OUR VIANDS 
 
By the same Author. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES. 
 
 BY A. W. BUCKLAND. 
 
 i vol. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' Her object has been so to popularise her subjects as to induce 
 her readers to pursue the study for themselves, and if a pleasing 
 literary style, and an admirable faculty of clear and lucid descrip- 
 tion are the essentials of success in that object, she may be assured 
 that she will achieve it.' Athenceum. 
 
OUR VIANDS 
 
 WHENCE THEY COME AND 
 HOW THEY ARE COOKED 
 
 WITH A BUNDLE OF OLD 
 
 RECIPES FROM COOKERY BOOKS 
 
 OF THE LAST CENTURY 
 
 BY ANNE WALBANK BUCKLAND 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. AUTHOR OF 
 
 'ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES.' 'THE WORLD BEYOND 
 
 THE ESTERELLES,' ETC. 
 
 Tell me "what thou eatest and I will tell thee who thou art. ' 
 
 OLD PROVERB. 
 
 ' Viands of various kinds allure the taste 
 Of choicest sort and savour; rich repast' POPE. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 WARD & DOWNEY 
 12 YORK STREET COVENT GARDEN W.C 
 
 1893 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 
 HAP. PAGE 
 
 Introduction, ..... 7 
 
 I. Bread, ...... 19 
 
 II. Maize and Millet, . . ,34 
 
 III. Various Bread-stuffs, . 44 
 
 IV. Cakes and Puddings, . . . 52 
 
 PART II 
 V. Christmas Fare The Roast Beef of Old England 
 
 and the Boar's Head, . 69 
 
 VI. Sundry Meats, ..... 79 
 
 VII. Game and Poultry, ..... 94 
 
 VIII. Eggs, ...... 108 
 
 IX. Dairy Produce, . . . . .119 
 
 X. Fish, .... .130 
 
 XI. Unappreciated Trifles, . . . .144 
 
 XII. Condiments, . . . . .157 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 XIII. Nuts and Apples, .... 171 
 
 XIV. Grapes, Figs, and Oranges, ... 183 
 
 XV. Stone fruits and Berries, . . . 193 
 
 XVI. On the Borderland 'twixt Fruit and Vegetable, . 206 
 
 XVII. Roots, . . . . . .215 
 
 XVIII. Pulse and Cabbage, . . . 228 
 
 XIX. Salads and Seasonings, .... 240 
 
 Recipes Old and New, .... 249 
 
 Index, ... .... 297 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE art of cookery is no new thing, yet the tastes of 
 mankind are so diverse, that the proverb, 'One man's 
 meat is another man's poison,' becomes a truism. There 
 still exist savages who prefer raw meat to cooked, as did 
 the Fuegians who were lately exhibited in London, but 
 even they had acquired a taste for hard boiled eggs, which 
 they devoured with great relish. 
 
 There may also be found in the heart of savage Africa, in 
 Australia, and in some of the South Sea Islands, tribes who 
 prefer human flesh to any other, but these all like their meat, 
 whatever it may be, cooked ; and following the custom of 
 the most ancient of men, will sit round a fire broiling their 
 bones, cutting off bits by degrees just scorched, and repeat- 
 ing the process till nothing but the bare bone remains. But 
 even then the feast is not ended, for all the bones are broken, 
 and the marrow, which is highly esteemed, is sucked out as 
 a concluding bonne bouche. 
 
 In this mode of cooking and eating, the modern savage 
 closely follows the ancient cave-dwellers, amongst whom 
 marrow seems to have been always esteemed a prime 
 delicacy. 
 
 This we know, because many of the bones found in the 
 kitchen middens of these early people are partly charred, and 
 
8 OUR VIANDS 
 
 all the marrow-bones are broken. But these troglodytes 
 were not extravagant cooks, nothing was thrown away which 
 might prove useful. Having split the bones and devoured 
 the marrow, they proceeded to make spear and arrow heads 
 from the splinters, for the capture of fresh game to furnish 
 future feasts, and it is more than probable that they crushed 
 and ate the smaller bones, for this is still the custom among 
 savages. Mr. Borcherds, an early South African traveller, 
 describes a feast among some Bushmen to whom a sheep 
 had been given : he says, ' Each bone was separated from 
 the flesh as cleanly as possible, the bones were crushed, and 
 together with the raw kidneys, distributed amongst the 
 children, who seemed to enjoy the delicacy as much as ours 
 do cakes. The meat was laid on the fire, and when half 
 cooked devoured.' Mr. Lumholtz, in his travels 'Among 
 Cannibals' in Australia, describes a feast of snakes, in 
 which the bones were also crushed and eaten ; and in that 
 singularly interesting legend, denominated ' The Mountain 
 Chant,' given in the Smithsonian Reports^ the hero is repre- 
 sented as killing two rabbits, and pounding them up bones 
 and all with seeds, for food. So that here we have from 
 three parts of the world evidence of the use of crushed 
 bones, and may reasonably infer that the custom was 
 universal, especially in times of scarcity. 
 
 Sitting at our well-appointed tables, we smile at the 
 primitive devices adopted by savages, yet some of them 
 have hit upon a mode of cooking which may fairly be 
 termed scientific, so well is it calculated to retain the juices 
 of the meat ; as for instance, in Australia, the snakes which 
 furnished the feast described by Lumholtz, were coiled up, 
 tied together, and baked in an oven scooped out of the 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 earth, in which a large fire was made, serving to heat several 
 stones. Some of these were removed, and upon the others 
 a large quantity of green leaves or grass was laid, and upon 
 this the snakes, which were covered with more green leaves 
 and more hot stones, and then the earth was pressed down 
 tight over the whole, no steam being allowed to escape. 
 When done, the meat, tender and juicy, was taken out in 
 the leaves which served as a dish. Mr. Lumholtz extols 
 this method of cooking for salt beef and pork, especially 
 when ginger leaves are used,* but the natives reserve it for 
 snakes and human flesh, cooking other things by throwing 
 them on the hot embers like the Bushmen, and eating them 
 half raw. The New Zealanders cook their potatoes in the 
 same kind of earth-oven, which, probably, in cannibal times 
 also served for the long pig in which they delighted. 
 
 The art of baking in ovens is of great antiquity; the ovens 
 of ancient Egypt are frequently represented in contemporary 
 paintings; and the African savage will scoop out the 
 adhesive earth of ants' nests, or the clay of river courses, to 
 form an oven wherein to bake bread, stopping up the open- 
 ing with wood and clay or cow dung, just as our cottagers 
 used to do with the earth-ovens made at the end of most 
 cottages, at a time when it was the wholesome custom 
 among farm-labourers to make and bake their own bread. 
 
 Boiling is another primitive mode of cooking, and the 
 method which is still employed in some uncivilised countries, 
 is to take the hide of the slaughtered animal, tie it up so as 
 
 * Years ago it was the custom in some parts of England to take 
 bread rolls wrapped up in cabbage leaves. This imparted a peculiar 
 and, to many palates, agreeable flavour to the bread. In a description 
 of a recent Chinese dinner, we find among the delicacies, a knife fish, 
 rolled in banana leaves, and baked between hot stones. 
 
io OUR VIANDS 
 
 to form a bag, place the meat in this bag with some water, 
 and then drop in stones, heated in the fire to a white heat, 
 until the meat is cooked. It must be a very tedious process, 
 and not particularly appetising, but the only one available 
 where pottery and metal are alike unknown. The alternative 
 method of placing the meat on hot stones and covering it 
 with the ashes was doubtless that most generally practised, 
 and is still adopted by hunters and by the gipsies in our 
 own country; one of the dainties of the latter being a hedge- 
 hog thus roasted, whilst the hunter in Africa will regale 
 himself with the foot of the elephant, or a porcupine cooked 
 in the same manner. Then of course there is the tripod of 
 sticks, upon which the meat is hung over the flame, and it 
 is doubtful whether meat thus cooked is not of finer flavour 
 than that which we dry up in ovens, or boil to death in 
 ordinary saucepans. 
 
 In very hot countries the sun turns cook, and the hunter 
 has only to place his steak on heated stones exposed to 
 the mid-day sun, and it will soon be sufficiently cooked, 
 or he may cut his game in slices and hang the pieces on 
 a thorn-bush to be thoroughly dried in the sun, and then 
 carry it away with him as biltong in South Africa, or jerked 
 beef (charki] in America. 
 
 We have heard of nests of eggs cooked by the heat of 
 the sun in South Africa, whilst in Iceland and some other 
 countries it is possible to cook by means of the boiling springs. 
 
 We are apt to experience a feeling of disgust in reading 
 of the Eskimo crowded in their snow houses, regaling 
 themselves with great pieces of seal-blubber, and washing 
 down the feast with train oil, but we do not consider the 
 disadvantages under which these poor people labour in 
 
IN TROD UCTION 1 1 
 
 a country where it would be impossible to indulge in 
 gastronomic luxuries, not only on account of the scarcity 
 of food, but also because of the scarcity of fuel, their 
 only cooking apparatus consisting of that simple oil lamp, 
 which serves the treble purpose of fire, candle, and cooking- 
 stove. Yet French and Italian cooks achieve most of their 
 culinary triumphs by the aid of a cooking-stove only once re- 
 moved from that of the Eskimo, being heated by charcoal only. 
 Luxury has now taken such hold upon us that we 
 wonder how it could ever have been possible to eat 
 comfortably without silver forks, yet our grandmothers 
 knew them not, but used forks of steel, at first with only 
 two tines or prongs, which they managed as deftly as the 
 Chinese do their chop-sticks, although they did not scruple 
 to put the knife in the mouth on occasion, and, in fact, 
 the knives were made rounded at the end for that purpose. 
 Forks, indeed, are but a late invention, and our Saxon 
 ancestors cut their meat from the spit with their hunting 
 knives, not only when engaged in the chase, but when seated 
 at table in their great banqueting halls, as witness a curious 
 old drawing in the Cotton Manuscript, in which two serving- 
 men or cooks are represented kneeling holding a spit in one 
 hand and a platter in the other, whilst three guests seated 
 at a table covered with a heavy cloth, upon which are 
 various dishes, and cakes of bread marked with a cross cut 
 from the spit presented to them such meat as they please, 
 apparently letting it fall into the platter held to receive it. 
 Yet we are told that the Anglo-Saxons possessed forks, 
 some having been found with coins of Caenwulf, King of 
 Mercia and Athelstan,* but these are supposed to have 
 * See Chambers's 'Book of Days.' 
 
12 OUR VIANDS 
 
 been mere toys, for forks certainly did not come into 
 general use in England before the end of the seventeenth 
 century, although they appear to have been used in Italy 
 at an earlier date. They have now penetrated into the 
 heart of savage Africa, and Mr. A. A. Anderson * describes 
 an interview with Lo Bengula, in which ' a little Mashona 
 boy brought, on a piece of grass matting, four large pieces 
 of bullock's lights, that had been broiled over a fire, and 
 a fork; advancing on hands and knees to his dreaded 
 master, he placed them on the grass in front of his majesty, 
 who took the fork, and transfixing one after the other they 
 disappeared from sight in his capacious mouth.' 
 
 The table appointments of ancient Egypt are familiar 
 to us from the paintings. We see the guests seated at 
 table in gala dress, be-wigged and be-jewelled, holding the 
 lotus-lily in their hands by way of nosegay, whilst attendants 
 in the very scantiest of attire, naked except for a girdle 
 and a necklace to show that they are slaves, serve them 
 with meat and wine, evidently in too great profusion, for 
 that disgusting practice, which prevailed also among the 
 epicures and gluttons of ancient Rome, of taking emetics 
 when satiated f in order to be able to renew the feast, is 
 most realistically depicted. 
 
 That which is remarkable in these Egyptian feasts is the 
 
 * 'Twenty-five Years in a Waggon.' 
 
 t It may be of interest here to give the receipt of Apicius for 
 digestive salts from Soyer's ' History of Food : ' take I Ib. of common 
 salt pulverised, mix with 3 oz. white pepper, 2 oz. ginger, I oz. lamoni, 
 \\ oz. thyme, i\ oz. celery seed, 2 oz. wild marjoram, \\ oz. rocket 
 seed, 3 oz. black pepper, \\ oz. holy thistle, 2 oz. hyssop, 2 oz. 
 spikenard, 2 oz. parsley, 2 oz. aniseed. Take a small quantity after 
 a too plentiful dinner. 
 
INTRODUCTION 13 
 
 preponderance of women represented. It is evident that 
 in those remote times ladies were not consigned to the 
 galleries to look on whilst their lords and masters enjoyed the 
 good things provided by Egyptian cooks, but were allowed 
 their full share both of the comestibles and of the table 
 talk. 
 
 The ancient Greeks were studiously simple in their habits, 
 and their cookery in early times appears to have partaken 
 of this simplicity. The famous black broth of the Spartans, 
 which was the national dish, and of which they were so 
 fond that they seldom ate anything else, appears to have 
 been a horrible compound of pork broth, with vinegar and 
 salt. Of this dish it is related, that Dionysius, the elder, 
 having had it carefully prepared by a Lacedaemonian slave, 
 just tasted it and threw it from him in disgust, demanding 
 of the slave whether that was the broth of which the 
 Spartans were so found ' No,' replied the slave, ' it lacks 
 one ingredient, that of violent exercise before partaking of it.' 
 
 In Attica the common people lived almost entirely upon 
 vegetables, but among the wealthy there was great profusion 
 as soon as luxuries began to be introduced from abroad. At 
 entertainments a king of the feast was chosen by lot, whose 
 duty it was to fix the quantity of wine to be drunk by the 
 guests, and to determine in what manner they were to pass 
 the evening ; this was often by music and singing patriotic 
 songs, although the king of the feast frequently proposed a 
 subject which all present were expected to discuss. The 
 guests at the dinner parties of the Athenians seem to have 
 been limited to nine, for it was an Athenian saying that a 
 convivial meeting should not consist of fewer than the 
 Graces or more than the Muses, and before sitting down 
 
14 OUR VIANDS 
 
 they were accustomed to use the warm bath, and to anoint 
 themselves with oil. 
 
 The institution of ' King of the Feast ' appears to have 
 descended to the Romans, for this functionary is mentioned 
 with approbation both by Plutarch and Cato. His office 
 somewhat resembled that of the chairman or president of 
 to-day, although he would appear to have had more to do 
 with the general conduct of the feast, regulating the quantity 
 of wine to be drunk, and who should sing or tell a story, or 
 in any other way amuse the guests. 
 
 The Romans in Republican times were as frugal in their 
 diet as the Spartans, seldom tasting meat, but living chiefly 
 upon milk, eggs, and vegetables, and a kind of pudding 
 somewhat resembling our batter pudding ; but this simple 
 mode of life was quickly abandoned, and the luxury of the 
 wealthy Romans exceeded anything known in the present 
 day. Nero's banqueting-room was wainscotted with ivory, 
 and the panels were so constructed as to turn on pivots and 
 shower down flowers and perfumes on the guests, whilst the 
 circular roof imitated the movements of the spheres, repre- 
 senting a different season of the year as each course was 
 placed on the table. 'The supper-rooms of Elagabalus,' 
 we are told, 'were hung with cloth of gold and silver, 
 enriched with jewellery ; the frames of the couches were of 
 massive silver, with mattresses covered with the richest 
 embroidery ; and the tables and table services were of pure 
 gold ;* whilst even of private individuals Horace writes 
 
 ' Where ivory couches overspread 
 With Tyrian carpets glowing, fed 
 The dazzled eye.' 
 
 * ' Sketches of Manners and Institutions of the Romans,' p. 164. 
 
INTRODUCTION 15 
 
 The guests reposed upon elegant couches placed round 
 the tables, and only sat in sign of mourning; each was 
 provided with a special robe, generally white, by the host, a 
 custom alluded to in the New Testament ; whilst a bill of 
 fare, or, as we should say now, a menu was placed before 
 every guest. As for plate, Crassus is said to have possessed 
 some, of which the workmanship alone cost about fifty-two 
 shillings the ounce. Sylla had silver dishes of sixteen 
 hundred ounces ; and a freedman of the Emperor Claudius 
 had one which weighed five hundred pounds, forming the 
 centre dish of eight others, each weighing fifty pounds. But 
 in the midst of all this luxury it is amusing to read that 
 every guest was expected to bring his own napkin, which he 
 generally sent home by a slave filled with some of the 
 good things from the table* a custom which, perhaps, 
 some of us would not be sorry to see revived. 
 
 Small figures of Mercury, Hercules, and the penates were 
 placed on the table, and libations were poured to them at 
 the beginning and end of a feast; whilst the salt placed 
 beside them was regarded as sacred. We find, too, the 
 superstitions regarding the spilling of salt, and the unlucky 
 number thirteen, in full force among the Romans. Pliny 
 says the purchase of a cook cost as much as the expense of 
 a triumph, and no mortal was so valued as the slave who 
 was most expert in the art of ruining his master. Hosts 
 seemed to vie with each other in the costliness of feasts, and 
 of Apicius it is related that, after having wasted half a 
 million sterling on the pleasures of the table, he committed 
 suicide because, having only eighty thousand pounds left, 
 he could not continue his extravagances. 
 
 ' Sketches of Manners and Institutions of the Romans,' p. 164. 
 
i6 OUR VIANDS 
 
 And yet, during the early part of the Empire, sumptuary 
 laws were in force regulating the expenses to be incurred at 
 banquets, and even the number of dishes, and it is said that 
 Julius Caesar frequently sent lictors to suspected houses, and 
 had the dishes carried off from the tables if they exceeded 
 the number permitted by law ; whilst Augustus decreed that 
 an ordinary repast should not cost more than 200 sesterces 
 (about ;i, i2s. 6d.), or 300 on feasts or days of solemnity, 
 and 1000 at a wedding. If we compare this with the 
 luxury of Nero and Elagabalus and later emperors, when a 
 single fish cost fifty guineas, when pearls were dissolved in 
 vinegar and drunk, not for pleasure, but only to add to the 
 cost of a feast ; and when the senate was convened to con- 
 sult as to the best manner of dressing a turbot for the 
 emperor's table, we shall hardly be surprised at the decline 
 and fall of Rome. 
 
 Yet this excess of luxury was a great incentive to com- 
 merce, for merchants who scoured the seas for things rare 
 and costly were sure of a market on their return ; whilst 
 they carried with them in their wanderings to distant shores 
 not only many useful wares by way of barter, but also those 
 germs of civilisation, destined to grow up and bear fruit 
 when the pomp of the Roman emperors which had caused 
 their transplantation had withered and fallen into an un- 
 timely grave. 
 
PART I 
 
 BREAD 
 
 WHEAT, BARLEY, RYE, OATS 
 
 ' ftttttt fjalfr a loafe tfjan no tart/ 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 BREAD 
 
 MAN is an omnivorous animal: nothing comes amiss to 
 him. When hunger impels he will eat the vilest refuse, 
 but in times of prosperity bread, meat, and vegetables form 
 the staple of his diet. 'Doctors differ' as to the original 
 food of mankind. It varied probably, as now, according to 
 climate, consisting of fruit and seeds where these grew 
 spontaneously and in abundance, and of animal food where 
 fruit, etc., could not be readily obtained ; but with the dawn 
 of civilisation man began to cultivate plants for food, and 
 particularly the several grains still used for making bread. 
 Of these, wheat, barley, and rye seem to have been the 
 earliest cultivated, oats being later, whilst it is doubtful 
 whether maize was known except on the American 
 continent. 
 
 We are so accustomed to look upon bread as the 
 'staff of life,' the food above all others necessary for our 
 sustenance, that the term, 'without bread,' has long been 
 in our language synonymous with ' starvation.' Hence we 
 find it hard to realise the fact that, if we restrict the term 
 bread to that which is generally so called, that is food 
 prepared from the farina or flour of various grains, not 
 only individuals, but entire nations have lived, and 
 
 19 
 
20 OUR VIANDS 
 
 continue to live to this day without bread; nay, that we 
 may trace the history of mankind back to a time when 
 bread was utterly unknown. 
 
 The early men who hunted the mammoth, the rhinoceros, 
 and the bear through the forests which now lie beneath the 
 waves of Torbay and Cromer, and sheltered themselves in 
 Brixham caverns, Kent's Hole, and the Victoria and Welsh 
 caves, knew nothing of bread ; they may indeed, and prob- 
 ably did, as savages do now, eat such roots and fruits as 
 came in their way, but it is abundantly evident that they did 
 not cultivate the soil, nor prepare grain for food. They 
 have left us their rude stone tools, and later the bone har- 
 poons with which they caught their fish, the needles with 
 which they sewed their skin garments, and the shell, bone, 
 and stone ornaments in which they delighted, but they 
 evidently lived like the hyenas, their contemporaries, upon 
 flesh and marrow, and it is doubtful whether they even 
 knew how to light a fire, or to cook in any way the game 
 they fed upon. There is, at all events among the older 
 relics, no trace of fire, no implements for grinding corn, 
 and no calcined grains, such as are so abundant in those 
 singularly interesting deposits of much later date, the Swiss 
 Lake dwellings, where corn and fruits of different kinds, 
 calcined and thus rendered indestructible, have been found 
 beneath the mud of lakes where they have lain for at least 
 two thousand years, so little injured by time that even the 
 seeds of the raspberry can be identified. We can prove 
 that these ancient lake-dwellers were advanced agriculturists, 
 because we can distinguish among these remains cereals of 
 various kinds, two or three sorts of wheats, one being that 
 kind denominated Egyptian, two or three barleys, millets, 
 
BREAD 21 
 
 and peas, also apples, pears, raspberries, blackberries, hazel 
 nuts, and beech nuts, but no trace of any agricultural imple- 
 ment has been found, and we do not know how they turned 
 over the soil, planted their seed, and gathered their harvest. 
 Probably their chief agricultural implements were pointed 
 sticks, such as are still used by many semi-civilised peoples, 
 and they ground or crushed their corn by means of such 
 mullers or hand-mills as are found so frequently among 
 remains of the later Stone (Neolithic) age ; certain it is that 
 they made bread, or at least unleavened cakes of the imper- 
 fectly ground corn ; they also stored the crushed corn in 
 coarse earthenware pots, and ate it either roasted, boiled, or 
 moistened, as it still is sometimes in Germany and Switzer- 
 land. Many of these relics are of a people wholly un- 
 acquainted with the use of metal, yet they knew how to 
 weave linen, to make nets for fishing, and pottery similar to 
 that often discovered in tumuli in Great Britain. It is not, 
 however, till we come to the Bronze age that oats are found 
 among the cereals in use, thus indicating progress, not only 
 in the art of tool-making, but also in that of agriculture. 
 Between the age of the earliest cave-dwellers and the earliest 
 of the Swiss Lake dwellers archaeologists place the well- 
 known 'kitchen-middens' of Denmark, upon which Sir 
 Charles Lyell based so strong an argument in favour of the 
 antiquity of man, but although these relics show a decided 
 advancement upon those of the primitive cave-men here and 
 elsewhere, no trace can be found in them of even the 
 rudiments of agricultural knowledge. It may indeed be 
 said by some, that difference of climate may account for 
 this want of agricultural knowledge in the Danish savages, 
 who have left their refuse heaps to show us what they ate 
 
22 OUR VIANDS 
 
 and what were their occupations, and that whilst these 
 kitchen-middens were accumulating in Denmark, and the 
 stalagmite slowly sealing down the records of early man in 
 Kent's Cavern and elsewhere, that in other more favoured 
 spots men were tilling the soil, gathering in their harvests of 
 wheat and barley, grinding their corn, and making their 
 bread; and undoubtedly this may have been the case, 
 because the beginning of agriculture cannot be traced, and 
 the first glimpses we get of the art in the Swiss Lake dwell- 
 ings show it already in an advanced stage; and since it 
 seems certain that man did not originate either in England 
 or Denmark, but made his way thither by slow degrees, at a 
 period when the conformation of land and sea differed 
 widely from that with which we are now so familiar ; there- 
 fore during this slow advance of mankind from his primeval 
 home to the utmost bounds of the universe, those remaining 
 in the original cradle of the race would have had time to 
 progress in civilisation, and to attain skill in those arts 
 which can only be successfully practised in settled com- 
 munities; nevertheless, the extreme antiquity of the art 
 even in Britain, is testified by traces of furrows found 
 beneath peat-bogs in Scotland where now corn will not 
 grow, and may be seen in Cornwall also, among those heaps 
 of metallic waste which are now looked upon as hopelessly 
 barren ; but who these early agriculturists were, and at what 
 time they lived, is an unsolved problem. 
 
 If, however, we turn to Eastern lands, to the records of 
 the earliest of historians, we shall find agriculture in a 
 state of great advancement. Before the days of Moses, 
 not only was wheaten bread in common use, but the art of 
 leavening it was also well known. At that period Egypt 
 
BREAD 23 
 
 was the storehouse of the world, and had been so, at least, 
 from the days of Abraham ; for, although we know from 
 the monuments that corn was grown abundantly in Assyria, 
 yet it was to Egypt that the patriarchs always resorted 
 during those times of famine, which would appear to have 
 been as frequent then in Mesopotamia as they have 
 unfortunately been of late years in India, and it is worthy 
 of remark that Egypt owed her comparative immunity 
 from these terrible visitations, not only to the fertility 
 caused by the annual overflow of the Nile, but to the 
 wisdom of her rulers in instituting vast irrigation works, 
 whereby that overflow was regulated and equalised by 
 means of great reservoirs, wherein surplus water was stored, 
 in order that it might be distributed over the land, through 
 a network of canals when the rise of the Nile was deficient. 
 The first direct mention of meal and bread in the Bible is 
 in Genesis xviii. 5, 6, where Abraham invites the angel 
 to take a morsel of bread, and tells Sarah to ' make ready 
 quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make 
 cakes upon the hearth.' This, it may be observed, was 
 subsequent to the time when famine had driven them into 
 Egypt, and although we are told that Adam was sent 
 forth from Paradise to till the ground from whence he 
 was taken, and also find it recorded that Cain was a 
 tiller of the soil, yet it is abundantly evident that the 
 patriarchs were pastoral nomads like the Arabs of the 
 present day, and in no sense of the word agriculturists, 
 and that if we wish to trace the early history of cereals 
 we must look rather to archaeological than to Biblical 
 records. 
 
 We know what the bread of ancient Egypt was like, 
 
24 OUR VIANDS 
 
 for it has been found in tombs, and may be seen in the 
 British Museum. The authorities say it was chiefly barley 
 cakes, but we learn from the Bible, as well as from the 
 records of the tombs, that wheat was largely grown, and 
 also that leaven was used in the making of bread, for the 
 children of Israel, when they departed out of Egypt, took 
 their 'kneading troughs with the dough before it was 
 leavened.' This was the origin of the Jewish feast of 
 unleavened bread. The leaven employed was doubtless 
 a piece of stale dough, ' hidden in the meal till the whole 
 was leavened,' and this is still used in some countries, 
 but it causes an unpleasant sourness, very unpalatable to 
 those unaccustomed to it. The Jews, however, evidently 
 made cakes upon the hearth, of meal mixed with oil, but 
 it does not seem quite clear whether the meal was of 
 wheat or barley. 
 
 We know, also by actual specimens, what sort of bread 
 was used by the old Swiss Lake dwellers, who built their 
 pile houses out into the lakes, but who cultivated wheat, 
 barley, and rye on the mainland, and, as time went on, 
 oats also. When their houses were burnt by some enemy 
 to the water's edge, the food they had stored in them was 
 burnt also, and, with a lot of articles of domestic use, sank 
 down to the bottom of the lake, where it lay unheeded and 
 unknown for many centuries, until discovered by accident 
 only a few years ago. 
 
 Another specimen of bread comes down to us after 
 having been buried for centuries this time by the ashes 
 of a volcano; for among the relics of Pompeii we find 
 loaves of bread, as put into the oven on the day when the 
 rain of fiery ashes fell and caused the baker to fly for 
 
BREAD 25 
 
 his life, leaving his loaves to await customers until this 
 nineteenth century, when they have been withdrawn from 
 the oven to prove to admiring antiquaries that Pompeian 
 bakers knew how to set up a batch of bread almost in the 
 same form as those of London ; but bread was often baked 
 in moulds, which have been found in Herculaneum, and 
 these loaves were all divided into portions by a cross, like 
 scones at the present day. Doubtless, all these ancient 
 breads were what we should now call of whole meal, for 
 there were no millers in those early days to sift away the 
 most nutritious portion of the meal. The corn was mostly 
 crushed on a hollow stone by means of another stone, 
 as we know by the many specimens of these primitive 
 mills which have been found; or it was passed between 
 two stones fastened together to form what is called a quern, 
 with two sticks to serve as handles, which two women 
 sitting passed round to each other from hand to hand, 
 thus grinding the corn as it was poured in through a hole 
 in the centre, as in a coffee-mill. References to this kind 
 of hand-mill are frequent in the Bible. Even now hand- 
 mills are in use in India and in many Eastern countries ; 
 whilst the primitive form of winnowing the grain in which 
 a woman stands in a doorway and pours the grain down 
 from a vessel held as high as she can, the wind carrying 
 away the chaff, the heavier corn falling to the ground is 
 still retained in some parts of Europe, as, for example, 
 among the dwellers in Alpine valleys; but water-mills are 
 said to have been invented in the reign of Augustus, and, 
 long after that, in Rome, mills were turned by asses and 
 sometimes freemen, who worked thus for a living, whilst 
 slaves were sometimes punished by being sent to work 
 
26 OUR VIANDS 
 
 in the mills, being afterwards known as asinus. The poor 
 donkeys enjoyed a holiday during the summer festival, 
 being then turned loose and adorned with garlands. 
 
 The variety of bread at present in use is astonishing, 
 every country has some peculiarity, but I only purpose 
 here to mention a few of the whcaten breads of Europe, 
 leaving others to be treated of later. 
 
 The bread of Great Britain and Ireland is too well known 
 to need description, but in Scotland the white bread is too 
 white and deficient in crust to please our palate, whilst the 
 brown is superior to anything we get in London. The 
 bread of Devonshire and Cornwall calls also for a passing 
 notice, being baked in an iron pot, which makes it rather 
 close and of a peculiar shape. It is, however, very sweet 
 and good. When we cross over to France, we find wheaten 
 bread of various qualities and forms, but characterised 
 chiefly by length, so that to buy bread by the yard is not a 
 merefa$0n de parler. The finer French rolls are well known, 
 but the waiter in a restaurant frequented by the poorer classes 
 does not present such luxuries to his customers. With two 
 or three yards of coarse bread under his arm, he slices off 
 thick rounds to serve with each plate of bouilli. Journeying 
 on to Spain, we find the bread excellent, and used alike by 
 rich and poor. It is very white, and fashioned something 
 like a door-knocker thick in the centre, and tapering off so 
 as to be fastened together with a kind of knob. In Italy 
 the native bread is not good, although it looks tempting. 
 Made in the shape of a ball, and covered with crusty knobs, 
 it is as the apples of Sodom, so dry and sour that none but 
 natives can eat it with relish. There is, however, a bread 
 peculiar to North Italy which is palatable enough, but too 
 
BREAD 27 
 
 fanciful for everyday use. This bread is called grizzinf, and 
 is made in long tubes a little larger than macaroni, and 
 baked quite brown. When placed before you it resembles 
 a bundle of sticks, and when fresh and crisp is very good, 
 although not very satisfying. The best is made in Turin 
 and Genoa. It is not known in South Italy, where macaroni 
 may be said almost to take the place of bread, especially 
 among the lower orders, who beg for money to eat macaroni 
 instead of asking for bread. Macaroni is a stiff paste of 
 flour and eggs, forced through holes so as to form long 
 pipes; it is then hung across strings in the porches or 
 windows of the houses to dry. In Naples it is eaten boiled 
 in oil, and always with grated Parmesan cheese. 
 
 In Germany the best white bread is everywhere made in 
 small rolls of different shapes, very delicious when quite 
 new, but the Germans have an almost superstitious belief in 
 the medicinal virtues of aniseed, and all the ordinary house- 
 hold bread is plentifully sprinkled with these seeds, the 
 flavour of which is far from pleasant to an English palate. 
 The Germans, also, eat rye bread, but of that anon. All 
 through Europe at the present day the finest wheaten bread 
 chiefly in the form of rolls is consumed by the upper 
 classes, whilst the poorer people eat rye or barley bread. 
 Probably little wheaten rolls were early in use in England 
 when the ordinary household bread was of rye or barley. 
 Shakespeare alludes to these delicate wheaten cakes when, 
 in his song of the fairies, he says : 
 
 A grain o' the finest wheat 
 
 Is manchet that we eat. 
 
 But we must not enter into fairy lore, lest our subject should 
 drift into something too ethereal for mortal appetite. 
 
28 OUR VIANDS 
 
 The bread of ancient Greece is said to have been of 
 dazzling whiteness and exquisite taste, but they soon began 
 to mix ingredients with the paste which altered its character, 
 and seventy-two kinds of bread were introduced. Some of 
 these, according to Soyer's ' History of Food,' were made 
 with milk, honey, oil, cheese, and wine, mixed with best 
 flour, and all were known as artos bread. Women sold this 
 bread in an open market, as also azumos, a kind of biscuit 
 made without leaven ; artologanos, in which wine, pepper, 
 oil, and milk were introduced ; and escarites, made of light 
 paste with raw sweet wine and honey. The poorer people 
 had dolyres, made of rye and barley ; whilst ladies of fashion 
 ate puff-cakes called placites or melitutes, and the workmen 
 bought tyrontes, a bread mixed with cheese. 
 
 Amongst the Romans, porridge appears to have been the 
 national dish until wheaten bread was introduced from 
 Greece; they had also a very coarse bread made of bran 
 and a little coarse flour, which was made expressly for dogs 
 and slaves. Their leaven, according to Pliny, was made 
 from millet or wheat-bran, soaked in wine and dried in the 
 sun, or of a dish of barley paste placed on red-hot coals 
 till it boiled, and then put into vessels till it became 
 sour. 
 
 Barley bread is now so entirely discarded, that it is hard 
 to realise that even up to the beginning of the present 
 century, it was the common food of the English peasantry, 
 even as it was in ancient times the bread of Egypt, and of 
 the Jews in the days of Christ, as we learn from the miracle 
 wrought upon the lad's five barley loaves. We remember 
 once talking to an old man, who grumbled at the hardness 
 of the times and the difficulty of getting a living. * But,' we 
 
BREAD 29 
 
 said, ' you get a great deal more wages now than when you 
 were young.' 'Oh, ay,' he said, 'but it don't seem to go 
 so fur.' ' That's because you live better, perhaps ? ' said we. 
 ' For instance, you didn't get white bread and butter every 
 day then.' 'Noa, noa,' said he, 'that we didn't; barley 
 bread as black as my hat and a bit of thin cheese was what 
 we did get mostly, and a slice of fat bacon and cabbage 
 now and then that's what we did live upon when I were 
 young.' ' Well,' we answered, ' if you would eat the same 
 now, you'd soon be quite rich.' But he only shook his 
 head, repeating, ' Barley bread as black as my hat noa, 
 noa, couldn't eat it now: teeth baint so good as they wer.' 
 
 In truth, it must have been hard, dry stuff, and we are 
 not surprised that it should have been superseded by 
 wheaten bread as soon as wheat became sufficiently cheap 
 to be used in common. In like manner oat cake is now 
 discarded, even in Scotland, ' the land of cakes,' except in 
 some few districts, and it is more difficult to get oat cake in 
 Edinburgh than in London, in which latter city it is con- 
 sumed as a luxury by the rich, instead of forming the staple 
 food of the working classes. Yet it is good wholesome fare, 
 and might be eaten advantageously, especially by children, 
 instead of the much-adulterated and unsatisfying white 
 bread now so largely, and, indeed, exclusively eaten by the 
 English poor, for they will not eat whole-meal bread if it is 
 offered them, partly, perhaps, owing to the price, which is 
 always higher than that of white bread, but chiefly because 
 of its traditional use by poor people, so that white bread has 
 come to be regarded as a luxury by the poor, and therefore 
 preferred. 
 
 When, however, we come to rye bread, we find that, 
 
30 OUR VIANDS 
 
 although it is now unknown in this country, it still forms 
 the principal food of the peasantry of the greater part of 
 Europe. Often have I seen the German peasant toiling 
 along the dusty road by the side of his horse, cutting huge 
 slices from what resembled a great black ham tucked under 
 his arm, and feeding therewith himself and his horse alter- 
 nately. This black bread does not look very appetising, 
 but if you buy a sandwich of it, with German sausage, at 
 the railway stations, as you can do, you will find it far from 
 despicable. The Russian peasants also eat rye bread only, 
 and a slice is always served at the tables of the wealthy, and, 
 when eaten hot and quite new, is very good and nutritious. 
 
 But the most peculiar, and we should imagine the least 
 palatable, of these rye breads, is that consumed in Norway 
 under the name of Fladbrod, which is made only twice a 
 year, in a hut constructed for the purpose. The rye-meal 
 paste is spread as thin as possible on a large flat round 
 gridiron, the size of a small table, turned very deftly by 
 means of a wooden stick, and when sufficiently baked is 
 stored for use in heaps 8 feet high ; but it is coarse and 
 indigestible. 
 
 It is hardly to be supposed that any of my readers will be 
 tempted to return to this food of our ancestors, especially as, 
 according to our old friend quoted above, ' Teeth baint as 
 good as they wer ' a fact which many of the wise attribute 
 in no small degree to the consumption of fine wheaten 
 bread instead of the whole-meal bread, or the barley, oaten, 
 and rye bread formerly in common use. 
 
 We have lately seen rye bread exposed for sale in a few 
 London shops, so, probably, there is a limited sale for it, 
 although chiefly among the Germans ; but in early times the 
 
BREAD 31 
 
 bread consumed by men in our own country must have 
 been as unpalatable as the rye bread of Germany or the 
 Fladbrod of Norway, for in seasons of scarcity it was some- 
 times made of acorns steeped in water to destroy the bitter- 
 ness; and even as late as 1546 Du Bellay, Bishop of 
 Mans, in representing to Francis I. the misery existing in 
 the provinces, assured him that in many localities the people 
 had nothing to eat but bread made of acorns.* 
 
 There was also a sort of bread sold known as horse bread, 
 in which beans and peas were the chief ingredients, never- 
 theless, even in the fourteenth century there would appear 
 to have been different kinds of wheaten bread made and 
 sold by bakers, the finest being the simnel bread before 
 mentioned; the next quality was known as wastel, then 
 came French bread called also puffe or cocket ; after that 
 came tourte, which must have resembled our whole-meal 
 bread, and which was in use by the common people and in 
 monasteries. Of this there was also an inferior sort known 
 as trete, from which some of the fine flour had been sifted ; 
 and lastly there was black bread made of barley and rye.f 
 
 Some of us are old enough to remember when every 
 
 * In Tyndale's ' Sardinia,' p. 191, we read: ' The acorn-bread, which 
 forms the general food of the people of Cagliari, is thus prepared. The 
 acorns when shelled are put into a large seething-pot with water which 
 has been strained through the ashes of burnt vegetable matter and clay. 
 This lye extracts the bitterness of the acorn, and gives a consistency to 
 the mixture, which is boiled down till it assumes a reddish-brown colour, 
 when it is taken out, dried in the sun, and cut into cakes. ' 
 
 t The ordinary food of the Russian peasant consists of black rye 
 bread and cabbage broth thickened with oatmeal, but the famine has 
 lately deprived them of even this meagre fare, and they have been 
 compelled to eat bread largely composed of bark of trees, unwholesome 
 herbs, earth, and sometimes a handful of rye. 
 
32 OUR VIANDS 
 
 household, at least in the country, made its own bread ; very 
 delicious bread it was, too, sweet and wholesome, brown, 
 without a lot of indigestible bran, and leavened with barm 
 from home-made beer, sometimes rather difficult to procure, 
 so that the family baking had to be put off till the yeast was 
 forthcoming, and then it was necessary to borrow loaves of 
 the neighbours, or to make unleavened cakes upon the 
 hearth, using soda and tartaric acid or buttermilk by way of 
 rising. Then, too, there was a friendly interchange among 
 neighbours of newly-baked loaves, and not only so but of 
 the use of the oven, Mrs. M. heating her oven one week and 
 Mrs. N. the next ; or sometimes the dough would be sent to 
 a bakehouse, the tidy servant carrying it wrapped up in a 
 blanket and sundry cloths, and making it up at the baker's, 
 putting her mistress's name on it, according to the old 
 nursery rhyme 
 
 ' Prick it, and dawk it, and mark it with D, 
 And pop it in the oven for baby and me,' 
 
 and paying a small sum for the accommodation. The 
 baker's toll was regulated by law in the days of King John, 
 and according to the ' Book of Days ' was to be * for his 
 own labour, three pence and such bran as might be sifted 
 from the meal,' whilst he was allowed to add 'to the 
 prime cost of the wheat for fuel and wear of the oven 
 the price of two loaves ; for the services of three men, he 
 was to add to the price of the bread three halfpence; 
 and for two boys, one farthing ; for the expenses attending 
 the seal, one halfpenny; for yeast, one halfpenny; for 
 candle, one halfpenny ; for wood, threepence ; and for wear 
 and tear of the bolting-sieve, one halfpenny.' * 
 
 * See Chambers's 'Book of Days,' p. 119, etc. 
 
BREAD . 33 
 
 There would seem to have been a great many regulations 
 as to the making and selling of bread, and adulteration 
 was common then as now, for sometimes the bakers 
 would put fine bread on the outside and coarse inside, 
 till an enactment was made forbidding the practice, and 
 also the sale of bran loaves or of flour mixed with bran, 
 whilst the bakers of brown bread were forbidden to sell 
 white, and every loaf had to be sealed so as to certify 
 to the buyer its quality. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 MAIZE AND MILLET 
 
 IT has fallen to my lot more than once to be told by 
 Americans ' You have no corn in England.' At first I felt 
 somewhat insulted by this assertion especially as we 
 were at the time journeying by rail through a part of 
 the country where the yellow corn, in the ear and in the 
 sheaf, gladdened the eye and made one rejoice in a plentiful 
 harvest. But, of course, according to American notions, we 
 have no corn in England, for they confine the term corn to 
 the one cereal maize, which is believed to have been indi- 
 genous in America, and unknown to Europe before the time 
 of Columbus. The Americans are, undoubtedly, wrong in 
 limiting the term corn to maize, because long before the 
 discovery of America corn was the generic term for wheat, 
 barley, oats, and rye, and maize received its name of Indian 
 corn from the first European settlers in America, who found 
 it growing there, and in use by the natives as the only 
 bread-stuff. We all know Longfellow's charming description 
 of the birth of this beautiful plant in 'The Song of Hiawatha.' 
 After the hero had buried Mondamin, who was the maize 
 personified 
 
 Day by day did Hiawatha 
 
 Go to wait and watch beside it, 
 34 
 
MAIZE AND MILLET 3$ 
 
 Kept the dark mould soft above it, 
 
 Kept it clean from weeds and insects 
 
 Drove away with scoffs and shoutings, 
 
 Kahgahgee, the king of ravens ; 
 
 Till at length a small green feather 
 
 From the earth shot slowly upward. 
 
 Then another and another, 
 
 And before the summer ended 
 
 Stood the maize in all its beauty, 
 
 With its shining robes about it, 
 
 And its long, soft, yellow tresses. 
 
 And in rapture Hiawatha 
 
 Cried aloud, ' It is Mondamin ! 
 
 Yes, the friend of man, Mondamin ! ' 
 
 Then he called to old Nokomis, 
 
 And lagoo the great boaster ; 
 
 Showed them where the maize was growing ; 
 
 Told them of his wondrous vision, 
 
 Of his wrestling and his triumph, 
 
 Of this new gift to the nations, 
 
 Which should be their food for ever. 
 
 Well may this plant be called 'the friend of man,' for 
 since its first introduction it has spread more rapidly than 
 could have been supposed possible, being cultivated in 
 every land where the climate will allow it to ripen ; but 
 when we find savages in the heart of Africa, who apparently 
 have never met with a white man, cultivating this plant, we 
 become somewhat sceptical as to its introduction by white 
 men since the days of Columbus. 
 
 It is undoubted that agriculture was known very early in 
 some parts of America, and that maize was the chief cereal 
 grown, although millet and beans were also cultivated. 
 Now, although maize was found by Darwin in a raised 
 beach on the coast of Peru, 85 feet above sea-level, and 
 must therefore have been of vast antiquity in America, yet 
 
36 OUR VIANDS 
 
 all the American legends relating to it tell of its introduc- 
 tion or cultivation by foreigners, coming from the sea. 
 Quetzalcoatl in Mexico, Manco Capac in Peru, Hiawatha 
 among the wild Indian tribes of North America, are some 
 of these legendary introducers of this great boon to man. 
 
 The existence of these legends with regard to maize is 
 curious, because no similar legends, except in China, exist in 
 the Old World with regard to the first cultivation of wheat, 
 barley, and rye ; and the American legends have not found 
 their way to those remote parts of Asia and Africa where 
 maize has certainly been grown for centuries, although 
 legends are generally caught up eagerly and passed from 
 mouth to mouth among savages, who are ever ready to 
 invest that which is new with some marvellous attribute. 
 
 Botanists all assign an American origin to maize, and 
 believe its native home to be Paraguay, or some region of 
 Central America, and therefore it is assumed that it was 
 unknown in the Eastern Hemisphere before the days of 
 Columbus, who is said to have introduced it into Spain in 
 1520. But it is reported to have been found growing at 
 the Cape at the time of its first discovery by the Portuguese 
 in 1493, and we are told it is figured in an old Chinese 
 book of botany in the national library of Paris ; and grains 
 of maize are said to have been found in ancient houses in 
 Athens, as well as in the wrappings of Egyptian mummies, 
 whilst some have supposed that this was the ' corn of Egypt.' 
 This, however, is hardly possible, seeing that it has never 
 yet been found figured on the monuments of Egypt, whilst 
 wheat is frequently represented. 
 
 The first notice of this corn is found in ' The Nieue Her- 
 ball,' published in London in 1578, where it is described as 
 
MAIZE AND MILLET 37 
 
 Frnmentum Turcicum or Frumentum Asiaticum, in French, 
 Ble de Turquie or Bit Sarazin ; in English, Turkey corn 
 or Indian wheat ; and the author says of it, 'This grayne 
 groweth in Turkic wher as it is used in time of dearth,' 
 adding, c There is as yet no certain experience of the natural 
 vertues of this corne. The bread that is made thereof is 
 drie and harde, having very small fatnesse or moysture, 
 wherefore men may easily judge that it nourisheth little, 
 and is evill of digestion.' 
 
 One thing is certain, whatever may have been the origin 
 of maize, and the date of its first cultivation in America and 
 in the Old World, it is now grown very extensively in all 
 parts of the world in which the climate is suitable, even in 
 the heart of savage Africa and in Madagascar, forming every- 
 where one of the staple foods of man. It does not ripen 
 always with us, but might, I believe, be grown advantageously 
 to supply the market with that delicious vegetable so highly 
 esteemed in America and South Africa (green corn\ which 
 we now only get in tins from America. Tinned green corn 
 and succotash, which is a mixture of green corn and beans, 
 have of late years found their way into English households, 
 and very good they are, but the corn on the cob, as eaten 
 in America, is better, as all who have tasted it will testify. 
 
 Although maize appears to have been early known in 
 China, it is not named among the five sorts of corn culti- 
 vated by the Chinese in the days of Chin-Nong, their second 
 emperor, or the head of the second dynasty some historians 
 placing seventeen emperors between him and Fohi, who, 
 according to the Chinese annals, reigned over a people 
 differing little from brutes. Fohi taught the people to fish, 
 and to domesticate animals for food, and Chin-Nong 
 
38 OUR VIANDS 
 
 instructed them in agriculture, inventing the necessary im- 
 plements of husbandry, and teaching the people to sow five 
 sorts of grain, hence his name, which signifies Heavenly 
 Husbandman. On the fifteenth day after the sun enters 
 Aquarius, which is the commencement of Spring, a feast is 
 held in honour of husbandry and celebrated husbandmen, 
 numerous figures in connection with this art are carried in 
 procession, and among them a huge cow of clay, so large 
 that forty men can with difficulty carry it Behind this cow, 
 whose horns are gilt, is a young child with one foot naked 
 and one covered, representing the genius of labour and 
 diligence. The child strikes the earthen cow without 
 ceasing with a rod, as if to drive her forwards. She is 
 followed by all the husbandmen with musical instruments, 
 and by companies of masquers. At the governor's palace 
 this cow is broken in pieces, and the fragments, with a 
 number of small cows taken from the larger one, are .dis- 
 tributed to the multitude, whilst the governor makes a 
 discourse in praise of agriculture. 
 
 The Chinese, who have always been diligent agriculturists, 
 attach great importance to the influence of the moon upon 
 vegetation, and have a table of those plants which invariably 
 flower in the night, and their great religious agricultural 
 festival, at which the emperor ploughs a furrow with his 
 own hand and sows the five kinds of grain, is always 
 regulated by the moon. The five kinds of grain sown by 
 the emperor are those introduced by Chin-Nong, and con- 
 sist of wheat, rice, millet, beans, and caoleang, probably 
 Holcus sorghum, which is widely cultivated in Asia and 
 Africa, and was formerly well known in Greece and Rome, 
 and which is now called Guinea corn or Caffre corn, although 
 
MAIZE AND MILLET 39 
 
 it may possibly have been maize, which, as I have pointed 
 out, was known early in China. A festival very similar to 
 that of China took place in ancient Egypt and in Peru, in 
 both of which countries the monarch held the plough and 
 sowed the grain, which, of course, in Peru consisted of 
 maize, and at the close of the maize harvest some of the 
 corn was made into an image called a ' Pirva,' which was 
 held in great veneration. 
 
 A writer in the Monthly Packet (November 1877) has 
 pointed out the great resemblance between this ancient 
 Peruvian festival and some harvest customs which still exist 
 in Great Britain. Thus in Northumberland it was formerly 
 the custom to dress an image, crowned with flowers and 
 holding a sheaf of corn and a sickle, and to fix it to a pole 
 in the fields, whence it was brought home on the last day of 
 harvest by the reapers with music and dancing ; in some 
 villages a kern or corn baby is still kept. Devonshire 
 farmers make a kind of image of the last ears of corn twisted 
 together, which is brought in with great rejoicings at every 
 harvest home, and called a knack, which it is very unlucky 
 to part with till the next harvest. In Scotland the last 
 handful of corn reaped used to be called the Maiden, and 
 was formed into a cross and carefully kept, the supper 
 following being called the Maiden Feast. 
 
 It will be observed that not only is maize absent from the 
 five kinds of grain sown by Chin-Nong, but also barley and 
 oats, so that we may conclude that all three were alike 
 unknown in China at that early period, although barley was 
 certainly very anciently known and cultivated in Egypt. 
 
 Maize is hardly used for the making of bread in the sense 
 in which we use the term, although in America it was 
 
40 OUR VIANDS 
 
 doubtless from time immemorial ground and made into cakes 
 resembling oat cake. The Mexican, Peruvian, and Central 
 American graves of very ancient date contain numbers of 
 grinding stones, made something like a stool with short legs, 
 the top sloping and somewhat hollowed out. These are 
 always accompanied by large stones resembling short rolling- 
 pins, with which the Indian women crushed the maize and 
 made it fit to boil into porridge or make into cakes. The 
 Kaffirs generally take maize I do not know the Kaffir 
 name, but the Colonists call it mealies (a term, by the way, 
 which the generality of English people take to mean potatoes) 
 and put a quantity into a jar or pot of water, pile burning 
 fuel round it, and let it stew all day: it thus swells and 
 becomes tender, and is eaten in this form as their staple 
 food. Sometimes the women stamp it in a wooden mortar 
 with one, or sometimes two, long pestles to get off the outer 
 husk, and occasionally they grind it on stones in the same 
 manner as the ancient American Indian did, and make cakes 
 of the flour. 
 
 It is only of late that our English cooks have deigned to 
 make use of this foreign bread-stuff. When first introduced, 
 it was deemed only fit to feed pigs and poultry : we are 
 so exceedingly conservative, especially with regard to food, 
 that it requires at least half a century to acclimatise a new 
 comestible, but at last we have accepted maize in its various 
 forms as passably good food for John Bull and his family. 
 Brown & Poison's corn flour is perhaps the best known and 
 most extensively used of all, and this is not a flour ground 
 in a mill, but a precipitated starch. Maizena, hominy, 
 Oswego, and other preparations of Indian corn are also now 
 in common use, and doubtless enter into the composition 
 
MAIZE AND MILLET 41 
 
 of sundry cakes, biscuits, etc., which formerly were 
 compounded solely of wheat flour, and are extensively 
 used for thickening soups, gravies, blancmanges, and 
 custards, instead of the far more expensive isinglass, 
 eggs, etc., which are recommended in cookery books. 
 But we have not yet attained to the full knowledge 
 of the capabilities of this useful cereal, and cannot com- 
 pound the endless variety of corn cakes and crackers in 
 use in America. Doubtless, in time we shall come to 
 appreciate all these foreign delicacies, but at present we 
 are content to make wheat our staple cereal, and to use 
 maize merely as an adjunct, except as cattle and poultry 
 food, for which it has come into general use, being cheap 
 and abundant, although I am still conservative enough 
 to believe that poultry fed by the old method that is, 
 upon barley-meal and potatoes are far better than those 
 fattened upon Indian corn, which, if used exclusively, 
 is apt to make more yellow fat than that firm, white meat 
 so much appreciated by the cook and housekeeper. 
 
 There are innumerable varieties of this useful cereal, 
 some being almost black, some quite white, others red, 
 and the commonest variety yellow. The size of the grain 
 also varies greatly from large kernels, pressed tightly 
 together on the cob so as to form a compact mass difficult 
 to separate, to very small grains of opal-like lustre scarcely 
 larger than a good grain of wheat, and so arranged on the 
 little cob as to retain a rounded egg-like form, pointed at 
 the extremity. This is the kind which is grown especially 
 for eating as green corn, being peculiarly tender and 
 delicate. Parched Indian corn is much eaten by the natives, 
 and it is said that an Indian will subsist a long time on 
 
42 OUR VIANDS 
 
 six or eight ounces per day of parched corn mixed with 
 water. The dried leaves also form an excellent forage for 
 horses and cattle, and in Mexico the green stalks are cut 
 and eaten as a sweetmeat, there being a large amount 
 of sugar in them. 
 
 The tortillas of Mexico, so often mentioned in books 
 of travel, are made, according to Captain Lyon, of crushed 
 maize formed with water into unleavened cakes, baked on 
 the hearth, and eaten with a sauce compounded of chilies. 
 ' In the houses of respectable people a woman, called from 
 her office, Tortillera, is kept for the express purpose of 
 making these cakes; and it sounds very oddly to the ear 
 of a stranger, during meal-times to hear the rapid patting 
 and clapping which goes forward in the cooking-place until 
 all demands are satisfied.' 
 
 It may be observed that among the cereals regarded 
 by the Chinese as of the first importance, the two millets 
 are almost unknown among ourselves. They never figure 
 among the grains in common use, and, although frequently 
 used on the Continent as a thickening for soups, and 
 sometimes in England for making milk-puddings, they are 
 seldom found in English kitchens. Yet under the name 
 of Dourah one of the millets forms the chief food of the 
 Egyptians; and Guinea or Kaffir corn is almost as much 
 used as maize or wheat all over the African continent, 
 where three harvests of it may be reaped yearly. It is 
 also largely consumed in Arabia, Syria, and in the West 
 Indies among the negroes. It was doubtless much more 
 used anciently than at present, being especially suited to 
 countries where little rain falls, and the soil is too poor and 
 sandy for the cultivation of wheat or maize. 
 
MAIZE AND MILLET 43 
 
 Buck-wheat, which is much grown on the Continent as 
 food for cattle and poultry, is not used for human food, 
 except among the very poor, who sometimes mix it with 
 a little flour and make of it a black bitterish bread, not 
 at all appetising or nourishing ; but all kinds of birds and 
 animals are very fond of it, and it is grown for feeding 
 pheasants in England, and also for bees, who collect much 
 honey from the blossoms. Pigs are said to become in- 
 toxicated by eating buck-wheat, and are quickly fattened 
 upon it, whilst it causes cows fed upon it to yield a larger 
 quantity of rich milk. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 VARIOUS BREAD-STUFFS 
 
 WE have passed in review the bread-stuffs used in Europe 
 and America, but there remains a very important class 
 of bread-making material very little known to us, but 
 affording nourishment to many thousands in some of our 
 Colonies. 
 
 Those who visited the West Indian court of the Colonial 
 and Indian Exhibition and especially that part devoted to 
 British Guiana must have noticed a number of flat white 
 cakes hung up in nets and labelled Cassava Bread^ but the 
 greater number of those who saw probably went away as wise 
 as before. They might also have seen, in this same court, 
 glass jars rilled with a white substance, cut in thin slices, and 
 labelled sweet and bitter cassava, and, at the entrance, they 
 might probably have been attracted by the figure of an 
 Indian woman, with a child on her back, sitting on a piece 
 of wood attached to a very curiously-shaped long basket, but, 
 unless they had lived in the West Indies, it would never have 
 occurred to them to connect this basket and the woman with 
 bread-making in any form ; yet this basket forms an important 
 adjunct to the art of bread-making in the West Indies, for 
 the cassava is the root of a plant known as Jatropha manihot, 
 or, shortly, manioc, which when fresh is a deadly poison, but 
 
 44 
 
VARIOUS BREAD-STUFFS 45 
 
 when properly prepared is an excellent and very nourishing 
 food. The mode of preparation is to take the root and rasp 
 it on tin or wooden graters : the raspings are then placed in 
 the long plaited basket, which is hung to a tree, and drawn 
 down by means of a weight attached to a pole at the bottom. 
 Sometimes, as represented at the Exhibition, a woman sits 
 on the pole to drag the basket out to its full extent, thus 
 squeezing all the juice from the rasped root, which, when 
 sufficiently squeezed, is emptied out on raw hides and dried 
 in the sun. It is then baked on smooth plates made of clay. 
 The coarse flour is spread out quite dry on the hot plates, 
 and made into very thin, flat, round cakes by the women, 
 who turn it very dexterously by means of two pieces of split 
 cane. When baked it will keep any length of time. The 
 starch precipitated from the poisonous juice of the manioc 
 forms that excellent and nutritious food known as tapioca, 
 and the dried root itself is also eaten, and is very excellent 
 food, so that in nothing is the old adage that ' one man's 
 meat is another man's poison' better exemplified than in 
 this plant Jatropha manihot^ for whilst it supplies good and 
 wholesome food for thousands, the extracted juice is so 
 poisonous that it was used by the Indians to poison their 
 enemies the Spaniards, and it is said to cause death in a few 
 minutes. Nevertheless, not only is the prepared root eaten 
 with impunity and used in making several fermented liquors, 
 but the leaves also are boiled and eaten. 
 
 Cassava or manioc, prepared in the same way that is, by 
 extracting the poisonous juice is used as food not only in 
 the West Indies, but in West Africa, Madagascar, and many 
 of the South Sea Islands, but it is being gradually superseded 
 by maize and wheat, although it seems a pity that it should 
 
46 OUR VIANDS 
 
 be thus superseded, for we are told that an acre planted with 
 Jatropha manihot will yield nourishment to more people 
 than six acres planted with wheat. 
 
