CONFIDENTIAL FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 
 
 NOTES ON 
 
 GAS AS A WEAPON IN 
 MODERN WARFARE 
 
 COMPILED FROM 
 THE LATEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION 
 
 ARMY WAR COLLEGE 
 
 APRIL, 1917 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1917 
 
WAK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Document No. 577. 
 
 Office of The Adjutant General. 
 
WAR DEPARTMENT, 
 
 WASHINGTON, April 28, 1917. 
 
 The following Notes on Gas/ as a Weapon in Modern Warfare 
 are published for the information and guidance of all con- 
 cerned. 
 
 [2582933-A, A.G.O.] 
 
 BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAB : 
 
 H. L. SCOTT, 
 
 Major General, Chief of Staff. 
 OFFICIAL : 
 
 H. P. MCCAIN, 
 
 The Adjutant General. 
 
 6G43V5 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Employment of gas by the ancients 7 
 
 The first use of gas in modern warfare 8 
 
 Instruction in the methods of gas warfare (the school at 
 
 Aldershot) 8-10 
 
 Methods of making a gas attack (gas clouds, grenades, bombs, 
 
 and projectiles) 10-13 
 
 The various kinds of gases (lachrymatory, suffocating, 
 
 asphyxiating) 13 
 
 The effect of gases 14 
 
 Methods of protection 15 
 
 (Signs of approaching attack Gas masks) 14-18 
 
 Practical instruction, mask drill, etc., drills with " Small box 
 
 respirators " 18-25 
 
 Exposure to gas during training 26 
 
 General regulations (methods of defense) 26-30 
 
 Tactical employment of gas in offense 30-32 
 
 5 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN 
 WARFARE. :::::./ 
 
 The use of various gases as weapons of offense in the 
 present war has become so general that in any training of 
 troops in the future a thorough knowledge of the technique 
 of gas attacks and the methods of defense against them must 
 be included. 
 
 The use of gas, like many of the other weapons now in com- 
 mon use in the armies of Europe, such as the catapult, flame 
 projector, trench knife, and sling, is an inheritance from the 
 early ages, amplified, improved, and made more destructive by 
 the aid of modern science. 
 
 The first recorded effort to overcome the enemy by the gen- 
 eration of poisonous and suffocating gases seems to have been 
 in the wars of the Athenians and Spartans (43,1 to 404 B. C.), 
 when in besieging the cities of Platea and Delium the Spartans 
 saturated wood with pitch and sulphur and burnt it under the 
 walls of those cities in the hopes of choking the defenders and 
 rendering the assault less difficult. They also melted pitch, 
 charcoal, and sulphur together in cauldrons and blew the fumes 
 over the defenders' lines by means of bellows. 
 
 " Greek fire " was used by the Byzantine Greeks under Con- 
 stantine about 672 A. D., to destroy the Saracens, and the 
 Saracens, in turn, used it as a weapon of defense against the 
 Christians during the crusades. This Greek fire had the double 
 advantage of being not only inflammable, but also generating 
 during the process of cambustion, clouds of dense, blinding smoke 
 and gas of an asphyxiating character. (This gas, sulphurous 
 dioxide, is one of the gases used to-day.) Its chemical com- 
 position was supposed to be a mixture of quicklime, petroleum, 
 sulphur, and such other inflammable substance as pitch, resin, 
 etc. Upon the addition of water the slaking process which 
 
 7 
 
8 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 the quicklime underwent generated enough heat to ignite the 
 petroleum, which, in turn, ignited 1,he resin, pitch, and sulphur. 
 This flaming mixture was delivered against the enemy by means 
 of fantastic syringes in the shape of dragons and other mon- 
 sters with wide jaws. 
 
 The first use of gas in modern warfare occurred April 22, 
 1915, when the Germans liberated great clouds of gas against 
 the allies' tenches near Ypres, with a resulting complete de- 
 moralization of the troops and a large number of Casualties. 
 
 Coincided with the use of the " gas cloud " the Germans began 
 to use gas also in bombs, hand grenades, and shells. The world 
 was astounded at this resurrection of an ancient form of warfare, 
 strictly forbidden by The Hague convention, but new weapons 
 in war demand that they be met with similar weapons, and a 
 week later the allies had agreed to manufacture gas shells and 
 use gas in other ways in retaliation. From this beginning, gas 
 has now become recognized as one of the accepted arms of the 
 military service and is being used very extensively in all armies, 
 especially in the form of gas shells. 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE METHODS OF 
 GAS WARFARE. 
 
 The importance of thoroughly instructing all soldiers in the 
 methods of gas warfare and the methods of defense against it 
 has been fully recognized in the armies of Europe. The whole 
 object of such instruction is to make every man thoroughly 
 familiar with the conditions under which he will have to meet 
 gas, and to make him proficient in the necessary measures of 
 defense. This instruction is both theoretical and practical. The 
 theoretical instruction covers the methods of employing gases 
 in attack, the character of gases used and their effects, while the 
 practical instruction covers the methods of defense, including 
 the actual exposure to gas. In both England and France each 
 district has one or more special antigas schools, where specially 
 selected officers and men are trained to enable them to impart 
 this instruction to companies, troops, and batteries. 
 
 The school at Aldershot may be taken as a type. The training 
 plant includes a lecture room with gassing apparatus and 
 charts, a " gassing house," and an area in which model trenches 
 and dugouts have been prepared. 
 
