COMPRISING 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF NAUTICAL WORDS AND PHRASES; BIOGRAPHICAL 
 NOTICES, AND RECORDS OF NAVAL OFFICERS; 
 
 SPECIAL ARTICLES ON NAVAL ART AND SCIENCE, 
 
 WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR THIS WORK 
 
 BY OFFICERS AND OTHERS OF RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY IN THE 
 BRANCHES TREATED BY THEM. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NAVAL STATIONS AND SEAPORTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 COMPLETE IlSrONE VOLUME. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 L. R. HAMERSLY & CO. 
 
 1884. 
 
Copyright, 1880, by L. B. HAMERSLY & Co. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE great abundance of encyclopaedias that distinguishes our day would, at first 
 sight, seem to discourage any attempt to add to that department of literature. But 
 among all the works coming properly under the name of encyclopaedia there is 
 not one, at least in the English language, that supplies the want which it is the aim 
 of this volume to meet. The sea is, so to speak, a world in itself. It has its own 
 vegetable and animal life, and its own natural laws; while on its surface floats a 
 multitude of vessels that serve either as the outlying defenses of the nations which 
 border upon it, or as the carriers of the commodities which they find a profit in 
 exchanging. This world of men and things, so peculiar and distinct, necessarily 
 has a peculiar language, peculiar customs, and peculiar belongings. It is, more 
 over, a progressive world, and the arts and sciences that have relation to it are 
 moving and developing pari passu with those that relate solely to the terrene por 
 tion of the globe. When to these considerations is added the fact that the sea is the 
 especial field of operations of a profession which unites in itself the characteristics of 
 the sailor and of the soldier, and to which is committed the high trust of maintaining 
 the honor and dignity of the nation which it represents in all parts of the globe, and 
 of extending over the citizens of its own country, wherever their business or pleasure 
 may call them, the protecting segis of the national flag, it would certainly appear 
 that sufficient warrant exists for the issuing of this work, which has for its object the 
 bringing together in one view, and within convenient compass, the several kinds of 
 information most useful to naval officers, and most likely to be sought for by sea 
 faring men of every name and grade. Nor is it only those that are by profession, 
 or calling, identified with the sea who will find profit and instruction in this volume. 
 There is a large and increasing class among the gentlemen of our own and other 
 countries who cultivate the sea for the pleasure that it yields, and who take a manly 
 delight in the danger and excitement incident to sporting upon its surface, to whom 
 a book like this must prove an auxiliary of great value. To these may be added, 
 as likely to find advantage in this book, all whose business, or love of knowledge, 
 prompts them to investigate the science of that world which has its habitation in, 
 under, or upon the waters of the great deep. 
 
 We have already intimated that this work claims to be unique. It embraces, 
 first, a complete dictionary of marine words and phrases; second, a large number of 
 original articles on special topics ; third, a copious fund of biographical data ; and, 
 fourth, a gazetteer of the principal naval stations and seaports of the world. No 
 other work uniting these several features exists in our language, nor, we think we 
 may confidently add, in any other. 
 
 Custom, no less than justice to those whose labors have produced the volume 
 
 iii 
 
 ;i 
 
iv PKEFACE. 
 
 now offered to the public, makes it proper to assign to the several collaborators the 
 credit due for their respective shares in its preparation. 
 
 To Mr. Lewis R. Hamersly, who saw service with the navy during the war of 
 the Rebellion, and who, as the compiler of " The Records of Living Officers of the 
 Navy," and as the head of the military and naval publishing house of L. R. Ham 
 ersly & Co., is well known to the naval profession, credit is due for the conception 
 and plan of the work, and also for the preparation of the general mass of records 
 of officers which it contains. 
 
 On Lieutenant J. W. Carlin has devolved the main burden of the editorial 
 conduct of the work. Besides numerous articles in other departments, he has ex 
 clusively written or compiled the astronomical articles and definitions, as also the 
 entire mass of nautical definitions not herein specifically credited to others. 
 
 Medical Director Edward Shippen, whose biographical sketches of distin 
 guished naval men of our own and former times constitute a feature of the work, 
 has, besides the articles bearing his signature, given it the benefit of his editorial 
 assistance in ways that have contributed largely to improve and perfect it. 
 
 Rear- Admiral George Henry Preble, besides the articles which appear over his 
 signature, has contributed the definitions of naval titles, and has greatly assisted the 
 work by his advice and encouragement. 
 
 Chief Engineer Albert Aston has contributed the general mass of definitions 
 relating to machinery and steam-engineering, and Passed Assistant Engineer L. W. 
 Robinson has also made valuable contributions to the same department. 
 
 To Naval Constructor S. H. Pook belongs the credit of having furnished the 
 definitions of the terms pertaining to ship-building. 
 
 Lieutenant E. T. Strong, in addition to the articles signed by him, has con 
 tributed the definitions of nautical and naval terms which occur under the letters 
 K, L, and T, respectively. 
 
 Lieutenant F. S. Bassett, in addition to the articles which appear over his sig 
 nature, has compiled, or written, the greater part of the definitions included under 
 the alphabetical headings F, S, W, and X. 
 
 In several departments of the work Colonel George A. Woodward, U.S.A., 
 has assisted by contributions and editorial supervision. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal works consulted in the preparation of 
 this volume: Smyth s Sailor s Word-book, Falconer s Marine Dictionary, Burn s 
 Naval and Military Technical Dictionary, Cooper s Naval History, Bedford s 
 Sailor s Pocket-book, Luce s Seamanship, Nares s Seamanship, Totten s Naval Text 
 book, Dana s Seaman s Friend, Harbord s Glossary of Navigation, Bowditch s 
 Navigator, Loomis s Astronomy, Peabody s Astronomy, Proctor s Hand-book of 
 the Stars, Cooke s Naval Gunnery, Ordnance Instructions (1880), Lippincott s 
 Gazetteer, Wilson s Ship-building, Very s Navies of the World, King s War-ships 
 and Navies of the World, Knight s Mechanical Dictionary, Sleeman s Torpedoes and 
 Torpedo Warfare (Electricity), Myer s Manual of Signals, Navy Regulations, Web 
 ster s Dictionary, Worcester s Dictionary, Brande s Encyclopaedia, Chambers s En 
 cyclopaedia, Appleton s Encyclopaedia, Johnson s Encyclopaedia, Kent s Commen 
 taries, Sharswood s Blackstone. 
 
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS AND ARTICLES. 
 
 AMMEN, DANIEL, Kear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Balsa. 
 
 Canals, Interoceanie. 
 Cushing, W. B. ; Commander U.S.I*. 
 Life-boats and Life-rafts. 
 Marine Rams. 
 
 ASTON, ALBERT, Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 Compound Engine. 
 Compound Screw. 
 Condenser. 
 Crank. 
 
 Expansion of Steam. 
 Marine Steam-boiler. 
 Marine Steam-engine. 
 Ship-building, Iron. 
 
 BASSETT, F. S., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Barren, James, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Barry, John, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Bay. 
 
 Cape. 
 
 Continents. 
 
 Currents. 
 
 Decatur, Stephen, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Elliott, Jesse Duncan, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Exploring Expeditions. 
 
 Fire-ships and Bafts, Explosion-vessels and 
 
 Booms. 
 Gulf. 
 
 Hopkins, Esek, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Hull, Isaac, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Islands. 
 Lake. 
 
 Lawrence, James, Commodore U.S.N". 
 Oceans. 
 
 , Perry, M. C., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Perry, O. H., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Bivers. 
 
 Boutine of Duty in a Man-of-war. 
 Sea. 
 Ship. 
 Sound. 
 
 Stewart, Charles, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Wilkes, Charles, Bear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 BELKNAP, GEORGE E., Captain U.S.N. 
 Deep-sea Sounding. 
 Navy-yard, Pensacola. 
 
 BLACK, C. H., Lieutenant-Commander U<S.N. 
 Compass, The Mariner s. 
 
 BLODGETT, LORIN, Esq. . 
 Commerce, Modern. 
 
 BLOODGOOD, DELAVAN. Medical Inspector 
 
 U.S.N. 
 Naval Hospital, Brooklyn. 
 
 BROOKE, J. M., Professor Virginia Military In 
 stitute. 
 Ordnance. 
 
 BROWN, B. M. G., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Nebular Hypothesis. 
 Porter, D. IX, Admiral U.S.N. 
 Submarine Mines. 
 Torpedo-boat. 
 Torpedoes. 
 Torpedo Station. 
 
 BROWNE, J. M., Medical Director U.S.N. 
 Naval Hospital, Mare Island. 
 
 CARPENTER, JOHN T., M.D., President of the 
 
 Pennsylvania State Medical Society. 
 Hospital Gangrene. 
 Scurvy. 
 
 CHAD WICK, F. E., Lieutenant-Commander 
 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Coast Guard of Great Britain. 
 Naval Training Systems^ Foreign. 
 Beserve, Boyal Naval. 
 
 COCHRANE, H. C., Captain U.S.M.C. 
 Court-martial. 
 Court-martial, Summary. 
 Inquiry, Court of. 
 Judge-advocate. 
 Judge-advocate-general. 
 Marine Corps. 
 Oaths 
 
 Pardoning Power. 
 Provost-marshal. 
 Witness. 
 
 COLHOUN, E. B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Navy-yard, Mare Island. 
 
 COLLUM, B. S., Captain U.S.M.C. 
 Marine Corps, Foreign. 
 
 COLVOCORESSES, G. P., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Chart. 
 Sketching. 
 
 DICKINS, F. W., Lieutenant-Commander U.S.N. 
 Naval Academies. 
 
 Dow, JESSE E. 
 
 Navy Department. 
 
 Navy, Volunteer, of the United States. 
 
 DULIN, JAMES C. 
 
 Examination of Officers for Promotion and 
 Betirement in the Navy, Board of. 
 
vi 
 
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS AND ARTICLES. 
 
 EMMONS, G. F., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Navy of the United States, 1775-1812. 
 
 ETTING, THEODORE M. 
 Marine Insurance. 
 Maritime Law. 
 
 FARRAGUT, LOYALL. 
 
 Farragut, David Glasgow, Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 FRANKLIN, S. R., Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Hydrographer to the Bureau of Navigation. 
 Hydrographic Office. 
 
 GALT, W. W., Assistant Paymaster U.S.N. 
 Naval Station, Key West. 
 
 GLASS, HENRY, Commander U.S.N. 
 School-ships, Nautical. 
 
 GREEN, F. M., Lieutenant-Commander U.S.N. 
 Hydrography. 
 Latitude. 
 Longitude. 
 Navigation. 
 Sextant. 
 
 HANFORD, F., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Naval Lyceum. 
 Navy-yard, Brooklyn, N. T. 
 
 HILL, WALTER N. 
 Explosives. 
 
 HOFF, WILLIAM BAINBRIDGE, Lieutenant- 
 Commander U.S.N. 
 Bainbridge, William, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 HORD, W. T., Medical Director U.S.N. 
 Naval Hospital, Chelsea. 
 
 HUTCHINS, C. T., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Anchor. 
 
 JOHNSON, A. B., Chief Clerk Light-House 
 
 Board. 
 Light-house Establishment. 
 
 KIDDER, J. H., Surgeon U.S.N. 
 Dry Rot. 
 Yellow Fever. 
 
 KUNHARDT, C. P. 
 
 Yachts and Yachting. 
 
 LUCE, S. B., Captain U.S.N. 
 Administration, Naval. 
 Admiralty. 
 Anchoring. 
 Commission. 
 Corvette. 
 
 Emergencies at Sea. 
 Government, Naval. 
 Mooring. 
 Naval Songs. 
 Naval Tactics. 
 Naval Training System. 
 Organization. 
 
 LULL, E. P., Commander U.S.N. 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
 
 LYLE, D. A., Lieutenant U.S.A. 
 Wreck-artillery. 
 
 LYON, H. W., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Guns, Casting of. 
 Projectiles. 
 
 MANSFIELD, C. D., Paymaster U.S.N. 
 Pay Corps, U.S.N. 
 
 MASON, T. B. M., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Diving. 
 
 Landing-parties. 
 Naval Brigade. 
 Naval Institute. 
 Organization. 
 
 MASSIE, A. H. 
 
 Navy-yard, Boston. 
 
 McBLAIR, C. H. 
 
 Navy of the Southern Confederacy. 
 
 MERRYMAN, J. H., Captain U.S.R.M. 
 Revenue Marine Service. 
 
 METCALFE, HENRY, Captain U.S.A. 
 Machine-guns. 
 Magazine-guns. 
 
 NELSON, THOMAS, Lieutenant-Commander 
 
 U.S.N. 
 Storms. 
 
 NOEL, J. E., Lieutenant-Commander U.S.N. 
 Lead. 
 Log. 
 Navigator. 
 
 OLIVER, PAUL A. 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 PEARSE, JOHN B., Manager South Boston Iron 
 
 Company. 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 POOK, S. H., Naval Constructor U.S.N. 
 Ship, Launching of. 
 
 PREBLE, G. H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N, 
 Admiral. 
 Captain. 
 Naval Titles. 
 Registers, U.S.N. 
 Salutes. 
 
 SANDS, F. P. B. 
 
 Preston, Samuel N., and Porter, Benjamin 
 H., Lieutenants U.S.N. 
 
 SIDDONS, J. H. 
 
 Biographical Sketches. 
 Great Britain, Navy of. 
 
 SHIPPEN, E., Medical Director U.S.N. 
 Asylum, Naval, of the United States. 
 Bart, Jean. 
 Decres, Denis. 
 Doria, Andrea. 
 Duguay, Tronin Rene". 
 Duquesne, Abraham, Marquis. 
 Exmouth, Viscount. 
 
LIST OF CONTKIBUTOES AND ARTICLES. 
 
 vii 
 
 SHIPPEN, E. Continued. 
 Forbin, Claude. 
 Kane, Elisha Kent. 
 La Perouse. 
 La Vallette. 
 
 L Isle, Adam Phillipe de. 
 Medical Corps of U. S. Navy. 
 Medical Officers of U. S. Navy, Duties of. 
 Quarantine. 
 
 Euyter, Michel Adrianzoon Van. 
 Sargasso Sea. 
 Ship Fever. 
 Sick-bay. 
 Sufferin. 
 Tourville. 
 Tromp, Von. 
 Villeneuve. 
 
 SIMPSON, E., Commodore TJ.S.N. 
 Armor. 
 Ironclads. 
 
 SOLEY, J. EUSSELL, Professor U.S.N. 
 International Law. 
 
 STEVENS, T. H. ? Eear- Admiral IT.S.N. 
 Navy of the United States, 1812-80. 
 Eowan, S. C., Vice-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 STOCKTON, H. T., Lieutenant TJ.S.N. 
 Armor, Compound. 
 Clubs, British Service. 
 
 STRONG, E. T., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Capstan. 
 Dock. 
 
 STRONG, E. T. Continued. 
 Masting. 
 Masts. 
 
 Preparing for Sea. 
 Eope. 
 Eope-walk. 
 Eudder. 
 Sails. 
 
 Small-stuff. 
 Tackles. 
 
 Telegraph-cables. 
 Getting under Way. 
 
 TODD, D. P. 
 
 Almanac, The Nautical. 
 Ephemeris, The Astronomical. 
 
 TRUXTUN, W. T., Captain U.S.N. 
 Executive-officer. 
 
 UPSHUR, J. H., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Inspection, Board of. 
 
 VERY, EDWARD W., Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Signals. 
 
 WHITFIELD, "W. E., Ensign U.S.N. 
 Naval Station, Port Eoyal. 
 
 WILSON, JOSEPH, Medical Director U.S.N. 
 Hygiene, Naval. 
 
 WOOD, WM. MAXWELL, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 Life-boats and Boat-detaching Apparatus. 
 
THE following is a summary of the contents of the book : 
 
 I. A complete Dictionary of Nautical Terms and Phrases. 
 II. Biographical Notices of Distinguished Naval Officers of our own and foreign services. 
 
 III. Special Articles prepared expressly for this work by officers and others of recognized 
 
 ability in their respective fields of, discussion, and comprehending the freshest and 
 most authentic information attainable respecting the several subjects treated. 
 
 IV. A Gazetteer of the Principal Naval Stations and Seaports of the World. 
 
 V. A Supplement containing concise Kecords of Living Officers of the Navy, including 
 Captains, Commanders, Lieutenant-Commanders and Lieutenants, and Staff-Officers 
 of relative rank. The records of Flag-Officers are included in the body of the work. 
 
 viii 
 
A NAVAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 
 
 A. 
 
 A. Abbreviation for after in the U. S. Gen 
 eral Service Code of Signals. Contraction for 
 at, on, or in, as, a-stern, a-shore, a-poise. 
 
 A 1. The highest class of excellence in mer 
 chant vessels. See CLASSIFICATION OF MER 
 CHANT VESSELS. 
 
 Aalborg. A city and seaport of Denmark, in 
 Jutland, on the south shore of the Lymfiord, 
 near its mouth, in the Cattegat. Lat. 57 2 
 46" N. ; Ion. 9 55 38" E. Pop. 11,721. 
 
 Aarhuus. A seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, 
 on the Cattegat, at the mouth of the Molle-Aue, 
 37 miles S.E. of Viborg. Lat. 56 9 27" N. ; 
 Ion. 10 12 46" E. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 A. B. An abbreviation signifying Able Sea 
 man. See ABLE. 
 
 Abab. A Turkish sailor who plies in coasting 
 craft. 
 
 Aback. The situation of a sail when the wind 
 acts on its forward surface. The sails are laid 
 aback, or thrown aback, by hauling in the weather- 
 braces or by putting the helm down, or both. 
 They are caught aback, or taken aback, by a shift 
 of wind, or by inattention at the helm. Flat 
 aback means that the wind acts nearly at a right 
 angle to the forward surface of the sail. Taken 
 aback is also used figuratively for being taken by 
 surprise. All aback forward is the notice from 
 the forecastle that the head-sails have been taken 
 aback. Brace aback is the order given to swing 
 the yards and lay the sails aback. 
 
 Abaft. Behind. Abaft the beam, astern of a 
 line forming a right angle with the keel. 
 
 Abaka. "The fibre of which Manilla rope is 
 made. 
 
 Abandon. To relinquish to underwriters all 
 claim to property which may be recovered from 
 shipwreck, capture, or any other peril stated in 
 the policy. To desert a vessel on account of the 
 danger in remaining on board. 
 
 Abatement. A demand for a reduction of 
 freight when unforeseen causes have delayed or 
 hindered the performance of a stipulated charter- 
 party. 
 
 Abeam. Opposite the centre of the ship s 
 side ; on a line which forms a right angle with 
 the keel. 
 
 Aberration. The apparent displacement of 
 the stars, caused by the motion of the earth 
 combined with the motion of light. The devia 
 
 tion of the rays of light from the principal focus 
 of a lens. 
 
 Abet. To excite, encourage, or assist. 
 
 Able. Competent ; strong. Able Seaman, a 
 rating on the ship s books. He must be compe 
 tent to perform all the duties required of a sailor. 
 
 Able-whackets. A sea game, in which the 
 loser is beaten over the hands with a handker 
 chief, tightly twisted. 
 
 Aboard. On board ; inside, or upon a ship. 
 Residing afloat. To keep the land aboard is to 
 hug the shore. To fall aboard of is for one 
 vessel to foul another. To lay an enemy aboard 
 is to run into or alongside of him. To haul the 
 tacks aboard is to set the courses. 
 
 About. To go about is to change the course of 
 a ship by tacking. Ready about, or boutship, is 
 the order to prepare for tacking. 
 
 Abox. The position of the head-yards when 
 they are braced aback, the after-sails remaining 
 full. Brace-abox, the order to lay the head-yards 
 abox. This is done in boxhauling and occa 
 sionally in heaving-to, but is more generally 
 done to box the ship s head off from the wind 
 after she has been caught aback, or after she has 
 missed stays. 
 
 Abraham-men. An English cant term for 
 vagabonds who, under pretence of being desti 
 tute mariners, beg about the dock. A malin 
 gerer wanting to go on the sick-list is said to 
 "sham Abraham." 
 
 Abrase. To dub or smooth planks. 
 
 Abreast. Side by side ; opposite to ; parallel 
 with. Line abreast, a formation in which the 
 ships are abeam of each other. 
 
 Abri. (Fr.) Cove; shelter; under the lee; 
 a safe anchorage on a weather shore. 
 
 Abrid. A pintle-plate. 
 
 Abroach. On tap ; in use. 
 
 Abroad. On a foreign station ; in a foreign 
 country. An old word for spread; as, all sail 
 abroad, 
 
 Abrupt. Steep ; broken ; craggy ; as, of cliffs 
 and headlands. 
 
 Absence. State of being absent. Leave of 
 absence, permission of the proper authority to be 
 absent from post or duty for a specified time. 
 Absence without leave, with manifest intention 
 not to return, is desertion. When there is a 
 probability that the party intends to return, he 
 
 13 
 
ABSORPTION 
 
 14 
 
 ACADEMIES 
 
 is to be considered a straggler for ten days, at 
 the expiration of which he is to be regarded as a 
 deserter. 
 
 Absorption. A term formerly used for the 
 sinking of islands and tracts of land Subsi 
 dence. 
 
 Abstract. An abridgment of the contents 
 of a book or document. 
 
 A-burton. The situation of casks when 
 stowed athwartships. 
 
 Abut. When two planks are joined endwise 
 they are said to butt or abut against each other. 
 Abutting-joint is a joint where the pieces come 
 together at a right angle. 
 
 Abutment. The breech-block of a fire-arm. 
 
 Abyme. The site of constant whirlpools, as 
 the Maelstrom was supposed to be. An abyss. 
 
 Abyss. A depth without bottom. 
 
 Academies, Naval. The United States Naval 
 Academy at Annapolis was founded and formally 
 opened on October 10, 1845. On August 7, 1845, 
 Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy 
 under President James K. Polk, issued instruc 
 tions to Commander Buchanan for the opening 
 of the school. The War Department had pre 
 viously transferred to the naval authorities the 
 site and buildings of Fort Severn, one of the 
 defenses of Annapolis harbor, at the mouth of 
 the Severn Kiver, in the State of Maryland. 
 The first step was to collect the midshipmen, 
 who, from time to time, were on shore, and give 
 them occupation in the study of subjects essential 
 to the education of a naval officer. In October, 
 1849, a board of officers was convened to reor 
 ganize the institution, and to make it conform, 
 as nearly as possible, to the system pursued at 
 the Military Academy at West Point. The 
 course of instruction and the regulations were 
 revised, and the title of the institution was 
 changed from Naval School to U. S. Naval 
 Academy. In November, 1851, the course of 
 study was fixed at four years. A practice-vessel 
 was attached to the Academy for summer cruis 
 ing, and a Board of Visitors was provided for, 
 to attend the annual examinations, and to report 
 upon the condition of the school. After the 
 breaking out of the civil war, in May, 1861, the 
 Academy, with all its apparatus and personnel, 
 was transferred to Newport, R. I., where it re 
 mained until September, 1865, when it was re 
 turned to Annapolis. The programme of studies 
 was then rearranged to conform more closely to 
 modern ideas, and remains practically unaltered 
 at this date. The course of instruction embraces 
 the following studies, viz. : seamanship, which 
 includes naval construction, naval tactics, prac 
 tical exercises, signals, swimming, gymnastics, 
 etc. ; ordnance and gunnery, which includes 
 infantry tactics, field-artillery and boat-howitzer 
 exercise, great guns, mortar practice, and fencing; 
 mathematics, which comprises algebra, geometry, 
 trigonometry, analytical geometry, descriptive 
 geometry, and calculus ; steam engineering, com 
 prising practical exercises, theory of steam-engine, 
 and fabrication and designing of machinery ; 
 astronomy, navigation, and surveying; physics 
 and chemistry ; mechanics and applied mathe 
 matics, which includes, besides mechanics, the 
 differential and integral calculus, and theoretical 
 naval architecture; English studies, history and 
 law ; modern languages, French and Spanish ; 
 drawing, comprising right-line, free-hand and 
 
 perspective, topographical, and chart making. 
 On June 1, 1880, the personnel of the Academy 
 was as follows : commanding officer and staff, 
 including medical and pay officers and chap 
 lain, 12; instructors, 46 commissioned officers 
 and 15 civilians, 61 ; civil officers, including 
 secretary, librarian, clerks, etc., 14 ; marine 
 officers, 3 ; warrant-officers, 2 ; and 7 mates at 
 tached to the gunnery -ship and practice-vessels ; 
 total staff of the Academy, 99 ; number of cadet 
 midshipmen, 253 ; of cadet engineers, 99 ; total 
 of. students, 352; aggregate, 451. The list of 
 successive superintendents is as follows : 1st, 
 Commander Franklin Buchanan, 1845-47 ; 2d, 
 Commander George P. Upshur, 1847-50; 3d, 
 Captain C. K. Strihling, 1850-53 ; 4th, Captain 
 L. M. Goldsborough, 1853-57 ; 5th, Commodore 
 George S. Blake, 1857-65 ; 6th, Vice-Admiral 
 D. D. Porter, 1865-69 ; 7th, Rear-Admiral John 
 L. Worden, 1869-74 ; 8th, Rear-Admiral C. R. 
 P. Rodgers, 1874-78 ; 9th, Commodore Foxhall 
 A. Parker, 1878-79. In June, 1879, Commodore 
 Parker died, and was succeeded by Rear-Admiral 
 George B. Balch as the tenth superintendent. In 
 1865 two classes of cadet engineers, not to exceed 
 50 in the aggregate, were admitted into the Acad 
 emy. The duration of their course was, until June 
 1, 1873, two years. By act of Congress, approved 
 February 24, 1874, their course was lengthened 
 to four years, and the number of classes increased 
 to four. The examinations of candidates for cadet 
 engineers are competitive. Candidates must be 
 between 16 and 20 years of age, and of sound 
 body. The number of appointments that can be 
 made is limited by law to 25 each year. The 
 academic examination previous to appointment 
 is on the following subjects, namely : arithmetic, 
 algebra, through equations of the first degree, 
 plane geometry, natural philosophy, reading, 
 writing, spelling, grammar, composition, geog 
 raphy, free-hand drawing, and the elementary 
 principles governing the action of the steam- 
 engine. Candidates who possess the best knowl 
 edge of machinery, other qualifications being 
 equal, have precedence for admission. The pay 
 of cadet engineers while at the Academy is $500 
 per annum. After the academic course, two 
 years sea-service is required before being eligible 
 to be commissioned as assistant engineers, and 
 then only as vacancies occur. The studies of 
 cadet engineers at the Academy consist of math 
 ematics, analytical mechanics, theory and prac 
 tice of steam engineering, physics and chemistry, 
 French and Spanish, drawing, designing of ma 
 chinery, naval architecture, and practice in the 
 workshops. On March 3, 1873, Congress passed a 
 law changing the duration of the course for cadet 
 midshipmen from four to six years, to apply to 
 the class admitted in 1873 and to all subsequent 
 classes. Four years of the six are passed in 
 completing the academic course, the remaining 
 two years are passed at sea on board a regular 
 cruising-vessel, after which they return to the 
 Academy and are required to pass the following 
 final graduating examination: physical, ord 
 nance, naval tactics, navigation, French and 
 Spanish, seamanship, and steam. The marks of 
 this examination, combined with those of the 
 academic course, determine the graduating num 
 ber; and passing successfully, the cadet midship 
 man becomes a midshipman, and he is then 
 eligible to be commissioned an ensign when va- 
 
ACADEMIES 
 
 15 
 
 ACADEMIES 
 
 cancies occur. The number of cadet midship 
 men allowed at the Academy is one for every 
 member and delegate of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, ten at large, and one from the District 
 of Columbia, appointed by the President. The 
 nomination of a candidate from any Congres 
 sional district or territory is made on the recom 
 mendation of the member or delegate from actual 
 residents of his district or territory. Candidates 
 must be of sound body, between 14 and 18 years 
 of age, and present themselves to the superin 
 tendent of the Academy for examination for 
 admission in June and September. The exam 
 ination in reading is of course conducted orally, 
 all other examinations are in writing. A satis 
 factory examination must be passed in arithme 
 tic, geography, grammar, writing, and spelling. 
 Candidates who pass the physical and mental 
 examinations will be appointed as cadet mid 
 shipmen and become inmates of the Academy. 
 Each cadet is required to sign articles by which 
 he binds himself to serve in the navy eight years, 
 including the time at the Academy, unless sooner 
 discharged. The pay of a cadet midshipman is 
 $500 a year, commencing at the date of his 
 admission. The academic year begins October 
 1, and ends May 30. The year is divided into 
 two academic terms, the first term extending 
 from October 1 to January 30. Each of the 
 classes is divided into a convenient number of 
 sections of from nine to twelve members, and 
 the recitation hours into three periods of two 
 hours each, and no student is required to attend 
 more than three recitations during the day ; so 
 that besides the evening study hours, one hour 
 of each period may be devoted to study. The 
 system of examination comprises monthly, semi 
 annual, and annual examinations, all of which 
 are conducted in writing, the same questions 
 being proposed to each member of a class. If 
 the cadet fail to pass the semi-annual or annual 
 examination he is dropped. The monthly ex 
 amination-marks are combined with the daily 
 marks to determine the monthly standing. These 
 marks are combined with those of the semi 
 annual examination to find the term standing, 
 which latter are again combined to form the 
 annual record. The summer months are em 
 ployed in cruising at sea. The sailing-vessels 
 "Santee," "Constellation," and "Dale," the 
 ironclad monitor " Nantucket," and the steamers 
 "Mayflower" and " Standish" are permanently 
 stationed at the Academy during the two aca 
 demic terms for the purpose of instruction in 
 great guns, and in sails, spars, steam, etc. The 
 " Constellation" is commissioned for the summer 
 cruise of the first and third classes of cadet mid 
 shipmen. The second class is granted leave 
 during the summer, and the fourth class, ad 
 mitted in June, is quartered on -board the 
 " Santee" for practical instruction until the be 
 ginning of the academic year. The first and 
 third classes of cadet engineers are embarked on 
 board the practice-steamers, and visit the United 
 States navy-yards and private ship-yards, par 
 ticularly those where iron ship-building is done, 
 foundries, rolling-mills, machine-shops, etc. They 
 are required to take notes and make sketches of 
 machinery, etc., at every place visited. The 
 second class of cadet engineers goes on leave. 
 The officers for all the practice-vessels are detailed 
 from the officers attached to the Academy. The 
 
 academic grounds inside the walls consist of 50 
 acres. The grounds outside consist of 109 acres. 
 Aggregate, 159 acres. The departments of study 
 and the observatory are amply supplied with 
 models and apparatus. The library contains 
 20,000 volumes, chiefly historical, scientific, and 
 professional. At the International Exhibition 
 held at Paris, France, in 1878, the United States 
 Naval Academy received a diploma of the value 
 of a gold medal, which was one of the four 
 diplomas awarded to educational institutions in 
 the United States for the best quality of educa 
 tion in the group classed as superior. 
 
 ENGLAND. The Royal Naval Academy was 
 first established at Portsmouth dock-yard by order 
 from the admiralty dated March 13, 1729, the age 
 of admission being between 13 and 16 years. The 
 young gentlemen entered the naval service either 
 by nomination from the admiralty through the 
 Royal Naval Academy, or by direct nomination 
 to sea-going ships by flag-officers and captains 
 of ships in commission. In 1806 the title of the 
 establishment was changed to Royal Naval Col 
 lege. In 1816 the college was united to the 
 School of Naval Architecture, and the age of 
 admission fixed at from 12 to 14 years. In 1821 
 the age was again altered, from 12J to 13J years, 
 and so continued until the college was closed, in 
 1837. The number of cadets allowed after 1806 
 was 70, mainly selected from the nobility and 
 gentry. The college was closed owing to the old 
 method of appointing midshipmen directly into 
 the navy without any conditions of previous 
 preparation existing at the same time, which, 
 being short and easy, was commonly preferred. 
 After passing an easy entrance examination, the 
 course of instruction at the college was not much 
 more than elementary, and extended over a period 
 of two years. After a year s sea-service the stu 
 dent was eligible to be rated as midshipman. In 
 the year 1839 the Royal Naval College was re 
 opened for the purpose of establishing further 
 means of scientific education for a certain num 
 ber of commissioned officers, who were allowed 
 to remain at the college for one year. In the 
 beginning of 1857 the experience of twenty 
 years since the abolition of the old naval college 
 as a seminary for boys having meanwhile fully 
 demonstrated the necessity for some kind of pre 
 liminary training for cadets on their first entry 
 into the service the admiralty established a new 
 system of instruction on board a training-ship, 
 to which the cadets were to be appointed after 
 passing into the service by a moderate test exam 
 ination, with some modification of detail on cer 
 tain points. The system of educational training 
 established in 1857 still continues in force. In 
 1868 a sea-going ship was established supple 
 mentary to the stationary one. Under the regu 
 lations at present in force the candidate must not 
 be under 12 nor above 13 years of age. The 
 principle of limited competition has also been 
 introduced. Candidates must pass a strict phys 
 ical examination, and afterwards undergo a pre 
 liminary test examination in reading, writing, 
 dictation, French, arithmetic as far as vulgar 
 and decimal fractions, and Scripture history. 
 Those who successfully pass this examination 
 are allowed to compete in a further examination 
 in arithmetic, algebra to simple equations, Book 
 I. of Euclid, French, Latin, English history, 
 geography, German, Italian or Spanish, and 
 
ACADEMIES 
 
 16 
 
 ACADEMIES 
 
 drawing, the candidates selecting not more 
 than three of these subjects, or four, if drawing 
 be one. Successful competitors are then appointed 
 to the " Britannia," at Dartmouth, as naval 
 cadets. The course of instruction there lasts 
 two years, and is supplemented by a year s fur 
 ther training on board a special sea-going train 
 ing-ship. On leaving the " Britannia" the cadets 
 are classed according to their merits in study 
 and conduct. Cadets having obtained one year s 
 sea-time on leaving the training-ship, are rated 
 as midshipmen. During the three years on board 
 the training-ships the cadets study the following 
 subjects : mathematics, consisting of a partial 
 course in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and 
 trigonometry, with a short course in steam, ele 
 mentary surveying, English, French, geography, 
 history, and drawing. After completing five 
 years service, including the time on board the 
 training-ships, and having attained the age of 19 
 years, they are eligible to pass for lieutenant. 
 The Koyal Naval College at Greenwich was re 
 organized and opened February 1, 1874, for the 
 instruction of officers of all branches of the naval 
 service, including captains and excluding mid 
 shipmen. 
 
 FRANCE. Students are admitted to the Naval 
 School on board the " Borda," at Brest, once in 
 each year, by competitive examination. Candi 
 dates of respectable parentage are eligible for ad 
 mission, provided they are native Frenchmen or 
 have been naturalized, and are not less than 14 or 
 more than 17 years of age on the 1st of January 
 of the year in which they compete. Their parents 
 are obliged to pay the equivalent of $140 a year 
 to support them while at the school. The exam 
 inations are held in July at Paris and at seven 
 other large cities in France, and in Corsica and 
 Algiers. The examination, partly written and 
 partly oral, is on the following subjects: written 
 French and English composition ; numerical 
 calculation of plane trigonometry, and descrip 
 tive geometry ; oral French and English, gen 
 eral history, geography, arithmetic, algebra, ge 
 ometry, trigonometry, and descriptive geometry. 
 To these is added drawing from nature. If the 
 candidate pass the oral examination, he under 
 goes a further examination, more searching in the 
 same subjects, for competition. A committee in 
 Paris selects the prescribed number of candidates 
 in order of merit. Those selected join the train 
 ing-ship " Borda" on October 1, and remain there 
 two years. The subjects of instruction are liter 
 ary, scientific, and professional. An examination 
 is held at the end of each year, and those that fail 
 to pass in either branch of instruction are dis 
 missed. At the end of two years those who pass 
 successfully are sent on board the cruising-ship 
 1 "Jean Bart, where the course is strictly practical. 
 The cruise lasts about one year, and on their 
 return an examination is held in the following 
 subjects : naval architecture, steam, seamanship, 
 naval gunnery, infantry tactics, navigation and 
 surveying, naval regulations, literature, English, 
 drawing, naval book-keeping, international and 
 maritime law, and naval hygiene, which finishes 
 the course. There are also a certain number of 
 students who pass directly from thePolytechnique 
 School into the "Jean Bart," and during their 
 subsequent service they are in no way distin 
 guished from those who have been trained in 
 the " Borda." The " Jean Bart" also receives a 
 
 few students from the corps of naval constructors, 
 and takes them to sea. 
 
 GERMANY. The officers corps of the Imperial 
 navy is made up from young men that enter the 
 service as cadets, and from sailors that are granted 
 such a chance for advancement. Applications for 
 admission as cadet must be made to the admiralty 
 at Berlin during the months of August and Sep 
 tember of the year preceding the examination for 
 admission. The application must be accompanied 
 by a number of papers giving a detailed account 
 of the candidate s family, his intellectual training 
 and physical condition. The examination is held 
 every year, in the month of April, before an ex 
 amining board at Kiel, appointed by the chief 
 of the admiralty. The candidate must first pass 
 a physical examination, and not be more than 17 
 years of age, except a graduate of a high school, 
 who must not be more than 19 years of age. The 
 examination for admission is in the following 
 subjects : Latin, grammar, arithmetic, geometry, 
 trigonometry, elements of physics, geography, 
 history, French and English, and free-hand 
 drawing. If the candidate has a certificate of 
 graduation from a high school, or a school of 
 equal rank, he is freed from an examination if 
 his record in mathematics be good; if not, he 
 must pass an examination in that branch. The 
 results of this examination are sent to the chief 
 of admiralty, who decides which ones shall be 
 admitted. The cadets must pay their own ex 
 penses. The cadets selected for admission are 
 embarked on board a practice-ship. They cruise 
 during the summer and return to the station in 
 September. Those cadets that show a want of 
 aptitude for the service are then dismissed by 
 order of the admiralty. The remaining cadets 
 receive certificates signed by the commanding 
 ofScer and other officers of the practice ship, and 
 are ordered to attend the cadets class of the 
 naval school after taking the oath of allegiance. 
 The instruction in the cadets class is intended to 
 prepare the cadets for the Naval Cadets 1 exami 
 nation, and lasts about six months. This ex 
 amination embraces the following subjects : navi 
 gation, seamanship, artillery, infantry tactics, 
 arithmetic, trigonometry, geometry, chemistry, 
 official reports, topography, English and French. 
 Those failing to pass are either turned back or 
 dismissed. Those cadets that have passed are 
 embarked on board a practice-ship, and sent on 
 a cruise for two years. During that time they 
 receive practical training, and are also instructed 
 in those branches of science more strictly pro 
 fessional. At the end of the cruise, those receiv 
 ing a satisfactory report from the commander of 
 a vessel are ordered to attend the first officers 
 examination at Kiel in the following subjects : 
 navigation, seamanship, naval tactics, artillery, 
 marine engines, naval architecture, knowledge 
 of the duties of officers, French and English. 
 Those that pass the examination are appointed 
 second lieutenants without commissions, and are 
 made to attend the officers class of the Naval 
 Academy. The course of instruction commences 
 in October and closes the following August, and 
 is intended to complete the theoretical education, 
 and prepare the members for the second officers 
 examination, which takes place each year, in 
 September, at Kiel, and in the following sub 
 jects : navigation, infantry tactics, artillery, 
 naval architecture, marine engines, fortification, 
 
ACADEMIES 
 
 ACCOST 
 
 drawing, geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, 
 and physics. Full reports of the examination 
 are submitted to the admiralty, the relative 
 standing of those that have passed finally de 
 termined, and commissions as second lieutenant 
 are issued. Sailors are admitted on the recom 
 mendation of their superior officers after a ser 
 vice of at least twelve months on board a man- 
 of-war, and must not be over 20 years of age. 
 The regulations for admission and examinations 
 are the same for sailors as for those persons enter 
 ing from civil life. 
 
 ITALY. The candidates enter at Naples on the" 
 15th of June in each year ; they must be of 
 sound body, not less than 13 nor over 17 years 
 of age, and must give security that their expenses 
 will be paid. The examination for admission is 
 competitive, and is in arithmetic, elementary 
 algebra, geometry, ancient history, grammar, 
 French, and geography. The Royal Naval 
 School is composed of two divisions, the first 
 at Naples, and the second at Genoa. The course 
 at Naples is two years, and comprises the follow 
 ing subjects : algebra, geometry, trigonometry, 
 descriptive geometry, navigation, French and 
 English, drawing, calculus, physics, descriptive 
 and political geography, and Italian literature. 
 The last two years of the course are passed at 
 Genoa, and the following subjects taught: me- 
 chanicsj astronomy, hydrography, history, politi 
 cal geography, Italian literature, French and 
 English, theory of ships, naval construction, 
 naval tactics, fortification, artillery and infantry 
 tactics, torpedoes, and practical exercises, includ 
 ing fencing, gymnastics, swimming, and dancing. 
 The practice-cruises are made each year from. 
 June to November, and the examinations take 
 place before the cruise begins. Those who grad 
 uate are recommended for nomination to the 
 grade of midshipmen, and go directly into active 
 service. 
 
 RUSSIA. Those who are desirous of entering 
 the naval service must pass into the Naval 
 School at St. Petersburg. Candidates eligible 
 for admission must be sons of hereditary noble 
 men, of superior civil or military officers, or of 
 hereditary honorable citizens. The age of can 
 didates must not be under 15 nor over 18 years. 
 Those candidates who may wish it are allowed, 
 before entering the school, to go through a trial- 
 cruise to test their aptitude for the service. If 
 the trial-cruise be satisfactory the candidate must 
 pass a physical and mental examination. The 
 examination is held yearly, in the month of Sep 
 tember, embracing the following subjects : re 
 ligion, grammar, geography, history, arithmetic, 
 algebra, geometry, and French. The course of 
 instruction lasts four years, at the expense of 
 the government. At the end of four years the 
 students are examined in the subjects mentioned 
 as follows: religion, navigation and pilotage, 
 astronomy, seamanship, naval history, naval 
 tactics, gunnery, surveying, steam, theoretical 
 and practical naval architecture, fortification, 
 jurisprudence, and Russian and French lan 
 guages. Having passed this examination the 
 student is made a naval cadet, and is embarked 
 on board a training-ship to cruise for two years, 
 at the end of which he is subjected to a final ex 
 amination in practical seamanship. 
 
 SPAIN. The Naval College for midshipmen 
 was created by royal decree, September 18, 1844> 
 2 
 
 in order that young men who desire to become 
 naval officers may learn, theoretically and prac 
 tically, their profession. It is situated in San 
 Carlos, department of Cadiz. The personnel is 
 composed of, besides the commanding officer and 
 staff, 11 professors of mathematics, 1 of physics, 
 and 10 for drawing, seamanship, ship-building, 
 English and French, fencing, gymnastics, and 
 dancing, 2 chaplains, and 8 lieutenants, who, 
 besides their duties as officers, give military in 
 struction to the cadets. By a royal decree of 
 February 20, 1864, only 60 can enter yearly. 
 The candidate must be between 13 and 16" years 
 of age. All the vacancies, except four, are filled 
 by competitive examination in the following sub 
 jects : religion, reading, writing, grammar, arith 
 metic, algebra, geometry, French and English, 
 geography, and drawing. By the last-mentioned 
 decree the time in the college has been reduced 
 from two and a half years to one year and a half, 
 and the students study the following subjects : 
 trigonometry, geometrical analysis, astronomy, 
 navigation, physics, meteorology, chemistry, 
 gunnery, French and English, naval tactics, in 
 fantry tactics, seamanship, geography, history 
 (sacred, profane, and naval), religion and morals, 
 drawing, fencing, gymnastics, swimming, and 
 dancing. F. W. Dickins, Lieutenant- Commander 
 UJS.N. 
 
 Academite. A graduate of the Royal Naval 
 Academy at Portsmouth, England. 
 
 Acairlphuill. A safe anchorage. 
 
 Acalephse. A class of marine animals of low 
 organization, having a translucent jelly-like 
 structure, and frequently possessing the property 
 of stinging; as, the Portuguese man-of-war 
 (Physalia), and the common jelly-fish (Medusa}. 
 
 Acapulco. A seaport of Mexico, on the Pa 
 cific. Lat. 16 50 N. ; Ion. 99 48 W. It has 
 a magnificent landlocked harbor, and is 302 
 miles "S.S.W. of Mexico. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Acast. An old word for lost or cast away. 
 Abox ; as, the head-yards were said to be braced 
 acast. 
 
 Acater. Purveyor of victuals, whence ca 
 terer. 
 
 Acatium. A word used by the Romans for a 
 small boat, and also for the mainmast of a ship. 
 
 Acceleration. The increase of velocity in a 
 moving body. A planet is said to be accelerated 
 when its actual diurnal motion exceeds its mean. 
 In the fixed stars this acceleration is the mean 
 time by which they anticipate the sun s diurnal 
 motion. Acceleration of the moon is the increase 
 of her mean motion, caused by a slow change in 
 the eccentricity of the terrestrial orbit. 
 
 Access. Means of entry or approach. Ac 
 cessible, approachable by land or sea. 
 
 Acclivity. The upward slope of an inclined 
 cliff. 
 
 Accoil. To coil together. 
 
 Accommodations. Fittings, conveniences. 
 Accommodation ladder, a convenient flight ot 
 steps shipped at the gangway. When shipped 
 on both sides, the starboard ladder is reserved for 
 the use of commissioned officers and their visit 
 ors. 
 
 Accompany. To sail together ; to convoy. 
 
 Accon. (Fr.) A flat-bottomed Mediterranean 
 boat for carrying cargoes over shoals. _ 
 
 Accost. To hail ; to pass within hail ; to sail 
 coastwise ; to draw near. 
 
ACCOUNT 
 
 18 
 
 ADJUSTMENT 
 
 Account. Going upon account, a phrase for 
 buccaneering. 
 
 Accounts. The several books and registers 
 of money, stores, clothing, and provisions. See 
 PAYMASTER. 
 
 Accouplement. A timber tie or brace. 
 
 Accoutrements. Equipments of soldiers and 
 marines. 
 
 Accul. An old term for the end of a deep 
 bay ; from cul-de-sac. 
 
 Accuse. To charge with an offense. 
 
 Accused. The designation of the party on 
 trial before a court-martial. See COURT-MAR 
 TIAL. 
 
 Achernar. a Eridani, a star of the first 
 magnitude in the constellation Eridanus, called 
 by navigators the u Spring of the Kiver." 
 
 Achromatic. A term applied to optical in 
 struments in which aberration and the colors de 
 pendent thereon are partially corrected. Achro 
 matic condenser, a lens used to concentrate the 
 rays of light on an object in a microscope. 
 
 Achronical. An old term signifying the rising 
 of a heavenly body at sunset, or its setting at 
 sunrise. 
 
 Acker. An eddying ripple on the surface of 
 flooded waters. A tide swelling above another 
 tide. See EAGRE, BORE. 
 
 Ackmen, or Ack-pirates. Fresh- water thieves. 
 
 A-cockbill. A yard is a-cockbill when by acci 
 dent or design one yard-arm is topped up more 
 than the other. (See MOURNING.) The anchor is 
 a-cockbill when it hangs from the cat-head by the 
 ring-stopper ready for letting go. In the navy 
 the anchor is not cockbilled except in special 
 cases. 
 
 Acolyte. The smaller component of a double 
 star. 
 
 Acorn. A cone-shaped piece of wood attached 
 to the vane. 
 
 Acoustics. The science of sound. The acous 
 tic telegraph is one which makes audible instead 
 of visible signals 
 
 Acquit. To discharge from an accusation ; to 
 free or exonerate from blame or suspicion ; to 
 clear from imputation. The word is also used to 
 express personal bearing ; as, to acquit one s self 
 well. 
 
 Acquittance. A release or discharge in writing 
 for a sum of money, or duty, which ought to be 
 paid, or done, on the ship s account. 
 
 Acre. A city and seaport of Syria, on a prom 
 ontory at the foot of Mt. Carmel. Lat. 32 55 
 N. ; Ion. 35 5 E. Pop. 4800. The Bay of Acre 
 is much frequented by French, Italian, and Aus 
 trian vessels. 
 
 Acrostolium. A symbolical ornament on the 
 prows of ancient vessels ; the origin of the modern 
 figure-head. 
 
 Act. Deed, performance, edict, decree, or law. 
 Overt act, an open act done in pursuance of a 
 criminal design, the mere design not being pun 
 ishable without such act. Act of God compre 
 hend? all accidents arising from physical causes. 
 Act of Court, the decision of the judge on the 
 verdict or on a point of law. Act and Intention 
 must be united, in admiralty law. 
 
 Acting. A prefix to denote that a rank is held 
 temporarily. 
 
 Action. Exertion of power or force. Double 
 action denotes that the motor acts positively in 
 producing the backward and forward movement. 
 
 An engagement ; a battle. Clear ship for action, 
 to prepare for battle by removing everything that 
 obstructs the working of the battery or hinders 
 the handling of the ship ; by removing all fix 
 tures and appliances, not needed for action, but 
 which might cause the enemy s shot to create 
 havoc and confusion ; by removing articles liable 
 to injury by exposure ; and by providing articles 
 necessary to the security of rigging and spars. 
 
 Active. Requiring or implying action or ex 
 ertion ; practical ; operative, 
 
 ACTIVE LIST. The list of officers liable to be 
 called upon for active duty, in contradistinction 
 to the Retired List (which see). 
 
 ACTIVE SERVICE. Duty before the enemy, or 
 operations in his presence. Any duty under the 
 orders of the Navy Department. 
 
 Actuaire. (Fr.) An open transport pro 
 pelled by oars and sails. 
 
 Actuairole. (Fr.) A small galley propelled 
 by oars. 
 
 Acumba. Oakum ; the hards or coarse parts 
 of flax and unplucked wool. 
 
 Acuna, Christopher. Jesuit and explorer, b. 
 Burgos, 1597, d. Lima about 1675. He was one 
 of the early explorers of the river Amazon, and 
 was sent to report the incidents of the expedition 
 of 1639. On his return to Spain he published at 
 Madrid, in 1641, " Nuevo Descubrimiento del 
 gran Rio de las Amazonas." He subsequently 
 went to the East Indies, returned to South Amer 
 ica, and died on the way from Panama to Lima. 
 
 Adamant. The loadstone ; the magnet : the 
 sense in which it was held by early voyagers. 
 
 Adapter. A ring or tube to adapt or fit any 
 accessory apparatus to an instrument. 
 
 Addel, or Addle. The putrid water in casks. 
 
 Addice. An adze. The addled eggs of sea- 
 fowl. 
 
 Addlings. Accumulated pay. 
 
 Address. Bearing. To consign or intrust to 
 another as an agent. 
 
 Adelaide, Port, six miles from the capital of 
 South Australia. Lat. 34 49 S. ; Ion. 138 38 
 E. It is a free port, and accessible for vessels 
 drawing 18 feet of water. 
 
 Adit. An air-hole or drift. The aperture by 
 which a mine is dug and charged. The aperture 
 by which a ship in ancient times was entered. 
 
 Adjourn. To put off to another day ; to dis 
 continue a while ; to intermit proceedings ; as, of 
 a court-martial, a board of examination, etc. 
 When no certain day is fixed to which the ad 
 journment is to extend, it is said to be sine die. 
 
 Adjudication. The act of adjudging prizes 
 by legal decree. Captors are compelled to sub 
 mit the adjudication of their prizes to a compe 
 tent tribunal. 
 
 Adjust. To set the frame of a ship. To regu 
 late an instrument for use. To adjust the com 
 passes is to ascertain the deviation of the needle 
 due to local attraction. 
 
 Adjustment, in marine insurance, is the as 
 certaining and settling of the amount of in 
 demnity, whether of average or salvage, which 
 the insured is entitled to receive. The nature 
 and amount of damage being ascertained, an en 
 dorsement is made on the back of the policy, de 
 claring the proportion of loss falling on each un 
 derwriter ; and when this endorsement is signed 
 by the latter, the loss is said to have been ad 
 justed. After an adjustment has been made, it 
 
ADJUTANT 
 
 19 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 is usual for the underwriter at once to pay the 
 loss. As a question of law, however, it does not 
 appear how far the adjustment is conclusive and 
 binding on the underwriters. In the opinion of 
 some lawyers the adjustment is merely presump 
 tive evidence against an insurer, and it is, not 
 withstanding, open to the underwriter to show 
 facts which, if proved, would have the effect of 
 relieving him from liability. 
 
 ADJUSTMENTS OF INSTRUMENTS. All nauti 
 cal instruments are liable to get out of order, 
 their several parts not retaining their relative 
 positions, owing to unequal expansion, violence, 
 or like causes. To guard before observing against 
 resulting errors, there are methods of testing 
 whether the instrument is in order in the several 
 points subject to be affected ; and the instrument 
 is provided with means of adjustment, chiefly in 
 the form of screws or sliding weights, by which 
 it may be restored to its correct state. Adjust 
 ing screws and weights ought not to be touched 
 more than is absolutely necessary, and then with 
 great care. When two such screws work oppo 
 sitely to each other, one must not be tightened 
 without the other being at the same time loosened. 
 Sometimes, instead of making the adjustment, 
 the error may be acknowledged and allowed for 
 in observing. The term " adjustments" is often 
 loosely applied to all sources of incorrectness, 
 and means of obviating their effects, in using 
 instruments. These are, however, properly of 
 three distinct kinds : imperfections in the instru 
 ment, which should cause its rejection ; adjust 
 ments for parts of the instrument liable to tem 
 porary derangement, but which can be restored 
 to order by the machinery attached ; and errors 
 of the instrument, which are acknowledged, de 
 termined by experiment, and allowed for. See 
 COMPASS and SEXTANT. 
 
 Adjutant. See MARINE CORPS. 
 
 Admeasurement. The calculation of the pro 
 portions of a ship according to assumed rules. 
 
 Administration, Naval (Lat. ad, "to," and 
 ministro, ministratum, "to serve," manage 
 ment, conduct of business), relates to the man 
 agement of that part of the executive branch 
 of the government which includes the navy, or 
 military marine. The Chief Executive is gen 
 erally the constitutional or hereditary head of 
 the navy. James I., of England, assumed the 
 title of Lord High Admiral and Lord Gen 
 eral; in other words, he declared himself to 
 be the commander-in-chief of the army and 
 navy. This was subsequently confirmed to the 
 reigning sovereign by act of Parliament (13 
 Car. II., c. 6). In the United States the Presi 
 dent is the Commander-in-Chief of the Army 
 and Navy, " and he may require the opinion in 
 writing of the principal officer in each of the 
 executive departments upon any subject relating 
 to the duties of their respective offices." (Con 
 stitution of the United States, Art. II., Sec. 2.) 
 One of these "executive departments" is styled, 
 by the act of April 30, 1798, which creates the 
 office, the Department of the Navy, and the 
 "principal officer" the Secretary of the Navy, 
 whose duty it is " to execute such orders as he 
 shall receive from the President of the United 
 States relative to the procurement of naval stores 
 and materials, and the construction, armament, 
 equipment of vessels of war, as well as all other 
 matters connected with the naval establishment 
 
 of the United States. From the language of the 
 act it will be seen that the Secretary of the Navy 
 is, in all matters pertaining to his branch of the 
 public service, the exponent of the President ; and 
 his acts are to be considered the acts of the Presi 
 dent, and have full force and effect as such. The 
 official duties of the heads of executive depart 
 ments, however, are not merely ministerial ; they 
 involve the exercise of judgment and discretion. 
 (Decatur v. Paulding, 14 Pet., 515.) The Secre 
 tary of the Navy is appointed by the President, 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
 from civil life, and is one of the members of his 
 Cabinet. He is authorized by law to prescribe 
 regulations, not inconsistent with law, for the 
 government of his department, the conduct of 
 its officers and clerks, the distribution and per 
 formance of its business, and the custody, use, 
 and preservation of the records, papers, and prop 
 erty appertaining to it. He is required to make 
 an annual report to Congress of the operations 
 of the navy for the preceding year, its general 
 condition, etc. The business of the Department 
 is distributed among eight bureaus, to wit: (1) 
 Bureau of Yards and Docks, (2) Equipment 
 and Recruiting, (3) Navigation, (4) Ordnance, 
 (5) Construction and Repair, (6) Steam Engi 
 neering, (7) Provisions and Clothing, (8) Medi 
 cine and Surgery. The chiefs of bureaus are 
 appointed by the President, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate. All the duties 
 of the bureaus are performed under the authority 
 of the Secretary of the Navy, and " their orders 
 are considered as emanating from him and have 
 full force and effect as such" (act of August 31, 
 1842). There are 63 clerks, draughtsmen, etc., 
 in the Department, 17 of whom belong to the 
 Secretariat, the remainder to the several bureaus. 
 The chiefs of four bureaus (1, 2, 3, and 4) are 
 selected from the line-officers not below the rank 
 of commander. During the time of holding 
 office they have the relative rank of commo 
 dore, if below that grade. The chiefs of the 
 other bureaus are selected from the several corps 
 which they represent, and while holding office 
 have the relative rank of commodore, with the 
 title respectively of surgeon-general, paymaster- 
 general, engineer-in-chief, and chief construc 
 tor. Chiefs of bureaus hold their offices for the 
 term of four years. Any staff officer who has 
 performed the duty of a chief of a bureau for a 
 full term is exempt thereafter from sea-duty, ex 
 cept in time of war, and retires with the relative 
 rank of commodore. 
 
 It will be perceived from the foregoing that 
 the Navy Department, and consequently the 
 navy itself, is without a professional head. The 
 civil branch is well provided for in the constitu 
 tional commander-in-chief and his constitutional 
 adviser, the Secretary of the Navy. But regard 
 ing the navy in its true character of a sea army, 
 there is no professional head in our naval admin 
 istration to govern its purely military operations. 
 This is a great, and, in time of war, would be 
 likely to prove a fatal, defect. It would be diffi 
 cult, indeed, to find a civilian in whom were com 
 bined the political training essential to a Cabinet 
 officer and the technical knowledge necessary to 
 an intelligent and energetic administration of 
 naval affairs even in times of profound peace. 
 
 The history of our naval administration is 
 curious. The infant navy was ushered into ex- 
 
ADMINISTRATION 
 
 20 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 istence by spasmodic resolutions of the Conti 
 nental Congress. On the 5th of October, 1775, a 
 resolution directed the fitting out of two armed 
 schooners to cruise for a vessel known to have 
 left England with munitions of war for the 
 enemy. A week later another resolution directed 
 the equipping of a swift vessel of 10 guns, and 
 three members of Congress Messrs. Deane, 
 Langdon, and Gadsden were chosen a com 
 mittee to superintend this " naval force." Oc 
 tober 20 four members Hopkins, Hewes, Lee, 
 and John Adams were added, when it was re 
 solved that "these seven be a committee to carry 
 into execution with all possible expedition the 
 resolutions of Congress for fitting out armed 
 vessels." The committee immediately procured 
 a room in a public-house in Philadelphia, and 
 agreed to meet every evening at 6 o clock for the 
 dispatch of business. January 25, it was resolved 
 that the direction of the fleet fitted out by order 
 of Congress be left to the Naval Committee. In 
 subsequent resolutions this committee was styled 
 the Marine Committee, and was empowered to 
 give names to ships, to order them on service, 
 purchase materials, etc. June 9, 1779, it was 
 resolved that the management of all business re 
 lating to the marine of the United States be vested 
 in commissioners. October 28, 1779, a Board of 
 Admiralty was established to superintend the 
 naval and marine affairs. February 7, 1781, the 
 office of a Secretary of Marine was created. Au 
 gust 20, on the report of a committee, it was re 
 solved that a for the present an agent of marine be 
 appointed," who should absorb all the duties that 
 had devolved upon the Board of Admiralty. On 
 the termination of the war of the Revolution 
 (1783) the navy was disbanded. The present 
 government went into operation under the Con 
 stitution March 4, 1789, and on the 7th of August 
 following an act was passed establishing the^De- 
 partment of War, the Secretary of which was 
 to have a general supervision of the land and 
 naval forces. April 30, 1798, the act was passed 
 creating the Department of the Navy, a Secretary 
 of the Navy, a principal clerk and such other 
 clerks as he (the Secretary) thought necessary. 
 The act of February 7, 1815, added to the De 
 partment a Board of Navy Commissioners, con 
 sisting of three officers of the navy not below 
 the rank of post-captain. The act provided that 
 " the board so constituted should be attached to 
 the office of the Secretary, and under his super 
 intendence discharge all the ministerial duties of 
 that office relative to the procurement of naval 
 stores and materials, and the construction, arma 
 ment, equipment, and employment of vessels of 
 war, as well as other matters connected with the 
 naval establishment." The act of August 31, 
 1842, abolished the naval commissioners and 
 substituted five bureaus, since increased, by act 
 of July 5, 1862, to eight. By act of July 31, 
 1861, the office of Assistant Secretary of the 
 Navy was authorized, the exigencies of war 
 showing its necessity. The office was abolished 
 soon after the war (March 3, 1869). 
 
 The act of March 2, 1865, created the office of 
 Solicitor and Judge-Advocate-General. June 
 22, 1870, it was transferred to the Department of 
 Justice, as Naval Solicitor (Sec. 249, Revised 
 Statutes). For that important factor of the navy, 
 the Marine Corps, see article under that head. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. Immediately after the rev 
 
 olution of 1688 Parliament passed an act (2 Sess. 
 William and Mary) establishing a Board of 
 Admiralty ; thus giving the sanction of law to 
 the practice that had long prevailed, of placing 
 the control of the navy in the hands of experi 
 enced officers. By this act it was " declared and 
 enacted that all and singular authorities, juris 
 dictions, and powers which, by any act of Par 
 liament or otherwise, have been and are lawfully 
 vested ... in the Lord High Admiral of Eng 
 land for the time being, have always appertained 
 to, and may be exercised by, the Commissioners 
 for executing the office of High Admiral of Eng 
 land for the time being according to their com 
 missions." Two years later, it was resolved in 
 the House of Commons that "His Majesty be 
 advised to constitute a commission of the Ad 
 miralty of such persons as are of known experi 
 ence in maritime aifairs ; that for the future all 
 orders for the management of the fleet do pass 
 through the Admiralty that shall be so con 
 stituted." 
 
 The Admiralty patent, as it is called, places 
 in the hands of " Our Commissioners for execut 
 ing the office of Our High Admiral" full power 
 to administer the affairs of the navy. It enjoins 
 upon all persons belonging to the navy to observe 
 all such orders as " Our said Commissioners, or 
 any two or more of them, give," . . . " as if Our 
 High Admiral had given it." According to the 
 patent, all the members are equal, with co-ordi 
 nate powers, and with joint responsibility. Ac 
 cording to usage the responsibility rests almost 
 entirely with the First Lord. He nominates the 
 other members " at his pleasure." He is, there 
 fore, practically supreme ; if opposed by the other 
 members he may break up the board. Besides 
 the First Lord, who is a cabinet officer appointed 
 almost invariably from civil life by the Prime 
 Minister, there are three naval members, and 
 one other, who is always taken from among the 
 members of the House of Commons. The board 
 meets every week-day at noon, except Saturdays, 
 and two lords and a secretary form a quorum for 
 business. Certain orders may be signed by the 
 secretary of the board alone, and are regarded 
 as the order of the board collectively ; but an 
 order that authorizes the payment of money re 
 quires the signatures of two lords. The secre 
 taries have jointly charge of the Secretariat, and 
 the First Secretary has important duties in Par 
 liament in connection with the board. See AD 
 MIRALTY. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing that the 
 First Lord has general control of the navy in the 
 name of his sovereign, to whom he is responsible 
 for its management. But he represents the civil 
 power, and concerns himself more immediately 
 with the civil affairs of the navy. Associated 
 with this civil office, but subordinate to it, is the 
 military branch of the establishment. This is 
 presided over by professionals, the senior Sea 
 Lord and his coadjutors, the other Sea Lords and 
 the Naval Secretary. 
 
 No form of naval administration can hope for 
 entire immunity from public criticism ; the Board 
 of Admiralty forms no exception to the rule. 
 The slightest mishap in the navy is sufficient to 
 call down the thunders of the press on the heads 
 of the Lords of the Admiralty. Discussions in 
 Parliament led (March, 1861) to the appoint 
 ment of a committee " to inquire into the con- 
 
ADMINISTRATION 
 
 21 
 
 ADMIRAL 
 
 stitution of the Board of Admiralty and the 
 various duties devolving thereon;" also "as to 
 the general effect of such system on the navy." 
 No material change took place, however, till 
 January 14, 1869, when Mr. Hugh C. E. Childers, 
 then First Lord, reorganized the board. On the 
 19th of March, 1872, the order of 1869 was re 
 scinded, and the board restored very much to 
 its old organization and as it now stands. See 
 ADMIRALTY. 
 
 FRANCE. The Minister of Marine (Secretary 
 of the Navy) in France is generally selected from 
 the list of admirals, and represents both the civil 
 and military power. He is assisted in his im 
 mediate office by a staff of about seven officers, 
 ranking from rear-admiral to lieutenant. The 
 chief of staff is a rear-admiral (chef d etat-major 
 et chef du cabinet). Next comes a Board of Ad 
 miralty, of which the Minister of Marine is presi 
 dent. It consists of, 1, a vice-admiral, who is 
 vice-president of the board ; 2, a vice-admiral ; 3, 
 a general of marine artillery ; 4, a vice-admiral ; 
 5, a vice-admiral ; 6, a rear-admiral ; 7, a director 
 of naval construction; 8, a commissary-general. 
 The Secretariat is divided into two bureaux, each 
 of which has its chief. The second bureau takes 
 cognizance of the "movements of the fleet and 
 military operations," and is presided over by a 
 naval officer of rank. Next we have the Navy 
 Department proper, which is divided into five 
 directions (a direction corresponding to a bureau 
 in our Navy Department), each direction having 
 two or more bureaux ; each bureau having two or 
 more sections. Among these several directions, 
 bureaux, and sections are distributed with much 
 precision all the duties of an extensive and 
 thorough naval administration. The Minister 
 of Marine alone is responsible to the chief mag 
 istrate for his acts. The Board of Admiralty, of 
 which he is president, is but an advisory body, 
 its chief and only important duty being to pre 
 pare the annual lists of officers from which the 
 selections for promotion are made. It has, in 
 fact, but little, if anything, to do with the ad 
 ministration of the affairs of the French navy. 
 
 It may be said, in general, that under a lib 
 eral form of government, like that of the United 
 States or Great Britain, where the civil power 
 predominates, the head of the navy will always 
 be a civilian. In countries where the military 
 spirit prevails the head of the navy will always 
 be a naval officer of rank. In all maritime 
 countries the work of the navy department must 
 be distributed among a number of experts and a 
 certain clerical force. 
 
 AUSTRIA. The Minister of National Defense 
 presides over both war and navy departments. 
 Under his general supervision a vice-admiral 
 administers the affairs of the navy. 
 
 DENMARK. The Minister of Marine is a cab 
 inet officer and a naval officer of rank. 
 
 GERMANY. Has a Board of Admiralty, with 
 an admiral for " Inspector-General of the Navy," 
 and a commander-in-chief of all the ships in 
 commission. 
 
 ITALY. Has a Minister of Marine, at present 
 a rear-admiral, assisted in his duties by a Board 
 of Admiralty. 
 
 RUSSIA. The Minister of Marine is an ad 
 miral, and communicates directly with the sov 
 ereign. He has sole charge of the administra 
 tive department of the navy, while the executive 
 
 branch is in charge of the High Admiral of the 
 fleet. In other respects the organization is simi 
 lar to that of the French. 
 
 SPAIN. Has a Board of Admiralty. 
 
 The navy departments of other European gov 
 ernments do not vary in any important point 
 from those already given. S. B. Luce, Captain 
 U. S. iv. 
 
 Admiral. Sir Wm. Monson, writing about 
 1600, says, "There have been often disputes 
 whether the title of Admiral or General were 
 more proper to a sea commander ; and though I 
 dare not presume to conclude of either, yet I 
 think it is as unproper to call an Admiral General 
 by Sea as to call a General Admiral by Land, 
 though I confess their authorities are like in 
 command of men s persons, yet is the jurisdic 
 tion of the Admiral by sea greater than the 
 other, in that he ruleth and guideth a fleet of 
 ships, which are of more importance to the King 
 and State than the lives of men that are to serve 
 in them." 
 
 The English title of admiral, in French and 
 Danish, amiral; German, ammiral ; Dutch, ad 
 miral, or ammrael ; Italian, ammiraglio ; Span 
 ish, almirante, evidently in all modern lan 
 guages derived from the same source, is yet of 
 doubtful etymology. Most of the old writers 
 trace it to the Arab emir or amir, a prince or 
 ruler, and a Greek word signifying the sea ; but 
 Spelman, who condemns this " Centaur" deriva 
 tion, thinks the term was first in use among the 
 Saracens, and from thence brought to England 
 about the time of Richard I. or Henry III. ; " for 
 I find," he says, " that not only Amera but Al 
 mirante was the ordinary title of the Governors 
 of countries through all the territories of the 
 Saracens, even from Spain when they possessed 
 it, unto the uttermost parts of Lesser Asia, and 
 Mahomet was so called as king, a name of dig 
 nity and estimation." In the great ship or 
 dromond taken by Richard I. from the Saracens 
 there were seven admirals. 
 
 The Earl of Berkeley is said to be the only in 
 dividual not of royal blood who has ever won the 
 flag of Lord High Admiral of Great Britain at 
 sea. At the age of 20, then known as Lord 
 Dursley, he was captain of the " Lichfield," 60, 
 his second command. When 23 he commanded 
 the " Boyne," 80. At 27 he was vice-admiral of 
 the blue, and the next year vice-admiral of the 
 red. March 29, 1719, at the age of 38, he hoisted 
 his flag on the " Dorsetshire" as Lord High Ad 
 miral, being actually Vice-Admiral of England 
 and First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 The first English admiral on record is Richard 
 de Lacy, to whom, 1216-72, Henry III. granted 
 Maritimam Angles. Some, however, assert that 
 the honor belongs to Roger de Ley burn, who 
 was appointed by Edward I. Admirallus Marifi 
 Regis A.D. 1297. During the reign of Edward I. 
 there were three admirals in contemporary com 
 mand of the three coasts of England, one having 
 jurisdiction from the mouth of the river Thames 
 northward, another from the same point west 
 ward, and another of the west coast, including 
 the shores of Wales and Ireland. 
 
 All admirals in the Royal navy were wont 
 anciently to carry St. George s flag at the head 
 of the topmast, but on the accession of James I. 
 he added to it the cross of St. Andrew, as due to 
 Scotland. The Lord High Admiral alone was 
 
ADMIKAL 
 
 22 
 
 ADMIKAL 
 
 permitted to wear " the cross of the arms of Eng 
 land," that is, the standard of England at the 
 main. He had also the power in the sixteenth 
 century to permit another man to wear the bare 
 English flag in the main-top in his presence. 
 Sir Wm. Monson speaks of the Rear-Admiral as 
 a recent invention, and says, " The Vice- Admiral 
 wears his flag in the fore-top, being Vice- Ad 
 miral, so he is to wear what colored flag he 
 pleases in the main-top as Admiral of a squadron. 
 The Rear- Admiral wears his flag in the mizzen, 
 and every ship besides is to wear a streamer of 
 the same color in the forehead or mizzen-yard to 
 be distinguished from other squadrons." 
 
 The Sicilians or Genoese are said to have been 
 the first who, at the beginning of the Crusades, 
 conferred the rank on the commander of a squad 
 ron of ships. 
 
 " St. Louis" introduced the title into France. 
 The rank of Admiral was formerly equivalent to 
 that of a Marshal of France, and a decree of 
 Phillippe-le-Bel ordains tha t " each wing of our 
 army must be commanded by a Prince, an Ad 
 miral, or a Marshal." It also constituted the 
 fourth dignity of the order of Malta. The ad 
 mirals of France possessed such great preroga 
 tives that Richelieu suppressed the title, and in 
 vested himself with their functions, under the 
 name of " Grand Master, Chief and Superin 
 tendent-General of Navigation and Commerce." 
 Louis XIV. revived the title of Grand Admiral 
 in 1669, but he reserved to himself the nomina 
 tion of the officers and the right of giving orders 
 direct to flag-officers. Notwithstanding these 
 restrictions the privileges attaching to this post 
 were enormous, comprising the nomination of 
 the officers belonging to the naval courts of jus 
 tice, the delivery of passports, permissions, and 
 furloughs, the countersigning of royal decrees, 
 and the receipt of a tithe of all prize-money and 
 fines levied in admiralty courts. So valuable 
 were these privileges, that when the Due de Pen- 
 thierre abandoned his claims to them in 1759, he 
 received in compensation an annual grant of 
 about $30,000, which was regularly paid until 
 the revolution. 
 
 The first " Admiral of France" was Florent de 
 Varennes, who, appointed by St. Louis, accom 
 panied his sovereign in the expedition to Tunis ; 
 and since his day down to 1791, when the title 
 was abolished by the National Assembly, it was 
 conferred upon 59 different persons. 
 
 The most celebrated of these naval commanders 
 were 
 
 Nicolas Beluchetj who seized Portsmouth, Eng 
 land, in 1339 ; 
 
 Jean de Vienne, Seigneur de Clairveaux, who 
 was killed in the battle of Nicopolis ; 
 
 Gaspard, Comte de Coligny, a victim of St. Bar 
 tholomew ; 
 
 Anne de Joyeusq, a devoted adherent of Henry 
 III., killed at the battle of Contras ; 
 
 Francois de Coligny, the eldest son of the mur 
 dered admiral ; 
 
 Charles de Gontaut, Due de Biron, the trustiest 
 counselor of Henry IV., who was afterwards be 
 headed for high treason ; and 
 
 Francois de Vendome, Due of Beaufort, nick 
 named "Le Roy des Halles," who, appointed 
 Grand Master of Navigation, was killed at the 
 siege of Candia. 
 
 The Comte de Vermendois and the Comte de 
 
 Toulouse were also appointed "Admirals of 
 France," one at the age of two, and the other at 
 the age of five, years. 
 
 Napoleon, in 1805, conferred the dignity of 
 " Grand Admiral" on Murat ; but the post, abol 
 ished at the revolution, was merely honorary, 
 and as such was held by the Due de Angouleme 
 after the Restoration. The title of " Grand Ad 
 miral" was finally suppressed after the revolu 
 tion of 1830. 
 
 The French have now the titles of admiral, 
 vice-admiral, and rear-admiral in their navj r . 
 
 On the establishment of the Continental navy, 
 or a few months later, viz., November 15, 1776, 
 having established the rank and command of 
 the captains the month previous, Congress re 
 solved that an " admiral should rank as a gen 
 eral ; a vice-admiral as a lieutenant-general ; a 
 rear-admiral as a major-general;" evidently 
 looking to the addition of those ranks to the 
 navy. The prejudices of the people, however, 
 prevented the establishment of such high-sound 
 ing titles (?), and, until 1862, no officers were 
 commissioned in the United States navy of higher 
 rank than captain, except in 1859, when, in spe 
 cial compliment to his services, Charles Stewart 
 was commissioned as " Senior Flag-Officer." 
 
 The act of July 16, 1862, reorganizing the 
 navy, was the first to recognize the necessity of 
 the grade, and authorized the commissioning of 
 not more than nine rear-admirals on the active 
 list, and nine on the retired or reserved list, the 
 former "to be selected, during the war, from 
 those commanders who have distinguished them 
 selves, or shall hereafter eminently distinguish 
 themselves, by courage, skill, and genius in their 
 profession ; Provided, That no officer shall be 
 promoted to this grade unless, upon recommen 
 dation of the President, by name, he has received 
 the thanks of Congress for distinguished ser 
 vice. During times of peace vacancies to this 
 grade shall be filled by regular promotion from 
 the list of commodores, subject to examination 
 as to mental, moral, physical, and professional 
 qualifications." " The three senior rear-admirals 
 were to wear a square blue flag at the mainmast- 
 head, the next three at the foremast-head, and 
 all others at the mizzen." Rear-admirals to have 
 relative rank with major-generals. 
 
 The same law authorized nine rear-admirals 
 on the retired list, ranking relatively with major- 
 generals, who were to be selected by the Presi 
 dent, by and with the consent of the Senate, 
 " from those captains who have given most faith 
 ful service to the country." After these were 
 commissioned, promotion to rear-admiral on the 
 retired list was to be by seniority, subject to an 
 advisory board. 
 
 Under this law David G. Farragut, Louis M. 
 Goldsborough, Samuel F. Dupont, and Andrew 
 H. Foote were commissioned July 16, 1862, 
 Charles H Davis and John A. Dahlgren, Febru 
 ary 7, 1863, David D. Porter, July 4, 1863, on 
 the active list, and Charles Stewart, William B. 
 Shubrick, Joseph Smith, George W. Stone, 
 Francis H. Gregory, Elias F. Lavallette, S. H. 
 Stringham, Samuel L. Breese, Hiram Paulding, 
 George C. Read, on the retired list. Rear- Ad 
 miral George C. Read died on the 22d of August, 
 1862, the first rear-admiral to die in our navy, 
 and Rear- Admiral Lavallette died on the 18th of 
 November following. Of all the above-named 
 
ADMIRAL 
 
 23 
 
 ADOKNINGS 
 
 rear-admirals, in 1880 all were dead excepting 
 Rear-Admiral David D. Porter, then the admiral 
 of the navy. 
 
 Under this law, as senior rear-admiral, Far 
 ragut hoisted his plain square blue flag at New 
 Orleans, on the mainmast-head of the " Hart 
 ford." He received his commission August 12, 
 1862, and the next morning, on the hoisting of 
 the colors, his flag was run up for the first time 
 at the main, when it was saluted by the whole 
 squadron ; soon after which the flag-ship " Hart 
 ford," accompanied by the " Brooklyn," pro 
 ceeded down the river, the remaining ships of 
 the squadron dipping their ensigns as the " flag 
 ship" passed. This was the first admiral s flag 
 hoisted at the main in our navy. Subsequently 
 the law was amended, and Farragut, as a rear- 
 admiral, retrograded his flag to the mizzen, 
 thence, on his promotion to vice-admiral, ad 
 vanced it to the fore, and on his promotion to 
 admiral, July 25, 1866, raised it again high up 
 on the main. 
 
 On the 21st of December, 1864, the grade of 
 vice-admiral was first introduced into our navy, 
 and Farragut was our first vice-admiral. On 
 his promotion to a full "admiral," July, 1866, 
 Rear- Admiral David D. Porter was made a vice- 
 admiral, and on the death of Farragut, August, 
 1870, he was made admiral of the navy, and 
 Stephen C. Rowan vice-admiral. Under existing 
 laws, on the death of the present admiral and 
 vice-admiral those grades become extinct in our 
 navy, and rear-admiral will be the highest rank. 
 
 At present there are in the United States navy 
 one admiral, one vice-admiral, and eleven rear- 
 admirals on the active list, and forty-two on the 
 retired list, who have been retired for long and 
 faithful service. 
 
 An admiral may command a fleet or fleets. 
 
 A vice-admiral may command a fleet, or a 
 division of a fleet under the admiral ; be com- 
 rnander-in-chief of a squadron ; or may com 
 mand a naval station. 
 
 A rear-admiral may command a fleet or squad 
 ron, a squadron or division under an admiral or 
 vice-admiral ; be chief of staff of a naval force 
 under an admiral or vice-admiral ; or may com 
 mand a naval station. George H. Preble, Rear- 
 Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Admiral. The epithet of admiral was for 
 merly applied to any large or leading ship, with 
 out regard to flag, and is still used in the whale- 
 and cod-fisheries. The first vessel to arrive in 
 any port in Newfoundland retains this title 
 during the season, the second becomes the vice- 
 admiral, and the third the rear-admiral. 
 
 Admiral. A shell of the genus Conus. The 
 varieties are designated as the grand-admiral, 
 the vice-admiral, the orange-admiral, and the 
 extra- admiral. 
 
 Admiralty. The Admiralty" means the Lord 
 High Admiral of England, or the commission 
 ers for executing his office, commonly called the 
 Board of Admiralty. It dates from 1512, when 
 Henry VIII. appointed a board of commission 
 ers to examine into and report upon the state of 
 the navy. In 1660, James, Duke of York, be 
 came the first Lord High Admiral. On his ac 
 cession to the throne (1685) the office was put 
 in commission. On the accession of William 
 and Mary (1689) Parliament passed an act legal 
 izing and rendering permanent the board of ex 
 
 perts that had from time to time been called 
 upon to administer the affairs of the navy. The 
 office remained in commission till 1702, when 
 George, Prince of Denmark, became Lord High 
 Admiral. The office was again in commission 
 from 1708 to 1827, when William, Duke of Clar 
 ence, the " Sailor Prince," became Lord High 
 Admiral. He resigned August 12, 1828. Since 
 then the office has been in commission, and will 
 probably remain so, till the present Duke of 
 Edinburgh is appointed to fill it. 
 
 The Board of Commissioners is thus constituted, 
 under Orders in Council, 19th March, 1872 : 
 
 (1) First Lord of the Admiralty, First Naval 
 Lord, Second Naval Lord, Junior Naval Lord, 
 Civil Lord. 
 
 (2) The Parliamentary Secretary, Permanent 
 Secretary, Naval Secretary. 
 
 (3) The Comptroller of the Navy, assisted by a 
 Deputy Comptroller, and Director of Dock- Yards. 
 
 (4) The First Lord to be responsible to the 
 Crown and to Parliament for all the business 
 of the Admiralty, divided as follows : (a) The 
 First Naval Lord, Second Naval Lord, and Ju 
 nior Naval Lord to be responsible to the First 
 Lord of the Admiralty for the administration of 
 so much of the business relating to the personnel 
 of the navy, and to the movement and condi 
 tion of the fleet, as shall be assigned to them 
 from time to time by the First Lord, (b) The 
 Comptroller to be responsible to the First Lord 
 for the administration of so much of the business 
 as relates to the materiel of the navy, the Comp 
 troller to have the right to attend the board, and 
 to explain his views, whenever the First Lord 
 shall submit to the board for their opinion de 
 signs for ships, or any other matters emanating 
 from the- Comptroller s department, (c) The 
 Parliamentary Secretary to be responsible to the 
 First Lord for the finance of the department, and 
 for so much of the other business of the Ad 
 miralty as may be assigned to him. (d) The 
 Civil Lord, the Permanent Secretary, and the 
 Naval Secretary to have such duties as shall be 
 assigned to them by the First Lord. The First 
 Lord is nearly always appointed from civil life. 
 
 THE ADMIRALTY, the Navy Office, Whitehall, 
 London. S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Admiralty Courts (in law). The Constitution 
 declares that the judicial power of the United 
 States shall extend ... a to all cases of admiralty 
 and marine jurisdiction." By act of Congress a 
 district court of the United States is empowered 
 to sit as an admiralty court for the trial of all 
 ordinary causes originating on the high seas, or 
 on rivers, ports, or harbors communicating with 
 the sea. The more serious cases are referred to 
 the circuit courts, sitting as courts of admiralty. 
 
 Admiralty Droits. The revenue arising from 
 enemies ships detained in prospect of war ; from 
 enemies ships coming into port in ignorance 
 of hostilities ; from ships captured by non-com 
 missioned captors ; from the proceeds of wrecks 
 and goods of pirates. 
 
 Admiralty Midshipman. (Eng.) Formerly 
 one who, having served his time and passed 
 his examination, was appointed to a ship by the 
 admiralty, in contradistinction to those who were 
 rated by the captain. 
 
 Adonis. An anguilliform fish. 
 
 Adornings. The ornamental work on the 
 quarter and stern galleries, 
 
ADOWN 
 
 24 
 
 AFT 
 
 Adown. The bawl of privateersmen for the 
 crew of the captured vessel to go below. 
 
 Adreamt. Dozing. 
 
 Adrift. Floating at random. The state of a 
 vessel or boat broken from her moorings and 
 driven to and fro by the wind, sea, or tide. Also 
 used of a thing that has broken from its place ; 
 as, a gun from the ship s side, etc. 
 
 Ad Valorem. In its application to custom 
 duties signifies a duty or tax on importations 
 that is levied with reference to the value of the 
 goods. 
 
 Advance. An amount of an officer s salary 
 which he is allowed to receive in advance when 
 ordered on sea-duty. If ordered to the Asiatic 
 Station he may draw three months pay in ad 
 vance, and on other sea-duty two months pay. 
 The advance is paid by navy pay agents, on presen 
 tation of the officer s orders, upon which the pay 
 agent must indorse the payment. This indorse 
 ment is notice to the paymaster of the vessel to 
 which the officer is ordered, and it is his duty to 
 deduct the advance from the officer s future earn 
 ings. Officers ordered to a vessel in a United States 
 port are entitled to receive their current pay up 
 to the date of sailing, without regard to the ad 
 vance received from the pay agent. Officers re 
 ceiving an advance are required to give notice 
 thereof in writing to the paymaster of the vessel 
 to which they are ordered. Failure to do so will 
 be deemed scandalous conduct and a violation 
 of general orders. 
 
 Advance. To move forward. Advance, or 
 vanguard, is that portion of a force which moves 
 in front of the main body. Advance list is the 
 list on which are registered the names of those 
 who receive advance money. Advance note is a 
 note issued by owners of ships, promising to pay 
 a specified sum to a seaman within a specified 
 number of days after he has sailed on a voyage. 
 
 Advancement. Promotion to a higher rank 
 or grade. 
 
 Advantage, or Vantage-ground, is that which 
 affords the greatest facility in attack or defense. 
 
 Adventure. An undertaking involving haz 
 ard ; used in a commercial sense to signify a spec 
 ulation in goods sent abroad to be sold or bartered 
 for profit. A bill of adventure is one signed by 
 the merchant, in which he takes the chances of 
 the voyage. 
 
 Adversary. A term applied to an enemy, but 
 strictly confined to an opponent in single combat. 
 
 Adverse. The opposite of favorable ; as, an 
 adverse wind or tide. 
 
 Advice. Counsel ; suggestion. Advices, in 
 telligence ; news. 
 
 Advice-boat. A vessel to carry dispatches. 
 They were first used in 1692, previous to the bat 
 tle of La Hogue. 
 
 Advocate. A counselor ; one who pleads the 
 cause of another. See JUDGE ADVOCATE. 
 
 Adze, or Addice. A tool for dubbing flat or 
 circular work. It is much used in the East, 
 where it takes the place of axe, plane, and 
 chisel. 
 
 IE,. See CLASSIFICATION OF MERCHANT VES 
 SELS. 
 
 .ffiinautae. Senators of Miletus, who held 
 their deliberations on board ship. 
 
 ./Eratae. Ancient ships with brazen prows. 
 
 Aerator. An apparatus for aerating water. 
 Distilled water has an insipid taste unless it is 
 
 subjected to the action of the air before being 
 used. The same effect maybe obtained by throw 
 ing calcareous substances into water confined in 
 an air-tight vessel. An apparatus for fumigating 
 grain. 
 
 Aerography. The description of the atmos 
 phere, its nature, properties, limits, etc. 
 
 Aerolites. Solid bodies which descend to the 
 earth s surface from beyond the atmosphere. 
 They are composed principally of iron and a 
 small percentage of nickel and cobalt. 
 
 Aerolites, meteors, fire-balls, and shooting-stars 
 are classed together as being merely varieties of the 
 same phenomenon. There is but little doubt that 
 aerolites are bodies revolving about the sun like 
 the planets, and are encountered by the earth in 
 its annual motion around the sun. The comets, 
 like the earth, must encounter an immense num 
 ber of these bodies, and a part of their motion 
 must be thereby destroyed. This effect may be 
 appreciable in the case of periodic comets, though 
 thus far it is inappreciable in the case of the 
 earth and the other planets. 
 
 Aerology. The doctrine of air ; generally 
 applied to medical discussions respecting its salu 
 brity. 
 
 Aeromancy. Formerly, the art of divining by 
 the air. In modern times it means the foretelling 
 of the weather by experience or by instruments. 
 
 Aerometer. An instrument for making cor 
 rections in pneumatic experiments. 
 
 Aerometry. The science of measuring the 
 air, its power, pressure, and properties. 
 
 Aeronaut. A navigator of the air. 
 
 Aeronautics. The art of navigating the air. 
 
 Aerostatics. The science that treats of the 
 equilibrium and pressure of the air and other 
 gases. 
 
 ^Estuary. See ESTUARY. 
 
 /Ewul. A basket for catching fish. 
 
 Afeard. Afraid. 
 
 Afer. The southwest wind of the Latins. 
 
 Affair. An engagement of minor importance. 
 An affair of honor, a duel. 
 
 Affidavit. A written statement attested by 
 the oath of the person making it and subscribed 
 by him. To give the oath legal effect it must be 
 administered by a person thereunto authorized 
 by law, who appends his certificate, technically 
 called a "jurat." An affidavit differs from a 
 deposition in being ex parte, the person making 
 it not being subject to cross-examination. 
 
 Affirm. To make a solemn promise to tell the 
 truth under the pains and penalties of perjury. 
 To confirm. 
 
 Affirmative. The signal, the hoisting of which 
 implies assent. 
 
 Affluent. A stream flowing directly into 
 another stream ; a more specific term than tribu 
 tary. 
 
 Affreightment. A contract for the letting of 
 a vessel, or a part of her, for freight. See CON 
 TRACT OF AFFREIGHTMENT. 
 
 Afloat. Buoyed up and supported by the 
 water ; on board ship. 
 
 Afore. Farther forward, the same as before. 
 
 Afoul. See FOUL. 
 
 Africa. See CONTINENTS. 
 
 Aft. Abbreviation of abaft. Right aft, ex 
 actly astern. To haul a sheet aft, to p ull the 
 rope attached to the clew more towards the stern 
 of the ship. 
 
AFT-CASTLE 
 
 25 
 
 AIK-FUNNEL 
 
 Aft-castle. In ancient days, a tower erected 
 aft, on the upper deck. See FORECASTLE. 
 
 After. Comparative adjective applied to any 
 object in the rear part of a vessel. After-sails, 
 -yards, -braces, -bowlines, those on the main- and 
 mizzen-masts. After-body, that portion of the 
 ship s body abaft dead flat. After-clap, a subse 
 quent unexpected event. After-end^ the rear 
 end. After-face, the rear face. 
 
 Afterguard. The men who are stationed on 
 the quarter-deck and poop to man the gear. It 
 is generally composed of landsmen, and they are 
 not required to go aloft except to loose and furl 
 the mainsail. 
 
 After-Hood. The aftermost plank in a strake, 
 outside or inside. 
 
 Afternoon-watch. The period of time from 
 noon till four o clock. The men on duty during 
 that time. 
 
 After-peak. The contracted part of the hold 
 which lies in the vessel s run ; the aftermost por 
 tion of the hold. 
 
 After-rake. The overhang of the stern. 
 
 After-timbers. The timbers abaft the mid 
 ship section. 
 
 Aftmost, Aftermost. The objects nearest the 
 stern. 
 
 Aftward. Towards the stern. 
 
 Aga. A superior Turkish officer. 
 
 Against the Sun. See WITH THE SUN. 
 
 Agal-Agal. One of the sea fuci. It derives 
 its name from Tanjong Agal, on the coast of 
 Borneo. It is thought the material for edible 
 birds -nests is derived from this fucus. 
 
 Agare. The American aloe from which cord 
 age is made. 
 
 Age. In chronology, a period of a hundred 
 years. 
 
 AGE OF THE MOON. The time elapsed since 
 the last conjunction. 
 
 AGE OF THE TIDE. The interval between 
 the transit of the moon at which a tide originates 
 and the appearance of the tide itself. Called 
 also Retard of the Tide. See TIDE. 
 
 Agea. The horse-block or grating on ancient 
 boats from which the captain gave his orders. 
 
 Agent. One intrusted with the business of 
 another. See LLOYD S AGENTS. 
 
 COMMERCIAL AGENT, a United States consu 
 lar officer. These officers are peculiar to the 
 United States, and are not regarded by other 
 powers as entitled to the rank and privilege of 
 consuls. 
 
 Agent, Navy Pay. An officer of the pay 
 corps in charge of a navy pay office. His duties 
 are to advertise for and purchase all supplies re 
 quired by the Navy Department and its bureaus 
 for the use of every branch of the navy ; to pay 
 mileage and traveling expenses of officers travel 
 ing under orders ; to make advances to officers 
 ordered to sea ; to pay allotments ; to furnish 
 transportation for enlisted men ; to pay certifi 
 cates of indebtedness issued by the Fourth Audi 
 tor to claimants, and to act as a general disburs 
 ing agent for the Navy Department. He renders 
 complete quarterly returns to the Fourth Auditor. 
 Navy pay offices are established in Boston, New 
 York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, 
 Norfolk, and San Francisco. 
 
 Aggression. The first act in provoking hos 
 tilities. 
 
 Agon. A Chinese cymbal. See GONG. 
 
 Agreement. (Eng.) In vessels of more than 
 eighty tons the master must enter into an agree 
 ment with every seaman on board, and that 
 agreement must be in the form sanctioned by the 
 Board of Trade. 
 
 KUNNING AGREEMENT is an agreement ex 
 tending over several voyages when they are less 
 than six months in duration. 
 
 Aground. The situation of a ship when she 
 touches or rests on the bottom. 
 
 Aguada. The Spanish and Portuguese term 
 for a watering-place. 
 
 Ahead. Farther onward, or immediately be 
 fore the ship. 
 
 AHEAD OF THE BECKONING. Beyond the 
 position as determined by logging. 
 
 Ahold. To lay a ship ahold is to bring her to 
 lie as close to the wind as possible. 
 
 Ahoo. Awry, aslant, lopsided. 
 
 Ahoy. An exclamation used in hailing a ship ; 
 as, ship ahoy ! It means literally stop. 
 
 Ahull. A ship under bare poles, with her 
 helm lashed a-lee, lying nearly broadside on to 
 the wind and sea. 
 
 Aich s Metal. See GUN-METAL. 
 
 Aid. Assistance. 
 
 Aid. (See EXECUTIVE OFFICER.) An officer 
 not above the rank of lieutenant on the personal 
 staff of the commander-in-chief, and under the 
 immediate direction of the chief of staff to per 
 form such duties as may be assigned him, includ 
 ing that of secretary. 
 
 The commanding officer of a vessel is em 
 powered to detail a junior officer to act as his 
 personal aid. 
 
 There is attached to each navy-yard or station 
 an officer not above the grade of commander, 
 who is called senior aid to the commander, who 
 acts as his principal aid in regard to the duties 
 of the yard. 
 
 Aigre. The sudden flowing of the sea. See 
 BORE. 
 
 Aiguade. (Fr.) Water for ship s use. 
 
 Aiguilletes. (Fr.) Tagged points or cords 
 worn across the breast on some uniforms. 
 
 Ailettes. Small plates of metal placed on the 
 shoulders on mediaeval armor, the prototype of 
 the modern epaulet. 
 
 Aim. The pointing of a weapon at the target. 
 An order to point the weapon at the object. 
 
 Aim-frontlet. (Obsolete.) A piece of wood 
 hollowed out to fit the muzzle of a gun so as to 
 give a line of sight parallel with the axis of the 
 bore. 
 
 Air. The atmosphere; the fluid which we 
 breathe. 
 
 To AIR. To dry ; to ventilate. 
 
 Air-bladder. A peculiar organ in some kinds 
 of fishes by which they maintain their equi 
 librium in the water. 
 
 Air-blast. A current of air induced by a 
 blower. See BLOWER. 
 
 Air-casing. A sheet-iron casing around the 
 smoke-stack to protect the deck. 
 
 Air-chamber. A cavity containing air to act 
 as a spring for equalizing the flow of a liquid in 
 a hydraulic machine. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Air Engine. An engine put in motion by hot 
 air instead of steam ; a caloric engine. 
 
 Air-funnel. A cavity formed by the omission 
 of a timber in the upper works to admit fresh 
 air into a ship s hold and convey the foul air out. 
 
AIR-FURNACE 
 
 26 
 
 A-LEE 
 
 Air-furnace. A furnace with a natural draft 
 and 110 blast. 
 
 Air-gun. A pneumatic machine for propel 
 ling projectiles. They have been constructed to 
 carry as far as an ordinary musket. 
 
 Air-hole. A cavity in a casting formed by 
 bubbles in the molten liquid. A vent-hole in a 
 mold. A hole in the ice. A draft-hole in a 
 register. A small hole in a cask to admit air 
 when the faucet is turned on. 
 
 Airing Stage. A platform on which gun 
 powder is aired and dried. 
 
 Air-jacket. A garment capable of being in 
 flated and used as a life-preserver. 
 
 Air-pipe. Funnels for clearing ships holds of 
 foul air. A small pipe leading from the hot well 
 outboard. 
 
 Air-port. A scuttle cut in the bow, stern, or 
 sides of a ship to admit air and light. 
 
 Airs. Light breezes. 
 
 Air-scuttle. A scuttle cut in the deck or grat 
 ing for the admission of air. 
 
 Air-thermometer. An instrument in which 
 the contraction and expansion of the air meas 
 ure the temperature. 
 
 Air-tube. A small tube suspended in the 
 coal-bunker for the purpose of ascertaining the 
 temperature of the coal, as a precaution against 
 spontaneous combustion. 
 
 Air-valve. See VACUUM-VALVE. 
 
 Akreyri. A town of Iceland, on the Eyiafiord. 
 Lat. 65 40 N. ; Ion. 18 W. It has an excellent 
 harbor. 
 
 Akyab. A town and seaport of British Bur- 
 mah, in Aracan, on the E. side of the island of 
 Akyab. It has an excellent harbor. Pop. 15,281. 
 
 Alamak. 7 Andromedte. 
 
 Alamottie. Mother Gary s chicken ; the storm 
 finch ; the stormy petrel. 
 
 Aland. An old word for ashore, or to land. 
 
 Alarcon, Hernando de. A Spanish naviga 
 tor of the 16th century, to whom we owe the 
 first precise knowledge of California. He sailed 
 May 9, 1540, in the service of Spain, missed a 
 junction with the expedition of Coronado on the 
 western coast of America, and, returning to New 
 Spain in 1541, drew up his maps and observa 
 tions. His discoveries, and those of Ulloa, were 
 so complete that the map of California of 1541 
 differs little from that made in our own day. 
 
 Alarm. Any sound or information intended 
 to give notice of approaching danger. 
 
 FALSE ALARM. An alarm which had no 
 foundation in fact, being given through misap 
 prehension, or through design, in order to exer 
 cise the men at their duties. 
 
 Alarm-gauge. A contrivance in the steam- 
 engine for showing when the pressure of steam 
 is too high or the water in the boiler too low. 
 
 Alarm-gun. A gun fired to give an alarm. 
 
 Alarmist. One who habitually excites alarm ; 
 one who is given to finding causes for alarm. 
 
 Alarms, Marine. Fog-bells, trumpets, horns, 
 and whistles operated by the waves, winds, tides, 
 currents, or by clock-work. 
 
 Alarms, Nautical. Contrivances on board 
 ship to indicate a leak or the accumulation of 
 bilge-water. 
 
 Albany-beef. A name for the sturgeon. 
 
 Albatross. A large sea-bird belonging to the 
 genus Diomeda. 
 
 Alberton. A seaport town of Prince Edward 
 
 Island. The port, called Cascumpeque, or Hol 
 land Harbor, is the best on the northern side of 
 the island. Pop. 600. 
 
 Albion. A name for England, from the white 
 ness of the cliffs. 
 
 Alburnum. The slab-cuts of timber ; the sap- 
 wood. 
 
 Alcatraz. The pelican. 
 
 Aldebaran. A star of the first magnitude, 
 popularly known as the Bull s-eye. It is the 
 bright star in the group of five called the Ifyades, 
 and is conspicuous by its ruddy color. See 
 TAURUS. 
 
 Alden, James, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Maine. Appointed midshipman from same 
 State, April 1, 1828. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834 ; navy-yard, Boston, 1835 ; exploring expe 
 dition around the world, 1838-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 25, 
 1841 ; naval station, Boston, 1843 ; frigate " Con 
 stitution around the world, second time, 1844- 
 46; while attached to this vessel, commanded a 
 boat expedition and cut out several war junks 
 from under the guns of the fort at Zuron Bay, 
 Cochin-China; home squadron during Mexican 
 war ; present at the capture of Vera Cruz, Tus- 
 pan, and Tobasco ; naval station, Boston, 1847; 
 coast survey, 1848-60 ; made a reconnoissance of 
 all the West coast. In the winter of 1855-56, 
 during the Indian war in Puget Sound, volun 
 teered with the surveying steamer " Active" to 
 co-operate with the army, and rendered important 
 aid in bringing the war to a close ; by his timely 
 arrival in the spring of the same year at San 
 Juan Island, prevented a collision between the 
 British naval forces and the United States troops ; 
 assisted in landing troops enough to hold the 
 island in dispute against the threatened attack 
 of the British. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding the steamer "South Caro 
 lina" at the commencement of the rebellion, 
 May, 1861; reinforced Fort Pickens, while block 
 ading Galveston, Texas ; had a fight with the 
 batteries in the rear of the city ; while there, 
 captured thirteen schooners laden with merchan 
 dise ; commanded sloop " Richmond" at the 
 passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and the 
 engagement with Chalmette batteries and de 
 fenses of New Orleans ; passage of Vicksburg 
 batteries twice ; Port Hudson, 1862-63. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, January 2, 1863; 
 commanded steam-sloop " Brooklyn" in the 
 action with Forts Morgan and Gaines and the 
 rebel gunboats in Mobile Bay ; commanded two 
 attacks on Fort Fisher. Capt. Alden took a 
 prominent part in all the great naval battles of 
 the war, and was handsomely mentioned in the 
 official reports. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Susquehanna," spe 
 cial service, 1867 ; commanding steam-frigate 
 "Minnesota," special service, 1867-68; com 
 mandant navy-yard, Mare Island, California, 
 1868-69; Chief of Bureau of Navigation and 
 Detail, Navy Department, 1869-71 ; promoted 
 to rear-admiral, 1871 ; commanding European 
 Squadron, 1872 ; retired, 1873 ; died, 1877. 
 
 A-lee. The contrary of a-weather. The po 
 sition of the helm when the tiller is put over to 
 the lee side of the ship. 
 
ALEKT 
 
 ALIEN 
 
 HELM S A-LEE. The order to let go the head- 
 sheets when the helm is down. 
 
 Alert. Watchful ; vigilant ; on the look-out, 
 and ready for any emergency. 
 
 Alewife. A fish of the herring kind. 
 
 Alexandria. A celebrated city and seaport of 
 Egypt, near the westernmost branch of the Nile, 
 on the Mediterranean, 112 miles N.W. of Cairo. 
 Alexandria has a large naval arsenal, naval and 
 military hospitals. The city has an excellent 
 new artificial harbor, formed by a breakwater, 
 mole, and quays. It has regular steam commu 
 nication with all the great Mediterranean ports, 
 and is the great emporium of Egypt. Pop. 
 220,000. 
 
 Alexandria. A city and port of entry in Vir 
 ginia, on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles 
 below Washington. The river here is a mile 
 wide, and forms a commodious harbor sufficiently 
 deep for the largest ships. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Alexiacus. An appellation of Neptune. 
 
 Alfondiza. The custom-house at Lisbon. 
 
 Alga. A species of millepora. 
 
 Algae. Flowerless, cryptogamic plants, cel 
 lular, found chiefly as sea- weeds, but also in 
 rivers, marshes, springs, hot and cold, and moist 
 places everywhere. About 2000 species are known 
 and have been described, and among these there 
 is a great variety of forms. Some are attached 
 to rocks, and others are entirely free. None of 
 them have proper roots, but merely processes for 
 their attachment to the surfaces on which they 
 are fixed. They derive their sustenance exclu 
 sively, it would seem, from the medium sur 
 rounding them, in which respect, as well as in 
 their composition, they differ from fungi. Their 
 substance consists chiefly of vegetable gelatine, 
 soluble in boiling water ; the harder parts of 
 their fronds are sometimes leathery, or horny, or 
 cartilaginous, but never really ligneous. They 
 are composed entirely of cells, some consisting 
 of one cell only ; the composite ones are easily 
 separable, and the individual cells are generally 
 capable of independent existence, as in the case 
 of the proto-coccus, or red snow plant. The 
 spores and fronds of algae are frequently of the 
 same color, the most common colors being brown, 
 or orange-brown, rose color approaching red, or 
 green. Algae are multiplied by division of cells 
 and by spores. Fertilization is effected by con 
 jugation or union of cells, the contents of one 
 passing into another and giving rise to germi 
 nating spores. This is seen in the confervse 
 of stagnant ponds. Other algae are fertilized 
 by moving filaments or spermatozoids. Others 
 contain a rudimentary cell which, by contact 
 with spermatozoids, becomes a spore and then a 
 new plant. There are also zoospores which 
 move about in the water, the cells ultimately 
 bursting and scattering them, and the cilia by 
 which they moved disappearing as the spores be 
 come fixed. Many of the algae supply nutritious 
 food, others are of value as yielding barilla, an 
 impure carbonate of soda largely used in manu 
 facturing, and all are useful as manure. Some 
 species are of immense length and size, such as 
 Macrocystis pyrifera, Lessonia fuscescens, and 
 D lnvillea utilis, which are found hundreds 
 of feet long and as thick as the human body. 
 More frequently, however, they are small, vary 
 ing from a few inches to several feet in length, 
 while some species are visible only through the 
 
 microscope. The distribution of algse as to 
 depth varies; their actual depth is still a dis 
 puted point with naturalists. It is impossible in 
 the present state of knowledge to estimate their 
 extreme limit, but vegetation, as usually under 
 stood, is practically limited to depths under 100 
 fathoms. Very few of the higher algse live, 
 even occasionally, on the surface of the sea ; a 
 notable exception is the gulf-weed, so called 
 (Sargassumbacciferum), which see. 
 
 Algeciras. A seaport town of Spain, on the 
 W. side of the Bay of Gibraltar, opposite to and 
 6 miles W. of Gibraltar. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Algenib. y Pegasi. 
 
 Algere. A spear used by fishermen in olden 
 times. 
 
 Algiers. A city of North Africa, on the W. 
 side of a bay of its own name. Lat. 36 47 3 X/ 
 N. ; Ion. 3 4 5" E. The harbor has a mole 
 580 feet in length by 140 in width, extending 
 from the mainland to an inlet, on which are a 
 strong castle with batteries and a light-house. 
 Pop. 54,000. 
 
 Algol. A variable star in Perseus. 
 
 Algorab. a Corvi, but its brightness of late is 
 rivalled by ft Corvi. 
 
 Alibi. The Latin word meaning elsewhere. 
 Before courts-martial, as well as in those of civil 
 jurisdiction, when an accused person proves that 
 at the time of the commission of the alleged of 
 fense he was somewhere else than at the scene 
 of the offending, he is said to have proven an 
 alibi. 
 
 Alicante. A city and seaport of Spain, lo 
 cated at the head of an extensive bay. Lat. 
 38 27 1" N. ; Ion. 26 W. The harbor is 
 onl} 7 a roadstead in a deep bay, small vessels 
 alone being able to approach the quay. Pop. 
 30,000. 
 
 Alidade. The movable arm of an instrument 
 fitted with sights or a telescope. 
 
 Alien. (Lat. alienus, belonging to another, 
 foreign.) In England, by the common law, an 
 alien was one born out of the king s dominions or 
 allegiance. The only exceptions to this rule 
 were such children of the king as might be born 
 abroad, and the children of his ambassadors so 
 born. By several statutes, to wit : 25 Edw. 
 III., passed in 1350; 29 Charles II., 1676; 7 
 Anne, 1708; 10 Anne, 1711; 4 Geo. II., 1731; 
 13 Geo. III., 1773 ; 7 and 8 Viet., 1844, the com 
 mon law rule has been altered, so that now all 
 children born out of the king s allegiance whose 
 fathers (or grandfathers by the father s side) or 
 whose mothers were natural-born subjects, are 
 deemed to be natural-born subjects themselves, 
 unless their said ancestors were attainted or 
 banished beyond sea for high treason, or were at 
 the birth of such children in the service of a 
 prince at enmity with Great Britain. 
 
 In this country an alien is one born out of the 
 limits and jurisdiction of the United States. The 
 children of fathers, however, who at the time of 
 such children s birth were citizens of the United 
 States, and had resided in the United States, are, 
 notwithstanding the fact of being born abroad, 
 citizens. An alien becomes a citizen by natural 
 ization (which see). In time of war a valid con 
 tract cannot be made between a citizen and an 
 alien enemy, nor can such a contract be enforced 
 after peace has been declared During a war an 
 alien enemy cannot prosecute an action of any 
 
ALIGNMENT 
 
 28 
 
 ALMAFADAS 
 
 kind in the courts of the United States ; his right 
 of action, however, revives on the declaration of 
 peace. See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Alignment. An imaginary line to regulate 
 the formation of a squadron. 
 
 Alioth. The star e Ursce Majoris. 
 
 All. The whole ; quite. 
 
 ALL AGOG. In a flurry of excitement. 
 
 ALL AHOO. Confused ; awry ; aslant. 
 
 ALL-A-TAUNT-O. Fully rigged with masts 
 an-end, yards crossed, and rigging rove. 
 
 ALL HANDS. The whole ship s company. 
 
 ALL HANDS! The boatswain s summons for 
 the whole crew, in distinction from the watch. 
 
 ALL KEADY FORWARD, ALL KEADY THE 
 MAIN, etc. The notice that a particular part 
 of the ship is ready for the next order. . 
 
 ALL STANDING. Fully equipped. To be 
 brought up all standing is to be suddenly stopped 
 without any preparation. 
 
 ALL S WELL. The sentry s call as each bell is 
 struck, from tattoo to reveille. 
 
 ALL TO PIECES. Out-and-out ; excessively. 
 
 ALL WEATHERS. All times and all seasons. 
 
 ALL IN THE WIND. The sails shivering. 
 
 ALL OF A HEAP. Dumfounded; confused. 
 
 STERN ALL. The shout of the harpooner 
 when the fish is struck. 
 
 HAUL or ALL. To swing all the yards at 
 the same time. 
 
 ALL UP AND AFT. The report of the officer 
 of the deck when the oificers and men are assem 
 bled on the quarter-deck ready for muster. 
 
 Allan. A piece of land nearly surrounded by 
 water. 
 
 Allege. (Fr.) A ballast-boat. 
 
 Allegiance. The tie which binds the citizen 
 to his sovereign or country. Its full considera 
 tion involves an examination of the right of a 
 citizen to expatriate himself, a matter about 
 which there is a conflict of theories. The com 
 mon law of England denies the right of the 
 subject to throw off his allegiance to the country 
 of his birth, and European nations generally 
 have taken the same position, while in the 
 United States we require of persons seeking 
 naturalization the renunciation of their former 
 allegiance. The inherent difficulties of the sub 
 ject make it improbable that any solution will 
 ever be attained by legislative action, but it may 
 be assumed that the sense of humanity of en 
 lightened nations at this day will prevent being 
 treated as criminals, persons who, by the silent 
 acquiescence, and, therefore, the presumed con 
 sent ,of the country of their birth, have removed 
 to other countries and assumed a new allegiance, 
 even if they should be taken in arms against 
 their native country. Many of the questions 
 growing out of the subject have been disposed 
 of by treaties between the United States and 
 foreign nations. See NATURALIZATION. 
 
 Alley. A passage-way between the tiers of 
 tanks in a magazine. (See MAGAZINE.) A 
 passage-way affording means of access to the 
 propeller-shaft. 
 
 Alliance. A league between two or more 
 friendly powers, either offensive and defensive, 
 or defensive only. 
 
 Alligator. The American crocodile. 
 
 Alligator Water. The muddy, brackish water 
 near the mouth of tropical rivers. 
 
 Allision. Synonymous with collision, but is 
 
 sometimes used to mark a distinction between 
 one vessel running into another, and two vessels 
 striking each the other. 
 
 Allotment. That part of the pay of a person 
 on duty in a United States vessel which is paid 
 during his absence to some person on shore. Al 
 lotments may be granted by any officer, or, 
 with the approval of the commanding officer, by 
 any man or petty officer in a vessel in commis 
 sion. They are paid by navy pay agents to the 
 allottees on the last day of every month, and the 
 paymaster of the vessel at the same time deducts 
 the amount of the allotment from the allottor s 
 pay. The allottee must be a member of the 
 allottor s family, or some person who receives 
 the money for the benefit of said family. Allot 
 ments cannot exceed one-half the allottor s 
 monthly pay. It is the duty of the paymaster 
 having charge of the allottor s account to deduct 
 as much from his pay as is paid on the allotment, 
 and, in case of death, desertion, or discharge of 
 the allottor, to give notice to the navy pay agent 
 to cease payments to the allottee. The Fourth 
 Auditor keeps a register of all allotments, the 
 amounts paid to the allottees, and the amounts 
 checked from the pay of the allottors. In case 
 more is deducted from the pay of an allottor 
 than is paid to the allottee, the difference will be 
 paid to the former on application to the Fourth 
 Auditor. 
 
 Allowance. Reimbursement of incidental ex 
 penses or losses incurred in the performance of 
 duty ; as, traveling allowance, allowance to pay 
 masters for loss on clothing, small stores, etc. 
 A gratuity or bounty ; as, allowance of additional 
 pay on re-enlistment. A commutation ; as, allow 
 ance for the subsistence of pilots in officers 
 messes. A ration or fixed quantity of food. It 
 is double, full, two-thirds, half, or short, accord 
 ing to circumstances. (Commercial.} A cus 
 tomary deduction from the gross weight of goods, 
 varying in different countries. 
 
 Alloy. A combination of metals by fusion. 
 The term is also applied to the metal that is 
 mixed with gold or silver. The properties of 
 the alloy are very different from the mean of 
 the properties of the constituents, the alloy being 
 harder, more tenacious, less ductile, fusing at a 
 lower temperature, and more easily oxidized. 
 Its density may be either greater or less than 
 this mean, and its power of conducting electricity 
 is less. If mercury enter into a combination, it 
 is known as an amalgam. 
 
 Alluvion, or Alluvium. A deposit of earth, 
 gravel, etc., along shores or banks, caused by 
 the washing of the water, or by the precipitation 
 of substances held in solution. " Sea alluvions dif 
 fer from those of rivers in that they form a slope 
 toward the land. 
 
 Ally. A confederate. A prince or state united 
 to another by treaty. See ALLIANCE. 
 
 Almacantars. Circles parallel to the horizon, 
 and passing through every meridian. 
 
 ALMACANTARS STAFF. An old instrument of 
 15 of arc to observe the amplitude. 
 
 Almady. A canoe made of bark, used by the 
 natives of Africa for war purposes. The name 
 is also applied to a boat in use at Calcutta, often 
 measuring from 80 to 100 feet in length, and 
 generally from 6 to 7 feet in breadth. 
 
 Almafadas. Large dunnage cut on the coast 
 of Portugal. 
 
ALMANAC 
 
 29 
 
 ALMY 
 
 Almanac. A calendar of the days and months 
 of the year, to which is generally added a record 
 of the feast-days and celestial phenomena. 
 
 Almanac, The Nautical. As the astronomi 
 cal ephemeris had its origin in the necessity for 
 easy and accurate prediction of the phenomena 
 and configurations of the heavenly bodies, so the 
 nautical almanac originated in connection with 
 the necessity for safe and speedy navigation. 
 So soon as out of sight of land the navigator has 
 but one sure means of information as to his posi 
 tion at sea ; his compass gives him only the di 
 rection in which his ship lies or is sailing ; he 
 must rely upon the heavens alone for the precise 
 determination of his position ; and the problem 
 of longitude and latitude is capable of solution 
 only in connection with some prediction (a suit 
 able period in advance) of the absolute positions 
 of the bodies observed at the time when the ob 
 servations are made upon them. This annual 
 volume of such predictions of the positions of 
 the heavenly bodies as are necessary in the navi 
 gation of ships constitutes the nautical almanac. 
 In general, these predictions are given for equi 
 distant intervals of time, so that by interpolation 
 the position of a single body, or the relative posi 
 tion of two bodies, may be readily computed for 
 any intermediate epoch. Long before the pub 
 lication of the first nautical almanac, books of 
 predictions, known as ephemerides, had been 
 issued from time to time, at irregular intervals, 
 mostly for the convenience of astronomers. It 
 required simply a regulation and extension of 
 the idea of these volumes to make up a nautical 
 almanac. The nautical almanac proper had its 
 origin with the English nation about the middle 
 of the 18th century. It owes its existence to a 
 memorial presented to the Commissioners of 
 Longitude, on February 9, 1765, by Dr. Maske- 
 lyne, in which, after stating many facts and ex 
 periments to prove the utility of the lunar method 
 of obtaining the longitude at sea, he concludes, 
 that "nothing is wanting to make this method 
 generally practicable at Sea but a Nautical 
 Ephemeris." Dr. Maskelyne proposed the con 
 struction of such a "Nautical Ephemeris" from 
 the " New and Correct Tables of the Motions of 
 the Sun and Moon," by Tobias Mayer. The 
 first volume issued was that for the year 1767. 
 Gradually additions were made to the nautical 
 almanac, and improvements introduced, mostly, 
 however, in the direction of such predictions and 
 ephemerides as were of more service to the as 
 tronomer than to the navigator, and the volume 
 assumed the name of " The Nautical Almanac 
 and Astronomical Ephemeris," which title it re 
 tains to the present day. The most important 
 era in the history of the nautical almanac is 
 marked by the " Report of the Committee of 
 the Astronomical Society of London relative to 
 the Improvement of the Nautical Almanac," 
 adopted November 19, 1830. One very great 
 improvement consisted in the abolition of the 
 use of apparent time in all the computations of 
 the nautical almanac, and the substitution of 
 mean time therefor. (See EPHEMERIS, THE 
 ASTRONOMICAL.) The entire almanac was re 
 modeled by this committee ; and the new ar 
 rangement of the several ephemerides therein 
 contained has formed the basis of all subsequent 
 nautical almanacs, and has remained unchanged 
 in the " British Nautical Almanac" up to the 
 
 latest volume, that for the year 1883. " The 
 American Nautical Almanac" had its origin 
 nearly a century after the " British Nautical 
 Almanac." On March 3, 1849, an act of Con 
 gress was approved providing for the prepara 
 tion of such a work. The preparation of the 
 first volume that for the year 1855 was begun 
 in the latter part of 1849, and the series of vol 
 umes is unbroken down to the present time, the 
 volume for 1883 having just been issued. By 
 act of Congress, " The meridian of the observa 
 tory at Washington shall be adopted and used 
 as the American meridian for astronomical pur 
 poses, and the meridian of Greenwich shall be 
 adopted for all nautical purposes." This law 
 was the occasion of the subdivision of "The 
 American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac" 
 into two distinct parts, and the publication of 
 ,two separate volumes. Part the first is sub 
 stantially identical with that portion of the 
 "British Nautical Almanac" intended for the 
 special use of navigators, and is likewise com 
 puted for the meridian of Greenwich. This part 
 contains all the data necessary in the navigation . 
 of ships, and is published three years in advance 
 of the year for which it is computed. " The Amer 
 ican Nautical Almanac" likewise contains ac 
 counts of the transits of Mercury and Venus, and 
 of eclipses of the sun and moon, with engraved 
 diagrams of the solar eclipses. Each volume 
 contains also an article on the arrangement and 
 use of the various ephemerides, and a selection 
 of subsidiarv tables, of frequent use to the navi 
 gator. D. P. Tod. 
 
 Almath. The star in Aries whence the first 
 mansion of the moon takes its name. 
 
 Almeria. A city and port of Spain, in An 
 dalusia, on the Mediterranean, 104 miles E. of 
 Malaga. In the bay there is a good anchorage, 
 in 12 and 14 fathoms. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Almirante. (Sp.) Admiral. 
 
 Almury. The upright part of an astrolabe. 
 
 Almy, John J., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Rhode Island in the year 1815. Appointed 
 from that state as midshipman, February 2, 1829 ; 
 attached to the " Concord," Mediterranean, 1830- 
 32; "Ontario," coast of Brazil, 1833-34; pro 
 moted to passed midshipman July 3, 1835; re 
 ceiving-ship at New York, 1836-37; " Cyane," 
 Mediterranean, 1838-41. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 8, 1841 ; 
 brig "Bainbridge," West Indies, 1842; frigate 
 "/Macedonian," coast of Africa, 1843-45; line- 
 of-battle ship "Ohio," Gulf of Mexico and Pa 
 cific Ocean during the Mexican war and after the 
 war, 1846-50; participated in the siege and cap 
 ture of Vera Cruz and the capture of Tuspan ; 
 latter part of the war 1848 on the Pacific 
 coast, and commanded one of the forts at Ma- 
 zatlan during the naval occupation of that place; 
 coast survey in 1851-56, on the survey of Chesa 
 peake Bay and the sea-coast of Virginia and 
 North Carolina ; commanding " Fulton," on the 
 coast of Central America, in 1857, when General 
 Walker and his filibustering party surrendered 
 to Rear-Admiral Paulding, on board of that ves 
 sel, at Nicaragua. Commanded the " Fulton" 
 in the expedition to Paraguay in 1858-59 ; at 
 navy^yard, New York, 1860-61. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, April 24, 1861 ; 
 commanded " South Carolina," South Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1862-63 ; "Connecticut," North At- 
 
ALNUS 
 
 30 
 
 ALTITUDE 
 
 lantic Squadron, 1864 ; " Juniata," South Atlan 
 tic Squadron, 1865. 
 
 While in command of the "Connecticut," 
 captured and sent in four noted blockade-running 
 steamers with valuable cargoes ; ran ashore and 
 destroyed four others. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, March 3, 1865 ; com 
 manded " Juniata" in a cruise to the South At 
 lantic (coast of Brazil and south coast of Africa), 
 1865-67. While on the coast of Brazil rescued 
 the Brazilian brig " Americo" and crew from 
 shipwreck, attended with great danger, for which 
 service received the thanks of His Imperial Ma 
 jesty the Emperor of Brazil. Ordnance duty at 
 the navy-yard, New York, 1868-69. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 30, 
 1869 ; chief signal-officer of the navy at Wash 
 ington, 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, August 24, 
 1873, and the following month took command 
 of the United States naval forces in the Pacific 
 Ocean. While at Panama, in October, 1873, a 
 serious and violent revolution broke out, charac 
 teristic of that country, which continued for 
 three weeks. The city of Panama and the 
 Panama Railroad were in imminent danger of 
 being destroyed. A force of seamen and marines 
 numbering 200, under competent officers, was 
 landed from the ships and kept on shore until the 
 revolution terminated, affording efficient pro 
 tection to the railroad, to American and to 
 European interests. Two United States ves 
 sels, the flag-ship " Pensacola" and the " Be- 
 nicia," were the only men-of-war in port. Pas 
 sengers, freight, and specie continually passed 
 over the road in safety and without interruption. 
 
 For these services Rear- Admiral Almy received 
 the thanks of the Panama Railroad Company, 
 the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and of all 
 the consuls and the foreign merchants at Pa 
 nama. 
 
 Was in command of the United States naval 
 forces in the Pacific for two years and ten months. 
 
 Has performed altogether twenty-seven years 
 and ten months sea service ; shore, or other duty, 
 fourteen years and eight months. 
 
 In April, 1877, was retired, having reached 
 the age prescribed by law for retirement. 
 
 Alnus Caver. Early English transports, so 
 called from the wood of which they were made. 
 
 Aloft. Overhead ; on high ; anywhere about 
 the upper masts, yards, or rigging. See ALOW. 
 
 LAY ALOFT ! "The command to the men to 
 run up to their stations. 
 
 ALOFT THERE ! The hail to men on the yards 
 and in the rigging. 
 
 ALOFT is used in a figurative sense for heaven. 
 
 Alonde. An old word for ashore ; on land. 
 
 Along. Lengthwise. 
 
 ALONG OF. With. 
 
 LYING ALONG. Heeling over to leeward under 
 a press of sail with a beam wind. 
 
 LYING ALONG THE LAND. Skirting the shore. 
 
 Alongshore. A nautical phrase signifying 
 along the coast, or a course which is in sight of 
 the shore. See LONGSHORE. 
 
 Alongst. In the middle of the stream, moored 
 head and stern. 
 
 Aloof. At a distance. 
 
 Alow. Below. All sail alow and aloft is all 
 plain sail and stun -sails. 
 
 Alphabet Telegraph. An apparatus which 
 
 marks symbols on paper, in contradistinction to 
 those whose signals are made by a needle, mirror, 
 or sound. 
 
 Alphard. The star a Hydros. 
 
 Alpheratz. a Andromedce. 
 
 Altair. a Aquilce. 
 
 Altar. A step of a dry-dock. 
 
 Alternate. To happen or act by turns. 
 
 ALTERNATING WINDS. Blow for a time in 
 one direction, and suddenly, from an alteration 
 of the temperature, change and blow in the op 
 posite directions. See MONSOON and BREEZE. 
 
 Altiscope. An instrument which enables an 
 observer to look over an intervening object. 
 This instrument has been applied, not very suc 
 cessfully, to pointing guns, the observer being on 
 the deck below. 
 
 Altitude. Height. Angular distance of a 
 heavenly body above the horizon measured on a 
 great circle. 
 
 ALTITUDE, CIRCLES OF. Great circles of the 
 celestial concave perpendicular to the horizon, 
 and so called because "altitudes" are measured on 
 them. They all pass through the poles of the 
 horizon, of which the superior is the "vertex" 
 of the visible heavens, and hence they are also 
 called " Vertical Circles," or simply " Verticals." 
 In a polar system of horizon co-ordinates they 
 are termed " Circles of Azimuth" as marking out 
 all points that have the same "azimuth." 
 
 ALTITUDE, CIRCLES OF EQUAL. Circles on the 
 earth s surface, from every point of each of which 
 a given heavenly body is observed to have the 
 same altitude at any given time. The circle of 
 equal altitude is a great circle of the sphere when 
 the body is in the horizon, or its altitude ; the 
 circle is reduced to a point when the body is in 
 the zenith, or its altitude 90 ; and between these 
 two limits the parallels are small circles whose 
 radii correspond to the complements of the alti 
 tude. A small arc of a circle of equal altitude, 
 when projected on a Mercator s chart, will be 
 approximately a straight line, especially if the al 
 titude of the body be low. Such a line is called 
 "A Line of Equal Altitude." The determina 
 tion of one or two such lines intersecting each 
 other forms the basis of what is called " Sum- 
 ner s Method" of finding a ship s position at sea. 
 
 ALTITUDE, CORRECTION IN. The total correc 
 tion to be applied to the apparent altitude to de 
 duce the true altitude. In the case of the stars, 
 it is due solely to refraction, but for appreciably 
 near bodies to the combined effects of refraction 
 and parallax. 
 
 ALTITUDE, A DOUBLE. Two altitudes taken 
 for the solution of the same problem. The ordi 
 nary problems for which the method furnishes the 
 data are finding the latitude, and rating a chro 
 nometer. These altitudes may 1 e of the same 
 body, taken at different times, either both on the 
 same side or on opposite sides of the meridian ; 
 or of different bodies similarly situated jobserved 
 at the same time ; or, lastly, of different bodies 
 similarly situated observed at different times. 
 
 ALTITUDE, MERIDIAN. The altitude of a ce 
 lestial body when on the meridian. In the case 
 of a circumpolar star, whose whole diurnal circle 
 is completed above the horizon, the body comes to 
 the meridian twice, when its altitudes are spoken 
 of respectively as "the Meridian Altitude below 
 the Pole," and " the Meridian Altitude above the 
 Pole" ; the former is the lowest altitude the body 
 
ALTITUDE 
 
 31 
 
 AMMEN 
 
 has in its revolution, the latter the highest. 
 The meridian altitude is easily observed at sea 
 with a sextant, and furnishes the simplest and 
 most satisfactory method of determining the 
 latitude, the declination of the body only being 
 required in addition. 
 
 ALTITUDE, MOTION IN. An instrument is said 
 to move " in altitude" when it is turned on a 
 horizontal axis ; in contradistinction, it is said to 
 move "in azimuth" when it is turned on a ver 
 tical axis. An azimuth and altitude instrument 
 admits of both motions. 
 
 ALTITUDE, OBSERVED, APPARENT, AND 
 TRUE. The altitudes of heavenly bodies are ob 
 served from the deck of a ship at sea with the sex 
 tant. Such an altitude is called the " Observed 
 Altitude." There are certain instrumental and 
 circumstantial sources of error by which this is 
 affected : the sextant (supposed otherwise to be 
 in adjustment) may have an index error; the 
 eye of the observer being elevated above the sur 
 face of the sea, the horizon will appear to be de 
 pressed, and the consequent altitude in reality 
 too great ; and one of the limbs of the body may 
 be observed instead of its centre. When the 
 corrections for these errors and method of ob 
 serving are applied the "index correction," 
 "correction for dip," and "semi-diameter" 
 the observed is reduced to the " Apparent Alti 
 tude." But again, for the sake of comparison 
 and computation, all observations must be trans 
 formed into what they would have been had the 
 bodies been viewed through a uniform medium, 
 and from one common centre, the centre of the 
 earth. The altitude supposed to be so taken is 
 called the " True Altitude" ; it may be deduced 
 from the apparent altitude by applying the cor 
 rections called "correction for refraction" and 
 "correction for parallax." " Correction for re 
 fraction" : when a body is viewed through the 
 atmosphere, refraction will cause the apparent 
 to be greater than the true altitude ; hence the 
 correction for refraction is subtractive in finding 
 the true from the apparent altitude. " Correc 
 tion for parallax" : the position of the observer 
 on the surface, especially for near bodies, will 
 cause the apparent to be less than the true alti 
 tude ; hence the correction for parallax is addi 
 tive in finding the true from the apparent al 
 titude. 
 
 ALTITUDE, PARALLELS OF. Lesser circles of 
 the celestial sphere parallel to the horizon. They 
 mark all the points of the heavens which have 
 the same altitude. The Arabic term for this 
 system was "Almacantars. " 
 
 ALTITUDE, REDUCTION OF, TO ANOTHER 
 PLACE OF OBSERVATION. See RUN. 
 
 ALTITUDES, CIRCUMMERIDIAN. When the 
 body is near the meridian, and altitudes are ob 
 served with a view of solving problems by first 
 finding from these the meridian altitude, such 
 altitudes are conveniently distinguished as Cir- 
 cummeridian Altitudes. 
 
 ALTITUDES, EQUAL. Double altitudes of the 
 sun, when at the same altitude in the forenoon 
 and afternoon. 
 
 ALTITUDES, EQUATION OF EQUAL. In equal 
 altitudes of the sun, its declination changes 
 slightly in the interval between the forenoon and 
 afternoon observation, and therefore the hour- 
 angles corresponding to the two altitudes are not 
 exactly equal. Hence half the interval added 
 
 to the time of the first observation requires a cor 
 rection in order to give the time shown by chro 
 nometer when the sun is on the meridian. This 
 correction is called " The Equation of Equal 
 Altitudes." It is given in tables. 
 
 ALTITUDES, SIMULTANEOUS. Double alti 
 tudes of different bodies taken at the same time. 
 
 Altometer. The theodolite. 
 
 Altona. A city and free port of Prussia, in 
 Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, a little 
 below Hamburg. It is accessible to sea-going 
 vessels, and has a large trade. Pop. 90,000. 
 
 Aluffe, or Aloof. A very old form for luff. 
 
 Alveus. An ancient boat made of a single 
 trunk ; a dug-out. 
 
 Amadas (or Amidas), Philip, b. Hull, 1550; 
 d. England, 1618. A commander of one of the 
 vessels sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, with 
 Barlow, to take possession of lands on the east 
 ern shore of America. He discovered Ocracoke 
 Inlet, and landed on Wocoken Island, in Flor 
 ida, subsequently exploring Pamlico and Albe- 
 marle Sounds arid Roanoke Island. The title of 
 admiral was conferred upon him, and he was 
 united with Lane in the settlement of North 
 Carolina, afterwards called Virginia. 
 
 Amain. With force or vigor ; all at once ; as, 
 lower amain. An old word for yield. The low 
 ering of the topsail was called striking amain, 
 and it was demanded by the wave amain, or the 
 brandishing of a sword. 
 
 Amain. A city and seaport of Italy, in the 
 Gulf of Salerno, and 23 miles S.E. of Naples. 
 Lat. 40 38 N. ; Ion. 14 37 10" E. A naval 
 school is located at Amalfi. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Amalgam. A compound of mercury with 
 another metal. See ALLOY. 
 
 Amalphitan Code. The oldest code of modern 
 sea laws, compiled during the first Crusade by 
 the people of Amalfi, in Italy. 
 
 Amaye. Sea-marks on the French coast. 
 
 Ambassador. A diplomatic officer of the 
 highest rank. A practical joke, in which the 
 victim is unmercifully ducked. 
 
 Amber. A hard, resinous, vegetable sub 
 stance, generally of a bright yellow color, and 
 translucent. 
 
 Ambergris. A fragrant substance, the origin 
 of which was long a matter of dispute. It is 
 now known to be a morbid product developed in 
 the intestines of the sperm whale. It is of a 
 grayish color, very light, and fusible, and is used 
 as a perfume and as a cordial. 
 
 Amelioration. An allowance made to the 
 neutral purchaser, on reclaiming a ship improp 
 erly condemned, for the repairs she has under 
 gone at his expense. 
 
 America. See CONTINENTS. 
 
 Americus Vespucci. See VESPUCCI. 
 
 Amidships. The middle part of a ship, 
 whether in regard to her length or breadth, but 
 more generally applied to the axis or fore-and- 
 aft line. 
 
 Ammen, Daniel, Rear-AdmiralU.S.N. Born 
 in Ohio, May 15, 1820. Appointed midshipman, 
 July 7, 1836; attached to the Exploring Expedi 
 tion, 1837-38 ; sloop " Levant" and " Vandalia," 
 in the West Indies, 1838-39; sloop "Preble," 
 on the coast of Labrador and in the Mediterra 
 nean, 1840-41 ; returned to the United States on 
 board ship-of-the-line "Ohio," 1841, and to 
 Naval School ; passed examination, June, 1842, 
 
AMMUNITION 
 
 32 
 
 AMPLITUDE 
 
 and received warrant of passed midshipman ; 
 store-ship " Lexington," as navigator, 1843-44, 
 to the Mediterranean; sloop "Vincennes," as 
 navigator, East India Squadron, 1845-47 ; coast 
 survey, 1848-49. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, November 4, 
 1849; frigate "St. Lawrence," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1850; coast survey, 1851 ; attached 
 to a commission for selecting a naval station in 
 the Bay of San Francisco, Cal., 1852; scientific 
 expedition of steamer "Water Witch," Para- 
 
 uay Kiver, 1853-54 ; brig " Bainbridge," Brazil 
 quadron, 1854-55; Naval Observatory, Wash 
 ington, 1856-57; steam-sloop "Saranac," Pa 
 cific Squadron, 1858; steam-frigate " Merrimac," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1859-60; steam-frigate " Ro- 
 anoke," as executive-officer, North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1861 ; commanding " Sen 
 eca," South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1861-62, at battle of Port Royal, November 7, 
 1861 ; the day following hoisted our flag over 
 Fort Beauregard, and made formal delivery to 
 the army, by order of Rear-Admiral Du Pont ; 
 Tybee Island, December, 1861 ; commanded 
 forces entering by way of Whale Branch in 
 attack on Port Royal Ferry, January 1, 1862; 
 engaged in the operations against Fernandina 
 through St. Andrew s Sound and in St. John s 
 River. 
 
 Promoted to commander, February 21, 1863; 
 commanding monitor "Patapsco," South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, against Fort McAl 
 lister, March, 1863, and in the attack on Fort 
 Sumter, April 7, 1863 ; had charge of a draft of 
 220 seamen on board of the California passenger 
 steamer " Ocean Queen, "May, 1864, bound to As- 
 pi n wall ; two days after leaving New York sup 
 pressed an open and organized mutiny, with the 
 assistance of Boatswain Thomas G. Bell, who 
 was the only aid assigned, receiving in doing so 
 the excellent co-operation of Captain Tinkle- 
 paugh, who commanded the "Ocean Queen," 
 his officers, and several of the passengers ; com 
 manding steam-sloop "Mohican," North At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1864-65; in the 
 bombardment of Fort Fisher, December, 1864, 
 and again when it was carried by assault by the 
 army, January, 1865 ; commanding ironclad 
 "Miantonomah," special service, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; spe 
 cial duty, Hartford, Conn., 1866-67; command 
 ing flag-ship " Piscataqua," Asiatic Squadron, 
 1867-68; Chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks, 
 1869-71. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1872. Chief of 
 Bureau of Navigation, 1871-78. Commissioned 
 as rear-admiral. 1877 ; retired at his own re 
 quest, 1878. July, 1878, appointed chairman of 
 a board for the re-location of the Naval Obser 
 vatory. April, 1879, ordered to attend the con 
 vocation at Paris, France, known as the Inter- 
 oceanic Ship-Canal Congress. Had constructed 
 on his design a cask " balsa," or life-boat, which 
 is now at the navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., at 
 which place are built life-boats on this design for 
 all of our vessels of war. Total sea-service 21 
 years and 1 month ; other duty, 17 years and 3 
 months. 
 