 It is a curious fact that not only manioc, but other roots 
 of a poisonous nature, have been used for food by uncivilised 
 peoples from time immemorial, and it must have required a 
 considerable amount of thought and observation to enable 
 men in such a low state of culture to convert such plants 
 into wholesome food. The root of the Arum lily is one of 
 the plants thus utilised, and we must not forget that the 
 potato, now so universally eaten and esteemed, belongs to 
 the most poisonous order of plants, being cousin-german to 
 the deadly nightshade. 
 
 Maize may be regarded as the connecting link between 
 cereals used for bread-making, and roots like the arum and 
 manioc, since like these it becomes more palatable by being 
 steeped in water to precipitate the starch, and using this for 
 baking or boiling, instead of simply pounding or grinding 
 the grain and mixing the flour with water, as is done with 
 wheat, barley, oats, and rye. 
 
 The Italians use maize in large quantities to make that 
 which seems the chief food of the poor, and is known as 
 polenda, being a kind of porridge of ground Indian corn, 
 and you can scarcely enter a cottage without seeing the 
 padrona stirring the rich yellow mess destined for the family 
 meal, which is always slowly simmering in a huge brass 
 vessel hung over the charcoal fire in the common apartment. 
 Sometimes this porridge is made of chestnuts, and is then 
 known as polenda dolce. 
 
 There was a grain formerly much cultivated in Cornwall 
 which is said to have made excellent porridge, and with 
 
VARIOUS BREAD-STUFFS 47 
 
 potatoes a splendid food for pigs and poultry ; this is a kind 
 of oat (avena nuda) known locally as pilez or pellas, which 
 grows readily in black moorland moist soils, and which 
 might probably be grown advantageously in Ireland, for it is 
 said that a gallon of ground pilez, mixed with twenty gallons 
 of potatoes, makes an excellent fattening food for pigs and 
 poultry ; whilst the straw, which is very fine, is capital fodder 
 for cattle and horses. 
 
 Rice, which may be reckoned as one of the most important 
 of the cereals, is not used for making bread, although the 
 grain boiled, or ground and mixed with other materials, 
 forms an excellent food. 
 
 It is the fashion of the present day to ignore or deny the 
 value of rice as an article of food, and it is, perhaps, true 
 that its nutritive properties are less than those of other 
 cereals; nevertheless, it affords support to untold millions 
 of Asiatics, forming the principal food of the natives of 
 India, China, Japan, and many other countries; whilst in 
 Europe, Africa, and America in fact, in the whole civilised 
 world no store closet would be complete without a bag of 
 rice for use in curries, puddings, cakes, and a variety of 
 dishes too numerous to mention. In fact, this cereal not- 
 withstanding the dictum of doctors and analytical chemists 
 seems to enter more largely into our cookery books than 
 any of the others, with the exception of wheat, which, in the 
 form of flour, is now a prime necessary of civilised life. 
 
 It is somewhat singular that rice, so highly esteemed by 
 the poor in Asia, is used chiefly by the rich in other parts of 
 the world. Even in times of famine, our poor would think 
 themselves very badly used if charity doled out to them the 
 rations which the mild Hindoo or John Chinaman would 
 
48 OUR VIANDS 
 
 think all sufficient. Even as food for pigs and poultry, rice 
 is despised among us, and it is a singular fact that fowls fed 
 on rice for a week only, will grow very fat, but if the diet is 
 continued longer they will lose flesh instead of gaining it. 
 
 Rice would seem to be indigenous in Asia, although in 
 modern times it has spread widely through the tropical 
 regions of America, where, indeed, it has also been found in 
 a wild state. It is never likely to be grown extensively in 
 Europe, as it requires a combination of heat and moisture; 
 and it seems strange that it should have become such a 
 favourite and almost universal crop in India seeing its 
 necessity for water. In China, we are told, a variety is 
 grown which is not so dependent upon moisture, and which 
 is called imperial rice, because it was discovered by one of 
 the emperors, who, in walking through a rice field, noticed 
 one stalk much taller and finer than the rest; this he 
 marked, and when it was ripe it was taken and planted in 
 the imperial gardens, cultivated with care, and became a 
 new species. It would seem advisable to cultivate this 
 imperial or mountain rice in such countries as India, but 
 probably there are disadvantages attending its cultivation 
 not noted by the historian. 
 
 According to Pliny, linseed meal was used fried and 
 mixed with honey for bread among Asiatics, and also by 
 the Lombards and Piedmontese, and hempseed was also 
 fried and served for dessert. Gruel, which with us is 
 reckoned as food for invalids only, was a national dish 
 among the Romans. Two of the favourite invalid foods 
 of the present day must be mentioned here, for although 
 in very general use few people know their origin. Sago, 
 so much in favour among the sick, and in the nursery, 
 
VARIOUS BREAD-STUFFS 49 
 
 is the pith of the sago palm, growing in marshy land 
 in the East Indies. One tree will produce from 500 
 to 600 Ibs. of sago, but the tree takes fifteen years to 
 come to maturity. Arrowroot, on the contrary, is, properly 
 speaking, a product of the West Indies, the best coming 
 from Bermuda, but, strange to say, very little is known 
 of the plant which produces it, and probably it is extracted 
 from several roots, in the same manner as cassava from 
 the Jatropha manihot, by rasping and soaking in water 
 till the starch is precipitated, which forms a white powder 
 when dried in the sun. The Maranta arundinacea is the 
 chief plant thus employed, but a spurious kind of arrowroot 
 has been made from the root of the Cuckoo Pint. 
 
 But of all foods in ordinary use among uncivilised 
 peoples, the bread-fruit of South Sea Islands deserves 
 especial notice ; this is the fruit of Artocarpus incisa, 
 
 ' That tree which in unfailing stores 
 The staff of life spontaneous pours, 
 And to those southern islands yields 
 The produce of our labour 'd fields.' 
 
 The mode of cooking the bread-fruit is thus described 
 in Murray's * Encyclopaedia of Geography : ' ' Sometimes 
 the natives of a district assemble to prepare it in a .large 
 and common oven, when it is called opio. This is done 
 by digging a large pit, 20 or 30 feet round, and filling it 
 with firewood and large stones, till the heat almost brings 
 the latter to a state of liquefaction, when the covering 
 is removed, and many hundreds of ripe bread-fruit are 
 thrown in, with a few leaves laid over them ; the remaining 
 
 hot stones are placed above them, and the whole covered 
 
 D 
 
So OUR VIANDS 
 
 with leaves and earth.* It remains in this state a day or 
 two, when the parties to whom the fruit belongs dig a 
 hole and take out what they want. Bread-fruit baked 
 in this way will keep good for several weeks after the 
 oven is opened.' In the Sandwich Islands the bread-fruit 
 is eaten raw, or cooked by throwing it on the fire till 
 the outer rind becomes charred and the inner opens out 
 like a smoking loaf of bread ; the taste is said to resemble 
 hard-boiled egg. There is another way of preparing bread- 
 fruit, by throwing it in a heap and allowing it to ferment, 
 it is then beaten into a kind of paste called mahi, and will 
 keep for months, but is sour and indigestible. 
 
 The South Sea Islanders also make a kind of bread 
 of the root of the Pia ( Tacea pinnatifida), which is beaten 
 to a pulp and subjected to repeated washings, when it 
 forms a sort of arrowroot. 
 
 Taro, of which we often read in books of travel in the 
 South Seas, is the root of Arum escuhntum, which, like 
 the manioc, requires steeping and boiling or baking to 
 make it wholesome. It is cooked in the same way as 
 the bread-fruit, and then beaten into a paste-like dough 
 called Poe, which is eaten by being scooped out with 
 the forefinger of the right hand and placed in the 
 mouth, a practice which has caused that finger to be 
 named the Poe finger. 
 
 In West Africa Pea-nut bread is eaten. This is made 
 by roasting and crushing the nuts and pressing the paste 
 into the skin of a banana. 
 
 In Abyssinia TefT-bread, made from Poa Abyssinica^ is 
 
 * This is precisely the process adopted by the Australians for 
 cooking snakes, as described later. 
 
VARIOUS BREAD-STUFFS 51 
 
 commonly eaten. This is made by placing the pounded 
 grain mixed to a paste with water in a jar, and placing 
 it at some distance from the fire until it begins to ferment, 
 it is then made into large circular cakes and baked. The 
 taste although sour is not disagreeable, and it is used at 
 their banquets of raw meat, the meat being cut up small, 
 seasoned with salt and cayenne pepper, and wrapped in 
 the bread which is soft and spongy, and is often used 
 as a table napkin, for Bruce says every man wipes his 
 fingers on a piece of this Teff-bread, and leaves it for the 
 next comer, which, he says truly, is a disgusting custom. 
 
 The native Australians have no bread, but they crush 
 and eat the seed of the nardu plant, so well known as 
 having formed the sole food of the explorers Burke and 
 Wills until they died of starvation, the seeds being 
 inadequate to support life. 
 
 The Chinese make a bread, eaten by all from the 
 emperor to the meanest peasant, of a paste of kidney 
 beans made into great flat cakes like cheeses, it is very 
 white, and is eaten raw or boiled with fish and herbs, and 
 sometimes fried in oil, or dried and smoked and mixed 
 with carraway seeds.* 
 
 * See 'Empire of China,' 'Navarette' Pinkerton's Travels, vol. i. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CAKES AND PUDDINGS 
 
 WE have never met with an explanation of the reason 
 why all the principal events in human life should require 
 to be celebrated by different kinds of cakes. We have 
 cakes for christenings, weddings, birthdays, schooldays, and 
 funerals. Almost all the festive seasons have their special 
 cakes such as Twelfth Day, Easter, Mid-Lent, etc. and 
 even such solemn seasons as Good Friday and the Jewish 
 Passover have their appropriate cakes; but perhaps the 
 most singular of all these cakes are those sold in Northern 
 Italy on All Souls' Day (November 2), and known as Pane 
 dei morte that is, ' bread of the dead.' These are made 
 chiefly at Brescia, and resemble in form parts of the human 
 body. Rough pieces of flesh are represented by a reddish 
 compound something like toffee, but highly flavoured with 
 cinnamon and other spices, whilst the bones are simulated 
 by a lighter-coloured compound, or by almonds. Thus you 
 may purchase a jaw, in which the teeth are formed of 
 almonds, etc. The most singular part of this All Souls' 
 custom is that the superstitious appear to fancy some real 
 connection between these cakes and the parts of the dead 
 which they resemble. We do not know the origin of these 
 cakes, but they would seem to be a survival from the days 
 
 52 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 53 
 
 of cannibalism, when, as among some savages even now, it 
 was considered respectful to partake of the dead bodies of 
 relations. At all events, whatever may be their origin, they 
 are very delicious and highly appreciated. 
 
 In many parts of England there is an approach to the 
 Italian Pane dei morte in the distribution of funeral cakes, 
 which sometimes are served only at the house of the 
 deceased, but in some counties they are sent round to the 
 neighbours after the funeral. The following lines refer to 
 this custom in Yorkshire : 
 
 ' Roundlegs to Wadsley went, 
 Wi' burying cakes he was sent, 
 He knocked at our alehouse door 
 " Does any dead folk live here ? " ' 
 
 These ' burying cakes ' do not appear to have any especial 
 form, but they are generally slightly bitter. 
 
 One of the most celebrated of English cakes, and which 
 would seem to have originally had some religious significance, 
 is that known as the ' Simnel.' This is a cake resembling a 
 rich plum-pudding enclosed in a crust, like a raised pie, and 
 its great peculiarity is that it is boiled first and baked after- 
 wards. The season appropriate to it is Mid-Lent Sunday, 
 known as ' Mothering Sunday,' because on that day it was 
 formerly the custom of families to assemble and to join in a 
 little feast. The popular story as to the origin of this cake 
 is that an old couple, named Simon and Nellie, in preparing 
 the Mid-Lent feast for their children, found a remnant of 
 Christmas plum-pudding and a piece of unleavened Lenten 
 dough, which they resolved to convert into a cake, but a 
 violent quarrel ensued as to whether it should be baked or 
 boiled. At last, after much altercation, ending in blows, a 
 
54 OUR VIANDS 
 
 compromise was arrived at, by which the cake was first boiled 
 and then baked, and this turned out so very satisfactorily 
 that cakes thus prepared became famous under the name of 
 ' Simnels,' from the first syllables of the names of the old 
 couple. The tradition has been embodied in the following 
 poem : 
 
 'THE CAKE OF SIMONELLIE.'* 
 
 ' Where Girlith village looks adown 
 
 To birlie Morecambe Bay, 
 Old gammer Nell did blythelie dwell 
 
 With Simon Halliday ; 
 
 And the good God keepit them both from bale, 
 As the worthie paire did pray. 
 
 ' Three sonnes had they, lustie, strong ; 
 
 The elder at the sea, 
 The mid one for a prentis bond, 
 Youngest at mother's knee, 
 " Too young is he to earn his bredde, 
 And I wonna spare all three," 
 Quoth she. 
 
 ' The Christmasse-tyde goes by apace, 
 
 And Lenten time is here ; 
 Bob-crabbes are forbidden taste, 
 
 The jollie boule goes drere. 
 " Cheere thee, good gaffer," then sayd Nell ; 
 
 "It is but once a year : 
 
 * " A sennight and sen days are past, 
 
 Another sennight in 
 And now draws on the rorie feste 
 
 Ycleped Motherin, 
 
 When the bairn draws nere to the mother deare, 
 And when festing is no sin," 
 
 Quoth she. 
 
 * Walcott(Bodl.), No. 173. 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 55 
 
 " Full long for the Mid-Lent time, I ween, 
 
 Hath thy stomach, Simon, cryde. 
 Our good ladye will bless the feste 
 
 We shall hold upon this tyde ; 
 With our sailor ladde, and our prentis eke, 
 
 And the bairnie by my syde. 
 
 " The rorie pastie, and baken pie, 
 
 The flytche of bacon broil, 
 And the lustie boule with the roasten crabbe 
 
 Shall glad the bairnies' oyle ; 
 For my laddies' sake a callant callant cake 
 
 On the weeke's end will I boil," 
 Quoth she. 
 
 " Ye be daft, good woman, your boarde to spoil : 
 
 What faerie doth ye take ? 
 Your flytche ye may broil, but your cake not boil 
 
 A clout for a boilen cake ! 
 A brawer good wife am I than ye, 
 
 In the ovenne let it bake," 
 
 Quoth he. 
 
 1 " A braw good wife ! now, by Lordie's life ." 
 
 "Now, by Lordie's death," quoth he, 
 1 ' Ye shall bake your cake, or no cake I take, 
 
 When the ladde comes home from sea. " 
 They wrangled so that the gossips gaped 
 To see what thing might be. 
 
 ' Then uppe and spake the youngest ladde, 
 
 That stood by his mother's knee, 
 " Nay, father, were it awell that strife 
 
 The good God here shoulde see. 
 
 When Motherin Sunday draws anear 
 
 Each home at peace shoulde be. 
 
 ' " The mother dear the cake shall boil, 
 
 And the father bake it dree ; 
 And not Simon's cake be the baken cleped, 
 Nor the boilen Nellie's be, 
 
56 OUR VIANDS 
 
 But the virtues twain of the boil and bake 
 In the cake of Simonellie," 
 
 Quoth he. 
 
 ' Then ho, ho, ho, for the rarie showe, 
 When gaffer and gammer agree ; 
 And boil and bake the Motherin cake 
 The cake of Simonellie.' 
 
 It would, however, appear that this is a modern tradition 
 to account for a very ancient name, which is found in 
 French as well as in English, and in mediaeval Latin, and 
 which is supposed to be derived from simila, fine flour ; and 
 we find the name given to the finest white bread in mediaeval 
 times.* Herrick the poet, writing early in the seventeenth 
 century, speaks of the custom of young people in Gloucester 
 carrying simnels to their parents on Mid-Lent or Mothering 
 Sunday 
 
 ' I'll to thee a simnel bring 
 'Gainst thou go a-mothering ; 
 So that when she blesses thee, 
 Half that blessing thou'lt give me.' 
 
 These simnels were usually marked with the figure of 
 Christ or the Virgin Mary, showing that they had some 
 religious significance. The poem quoted above places the 
 origin of the simnel legend at Girlith, on Morecambe Bay ; 
 but Shrewsbury has long been famous for the cakes, although 
 until lately they were hardly known except in the western 
 counties, now, however, they can be bought in London, 
 and not only at Mid-Lent but at Christmas.t 
 
 * See Chambers's 'Book of Days,' p. 336. 
 
 t At the Congress of the Folk Lore Society, held in October last at 
 Burlington House, a great number of local feasten cakes were exhibited, 
 and among them simnels, differing greatly in form, from Lancashire, 
 Gloucestershire, Shropshire, Norfolk, and Yorkshire. 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 57 
 
 Probably the best known cake of religious significance is 
 the hot cross bun, sold everywhere in England on Good 
 Friday. The number of these cakes consumed yearly must 
 be reckoned by many millions. It has also been a custom 
 in Scottish towns for the last forty years. 
 
 ' One a penny, two a penny, hot cross buns,' is the one 
 street cry on Good Friday, and whilst all other shops are 
 closed, the bakers and confectioners drive a thriving trade. 
 The cross marked upon these buns has now, of course, a 
 reference to the solemn event commemorated on the day ; 
 but the cake itself has a very ancient history, and is 
 supposed to be the lineal descendant of those cakes offered 
 in worship to the queen of heaven, as denounced by the 
 prophet Jeremiah : ' The children gather wood, and the 
 fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead their dough 
 to make cakes to the queen of heaven,' which cakes, 
 according to antiquaries, were also marked with a cross. In 
 the Museo Borbonico at Rome there is a sculpture repre- 
 senting the miracle of the five barley loaves in which the 
 loaves are marked by a cross. 
 
 Consecrated cakes, probably all similarly marked, were 
 offered to the gods on different occasions in many countries, 
 as in China, Egypt, and Mexico; and the Saxons, before 
 they were converted to Christianity, ate them in honour of 
 the goddess Eastre. In Egypt these cakes were made in 
 the shape of horns in honour of Isis, and their name bons 
 or boun is supposed to be the origin of our word bun. 
 
 A curious survival of these offerings to heathen gods 
 existed not many years ago in the Isle of Man, when a 
 herdsman, representing a Druid, on May-Day took a piece 
 of bread, covered with a custard of eggs, milk, and butter, 
 
58 OUR VIANDS 
 
 and breaking it, threw pieces over his shoulder, exclaiming, 
 1 This I give to thee, O Fox, and this to thee, O Eagle, spare 
 thou my lambs,' etc., etc. A similar ceremony existed, I 
 believe, in Sicily, whilst in Sardinia a quantity of raisin- 
 bread, Pane di zappa, is hidden in three cart-loads of wood, 
 which are drawn round the village by oxen specially 
 fattened, after which the wood is piled up and burnt before 
 the churches. 
 
 Honey-cakes were offered in Rome to the serpent represent- 
 ing the god Esculapius, and the shew-bread of the Jews, con- 
 sisting of unleavened cakes composed of fine flour and oil, was 
 an offering to the Deity, afterwards consumed by the priests. 
 
 We read of a Roman Catholic ceremony on Good Friday 
 in Pre-Reformation days, in which the figure of Christ being 
 deposited in a tomb the people came to worship and present 
 gifts of corn or eggs, after which there was a ceremonial 
 burial of the image, and with it the ' singing-bread,' but 
 what this singing-bread was is not specified ; it was, however, 
 probably a cake marked with a cross apropos of which 
 must be recorded the old superstition that bread baked on 
 Good Friday would never get mouldy, and formerly a piece 
 of Good Friday bread was kept in every house, and a little 
 of it grated was supposed to be a sovereign remedy for many 
 ailments, but especially for diarrhoea. 
 
 In modern times the bun appears to have become an 
 almost exclusively English cake, and in the last century 
 there were special houses to which the elite resorted to con- 
 sume this delicacy. Two of these are historically famous, 
 the Chelsea bun-house and its rival the Royal. 
 
 At Easter cakes of a different kind appear; they are 
 generally very thin and sweet, and have a certain affinity 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 59 
 
 with the unleavened Passover cakes of the Jews, but they 
 vary considerably in different counties. In Dorsetshire the 
 Easter cakes contain currants and spices, and are sprinkled 
 with white sugar. These were formerly carried round by 
 the clerk of the parish, who expected for them a small 
 Easter offering. In Durham at one time the clergy and 
 laity used to play ball in the churches at Easter for tansy 
 cakes, which are still esteemed in some parts. 
 
 In many places endowments exist for the distribution of 
 cakes at Easter. There is one of these at Biddenden, in 
 Kent, consisting of twenty acres of land, to provide cakes 
 for all attending the parish church on Easter Sunday, the 
 parishioners each receiving, in addition, a loaf of bread and 
 a pound and a half of cheese. All the boys of the Blue- 
 Coat School receive a bun and a new shilling from a fund of 
 this kind, and probably endowments of a similar character 
 exist also on the Continent, for in some churches on certain 
 days huge baskets of small cakes are carried round and 
 distributed to the congregation. 
 
 To turn from cakes of a semi-consecrated character to 
 those of festal use, the first place must be given to the 
 twelfth cake, formerly everywhere seen, of gigantic size and 
 elaborate decoration on every festal board on Twelfth Day, 
 and which was used as a sort of lottery or medium of divina- 
 tion, a bean being concealed in it. The one to whom this 
 fell was ' King of the Bean,' and was considered especially 
 lucky, and sometimes we read that this ' King of the Bean ' 
 was lifted up, in order that he might mark crosses on the 
 rafters to preserve the house from evil spirits. This custom 
 of choosing a ' King of the Bean ' seems to have descended 
 to us from pagan times, and is not peculiar to England, for 
 
60 OUR VIANDS 
 
 in France the proverb exists for a peculiarly lucky fellow 
 // a trouve la j eve au gateau. 
 
 Twelfth-Day cakes and Twelfth-Day observances have, 
 however, faded almost into oblivion in these utilitarian days, 
 when even children begin to say, * What is the use of this 
 and that ? ' but in Ireland many of the old customs are still 
 kept up, and a thimble, a crooked sixpence, and a wedding 
 ring are baked in cakes, the first for the old maid, the second 
 for wealth, and the ring, of course, for a wedding; but, if 
 memory serves aright, these fortune-telling cakes are eaten 
 on Halloween instead of Twelfth Day, and I do not know 
 whether the Twelfth-Day ' King of the Bean ' is still elected. 
 We read that in 1613 the gentlemen in Gray's Inn were 
 permitted by Lord Bacon to perform a Twelfth-Day masque 
 at Whitehall, in which a character called Baby Cake was 
 attended by an usher bearing a great cake with a bean and a 
 pease.* 
 
 The ' King of the Bean ' is supposed to have been derived 
 from the Roman Saturnalia, in which lots were drawn with 
 beans as to who should be king. 
 
 There is, however, one cake that seems to grow in favour 
 year by year, and that is the bridecake, upon which all 
 the confectioner's art is lavished, until it seems almost 
 a sin to cut it and destroy its beauty. In fact, some 
 of the more elaborate specimens are so made that the 
 cake may be abstracted without injuring the external case. 
 The monster cake presented to the Queen on her Jubilee 
 was thus made, so that the exterior was on view intact 
 among the other presents, although the kernel was gone. 
 
 Lawn-tennis has created a new cake, which is highly 
 * Chambers's ' Book of Days,' vol. i., p. 63. 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 61 
 
 appreciated. We believe this originated in Bath, famous 
 for many confectioners' chefs d'ceuvres, which can hardly 
 be met with elsewhere, such as the Sally Lunn, which is 
 quite a different thing there to the cake known under 
 that name elsewhere, and the Bath bun, which can only 
 be eaten in perfection in Bath. The lawn-tennis cake 
 is a rich plum cake, made rather thin and flat, with a 
 good covering of almond paste, iced, and with a sprinkling 
 of sweetmeats or green angelica cut very fine on the top. 
 
 In Cornwall many peculiar cakes may be met with, 
 but almost all of them contain saffron, which does not 
 commend them to all palates. 
 
 Scotland is known as ' the land of cakes,' and the variety 
 to be met with there is astonishing. The best known is 
 the shortbread, which is now sold largely in London 
 especially at Christmas daintily put up in boxes and 
 with a motto in candied peel on the top; but this short- 
 bread varies greatly : that made in Aberdeen is the best, 
 especially that sent to Balmoral, which is said to be made 
 of crushed macaroons. 
 
 There is a well-known cake which should rather be 
 classed under the head of puddings ; this is the pancake, 
 still religiously eaten on Shrove Tuesday, which the old 
 riddle has, in consequence, designated as the greatest fry day 
 of the year. The custom of eating pancakes on Shrove 
 Tuesday dates back to very remote times, and the tossing 
 them in the pan was the occasion of much merriment. For- 
 merly the master of the house was always called upon to toss 
 the first pancake, which was generally so clumsily done as to 
 cause it either to ascend the chimney, or to find a place on 
 the kitchen floor, for which the cook demanded a fine. 
 
62 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Chambers's 'Book of Days' contains an interesting 
 account of tossing pancakes in Westminster School, the 
 cook being obliged to toss the cake over the bar which 
 divides the upper from the lower school, which being 
 done the boys scramble for the cake, and the one who 
 secures it unbroken, and carries it to the Deanery, receives 
 an honorarium of a guinea. 
 
 The same article gives the following quaint description 
 of the pancake by the poet Taylor : 
 
 1 There is a bell rung, called the Pancake Bell, the sound 
 whereof makes thousands of people distracted, and forgetful 
 either of manners or humanity. Then there is a thing 
 called wheaten flour, which the cooks do mingle with 
 water, eggs, spice, and other tragical magical enchantments, 
 and then they put it by little-and-little into a frying-pan of 
 boiling suet, where it makes a confused dismal hissing (like 
 the Lernian snakes in the reeds of Acheron) until at last, 
 by the skill of the cook, it is transformed into the form of a 
 flip-jack called a pancake, which ominous incantation the 
 ignorant people do devour very greedily/ 
 
 Eggs, as a great ingredient in the pancake, are much in 
 request on Shrove Tuesday, which, in Cornwall, gave rise 
 to a very barbarous sport, for the hens, which had not laid 
 an egg before Shrove Tuesday, were placed on the barn 
 floor and beaten to death, or sometimes a hen, with some 
 bells hung round it, was tied to a man's back, and others 
 blindfolded and armed with boughs, ran after him and 
 struck at the bird, guided by the bells, and when the bird 
 had been killed in this manner it was boiled with bacon, 
 and eaten with the pancakes. 
 
 The British pancake has been transformed in France 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 63 
 
 into the omelette, the vol-au-vent, the souffld, supplemented 
 by delicate tartlets of extreme lightness, very sweet and 
 full of cream, iced and ornamented with dried cherries 
 and pistachio nuts. All these things have been elaborately 
 evolved from the inner consciousness of many generations 
 of French chefs, but primitive puddings doubtless consisted 
 simply of grain of different kinds boiled in water or milk, 
 to which various ingredients were added, according to 
 taste, after the fashion of the national dish of Barbary 
 called cuscosco, which consists of a sort of paste or porridge 
 made of crumbled bread and enriched with small pieces 
 of meat, vegetables, and condiments. This is placed in 
 a large wooden or earthen bowl set in the middle of the 
 company, each one thrusting their fingers in the bowl, 
 stirring its contents, and helping themselves to such tit-bits 
 as they may fancy. 
 
 This cuscosco reminds one of a famous dish of our 
 ancestors known as furmity, furmante, or frumenty, formerly 
 indispensable at Christmas, but now relegated to Mid-Lent 
 or Mothering Sunday, when the lesson for the day read 
 in the churches, is of Joseph and his brethren, for 
 this dish is popularly supposed to be that wherewith 
 Joseph regaled his brothers, giving a double portion to 
 Benjamin. The name comes probably fromfroment (wheat), 
 in French, which would point to its introduction by the 
 Normans. In Bath the wheat is sold in basins, boiled 
 ready for use. In Chambers's ' Book of Days ' the following 
 recipe is given as the most ancient known : ' Take clean 
 wheat, and bray it in a mortar that the hulls be all gone 
 off, and seethe it till it burst, and take it up and let it cool ; 
 and take clean fresh broth and sweet milk of almonds, 
 
64 OUR VIANDS 
 
 or sweet milk of kine, and temper it all; and take the 
 yolks of eggs. Boil it a little, and set it down, and mess 
 it forth with fat venison or fresh mutton.' Venison was 
 seldom served without this accompaniment; but furmity, 
 sweetened with sugar, was a favourite dish of itself, the 
 'clean broth' being omitted when a lord was to be the 
 partaker.* 
 
 There was also an indispensable Christmas dish known 
 as plum porridge, of which the old nursery rhyme 
 relates : 
 
 ' The man in the moon came clown too soon f 
 
 To ask his way to Norwich ; 
 The man in the south he burnt his mouth 
 Eating cold plum porridge. ' 
 
 This plum porridge, always served as a first course at 
 Christmas, was made by boiling beef or mutton with broth 
 thickened with brown bread ; when half boiled, raisins, 
 currants, prunes, cloves, mace, and ginger were added, and 
 when the mess had been thoroughly boiled, it was sent to 
 table with the best meats. This is supposed to have been 
 the origin of the plum-pudding, which in its present form 
 does not appear in cookery books earlier than 1675, and 
 then not as a Christmas dish. Mince pies, shred pies, or 
 Christmas pies are, however, much older, and figure in Ben 
 Jonson's ' Masque of Christmas.' These pies seem to have 
 been particularly obnoxious to the Puritans, as savouring of 
 superstition, the crust which encloses them being supposed 
 
 * A more modern recipe for the making of Frumenty will be found 
 among those at the end of this section, and I can strongly recommend 
 it to those who like to try the dishes so much prized by our forefathers. 
 
 t Antiquaries say for ' too soon ' should be read ' to Sion.' 
 
CAKES AND PUDDINGS 65 
 
 to represent the manger in which the infant Saviour was 
 laid. There is a rhyme which runs thus : 
 
 ' The high-shoe lords of Cromwell's making 
 Were not for dainties roasting, baking ; 
 The chiefest food they found most good in 
 Was rusty bacon and bag pudding; 
 Plum broth was popish, and mince pie 
 O, that was flat idolatry ! ' 
 
 Soyer's book, ' The History of Food,' gives us two recipes 
 worth reproducing. The first is for making the Athenian 
 national dish : ' Dry near the fire, in the oven, twenty 
 pounds of barley flour ; then parch it ; add three pounds of 
 linseed meal, half a pound of coriander seed, two ounces of 
 salt, and the quantity of water necessary.' This does not 
 read particularly appetising, and the same may be said of 
 the next the famous Carthaginian pudding. ' Put a pound 
 of red-wheat flour into water, and when it has steeped some 
 time transfer it to a wooden bowl. Add three pounds of 
 cream cheese, half a pound of honey, and one egg. Beat 
 the whole together, and cook it on a slow fire in a stewpan.' 
 Both these appear to have been something between porridge 
 and hasty pudding, and in the same category may be placed 
 the fermity or frumenty described above ; and from these 
 were doubtless derived the far-famed hasty pudding of Jack 
 the Giant-Killer, and our batter and custard puddings, as 
 well as that king and pride of British cooks, the Christmas 
 plum-pudding, which foreigners vainly attempt to imitate. 
 
 The Egyptians had learned to make pastry much as we 
 do now, and figures in the temples and tombs, and on the 
 papyri are represented kneading dough with their feet, roll- 
 ing the paste, cutting it into various forms, and carrying it 
 
 E 
 
66 OUR VIANDS 
 
 to the oven. The cakes thus made were of various forms, 
 often resembling animals. One of these in the British 
 Museum is in the form of a crocodile's head ; and others 
 have been found deposited in tombs in the form of rings, or 
 rolled over like Swiss-roll, and sprinkled with seeds after 
 the manner of the Jew's bread of the present day. 
 
 Whether the Egyptian pastry consisted simply of bread 
 dough we do not know, but it probably contained oil or fat 
 of some kind, for it is certain that the cakes of the Hebrews 
 were composed of fine flour and oil, with probably honey 
 sometimes added; but none of the Egyptian pastry has been 
 found containing fruit like our pies, although cakes consist- 
 ing entirely of dates are known to have been made, and 
 called date bread. 
 
 Our fruit puddings are simply pies boiled instead of 
 baked. Who is there who fails to appreciate a pudding or 
 pie of fresh fruit, whether of green gooseberries in the early 
 spring, or of black and red currants and raspberries or 
 cherries in summer, and all the delicious plums, damsons, 
 and greengages of autumn ! Happily, the art of bottling 
 fruits has attained to such perfection that we may now get 
 fruit pies and puddings all the year round, instead of, as in 
 former times, having to depend upon apples and jams only, 
 during the winter months. The thrifty housewife, it is true, 
 used to bottle gooseberries for her own winter use, but they 
 could not be purchased ; whereas now, for a few pence, we 
 may indulge in pies of currants, cherries, and greengages at 
 Christmas. 
 
PART II 
 
 MEAT 
 
 ' 8 piece of a Itio is foortfj tfoa of a (fat 9 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 CHRISTMAS FARE THE ROAST BEEF OF OLD ENGLAND 
 AND THE BOAR'S HEAD 
 
 ON thousands of tables at Christmas-tide the roast beef of 
 Old England smokes with appetising odour. From the 
 lordly baron which always graces the Queen's table, and the 
 goodly sirloin of aristocratic renown, to the humble but far 
 from despicable aitch-bone, all is toothsome, wholesome, 
 and highly esteemed alike by high and low, rich and poor. 
 The wretched inmates of gaol and workhouse look forward 
 to the feast of roast beef and plum-pudding, which is almost 
 sure to be given by the charitable for their delectation at 
 Christmas, and in almost every parish the same substantial 
 fare is provided for the poorer parishioners. At the tables 
 of the rich, it is true, the time-honoured sirloin is now 
 relegated to a subordinate position, its place being usurped 
 by the turkey, which has superseded also the stately pea- 
 cock, formerly at this season, adorned with all its feathers, 
 introduced with something approaching to religious cere- 
 mony, as was also the great boar's head, with its chaplet of 
 rosemary and a lemon between the teeth ; but then, as now, 
 the loin of beef, knighted in due form by Charles II., was 
 always the piece de resistance, and from time immemorial the 
 double loin, known as the baron, has always been a royal 
 
70 OUR VIANDS 
 
 dish, and one specially selected is always sent from Windsor 
 to Osborne to grace the Queen's dinner table, being accom- 
 panied by that other famous Christmas dish, a boar's head, 
 sent of late from Germany. 
 
 In olden times great rejoicings were generally accom- 
 panied by an ox roasted whole, huge fires and monster spits 
 being required for the purpose; and once history relates 
 that an ox was thus roasted whole on the Thames. This 
 was during the great frost in 1715-16, when the river was 
 frozen over for several weeks. This somewhat barbarous 
 mode of rejoicing is now almost obsolete, yet during the 
 severe frost of the winter of 1890, in which the Thames was 
 again frozen over in places, we heard of sheep being roasted 
 whole on the river at Christmas ; but in these days of refine- 
 ment people in general prefer having their portion of meat 
 to cook in their own way, instead of each slicing a half- 
 cooked morsel from a burning carcase. 
 
 The practice of cutting meat from the spit seems to have 
 been common before the invention of forks, and many old 
 Saxon drawings show the cooks, or servers, kneeling by the 
 king's table, holding spits from which the monarch cuts a 
 portion with a huge knife; nor must the cook's useful 
 drudge be forgotten, who, as late as 1800, when smoke- 
 jacks came into fashion, had the chief share in roasting the 
 meat in large establishments we mean the 'turnspit,' a 
 bandy-legged dog, somewhat resembling the modern dachs- 
 hund who was set to turn the spit by means of a wheel, 
 somewhat after the fashion of a squirrel in a cage, and was 
 probably beaten and sorely worried by the cooks whenever 
 the jack stopped. There are many stories told of these 
 useful dogs, who knew their proper turn, and would not be 
 
CHRISTMAS FARE 71 
 
 persuaded to work out of it ; and if one of their companions 
 got out of the way when it was his day for turning the spit, 
 the one unjustly set to work has been known to find the 
 truant and kill him. The poor turnspits must have hated 
 Christmas, with its huge joints of roast beef, its peacocks 
 and game, all entailing hard work upon the poor kitchen 
 drudges.* 
 
 Beef was known and appreciated from the very earliest 
 times, the wild cattle having been hunted and slaughtered 
 long before they were domesticated, and the skulls of many, 
 of a species now extinct, are found all broken in the same 
 way, evidently by a blow with a very heavy stone hammer. 
 But as soon as men began to keep flocks and herds and to 
 till the ground, the ox became doubly valuable, not only as 
 a food but as a beast of burden, and it is continually 
 alluded to by the most ancient writers in this capacity, 
 whilst the earliest of paintings represent the patient kine 
 dragging the plough or wheeled cart, yoked together even as 
 in the present day by a heavy piece of wood bound over the 
 necks of both. The humane laws of Moses forbade the 
 muzzling of the ' ox that treadeth out the corn,' and in 
 several passages of the Bible the yokes of oxen are spoken 
 of. Elisha was ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen when 
 Elijah cast his mantle upon him, and it seems to have been 
 a common act of worship in those days to slay a yoke of 
 oxen and burn them with the implements in use, as a 
 sacrifice of thanksgiving or propitiation. ' Behold,' said 
 Araunah the Jebusite to David, ' here be oxen for burnt 
 sacrifice, and threshing instruments and other instruments 
 
 * A very interesting article upon the turnspit may be read in 
 Chambers's ' Book of Days.' 
 
72 OUR VIANDS 
 
 of the oxen for wood.' Nor was it only among the Jews 
 that oxen were used for sacrifices : the Greeks and Romans 
 sacrificed white bulls to Jupiter, whilst the cow was sacred 
 to Juno, as it was to Isis in Egypt. In the latter country 
 the bull Apis was, as is well known, an object of idolatry, 
 being distinguished by special marks, and numerous 
 mummies of this sacred bull may be seen in the British 
 Museum. In India, Siva the destroyer rides upon a bull, 
 and the cow is as much venerated among the Brahmins as 
 it was in ancient Egypt, some of the Indian princes being 
 obliged to pass through a golden image of a cow in order to 
 become regenerated, and raised to the Brahminical caste. 
 
 There is evidently something of a sacrificial origin in the 
 eating of beef at Christmas, for it has undoubtedly a 
 reference to the birth of Christ in the cow-shed, in remem- 
 brance of which event, the old superstition says, all oxen 
 kneel in adoration at twelve o'clock on Christmas Eve. 
 
 All through Africa the ox is much in favour as an article 
 of food, and also as a beast of burden. James Bruce's 
 assertion that the Abyssinians sometimes cut steaks from 
 the living animal has been verified by later travellers, but it 
 is to be hoped the practice is not general. 
 
 Cattle in vast numbers are slaughtered apparently as 
 sacrifices among the Zulu tribes on great occasions; thus 
 we are told that on the election of Lo Benguela, whose 
 name has been so prominently before the world of late, as 
 king of the Matabele, his first act of sovereignty was to 
 superintend the slaughter of cattle brought as an offering to 
 him. ' Each tribe contributed a small troop, and from each 
 lot six, ten, or a dozen were, selected. The black were 
 killed first ; then the black and white speckled ; and lastly, 
 
CHRISTMAS FARE 73 
 
 the coloured ones. The first were offered to the manes of 
 his father ; the second, to the Molimo or Great Spirit ; and 
 the rest for other purposes. The king made a short speech 
 as he pointed out each victim ; and then the sacrificer, 
 holding his assegai just as one would hold a pin, placed its 
 point low down behind the shoulder blade, where it does 
 not spoil the skin for a shield, assuring himself by a gentle 
 titillating motion that it was rightly directed.' * 
 
 What a coronation ceremony, and what an idea it gives 
 us of the sanguinary character of these dusky kings and the 
 despotic power they wield over their subjects. ' Of course,' 
 Baines continues, ' the slaughter of so many oxen in so con- 
 fined a space was a work of difficulty, especially when some 
 had fallen, and the rest maddened by the sight and smell of 
 blood, made frantic efforts to escape, but there was no con- 
 fusion. The place where the king had dismounted was 
 kept clear by a circle of Majokkas, bound in honour to die 
 upon the spot rather than let him be incommoded ; others 
 formed rings round each lot of cattle, and when two heaps 
 had fallen, and there was no room for more in the kotla, the 
 rest were killed outside, as the king successively devoted 
 them. In the evening the carcases were skinned and cut 
 up, and next day the king distributed the meat to his newly- 
 acquired subjects.' 
 
 Mr. Baines has also given us the mode of cooking and 
 serving the slaughtered oxen. 'A couple of earthen 
 cauldrons were simmering on the fire, and a stalwart warrior 
 approaching these, took off the lids, drove a sharp stick into 
 a filthy-looking mass, and finding it sufficiently cooked, har- 
 pooned and hauled out the contents, and heaped them on 
 * Baines's ' Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa,' p. 35. 
 
74 OUR VIANDS 
 
 two great wooden dishes, laying on each some twigs that 
 had been boiled with the meat as charms against evil 
 influence. The cook now intoned the praises of the king, 
 the hungry warriors joining in the chorus. One of these 
 vessels shaped its course towards us, steered by the kneeling 
 functionary, and he, drawing his knife, cut off large slices 
 from which we pared the filthy outside, and found the 
 remainder excellent. The king's supper was now ready, his 
 " plate " was laid on the waggon chest, and his knife and 
 fork, supplied only for himself. He invited us to draw out 
 our own and use them freely.' * 
 
 The hecatombs of this African despot throw into the 
 shade the sacrifices of more civilised peoples, for these 
 might be counted by units, as for example ^Eneas says : 
 
 ' The sacrifices laid 
 
 On smoking altars to the gods he paid. 
 A bull to Neptune, an oblation clue, 
 Another bull to bright Apollo slew, 
 A milk-white ewe the western winds to please, 
 And one coal-black to calm the stormy seas.' 
 
 In the sacrifices of the Hebrews also one or two bullocks 
 sufficed, but it would seem from the account of Josephus, 
 that the table of Solomon was supplied almost as liberally 
 as that of Lo Benguela. Speaking of the tributes collected 
 by his officers, he says : ' Now these contributed to the 
 king's table, and to his supper every day, thirty cori of fine 
 flour, and sixty of meal ; as also ten fat oxen, and twenty 
 oxen out of the pastures, and a hundred fat lambs; all 
 these were besides what were taken by hunting harts and 
 buffaloes, and birds and fishes which were brought to the 
 king by foreigners day by day.' 
 
 * Baines's ' Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa,' p. 36. 
 
CHRISTMAS FARE 75 
 
 By this it may be seen that men of all colours and in all 
 ages have thought the ox a fit offering for the gods, pro- 
 bably because they have themselves loved the savoury meat, 
 for as Livingstone says of the Makololo, 'They have 
 abundance of game, but in their opinion, which I am sure 
 every Englishman will endorse, there is nothing equal to 
 roast beef.' 
 
 At present it must be allowed that as an article of food 
 beef is better understood and more appreciated among 
 English people than on the Continent, where the tasteless 
 pieces of beef which have been used to make the bouillon 
 are invariably served with sauce of various kinds, and the 
 bif steak, so called in honour of the famous English dish, is 
 often a piece of very coarse buffalo, or of some tough old ox 
 which has fulfilled his term of days at the yoke. Beefsteak, 
 or to speak more correctly, rumpsteak, is only to be had in 
 perfection in London, for it would seem as though country 
 butchers had not learnt the secret of the proper cut. A 
 rumpsteak grilled in a London eating-house is not to be 
 surpassed as a savoury dish, and may be eaten with fried 
 onions or oyster sauce, according to taste. It often sur- 
 prises colonists that they cannot obtain here the piece 
 especially prized by them, and known in South Africa as 
 the hump, but either our oxen are destitute of that appendage, 
 or our butchers cut the carcase differently. 
 
 The consumption of beef is now so great that our native 
 supply has to be largely supplemented by the cattle reared 
 on ranches in America and New Zealand, either brought 
 over frozen or in tins. Chicago, the chief tinning manu- 
 factory, is supplied with oxen in such profusion that they 
 are described as forming a constant stream moving ever 
 
76 OUR VIANDS 
 
 onwards up an inclined plain to be killed when they reach 
 the top; being skinned, cut up, and tinned immediately, 
 almost entirely by machinery. 
 
 Since the introduction of diner ct la Russe> the great 
 joints which formerly appeared on our dinner, supper, and 
 breakfast tables have almost disappeared. We no longer 
 see, except in cooks' shops, the great salted rump, formerly 
 a famous breakfast dish ; and the baron is reserved for the 
 Queen's table, whilst the sirloin no longer appears entire, 
 but is cut into several pieces to suit the requirements of the 
 household. Doubtless, we lose much of the juices and 
 flavour of the meat in these small joints, but the national 
 taste has become of late more assimilated to that of the 
 French, and prefers made dishes to the simple cut-and-come- 
 again joints of our ancestors. It would appear that at 
 Christmas in the olden days the great boar's head, eaten 
 with mustard, held the first place ; then came the peacock 
 in his plumes, and geese, capons, " pheasants drenched with 
 ambergrease," and pies of carps' tongues. 
 
 Of these savoury dishes many have disappeared from the 
 modern menu, whilst some are retained in the form of 
 survival, and amongst the latter is the boar's head, which, in 
 its ancient and natural form, is no longer seen amongst us 
 except at the Queen's table, and perhaps on that of some 
 other princes and potentates, but the ancient dish is still 
 imitated by our cooks in forcemeat, and at almost every 
 supper at Christmastide holds a conspicuous place, brown 
 and glazed, with long, curved, white tusks of some composi- 
 tion, lemon in mouth, and buttered adornments, altogether 
 a travesty of that great cruel beast, the pursuit of which has 
 in all ages been deemed such noble sport, which formed 
 
CHRISTMAS FARE 77 
 
 the standing dish of Scandinavian heroes, in the Valhalla to 
 which they aspired, and of which the ancient Romans were 
 so fond, that it is related of Anthony that eight wild boars 
 were usually roasted for his supper, not that they were all 
 served and consumed at once, but they were held in various 
 stages of preparation, that one might be ready whenever 
 called for. The mode of dressing this boar appears to have 
 have been to roast it stuffed with game and poultry. 
 Horace writes of 
 
 ' A Lucanian boar of tender kind, 
 Caught, says our host, in a soft southern wind ; 
 Around him lay whatever could excite, 
 With pungent force, the jaded appetite ; 
 Rapes, lettuce, radishes, anchovy brine, 
 With skerrets, and the lees of coan wine.' 
 
 The modern Romans still love the flesh of the wild boar, 
 and I have eaten it in Italy served up with a sauce, the 
 chief ingredients of which were raisins and the kernels of 
 pine cones, but the flesh of the Roman wild boar is lean 
 and hard, and can scarcely rival that of the domestic porker, 
 well fatted, and served with apple sauce in the old English 
 style. But in various parts of Europe the wild boar still 
 affords excellent sport, and heads from these sometimes find 
 their way to England. It was probably to one of these that 
 the anecdote of Solomon Hart, the Jewish R.A., related in 
 'Frith's Reminiscences,' applies 'On the occasion of a 
 visit of a party of artists to Preston Hall, the pleasant seat 
 of Mr. Betts, they were entertained, as always, in baronial 
 fashion. At one of the splendid banquets for which 
 hospitable Mr. Betts was famous, a huge boar's head, with 
 the usual garniture, was placed upon the table. Hart was 
 
78 OUR VIANDS 
 
 said to have looked longingly at it, when he exclaimed, 
 " Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." ' 
 
 It would appear from ' The Book of Days ' that in olden 
 times the boar's head garnished with bay and rosemary, and 
 heralded by trumpets, was borne to the king's table on a 
 dish of gold or silver by the server, followed by a long pro- 
 cession of nobles, knights, and ladies. The same book 
 gives the origin of the custom of serving this ancient dish 
 at Queen's College, Oxford, to a variation of the old carol. 
 This arose from the presence of mind of a student of the 
 college, who, when studying Aristotle in Shotover Forest, 
 encountered a wild boar, which rushed at him open- 
 mouthed, whereupon the scholar thrust the book down the 
 creature's throat, thus ' choking the savage with the sage.' 
 The carol used in serving the boar's head ran 
 
 1 " Caput apri defer o 
 
 Reddens laudes Domino." 
 The boar's head in hand bring I 
 With garlands gay and rosemary ; 
 I pray you all sing merrily 
 
 Qui tstis in cowuivio. 
 
 ' The boar's head,- I understand, 
 Is the chief service in this land ; 
 Look wherever it be found, 
 Servite cum cantico. 
 
 ' Be glad, both more and less, 
 For this hath ordained our steward, 
 To cheer you all this Christmas 
 The boar's head and mustard ! 
 " Caput apri defer o 
 Reddens laudes Domino" ' 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 SUNDRY MEATS 
 
 WE will begin this chapter by treating of that which, by 
 universal consent, is allowed to be the best and most 
 wholesome of animal food that is, mutton. 
 
 In the colonies mutton ranks with daily bread as a 
 prime necessity of life mutton chops for breakfast, mutton 
 roasted or boiled for dinner, and cold mutton for supper, 
 till people say they are ashamed to look a sheep in the 
 face ; but it speaks well for the wholesomeness and tooth- 
 someness of the meat, that it can thus be eaten daily from 
 year's end to year's end without producing disease or 
 satiety. Perhaps of no other meat could the same be said. 
 
 The sheep was probably the earliest of domesticated 
 animals, for Abel was a keeper of sheep; but in many 
 countries in which it now abounds it was unknown before 
 the advent of Europeans. The many millions of "sheep 
 now pastured in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand 
 owe their origin to those taken over from Europe, for there 
 was no indigenous species in those countries; but there are 
 many wild varieties of this useful animal in Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, and from these our domesticated varieties have 
 sprung. All these are traced by some naturalists to that 
 
 79 
 
8o OUR VIANDS 
 
 remarkable animal the mouflon, which is still found wild 
 in Sardinia and Corsica, and certainly has the most singular 
 resemblance to the sheep, the goat, and the deer combined. 
 
 There is a very curious wild sheep in the Rocky 
 Mountains, much larger than any of our domestic breeds ; 
 it has close hair, rather than wool, whilst the wild goat of 
 the same region has a very long fleece. The rams have 
 such enormous horns that they are said to be unable to 
 feed on level ground. 
 
 Our European sheep seem to belong to two principal 
 divisions the horned and the hornless but of each of 
 these there are innumerable varieties ; and one very singular 
 kind, common in Asia and Africa, is not known in Europe. 
 This is the fat-tailed sheep. 
 
 When ancient writers spoke of sheep having hair instead 
 of wool, and tails so long and so large that they were 
 obliged to have little waggons to carry them on, the wise 
 men of Europe laughed, and hinted at 'long-bows' and 
 ' travellers' tales ; ' nevertheless, our friends in South Africa 
 know these broad-tailed sheep well, and have even told 
 us of small boughs being fastened under the precious caudal 
 appendage, to prevent its being bruised and torn by 
 dragging over rough ground, for the tail is a delicacy, 
 and, being almost all firm fat, is often cured, and takes 
 the place of bacon. It is also used for many culinary 
 purposes, being superior to suet and equal to marrow; 
 but as the sheep has no wool, and the flesh is coarse 
 and poor, it seems wasteful in these utilitarian days to 
 rear it for the sake of the tail, and in consequence the 
 breed will probably soon die out it is, in fact, seldom 
 met with now in South Africa, except when kept as a 
 
SUNDRY MEATS 81 
 
 curiosity, but the skin is valuable, having twice the strength 
 and thickness of that of an ordinary sheep. 
 
 There are several varieties of this broad-tailed sheep in 
 Asia, which are supposed to have been" derived from 
 Barbary, Egypt, and the Levant. Two very curious varieties 
 of this sheep are found in Tibet: in one, known as the 
 fat-rumped sheep, the tail is short and thin, and the rump 
 extremely fat, whilst in the other the tail is very broad, 
 and the head is adorned with four, five, or even six horns. 
 The wool of the first is good, but that of the latter very 
 coarse. Then there is the Angora sheep, found in Asiatic 
 Turkey, long-legged, lop-eared, and with very long tails, 
 but not particularly fat. 
 
 In almost all these varieties the wool is poor and hairy 
 and the flesh coarse, but, in the present day, the sheep is 
 bred entirely for its fleece and the quality of the meat, and, 
 therefore, the hairy fat-tailed species is retained only in 
 countries where farming is not carried out scientifically, 
 or where the finer long-woolled varieties will not thrive. 
 
 The merino sheep seems to be the prime favourite among 
 colonists, and certainly it would appear to possess many 
 excellent qualities, both as regards flesh and wool. In 
 England the Southdown mutton is esteemed the finest, 
 and the little Welsh mutton, fed upon the short heathery 
 mountain grasses, is a delicacy, although the housekeeper 
 is frequently imposed upon by inferior kinds falsely 
 denominated Welsh. 
 
 Mutton is not particularly good on the Continent, the 
 sheep producing it being generally of the long-legged 
 lop-eared variety, and not all the condiments with which 
 
 it is served can conceal the coarse quality and woolly 
 
 F 
 
82 OUR VIANDS 
 
 \ 
 
 flavour of the meat. Our own sheep possess naturally 
 long thin tails, but it is found advisable, if not necessary, 
 to amputate them at an early age to prevent injury to 
 the fleece and to the animal itself. Lamb-tail pie is a 
 ' dainty dish to set before a king,' but we have heard an 
 anecdote regarding it which is worth repeating. 
 
 A lady sat at the table of a wealthy colonist, enjoying 
 a delicious lamb-tail pie. 'But,' said she, addressing the 
 host, ' is it not very extravagant to kill so many dear little 
 lambs just for the sake of their tails ? ' 
 
 ' Kill the lambs ! my dear madam ; why, bless my soul, 
 no ! That would never do ! The lambs are all alive and 
 well, and you shall see them skipping about and enjoying 
 themselves to-morrow.' 
 
 'What?' exclaimed the lady, horrified, 'and have we 
 been eating the tails of live lambs ? How very dreadful ! ' 
 and she put down her knife and fork in disgust. 
 
 The occupation of the shepherd has perhaps given rise 
 to more poetic descriptions and to more artistic effects 
 than any other known to man. The biblical similes 
 relating to sheep and shepherds are innumerable, and no 
 pastoral picture, no descriptive poem, would be complete 
 without them. From the great god Pan, with his horns 
 and goat's legs, who piped to his flocks in Arcady, to the 
 dainty little Watteau shepherdesses in lovely costumes 
 not at all suited to their vocation, artists have found 
 exquisite subjects for their pencils, although not compatible 
 with real life. Nevertheless, the shepherd of the Campagna, 
 seated on a broken monument, with his pipe and shaggy 
 goatskin breeches, is a picturesque object not so very 
 unlike the Pan of ancient days. The Watteau shepherdess 
 
SUNDR Y ME A TS 83 
 
 is only met with at fancy dress balls, but the Swiss and 
 Tyrolean senneren are perhaps quite as picturesque. Nor 
 must we omit the shepherd's faithful companion, friend, 
 and helper the dog for without him no rural landscape 
 would be complete. We all know Landseer's touching 
 picture 'The Shepherd's Chief Mourner,' and, indeed, 
 among the Highlands and the mountains of Wales, the 
 dog is indispensable, for sheep have a peculiar faculty for 
 going astray, and, like men, will follow their leader blindly 
 into any boggle, so that whole flocks would frequently 
 perish did not the sagacious dog come to the rescue. It 
 is an interesting sight to see a well-trained dog watching 
 his master's eye, and following his instructions far better 
 than a two-legged servant could do, and the shepherd's 
 dog will sometimes undertake voluntary duty. I witnessed 
 a case of this kind some years ago in the Lake district. 
 
 A dog sat at the door of a cottage, watching the vain 
 efforts of a man on the hills at some distance, to collect 
 together a flock of sheep. Up and down he ran, and as fast 
 as he got a dozen together they would start off again to join 
 their comrades, scattering in all directions. The dog watched 
 and watched, started up, lay down again, and fidgeted. At 
 last he could stand it no longer : off he went as hard as he 
 could go, and, without asking for instructions, collected the 
 wandering flock in a very short time, drove them up to the 
 shepherd, and then returned home and lay down quietly as 
 before. I asked his owner if he knew the man he had been 
 helping, but he said, ' Oh, no, it was just his nature ; ' and a 
 very good nature, too, I thought. 
 
 We often wonder what would be the effect upon the very 
 important industry of sheep farming should the fads of a 
 
84 OUR VIANDS 
 
 few philosophers ever induce the bulk of mankind to become 
 vegetarian in diet. Wool is so necessary in our manufac- 
 tures that it must be had, so that sheep must be reared ; but 
 if the mutton is not to be eaten they could not be allowed 
 to increase. There seems, however, little fear of that day 
 arriving, for not one in a thousand can resist the savoury 
 joint, or the chops and tomato sauce of the immortal 
 Pickwick. 
 
 There are three meats tabooed by the doctors, but 
 delighted in, nevertheless, by the cook and the gourmand, 
 who know full well how exceedingly savoury they may be 
 made. Lamb, veal, and pork, 'all sadly indigestible and 
 unwholesome,' says the doctor with a shake of his wise head, 
 ' and should never be eaten except by those who have the 
 stomach of a horse or an ostrich.' Now, of course, the 
 horse and the ostrich being graminivorous, could not digest 
 these foods ; but men, women, and children, with healthy 
 stomachs, and good appetites not spoilt by physic, can 
 certainly eat and digest all three, and derive both health 
 and pleasure from their consumption. The crusade against 
 lamb and veal as unwholesome because young and immature, 
 to be carried to its legitimate conclusion should be extended 
 to game and poultry, and a tough old hen, or a hare which 
 has for years defied the sportsman, should be extolled before 
 the tender chicken and the leveret. 
 
 The Jews, restricted in their diet by strict laws, rejected 
 all pork as unclean ; but veal and lamb, with kid, seem to 
 have formed the staple of their feasts. The paschal lamb, 
 roasted whole and eaten with bitter herbs, is familiar to 
 every reader of the Bible ; and lambs, as we know, formed a 
 large proportion of the sacrifices offered daily, and, of course 
 
SUNDRY MEATS 85 
 
 eaten, with the singular exception that all the fat should be 
 burnt, for the fat as well as the blood of sacrifices seems to 
 have been forbidden to be eaten ; and, it may be remembered 
 as one of the sins of the sons of Eli, that they sent their 
 servant and demanded raw flesh with the fat, before it was 
 burned according to the sacred law of sacrifices. The 
 breast and the right shoulder of these sacrifices were allotted 
 to the priests, and thus it came to pass that when Saul was 
 sent to Samuel, the shoulder was set before him as the royal 
 and priestly joint. As to the calf, that was not only offered 
 in sacrifice, like the lamb, but it seems to have been set 
 aside especially for family feasts. The fatted calf, killed to 
 do honour to the returning prodigal, has passed into a 
 proverb, and to 'kill the fatted calf is now synonymous 
 with making a feast of joy. But the calf was' from the 
 earliest times looked upon as a delicacy to set before an 
 honoured guest ; hence we are told that when, in the days of 
 Abraham, the three angels came to him as he sat in his tent- 
 door on the plains of Mamre, in the heat of the day, he 
 ' ran unto the herd and fetched a calf, tender and good, and 
 gave it to a young man, and he hasted to dress it. And he 
 took butter and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, 
 and set it before them ; and he stood by them under the 
 tree, and they did eat.' 
 
