o WRITE CLEARED
IN MEMORIAL
BERNARD MOSES
HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.
By the Author of ''How to Write Clearly."
HOW TO PARSE.
An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship
to ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Appendixes on Analy-
sis, Spelling, and Punctuation. i6mo. Cloth. Price*
$1.00.
ROBERTS BROTHERS, Publishers,
BOSTON.
How TO WRITE CLEARLY.
RULES AND EXER$]S
ENGLISH COMPOSITION.
BY THE
REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
HEAD MASTER OF THE CIT^' OF LONDON SCHOOL.
THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.
BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1876.
BERNARD MOSES
Cambridge :
Press of John Wilson and Son.
PREFACE.
ALMOST every English boy can be taught to write clearly,
so far at least as clearness depends upon the arrangement
of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more
difficult to teach, and far more difficult to learn ; but clear
writing can be reduced to rules. To teach the art of
writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and
Exercises.
Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement,
but also from other causes from the misuse of single
words, and from confused thought. These causes are
not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though
not neglected, are not prominently considered in this
book. My object rather is to point out some few con-
tinually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest
definite remedies in each case. Speeches in Parliament,
newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, reso-
lutions at public meetings, furnish abundant instances of
obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some
dozen simple rules.
The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable
acquisition almost as valuable as the art of writing
clearly. But forcible expression is not, like clear ex-
pression, a mere question of mechanism and of the
manipulation of words ; it is a much higher power, and
implies much more.
781074
6 Preface.
Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A
man may think and reason as obscurely as Dogberry
himself, but he may (though it is not probable that he
will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing
clearly so far as arrangement of words is concerned
is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, preposi-
tions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according
to definite rules. 1 Even obscure or illogical thought can
be clearly expressed ; indeed, the transparent medium of
clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the
illogical nature of the meaning beneath it.
On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly,
he must (to use a well-known illustration) describe
Jerusalem as " sown with salt," not as " captured," and
the Jews not as being " subdued" but as "almost ex-
terminated " by Titus. But what does this imply ? It
implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of know-
ledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer
must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as
well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible
writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a
matter of rules than is clear writing ; and hence, though
forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear
writing occupies most of the space devoted to the rules.
Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in
especial need of help to enable them to write a long
English sentence clearly. The periods of ThucydMes
and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without
some knowledge of the links that connect an English
sentence.
There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well
as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into
1 Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is there-
fore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to point out the
slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and too little to arrange-
ment.
Preface. 7
genuine English ; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek-
English and Latin-English imposture that is often tole-
rated in our examinations and is allowed to pass current
for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the
power that our pupils should possess over their native
language. By getting marks at school and college for
construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our
pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been
allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.
I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor
Bain's treatise on "English Composition and Rhetoric,"
and also to his English Grammar. I have not always
been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of
taste ; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for
the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his
book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule
on the use of " that " and " which " (see Rule 8) deserves
to be better known. 1 The ambiguity produced by the con-
fusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a
mere fiction of pedants ; it is practically serious. Take,
for instance, the following sentence, which appeared
lately in one of our ablest weekly periodicals : " There
are a good many Radical members in the House who
cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian."
Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning
is "and they, i.e. all the Radical members in the House,"
or "there are a good many Radical members of the
House that cannot &c."? Professor Bain, apparently
admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many
sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh.
Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the
rule, I have endeavoured to point out and explain the
exceptions.
1 Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the differ-
ence between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See
"Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259.
8 Preface.
The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are
intended not so much for use by themselves as for re-
ference while the pupil is working at the exercises.
Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules by
accumulations of examples. The few examples that are
given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules.
The exercises are intended to be written out and revised,
as exercises usually are ; but they may also be used for
viva voce instruction. The books being shut, the pupils,
with their written exercises before them, may be ques-
tioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they
have made. Experienced teachers will not require any
explanation of the arrangement or rather non-arrangement
of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together
unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything
but his own common sense and industry, to show him
what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended.
Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to
each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present
any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen,
provided he has first been fairly trained in English
grammar.
The " Continuous Extracts " present rather more diffi-
culty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than
those for whom the Exercises are intended. The attempt
to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the style of Burnet,
Clarendon, and Bishop Butler, 1 may appear ambitious,
and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has,
of course, not been to improve upon the style of these
authors, but to show how their meaning might be ex-
pressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the
style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both
by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to
1 Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The extracts
from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of verbosity and exag-
geration.
Preface. 9
counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Pro-
fessor Bain speaks to the same effect : l " For an English
exercise, the matter should in some way or other be
supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression.
I know of no better method than to prescribe passages
containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly
worded, to be amended according to the laws and the
proprieties of style. Our older writers might be ex-
tensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this
purpose."
To some of the friends whose help has been already
acknowledged in " English Lessons for English People,"
I am indebted for further help in revising these pages.
I desire to express especial obligations to the Rev. J.
H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge,
and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and
valuable suggestions ; also to several of my colleagues at
the City of London School, among whom I must mention
in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge.
Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition^
I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this
book has been used by my highest class, as a collection
of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In
construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found
Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 400, of great use. The rules
about Metaphor and Climax have also been useful in
correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek com-
positions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little
book may be of service to the highest as well as to the
middle classes of our schools.
* " English Composition and Rhetoric," p. viL
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INDEX OF RULES 1113
RULES 14 40
SHORT EXERCISES 41 63
CONTINUOUS EXERCISES CLARENDON 64 70
BURNET 7073
BUTLER 7475
SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON 7678
INDEX OF RULES.
I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
WORDS.
1. USE words in their proper sense.
2. Avoid exaggerations.
3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."
4. Be careful in the use of "not . .
"only," "not . . . or," "that."
4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. " certain."
5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "'they," "these," &c.
6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to
avoid ambiguity.
6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the
speaker are not intended to be given.
6 b. Omission of " that " in a speech in the Third Person.
7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while,"
"though," or "that," show clearly by the context what is
implied.
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use " who " or " which,"
if the meaning is " and he " or " and it," "for he" or " for it."
In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.
9. Do not use " and which " for " which."
10. Equivalents for the Relative : (a] Participle or Adjective ;
(b] Infinitive ; (<:) "Whereby," "whereto," &c. ; (d) "Ifaman-"
(e) "And he," "and this," &c. ; (/) "what;" (g) omission of
Relative.
10 a. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the
non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
1 1 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.
12. Use particular persons instead of a class.
13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
14. Do not confuse metaphor.
14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic
subject.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions ; i.e., for
the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
15 a- Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the
end. Exceptions.
r . 2 Index of Rules.
15 & An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
1 6. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be trans-
ferred from the beginning of the sentence.
17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for
emphasis.
1 8. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is
the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding
an epithet, or an intensifying word.
19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with
which they are grammatically connected.
20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are
intended to qualify.
21. " Only" ; the strict rule is that " only " should be placed
before the word it affects.
22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is
followed by the same part of speech.
23. " At least," " always," and other adverbial adjuncts, some-
times produce ambiguity.
24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer,
without the intervention of any other Noun.
26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept
as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses"
must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept
distinct from those that are independent.
29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are depen-
dent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that
are not.
30. The principle of Suspense.
30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to intro-
duce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and
unemphatic clause beginning with (a) " not," (b) " which."
31. Suspense must not be excessive.
32. In a sentence with "if," " when," " though," c., put the
"if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective,
that qualifies the Subject, before the vSubject.
34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on
the one hand," c., add clearness.
35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause
obscurity or ambiguity.
36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction,
especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal
Adjectives.
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.
Index of Rules. 13
38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a
summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it
is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence
prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end,
the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called
"climax."
40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends,
feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent
is called "bathos."
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unex-
pectedly.
41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
42. Epigram.
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject
of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
44. The connection between different sentences must be kept
up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other
connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.
45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs
sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the
transition of thought.
II. BREVITY.
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than par-
ticular terms.
47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes
ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and
Verbs.
49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns
may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of
being expressed at length.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very,"
"so." Exaggerated epithets, t?.^. "incalculable, ''"unprecedented."
51 a. The imperative may be used for " if &c."
52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences
into one.
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (i) the
common Subject of several Verbs ; (2) the common Object of
several Verbs or Prepositions.
54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the
first consideration.
CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules*
WORDS.
1. Use words in their proper sense.
Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in dis-
owning him," but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and
"aware," "unnatural" and "supernatural," " transpire " and
"occur," " circumstance " and "event," "reverse" and "con-
verse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together.
This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses.
"It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have
power to do this, I may lawfully do it," Here the second
"power" is used for "authority."
This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully,"
"delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).
2. Avoid exaggerations.
"The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished
inexhaustible supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for
twice the population."
Here " inexhaustible " is inconsistent with what follows. The
words "unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stu-
pendous " are often used in the same loose way.
3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing,"
" Her Majesty here partook of lunch. " Write ' ' lunched. "
"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as
lengthy.
So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind,"
"individual " for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.
4. Be careful how you use the following words : "not
. . . and," "any," "only," "not . . . or," "that." 1
1 For, at the beginning: of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt,
while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or pre-
position. .
Words. 15
And. See below, "Or."
Any. "I am not bound to receive any messenger that you
send." Does this mean every, or a single? Use "every" or
-a single."
