouts aiound the altar, and cut themselves with knives to excite the attention and coiii|ia8sion of the god (1 K. xviii. 26-28). Through all the Phenician colonies we find traces of the worship of this god, m names, as Asdru-Atf/, Hanni-/W, &c., and in in.scriptions ; nor need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian Bel (Is. xlvi. 1) or BeluR, as essentially = Baal, though per- haps under some modified form. The same perplex- ity oecurs respecting the connection of this god with the heavenly bodies, as in regard to Ashtohkth. C'reuzer and Movers declare Baal to be the Sun god ; on the other band, Herodotus makes Bel = the Greek Zeus (= Roman Jcpiter), and there seems to be no doubt that Bel-Merodach is the planet Jupiter. Pro- bably the symbol of Baal as well as of Ashtoreth varied at different times and in different localities. Among the compounds of Baal in the 0. T. are : — 1. Ba'al-be'ritb (Heb. covenant-Baa/, the god who comes into covenant with the worshippers). This form of Baal was worshipped at Shechem by the Israelites after the death of Gideon (Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). — 2t Ba'al-ze'bnb (Heb. Baal, or Lo7-cl, of the flu), wor- shipped at Ekron (2 K. i. 2, 3, 16). The" Greeks gave a similar epithet to Zeus (Jititer), and Pliny speaks of a Fly-god. The name in the N. T. is Beelzebub. — 3i Ba'al-banan (Heb. Baal is gracioim). a. An early king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39 ; 1 Chr. i. 49, 50). b. David's superintendent of his olive and sycamore plantations (1 Chr. xxvii. 28); "the Gedebite," perhaps of Canaanitish origin. — 4. Ba'al- pc or (Heb. Lord of optviiig, in obscene sense, Ges.). We have already referred to the worship of this god. The narrative (Num. xxv.) seems clearly to show that this form of Baal-worship was connected with licentious rites. Baal-peor was identified by the Rabbins and early Fathers with Priapus, the god of procreation. Ba'al (see above), geography. This word, the pre- fix or sutF.x to the names of several places in Pales- tine, never seems to have become a naturalized Hebrew word (compare Hos. ii. 16); and such places called by this name or its compounds as can be identified, were either near Phenicia, or in proximity to some other acknowledged seat of heathen worship. The places in the names of which Baal forms a part are : — 1. Ba'al, a town of Simeon (1 Clir. iv. 33 only), apparently = BaalathBeer. — i, Ba'al-ah (Hebrew fern, of Baal), (a.) Another (probably the earlier or Canaanite) name for Kirjath-Jeaeim, or Kirjath- Baal. It is mentioned in Josh. xv. 9, 10 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 6. In Josh. xv. 11, it is called Mount Baalah, and in xv. 60, and xviii. 14, Kirjath-Baal. In 2 Sam. vi. 2, the name is " Baale (Heb. pi. of Baal ; = Baalim) of Judah." Robinson (Phi/s. Ocog., p. 47) supposes Mount Baalah = a short line of hills, nearly parallel with the coast, and not far W. of Ekron. (6.) A town in the S. of Judah (Josh. xv. 29), called ako (xix. 3) Balah, and (1 Chr. iv. 29) BiLiiAii. (BizjOTiijAH ) — 3. Baal-ath (Heb. = Ba- alah), a town ot Dan named with Gibbethon, Gath- rimmon, and other PhiUstinc places (Josh. xix. 44); probablv = the Baalath afterward built or rebuilt by Solomon (1 K. ix. 18; 2 Chr. viii. 6).— 4. Baal- afll-be'er (Heb. Baal of the well = Holy-well) = Baal 1, a town in the S. part ol Judah, given to Simeon, which al.«o bore the name ol Ramath of THE South. — 5. Baal-gad (Heb. Baal the Forlwie bringer), used to denote the most N. (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7) or perhaps N. W. (xiii. B) point to which Joshua's victories extended ; probably a Phenician or Canaanite sanctuary of Baal under the aspect of Gad, or Fortune; supposed by some = Baalbek; more probable (so Schwarz, Rbn., &c.) at the mod- ern Bdtiids. (Cra*REA Philippi.) — 0. Ba al-iia uion (Heb. Baal of nmlttlnde), a place at which Solomon had a vineyard, evidently of great extent (Cant. viii. 11). The only clew to its situation is the miiition in Jd. viii. S, of a Belam6n or BalamCn (A. V. Ba- LAMo) near Dothaim ; and therefore in the mouniains of Ephraim, not far N. of Samaria. KosenmuUer, Wilson, &c., suppose Baal-hainon = Baal-gad (above) and Bunlbik ; Ewald supposes it = Hamuon 1.— 7. Ba al-ba'zor (Heb. Baal's village), a place " by (A. V. " beside ") Ephraim," where Absalom appears to 88 BAA BAB have had a sheep-farm, and where Amnon was mur- dered (2 Sam. xlii. 23). — 8. Mount Ba'al-ber'mon (Judg. iii. 3), and simply Bajil-hermon (1 Chr. v. 23). This is usually considered as a distinct place from Mount Hermon ; but we know that this mountain had at least three names (Deut. iii. 9), and Baal- hermon may have been a fourth in use among the Pheuician worshippers of Baal (so Mr. Grove), Gcse- niusand Robinson make Baal-hermon=Baalgad(No. 5, above),and Mount Baal-hermon=an adjacent moun- tain near (or partof)Mount Hermon. — 9. Ba'al-me'on (Hcb. ; Mean := dioelling, habitation, Ges.), one of the towns built or rebuilt by the Reubenites , named with Nebo (Num. xx-xii. 38 ; 1 Chr. v. 8) ; probably =: Beth-baal-meon, Beon, and Beth-meon. In the time of Ezekiel it was Moabite, one of the cities which were " the glory of the country " (Ez. xxv. 9). In the days of Eusebius and Jerome it was still called Balmano, nine miles from Heshbon, and re- puted to be the native place of EUsha. The site is supposed to be at MtVi7>, a ruined place of consider- able size, one hour S. of Heshbon (Rbn., Phys. Geoy., 61). — 10. Ba'al-per'a-ziffl (Hcb. ; Peranum =r bursts or deslruclions), the scene of a victory of David over the Philistines, and of a great destruction of their images (2 Sam. v. 20; 1 Chr. xiv. 11); perhaps pre- viously the seat of a high place or sanctuary of Baal. (Perazim, Mount.) — II. Ba'al-shali-sha (fr. Heb. ; see Shalisha), a place named only in 2 K. iv. 42 ; apparently not far from Gilgal (compare ver. 38) ; possibly in the district, or " land," of Shalisha. — 12. Ba'al-ta'mar (Heb. high place for sanctuarii^ of the palm), a place (Judg. xx. 33 only) near Gibeah of Benjamin. The palm-tree of Deborah (iv. 5) was in this region, and is possibly alluded to. — 13. Ba'al- ze'phon (Heb. place of Zephon, i. e. of a watch-tower, R. S. Poole ; place of Typhon or sacred to Typhoii, Ges.), a place in Egypt near where the Israelites crossed the Red Sea (Ex. xiv. 2, 9 ; Num. xxxiii. 7). From the position of Goshen and the indications af- forded by the narrative of the route of the Israelites, Mr. R. S. Poole places Baal-zephon on the W. shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little below its head, which at that time was about thirty or forty miles N. of the present head. (Pi-hahiroth ; Red Sea, Passage of.) Ba'al-ab. Baal, geography, 2. Ba'al-ath. Baal, geography, 3, 4. Ba'al-e of Jndah. Baal, geography, 2, a. * Ba'al-1 (fr. Heb. = my Baal, i. e. my husband) (Hos. ii. 16). IsHL Ba'al-im, Hebrew plural of Baal. Ba'a-lls (Heb. son of exultatiun, Ges.) king of the Ammonites when Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebu- chadnezzar (Jer. xl. 14). IsHMAEL 6. Ba'a-na (Heb. son of affliction, Ges.) 1. Solomon's commissary in Jezreel and the N. of the Jordan val- ley W. of the river ; son of Ahilud (IK. iv. 12). — 2. Father of Zadok inNehemiah's time (Neh. iii. 4). —3. Baanah 4 (1 Esd. v. 8). Ba'a-nah (Heb. soKo/q^irfio?i, Ges.). 1, Son of Rimmon ; a Benjamite captain who with his brother Bechab murdered Ish-bosheth. For this they were killed by David, and their mutilated bodies hung up over the pool at Hebron (2 Sam. iv. 2, 6, 6, 9). — 2. A Netophathite, father of David's warrior Heleb or Heled (xxiii. 29; 1 Chr. xi. 30).— 3, Son of Hushai ; Solomon's commissary in Ashcr (1 K. iv. 16). — 1, A man who accompanied Zerubbabel on his return from the Captivity (Ezr. ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7) ; possibly the chief who sealed the covenant with Nehemiab (x. 27). Baana 3. Bl-a-nl'as (1 Esd. ix. 26) = Benaiah 8, a. Ba'a-ra (Heb. brutish, Ges.), one of the wives of the Benjamite Sliahar.iim (1 Chr. viii. 8). Ba-a-sel'ab [see'yah] (Heb. work of Jehovah, Ges.), a Gershomte Levite, ancestor of Asaph (1 Chr. VI. 40, Heb. 25). Ba a-sba ( Heb. ; from a root signifying to be bad, offensive, Ges. ; in the work, or he toho seeks and lays waste, Calmet), third sovereign of the separate king- dom of Israel, and the founder of its second dynasty. (Israel, Kingdom of.) He was son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar, andconspired against King Nadab, son of Jeroboam, when he was besieging the Philis- tine town of Gibbethon (1 K. xv. 27), and killed him with his whale family. He appears to have been of humble origin (xvi. 2). It was probably in the thir- teenth year of his reign that he made war on Asa, and began to fortify Uamah. He was defeated by the unexpected alliance of Asa with Ben-hadad I. of Damascus. Baasha died in the twenty-fourth year of his reign, and was honorably buried in tlie beautiful city of Tirzah, which he had made bis capital (xvi. 6 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 1-6). * Babe. Child. Ba bel (Heb. confusion, Ges. ; Chal. Babil = the gate of the goil II, or the gale of God, Cbaldee ety- mology, so llawlinson), Bab'y-lon (L. form), is prop- erly the capital city of the country, which is cnlled in Genesis Shinar, and in the later Scriptures Chaldea, or the land of the Chaldeans. The archi- tectural remains discovered in S. Babylonia, taken in conjunction with the monumental records, seem to indicate (Rawlinson's views are given in this ar- ticle and the next ; compare Assyria and Nine- veh) that it was not at first the capital, nor, in- deed, a town of very great importance. Erech, Ur, and Ellasar appear to have been all more ancient than Babylon, and were capital cities when Babil was a provincial village. The first rise of the Chaldean power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf; thence the nation spread N. up the course of the rivers, and the seat of government moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than b. c. 1700. — I. Topography of Babylon — Ancient Descriptions of the City. — The descriptions of Babylon in classical writers are derived chiefly from Herodotus and Cte- sias. According to Herodotus, the city, which was built on both sides of the Euphrates, formed a vast square, enclosed within a double line of high walls, the extent of tlie outer circuit being 480 stades, or about 56 miles. The entire area included would thus have been about 200 square miles. The houses, which were frequently three or four sto- ries high, were laid out, in straight streets crossing each other at right angles. In each division of the town there was a fortress or stronghold, consisting in the one case of the royal palace, in the other of the great temple of Belus. The two portions of the city were united by a bridge, composed of a series of stone piers with movable platforms of wood stretching from one pier to another. According to Ctesias, the circuit of the city was 360 stades, a little under 42 miles. It lay, he says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and the two parts were con- nected together by a stone bridge 5 stades (above 1,000 yards) long and 30 feet broad, of the kind de- scribed by Herodotus. At either extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the E. city being the more magnificent. The two palaces were joined, not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river ! Ctesias's account of the temple of Belus has not come down to us. — In examining these de- BAB BAB 89 scriptions, we shall most conveniently commence from tlio outer circuit of the town. All the ancient writers appear to agree that a district of vast size, more or less inlmbitcd, was enclosed within lofty walls, and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the exact extent of the circuit they differ. Ilerodotus and Pliny make it 480 stadcs, Strabo 385, Quintus Curtius 368, Clitarchus 305, and Ctcsias 360 stades. Here we have merely the raod- crdte variations to be expected m independent meas- urements, except in the first of the numbers. Per- haps (so Oppert) ITcrodotus spoke of the ovier wall which could be traced in his time, while the later writers, who never speak of an inner and an outer barrier, give the measurement of Herodotus's inner wall, which may have alone remained in their day. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the cir- cuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles : nearly five times the size of London ! It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. Diodorus confesses that but a small part ol the en- chart of Mw CouDtr; rouod B«b]rloo, with Utniu of the Aadent City, according to Oppert. closure was inhabited in his own day, and Quintus Cur- tius says that as much as nine-tenths consisted, even ni the most flourishing times, of gardens, parks, para- dises, fields, and orchards. The height of the walls Herodotus makes 200 royal cubit.", or 337^ feet ; Cteaias 50 fathoms, or 300 feet ; Pliny and Solinus 200 royal feet ; Strabo BO cubits, or 75 feet. We are forced to fall back on the earlier authorities, who are also the only eye-witnesses ; and, surprising as it seems, perhaps we must believe the statement, that the viist enclosed space above mentioned was surrounded by walls which have well been termed "artificial mountains," being nearly the height of the dome of St. Paul's ! The thickness of the wall Herod- otus makes 60 royal cubits, or nearly 85 feet ; Pliny and Sohuu.s, 00 royal, or about 60 common feet ; and Strabo, 32 feet. The latter may belong propcily to the inner wall, which was of less thickness than the outer. According to Ctesias the wall was strength- ened with 250 towers, irregularly disposed to guard the weakest parts ; and according to Herodotus it had 100 gates of brass, with brazen lintels and side-pttsts. The gates and walls are mentioned in Scripture ; the height of the one and the breadth of the other being specially noticed (Jcr. li. 58 ; compare 1. 15, a'nd li. 53). Herodotus and Ctesias both relate that the banks of the river as it flowed through the city were on each side ornamented with quays. Some remains of a quay or embankment (E) on the E. side of the stream still exist, upon the bncks of which is read the name of the last king. Perhaps a remarkable mound (K) which interrupts the long flat valley — evidently the ancient course of the river — may be a trace of the bridge which both these writers de- 90 BAB BAB Bcribe. — II. Present State of the Ruins. — About five miles above Hillah, on the opposite or left bank of [a] Prosent State of the RatDBof Babylon. the Euphrates, occurs a series of artificial mounds of enormous size. Tliey consist chiefly of three great masses of building — the high pile (A) of unbaked brickwork called by Rich ' Mujellihe,' but known to the Arabs as 'BabW ; the building denominated the Portions of Ancient Babylon dlstlngalBbable in the present Rutnl. '■Kasr' or palace (B); and a lofty mound (C), upon which stands the modern tomb of AmrAm-ihi- Alb. Besides these principal masses the most remarkable View of Babil, iTom the West. BAB BAB 91 features are two parallel lines of rampart (FF) bounding the chief ruins on the E., some similar but inferior remains on the N. and W. (I I and H), an embankment along the river-side (E), a remarkable isolated heap (K) in the middle of a long valley, which seems to have been the ancient bed of the stream, and two long lines of rampart (G G), meet- ing at a right angle, and with the river forming an irregular triangle, within which all the ruins on this side (except Babil) are enclosed. On the W., or right bank, there is the appearance of an enclosure, and of a building of moderate size within it (D), but there are no other ruins near the river. Scattered over the country on both sides of the Euphrates, are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. Of these, by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the Birs-Nimrud. (Babel, Tower of.) — III. Identijica- tioH of Silex. — On comparing the existmg ruins with the accounts of ancient writers, the great difficulty which meets us is the position of the remains almost exclusively on the left bank of the river. All the old accounts agree in representing the Euphrates as running through the town, and the principal build- ings as placed on the opposite sides of the stream. Perhaps the most probable solution is to be found in the fact, that a large canal (called Shcbtl) mtervened in ancient times between the Kasr mound (B) and the ruin now called Babit (A), which may easily have view of the Kur. been confounded by Herodotus with the main stream. If this explanation be accepted as probable, we may identify the principal ruins as follows: — 1. The great mound of Babil = the ancient temple of Bclus. It is an oblong mass, about 200 yards long, 140 yards broad, and 140 feet high, composed chiefly of un- baked brick, but originally coated with fine-burnt brick laid in mortar. It formed the tower of the temple, and was surmounted by a chapel, but the main shrine, the altars, and no doubt the residences of the priests, were at the foot, in a sacred precinct. 2. The mound of the Kasr — the site of the great palace of Nkbcchadnezzar. It is an irregular square of about 700 yards each way, and apparently chiefly formed of the old palace-platform, on which arc still standing certain portions of the ancient palace or " Kasr." The walls are of pale yellow burnt bricks of excellent quality, laid in fine lime cement. No plan of the palace is to be made out from the exist- ing remains, which are tossed in apparent confusion on the highest point of the mound. 3. The mound o( Amram is thought by M. Oppert = the " hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar; but as they were only 400 feet each way, it is much too large for them ; and most probably it = the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnez- zar speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence. 4. The ruins marked D D on either side of the Euphrates, together with all tlie other remains on the right bank, may = the let^ser palace of Ctesias, which is said to have been connected with the greater by a bridge across the river, as well as by a tunnel under the channel of the stream. 6. The two long parallel lines of em- bankment on the E. (F F in the plan), may =r the lines of an outer and inner enclosure, of which Nebuchadnezzar fpeaks as defences of his palace; or = the embankments of an enormous reservoir, which is often mentioned by that monarch as adjoin- ing his palace toward the E. 6. The embankment (E) is composed of bricks marked with the name of Labynetus or Nabumt, and is undoubtedly a portion of the work which Berosus ascribes to the last knig. The most remarkable fact connected with the mag- nificence of Babylon, is the poorness of the material with which such wonderful results were produced. With bricks (Brick) made from the soil of the coun- try, and at first only " slime for mortar" (Gen. xi. 3), were constructed edifices so vast that they still remain among the most enormous nuns in tl;e world. — IV. Hulory of Babylun. — Scripture represents the " beginning of the kingdom " as in the time of Nm 92 BAB BAB ROD, the grandson of Ham (Gen. x. 6-10). The most ancient inscriptions appear to show that the primi- tive inhabitants of the country were really Cushite, i. e. identical in race with the early inhabitants of S. Arabia and of Ethiopia. The seat of government was then, as has been stated, in lower Babylonia, EnEcn and Ur being the capitals. The country was called Shinar, and the people the Ahkadim. (Ac- cad.) Of the art of this period we have specimens in the ruins of the ancient capitals, which date from at least the twentieth century b. c. The early an- nals of Babylon are filled by Beroaus, the native his- torian, with three dynasties ; one of forty-nine Chal- dean kings, who reigned 453 years ; another of nine Arab kings, who reigned 245 years ; and a third of forty-nine Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 years. It would appear then as if Babylon, after having had a native Chaldean dynasty (Chedor- laomer), fell wholly under Shemitic influence, becom- ing subject first to Arabia for two centuries and a half, and then to Assyria for above five centuries, .and not regaining even a qualified independence till the time marked by the close of the Upper and the formation of the Lower Assyrian empire. But the statement is too broad to bo exact ; and the monu- ments show that Babylon was at no time absorbed into Assyria, or even for very many years together a submissive vassal. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from the era of Nabo- Jiassar, b. c. 747. The " Canon of Ptolemy " gives us the succession of Babylonian monarchs, with the exact length of the reign of each, from b. c. 747, when Nabonassar mounted the throne, to B. c. 331, When the last Persian king was dethroned by Alex- ander. Of the earlier kings of the Canon, the only one worthy of notice is Mardocempalus (b. c. 721), the Merodach-Baladan of the Scriptures ; but with Nabopoiassar, Nebuchadnezzar's father, a new era in the history of Babylon commences. He was ap- pointed to the government of B ibylon by the last Assyrian king, when the Medes were about to make their final attack (Ni.neveh): whereupon, betraying the trust reposed in him, he went over to the enemy, arranged a marriage between his son Nebuchadnez- zar and the daughter of the Median leader, and joined in the last siege of the city. On the success of the confederates (b. c. 625) Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire. The Jews with others then passed from dependency on Assyria to dependency on Babylon. At a later'date hostilities broke out with Egypt. Neehoh (Pharaoh 9) invaded the Babylonian dominions on the S. W. (2 K. xxiii. 29, &c., xxiv. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxxv. 20). Na- bopoiassar was now advanced in life ; he therefore sent his son Nebuchadnezzar against the Egyptians, and the battle of Carchemish restored to Babylon the former Uraits of her territory (compare 2 K. xxiv. 7 with Jer. xlvi. 2-12). Nebcchadnezzar, by far the most remarkable of all the Babylonian monarchs, was acknowledged king upon his father's death, b. c. 604. He died b. c. 661, having reigned forty-three years, and was succeeded by Evil-Merodach, his son, called in the Canon Illoarudamus. This prince was murdered two years afterward, by Neriglissar, his brother-in-law=the Nerigassola.ssar of the Canon =(apparently) the " Nergal-shar-ezer, Rab-mao " of Jer. xxxix. 3, 13. Neriglissar built the palace at Babylon, which seems to have been placed originally on the right bank of the river. He reigned but four years, and left the crown to his son, Laborosoarchod. This prince, when he bad reigned nine months, be- came the victim of a conspiracy. Nabonidus (or Labynetus), one of the conspirators, succeeded b. c. 655, very shortly before the war broke out between Crans and Croesus. Having entered into alliance with the latter of these monarchs against the former, he provoked the hostility of Cyrus, who, b. c. 539, advanced at the head of his irresistible hordes, but wintered upon the Diyaleh or Gyndes, making his final approaches in the ensuing spring. Nalionidus took the field in person at the head of his army, leav- ing his son Belshazzar to command in the city. He was defeated and forced to shut himself up in Bor- sippa (marked now by the Birs-Nimrud), till after the fall of Babylon. Belshazzar guarded the city, but allowed the enemy to enter the town by the channel of the river. Babylon was thus taken by a surprise, as Jeremiah had prophesied (li. 31) — by an army of Medes and Persians, as intimated one hundred and seventy years earlier by Isaiah (xxi. 1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown (li. 39), durmg a festival. In the carnage which ensued upon the taking of the town, Belshazzar was slain (Dan. V. 30). According to Dan. v. 31, it would seem as if Babylon was taken, not by Cyrus, king of Persia, but by a Median kmg, named Darius. There is, however, sufficient indication that " Darics THE Mede " was not the real conqueror, but a mon- arch with a certain delegated authority (see Dan. v. 31, and ix. 1). With the conquest by Cyrus com- menced the decay and ruin of Babylon, though it continued a royal residence through the entire' period of the Persian empire. The defences and public buildings suffered grievously from neglect during the long period of peace after the reign of Xerxes. After the death of Alexander the Great, the removal of the seat of empire to Antioch under the Seleucidse gave the finishing blow to the prosperity of the place. Since then Babylon has been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have derived the bricks with which they have built their cities (Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad, Hillah, &c.). The " groat city," " the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," has thus emphatically "be- come heaps " (Jer. li. 37). Her walls have alto- gether disappeared — they have " fallen " (li. 44), been " thrown down " (1. 15), been " utterly broken " (li. 68). " A drought is upon her waters " (1. 39); for the system of irrigation, on which, in Babylonia, fertility altogether depends, has long been laid aside (Chaldea) ; " her cities " are everywhere " a desola- tion " (li. 43) ; her " land a wilderness ; " " wild beasts of the desert lie there ; " and " owls dwell there " (compare Layard, Nbi. and Bab., p. 484, with Is. xiii. 21, 22, and" Jer. 1. 39): the uati\cs regard the whole site as haunted, and neither will the "Arab pitch tent, nor the shepherd fold sheep there " (Is. xiii. 20). Ba'bd (Heb. ; see above), Tow'cr of. The " tower of Babel " is only mentioned once in Scripture (Gen. xi. 4-9), and then as incomplete. (Tongues, Co.nfc- sioN OF. ) It was built of bricks, and the " slime " used for mortar was probably bitumen. (Bkick ; Mortar ; Slime.) A Jewish tradition declared that fire fell from heaven, and split the tower through to its foundation ; while Alexander Polyhistor and the other profane writers who noticed the tower, said that it had been blown down by the winds. Such autliorities there- fore as we possess, represent the building as de- stroyed soon after its erection (so Rawlinson). When the Jews, however, were carried captive into Baby- lonia, they were struck with the vast magnitude and peculiar character of certain of the Daljylonian tem- ples in one or other of which they thought to rec- BAB BAB 93 (^izc the very tower itself. The predominant opin- ion was in favor of the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the modem Birs-Nimrud, although the distance of that place from Babylon is an insuperable difficulty in the way of the identification (see below). The Birs-Nimrvd appears to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built in seven receding stages. L'pon a platform of crude brick, raised a few feet above the level of the alluvial plain, was built of burnt brick the first or basement stage — an exact square, 272 feet each way, and 26 feet m perpen- dicular height. Upon this stage wa.s erected a second, 230 feet each way, and likewise 26 feet high ; which, however, was not placed exactly in the middle of the firat, but considerably nearer to the S. W. end or back of the building. The other stages were ar- ranged similarly — the third being 188 feet, and again 26 feet high ; the fourth, 146 feet square, and 16 feet high ; (tie fifth, 104 feet square, and 16 feet high ; the sixth, 62 feet square, and 15 feet high; and the seventh 20 feet square, and IB feet high. On the seventh stage was probably placed the ark or taber- Temple of Bin-Nimrud at Borsipps. nacle, which seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not entirely, covered the top of the seventh story. The entire original height, allowing 3 feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the platform, 153 feet. The whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler slope facing theN. E., and the steeper inclin- ing to the S. W. On the N. E. side was the grand entrance, and here stood the vestibule, a separate building, the ruins of which having joined those from the temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, and very remarkably prolong the mound in this di- rection.' (See Rawl'inson's lldt. ii. 483.) The Birs temple, called the " Temple of the Seven Spheres," was ornamented with the planetary colors, but this was most likely a peculiarity. The other chief fca- ture.i of it seem to have been common to most, if not all of the Babylonian temple-tower?. — To the preceding description, from Rawliuson, may here be added the following from Profft^Bor Opjicrt. Tiie history of the confusion of languages was preserved at Babylon, as we learn from classical and Babylo- nian authorities. The Talmudists say that the true site of the Tower of Babel was at Borsif, the Greek Borsippa, the Birs-Mmnid, t^ miles S. W. from HiUah, and nearly 11 miles from the N. ruins of Babylon. The Babylonian name of this locality is Barsip or Barzijja = Tower of TongiMs. This building, erected by Nebuchadnezzar, and named the temple of the Seven Lights of the Earth, i. e. the planets, i.s the same that Herodotus describes as the Tower of Jupiter Belus. The temple consisted of a large substructure, a stade (600 Babylonian feet) in breadth, and 75 feet in height, over which were built seven other stages of 25 feet each. The top was the temple of Nebo. Nebuchadnezzar thus notices this building in the Borsippa inscription : — " We say for the other, i. e. this edifice, the house of the Seven Lights of the Earth, the most ancient monument of Borsippa : A former king built it (they reckon forty- two ages) but he did not complete its head. Since a remote time people had alandmied it, uithnvt ordir npressinff t/uir uords. Since that time the earth- quake and the thunder had dispersed its sim-dried clay ; the bricks of the casing had been split, and the earth of the interior had been scattered in heaps. Merodach, the great lord, excited my mind to repair this building. I did not change the site, nor did I 94: BAB BAB take away the foundation-stone As it had been in former times, so I founded, I made it : as it had been in ancient days, so I exalted its summit." — It is not necessary (so Rawlinson) to suppose that any real idea of " scaling heaven " was present to the minds of those who raised the Tower of Babel or any other of the Babylonian temple-towers. The ex- pression used in Gen. xi. 4, is a mere hyperbole for great height (compare Deut. i. 28; Dan. iv. 11, &c.), and should not be taken literally. Military Temple of the Seven Spberee at Bonlppa. (Elevation restored.) A The basemeDt story — black. B Tbe 3d stage — orange. C The 3d stnge— red. T> The 4tb stage — golden (1). E The 5th stage — yellow. F The 6th stage— blue. G The 7th stage— silver (!). H The ehrine or chapel. defence was probably the primary object of such edifices in early times : but with the wish for this may have been combined further secondary mo- tives, which remained when such defence was other- wise provided for. Diodorus states that the gi-eat tower of the temple of Belus was used by the Chaldeans as an observatory, and the careful em- placement of the Babylonian temples with the angles }a?ing the four cardinal points, would be a natural consequence, and may be regarded as a strong con- firmation of the reality of this application. Ba'bl (1 Esd. viii. 37) = Bedai. Bab'y-lon (L. fr. Gr. Babulon; see Babel). 1, The occurrence of this name in 1 Pet. v. 13 has given rise to a variety of conjectures, viz. — a. That Bab- ylon tropically denotes Rome (so fficumenius, Je- rome, Grotius, Lardner, Cave, Whitby, Macknight, Hales, Ilorne, &c.). In support of this opinion is brought forward a tradition recorded by Eusebius (H. E. ii. 15), on the authority of Papias and Clem- ent of Alexandria, that 1 Peter was composed at Rome. But there is nothing to indicate that the name is used figuratively, and the subscription to an epistle is the last place we should expect to find a mystical appellation. — 4. Cappellus and others take Babylon, with as little reason, to mean Jeru- salem. — c. Bar-Hebra;ii3 understands by it the house in Jerusalem where the apostles were as- sembled on the day of Pentecost.-— d. Others place it on the Tigris, and identify it with Seleucia or Ctesiphon, but for this there is no evidence. — e. That Babylon rz: the small fort of that name which formed the boundary between Upper and Lower Egypt. Its site is marked by the modem Bnboul in the Delti, a little N. of Fostat, or old Cairo. According to Strabo it derived its name from some Babylonian deserters who had settled there. In his time it was the headquarters of one of the three legions which giirrisoned Egypt. Josephua (ii. 16, § 1) says it was built on the site of Lctop- olis, when Cambyses subdued Egypt. That this IS the Babylon of 1 Peter is the tradition of the Coptic Church, and is maintained by Le Clerc, Mill, Pearson, &e. There is, however, no proof that the apostle Peter was ever in Egypt, and a very slight degiee of probability is created by the tradition that his companion Mark was bishop of Alexandria. — f. The most natural supposition of all (adopted by Erasmus, Drusius, Beza, Lightfoot, Bengel, Wot- stein, A. Clarke, Barnes, Davidson, Tregelles, Words- woith, &c.) is that Babylon here = the old Babylon on the Euphrates (Babel), which was largely inhab- ited by Jews at the time in question (Jos. xv. 3, § I). The only argument against this view is the negative evidence supplied by the silence of his- torians as to St. Peter's having visited Babylon, but this cannot be allowed to have much weight. In support of it, Lightfoot suggests that this city "was one of the greatest knots of Jews in the world," and St. Peter was the minister of the cir- cumcision, — 3. In the Apocalypse, the symbolical name by which Rome is denoted (Rev. xiv. 8, xvii., xviii.). The power of Rome was regarded by the later Jews as that of Babylon by their forefathers (compare Jer. 11. 7 with Rev. xiv. 8), and hence, what- ever the people of Israel be understood to symbolize, Babylon represents the antagonistic principle. Akti- CHRisT ; Revelation. Bab-y-lo'nt-ans = inhabitants of Babylon (Ba- bel), who were among the colonists planted in the cities of Samaria by the conquering Assyrians (Ezr. iv. 9J. Afterward, when the warlike Chaldeans ae- BAB BAO 95 quired the predominance in the seventh century b. c, "Chaldean" and "Babylonian" became almost sy- nonymous (Ez. xxlU. 14, 15, 17 ; compare Is. xlviii. 14, 20). Bab-y-lo'nLsh Gar'ment, literally "robe of Shinar" (Josh. vij. il). An ample robe, probably made of the skin or fur of an animal (compare Gen. xxv. 25), and ornamented with embroidery, or perhaps a va- riegated garment with figures inwoven in tlie fashion for which the Babylonians were celebrated. Dress; E.MBROIDKRER. Baca (Heb. weeping, lamentation, Ges.), the Val'- ley of (lleb. 'emek ; see Valley 1), a valley some- where in Palestine, through which ttic exiled Psalm- ist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in their march toward the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6) ; translated by the Targum, Ge- henna. (HiNNOM, Valley of), by the Vulgate, "vale of tears." The explanation of Baca, as iz: the Valley of Mulberry-Trees (Heb. becdim; 2 Sara. V. 23, 24 ; 1 Chr. xiv. 13, 14) is now very commonly abandoned for the one given in the ancient versions, the " vale of weeping " or " of sorrow," a beautiful poetical description of the present life as one of suf- fering (J. A. Alexander on Ps. Ixxxiv.). Bac'thi-des (Gr. son of Bacchus ), a friend of An- tiochus Epiphanes and governor of Mesopotamia, commissioned by Demetrius Soter to investigate the charges which Alcimus preferred against Judas Mac- cabeus. After the defeat and death of Nicanor, he led a second expedition into Judea. Judas Macca- beus fell in battle (b. c. 161), and Bacchides reestab- lished the supremacy of the Syrian faction. Bac- chides next attempted to surprise Jonathan, but he escaped across the Jordan. Having completed the pacification of the country, Bacchides returned to Demetrius (b. c. 160). After two years he came back at the request of the Syrian faction, but, meet- ing with ill success, he turned against those who had induced him to undertake the expedition, and sought an honorable retreat. When this was known by Jonathan he sent envoys to Bacchides and conclud- ed a peace, B. c. 158 (1 Mc. vii. ix.). ' Bae^barns [-ku-] (L. fr. Gr.), one of the " holy singers," who had taken a foreign wife (1 Esd. ix. 24) ; not m Ezr, x. Bat'tbns [-kus] (L. fr. Gr. BaJcchos ; also written in L. laechva, Diwiysws, fr. Gr. Jakchos, Diouiims), properly the god of wine, in Roman and Greek my- thology, said to have been the son of Jupiter and Semele. In later times the most varied attributes were centred in him as the source of luxuriant fertil- ity of nature, and the god of civilization, gladness, and inspiration. His worship was greatly modified by the introduction of Eastern elements, and as- sumed the twofold form of wild orgies and mystical rites. " The feast of Bacchus " called Dionysia or Bacchanalia (2 Mc. vi. 7), was celebrated, especially in later times, with wild extravagance and licentious enthusiasm. Women, as well as men, joined in the processions, acting the part of Bacchantes, crowned with ivy and bearing the thyrsus. Before the per- secution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 168 B. c., in which " the Jews were compelled to go in procession to Bacchus, carrying ivy," the secret celebration of the Bacchanalia in Italy had been revealed to the Roman senate (b. c. 186), and a decree was passed forbid- ding its observance in Rome or Italy. To the Jews Bacchus would necessarily appear as the embodi- ment of paganism in its most revolting shape, sanc- tioning tlie most tumultuous passions and the worst excesses. Xicauor is said to have threatened to erect a temple of Bacchus on the site of the Temple at Jerusalem (xiv. 33). Ba-{e'nor [-see-] (L. fr. Gr.), apparently a captain of horse under Judas Maccabeus (2 Mc. xii. 36). Bach'rttes [bak-] (fr. Heb.), the — the family of Becher, son of Ephraim (Num. xxvi. 85). Badger-skins. The Heb. iahash or tachash, which the A. V. renders badger, occurs with the Heb. ''or, 'ordtli (r= "skin," "skins"), in Ex. xxv. 5, xxvi. 14, XXXV. 7, 23, xxxvi. 19, xxxix. 34 ; Num. iv. 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, and without 'or, 25. In Ez. xvi. 10, it is mentioned as the substance out of which women's shoes were made ; in the former passages the skins are named in relation to the tabernacle, ark, &c., and appear to have formed the exterior covering of these sacred articles. There is much obscurity as to the meaning of the Hebrew word ; the ancient versions seem nearly all agreed that it denotes not an animal, but a color, either black or sky-blue ; but this interpretation has no ground either in its etymology or in the cognate languages. Some versions, as the German of Luther and the A.V., have supposed that it denotes the badger, but the badger is a quadruped not found in the Bible lands. Whatever is the substance indicated by the Hebrew word, it evidently (Ex. xxxv. 23) was some material in frequent use among the Israelites during the Exodus, and the construction of the sentences where the name occurs seems to imply that the skin of some animal and not a color is denoted by it. The Arabian duchash or iuchash denotes a dolphin, but probably is not restricted in its application, but may refer to either a seal or a cetacean. The skin cf the dugong, which is a cetacean, allied to the dol- phins, from its hardness would be well suited for making soles for shoes, and the Arabs near Cape Mussendum employ theskins of these animals for a similar purpose. The " Dugong of the Red Sea " was named by Professor Riippell Hahcore Taler- naaili, under the impression that it was the animal whose skin was used to cover the tabernacle, &c. Perhaps the animal was a seal, the skin of which would suit all the demands of the Scriptural allu- sions (so Mr. Houghton), Colonel C. H. Smith (in Kitto), and Mr. P. H. Gosse (in Fairbairn) suppose it some species of antelope, probably of an iron-gray or slate color, and adduce the ceremonial unclcan- ncss of seals and cetaceans (Lev. xi. 10-12) as an argument that their skins would not be used to cover the tabernacle and its holy vessels (compare ver. 81 -47). Palestine, Zoologij. Bag is the A. V. rendering of several words. 1. Heb. hfiritim or charUim, the " bags " in which Naaman bound up the two talents of silver for Ge- hazi (2 K. V. 23), probably so called, according to Gesenius, from their long, cone-like shape. The word only occurs besides in Is. iii. 22 (A. V. " crisping-pms "), and there denotes the reticules carried by the Hebrew ladies. 2. Heb. cis, a bag for carrying weights (Deut. xxv. 13 ; Prov. xvi. 11 ; Mic. vi. 11), also used as a purse (Prov. i. 14; Is. xlvi. 6). 3. Heb. cli or clli, translated " bag," in 1 Sam. xvii. 40, 49, is a word of most general mean- ing, commonly translated " vessel " or " instru- ment." (Furniture 1.) In Gen. xlii. 25, it is the " sack " in which Jacob's sons carried the com from Egypt, and in 1 Sam. ix. 7, xxi. 5 (Heb. 6), it denotes a bag, or wallet, for carrying food (A. V. " vessel ; " compare Jd. x. 5, xiii. 10, 16). The shepherd's " bag " (marg. " vessel," 1 Sam. xvii. 40) of David seems to have been worn by him as necessary to his calling, and was probably (compare Zech. xi. 16, 16, BAG BAL where A. V. "instruments" is the same Hebrew word) for carrying the lambs which were unable to walk or were lost, and contained materials for heal- ing such as were sick, and binding up those that were broken (compare Ez. xxxiv. 4, 16) ; so Mr. W. A. Wright ; but see Arms I. 3 ; Scrip. 4. Heb. tsyror, properly a " bundle " (Gen. xlii. 35 ; 1 Sara. XXV. 29), appears to have been used by travellers for carrying money during a long journey (Prov. vii. 20 ; Hag. i. 6; compare Lk. xli. 33 ; Tob. ix. 5). In such " bundles " the priests bound up the money contrib- uted for the restoration of the Temple under Je- hoiada (2 K. xii. 10, A. V. " put up in bags "). Job (xiv. IV) represents his sin as sealed up in a "bag," i. e. carefully put up and kept as treasure by the Almighty. — Tlie Gr. pera, translated " bag " in Jd. X. 6, xiii. 10, 15, is translated "scrip" in N. T. The Gr. thulakioii (= little bay, L. and S.) occurs in the plural in Tob. ix. 5 (A. V. " bags ") as used for holding monev. The " bag " (Gr. glossokomon, used for " chest " in LXX. in 2 Chr. xxiv. 8, 10, 11) which Judas carried was probably a small box or chest (Jn. xii. 0, xiii. 29). The Gr. balantion, translated in the plural " bags" (Lk. xii. 33), is elsewhere in the N. T. translated " Pcrse," and in the LXX. =: tsSror (No. 4 above; Job. xiv. 17), and = eis (No. 2, above; Prov. i. 14). Ba'gO (Gr.) = BiGFAi 1 (1 Esd. viii. 40). Ba-go'as (Gr. fr. Pers. — emmch, Pliny; happy, fortunale. Pott; protected by the goth, Oppert, RIii.), the eunuch in attendance upon Holofernes, who had charge of all that he had, and was tlie first to dis- cover his master's assassination (J J. xii. 11, 13, 15, xiii. 1, 3, xiv. 14). BagO-1 (Gr.) = BiGVAi 1 (1 Esd. v. 14). Ba-lia-ra'iHite (fr. Heb.), thet Bahorim. Ba-ha'rlm (Heb. young me«.'» village, Ges.), a vil- lage, apparently on, or close to the road leading up from the Jordan valley to Jerusalem. Shimei the Boj of Gera resided here (2 Sam. xvi. 5 ; IK. ii. 8). Here iu the court of a house was the well in which Jonathan and Ahiraaaz eluded their pursuers (2 Sara. xvii. 18). Here Phaltiel, the husband of Michal, bade farewell to his wife when on her return to King Da- vid at Hebron (iii. 16). Bahurim must have been very near the S. boundary of Benjamin, and Dr. Barclay conjectures that the pl.ice lay where some ruins still exist close to a Wady Ruwabu, which runs in a straight course for three miles from Olivet di- rectly toward Jordan. Azmavkth " the Barhumite " (xxiii. 31), or "the Baharumite" (1 Chr. xi. 33), is the only native of Bahurim that we hear of except Shimei. Ba'jith (fr. Heb. = the house), referring to the " tem])le " of the false gods of Moab, as opposed to the " high places " (Is. xv. 2 ; compare xvi. 12). Bak-bak'kar (Heb., perhaps = wasting of the mountain, Ges.), a Lovite, apparently a descendant of Asaph (1 Chr. ix. 15). Bak'bnk (Heb. bottle, Ges.), ancestor of certain Nethinira who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 53). Bak-bn-ki'ah (Heb. emptying [i. e. vasting'] of Je- hovah, Ges.). 1. A prominent Levite in Nehemiah's time (Neh. xi. 17, xii. 9). — 2, A Levite porter, ap- parently =: No. 1 (xii. 25). Ba'king. Bread. BaLtam [-lam] (Heb., perhaps = foreigner, strari- yer, Ges. : lord of the pcop'e, Vitringa ; destructioii of the people, Sim.), the son of Beor, a man endowed with the gift of prophecy (Num. xxii. 5), and occu- pying a prominent place in 0. T. history (xxii. -xxiv., ■xxxi. 8, 16, &e.). He was son of Beor (compare Bela 2), and seems to have lived at Pethor, a city of Mesopotamia (Deut. xxiii. 4). He himself speaks of being " brought from Aram out of the mountains of the E." (Num. xxiii. 7). Balaam is one of those instances in Scripture of persons dwelling among heathens but possessing a certain knowledge of the one true God. He was a poet and a prophet, appar- ently celebrated for wisdom and sanctity. At this time the Israelites were encamped in the plains of Moab. Balak, the king of Moab, having witnessed the discomfiture of his neighbors, the Amorites, by this people, entered into a league with the Midianitos against them, and dispatched messengers to Balaam with the rewards o{ divination in their hands. (Ma- gic.) When the elders of Moab and Midian tcid him their message, he seems to have had some mis- givings as to the lawfulness of their request, for he mvited them to tarry the night with him that he might learn how the Lord would regard it. These misgivings were confirmed by God's express prohi- bition of his journey. Balaam reported the answer, and the messengers of Balak returned. The king of Moab, however, not deterred by this feilure, sent again more and more honorable princes to Balaam. The prophet again refused, but notwithstanding in- vited the erabus.sy to tarry the night with him, that he might know what the Lord would say unto him further ; and thus by his importunity he obtained from God the permission he desired, but was warned at the same time that his actions would be overruled according to the Divine will. Balaam therefore pro- ceeded on his journey with the messengers of Balak. But God's anger was kindled at this manifestation of determined self-will, and the angel of the Lord stood in the way for an adversary against him. " The dumb ass, speaking with man's voice, forbade the madness of the prophet" (2 Pet. ii. 16). It is evident that Balaam, although acquainted with God, was desirous of throwing an air of mystery round his wisdom, from the instructions he gave Balak to offer a bullock and a ram on the seven altars he everywhere p^epared for him. His religion, there- fore, was probably the natural result of a general acquaintance with God not confirmed by any cove- nant. There is an allusion to Balaam in Mic. vi. 5, where Bishop Butler thinks that a conversation is preserved which occurred between him and the king of Moab upon this occasion. But such an opinion is hardly tenable. " The doctrine of Balaam " is spoken of in Rev. ii. 14, where an allusion has been supposed to Nicolas, the founder of the sect of the NicoLAiTANs, the two names being probably similar in signification. Balaam's love of the wages of un- righteousness and his licentious counsel are referred to in 2 Pet. ii. 15 and Jude 11 ; compare Rev. ii. 14. Though the utterance of Balaam was overruled so that he could not curse the children of Israel, he nevertheless suggested to the Moabites the expedient of seducing them to comrait fornication. The effect of this is recorded in Num. xxv. A battle was af- terward fought against the Midianites, in which Ba- laam sided with them and was slain by the sword of the people whom he had endeavored to curse (Num. xxxl. 8; Josh. .xiii. 22). Mkssiah ; Prophet. Ba'lae (Rev. ii. 14) = Balak. Bal'a-dan (Heb. Bel is liis lord, worshipper of Bel, Ges. ; having power and riches, Fii.). Merodacu- Baladan. Ba'lah (Heb.) = Baal, geography, 2, b, and BiL- HAii 2 (Josh. xix. 3). Balak (Heb. empty, vacant, Ges.), son of Zippor, BAL BAQ 97 king of the Moabites, at the time when tlic cliildrcn of Lrael were bringinj; their journevings in the wil- derness to a close. Balak entered into a league with Midian and hired Balaam to curse the Israelites ; but his designs were frustrated (Num. xiii.-xxiv.). He is mentioned also at Josh. xxiv. 9; Judg. li. 26 ; Slic. vi. 5 ; Rev. ii. 14 ("Balac," A. V.). Bal'a-mo (fr. (ir ). Baal, geograpliy, 6. B«l ance or Bal'an-«eg, is the translation in the A. V. of two Hebrew and two Greek words. ]■ Hcb. mozinayirn, the dual form of which points to the double scales (Lev. xi.'?. 36 ; Job xxxi. 6, &C.). The balance in this form is found on the Egyptian monuments as early as Joseph's time. The weights used were at first probably stones, and hence " stone " = any weight whatever, though af- terward made of lead (Lev. six. 36 ; Deal. xxv. 13, 15; Prov. xi. 1, xx. 10, 23; Zech. v. 8). These weights were carried in a Bag. (Money.)— 2. Heb. kd- neh, translated " balance " in Is. xlvi. 6, generally ^ a measuring-rod, and it also = the tongue or beam of a balance.— 3. Gr. plastingi, originally applied to the scale-pan alone, = " balance " in Wis. xi. 22 (Gr. 23) ; 2 Mc. ix. 8. — 1. Gr. zugos, literally a yoke, is translated "a pair of balances " in Rev. vi. 5, "a balance " in Ecclus. xxi. 25, xxviii. 25. This (also the neuter ziigon) is used in the LXX. as = Xo. 1. — The balance is a well-known symbol of strict jus- tice (Job xxxi. 6 ; Dan. v. 21, &c.) ; but in Rev. vi. 5, many consider it a symbol of famine (compare ver. 6, and Lev. xxvi. 26). Scales ; Weights akd Measires. Ba-las'a-aigj (fr. Gr.) = Maaseiab 6 (1 Esd. ix. 43). Bald'ncsSi There are two kinds of baldness, viz., artificial and natural. The latter seems to have been uncommon, since it exposed people to public derision, and is perpetually alluded to as a mark of squalor and misery (2 K. ii. 23 ; Is. iii. 24, " instead of well-set hair, baldness, and burning instead of beauty ; " Is. xv. 2 ; Jer. xlvii. 5 ; Ez. vii. 18, &c.). For this reason it seems to have been included under the disqualifications for priesthood (Lev. xxi. 20, LXX., Jewish interpretation). In Lev. xiii. 29, &c., very carefid directions are given tc distinguish "a plague upon the head and beard," from mere natural baldness which is pronounced to be clean, ver. 40. (Lepek.) Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Xazarite's vow (Acts xviii. 18; Num. vi. 9, 18), and was a sign of Mocrxino. It is often alluded to in Scripture ; as in Mic. i. 16 ; Am. viii. 10, &c. ; and in Deut. xiv. 1, 2, the reason for its being forbidden to the Israelites is their being " a holy and peculiar people." (See Lev. xix. 27, and Jer. ix. 26, marg.) The practices alluded to in the latter passages were adopted by heathen nations in honor of various god.s. Beard; Hair; Idolatry. Balm [bahra] (Heb. tuOri, taSri) occurs in Gen. xxxvii. 25, as one of the substances which the Ish- maelites were bringing from (Jilead to take into Egypt; in Gen. xliii. 11, as one of the presents which Jacob sent to Joseph ; in Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11, li. 8, where it appears that the balm of (iilead had a medicinal value ; in Ez. xxvii. 17 (margin, " rosin ") as an article of commerce brought by Judah into Tyre. It is impossible to identify it with any certainty. Perhaps it does not refer to an ex- udation from any particular tice, but was intended to denote any resinous substance which had a medi-, cinal value. If the prodiice of any particular tree is intcnde An Israelite " of the .sons of Bani " (Ezr. x. 38 ; Bannus).— 6. A Levite, father of liehum (Neh. iii. 17). — 7t A I.evite in Nehemiah's time (viii. 7 ; ix. 4, 5 ; x, 13); possibly = No. 6, if the name is that of a family. (Anus.) — 8. An- other Levite, of the sons of Asaph (xi. 22). Ba'nid (Gr. Banias; L. Baiiia), (1 Esd. viii. 36), represents a n!;me which seme suppose hns escaped from the prcstnt Hebrew text (see Ezr. viii. 10). * Ban'isfh-niout. Punishments. * Bank< Money-changers ; War. Ean-nal'a (fr. Gr.) — Zabad 5 (1 Esd. ix. 33). * Banner. Ensign. Ban'nas (fr. Gr.) = Bani 6, or Binnui 3 (1 Esd. ix. 34). Ban'qneti [bank'wets], among the Hebrews, were not only a means of social enjoyment, but were a part of the observance of religious festivity. At the three solemn Festivals, when all the males ap- peared before the Lonl, the family also had its do- mestic feast (Deut. xvi. 11). Probably both males and females went up (1 Sam. i. 9) together, to hold the festival. Siicrificcs, both ordinary and extraor- dinary, as in heathen nations (Ex. xxxiv. 16 ; Judg. xvi. 23), includeil a banquet, and Eli's sons made this latter the prominent part. Besides religious celebrations, weaning a son and heir, a Marriage, the separation or reunion of friends, sheep-rhearing, &c., were customarily attended by a banquet or revel (Gen. xxi. 8, xxix. 22, xxxi. 27, 64 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 2, 36; 2 Sam. xiii. 23). Birthdayban()uets are mentioned in the cases of Pharaoh and Herod (Gen. xl. 20; Mat. xiv. 6; Birthdays). The usual time of the ban((uet was the evening, and to begin early was a mark of excess (Is. v. 11 ; Ecd. x. 16). The most essential materials of the banqueting-room, next to the viands and wine, which lust was often drugged with spices (I'rov. ix. 2 ; Cant. viii. .2), were 98 BAX BAP perfumed ointments, garlands or loose flowers, white or brilliant robes ; after tliese, exliibitions of music, singers, and dancers, riddles, jesting and merriment (Is. xxviii. 1 ; Wis. ii. 7 ; 2 S.im. xix. 35 ; Is. x.w. 6, V. 12; Judg. xiv. 12; Neh. viii. 10; Eccl. x. 19; Am. vi. 5, B ; Mat. xxii. 1 1 ; Lk. xv. 25). Seven days was a not uncommon duration of a festival, especially for a wedding, but sometimes fourteen (Gen. xxix. 27; Judg. xiv. 12; Tob. viii. 19); hut if the bride were a widow, three days Ibrmed the limit. • There seems no doubt that the Jews of the 0. T. period used a common table for all the guests. In Joseph's entertainment a ceremonial separation prevailed ; but the common phrase to " sit at table," or " eat at any one's table," shows the originality of the opposite usage. The posture at table in early times was sitting, and the guests were ranged in order of dignity (Gen. xliii. 33 ; 1 Sam. ix. 22) : the words which imply the recumbent posture belong to the N. T. In religious banquets the wine was mixed, by rabbinical regulation, with three parts of water, and four short forms of benediction were pronounced over it. DuiNK, Strong ; Food ; Meals ; Passovek ; Reoiiabites ; Wine. Bann-as (1 Esd. v. 26), probably a corruption of Ileb. binep —sons or "children" (of Ilodaviah) ; compare Ezr. ii. 40 and Neh. vii. 43. Baptism (fr. Gr. ; see VII. below). I. It is well known that ablution or bathing was common in most ancient nations as a preparation for prayers and sacrifice or as expiatory of sin. There is a natural connection in the nihid between the thought of physical and that of spiritual pollution. In warm countries this connection is probably even closer than incolder climates; and hence the frequency of ablution in tlie religious rites througliout the East. — II. The history of Israel and the Law of Moses abound with such lustrations (Gen. xxxv. 2 ; Ex. xix. 10; Lev. xiii., xiv., xv.,xvi. 26, 28, xvii. 15, xxii. 4, 6 ; Num. xix.). Before great religious observances such purifications were especially solemn (Jn. xi. 55) ; and in the later times of the Jewish history there appear to have been public baths and buildings set apart for this purpose, one of which was prob- ably the pool of Betiiesda (v. 2). It was natural that, of all people, tlie priests most especially should be required to purify themselves in this manner. The consecration of the high-priest was first by baptism, then by unction, and lastly by sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 4, xl. 12; Lev. viii.). The spiritual sig- nificance of all these ceremonial washings was well known to the devout Israelite. " I will wash my hands in innocency," says the Psalmist, "and so will I compass thine altar" (Ps. xxvi. 6 ; compare Ii. 2, Ixxiii. 13). The prophets constantly speak of pardon and conversion from sin under the same figure (Is. i. 16, iv. 4; Jer. iv. 14; Zech. xiii. 1). From the Gospel history we learn that at that time ceremonial washings had been greatly multiplied by traditions of the doctors and elders (Mk. vii. 3, 4), and the tes- timony of the Evangelist is fully borne out by that of the later writings of the Jews. The most im- portant and probably one of the earliest of these traditional customs was the baptizing of Proselytes. There is a universal agreement among later Jewish writers (Talmud, Maimonides, &c.) that all the Isra- elites were brought into covenant with God by cir- cumcision, baptism, and sacrifice, and that the same ceremonies were necessary in admitting proselytes (so Bishop E. H. Browne, the original author of this article). — III. The Baptism of John. — These usages of the Jews will account for the readiness with which all men flocked to the baptism of John the Baptist. Corresponding with the custom of cleansing by water from legal impurity and with the baptism of prose- lytes from heathenism to Judaism, it seemed to call upon them to come out from the unbelieving and sinful habits of their age, and to enlist themselves into the company of those who were preparing for the manifestation of the deliverance of Israel. John's baptism appears to have been a kind of transition from the Jewish baptism to the Chris- tian. All ceremonial ablutions under the Law pic- tured to the eye that inward cleansing of the heart which can come only from the grace of God, and which accompanies forgiveness of sins. So John's baptism was a " baptism of repentance for remission of sins " (Mk. i. 4) ; it was accompanied with con- fession (Mat. iii. 6) ; it was a call to repentance ; it conveyed a promise of pardon ; and the whole was knit up with faith in Ilim that should come after, even Christ Jesus (Acts xix, 4). Jesus himself deigned to be baptized with it, and perhaps some of His disciples received no other baptism but John's until they received the special baptism of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. Yet John himself speaks of it as a mere baptism with water unto re- pentance, pointing forward to Him who should bap- tize with the Holy Ghost and with fire (Mat. iii. 11). And the distinction between John's baptism and Christian baptism appears in the case of ApoUos (Acts xviii. 25-27), and of the disciples at Ephesus (xix. 1-6). We cannot but draw from this history the inference that there was a deeper spiritual signif- icance in Christian baptism than in John's baptism, and that, as John was a greater prophet than any that before him had been born of women, and yet the least in tlie kingdom of heaven was greater than he (Mat. xi. 11), so his baptism surpassed in spirit- ual import all Jewish ceremony, but fell equally short of the sacrament ordained by Christ. — IV. Tlie Bapliem of Jesim.—VXMvA^ iXv:^ most important action of John as a baptist was his baptism of Jesus. No doubt it was the will of Christ in the first place, by so submitting to baptism, to set His seal to the teaching and the ministry of John. Again, as He was to be the Head of His Church and the Captain of our salvation, He was pleased to undergo that rite which He afterward enjoined on all His follow- ers. And, once more, His baptism consecrated the baptism of Christians forever ; even as afterward His own partaking of the Eucharist gave still further sanction to His injunction that His disciples ever after should continually partake of it. But, beyond all this. His baptism was His formal setting apart for His ministry, and was a most important portion of His consecration to be the High Priest of God. He was just entering on the age of thirty (Lk. iii. 23), the age at which the Levites began their min- istry and the rabbis their teaching. It has been mentioned (II. above) that the consecration of Aaron to the high-priesthood was by baptism, unction, and sacrj/fc-c (Lev. viii.). All these were undergone by Jesus. First, He was baptized by John. Then, just as the high-priest was anointed immediately after his baptism, so when Jesus had gone up out of the water, the heavens were opened unto Him, and the Spirit of God descended upon Him (Mat. iii. 16); and thus " God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with power " (Acts x. 38). The sacrifice indeed was not till the end of His earthly ministry, when He oft'ered up the sacrifice of Him- self; and then ut His resurrection and ascension He fully took upon Him the office of priesthood, enter- BAP BAP 99 ing into the presence of God for us, pleading the ef- ficacy of His sacrifice, and blessing those for whom that sacrifice was oft'erod. Baptism, therefore, was the beginning of consecration ; unction was the im- mediate consequent upon the baptism ; and saerilice was the completion of the initiation, so that IJe was thenceforth perlecled, or fully consecrated as a Priest for evermore (Heb. vii. 28). — V. ISaptism of tite IKviplfx of Christ. — Whether our Lord ever baptized lias been doubted. The only passage which may distinctly bear on the question is Jn. \v. 1, 2, where it is said " that Jesus made and baptized more disciples than John, though Jesus Himself baptized not, but His disciples." We necessarily infer from it, that, as soon as our Lord began His ministry, and gathered to Him a company of disciples. He, like John the Baptist, admitted into that company by the administration of baptism. The making dis- ciples anil the baptizing them went together. After tne resurrection, when the Church was to be spread and the Gospel preached, our Lord's own commis- sion conjoins the making of disciples with their bap- tism (Mat. xxviii. 19; compare Acts ii. 38, vih. 12, 86, 38, i-x. 18, X. 47, 48, xvi. 15, 33, &c.). Baptism then was the initiatory rite of the Christian Church, as circimicision was of Judaism. As circumcision admitted to the Jewish covenant — to its privileges and responsibility — so baptism, which succeeded it, was the mode of admission to the Christian cove- nant, to its graces and privileges, duties and service. — \l. The Types of Ilaplum.—l. In ] Pct.iii. 21, the deliverance of Noah in the Deluge is compared to the deliverance of Christians in baptism. The connection in this passage between baptism and " the resurrection of Jesus Christ " may be com- pared with Col. ii. 12. — 2. In 1 Cor. x. 1, 2, the pas- sage of the Red Sen and the shadowing of tlie mirac- ulous cloud are treated as types of baptism. The passage from the condition of bondmen in Egypt was through the Ked Sea and with the protection of the luminous cloud. It is sufficiently apparent how this may resemble the enlisting of a new convert into the body of the Christian Church. — 3. Another type of, or rather a rite analogous to, baptism was circumcision (Col. ii. 11). The obvious leason for the comparison is, that circumcision was the en- trance to the Jewish Church and the ancient cove- nant, baptism to the Christian Church and to the new covenant. — 4. In more than one instance death is called a baptism (Mat, xx. 22, 23 ; Mk. x. 38, 39 ; Lk. xii. 50). It is generally thought that baptism here — an inundation of sorrows, and that our Lord meant to indicate that He Himself had to pass through " the deep waters of affliction." Is it not probable that some deeper significance attaches to the comparison of denth, especially of our Lord's death, to baptism, when we consider too that the connection of baptism with the death and resurrec- tion of Christ is so much insisted on by St. Paul? — VII. Namn of Baptism. — 1. "Baptism " (Gr.bap- iisma: the Greek haptismo* occurs only four times, viz.: Mk. vii. 4, 8; Heb. vi. 2, ii. 10). The Greek verb baptizein (fr. bapteiu, to dip), is the rendering by the LXX. In 2 K. v. 14 of the Heb. tiibnl = "dip" in A. V. In Van. iv. 33 (Gr. 30) Oaptein in the LXX. corresponds to " wet " in A. V. 