 What a vivid picture we have here of the hospitality of 
 the patriarch, of his mode of life, and of the food he thought 
 meet to place before his guests the calf tender and good, 
 eaten as at the present day, with butter and milk, the cake 
 kneaded and baked upon the hearth by Sarah, to be eaten 
 with it. It was no mean feast for hungry men in the wide 
 plain, but the celerity with which it is prepared strikes one. 
 
86 OUR VIANDS 
 
 To kill a calf and skin it would take an English butcher a 
 considerable time, and the cooking would not be attempted 
 until the carcase was cold, but in hot climates this kind of 
 rapid slaughtering and cooking is frequent and necessary. 
 1 Sudden death,' as it is called, overtakes poultry very often, 
 even in England, and if cooked without being allowed to 
 get cold, the meat is tender and well-flavoured, and probably 
 the same holds good with regard to larger animals. 
 
 In England the killing of calves was formerly attended 
 with much cruelty, the poor animals being bled two or three 
 times before they were killed, in order to make the meat 
 white, which probably also made it hard and indigestible ; 
 but this is happily now done away with, as is the mode in 
 which they were conveyed to market packed in a cart with 
 their legs tied, and lying one over another, with their heads 
 hanging down over the tail-board, and making the most 
 piteous cries. 
 
 Although veal is still eschewed by many in England as 
 indigestible, we cannot imagine what our cooks would do 
 without this savoury meat, which, above all others, is 
 invaluable in the menu. What could supply the place of 
 the delicate sweetbread, the ragout, the calf s head with its 
 accompaniments, the hash, the stew, the mince, the veal 
 olives and cutlets, and the roast fillet, with its stuffing and 
 lemon-juice, beloved of Oliver Cromwell? All over the 
 Continent of Europe the value of veal is recognised, and a 
 cotelette dc veau is the one thing which may be safely ordered 
 by the traveller. 
 
 As for pork, what shall we say ? A whole treatise would 
 not suffice to recount all the virtues and uses of ' honest 
 piggy 5 the poor man's genuine friend every portion of 
 
SUNDRY MEATS 87 
 
 which is good for food. The Jewish law which condemned 
 the pig as unclean, certainly deprived the Israelites of a 
 savoury food, but it does not appear to have prevented them 
 from keeping the unclean creature, and probably making it 
 a profitable article of commerce with the Gentiles, respecting 
 which, and the destruction of the herd of many swine, as 
 reported in the New Testament, a lively controversy was 
 lately carried on between two of our greatest men of light 
 and leading. 
 
 The parable of the Prodigal Son marks the depth of his 
 degradation by making him a swineherd. But our English 
 chroniclers give a story, in which a herd of swine running 
 into the water, caused the foundation of one of the best 
 known and most beautiful cities of England. As the story 
 is not generally known we will give it shortly. A British 
 prince, named Bladud, became leprous, and was driven 
 from his home, and, being forced to become a swineherd, 
 he communicated his disease to his four-footed companions, 
 and they wandered about, shunned by all. One day 
 Bladud's pigs took a strange freak. Being on a steep hill 
 in the forest, they all ran hastily down, and plunged into a 
 marsh at the foot of the hill, and there they lay wallowing, 
 and resisting all Bladud's efforts to draw them away. Day 
 after day they returned to their mud bath, till Bladud saw 
 with pleasure and surprise that they were all cured of the 
 leprosy. Being a wise prince, he was not above learning 
 even of a pig and, following their example, he too was soon 
 cured, and enabled to return to his father, and eventually to 
 become king in his place. He built a city on the spot 
 where he was cured, with baths for lepers, and this was the 
 origin of the far-famed baths of Bath which certainly were 
 
88 OUR VIANDS 
 
 held in repute even before the coming of the Romans. 
 Should any of our readers visit that fairest of cities, they 
 may see an ancient statue of Prince Bladud, with an 
 assigned date of centuries B.C., still presiding over the hot 
 bath, which is supposed to have been the scene of his 
 cure, and will find in the city many allusions to the 
 tradition. 
 
 The pig is, as we know, all in all to the Irish peasantry 
 1 the gintleman that pays the rint,' when allowed to do so 
 and the bacon exported from Ireland is not to be surpassed; 
 but most of that consumed in London comes from the 
 celebrated manufactory of Harris, of Calne, Wiltshire, where 
 thousands of pigs are killed and cured somewhat after the 
 Chicago fashion going in at one end live pig, and coming 
 out at the other, bacon or sausages. I cannot say I quite 
 like this rapid curing process, which is not always perfect, 
 and, as a housekeeper, I often long for the old-fashioned 
 home-cured bacon and hams of my youth ; but a taste has 
 arisen for what is known in the market as mild-cured bacon, 
 which to my mind means only half-cured ; caterers for the 
 public, however, find it profitable to supply mild-cured meat, 
 which requires rapid consumption, so that it is difficult now 
 to find really well-salted meat or fish of any kind. 
 
 We all know Lamb's amusing story of the origin of suck- 
 ing pig, but few of us realise the vast importance of pork 
 and bacon as human food. Pigs have been introduced into 
 every country to which commerce has extended, and now 
 exist in great numbers all over the South Sea Islands, which, 
 when first discovered, had no quadrupeds fit for food ; 
 the inhabitants consequently feasted upon human victims. 
 The vast quantities of bacon and hams which come to us 
 
SUNDR Y ME A TS 89 
 
 yearly from America and Canada, show how important the 
 pig has become commercially, but from the very earliest 
 times the wild pig seems to have occupied a foremost place 
 as an article of diet, for the bones of the wild boar are 
 found in almost all kitchen-middens of pre-historic times, 
 and the animal plays an important role in Scandinavian 
 legends. 
 
 All our early poets have drawn inspiration from the 
 noble sport of stag hunting, and certainly in all the 
 menus of ancient times, venison figured prominently; but 
 who can now compound such a venison pasty as that upon 
 which the bold Friar Tuck regaled the Black Knight in 
 Sherwood Forest ? 
 
 Nothing gave such offence to our ancestors as the turning 
 of waste lands into deer forests by some of the early Norman 
 kings for the sake of sport ; and the preservation of the deer 
 in these forests, required constant watchfulness on the part 
 of the keepers, for the forests were haunted by poachers, 
 some of whom, like Robin Hood and his merry men, were 
 not of the lower orders, but outlawed noblemen, for it 
 seems to be pretty well established that Robin Hood was 
 really the Earl of Huntingdon, who had been banished by 
 Richard I. for misdemeanours. 
 
 Everyone knows the story of the New Forest, in Hamp- 
 shire, created by William the Conqueror, and the tragic 
 death in it of his son William Rufus. But the New Forest, 
 although the largest, was far from being the only deer forest 
 in England; indeed, even as late as last century, there 
 were no fewer than 68, besides 18 chases and 780 parks'. 
 In all, or in most of these, fallow-deer were allowed to 
 roam freely, and the tenants of forest lands were forbidden 
 
90 OUR VIANDS 
 
 to plough the land, and were obliged to preserve pasturage 
 for the deer. The number of deer thus kept must have 
 been enormous. In Cranbourne Chase alone we are told 
 12,000 were pastured, but the constant conflicts between 
 the poachers and keepers, which often ended in loss of life, 
 caused most of the forests to be disafforested, so that now 
 the deer in England are reduced to a comparatively small 
 number, and are mostly kept in gentlemen's parks, to the 
 beauty of which they largely contribute. 
 
 As a sport, deer-stalking is now quite unknown in England, 
 although carried on in Scotland, where the wild mountains 
 and forests still shelter some of the noble red-deer, which is 
 much fiercer than the beautiful dappled fallow deer of our 
 parks, in some of which a few red deer are also kept. 
 
 There is a sport called stag-hunting still carried on in 
 England, but which would be looked upon as a farce by 
 those accustomed to the chase of wild animals. The Queen 
 keeps a pack of stag-hounds and some trained stags, and 
 when a stag hunt is announced, one of the trained stags is 
 conveyed in a cart to a certain spot and there let loose. 
 After a few minutes grace the hounds are sent in pursuit, 
 followed by the whole field of hunters, till after a run of 
 some miles the stag gets tired, and deliberately waits till the 
 huntsman comes up and captures him, when he is again 
 put into the cart and taken back to his snug quarters. Oh, 
 shade of Robin Hood ! with what utter contempt must thou 
 regard this poor remnant of ancient British sport ! 
 
 The death of the beautiful fallow-deer has always caused 
 a certain feeling of remorseful pity, even in the breast of the 
 successful hunter, and poets have drawn many beautiful 
 similes from the chase and its accompaniments. 
 
SUNDR Y ME A TS 9 r 
 
 ' As pants the hart for cooling streams, 
 When heated in the chase, ' 
 
 will occur to the mind at once, and Shakespeare 
 describes the melancholy Jaques moralising on the same 
 event : 
 
 1 As he lay along 
 
 Under an oak, whose antique root peeps out 
 Upon the brook that brawls along this wood ; 
 To the which place a poor sequester'd stag, 
 That from the hunter's aim had ta'en a hurt, 
 Did come to languish ; and, indeed, my lord, 
 The wretched animal heav'd forth such groans, 
 That their discharge did stretch his leathern coat 
 Almost to bursting ; and the big round tears 
 Cours'd one another down his innocent nose 
 In piteous chase : and thus the hairy fool, 
 Much marked of the melancholy Jaques, 
 Stood on the extremest verge of the swift brook, 
 Augmenting it with tears. . . . 
 " Poor deer," quoth he, "thou mak'st a testament 
 As worldlings do, giving thy sum of more 
 To that which had too much." ' 
 
 Pity, however, does not weigh much in the scale when 
 savoury meat is the result of a day's hunting, and from time 
 immemorial venison has been regarded as a delicacy fit for 
 a king's table. Solomon in his magnificence had his venison 
 of stag and roebuck daily, and Cyrus of Persia would not 
 dine without it. But long before Cyrus and Solomon our 
 rude forefathers had found uses, not only for the flesh, but 
 also for the horns and sinews of various kinds of deer ; for 
 among the earliest known relics of man, the horns of the 
 deer are found forming handles for stone implements, picks 
 for digging flints, etc., whilst the sinews were used as thread 
 
92 OUR VIANDS 
 
 for sewing the skins together for clothing, and for making 
 strings for bows, fishing lines, and other purposes. 
 
 One of the earliest known drawings found in the caves of 
 France represents a group of reindeer, for the reindeer at 
 that remote period lived in France and Great Britain, as it 
 now does in Lapland, and appears to have been domesticated, 
 and was probably as useful to the old cave-dwellers as it is 
 now to the Lapps. 
 
 When we come to inquire how these old-world people 
 cooked their venison, the answer is not easy : they probably 
 broiled it over hot coals, or boiled it with hot stones after 
 the method mentioned elsewhere ; but in the old patriarchal 
 days they must have cooked with considerable skill, other- 
 wise Rebecca would not have been able so readily to convert 
 the kid into savoury meat so nearly resembling venison as 
 to be eaten for it by the blind old patriarch, who seems to 
 have been fond of good living, and evidently appreciated 
 venison as much as modern epicures. 
 
 Goat's flesh is so little appreciated among us at present, 
 that it is not even named in modern English cookery books. 
 Nevertheless, in the East and in southern Europe, even now, 
 it is much eaten and esteemed, as it is also in South Africa 
 where large flocks are kept for the hair, and for food. The 
 many allusions to the goat in Scripture shows that it formed 
 one of the staple articles of food among the Jews, as it did 
 doubtless among the Greeks and Romans ; and the goat is 
 one of the most familiar objects in ancient sculpture, as it 
 is in modern paintings of Italian landscape. 
 
 The Roman god Pan and his satyrs are depicted with 
 goat's legs, and the modern herdsman of the Campagna, in 
 his hairy goatskin breeches as he sits on a ruined tomb 
 
SUNDR Y ME A TS 93 
 
 piping to his herd, with the graceful little kids playing 
 around him, is a good representative of the ancient sylvan 
 deity and his attendants. 
 
 In Italy at the present day, not only is the goat in great 
 request for its flesh and its skin, but the milk is largely used, 
 and a sort of cream cheese made of goat's milk is sold in the 
 streets and highly appreciated, being, in truth, very sweet 
 and palatable. A halfpenny spent on this ricotta, to be 
 eaten with the sour Italian bread, makes an excellent meal 
 for the frugal Roman, who cannot afford many table luxuries. 
 
 We used often to wonder that the useful goat, so easily 
 reared and fed, was not more commonly kept by cottagers 
 in England ; but we have since found out that his constant 
 activity, and the consequent difficulty of keeping him within 
 due bounds, is a great drawback to his usefulness in a small 
 and over-populated country like Great Britain. Among the 
 mountains of Wales he still thrives, being, as is well known, 
 an emblem of the country. The beautiful Angora goat, now 
 naturalised at the Cape, is a native of Syria, and is not hardy 
 enough for the cold, rough mountains of Europe, but its 
 flesh, I am told, is more palatable, as its coat is more 
 beautiful, than that of the common goat. A solitary goat is 
 often kept in stables or among a herd of cows in England, 
 being supposed to ward off disease ; and in South Africa 
 one is often trained to act as leader to a flock of sheep a 
 part it enacts with great sagacity. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 GAME AND POULTRY 
 
 THERE may perhaps have been vegetarians in all ages, but 
 they are certainly rare among the lower races of the present 
 day, and have probably always been so of necessity rather 
 than by choice, for doubtless man is by nature a hunter, 
 and has ever been engaged in trapping and slaying for 
 food the wild animals by which he has been surrounded. 
 
 The very earliest men of whom we have any record 
 whose weapons were of rough stone, and whose dwellings 
 were in caves and rock shelters, who probably built no 
 houses, and, as far as we know, wore no clothes except 
 the skins of the animals they had slain and devoured 
 were hunters. Noble game, too, they hunted in those days 
 in Europe, such as can now only be found in the wilds 
 of Africa, and some not even there, for they have perished 
 utterly. There were the cave lion and the cave bear, the 
 great sabre-toothed tiger, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and 
 the great mammoth, with its long, curved tusks and shaggy 
 coat, known to us only by its skeleton, and by its likeness 
 drawn by these savage hunters on a piece of its own tusk 
 until some years ago a great thaw in Siberia revealed the 
 animal in its flesh, where it had lain packed in ice by the 
 hand of nature for many centuries, yet still remaining fresh 
 enough to be devoured by dogs, a fact which might have 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 95 
 
 V 
 
 suggested the use of the refrigerating process to the wise 
 men of that day ; but they were so slow in following where 
 nature led, that it has taken half a century to bring frozen 
 meat into the European market. Then there was the 
 reindeer, useful then as now, and abounding at that time 
 in the south of France, instead of in the Arctic regions; 
 but in those remote ages the south of France was itself 
 Arctic in climate. 
 
 The wild cave men of those days have also left us 
 portraits of the reindeer, and of a little shaggy pony, which 
 they ate also, as well as fish and fowl, for people then were 
 not particular as to the choice of food, and ate whatever 
 they could catch, literally by hook or by crook, for, as 
 they had no guns and no weapons of metal, they had to 
 trust to their own skill and cunning rather than to their 
 weapons for their game, and it seems astonishing that with 
 such imperfect implements they should have succeeded in 
 slaughtering such a huge beast as the mammoth; never- 
 theless, some even now can trap and destroy the elephant 
 and other big game, using for the purpose poisoned arrows 
 and having ingenious methods, whereby the flow of blood 
 from the wound is increased, and, in some cases, the head 
 of the arrow is made to detach itself and the shaft to drag 
 along the ground, entangling itself in the long grass so 
 as to hinder the flight of the wounded animal. Mr. Stanley 
 has described the skill of the little African pigmies in 
 destroying big game with their tiny but beautifully made 
 weapons, and by traps. 
 
 European game has now dwindled down to small 
 proportions. The mammoth, and other great beasts its 
 contemporaries, are quite extinct; the reindeer has retreated 
 
96 OUR VIANDS 
 
 to the Arctic circles ; the horse and the ox, the goat and 
 the pig, are no longer game, but domestic animals. There 
 are still a few bears, wolves, and wild boars to be found, 
 and several kinds of deer. The fox at least in England 
 can hardly be looked upon as a wild animal, being 
 carefully preserved ; and even of birds, few are now found 
 in the wild state, partridges and pheasants being reared 
 by thousands in poultry yards and turned out to be shot. 
 But in the north, grouse of several kind, blackcock, and 
 capercailzies are still to be found, and wild duck, woodcock, 
 and snipe may fall to the sportsman's gun in the lowlands. 
 
 There is, however, little excitement in the pursuit of 
 that which is harmless, and so our genuine sportsmen go 
 further afield for their game, and delight, like Nimrod of 
 old, in hunting the tiger and the wild boar in India, or 
 the lion, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the panther, and 
 various species of deer and antelope in Africa. The latter 
 continent still maintains the pre-eminence which caused 
 it to be named ' the hunter's paradise,' and those who saw 
 the great trophy of heads and horns displayed in the Cape 
 Court at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition must have 
 been struck with the vast variety of game there represented ; 
 and more especially they must have wondered at the 
 number of species of antelopes, from the great eland * to 
 the tiny little steinbok. The pursuit of these requires 
 great skill and cunning, for they are all extremely agile, and 
 easily scared, and frequent for the most part mountainous 
 regions, very difficult of access. 
 
 * It has been proposed to make an attempt to acclimatise this 
 giant antelope in England and to use it for food, which might, perhaps, 
 be possible. 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 97 
 
 One antelope only remains in a wild state in Europe 
 namely, the chamois ; and the hunting of this active little 
 animal which most nearly resembles the klip-springer of 
 the Cape is attended with a considerable amount of 
 danger. 
 
 Those who would realise the pleasures and dangers of 
 chamois hunting, must visit their haunts among the wild 
 peaks of the Tyrolean Alps, and read the tales written by 
 the Baroness Tautphoeus ' The Initials ' and ' Quits ' old 
 now, but wonderfully true in their descriptions of the country 
 and the people, and of that wild chamois hunter and his 
 habits who has been thus described : ' The true chamois 
 hunter is a man apart. Gaunt and bony, with " brown and 
 sinewy knees, scarred and scratched, hair shaggy, dark 
 piercing eyes, marked eyebrows, a bent eagle nose, and 
 high, fleshless cheek-bones, with a hungry expression on his 
 face," to borrow the words of a famous Alpine hunter, the 
 "Gamsjager" is of a build not to be acquired among the 
 dwellers of cities.' 
 
 Once only have I tasted chamois flesh, and can testify to 
 its extreme delicacy and excellence, but it rarely falls to the 
 lot of modern tourists to taste the real article ; the Swiss 
 serve up goat flesh cunningly prepared to resemble chamois, 
 but which is no more to be compared with it than is mutton 
 to venison. 
 
 Time was when the only specimen of foreign game which 
 appeared on English tables was the French partridge, which 
 has long been naturalised among us, and of which a poet 
 writes 
 
 ' As I was standing by a wood one day, 
 A little partridge came my way. 
 
98 OUR VIANDS 
 
 His slender legs were dainty red, 
 And in a foreign way he said, 
 
 " Ne tirez pas, ne tirez pas ! 
 
 Je suis Frangais. 
 Mon Dieu ! ne tirez pas ! " 
 
 ' Another hand (not mine) then fired; he ft 11, 
 And, quivering, lay upon the ground. 
 But, ere the fluttering life had sped, 
 With little sob he bravely said, 
 
 " N'y pensez plus, n'y pens' z plus. 
 
 Aliens ! Voyons ! 
 
 Je meurs Fran9ais. 
 
 Adieu ! " ' 
 
 Now, however, the freezing system has allowed game, as 
 well as beef and mutton, to be sent from over the seas, and 
 thus we get the prairie hen from America, and are surprised 
 that we do not also get various other birds, even from greater 
 distances. We are told that we receive many tons of rabbits 
 from Australia and New Zealand, both tinned and frozen, 
 and we certainly get shiploads of ptarmigan, capercailzie, 
 blackcock, and white hares' from Norway and the north of 
 Scotland, which, coming as they do during the close season 
 for our native game, and when poultry also is scarce and 
 dear, are exceedingly acceptable to English housekeepers. 
 Why do we not also get the bush-turkey and other game- 
 birds from Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape ? It also 
 seems a pity the Australians do not send us kangaroo meat; 
 but then there is a prejudice to be overcome, for English 
 people don't like any outlandish meats, and even the 
 French, although they do enjoy frogs' legs and snails, and 
 were accustomed during the siege of Paris to all sorts of 
 strange viands, from rats to elephants, do not prefer these 
 delicacies in times of peace and plenty. We believe 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 99 
 
 kangaroo tails may be purchased here, but the majority of 
 people will doubtless continue to give preference to the 
 bovine caudal appendage in making soup.* 
 
 Use is second nature, and it takes a long time to get used 
 to strange dishes. The late Frank Buckland tried the 
 flavour of everything he could 'try in the Zoo, from the snake 
 to the hippopotamus, but he didn't get many to enjoy his 
 savoury meats. However, game, whether bird or beast, is 
 much more readily accepted than other strange meats, and 
 we fancy if South Africa and Australia would send us game 
 during their early autumn (not at pairing time) in a frozen 
 state, it would be a most acceptable addition to the some- 
 what scanty menu of our backward spring, and, perhaps, 
 delay for a time the threatened total extermination of our 
 birds and hares, now apparently sold in season and out of 
 season indiscriminately. 
 
 There is nothing which tickles the palate of the epicure 
 more than a savoury dish of game of any kind, from the 
 lordly stag to the humble lark, the long strings of which 
 charming little songster hanging in the poulterers' shops 
 often cause a pang of regret to the lover of birds, although, 
 as a matter of fact it is no more cruel to kill and eat a lark 
 than a woodcock, only in the former case the slaughter 
 seems so wholesale, that the fear of total extermination arises; 
 but when we look back to the days of the Roman emperors, 
 and read that the table of Elagabalus was regularly supplied 
 with ragouts of the livers and brains of small birds, the heads 
 
 * The Australian aborigines insist that all animals must be cooked 
 in their skins, and their method of cooking the kangaroo is to cut it 
 open, take out the entrails and replace them by four hot stones ; the 
 animal is then roasted on hot ashes. 
 
ioo OUR VIANDS 
 
 of parrots and pheasants, and the tongues of peacocks and 
 nightingales, and that ^Esop, the tragic actor, entertained 
 his guests with a dish of birds, each of which had been 
 taught either to sing or to speak, we wonder that any 
 singing birds should remain to be killed and eaten, 
 especially when we remember that from the days of the 
 Roman emperors to this present, an indiscriminate slaughter 
 of all birds has been going on in Italy. 
 
 Even now the traveller is regaled with all sorts of birds 
 daintily dressed and served under the name of ortolans or 
 becaficos, but the poulterers' shops reveal a mass of strange 
 birds of every kind from the owl to the kingfisher and the 
 wren, all awaiting the same fate at the hands of the Italian 
 cook, who does not disdain even the blood of his victims, 
 which is sold in the form of little cakes, whilst the livers, 
 mixed with poultry trimmings, help in the manufacture of the 
 most savoury and delicious of pies; whereas our extravagant 
 cooks throw everything away excepting, perhaps, the liver and 
 gizzard of domestic poultry, although they will sometimes 
 condescend to use the necks and pinions for making gravy. 
 
 Our domestic poultry now consists of fowls, ducks, geese, 
 turkeys, and guinea-fowls, but formerly at all feasts the 
 place of honour was assigned to the peacock, which, 
 dressed in its full plumage, was carried to the dining-hall 
 by the chief lady of the company, to the sound of music, 
 the rest of the ladies following in due order, and was set 
 down by the bearer before the master of the house or his 
 most honoured guest. The 'Book of Days' says, 'to 
 prepare Argus for the table was a task entailing no little 
 trouble. The skin was first carefully stripped off, with the 
 plumage adhering ; the bird was then roasted ; when done 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 101 
 
 and partially cooled, it was sewed up again in its feathers, 
 its beak gilt, and so sent to table. Sometimes the whole 
 body was covered with leaf-gold, and a piece of cotton 
 saturated with spirits placed in its beak and lighted 
 before the carver commenced operations. This " food for 
 lovers and meat for lords" was stuffed with spices and 
 sweet herbs, basted with yolk of eggs, and served with 
 plenty of gravy ; on great occasions as many as three fat 
 wethers being braised to make enough for a single peacock.' 
 The same book tells us that the bird when served up after 
 a tournament, was usually placed in a pie, the head 
 appearing at one end and the tail unfolded in all its glory 
 at the other, and in this form was placed before the 
 victorious knight. Over this peacock-pie the knights-errant 
 swore, as Justice Shallow has it, ' by cock and pie,' to do 
 all manner of chivalrous deeds. 
 
 The peacock is seldom if ever sent to table at the present 
 day in its gorgeous plumes, the latest recorded instance of 
 its appearance being at a dinner given to William IV. when 
 Duke of Clarence, by the governor of Grenada; but our cooks 
 still adorn the supper table with game pies embellished with 
 the stuffed heads and displayed tails of pheasants ; and 
 young pea-fowls are still eaten with relish on the rare 
 occasions when they are obtainable, as are also cygnets, the 
 swan, like the peacock, having passed away from the ordinary 
 cook's domain, but the great swannery at Abbotsbury still 
 sends some yearly to the Queen's table, and we sometimes, 
 though very rarely, see swans hanging in poulterers' shops. 
 
 The place of both these former favourites has been taken 
 by the turkey, which, ever since its first introduction, has 
 been growing in favour until it has now become so much a 
 
102 OUR VIANDS 
 
 necessity, that there is scarcely a household in the three 
 kingdoms of any social standing, which does not place a 
 turkey on the table at Christmas, and one wonders in 
 contemplating the tons upon tons displayed in shops and 
 stores during the winter, where they can have come from. 
 Norfolk turkeys take the first place in the market, and 
 magnificent specimens they are, with sufficient white dainty 
 meat on the breast to serve a family party, whilst all the 
 masculine members of the household may breakfast on the 
 well-devilled legs. 
 
 There has been much discussion as to whether the birds 
 known to the ancients as meleagrides were the same as our 
 turkeys, but the opinion is now generally held that the 
 former birds were guinea-fowls, and that the turkey was 
 unknown before the days of Columbus, being a native of 
 America, where it is still found wild, and having been 
 introduced to Europe by Jesuit missionaries, but it was 
 certainly known in England in the reign of Henry VIII., 
 and, according to Beckmann, began to appear as a 
 Christmas dish about 1585. 
 
 TheTalegalla or brush-turkey, which builds curious mounds 
 in which to lay its eggs, allowing them to be hatched by 
 the heat generated by the fermentation of the heaped-up 
 material, is much sought by the Australian savages as an 
 article of food, and, like all wild birds, is eaten with gusto by 
 the sportsman, but it is not at all like the common turkey. 
 The guinea-fowl, supposed to have been the bird known 
 to the ancients as turkey, has long been domesticated in 
 England, and is a most useful stop-gap, coming into season 
 just when game and poultry are scarce : when young it is 
 almost equal to pheasant. It is a very shy bird, and 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 103 
 
 although you may pet the pretty little chicks, they are sure 
 to fly away as soon as they can, and will seldom roost with 
 common fowls, but will prefer the highest tree they can 
 find, and lay their eggs in the most inaccessible places, by 
 preference in a bed of stinging nettles. 
 
 The chief rival of the turkey is the goose, which is, indeed, 
 so highly esteemed by the ' masses,' that goose clubs have 
 long been established, to which the mechanic subscribes 
 for many weeks before Christmas, in order to receive a fine 
 fat goose for the delectation of himself and family at the 
 winter festival. The savoury bird is not despised by more 
 aristocratic palates, although from the sage and onion 
 accompaniment which is indispensable, it may not appear 
 on state occasions. 
 
 Caesar tells us that the ancient Britons did not consider 
 it lawful to eat the hare and the cock and the goose, 
 probably because these animals were sacred among them, 
 as they were or at least the cock and the goose among 
 many other peoples. It seems probable that the geese 
 which saved the Capitol were sacred birds kept for 
 sacrifice, and the goose was certainly among the sacred 
 animals of Egypt, but that did not prevent their being 
 eaten; and since the day when Queen El'zabeth com- 
 manded the goose to be served on Michaelmas Day to 
 commemorate the destruction of the Spanish Armada, the 
 slaughter of the goose family has gone on in a yearly 
 increasing ratio, and of late a foreign trade has sprung up 
 in this favourite food, and we see in the market numberless 
 frozen geese from Russia. Now that feather beds have 
 gone so much out of fashion, the goose is seldom robbed 
 of her down before death; but the process was never a 
 
104 OUR VIANDS 
 
 very cruel one, as the housewife only took what the bird 
 would have plucked oft' herself to line her nest. The grey- 
 goose quill has also been largely superseded by the steel 
 pen, yet probably hundreds of thousands of goose quills are 
 still used annually. The goose is not a favourite with the 
 farmer, who declares that nothing will feed upon the 
 pasture where geese are kept, as they make the grass rank 
 and sour; nevertheless, large flocks are kept on commons, 
 and share the pasture with horses, cows, and sheep. The 
 liver of the goose was as highly esteemed by the ancient 
 Romans as by lovers of p&te de foie gras nowadays, and 
 means had even then been found to enlarge it artificially. 
 Horace wrote 
 
 ' The slaves behind in mighty chargfr bore 
 A crane in pieces lorn, and powder'd o'er 
 With salt and flour ; and a white gander's 1 ver, 
 Stuff'd fat with figs, bespoke the curious giv<r.' 
 
 Francis's Hor., B. ii., s. 8. 
 
 The duck does not seem to have been so highly esteemed 
 among the ancients ; nevertheless, in wisdom it beats the 
 domestic fowl hollow. Naturalists have lately been maligning 
 the tame duck, declaring that its brain is not so large as that 
 of its wild brother in fact, that it has lost in intelligence 
 from associating with human beings instead of shunning 
 them. It may probably have lost some of its native 
 cunning, nevertheless, the tame duck is certainly not 
 lacking in sense, and we have often been interested by the 
 'cuteness of this well-known bird. The way in which it will 
 escape from danger in a crowded thoroughfare, notwith- 
 standing its awkward gait, is quite curious, of which a very 
 singular instance was related by an omnibus- driver, who saw 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 105 
 
 a duck with five or six young ones cross safely from Hyde 
 Park to Green Park in the middle of the day, when Hyde 
 Park Corner was thronged with vehicles of all kinds. We 
 remember an amusing episode relating to these birds which 
 will interest our readers. 
 
 Whilst on a visit in the country some years ago we 
 watched the polite behaviour of some neighbours' ducks 
 with much amusement Two ducks belonging to a cottage, 
 desirous of mixing with their fellows, used to creep under a 
 gate and cross the road in the early morning to a farmyard 
 where many others of their kind disported themselves, and, 
 after a day's grubbing, the drake from the farm used to 
 conduct the visitors to their own quarters at sunset in a 
 most ludicrous manner. After leading them to the gate of 
 their domain, he stood by to watch them creep under, but 
 never attempted to follow them : then a great deal of bowing 
 and quacking would take place between the ducks on one 
 side of the gate and the drake on the other evidently a 
 vote of thanks for polite attentions was duly conveyed and 
 graciously accepted. Then the two ducks would waddle off 
 across a small field to their bedchamber, whilst the drake 
 remained outside the gate watching till they had entered 
 their abode, when, after a few quacks from the ducks to 
 announce their safe arrival, and a good-night in reply from 
 the drake, he would turn away and waddle off to his own 
 harem, to repeat the same polite performance the next 
 night. 
 
 Everyone will allow that ducks are good eating, not- 
 withstanding the assertion that they are foul feeders. 
 Undoubtedly they will, like the pig, swallow any garbage, 
 but their preference is for slugs and snails, and, if allowed 
 
io6 OUR VIANDS 
 
 to search for themselves in the early morning and late in 
 the evening, they will soon fatten upon these gardeners' 
 enemies, and require very little feeding except in dry, hot, 
 and frosty weather ; and, but that their waddling feet tread 
 down the earth too much, they are excellent assistants to 
 the gardener. 
 
 Seeing the enormous yearly consumption of the domestic 
 fowl, it is matter of surprise that eggs and poultry are not 
 more cultivated in England. There seems no reason why 
 English farmers should not find it as profitable an industry as 
 the French and Irish do ; but there exists a general opinion 
 that they cannot be made to pay, and consequently the egg 
 and poultry trade is largely given over to foreigners, and of 
 late an immense number of frozen fowls have found their 
 way into the London market little, short-necked, ill-favoured 
 things, said to come from Russia, but, appearing at a time 
 when English fowls are scarce and dear, they are a very 
 acceptable addition to the menu, although not to be 
 compared in quality with the home-grown fowls from 
 Surrey, Norfolk, and the west of England. Fowls seem to 
 have been domesticated from time immemorial. In Egypt 
 they were even hatched by incubators many centuries B.C. 
 In Greece and Rome the cock was frequently offered in 
 sacrifice, and the regularity of the hour of crowing made it 
 everywhere useful as a timekeeper before the days of clocks, 
 so that we find cock-crowing referred to in Scripture as the 
 time preceding the morning. 
 
 Cocks were largely used in divination in Greece and 
 Rome, for not only were auguries derived from an inspection 
 of the entrails, but they were supposed to divine "by pecking 
 grain from certain cards placed before them ; but, as there 
 
GAME AND POULTRY 107 
 
 are tricks in all trades, it was discovered that the priests 
 had found the way to compel fate, by placing wax imitations 
 of grain on those cards they did not wish to have chosen, 
 and the bird was wise enough to prefer the real to the 
 imitation grain. 
 
 Among the many breeds of fowls some are preferred for 
 flavour, others for size, or for the superiority of their eggs. 
 The Dorking and the game fowl are, perhaps, the prime 
 favourites in England for cooking purposes, the Spanish 
 for laying properties, and the Cochin China for the size and 
 flavour of the eggs ; but the breeds cultivated by poultry 
 fanciers are too numerous to mention for profit, probably 
 the common barn-door fowl of mixed breed is the best. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 EGGS 
 
 OF all articles of diet, eggs are perhaps the most generally 
 accepted ; they are relished alike by sage and savage, and 
 form a nutritious meal for prince or peasant. Nor is the 
 taste for this universal food confined to mankind, for the 
 hens themselves, the providers of the feast, often develop 
 cannibalistic tendencies, and will peck and devour the 
 very egg they have just deposited with so much care and 
 cackling; whilst snakes will lie in wait for the delicate 
 morsel, and will either swallow it whole, or tap it with their 
 teeth and suck out the contents ; and rats are credited with 
 making wheelbarrows of themselves, allowing themselves to 
 be pulled along by the ears by their comrades, in order to 
 secure the prize held safely in their paws. Dogs also 
 often develop a taste for eggs, which they will steal from 
 the nest without compunction, the only cure for the 
 propensity being to hold a hot egg in the mouth of the 
 delinquent. Monkeys, and particularly baboons, will also 
 diligently seek for and greedily devour all the eggs they 
 can lay their hands on, and are consequently much dreaded 
 by small birds. But, probably, rapacious birds are the 
 greatest devourers of the eggs of other species. It seems 
 a well authenticated fact, that the grey crow in Africa, will 
 
 108 
 
EGGS iog 
 
 carry stones up to a considerable height and drop them 
 into an ostrich nest, in order to crack the hard shell which 
 would otherwise be prohibitive of the coveted feast ; whilst 
 travellers assert that wild ostriches always place several 
 eggs round the nest to serve as food for the young when 
 first hatched. 
 
 Happily for mankind, the eggs of noxious reptiles and 
 insects are relished as well as hen's eggs, and thus the 
 excessive increase, of deadly reptiles is prevented. The 
 ichneumon greedily devours the eggs of snakes and 
 crocodiles, and white ants' eggs are considered delicacies, 
 even by men. In our own country the magpie and the 
 jay are notorious thieves of the eggs of smaller birds; whilst 
 turkeys, pheasants, and guinea-fowls, will swallow millions 
 of ant eggs in a day, if they can get them. 
 
 The problem which puzzled the learned, centuries ago, 
 as to which was first created, the egg or the hen, has never 
 yet been unravelled. Theologians would probably say, the 
 hen, certainly ; but Darwin would be in favour of the egg, 
 as being of the nature of that protoplasm from which all 
 life originates. The ancients were certainly of Darwin's 
 opinion, and looked upon the earth itself as developed 
 from an egg by the power of various divinities, hence the 
 egg became a sacred symbol in many countries, was hung 
 up in Egyptian temples, and represented in paintings and 
 sculptures as encircled in the folds of the good Agatho- 
 dsemon, the serpent worshipped in so many lands, and 
 which was doubtless connected with that other famous egg 
 of antiquity, the serpent's egg of the Druids. 
 
 If we visit the British Museum we shall see eggs and 
 egg-stands of various shapes and sizes, which have been 
 
i io OUR VIANDS 
 
 found in tombs in Egypt, Greece, and Etruria ; among the 
 Etruscan relics are several ostrich eggs beautifully painted. 
 These sepulchral eggs were, doubtless, symbolical of a 
 future life, but were also probably designed as food for 
 the dead, for it was well-nigh a universal practice to provide 
 food for the departed spirit, a practice still in use among 
 savages. 
 
 The eggs which are given at Easter time are supposed 
 to symbolise the Resurrection, but it is certain that the 
 custom originated in pre-Christian times. Eggs wrapped 
 in various-coloured ribbons, and boiled thus receiving the 
 dye from the ribbon used were formerly sent as Easter 
 gifts. These are still sometimes seen in little shops, but 
 the Easter eggs now sent as presents by those who can 
 afford them do not owe their origin to any feathered fowl, 
 but are artificially made of various substances, and filled 
 with gifts of differing value, from chocolate creams to 
 diamond rings or costly shawls. It is both curious and 
 interesting to note that in almost all countries this custom 
 of giving and receiving brightly coloured eggs at a spring 
 festival, has prevailed from time immemorial ; hence, 
 probably, we see in the painted ostrich eggs from Etruscan 
 tombs, which are at least two thousand years old, the 
 spring gift of friends to the beloved dead. A writer in the 
 Standard some years ago, in a very interesting article traced 
 this custom to China ; he says : ' Gustave Schlegel, 
 during his official residence in China as representative of 
 the Netherlands, in his interesting and erudite researches 
 through a mass of Chinese literature discovered that the 
 "painted eggs," as they are called in China, were used 
 in the great Spring Festival of Tsing-ming, and are noticed 
 
EGGS in 
 
 in the records of the ancient State of King-ts-oo under the 
 date B.C. 722. The giving gifts to one another of brightly 
 coloured hard-boiled eggs at this season he also found 
 occurring in the annals of the old State of Ye, between 
 the dates B.C. 481 B.C. 255. Schlegel tells us the custom 
 is met with in the records of the Tang Dynasty, A.D. 618 
 A.D. 907. It seems the custom originated in China in this 
 wise. Annually, at the mid-spring time of year, which 
 answers to our Easter, Chinese functionaries were sent out 
 through the towns, villages, and country parts, each armed 
 with a wooden bell, their duty being to make proclamation 
 that all fires must be put out, and must remain out for the 
 space of three days, after which, by the friction of two pieces 
 of wood, new fire was obtained, and from this the household 
 hearths were rekindled. The three days specified seems to 
 have been intended to ensure that no smouldering ember 
 should by any possibility linger anywhere in the Celestial 
 Empire. For as the old Chinese writer has it " All fire 
 under the expanse of Heaven ought to be extinguished 
 before the new fire is lighted." During those three days 
 " sacred to the revival of spring and the sun's heat," when in 
 honour of the sun there must be no fire, of course no 
 cooking was possible. It is highly probable a large number 
 of the less devout among the millions of John Chinaman's 
 compatriots were ill-pleased to have to submit to the 
 cheerless, unpalatable diet imposed upon them while the 
 fast from fire lasted. At any rate, the Chinese feast of 
 Tsing-ming came to be popularly called the " Cold Meat 
 Festival." Hard-boiled eggs would, of course, be an 
 acceptable addition to the prepared viands to be used 
 during the fireless three days. Whether they were so used 
 
ii2 OUR VIANDS 
 
 before I know not, but it is attributed to a certain " powerful 
 chieftain of antiquity " who lived in the before-named ancient 
 State of King-ts-oo to have been the first person who laid in 
 stores of " painted eggs," and set the fashion of dispensing 
 them as gifts to friends and acquaintances at that same time 
 of year when we celebrate Easter/ 
 
 The Chinese spring festival always occurs in April when 
 the sun enters the fifteenth degree of Aries, and as the cock 
 is sacred to the sun, the egg may have come in this way 
 to symbolise the new spring birth of nature through the 
 vivifying influence of the sun. At all events the gift of 
 brightly coloured eggs at the early spring festival can be 
 traced not only in China but also in Persia, where we find 
 them in connection with a festival, the origin of which is 
 ascribed to the Persian mythical monarch Jemsheed, sixth in 
 descent from Moses, who is said to have reigned 700 years. 
 The writer above quoted says : * The greatest of Jemsheed's 
 festivals was the Nowroose, or Feast of the beginning of the 
 Religious or Solar Year. It commenced at the time of the 
 " natural reproduction of all that conduces to the sustenance 
 of man." With a slight variation from the Chinese calcula- 
 tion, the Persian Festival is held to begin the moment the 
 sun enters Aries, or towards the end of March. The 
 Nowroose Festival is, of course, much older than Maho- 
 metanism. Some writers call it the " Feast of the Waters," 
 and consider it a memorial of the Deluge; while others 
 suppose it to have been instituted to commemorate the 
 Creation. A prominent feature that all travellers record as 
 taking place at the time is the handing about of eggs dyed 
 of various colours and gilt, given as gifts to each other, and 
 even to strangers, in honour of the great Spring fast. 
 
EGGS 113 
 
 Whether the Nowroose was originally intended to com- 
 memorate the Deluge or the Creation may be questioned, 
 but the fact remains that here as elsewhere we find " painted 
 eggs " as gifts heralding the return of the sun in Spring at 
 the annual resurrection of Nature.' 
 
 The derivation of our Easter eggs from these ancient 
 sources is evident; it is not the only Pagan custom adapted 
 to Christianity by the early Church, and to quote once more 
 from the very interesting article referred to : 
 
 'When Pope Paul V. drew up a ritual to be used in 
 England, Ireland, and Scotland, among many other prayers 
 of Benediction for Eastertide was the following : " Bless, 
 Lord, we beseech Thee, this Thy creature of Eggs, that it 
 may become a wholesome sustenance to Thy faithful 
 servants, eating it in thankfulness to Thee on account of 
 the Resurrection of our Lord." Countless thousands of 
 eggs were thus annually blessed by the priests at Easter, 
 both before and after they were coloured. Having obtained 
 the blessing, the eggs became holy gifts, the bestowal of 
 which conferred much benefit on both givers and receivers. 
 It became a custom on Good Friday to "offer eggs and 
 bacon to the Lord Christ," and thus special favours were 
 secured to the donors. Some of our early Reformation 
 records bring strange matters before those who care to dip 
 into them ; not the least strange referring to the mode of 
 making "presentations of eggs to the Cross." It is a 
 custom still in vogue in some parts of the Continent for 
 each member of a parish to present the priest with an egg 
 on Easter morning.' 
 
 In process of time Easter eggs, which were originally given 
 and received as symbols of the Resurrection, degenerated 
 
 H 
 
ii4 OUR VIANDS 
 
 into mere objects of sport, and were used as balls, or 
 for the performance of dances, which often took place in 
 churches ; thus we are told that * eggs always rose in price 
 at Easter, they were boiled very hard in water coloured with 
 red, blue, or violet dyes, with inscriptions or landscapes 
 traced upon them ; these were offered as presents among 
 the valentines of the year, but more frequently played with 
 by the boys as balls, for ball-playing on Easter Monday 
 was universal in every rank. Even the clergy could not 
 forego its delights, and made this game a part of their 
 service. Bishops and deans took the ball into the church, 
 and at the commencement of the autiphone began to dance, 
 throwing the ball to the choristers, who handed it to each 
 other during the time of the dancing and autiphone. All 
 then retired for refreshment ; a gammon of bacon, eaten in 
 abhorrence of the Jews, was a standard dish ; with a tansy 
 pudding, symbolical of the bitter herbs commanded at the 
 paschal feast.' * 
 
 When we consider the lavish use of eggs in former days, 
 we are constrained to believe that our forefathers certainly 
 paid more attention to the keeping and rearing of poultry 
 than English farmers do at the present day, for eggs must 
 have been more plentiful and cheaper than they are now, 
 even with our abundant foreign supplies, or they could 
 never have been used as balls, and employed by the dozen 
 in cookery, as old receipts show us they were. 
 
 We are now supplied with eggs from Ireland, Germany, 
 
 Belgium, Italy, and France, and it is computed that from 
 
 the last named country alone one million come daily to the 
 
 London market. The number consumed in England yearly 
 
 * Chambers's 'Book of Days,' vol. i., p. 429. 
 
EGGS 
 
 "5 
 
 must be incalculable ; but new-laid English eggs are always 
 difficult to procure, and during the winter are often sold at 
 threepence apiece, whereas our grandmothers would prob- 
 ably have considered a shilling a score very dear. It has been 
 calculated that we pay six millions of pounds per annum for 
 eggs ; and French cooks say they may be dressed in more 
 than five hundred different ways. They are, however, used 
 not only in cookery. In one photographic establishment, 
 we are told, two millions are used every year ; and they are 
 also employed largely in calico printing, leather dressing, 
 and bookbinding ; and it is calculated that in France the 
 number used in wine clarifying amounts to more than eighty 
 millions a year. It may be well here to give a few of the 
 uses of eggs in medicine, for they are valuable in many 
 ways as household remedies. 
 
 ' The white is the most efficacious of remedies for burns, 
 and the oil extractable from the yolk is regarded by the 
 Russians as an almost miraculous salve for cuts, bruises, 
 and scratches. A raw egg, if swallowed in time, will 
 effectually detach a fish-bone in the throat, and the white 
 of two eggs will render the deadly corrosive sublimate as 
 harmless as a dose of calomel. They strengthen the con- 
 sumptive, invigorate the feeble, and render the most 
 susceptible all but proof against jaundice in its more 
 malignant phase.' The old saw had it 
 
 ' An egg, an apple, and a nut, 
 You may eat after any slut. ' 
 
 That, however, is not quite true as regards eggs, for the 
 shell being porous readily absorbs anything malodorous 
 which is placed near it, so that it is not uncommon to meet 
 with eggs tasting of onions j and I remember once having 
 
ii6 OUR VIANDS 
 
 had served to me three mornings running eggs highly 
 flavoured with paraffin through a careless servant having 
 thrown the cloth with which she cleaned the lamps over 
 the egg basket.* It is also believed that eggs are affected 
 by the food consumed by the hens ; and it is certain that 
 portions of foreign bodies such as insects, seeds, small 
 stones, etc., have been found in eggs, especially in ostrich 
 eggs, the stones found in which have been polished and 
 used as buttons or studs. 
 
 The ostrich egg is the largest egg at present known, but 
 that of the giant dinornis of New Zealand exceeded it in 
 size as much as the turkey's egg exceeds that of the hen. 
 One of these gigantic eggs was exhibited, with the skeleton 
 of the extinct bird, at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 
 and a cast of one may be seen at the Natural History 
 Museum, with an ostrich egg near it by way of comparison ; 
 but the dinornis egg is unique and unattainable, as well as 
 uneatable, and we must be content with that of the ostrich 
 as the largest now used for eating, one of which makes 
 a tolerable meal for five or six people, being considered 
 equal to twenty-four hens' eggs. It is, however, rather 
 strong in flavour, but makes excellent sponge-cakes, pan- 
 cakes, or omelets, and a find of ostrich eggs in the desert is 
 matter of great rejoicing to the wandering bushman <3r the 
 hungry traveller. 
 
 Besides the dinornis, there is another extinct bird, the 
 great auk, which has left behind it two or three eggs, which 
 are so much coveted as to fetch an extraordinary price; 
 one of these famous eggs was sold a year or two ago for 
 
 * Eggs placed standing upright in salt may be kept good for weeks, 
 and in China, salted goose eggs are highly esteemed as food for invalids. 
 
EGGS 117 
 
 ^225. Rumour had it that it was stolen from one of the 
 Paris museums during the troubles of 1848, but it is certain 
 that it was sold a few years afterwards by a dealer in Paris 
 to an English gentleman, in whose family it has remained 
 until now. At this gentleman's death it fell into the hands 
 of a married daughter, who resided near Reigate, but after- 
 wards removed to near Brighton, taking the egg with her. 
 It was lost trace of by ornithologists owing to this change 
 of residence, and had quite recently once more been 
 traced. The lady who owned it was induced to offer 
 it for sale owing to what was thought the extraordinary 
 price paid for another egg of the same bird, sold previously 
 for i 68. 
 
 We are not likely to find eggs of dmornis or great auk ; 
 but it is reported that eggs larger than that of the ostrich 
 have occasionally been found in the deserts of Africa, and 
 any traveller coming across such may find it a profitable 
 investment, although not as an article of food, for as the 
 bird which laid these eggs is unknown, and perhaps extinct, 
 the eggs would probably be partially petrified, although it is 
 possible that they may be found to be those of the gigantic 
 ostrich recently discovered in the interior, a specimen of 
 which has lately been forwarded as a present to the Queen. 
 
 Of eggs good for food we may mention, in addition to 
 those of the hen, duck, turkey, goose, guinea-fowl, and 
 plover, those of the penguin, which are much relished by 
 sailors, and dwellers on the sea-coasts where these birds 
 abound, as also the eggs of other sea-birds, although they 
 are apt to have a somewhat rank and fishy flavour. The 
 eggs of the turtle are eagerly sought by the epicure, and it 
 is related that one gentleman, having found what he supposed 
 
ii8 OUR VIANDS 
 
 to be a nest of them, took some home and cooked them, 
 leaving the rest in the sand, but returning in a day or two 
 for the remainder, found instead a number of lively young 
 crocodiles, which would go far to prove that there is very 
 little to choose between turtles' eggs and those of the 
 crocodile, and probably those of snakes and lizards would 
 be equally palatable if prejudice did not interfere with 
 their consumption. 
 
 The Chinese are credited with a fondness for eggs half- 
 rotten, but that is hardly to be believed when we remember 
 the evil odour attached to them in this condition; they 
 may, however, enjoy them with the chick in, even as many 
 people will eat the young bees in the honey-comb, for it is 
 possible to imagine that a half-hatched chicken may be 
 palatable, but rotten eggs are certainly an abomination, 
 which no gastronomic peculiarities could render endurable 
 to a civilised taste, although they may not be worse than 
 some other half-rotten comestibles which commend them- 
 selves to some palates. The Australians, when they find the 
 eggs of the brush-turkey or the jungle-hen, make a hole in 
 them lengthways, and lay them in hot ashes, and when they 
 boil, eat the contents by means of a brush made of cane, 
 with the end chewed. Should there be chicks in the eggs, 
 as is often the case, they take them out, broil them on the 
 ashes, and eat them after the other contents. 
 
 A bird, perhaps of the same species as the brush-turkey, 
 and known in China as the Tabon, lays a very large egg in 
 the sand of the sea-shore, leaving it to be hatched by the 
 heat of the sun. These eggs are carefully sought, and are 
 said to be best when stale, or with young birds in them. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 DAIRY PRODUCE 
 
 How shall we estimate the debt we owe to the man or 
 woman who first thought of domesticating the useful cow 
 for the sake of her milk ? How early in the world's history 
 that domestication took place it is impossible to say, but 
 we know that the Egyptians appreciated the bovine race so 
 highly that they worshipped the bull Apis, and it would 
 not be hard to trace a similar worship through many other 
 ancient nations, to the Hindoos of the present day. 
 
 The Egyptians probably made butter and cheese, as we 
 do : certainly the Hebrews did, for the references to butter 
 and cheese in the various books of the Old Testament are 
 numerous. 'Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and 
 curdled me like cheese ? ' says Job ; and in another place 
 he speaks of 'brooks of honey and butter.' Butter was 
 one of the delicacies which Jael set before Sisera, and 
 ten cheeses of milk was the present which Jesse sent by 
 the hand of his son David to the captain of that thousand 
 of Saul's army in which his brethren were serving. It is 
 of course possible that this butter and these cheeses were 
 made of the milk of sheep or goats, but in enumerating 
 the presents sent to David by Barzillai, cheese of kine is 
 especially mentioned, and from the proverb which says, 
 
 119 
 
120 OUR VIANDS 
 
 ' Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter,' we may 
 conclude that both butter and cheese were known to the 
 ancients in much the same form as we have them now. 
 
 The most ancient butter of which we have any real know- 
 ledge is that known as bog butter, which is dug up from time 
 to time in Irish peat-bogs. Two or three crocks of this butter 
 may be seen in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, 
 Dublin; it looks like a large lump of chalk, but still 
 retains its fatty nature, and burns like oil. From the hairs 
 which are found in it, the colour of the cows from which it 
 was derived has been ascertained, but at what period it was 
 buried, and for what reason, is not known. It may, perhaps, 
 have been hidden in troublous times, or it is just possible it 
 may have been buried as cream, in order that it might be 
 converted into butter, this process having been resorted to 
 with success at the Cape, after an accidental discovery that 
 cream buried in the earth will turn into butter without 
 churning, only the butter thus produced is not so good as 
 that made in the ordinary way by churning. Even at the 
 present day, in some parts of Ireland butter is made in a 
 very primitive fashion, by churning unseparated milk, the 
 temperature being raised by the addition of hot water. 
 This, of course, leaves a very large proportion of butter- 
 milk, which is eagerly sought by the peasantry to serve 
 as sauce to their potatoes, or to make cakes, instead of 
 yeast, for which purposes it is admirably adapted. Butter- 
 making in England, unfortunately, is by no means so much 
 thought of as in the old times, when every farmer's wife 
 and daughter looked upon that and cheese-making as a 
 portion of their education, as well as their own especial 
 daily task, and were not ashamed themselves to convey 
 
DAIR Y PROD UCE 1 2 i 
 
 their produce to market. Things are altered now : the 
 farmer sends milk instead of butter and cheese to 
 market, and London is largely supplied with foreign 
 butter and cheese, not only from Holland, which was 
 formerly the chief source of import, but from Brittany, 
 Sweden, America, and Canada, the imports of cheese 
 from the latter country having increased so enormously 
 of late years that it is almost impossible to obtain 
 English cheese at an ordinary cheese factor's. 
 
 Then, too, the methods of butter and cheese-making have 
 been greatly modified by the introduction of machinery. It 
 is now no longer necessary to wait many hours for the 
 cream to rise in order to skim it off machinery separates 
 the cream at once from the new milk, and at the great 
 agricultural show at Windsor in 1887,- a machine was 
 exhibited which was a combination of churn and separator, 
 making cream or butter from new milk as desired, by 
 merely moving a lever, and turning out a pound of butter 
 a minute. 
 
 In our childhood, to watch the process of cheese-making 
 was a never-ending source of amusement. Great was the 
 delight of being allowed to stand on a stool beside the big 
 tub, deep enough to drown us, whilst the dairymaid first 
 cut into the vast mass of curds and whey, sometimes good- 
 naturedly giving us a basin of the delicious compound to 
 eat, whilst she strained off the whey, cutting the curd with 
 a large double-bladed knife, piling it up in huge flocculent 
 masses, and dipping out the whey with a brass or tin 
 dish ; then, breaking up the curd with her hands, heaping 
 it into vats lined with clean cloths, and putting the embryo 
 cheeses into a press to squeeze away all the remaining whey, 
 
122 OUR VIANDS 
 
 taking them out to pare them and turn them daily, till they 
 had acquired solidity. We all remember the great cheese 
 made in this way at Cheddar, in Somersetshire, for presenta- 
 tion to the Queen : it was formed from one meal's milk 
 of all the cows in the parish, all the farmer's daughters 
 assisting as dairymaids ; but the huge cheese was not, we 
 believe, quite the success it deserved to be, its enormous 
 size requiring too long a time to ripen properly. Cheddar, 
 however, is even now at the head of British cheese-making, 
 and turns out immense cheeses of excellent quality, still 
 distancing all competitors, although Canadian Cheddar is 
 very good, and is very frequently passed off as the genuine 
 English article. 
 
 The prince of English cheeses is the Stilton, made of 
 cream added to new milk, but this also is now frequently 
 imitated, so that you can seldom be sure of getting the 
 real Leicestershire product. A Stilton cheese is, and has 
 always been, a famous Christmas dish, and when rich and 
 fully ripe is not to be surpassed. Formerly, the whole 
 cheese, with a napkin pinned round it, was set on the 
 table, and scooped out until the rind only remained, the 
 ripening process being hastened by a bottle of good port 
 wine being poured into it. But these are degenerate days : 
 people now seldom make their luncheon of bread and 
 cheese, and even the Dorsetshire peasant is no longer 
 content with a great crust of bread and that mouldy 
 cheesen which proverbially required a hatchet to cut it, 
 but which could be purchased at about threepence a 
 pound, and was so appetising that it was commonly said 
 it might be eaten till you were hungry again. 
 
 This was the poorer sort of Dorset cheese, made of milk 
 
DAIRY PRODUCE 123 
 
 skimmed once, and sometimes twice ; but the richer kind 
 of mouldy cheesen, into which a portion of cream entered, 
 was almost equal to Stilton, holding a place midway between 
 that and the fashionable foreign makes known as Roquefort 
 and Gorgon zola, but it is little made nowadays, and may be 
 deemed extinct, as are also those thin cheeses which used 
 to be made in Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, and known as 
 single Gloucester, or toasting-cheese. The double Gloucester 
 still enters the market, and is a good cheese, although not 
 to be compared to Cheddar, or to that other well-known 
 variety from Cheshire, which latter is also scarce in the 
 London market, although you may purchase it in Rome. 
 The little round Dutch cheeses are still much sold, but it 
 is hard to see why they are chosen in preference to others 
 of far superior quality and very little higher in price. 
 
 The ripening process for cheese is a somewhat lengthy 
 affair, especially when the size is large, as in Cheddar. 
 Most English dairy farms have a loft, or sometimes several, 
 where the new cheeses are stored on racks, and frequently 
 turned and scraped till they become fit for the market. The 
 old way of sending cheese to table whole, scooping out the 
 centre and leaving the rind to be dealt with by the cook, 
 although perhaps extravagant, was commendable, for not 
 only did the cheese retain its flavour better, but the 
 necessity of eating close to the rind was avoided, and 
 certainly the rind does not commend itself to many palates. 
 We all know the story of the prudent young lover who, 
 being desirous of choosing one of three sisters, selected as 
 his bride the one who scraped her cheese. The one who 
 cut off the rind was deemed extravagant, the one who ate 
 it was a slut, whilst the third was supposed to be thrifty and 
 
124 OUR VIANDS 
 
 cleanly. If put to the same test nowadays, there would be 
 few chosen on account of that economy, for the bits of 
 cheese sent to table are mostly free from rind when pre- 
 sented to the consumer. 
 
 There are some foreign cheeses which are deservedly 
 esteemed, the chief objection to them being the strong 
 odour which requires their being sent to table under cover. 
 Of these we need only mention, in addition to the Roquefort 
 and Gorgonzola, which are now to be found in every cheese- 
 monger's shop, the Gruy&re, always served on the Continent 
 at dinner, and generally with the dessert. It is not, indeed, 
 unusual in Italy, if you order fruit, to find a piece of this 
 cheese sent up on the same dish, and it certainly does not 
 eat badly, especially with dried fruits, which reminds us 
 that in some parts of England it is customary to eat cheese 
 with jam and marmalade, or with apple pie, and in other 
 parts, thin slices of cheese are cut and floated on cups of tea. 
 