 Ammunition. In early times this word sig 
 nified every description of warlike stores and 
 provisions for attack or defense. 
 
 In modern usage its signification is limited to 
 
 articles in use for charging fire-arms and ord 
 nance of all kinds. 
 
 FIXED AMMUNITION. For guns of small 
 calibre the charge and projectile are united for 
 convenient transportation and rapidity in load 
 ing. 
 
 AMMUNITION BOXES. The boxes carried on 
 the carriage of howitzers. 
 
 AMMUNITION CHESTS. Chests stowed in the 
 tops for the convenience of the riflemen stationed 
 there in action. 
 
 AMMUNITION-WIFE. A woman of doubtful 
 character. 
 
 Amnesty. An act of oblivion or general par 
 don for all acts committed in time of war, or the 
 proclamation of such pardon. 
 
 Amok. Slaughter. The practice, of Malays 
 under the influence of bang, of running about 
 the streets, attacking anybody and everybody. 
 
 To RUN A-MUCK. To make an indiscriminate 
 assault. 
 
 Amorce. (Fr.} Priming powder. 
 
 Amoy. A seaport town of China, on an island 
 of the same name. Lat. 24 10 3" N. ; Ion. 
 118 IS 5" E. ; nearly opposite to the centre of 
 the island of Formosa. The population, mostly 
 employed in the coasting trade, is about 300,000. 
 
 Amperes. An ancient vessel in which the 
 rowers pulled two oars each. 
 
 Amphibia. A class of animals which can live 
 either in the water or on the land. 
 
 Amphiprorae. Ancient vessels, both ends of 
 which were prow-shaped, so that in narrow chan 
 nels they need not turn ; the prototypes of the 
 double-enders. 
 
 Amphiscii. The inhabitants of the torrid 
 zone are thus denominated from their shadow 
 being turned one part of the year to the north 
 and the other to the south. 
 
 Amplitude. The angular distance of a heav 
 enly body in the horizon from the east or west 
 point. The magnetic amplitude is the angular 
 distance of the body from the east or west point 
 as indicated by the compass. The difference be 
 tween the true and the magnetic amplitude is the 
 variation of the compass. 
 
 At a given latitude the amplitude depends on 
 the declination of the object. Amplitude is 
 sometimes used to denote the horizontal distance 
 to which a projectile is expelled from a gun, or 
 what is more frequently called the range. 
 
 AMPLITUDE, OBSERVATION OF. The usual 
 instructions for taking amplitudes are laid down 
 with the view that the body shall be observed at 
 the moment when its centre is really in the ra 
 tional horizon. Thus the bearing of the sun is 
 directed to be taken when its lower limb appears 
 half-way between the horizon and its centre ; the 
 bearing of a star is to be taken at an altitude of 
 34 : the amplitude of the moon cannot be thus 
 directly observed with accuracy, especially in 
 high latitudes, by reason of her great depression 
 by parallax, but may be found approximately by 
 observing her bearing when her upper limb is in 
 the horizon. In all cases, however, the better 
 plan is to obtain by observation the bearing when 
 the centre of the body appears on the horizon, 
 and apply the necessary corrections (for dip, re 
 fraction, and parallax) taken from a table. For 
 the sun, when rising, observe the bearing of the 
 upper limb as it appears on the horizon, and 
 continue to take the bearings of the centre, hi- 
 
AMPOTIS 
 
 33 
 
 ANCHOR 
 
 seating the sun s disk by keeping the upright 
 wire on the upper limb until the lower limb ap 
 pears. Read off each bearing. At sunset, when 
 the lower limb touches the horizon, proceed in 
 like manner until the upper limb disappears. 
 The mean of the readings, reckoning from the 
 east or west point, is the observed amplitude. 
 When practicable, the moon may be observed in 
 the same way. In the case of the sun and stars, 
 a table (with latitude and declination for argu 
 ments) gives the necessary correction for refrac 
 tion, to which the requisit^ dip is added. The 
 same table applied in the contrary way gives the 
 correction for the moon, which is the excess of 
 the effect of parallax over the combined effects 
 of refraction and dip. The amplitude of a star 
 should be observed at setting, to admit of the 
 body being easily identified. 
 
 Ampotis. The running out of the sea. 
 
 Amsterdam. An important commercial city, 
 one of the capitals of the Netherlands, at the 
 former confluence of the Amstel with the Y, a 
 lake-like river, now mostly drained, but a small 
 part remains and serves as a port for the city. It 
 has a new artificial harbor on the North Sea, 
 with which it is connected by a ship canal 15 
 miles long. Pop. 300,000. 
 
 Amulet. A charm worn by superstitious peo 
 ple as a preservative against disease or disaster. 
 
 Amusette. A shoulder-gun fitted with a 
 swivel, carrying a ball weighing from half a 
 pound to two pounds. 
 
 Anabus. A bony fish that has the power of 
 living long out of water and moving considerable 
 distances on land. 
 
 Anadromous. A term applied to migratory 
 fishes. 
 
 Analemma. An orthographic projection of 
 the sphere on the plane of the meridian. An in 
 strument of brass or wood on which this projec 
 tion is made. An old form of sun-dial. 
 
 Anan. An old word for What did you say ? 
 Also a corruption of anon. 
 
 Anas. A genus of water-birds of the order 
 Natatores, now restricted to the typical ducks. 
 
 Anaumachion. Among the ancients the crime 
 of refusing to serve in the fleet, the punishment 
 for which was infamy. 
 
 Anchiromachus. A boat of the middle ages 
 for transporting anchors and naval stores. 
 
 Anchor. A heavy iron instrument for re 
 taining a ship in her place. It is attached to the 
 ship by a rope or chain, and is thrown overboard 
 from the bows. 
 
 The earlier anchors were made of wood with 
 an arm, and later two arms. Stones were at 
 tached to give weight to sink and greater holding 
 power. With all the improvements of modern 
 times, the anchors now in use have undergone 
 but little change of form. 
 
 After the wooden anchor followed the iron 
 anchor with a wooden stock. At the present day 
 all navy anchors are fitted with iron stocks. 
 
 Anchors are solid when the shank and arms 
 are welded together. In most patent anchors the 
 arms are movable and capable of being separated 
 from the shank. 
 
 The solid or common anchor consists of the 
 shank, the ring (shackle, or Jew s-harp), the 
 arms, and the stock. 
 
 The shank is the main body of the anchor. 
 The ring is bolted to the upper end and the arms 
 3 
 
 are welded to the other. The crown is the heavy 
 end of the shank to which the arms are welded. 
 It is the part which first strikes the ground when 
 the anchor is let go perpendicularly. 
 
 The stock is the iron beam at right angles to 
 the shank. It has a shoulder near its middle 
 part, and when this shoulder is snug up against 
 the shank it is keyed on the other side. The end 
 opposite to the shoulder is bent for convenience 
 in stowage. 
 
 On the ends of the stock are cast-iron balls, the 
 one on the bent end being movable and the other 
 riveted. 
 
 The arm consists of the palm (or fluke), the 
 bill (point, or pee), and the blade. The palm is 
 shaped much like a shield, and is welded and 
 riveted to the blade. The bill is the part of the 
 arm which projects beyond the palm. The ring 
 is that part of the anchor to which the cable is 
 bent. 
 
 The essential properties of an anchor are 
 strength, holding, quick-holding, canting , facility 
 of sweeping, of stowing, and of transport in boats, 
 exemption from fouling, and quick-tripping. Of 
 these the most important are strength, holding, 
 and quick-holding. 
 
 These qualities depend upon the weight of 
 metal, size and shape of the cross-section of 
 arms and shank, length of arms, shank, and 
 stock, angle at which the arms are set on, size 
 and shape of palm, finish of the bill, curvature 
 of the arm, quality of the material, and the 
 workmanship. 
 
 The development of one of these qualities to 
 an extreme degree may involve the sacrifice of 
 another. For instance, the Trotman anchor is 
 notably exempt from fouling, as the upper fluke 
 lies down against the shank, but this peculiarity 
 renders it almost impossible to pick it up by 
 sweeping for it. An anchor that holds well does 
 not trip quickly. The holding power of an an 
 chor depends a great deal on the length of the 
 arm ; but a long arm is an element of weakness. 
 So there is much to be considered in the form 
 and dimensions of anchors, and it has required 
 a great many experiments to determine them. 
 The American Anchor, designed by Mr. James 
 Brown, master-smith at the Washington Navy- 
 Yard, fulfills all required conditions. 
 
 Anchors for the navy are forged under the 
 steam-hammer from scrap-iron, and are gotten 
 out in five parts, viz.: the shank, two arms, 
 stock, and shackle (or ring). 
 
 The scrap-iron is first hammered into blooms, 
 the most convenient size being 36 inches long, 
 10 inches wide, and 4 inches thick. The blooms 
 being in readiness, the parts of the anchor are 
 forged and put together in the following order : 
 
 The shank. The blooms are piled on the end 
 of a porter bar, heated and welded under a steam- 
 hammer until the mass of iron on the end of the 
 bar is of sufficient size to make the shank. The 
 building-up process begins at the crown, and the 
 mass is gradually drawn out towards the ring 
 end, and swaged smooth under the hammer. The 
 holes are punched for the ring and stock, and the 
 shank is then cut off from the bar. 
 
 The two arms are forged separately, also the 
 two palms. The palms are welded on to the 
 arms and riveted, and the bill is drawn out and 
 finished up. The shank is then heated at the 
 crown end, scarfed on one side, and the arm welded 
 
ANCHOR 
 
 34 
 
 ANCHOR 
 
 on ; then scarfed on the other side and the second 
 arm welded on. The arms are welded on straight, 
 and afterwards heated and bent to the proper 
 angle. 
 
 The stock is forged from blooms in the same 
 manner as the shank. The ring is forged straight, 
 and afterwards heated and bent to the proper 
 shape and a bolt fitted to the eyes. 
 
 The process of annealing anchors has now 
 generally gone out of use. 
 
 The following are the proportions of a 6000- 
 pound anchor : 
 
 Shank. Length, 13 feet 8 inches ; cross-section 
 at the largest part where the arms are welded on, 
 10J- by 8 inches ; cross-section at the stock, 8 by 
 7 inches, the greatest dimension being in the 
 plane of the arms. 
 
 Stock. The length is equal to the length of 
 the shank over all, and in diameter it is about 
 two-thirds the smallest width of the shank meas 
 ured in the plane of the arms. 
 
 The length of the arm is nearly one-third the 
 length of the shank, and in bending them an 
 equilateral triangle is formed with the length of 
 the arm for one side, the same distance laid off 
 on the shank from the crotch for the second side, 
 and the distance from the end of this line to the 
 bill completes the triangle. 
 
 In forging anchors a great deal is done by eye 
 for shape and proportions. The crown and throat 
 are rounded off, and the shank has eight faces, 
 with a straight taper from the crotch to the 
 stock. The weight of an anchor is inclusive of 
 the ring and exclusive of the stock, which is 
 about one-fourth the weight of the anchor. 
 C. T. Hutchins, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 PATENT ANCHORS. Many designs have been 
 submitted, the most prominent of which are 
 mentioned below. The oxidation of the movable 
 parts of portable anchors is the great source of 
 failure, as they require constant care and atten 
 tion to keep them in working order. 
 
 Isaac s Anchor has a bar of iron from each 
 end of the stock to the middle of the shank, and 
 the palms are connected by a flat elliptical bar of 
 iron. It has great strength, and is notably ex 
 empt from fouling, but is deficient in other re 
 spects. 
 
 Latham s Anchor has an arm provided with 
 three flukes, and the shank is made of two pieces, 
 which separate at the crown end to allow the 
 midship fluke to pass. When the three flukes 
 enter the ground, the flange on the crown-piece 
 takes on the shank and the arms are held rigid. 
 No stock is required. 
 
 Marshall s Anchor. The arms are straight 
 and move independently on a pivot, which passes 
 through the crown. The arms are fitted with 
 projections, which assist the flukes to enter the 
 ground. 
 
 Martin s Anchor is supplied to the turret-ships 
 of the British navy. The anchor is very com 
 pact, and for that reason is especially recom 
 mended to rams and turret-ships, as it does not 
 impede the fire nor project from the bows. 
 
 Morgan s Anchor has a curved bar of iron, 
 which passes through a slot in the shank and 
 connects the two arms to each other. The arms 
 are separately pivoted to the shank. When one 
 fluke enters the ground the other is drawn down 
 against the shank, the connecting bar serving to 
 strengthen the arms. 
 
 Porter s Anchor is the same in principle as 
 Trotman s, which see. 
 
 Rodger s Anchor has a shank with a wooden 
 core, the object being to give greater strength 
 with a given weight of metal. He also designed 
 the pick-ax anchor, an anchor without palms. 
 
 Trotman s Anchor. The oscillatory system is 
 the principal feature of this anchor. The arms 
 are in one piece and work in a slot in the shank. 
 When one fluke enters the ground the other is 
 drawn down against the shank. The backs of the 
 arms are fitted with horns to assist the flukes to 
 enter the ground. It is one of the best of the 
 
 patent anchors. 
 
 The BOWER-ANCHORS are so named 
 
 from 
 
 their being carried on the bows. In early days 
 they were of different sizes ; the larger one, 
 called the best bower, was carried on the star 
 board bow, the other was known as the small 
 bower. These designations are yet retained, 
 though the anchors are now of equal size. 
 
 The WAIST- or SHEET-ANCHORS are equal in 
 weight to the bower-anchors, and are carried on 
 the side, abaft the fore-rigging. They are se 
 cured with the stock perpendicular, and the shank 
 resting on two shores. 
 
 The SPARE-ANCHOR, when no sheets are car 
 ried, is of the same size as a bower-anchor, and 
 is stowed inboard. 
 
 The STREAM- ANCHOR is one-fourth the weight 
 of the bower-anchor, and is carried inboard. 
 
 KEDGES are small anchors, from one-sixth to 
 one-fourteenth the weight of the bower. They 
 are stowed in the chains. 
 
 BOAT-ANCHORS are small anchors supplied for 
 the use of the boats. They are stowed in the 
 hold of the ship until needed for service. 
 
 With reference to their position anchors are 
 termed flood, ebb, weather, lee, sea, or shore 
 a,nchors. 
 
 To SHOE AN ANCHOR. To fit triangular 
 pieces of wood to the palms to give greater hold 
 ing power. 
 
 To COCKBILL THE ANCHOR. To ease off the 
 shank-painter, and hang the anchor by the ring- 
 stopper. 
 
 To LET Go THE ANCHOR. To release it from 
 the cat-head that it may fall to the bottom and 
 hold the ship. 
 
 To DRAG THE ANCHOR. To trail it over the 
 bottom by force of the wind or current. 
 
 To BACK THE ANCHOR. To increase the hold 
 ing power of an anchor by planting a smaller 
 one ahead of it, and connecting the two with a 
 chain. The holding power of an anchor may be 
 increased by attaching a weight to the bight of 
 the chain, thus bringing the strain lower down, 
 and causing the fluke to bite harder. 
 
 To TRIP THE ANCHOR. To heave it clear of 
 the bottom. 
 
 To SIGHT THE ANCHOR. To heave it up to 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 To WEIGH AN ANCHOR. To heave it up to 
 the bows. 
 
 To CAT THE ANCHOR. To hoist it up to the 
 cat-head and pass the ring-stopper. 
 
 To FISH THE ANCHOR. To hoist the flukes 
 up to the bill-board and pass the shank-painter. 
 
 To STOW AN ANCHOR. To secure it in its 
 proper place. 
 
 To TRANSPORT AN ANCHOR. To shift it from 
 one position to another in the ship. 
 
ANCHOK 
 
 35 
 
 ANCHORING 
 
 To SECURE THE ANCHOR FOR SEA. To ring 
 it up close to the cat-head, and get the inner fluke 
 inboard, and pass extra lashings. 
 
 To GET THE ANCHOR OFF THE Bows. To 
 take off the extra lashings, and heave the inner 
 fluke up and outboard, so it will slip off the bill 
 board when the shank-painter is let go. 
 
 To SWEEP, DRAG, OR CREEP FOR AN ANCHOR. 
 To endeavor to pick up an anchor or the chain 
 by trailing for it with a grapnel or the bight of 
 a rope. 
 
 FOUL-ANCHOR. The ^condition of an anchor 
 when the chain has taken a turn around the 
 flukes, shank, or stock, or when the anchor has 
 caught into some other anchor, chain, or wreck. 
 
 The anchor is aweigh or atrip the moment it is 
 disengaged from the ground. It is apeak when 
 the chain is up-and-down. It comes home when 
 it is trailed over the bottom as the ship drifts. 
 
 Anchor, Drag-, or Floating-. See SEA-AN 
 CHOR. 
 
 Anchor, Jury. A temporary anchor con 
 structed to supply the place of one which has 
 been lost. Ships are sometimes obliged to resort 
 to their guns, boilers, and other heavy articles. 
 
 Anchor, Mushroom. Has a head shaped like 
 a bowl, and no stock is required. It is used for 
 moorings. 
 
 Anchor, Screw. Large screws with broad 
 flanges, used for moorings and to shoe piles. 
 
 Anchor, Sea. A species of raft or drag formed 
 of spars and canvas to keep a ship s head to the 
 wind and to decrease her drift. It is attached to 
 the ship by a hawser, and is generally fitted with 
 a buoy and an anchor. 
 
 Anchorage. A duty levied upon vessels upon 
 coming to a port for the use of its advantages. 
 The set of anchors belonging to a ship. A place 
 suitable for anchoring. It is marked on charts 
 by an anchor, and is described according to its 
 attributes as good, snug, open, or exposed. 
 
 Anchor-ball. A pyrotechnical combustible 
 attached to a grapnel. 
 
 Anchor-bar. A large handspike to pry the 
 anchor off the bill-board. 
 
 Anchor-chock. Pieces let into an anchor- 
 stock. Pieces of wood or iron upon which an 
 anchor rests when it is stowed. 
 
 Anchor-hold. The fastness of the flukes in 
 the ground. 
 
 Anchor-hoops. Heavy iron hoops binding a 
 wooden stock to the shank and over the nuts of 
 the anchor. 
 
 Anchor-ice. The ice which forms on and in- 
 crustates the beds of lakes and rivers. 
 
 Anchoring, (p. pr. of v. t. TO ANCHOR.) (Lat. 
 ancora, anchor.) The mano3uvre by which a 
 vessel is brought to anchor, i.e. brought to a 
 state of temporary rest and security by means of 
 an anchor let go from the vessel. 
 
 The anchor, attaching itself to the bottom, is 
 enabled by means of the intervening cable to 
 hold the vessel in 7 "ace. A vessel may be brought 
 to anchor under a great variety of conditions of 
 wind, tide, and sea. 
 
 The peculiar nature of th e anchorage itself, and 
 the number of vessels occupying it, must also be 
 considered. For the minor details of all that 
 precede, accompany, and follow this manoeuvre, 
 the reader is referred to works on Seamanship. 
 The principal points to be observed are, First, 
 that on approaching the anchorage both bower 
 
 anchors (see ANCHOR) and their cables should be 
 in readiness for use, always having the second 
 anchor ready to let go in case the first, from any 
 cause, should fail. Second, that the vessel should 
 be head to tide, or nearly so, when the anchor is 
 let go. Third, on approaching the anchorage, 
 under favorable circumstances, the speed of the 
 vessel should be gradually reduced, then stopped, 
 and finally a stern-board be given her, either by 
 the action of the wind or tide, or by the use of 
 sails or engine. The moment of starting astern 
 is that for letting go the anchor. Fourth, that 
 the vessel should have sufficient stern-board to* 
 lay her cable out clear and straight from the an 
 chor. Fifth, that the stern-board should not be 
 so great as to endanger running out too much 
 cable, or of parting in attempting to check it. 
 Sixth, that when the cable is finally secured there 
 should be a good scope out. Seventh, that when 
 anchored the vessel should be in a good berth. 
 
 It is generally conceded that a vessel should 
 never ride to a shorter scope of cable than six 
 times the depth of water. That is to say, if an 
 chored in ten fathoms of water she should not 
 have out less than sixty fathoms of cable for or 
 dinary security. In general, there are three dif 
 ferent classes of vessels +hat may be treated of 
 under this head : the square-rigged sailing-ves 
 sel, the fore-and-after, and the steamer. To 
 bring one of the former into a crowded harbor, 
 to pick out a good berth and come to anchor in 
 a proper manner, calls forth all the skill and 
 judgment of a practical seaman, and an amount 
 of knowledge which can be obtained only by long 
 and varied experience. 
 
 With a schooner we have, ordinarily, only to 
 haul down the head-sails, luif up into the wind, 
 and when the headway is lost and she begins to 
 go astern, to drop the anchor, and then to pay 
 out the necessary scope as she takes it. Or beat 
 ing in with a strong windward tide (see TIDES), 
 we should reverse the operation ; lower the fore 
 and mainsails, wear around under the jib, and, 
 when head to tide, let go the anchor. 
 
 With a steamer the operation is still more 
 simple. Steering directly for her berth, the en 
 gines are first " slowed," then stopped, and finally 
 backed, if necessary ; when the headway ceases 
 the anchor is let go and the cable paid out as she 
 takes it. If she had been steaming in against 
 the tide she will, on stopping the engines, soon 
 go astern and take her cable. If she has the 
 tide with her, as soon as the anchor touches the 
 bottom she will begin to swing to the tide. 
 When head-to, pay out to the necessary scope. 
 
 ANCHORING BY THE STERN is to have the cable 
 brought in through a stern-chock, so that when 
 the anchor is let go from the bow the vessel will 
 ride by the stern. 
 
 ANCHORING WITH A SPRING : to attach a hawser 
 to the ring of the anchor before letting go, so 
 that when the anchor is down and an equal strain 
 brought upon the cable and the hawser, the ves 
 sel will ride to a bridle, presenting her broadside 
 to the wind or tide as either may prevail. The 
 vessel s head may be then made to change direc 
 tion by shortening in, or veering on the cable or 
 hawser, as desired. 
 
 The two last manoeuvres are practiced in war : 
 
 the former when it is undesirable to swing 
 
 | around, as when anchoring in the ordinary way ; 
 
 ! the latter when it is desired to change the ship s 
 
ANCHOR-LINING 
 
 36 
 
 ANNULAR 
 
 head in certain directions so as to bring the bat 
 teries to bear on the enemy. 
 
 Anchoring in very deep water (as a temporary 
 expedient) may be done by means of the stream- 
 anchor (see ANCHOR) and a hawser. S. B. Luce, 
 Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Anchor-lining. Short pieces of plank fast 
 ened to the ship s side, under the fore-channels, 
 to prevent the anchor from bruising the side 
 
 Anchor-ring. The ring to which the cable 
 is bent. Now generally a shackle, or Jew s- 
 harp. 
 
 Anchor-seat. An old term for the prow. 
 
 Anchor-shackle. The shackle in the end 
 of the shank. The ring. 
 
 Anchorsmith. A forger of anchors. 
 
 Anchor-stock. A beam of wood or iron, 
 secured to the shank at right angles to the flukes. 
 
 Anchor-stock-fashion. The method of 
 placing the butt of one plank nearly over the 
 middle of another; the planks being broadest in 
 the middle and tapering to the ends resemble an 
 anchor-stock. 
 
 Anchor-stocking. A method of securing 
 and working planks with tapered butts. 
 
 Anchor-watch. A small number of men 
 kept on duty at night, while the ship is in port, 
 to be in readiness to do any duty that may be re 
 quired, especially to let go an anchor, veer cable, 
 hoist head-sails, set spanker, or to man a boat. 
 
 Anchovy. A fish of the family Clupiedce, 
 caught in large numbers in the Mediterranean, 
 and pickled for exportation. 
 
 Ancon. The angle of a knee-timber. 
 
 ANCON. (Sp.) Harbor, bay, anchorage. 
 
 Anderson, Culjohn. A Swede. He made 
 two journeys into the interior of Africa in ex 
 ploration of the source of the Niger. He reached 
 Lake Ngami, in the S.W. of the continent, and 
 published a work on the Okevengo River. 
 
 Andromeda. A northern constellation be 
 hind Pegasus, Cassiopeia, and Perseus, repre 
 senting the figure of a woman chained, a An- 
 dromedce, Alpheratz. 
 
 Anemometer. An instrument for measuring 
 the force and velocity of the wind. They are of 
 various forms, and indicate the force directly, as 
 against a plate compressing a spring, or the ve 
 locity, as by a revolution of a wheel carrying 
 vanes or hemispherical cups. They are often 
 self-registering. 
 
 Anemoscope. A vane-index with pointers to 
 show the change of the wind without referring 
 to the vane. 
 
 An-end. The position of a spar when erected 
 perpendicularly. The topmasts are an-end when 
 they are fidded. 
 
 To STRIKE A PLANK AN-END is to drive it in 
 the direction of its length. 
 
 Anent, or Anenst. Opposite to ; over against. 
 
 Aneroid Barometer. See BAROMETER. 
 
 Angel-fish. The Squatina angelus, of the 
 shark family. It is six or eight feet long, with 
 a rough back and smooth white belly. 
 
 Angel-head. The barb of an arrow; prob 
 ably angle-head. 
 
 Angel-shot. A projectile composed of two 
 hollow half balls connected by a chain, which is 
 inclosed in their cavity when they are brought 
 together ; a kind of chain-shot. 
 
 Angil. An old term for a fishing-hook, and 
 also for the red worm used for bait. 
 
 Angle. A corner. The difference in direc 
 tion of two lines in the same plane, proceeding 
 from the same point. 
 
 A SPHERICAL ANGLE is formed by the inter 
 section of two great circles. It is the inclina 
 tion of the planes of these circles to each other. 
 
 A SOLID ANGLE is formed by the meeting of 
 three planes at one point. See ELEVATION, FIRE, 
 SIGHT, MAST-HEAD, LEEWAY. 
 
 Angon. A half-pike or javelin. 
 
 Angosiade. An astronomical falsehood ; a 
 term originating from the pretended observations 
 of D Angos at Malta. 
 
 Angra. (Sp.) Bay or inlet. 
 
 Anguilliform. Having the appearance of 
 eels. 
 
 Angular Crab. An ugly long-armed crusta 
 cean, with eyes on remarkably long stalks. 
 
 Anilla. A commercial term for indigo. 
 
 Animal Flowers. Actiniae, or sea-anemones 
 and similar animals project a circle of tentacula 
 resembling flowers. They were formerly all 
 classed under Zoophytes. 
 
 Animate. To give power or encouragement. 
 
 To ANIMATE A NEEDLE. To magnetize it. 
 
 To ANIMATE A BATTERY. To put the guns 
 in position. 
 
 Anker. A Dutch measure containing ten 
 wine gallons. 
 
 ANKER-FISH. A kind of cuttle-fish. 
 
 Ankle-bone. A sailor s name for the craw 
 fish. 
 
 Anna. In the East Indies, the 16th part of a 
 rupee, about three cents in United States cur 
 rency. 
 
 Annapolis. A city and port of entry in Mary 
 land, on the S.W. bank of the Severn River, 3 
 miles from its entrance into the Chesapeake Bay, 
 30 S. by E. from Baltimore. Lat. 38 58 50" 
 N. ; Ion. 76 30 W. The United States Naval 
 Academy is here located. Pop. about 6000. 
 
 Annealing. There are many substances which , 
 when rapidly cooled after having been heated, 
 become exceedingly brittle; this result may be 
 prevented by very slow cooling, which process 
 is termed annealing. By this process the sub 
 stance is rendered softer and less brittle, but its 
 elasticity is impaired. 
 
 Annet. A kind of gull. 
 
 Annex. A term used on the Mississippi and 
 other Western rivers to indicate the pilot-house 
 of steamboats, called also " Texas." The term 
 is said to have originated about the time of the 
 annexation of Texas to the United States. 
 
 Annihilator, Fire. See FIRE-EXTINGUISHER. 
 
 Anniversary Winds. Those which blow con 
 stantly at a certain season of the year ; as, mon 
 soon and etesian winds. 
 
 Annotinae. The ancient Roman provision 
 vessels. 
 
 Annual. Yearly. 
 
 ANNUAL ACCOUNTS. The ship s books and 
 papers for the year. 
 
 ANNUAL VARIATION. The yearly change in 
 the variation of the compass. The change pro 
 duced in the right ascension or declination of a 
 star by the precession of the equinoxes and the 
 proper motion of the star taken together. 
 
 Annul. To revoke ; to rescind. 
 
 Annular. Resembling a ring. 
 
 AN ANNULAR ECLIPSE takes place when the 
 apparent diameter of the moon is less than that of 
 
ANNULLING 
 
 37 
 
 APEX 
 
 the sun, and a ring of light surrounds the moon 
 while central. 
 
 ANNULAR SCUPPER. A scupper in which the 
 hole may be enlarged or diminished by a movable 
 concentric ring. 
 
 Annulling Signal. A signal which denotes 
 that the previous signal is void. 
 
 Annulus Astronomicus. A ring of brass used 
 formerly in navigation. 
 
 Anode. The positive pole of an electric bat 
 tery ; or, more strictly, the path by which the 
 current passes out and enters the electrolyte on 
 its way to the other pole ; opposed to cathode. 
 
 Anomalistic Revolution or Period. The pe 
 riod during which a planet makes a complete 
 revolution from any point in its orbit back again. 
 
 ANOMALISTIC YEAR, or PERIODICAL YEAR. 
 The time in which the earth makes its anoma 
 listic revolution, which is longer than the tropi 
 cal year on account of the precession of the equi 
 noxes. 
 
 Anomaly. Deviation from established rules. 
 
 Anomoural. Irregular in the character of 
 the tail or abdomen ; as, the anomoural crus 
 taceans, a group between the crabs and the 
 shrimps. 
 
 Anon. Quickly ; immediately. At another 
 time. 
 
 Anonymous Partnerships. Those not carried 
 on under a special name, and the particulars of 
 which are known only to the parties themselves. 
 
 Ansae. The handles of old ordnance. The 
 projections of Saturn s rings in certain situations. 
 
 Anser. A Linnaean order of natatorial birds 
 swimming by means of web-feet, as the duck, or 
 of lobe-feet, as the grebe. 
 
 Anson, George, Lord. An English admiral ; 
 born in Staffordshire, England, in 1697 ; entered 
 the navy at an early age, and in 1724 was made 
 post-captain. He was soon ordered to the Caro 
 lina station, where he purchased land and built 
 a town called after his own name. He was sub 
 sequently appointed to the command of the South 
 Sea Expedition which sailed from England in 
 1740. After his return, in 1744, he was succes 
 sively created rear-admiral of the blue, commis 
 sioner of the admiralty, and vice-admiral. In 
 1747 he commanded the Channel Fleet, and cap 
 tured six French ships of war. As a reward for 
 this brilliant exploit he was created a peer, with 
 the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. He 
 was First Commissioner of the Admiralty from 
 1751 to 1756. In 1757 Anson was made ad 
 miral, and in the same year was placed at the 
 head of the admiralty. Died in 1762. No book 
 in the English language possesses a greater 
 charm for youth and the lover of adventure than 
 " Anson s Voyage." 
 
 Answer. To reply. To suit ; as, this boat will 
 not answer. 
 
 ANSWER THE HELM. A ship is said to an 
 swer the helm when she obeys it readily. 
 
 Answering Pennant. A pennant which is 
 hoisted to indicate that a signal has been read 
 and understood. 
 
 Antarctic. Eelating to the South Pole or to 
 the region near it. 
 
 ANTARCTIC CIRCLE. A parallel 23 28 from 
 the South Pole. 
 
 ANTARCTIC POLE. The South Pole. 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCEAN. The portion of the ocean 
 included within the Antarctic Circle. 
 
 Antares. A star of the first magnitude, popu 
 larly known as the Scorpion s heart (a Scorpionis). 
 
 Antecians. Those inhabitants of the earth 
 who live on the same meridian, but in opposite 
 hemispheres. 
 
 Antelucan. Before daybreak. 
 
 Ante-meridian. Before noon. 
 
 Anthelion. A luminous appearance on a cloud, 
 over against or opposite to the sun. It consists 
 of a circular ring or rings around the shadow 
 of the spectator s own head as projected on a 
 cloud or on some opposite fog-bank. 
 
 Anthracite. See COAL. 
 
 Anticthones. Inhabitants of countries di 
 ametrically opposite to each other. 
 
 Anti-friction Composition. See FRICTION. 
 
 Anti-friction Metals. See FRICTION. 
 
 Anti-gallicians. Extra backstays sometimes 
 used by merchant vessels running before the 
 trades. 
 
 Anti-guggler. A straw or tube introduced 
 into a bottle or cask to suck out the contents. 
 
 Anti-parallels. Lines which make equal 
 angles with two other lines but contrary ways. 
 
 Antipathes. A kind of coral having a black, 
 horny stem. 
 
 Antipodes. The inhabitants of the earth di 
 ametrically opposite to each other. The term is 
 now applied to the countries which are at the 
 opposite ends of any diameter of the earth. 
 
 Antiscii. The people who dwell in opposite 
 hemispheres, and whose shadows at noon fall in 
 contrary directions. 
 
 Antiscorbutic. Opposed to, or counteracting 
 scurvy. See SCURVY. 
 
 Antiseptic. Opposed to, or counteracting 
 putrefaction, or tendency to putrefaction, in the 
 system. 
 
 Antlia. A constellation known as the Air- 
 Pump. 
 
 Antwerp. A city of Belgium, on the right 
 bank of the Scheldt. Lat. 51 IS 2 N. ; Ion. 
 4 24 2" E. It is strongly fortified, the walls 
 and other defenses completely incompassing the 
 city on the land-side, having more than 12 miles 
 of solid ramparts. Of the stocks, dock-yard, and 
 basins, constructed by Napoleon at an expense 
 of $10,000,000, the last only remain. The har 
 bor is one of the finest in the world ; it admits 
 vessels of any size, and can easily hold 1000. 
 Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Anvil. The massive block of iron on which 
 shipsmiths hammer forge-work. A streamer at 
 the end of a lance. 
 
 Any Port in a Storm. A phrase signifying 
 contentment with one s lot. The best practicable 
 way out of a difficulty. 
 
 Ape, or Sea-Ape. The long-tailed shark. An 
 active American seal. 
 
 Apeak. Near the perpendicular. An anchor 
 is apeak when the chain is up-and-down. The 
 oars are apeak when the blades are thrown for 
 ward and the crew is waiting for the order to 
 " give way" in racing. With an awning spread 
 in a boat it is impossible to " up oars." When 
 they are raised as high as the awning permits 
 they are said to be apeak. 
 
 Apertse. Ancient deep-waisted ships with 
 high-decked forecastle and poop. 
 
 Aperture. The clear diameter of the object- 
 glass of optical instruments. 
 
 Apex. The summit or vertex. 
 
APHELION 
 
 38 
 
 AQUAKIUS 
 
 Aphelion. The point in a planet s orbit which 
 is at the greatest distance from the sun. 
 
 Aphelian. Castor, a Geminorum. 
 
 Aphracti. Ancient vessels with open waists. 
 
 Aplanatic. Having two or more lenses of 
 different curvatures so combined that their re 
 spective aberrations neutralize each other, and 
 the resulting compound lens is free from spheri 
 cal aberration. 
 
 Aplets. Nets for the herring fishery. 
 
 Aplustre. An old word for the ornament at 
 the bow and for the ensign at the stern. 
 
 Aplysia. A sea-hare of the genus of mol- 
 lusks of the order Tectibranchiata, Some of the 
 species have the power of throwing out a deep 
 purple liquor, which colors the water for a con 
 siderable distance and serves to conceal the ani 
 mal. 
 
 Apobathrse. Ancient gang-boards from the 
 ship to the wharf. 
 
 Apogee. That point of the moon s orbit which 
 is at the greatest distance from the earth. For 
 merly, on the supposition that the earth was the 
 centre of the system, this name was given to the 
 point in the orbit of the sun, or of a planet, which 
 was at the greatest distance from the earth. 
 
 A-poise. Balanced ; properly trimmed. 
 
 Apostle. A knight-head or bollard timber. 
 A paper sent up on appeals in the admiralty 
 courts. 
 
 Apothecary. The chief assistant of the medi 
 cal officer. He is appointed by the surgeon for 
 the cruise. Familiarly known as u Pills." 
 
 Appalachicola. A port of entry of Florida, 
 on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the Ap 
 palachicola Eiver. Pop. 1200. 
 
 Apparatus. Ammunition and equipage for 
 war. 
 
 Apparel. In marine insurance, the furniture 
 of a ship ; as, masts, sails, ground-tackle, guns, 
 etc. It is a more comprehensive term than ap 
 paratus. 
 
 Appareled. Fully equipped. 
 
 Apparent. (Lat. apparere^ to appear.) An ad 
 jective indicating that which appears to the 
 senses phenomenal. 
 
 11 Apparent" is sometimes equivalent to true or 
 real, when contrasted with fictitious or imaginary. 
 Thus the " apparent sun" is the true sun we see, 
 as opposed to the imaginary u mean sun" ; " ap 
 parent time" is reckoned by the hour-angles of 
 the same sensible body opposed to " mean time," 
 which is defined by the movement of the fictitious 
 mean sun; "apparent noon" is when the true 
 sun is on the meridian, and is distinguished from 
 the " mean noon," which is marked by the transit 
 of the mean sun. 
 
 " Apparent" is sometimes used as a qualifica 
 tion, distinguishing on the one hand from ob 
 served, and on the other from true. It is in this 
 sense applied to elements corrected for instru 
 mental and circumstantial sources of error, but 
 not yet reduced to the common standard for com 
 parison and computation. We thus have the 
 " apparent altitude" of a heavenly body, and the 
 " apparent distance" of two heavenly bodies, 
 distinguished on the one hand from the "ob 
 served," and on the other from the " true" alti 
 tude and distance. So also there is the " appa 
 rent place" of a heavenly body in the celestial 
 concave, and the " true place." 
 
 " Apparent" is sometimes opposed to proper, to 
 
 distinguish the phenomenal diurnal motion of 
 the heavenly bodies resulting from the earth s 
 rotation on her axis, from that which is due to 
 the annual revolution of the earth in her orbit, 
 and to the motion of each body in its orbit. 
 
 Apparition. The first appearance of a star 
 after occultation. 
 
 CIRCLE OF PERPETUAL APPARITION. A 
 circle whose distance from the elevated pole is 
 equal to the latitude of the place of observation. 
 Within this circle the stars never set. 
 
 Appearance. The first making of a land-fall ; 
 formerly astronomically used for phenomenon 
 and phase. 
 
 Appendages. The valves, gauges, etc., of a 
 boiler. The comparatively small portions out 
 side the main body of the ship ; as the keel, 
 rudder, etc. Their volume is computed sepa 
 rately and added to the main calculation to de 
 termine the displacement of a ship. 
 
 Apple-pie-order. In excellent condition ; neat 
 and trim. 
 
 Appoint. To assign or designate by authority. 
 
 APPOINTED OFFICERS are petty officers shipped 
 for the cruise for special service, and not entitled 
 to continuous-service certificates ; as, master-at- 
 arms, yeomen, etc. 
 
 An acting appointment may be issued by the 
 commander-in-chief when a permanent vacancy 
 occurs which cannot be filled from the super 
 numerary officers of other ships. This appoint 
 ment must be in writing, and subject to revoca 
 tion by himself, his successor, and the Secretary 
 of the Navy. An officer holding an acting ap 
 pointment wears the uniform of the grade to 
 which he is appointed, and annexes his acting 
 rank to his official signature. 
 
 Appointments. The various details consti 
 tuting the equipment of a vessel, or the accoutre 
 ments of an officer or enlisted man. 
 
 Apportionment. The act of apportioning ; a 
 dividing into just proportions or shares ; as, in 
 the distribution of prize-money. 
 
 Appraisement. A valuation. A law instru 
 
 ment taken out by the captors of a vessel. 
 
 To 
 to punishment. 
 
 Apprehend. To seize a person with a view 
 
 Apprentice. See NAVAL APPRENTICE. 
 
 Appropriation. A sum of money set apart by 
 Congress for a particular purpose. 
 
 Approve. To sanction officially. 
 
 Appulse. The near approach of one heavenly 
 body to another, so as to form an apparent con 
 tact. 
 
 Apron. A timber conforming to the shape of 
 the stem, and fixed in the concave part of it, ex 
 tending from the head to some distance below 
 the scarf, joining the upper and lower stem- 
 pieces. 
 
 APRON OF A DOCK. The platform on which 
 the sill is fastened down. 
 
 APRON OF A GUN. The metal cover for the 
 lock and vent. 
 
 Apsides, Line of. The right line joining the 
 aphelion and perihelion points of the orbit of a 
 planet. The term is also applied to the line 
 joining the perigee and apogee of the moon. 
 
 Apsis. Each extremity of the line of apsides. 
 
 Apus. A constellation known as the Bird of 
 Paradise. 
 
 Aquarius. The W^ater-carrier, the eleventh 
 sign in the zodiac, which the sun enters about 
 
AQUATIC 
 
 39 
 
 ARIES 
 
 the 21st of January ; so called from the rains 
 which prevail at that season in Italy and the 
 East. 
 
 Aquatic. Inhabiting or relating to the water. 
 
 Aquatites. The law-term for everything 
 living in the water. 
 
 Aque. Wall-sided, flat-floored boats, which 
 navigate the Rhine. 
 
 Aqueduct. A conduit or canal built for the 
 conveyance of water. 
 
 Aquila. The Eagle ; a constellation in which 
 is a very bright star (Altair] much used by nav 
 igators in taking observations. 
 
 Aquilon. The northeast wind. 
 
 Ara. The Altar ; a southern constellation, 
 containing nine stars. 
 
 Aramech. The Arabic name for the star 
 Arcturus. 
 
 Arbalist. An engine to throw stones, or the 
 cross-bow used for darts and arrows. Formerly 
 arbalisters formed part of the naval force. 
 
 Arbiter. The judge to whom a matter is re 
 ferred for adjustment. 
 
 Arbitrage. The referring of commercial dis 
 putes to two or more disinterested persons. 
 
 Arbitration. The settlement of disputes out 
 of court. 
 
 Arbor. A spindle or axis. 
 
 Arby. The thrift, or sea-lavender. 
 
 Arc. A part of a circle. 
 
 DIURNAL ARC. That part of a circle, paral 
 lel to the equator, which a heavenly body de 
 scribes from its rising to its setting. The noc 
 turnal arc is the arc described by the body from 
 its setting to its rising. 
 
 THE ARC OF DIRECTION OR PROGRESSION is 
 the arc which a planet appears to describe when 
 its motion is direct in the order of the signs. 
 
 ARC OF VISION. The sun s depth below the 
 horizon when the stars begin to appear. 
 
 Archangel. A town of Russia, on the Dwina, 
 20 miles from its embouchure in the Bay of 
 Archangel. Lat. 64 32 N. ; Ion. 40 33 E. 
 This is one of the oldest ports in Russia, having 
 been founded in 1584, and was long the only 
 one. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Arch-board. The part of the stern over the 
 counter, immediately under the knuckle of the 
 stern-timbers. 
 
 Arched Squall. See SQUALL. 
 
 Archel, Archil, or Orchil. A lichen found 
 on the rocks of the Canary and Cape de Verde 
 Islands. Litmus is obtained from it. 
 
 Arches. A term among seamen for the Arch 
 ipelago. See GALLEY-ARCH KS. 
 
 Archi-gubernus. The commander of the im 
 perial ship in olden times. 
 
 Archimedes Screw. An ingenious spiral 
 pump invented by Archimedes B.C. 260. It is 
 also used for removing grain from a lower to a 
 higher level. The name is applied also to the 
 screw-propeller. 
 
 Arching. The drooping of the extremities of 
 a vessel. See HOGGING. 
 
 Archipelago. Originally the ^Egean Sea. A 
 body of water interspersed with many islands. 
 
 Architecture. See NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Archives. Public records and papers, which 
 are preserved as evidence of facts. 
 
 Arch of the Cove. An elliptical moulding 
 sprung over the cove of the ship, at the lower 
 part of the taffrail. 
 
 Arctic. Northern, or lying under Arktos, the 
 Bear. 
 
 AKCTIC POLE. The north pole of the globe. 
 
 ARCTIC OCEAN. The expanse of water within 
 the Arctic Circle. 
 
 ARCTIC CIRCLE. A parallel distant 23 28 
 from the north pole. It divides the north frigid 
 from the north temperate zone. 
 
 Arcturus. A star of the first magnitude close 
 to the knee of Bootes, a Bootis. 
 
 Ardent. Said of a ship when she has a tend 
 ency to come to the wind, and keeps a strain on 
 the weather tiller-rope. 
 
 Ardent Spirits. Distilled liquors. They are 
 not permitted to be on board a man-of-war ex 
 cept as medicinal stores. 
 
 Arenaceous. Brittle; sandy; partaking of 
 the qualities of sand. 
 
 Arenal. In meteorology, applied to a cloud 
 of dust so thick as to prevent seeing a stone s- 
 throw off, common in South America, being 
 raised by the wind from adjoining shores. 
 
 Arenation. The burying of scorbutic patients 
 up to their neck in sand ; spreading hot sand 
 over a diseased person. 
 
 Arendal. A seaport town of Norway, 36 miles 
 N.E. of Christiansand, on the Skager-Rack, at 
 the mouth of the Nid-Elv. It has a custom 
 house and yards for ship-building. Pop. 5800. 
 
 Areometer. An instrument for measuring the 
 specific gravity of fluids ; a hydrometer. 
 
 Argin. An old word for embankment. 
 
 Argo. The name of the ship which carried 
 Jason and his companions on their romantic ex 
 pedition to Colchis in quest of the golden fleece. 
 
 Argol. The lees of wine adhering to the cask ; 
 supertartrate of potassa. 
 
 Argonauta. The paper-nautilus. The sail 
 which it spreads is a modified arm, which invests 
 the outer surface of the shell. 
 
 Argonauts. The company that sailed in the 
 "Argo." A geographical society instituted at 
 Venice, to which we are indebted for the charts 
 and maps of Coronelli. In the United States, 
 the men who first emigrated to California on the 
 discovery of gold in 1849 are sometimes styled 
 Argonauts. 
 
 Argo Navis. The constellation of the Ship, 
 containing 9 clusters, 3 nebulae, 540 single and 
 13 double stars, of which 64 are visible. 
 
 Argosy. A ship of great burden, particularly 
 of the Levant. 
 
 Argozin, or Argnesys. The person who at 
 tended to the shackles of the galley-slaves. 
 
 Argument. (Lat. argumentum, a reason.) In 
 astronomical tables the argument is that quan 
 tity upon which the tabulated one depends, and 
 with which, therefore, the table is "entered. 
 Thus, in a table of correction for refraction, the 
 altitude is the argument. When the element 
 tabulated depends upon two given ones, then 
 there are two arguments with which to enter the 
 table, one at the side, the other at the top. 
 Thus, for the correction for the moon s altitude, 
 the arguments of the principal table are the ap 
 parent altitude and the minutes of the moon s 
 horizontal parallax. 
 
 Argus-shell. A species of shell beautifully 
 variegated with spots, resembling in some meas 
 ure those in a peacock s tail. 
 
 Aries, the Constellation of. (Lat. Aries, Ari- 
 etis, The Ram. ) The first constellation of the 
 
AEIES 
 
 40 
 
 AEMOR 
 
 Ancient zodiac, marking the period for the com 
 memoration of the mythical golden fleece. The 
 only two stars in it of any note are a and (3 near 
 together in the horns, a being the more north 
 erly. 
 
 ARIES, THE SIGN OF. The division of the 
 ecliptic, including the first 30 of longitude, reck 
 oning from the first point of Aries. This origin, 
 owing to the precession of the equinoxes, is at 
 present in the constellation Pisces. Symbol 7. 
 
 ARIES, FIRST POINT OF. The "Vernal Equi 
 noctial Point," one of the points where the eclip 
 tic crosses the equinoctial, so called as being the 
 commencement of the sign Aries. See EQUI 
 NOCTIAL POINTS. 
 
 Aries. A battering-ram. (Roman Antiq.) 
 
 Aris. Sharp corners of stones in piers and 
 docks. 
 
 Aris-pieces. Those parts of a made mast 
 which are under the hoops. 
 
 Ark. Noah s vessel. It was 300 cubits in 
 length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height, and it 
 was payed over with bitumen. A comparison 
 of its proportions with those of the " Great East 
 ern" shows a considerable similarity. Reckon- 
 ing the cubit at 21 inches, the length of the ark 
 would be 525 feet, breadth 87 feet 6 inches, 
 height 52 feet 6 inches, the " Great Eastern" being 
 in length 680 feet, breadth 83, depth 58. It is 
 mentioned by German commentators that Peter 
 Jansen, in 1609, built a vessel of the same pro 
 portions as the ark, though smaller, viz. : length 
 120, width 20, depth 12 feet. It was found most 
 convenient for stowage, containing one-third more 
 freight than ordinary vessels of the same ton 
 nage, though it was unsuited for making way 
 quickly through the water. 
 
 ARK. A mare s-tail cloud. A flat-boat. 
 
 Arm. A weapon. An inlet of the sea. The 
 end of a yard, beam, bracket, or axle. A branch 
 of the military service. One of the wings of 
 angle-iron. The part of an anchor to which the 
 flukes are attached. An index-hand or pointer. 
 
 To ARMS ! A summons to war or battle. 
 
 UNDER ARMS. Armed and ready for fighting. 
 
 To BE IN ARMS. To be in a state of hostility. 
 
 STAND OF ARMS. A complete set for one sol 
 dier, with equipments ; frequently the rifle and 
 bayonet alone. 
 
 Arm. To fit, furnish, and provide for war. 
 To wind rope-yarns around about a cross bar 
 shot to facilitate ramming it home. To put tal 
 low in the cavity at the bottom of a lead to bring 
 up specimens of the bottom. 
 
 ARM AND AWAY ! The order for armed boats 
 to prepare for service. 
 
 Armada, The Invincible. The famous Span 
 ish armament so called consisted of 150 ships, 
 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 
 2000 volunteers, under the Duke of Medina Si- 
 donia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, 
 and was defeated the next day by Drake and 
 Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into 
 the enemy s fleet, they cut their cables, put to 
 sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous 
 between Calais and Gravelines ; the English fell 
 upon them, took many ships, and Admiral How 
 ard maintained a running fight from the 21st of 
 July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to 
 bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a 
 storm dispersed them, and the remainder of the 
 armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. 
 
 The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the 
 engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were 
 lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and up 
 wards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken 
 prisoners. The English lost but one ship. 
 
 Armadilla. A squadron of guarda-costas which 
 formerly cruised on the coast of South America 
 to prevent smuggling. 
 
 Armador. A Spanish privateer. 
 
 Armament. A term expressing collectively 
 all the great guns and small-arms, with their 
 equipments, but generally applied to the great 
 guns only. 
 
 Armamenta. The rigging, tackling, and all 
 necessary furniture of an ancient ship. 
 
 Armatae. Ancient ships fitted with sails and 
 oars, but which fought under oars only. 
 
 Armature. A piece of soft metal connecting 
 the poles of a magnet. It serves to prevent the 
 dissipation of the magnetic force. 
 
 Arm-chest. A portable locker to afford a 
 ready supply of arms and accoutrements. 
 
 Armed. Supplied with weapons ; fitted and 
 furnished for war. 
 
 Armed-in-flute. Partially armed, a part of 
 the battery having been removed and the effec 
 tive armament thus reduced below that which 
 the vessel rates. 
 
 Armed-mast. A mast made of more than 
 one tree. 
 
 Armed Neutrality. See NEUTRALITY. 
 
 Armed-ship. A vessel fitted out by private 
 parties to cruise against an enemy s commerce. 
 She is furnished with a letter-of-marque. 
 
 Armed-stem. A prow strengthened by armor. 
 
 Arming. The tallow used to arm the* lead. 
 
 Armings. Red dress cloths, formerly hung 
 outside the upper-works on holidays. A kind of 
 boarding-netting. 
 
 Armipotent. Powerful in war. 
 
 Armistice. A cessation of arms for a short 
 time by convention ; a truce. 
 
 Armlet. A small arm of the sea. 
 
 Armogan. An old term for good season or 
 opportunity for navigation, which if neglected 
 rendered valid a claim for demurrage. A Med 
 iterranean term for fine weather. 
 
 Armor. The term, as now generally accepted, 
 refers to metallic protection against the fire of 
 artillery, whether applied to ships or forts. The 
 metal of which armor has been heretofore com 
 posed was iron; but the development in the 
 power of artillery has rendered it necessary to 
 seek other metals which would be able to offer a 
 more effective resistance to the impact of heavy 
 shot with high velocities. Steel has been much ex 
 perimented with, and has been partially adopted, 
 and later experiments lead to the supposition 
 that a combination of iron and steel, called 
 " compound armor," will ultimately be in gen 
 eral use. A description of this combination of 
 metals will be found under its proper heading. 
 The thickness of armor must of course depend 
 upon the service on which a ship is to be em 
 ployed and upon her floating capacity ; and, in 
 case of forts, upon the depth of water in the 
 approaching channels, which will determine the 
 character of vessel that is likely to be able to 
 approach within range ; but interesting questions 
 have arisen as to the manner in which armor 
 should be applied, whether it should be left alto 
 gether unsupported, or whether partially sup- 
 
ARMOR 
 
 41 
 
 ARMOR 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 ported, or whether assisted by direct support 
 from the structure to which it is attached, or 
 whether elastic or solid backing is the most ad 
 vantageous. We will review some of these cases 
 which have constituted the points of discussion 
 on armor. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents the armor-plate as applied to 
 the "Warrior," the first regular ironclad vessel 
 of modern times. In this case the armor is 4 
 inches thick, with a wood backing of 18 inches 
 and a skin-plating of inch. The object of the 
 iron plate is to offer a strong ob 
 stacle to the blow of the projectile, 
 expending, unaided, its whole 
 power of resistance in the effort. 
 So much of the energy of the 
 projectile as can be absorbed by 
 the strength of the plate neutra 
 lizes that amount of the damage 
 that might have been done to the 
 vessel, and if the plate is des 
 troyed it has done its duty in af 
 fording this much protection. 
 The wood backing acts as a cushion to save the 
 hull of the vessel from receiving any damage 
 from the shock of the impact. This is the 
 most simple means of applying armor. It is, 
 in the words of an eminent constructor, " a good 
 thickness of wood with a patch of iron on the 
 outside," which he declared to be "the best 
 armor in the world for ships." 
 
 An improvement on this plan of applying 
 armor was suggested by Mr. Chalmers, of Eng 
 land, who, observing the easy manner in which 
 the wood backing yielded to the force of impact, 
 conceived the idea of reinforcing it so as to pre 
 vent it from being so readily deranged. His 
 idea was that, as the force of impact was con 
 fined to one point, and as the wood backing nat 
 urally yielded in all directions to the pressure 
 applied, an increased element of support could 
 be supplied to the wood backing if this tendency 
 could be controlled. Accordingly, he proposed 
 that thin plates of iron should be sandwiched in, 
 horizontally, between the layers of wood back 
 ing, so as to control in a measure the yielding 
 of the wood in a vertical direction. These plates 
 of iron were loosely disposed between the layers 
 of wood, being attached neither to the skin- 
 plating nor to the armor. On this principle there 
 was constructed in England a Chalmers target, 
 which was fired at with very good results favor 
 ing the idea, but it was never officially adopted 
 by the English government. Fig. 2 represents 
 the " Warrior" armor with the Chalmers plates, 
 as proposed by the inventor. 
 
 About the time of the experiments with the 
 Chalmers target, the chief con 
 structor of the English admi 
 ralty introduced into the con 
 struction of vessels, intended 
 for ironclads, a horizontal iron 
 girder on the outside of the 
 hulls, which was riveted to the 
 side by angle-irons, and which 
 gave much additional rigidity 
 to the hull. Fig. 3 represents 
 the armor of the " Bellero 
 phon," in which the horizontal 
 girder was introduced. 
 
 In comparing Figs. 2 and 3, it will be seen 
 that the object of the horizontal plate of the 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 Chalmers target is achieved in the backing of the 
 armor of the " Bellerophon," but with a differ 
 ence. In both instances the horizontal disposi 
 tion of the iron plate between the layers of the 
 wood backing satisfies the demand made by Mr. 
 Chalmers for the support of the wood backing, 
 but the proposition of Mr. Chalmers went no 
 farther than this. His idea was simply to rein 
 force the backing so as to enable it to afford a 
 more decided support to the armor; the object 
 was to prevent the derangement of the wood 
 backing, consequent upon impact at one point, 
 by obstructing the vertical yielding of the wood 
 away from the point of pressure. This effort 
 was confined solely to the backing. But, in the 
 " Bellerophon" armor, it will be seen that the 
 horizontal girder, which does the work of the 
 Chalmers plate between the layers of the wood 
 backing, is connected with the hull of the vessel, 
 and forms a part of the structure. This involves 
 another and a very important consideration, for 
 the shock of impact is thus carried to the hull 
 of the vessel, and the consideration of the sub 
 ject presents a very different aspect. A " thick 
 ness of wood with a patch of iron on the out 
 side," bolted to a ship s side, is simply an inde 
 pendent attachment, and if the armor is shattered 
 by the projectile, and the backing is pierced, all 
 the independent work that can be done by this 
 covering has been performed ; but if the inner 
 face of the armor rests against the edge of a hori 
 zontal iron plate or girder which is connected to 
 the hull, this plate acts as a strut behind a target, 
 and in supporting the armor it 
 receives the force of the blow, 
 which it communicates to the 
 hull. A point made in defense 
 of the use of the girder as a sup 
 port to the armor is, that the 
 force of the shock is not commu 
 nicated to one point alone of the 
 frame of the hull, but is dissem 
 inated along an extensive por 
 tion of the vessel on each side of 
 the point of impact. 
 
 Mr. John Hughes, of the late Millwall Iron- 
 Works, on the Thames, England, developed the 
 idea of support to the armor-plate by the intro 
 duction of a hollow stringer, which bears his 
 name, which was most successfully applied in 
 the celebrated Millwall shield, a target which 
 was fired at at Shoeburyness in 1868. The Mill- 
 wall shield exhibited very superior power of re 
 sistance to all other targets that were experi 
 mented on at that time. The experiments of 
 that year were made particularly interesting 
 from the fact that a Rodman 15-inch gun was 
 one of those that were used in the firing, and 
 the inferiority of the gun in capacity to pene 
 trate armor was made clearly perceptible. Fig. 
 4 represents the Hughes hollow girder or stringer, 
 which is placed horizontally and riveted to the 
 side of the vessel. 
 
 The hollow portion of the stringer is filled in 
 with oak. 
 
 On the closing of the Millwall works, Mr. 
 Hughes undertook the establishment of large 
 iron-works in Russia, under the patronage of 
 the government, and his hollow stringers were 
 adopted by that government and were applied 
 to the turreted vessel called the " Hercules" 
 that was building in St. Petersburg in 1871. 
 
 FJG. 3. 
 
ARMOR 
 
 42 
 
 ARMOR 
 
 The name of this vessel was afterwards changed 
 to "Peter the Great." The hollow stringers, 
 as applied to this vessel, were estimated to 
 be equal to two inches of iron in increasing 
 her defensive capacity. An objection has been 
 made to the use of the Hughes hollow stringer 
 on the ground that it gave too much solidity 
 to the backing, thereby neutralizing the advan 
 tage that was supposed to rest in the elasticity 
 afforded by the wood cushion ; but the Russian 
 authorities" assert that, under the violence of 
 the impact of a heavy projectile, there is a de- 
 
 JUT. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 cided amount of elasticity developed in the 
 stringer itself, which is quite sufficient to refute 
 the charge that the whole structure is rendered 
 rigid by the use of this device. In the case of 
 the "Peter the Great," the Hughes stringers 
 were not placed in positive contact with the 
 armor-plate, but were provided with a cushion 
 of lignum-vitse, about two inches thick, which 
 intervened between the outer face of the stringer 
 and the inner side of the plate ; this was consid 
 ered as a refinement in the details of applying 
 the stringer, which answered all objections to 
 its use. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents a method of reinforcing the 
 backing for armor which was adopted for the 
 "Colossus" and her class of monitors for the 
 United States navy, but the idea has not pro 
 gressed beyond its conception. 
 
 At the present time the Chalmers horizontal 
 plate, as applied by the English admiralty, con 
 nected by an angle-iron to the hull and encir 
 cling the vessel, may be considered as the most 
 generally adopted plan of reinforcing the armor 
 of ironclad ships. 
 
 In the case of forts, the general plan is to plate 
 with iron the stone-works 
 already constructed, and, at 
 Spithead, for example, the 
 same plan is carried out with 
 new fortifications ; but a no 
 table exception is made to 
 this rule by the Russians in 
 the new works which they 
 have established for the de 
 fense of St. Petersburg at 
 Cronstadt. A description 
 of the different systems of 
 armor used in these defenses will be the best cita 
 tion that can be made of such plans for defense 
 as have been considered worthy of being adopted. 
 On the south side of the channel the defenses 
 consist entirely of turrets, constructed on the 
 English plan of rotation as used in the English 
 turreted ironclads. The outside plating of these 
 turrets is 12 and 14 inches thick, and the hollow 
 stringers of Hughes constitute the backing. 
 
 On the northern side of the channel there are 
 erected five casemated batteries, the armor of 
 each differing from that of all the others. 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 Fig. 6 represents the system adopted for the 
 first one of these batteries. It consists of a 9- 
 inch iron plate, backed by 12 inches of teak, rest 
 ing against a 1-inch plate of iron, which is sup, 
 
 _J 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 ported by horizontal girders of iron, 12 inches 
 wide, riveted to an inner 1-inch skin, all of 
 which is backed by struts, which serve to divide 
 the interior space in the battery allotted to the 
 service of each. 
 
 Fig. 7 represents the 
 armor of the second bat 
 tery, which is constructed 
 on the same plan as that 
 of the first battery, with 
 the exception of the gird 
 ers and the inner skin, 
 the 1-inch plate behind 
 the wood backing form 
 ing the inner skin. In 
 this plan the wood back 
 ing is increased to 18 
 inches thickness. 
 
 Fig. 8 represents the armor of the third bat 
 tery, which is called the Lancaster armor. The 
 edges of the plates are tongued 
 and grooved, and are built up 
 one upon the other. A part of 
 each plate has a thickness of 14 
 inches, while the rest of the 
 same plate is 8 inches thick. 
 The inner side of this armor 
 presents a surface of horizontal 
 ribs, the exterior surface is 
 smooth, the inequality of the 
 thickness of each plate being 
 confined to the inner side. The 
 armor is supported behind by 
 iron uprights, having on one 
 surface projecting squares, which 
 enter into the recesses between the ribs of the 
 plates. These uprights are separated by inter 
 vals of 2 or 3 feet. The whole is backed by 
 struts. 
 
 Fig. 9 represents the fourth 
 battery with its armor. This 
 battery is built of granite blocks 
 of Finland stone, 10 feet thick. 
 This is covered by 2 inches of 
 teak, on which is placed the 
 armor, consisting of plates 9 
 inches in thickness. This con 
 struction not requiring the sup 
 port of struts, the battery is 
 quite open from one end to the 
 other, which gives the beautiful 
 stone an opportunity of showing to advantage. 
 
 Fig. 10 represents the fifth battery, which has 
 9 inches of armor on the exterior. Behind this 
 there are placed uprights of iron 6 inches square 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
AKMOK 
 
 43 
 
 ARRAY 
 
 placed G inches apart, the intervals being filled 
 with wood. Behind this is a wood backing con 
 sisting of 12 inches of teak. Behind this arc 
 placed the hollow stringers of Hughes tilled in 
 with wood. These stringers are JO inches in 
 width, the thickness 
 at the outer rectan 
 gular face is l inch, 
 and the spread of the 
 angle-irons forming 
 their base is 12 in 
 ches. The stringers 
 are thus 12 inches 
 apart. These are riv 
 eted by their angle- 
 iron base to the inner 
 skin of 1-inch iron. 
 
 In this combination of systems the Russian 
 authorities have adopted each in its complete 
 ness. Each invention has been taken as a whole, 
 and the result is a combination of many systems 
 without a complication of different ideas. 
 
 Propositions have been made to increase the 
 elasticity of the backing by the introduction of 
 hardened rubber, etc., but these plans have been 
 found rather to assist than to impede the pene 
 tration of projectiles. E. Simpson, Commodore 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Armor, Compound. Wrought iron and steel 
 have, each, advantages and disadvantages as 
 material for armor for vessels of war. Wrought 
 iron is tenacious, but does not offer sufficient re 
 sistance to the punching power of the projectile, 
 whereas steel offers great resistance to the punch 
 ing power, but is comparatively easily crumbled 
 or shattered by a succession of blows. 
 
 COMPOUND ARMOR is the result of an effort to 
 combine the good qualities of the two metals by 
 facing the iron armor with steel plates. The 
 steel prevents the penetration of the shot, and 
 the iron backing by its great tenacity prevents 
 the destruction of the steel by shattering. 
 
 The plates are welded together in the following 
 manner : The iron plate, raised to a red heat, is 
 placed in a form, and over it is poured molten 
 steel. The temperature of the molten steel being 
 higher than the fusing-point of iron, the surface 
 of the iron plate becomes partially fused, and a 
 complete union of the two metals is obtained. 
 
 By this process the weld is not confined to a 
 simple line as in an ordinary weld, but a third 
 metal or semi-steel is formed, varying in thick 
 ness from \ to f of an inch. By the formation 
 of this anomalous steel the two metals are joined 
 together inseparably, or, in other words, the iron 
 has run into the steel, and steel into the iron. 
 Experiments to tear the two asunder have re 
 sulted in the tearing of the iron while the weld 
 remained intact. 
 
 The compound armor-plates thus obtained may 
 be rolled to any thickness. 
 
 By the invention of compound armor it would 
 seem that the defense is once more placed on an 
 equality with the attack. H. T. Stockton, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 Armor, Submarine. The water-tight dress of 
 a diver. See DIVING. 
 
 Armorer. A petty officer whose duty it is to 
 keep the small-arms in condition for service. 
 Formerly he was the blacksmith of the ship. 
 
 Armorer s Mate. The assistant of the ar 
 morer. 
 
 Armoric. The language of Brittany, Corn 
 wall, and Wales. The original signification was 
 maritime. 
 
 Armory. A place reserved for the storage of 
 small-arms. 
 
 Arm-rack. A frame, generally vertical, for 
 holding small-arms. 
 
 Arms. Weapons of offense and defense. 
 Arms and weapons both signify instruments of 
 offense and defense, but we say fire-arms, never 
 fire-weapons. Cannons, muskets, pistols, are 
 fire-arms; bows and arrows, clubs, stones, are 
 weapons. Instruments made on purpose to fight 
 witn are called arms, or weapons ; such as are 
 accidentally employed to fight with, weapons. 
 (Mech.) The two parts of a balance or other 
 lever on opposite sides of the fulcrum. 
 
 Armstrong, James, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 Shelby ville, Ky., January 17, 1794, died Charles- 
 town, Mass., August 27, 1868. Midshipman, 
 November 15, 1809; lieutenant, April 27, 1816; 
 commander, March 3, 1825; captain, September 
 8, 1841 ; commodore, July 16, 1866. Captured 
 in the "Frolic" in 1814 by the British frigate 
 "Orpheus," and kept a prisoner until March, 
 1815. Commanded the East India Squadron 
 1855-58, and in 1857 attacked and captured the 
 Barrier forts in the Canton River. Compelled 
 by a large rebel force to surrender the Pensacola 
 navy-yard, January 12, 1801. 
 
 Armstrong, Sir William George. Noted for 
 various mechanical inventions, and particularly 
 that of a gun of extraordinary power and pre 
 cision. Born at Newcastle, England, in 1810, 
 was articled to Mr. Armourer Donkin, an emi 
 nent solicitor in Newcastle, who, at the expira 
 tion of his time, made him a partner. About 
 1838, observing one day a little stream descend 
 ing along a height near Newcastle and driving 
 but a single mill, he thought to how much more 
 purpose it might be applied hydraulically, and 
 thus was led into a course of experimenting 
 which resulted in his producing a much improved 
 hydraulic engine. In 1845 he invented a hy 
 draulic crane, which has proved to be of eminent 
 utility in raising weights in harbors. Soon after 
 the invention of the gun which bears his name 
 an office was created for him, that of Chief En 
 gineer of Rifled Ordnance. For description of 
 Armstrong gun, see ORDNANCE. 
 
 Army. An armed force under regular mili 
 tary organization employed for national offense 
 or defense. An army may comprise the whole 
 military force employed by a state, or only a por 
 tion under a particular commander. A fleet is 
 sometimes called a naval army. 
 
 Armye. An early name for a fleet. 
 
 Arnot. A shrimp. 
 
 Arquebuse. A sort of hand-gun ; an old spe 
 cies of fire-arm resembling a musket, and sup 
 ported upon a forked rest when in use. 
 
 Arrack. A spirituous liquor manufactured in 
 the East Indies from various substances, but 
 chiefly from fermented rice arid the sap of the 
 cocoa palm. 
 
 Arraign. To call, or set as a prisoner, at the 
 bar of the court to answer to the matter charged 
 in an indictment or complaint. 
 
 Array. The order of battle. The whole body 
 of officers constituting a court-martial. 
 
 To ARRAY. To equip ; to arm for battle ; to 
 arrange in order of battle. 
 
ARREARS 
 
 44 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 Arrears. That which is behind in payment, 
 but supposes a part already paid. 
 
 Arrest. To suspend from duty, and restrain 
 from liberty, preparatory to a court-martial. 
 
 Arrow. A slender shaft to be shot from a 
 bow. It is generally armed at one end and 
 feathered at the other, though the natives of 
 Africa frequently feather the barbed end. 
 
 Arsenal. A manufactory or depository for 
 arms and all military equipments. 
 
 Artemon. The mainsail of ancient ships. 
 
 Articles. The express stipulations to which a 
 seaman binds himself when he joins a merchant 
 ship. 
 
 Articles for the Government of the United 
 States Navy. The Navy of the United States 
 shall be governed by the following Articles : 
 
 Article 1. The commanders of all fleets, squad 
 rons, naval stations, and vessels belonging to the 
 navy are required to show in themselves a good 
 example of virtue, honor, patriotism, and subor 
 dination ; to be vigilant in inspecting the con 
 duct of all persons who are placed under their 
 command ; to guard against and suppress all 
 dissolute and immoral practices, and to correct, 
 according to the laws and regulations of the 
 navy, all persons who are guilty of them ; and 
 any such commander who offends against this 
 article shall be punished as a court-martial may 
 direct. 
 
 Article 2. The commanders of vessels and 
 naval stations to which chaplains are attached 
 shall cause divine service to be performed on 
 Sunday, whenever the weather and other circum 
 stances allow it to be done ; and it is earnestly 
 recommended to all officers, seamen, and others 
 in the naval service diligently to attend at every 
 performance of the worship of Almighty God. 
 
 Article 3. Any irreverent or unbecoming be 
 havior during divine service shall be punished as 
 a general or summary court-martial may direct. 
 
 Article 4. The punishment of death, or such 
 other punishment as a court-martial may ad 
 judge, may be inflicted on any person in the 
 naval service 
 
 1. Who makes, or attempts to make, or unites 
 with any mutiny or mutinous assembly, or, 
 being witness to or present at any mutiny, does 
 not do his utmost to suppress it ; or, knowing of 
 any mutinous assembly or of any intended mu 
 tiny, does not immediately communicate his 
 knowledge to his superior or commanding officer ; 
 
 2. Or disobeys the lawful orders of his superior 
 officer ; 
 
 3. Or strikes orassaults, or attempts or threatens 
 to strike or assault his superior officer while in 
 the execution of the duties of his office ; 
 
 4. Or gives any intelligence to, or holds or 
 entertains any intercourse with, an enemy or 
 rebel, without leave from the President, the 
 Secretary of the Navy, the commander-iii-chief 
 of the fleet, the commander of the squadron, or, 
 in case of a vessel acting singly, from his com 
 manding officer ; 
 
 5. Or receives any message or letter from an 
 enemy or rebel, or, being aware of the unlawful 
 reception of such message or letter, fails to take 
 the earliest opportunity to inform his superior or 
 commanding officer thereof; 
 
 6. Or, in time of war, deserts or entices others 
 to desert ; 
 
 7. Or, in time of war, deserts or betrays his 
 
 trust, or entices or aids others to desert or betray 
 their trust ; 
 
 8. Or sleeps upon his watch ; 
 
 9. Or leaves his station before being regularly 
 relieved ; 
 
 10. Or intentionally or willfully suffers any 
 vessel of the navy to be stranded, or run upon 
 rocks or shoals, or improperly hazarded ; or ma 
 liciously or willfully injures any vessel of the 
 navy, or any part of her tackle, armament, or 
 equipment, whereby the safety of the vessel is 
 hazarded or the lives of the crew exposed to 
 danger ; 
 
 11. Or unlawfully sets on fire, or otherwise un 
 lawfully destroys, any public property not at the 
 time in possession of an enemy, pirate, or rebel ; 
 
 12. Or strikes or attempts to strike the flag to 
 an enemy or rebel, without proper authority, or, 
 when engaged in battle, treacherously yields or 
 pusillanimously cries for quarter ; 
 
 13. Or, in time of battle, displays cowardice, 
 negligence, or disaffection, or withdraws from 
 or keeps out of danger to which he should ex 
 pose himself; 
 
 14. Or, in time of battle, deserts his duty or 
 station, or entices others to do so ; 
 
 15. Or does not properly observe the orders of 
 his commanding officer, and use his utmost exer 
 tions to carry them into execution, when ordered 
 to prepare for or join in, or when actually en 
 gaged, in battle, or while in sight of an enemy ; 
 
 16. Or, being in command of a fleet, squadron, 
 or vessel acting singly, neglects, when an en 
 gagement is probable, or when an armed vessel 
 of an enemy or rebel is in sight, to prepare and 
 clear his ship or ships for action ; 
 
 17. Or does not, upon signal for battle, use his 
 utmost exei tions to join in battle ; 
 
 18. Or fails to encourage, in his own person, 
 his inferior officers and men to fight coura- 
 
 19. Or does not do his utmost to overtake and 
 capture or destroy any vessel which it is his duty 
 to encounter ; 
 
 20. Or does not afford all practicable relief and 
 assistance to vessels belonging to the United 
 States or their allies when engaged in battle. 
 
 Article 5. All persons who, in time of war, or 
 of rebellion against the supreme authority of the 
 United States, come or are found in the capacity 
 of spies, or who bring or deliver any seducing 
 letter or message from an enemy or rebel, or en 
 deavor to corrupt any person in the navy to be 
 tray his trust, shall suffer death, or such other 
 punishment as a court-martial may adjudge. 
 
 Article 6. If any person belonging to any pub 
 lic vessel of the United States commits the crime 
 of murder without the territorial jurisdiction 
 thereof, he may be tried by court-martial and 
 punished with death. 
 
 Article 7. A naval court-martial may adjudge 
 the punishment of imprisonment for life, or for a 
 stated term, at hard labor, in any case where it 
 is authorized to adjudge the punishment of 
 death ; and such sentences of imprisonment and 
 hard labor may be carried into execution in any 
 prison or penitentiary under the control of the 
 United States, or which the United States may 
 be allowed, by the legislature of any State, to 
 use ; and persons so imprisoned in the prison or 
 penitentiary of any State or Territory shall be 
 subject, in all respects, to the same discipline 
 
ARTICLES 
 
 45 
 
 AKTICLES 
 
 and treatment as convicts sentenced by the courts 
 of the State or Territory in which the same may 
 be situated. 
 
 Article 8. Such punishment as a court-martial 
 may adjudge may be inflicted on any person in 
 the navy 
 
 1. Who is guilty of profane swearing, false 
 hood, drunkenness, gambling, fraud, theft, or 
 any other scandalous conduct tending to the de 
 struction of good morals ; 
 
 2. Or is guilty of cruelty toward, or oppression 
 or maltreatment of, any person subject to his 
 orders ; 
 
 3. Or quarrels with, strikes, or assaults, or uses 
 provoking or reproachful words, gestures, or 
 menaces toward, any person in the navy ; 
 
 4. Or endeavors to foment quarrels between 
 other persons in the navy ; 
 
 5. Or sends or accepts a challenge to fight a 
 duel or acts as a second in a duel ; 
 
 6. Or treats his superior officer with contempt, 
 or is disrespectful to him in language or deport 
 ment, while in the execution of his office ; 
 
 7. Or joins in or abets any combination to 
 weaken the lawful authority of, or lessen the re 
 spect due to, his commanding officer ; 
 
 8. Or utters any seditious or mutinous words ; 
 
 9. Or is negligent or careless in obeying orders, 
 or culpably inefficient in the performance of 
 duty; 
 
 10. Or does not use his best exertions to pre 
 vent the unlawful destruction of public property 
 by others ; 
 
 11. Or, through inattention or negligence, suf 
 fers any vessel of the navy to be stranded, or run 
 upon a rock or shoal, or hazarded ; 
 
 12. Qr, when attached to any vessel appointed 
 as convoy to any merchant or other vessels, fails 
 diligently to perform his duty, or demands or 
 exacts any compensation for his services, or mal 
 treats the officers or crews of such merchant or 
 other vessels ; 
 
 13. Or takes, receives, or permits to be re 
 ceived, on board the vessel to which he is at 
 tached, any goods or merchandise, for freight, 
 sale, or traffic, except gold, silver, or jewels, 
 for freight or safe-keeping ; or demands or re 
 ceives any compensation for the receipt or trans 
 portation of any other article than gold, silver, 
 or jewels, without authority from the President 
 or Secretary of the Navy ; 
 
 14. Or knowingly makes or signs, or aids, abets, 
 directs, or procures the making or signing of, 
 any false muster ; 
 
 15. Or wastes any ammunition, provisions, or 
 other public property ; or, having power to pre 
 vent it, knowingly permits such waste ; 
 
 16. Or, when on shore, plunders, abuses, or 
 maltreats any inhabitant, or injures his property 
 in any way ; 
 
 17. Or refuses, or fails to use, his utmost exer 
 tions to detect, apprehend, and bring to punish 
 ment all offenders, or to aid all persons appointed 
 for that purpose ; 
 
 18. Or, when rated or acting as master-at- 
 arms, refuses to receive such prisoners as may be 
 committed to his charge, or, having received 
 them, suffers them to escape, or dismisses them 
 without orders from the proper authority ; 
 
 19. Or is absent from his station or duty with 
 out leave, or after his leave has expired ; 
 
 20. Or violates or refuses obedience to any law 
 
 ful general order or regulation issued by the 
 Secretary of the Navy ; 
 
 21. Or, in time of peace, deserts, or attempts to 
 desert, or aids and entices others to desert ; 
 
 22. Or receives or entertains any deserter from 
 any other vessel of the navy, knowing him to be 
 such, and does not, with all convenient speed, 
 give notice of such deserter to the commander of 
 the vessel to which he belongs, or to the com- 
 mander-in-chief, or to the commander of the 
 squadron. 
 
 Article 9. Any officer who absents himself 
 from his command without leave may, by the 
 sentence of a court-martial, be reduced to the 
 rating of an ordinary seaman. 
 
 Article 10. Any commissioned officer of the 
 navy or marine corps who, having tendered his 
 resignation, quits his post or proper duties with 
 out leave, and with intent to remain permanently 
 absent therefrom, prior to due notice of the ac 
 ceptance of such resignation, shall be deemed 
 and punished as a deserter. 
 
 Article 11. No person in the naval service 
 shall procure stores or other articles or supplies 
 for, and dispose thereof to, the officers or enlisted 
 men on vessels of the navy, or at navy-yards or 
 naval stations, for his own account or benefit. 
 
 Article 12. No person connected with the 
 navy shall, under any pretense, import in a pub 
 lic vessel any article which is liable to the pay 
 ment of duty. 
 
 Article 13. Distilled spirits shall be admitted 
 on board of vessels of war only upon the order 
 and under the control of the medical officers of 
 such vessels, and to be used only for medical 
 purposes. 
 
 Article 14. Tine and imprisonment, or such 
 other punishment as a court-martial may ad 
 judge, shall be inflicted upon any person in the 
 naval service of the United States 
 
 Who presents or causes to be presented to any 
 person in the civil, military, or naval service 
 thereof, for approval or payment, any .claim 
 against the United States or any officer thereof, 
 knowing such claim to be false or fraudulent ; or 
 
 Who enters into any agreement or conspiracy 
 to defraud the United States by obtaining, or 
 aiding others to obtain, the allowance or pay 
 ment of any false or fraudulent claim ; or 
 
 Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding 
 others to obtain, the approval, allowance, or pay 
 ment of any claim against the United States, or 
 against any officer thereof, makes or uses, or pro 
 cures or advises the making or use of, any writ 
 ing or other paper, knowing the same to con 
 tain any false or fraudulent statement ; or 
 
 Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding 
 others to obtain, the approval, allowance, or 
 payment of any claim against the United States 
 or any officer thereof, makes or procures or ad 
 vises the making of any oath to any fact, or to 
 any writing or other paper, knowing such oath 
 to be false ; or 
 
 Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding 
 others to obtain, the approval, allowance, or pay 
 ment of any claim against the United States or 
 any officer thereof, forges or counterfeits, or 
 procures or advises the forging or counterfeiting 
 of any signature upon any writing or other paper, 
 or uses or procures or advises the use of any such 
 signature, knowing the same to be forged or 
 counterfeited ; or 
 
ARTICLES 
 
 46 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 Who, having charge, possession, custody, or 
 control of any money or other property of the 
 United States, furnished or intended for the 
 naval service thereof, knowingly delivers, or 
 causes to be delivered, to any person having au 
 thority to receive the same, any amount thereof 
 less than that for which he receives a certificate 
 or receipt ; or 
 
 Who, being authorized to make or deliver any 
 paper certifying the receipt of any money or 
 other property of the United States, furnished 
 or intended for the naval service thereof, makes 
 or delivers to any person such writing, without 
 having full knowledge of the truth of the state 
 ment therein contained, and with intent to de 
 fraud the United States ; or 
 
 Who steals, embezzles, knowingly and will 
 fully misappropriates, applies to his own use or 
 benefit, or wrongfully and knowingly sells or 
 disposes of any ordnance, arms, equipments, 
 ammunition, clothing, subsistence stores, money, 
 or other property of the United States, furnished 
 or intended for the military or naval service 
 thereof; or 
 
 Who knowingly purchases, or receives in 
 pledge for any obligation or indebtedness, from 
 any other person who is a part of, or employed in, 
 said service, any ordnance, arms, equipments, 
 ammunition, clothing, subsistence stores, or other 
 property of the United States, such other person 
 not having lawful right to sell or pledge the 
 same ; or 
 
 Who executes, attempts, or countenances any 
 other fraud against the United States. 
 
 And if any person, being guilty of any of the 
 offenses described in this article while in the 
 naval service, receives his discharge, or is dis 
 missed from the service, he shall continue to be 
 liable to be arrested and held for trial and sen 
 tence by a court-martial, in the same manner 
 and to the same extent as if he had not received 
 such discharge nor been dismissed. 
 
 Article 15. The commanding officer of every 
 vessel in the navy entitled to or claiming an 
 award of prize-money, shall, as soon as may be 
 practicable after the capture, transmit to the 
 Navy Department a complete list of the officers 
 and men of his vessel entitled to share, stating 
 therein the quality of each person rating ; and 
 every commanding officer who offends against 
 this article shall be punished as a court-martial 
 may direct. 
 
 Article 16. No person in the navy shall take 
 out of a prize, or vessel seized as a prize, any 
 money, plate, goods, or any part of her equip 
 ment, unless it be for the better preservation 
 thereof, or unless such articles are absolutely 
 needed for the use of any of the vessels or armed 
 forces of the United States, before the same are 
 adjudged lawful prize by a competent court ; but 
 the whole, without fraud, concealment, or em 
 bezzlement, shall be brought in, in order that 
 judgment may be passed thereon; and every 
 person who offends against this article shall be 
 punished as a court-martial may direct. 
 
 Article 17. If any person in the navy strips 
 off the clothes of, or pillages, or in any manner 
 maltreats any person taken on board a prize, he 
 shall suffer such punishment as a court-martial 
 may adjudge. 
 
 Article 18. If any officer or person in the 
 naval service employs any of the forces under 
 
 his command for the purpose of returning any 
 fugitive from service or labor, he shall be dis 
 missed from the service. 
 
 Article 19. Any officer who knowingly en 
 lists into the naval service any deserter from the 
 naval or military service of the United States, 
 or any insane or intoxicated person, or any minor 
 between the ages of 16 and 18 years without the 
 consent of his parents or guardian, or any minor 
 under the age of 16 years, shall be dishonorably 
 dismissed from the service of the United States. 
 
 Article 20. Every commanding officer of a 
 vessel in the navy shall obey the following rules : 
 
 1. Whenever a man enters on board, the com 
 manding officer shall cause an accurate entry to 
 be made in the ship s books, showing his name, 
 the date, place, and term of his enlistment, the 
 
 Cce or vessel from which he was received on 
 rd, his rating, his descriptive list, his age, 
 place of birth, and citizenship, with such re 
 marks as may be necessary. 
 
 2. He shall, before sailing, transmit to the 
 Secretary of the Navy a complete list of the 
 rated men under his command, showing the par 
 ticulars set forth in rule one, and a list of offi 
 cers and passengers, showing the date of their 
 entering. And "he shall cause similar lists to be 
 made out on the first day of every third month 
 and transmitted to the Secretary of the Navy as 
 opportunities occur, accounting therein for any 
 casualty which may have happened since the last 
 list. 
 
 3. He shall cause to be accurately minuted on 
 the ship s books the names of any persons dying 
 or deserting, and the times at which such death 
 or desertion occurs. 
 
 4. In case of the death of any officer, man, 
 or passenger on said vessel, he shall take care 
 that the paymaster secures all the property of the 
 deceased, for the benefit of his legal representa 
 tives. 
 
 5. He shall not receive on board any man 
 transferred from any other vessel or station to 
 him, unless such man is furnished with an ac 
 count, signed by the captain and paymaster of 
 the vessel or station from which he came, speci 
 fying the date of his entry on said vessel or at 
 said station, the period and term of his service, 
 the sums paid him, the balance due him, the 
 quality in which he was rated, and his descrip 
 tive list. 
 
 6. He shall, whenever officers or men are sent 
 from his ship, for whatever cause, take care that 
 each man is furnished with a complete statement 
 of his account, specifying the date of his enlist 
 ment, the period and term of his service, and his 
 descriptive list. Said account shall be signed by 
 the commanding officer and paymaster. 
 
 7. He shall cause frequent inspections to be 
 made into the condition of the provisions on his 
 ship, and use every precaution for their preserva 
 tion. 
 
 8. He shall frequently consult with the sur 
 geon in regard to the sanitary condition of his 
 crew, and shall use all proper means to preserve 
 their health. And he shall cause a convenient 
 place to be set apart for sick or disabled men, to 
 which he shall have them removed, with their 
 hammocks and bedding, when the surgeon so 
 advises, and shall direct that some of the crew 
 attend them and keep the place clean. 
 
 9. He shall attend in person, or appoint a 
 
AKTICLES 
 
 AKTICLES 
 
 proper officer to attend, when his crew is finally 
 paid off, to see that justice is done to the men 
 and to the United States in the settlement of the 
 accounts. 
 
 10. He shall cause the articles for the govern 
 ment of the navy to be hung up in some public 
 part of the ship, and read once a month to his 
 ship s company. 
 
 Every commanding officer who offends against 
 the provisions of this article shall be punished as 
 a court-martial may direct. 
 
 Article 21. When the crew of any vessel of 
 the United States are separated from their vessel 
 by means of her wreck, loss, or destruction, all 
 the command and authority given to. the officers 
 of such vessel shall remain in full force until 
 such ship s company shall be regularly dis 
 charged from or ordered again into service, or 
 until a court-martial or court of inquiry shall be 
 held to inquire into the loss of said vessel. And 
 if any officer or man, after such wreck, loss, or 
 destruction, acts contrary to the discipline of the 
 navy, he shall be punished as a court-martial 
 may direct. 
 
 Article 22. All offenses committed by persons 
 belonging to the navy which are not specified in 
 the foregoing articles shall be punished as a 
 court-martial may direct. 
 
 Article 23. All offenses committed by persons 
 belonging to the navy while on shore shall be 
 punished in the same manner as if they had been 
 committed at sea. 
 
 Article 24. No commander of a vessel shall 
 inflict upon a commissioned or warrant officer 
 any other punishment than private reprimand, 
 suspension from duty, arrest, or confinement, 
 and such suspension, arrest, or confinement shall 
 not continue longer than ten days, unless a fur 
 ther period is necessary to bring the offender to 
 trial by a court-martial ; nor shall he inflict, or 
 cause to be inflicted, upon any petty officer, or 
 person of inferior rating, or marine, for a single 
 offense, or at any one time, any other than one 
 of the following punishments, namely : 
 
 1. Eeduction of any rating established by 
 himself. 
 
 2. Confinement, with or without irons, single 
 or double, not exceeding ten days, unless further 
 confinement be necessary, in the case of a pris 
 oner to be tried by court-martial. 
 
 3. Solitary confinement, on bread and water, 
 not exceeding five days. 
 
 4. Solitary confinement not exceeding seven 
 days. 
 
 5. Deprivation of liberty on shore. 
 
 6. Extra duties. 
 
 No other punishment shall be permitted on 
 board of vessels belonging to the navy, except 
 by sentence of a general or summary court- 
 martial. All punishments inflicted by the com 
 mander, or by his order, except reprimands, shall 
 be fully entered upon the ship s log. 
 
 Article 25. No officer who may command by 
 accident, or in the absence of the commanding 
 officer, except when such commanding officer is 
 absent for a time by leave, shall inflict any other 
 punishment than confinement. 
 
 Article 26. Summary courts-martial may be 
 ordered upon petty officers and persons of in 
 ferior ratings by the commander of any vessel, 
 or by the commandant of any navy-yard, naval 
 station, or marine barracks to which they be 
 
 long, for the trial of offenses which such officer 
 may deem deserving of greater punishment than 
 such commander or commandant is authorized 
 to inflict, but not sufficient to require trial by a 
 general court-martial. 
 
 Article 27. A summary court-martial shall 
 consist of three officers not below the rank of 
 ensign, as members, and of a recorder. The 
 commander of a ship may order any officer under 
 his command to act as such recorder. 
 
 Article 28. Before proceeding to trial the mem 
 bers of a summary court-martial shall take the fol 
 lowing oath or affirmation, which shall be admin 
 istered by the recorder: "I, A B, do swear (or 
 affirm) that I will well and truly try, without 
 prejudice or partiality, the case now depending, 
 according to the evidence which shall be adduced, 
 the laws for the government of the navy, and 
 my own conscience." After which the recorder 
 of the court shall take the following oath or af 
 firmation, which shall be administered by the 
 senior member of the court : " I, A B, do swear 
 (or affirm) that I will keep a true record of the 
 evidence which shall be given before this court 
 and of the proceedings thereof." 
 
 Article 29. All testimony before a summary 
 court-martial shall be given orally, upon oath 
 or affirmation, administered by the senior mem 
 ber of the court. 
 
 Article 30. Summary courts-martial may sen 
 tence petty officers and persons of inferior ratings 
 to any one of the followingpunishments, namely : 
 
 1. Discharge from the service with bad-con 
 duct discharge; but the sentence shall not be 
 carried into effect in a foreign country ; 
 
 2. Solitary confinement, not exceeding thirty 
 days, in irons, single or double, on bread and 
 water, or on diminished rations ; 
 
 3. Solitary confinement, in irons, single or 
 double, not exceeding thirty days ; 
 
 4. Solitary confinement not exceeding thirty 
 days ; 
 
 5. Confinement not exceeding two months ; 
 
 6. Reduction to next inferior rating ; 
 
 7. Deprivation of liberty on shore on foreign 
 station ; 
 
 8. Extra police duties, and loss of pay, not to 
 exceed three months, may be added to any of the 
 above-mentioned punishments. 
 
 Article 31. A summary court-martial may 
 disrate any rated person for incompetency. 
 
 Article 32. No sentence of a summary court- 
 martial shall be carried into execution until the 
 proceedings and sentence have been approved by 
 the officer ordering the court and by the corn- 
 man der-in-chief, or, in his absence, by the senior 
 officer present. And no sentence of such court 
 which involves loss of pay shall be carried into 
 execution until the proceedings arid sentence 
 have been approved by the Secretary of the 
 Navy. 
 
 Article 33. The officer ordering a summary 
 court-martial shall have power to remit, in part, 
 or altogether, but not to commute, the sentence 
 of the court. And it shall be his duty either to 
 remit any part or the whole of any sentence the 
 execution of which would, in the opinion of the 
 surgeon or senior medical officer on board, given 
 in writing, produce serious injury to the health 
 of the person sentenced ; or to submit the case 
 again, without delay, to the same or to another 
 summary court-martial, which shall have power, 
 
AKTICLES 
 
 48 
 
 AETICLES 
 
 upon the testimony already taken, to remit the 
 former punishment, and to assign some other of 
 the authorized punishments in the place thereof. 
 
 Article 34. The proceedings of summary 
 courts-martial shall be conducted with as much 
 conciseness and precision as may be consistent 
 with the ends of justice, and under such forms 
 and rules as may be prescribed by the Secretary 
 of the Navy, with the approval of the President ; 
 and all such proceedings shall be transmitted, in 
 the usual mode, to the Navy Department. 
 
 Article 35. Any punishment which a sum 
 mary court-martial is authorized to inflict may 
 be inflicted by a general court-martial. 
 
 Article 36. No oflicer shall be dismissed from 
 the naval service except by the order of the Pres 
 ident or by sentence of a general court-martial ; 
 and in time of peace no officer shall be dismissed 
 except in pursuance of the sentence of a general 
 court-martial or in mitigation thereof 
 
 Article 37. When any officer, dismissed by or 
 der of the President since 3d March, 1865, makes, 
 in writing, an application for trial, setting forth, 
 under oath, that he has been wrongfully dis 
 missed, the President shall, as soon as the neces 
 sities of the service may permit, convene a court- 
 martial to try such officer on the charges on 
 which he shall have been dismissed. And if 
 such court-martial shall not be convened within 
 six months from the presentation of such appli 
 cation for trial, or if such court, being convened, 
 shall not award dismissal or death as the punish 
 ment of such officer, the order of dismissal by 
 the President shall be void. 
 
 Article 38. General courts-martial may be con 
 vened by the President, the Secretary of the 
 Navy, or the commander-in-chief of a fleet or 
 squadron ; but no commander of a fleet or squad 
 ron in the waters of the United States shall con 
 vene such court without express authority from 
 the President. 
 
 Article 39. A general court-martial shall con 
 sist of not more than thirteen nor less than five 
 commissioned officers as members ; and as many 
 officers, not exceeding thirteen, as can be con 
 vened without injury to the service, shall be 
 summoned on every such court. But in no case, 
 where it can be avoided without injury to the 
 service, shall more than one-half, exclusive of 
 the president, be junior to the officer to be tried. 
 The senior officer shall always preside, and the 
 others shall take place according to their rank. 
 
 Article 40. The president of the general court- 
 martial shall administer the following oath or 
 affirmation to the judge-advocate or person offi 
 ciating as such : 
 
 " I, A B, do swear (or affirm) that I will keep 
 a true record of the evidence given to and the 
 proceedings of this court ; that I will not divulge 
 or by any means disclose the sentence of the 
 court until it shall have been approved by the 
 proper authority ; and that I will not at any time 
 divulge or disclose the vote or opinion of any 
 particular member of the court, unless required 
 so to do before a court of justice in due course of 
 law." 
 
 This oath or affirmation being duly adminis 
 tered, each member of the court, before proceed 
 ing to trial, shall take the following oath or af 
 firmation, which shall be administered by the 
 judge-advocate or person officiating as such : 
 
 u I, A B, do swear (or affirm) that I will truly 
 
 try, without prejudice or partiality, the case now 
 depending, according to the evidence which shall 
 come before the court, the rules for the govern 
 ment of the navy, and my own conscience ; that 
 I will not by any means divulge or disclose the 
 sentence of the court until it shall have been ap 
 proved by the proper authority ; and that I will 
 not at anytime divulge or disclose the. vote or 
 opinion of any particular member of the court, 
 unless required so to do before a court of justice 
 in due course of law." 
 
 Article 41. An oath or affirmation in the fol 
 lowing form shall be administered to all wit 
 nesses, before any court-martial, by the president 
 thereof: 
 
 u You do solemnly swear (or affirm) that the 
 evidence you shall give in tne case now before 
 this court shall be the truth, the whole truth, and 
 nothing but the truth, and that you will state 
 everything within your knowledge in relation to 
 the charges : so help you God ; (or, this you do 
 under the pains and penalties of perjury. )" 
 
 Article 42. "Whenever any person refuses to 
 give his evidence or to give it in the manner pro 
 vided by these articles, or prevaricates, or be 
 haves with Contempt to the court, it shall be 
 lawful for the court to imprison him for any time 
 not exceeding two months. 
 
 Article 43. The person accused shall be fur 
 nished with a true copy of the charges, with the 
 specifications, at the time he is put under arrest ; 
 and no other charges than those so furnished 
 shall be urged against him at the trial, unless it 
 shall appear to the court that intelligence of such 
 other charge had not reached the officer ordering 
 the court when the accused was put under ar 
 rest, or that some witness material to the support 
 of such charge was at that time absent and can 
 be produced at the trial ; in which case reason 
 able time shall be given to the accused to make 
 his defense against such new charge. 
 
 Article 44. Every officer who is arrested for 
 trial shall deliver up his sword to his command 
 ing officer, and confine himself to the limits as 
 signed him, on pain of dismissal from the ser 
 vice. 
 
 Article 45. "When the proceedings of any 
 general court-martial have commenced, they 
 shall not be suspended or delayed on account of 
 the absence of any of the members, provided 
 five or more are assembled ; but the court is en 
 joined to sit from day to day, Sundays excepted, 
 until sentence is given, unless temporarily ad 
 journed by the authority which convened it. 
 
 Article 46. No member of a general court- 
 martial shall, after the proceedings are begun, 
 absent himself therefrom, except in case of sick 
 ness, or of an order to go on duty from a superior 
 officer, on pain of being cashiered. 
 
 Article 47. Whenever any member of a court- 
 martial, from any legal cause, is absent from 
 the court after the commencement of a case, all 
 the witnesses who have been examined during 
 his absence must, when he is ready to resume his 
 seat, be recalled by the court, and the recorded 
 testimony of each witness so examined must be 
 read over to him, and such witness must ac 
 knowledge the same to be correct, and be subject 
 to such further examination as the said member 
 may require. Without a compliance with this 
 rule, and an entry thereof upon the record, a 
 member who shall have been absent during the 
 
ARTICLES 
 
 49 
 
 ARTIFICIAL 
 
 examination of a witness shall not be allowed to 
 sit again in that particular case. 
 
 Article 48. Whenever a court-martial sen 
 tences an officer to be suspended, it may suspend 
 his pay and emoluments for the whole or any 
 part of the time of his suspension. 
 
 Article 49. In no case shall punishment by 
 flogging, or by branding, marking, or tattooing 
 on the body be adjudged by any court-martial 
 or be inflicted upon any person in the navy. 
 
 Article 50. No person shall be sentenced by a 
 court-martial to suffer death, except by the con 
 currence of two-thirds of the members present, 
 and in the cases where such punishment is ex 
 pressly provided in these articles. All other 
 sentences may be determined by a majority of 
 votes. 
 
 Article 51. It shall be the duty of a court- 
 martial, in all cases of conviction, to adjudge a 
 punishment adequate to the nature of the offense ; 
 but the members thereof may recommend the 
 person convicted as deserving of clemency, and 
 state on the record their reasons for so doing. 
 
 Article 52. The judgment of every court-mar 
 tial shall be authenticated by the signature of the 
 president, and of every member who may be 
 present when said judgment is pronounced, and 
 also of the judge-advocate. 
 
 Article 53. No sentence of a court-martial, 
 extending to the loss of life or to the dismissal 
 of a commissioned or warrant officer, shall be 
 carried into execution until confirmed by the 
 President. All other sentences of general court- 
 martial may be carried into execution on con 
 firmation of the commander of the fleet or officer 
 ordering the court. 
 
 Article 54. Every officer who is authorized to 
 convene a general court-martial shall have power, 
 on revision of its proceedings, to remit or miti 
 gate, but not to commute, the sentence of any 
 such court which he is authorized to approve and 
 confirm. 
 
 Article 55. Courts of inquiry may be ordered 
 by the President, the Secretary of the Navy, or 
 the commander of a fleet or squadron. 
 
 Article 56. A court of inquiry shall consist of 
 not more than three commissioned officers as 
 members, and of a judge-advocate, or person 
 officiating as such. 
 
 Article 57. Courts of inquiry shall have power 
 to summon witnesses, administer oaths, and pun 
 ish contempts in the same manner as courts- 
 martial ; but they shall only state facts, and 
 shall not give their opinion, unless expressly re 
 quired so to do in the order for convening. 
 
 Article 58. The judge-advocate, or person 
 officiating as such, shalfadminister to the mem 
 bers the following oath or affirmation : " You do 
 swear (or affirm) well and truly to examine and 
 inquire, according to the evidence, into the mat 
 ter now before you, without partiality." After 
 which the president shall administer to the judge- 
 advocate, or person officiating as such, the fol 
 lowing oath or affirmation : u You do swear (or 
 affirm) truly to record the proceedings of this 
 court, and the evidence to be given in the case 
 in hearing." 
 
 Article 59. The party whose conduct shall be 
 the subject of inquiry, or his attorney, shall have 
 the right to cross-examine all the witnesses. 
 
 Article 60. The proceedings of courts of in 
 quiry shall be authenticated by the signature of 
 
 the president of the court and of the judge-ad 
 vocate, and shall, in all cases not capital, nor ex 
 tending to the dismissal of a commissioned or 
 warrant officer, be evidence before a court-mar 
 tial, provided oral testimony cannot be obtained. 
 
 Artificer. One who works by hand in wood 
 or metal. 
 
 Artificial. Made by art ; not genuine. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL GLOBE. A spherical representa 
 tion of the earth or the heavens. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL SINES, TANGENTS, ETC. The 
 logarithms of the natural sines, tangents, etc. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL NUMBERS. Logarithms. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LINES. Lines on a sector or 
 scale, so contrived as to represent logarithmic 
 signs and tangents, which, by the help of the 
 line of numbers, solve, with tolerable exactness, 
 problems in trigonometry and navigation. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL EYE. An eye worked in the 
 end of a rope. It is neater but not so strong as 
 a spliced eye. 
 
 Artificial Horizon. A reflector whose surface 
 is perfectly horizontal, used for observing alti 
 tudes. Artificial horizons are of two kinds, 
 those for use on shore, and those for use on board 
 ship. 
 
 The most usual form of the shore artificial 
 horizon is a rectangular trough of quicksilver or 
 other fluid. Quicksilver is the fluid most conve 
 nient and the best adapted for obtaining a surface 
 which shall quickly subside after being disturbed. 
 No altitude can be observed which is greater 
 than half the range of the instrument ; thus, 
 with a sextant no altitude above 60 can be ob 
 served. For altitudes less than 15 the observa 
 tion is generally impracticable. One advantage 
 of the artificial horizon is, that when the angle 
 shown by the instrument is halved to obtain the 
 angle of elevation, all errors of observation are 
 halved at the same time. There is no correction 
 for "dip." The instrument used for observing 
 is sometimes fixed upon a small pillar. In this 
 artificial horizon an essential condition is the 
 parallelism of the faces of plate-glass forming 
 the roof. The effects of refraction may be prac 
 tically eliminated by these plates being made 
 circular disks which admit of being turned in 
 their own plane. One set of observations hav 
 ing been taken, the plates are turned through 
 180 and a new set taken, the two being used in 
 combination ; or with a common roof the error 
 may be practically eliminated by reversing it. A 
 small mirror of polished metal or of darkened 
 plate-glass is sometimes used as an artificial 
 horizon, its horizontally being ascertained by 
 means of a spirit-level placed upon it, and the 
 adjustment effected by means of screws which 
 form its stand. Such an instrument, though 
 convenient and portable, does not give satis 
 factory results. 
 
 At sea the celestial bodies are sometimes dis 
 tinctly visible when the horizon is enveloped in 
 mist ; the sea-horizon is often disturbed by haze 
 or fog, and by moonlight is often uncertain. 
 Hence the attempts to invent an artificial horizon 
 adapted for use on board ship. Mr. Serson sug 
 gested to apply the principle upon which a top, 
 when spinning, tends to preserve a vertical 
 position. A pivot carrying a mirror thus ro 
 tating would theoretically give the horizontal 
 reflector required ; but it failed in practice. Ad 
 miral Beechey s contrivance is more successful. 
 
ARTILLERY 
 
 50 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 The telescope of the sextant is fitted with a bal 
 ance carrying a glass vane, one half of which is 
 colored blue to represent the sea-horizon, and to 
 which the celestial object is brought down. The 
 amount of oscillation above and below the level 
 is indicated by divisions on the glass, the values 
 of which are determined by the maker. Other 
 constructions, where the horizon is attached to 
 the sextant, have been tried with more or less 
 success. 
 
 Artillery. Formerly synonymous with arch 
 ery, but now comprehends everything relating 
 to guns and to the service of guns. 
 
 Arx. A fort or castle. 
 
 Ascii. The inhabitants of the torrid zone, 
 who, being twice a year under a vertical sun, 
 have no shadow. 
 
 Ashes. The earthy part of combustible sub 
 stances remaining after combustion. 
 
 ASH-PIT. The space underneath the grate- 
 bars. 
 
 ASH-CHUTE. A receptacle into which ashes 
 are dumped to be conve} T ed overboard. 
 
 ASH-WHIP. A whip for hoisting ashes out of 
 the fire-room. 
 
 Ashlar. Blocks of stone masonry fronting 
 docks and piers. 
 
 Ashore. On land, opposed to aboard ; when 
 applied to a ship, means that she is aground. 
 
 Asia. See CONTINENTS. 
 
 Asiento. A contract between the king of 
 Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Span 
 ish dominions in America with negro slaves. It 
 began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea 
 Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it 
 was transferred to the English, who were to fur 
 nish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. 
 This contract was given up to Spain at the peace 
 in 1748. 
 
 Askew. Awry ; aslant. 
 
 Aslant. Obliquely. 
 
 SAILING ASLANT. Beating to windward. 
 
 Asleep. A sail filled with just enough wind 
 for swelling or bellying out is said to be asleep. 
 
 Aspect. The general appearance of the land 
 from seaward. 
 
 Aspic. An ancient 12-pounder about 11 feet 
 long. 
 
 Aspinwall. A seaport of the United States 
 of Columbia, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus 
 of Panama. The harbor has a depth of water 
 sufficient for the largest ships, and is very spa 
 cious. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Aspirant de Marine. (Fr.) Midshipman. 
 
 Assail. To attack with violence or in a hos 
 tile manner. 
 
 Assault. A hostile attack. An effort to gain 
 possession of a fortification by main force. 
 
 Assegai. A spear, or javelin used by the 
 Zulus. 
 
 Asseguay. A dagger used in the Levant. 
 
 Assembly. A beat of the drum or call on the 
 bugle, as a signal to troops to assemble. 
 
 Assilag. A name given in the Hebrides to a 
 small bird with a black bill. The stormy petrel. 
 
 Assistant. See SURGEON, PAYMASTER, EN 
 GINEER. 
 
 Assurance. Insurance. A con-tract to pay 
 a certain sum on the occasion of a certain event ; 
 as, loss or death. 
 
 Assurgent. A heraldic term for a man or 
 beast rising out of the sea. 
 
 A-starboard. The situation of the helm when 
 the tiller is borne over to the starboard side of 
 the ship. 
 
 HARD A-STARBOARD. The order to put the 
 helm over to the extreme limit. 
 
 Astatic Needle. See NEEDLE. 
 
 A-stay. The anchor is said to be a-stay when 
 the cable forms an acute angle with the surface 
 of the water. A long stay signifies that the cable 
 forms a line parallel with the main-stay, and a 
 short stay means that it is parallel with the fore- 
 stay. 
 
 Asteria. A genus of radiated marine ani 
 mals ; the star-fish. 
 
 Asterism. A constellation ; a group of stars. 
 
 Astern. Any distance behind, a vessel in the 
 direction of the stern. 
 
 To DROP ASTERN. To be left behind. 
 
 To BE ASTERN OF THE RECKONING. To be 
 behind the position determined by logging. 
 
 Asteioid. The name which Herschel proposed 
 to give the minor planets which have been dis 
 covered between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. 
 The first one was discovered in 1801, but since 
 that time over 80 have been added to the number. 
 The largest one is but 300 miles in diameter. 
 They closely resemble small stars, and can only 
 be distinguished from them by their motion. 
 
 Astragal. Mouldings on old cannon. 
 
 Astral. Relating to the stars. 
 
 Astrolabe. The armillary sphere. 
 
 A sea-astrolabe is a brass ring with a mov 
 able arm, for observing altitudes of stars and 
 planets. 
 
 Astrology. Formerly synonymous with as 
 tronomy ; subsequently, the art of foretelling 
 events by the positions and aspects of the stars. 
 Judicial astrology was invented by the Chal- 
 dseans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyp 
 tians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
 vogue in France in the time of Catherine de 
 Medicis, 1533. The early history of astrology 
 in England is very little known : Bede was ad 
 dicted to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. 
 Cecil, Lord Burlcigh, calculated the nativity of 
 Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, 
 were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer 
 and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was 
 the acme of astrology in England. Sir Walter 
 Scott has made ample use of Sir William Lilly, 
 the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period ; 
 and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by 
 Charles I. respecting his projected escape from 
 Carisbrook Castle in" 1647. 
 
 Astronomical Clock. A pendulum clock 
 regulated to sidereal time. The error is its dif 
 ference from sidereal time, and the rate is the 
 daily change of error. 
 
 The Astronomical Day begins at noon, and the 
 hours are numbered from one to twenty-four. 
 
 Astronomicals. Sexagesimal fractions. 
 
 Astronomy. (Gr. aster, a star, any luminary 
 body; nomos, a law.) The science which treats 
 of the heavenly bodies. It is generally divided 
 into Spherical Astronomy, which treats of the 
 appearances, magnitudes, motions, and distances 
 of the heavenly bodies ; and Physical Astronomy , 
 which applies the principles of mechanics to ex 
 plain the motions of the heavenly bodies and 
 the laws by which they are governed. That 
 portion of spherical astronomy which is applied 
 to purposes of navigation is called Nautical 
 
ASTRONOMY 
 
 51 
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 Astronomy. See SUN, PLANETS, ASTEROID, 
 STARS, COMETS, ECLIPSES, etc. 
 
 The earliest astronomical observations were 
 made at Babylon, it is said, about 2234 B.C. The 
 study was much advanced in Chaldaea under 
 Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about 
 1100 B.C., some say centuries before. 
 
 Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and re 
 corded by Ptolemy, about 720 B.C. 
 
 Spherical form of the earth and the true cause 
 of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, about 600 B.C. 
 
 Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught 
 the doctrine of celestial motions and believed 
 in the plurality of habitable worlds, died about 
 470 B.C. 
 
 Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle, 433 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Treatises of Aristotle " concerning the heav 
 ens," and of Autolycus "on the motion of the 
 sphere" (earliest extant works on astronomy), 
 about 350 B.C. 
 
 Aratus writes a poem on astronomy about 281 
 B.C. 
 
 Archimedes observes solstices, etc., about 212 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, 
 determines mean motion of sun and moon ; dis 
 covers precession of equinoxes, etc., about 160-125 
 B.C. 
 
 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and 
 the places and distances of the planets discovered 
 by Ptolemy, 139-161 A.D. 
 
 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the 
 Arabs about 760 A.D. ; brought into Europe about 
 1200 A.D. 
 
 Clocks first used in astronomy about 1500 A.D. 
 
 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary 
 bodies revived by Copernicus, founder of modern 
 astronomy; his "Revolution of the Heavenly 
 Bodies" published 1543 A.D. 
 
 Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet 
 adheres to the Ptolemaic system, about 1582 A.D. 
 
 True laws of the planetary motions announced 
 by Kepler ; 1st and 2d, 1609 A.D ; 3d, 1618 A.D. 
 
 Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and dis 
 covers Jupiter s satellites, etc., 8th January, 
 1610 A.D. 
 
 Various forms of telescopes and other instru 
 ments used in astronomy invented, 1608-40 A.D. 
 
 Cartesian system published by Des Cartes, 
 1637 A.D. 
 
 The transit of Venus over the sun s disk first 
 observed by Horrocks, 24th November, 1639 A.D 
 
 Cassini draws his meridian line after Dante, 
 1655 A.D. 
 
 The aberration of the light of the fixed stars 
 discovered by Horrebow, 1659 A.D. 
 
 Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn s 
 ring, 1654 A.D. 
 
 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope, 1663 A.D. 
 
 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, 
 Langrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, etc., about 1670 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, 
 and his observation of Jupiter s satellites, 1675 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved 
 by Halley, 1676 A.D. 
 
 Newton s " Principia" published, and the sys 
 tem as now taught demonstrated, 1687 A.D. 
 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed, 
 1688 A.D. 
 
 Cassini s chart of the full moon executed, 1692 
 A.D. 
 
 Satellites of Saturn, etc., discovered by Cassini, 
 1701 A.D. 
 
 Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 
 1759), 1705 A.D. 
 
 Flarnsteed s " Historia Ccelestis" published, 
 1725 A.D. 
 
 Aberration of the light of the stars discovered 
 and explained by Dr. Bradley, 1727 A.D. 
 
 John Harrison produces chronometers for de 
 termining the longitude, 1735 etseq., and obtains 
 the reward, 1764 A.D. 
 
 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange, 1780 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel, 
 13th March, 1781 A.D. 
 
 " Mecanique celeste," by La Place, published 
 1796 A.D. 
 
 Beer and Madler s map of the moon published, 
 1834 A.D. 
 
 Lord Rosse s telescope constructed, 1828-45 A.D. 
 
 The planet Neptune discovered, 23d Septem 
 ber, 1846 A.D. 
 
 Bond photographs the moon, 1851 A.D. 
 
 Hansen s table of the moon published at ex 
 pense of the British government, 1857 A.D. 
 
 Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy, 1861 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Astrum, or Astron. Sirius, the Dog-star. A 
 cluster of stars. 
 
 Aswim. Afloat. 
 
 Asylum. A place of refuge. 
 
 Asylum, Naval, of the United States. This 
 important and interesting institution has been in 
 existence about half a century, and is situated 
 upon the banks of the Schuylkill, within the 
 limits of the city of Philadelphia, and in the old 
 district of Passyunk. 
 
 The property upon which the institution is 
 situated comprises an irregular plat of about 23 
 acres, bounded by the Gray s Ferry Road, Bain- 
 bridge Street, Southerland Avenue (running 
 parallel with the Schuylkill River), and a wall 
 running thence eastward to meet the Gray s 
 Ferry Road again. 
 
 Originally a part of a tract of 150 acres, ex 
 tending from the Schuylkill to Long Lane, it 
 was, long previous to the Revolution, the site of 
 a handsome country-seat, belonging to the Pem- 
 berton family, it having been purchased from 
 the Penns in l735. 
 
 The place, which was known as " Plantation," 
 was then quite remote from the built-up parts of 
 the town, and, in spite of its name, appears never 
 to have been a farm, but to have been taken up 
 with lawns, shrubberies, and gardens. The house 
 was of brick ; large, square, roomy, and comfort 
 able. This mansion was afterwards, and previ 
 ous to the erection of the present large building, 
 the naval asylum and hospital. Two brick tene 
 ment or servants houses stood to the north of the 
 mansion, and were also used until superseded by 
 the present building. "When demolished, their 
 debris was used by Commodore Biddle to metal 
 the roads and walks which now exist. 
 
 "Plantation" was a favorite residence for 
 some of the British officers during their occupa 
 tion of Philadelphia, and there is frequent men 
 tion of it in contemporary journals and corre 
 spondence. Soldiers were flogged, and one or 
 two hung for depredations upon the gardens and 
 
ASYLUM 
 
 ASYLUM 
 
 smoke-houses, and Mrs. Pemberton, whose hus 
 band was absent, extorted an ample apology 
 from a certain Lord Murray, who had treated 
 the tenants with "barbarious and unbecoming 
 behavior, very unworthy of a British nobleman 
 and officer, after being previously shown General 
 Howe s protection posted up in the house." For 
 some time previous to the evacuation the house 
 was occupied by General Pattison, the com 
 mander of the Koyal Artillery. 
 
 From the Pembertons the place passed to the 
 Abbots, and was purchased from that family by 
 the government. 
 
 On May 26, 1826, Surgeon Thomas Harris, of 
 the navy, was authorized by the Hon. Samuel 
 L. Southard, Secretary of the Navy, to purchase 
 " the Abbot lot, of about 23 acres, for $16,000." 
 From the accounts it appears that $17,000 was 
 ultimately paid, however, a very small sum 
 compared with the value of the land at this day. 
 
 As soon as it was established that we were to 
 have a permanent naval force, it became neces 
 sary to make provision for the sick, wounded, 
 and disabled. In 1798 an act of Congress pro 
 vided that 20 cents a month should be deducted 
 from the pay of all seamen of the merchant 
 marine for the relief of the sick and disabled, 
 the money to be in charge of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. And in the next year 1799 its bene 
 fits were extended to the "officers, seamen, and 
 marines of the navy, who were to receive the 
 same relief as the sick and disabled seamen of the 
 merchant service." 
 
 Under the working of this law naval seamen 
 were sent to civil hospitals, where their officers 
 lost control of them, and they disappeared. Nor 
 did it seem proper that officers, seamen, and 
 marines of a military service should, as an after 
 thought, be foisted upon the Treasury Depart 
 ment. It was evidently necessary for the navy 
 to have a hospital department of its own, in 
 charge of its own medical officers, who, from 
 being identified with the service, could sympa 
 thize with and understand the virtues and fail 
 ings of the seamen. Accordingly, in 1810, an 
 act of Congress appointed the Secretaries of War, 
 the Navy, and the Treasury a " Board of Com 
 missioners of Naval Hospitals," and the fund 
 derived from monthly assessments upon all per 
 sons in the naval service was turned over to them, 
 to constitute a "Naval Hospital Fund," and 
 $50,000 from the unexpended balance of the "Ma 
 rine Hospital Fund" was placed by the same act 
 in their hands, this being the estimated share of 
 the amount which had accrued since the acts of 
 1798-99. 
 
 From this act of 1810 dates the origin of the 
 Naval Asylum, as well as of all the rest of our 
 naval hospitals. 
 
 Mr. Paul Hamilton, then Secretary of the 
 Navy, addressed a letter to the House Committee 
 on the Naval Establishment warmly supporting 
 naval hospitals as places of relief and main 
 tenance, not only for the sick of the service, but 
 for the disabled and infirm who should prefer it 
 to a pension. He even recommended that the 
 widows and children of seamen killed in action 
 should be supported in such institutions, the 
 boys to be brought up for the naval service. He 
 also recommends that the midshipmen should be 
 sent to these hospitals for a period of instruction 
 in navigation and general learning. 
 
 On February 26, 1811, the commissioners of 
 naval hospitals were authorized to acquire sites, 
 and to buy or build hospitals, and this same act 
 requires one of these establishments to provide 
 a permanent "asylum" for " decrepid and dis 
 abled naval officers, seamen, and marines." 
 
 "Asylum" is thus used in the first law upon 
 the subject. It seems an unfortunate term, al 
 though truly expressing the intent of the charity. 
 
 In the year 1826, as has been said, Dr. Harris 
 bought the asylum property, and the hospital at 
 the navy-yard, on the Delaware, was abandoned, 
 and the Pemberton mansion used instead ; and 
 continued in use until 18 ; ?3, when the present 
 asylum building, was sufficiently finished for 
 occupation. 
 
 In the records of the hospital from 1826 to 
 1833 appear the names, as patients, of Farra- 
 gut, Bainbridge, Twiggs, Hull, Levy, Izard, 
 Newell, Ogden, Howard, P. Voorhees, Engle, 
 Mercer, and other well-known officers. 
 
 The government selected the Philadelphia 
 Hospital as the one which was to be the "asy 
 lum" directed by the act of 1811 ; and from the 
 correspondence, it is clear that Dr. Harris is re 
 sponsible for the selection of the site upon the 
 Gray s Ferry Koad, it being already in possession 
 and occupied for hospital purposes. He was de 
 tailed by the Secretary of the Navy to superin 
 tend the construction, receiving a certain sum, 
 over and above his pay, therefor. Mr. Strick 
 land, the architect, was associated with him in 
 the superintendence. 
 
 In 1832 the asylum building was under roof; 
 and up to this time the expense had been wholly 
 borne by the "Naval Hospital Fund," which 
 had become so drained that, in July of that year, 
 a bill passed Congress appropriating $27,300 for 
 " completing the navy asylum at Philadelphia," 
 and $6600 for " fixtures, furniture, and appara 
 tus." During the time the asylum was being 
 built the naval hospitals at Chelsea, Brooklyn, 
 Norfolk, and Pensacola were going up, under 
 regular annual appropriations. 
 
 In this same year 1832 there was a transfer, 
 by act of Congress, of all powers of commissioners 
 of hpspitals to the Secretary of the Navy. They 
 were directed to turn over to him all cash and evi 
 dences of value previously held by them jointly 
 for "the payment of navy and privateer pen 
 sions, and for expenditures on account of naval 
 hospitals." The Secretary of the Navy wus 
 henceforth to keep this fund as sole commissioner, 
 reporting annually to Congress, as he does to 
 this day. 
 
 The asylum building, though by no means 
 completed internally, was occupied toward the 
 close of 1833. From that time until 1842 an 
 aggregate of $93,000 was appropriated for the 
 building, grounds, etc. 
 
 According to the report of the architect, the 
 building cost $195,000, and adding the cost of 
 the land brings the total to $212,600, of which 
 four-ninths came from appropriations, and the 
 rest from the hospital fund. 
 
 The building faces nearly east, and is con 
 structed of a grayish-white marble, with a gran 
 ite basement. It is 380 feet in length, and con 
 sists of a central building, with a high, broad 
 flight of marble steps, and imposing abutments, 
 and a marble colonnade and pediment, in the 
 bastard classic style, which was the fashion at 
 
ASYLUM 
 
 53 
 
 ATLAS 
 
 the period of its erection, and which has fastened 
 upon the country numbers of solid and costly 
 buildings, utterly unsuited to our climate, and 
 unsightly from lack of fitness. 
 
 The wings are symmetrical, and terminate in 
 pavilions, or transverse buildings at each end. 
 These wings are supplied with broad covered 
 verandas on each of the two main floors, which 
 are admirably adapted to their purpose, and, of 
 course, entirely out of keeping with the classic 
 central structure. 
 
 A fine attic and basement complete the build 
 ing, which is most thoroughly and substantially 
 constructed in every part. The marble stair 
 cases of the interior are especially noticeable 
 from their ingenious construction and economy 
 of space. The ceilings of two floors are vaulted 
 in solid masonry, and there is a remarkably fine, 
 lofty domed apartment, used as a muster-room 
 and chapel. 
 
 The beneficiaries, as they are called, have each 
 a small room, and the use of several reading- 
 and smoking-rooms in the pavilions, beside which 
 there are quarters for officers and employes. 
 
 When the asylum was first occupied four bene 
 ficiaries were transferred to it from the old build 
 ing, as were the sick of the station. 
 
 The whole of the interior was not finished 
 until 1848, when the increase in the number of 
 inmates rendered it necessary. For many years 
 from 1840 to the close of the civil war the 
 second floor of the south wing and the rooms in 
 the pavilion were used as the hospital proper. 
 During the war much of the attic was also so 
 used. For many years the beneficiaries were 
 supported in the same way, and from the same 
 fund as patients in hospital. In 1842 their num 
 ber was 42, and in 1858 there were considerably 
 over 100 ; and in the latter year the hospital 
 fund was relieved by an appropriation " for sup 
 port of beneficiaries, $26,392;" and ever since a 
 separate and specific annual appropriation has 
 been made for the same purpose. The annual 
 appropriation, from the naval pension fund, is 
 now about $60,000. 
 
 The first " Governor" of the Naval Asylum 
 was Commodore James Biddle, who was ap 
 pointed by Secretary J. K. Paulding, upon com 
 plaint and scandal resulting from the adminis 
 tration of an old lieutenant who had charge of 
 the beneficiaries as " superintendent." The Sec 
 retary proposed to the commodore to take charge, 
 with the title of " Governor," as adding dignity 
 to the position. His appointment was dated 
 August 1, 1838, and he remained until 1842, 
 when he was relieved upon his own application. 
 During his service the classes of midshipmen 
 preparing for examination were placed at the 
 asylum, with one or two professors to instruct 
 them, a partial fulfillment of Mr. Paul Hamil 
 ton s idea. They at first had the basement 
 rooms at the north end, which were truly re 
 ported as being "damp, cold, cheerless, and un 
 healthy." Afterwards, through the energetic 
 remonstrances of Lieutenant Foote, they were 
 placed on the floor above. Here they remained 
 until the Naval Academy at Annapolis was 
 founded, in 1845. 
 
 About 1842, during the administration of Sec 
 retary Upshur, a division of the building into 
 two parts was effected by a lath-and-plaster par 
 tition, one part being hospital and the other 
 
 asylum. The partition ran through the centre 
 of the hall, and the wings being precisely alike, 
 afforded equal conveniences. This arrangement 
 did not continue long, however. 
 
 During the late war the necessity for a separate 
 naval hospital became evident, and a large and 
 commodious building for that purpose was erected 
 upon a portion of the grounds nearer the river. 
 
 During the early years of the asylum those 
 who died there were buried to the north of the 
 asylum, but the cutting of a street led to the 
 bodies being removed to ground to the west. 
 When the hospital was built it was found neces 
 sary to remove the bodies again, and they were 
 transferred to a lot belonging to the government 
 in Mount Moriah Cemetery, where all inter 
 ments now take place. 
 
 At the Naval Asylum hundreds of old men 
 who have deserved well of their country have 
 passed their declining years in tranquillity and 
 comfort, not unfrequently attaining a great age. 
 The present number of beneficiaries ranges from 
 130 to 150, and they die about as fast as new 
 ones come in. Under the regulations no one is 
 eligible for the asylum who has not passed at 
 least twenty years in the naval service, but ex 
 ceptions are made in cases of serious disability 
 in the line of duty. 
 
 Upon entering the asylum a beneficiary has 
 to give up to the hospital fund any pension of 
 which he may be in receipt. Each one has a 
 separate room, and is furnished with three whole 
 some meals a day, a good allowance of clothing, 
 free washing, and one dollar and one pound and 
 a half of tobacco per month. 
 
 There is a good library for the use of the in 
 mates, and pleasant reading- and smoking- 
 rooms, with open fires, and tables covered with 
 newspapers and periodicals. No restraint is 
 placed upon their movements, within reasonable 
 hours, so long as their conduct is marked with 
 propriety, and the usual punishment for miscon 
 duct is confinement to the grounds for a few 
 days. E. Shippen. 
 
 Asymtote. A line which continually ap 
 proaches a curve but never meets it. 
 
 Atabal. A Moorish drum. 
 
 Atagan. See YATAGAN. 
 
 A-taunt-o, or All A-taunt-o. Every mast 
 an-end and fully rigged. 
 
 Ategar. An old English hand-dart. 
 
 Atherine. A silvery fish used in the manu 
 facture of artificial pearls. It is also called ar 
 gentine. 
 
 Athwart. Transversely; at right angles to 
 the keel ; across the line of the ship s course. 
 
 ATHWAKT HAWSE. A vessel, boat, or float 
 ing timber drifted across the stem. 
 
 ATHWART-SHIPS. From side to side ; in oppo 
 sition to fore-and-aft. 
 
 ATHWART THE TIDE. Across the tide. 
 
 Atlantic. The ocean which separates the New 
 World from Europe and Africa, so named from 
 the Atlas Mountains, in Africa. See OCEANS. 
 
 Atlantides. The daughter of Atlas ; a name 
 of the Pleiades. 
 
 Atlas. A book of maps or charts, so called 
 from the character of that name in ancient myth 
 ology, represented as carrying the world on his 
 back. The name was first applied to maps by 
 Mercator, the famous geographer, in the 16th 
 century. 
 
ATMOSPHERE 
 
 54 
 
 AURORA 
 
 Atmosphere is the name applied to the gaseous 
 fluid which surrounds the earth. It exhibits, in 
 common with all fluid bodies, the usual charac 
 teristics of hydrostatic pressure, but its internal 
 condition differs from that of a liquid, inasmuch 
 as its particles repel each other, and can only be 
 held in proximity by external force. From this 
 circumstance it follows that the volume of any 
 portion of air varies much more under the influ 
 ence of external pressure than that of an equal 
 volume of water ; hence the stratum of air near 
 est the earth is denser than strata in the upper 
 regions, where, from their being subjected to 
 the weight of a smaller mass of superincumbent 
 air, the repulsive force of the particles has freer 
 play. 
 
 Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere. 
 Volumes. Grains. 
 
 Nitrogen 79.02 76.84 
 
 Oxygen 20.94 23.10 
 
 Carbonic acid 0.04 0.06 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 Besides the substances just named other gas 
 eous matters occur, but in quantities so small as 
 not sensibly to increase the bulk of the at 
 mosphere. 
 
 Posidonius first calculated the height of the 
 atmosphere, stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly 
 agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 B.C. 
 Its weight was determined by Galileo and Torri- 
 celli, about 1643; its density and elasticity by 
 Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by 
 Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition 
 of the atmosphere was ascertained by Hales, 
 Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Caven 
 dish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated 
 by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
 
 Atolls. An East Indian name for the coral 
 formations known as lagoon-islands. 
 
 Atomizer. An instrument to reduce a liquid 
 to a spray. 
 
 Atrie. To bring-to in a gale. 
 
 A-trip. The anchor is a-trip when it is just 
 hove clear of the ground. Sails are a-trip when 
 they are sheeted home, hoisted taut up, and 
 ready for trimming. Yards are a-trip when 
 they are hoisted up and ready to be swayed 
 across. A mast is a-trip when the fid is out 
 ready for lowering. 
 
 Attached. Belonging to. An officer is said 
 to be attached to any ship or station to which he 
 is ordered for duty. 
 
 Attack. To fall upon with hostile intent ; to 
 assail. 
 
 Atterage. (Fr.) A land-fall. 
 
 Attested. Legally certified. 
 
 Attile. An old law term for the furniture of 
 a ship. 
 
 Attraction. The principle by which bodies 
 mutually tend toward each other, distinguished 
 into the attraction of gravitation, of cohesion, 
 and capillary, magnetic, and electrical attraction. 
 
 Atween, or Tween. Between. 
 
 Atwixt, or Twixt. Betwixt. 
 
 Auckland. A town of New Zealand, on the 
 "Waitamata Inlet. Lat. 36 50 S. ; Ion. 174 
 50 E. It has two fine harbors. Auckland is 
 the third port in the colony in the value of ex 
 ports and imports. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Audit. To settle or adjust an account. 
 
 Auditor, Fourth. Chief of a bureau of the 
 Treasury Department, established in 1817. Pre 
 viously an accounting clerk in the Navy Depart 
 ment. The Auditor s office receives the accounts 
 of all paymasters of United States vessels, navy- 
 yards, and navy pay offices, of navy pension 
 agents, paymasters, and quartermasters of the 
 marine corps, and other disbursing agents for 
 the Navy Department, and passes upon the cor 
 rectness and legality of their receipts and expen 
 ditures. All claims for pay, bounty, prize- 
 money, traveling expenses, or other compensation 
 for services in the navy and marine corps should 
 be made to this office. All allowances by the 
 Fourth Auditor are subject to revision by the 
 Second Comptroller. An appeal may be taken 
 to the Comptroller from an adverse decision of 
 the Auditor, and the decision of the former is 
 final, except with Congress and the United States 
 courts. The Auditor is the custodian of all pay- 
 and muster-rolls of officers, men, and mechanics 
 on board ship or at navy-yards, from which the 
 state of their accounts can be readily ascertained. 
 He also preserves all vouchers for expenditures 
 of money and stores ; the papers in claims of all 
 characters ; and the original or copies of all let 
 ters received or written. Records are kept of all 
 accounts rendered to the office, and the amounts 
 allowed and disallowed thereon ; of all claims re 
 ceived, and the disposition thereof ; of all moneys 
 drawn from or refunded to the Treasury by navy 
 disbursing officers ; of all transfers of money, 
 clothing, and small-stores between pay officers ; 
 of the amount of money appropriated for each 
 specific naval purpose and the expenditures there 
 from; of prizes captured, the participants in the 
 capture, and the amounts distributed to claim 
 ants, and remaining unclaimed ; of all allot 
 ments of pay, amount paid to each allottee, and 
 amount deducted from the pay of each allottee ; 
 and other records of the transactions of the office. 
 It is the duty of the Auditor to prepare the ac 
 counts of delinquent pay officers for suit on their 
 official bonds, and transmit the same to the 
 Solicitor of the Treasury. The Auditor has no 
 power to compromise claims of the United States 
 against its debtors. The office consists of the 
 Auditor, Deputy Auditor, and about 40 clerks, 
 and is organized in divisions, as follows : pay 
 masters accounts, prize-money, general claims, 
 navy pay accounts, bookkeeper s, records, and 
 navy pensions. 
 
 Auges. Apsides. 
 
 Auget. A tube filled with powder for firing a 
 mine. 
 
 Augmentation of the Moon s Diameter. The 
 increase in apparent diameter, due to an increase 
 of elevation. 
 
 Auk. A sea-bird of the Alca family. 
 
 Aulin. An Arctic gull (Cata-ract.es parasiti- 
 cus). It is called dirty aulin by the northern 
 boatmen. 
 
 Aumbrey. An old term for a bread and 
 cheese locker. 
 
 Aume. A Dutch measure for wine, contain 
 ing 40 English gallons. 
 
 Auriga. A northern constellation, popularly 
 known as the "Wagoner." a Aurigce, Capella. 
 
 Aurora. The goddess of morning. The faint 
 light which precedes the rising of the sun. 
 
 AURORA BOREALIS. The northern lights. A 
 luminous meteoric phenomenon, supposed to be 
 
ATJSTEK 
 
 55 
 
 AWNING 
 
 of electrical origin. This species of light usually 
 appears in streams, ascending toward the zenith 
 from a dusky bank, a few degrees above the north 
 ern horizon. Sometimes it assumes a wavy ap 
 pearance, arid is then called the merry -dancers, 
 The streams assume a variety of colors, from 
 pale yellow to blood-red. 
 
 AURORA AUSTRALIS. The southern^ lights. 
 
 Auster. The south wind of the ancients. 
 
 Austral. Relating to the south. 
 
 Australia. See CONTINENTS. 
 
 Austral Signs. The last six of the zodiac. 
 
 Austrian Navy. The geographical position 
 of this immense empire renders it next to impos 
 sible that it should either possess or require a 
 large navy. When the territory extended over 
 Lombardo-Venetia, the ports of Venice and 
 Trieste were commanded by Austria, and the 
 trade there carried on needed the protection of 
 ships of war. But that extensive portion of the 
 empire which was assigned to Austria by the 
 treaty of Vienna, in the year 1815, was wrested 
 from her in the year 1859, when France united 
 with Sardinia to achieve the independence and 
 unification of Italy under one monarch. Con 
 sequently her maritime pqssessions have dwin 
 dled to the Danube and the ports in Dalmatia, 
 etc., and as the former has but one outlet to the 
 Black Sea, which does not admit of vessels draw 
 ing many feet of water, Austria needs not many 
 ships of war to protect her commerce. At the 
 present moment, therefore, she possesses but 47 
 steamers and 17 ships of war, and as their united 
 burden is only 93,270 tons, and they altogether 
 mount no more than 365 guns, it may be con 
 ceived that they are for the greater part very 
 small vessels. The entire annual cost of the 
 navy and the establishments connected with it is 
 rather above ten millions of florins. The trade 
 which the navy shelters is limited to 35 ports in 
 the Littoral provinces, 54 in Dalmatia, and 11 in 
 Croatia. 
 
 Autan. Gusts of wind from the south 
 
 Automatic Fire. An explosive mixture of 
 the Greeks, compounded of equal parts of sul 
 phur, saltpetre, and sulphide of antimony finely 
 pulverized and mixed into a paste with equal 
 parts of the juice of black sycamore and liquid 
 asphaltum, a little quicklime being added. The 
 rays of the sun would set it on fire. 
 
 Autumn. The fall : the months of September, 
 October, and November. 
 
 AUTUMNAL EQUINOX. The time when the 
 sun crosses the equator, moving south. 
 
 AUTUMNAL POINT. That point on the ecliptic 
 whence the sun descends southward. 
 
 AUTUMNAL SIGNS. Libra, Scorpio, and Sa 
 gittarius. 
 
 Auxiliary Screw. A screw with which a full- 
 rigged vessel is sometimes supplied, to be used in 
 calms, working to windward, entering port, etc. 
 