'The Lat- in Fathers render baptizein by tingere (= to wet, moisten, bailie with or in any li(|uid, Andrews' L. Jjef:\ mergere (=: to dip, dip in, immerse, Andrews' L. I.er..), and mergilare (ziz to dtp in, immerse, An- drews' Z. LtT.). By the Greek Fathers, the word baptizein a often used, frequently figuratively, for to immerse or overwhelm with sleep, sorrow, sin, &c. Hence bapiisma properly and literallv = immersion (so Bishop Browne).'— 2. "The W'ater " (A. V. "water") is a n.ime of baptism in Acts x. 47. With this phrase " the water," used of baptism, compare " the breaking of bread " as a title of the Kucharist (Acts ii. 42). — 3. "The Washing of Water" (literally " the bath of the water") is an- other Scriptural terra, by which baptism is signified (Eph. V. 2ti). There appears clearly in these words a reference to the bridal bath (Marriage III.) ; but the allusion to baptism is clearer still. — 4. "The washing of regeneration " (literally " the bath of regeneration ") is a phrase (Tit. iii. 5) naturally con- nected with the foregoing. All ancient and most modern commentators have interpreted it of bap- tism. There is so much resemblance, both in the phraseology and in the argument, between Tit. iii. 5 and 1 Cor. vi. 11, that the latter ought by all means to be compared with the former. Another passage containing very similar thoughts, clothed in almost the same words, isActsxxii. 16. — 5. "Illumination " (Gr. photismos). It has been much questioned whether " enlightened " (Gr. photizesOud), in Ileb. vi, 4, X. 32, be used of baptism or not. Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and almost all the Greek Fathers, use plwlismos as = baptism. This use is now very commonly considered entirely ecclesiasti- cal, not Scriptural. But the Greek photagogia (= ilhtmination) was u term for admission into the an- cient mysteries. Baptism was without question the initiatory rite in reference to the Christian faith. Now, that Christian faith is more than once called by St. Paul the Christian " mystery " (Eph. i. 9, iii, 4, vi, 19 J Col. iv. 3). Hence, as baptism is the ini- tiatory Christian rite, admitting us to the service of God and to the knowledge of Christ, it may not im- probably have been called photimws, and afterward photagogia, as having reference, and as admitting, to the mystcrg of the Gospel, and to Christ Himself, who is the Jfi/iterg of God (Col. i. 27, ii. 2).— VIII. Other I'roniinoit Texts referring to Baptism. — 1. The passage in Jn. iii. 5 — " Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God" — has been a well-established battle-field from the time of Calvin. Stier quotes with entire apjiroliation the words of Meyer (on Jn. iii. 5) : — " Jusus si}eaks here concerning a spiritual baptism, as in chapter vi. concerning a spiritual feed- ing ; in both places, however, with reference to their visiljle auxiliary means." — 2. The prophecy of John the Baptist, that our Lord should baptize with the Holy Ghost and with fire (Mat. iii. 11), may be inter- preted (so Bp. Browne) by a hendiadys. The water of John's baptism could but wash the body ; the Holy Ghost with which Christ was to baptize, should purify the soul as with fire. Many commentators, ancient and modern, understand this verse thus : He will cither overwhelm (lichly furnish) you with all spiritual gifts, or overwhelm with fire unquenchable (Rbn. N. T. Zfir.).— 3. Gal. iii. 27 : " For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ," The contrast is between the Christian and the Jewish church : one bond, the other free; one in- fant, the other adult. And the transition-point is nat- urally that at which by baptism the service of Christ is undertaken and the promises of the Gospel are claimed. This is represented as putting on Christ > It Is unquestionable, however (so Bishop Browne), that In Mk. vii. 4, baptizentltai (translated " wasli " A. V.) is used, where Immer.'iion of the whole body is not ■ intended (compare Ileb. vi. 2, ix. 10). 100 BAP BAR and in Him assuming the position of full-grown men. In this more privileged condition there is the power of obtaining justification by faith, a justification which the Law had not to offer. — I. 1 Oor. xii. 13: " For b)' one Spirit (or, in one spirit) we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Greeks, wliether bond or free, and were all made to drink of one Spirit." The resemblance of this passage to the last is very clear. In the old dispensation there was a marked division between Jew and Gentile (Greek): under the Gospel there is one body in Christ. Pos- sibly there is an allusion to both sacraments. Both our baptism and our partaking of the cup in the communion are tokens and jdedgei of Christian uni- ty. — 5. Rom. vi. 4 and Col. ii. 12, are so closely par- allel that we may notice them together. Probaljly, ns in the former passages St. Paul had brought for- ward baptism as the symbol of Christian unity, so in these he refers to it as the token and pledge of the spiritual death to sin and resurrection to righteous- ness ; and of the final victory over death in the last day, through the power of the resurrection of Christ. — IX. Jiecipieiiis of Baptism. — The command to baptize was co-extensive with tlie command to preaeli the Gospel. All nations were to be evangel- ized ; and they were to be made disciples, admitted into the fellowship of Christ's religion, by baptism (Mat. xxviii. 19). Whosoever believed the Gospel was to be baptized (Mk. xvi. 16). Oa this command the apostles acted. Every one who received as truth the teaching of the first preachers of the Gospel, and was willing to enroll himself in the company of the disciples, appears to have been admitted to bap- tism on a confession of his faith. There is no dis- tinct evidence in the N. T. that there was in those early days a body of catechumens gradually prepar- ing for baptism, such as existed in the ages imme- diately succeeding the apostles. The great question has been, whether the invitation extended, not to adults only, but to infants also. The universality of the invitation, Christ's declaration concerning the blessedness of infants and their fitness for His king- dom (Mk. X. 14), the admission of infants to circum- cision and to the baptism of Jewish proselytes, the mention of whole households, and the subsequent practice of the Church, have been principally relied on by the advocates of infant baptism. The silence of the N. T. concerning the baptism of infants, the constant mention of faith as a pre-requisite or con- dition of baptism, the great spiritual blessings which seem attached to a right reception of it, and the re- sponsibility entailed on those who have taken its obligations on themselves, seem the chief objections urged against pedo- baptism. But here we must leave ground which has been so extensively occupied by controversialists. — X. The Mode of Baptism. — The language of the N. T. and of the primitive Fathers sufficiently points to immersion as the common mode of baptism. But in the case of tlie family of the jailer at Philippi (Acts xvi. 33), and of the 3,000 converted at Pentecost (Acts ii.), it seems hardly likely that immersion should have been possible. Moreover the ancient Church, which mostly adopted immersion, was satisfied with affusion in case of clinical baptism — the baptism of the sick and dying. — QueslioHS and Aimwrrs. — In the early times of the Christian Church we find the catechumens re- quired to renoimce the devil and to profess their faith in the Holy Trinity and in the principal articles of the Creed. It is supposed by many that St. Peter (1 Pet. iii. 21) refers to a custom of this kind as ex- isting from the first (compare 1 Tim. vi. 12 ; 2 Tim. i. 1 3). — XI. TJie Formula of Baptism. — ^It would seem from our Lord's own direction (Mat. xxviii. 19) tliat the words made use of in the administration of bap- tism should be those generally retained : " I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of tlie Holy Ghost." — The expressions in Acts ii. 38, viii. 16, x. 48, xix. 5 — "in the name of Jesus Christ," " of the Lord Jesus," " of the Lord " — mean only that those who were baptized with Christian baptism were baptized into the faith of Christ, not that tlie form of words was different from that en- joined in Matthew. — Sponsors. — There is no mention of sponsors in the N. T. In very early ages of the Church sponsors were in use both for children and adults. — XII. Baptism for the Dead. — 1 Cor. xv. 29. " Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all ? Why are they then baptized for the dead ? " 1. Tertullian tells us of a custom of vicarious baptism as existing among the Marcionites ; and (jhrysostom relates of the same heretics, that, when one of their catechumens died without baptism, they used to put a living person under the dead man's bed, and asked whether he de- sired to be baptized ; the living man answering that he did, they then baptized him in place of the de- parted. Epiphanius relates a similar custom among the Ccrinthians, which, he said, prevailed from fear that in the resurrection those should suffer punish- ment who had not been baptized. The question naturally occurs. Did St. Paul allude to a custom of this kind, which even in his days had begun to pre- vail among heretics and ignorant persons ? If so, he no doubt adduceJ it as an argumentum ad homhiem (i. e. an argument founded on principles, right or wrong, whicli the reader admitted). " If the dead rise not at all, what benefit do they expect who baptize vicariously for the dead ? " Perhaps the greater number of modern commentators have adopted this, as the simplest and most rational sense of the apos- tle's words. It is, however, equally conceivable that the passage in St. Paul gave rise to the subsequent pr.ictice among the Marcionites and Ccrinthians. 2. Chrysostom (and so Tertullian, Theodoret, &c.) be- lieves the apostle to refer to the profession of faith in baptism, part of which was " I believe in the resur- rection of the dead." Robinson (N. T. Lex.) explains " baptized for the dead " as =: baptized on account of the dead, i. e. into a belief of the resurrection of the dead ; but says some explain it as = baptized (overwhelmed) with calamities for the dead, i. e. ex- posed to great suffering in the hope of a resurrection. — 3. " What shall they do, who are baptized when death is close at hand ? " (Epiphanius.) — 4. " Over the graves of the martyrs." Vossius adopted this interpretation ; but it is very unlikely that the cus- tom prevailed in the days of St. Paul. — 5. " On ac- count of a dead Saviour." — 6. " What shall they gain, who are baptized for tlie sake of the dead in Christ ? " — 1. " What shall they do, who are bap- tized in the place of the dead?" i. e. who, as the ranks of the faithful are thinned by death, come for- ward to be baptized, that they may fill up the com- pany of believers (Le Clerc, Doderlein, Olshausen, Fairbairn, &c.). '* Baptist. John thk Baptist. Bar-abbas (Gr. fr. Aram.; = son of Ayiba, Sim., or son of the father, Rbn.), a robber, who had com- mitted murder in an insurrection in Jerusalem, and was lying in prison at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate. He instead of Jesus was released by Pilate at the request of the Jewish multitude (.Mat. xxvii. 16-26; Mk. xv. 7-15; Lk. xxiii. 18-25; Ju. BAR liAR 101 xviii. 40). His narae in Mat. xxvii. 16, 1'7, accord- ing to many of tlie cursive, or later, M£S., was Jesus Butuhbus. Thieves, the two. Bar ii-(hel [-kel] (Heb. whom Ood halh blessed, Ges.), "the Buzite," father of Elihu 1 (Job xxxii. 2, 6). Biz 1. * Bar-a-tbi'ab, in some editions for Berechiah (Zecli. i. ], 7). Bar-a-rbi'is (Gr.) = Barachiah or Berechiah (Mat. xxiii. S5). Zacharias. Ba'mk (Heb. lightning), son of Abinoam of Kcdesb- naphtali (Kedesh 3), iucite Son of Col-hozeh, a descendant of Judah through Perez, or Pharez (xi. 5). Ba'-rnth, the Book of, is remarkable as the only book in the Apocrypha which is formed on the model of the prophets ; and though wanting in originality, it presents a vivid reflection of the an- cient prophetic fire. It may be divided into two main parts, (1.) i.-iii. 8, and (2.) iii. 9-end. The first consists of an introduction (I. 1-14), followed by a confession and prayer (I. 15-iil. 8). The second opens with an abrupt address to Israel (ill. 9-iv. 30), pointing out their sin In neglecting the divine teach- ing of Wisdom (ill. 9-iv. 8), and introducing a noble lament of Jerusalem over her children, through which hope still gleams (iv. 9-30) ; afterward the writer addresses Jerusalem in words of triumphant joy, and paints in glowing colors the return of God's chosen people and their abiding glory (iv. 30-v. 9). — 1. The book at present exists in Greek, and in several translations made from the Greek. Of the two Old Latin versions which remain, that which is incorporated in the Vulgate is generally literal ; the other is more free. The vulgar Syiiac and Arabic follow the Greek text closely. — 2. The assumed author is undoubtedly the companion of Jeremiah, but the details of the book are incon- sistent with the assumption. It exhibits not only historical inaccuracies, but also evident traces of a later date than the beginning of the Ca])tivity (Iii. 9 ff., iv. 22 ff. ; 1. 3 S; compare 2 K. x.xv. 27).— 3. The book was held in little esteem among the Jews ; though it is stated in the Greek text of the Apostolical Constitutions that it was read, together with the Lamentations, " on the tenth day of the month Gorpiaius" (I. e. the Day of Atonement). From the time of Irenasus it was frequently quoted both in the East and in the West, and generally as the work of Jeremiah. It was, however, " obelized " throughout in the LXX. as deficient in the Hebrew. At the Council of Trent it was admitted into the Ro- BAR BAS 108 man Catholic canon ; but the Protestant churches have unanimously placed it among the Apoorvplial books. — i. Considerable discussion has been raised as to the original lanjruage of tlie book. Those who advocated its authenticity generally supposed that it was first written in llebiew. Others again have maintained that the Greek is the original text. The truth appears to lie between these extremes. The two divisions of the book are distinguished by marked peculiarities of style and language. The Hebraic character of the first part is such as to mark it as a translation and not as a work of a Hebraizing (ircek. The second part, on the other hand, closely approaches the Alexandrine type. (Alexandria.)— 6. The most probable explanation of this contrast is gained by supposing that some one thoroughly con- versant with the Alexandrine translation of Jeremiah found the Hebrew fragment which forms the basis of the book already attached to the writings of that prophet, and wrought it up into its present form. — 6. There are no certain data by which to fix the time of tlie composition. The Hebrew portion may be assigned to the close of the Persian period (4th cent, n. c.) ; but the present book must be placed consid- erably later, probably about the time of the war of liberation (B. c. 160), or somewhat earlier. — 7. 7/ie EjAslle of Jeremiah, which, according to the author- ity of some Greek Mi?S., stands in the A. V. as the sixth chapter of Haruch, is the work of a later period. It may be assigned probably to the first century n. c. — 8. A Syriac first Epistle of Baruch " to the nine and a half tribes" is found in the London and Paris Polyglots. Fritzsche considers it to be the produc- tion of a Syrian monk. Bar'ze-lai (1 Esd. v. 38, marg.). Addus 2 ; Bar- ZILI.AI 1, 2. Rar-zil'la-i or Bar-zU'lal [Heb. iron\. 1 . A wealthy Gileadite who showed hospitality to David when he fled from Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 27 ; 1 K. ii. 7). On the score of his age, and probably from a feeling of independence, he declined the king's oft'er of ending his days at court (2 Sam. xix. 31-39). — 2. The hus- band of a daughter of No. 1, whose descendants were unable, after the captivity, to prove their priestly genealogy (Ezr. ii. 01; Neh. vii. 63). (Addis; AuoiA.)— 3. A Meholathite, whose son Adriel mar- ried Michal, Paul's daughter (2 Sam. xxi. 8). B«s'a-lolb (1 Esd. v. 31) = Bazlith. Baii'ra-nia (L. fr. Or.), a place in Gilead where Jonathan Maccabeus was killed by Trjphon (1 Mc. xiii. 23); site unknown. Ba'slian (Heb. %/i/ mndy noil, Ges. ; basaltJnnxl, Fii.), an extensive district, embracing all the N. part of the land possessed by the Israelites on the E. of Jordan. It is sometimes spoken of as " the land of Bashan" (1 Chr. v. 11; compare Num. xxi. 3.3, xxxii. 33), and sometimes as "all Bashan " (Deut. iii. 10, 13; Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 11, 30), but most com- monly as " Bashan " simply. It was taken by the children of Israel after their conquest of the land of Sihon from Arnon to Jabbok. They " tin-ned " from their road over Jordan and " went up by the way of Bashan" to Edrei. Here they encountered Og, king of Bashan, who " came out," probably from the natu- ral fastnesses of Argoli, only to meet the entire de- struction of himself, his sons, and all his peojile (Num. xxi. 3.3-35; Deut. iii. 1-3). The limits of Bashan are very strictly defined. It extended from the " bonier of Gilead " on the S. to Motmt Hermon on the N. (Deut. iii. 3, 10, 14 ; Josh. xii. 5 ; 1 Chr. V. 23), and from the Jordan valley on the W. to Sal- chab and the border of the Geshurites, and the Ma- achalhitcs on the E. (Josh. xii. 3-5 ; Deut. iii. 10\ Tliis important district was bestowed on the half tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 29-31), together with " half Gilead." It is named in the list of Solomon's commissariat districts (1 K. iv. 13). It was devas- tated by Hazael in the reign of Jehu (2 K. x. 33). It was famous for its oaks (Is. ii. 13 ; Ez. xxvii. 6 ; Zech. xi. 2) and rich pasture lands and superior cat- tle (Ps. xxii. 12 ; Jer. 1. 19 ; Ez. xxxix. 18, &c.). Stanley (114, n.) supposes "the hill (literally "mount") of Bashan " in Ps. Ixviii. 15 = AntiUba- nus, of which Mount Hermon is the highest part. After the Captivity, Bashan was divided into four provinces — Gaulanitis (Golan), Auranitis (Hauran), Trachonitis (Argob), and 'B&i:tniBaL,OT Ard-el-Bathan- yeh, which lies E. of the Lfjah and N. of the range of Jcbcl Hauran or ed-Driize. Ba'sbaD-ha'rotb-Ja'ir (fr. Heb. = Banhan of the villages of J air), a name given to Argob after its con- quest by Jair (Deut. iii. 14). Havotii-jair. Basb C-matb (fr. Heb. = fragrant), daughter of Ishmael, and the third of Esau's three wives (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13), from whose son, Reuel, four tribes of the Edomites were descended. When first men- tioned she is called Mahalatii (xxviii. 9) ; w hilst, on the other hand, the name Bashcmath is in the narra- tive (xxvi. 34) given to another of Esau's wives, the daughter of Elon the Hittite. (Adah 2.) The Samar- itan text seeks to remove this difficulty by reading Mahalath instead of Bashemath in the genealogy. We might with more probability suppose that this name (Bashemath) has been assigned to the wrong pereon in one or other of the passages ; but if so it is impossible to determine which is erroneous. Ahol- IBAMAH. Ba'siD. Four Hebrew words {mizr&lc, agg&n, <•?- plior or rjilivr [see Frost 3], mph), and one Greek word (ni/zler) are translated " basin," " basins," in the A. V. ; but between the " basin," " bowl," "charger," "cup," "dish," "goblet," it is scarcely possible now to ascertain the precise distinction. Their form and material can only be conjectured from the analogy of ancient Assyrian and Egyptian speci- mens of woi ks of the same kind, and from modem Oriental vessels for culinary or domestic purposes. Among the smaller vessels for the Tabernacle or Temple service, many must have been required to receive from the sacrificial victims the blood to be sprinkled for purification. Moses, on the occasion of the great ceremony of purification in the wildei- ncs.«, put half the blood in " the basins," or bowls, and afterward sprinkled it on the people (Ex. xxiv. 6, 8). Among the vessels cast in metal, whether gold, silver, or brass, by Hiram, for Solomon, besides the laver and great sea, mention is made of basins, bowls, and cups. Of the first (margin, howls) he is said to have iTijde one bundled (2 Chr. iv. 8, 1 1, 22 ; 1 K. vii. 40, 45, 40, 50; compare Ex. xxv. 29 and 1 Chr. xxviii. 14, 17). The "basin" from which our Lord washed the disciples' feet (Gr. nipler, Jn. xiii. 5), was probably deeper and larger than the hand-basin for sprinkling. Wasiuno the Hands and Feet. Bas'ket. The five following Hebrew terms = " bas- ket," "baskets," in the A. V. : (1.) Sal, so called from the twigs of wliicli it was originally made, specially u.sed for holding bread (Gen. xl. 10 iV. ; Ex. xxix. 3, 23 ; Lev. viii. 2, 26, 31 ; Num. vi. 15, 17, 19). The form of the Egyptian bread-basket is delineated in Wilkinson's AneieiU &t/pliatis, iii. 220, after the specimens represented in the tomb of Rameses III. These were of gold, and hence the term sal must 104 BAS BAT have passed from its strict etymological meaning to any vessel applied to the purpose. In Judg. vi. 19, meat is served up in a sal, which could hardly have been of wickerwork. The " white baskets " (Gen. xl. 16) are supposed to be baskets of white (peeled) twigs (so Rashi), or baskets of white bread (Ges.), or baskets " full of holes " (marg.), i. e. open-work baskets. (2.) SalsiVoth, a word of kindred origin, applied to the basket used in gathering grapes (Jer. vi. 9). (3.) Tene, in which the first-fruits of the harvest were presented (Deut. xxvi. 2, 4). From its Egyptiau BikaLcu. — (B'rom Wilkinson.) being coupled with the kneading-bowl (A. V. "store," Deut. xxviii. 5, 17), we may infer that it was also used for household purposes, perhaps to bring the corn to the mill. (4.) Cvliib or club, so called from its similarity to a bird-cage or trap, probably in re- gard to its having a lid : it was used for carrying fruit (Am. viii. 1, 2). Cage. (5.) Dud, used for carrying fruit (Jer. xxiv. 1, 2), as well a.a on a larger scale for carrying clay to the bi'ick-yard (Ps. Ixxxi. 6 ; " pots," A. v.), or for holding bulkv articles (2 K. X. 7).— In the N. T. the three Greek terms, kofihinos, spnrh, sargane ■= " basket." The last occurs only in 2 Cor. xi. 33, in describing St. Paul's escape from Damascus, for which Acts ix. 25 uses the second. The first is exclusively used in the description of the miracle of feeding the five thousarid (Mat. xiv. 20, xvi. 9; Mk. vi. 43; Lk. ix. 17; Jn. vi. 13) ; the second is used in that of the four thou- sand (Mat. XV. 37 ; Mk. viii. 8) : the distinction be- tween these is most definitely brought out in Mat. xvi. 9, 10 and Mk. viii. 19, 20. Handicraft. Bas'matb (Hcb. fragrant), daughter of Solomon, Dian-ied to his commissary, Ahimaaz (1 K. iv. 15). * Ba'sun = Basin. Bas'sa (Gr.) = Bezai (1 Esd. v. 16). Baslal (fr. Gr.) = Besai (1 E?d. v. 31). Bas'tard. Among those who were excluded from entering the congregation, even to the tenth genera- tion, was the one called in Heb. mamzer (A. V. " bas- tard "), who was classed in this respect with the Am- monite and Moabite (Deut. xxiii. 2). The term is not, however, applied indefinitely to any illegitimate offspring, but, according to the rabbins, to one born of relations between whom marriage is forbidden, or one whose parents are liable to the punishment of "cutting off" by the hands of Heaven, or one whose parents are liable to death by the hou.se of judgment, as, e. g. the offspring of adultery. The ancient ver- sions (LXX., Vulgate, Syriac) add another class, the children of a harlot, and in this sense the terra manzer or manner survived in the Latin Pontifical law. The child of a non-Israelite and a mamzir was also reckoned by the Talmudists a mamzer, as was the issue of a slave and a mamzer, and of a mamzer and female proselyte. The term also occurs iu Zech. ix. 6, " a bastard shall dwell in Ashdod," where it seems to denote a foreign race of mixed and spurious birth. Dr. Geiger infers'from this passage that mamzer specially signifies the issue of such mar- riages between the Jews and the women of Ashdod as are alluded to in Neh. xiii. 23, 24, and applies it exclusively to the Philistine bastard. — " Bastards " (Gr. nottioi) in Heb. xii. 8, figuratively = those whom God regards as not His true children or people. Bat (Heb. 'iitalleph ; Gr. nukleris). There is no doubt that the A. V. is correct in its rendering of these words. In the A. V. of Lev. xi. 19, and Deut. Bat. — {Taphotoua per/oratut,) xiv. 18, the "bat" closes the lists of "fomk that shall not be eaten ; " but it must be remembered that the ancients considered the bat to partake of the nature of a bird, and the Heb. oph translated " fowls " (literally = a wing) might be applied to any winged creature (compare Lev. xi. 20). Besides the passages cited above, the bat is mentioned in Is. ii. 20 : " In that day a man shall cast his idols .... to the moles and to the bats ; " and in Bar. vi. 22, in the passage that so graphically sets forth the vanity of IBabylonish idols : " Their faces are blacked through the smoke that cometh out of the temple. Upon their bodies and heads sit bals, swallows, and birds, and the cats also." Many travellers have noticed the immense number? of bats touud in cav- erns in the East, and Layard says that on the occa- sion of a visit to a cavern these noisome beasts compellcil him to retreat. Bath, Ba'tbing. This was a prescribed part of the Hebrew ritual of purification in cases of accidental, leprous, or ordinary uncleanness (Lev. xv., xvi. 26, 28, xvii. 15, 16, xxii. 6; Num. xix. 7, 8, 19 ; 2 Sam. xi. 2, 4 ; 2 K. V. 10); as al.so after mourning, which always implied defilement (Ru. iii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xii. 20; Washing). The high-priest at his inauguration (Lev. viii. 6) and on the day of atonement, once be- fore each solemn act of propitiation (xvi. 4, 24), was also to bathe. A bathing-chamber was probably in- cluded in houses even of no great rank in cities from early times (2 Sam. xi. 2) ; much more in those of the wealthy in later times ; often in gardens (Sus. 15). With bathing. Anointing was customarily joined; the climate making both these essential alike to health and pleasure, to which luxury added the use of perfumes (Sus. 17; Jd. x. 3 ; Esth. ii. 12). The " pools," such as that of Siloam, and Hezekiah (Neh. iii. 15, 16; 2 K. xx. 20; Is. xxii. 11 ; Ju. ix. 7), often sheltered by porticoes (Jn. v. 2), are the first indications we have of public bathing accom- modation. Bath (Heb.). Weights and Measdres. Bath-rab'bim (Hel). daughter of many, Ges.), the gate ofj one of the gates of the ancient city of Uesh- BAT BEA 105 bon (Cant. vii. 4, 6 Heb.). The "Gate of Batli- rabbim " at Hcshbon would, according to the Oritii- tal custom, be the gate pointing to a town of that name. The only place m this neighborhood at all resembling Bath-rabbim in sound is Rabbab, Future investigations may settle this point. Bath-she'ba (Heb. daughltr of the oath, or daur/h- ter of seven, sc. years, Ges. ; 2 Sam. xi. 3, &c. ; also called Bath-shua in 1 Chr. iii. 5), the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. xi. 3), or Ammiel (1 Chr. iii. 5), and wife of Uriah the Hittite. The child which was the fruit of her adulterous intercourse with David died ; but after marriage she became the mother of four sons, Solomon, Shimej, Shobab, and Nathan. When Adonijah attempted to set aside in his own favor the succession promised to Solomon, Bath-she- ba was employed by Nathan to inform the king of the conspiracy (1 K. i. 11-31). After the accession of Solomon, she, as queen-mother (Mother ; Qcekn), requested permission of her son for Adonijah to take in marriage Abishag the Shunamite (1 K. ii. 13-22). — Jewish tradition ascribes Prov. xxxi. to Bath-she- ba. Le.miel. Bath-shn'a (Ileb. dauglUer of the oalh, Ges.) = Batii-siieba. Batil-zath-a-ri'ns (fr. Heb. = house of Zechariah), a place, named only in 1 Mc. vi. 32, 33, to which Judas Maccabeus marched from Jerusalem, and where he encamped for the relief of Bethsura. (Betii-zi-r.) The two places were seventy stadia apart, and the approaches to Bath-zacharias were in- tricate and confined. This description is met in every respect by the modem Bcil Sakdi-ieh, about eight English miles N. of Beit Sur, the ancient Beth- zur (libn. iii. 283, 284). * Bat'tor-lng-Rauii Ram, Battering. * Bat tie. Arms; Army; War. Bat'tlf-axe, Jer. li. 20. Axe ; Macl. * Bat'tle-DienU. Fenced City ; HorsE. * Ba tus (Gr. batos, fr. Heb. batJi). See Weights AND Measures, at end. Ba'vai or Bav'a-i (fr. Per?. = Bebai, Ges.), son of Ilenadad ; ruler of the district of Keilah (Half- Part) in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 18). * Bay, Colors. Bay-tree (Heb. ezrdh or ezrdeh). Most of the Jewish doctors understand by this Hebrew word in Ps. xxxvii. 35 (instead of " bay-tree," A. V., which is a species of laurel, Laurus ttobilis) " a tree which grows in its own soil" — one that has never been transplanted, and is consequently flourishing and vigorous ; which la the interpretation given in the margin of the A. V. The Hebrew word literally = " a native," in contradistinction to " a stranger," or " a foreigner." Baz'llth (fr. Heb. = a strippinr/, natediuss, Gea.), ancestor of certain Nethinim who returned witli Zerulibabel (Neh. vii. 54); = Bazlutii (Ezr. ii. 52), and Basai.oth (1 Esd. v. 31). Baz'iDtb (fr. Heb.) = Bazlitii. BdeiriDin [del'yum] (Heb. bfdolah or bcdolaeh), a precious substance, the name of which occurs in Gen. ii. 12, with "gold" and "onyx stonCj" as one of the productions of the land of Havilah, and in Num. xi. 7, where manna is in color compared to bdellium. It is iinpossibte to say whether the Hebrew word denotes a mineral, or an animal production, or a vegetable exudation. Bochart, Gesenius, &c., make it = "pearls," but the balance of probabilities seems to favor the translation of the A. V. (so Mr. Houghton, with Josephus, Aipiila, Celsius, Sprengel, &e.). Bdellium is an odoriferous exudation from a tree which is (so Kaempfer) the Borassus fabelUfor- mh, Linna!us, of Arabia Felix. Be-n-ii'ali (Heb. whose lord [Baal] is Jehovah, Ges.), a lieiijamite, who went over to David at Zik- lag (1 Chr. .\ii. 6). Be'a-loth (Heb. pi. fem. of Baal), a town in the extreme S. of Judah (Josh. xv. 24). A loth; Te- LEM. Bean, Cltil'dren of, a tribe, apparently of preda- tory Bedouin habits, destroyed by Judas Maccabeus (1 Mc. V. 4). The name perhaps = Beon. Beans (Heb. p6l ; 2 Sam. xvii. 28 ; Ez. iv. 9). Beans are cultivated in Palestine. (Agriccltcre.) Beans are in blo,«som in January ; they have been noticed in flower at Lydda on the 23d, and at Sidon and Acre even earlier ; they continue in flower till March. In Egypt beans are sown in November and reaped in the middle of February, but in Syria the harvest is later. Bear (Heb. and Chal. dob ; Gr. arl-los or arkos). The Syrian bear (Ursus Syriacus), which is without doubt the "bear" of the Bible, is still found on the Syrian Bear.— . — 2. A quilt finer than those used in No. 1. In summer a thin blanket or the outer gar- ment worn by day (1 Sam. xix. 13) sufficed. The latter often, in the case of the poor, formed No. 1 and 2. The common bed or couch in modern Pales- tine is merclv a thicklv-padded quilt (Thn. ii. 7 ; com- pare Mat. ix. 2 ff. ; Mk. ii. 4 ff. ; Lk. v. 18 ff. ; Jn. V. 8 ff.). Hence the law provided that it should not be kept in pledge after sunset, that the poor man might not lack his needful covering (Deut. xxiv. 13). — 3. The only material mentioned for this is that named in 1 Sam. xix. 13, and the word used is of doubtful meaning, probably = some fabric woven or plaited of goat's-hair. It is clear, however, that it was something hastily adopted to serve as a pillow, and is not decisive of the ordinary use. In Ez. xiii. 18, occurs the Hebrew word ceset/i, which seems to be the proper term. Such pillows are common to this day in the East, formed of sheep's fleece or goat's-skiu, with a stuffing of cotton, &c. — 4. The bedstead was not always necessary, the divan, or platform along the side or end of an Oriental room, sufficing as a support for the bedding, and the same article being used for a covering by night and a gar- ment by day. Yet some slight and portable frame seems implied among the senses of the Hebrew milldh, which is used for a "bier" (2 S.im. iii. 31), for the ordinary bed (1 Sara. xix. 13 ; 2 K. iv. 10), for the litter on which a sick person might be car- ried (1 Sam. xix. 15 ; compare Cant. iii. 7), for Ja- cob's bed of sickness (Gen. xlvii. 31), and for the couch on which guests reclined at a banquet (Esth. i. 6 ; Ez. xxiii. 41.) — 5. The ornamental portions weie pillars and a Canopy (Jd. xiii. 9), ivory carvings, gold and silver, and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen (Esth. i. 6 ; Cant. iii. 9 [" Chariot," A. V. ; " bed," marg.], 10). The ordinary furniture of a bedcliamber in private life is given in 2 K. iv. B«d and Head-rut— CWUklnwii, Aneititt Egfptiaiu,) 10. The " bedchamber " in the Temple where Jo- ash was hidden, was, probably, a store-chamber for keeping beds (2 K. xi. 2 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The po- sition of the bedchamber in the most remote and secret parts of the palace seems marked in Ex. viii. 3; 2 K. vi. 12. Be'dad (Heb. separation, part, Ges.), father of Ila- dad king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 Chr. i. 46). Be'dau (Heb. sou of Dan, viz. Samson, Chaldce and Rabbins ; senile = Abdon, Ges., Ewald). I, In 1 Sam. xii. 11, a judge of Israel between Jenibbaal (Gideon) and Jephthab. Some make Bcdan = the Jair of Judg. x. 3. The LXX., Syriac, and Arabic all have Barak, a very probable correction except for the order of the names. — i, A Hanassite, son of Ulam (1 Chr. vii. 17). Be-dfl'gh [-dee'yah] (Heb. probably = servant of Jchnmh, Ges.), a son of Bani in Ezra's time, hu-sbaud of a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 85). Bee (Heb. dlbordh ; Deut. i. 44; Judg. xiv. 8; P.S. cxviii. 12; Is. vii. 18). That Palestine abounded in bees is evident, for it was a land " flowing with milk and Honey." (Wax.) Modern travellers (Maundrell, Haekett, &c.) allude to the bees of Pal- estine. Thomson (i. 460) speaks of immense swanns of bees which made their home in a gigan- tic cliff of Wadij Kurn. " The people of M'alia, several years ago," he says, " let a man down the face of the rock by ropes. He was entirely pro- tected from the assaults of the bees, and extracted ^ 108 BEE BEE a large amount of honey ; but he was so terrified by the prodigious swarms of bees that he could not be induced to repeat the exploit." Tliis forcibly illus- trates Deut. xxxii. 13, and Ps. Ixxxi. 16, as to "honey out of the rock," and the two passages fnini Psalms and Judges quoted above, as to the fearful nature of the attacks of these insects when irritated. English naturalists know little of the species of bees found in Palestine. Mr. F. Smith, our best authoiity on tlie Hymenoptera, who has described seventeen species of true honey-bees (the genus Apis), is inclined to believe that the honey-bee of Palestine is distinct from the honey-bee (A. mellifica) of this country (so Mr. Houghton, original author of this article). There can be no doubt that the attacks of bees in Eastern countries are more to be dreaded than in more tem- perate climates. Swarms in the East are far larger than with us, and, on account of the heat of the cli- mate, one can readily imagine that their stings must give rise to very dangerous symptoms. We can well, therefore, understand the full force of the Psalmist's complaint, " They compassed me about like bees." The passage about the swarm of bees and honey in the lion's carcass (Judg. xiv. 8) admits of easy expla- nation. Tlie lion which Samson slew had been dead some little time before the bees took up thtir abode in the carcass, for it is expressly stated that " after a time " Samson returned and saw the bees and honey in the lion's carcass, so that " if any one here repre- sents to himself a corrupt and putrid carcass, the occurrence ceases to have any true similitude, for it is well known that in tliese countries at certain sea- sons of the year, the heat will in the course of twen- ty-four hours so completely dry up the moisture of dead camels, and that without their undergoing de- composition, that tlieir bodies long remain, like mum- mies, unaltered and entirely free from offensive odor " (Oedmann). Probably, also, ants would help to con- sume the carcass, and soon leave little but the skele- ton. Is. vii. 18, "the Lord shall hiss for the bee that is in the land of Assyria," has been understood by some to refer to the practice of " calling out the bees from their hives by a hissing or whistling sound to their labor in the fields, and summoning them again to return " in the evening ; but probably it has reference " to the custom of the people in the East of calling the attention of any one by a signifi- cant hiss or rather hist " (Mr. Denham, in Kitlo). Be-e-ira-da(Heb. known by Baul ; whom the Lord knows and cares for, Ges.), son of David, born in Je- rusalem (1 Chr. xiv. 7); = Eliada. Be-el'sa-rns (fr. Gr.) = Bilbiian (1 Esd. v. 8). Be-el-tetil'mns (fr. Gr. ; see below), an officer of Artaxerxes residing in Palestine (1 Esd. ii. 16, 25). The name is a corruption of the Chaldee title of Re- hum (— lord of judyment, A. V. " chancellor," Ezr. iv. 8). • Be-el'ze-bnb (L.). Beelzebul. Bc-erze-bal (see below), the title of a heathen deity, to whom the Jews ascribed the sovereignty of the evil spirits (Mat. x. 25, xii. 24, 27 ; Mk. iii.22 ; Lk. xi. 15 if.). The correct reading is without doubt jBeelzebid, and not Beelzebub as given in the Syriac, Vulgate, A V., &c. 1. The explanations off'ered in reference to the change of the final letter of the name Baal-zebcb (see under Baal ; but some disl)elieve this supposed connection between Beclzebul and Baal-zebub) may be ranged into two classes, accord- ing as they are based on the sound, or the rnemmiy of the word. The former proceeds on the assump- tion that the name Beelzebub was for some reason offensive to the Greek ear. The second class of ex- planations carries the greatest weight of authorty with it ; these proceed on the groimd that the Jews intentionally changed the pronunciation of the word, so as either to give a significance to it adapted to their own ideas, or to cast ridicule upon the idolatry of the neighboring nations (compare Sychar for Sychem, Bethaven for Bethel). Some connect the term with the Hebrew zebul = habitation, thus mak- ing Beclzebul = tlie lord of tfw dwelling (A. V. " the master of the house," Mat. x. 25), whether as the " prince of the power of the air " (Eph. ii. 2), or as the prince of the lower world, or as inhabiting hu- man bodies, or as occupying a mansion in the seventh heaven, like Saturn in Oriental mythology. Others derive it from tlie Hebrew' 2e4'7 := dung, i\m& making Beclzebul, literally = tlie lord of dung, or the dutu/- hill ; and in a secondary sense (as zebd was used by the Talmudical writers as = idol or itlolatry) = the lord of idols, prince of false gods. It is generally held that the former of these two senses is more par- ticularly referred to in the N. T. : the latter, however, is adopted by Lightfoot and Schleusncr. Hug inge niously conjectures that the fly, under which Baal- zebub was represented, was the Scarabwus pillu- larius or dunghill beetle, in which case Baal-zebub and Beclzebul might be used indifferently. — 2. The Jewish reference to Baal-zebub in Mat. x. 25 may have originated in a fancied resemblance between the application of Ahaziah to Baal-zebub, and that of the Jews to our Lord for the ejection of the un- clean spirits. The title, " prince of the devils," may have special reference to the nature of the disease in question as incurable by any human power, or it may have been educed from the name itself by a fancied or real etymology. The notices of Beelzebul are ex- clusively connected with the subject of Demoniacs, a circumstance which may account for the subsc(iueut disappearance of the name. Beer (Ileb. w'fH; compare A:n'). 1. One of the latest halting-places of the Israelites, lying beyond the Arnon, and so called from the well there dug by the "princes" and "nobles" of the people, and celebrated in a fragment of poetry (Num. xxi. 16- 18); possibly = Beer-elim. — 2. A place to which Jotham, the son of Gideon, fled for fear of his brother Abimelech (Judg. ix. 21) ; according to Eusebius and Jerome, ten miles N. of Eleutheropolis. Here is now a deserted village el-Bireh near ^ Ain-Shems (Beth-shemesh). But perhaps Beer = Beerotii (Rbn. i. 452). Bc'e-ra (Heb. well, Ges.), son of Zophah, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 37). Be'cr-all (Heb. %oell, Ges.), prince of the Reuben- ites, carried away by Tiglath-pi'eser (1 Chr. v. 6). Be'er-c'lim (ileb. well of heroes, Ges.), a spot named iu Is. xv. 8 as on the " border of Moab." Beer 1. Be'er-i (Heb. of or from, a well, Ges. ; ilhistrious, Fii.). !• Father of Esau's wile, Judith (Gen. xxvi. 34; Anaii). — 2> Father of the prophet Hosea (Uos. i. 1). Bc'cr-la-hal'-rol [-hay'roy] (Heb. well of the living and seeing, sc. God ; well of life of vision, i. e. of life after a vision of God, Ges.), a well, or rather a liv- ing spring (A. V. '-fountain," Gen. xvi. 7), betwe;;n Kadesh and Bered, in the wilderness, " in the way to Shur," and therefore in the " S. country," which was so named. by Hagar, because God saw her there (Gen. xvi. 14). By this well Isaac dwelt both before and after the death of his father (xxiv. 02, xxv. 11). In both these passages the A. V. has " the well La- hai-roi." Mr. Rowlands announces the discovery ot BEE BEH 109 the well Lahai-roi at Moyle or Moihlii (Ar. el^^fu- weileh ■= suit-places, Rbn.), a station on the road to Beer-shcba, ten hours S. \V. of linhaibth (ancient Re'.ioboth ?), and about fifty miles S. W. from Beer- sheba; near which is a hole or cavern bearing the name of Beit Hagar (Kitter, Sinai, 1086, 7); but this requires confirmation. B*'er-Oth (Heb. ledls), one of the four cities of tlie Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty of peace with them ; the other three being (iibeon, Chephi- i-ah, and Kirjath-jearim (Josh. ix. 17). Beeroth was with tlie rest of these allotted to Benjamin (xviiL 2.5), in whose possession it continued at the time of David, the murderers of Ish-bosheth belonging to it (2 8am. iv. 2). It is again named with C'hephriah and Kirjath-jearim in the list of those who returned from Babylon (Ezr. ii. 25; Neh. vii. 29; Beroih). Beeroth was probably at the modem el-Bireh, a vil- lage about ten miles N. of Jerusalem by the great road to X^ublus, just below a ridge which bounds the prospect X. from the Holy city. As this is the first hajting-place of caravans going N. from Jerusalem, it is not improbably, as is claimed by monastic tradi- tion, the place wliere the " parents " of Jesus " sought Him," and whence " they turned back again to Jeru- salem, seeking Him " (Lk. ii. 44, 45 ; Stl. 210). Na- harai " the Beerolhite " (2 Sam. xxiii. 37), or " the Berotbite" (1 Clir. xi. 29), was one of David's val- iant men. B«*r-otb (Heb. icelh, Ges.) of the Children of Ja'a-kan = the wells of the tribe descended from Ja.\kan ; one of the halting-places of the Ipraelites in the desert (Deut. x. 6). In Num. xxxiii., the name is Bene Jaakan only. Be'er-oth-ite (fr. Heb.) = one from Beeroth. Beer— shc'ba (Ilcb. well of swearinp, or of siven), one of the oldest pliices in Palestine, forming the S. limit of the country. There are two not inconsistent accounts of the origin of the name. — 1. Ahbaiiam dug the well, and gave the name, because there he and Abimelech, the king of the Philistines, " sware " both of them (Gen. xxi. 31). But the compact was ratified by the setting apart of "seven ewe lambs ;" and as the Hebrew word for " seven " is S/ieha, some suppose that this is the meaning of the name. In chapters xxi., xxii. it is spelt in the Heb. Beer-shitha. — 2. In an occurrence almost precisely similar, a Philistine king, Abimelecu, and a Phichol, his chief captain, are again concerned, but with Isaac instead of Abraham (xxvi. 31-33; Shebah). In xxvi. IS, we are told, " Isaac digged again the wells of water which they had digged in the days of Abraham his father ; for the Philistines had stopped them after the death of Abraham ; and he called their names after the names by which his father had called them." — There are at present on the spot two prin- cipal wells, and five smaller ones (Bonar). The two principal wells are on or close to the N. bank of the Wady es-Seba'. They lie just 100 yards apart, and are visible from a considerable distance. The E., and larger of the two is, according to the careful incasureroents of Robinson (1. 204), 12J feet in diam- eter, and at the time of his visit (April 12) was 44| feet to the surface of the water : the masonry which cnclo.ses the well reaches downward for 284 f6<^t. The other well is 5 feet in diameter, and was 42 feet to the water. The curb-stones round the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centuries, anil " look as if frilled or fluted all round." The five lesser wells arc in a group in the bed of the wady (V. de V. ii. 186). On some low hills N. of the large wells are scattered the foundations and ruins of a town of moderate size. There are no trees or shrubs near the spot. — From the lime of Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 10, xlvi. 1, 5) till the conquest of the country we only catch a mo- mentary glimpse of Beersheba in the lists of the cities in the extreme S. of Judah (Josh. xv. 28) given (o the tribe of Simeon (xix. 2 ; 1 Chr. iv. 28). Samuel's sons were judges there (1 Sam. viii. 2). There Eli- jah halted on his way to Horeb, and left his servant (1 K. xix. 3). " From Dan to Becr-sheba " (Judg. XX. 1, &c.), or " from Becr-sheba to Dan" (1 Chr. xxi. 2 ; compare 2 Sam. xxiv. 2) = the whole of the promised land ; just as " from Geba to Beer-shcba " (2 K. xxiii. 8), or " from Bcer-sheba to Mount Ephra- im " (2 Chr. xix. 4) = the S. kingdom after the disruption. After the return from the Captivity the formula is narrowed still more, and becomes " frcm Beer-sheba to the Valley of Hinnom" (Neh. xi. 30). In the time of Amos, Beer-sheba, like Bethel and Gilgal, was the seat of an idolatrous worship, ap- parently connected in some intimate manner with the X. kingdom (Am. v. 5, viii. 14). After this, with the mere mention that Beer-sheba and the villages round it were reinbabited after the Captivity (Neh. xi. 30), the name dies entirely out of the Bible record. In the time of Jerome it was still a considerable place ; and later it is mentioned as an episcopal city under the bishop of Jerusalem. It retains its an- cient name as nearly in sound as an Arabic significa- tion will pcnnit — Bir es-Seba^ = the " well of the lion," or " of seven." — " The wilderness of Beer-she- ba " (Gen. xxi. 14) " probably denotes the desert country S. of Bcer-sht ba toward the wilderness of Parax ' (Bush on Gen. 1. c). Be-esh'te-rah (Heb. liovse, or temple, of Ashlorelh, Ges.), one of the two cities allotted to the sons of Gershom, out of the tribe of Manasseh beyond Jor- dan (Josh. xxi. 27) ; apparently = Asiitarotii 2. Beetle. Locust 3. * Beeves. Bui.r. ; Ox. » Beggar. Alms ; Poor. ' Bc-got'ten. The phrases " only-bcgotten " (Jn. i. 14, 18, iii. Ifi, 18 ; 1 Jn. iv. 9) and "first-begotten" (Heb. i. 6; Rev. i. 5) especially designate the Lord Jesis Christ, the Son of God. Be-hesd'iug. Plni.shments. Be'be-moth or Be-lie'nioth (Heb. pi. of majesty [fr. biheiin'iA ; see Beast 1] = the gnat beast, Ges.). There can be little or no doubt, that by this word (Job xl. 15-24) the hippopotamus (L. fr. Gr. =: river-horse) is intended, since all the details descrip- tive of the behemoth accord entirely with the ascer- Klppopotorou (JIippopatam»» ctmfkibiiu). tained habits of that animal (so Mr. Houghton, with Bochart, Shaw, Rosenmiiller, Harmer, Gesenius, Fiirst, most English commentators, &c.). The hippopota- mus is an aquatic African quadruped, larger than 110 BEK BEL the'ox, but more closely allied to the rhinoceros and hog. Since in the first part of Jehovah's discourse (Job xxxviii., xxxix.) land animals and birds are menlioned, it suits the general purpose of that dis- course better to suppose that aqitalic or amphibious creatures are spoken of in the last half of it ; and since the " leviathan," by almost universal consent =: the crocodile, the " behemoth " seems clearly = the hippopotamus, anciently (see Egypt) his asso- ciate in tlie Nile. The description of the animals ly- ing under " the shady trees," amongst the " reeds " and willows, is peculiarly applicable to tlie hippopot- amus. It has been argued that such a description is eciually applicable to the elephant; but this is hardly the case, for though the elephant is fond of frequent ablutions, and is frequently seen near the water, yet the constant habit of the hippopotamus, a? implied in verses 21, 22, seems to be especially made the subject to which tlie attention is directed. lie'kab (Heb. a pirt, half, Gjs.). Weights and JIeasokes. Be!. Baal. Bel aail Urag'oa. Daniel, Apoosyphal additions TO. Be'la (Heb. a swallowhir/ up, or deslruciion). 1. One of the five cities of " the plain " (Plain 8), which was spared at the intercession of Lot, and named ZoAR (Gon. xiv. 2, 8, xix. 22). The king of Bela is the only one of the five confederates whose name is not given, and this suggests the probability of Bela having been his o.vn name, as well as tlie name of his city, which may have been so called from him. — 2> Son of Beor, and king of Edo:n, eight gener.itions before Saul, king of Israel, or about the lime of the Exodus (Gen. xxxvi. 32 ff. ; 1 Clir. i. 43 ff.). Bernard Hyde, following some Jewish commentators (Sim. Oiiom. 142, n.), identifies this Bela with Balaam the son of Boor ; but the evidence from the name does not prove more than identity of family and race. There is nothing to guide us as to the age of Beor, or Bosor, the founder of the house from whicli Bela and Balaam sprung. Tlie name Beor is of a decid- edly Chaldee or Aramean form ; and we are express- ly told that Balaam the son of Beor dwelt in Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the children of his people, i. e. the river Euphrates ; and he himself describes his home as being in Aram (Num. xxii. 5, xxiii. 7). Hence not improbably Bela the son of Beor, who reigned over Edom in the city of Dinha- bah, was a Chaldean by birth, and reigned in Edom by conquest. He may have been contemporary with Jtoses and Balaam. — 3. Eldest son of Benjamin (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; A. V. " Belah ; " Num. xxvi. 38,40; 1 Chr. vii. 6, viii. 1), and head of the family of the Belaites. — 1. Son of Azaz, a Reubenite (1 Chr. V. 8). Bclah. Bela 3. Bc'la-itss, the (Num. xxvi. 38) — descendants of Bela 3. Berc-inns(l Esd. ii. 16) =: Bisiilam. Be'li-al (fr. Heb., see below). The A. V., follow- ing the Vulgate, frequently treats this word as & proper name in the 0. T., particularly where it is connected with man of, or son of: in other instances it is translated " wicked," " evil," " naughty," " un- godly" (Dent. XV. 9; Ps. xli. 8, ci. 3; Prov. vi. 12, xvi. 27, xix. 28; Nah. i. 11, 15); "ungodly men" (Ps. xviii. 4, A. V.). Unquestionably, how- ever, the word is not a proper name in the 0. T. ; it = worlhlessness, and hence recklessness, lawlessness. A sou or man or child of Belial = a worthless, law- less fellow : it occurs frequently in this sense in the historical books (Judg. xix. 22, xx. 13 ; 1 Sara. i. 16 ["daughter of Belial" = worthless, or wicked wo- man, Ges.], ii. 12, x. 27, xxv. 17, 25, xxx. 22 ; 2 Sam. xvi. 7, XX. 1 ; 1 K. xxi. 10 ; 2 Clir. xiii. 7), only once in the earlier books (Deut. xiii. 13). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 6, and Job xxxiv. 18 (A. V. '' wicked"), Belial stands by itself, as a term of reproach. In 2 Cor. vi. 15, the term in the Greek, according to Griesbach and others, is Beliar, a Syiiac form (Rbn. N. T. Lex.), not, as in the A. V., Belial ; and here it is generally considered an appellative of Satan, as the per- sonification of all that was bad : Beiigel explains it of Antichrist, as more strictly the opposite of Christ. * Be'lieve, to, in the N. T., especially denotes to exercise faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, to be a Chris- tian (Acts xiii. 35, xxi. 2U, 25; Horn. x. 4, 10; 1 Cor. i. 21, &c.). Faith. * Bc-liev'ers = Christians (Acts v. 14 ; 1 Tim. iv. 12). Believe. * Bell. Bells. Bcl'liHS (Heb. mappuaJi or mappuach). The word occurs only in Jer. vi. 29, " The bellows are burned ;" where their use is to heat a smelting furnace. A pic- ture of two different kinds of bellows, both ingenious- ly constructed, may be found in Wilkinson, Ancient Egiiplians, iii. 338. "They consisted," he says, "of a leather, secured and fitted into a frame, from which a long pipe extended for carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked by the feet, t!ie operator standing upon them, with one under cacli foot, and pressing them alternately while he pulled up each exhausted skin with a string he held in his hand. In one instance we observe from the painting, that when the man left the bellows, they were raised as if inflated with air; and this would imply a knowl- edge of the valve. The pipes even in the time of Thothmes II., (supposed to be) the contemporary of Moses, appear to have been simply of reed, tippel with a metal point to resist the action of the fire." Handicraft. Egyptian Bellowe. (F, CailUard. Hfflifrchei Anrient Ei}i/ptie)u.) Bells. There are two Hebrew words thus trans- lated in the A. V., viz. pa'amon (Ex. xxviii. 33, 34, xxxix. 25, 26) and mllsilloth (Zech. xiv. 20 ; A. V. margin, "bridles"). In Exodus the bells were golden, according to the Rabbis seventy-two in num- ber, which alternated with the three-colored pomegra- nates round the hem of the high-priest's epliod. The object of them was that his sound might be heard when he went in unto the holy place, and when he came out, that he die not (Ex. xxviii. 34 ; Ecclus. xiv. 9). No doubt they answered the same pur- pose as the bells used by the Brahmins in the Hindoo ceremonies, and by the Roman Catholics during the celebration of mass. To this day bells are frequently attached to the anklets of women. (Anklkt.) The little girls of Cairo wear strings of them round their BEL BEK 111 feet. In Zech. xiv. 20 the "bells of the horses" (A. V.) probably — concave or flat pieces of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for orna- ment. Bfl'ma-lm (see Belmen), a place apparently S. of Dothaim (Jd. vii. 3) ; possibly = Belmen. Bel mm (apparently fr. Adel-maim), a place named among tlic towns of Samaria, as lying between Beth- horon and Jericho (Jd. iv. 4). Brl-sbaz'zjir (fr. Clial. ; prob. = Belteshazzar, Ges., Fii. ; Hel has formed a kviff, Dr. E. Hincks), the last king of Babylon. During a splendid feast in his palace he was affrighted by a mysteiious hand- writing on the wall. After applying in vain to other wise men, he sent for Daniel, who boldly rebuked him for his pride and impiety, and then interpreted the Divine message to him. Belshazzar was slain the .same night (see Dan. v. ) Xcnophon also tells us that Babylon was taken by Cyrus in the night, while the inhabitant'! were engaged in feasting and revelry, and that the king was killed. On the other hand, the narratives of Berosus in Josephus and of Herodo- tus differ from the above account in some important particulars. Berosus calls the last king of Babylon Nabonnediis or Nabonadius, and says that in the seventeenth year of his reign Cyrus took Babylon, the king having retired to the neighboring city of Borsippua or Borsippa. Being blockaded in that city Nabonnedus surrendered, his life was spared, and a principality or estate given to him in Carmania, where he died. According to Herodotus the last king was called Labvnetus, a name easy to reconcile with the Nabonnedus of Berosus, and the Nabannidochus of Megasthenes. Cyrus, after defeating Labynctus in the open field, appeared before Babylon, within which the besieged defied attack and even blockade. But he took the city by drawing off for a time the waters of the Euphrates, and then marching in with his whole army along its bed during a great Babylonian festival. These discrepancies have lately been cleared up by the discoveries of Sir Henry Rawlinson. From the inscriptions on some cylinders found at Muglieir (see Ur), it appenrs that the eldest son of Nabonne- dus was called Bel-shar-ezar, contracted into Bel- sliazzar, and admitted by his father to a share in the government. Sir Henry Rawlinson says, " We can now understand how Belshazzar, as joint king with his father, may have been governor of Babylon, when the city was attacked by the combined forces of the Medes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed ; while Nabonnedus leading a force to the relief of the place was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in Borsippa, capitulating after a short resistance, and being subsequently assigned, according to Berosus, an honorable retirement in Carmania." Belshazzar's position as joint ruler with liis father harmonizes with Daniel's being the "third ruler in the kingdom" (Dan. v. 16, 29), the highest position then tenable by a subject (G. Rawlinson, Hist. Evidenecit, 442). In Dan. v. 2, Nebuchadnez- zar is called the father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need only mean grandfather or ancestor. Rawlinson connects Belshazzar with Nebuchadnezzar through his mother, thinking it probable that Nabu- nahit ( =: Nabonnedus) would strengthen his posi- tion by marrying the daughter of that king, who would thus be Belshazzar's maternal grandfather. A totally different view is taken by Marcus Nicbuhr, who considers Belshazzar to be anf)ther name for Evil-merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. On liawlinson's view, Belshazzar died B. c. 638 ; on Niebuhr's, o. c. 669. * Bel-te-shaz'zar, an Assyrio-Babylonish name ( = Ber.i jirince, i. e. whom Bel favors, Ges. ; i>'c/, or maiiUainer, of t/te lord, Fii.) given to Dan'iel (Dan. i. V, &c.). Ben (Hob. son), a Levite "of the second degree," one of the porters appointed by David lor the ark (1 Chr. XV. 18). * Ben-a-bUi'a-dab (Heb.) = " son of Abinadab " (1 K. iv. 11, marg.). Abinadab 4. Be-nai'ab [-na'yah] (fr. Heb. whom Jehovah halh built, Ges.). 1. Son of Jehoiada the chief priest (1 Chr. x-tvii. 5), and therefore of the tribe of Le\i, though a native of Kabzeel (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ;• 1 Clr. xi. 22) in the S. of Judah ; set by David (xi. 26) over his body-guard of Cherethites and Pelethitcs (2 Sam. viii. 18 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 17 ; 2 Sam. xx. 23), and occupying a middle rank between the first three of the " niiglity men," and the thirty " vahant men of the armies " (2 Sam. xxiii. 22, 2S ; 1 Chr. xi. 25, xxvii. 6.) The exploits which gave him this rank are narrated in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22 ff. lie was captain of the host for the third month (1 Chr. xxvii. 5). Benaiah remained faithful to Solo- mon during Adonijah's attempt on the crown (1 K. i.); he put to death, at the king's command, Ado- nijah, Joab, and Shimei ; and was raised into the place of Joab as commander-in-chief of the whole army (ii., iv. 4). He appears to have had a son, called after his grandfather, Jehoiada, who succeed- ed Ahithophel about the person of the king (1 Chr. xxvii. 34). But this is possibly a copyist's mistake for " Bciuiiah the son of Jehoiada." — 2. " Benaiah the PiRATiioNiTE ; " an Ephrai mite, one of David's thirty "valiant men" (2 Sam. xxiii. 30; 1 Chr. xi. 31), and captain of the eleventh monthly course (xxvii. 14). — 3, A Levite in David's time, who "played with a psaltery on Alamoth" (xv. 18,20, xvi. 0). — I. A priest in David's time, appointed to blow the trumpet before the ark (xv. 24, xvi. (j). — 5. A Levite of the sons of Asaph (2 Chr. xx. 14). — 6t A Levite in Hezekiah's time, one of the " over- seers of offerings" (xxxi. 13). — 7. A prince of Sim- eon in Hezekiah's time, participant in the exter- mination of the shepherds of Gedor (1 Chr. iv. 36). — g. Four laymen in Ezra's time, who had taken strange wives: — a. A descendant of Parosh (Ezr. X. 25). Baanias. — b. A descendant of Pahath-moab (x. 30). Naidus. — c. A descendant of Bani (x. 36). Mabiiai. — d. A descendant of Ncbo (x. 43). Ba- naiaS. — 9. Father of Pelatiah 4 (Ez. xi. 1, 13). Ben-am'oil (Heb. son of my kindred), son of Lot by his younger daughter, and progenitor of the Am- monites (Gen. xix. 38). * Benth'cs, the A. V. translation in Ez. xxvii. C of the Hebrew keresh (margin " hatches " ; literally = a " board" or plank, Ex. xxvi. 15 ff. &c.). Hitzig, Fairbairn {on Ez.), &c., suppose the proper trans- lation in Ezekiel to be " thy deck." Box-tree. * Ben-de'kar (Heb. lance-bearer, Fii.) = " son of Dekar "(IK. iv. 9, margin). Be ne-be'rak (Heb. sems of lightning, Ges.), a city of the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 45 only) ; at the modem Ibn Abrak, a few miles from el-Yehudin-hadad probably reigned some thirty years. — 3> Ben-hadad III., son of Hazael, and liis successor on the throne of Syria (xiii. 3, &c.). His reign was disastrous for Damas- cus, and the vast power wielded by his father sank into insignificance. When he succaeded to the throne, Jehoash recovered the cities which the Syrians had taken from Jehoaliaz, and beat him in Aphek (xiii. 1 7, 23). Jehoash gained two more vic- tories, but did not restore the dominion of Israel on the E. of Jordan. This glory was reserved for his successor. His misfortunes in war are noticed. Am. i. 4. Ben-ha'il (Heb. son of the host, i. e. warrior), one of the princes whom Jehosliaphat sent to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chr. xvii. 7). Beu-lia'nan (Heb. SOB o/ 0)48 5'cacioM.'!, Ges.), son of Shimon, in the line of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 20). *Ben-he'sed (Heb.) = "son of Hesed" (1 K. iv. 10, miirgin). . *Ben'-hur (Heb.) = "son of Ilur" (1 K. iv. 8, margin). Hur 5. Be-lii'nn (Heb. our son, Ges.), a Levite who sealed tlie covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 13, Heb. 14). Beu'ja-min (Heb. B'my&min = son of (lie right hand, i. c. fortunate, dexterous, Vulgate, A. V. margin, Ges. ; Binydmim = son of days, i. e. son of my old age [compare Gen. xliv. 20], Sam. Codex, I'hilo, Aben-ezra, &c.). 1. The youngest of Jacob's children, and the only one of the thirteen who was born in Palestine. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Bethlehem, a short dis- tance from the latter, and his mother Rachel died in giving him birth, naming him with her last breath Ben-oni (= son of my sorrow). This was by Jacob changed into Benjamin (Gen. xxxv. 16-18). In 1 Sam. ix. 1, margin, the name appears as Jemini. Until the journeys of Jacob's sons and of Jacob himself into Egypt, we hear nothing of Benjamin, and as far as he is concerned those well-known nar- ratives (Gen. xlii.