 Gruyere is made partly, if not entirely, of ewe's milk, and 
 the famous Parmesan cheese is, I believe, also composed 
 partly of ewe's milk. This cheese, used almost always in 
 the form of powder, is a constant accompaniment of soups, 
 macaroni, and other Italian dishes, and is sold in the grated 
 form by the sack in all grocers' shops in Italy, and is 
 invariably sent to table in the same way as pepper and salt 
 in other places, to be used as a condiment. Even the 
 Lazzaroni find a small coin wherewith to purchase this 
 much-esteemed relish, which among ourselves is coming 
 more and more into use, and may be bought in bottles 
 ready grated, although it is best bought in a piece and 
 grated at home, in order to ensure its genuineness. 
 
 There are many other foreign cheeses to be met with, 
 
DAIRY PRODUCE 125 
 
 but they are not in general use. There are, however, 
 several kinds of cream cheeses, and what are known as soft 
 cheeses, much esteemed, such as Bath cheeses, Bon-dons, 
 Camembert, etc. 
 
 The true cream cheese is made simply by putting cream 
 in a cloth, and allowing all the moisture to run away from 
 it, and then moulding it into shape, pressing and turning it 
 daily till ripe ; but soft cheeses are made in various ways, 
 one of which is given in verse attributed to the celebrated 
 Dr. Jenner, of vaccination fame, as follows : 
 
 ; Would you make a soft cheese ? Then I'll tell you how : 
 Take a gallon of milk, quite fresh from the cow ; 
 Ere the rennet is added, the dairyman's daughter 
 Must throw in a quart of the clearest spring water. 
 When perfectly curdled, so white and so njce, 
 You must take it all out of the dish with a slice, 
 And put it 'thout breaking with care in the vat 
 With a cheese-cloth at bottom be sure to mind that. 
 This delicate matter take care not to squeeze, 
 But fill as the whey passes off by degrees. 
 Next day you may turn it, and do not be loth 
 To wipe it quite dry with a fine linen cloth ; 
 That this must be done you cannot well doubt, 
 As long as you see the whey oozing out. 
 The cheese is now finished, and nice it will be, 
 If enveloped in leaves from the green ashen tree ; 
 Or, what will do better at least, full as well 
 In nettles just plucked from the bank of the dell.' 
 
 There is a kind of cream cheese made from goats' milk, 
 which, under the name of rtcotta, is much eaten in Italy ; 
 it is very sweet and palatable, and has evidently been in 
 use from very ancient times. The vendors carry it through 
 the streets on their heads, like the muffin sellers here, and 
 retail it by the centime to poor purchasers. 
 
126 OUR VIANDS 
 
 A product of the dairy now seldom, if ever, seen, is the 
 syllabub^ for that which is sold as syllabub has very little 
 affinity with the genuine article, as formerly set before 
 guests on grand occasions in country houses, and which was 
 made as follows : 
 
 'Put into a large china punch-bowl a bottle of sherry, 
 half a bottle of brandy, some loaf sugar, the juice of a 
 lemon, and a nutmeg grated. Give the bowl thus charged 
 to a careful dairymaid, and let her milk into it till nearly 
 full, from a cow yielding good rich milk ; then set aside, 
 covering the bowl with a cloth, and, after it has stood 
 about half an hour or more, place it on the table, and fill 
 the glasses with a silver punch-ladle. This is a capital 
 recipe, and sufficient for a large party.' 
 
 Devonshire is celebrated not only for its butter and cream, 
 but for that which is known as Devonshire Junket, and 
 which is now largely made and sold by the various dairy 
 companies in London. It is, in fact, the old-fashioned 
 curds and whey with a little brandy and sugar added, and 
 with a surface dressing of Devonshire cream, which makes 
 it a very tempting dish, especially in the summer. It is 
 very easily made. 
 
 ' Place in a glass dish a quart of new milk made lukewarm, 
 add to it sugar to taste, a tablespoonful of brandy, a little 
 sherry, and three teaspoonfuls of rennet. Let it stand till 
 cold, then cover with Devonshire cream, and grate a little 
 nutmeg over. The rennet can be bought at the chemist's 
 in small bottles.' 
 
 Devonshire cream, which is so highly esteemed, and can 
 now be purchased in jars, is made thus : 
 
 1 The new milk from the cow is strained into large flat 
 
DAIR Y PROD UCE 1 2 7 
 
 pans or tins, and let stand for twenty-four hours (or twelve 
 only in very hot weather) to allow the cream to rise. It is 
 then placed, still in the same pan, upon a hot dresser or 
 gas stove (not too hot), and let warm gently till just on the 
 point of boiling; then removed and set aside till cold, when 
 the cream may be taken off and used as cream, or it may 
 be turned into butter with the hand or by gentle churning. 
 Devonshire cream is always sold by the pint, equal to a 
 pound, at the same price as butter.' 
 
 Cream of this kind is also made and largely consumed 
 in Cornwall, and the Cornish hostess is quite insulted if 
 you ask for Devonshire cream. One way of eating it in 
 Cornwall I have not met with elsewhere, it is spread thickly 
 on bread, and then a little treacle is allowed to flow over 
 it, this is called Cornish thunder and lightning. 
 
 One very general use of cream and butter in former 
 times was in the manufacture of melted butter, which at 
 present too often consists of a sort of water-gruel made of 
 flour-and-water, with a little bit of butter added, a sauce to 
 be scrupulously avoided, but which, when made as follows, 
 is a delicious adjunct to vegetables and poultry : 
 
 ' Take a good lump of fresh butter and roll it in flour, 
 place it in a lined saucepan with half a pint of good rich 
 cream, stir it gently over a slow fire, always the same way, 
 till it begins to simmer. Milk may be substituted for the 
 cream, but the sauce will not be so good.' 
 
 One of the most delicious of the many dishes manu- 
 factured from eggs and cream is the custard, which, either 
 boiled or baked, is a dainty generally irresistible. The 
 custards of our grandmothers, however, little resembled 
 those set before us at the present day; they were composed 
 
128 OUR VIANDS 
 
 solely of the yolks of many eggs, pure rich cream, a little 
 sugar, and a flavouring of ratafia, or bay leaves and brandy, 
 and were not indebted to custard powders, corn-flour, or 
 other artificial thickening matter. They were used freely 
 as a covering to tipsy-cakes and trifles which were 
 genuinely tipsy with wine and spirits, and not merely 
 soaked with milk and water, for our ancestors were by no 
 means teetotallers, and could stand an amount of wine, as 
 their receipts show, which would prostrate their 'degenerate' 
 descendants. 
 
 At present the chief use of cream in cookery is for 
 making creams and ice-creams, which latter do not appear 
 in old recipes, as probably the artificial method of freezing 
 was then unknown, and hot dishes seem to have been 
 preferred to cold. 
 
 There is a very curious old custom described by Tennant 
 in his * Tour in Scotland/ in which a kind of custard was 
 used as a propitiatory offering to animal gods or totems. 
 ' A number of herdsmen at a certain season would form a 
 square trench, leaving the turf in the middle. They next 
 lighted a fire and cooked a dish composed of eggs, butter, 
 oatmeal, and milk. They had also oatmeal cakes on 
 which they raised nine square knobs. The ceremonies 
 then began by spilling, as a libation, some of the dish 
 prepared with eggs and milk. Each of the knobs on the 
 cakes was dedicated to some particular being, the supposed 
 protector of their flocks and herds, or to some particular 
 animal, the real destroyer of them. Each person, turning 
 his face to the fire, broke off a knob from his cake, and 
 flinging.it over his shoulder, said, "This I give to thee, 
 preserve thou my horses ; " " This I give to thee, preserve 
 
DAIR Y PRODUCE 129 
 
 thou my sheep," and so on. After this they used the 
 same ceremony to the noxious animals, saying, " This I give 
 to thee, O fox, spare thou my lambs;" " This I give to thee, 
 O hooded crow;" "This to thee, O eagle," etc., etc.'* 
 
 A similar custom existed also in the Isle of Man, and 
 probably in many other parts, for these old superstitions 
 prevailed everywhere among dwellers in the country, having 
 come down from very ancient pre-historic times when 
 animals were looked upon as supernatural beings or 
 ancestors, and were assumed as totems, having power to 
 protect those who thus placed themselves under their care. 
 
 * Archceological Review, June 1888. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 FISH 
 
 FISH, which is at once the most common of food and the 
 most difficult to procure, has been esteemed by almost all 
 peoples in all ages. Nevertheless, some tribes, even at 
 the present day, reject fish altogether, whilst the Jews, in 
 accordance with the law of Moses, abhor all fish destitute 
 of fins or scales. 
 
 There are few sights more charming than that of a fleet of 
 fishing-boats putting off to sea, or returning after a successful 
 cruise, and in watching them we are apt to forget the perils 
 which these l Toilers of the Sea ' must encounter in search 
 of our table luxuries. No wonder that in boisterous weather, 
 as the old Scotch song has it, ' Wives and mithers, 'maist 
 despairing ca' them lives of men.' Yet along our coasts 
 thousands of men, women, and children get their daily 
 bread by various industries connected with the extensive 
 fisheries, always a most important branch of commerce 
 among seafaring peoples. There is first the making and 
 repairing of nets, the work mostly of women and children, 
 although fishermen are also adepts in the mysteries of 
 netting an art handed down to us from the remotest ages, 
 and practised by the most ignorant of savages, although 
 requiring considerable skill. Nets, however, are now largely 
 
 130 
 
FISH 131 
 
 made by machinery. Then there is the manufacture of fish 
 hooks of various kinds from the harpoon for the gigantic 
 whale to the delicate hook, with artificial fly attached, for 
 the capture of the wary trout. The making of these artifi- 
 cial flies is an art requiring great skill, and the kinds made 
 are innumerable, and many of them extremely natural and 
 beautiful ; but the South Sea islanders take almost as much 
 pains with their fish-hooks, which are attached to a piece 
 of highly-polished shell, to attract and dazzle the fish. 
 
 Angling has always been a fascinating sport to most men, 
 although the spectator is rather inclined to agree with the 
 cynic, who defined it as a rod with a worm at one end and 
 a fool at the other ; but it doubtless exercises the patience 
 and skill as well as the strength of the fisherman, especially 
 where the lordly salmon is the prey, for the landing of such 
 fish as we sometimes see on the fishmonger's slab, must 
 be a feat of considerable strength and agility, as well as 
 patience. 
 
 The enthusiasm inspired by the sport was rather amus- 
 ingly illustrated by a newspaper correspondent some time 
 since, who wrote : ' On one occasion in Ireland, our train 
 was brought almost to a standstill by a river, "just to see 
 if the gentleman would land his salmon," and not a single 
 remonstrance was heard from the passengers, who entered 
 into the matter as warmly as the driver and guard, and 
 cheered enthusiastically when a fine fish was brought safely 
 to the bank.' 
 
 To enumerate the various fishes good for food would be 
 impossible. In a certain sense, the proverb, 'All's fish 
 that comes to net ' is literally true, for there is hardly a 
 monster of the deep from the great whale to the porpoise 
 
132 OUR VIANDS 
 
 and the seal that is not deemed gcod for food by some ; 
 whilst the tiniest of sea-creatures, such as whitebait and 
 shrimps, and the ugliest, such as sea-slugs and anglers, are 
 all esteemed delicacies by others. It will be remembered 
 that the unfortunate Greely and his companion?, during 
 their terrible sufferings in the Arctic regions, had to sustain 
 life for weeks on small shrimps, or sea-fleas ; and many a 
 shipwrecked mariner has been glad to gather limpets and 
 mussels to appease his hunger. 
 
 Along the shores of Great Britain and Ireland the herring, 
 1 Bonnie fish and halesome farm',' holds the first place 
 among the fisheries, and many hundreds of boats are 
 employed in this industry on the east and north coasts 
 of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. In the 
 latter interesting little island the herring is, or was, the 
 staple food of the people, and the chosen emblem of 
 justice, the deemsters or judges taking the singular oath 
 that they will administer justice as evenly * as the backbone 
 of the herring lieth in the middle of the fish.' * 
 
 In Cornwall, the herring gives place to its first cousin, 
 the pilchard, a smaller and fatter fish, from which a large 
 quantity of oil is extracted. These pilchards, when cured 
 as herrings, are known as 'fair maid?,' and are largely 
 exported to Italy and the south of France, where they 
 are eaten by the peasantry during Lent. The pilgrims 
 who visit Rome during Holy Week, and whose feet are 
 washed by the noble ladies and gentlemen of the Eternal 
 City, are all feasted (?) upon a dish of salad, with one of 
 
 * The vast consumption of herrings in olden times may be judged 
 from the fact that the tax levied upon almost all seaports, in the reigns 
 of the early kings, consisted of from 50,000 to 100,000 herrings annually. 
 
FISH I33 
 
 these pilchards on the top, and a roll of bread, not very 
 substantial fare after a long and toilsome pilgrimage. 
 
 It is very interesting to see the process of curing the 
 pilchards. As soon as the laden boats arrive, the fish are 
 carried in baskets up the steep streets of the Cornish fishing- 
 towns, where cellars exist devoted to this especial use ; in 
 these cellars semicircles are drawn on the floor, in accord- 
 ance with the quantity of fish brought in ; within these the 
 fish are piled, all the heads outwards, making a heap as 
 high as the fish belonging to each boat will allow, some 
 heaps being three, or four, or even ten times as large as 
 others ; then gentle pressure is applied to the mass in order 
 to express the oil, which runs, by means of grooves in the 
 stone floor, into barrels placed to receive it. After this the 
 fish are taken up and salted into barrels for export, the oil 
 also being a valuable product. 
 
 Herrings are salted at once into barrels in Ireland, and 
 Dublin Bay herrings are highly esteemed; but at Yarmouth 
 and in Scotland they are rather differently cured, some 
 being converted into the famous bloaters, whilst others 
 are split open and put into a ham pickle, and sold as 
 kippers, and others more heavily salted, smoked, and 
 dried, become the palatable red herrings, or Digby chicks. 
 Unfortunately, of late years many badly-cured herrings 
 have been placed on the London Market under the name 
 of Yarmouth bloaters; these consist of fish cured in London, 
 being those fresh herrings remaining unsold, and already a 
 little tainted before being salted, so that it has become 
 almost impossible to obtain bloaters in perfection except 
 in Norfolk and Suffolk. 
 
 Next to herrings, probably whiting and mackerel are 
 
134 OUR VIANDS 
 
 the most numerous fish met with on our coasts ; but large 
 quantities of mackerel are now brought from Norway, as 
 well as cod and salmon. Cod has an immense consumption, 
 and during Lent many tons of salted cod may be seen in 
 the fishmongers' shops. This, when not too salt, and served 
 with plenty of egg sauce and parsnips, is not to be despised, 
 and is still eaten by the orthodox on Ash Wednesday and 
 Good Friday, as it used to be by our forefathers, although 
 there is great laxity in our day, and we often find fresh cod 
 or even salmon, substituted for the ancient Lenten dish. 
 We do not often see now the dry salt cod, which used to 
 be sold so cheaply tied up in bundles. It is probably 
 still consumed by sailors and fishermen, and can be 
 purchased at Billingsgate and other fish markets, but it has 
 been quite superseded by the wet fish in the fishmongers' 
 shops. 
 
 The red mullet, so greatly esteemed by the Romans, who 
 gratified their aesthetic taste by having it brought alive to 
 table that they might watch the lovely changing colours 
 produced during the death struggle, and did not object to 
 give from ^15 to ^60 apiece for them, according to size, 
 is still considered a delicacy, and is too scarce ever to 
 become food for the million. The same may be said of 
 almost all flat fish, although plaice, brill, and flounders are 
 usually tolerably cheap ; but soles and turbot, which may 
 be regarded as the kings of sea fish, remain scarce and 
 dear. It is related that the Emperor Domitian called the 
 Senate together to decide how a turbot of extraordinary 
 size should be cooked, and the grave senators decided that 
 it should be boiled, which our modern taste also approves 
 as the best way of cooking it. 
 
FISH 135 
 
 Aquariums have given us an opportunity of studying the 
 graceful movements of fish, and especially of flat fish, 
 which, from their burrowing propensities, are rarely seen 
 in their natural state. It is most interesting to watch them 
 in an aquarium rising to the surface with that beautiful 
 undulatory motion, which reminds one of the flight of a 
 bird, and then sinking to bury themselves in the sand, or 
 to rest on the surface, when their colouring so exactly 
 resembles the sand and pebbles upon which they lie that it 
 is difficult to distinguish them. Once at the aquarium at 
 Southport I was highly interested and amused by the 
 curiosity exhibited by the soles. It was evening, and the 
 electric light was exhibited for the first time, whereupon 
 the soles sat up on their tails one behind the other, 
 reminding one of Indian pictures of the cobra, evidently 
 astonished at the light and the moving multitude. Their 
 attitude was ludicrous, but it showed an amount of intelli- 
 gence for which we are slow to give fish credit. Flat fish, 
 from their burrowing habits, are rather difficult to procure, 
 a trawl net being required for their capture ; and the use of 
 this trawl net is much resented by orthodox fishermen, for 
 not only does it gather all sorts and sizes of fish, but it cuts 
 through the herring and mackerel nets, and drives the 
 shoals of herrings away. 
 
 We must not omit to mention the useful haddock, St 
 Peter's fish, still retaining, it is said, the marks of the 
 apostle's thumb, when he opened its mouth to take there- 
 from the piece of tribute money. 'Finnon haddies' are 
 prime breakfast fish, but the majority of those sold in 
 London are only surplus fresh haddocks, slightly salted and 
 smoked, and do not possess the flavour of the Scotch-cured 
 
136 OUR VIANDS 
 
 'baddies.' Another very good breakfast fish is the gurnet, 
 or gurnard, which, cut open and broiled, with a little pepper, 
 salt, and butter added, makes a capital dish. The ugly 
 John Dory, which shares with the haddock the honour of 
 being St. Peter's fish, is seldom seen now, but is excellent 
 eating. The imperial sturgeon, formerly reserved for royal 
 personages, is sometimes seen in the modern fish-market, 
 but it is not generally esteemed, the flesh resembling veal 
 with a fishy flavour; nevertheless, the ancient Romans 
 thought it such a delicacy, that the servants bringing it to 
 table were crowned with wreaths of flowers. The Russian 
 dainty, caviare ', is prepared from the roe of the sturgeon. 
 
 The salmon, the king of fish, is caught in the chief rivers 
 of Scotland and Ireland, and in some of those in England, 
 that of the Severn being particularly delicate; but great 
 quantities now come from Norway, where it is so plentiful 
 that tourists get tired of seeing it brought to table at every 
 meal. It seems formerly to have been equally abundant 
 in England, as many of the indentures of apprentices 
 contained a clause to the effect that they were not to be 
 obliged to eat salmon more than three days a week : now 
 they would be only too glad to be allowed it once a week. 
 Next to the salmon the trout is the most delicate of river 
 fish, but there is a species of trout called the char, found 
 only in certain lakes in Westmoreland, which is considered 
 by many superior to both salmon and trout; the flesh is 
 of a lovely pink colour, and the flavour delicious. Tradition 
 asserts that this fish was introduced into Britain by the 
 Romans. It is, however, very scarce, and, being too 
 delicate for transport, is only eaten in perfection near the 
 lakes in which it is found, although it is sometimes to be 
 
FISH 137 
 
 bought potted. Let me advise all who may visit Winder- 
 mere to taste this very delicious fish. There is a species 
 of trout much esteemed, and which probably resembles the 
 char, found in the lakes of the Tyrol. Travelling in this 
 region, en route to Ober-Ammergau, and arriving at a little 
 village inn about the time of mittag's essen (i.e., dinner at 
 12.30 P.M.), we ordered a dish of these trout (forelleri), 
 which we saw others eating, and a dish of cutlets ; but it 
 happened to be a fast-day, and mine host was a good 
 Catholic, so, although there was a dispensation for travellers 
 to Ober-Ammergau, we were told we might have either 
 fish or flesh, but not both, a difficulty which was overcome 
 by ordering fish for half our party and cutlets for the others, 
 and then dividing the spoils. One of the most picturesque 
 sights I remember to have seen was that of a Tyrolese 
 peasant spearing fish on a very lonely lake among the 
 Dolomite Mountains. He stood in a very small boat, 
 holding aloft a trident, which he darted into the fish, and, 
 drawing it out of the water still writhing on the trident, 
 offered it to us for a small coin. 
 
 Some of my readers who have, like myself, long passed 
 the season of youth, will remember how, in our juvenile 
 days, the more sophisticated of our fellows used to try to 
 puzzle our infantine intellect by a jangling rhyme having 
 the semblance of Latin, which ran thus : 
 
 Infirtaris inoaknonis, 
 Inmudeelsare inclaynoneis ; 
 
 and in this way we learnt two very useful scraps of know- 
 ledge, viz., that tar was obtained from fir trees and not from 
 oaks, and that eels might be found in mud, but not in clay. 
 But there are eels and eels, and the great conger, the head 
 
138 OUR VIANDS 
 
 of the clan, instead of hiding himself timidly in a mud 
 bank, swims boldly about in the ocean, and lays him down 
 to rest fearlessly on a rocky shelf, in sight of other fishes, 
 most of which are too weak to attack him and drive him 
 from his chosen resting-place. It is only of late years 
 that the conger has found a place among edible fishes 
 in England, although credited with forming the chief 
 ingredient in turtle soup; but on the Continent it has 
 long been valued, especially for imparting richness to 
 soups and gravies. There is, however, a soup^on of 
 danger in the delicacy, for our medical works recognise a 
 special poison appertaining to the conger, which sometimes 
 produces a disease resembling cholera, although it may 
 usually be eaten with impunity. This applies also to other 
 fish, and may probably be referred to unwholesome food on 
 the part of the fish, which is certainly the case with oysters 
 living near the mouths of rivers, the waters of which are 
 contaminated with lead or other minerals. 
 
 But in South Africa the eating of a dried fish known as 
 snoek produces a curious effect, causing the face to swell 
 as though there existed an epidemic of mumps. This, it is 
 believed, is due to the fish having been hung up to dry in 
 the moonlight. Men of science are slow to believe in 
 lunar influence, but in this case it appears to be a well- 
 known fact which seems deserving of investigation. 
 
 There are a great number of kinds of eels beside the 
 conger sold in the market, most of which come from 
 Holland, and it is calculated that each vessel will bring 
 over from 15,000 to 20,000 Ibs. of live eels; but eels are 
 also found in most of the English rivers, and during the 
 cold months they bury themselves in the mud of the river 
 
FISH 139 
 
 banks. People in Somersetshire find out their hiding- 
 places by observing that the hoar frost is absent in certain 
 spots, and, digging there, find them in great numbers. In 
 America they are taken by spears thrust into the mud. 
 Eels are generally believed to migrate to the sea in the 
 autumn, and to return to the rivers in the spring, but, from 
 their being so frequently found hibernating in mud banks 
 during the winter, it is evident they do not all go out to sea. 
 
 A gentleman kept some eels in a walled garden near 
 Montrose for several years, and noticed that they always 
 became very restless about August, trying to get out of the 
 pond whenever it overflowed, and were always found 
 travelling in the direction of the sea. The eels lay torpid 
 during the winter, but became voracious in the spring, one 
 swallowing as many as twenty-seven large worms at a meal. 
 The eel would seem a singular kind of pet, yet we read in 
 Ellis's book on the South Seas that a chief of Otaheite had 
 a pet eel, which would come to the surface when he 
 whistled for it, and feed out of his hand. 
 
 The lamprey strongly resembles the eel, but belongs to 
 a different class. It is not often seen in the market now, 
 but was formerly considered a great delicacy ; and it will 
 be remembered that King Henry I. died from the effects 
 of eating too many of them. The Severn is famous for 
 lampreys, and Pennant says that it is an ancient custom in 
 the city of Gloucester to present the Sovereign annually 
 with a lamprey pie, covered with a large raised crust.* 
 The Thames formerly supplied a million or more lampreys 
 to Dutch fishermen for bait. 
 
 * In 1341, 12, 55. 8d. was paid to the Sheriff of Gloucester for 
 forty-four lampreys for the king. 
 
140 OUR VIANDS 
 
 The most remarkable of the eel tribe is the gymnotus^ or 
 electric eel, a native of tropical America, which has the 
 faculty of imparting a very powerful electric shock to anyone 
 touching it. Humboldt wrote that this creature was caught 
 by driving horses into the water to receive the shock, after 
 which they are for a time powerless, but his account has not 
 been verified. One of these electric eels was kept for many 
 years in a tank in the old Polytechnic Institution. Some 
 of the species may still sometimes be seen in aquariums. 
 
 Turning from these wriggling semi-serpents to edible 
 Crustacea, we find a large number of shell-fish to a certain 
 extent resembling each other, but varying in size from the 
 great crab, lobster, and crayfish weighing several pounds, 
 to the tiny shrimp all excellent eating, although con- 
 demned by physicians as unwholesome. 
 
 The aquarium has revealed to us a great deal with 
 regard to these as well as to other denizens of the ' vasty 
 deep,' and it is a most amusing and interesting sight to 
 watch two lobsters stalking, with measured strides, on 
 their toes across the sand of their tank, and sitting down 
 opposite to each other in a threatening attitude, each 
 apparently waiting for the other to commence hostilities, 
 and both being too lazy to begin ; whilst the frisky little 
 shrimps go darting through the water at full speed as 
 though bound on an errand of life or death. The fisher- 
 men at Gordon Haven say, according to Mr. Peach, that 
 they have often seen the old lobsters with their young 
 ones playing around them, and that when they have found 
 themselves watched, the mother lobster would give a 
 danger-signal by rattling her claws, whereupon they would 
 all rush to shelter under the rocks. 
 
FISH 141 
 
 Almost all these Crustacea change colour in boiling a 
 fact now known to everybody, but we have probably all 
 heard the story of the great artist who, in painting the 
 miraculous draught of fishes, took his models from the 
 fishmonger's shop, and, all unconsciously, painted his 
 lobsters red. Upon his error being pointed out to him 
 he coolly exclaimed, 'That makes it all the greater miracle.' 
 
 It is also well known that all these Crustacea cast their 
 shells, and just before and after this performance they are 
 soft and watery, and so unfit to eat ; but the hermit crab 
 never possessed a shell on the hinder part of the body, so 
 he requisitions disused shells of various species of molluscs, 
 and uses them as his habitation, changing from time to 
 time as need or inclination dictates. 
 
 Among molluscs we find many dainty morsels, the prime 
 favourite being the oyster. Nothing can exceed the delicate 
 flavour of a ' Whitstable native,' but, unfortunately, not- 
 withstanding the laudable efforts of the late Frank Buckland 
 to preserve and cultivate this oyster, it continues scarce and 
 dear, ' natives ' which come from beds at Whitstable, 
 Rochester, Melton, Colchester, Burnham, and a few other 
 places, being seldom, if ever, to be had under half-a- crown 
 a dozen. There are, however, other kinds, such as the 
 Anglo-Dutch, which are brought from abroad and laid down 
 in English waters, which are cheaper, and fairly good j and, 
 of late, deep sea oysters, in great, rough, heavy shells, but 
 of good flavour, have been sold as low as sixpence a dozen. 
 We get also great numbers of cheap American oysters 
 blue points relished by some people, but the flavour of 
 which does not commend itself to palates used to English 
 ' natives.' There are such vast beds of oysters on the 
 
142 OUR VIANDS 
 
 shores of some of our Colonies notably at the Cape that 
 we cannot help thinking a great industry might be developed 
 in exporting them to Europe. Even in days when travelling 
 was so slow that it probably took longer for vessels to come 
 from Italy to Britain than it now does from the Cape, the 
 Romans contrived to transport the highly-prized British 
 oyster to gratify the palate of Roman epicures; and Juvenal 
 speaks of the taste of one who 
 
 ' At the first bite each oyster's birthplace knew, 
 Whether a Lucrine or Circsean he'd bitten, 
 Or one from Rutupinian deeps in Britain.' * 
 
 The fact is the ancients were not only greater epicures than 
 the moderns, but took much more trouble than we do to 
 gratify their tastes. In many respects this was a decided 
 gain to the community, for it led to the acclimatisation of 
 various animals and plants; and in the case offish, not only 
 were they transported long distances, but they were much 
 more carefully preserved in ponds and lakes than at present. 
 It is even said that Lucullus had a canal cut through a 
 mountain in the neighbourhood of Naples, that fish might 
 more easily be transported to his villa, whilst many noble 
 Romans seem to have kept fish as pets. It is related that 
 the daughter of Drusus adorned one of her finny pets with 
 rings of gold ; whilst Hortensius, the orator, wept at the 
 death of a turbot which he had fed with his own hand. 
 Coming down to mediaeval times, we find fishponds 
 
 * It is to the Romans we are indebted for the discovery of our native 
 oyster, for antiquaries are agreed that it formed no part of the dietary 
 of the Britons prior to the Roman occupation, so that whenever oyster 
 shells are found in the excavation of tombs or habitations, the remains 
 discovered are relegated to Roman or post- Roman times. 
 
FISH 143 
 
 attached to every monastery. The pilgrim adorned his hat 
 with the scallop-shell, the reason for which practice is rather 
 obscure : it seems probable that it was taken in the first 
 place as a useful article, a substitute for a plate or spoon, 
 in which doles of various kinds might be received, and that 
 it afterwards became the badge of pilgrimage, especially to 
 the shrine of St. James of Compostella ; and it is a curious 
 fact that even at the present day, oyster eating commences 
 in London on St. James' Day, when the children collect the 
 shells to form a grotto or shrine, in which they burn a 
 candle in honour of the saint, and solicit alms from the 
 passers-by, the contribution being received in an oyster 
 shell. The scallop is not so delicate in flavour as the 
 oyster, but is more substantial, and, fried in egg and bread 
 crumbs, is not to be despised ; neither are those plebeian 
 delicacies periwinkles, cockles, and whelks sold so largely 
 on barrows in the London streets, so many of the latter piled 
 on shells, with vinegar and pepper ad libitum for a penny. 
 
 It would seem that in the fourteenth century, whale, 
 porpoise, and grampus were sold as fish, large prices being 
 paid for slices of these creatures during Lent, and one of 
 the Harleian manuscripts contains a recipe for making 
 ' puddynge of porpoise.' 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 
 
 ' NECESSITY knows no law,' says the proverb, and starvation 
 will cause people to eat anything, but nothing short of that 
 would induce the average English man or woman, to partake 
 of some of the dishes which foreigners relish. There are, 
 however, some who are ready to experiment upon anything 
 and everything presented to them in the shape of food. The 
 late Dr. Buckland made soup of the bones of extinct animals, 
 and his son, Mr. Frank Buckland, tasted every animal he 
 could get at from the Zoo, and induced some of the members 
 of the Zoological Society to join him in his * feast of reason,' 
 although it is doubtful whether the * flow of soul ' was quite 
 up to that which would have followed a feast of turtle, 
 oysters, etc., followed by mutton, beef, and game. And 
 yet there seems no reason why turtle should occupy the 
 proud position it enjoys, whilst we reject the land tortoise 
 its near relation, and why oysters should be prized and 
 snails rejected. 
 
 In eating and drinking there is a great deal of fashion 
 and prejudice. We know that during the siege of Paris the 
 Parisians were reduced to the necessity of eating all the 
 animals in the Jardin des Plantes, as well as * rats and mice 
 and such small deer,' and since then they have retained a 
 fondness for horseflesh, to which we have never yet attained, 
 
 144 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 145 
 
 although, as we know, it has been eaten from time imme- 
 morial by the Tartars ; whilst hunters in Africa, as well as 
 natives, highly appreciate the meat of the zebra or quagga, 
 and that of the donkey is said to be superior to both ; but, 
 if placed upon the London market, in all probability all 
 three of these kindred meats would be allowed to rot 
 unpurchased. In like manner the porcupine is esteemed a 
 delicacy in South Africa, but its next-of-kin here, the 
 hedgehog, is only eaten by gipsies. The eel, and even the 
 great conger, is eaten with relish ; but the snake, which is 
 said to be good and wholesome, is regarded with horror 
 and loathing by men rendered squeamish by civilisation. 
 
 The lordly elephant is made to contribute his quota of 
 food to his pursuers, the foot being the tit-bit ; but the lion 
 and tiger, being carnivorous, are not appreciated by civilised 
 man any more than the shark, the eagle, the vulture, and 
 many other birds of the air, beasts of the earth, and fishes 
 of the great sea, which are greedily devoured by savages. 
 Even the hyaena is eaten by the Bushmen, although it is so 
 hated by them that every one passing the carcase gives it a 
 blow with a whip or stick.* 
 
 The whale and the seal are highly appreciated by the 
 Greenlanders and Eskimos, although hunger alone would 
 cause them to be relished by ourselves. Yet a whale or a 
 good fat seal would have saved the lives of many an Arctic 
 voyager, and the eagerness with which Greely and his 
 
 * Miss Gordon Gumming tells us that the Veddahs 'never eat 
 elephant, buffalo, or bear, though squirrels, mongooses and tortoises, 
 kites and crows, owls, rats, and bats are highly esteemed ; while a 
 roast monkey, or a huge, hideous iguana-lizard, is an ideal dainty.' 
 'Two Happy Years in Ceylon,' vol. ii., p. 91. 
 
 K 
 
146 OUR VIANDS 
 
 starving followers hunted foxes and the great Polar bears, 
 shows how hunger will whet the appetite ; and certainly, if 
 the choice lay between old boots, skins, and candle ends, 
 and a seal steak, or piece of whale, there is no doubt which 
 would be taken. We are told 'the seal, when young, is 
 excellent, and as a material for soup is quite equal to the 
 hare ; while the skin of any of the Cetacea, especially that of 
 the whalebone whale, if boiled down to a jelly, is a dish fit 
 " to set before a king." It is often sent in hermetically- 
 closed tins from Greenland to Christian IX., of Denmark, 
 and therefore has in reality that destination/ 
 
 When, however, we turn to countries where food is 
 plentiful, we are surprised at the singularities of taste in the 
 choice of viands. Take, for instance, China, with its fatted 
 dogs, its bird-nest soup, and trepang, all of which seem to 
 us disgusting, yet doubtless had we been bred in China we 
 should have esteemed them delicacies, as the Chinese do. 
 There is no reason why dogs should not be good eating 
 when well and carefully fed ; but we from time immemorial 
 have made of them such pets and companions that to eat 
 them would seem like cannibalism. As to the birds' nests, 
 they are of a peculiar kind, made of a gelatinous substance, 
 and might probably be esteemed a delicacy by ourselves, 
 were they not too scarce for export. Rats and mice are 
 also relished by the Celestials, and in the account of the 
 astonishing escape from death of some entombed miners in 
 America, we read that they managed to preserve life by 
 catching and eating the rats which came to prey upon them. 
 This was, of course, a case of dire necessity ; but an African 
 traveller tells of a little Bushman, who picked up the mice 
 which had been caught, and after putting them in the hot 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 147 
 
 ashes for a few moments, devoured them greedily half-raw, 
 entrails and all. 
 
 There is no one in England so poor as to eat these 
 rodents willingly, but we remember hearing a French 
 gentleman relate how, during the siege of Paris, he and 
 his companions were attracted by a savoury smell in a 
 restaurant, and determined w&te qui coute to satisfy their 
 hunger with the appetising delicacy. Upon paying a good 
 round sum they secured the dish, and learnt with surprise 
 that they had partaken of a ragout of rats. This was, of 
 course, an exceptional dish ; but the French habitually 
 indulge in some viands which we despise, as, for instance, 
 frogs. Of these, the hind legs only are taken, skinned, and 
 the claws twisted together. In this form they resemble 
 delicate little lamb cutlets, and are, as we can testify, 
 extremely palatable. Then, all along the sea coasts of 
 France and Italy may be seen the octopus occupying a 
 place in the fishermen's baskets, and often boiled in 
 cauldrons of oil in the streets, and taken out to be offered 
 for sale to the passer-by, always with the recommendation, 
 ' It is good, very good; ' and, indeed, it smells good, and is 
 said to enter largely into the savoury soups at the hotels. 
 
 Again, in the south of France and Italy you see people 
 eating with relish the sea urchin, brought to table, like 
 oysters, in the shell, and scooped out with a spoon. Having 
 purchased some of these to bring home as curiosities, I 
 could not induce the natives to believe I did not want to 
 eat them, so they invariably cut and trimmed them for 
 table, thus spoiling them as specimens. The trepang of 
 the Chinese, consisting of the sea cucumber dried, most 
 probably strongly resembles these sea urchins in flavour. 
 
148 OUR VIANDS 
 
 We have left to the last a favourite French and Italian 
 dish, namely snath in French escargots which several 
 writers have lately been advocating both as food and 
 medicine. It would seem from these articles, that snails 
 and slugs are still sought and eaten in some parts of 
 Wiltshire, being in season only when dormant during the 
 winter, when they are taken, soaked in salt and water, and 
 grilled on the bars of the grate. Probably they are quite as 
 good as the periwinkle, so greedily devoured by those who 
 would look upon the snail with disgust, and who would 
 reject a dish of spring cabbage, because a careless cook had 
 allowed a slug to remain ensconced in the leaf upon which 
 it had been feeding when consigned to the pot. 
 
 Snails and slugs especially the latter are supposed to 
 be particularly efficacious as a remedy in consumption, 
 being not only eaten, but also crushed and rubbed on 
 the chest and back, and we have known this snail juice 
 extolled as superior to cod-liver oil. In France the 
 escargots are dried and prepared as a lozenge for coughs. 
 It would appear, according to the writer of a very interest- 
 ing article on the subject in the Standard^ that 'in several 
 parts of England snails are regularly eaten ; not, it is true, 
 as an ordinary article of diet, but at stated feasts, and 
 considerable quantities are collected round Lorfdon and 
 exported to France.' But the same writer adds: 'The 
 Latin people are its principal friends, whilst it is rejected 
 by all Scandinavian and Teutonic peoples. The Romans 
 were its especial patrons. Not content with eating it 
 stewed in every form, they fattened it in " cochleariaj* 
 or styes, meal boiled in wine being regarded as the food 
 best fitted for producing large and juicy specimens. How 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 149 
 
 successful they were, may be inferred from the fact if fact 
 it be that some of the shells of these domesticated snails 
 would hold a pint of wine. But the trade in them is per- 
 haps better than ever it was during the palmy days of 
 Roman luxury. In the neighbourhood of Dijon, a small 
 farmer has been known to clear ^300 per annum from 
 snails, the vine growers keeping them in dry cellars, or 
 in trenches under coverings of leaves and earth ; and 
 from certain escargotieres near Ulm, in Wiirtemburg, no 
 fewer than ten millions of the vineyard snails are sent 
 every year to other gardens to be fattened before they 
 are dispatched for the use of the Austrian convents during 
 Lent. From Troyes it has been calculated that snails to the 
 value of ^"20,000 the wholesale price being 45. per hundred 
 are forwarded to the Paris markets. Packed in casks, 
 they are also exported in a small way to the United States.' 
 
 Would it not pay Cape Colonists to institute ' cochlearia ' 
 of the great Tiger snail for the French or Portuguese 
 markets? Anyone who has passed through the Lisbon 
 fruit market in autumn, must have noticed the huge 
 baskets of snails for sale, and in Madrid and other wealthy 
 Spanish cities as many as fifteen different kinds may some- 
 times be counted on the slabs of the dealers. In Italy 
 they are equally popular, but no sooner are the Alps passed 
 than the snail begins to disappear from the menus, until, by 
 the time Denmark and Sweden are reached, it is never seen 
 on the table.* 
 
 * Friends report that, having at Barcelona been served with a very 
 tempting dish, ornamented with large snail shells, they partook of it 
 and enjoyed it greatly, believing the snails to be still in the shells, but 
 after having eaten the savoury morsels, they discovered they had been 
 eating the snails, the shells being empty and used only as garnishing. 
 
ISO OUR VIANDS 
 
 Our French neighbours have of late years suffered con- 
 siderably from a scarcity of escargots, for it was found that 
 the sulphate of iron used to destroy the phylloxera, also 
 poisoned the snails, and rendered them wholly unfit for 
 food, so that it became necessary to have snail farms, in 
 order to guarantee them on the market as free from the 
 sulphate, and consequently wholesome. ' E scar got s a la 
 mode de Burgogne' are not to be despised as a food. 
 Stewed in butter, with eggs and savoury herbs, they might 
 well tempt even a prejudiced English palate, but then you 
 must not whisper snails to the eater, although snail feasts 
 are still known to the glass-workers of Newcastle. Perhaps in 
 these feasts the snails are conspicuous by their absence ; but 
 in Greece, snails dressed with garlic are still a favourite dish. 
 Much has been written of late in recommendation of 
 insect food, including caterpillars, cockchafers, ants, and 
 even spiders and wire-worms.* Locusts are certainly much 
 relished in those countries which are subject to their depre- 
 dations, and we have seen boys in Germany greedily devour 
 the cockchafer alive, first depriving it of its legs and wings, 
 and declaring it was just like a nut. Fried white ants are 
 also highly esteemed in some countries, and the grubs of 
 bees are relished even by Englishmen, but we think some 
 considerable time must elapse before we adopt of free will 
 the articles of diet of which we have been writing. Siege 
 and famine might reconcile us to some of them, but as long 
 * Kirby and Spence tell us that spiders are eaten by Bushmen and 
 the inhabitants of New Caledonia ; and Reaumur relates that a young 
 lady cracked and ate every spider she came across. Anna Maria 
 Schurman ate them like nuts. Lalande, the astronomer, was equally 
 fond of them ; and a German, immortalised by Rosel, used to spread 
 them on his bread like butter. 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 151 
 
 as we can get beef, mutton, and pork, eggs, poultry, and 
 game, economists may write and reason as long as they 
 please they will not induce a score of English men and 
 women to sit down to a dish of snails and caterpillars, 
 frogs or mice; and even horseflesh, which is, we are told, 
 beginning to find its way into the English market, will 
 continue to be regarded by the vast majority as food fit 
 only for dogs and cats. 
 
 Nevertheless, our forefathers were certainly less squeamish 
 than we are ; they eat the queerest conglomerations, and 
 seasoned their dishes with ambergris and other strange 
 sauces, nor has the taste for odd combinations quite died 
 out from among us, as witness the Scotch haggis and the 
 Cornish pasties, for which a writer in the Western Antiquary, 
 after quoting the Cornish saying that 'The devil will 
 not venture into Cornwall for fear of being put in a pie,' 
 gives the following recipes. ' The composition of the 
 Squab-pie, deemed luxurious beyond all others, has been 
 given by an unknown writer in verse, as follows : 
 
 " Of wheaten walls erect your paste ; 
 Let the round mass expand its breast, 
 Next slice your apples cull'd so fresh : 
 Let the fat sheep supply its flesh : 
 Then add an onion's stinging juice 
 A sprinkling be not too profuse. 
 Well mix't these nice ingredients, sure, 
 Might gratify an epicure ! " 
 
 ' The Herby-pie is another peculiar dish, composed of 
 nettles, pepper-cress, parsley, mustard, and spinach, together 
 with thin slices of pork ! Leeks and pilchards form a third 
 sort, and a fourth is filled with goose feet, gizzard, and blood, 
 with raisins, sugar, and apples ; a fifth of leeks and bacon, 
 
152 OUR VIANDS 
 
 cooled, before eaten, by Cornish cream ; a sixth of mackerel, 
 parsley, and cream. All these, how piquant to the palate of 
 Cornish people especially.' 
 
 The same writer gives the following impromptu. ' In a 
 season of scarcity, the attorneys at Quarter Sessions 
 resolved to abstain from eating pasties, and the following 
 epigram was extemporaneously delivered on the occasion : 
 
 " If the proverb be true that the fame of our pies 
 
 Prevents us from falling to Satan a prey, 
 It is clear that \i\sfriends the attorneys are wise 
 In moving such obstacles out of the way." ' 
 
 The Spanish olla podrida seems nearly related to these 
 Cornish pasties. Carli, whose travels are given in Pinker- 
 ton's collection, speaks thus of this famous dish : 
 
 ' Being come to Cordova, I went to our monastery, where 
 I was forced to be satisfied with the Spanish dish they call 
 Olla Podrida, signifying rotten pot; which name is not 
 improper, for it is an extravagant medley of several things, 
 as onions, garlic, pumkin, cucumber, white beets, a bit of 
 pork, and two of mutton, which, being boiled with the rest, 
 are almost lost. The fathers asked me whether I liked it. 
 I told them it was very fit to kill me, being as I was almost 
 sick, and so weak that I had need of some better restorative 
 than that Podrida, to which I was not used. They put 
 so much saffron in it that, had I not been yellow enough 
 already with my distemper, that alone might have been 
 enough to dye my skin of that colour. It is a great dainty 
 for Spaniards, but a scurvy mess for those that are not 
 used to it.' 
 
 All these things are, however, as nothing to some of the 
 dainties enjoyed by the old Romans, who not only feasted 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 153 
 
 upon snails, and the maggots found in old timber, but 
 
 thought 
 
 'A lamb's fat paunch was a delicious treat,' 
 
 and revelled upon water rats and stewed sow's teats, which 
 Martial says were prepared by a certain cook with so much 
 art as to appear still full of milk, and upon sucking puppies, 
 which Pliny declared were worthy of being served at a 
 supper for the gods. 
 
 Then there were dormouse sausages, of which a quaint 
 writer remarks : ' Petronius delivers us an odd receipt for 
 dressing 'em and serving 'em up with Poppies and Honey, 
 which must be a very Soporiferous Dainty, and as good as 
 Owl Pye to such as want a Nap after Dinner.' * 
 
 After such an account of the dainties indulged in by the 
 highly civilised masters of the world, we need not feel any 
 disgust at the taste of the Chinese and Red Indians for 
 dog's flesh, or of the poor Australian savages, who regale 
 themselves upon the larvae of beetles found in decaying 
 timber, that from the acacia tree being, says Lumholtz, of 
 excellent flavour, in size the thickness of a finger, and 
 glittering white, the taste resembling nuts. The natives 
 roast these larvae, and also the beetles and wood-lice, but 
 will sometimes eat the larvae alive, f 
 
 It would seem that nothing in the way of food comes 
 amiss to savages ; but they do not, as a rule, eat their meat 
 raw. The iguana and its eggs are considered delicacies by 
 the Australians, and so are snakes, which they will hunt 
 fearlessly. Some tribes eat even the poisonous kinds, 
 
 * ' The Art of Cookery,' by the author of ' A Journey to London.' 
 + The aurelias of the silk- worm, as well as the white earth -grub 
 and the larva of the sphynx-moth, are esteemed delicacies in China. 
 
154 OUR VIANDS 
 
 but others content themselves with the non-poisonous, of 
 which the python, being often twenty feet long, makes a 
 splendid meal. The mode of cooking this dainty we have 
 given elsewhere. Lumholtz says of snakes that the meat is 
 white, but dry and almost tasteless, but that the liver is 
 excellent, resembling ptarmigan in flavour. 
 
 The natives first eat the fat, which is considered the best 
 part, then the heart, liver, and lungs, and finally the body 
 is divided, after which the backbone is crushed between 
 stones and eaten, every morsel being consumed, and every 
 drop of grease licked up, which reminds one of many 
 European and Asiatic folk-lore stories, in which serpents 
 are cooked and eaten for the purpose of acquiring the 
 language of animals, which in many cases is imparted 
 accidentally to the cook, in the act of sucking a finger 
 which has been burnt by touching the roasted snake, or 
 dipped in the broth in which it has been boiled. 
 
 Most savages revel in grease, which they use both 
 externally and internally. We can understand this taste 
 in cold regions, so that the fondness of the Eskimo for 
 whale's blubber and train oil seems justified by the necessity 
 for nitrogenous food ; but it seems strange that dwellers in 
 hot climates should also relish oily compounds. Yet, as 
 we have seen, the Australians revel in the fat of snakes, and 
 imagine that when a man is ill, it is because some enemy 
 has stolen his kidney fat ; and of the Bushmen in South 
 Africa we are told : * Occasionally we had an opportunity 
 of presenting our Bushmen friends with an ample supply of 
 grease, and then would follow a scene. The elder person- 
 ages first helped themselves, smearing their bodies to their 
 heart's content; the children were next treated, until all 
 
UNAPPRECIATED TRIFLES 155 
 
 had changed their rough, weather-beaten exteriors for a 
 glorious shining appearance. Often not contented with 
 this external embalming, they would drink cups of melted 
 fat, and when asked for a reason, the reply was, " Oh, sir, 
 it is so very comfortable (or nice) to smear both in and 
 outside."'* The Bushmen also enjoy locusts greatly, and 
 the writer quoted above gives the following as the method 
 of preparing them : * Fire being applied to the brushwood, 
 the legs and wings of the locusts were consumed, the bodies 
 dropped in heaps to the ground, and were collected next 
 morning, and having been exposed to dry in the sun on 
 skins, when sufficiently desiccated they were pounded to 
 powder, to be cooked with a little fat, milk, or water. This 
 paste formed a material part of the food of this poor race 
 of human beings.' 
 
 In Soyer's ' History of Food ' we are given the menu of 
 a Roman supper which is worth transcribing : ' First course 
 Sea hedgehogs, raw oysters, all sorts of shell fish and 
 asparagus. Second course A fatted pullet, a fresh dish 
 of oysters and other shell fish, different kinds of dates, 
 univalve shell fish, as whelks, conchs, etc., more oysters 
 of different kinds, sea nettles, beccaficos, chines of roebuck 
 and wild boar, fowls covered with a perfumed paste, a second 
 dish of shell fish and purples (a very costly crustacean). 
 Third course A wild boar's head, fish, a second set of hors 
 d'xuvres, chicks, potted river-fish, leverets, roast fowls, and 
 cakes from the marshes of Ancona.' 
 
 Here we see several curious combinations, many of the 
 favourite dishes of modern times mixed with others which 
 would now be relished only by Chinese, such as sea hedge- 
 * ' Memoir of Petrus Borchardus Borcherds, Esq.' 
 
156 OUR VIANDS 
 
 hogs (which, however, are still eaten in Italy), sea nettles, 
 whelks, conchs, and fowls covered with perfumed paste, 
 reminding one of the ambergris and rose water so much 
 used in the last century. After all, we are constrained to 
 see that the tastes of civilised man do not vary much from 
 those of the savage, and that the unappreciated trifles of 
 to-day were highly esteemed by those who, in former ages, 
 were regarded as the most fastidious of epicures. 
 
 The feast of Tetuan, described by Hall Caine in the 
 ' Scapegoat,' deserves to be recorded here as showing the 
 strange mixtures still eaten, and the ceremonies observed 
 in Mohammedan countries. First, steaming dishes of 
 meat, in which each plunged his fingers, then a dish of 
 dates, followed by fish in garlic; keskoos covered with 
 powdered sugar and cinnamon ; meat on skewers ; browned 
 fowls and fowls with olives ; flake pastry and sponge 
 fritters; and, in conclusion, three cups of green tea as 
 thick and sweet as syrup. After which a washing of hands, 
 and fumigating of garments with scented wood burnt in a 
 brass censer. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 CONDIMENTS 
 
 THE proverb that * hunger is the best sauce ' is, like many 
 other proverbs, trite, and true to a certain extent, for a 
 starving man would not ask for pepper and mustard to 
 make his meat relish, although he probably would look for 
 a little salt, that being Nature's own condiment, lavishly 
 provided, and grateful alike to the palate of man and 
 beast. Nevertheless, there are tribes of savages in various 
 parts of the world who did not use salt until it was intro- 
 duced among them by Europeans, and never felt the want 
 of it; although many semi-civilised tribes have adopted 
 various condiments, the most common being the betel, 
 which is a species of pepper, universally chewed by the 
 Malays of all ages, and by the inhabitants of almost all the 
 East Indian islands, where it is regarded as one of the 
 necessaries of life. Slices of the Pinang or Areca nut are 
 wrapped in a betel leaf, previously sprinked with chunam, 
 or quicklime, and chewed, causing the gums and lips to 
 assume a bright red hue, and the teeth to become black. 
 The ingredients for this indulgence are carried about 
 everywhere the rich possessing boxes of silver and gold, 
 whilst the poor man has the same articles in a brass box, 
 or mat bag and the betel box is invariably offered to a 
 guest, as the snuff-box used to be among ourselves. 
 
 In South America the coc.a plant is substituted for the 
 
 157 
 
158 OUR VIANDS 
 
 betel, and is also chewed with lime, and carried about in 
 curiously-carved boxes. In both hemispheres this custom 
 is of immense antiquity. 
 
 Amongst ourselves the coga, in the form of cocaine, has 
 recently come greatly into use in medicine, being of great 
 value as a local anaesthetic ; but it was first heard of in the 
 form in which it is used in South America, the leaves being 
 chewed for their sustaining properties. As to the betel, we 
 seldom use it in England, its place being supplied by the 
 pepper of commerce, which, in its three forms of pepper- 
 corns, ground black pepper, and white pepper, has become 
 a requisite, no dish of meat, and scarcely any of vegetables, 
 being properly seasoned without it. Many people fancy 
 that white pepper is quite different from black, but it is 
 in reality the same, being prepared from the black pepper- 
 corn deprived of its outer husk. 
 
 Cayenne pepper, so useful in highly-seasoned dishes, is 
 made from the ground fruit or seed pods of different kinds 
 of capsicums, some of which are yellow and others red, 
 which accounts for the difference in the colour of the 
 pepper. Next to the pungent peppers, all of foreign 
 origin, comes the old English condiment, mustard, used for 
 centuries as a seasoning for roast beef.* 
 
 'Good Master Mustard-seed,' says Bottom in the 
 ' Midsummer Night's* Dream,' ' I know your patience well : 
 that same cowardly, giant-like ox-beef hath devoured many 
 a gentleman of your house : I promise you, your kindred 
 hath made my eyes water ere now.' 
 
 * Coriander seed was considered by the Romans to be like mustard, 
 strengthening and digestive, and was used with vinegar to keep meat 
 fresh. 
 
CONDIMENTS 159 
 
 This would seem to prove that mustard as a condiment 
 for roast beef was in common use in Shakespeare's time ; 
 but it was probably used then coarsely pounded, for we are 
 told that mustard in its present finely-powdered form, was 
 introduced by a Mrs. Clements, of Durham, about the year 
 1729, and was hence known as Durham mustard. We 
 sometimes think that a return to the old form that is, the 
 genuine seed coarsely pounded would be preferable to the 
 frequently adulterated article which now often appears at 
 table. The French make their mustard with tarragon 
 vinegar, which renders it more agreeable to some palates. 
 Horse-radish is another English condiment largely con- 
 sumed with the national roast beef, but accidents have 
 from time to time occurred from the likeness of the root to 
 the poisonous aconite or monk's-hood. The leaves of the 
 two plants are, however, so very distinct, that they cannot 
 be mistaken the one for the other when growing. 
 
 The adaptation of certain herbs and sauces as condi- 
 ments to particular meats dates from very early times. The 
 Paschal lamb was to be eaten with bitter herbs. What 
 these herbs were is not definitely known, but mint, which 
 is still the favourite condiment for lamb, was perhaps one, 
 since we find it mentioned, with rue, and all manner of 
 herbs, as being tithed by the Pharisees. Mint sauce and 
 gooseberry sauce are the appropriate condiments for lamb. 
 Red currant jelly and tomato sauce, and sometimes that 
 very dirty-looking seaweed known as laver, are eaten with 
 roast mutton, and caper sauce with boiled ; whilst on veal 
 we bestow a forcemeat composed of various herbs, such 
 as thyme, parsley, marjoram, savory, basil, lemon peel, 
 pepper, salt, a soupQon of onion and mace or nutmeg, suet, 
 
i6o OUR VIANDS 
 
 and bread crumbs which same forcemeat we use for 
 turkeys and other poultry. With game we serve bread 
 sauce ; whilst pork, ducks, and geese are considered 
 properly dressed with a seasoning of sage and onions, and 
 apple sauce. 
 
 These are the chief of old English condiments, used 
 from time immemorial; and it is only of late years that 
 these things have been supplemented by the highly- 
 flavoured Indian curries and chutneys, and by a variety of 
 piquant sauces with names sufficient to make our grand- 
 mothers' hair stand on end. Our schools of cookery have 
 made us familiar with aspic, bechamel, consomm^, maitre 
 d'hotel sauce, mayonnaise, sauce piquante, and a variety of 
 other names which glide smoothly from the tongue of the 
 initiated, but are meaningless to those who have not studied 
 in the modern schools. 
 
 Nevertheless, our forefathers were as highly appreciative 
 of spices as we are, and those who could afford them, used 
 them perhaps more than we do. We learn from Chambers's 
 ' Book of Days ' that the arrival of a ship laden with spices 
 1 was an event of such importance, and perhaps rarity, that 
 the King usually hastened to satisfy his wants before the 
 cargo was landed. Thus, in the reign of Henry III., the 
 bailiffs of Sandwich were commanded to detain, upon their 
 coming into port, two great ships laden with spices and 
 precious merchandise which were exported from Bayonne, 
 and not to allow anything to be sold until the King had 
 had his choice of their contents.' At that time vegetables 
 were scarce, but pot-herbs, such as parsley, mint, purslane, 
 fennel, smallage, thyme, and hyssop, are mentioned, and 
 also lettuce, celery, beetroot, and small white onions ; some 
 
CONDIMENTS 161 
 
 of which were eaten raw, with olive oil and spices. Thus 
 we find that salads were in use in the fifteenth century, but 
 are somewhat surprised to find olive oil mentioned, as even 
 to the present day it is very little used in England, except 
 among those who have travelled much on the Continent. 
 
 The spices known, in the reign of Henry III. were of 
 course those of the East Indies cinnamon, nutmeg (with 
 its outer network, known as mace), cloves, pepper, and 
 ginger ; and to these must be added the most important of 
 all condiments, which has come to be regarded, not as a 
 luxury, but a necessity that is, sugar, which Strabo tells 
 us was found in the East Indies by Nearchus, Admiral of 
 Alexander the Great, 325 B.C. 
 
 Pliny speaks of sugar as an article of merchandise 
 brought from Arabia and India used only as medicine. 
 He describes it as ' honey collected from canes, gum-like 
 at first in appearance, but which becomes whitish and 
 brittle when dry.' There is a passage in Isaiah which runs, 
 ' Thou hast bought me no sweet cane with money,' which 
 would seem to prove that the sugar-cane was an article of 
 commerce in Judea also at an early date ; the sweet cane 
 is likewise mentioned by Jeremiah, who speaks of it as 
 coming from a far country. Paulus ^Egineta, writing in 
 the seventh century, calls sugar the Indian salt, being in 
 form and colour like common salt, but in taste and sweet- 
 ness like honey, and recommends that a piece should be 
 kept in the mouth to moisten it during fevers. 
 
 Eleven camels laden with sugar were captured by the 
 Crusaders in mo, and shortly after this time the cane was 
 grown as a curiosity in Spain and Southern Italy. 
 
 The date of its introduction into England seems 
 
 L 
 
1 62 OUR VIANDS 
 
 uncertain, but in 1546 a manuscript letter to Lord Cobham 
 speaks of * twenty-five sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, 
 which is eightpence a pound,' the penny at that time being 
 worth much more than at present ; and the diary of a lady 
 of Herefordshire at the time of the Civil War, October 29, 
 1640, has the following entry ' For a pound of shugger to 
 send Mrs. Eaton when her son Fitz-Wm. lay on his death- 
 bed, 20</.' 
 
 If we compare this with the importation of sugar at the 
 present day, and the price per pound, we shall realise the 
 enormous growth in the consumption of this condiment 
 since its cultivation in the West Indies. 
 