 Avast. Stop ; cease. From the Italian basta. 
 
 Avenue. The inlet into a port. 
 
 Average. A rule was established by the Rho- 
 dian law, and has prevailed in every maritime 
 nation, that where a loss has been sustained or 
 an expense incurred, for the general safety of the 
 ship and cargo, a contribution should be made, 
 in proportion to their respective interests, by the 
 owners of the ship, freight, and goods on board ; 
 or, in modern times, by the insurer of these. To 
 this contribution the name of general average is 
 
 given. Personal property of the passengers, not 
 carried for the purpose of traffic, is not liable for 
 any share in this contribution. See JETTISON. 
 
 PARTICULAR AVERAGE. The loss of an an 
 chor, the leakage of a cask, the washing over 
 board of goods, etc., where the common safety 
 was not in question, and where there is, conse 
 quently, no contribution. 
 
 PETTY AVERAGES are pilotage, anchorage 
 duty, etc. If these occur in the ordinary course 
 of the voyage they are not loss, but simply a part 
 of the expenses necessarily incurred. But if 
 they have occurred under extraordinary circum 
 stances, and for the purpose of avoiding imme 
 diate danger, they are a loss, which is included in 
 the general average, and covered by the contribu 
 tion. 
 
 AVERAGE BOND is a deed which parties liable 
 to a general average are in the habit of execut 
 ing, by which they empower an arbiter to value 
 the property lost, and fix the proportion which 
 shall be borne by each proprietor. 
 
 AVERAGE ADJUSTER. A qualified person to 
 adjust the loss, damage, and expense in conse 
 quence of an accident or misfortune. 
 
 AVERAGE AGREEMENT. A written document 
 signed by the consignees of a cargo, binding 
 themselves to pay a certain proportion of gen 
 eral average that may arise against them. 
 
 Avviso. An Italian advice-boat. 
 
 Awaft, or Awhef t. The displaying of a stopped 
 flag. 
 
 Await, Lying in. In ambush for the purpose 
 of cutting off passing vessels. 
 
 Award. A judgment by arbitrators in mari 
 time cases. 
 
 A-wash. At the surface of the water. 
 
 Away Off. At a distance, but in sight. 
 
 AWAY SHE GOES! The cry when a vessel 
 starts on the ways in launching. An order to 
 walk away briskly with a tackle. 
 
 AWAY THERE ! The call for a boat s crew to 
 man their boat; as, away there, launches! 
 
 AWAY WITH IT ! An order to walk away 
 briskly with a tackle. 
 
 A-weather. The position of the helm when 
 the tiller is borne over to the weather side. 
 When it is put over to the extreme limit it is 
 hard a-weather. 
 
 Aweigh. The position of the anchor just after 
 breaking ground. 
 
 Awkward Squad. A squad of raw recruits, 
 or of men detailed for extra drill on account of 
 their stupidity. 
 
 Awning. A canvas covering spread over the 
 deck of a vessel to protect the crew from the sun 
 and weather. The forecastle awning extends 
 from the foremast forward. The main-deck 
 awning is spread between the foremast and the 
 mainmast. The quarter-deck awning is spread 
 between the main- and mizzen-masts, and the 
 poop awning extends from the mizzen-mast aft. 
 
 The back-bone is a rope stitched to the middle 
 of the awning. It runs fore-and-aft, has a 
 thimble in one end, and to the other is hooked 
 the fore-and-aft tackle. The awning is hauled 
 out at the corners by earings, and at the sides by 
 stops and bull-earings. 
 
 The ridge-rope is a rope fore-and-aft the ship on 
 both sides, forming a straight line from stem to 
 , stern, and is supported by the rigging and by 
 I wooden or iron supports called stanchions. 
 
AX 
 
 56 
 
 AZUMBAL 
 
 The sharks-mouth is an opening to accommo 
 date the masts and stays abaft, and the dog-s-ear 
 is one of the irregularly-shaped corners thus 
 formed. The euphroe is a block of wood through 
 which is rove a combination of small lines called 
 a crowfoot. To this is hooked the crowfoot-hal 
 liards. 
 
 The lacing is the line which draws together 
 the ends of adjoining awnings. 
 
 AWNING- or SIDE-CURTAINS are strips of can 
 vas set between the ridge-rope and the rail. 
 
 To GET THE AWNING ON A STRETCH. To 
 haul it taut between the masts. 
 
 To SPREAD AN AWNING. To suspend it paral 
 lel with the deck by means of the fore-and-aft 
 tackle, earings, and side-stops. 
 
 To HOUSE AN AWNING. To bring the edges 
 close down to a housing-line near the deck, thus 
 giving the canvas a greater angle and causing it 
 to shed the water. 
 
 To TRICE UP AN AWNING. To hook whips 
 to the earings and edges and hoist it up to dry. 
 The whips are sometimes hooked to the back 
 bone. 
 
 To FURL AN AWNING. To roll it up and pass 
 stops around it. 
 
 Ax. A tool for chopping wood. 
 . BROAD-AX, a carpenter s tool. It has a wider 
 and thinner blade and a shorter handle than the 
 ordinary ax. 
 
 BATTLE-AX. The ancient weapon had, some 
 times, a double edge. The tool by this name 
 now in use is simply a hatchet. 
 
 Axis. A straight line passing through a body 
 upon which it revolves, or may be supposed to 
 revolve. 
 
 Axis OF THE EARTH. That diameter upon 
 which the earth rotates diurnally from west to 
 east. In consequence of this rotation the earth 
 has assumed its present form, an oblate sphe 
 roid, being compressed at the extremities of the 
 axis (the poles), and bulging in the regions most 
 remote from thein(the equatorial). With refer 
 ence to its extremities, the axis is called the 
 Polar Diameter. 
 
 Axis OF THE HEAVENS. That diameter about 
 which the celestial concave appears to revolve 
 diurnally from east to west. It passes through 
 the observer s place"; and is parallel to the axis 
 of the earth, with which it is generally consid 
 ered coincident. 
 
 Axle. The cross-piece of a gun-carriage, on 
 the extremities of which the trucks revolve, which 
 extremities are called the arms of the axle. 
 
 Aye. Yes. Aye-aye, the response of com 
 missioned officers, not commanding or flag- 
 officers, to the hail of the sentry. Aye-aye, sir, 
 the usual response to denote that an order is un 
 derstood and will be obeyed. 
 
 Aylet. The sea-swallow. 
 
 Ayont. Beyond. 
 
 Ayr. An open sea-beach. A bank of sand. 
 The mediaeval term for oar. 
 
 Ayt. See EYGHT. 
 
 Azimuth. The arc of the horizon intercepted 
 between the meridian of the place and a vertical 
 circle passing through the centre of any body 
 The magnetic azimuth is the arc of the horizon 
 intercepted between the vertical circle and the 
 magnetic meridian. The difference between the 
 true and the magnetic azimuth is the variation of 
 the compass. 
 
 AZIMUTH CIRCLE, a vertical circle, or great 
 circle passing through the zenith and nadir. 
 
 AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE. The horizon co-or 
 dinates for defining points of the celestial con 
 cave in its diurnal revolution relatively to the 
 position of an observer on the earth s surface. 
 
 AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE INSTRUMENT. An 
 instrument for taking azimuths and altitudes si 
 multaneously. The telescope by which the ob 
 servations are made is capable of motion in two 
 planes at right angles to each other, and the 
 amount of its angular motion in each is measured 
 in two circles co-ordinate to each other, whose 
 planes are parallel to those in which the tele 
 scope moves. In the azimuth and altitude in 
 strument one of these planes is horizontal, the 
 other vertical. 
 
 AZIMUTH, MOTION IN. An instrument is said 
 to move "in azimuth" when it is turned on a 
 vertical axis ; in contradistinction, it is said to 
 move " in altitude" when it is turned on a hori 
 zontal axis. An azimuth and altitude instru 
 ment admits of both motions. 
 
 AZIMUTH COMPASS. A compass specially 
 adapted for observing bearings. 
 
 AZIMUTH DIAGRAM, GODFRAY S. A diagram 
 by means of which the true azimuth can be 
 rapidly and simply obtained without calculation, 
 the data being the latitude, the sun s declination, 
 and the apparent time. The scale on which it is 
 constructed gives the result to within one-eighth 
 of a degree. 
 
 Azogue. Quicksilver. A Spanish ship fitted 
 expressly to carry quicksilver. 
 
 Azumbal. A Spanish wine measure, eight of 
 which make an arroba. 
 
B 
 
 BACK-LASH 
 
 B. 
 
 B. Abbreviation for before in the U. S. 
 General Service Code of Signals. In the log b 
 denotes blue sky. 
 
 Baard. A mediaeval transport. 
 
 Baas. A Dutch skipper. 
 
 Babbing. A method of catching crabs. 
 
 Babbitt Metal. A soft alloy of copper, zinc, 
 and tin, used for the bearing of journals to di 
 minish friction. 
 
 Bac. A French ferry-boat. A punt used by 
 shipwrights for carrying tar, pitch, etc. 
 
 A broad flat boat for transporting carriages, 
 cattle, etc., over streams by means of a rope 
 stretched across. 
 
 Bacallao (Sp.). Newfoundland and adjacent 
 islands. The name is also applied to the codfish 
 salted in Newfoundland. 
 
 Bache, Alexander Dallas, LL.D., A.A.S., 
 physicist, born Philadelphia, Pa., July 19, 1806 ; 
 died Newport, R, I., February 17, 1867. West 
 Point, 1825. He was a great-grandson of Dr. 
 Franklin, and his mother was ^,he daughter of 
 A. J. Dallas. He was a lieutenant of engineers 
 until his resignation, in 1829. Engaged in con 
 structing Fort Adams and other works at the en 
 trance of Narragansett Bay. From 1827 to 1832 
 he was professor of mathematics in the University 
 of Pennsylvania, and then took charge of the 
 organization of Girard College, spending some 
 time, in 1836, inspecting the great schools of 
 Europe, publishing, upon his return, a valuable 
 report on the subject. In 1839 he resigned his 
 connection with this college, and became, in 1841, 
 principal of the Philadelphia High School. In 
 1843 he was appointed superintendent of the U. S. 
 Coast Survey. Its valuable contributions to 
 geodetic and physical science are found in the 
 annual reports of the survey, and in the proceed 
 ings of the Association for the Advancement of 
 Science. He was one of the founders of the 
 American Association for the Promotion of Sci 
 ence, took a prominent part in founding the 
 American Academy of Science, was made presi 
 dent of the American Philosophical Society in 
 1855, and was an active and efficient member of 
 the United States Sanitary Commission through 
 out the war of the Kebellion. The degree of 
 LL.D. was conferred on him by the University 
 of New York in 1836, by the University of Penn 
 sylvania in 1837, and by Harvard University in 
 1851. He was made a regent of the Smithsonian 
 Institution in August, 1846. In 1833 he edited 
 Brewster s " Optics," with notes. He published 
 " Observations" at the observatory of Girard Col 
 lege, 1840-45, 3 vols. 8vo, " Report of Experi 
 ments to Navigate the Chesapeake and Delaware 
 Canal by Steam," Philadelphia, 1834, and con 
 tributed many valuable papers to the scientific 
 journals of the day. 
 
 Back, Sir George, born at Stockport, England, 
 November 6, 1796. In the year 1819 this British 
 
 naval officer accompanied Sir John Franklin on 
 his first Arctic voyage. Fourteen j-ears later he 
 was sent out on an expedition in search of Cap 
 tain Boss, an Arctic navigator, and published an 
 interesting account of his voyage. In 1839 he 
 was knighted, and in 1867 he became an admiral. 
 
 Back. The outside or convex part of compass- 
 timber. The outermost board of a sawn tree. 
 
 BACK OF A SHIP.. A figurative term for the 
 keel and kelson. See BROKEN-BACKED. 
 
 BACK OF THE POST. An additional timber 
 bolted to the after part of the stern-post. 
 
 To BACK AN ANCHOR. See ANCHOR. 
 
 To BACK A SHIP AT ANCHOR. To keep the 
 chain taut by hoisting the mizzen-topsail. If 
 the wind falls she should be hove a-peak. 
 
 To BACK A SAIL. To lay the yard so that 
 the wind acts on the forward surface, and thus 
 check or stop the headway. 
 
 To BACK WATER. To row in a direction 
 contrary to the usual mode, so as to give a boat 
 stern way. 
 
 To BACK THE PORT OR STARBOARD OARS. 
 To back on one side and give way on the other, 
 so as to round quickly. 
 
 To BACK A ROPE OR CHAIN. To put on a 
 preventer. 
 
 To BACK THE WORMING. To fill the holidays 
 between the worming and the rope, so as to give 
 a smooth surface for the service. 
 
 The wind is said to back when it changes di 
 rection against the sun. 
 
 To BACK AND FILL. A method of working 
 to windward with a weather tide in a narrow 
 channel. The main object is to keep the ship in 
 mid-channel broadside on to the current. The 
 yards are counterbraced, or the sails are kept 
 shivering. The ship is kept well under control 
 by bracing the yards and giving her the jib and 
 spanker as circumstances demand. To attempt 
 this manoeuvre a correct knowledge of the 
 strength and set of the currents and the depth 
 of the water is required. 
 
 BACK HER ! The order to reverse the engine 
 and give the vessel sternway. 
 
 Back-board. A board across the stern-sheets 
 of a boat to form the coxswain s box, and also to 
 support the backs of the passengers. 
 
 Back-bone. The fore-and-aft rope stitched 
 to the midship part of an awning. 
 
 Backer. A broad piece of sennit nailed around 
 the yard inside of the sheave. It is fitted with 
 an eye or a thimble, and the head-earing is rove 
 through it. 
 
 Back-frame. The vertical wheel which turns 
 the whirlers of a rope-winch. 
 
 Backing. The timber behind the armor-plates 
 of a ship. See ARMOR. 
 
 Back-lash. The reaction or striking back of 
 the moving parts of machinery when the power 
 is not uniform or the load is variable. 
 
BACK-O -BEYOND 
 
 58 
 
 BAGPIPE 
 
 Back-o -beyond. Said of a great unknown 
 distance. 
 
 Back-observation. A name applied to an 
 observation in which the greatest distance of the 
 heavenly body from the horizon is measured. It 
 is so called because the back of the observer is 
 turned to the object when its altitude is taken. 
 
 Back-pressure. The resistance of the atmos 
 phere or waste steam to the piston. 
 
 Back-rope. A rope which fits over the dol 
 phin-striker with a cuckold s neck and sets up to 
 the bows on each side. See GOB-LINE. 
 
 Back-sight. The breech-sight of fire-arms. 
 
 Back-staff. An old navigating instrument 
 invented in 1590; so named because the back of 
 the observer was turned to the heavenly body 
 when its altitude was measured. See BACK-OB 
 SERVATION. 
 
 Backstays. Ropes which extend from all 
 mast-heads except the lower to the ship s side 
 or channels. 
 
 STANDING BACKSTAYS set up well aft and 
 support the masts when the wind is abaft the 
 beam. 
 
 BREAST-BACKSTAYS set up in the channels and 
 support the masts when on the wind. They are 
 not now in use. 
 
 BEAR ABAFT THE BREAST-BACKSTAYS! An 
 order to come up the breast-backstays and bear 
 them abaft, in order that the yards may be braced 
 sharp up. 
 
 PREVENTER-BACKSTAYS. Additional supports 
 to assist the backstays when carrying on. 
 
 TRAVELING-BACKSTAYS are fitted with a trav 
 eler, which moves up and down with the topsail- 
 yard. The support is thus kept where it is most 
 needed. They are not now in use. 
 
 To BACKSTAY A YARD. To brace it up as far 
 as the backstays will permit. 
 
 Backstay-plates. Plates to which the back 
 stays set up. 
 
 Backstay-stools. Small detached channels 
 fixed abaft the principal ones, to which the stand 
 ing backstays set up. They are introduced in 
 preference to extending the channels. 
 
 Back-strapped. A ship with a wind fair, but 
 so light as not to enable her to stem the current, 
 is said to be back strapped. 
 
 Back-sweep. That which forms the hollow 
 of the top-timber of a frame. 
 
 Back- wash. See WASH. 
 
 Back-water. Water thrown back by the turn 
 ing of a paddle-wheel or propeller. Water held 
 by a dam or reservoir. The smooth water free 
 from current in a small stream which runs into 
 a large stream. It is caused by the rising of the 
 water in the main stream. 
 
 Baculite. A genus of fossil shells of a straight 
 form, a little conical, and in their cellular struc 
 ture resembling the ammonites. 
 
 Badderlock. The Fucus esculentus, a kind 
 of edible sea-weed. 
 
 Badge, Good-conduct. Any enlisted man 
 holding a continuous-service certificate, who is 
 distinguished for obedience and sobriety, and is 
 proficient in seamanship and gunnery, shall re 
 ceive, upon the expiration of his enlistment, 
 a good-conduct badge ; after he has received 
 three such badges, under three consecutive re- 
 enlistments, within three months from the dates 
 of his discharge, he shall, if qualified, be enlisted 
 as a petty officer, and hold a petty officer s rating 
 
 during subsequent continuous re-enlistments ; 
 and shall not be reduced to a lower rating except 
 by sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 Badge, Quarter. False quarter-galleries. A 
 carved ornament on a vessel s quarter, contain 
 ing a window or a representation of one. 
 
 Badger. To worry ; to nag. 
 
 Badger-bag. The burlesque Neptune, who 
 boards the ship on crossing the line. 
 
 Badger Whiskers. In 1841, Hon. George E. 
 Badger, Secretary of the Navy, issued a general 
 order regulating the uniform of the navy, in 
 which was a clause requiring that no part of the 
 beard should be worn long except the whiskers, 
 and that they should not descend more than one 
 inch below the tips of the ears, and thence in a 
 line with the corners of the mouth. These were 
 nicknamed " Badger Whiskers." Fashion, how 
 ever, proved more powerful than the regulation, 
 and the order was never fully enforced. 
 
 Baessy. The old name of a gun, afterwards 
 called base. 
 
 Baffin, Wm., born in 1584. Engaged with Jas. 
 Hall in Arctic investigations begun in 1612; 
 this navigator discovered the gulf which commu 
 nicates with the North Atlantic Ocean by Davis 
 Strait, and he earned immortality by giving the 
 
 fulf the name of Baffin s Bay, in 1016 ; was 
 illed at the siege of Ormuz, May 23, 1622. 
 
 Baffling. A light breeze, which is continually 
 hauling and veering, is said to be baffling. 
 
 Bag. A pouch or sack to hold or convey any 
 thing. The bag in which the sailor s clothing is 
 stowed is made of canvas painted black, with the 
 owner s name and ship s number plainly sten 
 ciled thereon. 
 
 WHAT is THE NUMBER OF YOUR BAG ? 
 Jack s facetious inquiry addressed to a comrade 
 starting out on perilous duty from which he 
 may never return. The saying originated from 
 the habit seamen formerly had of going through 
 a dead comrade s bag before his effects" could be 
 sold at auction. 
 
 DITTY-BAG. A small bag to hold sewing- 
 gear, shaving-tackle, etc. 
 
 MONK-BAG. A small purse, which sailors 
 wear strung around their neck, to contain their 
 valuables. So named from the habit monkeys 
 have of stowing away food in their cheeks. 
 
 BAG AND BAGGAGE. The whole movable 
 property. 
 
 BAG "OF THE HEAD-RAILS. The lowest part 
 or sweep of the head-rails. 
 
 To BAG ON A BOWLINE. To be leewardly. 
 A sail is said to bag when, the leeches being 
 taut, there is a great deal of slack canvas in the 
 sail. Formerly sails were so cut intentionally, 
 the idea being that they would catch more wind. 
 Sails are now cut so as to set as flat as possible. 
 
 Bagala. A two-masted Arab boat, used both 
 for commerce and for piracy. They are from 50 
 to 300 tons burden, and sail with great rapidity. 
 
 Baggety. The lump or sea-owl (Cyclopterus 
 turn pus). 
 
 Baggonet. An old term for bayonet, and not 
 a vulgarism. 
 
 Baghela. A Muscat one-masted vessel, 200 to 
 300 tons burden. 
 
 Bag-net. A fishing-net shaped like a bag. 
 
 Bagnio. A barrack for galley-slaves and 
 convicts. 
 
 Bagpipe. To bagpipe the mizzen is to lay it 
 
BAG-KEEF 
 
 59 
 
 BAINBRIDGE 
 
 aback by bringing the sheet to the mizzen 
 rigging. 
 
 Bag-reef. The lower reef of fore-and-aft 
 sails ; the upper reef of topsails. 
 
 Bagrel. A minnow or baggie. 
 
 Baguio. A rare but very violent wind among 
 the Philippine Islands. 
 
 Bahar. A weight used in the East Indies, 
 varying considerably in different localities, ran 
 ging from 223 to 625 pounds. 
 
 Bahia. A city and seaport of Brazil, situated 
 in an elevated position on the strip of land form 
 ing the E. side of the entrance to All-Saints Bay, 
 immediately within Cape San Antonio, on which 
 is a revolving light 140 feet above sea-level ; in lat. 
 13 42" S., Ion. 38 31 42" W. It is 800 miles 
 N.N.E. of Kio de Janeiro. 
 
 The harbor is one of the best in America, and 
 is suitable for vessels of any size. The commerce 
 consists chiefly in the export of sugar, cotton, to 
 bacco, coffee, etc. The whale-fisheries of this city 
 were once the greatest in the world, and large 
 numbers of whales are still caught in the neigh 
 boring waters. Pop. 140,000. 
 
 Baidar. An Arctic canoe used for pursuing 
 otters and even whales. It consists of a frame 
 18 to 25 feet long, covered with hides, and is 
 impelled by 6 to 12 paddles. 
 
 Baikie. A name for the Larus marinus, or 
 black-backed gull. 
 
 Bail. A surety. The cargo of a captured or 
 detained vessel is not allowed to be taken on bail 
 before adjudication except by mutual consent. 
 To lade water out of a ship or boat with buckets 
 (which were of old called bayles), cans, or the 
 like. 
 
 Bail-bond. The obligation entered into by 
 sureties. In prize matters the bail-bond is not 
 a mere personal security given to the individual 
 captors, but an assurance to abide by the adjudi 
 cation of the court. 
 
 Bailey, Theodorus, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, and appointed midshipman 
 from that State, January 1, 1818. Commissioned 
 as lieutenant, March 3, 1827 ; receiving-ship, at 
 New York, 1829; sloop " Vincennes/ Pacific 
 Squadron, 1834-36; special duty, 1837; navy- 
 yard, New York, 1840; frigate "Constellation," 
 East India Squadron, 1843; rendezvous, New 
 York, 1846; commanding store-ship "Lexing 
 ton," 1847-48. While in command of the store- 
 ship "Lexington," during the Mexican war, 
 rendered eificient and valuable aid to the com 
 mander of the Pacific Squadron by his energy, 
 enterprise, and gallantry in fitting out and lead 
 ing numerous expeditions against the enemy. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 6, 1849 ; 
 commissioned as captain, December 15, 1855 ; 
 commanding sloop-of-war "St. Mary s," 1856- 
 57; commanded frigate "Colorado," Western 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1861-62. 
 
 Captain Bailey was Farragut s second in com 
 mand in the battle at New Orleans, and led the 
 attack and passage of the forts. He was officially 
 commended by Admiral Farragut for his bravery 
 and ability, and further complimented by being 
 sent to Washington as the bearer of dispatches, 
 announcing the victory. Commissioned as com 
 modore, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commodore Bailey, although his health was 
 seriously impaired, asked for active duty, and in 
 the fall of 1862 was ordered to command the 
 
 Eastern Gulf Blockading Squadron, where he 
 displayed great energy and perseverance in his 
 successful attempt to break up blockade-running 
 on the Florida coast. Commandant Portsmouth 
 navy-yard, 1865-67. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866. 
 On special duty at Washington, D. C., 1867-70 
 Died 1876. 
 
 Bails. The frame which supports the canopy 
 spread over the stern-sheets of a boat. 
 
 Bainbridge, William, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774; was the 
 son of Dr. Absalom Bainbridge, a leading phy 
 sician of New York. His maternal grandfather 
 was John Taylor, Lord High Commissioner of 
 New Jersey under the crown. Bainbridge made 
 his first cruise in the frigate "Alliance," then 
 sold out of the navy and engaged in the India 
 trade. When 18, he sailed as first mate of a ves 
 sel, and when 19, was made her commander. 
 Appointed a lieutenant-commandant in the navy 
 in 1798, and given command of the " Retalia- 
 tion," 14. Captured off Guadaloupe by the 
 French frigates " Insurgente" and " Le Volon- 
 tier." Promoted to master commandant and 
 given command of the "Norfolk," 18. Cap 
 tured several French privateers. Promoted to 
 captain in 1800, when 26 years old. Took the 
 "George Washington," 28, to Constantinople 
 with tribute-money from the Dey of Algiers, 
 and was the first to show our flag in Turkey. 
 Commanded next the " Essex," 32, in the Medi* 
 terranean. Next took command of the " Phila 
 delphia," 38, joining the squadron of Commodore 
 Preble. Captured "the Moorish pirate " Mesh- 
 boha," 22. While blockading Tripoli harbor, 
 October 31, 1803, the "Philadelphia" grounded 
 on a reef not laid down in the chart, and the 
 vessel was captured by the Tripolitans, her com 
 mander, officers, and crew suffering imprison 
 ment until the end of the Tripolitan war, June, 
 1805. Made several cruises in the merchant ser 
 vice during the peace that followed. In Decem 
 ber, 1808, hoisted his broad-pennant in the 
 "President," 44, remaining in her until May, 
 1810. Sailed again in the merchant service until 
 1812, when war with England became imminent. 
 It was the temper of the government to lay up 
 our navy during this war, but by the earnest 
 protest of Bainbridge and Stewart this terrible 
 blunder was avoided. Commanded the Charles- 
 town navy-yard until the declaration of war, 
 June 18/1812. He relieved Hull in command 
 of the "Constitution," 44, September 15, 1812. 
 Ran down the coast of Brazil, and when in lat. 
 13 Q / S. and Ion. 31 W., she fell in with and 
 captured the English frigate "Java," 38. The 
 " Constitution" went into action and came out 
 with royal yards across, and without losing a 
 spar. The "Java" was reduced to a mastless 
 wreck, too much injured to be taken into port. 
 The " Constitution" had 9 killedand 25 wounded. 
 Bainbridge was seriously shot with a musket- 
 ball, and^hurt by a splinter from the wheel. The 
 " Java" had 124 killed and wounded. Her cap 
 tain Lambert was fatally injured. Among 
 the prisoners taken was Lieutenant-General 
 Hislop, bound to Bombay as governor. Men and 
 officers were released on parole at San Salvador. 
 Reached Boston February 27, 1813, Bainbridge 
 relinquishing her command. For this action he 
 received a gold medal from Congress. Com- 
 
BAIT 60 
 
 .- 
 
 manded the Charlestown navy-yard until the 
 end of the war. Commanded the Mediterranean 
 Squadron in 1815, his flag-ship being the " In 
 dependence," 74, and again in 1819, his flag-ship 
 in this instance being the " Columbus," 80. Re 
 turned home in 1821, and was made a navy com 
 missioner. Commanded the Philadelphia navy- 
 yard. Died in Philadelphia, July 28, 1833, 
 aged 59 years and 3 months. He married Susan 
 Heyliger, granddaughter of Captain-General 
 Heyliger, governor of the Dutch West Indies. 
 His youngest daughter married Rear-Admiral 
 Henry Kuhn Hoff, of the navy, and his grand 
 son, William Bainbridge Hoff, is still in the 
 service. Wm. Bainbridge Hoff, Lieutenant- Com 
 mander U.S.N. 
 
 Bait. The charge of a hook to allure fish. 
 
 Baitland. An old word used to signify a port 
 where refreshments could be procured. 
 
 Bala-chong. A kind of cake formed of small 
 fishes pounded up with salt and spices and then 
 dried. It is much esteemed in China as a condi 
 ment for rice, etc. 
 
 Balsena. The zoological name for the right 
 whale. 
 
 Balaklava. A town of Russia, in the Crimea, 
 on the Black Sea. Lat. 44 29 N. ; Ion. 33 34 
 40 /x E. It has an excellent port. Pop. 742. 
 
 Balance. To contract a sail into a narrower 
 compass ; this is peculiar to the mizzen of a ship, 
 and to the mainsail of those vessels wherein it is 
 extended by a boom. The operation of bal 
 ancing the mizzen is performed by lowering the 
 yard or gaff a little, then rolling up a small por 
 tion of the sail at the peak or upper corner, and 
 lashing it about one-fifth down towards the mast. 
 A boom mainsail is balanced by rolling up a 
 portion of the clew, or lower aftermost corner, 
 and fastening it strongly to the boom. 
 
 Balance-fish. The hammer - headed shark 
 (which see). 
 
 Balance-frames. Those frames or bends of 
 timber, of an equal capacity or area, which are 
 equally distant from the ship s centre of grav 
 ity. 
 
 Balance of Power. An expression used in 
 diplomacy for that state of matters in which no 
 one of the European states is permitted to have 
 such a preponderance as to endanger the inde 
 pendence of the others. 
 
 Balance of Trade. The term commonly used 
 to express the difference between the value of the 
 exports from, and the imports into, a county. 
 The balance is said to be favorable when the 
 value of the exports exceeds that of the imports, 
 and unfavorable when the value of the imports 
 exceeds that of the exports. 
 
 Balance-reef. To balance-reef a sail is to re 
 duce it to its last reef, generally applied to fore- 
 and-aft sails. 
 
 Balance-reef-band. A reef-band that crosses 
 a spanker or trysail from the head-earing to the 
 tack diagonally, making it nearly triangular, and 
 is used to contract it in very blowing weather. 
 A balance-reef-band is generally placed in all 
 gaff-sails ; the band runs from the throat to the 
 clew, so that it may be reefed either way, by 
 lacing the foot or lower half; or by lacing the 
 gaff dropped to the band : the latter is only done 
 in the worst weather. 
 
 Balance, Steam. The ordinary safety-valve 
 (which see). 
 
 BALCH 
 
 Balancing-point. A familiar term for centre 
 of gravity. 
 
 Balandra. A Spanish pleasure-boat. A 
 lighter, a species of schooner. 
 
 Balanus. The acorn-shell. A sessile cirriped. 
 
 Balcar, or Balcor. See BALKAR. 
 
 Balch, George B., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Tennessee, January 3, 1821. Appointed 
 from Alabama, December 30, 1837 ; attached to 
 sloop "Cyane," Pacific Squadron, 1840; Naval 
 School, Philadelphia, 1843. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843; special duty, 1845; in war with Mexico, 
 November 1, 1846, engaged in first attack on 
 Alvarado by squadron under Commodore Con 
 nor ; engaged in active operations from Ma} , 
 1846, to surrender of Vera Cruz, March, 1847; 
 in Mosquito Fleet, under Commodore Tatnall, 
 covered the landing of the army under General 
 Scott, March 9, 1847 ; at the time acting master 
 of the "Falcon" ; March, 1847, engaged in the 
 joint bombardment of Vera Cruz with the army, 
 and was present at the surrender of that city and 
 the Castle of San Juan d Ulloa to the military 
 and naval forces; steamer "Princeton," Medi 
 terranean Squadron, 1847-48 ; Naval Observa 
 tory, Washington, 1849-50. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, August 16,1850; 
 sloop "Plymouth," Pacific Squadron, 1851-54; 
 while in the " Plymouth," Lieutenant Balch, in 
 command of the advance post at Shanghai, 
 China, was wounded in the hip in a fight be 
 tween the rebels and Imperialists ; nav} 7 -yard, 
 Washington, 1855-57; sloop "Jamestown," 
 Home Squadron, 1857-58; sloop "St. Mary s," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1858-59; frigate "Sabine," 
 1860; while in the " Sabine," fell in with the 
 transport "Governor" and rescued nearly 400 
 marines, under Lieutenant-Colonel Reynolds, 
 the transport sinking under the " Sabine s" stern, 
 November 24, 1861 ; in command of steamer 
 " Pocahontas," South Atlantic Squadron, 1861- 
 62; volunteered for command of boats in taking 
 possession of Tybee Island, December 26, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 engaged rebel battery at Stono, South Carolina; 
 in August, 1862, ascended Black River the dis 
 tance of seventy-five miles, and drove rebel bat 
 tery from earth-works, and engaged rebel infantry 
 on the bluffs ; commanding steamer " Pawnee," 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1863-65; 
 July 16, 1863, was attacked by two batteries, the 
 rebels making a simultaneous attack on General 
 Terry s forces. They were repulsed, and Com 
 mander Balch was informed by General Terry 
 that he had saved his command. The " Paw 
 nee" was struck forty-six times. On December 
 25, 1863, the " Marblehead" was opened on by 
 rebel batteries ; the " Pawnee" took an enfilading 
 position in the Keowah River, and demoralized 
 the enemy and caused him to retreat ; afterward 
 captured two rebel guns. While in command 
 of the "Pawnee," Commander Balch engaged 
 in the combined operations of the naval forces 
 under Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, and the army 
 under General Foster, in Stono River, South 
 Carolina r from July 3 to 11, 1864, and particu 
 larly in the bombardment of Battery Pringle, on 
 James Island, South Carolina. On February 9, 
 1865, having with him the " Sonoma" and " Daf 
 fodil," he ascended the Togoda Creek, North 
 Edisto, South Carolina, and engaged three rebel 
 
BALCONY 
 
 61 
 
 BALLAST 
 
 batteries of eleven or twelve guns, driving the 
 rebels from their earth- works. The u Pawnee" 
 was hit ten times, the "Sonoma" twice, and 
 the " Daffodil" twice ; navy-yard, Washington, 
 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; 
 commanding flag-ship "Albany," N^ Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1868-69; navigation duty, Washing 
 ton, 1870-71 ; navy-yard, Washington, 1872. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, August 13, 
 1872 ; Governor Naval Asylum, Philadelphia, 
 1873-76 ; member Light-House Board, 1877-78.; 
 promoted to rear-admiral, 1878 ; superintendent 
 of Naval Academy, 1879-80. 
 
 Balcony. The projecting open galleries of 
 old line-of-battle ships sterns. 
 
 Baldrick. A leathern girdle or sword-belt. 
 Also the zodiac. 
 
 Baldwin, Charles H., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, September 3, 1822. Ap 
 pointed from New York, April 24, 1839; at 
 tached to frigate " Brandywine," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1839-40; sloop "Fairfield," Mediter 
 ranean Squadron, 1840-43; sloop "Vandalia," 
 1843-44; Naval School, Philadelphia, 1844-45. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 2, 
 1845; frigate "Congress," Pacific Squadron, 
 1845-49 ; war with Mexico ; operations in the 
 neighborhood of Mazatlan during the time that 
 place was in possession of the United States naval 
 forces, from November, 1847, to June, 1848 ; two 
 engagements with the enemy. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, November, 1853; 
 resigned, February 28, 1854 ; re-entered the ser 
 vice as lieutenant, 1861 ; commanded steamer 
 " Clifton" at the passage of Forts Jackson and 
 St. Philip, and capture of New Orleans, also at 
 first attack on Vicksburg, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, November 18, 
 1862; commanding steamer " Vanderbilt" ; 
 special service, 1863-64 ; ordnance duty, Mare 
 Island navy-yard, California, 1864-67 ; fleet- 
 captain, North Pacific Squadron, 1868-69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, 1869 ; Inspector of 
 Ordnance, Mare Island, California, 1869-71 ; 
 commanding " Colorado," Asiatic Squadron, 
 1871-73; commanding naval rendezvous, San 
 Francisco, 1873. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, August 8, 1876 ; 
 member Board of Examiners, 1876-79. 
 
 Bale. A pack or bundle. 
 
 BALE-GOODS. Goods or merchandise done up 
 in bales. 
 
 Baleen. The scientific term for the whale 
 bone of commerce, derived from balcena, a 
 whale. It consists of a series of long horny 
 plates growing from each side of the palate in 
 place of teeth. These plates are 10 to 15 feet in 
 length, and about a foot in width at the base. 
 
 Bale-fire. A beacon-fire. 
 
 Balenot. A porpoise or small whale, which 
 frequents the river St. Lawrence. 
 
 Balestilha. The cross-staff of the early Por 
 tuguese navigators. 
 
 Balinger, or Balangha. A kind of small 
 sloop or barge ; small vessels of war, formerly 
 without forecastles. A trading-boat of the Phil 
 ippines and Moluccas. 
 
 Balistes. A genus of ganoid fishes, charac 
 terized by their solid coat of mail extending over 
 the head as well as the body. Commonly called 
 trigger-fish. 
 
 Balit. A one-masted vessel of Muscat, from 
 100 to 200 tons burden. 
 
 Balize is on the Bay of Honduras, at the 
 mouth of the river Balize. Lat. 17 29 18" 
 N. ; Ion. 88 12 W. The anchorage is safe and 
 the harbor spacious. The chief trade is in ma 
 hogany. Exports and imports about $1,000,000 
 per annum. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Balk. Young trees felled and squared. A 
 beam of timber used for temporary purposes, and 
 under eight inches square. Timbers, squared, of 
 any size, intended for planks, or, when very 
 large, for booms or rafts. 
 
 Balkar. A man placed on an eminence to 
 watch the movements of shoals of fish. In 
 early statutes he is called balcor. 
 
 Ball. A round body or globe. A solid shot 
 or bullet discharged from a cannon or other 
 gun. Formerly the word ball in its military 
 sense sufficiently described the projectiles of fire 
 arms, as nothing but round solid substances, such 
 as stone, iron, or lead, were so employed. With 
 the introduction of the mortar, however, which 
 was probably not long after the invention of can 
 non, irregularly-shaped pieces of stone or metal 
 came to be used, and at the siege of Naples by 
 Charles VIII. , in 1435, we first hear of shells or 
 hollow shot being used. The word, therefore, as 
 applied to the projectiles of fire-arms is not now 
 inclusive of all the projectiles used, but only of a 
 class. See BULLET, SHELL, SHOT. 
 
 Ball, with a prefix more or less descriptive of 
 its purposes, such as fire-ball, stink-ball, etc. 
 (for which see separate headings), denotes pyro- 
 technical compositions, or missiles filled with 
 mal-odorous matter. 
 
 BALL AND SOCKET. A joint, of which the 
 inner part is formed like a ball and the outer 
 part is a hollow socket, inclosing the greater 
 portion of the ball, and fitting close upon it, but 
 allowing freedom of motion in every direction. 
 
 To BALL OFF. To wind up into a ball ; as, 
 rope-yarns. 
 
 Ballahou. A fast-sailing schooner, common 
 in Bermuda and the West Indies. The foremast 
 rakes forward and the mainmast aft ; hence the 
 term ballahou is sometimes applied to men-of- 
 war in which the masts are not kept properly 
 stayed, or which are slovenly in other respects. 
 
 Ballarag. See BULLYRA G. 
 
 Ballast. A heavy substance employed to give 
 a ship sufficient hold on the water to give her 
 stability. The amount of ballast depends not 
 only on the ship s size and cargo, but also on 
 her build. It is not merely the weight of ballast 
 which the mariner has to consider ; he is re 
 quired to take into account its distribution. 
 To ballast a ship is the act of disposing the bal 
 last so that the ship will maintain her proper 
 equilibrium, and be neither too stiff nor too 
 crank. If she be too stiff she will sail sluggishly, 
 and her masts will be endangered by her violent 
 rolling. If she be too crank she will be unable 
 to carry sail without the danger of capsizing. 
 Stiffness is occasioned by stowing the ballast well 
 down, which brings the centre of gravity very 
 near the keel. Crankness, on the other hand, is 
 occasioned by raising the centre of gravity too 
 
 The object, therefore, is to so place the ballast, 
 neither too high nor too low, neither too near 
 the head nor too far aft, that the ship may be 
 
BALL AST AGE 
 
 BALTHEUS 
 
 brought down so that the surface of the water 
 will be brought nearly to the extreme breadth 
 amidships. 
 
 The cargo and ballast are considered together, 
 the quantity and distribution of the latter being 
 made dependent upon the former. In a man-of- 
 war the ballast is permanent, and is made sub 
 servient to the guns and other top-weights she is 
 required to carry. The substances used as bal 
 last are various, chiefly iron, stone, gravel, sand, 
 mud, and water. 
 
 A ship is said to be in ballast when she carries 
 no weight except the ballast, crew, passengers, 
 provisions for, and baggage of, crew and pas 
 sengers. 
 
 To LOSE ONE S BALLAST is to become top- 
 heavy from conceit. 
 
 To HEAVE or SHOOT BALLAST is to dump 
 mud or gravel ballast overboard. In order to 
 prevent the filling up of harbors and channels 
 certain regulations have been made at most 
 maritime places for the disposal of ballast. The 
 ballast is said to shift when from violent rolling 
 it is removed from its original position. 
 
 BAG-WATER BALLAST is contained in water 
 proof bags laid upon the floor of a vessel, and tilled 
 or emptied by means of a pump and hose. 
 
 BOTTOM-WATER BALLAST is confined beneath 
 a false bottom in the vessel. 
 
 HOLD- WATER BALLAST is contained in a large 
 receptacle, which may be filled with cargo when 
 the ship is not in ballast. 
 
 PIG-IRON BALLAST is supplied to men-of-war. 
 It has the great advantage of taking up but little 
 space. 
 
 SHINGLE BALLAST is composed of coarse 
 gravel. 
 
 TANK-WATER BALLAST is contained in two 
 fore-and-aft tanks, which can be easily filled and 
 emptied by means of a pump. 
 
 Ballastage. A duty paid for taking up 
 ballast from a port. 
 
 Ballast-basket. A basket made of osier for 
 the measure and transport of ballast. 
 
 Ballast-lighter. A large flat-floored barge, 
 for heaving up and carrying ballast. 
 
 Ballast-mark. The horizontal line described 
 by the surface of the water on the body of a ship, 
 when she is immersed with her usual weight of 
 ballast on board. 
 
 Ballast-master. A person appointed to see 
 the port-regulations in respect to ballast carried 
 out. 
 
 Ballast-ports. Square holes cut in the sides 
 of merchantmen for taking in ballast. 
 
 Ballast-trim. Trim when in ballast. 
 
 Ballatoon. A sort of long heavy luggage- 
 vessel of upwards of a hundred tons, employed on 
 the river between Moscow and the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Ball-cartridge. See CARTRIDGE. 
 
 Ball-clay. Stiff clay brought up by the flukes 
 of the anchor. 
 
 Ballistic Pendulum. An instrument invented 
 by Robins for measuring the force or velocity of 
 cannon- and musket-balls. To one extremity of 
 an iron bar was fixed a heavy cubical block of 
 wood, lined at the back with iron. A transverse 
 bar of iron at the other extremity of the first 
 bar served as an axis of suspension, in which the 
 pendulum swung freely, backwards and forwards. 
 In order to measure the extent of the vibration 
 which the pendulum made after receiving the 
 
 impact of the projectile, a ribbon was attached 
 to the lower end of the pendulum, passing loosely 
 through an orifice in a horizontal bar in the 
 frame-work ; when the pendulum was raised it 
 drew the ribbon along with it, and the quantity 
 which thus passed through the orifice measured 
 the chord of the arc of vibration. The instru 
 ment now used consists of a case or mortar of 
 cast iron, partly filled with sand-bags or block- 
 lead, suspended by wrought-iron bars from an 
 axis working on knife-edges on V-supports, and 
 the arc of vibration is measured on a copper arc 
 by an index carrying a vernier. If such a pen 
 dulum, when at rest, be struck by a body of a 
 known weight, and the vibration which the pen 
 dulum makes after the blow be known, the ve 
 locity of the striking body may thence be deter 
 mined. The quantity of motion of the projectile 
 before impact is equal to that of the pendulum 
 and projectile after impact. See ELECTRO-BAL 
 LISTICS, GUN PENDULUM. 
 
 Ballistics. The art or science of throwing 
 weapons by means of engines. 
 
 Balloen. A Siamese state-galley built to 
 imitate a sea-monster, and pulling seventy to 
 a hundred oars of a side. 
 
 Ballon. A brigantine-rigged vessel used in 
 Siam, and made of a single tree. 
 
 Balloon. A bag of silk or other fabric filled 
 with gas specifically lighter than the atmos 
 phere, and hence deriving a tendency to ascend. 
 
 Balloon-fish. A fish of the genus Diodon, 
 having the power of inflating its body until it 
 becomes almost globular. 
 
 Balloon -jib. See JIB. 
 
 Ballot. To bound from side to side; as, a 
 shot in the bore of a gun. 
 
 Ballow. Deep water inside a shoal or bar. 
 
 Bally. A Teutonic word for inclosure, now 
 prefixed to many seaports in Ireland, as Bally- 
 castle, Ballyhaven, etc. 
 
 Balsa (Sp.). 1. A pool; a lake. 2. A raft, 
 or float, for conveying goods or persons across a 
 river. It seems probable that the original sig 
 nification of a pool or lake was converted into 
 the means employed to cross lakes or rivers. On 
 the west coast of South America balsas are made 
 of bullocks hides sewn together over a frame 
 work in two cylinders joined together, not un 
 like in form to the jaw-bone of a horse. An 
 other kind of balsa is made of several pieces of 
 an extremely light wood, sharpened at the ends 
 and lashed together, with transverse slats to hold 
 them singly in position. Both these means were 
 employed centuries ago for landing in the surf. 
 The same primitive arrangement of the second 
 kind, using a sail, is the fishing-boat met far out 
 of sight of land on the coast of Brazil. The 
 general acceptation of the word on this con 
 tinent is either two or more inflated bags of 
 india-rubber, or long casks of metal or wood 
 secured together in " pairs, held some distance 
 apart by a frame-work, or logs of light wood 
 held together as before described, usually em 
 ployed where the eurf is heavy. 3. Any form 
 of flotation capable of propulsion not designed 
 for temporary use, differing from a raft in that 
 the latter is a mere temporary expedient. See 
 LIFE-BOATS and LIFP>RAFTS. Daniel Ammen, 
 Rear- Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Baltheus Orionis. The three bright stars 
 constituting Orion s Belt. 
 
BALTIMOKE 
 
 63 
 
 BANKSAL 
 
 Baltimore, a city and port of entry of Mary 
 land, is on the estuary of the Patapsco River, 12 
 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, 
 and 250 miles by ship-channel from the sea. 
 Lat. 39 17 N. ; Ion. 76 37 / W. The harbor 
 is spacious and secure. The facilities for the 
 transfer of freight from the railways to the ship 
 ping are excellent, and in recent years Che city 
 has become one of the leading places of export 
 in the United States. Steamship lines connect 
 it with Liverpool, Bremen, and the principal 
 domestic ports. Pop. 330,000. 
 
 Balusters. The ornamental pillars of the 
 balconies or galleries of ships. 
 
 Bamba. A commercial shell of value on the 
 Gold Coast of Africa. 
 
 Bamboo. A plant of the family of grasses, 
 and genus Bambusa, growing in tropical coun 
 tries. Bamboo arundlnacea has a round, straight, 
 hollow, woody, jointed stem ; it grows to the 
 height of forty feet and upward. Old stalks are 
 five or six inches in diameter, and are so hard 
 and durable that they are used in the manufac 
 ture of agricultural implements, and in building 
 houses and ships. Bamboo is in general use in 
 China for masts of junks, hence the pidgin-Eng 
 lish expressions, "two piecee bamboo" and 
 " three piecee bamboo" for brig-rigged and full- 
 rigged vessels. 
 
 Bamboozle. To deceive ; to play low tricks 
 upon. To decoy the enemy by hoisting false 
 colors. 
 
 Banana. A species of the genus Musa and 
 its fruit. 
 
 Band. An iron hoop around a mast or yard. 
 A company of musicians allowed to a ship or 
 navy-yard. See REEF-BAND, ROBAND. 
 
 BANDSMAN. A member of the band. 
 
 MASTER OF THE BAND. The leader of the 
 band. 
 
 Bandage. A fillet, roller, or swath used in 
 dressing wounds. 
 
 Bandala. The fibre from which the Manilla 
 white rope is made. It is an outer layer of the 
 abaca, a variety of the plantain. See ROPE. 
 
 Bandaleer, or Bandoleer. A large leathern 
 belt thrown over the right shoulder and dangling 
 under the left arm, worn by ancient musketeers 
 for sustaining their musket. A small leather 
 case, of which every musketeer wore twelve, sus 
 pended by a belt. 
 
 Banded-drum. See GRUNTER. 
 
 Banderole. A small streamer or banner car 
 ried at the mast-head of a vessel, or at the end of 
 a pike or lance. 
 
 Band-fish, or Ribbon-fish. A popular name 
 of the Gymnetrus genus. 
 
 Bandle. An Irish measure of two feet. 
 
 Bang. An astringent and narcotic drug made 
 from the large leaves and capsules of the wild 
 hemp (Cannabis Indica}. A mixture of opium, 
 hemp-leaves, and tobacco, of an intoxicating 
 quality, chewed and smoked by the Malays and 
 other people in the East. 
 
 Bange. Light, fine rain. 
 
 Bangkok, capital of Siam, on the Menam, 20 
 miles from its mouth. Lat. 13 38 N. ; Ion. 100 
 34 E. Steamers ply hence to Singapore and 
 Hong Kong. Value of exports in 1877, $8,200,000; 
 of imports, $7,500,000. Vessels of 250 tons come 
 up to the town. Pop. 500,000. 
 
 Bangles. The hoops of a spar. The rings on 
 
 the wrists and ankles of Oriental people, chiefly 
 worn by females. 
 
 Bangor. A city and port of entry in Maine, 
 on the right bank of the Penobscot River, about 
 60 miles from the ocean. Lat. 44 48 N. ; Ion. 
 68 47 W. It is the head of navigation on the 
 Penobscot River, which traverses extensive forests 
 of pine, cedar, etc. The average quantity of 
 lumber shipped annually from Bangor is about 
 200,000,000 feet. Pop. about 23,000. 
 
 Banian. A sailor s colored frock. 
 
 Banian-, or Banyan- days. A cant term among 
 sailors to denote those days on which meat does 
 not form a part of the ration. The term is de 
 rived from a religious sect in the East who never 
 eat flesh. 
 
 Banian-, or Banyan-tree. The India fig-tree 
 (Ficus Indica). The tendrils from the branches 
 take root on reaching the ground, and form new 
 stocks, till they cover a space of an acre or more. 
 Religious rites, from which women are excluded, 
 are there performed. 
 
 Banjo. The brass frame in which a screw- 
 propeller is hung. 
 
 Bank. The border or margin of a river or 
 lake. A shoal composed of sand, mud, or gravel. 
 A seat or bench for rowers in a galley. The ,com- 
 mon galleys had 25 banks on each side, with one 
 oar to each bank, and four men to each oar. The 
 galeasses had 32 banks on a side, and six or seven 
 rowers to each bank. See GALLEY. 
 
 To DOUBLE-BANK AN OAR is to set two men 
 to pulling one oar. 
 
 A SINGLE-BANKED BOAT is one in which a 
 thwart is occupied by one man. 
 
 A DOUBLE-BANKED BOAT is one in which two 
 rowers sit on the same thwart. 
 
 Banka. A canoe of the Philippines consisting 
 of a single piece. 
 
 Banker. A vessel engaged in the cod-fishery 
 on the banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 Bankerk, Joseph van Trappen. A Dutch 
 admiral, born at Flushing about 1590; fought in 
 the battle of Dunkirk, and defeated the Portu 
 guese fleet near Brazil in 1647. Died on his 
 voyage home the same year. 
 
 Bank Fires. To allow the fires in the furnace 
 to burn down low, and then cut off the supply 
 of oxygen by covering the fires with ashes and 
 closing the doors of the furnace and ash-pit. By 
 this means fuel will be saved, and in an emer 
 gency fires can be spread and steam generated 
 with great rapidity. 
 
 Bank-harbor. A harbor protected from the 
 violence of the sea by banks of sand, mud, or 
 gravel. 
 
 Bankhead, John Pine, Captain U.S. N. Born 
 in South Carolina, August 3, 1821. Entered as a 
 midshipman August 6, 1838, became a passed 
 midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 1852, a com 
 mander in 1862, and a captain in 1866. Died 
 at Aden, Arabia, April 27, 1869. In command 
 of the gunboat "Pembina," November 7, 1861, 
 at the battle of Port Royal, and subsequent 
 operations on the coast of South Carolina. In 
 command of the original ""Monitor" when she 
 foundered off Cape Hatteras, December 31, 1863. 
 
 Bank-hook. A large fish-hook laid baited in 
 running water with line attached to the bank. 
 
 Banking. A general term applied to fishing 
 on the great bank of Newfoundland. 
 
 Banksal, or Banksaul, and in Calcutta spelled 
 
BANNAG 
 
 64 
 
 BARK 
 
 bankshall. A shop, office, or other place, for 
 transacting business. A square inclosure at the 
 pearl-fishery. A beach store-house wherein ships 
 deposit their rigging and furniture while under 
 going repair. A place where small commercial 
 courts and arbitrations are held. 
 
 Bannag. A name for a white trout ; a sea- 
 trout. 
 
 Bannak-fluke. A name of the turbot, as dis 
 tinguished from the halibut. 
 
 Banner. A small square flag edged with fringe. 
 
 Bannerol. A little banner or streamer. 
 
 Bannock. A name given to a certain hard 
 ship-biscuit. 
 
 Banstickle. A diminutive fish, called also 
 the three-spined stickle-back (Gasterosteus acu- 
 leatus). 
 
 Baptism. A ceremony practiced on sailors 
 and passengers on their first crossing the equator : 
 a riotous and ludicrous custom, which from the 
 violence of its ducking, shaving, and other prac 
 tical jokes, is becoming annually less in vogue. 
 It is esteemed a usurpation of privilege to bap 
 tize on crossing the tropics. 
 
 Bar. A boom formed of huge trees, or spars 
 lashed together, moored transversely across a 
 port, to prevent entrance or egress. The short 
 bits of bar-iron, about half a pound each, used as 
 the medium of traffic on the Negro coast. An 
 accumulated shoal or bank of sand, shingle, 
 gravel, or other uliginous substances, thrown up 
 by the sea to the mouth of a river or harbor. 
 The shore on which the deposition of sediment 
 is taking place will be flat, whilst the opposite 
 one is steep. It is along the side of the latter that 
 the deepest channel of the river lies ; and in the 
 line of this channel, but without the points that 
 form the mouth of the river, will be the bar. If 
 both the shores are of the same nature, which 
 seldom happens, the bar will lie opposite the 
 middle of the channel. Rivers in general have 
 what may be deemed a bar, although it may not 
 rise high enough to impede the navigation, for 
 the increased deposition that takes place when 
 the current slackens must necessarily form a 
 bank. Bars of small rivers may be deepened by 
 means of stockades to confine the river cur 
 rent, and prolong it beyond the natural points 
 of the river s mouth ; they operate to remove the 
 place of deposition farther out, and into deeper 
 water. Bars, however, act as breakwaters in 
 most instances, and consequently secure smooth 
 water within them. The deposit in all curvilin 
 ear or serpentine rivers will always be found at 
 the point opposite to the curve into which the 
 ebb strikes and rebounds, deepening the hollow 
 and depositing on the tongue. Therefore if it 
 be deemed advisable to change the position of a 
 bar, it may in some cases be aided by works 
 projected on the last curve seaward. By such 
 means a parallel canal may be formed which will 
 admit vessels under the cover of the bar. 
 
 BAR-HARBOR. One which from a bar at its 
 entrance cannot admit ships of great draft, or 
 can only do so at high water. Bar-shallow, 
 a term sometimes applied to a portion of a bar 
 which has less water on it than other parts of the 
 bar. 
 
 Baracoota. A tropical fish (Sphyrcena bara- 
 citda), considered in the West Indies to be dan 
 gerously poisonous at times, nevertheless eaten, 
 and deemed the sea-salmon. 
 
 Barangay. An East Indian vessel propelled 
 by oars. 
 
 ^Barbadoes Tar. A mineral pitch or petro 
 leum, which flows from the earth or rocks in 
 many places. 
 
 Barbalot. The barbel. Also, a puffin. 
 
 Barb-bolt. A rag-bolt. A bolt with a jagged 
 end to make it hold when it cannot be clinched. 
 
 Barbel. A fresh-water fish found in many 
 European rivers ; its upper jaw is furnished 
 with four beard-like appendages. 
 
 Barber. A singular vapor rising in streams 
 from the surface of the water. The condensed 
 breath on the beard and moustache. A rating 
 on the ship s books for the man who shaves the 
 people. 
 
 Barbette (Fr.}. A mound on which guns are 
 mounted to fire over the top of the parapet. 
 Guns are in barbette when they are mounted so 
 as to fire over a parapet, and not through an 
 embrasure. Barbette gun, or barbette battery, a 
 gun or battery mounted in barbette. Barbette 
 carriage, a carriage which permits of its gun 
 being mounted in barbette. 
 
 Barca (Sp.). A small two-masted vessel. 
 
 Barca-longa (Sp.}. A large Spanish coasting 
 vessel with pole-masts and lug-sails. The name 
 is also applied to Spanish gunboats. 
 
 Barcarolle. A popular song sung by Vene 
 tian gondoliers. 
 
 Barcelona. A seaport town of Spain. Lat. 
 (mole light) 41 22 36" N. ; Ion. 2 II E. The 
 port is commodious, two moles having been built 
 for its improvement. Pop. 225,000. 
 
 Barces. Short guns with large bores, for 
 merly used in ships. 
 
 Barchetta. A small bark for transporting 
 provisions. 
 
 Barcon. A Mediterranean lighter. 
 
 Bareka. A small barrel, spelled also barika. 
 
 Bare poles. A vessel at sea is said to be 
 under bare poles when no sail is set; in which 
 case she may be either lying-to, or scudding 
 before the gale. 
 
 Barge. A vessel or boat of state elegantly 
 furnished. A double-decked passenger or freight 
 boat having no power of its own, but towed by a 
 steamboat. A long double-banked boat of spa 
 cious construction for the use of flag-officers. A 
 spacious light-draft river-boat for the transporta 
 tion of heavy merchandise. 
 
 BARGEES. The crews of canal-boats and river- 
 barges. 
 
 BARGE-MATE. The officer who steers a boat 
 of state on occasions of ceremony. 
 
 BARGE-MEN, or BARGES. Picked men who 
 pull the barges. 
 
 BARGET. An old term for a small barge. 
 
 Bari. A city and seaport of Italy, on a penin 
 sula in the Adriatic. Lat. 41 7 *52" N. ; Ion. 
 16 53 4" E. The quay and roadstead are good, 
 and the harbor has been much improved of late. 
 Pop. 52,000. 
 
 Barilla. A sea-shore or maritime plant from 
 which soda is made. In commerce this name is 
 applied to the impure carbonate of soda made by 
 burning certain maritime plants. See ALG^E. 
 
 Bark, or Barque. Any small vessel. A 
 three-masted vessel square-rigged on the fore 
 and main, with fore-and-aft sails on the mizzen- 
 mast. Bark-rigged, rigged as a bark, with no 
 square-sails on the mizzen-mast. 
 
BAKKANTINE 
 
 65 
 
 BAROMETER 
 
 Barkantine, or Barquantine. A three-masted 
 vessel square-rigged on the fore-mast, and fore- 
 and-aft rigged on the main- and mizzen-masts. 
 
 Barkers. An old term for lower deck guns 
 and pistols. 
 
 Barkey. A sailor s term of endearment for 
 the ship to which he belongs. 
 
 Barking-irons. Large dueling pistols. 
 
 Barling. An old term for the lamprey. 
 
 Barling-spars. Spars fit for any small mast 
 or yard. 
 
 Barnacle (Conch.). A species of the Bala- 
 nidce, a family of sessile crustaceans. The shells 
 are common along sea-shores, where they adhere 
 to rocks, timber, and vessels. (Ornith.) A spe 
 cies of goose (Anas lucopsis) frequenting the 
 northern seas in summer and migrating south 
 wards in winter. Formerly the strange notion 
 prevailed that they grew out of the barnacles at 
 tached to ships ; hence the name. 
 
 Barnstable (Mass.). A port of entry on a 
 bay of the same name, which is a part of Cape 
 Cod Bay. Pop. about 430, mostly engaged in the 
 coast-trade and fisheries. 
 
 Barometer (Gr. baros, weight, and metron, 
 measure). An instrument for measuring the 
 weight or pressure of the atmosphere. The dis 
 covery of the instrument resulted from an appli 
 cation, made to Galileo by workmen engaged in 
 preparing a suction pump for a deep well, to 
 know why, notwithstanding great care in form 
 ing and fitting the valves and piston, the water 
 would not rise higher than about 32 English 
 feet. In that age the doctrine of a plenum was 
 an axiom in philosophy ; and the ascent of water 
 in the barrel of the pump was universally as 
 cribed to nature s horror of a vacuum; Galileo 
 therefore contented himself with replying that the 
 power of nature to overcome a vacuum was lim 
 ited, and did not exceed the pressure of a column 
 of water 32 feet in height. Before his death, 
 however, which happened soon after, in 1642, he 
 earnestly recommended to his pupil Torricelli to 
 undertake the investigation of the subject. Tor 
 ricelli, suspecting the true cause of the suspension 
 of the water, namely, the weight of the atmos 
 phere, conceived the idea of trying the experi 
 ment with mercury. He perceived that if the 
 weight of the atmosphere forms a counterpoise 
 to a column of water of 32 feet, it must also 
 counterpoise a column of mercury of about 28 
 inches in height, the weight of mercury being 
 about 14 times greater than that of water. 
 Having procured a glass tube of about 3 feet in 
 length and a quarter of an inch in diameter, 
 hermetically sealed at one end, he filled it with 
 mercury; and covering the open end with the 
 finger, he immersed it in an open vessel contain 
 ing mercury. On bringing the tube to the verti 
 cal position, and removing the finger, the mer 
 cury instantly sank, leaving a vacuum at the top 
 of the tube, and after making several oscillations, 
 stood in the tube at the height of about 28 inches 
 above the surface of that in the vessel. On cov 
 ering the mercury in the vessel with a portion of 
 water, and raising the tube till the lower end 
 came into contact with the water, the mercury 
 all ran out, and the water rushed up to the top 
 of the tube. This experiment, called after its 
 author, the Torricellian experiment, demonstrated 
 that the mercury was sustained in the tube, and 
 the .water in the barrel of the pump, by exactly 
 
 the same counterpoise, whatever the nature of it 
 might be. Torricelli died shortly after without 
 completing his discovery, but the fame of his 
 experiment attracted to the subject the attention 
 of philosophers in other countries ; among others 
 the celebrated Pascal. After various experi 
 ments, all of which tended to establish the press 
 ure of the atmosphere, it occurred to Pascal that 
 if the mercurial column was really supported by 
 atmospheric pressure it must be affected by the 
 weight of the superincumbent mass of air, and 
 consequently be "diminished at considerable ele 
 vations. Assisted by his brother-in-law, Perier, 
 he conclusively established by experiments the 
 correctness of the theory, and thereupon pro 
 posed the barometer as an instrument for meas 
 uring the height of mountains, or the relative 
 altitudes of places above the surface of the earth. 
 "While Pascal, therefore, is justly credited with 
 the practical demonstration of the value of the 
 barometer in the determination of heights, it is 
 claimed that Claudio Beriguardi, at Pisa, had 
 made the same application of the instrument five 
 years before; and it appears that Alhazen, the 
 Saracen, A.D. 1100, was aware that the atmos 
 phere decreases in density with increase of height. 
 
 The barometer in its ordinary form consists of 
 a tube 34 inches in length, closed at the top, ex 
 hausted of air, and with its lower end immersed 
 in a cup of mercury, which the pressure of the 
 atmosphere causes to ascend in the tube. The 
 height of the mercurial column varies with 
 changes in the weight of the atmosphere, and a 
 graduated scale alongside the tube, embracing 
 the range of oscillation, enables the variations 
 to be noted. 
 
 In all barometric observations there are, in 
 general, two essential corrections to be made: 
 one for capillarity, or depression of the mercury 
 in the tube, and the other for temperature. The 
 following are the corrections for tubes of different 
 diameters according to the theory of Mr. Ivory: 
 
 Diam. of tube. Depression. Diam. of tube. Depression. 
 
 Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 
 
 .10 .1403 .40 .0153 
 
 .15 .0863 , .45 .0112 
 
 .20 .0581 .50 .0083 
 
 .25 .0407 .60 .0044 
 
 .30 .0292 .70 .0023 
 
 .35 .0211 .80 .0012 
 
 In siphon barometers (so called from their 
 shape), having both branches of the same di 
 ameter, the depression is equal at both ends ; 
 consequently the effect is destroyed, and no 
 correction is required. The correction for the 
 temperature, which is the most important, de 
 pends on the expansion of the mercury and the 
 expansion of the scale on which the divisions are 
 marked ; this latter expansion being very small, 
 is disregarded. In order to ascertain the neces 
 sary correction for expansion of the mercury, a 
 thermometer must be attached to the barometer 
 and observed at the same time. The rule usually 
 followed is to "subtract the ten-thousandth part 
 of the observed altitude for every degree of Fah 
 renheit above 32. Calculated correction tables 
 are published. 
 
 THE ANEROID BAROMETER (Gr. a, without, 
 and neros, a fluid). In this instrument the vary 
 ing pressure of the atmosphere is indicated, not 
 by the varying height of a column of fluid, but 
 by the compression and expansion of a small 
 metal vessel from which nearly all the air has 
 
BAKOMETER-GATJGE 
 
 66 
 
 BARRY 
 
 been exhausted. Its external appearance is that 
 of a circular brass box having a dial face, the 
 graduations of which are pointed out by a finger, 
 which is moved by machinery attached to the 
 elastic nearly exhausted vessel fixed within. At 
 the back of the instrument is a screw for the pur 
 pose of adjusting its indications by reference to 
 the mercurial barometer. The aneroid requires 
 to be thus originally set, and should be thus ad 
 justed from time to time. It possesses the ad 
 vantages of being very susceptible and portable, 
 and is a most convenient " weather glass" for 
 ship s use. It is also a convenient instrument 
 for roughly estimating the heights of mountains. 
 
 For additional information respecting the ba 
 rometer and its uses, see " Weather Guides," by 
 Rear-Admiral Jenkins. 
 
 Barometer-gauge. An appendage to a boiler 
 or condenser. to indicate the state of the vacuum. 
 
 Barquantine. See BARKANTINE. 
 
 Barque. See BARK. 
 
 Barra-boats. Vessels of the western isles of 
 Scotland, carrying ten or twelve men. They are 
 extremely sharp fore and aft, having no floor, 
 but with sides rising straight from the keel, so 
 that a transverse section resembles the letter V. 
 They are swift and safe, for in proportion as they 
 heel to a breeze their bearings are increased. 
 
 Barrack-smack. A corruption of Berwick- 
 smack ; a word applied to small Scotch traders. 
 
 Barracoon. A slave warehouse, or an in- 
 closure where slaves are kept. 
 
 Barrator. The master of a ship who commits 
 any fraud in the management of the ship, or in 
 relation to his duties as master, by which the 
 owners or insurers are injured. 
 
 Barratry. A fraudulent breach of duty or 
 willful act of known illegality on the part of a 
 master of a ship, in his character as master, or of 
 the mariners, to the injury of the owner of the 
 ship or cargo, and without his consent, and it 
 includes every breach of trust committed with 
 dishonest views ; as, by running away with a ship, 
 by scuttling or deserting her, or by embezzling 
 her cargo. 
 
 Barred Killifish. A fish from two to four 
 inches in length, which frequents salt-water 
 creeks, floats, and the vicinity of wharves. 
 
 Barrel. The cylinder between the whelps and 
 the pawl-rim constituting the main piece of a 
 capstan. The part of the wheel on which the 
 tiller-ropes are wound. The tube of a fire-arm. 
 The piston-chamber of a pump. A cylindrical 
 wooden vessel or cask, greater in length than in 
 breadth, bulging in the middle, and composed 
 of staves and headings held together by hoops 
 of wood or iron. A measure of capacity, as 31 
 gallons of wine, 36 gallons of ale, or 196 pounds 
 of flour. 
 
 BARREL-BUILDER. An old rating on the ship s 
 books, now called cooper. 
 
 BARREL-BULK. A measure used in estimating 
 capacity for freights. It is equal to five cubic 
 feet, or one-eighth of a ton. 
 
 Barrel-screw. A powerful machine, consist 
 ing of two large poppets, or male screws, moved 
 by levers in their heads upon a bank of plank, 
 with a female screw at each end. It is of great 
 use in starting a launch. 
 
 Barrier of Ice. Ice stretching from the land- 
 ice to the sea- or main ice, or across a channel, so 
 as to render it impassable. 
 
 Barrier Reefs. Coral reefs that either extend 
 in straight lines in front of the shores of a con 
 tinent or large island, or encircle smaller isles, 
 in both cases being separated from the land by a 
 channel of water. Barrier reefs exist in New 
 South Wales, the Bermudas, Laccadives, Mal 
 dives, etc. 
 
 Barren, James, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Virginia in 1769. Went to sea early in life, 
 and served with his father in the early marine of 
 Virginia, commanding the " Patriot." Entered 
 the navy as lieutenant, March 9, 1798, and 
 cruised under Barry, in the " United States," in 
 the West Indies, and afterwards to France. Pro 
 moted to captain, May 22, 1799, commanded the 
 "President" (44) in Dale s squadron to Tripoli, 
 and returned in Morris s squadron in the " New 
 York" (36) in 1802. Transferred to the " Chesa 
 peake" (38), and returned home in her. Again 
 went to the Mediterranean, in the " Essex" (32), 
 under the flag of his brother, S. Barren, and was 
 transferred to the "President" (44) in 1805. Was 
 sixth captain on the new navy list. Returning 
 home in 1806, he was given the "Chesapeake" 
 (44), and hoisted a broad-pennant on her in June, 
 1807. He put to sea June 22, and was followed 
 out of Chesapeake Bay by the "Leopard" (50), an 
 English frigate, and, while unprepared to fight, 
 was fired into from that ship, after some parley 
 concerning search, and compelled to surrender, 
 having been wounded. He was tried on several 
 charges, found guilty of two, and suspended from 
 rank and pay for five years, until 1813. During 
 the period of his suspension he was absent from 
 the United States, and on his return became 
 involved in a quarrel with Commodore Decatur, 
 and killed that officer in a duel, March 22, 1820, 
 himself being seriously wounded. Resided in 
 Norfolk until 1825. Commanded Philadelphia 
 navy-yard, 1825-27 ; Norfolk navy-yard, 1827- 
 32; Philadelphia navy-yard, 1833-37; wait 
 ing orders, 1838-42. He became the. senior 
 officer of the navy in 1839. On leave and wait 
 ing orders until his death, which occurred at 
 Norfolk in 1851, April 21, he being 82 years old, 
 and having been in the navy 53 years. F. S. 
 Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Barry, John, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 Wexford County, Ireland, in 1745. He went to 
 sea in the merchant service while yet young. 
 Arriving in America at the age of 15, he adopted 
 it as his home. He received one of the first com 
 missions incur navy. Commanded the "Lex 
 ington," brig (16), the first cruiser to sail, and 
 captured the British tender "Edward." Was 
 transferred to the frigate " Effingham" the same 
 year, and commissioned captain, No. 7 on the 
 list. Successfully removed the ships up the river 
 when Philadelphia was taken, and captured a 
 schooner by a bold dash with boats. Volun 
 teered with the army, and was aid to General 
 Cadwalader at Trenton. Appointed to command 
 the " Raleigh" (32), and being chased by a British 
 squadron, he made a brave defense, but ran his 
 ship ashore and lost her. 
 
 Commanded several letters of marque in the 
 West Indies. Sailed in February, 1781, in 
 command of the " Alliance" (32), with our min 
 ister, Laurens, to France, and on his return in 
 the same year, May 29, captured the English 
 sloop " Atalanta" and brig " Trepassa," and was 
 severely wounded. 
 
BAKSE 
 
 67 
 
 BAKT 
 
 Sailed again in 1781, conveying Lafayette and 
 De Noailles to France. Left L Orient February, 
 1782, and cruised in the Atlantic. Returning 
 from Havana in March, he was chased by three 
 English ships, but, engaging the first, so injured 
 her that he was able to escape. 
 
 Sailed at intervals during the war in letters of 
 marque. Made senior officer of the navy in 
 1794. In command of the " United States" (44) 
 at Philadelphia, and was influential in having 
 set on foot the construction of those heavy frigates 
 that won so many victories. During the war 
 with France he cruised in European waters in 
 the " United States," protecting our commerce. 
 He died at Philadelphia, September 13, 1803, at 
 the age of 58. He was the third commander- 
 in-chief of the navy. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Barse. The common river-perch. 
 
 Bar-shot. Two half balls joined together by 
 a bar of iron, for cutting and destroying spars 
 and rigging. "When whole balls are thus fitted 
 they are more properly double-headed shot. 
 
 Bart, Jean. Born at Dunquerque, October, 
 1650. Died in the same place, April, 1702. The 
 life of Jean Bart is, or was, a text-book in the 
 French naval schools, and his memory has al 
 ways been preserved among the French sea 
 faring population as a type of a French sailor. 
 He is to the French navy what Bayard and 
 Latour d Auvergne are to the army. In the 
 English navy every old prejudice, as well as the 
 custom of hard fighting, is said to come down 
 from Benbow, and so in the French navy all 
 such traditions are traced to Jean Bart. He 
 was a member of a seafaring family of Dun 
 querque, on the very N.E. confines of France. 
 He was rather more Flemish than French, in fact. 
 
 His father commanded a corsaire (somewhat 
 equivalent to a " letter of marque") out of the 
 port of Dunquerque. Jean Bart went to sea at 
 twelve years of age, and long before his major 
 ity became " second" of a brigantine, with the 
 euphonious name of the Cochon Gras, or " Fat 
 Hog," which cruised in the dangerous naviga 
 tion of the English Channel as a lookout against 
 the advance of the British fleet. 
 
 In 1666, Jean Bart entered the Dutch Marine, 
 serving under the celebrated Admiral de Ruyter 
 in the war with the English. He returned home 
 in 1672, having attained the rank of lieutenant, 
 leaving the Dutch service on account of war 
 breaking out between Holland and France. 
 Still a very young man, he commenced his 
 career as corsaire, and for six years his whole 
 sale captures of Dutch vessels caused his name 
 to be known in all northern ports. 
 
 In 1679, upon the recommendation of the cele 
 brated Vauban, Jean Bart was commissioned 
 as lieutenant de vaisseait in the French Royal 
 Marine. 
 
 In 1681 he was sent by Colbert, in command 
 of two frigates, against the Salee pirates. He 
 made a brilliant cruise, bringing back with him 
 many important Moorish prisoners. Two years 
 after, during the war between France and Spain, 
 he made important and successful cruises in the 
 Mediterranean, and was advanced to the rank of 
 capitalize de fregate. At this time he organized 
 squadrons of fast frigates and corsaires combined, 
 and so drilled them that they were not only able 
 to greatly interfere with the enemy s commerce, 
 
 but were able to unite and fight in line upon 
 occasion. 
 
 By this time his reputation as a bold and skill 
 ful commander was so well established that his 
 services were always sought for when anything 
 especially difficult or daring was to be attempted 
 by sea. 
 
 In 1689 he convoyed a fleet of powder and 
 provision vessels from Calais to Brest, fighting 
 his way down the channel through a fleet of 
 English and Dutch cruisers. During one of 
 these fights he saw his son, a child of ten years 
 old, showing some trepidation, and at once had 
 him lashed to the mainmast until the action was 
 over. This boy became a vice-admiral in the 
 French navy. 
 
 Soon after this Jean Bart was, with Captain 
 the Chevalier Forbin, wounded and taken pris 
 oner in a bloody frigate action in the channel. 
 They were taken to Plymouth, but, owing to 
 the stubborn resistance of the men-of-war, their 
 convoy escaped. He was not many days a pris 
 oner, but succeeded in escaping during foggy 
 weather, and, with Forbin and two or three 
 sailors, seized the yawl of a merchant vessel, and 
 pulled for the French coast. After forty-eight 
 hours of exposure and excessive labor, they 
 landed on the coast of Brittany, near St. Malo. 
 Both he and Forbin were made capitaines de vais- 
 seau for this exploit. 
 
 Jean Bart was soon at sea again, this time in 
 command of a squadron of frigates, with which 
 he fought several actions and made captures. 
 
 In 1690 he commanded the frigate " Alcyon," 
 in Tourville s fleet, with great approval from his 
 admiral ; and, upon his return from this cruise, 
 he was allowed to carry out his idea of forming 
 a special squadron to destroy the Dutch com 
 merce in the North Sea and in the Baltic. 
 
 By the time he had, at Dunquerque, got 
 ready seven frigates and a fire-ship, he found 
 himself blockaded by thirty-five English and 
 Dutch vessels. He managed, however, to elude 
 them all, and to make his cruise, during which 
 he burnt nearly a hundred English vessels, 
 landed near Newcastle, burnt a number of houses, 
 and returned safely to his port, with his squadron 
 intact and laden with spoil. Never willing to be 
 idle, he was soon off again into the North Sea, 
 this time with only three ships, and again re 
 turned with prizes. 
 
 Jean Bart s fame was now such that he was sent 
 for by Louis XIV., when the brilliant courtiers 
 of that august monarch were much amused with 
 his brusque manners and ways. He had already 
 been popularly called "the Sea Bear," and all 
 sorts of stories" are told of how he bore himself in 
 the presence of the " Sun of France," how he 
 smoked his pipe in his presence, clapped the 
 princes of the blood on the back, and generally 
 behaved as a genuine loup-de-mer. There ap 
 pears to be little truth in these relations. Jean 
 Bart was no doubt of simple, plain manners, 
 but long before this period he had associated 
 with some of the best men in France, and he 
 had commanded fleets very successfully. It is 
 not likely, therefore, that he would have been 
 found wanting in common courtesy. The fact 
 appears to be that the stories told of his be 
 havior at court were only a corollary to those 
 popularly related of him, so great was the en 
 thusiasm created by his exploits. 
 
BAKT 
 
 68 
 
 BARTON 
 
 It has been said by Eugene Sue, in his " His- 
 toirede Marine," that Jean Bart could not write, 
 and only signed his name mechanically. This is 
 not probable in the case of one who was a good 
 navigator. The "Archives de la Marine" show 
 exceedingly well-formed signatures of his, al 
 though the letters themselves are written by a 
 clerk, as is the case in all services and at all times. 
 The naval registers of Dunquerque show the 
 same thing. M. Vanderest, in his " Histoire de 
 Jean Bart," disposes of these stories in an en 
 thusiastic but complete fashion. 
 
 Portraits of Jean Bart show him to have been 
 a square-built man, of fair height, with a good, 
 open, Flemish countenance, blue eyes, and light 
 hair. He spoke several languages, including 
 English, but, it is said, spoke French with a 
 Flemish accent. 
 
 In 1693, Louis XI V., wishing to repair the 
 disgrace of La Hogue, gave Tourville command 
 of a new fleet, in which Jean Bart commanded 
 the " Glorieux," and in her fought at the battle 
 of Lagos. 
 
 After this he had command of a squadron of 
 six frigates to escort an immense convoy of 
 grain, and succeeded in getting his charge safely 
 into Dunquerque, after a severe battle with the 
 Anglo-Dutch fleet. By this action he saved that 
 part of France from impending famine ; and the 
 event was considered so important that a medal 
 was struck to commemorate it. In the same 
 year Jean Bart took three English frigates and 
 their convoy of transports, loaded with provisions 
 and stores. 
 
 In 1694, Louis XIV. gave Jean Bart lettres 
 de noblesse, with the cross of Saint Louis, and 
 the right to wear the fleur-de-lis in his arms. 
 
 In the same year the ennobled sailor nar 
 rowly missed capturing, in the North Sea, Wil 
 liam of Orange, who was returning from Hol 
 land to England. A curious speculation could 
 be elaborated upon the result of such a capture. 
 Certainly William would have fared badly as 
 prisoner of Louis XIV., and most likely James 
 II. would have had the English throne. 
 
 In 1696, Jean Bart went cruising in the North 
 Sea again, and though, as usual, blockaded in 
 Dunquerque by a strong Anglo-Dutch fleet, he 
 succeeded in eluding them and getting to sea. 
 Just north of the Texel he encountered the Dutch 
 Baltic fleet, and captured their escort of frigates 
 and some forty merchant vessels. When about 
 to take possession of them a very superior force 
 of the enemy hove in sight, and Jean Bart was 
 obliged to burn his prizes, which he did thor 
 oughly, and then made sail in retreat in line of 
 battle, the enemy not caring to pursue. His 
 thorough ability and boldness on this occasion 
 elicited the admiration of the very men opposed 
 to him. Forbin, in his " Memoires," pretends 
 that Jean Bart was only fitted for frigate actions 
 and coups de main, but we have seen that he 
 handled squadrons well, and his dispatches con 
 cerning such affairs were always clear and well 
 considered. On his return from this cruise Louis 
 XIV. sent for him, and said, "Jean Bart, I 
 have made you chef d escadron" (commodore, 
 a higher rank than in our day). " Sire," Jean 
 Bart replied, "you have done well." In the 
 previous year the "Grand Monarque" had hurt 
 Jean Bart s feelings by telling him he had not 
 done as well as usual. 
 
 In 1697, Jean Bart took the Prince de Conti to 
 Dantzic, where he went in the hope of obtaining 
 the throne of Poland. On their voyage they 
 were met by an enemy s squadron of no less than 
 nine line-of-battle ships, but they succeeded in 
 escaping from them. The prince said, " We 
 were near being taken!" "Oh, no," said Jean 
 Bart : "I had my son in the magazine, to blow 
 us up before that should happen." The prince 
 was, naturally, shocked at this, and said, "Your 
 remedy is worse than the evil ! I forbid any 
 thing of the kind while I am on board." Conti 
 got safe to Dantzic, but, as we all know, effected 
 nothing. 
 
 In 1697 occurred the peace of Ryswick, and 
 then Jean Bart, for the first time in his life, had 
 a period of repose, which he spent most simply, 
 with his family, at Dunquerque. 
 
 As soon as the war of the Spanish Succession 
 broke out he was ordered to command a fleet 
 again. Unfortunately, in his personal exertions 
 in pressing on the preparations he caught cold, 
 had a pleurisy, and died, in April, 1702, just at 
 the time that France had most need of him, for 
 she was soon to be brought to suffer great dis 
 asters, both by sea and land. 
 
 His successor in the fleet never tried to pass the 
 blockade, as Jean Bart had done so often, and 
 by so doing kept ten times his number employed 
 against him. 
 
 Jean Bart was only fifty-two years old when he 
 died, and the loss of no man of his time was more 
 deplored. 
 
 In spite of all his prizes he had saved very 
 little money, but the king gave his widow a pen 
 sion of 2000 crowns. 
 
 In 1845 a statue to Jean Bart, by the cele 
 brated David, was erected at Dunquerque. As 
 has been stated, his son became a vice-admiral, 
 and died at the age of 78. His grandson became 
 a chef d escadron, and died in 1784, being the 
 last of his direct descendants. 
 
 The last of the descendants of his brother, and 
 the last who bore the name of the great French 
 sailor, died a lieutenant de vaisseau in 1843. 
 E. Shippen, 
 
 Barton, Wm. P. C., Surgeon U.S. Navy. 
 Born in Philadelphia, Pa., November 17, 1786. 
 He was descended from Rev. Thomas Barton, an 
 Episcopal clergyman who came to America under 
 the patronage of the Penn family, and married 
 in Philadelphia the sister of David Rittenhouse, 
 the celebrated mathematician and astronomer, 
 and the first president of the Philosophical So 
 ciety. Dr. Barton received his classical educa 
 tion at Princeton College, where he graduated 
 with distinction at an early age. He commenced 
 the study of medicine under the direction of his 
 uncle, Dr. Benjamin Smith Barton, and gradu 
 ated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1808. 
 After graduating Dr. Barton commenced the 
 practice of medicine in Philadelphia. He was 
 surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital, and upon 
 recommendation of the celebrated Dr. Benjamin 
 Rush and Dr. Physick he was appointed surgeon 
 in the navy. He was for many years on active 
 duty, and distinguished himself in the treatment 
 of cases, and by his great skill in the perform 
 ance of difficult and delicate operations. During 
 his reliefs from sea service he was not content to 
 pass his time unemployed, but devoted himself 
 with great professional ardor to the publication 
 
BARUTH 
 
 69 
 
 BATED 
 
 of various works, which acquired at the time 
 cpnsiderable reputation. Among others, his 
 work on " Marine Hospitals" (published in 1814) ; 
 his " Vegetable Materia Medica," and " Flora of 
 North America," with drawings from nature, 
 made by himself and colored by his wife (pub 
 lished in 1817 and 1818) ; his translation of the 
 work of the celebrated Gregory on the Influences 
 of climate, and other treatises, were extensively 
 circulated, and gained for their author consider 
 able celebrity. He was chosen professor of bot 
 any in the University of Pennsylvania, became 
 a Fellow of the College of Physicians of Phila 
 delphia, a member of the American Philosophi 
 cal Society, president of the Linnsean Society, 
 and honorary member and surgeon of the First 
 City Troop. Upon the creation of the Bureau 
 of Medicine and Surgery in the navy, Dr. Barton 
 was tendered and accepted the appointment of 
 chief of that bureau. In this position he intro 
 duced many reforms, corrected and abolished 
 many abuses, and secured the warm commenda 
 tion and approval of the government. He re 
 signed his position as head of the bureau, but re 
 tained his commission in the navy, and had been 
 at the time of his death for several years the se 
 nior surgeon of the navy. He died at Philadel 
 phia, February 29, 1856. 
 
 Baruth. An East Indian measure, with a 
 corresponding weight of 3 pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 Base. The hemispherical portion of the 
 breech of a gun. The lowest part of the perim 
 eter of a geometrical figure. When applied to 
 a delta it is that edge of it which is washed by 
 the sea, or recipient of the deltic branches. The 
 lowest part of a mountain or chain of mountains. 
 The level line on which any work stands, as the 
 foot of a pillar. An old boat-gun ; a wall-piece 
 on the musketoon principle, carrying a 5-ounce 
 ball. 
 
 BASE-LINE. In surveying, the base on which 
 the triangulation is founded. In gunnery, a line 
 traced around the breech of a gun, which marks 
 the division between the breech and cylinder. 
 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS. That secure line of 
 frontier or fortresses, or strong country occupied 
 by troops, or of sea occupied by fleets, from 
 which forward movements are made, supplies 
 furnished, and upon which a retreat may be 
 made, if necessary. 
 
 BASE-RING. A molding around the breech 
 of a gun, between the base and first reenforce. 
 
 Bashaw. A Turkish title of honor and com 
 mand ; more properly pacha. 
 
 Basil. The angle to which the edge of ship 
 wrights cutting tools is ground away. 
 
 Basilicus. A name of Regulus, or the Lion s 
 Heart, a Leonis ; a star of the first magnitude. 
 
 Basilisk. An old name for a long 48-pounder, 
 the gun next in size to the carthoun : called 
 basilisk from the snakes or dragons sculptured 
 in the place of dolphins. Also, in still earlier 
 times, a gun throwing an iron ball of 200 
 pounds weight. 
 
 Basillard. An old term for a poniard. 
 
 Basin. A wet-dock provided with flood-gates 
 for restraining the water, in which shipping may 
 be kept afloat at all times of tide. Also, all those 
 sheltered spaces of water which are nearly sur 
 rounded with slopes from which waters are re 
 ceived ; these receptacles have a circular shape 
 and narrow entrance. Geographically basins 
 
 may be described as upper, lower, lacustrine, 
 fluvial, mediterranean, etc. 
 
 Basket-fish. A name for several species of 
 Euryale; a kind of star-fish, the arms of which 
 divide and subdivide many times, and curl up 
 and intertwine at the ends, giving the whole 
 animal something of the appearance of a round 
 basket. 
 
 Basket-hilt. The guard continued up the 
 hilt of a cutlass, so as to protect the whole hand 
 from injury. 
 
 Basking Shark. So called from being often 
 seen lying still in the sunshine. A large carti 
 laginous fish, the Squalus maximus of Linnaeus, 
 inhabiting the Northern Ocean. It attains a 
 length of 30 feet, but is neither fierce nor vora 
 cious. See SAIL-FISH, 
 
 Bass, or Bast. A soft sedge or rush (Juncus 
 Icevis), of which coarse kinds of rope and mat 
 ting are made. A Gaelic term for the blade of 
 an oar. 
 
 Basse. A species of perch (Perca labrax), 
 found on the coast and in estuaries, commonly 
 about 18 inches long. 
 
 Bassos. An old term for shoals. Rocks 
 a- wash, or below water. 
 
 Bast. The inner bark of the lime-tree or 
 linden, hence the cordage or mats made from 
 this bark. See BASS. 
 
 Basta. A word from the Italian, in former 
 use for enough. 
 
 Bastard. A term applied to all pieces of ord 
 nance of unusual or irregular proportions. A 
 square-sail in use in some Mediterranean craft; 
 it was occasionally used as an awning. 
 
 Bastard-mackerel, or Horse-mackerel. The 
 Caranx trachurus, a dry, coarse, and unwhole 
 some fish of the family Scomberidce. 
 
 Bastard-pitch. When a mixture of equal 
 parts of colophony, black pitch, and tar is boiled 
 down, it forms a liquid substance called by the 
 French bray gras. When a thicker consistence 
 is required more colophony is added, and it is 
 then called bastard-pitch. 
 
 Baste. To beat; to cudgel. To sew with 
 long stitches. 
 
 Bastile. A temporary wooden tower used 
 formerly in military and naval warfare. The 
 name is specifically applied to an old fortification 
 in Paris built in the 14th century, long used as a 
 state prison, but demolished by the populace in 
 1789. 
 
 Bat, or Sea-bat. An Anglo-Saxon word for 
 boat or vessel. A broad-bodied thoracic fish 
 (Chcetodon vespertilio}. 
 
 Batardate. A square-stemmed row-galley. 
 
 Batardeau. Planks to prevent the entrance 
 of water when a ship is hove down for repairs. 
 
 Batardelle. A galley less strong than the 
 capitana. 
 
 Batavia. A city and seaport of Java, at the 
 mouth of the Jukatra River, on the N. coast of 
 the island, with a free port, extensive and safe. 
 Lat. 6 8 S. ; Ion. 106 50 E. The bay or har 
 bor forms a roadstead of great beauty, and may 
 be entered by vessels of the largest class. Pop. 
 100,000. 
 
 Bateau. A flat-bottomed, sharp-ended, clumsy 
 boat used on the lakes and rivers of Canada. A 
 peculiar army pontoon. 
 
 Bated. A plump, full-roed fish is said to be 
 bated. 
 
BATELLA 
 
 70 
 
 BAY 
 
 Batella. A small plying-boat. 
 
 Bath (Maine). A city and port of entry on 
 the right bank of the Kennebec Kiver, 12 miles 
 from the ocean, 36 miles N.E. of Portland. 
 Wooden ship-building is carried on at Bath to a 
 very large extent. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Bath-brick. A preparation of calcareous 
 earth in the form of a brick, used for cleaning 
 bright-work. 
 
 Bathometer. A sounding apparatus, which 
 see. 
 
 Bathymetry. The art or science of measuring 
 the depth of the sea. 
 
 Batillage. An old term for boat-hire. 
 
 Batman. A weight used in the East, varying 
 according to locality. 
 
 Bat-swain. An Anglo-Saxon expression for 
 boatswain. 
 
 Battard. An early cannon of small size. 
 
 Batteloe. A lateen-rigged vessel of India. 
 
 Batten. Scantlings from one inch to three 
 inches broad. Long slips of timber used for set 
 ting fair the sheer lines of a ship, for staying the 
 lower masts, and for setting off distances gener 
 ally. Strips of wood secured to masts, yards, or 
 rigging to protect them from chafe. Slips of 
 wood used for confining the edges of the tarpau 
 lins over the hatches. 
 
 To BATTEN DOWN THE HATCHES, to haul over 
 the tarpaulins and secure them by nailing bat 
 tens over them. 
 
 Battering Charge. A charge of powder 
 heavier than the ordinary charge, to be used 
 against ironclads or masonry at short range for 
 a limited number of fires. 
 
 Battering-guns, or Battering-pieces. Guns 
 whose weight and power fit them for demolishing 
 by direct force the works of the enemy. 
 
 Battery. A place where guns or mortars are 
 mounted. A body of cannon taken collectively ; 
 as, the starboard battery. Two or more pieces 
 of artillery in the field. Barbette battery, one 
 without embrasures. Floating-battery, a vessel 
 heavily clad with iron, and having little or no 
 steam-power, used for harbor defense ; a battery 
 mounted on a raft or hulk. Masked, or covered 
 battery, one concealed from the enemy by a bank 
 or breastwork until it opens fire. Water-battery, 
 one close to and nearly on a level with the water. 
 Mortar-batteries have no embrasures, the mortar 
 being generally fired at an angle of 45. See 
 ELECTRIC BATTERY, GALVANIC BATTERY. 
 
 Battle-lantern. A lantern supplied to each 
 gun for lighting up the decks during an engage 
 ment at night. 
 
 Battle-royal. A term derived from cock- 
 fighting, but generally applied to a noisy, con 
 fused row. 
 
 Battle the Watch. To contend with a diffi 
 culty ; to shift as well as one can ; to depend on 
 one s own exertions. 
 
 Bat-ward. An old term for a boat-keeper. 
 
 Bavin. See BORE. 
 
 Baw-burd. An old expression for larboard. 
 
 Bawdrick. A corruption of baldrick. 
 
 Bawe. A species of worm used for bait for 
 fish. 
 
 Bawgie. One of the names given to the great 
 black and white gull (Larus marinus). 
 
 Bawkie. A name for the awk, or razor-bill. 
 
 Baxios (Sp.). Bocks or sand-banks covered 
 with water. 
 
 Bay. An inlet of the sea, having a wide 
 entrance, and usually smaller than a gulf, al 
 though many large sheets of water are named 
 bays. Of the many names adopted to designate 
 inlets from the seas, those of fiord and viik may 
 be properly included under the head of bays. 
 The greater portion of inlets so named are of salt 
 water, but many fresh-water bays exist, espe 
 cially in the great American lake-region. An 
 enumeration of the bays would require several 
 pages, and some that are not from their size ge 
 ographically important are remarkable never 
 theless from the rivers that empty into them, as 
 Delaware Bay ; the cities that are situated on 
 them, as Boston Bay ; from natural causes, as 
 Fundy Bay from its great rise of tides ; from 
 historical reasons, as Aboukir Bay ; from stra 
 tegical causes, as Gibraltar Bay ; or from some 
 use made of them, rendering them peculiarly 
 notable, as Botany Bay, the home of English 
 convicts. 
 
 Keith Johnston, in his "Royal Atlas," enu 
 merates more than a thousand bays, and this 
 number would doubtless increase threefold on a 
 careful count of our charts of the known coasts 
 of the world. Of these, Europe has by far the 
 greater number, there being about 440 on the 
 chart, and North America comes next with 230, 
 while South America and Oceanica have up 
 wards of 100 each, and Asia has upwards of 80, 
 Africa having no more than 60. Of European 
 countries, the British Isles have the most bays, 
 and Norway comes next with her fiords. Hol 
 land, Belgium, and Corsica have none; Italy, 
 Portugal, Austria, and Turkey one each. 
 
 The principal bays of Asia are the Tidanski, 
 Taimurski, Katangski, and Borkaia on the Arctic 
 Ocean, Avatcha, Ulbansk, Vladimir, Victoria, 
 Broughton, Hangchow, Yeddo, Hakodadi, Wan- 
 chow, Manila to the eastward, and the great 
 Bay of Bengal on its south shores. 
 
 The principal African bays are Sofala, Dela- 
 
 oa, and Algoa to the eastward, False, Table, 
 t. Helena, and Walfisch on the west, Algiers, 
 Tunis, and Arab bays to the northward. Neu- 
 stadt, Kiel, and Liibeck on the Baltic, Cardigan, 
 Donegal, and Galway in the British Isles, and 
 Biscay, Cancale, and Fetubal on the west coast, 
 comprise the principal European bays. North 
 America has many large bays, chief of which 
 are Mackenzie, Baffin s, Frobisher s, Hudson, 
 James, Ungava, and Cumberland on the north 
 coast, Melville and Disco in Greenland, Bay of 
 Fundy, Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Delaware, 
 Chesapeake, Long, and Onslow bays on the east 
 coast, Appalachicola, Pensacola, and Galveston 
 on the Gulf, Campeachy, Fonseca, and Tehuan- 
 tepec in Mexico and Central America, and Mag- 
 dalena, Seb. Vizcaino, Monterey, San Francisco, 
 and Bristol bays on the west coast. South 
 America has Bahia de Todos os Santos, Rio 
 Janeiro, and White bays on its east coast, and 
 Arauco, Coquimbo, Salado, Moreno, Pisco, Se- 
 chura, and Buenaventura on her west coast. 
 Australia is well provided with bays, Prince 
 Charlotte, Hervey, Encounter, Geographe, and 
 Shark bays being the most important. 
 
 Three bays are particularly noticeable from 
 their great size, viz. : 1. Bay of Bengal. This 
 is a triangular sheet of water, an arm of the 
 Bengal Sea, washing the northeastern shores of 
 Hindostan and the west coast of Pegu. It ex- 
 
BAY 
 
 71 
 
 BEAM 
 
 tends over 6 degrees of latitude and 10 of longi 
 tude, being about 200,000 square rniles in area. 
 It is the recipient of the great Brahmapootra, 
 Ganges, and Shina rivers, but contains no ob 
 stacles to navigation except near the land. 2. 
 Bay of Biscay. This is a trapezoidal-shaped bay, 
 an arm of the Atlantic, washing the southwest 
 coast of France, where its shores are low and 
 marshy, and the rocky and mountainous north 
 coast of Spain. It embraces some 8 degrees of 
 latitude and 5 of longitude, being about 125,000 
 square miles in area. It receives the waters of 
 the Adour, Garonne, and Loire. 3. Hudson^s 
 Bay, discovered in 1615 by Hendrik Hudson. 
 It is situated wholly within the North American 
 continent, and is nearly square, having, as an 
 addition, James Bay, itself of some extent. 
 Hudson s Bay occupies some 9 degrees of lati 
 tude and 14 of longitude, and contains some 
 300,000 square miles "of area. It communicates 
 with the Atlantic by a strait of the same name, 
 and with the Arctic Ocean by several passages. 
 Some idea of the great size of these bays is ob 
 tained by a comparison with countries. The 
 Bay of Bengal is as large as Germany, or its own 
 neighbor, Siam. The Bay of Biscay is as large 
 as Holland, and Hudson s Bay would about cover 
 Spain. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Bay. The fore part of the ship between decks. 
 See SICK-BAY. 
 
 Bayamos. Violent blasts of wind blowing 
 from the land, on the south coast of Cuba, and 
 especially from the Bight of Bayamo. They are 
 accompanied by wind and lightning, and gen 
 erally terminate in rain. 
 
 Bay-bolt. A bolt with a barbed shank. 
 
 Bay-gulf. A branch of the sea of which the 
 entrance is the widest part, as contradistin 
 guished from the strait-gulf. 
 
 Bay-ice. Ice newly formed on the surface of 
 the sea, and having the color of the water ; it is 
 then in the first stage of consolidation. The 
 term is sometimes applied to ice a foot or two in 
 thickness in bays. 
 
 Bayle. An old term for bucket. 
 
 Bayonet. A short triangular dagger fitted to 
 the muzzle of a musket or rifle, for the purpose 
 of giving the fire-arm effect as a thrusting 
 weapon. It takes its name from Bayonne, 
 France, where it is said to have originated. It 
 was first used by the French in the Netherlands 
 in 1647. Formerly the handle of the bayonet 
 was inserted into the bore of the fire-arm, and 
 had to be unfixed when the piece was fired; to 
 remedy which it is now made with a hollow 
 handle and a shoulder so that it fits over thebarrel, 
 and sets otf from the line of fire. Modifications 
 affecting the shape of the blade have also been 
 made, of which the sabre-bayonet and the more 
 recent trowel-bayonet are examples. The latter 
 form of bayonet, invented by Bvt. Lt.-Col. Rice, 
 "U.S.A., is less sightly than the triangular, either 
 fixed or worn as a side-arm, but is most valuable 
 as an intrenching tool to forces operating on 
 land. 
 
 Bayou. The outlet of a small lake ; a creek 
 or small river. 
 
 Bazaras. A large pleasure-boat of the Ganges 
 impelled by oars and sails. 
 
 Beach. A shelving tract of sand or shingle 
 washed by the sea or a lake, and interposed be 
 tween the water and the land on which vegeta 
 
 tion grows. The beach of the ocean is, generally 
 speaking, little more than the space between low- 
 and high- water mark ; the beach of a lake that 
 between the water-marks of the highest and 
 lowest ordinary level of the lake. An inland 
 sea without tide, such as the Mediterranean, has 
 generally little beach, except on flat coasts, where 
 the waters are apt to rise and fall considerably, 
 according to the prevailing winds. To land a 
 person with the intention of deserting him, an 
 old buccaneer custom. To run a boat or a vessel 
 on the beach, either to land or for the purpose of 
 repairs where there are no other accommodations. 
 See SURF. 
 
 BEACH-COMBERS. Long waves rolling in from 
 the ocean. Loiterers around a bay or harbor. 
 
 BEACH-COMBING. Loafing about a port to 
 filch small things. 
 
 BEACH-FLEA. A small crustacean (Talitra) 
 frequenting sandy shores. 
 
 BEACH-GRASS. Alga marina thrown up by the 
 surf or tide. 
 
 BEACH-MAN. A person on the coast of Africa 
 who acts as interpreter to shipmasters, and 
 assists them in conducting trade. 
 
 BEACH-MASTER. An officer appointed to su 
 perintend the disembarkation of an attacking 
 force, who holds plenary powers, and generally 
 leads the storming party. 
 
 BEACH-MEN. A name applied to boatmen and 
 those who land people through a heavy surf. 
 
 BEACH-RANGERS. Men hanging about sea 
 ports, who have been turned out of vessels for 
 bad conduct. 
 
 BEACH-TRAMPERS. A name applied to the 
 coast-guard of England. 
 
 Beacon. A post or stake erected over a shoal 
 or sand-bank, as a warning to seamen to keep at 
 a distance ; also a signal-mark placed on the top 
 of hills, eminences, or buildings near the shore 
 for the safe guidance of shipping. 
 
 BEACONAGE. A payment levied for the main 
 tenance of beacons. 
 
 Be -aft. A term frequently used by sailors for 
 abaft. 
 
 Beak, or Beak-head. A piece of brass like a 
 beak, fixed at the head of the ancient galleys, 
 with which they pierced their enemy s vessels. 
 Pisjeus is said to have first added the rostrum or 
 beak-head. Later it was a small platform .at the 
 fore part of the upper deck, but the term is now 
 applied to that part without the ship before the 
 forecastle, or knee of the head, which is fastened 
 to the stem and is supported by the main knee. 
 Latterly the whole of this is enlarged, strength 
 ened, and armed with iron plates, and thus the 
 armed stem revives the ancient strategy in sea- 
 fights. 
 
 Beam. A long double stratum of murky 
 clouds generally observed in the Mediterranean 
 previous to a violent storm. A collection of 
 parallel rays emitted from the sun or other lu 
 minous body. Any large piece of timber or iron 
 long in proportion to its other dimensions. One 
 of the heavy transverse timbers which support 
 the deck and retain the sides of a ship in shape. 
 Beam, or breadth of beam, the width of a ship. 
 On the beam, in a line with the beams, or at 
 right angles to the keel. 
 
 "BEAM^CENTRE. The fulcrum on which the 
 walking-beam vibrates. 
 
 BEAM-ENDS. A ship is said to be on her beam- 
 
BEAN-COD 
 
 72 
 
 BEAUMONT 
 
 ends when she has heeled over so much that her 
 beams approach a vertical position. The expres 
 sion is used figuratively for a person in distress. 
 
 BEAM-ENGINE. An engine with an oscillating 
 beam, by which the power is transmitted from 
 the piston to the shaft. 
 
 BEAM-FILLINGS. Short pieces of wood to fit 
 between the beams, to complete a cargo of timber. 
 
 BEAM-LINE. A line which indicates the in 
 tersection of the upper part of the beams with the 
 frames of a ship. 
 
 BEAM, WALKING-. The beam of a beam-en 
 gine, called also working-beam. 
 
 Bean-cod. A small fishing-vessel, or pilot- 
 boat, common in Spain and Portugal. It is 
 fitted with a large lateen-sail, and sometimes has 
 an outrigger over the stern. It is extremely 
 sharp forward, and works well to windward. 
 
 Bear. A coir-mat filled with sand, or a block 
 of stone, matted, loaded with shot, and fitted 
 with ropes, for hauling to and fro to grind the 
 decks. 
 
 Bear. To bear down upon a vessel is to ap 
 proach her from to windward. To bear up, to 
 put the helm up and run oif to leeward. To bear 
 sail, stiff under canvas. To bring the guns to 
 bear, to so lay the ship s head that the guns may 
 be pointed at the enemy. To bear in with (or 
 off from) the land is to stand in toward (or off 
 from) the coast. To bear off, to push one object 
 off from another ; as, a lighter from the ship s 
 side. 
 
 BEAK A BOB, or A FIST. Jocular for lend a 
 hand. 
 
 BEAR A HAND Hasten. 
 
 Beard. The silky filaments by which some 
 testacea adhere to the rocks. The gills of an 
 oyster. The rays of a comet emitted toward that 
 part of the heavens to which its proper motion 
 seems to direct it. 
 
 Bearding. The diminution of the edge or 
 surface of a piece of timber from a given line; 
 as, on the stem, deadwood, etc. 
 
 Bearding-line. The trace of the inner surface 
 of the ship s skin on the keel, stem, and stern-post. 
 
 Bearer. An instrument used in handling 
 heavy shells. 
 
 Bearing. The manner in which a person 
 conducts himself. The portion of an axle or 
 shaft in contact with its supports. The bearing 
 of an object or place is the angle contained be 
 tween the meridian and the vertical plane 
 through the object. It is the same as the course 
 to the place. 
 
 BEARING, COMPASS. The bearing of an ob 
 ject as observed by the compass. It is the angle 
 between the needle of the standard compass on 
 board the ship of the observer and the direction 
 of the object : it is, therefore, affected by the de 
 viation and variation of the compass. If the 
 correction for deviation be applied, the True 
 Magnetic Bearing is obtained ; and if, further, 
 the correction for variation be applied, the True 
 Bearing or Azimuth is deduced 
 
 BEARING, MAGNETIC. The magnetic bearing, 
 or " True Magnetic Bearing," of an object is the 
 angle which its direction makes with the mag 
 netic meridian. This is the bearing which "is 
 observed with the azimuth compass after being 
 corrected for local deviation ; from it the True 
 Bearing is deduced by applying the correction 
 for variation. 
 
 BEARING, TRUE. The true bearing of an ob 
 ject, or the " Bearing," properly so called, is the 
 angle which the direction of the object makes 
 with the meridian. It is thus qualified to dis 
 tinguish it from the Compass and Magnetic Bear 
 ing. See AZIMUTH. 
 
 BEARING, TAKING A. Taking a bearing of an 
 object is to ascertain its direction by the com- 
 
 BEARINGS, CROSS. " Cross Bearings" are the 
 bearings of two or more objects taken from the 
 same place, and therefore intersecting or " cross 
 ing" each other at the station of the observer. 
 "When near a coast where the landmarks are 
 well laid down on the chart, cross bearings give 
 the position with ease and accuracy. 
 
 BEARING, LINE OF. If a ship is in the vicin 
 ity of land, one " Circle of Equal Altitude" 
 (Sumner s Method) is often of great use to the 
 navigator who is uncertain of his exact position. 
 He is on some point of this circle, but does not 
 know where. Let him project it on his chart 
 and produce the resulting line till it meets or 
 passes near the land. Such a line is called a 
 "Line of Bearing." If it hit any prominent 
 mark or light, the bearing of this is known, and 
 by sailing along the line of bearing till the object 
 is sighted, the exact position of the ship may be 
 picked up. The line of bearing may cross the 
 range of a light-house, and consequent!} , when 
 the light is first sighted, the exact position of the 
 ship is known. Or the position on the line of 
 bearing may be found by soundings. When 
 the coast trends parallel to the line of bearing, 
 the distance of the ship from the shore is indi 
 cated, though her absolute position is uncertain. 
 
 Bearing Binnacle. A small binnacle, gener 
 ally placed in the centre of the forward part of 
 the poop-deck. 
 
 Bearings. The widest part of a vessel below 
 the plank-shear. The line of flotation when 
 properly trimmed with stores and ballast on 
 board. To bring a person to his bearings is to 
 bring him to his senses ; to put him under control. 
 
 Beat. To make progress against a head wind 
 by a series of zigzag courses. 
 
 Beaten Back. Forced to return on account 
 of a head wind and sea. 
 
 Beating Wind. A wind which necessitates 
 tacking to make progress. 
 
 Beating the Booby. Swinging the arms from 
 side to side to create a warmth by accelerating 
 the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Beaufort (S. C.), a port of entry, on Port 
 Royal or Beaufort Island, on an inlet called 
 Port Royal River, about 14 miles from the 
 ocean, and 55 miles W.S.W. of Charleston. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 Beaumont, J. C., Commodore U.S.N. Ap 
 pointed midshipman, March 1, 1838; sloops-of- 
 war "Ontario" and "Erie," 1838-40; frigate 
 "Constellation" during her cruise around the 
 world, 1840-44. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, 1844; sloop- 
 of-war " Jamestown," coast of Africa, acting mas 
 ter, 1844-46; ship-of-the-line "Ohio," West 
 India Squadron, 1846; at the fall of Vera Cruz ; 
 frigate " Columbia," 1847, acting lieutenant ; 
 Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C., 1848; 
 razee " Independence," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 master and acting lieutenant, 1849-52. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant in 1852; Naval Ob- 
 
BECALM 
 
 BELFRY 
 
 servatory, 1852-54; steamer "San Jacinto," on 
 the coast of Europe and the West Indies, 1854- 
 55; frigate "Potomac," Home Squadron, 1856; 
 steam-frigate " Wabash," Home Squadron, 1857 ; 
 receiving-ship at New York, 1857-58; steam- 
 sloop "Hartford," East India Squadron, 1859- 
 60; sloop-of-war "John Adams," executive- 
 oificer, 1860-61 ; lieutenant-commander, com 
 manding steamer " Aroostook," North Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1862; was an active participant in 
 the engagements with the enemy s batteries in 
 the James River and at Fort Darling, in May, 
 1862. 
 
 Promoted to commander, 1862 ; commanded 
 the steam-gunboat "Sebago," South Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1862-63; commanded monitor "Nan- 
 tucket," 1863, in various engagements with the 
 rebel fortifications in Charleston harbor, and 
 took a leading part in the capture of Fort 
 "Wagner; commanded steamer "Mackinaw," 
 1864-65, in the North and South Atlantic 
 Squadrons ; participated in all of the attacks on 
 Fort Fisher, where his vessel was badly cut up 
 by the enemy s shell ; participated in all of the 
 subsequent engagements with the rebel batteries 
 on the Cape Fear River ; commanded the iron 
 clad " Miantonomah," special cruise on the coast 
 of Europe, 1866-67 ; retired in 1868. 
 
 Restored to the active list in 1873, as captain ; 
 commanded the steamer "Powhatan," 1873-74, 
 special service. 
 
 Promoted to commodore in 1874 ; chief signal- 
 officer of the navy, 1875-79 ; commandant navy- 
 yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 1879-80. 
 
 Becalm. To render quiet or calm by inter 
 cepting the current of air in its passage to the 
 object ; thus the jib is becalmed by the foresail 
 when before the wind. 
 
 BECALMED. Rendered quiet. State of a ves 
 sel at sea when there is no wind. 
 
 Becket. A small grommet used for various 
 purposes ; as, for reefing with toggles, for hitch 
 ing the standing part of a fall, "etc. A sailor s 
 name for pocket. 
 
 Bed. Flat thick pieces of wood, lodged under 
 the quarters of casks containing any liquid, 
 and stowed in a ship s hold, in order to keep 
 them bilge-free ; being steadied upon the beds by 
 means of wedges called quoins. The impres 
 sion made by a ship s bottom on the mud when 
 aground. The bite made in the ground by the 
 fluke of an anchor. A kind of false deck, or 
 platform, placed on those decks where the guns 
 were too low for the ports. A platform for sup 
 porting a mortar. That part of the channel of a 
 stream over which the water generally flows, as 
 also that part of the basin of a sea or lake on 
 which the water lies. Bed of a gun-carriage, or 
 stool-led. The piece of wood between the brackets 
 which, with the intervention of the quoin, sup 
 ports the breech of the gun. It is itself sup 
 ported, forward, on the bed-bolt, and aft on the 
 rear axle. Red of the bowsprit, a bearing formed 
 out of the stem and apron, to support the bow 
 sprit ; it is lined with lead to prevent the water 
 from getting below on account of any shrinkage 
 in the timber. 
 
 BED-BOLT. A horizontal bolt passing through 
 both brackets of a gun-carriage, and on which 
 the forward end of the stool-bed rests. 
 
 BEDDING A CASK. Placing dunnage round it. 
 
 Bedlamers. Young Labrador seals, which 
 
 set up a dismal cry when they cannot escape 
 their pursuers. 
 
 Bed- or Barrel-Screw. A powerful machine 
 for lifting large bodies, and placed against the 
 gripe of a ship to be launched for starting her. 
 
 Be-dundered. Stupefied with noise. 
 
 Bee-blocks, or Bees. Pieces of hard wood 
 bolted to the sides of the bowsprit, through 
 which are rove the fore-topmast stays. 
 
 Beef. A figurative term for strength. More 
 beef ! more men on. 
 
 Beef-eater. A man more distinguished for 
 
 Shysical strength than for mental weight. It is 
 ack s term for an Englishman. 
 
 Beetle. A shipwright s heavy mallet for 
 driving the reeming-irons. 
 
 Beetle-head. A large beetle used in pile- 
 driving. 
 
 Before the Mast. A term used to distin 
 guish the ship s crew from the officers. 
 
 Before the Wind. A vessel having the wind 
 aft is before the wind. The yards are squared, 
 and as the mainsail becalms the foresail and 
 causes the ship to steer badly, it is generally 
 taken in, though in the very long ships of the 
 present day it is sometimes carried. 
 
 Beggar-bolts. A contemptuous term for the 
 missiles which were thrown by the galley-slaves 
 at an approaching enemy. 
 
 Behavior. The action and qualities of a ship 
 under different impulses. Seamen speak of the 
 manner in which she behaves as if she acted by 
 her own instinct. 
 
 Behring, Vitus, a celebrated Danish navigator. 
 Born in Jutland, 1680, entered the Russian navy 
 at an early age, and fought with distinction 
 against the Swedes. In 1725 engaged in com 
 mand of an expedition to explore the Sea of Kamt- 
 chatka, this skillful Danish navigator discovered 
 in 1728 the straits which connect the Pacific and 
 the Atlantic, and they received his name. In a 
 subsequent voyage he was wrecked on Behring s 
 Island, where he died December 8, 1741. 
 
 Beikat. See BYKAT. 
 
 Beiled. A sea-term in the old law-books, ap 
 parently for moored. 
 
 Belay. To secure a rope with turns around a 
 pin, cleat, or cavil. 
 
 BELAYING-PIN. A small pin of wood or iron 
 to which are made fast the hauling parts of the 
 running-gear. 
 
 Belcher, Sir Edward. Born in 1799, entered 
 the navy in 1812 as a volunteer ; in 1816 took 
 part in the bombardment of Algiers. Distin 
 guished above every other British admiral for 
 his voyage round the world and his exploration 
 of the* American shores of the Pacific, he was 
 nevertheless unfortunate in an attempt that he 
 made in 1852 to trace the whereabouts or the 
 fate of Sir John Franklin. He lost both of his 
 ships in the enterprise, and was, according to 
 custom, tried by court-martial for the disaster. 
 The verdict was honorable acquittal. In 1864 he 
 became rear-admiral of the red. 
 
 Belfast (Me.). A city and port of entry on 
 the W. side of Penobscot Bay (which is the es 
 tuary between the Penobscot River and the 
 ocean), 42 miles E. by N. from Augusta, and 30 
 miles from the ocean. Many of the inhabitants 
 are employed in ship-building. Pop. 6200. 
 
 Belfry. A frame or shelter under which the 
 ship s bell is suspended. 
 
BELL 
 
 74 
 
 BENDS 
 
 Bell. The rapid ringing of a ship s bell is the 
 fire-alarm, which see. The tolling of the bell is 
 the summons to divine service. The principal 
 use of the bell on board ship is to mark the time. 
 At four, eight, and twelve o clock the bell is 
 struck eight times, half an hour afterwards it is 
 struck once, and an hour afterwards it is struck 
 twice, and so on until the end of the watch, 
 when it is struck eight times, after which the 
 preceding routine is again carried out. Time is 
 reckoned by bells, thus three bells in the fore 
 noon is half-past nine o clock, and four bells in 
 the afternoon is two o clock, etc. 
 
 Bell, Charles H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, 1798. Appointed midship 
 man June 18, 1812 ; attached to Commodore De- 
 catur s squadron all of 1813 and until the spring 
 of 1814; in the summer of 1814 was transferred 
 to the squadron of Commodore Chauncey, on 
 Lake Ontario, where he remained until the war 
 ended ; attached to Commodore Decatur s squad 
 ron, in the Mediterranean, in 1815. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 28, 1820; 
 serving in sloop-of-war "Erie," West India 
 Squadron, 1829 ; navy-yard, New York, 1833 ; 
 sloop " Vincennes," Pacific Squadron, 1834-35; 
 commanding schooner * Dolphin , Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1836. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 10, 
 1840, and ordered to command the schooner 
 "Dolphin," Brazil Squadron; commanding 
 sloop-of-war "Yorktown," coast of Africa, 
 1846 ; navy-yard, New York, 1850 ; special duty, 
 1851-54. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, August 12, 1854 ; 
 commanding frigate " Constellation," Mediter 
 ranean Squadron, 1856-58; commandant Norfolk 
 navy-yard, 1860. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding Pacific Squadron, 1862-64 ; special 
 duty, James River, 1865. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866; 
 commandant navy-yard, New York, 1866-68; 
 died 1872. 
 
 Bell, Henry H. f Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in North Carolina, 1808 ; midshipman, August 
 4, 1823 ; lieutenant, March 3, 1831 ; commander, 
 August 12, 1854 ; captain, 1861 ; commodore, 
 July 16, 1862 ; rear-admiral, July 25, 1866. First 
 served in the "Grampus" in clearing the coast 
 of Cuba of pirates. He commanded one of the 
 vessels of the East India Squadron, which, in 
 November, 1856, captured and destroyed the four 
 barrier forts near Canton, China. Assigned to 
 the Gulf Squadron in 1861, and as fleet-captain 
 took an active part in the capture of New Or 
 leans and siege of Vicksburg. He was for a 
 time in 1863 in command of the West Gulf Squad 
 ron, and when Admiral Thatcher was ordered to 
 other duty its command again devolved on him. 
 In July, 1865, he was ordered to command the 
 East India Squadron, and was very active in 
 putting down the pirates that infested the Chi 
 nese seas. In 1867 he was retired, but had not 
 been relieved when he was drowned at the mouth 
 of the Osaka River, Japan, January 11, 1868. 
 
 Bella Stella. A name used by old seamen for 
 the cross-staif. 
 
 Bellatrix (Lat. warlike). The name for the 
 bright star y Orionis. 
 
 Bell-buoy. A buoy on which is placed a bell, 
 which is sounded by the action of the waves. 
 
 Belligerent (Lat. bellum, war, and gerens, 
 gerentis, waging). Waging war. Tending ot 
 pertaining to war ; as, belligerent rights. A nation, 
 power, or state carrying on war. See INTER 
 NATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Bellona. The goddess of war. 
 
 Bellows. An old hand at the bellows, a phras( 
 equivalent to saying that a person is well posted 
 in all his duties. When a gale increases th( 
 sailors say there is afresh hand at the bellows. 
 
 Bell-rope. A piece of rope spliced around the 
 clapper for convenience in striking the bell. 
 
 Belly. The inner or hollow part of comps 
 timber. The swell of a sail. Bellying canvas, 
 sails inflated with wind. 
 
 BELLY-BAND. A strengthening band of canvas 
 from leech to leech, half-way between the lower 
 reef-band and the foot of the sail. 
 
 BELLY-GUY. A rope or tackle applied half-way 
 up a sheer-leg, or long spar, to keep it from 
 buckling. 
 
 BELLY-MAT. See PAUNCH-MAT. 
 
 BELLY-STAY. See BELLY-GUY. 
 
 Belone. A genus of abdominal fishes of the 
 Esox or pike family. 
 
 Below. The opposite of on deck. Below the 
 spar-deck. 
 
 Belt. A zone ; as, a calm belt. To strike. 
 
 Belting. A beating. 
 
 Beluga. A fish of the cetaceous order and 
 dolphin family. The northern beluga is the 
 white whale and white-fish of the whalers. 
 
 Benbow, John, Admiral. Born in Shrop 
 shire in 1650. Beginning life as a midshipman 
 in the reign of James II., Benbow became a 
 favorite of his successor, William III. After 
 much hard service in different quarters he was 
 engaged with a superior French force under Ad 
 miral Ducasse off St. Martha, in the West In 
 dies, where he lost his right leg. In the midst 
 of the fight he was deserted by a part of his 
 squadron, which sorely galled him, as it reflected 
 on the honor and credit of the navy. He ex 
 claimed that he would rather have lost both legs 
 than witnessed the disgrace of the service. Died 
 November 29, 1702. 
 
 Bench-mark. One of a number of marks 
 along a line of survey indicating a series of levels 
 at different elevations. 
 
 Bend. To make fast a rope to an anchor, spar, 
 or another rope. (See STUN -SAIL-HALLIARD-, 
 FISHERMAN S-, SINGLE-, DOUBLE-, and CAR- 
 RICK-BEND.) To bend a sail is to make it fast to 
 its proper yard, gaff, or stay, and reeve all the 
 gear belonging to it. To bend to the oars, to give 
 way strong. To bend the cable, the operation of 
 making fast the cable to the ring of the anchor. 
 The term is still used for shackling the chain to 
 the anchor. 
 
 Bender. A spree or jollification. 
 
 Bend-mold. A mold made to form the fut- 
 tocks in the square body. 
 
 Bends. The thickest and strongest planks on 
 the outward part of a ship s side. They are more 
 properly called wales. They are reckoned from 
 the water, and are distinguished by the titles of 
 first, second, or third bend. They are the chief 
 strength of a ship s sides, and have the beams, 
 knees, and foot-hooks bolted to them. Bends 
 are also the frames or ribs that form the ship s 
 body from the keel to the top of the side, indi 
 vidualized by each particular station. That at 
 
BE-NEAPED 
 
 75 
 
 BIDDLE 
 
 the broadest part of the ship is denominated the 
 midship-bend or dead-flat. 
 
 Be-neaped. The situation of a vessel when 
 she is aground at the height of spring-tides. 
 See NEAPED. 
 
 Bengal-light. See BLUE-LIGHT. 
 
 Benicia (Cal.). On the north side of the 
 Strait of Carquinez, about 40 miles N.E^. of San 
 Francisco, and 56 miles S.W. of Sacramento. 
 It is at the head of navigation for the largest 
 ships, and contains the depot and machine-shops 
 of the Pacific Mail Company. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Benjy. A low-crowned straw hat, with a very 
 broad brim. 
 
 Benk. A term for a low bank, or ledge of 
 rock ; probably the origin of bunk, or sleeping- 
 places in merchant vessels. See BUNK. 
 
 Benn. A small kind of salmon. 
 
 Bent. The trivial name of the Arundo are- 
 naria, or coarse unprofitable grass growing on 
 the sea-shore. 
 
 Bentinck-boom. The boom which stretches 
 the foot of the foresail in many small square- 
 rigged merchantmen ; particularly used in 
 whalers in the ice, with a reefed foresail to see 
 clearly ahead. The tack and sheet are thus 
 dispensed with, a tackle amidships bringing the 
 leeches taut. 
 
 Bentincks. Triangular courses, so named 
 after Captain Bentinck, by whom they were 
 invented. 
 
 Bentinck Shrouds. Ropes of the size of the 
 topmast rigging, seized on to the weather futtock- 
 staff and set up to the lee channels, to support 
 the mast when rolling heavily. They are not 
 now in use. 
 
 Bent on a Splice. Going to be married. 
 
 Bergen, a fortified city and seaport of Nor 
 way, is on a peninsula at the end of a deep bay 
 on the Atlantic, 190 miles W.N.W. of Chris- 
 tiania. Lat. 60 24 N. ; Ion. 5 18 E. Bergen 
 is the station of a naval squadron. Its harbor is 
 deep and sheltered, and defended by several forts. 
 Ship-building is carried on ; the fishery is, how 
 ever, the principal employment. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Bermuda Sails. See MuGiAN. 
 
 Bermuda Squall. A sudden and strong wintry 
 tempest experienced in the Atlantic Ocean, near 
 the Bermudas ; it is preceded by heavy clouds, 
 thunder, and lightning. It belongs to the Gulf 
 Stream, and is felt, throughout its course, up to 
 the banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 Bermudez, Juan. A Spaniard who, in the 
 era of Spanish discoveries (1522), came upon 
 the cluster of islands in the "West Indies, to 
 which he gave his own name. The Bermudas, 
 though often "vexed" with storms, are among 
 the most beautiful of the isles of the west, and 
 are particularly valuable as harbors for vessels 
 bound either to the north or south of the Amer 
 ican continent. They are now the property of 
 Great Britain. "Somerset Island" derives its 
 name from a navigator who was driven upon it 
 in a gale. 
 
 Bermudians. Three-masted schooners, built 
 at Bermuda for the English during the war of 
 1814 ; they went through the waves without 
 rising to them, and consequently were too tick 
 lish for northern stations. 
 
 Bernak. The barnacle goose (Anser bernicla). 
 
 Bersis. A species of cannon formerly much 
 used at sea. 
 
 Berth. The place in which a ship lies when 
 she is at anchor. Situation, position, or em 
 ployment of an individual. The space allotted 
 to a sailor to sleep in. To give a point or rock a 
 wide berth, to keep at a considerable distance 
 from it. To berth a ship s company, to allot to 
 the crew the place in which they are to swing 
 their hammocks. The watches are distributed 
 in equal numbers on each side of the ship. The 
 boys are berthed apart from the men. Marines, 
 quartermasters, and others who sleep in till six 
 bells are berthed well aft, so they will not be 
 disturbed when all hands are called. Boat 
 swain s mates swing near the hatches. Over 
 each man s hammock-hook is hung a tin plate 
 with his hammock-number. 
 
 BERTH-DECK. The deck next below the lower 
 gun-deck. 
 
 Berthing. The rising or working up of the 
 planks of the ship s side. Berthing also denotes 
 the planking outside above the sheer-strake. 
 
 Bervie. A haddock split and half dried. 
 
 Berwick Smack (Eng.). The old and well- 
 found packet of former days. 
 
 Bessemer Process. See STEEL. 
 
 Best Bower. See ANCHOR. 
 
 Betelguese, or Betelgeux. The name for the 
 bright star a Orionis. 
 
 Betty Martin. My eye and Betty Martin is 
 an expression implying disbelief. It is a corrup 
 tion of the Romish mtAt, beate Marline I 
 
 Between-decks. The space comprised be 
 tween any two whole decks. 
 
 Betwixt Wind and Water. That portion of 
 a vessel s side which is sometimes below and 
 sometimes above the surface of the water. This 
 is the most dangerous place to receive a shot, 
 hence the figurative phrase " a shot betwixt wind 
 and water," to express a palpable hit in an 
 argument. 
 
 Bevel. Any angle except a right angle ; 
 a sloped surface. An instrument composed of a 
 stock and movable tongue, used by shipwrights 
 in getting out frame timber, plank, etc., to the 
 desired angle. 
 
 BEVELING,. The angle formed between one 
 surface and another. When it is an obtuse 
 angle it is called a standing beveling ; when the 
 angle is acute it is called an under beveling. 
 
 BEVELING-BOARD. A piece of white pine board 
 on which the beveling of the frame timbers is 
 described. 
 
 BEVELING-EDGE. The edge of a ship s frame 
 which is in contact with the skin. 
 
 Bewpar. The old name for bunting. 
 
 Bezant. An early gold coin, so called from 
 having been first coined at Byzantium. 
 
 Bhur. A lighter used for discharging cargo 
 at Calcutta. 
 
 Bibbs. Pieces of timber bolted to the hounds 
 of a mast, to support the tressle-trees. 
 
 Bible. A small holystone. It is also called 
 a prayer-book. It is so named because sailors 
 kneel in using them to clean the decks. 
 
 Bible-press. A hand rolling-board for car 
 tridges, rocket, and port-fire cases. 
 
 Biiddle, James, Commodore U.S.N., was born 
 in Philadelphia in 1783, and entered the navy as 
 midshipman in 1800. On his second cruise he was 
 captured, with Capt. Bainbridge and the other 
 ofiicers and crew of the frigate " Philadelphia," 
 by the Tripolitans, when that ship had struck 
 
BIDDLE 
 
 76 
 
 BILGE 
 
 upon an unknown rock off the harbor. After an 
 imprisonment of twenty months the captives were 
 released. From that time until the war of 1812 
 Biddle was actively employed, end upon the 
 breaking out of hostilities sailed in the sloop-of- 
 war "Wasp," Capt. Jacob Jones, as first lieu 
 tenant. In October, 1812, the "Wasp" cap 
 tured the British sloop-of-war "Frolic," of 
 about equal force, this being the second of those 
 famous naval combats of which Alison says, 
 " No words can convey an adequate idea of the 
 impression which the successive capture of these 
 three frigates and two sloops made, not only in 
 Great Britain and America, but over the whole 
 civilized world." For gallantry on this occa 
 sion Lieut. Biddle was promoted, and placed in 
 command of the sloop-of-war "Hornet." On 
 this ship he was blockaded, with Commodore 
 Decatur s squadron, in New London. Escaping 
 the blockade he sailed for the East Indies, and 
 off the island of Tristan d Acunha encountered 
 the British brig " Penguin," of equal force with 
 the "Hornet." After an action of twenty-two 
 minutes, in which the British ship lost a third 
 of her officers and crew killed and wounded, the 
 "Penguin" surrendered, but was so damaged 
 that it was necessary to scuttle her. Biddle was 
 severely wounded in the neck, and on his return 
 to the United States was promoted to the rank 
 of captain. 
 
 After the termination of the war he was con 
 stantly employed both in the ordinary routine of 
 duty and also upon special services of more impor 
 tance. In 1817 he took possession of Oregon Ter 
 ritory ; in 1826 he signed a commercial treaty with 
 Turkey. From 1838 to 1842 he was governor of the 
 Naval Asylum, Philadelphia ; and at his sugges 
 tion Secretary Paulding sent thither unemployed 
 midshipmen for instruction, thus laying the foun 
 dation of a naval school. His last cruise was in 
 command of a squadron in the East Indies. 
 After exchanging the ratifications of the first 
 treaty with China, in 1845, he touched at Japan, 
 and was for a short time in command on the 
 coast of California during the Mexican war. He 
 died in Philadelphia in October, 1848. 
 
 Biddle, Nicholas, Captain U.S.N. An officer 
 of the Colonial period. In command of the 
 " Andrew Doria," of 14 guns, he displayed great 
 activity, zeal, and intelligence. He made a num 
 ber of prizes, and had at an early period raised 
 the expectations of his friends to such a height 
 that by many of them he was pronounced, and 
 probably justly, not to have his superior in merit 
 in the service. While cruising near the banks 
 of Newfoundland he intercepted two transports, 
 with 400 Highland troops on board, and was so 
 successful in making captures that it is said he 
 returned to the Delaware with five only of the 
 men which composed his crew when he last left 
 that river. He had distributed them among the 
 captured, and received in return such of the crews 
 of his prizes as were disposed to enter the Con 
 tinental service. Capt. Biddle was appointed by 
 Congress (June 6, 1776) to command one of the 
 frigates then building in Philadelphia, the 
 " Randolph," of 32 guns. In February, 1777, 
 she sailed on a cruise. In a few days a defect 
 discovered in his masts induced him to put into 
 Charleston, S. C., to repair them. Having re 
 fitted, he again sailed, and three days after 
 being out tie fell in with four vessels from 
 
 Jamaica, one of them, the "True Briton," of 
 20 guns. Having captured the whole four, he re 
 turned with them to Charleston. This success 
 gave such animation and encouragement to the 
 State authorities of South Carolina that they 
 fitted out four small vessels of war (" General 
 Moultrie," "Fair American," "Polly," and 
 "Notre Dame"), and placed them under the 
 orders of Capt. Biddle. The immediate object 
 was an attack upon the " Carrysfort," 32, the 
 "Perseus," 24, the " Hinchinbrook," 16, and 
 a privateer then cruising off Charleston. The 
 bar of Charleston and adverse winds detained 
 Capt. Biddle so long in Rebellion Road, that 
 when he got to sea the British cruisers had dis 
 appeared. He captured a small schooner, and 
 proceeded on his cruise till, between 8 and 
 o clock at night of March 7, 1778, he fell in 
 with the "Yarmouth," Capt. Vincent, of 64 
 guns. An action immediately commenced by a 
 broadside from the " Randolph," and was main 
 tained with great energy for twenty minutes or 
 more, when the "Randolph" blew up, and the 
 gallant Biddle, with 310 of his crew, perished in 
 a blaze of glory. Four only of his men escaped, 
 and they were picked up by the " Yarmouth" 
 four days after the action, having supported 
 themselves on a piece of the wreck, without any 
 thing to subsist on or quench their thirst ex 
 cepting rain-water sucked from a blanket, which 
 they had providently preserved. 
 
 Bid-hook. A small kind of boat-hook. 
 
 Biel-brief. The bottomry contract in Den 
 mark, Sweden, and the north of Germany. 
 
 Bierling. An old name for a small galley. 
 
 Bifurcate. A river is said to bifurcate, or to 
 form a fork, when it divides into two distinct 
 branches, as at the heads of deltas and in fluvial 
 basins. 
 
 Bight. The loop of a rope. A bend of the 
 coast forming a wide-mouthed bay. 
 
 Bilander. A small merchant vessel with two 
 masts, particularly distinguished by the form of 
 her mainsail. It is bent to the whole length of 
 the yard, hangs fore-and-aft, and is inclined at 
 an angle of 45 to the horizon. Few vessels are 
 now rigged in this manner, and the name is in 
 discriminately used. 
 
 Bilbo. An old term for a flexible kind of 
 cutlass from Bilboa, where the best Spanish 
 sword-blades were made. 
 
 Bilboa. A city and seaport of Spain, on the 
 Nerva, 6 miles from its mouth. Lat. 40 14 
 3" N. ; Ion. 2 56 / 5" W. Bilboa has large rope- 
 walks and docks for ship-building, and the an 
 chors for the Spanish navv are here manufactured. 
 Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Bilboes. Bolts and shackles used by the 
 Spanish to confine the legs of their prisoners. 
 
 Bilge, or Bulge. The largest circumference 
 of a cask. That part of the hull of a ship which 
 approaches more nearly to a horizontal than to 
 a vertical position. W hen a ship runs aground 
 and receives an injury in this part of the hull 
 she is said to be bilged. To bilge, in a figurative 
 sense, means to be dropped from the service for 
 failure to pass an examination. 
 
 BILGE-BOARD. The board covering the lim 
 bers. 
 
 BILOE-FEVEK. A fever caused by the foulness 
 of the hold. 
 
 BILGE-FREE. The situation of a cask when it 
 
BILL 
 
 77 
 
 BILL OF LADING 
 
 rests entirely on its beds, and the bilge is clear 
 of everything. 
 
 BILGE-KEEL. A projection on the bilge of a 
 vessel parallel with the keel. Used in flat-bot 
 tomed light-draft vessels to check the rolling. 
 
 BILGE-KELSON. A timber extending fore-and- 
 aft inside the bilge to strengthen the frame. 
 
 BILGE-PLANK. A strengthening plank at the 
 bilge outside or inside. 
 
 BILGE-PUMP. A pump for clearing the hold 
 of water. A small pump for drawing off the 
 bilge- water when the ship is careened so that the 
 water cannot make its way to the pump-well. 
 
 BILGE-WATER. "Water that has collected in 
 the bottom of a ship. It should be pumped out 
 frequently, as it soon gives off an offensive odor 
 and endangers the health of the crew. 
 
 BILGE-WATER ALARM. A bilge water gauge 
 (which see), to which is an attachment that 
 sounds an alarm when the water has risen to a 
 certain height. 
 
 BILGE- WATER DISCHARGE. An apparatus for 
 discharging the bilge- water automatically ; a 
 tube from the pump-well through the stern, 
 through which a current is induced by the 
 vacuum which is formed at the rear orifice by 
 the passage of the ship through the water. 
 