-xlv.) disclose nothing beyond the very strong affection entertained toward him by his father and his whole-brother Joseph, and the rela- tion in which he stood, as if a mere darling child to the whole of his family. Kven the harsh natures of the elder patriarchs relaxed toward him. But Ben- jamin can hardly have been the " lad " which we commonly imagine him to be, for, at the time that the patriarchs went down to reside in Egypt, when •' every man with his house went with Jacob," ten sons are ascribed to Benjamin — a larger number than to any of his brothers — and two of these (Mup- pim, Huppim), from the plural formation of their names, were themselves apparently families (xlvi. 21). Jacob's prophecy in respect to the tribe was, "Benjamin shall raven as a wolf; in the morning he shall devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil " (xlix. 27). Benjimiin is in the Usts of the tribes in E.x. i. ; Num. i., ii., xiii., xxvi., xxxiv. ; Deut. xxvii., xxxiii. ; 1 Chr. ii., viii., &c. The prox- imity of Benjamin to Ephraim during the march to the Promised Land (Num. ii. 18-24) was maintiined in the territories allotted to each (Josh, xviii. 11 11'.). Benjamin lay immediately to the S. of Ephraim, be- tween him and Judah. The situation of this terri- tory was highly favorable. It fonned almost a parallelogram, of about twentj-six miles in length by twelve in breadth. Its E. boundary was the Jor- dan, and from thence it extended to the wooded district of Kirjath-jearim, about eight miles W. of Jerusalem, while in the other direction it stretched from the valley of Hinnom, under the " Shoulder of the Jebusite" (A.V. "side of Jebusi")on the S., to Bethel on the N. Thus Dan Intervened between Ben- jamin and the Philistines, while the communications with the valley of the Jordan were in their own power. On the S. the territory ended abruptly with the steep slopes of the hill of Jerusalem, — on the N. it melted imperceptibly into the possessions of the friendly Ephraim. The smallness of this district (=less than one-fourth of the State of Rhode Island) was, according to Josephus, compensated for by the excellence of the land. — (1.) The general level of this part of Palestine is very high, not less than 2,000 feet above the maritime plain of the Mediter- ranean on the one side, or than 3,000 feet above Ihe deep valley of the Jordan on the other ; and besides, this general level or plateau is surmounted, in this district, by a large number of eminences, almost every one of which has borne some part in the his- toryof the tribe. — (2.) No less important than these eminences are the torrent-beds and ravines by which the upper country breaks down into the deep tracts on each side of it. They formed then, as they do still, the only mode of access from the plains of Philistia and Sharon on the W., or the deep valley of the Jordan on the E. — Tlie passes on the E. side are much more difficult and intricate than those on the W. The principal one, which, now unfrequented, was doubtless in ancient times the main ascent to the interior, leaves the Arabah behind the site of Jericho, and breaking through the barren hills with many a wild bend and steep slope, extends to and in- deed beyond the very central ridge of the table-land of Benjamin, to the foot of the eminence on which BEN BER 113 stand the ruins of Birch, the ancient Beeroth. Another of these passes. is tliat which, since the time of our Saviour, has l)een the regular road between Jericho and Jerusalem, the scene of the parable of the Good Samaritan. — Such were the limits and the character of the possession of Benjamin as fixed by those who originally divided the land. But in 1 Chr. viii. 12, 13, we find mention of Benjamites wlio built Lod and Ono, and of others who were founders of Aija- lon, all which towns were beyond the spot named above as the W. point in their boundary. These places too were in their possession after the return from the Captivity (Neh. xi. 35). — The contrast be- tween the warlike character of the tribe and the peaceful image of its proginitor comes out in many scattered notices. Benjamin was the only tribe which seems to have pursued aichcry to any pur- ])ose, and their skill in the bow and the sliug was celebrated. Ehud the son of Gera accomplished his purpose on Eglon with less risk, owing to his proficiency in using his left hand, a practice appar- ently confined to Benjamites (Judg. iii. 16, and see XX. 16 ; 1 Chr. xii. 2). Baanah and Kechab, " the sons of Kimmon the Beerothite of the children of Benjamin " (2 Sum. iv. 2), are the only Israelites W. of tlie Jordan named in the whole history as captains of marauding predatory bands. (1{oi)Bkuy ; Tmietes.) The dreadful deed recorded in Judg. xix., though repelled by the whole country, was unhesitatingly adopted and defended by Benjamin with an obsti- nacy and spirit truly extraordinary. That fright- ful transaction was indeed a crisis in the history of the tribe : the six hundred who took refuge in the cliff Rimmon were the only survivors. A long interval must have elapsed between bo abject a condition and the culminating point at which we next meet with the tribe. Several circumstances may have conduced to its restoration to that place which it was now to assume. The Tabernacle was at Shiloh in Ephraim during the time of the last Judge ; but the Ark was in Benjamin at Kirjath- jearim. Ramali, the official residence of Samuel, and containing a sanctuary greatly frequented (1 Sam. ix. 12, &c.), — Mizpeh, where the great assem- blies of " all Israel " were held (vii. 5), — Bethel, per- haps the most ancient of all the sanctuaries of Pales- tine, and (jibeon, "the great high place" (1 K. iii. 4), were all in the land of Benjamin. The people who resorted to these various places must gradually have been accustomed to associate the tribe with power and sanctity. The struggles and contest which fol- lowed Paul's death arose from the natural unwilling- ness of the tribe to relin(iuish its position at the head of the nation, especially in favor of Judah. Had it been Ephraim, the case might have been dif- ferent, but Judah had as yet no connection with the house of Joseph, and was besides the tribe of David, whom Saul had pursued with such unrelenting en- mity. The tact and sound sense of Abner, however, succeeded in overcoming these diflSculties. Still the insults of Shimei and the insurrection of Sheba are indications that the soreness still existed, and we do not hear of any cordial cooperation or firm union between the two tribes until the disruption of the kingdoms (1 K. xii. 21 ; 2 Chr. xi. 1). The alliance was further strengthened by a covenant solemnly undertaken (xv. 9), and by the employment of Ben- jamites in high positions in the army of Judah (xvii. 17). But what al)Ove all must have contributed to strengthen the alliance was the fact that the Temple was the common property of both tribes. Hence- forward the history of Benjamin becomes merged in 8 that of the S. kingdom. (Jcdah, Kingdom of.) Not only Sacl 2, the king, but Mordecai and Esther and Saul (" who also is called Paul ") the apostle, were Benjamites. — 2. A man of the tribe of Ben- jamin, son of Bilhan, and the head of a family of warriors (1 Chr. vii. 10). — 3, A son of Harim in Ezra's time, husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 32). — 1. A contemporary of Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 23, xii. 34). BeDJa-min, Gate of, a gate on the N. side of Jeru- salem ; probably =: the gate of Ephraim (so Ges.) (Jer. xxxvii. 13, xxxviii. 7; Zech. xiv. 10). "The high gate of Benjamin" (Jor. xx. 2) may have been a corresponding gate of the temple (compare 2 K. XV. 35), (Henderson on Jcr. I. c). *Bcn'J8-mite (for Berjaminite; fr. Heb.) = de- scendant of Benjamin 1 (Judg. iii. 15, xix. 16 ; 1 Sam. ix. 1, 4, 21, &c.). Be'no (Heb. his son), a Levite of the sons of Merari (1 Chr. xxiv. 26, 27). Ben-o'ni (Heb. son of my sorrow, A. V. marg., or son of my strength, i. e. of my last cftort, Hiller), the name given by the dying Rachel to her newly-boin son, but changed by his father into Benjamin (Gen. XXXT. 18). Ben-zo'helh (Heb. son of Zohelh), a name occur- ring among the descendants of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 20). Be on (Heb.), a place on the E. of Jordan (Num. xxxil. 3), doubtless a contraction of Baal-meox (com- pare ver. 38). Be'or (Heb. torch, lamp, Ges.). 1. Father of the Edomile king Bela 2 (Gen. xxxvL 32 ; 1 Chr. i. 43). — 2. Father of Balaam (Num. xxii. 5, xxiv. 3, 15, xxxi. 8 ; Deut. xxiii. 4 ; Josh. xiii. 22, xxiv. 9; Mic. vi. 6) ; = No. 1 ? ; called Bosor in the N. T. Bera (Heb. son of evil, Ges.), king of Sodcm at the invasion of Ghedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2 ; also 17 and 21). Ber'a-thah [-kah] (Heb. blessing, Ges.), a Benja- mite, who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 3). Ber'a-tbah [kah] (Heb. blessing), Val'ley of, a val- ley so named because there Jehoshaphal and his people assembled to "bless" Jehovah after the overthrow of the hosts of Moabites, Ammonites, and Mehunira, who had come against them (2 Chr. xx. 26). Tlie name of Bereikut (probably = Beraehah) is now at'.aelied to ruins in a valley of the same name lying between Tekoa and the main road from Bethle- hem to Hebron. Ber-a-ehi'ali [-ki-] (fr. Heb. = Berechiaii), a Gcr- shonite Levite ( 1 Chr. vi. 39) ; = Berechiaii 6. Be-rai'ah or Ber-a-i'th (Heb. whom Jehovah cre- ated, Ges.), a Benjamite chief, son of Shimhi (1 Chr. viii. 21). Be-re'» (L. Beraa, fr. Gr. Beroia ; named from the abundance of its waters ? Conyb. and H. i. 339). I. A city of Macedonia, to which St. Paul retired with Silas and Tiniotheus, in the course of his first visit to Europe, on being persecuted in Thessalonica, and from which, on being again persecuted by emissaries from Thessalonica, he withdrew to the sea for the purpose of proceeding to Athens (Acts xvii. 10 fl'.). The community of Jews must have been considerable in Berea, and their character is described in very fa- vorable terms (11). Sopater, one of St. Paul's mis- sionary companions, was from Berea (Acts xx. 4). Berea, now Verria or Kara ■ Verria, is forty-five miles W. S.W. from Thessalonica, on the E. slope of the Olympian mountain-range, commanding an exten- sive view of the plain of the Axiua and Haliacmon, and had in 1864 about six thousand inhabitants, one-quarter Turks, about two hundred Jews, and the Hi BER BES rest Greeka (Rev. E. M. Dodd in B. S. xi. 883). A few ancient remains, Greeli, Roman, and Byzantine, still exist here. — 2, A city of Syria, the modern Alepjm (2 Mc. xiii. 4). — 3, A place in Judea, apparently not very far from Jerusalem (1 Mc. ix. 4). Ber-C-chi'ah [-ki-] (fr. Heb. = whom Jehovah hath blessed, Ges.). 1. Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 20). — 2. Father of Meshullam 13 (Neh. iii. 4, 30; vi. 18).— 3. A Levite of the line of Elkanah (1 Chr. ix. 16). — 4. A doorkeeper for the ark (1 Chr. xv. 23). — 3> A prince of Ephraim in Pekah's reit;n, who with others succored the captives from Judah (2 Chr. xxviii. 12). — 6i Father of Asaph the singer (1 Chr. XV. 17); = Berachiah. — 7. Father of Zechariah the prophet (Zech. i. 1, 7). Be'red (Heb. hail, Ges.). !• A place in the S. of Palestine, between which and Kadesh lay the well Lahai-roi (Gen. xvi. 14); according to some = Elusa, now el-Khulasah (Betiiul). — 2. A son or descendant of Ephraim (1 Chr. vii. 20) ; supposed by Lord A. C. Hervey = Becher (?). Ber-e-nl'ce = Bernice. Be'rl (Heb. = Beeri, Ges.), son of Zophah, of the tribe of Ashei- (1 Chr. vii. 36). Be-ri'ah (Heb. in evil, or a gift ; see below). 1. San of Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; Num. xxvi. 44, 45), from whom descended the " family of the Beriites " (44). — 2. Son of Ephraim, so named on account of the state of his father's house when he was bom (see 1 Chr. vii. 20-23). This notice refers to a period of Hebrew history, respecting which the Bible affords us no other like information — the time between Ja- cob's death and the beginning of the oppression. Apparently some of Ephraira's sons had attained to manhood, and the Hebrews were still free. (SnuxnE- LAH.) The men of Gath were probably born in the E. part of Lower Egypt, if not in Goshen itself. At this time very many foreigners must have been set- tled in Egypt (compare Gen. xlvi. 34). Or these men of Gath may have been mercenaries like the Chere- thim (in Egyptian SJuiyratana, see Pelethites), who were in the Egyptian service at a later time, as in David's, and to whom lands were probably allotted as to the native army. — %, A Benjaraite. He and his brother Shema were ancestors of tlie inhabitants of Ajalon, and expelled the inhabitanta of Gath (1 Chr. viii. 13, 16). — t, A Gerslionite Levite, son of Shimei(l Chr. xxiii. 10, 11). Be-ri'ites (fr. Heb.) = descendants of Bkriah 1. Be'rites (Heb. Berim ^= wells, a place or district, Ges. ; or descendants of Beri ?), tlie, = a tribe or people named with Abel and Beth-maachali — and therefore doubtless situated in the N. of Palestine — mentioned only as vi-iited by Joab in his pursuit after Sheba the son of Bichri (2 Sam. xx. 14). Be'rith, the god (Judg. ix. 46) = Baal-Berith. See under Baal 1. Ber-ni'ce [as an Eng. word usually pron. ber'nis] (L. fr. Gr. = carrying off victory, victorious, L. & S.), also written Berenice, eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. Slie was first married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death (a. d. 48) she lived under circumstances of great suspicion with her own brother Agrippa n.,in connection with whom Bhe is mentioned (Acts xxv. 13, 23, xxvi. 30) as hav- ing visited Featus on his appointment as Procurator of Judea. She was a second time married, to Pole- mon, king of Cilicia, but soon left him, and returned to her brother. She afterward became the mistress of Vespasian, and of his son Tilus. Be-ro'daeh-Bara-dnn [-dak] (Heb.) = Merodach- Baladan (2 K. XX. 12). Be'roth (1 Esd. v. 19) = Bkeroth. Be-ro'tiiah (Heb. wells, Fii.), Be-rd'thai (Heb. my wells, Ges. ; wells of Jehovah, Sim. ; the deity wor- shipped in the cypress, Fii.). The first of these two names, each of which occurs once only, is given (Ez. xlvii. 16) in connection with Hamath and Damascus as forming part of the N. boundary of the promised land. The second is mentioned (2 Sam. viii. 8) as a city of Zobah taken by David, also in connection with Hamath and Damascus. The well-known city Beirut (ancient Berytus) naturally suggests itself as identi- cal with one at least of the names ; but in each in- stance the circumstances of the case seem to require a position further E. Fiirst regards Bei'Otliah and Be- rothai as distinct places, and makes Berothah = Be- rytus. Van de Velde suggests Tell el-Byrut/i, be- tween Tadmor and Hamath (Kitto). Be-rotb'itc, the (1 Chr. xi. 39) = one from Bercth or Beerotii. * Ber'rics are mentioned in the A. V. only in Is. xvii. 6 and Jas. iii. 12 as the fruit of the olive-tree. Olive. Bcr'ji (Heb. tarshish, supposed to be named fr. Tarshish), occurs in Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13 ; Cant. V. 14; Ez. i. 16, X. 9, xxviii. 13 (marg. chrysolite); Dan. X. 6. There is little or nothing in these passages to lead us to any satisfactory conclusion as to its iden- tity, except in Cant. v. 14 : " His hands are orbs of gold adorned with the tarshish stone " (A. V. " gold rings set with the beryl"). The orbs or rings of gold refer not to rings on the fingers, but to tlie fingers themselves, as they gently press upon the thumb and thus form the figure of an orb or a ring. The latter part is the causal expletive of the former. In this passage not only are the hands called orbs of gold, but the reason why they are thus called is immediately added — specially on account of the beau- tiful chrysolites with which tlie hands were adorned. Pliny says of the ancient chrysolite, " it is a trans- parent stone with a refulgence like that of gold." Since then the golden stone ( = chrysolite) is admir- ably suited to the above passage in Canticles, the ancient chrysolite, which is the modern yellow topaz, appears, to have a better claim than any other gem to represent the Heb. tarshish. — The Greek berullos, from wliich " beryl " is derived, is found in Tob. xiii. 17 and Rev. xxi. 20. Tob. xiii. 17 declares " the streets of Jerusalem shall be paved with beryl and carbuncle and stones of Opliir." In Rev. xxi. 20 " beryl " is the eighth foundation of the wall of the New Jerusalem. The beryl is identical with the emerald except in its color, which is green or blu- ish-green. Ber-ze'Ins (1 Esd. v. 38) = Barzillai 1. Be'sai (Heb. fr. Sansc. = victor;/? Ges.), ancestor of certain Xethinim who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 49; Neh. vii. 62). Bastai. * Be-siegcd' Pla'eeSi The Heb. mdlsdr, thus trans- lated in 2 K. xix. 24 and Is. xxvii. 35, also trans- lated "defence" in Is. xix. 6, and "fortified cities" in Mic. vii. 12, is supposed = Mizraim, i. e. Egypt (Boch., Ges., Keil, &c.). FExcEn City. Bes-o-dei'ah [-deeyah] ((r. Heb. = »« the intimacy of Jehovah, i. e. confidant of Jehovah, Ges.), father of Meshullam 14 (Neh iii. 6). * Be'som [-zum], a broom or brush of twigs, used figuratively in Is. xiv. 23. The instrument is men- tioned in this passage only, but sweeping is spoken of in Mat. xii. 44 ; Lk. xi. 25, xv. 8. Be'sor (Heb. cool, cold, Ges.), the brook, a torrent- bed or wady in the extreme S. of Judah (1 Sam. xxx. 9, 10, 21 only). It must have been S. of Ziklag, and BES is supposed (Rbn. Phys. Geog. 121-3) = Wady Ar'd- rah running from Ar'arah (Aroer 4) to Bcer-sheba. • B«-stead' [-sled], an old Englisii word com- pounded of the prefix be and sUad, i. e. ptace ; com- pare belated, bemglited, beslowed, bewiuhed, &c. "Hardly bestead" (Is. viii. 21) = in a utate of hareUhip, in didreaed circumstances, afflicted, op- pressed. ' Be-st»w' [-sto], to, in the A. V., as now, = to give, grant, or confer (Ex. xxxii. 29, &c.) ; also lu slow uicai/ or lai/ up in store, to deposit or store (2 K. v. 24; Lk. xi'i. 17, 18, &c.). Be'Uh ( Ueb. trust, confidence, Ges.), a city belon"- ing to Hadadezer, king of Zobah, mentioned with Btrothai (2 S&tp. viii. 8); = Tiehath ; site un- known. Bet'a-ne (Gr.), a place appan-ntly S. of Jerusalem (Jd. i. 9); possibly =z Belhanin of Eusebius, two miles from the Terebinth or Oak of Abraham and four from Hebron. This has been variously identi- fied with Betharath, Bethainum (Bktii-anoth), and Betaneh or Ecbataua in Syria, placed by Pliny on Carmel. Be'ten (Heb. belly, perhaps = valley, Ge?.), a city on the boi-dcr of Asher (Josh. xix. 25); identified by Eusebius with a place then called Bebeten, eight miles E. of Ptoleraais. Bifth, the English form of the Heb. beyih, from bayith, which is the most general Hebrew word for a bouse or habitation. Strictly speaking it has the force of a settled dwelling, as in Gen. xxxiil. 17, where the building of a "house" marks the termina- tion of a stage of Jacol>'s wanderings ; but it is also employed for a dwelling of any kind, even for a tent, BET 115 as in Gen. xxiv. 32, Judg. xviii. 31, 1 Sam. i. 7. From this general force the transition was natural to a "house" in the sense of a family. Like ^t'des in Latin and Dom in German, Beth has the special meaning of a temple or house of worship. Beth is not found in the A. V., except (1.) as the name of the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Fs. cxix. ; Number; Writing), and (2.) in combination with other words to form the names of places (see below). Beth-ab'a-ra (Gr. fr. Hel). = house of the ford or ferry), a place beyond Jordan, in which, according to the Received Text of the N. T., John was baptiz- ing (Jn. i. 28), apparently at the time that he bap- tized Christ (compare ver. 29, 39, So). If this read- ing be correct, Bethabara may = Beth-baeah (Ubn. riiys. Geog. 168 ; V. de V. ii. 271), or = Bethnim- RAH (Mr. Grove). But the olc'est MSS. (A B, see New Testa.ment) and the Vulgate have in Jn. 1. 28 not Bethabara but Bethany. B«th'-a-nath ( L. fr. Heb. = hoiise cf response, per- haps, of echo, Ges.), one of the " fenced cities " of Naphtali, named with Betli-shemesh (Josh. xix. 88); from neither of them were the Canaanites expelled (Judg. i. 33). It Is supposed = the modern village Min'a/a, a half hour north of Bint Jebail, between Tyre and the waters of Merom (Thn. i. 315 ; V. de V. i. 170). Bcth'-a-n«tb (L. fr. Heb. = Beth-anath, Ges.), a town in the mountainous di.strict of Judah, named with Halhul, Beth-zur, &c., in Josh. xv. 59 only; probably at the ruins called Biit-'ainim, between Hebron and Haliiul ; compare Beiaxe. Betb'a-ny (fr. Aram. = house of dales, Lightfoot, iieland). I, A village intimately associated with the Betkuiy.— (Fhim SmlUil SmaUer DIeUoiiu;.) most familiar acts and scenes of the last dava of the life of Christ Here He raised Lazarcs from the dead ; from Bethany He commenced His triumphal enti7 into Jerusalem ; at Bethany was His nightly TCsting-place during the time immediatelv preceding His passion; here at the houses of Martha and Mart and of Simon the Leper we are admitted to view Him, more nearly than elsewhere, in the circle of His domestic life ; somewhere here, on these wooded slopes beyond the ridge of Olivet, the apostles stood when " He was parted from thcuj, and carried up into heaven "(Mat. xxi., xxvi. ; Mk. xi., xiv. ; Lk. xix., ixiv. ; Jn. xi., xii.). Bethany was situated " at " the Mount of Olives (Mk. xi. 1 ; Lk. xix. 29), about fifteen stadia (A. V. "furlongs") from Jerusalem (Jn. xi. 18), on or near the usual 116 BET BET road from Jevicho to the city (Lk. six. 29, compare 1 ; Mk. xi. 1, compare x. 40), and dose by and W. (?) of Bethphage, the two being several times mentioned together. — There never appears to have been any doubt as to the site of Bethany, which is now known by a name derived from Lazarus — el-' Azarii/eh or Lazarieh. It lies on tlie E. slope of the Mount of Olives, fully one mile beyond the summit, and not very far from the point at which the road to Jericho liegins its more sudden descent toward the Jordan valley. — EP Azarlyeh is a ruinous and wretched vil- lage, a wild mountain hamlet of some twenty fam- ilies. In the village are shown the traditional sites of the liouse and tomb of Lazarus, and of the house of Simon the leper. — 2, (fr. Ileb. ; see above ; house of shijiping, Tboluck; boat-house, Fbn.). A place beyond Jordan, known only from Jn. i. 28. Beth- ABARA. Beth-ar'a-bah (fr. Heb. = house of the desert), one of the six cities of Judah in the Arabaii (Josh. xv. 61), on the N. border of the tribe, and apparently between Beth-l\oglah and the high land W. of the Jordan valley (xv. 6) ; also included in the hst of the towns of Benjamin (xviii. 22). B*th-a'ram (L. fr. Heb. =: honse of the height, or mountain-hotise. Ges.), a town of Gad, E. of tlis Jor- dan, in " the Valley " 1 (Josh. xiii. 27), and no doubt = Beth-harajj. Eusebius and Jerome report that in their day its appellation was Bethramphtha, and that, in honor of Augustus, Herod had named it Libias. Josephus says that Herod (Antipas), on taking possession of liis tetrarchy, fortified Seppho- ris and the city of Betharamplitha, building a wall round the latter, and calling it Julias in honor of the emperor's wife (viz. Julia; previously called Livia). Jerome describes it as between Jericho and Heshbon, and it is said there are ruins er-Ram a few miles E. of Jordan in this direction (Ptr. in Kit.). Beth- JESIIIMOTH. ' Beth-ar'bel (fr. Heb. = hmse of God's ambush, Ges.), the scene of a sack and massacre by Shalman or Shalmaneser (Hos. x. 14); supposed = the an- cient stronghold of Arbela in Galilee (so Gesenius, Robinson, &c.), or an Arbela near Bella (so Hit- Beth-a'ven (L. fr. Heb. = house of naught, i. e. bad- vess), a place on the mountains of Benjamin, E. of Bethel (Josh. vii. 2, xviii. 12), and lying between that place and Michmash (1 Sam. xiii. 5, xiv. 23). In Hos. iv. 15, v. 8, x. 5, the name is transferred, with a play on the word very characteristic of this prophet, to the neighboring Bethel — once the " house of God," but then the house of idols, of " naught." Beth-az-ma'TCth (fr. Heb. ; see Azmaveth) (Neh. vii. 28 only) = Azmateth, and Betiisamos. Beth-ba'al-me'on (fr. Heb. ; see Baal-meon, under Baal), a city of Keuben, on the " plai.n " 4, E. of Jordan (Josh. xiii. 17); = Baal-Meon, Beon, and Beth-meon. See Baal-meon, under Baal, Geog., 9. Beth-ba'rah (fr. Heb. = hovae of passage, or ojf the ford), named only in Judg. vii. 24, as a point ap- parently S. of the scene of Gideon's victory. Beth- barah derives its chief interest from the possibility that its more modem representative may have been Bethabara where John baptized. It was probably the chief ford of the district. Beth-ba'si (fr. a Gr. form of Heb. ?), a town in which Jonathan and Simon Maccabeus took refuge from Bacchidcs (1 Me. ix. 62, 64); probably in tlie Jordan valley not far from Jericho ; possibly = " the valley of Keziz." BetU-bir'e-l (fr. Heb. = house of my creation, Ges.), a toivn of Simeon (1 Ciir. iv. 31), apparently = Beth-lebaoth. Betll'-«ar (fr. Heb. = house of lambs; house of ■pasture, Ges.), a place named as the point to which the Israelites pursued the Philistines (1 Sam. viL 11); perhaps at the ruined village Beit-far about three miles N. W. of 'Ain-Shems or Beth-shemesh (Ptr. in Kit.). Josephus says that the stone Ebese- ZER was set up here. Beth-da'gan (L. fr. Heb. = house o/'Dagon). 1, A city in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41), and therefore not for from the Philistine territory, with which its name implies a connection. Caphardagon existed as a very large village between Diospolis (Lydda) and Jamnia in the time of Jerome. A place called Beit Dfjan has been found ' between Lydda and Jaft'a (Kbn. iii. 298), but this appears too far N. (see No. 3). — 2. A town, apparently near the coast, on the boundary of Asher (Josh. xix. 27); probably a Philistine colonv. — 3> A house or temple of Dagou at Ashdod (1 Mc. x. 83, 84). Dr. P. Holmes (in Kitto) supposes this Beth-dagon a city, perhaps = Caphardagon and Beit Dijan (see No. 1 above). Betb-dib-la-tha'im (fr. Heb. = house of the double cake, sc. of figs), a town of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 22) ; apparently = Almox-Diblatiiaim. * Beth-e'dcn (fr. Heb. = house of pleasaniness, Ges.) (Am. i. 5, marg.). Eden 3. * Beth-eked (Heb.) = " Siiearing-IIouse." Bcth'-el (fr. Heb. = house of God). I. A well- known city and holy place in central Palestine. Jacob twice solemnly gave this name after his meet- ing with God. (1.) Under the awe inspired by the nocturnal vision of God, when on his journey from his father's house at Beer-sheba to seek his wife in Haran (Gen. xxviii. 19). This verse indicates a dis- tinction between the early Canaanite " city " Liz, and the "place," as yet marked only by the "stone," or the heap erected by Jacob to commemorate his vision. — (2.) After Jacob's return from Padan-aram, on the occasion of God's blessing him and confirm- ing to him the name of Israel (xxxv. 14, 15). — In xii. 8, the name of Bethel is given to this spot by anticipation (so Bush, Kitto, &c.) in narrating the removal of Abram from the oaksof Moreh to " ' the' mountain on the E. of Bethel," with " Bethel on the W. and Hai on the E." Here he built an altar; and hither he returned from Egypt with Lot before their separation (xiii. 3, 4). — No mention is made in the above narratives of any town or buildings at Bethel at that early period, and a marked distinction is drawn in them between the "city" of Lnz and the consecrated " place "' in its neighborhood (compare xxxv. 7). In the ancient chronicles of the conquest the two are still distinguished (Josh. xvi. 1, 2); ami the appropriation of the name of Bethel to t)ie city appears not to have been made till it was taken by the tribe of Ephraim ; after which the name of Luz occurs no more (Judg. i. 22-26). — After the con- quest Bethel is frequently heard of. In the troubled times when there was no king in Israel, the peo|)lo went up in their distress to Bethel to ask counsel of God (xx. 18, 26, 31, xxi. 2; A. V. "house of God''). Heie was the ark of the covenant under the charge of Aaron's grandson Phinehas (xx. 26-28, xxi. 4); and the mention of a regular road or causeway be- tween it and the great town of Shechem is doubtle.-'s an indication that it was already in much repute. Later we find it named as one of the holy cities to which Samuel went in circuit (1 Sam. vii. 16). Here Jeroboam placed one of the two calves of gold (Calf ; Idolatry), and built a " house of higb BET BET 117 places " and an altar of incense, by which he him- self stood to bum (1 K. xll. 29 IF.); as we see him in the familiar picture of 1 K. xiii. Toward the end of Jeroboam's life Bethel fell into the hands of Ju- dah (■> Chr. xiii. 19). Elijah visited Betliel, and we bear of " sons of the prophets " resident there (2 K. ii. 2, 3), two facts apparently incompatible witli the active existence of the calf-worship. The mention of the bears so close to the town (iii. 23, 25), looks too as if the neighborhood were not much frequented at that time. But, after the destruction of the Baal wort^hip by Jehu, Bethel comes once more into view (x. 29). Under the descendants of this king the place and the worship must have greatly Oourished, for by the time of Jeroboam II. the rude village was again a royal residence with a " king's liouse " (Am. vii. 13) and altars (iii. 14). (Aiios.}— How this pros- perity came to its doom we are not told. After the desolation of the N. kingdom by the king of As- syria, Bethel still remained an abode of priests, who taught the wretched colonists " how to fear Jeho- vah," " the God of the land " (2 K. xvii. 28, 27). In the account of Josiah's iconoclasm (xxiii.) we catch one more glimpse of the altar of Jeroboam, with its last loathsome fire of " dead men's bones " burning upon it. It is curious that men of Bethel and Ai re- turned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 28; Neh. vii. 32); and that they returned to their ancestral place whilst continuing their relations with Nehemiah and the restored worship (Xeh. xi. 31). In 1 Esdras the name appears as Betolifs. In later times Bethel is only named once, amongst the strong cities in Judea repaired by Bacchides during the struggles of the times of the Maccabees (1 Mc. ix. 50). — Bethel re- ceives a bare mention from Eusebius and Jerome, as twelve miles from Jerusalem on the right hand of the road to Sichcm ; and here its ruins still lie under the scarcely altered name of Beitin. They cover a space of three or four acres, upon the front of a low hill between the heads of two hollow wadys which unite and run off into the main valley ex-Su- tceinit. The round mount S. E. of Bethel must be the " mountain " on which Abram built the altar (Gen. xii. 8). — i, A town in the S. of Judah, named in Josh. xii. 16, and 1 Sam. xix. 27; probably = Chesii., Bethul, and Bethitel. Betll'-«l-lte (fr. Heb.) = one from Bethel. Hiel the Hcthelite rebuilt Jericho (1 K. xvi. 34). Betb-emek (fr. Heb. = fiouse of the vallei/), a place on or near the border of Asher, on the N. side of which was the ravine of Jiphthah-el (Josh. xix. 27). Robinson (iii. 103, 108) discovered an 'Amkah about eight miles N. E. of 'Akka ; but if Jef&l — Jiphthah-el, the site of Beth-cmek must bo farther S. than ^Amkah. Be'ther (Heb. scclion, i. e. a region cut up by mountains and valleys, rough, craggy, precipitous, Ges.), the Mono'Ulns of. Bether in Cant. ii. 17 (" divi.sion," margin) " may best be taken as an appel- lation." (Jiec above from Ges.) If, however, it be a proper name, the position of the mountains of Bether is utterly unknown (Rbn. Pkt/t. Oeog. ti9). B»-thts'd» [-thez-] (fr. Syr. = houst of mercy, or fr. Hi'b. = ///acf of Oie flowing of icriter), the Greek form of the Hebrew name of a reservoir or tank, whh five " porches," close upon the sheep-gate or "market" (Sheep-maiiket) in Jerusalem (Jn. v. 2). The porches — i. e. cloisters or colonnades — were ex- tensive enough to accommodate a large number of sick and infirm people, whose custom it was to wait there for the " troubling of the water." Eusebius describes it as existing in his time aa two pools, the one supplied by the periodical rains, while the water of the other was of a reddish color, due, as the tra- dition then ran, to the fact that the flesh of the sac- rifices was anciently washed there before oftering. See, however, the comments of Lightfoot on this view, in his Exercit. on St. John, v. 2. Eusebius's statement is partly confirmed by the Bordeaux Pil- grim (a. d. 333). The large reservoir called the Bir- ket Israil, within the walls of the city, close by the St. Stephen's Gate, and under the N. E. wall of the Haram area, is generally considered to be the mod- em representative of Bethesda. Robinson (i. 342- 3) suggests that Bethesda may = the " fountain of the Virgin," in the valley of the Kidron, a short distance above the Pool of Siloam. Beth-e'zel (fr. Heb. = hovxe of firm root, i. e. fixed dwelling, Ges.), a place (Mic. i. 11 only) doubtless in the plain of Philistia. Beth-ga'der (L. fr. Heb. = house of the wall, Ges.), doubtless a place, though it occurs in the genealo- gies of Judah as if a person (1 Chr. ii. 51 ; compare Bethlehem and other names of places in the con- text) ; possibly = Geder. Beth-ga'ioni (L. fr. Heb. = house of the weaned, Ges. ; house of the camel /), a town of Moab, in the " plain country " (Plain 4) E. of Jdrdan (Jcr. xlviii. 23, compare 21); apparently a place of late date, since there is no trace of it in Num. xxxii. 34-38, and Josh. xiii. 16-20 ; supposed by Dr. Eli Smith (and so Porter and Winer) to have been at the mod- cm f/n el-Jemil, eight or ten miles S. W. from Bos- tra. Bozrah 2. Brth-biic'ee-reill [-hak'se] (fr. Heb. = house of the mne), a place (Part) with a ruler or prince in Ne- hemiah's time (Neh. iii. 14) ; situated near Tekoa, and used as a beacon-station (Jer. vi. 1). By Jerome a village named Belhacharma is said to have been on a mountain between Tekoa and Jerusalem, a po- sition in which the eminence known as the Frank mountain (Herodium) stands conspicuous ; and this has accordingly been suggested as Beth-haccerem. Beth-bag'gau (Heb.) = "Garoen Hodse." Beth-ha'ran (fr. Heb. = Beth-aram, Ges.), one of the fenced cities E. of the Jordan, built by the Gad- ites (Num. xxxii. 36) ; = Beth-aram. Belh-bog'la and Bcth-bcg'lab (fr. Heb. = par- tridye-house, Ges.), a city of Benjamin on the liorder of Judah (Josh. xv. 6, xviii. IV, 21). A magnificent spring and a ruin between Jericho and the Jordan still bear the names of ^Ain-hajla and Kusr Hajla (Rbn. i. 544-6), and are doubtless on or near the old site. Atad. Betb-ho'rou (L. fr. Heb. = house of caverns or holes ; house of the hollow, Ges.), the name of two towns or villages, an " upper " and a " nether " (Josh. xvi. 3, 5 ; 1 Chr. viL 24), on the road from Gibeon to Azekah (Josh. x. li>, 11) and the Phihs- tine plain (1 Mc. iii. 24). Bcth-horon lay on the boundary-line between Benjamin and Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 3, 5, xviii. 13, 14), was counted to Ephraim (Josh. xxi. 22; 1 Chr. vii. 24), and given to the Kohuthitea (Josh. xxi. 22 ; 1 Chr. vi. 68, 53 Heb.). There is no room for doubt that the two Beth-horons still survive in the modern villages of Beit-'' Ur, et-Tahta (= t/ie lower), and el-Foka (=: the upper), which were first noticed by Dr. Clarke. The roaci connecting them is mcmorat)le for the victories of Joshua over the five kings of the Amorites (Josh. x. ; Ecclus. xlvi. 6) and of Judas Maccabeus over the Syrians under Seron (1 Mc. iii.). The importance of this road, the main approach to the interior of the coim- try from the hostile districts on both sides of Pales- 118 BET BET tine, at once explains and justifies the frequent for- tiScation of these towns at diiferent periods of the history (1 K. ix. 17 ; 2 Chr. viii. 5 ; 1 Me. ix. 50; JJ. iv. 4 [" Betboron "] ; compare 5). This road is still " the great road of communication and heavy transport between Jerusalem and tlie sea-coast." The Upper Beth-horon was twelve Roman miles (100 stadia, so Josephus) from Jerusalem (Rbn. ii. 252). From Gibeou to tlie Upper Beth-horon is a distance of about four miles of broken ascent and descent The ascent, however, predominates, and this tl\ere- fore appears to be the " going up " to Beth-horon which formed the first stage of Joshua's pursuit of the Amorites (Josh. x. 10). Willi the upper village the descent commences ; the road rough and difficult even for the mountain-paths of Palestine. This rough descent from the upper to tlie lower BeiW Ur is the " going down to Beth-horon " (x. 11). Beth-jesli'i-in»tli or Beth-jes'i-moth (both fr. Heb. = house of the toasles), a town or place E. of Jordan, on the lower level at the S. end of the Jordan val- ley (Kum. xxxiii. 49) ; named with Ashdoth-pisgah and Beth-peor (Josh. xiii. 20). It was one of the limits of the encampment of Israel before crossing t!ie Jordan. It was allotted to Reuben (Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20), but came afterward into the hands of Moab, and formed one of the cities which were " the glory of the country " (Ez. xxv. 9). Schwarz (228) quotes " a Beih-jisiinuth as still known at the N. E. point of the Dead Sea half a mile from the Jor- dan ; " but this requires confirmation. Tristram (525) supposes Beth-jeshimoth was at tlie ruins of er-Iiameh, about five miles N. E. of the mouth of the JoRnAN. Beth-leb'a-otll (L. fr. Heb. = houne of lionesses), a town of Simeon (Josh. xix. G) ; probably = Leb- AOTH, and Beth-birei. Betll'le-hem (L. fr. Heb. = house of bread). 1. One of the oldest towns in Palestine, especially cel- ebrated as the birth-place of David and of the Lord Jesus Christ. Near it Benjamin was born, and Rachel died (Gen. xxxv. 19 ; xlviii. 1). Its earliest name was Ephrath or Ephratah, and it is not till long after the occupation of the country by the Isra- elites that we meet with it under its new name of Bethlehem (Ru. i. 19, 22, ii. 4, iv. 11 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 4, &e.). (HuR 2 ; Salma.) It is called Bethlehem Ephratah (Ru. iv. II ; Mie. v. 2). It is frequently entitled Betulkuem-judah (Judg. xvii. 7 if., xix. 1 fl'. ; Ru. i. 1, 2; 1 Sam. xvii. 12), possibly, though hardly probably, to distinguish it from the small and remote place of the same name in Zebulun (see No. 2 below). Though not named as a Levitical city, it was ap- parently a residence of Levites, for from it came Jonathan, the son of Gershom, who became the first priest of the Danites at their new settlement (Judg. xvii. 7, xviii. 30), and from it also came tlie concu- bine of the other Levite whose death at Gibeah caused the destruction of the tribe of Benjamin (xix. 1 S.). The Book of Ruth is a page from the domes- tic history of Bethlehem ; the names, almost the very persons, of the Bethlehemites are there brought before us ; we are allowed to assist at their most pe- culiar customs, and to witness the very springs of those events which have conferred immortality on the name of the place. The elevation of David to the kingdom does not appear to have affected the fortunes of his native town. — The residence of Saul acquired a new title specially from him (2 Sam. xxi. C), but David did nothing to dignify Bethlehem, or connect it with himself. The only touch of recollec- tion which he manifests for it, is that recorded in the well-known story of his sudden longing for the water of the well by the gate of his childhood (xxiii. 14 ff ; 1 Chr. xi. 16 ff.). — The few remaining casual notices of Bethlehem in the 0. T. may be quickly enumerated. It was fortifieil by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 6). By the time of the Captivity, the Inn of Chiinham by Bethlehem appears to have become the recognized point of departure for travellers to Egypt (Jcr. xli. 17) — a caravanserai or khan, per- haps the identical ore which existed there at the time of our Lord, like those which still exist all over the East at the stations of travellers. Lastly, " Children of Bethlehem," to the number of one hundred and twentv-three, returned with Zerubbabel from Babv- lon (Ezr. ii. 21 ; Neh. vii. 2C).— In the N. T. Beth- lehem retains its distinctive title "Bethlehem of Judea," = Bethlehem-judah in O. T. (Mat. ii. 1, 5), and it is also styled the " city of David " (Lk. ii. 4, 11 ; compare Jn. vii. 42). The passages just quoted and the few which follow, exhaust the references to it in the N. T. (Mat. ii. 6, 8, 16 ; Lk. ii. 15). (Angels ; Herod; Magi; Manger; Star of the Wise Men.) After this nothing is heard of it till near the middle of the second century, when Justin Martyr speaks of our Lord's birth as having taken place " in a certain cave very close to the village." There is nothing in itself improbable in the supposition that the place in which Joseph and Mary took shelter, and where was the " manger " or " stall," was a cave in the limestone rock of which tlie eminence of Bethlehem is composed. But the step from the belief that the Nativity may have taken place in a cavern, to the belief that the present subterraneous vault or crypt is that cavern, is a very wide one. The Emperor Hadrian, among other desecrations, had ac- tually planted a grove of Adonis at the spot. This grove remained at Bethlehem from a. d. 135 till 315. The Church of theNativity was built ,.,.„.j here, it is said, by the Empress He- lena in the fourth century. The Crusaders took possession of Bethlehem on their ap- proach to Jerusalem. King Baldwin I. erected Beth- lehem into a bishopric A. D. 1110. Like Jerusalem BET BET 119 it was destroyed by tlie Kharismians in 1244 (Ebn. i. 471-2). — The modem town of Beit Lalim lies to the E. of the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron, six miles S. from the ibrmer. It covers the E. and N. E. parts of the ridge of a long gray hill of Jura limestone, which stands nearly due E. and W., and is about one mile in length. The hill has u deep valley on the N. and another on the S. The monks have fixed the spot where the angels appeared to the shepherds, in a valley about half an hour E. from Bethlehem (libn.). The village lies hi a kind of ir- regular triangle, at about 150 yards from the ajjcx of which, and separated from it by a vacant space on the extreme E. pait of the ridge, spreads the Bethlehem. — (From Smith's SmaUer Dictionary.) noble Basilica of St. Helena, " half church, half fort," now embraced by its three convents — Greek, Latin, and Armenian. One fact of great interest is a.ssociated w ith a portion of the crypt of this church, viz., that here, " beside what he believed to be the cradle of the Christian faith," St. Jerome lived tor more than thirty years, leaving a lasting monument of his sojourn in the Vulgate translation of the Bible. — The population of Beil Lahm is about three thousand soids, entirely nominal Christians. All travellers remark the good looks of the women, the substantial clean appearance of the houses, and the general air of coraibrt for an Eastern town which prevails. — 2. A town of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 1 5 only) ; situated at the modern Beit Lahm, a miserable vil- lage about six miles W. of Nazareth (Rbn. iii. 113). * Beth'-le-hcm Eph'ra-t«h (fr.Heb.)= Bethlehem 1, and EpnaATAii. Beth'-le-hem-ite (fr. Heb.=one from Bethlehem) (1 Sam. xvi. 1, 18, xvii. 58; 2 Sam. xxi. ly). • Bctb -Ir-bem-jn'dah (fr. Heb.) = Bethlehem 1. Betli-lu'mon (1 Esd. v. 17) = Bethlehem 1. Beth-iiia'tiH;liah [-kah] (fr. Heb. = hovM of Ma- achah, Ges), a place named only in 2 Sam. xx. 14, 15, in deBning the position of Abel; perhaps — Maachah, or Aram-maachah, one of the petty Syrian kingdoms in the N. of Palestine. Beth-maacliah is supposed by Tliomson (i. 326) to have been at the modem Hunin, three or four miles from Abil (Abel). But see Beth-rehob. Bctk-mar'ca-botll (fr. Ueh.=h(»tseofihe ekariots), a town of Simeon, situated in the extreme S. of Judah, with Ziklag and Hormah (Josh. xix. 5 ; 1 Chr. iv. 31); perhaps = Madmannah. Rowlands (in Fair- baim, under " S. country "' suggests that the name may be retained in Wady el-Miiriabeh, about ten miles S. W. of Beer-sheba. But see Madmannah. Bctli-nicon (fr. Heb. = house of habitation, Ges.) (Jer. xlviii. 23), contiacted from Beth-baal-meon. * Beth-Qiil'lo (Heb.) (2 K. xii. 20, margin) = "house of Millo." Millo, the House of, 2. Betll-llim'rah (fi. IIeli.= ho-nse of limpid and sweet waters, Cos.), a fenced city E. of the Jordan taken and built by the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii. 30), de- scribed as lying in the valley beside Beth-haran (Josh. xiii. 27) ; also called Nimrah ; identified with the ruins of Nimriii, at the lower end of the Wudy Slm'ib, at the mouth of which, a few miles above Jericho, is one of the regular fords of the Jordan (Rbn. i. 551). Bethabaha. Bctli-o'ron = Beth-uoeon (Jd. iv. 4). Beth-pa'let (fr. Heb. = houae of fiffht), a town in the extreme south of Jud.th, named (Josh. xv. 27) with Moladal) and Beer-sheba ; = Betii-piielet ; at a ruin called Jerrah? (so Wilton in Kegel). Hazap.- oaddah. Bctll-paz'zez (fr. Heb.= hmise of dispersion, Ges."), a town of Issachar named with En-gauuim and En- baddah (Josh. xix. 21). Beth-pe'or (fr. Heb. = temple of Peor, i. e. of Baal-pcor, Ges.), a place, no doubt dedicate!! to th.e god Baal-peor, on the E. of Jordan, opposite Jericho, and six miles above Libias or IJeth-haran. It was in the possession of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 20). One cf the last halting-places of the children of Israel is designated — " the ravine (" valley," A. V.) over against Beth-peor" (Deut. iii. 29, iv. 46). Beth'pbage [-fa-je, or -faje] (L. fr. Heb. = house of unripe Jiffs), a place on the nioiuit of Olives, on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem ; apparently 120 BET BET close to Bethany (Mat. xxi. 1 ; Mk. xi. 1 ; Lk. xix. 29), and from its being named first in the narrative of a journey from E. to \V., it has been supposed (Ilbn., &c.) E. of Bethany. No remains, however, which could answer to this position have been found, and the traditional site is above Bethany, half-way between that village and the top of the mount. Schwarz (2C3, 4), Van de Velde (ii. 257), and Bar- clay, in his map, appear to agree in placing Beth- phage on the S. shoulder of the " Mount of Offence," above the village of Siloam, and therefore W. of Bethany (for this compare Ju. xii. 1-12 with Mat. xxi. 1). Betli-phe'Ict (fr. Heb. = Beth-palet) (Neh. xi. 26) =z Beth-palet. Beth-ra'piia (L. fr. Heb. = house of Kapha, or of the giant), a name which occurs in the genealogy of Judah as the son of Esh-ton (1 Chr. iv. 12). BetU-rc'hob (fr. lleb. = house of Rehob, or of room), a pliice mentioned as having near it the val- ley in which lay the town of Laish or Dan (Judg. xviii. 28). It was one of the little kingdoms of Aram or Syria (2 Sam. x. 6), also called Rehob. Robinson supposes (iii. 371) that Beth-rehob was at the modern Ilunin, a large ruined fortress commanding the plain of the Haleh, in which the city of Dan ( Tell el-Kddy) lay ; Thomson (i. 328, 376) supposes Beth-rehob to have been at the modern BAnias, where is also an ancient castle commanding the pass from the Huleh over Hermon to Damascus and the E. Beth-sa'i-da (L. fr. Heb. = house of fish). 1, " Bethsaida of Galilee" (Jn. xii. 21), a city which ■was the native place of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (Jn. i. 44, xii. 21) in the land of Gennesaret (Mk. vi. 45 ; compare 53), and tlierefore on the VV. side of the lake. It was evidently near to Capernaum, and Chorazin (Mat. xi. 21 ; Lk. x. 13 ; and compare Mk. vi. 45, with Jn. vi. 17), and, if the interpretation of the name is to be trusted, close to tlie water's edge. Robinson (ii. 405-6, iii. 359) places Bethsaida at ^Ain et-Tdbighah, a small village with a copious stream and immense fountains, about two-thirds of a mile N. of Khihi Miiiyeh, which he identifies with Capernaum. — 2t By comparing the narratives in Mk. vi. 31-53, and'Lk. ix. 10-17, in tlie latter of which " a desert place, belonging to the city called Bethsaida," is named as the spot at which the mir- acle of feeding the five thousand took place, while in the former the disciples are said to have been con- strained by Jesu.s " to get into the ship and to go to the other side before unto Bethsaida" (verse 45), and then, after the gale, to have come (verse 53) " into the land of Gennesaret," Reland concluded that the Bethsaida mentioned in Lk. ix. 10 must have been a second place of the same name on the E. of the lake. Such a place there was at the N. E. extremity, for- merly a village, but rebuilt and adorned by Philip the Tetrarch, and raised to the dignity of a town under the name of Julias, after the daughter of tlie emper- or. Here in a magnificent tomb Philip was buried. Of this Bethsaida we have certainly one and proba- bly two mentions in the Gospels :— ^«.) That named above (Lk. ix. 10). — (6.) The other, most probably, in Mk. viii. 22. — Until the latter part of the eigh- teenth century there, was supposed to be only one Bethsaida, viz. at the entrance of the Jordan into the lake or sea of Gennesaret. Reland's assumption of two Bethsaidas, given above, though now adopted by many (Robinson, Winer, Kitto, Fairbairn, Mr. Grove, &c.), is not accepted by some of the best inves- tigators (Hug, Thomson, B. S. xviii. 251, &c.). There are remains of ancient buildinas on both sides of the Jordan at and above its entrance into the lake of Gennesaret. Those on the W. side are supposed by Thomson (ii. 9) to mark that part of Bethsaida which was in Galilee ; those on the E. side to belong to that part which Philip repaired and called Julias. The " desert place " where the five thousand were fed was probably the modern Butaiha, a smooth, grassy plain at the N.E. part of the lake (Thomson ii. 29). (See Map under Jorhan.) Betli'sa-mos (1 Esd. v. 18) = Beth-azmaveth. Betii'san (L. form of Beth-shean) (1 Mc. v. 52 ; xii. 40, 41) = Beth-siiean. Bcth'-sllitn (fr. Heb. =: Beth-shean, Ges.) (1 Sam. xxxi. 10, 12; 2 Sam. xxi. 12) = Beth-shean. Betll^slic'an (fr. Heb. — house of quid, Ges.), or in Samuel, Bethshan, and in 1 Mc. Bethsan, a city, which, with its dependent towns, belonged to Slanas- seh (1 Chr. vii. 29), though within the limits of Issa- char (Josh. xvii. 11), and therefore on the W. of Jordan (compare 1 Mc. v. 52) — but not mentioned in the lists of the latter tribe. The Canaanites were not driven out from the town (Judg. i. 27). In Solo- mon's time it seems to have given its name to a dis- trict extending from the town itself to Abel-meho- lah; and "all Beth-shean" was under charge of one of his commissariat ollicers (1 K. iv. 12). The corpses of Saul and his sons were fastened up to the wall of Beth-shean by the Philistines (1 Sam. xxxi. 10, 12) in the open "street" or space, which — then as now — fronted the gate of an Eastern town, and were taken away by the men of Jabesh-Gilead (2 Sam. xxi. 12). In connection with the Maccabees it is men- tioned in a cursory manner (1 Me. v. 52, xii. 40, 41). The name of Scythopolis (Jd. iii. 10 ; 2 Mc. xii. 29) has not survived to the present day ; and the place is still called Bcisdn. The village and ruins are on the brow, just where the great plain of Jezreel de- scends, some three hundred feet, to the level of the Ohof or Jordan valley, about twelve miles S. of the sea of Galilee, and four miles VV. of the Jordan. Beth'-she-mesli or Beth-she'mesb (fr. Heb. = house of the sun). ]• A town on the N. boundary of Ju- dah (Josh. XV. 10). It was between Kirjath-jearim and Timnah, and near the low-country of Philistia. Beth-shemesh was one of the cities of Judah allotted to the priests (Josh. xxi. 16 ; 1 Chr. vi. 59) ; and it is named in one of Solomon's commissariat districts (1 K. iv. 9). When the Philistines sent back the ark, it came from Ekron to Beth-shemesh, and the men of Beth-shemesh (probably the number 50,070 is erroneous ; see Abijah) were smitten for looking into the ark (1 Sam. vi.). At Beth-shemesh Amaziah, king of Judah, was defeated and taken by Jehoash, king of Israel (2 K. xiv. 11, 13 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 21, 23). Beth-shemesh was taken and occupied by the Philis- tines in the days of Ahaz (2 Chr. xxviil. 18). Beth- shemesh probably = Irshemesh (compare Josh. xv. 10, xlx. 41, 43 ; 1 K. iv. 9). Beth-shemesh is now ^Ain-Shems, a ruined village about two miles from the great Philistine plain, and three and two-thirds hours = eleven miles S. E. from Ekron (Rbn. ii. 224-6, 573). — 2. A citv on the border of Issachar (Josh. xix. 22).— 3. A "fenced city" of Naphtali, from which the Canaanites were not expelled ; twice named (Josh. xix. 38 ; Judg. i. 33) with Beth-anath. — 4. An idolatrous temple or place in Egypt (Jer. xllii. 13) ; = On, or Heliopolis, called by the Arabs in the middle ages ^Ain-Shems. Belli '-slie-mite or Beth-she'inlte (fr. Heb. = one from Beth-shemesh) (1 Sam. vi. 14, 18). Bcth-s'jit'tall (fr. Heb. = hotfe of the acacia), one of the spots to which the flight oi' the host of the BET BEZ 121 Midianites extended after their discomfiture by Gideon (Judg. vii. 22) ; conjectured to have been at tlie modern iihutla, between Mount Tabor and Beth- shean (Itbn. ii. 356). Beth-sn'ra (L.) = Beth-zcr (1 Me. ir. 29, 61, vi. 7, 26, 31, 49, 50, ix. 52, x. 14, xi. 65, xiv. 7; 2 Mc. xi. 5, xiii. 19, 22). Beth-bippn-all (fr. Heb. = house of the apple, or citron ; see Apple), a town in tlie mountains of Ju- dah, near Hebron (Josh. xv. 53 ; compare 1 Clir. ii. 43) ; at the modern village of Teffuh, an hour and tliree-ar«Ati/d//i) so as to pro- vide a lesson for each Sabbath in the Jewish inter- calary year. Coexisting with this there was a sub- division into lesser sections. Toe lesser sections themselves wei'e classed under two heads — the open (Me\). plthuholh OT pilhuchoih), which served to indi- cate a change of subject analogous to that between two paragraphs in modern writing, and began ac- cordingly a fresh line in theMSS. ; and the shut (Mth. tilhumolh), which corresponded to minor divisions, and were marked only by a space within the line. The sections (Heb. hajiludroth) of "the Prophets " were intended to correspond with the larger sections of " t!ie Law," and thus furnish a lesson for every Sabbath ; but the traditions of the German and the Spanish Jews present a considerable diversity in the length of the divisions. Of the traditional di- visions of the Hebrew Bible, however, that which has exercised the most influence in the received arrangement of the text, was the subdivision of the larger sections into verses (Heb. pusukim). These do not appear to have been used till the post-Tal- mudic recension of the text by the M.isoretes of the ninth century. The chief facts that remain to be stated as to the verse divisions of the 0. T. are, that it was adopted by Stephens in his edition of the Vul- gate, 1555, and by Frellon in thut of 1356 ; that it appeared for the first time in an English translation, in the Geneva Bible of 1560, and was thence trans- ferred to the Bishop's Bible of 1568, and the Author- ized Version of 1611. In Coverdale's Bible we meet with the older notation, which was in familiar use for other books, and retained in some instances (e. g. in references to Plato) to the present times. The letters A B C D are placed at e(iual distances in the margin of each page, and the reference is made to the page (or, in the case of Scripture, to the chapter) and the letter accordingly. A more systematic di- vision into chapters was generally adopted in the thirteenth century, and is traditionally ascribed to Stephen I,aiigdon, archbishop of Canterbury, or to Cardinal Hugo = Hugh de St. Cher. As regards the 0. T., the present arrangements grows out of the nnion of Cardinal Hugo's capitular divi.«ion and the Masorctic verses. The Apocryphal books, to which of couwe no Masorctic division was applicable, did not receive a versicular division till the Latin edition of Pagninus in 1528, nor the division now in use till Stephens's edition of the Vulgate in 1646.— 2. In the Jf. T., as in the 0. T., the system of notation grew out of the necessities of study Tlie compari- son of the Gospel narratives gave rise to attempts to exhibit the harmony between them. Of these, the first of which we have any record, was the Uialcs- sari/ii of Tatian in the second centtirv. This was followed by a work of like character from Anjmonius of Alexandria in the third. The system adopted by Ammonius, however, was practically inconvenient. The search after a more convenient method of ex- hibiting the parallelisms of the Gospel led Eusebius to form the ten Canons which bear his name, and in which the sections of the Gospels are classed ac- cording as the fact narrated is found in 1, 2, 3, or 4 of the Evangelists. The Epistles of St. Paul were first divided in a similar manner by the unknown bishop to whom Euthalius assigns the credit of it (about S'JO), and he himself, at the instigation of Atbanasius, applied the method of division to the Acts and the Catholic Epistles. Andrew, bishop of Cesarea in Cappadocia, completed the work by di- viding the Apocalypse (about 500). With the X. T., however, as with the 0. T., the division inso chap- ters, adopted by Cardinal Hugo in the thirteenth century, superseded those that had been in use inc- viou.sly, appeared in the early editions of the Vul- gate, was transferred to the English Bible by Covei- dale, and so became universal. The notation of the verses in each chapter naturally followed on the use of the Masoretic verses for the 0. T. The whole work of subdividing the chapters of the N. T. into verses was accomplished by Robert Stephens in 1548, during his journey from Paris to Lyons. While it was in progress men doubted of its success. Xo sooner was it known than it met with universal acceptance. The edition in which this division was first adopted was published in 1551 ; another came from the same press in 1535.' It was used for the Vulgate in the Antwerp edition of Hcntenius in 1559, for the English version published in Geneva in 1500, and from that time, with slight variations in detail, has been universally recognized. The con- venience of this division for reference is obvious ; but it may be questioned whether it has not been purchased at a great sacrifice of the perception by ordinary readers of the true order and connection of the narrative or thought of the sacred writers. The original is more faithfully represented in the Paragraph Bibles and in the Greek Testament as ed- ited by Halin, Lachmann, Tischendorf, &c. Bkil'ri [bik-] (Heb. [first-born, Sim. ; youthful, Ges., Fii. ; perhaps smi of Beeher, Ld. A. C. H.), an- cestor of Sheba (2 Sam. xx. 1, &e.). BId'kar (Heb. son of stubbing, i. e. stabber, Ges.), Jehu's " captain," oi'iginally his fellow-oflicer (2 K. ix. 25) ; who completed the sentence on Jchoram son of Ahab by ousting his body into the field of Naboth. Bier. Bi-RiAL 2. Big tba (Heb. perhaps = gardi-n, gardener, or fr. Pers. and Sansc. =. given bn fortmic, Ges.; prob- ably = Abagtha), one of the seven chambeilains or eunuchs of Ahasuerus (Eslh. i. 10). BIg'tlian and Big'tha-na (both Heb. = BiornA, Ges.), a eunuch ('■ chamberlain," A. V.) in the court of Ahasuerus, one of those " who kept the door " and conspirator with Teresh against the king's life (Esth. ii. 21). The conspiracy was detected by Mor- (lecai, and the eunuchs hung. Prideaux supposes that these officers had been partially superseded by the degiadati(m of Vashti, and sought revenge by the murder of Ahasuerus. Blg'vai or Big'va-I (Ilcb. perhaps = husbandman, 124 BIE BIS gardener, or [so Bohlen] fr. Sansc. = happy, Ges.). 1. Ancestor ol' 2,066 (Neh. 2,067) nho returned from the Captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 14 ; Neh. vii. 19), and of 72 with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 14). (Bago ; Baooi.) — 3f Apparently a chief of Zerubbabel's ex- pedition (Ezr. ii. 2 ; JSeh. vii. 7), who afterward signed the covenant (Neli. x. 16). Bik'ath-A'vea (Ileb.) (Am. i. 5, margin). Aten 1. Bil'dad (Heb. son of contention, Ges.), the second of Job's three friends ; called " the Suuhite " (Job ii. 11, &c.). Job. Bil'e-ani (Heb. = Balaam), a town in the western half of the tribe of Manasstli (1 Chr. vi. 70 only), given to the Koh.athites. In Josh. xvii. and xxi. Ibleam and Gath-iummon 2 are substituted for it. Bil'gah (Heb. cheerfulness, Ges.). 1, A priest in David's time ; Iiead of the fifteenth course for the Temple service (1 Chr. xxiv. 14). — 2. A priest who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh. xii. 5, 18); probably = Bilgai. Bil'gai or Bll'ga-i (Heb. = Bilgaii, Ges.), a priest who staled the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 8). Bilgah 2. Bilhah (Heb. hashfidness ? Ges.). 1, Handmaid of Rachel (Gen. xxix. 29), and concubine of Jacob, to whom she bore Dan and Naphtali (Gen. xxx. 3- 8, XXXV. 23, xlvi. 25; 1 Chr. vii. 13). Reuben al'ter- ward lay with her (Gen. xxxv. 22). — 2. A town of the Simeonites (1 Chr. iv. 29); also called Baalau and Balaii. BUhaa (Heb. perhaps bmhful, modest, Ges.). 1. A Horite chief, son of Ezer, dwelling in Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 27 ; 1 Chr. i. 42). — 2. A Benjamite, son of Jediael (1 Chr. vii. 10). *Bill. Divorce; Loan; Writing. Bil'sban (Heb. son of the ioiic/ue, i. e. eloquent, Ges.), a companion of Zerubbabel on his expedition from Babylon (Ezr. ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7). BlTa'hA\{Heb. son of circumcision, i. e. circumcised, Ges.), an Asherite, son of Japhlet (1 Chr. vii. 33). Bin'e-a (Heb. a gushing forth, fountain, Sim., Ges.), son of Moza, descendant of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 37, ix. 43). Bin'nn-i (Heb. a building, Ges.). 1. A Levite, father of Noadiaii 1 (Ezr. viii. 33). — 2. A son of Pahath-moab ; husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 30); = BALNncs. — 3. A son of Bani ; husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 38). — 1. Bani 4 (Neh. vii. 1.")). — 5. A Levite, son of Henadad, who assisted in re- pairing the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 24, x. 9); possibly = Binnui in xii. 8, who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. Bird is the representative in the A. V. of the fol- lowing :— 1. Heb. 'oph (Gen. xl. 17, 19, kc), liter- ally wing = any winged animal ; often translated "TowL." — 2. Ileb. tsippor (Gen. vii. 14, xv. 10; Lev. xlv. 4 ff. ; Deut. xiv. 11, &c.) = a small bird, and generally any bird. — 3. Heb. 'agit (Is. xlvi. U ; Jer. xii. 9 ; Ez. xxxix. 4) = a " ravenous bird." — 4. Ov. peteinon(Ei:c\n3. xxvii. 9, 19, xliii. 17; Mat. viii. 20, &c.) ; usually in pi. = " birds," winged animals; compare No. 1. — 5. Gr.ptena, pi. adj. fv.'ptenos(\ Cor. XV. 39) = icinged animals, " birds." — 6. Gr. orncon (Wis. V. 11, xvii. 18, Gr. 17 ; Rev. xviii. 2) =" bird." — Most of the above Hebrew and Greek words are also translated " fowl." — In modern zoology, birds constitute a class of vertebrate animals, warm- blooded, oviparous, feathered, with beak, two feet, and two wings adapted more or less perfectly for flight. Birds are often noticed in the Scriptures. Ravenous birds and some others were accounted un- clean by the Mosaic Law, while most graminivorous and granivorous birds appear to have been reckoned CLEAN (Lev. xi. 13-20; Deut. xiv. 11-20). Bit- tern ; Cage ; Dove ; Food ; Fowl ; Gin ; Hyena ; Nest ; Net ; Ostrich ; Partridge ; Purification ; QcAiLS ; Sacrifice ; Snare ; Sparrow ; Tiirii.e, &c. Bir'sha(Heb. son of wickednesn, Ges.), king of Go- morrah at the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2)- * Birth. Children. Birtil'day. The custom of observing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. xl. 20; Jer. xx. 15); and in Job i. 4, &c., we read that Job's sons "feasted every one his day." In Persia they were celebrated with peculiar honors and banquets, and in Egypt the kings' birthdays were kept with great pomp. (Ban- quets.) Probably in consequence of the ceremonies Ufcual in their celebration, the Jews regarded their observance as an idolatrous custom (Lightfoot). Many suppose that in Mat. xiv. 6 and Mk. vi. 21 the feast to commemorate Herod's accession is intended, for such feasts were common, and were called " the day of the king" (Hos. vii. 0); but it is supposed by Robinson (N. T. Lex.), Kitto, Meyer, Barnes, &c., to have been on the anniversary of his birth. Birtli'riglit. First-bokn. Bir'za-vitll (Ileb. holes, wounds, or inell of olives! Ges.), a name, probably of a place, occurring in the genealogies of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 31 ; compare ii. 50, 51, ix. 33, &e.). Malcihel. Bisb'iam (Ucb. son of jieace, Ges.), apparently an officer or commissioner of Artaxerxes in Palestine at the return of Zerubbabel from captivity (Ezr. iv. 7) ; called Belemus in 1 Esdras. Bisil'O]) (fr. Gr. epiikopos = " overseer" ; L. epis- copus). The word cpiskopos, applied in the N. T. to the officers of the church who were charged with certain functions of superintendence, had been in use before as a title of office. The inspectors or commissioners sent by Athens to her subject-states were episkopoi (Aristoph. Av. 1022). The title was still current and beginning to be used by the Romans in the later days of the republic (Cic. ad Att. vii. 11). The Hellenistic Jews found it employed in the LXX., though with no very definite value, for officers charged with certain functions (Num. iv. 16 [of Ele- azar's office], xxxi. 14 ["officers," A. V]; Ps. cix. 8 [Gr. episkope = episcopate, " liffice " in A. V.] ; Is. Ix. 17 ["exactors," A.V.]). W'hen the organization of the Christian churches in Gentile cities involved the assignment of the work of pastoral superintend- ence to a distinct order, the title episkopos present- ed itself as at once convenient and familiar, and was therefore adopted as readily as the word elder (Gr. presbuteros) had been in the mother church of Jeru- silem. That the two titles were originally equivar lent is clear from the following facts (so Professor Plumptre, original author of this article) : — 1. Bishops and elders are nowhere named together as orders distinct from each other. — 2. Bishops and deacons are named as apparently an exhaustive division of the officers of eluirches addressed by St. Paul as an apostle (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1, 8).