 In 1887 the importation of sugar to the United Kingdom 
 reached the enormous total of 1,080,590 tons, and this was 
 rather under the quantity consumed in the two previous 
 years. With these figures before us it seems hard to 
 realise that there was a time when sugar was unknown, its 
 place being supplied by honey, which has now sunk into 
 a subordinate position; but we see also how extremely 
 important must have been the keeping of bees among the 
 ancients, since almost all the sweetness required in cookery 
 was dependent upon the productive industry of these little 
 insects. The Egyptians sent boats laden with bees up the 
 Nile to enable the industrious insects to fill their combs 
 from the flowers near its banks. The Greeks celebrated 
 the honey of Mount Hymettus, and even to the present 
 day this honey is highly prized, and the modern Greeks 
 use it, as probably their ancestors and the ancient Egyptians 
 used it, mixed with flour and oil in the manufacture of 
 
 Honey, says Soyer, was the basis of the seasoning of 
 
CONDIMENTS 163 
 
 Apicius, and Pythagoras, who ate only bread and honey, 
 lived to be ninety ; and we are told * whoever wishes to 
 preserve his health should eat, every morning before break- 
 fast, young onions with honey.' Honey, indeed, seems to 
 have entered into every sauce among the Romans, and 
 mixed with mustard was served as a condiment with brawn, 
 but it was also freely used formerly in British cookery. 
 The anonymous author of 'The Art of Cookery' says 
 
 ' Our fathers most admired their Sauces sweet, 
 And often ask'd for Sugar with their meat ; 
 They butter 'd Currants on fat Veal bestowed, 
 And rumps of Beef with virgin Honey strew'd.' * 
 
 Olive oil was almost as important as honey in ancient 
 cookery, but it was cot the only oil used, for Horace 
 gives the recipes for two sauces of the Romans as follows : 
 
 ' Two sorts of sauce are worthy to be known, 
 Simple the first and of sweet oil alone ; 
 The other, mix'd with rich and generous wine, 
 And the true pickle of Byzantian brine, 
 Let it, with shredded herbs and saffron boil, 
 And when it cools pour in Venafran oil.' 
 
 Brine was water in which bay salt had been dissolved, 
 but we read also of herring and anchovy brine, and of that 
 remarkable compound garum, made of the semi-putrid 
 intestines of fish, put into a vessel with much salt, and 
 exposed to the sun till fermentation began, after which 
 wine was sometimes added, and it was filtered through 
 willow baskets, and kept for use. The best and most 
 expensive garum was made of the liver of the red mullet. 
 The sauce of Apicius was thus compounded: 'Mix 
 * Nor must it be forgotten that among the ancients honey was 
 frequently used in embalming the dead, and coffins full of honey are 
 slill sometimes found. 
 
164 OUR VIANDS 
 
 with honey \ oz. pepper, 3 scruples eschalots, 6 scruples 
 cardamum, i scruple spikenard, and 6 scruples mint, add 
 vinegar, and pour in some garum.' And the same chef 
 gives us a stomachic condiment in which garum figures : 
 * Mix carefully some pine nuts, pepper, benzoin, mint, dried 
 raisins and dates, with fresh unsalted cheese, vinegar, oil, 
 honey, and wine, reduced by boiling to one half; add 
 garum.' 
 
 Vinegar appears to have been used as a beverage in 
 ancient Rome, and to have been commonly served at 
 banquets, probably mixed with water. The extravagance 
 of Cleopatra, in dissolving her splendid pearl earring in 
 vinegar and drinking it, is frequently quoted, but this is 
 not a solitary instance of wasteful lavishness at Roman 
 banquets ; the same story is told of Caligula, and of the 
 son of yEsop the actor, of whom Horace writes : 
 
 1 An actor's son dissolved a wealthy pearl 
 (The precious earring of his favourite girl) 
 In vinegar, and thus luxurious quaff'd 
 A thousand solid talents at a draught.' 
 
 And since our vinegar would certainly not be powerful 
 enough to dissolve pearls, we must suppose that used in 
 Egypt and Rome to have been much more powerful, so 
 that to drink it, even much diluted, must have been any- 
 thing but agreeable. 
 
 One of the English condiments greatly in favour formerly 
 seems to have fallen into disuse except in certain counties, 
 this is saffron, which at one time was used in many sauces 
 and cakes, and appears very frequently in old recipes, but 
 is now seldom used except in Cornwall, where it still forms 
 the flavouring and colouring matter of almost all the cakes. 
 
CONDIMENTS 165 
 
 In modern Greece, mastich is used in the same way to give 
 a pleasant flavour to bread ; and in Germany, carraways, 
 aniseed, and pimento are freely used for the same purpose, 
 whilst almost all sweet sauces are flavoured with rum, 
 which is rejected among ourselves in favour of brandy or 
 ratafia. A more recent flavouring, vanilla, the product of 
 a Mexican orchid, has become the prime favourite among 
 French and English cooks. 
 
 There are two or three important condiments which 
 come to us from the West Indies. One of these is molasses 
 or treacle, beloved of children, and another, the pimento or 
 allspice ; but there is another which is very little known, 
 but which is supposed to form the basis of most modern 
 sauces. This is casareep, a dark fluid prepared from bitter 
 cassava, which gives both colour and piquancy to the sauce 
 to which it is added. Tamarinds, too, are much used by 
 modern cooks in curries and sauces, and the very hot West 
 Indian pickles are highly esteemed. 
 
 Curry-powder, mulligatawny, chutney, and various pickles 
 and preserves from India are now so common, that it is 
 unnecessary to do more than name them, but the following 
 South African condiments may, perhaps, be new to most of 
 our readers. 
 
 For blachang to eat with fish or meat one table- 
 spoonful of powdered chili, one teaspoonful coriander 
 seed pounded, twenty pounded almonds, one baked onion, 
 two cloves of garlic, enough vinegar for proper consistency, 
 and a little salt. For samball peel a cucumber and cut 
 it into pieces two inches long, slice each piece round and 
 round till you get to the seedy part, which throw away. 
 Roll the sliced part into a small roll, and then slice it 
 
1 66 OUR VIANDS 
 
 again very fine into cold water with a little salt. Let it 
 stand two hours. Pour boiling water over two onions 
 sliced as thin as possible ; which also let stand two hours, 
 then strain off the water from both and squeeze as dry as 
 possible. Take a teaspoonful of vinegar, a dessertspoonful 
 of anchovy sauce, cayenne pepper, and a little mustard, mix 
 together and pour over the onion and cucumber. 
 
 To these we may add an old English recipe for making 
 walnut soy : Take 120 green walnuts, cut them into slices ; 
 shalots skinned and sliced, one pound ; salt, a quarter of a 
 pound. Pound all together in a stone mortar, then put the 
 mixture into an earthen pan with a pint of vinegar. Cover 
 it over for a week or ten days, and stir it three or four times 
 a day. Strain the liquor through a thick flannel bag. By 
 means of a press, pass it a second time through the bag ; 
 then put it into a stewpan with a quarter of a pound of the 
 best anchovies, half an ounce of whole pepper, and a little 
 sliced ginger. Boil the whole as long as any scum arises, 
 which must be carefully taken off : then bottle it, and add 
 of cloves, mace, and nutmeg, each a quarter of an ounce. 
 Cork, and keep it in a cool, dry place, till fit for use, which 
 will be in about six months. 
 
 Mayonnaise, which is now so much used for salads, fish, 
 etc., is rather a difficult sauce to manipulate, so that the 
 following may be useful to amateur cooks : Beat the yolks 
 of six eggs with six table spoonfuls of broth, six tablespoon- 
 fuls of best salad oil, one tablespoonful and a half of vinegar, 
 and a good pinch of salt, in a narrow bowl, until all is well 
 mixed and smooth. Place the bowl into a pan with boiling 
 water over a slow fire, beating the mixture briskly with an 
 egg whisk until it becomes stiffened, so that it can be easily 
 
CONDIMENTS 167 
 
 spread over the salad, taking care that it does not get hard, 
 and that no water boils into it. If more acidity is desired, 
 add some lemon juice. 
 
 It would be impossible even to name the innumerable 
 sauces and condiments deemed necessary in the kitchens 
 of the present day to add flavour and piquancy to modern 
 dishes. Instead of the pints of wine and brandy, the 
 ambergris, saffron, and rose water of the last century, we 
 get delicate sauces compounded of a soup9on of a score of 
 different ingredients carefully mixed. There are, however, 
 certain old sauces which have never been superseded, such 
 as mushroom and walnut catsups; and it may be safely 
 asserted that a good housewife, anxious to tickle the palate 
 of her lord and master, and her guests, both male and 
 female, will see that her store-closet is well supplied not 
 only with such universal condiments as salt, pepper whole 
 and ground, vinegar, and mustard, but also with cayenne, 
 ginger, cloves, allspice, cinnamon, garlic, shalots, a large 
 variety of potherbs, especially mint, thyme, sage, marjoram, 
 celery seed and celery salt, chili and tarragon vinegar, curry- 
 powder, chutneys, anchovies and anchovy sauce, tomato, 
 mushroom, and walnut catsups, Worcester sauce, soy, 
 Harvey sauce, almonds, pistachio nuts, and various 
 essences and flavourings such as lemon, ratafia, and vanilla, 
 as well as all kinds of pickles, preserves, and jellies. A 
 tolerably long list, but far from exhaustive; whilst the 
 gardener must be called upon to supply fresh vegetables 
 and salads, and the fishmonger to provide lobsters, shrimps, 
 and oysters for sauces, as, although all three may be kept 
 stored in tins, they are infinitely better fresh. 
 
PART III 
 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 Unions foill ntafte e'en f^eirs or TOtrotos beep. 
 STfje tenner 3Leitice brings on softer sleep. 
 (Corntoal Squaft^ge anfc IBeijon SSEfjite^pot ortngs, 
 Hctster i3eans anti 33acon JFooli of Isttngs.' 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 NUTS AND APPLES 
 
 OF all the fruits of the earth, perhaps nuts are the most 
 important and the most highly appreciated, for every part 
 of the world has one or more, forming a great portion of the 
 food of the people. 
 
 Of course, in civilised countries nuts do not hold so 
 important a position as in uncivilised, for with the growth 
 of civilisation comes luxury, and with luxury a variety of 
 food brought from all parts. But in early times nuts were 
 in especial request, as may be seen by referring to almost all 
 archaeological discoveries j for wherever pre-historic human 
 remains are discovered in Europe, there the hazel-nut is 
 almost always found. The hazel tree was largely used in 
 divination, and is still employed by those who profess to 
 discover water by means of the divining-rod. 
 
 Among the relics of the Swiss lake-dwellers, the beech- 
 nut and the water chestnut are found, as well as the hazel- 
 nut, all three having been used as food ; but the hazel-nuts 
 found among pre-historic relics have probably been used 
 in some sort of religious or superstitious rites, a remnant 
 of which is found in the Hallowe'en festival (October 31), at 
 which time, even now, in many parts of England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, and the Isle of Man (but more particularly in the 
 two latter), when a young girl wishes to know whether her 
 
 171 
 
172 OUR VIANDS 
 
 lovers are faithful, she takes three nuts and places them on 
 the bars of the grate, naming two after her lovers and the 
 middle one for herself. If a nut pops and jumps, the 
 lover represented by that nut is unfaithful, but if the nuts 
 named after the girl and her favoured lover burn together, 
 they will be married. Burns's poem on c Halloween ' 
 describes this country custom so well, that we will quote 
 a couple of verses : 
 
 ' The auld guidwife's weel-hoordit nits 
 
 Are round and round divided, 
 And mony lads' and lasses' fates 
 Are there that night decided : 
 Some kindle couthie, side by side, 
 
 And burn thegither trimly ; 
 Some start awa' wi' saucy pride, 
 And jump out owre the chimlie 
 Fu' high that night. 
 
 Jean slips in twa wi' tentie e'e ; 
 
 Wha 'twas she wudna tell ; 
 But this is Jock, and this is me, 
 
 She says in to hersel : 
 He bleezed owre her, and she owre him, 
 
 As they wad never mair part ; 
 Till, fuff! he started up the lum, 
 
 And Jean had e'en a sair heart 
 To see 't that night.' 
 
 The hazel-nut grows abundantly in woods throughout the 
 British Isles, and it is one of the delights of autumn to 
 form nutting parties, with hooked sticks, to pull down the 
 branches, and bags, to carry home the ripe fruit to store 
 for winter use. The squirrel has taught us that nuts stored 
 underground retain their freshness for a long time, but we 
 may also assure our readers, from observation, that nuts 
 
NUTS AND APPLES 173 
 
 put in an empty jar which has held spirit, and corked 
 tightly, will keep beautifully fresh for months, in a cool place. 
 
 The. filbert is a cultivated variety of the hazel-nut, and so 
 also is the cob-nut, which is extensively grown in Kent, 
 and is the largest kind. But it is not equal in flavour to 
 the filbert, which name is a corruption of the old English 
 TL&mtfuU-btard, from the long fringed husk. 
 
 Next to the hazel-nut and its varieties which include the 
 Constantinople nut, the American nut, and those brought 
 over kiln-dried from Spain the chestnut probably ranks 
 second in importance in Europe as food for man. In Italy 
 and Spain the chestnut groves yield food much appreciated 
 by the lower orders, who not only eat it in its natural state, 
 but also make it into meal ; and a pudding made of this 
 meal, under the name of polenda dolce, is sold in the 
 streets of Italy, and forms a staple food of the Italian 
 peasants. The sweet chestnut, although it will grow in 
 England, and even in Scotland, and produce eatable fruit, 
 is not largely cultivated at present, although it appears to 
 have been one of the trees introduced by the Romans, for 
 it is found among the relics unearthed at Rushmore by 
 General Pitt-Rivers. The ornamental horse-chestixut, red 
 and white, is one of the best known trees of our parks, and 
 we often wonder that some use has not been found for the 
 abundant nuts it produces, which are too acrid even for the 
 taste of children, who delight in them as playthings. These 
 nuts were formerly used in washing instead of soap, and 
 have lately been made into soap, which is especially useful 
 for coloured garments ; and we are told that a portion of 
 the flour of these nuts added to common flour improves its 
 quality. 
 
174 OUR VIANDS 
 
 The walnut, which is very valuable as a timber tree, is 
 also useful in many other ways, the green fruit being used 
 for pickling, and the green outer skin for dyeing, for which 
 purpose the gipsies employed it largely, centuries ago. It 
 is now sometimes used as a hair dye, but the fruit is the 
 product most highly and generally esteemed. It is too well 
 known to need description, but there is one way in which it 
 is prepared on the Continent which might be easily carried 
 out wherever walnuts are abundant. In Italy, they take 
 and peel the fresh walnut, dividing it into quarters, which 
 are stuck on small white sticks and dipped into melted 
 barley sugar. The Venetians treat other fruits, such as the 
 almond and orange, in the same manner, but none equal 
 the walnut in flavour. 
 
 The hickory nut, so much talked of in American books, 
 is a species of walnut, but not equal in flavour to the 
 European. 
 
 In the early spring the almond forms the chief ornament 
 of our gardens, with its bright pink blossoms on a leafless 
 stem, respecting which Moore writes : 
 
 ' The hope, in dreams, of a happier hour, 
 
 That alights on misery's brow 
 Springs out of the silvery almond flower 
 That blooms on a leafless bough. ' 
 
 The almond does not come to perfection in our cold 
 climate. It is a native of the East, and was considered one 
 of the most important of the products of Palestine. In 
 Rome it was known as the Greek nut. The almond is 
 much used in cookery ; the oil of the bitter almond is a 
 powerful poison, but in very small quantities it is useful for 
 flavouring. 
 
NUTS AND APPLES 175 
 
 When we journey into tropical regions we find a great 
 many very tough, but extremely valuable, nuts to crack, 
 and first and foremost is the cocoanut, which is the prin- 
 cipal food and wealth of the natives of the South Sea 
 Islands, the tree itself (Cocos miciferd] serving all the 
 multifarious uses of the household. It forms the timber of 
 the huts, the leaves are used for thatch, the fibre for mats 
 and ropes, the nuts for eating, the shells for drinking and 
 cooking utensils ; the milky juice in the nut forms a pleasant 
 drink, and in the East Indies, toddy and arrack are extracted 
 from the tree. 
 
 Latterly the cocoanut has become a favourite ingredient 
 for cakes, puddings, and biscuits, but it always appears 
 indigestible, probably because not used when quite fresh. 
 The oil extracted from the nut has also many uses, but it 
 quickly becomes rancid. Each cocoa palm yields about a 
 hundred nuts, and it may be readily understood that a grove 
 of these trees would be of extreme value in the tropical 
 countries which produce them. Two of these graceful 
 cocoa palms may be seen growing in the gardens of the 
 Due de Rochefoucault, at Cannes, but, like the other palms, 
 they do not thrive and bear fruit in Europe. 
 
 The Brazil nut, although well known as a fruit, is not so 
 much used in this country as the other nuts we have men- 
 tioned, and few people are aware that these triangular nuts 
 are the contents of a large outer shell of extreme hardness, 
 which forms a nut as large as a child's head, within which 
 the Brazil nuts of commerce are tightly packed, sometimes 
 to the number of fifteen to twenty or more. Humboldt 
 described this nut as one of the most extraordinary fruits of 
 South America. It grows on a tree 120 feet high, and at 
 
i;6 OUR VIANDS 
 
 the time of ripening the natives dare not enter the woods 
 where they grow without a wooden buckler over the head, 
 lest they should be killed by the falling nuts. The monkeys 
 are said to unite to break the shell with stones, and the 
 Indians hold a feast at the ingathering, which they say is 
 the feast of animals as well as of men. The fall of the ripe 
 nut from so great a height is, it may be supposed, generally 
 sufficient to break it, otherwise it must be a very hard nut 
 to crack even for men ; but, besides the reputed breaking 
 by the Capuchin apes, the Cavia aguti is said to be able to 
 gnaw through the shell and eat the nuts. 
 
 Another very hard-shelled nut, the butter nut of the West 
 Indies, known locally as the Souari nut, was brought over 
 among the products of. Guiana at the Colonial and Indian 
 Exhibition, and when fresh is a most delicious nut, eating 
 like rich cream, but I suspect that it very frequently becomes 
 rancid when old, otherwise it would seem a fruit well suited 
 for exportation. 
 
 The cashew nut, also a product of the West Indies, 
 strongly resembles the walnut, and is much used in flavouring 
 various dishes. In India and the Philippine Islands it is 
 roasted in the husk and eaten with salt, and the husk itself 
 produces an indelible stain used in the manufacture of 
 marking ink, and also for burning warts and ulcers. 
 
 The pistachio nut, now so much used, comes to us from 
 Persia and from Western Africa, which is rich in nuts of 
 various kinds, and these nuts, with the oil extracted from 
 them, form a very important branch of commerce. The 
 chief of these are palm nuts and ground nuts, the oil from 
 the latter being often sold as olive oil. 
 
 The nut of the poisonous palm, Cycas media> is eaten by 
 
NUTS AND APPLES 177 
 
 the Australian natives, after the kernel has been subjected 
 to much pounding and soaking in water, a process which 
 I have pointed out in Chapter III. as that adopted by 
 many savages in the case of poisonous plants, such as the 
 manioc. The porridge made from these roasted and 
 pounded nuts, which is called Kadjera, forms the chief food 
 of the Australian natives from October to December, when 
 other fruits come in. 
 
 The acorn, which was formerly eaten in Britain, had 
 to be prepared in the same manner before it could be 
 made palatable, but we are told that acorns were 
 esteemed delicacies among the Arcadians and Spaniards, 
 and Pliny says the latter eat them as dessert, roasted 
 in wood ashes. Acorns, like beech-nuts and horse- 
 chestnuts, are now consigned to pigs, goats, deer, sheep, 
 and poultry. 
 
 Next to nuts, we may perhaps place apples as the fruit 
 of greatest value, at all events in temperate climates. In 
 the extreme north the apple is unknown, and in the tropics 
 it is supplanted by more luscious fruits. ' An apple a day 
 keeps the doctor away,' says the proverb, and there can 
 be no doubt that in temperate climes the apple, from its 
 excellent hygienic and keeping qualities, ranks first in 
 usefulness. It has a very extensive range, for it is found 
 apparently wild in Persia and Syria, in Africa, and through- 
 out the continent of Europe. In Great Britain the crab 
 or wild apple is very frequently referred to by old writers, 
 and roasted crabs were always the accompaniment to the 
 Christmas wassail bowl; but when the art of grafting became 
 known the crab was soon supplanted by a great variety 
 of excellent apples brought, probably, in the first place from 
 
 M 
 
1 78 OUR VIANDS 
 
 France, as their names testify, ai}d cultivated largely by the 
 monks. It is greatly to be regretted that these famous 
 old sorts, such as the nonpareil, the rennet, and the codlin, 
 have been allowed to die out or to degenerate, for they 
 are scarcely equalled in flavour by the innumerable varieties 
 of modern times, and it is also matter of regret that 
 English apples should have been supplanted of late years 
 in the London market by foreign consignments, chiefly 
 American, and yet those who have visited the late 
 exhibitions and congresses of fruit-growers would hardly 
 suppose that the cultivation of this favourite old English 
 fruit was on the wane; the innumerable varieties exhibited 
 at the Mansion House in 1890, and at the Horticultural 
 Exhibition this year, and the crowds assembled to gaze 
 upon and admire with longing eyes and watering mouths 
 the juicy fruit displayed, seemed to show a great revival 
 of interest in British apples and pears, but as I overheard 
 a grower remark of some of the splendid fruit exhibited, 
 'This is all very well for exhibition, but it would not 
 pay to grow, for a tree could not carry a bushel of 
 such fruit';' added to which our uncertain climate always 
 renders fruit of any kind a precarious crop, and a 
 good apple season seldom comes oftener than once in 
 three years, so that we are obliged to resort to America 
 and our colonies to supply the deficiency in years of 
 scarcity, and this so lowers the market price as to render 
 a good crop unprofitable to the English grower, although 
 I believe most housekeepers are willing to pay more for 
 English than for foreign apples, as being of better flavour 
 and more juicy. 
 
 The common tradition that the apple was the forbidden 
 
NUTS AND APPLES 179 
 
 fruit, with which Eve was tempted, shows at all events 
 the pre-eminence of the fruit in the esteem of ancient 
 gastronomers, although the much lamented General Gordon 
 was not only heterodox enough to locate the Garden of Eden 
 in the Seychelle Islands, but also to recognise as the for- 
 bidden fruit the great double cocoa-nut, which certainly 
 would have required some assistance, Satanic or other, to 
 break it before eating. 
 
 There are several other fruits which bear the name of 
 apple, but which are in no way related to the well known 
 orchard fruit. First of these comes the pine-apple, grown to 
 perfection by careful cultivation in English hothouses. It 
 is said to have been introduced into England in the reign 
 of Charles II. It was certainly known earlier in Holland, 
 and was probably first brought from America or the West 
 Indies, of which it is supposed to be a native; but it 
 is found also wild in Asia and both on the west and 
 east coasts of Africa, where many varieties are found. 
 Those sold commonly in the streets of London come 
 mostly from the West Indies, but in tinned fruit that from 
 Singapore is the best 
 
 The custard apple which is now frequently met with in 
 fruiterers' shops is a tropical fruit, found in Asia, Africa, and 
 America. There are several species of custard apple ; that 
 best known looks somewhat like an artichoke, but when 
 the rind is removed a soft pulp is found which resembles 
 sweet cream with the scent of a rose; this is known as the 
 sweet-sop, whilst another and coarser variety is called the 
 sour-sop, and is said to resemble the black currant in 
 flavour and scent. Two other species of custard apple are 
 sometimes seen, one is the alligator apple, which is a 
 
j8o OUR VIANDS 
 
 strong narcotic, and the other the cherimoyer, much praised 
 by Humboldt; it is an American fruit, and very little 
 known in England.* 
 
 Then there is the mammee apple of the West Indie?, 
 which somewhat resembles a large russet apple, the pulp is 
 very delicious and is compared to a fine ripe apricot, but 
 the rind and seeds are bitter and resinous. 
 
 The star apple, which is also a West Indian fruit, 
 resembles a large apple externally, but the interior is divided 
 into ten cells, each containing a black seed set in a gela- 
 tinous pulp. 
 
 The quince, which is regarded by some antiquaries as the 
 golden apple of the Hesperides, resembles a pear in shape, 
 but the common sort grown in our gardens is not eatable 
 raw, although it makes a delicious marmalade, and, in fact, 
 is the origin of the name, as the Portuguese name for quince 
 is marmelo. The quince is eaten raw in South Africa and 
 perhaps in China and other eastern countries, but the fruit 
 must be a different variety from that grown in England. 
 The tree is extensively used in France as a stock for 
 grafting pears. 
 
 The pear, which botanically is nearly related to the apple, 
 is one of the most delicious fruits grown, and the modem 
 varieties are innumerable, yet in flavour none can excel the 
 old varieties known as beurries^ jargonelles^ chaumontelles, 
 etc., all of which show a French origin. Jersey is now 
 famous for pears, and they are grown of immense size there, 
 as also in many of our colonies, but none seem to attain the 
 
 * For many particulars relating to fruits and vegetables I am indebted 
 to a little book entitled ' Vegetable Substances used for the Food of 
 Man,' published in 1846. 
 
NUTS AND APPLES 181 
 
 weight of those seen by Marco Polo in China, which 
 weighed ten pounds each, and were yet of excellent flavour. 
 The Romans are said to have introduced this fruit into 
 England, and it was certainly very anciently cultivated in 
 Greece, for it is named by Homer. 
 
 Of apples and their kindred we need only mention further 
 the Siberian crab, which used to be cultivated in its two 
 varieties of yellow and red, chiefly for the beauty of the 
 flowers and fruit, which latter is not of much value except as 
 a preserve. The red variety with the stems attached, lightly 
 boiled in a rich syrup, makes a very ornamental dessert 
 dish, and is well flavoured ; but the core is large in propor- 
 tion to the pulp. 
 
 The medlar, like the quince, cannot be eaten as it comes 
 from the tree; but when suffered to decay, the flavour is 
 very fine, and an excellent jelly, resembling guava, may be 
 made from it. The small fruit is much superior in flavour 
 to the large variety, but it is one of those fruits which is 
 less cultivated and esteemed than formerly, having been 
 supplanted by others which now reach our shores from 
 many distant lands. 
 
 Apples were formerly much used in old English sports 
 and were always ducked for by the girls and boys on 
 Halloween, causing great merriment and much dabbling 
 in water, which would now be thought hurtful. But there 
 was another sport indulged in, wherein a stick with an 
 apple at one end and a lighted candle at the other being 
 tied up to the ceiling, was jumped at, the lucky jumper 
 catching the apple, whilst the awkward or unlucky, found 
 himself burnt by the lighted candle. The apple also entered 
 into another old superstitious ceremony of Halloween, for 
 
1 82 OUR VIANDS 
 
 it was believed that if a young woman on that night ate an 
 apple in front of a looking-glass, her future husband would 
 appear and look over her shoulder, regarding which custom 
 Burns makes an old grandmother thus reprove her grand- 
 child : 
 
 ' Ye little skelpie-limmer's face ! 
 
 I daur you try sic sportin', 
 As seek the foul thief ony place, 
 
 For him to spae your fortune ; v 
 Nae doubt but ye may get a sight ! 
 
 Great cause ye hae to fear it ; 
 For mony a ane has gotten a flight, 
 And lived and died deleeret, 
 On sic a night.' 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 GRAPES, FIGS, AND ORANGES 
 
 How is it that we always think of the grape rather as a 
 wine-producer than as a fruit ? Perhaps because the earliest 
 historical record of it is when Noah began to be a husband- 
 man and planted a vineyard, and, instead of being content, 
 as so good a man should have been, to eat the fruit of his 
 vines in a rational way, or to press out the pure juice into 
 his cup as the temperance people, had they then been 
 living, would have persuaded him was the only true wine 
 he set to work to make experiments, and, as people do 
 under such circumstances, got bemuddled over them, until 
 he did not know exactly what he was about, and hence the 
 vine has been associated with wine, and the juice of the 
 grape with drunkenness, ever since. 
 
 And yet the grape as a fruit is excellent, as we all know, 
 and the great luscious bunches which hang in our green-houses 
 are tempting in the extreme; but these are only produced at 
 a cost which puts them beyond the reach of the million^ and 
 fits them only for a place on the table of the millionaire. 
 
 In countries where grapes grow with little care, the ripe 
 clusters are gathered and eaten as required, and the rest 
 are thrown into the wine vat, for it is a fruit which will not 
 bear much handling and packing, although of late years it 
 
 183 
 
1 84 OUR VIANDS 
 
 has been found possible to pack the ripe bunches in barrels, 
 filling up the interstices with sawdust or with cork- dust, and 
 thus the London market is supplied all the year round with 
 a fruit always grateful to the palate, especially of invalids, 
 at a ridiculously low price. The best qualities of these 
 foreign grapes seldom exceed a shilling a pound, and they 
 are sometimes to be had for fourpence. Most of these 
 grapes come from Lisbon, but some were sent over from 
 Australia during the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, and 
 arrived in good condition. 
 
 It seems a pity that in lands so remote, the superabundant 
 grapes should not be converted into raisins, and sent to us 
 in that form, for grapes au naturel are of no use in the 
 kitchen ; but the dried grapes, both raisins and currants, 
 are indispensable. Where would be our country's boast, 
 sent all over the world now the Christmas plum pudding 
 if we could not get raisins and currants ? What dismay 
 there would be amongst our cooks, if the markets of Malaga 
 and Valencia were closed to us ! And yet we have seen 
 raisins from Cape Colony and Natal equal to any of these.* 
 Why do they not send us more of them, and of dessert fruit, 
 too, muscatels dried on the stalk, which, with almonds, 
 blanched or not, are the delight of all children, and not 
 despised by those of more mature age, for we have seen 
 grey-haired men discuss a dish of them with considerable 
 relish, without thinking much of Tommy's disgust at finding 
 the dish empty. 
 
 * Two Australian colonies, of which the chief is Milcura in Victoria, 
 have lately been formed for the cultivation and drying of raisins, figs, 
 apricots, peaches, etc., so that we may soon hope to have sun-dried 
 fruit in the market, from the Antipodes. 
 
GRAPES, FIGS, AND ORANGES 185 
 
 Greatly as grapes are esteemed and valued, especially by 
 invalids, it would seem possible to have too much of them 
 sometimes, as those know who have been ordered to Meran 
 in the Tyrol, to undergo that celebrated grape-cure, wherein 
 the patient, beginning with a pound or two a day, has to 
 increase the dose to nine or ten pounds, of course eating 
 nothing else. It might be supposed that such a regimen 
 would not only cure the patient of his disease, but would 
 so disgust him with grapes that he would never eat another, 
 but it is said people have been known to return again and 
 again for the grape-cure. 
 
 Dried raisins bring us naturally to another favourite 
 dessert fruit dried Turkey figs, as they are called, although 
 they certainly do not all now come from Turkey, whatever 
 may have been the case originally, but the Smyrna brand is 
 still regarded as the best. 
 
 The fig, quite unlike the grape, is grown only as a fruit, 
 and a very delicious fruit it is, too, when ripened under a 
 good hot sun ; but in England, although the fig will thrive 
 and bear fruit, it always appears to us wanting in flavour 
 and in lusciousness. Singularly enough, the fig tree will 
 flourish and grow to an immense size, even in the dirt and 
 smoke of London. There is one house, close to the 
 Foundling Hospital, which is covered to the very top with 
 a fig tree of most luxuriant growth, but I have never seen 
 any fruit upon it. The fig tree is said to have been first 
 introduced into England by* Cardinal Pole, but it was 
 probably known here long before his day, for there are 
 many historical fig trees, and one is spoken of as an old 
 tree in the time of James I.; it grew in the Dean's garden, 
 Winchester, and bore small red figs, and on the stone wall 
 
1 86 OUR VIANDS 
 
 near was an inscription to the effect that in 1623 King 
 James I. tasted of the fruit with great pleasure. We, how- 
 ever, certainly do not much relish the ripe fig in this 
 country ; it has, in fact, passed into a term of contempt 
 ' I don't care a fig for it.' But very different is the estima- 
 tion in which it is held in the East, and in the south of 
 Europe. The constant references to it in the Bible prove 
 how important it was considered by the Israelites, the two 
 or even three crops a-year produced by fig trees in the East, 
 causing it to be looked upon as a staple food, the failure 
 of which meant famine. The first of these crops comes to 
 maturity about June, whilst the second is forming ; it is the 
 second which is dried for export, and then in some climates 
 a third crop appears, which hangs and ripens on the tree 
 after the leaves are shed. 
 
 The fig entered largely into the food of the Greeks, for, 
 when Lycurgus ordained that the Spartans should dine in a 
 common hall, almost everyone contributed wine, cheese, and 
 figs to the fare. Those who have not studied the origin of 
 words will be surprised to hear that our word sycophant 
 comes from two Greek words signifying 'a fig' and 'to 
 show/ and that in its original meaning it was applied to 
 those who informed against the breakers of an edict made 
 by the Athenians against the export of figs, and, even as 
 used by our older writers, sycophant means a tale bearer. 
 The French still use the word in the sense of liar and 
 impostor, instead of flatterer only. 
 
 The present importation of dried figs into Great Britain 
 must be enormous. Many years ago, from Turkey only, 
 it amounted to nine hundred tons annually, besides those 
 coming from France, Italy, and Spain. 
 
GRAPES, FIGS, AND ORANGES 187 
 
 The fig enters very little into recipes for cooking it is 
 too luscious and devoid of pungency ; but I have tasted 
 green figs from the Cape, preserved in bottles, which are 
 excellent, although the peculiar, resinous flavour would 
 perhaps not quite suit everybody's palate. There seems no 
 good reason why this should not be added to our list of 
 English preserves. Thousands of green figs are allowed to 
 drop off the trees year after year, which might thus be 
 utilised and rendered valuable, especially in seasons of 
 scarcity of other fruits. 
 
 A writer in 1846 estimated that 272,000,000 oranges 
 were imported annually into Great Britain, allowing about 
 a dozen to every individual, and adds : * This extraordinary 
 consumption of a product which is brought here from 
 very distant places, is a natural consequence of certain 
 qualities which fit the orange in a remarkable degree for 
 being the universal fruit of commerce. If we would have 
 foreign figs and grapes, they must be dried, for the undried 
 grapes which we bring even from the short distance of 
 Portugal are flat and vapid; the tamarind is a liquid 
 preserve; the guava must be made into a jelly; the mango 
 destined for us requires to be pulled before it is ripe, and 
 is pickled; the date must be dried, and the cocoa-nut 
 becomes, when here, consolidated and indigestible. But 
 the orange, man may have fresh in every region of the 
 world, and at almost every season of the year. The 
 aromatic oil and the rind, preserve it from the effects 
 both of heat and cold, and the acridity of the former 
 renders it proof against the attacks of insects. It is 
 true that oranges rot like other fruits, but that does not 
 happen for a long time if the rind is uninjured and 
 
1 88 OUR VIANDS 
 
 they are kept from moisture, and so ventilated as not 
 to ferment.' * 
 
 With the improved means of transport since the above 
 was written the import of oranges must have increased 
 enormously, so that now it would be almost impossible to 
 estimate the number imported, although the tonnage might 
 perhaps be found by reference to the Board of Trade 
 returns. It is, however, sufficient for our purpose to know 
 that now, all the year round, oranges and lemons may be 
 bought at a penny a-piece, and often at three or four a 
 penny, whilst only a few years ago they could scarcely be 
 eaten before Christmas, and were not to be had after June. 
 Nevertheless, the facility with which they are now conveyed, 
 even from Australia, does not tend to the perfection of the 
 fruit, inferior sorts being thrown on the market, because of 
 their abundance, to the partial exclusion of those which 
 require greater care in cultivation and in packing. The 
 St. Michael prince of oranges is now seldom to be seen, 
 whilst thick-skinned, coarse-grained, and bitterish-flavoured 
 varieties are foisted upon the purchaser as equally good. 
 Very few people are good judges of oranges in the fruiterers' 
 shops : they look to size and darkness of skin, instead of 
 weight, fineness and delicacy of skin, with medium size, which 
 are the points of excellence in an orange. The genuine St. 
 Michael is flattish, pale in colour, and destitute of pips, whereas 
 that sold for it, is full of pips, and pale only because unripe. 
 
 The orange requires abundance of heat and sun to bring 
 it to perfection, and therefore cannot be cultivated success- 
 fully in Northern Europe ; the trees may, indeed, be grown 
 in tubs in greenhouses, and will produce fruit, but the fruit 
 * 'The Food of Man, 'p. 79. 
 
GRAPES, FIGS, AND OAANGES 189 
 
 is not good. Even in the south of France and Northern 
 Italy the orange is never met with in 'perfection, although 
 the trees will grow luxuriantly in the open air, and bear 
 abundant fruit ; but it is cultivated there chiefly for the rind, 
 from which the essential oil is extracted which is so 
 much used in the manufacture of perfumes. The streets in 
 the south of France are frequently festooned with orange 
 peel to be dried for this purpose, whilst women and children 
 sit at their doors peeling oranges as we should peel potatoes, 
 the fruit divested of its peel being used for making citric 
 acid, so useful both in the kitchen and the laboratory. The 
 orange trees in the south of France are cut and trimmed 
 till they resemble nothing so much as the trees out of a 
 child's Noah's ark, but in South Italy they are allowed 
 more liberty, and the miles of orange groves about Sorrento 
 are beautiful with loads of golden fruit, and fragrant at the 
 same time.with the lovely blossom. There, too, it is a pretty 
 sight to see the peasant women and girls, in their bright 
 costumes, tripping down to the coast with large trays on their 
 heads laden with half-green oranges and lemons ready to 
 be packed for exportation, for the fruit must be gathered 
 before it is quite ripe, or it would not bear the carriage. 
 
 In Spain, Southern Italy, and Sicily the orange comes 
 to perfection, but the far East is looked upon as its 
 native habitat, and the Arabs are credited with the intro- 
 duction of this valuable fruit to the West. According to 
 Galessio, the Arabs penetrated farther into India than 
 Alexander the Great, and found there various kinds of 
 oranges growing, and they brought them thence by two 
 routes the sweet ones, known as China oranges, through 
 Persia and Syria, and thence to Italy and the south of 
 
190 OUR VIANDS 
 
 France ; and the bitter or Seville oranges by Arabia, Egypt, 
 and the north of Africa to Spain. But it is thought that 
 the sweet orange introduced by the Arabs was not the 
 variety known as St. Michael's, but rather that still 
 cultivated in Italy. The St. Michael orange was brought 
 direct from China by the Portuguese, who sent it from 
 Portugal to the Azores, whilst the Spaniards are credited 
 with having introduced it to America. Humboldt found 
 wild oranges growing in a forest in America, but they are 
 not believed to be indigenous to that continent, although 
 at present they are cultivated there with great success, the 
 orange groves of Florida, California, and other Western 
 States being very extensive. 
 
 Oranges grow and thrive wonderfully in South Africa, 
 where they are supposed to have been introduced by the 
 Portuguese, but the early Portuguese navigators speak of 
 them as growing on the eastern coast ; and it is a singular 
 fact that the Chartered Company of British South Africa 
 found miles of wild orange trees growing in Manicaland, 
 with many other fruits not supposed to be indigenous. The 
 orange found would seem, from the description given of it, 
 to be quite an unknown species, and one which may prove 
 of great value. One of the pioneers writes : ' Riding 
 along we came to groves of wild orange trees, laden with 
 ripe fruit of a yellow colour; the fruit is encased in a 
 hardish shell ; inside it has the appearance of an over-ripe 
 sweet melon ; the flavour is a combination of sweet melon, 
 pine-apple, and orange, and is very nice eating.' 
 
 Oranges have been divided into eight species, known as 
 sweet oranges, bitter oranges, bergamots, limes, pampelucos, 
 sweet limes, lemons, and citrons, and of each of these there 
 
GRAPES, FIGS, AND ORANGES 191 
 
 are numerous varieties. The variety known as the blood 
 orange, which comes from Malta, is said to derive its colour 
 from being grafted on the pomegranate. 
 
 The lemon is a more delicate tree than the orange, and 
 requires more warmth ; it will not flourish in the south of 
 France, except at Mentone, which has given rise to an 
 interesting legend. They say when Eve was driven out of 
 Paradise she managed to carry away with her two or three 
 of her favourite fruits, and among them the lemon : with 
 these she wandered over the earth till she came to Mentone, 
 where, finding the climate and the soil so much resembled 
 the lost Eden, she planted the lemon, which has grown and 
 flourished ever since. 
 
 What the cook would now do without lemons we can 
 hardly surmise : they seem an indispensable adjunct to so 
 many savoury dishes, and are become so plentiful that it is 
 no uncommon thing to hear them hawked about the streets 
 of London at three or four a penny. The lime, on the 
 contrary, is very seldom seen, although lime-juice cordial 
 has long been used as a beverage, and the little island of 
 Montserrat has become famous for the production of this 
 useful fruit, the juice of which seems indispensable, where 
 vegetables cannot be obtained, and the lack of which has 
 so often caused the decimation by scurvy of the crews of 
 vessels engaged in Arctic exploration. 
 
 The citron is chiefly known to us by the preserved peel, 
 which forms such a delicious condiment for cakes, Christmas 
 puddings, and mince pies. 
 
 The Shaddock, so called in honour of the ship captain 
 who introduced it into the West Indies from China, is now 
 little valued, although in China, its native habitat, it is 
 
192 OUR VIANDS 
 
 known as the ' sweet ball.' We occasionally see it in the 
 market, as well as its near relative the pomelo, but the 
 bitterness of the rind prevents its becoming a popular fruit. 
 On the contrary, the little Mandarin orange, called narije 
 at the Cape, the rind of which is so highly perfumed, has of 
 late years been very freely imported chiefly from Malta 
 and Spain, from which latter country we also receive the 
 bitter Seville, so valuable for many purposes, and especially 
 for making that favourite adj unct to the breakfast table 
 orange marmalade of which many tons must be consumed 
 annually. 
 
 We have by no means exhausted the uses of the varieties 
 of the orange family, which are as valuable medicinally as 
 in a culinary sense, and seem to bear out the Mentone 
 legend that they were brought originally from the Garden of 
 Eden. Undoubtedly they 'are all natives of the far East, 
 and the probability is that they were indigenous in India 
 and China, and were introduced into Africa in very early 
 times by traders, possibly Chinese, although Galessio believes 
 them to have been brought originally from India by the 
 Arabs; and it is pointed out that they were apparently 
 unknown to Pliny and other early naturalists. 
 
 All the varieties now grow in perfection at the Cape, in 
 the West Indies, Australia, and America in fact, wherever 
 there is abundance of warmth and sun ; and with care 
 they will live to the age of three hundred years, even in 
 England, there being some at Hampton Court said to be of 
 that age, but the fruit will not compare with that of foreign 
 climates, for these golden apples of the Hesperides require 
 the sun-dragon to guard them from frost and blight, and to 
 bring them to perfection. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 
 
 PRUDENT folks are always impressing the fact upon juveniles 
 that stone fruits are unwholesome, but what boy or girl can 
 resist the cry of * Cherry Ripe ! ' or avoid the luscious 
 plum, and the still more luscious apricot, peach, or nec- 
 tarine, when it falls in his or her way ? Indeed, we do 
 not believe that even the most prudent of mothers can 
 always be proof against the temptation of these much- 
 maligned delicacies. 
 
 As regards apricots, peaches, and nectarines, we in 
 England are never likely to get a surfeit of either, for they 
 cost too much to grow in this part of the world, ever to 
 become a food for the million. In truth, there are millions 
 who probably never taste a peach, or a nectarine j and 
 although apricots are more plentiful, being imported, half 
 ripe, in boxes from France, yet these are also too dear for 
 poor people to buy, and when bought are not satisfactory, 
 the flavour being poor compared with the ripe Moor Park 
 apricot grown on a sunny wall in England. The envy of 
 the British youth is great when he hears that in America, 
 and in South Africa and Australia, pigs are fed upon 
 peaches, and he wishes they would just send some of them 
 
 over here j but, in truth, these fruits are too delicate for 
 
 ies N 
 
194 OUR VIANDS 
 
 export, unless bottled or dried, although a consignment of 
 peaches has recently arrived from South Africa in excellent 
 condition, packed each in a separate compartment like eggs, 
 and wrapped in cotton wool. Many of these fruits come 
 to us in tins and bottles from America, but they seem to 
 lose flavour in the process, and will never take the place 
 of the highly-cultivated wall-fruits of England at the tables 
 of the rich, although convenient as a substitute, when the 
 superior article is deficient or out of season. The best 
 mode of importing these fruits is in a dried form especially 
 in the case of apricots. The colonists of the Cape prepare 
 apricots in various ways : one called ' meibos ' known also 
 as ' matrimony,' from being sour and sweet is very good. 
 The fruit is, as it were, crystallised by being dipped in a 
 strong ley, dried in the sun, and then laid in sugar ; but 
 this is never seen in England, except when brought over 
 by individuals as a present to friends. We have seen and 
 tasted another preparation of this fruit, and of peaches, in 
 the form of paste. The fruit is peeled, slightly boiled 
 without water, mashed, and spread out very thin on buttered 
 boards or sheets of paper, dried in the sun, and folded up 
 like paper, forming a pleasant refreshment in travelling, or 
 at any time when a little fruit is desired and not otherwise 
 obtainable. 
 
 It need hardly be said that all these fruits, although 
 brought to great perfection by careful cultivation in England, 
 are natives of sunnier climes. The peach and nectarine, 
 which are so closely allied as to be virtually the same fruit 
 although one has a smooth coat and the other a rough 
 one belong to the same botanical family as the almond, 
 and are supposed to have been brought originally from 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 195 
 
 Persia by the Romans. The peach has been cultivated in 
 England since the sixteenth century, and seems to have 
 been introduced wherever civilised man has appeared. The 
 natives of South Africa are indebted to the traveller Burchell 
 for it, he having given a bag of peach stones as the best 
 present he could think of, to the chief of the Bachapins, 
 upon which he remarks, ' Nor did I fail to impress on his 
 mind a just idea of their value and nature, by telling him 
 that they would produce trees which would continue every 
 year to yield, without further trouble, abundance of large 
 fruit of a more agreeable flavour than any which grew in 
 the country of the Bachapins.' Whether the natives appre- 
 ciated the wisdom of the benevolent traveller in making 
 this gift to them, and whether they continue to cultivate 
 the fruit, is not known ; but the colonists of South Africa 
 generally do so largely, finding the tree very easily reared 
 and the fruit excellent. It is not, however, indigenous to 
 South Africa, although a small apricot is found growing 
 wild there. 
 
 The country recently traversed by the pioneer force of 
 the Chartered Company would seem at one time to have 
 been quite a garden of fruits, as the following extract from 
 a letter of one of the men shows : ' I called the country 
 around these parts (Matabeleland, about one hundred and 
 fifty miles from Mount Hampden) the land of fruits, for the 
 whole place is like a great orchard of fruit trees growing 
 wild. Although the winter season (July), many are loaded 
 with fruit. Imagine riding for miles and miles under the 
 shade of wild orange trees, branches weighed down with 
 fruit, and more of others than I can name wild grapes, 
 guavas, limes, plums, apples, and pomegranates a 
 
196 OUR VIANDS 
 
 veritable garden of Eden, and this under a cloudless sky 
 and delightful climate.' 
 
 The apricot belongs to the plum tribe (Prunus Armeniaca), 
 a tribe very widely distributed, and including the cherry, 
 the laurel, the sloe, and a vast number of cultivated species 
 of plum, chief among which is the delicious greengage, the 
 Reine Claude of the French. Some naturalists believe that 
 the apricot has been developed from the wild African species; 
 but it is generally supposed to be a native of the East, where 
 it grows in great abundance, from China and Japan to the 
 Caucasus. It is perhaps a greater favourite than the peach 
 in cookery, making a most excellent jam, apropos of which 
 I may say that the pulp, now imported in tins, is almost 
 equal to the fresh fruit for this delicate preserve; but it 
 requires its full weight of sugar and a few bitter almonds 
 as a substitute for the kernels. Apricots crystallised and 
 in syrup are also much esteemed, and in all these forms our 
 colonies might supply the English market quite as well as 
 the French do now. 
 
 There is also another mode of utilising these abundant 
 gifts of Nature to sunny climes, which is in the making of 
 noyau, or ratafia, from the kernels. Years ago we used to 
 collect the kernels of all the apricots and peaches consumed 
 in the house, putting them into a bottle filled up with brandy, 
 and this home-made ratafia was the very best flavouring we 
 could ever obtain for custards, puddings, etc. Surely, in 
 countries where these fruits are so superabundant as in 
 South Africa, and where brandy is also largely manufactured, 
 something might be made both of the fruit and its kernels. 
 
 The most singular of the peach family is the flat peach of 
 China, which somewhat resembles a Normandy pippin with 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 197 
 
 a stone in the centre, of which the flavour is said to be 
 excellent. 
 
 Of the plum there are more than three hundred varieties, 
 so that we cannot attempt to enumerate them, but must 
 mention two or three of the principal. Two wild plums 
 grow in Britain, the bullace and the sloe the one white or 
 yellow, the other black. They are not eatable in the raw 
 state, but the former is used for making tarts and puddings 
 very highly esteemed by many and the sloe is, or was, 
 used in making an excellent cordial known as sloe-gin. Of 
 the cultivated sorts the palm is given to the greengage so 
 named after the first English cultivator. The Orleans, 
 which came to us from France, is the best for puddings and 
 pies, but for table fruit the many varieties of the egg plum 
 are preferable, whilst that known as the London plum is 
 capital for preserves. We do not know the species of plum 
 which, under the name of prunes, or French plums, forms 
 such a splendid addition to desserts at Christmas, but 
 believe it to be the Imperial. It appears to be a very rich 
 fruit, and one which might be cultivated and preserved in 
 the same manner in our southern colonies. A very 
 delicious variety, about the size of the bullace, known as the 
 golden drop, seems to have ceased to be cultivated in this 
 country. And now we must hark back to the cherry, which 
 is perhaps the most interesting and highly-esteemed of all 
 stone fruits, because the most easily obtained, for two hun- 
 dred and fifty varieties are said to be cultivated in England, 
 and the little black cherry grows wild even in Scotland. 
 
 The cherry orchards of Kent are famous, and in good 
 seasons extremely profitable, realising as much as ^30 to 
 the acre, the fruit being sold on the trees, the buyer 
 
198 OUR VIANDS 
 
 taking all risk and the cost and trouble of picking and 
 conveying them to market. One of the greatest risks is 
 from the birds, which will strip a cherry tree in an hour or 
 two in the early morning. But although cherries are grown 
 in England in perfection, we yet receive vast quantities 
 from France and Germany, in which latter country, miles of 
 cherry trees line the roads, the fruit being used not only 
 in cookery but for making the favourite liqueur known as 
 Kirschwasser. It is also used for making Maraschino and 
 ratafia, to say nothing of our old English favourite liqueur, 
 cherry-brandy particularly favoured during the winter 
 season by sportsmen. For this the Morella cherry is best, 
 which is generally gathered before it is ripe, and is therefore 
 regarded as sour and unpalatable, but if allowed to hang on 
 the tree till October it is a most delicious fruit. The cherry 
 was formerly much used in games : that called cherry pit, 
 which consisted of pitching the stones into a little hole, is 
 often alluded to by old writers, as well as bob cherry, which 
 is still played by children. The song of ' Cherry Ripe ' was 
 written by the poet Herrick, in the time of Charles I. The 
 French make a tisane of the cherry stalks for colds and 
 coughs. Cherries, we believe, cannot be grown in hot 
 countries, where they revert to the wild type. 
 
 Berries have from the remotest ages formed an important 
 part of the food of man. Milton speaks of the banquet of 
 Eve as formed of fruits and berries from all climes. 
 
 ' Whatever earth, all-bearing mother, yields 
 In India, East or West, or middle shore, 
 In Pontus or the Punic coast, or where 
 Aleinous reign 'd, fruit of all kinds, in coat 
 Rough, or smooth rind, or bearded husk, or shell.' 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 199 
 
 And, indeed, the fruits of the earth seem to be so widely 
 distributed, and their cultivation dates back to such hoar 
 antiquity, that it seems hardly possible to trace the primitive 
 home of the commoner varieties. Thus, among the relics 
 of the Lake-dwellers we find the strawberry, raspberry, black- 
 berry, elderberry, bilberry, and whortleberry; and although 
 all these grow wild in the woods, yet, when they are found 
 stored with corn and other plants requiring cultivation, and 
 with apples and plums, we may fairly suppose that they were, 
 to a certain extent cultivated also, probably in gardens on 
 the mainland, and they were perhaps boiled, or in some way 
 preserved for use; otherwise the seeds would have germinated 
 in the mud in which they have lain for so many centuries. 
 
 The gooseberry and currant do not appear among these 
 fruits of the Lake-dwellers, probably because they belong 
 naturally to our northern climes, and were unknown in 
 early times in Southern Europe, for these are hardy fruits, 
 which thrive better in Scotland than England, although 
 they grow freely and abundantly all over the British Isles. 
 
 Currants red, white, and black are most valuable 
 fruits to the British housewife, for, although even at the 
 best they are too acrid to be much relished as dessert 
 fruits, they are largely employed in puddings, pies, tarts, 
 and preserves indeed, some people add red currant juice 
 to all preserves, which appears to me a great mistake, being 
 calculated to destroy the flavour of the other fruits to which 
 it is added. Used alone, the juice of the red currant forms 
 the most delicious jelly in universal use as an accompani- 
 ment to game, venison, and roast mutton, and for making 
 sauce for various puddings. The black currant, which is a 
 different species, has excellent medicinal properties, and 
 
200 OUR VIANDS 
 
 finds an honourable place in the Pharmacopoeia; indeed, 
 there is nothing better for sore throat, hoarseness, and cold 
 on the chest, than black currant jam, or jelly, with boiling 
 water. There is a belief that tons of black currants get 
 exported to Oporto yearly, to supplement the juice of the 
 grape in making that famous vino cC Oporto which for 
 centuries has been the panacea of all physicians, and 
 the source of many of the ills it is supposed to cure. 
 
 Turning to the gooseberry also a native British fruit 
 we find it more used in the green than in the ripe state. 
 Green gooseberry puddings and pies, green gooseberry jam, 
 gooseberry-fool, and that famous beverage of our grand- 
 mothers green gooseberry wine which, when well made, 
 was a fair home substitute for champagne such are a few 
 of the uses of this much-esteemed fruit. 
 
 South African colonists compare this old British fruit with 
 that which is called the Cape gooseberry, and are inclined 
 to believe like our American cousins with the Indian corn 
 that theirs is the genuine article and ours the counterfeit, 
 forgetting that centuries before the Cape gooseberry was 
 known, the British fruit was widely cultivated and highly 
 esteemed. The Cape gooseberry is, in fact, no gooseberry, 
 but a kind of winter cherry, which, although much relished 
 by those who are accustomed to the flavour, is not quite to 
 the taste of those who enjoy the British gooseberry; and 
 although it makes a splendid jam which might, we believe, 
 be imported profitably yet the resinous flavour requires an 
 educated palate to be fully appreciated. This fruit is also 
 cultivated in India, and a jam known as teparee is made 
 from it, and sometimes imported. 
 
 Few colonists have the opportunity of tasting our British 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 201 
 
 fruits in perfection, and especially berries, such as goose- 
 berries, which, when ripe, should be picked and eaten from 
 the bush, as they get flat and tasteless when sent to market. 
 We venture to think that could they wander through an 
 English garden when gooseberries yellow, green, and red 
 are ripe, they would find them worth running the risk of 
 a few scratches from the superabundant thorns, to obtain. 
 The same may be said of the raspberry, and that universal 
 favourite the strawberry, both of which, to be enjoyed in 
 perfection, should be picked and eaten where they grow. 
 Nevertheless, tons of strawberries find their way daily to 
 Covent Garden market from the provinces, and even from 
 Jersey and France, in the season, to be eaten and enjoyed 
 by those who, if they had to pick for themselves, would 
 never taste a berry. Yet they are still grown largely in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of London, and a feast of straw- 
 berries freshly picked may even now be eaten with cream 
 and sugar in many gardens in the suburbs ; but to those 
 accustomed to the smoke and dirt of this great Metropolis 
 it seems impossible that strawberries could ever have been 
 grown in Holborn, yet Shakespeare repeats an historic fact 
 when he makes Glo'ster say to the Bishop of Ely 
 
 ' My Lord of Ely, when I was last in Holborn 
 I saw good strawberries in your garden there.' 
 
 Ely Place, the site of the Bishop's palace and garden, may 
 now be searched in vain for any fruit, except such as is 
 brought there in baskets from Covent Garden. 
 
 There is now an endless variety both of strawberries and 
 raspberries cultivated, but whilst in the latter the flavour is 
 improved as the size is increased, in the strawberry the very 
 large berries are seldom equal in flavour to those of medium 
 
202 OUR VIANDS 
 
 size. Both these fruits are also much esteemed in their wild 
 state, and, strange to say, the wild raspberry becomes more 
 luscious and more highly flavoured, the farther north it is 
 found, forming the most delicious of fruits in Norway and 
 Sweden; whilst the wild strawberry is an indispensable ad- 
 junct to the dinner table in Alpine countries, as all travellers 
 know, for heaped-up dishes of strawberries appear daily at 
 every hotel and restaurant in Switzerland and Northern 
 Italy during the season, till one is constrained to wonder at 
 the abundance of the fruit, and the patient industry of the 
 gatherers, who must wander over miles of mountainous 
 country to supply innumerable voracious travellers daily with 
 this never-failing luxury. There are numerous other wild 
 berries, which have their use in due season, although not so 
 universally esteemed as the strawberry and the raspberry. 
 In mountainous districts the bilberry a little black berry 
 growing abundantly on low bushes, is excellent for pies and 
 puddings, whilst the cranberry which is of the same family, 
 but red is not only used when fresh and ripe, but is im- 
 ported in barrels from Norway and Russia, and a larger kind, 
 though not so juicy, from America, to the extent of many 
 thousands of gallons annually. The blackberry, which is 
 the fruit of the bramble, comes into the market at a season 
 when fruit is scarce, otherwise it would hardly hold a high 
 place in public favour; but, mixed with apple, it makes 
 excellent puddings and pies, and blackberry jam and jelly 
 are highly esteemed by many. The fruit of one species of 
 bramble which grows in the extreme north is highly lauded 
 by Linnaeus ; and the cloudberry is also a great boon to 
 dwellers in the cold and barren regions of Northern 
 Scandinavia and Lapland, even to the North Cape. 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 203 
 
 The elderberry, once so highly esteemed as a wine 
 producer, is now neglected. Fifty years ago a glass of hot 
 spiced elder wine, with sippets of toast, formed a Christmas 
 beverage handed nightly to honoured guests in country 
 houses. Now, even our peasants must have port or sherry, 
 and the flower and berry of the elder are left to ' waste their 
 sweetness on the desert air.' Yet elder-flower wine was 
 once thought equal to Frontignac, and there was a scramble 
 between man and bird for the berries : the latter are now 
 allowed to enjoy them unmolested, and they do not let 
 them hang long upon the tree when ripe. The elder was 
 also formerly much esteemed in medicine, and is still used 
 in ointments and soaps, being an excellent emollient for 
 the skin. 
 