Not. (i) "I do not intend to help you, because you are my
enemy &c." ought to mean (2), " I intend not to help you, and my
reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But
it is often wrongly used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not
because you are my enemy (but because you are poor, blind, &c. )."
In the latter case, not ought to be separated from intend. By
distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of not ex-
tends, the ambiguity may be removed.
Only is often used ambiguously for alone. " The rest help
me to revenge myself; you only advise me to wait." This
ought to mean, "you only advise, instead of helping;" but in
similar sentences "you only" is often used for "you alone."
But see 21.
Or. When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not
want butter or honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be
used like " and," nor like "nor." The strict use of " not . . .
or " would be as follows :
"You say you don't want both butter and honey you want
butter or honey ; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey
I want them both."
Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that " I don't
want butter or honey " is regularly used for "I want neither
butter nor honey." But where there is the slightest danger of
ambiguity, it is desirable to use nor.
The same ambiguity attends " not . . . and." " I do not see
Thomas and John " is commonly used for " I see neither Thomas
nor John ; " but it might mean, " I do not see them both I see
only one of them."
That. The different uses of " that" produce much ambiguity,
e.g. "I am so much surprised by this statement that I am de-
sirous of resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make."
Here it is impossible to tell, till one has read past " resigning,"
whether the first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement"
Write : " The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises
me so much that I scarcely know &c."
4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."
jay L
in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even where there is
1 6 Clearness and Force.
no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice used in two senses is
inelegant, e.g. (Bain), " He turned to the left and lejt the room."
I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood : "Our object
is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at the point where
we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form to lie" " To lie " has been
supposed to mean " to deceive."
5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they,"
"these," &C. (For "which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising
from the use of he applying to different persons is well known.
* * He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an
hour he thought he had better return." See (6) for remedy.
Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases
as in this way, of this sort, &c.
"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given
us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose
objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment,
compassion."
Repeat the noun : "Among these passions and affections are
fear&c."
Two distinct uses of it may be noted. //, when referring to
something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but
when to something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid
indiscriminate charity: it is a crime," " it " is retrospective. 1 In
"// is a crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.
The prospective " it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be
omitted by using the infinitive as a subject : "To give indis-
criminately is a crime."
6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person,
where necessary to avoid ambiguity. Speeches in the
third person afford a particular, though very common case, of
the general ambiguity mentioned in (5). Instead of " He told
his friend that if he did not feel better &c.," write "He said
to his friend, * If/ (QIC you] don't feel better &c.' "
6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact
words, or where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy
and uninteresting-, the Third Person is preferable. Thus, where
Essex is asking Sir Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed
Attorney-General, the dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macanlay's
writings) in the First Person, except where it becomes tedious and un-
interesting so as to require condensation, and then it drops into the Third
Person :
" Sir Robert had nothing to say but that he thought his own abilities equal
to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's long services
deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen."
1 It should refer (i) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or (2) to
some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25).
Words. 17
6b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third
Person. Even when a speech is reported in the third person, " that " need
not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead of "He
said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed," we may write,
" ' He took it ill,' he said, ' that &c.'" This gives a little more life, and some-
times more clearness also.
7. When you use a Participle, as " walking," implying
"when," "while," "though," " that," make it clear by
the context what is implied.
" Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their
own sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all,
unaccompanied 'by courtly graces and good breeding."
Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is " since they
are, or, //"they are, unaccompanied."
That or when. "Men walking (that walk, or when they
walk) on ice sometimes fall. "
It is better to use " men walking" to mean "men when
they walk." If the relative is meant, use "men that walk,"
instead of the participle.
(1) While he was ) r-... on \ (i) the road, ) , f
(2) "Because he was \ Walkm S on j ( 2 ) the ice, \ h(
When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies
a cause : "Seeing this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its
proper participial meaning, e.g. " He retired, keeping his face
towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "on seeing," " at
the same time, or while, keeping. "
/(i) he nevertheless stood
((3) he will soon retreat."
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who"
and "which" where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.,"
"for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony
allows.
" I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from
the guard that travelled with the train. "
" Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the
pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor."
An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity.
Thus : "There was a public-house next door, which was a great
nuisance," means " and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door)
was a great nuisance ;" whereas that would have meant " Next
door was a public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great
B
1 8 Clearness and Force.
nuisance." "Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact
about the antecedent, whereas " that " introduces some-
thing without which the antecedent is incomplete or un-
defined. Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is
complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new fact about him;
"guard" is incomplete, and requires "that travelled with the
train " to complete the meaning.
It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though
observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern
authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be
used to refer to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting *' that"
as a relative.) But the convenience of the rule is so great that
beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule.
The following are some of the cases where who and which are
mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of that.
Exceptions :
(a) When the antecedent is defined, e.g. by a possessive case, modern
English uses who instead of that. It is rare, though it would be use-
ful, 1 to say " His English friends that had not seen him" for "the
English friends, or those of his English friends, that had not seen him."
(3) That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents,
and emphasized by isolation : "There are many persons that, though
unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and that, if not strongly
Incited by self- interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest
of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently uses ivho after that when
the relative is repeated. See " Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260.
(c) If the antecedent is qualified by that, the relative must not be that.
Besides other considerations, the repetition is disagreeable. Addison
ridicules such language as " That remark that I made yesterday is not
that that I said that I regretted that I had made."
(d) That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the
preposition to the end. "This is the rule that I adhere to" This is
perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided. But,
with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and objectionable, e.g.
" This is the mark that I jumped beyond" " Such were the prejudices
that he rose above." The reason is that some of these disyllabic
prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when separated from their nouns,
give one the impression that they are used as adverbs.
(e) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern Engl'sh
prefers who. " There are many, others, several, those, -who can
testify &c."
(f ) After that used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike to use that
as a relative. See (c).
9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which." 2
" I gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which
cost me five shillings."
In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences
it is less evident, and very common.
"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the
bye-laws which permits application of public money to support
1 So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt "that "
here and in several of the following exceptional cases.
3 Of course "and which " may be used where " which M precedes.
Words. 19
sectarian schools over which ratepayers have no control, this
being a violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty,
and which the memorialists believe would provoke a determined
and conscientious resistance."
Here which ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or
"schools." But it seems intended to refer to " violation."
Omit "and," or repeat "a violation" before "which," or turn
the sentence otherwise.
10. Equivalents for Relative.
(a) Participle. "Men thirsting (for 'men that thirst'} for
revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the
participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity.
The above sentence may mean, " men, when they thirst," or
"though they thirst," as" well as "men that thirst." Often
however there is no ambiguity : " I have documents proving
this conclusively."
(b) Infinitive. Instead of "He was the first that entered"
you can write "to enter ; " for " He is not a man who will
act dishonestly," " to act." This equivalent cannot often
be used.
(c) Whereby, wherein, &c., can sometimes be used for "by
which" "in which" so as to avoid a harsh repetition of
" which" " The means whereby this may be effected." But
this use is somewhat antiquated.
(ct) If. " The man that does not care for music is to be pitied "
can be written (though not so forcibly), "If a man does
not care for music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences
that this equivalent will be found most useful.
(e) And this. "He did his best, which was all that could be
expected," can be written, " and this was all that, &c."
(/) What. " Let me repeat that which l you ought to know, that
that which is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me
repeat, what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is
worth doing well. "
(g) Omission of Relative. It is sometimes thought ungram-
matical to omit the relative, as in " The man (that) you
speak of" On the contrary, that when an object (not
when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent
and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into
juxtaposition by the omission.
10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form,
where there is any ambiguity. This is particularly useful
1 " That which," where that is an object t e.?. " then (set forth) that which
is worse," St. John ii. 10, is rare in modern English
B 2
20 Clearness and Force.
after a negative : " He said that he would not even hear me,
which I confess I had expected." Here the meaning may be,
"I had expected that he would," or "that he would not, hear
me." Write, " a refusal, or, a favour, that I confess I had
expected." See (38).
11. Use particular for general terms. This is a most
important rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries
of life nor the means of procuring them," write (if you can with
truth), " I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."
CAUTION. There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly expressed
but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. Crust of bread may
be an exaggeration ; on the other hand, if the speaker is destitute not
only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then crust of 'bread is an
imperfect expression of the meaning.
In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often
to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must
be used.
11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used
instead. The disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this,
that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they
are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The
following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns :
" The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion
to lay the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still
hung upon him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation,
and affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting
in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."
Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."
12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.
" What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with
the beauty of a flower?" " What is the splendour of Solomon
compared with the beauty of a daisy ? "
Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for
Adjective : " This fortress is weakness itself."
An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic,
e.g., the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"
"under Indian palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the
shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."
13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.
"The ship ploughs the sea" is clearer than "the ship cleaves
the sea," and shorter than "the ship cleaves the sea as a plough
cleaves the land."
Words. 21
Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should
not be used. See (14 a] and (14 b}.
14. Do not confuse Metaphor.
" In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, deluging their
country with invaders."
The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche : " Mr. Speaker,
I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air ; but, mark me, I shall
yet nip him in the bud. "
Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence
many good writers say " under these circumstances" instead of "in these
circumstances."