 BILGE-VATER GAUGE. An apparatus to in 
 dicate the depth of water in the hold. 
 
 BILGE-WAYS. A series of timbers on either 
 side of a vessel on the launching-ways, on which 
 rests the cradle which supports the body of the 
 ship in launching. 
 
 Bill. The end of a compass or knee-timber. 
 The extremity of the arm of an anchor. A 
 point of land, as Portland Bill. The point of a 
 hook. See FIRE-BILL, WATCH-BILL, QUARTER- 
 BILL, and STATION-BILL. 
 
 Bill of Entry. A document containing an 
 account of goods entered at a custom-house, 
 either inward or outward. 
 
 Bill of Exchange. A note ordering the pay 
 ment of a sum of money at a specified time and 
 place, to a person therein appointed, in consider 
 ation of value received by the drawer at another. 
 
 The negotiation of inland bills of exchange, or 
 those drawn by one person on another residing in 
 the same country, may be effected either with or 
 without the agency of bankers. 
 
 Usually there are three parties to a bill of ex 
 change, viz., the drawer, the acceptor, and the 
 indorser. When a party refuses to accept a bill 
 drawn upon him, the holder s notary takes pro 
 test upon it, whereupon it is returned to the 
 original drawer, who is liable in damages to the 
 holder. Should the bill be accepted, but not 
 paid when due, the holder s notary protests for 
 non-payment. The acceptor is always liable to 
 the holder ; and the holder has recourse also 
 against the drawer and the indorsers : the acceptor 
 is liable only for the expenses of an action against 
 himself, therefore the holder must make his elec 
 tion whom to sue. To preserve this recourse the 
 earliest possible notice of the non-payment of a 
 bill, to the drawer, and also to the indorsers, must 
 be given. Every bill must be for payment of 
 money only ; but it does not affect the validity of 
 a bill that its payment should depend upon some 
 contingency, provided it be a contingency which 
 must eventually happen, such as the death of a 
 party now living. An alteration in the date, sum, 
 or time of payment of a bill, will invalidate it ; 
 
 but it has been ruled that the words " or order" 
 may be interlined in it. A bill may be accepted 
 either absolutely or with qualifications. When 
 accepted qualifiedly, it does not bind the acceptor 
 till the contingency stipulated shall have hap 
 pened. A bill may be also accepted partially, 
 that is, it may be drawn for $200, but accepted 
 only for $150. In all cases of conditional or 
 partial acceptance, it is the duty of the holder, 
 if he wish to preserve his recourse against the 
 drawer and indorsers, to give notice to them 
 of such partial or conditional acceptance. When 
 a bill is made payable a certain time after sight, 
 the holder must get the acceptor to note upon 
 it the day when it was presented for his ac 
 ceptance. Notice of the dishonoring of a bill 
 by non-payment, or non-acceptance, should al 
 ways be given to the immediate indorser, next 
 day, through the post-office. Bills may be trans 
 ferred either by delivery only or by indorsation 
 and delivery. Bills payable to order require in 
 dorsation and delivery ; but bills payable to 
 bearer may be transferred by either mode. A 
 special indorsement precludes the person in 
 whose favor it is made from making a transfer. 
 After the payment of a part, a bill may be in 
 dorsed over for the residue. If a bill is not pre 
 sented for payment when due, the drawer and 
 indorser will be exonerated from liability. , If a 
 bill fall due on Sunday, or a holiday, it must be 
 presented for payment on the day preceding. 
 The days of grace ought to have expired before 
 a bill is presented for payment. No days of 
 grace are allowed on bills payable on demand, or 
 where no time of payment is expressed. 
 
 Bills of exchange may be drawn payable at 
 sight, or so many days or months after date, or 
 at usance, as it is termed ; that is, the usual term 
 allowed by the law of the place where the bill is 
 payable. Most countries, however, allow a few 
 days beyond the term of payment for settling or 
 taking up a bill. These are called days of grace. 
 
 Bill of Freedom. A full pass for a neutral in 
 time of war. 
 
 Bill of Health. A certificate properly authen 
 ticated by the consul, or other proper authority 
 at any port, that the ship comes from a place 
 where no contagious disorder prevails, and that 
 none of the crew, at the time of her departure, 
 were infected with any such distemper. Such 
 constitutes a clean bill of health, in contradis 
 tinction to &foul bill. 
 
 Bill of Lading. A document signed by the 
 master of a ship by which he acknowledges the 
 receipt of a merchant s goods, and undertakes to 
 deliver the same at the place to which they are 
 consigned. Bills of lading are generally printed, 
 leaving blanks to be filled in. Three sets are 
 made out, one of which should be sent to the 
 consignee by mail ; the second transmitted to 
 him by the vessel itself ; and the third retained 
 by the shipper. Bills of lading are transferable 
 by indorsement. The indorsement and delivery 
 of the bill of lading transfers the property in 
 the goods from the time of such delivery. The 
 bona fide holder of the bill, indorsed by the con 
 signee, is entitled to the goods if he purchased 
 the bill for a valuable consideration. Where 
 there are several bills of lading, each is a con 
 tract in itself as to the holder of it, but the whole 
 make only one contract as to the master and 
 owners. If the several parts of the bill of lading 
 
BILL OF PARCELS 
 
 78 
 
 BLACK-HOLE 
 
 be indorsed to different persons, a competition 
 may arise for the goods ; and the rule generally 
 is that if the equities be equal, the property passes 
 by the bill first indorsed. See CHARTEK PARTY. 
 
 Bill of Parcels. A written account, given by 
 seller to buyer, of the quantities, sorts, and prices 
 of goods bought. 
 
 Bill of Rights. In English law the declara 
 tion delivered by the two houses of Parliament 
 to the Prince of Orange, February 13, 1688, at the 
 period of his succession to the British throne, in 
 which, after a full specification of various acts 
 of James II. which were alleged to be illegal, 
 the rights and privileges of the people were as 
 serted. In the United States the term is applied 
 to a declaration of the fundamental rights and 
 liberties of the people which, in the shape of ab 
 stract propositions and elementary principles, 
 forms part of the constitutions of many of the 
 States. 
 
 Bill of Sale. See VESSELS, TITLE TO. 
 
 Bill of Sight. "When an importer, from 
 ignorance of the actual quantities or qualities 
 of goods assigned to him, is unable to make an 
 exact entry at the custom-house, he is allowed to 
 make an entry by bill of sight, that is, accord 
 ing to the best description that can be given. 
 On this, the collector or comptroller is empow 
 ered to grant warrant for the landing of the 
 goods, the importer being bound to make, within 
 three days afterwards, a perfect entry, and either 
 to pay down the duties or to warehouse the 
 goods. 
 
 Bill of Store. A license granted by the cus 
 tom-officers for carrying, free of duty, such stores 
 as may be necessary for a voyage. Returned 
 goods may be entered by a bill of store. 
 
 Bill-boards. Projections of oak plank se 
 cured to the bow of the ship abaft the cat-heads 
 for the fluke of the anchor to rest on. 
 
 Billet. The tin tag hung above the ham 
 mock-hook on which the number is painted. 
 An individual s situation or employment. A 
 memorandum of the various duties and stations 
 of a seaman, which is given to him when he first 
 comes on board for duty. 
 
 Billet-head. A scroll-head. A round piece 
 of wood fitted to the bow or stern of a whale- 
 boat, around which the line is veered when the 
 whale is struck. 
 
 Billet-wood. Small wood used for dunnage. 
 
 Bill-fish. See GAR-FISH. 
 
 Billow. A great wave or surge of the sea. 
 
 Bindings. A general term for beams, knees, 
 clamps, transoms, and other connecting parts of 
 a vessel. 
 
 Binding Strakes. Thick planks on the decks, 
 running just outside the line of hatches, jogged 
 down over the beams and ledges. The principal 
 strakes of plank in a vessel, especially the sheer- 
 strake and wales. 
 
 Binge. To rinse a cask. 
 
 Bingid. An old term for locker. 
 
 Bink. See BENK. 
 
 Binnacle. A case or box to contain the com 
 pass. It is fitted with a lamp to light up the 
 card at night. 
 
 BINNACLE-LIGHT. The lamp used in a bin 
 nacle. 
 
 Binocle. A telescope adapted to the use of. 
 both eyes. 
 
 BINOCULAR TELESCOPE. A two-barreled tele 
 
 scope invented by Galileo in 1617, though the 
 invention is sometimes credited to Schyrleus de 
 Rheita. 
 
 Bior-linn. A very old word for boat. 
 
 Bird s-foot Sea-star. The Palmipes me 
 branaceous, one of the Arteriadce, with a fl 
 thin, pentagonal body, of a bright scarlet color. 
 
 Bird s-nest. A round top at a mast-head f< 
 a look-out station. A smaller crow s-n 
 Chiefly used in whalers, where a constant loo 
 out is kept for whales. See EDIBLE BIRD 
 
 NEST. 
 
 Bireme. In Roman antiquity, a vessel wi 
 two rows of oars. 
 
 Birt. A kind of turbot. 
 
 Birth-marks. Marks denoting the depth 
 which a ship may be loaded with safety. 
 
 Biscuit. Hard bread for naval use. 
 
 Bishop. A name of the great northern div 
 (Colymbus glacialis). 
 
 Bismer. A name of the stickleback (Qast\ 
 osteus spinachia}. 
 
 Bissextile (Lat. bis, twice, and sextus, sixth 
 "Leap-year." In the Julian calendar eve 
 fourth year consisted of 366 days. The add 
 tional day was inserted after the 24th of Febru 
 ary, which in the Roman calendar was called 
 "the sixth day before the Calends of March," 
 and being reckoned twice over every fourth year 
 it was called bissextus dies, and the year was 
 named Bissextilis. 
 
 Bit. A short bit is equal to 12 cents, a long 
 bit to 25 cents. The term arose from the cutting 
 of Spanish silver coins into " bits." It is still in 
 use in the west, especially in California. 
 
 Bite. The hold which the short end of a lever 
 has under the object to be lifted. When the 
 fluke of an anchor enters the ground it is said 
 to bite. 
 
 Bitt. To take a turn with the cable around 
 the head of the bitts. To double bitt or to 
 weather-bitt the cable is to take an extra turn 
 around the head of the bitts. 
 
 Bitter. Any turn of the cable around the 
 bitts. Hence a ship is brought to a bitter when 
 the chain has run out to that point. 
 
 Bitter-end. The last end. The end of the 
 cable not bent to the anchor. 
 
 Bitt-head. The upper part of the bitts. 
 
 Bitt-pin. A large iron pin in the head of the 
 bitts to prevent the chain from slipping off in 
 veering. 
 
 Bitts. Vertical timbers projecting above the 
 decks. The bitts for the cable are circular, and 
 are coated with iron. There are generally two 
 pairs of them, the after pair being used for the 
 sheet-chains. The topsail-sheet bitts are fixed 
 near to, and forward of, the masts. 
 
 Bitt-stopper. A stopper used at the bitts for 
 securing the cable. See STOPPER. 
 
 Bize. A cold wind from the summits of the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 Blackamoor. A thoroughly black negro. 
 
 Black-and-tan. An epithet applied to a 
 mulatto. 
 
 Black-bird Catching. The slave-trade. 
 
 Black-birds. Negroes. 
 
 Black-fish. A name applied to many differ 
 ent species of cetaceans. 
 
 Black-head. The pewitt-gull (Larus ridi- 
 bundus). 
 
 Black-hole. A place of solitary confinement. 
 
 n 
 
BLACK INDIES 
 
 79 
 
 BLAKE 
 
 Black Indies. Newcastle, Sunderland, and 
 Shields. 
 
 Blacking down. The operation of tarring and 
 blacking the rigging. 
 
 Black-jack. A piratical-looking individual. 
 The ensign of a pirate. 
 
 Black-list. A record of misdemeanors for 
 merly kept by officers for their private use. The 
 list of men who are detailed for extra duty as a 
 punishment. 
 
 Black Ship. A term applied to a ship built 
 in India, of teak. 
 
 Black South-easter. A well-known violent 
 wind at the Cape of Good Hope, in which vapory 
 clouds, called the Devil s Table-cloth, appear on 
 Table Mountain. 
 
 Black Squall. This squall may be principally 
 ascribed to the heated state of the atmosphere 
 near the land. 
 
 Black-strake. The range of planks just above 
 the wales. 
 
 Black-strap. Bad port wine. The dark wines 
 of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Black-tang. The sea-weed Fucus vesicolosus, 
 or tangle. 
 
 Blackwall-hitch. A hitch made by putting 
 the bight of a rope over the back of a hook, and 
 jamming the end under the standing part. It 
 is used principally for the hauling part of a 
 tackle when there is not sufficient length to 
 make a cat s-paw. 
 
 Black Whale. A name for the right whale 
 of the south seas (Balcena australis), 
 
 Black Vomit. A copious vomiting of dark- 
 colored matter, or the substance so discharged ; 
 one of the most fatal symptoms in yellow fever. 
 
 Blad. A term used on the northern coasts of 
 Great Britain for a squall accompanied by rain. 
 
 Bladder-fish. A name for the tetrodon. See 
 BALLOON-FISH. 
 
 Blade. The cutting part of a sword or cutlass. 
 The part of the arm of an anchor prepared to 
 receive the palm. One of the projecting arms 
 of a screw-propeller. The part of an oar which 
 is immersed in the water in rowing. 
 
 Blae, or Blea. The alburnum or sap-wood of 
 timber. 
 
 Blake, George S., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Massachusetts. Appointed midshipman, April 
 23, 1818 ; commissioned as lieutenant, March 31, 
 1827; West India Squadron, 1829; survey of 
 Narragansett Bay, 1831-33 ; navy-yard, Phila 
 delphia, 1834 ; coast survey, 1837-48 ; navy-yard, 
 Philadelphia, 1848 ; commissioned as commander, 
 February 27, 1847 ; fleet-captain, Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1850-52 ; bureau construction, 1853- 
 55 ; commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855 ; 
 special duty, 1856-57; superintendent Naval 
 Academy, 1858-65 ; commissioned as commo 
 dore, July 16, 1862 ; light-house inspector, 1866- 
 69; died "at Longwood, Mo., June 24, 1871. 
 
 Blake, Homer C., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New York, 1822. Appointed midshipman, 
 March 2, 1840; frigate "Constellation," East 
 India Squadron, 1841-43 ; sloop " Preble," coast 
 of Africa, 1843-45; naval school, 1846; sloop 
 "Preble," Pacific Squadron, 1846-48. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 
 1846; receiving-ship, New York, 1849-50; 
 frigate " Raritan," Pacific Squadron, 1850-52; 
 receiving-ship, Boston, 1853-56. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 14, 
 
 1855 ; frigate " St. Lawrence," Brazil Squadron, 
 1857-59; frigate "Sabine," Home Squadron, 
 186162. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; commanding steamer "Hatteras," West 
 ern Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1862-63. On 
 January 11, 1863, the "Hatteras," while at an 
 chor off Galveston, Texas, was ordered by signal 
 from the "Brooklyn," flag-ship of the division 
 blockading Galveston, to chase a sail to the 
 southward and eastward. Commander Blake at 
 once obeyed the signal, and steamed at all speed 
 in the direction indicated, and rapidly gained 
 upon the suspicious vessel, which was discovered 
 to be a steamer. When within about four miles 
 of the vessel, it was observed that she had ceased 
 to steam, and was lying "broadside on," await 
 ing the approach of the " Hatteras." When at 
 about the distance of seventy-five yards, Com 
 mander Blake hailed, and asked, " What steamer 
 is that?" The reply was, " Her Britannic Ma 
 jesty s ship Vixen. " Commander Blake ordered 
 a boat to be sent aboard, but before the order 
 could be obeyed, the commander of the strange 
 craft hailed and said, " We are the Confederate 
 steamer Alabama, " which was accompanied by 
 a broadside. The " Hatteras" returned the fire 
 almost instantly, and steamed directly for the 
 "Alabama" in the hope to carry her by board 
 ing ; but the attempt was defeated by the com 
 mander of the piratical craft. At length a shell 
 entered the hold of the " Hatteras," and at the 
 same instant another shell passed through the 
 "sick bay," exploding in an adjoining compart 
 ment, and setting fire to the vessel. Still another 
 shell entered the cylinder, filling the engine-room 
 and deck with steam, and depriving Commander 
 Blake of all power to manoeuvre his vessel or 
 work the pumps, upon which the reduction of 
 the fire depended. With the vessel on fire in 
 two places and her engine disabled, Commander 
 Blake felt that it was useless to sacrifice the lives 
 of his command, and so ordered a lee gun to be 
 fired. The "Alabama" then asked if assistance 
 was desired, to which an affirmative answer was 
 given. After considerable delay, the " Ala 
 bama" sent assistance, and the crew and officers 
 of the " Hatteras" were transferred to the " Ala 
 bama." Ten minutes after the crew left her 
 decks, the "Hatteras" went down bow first. 
 The battery upon the " Alabama" brought into 
 action against the "Hatteras" numbered seven 
 guns, consisting of four long 32-pounders, one 
 100-pounder rifled gun, one 68-pounder, and one 
 24-pounder rifled gun. The guns used in the action 
 by the "Hatteras were two short 32-pounders, one 
 30-pounder rifled Parrot, and one 20-pounder 
 rifled gun. The action was fought at a distance of 
 about seventy-five yards. The crew of the " Hat 
 teras" was landed at Port Royal, Jamaica, and 
 was with all dispatch conveyed from Port 
 Royal to Kingston, under the guidance of the 
 American vice-consul, John N. Camp. Com 
 manding steamer < Utah , North Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, 1863-65; shelled three divisions 
 of rebel army at Malvern Hill, 1864 ; assisted 
 to repulse an attack of the rebels on the right of 
 the army of the James, October, 1864; engage 
 ment with rebel batteries at Trent Reach, James 
 River, 1865; navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 
 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 3, 1866 ; 
 
BLAKE 
 
 BLOCK 
 
 
 commanding steam-sloop " Swatara," European 
 Squadron, 1868-69 ; commanding steam-sloop 
 "Alaska," Asiatic Fleet, 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, May 25, 1871 ; com 
 manding naval rendezvous, New York, 1873-78. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, 1880, and died in 
 February of that year. 
 
 Blake, Robert. Born at Bridgewater, in 
 Somersetshire, in 1599. In the annals of the 
 Commonwealth of England few names stand 
 higher than that of this bold seaman. He was 
 appointed for his pre-eminent ability and singu 
 lar intrepidity "General of the Sea" in 1649, 
 yet he was fifty years of age before he became a 
 sailor. One of his earliest exploits was the de 
 feat of Prince Rupert s fleet on the Tagus in 
 1651. In 1652 he gained a victory over Van 
 Tromp after a running fight of three days. The 
 piratical Tunisians had no mercy at his hands. 
 His greatest achievement was at Santa Cruz, in 
 1657. The Spaniards, with several treasure- 
 ships, were, as they supposed, impregnable with 
 in the fortified harbor; but Blake dashed in, 
 faced the fire of the castle, silenced the smaller re 
 doubts, and, seizing the richly-laden galleons, 
 sailed out without the loss of a single ship. It 
 was truly said of him that " it would have been 
 hard to find the thing which Blake dared not 
 do." Died at Plymouth, August 17, 1657. 
 
 Blakeley, Johnston, Captain U.S.N. Born 
 at Seaford, county Down, Ireland, October, 1781; 
 lost at sea in 1814. His father emigrated to Wil 
 mington, N. C. The members of his family dying 
 one by one, he was left alone in the world, and had 
 also the misfortune to lose the little remnant of 
 their property. A friend gave him an education, 
 and procured for him a midshipman s warrant, 
 February 5, 1800. Made lieutenant, February 10, 
 1807; master-commander, July 24, 1813; captain, 
 November 24, 1814. In 1813 he commanded the 
 brig " Enterprise," and did good service in pro 
 tecting our coasting trade. In August he was ap 
 pointed to "The Wasp," in which, June 28, 1814, 
 he captured, after an action of nineteen minutes, 
 in latitude 48 36 north, H. B. M. ship " Rein 
 deer," which he was obliged to burn. This 
 severe action showed the manifest superiority of 
 American gunnery. The "Reindeer" made 
 three attempts to board, in the last of which her 
 gallant commander was slain. For this exploit 
 Congress voted him a gold medal with suitable 
 devices. September 1, 1814, in a severe action 
 with the brig "Avon," he compelled her to 
 strike ; but the approach of another enemy pre 
 vented his taking possession of her. " The 
 Wasp" was afterward spoken off the Western 
 Isles, and on September 21 captured the brig 
 " Atalanta," which arrived safely in Savannah, 
 and brought the last direct intelligence ever re 
 ceived from " The Wasp." Being heavily armed 
 and sparred, and very deep-waisted, she probably 
 foundered in a gale. His only child, a daughter, 
 was educated at the expense of the State of North 
 Carolina. 
 
 Blank. The white mark in the centre of a 
 target. See POINT-BLANK and CARTRIDGE. 
 
 Blanket. The layer of blubber under the skin 
 of a whale. 
 
 Blare. To bellow or roar vehemently. A 
 mixture of hair and tar, used for calking the 
 seams of boats. 
 
 Blarney. Idle discourse ; obsequious flattery. 
 
 Blashy. Watery or dirty ; as, a blashy day. 
 In parlance, trifling, flimsy. 
 
 Blast. A sudden and violent gust of wind. 
 
 Blast-engine. An apparatus for urging the 
 fire of a furnace. A ventilating machine to draw 
 off the foul air from a ship s hold and force fresh 
 air into it. 
 
 Blast-furnace. A furnace in which the sup 
 ply of air is furnished by a pneumatic apparatus. 
 
 Blast-pipe. A pipe to convey steam into the 
 smoke-stack to aid the draft. 
 
 Blather. Thin mud ; idle nonsense. 
 
 Blay. A name of the bleak (which see). 
 
 Blazer. A term applied to a mortar-vessel, 
 from the great emission of flame when the mor 
 tar is fired. 
 
 Blazing-star. A popular name for a comet. 
 
 Bleak. The Leuciscus alburnus of naturalists, 
 and the fresh-water sprat of Izaak Walton. The 
 name of this fish is from the Anglo-Saxon blican, 
 owing to its shining whiteness, its lustrous scales 
 having long been used in the manufacture of false 
 pearls. 
 
 Bleed the Buoys. To let the water out. 
 
 Bleeding the Monkey. The monkey was a 
 tall pyramidal kid or bucket, which conveyed 
 the grog from the grog-tub to the mess, stealing 
 from this in transitu was termed bleeding the 
 monkey. 
 
 Blenny. A small acanthopterygious fish. 
 (Blennius). 
 
 Blether-head. A blockhead. 
 
 Blethering. Talking idle nonsense ; insolent 
 prate. 
 
 Blind. A name on the west coast of Scot 
 land for the pogge, or miller s-thumb (Coitus 
 cataphractus}. 
 
 Blind-bucklers. Those fitted for the hawse- 
 holes, which have no aperture for the cable, and 
 used at sea to prevent the water coming in. 
 
 Blind-harbor. One, the entrance of which is 
 so shut in as not readily to be perceived. 
 
 Blind-rock. One lying just under the surface 
 of the water, so as not to be visible in calms. 
 
 Blind-shell. A shell with a large fuse-hole 
 and filled with composition, to indicate the range 
 at night. A shell which does not explode. 
 
 Blind-stakes. A sort of river-weir. 
 
 Blink. A term in Greenland for iceberg. 
 
 Blink of the Ice. The reflection of an iceberg 
 in the air above it. 
 
 Blirt. A gust of wind and rain. 
 
 Bloat. To dry by smoke ; a method applied 
 almost exclusively to cure herrings. Bloated is 
 also applied to any half-dried fish. i 
 
 BLOATER. A herring dried by smoke. 
 
 Blocco. Paper and hair used in calking a 
 vessel s bottom. 
 
 Block. The large piece of timber out of which 
 a figure-head is carved. One of the transverse 
 timbers on which a ship is built or placed for re 
 pairs. A flat oval piece of wood containing one 
 or more sheaves. Blocks are used either to gain 
 an increase of power or to give a rope a fair lead. 
 A block consists of the shell, sheave, pin, and 
 strap. The shell is the frame or outside part, and 
 is made of ash or elm. In the morticed block 
 the shell is composed of but one piece of wood ; 
 in the made block it consists of two or more pieces 
 pinned together, the two principal outside pieces 
 being called cheeks. On the sides and at each 
 end of the shell is cut a single or a double score. 
 

 BLOCKADE 
 
 81 
 
 BLUBBER-FORKS 
 
 which allows the strap to set snugly on the block 
 and prevents it from slipping off. The size of a 
 block is determined by the length of the shell. 
 The sheave is the wheel over which the rope runs, 
 and is made of metal or lignum-vitse. It has a 
 hole in the centre to receive the pin. In a ligr 
 num-vitse sheave this hole is generally bouched, 
 or lined with metal, to decrease the friction and 
 to protect the sheave from chafe. Friction rollers 
 are sometimes inserted in the sheave when it is 
 not to be subjected to a very great strain. Around 
 the circumference of the sheave a groove is cut, 
 which serves to retain the rope in place and pre 
 vent it from chafing against the shell. The pin 
 is the bolt through the shell and sheave on which 
 the latter revolves. The strap is a rope which 
 encircles the shell, and by which it is attached to 
 its particular place. The swallow is the aperture 
 through which the rope reeves. The hook is 
 attached to the strap, and is prevented from 
 chafing by means of a thimble. Two of these 
 thimbles joined together are called lock-thimbles. 
 The breech is the end of the block farthest from 
 the hook.. The becket is a small grommet to 
 which the standing part of the fall is made fast. 
 Blocks are single, double, threefold, or fourfold, 
 according to the number of their sheaves, and 
 vary in size from four to thirty inches. Iron 
 blocks, and wooden blocks with iron straps, are 
 now coming more generally into use. Under the 
 general head of blocks come hearts, collar-hearts, 
 dead-eyes, bull s-eyes, wooden thimbles, fair- 
 leaders, euphroes, cleats, cavils, wooden belaying- 
 pins, wooden rollers, chocks, toggles, travelers, 
 wooden hanks, hoops, trucks, etc. (which see 
 under their proper heads). Blocks receive their 
 names from some peculiarity of form, from the 
 position they occupy, or from the rope leading 
 through them. For description of blocks, see 
 under the following heads: BEE-BLOCKS, or 
 BEES, BRAIL-, CAT-, CHEEK-, CLEW-GARNET-, 
 CLEWLINE-, CHUNK-, CLUMP-, D-, DASHER-, 
 DOUBLE-, FIDDLE-, FISH-, FIXED-, FLY-, GIRT- 
 LINE-, GIN-, GUN-TACKLE-, HANGING-, JACK-, 
 JEER-, JEWEL-, LONG-TACKLE-, MONKEY-, 
 NINE-PIN-, NIB-, PATENT-, QUARTER-, RUN 
 NING-, RACK-, SHOE-, SPAN-, SPRING-, SINGLE-, 
 SHOULDER-, SISTER-, SECRET-, STANDING-, 
 SNATCH-, TELEGRAPH-, TREBLE-, TAIL-, TOP-, 
 TYE-, VIOL-, and WARPING-BLOCK. 
 
 Blockade. The shutting up of a port or ports 
 by troops or ships, so as to prevent egress or in 
 gress, or the reception of supplies. To constitute 
 a blockade the investing power must be able to 
 apply its force to every point of practicable ac 
 cess, so as to render it dangerous to attempt to 
 enter or depart. See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Block-and-block. An expression denoting 
 that the two blocks of a tackle have been drawn 
 together, and that the tackle is inoperative. Syn 
 onymous with two-blocks and chock-a-block. 
 
 Blockmaker. A manufacturer of blocks. 
 
 Blockmaking Machine. The first set of ma 
 chinery for making blocks was invented by Bru 
 nei early in the present century, and was set up 
 at Portsmouth, England, in 1808. The saving 
 in the cost of blocks is about $100, 000 per annum. 
 
 Blood-sucker. A skulker; one who throws 
 his proportion of work on the shoulders of his 
 shipmates. 
 
 Bloody. A slang superlative, principally used 
 by Englishmen. 
 
 Bloody Flag. A large red flag. 
 
 Bloom. A warm blast of wind. A mass of 
 iron which has been deprived of its dross by 
 squeezing or shingling. 
 
 Blore. An old word for a stiff gale. 
 
 Blouse. A light single-breasted sack-coat. 
 
 Blout. A name to denote the sudden break 
 ing up of a gale. 
 
 Blow. A gale of wind. The moving of the 
 air ; as, the winds blow. A violent stroke of the 
 hand, or any instrument. To eject wind from 
 the mouth ; hence the term as applied to the 
 breathing of cetaceans, the air expelled from 
 the lungs, being heavily charged with moisture, 
 condenses on contact with the atmosphere, and 
 appears like a column of steam. There she 
 blows! the cry of the look-out when a whale is 
 sighted. 
 
 Blowe. An old word for scold; hence the 
 term "blowing-up" for a reprimand. 
 
 Blow-holes. The nostrils of the cetaceans. 
 In some species they are slits placed side by side ; 
 in others there is but one opening. 
 
 Blow Home. The wind does not blow home 
 when its course is diverted by a chain of moun 
 tains or other obstacle. 
 
 Blowing Great Guns. An expression to de 
 note a violent gale. 
 
 Blowing Off. The operation of ejecting from 
 the boiler the water which has become saturated 
 with salt, to prevent the formation of scale. 
 
 Blowing the Grampus. Throwing water over 
 a sleeper on watch. 
 
 Blowing Through. The operation of clear 
 ing the valves, cylinders, and condenser of air 
 before starting the engine. 
 
 Blowing Weather. A term to signify a con 
 tinuance of strong gales. 
 
 Blow-off Pipe. A pipe leading from the 
 bottom of the boiler to convey the sediment 
 overboard. 
 
 Blown. Half-dried ; applied to cod and her 
 rings. 
 
 Blown Itself Out. A gale is said to have 
 blown itself out when its energy is expended. 
 
 Blow-out. A jollification or spree. 
 
 Blow-pipe. An engine of offense used by the 
 Araucanians and Borneans, and with the latter 
 termed sumpitan: the poisoned arrow, sumpit, 
 will wound at the distance of 140 or more yards. 
 The arrow is forced through by the forcible and 
 sudden exertion of the lungs. A wafer can be 
 hit at 30 yards to a certainty, and small birds 
 are unerringly stunned at 30 yards by pellets of 
 clay. 
 
 Blow the Gaff. To reveal a secret; to expose 
 or inform against a person. 
 
 Blow-through Valve. A valve admitting 
 steam into the cylinder and condenser, in order 
 to clear them of air and water before starting the 
 engine. 
 
 Blow Up. To abuse angrily. 
 
 Blow-valve. The snifting-valve. The valve 
 which permits the steam to escape on blowing 
 through. 
 
 Blubber. The layer of fat in whales between 
 the skin and the flesh, varying from 10 to 20 
 inches in thickness, which is flinched or peeled 
 off, and boiled for oil. See SEA-BLUBBER. 
 
 Blubber-forks and Choppers. The imple 
 ments with which blubber is "made off," or cut 
 for stowing away. 
 
BLUBBER-GUY 
 
 82 
 
 BOARDING 
 
 Blubber-guy. A large rope stretched from 
 the main- to the foremast-head of whalers, to 
 which the speck-falls are attached for the opera 
 tion of flensing. 
 
 Blue. Till aWsblue: carried to the utmost, 
 a phrase borrowed from the idea of a vessel 
 making out of port, and getting into blue water. 
 To look blue, to be surprised, disappointed, or 
 taken aback, with a countenance expressive of 
 displeasure. 
 
 Blue-book. The name by which the book 
 containing the regulations for the navy is known ; 
 also, a book containing the names of all persons 
 in the employ of the United States government, 
 with the amount of their pay. 
 
 Blue-jackets. The seamen as distinguished 
 from the marines. 
 
 Blue-light. A pyrotechnical preparation for 
 signals by night. Also called Bengal light. 
 
 Blue-lightism. Affected sanctimoniousness. 
 
 Blue Moon. An indefinite period. 
 
 Blue-nose. A native of Nova Scotia, or a 
 Nova Scotian vessel. 
 
 Blue Peter. A flag with a blue ground and 
 a white centre, which, when hoisted at the fore, 
 denotes that the ship is ready to sail. It corre 
 sponds to the cornet in the navy. 
 
 Blue Pigeon. A nickname for the sounding 
 lead. 
 
 Blue Water. The open ocean. 
 
 Bluff. An abrupt highland, projecting almost 
 perpendicularly into the sea, and presenting a 
 bold front, rather rounded than cliffy in out 
 line. 
 
 Bluff-bowed. . Applied to a vessel that has 
 broad and flat bows, that is, full and square 
 formed ; the opposite of lean. 
 
 Bluff-headed. Built with the stem nearly 
 straight up-and-down. 
 
 Blunderbuss. A short fire-arm with a large 
 bore and wide mouth. 
 
 Blunk. A sudden squall. 
 
 Blustrous. Stormy. 
 
 Boadnash. Buckhemshein coins of Barbary. 
 
 Boanga. A Malay piratical vessel impelled 
 by oars. 
 
 Board. A piece of sawed timber relatively 
 broad and thin. The terms board and plank are 
 often indiscriminately used. See PLANK. 
 
 The deck or interior of a vessel. To board a 
 vessel is to enter either in a friendly or a hostile 
 manner. 
 
 The side of a* vessel. Overboard, over the side, 
 in the water. In-board, inside, or farther from 
 the side. Out-board, nearer to the side. Board 
 to board, or board and board, side by side. 
 
 The stretch which a ship makes on one tack in 
 beating to windward. To make a (jood board, to 
 lose little or nothing to leeward. To make short 
 boards, to tack frequently. When a ship luffs 
 up into the wind until the headway has nearly 
 ceased, and is then made to pay off on the same 
 tack, she is said to make a half-board; with 
 smooth water and a good working breeze a ship 
 can eat her way up to windward in this manner. 
 When the vessel goes astern she makes a stern- 
 board. It is advisable in this case not to put the 
 helm hard over, as great strain would be brought 
 on the rudder. 
 
 A word applied to certain individuals in a col 
 lective capacity who are appointed by competent 
 authority for the management of "some public 
 
 office or trust ; as, The Light-house Board (which 
 see); or to perform certain specified duties; as, 
 The Board for the Examination of Officers for 
 Promotion and Retirement (which see), and The 
 Board of Inspection (which see). There are also 
 boards convened from time to time for the pur 
 pose of collating facts and expressing opinions, 
 of an advisory character, respecting the matters 
 submitted to them by the convening authority. 
 
 BOARD, THE ACADEMIC. The collective des 
 ignation of the heads of the departments of 
 instruction at the Naval Academy. 
 
 Boarders. The men detailed to attack the 
 enemy by boarding. They are armed with pis 
 tols and cutlasses, and are led by the executive- 
 officer. Thej 7 are summoned by verbal order and 
 by the springing of the rattle, and assemble in 
 the part of the ship designated, keeping under 
 cover as much as possible. 
 
 Boarding. The act of entering a vessel, either 
 with hostile intent or in a friendly manner. 
 
 In boarding with hostile intent the way is 
 cleared for the boarders by a brisk fire from the 
 rifles and machine-guns, by hand-grenades, and 
 by streams of hot water from the steam-pumps. 
 The great guns are depressed, and, at the order 
 board the enemy, the boarders gain the enemy s 
 deck as quickly as possible, and use every en 
 deavor to clear the decks by disabling or driving 
 the men below. While the boarders are absent 
 from their guns, the remaining men keep up as 
 rapid a fire as is possible under the circumstances, 
 and the ports of the guns not in use are closed. 
 
 If the boarders are driven back they rally on 
 the flanks of the riflemen, taking care to get 
 quickly out of the line of their fire. 
 
 If the enemy manifest a disposition to board, 
 the marines and riflemen are called away, and 
 open fire from favorable positions, and the great 
 guns, howitzers, and machine-guns are brought 
 to bear on the enemy s boarders. Every effort 
 should be made to shake or disperse them, and, 
 if not successful, it will be necessary, before the 
 enemy closes, to call all hands repel boarders. 
 The marines and riflemen form on the side which 
 is engaged, opposite to the point where the en 
 emy is likely to attempt to enter, the boarders 
 being on the flank and in the rear. The re 
 serves are posted in the rear of the flanks of the 
 riflemen.. If the enemy gain a footing he must 
 be charged in force, as the necessity for driving 
 him back at once is absolute. Rallying-points 
 should be designated, and barricades should be 
 constructed. The shaft of a paddle-wheel ves 
 sel, or a gun run in to a taut breeching, affords 
 a good shelter. 
 
 When at close quarters the sword is a more 
 effective weapon than the rifle and bayonet, in 
 which case the bayonets are unfixed and used as 
 swords. 
 
 When there is a possibility of being boarded, 
 boarding-nettings are got up, and the torpedoes 
 are got ready for use. 
 
 BOARDING A VESSEL UNDER SAIL. Board to 
 leeward, and do not go alongside while she has 
 stern-way on. See that the line by which the 
 boat rides is long enough to permit the boat to 
 rise and fall with the sea. The line should not 
 be belayed, but kept in hand ready for shipping. 
 Be careful that the masts or oars do not take 
 under the quarter-boats or chains. 
 
 BOARDING A WRECK. The chief dangers to 
 
.. 
 
 BOARDLING 
 
 83 
 
 BOATS 
 
 
 
 be apprehended in boarding a wreck are the col 
 lision of the boat with the ship, or with floating 
 spars, and the swamping of the boat alongside. 
 The greater violence of the sea on the weather 
 side makes it preferable to board to leeward. The 
 dangers to be guarded against in boarding on the 
 lee side are the falling of the masts and collision 
 with floating spars. 
 
 The large life-boats that go off to wrecks 
 anchor to windward and veer down, care being 
 taken to prevent actual contact. 
 
 BOARDING-BOOK. A book in which are entered 
 the particulars in regard to every ship boarded. 
 It is not taken on board men-of-war, but the 
 particulars are afterwards registered. 
 
 BOARDING-NETTINGS. A network of wire ropes 
 or hemp ropes soaked in tar and sanded, to pre 
 vent boarders from entering a ship. The lower 
 edge is made fast to the rail, arid the upper edge 
 triced up by whips or stopped to the ridge-rope. 
 
 BOARDING-PIKE. A defensive lance against 
 boarders. 
 
 BOARD IN THE SMOKE. A figurative expres 
 sion, signifying to create confusion or enthu 
 siasm, and then to endeavor to attain one s ob 
 ject before the effect has passed away. The 
 expression arose from the custom of delivering 
 a broadside as the boarders were thrown upon 
 the enemy s decks. 
 
 Boardling (Eng.}. A flippant understrapper 
 of the admiralty or navy-board. 
 
 Board of Trade. See TRADE, BOARD OF. 
 
 Boat. A small open vessel, propelled by oars 
 or sails, and sometimes by stearn. The name is 
 also applied to large river-craft propelled entirely 
 by steam, and also to a vessel having no motive 
 power of its own ; as, a canal-boat. Boats are 
 built of various materials ; as, wood, iron, paper, 
 etc. Wood is used for boats for ordinary pur 
 poses, iron for heavy boats, and wood or paper for 
 racing-boats. 
 
 The frame of a carvel-built boat generally con 
 sists of a floor and two futtocks, and the planks 
 do not overlap, but make flush seams, which are 
 calked. In the clinker-built boat the lower edge 
 of each plank laps over the upper edge of the 
 one next below. A diagonal-built boat is one in 
 which the outer skin consists of two layers of 
 planking at right angles to each other, and 
 making an angle of 45 with the keel. 
 
 Boats are square-sterned, or sharp at both 
 ends ; in the latter case they are called whale- 
 boats. Single-banked boats have one oarsman to 
 each thwart, and a double-banked boat has two. 
 Oars are double-banked when each oar is pulled 
 by two men. 
 
 The boats in use in the navy are as follows : 
 steam-launches, steam-cutters, launches, cutters, 
 whale-boa ts, dingys, barges, and gigs. For a 
 description of these various boats, with their 
 various rigs, see under the proper heads. See 
 LIFE-BOATS. 
 
 Up boats, the order to hoist all the boats. To 
 secure a boat for sea, to rig in the davits, and 
 pass the gripes around the boat and strong-back. 
 To call away a boat, to pass the word "for the 
 crew to man their boat. To trim boat, to so dis.- 
 pose the weight in her that she shall float up 
 right. To bail a boat, to throw out the water 
 that may be in her. To moor a boat, to secure it 
 at a buoy or wharf. To wind a boat, to slue it 
 around end for end. To man a boat, to send the 
 
 crew in it to manage it. To boat the oars, to 
 place them on the thwarts fore-and-aft ready for 
 use. 
 
 Boats, Equipment of. 
 
 KUNNING-BOATS, or boats which do the or 
 dinary duty of a ship, are supplied with oars, 
 boat-hooks, fenders, breaker, anchor, colors, 
 cushions, painter, etc. Masts, sails, compass, 
 and awnings will be carried as ordered. 
 
 ARMED BOATS are equipped according to the 
 nature of the service they are to perform. 
 
 DISTANT SERVICE. The boat is supplied 
 with provisions, fuel, cooking utensils, ammu 
 nition, arms and accoutrements, tools and arti 
 cles for repairing damages, boat-gear, means of 
 making signals, and a medical outfit. If a gun 
 is c arried, ammunition and implements for the 
 service of the piece afloat are supplied. 
 
 CUTTING OUT VESSELS, or CONTENDING WITH 
 OTHER BOATS. The boat is supplied with am 
 munition, arms and accoutrements, tools and 
 articles for repairing damages, medical outfit, 
 means of making signals, a small quantity of 
 provisions, and as many men as can be carried 
 without undue crowding. If a gun is carried, 
 ammunition and implements for the service of 
 the piece afloat are supplied. See CUTTING OUT. 
 
 LANDING WHERE LIKELY TO BE OPPOSED. 
 The boat is supplied with ammunition, arms, 
 and accoutrements, tools and articles for repair 
 ing damages, and a small quantity of provisions. 
 No masts or sails are carried. If a gun is car 
 ried, ammunition and implements for the service 
 of the piece afloat and ashore are supplied. For 
 more minute details, see ORDNANCE INSTRUC 
 TIONS, 1880. 
 
 Boats, Management of. 
 
 UNDER OARS. Before leaving the ship see 
 that she is properly equipped for the service on 
 which she may be going. Do not shove off 
 during stern-way. Trim the boat. Keep the 
 weights amidships. Do not allow the men to 
 stand up in the boat, or to sit on the gunwale. 
 Sand is much heavier when wet than when dry, 
 therefore do not overload the boat with it. 
 Water in breakers is safest for ballast ; iron or 
 sand stows better, but in the event of a capsize 
 would sink the boat. A loaded boat holds her 
 way longer than when light. Make due allow 
 ance for the tide; a little judgment may save a 
 long pull. Keep clear of a vessel with stern-way 
 on. Keep a boat bows-on to a heavy sea. A 
 boat may ride out a heavy gale by lashing the 
 spars, sails, etc., together and riding to leeward 
 of them. See BOARDING, KEDGING, KOWING, 
 SURF, SALUTES, TOWING, and WARPING. 
 
 UNDER SAIL. When the ship is not head to 
 wind, pull well clear of the ship before making 
 sail. Hoist the jib before the foresail, that the 
 mast-head may not be dragged aft. Do not 
 belay the sheets, but keep them in hand. Run 
 ning before a stiff breeze, reduce sail before luff 
 ing up. Running dead before the wind in a 
 light boat is dangerous ; it is safer to run half 
 the distance with the wind on one quarter, and 
 then bring the wind on the other quarter. In a 
 moderate squall ease the sheets ; in a hard squall 
 luff up and lower the sails. If there be any 
 doubt about weathering a point, go about at 
 once. If there be any doubt about going around, 
 have an oar ready to leeward. If the men are 
 sitting to windward, make them sit amidships on 
 
BOATSWAIN 
 
 84 
 
 BOBSTAY 
 
 passing to leeward of a ship. In a stiff breeze 
 get the masts down before going alongside of a 
 ship. 
 
 BOATABLE. Navigable for boats. 
 
 BOAT-CHOCKS. Pieces of wood on which boats 
 rest when stowed on deck. 
 
 BOAT-CLOAK. A mantle for the use of officers 
 in a boat. 
 
 BOAT-DAVIT. The name applied to the timbers 
 which project over the side or stern of a vessel, 
 and to which the boats are hoisted. 
 
 BOAT-DRILL. The objects of boat-drill are as 
 follows : first, to accustom the men to rowing 
 and to the handling of boats under sail (see 
 MANAGEMENT OF BOATS) ; second, to instruct the 
 men in the manipulation of boat-guns (see HOW 
 ITZER) ; third, to familiarize the men with their 
 duties in providing articles for the equipment of 
 boats (see EQUIPMENT OF BOATS); fourth, to 
 familiarize the officers and quartermasters with 
 making and reading signals (see SIGNALS) ; and, 
 fifth, to familiarize the officers \vith the princi 
 ples of fleet tactics. The tactics for boats under 
 sail are the same as for vessels under canvas, and 
 when the boats are under oars they conform to 
 the rules laid down for the regulation of vessels 
 under steam. See NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 BOAT-FAST. The rope by which a boat is made 
 fast. 
 
 BOAT-GEAR. The rigging and furniture of a 
 boat. 
 
 BOAT-HIRE. Expenses for the use of shore- 
 boats. 
 
 BOAT-HOOK. A staff fitted with an iron or 
 brass head, used in a boat when alongside of a 
 wharf or a ship. 
 
 BOATILA. A narrow-sterned, flat-bottomed 
 boat of the Gulf of Manar. 
 
 BOATING. Transporting men, munitions, or 
 goods by boats. 
 
 BOAT-KEEPER. One of the boat s crew who 
 remains in charge during the absence of the 
 others. 
 
 BOAT-LINE. See BOAT-ROPE. 
 
 BOAT-ROPE. A rope by which a boat is towed. 
 A rope fitted to a boat to assist in managing it 
 when lowered in a sea-way. 
 
 BOAT S-CREW. The men detailed for duty in a 
 particular boat. 
 
 BOAT S-GRIPES. Lashings for securing davit- 
 boats at sea. 
 
 BOAT-SKIDS. Skids to keep a boat clear of 
 the ship s side in hoisting or lowering. 
 
 Boatswain (Fr. maitred equipage). Formerly 
 pronounced and sometimes written bote-son, or 
 boat s-son, and bo sun, is in the Spanish and Por 
 tuguese navies styled " Master of the Canvass." 
 The title is said to be derived from bat, a boat, 
 and swan, a swain, or servant. His symbol of 
 office the silver call, or whistle was once the 
 proud insignia of the Lord High Admiral of 
 England, and the decorative appendage of the Ad 
 mirals of the Fleet, who wore it suspended from 
 a golden chain, and with it " were wont to cheer 
 their men in battle." The duties of a boat 
 swain are constant and fatiguing; his station is 
 the forecastle, whence he can direct the men 
 aloft. He pipes "all hands" for general work, 
 and his mates repeat the call on their respective 
 decks. Boatswains in the United States navy 
 are warrant-officers, and their principal duties 
 are as follows : 
 
 The boatswain is to be generally upon deck 
 during the day, and at all times when any duty 
 shall require all hands to be employed. He is 
 with his mates to see that the men go quickly 
 upon deck when called, and that they perform 
 their duty with alacrity. He will every day at 
 7.30 A.M., and at such other times as directed^ 
 examine the rigging, and report to the officer of 
 the deck the state in which he finds it. He is to 
 be careful that the anchors, booms, and boats are 
 properly secured, and is to have ready a suf 
 ficient number of mats, plats, nippers, points, 
 and gaskets, that no delay may be experienced, 
 He will be careful that the masts of the ship are 
 not crippled or strained in setting up the stays 
 and rigging, and that they retain the same angle 
 with the keel after the stays and rigging are set 
 up that they had when they were only wedged. 
 He is to see when junk is worked up that every 
 part is applied to the purposes ordered. When 
 preparing for battle, he is to see that everything 
 necessary for repairing the rigging is in place. 
 
 BOATSWAIN-BIRD (Phaeton cethcreus}. A trop 
 ical bird, so called from the whistling noise it 
 makes. It has two long feathers in its tail, called 
 the marling-spike. 
 
 BOATSWAIN-CAPTAIN. A term applied to a 
 commanding officer who pays great attention to 
 the minor details which are generally attended 
 to by the boatswain. 
 
 BOATSWAIN S MATE. The chief petty officer 
 of the watch. He passes all the orders of the 
 officer of the watch, and uses his call as circum 
 stances require. 
 
 BOATSWAIN S STORE-ROOM. An apartment 
 for the boatswain s stores. 
 
 Boat the Oars. To place the oars fore-and- 
 aft on the thwarts ready for use. 
 
 Bob. The ball or balance-Aveight of a clock s 
 pendulum ; the weight attached to the plumb- 
 line. , To fish. A knot of worms on a string, 
 used in fishing for eels ; also colloquially, it 
 means a berth. Shift your bob, to move about, 
 to dodge. Bear a bob, make haste, be brisk. 
 
 Bobbery. A disturbance, row, or squabble; 
 a term much used in the East Indies and China. 
 
 Bobbing. A particular method of fishing for 
 e-els. 
 
 Bobbing About. Heaving and setting with 
 out making any way. 
 
 Bobble. The state of waves when dashing 
 about without any regular set or direction, as in 
 cross tides or currents. 
 
 Bobstay. A rope or chain extending from 
 the bowsprit to the cutwater. Its use is to coun 
 teract the strain of the head-stays. The bow 
 sprit is also fortified by shrouds from the bows 
 on each side, which are all very necessary, as the 
 foremast and the upper spars on. the mainmast 
 are stayed and greatly supported by the bowsprit. 
 
 BOBSTAY-COLLAKS. These are made with large 
 rope, and an eye spliced in each end ; they are 
 secured round the bowsprit, on the upper side, 
 with a rose lashing. They are almost entirely 
 superseded by iron bands. 
 
 Bo BST AY-HOLES. Those cut through the fore 
 part of the knee of the head, between the cheeks, 
 for the admission of the bobstay ; they are not 
 much used now, as chain bobstays are almost 
 universal, which are secured to plates by shackles. 
 
 BOBSTAY-PIECE. A piece of timber to which 
 the bobstays are secured. 
 
BOCCA 
 
 85 
 
 BOLSTERS 
 
 BOBSTAY-PLATES. Iron plates by which the 
 lower end of the bobstay is attached to the stem. 
 
 Bocca (Sp. boca, mouth). A term used both 
 in the Levant and on the north coast of South 
 America, or the Spanish Main, for a rnouth or 
 channel into any port or harbor, or the entrance 
 into a sound which has a passage out by a con 
 trary way. Bocca Tigris, Canton River. 
 
 Body. The principal corps of an army, or the 
 main strength of a fleet. The figure of a ship, 
 abstractly considered, is divided into different 
 parts or figures, each of which has the appella 
 tion body, as fore-body, midship-body, square- 
 body, etc. 
 
 Body-hoops. The hoops of a made mast. 
 
 Body-plan. A plan of a ship showing the 
 breadth ; it is a transverse section of the ship at 
 the broadest part. 
 
 Body-post. The post at the forward end of 
 the space in which the screw revolves. 
 
 Boggs, Charies Stewart, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in New Brunswick, N. J., Janu 
 ary 28, 1811. Appointed midshipman from same 
 State, November 1, 1826. Attached to Medi 
 terranean Squadron, sloop of-war " Warren" 
 and ship-of-the-line " Delaware," 1827-30; 
 West India Squadron, schooner "Porpoise," 
 from 1830-32. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832; receiving-ship, New York, 1832; West 
 Indies, sloop " Fal mouth," 1833-34 ; rendezvous, 
 New York, 1835-36. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, September 6, 1837 ; 
 Pacific Squadron, ship-of-the-line " North Caro 
 lina" and schooner "Enterprise," 1837-38; re 
 ceiving-ship " New York," in charge of appren 
 tices, 1840-41; coast of Africa, sloop "Sara 
 toga," 1842-43; participated in the destruction 
 of the Bereby village on that coast ; Home 
 Squadron, 1846-47, steamer "Princeton"; pres 
 ent at siege of Vera Cruz ; commanded boat ex 
 pedition from the " Princeton," which destroyed 
 the U. S. brig " Truxtun" after her surrender to 
 the Mexicans ; receiving-ship, New York, 1848 ; 
 executive-officer of the frigate "St. Lawrence" 
 to the World s Fair, London, 1848; first lieu 
 tenant navy-yard, New York, and inspecting for 
 Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, 1851-54. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 15, 
 1855 ; commanding United States mail-steamer 
 " Illinois," 1856-58 ; light-house inspector, Cali 
 fornia, 1860-61 ; commanding U. S. steamer 
 "Varuna" at the passage of Forts Jackson and 
 St. Philip, April 24, 1862. The " Varuna" was 
 the only vessel of Farragut s squadron lost at the 
 passage of the forts. From her great speed she 
 was able to get ahead of all the fleet, and engage 
 the rebel squadron above the forts. She was at 
 tacked by two rams, and sunk after being run 
 into the bank of the river ; causing, however, 
 the destruction of the attacking vessels. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manded steam-sloop " Sacramento" on the block 
 ade of Cape Fear River ; left his command on 
 account of serious sickness ; special duty under 
 Admiral Gregory, at New York, 1864-65; super 
 intended the construction of small steam picket- 
 boats, and specially designed and fitted out the 
 torpedo-boat which, under the dashing Gushing, 
 destroyed the rebel ironclad " Albemarle" ; 1866, 
 commanded the U. S. steamer "Connecticut," 
 special cruise in the West Indies ; fell in with 
 
 the rebel ironclad " Stonewall" in the harbor of 
 Havana, and previous to her being given up to 
 the Spanish government, demanded her surren 
 der to the United States. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manded steamer " De Soto," North Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1866-68 ; special duty, to report on 
 the condition of steam-engines afloat, 1869-70 ; 
 commanding light-house depot, Tompkinsville, 
 Staten Island, and light-house inspector, third 
 district. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July, 1870; 
 commanding European Fleet, 1871-72 ; retired, 
 1873. 
 
 Bogue. To fall off from the wind ; to edge 
 away to leeward. The mouth of a river. 
 
 Boiler. A close vessel in which steam is gen 
 erated, to be used as the motive force in steam- 
 engines, and for other purposes. It is usually 
 made of wrought-iron plates, overlapping at the 
 edges and fastened with rivets. See MARINE 
 BOILERS. 
 
 BOILER-ALARM. An apparatus to call atten 
 tion to the low level of the water in the boiler. 
 
 BOILER-FEEDER. An apparatus, usually auto 
 matic and self-regulating, for keeping the boiler 
 supplied with water. 
 
 BOILER-FLOAT. A float which rises and falls 
 with the water in the boiler, and which shuts 
 off the feed-water when the water has risen to 
 the requisite height. 
 
 BOILER-IRON. Rolled plates of iron from one- 
 fourth to one-eighth of an inch in thickness. 
 
 BOILER-PROTECTOR. A non-conducting ma 
 terial to prevent the escape of heat ; as, felt, lag 
 ging, etc. 
 
 Boiling, the Whole. A contemptuous ex 
 pression to denote the whole number or entire 
 quantity. 
 
 Bold Bow. A broad bluff bow. 
 
 Boldering Weather. Cloudy and thundery. 
 
 Bold Shore. A coast where the Water deep 
 ening rapidly permits the near approach of ships 
 without danger of grounding. 
 
 Bold-to. A term applied to land when the 
 adjacent water deepens rapidly. Steep-to. 
 
 Bole. A small boat. 
 
 Bolide. A name for an aerolite. 
 
 Boline. See BOWLINE. 
 
 Bollard. A timber around which a turn of 
 the line is taken when a whale is struck, in 
 order that the line may be veered steadily. A 
 vertical timber projecting above the ground, to 
 which hawsers are secured. 
 
 Bollard -timber. Usually called knight-head 
 (which see). 
 
 Boiling, or Bowling Along. Going through 
 the water rapidly with a free wind. 
 
 Bolme. An old term for a waterman s pole 
 or boom. 
 
 Boloto. A small boat of the Philippines and 
 Moluccas. 
 
 Bolsters. Small cushions or bags of tarred 
 canvas, used to preserve the stays from being 
 chafed by the motion of the masts when the ship 
 pitches at sea. Pieces of soft wood covered with 
 canvas, placed on the tressle-trees for the eyes of 
 the rigging to rest upon and prevent a sharp nip. 
 Also pieces of oak timber fayed to the curvature 
 of the bow, under the hawse-holes, and down 
 upon the upper cheek, to prevent the cable from 
 rubbing against the cheeks. 
 
BOLT 
 
 86 
 
 BOOMS 
 
 Bolt. To start off; to run away. To swallow 
 food without chewing it. A cylindrical bar of 
 metal. Bolts take their names from the uses to 
 which they are applied ; as, bringing-to bolt, drive- 
 bolt, etc. ; from a peculiarity of construction ; as, 
 eye-bolt, ring-bolt, etc. ; from the mode of secur 
 ing them; as, screw-bolt, bay-bolt, etc. For a 
 description of bolts see under the following 
 heads : BARB-, BAY-, BRINGING-TO-, CLINCH-, 
 COUNTERSUNK - HEADED-, DOUBLE - ENDED-, 
 DRIVE-, DRIFT-, EYE-, TENDER-, FLUSH-, 
 FORELOCK-, Fox-, JAGGED-, KEY-, LEWIS-, 
 POINTED-, KAG-, KING-, KIVETED-, KOSE- 
 HEADED-, HOUND-HEADED-, SCARF-, SCREW-, 
 and SET-BOLT. 
 
 BOLT OF CANYAS. A roll of canvas contain 
 ing 39 yards. 
 
 BOLT-AUGER. An auger for boring holes for 
 bolts. 
 
 , BOLT-CHISEL. A cold chisel for cutting off the 
 projecting ends of bolts. 
 
 BOLT-CUTTER. A tool for cutting off bolts. A 
 tool for cutting the thread on bolts. 
 
 Bolt-rope. A superior quality of hemp cord 
 age used for roping sails. 
 
 BOLT-ROPE NEEDLE. A strong needle for 
 stitching a sail to the bolt-rope. 
 
 Bolt-sprit. See BOWSPRIT. 
 
 BOLT-STRAKE. Strakes of plank through 
 which pass the beam fastenings. 
 
 Bomb. A hollow ball or shell of cast iron 
 charged with powder, and furnished with a fuse 
 so adjusted that when the bomb reaches the end 
 of its range the fuse ignites the powder in the 
 shell and blows it to pieces. Bombs appear to 
 have first come into use in the wars of the Neth 
 erlands, in the 17th century. See SHELL. 
 
 BOMB-BED. The platform which supports a 
 mortar. 
 
 BOMB-KETCH. See MORTAR VESSEL. 
 
 BOMB-SHELL. See BOMB. 
 
 BOMB VESSEL. See MORTAR VESSEL. 
 
 Bombalo. A delicate kind of sand-eel taken 
 in quantities at Bombay. 
 
 Bombard. An ancient piece of ordnance for 
 throwing heavy projectiles. Its bore sometimes 
 exceeded twenty inches in diameter. There were 
 also smaller varieties of the bombard. See ORD 
 NANCE. 
 
 A vessel in which beer was formerly carried to 
 soldiers on duty; whence bum-boat (which see). 
 
 Bombay. A city and seaport on the island of 
 Bombay, now artificially converted into a penin 
 sula, all of which is included in the municipal 
 limits. Lat. 18 56 N. ; Ion. 72 53 E. Since 
 the development of cotton culture in India, Bom 
 bay has largely increased in wealth and impor 
 tance. It is connected by railroads with most of 
 the large cities of India, and by steamer lines, 
 via Suez,, with Great Britain. On the S. W. the 
 fort is connected by Colabba causeway with the 
 island of Colabba, on which are the light-house, 
 observatory, and a stone pier. The harbor of 
 Bombay is unequaled for safety in all India. It 
 affords good anchorage for ships of the largest 
 burden, and it has excellent building- and other 
 docks for ships of the first class. Pop. 700,000. 
 
 Bombo. Weak, cold punch. 
 
 Bonaventure. The old outer mizzen, long 
 disused. 
 
 Bone. To study. To bone up a subject, to 
 study it thoroughly. 
 
 Bon-grace. Junk-fenders, to hang over the 
 bows and sides of a vessel. See BOW-GRACE. 
 
 Bonito. The Thynnus pelamys, a fish of the 
 scomber family, commonly about 2 feet long, 
 with a sharp head, small mouth, full eyes, and a 
 regular semilunar tail. 
 
 Boni-vochil. The Hebridean name for the 
 great northern diver (Colymbus glacialis}. 
 
 Bonnet. An additional part laced to the foot 
 of the jibs, or other fore-and-aft sails, in small 
 vessels in moderate weather, to gather mor 
 wind. 
 
 Bonnet-flook. The well-known flat-fish, brill, 
 pearl, or mouse-dab ; the Pleuronectes rhombus. 
 
 Bony-fish. A name for the hard-head (which 
 see). 
 
 Bony Pike ! Lepidosteus}. A genus of ganoid 
 fishes, conspicuous by being examples of a nearly 
 extinct type. 
 
 Booby. A well-known tropical sea-bird, Sula 
 fusca, of the family Pelecanidce. It is fond of 
 resting out of the water at night, even preferring 
 an unstable perch on the yard of a ship. The 
 name is derived from the way in which it allows 
 itself to be caught immediately after settling. 
 The direction in which it flies as evening comes 
 on often shows where land may be found. 
 
 Booby-hatch. A smaller kind of companion, 
 but readily removable. A kind of wooden hood 
 over a hatch, fitted with a sliding top and readily 
 removable. 
 
 Book. A commercial term for a peculiar pack 
 ing of muslins, bastas, and other stuffs. Brought 
 to book, made to account. 
 
 Books. Oflicial documents. See SHIP S BOOKS. 
 
 Boom. A long spar used to extend or boom 
 out the foot of a particular sail. It takes its 
 name from the sail it extends. (See JIB-, FLY 
 ING-JIB-, STUDDING-SAIL-, SPANKER-, RING 
 TAIL-, and MAIN-BOOM.) The name is also 
 applied to a chain stretched across a river or 
 mouth of a harbor to prevent the entrance of an 
 enemy s vessel. See FIRE-SHIPS. 
 
 Booms may be employed in the defense of har 
 bors either by themselves, or in combination with 
 submarine mines. The essential qualities of a 
 boom are that it shall possess great strength 
 and be easy to manipulate. The main cable 
 should be of wire or chain, and is buoyed up 
 by spars, logs, etc. A space is left between each 
 float to give the whole structure flexibility. The 
 boom should be moored with heavy anchors up 
 stream, and with heavy chains without anchors 
 down-stream ; the former to counteract the force 
 of the current, and the latter to oppose a yielding 
 obstacle to the shock of ramming. The boom 
 should be moored obliquely to the current, which 
 compels an enemy s vessel to place herself athwart 
 the current in order to ram the boom at right 
 angles. The boom should be protected from the 
 enemy s boats by small mechanical mines, and 
 should be covered by batteries on each side of 
 the bay or river. To boom off, to shove off a ves 
 sel or boat with spars. To top up a boom is to 
 elevate one end of it by hauling on the topping 
 lifts. A person is said to top up his boom when 
 he fortifies himself with ardent spirits. 
 
 Booms. The space between the fore- and main 
 masts, in which the boom-boats and spare spars 
 are stowed. 
 
 BOOM-BOATS. Boats carried inboard and 
 stowed in the booms. 
 
BOOPAH 
 
 87 
 
 BOSCAWEN 
 
 BOOM-BRACE. A rope extending from the 
 outer extremity of the topmast studding-sail- 
 boom through a tail-block in the rnain-rig- 
 ging. 
 
 BOOM-COVER. The large tarpaulin, or painted 
 canvas cover, extending over the booms and 
 boom-boats. 
 
 BOOM-IRONS. Metal hoops or rings on the 
 lower and topsail yards through which the 
 booms traverse. See PACIFIC-IRONS. 
 
 BOOM-JIGGER. A tackle used for rigging in 
 and out the topmast studding-sail-booms. 
 
 BOOMKIN. See BUMKIN. 
 
 BOOM-MAINSAIL. A fore-and-aft mainsail the 
 foot of which is spread by a boom. 
 
 BOOM-TRICING-LINE. The line which trices 
 up the heel of a stun sail-boom. 
 
 Boopah. A Tongatabou canoe with a single 
 outrigger. 
 
 Bootes (G-r. bootes, a plowman). The con 
 stellation following the Great Bear, which, it is 
 probable, originally figured as an ox or wagon. 
 Bootes is also called Arctophylax, the Bear- 
 watcher ; and the bright star a Bootis is named 
 Arcturus, which means the Bear-keeper. 
 
 Boothyr. An old word for a small river 
 vessel. 
 
 Boot-lick. One who cringes and flatters to 
 obtain favors. 
 
 Boot-topping. The old operation of scraping 
 off the grass, slime, shells, etc., which adhere to 
 the bottom, near the surface of the water, and 
 daubing it over with a mixture of tallow, sul 
 phur, and resin, as a temporary protection 
 against worms. This is chiefly performed where 
 there is no dock or convenient situation for bream 
 ing or careening, or when the hurry of a voyage 
 renders it inconvenient to have the whole bottom 
 properly cleansed. The term is now applied to 
 sheathing a vessel with planking over felt. 
 
 Booty. That sort of prize which may be 
 distributed at the capstan-head, or at once. 
 
 Booze. A carouse ; hence, boozy, elevated by 
 liquor. 
 
 Bora. A very violent wind experienced in 
 the upper part of the Adriatic Sea, but which 
 fortunately is of no great duration. 
 
 Borasca. A storm, with thunder and light 
 ning. 
 
 Bord. The sea-coast, an old term. Formerly 
 meant the side, edge, or brim ; hence, as applied 
 to a ship, to throw overboard is to cast anything 
 over the side of the vessel. 
 
 Borda,Jean Charles, a scientific French navi 
 gator, born at Dax, May 4, 1733 ; died in Paris, 
 February 20, 1799. He was a teacher of mathe 
 matics ; became a captain in the French navy, 
 and by his scientific knowledge was of great ser 
 vice to the Count d Estaing during the American 
 war, in which he commanded the " Solitaire" 
 with distinction. Made a member of the Acad 
 emy of Sciences in 1756. In 1771 he made a 
 voyage to America for scientific purposes, and 
 again in 1774, and at a later period, of which he 
 published an account in 1778. He founded the 
 School of Naval Architecture in France, in 
 vented nautical instruments, was one of the sci 
 entific men who framed the French metric sys 
 tem, and published some treatises on hydraulics. 
 Member of the French Institute. 
 
 Bordeaux. A city in the S. W. of France, on 
 the Garonne, 60 miles from its mouth, and chiefly 
 
 on its left bank. Lat. 44 W 19" N. ; Ion. 
 84 X 32 /7 W. Situated on a navigable river, in 
 this part 2600 feet wide and from 60 to 90 feet 
 deep, Bordeaux takes, rank next after Marseilles 
 and Havre among the ports of France both in 
 foreign and coastwise trade. Its harbor or basin, 
 formed by the Garonne, is capable of containing 
 1200 ships of the largest size, and is accessible for 
 vessels of 600 tons at all times of the tide. It has 
 docks and building-yards for every size of ves 
 sels. Its principal exports are wines, brandy, 
 and fruits. Pop. 225,000. 
 
 Bordels. An old word for houses built along 
 a strand. 
 
 Bord You. A saying of a man waiting, to 
 one who is drinking, meaning that he claims the 
 next turn. 
 
 Bore. The cavity, generally cylindrical in 
 shape, of a piece of ordnance ; also, the diameter 
 of this cavity. A sudden and rapid flow of tide 
 in certain inlets of the sea ; as, the monstrous 
 wave in the river Hoogly, called bahn by the 
 natives, which rolls in with the noise of distant 
 thunder at flood-tide. It occurs from February 
 to November, at the new and full moon. Its 
 cause has not been clearly defined, although it 
 probably arises from the currents during spring 
 tides, acting on a peculiar conformation of the 
 banks and bed of the river ; it strikes invariably 
 on the same part of the banks, majestically roll 
 ing over to one side, and passing on diagonally 
 to the other with impetuous violence. The bore 
 also occurs in England, near Bristol ; and in 
 America, in several rivers, but especially in the 
 Bay of Fundy, where, at the river Petticodiac, 
 the tide rises 76 feet. It also occurs in Borneo 
 and several rivers in the East. 
 
 Attention to the bore in different places is of 
 great importance to the seaman. No boat ven 
 tures to navigate the channels between the islands 
 at the mouth of the Brahmapootra at spring 
 tide ; in the Hoogly, the bore running along 
 one bank only, on its approach the smaller ship 
 ping is removed to the other side, or ride it out 
 in mid-stream ; and in some of the rivers of 
 Brazil the barges, at the spring-tides, are always 
 moored in deep water, it being noticed that the 
 bore is only dangerous on the shoals. 
 
 Boreas. Son of ^Estrseus and Heribeia, gen 
 erally put for the north wind. 
 
 Bore Down. Sailed down from to wind 
 ward. 
 
 Boring. In Arctic seas, the operation of 
 forcing a ship through the loose ice. 
 
 Boring-bit. A tool for clearing the vent of a 
 gun. 
 
 Borrachio (Sp. borracho, drunk). A skin, 
 usually a goat s, for holding wine or .water. 
 Used "in the Levant. A skin-full ; literally, 
 gorged with wine. 
 
 Borrow. To approach closely either to land 
 or wind ; to hug a shore or coast to avoid an ad 
 verse tide. 
 
 Bort. The name given to a fishing-line in the 
 Shetland Isles. 
 
 Boscawen, Edward, Admiral. Born August 
 19, 1711. Measuring men by their success, 
 this very distinguished sailor occupies a high 
 place in British annals. For twenty years he 
 was in continual active service. The West In 
 dies, the South American coast, the Mediterra 
 nean, India, and the coast of North America were 
 
BOSS 
 
 88 
 
 BOUNCE 
 
 the scenes of his professional employment. Fre 
 quently engaged in contests with the French, he, 
 singularly enough, three times took prisoner the 
 same admiral, and carried more prizes into Eng- 
 lish ports than any other seaman before or since. 
 Vice-admiral of the blue, 1756. Died January 
 10, 1761. 
 
 Boss. An elevated or thickened portion, 
 usually around an aperture ; as, a socket for a 
 
 Sivot-bolt. A master-workman or superinten- 
 ent. 
 
 Boston (Mass.) is on a bay called Boston 
 Harbor, which forms the inner bight of Massa 
 chusetts Bay, at the mouth of the Charles and 
 Mystic Kivers. Lat. 42 2V 27.6" N. ; Ion. 71 
 3 30" W. The harbor is excellent, and the 
 wharves, warehouses, and other shipping facili 
 ties are not surpassed. Steamers ply hence to 
 Europe and to the principal ports of the United 
 States. Boston has a large trade with the West 
 Indies, and with Nova Scotia and New Bruns 
 wick, and the coastwise traffic is extensive. Her 
 commerce with India, China, and Liverpool is 
 very large, although less than it was twenty years 
 ago. Much capital has been expended in the 
 extension of harbor facilities. The inner harbor 
 is completely sheltered, not difficult of access, 
 and is seldom encumbered by ice. Several large 
 works have been constructed for its defense, 
 Forts Warren, Independence, and Winthrop 
 being the most important. The channel is well 
 lighted, the structure on Minot s Ledge being 
 the outermost and highest of its four light-houses. 
 The harbor covers 75 square miles, and has a 
 minimum depth of 23 feet above mean low tide. 
 Charlestown, formerly a suburb of Boston, now 
 incorporated with it, is the seat of a large United 
 States navy-yard. Pop. about 352,000. 
 
 Botany Bay. Discovered by Cook in 1770, 
 and received its name from the great variety of 
 herbs found on its shores. The settlement was 
 selected as a site for a colony of English convicts, 
 and the first governor arrived in January, 1788. 
 The colony was eventually located at Port Jack 
 son, 13 miles north of the bay. 
 
 Botarga. The roe of the mullet pressed flat 
 and dried ; that of commerce, however, is from 
 the tunny, a large fish of passage which is com 
 mon in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Botch. To make bungling work. 
 
 Bote s-carle. An old word for coxswain. 
 
 Both Sheets Aft. A ship before the wind 
 has both fore-sheets hauled aft. The expression 
 is also applied to a half-drunken sailor rolling 
 along with both hands in his pockets and elbows 
 square. 
 
 Botte. An old word for boat. 
 
 Bottle-charts. Charts on which the set of 
 surface currents is marked, when the set has been 
 calculated from the data found in bottles thrown 
 overboard and washed upon the beach, or picked 
 up by ships. 
 
 Bottle-nose, or Bottle-nosed Whale. A name 
 applied to several of the smaller cetaceans of the 
 northern seas, more especially to the Hyperoodon 
 rostratus. 
 
 Bottom. The lowest part of anything. The 
 rich low land formed by alluvial deposits. The 
 part of a ship under water ; hence, the ship itself; 
 as "foreign bottoms." A. full bottom denotes 
 that such a form has been given to a ship as to 
 allow her to carry a large amount of merchan 
 
 dise. The bed of a body of water ; it is charac 
 terized as muddy, rocky, sandy, etc. 
 
 BOTTOM-CLEAN. Thoroughly clean, free from 
 weeds, etc. 
 
 Bottomry. A contract in 1 the nature of a 
 mortgage of a ship when the owner, or his agent, 
 borrows money to enable him to carry on his 
 voyage, and pledges the keel or bottom of the 
 ship ( partem pro toto) as a security for the re 
 payment. If the ship be lost the lender loses 
 also his whole money ; but if it return in safety 
 then he shall receive back his principal, and also 
 the premium stipulated to be paid, however it 
 may exceed the usual or legal rate of interest. 
 And this is allowed to be a valid contract in all 
 trading nations, for the benefit of commerce, and 
 by reason of the extraordinary hazard run by 
 the lender. And in this case the ship and tackle, 
 if brought home, are answerable (as well as the 
 borrower personally) for the money lent. But 
 if the loan be not upon the vessel, but upon the 
 goods and merchandise, which must necessarily 
 be sold or exchanged in the course of the voyage, 
 then only the borrower, personally, is bound to 
 answer the contract, and in this case he is said 
 to take the money at respondentia (which see). 
 
 BOTTOMRY PREMIUM. The high rate of in 
 terest charged on the safety of the ship, the 
 lender losing his whole money if she be lost. 
 
 Bottom-wind. A phenomenon that occurs on 
 the lakes in the north of England, especially 
 Derwent Water, which is often agitated by swell 
 ing waves without any apparent cause. 
 
 Bouche. See BUSH. 
 
 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de. Born in 
 Paris, November 11, 1729. The first voyage 
 round the world by a Frenchman was made by 
 this illustrious seaman. He crossed the Atlantic, 
 braved the stormy seas around Cape Horn, and 
 passed into the Pacific. He visited many places 
 on the western shores of America and among 
 the islands in the Pacific, but the charts which 
 he prepared and bequeathed to his country and 
 posterity are not reliable, owing to the great dif 
 ficulty in Bougainville s day of making astro 
 nomical observations, and the imperfect character 
 of the plans laid down by men of science for as 
 certaining the longitude. Died August 31, 1811. 
 
 Bouge. See BOWGE. 
 
 Bouge and Chine, or Bowge and Chime. A 
 method of stowing casks with the bilge of one 
 against the end of another. 
 
 Bouguer, Pierre. Born at Le Croisic, in Bre- 
 tagne, February 16, 1698. A profound French 
 mathematician, who was one of a body of savants 
 deputed in 1735 to proceed to South America to 
 measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. 
 Died August 15, 1758. 
 
 Bouilli. Preserved beef in hermetically-sealed 
 cans; termed by sailors "bully-beef," or "soup 
 and bully." 
 
 Boulder. See BOWLDER. 
 
 Boulogne. A town of France, on the Eng 
 lish Channel, at the mouth of the Lianne. Lat. 
 50 W 32" N. ; Ion. 1 36 15" E. The port 
 is formed by piers stretching out only to low- 
 water mark, but the tide rises upwards of 16 
 feet, and vessels find good anchorage about half 
 a mile from the harbor. There is also a wet- 
 dock with other harbor improvements. Pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 Bounce. The larger dog-fish. 
 
BOUNCER 
 
 89 
 
 BOWLINE-KNOT 
 
 Bouncer. A gun which kicks violently when 
 fired. 
 
 Bound. The path of a projectile between two 
 grazes. Destined ; going, or intending to go. 
 Where are you bound ? to what place are you 
 going. Ice-bound, entirely surrounded by ice. 
 Tide-bound, beneaped, or prevented from sailing 
 by an adverse tide. Wind-bound, prevented 
 from sailing by an unfavorable wind. 
 
 Boundary-line. The trace of the outer sur 
 face of the skin of a ship on the stern-post, 
 stem, and keel. 
 
 Bounty for Destruction of Enemies Vessels. 
 An amount awarded to a ship or vessel of the 
 United States which sinks or destroys a vessel 
 of war belonging to an enemy. If the vessel de 
 stroyed was of equal or superior force to the 
 United States vessel, the latter is awarded $200 
 for each person on board the former at the begin 
 ning of the engagement ; if of inferior force, 
 $100 for each person. If the captors of an 
 enemy s vessel are instructed to, or do immedi 
 ately, destroy the vessel for the public interest, 
 $50 is awarded for each person on board the ves 
 sel at the time it was captured. The gross 
 amount awarded as above is divided among the 
 officers and crew in the same manner as prize- 
 money. (See PRIZE-MONEY.) When the actual 
 number of persons on board the destroyed vessel 
 cannot be ascertained, it is estimated according 
 to the complement of a vessel of its class in the 
 United States navy. This bounty is authorized 
 by the laws of the United States, but cannot be 
 paid unless an appropriation is made by Con 
 gress for that purpose. 
 
 Bourdonnais, Bertrand F. de. A naval officer 
 in the service of the French East India Com 
 pany. He held the post of Director-General of 
 Mauritius (then called the Isle of France) and 
 Bourbon ; and in 1746, when France and Eng 
 land were at war, he beat a squadron under Ad 
 miral Bassett, and bombarded the city of Madras. 
 
 Bourse (Fr.). An exchange; a place where 
 merchants congregate to transact business. 
 
 Bouse. See BOWSE. 
 
 Bout. A turn, round, or trial. A convivial 
 meeting. 
 
 Bout-ship. A contraction of about-ship. An 
 order to prepare for going about. 
 
 Bow. The forward part of a vessel. A full 
 or bluff bow is broad and round ; a sharp or lean 
 bow is narrow and thin. The bow flares more 
 or less as it falls out or increases in breadth at 
 the upper part. Doubling of the bows, a thick 
 planking secured on the bow to prevent the point 
 of the anchor from injuring it. Bows on, stem 
 first. On the bow, at an angle less than 45 from 
 the ship s course. Broad off the bow, at an angle 
 of 45 from the ship s course. 
 
 Bow. An old instrument for taking angles, 
 consisting of a graduated arc of 90, three vanes, 
 and a staff. 
 
 Bow-bye. An old expression for the situation 
 of a ship when she is in irons. 
 
 Bow-chaser. A gun placed in the bow to fire 
 on a retreating vessel. 
 
 Bowd-eaten. An old term for eaten by wee 
 vils. 
 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel, LL.D., F.R.S., mathe 
 matician and astronomer, born in Salem, Mass., 
 March 26, 1773 ; died at Boston, March 16, 1838. 
 The poverty of his parents occasioned his with 
 
 drawal from school at the age of 10, and after an 
 apprenticeship in a ship-chandler s shop until he 
 was 21 , he spent nine years in a seafaring life, at 
 taining the rank of master. He published in 1800, 
 while engaged as a supercargo, his well known 
 a PracticarNavigator," still a standard work of 
 great utility and value. His fame as a man of 
 science will principally rest on his Commentary 
 on the "Mecanique Celeste" of La Place, of which 
 he made the first entire translation, and which 
 he elucidated in a manner that commands the 
 admiration of scientific men. The elucidations 
 and commentaries of Bowditch form more than 
 half the work. They record subsequent discov 
 eries, and show the sources whence La Place 
 derived assistance. He contributed many valu 
 able papers to " The Memoirs of the American 
 Academy," and an article on modern astronomy 
 to vol. xx. " North American Review." At his 
 death he was a member of the principal scientific 
 societies of Europe. He twice had a seat in the 
 .executive council of Massachusetts. 
 
 Bowditch s Practical Navigator. The stand 
 ard work on navigation, published by the gov 
 ernment and supplied to all government vessels. 
 It contains, with the "Nautical Almanac," all 
 the data necessary for the solution of problems in 
 navigation. 
 
 Bowed. The state of a yard when it arches 
 in the centre from hoisting it too taut. Also of 
 a mast when it bellies or is crippled by inju 
 diciously setting up the rigging too taut. 
 
 Bower. See ANCHOR and CHAIN. 
 
 Bow-fast. A rope or chain for securing a 
 vessel by the bow. See FAST. 
 
 Bowge, or Bouge. An old term for bilge. 
 
 Bow-grace. A kind of frame or fender of old 
 junk, placed round the bows and sides of a ship 
 to prevent her receiving injury from floating ice 
 or timbers. See BON-GRACE. 
 
 Bowing the Sea. Meeting a turbulent swell 
 in coming to the wind. 
 
 Bowlder. A large stone worn and rounded by 
 the attrition of the waves of the sea. 
 
 Bowlder-head. A work against the encroach 
 ment of the sea made of wooden stakes. 
 
 Bowline. A rope leading forward connected 
 by bridles to cringles on the leech of the square- 
 sails ; it is used to keep the wealher-edge of the 
 sail steady when the ship is close-hauled, and 
 enables the ship to come nearer to the wind. 
 
 On a bowline and on a taut bowline are expres 
 sions to signify that a ship is sailing as close as 
 possible to the wind. To check, slack, or come up 
 a bowline is to let it go when the wind becomes 
 free. To clear away a bowline is to let it go 
 when preparing to swing the yard. To sharp, 
 haul taut, or steady out a bowline is to pull it as 
 taut as it can well bear. 
 
 BOWLINE-BRIDLE. The span attached to the 
 cringles on the leech of a square-sail to which 
 the bowline is toggled or clinched. 
 
 BOWLINE- CRINGLE. An eye worked into the 
 leech-rope of a sail, to which a bowline or the 
 bowline-bridle is attached. 
 
 Bowline-bend. The mode of bending warps 
 or hawsers together by making a bowline in the 
 end of one rope, and passing the end of the other 
 through the bight, and making a bowline upon it. 
 
 Bowline-knot. A knot much in use on board 
 ship. The loop can be made of any size, and 
 does not jamb nor render. 
 
BOSS 
 
 BOUNCE 
 
 the scenes of his professional employment. Fre 
 quently engaged in contests with the French, he, 
 singularly enough, three times took prisoner the 
 same admiral, and carried more prizes into Eng 
 lish ports than any other seaman before or since. 
 Vice-admiral of the blue, 1756. Died January 
 10, 1761. 
 
 Boss. An elevated or thickened portion, 
 usually around an aperture ; as, a socket for a 
 pivot-bolt. A master-workman or superinten 
 dent. 
 
 Boston (Mass.) is on a bay called Boston 
 Harbor, which forms the inner bight of Massa 
 chusetts Bay, at the mouth of the Charles and 
 Mystic Kivers. Lat. 42 21 27.6" N. ; Ion. 71 
 3 30" W. The harbor is excellent, and the 
 wharves, warehouses, and other shipping facili 
 ties are not surpassed. Steamers ply hence to 
 Europe and to the principal ports of the United 
 States. Boston has a large trade with the West 
 Indies, and with Nova Scotia and New Bruns 
 wick, and the coastwise traffic is extensive. Her 
 commerce with India, China, and Liverpool is 
 very large, although less than it was twenty years 
 ago. Much capital has been expended in the 
 extension of harbor facilities. The inner harbor 
 is completely sheltered, not difficult of access, 
 and is seldom encumbered by ice. Several large 
 works have been constructed for its defense, 
 Forts Warren, Independence, and Winthrop 
 being the most important. The channel is well 
 lighted, the structure on Minot s Ledge being 
 the outermost and highest of its four light-houses. 
 The harbor covers 75 square miles, and has a 
 minimum depth of 23 feet above mean low tide. 
 Charlestown, formerly a suburb of Boston, now 
 incorporated with it, is the seat of a large United 
 States navy-yard. Pop. about 352,00(X 
 
 Botany Bay. Discovered by Cook in 1770, 
 and received its name from the great variety of 
 herbs found on its shores. The settlement was 
 selected as a site for a colony of English convicts, 
 and the first governor arrived in January, 1788. 
 The colony was eventually located at Port Jack 
 son, 13 miles north of the bay. 
 
 Botarga. The roe of the mullet pressed flat 
 and dried ; that of commerce, however, is from 
 the tunny, a large fish of passage which is com 
 mon in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Botch. To make bungling work. 
 
 Bote s-carle. An old word for coxswain. 
 
 Both Sheets Aft. A ship before the wind 
 has both fore-sheets hauled aft. The expression 
 is also applied to a half-drunken sailor rolling 
 along with both hands in his pockets and elbows 
 square. 
 
 Botte. An old word for boat. 
 
 Bottle-charts. Charts on which the set of 
 surface currents is marked, when the set has been 
 calculated from the data found in bottles thrown 
 overboard and washed up on the beach, or picked 
 up by ships. 
 
 Bottle-nose, or Bottle-nosed Whale. A name 
 applied to several of the smaller cetaceans of the 
 northern seas, more especially to the Hyperoodon 
 rostratus. 
 
 Bottom. The lowest part of anything. The 
 rich low land formed by alluvial deposits. The 
 part of a ship under water ; hence, the ship itself; 
 as "foreign bottoms." A. full bottom denotes 
 that such a form has been given to a ship as to 
 allow her to carry a large amount of merchan 
 
 dise. The bed of a body of water ; it is charac 
 terized as muddy, rocky, sandy, etc. 
 
 BOTTOM-CLEAN. Thoroughly clean, free from 
 weeds, etc. 
 
 Bottomry. A contract in 1 the nature of a 
 mortgage of a ship when the owner, or his agent, 
 borrows money to enable him to carry on his 
 voyage, and pledges the keel or bottom of the 
 ship (partem pro toto] as a security for the re 
 payment. If the ship be lost the lender loses 
 also his whole money ; but if it return in safety 
 then he shall receive back his principal, and also 
 the premium stipulated to be paid, however it 
 may exceed the usual or legal rate of interest. 
 And this is allowed to be a valid contract in all 
 trading nations, for the benefit of commerce, and 
 by reason of the extraordinary hazard run by 
 the lender. And in this case the ship and tackle, 
 if brought home, are answerable (as well as the 
 borrower personally) for the money lent. But 
 if the loan be not upon the vessel, but upon the 
 goods and merchandise, which must necessarily 
 be sold or exchanged in the course of the voyage, 
 then only the borrower, personally, is bound to 
 answer the contract, and in this case he is said 
 to take the money at respondentia (which see). 
 
 BOTTOMRY PREMIUM. The high rate of in 
 terest charged on the safety of the ship, the 
 lender losing his whole money if she be lost. 
 
 Bottom-wind. A phenomenon that occurs on 
 the lakes in the north of England, especially 
 Derwent Water, which is often agitated by swell 
 ing waves without any apparent cause. 
 
 Bouche. See BUSH. 
 
 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de. Born in 
 Paris, November 11, 1729. The first voyage 
 round the world by a Frenchman was made by 
 this illustrious seaman. He crossed the Atlantic, 
 braved the stormy seas around Cape Horn, and 
 passed into the Pacific. He visited many places 
 on the western shores of America and among 
 the islands in the Pacific, but the charts which 
 he prepared and bequeathed to his country and 
 posterity are not reliable, owing to the great dif 
 ficulty in Bougainville s day of making astro 
 nomical observations, and the imperfect character 
 of the plans laid down by men of science for as 
 certaining the longitude. Died August 31, 1811. 
 
 Bouge. See BOWGE. 
 
 Bouge and Chine, or Bowge and Chime. A 
 method of stowing casks with the bilge of one 
 against the end of another. 
 
 Bouguer, Pierre. Born at Le Croisic, in Bre- 
 tagne, February 16, 1698. A profound French 
 mathematician, who was one of a body of savants 
 deputed in 1735 to proceed to South America to 
 measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. 
 Died August 15, 1758. 
 
 Bouilli. Preserved beef in hermetically-sealed 
 cans; termed by sailors "bully-beef," or "soup 
 and bully." 
 
 Boulder. See BOWLDER. 
 
 Boulogne. A town of France, on the Eng 
 lish Channel, at the mouth of the Lianne. Lat. 
 50 44 32" N. ; Ion. 1 36 15" E. The port 
 is formed by piers stretching out only to low- 
 water mark, but the tide rises upwards of 16 
 feet, and vessels find good anchorage about half 
 a mile from the harbor. There is also a wet- 
 dock with other harbor improvements. Pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 Bounce. The larger dog-fish. 
 
BOUNCEK 
 
 89 
 
 BOWLINE-KNOT 
 
 Bouncer. A gun which kicks violently when 
 fired. 
 
 Bound. The path of a projectile between two 
 grazes. Destined ; going, or intending to go. 
 Where are you bound 1 ? to what place are you 
 going. Ice-bound, entirely surrounded by ice. 
 Tide-bound, beneaped, or prevented from sailing 
 by an adverse tide. Wind-bound, prevented 
 from sailing by an unfavorable wind. 
 
 Boundary-line. The trace of the outer sur 
 face of the skin of a ship on the stern-post, 
 stem, and keel. 
 
 Bounty for Destruction of Enemies Vessels. 
 An amount awarded to a ship or vessel of the 
 United States which sinks or destroys a vessel 
 of war belonging to an enemy. If the vessel de 
 stroyed was of equal or superior force to the 
 United States vessel, the latter is awarded $200 
 for each person on board the former at the begin 
 ning of the engagement; if of inferior force, 
 $100 for each person. If the captors of an 
 enemy s vessel are instructed to, or do immedi 
 ately, destroy the vessel for the public interest, 
 $50 is awarded for each person on board the ves 
 sel at the time it was captured. The gross 
 amount awarded as above is divided among the 
 officers and crew in the same manner as prize- 
 money. (See PRIZE-MONEY.) When the actual 
 number of persons on board the destroyed vessel 
 cannot be ascertained, it is estimated according 
 to the complement of a vessel of its class in the 
 United States navy. This bounty is authorized 
 \>y the laws of the United States, but cannot be 
 paid unless an appropriation is made by Con 
 gress for that purpose. 
 
 Bourdonnais, Bertrand F. de. A naval officer 
 in the service of the French East India Com 
 pany. He held the post of Director-General of 
 Mauritius (then called the Isle of France) and 
 Bourbon ; and in 1746, when France and Eng 
 land were at war, he beat a squadron under Ad 
 miral Bassett, and bombarded the city of Madras. 
 
 Bourse (Fr.). An exchange; a place where 
 merchants congregate to transact business. 
 
 Bouse. See BOWSE. 
 
 Bout. A turn, round, or trial. A convivial 
 meeting. 
 
 Bout-ship. A contraction of about-ship. An 
 order to prepare for going about. 
 
 Bow. The forward part of a vessel. A full 
 or bli<ff"bow is broad and round ; a sharp or lean 
 bow is narrow and thin. The bow fares more 
 or less as it falls out or increases in breadth at 
 the upper part. Doubling of the bows, a thick 
 planking secured on the bow to prevent the point 
 of the anchor from injuring it. Bows on, stem 
 first. On the bow, at an angle less than 45 from 
 the ship s course. Broad off the bow, at an angle 
 of 45 from the ship s course. 
 
 Bow. An old instrument for taking angles, 
 consisting of a graduated arc of 90, three vanes, 
 and a staff. 
 
 Bow-bye. An old expression for the situation 
 of a ship when she is in irons. 
 
 Bow-chaser. A gun placed in the bow to fire 
 on a retreating vessel. 
 
 Bowd-eaten. An old term for eaten by wee 
 vils. 
 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel, LL.D., F.R.S., mathe 
 matician and astronomer, born in Salem, Mass., 
 March 26, 1773 ; died at Boston, March 16, 1838. 
 The poverty of his parents occasioned his with 
 
 drawal from school at the age of 10, and after an 
 apprenticeship in a ship-chandler s shop until he 
 was 21 , he spent nine years in a seafaring life, at 
 taining the rank of master. He published in 1800, 
 while engaged as a supercargo, his well known 
 11 PracticarNavigator," still a standard work of 
 great utility and value. His fame as a man of 
 science will principally rest on his Commentary 
 on the "Mecanique Celeste" of La Place, of which 
 he made the first entire translation, and which 
 he elucidated in a manner that commands the 
 admiration of scientific men. The elucidations 
 and commentaries of Bowditch form more than 
 half the work. They record subsequent discov 
 eries, and show the sources whence La Place 
 derived assistance. He contributed many valu 
 able papers to " The Memoirs of the American 
 Academy," and an article on modern astronomy 
 to vol. xx. " North American Review." At his 
 death he was a member of the principal scientific 
 societies of Europe. He twice had a seat in the 
 .executive council of Massachusetts. 
 
 Bowditch s Practical Navigator. The stand 
 ard work on navigation, published by the gov 
 ernment and supplied to all government vessels. 
 It contains, with the "Nautical Almanac," all 
 the data necessary for the solution of problems in 
 navigation. 
 
 Bowed. The state of a yard when it arches 
 in the centre from hoisting it too taut. Also of 
 a mast when it bellies or is crippled by inju 
 diciously setting up the rigging too taut. 
 
 Bower. See ANCHOR and CHAIN. 
 
 Bow-fast. A rope or chain for securing a 
 vessel by the bow. See FAST. 
 
 Bowge, or Bouge. An old term for bilge. 
 
 Bow-grace. A kind of frame or fender of old 
 junk, placed round the bows and sides of a ship 
 to prevent her receiving injury from flouting ice 
 or timbers. See BON-GRACE. 
 
 Bowing the Sea. Meeting a turbulent swell 
 in coming to the wind. 
 
 Bowlder. A large stone worn and rounded by 
 the attrition of the waves of the sea. 
 
 Bowlder-head. A work against the encroach 
 ment of the sea made of wooden stakes. 
 
 Bowline. A rope leading forward connected 
 by bridles to cringles on the leech of the square- 
 sails ; it is used to keep the weather-edge of the 
 sail steady when the ship is close-hauled, and 
 enables the ship to come nearer to the wind. 
 
 On a bowline and on a taut bowline are expres 
 sions to signify that a ship is sailing as close as 
 possible to the wind. To check, slack, or come up 
 a bowline is to let it go when the wind becomes 
 free. To clear away a bowline is to let it go 
 when preparing to swing the yard. To sharp, 
 haul taut, or steady out a bowline is to pull it as 
 taut as it can well bear. 
 
 BOWLINE-BRIDLE. The span attached to the 
 cringles on the leech of a square-sail to which 
 the bowline is toggled or clinched. 
 
 BOWLINE- CRINGLE. An eye worked into the 
 leech-rope of a sail, to which a bowline or the 
 bowline-bridle is attached. 
 
 Bowline-bend. The mode of bending warps 
 or hawsers together by making a bowline in the 
 end of one rope, and passing the end of the other 
 through the bight, and making a bowline upon it. 
 
 Bowline-knot. A knot much in use on board 
 ship. The loop can be made of any size, and 
 does not jamb nor render. 
 
BOW-LINES 
 
 90 
 
 BKAIL 
 
 Bow-lines. Longitudinal curves representing 
 the ship s fore-body. 
 
 Bowling Along. Sailing rapidly with a free 
 wind. 
 
 Bowman, or Bow-oarsman. The man who 
 pulls the forward oar in a single-hanked loat. 
 In a double-banked boat there are two bowmen. 
 
 Bow-oar. The foremost oar or oars in a pull 
 ing bqat. 
 
 Bow-rail. The rail around the bows. 
 
 Bowse. To haul heavily upon a rope or tackle. 
 Bowse up the jib, a colloquialism to denote the act 
 of tippling. It is an old term, probably derived 
 from the Dutch buyzen, to booze. 
 
 Bowsprit. A large spar projecting over the 
 bows to support the foremast and extend the 
 head-sails. It is supported laterally by shrouds, 
 and from below by the gammoning and bobstays. 
 The outer end is the head, the inner end the heel, 
 and that portion which is inboard is called the 
 housing. A running-in bowsprit is used in boats, 
 and when the jib is hauled down, the bowsprit is 
 run in. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-BITTS. Strong upright timbers se 
 cured to the beams below the deck ; they have a 
 cross-piece bolted to them, the inner end of the 
 bowsprit steps between them, and is thus pre 
 vented from slipping in. The cross-piece pre 
 vents it from canting up. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-CAP. The cap on the outer end of 
 the bowsprit, through which the jib-boom tra 
 verses. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-CHOCK. A piece placed between the 
 knight-heads, fitting close upon the upper part 
 of the bowsprit. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-GEAR. A term denoting the ropes, 
 blocks, etc., belonging to the bowsprit. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-HEART. The heart or block of wood 
 used to secure the lower end of the fore-stay, 
 through which the inner end of the jib-boom is 
 inserted. It is seldom, if ever, used now. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-HORSES. The ridge-ropes which ex 
 tend from the bowsprit-cap to the knight-heads. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-NETTING. The netting placed just 
 above a vessel s bowsprit, for stowing the fore- 
 topmast staysail ; it is usually lashed between 
 the ridge-ropes. 
 
 BOWSPRIT-SHROUDS. Strong ropes or chains 
 leading from nearly the outer end of the bow 
 sprit to the bow, giving lateral support to that 
 spar. 
 
 Bow-timbers. The timbers which form the 
 bow of a ship. 
 
 Box. See CARTRIDGE-, COXSWAIN-, PASS 
 ING-, PRIMER-, TRANSPORTING-, and SHELL- 
 BOX. 
 
 Boxhauling. An evolution by which a ship 
 is veered short round on her heel, when the ob 
 ject is to avoid making a great sweep. Luff; 
 when headway has ceased, haul up mainsail, 
 brail up spanker, square after-yards, brace abox 
 head-yards. Keep the after-sails lifting till 
 braced up sharp on the other tack, and lay the 
 head-yards square. Shift the helm when the 
 ship gathers headway, and set the mainsail and 
 spanker when they will take on the other tack. 
 With much wind and sea this evolution would 
 be dangerous, and it is seldom performed except 
 in a case of emergency, as a seaman never likes 
 to see his ship have sternway. 
 
 Boxing. Any projecting wood forming a 
 rabbet ; as, the boxing of the knight-heads. 
 
 Box-metal. A composition of 32 parts of 
 copper to 5 of tin. 
 
 Box-off. To force the ship s head off from the 
 wind by hauling aft the head-sheets and bracing 
 aback the head-yards. 
 
 Box the Compass. To repeat the names of 
 the points of the compass in regular order. 
 
 Boy. A rating in the navy. See NAVAL 
 APPRENTICE SYSTEM. 
 
 Boyart. An old term for a hoy. 
 
 Boyer. A sloop of Flemish construction, 
 with a raised work at each end. 
 
 Brab. The sheaf of the young leaves of the 
 Palmyra palm, from which sennit for hats is 
 made. 
 
 Brab-tree. The Palmyra palm. 
 
 Brace. A composition strap to receive a pin 
 tle of the rudder ; a gudgeon. A prop or sup 
 port. In carpentry and engineering the term 
 strictly applies to something that supports parts 
 in compression, being the opposite of a stay or 
 tie; but in boiler-making it is sometimes ap 
 plied to parts in tension. 
 
 One of the ropes attached to the extremities of 
 the yards by which they are moved about hori 
 zontally. They also assist in counteracting the 
 lateral strain brought on the yard by the wind 
 acting on the sail. To brace a yard, to move it 
 horizontally by the braces. To brace up, to haul 
 in the lee braces. To brace up sharp, to brace a 
 3 ard as far forward as the stay and rigging will 
 permit it logo. To brace in, to haul in the weather 
 braces. To brace to, to check the lee head-braces 
 and haul in the weather ones to allow the ship s 
 head to come up to the wind rapidly. To brace 
 aback, to so brace a yard that its sail will be 
 aback. To brace abox, to lay the head-yards 
 abox. To counter-brace the yards is to brace 
 them all sharp up, the head-yards by opposite 
 braces to the after-yards. 
 
 Brace of Shakes. An expression signifying 
 "in a moment"; as, I will be with you in a 
 brace of shakes. The expression is taken from 
 the napping of a sail. 
 
 Brace Pendant. A length of rope or chain 
 into which the yard-arm brace-blocks are spliced. 
 They are in use in the merchant service, and 
 have the following advantages, viz., rope is 
 saved, the blocks have more play, and when the 
 lee brace is let go the weight of the chain over 
 hauls the brace. 
 
 Brace Up ! Gather Aft ! An order to brace 
 up the head-yards and haul aft the head-sheets 
 which had been flowing. 
 
 Bracket. A short crooked timber resembling 
 a knee, used as a support. One of the vertical 
 side pieces of a gun-carriage; when made of 
 wood they are generally formed of two pieces 
 jogged and doweled together. 
 
 Brackish. Moderately salty ; applied to river 
 water mingled with sea water. 
 
 Brad. A small nail without a head, having a 
 projection at the top on one side. 
 
 BRAD-AWL. A tool to pierce holes for the in 
 sertion of brads. 
 
 Brail. Brails are ropes, the bights of which 
 are seized to the leech of a trysail, leading 
 through blocks on the gaff or luff. All trysails 
 are fitted with them. They serve to gather up 
 the sail ready for the furling-line. When a jib 
 is fitted with brails it is for the purpose of lifting 
 the clew clear of the stays when the sheet is 
 
BKAKE 
 
 91 
 
 BKEAST 
 
 shifted over. Foot-brails, the lowest brails. Peak- 
 brails, the outermost brails on the gaff. Throat- 
 brails, the brails which make fast to the clew of 
 the sail and reeve through a block at the jaws of 
 the gaff. Brail-up ! the order to pull on the 
 brails and thereby spill the sail and haul it up 
 for furling. 
 
 Brake. The lever which works a pump. A 
 piece of mechanism for retarding or stopping 
 machinery by friction. 
 
 Bran. To go on. To lie under a floe edge, in 
 foggy weather, in a boat in Arctic seas, to watch 
 the approach of whales. 
 
 Branch (Eng.}. The diploma of those pilots 
 who have passed at the Trinity House, as compe 
 tent to navigate vessels in particular places. 
 
 Branch-pilot (Eng.}. One approved by the 
 Trinity House, and holding a branch, for a par 
 ticular navigation. 
 
 Brand. The Anglo-Saxon for a burnished 
 sword. A burned device or character. 
 
 Branded Ticket (Eng.}. A discharge given 
 to an infamous man, on which his character is 
 written, and the reason he is turned out of the 
 service. In the army, deserters are branded with 
 D ; also B for bad character. In the navy, a 
 corner of the ticket is cut off. 
 
 Brandling. A supposed fry of the salmon 
 species, found on the north of England coasts. 
 Also, the angler s dew-worm. 
 
 Bran-new. Brand-new ; quite new. 
 
 Brash. Small fragments of crushed ice, col 
 lected by the wind or sea near the shore, which a 
 ship can force her way through. 
 
 Brass. Impudent assurance. An alloy of 
 copper and zinc. The proportions vary accord 
 ing to the required color and proposed use. The 
 term is often employed as synonymous with 
 bronze (which see), as when it is applied to ord 
 nance, the bearings of machinery, etc. See 
 BRIGHT-WORK, SHEATHING. 
 
 Brave. This word is used to express strength 
 as well as courage; as, a brave wind. 
 
 Brawet. A kind of eel. 
 
 Brazil, Navy of. Fifty-seven steamers, of 
 which 18 are ironclads, carrying 68 guns, and 
 possessing 5080 horse-power, represent the navy 
 of the Brazilian empire. The gunboats are 23 in 
 number. The rest of the vessels are corvettes and 
 transports, and 1 small frigate. The crews consist 
 altogether of 4200 sailors, and for their command 
 and the general management of naval affairs 
 there is a minister of marine, 1 admiral, 2 vice- 
 admirals, 4 rear-admirals, 8 chiefs of division, 16 
 post-captains, 30 captains of frigates, 60 com 
 manders, 146 lieutenants, and 88 sub-lieutenants. 
 There are 5 naval arsenals and^ good naval 
 school. ft! 
 
 Breach. An old term for a * j ivy surf. An 
 old word to denote the gap ir ^J levee or bank 
 made by the breaking in of ( sea, now also 
 applied to the opening or gay j iav /ortified works, 
 made by an enemy s guns. r a ^yolling of waves 
 over a vessel ; a clear bres Inplies that the 
 waves roll over without y o feJng, and a sea 
 makes a clean breach when e( j Blasts and every 
 object on deck are swept a ment | 
 
 Breaching. A word m a ga }|,- the act of leap 
 ing out of the water ; apr_ a 5 whales. 
 
 Breach/. Brackish, a^ an fed to water, prob 
 ably derived from the fa^ r f or Jt water was made 
 brackish by the sea break, an Jji. 
 
 Bread. The usual name given to biscuit for 
 ship s use. 
 
 Bread-fruit. The fruit of a tree (Artocarpus 
 incisa] found in the islands of the Pacific. When 
 baked it somewhat resembles bread. The name 
 is also applied to the tree. 
 
 Bread-room. A water-tight compartment in 
 which the bread is stowed. 
 
 Bread-room Jack. See JACK o THE DUST. 
 
 Bread-tree. See BREAD-FRUIT. 
 
 Break. An opening in the clouds. An inter 
 ruption ; as, a break in an electric circuit. A 
 sudden ending ; as, the break of the poop. To 
 deprive of commission, warrant, or rating. To 
 shatter into pieces ; as, a wave breaks. To break 
 one s liberty or leave is to remain away beyond 
 the time specified for returning. To break off, 
 to be forced off to leeward of the course by a 
 change in the direction of the wind. Break off! 
 An order to stop working at one job to begin 
 at another. To break up, to separate into parts ; 
 as, the ice breaks up. To break up a ship is to 
 take her to pieces when she becomes old and un 
 serviceable. Breaking up of the monsoon, the 
 ending or shifting of a monsoon. This period 
 is generally prolific of violent storms. Breaking 
 of a gale, indications of a return of fair weather. 
 To break bulk, to destroy the entirety of a cargo 
 by removing a portion of it. To break ground, 
 to heave the anchor clear of the ground. To 
 break joints, to so arrange the planking that the 
 joints in adjoining courses do not coincide with 
 each other. When a ship at anchor is forced by 
 the wind or current out of her proper position 
 she is said to break her sheer. 
 
 Breakage. Damage to goods in being broken. 
 The leaving of empty spaces in stowing the hold. 
 
 Break-beam. A beam at the break of a deck. 
 
 Breaker. A small water-cask. A wave which 
 breaks violently over reefs or rocks lying at, or 
 under, the surface of the water. They are dis 
 tinguished both by their appearance and by their 
 sound, as they cover the sea with foam and pro 
 duce a loud roaring. Breakers ahead I A warn 
 ing from the lookout that there is broken water 
 in the direction the ship is standing. 
 
 Breakwater. Any structure or contrivance, 
 as a mole, mound, wall, or sunken hulk, to break 
 the force of waves and protect a harbor or any 
 thing which is exposed to the force of the waves. 
 
 Bream. A common fresh- as well as salt 
 water fish (Abramis brama], little esteemed as 
 food. 
 
 Breaming. Cleaning a ship s bottom by burn 
 ing off the grass, ooze, shells, or sea- weed, which 
 it has contracted by lying long in harbor ; it is 
 performed by holding kindled furze, fagots, or 
 reeds to the bottom, which, by melting the pitch 
 that formerly covered it, loosens whatever filth 
 may have adhered to the planks ; the bottom is 
 
 then covered anew with a composition of sulphur, 
 tallow, etc., which not only makes it smooth 
 
 and 
 
 slippery, so as to divide the fluid more readily, 
 but also poisons and destroys those worms which 
 eat through the planks in the course of a voyage. 
 This operation may be performed either by lay 
 ing the ship aground after the tide has ebbed 
 from her, or by docking or careening. 
 
 Breast. To run abeam of a cape or object. 
 To cut through a sea, the surface of which is 
 poetically termed breast. To breast the sea, to 
 meet it by the bow on a wind. To breast the 
 
BKEAST-BACKSTAY 
 
 92 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 surf, to brave it, and overcome it by swimming. 
 To breast a bar, to heave at the capstan. To 
 breast to, the act of giving a sheer to a boat. 
 
 Breast-backstay. Breast-backstays extend 
 from the head of an upper mast, through an out 
 rigger, down to the channels forward of the 
 standing backstays, for supporting the upper 
 spars from to windward. When to leeward, 
 they are borne abaft the top-rim. 
 
 Breast-fast. A rope or chain used to confine 
 the midship part of a ship to a wharf or another 
 ship, as the bow-fast confines her forward, and 
 the .stern-fast abaft. See FAST. 
 
 Breast-gaskets. An old term for bunt-gas 
 kets. 
 
 Breast-hooks. ( Large pieces of compass-tim 
 bers or knees fitted in the bows of ships against 
 the apron and stemson, with the arms running 
 back across the timbers of the bow. Those in the 
 line of the de^-ks are called deck-hooks. 
 
 Breast-rail. The upper rail of the balcony ; 
 formerly it was applied to a railing in front of 
 the quarter-deck, and at the after-part of the 
 forecastle-deck. 
 
 Breast-rope, or Breast-band. A rope or 
 band fitted between the shrouds in the chains for 
 the safety of the leadsman. 
 
 Breather. A tropical squall. 
 
 Breath of Wind. The lightest perceptible 
 air. 
 
 Breech. The outer angle of a knee-timber. 
 The end of a block farthest from the hook. The 
 portion of a gun abaft the chamber. 
 
 B RE KCH-BLOCK. A mass of metal which closes 
 the breech of a gun, and receives the rear thrust 
 of the charge when it is fired. 
 
 BREECHING. A large rope rove through the 
 cascabel of a gun and secured to the ship s side, 
 to limit the recoil. Breechings are made of 
 hemp, and they are not to be covered, blackened, 
 nor rendered less pliable in any way. 
 
 BREECHING-BOLT. A bolt in the ship s side to 
 which the breeching is shackled. 
 
 BREECH-LOADER. A gun, large or small, which 
 is charged at the breech. The objects sought to 
 be attained by this change from the old system 
 are rapidity in loading, facility of cleaning, ac 
 curate adjustment of the size of the shot to the 
 calibre of the gun, and facility in making the 
 shot accommodate itself to the rifling. Addi 
 tional mechanism is required, as the breech 
 must be so far opened as to admit the shot and 
 cartridge, and then so firmly closed as to resist the 
 immense pressure occasioned by the discharge 
 of the piece. See ORDNANCE and SMALL-ARMS. 
 
 BREECH-PIN. A plug screwed into the rear- 
 end of a gun-barrel, forming the bottom of the 
 bore. Called also a breech-screw or breech-plug. 
 
 BRKECH-PLUQ. See BREECH-PIN. 
 
 BRE;-:CH-SCREW. See BREECH-PIN. 
 
 BREECII-SH;HT. See SIGHT. 
 
 Breese, Samuel L., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed at large, Sep 
 tember 10, 1810. Midshipman Breese was pre 
 sent at the battle of Lake Champlain. Commis 
 sioned as lieutenant, April 27, 1816, and as com 
 mander, December 22, 1835. Commissioned as 
 captain, September 8, 1841. 
 
 Captain Breese was in the Pacific during the 
 Mexican war, and was present at the attack on, 
 and capture of, the towns Tuspan and Tobasco, 
 Mexico, and at the capture of Vera Cruz, 1847 ; 
 
 special duty on the lakes, 1848; commandant 
 Norfolk navy-yard, 1853-55 ; commanding Medi 
 terranean Squadron, 1856-58 ; commandant navy- 
 yard, New York, 1859-61. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 16, 1862 ; 
 light-house inspector, 1862; special duty, New 
 York, 1865 ; port admiral at Philadelphia, 1867- 
 68. Died in Philadelphia, 1870. 
 
 Breeze. A wind which may be characterized 
 as light, gentle, moderate, fresh, stiff, or strong. 
 The^land and sea breezes are occasioned by the 
 unequal heating of the land and water. On the 
 coast within the tropics, a light breeze sets in 
 from the sea in the morning, and gradually in 
 creases in strength until the hottest portion of 
 the day, when it begins to decrease, and sinks to 
 a cairn toward sunset. Soon after the land- 
 breeze commences to blow, and continues until 
 the morning, when it gives place, in turn, to the 
 sea-breeze. 
 
 During the day the land becomes more heated 
 than the sea, and the air over the land ascends, 
 and the cold air from the sea rushes in to supply 
 its place. After sunset the land parts with its 
 heat more readily than the water, and the tem 
 perature falls below that of the sea, and the air 
 becoming heavier and denser, flows out to sea as 
 a land-breeze. 
 
 To KICK UP A BREEZE. To create a disturb 
 ance. When the wind increases it is said to 
 breeze up. 
 
 Brest. A city of France, on the N. shore of 
 a small gulf, called the Road of Brest. Lat. (of 
 observatory) 48 23 32" N. ; Ion. 4 29 25" W. 
 It is a fortified city of the first class. From its 
 natural advantages, the extent of its various es 
 tablishments, and its means of defense, Brest is 
 one of the first naval ports in Europe. The outer 
 road is one of the finest in the world, and has 
 no superior in the safety and excellence of its an 
 chorage. It communicates with the sea by a single 
 passage, called the Goulet, 1750 yards broad. In 
 the middle of the passage rise the Mingan Rocks, 
 which contract the entrance, and oblige vessels 
 to pass directly under the batteries. It has ex 
 tensive quays, large basins, vast magazines, ship 
 yards, etc. Brest has important educational 
 establishments, and the naval school is here lo 
 cated. The port has little trade, and its manu 
 facturing establishments outside the arsenals are 
 not la^e. A telegraph cable extends to Dux- 
 bury, Mass. Pop."70,000. 
 
 Brewing. Gathering or forming ; as, a storm 
 which is foretold by the gathering of clouds, or 
 other indications. 
 
 Bricklayer s Clerk. A contemptuous expres 
 sion for on 9 cho pretends to have seen " better 
 days," bu imo is forced to betake himself to 
 seafaring. ^eidoN 
 
 Bridge. v & ^Wangement of electrical circuits 
 used for r v \ye ^d w<r the resistance of a substance 
 in the cir^ - Atv i^mal 
 
 A platij^ef the ^or other substance, in a cir 
 cuit, whi c ^ \t, A eat resistance to the passage 
 of the cui v eSt V$s. lason of this resistance heat 
 is evolve^e tiUs art the current be suflicient, 
 ignites th ^r. the 1 
 
 Bridge. ^^w? on th/ ridge of rock, sand, or 
 shingle, ai e ,^ V. them, torn of a channel, so as to 
 occasion a ^\\ r the .yhich the tide ripples. 
 
 Bridge. ^\\wviils it ; partition in a furnace. 
 It may be ?. . Uof thc-brick or of iron. Some- 
 
I 
 
 BKIDGE 
 
 93 
 
 BROAD OF WATER 
 
 times it is hollow, and forms a portion of the 
 water-space of a boiler. 
 
 Bridge. A platform extending across the 
 deck above the rail for the convenience of the 
 officer in charge of the ship. Some vessels have 
 two bridges, one forward of the main- and the 
 other forward of the mizzen-mast. In paddle- 
 wheel vessels it connects the paddle-boxes. 
 
 Bridgeport, a city and port of entry of Con 
 necticut, is on a small inlet of Long Island 
 Sound, at the mouth of the Pequonnock River. 
 Steamers ply daily between this port and New 
 York. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Bridle. A chain or rope span, both ends of 
 which are made fast, the power being applied to 
 the bight or middle portion. 
 
 BOWLINE-BRIDLE. A span the legs of which 
 are attached to the leech of a sail, and the bow 
 line is bent to the bight. 
 
 BRIDLE-CABLE. The cable which is bent to a 
 bridle. 
 
 MOORING-BRIDLE. The chains of permanent 
 moorings. 
 
 Bridle-port. The forward port on the gun- 
 deck. 
 
 Brig. The name given to the place where 
 prisoners are confined on board men-of-war. A 
 two-masted square-rigged vessel. See BRIG- 
 SCHOONER and HERMAPHRODITE BRIG. 
 
 Brigantine. A two-masted square-rigged ves 
 sel, differing from a brig in that she does not 
 carry a square mainsail. 
 
 Bright Look-out. A vigilant look-out. 
 
 Bright-work. A term applied to metal objects 
 which are kept bright by polishing ; as, the rail 
 ing about the hatches, capstan-head, cap-squares, 
 lock- and sight-covers, metal blocks, rear face of 
 the cascabel, face of the muzzle, ring-bolts in 
 the decks, etc. Bright wood-work is a term ap 
 plied to the wood-work which is scraped and 
 scrubbed; as, the pin-rails, cavils, cleats, halliard- 
 racks, etc. 
 
 Brig-schooner. A two-masted vessel with 
 square-sails on the foremast and fore-and-aft sails 
 on the main ; an hermaphrodite brig. 
 
 Brill. The Pleuronectes rhombus, a common 
 fish, allied to, but smaller than, the turbot. 
 
 Brine. A saturated solution of salt. 
 
 Brine-gauge. See SALTNOMETER. 
 
 Brine-pump. A pump to draw off the super- 
 salted water from a boiler. 
 
 Brine-valve. A blow-off valve. 
 
 Bring by the Lee. See BROUGHT BY THE LEE. 
 
 Bring em Near. A spy-glass. 
 
 Bringers Up. The men who are last in a 
 boarding party. The rear-most men. 
 
 Bring Home. When the toggle becomes dis 
 engaged and the chip slips through the water the 
 ship brings home the log. When in heaving up 
 the anchor, the anchor comes home, the ship 
 brings home the anchor. 
 
 Bringing-to Bolt. A bolt having an eye in 
 one end and a nut and screw at the other ; used 
 in keying up a structure. 
 
 Bring the Sun Down. To bring in contact 
 the horizon and the reflected image of the sun 
 in a sextant or other instrument. 
 
 Bring-to. To bring-to a sail is to bend it to 
 its yard or gaff. To bring to a messenger or cable 
 is to put it around the capstan. To bring a ship 
 to is to lie-to or heave-to or force another ship so 
 to do. To bring a ship to an anchor is to let go 
 
 the anchor. To bring an enemy to action is to 
 force him to give battle. 
 
 Bring-up. To stop. A ship is brought up 
 when her way is stopped either by letting go 
 the anchor, or by running on a rock or shoal. 
 To bring-up with a round turn is to stop the run 
 ning of a rope by taking a round turn around a 
 cavil or pin; figuratively used in speaking of 
 doing anything effectually though abruptly. To 
 bring-up all standing is to be stopped suddenly 
 and without warning. 
 
 Briny. An adjective which, used as a noun, 
 signifies the sea ; as, plowing the briny. 
 
 Brisas. A northeast wind which blows on 
 the coast of South America during the trades. 
 
 Brismak. A name among the Shetlanders for 
 the excellent fish CM lied tusk or torsk, the best of 
 the cod kind (Brosmus vulgaris}. 
 
 Bristol (England) is on the Avon, at its con 
 fluence with the Frome, 8 miles from Bristol 
 Channel. It is one of the leading British ports 
 in foreign trade. Large ships can ascend the 
 river to the city, where spacious docks, quays, 
 and ship-yards have been constructed. It is the 
 fourth town in Great Britain in customs rev 
 enue. Pop. 190,000. 
 
 Brit. A fish of the herring kind (Clupea 
 minima] from 1 to 4 inches long, found, at some 
 seasons, in immense numbers, on the eastern coast 
 of New England. 
 
 British-built Ship. A ship built in Great 
 Britain or Ireland, Guernsey, Jersey, the Isle of 
 Man, or some of the colonies* plantations, islands, 
 or territories in Asia, Africa, or America, which, 
 at the time of building, belonged to or were in 
 possession of Great Britain ; or any ship whatso 
 ever which has been taken and condemned as 
 lawful prize. See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 British Seas. The four seas which surround 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Brittle-star. The common name of a long- 
 rayed starfish (Ophiocoma rosula). 
 
 Broach. To pierce ; to tap ; as a cask, to draw 
 off the fluid. To broach a business, to begin it. 
 
 Broach-to. To fly up into the wind. It gen 
 erally happens when there is considerable sea on, 
 and the ship is carrying a press of canvas with a 
 good deal of after-sail set. When a ship sails 
 with the wind aft, or on the quarter, the wind 
 acts in the direction of the ship s course and the 
 pressure on the sails is very much diminished. 
 If from this position the ship suddenly presents 
 her broadside to the wind, the sails, masts, and 
 rudder will be endangered, and in extreme cases 
 the ship may capsize or be forced down stern 
 foremost. Broaching-to is generally occasioned 
 by the difficulty of steering the ship ; by the neg 
 ligence or incapacity of the helmsman ; or by an 
 accident happening to the helm which renders it 
 incapable of governing the ship. See BROUGHT 
 BY THE LEE. 
 
 Broad Arrow (Eng.}. The royal mark for 
 government stores. 
 
 Broad-ax. See Ax. 
 
 Broadcloth. Square-sails. A wide and su 
 perior article of woolen cloth, plain or twilled. 
 
 Broad-horn. An old name for a flat-boat on 
 the Western rivers. 
 
 Broad of Water. An extensive lake with a 
 channel communicating with the sea, or a wide 
 opening of a river after passing a narrow en 
 trance. 
 
BUG 
 
 96 
 
 BUMP 
 
 commerce of Buffalo is large and constantly in 
 creasing, a fact due to its location at the foot of 
 the great chain of lakes, and to its being the 
 terminus of the Erie Canal and of several rail 
 road lines. Grain is the most important article 
 of commerce, and the facilities for handling and 
 storing it are unexcelled by those of any other 
 city on the continent. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Bug. An old term for a vessel more remark 
 able for size than efficiency. 
 
 Bugalilo. A large trading-boat of the Gulf 
 of Persia ; called buglo by sailors. 
 
 Bugazeen. An old term for calico. 
 
 Buggy-boat. A boat fitted with wheels for 
 use as a vehicle on land. 
 
 Bugling. At the Naval Academy the bugle 
 sounds a call to terminate each recitation, and 
 when a midshipman has a problem which he is 
 unable to solve, he sometimes remains at the black 
 board until this call is sounded, trusting thus to 
 evade the consequences of a poor recitation. 
 This manoeuvre is termed bugling. 
 
 Bugologist. Jack s term for an amateur 
 entomologist. 
 
 Build. A vessel s form or construction. 
 
 Build a Chapel. To turn a vessel suddenly 
 by negligent steering. See CHAPEL. 
 
 Builder s Certificate. A document contain 
 ing an account of a ship s denomination, tonnage, 
 where and by whom built, etc. 
 
 Built. A suffix to denote the construction of 
 a boat or vessel ; as. carvel-built, frigate-built, 
 sharp-built, etc. 
 
 Built-block. A made block. 
 
 Built-up. An expression applied to masts or 
 guns made of several pieces. 
 
 Bulch. To bilge. 
 
 Bulge. See BILGE. 
 
 Bulk. The greater part. Substances stowed 
 without cases or packages are stowed in bulk. To 
 break hulk, to commence discharging cargo. 
 
 BULKER. A person employed to measure 
 goods> and ascertain the amount of freight with 
 which they are charge able. 
 
 Bulk-head. Anv partition separating apart 
 ments on the same deck. Some are very strong, 
 and others are light and can be removed at pleas 
 ure. To hulk-head is to carry on a conversation 
 which is intended for the ears of a third party. 
 
 Bull. A male whale. Weak grog made by 
 pouring water into a spirit-cask nearly empty. 
 When the tide and wind cause the ship to bump 
 up against her buoy she is said to bull the buoy. 
 
 Bull-dance. A stag-dance. 
 
 Bull-dogs. A general term for the main-deck 
 guns. 
 
 Bullet. A small projectile, usually of lead, 
 and either spherical or elongated, for use in the 
 smaller kinds of fire-arms, such as muskets, rifles, 
 carbines, and pistols. Formerly spherical bullets 
 were made by melting lead and pouring it into 
 molds. They are now made more expeditiously 
 and more truly spherical by compression. The 
 load is first formed into a rod about a yard long 
 by five- or six-eighths of an inch thick , which is 
 passed between rollers for the purpose of con 
 densing it; other rollers then press it into a row 
 of nearly globular pieces, to each of which the 
 proper form is given by means of a spherical die, 
 after which a treadle- worked punch separates 
 them into bullets. The spherical bullet is, how 
 ever, rapidly becoming obsolete, having been 
 
 almost entirely superseded by the elongated bullet, 
 which encounters less resistance from the air, and 
 has a longer range and greater penetrating power 
 than the spherical. Several forms of the elon 
 gated bullet are used. In most of them the base 
 of the bullet is made expansive either by being 
 hollowed, or by being fitted with a wooden plug, 
 so that the force of the powder shall dilate the 
 lead and cause it to fill the grooves of the rifle. 
 By this means the bullet acquires a rotatory mo 
 tion around its long axis which tends to increase 
 its range and precision. See EXPLOSIVE BULLET. 
 
 BULLET-COMPASSES. A pair of compasses 
 with a ball on one leg to fit in a hole. 
 
 BULLET-LADLE. A ladle for melting lead for 
 casting bullets. 
 
 BULLET-MOLD. An implement for shaping 
 bullets. 
 
 BULLET-PROBE. An instrument for exploring 
 tissue to find the situation of a bullet. 
 
 BULLET-SCREW. A screw on the end of a 
 rammer for drawing a bullet from a fire-arm. 
 
 BULLET-SHELL. An explosive bullet. 
 
 Bull-head, or Bull-jub. A name of the fish 
 called miller s thumb (Coitus gobio). 
 
 Bullion. Heavy twisted fringe for ornaments. 
 
 Bullock-block. A block formerly used under 
 the topmast cross-trees for the topsail-ties. 
 
 Bullock-slings. Slings for hoisting in live 
 cattle. 
 
 Bull s-eye. A small annular block of hard 
 wood without a sheave ; it has a groove to take 
 a strap, and is measured by its diameter. A 
 small circular cloud ruddy in the centre, a fore 
 runner of a storm. The centre of a target. The 
 lens of a dark lantern ; hence the lantern itself. 
 A small, thick, circular piece of glass inserted 
 in the decks, port-lids, etc., for the admission of 
 light. A popular name for the star Aldebaran 
 (a Tauri). 
 
 BULL S-EYE CRINGLE. A cringle worked 
 around a bull s-eye. 
 
 Bull-trout. The salmon-trout of the Tweed. 
 A large species of trout taken in the waters of 
 Northumberland. The sea-trout. 
 
 Bullyrag. To reproach contemptuously, and 
 in a hectoring manner ; to bluster, to abuse, and 
 to insult noisily. 
 
 Bulwark. The planking or wood-work round 
 a vessel above the deck. 
 
 BULWARK-NETTING. An ornamental frame 
 of netting answering the purpose of a bulwark. 
 
 Bumbard. A cask or large vessel for liquids. 
 See BOMBARD. 
 
 Bum-boat. A boat employed to carry pro 
 visions, vegetables, and small merchandise for 
 sale to ships. The name is corrupted from bom 
 bard, the vessel in which beer was formerly car 
 ried to soldiers on duty. 
 
 Bumkin, Bumpkin, or Boomkin. A short 
 boom or beam of timber projecting from each 
 bow of a ship. Its use is to extend the weather 
 clew of the foresail. The name is also applied 
 to the timber projecting from each quarter for 
 the main-brace blocks. 
 
 Bummaree. A word synonymous with bot- 
 tomri/ in maritime law. It is also a name given 
 to a class of speculating salesmen of fish, not rec 
 ognized as regular tradesmen. 
 
 Bump. To bump a boat is to pull astern of 
 her in another, and insultingly or inimically give 
 her the stem. 
 
BUMP-ASHORE 
 
 BUOYS 
 
 Bump-ashore. To run stem-on to a beach or 
 bank. A ship bumps by the action of the waves 
 lifting and dropping her on the bottom when she 
 is aground. 
 
 Bumper. A log of wood over the side, used 
 as a fender. 
 
 Bumpkin. See BUMKIN. 
 
 Bund. In the East, an embankment or sea 
 wall. 
 
 Bundle. To load things into a boat in a slovenly 
 manner. Bundle up I Hurry up from below. 
 
 Bungle. To perform duty in a slovenly man 
 ner. 
 
 Bungo, or Bonga. A dug-out made from the 
 bonga-tree. 
 
 Bung-starter. A stave or bat used for starting 
 bungs by beating on the cask on either side of 
 the bung. A sobriquet for the captain of the 
 hold. 
 
 Bung-up and Bilge-free. A cask placed with 
 the bung-stave uppermost, and the bilge clear of 
 everything. 
 
 Bunk. A standing bed-place. 
 
 Bunker. A bin for stowing coal on board a 
 steamer. 
 
 Bunt. The middle part of a sail. The sail 
 which is tossed up on the centre of the yard in 
 furling. A high bunt is formed when the bunt- 
 whip is hauled taut-up and a great amount of 
 sail is stowed in the exact centre of the yard ; in 
 a lorv or roiling bunt the sail tapers gradually 
 from the centre. 
 
 BUNTERS. The men who stow the bunt. 
 
 BUNT-FAIR. Before the wind. 
 
 BUNT-GASKET. See GASKET. 
 
 BUNT-JIGGER. A small purchase for rousing 
 up the bunt of heavy sails. 
 
 BUNT-WHIP. A whip for rousing up the bunts 
 of the light sails in furling. 
 
 Bunting. A thin woolen stuff of which flags 
 are made. 
 
 Buntline. One of sev" il ropes toggled to the 
 foot of a sail and leadin _, thence, before all, to 
 blocks above the yard and thence to the deck. 
 They are used for hauling the foot of the sail up 
 to the centre of the yard. 
 
 BUNTLINE-CLOTH, A narrow lining on the 
 forward surface of a sail in the wake of the bunt- 
 line to protect the . iil from chafe. 
 
 ^E. A cringle worked into 
 ,il to which the buntline was 
 have been superseded by 
 
 BUNTLINE-CRIJ 
 
 the foot-rope of r 
 clinched. Crin 
 toggles. 
 
 BUNTLINE-S 
 
 a thimble in o- 
 is rove ; the 
 block to keep 
 ally called a 
 
 BUNTLINI 
 
 foot-rope of 
 tached by a 
 bowline, th< 
 and are attf 
 Buoy. . 
 tight cask, 
 attached t 
 serve to m; 
 tion of obj 
 rocks, she 
 for other 
 permanen 
 of a sein 
 
 A short piece of rope with 
 through which the buntline 
 nd is made fast to the tie- 
 
 into the yard. It is gener- 
 
 A toggle seized to the 
 
 ;j which the buntline is at- 
 
 \; hen the sail is loosed to a 
 
 are unbent from the bridles 
 
 ese toggles. 
 
 body, commonly a water- 
 ilock of wood. They are 
 n by a rope or chain, and 
 annel, or indicate the posi- 
 le surface of the water ; as, 
 ,etc. They are also used 
 >, life-preservers, floats for 
 floats for the upper edge 
 r are generally made of 
 
 wood, or sheet-iron, but gutta-percha has some 
 times been used. They are variously shaped 
 and colored, and sometimes named and num 
 bered, in order that they may be easily distin 
 guished from each other. A cone- or can-buoy is 
 conical in shape, a cask-buoy cylindrical or nearly 
 so, and a nut- or nun-buoy is shaped like the frus- 
 trum of two cones with the bases joined together. 
 A spar-buoy is a spar, one end of which is an 
 chored. Anchor-buoys are attached to the an 
 chors, and serve to mark out the position of the 
 anchors, so that they may be avoided in tending 
 ship, or picked up in case of being obliged to 
 slip. A bell-buoy is a large buoy on which is 
 placed a bell, which is sounded by the heaving 
 and setting of the sea. A whistling-buoy is fitted 
 with an apparatus which makes a peculiar 
 whistling noise at certain stag*es of the tide or 
 sea. To buoy an object is to indicate its posi 
 tion by means of a buoy and a rope or chain. 
 To buoy the cable is to attach a buoy to the 
 bight to keep it from sinking and chafing 
 against the rocks. To bleed a buoy\s to let the 
 water out of it. A buoy watches when it floats 
 on the water. To stream the buoy is to let an 
 anchor-buoy fall from the bows previous to 
 letting go the anchor. 
 
 Buoyancy. The quality of floating in a liquid. 
 The weight of a floating body as measured by the 
 volume of fluid displaced. 
 
 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY. See CENTRE. 
 
 Buoys, Directions for Coloring, Numbering, 
 and Placing. UNITED STATES. In conformity 
 to the terms of the act of Congress, approved 
 September 28, 1850, prescribing the manner of 
 coloring and numbering the buoys along the 
 coasts and in the bays, sounds, rivers, and har 
 bors of the United States, the following order 
 must be observed, viz. : 
 
 1. In approaching the channel, etc., from sea 
 ward, red buoys, with even numbers, will be found 
 on the starboard side of the channel, and must 
 be left on the starboard hand in passing in. 
 
 2. In approaching the channel, etc., from sea 
 ward, black buoys, with odd numbers, will be 
 found on the port side of the channel, and must 
 be left on the port hand in passing in. 
 
 3. Buoys painted with red and black horizontal 
 stripes will be found on obstructions, with chan 
 nel-ways on either side of them, and may be left 
 on either hand in passing in. 
 
 4. Buoys painted with white and black per 
 pendicular stripes will be found in mid-channel, 
 and must be passed close-to to avoid danger. 
 
 5. All other distinguishing marks to buoys 
 will be in addition to the foregoing, and may be 
 employed to mark particular spots, a descrip 
 tion of which will be given in the printed list of 
 buoys. 
 
 6. Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when 
 placed on buoys, be at turning-points, the color 
 and number indicating on what side they shall 
 be passed. 
 
 The following abbrevations are used on charts 
 and buoy lists : 
 
 R., red buoys, Nos. 2, 4, 6, etc., starboard. B., 
 black buoys, Nos, 1, 3, 5, etc., port. P. S., white 
 and black perpendicular stripes, without num 
 bers, in mid-channel. H. S., red and ^ black 
 horizontal stripes (on obstructions), without 
 numbers. 
 
 BELGIUM. On entering the channel from sea- 
 
BURBOT 
 
 98 
 
 BURT S NIPPERS 
 
 ward, white buoys must be left on the starboard 
 hand, black buoys on the port. 
 
 CANADA. The same as the United States. 
 
 ENGLAND. The starboard side of a channel is 
 the right-hand side proceeding from seaward. 
 The entrance to a channel or a turning-point is 
 marked by a spiral buoy, with or without staff 
 and globe, triangle, cage, etc. Single-colored 
 can-buoys, black or red, mark the starboard side, 
 and buoys of the same shape and color, either 
 checkered or vertically striped with white, mark 
 the port side. Globes are used on buoys on the 
 starboard hand, and cages on the port. When a 
 middle ground exists in a channel, each end of 
 it is marked by a buoy with horizontal white 
 stripes. Wrecks are marked by green buoys. 
 All buoys have their names painted on them in 
 conspicuous letters. 
 
 FRANCE. On entering a channel from sea 
 ward, all buoys and beacons painted red with a 
 white band near the summit, must be left to star 
 board ; those painted black must be left to port. 
 Buoys that can be passed on either side are painted 
 red with black horizontal bands. That part of a 
 beacon below the level of high water, and all 
 warping buoys, are painted white. The small 
 rocky heads in frequented channels are colored 
 the same as beacons when they have a surface 
 sufficiently conspicuous. Each buoy or beacon 
 has upon it the name of the danger it is intended 
 to point out, and also its number, commencing 
 from seaward. The even numbers are on the red 
 buoys, and the odd numbers on the black. The 
 buoys that can be passed on either side are named 
 but not numbered. 
 
 HOLLAND. The same as Belgium. 
 
 SCOTLAND. Coming from seaward, leave the 
 red buoys on the starboard hand, and the black 
 buoys on the port. Red and black buoys are 
 placed on detached dangers, and may be passed on 
 either side. Wrecks are marked by green buoys. 
 Fairway buoys are plainly marked, and all buoys 
 have their names painted on them. Liverpool is 
 buoyed on the same system. 
 
 BUOY-ROPE. The rope which attaches the 
 buoy to the anchor ; it should always be of suffi 
 cient strength to lift the anchor should the cable 
 part. 
 
 BUOY-ROPE KNOT. A knot made by unlaying 
 the strands of a cable-laid rope, and also the 
 small strand of each large strand ; and after single 
 and double walling them, as for a stopper-knot, 
 worm the divisions, and round the rope. 
 
 Burbot. A fish of the genus Lota, shaped 
 like an eel, but shorter and thicker, with a flat 
 head, having on the nose two small beards and 
 another on the chin. Sometimes called an eel- 
 pout. 
 