 The barberry is also a fruit which has gone out of fashion. 
 Once upon a time preserved barberries were used in tarts, 
 and thought delicious ; now, however, you very seldom see 
 them in the market, and, if used at all, it is only by way of 
 garnishing, for which they are eminently suitable. 
 
 The mulberry, too, although when fully ripe it is the 
 most delicious of berries, is so little esteemed in England 
 that we have seen the ground red with the fruit which the 
 owner has not thought worth gathering. This, however, 
 was not the opinion of our ancestors, who prided themselves 
 upon their mulberry trees, which they cultivated with care, 
 and many of which survive and still bear abundance of 
 fruit, although planted in the sixteenth century. The 
 earliest recorded were planted at Sion House in 1548, and 
 still bear fruit. The mulberry tree is considered the wisest 
 of trees because it never puts forth its leaves until the frosts 
 are over, for which reason it is employed in heraldry to 
 
204 OUR VIANDS 
 
 signify wisdom. The white mulberry, which is cultivated 
 abroad for the sake of its leaves, upon which the silk-worm 
 thrives better than on the black variety, is not grown in 
 England, probably because it is not so hardy as the other ; 
 but should silk ever become an industry in Ireland, as many 
 philanthropists have proposed to make it, the cultivation 
 of the white mulberry must also be attempted, and planted 
 in hedges, as in the Tyrol, it would probably thrive. 
 
 The olive, so famous for its oil, which is indispensable 
 in salads, will not thrive in Northern Europe, but is largely 
 grown in Spain, Italy, and the south of France. At Cap 
 St Martin, between Mentone and Monte Carlo, there are 
 some fine trees, said to have been planted by the Romans, 
 for the olive will live and bear fruit for a thousand years, 
 and the great gnarled trunks, twisted and contorted into 
 the most weird and fanciful shapes, give a truly venerable 
 appearance to these valuable trees. There is one tree, not 
 far from Mentone, which is said to have been planted by 
 Julius Caesar. 
 
 We in England do not make much use of the olive as 
 an article of food, but it forms an excellent addition to 
 stews and hashes, and is served at table as an appetiser. 
 Spanish olives are imported in small barrels, but the French 
 are usually sold in bottles, both being pickled in brine. 
 
 In Italy a single olive tree often forms a family patrimony, 
 the sole source of income to several sons ; but, as may be 
 supposed, the living derived from it is scanty and precarious. 
 
 The olive grows wild at the Cape, and attempts have 
 been made from time to time to cultivate it, but as yet 
 with little success. The olive, as we know, was one 
 of the famous trees of Palestine, and the oil was used in 
 
STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES 205 
 
 the sacrifices and for the making of cakes and pastry, as 
 also in Egypt. 
 
 Among stone fruits, t we ought perhaps to name the 
 tamarind, although it is hardly a fruit to be classed with 
 peaches, plums, and cherries, being exceedingly acid ; 
 nevertheless, the acidity is its most valuable property, 
 rendering it of special use in flavouring various dishes, 
 especially curries. This pleasant acidity causes it also to 
 be much valued when mixed with water as a cooling drink 
 in fevers and other diseases. The tamarind tree is a native 
 of the East and West Indies, and also of Arabia, and the 
 fruit is a long pod, containing from three to six hard seeds 
 enclosed in the acid pulp. Tamarinds are imported in the 
 form of preserves, both from the East and West Indies. 
 The latter are best for cooking purposes, and the East 
 Indian for medicinal, as the latter are prepared without 
 sugar. 
 
 The mango may also be called a stone fruit, of which, 
 however, we do not know the true flavour, as it is known 
 to us only in the form of chutney; but when eaten ripe 
 from the tree it is said to be delicious. 
 
 Many other delicate Indian fruits might also be mentioned 
 here, but as they seldom appear in our markets they may 
 be omitted. The loquat or Japanese medlar comes to us 
 sometimes in the natural state, but is much cultivated in 
 the south of France, and forms a considerable item in that 
 excellent preserve of various fruits made at Grasse, which 
 is so commonly introduced at luncheons on the Riviera. 
 The guava also is known to us chiefly in the form of that 
 delicious jelly which has for more than a century formed 
 one of the exports of India. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 ON THE BORDERLAND *TWIXT FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 
 
 IN visiting national collections of pictures in this country 
 and on the Continent we are almost sure to come across 
 one of Murillo's charming Spanish boys, sitting, ragged and 
 dirty, munching a huge slice of melon the very picture of 
 contented enjoyment. In hot weather the mouth fairly 
 waters at the luscious-looking morsel, deeply indented with 
 the teeth of the ragged urchin, and we wonder why this 
 delicious, cool fruit has so long been beyond the reach of 
 the little dirty boys of London, when for centuries their 
 representatives in sunny Spain and all over the south of 
 Europe, as well as in the Eastern Bible lands of Asia, 
 almost live upon it and its congeners the water-melon, 
 the cucumber, and the pumpkin ; whilst, if perchance this 
 watery diet should disagree, ' a hair of the same dog ' may 
 perhaps be administered in the shape of a dose of colocynth, 
 or bitter cucumber. 
 
 The most remarkable point in the history of this family 
 of fruits is their power of absorbing and retaining moisture. 
 Growing abundantly in the hottest and most arid countries, 
 they are eagerly sought as a means of assuaging thirst as 
 well as hunger. Humboldt says of the water-melon, that 
 in the Peninsula of Araya, where rain does not fall some- 
 
 206 
 
'TWIXT FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 207 
 
 times for fifteen months, water-melons weighing from 15 
 to 70 Ibs. are not uncommon. Many a traveller's life 
 has been saved by finding a patch of these water-reservoirs 
 in the thirsty desert. It is said to be a native of the south 
 of Europe, the Levant, Egypt, and South America; but 
 several species abound in South Africa, and of one of them 
 Dr. Livingstone writes : 
 
 ' The most surprising plant of the Kalahari Desert is the 
 water-melon kengwe or k&me. When more than the usual 
 quantity of rain falls, vast tracts of the country are literally 
 covered with these melons. Then animals of every sort 
 and name, including man, rejoice in the rich supply. The 
 elephant true lord of the forest and the different species 
 of rhinoceros revel in the fruit, although naturally so diverse 
 in their choice of pasture. The various kinds of antelopes 
 feed on them with avidity, and lions, hyaenas, jackals, and 
 mice, all seem to appreciate the common blessing. These 
 melons are not, however, all eatable, some being sweet and 
 others bitter. The natives select them by striking them 
 with a hatchet and applying the tongue to the gashes.' 
 
 In the East and in Egypt, melons serve also as food for 
 man and beast. Niebuhr, speaking of Arabia, says : c Of 
 pumpkins and melons several sorts grow naturally in the 
 woods, and serve for feeding camels, but the proper melons 
 are planted in the fields, where a great variety of them is to 
 be found, and in such abundance that the Arabians of all 
 ranks use them for some part of the year as their principal 
 article of food. They afford a very agreeable liquor. 
 When the fruit is nearly ripe, a hole is pierced into the 
 pulp ; this hole is then stopped with wax, and the melon 
 left upon the stalk. Within a few days the pulp is, in con- 
 
208 OUR VIANDS 
 
 sequence of this process, converted into a delicious liquor.' 
 We wonder whether this practice is still continued. It 
 sounds so simple that people in those favoured lands where 
 melons grow so abundantly might try it advantageously. 
 Here, although melons have been grown successfully on 
 hot-beds for some centuries, they are still articles of luxury, 
 and the crop cannot be depended upon, for one day's 
 neglect will often cause the loss of a promising bed of 
 melons. Nevertheless, at our flower shows may always be 
 seen numbers of varieties, reared with great care, and 
 brought to the highest perfection, from seed obtained from 
 all parts of the world. The chief varieties are the red 
 fleshed and the green, each of which has its vehement 
 admirers. They also vary considerably in size, some of the 
 very small kinds being greatly esteemed for their fineness 
 of flavour. 
 
 Pliny and Columella speak of the fondness of the Emperor 
 Tiberius for melons, and of the contrivances by which they 
 were provided for him at all seasons; whilst of another 
 Emperor, Frederick the Great, it is related that his physician, 
 finding him suffering greatly from indigestion during his last 
 illness, learned that he had eaten three or four melons 
 (small ones, we may suppose) daily for breakfast, and his 
 only reply to the physician's remonstrance was, that he 
 would send him some to taste, thinking the excellence of 
 the fruit would show the doctor the difficulty of abstaining 
 from so favourite a dish. 
 
 Many people besides Frederick of Prussia have found 
 melons indigestible in our colder climes. In truth, they 
 are best suited to hot climates and hot weather, and will 
 be sure to disagree in cold seasons ; and so well was this 
 
'TWIXT FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 209 
 
 understood formerly, that melons were never sent to table 
 without an accompaniment of ground ginger. Nowadays 
 people risk indigestion, and eat them with sugar only, or 
 sometimes with pepper and salt. Melons of some kind have 
 of late become almost as abundant in our streets as in those 
 of the sunny South, for they are imported by thousands from 
 Spain great green-looking things called water-melons, but 
 not really so, and of very good flavour when ripe slices 
 being now sold in the streets at a halfpenny, or even less, so 
 that it is no longer an uncommon sight to see our ragged 
 urchins munching their slice of melon, like Murillo's little 
 Spanish boys. 
 
 It is not easy to say whether the cucumber should be 
 classed as a fruit or a vegetable ; it stands upon the border- 
 land, and may be eaten as either, but whether fresh, stewed, 
 or pickled, is a very delicious accompaniment to many 
 savoury dishes, and especially salads j and what would those 
 pleasant cooling summer beverages, claret and champagne 
 cup, be, without a slice or two of cucumber floating on the 
 top ? Cucumbers, like melons, have become so much more 
 plentiful of late, that they may be purchased all the year 
 round for a few pence, being cultivated largely in green- 
 houses, and, in the summer, in the open air. ' A lodge in 
 a garden of cucumbers' will come to the mind in writing 
 of them. Here we have not to put up sheds to safeguard 
 them from foxes and jackals, as in Syria, but the market 
 gardener has to watch against human prowlers, ever on the 
 alert to fill their own pockets at the expense of their neigh- 
 bours ; for a crop of cucumbers the plants trained under 
 glass in greenhouses like vines, the fruit hanging from them 
 by hundreds, straight, and often half a yard in length if 
 
210 OUR VIANDS 
 
 they can be brought forward early enough in the spring, is 
 worth a very large sum, but they diminish rapidly in value 
 as the season advances. 
 
 Pumpkins and vegetable marrows, which belong to the 
 same tribe as the melon and the cucumber, are certainly 
 vegetables, not being eaten in the raw state. As vegetables 
 they are much more esteemed abroad than in England, 
 although the vegetable marrow has grown greatly in favour 
 of late years, but the pumpkin so much used on the 
 Continent, in America, and in our Colonies is still utterly 
 rejected by our peasantry, as fit only for pigs. In vain do 
 philanthropists show how easily it is grown, and how it may 
 be stored for winter use. Hodge will have none of it. 
 Nevertheless, of late pumpkin in slices has been sold at the 
 greengrocers for soups, etc., during the winter, and appears 
 to meet with a ready sale, so that perhaps in time the 
 prejudice may be overcome. 
 
 Singularly enough, it would seem that the pumpkin was 
 very early introduced into England, and was then known 
 as the melon, the melon itself being called musk melon. 
 The cucumber, too, is said to have been commonly grown 
 in England in the reign of Edward III., but was afterwards 
 neglected and disused until the reign of Henry VIII., and 
 not generally cultivated till the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 There is another plant standing on the borderland 
 between fruit and vegetables which has lately come into 
 great request. This is the tomato, long known as the 
 love-apple. The tomato belongs to a poisonous tribe of 
 plants, known botanically as solanacece, which includes the 
 nightshades of deadly fame, and also the well-known and 
 
>TWIXT FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 211 
 
 highly-prized potato. The potato and tomato are both 
 natives of America. Both were introduced about the same 
 time ; but their history has been very different, for whilst 
 the potato has found its way into every home, and has been 
 the chief stay and solace of the poorest, the tomato has, 
 until quite recently, been cultivated very sparingly, and 
 more as a curiosity than an article of food. I remember 
 seeing them grown against a wall as ornamental plants, in 
 the days when potatoes flourished abundantly, before the 
 deadly blight had fallen upon them. But although the love- 
 apple, as it was called, was regarded as a curiosity, and 
 admired for its beautiful colour, we should no more have 
 thought of eating it than the seeds of the potato, which 
 were reputed poisonous, and we believe a similar reputation 
 was attached at that time to the tomato by the ignorant, 
 although it was used for making sauce, and the fruit when 
 green was sometimes pickled. 
 
 The name of the tomato, Lycopersicum, signifies ' wolf- 
 peach,' says Macintosh's 'Book of the Garden,' 'and was 
 given to it because of the deceptive value of the fruit.' 
 But that was at a time when, as we said above, it was 
 regarded as only a semi-poisonous curiosity. Nowadays 
 the tomato is highly valued, as it deserves to be, for, as a 
 vegetable, it has found its way at last into English kitchens, 
 and is recognised by our cooks as an excellent adjunct to 
 soups, stews, curries, etc., but the poor still despise and 
 dislike it, and indeed its price would prevent its free use 
 among them. On the Continent it has long been highly 
 prized, as well as in America, and its medicinal properties 
 in cases of liver complaint have been long recognised. Our 
 market gardeners are beginning to cultivate it largely, and 
 
212 OUR VIANDS 
 
 a splendid show of this fruit, or vegetable, of numerous 
 varieties, all grown in the open, has been held at the 
 Crystal Palace. We may, therefore, hope soon to have it 
 abundant in English markets; meanwhile the tinned 
 tomatoes from America and France answer fairly well for 
 cooking purposes. The African egg plant belongs to the 
 same family as the tomato, and is eaten boiled and stewed 
 in some places, being highly valued in China and the 
 West Indies. 
 
 There is another kind of semi-fruit largely consumed in 
 tropical countries ; this is the plantain, which, with its near 
 relation the banana, forms the staple food of innumerable 
 tribes in Asia, Africa, America, and the oceanic islands of 
 the Atlantic and Pacific. The plantain and banana grow 
 in immense clusters, often weighing from seventy to eighty 
 pounds on a single plant, and they are so easily cultivated, 
 that even the most savage races understand how to produce 
 them. The banana is said to bear a crop every three 
 months, so that a plantation of from thirty to forty roots 
 will yield more than four thousand pounds of fruit. The 
 banana is rather smaller than the plantain, but both varieties 
 are now frequently seen in our fruiterers' shops. The taste 
 resembles that of a mealy pear, with a little butter added; 
 the banana is sometimes dried like the fig, and is then 
 pounded and used as meal.* 
 
 Perhaps we may include among those plants which serve 
 both as fruit and vegetable the date palm, which yields a 
 farinaceous substance resembling sago (which is the product 
 of another species of palm), as well as the invaluable date, 
 
 * A lady writing from South Africa says they found bananas growing 
 wild with upwards of 100 pods in a bunch. 
 
'TWIXT FRUIT AND VEGETABLE 213 
 
 which, both in its green and dried state, forms the staple 
 food of the people wherever it grows. The failure of the 
 crop means famine, and to cut down the date trees is the 
 first act of an enemy. The dates we buy here are dried in 
 the sun, or pressed into baskets before they are quite ripe, 
 as the ripe fruit would not bear transport. The centre or 
 crown of the date palm is sometimes eaten as a cabbage, 
 but as this destroys the tree, it is only cut from sterile trees, 
 and after the removal of this cabbage the sap rises, and palm 
 wine or toddy flows from the cavity at the rate of about a 
 gallon a day, continuing for nearly six weeks in diminishing 
 quantities. From this palm-wine, arrack is made by distilla- 
 tion, and a spirit is also obtained by soaking the dates in 
 water, and afterwards distilling it, whilst the stalks are boiled 
 and used as .food for cattle. A few years ago a company 
 was formed for the manufacture of date coffee, which was 
 made from the date stones roasted and ground, but this 
 spurious coffee has now been nearly, if not quite, abandoned. 
 
 That useful plant the rhubarb, may properly find a place 
 in this chapter, for although chiefly used as a substitute for 
 fruit, it is only the leaf stalk of a plant which came originally 
 from the East, but which has apparently been cultivated in 
 England since the latter part of the sixteenth century, and 
 seems to grow yearly in popularity, as, when forced, it is 
 attainable during the winter months when fruits are scarce, 
 whilst the giant out-door leaf stalks are sold at a very cheap 
 rate all through the summer and autumn, when it is largely 
 used for puddings and tarts, and also for stewing, preserving, 
 and wine-making. 
 
 The far-famed legendary lotos must also find a place here. 
 It is variously described as a lily, and as a shrub bearing a 
 
214 OUR VIANDS 
 
 fruit of a sweet taste resembling gingerbread. This last 
 was probably the lotos of the Lotophagi, which is described 
 by Polybius as a stiff, thorny shrub, with small green leaves. 
 The fruit, when green, is said to resemble myrtle berries, 
 but when ripe they are like round olives of a reddish colour, 
 and, like olives, contain a hard nut The fruit is gathered, 
 crushed, and kept in close vessels, and resembles figs or 
 dates in flavour ; it is reckoned next to the date in value, 
 and was said to have formed the chief food of man, being 
 so delicious that whosoever tasted it ceased to desire any 
 other food, and forgot everything in the pleasure of eating it. 
 It grows in Egypt and Northern Africa. But although this 
 was probably the lotos of the poets, it is certain that the 
 Egyptians eat also the fruit and seeds of the lotos lily, as 
 well as the root of the arum, which is eaten in many 
 countries, either roasted or pounded, and precipitated as a 
 starch, resembling manioc or tapioca. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 ROOTS 
 
 IT is hard to realise the fact that three hundred years ago 
 the potato was unknown in Europe, and we wonder what 
 our ancestors could have done without a vegetable which 
 is now regarded as indispensable. Yet, at the date of its 
 introduction, it was so little thought of, that it is still a 
 disputed point as to whom belongs the honour of having 
 brought it over, and whether it came from Chili or Peru, 
 where it grows wild, or from Virginia. We used to believe 
 that Sir Walter Raleigh was this benefactor, but Sir John 
 Hawkins (1565), Sir Francis Drake (1586), and Thomas 
 Herriott (1585) are also credited with its first introduction; 
 at any rate, most people are agreed that Ireland was its first 
 European home, and that the neighbourhood of Cork was 
 the spot where the earliest potato crop was raised. Never- 
 theless, a century after its first planting, Houghton, the 
 botanist, writing in 1681, says : * The potato is a bacciferous 
 herb with esculent roots, bearing winged leaves and a bell 
 
 flower This, I have been informed, was brought 
 
 first out of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh, and he stopping 
 at Ireland, some was planted there, where it thrived very 
 well and to good purpose, for, in their succeeding wars, 
 
 215 
 
216 OUR VIANDS 
 
 when all the corn above ground was destroyed, this sup- 
 ported them, for the soldiers, unless they had dug up all 
 the ground where they grew and almost sifted it, could net 
 extirpate them. From thence they were brought to 
 Lancashire, where they are very numerous, and now they 
 begin to spread all the kingdom over. They are a pleasant 
 food, boiled or roasted, and eaten with butter and sugar' 
 Fancy eating sugar with potatoes ! He then goes on to 
 say, ' There is a sort brought from Spain that are of a longer 
 form (Convolvulus Batatas), and are much more luscious tnan 
 ours, for they are much set by, and sold for 6d. or 8d. a 
 pound.' Sweet potatoes which, by-the-by, are not potatoes 
 at all are now very little thought of in comparison with the 
 commoner potato, and, although they are eaten and relished 
 by the few, would certainly be rejected by the many, whilst 
 the potato is cultivated everywhere, occupying 512,471 acres 
 in Great Britain in 1877, and in the same year 7,964,840 
 cwt. were imported, valued at ^2, 348, 749. 
 
 I well remember the terrible time of the first appearance 
 of the potato blight in 1845, aQ d the great change wrought 
 by it in this favourite vegetable. Previously great fields of 
 potatoes grew and flourished abundantly, producing their 
 white or purple blossom, according to their kind, followed 
 by green or purplish seed-pods, the haulm, when withered, 
 being pulled up and burnt, or left to rot as manure, whilst 
 the tubers were dug and pitted for winter use, the great aim 
 being to preserve them from frost. The consternation which 
 took possession of people when they saw the haulm getting 
 black and dying away, long before it was time for the 
 blossom, may be imagined, and when it was found that the 
 tuber was rotting in the ground, a wail went up from one 
 
ROOTS 217 
 
 end of the country to the other and no wonder, for it 
 meant to many in England, and to all in Ireland, a grievous 
 famine. At first the pigs were fed on the diseased roots, 
 but they soon got too bad even for pigs to eat ; then it was 
 found out that, if taken in time, the roots might be grated, 
 and starch made from them, and so, at every cottage door 
 sat women and children grating the fast-rotting roots into 
 pans of water; but little could be gained by that, although 
 potato starch is still used, and called English arrowroot. 
 People, however, could not live on that, and soon got tired 
 of trying, and the potatoes were left to rot in the ground. 
 Year after year this went on, and no one seemed to know 
 how to remedy the evil ; but at last the natural history of 
 the disease came to be known, and now by careful cultiva- 
 tion of sorts less liable to be attacked by the fungus which 
 causes the disease, the potato again begins to hold up its 
 head, and may be seen blossoming and bearing seed as 
 before. But many of the sorts most prized prior to 1845 
 have entirely disappeared, and among them one which was 
 the delight of our childhood, known as the China orange, 
 which came to table in its skin, just bursting, and showing 
 a beautiful red under coat, covering a great floury ball of 
 most delicious flavour. The Irish, who may be supposed 
 to know the best mode of cooking their favourite vegetable, 
 always boil them in their skins, and in so doing retain the 
 full flavour, but they also like them slightly hard in the 
 middle * with the bones in,' as they say which is not so 
 much to English taste. 
 
 The latest method of preventing the potato blight is that 
 recommended by Mr. Jensen, namely to disinfect the seed 
 tubers by storing them for four or five days in a dry-air 
 
218 OUR VIANDS 
 
 chamber, at a temperature of 100 to 105 clegs. Fahrenheit; 
 but others recommend syringing the leaves with a solution 
 of sulphate of copper and quicklime, which is also said to 
 increase the growth of the tubers. 
 
 Edible roots have always formed a large portion of man's 
 food, from the most primitive times. Savages in all lands 
 have their digging sticks, with which they turn up such 
 things as experience has taught them will prove good to 
 eat, and the most singular thing is that instinct appears to 
 act with them as with the lower animals, preventing them 
 from taking that which is poisonous ; and where they find 
 poisonous roots, as in many of the lily tribe, they have 
 learnt to nullify the poison by roasting the root, or by 
 scraping it and extracting the acrid juice by pressure or 
 by soaking in water before cooking, as in the manioc, of 
 which we wrote in a former chapter. But civilised man has 
 not forsaken the habits of his remote ancestors, and still 
 delves as Adam did for the produce of the soil, although he 
 no longer depends upon the chance of finding a supply 
 when needed, but plants and waters, weeds and watches, 
 till he may dig the anticipated crop; and then he very 
 commonly buries the roots again snugly beneath the soil, 
 carefully covered up with straw and trenched round to keep 
 the treasure from that which may corrupt, in order that he 
 may have them sound and good during the frost and snows 
 of winter, when most needed for the household, and for 
 those domestic animals which form a large portion of his 
 wealth, but which in early times had mainly to shift for 
 themselves, and die of starvation when the grass of the 
 field failed them. 
 
 Next to the potato, the most important root of modern times 
 
ROOTS 219 
 
 is undoubtedly the turnip, which in its many varieties keeps 
 thousands of cattle alive, and is not despised as a vegetable 
 on the most lordly table ; but we remember a time when it 
 was not considered right to feed milch cows upon turnips, lest 
 it should injure the flavour of the milk and butter. Yet we 
 find that turnips were grown abundantly by the Romans as 
 food for cattle, and they seem to have devoted themselves 
 to the cultivation of this vegetable as we do now, for Pliny 
 speaks of roots weighing 40 Ibs., which far exceeds our 
 greatest efforts. The beet, we are told, grew in the country 
 of the Sibines, and was sold in Rome for a sum equal to 
 2d. each in our money. 
 
 The Romans doubtless introduced the cultivation of the 
 turnip into our country, but it seems to have been neglected 
 for many centuries, and was probably reintroduced by the 
 Flemings ; it seems however to have been only used as a 
 vegetable, for in a book called the 'Haven of Health,' 
 published in 1597, we are told, 'Although many men love 
 to eat turnips, yet do swine abhor them.' By which we may 
 learn that the taste even of pigs may be educated, for at 
 present piggy will certainly eat his turnip with as much 
 relish as his master. It would, however, appear that the 
 turnip was not cultivated in fields until the end of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 As food for man, it seems to be more highly esteemed 
 in foreign countries than here. Linnaeus tells us the 
 Laplanders are so fond of this root that they will give 
 a whole cheese in exchange for a single turnip ; and 
 from Clarke's ' Travels in Russia ' we learn that in Russia, 
 turnips are used as fruit, and in the houses of the nobility a 
 raw turnip cut in slices is handed about on a silver salver 
 
220 OUR VIANDS 
 
 with brandy, to stimulate the appetite. The Maltese golden 
 turnip, which is of a beautiful orange colour and quite round, 
 is frequently eaten as fruit. 
 
 The Swedish turnip commonly known as the swede 
 is principally cultivated for cattle, but there is a small yellow 
 variety grown in Scotland, which is there much esteemed 
 as a vegetable, but is never seen in the London market, 
 although far superior in flavour to the turnip commonly 
 sold. It is recorded that in the years 1629 and 1630, when 
 there was a dearth in England, very good, white, lasting, 
 and wholesome bread was made of boiled turnips deprived 
 of their moisture by pressure, and then kneaded with an 
 equal quantity of wheaten flour into what was known as 
 turnip bread ; and the same substitute for wheat was used 
 again in Essex in 1693, when there was a scarcity of 
 corn. At present there is no temptation to adulterate 
 bread with turnips, but probably bread thus made would 
 be much more wholesome than that which now makes 
 its appearance artificially whitened with plaster of Paris 
 and alum. 
 
 Turnip tops are much esteemed as a vegetable, but few 
 people know that the long, white shoots of turnips or swedes 
 which have been pitted, may be cooked, and rival sea-kail in 
 flavour. We remember a use for the swede also not gener- 
 ally known, which is to cut a swede in slices like a loaf of 
 bread, sprinkle each slice with brown sugar, placing the 
 slices again in their order, and allowing them to stand for 
 some hours. The juice which runs from it is reckoned by 
 country people an excellent remedy for a cough. 
 
 Next to the turnip, the carrot probably ranks highest in 
 culinary estimation. Although, like the turnip, it seems 
 
ROOTS 221 
 
 to have been only introduced into this country by the 
 Flemings, in the reign of Elizabeth, it made its way into 
 public favour much more quickly than the turnip, and in 
 the reign of James the First, the foliage was used by the 
 ladies to adorn their headdresses. The graceful leaf is 
 still often seen in bouquets, and we are told this simple 
 decoration may be obtained even in winter, by cutting off 
 the thick end of the carrot and placing it in a shallow pan 
 of water, when a crown of delicate leaves will soon appear. 
 The carrot is not so extensively cultivated as food for cattle 
 as the turnip, although eaten by them with much relish, the 
 horse being extremely fond of it, and its use is said to be 
 particularly beneficial in preserving and restoring the wind 
 of horses. Pigs, also, are very fond of carrots, and fatten 
 very quickly upon them ; nevertheless, the turnip is more 
 favoured by the agriculturist, perhaps because more pro- 
 ductive, although we are told that e at Parlington, in 
 Yorkshire, the stock of a farm, consisting of twenty working 
 horses, four bullocks, and six milch cows, were fed from 
 the end of September to the beginning of May on the 
 carrots produced from three acres of land, with a very 
 small quantity of hay, and thirty hogs were fattened on the 
 refuse left by the cattle.' If this account can be relied on, 
 we wonder that farmers do not cultivate the carrot more 
 largely, but they seem to prefer beet and mangold wurtzel 
 which latter is said to produce the largest roots and the 
 most weighty crop in a given space of land, whilst beetroot 
 is credited with improving the quantity and quality of milk 
 in cows. The mangold is never sent to table, but beet is 
 much esteemed, and is commonly added to salads, although 
 it requires to be boiled carefully, and not cut or pricked, 
 
222 OUR VIANDS 
 
 or it will lose all its colour. It is now usually sold ready 
 boiled by the greengrocer. 
 
 The parsnip, although good and nutritious, is not a 
 favourite vegetable, except in certain localities. In the 
 north of Scotland, we are told, parsnips mixed with potatoes 
 and butter are much esteemed, and to this mess salt fish is 
 added in Catholic countries, and they certainly eat well 
 either with salt fish or salt beef, but should always have a 
 little dripping added to them in boiling. The Dutch cook 
 them by pouring over them, after they are boiled, a little 
 butter in which a small quantity of sugar has been dissolved, 
 and then browning them in the oven. 
 
 A root in many respects similar to the parsnip is the 
 skirret, formerly so highly esteemed by the Romans as to 
 have been specially imported from the Rhine for the 
 emperor's table, whilst it served as one of the ingredients 
 used to garnish the famous Lucanian boar. 
 
 ' Around him lay whatever could excite, 
 With pungent force, the jaded appetite ; 
 Rapes, lettuce, radishes, anchovy brine, 
 With skirrets, and the lees of Coan wine.' 
 
 Skirrets have recently re-appeared in the market, and 
 perhaps will once more become the fashion, although they 
 appear to be too sweet to suit modern taste as a vegetable. 
 Those, however, who enjoy parsnips and sweet potatoes 
 may probably relish the skirret, as also the scorzonera, 
 which at one time was highly esteemed, not only as a 
 vegetable, but as a cure for snake bites. It is still some- 
 times sent to table in France and Spain. 
 
 The yam, that gigantic root extensively cultivated in 
 Africa, Asia, America, and the West Indies, is never seen 
 
ROOTS 223 
 
 in our markets, but is eaten as bread, either roasted or 
 boiled, by the natives of the countries in which it grows. 
 The roots sometimes weigh as much as thirty pounds, but 
 are not relished by Europeans. 
 
 The only other root we need notice here is the Jerusalem 
 artichoke a name corrupted from girasole, which is the 
 Italian name for sunflower, of which it is a species. It is 
 very easily grown, and not very readily exterminated when 
 once introduced into a garden. It is a native of Brazil, 
 and was Drought over in 1667, being much esteemed before 
 potatoes became so generally cultivated. It is not much 
 relished now by the poor, but is frequently found on the 
 tables of the wealthy, and, when well cooked, is excellent, 
 especially when sent to table, as in France, with white sauce 
 and a garnishing of Parmesan cheese lightly browned. It 
 also makes a capital soup. 
 
 But of all vegetables known to us, perhaps the onion 
 and its allies notwithstanding the suspicion of vulgarity 
 attaching to them are the most universal and indispensable 
 in the culinary art, for how insipid would soups, sauces, 
 hashes, stews, gravies, salads, and seasonings of all kinds be 
 without the soup^on of the onion, the shalot, or the stronger 
 and yet more vulgar garlic. Whilst, as a vegetable, 
 what can be found more grateful to the general palate, and 
 more wholesome also, than the Spanish onion roasted or 
 stewed or the leek, the national badge of Wales, and 
 appreciated by epicures everywhere ? 
 
 The pedigree of the onion family can be traced back to 
 hoar antiquity so hoary, indeed, that the first parent is 
 unknown, although supposed to have sprung from Central 
 Asia, whence it spread north, south, east, and west, branching 
 
224 OUR VIANDS 
 
 off as aristocratic families, and even plebeian, are apt to 
 do and assuming new forms under altered circumstances, 
 until all our mo Jern varieties have become developed 
 through the survival of the fittest, and we can now call to 
 our aid the onion proper, in many different sizes and 
 varieties of flavour, from the little pickling onion to the 
 great Spanish bulb weighing half a pound or more ; garlic, 
 with its root conveniently divided into cloves, that our 
 cooks may not spoil the dish by too lavish use of that of 
 which very little suffices ; the eschalot or, shortly, shalot 
 not quite so pungent in flavour, but equally useful ; chives, 
 usually eaten green to flavour omelettes, salads, etc.; the 
 leek, so esteemed by the Emperor Nero that his subjects 
 gave him the name of Porrophagus (the Latin name for the 
 leek being Allium porrum\ for he ate them, with oil only, 
 for several days in every month to clear his voice, abstaining 
 from bread on these leek-eating days ; and, lastly, there is 
 a curious tree-onion, which bears the bulbs on the top of 
 the stem instead of seeds, as in the other species this 
 is supposed to be a variety of the common onion changed 
 by transplantation to Canada, whence we derive it. 
 
 The Welsh, we are told, plant the bulbs of the tree 
 onion as they drop off the parent stem, and they grow to 
 a considerable size. The French call this Vognon d'Egypte, 
 although it is not supposed to have come originally from 
 that country. The ancient Egyptians (2000 B.C.) venerated 
 some say worshipped the common onion, and certainly 
 possessed several of the varieties, for we are told that the 
 Israelites in the desert pined for ' the leeks and the onions 
 and the garlic' they had enjoyed so abundantly in Egypt; 
 and, if we are to believe travellers, the onions of Egypt 
 
ROOTS 22$ 
 
 were, and still are, especially good, being larger, softer, and 
 more delicate in flavour than ours. 
 
 We have seen how great was the devotion of the Emperor 
 Nero to the leek, although according to Pliny they had not 
 long been introduced in his day, having been brought from 
 Egypt; but onions were largely used by the Romans much 
 earlier, for they gave them to their labourers to strengthen 
 them, and to their soldiers and gamecocks to excite their 
 courage. 
 
 Alphonse Karr, in that charming book ' A Tour round 
 my Garden,' thus speaks of the yellow garlic, the moly of 
 Homer : c The yellow garlic is more than it appears to be ; 
 the yellow garlic has the power of keeping us safe from 
 enchantments, spells, and evil presages. A crow may fly 
 by you on your left hand, but you need not entertain any 
 fear, if you have only the yellow garlic in your garden. You 
 meet with a spider in the morning, don't be afraid of it ; you 
 spill the salt, the mischance will not fall to you ; a hare 
 crosses your path in the morning, be not on that account 
 apprehensive of the crosses of the world ; the yellow garlic 
 is cherished by you in your garden and watches over you ; 
 the yellow garlic will not allow any of these evil omens to 
 affect you. . . . 
 
 ' Pliny says that it is one of the most valuable plants to 
 man. Homer relates that it was to the virtues of the yellow 
 garlic that Ulysses owed his fortunate escape from being 
 turned into a pig by Circe as well as his companions, whom 
 he delivered from this disagreeable transformation.' 
 
 Although the Greeks cultivated several of the onion tribe 
 for culinary purposes, they are said to have regarded onion- 
 eaters in such abhorrence as to look upon them as profane 
 
 P 
 
226 OUR VIANDS 
 
 persons. This we might readily infer from the straight 
 classical nose of the race, to which fastidious organ the rank 
 smell of raw onions would be peculiarly abhorrent. Even 
 to ourselve?, the smell of onions or garlic in a public con- 
 veyance or place of amusement, is intensely disagreeable, 
 and the strongly-flavoured dishes of the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese the people of all Europe most given to the 
 eating of garlic are most unpleasant to the palate of 
 Englishmen; and yet, if we attempted to give a list of 
 English dishes into which the onion in some form enters, 
 we should wellnigh exhaust the cookery book. 
 
 Formerly the onion and garlic played an important part 
 in pharmacopoeias, but at present the doctor has given them 
 over to the cook; nevertheless, their medicinal value is 
 known and acknowledged, and the old remedy for cold- 
 onion broth is still prepared in many household?, whilst 
 the garlic has recently regained somewhat of its former 
 reputation as a remedy for bronchial coughs and shortness 
 of breath. 
 
 M'Intosh's ' Book of the Garden ' tells us that ' Palladius, 
 a Greek physician, recommends the onion to be sown with 
 savory, in which curious opinion Pliny agrees, observing 
 that onions prosper better when savory is sown with them.' 
 ' It was,' says the writer, ' a current opinion in those days 
 that certain plants had an antipathy to, or sympathy with, 
 each other. However absurd such an idea may appear to 
 us, we should take into consideration, that the opinions of 
 the ancients may not have been faithfully handed down to 
 us, or that their works may admit of a somewhat different 
 construction. We find Phillips observes that all the plants 
 which they recommend to be sown or planted together are 
 
ROOTS 227 
 
 of very opposite natures, and there may be more reason in 
 the system pursued by the ancients than is generally 
 allowed; for plants drawing the same juice from the earth 
 must naturally weaken each other, whereas those requiring 
 different nutriment may in some degree assist each other, 
 each feeding upon juices that are prejudicial to plants of 
 the other species. In this there is great truth.' 
 
 How easy it is to laugh at the wisdom of the ancients ; 
 yet in most things we have to come round to their opinions 
 in the long run. Gardeners nowadays are quite alive to 
 the affinities of plants, and their predilection for certain 
 soils and situations ; and in planting onions, if they do not 
 grow savory with them, care should be taken that they have 
 good rich loamy soil, and are well weeded and watered. 
 This was probably the secret of their successful cultivation 
 among the Romans. We do not know when the onion and 
 its allies were first introduced into this country, but probably 
 it is one of the benefits we derive from the Roman occupa- 
 tion of Britain. Garlic is first mentioned in 1548, and the 
 leek in 1562. Shakespeare makes it the badge of the 
 Welsh after the Battle of Crecy, and their fondness for the 
 onion tribe is noticed by Worlidge, who says : * I have 
 seen the greater part of a garden planted with leeks, and a 
 part of the remainder with onions and garlic.' Perhaps it 
 is to this diet that the Welshman owes his pugnacity. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 PULSE AND CABBAGE 
 
 BEANS and peas are familiar to everybody as vegetables, 
 and are in use all the year round, but few people are aware 
 that they have been in cultivation perhaps longer than any 
 other vegetable in Europe, and that many curious notions 
 regarding both especially beans have been handed down 
 to us from hoar antiquity. Beans are supposed to have 
 been brought from Egypt; yet the Egyptian priests regarded 
 it as a crime even to look at them. Pythagoras commanded 
 his followers to abstain from them, professing to believe that 
 man was formed from them; and Lucian introduces a 
 philosopher in hell, saying that to eat beans and to eat our 
 father's head were equal crimes. The Romans at one time 
 believed that the souls of the dead resided in beans ; yet 
 they had a solemn feast in which beans were offered in 
 honour of Carna, the consort of Janus, who is said to have 
 enjoyed a little bacon with them : hence our bean-feasts 
 date from very remote times. The Athenians used sodden 
 beans in their feasts to Apollo. Black and white beans 
 were used to record the votes of the people in choosing 
 their magistrates, etc. A white bean signified absolution ; 
 a black, condemnation, which is apparently the origin of 
 the custom of blackballing an opponent. 
 
 Beans and peas are both found among the relics of the 
 
 228 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 229 
 
 Swiss Lake dwellings, and are named among the provision 
 conveyed to David when he was hiding from his son 
 Absalom. The botanical name of the bean, Faba> is said 
 to be derived from phago (to eat), or paba (to feed), and it 
 has undoubtedly formed a favourite food from time imme- 
 morial; but notwithstanding the many centuries during 
 which it has been cultivated, only two species the common 
 garden or broad bean, and the horse bean are known. The 
 kidney bean (Phaseolus) so named from phaselus (a little 
 boat), because of the shape of the pods seems to have 
 come to us from two widely different sources. The dwarf 
 kidney bean, commonly known as the French bean, is a 
 native of India, but is mentioned as being generally culti- 
 vated in England in 1597, whilst the scarlet runner was 
 introduced from South America in 1633, and was first 
 cultivated by the celebrated gardener Tradescant, at 
 Lambeth ; but for nearly a century it was grown almost 
 wholly for its flowers, which formed the chief ornament in 
 all nosegays, and its pods or legumes were only occasionally 
 used as a vegetable until the eighteenth century, when 
 they were brought into notice by Miller, of Chelsea. They 
 are not, however, as nutritious as the broad bean, which 
 contains 57 per cent, of nutritive matter.* 
 
 * The traveller Navarette speaks of a paste of kidney beans eaten 
 by every one in China from the emperor to the meanest peasant. The 
 juice is extracted from the beans, which are pressed into cakes like 
 large cheeses as white as snow. This paste is eaten either raw or fried 
 with fish, herbs, and other things, or smoked and mixed with carraway 
 seeds, which is said to be best of all. Navarette marvels at the vast 
 quantity of this food, known as Teu Fu, and says, ' that Chinese who 
 has Teu Fu, herbs, and rice, needs no other sustenance. It is a great 
 help in case of want, and is good for carriage.' 
 
230 OUR VIANDS 
 
 The small black beans called fricollis^ which are in such 
 great demand all over Mexico, are doubtless a kind of 
 kidney bean. Immense fields of this bean are cultivated, 
 and they are eaten at every meal, being relished alike by 
 native and foreigner. There is another sort of bean, called 
 the snail flower (Phaseolus Caracalla), from a Celtic word 
 meaning a hood, which was also brought by the Portuguese 
 from South America. Nor must we omit to mention the 
 locust bean, supposed to have been the food of John the 
 Baptist in the wilderness, although, if procurable, the 
 genuine locusts would be quite as likely to have formed the 
 diet of the recluse as the bean, seeing they are eaten with 
 relish by the natives of all the countries which they 
 devastate, as well as by all domestic animals. The locust 
 bean, called St. John's bread, is the fruit of the handsome 
 carob or carouba tree, which grows abundantly in Palestine 
 and other Eastern countries, where the pods are turned to 
 many uses, the husks being used for feeding cattle, and are 
 supposed to be those referred to in the parable of the 
 Prodigal Son. A juice expressed from the pods after the 
 beans are taken out, is used, with other ingredients, for 
 making sherbet ; the pulp is also eaten, and the leaves and 
 bark of the tree are used for tanning skins. Of late years 
 the dried pods have been imported into this country and 
 used for feeding cattle. 
 
 Lentils, which are also leguminous plants, have long 
 formed an article of diet in Egypt, and in many parts of 
 Europe, but have only recently been introduced into 
 England as a vegetable; they are, however, now much 
 esteemed, especially in soups. Lentils were largely used 
 in Greece, and were reputed to soften the temper and 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 231 
 
 dispose the mind to study; but the Romans, on the contrary, 
 said they made men lazy, hence the name from lentus (slow). 
 Haricot beans, which are much more extensively used on 
 the Continent than here, are the ripe beans of the white 
 French bean, but in Italy a dish is frequently served which 
 at first seemed to us to resemble the haricot bean, although 
 much smaller : this, however, we found to be the seed of 
 the white lupin, which is grown in large quantities, and 
 respecting which a legend is told. It is said that, when 
 the Holy Family were journeying to Egypt, being pursued, 
 they hid themselves in a field of lupins, but the seeds 
 rattled and almost betrayed them, whereupon they cursed 
 the plant, declaring that henceforth men should eat of them 
 and not be satisfied ; and they are certainly unsatisfying, 
 although pleasant eating. 
 
 Peas, which are more esteemed than beans at the present 
 time, have almost as ancient a pedigree, having probably 
 been brought from Egypt or Syria. Nevertheless, they do 
 not appear to have been cultivated in England so early as 
 the bean, for, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Fuller says, 
 they were brought from Holland and were fit dainties for 
 ladies they came so far and cost so dear. There is an 
 entry in the privy purse expenses of Henry VIII.: "Paied 
 to a man in rewarde for bringing peascodds to the King's 
 grace iiiji. viiu/. 
 
 The chick pea, which is cultivated in South Europe, 
 especially in Spain, does not boil soft, but is used to garnish 
 savoury dishes, and always forms part of the universal 
 Spanish dish called an olla, which is composed of bacon, 
 cabbage, pumpkin, and chick peas, called garvanzos. This 
 pea, when parched, is much esteemed, and is supposed to 
 
232 OUR VIANDS 
 
 be that which formed the parched pulse which was the 
 common provision of the Hebrew soldiers : it was also 
 probably that which was supplied to Daniel, Shadrach, 
 Meshech, and Abednego instead of meat. Parched pulse 
 seems also to have formed a part of the ordinary food of 
 the common people of ancient Rome. 
 
 A curious property is noticed as belonging to the 
 chickling vetch, a leguminous plant, which in the last 
 century was used for making bread, until forbidden by the 
 Government. Mixed with half flour it is good and harmless, 
 but eaten alone it produces paralysis of the limbs, and 
 swine fed upon it become very fat, but quite unable to 
 stand. The Italians, however, still eat it mixed with three- 
 parts of flour. There is a bean called the chestnut bean, dis- 
 covered by Mr. Cunningham growing on a tree in New South 
 Wales, which when roasted, is said to resemble chestnuts. 
 
 There is a kind of bean which, although not used in 
 cookery, must yet be noticed here, it is that known as the 
 Kuara bean, growing on a beautiful tree in Abyssinia and 
 many other parts of Africa. This tree, known as Erythrina, 
 produces a beautiful spike of scarlet flowers, succeeded by 
 pods containing several little scarlet beans with a black 
 spot, which vary so little in weight, that under the name of 
 carats they have been used from time immemorial as the 
 standard weight for gold and gems, especially diamonds. 
 
 A curious fact regarding leguminous plants is mentioned 
 in Rhind's 'History of the Vegetable Kingdom,' which 
 is that they generate so much carbonic acid gas, especially 
 when flowering, that in mining districts the overseers have 
 to guard against the deadly gas sinking into the pits and 
 causing the death of the miners, by especial ventilation 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 233 
 
 during the bean season. We do not remember to have 
 seen anything of the kind mentioned elsewhere, and it is 
 perhaps an exploded idea. Of late years green peas tinned, 
 have been largely imported from France, and are excellent 
 eating, but some in bottles, preserved in England, are still 
 better; we also get from America, Boston baked beans, and 
 succotash, which is Indian com mixed with beans, and very 
 good as a winter vegetable. 
 
 The vegetable which was in universal use before the 
 potato was known, still holds its place as second in public 
 estimation ; this is cabbage, which in its wild state appears 
 to be indigenous in England, as well as on the Continent of 
 Europe, but in its cultivated form came to us first, we are 
 told, through the Romans, although the many varieties of 
 this useful plant which are now sold in our markets and 
 served on our tables are of later introduction, and come 
 from various countries. According to Candolle, the wild 
 cabbage of the Mediterranean is the parent of all our 
 varieties. 
 
 Dr. Lindley divides cabbage into five classes, the first of 
 which includes kail as grown in Scotch kailyards that is, 
 cabbage in which the leaves are loose and do not turn into 
 a head. In the second class we find Brussels sprouts ; in 
 the third, common cabbage, savoys, etc. ; in the fourth, 
 cauliflower and brocoli ; in the fifth, kohl-rabi. 
 
 According to Columella, cabbage was a favourite food 
 with Roman freemen, and was sufficiently abundant to be 
 given also to slaves. Cromwell's soldiers are credited with 
 its introduction into Scotland, but we can hardly believe 
 that it was unknown to Scotland at so late a date. The 
 close-hearted variety was imported from Holland, until Sir 
 
234 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Anthony Ashley brought it into cultivation in England. It 
 is said that a cabbage is sculptured at the feet of this 
 gentleman on his monument in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, 
 but according to all accounts he was not altogether an 
 admirable personage, although he rendered a great benefit 
 to the gardeners of this country by the introduction of the 
 cabbage, which in some form serves as food for rich and 
 poor all the year round. 
 
 Sir Anthony Ashley brought his cabbage, it is said, in 
 more forms than one, from Cales (Cadiz), where he held a 
 command and grew rich by t iking unlawful possession of 
 other men's goods, and especially by appropriating some 
 jewels entrusted to him by a lady; hence he is said to have 
 got more by Cales (Cadiz) than by Cale (cabbage). This, 
 perhaps, may be the origin of our term to cabbage. A curious 
 cabbage is found in the Channel Islands. It grows to 8 or 
 even 16 feet in height, and throws out branches from the 
 central stem, which is so hard and woody that walking- 
 sticks are made of it, and it is used as rafters for cottage 
 roofs. Then there is the Portugal cabbage, the mid-ribs of 
 which are cooked like seakale.* 
 
 Among the curious kinds of cabbage must also be 
 reckoned the kohl-rabi, which is something between or, 
 rather, a combination of the cabbage and the turnip, the 
 stem of the cabbage swelling out just above the roots, and 
 forming a round, turnip-like mass, which in this country is 
 only grown and that very sparingly as food for cattle ; 
 but which, among the Dutch at the Cape, as well as on the 
 
 * The staple food of Russian peasants consists of black rye-bread 
 and cabbage broth thickened with oatmeal, to which salt fish is some- 
 times added, 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 235 
 
 Continent of Europe, especially in Germany, is greatly 
 esteemed as a vegetable, and, when properly cooked, is 
 very delicious. Both parts are used : the green leaves are 
 cooked like spinach, and put round the dish, whilst the 
 turnip part is cut into strips, boiled tender, and placed in 
 the centre, thus forming an ornamental and very appetising 
 addition to the dinner-table, which might be advantageously 
 introduced into England; but the prejudices of our cooks 
 are not easily overcome. It is hard to convince them that 
 what 'furriners' and cattle eat, can be good for Englishmen, 
 although we are glad to see in the greengrocers' shops 
 everywhere now, the large and very delicious cow cabbage, 
 one of which is sufficient for a dozen men. Perhaps, some 
 day the kohl-rabi also may appear on the market, instead 
 of being, as at present, occasionally exhibited at agricultural 
 shows as good food for cattle, in which exhibits, size is the 
 great recommendation j whereas for cooking purposes, the 
 smaller plants are preferable, and they should, of course, be 
 taken when both leaves and bulb are young and tender. 
 
 Next to ordinary cabbage, the savoy ranks as a favourite 
 for winter use, and is best when seen with frost shining on 
 its outer wrinkled leaves : whilst the different varieties of 
 cauliflower and brocoli now appear in the market all the 
 year round, the latter being sent up to Covent Garden 
 during the winter from Cornwall, where it has become a 
 great source of profit since the railway has allowed of its 
 rapid transmission to London. The favourite manure 
 employed for the brocoli fields is old rags, which are sent 
 over by the shipload from Ireland, and stacked for use, 
 being spread over the fields as required, without further 
 manipulation a practice which appears open to objection 
 
236 OUR VIANDS 
 
 on sanitary grounds, although we have never heard any 
 complaint on that score. Certainly the brocoli seems to 
 thrive luxuriantly amidst the old coats of 'Paddy from 
 Cork.' 
 
 Seakale (Crambe maritime?) grows wild on our sea coasts, 
 and we are told in Rhind's * History of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom ' that bundles of it were seen in the Chichester 
 market in 1753. Since that time it has been cultivated 
 with care, and has now become one of the most delicate 
 and highly-prized of our winter vegetables. Grown in 
 darkness under pots made for the purpose, and covered 
 up warmly, it comes to table white and tender, just at the 
 time most needed ; but its price makes it a luxury, so that 
 it can never become a poor man's vegetable. A very good 
 substitute for it may, however, be found in the sprouting 
 brocoli, the tender stems and purple flowers of which in 
 the early spring are almost equal in flavour to asparagus. 
 
 Cabbage of all kinds is highly nutritious and wholesome, 
 and was prescribed by Hippocrates in cases of colic, but 
 unless cooked fresh it is indigestible, and the smell of the 
 water in which it is boiled is very offensive : this, however, 
 may be obviated by boiling a crust of bread with it. 
 
 Sauerkraut, which may be looked upon as a German 
 national dish, is made by pressing layers of cabbage and 
 salt in a vessel. An acid fermentation ensues, which is 
 completed in a few days; the vessel is then covered 
 tightly, and the sauerkraut kept for use as required. 
 
 Spinach as a vegetable is more eaten and esteemed in 
 London than in the provinces, but it has been known for 
 centuries, and was cultivated by the monks as early as 
 1351. Its name is supposed to denote the country from 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 237 
 
 which it was derived, that is hispanach, or Spanish plant. 
 Two sorts appear in the market, a summer and a winter 
 spinach ; but there is a wild plant known as Good King 
 Henry, which both here and on the Continent is frequently 
 eaten as spinach, which it much resembles, although rather 
 coarser and tougher. It is, however, an excellent substitute, 
 especially in mountainous regions where the cultivated 
 plant is unattainable. Nettles used also to be boiled 
 and eaten in the spring as a substitute for spinach, 
 and are even now sometimes used medicinally by our 
 peasantry. 
 
 There are two other favourite vegetables which must be 
 mentioned, although they do not belong to the cabbage 
 tribe.' These are asparagus and artichokes, both maritime 
 plants, and both supposed to have come to us from the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, where they grow wild. The 
 wild asparagus is still often served at table in Venice, but 
 it is strong in flavour and less succulent than the cultivated 
 plant. There are two sorts of this delicious vegetable, one 
 pinkish-white and the other green ; the latter is certainly to 
 be preferred, although the pink is earliest in the market, 
 being often forced. It is grown largely in France and the 
 Channel Islands as well as in Cornwall, and is ready for table 
 long before the green variety which is that chiefly grown 
 in England can be produced, which is a great advantage, 
 as it prolongs the season of a vegetable almost universally 
 esteemed, but which was formerly unattainable before the 
 middle of April or beginning of May. Some of the 
 asparagus now cultivated is of immense size, but hardly 
 equals that grown by the ancient Romans, of which, 
 according to Pliny, three stalks would weigh a pound. 
 
238 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Roman cooks dried asparagus, and when wanted threw 
 them into hot water and boiled them for a few minutes, 
 when they became fresh and green. 
 
 Artichokes, unlike asparagus, have rather declined in 
 public estimation of late years, although they are still 
 largely cultivated on the Continent. The flavour is excellent, 
 but the price at which they are sold renders them unfit for 
 the tables of the people, who scarcely know them, and 
 generally look upon the underground, or Jerusalem arti- 
 choke, as the only plant of the name. Artichokes appear 
 to have been highly esteemed during the reign of Henry VIII., 
 in whose privy purse expenses the following entry occurs : 
 ' Paied to a servant of Maister Tresorer in rewarde for 
 bringing archecokks to the king's grace to Yorke place 
 iiijj. \\\}d. 
 
 Mushrooms, which have always been so highly esteemed, 
 were formerly known only in the wild state, but of late 
 years their cultivation has been attempted with great success, 
 and they are becoming every year more abundant, tons 
 being sent to market that have been grown in prepared 
 beds. 
 
 In France and Germany many strange and highly- 
 coloured mushrooms, which we should reject, are freely eaten, 
 but they are always inspected before being allowed to be 
 offered for sale, and I am informed that an onion is always 
 boiled with them, and if this becomes black, the whole 
 contents of the pot is thrown away as poisonous. It is 
 certain that we often reject as unwholesome and dangerous 
 many varieties of mushroom which might be eaten with 
 impunity, but the frequent illnesses and sometimes fatal cases 
 of poisoning which have from time to time occurred through 
 
PULSE AND CABBAGE 239 
 
 deleterious fungi, render people over-cautious in eating 
 those which are really wholesome and highly nutritious. 
 Among these may be reckoned the puff-balls, which were 
 formerly regarded as very poisonous, but are now known to 
 be delicious and wholesome when gathered young, cut into 
 slices and fried, but when they are at all yellow inside they 
 should not be eaten. It was formerly believed that all 
 mushrooms grown under a fig-tree, well manured and 
 watered, were wholesome. 
 
 Truffles, so highly belauded by all cooks for their 
 excellent flavour, are underground mushrooms, found by 
 the help of dogs or pigs. They grow principally under 
 elms, and were as much prized by the Romans as by 
 modern cooks. Anciently they were served with meat, 
 gravy, wine, skirrets, pepper, and honey, but Avicenna says 
 they were peeled, cut in pieces, cooked in salt and water, 
 and dished up with oil, benzoin, and spices. Leo Africanus 
 says the Arabs cook them in milk. They are now chiefly 
 used as a flavouring in various dishes. The giant mushroom, 
 known as the vegetable beefsteak, is by many looked upon 
 as equal in flavour to real beefsteak. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 SALADS AND SEASONINGS 
 
 HAVING now passed in review most of the vegetables 
 commonly seen on an English dinner-table, it remains only 
 to mention two or three plants grown chiefly for salads, 
 which on the Continent form an indispensable adjunct to 
 the dinner-table, and although less commonly used in 
 England, are still in great request during the summer 
 months. 
 
 First and foremost among salad plants is the lettuce, of 
 which there are two principal varieties, the cabbage and 
 the cos ; of these the latter is the crispest and best, but the 
 little tender cabbage lettuce is the first to appear in the 
 market, and was doubtless that earliest cultivated in 
 England, as the name of cos applied to the other variety 
 shows that it came to us originally from Cos or some of 
 the neighbouring Greek islands. There is a variety called 
 Bath cos, which is perhaps best of all, and is distinguished 
 by a brownish tinge on the leaves and stalks. 
 
 When lettuces are scarce and almost unattainable, their 
 place is supplied by endive, of which also two varieties 
 appear in the market, one with very much divided feathery 
 leaves, and the other, in which the leaves are longer and 
 plain. Both these are bleached for the table, and, with the 
 addition of what is known as small salad, that is, mustard 
 
 240 
 
SALADS AND SEASONINGS 241 
 
 and cress, and that very wholesome plant the watercress, 
 compose an excellent salad during the winter and spring 
 months. During this time also the delicious celery is in 
 season, and forms a very appetising addition to the 
 luncheon or dinner-table, being especially esteemed as an 
 adjunct to bread and cheese. Radishes also and beetroot 
 frequently form ingredients in a winter salad, which abroad 
 is often composed of sliced potato dressed like cucumber, 
 with oil and vinegar. 
 
 Celery is sometimes stewed as a vegetable, and of late 
 has been much recommended as a cure for rheumatism, and 
 a variety known as celeriac, of which the root only is eaten, 
 has long been cultivated in Germany for stewing. This 
 has recently been introduced into England, but is still only 
 rarely used. 
 
 The composition of a salad is a matter of great nicety, 
 and is seldom left to the taste of an ordinary cook. Abroad 
 the great bowl is set before the mistress of the house, who 
 proceeds to dress it with oil and vinegar, salt, pepper, and 
 mustard. In England less oil and a greater variety of 
 condiment is used, such as is well expressed in the poetical 
 recipe of Sidney Smith, 
 
 ' Two large potatoes, pass'd through kitchen sieve, 
 Smoothness and softness to the salad give; 
 Of mordent mustard add a single spoon, 
 Distrust the condiment that bites too soon ; 
 But deem it not, thou man of herbs, a fault 
 To add a double quantity of salt : 
 Four times the spoon with oil of Lucca crown, 
 And twice with vinegar procured from " town " ; 
 True flavour needs it, and your poet begs 
 The pounded yellow of two well-boiled eggs. 
 
242 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Let onion's atoms lurk within the bowl, 
 And scarce suspected, animate the whole ; 
 And lastly, in the flavour'd compound toss 
 A magic spoonful of anchovy sauce. 
 Oh ! great and glorious, and herbaceous treat, 
 'Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat. 
 Back to the world he'd turn his weary soul, 
 And plunge his fingers in the salad-bowl.' 
 