An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry : disregard
is inelegant. Write, not, " unparalleled complications," but " unprecedented
complications;" and ^ he threw light on obscurities," instead of " he un-
ravelled obscurities."
14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately
after Metaphor.
"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of
Cork."
" He was a very thunderbolt of war,
And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."
14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a
prosaic Subject. Thus, we may say "a poet soars" or even,
though rarely, " a nation soars to greatness," but you could not say
" Consols soared to 944-" Even commonplace subjects may be
illustrated by metaphor : for it is a metaphor, and quite un-
objectionable, to say " Consols mounted, Q\ jumped to 944." But
commonplace subjects must be illustrated by metaphor that is
commonplace.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic posi-
tions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the
end of the sentence. This rule occasionally supersedes the
common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as
a rule, should be between the subject and verb : " He quickly
left the room ; " but if quickly is to be emphatic, it must come
at the beginning or end, as in "I told ,him to leave the room
slowly, but he left quickly."
Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though,"
often come at the beginning for emphasis : "Insolent though he
was. he was silenced at last. "
22 Clearness and Force.
15 a, Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept
from the end of the sentence, it is a common fault to
break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate
at the end of a long sentence.
" To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin
roots, is useful." Write, " It is useful, &c."
So " the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is."
Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end,
the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.g.
above, "is very useful," " he has invariably been."
A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is
abrupt and unrhythmical, e.g. " The soldier, transfixed with the spear,
-writhed" We want a longer ending, " fell writhing to the "ground," or.
" writhed in the agonies of death." A " chippy" ending is common in bad
construing from Virgil.
Exceptions. Prepositions and pronouns attached to em-
phatic words need not be moved from the end ; e.g. " He does
no harm that I hear of" " Bear witness how I loved him"
.N.B. In all styles, especially in letter- writing, a final
emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive
and monotonous.
15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
" No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really
guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so
emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c. ?"
Contrast "No one ever names Went worth without think-
ing of &c." with "But Wentworth, who ever names him
without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their
expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter? "
16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often
be removed from the beginning of the sentence. The
beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly
not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of
a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the
sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule,
at or near the beginning : " Thomas built this house."
Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if
we want to emphasize " Thomas " unusually, we must remove
"Thomas" from the beginning: "This house was built by
Thomas" or " It was Thomas that built this house."
Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in
"A mere conqueror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that
is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought
Order of Words in a Sentence. 23
not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors
of mankind, upon a mere conqueror" Considerable, but less
emphasis and greater smoothness (19) \villbeobtained by writing
the sentence thus : " We ought not to bestow upon a mere con-
queror c."
Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it
rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though
unusual emphasis be required :
"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. He first pointed
out the possibility of advancing ; he warned them of the approaching scarcity
of provisions ; he showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock &c."
17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb
for emphasis. This is most common in antithesis. "Jesus
I know, and Paul I know ; but who are ye?" '* Some he
imprisoned, others he put to death."
Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not un-
common :
" Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the
frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant
Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values."
This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, e.g. " The son the
father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose.
Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some,
and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the
sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the morning the nobles and
gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the
castle ; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the
night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said, for he
was thinking of something worse." The last sentence has been amended by
Professor Bain into " What they said, Macbeth could scarcely understand."
But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can
think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, " what
they said " ought not, and " Macbeth " ought, to be emphasized : and there-
fore "Macbeth " ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence.
The same author alters, " The praise of judgment Virgil has justly con-
tested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into " Virgil has
justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled
his invention" an alteration which does not seem to emphasize sufficiently
the antithesis between what had been ' contested,' on the one hand, and what
remained as yet 'unrivalled' on the other.
More judiciously Professor Bain alters, " He that tells a lie is not sensible
how great a task he undertakes ; for he must be forced to invent twenty
more to maintain one," into " for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty
more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end.
18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear
Which is the most emphatic. Thus, in "The state was
made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of
their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is un
pleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (i) state or (2)
parties to be emphatic.
24 Clearness and Force.
If (i), "As for the state, Jhese two parties, under the pre-
tence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention.' 1
If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality
converted into a prize for their contention by these two parties"
In (l) parties is subordinated, in (2) state.
Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to
emphasize. Thus, instead of " To effect this they used all
devices," we can write "To effect this they used every conceiv-
able device" So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in "The
business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write "Not
only your skill but also your fidelity." This, however, some-
times leads to exaggerations. See (2).
Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in " You do not know
this, but you shall know it." Where antithesis cannot be used,
the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as " I
will make you know it," or by some addition, as "You shall
hereafter know it."
19. Words should be as near as possible to the words
with which they are grammatically connected. See
Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30.
20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they
are intended to affect. When unemphatic, adverbs come
between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound,
between the parts of the compound tense : "He quickly left the
room ;" "He has quickly left the room ;" but, when emphatic,
after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room quickly"*
When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present
participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly,
but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor."
Does quickly here modify left or dropping ? The remedy 2 is, to
give the adverb its unemphatic place, "He quickly left the room,
dropping &c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He
quickly dropped the purse and left the room," or " He dropped
the purse and quickly left the room."
21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict 3 rule
is, that "only" should be placed before the word
affected by it.
1 Sometimes the emphatic Adverh comes at the beginning, and causes the
transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, " Gladly do I consent."
2 Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity ; but it is better to
express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of punctuation.
3 Professor Bam.
Order of Words in a Sentence. 25
The following is ambiguous :
"The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals."
The best rule is to avoid placing * ' only " between two emphatic
words, and to avoid using " only " where " alone " can be used
instead.
In strictness perhaps the three following sentences :
(1) He only beat three,
(2) He beat only three,
(3) He beat three only,
ought to be explained, severally, thus :
(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
(2) He beat no more than three.
(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only modifies the
whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.)
But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. " He only lived "
ought to mean " he did not die or make any great sacrifice ;" but " He only
lived but .till he was a man " (Macbeth, v. 8. 40) means " He lived only till
he was a man." Compare also, " Who^w/j' hath immortality."
Only at the beginning of a statement = but. " I don't like to importune
you, only I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative it diminishes the
favour asked : "Only listen to me." This use of only is mostly confined to
letters.
Very often, only at the beginning of a sentence is used for alone : " Only
ten came," "Only Caesar approved." A lone is less ambiguous. The
ambiguity of only is illustrated by such a sentence as, " Don't hesitate to
bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. Only five
(fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I don't mind afeiv; only
don't bring so many as fifteen ; " or else " Don't hesitate to bring a few
more; no more than five came yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is
prevented by emphasis ; but in a letter, only thus used might cause un-
fortunate mistakes. Write " Yesterday only five came," if you mean "no
more than five."
22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that
each is followed by the same part of speech.
"He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong.
Write "He gave me, not only advice, but also help." On the
ether hand, " He not only gave me a grammar, but also lent me
a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. " He spoke not only
forcibly but also tastefully (adverbs), and this too, not only before
a small audience, but also in (prepositions) a large public
meeting, and his speeches were not only successful, but also
(adjective) worthy of success."
23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial ad-
juncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.
" I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good
as my cousin's. " Does this mean ( I ) " my Latin exercise, though
not perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), " Though not very
good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (i),
"My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2),
"I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's,
at all events."
26 Clearness and Force.
The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two
emphatic words.
As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take
" From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the
City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange,
and that the funds were fast falling." This ought to mean that
the "hearing," and not (as is intended) that the "breaking out
of the panic," took place in the City.
In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the
latter is more emphatic than any nearer word. This is very common when
the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of
the sentence: "On this very spot our guide declared that Oaverhouse had
fallen."
24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that
they define. In the very common sentence "The death is
announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.,"
the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we
write " The death of Mr. John Smith is announced," we shall be
obliged to begin a new sentence, " He was an author whose
works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing " We
regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr.
John Smith, an author, &c."
25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they
refer without the intervention of another noun. Avoid,
"John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, who gave me this book,"
unless Thomas Smith is the antecedent of who. Avoid also " John
supplied Thomas with money : he (John) was very well off."
When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the
other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun
referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis inter-
venes. Thus : "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the place of
the wounded general. He gave orders to halt." Here he would naturally refer
to colonel, though general intervenes. A conjunction will often show that a
pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another
intervening noun. "The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier,
and fired. He then retreated to give the alarm."
It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called
(Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance
was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A distinction
might be drawn by punctuating thus :
"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." " David, the father of
Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma in
each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to be at the
mercy of commas.
26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should
be kept as close together as possible. (But see 55.) The
introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produced
serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following : " The result of these
observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally
Order of Words in a Sentence. 27
received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of
the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult
to tell whether the theory of " disintegration " is (i) " the
result," or, as the absence of a comma after "be" would
indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these observations."
If (i) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;" if
(2), insert " which is" after " country."
Th^re is an excessive complication in the following : "It
cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject
of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher,
be given, be denied that &c."
Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the
connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat
what he has said ; e. g. after the long parenthesis in the last sen-
tence he should recommence, " it cannot, I say, be denied." In
writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used.
A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness,
especially if antithesis be used, so as to show the connection between the
different parts of the sentence, e.g. "A modern newspaper statement, though,
probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony ; but
the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written
some centuries ago." Here, to place "though probably true " at the begin-
ning of the sentence would not add clearness, and would impair the em-
phasis of the contrast between "a modern newspaper statement" and " the
lettet of a court gossip."