 Burden. The quantity of merchandise that 
 a ship carries when properly trimmed. See TON 
 NAGE. 
 
 Bureau. A department of government. In 
 most European countries the highest depart 
 ments of government receive the name of bureaus. 
 In England and the United States the term is 
 confined to subordinate departments, as Bureau 
 of Ordnance. See ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Burgall. A fish of our eastern coasts, from 6 
 to 12 inches long ; also called the blue-perch, the 
 chogset, and the nibbler, the last from its habit 
 of nibbling off the bait thrown for other fishes. 
 
 Burgee. A swallow-tailed flag ; in the mer 
 
 chant service it generally has the ship s name on 
 it. 
 
 Burgomaster. In the Arctic Sea, a large 
 species of gull (Larus glaucus). 
 
 Burgoo. A dish made of boiled oatmeal sea 
 soned with salt, butter, and sugar. 
 
 Burgoyne, Hugh Talbot. Born in 1838. Only 
 son of Sir John Burgoyne, Royal Engineers. 
 He was a captain in the English navy. During 
 the Crimean war, while still a junior officer, he 
 commanded a small but active vessel. For his 
 action at Kinburn he was made one of the first 
 recipients of the Victoria cross. At the close 
 of the war he was made Knight of the Legion 
 of Honor, and received the order of Medjidie. 
 After this he was rapidly promoted. He was lost 
 while in command of the Coles turret-ship 
 " Captain," which foundered off Cape Finisterre, 
 September 7, 1870. The "Captain" had an ex 
 tremely low free-board, and was built by Laird, 
 of Birkenhead, under the supervision of her de 
 signer, Captain Coles, and Captain Burgoyne. 
 
 During her first cruise, in May, 1870, Admiral 
 Sir Thomas Symonds reported her as behaving 
 extremely well in all weather, using her heavy 
 guns readily in a seaway, very stable, and es 
 pecially handy under sail. She capsized, how 
 ever. Her constructor, Captain Cowper Coles, 
 R.N., perished in her, with 542 out of 560 souls, 
 who composed her complement. 
 
 The former chief constructor of the Royal 
 navy, Mr. E. J. Reed, had always declared that 
 the " Captain" was uhseaworthy. E. Shippen. 
 
 Burley-twine. A strong coarse twine. 
 
 Burnettizing. A process for the preservation 
 of timber. The timber is immersed in a solution 
 of chloride of zinc for a certain period, which 
 depends upon the size of the timber. 
 
 Burn the Water. A phrase denoting the act 
 of killing fish at night with a gig. The fisher 
 men have a torch in the boat ; hence the phrase. 
 
 Burr. The hazy c ile which appears around 
 the moon before rain. 
 
 Burrel. Langrage shot, consisting of bits of 
 iron, bullets, nails, etc., got together in haste for 
 a sudden emergency. 
 
 Burrock. A small weir over a river, where 
 weels are laid for taking fist. 
 
 Burr-pump. A name foi the bilge-pump. 
 
 Burser. See PURSER. 
 
 Burster-bag. A bag for bursting charge 
 of a shell. 
 
 Bursting Charge. The ? ce charge of a 
 shell as distinguished from lowing charge. 
 
 In some shells the bursting ^ is inclosed in 
 
 a bag as a guard against pr e explosions. 
 
 Burt. A flat fish of the ttnd. 
 
 Burthen. See BURDEN 
 
 Burton. A tackle used 
 as, swaying aloft a topsa: 
 etc. A top-burton is kept J 
 at the topmast-head. It i 
 long enough to permit the 
 ing part to come down to 
 the main top-burton is th 
 ging in a ship. See SPAN 
 
 Burt s Nippers. An ; 
 
 tached to a deep-sea le 
 line to run readily throi 
 descending ; but as soon 
 bottom, releasing the te 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 us purposes ; 
 ting a yard, 
 the pendants 
 ckle, and is 
 k and haul- 
 The fall of 
 >iece of rig- 
 tf. 
 
 -netimes at- 
 allows the 
 ,he lead is 
 trikes the 
 & " n e at 
 
BUSH 
 
 99 
 
 BY-WASH 
 
 Bush. A perforated piece of metal let into 
 certain parts of machinery to receive the wear 
 of pivots, journals, etc. Any similar lining of 
 a hole with metal ; as^ the vent of a gun. The 
 bush or bushing of the vent of a gun is made of 
 pure copper ; the outer orifice is faced with steel, 
 and the inner orifice, in heavy guns, is lined 
 with platinum. 
 
 Bushing. See BUSH. 
 
 Bush-metal. An alloy of copper and tin. 
 
 Bushnell, David, of Connecticut, was the first 
 to show practically that a charge of gunpowder 
 could be fired under water, and is therefore en 
 titled to the credit of inventing torpedoes or sub 
 marine mines (1775). 
 
 Busking. Piratical cruising. Beating to 
 windward along a coast, or cruising oiF and on. 
 
 Buss. A small strong-built Dutch vessel 
 with two masts, used in the herring and mack 
 erel fisheries, generally of 50 to 70 tons burden. 
 
 Bust-head. See FIGURE-HEAD. 
 
 Busy as the Devil in a Gale of Wind. Fid 
 gety restlessness, or double diligence in a bad 
 cause ; the imp being supposed to be mischievous 
 in hard gales. 
 
 But. A conical basket for catching fish. 
 
 Butcher s Bill. A nickname for the official 
 return of killed and wounded which follows an 
 action. 
 
 Butescarli. The early name for the sea-officers 
 in the British navy. 
 
 Butt. A wine measure of 126 gallons. The 
 large end of the stock of a fire-arm. A target ; 
 hence a person at whom are leveled the shafts of 
 sarcasm or ridicule. The joining of two timbers 
 or planks endways ; also the ends of the timbers 
 or planks so joined. The largest end of any tim 
 ber or plank. To start or spring a butt is to 
 loosen the end of a plank by the laboring of the 
 ship. 
 
 Butt-and-butt. A term denoting that the butt 
 ends of two timbers meet but do not overlap. 
 
 Butter-box. A name given to the brig-traders 
 of lumpy form, from London, Bristol, and other 
 English ports. A cant term for a Dutchman. 
 
 Butter-bump. A name of the bittern. 
 
 Butter-fingered. Having a careless habit of 
 allowing things to slip through the fingers. 
 
 Buttock. The after-part of the ship on each 
 side below the knuckle. A ship is said to have 
 a broad or narrow buttock according to her tran 
 som convexity under the stern. 
 
 BUTTOCK-LINES. Represented on the sheer 
 draught as curve lines cutting the ship into ver 
 tical longitudinal sections parallel to the centre 
 line. 
 
 Button. The knob of metal which terminated, 
 the breech-end of old guns, and which afforded a 
 convenient bearing for the application of hand 
 spikes, breechings, etc. 
 
 Buttons, To Make. A common time-honored, 
 but strange expression for sudden apprehension 
 or misgiving. 
 
 Butt- shaft, or Butt-bolt. An arrow without 
 a barb, used for shooting at a butt. 
 
 By. Being, or passing, near. By the wind, as 
 near the wind as possible. Full and by, rap- 
 full, but close to the wind. By and large, to the 
 wind and off it. Stand by ! Be prepared. By 
 the board, over the ship s side ; a mast carried 
 away near the deck is said to go by the board. 
 A ship is doiun by the head (or stern) when she 
 draws more water forward (or aft) than she does 
 when she is in her proper trim. 
 
 Bykat. A term for a male salmon of a certain 
 age, because of the beak which then grows on its 
 under-jaw. 
 
 Byllis. An old spelling for bill. 
 
 Byrth. The old expression for tonnage. 
 
 Byssa. An ancient gun for discharging stones 
 at the enemy. 
 
 Byssus. The silken filaments of any of the 
 bivalved mollusks which adhere to rocks, as the 
 Pinna, Mytilus, etc. The silken byssus of the 
 great pinna, or wing-shell, is woven into dresses. 
 In the Chama gigas it will sustain 1000 pounds. 
 Also, the woolly substance found in damp parts 
 of a ship. 
 
 By-wash. The outlet of water from a dam 
 or discharge channel. 
 
100 
 
 CABLE 
 
 C. 
 
 C. Abbreviation for can in the TJ. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. Among the letters used in 
 the log-book to register the state of the weather 
 c denotes cloudy. 
 
 Caaing Whale (Globicephalus deductor). A 
 cetacean belonging to the genus Delphinus, but 
 differing from the other Delphinidce in having 
 the phalanges more numerous and the limbs 
 lower and more approximated in position. It 
 resembles the common porpoise in general form, 
 but is much larger, measuring from 16 to 24 feet 
 in length, and rather more than 10 feet in cir 
 cumference at its thickest part, which is at the 
 root of the dorsal fin, whence the body tapers 
 towards the tail, which is deeply forked. In 
 color it is black, with a white streak on the 
 under side. Its pectoral fins are long and nar 
 row. Its vertebrae number 55. It is very 
 gregarious, and is found on the coasts of Great 
 Britain, North America, and Iceland, while 
 other species of the same genus exist in the 
 South Seas and the North Pacific. It is most 
 frequently taken on the Scottish coast, whence 
 also it derives its name, the word "caaing" 
 being Scotch for "driving." The animal is so 
 called from the fact that owing to its sheep-like 
 propensity to follow its leader, the fishermen, 
 having hemmed in a herd between their boats 
 and the shore, are enabled to drive the whole 
 herd into shallow water, where, becoming 
 stranded, they fall an easy prey, and form a 
 rich booty to their pursuers. 
 
 Cabane. A flat-bottomed passage-boat of the 
 Loire. 
 
 Cabin. In passenger steamers the cabin is a 
 large apartment which is occupied by the better 
 class of passengers. In it are the state-rooms or 
 private rooms of the passengers, and the space 
 between the rows of state-rooms is the saloon, 
 which is for the accommodation of the passengers 
 in general, and is frequently used as a dining- 
 room. In large vessels there are two or three 
 cabins, in which case they are occupied, respec 
 tively, by the first-, second-, and third-class pas 
 sengers. In an ordinary merchant vessel the 
 cabin is the apartment occupied by the master 
 of the vessel. 
 
 In a man-of-war the cabin is the apartment 
 occupied by the cabin-officers. Cabin-officers 
 are the commanding officer and other line-officers 
 of and above the grade of commander, whether 
 they are on duty or attached to the ship as pas 
 sengers. In large vessels there are two cabins, 
 one on the main deck and one on the upper deck. 
 The cabin is frequently divided into compart 
 ments by light bulkheads, and two or more 
 state-rooms are formed in the same manner. 
 "When there is a flag-officer on duty on board a 
 vessel having two cabins, he selects one for his 
 own use and the commanding officer occupies 
 the other; when there is but one cabin, the 
 
 commanding officer is entitled to one-third of 
 the space, divided off by a fore-and-aft bulk 
 head. 
 
 CABIN-BOY. A boy whose duty it is to wait 
 on the officers and passengers in the cabin. 
 
 CABIN-LECTURE. A severe but private repri 
 mand. See JOBATION. 
 
 Cable. A large strong chain, or rope made 
 of hemp, manilla, or coir, used to retain a ship 
 in place when at anchor. Rope for cables is 
 cable-laid, to render it impervious to water, but 
 the additional twist given in laying it up de 
 tracts from the strength, the cable-laid being 
 30 per cent, weaker than plain-laid rope of 
 equal size. Cables vary in size from 10 to 26 
 inches. Eope-cable has been superseded by 
 chain. 
 
 Chain for cables for the navy is manufactured 
 at the Washington navy-yard The utmost care 
 is taken to procure good iron ; each bar is tested, 
 and the links are carefully welded. A cast-iron 
 stud is inserted in each link, except those at the 
 ends of the sections ; the object of the stud is to 
 strengthen the chain and keep it from kinking. 
 
 Chain-cables are 120 fathoms long, a shackle 
 being introduced at each section of 15 fathoms, 
 and a swivel at ?, STj, and 82 J fathoms. The 
 object of the swivel is to keep the chain from 
 getting full of turns. 
 
 Chain-cables are marked at the shop in the fol 
 lowing manner : each shackle is marked across 
 the eye with its number ; the swivels and club- 
 link are marked with the number of the chain, 
 the date, place of manufacture, and the initials 
 of the inspector. 
 
 On the stud are cast the initials U. S. and 
 "W. N. Y., and also the size of the chain in 
 figures. 
 
 Table for Proof of Cables. 
 
 Size 
 Cab! 
 2i4in 
 
 $ 
 
 1% 
 1% 
 
 >1 
 
 7 
 
 P 
 
 of Pounds Strain 
 e. Single Proof, 
 ch 147 800 
 
 134 400 
 
 117,600 
 1(X) 800 
 
 87 800 
 
 78000 
 
 66 600 
 
 56,000 
 
 44800 
 
 34,600 
 
 26800 
 
 Double Proof 
 
 for Triplets. 
 
 295,600 
 
 268,800 
 
 235,200 
 
 201,600 
 
 175,600 
 
 156,000 
 
 133,200 
 
 112,000 
 
 89,600 
 
 69,200 
 
 53,600 
 
 Chain-cables differing 1-16 inch in size are not manufactured 
 now. 
 
 The triplets are cut from the chain to be issued, and are 
 tested to destruction, but must stand the double proof before 
 breaking. 
 
 Cables issued to the service are pulled to single proof only. 
 
 After the cable has stood the required test 
 given in the proof-table, it is examined by an 
 expert, to see if there are any defects in the 
 welding. 
 
 A shot of cable, two cables spliced together. 
 
GABON 
 
 101 
 
 CABRAL 
 
 To pay out or veer cable, to let more cable run 
 out of the hawse-hole. To bitt the cable, to take a 
 turn with the cable around the bitts. To stopper 
 the cable, to secure it by means of pieces of ropes, 
 called stoppers, attached to the deck or bitt (See 
 STOPPER.) To buoy the cable, to attach buoys to 
 the bight of the cable to keep it clear of the 
 ground. To coil a cable, to lay it in fakes and 
 tiers. To bend ti cable, to clinch or shackle it to 
 the ring of the anchor. To range a cable, to lay 
 it along the deck in parallel lines. To slip the 
 cable, to let go the inboard end and allow it all 
 to run out. Cable enough ! the cry from the fore 
 castle when sufficient cable has been veered to 
 allow the anchor to be catted. 
 
 CABLE-BENDS. Two small ropes for lashing 
 the end of a cable to its own part, in order to 
 secure the clinch, by which it is made fast to the 
 anchor. 
 
 CABLE, BOWER-. The cable belonging to a 
 bower-anchor. 
 
 CABLE-BUOY. A cask used to buoy up the 
 bight of a cable. 
 
 CABLE, ELECTRICAL. An insulated wire or 
 combination of wires used in telegraphy or in 
 firing mines. The essential qualities are strength, 
 pliability, and high insulation. The substances 
 generally used for insulating a cable are gutta- 
 percha, india-rubber, and Hooper s material ; 
 the latter is considered to be the best. To pro 
 tect the insulating material from chafe over 
 rocks, cables are generally provided with an 
 external metallic covering. 
 
 CABLE-LAID ROPE. Three plain-laid ropes 
 laid up into one rope, thus forming a nine- 
 stranded left-handed rope. 
 
 CABLE, SHEET-. The cable belonging to the 
 sheet-anchor. 
 
 CABLE S LENGTH. One-tenth of a sea-mile, 
 about 100 fathoms. 
 
 CABLE-STAGE. A platform in the hold on. 
 which are coiled the cables and hawsers. 
 
 CABLE, STREAM-. A hawser or large rope 
 used with a stream-anchor. 
 
 CABLET. A cable-laid rope of less than 10 
 inches in circumference ; a hawser. 
 
 CABLE-TIER. The place where cables and 
 hawsers are stowed. 
 
 Gabon. An old word for a nipper. 
 
 Caboose, or Camboose. The cook-room or 
 kitchen of merchantmen, on deck ; a diminutive 
 substitute for the galley of a man-of-war ; the 
 term is sometimes applied to a portable cast-iron 
 stove used in coasting-vessels for cooking on 
 deck. 
 
 Cabot, John. See CABOTO, GIOVANNI. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian. One of the sons of Gio 
 vanni. He survived his father and brothers, and 
 earned a high reputation as an explorer. Born 
 at Bristol, England claims him as one of her 
 sons. After the death of Henry VII. he entered 
 the service of Spain, and became a member of the 
 Council of the Indies. In the reign of Henry 
 VIII. he commanded an expedition in search of 
 the Northwest passage, " the dream of all the 
 greatest navigators since the close of the fifteenth 
 century." The object of the expedition was de 
 feated by the pusillanimity of Admiral Pert. 
 Cabot, however, turned the frustrated mission 
 to account by observing the dip of the needle and 
 the variation of the compass in those regions, 
 and by forming plans for the accurate deter 
 
 mination of the longitude. In 1520, Cabot left 
 the service of the king of England, and accepted 
 the grade of pilot-major under the government 
 of Charles V. of Spain. By that monarch he 
 was appointed captain-general of an expedition 
 to Cape Horn and the Pacific shores of South 
 America ; but through the jealousy of his sub 
 ordinates his operations were confined to the Rio 
 de la Plata and its tributary streams. With 
 drawing from the Spanish service in 1548, he 
 once more settled in Bristol, and Edward VI. of 
 England employed him in a capacity correspond 
 ing with that of a first lord of the Admiralty. 
 As superintendent of the shipping and foreign 
 commerce of England, Cabot destroyed the 
 monopoly of a grasping company, and improved 
 the public revenues by encouraging the princi 
 ples of free trade. He then founded a Society of 
 Merchant Adventurers, and in that capacity sent 
 out ships with keels of lead as a precaution 
 against the worm. Some years later he closed a 
 useful life, and was posthumously panegyrized 
 as the most scientific seaman of the age, and one 
 of the gentlest, bravest, and best of men, who 
 gave to Britain not only a large continent but 
 the untold riches of the deep in the fisheries of 
 Newfoundland and the Arctic Sea. He was, in 
 fact, the father of free trade. 
 
 Cabotage (ItaL). Sailing from cape to cape 
 along a coast, or the details of coast pilotage. 
 
 Caboto, or Kaboto, Giovanni (JoiiN CABOT), 
 obtained a patent from Henry VII., King of 
 England, empowering him and his three sons to 
 sail into the eastern, western, or northern seas, 
 with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, 
 to search for islands, countries, provinces, or 
 regions not before seen by Christian people ; to 
 float the English flag on any city, island, or 
 continent that they might find, and, as vassals 
 of the English crown, to possess and occupy the 
 territories so discovered. The expedition sailed 
 from Bristol, May, 1497, and the Cabots sighted 
 Labrador. In the following year they made a 
 second voyage, and got as far as Maryland, 
 having previously discovered Newfoundland. 
 In 1499 they made a third voyage, extending to 
 the Gulf of Mexico. See SEBASTIAN CABOT. 
 
 Cabral, or Cabrera, Pedro Alvarez, the dis 
 coverer of Brazil, was descended from an old 
 and patrician Portuguese family. Nothing is 
 known of his early life save the fact that he 
 must have recommended himself by talent and 
 enterprise to King Emanuel, of Portugal, who, 
 after the. first voyage of Vasco de Gama, ap 
 pointed Cabral to the command of a fleet of 13 
 vessels, carrying 1200 men, and bound for the 
 East Indies. On the 9th of March, 1500, he 
 sailed from Lisbon. To avoid the inconvenience 
 of being becalmed on the coast of Africa, he took 
 a course too far westerly, fell into the South 
 American current of the Atlantic, and was car 
 ried to the unknown coast of Brazil, of which 
 he claimed possession for the king of Portugal, 
 April 24, 1500, naming the new country " Terra 
 da Santa Cruz." After sending home one ves 
 sel to bear news of this great accidental dis 
 covery, Cabral sailed for India ; but on the 29th 
 of May four of his vessels foundered, and all on 
 board perished, including Diaz, the great navi 
 gator ; and soon afterwards three more vessels 
 were lost. Cabral therefore landed at Mozam 
 bique, on the east coast of Africa, of which he 
 
CABURN 
 
 102 
 
 CACHOLOT 
 
 first gave clear information, and also discovered 
 (August 23) the Antschedives Islands, of which 
 he described correctly the position. Hence he 
 sailed to Calicut, where, having made the terror 
 of his arms felt, he was permitted to found a fac 
 tory ; entered into successful negotiations with 
 native rulers, and thus established the first com 
 mercial treaty between Portugal and India. He 
 returned from India, bringing with him a con 
 siderable booty, and arrived in the port of Lis 
 bon July 31, 1501. It appears probable that the 
 king was dissatisfied with the results of the ex 
 pedition (although it had annexed Brazil to the 
 crown of Portugal), for subsequently we find no 
 mention made of Cabral among other discoverers. 
 At the request of Cabral, Sancho de Toar wrote 
 a description of the coast of Sofola. Cabral s 
 voyages are described in Ramusio s " Naviga- 
 tione e Viaggi," 3vols. (Venice, 1563; newed., 
 Venice, 1835.) 
 
 Caburn. A small line made of spun-yarn, for 
 worming cables, seizings, and the like. 
 
 Cacao (Sp.). The plant Theobroma, from 
 which cocoa is derived. 
 
 Cache (Fr., a place of concealment). Ex 
 plorers and other travelers in waste regions wish 
 ing either to disencumber themselves of a portion 
 of their impedimenta, or to establish magazines 
 for use on their return journey, frequently bury 
 in the ground provisions and articles of equip 
 ment. The place of such a deposit is termed a 
 cache, and the process of making it, cacheing. 
 
 Cacholot, Spermaceti, or Sperm Whale (Phy- 
 seter macrocephalus, or Cntodon macrocephalus}. 
 One of the largest of the Cetacea (which see), and 
 of very peculiar form. Unlike the right whale, 
 it affords no whalebone, but is much sought 
 after, not only on account of the oil, but still 
 more for the spermaceti and ambergris which it 
 yields. It is widely distributed geographically and 
 inhabits nearly all seas, but is most abundant in 
 those of the southern hemisphere. It sometimes 
 attains the length of 70 or 80 feet. The general 
 color is very dark gray, nearly black on the up 
 per parts but lighter beneath. Old males, or, as 
 the South-Sea whalers call them, old bull-whales, 
 usually have a large gray spot on the front of 
 the head. The head is enormously large, form 
 ing about one-half of the entire bulk of the 
 animal, and taking up more than one-third of 
 the whole length. From the head the body 
 tapers to the tail, and at last rather rapidly. 
 The muzzle is very obtuse, almost as if suddenly 
 cut off in front, the breadth of it almost equaling 
 the thickness of the body. In a protuberance 
 on the upper part of it is the blow-hole, which 
 is single, situated a little on the left side, and in 
 form not unlike the letter S elongated. The 
 mouth is very wide, and the throat, unlike that 
 of the Greenland whale, is sufficiently capacious 
 to admit the whole body of a man. *The upper 
 jaw projects some feet beyond the lower, and has 
 neither teeth nor whalebone ; but the lower jaw 
 contains twenty or twenty-five teeth on each s ide, 
 according to the age of the animal. The teeth, 
 which are conical and slightly recurved, project 
 about two inches from the gum. The lower jaw 
 is very narrow, its two branches being for most 
 of their length in contact ; it fits into a groove 
 in the upper jaw, in which are cavities for the 
 teeth. The eyes are small and placed far back 
 in the head above the angles of the mouth ; the 
 
 left eye is said to be smaller than the right. 
 Just above the eyes the dorsal line rises con 
 siderably ; the dorsal fin is also represented by a 
 protuberance about half-way between the neck 
 and tail, and these parts are seen above water in 
 the ordinary swimming of the animal, which is 
 at the rate of from 3 to 7 miles an hour and just 
 beneath the surface of the water, although when 
 alarmed it swims more swiftly and strikes the 
 water with its tail upward and downward with 
 great force. The pectoral fins are small, and 
 seem scarcely, if at all, to aid in progression, 
 which is accomplished by the large and powerful 
 tail-fin. The tail-fin is very broad and is divided 
 into two lobes, called by the South-Sea whalers 
 the flukes. The head of the cacholot is in great 
 part occupied by a cavity in front of and above 
 the skull, called by whalers the case, which is a 
 receptacle for spermaceti (which see). This sub 
 stance being light, the animal in swimming 
 raises its head above the surface of the water, 
 which it also does when at rest. The case fre 
 quently holds not less than ten large barrels of 
 spermaceti. It is not formed of bone, but of a 
 strong tendinous integument, and is divided into 
 compartments which communicate with each 
 other. The substance which it contains is in a 
 semi-fluid state, but hardens on cooling ; it con 
 sists of spermaceti and oil. The oil is separated 
 by drawing and squeezing, and the spermaceti 
 further purified till, instead of being a yellow, 
 unctuous mass, the state in which it is brought 
 home by the whalers, it assumes a beautiful 
 pearly white, flaky, nearly crystalline appearance. 
 When the spermaceti whale is killed and towed 
 alongside the whaling-ship, the case is emptied 
 of its valuable contents through a hole made 
 in front of the muzzle, and by means of a basket 
 attached to a pole. The spermaceti used to be 
 considered the brain of the whale ; what purpose 
 it serves is not known, except that already alluded 
 to of giving buoyancy to the fore part of the ani 
 mal, and perhaps this is its chief use, respiration 
 even more than progression depending on it. It 
 is distinct enough from the brain, which, as well 
 as the skull that contains it, is very small com 
 pared with the bulk of the creature. Cavities 
 filled with spermaceti are distributed over the 
 body, and even ramify through the external fat 
 or blubber, although the principal mass is in the 
 head. The blubber of the cacholot is not nearly 
 as thick as that of the Greenland whale, being 
 only about 14 inches in thickness on the breast 
 of a large whale, and from 8 to 11 inches on 
 other parts of the body. It is called by whalers 
 the blanket, is removed from the captured whale 
 in great strips, and is heated in large pots, the 
 skin of the whale serving for fuel, when the oil 
 known as sperm oil (which see) flows from it. 
 The junk, a thick elastic mass, which occupies the 
 forepart of the head immediately under the case, 
 yields also a considerable quantity of sperm oil. 
 The cacholot feeds principally upon squids and 
 cuttle-fish. It goes in herds, which are called 
 schools by the sailors. Large herds consist gen 
 erally of females with only a few males ; herds 
 of young males also occur. When solitary in 
 dividuals are met with, they are almost always 
 old males. Terrible conflicts often take place 
 among the males, and it is not unusual to find 
 the lower jaw dislocated or broken as a result of 
 these encounters. 
 
CADE 
 
 103 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 Cade. A small barrel of about 500 herrings 
 or 1000 sprats. 
 
 Cadence. The regularity requisite in pull 
 ing. A uniform time and pace in marching in 
 dispensable to the correct movements of troops. 
 
 Cadet. A French word signifying younger, 
 junior. This term is also applied in France and 
 other countries to a student in the art of war and 
 military science. 
 
 CADET ENGINEER. The lowest grade of the 
 engineer corps in the U. S. navy ; so called 
 during their state of pupilage at the Naval 
 Academy and up to the time of their promotion 
 to assistant engineer. 
 
 CADET MIDSHIPMAN. The lowest grade of 
 line-officers in the U. S. navy ; so called while 
 pupils at the Naval Academy and during a pro 
 bationary period of sea service, at the expiration 
 of which they are promoted to midshipman. See 
 ACADEMIES, NAVAL. 
 
 Cadge. To carry. Kedge may be a corrup 
 tion. 
 
 Cadiz. A city and seaport of Spain, capital 
 of the province of Cadiz, on the island of Leon, 
 off the S.W. coast of Andalusia, 60 miles N.W. 
 of Gibraltar, and 64 miles S. of Seville. Lat. 
 36 32 N. ; Ion. 6 17 15" W. It stands on a 
 narrow tongue of land, which projects about 5 
 miles N.N.W. into the sea ; it is surrounded on 
 three sides by water, and is strongly defended 
 both by nature and by art. The entrance to its 
 capacious bay is commanded by forts, while on 
 the other sides large vessels cannot approach 
 within three-fourths of a mile of the city. One 
 of the most conspicuous objects in Cadiz is 
 the light-house of San Sebastian, 172 feet in 
 height. The bay, which is formed by the penin 
 sula and the mainland, is spacious, and affords 
 good anchorage. La Caraca, the royal dock 
 yard, is situated at the bottom of the inner bay, 
 about 6 miles from the city, and is defended by 
 the cross-fire of two forts. It contains 3 spacious 
 basins, and 12 docks or slips. The trade of Cadiz 
 is less extensive than formerly. The chief arti 
 cle of export is sherry wine. Salt is another 
 article of export. The chief imports are staves, 
 tobacco, hides, cacao, indigo, cochineal, dye- 
 woods, sugar, codfish, and coals. Pop. 58,000. 
 
 Caelum. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Caffila. See KAFILA. 
 
 Cag. See CARRY. 
 
 Cage. An iron cage, formed of hoops, on the 
 top of a pole, and filled with combustibles. It is 
 lighted before high water, and marks a channel, 
 navigable for the period during which it burns. 
 
 Cage-work. An old term for a ship s upper 
 works. 
 
 Caique, or Kaique. A small Levantine ves 
 sel. Also, a graceful skiff, seen in perfection at 
 Constantinople, where it almost monopolizes the 
 boat traffic. It is fast but crank, being so nar 
 row that the oars or sculls have their looms en 
 larged into ball-shaped masses to counterbalance 
 their outboard length. It has borne for ages the 
 wave-line, which, upon its introduction into our 
 marine architecture a few years ago, was esteemed 
 a novelty. It may have from one to ten or twelve 
 rowers. 
 
 Cairban. A name in the Hebrides for the 
 basking-shark. 
 
 Cairn. A pile of stones used as a mark in 
 surveying. 
 
 Caisson. A boat-gate, having generally both 
 ends similar in form to the bows of a vessel, used 
 to close the entrance to a dock or basin. An ap 
 paratus for lifting a vessel out of the water for 
 repairs or inspection. It is usually a hollow 
 structure sunk by letting water into it. There 
 is an air-chamber inside, which allows it to sink 
 only a certain depth. In that state it is hauled 
 under the ship s bottom, the traps or openings 
 are closed, the water is pumped out, and the 
 caisson rises with the ship upon it. In another 
 arrangement, a platform is sunk to a certain 
 depth in the water, and is suspended by iron 
 screws from a strong wooden framework; the 
 ship is floated upon the platform, steadied by 
 shores, and lifted high and dry by means of 
 levers, wheels, pinions, and screws. In military 
 matters, an ammunition-chest and the wagon on 
 which it is carried. The term is also applied to 
 a chest loaded with explosives and buried deep 
 in the ground under a fortification for the pur 
 pose of being blown up if the enemy approach 
 and take possession of that particular part of the 
 work. 
 
 Calais. A town of France, department of 
 Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of Dover, 26 miles 
 E.S.E. of Dover, and 20 miles N.E. of Boulogne. 
 Lat. of the new light-house, 50 57 45" N. ; 
 Ion. 1 51 18" E. ; height, 192 feet. The tower 
 and harbor are defended by a castle and several 
 forts, and by means of sluices the whole adjacent 
 country may be laid under water. The harbor 
 is formed by two moles, which are continued 
 seaward by wooden piers, the whole being about 
 three-fourths of a mile in length. At ebb-tide it 
 is nearly dry ; has not a greater depth than 15 
 or 18 feet at high water. A tower in the centre 
 of the town serves as a light*house. There is 
 good anchorage ground 2 to 3 miles N.W. of the 
 harbor. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Calais, a city of Washington Co., Me., is 
 on the St. Croix River. It is at the head of 
 navigation, about 12 miles from Passamaquoddy 
 Bay, 82 miles E.N.E. of Bangor, and 27 miles 
 N.N.W. of Eastport. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Calamary (calamus, a pen). A Cephalopod, 
 which derives its name from the fact of its body 
 containing a gladius, or internal shell, shaped 
 like a quill, and a bag in its visceral sac from 
 which it diffuses an ink-like fluid. Its mouth is 
 furnished with eight arms. The different species 
 are distributed oVer all parts of the world, but 
 are much more abundant in some seas than in 
 others ; they form a principal part of the food of 
 some of the larger fishes and of whales. It is the 
 Loligo vulgaris of Cuvier. 
 
 Calamine. An ore, consisting essentially of 
 silicate of zinc. Its primary form is a rhomboid, 
 and it occurs in small obtuse-edged crystals, also 
 compact and massive. It is white, yellowish 
 white, brown, green, or gray; is sometimes 
 opaque, sometimes translucent, is brittle, and 
 has an uneven conchoidal fracture. It occurs 
 in beds and veins in rocks of various kinds, but 
 most commonly in limestone. 
 
 Calanca. A creek or cove on the Italian and 
 Spanish coasts. 
 
 Calcutta, capital of British India and of Ben 
 gal, is situated on the E. bank of the Hoogly 
 River, 80 miles from the sea, in lat. 22 33 47" 
 N., Ion. 88 23 34" E., opposite the town of 
 Howrah, to which a floating-bridge extends. 
 
CALENDAK 
 
 104 
 
 CALK 
 
 Calcutta is the largest emporium of trade in 
 Asia, being the natural outlet of the valleys of 
 the Ganges and Brahmapootra. The chief ex 
 ports are jute, opium, indigo, rice, hides, raw 
 silk, saltpetre, etc., and the chief imports are 
 cotton, linen, and silk goods, hardware, wines, 
 spirits, and salt. Pop. city proper," 448,000; 
 including suburbs, about 900,000. 
 
 Calendar (Lat. calendce, the first day of each 
 month, from caldre ; Gr. kalein, to call, to 
 summon). The regulation, arrangement, and 
 register of civil time. The natural unit adapted 
 to the immediate wants and ordinary occupations 
 of man is the sola? day, or the period elapsed be 
 tween two successive arrivals of the sun at a 
 given meridian. It varies in length at different 
 seasons of the year ; but the variation is socially 
 unimportant, and the tacit adoption of its mean 
 value from the earliest ages arose probably from 
 ignorance that such fluctuation existed. This 
 mean solar or civil day is divided into 24 hours. 
 The unit for longer duration again is naturally 
 the period in which recur the seasons on which 
 depend all the vital business of life. It is the in 
 terval between two successive arrivals of the sun 
 at the vernal equinox, and is called the tropical 
 year. This period varies slightly, and is incom 
 mensurate with the lesser unit, its length being 
 about 365 days 5 hours 58 minutes 59.7 seconds. 
 Now, if the odd hours, minutes, etc., were to be 
 neglected, and the civil year made to consist of 
 365 days, the seasons would soon cease to cor 
 respond to the same months, and would run the 
 round of the whole year; this odd time must 
 therefore be taken account of. But then, again, 
 it would be very inconvenient to have the same 
 day belonging to two different years. To obviate 
 this difficulty, a very neat contrivance was in 
 augurated by Julius Caesar. He introduced a 
 system of two artificial years, one of 365 and the 
 other of 366 integer days ; three consecutive years 
 of 365, and then a fourth year of 366 days. The 
 longer years were called "bissextile" or "leap- 
 years," and the surplus days formed of the ac 
 cumulated fractions and thrown into the reckon 
 ing were called "intercalary" or "leap-days." 
 This calendar made the average length of civil 
 years 365 days 6 hours, which was only a rough 
 approximation to the truth, and the error soon 
 accumulated to a whole day. A reformation 
 was effected by Pope Gregory XIII. ; and his 
 law for regulating the succession of the two arti 
 ficial years (of 365 days and 366 days) is such, 
 that during the lapse of at least some thousands of 
 years the sum of these integer-day years shall not 
 differ from the same number of real tropical years 
 by a whole day. For the period of 10,000 years the 
 average length of the Gregorian year is 365.2425 
 days, which is a very close approximation to the 
 mean tropical year, 365.242264 days (according 
 to Delambre s tables). The Gregorian rule is as 
 follows: The years are denominated as years 
 current (not as years elapsed) from the midnight 
 between the 31st of December and the 1st of 
 January immediately subsequent to the birth of 
 Christ, according to the chronological determina 
 tion of that event by Dionysius Exiguus. Every 
 year whose number is not divisible by 4 without 
 remainder consists of 365 days ; every year which 
 is so divisible, but is not divisible by 100, of 366 
 days ; every year divisible by 100, but not by 
 400, again of 365 ; and every year divisible by 
 
 400 again of 366 days. The principle might be 
 applied further, and any degree of approxima 
 tion attained. In our calendar the year is arbi 
 trarily divided into 12 unequal months, the in 
 tercalary day being placed at the end of the 
 shortest. 
 
 Calf. A word generally applied to the young 
 of marine mammalia, as the whale. Calf, in the 
 Arctic regions, a mass of floe-ice breaking from 
 under a floe, which when disengaged rises with 
 violence to the surface of the water; it differs 
 from a tongue, which is the same body kept fixed 
 beneath the main floe. The iceberg is formed by 
 the repeated freezing of thawed snow running 
 down over the slopes, until at length the wave 
 from beneath and weight above causes it to 
 break off and fall into the sea, or, as termed in 
 Greenland, to calve. Thus, berg, is fresh-water 
 ice, the work of years ; the floe, is salt water 
 frozen suddenly each winter, and dissolving in 
 the summer. 
 
 Calf, or Calva. A Norwegian name, also used 
 in the Hebrides, for islets lying off islands, and 
 bearing a similar relation to them in size that a 
 calf does to a cow ; as, the Calf at Mull and the 
 Calf of Man. 
 
 Calfat. The old word for calking. (Calfater, 
 Fr. ; probably from cale, wedge, and faire, to 
 make. ) To wedge up an opening with any soft 
 material, as oakum. (Cala/atear, Sp.) 
 
 Caliber, or Calibre. The diameter of the bore 
 of a gun, cannon-shot, or bullet. A ship s cali 
 bre means the known weight her armament rep 
 resents. 
 
 Calipash. The upper shell of a turtle. 
 Calipee. The under shell of a turtle. 
 Calipers, or Caliper Compasses. Bow-legged 
 compasses used to measure the girth of timber, 
 the external diameter of masts, shot, and other 
 circular or cylindrical substances. Calipers of 
 the best sort are made with a scale, having dif 
 ferent sets of numbers engraved on it, like a 
 sliding-rule, for- the purpose of exhibiting at 
 once various relations depending on the magni 
 tude of the diameter of the body measured. 
 Thus, as the weights of balls of the same metal 
 are in a constant ratio to the cubes of their di 
 ameters, the scale maybe so graduated and num 
 bered that the observer may read off either the 
 diameter in inches or the weight in pounds. 
 Other numbers having a less immediate applica 
 tion are also frequently attached ; for example, 
 the degrees of a circle, the proportions of troy 
 and avoirdupois weight, tables of the specific 
 gravities and weights of bodies, etc. It is ob 
 vious that these may be varied infinitely ac 
 cording to the purposes proposed to be accom 
 plished. Also an instrument with a sliding leg 
 used for measuring the packages constituting 
 a ship s cargo, which is paid for by its cubical 
 contents. 
 
 Calk. To drive oakum into the seams between 
 the planks in the sides and decks of a vessel, in 
 order to prevent the entrance of water. The 
 seam is first widened as much as possible, and 
 the oakum is then forced in thread by thread. 
 The oakum is driven until it forms a dense mass, 
 when the seam is payed or coated over with hot 
 pitch. The first people to make use of pitch in 
 calking were the inhabitants of Phaeacia. Wax 
 and resin had been previously used, and a kind 
 of unctuous clay has been made use of for the 
 
CALL 
 
 105 
 
 CAMPEACHY 
 
 same purpose. In the East a very hard cement, 
 known as chttnam, is used for the seams of ves 
 sels. To calk also means to sleep on deck with 
 clothes on. 
 
 CALKER. One who calks and pays seams. 
 
 CALKER S SEAT. A box slung to the ship s 
 side whereon a calker sits when calking. It 
 contains the calker s tools and oakum. 
 
 CALKING-BUTT. The opening between the 
 ends of planks when worked for calking. 
 
 CALKING-IRONS. Peculiar chisels used in 
 calking ; there are several kinds, as the calking- 
 iron, the making-iron, the rasing-iron, and the 
 reeming-iron. 
 
 CALKING-MALLET. The wooden mallet or 
 beetle used in driving the calking-irons. 
 
 Call. A signal made by a drum, bugle, trum 
 pet, or boatswain s pipe. A peculiar silver 
 whistle or pipe used by the boatswain and his 
 mates to summon the men to their stations and 
 to direct them in their various duties. This is done 
 by sounding various strains, each of which is 
 a signal to do a particular thing ; as, belay, veer, 
 walk away, sweep down, etc. The act of wind 
 ing this instrument is called piping. In early 
 times a gold call and chain was the badge of an 
 admiral. 
 
 Calliope. An instrument which consists of a 
 series of steam-whistles toned to produce musical 
 notes ; the valves by which steam is admitted to 
 the whistles are operated by keys arranged like 
 those of an organ. It is sometimes placed on 
 the hurricane-deck of steamboats on the western 
 rivers. 
 
 Call the Watch. The order to turn out the 
 watch below to relieve the watch on deck. See 
 WATCH. 
 
 Calm. A word used to denote the state of the 
 weather when there is no perceptible wind. It 
 is characterized as being flat, dead, or stark. In 
 a calm, under canvas, it is customary to haul up 
 the courses, brail up the trysails, counter-brace, 
 and wait for a breeze. When two vessels are 
 very near each other in a calm their heads 
 should be kept in different directions, otherwise 
 they would collide, on account of the attraction 
 between the two bodies and the undulating mo 
 tion of the sea, which causes vessels to forge 
 ahead even in a calm. For the same reasons a 
 vessel becalmed near the land should keep her 
 head to seaward. A heavy cannonading will 
 sometimes occasion a calm, and a large fire will 
 cause a breeze to spring up, the wind coming in 
 from all directions towards the fire. 
 
 CALM LATITUDES. The tract of ocean between 
 the northeast and southeast trade-winds. Its 
 situation varies several degrees, depending upon 
 the season of the year. The term is also applied 
 to the calm belt on the polar side of the trades. 
 (See HORSE LATITUDES.) The calm latitudes 
 were almost as much dreaded by the mariner as 
 the region of storms. During a calm of many 
 weeks food and water were likely to be exhausted 
 at a point too far from land for a boat to reach 
 it. Since the introduction of steam and the ap 
 paratus for distilling water, the calm belts have 
 lost the greater portion of their terrors. 
 
 Calorimeter. An instrument for measuring 
 quantities of heat. It consists essentially of a 
 vessel containing a known weight of some con 
 venient liquid, such as water or mercury ; a ther 
 mometer for indicating the temperature of that 
 
 liquid ; and, if necessary, an agitator for making 
 the liquid circulate. Experiments are performed 
 by immersing in the liquid or mixing with it 
 a known weight of the substance to be experi 
 mented on, at a known temperature different 
 from the temperature of the liquid, and noting 
 the common temperature of the liquid and the 
 immersed substance when equilibrium of tem 
 perature is restored, taking care that all losses 
 of heat, and other sources of error, are ascer 
 tained and accounted for. 
 
 This term is sometimes, though improperly, 
 applied to the cross sectional area of boiler 
 tubes. 
 
 Cam, or Wiper. In mechanism, a device 
 by which any desired variety of relative motion 
 may be obtained. It consists of either a contin 
 uously rotating or an oscillating body which, by 
 the shape of its face or edge, or by a groove in 
 its side or face, drives a sliding or turning piece 
 either with constantly varying, regular, or inter 
 mittent motion. It is extensively used in fabri- 
 cative machinery, such as the printing-press or 
 sewing-machine. In steam-engines it is applied 
 only to valve-gear. 
 
 CAM-SHAFT. A shaft carrying a cam. 
 
 CAM-ROLLER. A roller that acts on the face 
 or in the groove of a cam. 
 
 CAM-WHEEL. A whegl driving or carrying 
 one or more cams, and which may, by itself, 
 communicate a motion different from that of 
 the cams. 
 
 Cambala. Marco Polo s name for Pekin. 
 
 Camber. In ship-building, a term for any 
 thing which rounds, but chiefly to express the 
 camber to the ways for the launching of a ship. 
 
 CAMBER-KEELED. Having the keel arched 
 upwards, but not actually hogged. 
 
 Camboose. See CABOOSE. 
 
 Camden. A city and port of entry, capital 
 of Camden Co., N. J., on the Delaware River, 
 opposite Philadelphia. Its river front extends 
 from Cooper s Creek on the north to Newton 
 Creek on the south. Cooper s Creek is navigable 
 beyond the city limits. Pop. 37,000. 
 
 Camel. A water-tight structure placed be 
 neath a vessel in the water to raise it. Camels 
 were invented by the Dutch, about 1688, for 
 carrying vessels into harbors where the depth 
 of water would not otherwise permit them to 
 enter. They consisted of two large water-tight 
 boxes or half ships, built in such a manner that 
 they could be applied to each side of the hull 
 of a vessel. When about to be used water was 
 allowed to run into them, and when they sank 
 to the required depth they were firmly secured 
 to the ship s hull. The water was then pumped 
 out, and the camel rose, bringing up the vessel 
 with it. The camels in use in Holland are 
 upwards of 100 feet in length and 20 feet in 
 breadth. 
 
 Camels are frequently used to raise sunken 
 bodies. 
 
 Cameleopardalis. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Camfer. See CHAMFER. 
 
 Camock. A very early term for crooked 
 timber. 
 
 Campeachy. A town of Mexico, capital of 
 the state of Campeachy, on the bay of the same 
 name, 90 miles S.S.W. of Merida. .Lat. 19 50 
 N. ; Ion. 90 33 W. The harbor is capacious 
 but shallow, and vessels drawing more than 6 
 
CANAICHE 
 
 106 
 
 CANALS 
 
 feet of water are compelled to anchor 3 miles 
 from the shore. Notwithstanding this disad 
 vantage, vessels measuring 100 feet of keel are 
 built here. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Canaiche, or Canash. An inner port, as at 
 Granada in the West Indies. 
 
 Canal. An artificial channel filled with water, 
 formed for the purposes of inland navigation. 
 The section of a canal is usually a trapezium, 
 of which two sides are parallel and horizontal 
 and the other two equally inclined to the hori 
 zon. The inclination depends on the nature of 
 the soil. It is least in tenacious earth and great 
 est in loose soil ; but no soil will maintain itself 
 unless the base of the slope exceeds its height at 
 least in the ratio of four to three. In loose soil 
 the base requires to be twice as great as the 
 height. A canal is usually confined between a 
 bank on one side and a towing-path on the 
 other. The bed of a canal must be absolutely 
 level, or have no more slope than is necessary to 
 convey water to replace that which has been 
 wasted. Hence, when a canal intersects a sloping 
 country in a series of channels at different levels, 
 means must be provided to enable vessels to pass 
 from one level to another. This is commonly 
 effected by means of a lock (which see). See 
 CANALS, INTEROCEANIC. 
 
 CANAL-BOAT. A large boat generally decked 
 and towed by horses. 
 
 Canals, Interoceanic. The Suez Canal is the 
 only one completed or even under construction. 
 Those proposed and based on surveys sufficient 
 to establish their practicability are via Nicaragua 
 and via Panama, to connect the waters of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 The Suez Canal is a little over 99 miles in 
 length, connecting Port Said on the Mediter 
 ranean and Suez on the Red Sea. It follows 
 certain lines of depression known as Lakes Men- 
 zaleh, Ballah, Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes, 
 which form a length of about 60 miles. These 
 parts required only partial excavation, leaving 40 
 miles of canalization through full excavation, 
 and with a summit of only 60 feet above the 
 mean ocean-level. 
 
 The aggregate superfice of the lakes named is 
 near 300 miles. Lake Menzaleh lies 6 miles 
 from Port Said, and Ballah 29 miles. The Bitter 
 Lakes are 12 miles from Suez : these natural 
 reservoirs equalize tidal flow and confine any 
 rapid current between the sea and the first natural 
 reservoir. The charts give 6 to 18 inches tidal 
 action at Port Said, and 5 feet at Suez. 
 
 The excavation required to obtain a depth of 
 26 feet was 75,000,000 cubic metres, almost 
 wholly in loose sand and clay. The estimated 
 cost was 162,000,000 francs, and to meet all sup 
 posed possible contingencies 200,000,000 was 
 named. The actual capital and indebtedness, 
 January 1, 1879, was very nearly 524,000,000 
 francs. The draft of vessel allowed is 25 feet ; 
 the rates of toll established are 10 francs for each 
 passenger, and 10 francs per ton on measure 
 ments designed to represent the net tonnage, to 
 which are added pilotage, towage, and "other 
 charges, usually increasing the cost of transit 10 
 per cent. 
 
 In 1877, 1663 vessels, of an average of 2055 
 tons, passed through ; in 1879, 1477 vessels, of 
 an average tonnage of 2190; in 1878, 1593 ves 
 sels passed, of which 25 were sailers. The de 
 
 crease of tonnage between the years named will 
 be observed. 
 
 In the Red Sea and the upper Mediterranean 
 heavy short blows are frequent during the winter, 
 and calms prevail in the summer. As a result, 
 in 1876 nearly 60 per cent, of the English vessels 
 trading to India and to Malasia pursued the 
 route by the Cape of Good Hope. The tolls and 
 income of the canal for 1879 were 32,209,493 
 francs. 
 
 The absence of fresh water along the line of 
 the canal was a great discouragement and caused 
 considerable expense until the fresh-water canal 
 from the Nile was completed, and the drifting 
 sands of the desert were partially arrested by vege 
 tation, which became possible through irrigation. 
 The extensive works necessary for the formation 
 of Port Said was the most formidable difficulty 
 encountered, and it is possible of maintenance 
 only by constant dredging, involving large ex 
 penditures. The favorable conditions were the 
 almost entire absence of rain-fall, being a mean 
 of an inch and one-third } T early at Cairo, the 
 existence of inconsiderable tides, and the small 
 amount of hard material to excavate. The easy 
 slopes and low grounds, as well as the absence 
 of heavy rain-falls, made the deposition of the 
 excavated material easy ; in general, by very 
 powerful dredging-machines, elevating the earth 
 sufficiently to" deposit it, through the aid of 
 sluices, where it would be permanent. 
 
 The Nicaragua Canal as projected by Com 
 mander E. P. Lull, U.S.N. The proposed canal 
 as located requires the construction of two har 
 bors, one at Greytown, the other at Brito, on the 
 Pacific. In the construction of these harbors a 
 liberal estimate of cost is proposed, but that part 
 is the only uncertain element of cost of the 
 canal; the plans have received the careful ex 
 amination and approval of able engineers on the 
 estimate of cost as given. 
 
 The distance apart of these harbors, following 
 the line as located, is 181 miles; the summit- 
 level is Fall Lake, 107.6 feet above mean ocean- 
 level. From Greytown to slack-water naviga 
 tion of the San Juan River is 42 miles, and esti 
 mate of cost $13, 390,000. Recent instrumental 
 examinations insure a decrease in distance of 
 7 miles, with a proportionate decrease in the 
 estimate of cost. 
 
 The slackvwftter navigation begins above the 
 mouth^Tthe San Carlos River, and continues a 
 distance of 63 miles to Lake Nicaragua. As 
 I6cated, four dams are required of a mean height 
 of 29.} feet, and an aggregate length of 3960 feet ; 
 the natural foundations are good. Three natural 
 canals around the dams have an aggregate length 
 of 3 miles. Between a point 6 miles from 
 Greytown and Lake Nicaragua a lockage of 
 107.6 feet has to be effected. A certain amount 
 of blasting and dredging is proposed in flhe bed 
 of the San Juan for slack-water navigation. 
 Recent examinations have led to th considera 
 tion of making only two dams, and/ thus reduce 
 subaqueous work and lateral canalization. 
 
 The lake navigation extends 56-j miles, and 
 the estimated cost of its improvement is $715, (560. 
 
 The distance from Virgin Bay to the Pacific is 
 16| miles by the Rio del Medio route. Recent 
 investigations assure the diversion of the head 
 waters of the Rio Grande into the lake, thus 
 securing a satisfactory surface-drainage and a 
 
CANALS 
 
 107 
 
 CANALS 
 
 cutting of only 43 feet above the lake by the 
 Lajas route. The descent involves 10 locks, as 
 now proposed, of equal lift, and a tide-lock at 
 Brito, where the spring-tides are 8 feet. 
 
 Summarized, the actual canalization required 
 is 52 miles ; slack-water navigation on the river 
 San Juan, 63 miles ; lake navigation, unimpeded 
 except as above stated, 56J miles ; cost as located, 
 $52,577,718 ; with 25 per cent, contingent, $65,- 
 722,147. The improved location reduces estimate 
 for labor $7,000,000. 
 
 The mean annual rain-fall, with not very ex 
 tended observations, is 83 inches, with a dry 
 season extending from December to April. The 
 probable time required to construct the canal is 
 five years. Excellent stone, lime, and cement, 
 as well as timber, are in abundance and con 
 venient. Lake Nicaragua has a superfice of 
 2800 miles, and an outflow twenty times as great 
 as could be required for lockage. The trade- 
 winds extend to the ports almost without inter 
 ruption, making the proposed canal easy for the 
 passage of sailing-vessels. 
 
 To such persons as have given little attention 
 to an American interoceanic ship-canal, an in 
 spection of a globe will at once show its im 
 portance to the inhabitants of the northern hem 
 isphere, and at the same time the advantage that 
 will be derived through being able to pursue 
 routes in belts of prevailing fair winds by making 
 slight detours for the purpose. 
 
 The Panama Route as developed by the surveys 
 of Commander E. P. Lull, U.S.N.The pro 
 posed route as located extends from Aspinwall 
 to Panama, a distance of 41 f miles. The canal 
 has a summit-level of 124 feet, and derives its 
 water-supply from the upper Chagres, crossing 
 that river at summit-level by means of an aque 
 duct 1900 feet in length. The height at which 
 the canal should cross the Chagres was deter 
 mined as a necessity to avoid extraordinary floods, 
 but this height appears to be four feet less than 
 would be found necessary to secure the safety of 
 the aqueduct from such floods as those of No 
 vember, 1879.* 
 
 The proposed feeder is 10} miles in length, and, 
 with dam and appliances, the estimated cost is 
 $10,366,899. At the time of locating the canal 
 the water-supply was supposed to be unusually 
 low, but still entirely sufficient for purposes of 
 lockage. In March, 1878 and 1880, the water- 
 supply was inadequate. 
 
 As planned there are 24 lift-locks of 10J feet 
 each, and a tide-lock at Panama, where the tides 
 reach 22 feet. At Aspinwall the tide is nominal. 
 
 The estimated cost for labor and material, 
 made on a common basis for the Nicaragua Canal, 
 is $75,609,108, and with 25 per cent, contingent, 
 $94,511,360. Commander Lull remarks the ab 
 sence of all material for construction except 
 timber. 
 
 The average yearly rain-fall is 124 inches. In 
 1872 it was 170 inches. The dry season extends 
 usually from January to about the middle of 
 April. 
 
 The Panama Canal d niveau of M. de Lesseps. 
 Accompanying a "circular" addressed by M. 
 de Lesseps to American bankers is a " Eeport 
 of the International Technical Commission ap- 
 
 * On page 7 of Commander Lull s report will he found his 
 instructions, and the reasons for the proposed height of lock 
 age and objections to a sea-level canal by that route. 
 
 pointed to examine the definite work required 
 for the construction of the Panama Canal." 
 This title is, perhaps, given from the fact that 
 the engineers employed by M. de Lesseps were 
 of different nationalities. The report is dated 
 Panama, February 14, 1880, and in substance is 
 as follows : 
 
 1. On the line of levels of the Panama rail 
 road, as a base, 58 cross-sections have been taken. 
 Several curves of 2000 metres radius have been 
 adopted. 
 
 2. Fifteen borings had been taken on the line 
 of the canal and on the line of the proposed dam 
 at Gamboa ; these borings were from a depth of 
 from 12 to 22 metres. 
 
 3. It has been determined to adopt a slope of 
 1 to 1, except in the summit division in rock, 
 where J to 1 is considered sufficient. 
 
 4. It is proposed to overcome the difficulties 
 presented by the river Chagres by the construc 
 tion of a dam at Gamboa, situated between 
 Matachin and Cruces. "The commission ex 
 presses the opinion that a dam 40 metres in 
 height would provide for the storage of a volume 
 of water of one thousand millions of cubic metres, 
 a quantity equal to the maximum estimate of 
 the flood of November 25, 1879 (the greatest that 
 has ever been recorded), as given by Colonel G. 
 M. Totten. This work will be completed by the 
 construction of a new channel for the regulated 
 flow of the river from the Gamboa dam to the 
 sea. Another similar but narrower channel will 
 be provided on the opposite side of the canal, for 
 the stream and drainage on that side." 
 
 5. The commission deems it necessary to pro 
 vide at Panama a tide-lock at the outlet, so as to 
 preserve a constant level in the canal, and on the 
 Atlantic side, at Limon Bay, a breakwater 2 
 kilometres (6561 feet) in length. 
 
 6. The estimate of amount of excavation is as 
 follows : in earth, 12,005,000 ; hard soil, 300,000 ; 
 hard rocks, 6,786,000; a total of 19,091 ,000 cubic 
 metres. For above water: earth, 27,350,000; 
 soft rock, 825,000; hard rock, 27,734,000; mak 
 ing a grand total of 75,000,000 cubic metres. 
 
 The estimate for excavation of rock above 
 water is given at 2|- francs ; for rocks of mean 
 hardness, 7 ; for hard rocks, 12 ; for excavation 
 of rock where pumping is required, 18 francs. 
 
 For dredging and excavation under water: 
 mud, 2 francs; hard soil, 12; excavation of 
 rocks, 35 francs per cubic metre. 
 
 The proposed dam at Gamboa has a length of 
 1600 metres (5249 feet), with a height of 40 
 metres (131 feet), exclusive of foundation. The 
 cost is set down in a round sum of 100,000,000 
 francs. 
 
 The lateral canals for the purpose of securing 
 surface-drainage are also set down for a round 
 sum of 75,000,000 francs, the tide-lock at Panama 
 at 12,000,000, and the breakwater in Limon Bay 
 at 10,000,000, which, with a contingent of 10 
 per cent., makes a grand total of 843,000,000 
 francs, which the commission states was u the 
 cost of the work at the prices fixed by the Paris 
 congress for the various items." 
 
 M. de Lesseps gives further information to 
 the Board of Trade of San Francisco. Length 
 of canal, 45 miles, with a cutting through an 
 elevation of 90 metres (295 feet) above ocean- 
 level for a distance of three-fifths of a mile. He 
 estimates the time necessary for construction at 
 
CANALS 
 
 108 
 
 CANALS 
 
 six years, and proposes a depth of water below the 
 sea-level of 27 feet. 
 
 It is apparent that the capacity of the proposed 
 reservoir, the strength of the dam, and the suffi 
 ciency of the proposed lateral canals, as well as 
 their strength of embankment, are of the utmost 
 importance to the security of the work. 
 
 The prevalence of calms in Panama Bay and 
 its approaches appears on all weather-charts, and 
 has been especially remarked by Capt. Bedford 
 Pine, of the British navy, and also by Commander 
 Maury, formerly of our navy, who regards this 
 fact as making that locality totally unfit for the 
 construction of a canal. 
 
 length varies from 32 to 81 miles ; depth of 
 cutting, 50 to 80 feet ; sea-level, with two 
 tide-locks; estimated cost, from $8,000,000 to 
 141,000,000, according to route. 
 
 6th. From Cape Cod Bay to Buzzard s Bay. 
 Length, about 18 miles; proposed by a company 
 incorporated by the State of Massachusetts ; es 
 timated cost, $4,000,000. 
 
 7th. From the Atlantic Ocean to Appalachi- 
 cola Bay, across Florida (with locks). Proposed 
 and surveyed by the U. S. government ; length, 
 168.5 miles; summit, 203 feet; estimated cost, 
 $50,278,746. 
 
 8th. Between Caspian and Black Seas via Sea 
 
 Existing Ship-Canals.^ 
 
 Name of Canal. 
 
 Where 
 Situated. 
 
 Connecting what 
 Waters or Lo 
 calities. 
 
 By whom 
 Designed. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 5 3 
 
 st 
 
 I 
 
 
 fe 
 
 Vessels of 
 ift Feet. 
 
 Cost- 
 Dollars. 
 
 o 
 g| 
 
 If 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 il c 
 
 
 a% 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caledonian. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Loch Lihnne and 
 
 Telford. 
 
 60^ 
 
 100 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1823 
 
 Hardly pays expenses. 
 
 
 
 Inverness Frith. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great North 
 Holland. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Amsterdam and 
 the Helder. 
 
 Blanken. 
 
 51^ 
 
 IK to 
 5 feet 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 to 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 below 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sea. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Sea. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Amsterdam and 
 
 A Dutch 
 
 141-5 
 
 17-12 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 
 North Sea. 
 
 Commission. 
 
 
 below 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 St. Mary s Falls. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Lake Superior 
 
 Canfield. 
 
 1 
 
 sea. 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1,000,000! 1855 
 
 
 
 
 and Lake Hu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ron. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Mary s Falls. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Lake Superior 
 
 Poe. 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 Estimated Prob- 
 
 The largest ship-canal 
 
 
 
 and Lake Hu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,200,000: ably 
 
 lock in existence. Ex 
 
 
 
 ron. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 penditures to July 1, 
 
 Welland and St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Lake Erie and 
 Tide-Water. 
 
 Canadian 
 Commission. 
 
 70%T 
 
 536^ 
 
 54 
 
 10 
 
 14,847,2271 
 
 1844 
 to 
 
 1880, $1,569,173. 
 This canal system con 
 sists of seven different 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 sections, varying in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 length from % to 27Vg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 miles. 
 
 Welland and St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Lake Erie and 
 Tide-Water. 
 
 Canadian 
 Commission. 
 
 69% 
 
 536^ 
 
 5)5 
 
 13 
 
 38,623,9481 
 
 Prob 
 ably 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1882 
 
 
 Suez. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 De Lesseps. 
 
 100 
 
 Sea- 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 About 
 
 1869 
 
 
 
 
 and Red Sea. 
 
 
 
 level. 
 
 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 
 
 * Includes the new St. Mary s Falls, Welland and St. Lawrence enlargement, none of which are quite completed. 
 
 t Does not include river and lake navigation. 
 
 j The cost of canals up to date of confederation, in 1867. 
 
 || Includes upwards of $8,000,000 expended in improvements and enlargement from 1867 to 1877. 
 
 Proposed Ship-Canals. 1st. From Bay of 
 Campeachy to Gulf of Tehuantepec, in Mexico 
 (with locks). Proposed by private capitalists; 
 surveyed by IT. S. government; length, 144 
 miles; summit, 650 feet; estimate of cost not 
 given. 
 
 2d. From Caribbean Sea to Pacific Ocean, in 
 Nicaragua (see above description). 
 
 3d. From Bay of San Bias to Bay of Panama, 
 in U. S. of Colombia (at sea-level). Proposed 
 by private individuals ; surveyed by order of 
 U. S. government ; length, 30 to 33 miles ; height 
 of summit, unknown ; estimated cost by Paris 
 Canal Congress, $280,000,000; tunnel, 7 to 10 
 miles long. 
 
 4th. From Bay of Limon to Bay of Panama, 
 in U. S. of Colombia (see text). 
 
 5th. From Chesapeake to Delaware Bays, in 
 Maryland and Delaware. Several routes pro 
 posed ; surveyed by the U. S. government; 
 
 of Azof, in Russia. Proposed by the Russian 
 government. The summit, or divide, is stated 
 to be but 23 feet above sea-level. The Caspian 
 is 84 feet below the level of the sea. 
 
 9th. Between the Baltic and North Seas, in 
 Germany (with locks). Proposed by the im 
 perial government of Germany. Connects the 
 mouth of the Elbe and the port of Kiel. Dis 
 tance, about 45 miles ; estimated cost, f#8, 750,000. 
 
 10th. From the Mediterranean to the North 
 Sea, in France. Proposed by Can t. Salicis, of 
 the French navy; length, 1071 miles ; summit, 
 935 feet ; no locks, except at the gea. 
 
 llth. From the Gulf of Finland, near Cron- 
 stadt, to St. Petersburg, in Rusjsia (at the sea- 
 level). Now under construction by the govern 
 ment. Length, 16.4 miles ; /designed to be 
 extended in a reduced size to thfe White Sea. 
 
 12th. From the Gulf of Mrfnaar to the Palk 
 Strait, in India (at the sea-jlevel). Proposed 
 
CAN-BODY 
 
 109 
 
 CANT 
 
 by the government ; length, about 3 miles ; es 
 timated cost, $2,200,000. 
 
 13th. From East River, New York Harbor, to 
 the Hudson, via Hudson River (sea-level). To be 
 constructed by the government. Length, about 
 6 miles ; estimated cost by Gen. Newton, $2,100,- 
 000. Daniel Ammen, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Can-body. An old term for a can-buoy. 
 
 Can-buoy. A buoy in the form of a cone ; 
 they are floated over sands and other obstruc 
 tions in navigation as marks to be avoided. See 
 BUOYS. 
 
 Cancer, Constellation of (Lat. Cancer, "The 
 Crab"). The fourth constellation of the ancient 
 zodiac, lying between Gemini and Leo. There 
 is no star in it above the fourth magnitude. 
 
 CANCER, SIGN OF. The fourth division of the 
 ecliptic, including from 90 to 120 of longitude. 
 Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the 
 constellation Cancer is no longer in the sign of 
 the name, the constellation Gemini having taken 
 its place. The sun is in Cancer from about June 
 21 to about July 22. Symbol 05. 
 
 CANCER, TROPIC OF. That parallel in the 
 northern hemisphere whose latitude is equal to 
 the sun s greatest declination, about 23 28 . 
 
 Candle. Candles which are used for the battle- 
 lanterns are kept primed. The magazine lantern 
 is fitted to. burn candles made of hard spermaceti 
 or wax ; those of parafline, or such as have tal 
 low in them, are prohibited, and all candles are 
 thoroughly examined and tested. When candles 
 are used for side lights they should be of suf 
 ficient size to burn from sunset to sunrise, and 
 to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmos 
 phere, at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 CANDLE-BARK. A cylindrical tin for candles. 
 
 Cane. The rattan (Calamus rudentum] is 
 sometimes used for standing rigging and cables. 
 The cables remain in the water along time with 
 out decaying or becoming injured by the teredo. 
 They are very hard and difficult to cut, and are 
 therefore used to connect logs as booms to stop 
 the navigation of rivers. See CANEVAS. 
 
 Canes" Venatici (Lat. "The Hunting Dogs"). 
 A constellation between Ursa Major and Bootes. 
 The principal star is marked 12 Canum Venati- 
 corum, named also Cor Cdroli, and may be found 
 by drawing a line from Dubhe, the star of the 
 Great Bear nearest the pole, to the opposite star 
 of the square of that constellation, and producing 
 it to nearly twice the distance. 
 
 Canevas. An old word for hemp canvas, but 
 many races in the East make sails entirely of 
 cane. 
 
 Can-hooks. Hooks used to sling a cask by 
 the chimes. 
 
 Canis Major (Lat. " The Greater Dog"). A 
 constellation to the S.E. of Orion, containing the 
 brightest star in the heavens, a Canis Majoris, 
 the Dog Star ; it can be found by continuing 
 the line of the belt of Orion to about three times 
 its length. 
 
 Canis Minor (Lat. " The Lesser Dog"). A 
 constellation to the E. of Orion, containing a 
 bright star, a Canis Minoris, called also Procyon. 
 It can be found by continuing a line through 
 the two upper stars of Orion to about twice its 
 length. 
 
 Canister. A tin or sheet-iron cylinder filled 
 with cast-iron shot, and closed at the ends by 
 blocks of wood ; the larger sizes are strengthened 
 
 by a spindle running through and connecting 
 the ends, having a nut and handle fixed to the 
 upper part. ^ The interstices are filled with dry 
 sawdust to give greater solidity to the mass, and 
 to prevent the balls from crowding when the 
 piece is fired. 
 
 Cannon. A military engine for projecting 
 shot, shell, etc., by the force of gunpowder. 
 Cannons are classified as guns, howitzers, and 
 mortars (which see). See ORDNANCE. 
 
 CANNONADE. The opening and continuance 
 of the fire of artillery upon any object. 
 
 CANNON-PERER. An ancient piece of ord 
 nance in ships of war for throwing stone shot. 
 
 CANNON-PETRONEL. A piece of ordnance with 
 a 6-inch bore which carried a 24-pound shot. 
 
 CANNON-ROYAL. A 60-pounder of SJ-inch 
 bore. 
 
 CANNON-SERPENTINE. An old name for a 
 gun of 7 inches bore. 
 
 Canoe. A light narrow boat which is im 
 pelled by paddles used vertically, and some 
 times fitted with a sail. It is formed of a tree 
 hollowed out by hewing or burning, or of a light 
 frame- work covered with bark or hides. Canoes 
 are also made of iron, paper, and caoutchouc. 
 See ROB ROY. 
 
 The Fejee Islanders use a double canoe, which 
 is fitted with an enormous sail. The two canoes 
 are several yards apart, but a deck extends over 
 and is firmly secured to both. See FLYING 
 PROA. 
 
 Canopus. The name of the star a Argfi,s. 
 
 Canopy. A light awning over the stern-sheets 
 of a boat. The brass frame-work over a hatch. 
 
 Cant. The term used to express the position 
 of a piece of timber which does not stand square ; 
 it is said to be on a cant or diagonal line. A 
 cut made in a whale, to which is made fast the 
 lower block of a purchase for turning the whale 
 over during the operation of flensing. To turn 
 anything so that it does not stand square. To 
 diverge from a central line. 
 
 CANT BALLAST. When a ship by a violent 
 lurch throws her ballast over to leeward, where 
 it remains, keeping her from righting, she is 
 said to cant or shift her ballast. 
 
 CANT-BLOCKS. The blocks of the cant-pur 
 chase. 
 
 CANT-BODY. That part of the plans of the 
 body of a ship, either in the drawings or in the 
 mold-loft, which represents the outlines of the 
 cant-timbers, and also the lines of the bevelings 
 of the timbers. 
 
 CANT-FALLS. See SPIKE-TACKLE. 
 
 CANT-FRAME. The name of one of those 
 frames of the ship which do not stand square 
 across the keel, but which have their heads in 
 clined in a diagonal direction, either forward or 
 aft, as may be needed to fill the space between 
 the square frames and the stem forward, or the 
 square frame and the counter-timbers at the 
 after end of the ship. 
 
 CANT-HOOK. A lever with a hook, for slueing 
 heavy articles. 
 
 CANT-MOLDING. The molding of any one 
 of the frames or the timbers by the use of the 
 cant-molds and the cant-bevels, prepared in the 
 mold-loft, preparatory to the timbers being cut 
 into the required shape by the workmen. ^ 
 
 CANT-PURCHASE. A purchase of which the 
 upper block is secured to the mast-head, and the 
 
CANTAKA 
 
 110 
 
 CAPE 
 
 lower block to the whale, to turn it over during 
 the operation of flensing. 
 
 CANT-TIMBER. The name of any one of the 
 timbers, of which there are several in each cant- 
 frame. 
 
 Cantata. A watering-place. 
 
 Canteen (Fr. cantine). A military term 
 which in the United States is applied only to a 
 tin vessel covered with cloth and furnished with 
 a strap by which it is slung, which is issued to 
 soldiers for carrying water for their personal use 
 on the march or in campaign. In other countries 
 the term, or its equivalent, is used to indicate a 
 small wooden or leathern chest or coffer contain 
 ing the table equipage and utensils of an officer 
 in campaign ; it is also applied to the store of 
 the licensed sutler of a regiment or garrison. 
 
 Cantick-quoin. A quoin used in chocking up 
 casks to keep them from working. 
 
 Canting-livre. A light piece of ornament at 
 the forward part of a quarter-gallery, also called 
 console-bracket. 
 
 Cant-line. Gant-line or girt-line (which see). 
 
 Canton. A city of China, and the great com 
 mercial emporium of the province of Quang- 
 Tong, on the left bank of the Canton or Pearl 
 River, about 80 miles from its mouth in the 
 China Sea. Lat. 23 6 / 9" N. ; Ion. 113 15 
 E. Canton, with its suburbs, occupies the north 
 bank of the river, extending inland nearly to a 
 row of heights commanding it on the north and 
 northeast, but between which and the city is a 
 broken ravine ; to the south lies an alluvial 
 plain, formed by the delta of the river. A large 
 part of the population reside on the water, and 
 for four or five miles opposite the city and both 
 above and below the river is crowded with vessels 
 and rafts of all kinds. Pop. 1,500,000. 
 
 Cant-rope. See FOUR-CANT. 
 
 Cant-spar. A small spar fit for making a 
 small mast, yard, boom, etc. 
 
 Canvas. Coarse cloth made of hemp, flax, or 
 cotton. In the navy cotton canvas is used for 
 mess-cloths, tarpaulins, boom-covers, windsails, 
 bags, hammocks, etc. Flax canvas is used for 
 sails, and is woven in cloths 24 inches in width, 
 and put up in bolts of 40 yards each. Canvas is 
 numbered from 1 to 9, No. 1 being the heaviest. 
 In large vessels numbers 1, 2, 3 are used for 
 storm-staysails, courses, and topsails ; 4 and 5 for 
 jib and main topgallant-sails, and the lighter 
 canvas for royals, stun sails, flying-jib, etc. 
 
 It is of the first importance to obtain the best 
 canvas, as the safety of the ship frequently de- 
 
 nds on its quality. The warp or chain of Nos. 
 , and 3 should be wholly wrought and made 
 of double yarns, and both the warp and shoot or 
 weft yarn ought to be made of long flax, which 
 should be well dressed, properly cleansed, even 
 spun, and well twisted ; and all the weft yarns 
 should be fully as strong as the warp yarns. 
 
 It has been found that sails made with the 
 seams and selvages running down parallel with 
 their edges are very apt to bag and become worn 
 in the middle from the strain to which they are 
 subjected by the force of the wind. To obviate 
 this, a mode of making sails with the seams and 
 selvages running diagonally was proposed by 
 Admiral Brooking, and a patent was granted to 
 him in 1828. It has also been proposed to weave 
 the canvas with diagonal threads ; that is, to 
 place tne weft yarns at an oblique angle to the 
 
 warp yarns. To accomplish this object the loom 
 must be peculiarly constructed, its warp and 
 work-beams must stand at an oblique angle with 
 the sides of the loom, and the batten and slay 
 must hang in a peculiar manner, in order to beat 
 up the weft in lines ranging diagonally with 
 the warp. 
 
 Canvas is also a technical term for the sails of 
 a ship. Under canvas, under sail ; storm-can 
 vas, the storm-staysails, trysails, storm-mizzen, 
 double-reefed foresail, close-reefed fore and main 
 topsails, and fore-topmast staysail. 
 
 Canvas-back. A species of duck, Fuligula, 
 valisneriana, deriving its name from the color of 
 the plumage on its back. 
 
 Cap. A bit of leather or tarred canvas put 
 over the ends of standing rigging to protect 
 them from the weather. A large thick block of 
 wood having a round and square hole in it, used 
 to confine two masts together when one is erected 
 at the head of the other. The square hole of the 
 lower cap fits over the tenon of the lower mast, 
 and the topmast traverses through the round 
 hole. The topmast is fitted with a cap for the 
 topgallant-mast, and the bowsprit for the jib- 
 boom. 
 
 In mechanism, a block or plate of wood or 
 metal, used to confine the adjustable bearings of 
 a journal. It is usually secured by bolts and 
 nuts, or by keys. See JOURNAL. 
 
 Generally, a cap is a top-piece used to confine, 
 cover, or protect any portion of a machine or 
 structure. 
 
 CAP-BLOCK. The upper piece of each pile of 
 building blocks on which the keel is laid. , 
 
 CAP-SCUTTLE. A scuttle having a ledge or 
 coaming, over which is a top setting closely into 
 a rabbet. 
 
 CAP-SHORE. A supporting spar between the 
 cap and trestle-trees. 
 
 CAP-SQUARE. A curved plate of metal, so 
 arranged as to be easily removed, used to con 
 fine the trunnions of a gun to the carriage. 
 
 Capabarre. An old term for misappropriating 
 government stores. 
 
 Capacise. A corrupt form of capsize. 
 
 Capacity. Burden ; tonnage ; extent of room 
 or space. 
 
 Cape. To keep a course. How does she cape ? 
 How does she lie her course ? 
 
 Cape. A cape is a neck of land extending 
 some distance into the sea, or into other bodies 
 of water. A high, mountainous cape is called a 
 promontory ; a low, sandy cape is called a spit ; 
 a very small, sharp cape is called a point. The 
 term ^headland, or head, may include all these, 
 or indicates a broad cape. 
 
 The local names used to designate these head 
 lands have, in many instances, remained on the 
 charts. Point is the term generally used to in 
 dicate a cape on the shores of the Baltic and 
 Gulf of Finland. In Prussia, Ort ; in Norway 
 and Sweden, Naes, Horn, and Kyn ; in Den 
 mark, Naes ; in Holland, Hoek ; in Scotland, 
 the Shetland and Orkney Islands, Ness and 
 Head ; Ru in the Isle of Skye ; Butt and Aird 
 in the Hebrides ; Point, Nab, Ness, and Head 
 in England and Wales ; Head and Foreland in 
 Ireland ; Spit in the Caspian and Aral Seas ; 
 Ras in North Africa, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, 
 and coast of Arabia ; and Saki in Japan, are 
 common examples of these designations. 
 
CAPELLA 
 
 111 
 
 CAPSTAN 
 
 In the names of the thousands of capes that 
 fringe the continents and islands of the world, 
 navigators have perpetuated their own names, 
 the names of their vessels, their countries, their 
 cities, their great men, their rulers, and their 
 heroes, while the saints of the calendar are not 
 to be forgotten as long as the many Cape St. 
 Elizabeths, St. Sebastians, St. Anthonys, and 
 many other sanctified names remain. Some head 
 lands are named from the circumstances attend 
 ing their discovery, as Cape Disappointment, 
 Cape Flattery, and others ; some from the day 
 on which they were first seen, as Friday Cape, 
 etc. ; others from physical characteristics, as 
 Kojo (Ked Cape), Blanco (White Cape), Verd 
 (Green Cape), Sandy Cape, Rocky Point, etc. f 
 others again from the products of sea or shore 
 found near them, as Cape Cod, Lobos (Seal) 
 Point, etc. Many capes are remarkable from 
 the important position they occupy, being promi 
 nent landmarks to the mariner, and some even 
 receive their names from this characteristic, 
 as Start Point ; and Land s End and Finis- 
 terre describe their position by their names. 
 Some headlands attain a prominence from being 
 at the entrance of important bays, rivers, or 
 harbors, where large cities and greater commerce 
 enhance their usefulness. On the more promi 
 nent headlands of the world light-houses are 
 placed, and those that are at the entrance of im 
 portant places have electric, or other lights of 
 a high illuminating power. 
 
 The following capes on the coast of the United 
 States have first-order lights : 
 
 Capitana. The principal galley in an ancient 
 fleet. 
 
 Caplin, or Capelin. A fish of the family 
 Clupeidce, very similar to a smelt, and used for 
 bait for cod-fish 011 the banks of Newfound 
 land. 
 
 Cap n. A colloquial abbreviation for cap 
 tain. 
 
 Capon. A jeering term for red herring. 
 
 Capote. A storm-coat fitted with a hood, 
 much worn in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Cappanus. The worm which adheres to and 
 gnaws the bottom of a ship. 
 
 Capped. A ship endeavoring to make her 
 way against head currents is said to be capped. 
 
 Capricorn, Tropic of. That parallel in the 
 southern hemisphere whose latitude is equal to 
 the sun s greatest declination, about 23 28 . 
 See TROPICS. 
 
 Capricornus, Constellation of (Lat. Capri- 
 cormis, " The Goat"). The tenth constellation of 
 the ancient zodiac, lying between Sagittarius and 
 Aquarius. There is no star in it above the third 
 magnitude ; a and (3 may be found by the line 
 joining Lyra and Altair being produced to not 
 quite its own length. 
 
 CAPRICORNUS, SIGN OF. The tenth division 
 of the ecliptic, including from 270 to 300 of 
 longitude. In consequence of the precession of 
 the equinoxes, the constellation of Capricorn is 
 no longer in the sign of this name, the constella 
 tion Sagittarius having taken its place. The 
 sun is in Capricorn from about December 21 to 
 about January 20. Symbol >J. 
 
 Name. 
 
 No. of 
 Lights. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Lon. 
 
 Height, 
 in Feet. 
 
 Distance 
 Visible, 
 in Miles. 
 
 Character and Color. 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 2 
 
 43 34 
 
 70 12 
 
 143 
 
 18 
 
 Fix. and Fl. W. 
 
 
 2 
 
 42 38 
 
 70 34 
 
 165 \4 
 
 20 
 
 Fix White. 
 
 Cod 
 
 1 
 
 42 02 
 
 70 04 
 
 195 
 
 20 
 
 Fix W 
 
 Gay Head 
 
 1 
 
 41 21 
 
 70 50 
 
 170 
 
 20 
 
 Fl W. and R. 
 
 
 1 
 
 40 04 
 
 71 51 
 
 169V< 
 
 20 
 
 Fix var. by W. FL 
 
 Pondqnoque Point 
 
 I 
 
 40 31 
 
 72 30 
 
 160 
 
 19 
 
 Fix. W. 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 38 56 
 
 74 58 
 
 167 
 
 19 
 
 Fl W 
 
 
 1 
 
 38 47 
 
 75 65 
 
 128 
 
 17 
 
 Fix W 
 
 Charles 
 
 1 
 
 37 07 
 
 75 54 
 
 150 
 
 19 
 
 Fl. W. 
 
 Hatteras . . 
 
 1 
 
 35 1 5 
 
 75 31 
 
 191 
 
 20 
 
 Fl W 
 
 Lookout 
 
 1 
 
 34 37 
 
 76 31 
 
 156 
 
 19 
 
 Fix. W. 
 
 
 1 
 
 32 01 
 
 79 22 
 
 154 
 
 18 
 
 Fl W 
 
 
 1 
 
 28 28 
 
 80 32 
 
 139 - 
 
 18 
 
 Fl W 
 
 Point Conception 
 
 1 
 
 34 27 
 
 120 28 
 
 208 
 
 23 
 
 Fl. W. 
 
 Pigeon Point . 
 
 1 
 
 37 11 
 
 122 24 
 
 150 
 
 181^ 
 
 Fl W 
 
 Point Reyes 
 
 1 
 
 38 10 
 
 123 01 
 
 296 
 
 24 2 
 
 Fl. W. 
 
 Point Arena 
 
 1 
 
 38 57 
 
 123 45 
 
 156 
 
 19 
 
 Fix W. 
 
 
 1 
 
 40 26 
 
 123 24 
 
 423 
 
 28 
 
 Fl W 
 
 Blanco 
 
 1 
 
 42 46 
 
 124 33 
 
 256 
 
 23 
 
 Fix. W. 
 
 Foulweather..... ... . 
 
 1 
 
 44 39 
 
 124 04 
 
 161 
 
 19 
 
 Fix W 
 
 
 1 
 
 46 1 ? 
 
 124 02 
 
 232 
 
 21 
 
 Fix W 
 
 Flattery 
 
 1 
 
 48 19 
 
 124 44 
 
 162 
 
 19 
 
 Fix. W. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.A. 
 
 CAPE FLY-AWAY. A cloud-bank having the 
 appearance of distant land. 
 
 CAPE-HEN. A bird which follows in the wake 
 of a ship rounding the Cape. It is a small kind 
 of albatross. See MOLLY-MAWK. 
 
 CAPE-PIGEON, or CAPE-PETREL. A sea-bird 
 which follows a ship round the Cape. 
 
 Capella(Lat. " The Kid"). The star a Aurigce. 
 
 Caper. A vessel used for privateering by the 
 Dutch in the 17th century. 
 
 Caper-cornerways. Diagonally. 
 
 Capful of Wind. A light puff of wind which 
 speedily dies away. 
 
 Capsize. To upset or overturn ; as, to capsize 
 a ship. 
 
 Capstan. A machine used on shipboard when 
 mechanical power is required for the moving or 
 raising of heavy weights. It involves the prin 
 ciple of the wheel and axle, and is an improve 
 ment of the windlass, by which greater compact 
 ness and convenience in use are obtained. It also 
 admits of the application of greater power upon 
 the levers or bars. 
 
 The capstan has been used from the earliest 
 times as a mechanical power. It was in use by the 
 English, French, and Spanish as early as the 15th 
 
CAPSTAN 
 
 112 
 
 CAPTAIN 
 
 century, and the drum-capstan in nearly its 
 present form was invented by Sir Thomas More- 
 land in 1661. It consists of an upright cylin 
 der, called the barrel, surmounted by a circular 
 disk called the drum-head, the circumference of 
 which contains sockets for the admission of the 
 capstan-bars or levers by which the capstan is 
 turned. 
 
 To the surface of the barrel, and forming a 
 part of it, are attached several upright pieces of 
 wood called whelps, which serve to increase the 
 circumference of the barrel with but slight in 
 crease in the weight of the capstan. The outer 
 edges of the whelps being concave, the turns of 
 the rope or messenger surge or slip towards the 
 centre of the barrel as it is wound about it by 
 the revolutions of the capstan. The base of the 
 capstan is called the pawl-head, and is similar 
 in size and shape to the drum-head. The pawls 
 are short stout pieces of iron attached at one end 
 to the periphery of the pawl-head. The pawl- 
 rim is a narrow circular part bolted through the 
 deck to the partners, and is of sufficient width to 
 admit the lower end of the pawls as the capstan 
 is turned. By means of the pawls and the cross- 
 pieces or notches in the pawl-rim, the capstan is 
 prevented from turning back when the power is 
 removed from the bars. 
 
 The axis of the capstan consists of a vertical 
 iron spindle, attached to one or more decks, and 
 by which the capstan is held firmly in place. 
 The same spindle may serve as the axis of a 
 double capstan, or two capstans on different 
 decks, by which the power of both may be ap 
 plied to the same object, or they can be detached 
 and used separately. 
 
 Previous to the improvements that have been 
 made in capstans, the cable was connected with 
 the capstan by means of a rope called the mes 
 senger. Three or four turns of the messenger 
 were placed upon the capstan, one end passed 
 forward on one side of the deck, and returned on 
 the opposite side, arid the two ends lashed to 
 gether, forming an endless rope, the bight of 
 which extended from the capstan to the hawse- 
 hole. The messenger was fastened to the cable 
 by means of nippers, those nearest the capstan 
 being changed to the cable near the hawse-hole 
 as they approached the capstan. 
 
 Capstans composed entirely of iron are now 
 in general use, and improvements have been 
 made by which the chain-cable is brought di 
 rectly to the capstan and the use of the messenger 
 thereby avoided. They are so constructed that 
 the cable passes around the rear of the capstan, 
 and fits into a space between the barrel and pawl- 
 head, in which are placed chain-whelps, which 
 prevent the cable from slipping. After leaving 
 the capstan the cable passes around a vertical 
 friction-roller, which is placed in a socket in the 
 deck, and thence to the chain-locker on the side 
 of the deck to which the cable belongs. 
 
 Steam-power has also been applied to this de 
 scription of capstan on board of steamers, by 
 which means the number of the crew may be 
 reduced. 
 
 An increase of power has also been obtained 
 by means of a system of gearing placed inside of 
 the capstan, which connects the barrel with the 
 spindle. By the use of a lock-bolt the capstan 
 can be used as a simple purchase, but by re 
 moving the bolt the gearing is brought into 
 
 action, and the power is increased threefold. 
 The barrel of the capstan then turns in a con 
 trary direction to the drum-head. E. T. Strong, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 To pawl the capstan, to drop the pawls into 
 their sockets to prevent the capstan from turning 
 back. To rig the capstan, to ship and swift in 
 the bars. To surge the capstan, to slack the rope 
 wound around the barrel of the capstan to pre 
 vent it from riding or fouling. To walk back the 
 capstan, to lift the pawls and turn the capstan 
 in the opposite direction, 
 
 CAPSTAN-BAR. A long lever to give an in 
 crease of power in heaving at the capstan. 
 
 CAPSTAN-BARRING. A sea-punishment, in 
 which the offender was sentenced to carry a 
 capstan-bar during the watch. 
 
 CAPSTAN-BAR P*IN. A pin sometimes inserted 
 on the end of a capstan-bar to prevent it from un 
 shipping. 
 
 CAPSTAN-STEP. The steady, measured tread 
 of the men while heaving at the capstan. 
 
 Captain. A name given to the crooner, 
 crowner, or gray gurnard (Trigla gurnardus}. 
 
 Captain. This almost universal term of com 
 mand is supposed to have originated in the naval 
 service from " caput," the head or chief, and 
 "thane," a Saxon title of honor, which by 
 statute of King Athelstan was conferred on any 
 merchant who had been thrice across the high 
 seas upon his own account. 
 
 Post-captain was a term frequently used in the 
 Royal navy and the IT. S. navy to distinguish 
 captains commanding frigates, from master-com 
 mandants or commanders the next in rank, com 
 manding vessels of a smaller size, who in com 
 mon conversation were and are called " captain." 
 There never was such a commission as "post- 
 captain" in either service. 
 
 In the British navy, in 1747, when the rank 
 of captain was first clearly defined, those captains 
 who commanded post-ships, or what are now 
 called rated ships, in the Royal navy took rank, 
 if of three years standing, with army colonels, 
 and until the year 1824 the Royal Navy List 
 described them as post-captains. The prefix 
 "post" then disappeared without any order in 
 council or warrant being issued. 
 
 Until 1862 captain was the highest com 
 missioned rank in the U. S. navy, and ranked 
 with, according to seniority or duty, a lieuten 
 ant-colonel, colonel, or brigadier-general. Under 
 the present organization of the U. S. navy a 
 captain has assimilated rank with a colonel in 
 the army. G. H. Preble, Rear- Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 A captain commands a vessel of the second 
 class, or a vessel of the first class under an ad 
 miral, vice- or rear-admiral, or a commodore ; 
 may be employed- as aid to any grade of ad 
 miral ; as chief of staff to a naval force or de 
 tached division, commanded by a rear-admiral 
 or commodore ; on duty under a bureau ; act as 
 second in command of shore-stations, and may 
 command small practice or flying squadrons. 
 See COMMANDING OFFICER. 
 
 The name is also given to certain leading men 
 in the ship s company ; as, captain of a gun, 
 captains of tops, forecastle, afterguard, hold, etc. 
 
 Captain is also the popular title of the master 
 of a merchant vessel. 
 
 Captain of Navy-yard. The line-officer next 
 in rank to the commandant of the yard ; he com- 
 
CAPTAIN S CLOAK 
 
 113 
 
 CAREEN 
 
 mands during the temporary absence of the com 
 mandant, but has no authority to change the 
 established routine. He has special charge of 
 the police and the enforcement of police regula 
 tions ; of all the fires and lights in the work 
 shops, and, after working hours, he will satisfy 
 himself that there is no danger of fire through 
 the night ; of keeping the walks and grounds 
 clean and in good condition ; of the berthing, 
 moving, and mooring vessels, and of the fire- 
 and other tugs. The captain of the yard directs 
 the fire department, and he frequently examines 
 the engines and all apparatus for subduing fires, 
 reports at once any deficiencies, and once a month 
 at least, in writing, their actual condition. He 
 causes to be scrutinized all articles and packages 
 passing into or out of the yard ; all suspected ar 
 ticles are stopped and examined, when, if found 
 to be of an improper character, they are detained, 
 and a report made to the commandant. Each 
 morning all passes presented at the gate during 
 the preceding day are delivered to the captain of 
 the yard for inspection and report. He has no 
 direct authority or control of the affairs of the 
 yard by virtue of his own rank or position, but 
 it is his duty to convey to the heads of the de 
 partments of the yard such orders as the com 
 mandant desires to transmit verbally ; and it is 
 also his duty to visit and observe all parts of the 
 navy-yard and its establishments, and to make 
 such reports as will enable the commandant to 
 be fully informed as to the harmonious working 
 of the various parts of the station under his com 
 mand. A regular journal is kept under his 
 direction, which he is to sign daily and submit 
 monthly to the commandant for his approval. 
 In it must be entered the time when all officers 
 report for duty at, or are detached from, the 
 yard, when any vessel is received for repairs or 
 put in commission, the number of mechanics 
 and others employed, the arrival and departure 
 of all vessels of war and of vessels with stores of 
 any kind for the yard, the time when any vessel 
 is taken into or removed from the dock, the state 
 of the wind and weather, as well as the barometer 
 and thermometer, and the other principal trans 
 actions of the yard. 
 
 Captain s Cloak (Ena.}. The jocose name 
 given to the thirty-sixth article of war: "All 
 other crimes not capital, and for which no pun 
 ishment is hereby directed to be inflicted, shall 
 be punished according to the laws and customs 
 in such cases used at sea." 
 
 Captive. A prisoner taken by force or strata 
 gem in war by an enemy. Kept in bondage or 
 confinement. 
 
 Captor. One who takes a prisoner, prize, or 
 place in war. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIZE. 
 
 Capture. The act of taking. To take a pris 
 oner, prize, or place in war. The thing taken. 
 See INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIZE. 
 
 Carack, Carrak, or Carrick. A large ship of 
 burden, the same with those called galleons. 
 Hippus, the Tyrian, is said to have first devised 
 caracks, and onerary vessels of prodigious bulk 
 for traffic or offense. See CARRAC. 
 
 Caracora. A proa of Borneo, Ternate, and 
 the Eastern Isles ; also called caracol by early 
 voyagers. 
 
 Caramoussal. A Turkish merchant ship with 
 a pink-stern. 
 
 Caravel, or Caravela. A Portuguese dispatch- 
 8 
 
 boat, lateen-rigged, formerly in use; it had 
 square-sails only on the foremast, though dig 
 nified as a caravela. 
 
 Caravelao. A light pink-sterned vessel of 
 the Azores. 
 
 Carbasse. See KARBATZ. 
 
 Carbin. A name for the basking shark (which 
 see). 
 
 Carcass. A shell for incendiary purposes, 
 filled with a very fiercely flaming composition 
 of saltpetre, sulphur, resin, turpentine, anti 
 mony, and tallow. It has three vents for the 
 flame, and sometimes is equipped with pistol- 
 barrels, so fitted in its interior as to discharge 
 their bullets at various times. The ribs, keel, 
 stem, and stern-post of a ship after the planks 
 are stripped off. 
 
 Carcatus (from caricato, It.). A law-term 
 for a freighted ship. 
 
 Card. The dial or face of the magnetic com 
 pass, probably derived from cardinal. 
 
 Cardinal (Lat. cardinalis, literally pertaining 
 to a hinge, cardo, hence that on which other 
 things turn, principal). The points to which, 
 as regards position and motions, others are re 
 ferred. Thus we have "the Cardinal Points of 
 the Compass," "the Cardinal Points of the 
 Horizon," " the Cardinal Points of the Ecliptic." 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS OF THE COMPASS. The 
 same as the cardinal points of the horizon, but 
 with reference to the direction of the magnetic 
 needle. They are named North, South, East, and 
 West ; the most important of which is the North. 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS OF THE HORIZON. The 
 four cardinal points of the horizon are the North 
 (N.), South (S.), East (E.), and West (W.). The 
 north and south points are where the meridian 
 intersects the horizon, and they are the poles of 
 the prime vertical ; the east and west points are 
 where the prime vertical intersects the horizon, 
 and are the poles of the meridian. The north 
 and south points are those from which the hori 
 zontal distance from the meridian of all bodies 
 having an altitude is measured ; the east point is 
 that to which their rising, and the west point 
 that to which their setting, is referred. 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS OF THE ECLIPTIC. The 
 four cardinal points of the ecliptic are the two 
 points of its intersection with the equinoctial, 
 called the Equinoctial Points ; and the two points 
 where it attains its greatest distance from tbe 
 equinoctial, called the Solstitial Points. With 
 reference to the seasons of the northern hemis 
 phere, these are named the Vernal and Autumnal 
 Equinoctial Points, and the Summer and Winter 
 Solstitial Points. These are more commonly 
 called after the signs of the ecliptic in which 
 they are severally situated : the First Point of 
 Aries (symbol ^f) and the First Point of Libra 
 (:=), the First Point of Cancer (05) and the 
 First Point of Capricorn (Itf). The Colures in 
 tersect the ecliptic in these four points. The 
 most important of them is the First Point of 
 Aries, as from it right ascensions and longitudes 
 are reckoned. The sun is in <y> about March 21, 
 in 05 about June 21, in ^ about September 21, 
 and in V? about December 21. 
 
 CARDINAL WINDS. Winds from due north, 
 south, east, or west. 
 
 Careen. A ship is said to careen when she 
 inclines to one side, or lies over when sailing on 
 a wind ; off her keel or carina. 
 
CAREY 
 
 114 
 
 CARTEK 
 
 To careen a vessel is to heave her down pre 
 paratory to cleaning or repairing her bottom. 
 See HEAVING DOWN. 
 
 Carey. See MOTHER CAREY S CHICKENS. 
 
 Cargo. The merchandise with which a ship 
 is freighted. 
 
 CARGO- JACK. A jack used on its side in 
 stowing cargo, for forcing heavy articles into 
 place. 
 
 CARGO-PORT. The aperture through which 
 the cargo of a vessel is loaded and discharged. 
 A timber-port is in the bows of the vessel. 
 
 Caricatore. Places where the traders of 
 Sicily take in their goods, from caricare, to 
 load. 
 
 Carina. An old term, from the Latin, for 
 the keel or a ship s bottom. 
 
 Carl, or Male-hemp. See FIMBLE, or FIM- 
 
 BLE-HEMP. 
 
 Carle-crab. The male of the black-clawed 
 crab, Cancer pagurus ; also of the partan, or 
 common crab. 
 
 Carline, or Carling. A short timber ranging 
 fore-and-aft from one deck-beam to another. 
 
 CARLINE-KNEE. A knee in the deck-framing, 
 which is placed against a carline. 
 
 Cam-tangle. A long and large fucus, thrown 
 on beaches after a gale of wind in the offing. 
 
 Carous. A sort of gallery in ancient ships, 
 which turned on a pivot. It was hoisted to a 
 given height by tackles, and thus brought to 
 project over, or into, the vessel of an adversary, 
 furnishing a bridge for boarding. 
 
 Carp. A well-known fresh-water fish of the 
 Cyprinidce family, a native of Persia, considered 
 to have been introduced into England in the 
 time of Henry VIII. ; but in Dame Berner s 
 book on angling, published in 1486, it is de 
 scribed as the " daynteous fysshe" in England. 
 
 Carpenter. A warrant-officer whose duty is 
 to see that the hull, masts, and spars of the ship 
 are kept in good repair, and to point out any 
 and all defects in either to his commanding 
 officer. It is his duty also, with the men under 
 him, to take charge of the pumps, and to stop 
 shot-holes in time of action. Carpenter is also 
 the rating of one of the mechanics belonging to 
 the carpenter s gang. 
 
 CARPENTER S CREW, or GANG. The mechan 
 ics of the ship not belonging to the engineer s de 
 partment; as, the carpenter s mate, cooper, etc. 
 
 CARPENTER, SHIP-. A builder of ships. 
 
 Carrac, Carraca, Carrack, or Carricke. A 
 name given by the Spaniards and Portuguese to 
 the vessels they sent to Brazil and the East 
 Indies ; large, round built, and fitted for fight 
 as well as burden. Their capacity lay in their 
 depth, which was extraordinary. English ves 
 sels of size and value were sometimes also so 
 called. See CARACK. 
 
 Carrara. The great northern diver, Colymbus 
 fflacialis, 
 
 Carriage. See GUN-CARRIAGE. 
 
 Carrick-bend. A peculiar bend much used 
 for bending two hawsers together. 
 
 Carrick-bitts. The bitts which support the 
 <ends of a windlass, called also windlass-bitts. 
 
 Carronade. A gun, capable of carrying a 
 large ball, and useful in close engagements at 
 sea. It took its name from the large iron- 
 foundry on the banks of the Carron, near Fal- 
 kirk, in Scotland, where, this sort of ordnance 
 
 was first made, or the principle applied to an 
 improved construction. Shorter and lighter than 
 the common cannon, and having a chamber for 
 the powder like a mortar, they were generally 
 of large calibre, and carried on the upper works, 
 as the poop and forecastle. 
 
 Carry. To subdue a ship by boarding ; to 
 capture a fort by an assault. To convey or pro 
 pel ; as, a gun carries well, that is, propels the 
 shot to a great distance. To bear or support ; 
 as, a ship carries canvas, guns, or cargo. To 
 carry on, to conduct ; as, to carry on duty ; also 
 to carry sail beyond the limits of prudence. To 
 carry away, to break ; as, to carry away a rope 
 or mast. To carry the keg, & smuggler s phrase, 
 meaning to continue. See LASH AND CARRY. 
 
 Cartagena. A city and seaport of the United 
 States of Colombia, on a small sandy peninsula, 
 connected with the continent by an artificial 
 neck of land. Lat. 10 25 36" N. ; Ion. 75 84 
 W. The bay, which is landlocked and has smooth 
 water, extends from north to south 7 miles, and 
 affords excellent anchorage. There were two 
 entrances to the port, the Boca Grande, close 
 to the town, and the Boca Chica, farther south. 
 Two strong castles defend Boca Chica, which is 
 the principal entrance. Pop. 9250. 
 
 Cartagena. A city and the chief naval arsenal 
 of Spain, on a noble bay of the Mediterranean, 
 27 miles S.S.E. of Murcia. Lat. 37 36 5".N. ; 
 Ion. 56 36" W. Pop. 55,000. Its harbor 
 has been much improved by the construction of 
 moles. An island on the south, as well as the 
 city, is strongly fortified. In its western division 
 are docks for building men-of-war, an arsenal, 
 and a floating-dock, its port communicates with 
 the Segura River by the Lorca Canal. 
 
 Carte Blanche. Authority to act at discre 
 tion. 
 
 Cartel. In military parlance, an agreement 
 for the exchange of prisoners. Also a challenge 
 to fight a duel. A cartel-ship is one commis 
 sioned in time of war to convey prisoners for 
 exchange, or to carry proposals of any kind be 
 tween belligerent powers. She has only one gun 
 for the purpose of firing signals, as the officer 
 who commands her is particularly ordered to 
 carry no cargo, ammunition, or implements of 
 war. Cartel-ships, by trading in any way, are 
 liable to confiscation. 
 
 Carter, John C., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Virginia. Appointed from Kentucky ; sloop 
 "Lexington," 1827; frigate " Delaware^," Med 
 iterranean Squadron, 1829-30; commissioned 
 as lieutenant, 1837; frigate "Macedonian," 
 West India Squadron, 1840; receiving-ship, 
 New York, 1845; steamer "Mississippi," Home 
 Squadron, 1846; navy-yard, Norfolk, 1847-48; 
 frigate " Raritan," Pacific Squadron, 1852-53 ; 
 rendezvous, New York, 1855 ; commissioned as 
 commander, 1855 ; commanding steamer " Mich 
 igan," on the Lakes, 1861-64; commissioned 
 as commodore, July 16, 1862; commanding re 
 ceiving-ship "Vermont," New York, 1865; 
 light-house inspector, 1866-69 ; died in 1871. 
 
 Carter, Samuel P., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Carter County, Tennessee. Appointed 
 from Tennessee, February 14, 1840 ; promoted to 
 passed midshipman, July 11, 1846; "Ohio," 74, 
 Home Squadron, 1846-47 ; present at capture of 
 Vera Cruz ; commissioned as lieutenant, April 
 18, 1855; steam-frigate " San Jacinto," East In- 
 
CAETEE 
 
 115 
 
 CAEVEL 
 
 dia Squadron, 1855-57 ; at attack on Barrier 
 Forts, Canton Eiver, China, 1856 ; Naval Acad 
 emy, 1857-60; steam-sloop " Seminole," Brazil 
 Squadron, 1860-61 ; returned to the United 
 States, July 6, 1861 ; July 11, 1861, Lieutenant 
 Carter was ordered to report to the Secretary of 
 War for special duty ; was instructed to proceed 
 to East Tennessee and raise troops; organized 
 the Tennessee Brigade, and was assigned to com 
 mand in September, 1861, with acting appoint 
 ment of brigadier-general; present at Wild Cat, 
 Kentucky, at Zollicoffer s repulse, October, 1861 ; 
 at battle of Mill Springs, January, 1862 ; com 
 manded in Southeastern Kentucky from Febru 
 ary, 1862, to April, 1862 ; and in operations 
 against Cumberland Gap, March and May, 1862 ; 
 commissioned brigadier-general May 1, 1862; at 
 capture of Cumberland Gap, June 17, 1862; in 
 Kanawha Valley in October and November, 1862, 
 at which time the rebel troops were driven out 
 and the valley re-occupied by Union forces. 
 Commanded cavalry expedition into East Ten 
 nessee, tore up track and destroyed bridges on 
 East Tennessee and Virginia Eailroad, and in 
 several engagements, atHolston, Carter s Station, 
 and Jonesville, defeated rebel troops in Decem 
 ber, 1862, and January, 1863. This cavalry raid, 
 which was the first of any importance made by 
 Union troops into rebel territory, was attended 
 with valuable results, not only from amount of 
 damage done the rebel cause from destruction 
 of property, loss of troops, and the breaking of 
 their principal line of railway, but from the re 
 lief it afforded Gen. Eosecrans when pressed 
 at Murfreesboro , and the new life it infused 
 throughout all our cavalry commands. For this 
 successful raid received thanks of the general- 
 in-chief of the army in general orders ; also of 
 the commander of the Department of the Ohio, 
 in general orders, and the commander of the 
 district of Kentucky ; was recommended by 
 latter two for promotion to major-general ; wa8 
 assigned to command of division of Central 
 Kentucky in March, 1863 ; at battle of Dutton s 
 Hill, March 31, 1863; commanded in Southeast 
 ern Kentucky, headquarters at Somerset, from 
 May to July, 1863 ; defeated Pegram s forces at 
 Monticello and Beaver Dam in May and June, 
 1863, and Morgan at West s ; was thanked, in 
 general orders, by the commander of the Depart 
 ment of the Ohio. In July, 1863, was assigned 
 to command of cavalry division, 23d Army 
 Corps, and had the advance when Burnside oc 
 cupied East Tennessee, in August and Septem 
 ber, 1863; defeated Morgan s forces, near Emory, 
 August 28, 1863, and Smith s, at Loudon, August 
 29 ; present at siege and battle of Knoxville, 
 November and December, 1863 ; provost-mar 
 shal-general of East Tennessee, September, 1863, 
 to January, 1865, when he was relieved at his 
 own request, ordered to North Carolina, and as 
 signed to command of division of the district of 
 Newbern ; commanded the left wing at battle 
 of Kinston (Wise s Fork), N. C., on March 10, 
 1865, where Bragg was defeated ; occupied Golds- 
 boro , N. C., March 20, 1865, driving out the 
 rebels with his command ; was in command of 
 the place during its occupancy by the armies 
 of Gen. Sherman ; assigned to command of 3d 
 Division, 23d Army Corps, April 7, 1865; bre- 
 vetted major-general, March 13, 1865 ; was in 
 command of Western North Carolina from May, 
 
 1865, and of 23d Army Corps from July until 
 relieved from duty in that State in August, 1865 ; 
 honorably mustered out of the army January, 
 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, June 23, 1865 ; 
 commanding steamer " Monocacy," Asiatic 
 Squadron, 1866-69 ; Naval Academy, as com 
 mandant of midshipmen, 1869-72. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, October 28, 1870; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Alaska," European 
 Station, 1872-75: member light-house board, 
 1876-80. 8 
 
 Commissioned as commodore in 1878. 
 
 Carthoun. The ancient cannon royal, carry 
 ing a 66-pound ball, with a point-blank range of 
 185 paces, and an extreme one of about 2000. 
 It was 12 feet long and of 8 inches diameter of 
 bore. 
 
 Cartouch. A paper case containing a charge 
 for a fire-arm. A case filled with shot to be 
 fired from a cannon. 
 
 Cartridge. A case of paper, flannel, or sheet- 
 metal to contain a charge of powder for a fire 
 arm. For muzzle-loading small-arms the powder 
 and ball are inclosed in paper ; for breech-load 
 ing small-arms the powder and ball are enveloped 
 in a sheet-metal case, which also contains the 
 fulminate for igniting the charge. 
 
 The cartridges for great guns, howitzers, and 
 mortars are put up in bags made of serge cloth, 
 woven expressly for this purpose, being entirely 
 of wool and of a close uniform texture. It is 
 manufactured in pieces of 29 yards in length, 
 and from 16 to 36 inches in width. Eattinet, 
 merino, bombazette, or silk cloth can be used if 
 impossible to obtain the serge cartridge-cloth. 
 Cartridge-bags are made of two shapes, conical 
 and cylindrical, and are sewed with worsted 
 yarn. They are white, and when filled are tied 
 with woolen thrums, and are stenciled in black, 
 with the calibre of gun and weight of charge. 
 The cartridge-bags of the smooth-bore howitzers 
 are fitted with a brass wire ring for the purpose 
 of attaching them to the sabot of the projectile ; 
 when so attached the cartridge and projectile are 
 called a round of fixed ammunition. 
 
 CARTRIDGE, BALL-. A cartridge for small- 
 arms which contains a projectile. 
 
 CARTRIDGE-BOX. A small box made of har 
 ness leather, worn on the waist-belt, to contain 
 cartridges for a pistol or rifle. See PASSING- 
 BOX. 
 
 CARTRIDGE, BLANK. A cartridge which does 
 not contain a projectile It is used only for firing 
 salutes or making signals. 
 
 CARTRIDGE, DUMMY. A block of wood of 
 the size and shape of a ball-cartridge, for use in 
 exercise to accustom the men to the handling of 
 cartridges. 
 
 CARTRIDGE, METALLIC. The metallic car 
 tridges used in the navy are central primed, and 
 are purchased as required from private manufac 
 turers. The same calibre is used for pistols, 
 rifles, and machine-guns. The bullet is cylindro- 
 conical in shape, having three rings and a con 
 cave base. 
 
 Caruel. See CARVEL. 
 
 Carved Work. The ornaments of a ship 
 which are wrought by the carver. 
 
 Carvel. A light lateen-rigged vessel of small 
 
CARVEL-BUILT 
 
 116 
 
 CASING 
 
 burden, formerly used by the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese. Also, a coarse sea- blubber, on 
 which turtles are said to feed. 
 
 Carvel-built. A term to signify that the 
 planks of a boat meet, and do not overlap as in 
 a clinker-built boat. 
 
 CARVEL-JOINT. A flush joint. 
 
 Cascabel. The part of a gun abaft the base 
 of the breech. 
 
 CASCABEL-BLOCK. The mass of iron which 
 fits in between the jaws of the cascabel. It is 
 removed to admit the bight of the breeching. 
 
 CASCABEL, JAWS OF THE. That part of a 
 cascabel abaft the breeching-hole. 
 
 CASCAB EL-PIN. An iron pin to secure the 
 cascabel-block in the jaws of the cascabel. 
 
 Casco. A rubbish-lighter of the Philippine 
 Islands. 
 
 Case. The outside planking of the ship. 
 
 Case, Augustus Ludlow, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in Newburgh, N. Y., February 
 3, 1813. Appointed midshipman April 1, 1828; 
 first order, July, 1828, to receiving-ship " Robert 
 Fulton," New York; first cruise in frigate 
 " Hudson," Brazil Squadron, 1828-31 ; navy- 
 yard, New York, 1832 ; cruise in sloop-of-war 
 "St. Louis," West Indies, 1832-33; New York 
 Navy- Yard and School, 1833-34. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834 ; navy-yard, New York, 1835 ; schooner 
 "Experiment," coast survey, 1836; bark "Pi 
 oneer," U. S. South Sea Surveying and Explor 
 ing Expedition, 1837. 
 
 Commissioned as " lieutenant while on duty 
 in the exploring expedition," June, 1838; store- 
 ship "Relief," exploring expedition, 1838; sloop- 
 of-war " Vincennes," exploring expedition, 
 1839-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 25, 
 1841; cruise in frigate " Brandywine," East 
 Indies, 1843-45. During Mexican war: In 
 schooner " Mahonese," brig " Porpoise," frigate 
 " Raritan," sloops-of-war "John Adams" and 
 " Germantown," Gulf of Mexico, 1846-48. He 
 was present at and participated in the capture of 
 Vera Crux, Alvarado, and Tabasco. After the 
 landing of the troops on the first day, was in 
 charge of the beach and superintended "the land 
 ing of men, ordnance, and stores for the invest 
 ment of Vera Cruz. After possession of Laguna 
 was taken by the " Porpoise," he was dispatched, 
 in a "bungo" having one of the " Porpoise s" 
 42-pounder carronades mounted on the bow, 
 with Passed Midshipman F. K. Murray and 25 
 men, up the Palisada River to the town of the 
 same name, which was captured and hold for a 
 fortnight against a large body of cavalry which 
 almost daily threatened an attack. The object 
 of holding the town was to intercept and capture 
 Gen. Santa Anna, who, it was supposed, would 
 endeavor to escape to Honduras, via the Palisada 
 passes. Cruising in sloop-of-war " Vincennes," 
 Pacific Ocean, 1849-51 ; commanding sloop-of- 
 war "Warren," Pacific Squadron, 1852-53; 
 light-house inspector, third district, New York, 
 1853-57. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855 ; waiting orders in 1858 ; commanding 
 steamer " Caledonia," Brazil Squadron and 
 Paraguay Expedition, in 1859; waiting orders 
 in 1860. During the Rebellion: In March, 
 1861, just at the commencement of the Rebel 
 
 lion, Commander Case was ordered to Washing 
 ton as assistant to (then) Commodore Stringham, 
 in the Office of Detail ; but on the assignment of 
 the latter to the command of the North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, he was appointed fleet- 
 captain of it, and with him joined the steam- 
 frigate " Minnesota," at Boston, April 18. Sub 
 sequently, served in the same position with Flag- 
 Officer L. M. Goldsborough and Acting Rear- Ad 
 miral S. P. Lee, who were successively appointed 
 to command the fleet, 1861-62. He took part in 
 the capture of Forts Clarke and Hatteras, August 
 28 and 29, 1861 ; Roanoke Island, February 7 
 and 8, 1862; Sewell s Point (where, in passing 
 the heavy fortifications on Craney Island, he 
 landed from his "tug" and hauled down the 
 large rebel flag there flying) and Norfolk, May 
 10, 1862 ; and all of the general active operations 
 of the North Atlantic Fleet, until January, 1863, 
 when, it being understood that active operations 
 were over, and that the duty of the fleet would 
 be mostly confined to blockading, he was assigned 
 to the command of the steam-sloop " Iroquois," 
 which was fitted to look after the "Alabama," 
 but was afterward attached to the North Atlan 
 tic Squadron. In charge of the blockade of New 
 Inlet, N. C., 1863 ; cut out the steamer " Kate" 
 from under Fort Fisher and the other batteries 
 at New Inlet, aided by the steamers "James 
 Adger" and "Mount Vernon," in August, 
 1863. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, January 2, 1863; 
 special duty, Washington, in 1864; navy-yard, 
 New York, 1864-65] fleet-captain, European 
 Squadron, 1865-66. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 8, 
 1867 ; light-house inspector, third district, New 
 York, 1867-69. 
 
 Chief of Bureau of Ordnance, 1869-73. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, May 24, 1872; 
 commanding European Squadron, 1873-75, and 
 combined European North and South Atlantic 
 Fleets, assembled at Key West, Fla., 1874, for 
 special service in connection with the steamer 
 " Virginius" difficulties, and for ordnance, tor 
 pedo, and fleet practice and tactics, etc. Total 
 sea service, twenty-four years ten months ; shore 
 or other duty, twelve years. 
 
 Case-book. A register or journal in which 
 the surgeon records the cases of all the sick and 
 wounded who are placed under medical treat 
 ment. 
 
 Case-shot. See CANISTER. 
 
 CASE-SHOT, SPHERICAL. See SHRAPNEL. 
 
 Cash. A Chinese copper coin having a square 
 hole in the centre. It bears on one side the name 
 of the province in which it is cast and the Chi 
 nese word money ; on the other side are the Chi 
 nese words " current money" and the name of the 
 reigning emperor. It is the only native coin, 
 and is called tsien by the Chinese and sapeque by 
 the French. 
 
 Casing. The lining, veneering, or planking 
 over a ship s timbers, especially for the cabin- 
 beams ; the sheathing. A bulkhead round a 
 mast to prevent the interference of cargo, or 
 shifting materials. 
 
 In steam enginery, a covering applied to 
 boilers, steam pipes, cylinders, etc., to prevent 
 radiation of heat. It is generally composed of 
 hair felt, protected by wood or sheet metal 
 sheathing. Asbestos cement, plaster of Paris, 
 
CASK 
 
 117 
 
 CAT-BOAT 
 
 and empty air-tight spaces are frequently sub 
 stituted for the felt. 
 
 Cask. A strong barrel for containing fluids. 
 
 Casket. See GASKET. 
 
 Cassava, or Cassada. A species of the genus 
 Jatropha janipha, well known to seamen as the 
 cassava bread of the West Indies. Tapioca is 
 produced from the Jatropha manihot. Caution 
 is necessary in the use of these roots, as the juice 
 is poisonous. 
 
 Cassin, Stephen, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Philadelphia, February 16, 1783; died at 
 Georgetown, D. C., August 29, 1857. Entered 
 the navy as midshipman, February 21, 1800; 
 became lieutenant, February 12, 1807 ; master, 
 September 11, 1814; captain, March 3, 1825. 
 Served with distinction in the war with Tripoli ; 
 commanded the " Ticonderoga," in McDon- 
 ough s victory on Lake Champlain ; was re 
 warded by Congress with a gold medal for 
 bravery in that action, and was a terror to the 
 pirates who infested the West Indies, and cap 
 tured four of their vessels, September 28, 29, 
 1822. 
 
 Cassiopeia (named after the mythical wife of 
 Cepheus). A constellation on the opposite side 
 of the pole to the Great Bear, and at about the 
 same distance from it. It consists of a group of 
 stars of the third and fourth magnitude, disposed 
 in a form somewhat resembling a chair, a Cas 
 siopeia is, of the six principal stars, the farthest 
 from the pole. 
 
 Cast. A term meaning four; applied to her 
 rings, haddocks, etc. The heaving of the lead 
 into the sea to ascertain the depth of water. The 
 act of casting anything in a mold. To force a 
 ship s head off from the wind on getting under 
 way. Acast, abox, the position of the head- 
 yards in casting. To cast off, to throw off; to 
 let go. To cast anchor, to come to anchor, an 
 expression, however, which is never used in the 
 navy. To cast up accounts, to vomit, the effect 
 of sea-sickness. To cast loose a gun is to get it 
 ready for action. 
 
 CAST-AWAY. Wrecked. 
 
 CAST-AWAYS. The people belonging to a 
 wreck ; men who are left behind when a vessel 
 goes to sea. 
 
 CAST-OFFS. The citizen s clothing abandoned 
 by sailors on enlisting in the navy. 
 
 Cast Knees. The hanging knees which crook 
 or arch over the corners of the gun-ports, riders, 
 etc. 
 
 Castle-wright. An artificer employed in the 
 erection of castles in early ships. 
 
 Castor, a 2 Geminorum. 
 
 Castor and Pollux. Fiery balls sometimes 
 seen flickering about the ma st-heads and yard- 
 arms during a gale. See ST. ELMO S FIRE. 
 
 Casualty. That which comes without design ; 
 an event inevitable and not to be guarded 
 against. 
 
 CASUALTIES. A word comprehending all 
 men who die, desert, or are discharged. 
 
 Cat. A ship formed on the Norwegian model, 
 usually employed in the coal and timber trade, 
 and generally built remarkably strong. A cat 
 is distinguished by a narrow stern, projecting 
 quarters, a deep waist, and no ornamental figure 
 on the prow. An instrument of punishment 
 formerly used in the navy. (See CAT o NINE 
 TAILS.) The purchase used to hoist the anchor 
 
 from the hawse-hole to the cat-head. To cat the 
 anchor, to hoist it up to the cat-head arid pass 
 the ring-stopper. 
 
 CAT-BACK. A line from the cat-block to assist 
 in hooking it to the ring of the anchor. 
 
 CAT-BEAM, or BEAK-HEAD BEAM. In former 
 times the forward ends of the ships of war were 
 finished square across the ship at the upper part 
 instead of rounding to the ends as nowadays, 
 and the cat-heads were attached to each end of 
 this beam. The beam was generally made in 
 two breadths, being a very wide beam, and 
 tabled and bolted together ; the forward side was 
 placed far enough forward to receive the heads 
 of the stanchions of the beak-head bulkhead. 
 
 CAT-BLOCK. A heavy, double, or threefold 
 iron-bound block having a hook fitted with a 
 link ; used in catting the anchor. 
 
 CAT-HEAD. The timber that projects over the 
 bows, and to which the anchor is hoisted. 
 
 CAT-FALL. The rope reeving through the 
 cat-block and sheaves of the cat-head, forming 
 the purchase called the cat. 
 
 CAT-STOPPER, or CAT-HEAD STOPPER. The 
 ring-stopper. 
 
 CAT-TAIL. The inner end of the cat-head. 
 
 Catalan. A small Spanish fishing-boat. 
 
 Catamaran. A sort of raft used in the East 
 Indies, Brazils, and elsewhere ; those of the 
 island of Ceylon, like those of Madras and other 
 parts of that coast, are formed of three logs 
 secured together by means of three spreaders 
 and cross lashings, through small holes ; the 
 centre log is much the largest, with a curved 
 surface at the fore-end, which tends and finishes 
 upwards to a point. The side logs are similar 
 in form, and fitted to the centre log. These 
 floats are navigated with great skill by one or two 
 men, in a kneeling position; they think nothing 
 of passing through the surf which lashes the 
 beach at Madras and at other parts of these 
 coasts, when even the boats of the country could 
 not live upon the waves; they are also propelled 
 out to the shipping at anchor when boats of the 
 best construction and form would be swamped. 
 Their length is from 20 to 25 feet, breadth 2 to 
 3 feet, and the timber preferred for their con 
 struction is the Dup wood, or Cherne-Maram, 
 the pine varnish-tree. 
 
 Catanadromi. Migratory fishes, which have 
 their stated times of going from fresh water to 
 salt and returning, as the salmon, etc. 
 
 Catania, a city of Sicily, on its east coast, 54 
 miles by rail N.N.W. of Syracuse. Lat. 37 
 28 20" N. ; Ion. 15 15" E. The harbor is 
 not adequate to the importance of the city, but 
 it is generally full of small craft. It is small, 
 and during a strong sirocco no ship can enter. 
 Pop. 85,000. 
 
 Catascopia. Small vessels anciently used for 
 reconnoitring and carrying dispatches. 
 
 Cat-boat. A shallow, saucer-like boat draw 
 ing little water and fitted with a centre-board. 
 The forward part is decked over, and the mast 
 is stepped close to the stem. It has but one 
 sail, which is extended by a gaff and a long 
 boom. It can be easily handled by one person, 
 and its management is easily learned. Its length 
 varies from 10 to 40 feet, but the greater number 
 are over 15 and under 25 feet in length. It is 
 the typical American sail-boat, the cat-rig being 
 scarcely known in Europe. 
 
CATCH 
 
 118 
 
 CELESTIAL 
 
 Catch. A fisherman s term for the number 
 of fish taken at one time. 
 
 Catch a Crab. In rowing, if the oar be im 
 mersed too deep in the water the blade is carried 
 aft and the loom thrown forward, thus jamming 
 the oar in the rowlock ; the boat s headway must 
 be checked before it can be recovered. This 
 mishap is termed catching a crab. 
 
 Catch a Turn. To belay, or take a turn 
 quickly. 
 
 Catch-fake. An unseemly doubling in a badly 
 coiled rope. 
 
 Catenary. The curve formed by a rope hang 
 ing freely between two points of suspension. 
 
 Caterer. A purveyor and provider of pro 
 visions. Each mess of officers selects a caterer 
 from their number, and his duties are to preside 
 at the mess-table and to manage and direct all 
 the affairs of the mess ; he keeps an account of 
 the receipts and expenditures, and at the end of 
 the month renders a statement of his accounts. 
 
 Cat-fish. The sea-cat or sea- wolf (Anarrhicas 
 lupus), often six feet in length. Also a fresh 
 water fish of the genus Pitnelodus. The common 
 cat-fish is also called bull-head and horned pout. 
 
 Cat-gut. A term applied to the sea-laces, or 
 Fucusjiium. 
 
 Cat-harpings, or Cat-harpins. Short ropes 
 used to bind in the rigging in the wake of the 
 topsail-yards, that the yard may be braced sharp 
 up. 
 
 Cathay. Marco Polo s name for India. 
 
 Cathode. Faraday s term for the negative 
 pole of a battery. 
 
 Cat-holes. Holes through the quarter through 
 which are passed the hawsers for fasts and 
 springs. 
 
 Cat-lap. Tea, or weak drink. 
 
 Cat o Nine Tails. An instrument formerly 
 used for flogging in the navy. It consisted of 
 nine pieces of cord, with three knots in each, 
 fixed on a short piece of thick rope as a handle. 
 "With this the offender was flogged on the bare 
 back. See FLOGGING. 
 
 Catraia. Portuguese surf- or pilot-boats. 
 They are generally about 56 feet long by 15 feet 
 beam, and are impelled by 16 oars. 
 
 Cat-rig. See CAT-BOAT. 
 
 Cat s-paw. A light air which slightly ruffles 
 the surface of the sea. Cat s-paws occur during 
 calms, and are transitory in their nature. Super 
 stitious sailors scratch the booms, masts, or back 
 stays to invoke even these cat s-paws, as they are 
 the forerunners of a steady breeze. Cat s-paw 
 is also a name given to a peculiar twisting hitch 
 in the bight of a rope, making two smaller 
 bights, into which a tackle is hooked. 
 
 Cat s-skin. The impression made by a cat s- 
 paw on the surface of the sea. 
 
 Cattan. A Japanese sword. 
 
 Catty. A Chinese commercial weight of 18 
 ounces. Tea is packed in one or more catty- 
 boxes ; hence most likely our word tea-caddy. 
 
 Caudal Fin. The fin terminating the tail of 
 a fish. 
 
 Caudicarise. A kind of lighter used by the 
 Romans on the Tiber. 
 
 Caul. The membrane encompassing the heads 
 of some infants when born, and from early an 
 tiquity esteemed an omen of good fortune and a 
 preservation against drowning. Also, a name 
 for a dam-dike. 
 
 Caulk. See CALK. 
 
 Caury. "Worm-eaten. 
 
 Cavallo, or Carvalhas. A salt-water fish, 
 well known as the bonito, or horse-mackerel. 
 
 Cavalot. A gun carrying a ball of one pound. 
 
 Caver. A word used in the Hebrides for a 
 gentle breeze. 
 
 Caviare. A preparation of the roe of stur 
 geons and other fish salted. It forms a lucrative 
 branch of commerce in Italy and Russia. 
 
 Cavil. A large, square wooden pin fixed in a 
 pin-rail to which are belayed the larger ropes ; 
 as, topsail-halliards, yard-ropes, etc. Sometimes 
 the word is applied to a large cleat. 
 
 Cavity. The hollow in the water formed by 
 the immersed bottom and sides of a vessel. 
 
 Cavo-fungo. A boat or mud-machine used by 
 the Venetians to clean out canals. 
 Cawe, or Cawfe. A floating cage, in which 
 eels, lobsters, etc., are kept. 
 
 Cawker. An old term to signify a glass of 
 spirits taken early in the morning ; an eye- 
 opener. 
 
 Cay, or Cayos. Small insulated sandy spots 
 or rocks. See KEY. 
 
 Cayenne. A town of South America, capital 
 of French Guiana, on the western point of an 
 island of the same name, at the mouth of the 
 Cayenne or Oyaque River, in the Atlantic. Lat. 
 4 56 5" N. ; Ion. 52 20 W. The harbor is 
 shallow, has two quays, and is protected by a 
 fort and several batteries. Cayenne is a penal 
 settlement for French political and criminal 
 offenders. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 C. B. (Eng.}. The uncials of Companion of 
 the most honorable order of the Bath. This 
 grade was at one time distributed so profusely 
 that an undecorated veteran testily remarked that 
 if the government went on thus there would soon 
 be more C.B. s than A.B. s in the navy. 
 
 Cease Firing. The order to stop firing. 
 
 Ceiling. Strakes of plank worked between 
 the clamps and water-ways on berth-decks, and 
 between the thick strakes and clamps, and thick 
 strakes and bilge- strakes in the hold. 
 
 Celestial (Lat. ccelestis, from ccelum, the 
 heavens). Pertaining to the heavens; opposed 
 to terrestrial. Thus we have the " celestial me 
 ridian," the "celestial horizon," the " celestial 
 equator," etc. 
 
 CELESTIAL CONCAVE (Lat. concavus, hollow). 
 Of the two spherical surfaces with which we are 
 concerned, the terrestrial sphere is convex, i.e., 
 presents its external surface to us ; while the 
 celestial sphere is concave, i.e., presents its in 
 ternal surface to us. The different heavenly 
 bodies are interspersed in space at various dis 
 tances from the earth, but to an observer on its 
 surface all of them appear to be placed or pro 
 jected on the internal surface of a hollow sphere. 
 This sphere is called the celestial concave, celestial 
 sphere, sphere of the heavens, or sphere of the 
 stars, its centre being the position of the observer. 
 It must always be remembered that the celestial 
 concave is an imaginary surface, arising in the 
 mind of the observer either from association with 
 the real concave surface of the retina of his eye, 
 which is the true seat of all visible angular di 
 mensions and angular motion, or from the in 
 ability of the eye to perceive differences of dis 
 tances in objects so remote as the heavenly 
 bodies. 
 
CELL 
 
 119 
 
 CHAMBER 
 
 CELESTIAL EMPIRE. A popular designation for 
 China. It is said to be derived from the Chinese 
 words Tien Chan, that is, Heavenly Dynasty, 
 meaning the kingdom ruled over by the dynasty 
 appointed by heaven. 
 
 Cell. See GALVANIC BATTERY. 
 
 Celoces, or Celetes. Light row-boats formerly 
 used in piracy, and also for conveying dispatches. 
 
 Centaurus (Lat. "The Centaur"). A con 
 stellation which, together with Crux, constitutes 
 a bright group in the southern hemisphere, 
 pointed out by the line joining Arcturus and 
 Spica. The two principal stars a 2 and (3 of the 
 Centaur are close together, (3 being the nearer to 
 the cross. 
 
 Centigrade (Lat. centum, a hundred ; gradus, 
 a step, graduation). See THERMOMETER. 
 
 Centime (Fr.). The hundredth part of a 
 franc. 
 
 Central Eclipse. See ECLIPSE. 
 
 Centre. The middle part of anything. 
 
 CENTRE-FIRE CARTRIDGE. A metallic car 
 tridge in which the fulminate occupies an axial 
 position. 
 
 CENTRE-LINE. The line which is the exact 
 centre of the ship, either in the drawings or upon 
 the ship s hull. 
 
 CENTRE OF A FLEET. The division between 
 the van and rear, or between the weather and lee 
 divisions. 
 
 CENTRE OF ATTRACTION, or GRAVITATION. 
 The point to which bodies tend by gravity. 
 
 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY, OF DISPLACEMENT, 
 OF CAVITY, AND OF IMMERSION. Synonymous 
 terms in naval architecture for the mean centre 
 of that part of a vessel which is immersed in the 
 water. 
 
 CENTRE OF EFFORT. A point, to which the 
 whole force of the wind on the sails being ap 
 plied, the eifect produced is the same as that 
 caused by the wind when uniformly distributed 
 on the system of sails. 
 
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY. That point of a body 
 about which all the parts exactly balance each 
 other, so that if it be supported the whole body 
 will be at rest in any position whatever. 
 
 CENTRE OF MOTION. The point about which 
 any body, or system of bodies, moves. 
 
 Ceola. A very old term for a large ship. 
 
 Cephalopod. An animal of the sub-kingdom 
 Mollusca,, characterized by a distinct head sur 
 rounded by a circle of long arms or tentacles. 
 
 Cepheus. a Cephei, Alderanim ; f3 Cephei, 
 Alphirk. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Ceradene. A large fresh-water mussel. 
 
 Cercuri. Ancient ships of burden fitted with 
 both sails and oars. 
 
 Certificate of Registry. A document which 
 specifies the names of the vessel, master, and 
 owners, together with the tonnage, particulars as 
 to origin, and the port to which the vessel be 
 longs. 
 
 Cetacea (Gr. katos, a whale). An order of 
 mammals living in the sea or large rivers, and 
 shaped like fishes for moving habitually in the 
 watery element, having the posterior part of 
 the spine disencumbered of a sacrum and hinder 
 extremities to allow the tail to have a due free 
 dom and extent of motion. They breathe 
 air, have warm blood, and a double circulation, 
 like the rest of the class to which they belong ; 
 they are consequently compelled to resort to the 
 
 surface for the purpose of respiration ; and the 
 tail-tin is accordingly horizontal and not vertical, 
 as in some fishes. 
 
 Cetine. An ancient float, "in bulk like a 
 whale;" derived from cetus, which applied both 
 to whale and ship. 
 
 Cetus. a Ceti, Menkar ; ft Ceti, Diphda. See 
 CONSTELLATION. 
 
 C. G. (Eng.}. Coast-guard of Great Britain 
 (which see). 
 
 Chad. A fish like a small bream, abundant 
 on the southwest coasts of England. 
 
 Chafe. To rub or fret the surface of cables, 
 masts, yards, etc. 
 
 CHAFING-CHEEKS. An old name for the 
 sheaves in the yards. 
 
 CHAFING-GEAR. Mats, strands, battens, etc., 
 for protecting objects from injury by chafing. 
 
 Chaffer. A name for a whale or grampus. 
 
 Chain. A series of connected links. A chain- 
 cable. A lineal measure of 4 rods, or 66 feet, 
 divided into 100 links. When mountains, lakes, 
 or islands are joined together so that their length 
 greatly exceeds their breadth, they form what is 
 termed a chain. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLE. See CABLE. 
 
 CHAIN-HOOK. An iron rod with a hook at 
 one end and an eye for the hand in the other, 
 used in working the chain-cables. 
 
 CHAIN-LOCKER. A locker in the hold in which 
 the chain-cables are stowed. 
 
 CHAIN-PIPE. An aperture in the deck through 
 which pass the chains from the locker to the 
 deck above. 
 
 CHAIN, TOP-. A chain to sling the lower yard 
 in action. 
 
 CHAIN- STOPPER. See STOPPER. 
 
 CHAIN-WELL. See CHAIN-LOCKER. 
 
 Chains. Iron links which secure the dead- 
 eyes connected with the channels. See CHAN 
 NELS. 
 
 CHAIN-BOLT. The bolt which passes through 
 the toe-links and secures the chains to the side. 
 
 CHAIN-PLATES. Iron plates to which the 
 dead-eyes are secured ; they are often substituted 
 for chains, being considered preferable. 
 
 Chain-shot. Two balls connected by a chain 
 for cutting the spars and rigging of an enemy s 
 ship. 
 
 Chaland. A large flat-bottomed boat of the 
 Loire. 
 
 Chalder. A gudgeon. 
 
 Chaldrick. A name for the sea-pie (Hceman- 
 topus ostralegus}. 
 
 Chaldron. A measure of coal equal to 36 
 bushels. 
 
 Chalink. A kind of Massoolah boat. 
 
 Challenge. The hail of a sentry to a person 
 approaching. See DUEL. 
 
 Chamaeleon. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Chamber. A contraction of the bore of a gun 
 which receives the charge of powder. The 
 chamber in general use is the conical or gomer 
 chamber. The ballistic power of some of the 
 European guns has been augmented by adding to 
 the weight of the charge and igniting it in a 
 space considerably larger than that occupied by 
 the powder. This increased space is obtained 
 by enlarging the chamber. If the charge had 
 not been increased the air-space would have 
 caused a diminution both in velocity and press 
 ure, the latter decreasing in a greater ratio than 
 
CHAMFER 
 
 120 
 
 CHAKLES S WAIN 
 
 the former; but, by judiciously increasing the 
 weight of the charge, it has been possible to gen 
 erate a greater volume of gas behind the projec 
 tile without carrying the maximum pressure be- 
 vond that which obtained when the old cartridge 
 and full chamber were used. 
 
 A clear space between the riders in those ves 
 sels which have floor and futtock riders. 
 
 CHAMBER-PIECE. A movable piece to fit into 
 the breech of old guns. See GINGAL. 
 
 Chamfer. To cut or take off a sharp edge or 
 angle. 
 