 The gassing house contains one room 15 by 15 feet, with cor- 
 ridor entrances on either side and double doors to each corridor. 
 
HH 
 
 96838 17- 
 
10 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 The purpose of these double doors is to prevent the escape of 
 gas. To give the men practical experience in enduring asphyxiat- 
 ing gases, protected by masks they are shut up in the room, 
 masks are adjusted, and the gas is turned on. 
 
 The dugouts have a corridor entrance to them from the 
 trenches, and in place of doors wet blankets reaching down to 
 the floor are hung at either end of the corridor. These wet 
 blankets are to simulate the wet blankets which are actually 
 used in the real trenches' to prevent gas getting Into the dugouts, 
 and are used here to show the soldier that the:/ really are a pro- 
 tection and keep out gas. 
 
 Trenches and dugouts so arranged are established at all train- 
 ing camps, and organizations are trained in turn in the actual 
 experience of resisting gas attacks. They enter the trenches and 
 dugouts ; the alarm is given by beating on a gong, and gas is 
 turned into the trenches and dugouts. At the beating of the 
 gong each man must adjust his mask. Before being given this 
 actual experience with gas, each man is given a thorough course 
 of instruction in the character of gases and drilled into the 
 methods of defense against them. In the 12 weeks' course of 
 training laid down for the Infantry recruit he is given 1 hour 
 antigas instruction each week. As a part of this instruction he 
 is practiced in running and exercising while wearing his mask. 
 
 THEORETICAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Methods of making a gas attack. Gases may be employed 
 either in the form of " gas clouds " sent against the enemy's 
 trenches by means of a favorable \vind or liberated in the 
 trenches by means of hand grenades, rifle grenades, bombs, and 
 shells. There are various ways in which the gases forming the 
 gas clouds may be liberated. The most primitive (the " stinkpot " 
 method) is the building of fires in front of the trenches in which 
 either smoke clouds may be generated by the burning of pitch 
 and petroleum, or lachrymatory gases may be generated by the 
 burning of sulphur or a derivative of formol. In the first case 
 sulphurous anhydride is evolved and in the second formol in a 
 gaseous state. This generating of gases by the burning of fires 
 has been practiced to some extent in the present war and is ex- 
 actly the method practiced by the ancients. The improved mod- 
 ern method, however, is the liberation of the gas from steel con- 
 tainers in which it is held under pressure in a liquid state. 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 11 
 
 These containers are distributed in batteries of three or four at 
 intervals of about 50 yards along the trenches opposite the line 
 to be attacked. Tubes provided with a stopcock attachment are 
 connected with the gas tanks and the end of the tube passed over 
 the parapet. When an attack is intended a signal is given and 
 the stopcocks are opened, allowing the gas to escape in the form 
 of a dense vapor. This escape of the confined gas is accom- 
 panied by a low whistling sound which, at night, is frequently 
 the only warning the opposing side has of the coming attack. 
 
 The success of the " gas cloud " is dependent on the atmos- 
 pheric conditions. A calm night or day, with a gentle wind 
 blowing in the right direction is essential. A strong wind dis- 
 tributes the gas too quickly and diminishes its concentration, 
 and a variable wind is not to be depended upon; too much 
 moisture in the air also neutralizes the gas somewhat and 
 diminishes the force of the attack. Before a gas-cloud attack 
 is made, therefore, the atmospheric conditions are studied, and 
 the direction of the wind is determined by lighting small fires 
 and watching the direction of the smoke, by letting up small 
 balloons, or by the use of a weather cock. These methods 'are 
 visible sometimes and may give warning of an impending at- 
 tack. 
 
 The gases used being heavier than air (chlorine is two and 
 one-half and bromine five times as heavy as air), when released 
 under proper atmospheric conditions, move, or rather appear 
 to roll, along the ground usually in the form of a dense greenish 
 yellow cloud toward the lines of troops to be attacked, and when 
 it reaches the trenches it settles down into all parts of them, 
 penetrating the dugouts and bomb proofs and remaining some- 
 times for several days. The thickness of the cloud and the 
 rapidity with which it approaches varies in accordance with 
 the velocity of the wind. Gas attacks have been made with 
 velocities varying from 3 to 15 miles per hour, i. e., from 1 to 7 
 yards per second. In an average 9-mile wind the gas would 
 reach trenches 100 yards distant in 20 seconds. 
 
 While the gas-cloud form of attack, if successful, can produce 
 a number of casualties, its operation is uncertain, and its ap- 
 proach can be anticipated if proper watchfulness is maintained. 
 Efficient measures can be taken by trained troops to nullify 
 its effects, and its military value, therefore, is probably not so 
 great as when it is used in shells, bombs, hand grenades, etc. 
 This method is a much more definite procedure and will prob- 
 
12 
 
 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 ably be used in all wars of the future. Gas used in this way 
 has a distinct military advantage in that it is possible to place 
 it exactly where it may be needed to form a gas barrage or a 
 smoke barrage to prevent the bringing up of reinforcements or 
 the retreat of defeated troops. 
 
 THROWING HAND GRENADES CONTAINING GAS. 
 