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses
must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
There is ambiguity in "The lesson intended to be taught by
these manoeuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid
down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a
mere review." Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, " If the
plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning : (i) " If the
plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson
will be lost ;" or (2) ". . . . then the lesson . . . will be lost,
and the affair degenerates into a mere review."
28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should
be kept distinct from those that are independent.
Take as an example :
(1) " He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to
make preparations accordingly."
This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for short-
ness) to mean :
(2) "He replied . . . , and he intended."
In (i), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be
connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood
and tense, that has a subject, i.e. "wished." It follows that (i)
is a condensation of :
28 Clearness and Force.
(3) "He replied that he wished . . . , and that he intended."
(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word
or a full stop between the two statements. Thus :
(4) " He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he
intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."
Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in
preference to (i) or (2).
29. When there are several infinitives, those that
are dependent on the same word must be kept dis-
tinct from those that are not.
"He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit
the capital and to study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether
the meaning is
" He said that he wished to take his friend with him,
(1) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or
(2) "that his friend might visit the capital and might also
study medicine," or
(3) "on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study
medicine."
From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
ambiguity must be met (a] by using "that" for "to," which
allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb \e.g. "might " in (2)], and
(b] by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions,
see (37).
"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to dis-
tinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive
that expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g.
" He told his servant to call upon his friend, to (in order to) give
him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he
started."
30. The principle Of Suspense. Write your sentence in
such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader
may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep
your reader in suspense. Suspense is caused (i) by placing the
"if-clause" firsthand not last, in a conditional sentence ; (2) by
placing participles before the words they qualify ; (3) by using
suspensive conjunctions, e.g. not only, either ; partly ', on the one
hand, in the first place, &c.
The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The
sense draggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
" Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience
in parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always
a, man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a
Order of Words in a Sentence. 29
good reputation generally, j though known to be inclined to
the Puritan party ; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod.
Eng. so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other
leading men were, | and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,
who had nothing of that spirit."
The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the
eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes :
"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the
Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary
experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a
good reputation generally ; for, though openly favouring the
Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and,
like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against
the Church by the other leading men."
30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to
introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence,
some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a)
"... not" or (b) "... which."
(a) " This reform has already been highly beneficial to all
classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded,
encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality,
and not, as some say, wastefulness"
Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-
dependence, and frugality."
(b) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which
was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we
arrived safely at York, which is a fine old town."
Exception. When the short final clause is intended to be
unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with some-
thing of the sting of an epigram.. See (42). Thus :
" The old miser said that he should have been delighted to
give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had
left his parse at home a habit of his."
Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words
for which we are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It
has been pointed out above that a monotony of final em-
phasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and
conversation.
31. Suspense must not be excessive. Excess of suspense is a com-
mon fault in boys translating from Latin. " Themistocles, having secured
the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he had
unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge
across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking
that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as
30 Clearness and Force.
follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When Themistocles had
secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fleet, he
made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break down the
bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c."
A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the intro-
duction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of Paradise Lost
between "Of man's first disobedience" and " Sing, heavenly Muse." Com-
pare also the beginning of Paradise Lost* Book II. :
" High on a throne of royal state, tvhich far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind y
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold
Satan exalted sat. "
with the opening of Keats' Hyperion :
"Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken from the healthy breath oj mom,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone."
32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-
clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
Every one will see the flatness of " Revenge thy father's most
unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared
with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from
Hamlet in
" Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love
Hamlet. O, God !
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is
long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-
clause." " I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends,
and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the
beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here."
Where the " if-clause " comes last, it ought to be very emphatic :
"if you were only here."
The introduction of a clause with "if" or " though " in the
middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when
a great part of the sentence depends on " that : " " His enemies
answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they
would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that
cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason
they would put off the trial to a more convenient season."
See (27).
33. Suspense l is gained by placing a Participle or
Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
1 See (30).
Order of Words in a Sentence. 31
" Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to
those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He,
deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," he is unduly emphasized ;
and if we write, " He was forced to have recourse to his enemies,
having been deserted by his friends," the effect is very flat.
Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and
forced &c." But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is
to be not stated but implied.
Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced
late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity : " With this
small force the general determined to attack the foe, flushed with
recent victory and rendered negligent by success."
An excessive use of the suspensive participle is French and objectionable :
e.g. " Careless by nature, and too much engaged with business to think of
the morrow, spoiled by a long-established liberty and a fabulous pros-
perity, having for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow
ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times." The
remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction :
" Because we are by nature careless, &c. ; " or to convert the participle into
a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, e.g. " We are by nature careless,
&c., and therefore we allow ourselves, c."
34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not
only," "oil the one hand," add clearness. Take the
following sentence: "You must take this extremely perilous
course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as
well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is en-
dangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood,
till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write "Either
you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an
alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are partly,
for our part ; in the first place ; it is true ; doubtless ; of course ;
though ; on the one hand.
35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would
Cause ambiguity or Obscurity The omission is particularly
likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject :
" He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is
suffering from his flattery, and (he ? or it ?) will not permit any-
one else to give it advice."
The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of
several Verbs. " All the pleasing illusions which made power
gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different
shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated
into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society,
are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and
reason. "
32 Clearness and Force.
36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening
Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also
intervene.
" He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped
all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and
(to) John Smith in particular." Here, omit to, and the meaning
may be "that helped all his companions, and John Smith in
particular." The intervention of the verb and object, "helped "
and "companions," causes this ambiguity.
37. When there are several Verbs at some distance
from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the
Conjunction. 1
" When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years
have made in the ranks of our national authors- -and, above all,
(when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession
of new competitors we cannot help being dismayed at the
prospect that lies before the writers of the present day."
Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical
statement for what is really a subordinate clause.
In reporting a speech or opinion, " that" must be continually
repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says
with what others say.
"We might say that the Caesars did not persecute the
Christians ; (that) they only punished men who were charged,
rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the
foulest abominations in secret assemblies ; and (that) the refusal
to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime,
but only evidence of the crime." But see (6 b).
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than,"
"as," &c.
" I think he likes me better than you ; " i.e. either " than you
like me," or "he likes you."
" Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did
the Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.
38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to
keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the
subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of
what has been said.
"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and
populous cities these are not the elements that constitute a great
nation. "
1 The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also
conducive to clearness.
Order of Words in a Sentence. 33
This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation,
not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with
writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer
some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more
moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever
I say, if we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a con-
dition that we may precipitate a revolution."
Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or
repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the
following sentence we have the Subject icpeated not only in
the final summary, but also as the antecedent :
" But if there were, in any part of the world, a national
church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation com-
mitted to its care ; a church established and maintained by the
sword; a church producing twice as many riots as conversions; a
church which, though possessing great wealth and power, and
though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of
many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines,
and barely able to maintain its ground ; a church so odious that
fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of pro-
perty, were generally regarded as fair play ; a church whose
ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty
obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,
such a Churchy on our principles, could not, we must own,
be defended."
39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of
the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the
middle for the end, in a kind of ascent, This ascent is
called " climax."
In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has
three terms :
"To gossip (a) is a fault (b) ; to libel(ti\ a crime (b') ; to
slander (a"), a sin(b")."
In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how
they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence :
"Man, working, has contrived '(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I
declare that it astonishes $>} me far more to think ft&\.forhis mere
amusement (c), that to entertain a mere idle hour(d), he has
created^} * Othello' and ' Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
am awe- struck ($\ at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
which enables him, instead of turning away (&} from calamity
and grief (e), or instead of merely defying (&'} them, actually to
make them the material of his amusement (ft), and to draw from
the "wildest agonies of the human spirit '(e') a pleasure which is
C
34 Clearness and Force.
not only not crue^f), but is in the highest degree pure and
ennobling ({'}."
The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the even
flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had
written
" Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides ;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides ;
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"
the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to heaven,
nd from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax
" Instruct the planets in what orbs to run ;
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun :
Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."
40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet
descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the
result. The descent is called "bathos."
"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations,
the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate
prisoners?"
" She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues,
graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend,
a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she
played beautifully on the pianoforte "
INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line
"Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"
Pope adds
"Then drop into thyself, and be a. fool."
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced
Without cause. A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of
construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and some-
times breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause per-
plexity. Thus, write " virtuous and accomplished," or "of many
virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accom-
plished ;" "riding or walking" or "on foot or horseback," not
"on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives
and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close
juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following :
" He had good reason to beliez>e that the delay was not an
accident (accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to
suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong
both by art and naturally (nature), would be forced by the
treachery of the governor and the indolent (indolence of the)
general to capitulate within a week."
Order of Words in a Sentence. 35
" They accused him of being bribed (receiving bribes from)
by the king and tinwillitig (neglecting) to take the city. "
41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness. The
meaning of liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the
antithesis :
" All the pleasing illusions which made power (a.) gentle^o) and
obedience(a!} liberal (b'} . . . are now to be destroyed."
There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power^ so
liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now gentleness
is the check on the excess of power ; therefore liberal here
applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, i. e. checks
servility. Hence liberal here means "free."