 Champlin, Stephen, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born at South Kingston, B. L, November 17, 
 1789; died at Buffalo, February 20, 1870. His 
 father, Stephen, was a volunteer in the American 
 Revolution. His mother, Elizabeth Perry, was 
 an aunt of Commodore Perry. At 16 he began a 
 sea-faring life, and at 22 commanded a ship out of 
 Norwich. May 22, 1812, he was appointed sail 
 ing-master in the navy ; lieutenant, December 9, 
 1814; commander, June 22, 1838; captain, Au 
 gust 4, 1850 ; and commodore on retired list, 
 July 16, 1882. He first commanded a gunboat 
 under Perry at Newport ; was second in the 
 command of the " Asp" in the affairs of Little 
 York and Fort George, U. C. ; and, joining 
 Perry at Lake Erie, took command of the 
 " Scorpion," in which he did good service at the 
 battle of September 10, 18l3, capturing the 
 " Little Belt." Of this battle, in which he fired 
 the first and last guns, he was the last surviving 
 officer. In the following spring he commanded 
 the "Tigris," and, while blockading Mackinac, 
 was attacked at night by an overwhelming force, 
 severely wounded, and made prisoner. In 1816 
 he commanded the " Porcupine," but performed 
 little subsequent service on account of his wound. 
 He was a resident of Buffalo from 1834. 
 
 Chancery, In. See IRONS, IN. 
 
 Chancy. Doubtful. 
 
 Chandler, Ship-. A dealer in naval stores. 
 
 Change. The voluntary substitution of a 
 different voyage for a merchant ship from the 
 one originally specified or agreed upon, an act 
 which discharges the insurers. 
 
 Changey-for-Changey. An expression used 
 in relation to a "swap," to denote that each 
 party is satisfied with his bargain. 
 
 Channel. An arm of the sea separating an 
 island from the mainland, or two islands from 
 each other. The fair-way or deepest part of a 
 river, harbor, or strait. 
 
 CH ANNEL-GROPERS (Enff.). Men-of-war which 
 cruise in the English Channel. 
 
 Channels. Flat ledges of white-oak plank 
 projecting outboard from the ship s side for 
 spreading the lower shrouds and giving addi 
 tional support to the masts ; also called chains. 
 
 CHANNEL-BOLTS. The bolts driven through 
 the channels edgewise, and through the frame 
 and planking, to secure them to the ship s side. 
 
 CHANNEL-PUMP. A pump rigged in the 
 channels. 
 
 Chape. The top locket of the scabbard of a 
 sword. 
 
 Chapel. In a light breeze when the ship comes 
 to against the helm, or is taken aback by a shift 
 of wind, or by negligence at the helm, she may 
 be recovered on the same tack without bracing 
 the head-yards, by causing the ship to make a 
 complete circle, until she arrives at her original 
 
 position. This manoeuvre is called chapeling 
 ship, or building a chapel. 
 
 Chaph. ft Cassiopeice. 
 
 Chaplain. See NAVAL CHAPLAIN. 
 
 Chapman. A small trader ; a ship s super 
 cargo. 
 
 Char. A species of trout. 
 
 Charcoal. A form of carbon obtained by 
 burning wood with the imperfect access of air, 
 or by heating or distilling it in iron cylinders so 
 constructed as to allow of the collection of the 
 volatile products, among which are tar and 
 pyrollgneous acid, which is impure vinegar. 
 The purity of the carbon varies directly with the 
 temperature at which the wood is charred ; thus, 
 charcoal charred at 480 contains 65 per cent, of 
 carbon, while that charred at 750 contains 80, 
 and that charred at 2730 contains 96; but the 
 loss of charcoal occasioned by these high tem 
 peratures is very great, the three percentages of 
 charcoal corresponding to these temperatures 
 being 50, 20, and 15. Among the many uses of 
 charcoal, that of most interest to military and 
 naval men is its employment in the manufacture 
 of gunpowder (which see). For this purpose the 
 charcoal from willows and alder is now chiefly 
 used. A peculiar kind of charcoal, termed from 
 its color cnarbon rouge, is prepared in France for 
 the manufacture of the gunpowder used for 
 sporting purposes, by subjecting wood in iron 
 cylinders to the action of superheated steam 
 under a pressure of two atmospheres. Powder 
 made with this charcoal absorbs moisture more 
 rapidly than ordinary gunpowder. 
 
 Charge. The quantity of powder used in 
 loading a fire-arm or in filling a shell or torpedo. 
 Service charges are the ordinary charges author 
 ized by the bureau of ordnance. Battering 
 charges are larger than the service charges, and 
 are used for a limited number of fires against 
 ironclads or masonry at short range. A burst 
 ing charge is the full charge of powder used in a 
 shell ; a blowing charge is a small quantity of 
 powder used in a shell in target practice when 
 the object is to test the fuse. 
 
 Charge and Specification. The formal written 
 statement of the offense alleged to have been 
 committed by the accused before a general court- 
 martial. 
 
 In the British service there is no distinction 
 between the "charge," as such, and the "speci 
 fication ;" the fact, or body of facts, constituting 
 each offense being only presented in a single sen 
 tence or paragraph, the separate paragraphs 
 being numbered where the charges are more 
 than one, but even when the offenses are all of 
 the same class and character introduced by no 
 general title or descriptive heading. In our ser 
 vice, on the contrary, a military charge consists 
 of two parts, the technical "charge" and the 
 "specification." The former defines and desig 
 nates the offense, and the latter sets forth a cer 
 tain state of facts which are supposed to make 
 out such offense. See COURT-MARTIAL. 
 
 Charge d Affaires. The designation of diplo 
 matic agents of the third class. 
 
 Charity Sloops (Eng.}. Certain ten-gun brigs 
 built toward the close of Napoleon s wars. They 
 were rated sloops in order to give a command to 
 a great number of commanders. 
 
 Charles s Wain. The seven principal stars in 
 Ursa Major, generally known as the "Dipper." 
 
CHARLESTON 
 
 121 
 
 CHART 
 
 Charleston. A port of entry and the largest 
 city of South Carolina, situated at the conflu 
 ence of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, which 
 unite immediately below the town and form a 
 good and spacious harbor, communicating with 
 the ocean at Sullivan s Island, 7 miles below. It 
 is 118 miles N.E. of Savannah, 580 miles S.W. 
 of Baltimore, and 540 miles from Washington. 
 Lat. 32 3 W N. ; Ion. 79 57 / W. Cooper and 
 Ashley Rivers are from 30 to 40 feet deep, the 
 former 1400 and the latter 2100 yards wide. The 
 ground on which the city is built is elevated 8 
 or 9 feot above the level of the harbor at high 
 tide, which rises about 6 feet, flowing by the 
 city with a strong current, thus contributing to 
 its salubrity. It has a water front of 9 miles. 
 A sandbar extends across the mouth of the har 
 bor, affording, however, two entrances, of which 
 the deepest, near Sullivan s Island, has 18 feet 
 of water at low tide. The harbor is defended by 
 Castle Pinckney and Fort Sumter, each on an 
 island, the former 2 and the latter 6 miles below 
 the city, and also by Fort Moultrie, on Sulli 
 van s Island. Charleston is the most commer 
 cial city of South Carolina, and has an advan 
 tageous position for trade, having a harbor deep 
 enough for the largest ships. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 Charley Noble. The popular name for the 
 galley-funnel. 
 
 Chart. Chart is derived from the Greek c.hartes ; 
 Latin, charta*, which was originally applied to a 
 sort of paper made of the plant papyrus or biblus. 
 
 In navigation it is defined as a representation, 
 in piano, of a part or of the whole of the water 
 on the surface of the globe and the adjacent 
 coasts. 
 
 To trace the history of cartography, an art 
 probably as ancient as the invention of letters, 
 would exceed the limits of this article. The 
 period from Anaximander to Henry the Navi 
 gator, extending over two thousand years, be 
 longs rather to the province of the antiquary. 
 
 Unquestionably the ancients had sea-maps 
 which guided their barks in voyages of adven 
 ture or profit, and did we possess fuller sources 
 of information much that is interesting might be 
 said of them. But of such knowledge a cele 
 brated historian has remarked, " We possess 
 only what has drifted ashore from a stranded 
 vessel." 
 
 Charts, therefore, as we understand them, may 
 be assigned to the epoch of the inauguration of 
 maritime enterprise among the nations of modern 
 times. To Prince Henry, Duke of Visco, son 
 of John I., King of Portugal, is ascribed the 
 credit of first introducing them into the marine, 
 about the year 1400. These were of the kind de 
 nominated plane charts, and they have continued 
 in use to the present day, being now employed 
 only for very limited areas. 
 
 The first chart made in England appeared in 
 an almanac printed on vellum in 1520. 
 
 In 1542, John Rotz, a Frenchman, made for 
 King Henry VIII. "A Book of Hydrography," 
 containing charts of the sea-coast finely painted 
 on large skins of parchment, still preserved in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 For any considerable extent of surface charts 
 of this construction were soon found to be incor 
 rect, and their errors were successively exposed 
 by Martin Cortes, Petrus Nonius, and Edward 
 Wright ; especially the last named, in his treatise 
 
 entitled " Certain Errors in Navigation Detected 
 and Corrected," published at London in 1599. 
 
 With a view to correcting these errors, Gerard 
 Kauffman, more familiarly known by the Latin 
 equivalent Mercator (merchant), a Flemish geog 
 rapher, in the year 1556, published a chart in 
 which the parallelism of the meridians was com 
 pensated for by increasing the length of each de 
 gree of latitude from the equator towards the 
 poles. It, however, appears that his charts had 
 no claim to accuracy; for the intervals between 
 the parallels did not agree with the diiferences 
 of the corresponding meridional parts of those 
 parallels. It seems evident, therefore, that Mer 
 cator had no correct method of dividing the en 
 larged meridian. 
 
 The discovery of a rule for this purpose was 
 made by Wright and published in his book above 
 mentioned. He states that the idea was suggested 
 to him by Mercator s chart, " But the way how 
 this should be done I learned neither from Mer 
 cator nor any man else." 
 
 The primitive idea of the projection upon 
 which all our modern charts for navigating pur 
 poses are constructed, expressed in the quaint 
 language of its author, is as follows :* 
 
 "Suppose a spheerical superficies, with me 
 ridians, parallels, rumbes, and the whole hydro- 
 graphicall description drawn thereupon, to be 
 inscribed into a concave cylinder, their axes agree 
 ing in one. Let the sphaerical superficies swell 
 like a bladder (whiles it is in blowing) aequally 
 alwayes in every part thereof (that is, as much 
 in longitude as in latitude) till it apply, and joyn 
 itself (round about, and all alongst till towards 
 either pole) unto the concave superficies of the 
 cylinder ; each parallel upon the sphaerical super 
 ficies increasing successively from the equinoctial 
 towards either pole, until it come to be of {equal 
 diameter with the cylinder, and consequently the 
 meridians still widening themselves, till they 
 come to be so far distant everywhere each from 
 the other as- they are at the ^equinoctial. Thus 
 it may be most easily understood how a spherical 
 superficies may (by extension) be made cylin 
 drical, and consequently a plain parallelogram 
 superficies; because the cylinder is nothing else 
 but a plain parallelogram wound about two 
 sequal equidistant circles. . . . Since in this 
 projection the parallels are all made tequal to 
 tHe equator, it is evident they are enlarged in 
 the proportion of the radius to the co-sines of 
 their respective latitudes ; wherefore the merid 
 ian, in order to preserve everywhere its propor 
 tion to the several parallels thus increased, must, 
 at the latitude of each parallel, be enlarged in 
 the proportion of the radius to the co-sine of the 
 latitude, or so that the length of a minute of the 
 true or proper meridian, which upon the globe 
 is the same in all latitudes, and sequal to a min 
 ute of the equator, may be to the length of a 
 minute on the enlarged in any latitude, as the 
 co-sine of the latitude to radius, or, which is the 
 same, as radius is to the secant of the latitude. 
 . . . Hence a table of natural secants to every 
 degree and minute of the quadrant, and whose 
 radius is 1, will express the several lengths of 
 the enlarged meridian at the latitude belonging 
 to those secants respectively. And hence the 
 
 * Properly speaking, this should be called Mercator s de 
 velopment ; it is not a projection in tlie strict sense of tho 
 term. 
 
CHART 
 
 122 
 
 CHART 
 
 sum of the secants of all the minutes from the 
 beginning of the quadrant to the degree and 
 minute of any parallel s latitude will be, in 
 minutes of the equator, or nautical miles, the 
 length of that part of the enlarged meridian 
 which is contained between the equator and the 
 given parallel." 
 
 In this manner Wright constructed his " Table 
 of Latitudes for Graduating a Meridian in the 
 General Sea-Chart," which has since obtained 
 the name of "A Table of Meridional Parts," 
 called by the French " Latitudes Croissantes." 
 
 The above method of dividing the meridian is 
 not geometrically accurate. Wright understood 
 this, and devised " A conceit for dividing the 
 meridian of the nautical planisphsere that may 
 satisfie the curious exactness of the geometrician. 
 Since his time various mathematicians have im 
 proved on his method. The first correct solution 
 of the problem appears in " Norwood s Epitome 
 of Navigation," 1645. Its author is unknown, 
 and the ^demonstration was not given ; this was 
 supplied by Mr. James Gregory, of Aberdeen, 
 1668, and more concisely at a later period by 
 Dr. Halley. 
 
 In most works on navigation containing tables 
 of meridional parts the calculations have been 
 made on the supposition that the earth is a sphere, 
 and this answers well enough for practical pur 
 poses. But theory, confirmed by observation, 
 has shown our globe to be an oblate spheroid, 
 and Sir Isaac Newton and others have calculated 
 the ratio of the equatorial to the polar diameter ; 
 this is called the compression of the terrestrial 
 spheroid. Its value has been variously estimated : 
 that adopted by the Bureau of Navigation, 
 
 is, c=_ - 
 
 299.1528 
 
 On the Mercator chart the loxodrome, or ship s 
 track, is developed as a right line making the 
 same angle with each meridian crossed, and this 
 constitutes its chief advantage over other sys 
 tems for purposes of navigation. As for every 
 increase of latitude a new scale of measurement 
 is introduced, objects near the pole are increased 
 in size but their outlines are not distorted. The 
 relative positions of places with respect to a 
 rhumb-line are correct, but the relative distances 
 between places are not shown with precision. 
 
 Observed bearings, unless due north or south, 
 or east and west at the equator, are never identi 
 cal with bearings taken from the Mercator chart, 
 and the error increases the higher the latitude. 
 Such bearings being similar to courses on a great 
 circle, it follows that this chart is not adapted for 
 great circle sailing. 
 
 Since bearings obtained either by means of the 
 magnetic needle or astronomical observations 
 cannot be laid off with accuracy, it is evident 
 that the Mercator projection does not answer for 
 the more refined purposes of surveying. 
 
 All attempts to project a spherical surface on 
 a plane result in more or less distortion of the 
 country delineated, in large extents so great as 
 to destroy the true proportion between the parts. 
 
 For map-making and plotting the data of a 
 survey various projections are employed, such as 
 the orthographic, stereographic, equidistant, coni 
 cal, gnomonic, and polyconic ; the last three are 
 the only ones adapted to our present purpose. 
 Since surveys are first plotted on one of these 
 projections and then transferred to the Mercator 
 
 chart for the use of the navigator, a brief con 
 sideration of them is not out of place here. 
 
 The conical projection is much used by Euro 
 pean map-makers, and is drawn as if projected 
 from the centre of the earth on the surface of a 
 cone cutting the surface of the earth in the paral 
 lels of latitude equidistant from the extremes 
 and middle of the required limits. Within mod 
 erate areas the distortion is quite inappreciable, 
 and even for a considerable extent of country it 
 is but trifling ; on this account it, or some modi 
 fication of it, is now generally used for maps. 
 For purposes of accurate measurement it has 
 the disadvantage that, with the exception of the 
 meridians, all great circles are represented on it 
 by curved lines. Now, all measurements between 
 places on the earth s surface are necessarily made 
 on the arc of a great circle, and for these to be 
 accurately represented on paper it is of the great 
 est importance that the projection of every arc 
 of a great circle should be a right line. This re 
 quirement prevents the use of the orthographic 
 projection, which near its centre is the most ac 
 curate of all, and the same objection applies to 
 the Mercator. 
 
 The gnomonic projection fulfills this require 
 ment. It is formed by lines drawn through the 
 several points from the centre of a sphere to a 
 plane touching the sphere in a point near the 
 middle of the country to be represented. The 
 distortion is greater than in the orthographic or 
 conical projections, but within the limits of a 
 survey, so trifling as to be practically inappre 
 ciable. At a distance of 60 miles from the 
 central point a mile so projected is but one foot 
 too long, and no one chart on a moderately large 
 scale exceeds 120 miles. 
 
 For detailed charts, such as are drawn by 
 surveyors in the progress of a survey, the gno 
 monic projection is, practically speaking, accu 
 rate ; and possessing the desired property of 
 representing all great circles by straight lines, 
 cutting each other at angles which within the 
 required limits have no sensible difference from 
 the angles at which the circles cut each other, it, 
 or some modification of it, is much used by sur 
 veyors. The numerical computations necessary 
 for this projection require a knowledge of conic 
 sections ; but such calculations are obviated by 
 the use of Carrington s tables. Large charts of 
 the gnomonic projection have been constructed 
 for purposes of great circle sailing. Such charts 
 are useful auxiliaries to rhumb sailing. 
 
 These two projections are used by the Ad 
 miralty surveyors and rnap-makers of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The United States Coast Survey and Hydro- 
 graphic Office have adopted the polyconic system 
 in the plotting of surveys. The coast charts of 
 the United States are issued in this projection, 
 and the largest extends from Cape Hatteras to 
 Cape Sable. This is a modification of the conical 
 projection, and supposes each parallel of latitude 
 to be developed upon its own cone, the vertex of 
 which is on the axis of the sphere at its intersec 
 tion with the tangent to the meridian at the 
 parallel. The " Projection Tables," published 
 by the Bureau of Navigation, give a description 
 of the theory and practical construction of this 
 projection. 
 
 The survey is plotted on shipboard, as made 
 from day to day, on blank projection sheets of 
 
CHAKT 
 
 123 
 
 CHAKT 
 
 well-stretched drawing-paper. This work, to 
 gether with all the data of the survey, is sent to 
 the Hydrographic Office, where it is carefully 
 revised ; the several sheets combined form a 
 polyconic chart on a large scale. The work is 
 then ready for transfer to the Mercator chart. 
 
 The scale having been determined on, a Mer 
 cator chart is developed within the required 
 limits in the following manner: 
 
 A sheet of Whatman s cold-pressed drawing- 
 paper, previously stretched, is secured to the 
 board by means of thumb-tacks ; the usual in 
 struments of the draughtsman should be within 
 reach. 
 
 If the equator is to be included within the 
 limits of the proposed chart, the values to be 
 laid oif for latitude are given directly in the 
 table. Should the equator not come within the 
 chart, then the difference of the meridional parts 
 corresponding to the upper and lower latitudes 
 gives these values. Such quantities may be 
 directly measured off by means of a diagonal 
 scale, or reduced to the proper proportions from 
 a scale of yards, metres, etc. If, for instance, it 
 be required to construct a chart on a scale of one- 
 quarter of an inch to five minutes of arc on the 
 equator, a diagonal scale may first be constructed, 
 on which ten meridional parts, or ten minutes of 
 arc on the equator, have a length of half an inch. 
 Then, in the usual manner, multiples of one 
 meridional part may be measured on the base 
 line, multiples of 0.1 on the lines parallel to the 
 base-line, and multiples of 0.01 maybe estimated 
 between the parallels. If an inch scale be used, 
 the meridional parts, before being laid down on 
 the projection, must be multiplied by 0.05 or 
 divided by 20, since .20 minutes of arc on the 
 equator, or 20 meridional parts, have to be made 
 equal to one inch. 
 
 Often it may be desirable to adapt the scale to 
 a certain size of paper. In this case the extreme 
 parallels are first drawn on the sheet, the dis 
 tance between them measured, and the included 
 number of meridional parts ascertained. Divid 
 ing the measured distance by this number gives 
 the length of one meridional part, this represents 
 the scale of the chart, and by it all the merid 
 ional parts taken from the table must be multi 
 plied. 
 
 The practical construction is best shown by an 
 example : Suppose a projection be required for a 
 chart of 14 extent in longitude, between the 
 parallels of latitude 20 30 and 30 25 , and let 
 the space available on the paper between these 
 parallels measure 10 inches. 
 
 Entering the column headed 20 in the table 
 of meridional parts and running down to the line 
 of 30 in the side column, will be found 1249.08 ; 
 then entering the column headed 30 and run 
 ning down to the line of 25 , will be found 1905.68. 
 The" difference, 1905.68 1249.08 = 656.60, is the 
 value of the meridional arc between those lati 
 tudes, for which V of arc on the equator is taken 
 as the unit. 
 
 On the intended projection, therefore, l x of 
 
 arc of longitude will measure 
 
 10 in. 
 
 =0.0152 
 
 656.60 
 
 inches, which will be the scale of the chart; 
 for the sake of brevity call this 0.015. By this 
 quantity all the values derived from the table 
 must be multiplied before laying them down on 
 the projection, if they are to be measured by a 
 
 diagonal scale of one inch. This should not be 
 confounded with the natural scale, which is the 
 proportion that the chart bears to the earth, ob 
 tained by reducing the number of feet in the 
 minute of latitude to inches and dividing the 
 product by the scale. 
 
 Draw now in the centre of the sheet a vertical 
 straight line, and assume it to be the middle me 
 ridian of the chart. Construct very carefully on 
 this line a perpendicular near the lower border 
 of the sheet, and assume this perpendicular to be 
 the parallel of latitude 20 30 ; it may also serve 
 as the southern inner neat line of the chart. 
 Prom the intersection of the vertical and hori 
 zontal lines thus drawn, lay off on the latter, 
 each side of the middle meridian, seven degrees of 
 longitude, equal to 0.015 X 60 X 7 6.3 inches, 
 and through the extremes draw parallels to 
 the middle meridian, which will be the eastern 
 and western inner neat lines of the chart. Find 
 in the table the meridional parts for 21 O x , 
 which are 1280.97 ; subtracting from this num 
 ber the parts corresponding to 20 30 , and mul 
 tiplying the difference by 0.015, we obtain 0.478 
 inches, which is to be laid off from the parallel 
 of 20 30 r on the verticals, and draw a straight 
 line through the points thus established. Pro 
 ceed in the same manner to lay off all the paral 
 lels corresponding to full degrees of latitude. 
 
 A degree of longitude will measure on this 
 chart 0.015 X 60 = - 9 inches ; lay off on the 
 extreme and middle parallels on each side of the 
 middle meridian the distances 0.9 inches, 1.8 
 inches, 2.7 inches, etc., determining the points 
 where meridians of full degrees cross the paral 
 lels on the chart, through them draw the merid 
 ians. Draw the outer neat lines of the chart and 
 extend to them the parallels and meridians. Be 
 tween the neat lines subdivide the degrees of lati 
 tude and longitude as minutely as the scale will 
 allow. Subdivisions of longitude are found by 
 dividing the degrees into equal parts, those for 
 latitude being determined from the table, as ex 
 plained for the full degree. L astly, draw the 
 border-lines and a compass, graduated into points 
 and quarter-points, from the magnetic meridian. 
 
 The subdivisions between the parallels will 
 serve for estimating distances. Distances be 
 tween places bearing north and south of each 
 other may be referred to the subdivisions between 
 their parallels. Distances represented by lines 
 at an angle to the meridians may be measured 
 by taking a number of subdivisions near the 
 middle latitude of the line to be measured in 
 the dividers and applying them to that line. 
 
 A chart may be transferred from any projec 
 tion to the Mercator by drawing a system of cor 
 responding horizontal and vertical lines on both 
 charts, forming minute squares, and the outlines 
 and characters contained in each square of the 
 one may be copied in the corresponding squares 
 of the other. 
 
 The best trained eye and hand, aided by the 
 most carefully constructed instruments, cannot 
 render a chart perfect ; but this fact is no excuse 
 for careless, hasty execution. 
 
 The chart should be such that every portion of 
 a sea-coast may be recognized without hesitation, 
 and the best manner of approaching or avoiding 
 it perceived and ports entered without the aid of 
 a pilot in every state of weather, wind, and tide. 
 
 Besides the outline of the shore, with soundings 
 
CHART 
 
 124 
 
 CHARTER 
 
 and off-lying dangers and relative positions of 
 the principal points, its character should be ac 
 curately delineated. The extent of shoals, with 
 the limits of the intervening channels, should be 
 clearly shown and the sea-marks indicated, the 
 directions expressed so tersely and simply that 
 by the rapid opening or closing of the marks, and 
 the sequence of the soundings, the mariner may 
 be able to feel his way with decision and promp 
 titude. 
 
 The topographic portion of such a chart should 
 be complete, containing all the principal features 
 which are conspicuous from the offing and the 
 relative positions of secondary objects. The 
 table of signs and abbreviations employed at the 
 United States Hydrographic Office gives the 
 necessary information respecting hydrographical 
 representations. 
 
 For the purposes of the navigator the elabor 
 ate systems of orographic representation are not 
 necessary, and it is needless to discuss here the 
 relative merits of the methods of Lehman, Du- 
 four, and others. 
 
 A judicious arrangement of light and shade, 
 produced by increasing or diminishing the thick 
 ness of the hachures and inclining them so as to 
 give the general idea of the course taken by a 
 drop of water, supposing it to flow from the sum 
 mit to the foot of a declivity, gives a plastic 
 effect and satisfies the eye. 
 
 The title and other lettering on a chart should 
 be executed in the plainest and neatest manner. 
 Roman capitals are used for the principal titles, 
 and other printing may be done in small Roman, 
 Italics, and stump-writing. 
 
 The grand division of sea or land to which the 
 chart belongs should be stated, also the date of 
 survey, and by whom made ; references to special 
 plans that ma} r be included within the limits ; 
 the longitude and prime meridian, or secondary, 
 upon which the longitude depends ; the latitude ; 
 the variation of the compass and its amount of 
 annual change ; the plane of reference to which 
 soundings are reduced, and whether soundings 
 are expressed in feet or fathoms ; rise of spring 
 tides at full and change of the moon, and curves 
 of equal variation. 
 
 Views of certain harbors and conspicuous ob 
 jects are often drawn on the margins in Indian 
 ink; in which case the bearings from the point 
 of view should be given. 
 
 The work of the draughtsman being complete, 
 the chart passes into the hands of the engraver, 
 and is transferred to the copper plate ; many 
 months of careful labor must elapse before it is 
 ready for printing and issue. 
 
 Another method of reproducing charts has, 
 from its economy and facility, been much used 
 by the United States Hydrographic Office, and 
 the camera has been utilized for this purpose. 
 By photo-lithography a chart may be repro 
 duced ; but this system lacks the clearness and 
 accuracy of engraving, and it is not adapted to 
 large extents. In preparing plans for this pro 
 cess particular care is required in making with 
 clearness all the details, and the scale should be 
 somewhat larger than that intended for issue. 
 
 Charts may be classed, according to their 
 uses, under the following heads : Ocean, general, 
 and coast charts, harbor plans, and physical 
 charts. Various other charts are employed for 
 scientific purposes, such as : 
 
 Chart, Variation, a Mercator chart upon which 
 are laid down curves representing the variation 
 of the compass at those places through which 
 they pass. Such a chart was first constructed by 
 Dr. Halley, in 1700, with a view to finding the 
 longitude. 
 
 Chart of the Inclination, or Dip of the Mag 
 netic Needle, containing curves expressing the 
 amount of inclination, or dip of the needle, at the 
 places through which they pass. The first chart 
 of this kind appeared in England in 1721, and 
 was published by Mr. Whiston in his treatise 
 entitled " The Longitude and Latitude found 
 by the Indinatory or Dipping Needle." 
 
 Chart, Skeleton, or Track, blank sheets con 
 structed on the Mercator projection for different 
 latitudes, upon which the ship s track is to be 
 plotted by the navigator during a cruise. 
 
 Chart, Physical, showing the streams, cur 
 rents, and drifts of the ocean, prevailing winds, 
 and meteorological data compiled from the re 
 cords of navigators, made during voyages at all 
 seasons of the year in all parts of the world. 
 
 Chart, Chorographic, a delineation of a par 
 ticular country. 
 
 Chart, Heliographic, a representation of the 
 body of the sun and of the maculae, or spots, 
 thereon. 
 
 Chart, Selenographic, a representation of the 
 moon and the spots on her disk. 
 
 Chart, Telegraphic, a delineation of the tele 
 graph on paper. 
 
 Chart, Topographic, a minute and scientific 
 delineation of a tract of country. In a military 
 sense it may have particular reference to fortifi 
 cations, camps, and the movement of troops. 
 
 The charts published by the British Admiralty 
 number over 2600, and are sold at prices varying 
 from Gd. to 3s. each ; this is below their actual 
 cost. 
 
 In the financial year 1860-61 a sum of 11,000 
 was provided for this branch irrespective of the 
 surveying, which required a larger sum. The 
 sale of these charts in five years numbered 
 290,000 copies, besides the supply furnished the 
 queen s ships. 
 
 There are 866 charts published by the United 
 States Hydrographic Office, and, with a view to 
 encourage their general use, they are sold below 
 the cost price. There are over ~ 700 charts pub 
 lished by the United States Coast Survey Office. 
 George P. Colvocor esses, Lieutenant U. S. Nary. 
 
 Charter. To charter a vessel is to take her to 
 freight under a charter-party (which see). 
 
 CHARTERED SHIP. One let to hire to one or 
 more exclusively, or to a company. A general 
 ship is one loaded with the goods of persons not 
 connected in interest. 
 
 CHARTERER. The individuals, government, 
 or company, hiring or chartering a ship. 
 
 CHARTER-PARTY. -A contract of affreight 
 ment in writing, by which the owner of a ship 
 lets the whole or a part of her to a merchant for 
 the conveyance of goods on a particular voyage, 
 in consideration of the payment of freight. All 
 contracts under seal were anciently called char 
 ters ; they were divided into two parts, of which 
 each party interested took one, and this was the 
 meaning of the charta-partita. It was a deed or 
 writing divided, consisting of two parts, like an 
 indenture at common law. Lord Mansfield ob 
 served that the charter-party was an old informal 
 
CHASE 
 
 125 
 
 CHERBOURG 
 
 instrument, and by the introduction of different 
 clauses at different times, it was inaccurate and 
 sometimes contradictor} -. But this defect has 
 been supplied by giving it, as mercantile con 
 tracts usually receive, a liberal construction in 
 furtherance of the real intention and the usage 
 of trade. The charter-party describes the par 
 ties, the ship, and the voyage, and contains, on 
 the part of the owner, a stipulation as to sea 
 worthiness and as to the promptitude with which 
 the vessel shall receive the cargo and perform 
 the voyage ; and the exception of such perils of 
 the sea for which the master and ship-owners do 
 not mean to be responsible. On the part of the 
 freighter, it contains a stipulation to load and 
 unload within a given time, with an allowance 
 of so many lay, or running days for loading and 
 unloading the cargo, and the rate and time of 
 payment of the freight, and rate of demurrage 
 beyond the allotted days. 
 
 Chase. That part of a gun between the rein 
 force and the swell of the muzzle. A ship which 
 is being pursued by an enemy. When a ship is 
 so built as to be able to fire several guns right 
 ahead or right aft, she is said to have a good 
 chase. To chase or to give chase, to pursue a ves 
 sel. When the pursuer follows directly in the 
 wake of the chase, it is a stern chase, which is 
 said to be long but sure; each ship must depend 
 entirely upon its speed, as there is little oppor 
 tunity for manoeuvring and a shift of wind would 
 affect them equally ; if the chaser have the 
 superiority in speed there is little doubt but that 
 the chase will be eventually captured. 
 
 To chase in the wind s eye, to chase to wind 
 ward. The chaser should persevere even though 
 inferior in speed, as an accident, a shift of wind, 
 or a lucky shot may give her an advantage ; on 
 the other hand the chase should do her utmost 
 to evade the pursuer, and to retard the time of 
 being overtaken; as a fog, squall, shift of wind, 
 darkness, or an accident to the chaser may enable 
 the chase to escape. 
 
 CHASE-GUNS. See CHASER, Bow (or STERN). 
 
 CHASE-PORT. A port forward or aft, used for 
 a chase-gun. 
 
 CHASER. A vessel pursuing another. 
 
 CHASER, Bow (or STERN). A gun so mounted 
 as to fire nearly or directly ahead (or astern). 
 
 Chasse Mafee (Fr.). A French coasting ves 
 sel, generally lugger-rigged. 
 
 Chat. A lazy fellow". A louse. A ship built 
 on the Norwegian model. See CAT. 
 
 Chatham, Chest of (Eng.}. An ancient in 
 stitution, restored by Queen Elizabeth in 1590, 
 for the wounded seamen of the Royal navy. It 
 was supported by a tax on each man in the navy, 
 according to amount of his pay. This tax was 
 called smart-money. 
 
 Chauncey, John S., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New York, 
 January 1, 1812. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, 1821 ; sloop 
 "Peacock," West India Squadron, 1822; in Au 
 gust, 1822, engaged in thecaptureof seven piratical 
 schooners off Bah i a Honda, Cuba, and a heavily- 
 armed pirate-schooner by the boats of the " Pea 
 cock" ; was ordered to command one of the 
 prizes; the vessel was nearly decimated by yel 
 low fever, thirty to forty deaths among the 
 crew, and three or four lieutenants, himself the 
 only midshipman remaining on dutyj ordered 
 
 to schooner u Grampus," West India Squadron, 
 as acting lieutenant, by Commodore Porter, 
 1823; ordered to sloop "Ontario," as lieutenant, 
 1824 ; Mediterranean Squadron, 1824-20. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 8, 
 1841; commanding sloop "Vandalia," West 
 Indies, Home Squadron, 1843-45; inspector of 
 ordnance, Washington, 1847-50. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855; 
 commanding steam-sloop " Susquehanna," 1861 ; 
 engaged at Forts Hatteras and Clark, as second 
 in command, August 29 and 30, 1861 ; in com 
 mand of the blockade of sounds of Virginia and 
 North Carolina, September, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 inspector of ordnance, Reading, Pa., 1863; special 
 service, court-martial duty, 1864-65 ; special 
 service, navy-yard, New York, 18GG-67 ; retired 
 1868 ; died 1874. 
 
 Chaw. To chew. A quid of tobacco. 
 
 CHAW-MOUTH. An opprobrious epithet. 
 
 Cheat the Devil. One is said to cheat the 
 devil when, instead of being profane, he makes 
 use of such expressions as darn it, deuce take it, 
 etc. 
 
 Cheat the Glass. See FLOG THE GLASS. 
 
 Chebacco-boat. A boat employed in the 
 Newfoundland fisheries. 
 
 Chebec. See CHEBACCO-BOAT. 
 
 Check. To check a brace, bowline, etc., is to 
 ease it off. To check the headway is to lessen the 
 ship s progress through the water. To check a 
 cable is to stop it from running out rapidly. 
 
 Checkered Sides. Sides of a ship painted to 
 show all the ports ; particularly applicable when 
 there are two or more rows. 
 
 Checking-line. A small line bent to the eye 
 of the topgallant or royal lift and brace, and 
 rove through a bull s-eye at the mast-head, to 
 haul the lifts and braces in when the light yards 
 are sent down. 
 
 Cheek. Impudent assurance. The side of a 
 gun-carriage. The side of a block. Generally, 
 in any machine where there are two flat timbers 
 or parts which are similar to each other, each 
 timber is called a cheek. 
 
 CHEEK-BLOCK. A block bolted to a mast or 
 gaff, and having only one cheek, the mast or 
 gaff forming the other side of the block. 
 
 CHEEK-KNEES. Knees worked above and be 
 low the hawse-pipes in the angle of the bow and 
 cut-water, the brackets being a continuation of 
 them to the billet or figure-head. 
 
 Cheeks. An old sobriquet for a marine, de 
 rived from a rough pun on his uniform in olden 
 days. 
 
 Cheer. To animate ; to encourage. To salute 
 a person or ship by huzzaing. To cheer ship is 
 to send the men in the rigging and salute a pass 
 ing ship by cheering. It is forbidden by the 
 regulations to give cheers to any officer on join 
 ing a ship, while attached to her, or on being de 
 tached from her. What cheer ? How fare ye ? 
 
 CHEERILY. Heartily ; with a will. 
 
 Cheese. A circular wad covered with canvas. 
 
 Chelynge. An old name for the cod-fish. 
 
 Cherbourg. A fortified seaport town and im 
 portant naval station of France, department of 
 Manche, on the English Channel, at the north 
 end of the peninsula of Cotentin , about 85 miles 
 west of Havre. Lat. 49 40 N. ; Ion. 1 35 W. 
 Pop. 38,000. The principal buildings are the 
 
CHEREMERI 
 
 126 
 
 CHINE 
 
 military and naval arsenals, hospitals, and bar 
 racks. The commercial and naval ports are 
 quite distinct from each other. The commercial 
 port consists of a harbor and a basin, 1338 feet long 
 and 416 feet wide. The basin communicates with 
 the harbor by dock-gates, which prevent the re 
 flux of the water. The channel from the harbor 
 to the sea is 1968 feet long and 164 feet wide, 
 lined by a granite quay with parapets. In this 
 channel the depth of water is never less than 19 J 
 feet. The Port Militaire and Arsenal de la Marine 
 consist of a port 984 feet long and 754 feet wide, 
 capable of containing 50 large ships of war, and 
 accessible at all times of tide for vessels of the 
 largest class ; a floating-basin closed by lock- 
 gates, and a third basin. There are four slips 
 for vessels of the largest size ; adjoining these 
 slips is a dry-dock. The great work, however, 
 for which Cherbourg is noted is the digue, or 
 breakwater, stretching across the roadstead. The 
 digue was commenced by Louis XVI., and 
 finished in 1858. It is 2} miles from the harbor, 
 in water varying from 40 to 65 feet deep. Its 
 proportions are length, 4120 yards ; breadth at 
 base, 262 feet ; at top, 102 feet. The entrance 
 east of the digue is 3285 feet wide, and that to the 
 west 9875 feet. A fort and light-house occupy 
 the centre of the digue, and there are also light 
 houses at each entrance to the roadstead, and 
 one at the entrance to the commercial port. The 
 defenses consist of the batteries of Fort National, 
 of 100 guns, on the Isle of Pelee, and many other 
 forts, which render Cherbourg, if not impreg 
 nable from the sea, at least very difficult of at 
 tack. 
 
 Cheremeri. In the East, a bribe in making a 
 contract or bargain. 
 
 Cherry. A species of smelt or spirling in the 
 Frith of Tay. 
 
 Chesil. A term used for a bank of shingle. 
 
 Chess-trees. Formerly, certain pieces of oak 
 timber, fayed and bolted to the topsides, one on 
 each side, abaft the fore-channels, which had a 
 sheave fitted in the upper part, for the conven 
 ience of hauling home the main tack. 
 
 Chest. A box of wood in which articles are 
 deposited; as, an arm-chest, a top-chest, etc. 
 A sea-chest is generally capable of being taken 
 apart and stowed in a small space. 
 
 Chester (Pa.), on the Delaware River, 15 miles 
 below Philadelphia. The celebrated ship-yards 
 of John Roach, which give employment to 2500 
 men, are situated here. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Chest-rope. Guess-rope, or guess-warp. 
 
 Chevender. An old name for the chevin or 
 chub. 
 
 Chevil. See CAVIL. 
 
 Chevron. The distinguishing stripes on the 
 sleeves of non-commissioned officers of marines. 
 
 Chevy. To shake or force with a shivering 
 motion. 
 
 Chewing Oakum, or Pitch. Said of a vessel 
 which leaks from inefficient calking, or on ac 
 count of the working of her timbers. 
 
 Chicago (111.), a port of entry and the most 
 important centre of commerce in the North 
 western States, is situated at the mouth of the 
 Chicago River, on the southwestern bend of Lake 
 Michigan. Lat. 41 53 / 3" N. ; Ion. 87 37 30" 
 W. The length of the city from north to south 
 is from 7 to 8 miles, and its breadth from east to 
 west about 5 miles ; area, about 36 square miles. 
 
 It is divided by the Chicago River and its 
 branches into three parts, the north, south, and 
 west divisions, which are connected by 33 
 bridges and 2 stone tunnels under the river-bed, 
 one 1890 feet long under the main river, the 
 other 1608 feet long, under the South Branch. 
 Of these divisions the west is nearly double the 
 size of the other two combined, embracing 15,104 
 acres, while the north contains but 2533 acres, 
 and the south 5363 acres. The imports into Chi 
 cago during 1879 aggregated 19,000,000. The 
 amount of duties received was $1,451,536. The 
 exports reached the large sum of $10,000,000. 
 The first shipment of wheat was made from Chi 
 cago in 1839, and amounted to 1678 bushels. In 
 1879 the receipts of grain of all kinds were 
 138,154,571 bushels, while the shipments were 
 121 ,094,000 bushels. Pop. 477,000. 
 
 Chief. A familiar appellation for the senior 
 engineer on board ship. 
 
 Chief Officer, or Chief Mate. The first mate ; 
 an officer of a merchant vessel next in rank to 
 the master. 
 
 Chief-of- staff. A line-officer who is attached 
 to the flag-ship, and assists the commander-in- 
 chief or flag-officer in the various details and 
 arrangements for the management of the fleet or 
 squadron. At present the duties of the chief-of- 
 staif are performed by the commanding officer 
 of the flag-ship. 
 
 Chigre. A minute insect of tropical countries, 
 which pierces th6 bottom of the foot and breeds 
 there, producing great pain. See JIGGER. 
 
 Chili. This comparatively small republic, 
 which cast oif the Spanish yoke in 1810, now 
 boasts a population of 2,000,000, an annual ex 
 port trade of $19,000,000, and a revenue of 
 $20,000,000. Its greatest enemies are its near 
 neighbors, and to check them the state main 
 tains a navy of 10 small steamers of 120 to 300 
 horse-power, and 2 powerful ironclads. These 
 two latter vessels are each 210 feet long and 45 
 feet in breadth, of 2200 tons measurement, and 
 of 2500 horse-power. The battery is amidship, 
 and is armed with 6 12-ton rifled guns. The 
 range of fire in both ships is peculiar, for al 
 though they have the appearance of ordinary 
 broadside ships, they are able, with the three 
 guns on each side, to fire over all the points of 
 the compass. This advantage was obtained by 
 placing each of the fore-and-aft guns at the cor 
 ners of the battery, and raising the side of the 
 ship so as to enable the foremost guns to fire 
 right forward and in a line with the keel, and 
 in like manner the aft guns fire right aft. The 
 corners of the batteries are made of an octagonal 
 shape, so that the same guns which fire right 
 forward and aft can be brought into the broad 
 side position, and command any angle between 
 them and the line of the keel. The midship 
 guns on each side are made to fire with broad 
 side, and also to support the fire of the forward 
 guns. 
 
 Chilled Shot. Shot which are rapidly cooled 
 after being cast. They are very hard but brittle. 
 
 Chimbe, Chime, or Chine. The ends of the 
 staves which project beyond the head of a cask. 
 
 CHIMBE AND CHIMBE. End to end ; as, casks 
 or barrels. 
 
 Chime in. To join in. 
 
 Chinckle. A small bight in a line. 
 
 Chine. To hollow out slightly. That part 
 
CHINESE NAVY 
 
 127 
 
 CHINESE NAVY 
 
 of the water-way which is above the deck and 
 hollowed out or beveled off to the spirketing. 
 See CHIMBE. 
 
 Chinese Navy, The. The Chinese navy dates 
 back to a period before the foundation of the 
 British navy was laid under the last two Henrys. 
 The art of ship-building has a great antiquity in 
 China. The junks of to-day, unaltered as they 
 are from designs dating centuries back, will com 
 pare favorably with the coasting craft of some 
 Western countries now, and those in existence 
 nearly three hundred years ago must have 
 equaled in most respects and surpassed in many 
 the barques, pinnaces, and caravals which sailed 
 under the successors of Magellan and Andrade. 
 The sea-going war-junks were often of large size, 
 easily handled, and not bad sailers. Many of 
 them had high bulwarks and pentagonal port 
 holes. Guns were mounted only on the upper 
 deck, frequently on immovable carriages, and 
 the crews had but the most slender knowledge of 
 gunnery. 
 
 Early European travelers were often struck by 
 the condition of the Chinese forces. Of the navy, 
 one authority writes : " The greatest ships they 
 have are called juncos, which are very great 
 and are made for the wars, with castles very high 
 in the poop and prore, like to the ships of the 
 Levant. There are so many of these that it is 
 easy for any general of the sea to join together 
 in a little time a navy of from five hundred to a 
 thousand of them." 
 
 But from the early part of the 17th century 
 onward, while progress in Europe was rapid, 
 Chinese naval architecture remained stationary. 
 When the British first came to blows with the 
 Chinese nearly forty years ago, their army and 
 navy were equipped in a manner which showed 
 that but little advancement had been made since 
 the middle of the 17th century. 
 
 " In 1876 a naval yard was established near 
 Shanghai, and though there are a few English 
 men and Americans holding posts in it, the con 
 trol of it is exclusively in the hands of native 
 officials. Two steam-frigates of nearly 3000 tons 
 measurement and five gun-vessels had been 
 launched from it three years ago, and a small 
 ironclad for river service completed. Of the fri 
 gates one was in commission, and the writer, 
 who has seen her actually at sea, was allowed to 
 go over her when lying at anchor near Shanghai. 
 She is a handsome craft, completely armed with 
 Krupp guns. Her crew from the captain down, 
 without exception, is composed of native China 
 men. She did the Chinese credit in all respects. 
 Attached to the dock-yard is a large military 
 arsenal, in which are stored guns and small-arms 
 of all descriptions, and in which projectiles for 
 heavy and field guns and breech-loading rifles 
 of the Remington pattern were being continu 
 ously produced. Heavy machinery for the manu 
 facture of armor-plates was being erected in a 
 portion of the works. On the opposite bank of 
 the river may be seen the great powder-factory, 
 not long ago constructed for the manufacture of 
 gunpowder of the European kind. 
 
 " But perhaps the most marked instance of 
 progress in this direction is to be observed at, or 
 rather near, the treaty port of Foochow. Under 
 the authority of the distinguished Tso-Tsung- 
 Tang, M. Giguel, an officer of the French navy, 
 began some twelve years ago to form a dock-yard 
 
 on the Min Kiver, a few miles below the city 
 just mentioned, which could be easily fortified. 
 The extraordinary success which has attended 
 his labors will be understood by some knowledge 
 of the difficulties with which he had to contend. 
 The very ground on which the navy-yard is 
 formed had to be made. The soil was alluvial, 
 formed by a thick layer of solidified mud covered 
 with a coating of nearly liquid clay. In conse 
 quence of the freshets in the river, the level of 
 the ground had to be raised five feet. In spite 
 of these and other disadvantages, M. Giguel, at 
 the end of seven years, had iron-works, rolling- 
 mills, engine-factories, and building-slips in 
 fact, all the plant of a naval yard in full work 
 ing order ; and had actually built the engines, 
 and, in some cases, the armament for no less 
 than fifteen vessels, of which eleven were over 
 1000 tons displacement. Not only this, but a 
 school for naval officers had been formed, and a 
 training-ship, fitted to make cruises at sea, had 
 been attached to the establishment. 
 
 "Even this account of several great arsenals 
 would not exhaust all that might be said in de 
 scription of what has recently been done in China 
 to increase the efficiency of the army and navy, 
 which she has begun to consider necessary to her 
 well-being." 
 
 The Chinese do not rely entirely upon their 
 own dock-yards constructors. In addition to the 
 fleet of native production, they have recently 
 had constructed in England a series of gunboats 
 of the latest types, armed with the most improved 
 and heaviest guns. 
 
 In 1876-78 four gunboats were completed at 
 the works of Sir William Armstrong for the 
 Chinese government, of the British "Staunch" 
 type, designed by a member of the firm, the 
 talented engineer, Mr. G. W. Rendel, but in 
 which several important improvements upon 
 that type were introduced. These boats were 
 named "Alpha," "Beta," "Gamma," and 
 "Delta." The first two are each 118 feet long 
 and 27 feet beam, with a mean draft of 7 feet 
 6 inches, and a displacement of 319 tons. The 
 last two are 120 feet between perpendiculars by 
 30 feet beam, having a draft of 8 feet and a 
 displacement of 400 tons. They are schooner- 
 rigged, with tripod masts, are propelled by twin- 
 screws, and can steam 9 knots per hour. 
 
 But the increased dimensions of these last two 
 vessels were of trivial importance compared with 
 the difference in their armament ; for while the 
 first two carry each a 26J-ton gun, the others 
 carry each a 38-ton gun of the^British service 
 pattern. The mounting of these guns on vessels 
 of only 400 tons displacement was a most daring 
 innovation, and its boldness becomes more ap 
 parent when we remember that the only guns 
 of the same weight and calibre then afloat were 
 the two in the fore-turret of the great British 
 ship "Thunderer," and that vessels of the size 
 of these generally carried guns not exceeding 5 
 or 6 tons in weight, and even the "Staunch," 
 considered a serious innovation, a gun of only 
 12J tons weight. 
 
 The system of working these guns is notice 
 able, the piece being so much heavier than those 
 used in the English boats, and the little vessel 
 herself being made to act as the gun-carriage. 
 The gun is worked by hydraulic power, and the 
 entire arrangement of the mechanism is similar 
 
CHINESE NAVY 
 
 128 
 
 CHOMMEKY 
 
 to that employed by the Italians in working the 
 100-ton gun at Spezia. Two heavy iron beams 
 in the fore part of the vessel are placed side by 
 side, on a level with the deck and parallel with 
 the keel ; on these beams are bolted frames analo 
 gous to the cross-head guides of a horizontal 
 engine, and the trunnions of the gun are fitted 
 in side-blocks, these last taking the place of the 
 cross-head. Thus arranged, the gun can slide 
 back and forth through a range of about three 
 feet. The preponderance at the breech-end is 
 supported by two secondary parallel bars inside 
 the main gun-beams. These are hinged at the 
 rear end, while at the forward end they are car 
 ried on the cross-head of a vertical hydraulic 
 ram fixed beneath the deck. The breech-end of 
 the gun is supplied with a hoop and lugs; the 
 lugs rest on the two secondary bars near their 
 hinged ends, and thus, by causing the hydraulic 
 ram to rise or fall, the gun can be elevated or 
 depressed at will. No turning gear is provided, 
 the lateral training of the gun being effected by 
 turning the whole boat through the required 
 arc by the use of the rudder and twin-screws. 
 To run the gun in and out, two hydraulic cylin 
 ders are used, one of which is fixed horizontally 
 on each side-beam, the cross-heads of the rams 
 taking hold of the trunnion side-blocks. The re 
 coil is taken up by these rams, or, more property, 
 pistons, delivering water under a weighted valve. 
 The gun is loaded by a hydraulic rammer, the 
 shot being brought to the muzzle by a trolley or 
 carriage, off which it is pushed into the bore. 
 
 During the trials of the " Gamma," the 38-ton 
 gun was fired with charges consisting of 180 
 pounds of powder behind an 800-pound projectile, 
 the elevation being 3 degrees. The initial 
 velocity was 1500 feet per second, and, as tested 
 at Shoeburyness, capable of penetrating 19 
 inches of iron in three thicknesses, sandwiched 
 with 10 inches of teak. In addition to the heavy 
 guns, two 12-pounders are also carried, and a 
 machine-gun of the Gatling type. 
 
 These vessels are iron-built, and each carries 
 50 tons of coal and 50 rounds of ammunition. 
 They all made successful passages to China, the 
 first two being delivered at Foochow in 187G, 
 and the last two at Tientsin in 1878. 
 
 But the Chinese did not stop with the con 
 struction of these four boats. Four more, built 
 on the Tyne under the supervision of the Elswick 
 firm, and armed each with a 35-ton gun of the 
 Armstrong new type, sailed from England in 
 July, 1879, for China. These boats, or " floating 
 gun-carriages," are substantially of the same de 
 sign and construction as those which have already 
 been described. The most important difference 
 is that they are built of steel instead of iron, and 
 are double-ended, the stern and bow lines being 
 after the same model, and are fitted with bow 
 rudders, which enable them to steam either back 
 ward or forward. The bulwarks have been 
 heightened to give additional cover to the men. 
 
 In addition to the vessels already described, 
 there have also been built in England for the 
 Chinese navy eight small gunboats, of from 100 
 to 220 tons displacement, each carrying from 2 
 to 7 guns. 
 
 At the Foochow arsenal there have been built 
 seventeen composite gunboats, each mounting 
 one 7-ton or 9-ton gun with other light pieces, 
 one composite corvette, carrying 11 guns, one of 
 
 11 tons weight, and three transports. There are 
 also the two wooden frigates and the five gun- 
 vessels already mentioned as constructed at 
 Shanghai. All of these vessels are now doing 
 duty in southern waters. 
 
 In addition to these gunboats, the Chinese 
 have determined to still further equip themselves 
 for coast defense by providing a supply of tor 
 pedo-boats, and the first of the series proposed, 
 an experimental boat, was shipped from England 
 to China in August, 1879. Its dimensions are 
 as follows: length, 52 feet; breadth, 7 feet; 
 mean draft of water, 3 feet 6 inches ; maxi 
 mum speed, 16 knots per hour. It is built of 
 steel, is divided by six water-tight compartments, 
 and is arranged to work three spar-torpedoes. 
 
 The Chinese authorities have also taken the 
 initiative step in the formation of an ironclad 
 fleet, by ordering from Messrs. Mitchell & Co., 
 on the Tyne, England, a double-turreted steel 
 armor-clad, to have a speed of 16 knots, the ma 
 chinery to be built by Hawthorne, of Newcastle. 
 
 Chinse. To stop small seams by working in 
 oakum with a knife or small iron when the searn 
 will not bear the force required for calking. 
 
 CHINSING-IRON. A light calking-iron. 
 
 Chip. The triangular piece of wood attached 
 to the log-Tine. See LOG. 
 
 Chips. The familiar sobriquet of the carpenter 
 on board ship. 
 
 Chit. A note ; an I. O. U. In China they 
 have a silver currency which being inconvenient 
 to carry, credit is universally given by the mer 
 chants, the purchaser giving a chit, which is pre 
 sented for settlement at the end of the month. 
 
 CHIT-BOOK. A book of printed forms for 
 chits. 
 
 Chiton. A mollusk with a many -jointed 
 shell covering its back. 
 
 Chiule. A Saxon ship. 
 
 Chivey. A knife. 
 
 Chock. Entirely ; quite; as, chock-full, chock- 
 home, chock-aft, etc. A sort of wedge used to 
 prevent a cask, or any other heavy body, from 
 moving. Also, a small piece of wood fitted neatly 
 into a larger piece of timber, in order to make 
 good some deficiency in the main piece. Also, 
 a piece sometimes placed between the head of 
 the lower mast and the head of the topmast. 
 
 CHOCK-A-BLOCK. See BLOCK-AND-BLOCK. 
 
 CHOCK-CHANNELS. Channels with the spaces 
 between the chain-plates filled in with wood. 
 
 CHOCK OF THE BOWSPRIT. A wedge-shaped 
 piece fayed to fit the hole above the bowsprit, 
 after the bowsprit was shipped, in order to 
 secure it. 
 
 CHOCK or THE RUDDER. In former times 
 a piece of timber fitted and kept in readiness to 
 stop the motion of the rudder in the case of an} 
 accident, and while a new tiller was being 
 shipped. 
 
 Chocolate-gale. A brisk N.W. wind of the 
 West Indies and Spanish main. 
 
 Chogset. See BURGALL. 
 
 Choke. The nip of a rocket. To foul ; as, a 
 rope in a block. To choke the luff, to thrust the 
 hauling part of a tackle close up to the block, 
 under the other parts, thus jamming the hauling 
 part and keeping the tackle from rendering. 
 
 Chokey. Inchokey, in jail ; in the brig. 
 
 Chommery. Jack s word for chasse-marce, a 
 French coasting-vessel. 
 
CHOP 
 
 129 
 
 CHRONOMETER 
 
 Chop (Chinese). A permit, or clearance. 
 Quality ; as, first chop, second chop, etc. A de 
 vice or trade-mark. 
 
 CHOP-BOAT. A licensed lighter employed ,in 
 transporting goods. 
 
 CHOP-DOLLAR. In China, when the silver 
 dollar passes into a bank or large mercantile 
 house it is tested and stamped ; in the course of 
 time these impressions become so numerous that 
 the piece of silver bears little resemblance to the 
 original coin. From the resemblance which one 
 of these coins bears to the face of a person badly 
 marked with smallpox, the individual so marked 
 receives the sobriquet of chop-dollar. 
 
 Chop About. When the wind changes its 
 direction suddenly it chops about. 
 
 Chopping-sea. Tumbling waves dashing 
 against each other. 
 
 Chops. The junction of a channel with the 
 sea ; as, the chops of the English Channel. 
 
 Chow. See CHOW-CHOW. 
 
 Chow-chow. A word from the Chinese, mean 
 ing eatables. 
 
 CHOW-CHOW CHOP. The lighter containing 
 the articles which complete a ship s cargo. 
 
 CHOW-CHOW WATER. Strong cross-currents 
 and eddies in which vessels are difficult to 
 manage. 
 
 Chowder. A dish made of pork, biscuit, 
 onions, etc., and fresh fish or clams. 
 
 Chowder-head. A stupid fellow. 
 
 Christening a Ship. The present system of 
 "christening" ships may be considered a relic 
 of the ancient libation practiced when they were 
 launched. The action of "blessing" ships is 
 alluded to by the monks of St. Denys. In July, 
 1418, the Bishop of Bangor was sent to South 
 ampton to "bless" the king s ship, the "Grace 
 Dieu," and received 5 for his expenses. In 
 the fleet commanded by John de Outremarins 
 against the Tunisians, according to ancient cus 
 tom and to insure success, the ships were blessed 
 by the priests ; and being afterwards exposed to 
 storms, the captains desired the soldiers and sail 
 ors to invoke the Lord, and while they were at 
 frayer the wind became suddenly favorable. In 
 242, when Henry III. was at war with France, 
 a fleet was prepared in which that monarch em 
 barked, after visiting the shrines of many saints, 
 to propitiate their influence against storms, and 
 to insure success to his arms. Before the Refor 
 mation it was usual for the priests at Yarmouth 
 to give a blessing to the fishing-vessels yearly, 
 and it was afterwards customary for the minister 
 of the parish to preach a " fishing" sermon. 
 
 Christian. A gold Danish coin. 
 
 Christiania. The capital of Norway, situated 
 at the head of the Christiania-Fiord, in lat. 59 
 54 V N., Ion. 10 45 E. The fiord is frozen 
 for two months of the year from about 20 miles 
 from Christiania to the sea, and the harbor is 
 generally locked up for three or four months. 
 Pop. 100,000. 
 
 Christiansand. A town of Norway, near its 
 southern extremity, on a fiord of the Skager- 
 Rack, 157 miles southwest of Christiania. Lat. 
 58 8 N. ; Ion. 8 3 E. The harbor is deep and 
 well sheltered, and is defended by several bat 
 teries and by the fort of Christianholm, on the 
 small island of Oddero, at the entrance of the 
 harbor. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Christian s Gales. The fearful gales of 1795- 
 
 96, which nearly destroyed a fleet under Admiral 
 Christian while on his way to attack the French 
 West India Islands. 
 
 Chrockle. A thorough-foot (which see). 
 
 Chronometer (Gr. chronos, time ; metron, a 
 measure). A time-piece of superior construc 
 tion, having adjustments and compensations for 
 changes of temperature. The proposition to de 
 termine the longitude at sea by means of a time 
 piece and observation of the heavenly bodies 
 was made by Gemma Frisius in 1530. In 1714 
 the British government offered a reward of 
 20,000 to the person who should so perfect this 
 method as to determine the longitude within 30 
 miles. In 1758 John Harrison received this re 
 ward, his chronometer having shown an error of 
 18 miles during a five months voyage. At the 
 present day, under favorable circumstances, lon 
 gitude determined by a chronometer can be relied 
 upon to within two or three miles, and even this 
 small error is due rather to the faults of observa 
 tion than to the imperfections of the instrument. 
 A sea-chronometer has for its moving-power a 
 spring, the force of which is made uniform by a 
 variable lever ; it is carried through all varieties 
 of climate, and is therefore furnished with an 
 expansion balance, formed by a combination of 
 metals of different expansive qualities. 
 
 In carrying a chronometer to and from the 
 ship the gimbals are steadied by the stay, and 
 care is taken not to give the instrument a circu 
 lar motion. When on board, the chronometer 
 is placed in a position not exposed to currents of 
 air nor to sudden shocks, such as are occasioned 
 by the striking of a sea against the side, or by 
 the firing of salutes, etc., and metallic substances 
 are kept at a distance from it. 
 
 The chronometers in use on board ship are 
 generally constructed to run for 56 hours, but 
 they are wound every day at 8 A.M. In wind 
 ing" it is handled carefully and the key turned 
 steadily ; a pocket-chronometer is held immov 
 able in one hand in order to avoid a circular mo 
 tion. If a chronometer should run down, it is 
 started by giving it a quick circular motion in 
 the plane of the dial ; the hands are never 
 touched. As no chronometer is absolutely per 
 fect, the navigator ascertains its error and makes 
 allowance for it. Three chronometers are sup 
 plied to government vessels, and they are com 
 pared with each other every day ; a sudden 
 change in one will be shown by the other two. 
 
 CHRONOMETER, ERROR or. The error of the 
 chronometer is the difference between the time 
 indicated by it and any other given time. The 
 error is fast or slow as the chronometer is in ad 
 vance of or behind the time in question. Before 
 sailing the navigator must know the error of 
 his chronometer. It can be determined in a 
 variety of ways, the most reliable, of which is a 
 comparison of the chronometer with the clock of 
 an observatory. The general use of time-balls 
 renders the clocks of the observatories available 
 to everybody. In our ports the time at noon is 
 always received at the telegraph-offices from the 
 naval observatory at Washington. If unable to 
 compare the chronometer with the clock of an 
 observatory, the error is found by means of a 
 sextant and an artificial horizon, either by a 
 time-sight of the sun or star, or by equal alti 
 tudes of the sun or star. 
 
 CHRONOMETER, RATE or. The rate is the daily 
 
CHUB 
 
 130 
 
 CIKCLE 
 
 change of error ; it is gaining when the chro 
 nometer is running too fast ; losing if too slow. 
 The rate is determined by finding the error on 
 different days, and dividing the change of error 
 by the number of days elapsed between the ob 
 servations. On arrival at the first port after the 
 beginning of a cruise, the navigator will gener 
 ally find that the error of his chronometers, as 
 shown by an observation or by comparison with 
 an astronomical clock, does not coincide with the 
 error shown by the rate obtained before sailing. 
 By dividing the difference between this new error 
 and the error on the day of sailing by the num 
 ber of days elapsed a new rate is obtained, which 
 is called the sea-rate, and thereafter is always 
 made use of when at sea. 
 
 Chub. The Leuciscus cephalis, a fresh-water 
 fish. 
 
 Chuck. A sea-shell. See CHOCK. 
 
 Chuckle-head. A stupid fellow; a lubber. 
 A person with a large round head. 
 
 Chunam. A cement used in the East for the 
 seams of ships. It becomes very hard, and when 
 of good quality will take a polish. 
 
 Chunk-block. A strongly-made block, having 
 a metal sheave and a large swallow. 
 
 Church. To riff church, to arrange the seats, 
 altar, etc., for divine service on board ship. To 
 unrig church, to clear up the decks after service. 
 
 Chute, or Shoot. A pipe or channel for con 
 veying ashes, refuse matter, and other articles 
 down to a lower level. 
 
 Cigar-boat. A peculiar boat shaped like a 
 spindle, constructed by Winans. 
 
 Cingle. A belt worn by sailors. 
 
 Cinque Ports, The. These are five highly 
 privileged stations, the once great emporiums 
 of British commerce and maritime greatness ; 
 they are Dover, Hastings, Sandwich, Komney, 
 and Hythe, which, lying opposite to France, 
 were considered of the utmost importance. To 
 these were afterwards added Winchelsea, Rye, 
 and Seaford. These places were honored with 
 peculiar immunities and privileges, on condi 
 tion of their providing a certain number of ships 
 at their own charge for forty days. Being ex 
 empted from the jurisdiction of the admiralty 
 court, the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports is 
 authorized to make rules for the government of 
 pilots within his jurisdiction, and in many other 
 general acts exceptions are provided to save the 
 franchises of the Cinque Ports unimpeached. It 
 is a singular fact that it has never been legally 
 determined whether the Downs and adjacent 
 roadsteads are included in the limits of the Cinque 
 Ports. All derelicts found without the limits 
 by Cinque Port vessels are droits of admiralty. 
 This organization was nearly broken up in the 
 late state reforms, but the Lord Warden still 
 possesses some power and jurisdiction. 
 
 Cipango. A marvelous island described by 
 Marco Polo, and represented as lying in the east 
 ern seas, 1500 miles from the mainland. It was 
 an object of diligent search with Columbus and 
 the early navigators. It is supposed by some to 
 be the same as Japan. (Written also Lipangi.} 
 
 Circinus. The Roman compass. See CON 
 STELLATION. 
 
 Circle. A plain figure bounded by a curve, 
 every point of which is equally distant from a 
 point within it. The line bounding a circle. 
 
 CIRCLE, ASTRONOMICAL. A reflecting instru 
 
 ment for measuring angles, in which the limb is 
 a complete circle of metal ; as, the mural circle, 
 reflecting circle, repeating circle, etc. 
 
 CIRCLE, DIURNAL. The diurnal circle of a 
 heavenly body is the circle it describes in the 
 apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere. 
 It is the parallel of declination passing through 
 the body ; only when the body is in the equinoc 
 tial is it a great circle. At the equinoxes the 
 sun s diurnal circle is the equinoctial ; at the 
 summer and winter solstices, its diurnal circle in 
 the heavens corresponds to the tropics of Cancer 
 and Capricorn on the surface of the earth. 
 
 CIRCLE, HOUR. A great circle of the celes 
 tial sphere perpendicular to the equinoctial, and 
 therefore passing through the poles of the heav 
 ens. See CO-ORDINATES FOR THE SURFACE OF 
 A SPHERE. 
 
 CIRCLE OF ALTITUDE, DECLINATION, LATI 
 TUDE. In the different systems of co-ordinates 
 for the surface of the celestial sphere, it is the 
 common practice to regard the secondary great 
 circles as ordinate circles to the primitive, and 
 they are hence named after that one of the co 
 ordinates which is measured upon them. Thus, 
 the great circles which are ordinate circles to the 
 horizon are called Circles of Altitude, because al 
 titudes are measured upon them ; the great cir 
 cles which are ordinate circles to the equinoctial 
 are called Circles of Declination, because declina 
 tions are measured upon them ; and the great 
 circles which are ordinate circles to the ecliptic 
 are called Circles of Latitude, because latitudes 
 are measured upon them. Under a different 
 system of nomenclature these are severally called 
 Circles of Azimuth, Circles of Right Ascension, 
 and Circles of Longitude, See CO-ORDINATES 
 FOR THE SUR FACE OF A SPHERE. 
 
 CIRCLE. OF A SPHERE. A circle on the sur 
 face of a sphere ; when its plane passes through 
 the centre of the sphere it is a great circle ; in all 
 other cases it is a small circle. 
 
 CIRCLE OF AZIMUTH, RIGHT ASCENSION, 
 LONGITUDE. In the different systems of co 
 ordinates for the surface of the celestial sphere, 
 some writers allow the conception of polar co 
 ordinates to predominate, and thus regard the 
 secondary great circles as sweeping out angles 
 at the pole ; they therefore name them after that 
 one of the co-ordinates which is marked out by 
 them. Thus, the great circles passing through 
 the poles of the horizon are called Circles of 
 Azimuth, because they each mark out all points 
 which have the same azimuth ; the great circles 
 passing through the poles of the equinoctial are 
 called Circles of Right Ascension, because they 
 each mark out all points which have the same 
 right ascension ; and the great circles passing 
 through the poles of the ecliptic are called Cir 
 cles of Longitude, because they each mark out 
 all points which have the same longitude. Under 
 a different system of nomenclature these are sev 
 erally called Circles of Altitude, Circles of Decli 
 nation, Circles of Latitude. See CO-ORDINATES 
 FOR THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE. 
 
 CIRCLE OF ILLUMINATION. Approximately 
 one-half of the earth s surface is always illu 
 minated by the sun, while the opposite* hemi 
 sphere is in the shade. The great circle which 
 at any instant is the boundary between the illu 
 minated and darkened hemispheres is called the 
 Circle of Illumination. 
 
CIRCUIT 
 
 131 
 
 CLARK 
 
 CIRCLE OF PERPETUAL APPARITION. A cir 
 cle within which the heavenly bodies are always 
 above the horizon. 
 
 CIRCLE OF PERPETUAL OCCULTATION. A 
 circle within which the heavenly bodies are al 
 ways below the horizon. 
 
 CIRCLE, POLAR. The polar circles are small 
 circles of the terrestrial sphere, parallel to the 
 equator, and 23 28 distant from the poles. The 
 northern is the arctic, and the southern the ant 
 arctic circle. 
 
 CIRCLE, VERTICAL. A great circle passing 
 through the zenith ; the prime vertical passes 
 through the east and west points of the horizon. 
 
 Circuit. A continuous electrical communica 
 tion. A metallic circuit is one in which a return 
 wire is used. To short circuit a battery is to 
 connect its poles by a conductor whose resistance 
 is practically zero." 
 
 Circular. An official letter, generally printed, 
 copies of which are sent to several persons. 
 
 Circulating Pump. A pump used in connec 
 tion with surface-condensers for circulating the 
 refrigerating water through or among the tubes. 
 It may be driven either directly by the recipro 
 cating parts of the main engine, or by the inter 
 vention of beams or levers, or by an independent 
 engine. In the latter case rotary pumps are 
 much used. The refrigerating water is drawn 
 through a pipe passing through the side or 
 bottom of the vessel, and discharged, after 
 having done its work, through another pipe, at 
 or near the load water-line. Both of these pipes 
 can be closed at the ship s side by valves called, 
 respectively, the " injection valve" and the " out 
 board delivery valve." A branch suction-pipe, 
 controlled by a valve, leads to the bilge, afford 
 ing powerful means of freeing the vessel of 
 water in cases of extraordinary leakage. See 
 CONDENSER. 
 
 Circummeridian (Lat. circum, about). About 
 or near the meridian. Circummeridian altitudes 
 are taken when the body is near the meridian. 
 See ALTITUDE. 
 
 Circumnavigate. To sail round; to pass around 
 by water. 
 
 Circumpolar. Situated about the pole. 
 
 Cirripedia. A group of marine animals, allied 
 to the Crustacea. They are free and natatory 
 when young, but in the adult state attached to 
 rocks or some floating substance. They are pro 
 tected by a multivalve shell, and have long cili 
 ated curled tentacles, whence their name (curl- 
 footed}. The barnacles (Lepas) and the acorn- 
 shells (Balanus) are familiar examples. 
 
 Cirro-cumulus. See CLOUD. 
 
 Cirro-stratus. See CLOUD. 
 
 Cirrus. See CLOUD. 
 
 Cisco. A fish of the herring kind, of which 
 thousands of barrels are annually taken and 
 salted in Lake Ontario. 
 
 Cit. A citizen. 
 
 CITS. Citizen s clothing. 
 
 Citizen. In the United States, a person, native 
 
 or naturalized, who has the privilege of voting 
 
 for public officers, and who is qualified to fill 
 
 offices in the gift of the people. (See ALIEN, 
 
 NATURALIZATION.) The word is often used to 
 
 distinguish a person engaged in civil pursuits 
 
 from members of the military and naval services. 
 
 City of Masts. A name applied to London 
 
 in allusion to the magnitude of its commerce. 
 
 Civil. The civil time, day, year, is that reck 
 oning which is adopted for the social purposes 
 of life. See TIME, DAY, YEAR. 
 
 Civil Engineer. See ENGINEER, CIVIL. 
 Civil Lord (Eng.). The junior member of 
 the admiralty board. 
 
 Civil War. A war between subjects of the 
 same realm, or between factions of the same 
 state. 
 
 Civita Vecchia. A seaport city of Italy, on 
 the Mediterranean, 38 miles by rail W.N.W. of 
 Rome. Pop. 11,640. The port, which owes its 
 origin to the Emperor Trajan, is one of the best 
 in Central Italy. Two large moles form the 
 harbor, and a breakwater outside protects the 
 shipping from heavy seas; a light-house is 
 erected on its southern end. Lat. 42 5 N. ; 
 Ion. 11 45 E. The harbor has depth of water 
 for vessels of 400 or 500 tons, and ships of greater 
 draft may anchor inside the breakwater. The 
 city has regular steam communication with the 
 chief Mediterranean ports. 
 
 Clake. A name for the barnacle goose (Anser 
 bernicla], and also for the Lepas anatifera, a 
 cirriped often found attached to vessels or tim 
 ber by a long fleshy peduncle. 
 
 Clam. A well-known bivalve shell-fish of 
 different genera ; as, the Venus mercenaria, the 
 Mya arenaria, and others. As happy as a clam 
 at high water, a figurative expression for indolent 
 comfort. 
 
 Clamber. To ascend ; to climb. 
 
 Clamps. The strakes of plank on which the 
 deck-beams rest. 
 
 CLAMP-NAILS. Nails used to fasten the clamps. 
 
 Clang. The rattling and clashing of arms. 
 
 Clap. A burst of sound ; as, a clap of thunder. 
 
 CLAPPER. The tongue of a bell. 
 
 Clap-match. A sort of seal distinct from the 
 fur-seal. 
 
 Clap On. To clap on to a rope is to lay hold 
 of it in order to haul upon it. To clap on a 
 stopper is to put on a stopper ; stop talking. To 
 clap on canvas, to make more sail. 
 
 Clap-sill. The lockage of a flood-gate. 
 
 Clark, Ezra W., Chief of U. S. Revenue 
 Marine. Born at Granville, Licking Co., O., in 
 1839, his father being Rev. Ezra W. Clark, for 
 about forty years a clergyman of the Baptist 
 Church in Ohio. After receiving a rudimentary 
 education he was, at the age of twelve years, 
 apprenticed to the printing business. Having 
 acquired this trade he was prepared for college 
 at Lima, N. Y. Subsequently he pursued the 
 study of Mathematics with Prof. Aaron Schuy- 
 ler, president of Berea College, 0. He attended 
 college at Otterbien University, in Ohio. He 
 studied law with Hon. John K. Hord, of Tiffin, 
 O. In April, 1861, he entered the Union army, 
 and was a private soldier and subsequently a 
 captain in the 8th Regiment Ohio Vols. Later, 
 he was adjutant of the 34th Ohio infantry ; was 
 appointed assistant adjutant-general of volun 
 teers by President Lincoln in 1863; served as 
 such in the army of West Virginia, and was 
 assistant adjutant-general of a cavalry division 
 under Gens. Hunter and Sheridan in the cam 
 paigns of 1864. He was afterwards transferred 
 to the staff of Maj.-Gen. W. S. Hancock, and 
 became assistant adjutant-general of the Mid 
 dle Military Grand Division, headquarters at 
 Washington, D. C., and was transferred to Bal- 
 
CLARTY 
 
 132 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 timore with Gen. Hancock when the latter as 
 sumed command of the Middle Department. In 
 the beginning of 1866, the war heing over, he 
 left the army and entered the legal profession. 
 He was admitted to the bar of the Supreme 
 Court of the District of Columbia, and after 
 wards to the bar of the Supreme Court of the 
 United States. In 1871 he was appointed assist 
 ant chief of the revenue marine, and, with Mr. 
 S. I. Kimball, participated in the reorganiza 
 tion of the revenue marine service and the life- 
 saving service. He was appointed chief of the 
 revenue marine July 1, 1878. In addition to his 
 duties in charge of this bureau, he is a mem 
 ber of the examining board of the Treasury De 
 partment, to examine applicants for admission 
 and promotion to clerkships in the Department ; 
 also a member of the board designated by the 
 Secretary of the Treasury to consider all matters 
 pertaining to Alaska. 
 
 Clarty. Wet; slippery; dirty; sticky. 
 Clary, Albert G., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Massachusetts. Appointed, 1832 ; attached to 
 sloop " Vincennes," Pacific Squadron, 1834-36; 
 Naval School, New York, 1837. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 8, 1839 ; 
 sloop "Marion," Brazil Squadron, 1839-42; re 
 ceiving-ship, Boston, 1843-45. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 11, 1845; 
 sloop " Preble," Home Squadron, during the war 
 with Mexico, at Tuspan and Tabasco; sloop 
 " Preble," Pacific Squadron, 1847-50 ; receiving- 
 ship, Boston, 1852; sloop "Marion," coast of 
 Africa, 1853; frigate "Constitution," coast of 
 Africa, 1854-55; navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 
 1856-57 ; steam-frigate " Minnesota," East India 
 Squadron, 1858-59; steam-frigate "Colorado," 
 1861 ; commanding steamer " Anacostia," Poto 
 mac Flotilla, 1861 ; engagement at Acquia Creek, 
 May 31 and June 1, 1861 ; battle of Port Royal, 
 November 7, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer " Mount Vernon," North 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862; command 
 ing steamer "Tioga," West India Squadron, 
 1863; commanding steam-sloop "Dacotah," 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1864; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Seminole," West 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1864-65 ; command 
 ing receiving-ship, Norfolk, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, November 21, 1866 ; 
 commanding "Dictator," 1870-72. Commis 
 sioned as commodore, 1873 ; retired, 1874. 
 Clashy. Showery. 
 
 Clasp-hook. A clip-hook (which see). 
 Class. A group of objects, animate or inani 
 mate, which possess common characteristics. A 
 number of students of the same standing, or 
 who are pursuing the same studies. 
 
 Classification of Men-of-War. First-rates 
 will comprise steamships of 4000 tons displace 
 ment and upward ; ironclad steamers of 300C 
 tons measurement and upward; ships-of-the- 
 line commissioned for sea-service. 
 
 Second-rates will comprise steamships of 200( 
 to 4000 tons displacement ; ironclad steamers of 
 2000 to 3000 tons measurement; frigates (sail 
 ing) commissioned for sea-service. 
 
 Third-rates will comprise steamships of 900 t 
 2000 tons displacement; ironclad steamers of 
 1200 to 2000 tons measurement ; sloops-of-wa: 
 (sailing) commissioned for sea-service. 
 
 st Class. 
 
 2d Class. 
 3d Class. 
 
 French 
 Veritas. 
 3.3 1.1 
 
 5.61.1 
 
 Fourth-rates will comprise steamships below 
 500 tons displacement, dispatch- vessels, and 
 tore-ships. 
 
 Whenever a vessel is commissioned as a re- 
 ieiving-ship, her rate will be decided by the 
 tfavy Department. 
 
 Classification of Merchant-vessels. 
 
 American British 
 
 Lloyd s. Lloyd s. 
 
 1st Grade 1st Class. A 1 A 1 
 2d " " Al- 
 
 3d " " A \y, " 
 
 1st Grade 2d Class.. A l]Z- A 1 (in red) 5.6 2.1 
 
 2d " " A 2 *JE I (in red) " " 
 
 1st Grade 3d Class.. A 2- 2& 1 3.4 2.1 
 
 2d " A. 2\^> -ZE 2 2.3 2.2 
 
 The degrees of first and second class will 
 mply confidence for the transportation of per 
 ishable cargoes on long voyages. The degrees 
 of third class will not imply confidence for the 
 conveyance of cargoes in their nature subject to 
 sea damage. 
 
 The classification of shipping depends upon 
 the quality and dimensions of materials used, 
 the equalization of strength in their distribution 
 in scarfs, laps, and butts, with mode and extent 
 of fastening. Model and manner of construction 
 must accord with the best practice of ship-build 
 ing, for all grades. The sparring must be in 
 good proportion, and all equipments efficient. 
 
 The frame, head, and heels of timber must be 
 square, and free from sap or decay ; the timber 
 well seasoned, salted or pickled when in pro 
 gress of construction ; ventilation preserved fore 
 and aft ; and a water-course made on under side 
 of floors to admit the water to the pumps. 
 
 The frames must be of white oak, the principal 
 timbers of live-oak or other timber of equal du 
 rability, and the tops of frames mixed with red 
 cedar, hackmatack, locust, or white-heart chest 
 nut. The butts must be distributed out of line ; 
 the timber scarfs not less than 4 feet 6 inches 
 long; the floor timbers extending well towards 
 the ends of the ship; the heels of the cants 
 stepped in the dead-wood and bolted through 
 with copper ; the wing and main transom well 
 kneed and connected to the frames. 
 
 The keel must be sided of sufficient size to 
 admit of twice the thickness of the outside plank 
 between rabbets on stem and stern-post, the rab 
 bets to extend as far as practicable, to admit of 
 fastening the wood ends thereto. The heel of 
 stem must be a crook, and stepped in a hooked 
 scarf on the keel, and not less than 3 feet 6 
 inches long. The stern-post must also be stepped 
 in the keel. 
 
 Natural crooks are preferred for rising floors 
 and second futtocks. The siding of timbers must 
 be in proportion from floor-heads to heads of 
 top-timbers ; the distance at centres for all ves 
 sels of 800 tons and under must not be over 26 
 inches, and vessels over that tonnage not over 
 30 inches. 
 
 The keelson must be sided not less than size 
 of keel, and the scarfs not less than 7 feet long ; 
 if single keelson, the shifts of scarfs to be at 
 least one-third the length of the stick from the 
 end of the scarf of the keel. In rider keelson the 
 scarfs must not be less than six feet long ; assist 
 ant keelson, if adopted, to be well bolted to first 
 futtocks and to main keelson. The scarfs must 
 be distributed so as not to be under the heel of a 
 mast. 
 
 The beams must be of oak or yellow pine of 
 
CLASSIFICATION 
 
 133 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 sufficient size and 6 feet from centres, except 
 for hatchways, and securely fastened to the side 
 by knees carefully fitted to the timber, natural 
 crooks. The lodge- and bosom-knees must be 
 of oak or hackmatack. Seasoned oak or hackma 
 tack is preferred for hanging-knees ; vessels of 
 200 tons are required to have a hanging-knee of 
 wood or iron under each end of each alternate 
 beam ; if over 200 tons, to have a hanging-knee 
 under each beam, the arms of good length, not 
 less than 3 feet 6 inches ; the knees to be fas 
 tened with through bolts driven from outside 
 and clinched overlings, in addition to the blunt 
 bolts driven from the inside, and each hanging 
 knee must be keyed to the beam. 
 
 The breasthooks and pointers must be square- 
 fastened, one-third of the bolts driven from the 
 outside through the timbers and clinched over 
 rings on the inside, and all blunt bolts must be 
 driven within one inch of through. Copper or 
 composition bolts must be driven through the 
 apron and inner stern-post not over 20 inches 
 apart and clinched over rings of the same mate 
 rial on the outside. Copper or composition bolts 
 must be driven through the dead-wood 20 inches 
 apart, passing through the heels and scarfs of 
 stern and stern-post and clinched over rings on 
 the outside and lower side of keel. 
 
 Spar-deck water-ways must be fayed to the 
 beams and timbers, the scarfs vertical, and at 
 least three planks next the water-way must be 
 one inch thicker than the adjoining plank, and 
 alternately let one inch into and one inch over 
 the beams and carlines, the edge bolted through 
 water-ways and timbers, and clinched. The main 
 and inner water-ways on lower decks must be 
 cogged to the beams with locust, bolted through 
 each beam and clinched, and bolted from outside 
 through each timber and clinched over rings. 
 The clamps and inside planking must be of good 
 length, the clamp-scarfs to be hooked or keyed, 
 arranged to suit the timbers, and in length not 
 less than five times the length of the plank. The 
 ceiling must be of good quality, the butts prop 
 erly shifted, the whole square- fastened, and the 
 edges beveled to good calking seams. In all 
 cases the nibs of the butt-scarfs must be one- 
 third the width of the planks, and reach the 
 frame forward and abaft of their centres. 
 
 The outside planking must be of white oak or 
 yellow pine, and fit closely to each other on the 
 inside. The garboard streaks must be, at least, 
 from 3 to 1J inches thicker than the rest of the 
 covering. No butts in any part of the planking 
 must be nearer than 5 feet of each other, un 
 less there be a streak wrought between them, 
 when a distance of 4 feet will" be the minimum ; 
 all butts on the same timber must have 3 streaks 
 between. Vessels under 200 tons are exempt 
 from the full operation of this rule. 
 
 Deck-planks must be of white or yellow pine 
 of best quality, and not less than 30 feet in 
 length ; no planks to be over 5J inches wide and 
 3 inches thick, and fastened with two copper 
 spikes in the butt of each plank ; rail-scarfs must 
 be hooked or keyed, and in length 5 times their 
 width. Stanchions under deck-beams must be 
 of oak or pitch-pine. 
 
 Garboards, first and second, must be bolted to 
 the floors with copper or composition driven 
 through each frame and clinched, and edge 
 bolted through keel and each other in addition 
 
 to treenailing. All bolts going into the timber 
 must be driven within one inch of through, and 
 the plank, well wrought to the timbers with 
 copper or composition spikes, must be square- 
 fastened with locust treenails of best quality 
 driven through and wedged, outside and in ; 
 when the plank is 6 inches wide, then to be tree- 
 nailed single and double in each frame; when 
 10 inches, to be square-treenailed. Each plank 
 must be fastened with at least one headed copper 
 or composition bolt driven through the first 
 frame and aft the butt, and clinched over rings 
 on the inside of ceiling. 
 
 Each alternate floor must be fastened to the 
 keel with a copper bolt driven from above and 
 clinched on the under side of the keel. The inter 
 mediate floors must be fastened with a copper bolt 
 driven through the main keelson and clinched 
 on the under side of the keel. If a " rider keel 
 son" is added, it must be fastened with one iron 
 bolt in each floor through the rider to within 
 one inch of the lower part of the keel. The ver 
 tical bolting in the assistant keelsons to be driven 
 through the first futtocks. 
 
 In calking, the seams must be well filled with 
 oakum thread, 50 feet to the pound, and at least 
 one thread to each half-inch of the thickness of 
 the plank. 
 
 Ships exceeding 5 times their breadth in length 
 should be iron strapped diagonally. 
 
 The timber used in all vessels must be free 
 from sap and decay. The stem above the fore 
 foot must be of one piece, or if scarfed, the scarf 
 must be above light-water line. Stern-post 
 must be of one piece. Scarfs of keel not to be 
 under a mast. Bilge streaks to correspond to 
 tonnage. Vessels of 800 tons and over should 
 have a heavy stringer under the lower knees. 
 
 Channel-bolts must be driven through the 
 frames and ceiling and clinched or keyed. The 
 partial fastenings of ceiling and outside planking 
 must be complete before the treenail holes are 
 bored, and care should be taken not to split the 
 plank in driving the treenails. The pumps of 
 vessels must correspond to their tonnage, and be 
 so distributed that they may free the ship from 
 water at any time or inclination ; the pump-well 
 must be accessible at all times. Vessels when 
 wormed will not be classed until defects are re 
 moved. All vessels must have anchors, cables, 
 boats, compasses, charts, leads, lead-lines, etc. 
 Vessels trading to ports beyond the Cape of 
 Good Hope or Cape Horn must have two suits 
 of courses, topsails, jibs, spankers, and fore-top 
 mast stay-sails, and be metal sheathed within one 
 foot of load-line. Other vessels* should carry a 
 spare topsail and fore-topmast stay-sail. 
 
 Vessels having two decks should have scup 
 pers through the water-ways of lower deck. Ves 
 sels transporting dry cargoes should have their 
 masts coated. Vessels over-sparred or deficient 
 will not receive classification. Vessels whose 
 bowsprits step below the spar-deck, or whose 
 hawse-holes are cut below the spar-deck, are 
 subjected to a lower classification. 
 
 New vessels are to be surveyed while building 
 at the following stages : when the keel and keel 
 son are united ; when the frame is raised and the 
 keelson in ; when the deck frames are complete ; 
 when treenailed and butt and bilge bolted ; when 
 masted and fully equipped. When old vessels 
 are examined for classification particular atten- 
 
CLASSIFICATION 
 
 134 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 tion is directed to the state of the upper and 
 main deck and coamings ; the upper and lower 
 deck bolts ; the knees, beams, plank-shears, and 
 water-ways ; the hawse timbers, breast-hooks, 
 aprons, transoms, floor, and keelsons; the rudder, 
 keel, windlass, planking, and treenails; the 
 frame exposed, and inner surface of planking. 
 A listing should be taken out of the ceiling 
 above flopr-heads ; also, a short plank taken out 
 uiider each tuck, and at such other places as may 
 seem necessary. The sheer and general line of 
 the ship, and the condition of the oakum and 
 calking, are examined. 
 
 Requirements for Grades of Classification. 
 Vessels properly constructed and equipped class 
 A 1 for 12 years ; if opened and bored at the 
 expiration of that term and found sound, the 
 class is continued for such a period as the sur 
 veyors may determine. 
 
 When vessels are built with floors of oak, birch, 
 and beech, futtocks and top-timber of oak and 
 hackmatack, covering of oak, scantlings of good 
 size, and materials and workmanship first-class, 
 they will receive the A 1 class 9 years, at the ex 
 piration of which, if found sound, the class will 
 be continued for 3 years. 
 
 When vessels are built of mixed woods, such 
 as birch, beech, elm, hackmatack, fir, pine, hem 
 lock, spruce, etc., the treenails through ceiling 
 and wedged outside and in, with butt bolts in 
 plank, and all other parts fastened sufficiently, 
 and deck frames secured by lodge- and hanging- 
 knees, they will receive class A 1 8 years. 
 
 Ships with depth of hold exceeding 23 feet will 
 be required to have orlop-beams, secured with 
 horizontal and hanging knees ; when exceed 
 ing 25 feet, to have three full decks. Single- 
 decked vessels, with depth of hold exceeding 12 
 feet, to have partner-beams and secured with 
 knees and masts wedged in partners. 
 
 Single-decked vessels, when built of standard 
 materials, with depth of hold not exceeding 11 
 feet, the fastenings in accordance with the rules 
 set forth, will receive the same class as double- 
 decked vessels; when built of other materials, 
 they will be classed in accordance with quality 
 of materials and construction. 
 
 Centre-board vessels of superior construction, 
 with oak frames and coverings, all fastenings 
 first-class, moderately sparred, and the centre 
 board trunk well secured, will class A 7 years ; 
 when built inferior to this grade, they will be 
 classed in accordance with quality of build. 
 
 Vessels having their centre-boards taken out 
 will be required to have the floor timbers run 
 across to meet the second futtocks, and chocks 
 put in to meet the first futtocks. 
 
 When vessels are rebuilt or thoroughly re 
 paired, they will bo restored to original character 
 if the materials used are equal to the original. 
 
 IRON VESSELS. The classification of iron ves 
 sels depends on the quality of iron, mode of con 
 struction, dimensions of plating, frames, and 
 angle-iron, the distribution of scarfs and butts, 
 etc. 
 
 Neither steam- nor sailing-vessels must ex 
 ceed seven times their breadth in length ; the 
 latter to have two bulkheads, and the former not 
 less than four, and secured with angle-iron equal 
 in size to that of frames ; the distance of frames 
 at centres must not exceed 20 inches. 
 
 The keel, stern, and stern-post must be of solid 
 
 iron, the scarfs to be in length eight times the 
 thickness of the material. Propeller-posts are 
 required to be in thickness double that of keel, 
 and to taper off along the line of keel ; the whole 
 to be well united. 
 
 Floor-plates must be fitted closely to the keel, 
 riveted to every frame, and extend across the 
 stern-post and above the bilges, that the sides 
 may be properly connected. The depths of 
 plate must be one-twelfth the depth of hold, 
 measured from top of keelson to upper deck 
 beams ; and a water-course to be preserved to 
 admit the water to the pumps. A reduction in 
 size of plates will be allowed towards the ends of 
 the vessel. 
 
 The keelson must be two-thirds the depth of 
 floor-plates, and extend to stem and stern-post, 
 and be connected thereto ; the butts must be 
 properly shifted, well fitted, and riveted to floor- 
 plates. Angle-iron must be fitted on top and 
 bottom of vertical plating, and riveted to the 
 reversed angle-iron on top of floors. Additional 
 keelsons are required for vessels of 800 tons or 
 over. 
 
 The frames must be of the greatest possible 
 length, the butts well shifted and fitted closely 
 to the keel. The frames, if welded, must be per 
 fect, and the whole strengthened with reverse 
 angle-iron. All vessels must have double frames 
 to above the bilges. 
 
 The beams must be one-quarter of an inch in 
 depth for each foot of length of midships beam. 
 The angle-iron must be of good size, the two 
 sides of each not less in breadth than three- 
 fourths the depth of beam-plate. The beams to 
 be all well connected to the frames with bracket 
 ends of knee-plates equal in thickness to beams, 
 and the arms to be three times the depth of 
 beams. 
 
 In vessels having three decks, the beams must 
 be over each other, and stanchioned where prac 
 ticable ; the orlop-beams must be fastened to 
 every sixth frame, and have stringer-plates and 
 angle-iron. on their ends fore and aft. Vessels 
 of 20 feet depth must have the same number 
 of hold and deck beams. A depth of hold of 16 
 feet must have beams to every fourth frame, and 
 secured with knee-plates and to stringer-plate at 
 under side. 
 
 All vessels must have stringer-plates on each 
 tier of beams, connected at ends with angle-iron, 
 and also to frames and outside planking. The 
 clamps must be equal in dimensions to the 
 stringers, and riveted to each frame. The tie- 
 plates must be well riveted to each other, and to 
 beams, hooks, and transoms, and the butts well 
 shifted. When the deck arrangement will admit 
 of it, all vessels are to have diagonal tie-plates. 
 The hatchways, mast-holes, and partners must 
 be strongly framed and secured with angle-irons 
 and carlines. 
 
 All butts must be double riveted, and the 
 plating closely fitted to the frames and to each 
 other, and no plate less in length than 5 spaces 
 of frames ; a reduction in length and size of 
 plating will be allowed toward the hood ends. 
 The edges and butts must be well fitted and 
 water-tight, the butts well supported to receive 
 the plating, and united by straps of the same 
 thickness as the plating, with the fibres of each 
 in the same direction. The frame must have 
 solid filling or lining pieces, closely fitted in one 
 
CLAW OFF 
 
 135 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 length of the same breath as frames. In screw- 
 vessels no reduction in plating towards the ends 
 is allowed. 
 
 Rivets must be of the best quality of iron, the 
 rivet-holes equally spaced and carefully punched, 
 and to be countersunk through the outer plating. 
 The rivets must be at least their diameter from 
 the edge of plating, lining pieces, or any angle- 
 irons, and distant from each other 4 times their 
 diameter ; all edges of horizontal joints of out 
 side plating must be double-riveted throughout. 
 
 The main piece of the rudder must be of 
 wrought iron. The ceiling must be of a superior 
 quality, in thickness from 2 to 3 inches, and 
 secured so as to be detached when required. 
 
 The decks and water-ways must be equal in 
 thickness to wooden vessels of corresponding 
 tonnage, and fastened with screw-bolts two in 
 each plank, in every beam, the water-ways fas 
 tened with screw-bolts, and secured at under side 
 of stringers. 
 
 Bulkheads must be made water-tight where 
 ties, stringers, or screw-shafts pass through, 
 closely fitted between two frames at each side, 
 and riveted through them, the whole well sup 
 ported by angle-irons 30 inches apart, and riv 
 eted together and to the floors, beams, and 
 frames, etc. A pump must be fitted to each 
 compartment. Iron vessels are required to have 
 the same equipments as wooden vessels of cor 
 responding tonnage. 
 
 STEAM-VESSELS. The classification of steam- 
 vessels depends on the construction of the hull 
 and the character and condition of machinery. 
 
 In the construction no departure from .the 
 standard rules will be admitted. The scantlings 
 and dimensions must be regulated in proportion 
 to capacity, to insure longitudinal strength. 
 The floor must be filled in solid as high up as 
 the turn of the bilge. The frame must be diagon 
 ally iron strapped from the floor-heads to the 
 upper deck beams, and bolted to each timber ; and 
 when double laid, riveted in each timber room. 
 
 There must be water-tight bulkheads, 30 to 50 
 feet from stem and stern, to reach at least two 
 feet above deep load-line, which must be well 
 secured to strong stanchions on the after-side. 
 Steam- vessels engaged in the transportation of 
 
 Cjengers are required to have sufficient life- 
 ts. Steam-vessels navigating the ocean or 
 coast, are required to have a sufficient spread of 
 canvas to make a port in case of derangement 
 of machinery. All steam- vessels bottoms are to 
 be examined annually, and are required to be 
 opened for inspection at the expiration of 5 years, 
 to ascertain the condition of their frame. 
 
 Sea-going steamers of standard construction, 
 and having sufficient canvas to make port in 
 case the machinery is disabled, rate A 1*. 
 
 Sea-going steamers with but little canvas, 
 rate A 1. 
 
 Steamers constructed for navigating sounds, 
 lakes, and rivers, rate A 1 to A 2. 
 
 Claw Off. To work to windward from a lee 
 shore ; particularly when the operation is per 
 formed under difficult circumstances. 
 
 Clayborne, William. A surveyor by pro 
 fession. Authorized by the rulers of Virginia 
 to discover the limits of Chesapeake Bay, he 
 pursued his investigation with great ardor be 
 tween the 34th and 41st degrees of latitude, in 
 1625. A company having obtained the royal 
 
 license to trade with the Indians, Clayborne was 
 placed at the head of an expedition, and leaving 
 England with a number of persons disposed to 
 settle in Virginia under his government, he 
 planted a colony on Kent Island, in Chesapeake 
 Bay. 
 
 Cleaching Net. A hand-net with a hoop and 
 bar, used by fishermen. 
 
 Clean. Free from danger ; as, a clean coast, 
 a clean harbor, etc. In general parlance it 
 means quite, entirely. 
 
 CLEAN BILL OF HEALTH. See BILL OF 
 HEALTH. 
 
 CLEAN DONE. Adroitly tricked ; purpose 
 well effected. 
 
 CLEAN-FULL. Rap full ; applied to the sails. 
 
 CLEAN OFF THE REEL. When the ship is 
 going so fast as to take the log-line off the reel 
 without its being fed to her, she takes the line 
 clean off the reel. The expression is used for 
 anything that is done without stop or hindrance. 
 
 CLEAN SHIP. A whale-ship unfortunate in 
 her trip, having no fish nor oil. 
 
 Clear. A word applied to many different ob 
 jects, and its signification is generally opposed 
 to foul. To clear a rock, vessel, or point, to get 
 by it without touching. To clear a time-glass, 
 to let all the sand run out of one end. To clear 
 a rope, to remove any obstruction to its running 
 freely. To clear a lighter, to discharge its cargo. 
 To clear goods, to pay duties and go through the 
 formalities required by the custom-house officials. 
 To clear is to present the proper documents and 
 receive permission of the proper authorities to 
 sail. To clear the decks is to send or drive the 
 men off from them. To clear up the decks is to 
 lay up the ropes and put everything in its place. 
 The weather clears up when the clouds break 
 away, and there is a prospect of a return of fine 
 weather. To clear away a rope is to let go the 
 end of it. To clear for action, to prepare for 
 battle. To clear the land, to gain such a distance 
 from the land as to have plenty of sea-room. 
 
 CLEARANCE. A document from the custom 
 house certifying that the ship has cleared ; per 
 mission to sail. 
 
 CLEARING THE DISTANCE. The operation of 
 deducing the true from the apparent lunar dis 
 tance. 
 
 CLEAR WATER. Water free from obstruc 
 tions, as ice, rocks, etc. 
 
 Cleat. A piece of wood or metal bolted to the 
 side or deck to which a rope is belayed. Cleat is 
 also the name given to a wedge-like piece of 
 wood nailed on a spar to keep the rigging from 
 slipping in or down. To cleat an object is to 
 nail cleats against it to keep it from slipping. 
 
 Clench. See CLINCH. 
 
 Clerk. A civilian appointed by the officer 
 who is entitled to his services ; as, captain s and 
 paymaster s clerk. He is required to be at least 
 18 years old, and to serve until regularly dis 
 charged. A clerk is a steerage officer, but the 
 captain s clerk sometimes messed with the com 
 manding officer, in which case he was not en 
 titled to quarters in the steerage. The com 
 manding officer is not now entitled to a clerk, 
 his di ties being performed by one of the junior 
 officers attached to the vessel. 
 
 Cleveland, a port of entry and second city of 
 Ohio, is situated on the south shore of Lake 
 Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, 
 
CLEW 
 
 136 
 
 GLITZ 
 
 which flows through the city, affording a fine 
 sheltered harbor, to which has been added a 
 commodious ship-channel 200 feet wide, flanked 
 by two piers extending 1200 feet into the lake. 
 A harbor of refuge, commenced in 1878, is also 
 in course of construction by the U. S. govern 
 ment, extending from a point northerly from 
 the west pier, and running west by south to the 
 lake-shore. The work is under the supervision 
 of an army engineer, and is estimated to cost 
 $1,800,000. Lat. 41 30 5" N. ; Ion. 81 42 / 6" 
 W. Pop. 160,000. 
 
 Clew. The combination of nettles by which 
 a hammock is suspended. The ordinary clews 
 are plaited for a short distance below the ring 
 or eye ; Spanish clevis are served without being 
 plaited ; triangular spans and iron rings have 
 been used to give spread to hammocks, but they 
 do not give satisfaction. One of the lower cor 
 ners of a square-sail, or the after lower corner of 
 a fore-and-aft sail. From clew to earing, liter 
 ally, the diagonal of a square-sail ; figuratively, 
 from top to bottom ; entirely ; as, to shift one s 
 clothes from clew to earing. A clew up, a case 
 of despair. To clew down, to haul on the clew 
 lines and force a yard down. To clew up, to run 
 the clews of a sail up to the yard. 
 
 CLEW-CRINGLE. A, cringle in the clew of a 
 sail to which the sheet is bent. In our service 
 clew-irons, or spectacle-irons, are used instead of 
 rope cringles. 
 
 CLEW-GARNET. A rope by which the clews 
 of the courses are run up to the lower yards. 
 
 CLEW-GARNET BLOCK. A large, single, iron- 
 bound block at the slings of the lower yards, to 
 act as a leader for the clew-garnet. Also the 
 block at the clew of the sail through which the 
 clew-garnet reeves. 
 
 CLEW-IRON. The iron shackle in the clew 
 of a sail to which the sheet is bent. The 
 iron is galvanized, and has two eyes with thim 
 bles inserted ; the round shape of the iron and 
 the position of the two eyes give it the appear 
 ance of a pair of spectacles; hence the name 
 spectacle-iron, which is sometimes applied to it. 
 The objection which is sometimes made to the 
 use of clew-irons is that they may iron-mold the 
 canvas. They are stronger than rope and when 
 galvanized do not rust for a long time, and when 
 the sail is worn out they may be galvanized 
 afresh and put in a new sail. They are univer 
 sally used in the navy. 
 
 CLEW-JIGGER. A temporary purchase for 
 hauling up the clews of courses and topsails 
 forward of and above the yard ; they are not 
 used at sea. The fore clew-jigger is also used as 
 the inner halliards of the lower stun sail, and 
 both fore and main clew-jiggers are used as reef- 
 tackles. 
 
 CLEW-LINE. A rope by which the clews of 
 all square-sails except courses are run up to their 
 yards. 
 
 CLEW-LINE BLOCK. The block at the clew 
 of a topsail through which the clew-line reeves. 
 Formerly, the quarter-block was called a clew 
 line block. 
 
 CLEW-ROPE. The roping at the clew of a sail. 
 A rope leading from the clew of a trysail to the 
 jaws of the gaff. 
 Click. A small pawl. 
 
 Cliff. A precipitous termination of the land. 
 See CRAG. 
 
 Clinch. A kind of hitch, in which the end 
 of a rope is taken around the standing part and 
 seized to its own part. In the inner clinch the 
 end is inside of the other part, and in the outer 
 clinch the end part is outside. The seizings are 
 called bends. To clinch a rope is to secure the 
 end of it by means of a clinch. To clinch a bolt 
 is to rivet the end of it over a ring or plate. To 
 clinch a bargain is to settle it beyond further dis 
 pute. 
 
 CLINCH-BOLT. A bolt, the end of which is 
 turned over by hammering. 
 
 CLINCHER. An incontrovertible argument. 
 
 CLINCH-NAILS. Nails made of malleable 
 metal, as copper, wrought iron, etc., whose 
 ends may be turned back. 
 
 Clinch-built. See CLINKER-BUILT. 
 
 Clincher-built. See CLINKER-BUILT. 
 
 Clincher-work. See CLINKER-WORK. 
 
 Clinker-built. A term to denote that the 
 planks of a boat overlap. When the plates of 
 iron vessels overlap they are distinguished as 
 lap-jointed. See CLINKER- WORK. 
 
 Clinker-work. Lap-jointed work. A mode 
 of building in which the lower edge of each 
 plank laps over the upper edge of the plank next 
 below. This method of building is employed in 
 boats of light construction, and sometimes in iron 
 ships. 
 
 Clinton, George, Admiral. Governor of New 
 York, September, 1743-October, 1753. Died 
 governor of Newfoundland, July 10, 1761. 
 Youngest son of Francis, sixth earl of Lincoln. 
 Appointed commodore and governor of New 
 foundland, 1732. Subsequently appointed gov 
 ernor of New York. His want of skill in civil 
 affairs peculiarly exposed him to the tumults and 
 commotions of colonial government. In his 
 controversies with the assembly Golden, after 
 wards lieutenant-governor, was his champion 
 with the pen ; his chief opponent being Horse- 
 mander. Clinton afterwards became governor 
 of Greenwich hospital ; in 1745 became vice- 
 admiral of the red, and admiral of the fleet in 
 1757. 
 
 Clip-hook. A hook composed of two parts 
 moving on the same pivot. When hooked and 
 moused these two parts form a solid hook, and 
 cannot beseparated until the mousing is removed. 
 
 Clipper. A long, low, sharp, fast-sailing 
 ship. 
 
 CLIPPER-BUILT. Built on the model of a 
 clipper. 
 
 Glitz, John M. B., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, March 10, 1823. Appointed 
 from Michigan, August 12, 1837 ; attached to 
 sloop "Ontario," West India Squadron, 1838- 
 42; Naval School, Philadelphia, 1843. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843; sloop " St. Mary s," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1844-45; sloop " Falmouth," Home Squad 
 ron, 1845-46 ; bomb-brig " Hecla," Home Squad 
 ron, 1847; capitulation of castle of San Juan 
 d Ulloa and capture of Tuspan ; steamer " Pe- 
 trita," Home Squadron, 1847-48 ; frigate " Cum 
 berland," Mediterranean Squadron, 1849-51. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 6, 1851; 
 Coast Survey, 1851-52; steam-frigate u Missis 
 sippi," East India Squadron, 1852-55; special 
 duty, Washington, 1856; sloop "Decatur," Pa 
 cific Squadron, 1858-59; steam-sloop " Iro- 
 quois," 1861. 
 
CLIYE 
 
 137 
 
 CLOUD 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer " Penobscot," North At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1863 ; commanding 
 steam-sloop "Juniata," East Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, 1863; commanding steamer "Osce- 
 ola," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1864-65 ; at both attacks on Fort Fisher ; navy- 
 yard, Boston, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Pawnee," South Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1868-69; ordnance duty, navy-yard, 
 New York, 1870; commanding "California" 
 (second-rate), Pacific Fleet, 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 28, 
 1872 ; commanding naval station, Port Royal, 
 S. C., 1876-77; light-house inspector, 1878-80; 
 commissioned as rear-admiral, 1880; under or 
 ders to command East India Squadron. 
 
 Clive. An old spelling of cliff. 
 
 Clock, Astronomical. A pendulum clock of 
 superior construction and specially adapted for 
 astronomical observations. It is adjusted to 
 show sidereal time, and indicates O h O m s when 
 the first point of Aries is on the meridian. It is 
 regulated by observing with a transit instrument 
 the meridian passage of the heavenly bodies. 
 The astronomical clock furnishes the best means 
 of rating a chronometer. 
 
 CLOCK, MEAN SOLAR. A clock which indi 
 cates mean solar or civil time. See TIME. 
 
 CLOCK, SIDEREAL. A clock which indicates 
 sidereal time. See TIME. 
 
 CLOCK-STARS. A name for the nautical stars 
 (which see). 
 
 Clock-calm. Dead calm ; not a breath of 
 air stirring. 
 
 Clod-hopper. A clownish landsman. 
 
 Close. Near. To draw near. 
 
 CLOSE ABOARD. Near the ship. 
 
 CLOSE BUTT. A shipwright s definition of a 
 close butt is, a butt of a half-way piece either in 
 the outside planking or the deck of a vessel, not 
 intended to be calked. Before this piece is put 
 into position the seams and the butts of the said 
 half-way pieces are made tight or close for ap 
 pearance only. 
 
 The calker s definition of a close butt is, one 
 that cannot be properly calked without cutting, 
 whereas a proper open butt involves no extra 
 expense, and leaves a smooth edge for the forma 
 tion of a perfect oakum wedge. 
 
 CLOSED PORT. An interdicted or blockaded 
 port. 
 
 CLOSE-FIGHTS. See CLOSE-QUARTERS. 
 
 CLOSE-FISTED. Stingy ; penurious. 
 
 CLOSE HARBOR. An artificial harbor with an 
 entrance which may be opened and closed at will. 
 
 CLOSE-HAULED. The situation of a ship when 
 her yards are braced up sharp and she is sailing 
 as close to the wind as possible. The after-yards 
 should be braced in a little more than the head- 
 yards, and the upper yards a little more than the 
 one next below, in order that the after-sails may 
 lift before the sails on the fore, and the light 
 sails before the courses and top?ails. The helms 
 man steers by the weather-leech of the upper sail 
 on the main. 
 
 CLOSE PACK. See PACK-ICE. 
 
 CLOSE PORT. A port which lies up a river, in 
 contradistinction to an out-port. 
 
 CLOSE-QUARTERS, or CLOSE-FIGHTS. In olden 
 times heavy bulkheads or barricades, fitted with 
 
 loop-holes, were erected, and the crew retreated 
 to this place when they were unable to drive the 
 enemy s boarders back. The fight was then 
 carried on from inside the barricade. The term, 
 which was then confined to these hand-to-hand 
 combats, is now applied to a fight at short range 
 between ships. 
 
 CLOSE-REEF. The last reef in a sail. 
 
 CLOSE-SIGHT. The notch in the base-ring of 
 old guns. 
 
 CLOSE TO THE WIND. As near the wind as 
 possible without causing the sails to lift. 
 
 CLOSE WITH. To approach ; as, to close with 
 an enemy. 
 
 Cloth. A general term for the sails of a ship. 
 Canvas is wove in cloths or breadths, and the 
 width of a sail is denoted by the number of 
 cloths it contains. 
 
 CLOTH IN THE WIND. Too near the wind ; 
 sails lifting. Also, half intoxicated. 
 
 Clothed. The lower masts are said to be 
 clothed when the courses have a great deal of 
 drop. A ship is clothed with canvas when she is 
 carrying all sail. 
 
 Clothes-line. A system of parallel lines on 
 wnich the men s washed clothes are stopped to 
 dry. The harbor-lines extend from the bowsprit 
 to the spanker-boom, and are triced well up to 
 the lower yards. The sea-lines extend from the 
 main to the mizzen rigging. 
 
 Clothing. The rigging of the bowsprit. To 
 clothe the bowsprit, to rig it. 
 
 Cloud. Clouds are masses of visible vapor or 
 watery particles suspended in the atmosphere. A 
 cloud, motionless or nearly so, lying at or near 
 the surface of the earth, receives the name of 
 haze, mist, or fog, according to its density. The 
 term scud is applied to loose vapory fragments 
 of clouds driven by the wind. 
 
 The formation and height of clouds vary with 
 the amount of vapor in the air, the course and 
 height of air-currents, the climate, season, tem 
 perature, extent of sea and land, and the height 
 of the land. Cloud-strata in mountains vary 
 from 1600 to 3400 feet. Remarkable cloud-rings 
 prevail over the calm zones of the equator, and 
 over those of the tropics of Cancer and Capri 
 corn. Kaemtz regards the usual height of cir 
 rus to be 10,000 to 24,000 feet ; cumulus, 3000 
 to 10,000; nimbus, 1500 to 5000; but cirrus 
 may descend to 2000 or 3000 feet, and nimbus 
 to within a few hundred feet of the earth. 
 
 Clouds moderate the sun s rays during the day 
 and the earth s radiation at night; they are the 
 source of moisture required by plants ; of the 
 water for springs, lakes, and rivers ; and of the 
 polar, glacial, and winter snows. 
 
 The scale adopted for indicating the amount 
 of cloud is to 10, denoting a clear sky, 5, a 
 sky half covered, and 10, the sky overcast or 
 wholly obscured. 
 
 In 1802, Howard proposed the following classi 
 fication of clouds, which has been universally 
 adopted : cirrus, cumulus, stratus, cirro-cumu 
 lus, cirro-stratus, cumulo-stratus, and cumulo- 
 cirro-stratus, or nimbus. 
 
 Cirrus, or curl-cloud, consists of streaks, wisps, 
 and fibres. It is the highest and least dense of 
 clouds ; varies most in extent and shape ; retains 
 longest its outlines ; and is illuminated longest 
 after sunset and before sunrise. Cirrus seems to 
 arise from the mixing of parallel air-currents, or 
 
CLOUD 
 
 138 
 
 CLUBS 
 
 are the relics of dissolving clouds drawn out by 
 the wind. Cirrus being so high must consist of 
 minute snow-crystals, whose refractions and re 
 flections produce the halos, coronse, and mock 
 suns and moons almost restricted to this cloud, 
 and its derivatives, the cirro-cumulus and cirro- 
 stratus. 
 
 Cumulus, day-, or summer-cloud, consists of 
 dense, convex, hemispherical, or conical heaps 
 of cloud piled or stacked on each other. Cumulus 
 begins after sunrise as a few scattered specks in 
 the clear sky ; these specks increase and unite to 
 form clouds, which sometimes cover the whole 
 sky in the afternoon, and generally decrease and 
 vanish about sunset. The tops of these clouds 
 become cirrus in very dry air. 
 
 Stratus, fall-, or night-cloud, the lowest of 
 clouds, is a widely extended horizontal sheet of 
 varied thickness. It is common in summer and 
 autumn from sunset to sunrise, and is densest 
 about midnight. After sunrise it generally rises 
 from the ground, breaks up into cumulus, and 
 vanishes with the increasing heat; sometimes 
 it accumulates in layers and becomes nimbus. 
 Stratus does not wet objects which it touches, 
 and thus differs from a variety, cirro-stratus, Of 
 like external aspect. 
 
 Cirro-cumulus, or sonder-cloud, is composed 
 of well-defined, small, rounded patches, or 
 woolly irregular tufts at great heights. It often 
 has the appearance of flocks of sheep at rest 
 (" sheep in a meadow"), and is commonly known 
 as the " mackerel sky." It may vanish or pass 
 into cirrus or cirro-stratus. It often occurs in 
 warm dry weather. 
 
 Cirro-stratus, or vane-cloud, consists of long 
 thin layers with undulated edges. It often as 
 sumes a barred appearance, or resembles a shoal 
 of fish. The cloud partakes of the nature of the 
 cirrus and stratus. In distinguishing it, atten 
 tion must be paid not so much to the form as to 
 the structure, which is dense in the middle and 
 thin towards the edges. 
 
 Cumulo-stratus, or t wain-cloud, is a cirro- 
 stratus mixed with cumulus heaps, or a wide, 
 flat base surmounted by a bulky cumulus with 
 fleecy protuberances. It is much denser than 
 cumulus, though the air is not dry enough to 
 round off sharply its tops. It often forms vast 
 banks with overhanging masses, and is common 
 towards night in windy weather, when it has a 
 leaden hue. It generally arises from cumulus, 
 and tends towards nimbus. 
 
 Nimbus, or cumulo-cirro-stratus, the rain- 
 cloud, is a mixed system of clouds, ending in 
 rain, snow, or hail. It is a dense, continuous, 
 horizontal block, or gray sheet, with fringed 
 edges, a cap of cirrus, and cumulus on the sides 
 and below. Before rain, vast towering masses of 
 cumulus often pass on to cumulo-stratus, which, 
 increasing in density, darkness, and extent, be 
 come nimbus capped with cirro-stratus. 
 
 In Admiral Fitzroy s system there are four 
 primary classes of clouds, viz. : cirrus, stratus, 
 nimbus, and cumulus. He combines these 
 words to describe the intermediate modifications, 
 and renders the terms more explanatory by the 
 use of the terminations onus and itus; as, cirro- 
 nus, cirritus, cirrono-stratus, cirrito-stratus, etc. 
 See WEATHER. 
 
 CLOUDS, MAGELLANIC. Two nebulae situated 
 near the south pole. 
 
 Clout. A blow. A gore of blood. A chaf- 
 ing-plate on the arm of the axle of a wooden 
 gun-carriage. 
 
 CLOUT-NAILS. Nails with which piles and 
 ships bottoms were studded before the introduc 
 tion of copper sheathing. 
 
 Clove-hitch. Two half hitches, in which the 
 end parts come out parallel with, and opposite 
 to, each other. 
 
 Clove-hook. See CLIP-HOOK. 
 
 Cloy. To spike (which see). 
 
 Club. To drift down a current with an anchor 
 out. Vessels drifting in this manner generally 
 have a spring from the quarter to the ring of the 
 anchor, by which they can be sprung broadside 
 to the current. The objection to this manoeuvre 
 is the probability of fouling the anchor. 
 
 To club a feet is to mano3uvre so as to place 
 the first division to windward. 
 
 Clubbock. The spotted blenny, or gunnel 
 ((jrunellus vulgar is). 
 
 Club-haul. In clawing off a lee shore when 
 there is no room to wear, and therefore an abso 
 lute necessity for going about without running 
 the risk of missing stays, the ship is club-hauled. 
 The lee anchor is got ready for letting go, and a 
 hawser is bent to it and taken to the lee quarter. 
 Proceed as in tacking ; if she goes around, so 
 much the better. If, however, it is evident that 
 she will not go round, let go the anchor when 
 the headway ceases, and brace around the after- 
 yards. When she swings to the anchor the wind 
 will be ahead or perhaps a little on what was the 
 lee bow. Haul in the hawser and make it fast ; 
 veer chain, and when the hawser has the strain, 
 slip the cable; when the after-sails fill, brace 
 around the head-yards and cut the hawser. This 
 manoeuvre is attempted only when absolutely 
 necessary, as it results in the loss of an anchor, 
 and a part of a cable and hawser. 
 
 Clubs, British Service. At every important 
 naval and military station of the British empire 
 are to be found service clubs, whose members 
 are officers on duty at those places, but the lead 
 ing British service clubs are in London, and we 
 give them according to their date of formation. 
 
 The Guards Club, 70 Pall-Mali, was founded 
 in 1813 for the officers of the three regiments of 
 Guards. January 1, 1880, it contained 357 mem 
 bers. The entrance fee 1s 30 guineas, and the 
 yearly subscription 10 guineas. 
 
 The United Service Club, 116 Pali-Mall, was 
 founded in 1815 for senior officers of the army, 
 navy, and marine corps ; the limit is major in the 
 army and marines and commander in the navy. 
 January 1, 1880, it contained 1550 members. 
 The entrance fee is 40, and the yearly subscrip 
 tion 7 guineas. 
 
 The Junior United Service Club, Charles 
 Street, St. James Square, was founded in 1827 
 for officers of all grades in the army, navy, ma 
 rines, and militia. January 1, 1880, it contained 
 2000 members. The entrance fee is 40, and the 
 yearly subscription 7 guineas. 
 
 The Army and Navy Club, 36 Pall-Mall, was 
 founded in 1838 for officers of the armj-, navy, 
 and marines of all grades. January 1, 1880, it 
 contained 2342 members. The entrance fee is 40 
 guineas, and the yearly subscription 10 guineas. 
 
 In 1838, Sir Edward" Barnes and other officers, 
 just arrived from India, finding that from the 
 lists of candidates for the United Service and 
 
CLUBS 
 
 139 
 
 COAL 
 
 Junior United Service Clubs it would be sev 
 eral years before they could obtain admission, 
 concluded to start an Army Club, and asked the 
 Duke of Wellington to be the president. He 
 declined unless the navy and marines were ad 
 mitted. That being agreed to it was founded. 
 The Duke of Wellington was the first president. 
 He was succeeded by the Duke of Cambridge. 
 At the death of the latter the present Duke of 
 Cambridge was elected, and is still the president. 
 The club occupied temporary quarters in King 
 Street, St. James Square, until the present build 
 ing was completed, in 1854. 
 
 The Naval and Military Club, 94 Piccadilly, 
 was founded in 18C2 for officers of the army, 
 navy, and marines of all grades. January 1, 
 1880, it contained 2000 members. The entrance 
 fee is 35 guineas, and the yearly subscription 8 
 guineas. 
 
 The Junior Army and Navy Club, 12 Grafton 
 Street, was founded in 1871 for officers of all 
 grades of the army, navy, and marines. Jan 
 uary 1, 1880, it contained 800 members. The 
 entrance fee is 10 guineas, and the yearly sub 
 scription 7 guineas. 
 
 The Koyal Artillery and Engineers Club, 3 
 Pali-Mall East, was founded in 1873 for officers 
 of the artillery and engineers. January 1, 1880, 
 it contained 400 members. There is no entrance 
 fee, and the yearly subscription is 3 guineas. 
 
 The Junior Naval and Military Club was re- 
 founded in 1879 at 27 Dover Street, Piccadilly, 
 for officers of all grades of the army, navy, ma 
 rines, and militia. It was established first, in 1875, 
 as a proprietary club on Pall-Mall , but the fail 
 ure of the proprietor in 1879, and other causes, 
 the principal one of which was to eliminate ob 
 jectionable members, caused it to be re-estab 
 lished at the present address. January 1, 1880, 
 it numbered over 500 members, and no limit was 
 fixed. The entrance fee was nil, and the yearly 
 subscription 8 guineas. 
 
 The East India United Service Club, 14 St. 
 James Square, was founded in 1847 for officers 
 of all grades in the East India service, both 
 military and naval. January 1, 1880, it con 
 tained 1200 members. The entrance fee is 30 
 guineas, and the yearly subscription 8 guineas. 
 
 The United Service, Junior United Service, 
 and Army and Navy Clubs occupy perfect pal 
 aces, which were built especially for them. The 
 Naval and Military occupy the house of the late 
 Lord Palmerston, and their proximity to Hyde 
 Park and outlook on Green Park gives them 
 the finest location in London. They have been 
 recently doing up their club-house, which com 
 pares well with the first three mentioned. They 
 have a long lease on the club-house, whereas the 
 other three mentioned own the buildings, and 
 two of them the ground. 
 
 The Guards own their club-house, the others 
 lease the buildings. The appointments of all 
 the service clubs in London are first-class. The 
 cuisine is the best, the servants who wear the 
 club liveries are attentive, polite, and well trained. 
 Every comfort of a home is to be found in them, 
 and some who live in London merely take lodg 
 ings near their clubs, where they spend unoccu 
 pied time. The rules and regulations of the ser 
 vice clubs are strict and enforced, yet so framed 
 as to be a protection to the individuality of each 
 member. Socially, they rank at the head of the 
 
 ninety-odd London clubs, and expulsion from 
 them, as well as other London clubs, means a 
 social disgrace. The number of candidates for 
 admission is always large, and generally five to 
 seven years elapse between proposal and election. 
 In the Army and Navy Club, which always has 
 a large list, as long as twelve years occasionally 
 happens ; their average is about eight to ten 
 years. 
 
 Military and naval attaches of foreign govern 
 ments, and also the diplomatic corps, are honor 
 ary members, while in Great Britain foreign 
 officers can also be elected as such for three 
 months and extension by the club committee, 
 provided they are regularly proposed and sec 
 onded. The oldest club in London is White s, 
 founded in 1730. The diplomatic club is the 
 St. James , 106 Piccadilly. The leading social 
 club is the Marlborough, on Pail-Mall. Officers 
 of the army and navy are eligible to election at 
 nearly all the London clubs. Gambling is strictly 
 prohibited at all the London service clubs ; for 
 any games the limits of the wager are fixed at a 
 small amount. The experiments of a ladies and 
 gentlemen s club are tried successfully at the 
 Albemarle, 25 Albemarle Street, and the Kussell, 
 316 Regent Street. 
 
 There are no exclusively service clubs in 
 France. French officers in garrison towns gen 
 erally make one of the cafes a resort similar to a 
 club. There is a navy club at Cronstadt, in 
 Russia, and the Guard s Club at St. Petersburg. 
 H. T. Stockton, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Clue. See CLEW. 
 
 Clump-block. A short, thick, single block 
 with a metal sheave. 
 
 Clutch. A forked stanchion. The oyster- 
 spawn adhering to stones, oyster-shells, etc. 
 
 Cluttery Weather. Weather inclined to be 
 stormy. 
 
 Co. An abbreviation of complement; as, co- 
 latitude, co-sine, etc. 
 
 CO-ALTITUDE. The complement of the alti 
 tude, or the zenith distance. 
 
 CO-DECLINATION. The complement of the 
 declination, or the polar distance. 
 
 Coach, or Couch (06s.). An apartment in 
 & large ship-of-war near the stern was formerly 
 called a " coach." The floor of it was formed by 
 the aftermost part of the quarter-deck, and the 
 roof of it by the poop. It was generally the 
 habitation of the captain. 
 
 An apartment before the captain s cabin. 
 
 Coach-horses. The picked men who man 
 the barge. 
 
 Coach- whip. The narrow pennant. 
 
 Coak. To place pieces of hard wood, either 
 circular or square, in the edges or surfaces of any 
 pieces that are to be united, to prevent their 
 working or sliding over each other. A small 
 piece of hard wood or dowel used in coaking. 
 
 Coal. A word formerly applied to any sub 
 stance which was used as fuel. Thus, Sir John 
 Pettus in his "Fodinaj Regales," published in 
 1660, mentions two kinds of "coale": black, 
 such as is burnt or "charkt"; and white, which 
 is only baked in an oven to make it dry for 
 "fewele." The two substances here mentioned 
 are evidently charcoal and white or uncharred 1 
 wood, so that with this author "coale" means 
 wood fuel. Mineral fuel, however, has now so 
 long and justly ranked first among fuels that 
 
COAL 
 
 140 
 
 COAL 
 
 the word coal has come to be applied to that 
 substance alone. 
 
 Coal is found in beds or strata in that group 
 of the secondary rocks which includes the red 
 sandstone and mountain limestone formations, 
 and which is commonly called the Carboniferous 
 group, or coal-measures. From the peculiarities 
 of their deposition they are often spoken of 
 under the names of coal-basins and coal-fields. 
 The vegetable origin of coal is evidenced both by 
 its chemical composition, the elements of which, 
 viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and a small 
 proportion of nitrogen, are precisely analogous 
 to those of all vegetable organic compounds, and 
 by the fact that vegetable tissue is obvious either 
 to the unaided eye or under the microscope in 
 nearly every species of coal formation. There 
 has been considerable difference of opinion as to 
 the mode of deposition of the coal strata, some 
 holding that they have been deposited by the 
 action of water in bringing down drift-wood, 
 others adopting the theory proposed by Dr. 
 Mohr, that they are of marine origin and have 
 been formed by the carbonization of sea-weeds, 
 such as the great kelp plant of the Pacific, while 
 the still more generally received opinion is that 
 they are the result of the transformation of plants 
 on the site of their growth. This latter theory 
 seems to be verified by the fact that all coal 
 strata rest on old soils, and practically consist of 
 nothing but vegetable matter. The abundance 
 of roots shows that the soils supported a luxuriant 
 growth of plants, and these, as they died and fell 
 to the ground, would supply exactly the material 
 for the production of coal. Prominent among 
 the vegetable fossils contained in the " under- 
 day," or "seat-stones," on which the coal 
 seams rest, are certain long, cylindrical branch 
 ing bodies called Stigmaria. These lie horizon 
 tally in the underclay, and their filaments run out 
 in all directions, till the clay is often one thickly 
 matted mass of them. They were long generally 
 accepted as being the roots of a plant called Sigil 
 laria, often found fossil in the coal-measures, 
 though Stigmaria had never been found actually 
 attached to Sigillaria. It was reserved for Mr. 
 Binney to supply this missing link in the evi 
 dence. He discovered in a railway cutting a 
 number of trunks of Sigillaria standing erect as 
 they grew with roots still attached to them. The 
 roots were Stigmaria, and the rock into which 
 they struck down, which was of course the soil 
 on which the trees grew, was the seat-stone of a 
 thin seam of coal. This discovery seemed to 
 render complete the proof that the herbs and 
 trees of which coal is formed grew on the areas 
 where the coal now occurs. One variety of coal 
 cannel forms probably an exception to the 
 general rule here stated. The presence of fossil 
 fish in cannel-coals shows that they must have 
 been formed under water, and they probably 
 consist of vegetable matter which was drifted 
 down into ponds or lakes. They always occur in 
 dish-shaped patches, thinning away to nothing 
 on all sides. 
 
 Vegetable matter undergoing decomposition, 
 freely exposed to the action of the air and rain, 
 passes into a dark-brown, moldy substance 
 known to chemists under the name of Humus or 
 Ulmin ; but the process of decomposition does 
 not stop with the formation of humus ; the 
 transformation, which mainly consists in the 
 
 gradual elimination of the oxygen and the con 
 centration of the carbon, still proceeds, and re 
 sults in the composition of the organic substance 
 of peat, which is largely made up of altered 
 humus, generally, although not altogether, de 
 rived from the decomposition of the vegetable 
 matter of mosses. Peat varies in external charac 
 ter and chemical composition with its age and po 
 sition in the beds in which it is found. The upper 
 layer is light in color and soft and spongy in 
 texture, and its vegetable origin is obvious even 
 on the most superficial inspection. Deeper down 
 in the bog the layers become darker and are more 
 strongly pressed together, the vegetable struc 
 ture becomes less and less apparent, until near 
 the bottom of a deep bog the peat is almost 
 black, has a density nearly equal to that of coal, 
 and requires rather careful scrutiny to detect any 
 organized structure. The chemical composition 
 of the moss alters with this change in outward 
 character ; the relative proportion of the oxygen 
 steadily diminishes, whilst that of the carbon as 
 steadily increases. The altered vegetable mat 
 ter now passes into a form analogous to that met 
 with in Lignite, a dark-brown, somewhat fri 
 able substance, of a compact, woody texture. 
 As this woody texture disappears the substance 
 passes into brown coal, which contains a still 
 larger percentage of carbon and a smaller per 
 centage of oxygen than the true lignites. From 
 the brown coal we pass by insensible gradations 
 to the black coal, or coal proper. The change 
 is attended by an absolute loss of ligneous struc 
 ture, by an increased density, and a tolerably 
 well developed cubical fracture. When finely 
 powdered most black coals show more or less of 
 a brown color in proportion corresponding to the 
 amount of oxygen which they contain. The 
 softer varieties of these black coals are usually 
 classed as bituminous coals, a term which is 
 founded on a misapprehension, for there is no 
 thing, strictly speaking, of the nature of bitumen 
 in them. Some coals when thrown on the fire 
 seem to fuse and swell up ; these are technically 
 known as caking coals, in contradistinction to the 
 dry, or free-burning coals, which retain their 
 shape, but tend to split into columnar fragments. 
 The cause of this difference is not clearly made 
 out. It is certainly not dependent on ultimate 
 composition, for two varieties of coal occurring 
 in the same bed may have the same proportions 
 of elementary constituents and yet behave very 
 differently on heating. Many coals lose their 
 power of caking by long exposure to the air ; but, 
 on the other hand, the slack of non-caking coal 
 may often be made to fuse together into a com 
 pact mass if heated suddenly. 
 
 The blacker and harder varieties of coal grad 
 ually merge into the kind known as stone coal, 
 or anthracite. Anthracite has a brilliant lustre ; 
 is denser, harder, and more brittle than ordinary 
 bituminous coal, and has a conchoidal fracture. 
 It ignites with difficulty, and gives out little 
 flame on burning, owing to the non-formation 
 of volatile hydrocarbons. The manner in which 
 anthracite has been formed has given rise to 
 much discussion. The general opinion is that 
 it is simply bituminous coal modified or altered 
 by heat. The evidence on this point is, however, 
 far from being conclusive. Many coals tend to 
 become anthracitic by simple exposure to air at 
 ordinary temperatures. It has also been observed 
 
COAL 
 
 141 
 
 COAL 
 
 that coal in the vicinity of open faults, or imme 
 diately below a sandstone roof, alters in texture, 
 loses its cubical fracture, and is more highly car 
 bonaceous than the ordinary bituminous varie 
 ties. Hence it must not be supposed that anthra 
 cite is necessarily the oldest because it is the most 
 altered form of coal. There are coal-basins in 
 which the coal is of the same age throughout, 
 while in one part it is of the ordinary bitumi 
 nous kind and in another part anthracite. 
 
 The essential conditions for the formation of 
 the coal strata would seem to have been : 
 
 1. A luxuriant vegetable growth on the site 
 of deposition. 
 
 2. A gradual subsidence of the area covered 
 with the vegetable deposit beneath a shallow sea, 
 during which beds of sediment sand or clay 
 were deposited on top of it. 
 
 3. A re-elevation of the submerged area, and 
 a repetition of the processes of growth, deposition, 
 subsidence, sedimentary deposits, and emergence. 
 
 We have no means of knowing, even approx 
 imately, what amount of woody fibre would be 
 required to make coal. Mohr has calculated that 
 the transformation is attended with a loss of 75 
 per cent, in weight, and that when regard is had 
 to the density of the two substances, the volume 
 of the coal is only about one-twelfth of the woody 
 matter from which it has been derived, but the 
 data for such computations are not very trust 
 worthy. 
 
 Attempts have been made by Cagniard de la 
 Tour, Kiviere, Daubree, and others to imitate by 
 heat the mode in which coal has been produced 
 from wood. According to Baroulier, vegetable 
 matter, such as sawdust, twigs, stalks, and 
 leaves, imbedded in moist clay and heated from 
 200 to 300 C. for some time, yields a carbonized 
 mass very similar to some varieties of coal. 
 
 Let us now briefly glance at coal as a source 
 of power.- The foot-pound, by which is meant 
 the amount of work necessary to raise a pound in 
 weight through a foot of space, may be taken as 
 a convenient unit by which to measure the 
 energy of heat in the production of power. The 
 brilliant researches of Joule, Weber, and others 
 inform us that (in round numbers) 772 foot 
 pounds of work are necessary to produce a unit 
 of heat, and conversely, that a unit of heat, if 
 entirely used up in the production of mechanical 
 work, will perform 772 foot-pounds. From vari 
 ous experiments made on the calorific power of 
 coal, it has been deduced that a pound of good 
 coal in the state in which it is ordinarily used 
 gives out during combustion about 14,000 units 
 of heat. By multiplying the number of units 
 of heat produced by the combustion of a pound 
 of coal by 772 we obtain the number of foot 
 pounds of work to which the heat is equivalent. 
 By this rule the average mechanical value of a 
 pound of coal is 14,000 X 772 = 10,808,000 foot 
 pounds, in round numbers 10,000,000 foot 
 pounds. The following table gives the number 
 of foot-pounds of work which can be done under 
 favorable conditions by a man and a horse, to 
 gether with the number of pounds of coal the 
 combustion of which would produce the same 
 amount of work. The result is that a man and 
 a horse, under the most favorable circumstances 
 referred to in the table, could only do in a day 
 as much work as is locked up in two-tenths and 
 twelve-tenths of a pound of coal respectively. 
 
 Kind of Work. 
 
 Agent, Man. 
 
 Raising his own weight up stair or 
 ladder 
 
 Carrying weights up-stairs and re 
 turning unloaded 
 
 Pushing or pulling horizontally 
 
 Working pump 
 
 Agent, Horse. 
 
 Drawing cart or boat (walking) 
 
 Drawing light railway truck (can 
 tering and trotting) 
 
 of 
 
 Foot-pounds 
 of work 
 per day. 
 
 Number 
 
 pounds 
 coal the heat 
 
 of combus 
 tion of which 
 is equivalent 
 to work. 
 
 2,088,000 
 
 399,600 
 1,626,400 
 1,188,000 
 
 12,441,600 
 6,444,000 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.04 
 0.15 
 0.12 
 
 1.24 
 0.64 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that only a 
 small proportion of the total heat supplied by the 
 combustion of the coal is employed in the pro 
 duction of useful work. The loss of the re 
 mainder is due to several causes, which, although 
 theoretically preventable, will probably never be 
 completely done away with. Some of them, 
 such as imperfect combustion, conduction, and 
 radiation, may, by careful firing and improved 
 construction of furnaces, be rendered very small, 
 but as things are the net result is that only from 
 50 to 70 per cent, of heat is transmitted to the 
 water and steam, and that of this a small frac 
 tion, amounting in the best engines to only 
 about 11 per cent., is converted into work. The 
 enormous loss of power which thus occurs in the 
 steam-engine has from time to time prompted 
 efforts to devise other forms of machines, which, 
 while equally serviceable for practical purposes, 
 shall more efficiently utilize the heat of the fuel 
 employed. The electric-engine, the air-engine, 
 and the gas-engine are among the results of the 
 efforts thus inspired. Coal is the source of 
 power in them all, though the machinery for 
 transforming its energy into useful work is 
 widely different. In the steam- and air engines 
 it is employed directly ; from it the gas required 
 for the gas-engine is extracted, and by it the 
 zinc or other metals used in the galvanic cell are 
 smelted. The subjoined table gives, in the sec 
 ond column, the percentage of heat which the 
 various machines named transform into work 
 under favorable conditions, and in the third, the 
 relative cost of the fuel capable of producing 
 equal quantities of work in each. 
 