— 3. The same persons are described by both names (Acts xx. 17, 28; Tit. i. 5, 7).— 4. Elders discharge functions es- sentially episcopal, i. e. involving pastoral superin- tendence (1 Tim. V. 17; 1 Pet. v. 1, 2 [Gr. episkopo- rentes = "taking the oversight," A. V.]). — Assum- ing as proved the identity of the bishops and elders of the N. T., we inquire into — I. The relation be- tween the two titles. II. The functions and mode of appointment of the men to whom both titles were BIS BIT 125 appliw3. — I. There can be no doubt that " elders " had the priority in o der of time. The order itself is recognized iu Acts xi. 30, and iu Acts xv. It is transferred by Paul and Barnabas to the Gentile churches in their first missionary journey (Acts xiv. 23). The earliest use of " bishops," on the other hand, is in the address of St. Paul to the elders of Miletus (Acts xx. 28 [" overseers," A. V.]), and there it is rather descriptive of functions than given as a title. The earliest epistle in which it is formally used as = " elders " is Philippians, as late as the time of his first imprisonment at Rome. — II. Of the order in which the first elders were appointed, as of the occasion which led to the institution of tlie office, we have no record. From the analogy of the seven in Acts vi. 5, 6, it would seem probable that they were chosen by the members of the church col- lectively, and then set apart to their office by the lay- ing on of the apostles' hands. In the case of Tim- othy (1 Tim. iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. i. fi) the " presbytery," probably the body of the elders at Lystra, had taken part with the apostle in this act of ordination. (Evangelist.) The conditions to be observed in choosing these officers, as stated in the pastoral epistles, are, blameless life and reputation among those " that are without " as well as within the church, fitness for the work of teaching, the wide kindliness of temper which shows itsell in hospital- ity, the "being the husband of one wife" (i. e., most probably, not divorced and then married to another), showing powers of government in his own household a.' well as in self-control, not being a recent and, thciefore, an untried convert. When appointed, the duties of the bishop-elders appear to have been as follows : — 1. General superintendence over the spir- itual well-being of the flock (1 Pet. v. 2). 2. The work of teaching, both publielv and privately (1 Th. v. 12; 1 Tim. v. 17; Tit. i. 9). 3. The work of visiting the sick appears in Jas. v. 14, as assigned to the elders of the church. 4. Among other acts of charity, that of receiving strangers occupied a comspicuous place (1 Tim. iii. 2; Tit. i. 8). — The mode in which these officers of the church were sup- ported or remunerated varied probably in diffijrent cities. At Miletus St. Paul exhons the elders of the church to follow his example and work for their own livelihood (Acts xx. 34). In 1 Cor. ix. 14, and Gal. vi. e, he asserts the right of the ministers of the church to be supported by it. In 1 Tim. v. 17, he gives a special application of the principle in the a»- pignmcnt of a double allowance to those who have been conspicuous for their activity (so Professor Plumptre, &c. ; Conybeare and Ilowson translate " twofold honor, " implying reward ; Bloomfield gays, " no doubt reaped is included, as well as pro- vhion;" Uoljinson [N. T. Ltv.] translates "double [i. e. any greater relative amount of] honor ; " com- Sarc the A. V. " double honor "). Collectively at erusalem, and probably in other churches, the body of bisho|>-elders took part in deliberations (Acts xv. 6-22, xxi. 18), addressed other churches (xv. 23), were joined with the apostles in the work of ordain- ing by the laying on of hands (1 Tim. iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. i. IC). — nicre is no doubt that after the apostolic age the " bishop " had authority over the " ciders," but how far this ecclesiastical preeminence is sanc- tioned by the N. T. or by apostolic practice is a matter of controversy between the supporters and opimsers of diocesan episcopacy, the discussion of which is foreign to the object of this Dictionary of the Bible. Apostlk ; Deacos ; Elder ; Evan- QELIST ; Ml.VISTER ; Ordain ; Pastob. * Bi'son (Deut. xiv. 5, marg.). Pygaro. * Bit. Horse. Bi-tbi'ah (fr. Heb. = davglder [i. e. wcrs/iipper] of Jehovah; see Ase-nath), daughter of a Pharaoh, aud wife of Mered, a descendant of Judab (1 Chr. iv. 18). The Scriptures, as well as the Egyptian monu- ments, show that the Pharaohs intermarried with foreigners ; but such alliances seem to have been contracted with royal families alone. It may be sup- posed that Bithiah was taken captive. Bitb'ron (Ueb. properly, section, i. e. a region eut up with mountains and valleys ; or better, a valley cutting into mountains = a craggy valley, riiountaiu gorge, defile, Ges. ; compare Betber), probably a district in the Jordan valley (Plain 5), on the E. side of the river (2 Sam. ii. 29). Some take Bithron as a proper name; others (Gesenius, Robinson, &c. ; see above) as an appellation of a rugged district, or of a ravine, e. g. Wady Adjh'm. Bi-thyn'1-a (L. fr. Gr. ; named from the Bithyni, a Thracian people from the Strymon), a province of Asia Minor mentioned only in Acts xvi. 7, and 1 Pet. i. 1. Bithynia, considered as a Roman province, was on the W. contiguous to Asia. On the E. its limits underwent great modifications. The province was originally inherited by the Roman republic (b. c. 74) as a legacy from Nicomedes III., the last of an independent line of monarehs, one of whom had invited into Asia Minor those Gauls who gave the name of Galatia to the central district of the peninsula. On the death of Mithridates, king of Pontus, B. c. 63, the W. part of the Pontic kingdom was added to the province of Bithynia, which again received further accessions on this side under Augus- tus, A. n. 7. Pliny the younger governed Bithynia as pro-consul when he wrote his celebrated letter to the Emperor Trajan respecting the persecution of Christians ; and the Niccne creed owes its origin and name to the general Council held at Nice, the chief town in Bithynia, a. d. 325. Bit'ter Herbs (Heb. mtjrdrim; in Lam. iii. 15 trans- lated " bitterness "). The Israelites were command- ed to eat the Paschal lamb " with unleavened bread and with bitter herbs" (Ex. xii. 8; Num. ix. 11). According to Aben Ezra the ancient Egyptians al- ways placed dillerent kinds' of herbs upon the table with mustard, and dipped morsels of bread into this salad. That the Jews derived this custom of eating herbs with their meat from the Egyptians is extreme- ly probable. The " bitter herbs " probably — the various edible kinds of bitter plants, whether culti- vated or wild, which the Israelites could obtain with facility, particularly bitter cresses and other crucif- erous plants, or the chiccory group of the compositw, the hawkweeds, sow-thistles, and wild lettuces which grow abundantly in the peninsula of Sinai, in Pales- tine, and in Egypt. • Bit'ter Water. Adultery ; Water of Jeal- ousy. Bittern (Heb. kippod). The Hebrew word has been variously translated, the old versions generally (and so Gesenius, Winer, Fiirst, &c.) sanctioning " hedgehog " or " porcupine ; " " tortoise," " bea- ver," " otter," " owl," have also all been conjectured, but without reason. Philological arguments appear to be rather in favor of the "hedgehog" or " por- cupine," for the Ileb. kippdd appears = kvnfud, the Arabic word for the hedgehog ; but zoologically, the hedgehog or porcupine is quite out of the question. The word occurs in Is. xiv. 23, xxxiv. 1 1 ; Zcpli. ii. 14. The former passage would seem to point to some solitude-loving aquatic bird, and so the .A. V. trans- 126 BIT ktion " bittern " is probably correct. This bird has a habit of erecting and bristling out the feathers of t'le neck, which gives it some resemblance to a porcu- pine. Col. H. Smith, in Kitto, says, " though not build- ing like the stork on the tops of houses, it resorts like the heron to ruined structures, and we have been in- formed that it has been seen on the summit of Tank Kisra at (Jtesiphon." The bittern (Bi'taunis stellaris) belongs to the heron family of birds ; it has a wide range, being found in Russia and Siberia as far N. as the river Lena, in Europe generally, in Barbary, S. Africa, Trebizond, and in the countries between the Black and Caspian Seas, &c. Bolaurui sttUaria. 6i-tn'mcn. Slimr. BU-Jotll'jah (fr. Heb. = coniempl of Jehovah, Ges.), a town in the S. of Judah named with Beer-sheba and Baalah (Josh. xv. 28). Wilton {The Ner/eb) and Rowlands (in Fairbjirn under " S. Country ") connect this with tlie following " Baalah " as a compound name. The former supposes it at the modern village Deir el-Beldh, on the coast, nine or ten miles S. W. from Gaza ; the latter possibly at Bawdty, an ancient site in the plain fifteen or twenty miles nearly S. from Gaza. Biz'tha (Heb prob. fr. Pers., denoting his condi- tion as a eimuch, Ges.), the second of the seven eunuchs of King Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10). Blatk. Colors. Blains (Heb. aba'bu'dlh, fr. bua\ to boil up), vio- lent ulcerous inflammations. It was the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. ix. 9, 10), and hence is called in Deut. xxviii. 27, 35, " the botch of Egypt." Medicine. Blas'phe-my, in its technical English sense, signi- fies the speaking evil of God, and in this sense it is found Ps. Ixxiv. 18; Is. lii. 5 ; Rom. ii. 24, &c. But according to its Greek derivation it may mean any species of calumny and abuse (or even an unlucky word, Euripides, Ion. 1187): see 1 K. xxi. 10; Acts xviii. 6 ; Jude 9, " railing," A. V., &c. Blasphemy was punished with stoning, which was inflicted on the son of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 11). On this charge both our Lord and St. Stephen were con- demned to death by the Jews, When a person heard blasphemy he laid his hand on the head of the of- fender, to symbolize his Bole responsibility for the BLO guilt, and rising on his feet, tore his robe, which iuight never again be mended. " The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost " has been a fruitful theme for speculation and controversy (Mat. xii. 31 ; Mk. iii. 29). It consisted in attributing to the power of Satan those unquestionable miracles, which Jesus performed by " the finger of God," and the power of the Holy Spirit ; nor have we any safe ground for extending it to include all sorts of williug (as dis- tinguished from wilful) offences, besides this one limited and special sin. * Blasting (Heb. shidlAphdn), a scorching or blight of grain by the influence of the E. wind, ke. (Deut. xxviii. 22 ; 1 K. viii. 37, &c. ; compare Gen. xli. 6 ff.). Winds. Blas'tns(L. fr. Gr.^^abud, sprout), the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa I., made by the people of Tyre and Sidon a mediator between them and the angry king (Acts xii. 20). * Blem'ish (Heb. mum; Gr. momos). All officiat- ing priests and all victims for sacrifice were required to be without blemish, i. c. without bodily defect (Lev. xxi. 17 ff., xxii. 17 ft". ; Deut. xv. 21, 22, &c.). Both the Hebrew and Greek words are used figu- ratively of moral defects or faults (Deut. xxxii. 5, A. V. ''spot," margin " blot; " Ecclus. xviii. 15 ; 2 Pet. ii. 13). Jesus Christ is compared to "a lamb without blemish (Gr. a-momos) and without spot " (1 Pet. i. 19). Atonement; Priest; Sacrifice. * Blessing, in the Scriptures, may come (l.)to men, &c., from God, when He confers on them any favor or benefit (Gen. i. 28 ; Ps. iii. 8, &.e.) ; (2.) to God from men, &c., when they thankfully acknowledge His goodness and praise Him for His excellence (I's. ciii. 1, 2, 20-22 ; Rev. v. 13, &c.); (3.) to man from man, when one prays for or declares God's favor toward the other (Gen. xxvii., xlviii., xlix. ; Deut. xxxiii., &e.), or pronounces him favored (Ps. x. 3, &c.) ; (4.) to man from himself, when he prays for God's favor or pronounces himself prosperous or happy without reference to it (Deut. xxix. 19; Is. Ixv. 16, &c.), &c. Prayer. Blind'ingt Punishments. Blind'ness is extremely common in the East from many causes. (Medicine.) Blind men figure re- peatcdlv in the N. T. (Mat. ix. 27 ff., xi. 5, xii. 22, XX. 30 ff. ; Mk. viii. 22 ff. ; Lk. vii. 21 ; Jn. v. 3, ix. 1 ff. &c.), and " opening the eyes of the blind " is mentioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Messiah (Is. xxix. 18, &c.). (Miracles.) The Hebrews were specially charged to treat the blind with com- passion and care (Lev. xix. 14; Deut. xxvii. 18). (Poor.) Blindness is several times mentioned in the Bible as miraculously sent upon enemies of God's people (Gen. xix. 11 ; 2 K. vi. 18-22 ; Acts ix. 9). Blindness wilfully inflicted for political or other pur- poses was common in the East (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Jer. xxxix. 7). Pdnishments. Blood. To blood is ascribed in Scripture the mysterious sacredness which belongs to life, and God reserves it to Himself when allowing man the dominion over and the use of the lower animals for pood. Thus reserved, it acquires a double power : 1, that of sacrificial atonement (Sacrifice) ; and 2, that of becoming a curse when wantonly shed, un- less duly expiated (Gen. ix. 4; Lev. vii. 26, xvii. 11- 14). As regards 1, the blood of sacrifices was caught by the Jewish priest from the neck of the victim in a basin, then sprinkled seven times (in case of birds at once squeezed out on the altar, but that of the passover on the lintel and door-posts, Ex. xii. ; Lev. iv. 5-7, xvi. 14-19). In regard to 2, it sufficed BLO BOO 12T to pour the auimal's blood on the earth, or to bury it, as a solemn renderin;; of the life to God ; in case of humiui bloodshed (Murder) a mysterious connec- tion is observable between the curse of blood and the earth or land on which it is shed (Gen. iv. Id, ix. 4-6 ; Xum. xxxv. 83 ; Deut. xxi. 1 fl'. ; Ps. cvi. o8). That " blood and water " came out from our I.iird's side when the soldier pierced Ilim on the cross, is explained by Dr. W. A. Nicholson (in Kitto) on the supposition that some effusion had taken place in the cavity of the chest, and that the spear penetrateJ below the level of the fluid. On this suppo- sition, the wound being inflicted shortly after death, blood would also have trickled down with tlie water, or, at any rate, have appeared at the mouth of the wounri, though none of the large vessels had been wounded. Blood, .4-Ten'ger of, or 8e-T*n'ger of. It was, and even still is, a common practice among nations of patriarchal habits, that the nearest of kin should, as a matter of duty, avenge the death of a murdered relative (Mcrder). Compensation for murder is al- lowed by the Koran. Among the Bedouins, and other Arab tribes, should the offer of blood-money be refused, the ' Thar,' or law of blooi, comes into operation, and any person within the fifth degree of blood from the homicide may be legally killed by any one within the same degree of consanguinity to the victim. Frcfpiently the homicide will wander from tent to tent over the Desert, or even rove through the towns and villages on its borders with a chain round his neck and in rags, begging contri- butions from the charitable to pay the apportioned blood-money. Three days and four hours are allowed to the persons included within the ' Thar ' for es- cape. The right to blood-revenge is never lost, ex- cept as annulled by compensation : it descends to the latest generation. Similar customs with local distinctions are found in Persia, Abyssinia, and among the Druses and Circassians. The law of Moses was very precise in its directions on the sub- ject of Retaliation. — 1. The wilful murderer was to be put to death without permission of compensation. The nearest reUtive of the deceased became the authorized avenger of blood (Heb. goi'l ; Xum. XXXV. 19|,and was bound to execute retaliation him- self if it lay in his power. The king, however, in later times, appears to have had the power of re- straining this license. The shedder of blood was thus regarded as impious and polluted (Num. x.xxv. 16-31 ; Deut. xix. 11-13; 2 Sam. xiv. 7, 11, xvi. 8, and iii. 29, with 1 K. ii. 31, 33; 2Chr. xxiv. 22-25). — 2. The law of retaliation was not to extend be- yond the immediate offender (Deut. xxiv. 16 ; 2 K. xiv. 6; 2 Chr. xxv. 4; Jer. xxxi. 29, 30 v Ez. xviii. 20). — 3. Tlie involuntary shedder of blood was per- mitted to take flight to one of six Cities of Refuge (N'uin. XXXV. 22 ff.; Deut. xix. 4-6). CiTT of Re- FCOE. Blood, Is'sne oft The mcnstruous discharge or an unnatural discharge of blood from the womb (Lev. XV. 19-30; Mat. ix. 20; Mk. v. 25; Lk. viii. 43). (Medicine.) The latter caused a permanent legal uncleanness, the former a temporary one, mostly for seven days ; after which the woman was to be purified by the customary offering. Plripication. Blood, Re-Tcn'ger of. Blood, Avenger op. * Bloody FIm. Flcx, Bloody ; Medicine. ' Bloody Sweat. Sweat, Bloody. * Blot, in A.V. fig.zr hlame or Mamemorl/iitiesi (Job xxxi. 7 ; Prov. ix. 7). To " blot out," fig. - to cancel, remove, destroy (Deut. ix. 14 ; Ps. li. 1 ; Rev. iii. 5, &c.). Atonement. Bine. Colors. Bo-an-«r'ges [-.jeez] (Gr. form of Aram. = sons of thunder), a name given by our Lord to the two sons of Zebcdec, James and John (Mk. iii. 17). Proljahly the name had respect to the fiery zeal of the biotli- ers, signs of which we may see in Lk. ix. 54; Mk. ix. 38 ; compare Mat. xx. 20 ff. Boar. Swine. * Boat. Egypt ; Snip. Bo'az [Wch.itectncss; alacrit;/, Ges.). 1. A wealthy Bethlchemite, kinsman to Naomi's husband, Elime- lech (Ru. ii. 1, &c.). Finding that the kinsman of RcTii, who stood in a still nearer relation than him- self, was unwilling to perform the office of the near- est kinsman (Heb. ^oc/), he had those obligations publicly transferred with the usual ceremonies to his own discharge ; and hence it became his duty by the " levirate law " to marry Ruth, and to redeem the es- tates of her deceased husband Mahlon (iv. 1 ff.) (Marriage, II. ii. 1.) He gladly undertook these responsibilities, and their ha])py union was blessed by the birth of Obed from whom in a direct line our Lord was descended. Boaz is mentioned in tlie genealogy (Mat. i. 5 ; Lk. iii. 32 ; " Booz " in both), but there is great difficulty in assigning his date. If Boaz = Ibzan, as is stated with some shadow of probability by the Jerusalem Talmud and various Rabbis, several generations must be inserted. Even if we shorten the period cf the Judges to 240 years (Chronology; Judges), we must suppose that Boaz was the youngest son of Salmon, and that he did not marry till the age of sixty-five. — 2. One of Solo- mon's brazen pillars erected in the Temple porch. (jAcniN ; Temple.) It stood on the left, and was 18 cubits high(l K. vii. 15, 21 ; 2 Chr. iii. 15ff.; Jer. hi. 21). The apparent discrepancies (18 and 35 cubits high) arise from including or excluding the orna- ment which united the shaft to the chapiter, &c. Bor'cas (1 Esd. viii. 2) = Bukkp. Both'e-rn [bok-] {Uch.thefi-st-born is he, Ges.), a Benjamite, son of Azcl (1 Chr. viii. 38, ix. 44); translated in LXX. " his first-born." Bo'chim [-kirn] (Heb. = the weepers ; the weepine;, Ges.), a place W. of Jordan, above Gilgal (Judg. ii. 1,5). Bo'ban (Ileb. thumb, Ges.), a Rcubenite, after whom was named a stone on the border of the teiri- tories of Benjamin and Judah, between Beth-arahah and Beth-hog!a on the E., and Adnmmim and En-she- mesh on the \V. (Josh. xv. 6, xviii. 17). Boll. Medicin?:. * Boiled [o as in hole] = formed into seed-vessels, (toinif to seed (Ex. ix. 31). Gesenius makes the Hebrew = in fower. Bol'ster. Bed; Pillow. * Bond. Chain; Cord; Law; Punishments; Slave; Trial. Bond'age. Slave. Bon'net. Head-dress. Book. Writing. Booths. Stct'OTH ; Tabernacles, Feast of. Boo'ty consistetl of captivosof both sexes,cattle, and whatever a captured city might contain, especially metallic treasures. Within the limits of Canaan no captives were to be made (Deut. xx. 14, 16). (Anath- ema.) Beyond those limits, in case of warlike re- sistance, all the women am] children were to be made captives, and the men put to death. The law of booty was that it should be divided equally between the army who won it and the people of 128 BOO BOZ Israel, but of the former half one head in every five hundred was reserved to God, and appropriated to the priests, and of the latter one in every fifty was similarly reserved and appropriated to the Le- vites (Num. xxxi. 26-47). As regarded the army, David added a regulation that the biggage-guard should share equally with the troops engaged (1 Sara. XXX. 24, 25). War. Bd'oz (Gr. fr. Heb.) = Boaz 1 (Mat. i. 5 ; Lk. iii. S2). Bo'i'lth (2 Esd. i. 2) — Bukki. Bor'row-ing. Loan. Bos'cath (fr. Heb.) = Bozkatti (2 K. xxii. I). *Bo'som [boo'zum]. Ahbaham's Boso.m; Dress. Bo'SOr (Gr. and L. fr. Heb.). 1. A lorge fortified city on tlie E. of Jordan in the laud of' Gilead (1 Mc. V. 26, 36) ; probably = Bezer. — i. The Aramaic pronunciation of Beor, the father of Balaam (2 Pet. ii. 15). Bos'o-ra, a strong city in Gilead taken by Judas Maccabeus (1 Mc. v. 26, 28); doubtless = Bostra. See BozRAH 2. *Boss. Ar.ms, II. 5. Botfhi Blains ; Medicine. Bi)t'tle> Four Hebrew words [Minelh or chemeth, nebd or nehel, hafcbuk, nol) and the Greek askos are translated "bottle" in the A.V. (Cruse 2 ; Pitcher.) Bottles in Scripture are of two kinds, both of them capable of being closed from the air : 1. The skin bottle; 2. Tlie bottle of earthen or glass ware. — 1. The Arabs, and all that lead a wandering life, keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in leath- ern bottles. These are made of goatskins. When the animal is killed, they cut off its feet and head, and di'aw It in this manner out of the skin, with- Skin Bottles. — (From the MuBeo Borbonlco.) out opening its belly. In Arabia they tan these skins with acacia-bark and the hairy part is left outside. They afterward sew up the places where the legs were cut off and the tail, and when it is filled they tie it about the neck. The great leath- ern bottles are made of the skin of a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve instead of a bottle of Egypttan Bottles.—! to 7 glaw. S to 11 earthenvare. — (Froin the British Museum Collection.) t water on the road, are made of a kid's skin. Bruce g'ves a description of a vessel of the same kind, but larger, made of an ox's skin. Wine-bottles of skin are mentioned as used by Greeks, Konians, and Egyptians, by Homer {Od. vi. 78 ; //. iii. 247); by Herodotus (ii. 121), as nsed in Egypt; and by Virgil (Georg. ii. 384). Skins for wine or other litjuids are in use to this day in Spain, where they are called borrachas. The cftiect of exteraal heat (rather, of smoke) upon a skin-bottle is indicated m I's. cxix. 83," a bottle in the smoke," and of expansion or strain produced by fermentation in Mat. ix. 17, " new wine in old bottles." — 2. Vessels of metal, earthen, or glass ware for liquids were in use among the Greeks, Egyptians, Etruscans, and Assyrians, and also no doubt among the Jews, es|)ecially in later times. Thus Jer. xix. I, "a potter's earthen bottle." The Jews ])robably borrowed their manu- factures in this particular from Egypt, whicli was celebrated for glass work. Bow. Arms, I. 3. * Bovr'els, in Scripture, = the inward parts, often particularly denoting the upper viscera, i. e. the heart, &c. ; hence, figuratively, the inner man, the soul, thoughts, afflictions, tender feelings, love, mer- cy, &c. Compare the English breast, heart, &c. * Bowing. Adoration. Bowl. The Hebrew words translated " bowl " in the A. V. are niizrcik, saph, gulluh, seplul, gibia\ menakkilh ; see also Ccp ; Disn ; Pot. On the un- certainty as to the precise form and material, see Basin. Bowls would .probably be used at meals for liquids, or broth, or pottage (2 K. iv. 40). Modern Arabs are content with a few wooden bowls. In the British Museum are several terra-cotta bowls with Chaldean inscriptions of a superstitious character, expressing charms against sickness and evil spirits, which may possibly explain the " divining cup " of Joseph (Gen. xliv. 5). The bowl was filled with some liquid which was drunk off as a charm against evil. On "the golden bowl" (Eccl. xii. 6), see under Medicine. *Box. Alabaster; Vial. Box'-tree or Box, the translation in the A. V. of the Hebrew tlashs/iur (Is. xli. 19, Ix. 13). The Tal- mudical and Jewish writers generally, with the A.V. and other modem versions, Rosenmidler, Parkhurst, &c., are of opinion that the box-tree is intended. The Syriac and the Arabic version of Saadias, with Gesenius and Fiirst, understand by it a species of cedar called sherbin, distinguished by its small cones and upright branches. Although the claim of the box-tree to represent the Hebrew iiashshur is far from being satisfactorily established, yet the evidence rests on a better foundation than that which supports the claims of the sherbin (so Mr. Houghton). Bochart, Rosenmiiller, &c., suppose box-trees to be meant in Ez. xxvii. 6, where the A. V. has " the company of the Ashurites," and thus translate : " Thy benciiks have they made of ivory, inlaid with box-wood from the isles of Chittim." Box-wood writing tablets are alluded to in 2 Esd. xiv. 24. Bo'zez (fr. Ileb. = shining, glittering, Ges.), one of the two " sharp rocks " (Heb. = " teeth of the •cliff") "between the passages" by which Jonathan entered the Philistine garrison at Michmash. It seems to have been that on the N. (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5). Boz'kath (fr. Heb. = s/ony region, high, Ges.), a city of Judah in the lowlands (Valley 5 ; Josh. xv. 39) ; the niitive place of King Josiah's mother (2 K. xxii. 1, A. V. "Boscath"); site unknown. Boz'rah (fr. Heb. = a fold, iheepfold, fortress, stronghold, Ges.). 1. In EnoM — the city of King Jobab the son of Zerah (Gen. xxxvi. 33 ; 1 Chr. i. BRA BRA 129 44) ; doubtless the place mentioned in later times in connection with Edom (Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. 1 ; Jer. ilix. 13, ^2; Am. i. 12; Mic. ii. 12). There is no rea.son to doubt tliat the modern representative of Bozruh is el-Biuiaireh, a village first visited by Burek- hardt, on the mountain district S. E. of the Dead Sea, between Tufileh and Petra, about half-way be- tween (he latter and the Dead Sea. — 2. Among the cities of the land of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 24) is a Boz- rah apparently iu the " plain country " (Plain 4 ; Batrak^ tb« ancient Bo«tn ca Bozrab f ver. 21). Here lay Heshbon, Nebo, Kiriathaim, Dib- lathaim, aud the other towns named in this passage, and probably here (so Mr. Grove) Bozrah should be sought, and not, as has been lately suggested (Ptr. ii. 102, &c.), at Bostra, the Roman city in Bashan full sixty miles from Heshbon. Yet Bostra (the modem Busrah, now mostly in ruins) was certainly at a later date an important city ; it is in a fertile region ; it is not elsewhere mentioned in the Scrip- tures ; the catalogue in Jeremiah includes cities " far or near ; " and this may have been a city of Moab at that time. Brare'lrt, the translation in the A. V. of the Heb. cla'aiJuh (AitMi.ET), Udmid (flen. xxir. 22, 30, &c.), third (Is. iii. 19), and pdtiiU (Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25 ; Bracelet! and Armlela. — (Fbn.) the Hebrew word here probably = "a string by which a seal-ring was suspended ; " see Lace). Under 9 Armlet an account is given of these ornaments, the materials of which they were generally made, the manner in which they were worn, &c. Bracelets of fine twisted Venetian gold are still common in Egypt. Men as well as women wore bracelets. Layard says of the Assyrian kings : " The arms were encircled by armlets, and tJie wrists by bracelets." Bram'ble. Thorns. * Branfb = a Hnib or shoot of a tree, vine, &c. (Gen. xl. 10, 12; Ps. civ. 12, &c.); often figurative- ly = that which is closely united to something else, like a branch to a tree, as descendants to an ances- tor, kindred to a family, Christians to Jesus Christ, &c. (Jn. XV. 5 ; Rom. xi. 16 ff., &c.). Jksus Christ himself, as a descendant of David and the Messiah, is especially so called (Is. iv. 2, xi. 1 ; Jer. xxiii. 5, xxxiii. 15 ; Zech. iii. 8, vi. 12 ; Nazarene). To " put the branch to the nose" (Ez. viii. 17) is supposed to refer to some idolatrous ceremony, and to indicate insolent or contemptuous feeling (Fairbairn). BnuSe The Heb. nlhosheth or nichosheth is im- properly translated " brass," since the Hebrews were not acquainted with the compound of copper and zinc known by that name. The Hebrew word is often translated " brazen " (Ex. xxxviii. 4, 30 ; 1 K. xiv. 27; Jer. xv. 20, &c.), once "copper" (Ezr. viii. 27, margin "brass"), once "steel" (Jer. xv. 12). The kindred Heb. adj. v&Jmsh or n&chush is trans- lated "of brass," margin "brazen" (Job vi. 12); the feminine nehushdh or nlchusuh is translateil "brass" (Lev. xxvi. 19; Job ixriii. 2, &c.), and " steel " (2 Sam. ixii. 35 ; Job xx. 24 ; Ps. xviii. 34, Ileb. 35). In most places of the 0. T. the correct translation would be copper, althougli it may some- times = bronze, a compound of copper and tin. In- deed, a simple metal was obviously iutendcd, as we 130 BRA BRE see from Deut. viii. 9, xxxiii. 25, and Job xxviii. 2. Copper was known at a very early period, and the invention of worlving it is attributed to Tubal-cain (Gen. iv. 22). Its extreme ductility made its appli- cation almost universal among the ancients. The Gr. chalkos is translated " brass " (Mat. x. 9, here = Money; Rev. xviii. 12) and "money" (Mk. vi. 8, xii. 41). Two kindred words are also used, viz. chalkeos, A. V. "of brass" (Rev. :x. 20), and plural of chalhon, A. T. " brazen vessels " (Mk. vii. 4). "Sounding brass" (Gr. chalkos; 1 Cor. xiii. 1) =: an instrument made of brass or copper, i. e. a trum- pet or cymbal (Rbn. N. T. Lex.). It often occurs in metaphors, e. g. Lev. xxvi. 19 ; Deut. xxviii. 23; Job vi. 12; Jer. vi. 28. It is often used as an em- blem of strength, Zech. vi. 1 ; Jer. i. 18. The Gr. chalkolibanoii in Rev. i. 15, ii. 18 (A. V. "fine brass"), has excited much difference of opinion. Some suppose it = orichalcum, a mixed metal (see Amber) more valuable than gold. It may perhaps be deep-colored frankincense (so Mr. Farrar). * Bra'vcr-y, in Is. iii. 18, A. V. = heaxity, splendor. * Bray, to = to make a harsh noiie like an ass (Job vi. 5, &c.); also, to pound, mash, or break in pieces (Prov. xxvii. 22). Punishments. * Brazen Sea. Sea, SIolten. Bra'zeu Serpent. Serpent, Brazen. * Breathes, in Judg. v. 17 (Heb. pi. of miphrdts, literally a rent, breach, notch, sc. in the coast, Ges.), probably = havens, harbors. See also Fenced City ; House ; War, &c. Bread (Heb. lehem or lechem ; Gr. artoi). • The preparation of bread as an article of food dates from a very enrly period : the earliest undoubted instance of its use is found in Gen. xviii. 6. " Bread " in the Scriptures often = food in general (Gen. xviii. 5; Ex. xvi. 4, 15, 29; Lev. xxi. 8, 17; Neh. v. 18; Mat. vi. 11, XV. 26, &c.). " To eat bread " common- ly in the Scriptures = to eat food, to take a meal (Gen. iii. 19, xxviii. 20, xxxi. 54 ; Ps. xli. 9, cii. 4 ; Mat. XV. 2; Jn. xiii. 18; 2 Th. iii. 8, 12, &c., &c.). The corn or grain employed for making bread was of various sorts : the best bread was made of wheat, which after being ground produced the " flour " or "meal" (Judg. vi. 19; 1 Sam. i. 24 ; 1 K. iv. 22, xvii. 12, 14), and when sifted the " fine flour" (Ex. xxix. 2 ; Gen. xviii. 6) usually employed in the sacred offerings (Ex. xxix. 40; Lev. ii. 1; Ez. xlvi. 14), and in the meals of the wealthy (1 K. iv. 22 ; 2 K. vii. 1; Ez. xvi. 13, 19; Rev. xviii. 13). Barley was used chiefly by the poor, or in times of scarcity (2 K. iv. 38, 42 ; Rev. vi. 6, &c.). " Spelt" (Rye) was also used both in Egypt (Ex. ix. 32) and Pales- tine (Is. xxviii. 25 ; Ez. iv. 9). Occasionally the grains above mentioned were mixed, and other in- gredients, such as beans, lentils, and millet, were add- ed (Ez. iv. 9 ; compare 2 Sam. xvii. 28) ; the bread so produced is called " barley cakes " (Ez. iv. 12, '■^ as barley cakes," A. V.), inasmuch as barley was the main ingredient. The amount of meal ibr a single baking was an cphah or three measures (Gen. xviii. 6 ; Judg. vi. 19; 1 Sam. i. 24; Mat. xiii. 33). The baking was done in primitive times by the mistress of the house (Gen. xviii. 6) or one of the daughters (2 Sam. xiii. 8) ; female servants were however em- ployed in large households (1 Sam. viii. 13). Baking as a profession, was carried on by men (Gen. xl. 1 ff. ; Hos. vii. 4, 6). In Jerusalem the bakers con- gregated m one quarter of the town, as we may infer from the names "bakers' street" (Jer. xxxvii. 21), and "tower of the ovens" (Neh. iii. 11, xii. 38, " furnaces," A, V.). The bread taken by persons on a journey (Gen. xlv. 23 ; Josh. ix. 12) was prob- ably a kind of biscuit. The process of making bread was as follows : — the flour was first mixed with wa- ter, or perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with the Egyptians kneading dfuph with their hanii*.— (Williinson, from a paintiDg in the Tomb of Remeees 111. at Thet}e8.> hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a small wooden bowl or " kneading-trough " (" store," A. V. in Deut. xxviii. 5, 17), until it became dough (Ex. xii. 34, 39 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 8; Jer. vii. 18; Hos. vii. 4). Leaven E^ptiana Itnending the dough with their feet. At a and h the dontrh is prol>ably left to ferment in a baeliet, as is now done at Cairo. — (Williinson.) was generally added : but when the time for prepara- tion was short, it was omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily baked, were eaten, as is still the prevalent custom among the Bedouins (Gen. xviii. 6, xix. 3 ; Egyptians mailing cakes of broad sprinkled with seeds. — (Wilkinson.) Ex. xii. 39 ; Judg. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24 ; Pas?- ovek). The leavened mass was allowed to stand for some time (Mat. xiii. 33; Lk. xiii. 21). The dough was then divided into round cakes (Ex. xxix. 23; Judg. vii. 13, viii. 5: 1 Sam. x. 3; Prov. vi. 26), not unlike flat stones in shape and appearance (Mat. vii. 9 ; compare iv. 3), about a span in diam- eter and a finger's breadth in thickness. The cakes were sometimes punctured, and hence called in He- brew halldh or challah (A. V. "eake," "cakes;" Ex. xxix. 2, 23 ; Lev. ii. 4, viii. 26, xxiv. 5 ; Num. vi. 15, 19, XV. 20 ; 2 Sam. vi. 19), and mixed with oil. Sometimes they were rolled out into wafers (Ex. xxix. 2, 23 ; Lev. ii. 4 ; Num. vi. 16-19), and BRE BBI 131 merely coated with oil. The cakes were now taken to the oven, having been first, in Efrypt, gathered into "white (?) baskets" (Gen. xl. 10; Basket 1). An Egyptian t^nyiag cake* to the oven. — (Wilkinson.) The baskets were placed on a tray and carried on the baker's head (Gen. xl. 16). The methods of baking were, and still are, very various in the East, adapted to the various styles of life ; in oven.", fixed or portable (Fire; Oven); in holes dug in the ground, &c. Among the pastoral Jews, as among the modem Bedouins, the cakes were spread upon heated stones, or thrown into the heated embers of the fire itself, or roasted by being placed between layers of dung, which burns slowly, and is therefore specially adapted for the purpose (Ez. iv. 12, 15). The cakes required to be carefully turned during the process (Hos. vii. 8). Some kinds of bread were baked on a pan ; such cakes appeared to have been chiefly used as sacred offerings (Lev. ii. 5, vi. 21 [Ueb. 14], vii. 9 ; 1 Chr. xxiii. 29). A similar cooking utensil was used by Tamar (2 Sam. xiii. 9). A different kind of bread, probably resembling the /tila of the Bedouins, a pasty substance, was pre- pared in a saucepan (frjiiiig-pan, A. V.) ; this was also reserved for sacred offerings (Lev. ii. 7 ; vii. 9). Sbewbread. Brenst'plate. Arms, II. 1 ; High-Priest, I. 2, a. * Breeches. Hiou-Priest ; Priest. * Brethren. Brother. * Bribe. Magistrates were expressly forbidden to take bribes or gifts (Ex. xxiii. 8 ; Deut. xvi. 19, &c.), lest justice should thus be perverted. Samuel's sons took bribes, and in consequence the Israelites desired a king (1 Sam. viii. 3 ff. ; comp. xii. 3 ff.). See Gifts ; also Job xv. 34 ; Ps.' xxvi 10 ; Is. xxxiii. 15; Am. V. 12. BrUk. Herodotus (i. 179), describing the mode of building the walls of Babylon, says tliat the clay dug out of the ditch was made into bricks as soon Forei^ captiTee employed in making bricke at Tbebes. — (Wilkinun). I%>.I,1 Men retnmlng nn^r carrylns the brirka. F1^. 3, «. Taakma.tera. Fiet. 4, S. Men carrTing bricka. Flga.l?,13. ripping and mlxlnp the clay or moil. Tiga. it, 14. Making brlcka with a wooden mould, ff, h. Fig. 15. Fetching watiT from the tank, k. At e, the bricks (t(>bl) are aaid to be Bud« at Tb«b«a. 88 it was carried up, and burnt in kilns. The brick ] Tower of Babel, in which the builders used brick were cemented with hot bitumen, and at every thir- instead of stone, and slime for mortar (Gen. xi. 3). tieth row crates of reeds were etuffcd in. This ac- The Babylonian bricks were more commonly burnt in count agrees with the history of the building of the | kilns than those used at Nineveh, which are chiefly 132 BRI BUt sun-dried like the Egyptian. They are usually from twelve to thirteen inches square, and three and a half inches thick, and most of them bear the name, inscribed in cuneiform character, of Nebuchadnezzar, whose buildings, no doubt, replaced those of an ear- lier age. They thus possess more of the character of tiles (Ez. iv. 1). They were sometimes glazed and enamelled with patterns of various colors. The Is- raelites, in common with other captives, were em- ployed by the Egyptian monarchs in making bricks and in building (Ex. i. 14, v. 7). Egyptian bricks were not generally dried in kilns, but in the sun, and even without straw aie as firm as when first put up in tlie reigns of the Amunoplis and Thotlnnes whose names they bear. When made of the Nile mud, they required straw to prevent cracking ; and crude brick walls had frequently the additional security of a layer of reeds and sticks, placed at intervals to act as bind- ers. A brick-kiln is mentioned as in Egypt (Jer. xliii. 9). A brick pyramid is mentioned (Herodotus, ii. 136) as the work of King Asychis. Tlie Jews learned the art of brick-making in Egypt, and we find the use of the brick-kiln in David's time (2 Sam. xii. 31), and a complaint tliat the people built altars of brick (Is Ixv. 3). Altar, f, 1 ; Pottery. Bride, Bride'groom. Marriage. Bridge. The only mention of a bridge in the Canonical Scriptures is indirectly in the proper name Geshhr. Judas Maccabeus is said to have intended to make a bridge in order to besiege the town of Caspis, situated near a lake (2 Mc. xii. 13). Though the ARCH was known and used in Egypt as early as the fifteen century b. c, the Romans were the first constructors of arched bridges. They made bridges over the Jordan and other rivers of Syria, of which remains still exist. A stone bridge over the Jordan, about two miles below the lake of the Huleh, called the bridge of the daughters of Jacob, is mentioned by B. de la Brocquifere, a. d. 1432, and a portion of one by Arculf, a. d. 700. The bridge connecting the Temple with the upper city, of whieli Josephus speaks, seems to have been an arched viaduct. "Bridle. Ass; Bells; Horse; Mdle;Pdnishmexts. Bri'er. Thorns. Brigan-dine. Arms, II. 1. Brliu'stoue (Heb. gophrith ; Gr. iheion), a well- known inflammable substance = sulphur (Deut. xxix. 23; Job xviii. 15, &e.) It is found in considerable quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea, and in different parts of the world, usually in volcanic districts ; also in combination with metals, &c. " Brimstone and fire " ( = burning brimstone. Bush ; sulphurous flames, Rbn.) are associated in the de- struction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. xix. 24 ; Lk. xvii. 29), and in the punishment of the wicked (Ps. xi. 6 ; Ez. xxxviii. 22 ; Rev. xiv. 10, xix. 20, &c. ; compare 2 Pet. ii. 6 ; jude 7). * Brold'ered, an obsolete English word = em- broidered. (See Embroiderer.) "Broidered hair" (1 Tim. ii. 9, marg. "plaited") is the A. V. transla- tion of Gr. plcffnia (= a braid of hair, braided hair, Rbn. N. T. Lac.). Some copies have " broided hair " or " braided hair." Hair. Brook, tlie A. V. translation of — 1. Hebrew Aphik, properly = a violent torrent, sweeping through a mountain gorge (Ps. xlii 1, Heb. 2) ; elsewhere translated " stream," " channel," " river." — 2. Heb. yim; an Egyptian word (in the plural = the branches and canals of the Nile, Ges.) (Is. xix. 6-8); elsewhere translated "'river," "flood." — 3. Heb. michal, probably = a rivulet, or small stream (2 Sam. xvii. 20 only).— 1. Heb. nahal or nachal — the dry torrent-bed (Valley 3), and the torrent it- self (1 Sam. xvii. 3, &c. ; see River 2); = Ar. wadi/, and Gr. c/uimarrhotis or cheimarrhm ; also trans- lated " river," " stream," " valley." — 5. Gr. cliei- marrhos (Jd. ii. 8; 1 Mc. v. 37 if.; Jn. xviii. 1) = Heb. nahal, No. 4 above. — 6. Gr. diorux (Ecclus. xxiv. SO, 31) = something dag, a trench or canal. — T. Gr. )-A««fta (Ecclus. xxxix. 13) = that which /oas, a stream. * Broth, or soup, is mentioned only in Judg. vi. 19, 20, and Is. Ixv. 4. Food. Brother. The Hebrew ah or dch is used in various senses in the 0. T. besides its strict sense of brother (Gen. iv. 2 ff., xix. 20, xlix. 5, &c.), and the less exact sense of half-brother (Gen. xlii. 15, 16; Judg. ^4ii. 19 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 7 ff'., &c.), as 1. A kin.sman, and not a mere biother; e. g. nephew (Gen. xiv. 16, xiii. 8; xxix. 12, 15); cousin (1 Chr. xxiii. 22). 2. One of the same tribe (2 Sam. xix. 12, Heb. 13). 3. Of the same people (Ex. ii. 1 1), or even oi a cognate peo- ple (Num. XX. 14). 4. An ally (Am. i. 9; see marg.). 5. Any friend (Job vi. 15). 6. One of the same office (1 K. ix. 13). 7. A fellow-man (Lev. xix. 17). 8. Metaphorically of any similarity. It is a very favorite Oriental metaphor, as in Job xxx. 29, " I am a brother to dragons; "see Dragon 1. — The Gr. adelphoH has a similar range of meanings in the N. T., and is also used for a disciple (Mat. xxv. 40, &c.); a fellow-worker (1 Cor. i. 1, &c.), and espe- cially a Christian. Indeed, it was by this name that Christians usually spoke of each other (Acts ix. 30, xi. 29, &c.). The Jewish schools distinguish between "brother" and "neighbor;" "brother" = an Is- raelite by blood, " neighbor " = a proselyte. They allowed neither title to the Gentiles ; but Christ and the apostles extended the name " brother " to all Christians, and " neighbor " to all the world (1 Cor. v. 11 ; Lk. x. 29 ff.). Thequestion as to who were "the brethren of the Lord," is discussed under James. * Brown. Colors. * Brnlt (pron. brute), an old English and French word = rumor or news (Jer. x. 22 ; Nah. iii. 19). Bn-bas'tis (L.) = Pi-beseth. * Bnck'ler. Arms, I. 2, c, and II. 5, 6. * BniTet, to (Gr. kolaphizo) = to smite with t/iejist, to box on the ear, to cnff ; in a wider sense, to smite, to maltreat (Mat. xxvi. 67 ; Mk. xiv. 65 ; 1 Cor. iv. 11; 2 Cor. xii. 7; 1 Pet. ii. 20). * Bnild'ing. Architecture ; Barn ; House ; Temple. Buk'kl (Heb. = Bckkiah, Ges.). 1. Son of Abi- shua and father of Uzzi ; fourth after Aaron in the line of the high-priests in 1 Chr. vi. 5, 51 (v. 31, vi. 36 Heb.), and in the genealogy of Ezra (Ezr. vii. 4) ; called in 1 Esd. viii. 2, Boccas, corrupted to Borith, 2 Esd. i. 2. Whether Bukki ever was high-priest, we are not informed in Scripture. Josephus men- tions him in one place (v. 11, § 6) as high-priest, in another (viii. 1, § 3) as the first of those who lived a private life, while the pontifical dignity was in the house of Ithamar. (High-Priest). — 2. Son of Jogli and prince of Dan ; assistant to Joshua and Eleazar in the division of Canaan (Num. xxxiv. 22). Bnk-ki'ah (fr. Heb. = wastiiig from Jehovah, Ges.), a Kohathite Levite, of the sons of Heman, musician In the Temple (1 Chr. xxv. 4, 13). Bnl \u as in rfW/]. Month. Bull, BnU'oek, terms used synonymously with ox, oxen, in the A. V. as the representatives of several Hebrew words. The plural of the Greek tanros is translated "bulls" in Heb.ix. 13, x. 4. — The Hebrew bdkdr is properly a generic name for homed cattle when of full age and fit for the plough. Accordingly BUB BUR . 133 it is variously rendered bullock (Is. Ixv. 25), eow (Ez. iv. 15), oxeii (Gen. xii. 16), beeves (Lev. xxii. 19, 21), &c. — The Hi'bi-ow sJtor almost always = one head of horned eallle, without distinction of age or sex (Ex. xxi. 28 ff, "ox " A. V. ; Lev. xxii. 23, 28, &c.). It is very seldom used collectively. The Chaldee form, tor, occurs in Ezr. vi. 9, 17, vii. 17 ; Dan. iv. 25 (22 Heb.), &c. — The Hebrew ^egel, fem. 'egldh r= a calf male or female, properly of the first year. The word is used of a trained heifer (Hos. x. 11), of one giving milk (Is. vii. 21, compare 22), of one used in ploughing (Judg. xiv. 18), and of oije three years old (Gen. xr. 9). — The Hebrew par = a bull, bullock, especially a young bullock, a steer (Ex. xxix. 1 ; Lev. iv. 3 ff., &c.), Ges. ; once (Judg. vi. 25) pos- sibly a bull of seven years old. — The Hebrew plural abbirim (literally strong ones) is used for bvlls in Ps. xxii. 12 (A. V. "strong bulU ;" 13 Heb.), 1. 13, Ixviii. 30, Heb. 31; Is. xxxiv. 7; Jer. 1. 11.— The Hebrew to is translated " wild bull " in Is. li. 20, and " wild ox " in Dei't. xiv. 5. It was possibly one of the larger species of antelope, and took its name from its swiftness. Robinson (iii. 396) mentions large herds of black and almost hairless buffaloes as still existing in Palestine, and these may be the animal indicated. Agriculture; Calf; Clean; Food: Heifer; Herd; Ox; Sacrifice. BDl'msh [« as in bull, full]. Reed. * Bnlwarks. Fenced City ; War. Bn nah (Heb. discretion, Ges.), son of Jerahmeel, and descendant of Pharez and Judah (1 Chr. ii 25). Ban nl (Heb. bitilt, Ges.). 1. A Levite in Nebe- miah's time (Neh. ix. 4). — 2. A chief of the people in Xeliomiah's time (x. 15). — 3, A Levite, ancestor of Shemaiah in Neheraiah's time(xi. 15). Bar'i-al [ber'rc-al]. The Jews uniformly disposed of the corpse by entombment where possible, and failing that, by interment ; extending this respect to the remains even of the slain enemy and malefactor (1 K. xi. 15; Deut. xxi. 23), in the latter case by express provision of law. — 1. Tlie Place of Burial. A natural cave enlarged and adapted by excavation, or an artificial imitation of one, was the standard type of sepulchre. (Tomb.) This was what the structure of the Jewish soil supplied or suggested. Sepulchres, when the owner's means permitted it, were commonly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens (Garden), by roadsides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and prophets alone were probably buried within towns (1 K. ii. 10, xvi. 6, 28 ; 2 K. x. 85, xiii. 9 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 14, xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). Sarah's tomb and Rachel's seem to have been chosen merely from the place of death ; but the successive interments at the former (Macii- pelah) are a chronicle of the strong family feeling among the Jews. It was deemed a misfortune or an indignity not onlv to be deprived of burial (Is. xiv. 20; Jer. vii. 33,"viii. 1, 2, &c. ; 2 K. ix. 10), but in a lesser degree to be excluded from the family sepul- chre (1 K. xiii. 22 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 23, xxxiii. 20; com- pare 2 Sam. xxi. 14). Similarly it was a mark of a profound feeling toward a person not of one's family to wish to be buried with him (Ru. i. 17 ; IK. xiii. 31), or to give him a place in one's own sepulchre (Gen. xxiii. 6 ; compare 2 Chr. xxiv. 16). Cities soon became populous and demanded cemeteries, which were placed without the walls ; such a one seems intended by " the graves of the children of the people " (2 K. xxiii. 6), situated in the valley of the Kidron or of Jehoshaphat Jeremiah (vii. 32, xix. 11) threatens that Topiiet should be polluted by burying there (compare 2 K. xxiii. 10). Such was also the "Potter's Field" (Mat. xxvii. 7). Sepul- chres were marked sometimes by pillars, as that of Rachel (Gen. xxxv. 20), or by pyramids as those of the Asmoneans at Modin (1 Mc. xiii. 28), and had places of higher and lower honor. Such as were not otherwise noticealjle were scrupulously " wliited " (Mat. xxiii. 27) once a year, after the rains before the passover, to warn passers by of defilement. — 2. ^he Mode of Burial. While the 0. T. notices the burial of persons of rank or public eminence, the N. T. takes its examples from private station. But in both cases " the manner of the Jews " included the use of spices, where they could command the means. Thus Asa lay in a " bed of spices " (2 Chr. Btbylonlan CoiiiM titxi LiIaccabeU3(l Mc. ii. 2). Ca'dM (1 Mc. xi. 63, 73) = Kedesh 3. Ca dr^bar'ne (Jd. v. 14) = Kadesh-barnea. Cad mi-el ( 1 Esd. v. 26, 58) = Kadmiel. C«'sar [see'zar] (L.) = Cesar. f»!*-a-re'a fws-a-ree'a] fL.) = Cesarea. t»s-a-re a Pbl-Up'pl (L.) = Cesarea Philippi. • Cage> 1. The Heb. ciliib or club, translated " cage " in Jer. v. 27 (margin "coop"), is a trap-cage, con- trived for keeping in it a decoy bird, and furnished with valves or clappers which shut as soon as a bird has entered (so Gesenius). (Basket 4.) — 2. The Gr. kartallos, translated " cage" in Ecclus. xi. 30, =r a basket with a pointed bottom (L. & S.). — 3. The Gr. phulake, literally a icatching or guarding (L. & S.), translated in Rev. xviii. 2, "ease" and "hold," Is usually in N. T. translated " prison " (Mat. v. 25, xiv. 3, 10, &c.). Robinson (N. T. Lex.) translates it here watch-post, station, haunt. Cai'a-phas [kay'ya-fas] (iV. Gr. form of Aram. = depressioti, Buxtorf), in full Jo'seph Cal'a-pbas, high-priest of the Jews under Tiberius during our Lord's public ministry, and at the time of His con- demnation and cruciiixion (Mat. xxvi. 3, 57; Jn. xi. 49, xviii. 13, 14, 24, 28 ; Acts iv. 6). The Procura- tor Valerius Gratus appointed him to the dignity. He held it during the whole procuratorship of Pon- tius Pilate, but was deposed by the Proconsul Vitel- lius (a. d. 36). He was son-in-law of Annas 2. High-Priest ; Jesus Christ. CaiD (L. fr. Heb. = what is gotten, aequimtion; or a spear, Ges. [see Arms, I. 2, y] ; or a smith. Von Bohlen). The historical facts in the life of Cain (Gen. iv.) are briefly these : — He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve ; he followed the business of agri- culture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused by the rejection of his own sacrifice and the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the crime of murder (Abel), for which he was expelled from Eden, and led the life of an exile ; he settled in the land of Nod, and built a city which he named after his son Enoch ; his descend- ants are enumerated, together with the inventions for which they were remarkable. References to Cain occur in Heb. xi. 4; 1 Jn. iii. 12; Jude 11. The following points deserve notice in connection with the Biblical narrative : — 1 . The position of the land of Nod (Heb. =/?«^A<, nandering,(jes.), which it seems vain to attempt to identify with any special locality. 2. The " mark set upon Cain " probably means that Jehovah gave a sign to Cain, very much as signs were afterward given to Noah (Gen. ix. 13), Moses (Ex. iii. 2, 12), Gideon (Judg. vi. 17, 21), Elijah (I K. xix. 11), Ahaz (Is. vii. 10-14), and Hezekiah (Is. xxxviii. 7, 8). 3. The narrative implies the exist- ence of a considerable population in Cain's time (vcr. 14). 4. The descendants of Cain are enumer- ated to the sixth generation. Some commentators (Knobel, Von Bohlen) have traced an artificial struc- ture in this genealogy, by which it is rendered paral- lel to that of the Sethiles ; but the differences far exceed the points of similarity. 5. The social con- dition of the Cainites is prominently brought for- ward in the history. Cain founded the first city ; Lamech instituted polygamy ; Jabal introduced the nomadic life ; Jubal invented musical instruments ; Tubal-cain was the first smith ; Lamech's language takes the stately tone of poetry; and even the names of the women, Naamah {pleasant), Zillah (s/iadow), Adah (ornamental), seemed to bespeak an advanced state of civilization. But along with this, there was violence and godlessness ; Cain and La- mech furnish proof of the former, while the con- cluding words of Gen. iv. 26 imply the latter. 6. The contrast established between the Cainites and the Sethitea appears to have reference solely to the social and religious condition of the two races. Cala (see above), a city in the mountains of Ju- dah, named with Zanoah and Gibeah (Josh. xv. 67). Ca-roan or Cai'nan (L. fr. Heb. — possessor, FU. ; 136 CAK OAL imiili, perhaps lancer, Ges.). 1, Son of Enos ; arid great-jjrandson of Adam through Seth ; father at seventy years of Malialaleel ;=Kenan. He died aged 910 (Gen. v. 9-14; Lk. iii. 37). The rabbinical tra- dition was that he first introduced idol-worship and astrology — a tradition which the Hellenists trans- ferred to the post-diluvian Cainan. — 2i Son of Arphaxad, and father of Sala, according to Lk. iii. 35, 36, and usually called the second Cainan. He is also found in the present copies of the LXX. in Gen. X. 24, xi. 12, but is nowhere named in the Hebrew HSS., nor in the Samaritan, Chaldee, Syrxac, Vulgate, &c., versions. It seems certain that his name was introduced into the genealogies of the Greek 0. T., in order to bring them into harmony with the gen- ealogy of Christ'in St. Luke's Gospel, where Cainan was found in the time of Jerome. Probably Cainan was not inserted in Lk. iii. 36 by St. Luke himself (it is not in the Codex Bezm ; see New Testament), but was afterward added, either by accident, or to make up the number of generations to seventeen, or from some other cause which cannot now be discov- ered. CakeSt Bread ; Qdeen of Heaven. Ca'lab (Heb. completion, old age, Ges.), one of the most ancient cities of Assyria. Its foundation is ascribed to the patriarch Asshur (Gen. x. 11). (NiM- KOD.) According to Rawlinson, the site of Caluh is marked by the Niinrud ruins (Njneveh). If this be regarded as ascertained, Calah must be considered to have been at one tune (about b. c. 930-720) the capital of the empire. Dr. H. Lobdell (in B. S. xiv. 236) supposed Caluh to be at Kalali Shrrghai (see Assyria, § 7). Bochart, Gesenius, &c., make Calah = Halab. Cal-a-mol'a-lns (1 Esd. v. 22), a corrupt name, ap- parently from Elam, Lod, and Hadid. Cal'a-mns. Reed 4. Car«Ol (Heb. sustenance I Ges.), a man of Judah, son or descendant of Zerah (1 Chr. ii. 6) ; probably = Chalcol. Darda ; Maiiol. Cal'dron, a vessel for boiling flesh, either for cer- emonial or domestic use. It is the translation in A. V. of four Hebrew words, viz., agmon (Job xli. 20 ; see Reed 1), dud (2 Chr. xxxv. 13; see Basket 6 ; Pot 3), sir (Jer. Iii. 18, 19 ; Ez. xi. 3, V, 11 ; see Pot 4), kallahatk or kallachath (1 Sam. iL 14; Mic. ui. 8). Bronze CaldroQ from Egyftiaa Theb«s. — (BrltUh Museum.) Ca'leb (Heb. dog? Ges. ; the bold, the valiant, i. e. ahero, Fii.). 1. According to 1 Chr. ii. 9, 18, 19, 42, son of Hezron, the son of Pharez, the son of Judah, and the father of Hur by Ephrath or Ephra- tah. His brothers, according to the same authority, were Jerahmeel and Ram ; his wives Azubah, Jeriotii, and Ephrath ; and his concubines Ephah and Ma- achah (ver. 9, 18, 19, 46, 48). Lord A. C. Hervey regards the text in 1 Chr. ii. as corrupt in many places. Keil maintains that Caleb the son (i. e. the descendant) of Hezron = Caleb the son of Jephun- neh (?) ; compare Josh. xv. 16 and 1 Chr. ii. 49. — !i "Son of Jephunneh," by which patronymic the illustrious spy is usually designated (Num. xiii. 6, and ten other places), with the addition of " the Kenezite" (= son of Kenaz) in Num. xxxii. 12 ; Josh, xiv. 6, 14. Caleb is first mentioned in the list of the rulers or princes sent to search the land of Ca- naan in the second year of the Exodus. Caleb was a prince or chief in the tribe of Judah, perhaps as chief of the family of the Hezronitcs. He and Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who, on their return from Canaan to Kadesh-Barnea, encouraged the people to enter in boldly to the land, and take possession of it ; for which act of faithfulness they narrowly escaped stoning at the hands of the infuriated people. In the plague that ensued, while tlie other ten spies perished, Caleb and Joshua alone were spared. Forty, five years afterward, when some progress had been made in the conquest of the land, Caleb came to Joshua and claimed possession of the land of the Anakims, Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron, and the neigh- boring hill coimtry (Josh. xiv.). This was imme- diately granted to him, and the following chapter re- lates how he took possession of Hebron, driving out the three sons of Anak; and how he offererl Achsah his daughter in marriage to whoever would take Kirjath-Sephor, i. e. Debir ; and how when Othniel, his younger brother or nephew, had performed the feat, he not only give him his daughter to wife, but with her the up]ier and nether springs of water which she asked for. After this we hear no more of Caleb, nor is the time of his death recorded. Though Hebron became a city of the priests, the surrounding territory continued to be in Caleb's pos- session, at least till David's tirae(l Sam. xxv. 3, xxx. 14). " The S. of Caleb " (xxx. 14) = that portion of the " S. land " (Josh. xv. 19) of Palestine occu- pied by Caleb and his descendants. A very interest- ing question arises as to the birth and parentage of Caleb. He is, as we have seen, styled " the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite," and Othniel, afterward the first Judge, is also called " the son of Kenaz " (Josh. XV. 17 ; Judg. i. 13, iii. 9, 11). On the other hand the genealogy in 1 Chr. ii. makes no mention what- ever of either Jephunneh or Kenaz, but represents Caleb, though obscurely (vcr. 50 ; so Lord A. C. Hei^ vey), as a son of Hur and grandson of No. 1 (see, too, chapter iv. and No. 3 below). Again in Josh. xv. 13, we have this singular expression, " Unto Caleb the son of Jephunneh he gave a part among the chil- dren of Judah /" and in xiv. 14, the no less signifi- cant one, " Hebron became the inheritance of Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite, because that he wholly followed Jehovah, GodoflsraeV It becomes therefore quite possible, but not at all certain, that Caleb was a foreigner by birth ; a proselyte, incor- porated into the tribe of Judah.— -3. Son of Hur. His descendants in 1 Chr. ii. 60 If. appear to be a dif- ferent family from the sons of Caleb, the son of Je- phunneh, in iv. 15. Bezaleel, the grandson of Hur (ii. 20; Ex. xxxv. SO, &c.), was contemporary with the spies, who thus seem to have been a generation later than Caleb the son of Hur (so Dr. P. Holmes, ia Kltto). — 1. Ca'ieb-Eph'ra-tah, according to the pres- , ent text of 1 Chr. ii. 24, the name of a place where Hezron died. But Lord A. C. Hervey regards the present text ns corrupt, and the reading which Jerome's Hebrew Bible had, and which is preserved in the LXX., as probably the true one, " Caleb came in unto Ephratah." Calf. In Ex. xxxii. 4, we are told that Aaron, CAL CAM 137 constrained by the people in the absence of Moses, made a molten calf (Heb. 'egel ; see Bcll) of the golden ear-rings of the people, to represent the Elo- HIM (A. V. " gods ") which brought Israel out of Egvpt. It does not seem likely that the ear-rings would have provided the enormous quantity of gold required for a solid figure. More probaljly it was a wooden figure laminated with gold, a process known to have existed in Egypt. " A gilded ox covered Bronze figure of ApU.— {Wilkioion.) Trith a pall " was an emblem of Osiris (Wilkinson, iv. 335). To punish the apostasy Moses burnt the calf, and then grinding it to powder scattered it over the water, where, according to some, it produced in the drinkers effects similar to the water of jealousy (Num. v.). He probably adopted this course as the deadliest and most irreparable blow to their super- stition, or as an allegorical act (Job xv. 16), or with reference to an Egyptian custom in honor of Apis (Hdt. ii. 41 ; Poole's Si/nopsis on Ex. xxxii. 20). The process which he used is difficult of explanation. Bochart and Rosenmiiller think that he merely cut, ground, and filed the gold to powder (MiSEs). It has always been a great dispute respecting this calf and those of Jeroboam, whether, I. the Jews in- tended them for some Egyptian god, or II.' for a mere cherubic symbol of Jehovah. Of the various sacred cows of Egypt, tho=o of Isis, of Athor, and of the three kinds of sacred bulls. Apis (Memphis), Bastis, and Mnevis, Sir Q. Wilkinson fixes on the lat- ter as the prototype of the golden calf; "the offer- ings, dancings, and rejoicings practised, on that oc- casion were doubtless in imitation of a ceremony they had witnessed in honor of Mnevis" (Ancient E3(?) Athanasins. 2»t!-.378 Cyril of Jerusalem . . .815-8S6 Si/nopHir X Scetit) Ca^!^l(Kloriis + .^70 Isidore of Seville... + 696 Bacmrn. Gallic. ^ ante annoa 1000 "( — before 1000 yean). • « « * • t • • * • • f • • « • I t 1 1 I t !; Cone. Laod, Can. lix. Cone. Corthog. 111. Can. xxxix. (All! xlvli.) Can. Apost. \\x\i. (Alii Ixixv.) Jp. Easeb. IT. E. iv. 26. Ap. Enseb. //. E. vi. 25. Ep. Fest. I. 767, Ed. Ben. Oitech. iv. 86. Credner, Zur Gesch. d. Kan. 127, Ac. Credner, ibid. 117, &c. Carm. xii. 81, Ed. Par. 1840. Amphiloch. Ed. Cciiibef. p. 182. De Mensuris, p. 102. Ed. Pelav. Oe .Vectis, Act. il. (Golhindi, xii. 625, 0). Dejide ortliod. Iv. 17. Hodv, p. 61S. Montfaucon, Bibl. Coislin, p. 198, 4. Prol. in Ps. 15. Prol. Galeiit. ix. pp. 547, &c , Ed. Mlgne. Erpos. Symb. 87. 8. De Doctr. Cliri»t. li. 8. Credner. p. 188. Ep. ad Exsup. (Oallandl, vUl. 56, 7). De Iwtit. Div. lilt. xlv. De ()rig. vl. 1. Uody, p. 654. Ui CAN CAN 23 '^ a, ■^ t' -2 s _• « Si s; =0 •2 IM 1-^ - s e M o S " :ft, •5 4" CL, a o o o 05 !5 O H O b a I <3 4* 4^' : » - !o '-d., .8 e'e ^ ^ ^2- Z -: >< <5^ ^ ■— 1 r^ ^ 12, <^ a ^ ^=5 . < SJ o fc « S J ! S K -* ^ ' 0, uB.n; E « ?j t W ■ s .