 Gas is used in shells of both large and small caliber, but the 
 5.9-inch shell seems to be the best medium for its transmission. 
 These shells hold about 7 liters of a gas-producing liquid. They 
 have a short ogival head and a long cylindrical body of thin 
 steel, about cpe-fourth of an inch thick; closely fitted against 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 13 
 
 the inside walls is a cylinder of sheet lead about one-eighth 
 inch thick, which is filled with the gas-producing liquid and 
 then tightly soldered. This lead container fills nearly the whole 
 cylindrical portion of the shell. Just above it, but not resting 
 on it, is the explosive, and above this, on the point of the shell, 
 is a combination of time and impact fuse. The effect of the 
 charge upon exploding is to tear open the head of the shell and 
 the top of the lead container so as to allow the liquid to spill 
 out and liberate the gas. 
 
 Hand grenades of various kinds, made of both glass and iron, 
 and containing a quantity of gas-producing liquid are used in 
 trench warfare, and iron bombs with a bursting charge of 
 black powder and containing gas liquid are also used in trench 
 mortars. 
 
 THE VARIOUS KINDS OF CASES. 
 
 (a) Lachrymatory gases (which cause an intense inflamma- 
 tion of the eyes with temporary blindness). 
 
 (6) Suffocating oases (which cause rapid death by suffoca- 
 tion). 
 
 (c) Asphyxiating gases (which are extremely severe in their 
 action and cause in many cases immediate death, in others a 
 lingering death after several days, and in still others perma- 
 nent physical disability). 
 
 The lachrymatory gases are the ones most commonly used in 
 projectiles. The asphyxiating and suffocating gases are the 
 ones used in gas-cloud attacks, but they are also used in projec- 
 tiles. 
 
 A great variety of acids may be used for the production of 
 gases, and chemists in all armies are constantly -experimenting 
 with a view to perfecting new and more potent combinations. 
 The ones most commonly used now, however, for the lachry- 
 matory group are combinations of benzol and acetone, with 
 chlorine and bromine, such as chloracetone, bromacetone, and 
 benzyl bromide. The principal acids used for asphyxiating 
 purposes are chlorine, bromine, and phosgene. These acids are 
 abundantly produced in commercial processes of manufacture, 
 are easily obtained, and answer every purpose. They are, how- 
 ever, with the exception of phosgene, easily neutralized by 
 alkalies. In addition to these commoner acids, many other 
 acids have been used. Some of them are hydrogen sulphide, 
 sulphurous anhydride, various nitrous vapors, formol, arsene, 
 and prussic acid. 
 
14 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF GASES. 
 
 Certain gases, such as prussic acid, produce instant death by 
 paralyzing the central nervous system, but the majority of 
 the gases have a special affinity for the mucous membranes, and 
 their systemic effect depends on the amount of damage they do 
 to those tissues. The lachrymatory gases have a special action 
 
 
 CLOUD RESULTING FROM THE COMBUSTION OF HYDROCAR- 
 BURETED COMPOUNDS. 
 
 This column of asphyxiatingvapor is terrifying; it is about 30 meters high, 
 and is very slowly dispersed by the wind. 
 
 on the membranes of the eye and upper air passages, and their 
 effects, though severe while they last, are as a rule temporary. 
 They cause a severe smarting pain and running of the eyes 
 (tearing), and soon the lining of the eyelids become so swollen 
 that vision is impossible. At the same time there is a dryness, 
 burning, and smarting of the nose and throat, with coughing 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 15 
 
 and sometimes vomiting. In three or four hours these symptoms 
 begin to disappear and gradually the soldier recovers. 
 
 The asphyxiating and suffocating gases are far more severe 
 in their action. Their potency can be realized when it is known 
 that a dilution of 1 : 1,000 is fatal with chlorine and bromine, 
 and 1 : 25,000 is fatal with phosgene. A dilution of 1 : 100,000 
 or more has a marked effect. These gases act to a less degree 
 on the membranes of the eye than the lachrymatory gases, but 
 their action is particularly virulent on the membranes of the 
 respiratory tract, which they cause to swell rapidly and finally 
 destroy. The result in edema of the lungs, accompanied by 
 persistent coughing and spitting of blood, then great difficulty 
 in breathing, the 'soldier becoming cyanosed and struggling for 
 breath. Death may be almost instantaneous, or it may be post- 
 poned for several days, the sufferer in the meantime not being 
 able to eat anything and undergoing great agony. Many of the 
 cases in which recovery does take place develop later a chronic 
 disease of the lungs. 
 
 METHODS OF PROTECTION. 
 
 The deadly character of gas attacks can be almost entirely 
 obviated if the proper means of protection are known and 
 strictly enforced. These are primarily : 
 
 1. Prompt warning of an approaching attack; and 2. Prompt 
 application of the gas mask. The rapidity with which gas 
 clouds travel make it essential that warning of an approach- 
 ing attack be given without delay, and that troops adjust their 
 masks as rapidly as possible. 
 
 Advance information of an attack can be frequently obtained 
 by aeroplane reconnaissance and constant observation of the 
 enemy's trenches by outpost sentries. These two sources of in- 
 formation should be continuously employed. The only certain 
 signs of an actual attack, however, are : 
 
 (a) The whistling sound of the gas as it escapes from the 
 containers. 
 
 ( & ) The smell of the gas. 
 
 (c) The appearance of a cloud of any color over the enemy's 
 trenches. 
 
 (With all gases at night and with certain forms of gas in the 
 daytime the cloud is not visible at a distance. ) 
 
 Immediately upon the appearance of any of these signs the 
 " gas alarm " should be given and masks put on instantly. 
 