The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the rule (a), not
at the destruction(a!}, of their country. They were men of
great civil(b) and great military (b') talents, and, if the terror (c),
the ornament (c'} of their age."
Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome :
" Who can persuade where treason(a} is above reason (a.'), and
might(b} ruleth right (ft), and it is had for lawful(c) whatsoever
is lustful r (c'), and commotioners(d] are better than commis-
sioners (&'), and common ivoe(z) is named common wealth (e') ?"
42. Epigram. It has been seen that the neglect of climax
results in tameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent
produces amusement : and when the descent is intentional and
very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus :
(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a
climax.
(2) " You are not vicious, you are vice," is not climax, nor is it
bathos : it is epigram. *
Epigram may be defined as a " short sentence expressing truth
under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often
antithetical.
"The Russian grandees came to ( and diamonds, " climax.
court dropping pearls ( and vermin," epigram.
- These two nations were divided j ^^^^
by mutual fear ( and mountains> epigram>
There is a sort of implied antithesis in :
"He is full of information (but flat also) like yesterday's
Times"
" Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large
vocabulary."
1 Professor Bain says : " In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict
or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really
conveyed."
C 2
36 Clearness and Force.
The name of epigram may sometimes he given to a mere antithesis ; e.g.
" An educated man should know something of everything, and everything
of something."
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal
subject of thought.
"This great and good man died on the I7th of September,
1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions,
and a numerous family, of whom three were sons ; one of them,
George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his
principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's
property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for
the county, which had for several generations returned this family
to serve in Parliament." Here we have^(i) the "great and good
man," (2) "George," (3) "the county," disputing which is to be
considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences
should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long
sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
level. It is called heterogeneous.
44. The connection between different sentences
must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by
means of some other connecting words at the beginning
Of each Sentence. Leave out the conjunctions and other con-
necting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences
lose much of their meaning :
" Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace.
His biographer (accordingly!] insists on our confessing, that, if
the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have
been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (Buf) this
is not all. Pitt (,// seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and
a great general in posse, but a finished example of moral excel-
lence. . . . ( The truth is, that] there scarcely ever lived a person
who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was
(undoubtedly] a great man. (Btif] his was not a complete and well-
proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of
Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a
whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection
with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, on the other hand,)
is," &c.
The following are some of the most common connecting
adverbs, or connecting phrases : (i) expressing consequence,
similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject accordingly,
therefore, then, naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once
more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon this ; (2) ex-
pressing opposition nevertheless, in spite of this, yet, still, however,
but) on the contrary, on the other hand ; (3) expressing suspension
Order of Words in a Sentence. 37
undoubtedly . . . but ; indeed . . . yet ; on the one hand . . . on
the other ; partly . . . partly y some . . . others.
Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings to-
gether a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with
no conjunction at all :
"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he
made war upon Spain ; and some of his seamen went ashore,
and met the Host carried about ; and not only paid no respect
to it, but laughed at those who did." Write " When Blake &c."
45. The connection between two long sentences
sometimes requires a short intervening sentence,
showing the transition of thought.
"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierce-
ness of pride and power ; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the
soft collar x of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit
to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be sub-
dued by manners. But now (all is to be changed:} all the pleasing
illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which har-
monized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimi-
lation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and
soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering
empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted,
the transition would be too abrupt : the conjunction but alone
would be insufficient.
BREVITY.
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
See (13).
"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his
sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a
crown," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the
effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible,
than particular terms. Thus: "He. devours literature, no
matter of what kind," is shorter than, " Novels or sermons,
poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all."
1 This metaphor is not recommended for imitation.
38 Brevity.
47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.
"These impressions can never be forgotten, i.e. are indelible"
" The style of this book is of such a nature that it cannot be
understood, i.e. unintelligible."
The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily
inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.
48. Participles can often be used as brief (though
sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases con-
taining Conjunctions and Verbs.
"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for
more instances. So "phrases containing conjunctions" means
"phrases that contain conjunctions." " This, done, (for, when
this was done] he retired."
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at
our doors, he sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or
"though France is."
49. Participles and participial adjectives may be
used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases con-
taining the Relative.
"The nQver-ceasing wind," "the clamouring ocean," "the
drenching rain," are instances. The licence of inventing parti-
cipial adjectives by adding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to
poetry. You could not write " the crannying wind " in prose.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied
instead of being expressed at length. Thus, instead of
" The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore &c.,"
or "Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit,
discouraged &c.," we can write more briefly and effectively,
"Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put
down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity" So instead of
"The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore
&c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was depreciated
and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the thoughtless natttre
of youth"
Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It
was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms : war was deliberately
preferred by the hardy mountaineers" i.e. " by the Swiss, because
they were mountaineers and hardy. " ' * The deed was applauded
by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as
Brevity. 39
murder, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they called)
the assassin" " The conqueror of Ansterlitz might be expected to
hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena" i.e. " Na-
poleon when elated by the victory of Austerhtz,"and "Napoleon
when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena."
CAUTION. Different names must not be used for the same person unless
each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we
are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid
repeating " he" by using such periphrases as the following : "The third
of the Stewarts hated business," the Merry Monarch died in the fifty
fourth year of his age," c.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. The omission gives
a certain forcible abruptness, e.g. "You say this : I (on the other
hand) deny it."
When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunc-
tions may be advantageously omitted.
Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction but usually prepares the way
for the second of the two contrasted terms : " He is good but dull." Where
and is used instead of bid, the incongruity savours of epigram : " He always
talks truthfully and prosily." " He is always amusing and false."
51 a, The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."
"Strip (for, if you strip] Virtue of the awful authority she
derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her
of half her majesty."
52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two
sentences into one.
"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters
of introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to
all young students of music," This is as clear as, and briefer
than, " He was a musician, &c."
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating
(1) the common subject of several verbs, (2) the
common object of several verbs or prepositions.
(i) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won
the esteem of all the citizens, (he) died," &c. So, (2) "He
came to, and was induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than
" He came to this city, -and was induced to reside in it."
Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there
is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light,
unemphatic words, such as to, in, &c., as in the first example.
54. Tautology. The fault of repeating the same word
several times unnecessarily is called tautology ', e.g. :
"This is a painful circumstance ; it is a circumstance that I
40 Brevity.
much regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance"
But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to
mean the same thing, as, "This is a painful event; it is a
circumstance that I much regret, and he also will greatly
lament the occurrence" The true remedy is to arrange the
words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary
repetition, thus : " This is a painful circumstance, a circum-
stance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret."
The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words
is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for
examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of
the book. Thus "A burning thirst for conquests is a charac-
teristic of this nation. It is an ardent passion that &c." Other
instances are "The universal opinion of all men;" "His
judgment is so infallible that it is never deceived " &c.
\
55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to
brevity.
"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treat-
ment we have received," is shorter and more forcible than the
sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended
in a separate sentence : " Who, indeed, would not be offended ?"
Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may
not obscure the meaning of a long sentence.
56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration.
It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at
being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace
says, " While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and
it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity inter-
fere with the rules for clearness.
Forcible style springs from (i) vividness and (2) exactness of
thought, and from a corresponding (i) vividness and (2) exact-
ness in the use of words.
(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it
and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man
who was killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he executed,
cut d) (10 a') which is certainly to be regretted."
(a) " unjustifiably." (b) Write, for "which," either (i) "an attempt that
&c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."
4. " Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated
with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government
that particularly needs to be thought efficient in (a) (5) this
42 Exercises.
respect, (b) (29) to counterbalance a general distrust of its ex-
cessive desire (c} (47 a) to please everybody in Foreign Affairs."
(a) Write "the Navy." (b} Instead of "to" write "in order to," so
as to distinguish the different infinitives, (c) "obsequiousness."
5. " (a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly
enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly
to Italy than (37 a) France, (30) in this line of action."
(a] Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (b) Write *' than was
France" or " than France was."
6. "There was something so startling in (a) (5) this assertion,
(a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be
(b) (47 a) treated as though they Jiad nez>erbeen made, and (4) that
one who had not yet (47 a) attained the age of manhood had
superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) who\\z& for centuries
patiently sought after the truth, (4) that (a) (5) it naturally
provoked derision."
(a) "This," "that," and " it," cause a little perplexity. Write "The
startling assertion that the discoveries. . . ." (b) " ignored."
(c) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."
7. " One of the recommendations (on which very (a) (26) (47, a)
much depended) of the Commission was that a council in
each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the
oversight of a small district, and (b) (37) report to a central
council on the state of Education in (c} (5) it."
(a) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive " cardinal." (b) Write,
either (i) " and should, report," or (2) "and to report." (c) Write
" in its province," or "district."
8. " At this (a) (i) period an (b] (il) event (f) (i) transpired
that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his
horse and died two hours after the fall (d) (30), which was
occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on
his return from reviewing hi 's soldiers. "
(a) What is a "period " ? () Express the particular kind of event (" acci-
dent "). (c) What is the meaning of " transpired " ? (d) Transpose
thus: " While the king was on his return . . . his horse . . . ; the
king fell and &c." The cause should precede the effect
9. "He determined (c} on selling all his estates, and, as soon
as this was done (40 a), to (c} qtiit the country, (a) (33) believing
that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 a) in (b) the
hope of satisfying his creditors. "
(a) Begin with " Believing that &c." (b) " hoping thereby to satisfy &c."