■2 5 5 t^o a <] •? h-) o< CAK CAN 145 they were to occupT. The mission of the apostles was essentially one of preaching, and of founjing a ciiurch. The prevailing spiritual method of inter- preting the 0. T., and the peculiar position which the first Christians occupied, as standing upon the verge of " the coming age," seemed to preclude the necessity and even the use of a " N. T." Yet the apostles claim for their writings a public use (1 Th. V. 27; Col. iv. 16; Rev. xxii. 18), and an authori- tative power (1 Tim. iv. 1, &c. ; 2 Th. iii. 6 ; Rev. xxii. 19); and when 2 Peter was written, the Epis- tles of St. Paul were placed in significant connection with " the other Scriptures." — The transition from the Apostolic to the sub-Apostohc age is essentially abrupt and striking. An age of conservatism suc- ceeds an age of creation ; but in feeling and general character the period which followed the working of the apostles seems to have been a faithful reflection of that which they moulded. The writings of the Apostolic Fathers (about 70-120 a. d.) are all occa- sional. They sprang out of peculiar circumstances, and offered little scope for quotation. At the same time they show that the Canonical books supply an ade(iuate explanation of the belief of the next age, and must therefore represent completely the earlier teiching on which that was based. In three places, however, in which it was natural to look for a more distinct reference, Clement {Ep. 47), Ignatius {ad Eph. 12), and Polycarp {Ep. 3) refer to Apostolic Epistles written to those whom they were them- selves addressing. The casual coincidences of the writings of the Apostolic Fathers with the language of the Epistles are much more extensive. With the exception of the Epistles of Jude, 2 Pficr, 2 John, and 3 John, with which no coincidences oc- cur, and 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Titus, and Philemon, with which the coincidences are very questionable, all the other Epistles were clearly known, and used by them ; but still they are not quoted with the fonnulas which preface citations from the 0. T., nor is the famous phrase of Ignatius (ad Pkilad. 5), " havini fled for refuge to the Gospel as to the flesh of Christ and to the apostles as to the presbytery of the Church," suf- ficient to prove the existence of a collection of Apostolic records as distinct from the sum of Apos- tolic teaching. The coincidences with the Gospels, on (he other hand, are numerous and interesting, but such as cannot be referred to the exclusive use of our present written Gospels. The details of the life of Christ were still too fresh to be sought for only in fixed records ; and even where memory was less active, long habit intei-posed a barrier to the recognition of new Scriptures. The sense of the infinite depth and paramount authority of the 0. T. was too powerful even among Gentile con- verts to require or to admit of the immediate ad- dition of supplementary books (so Mr. Westcott, the original author of this article). But the sense of the peculiar position which the apostles occupied, as the original inspired teachers of the Christian cliurch, was alreaily making itself felt in the sub- Apostolic age.— The next period (120-170 a. n.), which may be fitly termed the age of the Apologists, carries the history of the formation of the Canon one sicp further. The facts of the life of Christ acquired a fresh importance in controversy with Jew and Gentile. The oral tradition, which still remained in the former age, was dying away, and a variety of written documents claimed to occupy its place. Then it was that the Canonical Gospels were defin- itely separated from the mass of similar narratives 10 in virtue of their outward claims,which had remained, as it were, in abeyance during the period of tradi- tion. Other narratives remained current for some time, but where the question of authority was raised, the four Gospels were ratified by universal consent. The testimony of Justin Martyr (about 146 a. d.) is in this respect most important. An impartial ex- amination of his Evangelic references shows that they were derived certainly in the main, probably ex- clusively, from our Synoptic Gospels (i. e. Matthew, Mark, and Luke), and that each Gospel is distinctly recognized by him. The references of Justin to St. John are less decided ; and of the other books of the N. T. he mentions the Apocalypse only by name (Dial. c. 81), and offers some coincidences of lan- guage with the Pauline Epistles. — The evidence of Papias (about 140-150 a. d.) is nearly contemporary with that of Justin, but goes back to a still earlier generation. It seems on every account most reason- able to conclude that he was acquainted with our present Gospels of Matthew and Mark, the former of which he connected with an earlier Hebrew origi- nal ; and probably also with the Gospel of St. John, with 1 John and 1 Peter, and the Apocaliipse. Meanwhile the Apostolic writings were taken by various mystical teachers as the foundation of strange schemes of speculation, which are popular- ly confounded together under the general title of Gnosticism, whether Gentile or Jewish in their origin. The need of a definite Canon must have made itself felt during the course of the Gnostic controversy. The Canon of Marcion (about 140 a. d.) contained both a Gospel ("The Gospel of Christ") which was a mutilated recension of St. Luke, and an " Apostle " or Apostolicon, which contained ten Epistles of St. Paul — the only true apostle in Mar- cion's judgment — excluding the pastoral Epistles and Hebrews. The narrow limits of this Cancn were a necessary consequence of Marcion's belief and position, but it offers a clear witness to the fact that Apostolic wrilingg were thus early regarded as a complete original rule of doctrine. — The close of this period of the history of the N. T. Canon is marked by the existence of two important testimo- nies to the N. T. as a whole. Hitherto the evidence has been in the main fragmentary and occasional ; but the Muratorian Canon in the West (written about 170 A. D.), and the Peshito (Versions, Ancient Striac) in the East, deal with the collection of Christian Scriptures as such. Up to this point 2 Peter is the only book of the N. T. which is not re- cognized as an Apostolic and authoritative writing ; and in this result the evidence from casual quotations coincides exactly with the enumeration in the two express catalogues. — 2. The history of the Canon of theXew Testament from 170 a. D. to 303 a. d. — From the close of the second century Christian writers take the foremost place intellectually as well as morally ; and the powerful influence of the Alex- andrine church widened the range of Catholic thought, and checked the spread of speculative her- esies. From the first the common elements of the Roman and Syrian Canons form a Canon of acknowl- edged books, regarded as a whole, authoritative and inspired, and coordinate with the 0. T. Each of these points is proved by the testimony of contem- porary Fathers who represent the churches of Asia Minor, Alexandria, and N. Africa. Irenseus speaks of the Scriptures as a whole, without distinction of the Old and New Testaments, as " perfect, inasmuch as they were uttered by the Word of God and- His Spirit." " There could not be," he elsewhere argues, 146 CAN CAN " more than four Gospels or fewer." Clement of Alexandria, again, marks " the Apostle " or " the Apostles " as a collection definite as " the Gospel," and combines them as " Scriptures of the Lord " with the Law and the Prophets. Tertullian notices particr.larly the introduction of the word Tmiament for the earlier word Instrume7it, as appUed to the dispensation and the record, and appeals to the N 7'., as made up of the " Gospels " and " Apos- tles." This comprehensive testimony extends to the four Gospels, the Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, 13 Epistles of St. Paul, and the Apocalypse ; and, with the ex- ception of the Apocalypse, no one of these books was ever afterward rejected or questioned till modern times. But this important agreement as to the prin- cipal contents of the Canon left several points still undecided. The East and West, as was seen in the last section, severally received some books which were not universally accepted. So far the error lay in defect ; but in other cases apocryphal or unapos- tolic books obtained a partial sanction or a popular use before they finally passed into oblivion. Gener- ally it may be said that of the " disputed " books of the N. T. the Apocali/pse was universally received with the single exception of Dionysius of Alexandria, by all the writers of the period ; and the Epistle to the Hebrews, by the churches of Alexandria, Asia (?), and Syria, but not by those of Africa and Rome. The Epistles of James and Jude, on the other hand, were little used, and 2 Peter was barely known. — 3. 77te history of the New Testamenl Canon, A. D. 303-397. — The persecution of Diocletian was directed in a great measure against the Christian writings. The plan of the emperor was in part successful. Some were found who obtained protection by the surrender of the sacred books, and at a later time the question of the readmission of these " traitors " (traditures), as they were emphat- ically called, created a schism in the church. The Donatists, who maintained the sterner judgment on their crime, may be regarded as maintaining in its strictest integrity the popular judgment in Africa on the contents of the Canon of Scripture which was the occasion of the dissension ; and Augustine allows that they held in common with the Catholics the same " Canonical Scriptures," and were alike " bound by the authority of both Testaments." The complete Canon of the N. T., as commonly received at present, was ratified at the third Council of Car- thage (a. d. 397), and from that time was accepted throughout the Latin church, though occasional doubts as to the Epistle to the Hebrews still re- mained. Meanwhile the Syrian churches, faithful to the conservative spirit of the East, still retamed the Canon of the Peshito. Chrysostom (f 407 a. p.), Theodore of Mopsuestia (f 429 a. d.), and Theo- doret, who represent the church of Antioch, furnish no evidence in support of the Epistles of Jude, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, or the Apocalypse. Junilius, in his account of the public teaching at Nisibis, places the Epistles of James, Jude, 2 John, 3 John, 2 I'etcr in a second class, and mentions the doubts which existed in the East as to the Apocalypse. And though Ephrem Syrus was acquainted with the Apoc- alyjKe, yet his genuine Syrian works exhibit no haljitual use of the books not contained in the Syrian Canon. — The churches of Asia Minor seem to have occupied a middle position as to the Canon between the East and West. With the exception of the Apocalypse, they received generally all the books of the N. T. as contained in the African Canon. The well-known Festal Letter of Athanasius (f 373 a. d.) bears witness to the Alexandrine Canon. This con- tains a clear and positive list of the books of the N. T. as they are received at present; and the judg- ment of Athanasius is confirmed by the practice of his successor Cyril. — One important catalogue yet remains to be mentioned. After noticing in sepa- rate places the origin and use of the Gospels and Epistles, Eusebius sums up in a famous passage the results of his inquiry into the evidence on the Apos- tolic books furnished by the writings of the three first centuries (H. E. iii. 25). In the first class of acknowledged books (Gr. homologowmena) he places the four Gospels, the Epistles of St. Paul (i. e. four- teen), 1 John, 1 Peter, and, in case its authenticity is admitted (such seems to be his meaning), tlie Apocalypse. The second class of disputed books (Gr. aidilegomend) he subdivides into two parts, (1.) such as were generally known and recognized, in- cluding the Epistles of James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John; (2.) those which he pronounces spurio^is, i. e. which were either unauthentic or unapostolic, as the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd, the Apocalypse of Peter, the Apocalypse of John (if not a work of the apostle), and according to some the Gospel accord- ing to the Hebrews. These two great classes con- tam all the books which had received ecclesiastical sanction, and were in common distinguished from a third class of heretical forgeries ifi. g. the Gospels of Thomas, Peter, Matthias, &c.). — At the era of the Reformation the question of the N. T. Canon be- came again a subject of great though partial interest. The hasty decree of the Council of Trent, which af- firmed the authority of all the books commonly re- ceived, called out the opposition of controversialists, who quoted and enforced the early doubts. Eras- mus denied the Apostolic origin of the Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, and the Apocalyp'e, but left their canonical authority unquestioned. Luther, on the other hand, created a purely subjective standard for the canonicity of the Scriptures, and placed the Gospel of John and 1 John, Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and 1 Peter, in the first rank as containing the " ker- nel of Christianity," but set aside Hebrews, Jude, James, and the Apocalypse, at the end of his version, and spoke of them and the remaining Antilegomena (see above) with varying degrees of disrespect, though he did not separate 2 Pder, 2 John, 3 John, from the other Epistles. The doubts which Luther rested mainly on internal evidence were variously extended by some of his followers ; but their views received no direct sanction in any of the Lutheran symbolic books. The doubts as to the Antilegomena of the N. T. were not confined to the Lutherans. Carlstadt placed the Antilegomena in a third class. Calvin.while he denied the Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and at least questioning the authenticity of 2 Peter, did not set aside their canonicity, and he notices the doubts as to James and Jude only to dismiss them. — The articles of the church of England and of the Protestant Episcopal church in the United States of America define Holy Scripture as " the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the church " (Art. vi.). This definition is followed by an enumeiation of the books of the 0. T. and of the Apocrypha ; and then it is said summarily, without a dctaili-l catalogue, " all the books of the N. T., as they arc commonly received, we do receive and account them canonical." — The judgment of the Greek church in the case of the 0. T. was seen to be little more than a reflection of the opinions of the West. The con- fession of Metrophanes gives a complete list of CAN CAN 147 the liooks. At present, as was already the case at the dose of the seventeenth century, the Antile- goniena are reckoned by the Greek church as ecjual in canonical authority in all respects with the re- maining books. See the articles on the separate books of the Scriptures ; Apocrypha ; Bible ; Gos- pels; Inspiration; Miracles; Nkw Testament; Old Testament ; Pentatecch ; Prophet ; Scrip- TCRE ; Septiaoint ; Versions ; Vulgate. Can'o-pjr (Gr. kinopeion) (Jd. x. 21, xiii. 9, 15, xvi. 19). The canopy of Holofernes (Bed) is the only one expressly mentioned. It probably retained the mosquito nets or curtains in which the Greek name originated, although its being " woven with purple, and gold, and emeralds, and precious stones " (Jd. X. 21) betrays luxury and display rather than such simple usefulness. Can'ti-tles [-te-klz] (fr. L. = little songs), entitled in the A. V. " the Song of Solomon," (and in i. 1) " the Song of songs (i. e. the most beautiful of songs) which is Solomon's." — I. Anthor and date. — By the Hebrew title (in i. 1) it is ascribed to Sol- omon ; and so in all tlie versions, and by the major- ity of Jewish and Christian writers, ancient and modem. In fact, if we except a few of the Talmud- ical writers, who assigned it to the age of Ilezekiah, there is scarcely a dissentient voice down to the close of the la.-:t century. More recent criticism, however, has called in question this deep-rooted and well-accredited tradition. Among English scholars Kcnnicott, among German Eichhom and Rosenmiil- ler, regard the poem as belonging to the age of Ezra and Xehemiah. The charge of Chaldaism has been vigorously pressed by Rosenmiiller, and especially by Eichhom. But Gesenius assigns the book to the golden age of Hebrew literature, and traces " the lew solitary Chaldaisms " which occur in the writings of that age to the hands of Chaldee copyists. He has moreover suggested an important distinction between Chaldaisms and dialectic varieties indigenous to N. Palestine, where he conjectures that Judges and Canticles were composed. Nor is this conjec- ture inconsistent with the opinion which places it among the " thousand and five " songs of Solo- mon (1 K. iv. 32; compare ix. 19 and 2 Chr. viii. 6). Probably Solomon had at least a hunting-seat some- where on the slopes of Lebanon (compare Cant. iv. 8, Hcb. 9), and in such a retreat, and under the in- fluence of its scenery, and the language of the sur- rounding peasantry, he may have written Canticles. On the whole it seems unnecessary to depart from the , plain meaning of the Hebrew title. Supposing the dute fixed to the reign of .Solomon, the question, at what period of that monarch's life the poem was written is closely connected with the interpretation of It, whether literally as an outburst of human love in his youth, or allegoriealli/ as the product of hie matured wisdom after repentance of his sin. (See l)elow III.). — II. Form. — This question is not deter- mined by the Hebrew title. The non-continuity which many critics attribute to the poem is far from being a modem discovery. Ghislerius (sixteenth century) considered it a drama in five acts. Down to the eighteenth century, however, the Canticles were generally regarded as continuous. Gregory Naaanzen calls it " a bridil drama and song." Ac- cording to Patrick, it is a " Pastoral Eclogue," or a " Dramatic Poem ; " according to Lowth, " an epitha- lamium (or nuptial dialogue) of a pastoral kind.'" Michaelis and Rosenmiiller, while differing as to its interpretation, agree in making it continuous. Bos- auet, and after him Calmet, Percy, Williams, and Lowth, divided the Song into seven parts, or scenes of a pastoral drama, corresponding with the seven days of the Jewish nuptial ceremony. His division is impugned by Taylor {Fragments in Calmet), who proposes one of six days ; and considers the drama to be post-nuptial, not ante-nuplial, as it is explained by Bossuet. The entire nuptial theory has been severely handled by J. D. Michaelis, and the literal school of interpreters in general. Lowth makes it a drama, but only of the minor kind, i. e. dramatic as a dialogue. He was unable to discover a plot. Moreover, if the only dramatic element in Can- ticles be the dialogue, the rich pastoral character of its scenery and allusions renders the term drama less applicable than that of idyl. The idyllic form seems to have recommended itself to the allegorical school of translators as getting rid of that dramatic unity and plot which their system of interpretation reduced to a succession of events without any culminating issue. But the majority of recent translators belonging to the literal school have adopted the theory of Jacobi (see below. III., 3). Based as this theory is upon the dramatic evo- lution of a simple love-story, it supplies that essen- tial movement and interest, the want of which was felt by Lowth ; and justifies the application of the term drama, to a composition of which it manifests the vital principle and organic structure. — III. Mean- ing. — The schools of interpretation may be divided into three : — the mystical, or typical; the allegorical; and the literal. — 1. The mystical interpretation is properly an offshoot of the allegorical, and prob- ably owes its origin to the necessity which was felt of supplying a literal basis for the speculations of the allegorists. This basis is either the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter (so most mys- tical interpreters, before 1800), or his marriage with an Israelitish woman, the Shulamite (so Good, &c.). The mystical interpretation makes its first appear- ance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commen- tary upon the Canticles. It reappears in Abulpha- ragius (1226-1286), and was received by Grotius, approved of, and systematized by Bossuet, indorsed by Lowth, and used for the purpose of translation by Percy and Williams. — 2. Allegorical. — Notwith- standing the attempts to discover this principle of interpretation in the LXX. (Cant. iv. 8); Jesus the son of Sirach (Ecclus. xlvii. 14-17; Wis. viii. 2); and Josephus (Ap. i. § 8); it is impossible to trace it with any certainty farther back than the Talmud. According to the Talmud the beloved = God ; the loved one, or bride =: the congrigation of Israel. This general relation is expanded into more particu- lar detail by the Targum, or Chaldee Paraphrase, which treats the Song of songs as an allegorical his- tory of the Jewish people from the Exodus to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple. Elaborate as it was, the interpretation of the Targum was still further developed by the medi- ODval Jews, who introduced it into their liturgical services. A new school of Jewish exegesis was originated by Mendelssohn (1729-1786); which, without actually denying the existence of an alle- gorical meaning, devoted itself to the literal inter- pretation. In the Christian church, the Talmudical interpretation, imported by Origen, was all but uni- versally received. It was called in question by Erasmus and Grotius, and was gradually superseded by the typical theory of (Jrotius, Bossuet, I.owtli, &c. In the eighteenth century the allegorical theory was reasserted, and reconstructed by Putlcndorf (1776), and the reactionary allegorists (sec below). 148 CAN CAP Some of the more remarkable variations of the al- legorical school are : — (a.) The extension of the Chal- dee allegory to the Chri.-tinii eluirch (so Aponius, Cocceius, line). (A.) Luther's theory limits the alle- gorical meaning to the contemporaneous history of the Jewish people under Solomon, (c.) According to Gliislerius and Cornelius a Lapide, the Bride = the Virgin Mary. ('. W. extremity of the plain (now El GItuueir). 2. Three miles N. E. of Khim Mint/eh is the otlior claimant, Tell IJuin (favored by Thomson [i. 640 ft'.], \ViUon [ii. 142 iK\ Kitter,Van de Velde, kc), ruins of walls and loun 'a- Lake of Tib«riu from TtU Him, oaa of the lappoeed eitee of Capemaam.— self), is mentioned only in Mat. xvi. 13 ; Mk. viii. 27. Ce.sarea Philippi was the N. point of our Lord's jour- neyings ; and the passage in His life, which was con- nected with the place, was otherwise very marked. (Tbaxsfiquration.) Tlie place itself too is remark- able in its physical and picturesque characteristics, and also in its historical associations. It was at the E. and most important of the tno recognized sources of the Jordan, the other being at the Tell el-Kadi (Dan 2.) The spring rises, and the city was built The Source of the Jordan at Biini'is (Ceurea Philippi).— *Vom Van de Velde, Le Pays rf'/*ra«^.— s il (Ilcb. ci*U or cxil =z fool, Ges.) = Orion (margin of Job ix. 9 and xxxviii. 31). Cf'tafc (fr. Gr.) (1 Esd. r. 30), a name among the Ncthinim, not in Ezra or Nehemiah. Cba'bris [ka-] (fr. Gr.), son of Gothoniel ; one of the three " rulers " or " ancients " of Bethulia, in tlie time of Judith (Jd. vi. IS, viii. 10, x. 6). Chadl-as[kii-] (fr. Gr.), (1 Esd. v. 20). AMMinoi. fhaff, the translation in A.V. of— 1. Heb. hushash or cliiishiuh — dri/ grass, hay (Is. v. 24, xxxiii. 11). — 2. Heb. mols = chaff separated by winnowing from the grain — the liusk of the wheat (Job xxi. 18 ; P.«. i. 4, &c.). — 3. Heb. Uhen, once (Jcr. xxiii. 28) translated " chaff," once (Job xxi. 18) " stubble," elsewhere " straw " (Ex. v. 7, 10, 11, &c.); = straw, as broken up and cut in pieces by threshing, short ttraie, chaff, Ges. (Straw.) — 4. Chaldaic 'ur, once (Dan. ii. S5). — 5. Gr. achuron (Mat. iii. 12 ; Lk. iii. 17) = chaf, short straw, (Rbn. N. T. Lex.) ; in LXX. = No. * & 3. Chain. Chains were used, 1. as badges of office ; 2. for ornament ; 3. for confining prisoners. 1. The gold chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. xli. 42), and that promised to Daniel (Dan. v. 7), are in- stances of the first use. In Egypt it was one of the insignia of a judge, who wore an image of trutli at- tached to it ; it wa,« also worn by the prime minister. In Persia it was considered not only as a mark of royal favor, but a token of investiture. 2. Chains for ornamental purposes were worn by men as well as women in many countries both of Europe and Asia, and probably among the Hebrews (Prov. i. 9). The necklace consisted of pearls, corals, &c., threaded on a string. Besides the neeklace, other chains were worn (Jd. X. 4) hanging down as far as the waist, or even wver. Some were adorned with pieces of metal, shaped in the form of the moon (" round tires like the moon," A. V. ; Is. iii. 18). The Midianitcs adorned the necks of their camels with it(Judg. viii. 21, 26). To other chains were suspended various trinkets — as scent-bottles (" tablets " A. V.,-Is. iii. 20) and mirrors (iii. 23). Step-chains were attached to the ankle-rings, which shortened the step and produced a mincing gait (Is. iii. 16, 18). (Anklkt ; Eak-rinos; Ornaments, Pkrsonal.) 3. The means adopted for confining prisoners among the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs (Cord). Among the Uomans, the prisoner was handcuffed to one, and occasionally to two guards (Acts xii. 6, 7, xxi. 33). Trial. Chal're-do-ny [kal'se-] (Or. ehalkeddn, named fr. Chalcedon) (Rev. xxi. 19 only). The name is applied in modem mineralogy to a variety of quartz (Aoate), of a pearly or wax-like lustre and of great translucency. There can, however, be little doubt that the .stone to which Theophrastus (De ZapiJ. ^ 2.5) refers, as found in the island opposite Chalcedon and used as a solder, must have been the green transparent carbonate of copper, or our cop- per emerald. Chalfol [kal-1 (fr. Heb.) = Calcol (1 K. iv. 81). ChalHbe'a (L.) = Cbaldea. Cbal-de'a [kal-] (L. Chaldaa ; Kaldi or Kaldai on native monuments ; Heb. Casdim, derived by some from CiiKsEi), = " Chaldeans ; " see also Chilmad) is pro])crly only the most S. portion of Babylonia, it is used, however, in our version for the Ilebrew Casdim (" Chaldeans "), under which term the in- habitants of the entire country are designated ; and it will therefore here be taken in this extended sense. The origin of the term is very doubtful. — 1. Extent ayid boundaries. — The tract of country viewed in Scrip- ture as the land of the Chaldeans is that vast alluvial plain which has been formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris — at least so iiir as it lies to the W. of the latter stream. This extraordinary flat, unbroken except by the works of man, extends from Hit on the Euphrates and Tekrit on the Tigris to the Persian Gulf, four hundred miles along the course of the rivers, and is on an average about one hundred miles in width. — 2. General character of the country. — The general aspect of the country is thus described : " In former days the vast plains of Bab- ylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals and watercourses, which spread over the sur- face of the country like a net work. The wants of a teeming population were suppUed by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands rising from a golden sea of waving corn, stood frequent groves of palm- trees and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler or traveller their grateful and highly-valued shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine. How changed is the aspect of that region at the present day ! Long lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses of those main arteries which formerly diffused life and vegetation along their banks, but their channels are now bereft of moisture and choked with drifted sand ; the smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. ' A drought is upon the waters,' says the prophet, ' and they shall be dried up ! ' All that remains of that ancient civil- ization — ' that glory of kingdoms,' — ' the praise of the whole earth,' — is recognizable in the numerous mouldering heaps of brick and rubbish which over- spread the surface of the plain. Instead of the luxurious fields, the groves, and gardens, nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste — tlie dense population of former times is vanished, and no man dwells there." (Loftus's Chaldaa, 14, 15). The prosperity and fertility of the country depend en- tirely on the regulation of the waters. Carefully ap- plied and husbanded, they are sufficient to make the entire plain a garden. — 3. Divisions. — The true Chaldea is always in the geographers the most S. portion of Babylonia, chiefly (if not solely) on the right bank of tfie Euphrates. Babylonia above this, is separated into two districts, called respectively Amordacia and Anranitis. The former is the name of the central territory round Babylon itself; the latter is applied to tlie regions toward the N., where Babylonia borders on Assyria. — 4. Cities. — Babylonia was celebrated at all times for the number and an- tiquity of its cities. Some of the most important of those were Accad, Babylon (Babel), Borsippa {Birs-Nimrvd), Sippara or Sepiiarvaim, Calneh, Erech, Ur, Is (Hit) (Ahava ; Ivah) ; and a multi- tude of others, the sites of many of which have not been determined. — 6. Canals. — One of the most re- markable features of ancient Babylonia was its net- work of canals. Three principal canals carried off the waters of the Euphrates toward the Tigris, above Babylon : — (1.) The original " Royal River," or Ar- IGO CHA CHA Malclia of Berosus ; (2.) the l^ahr Malcha of the Ar.ibs; (3.) the Nahr Kutha. On the other side of the stream, a large canal, leaving the Euphrates at Hit, where the alluvial plain commences, skirted the deposit on the W. along its entire extent, and fell into the Persian Gulf at the head of the Bubian creek ; while a second main artery branched from the Euphrates nearly at Mosaib, and ran into a great lake, in the neighborhood of Borsippa, whence the lands S. W. of Babylon were irrigated. From these and other similar channels, with their numerous branches and crosscuts, every field was duly supplied with water " by the hand or by the help of engines " (Hdt.). Herodotus (so Rln.) probably refers by " en- gines " to the common hand-swipe or sweep, repre- sentations of which are found on the monuments. HaDd-Bwipe. — From a slab of Sennacherib. — (RawllluoQ*8 Herodotut, 1. 35&) (Egypt.) — 6. Sea of Nedjef, Chaldean marshes, &e. — The " great inland fresh-water sea of Ned/'ef " (Loftus, 45) is a permanent lake of considerable depth, S. of Babylon, about forty miles in length, and thirty-five miles in its greatest width. Above and below the Sea of Neiijef, from the Birs-Nimrud to Kufa, and from the S. E. extremity of the Sea to iSamajia, extend the famous Chaldean marshes, where Alexander was nearly lost. — 7. Productions. — The extraordinary fertility of the Chaldean soil has been noticed by various writers. It is said to be the only country in the world where wheat grows wild. He- rodotus declared (i. 1 93) that grain commonly re- turned two-hundredfold to the sower, and occasion- ally three-hundredfold. The palm was undoubtedly one of the principal objects of cultivation. The soil is rich, but there is little cultivation, the inhabitants subsisting chiefly upon dates. More than half the country is left dry and waste from the want of a proper system of irrigation ; while the remaining half is to a great extent covered with marshes owing to the same neglect. See Map, under Euphrates. Cbal-de'ans [kal-dee'anz] or Cbal'dees [kal'deez] (see Chaldea), appear in Scripture, until the time of the Captivity, as the people of the country which has Babylon for its capital, and which- is itself termed Siiinak ; but in Daniel, while this meaning is still found (v. 30, and ix. 1), a new sense shows it- self. The Chaldeans are classed with the magicians and astronomers ; and evidently form a sort of priest class, who have a peculiar " tongue " and " learn- ing " (i. 4), and are consulted by the king on reli- gious subjects. The same variety appears in pro- fane writers. It appears that the Chaldeans were in the earliest times merely one out of the many Cushite tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterward as Chaloea or Babylonia. Their special seat was probably that S. portion of the country which so late retained the name of Chaldea. Here was Ur " of the Chaldees." In process of time, as they grew in power, their name gradually pre- vailed over those of the other tribes inhabiting the country ; and by the era of the Jewish Captivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabi- tants of Babylonia. It had come by this time to have two senses, both ethnic: (1.) as the special appellative of a particular race to whom it had be- longed from the remotest times ; (2.) as a designa- tion of the nation at large in which this race was predominant. That the Chaldeans proper were a Cushite race is proved by the remains of their lan- guage, which closely resembles the Galla or ancient language of Ethiopia. Now it appears by the in- scriptions tliat while both in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the Shemitic type of speech prevailed f' a- civil purposes, the ancient Cushite dialect was re- tained as a learned language for scientific and re- hgious literature. This is no doubt the " learning " and the " tongue " to which reference is made in Dan. i. 4. (Shemitic Languages ; Toxgdes, Cox- FDsiON of; Versions, Ancient.) The Chaldeans were really the learned class ; they were priests, magicians, or astronomers, and in the last of the three capacities they probably effected discoveries of great importance. Accordhig to Strabo, there were two chief seats of Chaldean learning, Borsipjja, and Ur or Orchoe. To these we may add, from Pliny, Babylon and Sippara or Sepharvaim. The Chaldeans (it would appear) congregated into bodies, forming what we may perhaps call universities, and pursuing the studies, in which they engaged, to- gether. They probably mixed up to some extent astrology with their astronomy, even in the earlier times, but they certainly made great advances in astronomical science. In later times they seem to have degenerated into mere fortune-tellers. As- tronomy ; Divination ; Idolatry ; Magi ; Magic. Chal'deeSi Chaldeans. Chalk [chawk] Stoues = stones of lime or limi stone (Is. xxvii. 9). * Chamber [chame-]. The " chambersof imagery" (Ez. viii. 12) refer to the imitation of Egyptian man- ners by painting on the wall of a chamber represen- tations of the irrational creatures and various idols which were the immediate objects of worship (Fair- bairn). — The " chambers of the South " (Job ix. 9) = the remotest recesses of the South (Gesenius) ; compare Ps. civ. 3. Bed ; House ; Palace ; Tem- ple. * Cham'bcr-ing = lewdness, or licentious behavior (Rom. xiii. 13). Cbam'ber-laio. Erastus " the chamberlain " of the city of Corinth, was one whose salutations to the Roman Christians are given in Rom. xvi. 23. The office which he held was apparently that of public treasurer, an inferior magistrate, who had the charge of the public chest under the authority of the senate, and kept the accounts of the public revenues (Governor 14). The office held by Blas- tus, " the king's chamberlain " (margin " that was over the king's bed-chamber "), was entirely different from this (Acts xii. 20). It was a post of honor which involved great intimacy and influence with the king. For chamberlain as used in the 0. T., see EuNucn. Cha-me'le-on [ka-], the translation in A. V., LXX., and Vulgate of the Heb. coah or coach (literally strength), one of the unclean animals in Lev. xL 30. (Mole 1.) Bochart accepts the Arabic reading of elioarlo, i. c. the lirard, known by the name of the "Monitor of the Nile" {Monitor Nilotiais, GrcyV a large strong reptl'e common in Egypt and otln parts of Africa ; hut the evidence which suppori; this interpretation >8 far from conclusive. Cham'ois [shan^ me or sha-moi], the translation I CHA CHA 161 in A. V. of the Heb. zemer, one of the animals al- lowed for food (Deut. xiv. 6); the LXX., Vulgate, and some other versions, give "camelopard" or " giraffe." But there is no evidence th.it the cham- ois or the camelopard has ever been seen in Pales- tine or Lebanon. Col. C. H. Smith (in Kitto) sug- gests the Kebsch (Ammotroffus Tragelaphux), a wild sheep, in general form like a goat, not uncommon, he says, in the Mokattam rocks near Cairo, and found also in Sinai ; not improbably this is the ani- mal denoted. • Cham-piiigD' [sham-pane'] (fr. Fr.) = a plain (Deut. xi. 30 ; Ez. xxvii. '1, margin). Arabah ; Plain 2, 3 ; V'allky 4. ChanaaB [ka'nan], the Greek and Latin form of Canaan (.Id. v. .3, 9, 10; Ba-. iii. 22; Sus. 56; 1 Mc. ix. S7; Acts vii. 11, xiii. 19). Chanaao-ite [ka'nau-ite] (Jd. v. 16) = Canaan- ITE. • Chan'eeWor [ch as in much] (Ezr. iv. 8, 9, 17). Rehcm 2. • Chan'fl-Boiie (Job xxxi. 22, margin) — the bone of the aini above the elbow. •Changers (Jn. ii. 15). Monet-ciia.ngeh.s. Chan-no-ne'iiS (fr. Gr.); apparently — Merabi (1 Esd. viii. 48). • Cba norb [ka'nok] (Heb.) = Enoch 1 (Gen. iv. 17, margin). • Chapel [ch as in much], the translation in A. V. (Am. vii. 13) of Heb. mikdash (^ any thing sacred, a holy place, Ges.), elsewhere usually translated " sanctuary." In 1 Mc. i. 47 the plural of Gr. ddo- leion (= " idol's temple " in 1 Mc. x. 83, &c. ; 1 Cor. viii. 10) is translated " chapels of idols." In 2 Mc. X. 2, xi. 3, the plural of Gr. Umenot is translated "chapels." See cut under Temple. Chap'i-ter = the upper member, or capital of a pillar ; also possibly a roll moulding at the top of a building or work of art : as (1.) of the pillars of the Tabernacle and Temple, and of the two pillars called especially Jachin and BoAZ; and (2.) of the lavers (Laver) belonging to the Temple (Ex. xxxviii. 17; IK. vii. 27, 31, 38, 41). • Cbap'men = traders; in 2 Chr. ix. 14, especially men who travel for the sake of traffic. Char-a-ath'a-lar [kar-] (Gr.). " Cherub, Addan, and Immer" (Ezr. ii. 69) is changed in 1 Esd. v. 3(5 to " Chaniathalar leading them, and Aalar." Char'a-ca [kar-] (Gr. and L.), a place (2 Mc. xii. 17 only) inhabited by the Jews called Tubieni, on the E. of Jordan, 750 stadia from the city Caspis. Ewald identifies it with Rapiioi). The only name like Oharaca now known on the E. of Jordan is Ke- rak, the ancient Km of Moab. Chara-shim (Heb. hiirdshim or chiirAshim = erafhmcii), tlic Val'ley of, a place founded or settled by JoAB 2(1 Chr. iv. 14), and reinhabited by Ben- jamites after the Captivity (Neh. xi. 35). In Nehe- miah it is " valley of craftsmen." Engraver. Char'tba-Biis [ch as k] (L. fr. Heb.) = Carciie- llisn(l End. i. 25). Char'cliomisli [ch as i] (fr. Heb.) = Carchemish (2 Chr. XXXV. 20). Char'tM [kar'kas] (1 Esd. v. 82). Corrupted from Barkos. Cha're-a [ka-] (Gr.) = Harsha (1 Esd. v. 32). Charger [ch as in mitchX the translation in A. V. of— 1. Heb. ayarUil (Ezr. \. 9, twice in plural, only), probably = sltiughler-bamn, i. e. a basin for receiv- ing blood, Ges.— -2. Heb. ke'drdh (Num. vii. 13- 85) = a deep dtth, boml, charger, Ges. ; elsewhere (Ex. xxT. 29, ixxviL 16; Num. iv. 7) translated II " dishes." The " chargers " in Num. vii. were of silver, and weighed each one hundred and thirty shekels, or sixty-five ounces. — 3. Gr. pinax, literally a board, plahk ; hence a wooden trencher, dish, or plate, and the Greek name continued when the mate- rial was changed, L. & S. (Mat. xiv. 8, 1 1 ; Mk. vi. 25, 28) ; in Lk. xi. 39 translated " platter." The daugh- ter of Herodias brought the head of John Baptist in a charger. Basin. Char 1-ot, the translation in A. V. of— 1. Heb. re- cheb = (so Ges.) a wagon, chariot, either for war or serving for luxury and pomp ; often referring chiefly to the horses, and also to the warriors who sit upon the chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4, x. 18). — 2. Heb. rechub, a chariot or horse (Ps. civ. 3). — 3. Heb. mercdb, a chariot (1 K. iv. 26, v. 6 Heb.) or seat (Lev. xv. 9 [A. V. " saddle "] ; Cant. iii. 10 [A. Y. " cover- ing"]). — i. Heb. mercahdh (= No. 1 in signification, each occurring many times in 0. T.). — 5. Heb. ridi- ba/i z= a riding or driving, Ges. (Ez. xxvii. 20 only). No. 1-5 are all from the same root (r&chab = to ride). — 6. Heb. 'agdldh (Ps. xlvi. 9, Heb. 10), else- where translated " cart " or " wagon." — 7. Heb. appiryoH (Cant. iii. 9, margin " bed ") = a sedan, litter, a portable couch or palanquin, Ges. — 8. Heb. hdtsen (Ez. xxiii. 24 only) — veapons, arms, Ges., Targums, &c. ; chariots, A. V., Fbn. on Ez. — 9. Gr. harma (Acts viii. 28, 29, 38, &c.); in LXX. = No. 1, 4, 5. — 10. Gr. rhede (Rev. xviii. 13, in plural only) = a four-wheeled carriaeje for travelling, a chariot, Rbn. N. T. Lex. Of the chariot as a ve- hicle used for peaceful purposes, the following are probable instances as regards the Jews, 1 Sam. viii. 11 ; 2 Sam. xv. 1 ; 1 K. xii. 18, xviii. 44 ; Is. xxii. 18 ; and as regards other nations. Gen. xlL 43, xlvi. 29; 2 K. V. 9, 21 ; Acts viii. 28 ft'. The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's second chariot (Gen. xii. 43), and later when he went in his own chariot to meet his father on his entrance into Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29). In the funeral procession of Jacob chariots also formed a part, possibly by way of escort or as a guard of honor (1. 9). The next mention of Egyp- tian chariots is for a warlike purpose (Ex. xiv. 7). In this point of view chariots among some ancient nations, as elephants among others, may be regard- ed as filling tlie place of heavy artillery in modem times, so that the military power of a nation might be estimated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh in pursuing lirael took with him 600 chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys of Palestine could resist the' Israelites successfully in consequence of the number of their chariots of iron, i. e. perhaps armed with iron scythes (see below; Ges. «. v. ; Josh, xvii. 18; Judg. i. 19). Jabin, king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Judg. iv. 3). The Philistines in f'aul's time had 30,000, a number which seems excessive (1 Sam. xiii. 6). David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1,000 chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4), and from the Syrians a little later 700 (x. 18), who in order to recover their ground collected 32,000 chariots ( 1 Chr. xix. 7). Up to this time the Israelites pos- sessed few or no chariots, partly no doubt in conse- quence of the theocratic prohibition against multi- plying horses, for fear of intercourse with Egypt, and the regal despotism implied in the possession of them (Deut. xvii. 16; 1 Sam. viii. 11, 12). But to some extent David (2 Sam. viii. 4), and in a much greater degree Solomon, broke through the prohibi- tion. He raised, therefore, and maintained a force of 1,400 chariots (1 K. x. 26) by taxation on certaia 162 CHA CHE cities agreeably to Eastern custom in such matters (1 K. ix. 19, X. 25 ; Xen. Anabasis, i. 4, 9). The chariots themselves and also the horses were im- ported chiefly from Egypt, and the cost of each chariot was 600 shekels of silver, and of each horse 160 (1 K. X. 29). From this time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war, though the supplies of them and of horses appear to have been still mainly drawn from Egypt (1 K. xxii. 84 ; 2 K. ix. 16, 21, xiii. 7, 14, xviii. 24, xxiii. 30 ; Is. xxxi. 1). The Egyptian chariot and doubtless that of the Israelites had a nearly semicircular wooden frame with straightened sides, resting posteriorly on the axle of a pair of wheels, and supporting a rail of wood or ivory attached to the frame by leathern thongs and a wooden upright in front. The back of the car was open ; the sides were strengthened and ornamented with leather and metal binding ; the floor was of rope net-work, to give a springy footing to the occupants. On the right-hand side was the bow-case ; sometimes also the quiver and spear-ease were on this side, crossing diagonally. If two war- riors were in the chariot, a second bow-case was add- ed. Tlie two wheels had each usually sis spokes, and were fastened to the axle by a lineh-pin secured by a thong. The horses wore a breast-band and girths attached to the saddle, and head furniture, but no traces. A bearing-rein was fastened to a ring or hook in front of the saddle, and the driving reins passed through other reins on each side of both bgyiiunu J rioLea in ihclr chAriot. — ^Vi/ ilkiQMD.; horses. Most commonly two persons, and some- times three rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carrv the state umbrella (2 K. ix. 20, 24 ; IK. xxii. 34 ; Acta viii. 38). A second chariot usually accompanied the king to battle to be used in case of necessity (2 Clir. xxv. 34). Chariots of other nations are mentioned, as of As- syria (2 K. xix. 23 ; Ez. xxiii. 24), Syria (2 Sam. viii. and 2 K. vi. 14, 15), Persia (Is. xxii. 6), Ethiopia (2 Chr. xiv. 9), the Philistines, &c. (see above). An- tiochus Eupator is said to have had 300 chariots armed with scythes (2 Mc. xiii. 2). (Arms ; Army ; Highway; Horse.) The prophets allude frequently to chariots as typical of power (Ps. xx. 7, civ. 3 ; Jer. li. 21; Zech. vi. 1). In the N. T., the only mention of a chariot, except in Rev. ix. 9 and xviii. 13, is in the case of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts Tiii. 28, 29, 38). AuyrlaD diaiiot » Char'l-ty (fr. L.) in A. V. of N. T. is a frequent translation of the Gr. a^ap^ (1 Cor. viii. 1, xiii., &c.). usually and properly translated "love " (Lk. xi. 42 ; Rom. V. 5, 8, &c.). Feasts of Charity. * Chann'er. Divination ; Serpent-charming. Char'mis [kar'mis] (Gr.), son of Melchiel; one of the three " ancients " or " rulers " of BethuUa (Jd. vi. 15, viii. 10, x. 6). Char'ran [kar'ran] (Gr. fr. Heb.) = Haran (Acts vii. 2, 4). Chase [ch as in much']. Hunting. Chas'e-ba [kas-] (Gr.), probably a corruption of Gazera, the na.Tie succeeding Chaseba (1 Esd. v. 31). • Cha'rah [ka-] (Gen. iii. 20, margin) = Eve. Che'bar [ke-] (Heb. length, Ges.), a river in thr "land of the Chaldeans" (Ez. i. 3), on the barK- of which some of the Jews were located at the tinu of the Captivity, and where Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ez. i. 1, iii. 15, 23, &c.). It is commonly regarded as = the Habor, or river of Gozan, to which some portion of the Israelites were removed by the Assyrians (2 K. xvii. 6). But Rawlinson thinks the Chebar of Ezekiel must be looked for in Babylonia, and may be, as Bochart supposed, the Nahr Malcha or Royal Canal of Nebuchadnezzar, in the excavation of which the Jewish captives may have been employed. Chaldea ; Euphrates. Cheb'el [keb-] (Heb. hehel or chebel). Region. Ched-or-la-o'mtr [ked-] (Heb. handful ofsheavn but prob. fr. Pers., Ges.), a king of Elam, in time of Abraham, who with three other chiefs ma war upon the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admk Zeboim, and Zoar, and reduced them to servitud Thirteen years afterward these rebelled ; the n« year Chedorlaomer and his allies marched up their country, and after defeating many neighfa CHB CHE 163 ing tribes, completely routed the iiTe kings in the vale of Siildiiu ; but as the victors carried oft' Lot and his possessions with the spoil, Abram pursued and suiotc Chedorlaoraer and his forces, and rescued Lot, with all that had been taken (Gen. xiv.). Ched- orlaonier (so RIn.) may have been the leader of cer- tain immigrant Chaldean Elamites who founded the great Chaldean empire of Berosus in the early part of the twentieth century B. c. CIlMSe is mentioned only three times in the Bible, viz. in Job. x. 10 (Heb. gibinah zn curdled milk; chie»e, Ges.) ; 1 Sam. xvii. 18 (Ileb. fUirUnei/ heluUtib or ch/iiilBey htehdlilb = eutliugn [i. e. slices] of cnrds^ new or soft cheese, Ges. ; A. V. " cheeses," marg. "cheeses of milk") ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29 (Heb. shipholh- bAkir = cheeses [properly, that which is rubbed, grated, ground fine, in order to be eaten] of kine, Ges. ; " cheese of kine," A. V.). The cheese now common in the East is of very indifferent quality, usually in cakes about the size of a tea-saucer, white, very salt, without a rind, and soon becoming exces- sively hard and dry (Kit.). The Bedouin Arabs have coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it be- comes quite hard, and is then ground ; the Arabs cat it mixed with butter (Burckhardt, iioles on the Sedouiiis, i. 60). Clie'lll [ke-] (Heb. perfection, Ges.), a son of Pahath-moab, and husband of a foreign wife (Ezr. I. 30). (Iiel^i'as [kelrsi'as] (fr. Gr. form of Hilkiah). 1. Ancestor of Bsruch (Bar. i. 1). — 2, Hilkuh the high-prie.«t in the time of Josiah (Bar. i. 7). — %, The father of Susanna (Sus. 2, 29, 63). Tradition repre- sents him as the brother of Jeremiah, and = 2. Cliel'll-ans [kel'le-anz] = inhabitants of Cbellus (Jd. ii. 23). Chel'loh [kel'Iu] (fr. Heb. = strong, robust, Fii.), a son of Bani, and husband of a foreign wife (Ez. x. 35). Chel'lus [kel-] (fr. Gr.), one of the places beyond (i. e. W. of) Jordan to which Xabuchodonosor sent his summons (Jd. i. 9). Except its mention with " Kades " there is no clew to its situation. Reland supposes it = Elusa, south of Beer-sheba. Cbe'lod [ke-] (fr. Gr.). " Many nations of the sons of Chelod " were among those who obeyed the summons of Nabuehodonosor to his war with Ar- phaxad (Jd. i. 6). The word is apparently cor- rupt. Che'lab [ke-] (Heb. trap-cage, basket, Ges.). 1. A man among the descendants of Judah, described as brother of Shuah and father of Mehir (1 Chr. iv. 11). —2. Father of Ez.ri, David's officer (xxvii. 26). Chr-lnbal [ke-lu'bay] (Heb. = Caleb, Ges.), son of Ilezron ( 1 Chr. ii. 9) ; — Caleb 1. fhrma-rtm, (hrma-rims [ck as k] (Heh. clmurtm or cinurim z= idol-priests ; fr. a Syr. w^ord denoting blackTiess, sadness, and concretely one who goes about ill black or in mourning, hence an ascetic, priest in general, Ges.). This word only occurs in the text of the A. V. in Zeph. i. 4. In 2 K. xxiii. 5 it is ren- dere«•)•, vanquisher, Ges.), the national deitv of the Moabitcs (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13, 46). In Judg xi. 24, he also (ippears as the god of the Ammonites. Solomon in- troduced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Che- mosh at Jerusalem (1 K. xi. 7 ; 2 K. xxiii. 13). Je- rome identifies him with Baal-peor; others with Baal-zebub ; others, as Gesenius, with Mars, and others with Saturn. * Cli«'na-an (Gen. ix. 18, marg.) = Canaan. Che-na'a-nab [ke-] (Heb. fem. of Canaan, Ges.). 1, Son of Benjamin's grandson Bilhan, and head of a Benjamite house (1 Chr. vii. 10). — 2. Father, or ancestor, of Zedekiah the false prophet (IK. xxii. 1 1 , 24 ; 2 Chr. xviii. 10, 23) ; perhaps — 1. Chen a-nl or Cbf-na'nl (Heb. prob. = Chenaniah, Ges.), a Levite who assisted at the solemn purifica- tion of the people under Ezra (Neh. ix. 4). Cben-a-ni'all [ken-] (Heb. — whom Jehovah hath set, Ges.), chief of the Levites, when David carried the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. xv. 22, 27, xxvi. 29). I'he'phar-ba-am'mo-nai [ke'fai^] (Heb. village or hamlet of the Ammouiies ; see Caphar), a city of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 24), probably named from some incursion of the Ammonites ; site unknown. CbC-phi'rab [ke-fi'ra] (Heb. = village or hatidet ; see Caphar), one of the four cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17), afterward in Benjamin (xviii. 20). The men of Chephirah returned with Zerubbabcl from Babylon (Ezr. ii. 25 ; Neh. vii. 29). Dr. Robin- son seems to have discovered it in the ruined village of Kefir, about eleven miles W.N.W. from Jerusa- lem. Caphika. Clie'raD [ke-] (Heb. lyre, Ges.), son of Dishon the Horite "duke" (Gen. xxxvL 26 ; 1 Chr. i. 41). t'be're-as [ke-] (fr. Gr.), governor of Gazara, and brother of Timotheus ; both slain at Gazara* by the forces of Judas Maccabeus (2 Mc. x. 32, 37). Clirr'e-tllim, Cher'e-tliims \ch as A] (Heb. pi. ctre- ihini or ereihim) (Ez. xxv. 16). Cherethites. Clier'e-(hlt«s [ker-] (fr. Heb. cerelhi or crelM, pi. clrethim or crelhim ; see below) and Pel'e-tbites, the life-guards of King David (2 Sara. viii. 18, xv. 18, XX. 7, 23 ; 1 K. i. 38, 44 ; 1 Chr. viii. 17). These titles are commonh- said to signify " executioners and couriers." It is plain that these royal gu;irds were employed as executioners (1 K. ii. 25, 34, 46 ; 2 K. xi. 4), and as couriers (1 K. xiv. 27, marg. •' runners "). But it has been conjectured that they may have been foreign mercenaries. They are con- nected with the Gittitcs, a foreign tribe (2 Sam. xv. 18) ; and the Cherethites are mentioned as a nation (1 Sam. XXX. 14; also in Ez. xxv. 16, A. V. " Cher- ethim " or " Chereihims ") dwelling apparently on the coast, and therefore probably Philistines, of which name Pelethitks may be only another form. Prof. D. H. Weir (in Fairbaim) suggests that the Cherethites and Pelethites were mostly Israelite refugees with David among the Cherethites of Phi- listia, mingled perhaps with some native Chere- thites. Fiirst makes the Cherethites — Cretans or emigrants from Crete, and so the LXX. in Ez. xxv. 16 (A. v. "Cherethim ") and Zeph. ii. 5. Cbe'ritll [ke-] (Heb. a cutting, separation, Ges.), the Brook, the torrent-bed or wadg (Brook 4) in which Elijuli hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (1 K. xvii. 8, 5). The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. Eusebius and Jerome place it E. of Jordan, where also Schwnrz would identify it in a Wadi/ Alias, opposite Bcth- shcan. This is the Wad;/ el- Yahis (Jabesh). The tradition mentioned by Marinus Sanutus in 1321, that it ran by Phasaelus, Herod's city in the Jordan valley, would make it the 'Ain el-Fnsdit, a fountain concealed under high cliffs, from which a brook flows through a narrow valley, S. of Kurn Sirtabeh, and falls into the Jordan aliout fifteen miles above Jericho. This view is supported by Bachiene, a. d. 1768, and by Van de Vcldc (ii. 810). Kobineon, on 164 CHE CHE the other hand (i. 658), would find the name in the Wady Kelt, a deep, wild ravme, also W. of Jordan, and behind Jericho. Cbe'rnb [ke-] (Heb. ; see next article below), ap- parently a place in Babylonia from which some per- sons of doubtful extraction returned to Judea with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 59 ; Neh. vii. 61). Chrr'ab, Cher'a-btm, Cher'-n-bims {ch as in church and Rachel] (Heb. cSrub or crub = a keeper, warder, guard, sc. of the Deity, to guard against all ap- proach ? Ges. ; Heb. pi. cerubim, or cruhim. Many other etymologies have been proposed.) In regard Ajayrias tphlnz. — (Layard, ti. 348.) to cherubim, two principal opinions have been held : ( 1 . ) that they are an order of superhuman beings, having a separate and real existence (see below) ; (2.) that they were merely symbolical figures or imaginary beings, like the composite creature-forms in the religious insignia of Assyria, Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia, e. g. the sphinx, the gryphons or griflins, winged bulls and lions of Nineveh, &c. (Nisroch.) In the sacred boats or arks of the Egyptians, (cut, p. 166), are sometimes found two figures with extended wnigs, which remind us of the description of the cherubim " covering the mercy-seat witli their wings, and their faces (looking) one to another" (Ex. xxv. 20). The cherubim are first mentioned as " placed at the E. of the garden of Eden " (Gen. iii. 24). A pair (E.\. xxv. 18, &c.) were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark : a pair of colossal size, probably in addition to the others, overshadowed it hi Solomon's Tem- ple with the canopy of their contiguously ex- tended wings (1 K. vi. 23 ff.). Jehovah is often spoken of as " manifesting himself, or dwelling between the cherubim " (Ex. xxv. 22 ; Num. vii. 89 ; 1 Sam. iv. 4 ; 2 Sam. vi. 2, &c.). Cherubim were likewise represented on the curtains and veil of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 1, 31, xxxvi. 8, 35), on the walls and doors and veil of the Temple (1 K. vi. 29, 32, 35 ; 2 Chr. iii. 14, &c.), and on the bases of the lavcrs (1 K. vii. 29, 36). Ezekiel (i. 4-14) speaks of four " living creatures," and similar- ly the apocalyptic "beasts" (Beast 14) (Rev. iv. 6) are four. The cherubim are sometimes placed beneath the actual presence of Jehovah, whose moving throne they appear to draw (Ez. i. 5, 25, 26, X. 1,2, 6, 1). The glory symboliz- ing that presence which eye cannot sec rests or rides on them, or one of them, thence dis- mounts to the Temple threshold, and then de- parts and mounts again (Ez. x. 4, 18; compare ix. 3 ; Ps. xvui. 10). Those on the ark were to be placed with wings stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy-seat, and to be made " of the mercy-seat." They are called the cherubim of glory (Heb. ix. 5), as on or between them the glory, when visible, rested. They were anointed with the holy oil, like the ark Tha winged female sphtsx of Egypt— (Wilkinson.) itself, and the other sacred furniture. Their wings were to be stretched upward, and their faces " tow- ard each other and toward the mercy-seat." It is remarkable that with such precise directions as to their position, attitude, and material, nothing, save that they were winged, is said (in Exodus) concern- ing their shHpe. In Ez. i. (compare x.) they are minutely described as having a composite creature- form, of which the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the elements. In Ez. x. 14 their " first face " is said to be " the face of a cherub " (compare i. 10). Bahr is inclined to think that the precise form varied within certnin limits ; e. g. the cherubic figure might have one, two, or four faces, two or four feet, one or two pair of wings, and might have the bovine or leonine type as its basis, &c. Mr. F. W. Farrar (in Kit.) maintains, that, " although the complete symbol of Auyrian Griffin. — (Layard, U. 459.) the cherubim was composed of four separate or united forms of Ufe, they might be sufficiently indi- cated by any one of these four elements, and that the shape in which they were commonly represented was either that of a winged ox (perhaps with a human head), or of a winged man (perhaps with calves' feet)." (See below.) Fairbairn also consid- ers them symbolic and imaginary beings, " not pre- sented to our view as always entirely alike; "but regards them as " composite animal forms " with " a predominantly human aspect" — "ideal representa- tives of humanity in its highest and holiest places — representatives not of what it actually is, but of what it was destined to become, when the purpose of Go ' in its behalf was accomplished, and other elemenj than those now belonging to it had gathered into i condition." Probably most of those who have CHE Died the personal reality of the cherubim have maintained tliat they are symbols directly or in- dbectly, either of the natural perfections of God, e. g. omnip- otence, omniscience, &c. (personi- fications, in fact, of natural power employed in God's service), or of the divme moral attributes, e. g. justice, slowness to anger, &c Thus Prof. Stuart (on Jiev. iv. 6) regards the living creatures or cherubim as " symbolic of the all-penading power, providence, and government of God who uses tliem as His instruments." As in Kev. v. 10 the best critical authorities read " them " and " they," instead of " us " and " we " with the A. V. and com- mon Greek text. Prof. Stuart sug- gests that the first clause in verse 9, may be sung by the twenty-four elders and the four hving crea tures, the last clause by the elders alone, verse 10 by the living creatures alone, &c., and refers for such re- sponsive praise to Ps. xxiv. and Is. vi. 1-8. Mr. Barnes (on Ncd. iv. 6) regards the living creatures of Revelation and Ezekiel as " designed to furnish some CHE 165 A Grecian GrUBn. representation of the government of God — to illus- trate, as it were, that on which the divine government resli, or which constitutes its support — viz., power, mteUigence, vigilance, energy." John Hutchinson^ Wingwi han)«is from some tradition, was identified with the later Tiberias. (See the next article, and Cinneroth.) Chlii'ne-reth [kin-] (Heb. ; see above), Sea of, (Num. xxxiv. 11 ; Josh. xiii. 27), the inland sea, most known as the " lake of Gennesaeet," mentioned as at the end of Jordan opposite to the " Sea of the Arabah," i. e. the Dead Sea ; as having the Arabah below it, &e. (Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh. xi. 2, xii. 3). In the two latter passages it is Chinneroth. It seems likely that Chiniicreth was an ancient Canaanite name existing long prior to the Israelite conquest. Cbin'oe-roth [kin-] (Heb. pi. cinnlrolh = It/res,' Ges.). CiiiNNEBEiH, Sea of ; Cinnieotii. ILi'os [ki-] (Gr. ; derived by some fr. Gr. chiSn, snow), an island in the Grecian Archipelago. St. Paul passed near Chios on his return voyage from Troas to Cesarca (Acts xx., xxi.). Having come from Assos toMitylene in Lesbos (xx. 14), he arrived the next day over against Chios (15), the next day at Samoa and tarried at Trogyllium ; and the follow- ing day at Miletus ; thence he went by Cos and Rhodes to Patara (xxi. 1). At that time Chios en- joyed »he privilege of freedom, and it is not certain that it ever was politically a part of the province of Asia, though it is separated from the mainland only by a strait of five miles. Its length is about thirty- two miles, and in breadth it varies from eight to eighteen. Its outline is mountainous and bold ; and it has always been celebrated for its beauty and fruitfulness. It was desolated by the Persians B. c. 494, and in the Greek war of independence by the Turks, who (1822) massacred 25,000 of its inhabi- tants, and sold 45,000 into skvery. this'leo [kis'lu]. Month. Cllls'lon [ki.s-] (Htb. covfdence, hope,Ges.), father of Elided, a prince of Benjamin at the division of Canaan (Num. xxxiv. 21). Cllls'loth-ta'bor [kis-J (Heb. loins, or flank, of Tabor, Ges.), a place to the border of which reached the border of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 12); perhaps at the modern village Iksdl, i. e. about two and u half miles W. of Mount Tabor. Chesulloth ; Tabor (city). I'btt'tim [kit-] (Heb. pi., prob. = Hittites, Ges. ; see below ), a family or race descended from Javau (Gen. X. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7 ; A. V. "Kittim "), closely re- lated to the DoDANiM. Balaam predicts that a fleet should proceed " fiom the coast of Chittim " to " afflict " Assyria, &c. (Num. xxiv. 24) : in Is. xxiii. 1,12, " the land of Chittim appears as the resort of the fleets of Tyre : in Jer. ii. 10, the " isles of Chitr 168 CHI CHB tjm " are to the far W., as Kedar to the E. of Pales- tine : the Tyrians procured thence the cedar or box- wood (Box-tree), which they inlaid with ivory for tlie decifs of tlieir vessels (Ez. xxvii. 6) ; in Dan. xi. 30, " ships of Chittim " advance to the S. to meet the king of the N. At a later period we find Alex- ander the Great described as coming from the land of Chettiim (1 Mc. i. 1), and Perseus as king of the CiTiMS (viii. 5). Josephus considered Cypkus as the original seat of the Chittim, adducing as evidence the name of its principal town, Citium. Citium was without doubt a Phenician town. From the town the name extended to the whole island of Cyprus, which was occupied by Phenician colonies. The name Chittim, which in the first instance had ap- plied to Pheniciaiis only (= Hittites), passepear3 clearly from their policy, and from the language of the con- temporary prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, that they had it much at heart to reinfuse something of national Ufe and spirit into the heart of the people, and to make them feel that they were etill the inheritors of God's covenanted mercies, and that the Captivity had only temporarily inter- rupted, not dried up, the stream of God's favor to their nation. Now nothing could more effectually aid these pious and patriotic designs than setting be- fore the people a compendious history of the king- dom of David, which should embrace a full account of its prosperity, trace the sins which led to its OTerlhrow, carry the thread through the period of the Captivity, and continue it as it were unbroken on the other side ; and those passages in their for- mer history would be especially important which ex- hibited their greatest and best kings as engaged in building or restoring the Temple, reforminu; all cor- ruptions in religion, and zealously regulating the services of the house of God. As regards the king- dom of Israel or Samaria, seeing it had utterly and hopcles.