16 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 GAS MASKS. 
 
 A perfect familiarity with the uses of the mask and its prompt 
 application is the only certain means of defense. This has been 
 proven very thoroughly in the present war. The casualties in 
 the first gas attack at Ypres, where nothing was known as to 
 the means of defense, were fully 25 per cent, while in recent 
 attacks made on troops provided with the latest masks and 
 thoroughly drilled in their use the casualties have been barely 
 1 per cent. In other instances, however, with the same masks, 
 but in the hands of undrilled troops, the casualties have been 
 large. 
 
 The development of gas masks has kept pace with the develop- 
 ment of the use of gas in war. Within two days after the 
 attack at Ypres 100,000 masks had been prepared by the women 
 of France and sent to the troops at the front. These masks 
 were, however, simply small pads of gauze and cotton tied 
 over the mouth by means of strings and of course did not an- 
 swer their purpose. 
 
 All of the gas masks in use to-day provide mechanical protec- 
 tion to the eyes by means of goggles and chemical protection 
 to the air passages by means of a mixture of various elements 
 which neutralize the chemical action of the gas. The funda- 
 mental principles underlying them all are (a) the protection of 
 the eyes without interference with vision and (&) the exclusion 
 from the air passages of all air except that which has passed 
 through a neutralizing element. The first is accomplished by 
 means of goggles or eyepieces which fit tightly around the eyes. 
 The second is effected by means of various mechanical devices 
 in which all the inspired air is made to pass through either a 
 pad or cloth which has been previously treated with neutraliz- 
 ing chemicals or through a metal container which is kept filled 
 with a neutralizing mixture.- The latter has proven the best 
 device and is now in use in practically all armies. 
 
 The English type of this mask is known as " the small box 
 respirator." It comprises an impervious face piece or mask con- 
 taining windows for the eyes, which is held in place by rubber 
 bands around the head, a tin can or box carried in a small 
 haversack, and a flexible, noncompressible tube connecting the 
 box with the face piece. Inside the face piece is a small wire 
 clamp which, . applied to the nose, prevents air from being in- 
 haled through the nasal passages. When the face piece is ad- 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 17 
 
 justed and the nose clamp in position, the wearer takes the 
 end of the flexible tube in his mouth, and both inspiration and 
 expiration is carried on through this tube. The expired air 
 finds exit through a rubber check valve just outside the mask, 
 
 HAND TO HAND COMBAT BETWEEN GERMAN AND ENGLISH 
 TROOPS FOLLOWING A GAS-CLOUD ATTACK. 
 
 The men on the right (English) are wearing the tube helmet type of gas 
 mask. The man on the left is wearing the German mask. 
 
 while the inspired air is taken in through a wire netting win- 
 dow in the bottom of the box. In this box the neutralizing mix- 
 ture is arranged in five layers, and in its passage through these 
 five layers the gas-laden air is robbed of its poisonous qualities. 
 
18 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 The German mask is somewhat similar to the English mask, 
 but the container for the neutralizing mixture is screwed on to 
 a ring in the bottom of the mask. Inspired air and expired air 
 both pass through the container. In addition to the small box 
 respirator type of mask, every English soldier is provided with 
 a mask of the " tube-helmet " type, to be carried as a reserve. 
 This mask is really a cloth or flannel hood with a skirt long 
 enough to be tucked under the collar of the coat. It is provided 
 with eyepieces and a tube and check valve arrangement, through 
 which the expired air escapes. Inspired air comes through the 
 cloth of the mask, which has been impregnated with chemicals. 
 In addition to a mask somewhat similar to the English " respira- 
 tor " type, the French Army is equipped with a mask known us 
 the M2 type. 
 
 This mask has a face piece with celluloid windows for the 
 eyes and a crescent-shaped piece passing under the chin and 
 well up to the ears. The mask below the goggles is lined with 
 a quilted pad of gauze soaked with neutralizing chemicals. A 
 piece of thick sheeting of pure rubber goes around the goggles on 
 the inside and Is stitched between the layers of quilted gauze 
 to prevent air leaks. The face piece on the outside is protected 
 by a layer of waterproof cloth. 
 
 As gases have an effect on horses similar to that on men, 
 masks are now being provided. Horses and all animals when in 
 the danger zone are masked. 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Practical instruction should include the mechanism of the 
 gas mask, and the manner in which it is used, and should be 
 so arranged as to train the soldier in the quick and accurate 
 application of his mask and to accustom him to the performance 
 of his usual duties while wearing it. In other words, every 
 effort should be made to familiarize him with " the feel " of his 
 mask and to establish his confidence in it. 
 
 The care of the mask should be explained and the absolute 
 necessity for having it at all times nearby and in perfect con- 
 dition dwelt upon. 
 
 The main point to be impressed upon the soldier is that the 
 chemical material in the mask acts as ii filter and that all air 
 breathed into the lungs must first pass through this chemical 
 material in order that the poisonous qualities of the gas may be 
 
19 
 
20 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 eliminated. There must therefore be no leaks in the mask, nor 
 must it be removed until orders to do so have been given by 
 the noncommissioned officer in charge of the trench section. 
 