(c) "to sell" or "on quitting."
Exercises. 43
10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Corre-
spondence, Money Article and all ; (a) (43) during which his
father fell asleep, and he (b} went in search of his sister."
Point out the absurdity of " during which " applied to the last part of the
sentence, (a) " Meanwhile." {b) Insert " then."
11. "The general was quite (a) (l) conscious (40 a) how trea-
cherous were the intentions of those who were (b} (49) entertaining
him, and (40 a] of the dangers from which he had escaped (15)
lately. "
(a) Distinguish between " conscious " and "aware." (b) "entertainers."
12. "If certain (a) (n) books had been published a hundred
years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (b) (11) his-
torians would have made great use of them. But it would (c)
(15 b) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own
times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (b} (n)
historians, in which large extracts from these books should be in-
corporated with the original text."
- (a) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (b) "Mr. Hume." (c) Add at the
end of the sentence, *' Surely not."
13. " He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he
did not like 'the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a)
his colleagues."
(a) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."
14. "Though he was (a) (15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled,
yet he could not face an angered father (15 a) in spite of his
effrontery."
(a) Begin with "Obstinate."
15. " He was known to his country neighbours (a) (15) during
more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a)
whose principles were high, (40 a] with polished address, happy in
his family, and (b} (40 a) actively discharging local duties ; and
(40 #) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible
member of Parliament, (40 a] without (c} eagerness to display his
talents, (40 a] who (10 g) was stanch to his party, and attentive
to the interests of those whose (d) (47 a) representative he was."
(a) " During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the
former half of the sentence : hence it should stand first, (b} " in
the discharge of." (c) "not eager." (d} Condense into one
word.
44 Exercises.
1 6. " The poor think! themselves no more disgraced by taking
bribes at elections than (a) (37 a) the rich by offering them."
(a) Write (i) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or (2) " Than
they think the rich disgraced."
17. " We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual
wars, (a) (41) and his tyranny, (a) (41) had filled his dominions
with (b] (l) misfortune and (c) (n) calamity, and greatly (d) (n)
diminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great
Sultan had (e) (50) a Vizier. We are not (/) (55) (15) informed
whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (g) but he pretended (h)
that he had learned from (i) ( 1 1 ) some one how to understand the
language of birds, so that he (j) (5) knew what was said by any
bird that opened its mouth, (k) (44) One evening he was with the
Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls
which (10 g) were sitting upon a tree (/) (8) which grew near an
old wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should
like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, and
asked the (m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an
account of it. The Vizier, (n) (31) pretending to be very atten-
tive to the owls, approached the tree. He (0) returned to the
Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation,
but did not wish to tell him what it was. (/) (5) He, not (q] (31)
being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the
owls had said (20) exactly, (r} (44) (5) (6) He told (5) him that
the owls were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children,
and that one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages
upon the female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a
long life to Sultan Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over
them they would never want ruined villages. The story says
(s) thai (/) (5) Aewas touched with the fable, (30) and (s) that
h e ( a ) (39) from that time forward consulted (15) the good of his
people, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (v] which
had been destroyed."
(a) "abroad ... at home." (b) "ruin." (c) "desolation." (d] "half un-
peopled." (e) "The Vizier of &c." (/) " We are not informed "
is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, "whether he was,
&c., we are not informed." (g) " but he "will be omitted when
"the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended." (k} " Pre-
tended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write "professed."
(z) " a certain dervish." (/ ) Introduce a new subject that youmay
substitute "Vizier "for "he, "thus : " so that nota bird could open its
mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (/)" As he was, one evening, &c."
(/) Note that the tree is represented as growing out of niins. This
is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done.
(m) Omit this. () "Suspense "is out of place in a simple
narrative, like this ; the sentence therefore ends with " owls." (
Not often now used in this sense, (e) Repeat the antecedent, " 1
mean those (pleasures) &c."
33. "The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54)
prospect of unbounded prosperity, carefully (33) trained for the (a)
tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his father,
(b] who (43) breathed his (3) last suddenly at the age of sixty-
two, just after the conclusion of the war."
(a) Find more appropriate words, (b) Begin a new sentence.
34. " On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a] (25) who
had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He (b)
(5) was overjoyed to see him, and (c} he sent for one of his most
intelligent workmen and told (d] him to consider himself & (e) his
service, (30) as he himself could not take (f}himi& he (g) wished
about the city."
(a) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old
friend's son who ;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked
him," write " He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his
iourney northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on
his way." (b) Use, instead of he, some name meaning " one who
entertains others." (c} Use participle, (d) "The man." (e) "the
stranger's." (/) "his guest." (g) Write " could have wished "
to make it clear that " he " means " the host."
35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved
both by King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated
Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."
36. " (a) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence
that was (l>) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented \ and
Exercises. 49
which quite kept up his Lordship's unrivalled reputation for
unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of
Mr. Smith, who is rapidly becoming one of the most effective
toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit
quite unexampled on occasions of this nature ; and indeed we were
forcibly reminded in this respect of the inimitable entertainment
of three years ago (2)."
(a) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the con-
tradictions in the sentence as it stands, (b] Write " a remarkable
magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the following
"and." (c] Show that "most" is superfluous.
37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic
authors of the Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to
them in the (15) knowledge of human nature is what (15 a)
principally strikes us"
38. " The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how
to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even neces-
saries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33)
accustomed to luxury."
39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeed-
ing ministers (a) (50), both because they were timid and because they
were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (b) (13) them-
selves by quoting the example of one who (c] (34) had controlled
the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended
himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour,
and (d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."
(a) " to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (Z>) " shelter themselves
behind." (c) " while he had at once." (d) " had yet done."
40. " William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights
of English poetry, and a native of Stratford -on- A von (14 a)."
41. " (15 b] I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one
of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted
as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful
luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty
by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (a)
praised when I stole, mocked or punished when I failed to
(i$ a) do (b) so."
(a) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces "obe-
dience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."
42. " So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22) only
refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable oppor-
D
50 Exercises.
tunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him,
but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23)
events suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and
had given no information of it."
(a) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be altered.
" Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events
Smith suspected . . . ." If the words qualify "suspected,"
place them after "suspected."
43. " It is quite true that he paid 5^. per day to English navvies,
and even 6s., (19) in preference to 2s. 6d. to French navvies."
44. " Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the
spectacle of the sun-rise, I found myself so incommoded by a
number of illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel
for a (a) (i) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the
earliest practicable period ; and therefore, without stopping to
partake of breakfast, I wended my way back with all possible
celerity." (3)
{a} " the same."
45. " You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever
is unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, mira-
cles are unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong." (i)
46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized
alliance the (a) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the
(a) Indian the defence of our disputed rights ?
(a) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.
47. "A (a) very (n) small proportion indeed of those who
have attempted to solve this problem (b) (19) have succeeded in
obtaining even a plausible solution."
(a) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed : " not
one in a hundred." (b) Begin, "Of all those that &c."
48. " To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a
system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture,
and to being (40 a) barbarously ill-treated^ naturally repels (a)
(15 a) one."
(a) Write, either (i) " Collision .... causes a natural repulsion," ot
(2) "When brought into contact. . . . one is naturally repelled,"
or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) "One is naturally repelled
by collision with &c."
49. " We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. 's di-
rection to the Editor of the , in contradiction of statements,
equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and (a] (9)
which the editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.
Exercises. 5 1
. ... I am sure that all must regret that statements so (b) (51)
utterly erroneous should have (c) (23) first appeared in a publica-
tion of such high character. "
(a) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had under-
taken to insert, not the " statements," but the " contradiction."
(&) Omit either "so " or "utterly." (c) "appeared first," or, " for
the first time."
50. " This is a book which (10 a) is short and amusing, which
(lOtf) can be easily (a) understood, which (10 a) is admirably adapted
for the purpose for which it (b} was (54) written ; and (10^) which
ought to be more popular than the last work which (10 a) was
published by the same author. "
(a) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective, (b) "Its
purpose."
51. " When thousands are left (19) without (40) pity and with-
out (40) attention (19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of
an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood
from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth,
and (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, it (15 a) must be
indeed a painful scene"
The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).
52. " (a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed
(19) besides by his early training (31) which had been conducted
with great care, the object of his parents being to pave (14) his
way as far as possible over the stormy (14) sea of temptation and
to lead him into the harbour of virtue to a sincere (b] ( I ) remorse
(19) for the (b] (i) crimes that he had committed in the sight of
heaven, and also for his recent (b) (i) sin in breaking the laws of
his country."
(a) First state the reasons for his being " disposed." " The youth was
naturally thoughtful ; moreover, his early training had been con-
ducted with great care by his parents, whose &c He was
therefore disposed &c." (b} What is the difference between "re-
morse " and " repentance," between " sin " and " crime " ?
53. " (a) One day (54) early in the morning, the general was
approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the entanglements
and perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the
perilous hour of (54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of
their promises, even the tribes that were well disposed (54) and
friendly, were threatening to desert him, and (54) leave him to
face the enemy (b} (23) alone."