 Electric-engine. 
 
 Air-engine 
 
 Steam-engine ... 
 Gas-engine 
 
 Percentage 
 of heat 
 utilized. 
 
 Relative cost 
 of fuel for 
 equal quan 
 tities of 
 work. 
 
 55.00 
 0.84 
 1.00 
 6.00 
 
 The electric-engine and the gas-engine are 
 convenient, both because they can be set in mo 
 tion without delay and because the expenses con 
 nected with them are incurred only when they 
 are actually working. They are compact in 
 form, and are well suited for operations in which 
 
COAL 
 
 142 
 
 COAL 
 
 a small amount of power at irregular intervals 
 only is needed. The cost of the fuel is, how 
 ever, in both cases too great to admit of their 
 employment on a large scale. The air-engine, 
 on the other hand, though making a better use 
 than the steam-engine of the fuel with which it 
 is supplied, is discarded on account of its bulk, 
 and because the hot air oxidizes, and so destroys 
 the metallic surfaces with which it is in contact. 
 In respect of their steam-producing qualities, 
 the different varieties of coal possess merits and 
 defects the importance of which can be esti 
 mated only by eference to the special purpose 
 in view. Recent experiments carefully made 
 by a board of chief engineers of the navy with 
 anthracite and certain typical varieties of bitu 
 minous and semi-bituminous coals, afford the fol 
 lowing data for a comparison of the vaporiza 
 tion efficiencies of the kinds of coal named : 
 
 than any other coal, and more men are required 
 to produce a given weight of steam in a given 
 time with it than are required with any of the 
 coals likely to be placed in competition with it. 
 But its supreme defect is its excessive slowness 
 of combustion, in which respect it is inferior to 
 any other coal, requiring a correspondingly 
 larger boiler to produce a given weight of steam 
 in a given time. For a naval steamer, where 
 space is the most difficult thing to obtain, this 
 defect is most serious, requiring a longer vessel 
 to hold the greater quantity of boiler for a given 
 speed ; or, if this additional length be not given, 
 then obtaining the speed at the expense of other 
 valuable qualities of the vessel. 
 
 The semi-bituminous coals of Maryland and 
 Southern Pennsylvania, which are the analogues 
 of the steam-coals of Southern Wales, have 
 merits and defects less strongly marked than the 
 
 
 
 Rate of combus 
 
 Pounds of water vaporized 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 tion per hour 
 
 from the temperature of 
 
 
 
 
 
 per square foot 
 
 212 degrees Fahrenheit, 
 
 IB 
 
 Weight of the coals. 
 
 
 
 of grate -sur 
 
 and under the standard 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 face. 
 
 atmospheric pressure. 
 
 I 
 
 
 Kind of Coal. 
 
 Rate of Com 
 bustion. 
 
 nds of the crude 
 al. 
 
 Ijl 
 
 3 
 
 T3 
 
 a 
 
 Els 
 
 5-2 
 of . 
 
 ill 
 
 III 
 
 cubic foot of the 
 ude coal. 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 .p 
 
 9 2 
 
 centum of the 
 >al in refuse of 
 h, clinker, and 
 ot. 
 
 !{ 
 
 ic feet of space 
 quired to stow 
 ic ton of coal. 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 l* 
 
 feS 
 
 I s * 
 
 o 
 p. 
 
 z 
 
 fe ce m 
 
 ** 
 
 |* s 
 
 
 Slow 
 
 79896 
 
 74809 
 
 109595 
 
 11 7047 
 
 534 2756 
 
 26 7 6 86 
 
 63670 
 
 4875 
 
 45 9487 
 
 
 
 13.0334 l 12.2036 10.2023 
 
 10.8960 
 
 497.3621 
 
 3989 14 
 
 6.3670 
 
 4875 
 
 45.9487 
 
 
 Maximum 14.3664 13.4517 10.1386 
 
 10.8280 
 
 494.2567 
 
 4369.67 
 
 6.3670 
 
 48.75 
 
 45.9487 
 
 !j Slow 78199 
 
 6858 103361 1 1 7SA8 
 
 558.1494 
 
 2424 93 
 
 12 3005 
 
 5400 
 
 41 4815 
 
 Medium 11.6340 
 
 10.203 | 99357 
 
 11.3292 
 
 536.5278 
 
 3467.69 
 
 123005 
 
 54.00 
 
 41.4815 
 
 Maximum 139875 
 
 12.267 I 9.6912 
 
 11.0505 
 
 523 3248 
 
 4066.80 
 
 12.3005 
 
 54.00 
 
 41.4815 
 
 Slow 
 
 7.7905 
 
 6.611 
 
 9.9923] 11.7751 
 
 559.5688 
 
 2335.36 
 
 15.1402 
 
 56.00 
 
 40.0000 
 
 i Mcilimti 
 
 10 5798 
 
 8978 
 
 9.9923 11.7751 
 
 659 5688 
 
 3171.50 
 
 15.1402 
 
 56.00 
 
 400000 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 12.9531 
 
 10.992 
 
 9.9923 11.7751 
 
 I 
 
 559.5688 
 
 3882.96 
 
 15.1402 I 56.00 
 
 40.0000 
 
 The merits of the anthracite as a steam-pro 
 ducer on board of vessels are very considerable. 
 It gives a high economic vaporization, which is 
 less affected by forcing the rate of combustion 
 than in the case of other coals. It has a greater 
 density than other coals, whereby a greater 
 weight can be stowed in the same space ; this is 
 a very important merit for all vessels, and in an 
 especial degree for naval vessels, where the space 
 allowed for coal is necessarily more restricted, 
 and where the need of carrying a long supply is 
 greater than in merchant vessels. It possesses 
 such strong cohesion that it is always furnished 
 in lumps, and it suffers scarcely any waste by 
 transportation or handling; but the same quality 
 entails more labor in breaking it on the fire-room 
 floor to suitable lumps for firing. 
 
 Anthracite is scarcely affected by weather or 
 water, it emits no smoke, deposits but little soot, 
 and is in no danger of spontaneous combustion, 
 all very important merits for steamers, and 
 particularly for naval steamers. The absence of 
 smoke is of the highest value to naval steamers 
 in time of war, the presence of smoke betraying 
 their position at long distances. 
 
 A great defect of anthracite is its large per 
 centum of refuse, a considerable part of which 
 is strongly adherent clinker, entailing great 
 labor on the firemen. In this respect it is worse 
 
 anthracite. Their economic vaporization is sen 
 sibly the same as that of anthracite, but their 
 density is less, causing a greater space to be re 
 quired for the stowage of a ton. They are more 
 injured by weather and water, and occasionally 
 suffer spontaneous combustion, but very favor 
 able conditions are necessary to produce it. Be 
 ing very friable, they make a great deal of dust, 
 and the loss in handling from this cause is greater 
 than with anthracite. They emit a moderate 
 quantity of light-brown smoke, and deposit a 
 moderate amount of soot on the heating surfaces 
 of the boiler. They give a less per centum of 
 refuse than anthracite, and of that refuse a less 
 proportion is clinker. In firing a given weight 
 of coal the labor is much less with the semi- 
 bituminous than with the anthracite. As steam- 
 producers the semi-bituminous coals have a 
 marked superiority over the anthracite in their 
 much greater rate of combustion, a merit of the 
 highest value for all steamers, and in an especial 
 degree for naval steamers, allowing, with a given 
 quantity of boiler, a greater speed of vessel than 
 is possible with anthracite. In the case, how 
 ever, of a forced combustion by steam-jets or 
 blowers, the economic vaporization of the semi- 
 bituminous coal would be less than that of the 
 anthracite. 
 
 The bituminous coal gives off somewhat more 
 
COAL-FISH 
 
 143 
 
 COAST SURVEY 
 
 smoke than the semi-bituminous coal, and de 
 posits correspondingly more soot on the heating- 
 surfaces of the boiler. It has less density and 
 requires more space to stow a given weight, but 
 is about as friable, has about the same propor 
 tion of dust, and wastes about as much in hand 
 ling and in transportation. Its economic vapor 
 ization is higher than that of either the semi- 
 bituminous coal or of anthracite at all rates of 
 combustion, due to its less per centum of refuse, 
 for the economic vaporization of its gasifiable 
 portion is less than that of the gasifiable portion 
 of those coals. Its rate of combustion is higher 
 than that of the semi-bituminous coal, and con 
 siderably higher than that of anthracite. Its 
 per centum of refuse is greatly less, and a given 
 weight of it can be fired with much less labor 
 than in the case of either anthracite or semi- 
 bituminous coal. As regards smoke, soot, dust, 
 and spontaneous combustion, it is no more ob 
 jectionable than the best of other coals, exclusive 
 of anthracite, while it exceeds all in economic 
 vaporization, rate of combustion, and ease of 
 firing. Its great defect for use on shipboard is 
 its low density, nearly one-seventh more space 
 being required to stow equal weights than with 
 anthracite, and nearly one-ninth more than with 
 semi-bituminous coal. But if the comparison be 
 made for the bulks required to produce equal 
 quantities of steam, then the bituminous coal re 
 quires about one-eighth more space than anthra 
 cite and about one-tenth more space than semi- 
 bituminous coal. 
 
 COAL-HEAVER. One employed in handling 
 coal in loading and unloading, or in bringing it 
 to a furnace in such quantities and at such times 
 as may be required. In steamships the coal- 
 heaver must break the coal to a proper size, re 
 move all ashes and refuse, sweep boiler-flues or 
 tubes, and assist in handling the fires and clean 
 ing the machinery. Intelligent men acquire 
 the art of " fireman" or "stoker" in a short 
 time. On board vessels of war, at "general 
 quarters," such coal-heavers as are not actually 
 employed in serving the furnaces are attached to 
 the powder division ; and when the ship is under 
 sail, without steam, they are placed in the deck- 
 watches. 
 
 COAL-TAR. Tar extracted from bituminous 
 coal. 
 
 Coal-fish. The Oadus carbonarius. Called 
 gerrack in its first year, cuth or queth in its 
 second, sayth in its third, lythe in its fourth, and 
 colmie in its fifth, when it is full grown. 
 
 Coal-sacks. An early name of dark patches 
 of sky in the Milky Way, nearly void of stars 
 visible to the naked eye. The largest patch is 
 near the Southern Cross, and called the Black 
 Magellanic Cloud. 
 
 Coal-say. The coal-fish. 
 
 Coamings. The pieces that lie fore and aft 
 in the framing of the hatchways and scuttles. 
 The pieces that lie athwart ship, to form the ends, 
 are called head-ledges. 
 
 Coast. The sea-shore ; the sea-front of the 
 land. 
 
 COASTER. A small vessel engaged in coasting. 
 
 COASTING. Sailing along the coast, for which 
 is necessary a minute knowledge of the tides, 
 currents, prevailing winds, rocks, shoals, har 
 bors, landmarks, etc. The position of the ship 
 is determined by the lead and by bearings. 
 
 COASTING TRADE, The commerce between 
 two ports of the same realm or state. See COM- 
 
 ME.RCE. 
 
 COAST-PILOT. A pilot licensed to conduct 
 vessels from one part of the coast to another. 
 On going into port he is superseded by the local 
 pilot. 
 
 COAST-WARNING. A storm-signal on the 
 coast. 
 
 COASTWISE. By way of or along the coast. 
 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey. The scope of 
 the United States Coast arid Geodetic Survey em 
 braces, 1, & geodetic survey of the whole area of 
 the United States ; 2, a topographical survey of 
 the lands bordering the sea-coast and the rivers 
 to the head of ship navigation, " to be carried as 
 far inland as may be necessary for purposes either 
 of commerce or defense" (Plan of the Survey) ; 
 and, 3, the hydrography of the waters adjacent 
 to the coast, Lake Champlain, the bays, har 
 bors, and navigable rivers to the head of ship 
 navigation, and including the Gulf Stream, its 
 approaches, and extension. 
 
 GEODESY. The geodetic work comprises a 
 system of triangles, starting from a measured 
 base and spreading over large areas, controlled 
 in direction with reference to the meridian by 
 astronomical azimuths. Three orders of trian- 
 gulation are recognized on the work, viz., the 
 primary, with sides varying in length from 20 
 to 169 miles ; the secondary, with sides of from 
 5 to 40 miles ; and the tertiary, with sides of less 
 than 6 miles.* 
 
 The primary and part of the secondary series, 
 composed principal!} 7 of quadrilaterals, and veri 
 fied at intervals by the measurement of additional 
 bases, and by new determinations of the astro 
 nomical azimuth, latitude, and longitude, consti 
 tute the standard geodesy of the survey. From 
 this class of work, in connection with pendulum 
 observations for the determination of gravity, 
 the dimensions and figure of the earth are de 
 duced. Measurements of arcs of the meridian 
 and of the 39th parallel of latitude are now (1880) 
 in progress. Part of the secondary triangulation 
 is used to connect the primary with the tertiary. 
 The primary bases are measured with compen 
 sated bars or rods, designed by the late Prof. 
 A. D. Bache, by whom the imperfections in the 
 base apparatus previously in use were almost 
 entirely eliminated. An apparatus is about to 
 be constructed, upon the design of Assistant C. 
 A. Schott, on the principle of the Borda ther 
 mometer. It will consist of two rods protected 
 by wooden cases, very light and portable. Each 
 rod will be provided with two compensations, by 
 one of which the length is kept constant through 
 all changes of temperature, whether sudden or 
 gradual, "and by the other the rear end is kept in 
 place when the rod is set in its trestles. Like 
 those now in use, the new rod will be provided 
 with the level-sector for measuring inclinations. 
 The forward end of each rod will be provided 
 with an agate face, and the rear end with the 
 sliding -contact attachment, terminating in an 
 agate knife-edge, set horizontally. 
 
 The angular measurements are made with 
 theodolites of the most perfect character known 
 to the present state of science. In the astronom- 
 
 * Field Work of the Triangulation, by Gen. B. D. Cutte, As 
 sistant. 
 
COAST SURVEY 
 
 144 
 
 COAST SURVEY 
 
 ical work the transit instrument for time obser 
 vations and the zenith-telescope for latitudes are 
 used. The magnetic telegraph is used for meas 
 uring differences of longitude, measurements 
 being made from station to station around a cir 
 cuit, observers exchanging positions between sta 
 tions, and finally returning to the initial point 
 as a test of the accuracy of the work. Early ad 
 vantage was taken of the transatlantic cables 
 by the Superintendent of the coast survey to 
 connect the principal observatories of Europe 
 with those of the United States, assistants being 
 sent abroad for that purpose. 
 
 Geodetic-leveling. In order that all distances 
 may be reduced to the level of the sea, the heights 
 of primary points are measured by leveling in 
 struments of the most refined character, and by 
 methods which secure the utmost precision. 
 Owing to local needs, the geodetic work has been 
 begun independently in several parts of the 
 country; the junction of these partial systems 
 offers a crucial test of the accuracy of the work. 
 Only selected observers of long training and 
 great skill are employed on this portion of the 
 survey. Trigonometric surveys are being carried 
 on in several of the States by the Coast and Geo 
 detic Survey in connection with the geodetic 
 work ; under instructions from the Superinten 
 dent the work is executed by college professors 
 during their vacations, subject to the supervision 
 of the chief of the geodetic division. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. By the tertiary triangulation > 
 based upon the secondary, are located points for 
 the use of the topographers and hydrographers ; 
 being an essential part of the topography, it 
 covers practically the same ground as the latter, 
 as above described. Every triangulation point 
 is permanently marked, and a sketch and de 
 scription of the locality taken, with the bearings 
 and distances of witness-marks, placed for the 
 purpose if necessary, so that the point may be 
 recovered when needed. The latitude and lon 
 gitude of each triangulation point are computed, 
 and its distance and azimuth from at least two 
 other points. 
 
 Projections. In all the original or manuscript 
 maps and charts of the Coast and Geodetic Sur 
 vey, as well as in the published series, the poly- 
 conic projection is used for representing the sur 
 face of the earth upon a plane, this projection ex 
 hibiting areas with the minimum of distortion, 
 and showing distances in all parts of the sheet to 
 the same scale. The projection is drawn upon 
 the sheet before it is taken into the field. The 
 parallels and meridians are drawn usually for 
 each minute of latitude and longitude respect 
 ively. All triangulation points determined, fall 
 ing within its limits, are plotted upon the sheet. 
 The plane-table is the instrument used in the 
 topographical survey. By this instrument all 
 topographical features are represented upon the 
 sheet in their true position (i.e., in bearing and 
 distance), relative to the already established 
 points, and are drawn to scale. Cultivated fields, 
 woodlands, grass, salt- and fresh-water marshes, 
 hill and plain, sand- beaches, re^fs, and other 
 topographical features, whether natural or arti 
 ficial, are represented, each with its appropriate 
 conventional symbol. In order to avail himself 
 of the triangulation points the topographer erects 
 signals over them, unless, as often happens, they 
 are located upon some conspicuous object, which 
 
 itself answers for a signal. The scales of original 
 topographical sheets vary from 1-20,000 of nature, 
 the smallest scale, to 1-1200, the largest ; those 
 most frequently used are 1-20,000 and 1-10,000, 
 or, approximately, 3 T 6 7 inches to the geograph 
 ical mile, and 7^ inches. The topographer 
 locates the shore-line to low-water mark, and 
 fixes the position of all islands, reefs, and rocks 
 which are visible at low water. Elevations are 
 represented by drawing the contours of different 
 heights, usually for every 10 or every 20 feet 
 above the datum-plane. 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY. There are three classes of 
 hydrography, differing mainly as to their results 
 in the number of soundings in a given area : 
 they are, 1, harbor and river work ; 2, inshore- 
 soundings along the coast; and, 3, deep-sea sound 
 ings. The first two are intended, first, for the 
 development of fair-ways and anchorages, of 
 shoals, bars, reefs, and other obstructions to 
 navigation ; and, second, to show the changes 
 which from time to time take place. The har 
 bor and river work is close enough for ordinary 
 constructive works, though special surveys are 
 usually made for that purpose. The area to be 
 surveyed having been determined by the Super 
 intendent, a projection covering the same is fur 
 nished to the hydrographer ; all triangulation 
 points which fall within its limits are plotted on 
 the sheet, together with the shore-line, and any 
 topographical objects or features, natural or 
 artificial, which may assist him in his work. 
 Copies of the sketches and descriptions of triangu 
 lation points above referred to are furnished him 
 to enable him to find them the more readily. 
 Having selected and recovered such points as he 
 needs, he erects u hydrographic signals" over 
 them (fixing new points for himself if needed), 
 establishes his tide-gauge, and is then ready to 
 begin his soundings. It is usual to run the 
 soundings in parallel lines, with a second system 
 of lines crossing the first at right angles ; the 
 number of lines and of soundings upon each line 
 depend upon local conditions and needs. The 
 time, depth, and character of the bottom are 
 noted at each sounding. The position of the 
 vessel or boat is fixed from time to time, either 
 by simultaneous cuts from two theodolite sta 
 tions on shore, or by measuring from the boat 
 with a sextant, the angle between a selected cen 
 tral signal and one on either side of it respec 
 tively, or, as it is usually known, by the " three- 
 point problem." In the deep-sea work the posi 
 tions are determined astronomically. Other 
 systems of lines in addition to the above are used 
 for special purposes, such as the development 
 of bars, shoals, intricate channels, etc. The 
 soundings before being plotted are (in the har 
 bor and inshore work) reduced to the plane of 
 mean low water, or, on the Pacific coast, to that 
 of lower-low waters. The curves of equal depths 
 are drawn to correspond with the contours of 
 equal elevation on shore. The work of the hy 
 drographer extends to high-water mark, thus 
 lapping that of the topographer. Tidal observa 
 tions are carried on to give data for the reduc 
 tion of soundings, for the computation of the 
 tidal establishment, and for computing tide-tables 
 in advance ; in the last are predicted the times 
 and heights (above or below the usual plane of 
 reference) of the high and low waters at the 
 stated parts for every day in the year. In many 
 
COAST SURVEY 
 
 145 
 
 COAST-GUARD 
 
 localities continuous tidal observations, covering 
 a complete lunar cycle, nineteen years, have 
 been made, or are in progress. 
 
 DEEP-SEA HYDROGRAPHY. Under this head 
 are being investigated the depths, currents, sur 
 face and sub-surface, the temperatures and den 
 sities of the sea-water from surface to bottom. 
 Specimens of the water and of the bottom are 
 being obtained for examination and analysis, 
 and deep-sea dredgings of the most successful 
 character are being carried on. For all sound 
 ings of over 100 fathoms wire is used, with the 
 very perfect apparatus designed by Lieutenant- 
 Commander C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N., Assistant 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey. Much of the deep- 
 sea work is designed for the study of the origin, 
 extent, phenomena, and influences of the Gulf 
 Stream. 
 
 Physical Hydrography. Under this head are 
 investigated, either by special observations or by 
 those taken in connection with other work, the 
 tidal circulation and movements, the flow of 
 rivers, the action of the waves, and the effect of 
 each and of all combined in producing changes 
 in harbors and upon the coasts ; the effects, in 
 conjunction with these, of artificial works, 
 whether protective, such as breakwaters and 
 jetties ; for improvements, such as the deepen 
 ing of channels and fair-ways ; or economical, 
 such as wharves, etc. ; or for the reclaiming of 
 overflowed lands, and, by analogy, the probable 
 effects of any such works when in contemplation. 
 
 COAST-PILOT. The work of this division con 
 sists in preparing descriptions and views of the 
 coasts, particularly the approaches to ports, har 
 bors of refuge, etc., the description of the dangers 
 to navigation, of the established artificial aids to 
 navigation, and of sailing directions for navi 
 gating the coast, and for entering and leaving 
 the ports and harbors. 
 
 MAGNETIC WORK. Observations are in con 
 tinuous progress, at fixed magnetic observatories, 
 and by parties moving from place to place on 
 land and at ^ sea, for declination and the other 
 magnetic elements. The results are used for the 
 preparation and correction of the isogonic charts, 
 for keeping the variation of compass correctly 
 noted upon the marine charts, and for recording 
 the secular changes in the variation. It is hoped 
 that sufficient data will ultimately be obtained 
 to determine the law of the secular change, and 
 to make it possible to predict it for many years 
 in advance. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS. The work of each party in the 
 field is executed under written instructions issued 
 by the Superintendent. 
 
 OFFICE WORK. All original sheets and field- 
 notes are carefully preserved, and sent to the 
 office at Washington, where, under the imme 
 diate direction of the assistant-in-charge of office, 
 the computations and reductions are examined 
 and checked, or made independently by a corps 
 of trained computers. Plotting done in the field 
 is carefully inspected, and, if need be, replotted 
 from the original notes. Drawings for charts 
 are made by one set of draughtsmen reducing 
 -the work from the original sheets to the pub 
 lication scale, after which the reductions are 
 verified by other draughtsmen. The charts thus 
 prepared are engraved upon copper plates, from 
 which, after careful examination, electrotype 
 plates are made for the plate-printer, no print- 
 10 
 
 ing being done from the engraved plate. The 
 work passes through many hands and processes, 
 by which a constant check is kept upon its accu 
 racy, and at each stage it is examined, and must 
 be approved by the Superintendent. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS. The regular publications of 
 the Coast and Geodetic Survey consist of Marine 
 Charts, Magnetic Charts, the Coast-pilot, the 
 Superintendent s Annual Report of Progress, 
 the Tide-tables of the Atlantic and Pacific 
 Coasts, and the series entitled u Methods, Dis 
 cussions, and Results," in which last, as the 
 name implies, are described the plan of the sur 
 vey, the methods, instruments, and appliances 
 used, and the results expected and required. 
 The most of these are scientific papers of great 
 value. The occasional publications, usually con 
 tained in the appendix to the Annual Eeport, 
 are scientific papers, which do not fall under the 
 last-named head. The Charts are in four series, 
 viz. : 1, sailing charts, on a scale of 1-1,200,000 ; 
 
 2, general coast charts, on a scale of 1-400,000 ; 
 
 3, coast charts, on a scale of 1-80,000 ; and, 4, 
 harbor charts, on larger scales. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. The personnel of the Coast 
 and Geodetic Survey comprises a superintendent, 
 in general charge of the work, with a corps of 
 assistants, sub-assistants, aids, and recorders for 
 field service ; of computers, tidal computers, 
 draughtsmen, engravers, electricians, mechan 
 icians, and plate-printers for office work; a dis 
 bursing agent and accountant ; a secretary, and 
 copyists. By authority of law, officers and men 
 of the navy are employed upon the hydrographic 
 work of the survey. There have been thus far 
 four superintendents, viz., Ferdinand R. Hassler, 
 from the first organization of the work to 1843 ; 
 A. Dallas Bache, LL.D., from 1843 to 1867; 
 Benjamin Peirce, LL.D., from 1867 to 1874; 
 and Carlisle P. Patterson, C.E., LL.D., since 
 1874. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The superintend 
 ent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is also su 
 perintendent of the standard weights and meas 
 ures of the United States. Edward P. Lull, 
 Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Coast- Guard of Great Britain, The, originally 
 instituted as a means of revenue protection, has 
 taken, on account of the free-trade policy of 
 Great Britain, which exempts almost all articles 
 from duty except spirits and tobacco, the char 
 acter of a naval reserve and a life-saving and sig 
 nal service. It employs 4000 officers and men 
 ashore ; afloat, there are 9 large ships (iron 
 clads) and 40 small vessels, the latter used as 
 cruising and watch vessels, and varying from 
 100 to 500 tons each. The first named form the 
 squadron of the first reserve ; one is attached to 
 each coast-guard district, and is commanded by 
 the captain commanding the district; they are 
 all under reduced complements. 
 
 The whole coast is divided into 9 districts, 
 termed the Hull, Harwich, Newhaven, Wey- 
 mouth, Liverpool, Leith, Clyde, Limerick, and 
 Kingstown districts. The districts are sub 
 divided into 79 divisions, in charge of inspecting 
 officers, of whom, at present writing (May, 1880), 
 36 are commanders, 32 lieutenants, and the re 
 mainder subordinate coast-guard officers. The 
 divisions are again divided into 225 stations, each 
 in charge of a chief officer, who is about equal in 
 rank to a warrant-officer. The whole is under 
 
COAT 
 
 146 
 
 COD 
 
 the command of an admiral superintendent, 
 whose principal office is in London. 
 
 At each station are erected neat groups of cot 
 tages for the men, in which they may live with 
 their families. The coast lying between the sta 
 tions is patrolled at all times, and means of sig 
 naling from point to point are at hand. During 
 the summer months all the force that can be 
 spared is embarked in the 9 co,ast-guard ships, 
 which then cruise in squadron for 6 weeks, gen 
 erally as part of the Channel squadron. The 
 men are thus kept in a high state of efficiency as 
 regards drill and seamanship. 
 
 The qualifications for entry into the coast 
 guard are as follows : "Every seaman in the navy 
 of good character, who has completed 8 years 
 continuous service, whose age does not exceed 
 37, who is either a trained man or a seaman 
 gunner, and who wears at least one good con 
 duct badge, is, upon the recommendation of his 
 captain, eligible. There is no restriction as to 
 the number of candidates to be recommended 
 from any particular ship. 
 
 All men are discharged from the coast-guard 
 at 50, whether fit for service or not, excepting 
 chief boatmen in charge, who are discharged at 
 55. On leaving they are under the same rules as 
 regards pensions as the other men of the navy. 
 
 Men. who enter the coast-guard must renew 
 their continuous-service engagements while 
 serving in that force ; they may also be dis 
 charged into a sea-going ship for misconduct, or 
 at their own request. 
 
 This unequaled body of men forms England s 
 most efficient and valuable reserve in time of 
 war, there being enough men employed to fur 
 nish the men of the seamen class for a squadron 
 of 15 large ships. 
 
 The estimates of 1880 for the men of the coast 
 guard are 50,781. The total charge of the 
 coast-guard service, including officers and men 
 of the ships and vessels employed, provisions, 
 stores, buildings, etc., including the above 
 50,781, is 454,414. F. E. Chadwick, Lieuten 
 ant-Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Coat. A piece of canvas fitted around the 
 partners of the masts to prevent the water from 
 getting below. A layer of paint, varnish, shel 
 lac, etc. 
 
 COAT-TACKS. The peculiar nails with which 
 mast-coats are fastened. 
 
 Coat of Mail. The chiton shell. 
 
 Cob. To punish by striking on the breech 
 with a strap or cobbing-board. A young her 
 ring. A sea-gull. A breakwater or" dock made 
 of piles and timber and filled in with rocks. 
 
 Cobb. A Gibraltar term for a Spanish dollar. 
 
 Cobbo. The small fish known as the miller s 
 thumb. 
 
 Coble, or Cobble. A low flat-floored boat 
 used in the cod- and turbot-fisheries ; the rudder 
 extends 4 or 5 feet under the bottom. There is 
 also a small boat of the same name used by sal 
 mon-fishers. 
 
 Coboose. See CABOOSE. 
 
 Cock. A device for regulating or stopping 
 the flow of fluids through small pipes. It con 
 sists principally of a conical "plug," accurately 
 fitted to a "shell" or "chamber," with its axis 
 at right angles to that of the pipe to which it is 
 attached, the plug being penetrated by a hole 
 equal in area to that of the pipe. When the 
 
 plug is turned on its axis the opening may be 
 increased or diminished at will, or closed alto 
 gether. The shell is provided with flanges or 
 screw-nipples for attaching it to the pipe, and 
 the plug with a handle. When a cock is used 
 for drawing liquids from a reservoir it is fre 
 quently called a "faucet" or "spigot." The 
 hammer of a gun-lock. To cock a piece is to 
 raise the hammer to its full extent. 
 
 Cockade. A knot of ribbons or rosette worn 
 on the hat as a badge. 
 
 Cock-a-hoop. Full of confidence and high 
 spirits. 
 
 Cockandy. A name for the puffin, otherwise 
 called Tom Noddy (Fratercula arctica). 
 
 Cock-bill. To cock-bill the anchor is to sus 
 pend it from the cat-head preparatory to letting 
 go. To cock-bill the yards is to top them up at an 
 angle with the deck, the symbol of mourning. 
 
 Cock-boat. A very small boat used on rivers 
 or near the shore. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir George, Admiral. Serving 
 the crown of Great Britain from his youth, this 
 officer as he advanced in rank manifested a 
 capacity for responsible command. During the 
 long war with revolutionary France and the 
 Empire he captured the island of Martinique. 
 At a later period, when peace had been made 
 with France and a war begun with the United 
 States, Cockburn was sent to America, and 
 numbered among his exploits the destruction 
 of some of the buildings in Washington and on 
 the shores of the Chesapeake and Potomac. Fi 
 nally he was intrusted with the duty of convey 
 ing Napoleon I. and his suite to their prison on 
 the island of St. Helena. 
 
 Cocked Hat. The full-dress head-covering of 
 naval officers. See UNIFORM. 
 
 Cocket (Eng.}. A cock-boat. A custom-house 
 seal. An instrument sealed and delivered by 
 officers of the customs as a warrant that mer 
 chandise is entered. An office in the custom 
 house where goods to be exported are entered. 
 
 Cocket-bread. Hard sea-biscuit, 
 
 Cockle. A common bivalve mollusk (Car- 
 dium edule), often used as food. 
 
 Cockling Sea. Tumbling waves dashing 
 against each other with a short and quick mo 
 tion. 
 
 Cock-paddle. A name of the paddle, or lump- 
 fish (Cyclopterus lumpus). 
 
 Cockpit. An apartment below the water- 
 line, in which the wounded are placed during 
 an engagement. The rooms are used as store 
 rooms and for quarters for such officers as can 
 not be accommodated in the steerage. In olden 
 times the warrant-officers were quartered in the 
 fore cockpit, and subsequently under the fore 
 castle ; hence the name forward-officers. 
 
 COCKPITARIAN. A name for one who was 
 quartered in the cockpit. 
 
 Cocksetus. An old law-term for a boatman 
 or coxswain. 
 
 Cocksure. Dead certain. 
 
 Cockswain. See COXSWAIN. 
 
 Cocoanut-tree. The Palma cocos yields toddy ; 
 the nut a valuable oil and milky juice ; the stern, 
 bark, branches, etc., also serve numerous pur 
 poses. 
 
 Cod. The centre of a deep bay. The bight of 
 a trawl or seine. Also, the Gadus morrhua, one 
 of the most important of oceanic fishes. The 
 
CODDY-MODDY 
 
 147 
 
 COLHOUN 
 
 ccd is always found on the submerged hills 
 known as banks ; as, the Dogger Bank and 
 banks of Newfoundland. To cod, to rig ; to 
 harass ; to tantalize. 
 
 COD-BAIT. The large sea-worm, or lug, dug 
 from the wet sands ; the squid or cuttle, her 
 rings, caplin, any meat, or even a false fish of 
 bright tin or pewter. 
 
 COD-FISH. See COD. 
 
 COD-FISHER. A banker, or fishing-vessel, 
 which anchors in 60 or 70 fathoms, and remains 
 fishing until full, or driven off by stress of 
 weather. Season from June until October. See 
 FISHERIES. 
 
 COD-LINE. An eighteen-thread line. 
 
 COD-SOUNDS. The swim-bladders of cod-fish, 
 cured and packed for the market. 
 
 Coddy-moddy. A gull in its first year s 
 plumage. 
 
 Code. See SIGNALS. 
 
 Codrington, Sir Edward, Admiral. In 1827, 
 when the Greeks were resisting Turkish oppres 
 sion, a combined French, Kussian, and English 
 fleet was dispatched to the Mediterranean to stop 
 the cruelties practiced by Ibrahim Pacha, who was 
 then in command of an Egyptian fleet. Sir Ed 
 ward Codrington commanded the British squad 
 ron. Entering the harbor of Navarino, he com 
 menced negotiations with the pacha, with the 
 view of putting an end to the barbarities of the 
 Turks. A reference to Constantinople being 
 deemed necessary before any compact could be 
 concluded, it was arranged that the pacha s 
 fleet should remain in the harbor until the sul 
 tan s reply was received, and in the meanwhile 
 the European fleets retired ; but they had scarcely 
 left Navarino when the Turks violated the ar 
 mistice and attempted to sail out of the harbor. 
 Codrington forced them back. A fierce battle en 
 sued, and the Turkish fleet of 81 men-of-war was 
 destroyed, only 1 frigate and 15 smaller vessels 
 being left in a condition to put to sea again. 
 
 Coehorn. A small mortar, usually of. bronze, 
 throwing a shell of from 12 to 24 pounds, and 
 convenient for ships gangways, launches, etc., 
 afloat ; and for advanced trenches, the attack of 
 stockades, etc., ashore. It takes its name from 
 its inventor, Baron van Coehorn, a celebrated 
 Dutch engineer and general of the latter part of 
 the 17th and early part of the 18th centuries. 
 
 Coffer-dam. A device employed in hydraulic 
 engineering to lay bare a portion of the sub 
 merged surface. It consists of a water-tight in- 
 closure, formed by double lines of piles filled 
 in with clay tightly rammed. It may also be 
 made with piles only, the piles being driven close 
 together, and sometimes notched or dovetailed 
 into one another; or, if the water is not very 
 deep, the piles may be driven at a distance of 
 five or six feet from each other and grooved in 
 the sides, with boards let down between them in 
 the grooves. However formed, it must be made 
 very strong and well braced from the inside to 
 resist the pressure of the water from without. 
 The water inclosed within the dam is gotten rid 
 of by being pumped out. 
 
 Cog. The tooth of a wheel, by which motion 
 is communicated to another wheel. A coak or 
 dowel. 
 
 Cogge. An Anglo-Saxon word for a cock 
 boat or light yawl. 
 
 COGGE-WARE. Goods carried in a cogge. 
 
 Goggle, or Cog. A small fishing-boat. 
 
 Cogmen. Shipwrecked mariners who wander 
 about begging and stealing ; nautical tramps. 
 
 Coguing the Nose. Making comfortable over 
 hot grog. 
 
 Coign. See QUOIN. 
 
 Coil. A quantity of rope wound into a ring 
 or series of rings ; each turn of the rope is a 
 fake, and several of these fakes, one within the 
 other, are called a sheave or tier. In a Flemish 
 coil there is but one sheave, the hauling part 
 being in the centre. 
 
 Coir. The fibrous husks of the cocoa-nut, 
 used for making ropes, mats, brushes, brooms, 
 etc. Coir cables have the advantage of floating 
 on the water, but they are disagreeable to handle. 
 
 Coke. The charcoal obtained by heating coal 
 with the imperfect access of air, or by its distilla 
 tion. The former is usually called oven coke ; the 
 latter gas coke, being abundantly produced in 
 gas-works. Caking coal (for which see COAL) is 
 most suitable for the manufacture of coke. As 
 the coal becomes heated it evolves a number of 
 substances, solids, liquids, and gases, and yields 
 a residue, the coke, relatively richer in carbon 
 than the original coal. Coke is hard, brittle, 
 and porous, varying in color from iron-gray to 
 blackish-gray, and more or less of a metallic 
 lustre. It absorbs moisture from the air some 
 times to the extent of 30 per cent., and contains 
 an amount of ash ranging from \ up to 15 per 
 cent. It gives off no smoke in burning, is of 
 great value as a fuel, evolving a very large 
 amount of heat, and is used extensively in smelt 
 ing ores and for other purposes. 
 
 Coker. The old name for a cocoa-nut-tree. 
 
 Cold-blast. Air forced into a smelting-fur- 
 nace at a natural temperature, in contradistinc 
 tion to a heated blast, which is more economical, 
 but produces iron of an inferior quality. 
 
 Cold-chisel. A stout chisel made of steel, 
 used for cutting iron when it is cold. 
 
 Cold-eel. The Gymnotus electmcus. 
 
 Cold-hammering. The hammering of metal 
 at a low temperature to give hardness and 
 temper. 
 
 Cole. Colewort, or sea-kale. 
 
 Cole-goose. A name for the cormorant (Pha- 
 lacrocorax carbo). 
 
 Cole-perch. A small fish less than the com 
 mon perch. 
 
 Colhoun, Edmund R., Commodore U.S.N., 
 was born at Chambersburg, Pa., May 6, 1821 ; 
 
 terranean and Brazil Squadrons, 1842-44 ; Naval 
 School, Philadelphia, 1845; promoted to passed 
 midshipman, July 2, 1845; frigate "Cumber 
 land," Home Squadron, 1846-47. Served in the 
 Mexican war, being present at the first attack on 
 Alvarado, under Commodore D. Conner, and 
 also under Commodore M. C. Perry, at the cap 
 ture of Tabasco. Keceiving-ship at Philadelphia, 
 1850-51 ; frigate " St. Lawrence," Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1851-53 ; resigned June 27, 1853. Re-en 
 tered the navy as an acting lieutenant, 1861 ; 
 commanded steamers "Shawsheen" and "Hunch 
 back," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1861-62; was in the following engagements: 
 Roanoke Island, February 7 and 8, 1862 ; capture 
 of Newbern, March 14, 1862 ; engagement on the 
 
COLLAR 
 
 148 
 
 COLORS 
 
 Black-water River, below Franklin, Va., October, 
 1862 ; commissioned as commander, November 
 17, 1862; commander steamer " Ladona," North 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1863; monitor 
 " Weehawken," South Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1863; took part in the different ac 
 tions with Forts Sumter, Wagner, Beauregard, 
 etc., from July 10 to September 15, 1863; com 
 manded monitor "Saugus," 1864-65; engaged 
 Hewlett s Battery on James River, June 21 and 
 Dec. 5, 1864 ; took part in the bombardment of 
 Fort Fisher, Dec. 25, 1864, and its capture, Jan. 
 15, 1865; was on special duty at New York, 
 1866 ; fleet-captain, South Pacific Squadron, 
 1866-67 ; commissioned as captain, March 2, 
 1869 ; commanded monitor " Dictator," 1869-70 ; 
 flag-ship "Hartford," Asiatic Station, 1873-74; 
 was in command of the Asiatic Station for four 
 months ; was then transferred to the " Rich 
 mond," flag-ship of the South Pacific Station, 
 being in command of her from August, 1874, to 
 July, 1875; commissioned as commodore, April 
 26, 1876. Relieved rear-admiral John Rodgers, 
 in command of the navy-yard, Mare Island, 
 Cal., April 17, 1877, of which yard he is at pres 
 ent date commandant. 
 
 Collar. The part of a stay which goes over 
 the mast-head. A strap or grommet in which 
 is seized a heart or dead-eye ; used for stays, 
 bobstays, bowsprit-shrouds, etc. 
 
 In mechanism, a ring of metal placed upon a 
 shaft to prevent motion in direction of the shaft s 
 axis while leaving it free for rotative motion. A 
 collar may be wrought or cast upon the shaft as 
 a part thereof, or it may be a separate piece con 
 fined by pins or set-screws. 
 
 COLLAR-HEART. See HEAKT. 
 
 Collar-beam (Obs.). Formerly, it was the 
 beam upon which the stanchions of the beak- 
 head bulkhead stood. The upper side of it kept 
 well with the upper deck port-sills, and was let 
 down into the spirketing at the side, but its 
 springing over the bowsprit in the middle gave 
 it a form which in timber was not to be ob 
 tained without great difficulty; a framing of 
 carlings, with a stanchion on each side, was 
 generally substituted in its place. 
 
 Collier. A vessel employed exclusively in the 
 coal-trade. 
 
 Collimation, Axis or Line of. The axial 
 line of a telescope, or an imaginary line which 
 passes through the optical centre of the object- 
 glass and the intersection of cross-wires at its 
 focus. The error of collimation is the deviation 
 of the line of collimation from its normal posi 
 tion. 
 
 Collingwood, Lord Cuthbert, Admiral. A 
 disciple of the famous Nelson, and worthy of 
 all honor for his services and undaunted bear 
 ing throughout a long career in the British 
 navy. He played a 1 conspicuous part in the 
 great victories achieved by Lord Howe and 
 Lord St. Vincent (which see), and in command 
 of a line-of-battle ship at the famous battle of 
 Trafalgar he was the first to break the line of 
 the French and Spanish fleets. When Nelson 
 saw him leading his squadron into the enemy s 
 array, he exclaimed, "See how that noble fel 
 low Collingwood takes his ship into action." 
 Firm, mild, brave but prudent, he was adored 
 in the navy, and died, in 1810, deeply regretted. 
 
 Collins, Napoleon, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed from Iowa, 
 January 2, 1834. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 16, 
 1840. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, November 6, 
 1846; sloop u Decatur," Home Squadron, 1846- 
 49 ; at Tuspan and Tabasco, Mexican war ; 
 steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 1850-53; 
 commanding store-ship "John P. Kennedy," 
 North Pacific Expedition, 1853-54 j steam-frigate 
 " Susquehanna," East India Squadron, 1854-55; 
 navy-yard, Mare Island, California, 1856-57 ; 
 sloop "John Adams," Pacific Squadron, 1857- 
 58; steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 1858- 
 60; commanding steamer " Anacosta," Potomac 
 Flotilla, 1861 ; engagement at Acquia Creek, 
 May 31 and June 1, 1861 ; commanding gun 
 boat "Unadilla," South Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1861-62; battle of Port Royal, No 
 vember 7, 1862; various expeditions on the 
 coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, 
 1861-62. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer "Octorara," West India 
 Squadron, 1862-68; commanding steam-sloop 
 " Wachusett," special service, 1863-64; on the 
 7th of October, 1864, Commander Collins, then 
 in the "Wachusett," seized the rebel steamer 
 "Florida," lying within the harbor of Bahia, 
 Brazil ; the capture was effected without loss of 
 life. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Sacramento," special ser 
 vice, 1867 ; navy-yard, Norfolk, 1869-70. Com 
 missioned as commodore 1871, and as rear-admiral 
 1874. Died in 1876. 
 
 Collision. See RULE OF THE ROAD AT SEA. 
 
 COLLISION-CLAUSE. See RUNNING-DOWN 
 CLAUSE. 
 
 Collop. A cut from a joint of meat. 
 
 Colmie. A fifth -year or full-grown coal-fish ; 
 sometimes called comb. 
 
 Colmow. An old word for the sea-mew, de 
 rived from the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Colombo. The principal seaport town and 
 the capital of Ceylon, on its west coast, in lat. 6 
 56 N., Ion. 79 49 E. Pop. 100,000. The har 
 bor, defended by several forts, is small, and the 
 roadstead is safe only during the southeast mon 
 soon. 
 
 Colonnati. The Spanish pillared dollar. 
 
 Colorable. Ship s papers so drawn as to be 
 available for more than one purpose. In ad 
 miralty law, a probable plea. 
 
 Colors. A national flag. In port the colors 
 are hoisted at 8 A.M., and kept flying till sunset. 
 At sea the colors are generally shown on falling 
 in with another vessel. The colors are half- 
 masted as a symbol of mourning, and are hauled 
 down as a token of submission. Dipping the 
 colors is a compliment or salute, but our men- 
 of-war are forbidden to dip their colors except 
 in return for a similar compliment. The boats 
 of a man-of-war are required to keep their colors 
 flying while absent from their ship. In a funeral 
 procession the colors are draped. 
 
 In the navies of some European countries, 
 when the colors are hauled down they are re 
 ceived by a commissioned officer, and all persons 
 on deck take off their caps as a mark of respect. 
 
 COLOR-CHEST. See SIGNAL-CHEST. 
 
 COLOR-LOCKER. See SIGNAL-LOCKER. 
 
COLT 
 
 149 
 
 COMMANDER 
 
 Colt. A short piece of rope with a knot on 
 one end, formerly used to start skulkers. 
 
 Columba (Lat. "The Dove"). A constella 
 tion next to, and to the S.W. of, Canis Major. 
 a Columbce may be found by producing the line 
 joining Procyon and Sirius to about the same 
 distance. 
 
 Columbia. A name often given to America 
 in honor of the great discoverer. The patriotic 
 ballad, "Hail Columbia, happy land," was 
 written by Joseph Hopkinson for the benefit of 
 an actor named Fox, and to an air entitled 
 "The President s March," composed in 1789 
 by a German named Teyles, on the occasion of 
 Gen. Washington s first visit to a New York 
 theatre. 
 
 Columbiad. A kind of heavy cannon in 
 vented by Col. Bomford. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, a native of Corsica, 
 when the island was under the government of 
 the republic of Genoa, cherished for eighteen years 
 the theory of the rotundity of the earth, and 
 sought to establish it by endeavoring to get the 
 means for sailing in a westerly direction from the 
 shores of Spain. He was doomed to many checks 
 and disappointments, and endured the ridicule 
 of the ignorant. A-t length, Isabella, the queen 
 of Ferdinand of Spain, caused him to be supplied 
 with ships and provisions that he might make a 
 voyage of discovery in the direction he had in 
 dicated. His attempt was attended with danger, 
 for the crew of his ship, impatient of its slow 
 progress, murmured and exhibited a mutinous 
 disposition, but his science, courage, and deter 
 mination had a happy issue, for in 1492 he dis 
 covered San Salvador, in the western hemi 
 sphere. A second expedition in 1493-96 con 
 ducted him to that of the outlying islands, and 
 he reached the continent of America on a third 
 voyage, in 1498. The discoveries and fulfillment 
 of the theory of Columbus did not reap the rec 
 ompense to which so much energy and persever 
 ance entitled him. He was pursued by envy and 
 jealousy, and fell a victim to his triumph over 
 ignorance and superstition, dying in poverty at 
 Valladolid, in Spain, 20th May, 1506. 
 
 Column. See FLEET TACTICS. 
 
 Colures (Gr. kolouros, dock-tailed, or cutting 
 the tail ; from kolouein, to cut, and oura, the 
 tail). A term originally applied to any great 
 circle passing through the poles of the heavens. 
 It is derived by some from the fact that one part 
 of each of these circles appears always "cut off" 
 by the horizon. A more probable explanation 
 of the word seems to be "cutting the tail" of 
 the northern constellation, i.e., passing through 
 the pole star. This star is situated in the tail 
 of the Lesser Bear, a group which appears to 
 have been more anciently figured as a dog ; hence 
 the pole star is called the Cynosure (kunosoura), 
 " The Dog s Tail" (kudn, kunos, a dog, and oura, 
 the tail). The word colures has more lately be 
 come restricted to the two circles of the system 
 which pass through the four cardinal points of 
 the ecliptic, the equinoctial and solstitial points, 
 the former being called the Equinoctial Colure, 
 and the latter the Solstitial Colure. The equi 
 noctial colure may be regarded as the initial 
 position of the hour-circle ; the solstitial colure 
 passes through the poles of the ecliptic as well as 
 those of the equinoctial. 
 
 Coma Berenices. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Comb. The projection on the hammer of a 
 gun-lock, to which the thumb is applied in 
 cocking the piece. A name for the colmie. A 
 wooden form used by riggers in weaving mats, 
 gaskets, etc. 
 
 Comber. A long curling wave. 
 
 COMBER, BEACH-. See BEACH-COMBER. 
 
 COMBER, GRASS-. See GRASS-COMBER. 
 
 Combing. See COAMING. 
 
 Comb the Cat. To separate the tails of the 
 "cat" by running the fingers through them. 
 
 Combustion. The practical means of pro 
 ducing artificial heat. It is the union of oxygen 
 with the carbon and hydrocarbon contained in 
 the various kinds of fuels, most of which are 
 hydrocarbons, and which have been produced 
 by the heat of the sun. 
 
 Come. To come to is to luff, or bring the 
 ship s head nearer to the wind. To come to, or 
 to come to an anchor, to let go the anchor. T<t 
 come up a rope or tackle, to slack it oiF or let it 
 go. To come up with a vessel is to overtake her. 
 The anchor comes home when it slips through 
 the mud in heaving up, that is, the anchor is 
 dragged toward the ship instead of the ship being 
 hauled up toward the anchor. 
 
 Comity of Nations (Lat. comitas gentium}. 
 That species of international legal courtesy by 
 which the laws and institutions of one country 
 are recognized and given effect to by another. 
 See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Command. To order with authority. To di 
 rect. To exercise supreme authority over. To 
 lead. The word is also used to express both the 
 order given and the force commanded. It sig 
 nifies also advantage of position ; as, when we 
 say that one place commands another, we mean 
 that it overtops or overlooks the other. 
 
 Commandant. The officer in command of a 
 navy-yard or naval station. Under the direc 
 tion of the Secretary of the Navy he exercises 
 control over every department in the yard, and 
 is held responsible for the preservation of all 
 buildings, stores, and vessels, and for the judi 
 cious application of all labor. 
 
 He is to see that none but effective men are 
 employed, and that the rate of wages conforms 
 with that of private establishments in the vicin 
 ity. He is to see that the officers perform their 
 duties in a proper manner, and that all reports 
 and returns are made at the time and in the 
 manner directed by the department. He is to 
 establish regulations to guard against fire, and 
 cause the entire force of the yard to be organ 
 ized into fire companies, and drilled once a 
 month. 
 
 He will not permit any vessel to be repaired 
 at the yard without an order from the Depart 
 ment, except in an emergency, and all vessels 
 repairing are under his control. 
 
 Commandant of Cadets. The executive-offi 
 cer of the U. S. Naval Academy. 
 
 Commander. This title in the British and 
 United States navies has the same derivation as 
 commodore, viz., from the Spanish " Comenda- 
 dor." It was first introduced into the U. S. 
 navy in 1838, when it was enacted that "mas 
 ter-commandants" should be known and styled 
 " commanders," although the pay-bill, approved 
 March 3, 1835, recognized the title. It is the 
 next rank below that of captain, and corresponds 
 with that of lieutenant-colonel in the army. 
 
COMMANDER 
 
 150 
 
 COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 
 
 A commander commands vessels of the third 
 and fourth classes ; may be employed as chief 
 of staff to a commodore ; on duty under a bureau ; 
 or as aid to a flag-officer of either grade on shore- 
 stations. 
 
 Commander. A heavy wooden maul, for 
 beating down the eyes of the rigging, and for 
 other purposes where the use of an iron instru 
 ment would injure the rigging. 
 
 Commander, Master and, or Master-Com 
 mandant. For some time after the formation of 
 the regular Royal navy by Henry V., of England, 
 those who attended to the navigation of the ship 
 and the mariners were a totally distinct class 
 from those who superintended the fighting de 
 partment and the soldiers. The first attempt to 
 unite in one person the two offices may be traced 
 in the now abandoned term of master and com 
 mander. The first officer of the rank was Robert 
 Best, appointed September 13, 1667, in the Med 
 iterranean, by Sir John Narborough, to a vessel 
 called the " Orange-Tree." 
 
 Commander, Lieutenant-. This intermediate 
 rank between commander and lieutenant was 
 first introduced into the United States service at 
 the reorganization of the navy in 1862. Before 
 that time lieutenants when in command of a small 
 vessel-of-war were styled lieutenants command 
 ing. A lieutenant-commander holds assimilated 
 rank with a major in the army. 
 
 A lieutenant-commander may act as aid to an 
 admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral, or commo 
 dore commanding afloat ; as aid or executive of 
 a commanding officer, navigating, or watch- 
 officer in first- , second-, and third-rates ; and per 
 forms duty at shore-stations or under a bureau, 
 and may be ordered to command a vessel of the 
 fourth class. 
 
 Commander-in-chief. The President of the 
 "United States is the commander-in-chief of the 
 army and navy, but the title of commander-in- 
 chief is given to an officer in command of an in 
 dependent fleet or squadron, when appointed as 
 such by the Navy Department. He possesses all 
 the rights, honors, and responsibilities from the 
 date on which his flag is hoisted until it is finally 
 hauled down. 
 
 He will make himself well acquainted with 
 the sailing and steaming qualities of the vessels 
 under his command, and inform himself of the 
 quantity of coal each vessel can carry, the amount 
 used in average and in full steaming during 
 twenty-four hours. He will inspect the vessels 
 under his command at least once in six months, 
 and satisfy himself that they are in a state of 
 efficiency to perform any service that may be re 
 quired. 
 
 He will cause the boats of his fleet or squadron, 
 manned and armed, to be frequently assembled, 
 inspected, and exercised in manoeuvres in land 
 ing, embarking, and boarding vessels. He will 
 see that the vessels of his fleet are frequently 
 practiced in exercises in port and in performing 
 manoeuvres at sea ; he will frequently exercise 
 the officers in making night- and day-signals to 
 insure accuracy, and he will cause quarterly re 
 ports of all general exercises to be made in ac 
 cordance with the prescribed form, which, with 
 his remarks, are to be forwarded to the Navy 
 Department. He will not inflict punishment 
 upon the people of any civilized nation with 
 whom the United States has treaties, for any 
 
 violation, alleged or otherwise, of such treaties 
 or of international law ; but in the absence of a 
 diplomatic representative, he will enter into cor 
 respondence with the authorities of the nation, 
 and will take the earliest opportunity to com 
 municate all the information in his possession to 
 the Navy Department. He is to satisfy himself 
 that the laws and regulations of the navy are 
 maintained on board every vessel under his com 
 mand, and also that all the special orders of the 
 Secretary of the Navy, through the different 
 bureaus of the Navy Department, are strictly 
 observed. 
 
 The commander-in-chief of a squadron, being 
 frequently invested with a great charge, on which 
 the fate of a nation may depend, ought certainly 
 to be possessed of abilities equal to so important 
 a station and so extensive a command. His 
 squadron is unavoidably exposed to a variety of 
 perplexing situations in a precarious element. A 
 train of dangerous incidents necessarily arise 
 from those situations. The health, order, and 
 discipline of his people are not less the objects of 
 his consideration than the condition and quali 
 ties of his ships. A sudden change of climate, 
 a rank and infectious air, a scarcity or unwhole- 
 someness of provisions maybe as pernicious to 
 the former as tempestuous weather or dan 
 gerous navigation to the latter. He ought to 
 have sufficient experience to anticipate all the 
 probable events that may happen to his squad 
 ron during an expedition or cruise, and to pro 
 vide against them. His skill should be able to 
 counteract the various disasters which his squad 
 ron may suffer from different causes. His vigi 
 lance and presence of mind are necessary to seize 
 every favorable opportunity that his situation 
 may offer to prosecute his principal design ; to 
 extricate himself from any difficulty or distress ; 
 to check unfortunate events in the beginning, 
 and retard the progress of any great calamity. 
 He should be endued with resolution and forti 
 tude to animate his officers by force of example, 
 and promote a sense of emulation in those who 
 are under his command, as well to improve any 
 advantage as to frustrate or defeat the efforts of 
 his ill fortune. 
 
 He should be well acquainted with the princi 
 ples of naval law, that he may judge with pro 
 priety of the proceedings of courts-martial, and 
 correct the errors and restrain the abuses which 
 may happen therein by mistake, ignorance, or 
 inattention. 
 
 As he is frequently called upon to represent 
 the government on occasions of great moment, 
 he should be well versed in international law. 
 
 He does his utmost to protect the commerce of 
 his country, and to this end causes surveys to be 
 made of all dangers to navigation, and in time 
 of war affords convoy and protection to mer 
 chantmen of the United States, and also to the 
 merchantmen of nations which may be in alli 
 ance with the United States. 
 
 The most essential part of his duty is military 
 conduct. He is required to keep pace with the 
 various improvements in vessels and ordnance, 
 and the changes in fleet tactics in consequence 
 thereof. When preparing a fleet or squadron 
 for sea, in time of war, as the vessels join him, 
 he will furnish each commanding officer with a 
 copy of all general orders, dispositions, private 
 signals, orders of battle, etc., so that they may 
 
COMMANDING 
 
 151 
 
 COMMANDING 
 
 have a complete understanding of what they will 
 be called upon to do on going into action. 
 
 When the squadron shall put to sea it is fre 
 quently exercised in fleet tactics that the officers 
 may become proficient in their duties. When 
 he meditates an attack the commanding officers 
 should be made acquainted with the plan of bat 
 tle, and his orders should be drawn up with the 
 greatest care ; they should be simple, perspicu 
 ous, direct, and comprehensive, and should di 
 rect the plan to be followed in case either of suc 
 cess or defeat. History and experience confirm 
 the necessity of these observations, and present 
 us with a variety of disasters that have happened 
 on such occasions merely by a deficiency in this 
 material article. 
 
 When an admiral conquers in battje, he should 
 endeavor to improve his victory by pushing the 
 acquired advantages as far as prudence directs ; 
 when he shall be defeated, he ought to embrace 
 every opportunity of saving as many of his ships 
 as possible, and endeavor principally to assist 
 those which have been disabled. In short, it is 
 his duty to avail himself of every practicable ex 
 pedient rather than sink under his misfortune, 
 and suffer himself to become an easy prey to an 
 enemy. 
 
 Commanding Officer. The officer in actual 
 command of a government vessel. He is a line- 
 officer, and in case of his absence or death, he is 
 succeeded by the line-officer next in rank. 
 
 The duties of the commanding officer are very 
 comprehensive, inasmuch as he is not only an 
 swerable for any bad conduct in the military 
 government, navigation, and equipment of the 
 ship he commands, but also for any neglect of 
 duty or ill-management in his inferior officers, 
 whose several duties he is appointed to superin 
 tend and regulate. 
 
 On first joining his vessel he will make a 
 thorough personal examination of her, and will 
 inform himself fully as to the condition of the 
 vessel, her engines and boilers, as also regarding 
 the qualifications of the officers placed under his 
 command. He will be furnished by the com 
 mandant of the navy-yard, or by the previous 
 commanding officer of the vessel, if the vessel is 
 already in commission, with a statement of her 
 condition and of her presumed or ascertained 
 qualities, as also with drawings and plans show 
 ing the dimensions of the vessel, the arrange 
 ment and stowage of the holds, store-rooms, 
 magazines, shell-rooms, shot-lockers, etc. 
 
 He will not sail from a port in the United 
 States until the men are watched, quartered, and 
 stationed ; and before proceeding to sea, he is, if 
 possible, to exercise the men at the different evo 
 lutions, and practice them at target-tiring. He 
 will cause a routine of drills to be prepared, and 
 will see that the men are thoroughly conversant 
 with their various duties. He will cause the 
 senior engineer to submit to him, for approval, 
 his watch, fire, quarter, and cleaning bills, show 
 ing the specific duties of each member of the 
 force under his charge. He will pay the great 
 est attention to the health of the crew and the 
 cleanliness of the vessel, frequently inspecting 
 her throughout ; he will see that the officers are 
 considerate as regards the health of the men, and 
 that they are not unnecessarily exposed to the 
 sun or to the night-dews, and he will see that 
 all regulations regarding the meal-hours are ob 
 
 served. He will make careful and repeated trials 
 of the vessel, under sail and under steam, with 
 every variety of wind and weather, and will in 
 form himself thoroughly as to her capabilities 
 for every service, and of the length of time that 
 she would be able to keep the sea under steam. 
 He will make a quarterly report of her sailing 
 qualities to the Navy Department in accordance 
 with the prescribed form. When in command 
 of _an iron vessel, he will have the bottom exam 
 ined on every opportunity, being careful that the 
 plates are cleaned and coated with preserving 
 composition as often as necessary, that no injury 
 be done by corrosion, and that no copper articles 
 rest on the bottom in contact with the iron. 
 
 On putting to sea he will cause a bright look 
 out to be kept, and on approaching a foreign 
 man-of-war, or being approached by one under 
 suspicious circumstances, he will have the crew 
 at quarters, ready for battle, and preserve this 
 disposition until he ascertains her intentions. 
 He will not suffer his vessel to be searched by 
 any foreign power under any pretext, nor any 
 officers or men to be taken out, so long as they 
 have power of resistance ; if force be used, re 
 sistance must be continued as long as possible ; 
 if overcome, he is to yield his vessel, but not his 
 men without the vessel. 
 
 When a vessel of an enemy strikes her flag in an 
 action, it will be the duty of the commanding offi 
 cer to send an officer on board, if possible, to de 
 mand the captain s sword, and to bring that offi 
 cer with him, as a proof that the vessel has sur 
 rendered ; and if, under these circumstances, she 
 should again hoist her flag and continue the 
 fight, she may be destroyed. On taking posses 
 sion of a captured vessel he will adopt all neces 
 sary precautions to prevent her from being re 
 captured. He will send all the officers and a 
 number of the crew of the captured vessel on 
 board of the vessel he commands, and will pre 
 serve all journals, signals, written orders, and 
 important papers, particularly those that certify 
 to the validity of the prize. He will see tha t 
 prisoners of war are treated with humanity, that 
 their personal property is carefully protected, 
 and that they have the use of such of their effects 
 as are necessary to their comfort, and that they 
 are duly supplied with rations, but he will take 
 care that prisoners of war are guarded and de 
 prived of all means of escape or revolt. When 
 an action is over, it is the duty of the com 
 manding officer of a vessel to repair all damages 
 and put the vessel under his command in good 
 fighting order without delay ; to have reported 
 to him the exact amount of munitions of war re 
 maining on board, and to transmit to the com- 
 mander-in-chief an account of the battle, in 
 cluding a statement of the conduct of the officers 
 and crew under his command, with a list of 
 killed and wounded. Should he be compelled to 
 strike the flag, he is to take special care to de 
 stroy all signals and papers, the possession of 
 which by an enemy might be injurious to the 
 United States, and he will keep them so pre 
 pared, with weights attached, that they will sink 
 immediately on being thrown overboard. 
 
 He will make to the Department, through the 
 com mander-in- chief, a full report of any action, 
 chase, or important movement in which the ves 
 sel he commands may be engaged, and will also 
 furnish diagrams illustrating the positions and 
 
COMMERCE 
 
 152 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 movements of the vessels, the direction of the 
 wind, the bearing, distance, and outline of land, 
 should any be in sight, and all information which 
 may tend to a clear understanding of the occur 
 rence. He will keep a journal, noting in it all 
 desirable information in regard to the naval 
 forces or armament of foreign powers, with such 
 information regarding commerce, hydrography, 
 etc., as may be useful to the government, and 
 he will communicate immediately to the Bureau 
 of Navigation all hydrographic information 
 which may affect the charts or sailing directions. 
 At the expiration of the cruise the journal will 
 be forwarded to the Bureau of Navigation. He 
 will direct the officers under his command, when 
 visiting foreign ports, to obtain and report to 
 him in writing such information as he may des 
 ignate, and will himself report to the Navy De 
 partment the capacity, power, and speed of the 
 foreign vessels of war he meets with. 
 
 He will see that the sailing directions, charts, 
 and light-lists are carefully compared with those 
 of all public vessels that he may meet having 
 later information ; will have those of the vessel 
 under his command corrected, and tracings or 
 copies made of any new charts or hydrographic 
 information. He will keep a file of all the hy 
 drographic notices, notices to mariners, and hy 
 drographic information that he receives. He 
 will cause careful surveys to be made, and charts 
 constructed, of any shoals, dangers, or harbors 
 not correctly located, or which may require ex 
 amination ; and, when completed, he will for 
 ward them, with all the original data and com 
 putations, to the Bureau of Navigation. When 
 passing in the vicinity of doubtful dangers, or 
 where there is an indication of shoal water or 
 danger not on the charts, he will make, unless 
 there be special reasons to the contrary, such 
 search as the weather and other circumstances 
 permit, and will forward the results to the 
 Bureau of Navigation, with a track-chart of the 
 traverses made, soundings taken, etc., and in 
 general fulfill the conditions indicated by the 
 hydrographer for making such examinations. 
 
 In a port where there is not a consul of the 
 United States, and on the high seas, commanders 
 of fleets, squadrons, and of single vessels are au 
 thorized and empowered by law to exercise the 
 powers of consuls, in regard to mariners of the 
 United States. 
 
 Commerce, Modern. The commercial activity 
 of nations has in all ages been taken as consti 
 tuting a fair measure of their development in 
 civilization, and in most cases the organized 
 international exchanges comprehended in this 
 single word have formed the direct civilizing 
 agency. Asiatic history affords exceptions to 
 this generalization, undoubtedly, if we admit 
 that the ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations 
 can claim any rank with those of modern times 
 in Europe and the West ; and again, with Rome 
 there was a form of national energy capable of 
 great results, yet having little in common with 
 the civilization of Europe even in the middle 
 ages. As these ages develop, and as Europe 
 becomes a family of nations, the function of 
 commerce rises to the highest place as a law of 
 development, until now the most powerful 
 agencies of internal movement in every country 
 are no more than equal to the strictly commercial 
 systems of exchange conducted between nations. 
 
 No one country is independent of the necessity 
 to exchange its products with those of other 
 countries. No people, whatever their nationality 
 or origin, can isolate themselves from other 
 peoples. A force superior to all others compels 
 them to come into the general family of nations, 
 to exchange their products and their services with 
 all others, and to recognize a common interest 
 which no one of them can resist. 
 
 Modern commerce is the commerce of even the 
 most recent times greatly intensified, and active 
 to a degree only recently rendered possible. The 
 steamship, as a freighting vessel, is new within 
 a very few years, and the fleets of steamers now 
 almost daily laden for transatlantic trade are 
 scarcely yet known to the country as the facts 
 of magnitude they are. The actual commerce 
 of the United States with Europe conducted by 
 these steamer fleets is enormous, and it increases 
 with a degree of rapidity greater than is repre 
 sented by the growth of either continent ; that 
 is, the demand for these exchanges is itself in 
 creasing independently of the increased produc/- 
 tion of the articles or quantities exchanged. A 
 larger proportion of the wheat crop and of the 
 corn crop of the United States is now demanded 
 and consumed in Europe than at any previous 
 time, and the proportion sold abroad will be still 
 greater hereafter. It is so with many other 
 staples of export, with provisions and meats, 
 with lard, cheese, butter, petroleum, and many 
 other articles. The original inquiry or experi 
 ment as to the salable value of any one of these 
 commodities has changed to an imperative neces 
 sity for these articles as staples of consumption, 
 and this necessity cannot be delayed or denied. 
 The nations of Europe cannot now dispense with 
 the supply of food furnished by these steam fleets 
 laden with grain and provisions. In place of 
 the hesitating choice with which they were taken 
 but a few years ago, the various forms in which 
 corn is prepared are now unquestionably accepted 
 as a staple food for all classes, and the shipments 
 during the current year are consequently one- 
 third greater than ever before. Having estab 
 lished the position of Indian corn as the best and 
 cheapest grain food for Europe, we need not again 
 apprehend its waste by using it as fuel. Nor will 
 the freight-carrying lines of the interior fail to 
 find a profitable business in moving it across the 
 country to the sea-board. 
 
 This outward movement already constitutes a 
 circulation altogether vital to the security of 
 business. If this circulation is clogged or stopped, 
 even for a day, it affects the greatest interests. A 
 week of obstruction would bring on a financial 
 panic, entailing enormous losses, and becoming 
 general in its effects on all other business in 
 terests. The value of the export movement is 
 now felt by every farmer in the Mississippi Val 
 ley, and the sense of international dependence is 
 keenly felt at every railroad station in the west. 
 Much of the advantage resulting to all the par 
 ties to these exchanges is due to the perfection 
 attained in economically handling these staples, 
 and to the triumph over time and distance 
 achieved by railroads and freighting facilities as 
 they now are. If these had not been greatly 
 improved, the value of meats and grains would 
 be eaten up by the cost of transit, and the west 
 ern producer would have little for the articles 
 themselves. As it is, however, the perfection 
 
COMMEBCE 
 
 153 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 attained in freighting is wonderful, both inland 
 and at sea, and the provisions sent to Europe are 
 worth all they cost to the ultimate consumers. 
 
 The weekly export of general merchandise 
 grain and provisions being the chief articles is 
 now about 10 millions of dollars in value at the 
 port of New York alone, and this average has 
 been maintained now for several months. The 
 highest shipment on a single day was 1,254,500 
 bushels of grain, wheat, and corn a quantity 
 nearly approached on one or two other days, and 
 likely again to be reached at any time. 
 
 It will be seen by these illustrations that com 
 merce in general has assumed proportions which 
 strikingly illustrate the greater productive capa 
 city of the present age, and the efficiency of all 
 the appliances of business. It could not exist if 
 agricultural production remained where it was 
 twenty-five years ago, nor if railroads, elevator?, 
 and steamships were the same as then. It could 
 not supply the necessities of nations with any 
 less efficient machinery than that now in use, 
 and we pass on to these changes and improve 
 ments in a great degree unconscious of the mag 
 nitude of the general movement. 
 
 The following table, giving the aggregate 
 values of merchandise imported into and ex 
 ported from the United States for ten years, will 
 show the rapid increase now taking place, the 
 years ending June 30 in each case : 
 
 Value of Imports. 
 
 1870 8462,377,587 
 
 1871 541,493,708 
 
 1872 640,338,376 
 
 1873 663,617,147 
 
 1874 595,861,248 
 
 1875 553,906,153 
 
 1876 476,667,871 
 
 1877 492,097,540 
 
 1878 466,872,846 
 
 1879 466,073,775 
 
 1880 760,919,875 
 
 Value of Exports. 
 $499,092,143 
 562,518,651 
 549,219,718 
 649,132,563 
 693,039,054 
 643,094,767 
 644,956,406 
 676,115,592 
 722,811,815 
 717,093,777 
 852,845,943 
 
 For the last year 1879-80 the importation 
 of a large amount of gold adds an unusual value 
 to the imports, the merchandise account being im 
 ports $667,885,565, and the exports $835, 793,924. 
 The gold and silver coin imported reached the 
 large sum of $93,034,310 ; the gold and silver ex 
 ports being $17,142,919. For other years of the 
 table there was little difference between the ex 
 ports and imports of gold. 
 
 This period embraces at least one of the com 
 plete cycles of foreign trade characteristic of this 
 country in the great increase of business of 1872 
 and 1873, followed by the depression of 1874 to 
 1879. Again, there was a remarkable change in 
 1879, bringing in a fresh flood of importations in 
 1880 of more than one hundred millions in value 
 greater than in the previous year. Generally, 
 while the imports have decreased in value, and 
 in some classes of goods have almost ceased to 
 come in as part of the necessary supply, the ex 
 ports have increased one half, rising from 500 
 millions in 1870 to 750 millions in 1880. To go 
 a few years farther back the contrast would be 
 still more striking : the average for several years 
 near to 1860 would be about 300 millions ; for 
 1870, about 500 millions; and for 1880, about 
 750 millions. And in 1879 and 1880 there has 
 been a total cessation of the usual large specie 
 exports, very little being sent, while during 1879 
 the imports of specie were large, being about 80 
 millions in excess of any other recent year. 
 
 The increase of shipping in the carrying trade 
 
 is even more decisive, the total tonnage capacity 
 of vessels entering all the ports of the United 
 States from foreign countries being, for 
 
 1870 6,270,189 
 
 1871 6,994,187 
 
 1872 7,769,986 
 
 1873 8.394,749 
 
 1874 10,009,655 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 9,143,338 
 
 . 9,715,904 
 
 10,406,488 
 
 11,530,527 
 
 13,772,300 
 
 For 1880 the figures would be still larger, and 
 it may be stated that the shipping engaged in 
 foreign trade has doubled within ten years. 
 There would be more satisfaction with this re 
 sult if the increase had been in American ves 
 sels ; but, on the contrary, it is almost wholly 
 foreign. The vast fleet of half-em ployed foreign 
 steamers has been turned into the transatlantic 
 trade with the United States by wholesale, as 
 the best-paying trade of the world, and the only 
 one that offers unlimited opportunity for expan 
 sion. 
 
 The new transatlantic fleet of steamers is 
 almost wholly under foreign flags. Of the en 
 tire tonnage arriving at New York not one 
 steamship is American, and but four of those at 
 other ports, these four belonging to the American 
 line between Philadelphia and Liverpool. The 
 contrast between the nationality of vessels under 
 sail and those under steam is extreme, and it re 
 sults from the narrow and sordid policy of Con 
 gress in regard to the encouragement of steam 
 lines. All European nations faithfully and per 
 sistently support the steamship lines, through 
 which alone a successful foreign commerce can 
 now be conducted, and our government, on the 
 contrary, with equal stubbornness and persist 
 ence, refuses not only all assistance, but all rec 
 ognition as vessels under the protection of the 
 United States. The result is that, with a trade 
 the richest in the world, and a vast and daily 
 increasing commerce, we are defeated the mo 
 ment we leave our own shores. 
 
 The commerce of Europe has become more 
 general and more decisive in its influence on re 
 mote countries with every step of its general 
 progress. The establishment of regular steam 
 ship lines to all countries affording a constant 
 trade was the greatest step of progress, and with 
 its accompanying certainty of mail carriage and 
 of passenger transportation, it has now for twenty 
 years or more constituted the most powerful civil 
 izing agency the world has known. This triumph 
 is almost wholly to be credited to England, as the 
 originator of the steam mail-service by sea, al 
 though every other maritime nation has followed 
 the example set by England more or less re 
 motely, several European countries maintaining 
 effective lines of distant service, but none ap 
 proaching the English in number. Great and 
 regular lines to the Indies, and by the way of 
 the Indies to Australia, were established, and 
 continue as the leading feature of the British 
 mail service ; next are the South American 
 and transatlantic lines, South America being 
 reached by lines passing the French and Spanish 
 coasts, and touching at Havre, Bordeaux, Lis 
 bon, and the Azores on their way to Pernam- 
 buco; thence to Eio Janeiro and the River 
 Plate, and with extensions through the Straits 
 of Magellan to the west coast of South America, 
 Chili, "Peru, Ecuador, and Panama. No less 
 than ten lines of steamers ran in 1877 to 1879 
 from European ports to South America, five 
 
COMMISSION 
 
 154 
 
 COMMISSIONERS 
 
 English, employing 58 vessels, and five German, 
 French, and Italian, employing 43 vessels, all 
 being steamships of large capacity and heavily 
 freighted in both directions. The Royal Mail 
 Steamship Company, the oldest of the lines, ran 
 10 vessels from Southampton to Rio Janeiro 
 and the River Plate, monthly and semi-monthly ; 
 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, with 
 the same number of vessels, ran through to the 
 west coast of South America with a monthly 
 service; the Allan Line, to Brazil, with 10 ves 
 sels; the Liverpool, Brazil, and River Plate, 
 with 20 vessels; and the Clyde Line, with 6 
 vessels, complete the English list. The North 
 German Lloyds and the Hamburgh and South 
 American constitute two German lines ; the 
 "Chargeurs Reunis," the " Compagnie Mes- 
 sageries Maritimes," and the " Sodete Generale 
 Trans- Atlantique," constitute the French lines ; 
 and one Italian line, from Genoa, completes the 
 list. 
 
 This is an illustration of the extent and com 
 pleteness of the mail steamship service of modern 
 commerce. It extends to every country having 
 sufficient development to justify communication 
 with Europe, and it radiates from English ports 
 almost universally, although duplicated to a 
 considerable extent from French, German, and 
 Belgian ports. There is always an English line, 
 and there may be, in addition, a French, Ger 
 man, or Italian line. Neither of these last has 
 any general field exclusive of the English. In 
 all this service the United States have no part, ex 
 cept in the "American Line" of four steamers 
 from Philadelphia to Liverpool, and the line of 
 John Roach & Co., of three steamers, from 
 New York to Rio Janeiro. Neither of these 
 lines receives especial recognition or compensa 
 tion for mail service, although both carry some 
 portion of the mails. Repeated efforts have been 
 made to establish lines, or to obtain from Con 
 gress authority for conducting a mail service by 
 sea, but in only two instances have such efforts 
 been successful, and the authority under which 
 they were conducted has some years since ex 
 pired. The Pacific mail service is now paid by 
 the Australian governments of New South 
 Wales and New Zealand, these two colonial 
 governments uniting in payment for a monthly 
 mail service from Sydney and Auckland to San 
 Francisco, the withdrawal of which would com 
 pel a discontinuance of that branch of the Pa 
 cific mail steamship service. 
 
 Such is the commerce of the present time, 
 briefly reviewed. It is unquestionably in a transi 
 tion state, and certain to undergo great changes 
 within a comparatively brief period. These 
 changes will not be in the direction of dimin 
 ished volume or of inferior appliances, but they 
 will probably exhibit a higher and more general 
 appreciation, in the United States at least, of the 
 true function of commerce itself, and a recogni 
 tion of the duty of every great government to 
 maintain its own proper relation to the necessary 
 exchanges of the world. Lorin Blodgett. 
 
 Commission (Lat. committere, to commit, 
 to intrust). An instrument in writing in the 
 form of a warrant, or letters patent ; a certificate 
 of rank. The chief executive, or the supreme 
 authority of the state, issues commissions to the 
 officers of the army and navy, by virtue of which 
 they hold office and exercise the duties thereof. 
 
 Such officers are termed commissioned officers 
 to distinguish those of the navy from warrant- 
 officers ; those of the army from now-com 
 missioned officers. By Section 1467, Revised 
 Statutes, line-officers take rank in each grade ac 
 cording to the dates of their commissions. 
 
 A commission survives only during the pleasure 
 of the authority whence it emanates. The Duke 
 of Maryborough, while at the height of his power, 
 exerted all his great influence to have his com 
 mission as captain-general extended for life ; but 
 the lord chancellor of England, having searched 
 the records in vain for a precedent, declared that 
 "a patent for life would be an innovation, to 
 which he would not put the Great Seal" (Earl 
 Stanhope s "Reign of Queen Anne"). It was 
 found that the commission issued to Monk, who 
 as " Restorer of the Monarchy" might claim es 
 pecial privilege, was made to continue "during 
 pleasure" only. Not satisfied with this decision, 
 Maryborough, during the campaign in Flanders, 
 addressed a personal letter to Queen Anne pray 
 ing to be made general for life. To this the 
 queen, on consulting with her ministers, re 
 turned a positive refusal. 
 
 The commission issued to Washington by Con 
 gress under date of June 19, 1775, giving him 
 the rank of commander-in-chief of the Ameri 
 can army, stated that it was "to continue in 
 for^e until revoked by this or a future Congress." 
 
 Following immemorial custom, all commis 
 sions issued to officers in the public service of 
 the United States contain the following : "This 
 commission to continue in force during the pleas 
 ure of the President of the United States for the 
 time being." 
 
 In past years the President of the United 
 States has, on several notable occasions, actually 
 exercised his prerogative, by summarily dis 
 missing officers. But Congress has now limited 
 that power to a time of war. Article 36 of the 
 Articles for the Government of the United States 
 Navy, commonly known as the Articles of War, 
 declares that " No officer shall be dismissed from 
 the naval service except by the order of the 
 President or by sentence of a general court- 
 martial ; and in time of peace no officer shall be 
 dismissed except in pursuance of the sentence of 
 a general court-martial or in mitigation there 
 of." Congress has further decreed that under 
 certain conditions the President s order of dis 
 missal shall be void. (Act of June 22, 1874.) 
 
 A commission sometimes includes a number 
 of persons associated together for some particular 
 object. The commission issued by Queen Vic 
 toria (1858) to Earl Hardwicke and eight others, 
 "to inquire into the best means of manning the 
 Royal Navy," led to the present admirable sys 
 tem of training boys for that navy. 
 
 The act of putting a vessel of war " in com 
 mission" is accomplished by hoisting, in their ap 
 propriate places, the national colors and the pen 
 nant of the commanding officer. The command 
 ing officer then assembles the officers and crew, 
 and reads to them the order by virtue of which 
 he assumes command. S. B. Luce, Captain 
 U.S.N. 
 
 COMMISSIONED OFFICER. An officer holding 
 a commission from the President, as distin 
 guished from non-commissioned and warrant- 
 officers. 
 
 Commissioners, Board of Navy. In 1815 
 
COMMISSIONERS 
 
 155 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 Congress authorized the formation of a board 
 of navy commissioners, which was placed under 
 the superintendence of the Secretary of the Navy, 
 and was charged with all the ministerial duties 
 of the department relating to the procuring of 
 supplies and stores, the collection of materials, 
 the construction, armament, and employment of 
 all the vessels. Commodores Kodgers, Hull, and 
 Porter were appointed the first commissioners. 
 The board was abolished in 1842. See ADMIN 
 ISTRATION, NAVAL. 
 
 Commissioners of the Navy (Eng.}. Cer 
 tain officers formerly appointed to superintend 
 the affairs of the navy under direction of the 
 lords commissioners of the Admiralty. Their 
 duty was more immediately concerned in the 
 building, docking, and repairing of ships in the 
 dock-yards ; they had also the appointment of 
 some of the officers, as surgeons, masters, etc., 
 and the transport, victualing, and medical de 
 partments were controlled by that board. It 
 was abolished in 1831. See ADMINISTRATION, 
 NAVAL. 
 
 Commodore. This rank of no remote date in 
 the British service, and only now a brevet rank, 
 so to speak, for a captain in command of a squad 
 ron or a division of a fleet, is not noticed in the 
 dictionaries of the 17th century. It is supposed 
 to be derived from the Spanish " Comendador," 
 one having command over others, or a company. 
 
 Until 1861 captains in the United States navy 
 commanding, or having commanded, squadrons, 
 were recognized as commodores, though never 
 commissioned as such, and wore a broad pennant 
 distinctive of that rank. In 1862 it was estab 
 lished by law as a fixed rank, and in July of that 
 year l q were commissioned on the active and 17 
 on the retired list. 
 
 A commodore has assimilated rank with a brig 
 adier-general of the army ; and the chief naval 
 constructor, paymaster-general, surgeon-general 
 and engineer-in-chief of the navy, bureau offi 
 cers, rank with commodores. 
 
 A commodore may command a division or a 
 squadron, or be chief of staff of a naval force 
 commanded by an admiral, a vice- or rear-ad 
 miral ; or may command ships of the first class, 
 naval stations, or the vessel of an admiral, vice- 
 admiral, or rear-admiral commanding a fleet. 
 
 Companion. The skylights or framing and 
 sash-lights on the upper deck, by which light 
 passes to the deck below. A kind of wooden 
 hood over the staircase of the cabin in small 
 ships, Companions are generally movable. 
 
 COMPANION-LADDER. The ladder by which 
 the cabin-officers ascend to or descend from the 
 quarter-deck. fc 
 
 COMPANION-WAY. The staircase or berthing 
 of the ladder-way to the cabin. 
 
 Comparison. The difference between the 
 chronometer and the time-piece used in an ob 
 servation. To take a comparison is to ascertain 
 the difference between the time-piece and the 
 chronometer; this should be done just before 
 and just after the observation. 
 
 Compasant. See ST. ELMO S FIRE. 
 
 Compass, The Mariner s. This is probably the 
 most important of all the instruments employed 
 by the navigator, and consists essentially of the 
 card, the needle, and the bowl. It is used for the 
 purpose of pointing out the direction of the 
 ship s track, or the course upon which she is 
 
 sailing, and is supposed to derive its name from 
 the fact that it includes or compasses the whole 
 plane of the horizon. 
 The card (Fig. 1) is of a circular form, divided 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 at its circumference into thirty-two points of 
 eleven degrees and fifteen minutes each, the 
 points being subdivided into half and quarter 
 points, and when a still smaller division is de 
 sired, into degrees. It is also divided into four 
 quadrants of ninety degrees each, the extremities 
 marking these quadrants being called the four 
 cardinal points, or north, east, south, and west 
 (written N., E., S., and W.), counting from the 
 top of the card and going around by the right 
 hand, or in the direction "in which the hands of 
 a watch move. The north point of the card is 
 generally marked by & fleur-de-lis. 
 
 The quadrants are again equally divided at 
 every four points, or forty-five degrees, the points 
 marking these subdivisions being given names 
 compounded of the names of the two cardinal 
 points between which they fall, or northeast, 
 southeast, southwest, and northwest (written 
 N.E., S.E., S.W., and N.W.). 
 
 The eight points already described may be 
 called the eight principal points of the compass. 
 
 The points half-way between the four cardinal 
 points and the points N.E. r S.E.,S.W., and N.W. 
 are given a name composed of the nearest cardi 
 nal point and the points Just named. Thus, the 
 point midway between N. and N.E. is called 
 north-northeast (written N.N.E.), that between 
 N.E. and E. east-northeast (written E.N.E.), 
 etc., the name of the cardinal point nearest 
 which they fall always coming first. 
 
 The points next the eight principal points take 
 the word by between such principal point and 
 the next cardinal point, the name of the princi 
 pal point next which they fall coming first. For 
 example, the point next to N. on the right is 
 north by east (written N. by E., or N. b. E.), 
 that next to N.E. on the right, northeast by east 
 (written N.E. by E., or N?E. b. E.), etc. 
 
 The quarter point next to N. on the right is 
 north a quarter east (written N. \ E.), the half 
 point north a half east (written N. E.), the 
 same general rule being observed as in naming the 
 whole points. 
 
 In many cases the bearings of objects are given 
 to eighths of a point. 
 
COMPASS 
 
 156 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 The name of the opposite point to any given 
 point is known at once by simply reversing the 
 name or the letters which indicate the name of 
 the given point. Thus, the opposite of N. being 
 S. and that of E., W., the opposite point of N.E. 
 is S.W., that opposite N.E. by E , S.W. by W., 
 etc. 
 
 If the impressions of the card are taken on 
 paper, this should be done after the paper has 
 been cemented to the plate forming the basis, in 
 order to prevent distortion from shrinkage, and 
 also to attain a more perfect centring. This 
 being accomplished, the card is placed upon the 
 needles, which consist of laminae, or layers, of 
 hardened steel, capable of receiving and retain 
 ing a high degree of magnetic power. The 
 needles are fastened at equal distances to a light 
 frame- work of brass, and are screwed to the card 
 in a direction parallel to the line joining the 
 north and south points. 
 
 In the best form of air or dry compasses, that 
 used in the English navy, and known as the Ad 
 miralty pattern, these needles are four in num 
 ber, the two centre ones being about 7^ inches 
 long and the two outer ones about 5 inches. 
 The extremities of these needles are 15 and 45 
 from the extremities of the diameter of the card 
 which is parallel to them. On the needles small 
 brass balancing-slides are placed, so that*the card 
 may be restored to its horizontal position when 
 affected by dip. These slides should move freely, 
 but should have sufficient friction to retain them 
 in their places. 
 
 Two cards, a light and a heavy one, marked 
 respectively A and J, are supplied with this 
 compass, the former being for ordinary use 
 when the ship is comparatively steady, and the 
 latter for use when there is a great deal of mo 
 tion. The light card is balanced on a pivot 
 having a point of " native alloy," which is 
 harder than steel, and does not corrode on expo 
 sure to the atmosphere. Two spare pivots of 
 hardened steel are also furnished for the light 
 card, and these are gilded by an electrical pro 
 cess. The caps in which these pivots work are 
 centred with ruby or agate, while the cap of the 
 heavy card is centred with speculum metal and 
 ruby-pointed pivots are used. 
 
 The pivot should be screwed into the exact 
 centre of the bowl, which is made of strong cop 
 per, with a glass top, and fitted with gimbals, 
 so that the card may always preserve a horizon 
 tal position even when the motion of the ship is 
 most violent. The intersecting point of the axis 
 of the gimbals must coincide with the centre of 
 the card and with the centre of the azimuth cir 
 cle. This latter is a metal circle, graduated to 
 minutes of arc, and fitted with a prism and a 
 sight vane, the latter having a wide opening in 
 which is placed a vertical hair-line exactly oppo 
 site the centre of the prism, the line of sight 
 joining the two passing over the pivot. The 
 azimuth circle is made to ship on the circum 
 ference of the bowl, and is used in taking bear 
 ings. Colored glasses are also fitted to the circle 
 to prevent the glare of the sun from blinding the 
 observer when taking bearings of that body. 
 The azimuth circle is only fitted to the standard 
 compass, the binnacle, or steering compasses, 
 being unprovided with it. 
 
 The bowl and the compass-card are placed in 
 a wooden box and the whole in a binnacle, which 
 
 consists of a wooden case mounted on a stand, 
 the top being of brass, fitted with glass, so that 
 the card may be seen, and having lamps at the 
 sides to light up the card at night. 
 
 The pivots, caps, and margins of the card 
 should be frequently examined to see that they 
 are in good order and working freely, and when 
 the card works sluggishly or injury from any 
 cause occurs, a new cap or pivot should be 
 screwed in, being careful when screwing the 
 pivot into the bowl to preserve its point from 
 injury and to place the card lightly upon it. 
 When the bowl does not work freely in the 
 gimbals, the axes of the latter and their bouch- 
 ings should be examined, and, if necessary, 
 slightly rubbed with plumbago. No oil, grease, 
 or other fatty substance should be used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 In addition to the fittings already described a 
 screw is fitted to the side of the bowl, by means 
 of which the card may be lifted off the pivot and 
 clamped. When it is necessary to move the 
 compass, or when firing the heavy guns, the card 
 should be raised to avoid injury to the pivot. 
 
 The screws attached to the prism plate and to 
 the sight vane receive special adjustment, and 
 should not be touched. 
 
 Ritchie 1 s -Liquid Compass (Fig. 2), which is 
 used as the regulation compass in the United 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 States navy, consists of a skeleton card mounted 
 on a pivot, and having the bowl filled with a 
 liquid composed of thirty-five parts of alcohol 
 and sixty-five parts of distilled water, the freez 
 ing-point of the mixture being about 10 Fahr 
 enheit. In the bowls of the compasses designed 
 for use in the Arctic regions pure alcohol is used. 
 The needles, which are two in number, each 
 consist of six laminae of a superior quality of 
 steel, known in commerce as " Stubb s sheet," 
 this having been found the best for the purpose, 
 not only for its uniform excellence, but for its 
 magnetic capacity in both intensity and per 
 manence. Each of these laminae is six and a 
 half inches long, seven-sixteenths of an inch 
 wide, and about one-fortieth of an inch thick, 
 and each needle weighs a little less than two 
 ounces. 
 
COMPASS 
 
 157 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 These needles are inclosed in two parallel 
 tubes, which serve also as air-chambers, the tubes 
 being parallel to the line joining the N. and S. 
 points of the card, their ends meeting the rim a 
 little within 30 of this line. These tubes are 
 connected at the centre by a third hollow tube at 
 right angles to them, which supports the cap 
 upon which the card is pivoted. The rim is 
 fitted to form another air-chamber, thus giving 
 great buoyancy to the card. 
 
 Great care is exercised in hardening and tem 
 pering the lamime, and, by means of a powerful 
 electro-magnet, they are magnetized to satura 
 tion. They are then separately tested for rela 
 tive magnet power, and the angle of deflection 
 marked on each. Afterwards they are thrown 
 promiscuously into contact for a short time and 
 again tested, any which show a sensible falling 
 off being rejected. 
 
 These compasses have given great satisfaction 
 in use, and are found to possess in the highest 
 degree the three great requisites of a good com 
 pass, viz., directive force, sensibility, and steadi 
 ness. The 7^-inch has been adopted as the regu 
 lation size in the navy, and as the azimuth cir 
 cle that lits one fits all, any compass may be used 
 indifferently as a standard or as a steering com 
 pass. 
 
 Another great advantage possessed by these 
 compasses is that the pressure on the pivot being 
 only about seventy grains on an average, there 
 is much less frictional error, and of course a 
 much less degree of wear on the caps and pivots 
 than with the card of the air compass, in which 
 the pressure on the pivot with the heavier card 
 may be sixty times as great. 
 
 In the tell-tale compasses, which are mounted 
 face downward, the pressure on the pivot is so 
 regulated as to act upward. 
 
 ^Duchemin s Compass (Fig. 3) consists of two 
 concentric circular needles with a steel traverse 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 connecting the poles. The maximum magnetiza 
 tion (shown by the heavy shading) is at the N. 
 and S. points, decreasing gradually to zero at E. 
 and W. The circle is magnetized by a special 
 process, which gives magnetic stability, and 
 placed upon a pivot or suspended by a thread 
 from the centre, it forms a true compass, the N. 
 pole pointing to the south and the S. pole to the 
 north. 
 
 In a series of experiments made at sea with 
 this compass, in which it was intentionally ex 
 posed to the roughest usage, it proved so satis 
 factory with regard to sensibility, steadiness, and 
 fixity of the line of its poles, that it has been 
 adopted as the regulation compass in the French 
 navy, and is in use in several lines of merchant 
 steamers. 
 
 The magnetic needle is subject to the influ 
 ences of variation or declination, dip or incli 
 nation, and deviation. 
 
 On account of the magnetic attraction of the 
 earth there are but few places on the globe at 
 which the compass-needle points to the true 
 north, or in the direction of a terrestrial me 
 ridian. The direction that the horizontal needle 
 assumes when uninfluenced by local causes is 
 called the magnetic meridian, hence the variation 
 of the compass is the angle included between the 
 terrestrial and the magnetic meridians, and is 
 measured by the number of degrees between the 
 true and the magnetic north. If the N. end of 
 the needle is drawn to the right hand of true 
 north, the variation is called easterly, and if to 
 the left hand, westerly. 
 
 The variation of the compass differs at differ 
 ent places, and is constantly, though slowly, 
 changing at the same place, increasing for a cer 
 tain time, then slowly decreasing for a period, 
 when it again commences to increase. Thus, 
 at Paris, in 1550, the variation was 8 E., in 
 1660, zero, and in 1769, 20 W. It is also 
 subject to mensual and diurnal changes, the 
 mensual change being according to the season 
 of the year. It was first noticed about the year 
 1756. 
 
 In the diurnal change, a small easterly move 
 ment of the needle is observed during the early 
 morning hours, reaching a maximum about 7 
 A.M. After that time the N. end moves rapidly 
 westward, reaching its extreme westerly position 
 at about 1 P.M. It then returns to the eastward, 
 but more slowly, the easterly deviation becoming 
 a maximum at about 10 P.M. To seamen, how 
 ever, these small fluctuations are unimportant. 
 The mean daily range of the magnetic needle is 
 about 9.3 . 
 
 The needle is also affected by sudden changes in 
 the direction and intensity of the magnetic force. 
 Eaper cites a case in which, at Greenwich ob 
 servatory, the needle was observed to change its 
 direction more than 2 in eight minutes of time, 
 and similar effects were observed at other places. 
 These sudden disturbances are called magnetic 
 storms. 
 
 If all places having the same variation be 
 united by lines drawn upon the chart, these lines 
 will be found to describe irregular curves, called 
 lines of equal variation, or isogonic lines. The 
 lines uniting places at which the needle, when 
 uninfluenced by local causes, points to the true 
 north are called lines of no variation, or agonic 
 lines. 
 
 The discovery of the variation of the needle 
 from the true north is usually attributed to Co 
 lumbus during the voyage in which he discovered 
 America, but in one of" the earliest treatises on 
 magnetism, written in 1269, the variation of the 
 needle is spoken of. The authenticity of this 
 work has, however, been questioned. 
 
 The magnetic needle when placed on a pivot 
 will not retain its horizontal position except on 
 
COMPASS 
 
 158 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 the magnetic equator, the N. end of the needle 
 dipping and the S. end rising in N. magnetic 
 latitudes, and the S. end dipping and the N. 
 end rising in S. magnetic latitudes. This incli 
 nation of the needle to a horizontal plane or to 
 the horizon is called the dip, or inclination of 
 the needle, and is different at different places ac 
 cording to their magnetic latitude. The dip, 
 like the variation, undergoes a continual change, 
 which is, however, very small in amount, the 
 decrease at London in the last three hundred 
 years amounting to no more than about four de 
 grees. There is a diurnal change amounting to 
 three or four minutes. Lines drawn on the 
 chart to unite places having the same dip are 
 called lines of equal dip, or isoclinal lines. On 
 the magnetic equator the dip is zero, and at the 
 magnetic poles it is 90. It is found by means 
 of the dipping-needle, a very delicate instrument. 
 The dip being in some degree a measure of the 
 intensity of the earth s magnetism as well as ma 
 terially modifying the directive force of tho 
 needle, is a matter of great importance to the 
 mariner. At the magnetic poles, where the 
 needle is perpendicular, it has of course no 
 directive force, although at these points the 
 greatest magnetic intensity is developed. The 
 dip was first observed by Robert Norman, an 
 English compass-maker, in 1576. 
 
 The Magnetic Equator, of which we have al 
 ready spoken, is an irregular curve, cutting the 
 terrestrial equator in three points according to 
 some authorities, in four according to others. 
 From the magnetic equator magnetic latitude is 
 reckoned, and at any point on it the magnetic 
 needle will retain its horizontal position, or there 
 will be no dip. 
 
 As this curve does not coincide throughout 
 with the terrestrial equator, magnetic latitudes 
 do not correspond everywhere with the common 
 or geographical latitude, differing at some places 
 as much as 13. 
 
 The Magnetic Poles are two spots on the sur 
 face of the earth, one in the northern and the 
 other in the southern hemisphere, at which the 
 needle points directly downward, or at which the 
 dip is 90. The present position of the south 
 magnetic pole is about lat. 70 N., Ion. 98 W., 
 and of the north magnetic pole, lat. 74 S., Ion. 
 148 E. The change in the variation previously 
 mentioned has been ascribed to the revolution of 
 these poles around the poles of the earth. 
 
 The Deviation of the Compass may be denned 
 to be the angle which the needle makes with the 
 magnetic meridian, and is measured by the num 
 ber of degrees between this meridian and the 
 line of direction of the needle. It is marked 
 east or west as the N. end of the needle is drawn 
 to the right or left of the magnetic meridian. 
 
 The deviation of the compass is caused by the 
 action on the needle of the iron in a ship, whether 
 employed in her construction, equipment, or 
 cargo, and by the action of magnetic forces with 
 out the ship, such as exist in volcanic bodies, 
 iron cranes, water-pipes, or in anything that can 
 exert a magnetic influence on the needle. The 
 magnetic influence which one iron ship can ex 
 ercise upon the compasses of another in close prox 
 imity is very appreciable. Lightning may affect 
 the compass needle. 
 
 There are different methods of finding the 
 error due to these causes, a description of which 
 
 will be found in almost any work on navigation, 
 but all consist in bringing the ship s head in suc 
 cession to each of the thirty-two points of the 
 compass, and then observing the bearing of some 
 object, either celestial or terrestrial, whose true 
 bearing is found either by calculation or by the 
 inspection of tables prepared for the purpose. 
 The difference between the true bearing so found 
 and the bearing shown by compass, after the 
 variation due to the place has been applied to the 
 compass bearing, is the error due to local devia 
 tion. 
 
 As the local deviation differs in iron ships 
 when the ship is on an even keel and when heel 
 ing, it should be determined under both circum 
 stances, and in steamers, if this error has been 
 determined with the funnel up, a few bearings 
 should be taken with it down, when, if any con 
 siderable difference is observed, the errors should 
 be obtained for both positions of the funnel. 
 
 The deviation may be found by bringing the 
 ship s head on every other point of the compass, 
 or even on the eight principal points, the error 
 on the omitted points being obtained by inter 
 polation. Graphic methods of representing the 
 deviation have been devised, the best being that 
 of Napier and the right-line method of Archi 
 bald Smith. 
 
 After finding the deviation on all the points 
 of the compass, these errors may be either tabu 
 lated or the compass may be compensated by 
 means of magnets placed in the deck near the 
 compass. In some iron vessels, where the devia 
 tion on particular courses is very large, a com 
 bination of the two methods is used, the errors 
 being partially compensated by magnets and the 
 residual error being found by observation and 
 tabulated. 
 
 Both methods, the compensation and the tabu 
 lar, have their advocates. In the United States 
 navy, as well as in the navy of England, uncom- 
 pensated compasses are used, and the deviations 
 given from the deviation table are applied to the 
 compass courses to find the correct magnetic 
 course steered or to steer. Many merchant ves 
 sels use compensated compasses. 
 
 As the deviations found for the compasses of a 
 vessel are only good at the place where found, 
 and change, from a variety of causes, after any 
 considerable lapse of time or after considerable 
 change of position, it frequently becomes neces 
 sary to move the magnets by which the compen 
 sation is effected in order to compensate for the 
 new deviations found. Great difficulty is some 
 times experienced in doing this as the magnets 
 are ordinarily fitted. To obviate this difficulty, 
 as well as to furnish a compass possessed of great 
 steadiness and small frictional error, Sir William 
 Thomson has designed an instrument which, 
 while possessing all the qualities of a good com 
 pass, can be readily and quickly adjusted for 
 changes of deviation, and which may be described 
 as follows : 
 
 The compass-card (Fig. 4) is supported on a 
 thin rim of aluminium, and its inner parts on 
 thirty-two silk threads or fine copper wires 
 stretched from the rim to a small central boss of 
 aluminium. The card itself is of thin, strong 
 paper, and all the central parts of it are cut away, 
 leaving only enough to show conveniently the 
 points and degree divisions of the compass. 
 
 The central boss consists of a thin disk of 
 
COMPASS 
 
 159 
 
 COMPASS 
 
 aluminium with a hole in its centre, which rests 
 on the projecting lip of a small aluminium in- 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 
 verted cup mounted with a sapphire cap, which 
 rests on a fixed iridium point. Eight small 
 needles from 3^ to 2 inches long, made of thin 
 steel wire, and weighing in all 54 grains, are 
 fixed like the steps of a rope ladder on two paral 
 lel silk threads, and slung from the aluminium 
 rim by four fine copper wires through eyes in 
 the four ends of the outer pair of needles. 
 
 The weight of the central boss, aluminium 
 cup, and sapphire cap amounts in all to about 5 
 grains. It need not be more for a 24-inch than 
 for a 10-inch compass. For the 10-inch compass 
 the whole weight on the iridium point, including 
 rim, card, silk thread, central boss, and needles, 
 is about 180 grains. 
 
 By throwing the greater part of the weight of 
 the card to its rim a long period of free oscilla 
 tion and consequent steadiness is insured, and, 
 owing to the small pressure on the pivot, due to 
 the lightness of the card, there is almost absolute 
 freedom from frictional error. There is a hemi 
 spherical space under the compass-case, which 
 being nearly filled with castor oil, serves to calm 
 the vibratio ns of the bowl. 
 
 The apparatus for correcting the error of the 
 compass consists of two solid or hollow iron 
 globes placed on proper supports, and attached 
 to the compass on two sides of the binnacle. 
 These are for the purpose of correcting the quad- 
 rantal error, or that caused by the difference of 
 the induced magnetism in fore-and-aft and 
 thwartships horizontal iron. This adjustment 
 having been once made remains correct in all 
 latitudes, unless there is some change in the 
 place of the iron near the compass. To make 
 the correction the globes are placed at a certain 
 distance from the centre of the compass, accord 
 ing to the amount of the deviation to be cor 
 rected. 
 
 For correcting the semicircular deviation, or 
 that caused by the magnetism of the ship and 
 the induced magnetism of her vertical iron, 
 which changes with lapse of time and with 
 change of latitude, sets of magnets are so ar 
 ranged in the binnacle as to neutralize the dis 
 turbance arising from this cause, as well as that 
 caused by the heeling error. For this latter a 
 vertical magnet, adjustable to the proper height, 
 
 in a line perpendicular to the deck, through the 
 centre of the compass and of the binnacle, is 
 used. 
 
 The inventor has also applied to this compass 
 an azimuth mirror on the principle of the camera 
 lucida, by which the bearings of objects on the 
 horizon can be taken, even if the highest point 
 of the globes used for correcting the quadrantal 
 deviation rises as high as 5 inches above the glass 
 of the compass-bowl. By means of this mirror 
 the readings are taken directly on the card, and 
 it possesses the advantage of not requiring any 
 adjustment of the instrument, such as that by 
 which, in the ordinary azimuth compass, the hair- 
 is made to exactly cover the object. 
 
 The deviation of the compass-needle was ob 
 served by Mr. Wales, who accompanied Capt. 
 Cook as astronomer, in the latter half of the 
 18th century, but no effort seems to have been 
 made at that time for its correction, it having 
 probably been ascribed to the imperfection of the 
 instruments then employed. 
 
 The first attempt to correct the deviation ap 
 pears to have been made by Capt. Matthew 
 Flinders, who observed it while on a surveying 
 expedition to Australia in the beginning of the 
 present century. He suggested the introduction 
 of an upright iron stanchion so placed as to 
 counteract the ship s attraction, and the explana 
 tion which he then gave of the action on the 
 needle of the ship s iron has formed the basis of 
 all subsequent investigation. 
 
 The Chinese were perhaps the first people who 
 possessed a knowledge of the properties of the 
 magnetized needle. We are told that as early as 
 2634 B.C. these people possessed an instrument 
 which would indicate the S. point, thus distin 
 guishing the four cardinal points. Other allu 
 sions to the compass are also made in old Chi 
 nese records, proving its great antiquity among 
 them. 
 
 The Chinese compass has a distinguishing 
 mark at the S. pole instead of at the N., as 
 with us. The needle is seldom more than an 
 inch in length, and is less than a line in thick 
 ness. It is peculiarly poised, with its point of 
 suspension a little below its centre of gravity, 
 and is very sensitive. The card has but twenty- 
 four points, reckoned from the S. pole. 
 
 The improvement of the mariner s compass 
 has been but a slow process, and during the last 
 forty years it has been brought to a greater de 
 gree of perfection than during all of the pre 
 vious period in which it has been known. During 
 the last few years the introduction of iron in 
 the construction and equipment of vessels has 
 stimulated investigation in order to detect the 
 causes of the vagaries of the needle, and to 
 apply a remedy which should make the com 
 pass an instrument upon which reliance could 
 be placed. 
 
 Some of the most eminent scientific men of the 
 present day have devoted their energies to the 
 task, and the result is a great improvement in 
 our knowledge of the laws of magnetism as 
 affecting the compass-needle, and in the con 
 struction of the compasses now in use. 
 
 See the various works on Magnetism and on 
 Navigation. Also, " English Philosophical 
 Transactions ; Magnetism of Ships and Devia 
 tion of the Compass," republished by the Bureau 
 of Navigation in 1867, especially the article on 
 
COMPASS-TIMBEK 
 
 160 
 
 COMPOUND 
 
 the Mariner s Compass from the London Quar 
 terly Review for October, 1865; "Naval Sci 
 ence," vol. ii., 1873, articles on Deviation of the 
 Compass ; " Elementary Magnetism and Local 
 Attraction of Ship s Compasses," Sunderland, 
 Thomas Keed & Co. ; " Finding of the Compass 
 Error," by B. F. Greene, Professor U. S. Navy; 
 Towson on the " Deviation of the Compass in 
 Iron Ships ;" " Encyclopaedia Britannica," arti 
 cle Compass ; " Keports of the Liverpool Com 
 pass Commission," republished by the Bureau 
 of Navigation in 1868, etc. Charles H. Black, 
 Lieutenant- Commander U, S. N. 
 
 COMPASS, ADJUSTMENT OF. See COMPASS, 
 THE MARINER S. 
 
 COMPASS, AZIMUTH. A compass of superior 
 construction fitted for taking bearings. 
 
 COMPASS BEARING. The bearing of an object 
 as taken by the compass. It is distinguished 
 from the true bearing, which may be deduced 
 from it by applying the corrections for variation 
 and deviation. See BEARING. 
 
 COMPASS CORRECTIONS. Those quantities 
 which must be applied to directions shown by 
 the needle to give the true directions. There 
 are two such corrections : the variation and the 
 deviation. See COMPASS, THE MARINER S. 
 
 COMPASS COURSE. The angle which the ship s 
 track makes with the direction of the magnetic 
 needle of the compass. It is distinguished from 
 the true course, which may be deduced from it 
 by applying the corrections for variation and de 
 viation. The correction for leeway is also neces 
 sary to deduce the course made good from the 
 course steered. See COURSE. 
 
 COMPASS, IMPERFECTIONS OF. 1. The pivot 
 must be in the centre of the graduated circum 
 ference of the card. 
 
 2. The eye-vane and object-vane must each be 
 vertical. 
 
 3. The direction of the magnetism of the 
 needle must be parallel to the longitudinal line 
 of the needle. 
 
 4. The line joining the eye-vane and object- 
 vane must pas s directly over the centre of the 
 card. 
 
 The effects of non-conformity with the last 
 two requirements can be ascertained and allowed 
 for, but a failure to meet either of the first two 
 should cause the rejection of the instrument. 
 
 COMPASS, STANDARD. One raised above the 
 deck, so that the local deviation will be small 
 and the compass in a good position for observing 
 bearings. 
 
 COMPASS, STEERING. The compass by which 
 the vessel is steered. The course is given as 
 per standard compass, and the proper allowance 
 for the difference is made by the officer of the 
 deck. 
 
 Compass-timber. Curved or crooked tim 
 ber. 
 
 Complain. When the masts, timbers, blocks, 
 etc., creak, and thus show that there is some in 
 ternal defect, they are said to complain. 
 
 Complement. The number of men composing 
 a ship s crew. 
 
 Composite Sailing. A combination of paral 
 lel and great-circle sailing. See SAILINGS. 
 
 Composite Ship. One having a wooden skin 
 and an iron frame- work. Jordan s system is as 
 follows: the whole outer skin, including stem, 
 keel, stern-post, and planking, is of wood ; and 
 
 the frames, beams, kelson, shelf-piece, braces, 
 etc., are of iron. See SHEATHED SHIP. 
 
 Compound Engine. A modification of steam- 
 engine in which the steam, having performed a 
 certain amount of work in one cylinder, is ad 
 mitted to another cylinder of larger dimensions, 
 where additional work is obtained from its re 
 maining expansive force. The primitive method 
 was patented by Hornblower in the year 1781, 
 and improved by Wolf in 1804, by the adoption 
 of higher steam-pressure applied to Watt s ex 
 pired patents of the double-acting cylinder and 
 separate condenser ; and the principle was first 
 introduced on a large scale by Randolph, Elder 
 & Co., of Glasgow, under their patents of 1856, 
 in the steamships " Callao," " Lima," and " Bo 
 gota," of the Pacific Steam Navigation Com 
 pany. Crude as the design was, and using com 
 paratively low-pressure steam, the economy ob 
 served, which was 1\ pounds of coal per hour 
 per indicated horse-power under circumstances 
 when 3| pounds consumption was considered an 
 excellent performance, caused the system to 
 gradually grow into favor, and it is now almost 
 universally adopted. 
 
 In the year 1850 the average of the voyages 
 of the Cunard steamships with plain engines was 
 13 days outward bound, and 12 days, 16 hours 
 homeward bound ; and in 1877 the average of 
 the " White Star" line, with compound engines, 
 was 8 days, 13 hours, 39 minutes outward bound, 
 and 8 days, 10 hours, 30 minutes homeward 
 bound. 
 
 The " Gallia," the latest steamer of the Cunard 
 line, made her first voyage from Queenstown to 
 New York in 7 days, 19 hours, under the follow 
 ing conditions : 
 
 VESSEL. 
 
 Length of keel 430 feet. 
 
 Length all over.i 450 " 
 
 Breadth of beam 44 " 
 
 Depth of hold 36 " 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 Number cylinders, one H. P. and two L. P. 3 
 Diameter of H. P. cylinder 63 inches. 
 
 " " each L. P. cylinder 80 " 
 
 Stroke of pistons , 5 feet. 
 
 Greatest diameter of crank-shaft journals.. 21 inches. 
 Cut-off valves on high-pressure cylinder. 
 
 Condensing surface 8,300 square feet. 
 
 Condenser tubes, inch diameter, 9 feet 
 
 long. 
 Independent circulating pumps (Gwynne s). 
 
 Propeller, steel-bladed ; weight 24 tons. 
 
 BOILERS. 
 
 Number of boilers 8 
 
 Diameter " 14 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Length " 9 "6 " 
 
 Number of furnaces, each 3 
 
 Area of grates 538 square feet. 
 
 Diameter of boiler tubes 3J^ inches. 
 
 Length " " " 7 feet. 
 
 Area of heating surface 13,000 square feet. 
 
 " superheating surface 400 " 
 
 PERFORMANCE. 
 
 Steam-pressure, per square inch 75 pounds. 
 
 Indicated horse-power (mean of trip) 5,261 
 
 Coal per day 98 tons. 
 
 Coal per hour per I.P 1.73 pounds. 
 
 Speed 14.3 knots. 
 
 " at measured mile 16 
 
 Greatest day s run 383 " 
 
 Compound engines can be made much less 
 complicated than plain engines of equal steam- 
 
COMPOUND 
 
 161 
 
 CONCLUDING-LINE 
 
 expanding power. Expansion can readily be 
 carried as far as eight times the original volume 
 without the use of cut-off valves, thus dispensing 
 with a great deal of troublesome machinery. 
 The strains upon the running-gear and crank 
 shaft are nearly ^equal throughout the stroke of 
 the piston, and the parts can be made lighter than 
 in the plain engine, where they must be strong 
 enough to withstand the initial pressure of the 
 steam, entailing a consequent increase of friction. 
 Steam cannot be beneficially expanded more 
 than eight times its volume ; for even supposing 
 the expansion curve to be an isothermal line, or 
 to follow the imaginary law of Mariotte, a con 
 dition that can never be realized in practice, the 
 gain by expanding to sixteen volumes is only 
 four and seven-tenths per cent, more than by ex 
 panding eight volumes. To expand eight vol 
 umes in the plain engine an extremely compli 
 cated apparatus is necessary. See EXPANSION 
 OF STEAM, MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 When great power is required, it is customary 
 to construct compound engines with three cylin 
 ders, one being high pressure and two low press 
 ure, on account of the inconvenient size of the 
 low-pressure cylinder when only one is used. 
 This arrangement also gives a more uniform 
 strain to the crank-shaft. 
 
 The ratio of volume between the low-pressure 
 and high-pressure cylinders is usually between 
 three and a half and four to one. 
 
 Steam-jacketing and high-pressure steam 
 two important sources 6f economy in modern 
 engineering may be applied to plain engines ; 
 but results thus far observed are in favor of the 
 compound engine. Albert Aston, Chief Engineer 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Compound Screw. Two screws of different 
 pitches acting together on the same axis. In 
 some combinations one screw is within the other, 
 the outer one forming the nut of the inner one, 
 in which case the inner screw does not revolve ; 
 or, the two threads may be cut on one continuous 
 piece, one being provided with a fixed nut and 
 the other witli a movable nut. Suppose both 
 threads to be either right-handed or left-handed, 
 the resultant motion and consequent force in 
 direction of the axis is represented by the differ 
 ence between the pitches of the screws. The 
 object of this contrivance is to obtain a slow ad 
 vance due to fine pitch, together with the strength 
 of large threads. 
 
 If one screw is right-handed and the other 
 left-handed, the resultant motion is represented 
 by the sum of the two pitches. The elevating 
 screws of some classes of ordnance are on this 
 principle. The ordinary " turn-buckle" is another 
 example. Albert Aston, Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 
 Comprador (Sp.). In the East, one who con 
 tracts to furnish meat, vegetables, etc., for a 
 ship. 
 
 Compressed-air Engine. An engine similar 
 to the steam-engine, compressed air being the 
 motive force instead of steam. It is especially 
 adapted to locomotive purposes, such as driving 
 street tramway-cars. The air is compressed to 
 any desired tension by large stationary engines, 
 or by water-power, and then heated to a high 
 temperature. It is then received into the reser 
 voirs of the locomotive or street-car, which have 
 sufficient capacity to run to the next station. 
 
 Compressor. A curved lever pivoted so as 
 11 
 
 to permit the curve to sweep the lower orifice of 
 the deck-pipe. To the end is hooked a small 
 tackle. When the compressor is hauled to, the 
 chain is jammed between it and the deck-pipe. 
 A mechanism for checking the recoil of a gun. 
 
 Comptroller s Office, Second. A bureau of 
 the Treasury Department. Established in 1817. 
 It is the duty of the Comptroller to receive and 
 examine all accounts settled by the Second, 
 Third, and Fourth Auditors, and certify the 
 balances arising thereon to the Secretary of the 
 Department in which the expenditure has been 
 incurred. The Comptroller s jurisdiction is re 
 visory and not original, but in all cases his de 
 cision is final and binding upon the Auditor who 
 first passes upon the account or claim. All re 
 quisitions of the Secretaries of War and of the 
 Navy on the Treasury for money to be expended 
 by those Departments must be countersigned by 
 the Second Comptroller ; and he must report to 
 those Secretaries the official forms to be used in 
 the different offices for disbursing the public 
 money in their respective Departments, and the 
 manner and form of keeping and stating the 
 accounts of the persons employed therein. In 
 case of the death of any petty officer, seaman, or 
 other person not an officer, on board any vessel 
 in the employ of the United States, which has 
 been sunk or destroyed, the Comptroller may 
 prescribe rules to govern the payment of arrears 
 of pay due such person to the persons designated 
 by law to receive the same. The Comptroller is 
 the custodian of the official bonds of all dis 
 bursing officers of the War and Navy Depart 
 ments, and all contracts made by virtue of any 
 law, and requiring the advance of money, or in 
 any manner connected with the settlement of 
 public accounts, if cognizable by the Second 
 Comptroller, must be deposited in his office 
 within ninety days after their respective dates. 
 The Second Comptroller is charged with the 
 preservation of the public accounts subject to his 
 revision, but in all cases such accounts after 
 having been revised are returned to the Auditor 
 from whom they were received, and are placed 
 among his files. The office of the Second Comp 
 troller consists of the Comptroller, Deputy Comp 
 troller, and sixty clerks, and is organized in di 
 visions, as follows: army-pay, navy-pay, quar 
 termaster s, Indian, law and miscellaneous, army 
 pension, and book-keepers. 
 
 Concealment, or Suppressio Veri. Consists 
 in the suppression of any fact or circumstance as 
 to the state of the ship, the nature of her employ, 
 and the time of sailing or expected arrival, ma 
 terial to the risk of insurance, and is fatal to the 
 insured. But it is held immaterial to disclose 
 the secret destination of privateers, the usages 
 of trade, or matters equally open to both parties. 
 Concentrated Fire. See FIRE. 
 Concentric Engine. An instrument used in 
 scroll engraving, particularly bank-note plate 
 engraving. 
 
 Conch. A large univalve, used as a horn by 
 pilots, fishermen, etc., in fogs ; a strombus, triton, 
 or sometimes a murex. A name for wreckers of 
 the Bahama reefs; though plunder is their _ ob 
 ject, the Conchs are very~serviceable, arid evince 
 both courage and address in saving the lives of 
 the wrecked. A nickname for the inhabitants 
 of Key West. 
 
 Concluding-line. A small rope hitched to 
 
CONCITSSION-FUZE 
 
 162 
 
 CONN 
 
 the middle of the steps of the stern-ladders. 
 Also, a small line leading through the centre of 
 the steps of a Jacob s ladder. 
 
 Concussion-fuze. See FUZE. 
 
 Condemn. To determine, judicially, the 
 question of title to a captured vessel in favor of 
 the captor. (See PRIZE.) To declare a vessel 
 unseaworthy with a view to her being broken 
 up. To pronounce against the physical capacity 
 of an officer or enlisted man. To declare offi 
 cially that stores are unfit for use. 
 
 Condenser. In the steam-engine, the vessel or 
 apparatus in which the steam is condensed when 
 expelled from the cylinder after having per 
 formed its work, and m which a partial vacuum 
 is constantly maintained while the machinery is 
 in operation, the steam being instantly deprived 
 of its latent heat and a portion of its sensible 
 heat, either by direct contact with cold water 
 injected as a "spray," or being exposed to me 
 tallic surfaces kept cold by circulating water. 
 When the spray or jet is used, and the water of 
 condensation mixes with the " injection," or re 
 frigerating water, the apparatus is called a "jet 
 condenser" ; and when the condensation is pro 
 duced by contact with metallic surfaces, and tho 
 purity of the water of condensation preserved, it 
 is called a "surface condenser." In both cases 
 the uncondensed vapor, the quantity of which 
 depends upon the temperature of the water of 
 condensation, and the air or other gas mixed 
 with the steam, are drawn off by an nir-pump. 
 
 The surface condenser consists of a box suffi 
 ciently strong to resist the atmospheric pressure, 
 usually of cast iron and of rectilinear cross-sec 
 tions, filled with tubes about or f inch diam 
 eter, packed water-tight at both ends, the steam 
 being exposed to one surface of the tube, and the 
 refrigerating water, which is generally forced 
 f through by a pump, called a circulating-pump, 
 to the other. 
 
 The amount of tube-surface exposed to the 
 steam should be about one square foot for each 
 pound of coal consumed per hour. This will 
 insure a good vacuum in any climate. The 
 quantity of refrigerating water may be computed 
 by the formula : 
 
 ,(H-T f ) 
 
 -- ~ 
 
 in which H denotes the total heat of the steam 
 discharged into the condenser, 10 its weight, T 
 the temperature of the sea-water, T l that of the 
 discharge-water, W its weight, and T 2 the tem 
 perature of the water of condensation. From this 
 the volume for any given time may be easily 
 computed. With a jet condenser 
 
 The value of T may be generally considered 
 about 80 Fahr. See MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 Albert Aston, Chief Engineer U.8.N. 
 
 Condensing Engine. A steam-engine in 
 which the steam, after having performed its 
 work, instead of being expelled into the atmo 
 sphere as in a locomotive-engine, is brought in 
 contact with cold water or cold metallic surfaces 
 in an apparatus called a condenser, where it is 
 instantly condensed, thereby producing a partial 
 vacuum and relieving the piston of a greater 
 portion of the atmospheric pressure, andj at the 
 
 same time, reserving the pure water of con 
 densation for resupplying the boilers. See CON 
 DENSER. 
 
 An engine for condensing or compressing 
 matter of any kind. 
 
 Conder. A watcher of fishes, the same as 
 balker, huer, and olpis. His employment was 
 to give notice to the fishermen from an eminence 
 which way the shoals of fish were going. 
 
 Conductor. A metal rod or wire projecting 
 above the truck and leading thence to the water. 
 Its use is to protect the ship from lightning. 
 See ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Cone-buoy. See BUOY. 
 
 Cone Valve. A rotating or oscillating valve, 
 the bearing surfaces of which are conical, and 
 which is similar in its action to a cock. The 
 device has never been successfully adopted on a 
 large scale, owing principally to the variable 
 expansion of the metal. 
 
 Coney-fish. A name of the burbot. 
 
 Confederation, Argentine. The navy of the 
 Confederation consists of 26 steamers, 2 of which 
 are ironclads, and they are manned by 2900 sail 
 ors and marines. This navy is commanded by 2 
 admirals and 74 other officers. 
 
 Configuration. Relative position or aspect of 
 the planets ; or the face of the horoscope, accord 
 ing to the relative position of the planets at any 
 time. 
 
 Confluent. Flowing together; meeting in a 
 common current ; as, confluent streams. 
 
 Conger. A large species of sea-eel, of the 
 Anguilla family (Conger of some naturalists). 
 It sometimes attains a length of 10 feet and a 
 weight of 100 pounds. 
 
 Congress. An assembly of princes or pleni 
 potentiaries for the settlement of the affairs of 
 peoples or states. 
 
 Congress of the United States. The na 
 tional legislature. For its constitution, powers, 
 and relation to the navy, see CONSTITUTION OF 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Congreve-rocket. A powerful rocket in 
 vented by Sir William Congreve. 
 
 Conical Valve. A valve with a conical bear 
 ing surface. The valve may either lift in direc 
 tion of the axis of the cone or rotate about it. 
 
 Conic Sections. That part of mathematics 
 which treats .of the measurements, properties, 
 etc., of the sections of a cone. The curves formed 
 by the cutting of a cone by a plane are the^a- 
 rabola (Gr. paraballein, to place side by side), the 
 ellipse (Gr. clleipein, to fall short of), and the 
 hyperbola (Gr. huperballein, to exceed). When 
 the cutting plane is parallel with the generating 
 line of the cone a parabola is formed ; when the 
 inclination of the cutting plane to the base is 
 less than that of the generating line, an ellipse is 
 formed ; and when it is greater, we have a hyper 
 bola. 
 
 Conjee. Gruel made of rice. 
 
 Conjunction. Heavenly bodies are in con 
 junction when they have the same longitude. 
 The inferior conjunction of a planet is its posi 
 tion when in conjunction on the side of the sun 
 nearest the earth ; its superior conjunction is its 
 position when in conjunction on the side of the 
 sun farthest from the earth. The superior planets 
 have no inferior conjunction. 
 
 Conn, Con, or Cun. This word is derived 
 from the Anglo-Saxon conne, connan, to know, 
 
CONNAISSANCE 
 
 163 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 to be skillful. To direct the course of a ship. 
 The quartermaster conns the ship ordinarily, hut 
 on special occasions it is done by the pilot, officer 
 of the deck, navigator, or commanding officer. 
 At the conn, at the station for conning the ship. 
 
 CONNINOS. Reckonings. 
 
 Connaissance des Temps. The French work 
 corresponding to the " Nautical Almanac." 
 
 Connecting Rod. A rod connecting the re 
 ciprocating parts of a machine with the rotating 
 parts, such as the cross-head or beam with the 
 crank of a steam-engine. The ends of the rod 
 are provided with adjustable bearings fitted to 
 the journals of the cross-head, or beam-centre, 
 and crank-pin. When the length of the rod is 
 great in comparison to its diameter, it is braced 
 by light rods stretched over "struts" or "out 
 riggers." 
 
 Consign. To commit goods to a shipmaster 
 for conveyance and delivery to the person to 
 whom they are addressed. 
 
 CONSIGNEE. The person to whom goods are 
 sent. 
 
 CONSIGNOR. The person who sends goods. 
 
 Console-bracket. A bracket or ornament 
 used to support any projections on the outside or 
 inside of the ship. 
 
 Consort. Any vessel in company with another. 
 
 Constant Battery. See GALVANIC BATTERY. 
 
 Constantinople. A celebrated city of Turkey 
 in Europe, and the capital of the Ottoman Em 
 pire, in lat. 41 18" N., Ion. 28 59 15" E., 
 situated on a declivity or series of gentle hills at 
 the eastern extremity of a triangular promon 
 tory of the province of Roumelia, having the 
 Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus on the south 
 and east, and the Golden Horn, an inlet of the 
 latter, on the north. It is thus surrounded by 
 water on all sides except the west, and has a sea 
 front altogether of about 8 miles in extent. The 
 city proper comprises several quarters, as those 
 for the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks. The 
 Greek quarter, the " Fanar," extends along the 
 shore of the port, or the Golden Horn. This fine 
 harbor lies between the city and its suburbs 
 Pera and Galata, extending for about 4 miles 
 inland in a northwesterly direction, and varying 
 in breadth from 1 to 4 furlongs. It is deep 
 enough to float ships of the largest size, and is 
 crossed by two bridges of boats, which unite 
 the Fanar with the northern suburbs. Pop. 
 700,000. 
 
 Constellation (Lat. con, together ; stellatio, a 
 grouping of stars, from stella, a star). A group 
 of fixed stars to which a name has been given. 
 These names have mostly their origin in the 
 mythology of the Greeks, derived and modified 
 from the Egyptians and the East ; and the stars 
 forming each configuration are ranged and 
 named in order of brilliancy. The districts thus 
 mapped out are entirely arbitrary, and in general 
 correspond to no natural grouping of the stars. 
 "Innumerable snakes twine through long and 
 contorted areas of the heavens where no memory 
 can follow them ; bears, lions, and fishes, large 
 and small, northern and southern, confuse all 
 nomenclature." The ancient system has, how 
 ever, obtained a currency from which it would 
 be difficult to dislodge it ; and it serves the pur 
 pose of briefly naming remarkable stars, an 
 important point for the navigator. The follow 
 ing is a list of the principal constellations, with 
 
 the right ascension and declination of the brightest 
 star in each : 
 
 Name. 
 
 R. A. 
 
 h. in. 
 
 Andromeda, Andromeda 2.2 
 
 Antlia, The Air-Pump 10 21.7 
 
 Apus, The Bird of Paradise 1433 
 
 Aquarius, The Water-Bearer 21 59.6 
 
 Aquila, The Eagle 19 43.9 
 
 Ara, The Altar 17 22.6 
 
 Argo, The Ship Argo 6 21.3 
 
 Aries, The Ram 2 0.4 
 
 Auriga, The Wagoner 5 7.8 
 
 Bootes, The Herdsman 14 10.2 
 
 Cwlum, The Sculptor s Toojs 4 36.7 
 
 Cameleopardalis, The Giraffe 442.1 
 
 Cancer, The Crab 851.9 
 
 Canes Venatici, The Hunting Dogs 12 50.4 
 
 Canis Major, The Greater Dog 6 39.9 
 
 Canis Minor, The Lesser Dog 7 33 
 
 Capricornus, The Sea-Goat 20 11.4 
 
 Cassiopeia, Cassiopeia 033.7 
 
 Centaurus, The Centaur 14 81.6 
 
 CephetUL Cepheus 21 15.7 
 
 Cetus, The Sea-Monster 2 56 
 
 Chameleon, The Chameleon 8 21.6 
 
 Circiinis, The Compass 14 32.8 
 
 Coluniha, Noah s Dove 5 35.3 
 
 Coma Berenices, Berenice s Hair 13 4.2 
 
 Corona Australis, The Southern Crown 19 1.3 
 
 Corona Borealis, The Northern Crown 15 29.6 
 
 Corvus, The Crow 12 2.2 
 
 Crater, The Cup 10 53.9 
 
 Crux, The Cross 12 19 9 
 
 Cygnus, The Swan 2037.3 
 
 Dt-lphinus, The Dolphin 20 34.1 
 
 Dorado, The Sword-Fish 431.3 
 
 Draco, The Dragon ....14 1.1 
 
 Equuleus, The Little Horse 21 9.8 
 
 Eridanus, The River Eridanus 1 33.3 
 
 Fornax, The Furnace 244.1 
 
 Gemini, The Twins 7 27 
 
 Grus, The Crane 22 0.6 
 
 Hercules, Hercules 17 9.2 
 
 Horologium, The Clock 4 10 
 
 Hydra, The Sea-Serpent 9 21.7 
 
 Hydrus, The Water-Snake 1 55 
 
 Indus, The Indian 2029.1 
 
 Lacerta, The Lizard 22 26.4 
 
 Leo, The Lion 10 2 
 
 Leo Minor, The Lesser Lion 10 21 
 
 Lepus, The Hare 5 27.4 
 
 Libra, The Balance 14 44.2 
 
 Lnpns, The Wolf 14 34 
 
 Lynx, The Lynx 9 13 8 
 
 Lyra, The Lyre 18 32.9 
 
 Mensa, The Table Mountain 4 59.2 
 
 Microscopinm, The Microscope 20 42.5 
 
 Monoceros, The Unicorn 7 35.6 
 
 Musca, The Bee 12 30 
 
 Norma, The Rule 16 10.9 
 
 Octans, The Octant 20 50.2 
 
 Ophiuchus, The Serpent-Bearer 17 29.4 
 
 Orion, Orion 5 48.7 
 
 Pavo, The Peacock 20 16.2 
 
 Pegasus, The Winged Horse 22 58.8 
 
 Perseus, Perseus 3 15.8 
 
 Phu?nix, The Phoenix 20.4 
 
 Pictor, The Painter s Easel 6 47 
 
 Pisces, The Fishes 1 55.9 
 
 Piscis Australis, The Southern Fish 22 51 
 
 Piscis Volans, The Flying-Fish 9 0.6 
 
 Reticulmn, The Net 4 12.9 
 
 Sagitta, The Arrow 19 34.7 
 
 Sagittarius, The Archer 18 16.2 
 
 Scorpio, The Scorpion 16 22.1 
 
 Sculptor, The Sculptor s Workshop 52 8 
 
 Serpens, The Serpent 15 38.4 
 
 Sextans, The Sextant 10 1.8 
 
 Taurus. The Bull 4 29 
 
 Telescopium, The Telescope 18 18.1 
 
 Toucan, The Toucan 22 10.3 
 
 Triangula, The Northern Triangles 1 4G..J 
 
 Triangulum Anstrale, The Southern Triangle..l6 36 
 
 Ursa Major, The Greater Bear 10 56.3 
 
 Ursa Minor, The Lesser Bear 1 I 1 *- 6 
 
 Virgo, The Virgin 13 18.9 
 
 Volans. See Piscis Volans. 
 
 Vulpecula, The Fox 19 23.7 
 
 Dec. 
 o / 
 
 28 26 N. 
 30 27 S. 
 78 32 S. 
 
 54 S. 
 
 833N. 
 49 47 S. 
 52 38 S. 
 22 55 N. 
 
 45 52 N. 
 19 49 N. 
 42 6S. 
 66 8N. 
 12 19 N. 
 38 58 N. 
 
 16 33 S. 
 532N. 
 
 12 55 S. 
 55 53 N. 
 
 60 20 S. 
 62 5N. 
 
 337N. 
 
 76 32 S. 
 64 278. 
 34. 88. 
 18 10 N. 
 38 5 S. 
 27 7N. 
 24 38. 
 
 17 40 S. 
 62 26 S. 
 44 51 N. 
 15 29 N. 
 55 18 S. 
 
 64 57 N. 
 445N. 
 
 57 51 8. 
 32 55 S. 
 32 9 N. 
 47 33 S. 
 1432N. 
 42 35 S. 
 888. 
 62 9S. 
 47 43 N. 
 49 40 S. 
 12 33 N. 
 
 37 19 N. 
 17 55 S. 
 
 15 32 S. 
 
 46 52 S. 
 34 54 N. 
 
 38 40 N. 
 75 88. 
 34 14 S. 
 
 9 16 S. 
 68 28 S. 
 49 52 S. 
 
 77 29 S. 
 12 39 N. 
 
 724N. 
 57 7S. 
 14 34 N. 
 49 26 N. 
 42 58 S. 
 
 61 49 S. 
 2 11 N. 
 
 30 16 S. 
 
 65 55 S. 
 
 62 47 S. 
 17 44 N. 
 34 20 S. 
 26 10 S. 
 30 S. 
 
 6 48 N. 
 13 N. 
 
 16 16 N. 
 46 28. 
 60 51 S. 
 29 ON. 
 68 48 S. 
 62 24 N. 
 88 40 N. 
 10 32 S. 
 
 24 25 N. 
 
 Constitution (Lat. cow, together, and statuo, 
 to place). The collective body of the funda 
 mental laws of a state, whether expressed in 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 164 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 written documents or established by prescriptive 
 usage. In a certain sense, all states in which the 
 power of a sovereign over his people, or classes 
 of his people, is limited by law or legal usage in 
 any particular, may be said to possess, to that 
 extent, a constitution ; but in ordinary language 
 only a government in which the power of legis 
 lation, or that of granting and withholding sup 
 plies to the sovereign, is vested in the people or 
 a body of representatives elected by them, or by 
 a class of them, is termed constitutional. 
 
 .Constitution of the United States of America, 
 with Amendments. We the people of the United 
 States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, 
 establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, 
 provide for the common defence, promote the 
 general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of 
 Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do or 
 dain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the 
 United States of America. 
 
 ART. 1. Sect. I. All legislative Powers here 
 in granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
 United States, which shall consist of a Senate 
 and House of Kepresentatives. 
 
 Sect. 2. The House of Representatives shall be 
 composed of Members chosen every second Year 
 by the people of the several States, and the Elec 
 tors in each State shall have the Qualifications 
 requisite for Electors of the most numerous 
 Braiich of the State Legislature. 
 