 Mask Drill. Mask drill should be carried out frequently by 
 all ranks. It should aim at teaching the quick adjustment of 
 the mask under all conditions, accustoming men to wearing them 
 for a long time and taking exercises in them. The following 
 points should be noted : 
 
 (a) Men should be timed in removing the mask from con- 
 tainer and getting it properly adjusted on the face. This 
 should only take a few seconds, and the importance of develop- 
 ing quickness and dexterity in the men in the application of 
 their masks can not be overestimated. Men should be taught to 
 hold their breath while putting on the mask, as a few breaths 
 drawn in concentrated gas may be followed by serious results. 
 
 ( & ) Practice simple movements while wearing mask, physical 
 drill, setting-up exercises, short-running exercises, etc. At first 
 these exercises should not exceed 15 minutes but should be 
 gradually extended. Men must be accustomed to wearing their 
 masks for at least one hour. 
 
 (c) The care of the mask, method of keeping the eyepieces 
 clean, etc. 
 
 (<Z) Practice in bombing, rapid loading, and aiming, judging 
 distance and range practice while wearing the mask. 
 
 (e) Practice in attacking trenches and in use of bayonet. 
 
 As an evidence of the minuteness and exactness which is re- 
 quired in instructing soldiers in the application of the gas mask, 
 the following may be quoted from the English drill regulations : 
 
 DRILLS WITH SMALL BOX RESPIRATORS. 
 
 Practice A. Adjustment of the respirator box in the " alert " 
 position. 
 
 On the command " Gas alert " hang the box respirator around 
 the neck with the press buttons next the body. With the right 
 hand seize the satchel by the leather tab, with the left hand 
 seize the sling by the brass button and slip this into the leather 
 tab. Undo the press buttons closing the satchel, tuck in the 
 slack of the sling into the left-hand compartment, so that it 
 lies under the mask. 
 
 The length of whipcord will then be withdrawn from the right- 
 hand compartment, passed through the ring on the right of the 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 21 
 
 satchel, and carried round the waist to the ring on the left, 
 where it is fastened. 
 
 The press button closing the satchel will be left undone, but 
 the flap will be put in position to keep the respirator from wet. 
 
 TRAINING RECRUITS FOR ATTACK WHILE WEARING MASKS. 
 
 TRAINING IN THE USE OF THE BAYONET WHILE WEARING THE 
 MASK. 
 
 Practice B Drill by numbers to obtain correct adjustment 
 of the small box respirator. 
 
 NOTE. This drill is to be carried out alternately with one 
 " judging the time," i. e., as quick adjustment as jjossible. It is 
 most important, and complete adjustment must be obtained 
 by all ranks in six seconds. 
 
22 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 Adjust the respirator in the alert position, with satchel 
 covered but not buttoned. 
 
 j 1. On command " One " press down both thumbs between the 
 satchel and the body and open the satchel flap. Immediately 
 sei?e the mask with the right hand, the metal breathing tube 
 just outside the mask being in the palm of the hand and the 
 thumb and first finger grasping the wire frame of the nose clip. 
 
 2. On the command " Two " bring the mask smartly out of 
 the satchel and hold it in both hands with all the fingers out- 
 side round the binding, and the two thumbs inside, pointing 
 inward and upward under the elastic. At the same time throw 
 the chin well forward ready to enter the mask opposite the 
 nose clip. 
 
 3. On the command " Three " bring the mask forward, dig- 
 ging the chin into it, and with the same motion bring the elastic 
 bands back over the crown of the head to the full extent of 
 the retaining tape, using the thumbs. 
 
 4. On the command " Four " seize the metal breathing tube 
 outside the mask, thumb on the right, fingers on the left, all 
 pointing toward the face. Push the rubber mouthpiece well 
 into the mouth and pull it forward until the rim of the mouth- 
 piece lies between the teeth and the lips and the two rubber 
 grips are held by the teeth. 
 
 5. On the command " Five " adjust the nose clip to the nose, 
 using the thumb and first three fingers of the right hand. Come 
 smartly to attention. 
 
 Practice C Drill to teach cleaning of eyepieces. On the 
 command " Clean eyepieces " the right eyepiece will be gripped 
 between the thumb and first finger of the left hand. The first 
 finger of the right hand will then be pushed gently into the 
 flap of the mask behind the right eyepiece, which will be 
 cleaned with a gentle circular motion. 
 
 The left eyepiece w r ill be cleaned in a similar way. 
 
 Practice D Drill to teach method of giving orders. It is 
 first explained to a squad that the nose clip must not be re- 
 moved to talk, and that before each sentence is spoken a long 
 breath must be taken and the mouthpiece removed sideways 
 from the mouth by turning the metal tube outside the mask to 
 one side. After speaking the mouthpiece is replaced. 
 
 The squad should then be numbered off, extended to four 
 paces, and orders passed along the line. 
 
 Officers and noncommissioned officers will receive instructions 
 in practice D. 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 23 
 
 Practice E. Drill to teach method of clearing mask from 
 gas which may have leaked in and is affecting the eyes. 
 Press the mask close to the face, forcing out foul air round the 
 sides, and then fill again with air from the lungs by blowing 
 out round the mouthpiece. 
 
 Practice F. Drill to teach method of testing whether trench 
 or dugout is free from gas. With right hand open the face 
 piece away from the right cheek, then loosen the nose clip on 
 the nose and smell gently (do not take a breath). If gas is 
 smelled, the nose clip and mask are replaced. Then as in 
 drill- " E." 
 