:ized words, e.g. (a)
no real ambiguity
r , ny "), yet, in strict-
ness, *' alone " ought to qualify " enemy. Write therefore, " alone
in the face of the enemy."
D 2
52 Exercises.
54. "A man (a) (10 d} who neglected the ordinary duties of
life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for
the benefit of mankind, (b) (44) and refused to provide for the
wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to
become paupers because he would not help them, (c) would, in my
opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (d) (40 a) without
hypocrisy."
(a) " If a man." (b) " if he refused," or " while he refused." (c) " such
a man "or " he." (d) " to some extent a hypocrite."
55. " I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (b} (10 e) who,
whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and
has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those
who are said to have carefully examined the facts, in spite (23) of
many obstacles, to have res'sted all attempts to (29) induce him to
leave his situation, (} and which is anger
(49) which is natural and (c) right caused by an act (d) which is
unjust, because it is unjust, (300) not because it is inconvenient."
(a) "The fault of yindictiveness ;" "the virtue of resentment." (b)
Omit, (c) *' Right " cannot be used as an adjective, but " righteous''
can. (ft) "an act of injustice."
80. " (a) He told his friend that (a) his brother was surprised that
(a] ^hadlgiven so small a contribution, for (a] he was (b) (12) a
very rich man, in spite of (a) his recent losses and the bad state
of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself."
(a) Use (6). (b) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?
81. " (a) (15 b] It must be indeed wrong to (a) crucify z. Roman
citizen if to (b} (32) slay one is almost parricide, to () scourge
him is a monstrous crime, and to (b} bind him is an outrage. "
(a] " What must it be . . . ?"
(b) See (40).
82. "The universal (54) opinion of all the citizens was that the
citadel had been (15) betrayed, (30) having been captured in broad
daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those un-
provided with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate,
(15 a) and much wearied by a long march."
In any case "betrayed " must come at the end of a sentence. The sen-
tence may be converted into two sentences : "The citadel had
been captured . . . Naturally therefore . . . ;" or, "The opinion.
... for it had been captured . . . ." Else, if one sentence be
used, write " As the citadel had been captured &c."
83. " This author surpassed all those who were living (a) at the
same time with him in the forcible (b} manner in which he could
address (c] an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease
with which he could draw towards (a) himself the hearts of his
readers."
(a) Express in one word, (b) "force with." (c) Omit.
84. " This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and
a star in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people
from the quicksands of Protection and false political economy to
the safe harbour of Free Trade ; and (a) (14 a] saved the country
several millions."
(a) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the
literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.
85. " The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (a)
(43) (51) because even the boldest of them (though their counsels
were lawless (15) and desperate] had too much value for his
58 Exercises.
(b) (li) personal safety to think of resorting to the (r) (12)
unlawful modes of extortion that had been familiar to the pre-
ceding age."
(a) Begin a new sentence with " Lawless and desperate though their
counsels had been &c." (b) "neck." (c) Insert some of these
unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other &c."
86. " We will not (a) (15) pretend 'to guess what our grandchildren
may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in (15 a)
his poetry. " No writer ever had the whole eloquence of scorn,
misanthropy, and (a) (15) despair (15 a] so completely at his
command. That fountain (b} (12) of bitterness was never dry."
(a) " We will not pretend to guess" and " despair" are intended by the
author to be emphatic, (b) "Marah."
87. " The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of
food, and one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The
general replied coldly that he could not let his subordinate have
(a) (4) anything that he wanted. (44) The captain was forced
to set out (34) with an insufficient force, spite of the super-
abundance of soldiers doing nothing in the camp (34), and with
every obstacle put in his way by a general who from the first
had resolved not even to give him ordinary assistance, (b} (10 a')
which the captain had for some time anticipated."
(a) Point out and remove the ambiguity, (b) Write, according to the
meaning, ". . . . assistance that " or ". . . . a resolution that."
88. " I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8)
which is not practical ; theories (a) which amuse philosophers
and pedants have no attractions for me, (30) for this reason"
(a) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use of
" that " for the second " which" ?
89.* "Yet, when that discovery drew no other seventy but the
(li a) turning (a) him out of office, and the (n a) passing a sen-
tence (b) condemning him to die for it (31) (which was presently
pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to his
liberty), all men believed that the king knew of the letter, (c) (43)
and that (6 b} the pretended confession of the secretary was only
collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (d] (n a] favouring
popery, (e) (43) which still hung upon him, (30) notwithstanding
his (e } writing on the Revelation, and his (e) affecting to enter
on all occasions into controversy, (e) asserting in particular that
the Pope was Antichrist."
(a) "expulsion from." (b) " a pretended sentence to death a pretence
that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation." (c)
Begin a new sentence : " 'The secretary's pretended confession,'
it was said, 'was &c.'" (d) '* the suspicion that the king
Exercises. 59
controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise
on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected."
90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (a) (i)
universal to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often
(b] rendered \ho. progress of new inventions (15 a] very slcnv, (19)
arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the reason-
ableness of the belief."
(rt) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending " too " to
'* universal." (K) What single word can be substituted for " ren-
dered slow"?
91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender uncon-
ditionally, (30) depressed by this unforeseen calamity ; (4) only the
young colonel, \vho retained his presence of mind, represented to
them that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in
itself very dim cult (19) (15, a] by their conduct"
92. " To (a) (3 1 ) an author who is, in his expression of any sen-
timent, wavering between the (b} demands ^/"perspicuity and energy
(of which the (c) (40 a) former of course requires the first care,
lest (40 a) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting whether
the (d} phrase which (8) has (e) the most force and brevity will be
(/) readily taken () in, it may (h} (3) be recommended to use both
(d) expressions ; first, (h} to expound the sense sufficiently to be
clearly understood, and then (i) to contract it into the most com-
pendious and striking form. "
(a) Write " When an author &c." (b) Can be omitted. (2 in the infancy
of the English schism. But
with the arrival of Vane all
this was changed. No sooner
had he landed than his ability,
and perhaps to some extent his
position, as eldest son of a
Privy-councillor, recommended
him to notice : and at the next
election he was chosen Go-
vernor.
In his new post, his restless
and unquiet imagination found
opportunity for creating and
diffusing a thousand conscien-
tious scruples that had not been
brought over, or ever even
heard of, by the colonists.
His government proved a
failure : and, mutually dis-
satisfied, (45) governed and
governor parted. Vane re-
1 If " which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is, (a) "and
their differences ; " if it is used for " that," the meaning will be, (b) " all reli-
gions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I believe (a) is the meaning ;
but I have found difference of opinion on the question.
2 The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the difference
between the infancy and the development of schism.
Continuous Exercises.
unsatisfied with them and they
with him, he retransported
himself into England ; (30) (43)
(44) having sowed such seed
of dissension there, as grew up
too prosperously, and miser-
ably divided the poor colony
into several factions, and divi-
sions and persecutions of each
(15 a] other , (30) (43) which
still continue to the great (54)
prejudice of that plantation:
insomuch as some of (5) them,
upon the ground of their first
expedition, liberty of con-
science, have withdrawn them-
selves from (5) their jurisdic-
tion, and obtained other char-
ters from the king, by which,
(30) (43) in other forms of
government, they have enlarged
their plantations, within new
limits adjacent to (5) (15 a)
the other.
turned to England, but not
till he had accomplished his
mischievous task, not till he
had sown the seeds of those
miserable dissensions which
afterwards grew only too pros-
perously, till they split the
wretched colony into distinct,
hostile, and mutually perse-
cuting factions. His handi-
work still -remains, and it is
owing to (15) him that some
of the colonists, on the pretext
of liberty of conscience, the
original cause of their emigra-
tion, have withdrawn them-
selves from the old colonial
jurisdiction and have obtained
fresh charters from the king.
These men have established new
forms of government, unduly
enlarged their boundaries, and
set up rival settlements on the
borders of the original colony.
BURNET.
The principal faults in Burnet's style are (a) the use of hetero-
geneous sentences (see 43) ; (b] the want of suspense (see 30) ;
(c) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5) ; (d] the omission of
connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of and
(see 44) ; and (e) an abruptness in passing from one topic to
another (see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily
lengthens the altered version.
ORIGINAL VERSION.
And his maintaining the
honour of the nation in all
foreign countries gratified the
(l) vanity which is very natural
(50) to Englishmen ; (30) (43)
of which he was so (15) (17 a)
careful that, though he was not
a crowned head, yet his (40 a)
ambassadors had all the respects
paid them which our (15) kings'
ambassadors ever had : he said
(6 b) the dignity of the crown
PARALLEL VERSION.
He also gratified the Eng-
lish feeling of self-respect by
maintaining the honour of the
nation in all foreign countries.
So jealous was he on this
point that, though he was not
a crowned head, he yet secured
for his ambassadors all the re-
spect that had been paid to
the ambassadors of our kings.
The king, he said, received re-
spect simply as the nation's
Clearness.
was upon the account of the
nation, of which the king was
(50) only the representative head;
so, the nation being the same,
he would have the same re-
gards paid to (41 ) his ministers.