^ly passed away, and that the existing in- habitants were among the bitterest " adversaries of Judah and Benjamin," it would naturally engage very little of the compiler's attention. These con- siderations explain exactly the plan and scope of that historic-il work which is supposed to have consisted of the two books of Chronicles and Ezra. For after having given the genealogical divisions and settle- ments ol the various tribes (1 Chr. i.-viii.), the com- piler murks distinctly his own age and pur))08e by infonning us of the disturbance of those settlements _ by the Hahylonish Captivity (ix. 1), and of the par- ■ tial restoration of them at the return from Babylon (2-.34). He then gives a continuous liistory of the kingdom of Judah from David to his own times (ix. 85-Ezr. X.) introduced by the closing scene of Saul's _ life (1 Chr. x.), which introduction is itself prefaced by n penenlogy of Saul's house (ix. ."!6-44), extracted from the genealogical tables drawn up in the reign of Eezekiah (bo Lord A. C. flervey). 1 Chr. xv.- xvii., xxii.-xxix. ; 2 Chr. xiii.-xv., xxiv., xxvi., xxix.-xxxi., xxxT., are among the passages wholly or in part peculiar to the books of Chronicles, which mark the compiler's purpose, and are especially suited to the age and work of Ezra. Many Clial- daisms in the language of these books, the resem- blance of the style of Chronicles to that of Ezra, which is, in parts, avowedly Ezra's composition, tlie reckoning by Darics (1 Chr. xxix. 7 ; A. V. " drams"), as well as the breaking off of the narrative in the lifetime of Ezra, are among other valid arguments by which the authorahip, or rather compilation of 1 and 2 Chronicles and Ezra is vindicated to Ezra. As regards the materials used by him, and the sources of his information, they are not difficult to discover. The genealogies are obviously transcribed from some register, in w liich were preserved the gen- ealogies of the tribes and families drawn up at dif- ferent times, from the time of David to the time of Ezra (compare 1 Chr. vi. 33 ff. with iii. 19-24). The same wide divergence in the age of other materials embodied in the books of Chronicles is also appa- rent. Thus the information in 1 Chr. i., concerning the kings of Edom before the reign of Saul, was ob- viously compiled from very ancient sources. The same may be said of the incident of the slaughter of the sons of Ephraim by the Gittites (1 Chr. vii. 21, viii. 13), and of the account of the sons of Slielah and their dominion in Moab (iv. 21, 22). The curi- ous details concerning the Reubenites and Gadites in 1 Chr. v. must have been drawn from contempo- rary documents, embodied probably in the genealo- gical records of Jotham and Jeroboam, while other records used by the compiler are as late as after the return from Babylon (e. g. 1 Chr. ix. 2 if. ; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 20 ff.) ; and others (e. g. Ezr. ii., iv. 6-23) are as late as tlie time of Artaxerxes and Nehemiah. Hence it is further manifest that the books of Chro- nicles and Ezra, though put into their present foim by one hand, contain in fact extracts from the writ- ings of many different writers, which were extant at the time the compilation Kas made. For the full ac- coimt of the reign of David, he made copious ex- tracts from the books of Samuel the seer, Nathan the prophet, and Gad the seer (1 Chr. xxix. 29). For the reign of Solomon he copied from " the book of Nathan," from " the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilon- ite," and from " the visions of Iddo the seer " (2 Chr. ix. 29). Another work of Iddo called " the story (margin, " commentary ") of the prophet Iddo," sup- plied an account of the acts, and the ways, and say- ings, of King Abijah (xiii. 22): while yet another book of Iddo concerning genealogies, with the hook of the prophet Shemaiah, contained the acts of King Kehoboam (xii. 15). For later times the " Book of the kings of Israel and Judah " is repeatedly cited (2 Chr. XXV. 26, xxvii. 7, xxxii. 32, &c.), also "the story (margin, 'commentary') of the book of the Kings " (xxiv. 27), and "the sayings of the seers" (margin, " Ilosai ; " xxxiii. 19) ; for the reign of Jc- hoshaphat " the book of Jehu the son of Hanani " (xx. 34), and for the reigns of Uzziah and Hczckiah "the vision of the prophet Isaiah" (xxvi. 22, xxxii. 32). Besides the above-named works, there was al- so the public national record mentioned in Nch. xii. 23. The " Chronicles of David " (1 Chr. xxvii. 24), are probably the same as those written by Sanmcl, Nathan, and Gad (xxix. 29). From this time the affairs of each king's reign were regularly recorded f in a book (1 K. xiv. 29, xv. 7, &c.); and it was doubtless from this common source that the pas- sages in the Books of Samdel and Kings identical iro CHR with the Books of Chronicles were derived. Most, if not all, of the alleged discrepancies in regard to the facts and numbers may be satisfactorily ex- plained. (Abijah 1 ; Ahaziah 2 ; Akaunah ; Asa ; Ce.nsus ; Israel, Kingdom of, &c.) As regards 2 Chr. xxxvi. 8 if., and Ezr. i., a comparison of them with 2 K. xxiv., xxv., will lead to the conclusion that while the writer of the narrative in Kings lived in Judah, and died under the dynasty of Nebuchad- nezzar, the writer of the chapter in Chronicles lived at Babylon, and survived till the commencement at least of the Persian dynasty. Moreover, he seems to speak as one who had long been a subject of Neb- uchadnezzar, calling him simply " King Nebuchad- nezzar." Lord A. C. Hervey supposes it highly probable that as Jeremiah wrote the closing portion of the Book of Kings, so did Daniel write the corre- sponding portion in Chronicles, and down to the end of Ezr. i. As regards the language of these books, as of Ezra, Nehcmiah, Esther, and the later proph- ets, it has a marked Chaldee coloring, and Gesenius says of them, that " as literary works, they are de- cidedly inferior to those of older date " (Inlrod. to Heb. Grammar). The books of Chronicles have al- ways had their place in the 0. T. (Bible, III. 3 ; Canon.) Though not expressly quoted in the N. T., they are supposed to be alluded to, e. g. in Heb. v. 4 (compare 1 Chr. xxiii. 13), Lk. i. 5 (compare 1 Chr. xxiv. 10), Mat. xxiii. 35 and Lk. xi. 51 (compare 2 Chr. xxiv. 20, 21). Cbro-nol'o-gy [kro-nol'o-je] (fr. Gr. =: computation of lime, L. & S.). The object of this article (origi- nally by Mr. 11. S. Poole) is to indicate the present state of biblical chronology, i. e. of the technical and historical chronology of tlie Jews and their ancestors from the earliest time to the close of the N. T. Canon. — I. Technical Chronology, comprehending the mode of reckoning time and the terms used to denote divisions of time. — The technical part of Hebrew Chronology presents great difficulties. The biblical information is almost wholly inferential. (Inspira- tion.) We must not expect among the patriarchs and Israelites either the accuracy of modern science or the inaccuracy of modern ignorance. The Arabs of the desert afford the best parallel. (Astronomy.) Many of the genealogies given in the Bible are broken witliout being in consequence technically de- fective as Hebrew genealogies (Mat. i. 8 ; Ezr. vii. 1-5; 1 Chr. xxvi. 24; IK. .xix. 16; 2 K. ix. 20, compare 2, 14, &c. ; see Genealogy). There is no use of the generation as a division of time in the Pentateuch, unless in Gen xv. 16, where, however, the meaning most probably is that some of the fourth generation should come forth from Egypt. There is no evidence that the ancient Hebrews had any division smaller than an hour. — Hour. — The " hour " is mentioned in Dan. iii. 6, 15, iv. 19, 33, v. 5, but in no one of these cases is a definite period of time clearly intended by the word employed. The Egyp- tians divided the day and night into hours like our- selves from at least B. c. about 1200. It is there- fore not improbable that the Israelites were ac- quainted with the hour from an early period. The " DIAL of Ahaz " implies a division of the kind. In the N. T. we find the same system as the modern, the hours being reckoned from the beginning of the Jewisli night and day. — Day. — For the civil day of twenty-four hours we find in one place (Dan. viil. 14, margin) the term " evening-morning " (also in 2 Cor. xi. 25, A. V. " a night and a day ; " compare Jon. i. 17 ; Mat. xii. 40). The civil day was divided into NiouT and natural day, the periods of darkness CHB and light (Gen. i. 5). The night, and therefore the civil day, is generally held to have begun at sunset (Lev. xxiii. 32). " Between the two evenings " (margin of Ex. xii. 6 ; Num. ix. .S, xxviii. 4) is a natural division between the late afternoon when the sun is low, and the evening when his light has not wholly disappeared, the two evenings into which the natural evening would be cut by the commencement of the civil day if it began at sunset. The natural day probably was held to commence at sunrise, morning- twilight being included in the last watch of tlie night, according to the old as well as the later division ; some, however, made the morning-watch part of the day. Four natural periods, smaller than the civil day, are mentioned. These are " evening," and " morning," " noon " (or " mid-day"), and " mid- night." All these seem to designate periods, evening and morning being, however, much longer than noon and midnight. The night was divided into watches, three in the 0. T. ; four in the N. T. (Watches oi- Night.) — Week. — The Hebrew week was a period of seven days ending with the Sabbath ; therefore it could not have lieen a division of the month, which was lunar, without intercalation. The week, whetlier a period of seven days, or a quarter of the month, was of common use in antiquity. The Egyptians, however, were without it, dividing their month of thirty days into decades as did the Athenians.- — Month. — The months by which the time is measured in the account of the Flood seem to be of thirty days each, probably forming a year of three hundred and sixty days, for tlie first, second, seventh, and tenth months are mentioned (Gen. viii. 13, vii. 11, viii. 14, 4, 5). The montlis from the giving of the Law until the time of the Second Temple, were lunar. Their average length would of course be a lunation, or a little (44') above twenty-nine and a half days, and therefore they would in general be alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, but it is possible that occasionally months might occur of twenty- eight and thirty-one days, if, as is highly probable, the commencement of each was strictly determined by observation. The first day of the month is called " NEW moon." — Year. — It has been supposed, as already mentioned, that in Noah's time there was a year of three hundred and sixty days. The dates ill the narrative of the Flood might indeed be ex- plained in accordance with a year of three hundred and sixty-five days. The evidence of the prophetic Scriptures is however conclusive as to the knowledge of a year of the former length. There can bo no doubt that the year instituted at the Exodus was es- sentially tropical (i. e. averaging nearly three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days, the period of the sun's passing from one tropic or equinox to the same again), since certain observances connected with the produce of the land were fixed to particular days. It is equally clear that the months were lunar, each commencing with a new moon. Probably the nearest new moon about or after the equinox, but not much before, was chosen as the commencement of the year, and a thirteenth month was intercalated or added, whenever the twelfth ended too long be- fore the equinox for the first-fruits of the harvest to be oflfered in the middle of the month following, ' and the similar offerings at the times appointed. The later Jews had two beginnings to tlic year. At the time of the Second Temple the seventh month of the civil reckoning was Abib, the first of the sacred. Hence it has been held that the institution at the time of the Exodus was merely a change of commencement, and not the introduction of a new CHR CHR 171 year ; nnd also that from this time there were the two beginnings. The former opinion is at present purely hypothetical, and has been too much mixed up with the latter, for which, on the contrary, there u some evidence. The strongest point in this evi- dence is the circumstance that the sabbatical and jubdee years commenced in the seventh month, and doubtless on its first day. It is perfectly clear that this would be the most convenient, if not the neces- sary, commencement of single years of total cessa- tiou from the labors of the field, since each year so commencing would comprise the whole round of the.-ie occupations in a regular order from seed-time to harvest, and from harvest to vintage and gather- ing of fruit. VVe can therefore come to no other conclusion but that for the purposes of agricultdri the year was held to begin with the seventh month, while the months were still reckoned from the ."acred commencement in Abib. — Seasons. — The ancient Hfbrews do not appear to have divided their year into fixed seasons. We find mention of the natural sea-sons, " summer," and " winter," which = the whole year in Ps. Ixxiv. 17 ; Zech. xiv. 8 ; and perhaps Gen. viii. 22. The Hebrew word for the former of these properly = the time of cutting fruits, and the Hebrew word for the latter = the time of gathering fruits ; the one referring to the early fruit season, the other to the late one (= autumn, not unfrequently including winter, Ges.). There are two agricultural seasons of a more special character than the preceding in their ordinary use. These are " seed-time " and " harvest." (Agriculture.) — Fes- tivals and Holydays. — (See Fasts ; Festivals ; Jubi- lee, Year ok; Sabbatical Year.) — Eras. — There are indications of several historical eras having been used by the ancient Hebrews, but our information is so scanty that we are generally unable to come to positive conclusions. — 1. The Exodus (Ex. xii. 41, 61) is used as an era in 1 K. vi. 1, in giving the date of the foundation of Solomon's Temple. — 2. The foundation of Solomon's Temple is conjectured by Ideler to have bei;n an era (1 K. ix. 10 ; 2 Chr. viii. 1). — 3. The era once used by Ezekiel (i. 1), and commencing in Josiah's eighteenth year, was most probably connected with the sabbatical system (2 K . xxiii. 22; 2 Chr. xxxv. 18, xxxiv. 30; ccmp. Deut. xxxi. 10-13). — 4. The era of Jehoiachin's captivity is constantly used by Ezekiel. The earliest date is the fifth year (i. 2), and the latest, the twenty-seventh (xxix. \1). The prophet generally gives the date without applying any distinctive term to the era. We have no proof that it was used except by those to whose captivity it referred. Its first year was current b. c. 59G, conmiencing in the spring of that year. — 5. The beginning of the seventy years' Captivity docs not appear to have been used as an era. — 0. The return from Babylon does not appear to be employed as an era ; it is, however, reckoned from in Ezra Hi. 1, 8, as is the Exodus in the Penta- teuch. — 7. The era of the Seleucida; (b. c. 312) is used in 1 and 2 Maccabees. (Maccabees, Books Of.) — 8. The liberation of the Jews from the Syrian yoke in the first year of Simon the Maccabee is stated to have been commemorated by an era used in contracts and agreements (1 Me. xiii. 41 ; Mac- cabees). — Regnal Years. — By the Hebrews regnal years appear to have been counted from the begin- ning of the year, not from the day of the king's ac- cesislon. Tlius, if a king came to the throne in the last month of a year, reigned for the whole of the next year, and died in the first month of the third year, we might have dates in bis first, second, and third years, although he governed for no more than thirteen or fourteen months. — II, Histurieul Chro- nology. — The historical part of Hebrew Chronology is not less difficult than the technical. The informa- tion in the Bible is indeed direct rather than inferen- tial, although there is very important evidence of the latter kind, but the present state of the numbers makes absolute certainty in many cases impossible. (Abijah 1 ; Census.) The frequent occurrence of round numbers is a matter of minor Importance, for, although when we have no other evidence, it mani- festly precludes our arriving at positive accurac}', the variation of a few years is not to be balanced against great differences apparently not to be posi- tively resolved, as those of the primeval numbers in the Hebrew, LXX., and Samaritan Pentateuch. — Biblical data. — It will be best to examine the biblical information under the main ])eriods Into which it may be separated, beginning with the earliest. (A.) First Period, from Adam to Abram's departure frcni Haran. — All the numerical data in the Bible for the chronology of this Interval are comprised in two gen- ealogical lists in Genesis, the first from Adam to Noah and his sons (Gen. v. 3-32), and the second from Shem to Abram (xi. 10-26), and In certain pas- sages in the same book (vii. 6, 11, viii. IS, Ix. 5:8, 29, xi. 32, xll. 4). The Masoretic Hebrew text, the LXX., and the Samaritan Pentateuch greatly differ, as may be seen by the following table. Age of CBch when the next wae horn. YeKM or each after the next waa bora. Total length of the life of each. LXX. Heb. Sam. LXX. Heb, Bam. 1 7(f0 8rO 1 707 mi ' 716 815 1 740 840 i 720 eao 810 .. 1 788 1 900 80O LXX. 930 919 906 910 896 969 366 969 763 »S0 600 Htb. ;; 111 Sam. Aduin 830 506 190 170 166 169 165 187 167 188 609 ICO im 2V44 T^r i::o 120 134 130 139 130 79 119 10 1146 1946 130 1C6 90 10 6 69 \i 67 1S9 63 S«tli Enos Muhaltil«el jHFtd 647 Enoch Methuselah Lairecb 1782) 789 809 666 696 1 4J8 .. 600 .. 663 600 ISO 663 sum 166S 1309 TbU WM " two veari afttir the ntKid." ArphnxBd CaiDim Snlah 86 SO 34 30 39 30 99 4<10 3.-i0 330 1 970 S09 901 900 199 (136) 403 403 430 119 (136) 803 303 109 107 100 69 (16) (6361 |J60) 1460) (404) <339) (339) (330) ,S08, 906 (438)! 4^ (433)! i say] (fr. Heb.) = Kisii 3 (E.sth. xi. 2). Ck'trrn [sis-] (fr. L. ; Heb. bor), a receptacle for water, either conducted from an external spring, or proceeding from rainfall. The dryness of the summer months between May and September, in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in many parts of the country, make it necessary to collect in rcscr^■oirs and cisterns the rain-water, of which abundance falls in the intermediate period. (AcRi- CI.I.TLRE; Palf-stine.) The larger sort of pub- lic tanks or reservoirs (Ar. birkeh, Heb. biiri- 12 call) are usually called in A. T. " pool," while for the smaller and more private it is convenient to re- serve the name " cistern." Both pools and cisterns are frequent throughout the whole of Syria and Palestine. On the long-forgotten way from Jericho to Bethel, " broken cisterns " of high antiquity are found at regular intervals. Jercsale.m, described by Strabo as well supplied with water, in a dry neighborhood, depends mainly for this upon its cis- terns, of which almost every [irivate house possesses one or more, excavated in the rock on wliich the city is built. The cisterns have usually a round opening at the top, sometimes built up with stone- work above and furnished with a curb and a wheel for the bucket (Eccl. xii. 6), so that they have ex- ternally much the appearance of an ordinary well. The water is conducted into them from the roofs of the houses during the rainy season, and with care remains sweet during the whole summer and au- tumn. In this manner most of the larger houses and public buildings are supplied. Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and places of con- finement. Joseph was cast into a " pit " (Ilcb. bor) (Gen. xxxvii. 22), and his " dungeon " in Egypt is called by the same Hebrew name (xli. 14). Jere- miah was thrown into a miry though empty cistern, whose depth is indicated by the cords used to let him down (Jer. xxxviii. 6). CitL'trn [sith-] (= L. cithara, Gr. k,lhara)(\ Mc. iv. 54), a musical instrument, resembling a guitar, most probably of Greek origin, employed by the Chaldeans, and introduced by the Hebrews into Pal- estine on tlieir return thither after the Babylonian Captivity. With respect to the shape of the cithern mentioned in the Apocrypha, the opinion of the learned is divided : according to some it resembled in form the Greek delta A, others rep- resent it as a half-moon, and others again like the modern guitar. In many Eastern countries it is still in use with strings, varying in number from three to twenty-four. Under '^ the name of Koothir, the traveller Niebuhr describes it as a wooden plate or dish, with a hole beneath and a piece of skin stretched above hke a drum. In Mendelssohn's edition of the Psalms, the Koothir ov Kathrus is de- scribed by the accompanying figure. flt'lBlS [sit'timz] (fr. "llcb.) — Cdittim (1 Mc. viii. 5). t'it'l-zoii, the A. V. translation uniformly in the N. T. (Lk. XV. 15, xix. 14 in plural ; Acts xxi. 39) of the Gr. polites (= a member of a hite, probably of a light reddish color"), see Ass (Judg. v. 10); 'dkod = " ring- straked," either with white bands on the legs, or white-footed; ndkod = "speckled," tdiu (participle from tdld — to patch, Ges.; the Hebrew, translated " CLOUTED " in Josh. ix. 5, is from the same verb) = " spotted," and bdrod ~ piebald (A.V. " grisled " ), the spots being larger in the last than in the two others, but the three being white and black (Gen. XXX. 32 ff. ; bdrod also in Zech. vi. 3, 6). It re- mains for us now to notice the various terms ap- plied to these three colors. 1. IVfiite. The most common Hebrew term is Idbdn, which (or its kin- dred Idben) is applied to such objects as milk (Gen. xlix. 12), manna (Ex. xvi. 31), snow (Is. i. IS), horses (Zech. i. 8), raiment (Eccl. ix. 8) ; and a cognate word =: " the moon " (Is. xxiv. 23). The Heb. tsah or tsach, dazzling white, is applied to the complexion (Cant. v. 10); the Chal. hivvdr or chiv- vdr, for which the LXX. have leukos (see below), to snow (Dan. vii. 9 only); the Heb. sib (A. V. "gray- headed") to the hair alone (1 Sam. xii. 2; Job xv. 10). The Heb. cchdli (Lev. xili. 21 if., A.V. "some- what dark ") — palish white, Ges. Another class of terms arises from the textures of a naturally white color (Heb. bits, shesh, Gr. bussos, &c. ; see Cotton ; Linen). These were without doubt pri- marily applied to the material ; but the idea of color is also prominent, particularly in the descrip- tion of the curtains of the tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 1), and the priests' vestments (xxviii. 6). (See also Basket 1 ; Marble.) In Esth. i. 6, the first Hebrew word translated " white," hur or chur, which also occurs in viii. 15,=^nc white linen, Ges. ; the second Hebrew word, dar, translated "white," margin " alabaster," is commonly taken = a pearl, but per- haps = a species of marble or alabaster resembling pearl, or possibly mother of pearl (so Ges.). In N. T., the Gr. lampros (Rev. xv. 6, xix. 8) and leukos (Mat. V. 36, xvii. 2, &c. ; also in LXX. = Heb. Idbdn above) and the verb Itukaiuo (Mk. ix. 3, &c.) are translated " white;" and the participle kekonia- rnenos (= whitewashed) is translated "whitcd" (Mat. xxiii. 27; Acts xxiii. 3). White was symboli- .cal of innocence, of joy, ana of victory. — 2. Black. The shades of this color are expressed in the Ueb. shdhur or shdchdr and shdhar or shdchar, applied to the hair (Lev. xiii. 31, 37; Cant. v. 11); the com- plexion (Cant. i. 6), particularly when affected with disease (Job xxx. 80) ; horses (Zech. vi. 2, 6) : Ueb. hum or chum, literally scorched (A. V. " brown," Gen. xxx. 82 ff.), applied to sheep; the word expresses the color produced by influence of the sun's rays : 182 COL COL Heb. verb kddnr, literally to be dirty, translated in A. V. " to be black," " blackish," " dark," " dark- ened, ' &c., applied to mourner's robes (Jer. viii. 21, xiv. 2); a clouded sky (1 K. xviii. 45); night (Mic. iii. 6 ; Jer. iv. 28 ; Joel ii. 10, iii. 15) ; a turbid brook (Kidron), particularly when rendered so by melted snow (Job vi. 16). The Gr. melas is translated "black" in N. T. (Mat. v. 36, &c.), and in LXX. = Heb. sMhor or sluichdi: Black, as the opposite to white, is symbolical of evil (Zech. vi. 2, 6 ; Rev. vi. 5).— 3. Red. The Ueb. ddom (= "red," "rud- dy," A. V. and Ges.) and kindred words iXdam ( = " to be red " or " ruddy "), admoni (= " red "), are applied to blood (2 K. iii. 22) ; a garment sprinkled with blood (Is. Ixiii. 2); a heifer (Num. xix. 2); pottage made of lentiles (Gen. xxv. 30) ; a horse (Zech. i. 8, vi. 2); wine (I'rov. xxiii. 31); the com- plexion (Gen. xxv. 25; Cant. v. 10; Lam. iv. 7). The Heb. udamddm ( = " reddish " or " somewhat reddisli")is applied to a leprous spot (Lev. xiii. 19, &c., xiv. 37). Tlie Heb. sArok, literally fox- colored, bay, is applied to a horse (A. V. " speckled," margin " bay," Zech. i. 8). The Gr. piirrhox ( = flame-colored, fiery red, red, Rbn. N. T. Lex.) is translated " red " in Rev. vi. 4, xii. 3, and in LXX. =: Heb. ddoiH. The kindred Greek verb purrhazo ( = "to be red," A. V.) occurs in Mat. xvi. 2, 3. (See also Red Sea.) This color was symbolical of bloodshed (Zech. vi. 2 ; Rev. vi. 4, xii. 3). — II. Arti- ficial colors. The art of extracting dyes, and of applying them to various textures, appears to have been known at a very early period. (Dress; Handi- craft.) The Hebrews were probably indebted both to the Egyptians and the Phenicians ; to the latter for the dyes, and to the former for the mode of ap- plying them. The purple dyes which they chiefly used were extracted by the Phenicians (Ez. xxvii. 16), and in certain districts of Asia Minor, espe- cially Thyatira (Acts xvi. 14). (Elisiiah.) The dyes consisted of purples, light and dark (the lat- ter =: "blue," A. v.), and crimson ("scarlet," A. v.); these three we're contributed for holy pur- poses (Ex. xxv. 4) ; vermilion was introduced at a late period. — 1. Purple (Heb. argdm&n, argev&n ; Chal. argevdtid, Dan. v. 1, 16, 29, A. V. "scarlet;" Gr. porphura. porphurea, porphuroits). This color was obtained from the secretion of a species of shell-fish, the Murex Irimculun of Linna;us, which was found in various parts of the Mediterranean Sea. The coloring matter was contained in a small vessel in the throat, only a single drop in each ani- mal, and the value was proportionally high. The Greek and probably the other terms were applied with great latitnde, not only to all colors extracted from the shell-fish, but even to other brilliant colors (compare Jn. xix. 2 with Mat. xxvii. 28, and see \o. 3, below). The same may be said of the L. purpitreus. Generally speaking, however, the " purple " of the Scriptures must be considered as defined by the distinction between the purple proper, and the other purple dye (A. V. "blue"), which was produced from another species of shell- fish. The latter was undoubtedly a dark violet tint, while the former had a light reddish tinge.. Robes of a purple color were worn by kings (Judg. viii. 261, and by the highest olTicers, civil and reli- gious (Esth. viii. 15 ; 1 Mc. x. 20, 64, &c.). They were also worn by the wealthy and luxurious (Jer. X. 9; Ez. xxvii. 7; Lk. xvi. 19; Rev. xvii. 4, xviii. 16). — 2. Blue (Wah.teci'ileth ; Gr. huakitithos, hual-tn- thinos ; Jacinth). This dye was procured from a species of shell-fish found on the coast of Phenicia, and called by modern naturalists Helix lanlhina. The tint is best explained by the statements of Josephus (iii. 7, § 7) and Philo that it was em- blematic of the sky, in which case it represents not the light blue of our Northern climate, but the deep dark hue of the Eastern sky. The A. V. has rightly described the tint in Esth. i. 6 (margin) as violet. This color was used in the same way as purple (see above, No. 1). — 3. Scarlet (A. V. " crimson," twice in 0. T. ; see below). The terms by which this color is expressed in Hebrew vary ; sometimes shdxi simply is used, as in Gen. xxxviii. 28, 30 (A. V. "scarlet thread"). Is. i. 18 (A. V. " scarlet"), Jer. iv. 30 (A.V. " crimson"), &c. ; some- times tdla'alh shani, as in Ex. xxv. 4, &c. ; some- times told', as in Is. i. 18 (A. V. "crimson"), and Lam. iv. 5 (A. V.. "scarlet"); and in Nah. ii. 8, Heb. 4, the plural participle meihutld'im (A. V. " in scarlet," margin " dyed ") is used. The word car- mil (A. V. "crimson," 2 Chr. ii. 7, 14, iii. 14) wa- introduced into Hebrew at a late period, probablx from Armenia, to express the same color. Tlh first of these terms expresses the brilliaiici/ of tin color; the second the worm, or grub, whence tli. dye was procured. The Gr. kokkos is translated "scarlet" in Ecclus. xiv. 11, and its adjective kok- kinos is translated in the N. T. "scarlet," "scarlet color," " scarlet-colored " (Mat. xxvii. 28, compare No. 1, above; Heb. ix. 19; Rev. xvii. 3, 4, xviii. 12, 16); and in the LXX. is used generally for the pro- ceding Hebrew words. The dye was produced from the females of an insect {Coccm Ilicia, Linn., Ar. kermen, whence crimson), somewhat resembling the cochineal, which is found in considerable quantiti'- in Armenia and other Eastern countries. The tin; produced was crimson rather than scarlet. The only natural object to which it is applied in Scri))- ture is the lips, which are compared to a " scarlet " thread (Cant. iv. 3). "Scarlet" threads were se- lected as distinguishing marks from their brilliancy (Gen. xxxviii. 28 ; Josh. ii. 18, 21), and hence the color is expressive of what is excessive or glarimj (Is. i. 18). "Scarlet" robes were worn by the luxurious (2 Sam. i. 24; Prov. xxxi. 21 ; Rev. xvii. 4, &c.): "scarlet" was the appropriate hue of a warrior's dress from its similarity to blood (Nah. ii. 3; compare Is. ix. 5), and was especially worn by officers in the Roman army (Mat. xxvii. 28). The three colors above described, purple, blue, and scarlet, together with white, were employed in tli textures used for the curtains of the tabernaeli and for the sacred vestments of the priests (Ex. xxvi. 1, &c.). — 4. VerDiillon {lleh. slidshar ; Gr.mil- tos). This was a pigment used in fresco paintings, either for drawing figures of idols on the walls of temples (Ez. xxiii. 14), for coloring the idols them selves (Wis. xiii. 14), or for decorating the wail and beams of houses (Jer. xxii. 14). The Grci ! term = both red lead and red ochre ; the L. sivo/r. (the translation in Vulgate) = the best kind «l ochre, which came from SinojK on the Enxine or Black Sea. Vermilion was a favorite color among the Assyrians, as is still attested by the sculptures of Nimroud and Khorsabad. Co-los'8% [-see] (L.) = CoLOSSE. Co-Ios'se (L. Q'olossfe ; Gr. lutlossai or Kolas- sai), a city in the Roman province of Asia (Piirygia), in the upper part of the basin of the river Meander, on one of its afHuents named the Lycus. Hierapolis and Laodicea were i' its immediate neighborhood (Col. ii. 1, iv. 13, 1 ' 16; see Rev. i. 11, iii. 14). Colosse was more COL COL 183 ancient, and fell, as these other two cities rose in importance. The three were destroyed by an earth(iual{c (so Eusebius) in the ninth year of Nero, but Colosse was a flourishing place three years afterward. It was situated close to the great road from Ephesus to the Euphrates. Hence our im- pulse would be to conclude that St. Paul passed this way, and founded or confirmed the Colossian church on his third missionary journey (Acts .xviii. 23, xix. 1). (See the next article.) The most com- petent commentators, however, agree in thinking that Col. ii. 1, proves that St. Paul had never been there, when the epistle was written. That the apos- tle hoped to visit the place on being delivered from his Roman imprisonment is clear from Phn. 22 (comp. Phil. ii. 24). Philemon and Onesimuswere dwellers in Colosse. So also were Archippus and Epaphras. Mr. Hamilton was the first to deter- mine the actual site of the ancient city, which ap- pears to be about three miles N. from the modern vUage of Clu/nas. Co-Ifts'iiiaDS [ko-Iosh'yanz] ( = people of Co- iosse), the E-pis'tle to the, was written by the Apostle Paul during his first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16), and apparently in that portion of it (Col. iv. 3, 4) when the apostle's imprisonment had not assumed the more severe character which seems to be reflected in Phil. i. 20, 21, 30, ii. 27, and which not improbably succeeded the death of Burrus in A. D. 62, and the decline of the influence of Seneca. This important and profound epistle was addressed to the Christians of the once large and influential, but now smaller and declining, city of Colosse, and was delivered to them by Tychicus, whom the apostle had sent both to them (Col. iv. 7, 8) and to the church of Ephesus (Eph. vi. 21), to inquire into their state and to administer exhor- tation and comfort. The epistle seems to have been called forth -by the information St. Paul had re- ceived from Epaphras (Col. iv. 12; Phn. 23) and from Onesimus, both of whom appear to have been natives of Colosse, and the former of whom was, if not the special founder, yet certainly one of the very earliest preachers of the gospel in that city. The main object of the epistle is not merely, as in Philipplans, to exhort and to confirm, nor as in Ephesians, to set forth the great fea- tures of the church of the chosen in Christ, but especially to warn the Colossians agamst a spirit of semi-Judaistic and semi-Oriental phi- losophy which was corrupting the simplicity of their belief, and was noticeably tending to obscure the eternal glory and dignity of Christ. With regard to its geimhiencM and ant/tenlicili/, there are no grounds for doubt. The external testimonies are explicit, and the internal arguments, founded on the peculiarity of style, the nerve and force of the arguments, and the originality that appears in every paragraph, are unusually strong and well defined. (Ca.\on.) a few special points demand a brief notice. — 1. The opinion that the epistles to the Colossians, Ephesians, and Philemon, were written during the apostle's imprisonment at Cesarea (Acts xxi. 27-xxvi. 32), i. e. between Pentecost a. n. SS and the autumn of a. d. CO, has been recently advo- cated by several writers of ability, and stated with such cogency and clearness by Jleyer, as to deserve some consideration. But to go no further than the present epistle, the notices of the apostle's im- prisonment in ch. iv. 3, 4, 11, certainly seem his- torically inconsistent with the nature of the im- prisonment at Cesarea. The permission of Felix (Acts xxiv. 23) can scarcely be strained into any degree of liberty to teach or preach the Gospel. — 2. The nature of the erroneous teaching condemned in this epistle has been very differently estimated. Three oi)iniona only seem to deserve any serious consideration : (a) that these erroneous teachers were adherents of Neo-l'latonism, or of some forms of Occidental philosophy ; (4) that they leaned tQ 184 COL COM Essene doctrines and practices ; (c) that they advo- cated that admixture of Christianity, Judaism, and Oriental philosophy which afterward became con- solidated into Gnosticism. Of these («) has but little in its favor, except the somewhat vague term " philosophy " (ch. ii. 8) , which, however, it seems arbitrary to restrict to Grecian philosophy ; {b) is much more plausible as far as the usages alluded to, but seems inconsistent both with the exclusive nature and circumscribed localities of Essene teach- ing ; (<•) on the contrary is in accordance with the Gentile nature of the church of Colosse (i. 21), with its very locality — speculative and superstitious Phrygia — and with that tendency to associate Judaieal observances (ii. 10) with more purely the- osophistic speculations (18), which became after- ward so conspicuous in developed Gnosticism. — 3. The strikin::; similarity between many portions of this epistle and Ephesians has given rise to much speculation, both as to the reason of this studied similarity, and as to the priority of order in respect to composition. The similarity may reasonably be accounted for, (1.) by the proximity in time at which the two epistles were written ; (2.) by the high proba- bility that in two cities of Asia within a moderate distance from one another, there would be many doctrinal prejudices, and many social relations, that would call forth and need precisely the same lan- guage of warning and exhortation. The priority in composition must remain a matter for a reason- able diiference of opinion. Bishop Ellicott believes the shorter and perhaps more vividly expressed Epistle to the Colossians to have been first written, and to have suggested the more compre- hensive, more systematic, but less individualizing. Epistle to the Ephesians. Cal'oars [kul'lurz] = Colors. * Com'fort-er = one who gives comfort (2 Sam. X. 3; Eccl. iv. 1, &c.); especially applied to the Holy Spirit in N. T. (Jn. xiv. 16, &c.). Spirit, the Holy ; also Advocatk. * Com-miind'niciti Law; Law of Moses; Ten COMMAXDME.XTS. C0!u'iuere3> From the time that men began to live in cities, trade, in some shape, must have been carried on to supply the town-dwellers with neces- saries, but it is also clear that international trade must have existed and affected to some extent even the pastoral nomad races, for we find that Abra- ham was rich, not only in cattle, but in silver, gold, and gold and silver plate and ornaments (Gen. xiii. 2, xxiv. 22, 53). (Metals; Money; Ornaments, Per- so.NAL.) Among trading nations mentioned in Scrip- ture, Egypt holds in very early times a prominent position, though her external trade was carried on, not by her own citizens, but by foreigners, chiefly of the nomad races. (Arabia.) It was an Ishmael- ite caravan, laden with spices, which carried Joseph into Egypt. From Egypt it is likely that at all times, especially in times of general scarcity, corn would be exported, which was paid for by the non- exporting nations in silver, which was always weighed (Gen. xli. 57, xlii. 3, 25, 35, xliii. 11, 12, 21). Intercourse with Tyre does not appear to have taken place till a later period. At an early period trade was carried on between Babylon and the Syrian cities, and gold and silver ornaments were common among the Syrian and Arabian races (Num. xxxi. 50; Josh. vii. 21; Judg. V. 30, viii. 24; Job vi. 19). Until the time of Solomon the Hebrew nation may be said to have had no foreign trade. (Agricoltlre ; Alliance ; Loan ; Ship.) Solomon, however, organized an exten.'iive trade with foreign countries. (Elath; Tarsiiish.) lie imported linen yarn, horses, and chariots from Egypt (1 K. X. 22-29). Phenicians brought by sea to JOPPA the cedar and other timber for his great architectural works, whilst Solomon furnished tiicm provisions (1 K. v. 6, 9; 2 Chr. ii. 15, 10). Solo- mon also built, or more probably fortified. Palmyra (Tadmor), as a caravan station for the land-commerce with eastern and southeastern Asia (1 K. ix. 18). After his death the maritime trade declined, and an attempt made by Jehoshapliat to revive it proved unsuccessful (1 K. xxii. 48, 49). We know, how- ever, that Phenicia was supplied from Judea with wheat, honey, oil, and balm (1 K. v. 11 ; Ez. xxvii. 17; Acts xii. 20), whilst Tyrian dealers brought fish and other merchandise to Jerusalem at the time of the return from Captivity (Xeh. xiii. 10), as well as timber for the rebuilding of the Temjile, which then, as in Solomon's time, was brought by sea to Joppa (Ezr. iii. 7). Oil was exported to Egypt (Hos. xii. 1), and fine linen and ornamental girdles of domestic maimfacture were sold to the merchants (Prov. xxxi. 24). The successive inva- sions to whieli Palestine was subjected must have impoverished the country from time to time, but much wealth must somewhere have existed ; so much so that, in the language of Ezeldel, Jerusa- lem appears as the rival of Tyre, and through its port, Joppa, to have carried on trade with foreign countries (Is. ii. 6, 10, iii. 11, 23 ; Hos. xii. 7; Ez. xxvi. 2; Jon. i. 3). The internal trade of the Jews, as well as the external, was much promotci!, as was the case also in Egypt, by the festivals, which brought large numbers of persons to Jeru- salem, and caused great outlay in victims for sacri- fices and in incense (1 K. viii. 63). The places of public market were, then as now, chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to which goods were brought for sale by those who came from the outside (Neh, xiii. 15, 16; Zeph. i. 10). The traders in later times were allowed to intrude into the temple, in the outer courts of v.iiich victims were publicly sold for the sacrifices (Zech. xiv. 21 ; Mat. xxi. 12 ; Jn. ii. 14). The Jews in their dispersion became, and have continued to bo, a nation of traders. Camel; Captivity; Cesarea; Dispersion, Jew.s OF the; Gate; Inn; Market; Moxey-chanoehs; Slave; Stones, Precious; Weights and Meas- ures. * Coci'mon-wenltli. Citizen; Congregation. | * Com-pcl' (fr. L., lit. to drive iogethm-), the A. V translation of — 1. Heb. anas {—to urge, prexs, com- pel, Ges.) (Esth. i. 8 only). — 2. Heb. iiiidah or nd- dach ( = to thnist, impel, seduce, Ges.) (2 Chr. xxi. 11); elsewhere translated "drive" (Dent. xxx. 1; 2 K. xvii. 21; Jer. viii. 3, &c.), "thrust" (Deut. xiii. 5, 10), "force" (Deut. xx. 19; Prov. vii. 21), &c. — 3. Heb. 'aftftcf ( = to labor, work, serve, Ges.) (Lev. XXV. 39, margin " serve thyself with ") ; else- where translated " serve " (vcr. 40, &c.), &c. — 4. Heb. pilrats (literally, to break, break out or forth, Ges.) (1 Sam. xxviii. 23); elsewhere translated " break forth " (Ex. xix. 22, 24, &c.), " break down " (2 K. xiv. 13, &c.), &c. — 5. Gr. anangkaz6 { z= to force, compel, require, constraht, especially by argument ; from anangke, force, nccessiti/, L. A: S.) (Lk. xiv. 23; Acts xxvi. 11; 2 Cor. xii. 11; Gal. ii. 3, 14); also translated "constrain" (Mat. xiv. 22; Mk. vi. 45 ; Acts xxviii. 19; Gal. vi. 12). — 6. Gr. anggareuo (Mat. v. 41, xxvii. 32 ; Jlk. xv. 21), a word of Persian, or rather of Tartar origin COK CON 185 r= to comjxl to srrve as a mounled courier (Gr. anff- ffaros). According to the Persian system (Htlt. viii. 98), in order to make all haste in carrying royal messages, relays of men and horses were stationed at intervals, and the couriers, who had license from the government to press into the ser- vice men, horses, and vessels, handed the dispatch from one to another without interruption either from weather or darkness. Hence the word =: press or imjjress hiio service. Epistle. Con-s-lli'ah (Ueb. whom Jehovah hath set, Ges. ; =r C0NOXI.111), one of the chiefs of the Levites iu the time of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxv. 9). * Con-tis'lon [kon-sizh'un] (fr. L. = n cutting off), a term of contempt for mere outward circum- cision (I'liil. iii. 2). Con'tn-blne [konk'yu-bine] (fr. L. ; Ueb.pVegesh; Gr. pallake), among the ancient Hebrews, &c., = a wife of secondary rank. The concubine's condition was a definite one, and quite independent of the fact of there being another woman having the rights of wife toward the same man. The differ- ence probably lay in the absence of the right to the " bill of divorcement " (see Divorce), without which the wife could not be repudiated. With re- gard to the children of wife and concubine, there was no such difference as our illegitimacy implies ; the latter were a supplementary family to the for- mer, their names occur in tiie patriarchal genealo- gies (Gen. xxii. 24 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), and their position and provision would depend on the father's will (Gen. XXV. G). The state of concubinage is assumed and provided for by the law of Moses. A concu- bine would generally be cither (1.) a Hebrew girl bought of her father ; (2.) a Gentile captive taken in war; (3.) a foreign slave bought, or (4.) a Canaanitish woman, bond or free. The rights of (1.) and (2.) were protected by law (Ex. xxi. 7 ft". ; Deut. xxi. 10-14), but (3.) was unrecognized, and (4.) prohibited. Free Hebrew women also might become concubines. So Gideon's concubine seems to have been of a family of rank and influence in Shechem, and such was probably the state of the Levite's concubine (Judg. xix., xx.). The ravages of war among the male sex, or the impoverishment of families might often induce this condition. The case (1.) was not a hard lot (Ex. xxi.). The pro- visions relating to (2.) are merciful and considerate to a rare degree, but overlaid by the Rabbis with distorting comments. In the books of Samuel and Kings the concubines mentioned belong to the king, and their condition and number cease to be a guide to the general practice. A new king step pcd into the rights of his predecessor, and by Sol- omon's time the custom had approximated to that of a Persian harem (2 Sam. xii. 8, xvi. 21 ; 1 K. ii. 22). To seize on royal concubines for his use was thus a usurper's first act. Abner ; Absalom ; Ad- oxijAii; Adultery; Haoar; Heir; Kkturah ; Uarriare; Slave; Women. • Con-dem-na'ticn. Damnation ; Judges ; Pcn- isiiMKXTs; Trial. fon'dait l-dilj (Heb. K'dVdA = a trench, water- conme, cmitiJ, or aq-aeduct). 1. Although no notice is given in the Scriptures or Josephus pf any con- nection between the pools of Solomon beyond Beth- lehem and a supply of water for Jerusalem, it seems unlikely that so large a work as the pools should he constructed merely for irrigating his -ardens (Ecel. ii. 6); and tradition, both oral and lis represented by Talmudical writers, ascribes to Solomon the formation of the original aqueduct by which water was brought to Jerusalem. Pontius Pilate applied the sacred treasure of the Corban to the work of bringing water by an aqueduct. AVhether his work was a new one or a reparation of Solomon's original aqueduct cannot be deter- mined. The aqueduct, though much injured, and not serviceable for water beyond Bethlehem, stiil exists; the water is conveyed from tlie fountains which supply the pools about two miles S. of Beth- lehem. (Pool.) — 2. Among the works of Hcze- kiah he is said to have stopped the " upper water- course of Giiiox," and brought it down straight to the W. side of the city of David (2 Chr. xxxii. SO ; compare 2 K. xviii. 17). Jerusalem. Co'Bey or Co'ny, the A. V. translation of the Heb. sMphdn, which is now universally allowed to be the IJyrax Si/riaciis, a gregarious onimal of the class Pachydermata, found in Palestine, living in the caves and clefts of the rocks. In Lev. xi. 6 and in Deut. xiv. 1 it is declared to be unclean, because it chews the cud, but does not divide the hoof. In Ps. civ. 18 we are told "the rocks are a refuge for the conies," and in Prov. xxx. 26 that " the conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks." The ijyrax satisfies exactly the expressions in the two last passages. The action of its jaws resembles that of the ruminating animals, yet, like the hare, it is not classed among them by naturalists, as it has incisors or cutting teeth in the upper jaw and lacks the four stomachs of' those animals, its true affinities being with the tapir, &c. It feeds on grass and the young shoots of shrubs, and is about the size of a cony or rabbit, which in some of its habits it much resenjbles. Its color is gray or brown on the back, white on the belly ; it has long hair, a very short tail, and round ears. It is found on Lcbanou and iu the Jordan and Dead Sea valleys. HynuE Syrinciii.— W- ma (Mat. xii. 1), elsewhere translated "cornfields" (Mk. ii. 23 ; Lk. vi. 1), &c.— " Corn," in the Scrip- tures as now in England = grain, or the various cereals. The most common kinds were wheat, BARLEY, spelt (A. V. "rye," "fitches"), and mil- let ; oats are mentioned only by rabbinical writers. Corn-crops are still reckoned at twentyfold what was sown, and were anciently much more. " Seven ears on one stalk " (Gen. xli. 22) is no unusual phenomenon in Egypt at this day. Wheat (2 Sam. iv. 6) was stored in the house for domestic purpo- ses. (Barn.) It is at present often kept in a dry WELL, and perhaps the " ground corn " of 2 Sam. xvii. 19 was meant to imply that the well was so used. From Solomon's time (2 Chr. ii. 10, 15), as AQRiciiLTL'RE became developed under a settled government, Palestine was a corn-exporting coun- try, and her grain was largely taken by Tyre (Ez. xxvii. 17;comp, Am. viii. 3). (Commerce.) "Plenty of corn " was part of Jacob's blessing (Gen. xxvii. 28 ; comp. Ps. Ixv. 13). Maize, or Indian corn, has been generally supposed exclusively a native of America, and hence unknown in Europe and the East before 1492. M. Rifaud, however, discovered in 1819 grains and leaves of it under the head of a mummy at Thebes, and hence Dr. J. Hamilton (in Fairbairn) supposes it may have been known to the Hebrews ; but may not these grains and leaves have been deposited there, by accident or design, at some time within the last three or four centuries ? Cor-nc'lUns (L., according to Schl. fr. L. cornu, a horn; the name of a celebrated Roman clan), a Roman centurion of the Italian cohort (Army, II.) stationed in Cesarea (Acts x. 1, &c.), a devout man full of good works and alms-deeds (Proselyte). Cor- nelius and those assembled in his house were baptized by St. Peter, and thus Cornelius became the first- fruits of the Gentile world to Christ. Tradition has been busy with his life and acts. According to Je- rome he built a Christian church at Cesarea ; but later tradition makes him bishop of Scamandios (Seamandria ?), and ascribes to him the working of a great miracle. Cor'ner. The "corner" of the field was not allowed (Lev. xix. 9) to be wholly reaped. The poor had a right to carry off what was so left, and this was a part of the maintenance from the soil to which that class were entitled. On the principles of the Mosaic polity every Hebrew fami- ly had a hold on a certain fixed estate, and could by no ordinary and casu.il calamity be wholly beggared. Hence its indigent members had the claims of kindred on the " corners," &c., of the field which their landed brethren reaped. In the later period of the prophets their constant com- plaints concerning the defrauding the poor (Is. x. 2; Am. v. 11, viii. 6) seem to show that such laws had lost their practical force. Still later, under the Scribes, minute legislation fixed one-sixtieth as the portion of a field which was to be left for the legal " corner ; " but provided also (which seems hardly consistent) that two fields should not be so joined as to leave one corner only where two should fairly be reckoned. The proportion being thus fixed, all the grain might be reaped, and enough to satisfy the regulation subsequently sep- arated from the whole crop. This " corner " was, like the gleaning, tithe-free. Agricllture ; Beard ; Gleaning; Hair; Poor; Tithe; Widow. * Corner-gate (2 K. xiv, 13; 2 Chr. xxv. 23, xxvi. 9 ; Jer. xxxi. 38 ; Zech. xiv. 10), a gate of Jerusa- lem, 400 cubits from the gate of Ephraim (Epii- RAiM, Gate of); apparently (so Kit.) at the X. W. corner. Corner-stone, a stone of great importance in binding together the sides of a building. Some of the corner-stones in the ancient work of the Tem- ple foundations are 17 or 19 feet long, and 7J feet thick. (See cut, under Jerlsalilvi, of the E. corner of the S. wall.) At Nineveh the corners are sometimes formed of one angular stone. " Corner-stone," or " head of the corner," sometimes = any princi- pal person, as the princes of Egypt (Is. xix. 13, A.V. " the stay," margin " the corners," or "gover- nors"), and is thus applied to our Lord (Ps. cxviii. 22 ; Is. xxviii. 16 ; Mat. xxi. 42 ; Eph. ii. 20 ; 1 Pet. ii. 6, 7). In Ps. cxliv. 12, translated in A. V. " that our daughters may be as corner-stones, polished (margin "cut") after the similitude of a palace," Gesenius translates "that our daughters may be as corner-columns finely sculptured," supposing an allusion to the slender, tall, and elegant caryatides, or columns representing female figures, common in Egyptian architecture. Cor'net (Heb. sh6phAr\ a loud-sounding instru- ment, made of the horn of a ram or of a chamois (sometimes of an ox), and used by the ancient He- brews for signals, for announcing the " Jubilee " (Lev. xxv. 9), for proclaiming the new year, for the purposes of war (Jer. iv. 8, 19; compare Job xxxix. 25), as well as for the sentinels placed at the watch-towers to give notice of the approach of an enemy (Ez. xx,\iii. 4, 5). Shiphur is generally rendered in the A. V. "trumpet," but "cornet" (the more correct translation) is used in 1 Chr. xv. 28 ; 2 Chr. xv. 14 ; Ps. xcviii. 6 ; Hos. v. 8 ; and in the margin of Ps. el. 3 ; Joel ii. 1. " Cornet " is also employed in Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, for the Chalde Iceren (literary a horn). Oriental scholars for the! most part consider shophar and keren to be one and the same musical instrument; but some biblical critics regard shophar and Heb. hutnolseruh or cliHt' sotserdh (= "trumpet" in Num. x. 2 ff., &c.) 1 belonging to the species of kerm, the general ter for a ^urm. Gesenius makes htttsotnirdh or cA the Greek sors. The Laba- *"■"" <'^' ""• • J •!. J OuEOi (11). rum 13 described in Eusebius, and, besides the pendent cross, sup- ported the celebrated embroidered monogram of Christ, which was also inscribed on the shields and helmets of the legions. We may tabulate thus the various descriptions of cross, using the Latin desig- nations, which are mostly explained in the subsequent description : — 2. Dccussata. Andreana, or Burirundian. I I. Commissa and aubata. 4. Immisea. or capiiata. 1. The crux simplex, (L. = a cross simple), or mere stake of one single piece without transom, was probably tlie original of the rest. Sometimes it was merely driven through the man's chest (see cut under War), but at other times it was driven longitudinally through the whole body, coining out at the mouth. Another form of punishment con- sisted of tyiiiff the criminal to the stake, from which he hung by his arms. — 2. The crux dectissata (L. = a cross decussate, or X-shaped), is called St. Andrew's cross (Andrew), although on no good grounds. It was in the shape of the letter X. — 3. The crux com- missa (\j. = a cross joined together), or St. An- thony's cross (so called from being embroidered on tliat saint's cope), was in the shape of the letter T. A variety of this cross (the crux ansala ^_j. [L. = a croxs with a handle], "crosses with || ^t circles on tlieir heads " ) is found " in the " ^| sculptures from Khorsabad and the ivories from Niraroud. In the Egyptian sculptures, a similar object, called a crux ansata, is constantly borne by divinities. The same symbol has been also found among the Copts, and (perhaps accidentally) among the Indians and Persians. — 4. The crux immissa (L. = a cross let into, or let in), or Latin cross, dift'ered from the former by the projection of the upright above the crossbar. That this was the kind of cross on which our Lord died is obvious from the mention of the " title," as placed above our Lord's head, and from the almost unanimous tradition ; it is repeatedly found on the coins and columns of Constantino. There was a projection from the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer rested. This was to prevent the weiglit of the body from tearing away the hands. Whether there was also a support to the feet (as we see in pictures), is doubtful. An inscription was generally placed above the criminal's head, briefly expressing h\^ guilt, and generally was carried before him. It was covered with white gypsum, and the letters were black. Nicquetus says it was white with red let- ters. It is a question whether tying or binding to the cross was the more common method. Tliat our Lord was nailed, according to prophecv, is certain (John XX. 25, 27, &e. ; Zech. xii. 10; Ps. xxii. 16). It is, however, extremely probable that both methods were used at once. The story of the so- called "invention (i. e. discovery) of the cross," A.D. 326, is too famous to be altogether passed over. Socrates, Theodoret, &c., say, that the Empress Helena, Constantino's mother, was instructed in a dream to go to Jerusalem, that she found there three crosses with a superscription, that one of them miraculously cured a dying woman, and was therefore declared to be the genuine cross of Christ, and that she gave a part of it to the city of Jerusa- lem, and sent the rest to Constantine. Afterward, pieces of the so-called true cross were distributed through Christendom. To this day the supposed title, or rather fragments of it, are shown to the people once a year in the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. In the epistles of ^' Paul, " the cross of Christ," or " the cross " pim|:: figuratively = all that is connected with the cross, CRO CRU 19: I. e. the sufferings and death of the Lord Jesus Christ, the saeritice for sin which lie offered (see Atoxemknt), and iu general, the great doctrines of the Gospel (1 Cor. i. 17, IS; Gal. v. 11, vi. 12, 14, &.(:. >. Compare the '" name " of the Lord (Ex. xxxiv. 6-7 ; 1 Sam. xii. 22, &c.). It was not till the 6th century that the emblem of the cross became the imoffe of the crucifix. As a symbol the use of it was frequent in the early church. It was not till the second century that any particular cfhcacy was attached to it. Crucifixion ; Jesus Christ. troWDi This ornament, which is both ancient and universal, probably originated from the fillets used to prevent the hair from being dishevelled by the wind. Such fillets are still common, and they may be seen on the sculptures of I'ersepolis, Nine- veh, and Egypt; they gradually developed into turbans, which by the addition of ornamental or precious materials assumed the dignity of mitres or crowns. The use of them as ornaments probably was suggested by the natural custom of encircling the head with flowers in token of joy and triumph (Wis. ii. 8 ; Jd. xv. 13). Both the ordinary priests and the high priest wore them. The common " bonnet " of the priests (Hcb. migbd'uh ; Ex. xxviii. 40, xxxix. 28), formed a sort of linen turban or crown (Jos. iiL 7, § 3). The mitre of the high priest (Heb. Milsnephelh, used also of a regal "diadem," Ez. xxi. 26) was much more splendid (Ex. xxviii. 36 ff., xxxix. 28, 30, 31 ; Lev. viii. 9). It had a fillet of blue lace, and over it a golden diadem (lleb. near, A. V. "crown," Ex. xxix. 6). The gold band was tied behind with blue lace (em- broidered with flowers), and being two fingers broad, bore the inscription " Holiness to the Lord " (compare Rev. xvii. 5 ; Jos. ill. 7, § 7 ; B. J. v. 5, ij 7). The use of the crown by priests, and in reli- _ious services was universal. "A striped head- ness and queue," or " a short wig, on which a band was fastened, ornamented with an asp, the symbol of royalty," was used by the kings of Egypt in re- ligious ceremonies (Wilkinson's Ancient Efftfptians, iii. 3.'54, fig. 13). The crown worn by the kings of Assyria was " a high mitre . . . frequently adorned with flowers, &c., and arranged in bands of linen or silk. Originally there was only one band, but afterward there were two, and the ornaments were richer " (Layard, ii. 320). There are many words in Scripture denoting a crown besides those mention- ed : as Ilcb. pier, the head-dress of bridegrooms (Is. Ixi. 10, A. V. "ornaments;" Ez. xxiv. 17, A. \'. " the tire of thine head "), and of women (Is. iii. 20, A. V. ''bonnets"); Heb. tufphirolfi^ a head- dress (A. V. " diadem " ) of great splendor (Is. xxviii. 6); Heb. livydh, a wreath (A. V. "orna- ment") of flowers (I'rov. i. 9, iv. y); and Heb. Mniph {Bee Diadem; Heaivdress), a common tiara or turban (Job xxix. 14, A. V. "diadem;" Is. iii. 23, A. V, " hoods). The general Hebrew word for "crown" is Vitdrdh, and we must attach to it the notion of a costly turban irradiated with pearls and gems of priceless value, which often form aigrettes, or plumes, for feathers, as in the crowns of modem Asiatic sovereigns. Such was probably the crown, which with its precious stones weighed (or rather «a» worth) a -talent, taken by David from the king of Ammon at Rabbah, and used as the state crown of Judah (2 Sam. xii. 30). The Gr. slephanon, in the LXX., = Heb. 'aidrdh, and is used in the N'. T. for every kind of crown ; the Gr. elemma is used once (Acts xiv. 13) for the "garlands "used with victims. In Rev. xii. 8, xiii. 1, xix. 12, allusion IS made to many " crowns " worn in token of ex- tended dominion. In these passages the Gr. ig- gestive of the second term, bakbuk, which is used for a "cruse of honey" (1 K. xiv. 3), and an " earthen bottle " (Jer. xix. 1, 10). — 3. Apparently very different from both these is the other term, tsClohith or Isildchith, which occurs only in 2 K. ii. 20, and was probably a flat metal saucer of the form still common in the East. Other words from the same root are translated in 2 Chr. xxxv. 13 " pans," and in 2 K. xxi. 13 " dish." Crys'tal, the representative in the A. V. of — 1. Heb. zScucilh (Job xxviii. 17 only); "The gold and the crystal cannot equal it," i. e. wisdom. Notwith- standing the different interpretations ("rock crys- tal," "glass," "adamant," kc), that have been as- signed to this word, there can, Mr. Houghton thinks, be very little doubt that " glass " is intended. The old versions and paraphrases, Ges., Fii., &c., favor this interpretation. — 2. Heb. kerah or kerach, which in other passages in the 0. T. = " ice," " frost ; " but once only (Ez. i. 22), as is generally understood = " crystal." The ancients supposed rock-crystal to be merely ice congealed by intense cold. The simi- larity of appearance between ice and crystal caused no doubt the identity of the terms to express these substances. — 3. Gr. krnstallos (in LXX. := No. 2) occurs in N. T. in Rev. iv. 6, xxii. 1. It may mean either " ice," or " crystal." A participle of the kindred Greek verb knMallizd occurs in Rev. xxi. 11, A. V. "clear as crystal." Cn'bJt. Weights and Measfres. Cnck'oo [m as in bull'\, spelled " cuckow " in some copies, the A. V. translation of the Heb. Aahaph or shaehaph. Mr. Houghton thinks, there is no authority for this translation of the A. V., though the " cuckoo " ( Cuculus canorm), a migra- tory insectiverous bird of the Eastern continent, ia said to pass the winter in Palestine, and may be the bird in question (Gosse in Fairbairn, Col. C. H. Smith in Kitto) ; the Hebrew word occurs twice only (Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15), as the name of some unclean bird. Bochart has at- tempted to show that the Hebrew denotes the ccjyphus (kepphos of Aristotle), which is probably the storm-petrel ( 77iatnssidroma pclaqica), a small web- footed sea-bird. Gesenius, following the LXX. andj Vulgate, makes the Hebrew = the sea-mew or se gull, a sea-bird of the genus Larus, Linn. Tristra has suggested that some of the larger petrels, e. gf the Puffitms einereus and P. Anglontm (shearwater), which abound in the E. of the Mediterranean and are similar in their habits to the storm-petrel, may be denoted by the Hebrew term. Cu'cnm-bers, the translation of the Heb. kish- s/iuim, which occurs once only, in Num. xi. 5, as one of the good things of Egypt for which the Is- raelites longed. There is no doubt that this is a correct translation of the Hebrew, though the name may not have been confined to the common cucum- ber. Egypt produces excellent cucunibers, mrlons, &c. (Melon), the Cucumis chate being styled by Hasselquist " the Egyptian melon or queen of lhe_ cucumbers." This plant prows in the fertile eartj around Cairo after the inundation of the Nile, an^ not elsewhere in Egypt. The C. chaie is a variet] only of the common musk-niclon (C Melo); it wa CCM CUB 197 once cultivated in England and called " the ronnd- Icaved Egyptian melon ; " but it is rather an insipid sort. Besides the Ciuumis c/iate, the common cu- cumber f C. ealimis), of which the Arabs distinguish a number of varieties, is common in Egypt. . " Both Cucu/nia ehate and C. sativus," says Tristram, "are now grown in great quantities in Palestine: on visiting the Arab school in Jerusalem (1858) I observed that the dinner which the children brought with them to school consisted, without exception, of a piece of barley cake and a raw cucumber, wliich they eat rind and all." The "lodge (Cottage 2) in a garden of cucumbers" (Ileb. mikshiih = a field of cuaimbers, Ges., Fii.) (Is. i. 8) is a rude temporary shelter, erected in the open grounds where vines,' cucumbers, gourds, &.e., are grown, in which some lonely man or boy is set to watch, either to guard tlie plants from robbers, or to scare away the foxes and jackals from the vines. Compare Bar. vi. 70. • Camber, to, in A. V. — to encnmber, overload, harags (Lk. x. 40); to encumber melcssl;/, or spoil (xUi. 7). • CDm'brancc = an encumbrance or burden (Deut. i. 12). Corn'miB (Heb. cammon ; Gr. kuminon), one of the cultivated plants of Palestine (Is. xxviii. 