 Practice G. Ordinary infantry drill will be carried out while 
 wearing the mask. This will include doubling for at least 200 
 yards at a time. Marching order will be worn. Musketry and 
 bombing instruction and training of specialists (including ar- 
 tillery, machine gunners, signalers, R. A. M. C.) will also be 
 carried out. 
 
 Practice H. Drill to teach changing from the small box 
 respirator to the tube helmet. On the command " Change " 
 hold the breath, knock off the steel helmet with the right hand, 
 pull off the mask by inserting the fingers of the left hand under 
 the mask at the chin, and then get on the tube helmet. When 
 the chin grip is obtained, commence breathing again. 
 
 Protection must be obtained in 10 seconds or less. 
 
 NOTE. (a) If after wearing, for a long time the pressure of 
 the nose clip becomes unbearable, it may be relieved for a few 
 moments by taking off the pressure without removing clip. 
 
 (&) Removing masks. It must be seen that -when masks are 
 removed this is done without strain on the face piece or elastic. 
 On the command " Take off masks," insert the fingers of the 
 left hand under the mask at the chin, bend the head forward, 
 at the same time removing the mask with an upward motion 
 of the left hand. 
 
 (c) After all drill the mouthpiece must be disinfected, the 
 mask wiped dry, folded correctly and put away in such a way 
 that the rubber valve is not bent. 
 
 Having become thoroughly accustomed to the use of the mask, 
 all ranks should be given an actual exposure to gas in the 
 training trenches. This exposure should simulate in every 
 way an actual gas attack. At the gas alarm every man should 
 promptly adjust his mask, and inspection should be made to 
 see that this has been properly done. The gas should then be 
 
24 
 
TRAINING TROOPS TO ACCUSTOM THEM TO THE POISON-GAS 
 ATTACKS. 
 
 Soldiers wearing the protective masks descending an underground chamber 
 filled with poison gas. 
 
 BOX RESPIRATOR TYPE IN USE IN THE FRENCH ARMY. 
 
 25 
 
26 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 turned into the trenches and the men kept in it for some time. 
 Practice in clearing the trenches and dugouts of gas should be 
 given, and men trained in the use of the gas fans and sprayers. 
 Finally they should be practiced in the methods determining 
 whether or not all gas had been gotten rid of ad if the mask 
 can be safely removed. 
 
 .GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 The following general regulations governing gas attacks should 
 be published, and all officers and men should be required to be 
 familiar with them : 
 
 1. Every officer is responsible that the men under his com- 
 mand are properly instructed in defensive measures against gas 
 attacks, and that standing orders on the subject are thoroughly 
 understood. The experience in Europe has shown that in order 
 to reduce gas casualties to a minimum the utmost care must be 
 taken 
 
 (a) In inspection of masks. 
 
 (&) In training all men in quick adjustment of their masks 
 under all conditions. 
 
 (c) To insure that every man, whether in front or in the 
 supporting lines, shall be given immediate warning of an im- 
 pending attack. 
 
 If the above conditions are fulfilled and the nature of the 
 gas attack understood and protective measures are carried out 
 automatically as the result of effective training, the effect of 
 a gas attack becomes very small. 
 
 The rapidity with irhich the gas cloud travels makes it essen- 
 tial that troops should adjust their masks as rapidly as possible, 
 and that warning of an approaching gas attack should be given 
 without delay. , 
 
 2. Wind observations. Wind observation should be made at 
 regular intervals by officers detailed for that duty in all units 
 in the front line, so that warning may be given when conditions 
 are favorable for a hostile gas attack. 
 
 3. When the wind is favorable for a gas attack. (a) At 
 night sentries should have at least two men in reach of them 
 so that the alarm can be spread rapidly. 
 
 (&) A sufficient number of sentries should be posted over 
 large dugouts or groups of dugouts to insure that all sleeping 
 men can be aroused without delay. 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 27 
 
 (c) When thought necessary an additional inspection of masks 
 should be made. 
 
 (d) Sentries should be told off for warning the company and 
 regimental headquarters, and the artillery observation post, if 
 there be one in the trench. 
 
 (e) At night and at all times when a gas attack is expected 
 men in advanced trenches will have the masks in instant readi- 
 ness to apply. 
 
 (/) Commanders of all units in camp or billet in rear of the 
 trenches, but wihin the area of danger from gas, will make the 
 proper arrangements for giving the alarm and rousing all men 
 on receipt of information of a gas attack. 
 
 4. Gas alarm. Appliances for giving the alarm in case of 
 gas attack must be carefully arranged in advance. These should 
 be of ^wo kinds. The first in the form of gongs or bells, etc., 
 at each sentry post which will be beaten or rung directly gas is 
 detected a.nd will arouse the men in their immediate vicinity, 
 the signal being passed along by all sentries as soon as heard. 
 The second kind will be for the purpose of conveying the alarm 
 to troops in support or reserve lines and should be loud horns 
 worked by compressed air or motor (Klaxon horns) in order to 
 supplement wire communication should the latter break down. 
 
 No reliance can be placed on method of communication in- 
 volving the use of the lungs, e. g., bugles, whistles, or tele- 
 phones. Sentries must be prepared to give the alarm on the 
 first sign of gases, a few seconds delay may involve serious 
 consequences. 
 
 5. Action to be taken on gas alarm signal. (a) Everyone 
 put on masks. 
 
 (&) Rouse all men in trenches and dugouts. Warn officers 
 and artillery observation posts, etc. 
 