Another 2 instance of (5) this
pleased him much. Blake
with the fleet happened^} to be
at Malaga before he made war
upon Spain : (44) and some of
his seamen went ashore, and
met the Host carried about; (44)
and not only paid no respect
to it, but laughed at those who
did; (43) (30) (51) so one of
the priests put the people upon
resenting this indignity ; and
they fell upon (5) them and
beat them severely. When
they returned to their ship (5)
they complained of (5) this
usage; and upon that Blake
sent a trumpet to the viceroy
to demand the priest who was
the chief (l) instrument in that
ill-usage. The viceroy an-
swered he had no authority
over the (15) priests, and so
could not disposeof him. Blake
upon that sent him word
that he would not inquire who
had the (i) power to send
the priest to him, but if he
were not sent within three
hours, he would burn their
town ; (43) and (5) they, being
in no condition to resist him,
sent the priest to him, (43)
(44) who justified himself upon
the petulant behaviour of the
seamen.
(44) Blake answered that,
if (5) he had sent a complaint
to (5) Aim of (5) it, (5) he would
representative head, and, since
the nation was the same, the
same respect should be paid
to the 1 nation's ministers.
The following instance of
jealousy for the national honour
pleased him much. When
Blake was at Malaga with his
fleet, before his war with Spain,
It happened that some of his
sailors going ashore and meet-
ing the procession of the Host,
not only paid no respect to it,
but even laughed at those who
did. Incited by one of the
priests to resent the indignity,
the people fell on the scoffers
and beat them severely. On
their return to the ship the
seamen complained of this ill-
usage, whereupon Blake sent
a messenger to the viceroy to
demand the priest who was
the instigator of the outrage.
The viceroy answered that he
could not touch him, as he had
no authority over the priests.
To this Blake replied, that he
did not intend to inquire to
whom the authority belonged,
but, if the priest were not sent
within three hours, he would
burn the town. The towns-
people being in no condition
to resist, the priest was at once
sent. On his arrival, he de-
fended himself, alleging the
insolence of the sailors. But
the English (50) Admiral re-
plied that a complaint should
have been forwarded to him,
and then he would have
punished them severely, for
x The meaning is " his, and therefore the nation's, ministers." There is
a kind of antithesis between " the nation " and " the nation's ministers."
2 No instance has yet been mentioned.
Continuous Exercises.
have punished them severely,
since (5) he would not suffer
his men to affront the estab-
lished religion of any place
at which (5) he touched ; but
(5) (6) he took it ill, that he
set on the Spaniards to do (5)
it ; for he would have all the
world to know that an English-
man was only to be punished by
an Englishman ; (43) (44) and
so he treated the priest civilly,
and sent him back (30), being
satisfied that he had him at his
mercy.
Cromwell was much de-
lighted with (5) this, (43) and
read the letters in council with
great satisfaction ; and said he
(6) hoped he should make the
name of an English man as great
as ever that of a Roman (15 a)
had been. (44) The States of
Holland were in such dread of
(5) him that they took care to
give him no sort of umbrage ;
(43) (44) and when at anytime
the king or his brothers came
to see their sister the Princess
Royal, (23) within a day or two
after, (5) they used to send a
deputation to let them know
that Cromwell had required of
the States that (5) they should
give them no harbour.
none of his sailors should be
allowed to affront the estab-
lished religion of any place
where they touched. "But,"
he added, "I take it ill that
you should set on your coun-
trymen to do my work ; for I
will have all the world know
that an Englishman is only to
be punished by an English-
man." Then, satisfied with
having had the (50) offender
at his mercy, Blake entertained
him civilly and sent him back.
Cromwell was much delighted
with Blake's conduct. Read-
ing the letters in council with
great satisfaction, he said, "I
hope I shall make the name of
an Englishman as much re-
spected as ever was the name
of Roman."
Among other countries the
States of Holland were in such
dread of Cromwell that they
took care to give him no sort of
umbrage. Accordingly, when-
ever the king or his brothers
came to see the Princess Royal
their sister, they were always
warned in a day or two by a
deputation that Cromwell had
required of the States to give
them no harbourage.
Cromwell's favourite alliance
\vasSweden. 1 (44) CarolusGus-
tavus and he lived in great con-
junction of counsels. (44) Even
Algernon Sydney, (io#) who
was not inclined to think or
speak well of kings, com-
mended him (5) to me ; and
The free kingdom of Swe-
den was Cromwell's favourite
ally ; not only under Charles
Gustavus, with whom he was
on most confidential terms, but
also under Christina. Both
these sovereigns had just no-
tions of public liberty ; at least,
1 The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the words, is
this : " Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country.".
Clearness.
73
said he (5) had just notions of
public liberty; (44) (43) and
added, that Queen Christina
seemed to have them likewise.
But (44) she was much changed
from that, when I waited on her
at Rome ; for she complained of
us as a factious nation, that did
not readily comply with the
commands (A^ a] of our princes.
(44) All Italy trembled at the
name of Cromwell, and seemed
under a (i) panic as long as he
lived ; (43) his fleet scoured the
Mediterranean ; and the Turks
durst not offend him ; but de-
livered up Hyde, who kept up
the character of an ambassador
from the king there (23) (43),
and was brought over and
executed for (5) it.
(44) (ii a) The putting the
brother of the king of Portugal's
ambassador to death for mur-
der, was (n a) carrying jus-
tice very far ; (43) since, though
in the strictness of the law of
nations, it is only the ambas-
sador's own person that is
exempted from (4) any autho-
rity (47 a) but his masters that
sends him, yet the practice has
gone in favour of all that the
ambassador owned (47 a} to be-
long to him. (41 ) (44) Cromwell
showed his good (n) under-
standing \\\ nothing more than
in seeking 2 out capable and
worthy men for all employ-
ments, but most particularly
Algernon Sydney, a man cer-
tainly not prejudiced in favour
of royalty, assured me this was
true of Gustavus. He also held
the same opinion of Queen
Christina ; but, if so, she was
much changed when I waited
on her at Rome ; for she then
complained of the factious
and unruly spirit of our na-
tion.
All Italy, no less than Hol-
land, 1 trembled at the name of
Cromwell, and dreaded him
till he died. Nor durst the
Turks offend the great (50)
Protector whose fleet scoured
the Mediterranean; and they
even gave up Hyde, who, for
keeping up in Turkey the
character of ambassador from
the king, was brought to
England and executed.
In another instance of se-
verity towards foreigners the
execution of the brother of
the Portuguese ambassador for
murder Cromwell carried jus-
tice very far. For, though in
strictness the law of nations
exempts from foreign jurisdic-
tion the ambassador alone, yet
in practice the exemption has
extended to the whole of the
ambassador's suite.
Successful abroad, Cromwell
was no less successful at home
in selecting able and worthy
men for public duties, especi-
ally for the courts of law. In
nothing did he show more
clearly his great natural insight,
1 The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now return-
ing to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign nations.
2 He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not neces-
irily implied by "seek out" seems proved by. the use of the word in the
.uthorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17 : "He sought me out very diligently, and
Ai
found me.
74
Continuous Exercises.
for the courts of law, (43) (30^7) and nothing contributed more
(lOtf) which gave a general to his popularity,
satisfaction.
BISHOP BUTLER.
The principal faults in this style are (a) a vague use of pro-
nouns (5), and sometimes (b) the use of a phrase, where a word
would be enough (47 a).
ORIGINAL VERSION.
Some persons, (15) upon
pretence l of the sufficiency of
the light of Nature, avowedly
reject all revelation as, in its
(47 a) very notion, incredible,
and what (47 a) mtist be ficti-
tious. And indeed (32) it is
certain that no revelation would
have been given, (32) had the
light of Nature been sufficient
in such a sense as to render
(5) one not 3 wanting, or useless.
But no (15 b] man in serious-
ness and simplicity can possibly
think it (5) so, who considers
the state of religion in the
heathen world before revela-
tion, and its (5) present state
in those (n) places (8) which
have borrowed no light from
(5) it; particularly (19) the
doubtfulness of some of the
(12) greatest men concerning
things of the utmost ( 1 1 ) impor-
tance, as well as the (15 a)
natural inattention and igno-
rance of mankind in general.
It is (34) impossible to say (12)
who would have been able to
have reasoned out that whole
system which we call natural
religion, (30) in its genuine
simplicity, clear of supersti-
PARALLEL VERSION.
Some persons avowedly
reject all revelation as 2 essen-
tially incredible and neces-
sarily fictitious, on the ground
that the light of Nature is in
itself sufficient. And assuredly,
had the light of Nature been
sufficient in such a sense as to
render revelation needless or
useless, no revelation would
ever have been given. But let
any man consider the spiritual
darkness that once (41) pre-
vailed in the heathen world
before revelation, and that
(41) still prevails in those
regions that have not yet re-
ceived the light of revealed
truth ; above all, let him mark
not merely the natural inat-
tention and ignorance of the
masses, but also the doubtful
language held even by a Socrates
on even so vital a subject
as 4 the immortality of the
soul ; and then can he in seri-
ousness and sincerity main-
tain that the light of Nature is
sufficient ?
It is of course impossible to
deny that some second 4 Aris-
totle might have reasoned out,
in its genuine simplicity and
1 "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain."
2 It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion incredible,"
is meant " inconceivable."
3 " Wanting" is used for modern "wanted."
4 This use of the particular for the general would be out of place in Butler's
style, but it adds clearness.
Clearness.
75
tion ; but there is certainly no
ground to affirm