25, 27 ; Mat. xxiii. 23). It is an umbelUferous plant {Cuminum sativum, Linn.), something like fennul. Tlie seeds have a bitterish warm taste witli an aro- matic flavor. The Maltese are said to grow it at the present day, and to thresh it with a rod as described by Isaiah. • Cnnnlng, in A. V., as an adjective — skilful, expert, as a workman, &c. (Gen. xxv. 27 ; Ex. xxxviii. 23, &c.) ; or skilfully done, as work (Ex. xxviii. 15, &c.) ; as a noun ^ skUl, experltiess (Ps. cxxxvii. 5). tap. The chief Hebrew words rendered " cup " in the A. V. are, 1. cos (Gen. xl. 11, 13, 21, kc); 2. ktsdoth, only in plural (1 Chr. xxviii. 17), else- where translated "covers" (Ex. xxv. 29, &c.) ; 3. gebia' (Gen. xliv. 2, 12, 16, 17), elsewhere translated in plural "bowls" (Ex. xxv. 31, &c.), once "pots" (Jer. XXXV. 6). For the Heb. ar/gun (" cups," Is. xxii. 24), see Basin ; for Heb. saph (2 Sam. xvii. 28, margin; Zech. xii. 2), see Basin. The Gr. poterion (— drinking vessel or cup) is uniformly translated % m^)p h ^K^u^^i^ AMyrian cap*.— (Fntrbatrn.) I. Llon-bemd cap. —Sculpture-, Kliorubsil.— Bftto. S. Llon-hmul cup wirh bnD'llc.— Khonnbitd.— Botu. a. Cup.— Sculpture, KbrranbBd.— RottfL 4. Cup of red pottery,— N'lmrrtud.—LayBrd. I. Painted cup from KnramlM.— Ijivnrd. ft. 7, bronte cup*.— Nlmroud.— Brit\Bh Muaeitia. " cup" in the N. T. (Mat. x. 42, xxiii. 25, &c.), and in tlie LXX. = Heb. cos. The cups of the Jews, whether of metal or earthenware, were pofsiblv bor- rowed, in point of shape and design, from Egypt and from tne Phenicians, who were celebrated in that branch of workmanship. Egyptian cups were of various shapes, either with handles or without them. In Solomon's time all his drinking vessels were of gold, none of silver (1 K. x. 21). Babylon is compared to a golden cup (Jer. li. 7). The great laver, or "sea," was made with a brim like the brim of a cup (Heb. cos), "with flowers of lilies" (1 K. vii. 26), a form which the Persepolitan cups Egyptian cnpa. — (Fairbaim.) 1. ?. 8. From painttnps at Thebea.— WilkinBon. 4, Porccliiiu cup. — W ilkinsoa. 6. Cup (if green earthenware, with lotoa flower painted in blacit. — Itritifth Mueeiim, 6. Cup of coarse pottery. — Erltisb Mu&eum. 7. Cup of wood. — British MuBtum. 8. Cups of arra^nite. — liritish MuBeom. 9. Saucer of earthenware. — \\~illiiii&cn. resemble. — " Cup " often = what is contained in a cup, cupful (Mat. X. 42 ; Lk. xxiii. 20, &c.). Hence, figuratively, " cup z3 one's lot or portion, as if the contents of a cup presented by God to be drank, whether of good (Ps. xvi. 5, xxiii. 5, &c.), or of evil (Ps. xi. 6, Ixxv. 8 ; Mat. xx. 22, 23, xxvi. 39, 42, &c.). "The cup of salvation" (Ps. cxvi. 13) = the cup of thanksgiving to God for deliverance or salvation. " The cup of blessing^,' (1 Cor. x. 16) = the cup on or over which a blessing has been pronounced. (See Lord's Sipper ; Passover, I. d.) " The cup of devils " (Gr. pi. of daimonion ; see Demon) (verse 21) = the cup consecrated to devils, or heathen gods. See also Divination 12. t'op'-bear-cr (Heb. mashkeh = one who gives to drink ; Gr. oinockoos = one who pours out wine) ; an officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian, As- syrian, as well as Jewish nionarchs (1 K. x. 5). It was his special business to fill and hand the cups of wine, &c., to the king and his guests. Not un- frequently it was his duty to taste the wine in tlie king's presence before delivering it to the king. His privilege of free access to the sovereign made his office one of high trust and often of great polit- ical and pecuniary value. The chief cup-bearer, or butler, to the king of Egypt was the means of rais- ing Joseph to his high position (Gen. xl. 1 fl'., xli. 9 ff.). Radshakeh is supposed to have tilled a like office in the Assyrian court (2 K. xviii. 17). Nehe- uiAH was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia (Neh. i. 11, ii. 1). Acuiaciiaris. •Cars*. Anathema. fnr'tain* The Hebrew terms translated in the A. V. by this word are: — 1. YirVdh, usually in pi. yUri'M, the ten "curtains" of fine linen, and alj-o the eleven of goats' hair, which covered the Taber- nacle of Moses (Ex. xxvi. 1-13, xxxvi. 8-17). The charge of these curtains and of the other textile 198 CUS CYM fabrics of the Tabernacle was laid on the Gershon- ites (Xum. iv. 25). " Curtains " sometimes = the Tabernacle (2 Sam. vii. 2 ; 1 Chr. xvii. 1), or a Tent (Jer. iv. 20, &c.). — 2. Jldsdc, the " lianging" for the doorway of the Tabernacle (Ex. x.wi. SB, &o.), and also for the gate of the court round the Taber- nacle (Ex. x-wii. 16, &c.). The rendering "cur- tain " occurs but once (Num. iii. 26). The idea in the root of nuhdc seems to be that of shielding or protecting. If so, it may have been not a curtain or veil, but an awning to shade the entrances. (Hanging 1.)— 3. Dok, found but once (Is. xl. 22), = Jincness, hence, foie cloth, a garment, curtain, ii but four distinct spots have been pointed out at different times, so that little confidence can be placed in any of them. The point of the walls at which St. Paul was let down by a basket (verse 23 ; 2 Cor. xi. 33) is also shown. * Darn'mc-sck (Ileb.) (2 K. xvi. 9, margin) = Damascl-s. * Dammlm (Heb.) (1 Sam. xvii. 1, margin). Ephes-Dammim. * Dain-na'tlan (fr. L.), the A. V. translation of— 1. Gr. apolela ( =: u'ler destruction, perdition, Rbn. N. T. Lex.) (2 Pet ii. 8); elsewhere translated "destruction" (Mat. vii. 13; Rom. ix. 22; Phil, iii. 19 ; 2 Pet. ii. 1, iii. 16), " waste " (Mat. xxvi. 8 ; Mk. xiv. 4), " perdition " (Jn. xvii. 12 ; Phil. i. 28 ; 2 Th. ii. 3 ; 1 Tim. vi. 9 ; Heb. x. 39 ; 2 Pet. iii. 7 ; Rev. xvii. 8, 11), " damnable " (2 Pet. ii. 1, literally of perdition,), &c. — 2. Gr. krima ( — Judgment, Rbn. JV. T. Lex.) (Mat. xxiii. 14; Mk. xii. 40 ; Lk. xx. 47 ; Rom. iii. 8, xiil. 2 ; 1 Cor. xi. 29 ; 1 Tim. v. 12); elsewhere translated "judgment" (Mat. vii. 2 ; Rom. ii. 2, 3, &c.), " condemnation " (Lk. xxiii. 40 ; Jas. iii. 1, &c.), &c. — 3. Gr. kriai^ (properly = neparation; in N. T. judgment, Rbn. iV. T. Lex.) (Mat. xxiii. 33; Mk. iii. 29; Jn. v. 29); usually translated "judgment" (Mat. v. 21, 22, x. 16, &e.), also "condemnation" (Jn. iii. 19, v. 24), and "ac- cusation " (2 Pet. ii. 11 ; Jude 9). — 4. Gr. katadikS (= eondemnation, Rhn. jV. T. Lex.) (Wis. xii. 47). — So also the Greek verb krino (properly = to separate, hence, to decide, to .judge, Rbn. N. T. Lex.), from which are derived No. 2 and 3 above, ia usually translated "to judge" (Mat. vii. 1, 2; Jn. v. 22, 30, &c.), sometimes "to condemn" (Jn. iii. 17, 18; Acts xiii. 27, &c.), "to determine" (Acts iii. 13; 1 Cor. ii. 2 ; 2 Cor.Ji. 1, &c.), &e., is translated in the passive " might be damned " (2 Th. ii. 12). The Greek compound verb katakrind { — to give judg- ment against, to condemn, Rbn. N. 1', Lex is uni- formly translated " to condemn " (Mat. xii. 41, 4'i, XX. 18, &c. \ except twice in the passive, viz. Mlc xvi. 16 ("shall be damned"), Rom. xiv. 23 (" i.s damned "). Death ; Eternal ; Hell ; Judgment ; Punishments. Dan (Heb. jndge), 1. The fifth son of Jacob, and the first of Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. xxx. 6). The origin of the name is given in the exclamation of Rachel — " ' God hath judged me {ddnavni) . . . and given me a son,' therefore she called his nainr Dan" [judge). In the blessing of Jacob (xlix. Id) this play on the name is repeated — " Dan shall judge (y&din) his people." (Adder 4.) Dan was own brother to Naphtali ; but no personal histoiv of him is preserved. Only one son (HcsniM 1) i~ attributed to him (xlvi. 23); but when the peo] ! were numbered in tlie wilderness of Sinai, his trii was, with the exception of Judah, the most nunii . ous of all, containing 62,700 men able to serve. The position of Dan during the march through the desert was on the N. side of the Tabernacle, anion;; the hindmost of the long procession (Num. ii. 2."., 26, 31, X. 25). It arrived at the threshold of the Promised Land, and passed the ordeal of the rite s of Baal-peor with an increase of 1,700 on tlie earlier census (xxv., xxvi. 42, 43). The remaining notices of the tribe before the passage of the Jordan are unimportant. It furnished a " prince" to the apportionment of the land ; and it was ap- pointed to stand on Mount Ebal at the ceremony of blessing and cursing (Dent, xxvii. 13). Moses said of Dan : " Dan is a lion's whelp ; he shall leap from Bashan " (xxxiii. 22). Dan was the last of the tribes to receive his portion, and tliat portion was apparently the smallest of the twelve (Josh. xix. 40-48). But notwithstanding its smalhiess it h.id eminent natural advantages. On the N. and E. it was completely embraced by Ephraim and Benja- min, while on the S. E. and S. it joined Judah, and DAX DAN 205 was thus surrounded by the three most powerful Mtcs of the whole confederacy. From Japho — iterward Joppa, and now i'dfa — on the N., to Ek- 11 and Gath-rimmon on the S., a length of at least ■ iirteen miles, that noble tract, one of the most rtile in the whole of Palestine, was allotted to is tribe. (Sephela.) By Josephus (v. 1, § 22, lid 3, g )) this is extended to Ashdod on the S. id iJor on the N. But this rich district, the corn- Id and the garden of the whole S. of Palestine, us too valuable to be given up without a struggle \ its original possessors. The Amorites accord- irly " forced the children of Dan into the moun- )in, for they would not suffer them to come down to the valley " (Judg. i. 34) — forced them up from ic corn-fields of the plain, with their deep black lil, to the villages whose ruins still crown the hills lilt skirt the lowland. With the help of Ephraim, an prevailed against the Amorites for a time, but i:i a few years the Philistines took the place of the Amorites and with the same result. These con- -ileralions enable us to understand how it hap- iied that long after the partition of the land "all iiMnheritance of the Danites had not fallen to iliem among the tribes of Israel" (.xviii. 1). They also explain the warlike and independent character I the tribe betokened in the name of their head- lartcrs " Mahankh-Dan," "the camp, or host, of i'an," in the fact specially insisted on and reiter- urd (II, 16, 17) of the complete equipment of their "I) warriors "appointed with weapons of war," — d the lawless freebooting style of their behavior ' Micah. In the "security" and "quiet" (7, 10) • I their rich northern possession (No. 2, below) the I ' inites enjoyed the leisure and repose which had '•n denied them in their original seat. Gcscnius inslates Judg. v. 17 (A. V. "and why did Dan re- in in ships?") — a7Hl Dan, why ahidei he at the 'pn ? i. e. why dwells he listless on the coast of ■ sea? In the time of David Dan still kept its ice among the tribes (1 Chr. xii. 35). Asher is litted, but the ruler or prince "of Dan " is roen- ned in the list of 1 Chr. xxvii. 22. But from is time forward the name as applied to the tribe ' uiishes; it is kept alive only by the northern city. In the genealogies of 1 Chr. ii.-xii. the descendants j of Dan are omitted entirely, which is remarkable I when the great fame of Samson (Aiioliad ; IIuham ■ "i. and the warlike character of the tribe are con- lired, and can only be accounted for by suppos- -' that its genealogies had perished. Lastly, Dan omitted from the list of those who were scaled ■ the angel in the vision of St. John (Rev. vii. 6-8). — 2. The well-known city, so familiar as the most northern landmark of Palestine, in the com- mon expression " from Dan even to Beeb-siieba " (Judg. XX. ], 4c.). The name of the place was originally Laisii or Lesiiem. Its inhabitants lived " after the manner of the Zidonians," i. e. engaged in commerce, and without defence. Living thus " quiet and secure," they fell an easy prey to the active and practised freebooters of the Danites. These conferred upon their new acquisition the name of their own tribe, " after the name of their father who was bom unto Israel " (Judg. xviii. 7, 27-29 ; Josh. xix. 47). The locality of the town ia specified with some minuteness. It was "far from Zidon," and " in the valley that is by Beth-rehob." . To the form of the graven image set up by the Dan- I ites in their new home, and the nature of the idol- atry we have no clew, nor to the relation, if any, between it and the calf-worship (Calf ; Idolatt.v) afterward instituted there by Jeroboam (1 K. xii. 29, 30 ; Am. viii. 14).— After the establishment of the Danites at Dan it became the acknowledged ex- tremity of the country. Dan was, with other northern cities, laid waste by Ben-hadad (1 K. xv. 20; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), but is uiterward mentioned in Jer. iv. 15, viii. 16. Various considerations (its mention in Gen. xiv. 14 ; Deut. xxxiv. 1, &c.) in- cline to the suspicion that Dan was a holy place of note from a far earlier date than its conquest by the Danites. With regard to Gen. xiv. 14 three explanations suggest themselves. — (1.) That an- other place of the same name is intended. — (2.) That it is a prophetic anticipation by the sacred historian of a name which was not to exist till cen- turies later. — (3.) That the passage originally con- tained an older name, as Laish ; and that when that was superseded by Dan, the new name was in- serted in the MSS. (Ewald).— The Tell el-Kudi, a mound from the foot of which gushes out one of the largest fountains in the world, the main source of the Jordan, is very probably the site of the town and citadel of Dan. The spring is called el-Ledduti (possibly a corruption of Dan), and the stream from tlie spring Kahr id-Bhan, while the name, Tell el- Kddi, " the Judge's mound," agrees in signification with the ancient name. It is four miles west of BUnids. (Cesarea Philippi.) — 3. In Ez. xxvii. 19 (Deb. vediin, A. V. " Dan also ") Gescnius has Vedan, as the proper name of an Arabian city, probably 'Aden, whence cloths, wrought iron, cas- sia and other spices were brought to Tyre. Fiirst regards " Dan " here as a contraction of Dedax. Others refer it to the tribe of Dan. Dance. 1. The dance is spoken of in Holy Scripture universally as symbolical of some rejoicing, and is often coupled for the sake of contrast with mourn- ing, as in Eccl. iii. 4 (compare Ps. xxx. 11 ; Mat. xi. 17). In the earlier period it is found combined with some song or refrain (Ex. xv. 20, xxxii. 18, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 11); and with the tambourine (A. V. " timbrel "), more especially in those impulsive out- bursts of popular feeling which cannot find sufficient vent in voice or in gesture singly. Dancing formed a part of the religious ceremonies of the Egyptians, and was also common in private entertainments. Many representations of dances, both of men and women, are found in the Egyptian paintings. The "feast unto the Lord," which Moses proposed to Pharaoh to hold, was really a dance. The Hebrew verb hagag or chdgag, translated in Ex. v. 1 " hold a feast," literally (so Gescnius) =: to move in a cirde, hence to dance, properly, in a circle (1 Sam. xxx. 16, A. V. "dancing"); to keip afestivitl, celebrate a holi- day, sc. by leaping and dancing, by sacred dances (Ex. V. 1; Lev. xxiii. 41, A. V. "shall keep," " shall celebrate ; " Ps. xlii. 4, Ileb. 6, A. V. " that kept holyday ") ; to reel, to be giddy, .spoken of drunk- ards (Ps. evii. 27, A.V. "reel to and fro"). Women, however, among the Hebrews, made the dance their especial means of expressing their feelings ; and so welcomed their husbands or friends on their return from battle (1 Sam. xviii. 6). The " eating and drink- ing and dancing" of the Amalekites is recorded, as ia the people's "rising up to play," with a tacit censure (xxx. 16; Ex. xxxii. 6; 1 Cor. x. 7). So among the Bedouins, native dances of men are mentioned, and are probably an ancient custom. The Hebrews, however, save in such moments of temptation, seem to have left dancing to the women. But more especially, on such occasions of triumph, any woman whose nearness of kin to the champion 206 DAN DAN of the moment gave her a public character among her own sex, seems to have felt that it was her part to lead such a demonstration of triumph, or of wel- come (Ex. XV. 20; Judg. xi. 34; 1 Sam. xviii. 6, 7; JU. XV. 12, 13). This marks the peculiarity of David's conduct, when, on the return of the Ark of God from its long sojourn among strangers and bor- derers, he (2 Sam. vi. 6-22) was himself chorus- leader ; and here too the women, with their tim- brels (see especially verses 5, 19, 20, 23), took an important share, this fact brings out more mark- edly the feelings of Saul's daughter Michal, keeping aloof from the occasion, and " looking through a window " at the scene. She should, in accordance with the examples of Miriam, &c., have herself led the female choir, and so come out to meet the Ark and her lord. She stays with the " household " (20) and "comes out to meet" him with reproaches, per- haps feeling that his zeal was a rebuke to her apathy. From the mention of " damsels," " tim- brels," and "dances" (see No. 2, below", (Ps. Ixviii. 25, cxlix. 3, cl. 4), as elements of religious worship, it may perhaps be inferred that David's feeling led him to incorporate in its rites that pop- ular mode of festive celebration. This does not seem to have survived him (compare 2 Chr. xxix. 30, XXXV. 4, 15). In later Judaism the dance of men was practised at the feast of Tabernacles. Loose morality commonly attended festive dances at Egypt! in dances.— (Wilkin on.) heathen shrines. Said Cicero, " No one dances un- less he is either drunk or mad " (Kitto). In the earlier period of the Judges the dances of the vir- gins in Shiloh, apart from men (Judg. xxi. 19-23), •were certainly part of a religious festivity. What the fashion or figure of the dance was, is a doubtful question. Most of the Hebrew verbs tianslated " to dance " in A. V., viz. }uigag or ch6gar/ above, hul or chul (Judg. xxi. 21, 23), cArar (2 Sam. vi. 14, 16), literally = to turn or mooe in a circle. The Hebrew verb rdkad, also translated "to dance" (1 Chi', xv. 29; Job xxi. 11 ; Eccl. iii. 4; Is. xiii. 21),= to Ini/i, skip, e. g. for joy, or for fear (Ps. cxiv. 4, 6, A. V. " skipped "). The Greek verb oreheoniai (= to U', sc. by rule, to dance, Rbn. JV. ?'. Lex.) is translated in N. T. " to dance " (Mat. xi. 17, &c.), and in LXX. r= Heb. cdrar and rdkad. Dancing also had its place among merely festive amusements apart from any religious character (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13 ; Lam. v. 15; Mk. vi. 22; Lk. xv. 25). Children dance (Job xxi. 11 ; Mat. xi. 17; Lk. vii. 32).— 2. By this word is also rendered in theA.V. and by Gesenius, Fiirst, LXX., &c., the Hebrew mdhol or muckol , which Professor Marks, Dr. A. Clarke, Mendelssohn, the Arabic version, &c., regard as denoting a musical instrument of percussion, supposed to have been used by the Hebrews at an early period of their history. In Ps. cl. the sacred poet exhorts mankind to praise Jehovah in Uis sanctuary with all kinds of music ; and among the instruments mentioned is found nulhol ormdchol (verse 4; A. V. "dance," margin "pipe"). Professor Marks, &c., believe it to have been made of metal, open like a ring, wiili small bells attached to its border, and played iit weddings and merry-makings by women, who in- companied it with tlif voice. One author iK- sci'ibes it as having tink- ling metal plates fastened on wires, at intervals with- in the circle that formed the instrument, like the modern tambourhie ; ;u- cording to others it was A priest who sealed the covenant drawn up by Nehcmiah b. c. 445 (Neh. x. 6) ; perhaps = No. 2. — 4. The fourth of " the greater prophets." (See the next article.) Nothing is known of his parentage or family. He appears, however, to have been of royal or noble descent, and to have possessed con- siderable personal endowments (Dan. i. 3, 4). He was taken to Babylon in " the third year of Jchoia- kim " (b. c. 604) ' and trained for the king's service ' This date has given rise to many objections, because .le- hoiakim's fourth year is identilied with Nebuchadnezzar's first (Jer. xxv. 1). Various explanations have been proposi-il, but the text of Daniel suggests the true explanation. The second 5ear of Nebuchadnezzar's reign (Dan. ii. 1) falls after the completion of Daniel's three years' training which coin- menced with his captivity (I. 1, 5J; and this is a clear Indica- tion that the expedition mentioned in i. 1 was undertalicn in the lastyear of Nabopoiassar. while as yet Nebuchadnezziir was not properly icing. Some further (lifflcuities apf.car to have been satisfectorily removed by NIebuhr. The date in Jer. xlvl. 2 is not that of the battle of Carchemish, but of tli« prophet's warning ; and the threats and promises lu .ler. xxv. are consistent with the notion of a previous suhjeo- I DAN DAN 207 (Beltesbazzar ; Chaldeaks) with his three com- panions. Like Joseph, in earlier times, he gained the favor of his guardian, and was divinely sup- ported in his resolve to abstain from the " king's meat " for fear of defilement (8-16). At the close of his three years' discipline, Daniel had an oppor- tunity of exercising his peculiar gilt of interpreting dreams, on the occasion of Nebuchadnezzar's decree against the Magi (5, 17, 18, ii. 14 ft'.). In conse- quence of his success he was made " ruler of the whole province of Babylon," and " chief of the governors over all the wise men of Babylon " (ii. 48). He afterward interpreted the second dream of Nebuchadnezzar (iv. 8-27), and the handwriting on the wall which disturbed the feast of Bklshazzar (v. 10-38), though he no longer held his ofiicial po- sition among the magi (7, 8, 12), and probably lived at Susa (viii. 2). At the accession of Darius he was made first of the " three presidents " of the empire (vl. 2|, and was delivered from the lions' den, into which he had been cast for his faithfulness to the rites of his faith (10-23; compare B. & D. 29-42). At the accession of Cyrus he still re- tained his prosperity (Dan. vi. 28; compare i. 21 ; B. & D. 2) ; though he does not appear to have remained at Babylon (compare Dan. i. 21), and in " the third year of Cyrus " (b. c. 534) he saw his last recorded vision on the banks of the Tigris (x. 1, 4). According to Mohammedan tradition, Daniel returned to Judea, held the government of Syria, and finally died at Susa, where his tomb is still shown, and is visited by crowds of pilgrims. In Ezekicl mention is made of Daniel as a pattern of righteousness (xiv. 14, 20) and wisdom (xxviii. 3) ; and since Daniel was still j-oung at that time (about B. c. 588-584), some have thought that another prophet of the name must have lived at some earlier time, perhaps during the Captivity of Nineveh, who.se fame was transferred to his later namesake. On the other hand the narrative in Dan. i. 11, ira- jilies that Daniel was conspicuously distinguished for purity and knowledge at a very early age (com- pare Sus. 45), and he may have been nearly forty years old at the time of Ezckiel's prophecy. Dan'l-el, the Book of (Daniel 4), is the earliest example of apocalyptic literature, and in a great degree the model according to which all later apoc- alypses were constructed (so Mr. Westcott, the ori- ginal author of this article). In this aspect it stands at the head of a series of writings in which the deepest thoughts of the Jewish people found ex- pression after the close of the prophetic era. (Enoch, Book of ; Esdras, SECo.vt) Book of ; Revelation or St. John.) There can be no doubt that it exercised a greater influence upon the earlier Christian church than any other writing of the 0. T., while in the Gospels it is especially distinguished by the emphatic quotation of our Lord (Mat. xxiv. 15). — 1. In stud- ying Daniel, it is of the utmost importance to rec- ognize its apocalyptic character. To the old proph- ets Daniel stands, in some sense, as a commentator (Dan. ix. 2-19): to succeeding generations, as the herald of immediate deliverance. The form, the style, and the point of sight of prophecy, are re- linquished upon the verge of a new period in the existence of God's people, and fresh instruction is given to them suited to their new fortunes. The change is not abrupt and absolute, but yet it is dis- tinctly felt. The eye and not the ear is the organ tlon (if Jerasalom to Nebuchadnezzar which may have been icrompllsbed withont resistance (so Mr. Weatcott, original author of this article). of the Seer : visions and not words are revealed to him. The Babylonian exile supplied the outward training and the inward necessity for this last form of divhie teaching ; and the prophetic visions of Ezekicl form the connecting link between the char- acteristic types of revelation and prophecy. — 2. The language of the book, no less than its general form, belongs to an era of transition. Like Ezra, Daniel is composed partly in the vernacular Aramaic (Chal- dee), and partly in the sacred Hebrew. The intro- duction (i.-ii. 4 a) is written in Debrew. On the occasion of the "Syriac" (i. e. Aramaic) answer of the Chaldeans, the language changes to Aramaic, and this is retained till the close of the seventh chapter (ii. 4 A-vii.). The personal introduction of Daniel as the writer of the text (viii. 1) is marked by the resumption of the Hebrew, which continues to the close of the book (viii.-xii.). The character of the Hebrew hears the closest affinity to that of Ezekiel and Habakkuk. The Aramaic, like that of Ezra', is also of an earlier form than exists in any other Chaldaic document. The use of Greek tech- nical terms marks a period when commerce had al- ready united Persia and Greece ; and the occurrence of peculiar words which admit of an explanation by reference to Aryan and not to Shemitic roots (JIedes; Persians; Shemitic Languages) is almost inexplicable on the supposition that the prophecies are a Palestinian forgery of the Maccabean age. — 3. The book is generally divided in two nearly equal parts. The first of these (i.-vi.) cont-iins chiefly historical incidents; the second (vii.-xii.) is en- tirely apocalyptic. But this division takes no ac- count of the difference of language, nor of the change of person at the beginning of chapter viii. It seems better to divide the book into three parts. The first chapter forms an introduction. Chapters ii.-vii. give a general view of the progressive his- tory of the powers of the world, and of the prir- ciples of the divine government as seen in events of the life of Daniel. Chapters viii.-xii. trace in minuter detail the fortunes of the people of God, as typical of the fortunes of the church in all ages (see § 11, below). — 4. The position which Daniel occupies in the Hebrew Canon seems at first sight remarkable. It is placed among the Holy writings (or Hagioffiafiha ; see Bible) between Esther and Ezra, or immediately before Esther, and not among the prophets. This collocation, however, is a na- tural consequence (so Mr. Westcott) of its being as distinct in its character from the prophetic writings as the Apocalypse of St. John from the apostolic epistles (see above, § 1). — 5. The unity of the book in its present form, notwithstanding the difference of language, is generally acknowledged. Still there is a remarkable difference in its internal character. In the first six chapters and the beginning of the seventh Daniel is spoken of hinlorically (i. 6-21, ii. 14-49, iv. 8-27, V. 13-29, vi. 2-28, vii." 1, 2) : in the rest of the book he appears perstmalli/ as the writer (vii. 16-28, viii. 1-ix. 22, x. 1-9, xii. 6). The caute of the difference in person is commonly supposed to lie in the nature of the case. Mr. Westcott, how- ever, thinks it more probable that the peculiarity arose from the manner in which the book assumed its final shape (see § 10, below). — 6. Allusion has been made already to the influence which the book exercised upon the Christian church. A);art from the general type of Apocalyptic composition which the apostolic writers derived from Daniel (2 Th. ii. ; Rev. throughout; com|)are Mat. xxvi. 64, xxi. 44 ?), the New Testament iucidenlnlly acfcnowl- 1 208 DA>f edges each of the characteristic elements of the book, its miracles (Heb. xi. 33, 34), its predictions (Mat. xxir. 15), and its doctrine of angels (Lk. i. 19, 26). At a still earlier time the same intluence may be traced in the Apocrypha. Baruch exhibits so many coincidences with Daniel, that by some the two books have been assigned to the same author (Fritzsche) ; and the first book of Maccabees rep- resents Mattathias quoting the marvellous deliver- ances recorded in Daniel, together with those of earlier times (1 Mc. ii. 69, 60), and elsewhere ex- hibits an acquaintance with the Greek version of the book (1 Mc. i. 54 = Dan. ix. 27). The allusion to the guardian angels of nations, which is intro- duced into the Alexandrine translation of the Pen- tateuch (Deut. xxxii. 8, LXX.), and recurs in Ecclus. xvii. 17, may have been derived from Dan. X. 21, xii. 1, though this is uncertain, as the doc- trine probably formed part of the common belief. According to Josephus (xi. 8, §g 4, 5), the proph- ecies of Daniel gained for tlie Jews the fovor of Alexander the Great ; and whatever credit may be given to the details of his narrative, it at least shows the unquestioning belief in the prophetic worth of the book which existed among the Jews in his time. — 7. The testimony of the Synagogue and the Church gave a clear expression to the judgment implied by the early and authoritative use of the book, and pronounced it to contain authentic proph- ecies of Daniel, without contradiction, with one exception, till modern times. Porpliyry alone (f about 305 A.n.) assailed the book. Externally it is as well attested as any book of Scripture. — 8. The history of the assaults upon the prophetic worth of Daniel in modern times is full of interest. First, doubts were raised as to the authorship of chapters i.-vii. (Spinoza, Xewton), which are compatible with the recognition of their canonicity. Then, the variations in the LXX. suggested the belief that chapters iii.-vi. were a later interpolation (J. D. Mi- chaelis). Next, the last six chapters only were re- tained as a genuine book of Scripture (Eichhorn, first and second edition) ; and at last the whole book was rejected as the work of an impostor in the time of AxTiooHus Epiphanks (Corrodi, 783 : Uitzig fixes the date more exactly from 170 B.C. to the spring of 164 b. c). This last opinion has found, especially in Germany, a very wide acceptance. Among those who have doubted or denied the authenticity of Daniel are Gesenius, De Wette, Ro- senmiiUer, Bertholdt, Bleek, Ewald, Knobel, Len- gerke, &c. It has been defended by Staiidlin, Jahn, Hengstenberg, Iliivernick, Keil, Auberlen, &c., in Germany ; by Stuart, Barnes, &c., in America, and by English writers generally. The leading grounds on which modern critics reject the book, are the alleged " fabulousness of its narratives," and " the minuteness of its prophetic history." " The contents of the book," it is said, " are irrational and impos- sible " (Ilitzig). Such critics, of course, deny in- SPiRATio.v, reject miracles, and set aside as repug- nant to reason every thing that is divine or super- natural in the Scriptures or elsewhere. (Prophet, &c.) — 9. The general objections against the " legenda- ry" miracles and specific predictions of Daniel are strengthened by other objections in detail, which cannot, however, be regarded in themselves as of any considerable weight. Not only, it is said, is the book placed among the Ilagiographa, but Daniel is omitted in the list of prophets given in the Wisdom of Sirach ; the language is corrupted by an inter- mixture of Greek words ; the details are essentially DAN unhistorical ; the doctrinal and moral teaching be- trays a late date. In reply to these remarks, it may be urged, that if the book of Daniel was al- ready placed among the Ilagiographa at the time when the Wisdom of Sirach was written, the omis- sion of the name of Daniel (Ecclus. xlix.) is most natural. Nor is the mention of Greek musical instruments (iii. 5, 7, 10) surprising at a time when the intercourse of the East and West was already considerable. Yet further the scene and characters of the book are Orieidal, e. g. the colossal image (iii. 1), the fiery furnace, the martyr-like boldness of the three confessors (ver. 16), the decree of Darius (vi. 7), the lions' den (7, 19), the demand of Nebuchadnezzar (ii. 6), his obeisance before Daniel (46) (Adoration), his sudden fall (iv. 33). In doc- trine, again, the book is closely connected with the writings of the Exile, and forms a last step in the development of the ideas of Messiau (vii. 13, &c.), of the RESURRECTION (xii. 2, 3), of the ministry of ANGELS (viii. 16, xii. 1, &c.), of personal devotion (vi. 10, 11, i. 8), which formed the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addition in tlie interval before tlie coming of our Lord. Gen- erally it may be said that while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional char- acter, yet it is far more dilHcult to explain its com- position in the Maccabean period than to connect the peculiarities wliich it exhibits with the exigen- cies of the Return. (Alexandria ; Apocrypha ; Bi:l- SHAZZAR ; Captivity ; Chaldeans ; Cyrus ; Daniel ; Darius 1; Maccabees; JIagi ; Medes; Nebuchad- nezzar; Persians; Septuagint.) — 10. But while all historical evidence supports the canonicity of the book of Daniel, it does not follow that the re- cognition of the unity and authority of the book is necessarily connected with the belief that the whole is to be assigned to the authorship of Daniel. Ac- cording to the Jewish tradition the books of Ezekiel, the twelve minor prophets, Daniel and Esther, were written (i. e. drawn up in their present form) by the men of the great synagogue (Synagogue, the Great), and in the case of Daniel the tradition is supported by strong internal evidence, as the manner in which Daniel is spoken of (i. 17, 19, 20, v. 11, 12; the title in ix. 23, xii. is different). — 11. The interpreta- tion of Daniel has proved an inexhaustible field for the ingenuity of commentators, and the certain re- sults are comparatively few. According to the ; traditional view, which appears as early as '2 Esdras and the epistle of Barnabas, the four cm- j pires described in chapters ii., vii., are the Babylo- i nian, the Medo-Persian, the Greek, and the Romanj, AVith nearly equal consent it has been suppose that there is a change of subject in xi. 31 ff, " which the seer passes from the persecutions of Aa tiochus to the times of Antichrist. According i Mr. Westcott this interpretation destroys the grei idea of a cyclic development of history which liel at the basis of all prophecy ; and the revelations < Daniel gain their full significance when they an seen to contain an outline of all history in the 1 tory of the nations which ruled the world befori Christ's coining. He regards the empires Daniel as those of the Babylonians, Medes, Persian and Greeks, who all placed the centre of the power at Babylon, and appear to have exhibited ( one stage the great types of national life ; but th first fulfilment of the vision was only inchoativ and the correlatives of the four empires must sought in post-Christian history (compare Babylo and Rome, &c.). (Abominatios op Desolatio* DAS DAR 209 Alexaxder III. ; Antichrist ; AsTiocnrs II.-IV. ; Babel; Babylon, &c.) — 12. There is no Chaldee translation of Daniel. The Greek version has un- dergone singular changes. At an early time the LXX. version, which was certainly very uniaithful, was supplanted in the Greek bibles by that of Theodotion, and in the time of Jerome the ver- sion of Theodotion was generally " read by the churches." In the course of time, however, the Tcrsion of Theodotion was interpolated from the LXX., so that it is now impossible to recover the original text (see the next article). Meanwhile the original LXX. translation passed entirely out of use, and it was supposed to have been lost till the last century, when it was published at Rome. DaD'i-cl (see above), A-poe'ry-phal Ad-di'tions to. The Greek translations of Daniel, like that of Esther, contain several pieces not in the original text. The most important of these additions are contained in the Apocrypha of the A. V. under the titles of 7'/ie Song of the three Holy Children, The History of Su- tantia ,and The History of the Dcsti tiction of Bel and the Dragon. — I. a. The first of these pieces is incor- porated into the narrative of Daniel. After the three confessors were thrown into the furnace (Dan. iii. 2.'5), Azarias is represented praying to God for deliverance (t-'g. 3 11. Ch. 3-22) and in an- swer the angel of the Lord shields them from the fire which consumes their enemies (23-27), whcrc- npon " the three, as out of one mouth," raise a triumphant song (29-68), of which a chief part (35- •6) has been used as a hymn in the Christian church since the fourth century (see the Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal Church, under Morning Prayer, " all ye works of the Lord," kc). — b. The two other pieces appear ire distinctly as appendices, and offer no scm- ncc of forming part of the original text. The lory of Sunanna (or Thejudgmtnt of Haiiiil) is lerally found at the beginning of the book (Vat. iT'Alcx. JISS. Old L. version); though it also oc- irs after the twelfth chapter ( Vnlg. cd. Complu- isian). The Hixlory of Bel and the Dragon is iCed at the end of the book ; and in the LXX. lion it bears a special heading as "pail of the heqi of Habakkuk." — 2. The additions are found in both the Greek texts, the LXX. and Theo- dotion, in the Old Latin and Vulgate, and in the \isting Syriac and Arabic versions. On the other iml there is no evidence that they ever formed part of the Hebrew text, and they were originally wanting in the Syriac. — 3. Various conjectures have been made as to the origin of the additions. It has been supposed that they were derived from Aramaic originals, but the character of the additions themselves indicates rather the hand of an Alex- andrine writer (Alkxanhria) ; and it is not unlikely lliat the translator of Daniel wrought up traditions which were already current, and appended them to iiis work. Canon. Daniteg (from Dan), the — the descendants of I 'AN, and members of his tribe (Judg. xiii. 2, xviii. 1.11; 1 Chr. xii. 35). Dan-Ja'iin (Heb. Dan in the xcood, Vulg., Ges. ; Dan |i. e. Baal or Pan ; see below] playing the pipe, Fii.), a place named only in 2 Sam. xxiv. 6 as one of the points visited by Joab in taking the census of the people. It occurs between Gilead and Zion, and probably z= Dan 2. Kiirst makes Dan-jaan = BdiiiiU, where Banl or Pan was worshipped in a grotto. Cksarea Philippi. Dan'Dab (Ileb. low t^round, Fii.), a city in the 14 mountains of Judah (Josh. xr. 49), probably S. or S. AV. of Hebron ; site unknown. Daphne [daf-] (Gr. laurel ; also the daughter of the river-god Peneus, who, pursued by Apollo, is said to have been changed into a laurel), a cele- brated grove and sanctuary of Apollo, ntar Akti- ocH 1 (2 He. iv. 33). The distance betweyi the two places was about five miles, and in history they are associated most intimately together. The situation was of extreme natural beauty, with perennial fountains and abundant wood. Here Seltucus Nicator erected a magnificent temple and colossal statue of Apollo. The succeeding Seleucid mon- archs, especially Antiochus Epiphaucs, embellished the place still further. AVhen Syria became Roman, Daphne continued to be fair.ous as a place of pil- grimage andvice. The site has been well identified by Pocockc and other travellers at Biit-il-Mua ( = the House of the Water), on the left Lank of the Orontes, to the S. W. of Antioch. Da'ia (Heb.) - Daeda (1 Chr. ii. 6). Dar'da (Ueb. pearl of uiidom, Gcs. ; bearer, holder, Fii.), a son of Mahol, and one of four men of great fame for their wisdom, but surpassed by Solo- mon (1 K. iv. 31). In 1 Chr. ii. 6, however, the same four names occur again as " sons of Zeiah," of the tribe of Judah, with the slight difference that Darda appears as Dara. The identity of these per- sons with those in 1 K. iv. 31 has been greatly debated; but there cannot be much reasonable doubt that they are the same (so Mr. Grove). He- man 1, 2. Dar'ir. Dram ; Monet, II. 2. Da-li'cs (L. ; Heb. Duryuvish ; from old Pers. = coercer, ccracrvator, Ildt., Ges.), the name of several kings of Media and Persia. Three khigs bearing this name are mentioned in the 0. T. 1. "Darius the Mede " (Can. xi. 1, vi. 1), " the son of Ahasiterus of thesced of theMEiiEs" (ix. 1), who succeeded to the Babylonian kingdom (Babel) on the death of Bclshaz- zar, being then sixty-two years old (v. 31, ix. 1). Only one year of his reign is mentioned (ix. 1, xi. 1); but that was of great importance for the Jews. Daniel was advanced by the king to the highest dignity (vi. 1 ft'.), probably in consequence of his former services (compare v. 17); and after his miraculous deliverance, Darius issued a decree tnjoining throughout his dominions "reverence for the God of Daniel " (vi. 25 fF.). The extreme obscurity of the Babylonian annals has given occasion to three different hypotheses as to the name under which Darius the Mede is known in history. The first of these which identifies him with Darius Hystaspis, rests on no plausible evidence, and may be dis- missed at once. The second, adopted by Josephus, and supported by many recent critics (Berth- oldt, Lengerke, Hiiveinick, Ilcngstenberg, Au- berlen), is more deserving of notice. Accord- ing to this he was Cyaxares II., "the son and successor of Astyages," who is commonly regarded as the last king of Media. But the only diicct evi- dence for the existence of Cyaxares II. is that of Xenophon's romance. A third identification (Winer, Nicbuhr) remains, by which Darius is represented as the personal name of "Astyages," the last king of the Medcs, and this appears to satisfy all the con- ditions of the problem (so Mr. Westcott, original author of this article).— 2. Da-ri'n^, the son of HjfE-tas'pes (L. from old Pers. = fosKeesor of horses, Bonfey), or D. Ilys-ta»'pls, the fifth in descent from Acha^mcnes, the founder of the Perso-Aryan dynasty (Persians). I'pon the usurpation of the Magian 210 DAR DAV Smerdis ( Artaxerxes 1 ), he conspired with six other Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor, and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne b. c. 521. His designs of foreign conquest were inter- rupted by a revolt of the Babylonians, which was at lengtli put down and severely punished (about b. c. 516). After the subjugation of Babylon, Darius turned his arms against Scythia, Libya, and India. The defeat of Marathon (b. c. 4'.)0) only roused him to prepare vigorously for that decisive struggle with the \Vest which was now inevitable. His plans were again thwarted by rebellion, and he died b. c. 485. With regard to the Jews, Darius Ilystaspis pursued the same policy as Cyrus, and restored to them the privileges which they had lost (Ezr. iv. 24, v., vi. ; Haggai; Jerusalem; Zechariah 1). — 3> Da-rl'as tbc Pcr'sian (Xeh. xii. 22) max be identified with Darius II. Nothus (Ochus), king of Persia b. c. 424-3 — 403-4, if the whole passage in question was written by Neiiemiah. If, however, the register was continued to a later time, as is not iraprobablff, the occurrence of the name Jaddua (ver. 11, 22) points to Darius III. Codomannus, the antagonist of Ale.xander the Great, and last king of Persia b. c. 836-330 (1 Me. i. 1). — 4. Areus, king of the Lace- demonians (1 Mc. xii. 7). Dark'ness is spoken of aa encompassing the actual presence of God, as that out of which lie speaks, the envelope, as it were, of Divine glory (E.v. xx. 21; IK. viii. 12; Ps. xcvii. 2; compare Joel ii. 31, iii. 15; Mat. xxiv. 29, &c.). (Cloud.) The plague of darkness in Egypt (Ex. x, 21-23 ; Ps. cv. 28) has been ascribed by various commentators to non- miraculous agency, but no sufficient account of its intense degree, long duration, and limited area, as proceeding from any physical cause, has been given. The darkness "over all the land" (.Mat. xxvii. 45; Mk. XV. 33 ; Lk. xxiii. 44) attending the crucifixion has been similarly attributed to an eclipse. Phlcgon of Trallos indeed mentions an eclipse of intense darkness, which began at noon, and was combined, he says, in Bithynia, with an earthquake, which in the uncertain state of our chronology more or less nearly synchronizes with the event. Wieselcr, how- ever, and De Wette, consider the year of Phlegon's eclipse an impossible one for the crucifixion, and re- ject that explanation of the darkness. Orlgen also denies the possibility of such a cause ; for by the fixed Paschal reckoning the moon must have been about full. The argument from the duration (3 hours) is al.-o of great force ; for an eellpse seldom lasts in great intensity more than 6 miimtes. On the other hand, Seyffarth maintains that the Jewish calendar, owing to their following the sun, had be- come so far out that the moon might possibly have been at new. lie however views this rather as a natural basis than as a full account of the darkness, which in its degree at Jerusalem was still preternat- ural. Darkness is also, as in " land of darkness," used for the state of the dead (Job x. 21, 22) ; and frequently figuratively = gloom, adversity, misery (Ps. cvii. 10, cxiiii. 3; Is. v. 30, &c.), also = igno- rance, uuhelief, and sin, as the privation of spiritual Light (Jn. i. 5; iii. 19). Mist; Night. Dar'kon (Ileb. scnllerer, Ges. ; bearer, Fii.), an- cestor of some among the " children of Solomon's servants," who returned from Babylon with Zerub- babel (Ezr. ii. 56 ; Xeh. vii. 58). Lozox. • Dart. Arms, IL 2. Ddtes (2 Chr. xxxi. 5, margin). IIoxet ; Palm- Tree. Ua'tban (Ileb. of, or from, a fountain, Ges., Fii.), a Eeubenite chieftain, son of Eliab, and brother of Abiram, who joined the conspiracy of Kokaii the Levite (Num. xvi. 1 S., xxvi. 9 ; Deut. xi. 6 ; IV. cvi. 17). Dath'e-ma (Gr.), a fortress in which the Jews of Gilead took refuge from the heathen (1 Mc. v. i'l. The reading of the Peshito-Syriac, liumtha, poiiils to Ramotii-Gilead, which can hardly fail to be tlic correct identification. Dangb'ter (Ileb. batht Gr. ilmgater). 1. The word in Scripture not only =: daughter in tlu' strict sense, but grand-daughter or other feiufl descendant, much in the same way and like extuiit with " SON " (Gen. xxiv. 48, xxxi. 43). (Child ; Eiii- CATio.x.) — 2. The female inhabitants of a place, a country, or the females of a particular race arc called " daughters " (Gen. vi. 2, xxvii. 46, xxviii. (i, xxxvi. 2; Num. xxv. 1; Deut. xxiii. 17; Is. iii. 1(1; Jor. xlvi. 11, xlix. 2-4; Lk. xxiii. 28).— 3. The same notion of descent explains the phrase " daugh- ters of music," i. e. singing-birds (Eccl. xii. 4), ami the use of the word for branches of a tree (Gi]i. xlix. 22), the pupil of the eye (literally "daughdr of the eye") (Lam. ii. 18; Ps. xvii. 8), and the ex- pression " daughter of 90 years " (A. V. " 90 years old"), to denote the age of Sarah (Gen. xvii. 17). — 4. It is also used of cities in general, poetically lur the inhabitants of a city, often for the whole body of inhabitants personified as a female, Ges. (Is. x. 32, xxiii. 12 ; Jer. vi. 2, 23 ; Zech. ix. 9).— 5. But more specifically of dependent towns, villages, or hamlets, while to the principal city the correlative "mother" is applied (Num. xxi. 25, marg. ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 18, A. V. "vill.iges" in both; Josh. xvii. 11, 16; Judg. i. 27; 1 Chr. vii. 28, 29; A. V. "towns" in these passages). IIazerim; Village. Da'vid (Hob. beloved), the son of Jesse, is the best known to us of any of the characters in the 0. T. In him, as in the case of St. Paul in the N. T., we have the advantage of comparing a il tailed narrative of his life with undoubted woi of his own composition, and the combined resuli . a knowledge of his personal character, such as we probably possess of no historical personage befme the Christian era, with the exception of Cicero, anl perhaps of Cesar. His life may be divided into three portions, more or less corresponding to tin; three old lost biographies by Samuel, Gad, ami Nathan : — I. His youth before his introduction to the court of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III. His reign. — I. The earlg life of David caniami in many important respects the antecedents of his future career. 1. His family may best be seen in the form of a genealogy. It thus ap])ears that David was the youngest son, probably the youngest child, of a family of ten. His mother's name is unknown. His father, Jesse, was of a great ape when David was still young (1 Sam. xvii. 12). His parents both lived till after his final rupture with Saul (xxii. 3). Through them David inherited several points which he never lost, (a) His con- nection with Moab through his great-grandmother Ruth. This he kept up when he escaped to Moab and intrusted his aged parents to the care of the king (xxii. 3), and it may not have been without its use in keeping open a wider view in his mind and history than if he had been of purely Jewish de- scent, (b) His birthplace, Bethlehem. His recol- lection of the well of Bethlehem is one of the most touching incidents of his later life (1 Chr. xi. 17), and it is his connection with it that brought the place again in after-times into universal fame (Lk. DAV DAV 211 ii. 4). ((•) Ilis general connection with the tribe of Judah. in none of the tribes docs the tribal feel- ing .appear to have been stronger, (rf) Ilia rela- tions to Zeruiah and Abigail. Though called, in 1 Chr. ii. 16, eistcra of David, thej' arc not ex- pressly called the daughters of Jesse ; and Abigail, in 2 yam. xvii. 25, is called the daughter of Xa- HASii. Stanley asks, Is it too much to suppose that David's mother had been the wife or concu- bine of Kahash, and then married by Jesse ? — 2. SRimon «r Sit) ma (Rii. Iv. SI i 1 Chr. ii. 11). Eliinelecli ■* Naomi (Ru. i. 1^ .1. Boaz — Ruth — Mai. Ion I (Ru. iv. 10)1 Obed (Ru. iv. H). I Cliiiion — Orpab. (? Sam. ivii. !£)Kahaiii [I] — onbiowa — J■ Ira I t I (1 Chr. (Jerome. ii. 17). i^v. lUk. I oa 1 Chr. I xl. 4U). Ejiab, Atinudiib, Elibu (I Chr. nvlL iS). I Shnmmah, Sbin.uin, Sbtmeah i-1 Soin. xxi. Kl). I Ozt^m (Aeam, Jca. Jos. y\. 8, § I. tL 8, i)me few are named as constituting what would now be called the court or council of the king; the councillors, Ahithophel of Gilo, and Jonathan the king's "uncle" or nephew (1 Chr. xxvii. 32, 33); the "companion" or "friend," Ilushai (33; 2 Sam. XV. 37, xvi. 19); the scribe, Slieva or Seraiah, and at one time Jonathan (xx. 25 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 32); Jchoshaphat, the recorder or historian, and Adoram the tax-collector, both of whom survived him (2 Sam. xx. 24; IK. xii. 18, iv. 3, 6). Dut the more peculiar of David's institutions were those directly bearing on religion. Two prophets appear as the king's constant advisers. Of these, tjad, who seems to have been the elder, had been David's companion in exile ; and from liis being called " the seer," belongs probably to the earliest form of the prophetic schools. Nathan, who appears for the first time after the establishment of the kingdom at Jerusalem (2 Sam. vii. 2), is distinguished both by his title of "prophet," and by the nature of the prophecies which he utters (5-17, xii. 1-14), as of the purest type of prophetic dispensation, and as the hope of the new generation, which he supports in the person of Solomon (1 K. i.). Two high-priests also appear — representatives of the two rival houses of Aaron (1 Chr. xxiv. 3); here again, as in the case of the two prophets, one, Abiatbar, who at- tended him at Jerusalem, companion of his exile, nnd connected with the old time of the judges (xxvii. 34), joining hira after the death of Saul, and becoming afterward the support of his son ; the other Zadok, who ministered at Gibeon (xvi. 39), and was made the head of the Aaronic family (xxvii. 17). Besides these four great religious func- tionaries there were two classes of subordinates — prophets, specially instructed in singing and music, uuder Asaph, llcman, and Jeduthun (xxv. 1-El) — Levitcs, or attendants on the sanctuary, who again were subdivided into the guardians of the gates ar.d guardians of the treasures (xxvi. 1-28) which hiid been accumulated, since the recstablislimcnt of the nation, by Samuel, Saul, Abner, Joab, and David himself (26-28). {d) From the internal state of David's kingdom we pass to its external relations. Within ten years from the capture of Jerusalem, he had reduced to a state of permanent subjection the Philistines on theW. (2Sam.viii. 1); thcMoABiiES on the E. (viii. 2) ; the Syrians on the N. E. as far as the Euphrates (viii. 3); the Edomites (viii. 14) on the S. ; and finally the Ammonites, who had broken their ancient alliance, and made one grand resistance to the advance of his empire (x. 1-19, xii. 2G-31). These three last wars were entangled with each other. The last and crowning point was the siege of Kabbah 1 (2 Sam. xxii. ; Ps. xviii., xx., xxi., Ix., Ixviii., cviii. 7-13). 3. Three great calam- ities may be .selected as marking the beginning, middle, and close of David's otherwise prosperous reign ; which appears to be intimated in the question of Gad (2 Sam. xxiv. 13), " a three years' famine (1 Chr. xxi. 12 ; probably the " 7 " in 2 Sam. is a copy- ist's error), a three months' flight, or a three days' pestilence." (a) Of these, the first (the three years' famine) (2 Sam. xxi. 1 ff.) introduces us to the last notices of David's relations with the house of Saul. There has often arisen a painful suspicion in later times, as there seems to have been at the lime (xvi. 7), that the oracle, which gave as the cause of the famine Saul's massacre of the Gibeonites, may have been connected with the desire to extinguish the last remains of the fallen dynasty. But such an expla- nation is not needed. The massacre was probably the most recent national crime that had lelt any deep impression ; and the whole tenor of David's conduct toward Saul's family is of an opposite kind (compare ix. 1-13, xxi. 7, 14). (i)The second group of incidents contains the tragedy of David's life, which grew in all its parts out of the polygamy, with its evil consequences, into which he had plunged on becoming king. Underneath the splen- dor of his last glorious campaign against the Am- monites, was a dark story, known probably at that time only to a very few ; the double crime of adul- tery with liath-shcba, and of the virtual murder of Uriah 1 (xi. ff.). The crimes are undoubtedly those of a common Oriental despot. But the rebuke of Nathan ; the sudden revival of the king's con- science ; his grief for the sickness of the child ; (he gathering of liis uncles and elder brothers around him ; his return of hope and peace ; are character- istic of David, and of David only (Ps. xxxii., li.). But the clouds from this time gathered over David's fortunes, and henceforward " the sword never de- parted from his house" (2 Sam. xii. 10). The outrage on his daughter Tamar 2 ; the murder of his eldest son Amnon 1 ; and then the revolt of his best-beloved Absalom, brought on the crisis which once more sent him forth a wanderer, as in the days when he fled from Saul ; and this, the heaviest trial of his life, was aggravated by the impetuosity of Joab, now perhaps, from his complicity in David's crime, more unmanageable than ever. The rebellion was fostered apparently by the growing jealousy of the tribe of Judah at seeing their king absorbed into the whole nation ; and if Ahithophel was the grandfather of Bath-sheba, its main supporter was 216 DAY DAY one whom David had provoked by his own crimes (Ps. iii., iv. [?], xlii., Iv., Ixix., cix., cxliii.). (Aiiimaaz 2; Barzillai 1; Shimei 2.) Mahaxaim was the capital of David's exile, as it had been of the exiled house of Saul (2 Sam. xvii. 24 ; eomp. ii. 8, 12). His forces were arranged under the three great military officers who remained faithful to his fortunes — Joaij, Abishai, and Ittai, who seems to have taken the place of Benaiah as captain of the guard (xviii. 2). On Absalom's side was David's nephew Amasa (xvii. 25). Tlie final battle was fought in the forest of Ephraim (Ephraim, the Woon of), which terminated in the accident leading to the death of Absalom. The return was marked at every stage by rejoicing and amnesty (xix. 16-40). Judah w.is first recon- ciled. The embers of the insurrection still smoul- dering (xix. 41-43) in David's hereditary enemies of the tribe of Benjamin were trampled out by the mixture of boldness and sagacity in Joab, now, after the murder of Amasa, once more in his old posi- tion ; and David again reigned in undisturbed peace at Jerusalem (xx. 1-22). (c) The closing period of David's life, with the exception of one great calam- ity, may be considered as a gradual preparation for the reign of his successor. This calamity was the three days' pestilence which visited Jerusalem at the warning of the prophet Gad. The occasion which led to this warning was the census of the people taken by Joab at the king's orders (xxiv. 1- 9 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 1-7, xxvii. 23, 24). Joab refused al- together to number Levi and Benjamin (xxi. 6). The plague and its cessation were conunemorated down to the latest times of the Jewish nation. At the threshing-floor of Araunah, or Oman, the Je- busite (2 Sam. xxiv. 16 ff. ; 1 Chr. xxi. 1,5 it.), an aw- ful vision appeared, such as is described in the later days of Jerusalem, of the angel of the Lord stretch- ing out a drawn sword between earth and sky over the devoted city. The scene of such an apparition at such a moment was at once marked out for a sanctuary. David demanded, and Araunah willing- ly granted the site ; the altar was erected on the rock of the threshing-floor ; the place was called " Moriaii " 2 (2 Chr. iii. 1) ; and for the first time a holy place, sanctified by a vision of the divine pres- ence, was recognized in Jerusalem. This spot after- ward became the altar of the Temple, and therefore the centre of the national worship, with but slight interruption, for more than one thousand years, and it is even contended that the same spot is" the rock still regarded with almost idolatrous veneration, in the centre of the Mussulman " Dome of the Rock." A formidable conspiracy to interrupt the succession (Ado.nuah) broke out in the last days of David's reign, which detached from his person two of his court, Joab and Abiathar. But Zadok, Nathan, Be- naiah, Shimei, and Rei, remaining firm, the plot was stifled, and Solomon's inauguration took place under his father's auspices (1 K. i. 1-53 ; Ps. ii., xcii.). — By this time David's infirmities had grown upon him. The warmth of his exhausted frame was at- tempted to be restored by the introduction of Abi- SHAQ (1 K. i. 1 ff., ii. 17 ff.). His last song is pre- served — a striking union of the ideal of a just ruler which he had placed before him, and of the difficul- ties which he had felt in realizing it (2 Sam. xxiii. 1 -1). His last words, as recorded, to his successor, are general exhortations to his duty, combined with warnings against Joab and Shimei, and charges to remember tlie children of Barzillai (1 K. ii. 1-9). He died, according to Josephus, at the age of seven- ty, and " was buried in the city of David." After the return from the Captivity, " the sepulchres of David " were still pointed out " between Siloah and the house of the mighty men," or " the guardhouse " (Xeli. iii. 16). His tomb, which became the general sepulchre of the kings of Judah, was pointed out in the latest times of the Jewish people. The edifice shown as such from the Crusades to the present day is on tlie S. hill of modern Jerusalem, commonly called Mount Zion, under the so-called " Ca-naculum ; " but it can- not be identified with the tomb of David, which wils emphatically vnihin the walls. David's character is fully brought out in the historical record of his lil'c and in his Fsalsis. His faults, which were certainly great, have oitcn been exaggerated. They were the common faults in his day of a man of ardent pas- sions, and were especially to be expected in one placed in his varying circumstances. His life will compare favorably in this respect with the lives of Eastern warriors aud monarchs in general. On the other hand, his virtues shine with peculiar bright- ness, and render it not inappropriate for God to call him " a man after his own heart " (1 Sam. xiii. 14 ; Acts xiii. 22). If his sins were great, his humiliation was as deep, and his penitence evidently as sincere as any ever recorded (Ps. Ii., &c.). He had the high honor of being both an ancestor and a representative (Ez. xxxiv. 23, 24, &c.) of the Lord Jksus Cubist. Israel, Kingdom of. Da'vid, City of. BExirLEnEM ; Jerusale.m. Day (Heb. yum; Gr. himera). The variable length of the natural day at different seasons led in the ^ very earliest times to the adoption of the civil day , (or one revolution of the sun) as a standard of time Tlie commencement of the civil day varies in differe nations ; the Babylonians reckoned it from sunris to sunrise ; the Umbrians from noon to noon ; the ' Romans from midnight to midnight ; the Athenians and others from sunset to sunset. The Hebrews naturally adopted the latter reckoning (Lev. xxiii. 32, " from even unto even shall ye celebrate your sab- bath ") from Gen. i. 6, " the evening and the momhic/ were the first day " (see below). The Jews are sup- posed, like the modern Arabs, to have adopted from an early period minute specifications of the parts of the natural day. Roughly indeed they were content to divide it into " morning, evening, and noon " (Ps. Iv. 17); but when they wished for greater accuracy they pointed to six unequal parts, each of which was again subdivided. These are held to have been called in Hebrew : I. Kesheph (A. V. " twilight," 1 Sam. XXX. 17, &c. ;" dawning of the morning," Ps. cxix. 14, &c.) and shaliar or shaehar (usually translated in A.V. "the morning," Gen. xix. 15, &c.) = the daum. After their acquaintance with Persia they divided this into (a) the time when the eastern, and (6) when the western horizon was illuminated. The writers of the Jerusalem Talmud divide the dawn into four parts. — II. Biker (usually translated " mornhig,'" Gen.i. 5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31, xix. 27, &c.), sunrise. Some suppose the Jews, like other Oriental nations, commenced their civil day at this time until the Exodus. — III. Horn or cliom liayijwa, "heat of the day" (Gen. xviii. 1, &c.), about nine o'clock. — IV. Tshharnim, the two tioons (Gen. xliii. 16, A. V. "noon ;" Deut. xxviii. 29, A. V. "noon- day "). — Y.Ruah or ruaeh hayyom, " the cool (literally uiind) of the day," before sunset (Gen. iii. 8) ; so called by the Persians to this day. — VI. 