 (c) Company commander call for artillery support and warn 
 headquarters and troops in rear by means of prearranged sig- 
 nals. 
 
 (d) Infantry man parapets and open fire with rifle and ma- 
 chine guns, and, where practicable, trench mortars on the 
 trenches from which the gas is issuing. 
 
 (e) Let down and fix carefully the blanket, curtains at en- 
 trances to cellars and dugouts so protected. 
 
 6. General precautions during gas attacks. Officers and 
 noncommissioned officers must not take off their masks to give 
 orders. Men must always be on the lookout to help each other 
 
28 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 in case a mask is damaged. When a man is wounded, he must 
 be watched to see that he does not remove his mask. If neces- 
 sary, his hands should be tied. 
 
 Men must be warned that if they are slightly "gassed" be- 
 fore adjusting their masks they must not remove them. The 
 effect will wear off. After the cloud has passed and the trenches 
 been cleared- of gas by the apparatus provided for the 
 purpose, the noncommissioned officer in charge of each trench 
 section will assure himself that the trench is free from gas by 
 raising his mask slightly, and will then issue the order to take 
 off masks. Men will on no account take off their masks until 
 the order to do so has been given. Dugouts and bombproofs 
 must be entered with caution even after the trenches are clear, 
 as gas frequently remains in them some hours. 
 
 Rifles and machine guns should be cleaned after an attack, 
 as the gas affects them injuriously. If ammunition boxes are 
 kept closed and machine guns, rifles, and ammunitipn not in 
 boxes are kept well oiled and are fired occasionally, during a 
 gas attack, there is little risk of jamming. Oil cleaning will 
 prevent corrosion for 12 hours or more, but the first available 
 opportunity should be taken to dismantle the gun and clean 
 the parts in boiling water containing a little washing soda. 
 If this is not done, corrosion continues slowly, even after the 
 oil cleaning, and may ultimately put the gun out of action. 
 
 Battery commanders should be reminded that aiming posts are 
 liable to be obscured by the gas cloud, and that arrangements 
 should be made in every battery to meet this eventuality by pro- 
 viding gun pits with means to check the line of fire, if necessary, 
 without depending on the aiming posts. 
 
 7. Masks. The mask is the main defense against a gas at- 
 tack, and great care must be taken by officers to insure that the 
 masks are in good order and that the men have been trained in 
 their use. Masks issued to officers and men should be invariably 
 kept on the person at all times. This refers not only to units in 
 the trenches, but to all units and individuals when within 4 miles 
 of the front line. They will be carried in containers on the out- 
 side of the" coat or overcoat so that they are readily accessible 
 at all times. They must be kept from exposure and wet and 
 only removed from the containers for inspection. 
 
 Masks should be inspected once a week or more frequently if a 
 gas attack is imminent. Great care must be exercised to see 
 that they are at all times in perfect conditions. To prevent dim- 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 29 
 
 ming of the eyepieces from condensation of moisture a proper 
 chemical paste should be issued, to be applied to the inner surface 
 of the windows. A little of the paste should be applied with a 
 dry rag to the inside of the eyepieces, rubbing it hard into the 
 glass. Then polish off as much as possible "with a fresh rag, 
 leaving the glass quite clear. , This process must be repeated at 
 each weekly inspection and after the goggles have been worn. 
 
 8. Gas-shell attacks. The purpose for which gas shells are 
 usually employed is to produce a barrage to prevent the bringing 
 up of supports. 
 
 The liquid contained in these shells is usually the lachryma- 
 tory gas and converted into a dense white cloud of vapor by the 
 explosion. This causes intense irritation and watering of the 
 eyes, and is often sufficiently concentrated to irritate the throat 
 and cause coughing and sometimes vomiting, but is not deadly 
 like the asphyxiating gases. The latter are sometimes used in 
 shells, however, so that upon the first intimation of a gas-shell 
 attack the mask should be applied. 
 
 9. Methods of clearing- 'gas out of shell holes and trenches. 
 During an attack the gas sinks into the dugouts, and when gas 
 shells are used it sinks into the crater made by the shell and 
 remains in these places a long time, as it is difficult to clear out. 
 Gas may be almost entirely kept out of dugouts by hanging 
 damp blankets over the entrances into them. This method 
 should be universally adopted by artillery batteries, at regi- 
 mental, brigade, and division headquarters, and wherever dug- 
 outs and cellars are used within the shell area. The blankets 
 must be kept wet to effectually exclude the air currents. Shell 
 holes which are so situated as to be obnoxious should be filled 
 up with fresh earth, care being taken to cover up all places 
 around the hole where the chemical liquid from the shell has 
 dropped. Shell holes so treated should not be disturbed, as the 
 chemical is not destroyed by burying, and only slowly disap- 
 pears. 
 