 Truly an excellent dressing; but curiously enough the 
 salad itself is omitted altogether. And here I would hint to 
 those not much accustomed to continental fashions, that 
 whenever the salad makes its appearance, whether at hotel 
 or private table, they may be sure that the feast, as far as 
 meats are concerned, is ended, and if they have not already 
 satisfied their appetite, they must content themselves with 
 the dish (usually roast fowl) which accompanies the salad, 
 for they will get nothing afterwards excepting pastry and 
 dessert. 
 
 Of the numerous useful pot-herbs known to cooks, each 
 deserves a special notice, for most of them have medicinal 
 as well as culinary virtues ; but it is impossible to do more 
 than name two or three of the principal. Parsley is perhaps 
 that in most universal use, for not only is it employed in 
 numerous seasonings and soups, but it is also largely used 
 in garnishing. It was used by the Greeks, and is said to 
 have been introduced into England in the sixteenth 
 century, but was probably known much earlier. 
 
 Sage, known now chiefly in association with onions as a 
 seasoning for ducks, geese, and roast pork, was formerly 
 much in vogue as a medicine in the form of tea, and the 
 leaves were also pressed in curd, which, under the name of 
 sage-cheese, was highly esteemed, as well as another cheese, 
 
SALADS AND SEASONINGS 243 
 
 that in which lemon-thyme took the place of sage. Herb- 
 cheese was a Roman delicacy, and one flavoured with 
 parsley seeds is said to have been greatly relished later 
 by Charlemagne, who had first been regaled upon it by 
 a bishop on a fast-day, and enjoyed it so much that he 
 afterwards ordered a supply of these cheeses to be sent to 
 him annually; and, lest the cheesemonger should send them 
 without the due proportion of seeds, he commanded that 
 they should be cut in two and afterwards skewered 
 together. 
 
 Thyme is perhaps best known by name from Shake- 
 speare's song, ' I know a bank whereon the wild thyme 
 grows,' but it is highly esteemed for its flavour in seasoning, 
 although a very small quantity suffices. 
 
 Mint, so much associated in the popular idea with lamb, is 
 one of a large variety of plants of the ame species, most of 
 which are highly valued in many countries for their medicinal 
 virtues. Peppermint is known everywhere, and the menthol, 
 which of late has been so much used for neuralgia, is pre- 
 pared from a mint, but that which we use in sauce for lamb, 
 is the spearmint. 
 
 Marjoram, chervil, basil, and marigold were much used 
 formerly in seasonings, but, like the sorrels, burnet, and 
 garden rocket, which were salad plants in the last 
 century, are seldom seen now. Fennel, also, is little used 
 except as a garnishing, and occasionally as a flavouring in 
 fish sauces, for fashion reigns in food as much as in dress, 
 and the epicures of to-day would turn up their noses at some 
 of the most highly esteemed delicacies of Apicius, whilst the 
 latter would probably scorn the cookery of the most renowned 
 French chef of to-day. We may, however, be thankful that 
 
244 OUR VIANDS 
 
 the gluttony of Rome and of ancient Egypt is no longer the 
 fashion. We eat, it is true, often more than hunger requires, 
 but certainly do not indulge in the excesses recorded by 
 ancient historians, although in Russia and Scandinavia 
 it is still the custom to introduce a variety of dishes as 
 a preliminary stimulant to the appetite before dinner. 
 In Russia salt fish, cheese, and brandy serve this purpose ; 
 but in Norway and Sweden a greater variety is introduced. 
 Among ourselves, perhaps, oysters may be considered in the 
 same light ; and even soups are regarded as a preparation 
 for more solid food. Oysters, however, must now be classed 
 among luxuries, and soups in England are far too rare. We 
 know nothing of the excellent bouillons and vegetable soups 
 which form the invariable prelude to more substantial dishes 
 on the Continent. If an English housewife wants soup she 
 buys an ox-tail, or a pound or two of lean beef, or a calf s 
 head, and the soup thus produced is of course too strong 
 and expensive for family consumption ; whereas abroad a 
 very small piece of meat, or none at all, and plenty of 
 vegetables, compose a wholesome and appetising soup at a 
 very small cost. 
 
 Our national culinary tastes at present are perhaps too 
 simple. The tables of the wealthy are, of course, supplied 
 with delicacies ; but among the middle classes and poor 
 there is a tendency to fancy the plainest of food the most 
 wholesome and economical. A leg of mutton roasted on 
 Sunday, and perhaps only half done, appears on the table 
 cold the greater part of the week, and is finished up on 
 Friday or Saturday in a watery and repellant hash; whereas 
 the same amount of meat, well cooked, with plenty of 
 vegetables, or made into pies or pasties, would make many 
 
SALADS AND SEASONINGS 245 
 
 savoury, appetising, and wholesome dishes, acceptable alike 
 to the elders and children of the household ; and the bone 
 crushed and boiled, with the addition of sundry vegetables, 
 peas, lentils, or a tin of tomatoes, would make a splendid 
 soup. Certainly we have much to learn in the way of 
 economical, wholesome, and savoury cookery; and it is 
 sincerely to be hoped that the various schools of cookery, 
 which seem to be slowly arousing an interest among 
 mistresses, will succeed also in inducing servants to study 
 cooking as an art far more worthy of study for them than 
 the piano, French, or embroidery, an art which, when they 
 get married, will enable them to draw their husbands and 
 sons from the public-house and club, for however cynical 
 the saying may appear, it is yet true that ' a man's heart lies 
 in the region of the stomach.' 
 
 I have not attempted in this little book to lay down any 
 hygienic rules as to diet, for I am convinced that in the 
 present day too much attention is paid to what is called the 
 digestibility of food. A healthy stomach ought to be able 
 to eat with relish, of any well-cooked meat in moderation, 
 and the extreme care now taken to give children everything 
 wholesome and nutritious, is tending to produce a nation of 
 valetudinarians in the near future. Sir Henry Thompson 
 has well said : ' The wholesomeness of a food consists solely 
 in its adaptability to the individual, and this relation is 
 governed mainly by the influences of his age, activity, 
 surroundings, and temperament or personal peculiarities.' 
 I have known people to experience indigestion and nausea 
 after eating boiled mutton, who could eat roast pork with 
 impunity. 
 
 Whilst carefully avoiding the gluttony and extravagance 
 
246 OUR VIANDS 
 
 of the ancients, we need not fall into the opposite extreme, 
 and deem meagreness and bad cooking, household virtues. 
 We need not live to eat, but since we must eat to live, we 
 may as well see that our necessary food is good and 
 appetising. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 
 
 ' 33s resting tfjat fofjicfj our jForefatfjcrs botleo, 
 $no boiling fofyat tfjfg rosteo muclj i 
 
 til Cooftc cannot licke ^is obinc fingers.' 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 
 
 THE old recipes which follow are taken chiefly from family 
 recipe-books dating back to the last century, and also from 
 two old books without date or title page, but known as 
 ' The Experienced English Housekeeper,' and * The Frugal 
 Housewife.' The frugality of the latter may be doubted, 
 if we are to judge by the quantity and quality of the 
 comestibles recommended, as an instance of which I would 
 refer to the Battaglia Pie (p. 267), but even this is eclipsed by 
 some in the other old book, as for instance, a goose pie which 
 is to be made by stuffing a good fat goose with a large fowl, 
 and that again with an ox tongue; and for a turkey pie 
 it is recommended to have two large capons to fill up the 
 corners. Certainly both the family parties and family 
 appetites of the last century, must have been much larger 
 than those of the present day. 
 
 It may be of interest also to notice that in a list of things 
 in season appended to the old cookery-book referred to, 
 ' The Experienced English Housekeeper,' we find mention 
 made of hothouse cucumbers in January, forced straw- 
 berries in March, cherries and apricots in April, whilst 
 among the fruits and vegetables are many scarcely known 
 now, such as services, which are the fruit of the service tree, 
 and under the name of sorbes, are still eaten in Italy, but 
 never appear now upon English tables. 
 
 Then, among vegetables we get cardoons, chervil, tarra- 
 goons, scorzonera, skerrits, salsify, sorrel, chard-beet, 
 burner, tansey, tarragonel mint, butnet, hyssop, tragopogon, 
 
 249 
 
250 OUR VIANDS 
 
 purslane, recombole, finscha, corn salad, etc., etc., a great 
 many of which will read as Greek to modern ears, although 
 we have some others in their places which, if not new, are 
 more abundant than in the days of our great-grandmothers. 
 To the old recipes I have added others of more modern 
 date, supplied by friends who have tried and found them 
 good. Some of these come from the Cape of Good Hope 
 and from Scotland, and a few are culled from the very 
 excellent 'Domestic Cookery/ by a lady, published in 
 1810, and also two or three Portuguese dishes from Mrs. 
 Addison's * Economical Cookery Book,' which is not so 
 well known as it deserves to be. 
 
 BREAD, CAKES, PASTRY. 
 
 Whole-meal Bread. To 5 Ibs. of meal take i oz. 
 carbonate of soda, f oz. tartaric acid, 3 pints water. 
 Dissolve the soda in 2 J pints of water, and mix thoroughly 
 with the meal in a glazed pan ; let it stand an hour or so ; 
 then dissolve the tartaric acid in the remaining \ pint of 
 water, and mix as quickly as possible ; put on and under 
 tins, and into the oven immediately oven rather sharp 
 heat. We have been favoured with the above recipe by a 
 London baker. 
 
 Unfermented Bread. Take fine flour 5 Ibs., bicarbonate 
 of soda i oz., pure tartaric acid i oz., water i quart, 
 salt \ oz. Mix the bicarbonate of soda and salt with the 
 flour, and put the tartaric acid into the -water, and then 
 blend the whole in the usual way of making dough ; bake 
 in tins, or without. Bread thus made has an agreeable 
 taste, keeps much longer than fermented bread, is more 
 digestible, and less liable to turn sour or mouldy. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 251 
 
 French Bread. With a quartern of fine flour mix the 
 yolks of 3 and whites of 2 eggs beaten and strained, a little 
 salt, \ pint of good yeast (not bitter), and as much milk 
 made a little warm as will work into a thin light dough ; 
 stir it about, but don't knead it. Have ready three quart 
 wooden dishes, divide the dough among them, set to rise, 
 then turn them out into the oven, which must be quick. 
 Rasp when done. 
 
 Rolls and Muffins, or any sort of bread, may be made to 
 taste new when two or three days old, by dipping them into 
 water and baking afresh ; or a stale loaf may be pulled to 
 pieces, dipped a moment into milk, and the pieces baked 
 a light brown. This is called pulled bread; in French, 
 croutons. 
 
 Baking Powder. An equal quantity in bulk of tartaric 
 acid, carbonate of soda, and ground rice or cornflour. 
 Mix thoroughly, and rub through a wire sieve. One 
 teaspoonful to be used to each pound of dry ingredients 
 used in your cake, pudding, etc. 
 
 The most primitive of bread is still made and eaten by 
 young travellers and colonists remote from civilisation. 
 
 Apropos of which bread, I have seen a letter from the 
 Transvaal, in which the writer says : ' We all know plum- 
 duff (minus the plums) is better 1000 miles off than on 
 the table, and rosterkook of mealie meal is a thing to 
 contemplate something to dwell upon, when so heavy 
 
 that G took one in his hand and wanted to know if 
 
 anyone wanted a dog killed : he knew he could brain him 
 with it, leave alone the choking. For anyone suffering 
 from indigestion, I could recommend our fare. It would 
 be kill or cure ! ' Transvaal rosterkook would seem to be 
 
252 OUR VIANDS 
 
 even worse than Australian damper; but I have been assured 
 by another traveller that if made of wheat-meal, with a 
 small quantity of sheep's-tail fat or dripping, the rostcrkook, 
 i.e., gridiron cake, is not to be despised. It is also good 
 cooked on hot stones. 
 
 Scone Loaf (Scotch recipe). 2 teacupfuls of flour, 
 
 1 teaspoonful of salt, i teaspoonful of cream of tartar, 
 \ teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, a little milk. Mix all 
 well with a spoon, not touching it with the hand, and bake 
 in a moderately quick oven for half an hour. 
 
 Tea Cakes. i Ib. flour, 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder, 
 3 oz. butter, pinch of salt. Mix; cut with glass or tin 
 shap?, and bake twenty minutes in a quick oven. 
 
 Cornish Heavy Cake. 2 Ibs. flour, \ Ib. lard, i Ib. 
 currants, \ Ib. candied peel, a pinch of salt. Mix well 
 all together, and roll out to the thickness of an inch, slash 
 it into squares on the top, and bake in a very quick oven 
 for ten minutes, or longer if required. 
 
 Loaf Cake. 3 Ibs. of flour, 2 Ibs. of butter, 2 Ibs. of 
 sugar, white of 9 eggs, small pint of yeast, some citron, 
 
 2 nutmegs, i Ib. of raisins, and a scant half-teaspoonful of 
 soda. Rub the flour and butter together, then add warm 
 milk, enough to make a soft dough. This should be done 
 at night. In the morning early add the whites of the eggs 
 and sugar beaten together, the fruit, soda dissolved, and let 
 it rise again. When risen, put it in the pans and let it stand 
 about twenty minutes before baking. 
 
 Excellent Sponge Cake. Take 7 eggs, the weight of 6 in 
 sugar and of 4 in flour, half the rind of i lemon chopped 
 very fine. The eggs to be well beaten, the yolks and whites 
 separately ; the sugar must be mixed in first, and then the 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 253 
 
 flour to be well stirred till put into the oven, and baked 
 about an hour. The oven must not be too hot. 
 
 Aberdeen Shortbread. i Ib. flour, 8 oz. sifted sugar, 
 12 oz. butter, 4 oz. ground rice, 4 oz. candied orange or 
 citron. Work the butter and sugar to a cream with the 
 hand, add the ground rice and peel, then the flour ; knead 
 it smooth and roll it out J inch thick. Cut the peel very 
 fine, and the paste into rounds or oblongs. Bake in a slow 
 oven till pale brown. 
 
 Cornflour Cake. Beat 2 oz. of butter to a cream, add 2 
 to 4 oz. (according to taste) of pounded loaf-sugar, and mix 
 well j break in 2 eggs and beat all well together ; stir in 
 lightly \ Ib. cornflour and i teaspoonful baking powder, 
 and beat well together for five minutes; then pour the 
 mixture into a greased cake tin, and put it into the oven 
 immediately ; bake for half an hour the heat should rise to 
 240 degrees. When done, turn the cake out of the tin and 
 slant it against a plate until cold. 
 
 Almond Cakes. The whites of 2 eggs well beaten, 2 oz. 
 of sweet almonds and i oz. of bitter, blanched and pounded, 
 i Ib. loaf sugar ; mix all together and pound in a mortar ; 
 roll into small balls, and prick each in three places with a 
 feather. Place the balls on paper far apart, and bake in a 
 slow oven. 
 
 Rye Muffins. With sweet milk f of a cup of rye meal, 
 f of a cup of flour, \ teaspoonful of soda, i teaspoonful of 
 cream of tartar, i teaspoonful of sugar, i saltspoon of salt, 
 i egg beaten and mixed with \ cup of sweet milk. Put the 
 ingredients together in the order mentioned, and then drop 
 small spoonfuls into hot fat. Cook until done when tried 
 with a fork. With sour milk i pint of sour milk, \ cup of 
 
254 OUR VIANDS 
 
 molasses, i saltspoonful of salt, the same of cinnamon, i 
 teaspoonful of soda, and 2 eggs. Add enough rye flour to 
 make a batter that will drop well from the spoon, and then 
 fry in hot lard. These muffins are good eaten plain with 
 an acid jelly or strong apple sauce ; the old-fashioned way 
 was to eat them with cider, but the apple sauce is the best 
 accompaniment. 
 
 Doughnuts. This is an old Dutch recipe, which has been 
 in use for more than a hundred years. Beat a cup of butter 
 into 2 cups of sugar. Add { teaspoonful of salt, 2 eggs well 
 beaten, and 2 cups of milk. Put in flour enough to make a 
 stiff batter. Now add a cup of yeast, and continue stirring 
 in flour till the dough is as stiff as you can stir it. Lay the 
 mass over, sprinkle it with flour, and set it to rise. It will 
 take from fifteen to eighteen hours. Then turn on a 
 moulding board and roll out Cut in balls i inch in 
 diameter. Slip a raisin in the centre of each one as you 
 cut it out make a sharp gash with a knife for the purpose, 
 closing the edges by wetting them, otherwise the raisin will 
 fry out in the fat. Let the cut-out nuts stand for half an 
 hour, then fry in hot fat for ten minutes. When they are 
 fried, drain them from all fat and roll them in powdered 
 sugar. Epicures soak them in Santa Cruz rum, and heap 
 them with ice cream for a dessert dish. 
 
 Buns (old recipe). Take 2 Ibs. flour, i pint of ale-yeast 
 with a little sack, and 3 eggs beaten; knead all together 
 with a little warm milk, nutmeg, and salt. Lay it before 
 the fire till it rise very light. Then knead into it a pound 
 of fresh butter and a pound of round carraway comfits, and 
 bake them in a quick oven on floured papers, in what shape 
 you please. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 255 
 
 Queencakes (old recipe). Take i Ib. of sugar sifted, pour 
 in yolks and whites of 2 eggs, \ Ib. of butter, a little 
 rose water, 6 spoonfuls of warm cream, i Ib. of currants, 
 and as much flour as will make it up. Stir well 
 together, and put in your patty-pans, being well buttered. 
 Bake them in an oven almost as hot as for bread for half 
 an hour ; then take them out and glaze them, and let them 
 stand but a little after the glazing is on, to rise. 
 
 A Spanish Cake (old recipe). Take 12 eggs, f Ib. of 
 the best moist sugar, mill them in a chocolate-mill till they 
 are all of a lather; then mix in i Ib. of flour, J Ib. of 
 pounded almonds, 2 oz. of candied orange-peel, 2 oz. of 
 citron, 4 large spoonfuls of orange or rose water, \ oz. of 
 cinnamon, and a glass of sack. It is best baked in a slow 
 oven. 
 
 Fine Almond Cakes (old recipe). Take i Ib. of Jordan 
 almonds, blanch them, beat them very fine with a little 
 orange-flower water, to keep them from oiling ; then take 
 i J Ib. of fine sugar, boil it to a high candy, and put in your 
 almonds. Then take 2 fresh lemons, grate off the rind 
 very thin, and put as much juice as to make it of a quick 
 taste; put this mixture into glasses, set it in a stove, 
 stirring often that it may not candy ; so when it is a little 
 dry, part it into small cakes upon sheets of paper or tin 
 to harden. 
 
 Saffron Cakes (old recipe). Take J peck of the finest 
 flour, i Ib. of butter, and i pint of cream or good milk ; 
 set the milk on the fire, put in the butter and a good 
 deal of sugar ; then strain saffron to your taste and liking 
 into the milk ; take 7 or 8 eggs, with 2 yolks (?), and 
 7 or 8 spoonfuls of yeast; put the milk to it when 
 
256 OUR VIANDS 
 
 almost cold, with salt and coriander seeds; knead all 
 together, make up in reasonable sized cakes, and bake in a 
 quick oven. 
 
 Maccaroons (old recipe). Take i Ib. of almonds, let 
 them be scalded, blanched, and thrown into cold water, 
 then dry them in a cloth and pound them in a mortar; 
 moisten them with orange-flower water, or the white of an 
 egg, lest they turn to an oil ; then take an equal quantity 
 of fine powdered sugar, with 3 or 4 whites of eggs ; 
 beat all well together, and shape them on wafer paper with 
 a spoon. Bake on tin plates in a gentle oven. 
 
 Gingerbread Nuts. Dissolve over the fire i Ib. of treacle, 
 J Ib. of sugar, and \ Ib. of butter. When the butter 
 is melted let it stand till nearly cold, then add ij Ib. of 
 flour, \ oz. of ginger, some carraways, and any other spice 
 you please. Mix the ingredients well together, and bake 
 them on tins in an oven of moderate heat. 
 
 Jumballs (old recipe). J Ib. of butter, the same 
 quantity of white sugar, i Ib. of flour, 3 oz. of almonds, 
 3 eggs, and a little lemon peel. Melt the butter in a pan, 
 beat the sugar into it, break the yolks of the eggs into it, 
 pound the almonds after they are blanched, and put with 
 the flour and lemon peel into the pan, mix together, and 
 make of the mixture coiled snakes, which bake. From 
 ' Out in the Forty-five,' a tale of the last century. N.B. 
 The rolled ginger cakes called jumballs in London are not 
 the old English sweetmeat of that name. 
 
 Gumballs (another old recipe). Take i Ib. of butter, 
 lay it all night in rosewater. When you use it take it 
 out and rub it in i Ib. of flour, then take 3 eggs with 2 of 
 the whites and a good spoonful of barm. Mix it into 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 257 
 
 a paste. Roule it up in sugar, and tye it up in knots to your 
 fancy. Go bake it on tin pans. 
 
 Almond Jumballs (old recipe). Blanch \ Ib. of almonds, 
 and beat them with a spoonfull of rosewater. Then take 
 i Ib. of sugar finely beaten, and sift a spoonfull of flower and 
 the whites of 2 eggs, beat in by degrees to your almonds, 
 and when 'tis well mixt, put it on your fire in a skillett; lett 
 it boyle, but be sure you keep stirring it all the while or else 
 it will burn. Then take it off and put it in a mortar again, 
 and beat it till it comes to a perfect paste. Then rowl it 
 out in long rowls and turn it in what formes you please. 
 Bake them on wafer-paper in your oven, and when they rise 
 take them out and lett them stand a little while, then putt 
 them in again and lett them stand till they are enough. 
 Lett not the oven be too hott. You must put in some 
 coriander seed ; put the flower in last. 
 
 Jumballs of Apricocks or Plums (old recipe). Bruise 
 the fairest apricocks in a dish and sett it on your fire, turn 
 it and stirr it till it is as stiff as dow (dough). Then rowl it 
 in balls and lett it lie all night. Then work some sifted 
 sugar with your apricock paste, then lay it out in pretty 
 fanceys and dry them on paper in a stove. 
 
 A Rich Currant Cake (old recipe). To a quartern and a 
 half of fine flour add 6 Ibs. of currants well picked, washed, 
 and dried, i oz. of cloves and mace, a little cinnamon, 2 
 grated nutmegs, i Ib. of white sugar, some candied lemon, 
 orange, and citron cut in thin pieces ; i pint of sweet wine, 
 a little orange-flower or rosewater, i pint of yeast, i quart 
 of cream, 2 Ibs. of butter melted, and poured into the 
 middle of the flour. Then strew some flour over the butter 
 and let it stand half an hour before the fire. After which 
 
 R 
 
258 OUR VIANDS 
 
 knead it well together, and put it before the fire to make it 
 rise. Work it up very well ; put the mixture into a round 
 tin, and bake two hours and a half in a gentle oven. 
 
 A Lenten Dish: Furmity, Frumenty ', or Fromenty (old 
 recipe and excellent). 3 pints of prepared wheat boiled 
 in 6 quarts of milk, together with i Ib. of raisins and i Ib. 
 of currants, until the fruit is a little tender ; meanwhile beat 
 up 5 eggs and make a stiff batter of flour and milk ; pour 
 this batter gradually into the saucepan and stir till it begins 
 to thicken, then take off the fire and add a pinch of salt, 
 half a nutmeg (grated), and sweeten to taste; pour into 
 dishes, and eat cold. N.B. Do not stone the raisins. 
 To prepare the wheat, take a pint of wheat, thoroughly 
 cleaned, soak it all night in water, then put it in a large 
 basin filled with cold water; tie a cloth over; put it in a 
 pot of boiling water up to the rim of the basin, and let it 
 boil many hours, till the wheat swells and forms a white 
 pudding in the basin. 
 
 Oatmeal Flummery (very old recipe). Put oatmeal (as 
 much as you want) into a broad deep pan, cover it with 
 water, stir it together and let it stand twelve hours ; then 
 pour off that water clear, and put on a good deal of fresh ; 
 shift it again in twelve hours, and so on in twelve more. 
 Then pour off that water clear, and strain the oatmeal 
 through a coarse hair sieve, pour it into a saucepan, keeping 
 it stirring all the time with a stick till it boils and becomes 
 very thick. Then pour it into dishes. When cold, turn it 
 into plates, and eat it with what you please, either wine 
 and sugar, or milk. It eats very well with cyder and sugar. 
 You may observe to put a great deal of water to the oat- 
 meal, and when you pour off the last water, put on just 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 259 
 
 enough fresh to strain the oatmeal well. Some let it stand 
 forty-eight hours, some three days, shifting the water every 
 twelve hours; but that is as you like it for sweetness or 
 tartness. Groats once cut do better than oatmeal. Mind 
 to stir it together when you put in fresh water. 
 
 Plumb Pottage (old recipe). Take a leg of beef and a 
 neck of mutton; put it into a gallon of water; let it boyle 
 till all the goodness is out. Then take it off the fire and 
 strain it, and when 'tis cold take off all the fat. The next 
 day grate the crumb of a sixpenny loaf and let it steep in a 
 little of your liquor. Set your liquor on the fire and put in 
 
 2 nutmegs cut into quarters, with a pretty deal of whole 
 mace, 3 or 4 cloves, and a little cinnamon. Put in 2 Ibs. of 
 currants picked and washed, 2 Ibs. of raisins of the sun, 2 Ibs. 
 of prunes, and J Ib. of dates stoned. Put in the bread with 
 your fruit, and when they are well boy Id together take it off the 
 fire. Sweeten to your taste and put in it a bottle of claret, a 
 pint of sack or vinegar. Garnish with grated bread crumbs 
 browned, and a heap of plumped raisins here and there.* 
 
 Quaking Pudding (old recipe). Put on your fire i pint 
 of milk and i pint of cream, mix i spoonfull of milk to 
 
 3 spoonfulls of flower, 6 eggs yolk and white, a little 
 grated nutmeg, a little mace with some suet ; beat it well 
 together, pour your boyling cream and milk into it; stir 
 it together, then butter your dish, fill him to the brim and 
 tye a cloth close over him, boyle him an hour and quarter, 
 then take him out, and pour over him melted butter and 
 sack, strew sugar over him, serve him to the table. 
 
 * This is probably the plum-porridge with which the "Man in the 
 South" is reported to have "burnt his mouth," and may also be 
 regarded as the origin of our famous Christmas plum-pudding. 
 
260 OUR VIANDS 
 
 To make a Tansie (old recipe). Break 18 eggs and put 
 away the white ; put to them i quart of cream, i pint of 
 the juice of spinage, i spoonfull of the juice of tansie, the 
 crumbs of a penny loaf; mix it together, and put a piece 
 of butter in your skillet, put your tansie into it, keep stirring 
 it over the fire till it is as thick as hasty pudding, then put 
 a piece of butter in a frying-pan, and put in your tansie with 
 a spoon, spread it abroad handsome, and turn it with a pye- 
 plate once or twice, frying him crimpr,.but not burn him; let 
 it be an inch thick. If the colour be not to your mind, heate 
 a fire-shovel, hold it over it, and make it what colour you 
 will, and serve it to the table with sweet oranges and sugar. 
 
 To make Cheesecakes (old recipe). Take i quart of 
 cream and i gallon of milk, run it tender as you do cold 
 cheese (i.e., make of it a light curd with rennet), when 'tis 
 come, brake it and draw the whey clean from it; work 
 your curd with a spoon through a hair sieve, put to it f Ib. 
 of butter, and as much sugar as will sweeten it, with the 
 yolk of 6 eggs, and a little grated nutmeg and a drop of 
 rosewater : work it well, and mix i Ib. of currants, washed 
 and picked, amongst it ; put it into your paste, bake it half 
 an hour, then take them out and serve them to the table. 
 
 To make Rice Cheesecakes (old recipe). Boil 2 quarts of 
 cream or milk with a little whole mace and cinnamon, then 
 take off the fire, remove the spice, and put in \ Ib. of rice 
 flour, and place it on the fire again to boil, stirring it together ; 
 then take it off, and beat the yolks of 24 eggs, set it on the 
 fire again, and keep stirring till it is as thick as curds ; add 
 | Ib. of blanched almonds pounded, and sweeten to your 
 palate ; or, if you chuse, you may put in \ Ib. of currants, 
 well picked, and rubbed in a clean cloth. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 261 
 
 Lemon Cheesecakes (old recipe). Take 2 large lemon peels, 
 boil and pound them well together in a mortar, with about 
 6 oz. of loaf-sugar and the yolks of 6 eggs ; mix all well 
 together, and fill your patty-pans about half full. Orange 
 cheesecakes you may do the same way, but be careful to boil 
 the peels in two or three waters to get out the bitterness. 
 
 To make a Custard (Q\& recipe). Boil i quart of cream or 
 milk, with a stick of cinnamon, a large mace, and a quartered 
 nutmeg ; when half cold, mix with it the yolks of 8 eggs and 
 4 whites beaten well, some sack, sugar, and orange-flower 
 water. Set it on the fire, and stir it till a white froth rises ; 
 skim that off, then strain it, and fill your custard cups, and 
 let them just boil up in the oven, or if you boil the eggs 
 in the cream all together, then you may put it in your 
 custard cups overnight, and they will be fit for use. 
 
 To make Oatmeal Pudding (old recipe). To J pint of 
 oatmeal, bruised, put \ pint of milk, boyling hot. Let 
 it stand all night, put to it i Ib. of suet, \ Ib. of raisins, 
 and as many currants, 5 eggs, three of the whites, a handful 
 of grated bread, a little nutmeg, some salt, a little sugar, and 
 a glass of white wine. Boyle it three hours. 
 
 Our Own Plum Pudding. i Ib. of best beef suet chopped 
 very fine, i Ib. best raisins stoned and cut in half, i Ib. of 
 currants well washed and dried, J Ib, of flour, \ Ib. of finely- 
 crumbled bread crumbs, \ Ib. mixed candied peel finely 
 shred, \ Ib. of white sugar pounded and sifted, a little lemon 
 peel grated, small teaspoonful of mixed spice and half a 
 nutmeg, the juice of half a lemon, 3 eggs well beaten, and 
 a \ pint of brandy. Mix all the dry materials together 
 thoroughly with a wooden spoon, then add the eggs, brandy, 
 and lemon, with enough cold water to make a rather stiff 
 
262 OUR VIANDS 
 
 compound. Pat into well - buttered basins, cover with 
 buttered paper and a well-floured cloth, and boil for eight 
 or nine hours. We generally make a treble quantity at 
 Christmas, boiling all the puddings the same time nine 
 hours, hang the basins in the kitchen (not to touch the 
 wall), and they will keep for months. When wanted for 
 use, boil an hour, taking care not to allow the water to rise 
 to the top of the basin, or covering the basin with another 
 well-wetted and floured cloth. 
 
 Norfolk or Hard Dumpling. Take i Ib. flour and mix 
 it with cold water by degrees till it is a stiff dough, putting 
 in a pinch of salt. Knead it well for at least five minutes, 
 then cut it into pieces about the size of an orange. It 
 should be stiff enough to shrink up when cut, as dough 
 does when it is risen. Work each piece round in the 
 hollow of the hand till it forms a smooth ball, cutting off 
 the small knob it is worked up with. Put the dumplings 
 into plenty of boiling water, and boil for twenty minutes. 
 Serve with well-dredged and brown dripping, or with butter 
 or treacle. 
 
 Light or Suffjlk Dumplings. Take a portion of bread 
 dough which is ready for baking ; cut it into pieces the size 
 of an orange ; knead or work them up into smooth round 
 balls and boil from twenty to thirty minutes ; or they may 
 be made by adding a teaspoonful of baking powder and a 
 pinch of salt to i Ib. of flour worked into balls and boiled 
 as above. The gravy to be served with them is made of 
 the dripping from a well-basted and dredged joint, to which 
 more flour is added, boiling it till well browned ; it must be 
 served very hot. 
 
 Good Fritters (old recipe). Mix \ pint of good cream 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 263 
 
 very thick with flour, beat 6 eggs, leaving out 4 whites ; add 
 6 spoonfuls of sack, and strain them into the cream ; put 
 in a little grated nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, and salt ; then 
 put in another J pint of cream, and beat the batter near an 
 hour ; pare and slice your apples thin ; dip every piece in 
 the batter, and throw them into a pan with boiling lard. 
 
 Pancakes (old recipe). Take i pint of thick cream, 6 
 spoonfuls of sack, and \ pint of fine flour, 6 eggs (but only 
 3 whites), i grated nutmeg, \ Ib. melted butter, a very 
 little salt, and some sugar ; fry them thin in a dry pan. 
 
 Crumply Pudding. i quart of milk, 4 tablespoonfuls of 
 flour, 2 eggs, \ Ib. of moist sugar, and a little finely-chopped 
 suet. Grease a mould, stick it with raisins, orange and 
 lemon peel, and citron ; make the flour into a smooth paste 
 with the milk, and add the sugar. Pour this into the mould, 
 and on the top place sufficient chopped suet to cover it. 
 Bake in the oven until the suet looks brown and set. Turn 
 out of the mould, and serve very hot. Mrs. Addison. 
 
 Sicilian Pudding. Melt J Ib. of fresh butter and let it 
 cool gradually, then pour it on the yolks of 2 eggs and the 
 white of i ; add \ Ib. pounded sugar, and flavour with 
 almond. Then line a dish with good puff paste, and put a 
 layer of one or two kinds of preserves in it, pouring the 
 above mixture over all, and bake it; when it is just baked, 
 spread over it the whites of 2 eggs, whipped to a solid froth, 
 and sift some finely-powdered sugar over it till it looks quite 
 white ; let it stand for a few minutes in a cool oven or before 
 a fire to harden, and then stick spikes of blanched almonds 
 all over it. Weekly Scotsman. 
 
 Alderman's Pudding. 6 oz. bread crumbs, 4 oz. sugar, 
 4 oz. suet, i lemon rind, i egg, i tablespoonful brandy. 
 
264 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Chop the suet finely, add the bread crumbs and sugar, grate 
 over the lemon rind. In a separate basin beat the egg till 
 very light, add it to the mixture in the basin. Pour over 
 the brandy, and mix all well together. Grease a mould with 
 butter, pour in the mixture, cover the mould with a sheet of 
 paper. Place the mould in a saucepan half full of boiling 
 water, and let the water boil for one hour and twenty 
 minutes. Turn out the pudding on to a hot dish, and pour 
 round a jam or wine sauce. Weekly Scotsman. 
 
 Scotch Pudding. i teacupful of suet, and the same 
 quantity of sugar and currants, i \ teacupful each of flour 
 and milk, ij tablespoonful of ground rice, i teaspoonful of 
 soda, and the same quantity of spice. Mix well together, 
 and put in a basin with a plate on the top, in boiling water, 
 not to cover the basin. Boil two hours. Cape Recipe. 
 
 Brown Betty. Fill a pie-dish with alternate layers of 
 bread crumbs dotted with butter and slightly sprinkled 
 with spice, and sharp-flavoured apples cut thin and strewn 
 with sugar. Let the top layer be of crumbs, and then 
 bake a nice light brown. 
 
 Brentwood Pudding. 3 oz. bread crumbs, 3 oz. butter, 
 3 oz. sugar, the yolks of 3 eggs, the juice of a lemon 
 and half the peel grated. Put a layer of jam or marmalade 
 at the bottom of a pie-dish, over which pour the above 
 ingredients well mixed. Bake forty minutes. Take it out 
 at the end of thirty minutes and pour over it the whites of 
 the eggs beaten to a stiff froth with lump-sugar, and then 
 return it to the oven for ten minutes. Good hot or 
 cold. 
 
 On Paste making. The art of paste making is a mystery 
 to which some cooks never attain : they have, as it is termed, 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 265 
 
 a heavy hand, and, do what thay will, their pastry is never 
 light. The varieties of paste and modes of making are 
 numerous. There is short paste, flaky or puff paste, French 
 paste, and the raised crust used for pork and other meat 
 and game pies. Sifted sugar is generally used in short 
 crust, which, of course, renders it unfit for use with meat. 
 The ingredients for a good crust are, J Ib. of butter to 
 i Ib. of flour, i tablespoonful of sifted sugar, and J pint 
 of water; or less butter may be used, with the addition of 
 the yolks of 2 eggs and J pint of milk instead of water. 
 For the best puff paste equal parts of flour and butter are 
 used, part of the butter being rubbed into the flour and the 
 rest spread in layers on the crust, which should be rolled 
 out several times, a very slight sprinkling of flour being put 
 over the butter as spread, which, when rolled out, serves to 
 separate the layers and make it light and flaky. Some 
 cooks beat the paste with a rolling pin; some set it 
 aside for some hours in a cold cellar, or on a marble 
 slab; whilst others roll it out quickly and put it in the 
 oven at once. We have tasted excellent pastry made 
 in all these ways, and also when clarified dripping, 
 or half butter half lard has been used instead of all butter. 
 For common household pastry, 8 oz. of butter and lard, or 
 clarified dripping, to i Ib. of flour is quite sufficient. To 
 make raised crust, boil J Ib. of lard, or clarified dripping, 
 in ij gills of water, and pour it hot on to i Ib. of flour, to 
 which a good pinch of salt has been added. Mix into a 
 stiff paste, pinch off enough of it to make the lid, and keep 
 it hot. Flour your board and work the paste into a ball, 
 then with the knuckles of your right hand press a hole in 
 the centre, and mould the paste into a round or oval shape, 
 
266 OUR VIANDS 
 
 taking care to keep it a proper thickness. Having put in 
 the meat, well seasoned, join the lid to the pie, which raise 
 lightly with both hands so as to keep it a good high shape, 
 cut round the edge of the lid with a sharp knife, and make 
 the trimmings into leaves to ornament the pie ; and having 
 placed these on, with a rose in the centre, put the pie on a 
 floured baking-sheet, and brush it over with yolk of egg. 
 The crust of the pie should be cool and set, before putting 
 it into the oven, which should be a moderate heat. Some 
 people use a tin mould, but it is much better raised by the 
 hand ; in order to succeed, the crust must be moulded 
 whilst hot, and it also requires quick manipulation. 
 
 Paste for Venison Pasties (old recipe). Take 4 Ibs. of 
 butter to \ peck of flour ; rub it all into your flour, but not 
 too small; then make it into a paste, and beat it with a 
 rolling-pin for an hour before you use it. If you please 
 you may beat 3 or 4 eggs, and put them in your paste when 
 you mix it. 
 
 An Umble Pie (old recipe). Take the umbles of a buck, 
 boil them and chop them as small as meat for minced pies, 
 put to them as much beef suet, 8 apples, J Ib. of sugar, 
 1 1 Ib. of currants, a little salt, some mace, cloves, nutmeg, 
 and a little pepper ; then mix them together, and put it into 
 a paste; add J pint of sack, the juce of i lemon and 
 orange, close the pie, and when it is baked serve it up. 
 
 A Lumber Pie (old recipe). Take ij Ib. of fillet of veal, 
 mince it with the same quantity of beef suet, season it with 
 sweet spice, 5 pippins, i handful of spinach, a hard lettuce, 
 thyme, and parsley ; mix it with a penny loaf grated, and 
 the yolks of 2 or 3 eggs, sack and orange-flower water, 
 ij Ib. of currants and preserves, with a caudle. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 267 
 
 A Battaglia Pie (old recipe). Take 4 small chickens, 
 squab pigeons, and 4 sucking rabbits, cut them in pieces, 
 and season them with savoury spice j lay them in the pie 
 with 4 sweetbreads sliced, as many sheep's tongues and 
 shivered palates, 2 pair of lamb sweetbreads, 20 or 30 
 cocks' combs, with savoury balls and oysters ; lay on butter, 
 and close the pie with a lear. 
 
 Minced Pie (old recipe). Shred i Ib. of neat's tongue 
 parboiled, with 2 Ibs. of beef suet, 5 pippins, and a green 
 lemon peel ; season it with i oz. of spice, a little salt, i Ib. 
 of sugar, 2 Ibs. of currants, J pint of sack, a little brandy, 
 the juice of a lemon, J Ib. of citron, lemon, and orange 
 peel ; mix these together, and fill the pie. 
 
 A Lamb Pie with Currants (old recipe). Take a leg 
 and a loin of lamb, cut the flesh into small pieces, and 
 season with a little salt, cloves, mace, and nutmeg ; then 
 lay the lamb in your paste, with as many currants as you 
 think proper, and some Lisbon sugar ; a few raisins, stoned 
 and chopped small, and some forced meat balls, yolks of 
 hard eggs, with artichoke bottoms, or potatoes boiled and 
 cut in dice, with candied orange and lemon peel in slices ; 
 put butter on the top, and a little water ; then close your 
 pie. Bake it gently ; when it is baked, take off the top and 
 put in your caudle, made of gravy from the bones, some 
 white wine and juice of lemon ; thicken it with the yolks 
 of 2 eggs and a bit of butter. When you pour in your 
 caudle, let it be hot, and shake it well in the pie; then serve 
 it, having laid on the cover. 
 
 Note. If you observe too much fat swimming on the 
 liquor of your pie, take it off before you pour in your 
 caudle. 
 
268 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Eel Pie (old recipe). Cut, wash, and season them with 
 sweet seasoning and a handful of currants ; butter and close 
 it. Some omit the currants. 
 
 MEATS, ETC. OLD RECIPES. 
 
 For Roasting Beef. If a sirloin or rump, you must not 
 salt it, but lay it a good way from the fire ; baste it once or 
 twice with water and salt, then with butter ; flour it, and 
 keep basting it with its own dripping. When the smoak of 
 it draws to the fire it is near enough done. If the ribs, 
 sprinkle them with a little salt half an hour before you lay 
 it down ; dry and flour it, then butter a piece of paper 
 very thick, and fasten it on to the beef; put the buttered 
 side next the meat. 
 
 For Roasting Lamb or Mutton. The loin and the saddle 
 must be done as the beef, but the skin should be raised 
 and skewered on again to prevent it from scorching. A 
 quarter of an hour before you take it up, take off the skin, 
 dust on some flour, baste with butter, and sprinkle on a 
 little salt. Garnish with scraped horse radish, and serve 
 with potatoes, brocoli, French beans, watercresses, pickled 
 cabbage, etc. The shoulder requires onion sauce. 
 
 To Roast Mutton, Venison Fashion. Take a hind quarter 
 of fat mutton, and cut it like a haunch ; lay it in a pan with 
 the back side down ; pour a bottle of red wine over it, and 
 let it lie twenty-four hours ; then spit it and baste it with 
 the same liquor, and butter all the time it is roasting at 
 a good quick fire; two hours and a half will do it. 
 Have a little good gravy in a boat, and currant jelly in 
 another. A good fat neck of mutton eats finely done 
 thus. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 269 
 
 A Shoulder or Leg of Mutton Stuffed. Stuff with mutton 
 suet, salt, pepper, nutmeg, grated bread, and yolks of eggs ; 
 then stick it all over with cloves and roast it. When about 
 half done, cut off some of the under side of the fleshy end 
 in little bits ; put these into a pipkin with a pint of oysters, 
 liquor and all, a little salt and mace, and J pint of hot 
 water; stew them till half the liquor is wasted, then put in 
 a piece of butter rolled in flour, shake all together, and 
 when the mutton is done take it up ; pour the sauce over 
 it and send to table. 
 
 To Roll a Breast of Mutton. First bone the mutton, 
 then make a savoury forced meat for it, and wash it over 
 with the batter of eggs, then spread the forced meat on if, 
 roll it in a collar, and bind it with packthread, then roast 
 it ; put under it a regalia of cucumbers. 
 
 To Roast Veal. Paper the udder of the fillet, and the 
 back of the loin to prevent scorching; lay the meat at 
 some distance from the fire at first, baste it well with 
 butter and dust it with flour, then draw it nearer the fire, 
 and a little before you take it up baste it again. The 
 breast must be roasted with the caul on, and the sweet 
 bread skewered on the back side. It is proper to have a 
 toast nicely baked laid in the dish with the loin. Garnish 
 with lemon and barberries. Most people stuff the fillet 
 and shoulder thus : Take about i Ib. of grated bread, J Ib. 
 of suet, some parsley shred fine, thyme, marjoram or savory, 
 a small onion, a little grated nutmeg, lemon peel, pepper 
 and salt, and mix well together with whites and yolks of 
 eggs ; put half in the udder, and the rest in the holes from 
 which the bones were taken. 
 
 To Roast Pork. Pork requires more cooking than other 
 
270 OUR VIANDS 
 
 meat, and it is best to sprinkle it with a little salt the night 
 before you use it, except on the rind, which must never be 
 salted. The best way to roast a leg is to parboil, then take 
 off the skin and lay it down ; baste it with butter; then take 
 a little pepper and salt, a little sage shred fine, bread 
 crumbs, and a little nutmeg. Throw these all over it whilst 
 it is roasting ; then put a little drawn gravy into the dish 
 with the crumbs that drop from it. Some stuff the knuckle 
 with sage and onions, and serve with apple sauce. This is 
 called a mock goose. 
 
 To Roast a Pig. Spit your pig, and lay it down to a clear 
 fire. Put into the belly a few sage leaves, a little pepper 
 and salt, a small crust of bread, and a bit of butter ; sew it 
 up, and flour well. When the skin is crisp put two plates 
 into the dripping-pan to save the gravy which comes from 
 it. Put J Ib. of butter in a clean coarse cloth, and rub all 
 over till the flour is quite taken off; then take it up into 
 your dish, take the sage, etc., out of the belly, and chop it 
 small. Cut off the head, open it, and take out the brains, 
 which chop, and put the sage and brains into \ pint of good 
 gravy, with a piece of butter rolled in flour ; then cut your 
 pig down the back, and lay it flat on the dish. Cut off the 
 two ears, and lay one on each shoulder; put the head 
 between the shoulders, pour the gravy out of the plates into 
 your sauce and then into the dish; garnish with lemon, and 
 if you please, pap sauce in a basin. 
 
 To Roast a Hare. Truss your hare, and then make a 
 pudding thus : \ Ib. of beef suet minced fine, as much bread 
 crumbs, the liver chopped fine, parsley and lemon peel shred 
 fine, seasoned with pepper, salt, and nutmeg. Moisten with 
 an egg, and put it into the hare's belly. Let your dripping- 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 271 
 
 pan be very clean ; put into it i quart of milk and 6 oz. of 
 butter, and baste it with this till the whole is used. About 
 five minutes before you take it up dust on a little flour, and 
 baste with fresh butter that it may be well frothed. Put a 
 little gravy in the dish and the rest in a boat ; garnish with 
 lemon. 
 
 To Roast a Green Goose with Green Sauce. Roast your 
 goose nicely ; in the meantime make your sauce thus : Take 
 J pint of the juice of sorrel, i spoonful of white wine, a little 
 grated nutmeg, and some grated bread. Boil this over a 
 gentle fire, and sweeten with pounded sugar to your taste ; 
 garnish with lemon. 
 
 The German Way of Dressing Fowls. Take a turkey or 
 fowl, stuff the breast with what forcemeat you like, fill the 
 body with roasted chestnuts peeled, and lay it down to 
 roast. Take \ pint of good gravy, with a little piece of 
 butter rolled in flour ; boil these together with some small 
 turnips and sausages, cut in slices, and fried or boiled ; 
 garnish with chestnuts. You may dress ducks the same way. 
 
 To Roast Quails. Truss them, and stuff with beef suet 
 and sweet herbs shred very fine, and seasoned with a little 
 spice. When warm baste with salt and water, then dredge 
 them, and baste with butter. For sauce, dissolve an anchovy 
 in good gravy, with 2 or 3 shallots shred very fine, and the 
 juice of a Seville orange. Dish them up in this sauce, and 
 garnish with fried bread crumbs and lemon. 
 
 To Roast Plovers. Green plovers are roasted as you do 
 woodcocks. Lay them upon toast, and put good gravy 
 sauce in the dish. Grey plovers are roasted or stewed thus : 
 Make a forcemeat of artichoke bottoms cut small, seasoned 
 with pepper, salt, and nutmeg. Stuff and put the birds into 
 
272 OUR VIANDS 
 
 a saucepan with a good gravy just to cover them, a glass of 
 white wine, and a blade of mace; cover them close, and 
 stew them softly till they are tender; then take up your 
 plovers into a dish, put in a piece of butter rolled in flour 
 to thicken your sauce ; let it boil till smooth, squeeze in a 
 little lemon, scum it clean, and pour over the birds ; garnish 
 with orange. 
 
 To Roast Calf s Liver. Lard it well with large slices of 
 bacon, fasten it on a spit, roast it at a gentle fire, and serve 
 with good gravy or melted butter. 
 
 To Roast an Eel. Scour the eel well with salt ; skin him 
 almost to the tail; then gut, wash, and dry him. Take 
 J Ib. of suet shred fine, sweet herbs, and a shallot ; mix 
 together with salt, pepper, and nutmeg ; scotch your eel on 
 both sides, wash it with yolks of eggs, lay some seasoning 
 over it, and stuff the belly with it, then draw the skin over it, 
 and tie it to the spit ; baste with butter, and make a sauce 
 of anchovies and melted butter. Any other river or sea 
 fish that are large enough may be dressed in the same way. 
 
 For Boiling Meats we need not give old recipes, as they 
 are the same as the modern, but this mode of cooking 
 seems to have been extended to things which we should 
 not dream of boiling nowadays, such as geese and ducks, 
 woodcocks and snipes, pheasants and partridges, the latter 
 being served with celery or mushroom sauce, or with melted 
 butter, flavoured with parsley, lemon, and the livers of the 
 birds. 
 
 To Fry Beefsteaks. Take rump steaks, beat them very 
 well with a roller, fry them in \ pint of ale that is not 
 bitter, and whilst they are frying, for your sauce, cut a large 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 273 
 
 onion small, a very little thyme, some parsley shred small, 
 some grated nutmeg, and a little pepper and salt ; roll all 
 together in a piece of butter, and then in a little flour, put 
 this into the stew-pan, and shake all together. When the 
 steaks are tender, and the sauce of a fine thickness, dish 
 them up. 
 
 To Fry Sausages with Apples. Take J Ib. of sausages 
 and 6 apples, slice 4 about as thick as a crown, cut the 
 other 2 in quarters, fry them with the sausages of a fine 
 light brown, and lay the sausages in the middle of the dish, 
 with the apples round ; garnish with the quartered apples. 
 Stewed cabbage and sausages fried is a good dish; then 
 heat cold peas pudding in the pan, when it is quite hot, 
 heap it in the middle of the dish, and lay the sausages all 
 round edgeways and one in the middle at length. 
 
 To make Scotch Collops. Dip slices of lean veal in the 
 yolks of eggs that have been beaten up with melted butter, 
 a little salt, some grated nutmeg, and grated lemon peel. 
 Fry them quick, shake them all the time to keep the butter 
 from oiling. Then put to them some beef gravy and some 
 mushrooms, or forced meat balls. Garnish with sausages 
 and sliced lemon, and slices of fried bacon. 
 
 To Stew Beef Collops. Cut raw beef, as veal is cut for 
 Scotch collops. Put the collops into a stew-pan with a 
 little water, a glass of white wine, a shallot, a little dried 
 marjoram rubbed to powder, some salt and pepper, and a 
 slice or two of fat bacon. Set this over a quick fire till the 
 pan be full of gravy, which will be in a little time, add to 
 it a little mushroom juice; serve it up hot, garnished with 
 sliced lemon or small pickles and red cabbage. 
 
 To Stew a Hare. Beat it well with a rolling-pin in its 
 
 S 
 
274 OUR VIANDS 
 
 own blood, cut it into little bits and fry them. Then put 
 the hare into the stew-pan with a quart of strong gravy, 
 pepper and salt, and let it stew till tender. Thicken it 
 with butter and flour. Serve it up in its gravy, with sippets 
 and lemon sliced for garnish. 
 
 To Jug a Hare. Having skinned your hare, turn the 
 blood into a jug; then cut the hare in pieces, but do not 
 wash it ; cut f Ib. of fat bacon into thin slices ; pour upon 
 the blood about i pint of strong old pale beer ; put into the 
 jug i middling-sized onion, stuck with 3 or 4 cloves and 
 i bunch of sweet herbs, and having seasoned the hare with 
 pepper, salt, nutmeg, and lemon peel grated, put in the 
 meat, a layer of hare and a layer of bacon ; then stop the 
 jug close, so that the steam be kept in entirely ; put the jug 
 into a kettle of water over the fire, and let it stew three 
 hours, then strain off the liquor, and having thickened it 
 with burnt butter, serve it up hot, garnished with lemon juice. 
 
 To Stew Ducks. Draw and clean your ducks well, and 
 put them into a stew-pan with strong beef gravy, a glass of 
 red wine, a little whole pepper, an onion, an anchovy, and 
 some lemon peel ; when well stewed, thicken the gravy with 
 butter and flour, and serve all up together, garnished with 
 shallots. 
 
 To Spitchcock Eels. You must split a large eel down the 
 back, and joint the bones, cut it in two or three pieces, 
 melt a little butter, put in a little vinegar and salt ; let your 
 eel lay in it two or three minutes, then take the pieces out, 
 roll them in bread crumbs, and broil them of a fine brown. 
 Let your sauce be plain butter, with the juice of a lemon, 
 or good gravy with an anchovy in it. 
 
 To Broil Eggs. First put your salamander into the fire, 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 275 
 
 then cut a slice round a quartern loaf, toast it brown and 
 butter it, lay it on a dish, and set it before the fire j poach 
 7 eggs just enough to set the whites, take them out care- 
 fully and lay them on your toast, brown them with the 
 salamander, grate some nutmeg over them, and squeeze 
 Seville orange over all. Garnish with orange cut in slices. 
 
 To Hash Mutton. Take mutton half roasted, and cut it 
 in pieces as big as half a crown ; then put into a sauce-pan 
 \ pint of red wine, as much strong broth or gravy, i 
 anchovy, i shallot, a little whole pepper, some nutmeg 
 grated, and salt to taste ; let these stew a little, then put in 
 the meat and a few capers and samphire shred ; when it is 
 hot through, thicken it up with a piece of butter rolled in 
 flour ; have toasted sippets ready to lay on the dish, and 
 pour the meat on them. Garnish with lemon. 
 
 To Mince Veal. Take underdone veal and shred as fine 
 as possible, then take some beef gravy, dissolve in it the 
 quantity of a hazel nut of cavear to J Ib. of meat ; put into 
 the gravy the minced veal, and let it boil not above a 
 minute, pour it into a soup plate or dish upon sippets of 
 toasted bread, and garnish with pickled cucumbers, or with 
 slices of broiled bacon. 
 
 To Dress a Mock Turtle. Take a calf's head with the 
 skin on, cut off the horny part in thin slices, put in the 
 brains and the giblets of a goose well boiled ; have ready 
 between i quart and 3 pints of strong mutton or veal gravy, 
 with i pint of Madeira wine, i large teaspoonful of cayenne 
 pepper, half the peel of a large lemon shred very fine, a 
 little salt, the juice of 2 lemons ; stew all these together 
 till the meat is very tender, which will be in about an hour 
 and a half; then have ready the shell of a turtle edged with 
 
276 OUR VIANDS 
 
 a paste of flour and water hardened in the oven ; put in 
 the ingredients, and set it in the oven to brown, and when 
 that is done garnish the top with yolks of hard-boiled eggs 
 and forced meat balls. 
 
 To Hash Cold Fowl. Cut up your fowl into small pieces, 
 put them in a stew-pan with a blade or two of mace, and a 
 little shred lemon peel ; dredge on a little flour and throw 
 in some gravy ; when it begins to simmer, put in a few 
 pickled mushrooms, and a lump of butter rolled in flour ; 
 when it boils give it a toss or two, and pour into the dish. 
 Garnish with sliced lemon and barberries. 
 
 To Fricassee Pigeons. Prepare some pigeons, quarter and 
 fry them; take some green pease and fry them also till 
 they be like to burst, then pour boiling water upon them, 
 and season the liquor with pepper, salt, onions, garlic, 
 parsley, and vinegar ; thicken with yolks of eggs. 
 
 For Stewing Ducks whole. Wash your ducks, then put 
 them in a stew-pan, with strong broth, anchovy, lemon peel, 
 whole pepper, an onion, mace, and red wine ; when well 
 stewed put in a piece of butter and some grated bread to 
 thicken it; lay forcemeat balls and crisped bacon round 
 them. Garnish with shallots. 
 
 To Fricassee Cold Roast Beef. Cut your beef into very 
 thin slices, then shred a handful of parsley very small, cut 
 an onion into pieces, and put them together into a stew-pan 
 with a piece of butter and a good quantity of strong broth ; 
 season with pepper and salt and let it stew gently a quarter 
 of an hour ; and beat the yolks of 4 eggs in some claret, 
 and a spoonful of vinegar, and put it to your meat, stirring 
 it till it grows thick ; rub your meat with a shallot before 
 you serve it up. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 277 
 
 Ragoo of Cock's Combs, Cock's Kidneys, and Fat Livers. 
 Take a stew-pan, put in some butter, a bunch of sweet 
 herbs, some mushrooms and truffles, put it for a minute 
 over the fire, flour it, moisten it with broth, season with salt 
 and pepper, let it stew a little, then put in the cock's 
 combs, kidneys, fat livers, and sweet herbs ; let your ragoo 
 be palatable, thicken it with the yolks of eggs, serve it for 
 a dainty dish. 
 
 To make a fine White Soup. Take a leg of beef and a 
 knuckle of veal, and let them boil at least four hours, then 
 beat i Ib. of sweet almonds very fine and mix them with 
 some of the broth, then serve with the almonds in it, and 
 sippets of fried bread. 
 
 Gravy Soup. Cut i Ib. of mutton, i Ib. of veal, and i 
 Ib. of beef into little pieces, put it into 7 or 8 quarts ot 
 water, with an old fowl beat to pieces, i onion, i carrot, 
 some white pepper and salt, a little bunch of herbs, 2 blades 
 of mace, and 3 or 4 cloves, some celery, cabbage, endive, 
 turnip, and lettuce. Let it stew over a slow fire till half is 
 wasted, then strain it off for use. 
 
 for making Veal Rolls. Lay some slices of veal on 
 some slices of bacon of the same size, then lay some green 
 forcemeat upon that. Roll them, tie them, and roast them, 
 rub them with the yolks of eggs, flour them and baste them 
 with butter. When done enough lay them in a dish, and 
 have ready some gravy, morels, truffles, and mushrooms ; 
 garnish with lemon. 
 
 A FEW MODERN RECIPES TRIED AND APPROVED. 
 
 To Dress Springbok. Take the leg, lard it well with 
 strips of bacon or salted tail of the Africander sheep 
 
278 OUR VIANDS 
 
 (which has a tail sometimes 25 Ibs. in weight), put butter 
 on it and dredge with flour, roast it well, basting frequently. 
 Serve with it quince or guava jelly. 
 
 The South African Hunter's Greatest Delicacy while 
 Camping Out. The liver of the bok just killed, either 
 grilled on a gridiron or roasted on large flat stones made 
 red hot in a wood fire. Eaten with hunter s sauce, and a 
 little pepper and salt if obtainable. 
 
 Stewed Springbok. Take the chine only, sever the bones 
 at each joint, put into a camp-kettle with water and some 
 butter or dripping, simmer gently till all the water has 
 evaporated, then keep stirring it well in the rich gravy, 
 dredge in a little flour, and add pepper and salt. To be 
 served with quince jelly and a dish of rice or stamped 
 maize. 
 
 This mode of cooking would be equally applicable to 
 chamois, and in the Tyrol they serve with it Verona fruits, 
 which consist of all kinds of fruit partly pickled and partly 
 preserved, so as to be very hot and very sweet. Dried 
 peaches stewed make an excellent condiment to eat with 
 springbok or other game. 
 