'Ereb, " evening." The phrase between the two evenings (V^\. xvi. 12, A.V. "at even:" xxx. 8, A.V. "at even," margin "be- tween the two evens "), marking the time for slaying the paschal lamb and offering the evening sacrifice DAY DEA 217 (Ex. xii. 6, A.V. " in the evening," margin "between tlie two evenings ; " xxix. 39, A.V. " at even "), led to a dispute between the Karaites and Samaritans on the one hand, and the Pharisees on the other. The former tools it to mean between sunset and lull dark- ness (Deut. xvi. 6) ; the Rabbinists explained it as the time between the beginning and end of sunset. — The word " day " is used of a festal day (Hos. vii. 6), a birthday (Job iii. 1), a day of ruin (Hos. i. 1 1 ; Job xviii. 20), the judgment-day (Joel i. 15 ; 1 Th. V. 2), the kingdom of Christ (in Jn. viii. 66 = time, time of manifestation, Kbn. A'. T. Lex. ; in Rom. xiii. 12 = the light ot true and higher kuowledge, moral light, Itbn. N. T. I^ex.), and in other senses which are mostly self-explaining. " Day " is often used indefi- nitely =:(i7n* or period of time {Gen. ii. 4 ; Judg. xviii. 80 ; is. xlviii. 7 ; Jn. xiv. 20, &c.). On the length of the " six days " of Geu. i., see Creation. Many in- terpreters regard the "days" in Dan. xii. 11,12; Bev. xi. 3, 9, &c., as sjTnbolizing or denoting yean, and compare Lev. xxv. 3, 4 ; Num. xiv. 34 ; Ez. iv. 2-6. Of those who believe the work of Creation to have occupied six long successive periods of time, some adopta/V/Kro/iveand some mtymbolic principle of interpretation : 1. The /'^'wj-a&c, that " day " in Gen. i. and Ex. xx. 11 (as in Gen. ii. 4, &c.), and its equivalent phrase, " evening and morning," directly =z an indetinite period of timet This view claims that neither " evening and morning " nor " day " could be literally understood of the first three *' days " of Gen. i., before the sun and moon ap- peared (and the second three must be similar to the first three) : but that " evening and morning " must here simply = the natural boundaries of one of those successive periods called " days." 2. The syntbolic, that " day " (and so " evening and morning ") is used literally in Gen. i. &c. ; but it is then made a typical II presentative of a higher period (compare the "sev- nty weeks " of Daniel, and see above). The Mosaic record may thus have been originally communicated to man in a series of visions, each vision giving a view of one "day's" work, the "morning" then=the period of the presence of creative energy or activity, and the " evening " = that of the absence or casation of this energy or activity ; or without visions the same symbolization would be used. Both these views regard the word " day," &c., as the best to ex- press, in a revelation made to Hebrews and unedu- cated minds generally, the abstract idea of a regular succession of periods of indefinite duration (Prof. E. P. Barrows in B. S., xiv. 79 ff. ; Rev. E. A. Walker in New Englarulcr, xix. 653 if,). Chronoi-OGY ; Hour ; JiDGMENT, Day of; Night; Sabbath; Week. Days'man, an old English term, meaning umpire or arfiilnilor (Job ix. 33). It is derived from day, in the specific sense of a day fixed for a trial. The word is found in Spenser's Faerie Queeiie, ii. c. 8, in the Bible published in 1551 (1 Sam. ii. 25), and in other works of the same age. Dtaron, the A. V. translation in Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 8, 12 of the Gr. diakonns, elsewhere trans- lated "minister" (Mat. xx. 26; Rom. xiii. 4, xv. 8, 4c.) and " servant " (Mk. ix. 35 ; Jn. xii. 26 ; Rom. xvi. 1, &c.). In 1 Tim. iii. 10, 13, the corresponding Greek verb dinkoneo = to " use the office of a dea- con ; " elsewhere = to "minister" (Mat. iv. 11, Tiii. 15, kc.) and "serve" (Lk. x. 40, xxii. 26, 27; Jn. xii. 2, 26 ; Acts vi. 2, &c.). The office described by this title appears in the N. T. as the correlative of Bishop. The two are mentioned together in Phil. i. I ; 1 Tim. iii. Like most words of similar hnport, it appears to have been first used in its generic sense, implying subordinate activity ( 1 Cor. iii. 5 ; 2 Cor. vi. 4 ; A. V. " ministers " in both), and afterward to have gained a more defined con- notation, as applied to a distinct body of men in the Christian society. The narrative of Acts vi. is commonly referred to as giving an account of the institution of this ofiice. The apostles, in order to meet the complaints of the Uellciiistic Jews, that their widows were neglected in the daily ministration (Gr. diakonia), call on the body of believers to choose seven men "full of tie Holy Ghost and of wisdom," whom they "may ap- point over this business." It is questioned by many, whether the seven = the deacons of the N. T. (Seven, the.) There are indications, how- ever, of the existence of another body in the church of Jerusalem whom we may compare with the deacons of Phil. i. 1, and 1 Tim. iii. 8. As the " elders " of Acts xiv. 23, xv. 6 ; 1 Pet. V. 1, were not merely men advanced in years, so the " joung men" of Acts v. 6, 10, were probably not merely young men, but persons occupying a distinct position and exercising distinct functions. The identity of " bishops " and " elders " has been shown under Bishop ; and it is natural to infer that there was a similar relation between the " dea- cons " and " young men." Lk. xxii. 26 tends to the same conclusion. Assuming on these data the identity of the two names we have to ask — (I.) To what previous organization, if any, the order is traceable? (II.) What were the qualifications and functions of the men so designated 'I I. As the constitution of the Jewish synagogie had its el- ders and pastors, so also it had its subordinate of- ficers (Lk. iv. 20, A. V. " minister "), whose work it was to give the reader the rolls containing the lessons for the day, to clean the synagogue, to open and close it at the right times. II. The moral qualifications described in 1 Tim. iii., as necessary for the office of a deacon, are substantially the same as those of the bishop. The deacons, how- ever, were not required to be " given to hospital- ity," nor to be "apt to teach." It was enough for them to "hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience." They were not to gain their living by disreputable occupations. On offering them- selves for their work they were to be subject to a strict scrutiny (iii. 10), and if this ended satisfac- torily were to enter on it. Prom the later practice of the church, the analogy of the synagogue, and the scanty notices of the N. T., we may think of the "deacons" in the church of Jerusalem as pre- paring the rooms in which the disciples met, taking part in the distribution of alms out of the common fund, maintaining order at the daily meetings of the disciples to break bread, distributing the bread and the wine of the Lord's Supper, which the apos- tle or his representative had blessed. According to Tertullian (second century) and Jerome (fourth century), deacons were permitted in some churches to baptize. It does not appear to have belonged to the office of a deacon to teach publicly in the church. The possession of any special " gift " or talent would lead naturally to a higher work and office, but the idea that the diaconate was but a probation through which a man had to pass before he could be an elder or bishop was foreign to the constitution of the church of the first century. The best expositors (compare Wiesinger and Ellieott) regard the " good degree " gained by those who "have used the office of a deacon well," as refer- ring to the honor which belongs essentially to the 218 DEA DEC lower work, not to that which they were to find in promotion to a higher. Dea't'on-ess. The Gr. diak-onos is found in Rom. xvi. 1 (A. V. "servant"), associated with a female name, and this has led to the conclusion that there existed in the apostolic age, as there undoubtedly did a little later, an order of women bearing that title, and exercising in relation to their own se.\ functions analogous to those of the deacons. On this hypothesis it has been inferred that the women mentioned in Rom. xvi. 6, 12, belonged to such an order. The rules given as to the conduct of women in 1 Tim. iii. 11 and Tit. ii. 3, have in like manner been referred to them, and they have been identi- fied even with the " widows " of 1 Tim. v. 3-10. (Widow.) In some of these instances, however, it seems hardly doubtful that writers have transferred to the earliest age of the church the organization of a later. * Dead [ded]. Death. l)e.ld Sea. This name nowhere occurs in the Bible, and appears not to have existed until the second century a. c. Sea, the Salt. * Doaf [def or deef ] =; unable to he.ar (Ex. iv. 11, &c.). It was forbidden in the Law to curse them (Lev. xix. 14). Jesus Christ often restored hearing to the deaf, and adduced this as a proof of Uis Messiahship (Mat. xi. 5; Mk. vii. 32-37, &c.). (Miracles.) Those are figuratively "deaf" who refuse to ol)ey the divine requirements (Is. xxix. 18, xlii. 18, &c.). Dearth. Famine. * Death (Heb. mdvcth ; Gr. thanatos, &c.) =r the termination or extinction of life. 1. " To die," "death," "dead," are used with reference to the termination of human or animal life, whether nat- urallv (Gen. v. 5, xxiii. 2, 3 ff., xxv. 8, 11 ; Mat. -\. 8; Mk. V. 23, xii. 20 ff., &c.) or by violence (Gen. xxvi. 9; Ex. x.xi. 34 ff. ; Judg xvi. 30; Mat. xv. 4; Jn. xix. 33, &c.). — 2. They also refer to the de- parture or destitution of spiritual life, or a state of insensibility to holiness, &c., as connected with sin or alienation from God (Mat. viii. 22, first ; Eph. ii. 1, &c.). — 3. They also refer to the perdition, or ut- ter destitution of happiness and final exclusion from God's favor, which is also, under the law of God, consequent on unforgiven sin, and which in Rev. ii. 11, &c., is called the "second death " (Jn. vi. 50, viii. 51 ; Rom. vi. 21, 23, &c.). In Mat. viii. 22 the spiritually "dead" (No. 2) are to bury the naturally " dead " (No. 1); and elsewhere the dif- ferent senses are often closely connected, and may be illustrated in the same sentence or even in the same word (Lk. xv. 24, 32, &c.). " Death " is often personified (Rev. vi. 8, &c.). Physical death (No. 1) is represented as a return to the dust (Gen. iii. 19, &c.), a removal or an absence, sc. from the body (Job x. 21 ; Mat. xxvi. 24 ; Phil. i. 23, &c.), a sleep (Jer. Ii. 39; Dan. xii. 2; Jn. xi. 11, 12, &c.), &c. 15i,oOD ; Dam.nation ; Darkness ; Eternal ; Gate; Hell; Murder; Punisilmexts. De'blr (Heb. inner nanduaiy, Ges.). 1. A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 49), one of a group of eleven cities to the W. of Hebron. The earlier name of Dcbir was Kir.iatii-sepher and KiRJATii-SANNAH. Joshua took it after Hebron, and destroyed its king, its Anakim, and all its in- habitants (Josh. X. 38 ff., xi. 21, xii. 13). It was apparently reoccupied by the Canaanites after this conquest, and afterward taken by Othniel (Josh. XV. 15 ff.). It was one of the cities given with their "suburbs" to the priests (Josh. x.\i. 15; 1 Chr. vi. 68). Debir does not appear to have been known to Jerome, nor has it been discovered with certainty in modern times. About three miles W. of Hebron is a deep and secluded valley called the WaJi/ A'un- kur, enclosed on the N. by hills, of which one bears a name certamly suggestive of Debir — Devrir-bun (Rosen ; Rbn. I'h^/s. Oeog., 249). Schwarz speaks of a Warji/ Dibir in this direction. Van de Velde finds Debir at Dilbeh, six miles S. W. of Hebron.— 2. A place on the N. boundary of Judah, near the " Valley of Achor " (Josh. xv. 7), and therefore somewhere in the complications of hill and ravine behind Jericho. A Wady Dabor is marked in Van de Velde's map as close to the S. of JVeby Mxisa, at the N. W. corner of the Dead Sea. — 3. The " bor- der of Debir " is named as forming part of the boun- dary of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26), and as apparently not far from Mahanaim ; site unknown. De'bir (Heb., see above), king of Eglon ; one of the five Amorite kings hanged by Joslma at Mak- KEDAii (Josh. X. 3, 23). Deb'o-ra ( = Deborah), a woman of Naphtali, mother of Tobiel, the father of Tobit (Tob. i. 8). Dcb'o-rah (Ileb. bee, Ges., Fii.). 1, The nurse of Rebekah (Gen. xxxv. 8). Deborah accompanied Rebekah from the house of Bethuel (xxiv. 59), and is only mentioned by name on the occasion of her burial, under the *oak-trce of Bethel, which was called in her honor Allox-Bachuth. — 2. Aproplut- ess who judged Israel (Judg. iv., v.). Sfie livid under the palm-tree of Deborah, between Raiii:i!i and Bethel in Mount Ephraim (iv. B), which, ;is palm-trees were rare in Palestine, "is mention- 1 as a well-known and solitary landmark, and \' probably the same spot as that called (xx. Baal-Tamar, or the sanctuary of the palm" (Si I. 146). She was probably a woman of Ephraim, :i!- though, from the expression in Judg. v. 15, some suppose her to have belonged to Issachar. Lapi- doth was probably her husband, and not Barak, . as some say. She was not so much a judge as J one gifted with prophetic command (iv. 6, 14, v. > 7), and by virtue of her inspiration "a mother in . Israel." Jabin's tyranny was peculiarly felt in the i northern tribes, who were near his capital and .• under her jurisdiction, viz. Zebulon, Naphtali, and • Issachar : hence, when she summoned Barak to tlio deliverance, it was on them that the brunt of the battle fell. Under her direction Barak encamped on the broad summit of Tabor. Deborah's prophin y was fulfilled, the army of Jabin 2 was dcfeati.-!, and SisERA 1 was slain by Jael (iv. 7, 9, comp 15 ff.). Deborah's title of "prophetess" inclii' the notion of inspired poetry, as in Ex. xv. 20 ; and in this sense the glorious triumphal ode (Judg. v.) well vindicates her claim to the oflice. Prophet. Debt [det], Debt'or. Loan. * Dec a-logne (fr. Gr.) = Ten Commandments. De-eap'o-lis (Gr. the ten cilies). This name occurs only three times in the Scriptures (Mat. iv. 25 ; Mk. V. 20, vii. 31). Immediately after the conquest of Syria by the Romans (b. c. 65) ten cities appear to have been rebuilt, partially colonized, and endowed with peculiar privileges ; the country around tliem was hence called DecapoHs. The limits of the tcr; ' tory were not very clearly defined; and probu' (so Porter) in the course of time other neighboiiii_ cities received similar privileges. Pliny cnumeratis them as follows: Soythopolis or Betii-shean, Hip- pos, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia (Rabbah 1), Gki;- ASA, Dion, Canatha (Kexatii), Damascus, and Raphana. Ptolemy (v. 17) makes Capitolias one of DEO the ten ; and an old Palmyrene inscription includes Abila. (Abilene.) Josephus (B. J. iii. 9, § 7) calls Scythopolis the largest city of Dccapolis, thus mani- festly excluding Damascus from the number. All the cities of Decapolis, except Scythopolis, lay E. of the Jordan. It would appear, however, from Mat. iv. 26, and Mk. vii. 81, that Decapolis was a general appellation for a large district extending along both sides of the Jordan. Pliny says it reached from Damascus on the N. to Philadelphia on the S., and from Scythopolis on the W. to Cana- tha on the E. This region, once so populous and prosperous, from which multitudes flocked to hear the Saviour, and through which multitudes followed Bis footsteps, is now almost without an inhabitant. * Dr-tision (Heb. Mruts or chdruts = decision, judgment, LXX., Ges., Fii., &c.). Valley of (Joel iii. 14). Jeuosiiaphat, Valley of. • De-€ree'. Judge; King; Law. Dt'dan ( Heb. low country, Fii. ; advance [i. e. in- crease^ of the family, Sim.). 1. The name of a son of Raamah, son of Ctsn (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chr. i. 9). — 2. A son of JoKsiiAN, son of Ketl'Bah (Gen. xxv. 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 32). The usual opinion respecting these founders of tribes is that the first settled among the sons of Cush, wherever these latter may be placed ; the second, on the Syrian borders, about the terri- tory of Edom. But Gesenius and Winer have sug- gested that the name may apply to one tribe ; and I this may be adopted as probable on the supposition that the descendants of the Kcturahite Dedan inter- married with those of the Cushite Dedan, whom Mr. E. S. Poole places, presumptively, on the borders of tlie Persian Gulf. (Arabia.) The theory of this mixed descent gains weight from the fact that in each case I the brother of Dedan is named Siieba. It may be I supposed that the Dedanites were among the chief traders traversing the caravan-route from the head of the Persian Gulf to the S. of Palestine, bearing mercliandise of India, and possibly of southern Arabia ; and hence the mixture of such a tribe with another of different (and Kcturahite) descent pre- sents no impossibility. The passages in the Bible in which Dedan is mentioned (besides the genealo- gies above referred to) are Is. xxi. 13 (" Dedanim "), Jer. xxv. 23, xlix. 8, and Ez. xxv. 13, xxvii. 15, 20, xxxviii. 13, and are in every case obscure. The probable inferences from these mentions of Dedan arc — 1. That Dedan, son of Raamah, settled on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and his descendants be- came caravan-merchants between that coast and Palestine. 2. That Jokshan, or a son of Jokshan, by intermarriage with the Cushite Dedan formed a tribe of the same name, which appears to have had its chief settlement in the borders of Idumea, and perhaps to have led a pastoral life. A native indi- cation of the name is presumed to exist in the island Diidan, on the borders of the gulf. Ord'a-nlin or Ue-da'nim (Heb. pi. of Dedan) (Is. xxi. 13). Dedan. I)cd-i-fa'tion, Feast of the, the festival instituted to conunemorate the purging of the Temple and the rebuilding of the altar after Judas Maccabeus had driven out the Syrians, b. c. 164. It is named only once in the Canonical Scriptures (Jn. x. 22). Its institution is recorded 1 Mc. iv. 62-59. It com- menced on the 25th of Chisleu (in December ; see Mo.sTii), the anniversary of the pollution of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphancs, b. c. 167. Like lie great Mosaic feasts, it lasted eijiht days, but it ad not rcfpiire attendance at Jerusalem. It was an occasion of much festivity. The writer of 2 Mc. DEL 219 tells us that it was celebrated in nearly the same manner as the Feast of Tabernacles, with the car- rying of branches of trees, and with much singing (x. 6, 7). Josephus states that the festival was called " Lights." In the Temple at Jerusalem the "Hallel" (= Hallelujah, or service of praise; see Passover) was sung every day of the feast Deer. Fallow-Deer. Dc-grces', Song of, a title given to fifteen Psalms, from cxx. to cxxxiv. inclusive. Four of them (cxxii., exxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii.) are attributed to David, one (the central one, cxxvii.) to Solomon, and the other ten give no indication of their author. Eichhorn supposes them all to be the work of one and the same bard, and he also shares the opinion of Her- der, who interprets the title, " Hymns for a journey." With respect to the Heb. ma'aloth, literally ascetits, translated in the A. V. " degrees," a great diversity of opinion prevails amongst biblical critics. Ac- cording to some it refers to the melody to which the Psalm was to be chanted. Others, including Gesenius, derive the word from the poetical compo- sition of the song, and from the circumstance that the concluding words of the preceding sentence are often repeated at the commencement of the next verse (compare cxxi. 4, 5, and cxxiv. 1-2 and 3-4). Aben Ezra quotes an ancient authority, which main- tains that the degrees allude to the fifteen steps which, in the temple of Jerusalem, led from the court of the women to that of the men, and on each of which steps, one of the fifteen songs of degrees was chanted. The most generally accredited opin- ion, however, is that they were pilgrim songs, sung by the people as they went tip to Jerusalem (com- pare Ex. xxxiv. 24 ; IK. xii. 27, 28 ; Acts xv. 2, xviii. 22, xxi. 12, &c.). Hengstenberg supposes that the five ancient Psalms by David and Solomon, sung by the people, as they wait up to Jerusalem, before the Captivity, were made the basis of a whole series or system, designed for the same use by an inspired writer after the return, who not only added ten Psalms of his own, as appears from the identity of tone and diction, but joined them to the old ones in a studied and artificial manner (Alexander on Ps. cxx.). Oe'lia-Tites (from Heb. = villagers? Ges.), are mentioned but once in Scripture (Ezr. iv. 9). They were among the colonists planted in Samaria after the completion of the Captivity of Israel. From their name and their being coupled with the Susan- chites and the Elamitks, it is fairly concluded that they are the Dai or Dahi, mentioned by Herodotus (i. 125) among the nomadic tribes of Persia, and re- garded by some as the ancestors of the modern Danes. Compare Apollomis 5. De kar (from Heb. = a thriisling through, Ges.). The son of Dekar (Ben-Dekar) was Solomon's com- missary in the western part of the hill-country of Judah and Benjamin, Shaalbim and Beth-shemesh (1 K. iv. 9). Ue-Iai'ab (la'yah) or DrI-a-i'ah (Ileb. JekovaKs freedmau = Dalaiam). 1. A priest in the time of David, leader of the twentv-third course of priests (1 Chr. xxiv. 18).— 8. "Cluldren of Delaiah" were among the people of uncertain pedigree who re- turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 60 ; Neh. vii. 62). — 3. Son of Mehetabeel and father of Shcmaiah (Xeh. vi. 10).^. Son of Slieiuaiah, one of the "princes" about the court of Jchoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 25). ])e-U'lah, or Uel'i-lab (Heb. feeble, pining with desire, Ges.), a woman who dwelt in the valley 220 DEL DEM of Sor.EK, beloved by Samson (Judg. xvi. 4-20). Her connectiou with Samson forms the third and last of those amatory adventures which in his histo- ry are so inextricably blended with the craft and prowess of a judge in Israel. She was bribed by the " lords of the Philistines " to win from Samson the secret of his strength, and the means of over- coming it. There seems to be little doubt that she was a Philistine courtesan ; and her employment as a political emissary, together with the large sum offered fjr her services (1,100 pieces of silver from each Ijrd = 5,500 shekels ; compare Judg. iii. 3), and the tict attributed to her in Judges, but more espe- cially in Josephus, indicates a position not likely to ba occupied by any Israelitish woman at that period of national depression. Deluge. NoAit. De'lns (from Gr. delos = visible, probably from the story of its becoming suddenly visible by order of Neptune, L. & S.), mentioned in 1 Mc. xv. 23, is the smallest of the islands called Cyclades in the jEgean Sea, or Grecian Archipelago. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Apollo, and was celebrated as the birthplace of this god and of his sister Artemis. Diana. Oe'inas (Gr., most probably a contraction from Demetrius, or perhaps from Demarcluis ^= governor of the people), a companion of St. Paul (Phn. 24 ; Col. iv. 14) during his first imprisonment at Rome. At a later period (2 Tim. iv. 10) we find him mentioned as having deserted the apostle througli love of this present world, and gone to Thessalonica. De-me'tri-OS (L. from Gr. =: of, or belonging to, the goddess Ceres, in Gr. Dcmeler, L. & S.). A maker of silver shrines of Artemis (Diana) at Ephe- sus (Acts xix. 24). These were small models of the great temple of the Ephesian Artemis, with her statue, which it was customary to carry on journeys, and place on houses, as charms. — 2. A Christian highly commended in 3 Jn. 12 ; improbably supposed by some = No. 1. John, 3d epistle of. De-me'trl-ns (L. from Gr., see above) I., snr- named So'ter (Gr. Saviour), king of Syria, was the son of Seleuccs Puilopator, and grandson of Anti- ociu's THE Great. While still a boy he was sent by his father as a hostage to Rome (u. c. 175) in ex- change for his uncle Antiochus Epiphanes. From his position he was unable to offer any opposition to the usurpation of the Syrian throne by Antiochus IV. ; but on the death of that monarch (n. c. 164) he claimed his Uberty and the recognition of his claim by the Roman senate in preference to that of his cousin Antiochus V. His petition was refused ; he left Italy secretly, and landed with a small force in Tripolis in Phenicia (1 Mc. vii. 1 ; 2 Mc. xiv. 1). The Syrians soon declared in his favor (b. c. 162), and Antiochus and his protector Lysias were put to death (1 Mc. vii. 2-4; 2 Mc. xiv. 2). His campaigns against the Jews were unsuccessful (1 Mc. vii.-x.). (Alcimus; Ariarathes; Bacchides; Maccabees; NicANOR.) In D. c. 152, Alexander Balas was brought forward, with the consent of the Roman senate, as a claimant to the throne. The rivals met in a decisive engagement (b. c. 150), and Demetrius, afler displaying the greatest personal bravery, was defeated and slain (1 Mc. x. 48-50). De-me'trt-ns (see above) II., surnamed Ni-ca'tor (the victorious), was the eldest son of Demetrius SoTER. He was sent by his father, together with his brother Antiochus Siiietes, with a large treasure, to Cnidus, when Alexander Balas laid claim to the throne of Syria. When he was grown up he made a descent on Syria (b. c. 148), and was received with general favor (1 Mc. x. 67 ff.). His campaigns against Jonathan and the Jews, and the favorable terms obtained from Demetrius by Simon, are de- scribed in 1 Mc. x.-xiii. (Antiochus VI. ; Apol- LONius 5 ; Maccabees ; Ptolemy VI. ; Tkyphon.) In b. c. 138, Demetrius was taken prisoner l)y Aksa- CES VI. (Mithridates), whose dominions he had in- vaded (1 Mc. xiv. 1-3). Mithridates treated his cap- tive honorably, and gave him his daughter in mar- riage. When Antiochus Sidetes, who had gained possession of the Syrian throne, invaded Partliia, Phraates employed Demetrius to effect a diversion. In this Demetrius succeeded, and when Antiodms fell in battle, he again took possession of the Syrian crown (b. c. 128). Not long afterward a pretender, supported by Ptolemy Physcon, appeared in tlie field against him, and after suffering a defeat he was assassinated, according to some by his wife (Cleo- patra 2), while attempting to escape by sea. Demon (from Gr. daimon. LXX. use Gr. daimo- nion ; N. T. daimonion, rarely daimon, both trans- lated " devil " in A.V.). — I. The usage of daimon in classical Greek is various. In Homer, where tlie gods are but supernatural men, it is used inter- changeably with " god ; " afterward in Hesiod, when the idea of the gods had become more exalted and less familiar, the " demons " are spoken of as inter- mediate beings, the messengers of the gods to men. — II. In the LXX. the words daimon and daimonion are not found very frequently, but yet employed to ren- der different Hebrew words ; generally in reference to the idols of heathen worship. In Josephus we find the word " demons " used always of evil spirits. liy Philo it appears to be used in a more general sense, as equivalent to " angels," and referring to both good and evil. — III. We now come to the use of the term in the N. T. In the gospels generally, in Jas. ii. 19, and in Rev. xvi. 14, the demons (A. V. "devils") are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man, not only with disease, but, as is marked by the frequent epithet " unclean," with spiritual pollution also. Tliey " believe " the power of God " and tremble " (Jas. ii. 19); they recognize the Lord as the Son of God (Mat. viii. 29; Lk. iv. 41), and acknowledge the power of His name, used in exorcism, in the place of the name of Jehovah, by his appointed messen- gers (Acts xix. 15); and look forward in terror to the judgment to come (Mat. viii. 29). The descrip- tion is precisely that of a nature akin to the angelic (Angels) in knowledge and powers, but w ith the emphatic addition of the idea of positive and active wickedness. There can be no doubt of its being a doctrine of Scripture, mysterious (though not neces- sarily impossible) as it may be, that in idolatry the influence of the demons was at work and permitted by God to be effective within certain bounds. Of the nature and origin of the demons. Scripture is all but silent. From Mat. xii. 24-30; Mk. iii. 22-30; Lk. xi. 14-26 ; Rev. xvi. 14, we gather that the de- mons are agents of Satan in his work of evil, subject to the kingdom of darkness, and doubtless doomed to share in its condemnation ; and we conclude probably that they = «he "angels" of the devil (Mat. x.\v. 41; Rev. xii. 7, 9), the "principalities and powers against whom we wrestle" (Eph. vi. 12, &c.). Beelzebub ; Demoniacs ; Devil ; Satan. De-mo'nl-aes (the more literal translation of the Gr. pi. diiiinonizomenoi, A. V. "possessed with devils," &c.), a term frequently used in the N. T., and applied to persons suflfering under the possession of DEM DEM 221 DEMOS or evil spirit, such possession generally owing itself visibly in bodily disease or mental de- 1 aiigcnient. (So the Gr. daimoni.n echei, A. V. " he 1 ith a devil," might be translated /le has a demon, he i.i a demoniac.) In our Lord's time {as is seen, L'. constantly in Josephus) the belief in the pos- -iion of men by demons, who were either the souls wicked men after death, or evil angels, was oroughly established among all the Jews except i!io Sadducees alone. With regard to the frequent intion of demoniacs in Scripture three main opin- IS have been started. — I. Tliat of Strauss and the . thical school, which makes the whole account rrely svTnbolic, without basis of fact. The notion aids or falls with the mythical theory as a whole, ich would takeaway not only the inspiration, but 1 the truth of the Scriptural narration. (Mihacles.) — II. The second theory is, that our Lord and the EvangeUsts, in referring to demoniacal possession, gpokc only in accommodation to the general belief of the Jews, without any assertion as to its truth or its falsity. It is concluded that, since the symptoms ! the affliction were frequently those of bodily dis- e (as dumbness. Mat. ix. 32 ; blindness. Mat. xii. 22 ; epilepsy, Mk. ix. 17-27), or those seen in cases of ordinary insanity (as in Mat. viii. 28 ; Mk. v. 1-5), ''ince also the phrase " to have a devil " is constantly >d in connection with, and apparently = "to ' ■ mad" (Jn. vii. 20, viii. 48, x. 20, and perhaps Mat. xi. 18; Lk. vii. 33); and since, lastly, cases of demoniacal possession are not known to occur in our own days, therefore we must sflpposo that our Lord spoke, and the Evangelists wrote, in ac- Mpdance with the belief of the time, and with a • w to be clearly understood, especially by the suf- lers themselves, but that the demoniacs were ' rely persons pufTcring under unusual diseases of "ly and mind. With regard to this theory also, must be remarked that it does not accord either > itii tlie general principles or with the particular language of Scripture. Accommodation is possible, when, in things indifferent, language is used which, although scientifically or etymologically inaccurate, yet conveys a true impression, or when, in things not indifferent, a declaration of truth (1 Cor. iii. 1, 2), or a moral law (Mat. xix. 8), is given, true or right as far as it goes, but imperfect because of the imperfect progress of its recipients. But certainly here the matter was not indifferent, and superstition in things of far less moment was denounced by our Lord. Xor was tlie language used such as can be paralleled with mere conventional expression. There is no harm in our " speaking of certain forms of madness as lunacy, not thereby implying that we believe the moon to have or to have had any influ- ence upon them ; . . . but if we began to describe the cure of such as the moon's ceasing to afflict them, or if a physician were solemnly to aildress the moon, bidding it abstain from injuring his patient, there would be here a passing over to quite a diHerent region, .... there would be that gulf between our thoughts and words in which the es- sence of a lie consists. Now Christ does everywhere use such language as this.'' (Trench, On Miracles, p. 153.) Nor is there in the whole of the N. T. the least indication that any '' economy " of teaching was employed on account of the " hardness " of the Jews' " hearts." Possession and its cure are re- corded plainly and simply ; demoniacs are frequent- ly distinguished from those afflicted with bodilv sick- ' ness (Mk. i. 32, xvi. 17, 18; Lk. vi. 17, 18)^ even, it would seem, from the epileptic (A. V. " lunatic," Mat. iv. 24) ; the same outward signs arc sometimes referred to possession, sometimes merely to disease (compare Mat. iv. 24, with xvii. 15 ; xii. 22, with Mk. vii. 32, &c.); the demons are represented as speaking in their own persons with superhuman knowledge, and acknowledging our Lord to bo, not as the Jews generally called him, son of David, Lut Son of God (Mat. viii. 29; Mk. i. 24, v. 7; Lk. iv. 41, &c.). All these things speak of a personal power of evil, and, if in any case they refer to w hat we might call mere disease, they at any rate tell us of something in it more than a morbid state of bodily organs or self-caused derangement of mind. Nor docs our Lord speak of demons as personal spirits of evil to the multitude alone, but in His secret conversations with llis disciples, declaring the means and conditions by which power over them could be exercised (Mat. xvii. 21). Twice also He distinctly connects demoniacal possession with the power of the Evil One; once in Lk. x. 18, to the seventy disciples, where He speaks of His powers and theirs over demoniacs as a " fall of Satan," and again in Mat. xii. 25-30, when He was accused of casting out demons through Beelzebub, and, in- stead of giving any hint that the possessed were not really under any direct and personal power of evil, He uses an argument, as to the division of Sa- tan against himself, which, if possession be unreal, becomes inconclusive and almost insincere. Lastly, the single fact recorded of the entrance of the de- mons at Gadara (Mk. v. 10-14) into the herd of swine, and the effect which that entrance caused, is sufficient to overthrow the notion that our Lord and the Evangelists do not assert or imply any objective reality of possession. In the face of this mass of evidence it seems difficult to conceive how the theory can be reconciled with any thing like truth of Scripture. (Divination; Insi'ihation; Lunatics; Medicine ; Miracles.) — III. We are led, therefore (so Mr. Barry), to the ordinary and literal interpre- tation of these passages, that there are evil spirits, subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of the Lord Himself and His apostles especially, were per- mitted by God to exercise a direct influence over the souls and bodies of certain men. This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and temptation wielded by Satan through the permission of God. The distinguishing feature of possession is the complete or incomplete loss of the sufferer's reason or power of will ; his actions, his words, and almost his thoughts are mastered by the evil spirit (Mk. i. 24, v. 7; Acts xix. 15), till his personality seems to be destroyed, or, if not de- stroyed, so overborne as to produce the conscious- ness of a twofold will within him, like that scmc- times felt in a dream. In the ordinary temptations and assaults of Satan the will itself yields conscious- ly, and by yielding gradually assumes, without losing its apparent freedom of action, the charac- teristics of the Satanic nature. It is solicited, urged, and persuaded against the strivings of grace, but not overborne. Still, however, possession is only the special, and, as it were, miraculous form of the " law of sin in the members," the power of Satan over the heart itself, recognized by St. Paul as an indwelling and agonizing power (Horn. vii. 21-24). Nor can it be doubted that it was rendered possible in the first instance by the consent of the sufferer to temptation and to sin. That it would be most probable in those who yielded to sensual temptations may easily be conjectured from general observation of the tyranny of a habit of sensual indulgence. 222 MV. DES Almost all the cases of demoniac possession are re- corded as occurring among the rude and half-Gentile population of Galilee. It was but natural that the power of evil should show itself in more open and direct hostility than ever, in the age of our Lord and His apostles, when its time was short, that it should talie the special form of possession in an age of such unprecedented and brutal sensuality as that which precede 1 Ilis coming, and continued till the leaven of Christianity was felt ; — that it should have died away gradvially before the great direct, and still greater indirect, influence of Christ's king- dom. Accordingly wc find early fathers, e. g. Justin Martyr, Tertullian, alluding to its existence as a common thing, mentioning the attempts of Jewish exorcism in the name of Jehovah as occasionally successful (Mat. xii. 27 ; Acts xix. 13), but especially dwelling on the power of Christian exorcism to east it o\it from the country as a test of the truth of the Gospel, and as one well-known benefit which it al- ready conferred on the empire. By degrees the mention is less and less frequent, till the very idea is lost or perve t:!d. Dem'o-plioa [-fon] (Gr.), a Syrian general in Pales- tine under Antiochns V. Eupator (2 Mc. xii. 2). Dc-na'rl-ns (L.). Monky, II. 2 ; Penny. De-pos'it [-poz-] (fr. L.). The arrangement by which one man kept at another's request the prop- erty of the latter until demanded back, was one common to all the nations of antiquity. Our Saviour seems to allude to conduct in such cases as a test of honesty (Lk. xvi. 12). In the later times, when no banking system (Loan) was as yet devised, shrines were often used for the custody of treasure (2 Mc. iii. 10, 12, 15) ; but, especially among an agri- cultural people, the exigencies of war and other causes of absence, must often have rendered it ne- cessary for an owner to intrust property, especially animals, to the custody of another. The articles specified by the Mosaic law on this subject are : (1.) "money or stuff; " and (2.) " an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast." The first case was viewed as only liable to loss by theft (probably for loss by ac- cidental fire, &c., no compensation could be claimed), and the thief, if found, was to pay double, i. e. prob- ably to compensate the owner's loss, and the unjust suspicion thrown on the depositary. If no theft could be proved, the depositary was to swear before the judges that he had not appropriated the article, and then was quit. In the second, if the beast were to " die or be hurt, or driven away, no man seeing it," — accidents to which beasts at pasture were easily liable, — the depositary was to purge himself by a similar oath. In case, however, the animal were stolen, the depositary was liable to restitution, which probably was necessary to prevent collusive theft. If it were torn by a wild beast, some proof was easily producible, and, in that case, no restitu- tion was due (Ex. xxii. 7-13). In case of a false oath so taken, the perjured person, besides making restitution, was to " add the fifth part more there- to," to compensate the one injured, and to " bring a ram for a trespass-offering unto the Lord " (Lev. vi. 5, 6). In Tob. v. 3 a written acknowledgment of a deposit is mentioned (compare i. 14, iv. 20). Dep'n-ty, the uniform rendering in the A.V. of the Greek anllinpatos = proconsul (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38). The derived Greek verb anthupa'eHo {AcU xviii. 12) = " to be deputy." At the division of the Rom.in provinces by Augustus (b. c. 27) into senatorial and imperial, the emperor assigned to the senate such portions of territory as were peaceable, and could be held without force of arms, an arrange- ment which remained with frequent alterations till the third century. Over these senatorial provinces the senate appointed by lot yearly an officer, called proconnul, who exercised purely civil functions. The provinces were in consequence called proconm!ar. (Achaia; Asia; Cyprus; Gallio; SergicsI'aulus.) The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland was formerly called depuli) (Shakespeare, Henry VIII. iii. 2). Dcr'bc (Gr.). The exact position of this town has not yet been ascertained, but its general situa- tion is undoubted. It was in the eastern part of the great upland plain of Lycaonia, which stretches from IcoNiuM E. along the N. side of the chain ot Taurus. It must have been somewhere near the place where the pass called the Cilician Gates opened a way from the low plain of Cilieia to the table-land of the in- terior ; and probably it was a stage upon the great road which passed this way. Derbe was visited by St. Paul on his first (Acts xiv. 6, 20) and second missionary journeys (xvi. 1), and probably also on the third (xviii. 23, xix. 1). " Gains " was " of Der- be " (xx. 4). Three sites have been assigned to Derbe. (1.) By Col. Leake it was supposed to be Hiu-bir-Kilmeh, at the foot of the Karadof/h, a re- markable volcanic mountain which rises from the Lycaonian plain ; but this is almost certainly the site of Lystra. (2.) In Kiepert's Map, Derbe is marked farther to the E., at a spot where there are ruins, and which is in the line of a Uonian road, (8.) Hamilton and Texier are disposed to place it at Divle, a little to the S. W. of the last position, and nearer to the roots of Taurus. Desert, in the sense ordinarily attached to the word, is a vast, burning, sandy plain, alike destitute of trees and of water; but no such region as this is ever mentioned in the Bible as having any con- nection with the history of the Israelites. Thewonl-; rendered in the A. V. by "desert," when used in the historical books, denoted definite localities, and those localities do not answer to the common con- ception of a "desert." — 1. Heb. 'ur«Aa/» (literally arid tract, sterile region, Ges.), as already sho"u (Arabah), with the article = the sunken valley X. and S. of the Dead Sea, but particularly the former. In the sense of the Jordan Valley it is translated " desert " only in Ez. xlvii. 8 ; in a more general sense of waste, deserted country it is translated " des- ert " in Is. XXXV. 1, 6, xl. 3, xii. 19, li. 3 ; Jer. ii. 6, V. 6, xvii. 6, 1. 12. — 2. Heb. midbdr =r paj are certain peculiar forms of expression common only to these five books, (c.) That the alleged dis- crepancies in matters of fact between this and tlir earlier books may all be reconciled, (d.) That tlir book bears witness to its own authorship (xxxi. I'J), and is expressly cited in the N. T. as the work of Moses (Mat. xix. 7, 8; Mk. x. 3 ff. ; Acts iii. 22, vii. 37). The advocates of this theory of cour.«;ir« son) ; in LXX. = "Satan." The name describes Satan as slandering God to roan, and man to God. — 2. Gr. daimm (Mat. viii. 31, &c.), dnimmiimi (Tob. vi. 7, 17, Gr. 8, 18; Bar. iv. 7, 35 ; Mat. vii. 22, ix. 33 f., &c.), &c. (Demon ; Demoniacs.)— 3. Heb. sd'ir (Lev. xvii. 7; 2 Chr. xi. 15), an object of idolatrous worship = a he-goat, Ges. (Goat; Satyrs.) — i. Ileb. pi. s/icWim (Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37) = idok, properly lords, Ges. ; demonn, LXX. ; compare 1 Cor. x. 20. Dew. This in the summer is so copious in Pal- estine that it supplies to some extent the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii. 22), and becomes im- portant to the agriculturist. As a proof of this copiousness the well-known sign of Gideon (Judg. vi. 87, 39, 40) may be adduced (compare Cant. v. 2 ; Dan. iv. 23, 25). Thus it is coupled in the di- vine blessing with rain, or mentioned as a prime source of fertility (Gen. xxvii. 28 ; Deut. xxxiii. 13; Zech. viii. 12), and its withdrawal is attributed to a curse (2 Sam. i. 21 ; 1 K. xvii. 1 ; Hag. i. 10). It becomes a leading object in prophetic imagery by reason of its penetrating moisture without the ap- parent effort of rain (Deut. xxxii. 2 ; Job xxix. 19 ; Ps. cxxxiii. 3 ; Prov. xix. 12; Is. xxvi. 19; Ilos. xiv. 5 ; Mic. V. 7) ; while its speedy evanescence i>ifics the transient goodness of the hypocrite Hos. vi. 4, xiii. 3). With the proverbial expres- sions (I'rov. iii. 20), " the clouds drop down the 15 dew," compare the common modern phrase, " the dew falls." Agbiculture; Earth. Dl'a-dfm (fr. Gr., literally = something bound around, sc. tlie head). What the " diadem " of the Jews was we know not. (('rown.) That of other nations of antiquity was a fillet of silk, two inches broad, bound round the head and tied behind, the invention of which is attributed to Bacchus. Its color was generally white ; sometimes, however, it was of blue, like that of Darius ; and it was sown with pearls or other gems (Zech. ix. 16), and en- riched with gold.(I!ev. ix. 7). It was peculiarly the mark of Oriental sovereigns (1 Me. xiii. 32). A crown (Ileb. neser — diudini, Ges.) was used by the kings of Israel, even in battle (2 Sam. i. 10); but probably this was not the state crown (Ileb. 'oW- ruli, 2 Sam. xii. 30), although used in the corona- tion of Joash (2 K. xi. 12). In Esth. i. 11, ii. 17, we have the Ileb. cether for the turban (A. V. " crown ") worn by the Persian king, queen, or other eminent persons to whom it was conceded as a special favor (viii. IB). The diadem of the king differed from that of others in having an ertct tri- angular peak. The words in Ez. xxiii. 15 (trans- lated in A. v. "exceeding in dyed attire") mean long and flowing turbans of gorgeous colors. W'al. The Heb. pi. tna'aloth (translated " dial," margin " degrees," in 2 K. xx. 11; Is. xxxviii. 8) is rendered "steps" in A. V. (Ex. xx. 26; 1 K. x. 19, 20, &c.), and "degrees" in A. V. (2 K. xx. 9, 10, 11 ; Is. xxxviii. 8, &c. ; see Degrees, Songs of). In the absence of any materials for determining the shape and structure of the solar instrument, which certainly appears intended (Ahaz), the best course is to follow the most strictly natural meaning of the words, and to consider with Cyril of Alexandria and Jerome, that the nia\'il6lh were really stairs, and that the shadow (perhaps of some column or obelisk on the top) fell on a greater or smaller number of them according as the sun was low or high. The terrace of a palace might easily be thus orna- mented. Astronomy; CnRONOi.ooy; Hour. Uia-mcnil [di'a-mund or di'inund], the A. V. translation of — 1. Heb. yakalim, a precious stone, the third in the second row on the breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), and men- tioned (Ez. xxviii. 13) among the precious stones of the king of Tyre. Our translation, " diamond," is derived from Abcn Ezr.i, defended by Braun, and apparently embraced by Eurst, Henderson, Bush, &c. The diamond is a well-known tranejiarent gem, the hardest and most costly of all minerals. Several of the ancient versions translate the Hebrew word " the ONYX, which," says Gesenius, " is not im- probable." Kaliseh says " perhaps Emerald." — 2. Heb. sliumir (iev. xvii. 1). Adamant. Dl-a'na or Di-an'a. This Latin word, properly denoting a Roman divinity, is the representative of the Greek ArUmis, the tutelary goddess of the Ephesians, who plays so important a part in Acts xix. The Ephesian Diana was, however, regarded as invested with very different attributes, and made the object of a different worship, from the ordinary Diana of the Greeks, and rather perhaps = Astarte (Asiitoreth) and other female divinities of the East. In some respects there was doubtless a fusion of the two. Diana was the goddess of rivers, of pools, and of harbors ; and these conditions are satisfied by the situation of the sanctuary at EriiESUS. Again, on coins of Ephesus we sometimes find her exhib- ited as a huntress and with a stag. But the true Ephesian Diana is represented in a form entirely 226 DIB alien from Greek art, viz. as a many-breasted mum- my, and was undoubtedly a symbol of the produc- tive and nutritive powers of nature. The coin be- low will give some notion of the image, which was Greek imperial copper coin of Ephesua and Smyrna allied ("O^iot'Oia) ; Domitia, witli name of proconsul. Obv.- AOMITI.1 CeBACTH. Bust to rfght. Eev.: AN0Y KAICeN IIAITOY OMONOIA e*« ZMYP. Epbesian l)iana. grotesque and archaic in character. The head wore a mural crown, each hand held a bar of metal, and the lower part ended in a rude block covered with figures of animals and mystic inscriptions. This idol was regarded as an oljject of peculiar sanctity, and was believed to have fallen down from heaven (Acts xis. 3.5). The cry of the mob (28), " Great is Diana of the Ephe-sians ! " and the strong expression (27), " whom all Asia and the world worshippeth," may be abundantly illustrated from a variety of sources. The term " great " was evi- dently a title of honor recognized as belonging to the Ephesian goddess. We find it in inscriptions, &o. Pausanias tells us that the Ephesian Diana was more honored privately thiin any other deity. Dib-la'im or DiblH-im (Heb. douhle cake? Ges.), mother of Hosea's wife Gomer (Uos. i. 3). Gese- nius and Fairbaim make Diblaim the father of Goraer. Dib'latb (Heb. Dihiah), a place named only in Ez. vi. 14, as if situated at one of the extremities of the land of Israel; regarded by Jerome, Michaelis, Gesenius, &c., as a copyist's mistake for Riblah. Dl'bon (Heb. a jnning, wasting, Ges. ; river-place, Fii.). 1. A town on the E. side of Jbrdan, in the rich pastoral country, which was taken possession of and rebuilt by the children of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3, 34). From this circumstance it possibly received the name of DiBo.v-OAn. Its first mention is in the ancient fragment of poetry Num. xxi. 30, and from this it appears to have belonged originally to the Moabites. We find Dibon counted to Reuben in Josh. xiii. 9, 17. In the time of Isaiah and Jere- miah, however, it was again in possession of Jloab (Is. XV. 2; Jer. xlviii. 18, 22, compare 24). In the same denunciations of Isaiah it appears, probably, under the name of Dimon. In modern times the name Dfdhdn has been discovered by Seetzen, Irby and Mangles, and Burckhardt as attached to ex- tensive ruins on the Roman road, about three miles N. of the Arnon. All agree, however, in describing these ruins as lying low. — 2. One of the towns re- inhabited by the men of Judah after the Captivity (Neh. xi 25) ; probably = Dimonah. Rowlands (in Fairbaim, under " S. country ") makes Dib(m = MMnb, a ruined site about four miles E. of Tell 'Ar&d (Arad). Dl'bon-gad (Heb. wailing of Oad), one of the halting-places of the Israelites (Num. xxxiii. 45, 46); probably — Dibon 1. ])lb'ri (Heb. eloquent ? Ges. ; horn on the pasture, or Jah distributes promise, Fii.), a Danite, father of Shelomith 1 (Lev. xxiv. 11). * Di-dracli'ma [-drak-] (L. fr. Gr. didrachmon = DIN a douhle drachm) (Mat. xvii. 24, margin). Drachm ; Money ; Shekel. Did jr-mus (L. fr. Gr. = the twin), a surname of the Apostle Thomas (Jn. xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2). * Die, to. Death. DtlL'lall (Heb. ; see below) (Gen. x. 27 ; 1 Chr. i. 21), a son of Joktan, whose settlements, with thu.-i- of Joktan's other sons, must be looked for in Aiti- BiA. The name in Hebrew signifies " a palm-tree," hence it is thought that Diklah is a part of Arabia containing many palm-trees. Bochart, and after him Gesenius, refer the descendants of Diklah to the llina;i, a people of Arabia Felix inhabiting a palmifcrous country. No trace of Diklah is known to exist in Arabic works, except the mention of a place cnWed Dakalah in El-ycmdmeh, with many palm-trees. The Ar. nakhleh also signifies a pahti- trce, and is the name of many places, especially Nakhleh el- Yemdneei/eh, and Nakldeh esh-Shdmeei/eli, two well-known towns situate near each other. Therefore, 1. Diklah may probably be recovered in the place called Dakalah above mentioned ; or, possibly, 2. in one of the places named Nakhleh. Dil'e-an (Heb. gourd-field, Ges.), one of the cities in the lowlands of Judah (Josh. xv. 38) ; not iden- tified with certainty. Van do Velde suggests that it may be the modern place Tina, about three miles N. of Tell es-Safieh (Gath ?), in the maritime plain of Philistia, S. of Ekron. Dim'nah (Heb. a place of dung, Fu.), a city in the tribe of Zebulun, given to the Merarite Le- vites (Josh. xxi. 35) ; possibly a variation of Rim- MON (1 Chr. vi. 77). Van de Velde supposes Dim- nah at the village of Ddmon, seven or eight miles E. S. E. of 'Akka (Accho). Di'mon (Heb. = Dibon, Ges., Fii.), the Wa'ters of, some streams on the E. of the Dead Sea, in the land of Moab, against which Isaiah is here uttering denunciations (Is. xv. 9). Gesenius conjectures that Dimon = Dibon. Di-mo'nali (Heb. = Dibon, Ges.), a city in the S. of Judah (Josh. xv. 22), probably = Dibox ' Rowlands (in Fbn. under " S. Country") supp< - Dimonah (in LXX. Regma) = 'Ain Rakhnf. , about fifteen miles E. S. E. of Beer-sheba. Di'nah {Ueh. Judged, avenged; compare Dan), the daughter of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxx. 21). She ac- companied her father from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and, having ventured among the inhabitants, was violated by Shechem the son of Hamor, tlie chief- tain of the territory in which her father had settled (xxxiv.) Her age at this time, judging by the sub- sequent notice of Joseph's age (xxxvii. 2), may have been from thirteen to fifteen, the ordinary period of MARRIAGE in Eastern countries. Shechem proposed to make the usual reparation by paying a sum to the father and marrj'ing her (xxxiv. 12). But in this case the suitor was an alien, and the crown of the offence consisted in its having been committed by an alien against the favored people of God ; he had " wrought folly in Israel " (xxxiv. 7). Tlie pro- posals of Hamor, who acted as his deputy, were framed on the recognition of the hitherto complete separation of the two peoples; he proposed the fusion of the two by the establishment of the rights of intermarriage and commerce. The sons of Jaeol>, bent upon revenge (Absalom ; Blood, Avenger of), availed themselves of the eagerness which Shechem showed, to effect their purpose ; they demanded, as a condition of the proposed union, the circumcision of the Shechemites. They therefore assented; and on the third day, when the pain and fever re- J DINT DIS 227 suiting from the operation were at the highest, Simeon anil Levi, own brothers to Dinah, attaekeil tliem unexpectedly, slew all the males and plun- dered their city. Nothing more is certainly known ol' Dinah ; but she probably went with the rest into Egjpt (xlvi. 15). i»i'n»-ItfS (i'r. Heb. = a people from some un- known place or region called Din [= a eaune, judg- mental, Fii.), an unknown people of the Assyrian empire, from whom colonists were placed by As- KAPPER in Samaria after the Captivity of the ten tribes (Ezr. iv. 9). INu'ha-bilh (Heb. lord [i. e. place] of plundering ? Ges. ; bituthig aside, eoiiccalment, little place, Fii.), the capital city, and probably the birthplace, of Itela, son of Beor, king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 32 ; 1 Chr. i. 43); not identified. " Dinner. Meals. Ul-o-n^s'i-a [-nish'e-a] (L. fr. Gr.) = " the feast of Baichis." D!-o-nys'l-ns [-nish'e-us] (L. fr. Gr. = of Diony- sm or Bacchcs) the A-rc-«p'a-gite (Acts xvii. 34), .m eminent Athenian (Arkopagite ; Areopagus) converted to Christianity by the preaching of St. Paul. Eusebiug makes him, on the authority of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, to have been first bishop of Athens. According to a later tradition he sutfered martyrdom at Athens. The writings once attributed to him are now confessed to be the production of some neo-Platonists of the sixth cen- tury. i»l-o-ny'sns (L. fr. Gr.) — Baccttcs (3 Mc. ii. 29). Dl-os-to-rln'thi-ns (fr. Gr.). Month. Dl-Ot'rc-plies [-fcezj (Gr. Jove-nnrtund, L. & S.), a professed Christian, ambitious and domineering, who resisted the Apostle John's authority (3 Jn. 9, 10). John, 3d Epistle of. Uls-fl'ple [dis-si'pl] (fr. L. = learner, scholar, pu- pil). Christian ; Edlcation. I>i«'(ns (L. fr. Gr. = quoit), a circular plate of stone or metal, made for throwing to a distance as I>lKol>oIia cr Qiwlt-i-ltther.— lOtmlcy, Bt^i. dtr alun Suit, yt,l. 1, DO. ]»9.> an exercise of strength and dexterity. The discus or quoit was originally of stone (Homer, Pindnr). DiioMlm (L. fr. Gr.) = one who throws or pitches the discus. Pitching the discus was one of the prin- cipal gymnastic exercises (Games) of the Greeks, and was introduced among the Jews by the high- priest Jason 4 (2 Mc. iv. 14). Lis-ea'ses. Medicine. Dish, the A. V. translation of the Heb. sephel (also translated " bow l "), tsallahath or Isullaclmth, and keVtrah (also translated "charger"), also (Mat. xxvi. 23 ; Mk. xiv. 20) of the Gr. trublion (= a dish, howl, for eating or drinking, Ebn. N. T. Lex.). Ba- sin ; Meals. Di'shan (Ileb. = Dishon), youngest son of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 21, 28, SO ; 1 Chr. i. 38, 42). • Di'shon (Heb.) (Deut. xiv. 5, marg.). Pygarg. Di'shon (Heb. antelope ; see Ptgabg). 1. The fifth son of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 21, 26, 30; 1 Chr. i. 41). — 2. The son of Anah and grandson of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 25; 1 Chr. i. 38, 41). Dishon and DisiiAN belong to the same root. The geographical position of the tribes descended from these patri- \ archs is uncertain. Knobcl places them E. and S. E. of the Gvlfof'Ahcbah. Arabia. Dis-per'sion, the Jews of tlie, or simply The Bis- per'slon (Gr. diaspora, A. V. " the dispersed," [ Jn. vii. 35], "which are scattered abroad" [Jas. i. 1], "scattered" [1 Pet. 1. 1]; comp. Deut. xxviii. 25; Jer. xxxiv. 17), was the general title applied to those Jews who remained settled in foreign countries after the return from the Babylonian exile, and during the period of the second Temple. The Dispersion, as a distinct element influencing the entire character of the Jews, dates from the Babylonian exile. (CAr- TiviTY ; Commerce; Cyrus.) Outwardly and in- wardly, by its effects both on the Gentiles and on the people of Israel, the Dispersion appears to have been the clearest providential preparation for the spread of Christianity. At the beginning of the Christian era the Dispersion was divided into three great sections: the Babylonian, the Syrian, the Egyptian." Precedence was yielded to the first. From Babylon the Jews spread throughout Persia, Media, and Parthia ; but the settlements in China belong to a modern date. The Greek conquests in Asia extended the limits of the Dispersion. Sc- leucus Nicator transplanted large bodies of Jewish colonists from Babylonia to the capitals of his western provinces. His policy was followed by his succes.sor Antiochus the Great; and the persecu- tions of Antioehus Epiphanes only set ved to push forward the Jewish emigration to the remoter dis- tricts of his empire. Large settlements of Jews were established in Armenia, in Cyprus, in the isl- ands of the yEgean, and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The Jews of the Syrian provinces gradually formed a closer connection with their new homes, and together with the Greek language adopted in many respects Greek ideas. (Hellenist.) This Hellenizing tendency, however, found its most free development at Alexandria. The Jewish settlements established there by Alexander and Ptolemy I. became the source of the African Dis- persion, which spread over the N. coast of Africa, and perhaps inland to Abyssinia. At Cyrene and Berenice (Tiipoli) the Jewish inhabitants foimcd a considerable portion of the population. The Af- rican Dispersion, like all other Jews, preserved their veneration for the " holy city," and recognized the universal claims of the Temple by the annual tribute. But the distinction in language led to wider dilTerenccs, which were averted in Babylon by the currency of an Aramaic dialect. Alter the de struction of the Temple, a. d. 70, the Zealots found a reception in Cyrene; and toward the close of the reign of Trajan, a. d. 115, the Jairish population 228 DIS DIV in Africa rose witli terrible ferocity. The Jewish settlements in Rome were consequent upon the oc- cupation of Jerusalem by Pompey, B. c. 63. The captives and emigrants whom he brought with him were located in the trans-Tiberine quarter, and by degrees rose in station and importance. In the reign of Claudius the Jews became objects of sus- picion from their immense numbers ; and the internal disputes led to their banishment from the city (Acts xviii. 2). This expulsion, if general, can only have been temporary, for in a few years the Jews at Rome were numerous (xxviii. 17 if.). The influence of the Dispersion on the rapid promulgation of Christi- anity can scarcely be overrated. The course of the apostolic preaching followed in a regular progress the line of Jewish settlements. The mixed assem- bly from which the first converts were gathered on the day of Pentecost represented each division of the Dispersion (Acts ii. 9, 11 ; [1.] Parthians .... Mesopotamia; [2.] Judea [i. e. S^ria] . . . Pam- phylia; [3.] Egypt . . . Greece ; [4.] Romans . . .), and these converts naturally prepared the way for the apostles in the interval which preceded the be- ginning of the separate apostolic missions. Antioch 1 ; Paul ; Peter ; Seven, the. * Dis'taff. Spinning. *Di'Tes [-veez], a Latin adjective (= rich), often used in theological writings to designate " the rich man" in the parable of Lk. xvi. 19-31, and doubt- less derived from the Vulgate version. DiT-i-na'tlon (Ez. xiii. 7 ; Acts xvi. 16, &e.). This art " of taking an aim of divine matters by human, which canpot but breed mixture of imaginations " (Bacon, JSssay xvii.), has been universal in all ages and all nations, alike civilized and savage. One kind of divination was called Natural, in which the me- dium of inspiration was transported from his own individuality, and became the passive insftrument of supernatural utterances. The other kind of divina- tion (i. e. by the observation of phenomena) was artificial, and probably originated in an honest con- viction that external nature sympathized with and frequently indicated the condition and prospects of mankind ; a conviction not in itself ridiculous, and fostered by the accidental synchronism of natural phenomena with human catastrophes. When once this feeling was established the supposed manifesta- tions were infinitely multiplied. The invention- of divination is ascribed to Prometheus, to tlie Phry- gians and Etrurians, especially sages, or to the devil. In the same way Zoroaster ascribes all magic to Ah- riman. (Persians.) Similar opinions have prevailed in modern times. Many forms of divination are mentioned in Scripture, and the subject is so fre- quently alluded to, that it deserves careful exami- nation. 1. Heb. hartummim or (•hartummim, A. V. " magicians," are first mentioned as a prominent body at the Egyptian court (Gen. xli. 8, &c.). They were a class of Egyptian priests, eminent for learn- ing. The same name is applied to the Magi of Bab- ylon (Dan. i. 20, &o.). (Magic.) Daniel was made " master of the magicians," &c., by Nebuchadnezzar (v. 11). — 2i Heb. hacdmim or chtic&mim, A. V. "wise men" (Ex. vii. 11 ; Esth. i. 13; Jer. 1. 35), does not seem to mean any special class, but merely the wise men of Egypt, &c., generally (R. S. Poole). A kindred word, Chal. haccim or chaccim, A. V. " wise men," is used similarly in Dan. ii. 12 if., &c. — 3i Heb. mScashshephim, A. V. " sorcerers," prop- erly = those who tise maffic formidaa, incaniathms, &c., Ges. (Ex. vii. 11; Dan. ii. 2; Mai. iii. 5); mscaslisfieph, Bing. masc, A. V. " a witch " (Deut. xviii. 10) ; mecashshephdh, sing, fem., A. V. " a witch " (Ex. xxii. 18, Heb. 17). The kindred noun cashshilphim is translated in A.V. " sorcerers " (Jer. xxvii. 9). (Enchantments 2.) — 4. Heb. yiddCoiiiin (Lev. xix. 31, XX. 6, &c.), uniformly translated in A. A', "wizards," or in sing. " wizard," literally i-Hoi(/«t^ or wise ones, but always applied to wizards and fal je prophets (R. S. Poole). — 5. Heb. oboth, sing, oh, A. V. " familiar spirits " (" spirit "), or " those that have familiar spirits " (Lev. xx. 6 ; Is. viii. 19, xix. 3, &c.) ; shoel 6b, A. V. " a consulter with familiap spirits" (Deut. xviii. 11). The words properly de- note spirits of the dead, and then by an easy meton\- my those wlio consulted them. They ate also called Pythones. Hence the " spirit of Python " (Acta xvi. 16, margin). These ventrilo