 After the cloud has passed gas may be cleared out of the 
 trenches by the use of chemical sprayers and fans. These 
 should be distributed at easily accessible points in or near the 
 trenches and protected from shell fire. These sprayers are 
 similar to the tree sprayers of commerce and are kept filled 
 with a liquid alkali which has the property of neutralizing 
 asphyxiating gases but has no effect on lachrymatory gases. 
 The latter must be dissipated by ventilation of dugouts and the 
 
30 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 use of fans. When a carbon monoxide gas is present in dug- 
 outs the ordinary mask is no protection. For this reason spe- 
 cial oxygen containers must be provided for use of men en- 
 gaged in clearing out the dugouts. This latter is accomplished 
 by burning waste soaked with crude oil in an iron firepot. 
 Where the dugouts are properly ventilated the heated air causes 
 a current which quickly clears the dugout. Each company 
 should have a noncommissioned officer in charge of a squad of 
 men trained in the care and use of the sprayers and fans. On 
 taking over trenches this gas noncommissioned officer will take 
 over from the outgoing gas noncommissioned officer the sprayers 
 and fans and will see that each is in good condition and that 
 each sprayer is provided with solution. A man will be assigned 
 to each sprayer. He will be responsible for testing it every 
 day, and in case of gas attack he will stand by to use it when 
 ordered. Every company commander will be held responsible 
 that all the above measures are properly applied from the mo- 
 ment that he takes over a sector of trench. 
 
 THE TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF GAS IN OFFENSE. 
 
 The above resum of the use of gas in the European armies 
 deals entirely with the question of defense against gas attacks 
 and the precautions and methods of instruction that must be 
 instituted to minimize their effects. Gas having been generally 
 adopted in all armies, however, a knowledge of the technique 
 of its employment in offense must also be considered. 
 
 As has been noted above, gas may be employed in the form 
 of gas clowds or waves, gas shells, gas trench mortar bombs, 
 hand bombs, and grenades. The proper use of gas in the 
 form of a cloud attack is of so technical a character that 
 its employment should be delegated to specially trained gas 
 companies attached to each division. In the English Army 
 an entire brigade of Royal Army engineers has been organ- 
 ized for the gas offensive. This brigade is under the com- 
 mand of a general officer attached to army headquarters. 
 When a gas-cloud attack has been decided upon the gas 
 officer should make a survey of the sector involved and desig- 
 nate the location of the batteries of gas containers. These 
 batteries, which may vary from 3 to 12 containers, are 
 placed in specially prepared emplacements under the front line 
 parapets and thoroughly protected from shell fire. Inasmuch 
 
GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 31 
 
 as the trenches never follow a straight line the batteries must 
 be so located that when the gas is released it will not " enfilade " 
 the trench containing them. Advantage must be taken of 
 salients so facing the enemy that the wind will carry the gas 
 in the proper direction. The best distribution of the gas can be 
 accomplished with batteries placed at intervals of from 30 to 
 40 yards. 
 
 The weather conditions being of such great moment in the 
 proper accomplishment of a gas-cloud attack, they should 
 always be studied thoroughly. To this end meteorological sta- 
 tions should be established along the front and daily observa- 
 tions recorded, tabulated, and charted. The ideal weather is 
 a gentle wind blowing in the right direction at a rate of 4 to 
 6 miles per hour ; fairly high humidity, 40 to 60 per cent, and 
 an overcast sky. The upward current of warm air on a sunny 
 day rapidly dissipates the gas and on such a day the best time 
 for attack is in the early morning or late afternoon. 
 
 The order for a gas attack should be given in detail. It 
 
 should state that at hour on the first day when weather 
 
 conditions are suitable a gas attack will be made on 
 
 sector of the front and the number of gas waves (rarely more 
 than three) and the time for releasing each wave (so many 
 
 minutes after hour) \vill be started. Each day of the 
 
 week should be given a code designation for some days in ad- 
 vance. By this means when the proper weather condition ar- 
 rives, notification to attack can be given by signaling the code 
 name. Tlte artillery should have orders to open fire on the 
 enemy trenches immediately after the gas wave -has arrived 
 and a heavy barrage fire also instituted to prevent the bringing 
 up of reinforcements. For this barrage gas shells are espe- 
 cially useful. 
 
 METHOD OF MAKING A GAS ATTACK. 
 
 The gas-wave attack is practically always followed by an 
 infantry attack, and therefore the most perfect coordination is 
 necessary between the " gas detail," the artillery, and the infan- 
 try. When an attack is to be made, men are placed in charge of 
 each battery to release the gas when the order is given. Each 
 battery is connected by telephone with an officer of the gas 
 service responsible for a given sector of the front, and he in 
 turn with the line officer commanding that sector. The latter is 
 
32 GAS AS A WEAPON IN MODERN WARFARE. 
 
 connected with local and distant meteorological stations and 
 with artillery headquarters. 
 
 The time for delivering the infantry attack will vary some- 
 what with the atmospheric condition under which the gas was 
 ' liberated. ' Sufficient time should elapse for at least part of the 
 gas to have been disseminated, for with an efficient barrage fire 
 there is little chance of reinforcement being brought forward. 
 
 Gas-shell attacks are also dependent to some extent on the 
 condition of the weather. Inasmuch, however, as by means 
 of projectiles the gas can be liberated directly in the enemy's 
 lines, weather conditions are not nearly, so important as they 
 are in the gas-cloud attack. 
 
 The employment of gas shells may be in conjunction with a 
 gas-cloud attack, or an infantry attack without a preliminary 
 gas-cloud attack. As mentioned above, their greatest usefulness 
 is in establishing a heavy barrage to prevent the bringing up oi 
 reinforcements. They may also be used for a preliminary bom- 
 bardment of the trenches, the noxious gases they liberate mate- 
 rially weakening the defense in many instances,. Gas shells are 
 also of distinct value in directing artillery " 
 
 o 
 
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