 FrehkedeL Mince any kind of meat, take some stale 
 bread that has been soaked in milk, and mix with 2 or 
 3 eggs, flavour with spices and salt, make into balls ; keep 
 the white of i egg and roll the balls in it, then strew over 
 them grated bread or biscuit crumbs, and fry a light brown. 
 
 Garlic Pork (Portuguese Christmas Dish). Cut up fresh 
 streaky pork into small pieces, rub them with salt, pound a 
 few cloves of garlic, a bunch of sweet herbs, and some 
 Chili peppers. Pack closely in a stone jar, adding sufficient 
 vinegar to cover them. This should be done a week before 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 279 
 
 required for use, but will keep for months. When wanted, 
 take as much meat as may be necessary, drain it and fry 
 a light brown. Serve each piece on toast. A cut orange 
 is always sent to table with this dish, a few drops of the 
 juice being a great improvement. Mrs. Addison. 
 
 Fricasseed Calves' Feet. Soak them three hours, simmer 
 them in equal proportions of milk and water until they are 
 sufficiently tender to remove the meat from the bones ; cut 
 into good-sized pieces, dip them in yolk of egg, cover with 
 fine bread crumbs, pepper and salt them, fry a beautiful 
 brown, and serve with white sauce. 
 
 A Fricandelle. Chop some remains of veal or any other 
 cold meat, fat and lean together; season it with pepper 
 and salt to your taste. Put grated bread crumbs to it in 
 proportion to the quantity of meat about i teacupful 
 generally suffices ; add i oz. of butter, i egg, and a little 
 good gravy. Mix these ingredients well together, and 
 press them firmly into a basin or mould, which must be 
 previously buttered. Boil for half an hour, turn it out of the 
 mould, and send it to table with a little brown gravy over it. 
 
 Minced Collops. Fresh meat chopped very fine and put 
 into a pan in which a piece of suet has been allowed to 
 melt to a brown gravy. Let the whole stew gently for 
 about ten minutes, turning the meat occasionally; then 
 cover the meat with boiling water (not cold), and let it stew 
 for an hour longer, adding salt and pepper just before dishing. 
 Garnish with hard-boiled eggs and bits of brown toast. 
 
 Hashed Venison. The meat should be cut in slices. 
 Have ready some good, well-flavoured gravy ; place in the 
 stew-pan a little butter and flour, and simmer and stir till 
 brown ; add to this the gravy strained, and a little Harvey 
 
280 OUR VIANDS 
 
 sauce or port wine. Let the venison be placed in the 
 gravy only long enough to be thoroughly hot, as if boiled :t 
 will be spoiled. 
 
 Meat Omelette. A very small piece of cold steak will 
 make, with 3 eggs, a meat omelette which will be sufficient 
 for four persons. The meat must be carefully trimmed of 
 all stringy portions, and chopped very fine. Crumb a slice 
 of bread into a teacup, and fill it with milk. Beat the 
 yolks and whites of the eggs separately ; add to the yolks 
 the soaked crumbs, then the whites ; season the meat well 
 with salt and pepper; put a good lump of butter in the 
 pan, and fry a light brown as with other omelettes. 
 
 Ham and Potatoes. Beat the yolks of 2 eggs into a 
 little melted butter (about 2 oz.), cut some thin slices of 
 cooked ham, dip them in it ; butter a dish or pan, and lay 
 in it a layer of cold boiled and sliced potatoes, sprinkle 
 them with pepper and salt, then put a layer of the pieces of 
 ham, another of potatoes, and so on till the dish be full, 
 finishing with the potatoes. Pour over this \ pint of 
 cream ; stand the dish in the oven and bake quickly. 
 
 Poached Eggs (French). Put into a saucepan some 
 minced ham, butter, a little stock, the juice of a lemon, 
 and bind all with a little flour; add salt and pepper to 
 taste; when the mixture is on the boil, and just before 
 serving, break the eggs into it, taking care not to break the 
 yolks. Serve on buttered toast. 
 
 Cock-a-Leekie. Take an old cock and a gallon of good 
 stock ; a good bunch or two of leeks cut into lengths of 
 about i inch; simmer the fowl and half the leeks in the 
 stock gently for half an hour, then add the rest of the leeks 
 and simmer for three or four hours. Skim and season to 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 281 
 
 taste. Take out the fowl, carve it in joints, placing them 
 in the tureen, then pour the soup which should be quite 
 thick of leeks over, and serve. When possible, make 
 your cock-a-leekie ot an old grouse or blackcock. 
 
 To Dress a Haggis. Get a butcher to send you the 
 stomach of a sheep, and the liver, heart, and lungs; see 
 that the bag, or paunch as it is called, is well cleaned, 
 scald it, and put it to soak all night in a weak brine. The 
 day you get it boil the liver, etc., for an hour and a half. 
 Next day cut away all superfluities, and put all the rest 
 through a mincing machine, with \ Ib. of suet j put these in 
 a basin and mix with them \ Ib. of oatmeal, pepper and salt 
 to taste, a good deal of the former being used. An onion 
 or two finely cut is by many considered an improvement. 
 A pint of the liquor in which the heart, etc., was boiled is 
 added, and the whole well mixed. Take the bag out 01 
 soak and put in the above mixture, which should leave 
 sufficient space in the bag for the expansion of the 
 ingredients ; sew up the opening. Have ready a large pot 
 of boiling water, into which plunge the haggis ; as it swells 
 prick it here and there to prevent bursting. Boil for 
 three hours, then serve very hot. 
 
 tl Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, 
 Great chieftain o' the puddin race ! 
 Aboon them a' ye tak' your place, 
 
 Painch, tripe, or thairm : 
 Weel are ye worthy o' a grace 
 
 As lang's my arm." Burns. 
 
 Hot-Pot. Hot-pot is made of mutton chops placed in a 
 deep dish (known as a hot-pot dish), with a good layer of 
 potatoes cut in pieces, some onion chopped fine, pepper, 
 
282 OUR VIANDS 
 
 and salt ; then another layer of chops, and more potatoes. 
 The potatoes at the top are left whole. Add a little water, 
 and bake in a moderate oven for three or four hours. 
 Kidneys, oysters, and anchovies are a great improvement. 
 It may be made of cooked meat, but it is not quite so good. 
 
 Calfs Head Hashed (a la Pouktte).Cut the remnants of 
 a boiled head into uniform pieces the size of half an apple. 
 Melt in a sauce-pan i oz. or 2 oz. of butter, according to the 
 quantity of meat to be hashed ; amalgamate with it i or 2 
 tablespoonfuls of flour, then stir in J pint, more or less, of 
 white stock. Stir well, then add a few button mushrooms, 
 white pepper and salt to taste, and let the sauce boil for ten 
 minutes. Put the sauce-pan by the side of the fire, and lay 
 the pieces of calf's head in it ; let them get hot slowly, but 
 not boil. Just before serving stir in, off the fire, the yolks 
 of 2 eggs, beaten up with the juice of a lemon, and strained; 
 also a small quantity of either tarragon or parsley very finely 
 minced. 
 
 Eel Pie. Skin and wash i Ib. of eels, cut them into 
 pieces, make a seasoning of bread crumbs, shallot, chopped 
 parsley, a little sauce, pepper, salt, and nutmeg, with the 
 juice of half a lemon; place some of this at the bottom of 
 the dish, then the eels, then the remainder of the seasoning, 
 adding a little butter ; cover with good puff paste, and bake 
 for an hour. 
 
 Curried Lobster. Take a tin of lobster, strain off the 
 liquor, cut the lobster in small pieces ; mix 2 tablespoonfuls 
 of curry powder, i dessertspoonful of flour, and a pinch of 
 salt ; add this to a sliced onion fried in butter until brown, 
 then stir in a wineglassful of milk, the juice of a lemon, and 
 the lobster, and let all simmer gently for a few minutes. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 283 
 
 Oyster Patties. Make some rich puff paste, and bake a 
 light brown in patty-pans, keeping an opening in the centre 
 by inserting a piece of bread, which remove when done ; 
 take as many oysters as required, remove the beards, and 
 cut each into four pieces; just scald them in their own 
 liquor, and make a sauce of 2 oz. of butter, 3 tablespoonfuls 
 of cream, a little flour, lemon juice, pounded mace, and 
 cayenne ; warm, but do not let it boil. Place a little of the 
 mixture in each patty, put on the cover, and return to the 
 oven to make very hot before serving. 
 
 To make a Devil. Cut up thin slices of any cold meat, 
 fowl, or kidney, lay them in a shallow dish, and pour over 
 them the following : i tablespoonful of powdered mustard, 
 2 teaspoonfuls of Worcestershire sauce and mushroom 
 ketchup, i teaspoonful of Chili vinegar, \ teaspoonful of 
 cayenne, i teaspoonful of salad oil, or a small piece of 
 butter if there is no fat in the meat, i teaspoonful of lemon 
 juice, and i wineglassful of claret. Set the dish in the oven 
 and stir the meat about in the same for a quarter of an hour. 
 
 Egg alls for Soups. Procure some hard-boiled yolks of 
 eggs, then moisten with some raw yolk, till you can roll the 
 mixture into a ball. Roll up into balls the size of small 
 marbles, dip into flour, and throw into boiling water till set, 
 then drain and throw them into the soup before serving. 
 Some chopped parsley can be mixed with the egg. 
 
 Bredie (a South African Dish). Take about i Ib. of 
 small ribs of mutton, fry with onion, put in a few bits of 
 chili and salt, then add your vegetables, either cauliflower, 
 cabbage, green beans, or anything you may fancy. These 
 must be chopped fine, and allowed to steam with the meat 
 till done. It must be eaten with rice, as it is too rich without. 
 
284 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Cabbage Bredie (a Cape Dish). Take a fine white drum- 
 head cabbage; scoop out in the centre as much as will 
 leave a space as large as a good sized shaddock ; fill this 
 with a mixture of fresh meat (not cooked) minced fine, a 
 tomato peeled, a little lemon peel chopped fine, a small 
 onion or a few shallots, some bread crumbs, pepper, salt, 
 and a teaspoonful of butter, adding also a portion of the 
 cabbage taken out ; tie it up in a cloth, and boil gently for 
 an hour ; serve hot. 
 
 Bean Bredie (African Dish). Stew fresh meat cut small 
 with green French beans till all the water is evaporated, or 
 nearly, adding a little pepper and salt, and serve very hot. 
 
 Soles au gratin (a French Dish). Put into a buttered 
 stew-pan some gravy or butter, mushrooms, a little shallot, 
 garlic, and parsley, all chopped fine, a little salt and pepper, 
 half a glass of white wine, and some raspings. All must boil 
 together for five minutes. Place the filleted soles in a pie- 
 dish ; pour all the above upon them, and cook them in the 
 oven for three-quarters of an hour; serve in the dish as 
 they are. Mushrooms may be dispensed with, and onions 
 used instead of garlic. 
 
 Veal Balls (a French Dish). Take some small and thin 
 bits of tender veal cutlet ; lay on each piece a little finely- 
 chopped parsley, onion, or shallot, pepper and salt, and a 
 little sausage-meat ; roll up each, and tie with small string ; 
 then roll each ball lightly in flour ; fry them in hot butter 
 or lard until they are a nice brown, then add a little gravy 
 or water, and some mushrooms ; stew gently for fully hah 
 an hour. 
 
 Roman Pudding. Boil a rabbit till quite tender; take 
 the meat off the bones and cut it rather small ; mix with it 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 285 
 
 2 oz. boiled maccaroni, 2 oz. grated cheese, i small onion 
 chopped fine, J pint of milk, pepper and salt. Place 
 in a pie-dish, and bake with a little butter on the top for 
 an hour. Mrs. Addis on. 
 
 Maccaroni Pie. Any kind of cold meat minced, pepper, 
 salt, and a little Worcester sauce, an onion cut small, and 
 half a cupful of stock. Place all at the bottom of a pie-dish, 
 fill it up with boiled maccaroni, strew the top with grated 
 cheese or bread crumbs and some little dabs of butter. 
 Bake in a brisk oven till the maccaroni begins to turn colour. 
 
 Portuguese Stewed Chicken. Cut into small joints a nice 
 fowl, put it in a pan of cold water for an hour, dry well on 
 a cloth. Flour each piece, and fry in a frying-pan a nice 
 brown. Cut up some Spanish onions and tomatoes and fry 
 them in a sauce-pan, add the fowl, a little water, pepper 
 and salt, spice and sweet herbs. Simmer gently until 
 cooked. Serve with toasted sippets round the dish. 
 
 Stewed Rabbit. Joint and wash an Ostend rabbit, drain 
 it ; slice two Spanish onions, take a sauce-pan, place a layer 
 of onions at the bottom, then a layer of rabbit, sprinkle 
 over the rabbit a seasoning of flour, pepper, and salt ; then 
 put another layer of onions and another of rabbit, finishing 
 up with onions. Place the sauce-pan over the fire, and 
 when hot draw it aside and let it simmer gently for two 
 hours or more. Or the rabbit, etc., may be placed in a 
 covered jar and allowed to cook in the oven. 
 
 Potted Eggs. The yolks of 3 eggs boiled hard, i oz. of 
 butter, i tablespoonful of anchovy sauce. Mix together, 
 braid it well; flavour to taste with nutmeg, cayenne, and 
 pepper. 
 
 Cheese Puddings. \ Ib. of cheese grated and nearly \ gill 
 
286 OUR VIANDS 
 
 of cream, 2 eggs, \ oz. of oiled butter. Mix all together 
 as for a pudding, and bake in a quick oven for a quarter of 
 an hour or twenty minutes. It may be baked in small tins 
 or pans. 
 
 Cheese Straws. Equal quantities of grated cheese, butter, 
 and flour. Mix butter and flour together in a bowl with a 
 little cayenne and salt. Add the cheese. When well 
 mixed, roll it out thin and cut into strips, which place on a 
 tin and bake in a moderate oven till pale brown. 
 
 Parmesan Omelette. Beat up 3 eggs, with pepper and 
 salt to taste, and a tablespoonful of Parmesan cheese grated. 
 Put a piece of butter the size of an egg into an omelet pan. 
 As soon as it is melted pour in the eggs, etc., and holding 
 the handle of the pan with one hand, stir the omelet with 
 the other by means of a flat spoon. The moment the 
 omelet begins to set, cease stirring, but keep shaking the 
 pan for a moment or so, and then with the spoon double 
 up the omelet ; keep on shaking the pan until the underside 
 is of a good colour. Turn on a hot dish, coloured side 
 uppermost, and serve quickly. 
 
 Savoury Dish. 3 kidneys, 7 or more mushrooms, 3 eggs, 
 2 rashers of bacon, potatoes. Skin the kidneys, sprinkle 
 them with seed onions, stew the mushrooms, boil the eggs 
 hard. When ready place them each in the dish, the kidneys 
 in the centre, and between each a piece of the bacon, the 
 mushrooms round the kidneys. Peel the potatoes, and 
 between each put a slice of egg. Pour some gravy with the 
 liquor from the mushrooms over the kidneys, warm in the 
 oven, and serve hot. 
 
 Scotch Woodcock. Take 2 slices of toasted bread J-inch 
 thick, butter on both sides; 4 or 5 anchovies, washed, scraped, 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 287 
 
 and chopped fine, put them between the toast. The yolks 
 of 2 eggs beaten up and \ pint of cream, which put over 
 the fire to thicken, but not boil; pour it over the toast, 
 which must be kept hot and sent to table quickly. 
 
 Welsh Cheese. The inside of a roll to be soaked in 
 boiled milk. Add Ib. of grated cheese (Cheddar best), 
 the yolks of 2 eggs, the whites to be beaten separately and 
 added just before putting in the oven. Bake twenty 
 minutes in a tin dish in a quick oven. 
 
 Babotie (a Cape Dish). Take a leg of mutton and mince 
 it very fine, add to the bones and sinews a pint of water, 
 and let it simmer slowly for half an hour, then soak a thick 
 slice of white bread in the hot broth, and when cool mix it 
 with the meat, to which add 6 eggs well beaten; take 2 
 large white onions, chop them very fine with 3 or 4 slices 
 of garlic and some salt, fry them in butter until nice and 
 brown, then stir in a tablespoonful of good Indian curry 
 powder. Mix the whole well together, put into a pie-dish 
 or cups, putting a lemon leaf and a small lump of butter 
 into each mug ; then put in the meat mixture, and rub over 
 the top an egg beaten up with a little milk, then cover the 
 top with some lemon leaves, and let it bake for an hour. 
 3 eggs will do, and dripping may be substituted for butter. 
 Serve with rice. 
 
 To Cure Hams. i Ib. of bay salt, J Ib. of common salt, 
 2 oz. saltpetre, i oz. black pepper ground ; mix and pound 
 these together. Rub the hams with it and let them lie four 
 days, then put ij Ib. of treacle over them, turning them 
 every day for three weeks for a small ham, or a month if 
 large ; then soak twenty-four hours in cold water and hang 
 up to dry. 
 
288 OUR VIANDS 
 
 This is sufficient for hams of 20 Ibs. weight, and they will 
 be fit to cook at any time without further soaking, unless 
 kept for a year, when they should be soaked a day. 
 
 I regret that I cannot give any French or Italian recipes 
 for the cooking of frogs and snails. In England snails are 
 considered best soaked in salt and water and then cooked, 
 being pulled out with a pin like periwinkles, and eaten with 
 pepper and vinegar. The Romans preferred them grilled ; 
 but for the cure of consumption they should be boiled in 
 milk. I have found one curious old English recipe, which 
 I subjoin, for 
 
 Syrrop of Snailes. Putt house snailes in a baskett, put 
 fennell in the bottom, middle, and top of them, cover them 
 very close; lett them stand twenty-four hours, wipe them 
 very cleane with a coarse cloath, prick them with a bodkin, 
 and stop their mouths with Lisbon sugar, put them in a 
 sieve with their mouths downwards, and sprinkle a little 
 rosewater all over them. Let them stand till the sugar is 
 dissolved and the syrrop drops clear in a dish ; take it off 
 for present use without boyleing. For to keep, putt it on 
 the fire, lett it just boyl, scum it very clean, take if off the 
 fire, and keep it till the next day, then bottle it. 
 
 VEGETABLES, FRUIT, ETC., ETC. 
 
 Tomato Soup. i pint tin of tomatoes, or 4 large raw 
 ones cut up fine, add i quart of boiling water, and let 
 them boil a quarter of an hour ; then add i teaspoonful of 
 carbonate of soda, when it will foam immediately; add 
 i pint of sweet milk, with salt and pepper, and about i oz. of 
 butter ; when this boils, add a few plain biscuits rolled fine. 
 An enamelled sauce-pan must be used. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 289 
 
 Scotch Kail or Greens, as eaten in Scotland, are first 
 boiled in slightly salted water; when they are tender 
 the .water is drained away, and the kail left in the pot ; 
 this is mashed with a potato masher; a good sprinkling 
 of pepper is put in, and then half a cupful of good cream 
 is added and the whole stirred well, allowed to heat up 
 over the fire, and served hot with some crisp oatcakes, and 
 a delicious dish it is. 
 
 To Dress Kohl-Rabi (Dutch recipe). Cut off the green 
 leaves and boil till quite tender, chop up and rub through a 
 sieve; add a little butter, and put back into the stewing-pan, 
 which allow to stand on the side of the stove to keep hot; 
 then slice the kohl-rabi, boil it, and add a little butter, put it 
 into a dish, the white in the centre, and the green round it. 
 
 Fricassee of Parsnips. Boil in milk till they are soft, then 
 cut them lengthways into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and 
 simmer in a white sauce, made of 2 spoonfuls of broth, a 
 little mace, J cupful of cream, a bit of butter, and some 
 flour, pepper, and salt. 
 
 Mushroom Powder (old recipe). Take i peck of good 
 mushrooms, wash them very clean, and rub them with a 
 flanel cloath ; then put them into a stew-pan, with i hand- 
 full of salt, 2 or 3 onions, and \ oz. of cloves, J oz. of whole 
 pepper, 2 nutmegs cut, \ oz. of mace, a sprigg of rosemary, 
 7 or 8 bay leaves, 3 oz. of fresh butter ; let all these stew 
 together till the liquor be dried up, then put them into a 
 broad pan, and set them in the oven after household bread, 
 which done three or four times will dry them enough to 
 rub them to powder or to pound them ; keep in a bottle 
 close stopt. Broad mushrooms is best, but scrape out the 
 
 inside or red. 
 
 T 
 
290 OUR VIANDS 
 
 To Dress Artichokes (French fashion). Boil them till 
 tender, then put them in a dish, cover with white sauce, 
 adding a thick layer of Parmesan cheese ; brown lightly in 
 the oven, or with a salamander, and serve. 
 
 To Preserve Oranges (old and tried recipe). Pare them 
 very thin and rub them with salt, lay them in water for 
 twenty-four hours; then boil till they are very tender, 
 and put them in fresh cold water for two days. For 
 6 oranges, take 3 Ibs. of loaf-sugar and 3 pints of water, 
 boil and scum it well, and when cold put in the oranges, 
 and set them by for four or five days, then boil them till 
 they are clear; keep them a few days, and then boil 
 them again, and be sure to have syrup enough to cover 
 them. 
 
 Orange Preserve (Cape recipe). Rasp the outer rind, and 
 make incisions lengthways with a knife at equal distances 
 round the orange ; put the oranges into a dish and cover 
 them with water; change the water every day for three 
 or four days, squeezing the oranges a little to get out 
 as many of the pips as possible ; boil in fresh water until 
 tender, and press them ; make a syrup of equal weight of 
 fruit, water, and sugar, and boil till it becomes almost a 
 jelly; let the syrup cover the fruit. If it becomes thin, boil 
 again. 
 
 To make Lemon Pickle. Cut 6 lemons into 8 pieces 
 each, put on them i Ib. of salt, 6 cloves of garlic, 2 oz. of 
 horse-radish sliced, of cloves, mace, nutmeg, and cayenne 
 \ oz. each, and 2 oz. of flour of mustard ; put to them 
 2 quarts of vinegar ; boil a quarter of an hour in a well- 
 tinned sauce-pan ; set it by in a closely covered jar and stir 
 daily for six weeks ; then put it in small bottles. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 291 
 
 Orange Marmalade Pudding. J Ib. finely chopped suet, 
 J Ib. grated bread crumbs, Ib. moist sugar, 2 table- 
 spoonfuls marmalade, 2 eggs well beaten; mix all well 
 together, put into a buttered basin, and boil five hours. 
 Serve with wine or lemon sauce. 
 
 Quickly Made Jelly. Soak i oz. gelatine in J pint of 
 cold water for ten minutes ; add J pint of boiling water, 
 stir until the gelatine is dissolved, add 2 glasses of sherry, 
 ij Ib. sugar, lemon, and lemon peel; boil all together for 
 five minutes, take off the fire, stir in a few drops of cochineal, 
 and pour into a wetted mould. 
 
 Small Cocoanut Puddings. Dissolve 2 oz. of butter, add 
 to it 2 oz. of grated cocoanut, 4 oz. of moist sugar, the 
 grated rind of J lemon, and 2 eggs ; beat this mixture well 
 together, then add the juice of \ lemon ; put the mixture 
 in patty-pans, and bake for half an hour. 
 
 To make an Apple Tansey (old recipe). Cut 3 or 4 
 pippins into thin slices, and fry them in good butter, then 
 beat 4 eggs with 6 spoonfuls of cream, a little rosewater, 
 sugar and nutmeg, stir them together, and pour it over the 
 apples ; let it fry a little, and turn with a pie-plate. Garnish 
 with lemon, and sugar strewed over it. 
 
 For making a Gooseberry Tansey (old recipe). Fry i quart 
 of gooseberries till tender in fresh butter, mash them, then 
 beat 7 or 8 eggs, 4 or 5 whites, i Ib. of sugar, 3 spoonfuls of 
 sack, as much cream, a penny loaf grated, and 3 spoonfuls 
 of flour ; mix all these together, and put the gooseberries 
 out of the pan to them ; stir all well together, and put 
 them into a sauce-pan to thicken, then put fresh butter into 
 the frying-pan, fry them brown, and strew sugar on the 
 top. 
 
292 OUR VIANDS 
 
 Quince Cakes (old recipe). Take i Ib. of the best 
 yellow quince. Pare, quarter, and boyle till they are very 
 tender, then bruise them in a mortar, and put them in a 
 broad dish, and sett them on a chafing dish of coles. Put 
 to them their weight in sugar, and keep them stirring till 
 the sugar is dissolved, lay them on plates in what shape 
 you please, and strew some sugar over them in your stove, 
 turning them as they dry. Grate sugar over them paper 
 and box them. 
 
 To make a Jelly of Pippins and Codlins (old recipe). Take 
 6 pippins and codlins, pare and slice them in a quart of 
 spring water, boil till it comes to a pint, strain and add to 
 the clear i Ib. of sugar, boil it till it will jelly, skim it clean 
 as it boils ; this jelly is proper to put a little on the top 
 of any red or white preserve. 
 
 To Candy Cherries. Get them before they are full ripe, 
 stone them, and having boiled your fine sugar to a height, 
 pour it on them, gently moving them, and so let them stand 
 till almost cold, then take them out and dry them by the 
 fire. 
 
 To Candy Barberries and Grapes. Take preserved 
 barberries, wash off the syrup in water, and sift fine sugar 
 on them, and let them be dried in the stove, turning them 
 from time to time till they are dry enough. Preserved 
 grapes may also be candied the same way. 
 
 To Candy Apricots. You must slit them on the side of 
 the stone, and put fine sugar on them, then lay them one 
 by one in a dish, and bake them in a pretty hot oven ; 
 then take them out of the dish, and dry them on glass 
 plates in an oven for three or four days. 
 
 To Preserve Cherries, with leaves and stalks green. 
 
RECIPES, OLD AND NEW 293 
 
 Take morel cherries, dip the stalks and leaves in the best 
 vinegar boiling hot, stick the sprigs upright in a sieve till 
 they are dry; in the meantime boil some double-refined 
 sugar to syrup, and dip the cherries, stalks, and leaves 
 into the syrup, and just let them scald; lay them on a 
 sieve, and boil the syrup to candy height, then dip the 
 cherries, leaves, stalks, and all ; then stick the branches in 
 sieves, and dry them as you do other sweetmeats. They 
 are pretty in a dessert. 
 
 To Preserve Fruit Green all the year. Gather your fruit 
 when three-parts ripe, on a very dry day, when the sun 
 shines on them ; then take earthen pots and put them in, 
 cover the pots with corks, or bung them up that no air can 
 get in ; dig a place in the earth a yard deep, set the pots 
 therein, and cover them with the earth very close, and keep 
 them for use. When you take any out, cover them as 
 at first. 
 
 To Pickle Cucumbers to resemble Mangoes. Peel, cut them 
 in halves, throw away the seeds, and lay the cucumbers in 
 salt for a day. Then wipe them dry, fill them with mustard 
 seed, peeled shallots, garlic, small slips of horse-radish and 
 mace, and tie them round with twine ; put them into jars, 
 pour boiling vinegar over, and cover up close till cold, then 
 tie them down with leather, and a bladder over that. 
 
 To keep Lettuce Green all the year. Put them into a pot 
 with vinegar, salt, pepper, and bay leaves ; keep them very 
 closely covered, and when required they may be used either 
 in salads or soups. 
 
 To Pickle Mushrooms (old recipe). Take button mush- 
 rooms and throw them in a pan of salt and water, wipe 
 them with flannel, then boyle them quickly for a quarter of 
 
294 OUR VIANDS 
 
 an hour ; let them drain in a sieve till cold. Make a pickle 
 of best white wine vinegar, some Rhenish wine, whole 
 pepper and ginger cut in slices, boyle and let stand till 
 cold, then put your mushrooms in with a little mace ; tye 
 them down close, and pour over them a little of the best 
 oyle. 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 ACORN bread, 31, 177. 
 
 Africa, the hunter's paradise, 96. 
 
 African pigmies, skill of, 95. 
 
 Almond, 174. 
 
 AlphonseKarr on yellow garlic, 225. 
 
 Anchovies, 167. 
 
 Angling, 181. 
 
 Animals cooked in their skins, 99. 
 
 Aniseed in bread, 165. 
 
 Apicius, Digestive salts of, 12. 
 
 Apples : their great value, 177. 
 
 foreign importation of, 178. 
 good season in three years, 
 
 178. 
 of Eden, according to General 
 
 Gordon, 179. 
 
 alligator, 179. 
 
 Apricot (Moor Park), 193. 
 
 preparations of, from Cape, 
 194. 
 
 abundant in China and Japan, 
 196. 
 
 Aquarium, Soles in, 130. 
 
 Arctic climate in South of France, 
 
 95- 
 
 Areca nut chewed with lime, 157. 
 Arrowroot, 49. 
 Arum-lily root, 46. 
 Artichoke, 223. 
 
 two kinds of, 237* 
 Ashley, Sir Anthony, 233. 
 
 Asparagus, 237. 
 
 immense in Ancient Rome, 
 
 237- 
 
 dried by Roman cooks, 237. 
 Athenian national dish, 65. 
 Aurelias of silk-worm, eaten by 
 
 Chinese, 153. 
 Australian cannibals, 7. 
 
 BACON, mild cured, 88. 
 
 Banana, 212. 
 
 Barberry, 203. 
 
 Bath founded, 87. 
 
 Beans, 228-230. 
 
 found in Swiss Lake dwel- 
 lings, 229. 
 
 Beef, Baron of, 69. 
 
 sirloin of, 69. 
 
 mode of cooking among Mata- 
 
 bele, 73- 
 
 Christmas, of sacrificial origin, 
 
 72. 
 
 Beetroot, 221. 
 
 Berries as food, 199. 
 
 Bifsteak abroad, 75. 
 
 Bilberries, 202. 
 
 Birds eaten in Italy, 100. 
 
 Blackberries, 202. 
 
 Bladud in Bath, 87. 
 
 Boar's head, 69, 76. 
 
 at Queen's College, Oxford, 78. 
 
298 INDEX 
 
 Boiling in skins, 9. 
 
 Bones as food, 154. 
 
 Book of Days, 56, 78, 160. 
 
 Borcherds, African traveller, 8. 
 
 Bread of barley, 28. 
 
 in England, 28. 
 in Egypt, 24. 
 
 in India, 24. 
 
 of oats, 29. 
 
 of rye, 30. 
 
 in Germany, 30. 
 
 in Norway, 30. 
 
 in Russia, 30. 
 
 of wheat, 26. 
 
 in Europe, 26. 
 
 Great Britain, 26. 
 
 France, 26. 
 
 Spain, 26. 
 
 Italy, 26. 
 
 Germany, 27. 
 
 of kidney beans, 51. 
 
 of Ancient Greece, 28. 
 
 of Romans, 28. 
 
 of Swiss Lake dwellers, 24. 
 
 of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 
 25- 
 
 Bread-fruit, 49. 
 
 mode of cooking, 49. 
 
 eaten raw in Sandwich Is- 
 lands, 50. 
 
 Brazil nuts, 175. 
 
 Broiling bones, 7. 
 
 Buckwheat, 43. 
 
 Buns, Bath, 61. 
 
 consecrated cakes, 57. 
 
 in China, 57. 
 
 in Egypt, 57. 
 
 in Mexico, 57. 
 
 hot cross, 57. 
 
 Butter, 119. 
 
 in Irish bogs, 120. 
 
 made by machinery, 120. 
 
 Butter made by burying cream, 120. 
 
 of Hebrews, 119. 
 of Brittany, 121. 
 
 melted, 127. 
 
 Buttermilk : its uses, 120. 
 
 CABBAGE, 233. 
 
 favourite food of Roman freed- 
 
 men, 233. 
 introduced into Scotland, 233. 
 
 prescribed by Hippocrates, 
 236. 
 
 varieties of, 234-5. 
 
 Cabbage-leaf rolls, 9. 
 Cakes, 52. 
 
 Biddenden, 59. 
 
 Burying, 52. 
 
 of Cornwall, 60. 
 
 of Hebrews, 66. 
 
 pane dei morte, 52. 
 
 Simnels, 53-56. 
 
 Twelfth, 59. 
 
 Calf, fatted, 85. 
 Carthagenian pudding, 65. 
 Carraways, 165. 
 Carrots, 220. 
 
 introduced by Flemings, 221. 
 
 Casareep, 165. 
 
 Cashew nut, 176. 
 
 Catsups, 167. 
 
 Cave men's diet, 95. 
 
 Caviare, 136. 
 
 Cayenne pepper, 157. 
 
 Celery and celeriac, 241. 
 
 Charcoal stoves, II. 
 
 Charlemagne : his fondness for 
 
 parsley-seed cheese, 243. 
 Chamois-hunters, 97. 
 Cheese, English, 122. 
 
 Cheddar, 122. 
 
 Cheshire, 122. 
 
 Dorset, 122. 
 
INDEX 
 
 299 
 
 Cheese, double Gloucester, 123. 
 
 flavoured with herbs, 243. 
 
 of cream, Dr. Jenner's recipe, 
 125. 
 
 Stilton, 122. 
 
 foreign, 124. 
 
 Dutch, 123. 
 
 Gorgonzola, 124. 
 
 Gruyere, 124. 
 
 Ricotta, 125. 
 
 Parmesan, 124. 
 
 Cheese-making, 121. 
 Chelsea bun-houses, 58. 
 Cherry-ripe, 193. 
 
 orchards of Kent, 197. 
 
 The Morella, 197. 
 
 Chestnut, 173. 
 Chinese dainties, 146. 
 dinner, 9. 
 
 Spring custom, in. 
 Choosing a bride, 123. 
 Chutney, 165. 
 
 Citron, 191. 
 Clean broth, 64. 
 Cloudberries, 202. 
 Co 9 a, 157. 
 
 Cochlearia in Rome, 148. 
 Cock as sacrifice, 106. 
 Cocoa nut, 175. 
 Colocynth, 206. 
 Coriander seed, 157. 
 Cornish pasties, 151. 
 
 Thunder and lightning, 127. 
 
 Cow, golden, 72. 
 Crab apple, 177. 
 Cranberries, 202. 
 Cream, Cornish, 126. 
 
 Devonshire, 126. 
 Creams and ice creams, 128. 
 Cream separator, 121. 
 Crustacea, 140. 
 Cucumbers, 209. 
 
 Curious Scotch custom, 128. 
 Currants, 199. 
 Curry-powder, 165. 
 Cuscosco, 63. 
 Custard, 127. 
 Custard apple, 179. 
 
 DEEMSTER, oath of, 132. 
 
 Deer and antelopes in Africa, 96. 
 
 Deer forests, 89. 
 
 Deer sinews as thread, 92. 
 
 Devonshire cream, 126. 
 
 Junket, 126. 
 Digestive salts, 12. 
 Dinornis or Moa, 116. 
 Dormouse sausages, 152. 
 Dourah in Egypt, 42. 
 Ducks, 105. 
 
 their intelligence, 105. 
 
 Durham tansy cakes, 59. 
 mustard, 158. 
 
 EARLIEST hunters, 94. 
 ^Esop, the actor, 100. 
 Easter cakes, 58. 
 
 eggs, no. 
 
 Egg dance, 113. 
 
 Eggs in Brit. Mus., 109. 
 
 in Persia, 112. 
 
 feast of, in China, in. 
 
 enormous importation of, 114. 
 
 foreign bodies in, 116. 
 
 with chicks, eaten in China 
 and Australia, 118. 
 
 lavish use of, in cookery, 114. 
 
 painted in tombs, no. 
 
 shell porous, 115. 
 sacred, no. 
 
 universal food, 108. 
 
 Egyptian feast, 12. 
 
 pastry, 65. 
 in Brit. Mus., 66. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Elagabalus, 99. 
 
 Eland, attempt to acclimatise, 96. 
 
 Elderberry, 203. 
 
 wine, 203. 
 
 Electric eel, 139. 
 Elephant's foot, a tit-bit, 145. 
 Escargotieres near Ulm, 149. 
 Eskimos, 145. 
 
 FEAST at Tetuan, 156. 
 
 of Elagabalus, 99. 
 
 Fermity at Christmas, 63. 
 
 at Midlent, 63. 
 
 Figs, 185. 
 
 two crops a year, 186. 
 green, preserved, 187. 
 
 not much used in cookery, 186. 
 
 used as food by Greeks, 186. 
 
 Fig trees in London, 185. 
 
 Fish, 130. 
 
 common food anciently, 130. 
 
 culture of, in Rome, 142. 
 
 made pets of, 142. 
 
 the cod, 134. 
 
 eels, 137. 
 
 Finnon haddies, 135. 
 
 Gurnard, 135. 
 
 herrings, 132. 
 
 curious oath, 132. 
 
 John Dory, 136. 
 kippers, 132. 
 
 lampreys, 139. 
 
 mackerel, 134. 
 
 pilchards, 133. 
 
 pet eels, 139. 
 
 red mullet, highly esteemed in 
 
 Rome, 134. 
 red herrings, 133. 
 
 salmon and char, 136. 
 
 salt cod on Ash Wednesday 
 
 and Good Friday, 134. 
 Snoek in S. Africa, 
 
 38. 
 
 Fish, soles, dearness of, 134. 
 
 sturgeon, 136. 
 
 trout, 137. 
 
 - turbot, 134. 
 Emperor Domitian and 
 
 the Senate, 134. 
 
 whiting, 133. 
 
 Yarmouth bloaters, 133. 
 
 Fladbrod of Norway, 31. 
 Flat peach of China, 196. 
 Forks of Anglo Saxons, 1 1. 
 
 of our grandmothers, n. 
 
 of Lo Bengula, 12. 
 
 Fowls, breeds of, 107. 
 
 frozen from Russia, 106. 
 
 Frederick the Great, his fondness 
 
 for melons, 208. 
 French bread, called puffe or 
 
 cocket, 31. 
 
 partridge, 97. 
 Frith's reminiscences, 77. 
 Fried white ants, 150. 
 Fricollis (Black Beans), 229. 
 Frogs in France, 147. 
 Fruits found wild in Africa, 195. 
 Fuegians eat raw meat, 7. 
 
 GARLIC in Spain and Portugal, 
 226. 
 
 yellow, its virtues, 225. 
 
 Garum, famous Roman sauce, 163. 
 Gloucester lampreys, 139. 
 
 Simnels, 56. 
 
 Grapes as fruit, 183. 
 
 as wine producers, 183. 
 
 cheapness of foreign, 184. 
 
 Grape cure, the, 185. 
 
 Great Auk's egg, 117. 
 
 Grease, the delight of savages, 154. 
 
 Greely, feeds on shrimps, 132. 
 
 Green gooseberries, 200. 
 
 Grubs eaten, 153. 
 
INDEX 
 
 301 
 
 Goat's flesh, staple food of Jews, 
 92. 
 
 much eaten in Italy and 
 at the Cape, 92. 
 
 in Wales, 93. 
 
 kept in stables, 93. 
 
 leaders of sheep, 93. 
 
 in Italian paintings, 92. 
 Goose, sacred in Egypt and India, 
 
 103. 
 
 at Michaelmas, 103. 
 Gooseberries, 199. 
 
 Cape, 200. 
 Guinea corn, 42. 
 Guinea fowls, 102. 
 
 probably the meleagrides of 
 
 ancients, 103. 
 
 HALLOWEEN, apples at, 181. 
 Haricot beans, 230. 
 Harris's bacon, 88. 
 Hazel nuts at Halloween, 172. 
 
 in Swiss Lake dwellings, 171. 
 Hedgehog, eaten by gipsies, 145. 
 Herbs for seasoning, 158. 
 
 Herb cheese, 243. 
 Herby-pie, Cornwall, 151. 
 Herrings, 132. 
 Hickory nut, 176. 
 Honey, 162. 
 
 ofMt. Hymettus, 162. 
 
 used for embalming, 163. 
 
 Honey-cakes offered to serpent, 58. 
 Horseflesh in London, 144. 
 
 in Paris, 144. 
 
 in Tartary, 144. 
 
 Horse bean, 229. 
 bread, 31. 
 
 Horns of deer as implements, 91. 
 Horace, 104, 163, 164. 
 Hortensius weeps at death of 
 turbot, 142. 
 
 Hot cross buns, enormous con- 
 sumption of, 57. 
 
 Humboldt on water-melons, 206. 
 Hump of beef, 75. 
 Hyaena, eaten by Bushmen, 145. 
 
 INCUBATORS in Egypt, 106. 
 Isle of Man, May Day customs, 57. 
 herrings in, 57. 
 
 Jatropha manihot (manioc), 46. 
 Juvenal on Oysters, 142. 
 
 KADJERA, porridge, in Australia, 
 
 177. 
 Kangaroo, to roast native fashion, 
 
 99, note. 
 Kidney beans, 225. 
 
 dwarf or French, 225. 
 
 grown for blossom, 225. 
 
 used for bread in China, 
 
 225. 
 
 King of the bean, 59. 
 Knack in Devonshire, 37. 
 Kohl-rabi, 234. 
 Kuara-bean (carats), 232. 
 
 LAMB-TAIL pie, 82. 
 Lamprey pie, 139. 
 
 in Severn, 139. 
 
 in Thames, 139. 
 
 Leaven of Romans, 28. 
 
 of Jews, 24. 
 Leek, badge of Wales, 227. 
 
 Nero's fondness for, 224. 
 
 Lemon, indispensable, 191. 
 
 legend of, in Mentone, 191. 
 
 Lentils, 230. 
 
 Lettuce, 240. 
 
 Limes, 191. 
 
 Livingstone on water-melons, 207. 
 
 Loaves sealed, 33. 
 
 Locusts as food, 150. 
 
302 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Locust bean, 230. 
 
 London, foreign imports of butter 
 
 and cheese, 121. 
 Loquat, Japanese medlar, 205. 
 Lotos, 213. 
 Lumholt?, 89, 153. 
 Lupin, legend of, 231. 
 
 MACARONI, 27, 124. 
 
 Maggots eaten in Ancient Rome 
 
 and in Australia, 152-3. 
 Maize, 34. 
 its supposed American origin, 
 
 34- 
 
 American legends of, 36. 
 
 called Turkey corn, 36. 
 
 cultivation of, in China, 37. 
 
 known as mealies in South 
 
 Africa, 40. 
 
 Longfellow's description of, 
 
 35- 
 
 said to have been found in 
 
 cultivation at Cape, 36. 
 
 Tortillas made of, 42. 
 
 varieties grown in America, 41. 
 
 use of dried leaves of, 42. 
 
 used in Italy for polenda, 46. 
 
 Maiden Feast, 39. 
 
 Manchets, 27. 
 
 Mandarin orange or nartje, 102. 
 
 Mango, 206. 
 
 Manioc, 45. 
 
 Mamniee apple, 180. 
 
 Marco Polo, 180. 
 
 Marigold, 243. 
 
 Marjoram, 243. 
 
 Mastich, 165. 
 
 Mayonnaise, 1 66. 
 
 Melons, 206. 
 
 called musk melons, 210. 
 
 water, great use of, 206. 
 
 Melted butter, 127. 
 
 Menu of Roman supper, 155. 
 Michaelmas goose, 103. 
 Mince pie, 64. 
 
 obnoxious to Puritans, 64. 
 
 Miller of Chelsea, 225. 
 Millet, 42. 
 
 food of Egyptians, 42. 
 
 Kaffirs, 42. 
 
 two kinds grown in China, 42. 
 
 Mint as condiment, 243. 
 
 in medicine, 243. 
 Mothering Sunday, 56. 
 
 Mouflon in Sardinia and Corsica, 
 80. 
 
 Mouldy cheesen, 123. 
 
 Mulberry, 203, 
 
 white, 204. 
 
 Mushrooms, 238. 
 
 strange varieties eaten in Ger- 
 many, 238. 
 
 Mustard, Durham, 158. 
 
 French, 158. 
 Mutton, 79. 
 
 in Colonies, 79. 
 
 poor on Continent, 81. 
 
 Southdown and Welsh, 81. 
 
 NARDU in Australia, 51. 
 Nets made by savages, 130. 
 New Zealanders as cooks, 9. 
 Niebuhr, on melons in Arabia, 207. 
 Noble game hunted by early man, 
 
 94. 
 
 Norway, game from, 99. 
 Nut of poisonous palm eaten in 
 
 Australia, 177. 
 Nuts, their importance as food, 171. 
 
 OCTOPUS eaten in Italy and South 
 
 of France, 147. 
 Offerings of eggs and bacon on Good 
 
 Friday, 113. 
 
INDEX 
 
 303 
 
 Olive oil used in fifteenth century, 
 Ida 
 
 in ancient cookery, 163. 
 Olive trees of great age in South of 
 
 France, 204. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell's favourite dish, 86. 
 Olla Podrida, 152. 
 Onion broth, 226. 
 Onion : its varieties garlic, leek, 
 
 shalot, 223. 
 disliked by Greeks, 225. 
 
 lament of Israelites for, 224. 
 Oranges, 187. 
 
 apparently unknown to Pliny, 
 192. 
 
 eight species of, 190. 
 
 indigenous in Asia, 189. 
 
 inferior sorts in market, 188. 
 
 in South of France, 189. 
 
 importation of, in 1846, 189. 
 
 St. Michael's, brought from 
 
 China, 190. 
 
 sweet and bitter, 189. 
 
 wild in America and South 
 
 Africa, 190. 
 
 Orange trees live 300 years, 192. 
 Ostrich eggs, 116. 
 Otaheite, pet eel in, 139. 
 Ovens, of Egypt, 9. 
 
 of Africa, 9. 
 
 Oxen as sacrifices, 71. 
 
 in adoration, 71. 
 
 in the plough, 71. 
 
 roasted whole, 70. 
 
 Oysters, 141. 
 
 British, in Ancient Rome, 142. 
 first eaten in Britain by Ro- 
 mans, 142. 
 
 foreign beds of, 141. 
 
 Frank Buckland's efforts at 
 culture of, 141. 
 
 natives, 141. 
 
 Oysters, pearl, 141. 
 
 PANCAKES, 61. 
 
 at Westminster, 62. 
 
 Pane dei Morte, 52. 
 
 di zappa, 58. 
 Parched pulse, 231. 
 
 of chick pea in Spain, 231. 
 
 ordinary food of Romans, 
 
 231. 
 said to be that eaten by 
 
 Shadrach, Meshech, and Abed- 
 
 nego, 231. 
 Parsnip, 222. 
 Passover cakes, 59. 
 Pate de foie gras in Ancient Rome, 
 
 104. 
 
 Peaches brought from Persia, 195. 
 cultivated in England since 
 
 sixteenth century, 195. 
 
 pigs fed on, 193. 
 
 Peacock at feasts, 100. 
 
 pie, 101. 
 Pea-nut bread, 50. 
 Pears, 180. 
 
 introduced by Romans, 181. 
 known to Homer, 181. 
 
 varieties of, 180. 
 
 Peas brought from Holland, 231. 
 
 Pigs introduced everywhere, 88. 
 
 Pilchards in Cornwall, 133. 
 
 Pilez or pellas, 47. 
 
 Pine apple, 179. 
 
 Pistachio nut, 176. 
 
 Plantain, 212. 
 
 Pliny, 28, 161, 177, 192, 237, 258. 
 
 Plum, 300. 
 
 varieties of, 197. 
 
 the bullace and sloe, 197. 
 
 greengage, 197. 
 
 porridge, 64. 
 Porcupine in South Africa, 145. 
 
304 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pork tabooed, 87. 
 
 Porpoise and grampus sold as fish, 
 
 142. 
 Portuguese bring oranges from 
 
 China, 190. 
 Potatoes, 215. 
 brought from America by Sir 
 
 Walter Raleigh, 215. 
 method of preventing blight 
 
 in, 218. 
 
 planted in Ireland, 216. 
 unknown till sixteenth century, 
 
 215- 
 
 value of crop in 1877, 216. 
 
 Puff-balls wholesome, 238. 
 PufTe or cocket, 31. 
 Pumpkins, 2 1 1. 
 Pythagoras on beans, 228. 
 
 his diet, 163. 
 
 QUETZALCOATL, 36. 
 
 Quince, 180. 
 
 eaten raw in South Africa, 180. 
 
 RABBITS from Australia and New 
 
 Zealand, 98. 
 Raisins of Spain, 184. 
 
 of Australia, 184. 
 
 of Cape Colony, 184. 
 of Natal, 184. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 215. 
 Raspberry, 201. 
 
 wild, 202. 
 
 Ratafia, 196. 
 Rebecca's cookery, 92. 
 Reindeer in France, 92. 
 Rhubarb, 213. 
 Rice, 48. 
 
 indigenous in Asia, 48. 
 
 Robin Hood, 89. 
 Roman supper, 155- 
 Rotten eggs in China, 118. 
 
 SACRED Bull of Egypt, 72. 
 
 in India, 72. 
 
 Sacrifice of Lo Benguela, 73. 
 
 of Hebrews, 74. 
 Saffron, 164. 
 
 Sage, 242. 
 
 in cheese, 242. 
 
 as tea, 242. 
 Sago, 48. 
 Salads, 240. 
 
 in fifteenth century, 160. 
 
 Sidney Smith's dressing for, 
 
 241. 
 
 Salmon fishing in Ireland, 131. 
 Salt, not used by all races, 156. 
 Sauce of Apicius, 163. 
 Sauces, various, 159. 
 Sauerkraut, 236. 
 Scarlet runners, 229. 
 Scotch haggis, 151. 
 Seal equal to hare, 146. 
 Seakale, 235. 
 Sea-urchins eaten in France and 
 
 Italy, 147. 
 Shaddock, 191. 
 Sheep, earliest domesticated animal, 
 
 79- 
 
 millions now in Australia, 79. 
 
 fat tailed, 80. 
 
 varieties of, 81. 
 
 horned and hornless, 80. 
 
 merino, 83. 
 
 wild, of Rocky Mountains, 
 
 80. 
 
 Shepherd's dog, 83. 
 Shortbread, 61. 
 Singing-bread, 58. 
 Sir Henry Thompson, 245. 
 Skirrets, 222. 
 Smoke Jack, 70. 
 
 Snails, eaten in Ancient Rome, 149. 
 in Austria, 149. 
 
INDEX 
 
 305 
 
 Snails in England, 148. 
 
 in France, 147. 
 
 in Spain, 147. 
 
 rejected by Teutons, 148. 
 Snakes eaten in Africa, 153. 
 
 in Australia, 153. 
 
 formerly as charm, in 
 
 Europe and Asia, 153-4. 
 Spearing fish in Tyrol, 137. 
 Spices, 161. 
 Spiders eaten, 150. 
 Spinach, 236. 
 Souari or butter nut, 176. 
 Soyer's History of Food, 28, 65, 
 
 155- 
 
 Star-apple, 180. 
 Store-closet requisites, 167. 
 Strange viands in Paris, 98. 
 Strawberries, 201. 
 
 grown in London, 201. 
 
 wild on the Continent, 202. 
 Sucking-puppies eaten in Ancient 
 
 Rome, 152. 
 Sugar, 161. 
 
 called Indian salt, 161. 
 
 introduced into England, 162. 
 
 present importation of, 161. 
 
 spoken of by Pliny, 161. 
 
 sweet cane of Israel, 161.' 
 Swans at Queen's table, 101. 
 Swedish turnip, 220, 
 Syllabub, 126. 
 
 TABLEof Solomon,how supplied, 74. 
 
 Talegalla or brush-turkey, 102. 
 
 Tamarind, 205. 
 
 Taro, 50. 
 
 Tax of herrings levied by early 
 
 kings, 132. 
 Teff-bread, 50. 
 
 disgusting custom, 51. 
 Thyme and lemon thyme, 243. 
 
 Tinned beef of Chicago, 75. 
 
 Tisane of cherry stalks, 198. 
 
 Tomato or love-apple, 211. 
 
 Tradescant, 229. 
 
 Trained stags, 90. 
 
 Trepang, 147. 
 
 Troglodytes, 8. 
 
 Truffles, 239. 
 
 Turkey introduced by Jesuits, 102. 
 
 Turnip, 219. 
 
 varieties of, 219. 
 
 eaten as fruit in Russia, 219. 
 
 Turnspit, 70. 
 Turtle-eggs, 117. 
 Twelfth-cake, 59. 
 Tyndale's ' Sardinia,' 31. 
 
 UNLAWFUL to eat hare and goose, 
 
 103. 
 Uses of eggs, 115. 
 
 of horse-chestnuts, 173. 
 
 VANILLA, 165. 
 
 Vegetable marrow, 21 1. 
 
 Veddahs eat mongoose, rats, bats, 
 
 etc., 145. 
 Venison, 89. 
 Vetch, chickling, curious properties 
 
 of, 232. 
 Vinegar, 164. 
 
 as a beverage, 164. 
 
 used to dissolve pearls, 164. 
 
 WALNUT, 174. 
 
 Whale and seal eaten by Eskimo, 
 
 145- 
 Wild-boar in Ancient Rome, 77. 
 
 bones of, in kitchen middens, 
 89. 
 
 in Modern Italy, 77. 
 
 food of Scandinavian heroes, 
 
 77- 
 
 U 
 
306 
 
 Wool necessary, 84. 
 
 INDEX 
 
 GARLIC-PORK, 278. 
 
 YARMOUTH bloaters, 133. 
 Yellow garlic or Moly, 225. 
 Youghal in Ireland, potatoes 
 planted there, 215. 
 
 RECEIPES MODERN. 
 
 ABERDEEN shortbread, 253. 
 Almond cakes, 253. 
 Artichokes, to dress, 290. 
 
 BABOTIE (Cape), 287. 
 Baking-powder, 251. 
 Bredie (Cape), 283. 
 bean, 284. 
 
 cabbage, 284. 
 
 Bread, French, 250. 
 
 unfermented, 250. 
 
 whole meal, 250. 
 
 CALF'S head hashed, 282. 
 Calves' feet fricasseed, 279. 
 Cheese puddings, 285. 
 
 straws, 286. 
 
 Welsh, 287. 
 
 Cock-a-leekie, 280. 
 Cornflour cake, 253. 
 Cornish heavy cake, 252. 
 Curried lobster, 282. 
 
 DEVIL, to make a, 283. 
 Dumplings, Norfolk, 262. 
 Suffolk, 262. 
 
 EEL pie, 282. 
 
 Egg balls for soups, 283. 
 
 Eggs potted, 285. 
 
 FRICANDELLE, 279. 
 Frekkedel (Cape), 278. 
 Fricassee of Parsnips, 289. 
 
 HAGGIS, to dress, 281. 
 Ham and potatoes, 280. 
 Hams, to cure, 287. 
 Hot-pot, 281. 
 Hunter's dainty, 277. 
 
 KOHL-RABI (Dutch), 289. 
 
 LOAF cake, 252. 
 Lobster, curried, 282. 
 
 MACARONI pie, 285. 
 Meat omelette, 280. 
 Minced collops, 279. 
 
 ON paste making, 264. 
 Oranges to preserve (Cape), 290. 
 Oyster patties, 283. 
 
 PARMESAN omelette, 286. 
 Poached eggs, 280. 
 Portuguese stewed chicken, 285. 
 Pudding, Alderman's, 263. 
 
 Brentwood, 264. 
 
 Brown Betty, 264. 
 
 Crumply, 263. 
 
 Orange marmalade, 291. 
 
 Plum (our own), 261. 
 Roman, 284. 
 
 Scotch (Cape), 264. 
 
 Sicilian, 263. 
 
 small cocoa nut, 291. 
 
 QUICKLY made jelly, 291. 
 
 RABBIT, stewed, 285. 
 Rolls and muffins, 251. 
 Rosterkook (Cape), 251. 
 Rye Muffins, 253. 
 
INDEX 
 
 307 
 
 SAVOURY dish, 286. 
 Scone, loaf (Scotch), 251. 
 Scotch kail, 289. 
 Scotch woodcock, 286. 
 Sponge-cake, excellent, 252. 
 Springbok, to dress (Cape), 277. 
 
 stewed (Cape), 278. 
 Soles, au gratin, 284. 
 
 TEA-CAKES, 251. 
 Tomato soup, 288. 
 
 VEAL balls, 284. 
 Venison (hashed), 279. 
 
 RECIPES OLD. 
 
 ALMOND cakes (fine), 255. 
 
 jumballs, 257. 
 
 Apple tansy, 291. 
 Apricots, to candy, 292. 
 
 BARBERRIES, to candy, 292. 
 
 Battaglia pie, 267. 
 
 Beef, cold roast to fricassee, 276. 
 
 collops, to stew, 273. 
 
 for roasting, 268. 
 
 Beefsteaks to fry, 272. 
 Buns, 254. 
 
 CAKE, a rich currant, 257. 
 
 a Spanish, 255. 
 Cakes, fine almond, 255. 
 
 queen, 254. 
 
 quince, 292. 
 
 saffron, 255. 
 Calf's liver, to roast, 272. 
 Cheese cakes, 260. 
 
 lemon, 260. 
 
 rice, 260. 
 
 Cherries, to candy, 292. 
 
 Cherries, to preserve with leaves, 
 
 etc., 292. 
 
 Cock's combs, ragoo of, 277. 
 Cold fowl, to hash, 276. 
 Cucumbers, to pickle, to resemble 
 
 mangoes, 293. 
 Custard, to make, 261. 
 
 DOUGH nuts, 254. 
 Ducks, to stew whole, 276. 
 
 EEL pie, 268. 
 Eels, to roast, 272. 
 
 to spitchcock, 273. 
 Eggs, to broil, 274. 
 
 FLUMMERY, oatmeal, 258. 
 
 Fowl, cold, to hash, 276. 
 
 Fowls, German way of dressing, 
 
 271. 
 
 Fritters (good), 262. 
 Fruit, to preserve green, 293. 
 Furmity, a Lenten dish, 258. 
 
 GINGERBREAD nuts, 256. 
 
 Gumballs, 256. 
 
 Green goose with green sauce, 271. 
 
 HARE, to jug, 274. 
 
 to roast, 270. 
 
 to stew, 273. 
 
 JELLY of pippins and codlins, 292. 
 Jumballs, 256. 
 almond, 257. 
 
 apricock or plum, 25 
 
 LEMON pickle, 290. 
 Lettuce, to keep green all the year, 
 293- 
 
 MACCAROONS, 256. 
 
38 
 
 IXDEX 
 
 Minced pie, 267. 
 
 Mock turtle, to dress, 275. 
 
 Mutton, to hash, 275. 
 
 a leg or shoulder stuffed, 269. 
 
 breast to roll, 269. 
 
 venison fashion, 268. 
 
 Mushrooms, to pickle, 293. 
 powder, 289. 
 
 ORANGES to preserve, 290. 
 
 PANCAKES, 263. 
 
 Paste for venison pasties, 266. 
 
 Pie, battaglia, 267. 
 
 an humble, 266. 
 
 a lumber, 266. 
 
 lamb with currants, 267. 
 
 Pig, to roast, 270. 
 Pigeons, to fricassee, 276. 
 Pork, to roast, 269. 
 Plovers, to roast, 271. 
 
 Plumb pottage, 259. 
 Pudding, oatmeal, 261. 
 quaking, 259 
 
 QUAILS, to roast, 271. 
 Quince cakes, 292. 
 
 SAUSAGES, to fry with apples, 273. 
 Scotch collops, 273, 
 Soup gravy, 277. 
 
 fine white, 277. 
 
 Syrrop of snailes, 288. 
 Syllabub, 126. 
 
 TANSIE, 259. 
 
 apple, 291. 
 gooseberry, 291. 
 
 VEAL, to mince, 275. 
 
 to roast, 269. 
 
 rolls to make, 277. 
 
 Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty, 
 at the Edinburgh University Press. 
 
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