 No Person shall be a Representative who shall 
 not have attained to the Age of twenty-five 
 Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
 be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall 
 be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct Taxes shall be ap 
 portioned among the several States which may 
 be included within this Union, according to their 
 respective Numbers, which shall be determined 
 by adding to the whole number of free Persons, 
 including those bound to Service for a Term of 
 Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
 fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumera 
 tion shall be made within three Years after the 
 first Meeting of the Congress of the United 
 States, and within every subsequent Term of ten 
 Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law di 
 rect. The Number of Representatives shall not 
 exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each 
 State shall have at Least one Representative; 
 and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
 State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to 
 chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island 
 and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut 
 five, New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsyl 
 vania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Vir 
 ginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina 
 five, and Georgia three. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the Representation 
 from any State, the Executive Authority thereof 
 shall issue Writs of Election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 The House of Representatives shall chuse their 
 Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the 
 sole Power of Impeachment. 
 
 Sect. 3. The Senate of the United States shall 
 be composed of two Senators from each State, 
 chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; 
 and each Senator shall have one Vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in 
 Consequence of the first Election, they shall be 
 divided as equally as may be into three Classes. 
 
 The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall 
 be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, 
 of the second Class at the Expiration of the 
 fourth Year, and of the third Class at the ex 
 piration of the sixth Year, so that one-third rnay 
 be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies 
 happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the 
 Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Ex 
 ecutive thereof may make temporary Appoint 
 ments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, 
 which shall then fill such Vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a Senator who shall not 
 have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and 
 been nine Years, a Citizen of the United States, 
 and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabi 
 tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The Vice President of the United States shall 
 be President of the Senate, but shall have no 
 Vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and 
 also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of 
 the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the 
 Office of President of the United States. 
 
 The Senate shall have the sole Power to try 
 all Impeachments. When sitting for that Pur 
 pose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When 
 the President of the United States is tried, the 
 Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall 
 be convicted without the Concurrence of two- 
 thirds of the Members present. 
 
 Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not 
 extend further than to removal from Office, and 
 disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of 
 honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : 
 but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be 
 liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judg 
 ment and Punishment, according to Law. 
 
 Sect. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of 
 holding Elections for Senators and Representa 
 tives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
 Legislature thereof, but the Congress may at any 
 time by Law make or alter such Regulations, 
 except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
 every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the 
 first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
 Law appoint a different Day. 
 
 Sect. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the 
 Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own 
 Members, and* a Majority of each shall constitute 
 a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Num 
 ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be 
 authorized to compel the Attendance of absent 
 Members, in such Manner, and under such Pen 
 alties as each House may provide. 
 
 Each House may determine the Rules of its 
 Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly 
 Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two- 
 thirds, expel a Member. 
 
 Each House shall keep a Journal of its Pro 
 ceedings, and from time to time publish the 
 same, excepting such Parts as may in their 
 Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and 
 Nays of the Members of either House on any 
 question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those 
 Present, be entered on the Journal. 
 
 Neither House, during the Session of Con 
 gress, shall, without the Consent of the other, 
 adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
 other Place than that in which the two Houses 
 shall be sitting. 
 
 Sect. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 165 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 receive a Compensation for their services, to be 
 ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treas 
 ury of the United States. They shall, in all 
 Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of 
 the Peace, be Privileged from Arrest during 
 their Attendance at the Session of their respec 
 tive Houses, and in going to and returning from 
 the same ; and for any Speech or Debate in either 
 House, they shall not be questioned in any other 
 Place. 
 
 No Senator or Kepresentative shall, during 
 the Time for which he was elected, be appointed 
 to any civil Office under the Authority of the 
 United States, which shall have been created, or 
 the Emoluments whereof shall have been en- 
 creased during such time ; and no Person hold 
 ing any Office under the United States, shall be 
 a Member of either House during his Contin 
 uance in office. 
 
 Sect. 7. All Bills for raising Kevenue shall 
 originate in the House of Representatives ; but 
 the Senate may propose or concur with Amend 
 ments as on other Bills. 
 
 Every Bill which shall have passed the House 
 of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before 
 it become a Law, be presented to the President 
 of the United States ; If he approve he shall 
 sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his 
 Objections to that House in which it shall have 
 originated, who shall enter the Objections at 
 large on their Journal, and proceed to recon 
 sider it. If after such Reconsideration two 
 thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, 
 it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to 
 the other House, by which it shall likewise be 
 reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of 
 that House, it shall become a Law. But in all 
 such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be 
 determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names 
 of the Persons voting for and against the Bill 
 shall be entered on the Journal of each House 
 respectively. If any bill shall not be returned 
 by the President within ten Days (Sundays ex- 
 cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
 the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if 
 he had signed it, unless the Congress by their 
 Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
 it shall not be a Law. 
 
 Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which 
 the Concurrence of the Senate and House of 
 Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
 question of Adjournment) shall be presented to 
 the President of the United States ; and before 
 the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by 
 him, or being disapproved by him, shall be re- 
 passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House 
 of Representatives, according to the Rules and 
 Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 
 
 Sect. 8. The Congress shall have Power To 
 lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Ex 
 cises, to pay the Debts and provide for the com 
 mon Defence and general Welfare of the United 
 States ; but all duties, Imposts and Excises shall 
 be uniform throughout the United States; 
 
 To borrow Money on the credit of the United 
 States ; 
 
 To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, 
 and among the several States, and with the In 
 dian Tribes ; 
 
 To establish an uniform Rule of Naturaliza 
 tion, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bank 
 ruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and 
 of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of "Weights 
 and Measures ; 
 
 To provide for the Punishment of counterfeit 
 ing the Securities and current Coin of the United 
 States ; 
 
 To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 
 
 To promote the Progress of Science and useful 
 Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors 
 and Inventors the exclusive Right to their re 
 spective Writings and Discoveries ; 
 
 To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme 
 Court ; 
 
 To define and punish Piracies and Felonies 
 committed on the high Seas, and Offences against 
 the Law of Nations ; 
 
 To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and 
 Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures 
 on Land and Water ; 
 
 To raise and support Armies, but no Appro 
 priation of Money to that Use shall be for a 
 longer Term than two Years ; 
 
 To provide and maintain a Navy ; 
 
 To make Rules for the Government and Regu 
 lation of the land and naval Forces ; 
 
 To provide for calling forth the Militia to ex 
 ecute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrec 
 tions and repel Invasions ; 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and dis 
 ciplining, the Militia, and for governing such 
 Part of them as may be employed in the Service 
 of the United States, reserving to the States re 
 spectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and 
 the Authority of training the Militia according 
 to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 
 
 To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases 
 whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding 
 ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particu 
 lar States, and the Acceptance of Congress, be 
 come the Seat of the Government of the United 
 States, and to exercise like Authority over all 
 Places purchased by the Consent of the Legisla 
 ture of the State in which the Same shall be, for 
 the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, 
 dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings ; 
 And 
 
 To make all Laws which shall be necessary 
 and proper for carrying into Execution the fore 
 going Powers, and all other Powers vested by 
 this Constitution in the Government of the 
 United States, or in any Department or Officer 
 thereof. 
 
 Sect. 9. The Migration or Importation of such 
 Persons as any of the States now existing shall 
 think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
 by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may 
 be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding 
 ten dollars for each Person. 
 
 The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus 
 shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of 
 Rebellion or Invasion the Public Safety may 
 require it. 
 
 No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law 
 shall be passed. 
 
 No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be 
 laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or 
 Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles ex 
 ported from any State. 
 
 No Preference shall be given by any Regula 
 tion of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 166 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 one State over those of another ; nor shall Vessels 
 bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, 
 clear, or pay Duties in another. 
 
 No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, 
 but in Consequence of Appropriations made by 
 Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of 
 the Receipts and Expenditures of all public 
 Money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the 
 United States ; And no Person holding any 
 Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with 
 out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any 
 present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any 
 kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for 
 eign State. 
 
 Sect. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, 
 Alliance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of 
 Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills 
 of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver 
 Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any 
 Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law 
 impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant 
 any Title of Nobility. 
 
 No State shall, without the Consent of the 
 Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports 
 or Exports, except what may be absolutely neces 
 sary for executing its inspection Laws ; and the 
 net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by 
 any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for 
 the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; 
 and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revis 
 ion and Controul of the Congress. 
 
 No State shall, without the Consent of Con 
 gress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or 
 Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any 
 Agreement or Compact with another State, or 
 with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless 
 actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger 
 as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ART. II. Sect. 1. The executive Power shall 
 be vested in a President of the United States of 
 America. He shall hold his Office during the 
 Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice 
 President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, 
 as follows. 
 
 Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as 
 the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number 
 of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Sena 
 tors and Representatives to which the State may 
 be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or 
 Representative, or Person holding an Office of 
 Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be 
 appointed an Elector. 
 
 The Electors shall meet in their respective 
 States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of 
 whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of 
 the same State with themselves. And they shall 
 make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of 
 the Number of Votes for each ; which List they 
 shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the 
 Seat of the Government of the United States, 
 directed to the President of the Senate. The 
 President of the Senate shall, in the Presence 
 of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
 all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be 
 counted. The Person having the greatest Num 
 ber of Votes shall be the President, if such Num 
 ber be a Majority of the whole Number of Elec 
 tors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
 who have such Majority, and have an equal 
 Number of Votes, then the House of Represen 
 tatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of 
 
 them for President ; and if no Person have a 
 Majority, then from the five highest on the List 
 the said House shall in like Manner chuse the 
 President. But in chusing the President, the 
 Votes shall be taken by States, the Representa 
 tion from each State having one Vote ; A quo 
 rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member 
 or Members from two thirds of the States, and a 
 Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
 Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the 
 President, the Person having the greatest Num 
 ber of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice 
 President. But if there should remain two or 
 more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall 
 chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. 
 
 The Congress may determine the Time of 
 chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they 
 shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the 
 same throughout the United States. 
 
 No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a 
 Citizen of the United States, at the time of the 
 Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
 to the Office of President ; neither shall any per 
 son be eligible to that Office who shall not have 
 attained the Age of thirty five Years, and been 
 fourteen Years a Resident within the United 
 States. 
 
 In Case of the Removal of the President from 
 Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability 
 to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said 
 Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice Presi 
 dent, and the Congress may by Law provide for 
 the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or In 
 ability, both of the President and Vice President, 
 declaring what Officer shall then act as Presi 
 dent, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until 
 the Disability be removed, or a President shall 
 be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated Times, receive 
 for his Services, a Compensation, which shall 
 neither be encreased nor diminished during the 
 Period for which he shall have been elected, and 
 he shall not receive within that Period any other 
 Emolument from the United States, or any of 
 them. 
 
 Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, 
 he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : 
 "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will 
 faithfully execute the Office of President of the 
 United States, and will to the best of my Abil 
 ity, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution 
 of the United States." 
 
 Sect. 2. The President shall be Commander in 
 Chief of the Army and Navy of the United 
 States, and of the Militia of the several States, 
 when called into the actual Service of the 
 United States ; he may require the Opinion, in 
 writing, of the principal Officer in each of the 
 executive Departments, upon any Subject re 
 lating to the Duties of their respective Offices, 
 and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 
 Pardons for Offences against the United States, 
 except in Cases of Impeachment. 
 
 He shall have Power, by and with the Advice 
 and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, 
 provided two thirds of the Senators present con 
 cur; and he shall nominate, and by and with 
 the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall ap 
 point Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
 Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all 
 other Officers of the United States, whose Ap 
 pointments are not herein otherwise provided 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 167 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 for, and which shall be established by Law ; but 
 the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment 
 of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in 
 the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in 
 the Heads of Departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill up all 
 Vacancies that may happen during the Recess 
 of the Senate, by granting Commissions which 
 shall expire at the End of their next Session. 
 
 Sect. 3. He shall from time to time give to the 
 Congress Information of the State of the Union, 
 and recommend to their Consideration such 
 Measures as he shall judge necessary and expe 
 dient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, con^ 
 vene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case 
 of Disagreement between them, with Respect to 
 the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them 
 to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall 
 receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; 
 he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully 
 executed, and shall Commission all the Officers 
 of the United States. 
 
 Sect. 4. The President, Vice President and all 
 civil Officers of the United States, shall be re 
 moved from Office on Impeachment for, and 
 Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high 
 Crimes and Misdemeanors. 
 
 ART. III. Sect. 1. The judicial Power of the 
 United States, shall be vested in one supreme 
 Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Con 
 gress may from time to time ordain and estab 
 lish. The Judges, both of the supreme and in 
 ferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during 
 good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, re 
 ceive for their Services, a Compensation, which 
 shall not be diminished during their Continuance 
 in Office. 
 
 Sect. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all 
 Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this 
 Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and 
 Treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
 their authority ; to all Cases affecting Ambas 
 sadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; 
 to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Juris 
 diction ; to Controversies to which the United 
 States shall be a Party ; to Controversies be 
 tween two or more States ; between a State and 
 Citizens of another State ; between Citizens of 
 different States, between Citizens of the same 
 State claiming Lands under Grants of different 
 States, and between a State, or the Citizens 
 thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 
 
 In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other pub 
 lic Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a 
 State shall be a Party, the supreme Court shall 
 have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases 
 before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have 
 appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, 
 with such Exceptions, and under such Regula 
 tions as the Congress shall make. 
 
 The Trial of "all Crimes, except in Cases of 
 Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial 
 shall be held in the State where the said Crimes 
 shall have been committed ; but when not com 
 mitted within any State, the Trial shall be at 
 such Place or Places as the Congress may by 
 Law have directed. 
 
 Sect. 3. Treason against the United States, 
 shall consist only in levying War against them, 
 or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them 
 Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted 
 of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Wit 
 
 nesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in 
 open Court. 
 
 The Congress shall have Power to declare the 
 Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of 
 Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or 
 Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person 
 attainted. 
 
 ART. IV. Sect. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall 
 be given in each State to the public Acts, Rec 
 ords, and judicial Proceedings of every other 
 State. And the Congress may by general Laws 
 prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Rec 
 ords and Proceedings shall be proved, and the 
 Effect thereof. 
 
 Sect. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be 
 entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of 
 Citizens in the several States. 
 
 A Person charged in any State with Treason, 
 Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from 
 Justice, and be found in another State, shall on 
 Demand of the executive Authority of the State 
 from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re 
 moved to the State having Jurisdiction of the 
 Crime. 
 
 No Person held to Service or Labour in one 
 State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into 
 another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or 
 Regulation therein, be discharged from such 
 Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on 
 Claim of the party to whom such Service or La 
 bour may be due. 
 
 Sect. 3. New States may be admitted by the 
 Congress into this Union ; but no new State 
 shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdic 
 tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed 
 by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts 
 of States, without the Consent of the Legisla 
 tures of the States concerned as well as of the 
 Congress. 
 
 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of 
 and make all needful Rules and Regulations re 
 specting the Territory or other Property belong 
 ing to the United States ; and nothing in this 
 Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice 
 any Claims of the United States, or of any par 
 ticular State. 
 
 Sect. 4. The United States shall guarantee to 
 every State in this Union a Republican Form of 
 Government, and shall protect each of them 
 against Invasion ; and on Application of the 
 Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Leg 
 islature cannot be convened) against domestic 
 Violence. 
 
 ART. V. The Congress, whenever two thirds 
 of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
 propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on 
 the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds 
 of the several States, shall call a Convention for 
 proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, 
 shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as 
 Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
 Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
 or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as 
 the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be 
 proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no 
 Amendment which may be made prior to the 
 Year One thousand eight hundred and eight 
 shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth 
 Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; 
 and that no State, without its Consent, shall be 
 deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ART. VI. All Debts contracted and Engage- 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 168 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 merits entered into, before the Adoption of this 
 Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
 States under this Constitution, as under the 
 Confederation. 
 
 This Constitution, and the Laws of the United 
 States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; 
 and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under the Authority of the United States, shall 
 be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges 
 in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing 
 in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the 
 Contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 The Senators and Kepresentatives before men 
 tioned, and the Members of the several State 
 Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Offi 
 cers, both of the United States and of the several 
 States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to 
 support this Constitution ; but no religious Test 
 shall ever be required as a Qualification to any 
 Office or public Trust under the United States. 
 
 ART. VII. The Katification of the Conven 
 tions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the 
 Establishment of this Constitution between the 
 States so ratifying the Same. 
 
 AMENDMENTS. 
 
 ART. I. Congress shall make no law respect 
 ing an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
 the free exercise thereof; or abridging the free 
 dom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of 
 the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition 
 the Government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ART. II. A well regulated Militia, being 
 necessary to the security of a free State, the right 
 of the people to keep and bear Arms shall riot be 
 infringed. 
 
 ART. III. No Soldier shall, in time of peace, 
 be quartered in any house, without the consent 
 of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a man 
 ner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ART. IV. The right of the people to be secure 
 in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, 
 against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall 
 not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but 
 upon probable cause, supported by Oath v or affir 
 mation, and particularly describing the place to 
 be searched, and the persons or things to be 
 seized. 
 
 ART. V. No person shall be held to answer 
 for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless 
 on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, 
 except in cases arising in the land or naval 
 forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service 
 in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any 
 person be subject for the same offence to be 
 twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
 be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a wit 
 ness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, 
 liberty, or property, without due process of law ; 
 nor shall private property be taken for public 
 use, without just compensation. 
 
 ART. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the 
 accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and 
 public trial, by an impartial jury of the State 
 and district wherein the crime shall have been 
 committed, which district shall have been pre 
 viously ascertained by law, and to be informed 
 of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be 
 confronted with the witnesses against him ; to 
 have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses 
 in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Coun 
 sel for his defence. 
 
 ART. VII. In suits at common law, where 
 the value in controversy shall exceed twenty 
 dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be pre 
 served, and no fact tried by a jury shall be 
 otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United 
 States, than according to the rules of the com 
 mon law. 
 
 ART. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be re 
 quired, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and 
 unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ART. IX. The enumeration in the Consti 
 tution, of certain rights, shall not be construed 
 to deny or disparage others retained by the 
 people. 
 
 ART. X. The powers not delegated to the 
 United States by the Constitution, nor prohib 
 ited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
 respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ART. XI. The Judicial power of the United 
 States shall not be construed to extend to any 
 suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
 against one of the United States by Citizens of 
 another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any 
 Foreign State. 
 
 ART. XII. The Electors shall meet in their 
 respective States, and vote by ballot for Presi 
 dent and Vice-President, one^of whom, at least, 
 shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
 themselves, they shall name in their ballots the 
 person voted for as President, and in distinct 
 ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, 
 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
 voted for as President, and of all persons voted 
 for as Vice-President, and of the number of 
 votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
 certify; and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
 government of the United States, directed to 
 the President of the Senate ; The President of 
 the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, open all the cer 
 tificates and the votes shall then be counted ; 
 The person having the greatest number of votes 
 for President, shall be the President, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of 
 Electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
 majority, then from the persons having the high 
 est numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
 those voted for as President, the House of Kepre 
 sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
 the President. But in choosing the President, 
 the votes shall be taken by States, the repre 
 sentation from each State having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem 
 ber or members from two-thirds of the States, 
 and a majority of all the States shall be neces 
 sary to a choice. And if the House of Repre 
 sentatives shall not choose a President whenever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, be 
 fore the fourth day of March next following, 
 then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
 as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
 disability of the President. The person having 
 the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, 
 shall be the Vice-President, if such number be 
 a majority of the whole number of Electors 
 appointed, and if no person have a majority, 
 then from the two highest numbers on the list, 
 the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a 
 quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a 
 majority of the whole number shall be neces 
 sary to a choice. But no person constitution- 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 169 
 
 CONTINENTAL 
 
 ally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
 eligible to that of Vice-President of the United 
 States. 
 
 ART. XIII. Sect. 1. Neither slavery nor in 
 voluntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
 crime whereof the party shall have been duly 
 convicted, shall exist within the United States, 
 or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sect. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce 
 this article by appropriate legislation. 
 
 ART. XIV. Sect. 1. All persons born or nat 
 uralized in the United States, and subject to the 
 jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
 States and of the State wherein they reside. No 
 State shall make or enforce any law which shall 
 abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens 
 of the United States ; nor shall any State de 
 prive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due process of law ; nor deny to any 
 person within its jurisdiction the equal protec 
 tion of the laws. 
 
 Sect. 2. Eepresentatives shall be apportioned 
 among the several States according to their re 
 spective numbers, counting the whole number 
 of persons in each State, excluding Indians not 
 taxed. But when the right to vote at any elec 
 tion for the choice of electors for President and 
 Vice President of the United States, Representa 
 tives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial 
 officers of a State, or the members of the Legis 
 lature thereof, is denied to any of the male in 
 habitants of such State, being twenty-one years 
 of age, and citizens of the United States, or in 
 any way abridged, except for participation in re 
 bellion, or other crime, the basis of representa 
 tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
 which the number of such male citizens shall 
 bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty- 
 one years of age in such State. 
 
 Sect. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Repre 
 sentative in Congress, or elector of President and 
 Vice President, "or hold any office, civil or mili 
 tary, under the United States, or under any 
 State, who, having previously taken an oath, as 
 a member of Congress, or as an officer of the 
 United States, or as a member of any State legis 
 lature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
 State, to support the Constitution of the United 
 States, shall have engaged in insurrection or re 
 bellion against the same, or given aid or comfort 
 to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a 
 vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such 
 disability. 
 
 Sect. 4. The validity of the public debt of the 
 United States, authorized by law, including 
 debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
 bounties for services in suppressing insurrection 
 or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither 
 the United States nor any State shall assume or 
 pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of in 
 surrection or rebellion against the United States, 
 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
 slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims 
 shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sect. 5. The Congress shall have power to en 
 force, by appropriate legislation, the provisions 
 of this article. 
 
 ART. XV. Sect. 1. The right of citizens of 
 the United States to vote shall not be denied or 
 abridged by the United States or by any State on 
 account of race, color, or previous condition of 
 servitude. 
 
 Sect. 2. The Congress shall have power to en 
 force this article by appropriate legislation. 
 
 Construction and Repair, Bureau of. The 
 bureau of the Navy Department which has 
 charge of dry-docks, of all vessels undergoing 
 repairs, and of the designing, building, and 
 fitting out of vessels. The head of the bureau 
 is the chief constructor of the navy and ranks 
 with a commodore. 
 
 Consuls. Commercial agents appointed to 
 reside in the seaports of foreign countries with 
 a commission to watch over the commercial 
 rights and privileges of the nation deputing them. 
 Such officers appear to have been first employed 
 by the Italian republics to protect their mer 
 chants engaged in trade in the cities of the 
 Levant. They have been multiplied and ex 
 tended to every part of the world where naviga 
 tion and commerce can successfully penetrate, 
 and their duties and privileges are now generally 
 limited and defined in treaties of commerce, 
 or by the statute regulations of the country 
 which they represent. The laws of the United 
 States respecting consuls authorize them to re 
 ceive the protests of masters and others relating 
 to American commerce, and they declare that 
 consular certificates under seal shall receive faith 
 and credit in the courts of the United States. It 
 is made their duty, where the laws of the coun 
 try permit, to administer on the personal estates 
 of American citizens dying within their con 
 sulates and leaving no legal representative, and 
 to take charge of and secure the effects of stranded 
 American vessels, in the absence of the master, 
 owner, or consignee ; and they are bound to 
 provide for destitute seamen within their con 
 sulates, and to send them at the public expense 
 to the United States. It is also made their duty 
 to reclaim deserters, to discountenance insub 
 ordination and to lend their aid to the local 
 authorities for that purpose, and to discharge 
 seamen cruelly treated. No representative or 
 diplomatic character attaches to consuls except 
 by treaty, nor can they be invested with judicial 
 powers except with the consent of the govern 
 ment of the country in which they reside. 
 
 CONSULAR AGENTS. Subordinates of consuls, 
 who exercise their powers at ports or places dif 
 ferent from those at which their principals are 
 located. 
 
 CONSUL-GENERAL. A consul having jurisdic 
 tion in several places, or over several consuls. 
 
 DEPUTY-CONSULS. Subordinates of consuls, 
 who exercise their powers and perform their 
 duties at the same ports or places in which their 
 principals are located. See COMMERCIAL 
 AGENT. 
 
 VICE-CONSULS. Consular officers temporarily 
 holding the place of consuls during the absence 
 of the latter, or when they have been relieved. 
 The vice-consul has no powers or functions when 
 the consul is present at his post. 
 
 Census. A title of Neptune. 
 
 Contact. A touching or meeting of bodies. 
 
 Contents. A document which the master of 
 a merchantman must deliver to the custom-house 
 searcher before he can clear outwards ; it de 
 scribes the vessel s destination, cargo, and all 
 necessary particulars. 
 
 Continental System. In modern history, the 
 celebrated plan of the Emperor Napoleon for 
 excluding the merchandise of England from all 
 
CONTINENTS 
 
 CONTINENTS 
 
 parts of the continent of Europe. It was com 
 menced by the decree of Berlin, issued Novem 
 ber 21, 1806, which declared the British islands 
 in a state of blockade, and made prisoners of war 
 all Englishmen found in the territories occupied 
 by France and her allies. The blockade thus 
 instituted was far from complete ; and in the 
 course of events licenses were expressly granted 
 by the government for its evasion, and became a 
 source of revenue. Some writers have affirmed 
 that British commerce lost by this decree and 
 those whicli followed it more than sixty millions 
 sterling in eighteen months, but this is an enor 
 mous exaggeration. 
 
 Continents. Continents are the natural grand 
 divisions of the earth s surface. There are six 
 continents; viz., Asia, Africa, Europe, North 
 America, South America, and Australia. To 
 these may be added, provisionally, the Antarctic 
 Continent, lying about the s outh pole. 
 
 1. Asia is the largest, and was the first civilized 
 portion of the globe. It extends from Singapore, 
 in lat. 1 IT N., to Cape Severo, in 78 N., and 
 from East Cape, in Ion. 169 W., to Cape Baba, 
 in 26 E. Ion., covering an area of 17,500,000 
 square miles. It is nearly square, with many 
 outlying peninsulas. Its shores are washed by 
 3 oceans, and it has numerous gulfs, bays, and 
 seas, there being no less than 13 large seas wash 
 ing its shores. Many islands also line its coast. 
 Its mountains are the highest in the world, the 
 Himalaya, Hindoo Koosh, Thian-Shan, and 
 Yablonoi ranges being the principal ones. Its 
 many rivers are large, the Obi, Yenisei, Lena, 
 Amoor, Hoang-Ho, Yang-tse-Kiang, Cambodia, 
 Irrawaddy, Burramapootra, Ganges, Indus, Ti 
 gris, and Euphrates being chief among them. 
 The northern part consists of extensive plateaus, 
 sloping to the Arctic, the central of elevated 
 table-lands, surrounded by high mountain chains, 
 and the eastern and southern portions of alluvial 
 plains. 
 
 The great desert of Gobi extends through the 
 centre, and much of Arabia is also desert land. 
 The predominating races that inhabit Asia are 
 of the Caucasian and Mongolian families. There 
 are 780,500,000 people, or about 44 to the square 
 mile. China, Kussia, Persia, Turkey, and Great 
 Britain are the predominating powers. The en 
 tire coast of Asia has been explored, but much 
 of the interior is yet unknown. 
 
 2. Africa is a vast peninsula, connected to Asia 
 by the Isthmus of Suez, and separated from 
 Europe by the Mediterranean and the Straits of 
 Gibraltar. Its northern cape is Blanco, in lat. 
 37 21 N., its southerly, Agulhas Cape, in 34 
 53 S. ; its easterly point, Cape Guardafui, in 51 
 30 E., and its westerly, Cape Verde, in 17 33 
 W. Ion. It contains some 12,000,000 square 
 miles, inhabited by 80,000,000 people, or about 7 
 to the mile. It is a solid mass, with an uninter 
 rupted coast-line, there being few indentations 
 and no peninsulas. The Mediterranean, the Red 
 Sea, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic wash its coasts. 
 Long an unknown land, it is the field of modern 
 exploration, and is becoming better known. Its 
 uniform coast-line corresponds with its uni 
 formity of surface. The southern table-land, 
 from 3000 to 4000 feet high, is separated from 
 the coast by ranges of mountains. From 15 S. 
 to 15 N. is a vast table-land with a depressed 
 lake region, and north of 15 is the great Sahara 
 
 Desert, only varied by the fertile lands near the 
 coast and the alluvial plain of Egypt. The 
 principal rivers are the Nile, Zambesi, Orange, 
 Congo, Niger, and Senegal. The chief moun 
 tain ranges are the Atlas, the Kong, Drachen- 
 berg, and the Sarnen ranges. Many large lakes 
 exist, the Victoria and Albert Nyanza,. Ngami, 
 and Tchad being the largest. The inhabitants 
 belong to 7 races, negroes predominating. The 
 most powerful rulers are the Sultans of Morocco, 
 Tunis, and Zanzibar, the king of Abyssinia, 
 pacha of Egypt, and Great Britain and France 
 in their colonies of Cape Colony and Algiers. 
 
 3. Europe is the most populous, but, next to 
 Australia, the least continent of the globe. 
 It extends from Cape Tarifa, lat. 36 N., to 
 Nordkyn, in 71 N. lat., and from Cape Da 
 Koca, 9 30 W. Ion., to 66 E. Ion., containing 
 3,767,222 square miles, inhabited by 280,000,000 
 people, or 75 to the mile. These are of the Cau 
 casian race, and are far in advance of others in 
 progress and civilization. 
 
 Europe is penetrated by many seas and gulfs, 
 and has many outlying peninsulas, giving her 
 an extended coast-line. Many large and im 
 portant islands lie near the coasts, Great Britain 
 chief among them. By far the greater part of 
 the country, including Russia, North Germany, 
 Belgium, and Holland, is a fertile plain sloping 
 to the ocean. The principal mountain ranges 
 are the Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Ural, and 
 Scandinavian Mountains. There are no deserts, 
 but the arid steppes of Russia and the puztas of 
 Hungary approach them in character. The Vol 
 ga, Danube, Dnieper, Don, Rhine, Elbe, Vis 
 tula, Loire, Rhone, Tagus, and Po are the prin 
 cipal rivers, and there are numerous large lakes. 
 
 4. North America extends from Point Barrow, 
 in lat. 72 N., to Cape Mariato, in lat. 8 30 
 N., and from York Point, Ion. 56 W., to Cape 
 Prince of Wales, 156 W. Ion., containing 
 7,400,000 square miles, with a population of 
 74,000,000, or 10 to a mile. Three oceans wash 
 the coasts, and numerous large seas, gulfs, and 
 bays indent them. All the natural features are 
 on a large scale. The rivers are the largest in 
 the world. The chief ones are the Yukon, Mac 
 kenzie, St. Lawrence, Mississippi and its tribu 
 taries, Eio Grande del Norte, Colorado, and 
 Columbia. More lakes, and larger ones, are found 
 in North America than in any other country. 
 The chief ones are those of the great St. Law 
 rence basin, but the country north of this con 
 tains great numbers of very large ones. The great 
 mountain chains are the Rocky Mountains in the 
 west and the Alleghanies in the east. There are 
 many volcanoes. A great part of the country 
 consists of fertile plains, well watered and fruit 
 ful. North America is divided between the 
 United States, Great Britain, Denmark, Mexico, 
 and the Central American States. 
 
 5. South America extends from the southern 
 limit of North America, to which it is connected 
 by the Isthmus of Panama, to Cape Fro ward, 
 54 S., and from Ion. 35 W. to 83 W., contain 
 ing 6,500,000 square miles. It much resembles 
 Africa in being a solid mass, with few indenting 
 bays and outlying islands. It possesses many 
 large rivers, the Amazon, La Plata, Para, San 
 Francisco, Orinoco, Negro, and Magdalena 
 being the principal ones. It has a high range 
 of mountains, the Andes traversing it from 
 
CONTINGENT 
 
 in 
 
 CONYNGHAM 
 
 north to south, leaving a narrow coast on the 
 west side, and other ranges near the coast of Bra 
 zil. The interior consists of vast well-watered 
 plains, called pampas and llanos. Much of it 
 has not been explored. The continent is sparsely 
 inhabited by 30,000,000, or 5 to a mile, of Indians 
 and Europeans, with half-breeds. 
 
 6. Australia, the smallest continent, extends 
 from Cape York, 10 39 S., to Wilson s pro 
 montory, 39 12 / S., and from Cape Byron, Ion. 
 113 5 E., to Steep Point, 153 16 E., contain 
 ing some 3,000,000 square miles, inhabited by 
 1,336,000 people, natives of the peculiar Papuan 
 race, and European settlers. It belongs to Great 
 Britain. The largest river is the Murray. A 
 range or two of mountains exist, but most of 
 the elevations are detached. Few lakes exist, 
 and they are of a peculiar nature, very shal 
 low, and disappearing quickly in warm seasons. 
 Much of the interior "is unexplored. A few large 
 cities are built on the continent, mostly in the 
 southern part. 
 
 7. Antarctic Continent. A name given to the 
 tracts of land seen about the South Pole, named 
 Adelie, Enderby, Ballemny, Sabrina, Victoria, 
 Louis Philippe, Graham, and Wilkes Lands. 
 First seen by Wilkes in 1842 ; its highest latitude 
 yet found was 78 S., by Sir James Koss, a high 
 mountainous land, fringed by ice. F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Contingent. The quota of armed men, or 
 pecuniary subsidy which one nation gives to an 
 other in pursuance of an agreement. 
 
 Continuous-service Certificate. All men who 
 enlist for three years, except officers cooks, 
 stewards, and servants, will receive, upon the 
 expiration of their enlistments, if they shall so 
 elect, continuous-service certificates in lieu of 
 the ordinary or honorable discharges. 
 
 All persons holding continuous-service cer 
 tificates will be entitled to receive for each con 
 tinuous re-enlistment for three years, within 
 three months from the dat.e of their discharge, 
 one dollar per month in addition to the pay pre 
 scribed for their several ratings ; but a person 
 failing to re-enlist within three months from the 
 date of his discharge will cease to derive any 
 advantage from his previous continuous enlist 
 ments. 
 
 The continuous-service certificate will embrace 
 all the advantages of an honorable discharge in 
 cases where persons are recommended for the 
 same, and must always show, in the column for 
 the purpose, whether or not the person is entitled 
 to an honorable discharge. 
 
 Cont-line. The space between the bilges of 
 two casks stowed side by side. The space be 
 tween the strands of a rope ; when a rope is 
 served this space is filled up with the worming 
 so that the service will be smooth. 
 
 Contraband (It. contra, against; bando, an 
 edict or proclamation). In commercial lan 
 guage, goods exported from or imported into a 
 country against its laws. 
 
 CONTRABAND OF WAR. Such articles as a 
 belligerent has by the law of nations the right 
 of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his 
 enemy. See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Contract. Supplies for the navy are, as far as 
 practicable, purchased by contract. The Secre 
 tary of the Navy is forbidden by law to make 
 any contract except under a law authorizing the 
 
 same, or under an appropriation adequate to its 
 fulfillment, and excepting also contracts for sub 
 sistence and clothing. All persons employed in 
 the navy are prohibited from having any interest 
 whatever in purchases or contracts for supplies 
 for the navy, and from receiving, directly or in 
 directly, any emolument or gratuity from any 
 contractor or other person furnishing supplies, 
 and from acting as agent or attorney for any 
 such persons. No action will lie against an 
 officer upon contracts made by him in his official 
 capacity for public purposes, and within the 
 legitimate scope of his duties. 
 
 CONTRACT OF AFFREIGHTMENT. See CHAR 
 TER-PARTY. 
 
 Contribution. A tax levied upon a conquered 
 country in lieu of confiscation of property, and 
 as some indemnity for the expenses of maintain 
 ing order and affording protection. General 
 average (which see). The ratable proportion 
 which each of several underwriters pays when 
 more than one insurance has been effected on the 
 same risk. 
 
 Controller. A cast-iron block with depres 
 sions on the upper surface which fit the links of 
 the cable and prevent its running out. It can be 
 thrown out of gear by means of a short lever. 
 
 Convict-ship. A ship appropriated to the 
 use of convicts, or one chartered to convey con 
 victs to their destination. 
 
 Convoy. A merchant vessel or fleet of mer 
 chant vessels protected by an armed force. The 
 ship or ships which conduct and defend merchant 
 vessels while proceeding to their destination. 
 
 CONVOY-INSTRUCTIONS. The written or printed 
 regulations supplied by the senior officer to each 
 ship of the convoy. 
 
 CONVOY-LIST. A register of the ships com 
 posing the convoy. 
 
 Conyngham, Gustavus, Captain. A native 
 of Ireland, emigrated to the United Colonies 
 about the year 1767 ; became an apprentice to 
 Capt. Henderson, then in the Antigua trade, and 
 continued with him as sailor and mate until, by 
 Capt.. Henderson s death, he was promoted to 
 the command of the vessel in which he had been 
 serving, the "Molly." Capt. Conyngham con 
 tinued in the same trade until the commence 
 ment of our Kevolutionary war, when he went 
 to Europe with Mr. Jonathan Nesbit, who ob 
 tained for him a commission for a privateer from 
 Dr. Franklin and Silas Deane. Having re 
 ceived his commission he proceeded to Dunkirk, 
 where a vessel was purchased and fitted out for 
 a cruise in the British Channel. This was one 
 of the first privateers that appeared in those seas 
 under our flag. She was so successful in cap 
 turing British vessels that the name of Conyng 
 ham became a terror in the Channel. He gen 
 erally burnt or destroyed his prize-vessels. In 
 1778 he was captured, and treated with such sev 
 erity that Congress, by resolution (July 17, 
 1779), directed their Secretary to write in their 
 name to the admiral or commanding officer of 
 the British fleet lying in the harbor of New 
 York to demand the reasons of his being treated 
 " in a manner contrary to the dictates of human 
 ity and the practice of Christian civilized na 
 tions;" and they directed, in the event of a 
 satisfactory answer not being given, that the 
 Marine Committee should "immediately cause 
 to be confined, in close and safe custody, such 
 
COOK 
 
 172 
 
 COOPEK 
 
 and so many persons as they may think proper, 
 in order to abide the fate of the said Gustavus 
 Conyngham." On the 13th of December follow 
 ing Congress refused to allow Christopher Hele, 
 then a prisoner, to be exchanged or to go upon 
 his parole, declaring, by resolution, that he must 
 abide the fate of Capt. Conyngham. After Capt. 
 Conyngham was captured a print was exhibited 
 in London as his exact likeness, and thousands 
 flocked to see it. This print represented him as 
 a man of gigantic stature, with shoulders of 
 extraordinary breadth, and his whole person in 
 dicating great strength, with a countenance fero 
 cious in the extreme, holding in his right hand a 
 drawn sword at least six feet in length. Under 
 neath the print was painted in large letters, 
 " The Arch Kebel." Admirable likeness ! Con 
 yngham was short, very slender, and his visage 
 remarkably thin, but he was very active and full 
 of spirit. His health suffered greatly during his 
 confinement, of which he complained until his 
 death. 
 
 Cook, James, Captain. One of the most scien 
 tific and adventurous officers in the British navy. 
 Deputed to the South Pacific, in 1768, to observe 
 the transit of Venus, he seized the opportunity 
 of exploring the coast of New South Wales. 
 Four years later he was sent to find a land sup 
 posed to exist in high southern latitudes ; but he 
 did not discover any territory as high as 70 S. 
 lat. He, however, came on an island which 
 stands on the charts as New Caledonia. In 1776, 
 Cook explored Behring s Strait, and in the fol 
 lowing year, sailing into the Pacific, he discov 
 ered the Sandwich Islands. At Hawaii he was 
 set upon by the savages and killed. 
 
 Cook. To concoct or prepare ; hence to tam 
 per with or alter ; as, to cook a sight, that is, to 
 so change the data as to make the final result 
 coincide with the observer s wishes. 
 
 COOK, MESS. A man detailed from each mess 
 whose duty is to draw from the paymaster the 
 food to which his mess is entitled, to prepare it 
 for cooking and deliver it to the ship s cook, to 
 receive it from the galley when it is cooked, and 
 to attend to the cleaning and arranging of the 
 mess-gear. He is generally selected from the 
 landsmen of the mess, and ordinarily receives 
 from the members of his mess a compensation 
 equal to the value of one ration. 
 
 COOK, OFFICER S. The cook to the comman- 
 der-in-chief, cabin cook, wardroom cook, steer 
 age cook, and warrant-officer s cook do the cook 
 ing for their respective messes. They are not 
 entitled to continuous-service certificates, nor to 
 the benefit of an honorable discharge. 
 
 COOK, SHIP S. A petty officer who has charge 
 of the galley and superintends the cooking for 
 the whole ship s crew. He brings a sample of 
 the dinner for the day to the mast at seven bells, 
 where it is inspected by the officer of the deck. 
 In early days the position of ship s cook was a 
 lucrative one ; he was entitled to a share of the 
 slush-money, and received an allowance for 
 extra cooking ; as, scouse, early coffee, etc. At 
 present the early coffee is authorized by the gov 
 ernment, and the slush-money is devo ted to the 
 ship s use. 
 
 COOK-HOUSE. The caboose containing the 
 cooking apparatus. 
 
 Coom. The crest or comb of a wave. See 
 COMB. 
 
 Cooming. See COAMING. 
 
 Cooper, George H., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New York. Appointed from New York, Au 
 gust 14, 1837 ; attached to fleet operating on 
 coast of Florida, 1837, and was constantly em 
 ployed co-operating with the army in boat ex- 
 ped itions against the Seminole Indians ; frigate 
 "Constitution," Pacific Squadron, 1838-42; 
 Naval School, Philadelphia, 1843. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June. 23, 
 1843; schooner "Flirt," Home Squadron, 1846 
 
 The " Flirt" reported for duty to Gen. Zachary 
 Tajdor in March, 1846. Passed Midshipman 
 Cooper commanded a detachment of men at 
 Point Isabel, Texas, under Major Monroe, of 
 the U. S. army, previous to and after the battles 
 of May 8 and 9. After the capture of Mon 
 terey, was transferred to Commodore Connor s 
 squadron, and was in both attacks on Tabasco, 
 and attacks on Alvarado and Tuspan. Served 
 in the squadron until the reduction of the capi 
 tal. Receiving-ship, Norfolk, 1847-48; naval 
 station, Norfolk, 1849-50; steam-frigate " Sus- 
 quehanna," East India Squadron, 1850-55. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, May 8, 1851 ; 
 rendezvous, Norfolk, 1856 ; ordnance duty, Nor 
 folk, 1857; steam-frigate "Roanoke," Home 
 Squadron, 1859-60; navv-yard, Portsmouth, 
 N. H., 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer "Massachusetts," supply- 
 vessel, Atlantic Squadron, 1862 ; commanding 
 steamer "Mercedita," South Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, 1863 ; was seven weeks in 
 command of monitor "Sangamon," inside of 
 Charleston Roads, employed on picket duty, and 
 acting in concert with the army, constantly shel 
 ling Fort Sumter and the batteries on Sullivan s 
 Island ; stationed in Stono Inlet, S. C., as senior- 
 officer, co-operating with the army in expeditions 
 against the enemy, and frequently engaged at 
 short range; commanding steamer "Sonoma," 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1863-64; 
 commanding steamer "Glaucus," East Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron, 1864-65; commanding 
 steamer " Winooski," special service, 1866-67; 
 navy-yard, Norfolk, 1867-69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, December 2, 1867 ; 
 commanding steam-frigate "Colorado," Asiatic 
 Squadron, 1870-71; navy-yard, Norfolk, 1872; 
 commanding "Roanoke," 1873-74. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, June 5, 1874 ; 
 commandant navy-yard, Pensacola, 1875-76; 
 light-house inspector, 1876-77 ; president board 
 of inspection, 1877-78 ; commandant navy-yard, 
 New York, 1880. 
 
 Cooper, James Fenimore, novelist. Born 
 at Burlington, N. J., September 15, 1789; died 
 at Cooperstown, N. Y., September 14, 1851. 
 He studied at Yale, but did not graduate, and 
 in 1811, after six years service in the navy, 
 married a Miss De Lancey, and settled at Ma- 
 maroneck, N. Y. His first work, " Precaution," 
 published anonymously in 1821, was followed 
 by " The Spy," "The Pioneers," 1823. and the 
 " Leather-stocking Tales," which gave him great 
 popularity. This was increased by his sea 
 novels, "The Pilot," "Red Rover," "Water- 
 Witch," " Two Admirals," " Wing and Wing," 
 etc., and by " The Bravo," " Heidenmaur," and 
 " Headsman," published during a visit to Europe 
 
CO-ORDINATES 
 
 173 
 
 CORDAGE 
 
 in 1826-33. After his return he published " Let 
 ters to his Countrymen," "Homeward Bound," 
 and "Home as Found," which somewhat lessened 
 his popularity. Besides his works of fiction, he 
 wrote a "History of the United States Navy," 
 (2 vols. 8vo), "Battle of Lake Erie," 1843, 
 " Lives of American Naval Oificers" (2 vols. 
 12mo), 6 vols. of "Gleanings in Europe," 
 " Sketches of Switzerland," and a comedy, per 
 formed at Burton s theatre, New York, in 1850. 
 The latter part of his life was imbittered by 
 quarrels and lawsuits with the editorial frater 
 nity. His latter productions were unworthy the 
 high fame which Mr. Cooper justly deserved and 
 enjoyed. 
 
 Co-ordinates. A set of lines, angles, or planes, 
 or a combination of these, which, taken together, 
 define the position of a point, or points. There 
 are two systems of co-ordinates, the rectilinear 
 and the polar system. 
 
 CO-ORDINATES FOR THE CELESTIAL SPHERE. 
 
 Ecliptic System. Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 Equinoctial System. 1. Right Ascension and 
 Declination. 2. Hour-angle and Polar Dis 
 tance. 
 
 Horizon System. Azimuth and Altitude. 
 
 CO-ORDINATES FOR THE TERRESTRIAL 
 SPHERE. 
 
 Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 Coot. A water-fowl of the genus Fulica, fre 
 quenting lakes and other still water. The com 
 mon coot has a bald forehead and a black body ; 
 the toes are long and not webbed, but bordered 
 by a scalloped membrane. The name is some 
 times applied to a stupid person. 
 
 Cop, or Copt. The top of a conical hill. 
 
 Cope. An old word for cape. To cope is to 
 bend or arch. 
 
 Copeck. A Russian copper coin, a hundred 
 of which make a rouble ; it is worth about 
 three-quarters of a cent. 
 
 Copenhagen. The capital of Denmark, and 
 one of the finest cities of Northern Europe, 
 situated on the sound, chiefly on the east coast 
 of Seeland, but partly on the island of Amager, 
 which is separated from Seeland by a narrow 
 arm of the sound, which forms a harbor, spacious, 
 deep, and secure. Lat. 55 40 9" N. ; Ion. 12 
 34/ y// E. The shipping of Copenhagen is ex 
 tensive, nearly all the heavy trade of the king 
 dom centring there. Pop. 198,000. 
 
 Copernican System. Nicholas Copernicus 
 was born at Thorn, Prussia, in 1473 ; died 1543. 
 A few days before his death the printing of his 
 book on the " Revolution of the Celestial Bodies" 
 was completed. The Copernican system repre 
 sents the sun to be at rest in the centre, and the 
 planets to move round it in ellipses ; in other 
 words, it is that which we now know to be the 
 true system of the universe. It receives its 
 name from Copernicus, but, in point of fact, it 
 may be described as being a growth to which 
 he was only one of many contributors. 
 
 The merit of having first formed the general 
 notion of the system seems to be due to Pythag 
 oras ; Copernicus has the credit of having, after 
 the lapse of centuries, again drawn the attention 
 of philosophers to it, and of having greatly in 
 creased the probability of its truth by his calcu 
 lations and arguments. The most valuable part 
 of the "De Revolutionibus" is that in which is 
 explained, for the first time, the variation of the 
 
 seasons, the precession of the equinoxes, and the 
 stations and retrogradations of the planets. In 
 general, the explanations are right, and perfect 
 as to the general nature of the causes of the 
 phenomena. 
 
 Copill. An old term for a variety of the 
 coble. 
 
 Copper (Lat. cuprum, a corruption of Q/- 
 prium, from the island of Cyprus, whence it 
 was formerly brought). A reddish, malleable, 
 tenacious, ductile metal, of which the symbol is 
 Cu ; specific gravity, 8.7 to 8.9; fusing-point, 
 about 2000 Fahr. It is found native and in 
 various ores ; as, copper pyrites, copper glance, 
 red oxide of copper, and malachite. Its salts 
 are generally poisonous, but brilliant, and used 
 extensively in the arts. Its uses are various ; 
 alloyed with tin or zinc, it is used in bells, ord 
 nance, and machinery ; drawn out into wires, it 
 is used for lightning conductors and electrical 
 cables ; beaten out into thin sheets, it is used for 
 sheathing wooden ships, in which case the fasten 
 ings should be of copper. The green rust which 
 forms on the sheathing of ships is a carbonate of 
 copper, and is very poisonous. 
 
 The sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, is em 
 ployed in the preservation of timber from dry 
 rot. 
 
 COPPERED, or COPPER-BOTTOMED. Having 
 the bottom sheathed with thin sheets of copper, 
 to protect the planking from mollusks, cirripeds, 
 and weed. 
 
 COPPER-FASTENED. A ship is copper-fastened 
 when the bolts are of copper instead of iron in 
 that part immersed in the water. When these 
 bolts are of iron, galvanic action is set up be 
 tween the bolts and the copper sheathing. 
 
 Coppers. The ship s boilers for cooking ; the 
 name is used even when the boilers are made of 
 other material than copper, which is now the 
 case. Hot coppers is a term used to denote a 
 state of extreme thirst, particularly when it is 
 the consequence of a debauch. 
 
 Corab. A sort of boat, otherwise called 
 coracle. 
 
 Coracle. An ancient British truckle or boat, 
 constructed of wicker-work, and still in use 
 among Welsh fishermen and on the Irish lakes. 
 It is covered by skins, oil-cloth, etc., which are 
 removed when out of use ; it is of an oval form, 
 and contains one man, who, on reaching the 
 shore, shoulders his coracle, deposits it in safety, 
 and covers it with dried rushes or heather. The 
 Arctic baidar is of similar construction. It is 
 probably of the like primitive fabric with the 
 cymba sutiles of Herodotus. 
 
 Coracora. See KORACORA. 
 
 Coral. A name applied to the hard calcareous 
 support or skeleton of many species of marine 
 zoophytes. The coral-producing animals abound 
 chiefly in tropical seas, sometimes forming, by 
 the aggregated growth of countless generations, 
 reefs, barriers, and islands of vast extent. The 
 "red coral" (Corallium rubrum) of the Med 
 iterranean is highly prized for ornamental pur 
 poses. 
 
 Coralan. A small open boat for the Mediter 
 ranean coral-fishery. 
 
 Cor Carol! (Lat. "Charles Heart"). See 
 CANES VENATICI. 
 
 Cordage. A general term for the ropes on 
 board ship. See ROPE. 
 
CORDILLA 
 
 174 
 
 CORVETTE 
 
 Cordilla. The. coarse German hemp, other 
 wise called torse, 
 
 Cordlie. A name for the tunny fish. 
 
 Cordovan. Leather made from seal-skin ; 
 the term is derived from the superior leather 
 prepared at Cordova in Spain. 
 
 Core. The internal mold which forms a hol 
 low in casting, as in a gun. The insulated 
 wire of a submarine cable. 
 
 Cor Hydrse. a Hydros, called also Alphard. 
 See HYDRA. 
 
 Cork. A city and river port of Ireland, capi 
 tal of the county of Cork, on the Lee, 11 miles 
 above the entrance of Cork harbor, and 137 
 miles S.W. of Dublin. The city proper is built 
 on an island formed by the Lee, which river is 
 crossed by bridges. Cork communicates by steam 
 with London, Dublin, Bristol, Liverpool, and 
 Glasgow. Pop. 79,000. 
 
 Corkir, or Cudbear. The Lecanora tartarea, 
 a lichen producing a purple dye, growing on the 
 stones of the Western Isles and in Norway. 
 
 Cor Leonis. a Leonis, called also Regulus. 
 See LEO. 
 
 Cormorant. A well-known sea-bird (Phala- 
 crocorax carbo] of the family Pelecanidce. 
 
 Corned Powder. Powder granulated from 
 the mill-cakes and sifted. 
 
 CORNS OF POWDER. Small grains of powder. 
 
 Coromontine. A tribe of negroes in the inte 
 rior of Africa. They are very ferocious, and 
 when sold into slavery prove very troublesome 
 to their masters. 
 
 Corona. A peculiar phase of the aurora bo- 
 realis. A circle around the moon during a total 
 eclipse of the sun. Frequently when there is a 
 halo encircling the moon, there is a small corona 
 more immediately around it. 
 
 Corona Australis. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Corona Borealis (Lat. " The Northern 
 Crown"). A constellation lying between a Lyroe 
 and Arcturus. a Coronce Borealis, Alphecca. 
 
 Corouse. The ancient weapon invented by 
 Duilius for boarding. An attempt was made in 
 1798 to re-introduce it in French privateers. 
 
 Corphoun. A name for ^he herring. 
 
 Corporal. A non-commissioned officer of 
 marines, next in rank to a sergeant. 
 
 CORPORAL, LANCE. A private marine doing 
 the duty of a corporal. 
 
 CORPORAL, SHIP S. A petty officer to assist 
 the master-at-arms in his various duties. See 
 
 MAST ER-AT-ARMS. 
 
 Corposant. See ST. ELMO S FIRE. 
 
 Corps. A body of officers, or officers and men ; 
 as, the medical corps, the marine corps, etc. 
 
 Corpse. Jack s term for the marine guard, 
 the corps. 
 
 Correction. An allowance made for inac 
 curacy in an instrument ; as, compass correction, 
 chronometer correction, etc. 
 
 Corryne-powder. Corn-powder, a fine kind 
 of gunpowder. 
 
 Corsair. A pirate, or piratical vessel. The 
 term was applied more particularly to the pirati 
 cal cruisers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. 
 
 Cor Scorpionis. a Scorpionis, called also An- 
 tares. See SCORPIO. 
 
 Cortez, Fernando. The history of Spanish 
 discoveries on the continent of America reveals 
 few names of greater celebrity than the discov 
 erer and conqueror of Mexico. Accompanying 
 
 Velasquez on his expedition to Cuba, he recom 
 mended himself by his talents and courage to his 
 chief, who deputed him to visit the western 
 coast and establish colonies. In February, 1519, 
 Cortez coasted the peninsula of Yucatan, and 
 stopping at San Juan de Ulloa, received informa 
 tion which led him at once to found a settlement 
 at Vera Cruz and proceed to the court of Monte- 
 zuma. Ultimately he conquered the whole 
 kingdom of Mexico, and giving it the name of 
 New Spain, annexed it to the Spanish crown. 
 Not realizing the recompense he expected, he 
 abandoned his views in respect to the military 
 government of the new possession, and proceeded 
 on an exploratory voyage northerly. In 1536 he 
 discovered the peninsula of California, and sur 
 veyed a part of the gulf which separates it from 
 the American continent. But reaping neither 
 profit nor honor, excepting as a geographical 
 discoverer, he returned to Spain in 1540 to die 
 in seclusion, after serving Charles V. against the 
 Algerians. 
 
 Corunna, a fortified city of Spain, capital of 
 the province of Corunna, is situated on a bay of 
 the Atlantic, 320 miles N.W. of Madrid. Lat. 
 43 22 5" N. ; Ion. 8 22 1" W. Its harbor is 
 safe, and defended on the east by Fort San 
 Diego and west by Fort San Antonio. A great 
 part of its population is employed in the her 
 ring- and pilchard-fishery. Some ship-building 
 is carried on, and there is a school of navigation. 
 Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Corvette. (Lat. corbita ; Sp. corbeta ; Fr. 
 courvette, corvette). A name common in the 
 French navy, in the days of wooden ships, 
 to a class of vessels of war ranking, in military 
 value, next after the frigate, to which, in rig and 
 general appearance, they bore a resemblance. 
 The equivalent in the English navy was a "Jack- 
 Ass" frigate; but in the navy of the United 
 States the general term sloop-of-war is applied 
 to all vessels between a frigate and a brig. The 
 French corvette of the first class had a covered 
 battery and carried guiis on the forecastle and 
 quarter-deck. The razeed frigates of the " Cum 
 berland" class were our nearest approach to the 
 heavier French corvettes. Thirty years ago, the 
 battery of a French corvette, a batterie couverte et 
 d galliards armes, varied from 20 to 32 guns ; 
 that of a corvette d batterie barbette (single- 
 decked sloop-of-war) varied from 14 to 24 guns. 
 
 The term corvette comes from corbita, a basket, 
 the sign worn at the mast-heads of the Egyptian 
 grain-ships as the symbol of their trade/ This 
 gave the name to a class of vessels, originally 
 vessels of burden (naves onerarice). In time the 
 name came to be applied to a light and fast gal 
 ley of one mast, and propelled by\bolh sails and 
 oars. The name occurs in the history of the 
 Italian navies of the middle ages} It made its 
 appearance in the French navy about the year 
 1687. The corvette was then useq, on account 
 of its lightness and speed, as a look-out ship at 
 tached to a fleet, and for carrying dispatches. 
 
 Corvette-aviso, a light, fast sloop-of-war used 
 in more modern times as a dispatch+vessel. The 
 name has sometimes been applied, in the French 
 navy, to a certain class of brigs-of-war. 
 
 Corvette de charge, a store- vessel, or transport. 
 
 The term corvette has never been adopted in 
 the United States navy. S. B. Luce, Captain 
 U.8.N. 
 
COEVUS 
 
 175 
 
 COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 Corvus (Lat. "The Crow")- Oorvi, Al- 
 chiba. 
 
 Cosier. A lubber ; a botcher. 
 
 Cosmical. Rising and setting with the sun ; 
 the opposite of achronical. 
 
 Coss. An East Indian measure of distance, 
 varying from one to one and a half miles. 
 
 Costal. Relating to the coast. 
 
 Cot. A wooden frame inclosed in canvas, 
 and suspended from the beams ; it is used as a 
 sleeping-place by invalids, and sometimes by 
 officers. 
 
 Cote, or Cot. An old term for a small boat. 
 
 Cotter, Cutter, or Key. In machinery, a 
 wedge-shaped piece of metal, usually steel, used 
 for adjusting and confining bearings to jour 
 nals. It is generally secured in position by a 
 screw. 
 
 Cotton, Gun-. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Cottonina. The heavy canvas used for sails 
 in the Levant. 
 
 Coubais. An ornamental Japanese barge of 
 40 oars. 
 
 Coud. An- old word for conn. 
 
 Coulter-neb. A name of the puffin (Prater- 
 cula arctica). 
 
 Counter. The portion of a ship from the 
 water-line to the knuckle of the stern. 
 
 COUNTER-RAIL. The ornamental rails across 
 the stern into which the counters finish. 
 
 COUNTER-TIMBERS. Timbers worked on each 
 side of the stern-post in all round and elliptical 
 sterned ships to form the rake and contour of 
 the stern. 
 
 Counter-brace. The lee fore-topsail brace is 
 so called during the operation of tacking, from 
 its being hauled in, after the sails catch aback, 
 to flatten the sail against the lee side of the top 
 mast, and thus increase the effect of the wind 
 in forcing the ship s head around. To counter- 
 brace the yards is to brace the head-yards up 
 one way and the after-yards the other. The 
 yards are counter-braced while at anchor to di 
 minish the force of the wind acting on them ; 
 they are sometimes counter-braced in a calm to 
 be in readiness to take advantage of any breeze 
 that may spring up ; they are counter-braced 
 while under way to check the headway or to 
 heave-to. 
 
 Counter-current. A current running in the 
 opposite direction to the main current. 
 
 Countermand. To revoke, as a former com 
 mand ; to annul, or prohibit the execution of, a 
 previous order. 
 
 Counter-mold. When a piece of timber 
 molded on both sides as a breasthook, is intended 
 to come to its place accurately, the following 
 operation is gone through with : 
 
 After one edge, say the upper one, is accurately 
 shaped to the mold, the bevelings are taken 
 square from the piece and applied directly to the 
 part to which the breasthook is to be fayed. 
 Then the counter-mold is laid upon the piece to 
 fit the spots which have been found after the 
 bevels and square spots have been produced upon 
 the other face of the breasthook to be counter- 
 molded ; they agreeing, the piece may be confi 
 dently trimmed through to the first molding- 
 edge. 
 
 Counter-sea. A sea running in an opposite 
 direction from the wind. 
 
 Countersign. A private word or phrase which 
 
 is given out by the commanding officer of the 
 marines at a navy-yard; everyone who enters 
 the yard between tattoo and reveille is required 
 to give the countersign at the gate, and to every 
 sentry by whom he may be challenged. See 
 PAROLE. 
 
 Countersunk. Sunk so as to be even with or 
 below the surface ; as, a countersunk bolt. 
 
 Country. That portion of an apartment on 
 board ship which is used in common by all the 
 officers of the same mess ; as, the wardroom 
 country, or that portion of the wardroom be 
 tween the two rows of state-rooms. 
 
 Coup d osil. That talent of quick observation 
 by which a person by a single glance at the situ 
 ation of affairs detects its strong and weak points, 
 and is thereby enabled to manoeuvre to the best 
 advantage. 
 
 Coup de grace. A decisive finishing stroke. 
 
 Coup de main. A sudden attack or enter 
 prise. 
 
 Coupling. In mechanism, any device for join 
 ing separate parts together so that they may be 
 easily disconnected, such as sections of shafting, 
 piping, or hose. The coupling of shafting is ac 
 complished by the use of flanges, either wrought 
 or cast upon the shaft or rigidly attached thereto, 
 secured by bolts and keys. Large pipes are 
 coupled by flanges and bolts ; small ones by 
 screw couplings called " union couplings." Sec 
 tions of hose are connected by screw couplings. 
 In cases where instantaneous coupling or un 
 coupling is required, the "clutch" or "friction 
 coupling" is used. In these arrangements one 
 flange is free to slide in the direction of the axis 
 of the shaft, but by means of " feathers" rigidly 
 compelled to turn with it, the sliding motion 
 being controlled by levers. In the clutch the 
 faces of the flanges have interlocking projections ; 
 in the friction coupling two accurately fitted 
 conical faces are forced together. 
 
 Coureau. A small yawl of the Garonne. Also> 
 a narrow strait or channel. 
 
 Course. The angle which a ship s track makes 
 with the meridians, this angle being referred 
 either to the true meridian or to the position of 
 the magnetic needle by which the ship is steered. 
 The former is the true course, the latter the com 
 pass course. To obtain the true course, the 
 course steered must be corrected for leeway and 
 for the variation and deviation of the compass. 
 The course made good is the bearing of the po 
 sition in from the position left. 
 
 Courses. The sails which are bent to the 
 lower yards ; the fore, main, and mizzen stay 
 sails are sometimes comprehended under this 
 term. 
 
 Courset. The paper on which the night s 
 course was set, as a memorandum for the officer 
 of the watch. See NIGHT ORDERS. 
 
 Coursey. A space in the galley ; a part of 
 the hatches. 
 
 Court-martial, n. ; pi. Courts-martial ; pro. 
 cort-mar / -shal. A tribunal composed of mili 
 tary or naval officers appointed for the trial of 
 offenders against military or naval laws. 
 
 Derivation. COURT, from O. Fr. court or cort, 
 and N. Fr. cour, from Latin chors, chortis, and 
 cohorSj cohortis, meaning an inclosure, court, 
 crowd, or throng. MARTIAL, from Lat. mctrtialis, 
 from Mars, the god of war : hence pertaining to 
 war ; suited to war ; military. 
 
COUKT-MAKTIAL 
 
 176 
 
 COUKT-MAKTIAL 
 
 The word court, curia, in its law sense, means 
 the place where justice is judicially administered, 
 and as well the assemblage of judges, jury, et al.; 
 and this employment of the word, which in its 
 primitive and restricted sense meant "an in- 
 closure without a roof," and then "a palace, or 
 residence of a king," is evidently attributable to 
 the fact that in ancient times the king, as chief 
 magistrate or ruler, was regarded as the foun 
 tain of justice, and sometimes the dispenser, sit 
 ting in person as late as Edward IV. to hear and 
 determine causes. The palace used for this pur 
 pose became known as " the court," which 
 gradually grew to denote also the assembly. 
 
 History. The court-martial of to-day appears 
 to be the offspring and heir of the old Curia 
 Militaris^ or Court of Chivalry, called also the 
 Marshal s Court, which at one time was the 
 only military court established by the laws of 
 England. In the beginning it was held before 
 the lord high constable and earl marshal jointly, 
 but after the attainder of Stafford, Duke of Buck 
 ingham, in the reign of Henry VIII., and the 
 consequent extinction of the office of lord high 
 constable, it was, with respect to civil matters, 
 held before the earl marshal only. This court, 
 by statute (13 Kichard II., c. 2), had cognizance 
 of "contracts and other matters touching deeds 
 of arms and war," as well out of the realm as 
 within it, and was in great reputation in the 
 times of pure chivalry, and later, during Eng 
 land s connection with the continent by her ter 
 ritories in France. It was a military court, or 
 court of honor, when held before the earl mar 
 shal only, and also a criminal court when held 
 before the lord high constable ; but both of these 
 parts of its authority had fallen into disuse early 
 in the present century, on account of the feeble 
 ness of its jurisdiction and want of power to 
 enforce its judgments. Not being a court of 
 record, it could neither fine nor imprison, and an 
 appeal from its sentence had to be made imme 
 diately to the king in person. 
 
 The modern form of military courts was 
 adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., 
 when English soldiers were studying the Arti 
 cles of War of Gustavus Adolphus, and is first 
 recognized by statute in the original Mutiny 
 Act, 1689 (1 William and Mary, c. 5).* By 
 this act, annually renewed " for the regulation 
 of the army," the sovereign is authorized to grant 
 from time to time " a commission, under his royal 
 sign-manual, to any officer not under the degree 
 of a field-officer for holding a general court- 
 martial." He could also extend by warrant to 
 the lord lieutenant of Ireland, the governor of 
 Gibraltar, or of any of "the dominions beyond 
 the seas," authority to appoint courts-martial. 
 Although nearly two hundred years have passed 
 since this enactment, it remains the fountain of 
 military law ; many of its provisions are in force 
 unchanged, and nearly all have been adopted in 
 modified form into the codes of this country. 
 The student will discover many interesting 
 similarities by recurring to its text. 
 
 Naval law, and military law proper, seem 
 always to have possessed wider points of differ 
 ence than the varying circumstances call for. 
 
 * Occasioned by a mutiny in a body of English and Scotch 
 dragoons and infantry ordered to Holland to replace some 
 Dutch troops transferred to England. 
 
 The early naval law of England, which is styled 
 "barbarous," was long intrusted for its admin 
 istration to the discretion of commanders acting 
 under instructions from the Lord High Admiral, 
 who was supreme over both the royal and mer 
 chant navy. 
 
 In 1645 the leaders of the Long Parliament 
 secured something like a regular tribunal by 
 passing "An Ordinance and Articles of Martial 
 Law for the Government of the Navy." Under 
 this authority "general and ship courts-martial 
 with written records" were established; the one 
 for captains and commanders, and the others for 
 subordinate officers and men. Of the latter, the 
 mates, gunners, and boatswains could be mem 
 bers, but the admirals reserved control over the 
 more serious offenses. A later law (Act 13, 
 Charles II., c. 9) again gave the Lord High Ad 
 miral power to issue commissions to hold courts- 
 martial, which power continues to be exercised 
 by the Board of Admiralty. The court of the 
 High Admiral had civil jurisdiction in all mari 
 time causes, and in criminal cases to all crimes 
 committed upon the seas, on fresh water " within 
 flood-mark," and in all harbors, creeks, etc. 
 
 In 1749, through the exertions of Anson, a 
 very stringent act was passed, in which the 
 death penalty was affixed to a multitude of of 
 fenses, a circumstance which no doubt accounts 
 for its frequent occurrence to-day in our naval 
 code, though most rarely imposed ; so rarely, in 
 deed, that a yard from which a culprit has been 
 hanged becomes historical, and is followed, in 
 memory, from ship to navy-yard and from navy- 
 yard to ship by the sailors of the service. 
 
 Administration. The important matter of 
 administering law and justice by means of 
 courts-martial in the U. S. navy has until re 
 cently been lamely and imperfectly conducted. 
 There is still lacking a corps of trained judge- 
 advocates, such as is possessed by the army, and 
 it has happened that the dignity and efficiency 
 of a court, and the character and value of the 
 very essential office of judge-advocate, have all 
 been belittled by the appointment to the latter 
 duty of officers unwilling and wofully incom 
 petent. There was also a scarcity of applicable 
 knowledge, properly systematized and arranged, 
 both as to learned treatises and manuals. Until 
 1846, except a small book by Major-General 
 Macomb, U.S.A., there was no strictly Ameri 
 can authority on courts-martial. In that year 
 Captain Wm. C. De Hart, 2d U. S. Art., pub 
 lished a work on " Military Law adapted to the 
 United States Army and Navy," which con 
 tained much of value and is still quoted. 
 
 Books of foreign origin, generally English, 
 were previousty employed, and the practice of 
 our courts-martial was often both inconsistent 
 and contradictory. Errors were frequent ; there 
 was no settled and uniform interpretation of 
 either the law or the mode of procedure, and 
 hence proceedings were often disapproved and 
 set aside for informalities and omissions. The 
 requirements of parliamentary enactments were 
 confused with the general principles of law, and, 
 to increase the difficulties, our own statutes, for 
 unfathomable reasons, prescribed differences in 
 practice and power between courts of the army 
 and navy of the same degree and jurisdiction, as 
 to rank and offense, some of which still exist. 
 Captain De Hart s book, as well as that of Cap- 
 
COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 177 
 
 COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 tain (now Brigadier-General) S. V. Benet, which 
 followed, were more especially for the use of the 
 army, and naval officers were left to apply their 
 contents as their best intelligence might direct. 
 This did not tend to lessen much the want of 
 uniformity of action, although the books did 
 great good in other ways. Perceiving the ne 
 cessity for a concise compilation of the laws, 
 regulations, and customs "distinctly naval," 
 Rear-Admiral A. A. Harwood, U.S.N., pre 
 pared (1867) the book which bears his name, 
 and it is now a generally accepted authority as 
 to the administration of law in the navy. 
 
 Constitution and Organization. The power 
 " to make rules for the government of the land 
 and naval forces" is vested in Congress by the 
 Constitution (Art. 1, Sec. 8) and the Revised 
 Statutes (Sec. 1624), and the acts passed subse 
 quent to December 1, 1873, are " the laws which 
 define the powers and duties, and regulate the 
 organization and mode of procedure" of naval 
 courts and boards.* To the mandates of these 
 laws are to be added a portion of the Navy 
 Regulations (1876), parts of a Manual for the 
 Administration of Law and Justice, issued by 
 the Navy Department (1870), and such orders, 
 regulations, and instructions as the Secretary of 
 the Navy has adopted, " with the approval of 
 the President," subject to alterations adopted in 
 the same manner, all of which have been given 
 the force of law (Rev. Stat, Sec. 1547), with pen 
 alty in case of failure to obey. (Ibid., Art. 8 of 
 Sec. 1624.) No court-martial can be constituted 
 or can claim jurisdiction except in direct accord 
 ance with these laws. 
 
 By them courts-martial of two kinds are au 
 thorized, viz., general and summary. The first 
 is for the trial of offenses committed by "any 
 person in the naval service,"! and may be con 
 vened as often as the President of the United 
 States, the Secretary of the Navy, or commander- 
 in-chief of a fleet or squadron shall deem it neces 
 sary ; but, in the waters of the United States, no 
 commander-in-chief shall convene such court- 
 martial " without express authority from the 
 President." It is the highest naval judicial au 
 thority, and must consist of not less than five 
 nor more than thirteen commissioned officers as 
 members; "and as many officers, not exceed 
 ing thirteen, as can be convened without injury 
 to the service, shall be summoned on every such 
 court." In no case, where it can be avoided 
 without injury to the service, shall more than 
 one-half, exclusive of the president, be junior to 
 the officer to be tried. The convening authority 
 has full and final discretion as to what would 
 cause injury to the service. 
 
 The number and rank of the officers selected is 
 usually governed by the grade of the offender 
 and the gravity of the offense. A full court of 
 thirteen officers is very seldom convened. Seven 
 
 * The army and navy are governed by separate and special 
 laws as distinct communities, the code of the former being 
 known as " The Articles of War," originally 101 in number, 
 approved April 10, 1806 ; and that of the latter as " The Articles 
 fur the Better Government of the Navy," originally 25 in num 
 ber (now 60), approved July 17, 1862, and all incorporated in 
 the Revised Statutes. The first rules for the regulation of the 
 navy were established by a resolution of Congress, November 
 28, 1775. These were succeeded, March 2, 1779, by a very com 
 plete code of 50 articles, many of which continue operative. 
 
 f This includes members of the marine corps, except when 
 nerving with the army by order of the President. (Rev. Stat., 
 Sec. 1621.) 
 
 12 
 
 and nine are the most frequent numbers. In the 
 British navy the legal maximum, formerly thir 
 teen, was, in 1868, reduced to nine ; the minimum 
 remaining the same, five. Custom prescribes in 
 any case an odd number upon organization ; but, 
 if the original detail be reduced by sickness, de 
 tachment, or casualty pending a trial, the court 
 continues its labors, unless otherwise directed, 
 until fewer than five assemble. Should the 
 circumstances of a case demand a court of thir 
 teen to be assembled and maintained, it is cus 
 tomary to detail supernumerary officers, neces 
 sarily juniors, to fill vacancies which may exist 
 upon organization or occur later. 
 
 The mode of convening a court is by a written 
 or printed order, or precept, addressed to the 
 senior officer named in the detail, who presides 
 by virtue of his rank. The precept recites the 
 authority by which it issues ; fixes the day, hour, 
 and place of assembly ; states who is to be tried ; 
 and names the officers who are to compose the 
 court in the order of their rank. The person 
 who is to act as judge-advocate is also named, 
 and the whole is signed by the officer ordering 
 the court, with his rank and title. A separate 
 written appointment, which is also an order to 
 report to the presiding officer of the court, is 
 sent to each member and to the judge-advocate. 
 All commissioned officers on the active list are 
 eligible to membership, but subject to challenge 
 by both the accused and the judge-advocate. 
 The latter, having no vote, cannot be challenged. 
 If an officer of the medical, pay, marine, or en 
 gineer corps is to be tried, it is deemed proper, 
 if the exigencies of the service will permit, that 
 at least one-third of the court shall be composed 
 of officers of the same corps. When thus asso 
 ciated on courts or boards, line and staff officers 
 take precedence according to rank, and wear the 
 service-dress uniform, without swords, unless 
 otherwise specially directed. (N. Reg., 1876.) 
 Other officers attending courts-martial as wit 
 nesses or in any capacity wear the same. For 
 merly the full-dress uniform (cocked hat, epau 
 lets, and sword) was customary, and a court- 
 martial was an affair of much state, and great 
 discomfort. Judge-advocates are appointed by 
 the Secretary of the Navy only (sec JUDGE-AD 
 VOCATE), and provost-marshals by the president 
 of the court. See PROVOST-MARSHAL. 
 
 At the time and place appointed the officers 
 assemble, and present their orders to the presid 
 ing officer, who indorses them "Reported," 
 adding the date and signing officially. He takes 
 his seat at one end of a long table prepared for 
 the use of the court, and assigns the others their 
 seats according to rank, the first on his right, the 
 second on his left, and so on alternating to the 
 junior. The judge-advocate sits at the opposite 
 end, and the accused, who has previously been 
 placed in arrest or confinement, is introduced 
 unfettered, unless violent, or escape be appre 
 hended, and sits on his right, where a small 
 table is placed for the use of himself and counsel. 
 A chair is placed on the left of the judge-advo 
 cate for witnesses, and others are furnished for 
 spectators, all courts-martial being public except 
 when cleared for deliberation. 
 
 The order convening the court and the appoint 
 ment of the judge-advocate are then read aloud 
 to the accused, standing, by the judge-advocnto, 
 who asks if he objects" to any officer named in 
 
COUKT-MARTIAL 
 
 178 
 
 COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 the order sitting on his trial. If yea, the objec 
 tion is recorded, and the challenged party with 
 draws until the objection is considered. Should 
 the accused demand it, the member may be put 
 upon his voir dire, the oath being administered 
 by the judge-advocate. Personal interest in the 
 case, prejudice, animosity, an expression of opin 
 ion for or against, having been a member of a 
 court of inquiry to investigate the charges, or 
 having preferred the charges, are good grounds 
 for challenge. All objections having been acted 
 upon, the oaths, or affirmations, prescribed by 
 law are administered in the presence of the ac 
 cused. First , by the presiding officer to the 
 judge-advocate; second, by the judge-advocate 
 to the members of the court (see OATHS), and the 
 fact so recorded. Failure to do this as thus de 
 scribed would be a fatal defect. While the court 
 is being sworn all in the room stand, and the 
 utmost silence prevails. Each member who does 
 not elect to affirm places his right hand, ungloved, 
 on the Holy Bible, and the judge-advocate, hold 
 ing the book, and addressing each by name, reads 
 the oath. The president then " kisses the book," 
 as does each in turn, according to rank, passing 
 it along. All are sworn to secrecy as to the sen 
 tence and the vote or opinion of any particular 
 member ; also to try the case depending im 
 partially. 
 
 Jurisdiction, Poivers, and Duties. The court is 
 now organized, and has a special jurisdiction 
 co-extensive with the face of the earth ; that is, 
 for an offense committed in Brazil, for instance, 
 the offender may be tried by a court convened 
 in Massachusetts, or in the waters of Africa. 
 This special jurisdiction embraces all naval per 
 sons of whatever condition, during the period of 
 their obligation to serve, and in some cases 
 longer, and all crimes or acts set forth in the 
 laws and regulations for the navy, or which, if 
 not specified, may be prejudicial to good order 
 and discipline. Citizens, as a general rule, are 
 not amenable, although they may become so 
 under certain circumstances. A court-rnartial 
 has no power to award pecuniary damages for 
 injurious conduct. Its jurisdiction is criminal, 
 and its judgments are penal. Bail is unknown. 
 Any person who refuses to give evidence, or 
 prevaricates, or behaves with contempt to the 
 court, may be imprisoned by the court not to 
 exceed two months ; and for the crime of perjury, 
 or subornation of perjury, may be prosecuted in 
 any court of justice in the United States. All 
 offenses committed while on shore are punishable 
 in the same manner as if committed at sea. Gen 
 eral courts only are competent to try capital 
 offenses and commissioned officers, and to compel 
 the attendance of witnesses who are subject to 
 the authority of the United States. 
 
 Every accused person is entitled to a true copy 
 of the charge and specification alleged against 
 him, properly authenticated, at least twenty-four 
 hours before he is brought to trial ; and should 
 he desire counsel, a stenographer, or a friend to 
 assist in his defense, they are admitted and men 
 tioned in the record. He is also entitled to a list 
 of the witnesses who are to appear against him, 
 and to have such witnesses summoned as are 
 material to his defense. See WITNESS. 
 
 If the charges are found to be correct, and the 
 accused is prepared for trial, they are read to 
 him, and he is called upon to plead " Guilty" or 
 
 " Not Guilty." Should he plead not guilty, or 
 stand mute, testimony is taken. The judge-ad 
 vocate summons the witnesses, and the president 
 administers the oath to them " in the presence of 
 the accused." (See OATHS.) They are examined 
 first by the party calling them, then cross-ex 
 amined by the opposite party, and, finally, the 
 court puts such questions as it may consider 
 necessary. All questions and answers must be 
 recorded in full, and the evidence of each wit 
 ness be read to him and be pronounced by him 
 correct before he is discharged. The laws of evi 
 dence which obtain in civil courts are adhered to 
 in the main, but the "numberless niceties" and 
 minute distinctions are not always regarded. 
 
 The proceedings having commenced, the court 
 is required by law to sit from day to day, Sun 
 days excepted, until sentence is given, unless 
 temporarily adjourned by the authority which 
 convened it; and no member can absent himself 
 " except in case of sickness, or of an order to go 
 on duty from a superior officer, on pain of being 
 cashiered." Testimony taken during the ab 
 sence of a member must be read to him when he 
 returns, and acknowledged correct by the wit 
 ness, before he can resume his seat in that par 
 ticular case. The president, as the organ of the 
 court, is empowered to preserve order and de 
 corum, to speak and act for the court in all cases 
 provided for by law, custom, or its own resolution, 
 and requires all persons called before it to be 
 treated in a becoming manner. In all delibera 
 tions the members are equal ; all questions are 
 decided by a majority vote, the junior voting 
 first; and the members are individually and col 
 lectively responsible to the civil judicature 1 or 
 any abuse of power, illegal or corrupt proceed 
 ing. A court has no po\yer to punish its own 
 members, and for disorderly conduct one is liable 
 as in other offenses against the discipline of the 
 service. 
 
 The prosecution is formally closed before the 
 defense begins, and all orders, motions, votes, or 
 rulings of the court, except its discussions, and 
 all motions, propositions, arguments, or state 
 ments of the accused or judge-advocate, in 
 short, every fact necessary to a complete his 
 tory of the case and a correct understanding 
 by the reviewing authority, is recorded. Upon 
 completion of the evidence the accused is al 
 lowed time to prepare and submit his written 
 defense, to which the judge-advocate has the 
 right to reply. 
 
 "The courtls then cleared for deliberation, and 
 after deciding upon its finding, or verdict, ad 
 judges sentence, in each case by ballot. The 
 court can find guilty in a less degree than 
 charged, but in all cases of conviction must 
 adjudge punishment adequate to the ofiense. 
 Every member must vote upon a sentence 
 whether he believes the accused guilty or not. 
 A sentence of death requires the concurrence of 
 two-thirds of the members present, but all others 
 may be determined by a majority of votes. The 
 discretion of a naval court-martial as to punish 
 ment is very great, only "flogging, branding, 
 marking, or tattooing on the body" being pro 
 hibited by law. Shaving the head, drumming 
 out of the service, extra guard duty, and ball 
 and chain, though lawful, have within the last 
 fifteen years grown into disfavor and are nearly 
 obsolete. Courts-martial have no power to par- 
 
 
COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 179 
 
 COYE 
 
 don or mitigate, but the members can recom 
 mend a convicted person to clemency. 
 
 The record and judgment of the court, after 
 being signed by all of the members present and 
 the judge-advocate, is sent to the officer who 
 convened it for review. He has authority to 
 send it back for revision and amendment, if 
 needed, or can approve or disapprove it, remit 
 or mitigate, but not comniute, the sentence. He 
 can also execute any sentence which does not 
 extend to loss of life, or the dismissal of a com 
 missioned or warrant officer, which must be sub 
 mitted to the President. All proceedings are 
 now (1880) required to be sent direct to the 
 judge-advocate-general of the navy to be re 
 vised, reported upon-, and filed. See JUDGE- 
 ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 
 
 No court can terminate its own existence; 
 therefore, when the record is passed upon and 
 the action of the reviewing authority written 
 upon it, an order is addressed to the presiding 
 officer dissolving the court. Another order may 
 also issue announcing to the service the result of 
 the trial. Since February 4, 1879, the Navy De 
 partment has published a regular series of 
 "court-martial orders" promulgating trials by 
 general courts, which are of much value as a 
 means of discipline and for reference. 
 
 Decisions. An officer detailed on a court or 
 board of any kind is excused from other duty 
 while so serving. An officer promoted while on 
 a court gives public notice thereof to the court, 
 and the fact is noted in the record. The con 
 vening authority may direct the judge-advocate 
 to enter a nolle prosequi at any time after trial 
 has commenced. A mere withdrawal of charges 
 does not prevent them from being again pre 
 ferred. The power to remit is the same as that 
 to pardon, and is co-ordinate with that to exe 
 cute. It is essential to the validity of a pardon 
 that it should be accepted. (See PARDONING 
 POWER.) A crime committed during desertion 
 is cognizable by a court-martial. An adjourn 
 ment sine die does not prevent a court from re 
 assembling. 
 
 Exalted rank gives no additional latitude or 
 privilege, all prisoners are equal before the law. 
 The administration of justice ceases to be pure 
 when not strictly impartial. " Where the proper 
 reviewing officer has confirmed the sentence of a 
 competent court-martial, of which the proceed 
 ings were regular, and has dissolved the court, 
 the judgment is final ; no appeal can be taken 
 from it, or new trial ordered by the President." 
 Relief must be found in pardon. Henry C. 
 Cochrane, Cap-fain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Court-martial, Summary. " Summary courts- 
 martial were established for the trial in the 
 navy of such lesser oifenses as the comman 
 ders of vessels may deem deserving of greater 
 punishment than they are by law authorized to 
 inflict upon petty officers and persons of inferior 
 rating under their command, but not sufficient 
 to require trial by general court-martial." They 
 have no power to try commissioned or warrant 
 officers, nor any offense the proper punishment 
 of which, in case of conviction, would be more 
 severe than they are authorized to impose. Not 
 withstanding this plain provision, commanders 
 of vessels have been known to disregard it and 
 to refer to summary courts "the grave offense 
 of desertion," for instance, which at the hands 
 
 of a general court seldom receives less than one 
 year s imprisonment with loss of pay. A sum 
 mary court-martial cannot adjudge more than 
 two months of confinement. 
 
 An act to provide a more efficient discipline 
 for the navy, approved March 2, 1855, gave 
 them being, and a subsequent enactment (1870) 
 extended to commandants of navy-yards, naval 
 stations, and marine barracks the authority to 
 convene them. The person to be tried must be 
 long to the command of the officer who orders the 
 court, and the court must consist of three officers, 
 not below the rank of ensign, as members, and 
 a recorder, who may be any officer of the com 
 mand. The court is convened by a brief written 
 order addressed to the senior member, who pre 
 sides, stating the detail and the time and place 
 of meeting, and by verbal orders to the other 1 
 members and the recorder. Where a person be 
 longing to the marine corps is to be tried, one or 
 more marine officers are to be on the court if 
 
 Before proceeding to trial, the recorder admin 
 isters an oath to the members to try the case with 
 out prejudice or partiality, and the senior mem 
 ber swears the recorder to keep a true record of 
 the proceedings. (See OATHS.) All testimony 
 is given orally upon oath or affirmation admin 
 istered by the senior member. A schedule of seven 
 punishments is prescribed, any one of which 
 may be inflicted, and to it may be added " extra 
 police duties and loss of pay not to exceed three 
 months." A summary court may also disrate 
 any rated person for incompetency. Sentences 
 are not executed until approved by the officer 
 ordering the court, and by the commander- in- 
 chief or senior officer present, and a sentence in 
 volving " loss of pay" must be referred to the 
 Secretar}^ of the Navy. Sentences can be re 
 mitted in part or altogether, but cannot be com 
 muted, and where, in the opinion (in writing) 
 of the senior medical officer of the command, the 
 execution of a sentence would seriously injure 
 the health of a prisoner, the case can be sub 
 mitted again without delay to the same or 
 another court, which can, upon the testimony 
 already taken, change the punishment to some 
 other of those authorized. 
 
 The proceedings are to be conducted with as 
 much conciseness and precision as may be con 
 sistent with the ends of justice, and under forms 
 and rules prescribed by the Secretary of the 
 Navy, with the approval of the President. Sum 
 mary courts are required to follow the same forms 
 of procedure and rules of evidence as are ob 
 served by general courts, so far as applicable, 
 and their proceedings must be transmitted to the 
 Navy Department. The court is dissolved by 
 the authority which ordered it to convene. No 
 statistics of summary courts are available, but it 
 is known that in some commands they are very 
 frequent, and in others of rare occurrence, de 
 pending almost entirely upon the judgment or 
 caprice of commanding officers. Judiciously 
 employed, they are undoubtedly valuable ad 
 juncts of discipline. Henry C. Cochrane, Cap 
 tain U.S.M.C 
 
 Cove. An inlet in a coast ; a recess in the sea 
 shore ; a shelter, a cover. 
 
 The arch molding sunk in at the lower part 
 of the taffrail. My cove, a familiar friendly 
 term. 
 
COVENTRY 
 
 180 
 
 CRANE 
 
 Coventry. To send to Coventry, to ostracize ; 
 to banish from society ; to cut off from social in 
 tercourse for a mean or ungentlemanly action. 
 
 Cover. Anything that is spread above or 
 about another ; as, a boom-cover, wheel-cover, 
 etc. Under cover, sheltered from the elements or 
 from the flre of an enemy. To cover, to protect, 
 defend, or support ; as, to cover a retreat, or a 
 boarding-party. 
 
 COVERING-BOARD A term used in the build 
 ing of schooners and fishing-vessels. It is the 
 water-way and plank-sheer combined in one 
 piece of timber, and covers both the inner and 
 outer planking, the stanchions cutting through 
 these pieces of timber. It is sometimes called 
 the " plank-sheer." 
 
 Cow. The female whale. To cow, to depress 
 with fear. 
 
 Cowan. A fishing-boat of Scotland. 
 
 Cow-hitch. A slippery or lubberly hitch. 
 Two half-hitches in which the end parts come 
 out parallel and in the same direction ; used for 
 securing the hauling part of the laniards of lower 
 and topmast rigging. 
 
 Cowhorn. Jack s name for the coehorn. 
 
 Cowie. A Scotch name for the porpoise. 
 
 Cowl. The cover of a funnel. 
 
 Cowrie. Small shells, Cyprcea moneta, used 
 for money or barter in Africa and the East 
 Indies. 
 
 Cox s Traverse. Up one hatchway and down 
 another, to elude duty. See TOM Cox. 
 
 Coxswain, or Cockswain. Derived from cock, 
 a small boat, and swan, a swain or servant. A 
 person who has charge of a boat and crew in the 
 absence of officers. In double-banked boats he 
 steers, but in single-banked boats he pulls the 
 stroke oar, the boat being generally fitted with 
 a yoke and steered by an officer. 
 
 COXSWAIN S-BOX. The space comprised be 
 tween the back-board and the stern of a boat. 
 
 Crab. A species of windlass or capstan. An 
 animal of the class Crustacea, having the body 
 covered with a shell called the carapax. To 
 crab, to drift sideways ; to make a great deal of 
 leeway ; from the peculiar motion of a crab. To 
 catch a crab, see CATCH. 
 
 Crabbe, Thomas, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Maryland. Appointed midshipman 
 from Pennsylvania, November 15, 1809. En 
 gaged in an attack by a squadron of gunboats on 
 three British frigates in Hampton Roads, June 
 20, 1813; also in repelling an attack made on 
 Craney Island by the British forces, under com 
 mand of Sir Sidney Beckwith and Admiral 
 Cockburn, June 22, 1813. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 4, 1815. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 3, 1835. 
 Commanding sloop-of-war " Vandalia," West 
 India Squadron, 1836-37. While in command 
 of the " Vandalia," Fort Brook, Tampa Bay was 
 given in charge of the navy for defense, in the 
 absence of the army operating in the interior 
 against the Seminole Indians. Commander 
 Crabbe received the following commendatory 
 letter from Gen. Jessup on this occasion : 
 
 " In dissolving the official relations in which 
 we have stood to each other, so much to my sat 
 isfaction, for several months past, I cannot avoid 
 the expression of the great obligations I am 
 under to you and your command for the uni 
 form, steady, and efficient support which you 
 
 have at all times given to me, a support most 
 auspicious in its effects upon the results of the 
 campaign, and which I shall always remember 
 with the liveliest gratitude." 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 8, 1841. 
 Ordered to command frigate " Brandywine," 
 Brazil Squadron. Commander of steam-sloop 
 "San Jacinto," Mediterranean Squadron, 1852- 
 53. Commander Crabbe served in the frigates 
 " President," " Constellation," " United States," 
 and "Java," line-of-battle ship "Delaware," 
 sloop-of-war "Peacock." Commanded squad 
 ron on coast of Africa, in flag-ship "James 
 town," 1855-57. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 Prize Commissioner, Eastern District Pennsyl 
 vania, 1864-65. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866. 
 Died in 1873. 
 
 Crabbier. See KRABLA. 
 
 Crack. Of superior excellence; as, a crack 
 ship. To crack on, to carry a press of sail. 
 
 Crack-brained. Having a defective intellect. 
 
 Crack-hemp, or Crack-rope. A wretch des 
 tined to be hanged. 
 
 Cradle. The framing which is built upon 
 the launching-ways, in which the ship rests as 
 in a cradle, while in the process of launching. 
 Supports for boats carried on the rail. 
 
 Craft (Ang. Sax. crceft, a trading-vessel). A 
 general term for all kinds of vessels. Small cra/t, 
 small vessels. 
 
 Crag. A rugged precipitous rock or cliff, 
 whose strata, if vertical, subdivide into points. 
 
 Crager. An old name for a small lighter. 
 
 Craig-flock. The smear-dab, or rock-flounder. 
 
 Cramp. A spasmodic contraction of the nius- 
 cles, frequently experienced in bathing or swim 
 ming. 
 
 CRAMPER. A yarn worn around the leg as a 
 preventive of cramp. 
 
 Cramp-fish. The torpedo, or electric ray, the 
 touch of which gives a light shock of electricity. 
 
 Crampings. The fetters of a prisoner. 
 
 Crampit. The piece of metal at the tip of a 
 sword-scabbard. 
 
 Crampoon. See CREEPER. 
 
 Crance. A boom-iron. 
 
 Crane, William Montgomery, Commodore 
 U.S.N. Born at Elizabeth town, N. J., Feb 
 ruary 1, 1784; died at Washington, March 18, 
 1846. His father, General William, severely 
 wounded at Quebec, and a colonel in the Revolu 
 tionary army, died at Elizabethtown, July 30, 
 1814. Midshipman, May 23, 1799; lieutenant, 
 July 20, 1803; commander, March 4, 1813; 
 captain, November 22, 1814. Commanding the 
 brig "Vixen," he distinguished himself in the 
 attack on Tripoli, and was in the " Chesapeake" 
 when attacked by the " Leopard." In July, 
 1812, while commanding the brig "Nautilus," 
 he was taken by the "Southampton" frigate. 
 On his exchange he was ordered to the lake?, 
 where, in command of the " Madison" and 
 " Pike" in Chauncey s squadron, he served with 
 distinction for the remainder of the war. In 
 1827, in the flag-ship "Delaware," he com 
 manded the Mediterranean Squadron, acting as 
 joint commissioner with Mr. Offley, U. S. con 
 sul at Smyrna, to open negotiations with the 
 Ottoman government. Appointed Navy Com 
 missioner in 1841, and in 1842 chief of the Bureau 
 
CRANE 
 
 181 
 
 CRAVED 
 
 of Ordnance and Hydrography. He died by his 
 own hand ; cause unknown. 
 
 Crane. A machine for raising or lowering 
 great weights, and, while holding them in sus 
 pension, transporting them through a limited 
 horizontal distance. In its primitive form it 
 consists essentially of an upright post, pivoted 
 so as to swing freely on its vertical axis ; a hori 
 zontal arm or " jib" projecting from the top of 
 the post and strongly braced from near the bot 
 tom by a diagonal brace, and to which the pul 
 leys and weights are suspended; pulleys rove 
 with rope, wire-rope, or chain ; a winding bar 
 rel for the rope or chain, and guys for control 
 ling the horizontal position of the weight. The 
 upper pulley may, by means of a " traveler," be 
 moved to any desired position on the arm or 
 "jib." Modern cranes are very elaborate in 
 structure, and enable weights to be placed in 
 position with great accuracy. Derricks are mod 
 ifications of the crane. 
 
 CRANAGE. The liberty of using, and the 
 money paid for using, a crane. 
 
 CRANE-BARGE. A low flat-floored boat fitted 
 with a crane, for raising anchors, etc. 
 
 Crane-line (Obs.). A line from the sprit- 
 sail topmast to the forestay to steady the for 
 mer ; also, a line to keep a lee backstay from 
 chafing against the yards when braced sharp up. 
 Crang. The carcass of a whale after the 
 blubber is stripped off. 
 
 Crank. In machinery, the simplest and most 
 efficient device for transmitting a reciprocating 
 rectilinear movement to a rotary motion. It 
 was patented in the year 1780 by Mr. Pickard, 
 of Birmingham, England, as "a method of de 
 riving a rotary motion from a fire-engine by the 
 intervention of a crank," but was rejected by the 
 leading engineers of that day, including Boulton 
 and Watt, on the ground that it caused great 
 loss in economic effect; but it shortly super 
 seded the famous " sun-and-planet motion" of 
 Watt, and all "ratchet" devices, and is now 
 familiar to all. 
 
 The theory of its action, showing that there is 
 no loss in the transmission of power, may, by 
 neglecting friction, including that due to the 
 oblique action of the connecting-rod, and which 
 is about equal in all combinations, be repre 
 sented as follows : 
 
 Let L represent the length of stroke of piston ; 
 r the length of the crank = J L ; 
 p the total pressure on the piston ; 
 p l the resultant force of p at right angles to 
 crank ; 
 
 6 any angular motion of the crank ; 
 w work done during an infinitely small motion 
 of crank ; 
 
 W the amount of work done during one 
 stroke. 
 
 Then the tan 
 the crank may 
 
 mtial moment tending to turn 
 i represented by 
 
 Pi = 
 
 (1) 
 
 and the work done through an infinitely small 
 change in position by 
 
 -.p 1 dO=pr sin Odd 
 
 (2) 
 
 This, if integrated between the limits 9 = 
 and 9 = 180, will give the amount of work done 
 during one stroke of the piston, and 
 
 W =prl sin Odd =p ver. sin 180 = 
 
 p2r=p~L . . (3) 
 Albert Aston, Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 
 CRANK-AXLE. In "inside connected" loco 
 motive-engines, the axle of the forward driving- 
 wheels, upon which the cranks are forged. 
 
 CRANK-HATCH. In side-wheel steamers, a 
 hatch around or above the cranks. 
 
 CRANK-PIN. A cylindrical piece of metal 
 fitted to or wrought upon the end of a crank, 
 forming a journal for the connecting-rod. Fitted 
 pins are usually made of steel. 
 
 CRANK-SHAFT. In screw-propeller engines, a 
 section of the shafting containing the main jour 
 nals, cranks, and crank-pins. It may be forged 
 of wrought iron or cast of steel in one solid piece, 
 or, when the cranks have sufficient length, they 
 and their pins may be made separately and fitted 
 together, making what is called a " built-up" 
 crank-shaft. 
 
 CRANK-WHEEL. A cast-iron wheel carrying 
 a crank-pin, and used as a substitute for a 
 crank. 
 
 Crank, or Crank-sided. That quality in a 
 vessel which renders it incapable of carrying 
 sail without danger of capsizing. It may be the 
 consequence of a faulty construction, or of an 
 injudicious stowing of the ballast and cargo. 
 CRANKY. Crank. Touchy ; easily irritated. 
 Crappo, Johnny Crappo, or General Crappo. 
 Jack s appellation for a Frenchman. 
 
 Crare, or Crayer. An unwieldy trading-ves 
 sel of olden times. 
 
 Crater (Lat. "The Cup"), a Orateris, Alkes. 
 Craven, Thomas T., Rear-Admiral U.S.N., 
 was born in the District of Columbia. Ap 
 pointed from New Hampshire, JVIay 1, 1822; 
 promoted to passed midshipman, May 24, 1828; 
 commissioned as lieutenant, May 27, 1830 ; com 
 missioned as commander, December 16, 1852. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, June 7, 1861 ; com 
 manding sloop-of-war "Brooklyn," Home 
 Squadron, 1861-62; while in cornmand of the 
 "Brooklyn," participated in the attack upon 
 and passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip. 
 In this action, Capt. Craven s vessel became en 
 tangled in the hulks and rafts which sustained 
 the chain barricade of the river, and, while in 
 this situation, received a severe fire from Fort 
 St. Philip, and was attacked by one of the en 
 emy s rams and a large rebel steamer ; the latter 
 received a broadside from the " Brooklyn," at 
 sixty yards, so well delivered as to end the con 
 flict, so far as the steamer was concerned. 
 
 The ram struck the "Brooklyn" at the star 
 board gangway, but the chain-armor proved a 
 perfect protection. By this time the "Brook 
 lyn" had swung clear of the obstructions, and 
 passed on up the river. Capt. Craven continued 
 in command of the " Brooklyn," taking part in 
 all the engagements along the Mississippi River, 
 up to and including that of Vicksburg, until 
 late in the summer of 1862, when he was de 
 tached and ordered North. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 10, 1862; 
 commanding steam-frigate "Niagara," special 
 service, European waters, 1864-65. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, October 10, 
 1866 ; commandant of navy-yard, Mare Island, 
 
CRAVEN 
 
 182 
 
 CROOK 
 
 California, 1867-68 ; commanding North Pacific 
 Squadron, 1869. Retired Dec. 1869. 
 
 Craven, Tunis Aug. Macdonough, Com 
 mander U.S.N. Born in Portsmouth, N. H. ; 
 killed in the ironclad " Tecumseh," destroyed 
 by a torpedo in Mobile Bay, August 5, 1864. 
 Midshipman, February 2, 1829 ; lieutenant, 1841 ; 
 commander, April 24, 1861. He had twenty 
 years sea-service, and eight years in the coast 
 survey, and during the civil war commanded 
 the "Crusader," the "Tuscarora," and the 
 "Tecumseh." 
 
 Craw-fish, or Cray-fish. A lobster-like crus 
 tacean (Astacus fluviatilis) , found in fresh water. 
 
 Crawl. A sort of pen, formed by a barrier of 
 stakes and hurdles on the sea-coast, to contain 
 fish or turtle. A pen for slaves awaiting ship 
 ment. 
 
 Crawling Off. "Working off a lee shore by 
 slow degrees. 
 
 Crazy. Shattered ; rickety. 
 
 Creak. The noise made by a sheave when a 
 heavy strain is brought upon it ; also, the noise 
 made by masts, ladders, and bulkheads when 
 rolling heavily. 
 
 Crear. A kind of Scotch lighter. 
 
 Creek. A narrow inlet of the sea ; it differs 
 from a cove in being narrower, deeper, and 
 longer. A brook or small river. 
 Creel, or Crue. See KREEL. 
 
 Creep. To drag an anchor or cable. 
 
 Creeper. A small grapnel used in searching 
 for objects at the bottom of a harbor. 
 
 Creighton, Johnston B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Rhode Island. Appointed from Rhode 
 Island, February 10, 1838 ; attached to sloop-of- 
 war " Levant," frigate "Constellation," sloop- 
 of-war "Natchez," and frigate " Macedonian," 
 in West Indies, 1840 ; frigate " Columbia," Bra 
 zil Squadron, 1843. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, May 20, 
 1844; brig "Truxtun," coast of Africa, 1844-46; 
 sloop " Dale," Pacific Squadron, 1846-47 ; store- 
 ship "Lexington," Pacific Squadron, 1848-50; 
 steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 1850-52; 
 frigate " Cumberland," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1852-55. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, October 9, 1853 ; 
 navy-yard, Boston, 1856-58 ; steam-frigate " Ro- 
 anoke," Home Squadron, 1859-60 ; commanding 
 steamer " Ottawa," South Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 20, 
 1862 ; special duty, 1863 ; commanding steamer 
 " Mahaska," South Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, 1863-64; from August 8 to 21, 1863, bom 
 barding Forts Wagner and Gregg, Morris Island, 
 6. C., while in command of the "Mahaska"; 
 commanding the steamer " Mingo," South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1864-65; took pos 
 session of Georgetown, S. C., and endeavored to 
 communicate with General Sherman, held it 
 until relieved by army ; ordnance duty, New 
 York, 1866-67 ; commanding steam-sloop "Onei- 
 da," Asiatic Squadron, 1867-69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, November 26, 1868 ; 
 special duty, New York, 1870-71 ; commanding 
 " Guerriere," European Squadron, 1871-72 ; 
 member Board of Examiners, 1873-74. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 9, 
 1874; commandant navy-yard, Norfolk, Va., 
 1876-79. 
 
 Creng. See CRANG. 
 
 Crengle, or Crenkle. See CRINGLE. 
 
 Creole. One born within the tropics. One 
 born in America or the West Indies of European 
 ancestors. 
 
 Crepusculum. A circle parallel to and about 
 18 below the horizon ; during twilight the sun 
 is above this circle and below the horizon. 
 Twilight. 
 
 Crespie. A term for a small whale or gram 
 pus. 
 
 Cresset. A beacon light on a watch-tower. 
 
 Crest. The summit of a wave. 
 
 Crew. The men who man a ship, boat, or 
 gun. The word crew in law includes every per 
 son attached to a ship ; when it is intended to 
 exclude the officers the context shows it. The 
 term is also applied to certain gangs of men on 
 board ship ; as, the carpenter s crew, gunner s 
 crew, etc., but they are generally called gangs. 
 
 Crib. A small berth. A small raft. A struc 
 ture of logs filled with stones, etc., and used as a 
 dam, pier," ice-breaker, etc. 
 
 Crick. A small jack-screw. 
 
 Crimp. A term applied to a man who decoys 
 seamen, plies them with liquor, induces them to 
 sign articles while intoxicated, and presents ex 
 tortionate claims for money advanced, board- 
 and lodging-money, etc. 
 
 Cringle. An eye or grommet in the head, 
 leech, or clew of a sail. It is generally worked 
 around a metal thimble, and serves as a conven 
 ient means of attaching the bowline-bridles, ear- 
 ings, etc., to the sail. 
 
 Croaker. A grumbler ; one who habitually 
 forebodes evil ; an alarmist. A tropical fish 
 which makes a peculiar noise. 
 
 Croaky. A term applied to a plank when it 
 curves much in a short length. 
 
 Crochert. An ancient hagbut or hand-cannon. 
 
 Crocodile. A reptile of the genus Crocodilus. 
 It attains a length of 18 feet, and is found in 
 Africa, Asia, and America. The American 
 crocodile is properly an alligator. The men 
 who served with Lord Keith in Egypt were 
 called crocodiles. 
 
 .CROCODILE TEARS. False tears ; hypocritical 
 sorrow. A term derived from the tales of trav 
 elers, who represented the crocodile as shedding 
 tears over its prey. 
 
 Cronstadt. A seaport town of Russia, 20 
 miles W. of St. Petersburg, on the long, flat, 
 and arid island of Kotlin, near the eastern ex 
 tremity of the Gulf of Finland. Lat. 59 59 
 42" N. ; Ion. 29 W SO" E. The town is on 
 the southeastern extremity of the island, oppo 
 site the mouth of the Neva, and is strongly for 
 tified on all sides. It is intersected by two canals, 
 which have their sides of granite, and are both 
 deep and wide enough to admit the largest ves 
 sels. The one is used as a repairing-dock and 
 the other for commercial purposes. Between the 
 two canals stands a handsome palace, built by 
 Prince Mentchikof, now occupied as a naval 
 school, and attended by 300 pupils. The other 
 public buildings deserving of notice are the ma 
 rine hospital, the churches, the British seamen s 
 hospital, the exchange, custom-house, admiralty, 
 arsenal, barracks, cannon-foundry, etc., and the 
 small palace in which Peter the Great resided. 
 Pop. 48,000. 
 
 Crook. A crooked timber. A natural crook 
 
CROOKED-CATCH 
 
 183 
 
 CKOSBY 
 
 is formed by the trunk of a tree and its branch, 
 or by a large branch and a smaller one. 
 
 Crooked-catch. An iron implement bent in 
 the form of the letter S. 
 
 Crooner. The gray gurnard (Trivia gurnar- 
 dus], so called on account of the creaking noise 
 it makes after being taken. 
 
 Crosby, Peirce, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Delaware Co., Pa. Appointed midshipman 
 from Pennsylvania, June 5, 1838; attached to 
 line-of-battle ship " Ohio," from 1838 until the 
 summer of 1841, while flag-ship in the Mediter 
 ranean ; attached to receiving- vessel "Experi 
 ment," at Philadelphia; afterward attached to 
 steamer " Mississippi," on her trial-trip with the 
 "Missouri," from New York to Washington. 
 In 1842, was attached to the frigate " Congress," 
 and sailed \vith her from Portsmouth, N. H., to 
 the Mediterranean ; served in her six months ; 
 was then transferred to the sloop " Preble," and 
 returned to the United States in the fall of 1843, 
 and was then attached to the Naval School at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, May, 1844; 
 coast survey from summer of 1844 to summer of 
 1846, when he was ordered to the sloop " Deca- 
 tur," and served in her six months in the Gulf 
 of Mexico, during the Mexican war ; partici 
 pated in the attack and capture of Tuspan and 
 Tabasco. Was then transferred to the gunboat 
 "Petrel," and served in her one year, until 
 peace was declared in the summer of 1848 ; after 
 ward was attached to the store-ship " Relief," in 
 1849, carrying supplies to the Mediterranean and 
 Coast of Africa Squadron, until the summer of 
 1850; attached to Philadelphia Navy-Yard from 
 fall of 1850 to 1852, inclusive, and then trans 
 ferred to receiving-ship stationed at Philadel 
 phia, until spring of 1853; became attached to 
 the frigate " Sacramento," then fitting for sea at 
 Norfolk ; was soon detached from her and placed 
 on waiting orders. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 3, 
 1853 ; in the winter of 1853, was ordered to sloop 
 " Germantown," and sailed in her in the spring 
 of 1854, from Boston to the coast of Brazil, and 
 returned to the United States in February, 1857 ; 
 attached to receiving-ship at Philadelphia until 
 the latter part of 1858 ; sailed in the sloop 
 " Saratoga," in the fall of 1858, for the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and with the exception of forty days on 
 board the " Brooklyn," under Capt. (late Ad 
 miral) Farragut, served two years, and returned 
 to the United States in the " Saratoga," in 1860 ; 
 attached to the receiving-ship at Philadelphia 
 from 1860 to the spring of 1861 ; in the spring 
 and summer of 1861, served in Chesapeake Bay, 
 keeping open communication between Annapolis 
 and Havre de Grace, capturing and destroying 
 rebel vessels in the bay, and cutting off rebel 
 supplies and communications. In the summer 
 of 1861, received orders, and was attached to the 
 frigate "Cumberland"; was detailed for duty 
 on shore at Fortress Monroe ; transported the 
 troops across Hampton Creek, on the night prior 
 to the battle of Big Bethel, also transported them 
 on their return after their unsuccessful attempt 
 to take that place. Volunteered and took the 
 steamer " Fannie" (a canal-boat), secured her 
 boilers temporarily down to the deck with 
 chains, and proceeded with her, in company 
 with the squadron, to the attack on Forts Hat- 
 
 teras and Clarke, in order to have a light-draft 
 vessel to operate in landing troops at that place; 
 superintended the landing of troops, until the 
 heavy surf swamped and broke up the boats and 
 dashed them on the beach, when Lieut. Crosby 
 took a ship s heavy launch and landed two more 
 boat-loads of troops, until the sea became s o 
 heavy that it threw the launch upon the beach, 
 dashing all the crew out of her on to the shore. 
 After thus having landed three hundred men 
 and officers, the squadron and transports, on ac 
 count of the bad weather, stood off seaward, 
 leaving the troops landed on the shore until the 
 following day, when the squadron returned, 
 opened tire, and captured the forts, which were 
 garrisoned by over seven hundred men, who had 
 been led to believe, by the display made by the 
 troops landed, that their force was over two 
 thousand strong. In this way the rebels were 
 deceived, and our troops were saved from attack 
 and probable capture, as nearly all the ammuni 
 tion was wet, and the volunteer troops, being in 
 a disorganized state, could not, in all probability, 
 have successfully opposed double their number. 
 Lieut. Crosby "succeeded in getting a strong 
 picket thrown across the point in front of the 
 enemy s batteries, thus preventing their making 
 a reconnoissance or ascertaining the actual force 
 of the Union troops, when the squadron returned 
 on the following day, and relieved them from 
 their critical position. Was especially men 
 tioned in Gen. Butler s official report of the ex 
 pedition. Captured several schooners running 
 the blockade, they not knowing the forts had 
 surrendered. 
 
 In the fall, and shortly after the capture of these 
 forts, was ordered to the command of the gunboat 
 " Pembina," fitting out at New York ; but was 
 taken dangerously ill with typhoid fever, brought 
 on by constant exposure, privations, and fatigue 
 in the performance of his duties. In the winter 
 of 1861, took command of the gunboat " Pinola," 
 at Baltimore; took her to Washington, received 
 her battery, and sailed for the Gulf Squadron, 
 joining Admiral Farragut s command in the 
 spring of 1862. While on his way to join the 
 squadron, captured the schooner " Cora," loaded 
 with cotton, and sent her North as a prize. 
 Commanded the "Pinola" on the memorable 
 night when she co-operated with the " Itasca" in 
 breaking through the chain barrier across the Mis 
 sissippi, at Forts Jackson and St. Philip. The 
 " Itasca" successfully slipped the end of the 
 cable on the opposite shore to Fort Jackson, and 
 in so doing ran hard and fast aground, but 
 through the skillful exertions of Commander 
 Crosby, was rescued from her critical position, 
 at about two o clock in the morning. The 
 " Pinola s" duty on this occasion was to blow 
 up with torpedoes the vessels holding the chain 
 barrier, and anchored directly under Fort Jack 
 son s guns, which was twice tried. The vessels 
 were boarded, which immediately drew the fire 
 of Fort Jackson ; torpedoes were placed in the 
 hold, also outside of the vessels, and everything 
 carefully arranged ; but owing to the mass of 
 floating timber around the vessels, the strong 
 current and dark night, the wires attached to 
 the galvanic battery and torpedoes were broken 
 just as the attempt was made to explode them. 
 When the third attempt was about being made, 
 a boat arri ved alongside, announcing the Itasca 
 
CEOSS 
 
 184 
 
 CROTCHET 
 
 ashore, and in want of the " Pinola s" assistance 
 to get her afloat ; the attempt to blow up the 
 vessels was reluctantly given up for the time, to 
 assist the "Itasca," and in going to her assist 
 ance again drew the fire of Fort Jackson. In the 
 first attempt to pull the "Itasca" afloat, two 
 hawsers broke, but succeeded with an 11-inch 
 hawser the second time in pulling her off; and 
 in doing this, the "Pinola" passed well up 
 through the barrier under Fort St. Philip, far 
 enough to prove that the road was clear, but 
 owing to the heavy bombardment of the mortar- 
 fleet, was not heard or seen. 
 
 Participated in the bombardment and passage 
 of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, Chalmette bat 
 teries, and capture of New Orleans ; also in the 
 bombardment, passage, and re-passage of bat 
 teries at Vicksburg, and engagement with the 
 rebel ironclad " Arkansas." Blockaded off Mo 
 bile in the fall of 186*2; was ordered North to 
 command the ironclad "Sangamon." 
 
 Was promoted to commander, September 3, 
 1862; detached from "Sangamon," and ap 
 pointed fleet-captain, North Atlantic Squadron, 
 under Rear-Admiral S. P. Lee; commanded an 
 expedition up the York River, co-operating with 
 Gen. Dix, in command of the army corps at the 
 White House. In the winter of 1863, took com 
 mand of the " Florida," destro\^ed two blockade- 
 runners at Masonboro Inlet, "while attempting 
 to run the blockade, just at the break of day, 
 and in so doing drew the sharp fire of flying 
 batteries on shore ; was transferred to the com 
 mand of the "Keystone State" in 1864; cap 
 tured five blockade-runners while in command 
 of her, and caused many others to throw over 
 board their cargoes in order to escape. Detached 
 from "Keystone State," and ordered to the 
 "Muscoota"; detached from the " Muscoota," 
 and ordered to the " Metacomet," 1864-65; 
 blockaded off Galveston, Texas, and commanded 
 her in the attack on Mobile. Planned and di 
 rected the construction of torpedo-nets, and 
 spread them from shore to shore of the Blakely 
 River, which caught all the floating torpedoes 
 sent down to destroy the vessel ; also planned 
 torpedo drag-nets, superintended the removal of 
 one hundred and forty torpedoes, and success 
 fully cleared the track so as to allow the squad 
 ron to pass up safely to the city of Mobile. Oc 
 cupied Forts Huger and Tracy on the night of 
 the evacuation by the rebel forces ; was espe 
 cially commended by Admiral Thatcher in his 
 official report of the naval operations at that 
 port; was detached from the " Metacomet," on 
 her return to Philadelphia, in August, 1865, at 
 the close of the war. In September, 1865, re 
 ceived orders to command the "Shamokin"; 
 sailed in her for the coast of Brazil, where he 
 remained until 1868. 
 
 Promoted to captain, May 27, 1868, and de 
 tached, returning to the United States by the 
 mail-steamer. While in command of the 
 " Shamokin" conveyed Minister Washburn to 
 Paraguay. At Norfolk Navy- Yard as inspector 
 of ordnance, 1869-70; navy-yard, Philadelphia, 
 1871-72; navy-yard, Washington, 1872-74. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, October 3, 1874; 
 commanding naval station, League Island, since 
 1878. 
 
 Cross. See HAWSE. 
 
 Cross-bar Shot. A projectile specially adapted 
 
 for cutting the enemy s rigging ; when folded it 
 presented a complete bar or shot, but when it 
 left the gun it expanded, forming a cross with a 
 quarter ball at the end of each arm. 
 
 Cross-beam. A beam extending across the 
 ship from side to side. 
 
 Cross-bearings. See BEARING. 
 
 Cross-fish. A name for the star-fish, from 
 the Norwegian kors-fak. Also, the Uraster 
 rubens. 
 
 Cross-head. A strong beam of iron or steel, 
 confined to rectilinear motion by slides or by a 
 "parallel motion," to which the outer ends^of 
 piston-rods are firmly secured. In back-acting 
 engines with single piston-rods it is provided 
 with eyes, to which side rods are rigidly secured, 
 and which extend outside of the cranks to corre 
 sponding eyes on a second cross-head running in 
 slides, and on which is the connecting-rod jour 
 nal. When two cross-heads are used they are 
 called, respectively, the "piston-rod cross-head" 
 and "connecting-rod cross-head." In direct- 
 acting, beam-, or side-lever engines, the piston- 
 rod cross-head is provided with journals for the 
 connecting-rod, links, or side rods, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Cross-jack (Pro. c?-ojek). The sail which, in 
 the merchant service, is bent to the cross-jack 
 yard, or lower yard on the mizzen-mast. In the 
 navy a sail is never bent to this yard. The 
 cross-jack braces are the braces by which the 
 cross-jack yard is moved about, but the term 
 also includes all the braces on the mizzen. 
 
 Cross-sea A sea which does not set in the 
 direction toward which the wind is blowing. 
 During a cyclone the wind changes rapidly, and 
 each change in the wind tends to produce a 
 change in the set of the sea, so that in a part of 
 the sea which has experienced all the changes 
 of one of these gales, the sea runs up in pyra 
 mids, sending the tops of the waves up into the 
 air. 
 
 Cross-spalls. Pieces of plank that keep the 
 frame to the proper breadth until the beams 
 are in. 
 
 Cross-swell. The same as a cross-sea, ex 
 cept that the waves undulate without breaking 
 violently. 
 
 Cross-tail. In side-lever engines, a strong 
 beam of iron or steel to which one end of the 
 connecting-rod and of the links connecting with 
 the end-centres of the beams are rigidly attached. 
 
 Cross-timbers. The pieces of timber bolted 
 athwartships to the bitts, for taking turns with 
 the cable or belaying ropes to. Also, a rack 
 with belaying-pins through it extending over 
 the windlass of a merchant ship. 
 
 Cross-trees. Timbers athwart the lower and 
 topmast trestle-trees to support the frame of the 
 top and give spread to the topgallant shrouds. 
 Each athwartship timber is called a horn. 
 
 Cross-wires. Spider-wires placed in the focus 
 of the object-glass of an astronomical telescope. 
 In this position they become visible by stopping 
 pencils of rays, which there converge to points. 
 In this focus, also, the image of a heavenly body 
 as it passes over the field of view is simultane 
 ously seen, and its place is noted by referring it 
 to the cross- wires. 
 
 Crotch. See CRUTCH. 
 
 Crotchet. A crotch. Also, an old spelling 
 of cross-jack. 
 
CROW 
 
 185 
 
 CURRENTS 
 
 Crow, or Crow-bar. An iron lever with a 
 sharp point or edge for moving heavy weights. 
 
 Crowd. To crowd sail is to carry an extraor 
 dinary press of canvas ; as, in chasing. 
 
 Crow-foot. A combination of small lines 
 rove through an euphroe and secured to the 
 hack-bone of an awning. To this is hooked the 
 crow-foot halliards, by which the midship part 
 of an awning is kept from sagging down. 
 
 Crown. The round up of the deck from a 
 straight or level line. The decks of nearly all 
 ships are higher in the centre than at the s ides, 
 in order to shed the water. An English silver 
 coin of the value of five shillings, about $1.20. 
 The external arch of an anchor, upon which it 
 falls when let go perpendicularly. The most 
 violent part of a gale. To crown a knot is to 
 finish it up by laying the ends of the strands 
 over and under each other, so that they will 
 bind and keep the knot from unlaying. To 
 double crown a knot is to follow the parts of the 
 single crown a second time with the ends of the 
 strands. 
 
 Crown-rope. A line used in the cable-tiers 
 to keep the fakes in place. 
 
 Crow-purse. The egg-capsule of a skate. 
 
 Crow-shell. A fresh-water mussel. 
 
 Crow s Nest. A perch for the look-out at the 
 mast-head ; used particularly in whalers. 
 
 Croy. An inclosure for catching fish. "When 
 the tide flows the fishes swim over the wattles, 
 but are left by the ehbing of the water. 
 
 Crue. See KREEL. 
 
 Crue-herring. The shad (Clupea alosa}. 
 
 Cruer. See OR ARE. 
 
 Cruise. To sail on the ocean ; as, in search 
 of an enemy, for the protection of others, or in 
 quest of pleasure or plunder. A voyage made 
 in various directions in search of an enemy, etc. 
 
 CRUISER. Any armed vessel that cruises. 
 Formerly, a small fast vessel to harass the enemy 
 and protect the commerce of its own country. 
 
 Cruive. An inclosed space in a dam or weir 
 for taking salmon. 
 
 Crummy. Fleshy or corpulent. 
 
 Crupper. An old name for the train-tackle 
 bolt in a gun-carriage. 
 
 Crupper-chain. A chain for confining the 
 jib-boom to the bowsprit. 
 
 Crusado. See CRUZADO. 
 
 Crutch. A stanchion of wood or iron, whose 
 upper part is forked for receiving and support 
 ing a mast, yard, boom, etc. 
 
 Crux (Lat. "The Cross"). A constellation 
 which, with Centaurus, constitutes a bright 
 group in the southern hemisphere, in a line with 
 Arcturus and Spica. 
 
 Cruzado. See MONEY. 
 
 Cubbridge Heads. The old bulkheads of the 
 forecastle and half-decks, wherein were placed 
 the " murderers," or guns for clearing the decks 
 when boarded. 
 
 Cub-house, or Cubboos. See CABOOSE. 
 
 Cubiculatae. Koman ships furnished v/ith 
 cabins. 
 
 Cuckold s-knot, or Cuckold s-neck. A hitch 
 by which a rope is secured to a spar, the two 
 parts of the rope cross each other, and are seized 
 together. 
 
 Cudbear. See CORKIR. 
 
 Cudberduce. The cuthbert-duck, a bird of 
 the Farn Isles, off Northumberland. 
 
 Cuddie, or Cuddin. One of the many names 
 for the coal-fish. 
 
 Cudding. A name for the char. 
 
 Cuddy. A small cabin. A sort of cabin or 
 cook-room, generally in the fore part, but some 
 times near the stern, of barges and lighters. 
 
 Cuddy-legs. A name for large herrings. 
 
 Culagium. A law-term for the laying" up of 
 a ship in the dock for repairs. 
 
 Culch. Stone, shells, etc. See OYSTEU-BED. 
 
 Cullock. A species of bivalved mollusk (Tel- 
 Una rhomboides}. 
 
 Culminate (Lat. culmen, the top, ridge). The 
 heavenly bodies in their diurnal revolution, 
 when they attain their greatest and their least 
 altitude above the horizon, are said to culminate ; 
 this happens when they cross the meridian. All 
 those bodies which are within the circle of per 
 petual apparition visibly come to the meridian 
 twice in every diurnal revolution, once above and 
 once below the elevated pole. These are respect 
 ively called their Upper and Lower Culminations. 
 Other bodies which show themselves culminate 
 but once. 
 
 Culring. An old corruption of culverin. 
 
 Culverin. An ancient cannon, so called be 
 cause it was ornamented with serpents (Coluber, 
 a snake). 
 
 Culver-tailed. Dove-tailed. 
 
 Culward. The archaic term for a coward. 
 
 Cumulo-cirro-stratus. The nimbus, or rain- 
 cloud. See CLOUD. 
 
 Cumulo-stratus. The twain-cloud, so called 
 because the cumulus blends with the stratus. 
 See CLOUD. 
 
 Cumulus. The day- or summer-cloud. See 
 CLOUD. 
 
 Cund. To give notice of the direction of a 
 shoal of fish. 
 
 Cunn. See CONN. 
 
 Cunneng. A name for the lamprey. 
 
 Cup. A solid piece of cast iron in which the 
 spindle of a capstan works. 
 
 Cuppy. A defect sometimes found in timber, 
 where a portion of the heart has separated from 
 the outside; probably caused by lightning or 
 severe frosts. 
 
 Cur. A name for the bull-head. 
 
 Cur-fish. A small kind of dog-fish. 
 
 Curl-cloud. See CLOUD. 
 
 Curlew. A coast bird with a long, curved bill 
 ( Numenius arquatus ) . 
 
 Currach. A skiff formerly used on the Scot 
 tish coasts. 
 
 Curra-curra. A peculiarly fast boat in the 
 Malay Islands. 
 
 Currents. The surface of the ocean is fur 
 rowed and its depths traversed by streams of 
 running water, forming a S}^stem of circulation 
 as complete, more regular, but intimately con 
 nected with, the currents of the air. These cur 
 rents are due to two primary causes, the action 
 of the winds and the heat of the sun. As water 
 is a non-conductor, when a portion of the sur 
 face of the sea is heated, that part only becoming 
 subject to the evaporative effects of the sun be 
 comes heavier and sinks, its place being supplied 
 by colder currents from the bottom or from other 
 localities. But these vertical currents are modi 
 fied by the action of the prevailing winds and 
 the motion of the earth on its axis. The per 
 manent winds, blowing in a westerly direction, 
 
CURRENTS 
 
 186 
 
 CURRENTS 
 
 wh ere the water is hottest, at the tropics, impel 
 the waters westward in their course. Were it 
 not for the continents we should thus have a 
 westerly current around the globe at the equator. 
 But this westerly current, crossing the two oceans, 
 strikes the continents, turns to the northward, 
 until it is impelled in an easterly direction by 
 the centrifugal force generated by the revolution 
 of the earth on its axis, and flows into itself again, 
 being divided or modified as it impinges on con 
 tinents or islands in its track. The spaces thus 
 vacated by the hotter waters of the globe are 
 filled partly by a compensating system of cold 
 surface currents, but principally by under-cur- 
 rents of cold water flowing from the frozen regions 
 of the globe. The influence of the superficial 
 currents is not felt at any great depth below 
 the surface, extending only from 300 to 500 
 fathoms. 
 
 Besides these primary causes of the general 
 currents of the globe, they are also caused by 
 the tide, by storms, and by the gradual or rapid 
 fall of streams of water from higher portions of 
 the earth, and rivers sometimes prolong their 
 action far into the waters fed by them. 
 
 The great currents of the ocean are of the ut 
 most importance, modifying the climates of the 
 globe, aiding navigation in the great commercial 
 waters, and distributing the animals of warmer 
 seas over colder regions ; and the navigator is 
 particularly interested in them. 
 
 Currents exist all over the ocean, very slight 
 in some places and strong in others. We may 
 divide them into great currents, lesser currents, 
 tidal currents, storm currents, and river currents. 
 The former only need claim our attention to any 
 extent. The warm currents of the two oceans 
 are divided into many, all, however, offshoots or 
 parts of the same general streams. In the At 
 lantic, the northeast trade-wind blows the warm 
 waters of the tropics into the heated basins of the 
 Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. These 
 tepid waters, pouring from the narrow straits 
 of Florida, form the mighty Gulf Stream. Simi 
 larly, in the Pacific, the waters of the equatorial 
 region form the Kuro Si wo, or Japan stream. 
 These mighty rivers of heated water resemble 
 each other in their prominent features. The 
 Gulf Stream is from forty to several hundreds 
 of miles wide, is a deep indigo blue in color, is 
 from ten to twenty degrees hotter than the sur 
 rounding waters of the ocean, is swifter at its 
 commencement and in the centre, is traversed 
 by various currents of cold water, throws off 
 streams of hot water from its banks, that recurve 
 in an opposite direction to it. Its velocity is 
 from one to five miles an hour, and is less in its 
 northerly portions by reason of friction and the 
 slower rotation of those portions of the earth. 
 Its banks are well defined, ripples being often 
 seen, and sudden changes of temperature an 
 nouncing it. They vary with the season, follow 
 ing the sun in its course, and with the prevail 
 ing winds. Its temperature varies from 62 in 
 winter to 82 in summer. Its waters teem with 
 animal life, and its banks are enshrouded in 
 clouds, fogs, and storms. On reaching the east 
 ern basin of the Atlantic it divides into two 
 branches, one flowing south, past the shores of 
 Spain and North Africa, until, in the region of 
 Cape Verde, it again divides, part flowing west 
 to become again a portion of the main stream, 
 
 and a branch going to the southward along the 
 African coast, under the name of the Guinea 
 current. The other branch of the main stream 
 flows to the northeastward, tempering the win 
 ters of Norway. 
 
 The southeast trade-wind also forms its cur 
 rent, which is called the Equatorial current. 
 Flowing to the northwestward, across the ocean, 
 it divides on reaching the continent of South 
 America, one branch flowing into the Caribbean 
 Sea and feeding the Gulf Stream, and the other, 
 turning to the southwestward, called the Brazil 
 current, loses itself in the cold currents of the 
 Southern Ocean. These warm currents are partly 
 balanced by the cold currents, the Arctic and the 
 Cape Horn currents, both bearing icebergs from 
 the frozen regions. The Arctic current, flowing 
 from the eastward of Greenland, is joined by the 
 Hudson Bay current, and united they form the 
 Labrador current, flowing down inside the Gulf 
 Stream along the American coast until it dips 
 under the Gulf Stream and is lost in the equa 
 torial waters. The Cape Horn current is a 
 branch of the Antarctic drift. 
 
 The current circulation of the Pacific resem 
 bles that of the Atlantic. A north equatorial 
 drift-current is here impelled to the westward 
 by the northeast trade-winds, a Gulf Stream 
 formed in the Kuro Siwo, furrowed by hot and 
 cold streams, as the Gulf Stream, like it hotter 
 by several degrees than the surrounding ocean, 
 and diminishing in velocity to the eastward. 
 Its color is dark blue, and it is joined during 
 certain seasons by the monsoon drift-currents of 
 the China Sea. About the latitude of 40 N., it 
 divides into two branches, one flowing to the 
 northward, warming the bleak Kamschatkan 
 coast, and passing through Behring Straits, 
 losing itself in the Arctic Ocean. The other 
 flows to the eastward, then south down the 
 American coast, and again is caught by the 
 trade-wind, and blown across the ocean, a part 
 of it, however, still flowing down the Mexican 
 coast as far as the equator. The southeast trade 
 also here causes its equatorial current, and 
 this, flowing across the Pacific, throws off two 
 branches about 178 W., one curving to the 
 northward and eastward, and losing itself in the 
 counter-current, the other turning to the south 
 ward and eastward until it meets with a cold cur 
 rent, and the main stream loses itself among the 
 islands. A cold current flows from the Arctic 
 regions, through Behring s Straits, and down 
 the Asiatic coast. The Southern Pacific has also 
 a cold current, Humboldt s, or the Penwan, flow 
 ing to the northward along the South American 
 coast, part of it entering into the trade drift, and 
 a part of it flowing as far north as the equator. 
 
 The currents of the Indian Ocean are so affected 
 by the prevailing monsoon as not to be constant 
 in direction during the whole year. There is, 
 however, one warm current the Agulhas cur 
 rent which flows from the equator in a south 
 westerly direction, between the coast of Africa 
 and Madagascar. It throws off a branch to the 
 eastward, soon lost in the cold current, and its 
 main body passes around the Cape of Good 
 Hope into the Atlantic, joining the southeast 
 trade drifts there. 
 
 The warm currents thus impelled from equa 
 torial regions are fed by streams of cold water, 
 welling up from Antarctic regions. The great 
 
CUKKENTS 
 
 187 
 
 GUSHING 
 
 Antarctic drift-current, coming from the frozen 
 regions near the south pole, are deflected to the 
 eastward by the westerly winds that here blow 
 around the globe. The offshoots of this great 
 current, known as Humboldt s, and the Cape 
 Horn current, have been alluded to. Besides 
 these, the great southern connecting current 
 flows on past the southern point of Africa and 
 through the Indian Ocean, until it arrives on the 
 west coast of Australia. It there divides into 
 two branches, one flowing to the northward, a 
 part of it working through Macassar Straits, and 
 forming a great counter-current across the Pa 
 cific Ocean^ and a part curving to the westward 
 across the Indian Ocean, joining the warm 
 Agulhas current at Mozambique. The south 
 ern branch is the Southern Australian current, 
 which, after passing south of that great conti 
 nent, throws off an offshoot the East Austra 
 lian current to the northeastward, and, con 
 tinuing east with its parent stream, the Ant 
 arctic drift, it curves westward again, recrossing 
 the Pacific about the tropic of Capricorn, and is 
 lost in tropical waters. 
 
 "in the calm spaces formed by these currents, 
 in bays and inlets near the coast, in interior 
 lakes, etc., there are often currents, depending 
 on wind or tide, or other cause. The storms, 
 whether circular or translatory. carry with them 
 a storm wave and appreciable current. The 
 tidal wave, in its passage about the earth, car 
 ries a powerful current with it. The great rivers 
 of the earth, as they emerge from their banks, 
 carry their discolored streams far into the waters. 
 The Amazon, La Plata, and other great rivers 
 make their currents felt hundreds of miles from 
 the coast. The investigation of currents has 
 been greatly forwarded by the labors of Maury, 
 by the Coast Survey, and deep-sea sounding 
 vessels, and by the recent " Challenger" voyage 
 of exploration of sea depths. Much remains yet 
 to be known, and the great current charts need 
 to be revised, added to, and corrected constantly. 
 The exact determination and measurement of 
 a current are important problems in scientific 
 navigation. It is somewhat difficult to deter 
 mine the velocity and direction of a current in 
 mid-ocean, from having no fixed point as a basis. 
 The usual method employed by navigators, suf 
 ficiently exact for their purpose, is to compare 
 the positions of the ship from time to time, as 
 from one noon to the other, obtained by measure 
 ment of her speed, with those found by astronom 
 ical means, or, as sailors say, position by dead- 
 reckoning with position by observation. If the 
 measuring instrument were not affected by the 
 current this would give the exact force of the 
 current during the interval, but the logship is 
 affected by the current, and hence this does not 
 give the exact current. The following exam 
 ple illustrates this method of finding the current : 
 
 Lat., dead reckoning... 51 N. Lon., dead reckoning.. 76 W. 
 Lat., by obs. of sun 49 N. Lon., observation 75 W. 
 
 Difference 2 N. 
 
 Difference 1 W. 
 
 But this sixty minutes of longitude represents, 
 in lat. 50, 38. 6 . With this departure, and the 
 difference of latitude, we find the difference due 
 to currents, from tables, to be 126 , and its course 
 to be S. 18 E. This is the set of the current, 
 4 and the distance 126 is its drift. The set is al 
 ways in the direction of the true position from 
 
 the estimated. Hence the sei and drift of the 
 current are the course and distance correspond 
 ing to the difference of latitude and departure 
 between the two positions. To fin! the effect of 
 a current upon a course and rate of speed, a re 
 verse operation is performed. When ^course is 
 to be laid down for a port, the current, it known, 
 must be allowed for. This is usually done ra ph- 
 ically on a chart. But it may be done by Calcu 
 lation. The correction is found by its sine, w^h 
 is equal to the rate of the current x by the difk r 
 ence between its set and the course, divided b$ 
 
 r sin (c s] 
 the distance to be sailed, or sin a?== ^ 
 
 Then the correct course would be C =c x. In 
 beating to windward, the current is also to be 
 considered, that tack on which it helps being the 
 best, or " long tack." The currents of the depths 
 of the ocean are less easily obtained. The tem 
 peratures obtained in sounding are sometimes a 
 guide to the currents, and they may be measured 
 by a fan attached to a buoy, when a fixed point 
 from which to observe the course of the buoy 
 can be obtained ; but this is rarely the case, and 
 such currents will long remain but partially 
 known. .P. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Currier. A small musketoon mounted on a 
 swivel. 
 
 Cursa. The star (3 Eridani. 
 
 Curtail, or Curtald. An ancient piece of naval 
 ordnance. 
 
 Curtle-ax. An old name for a cutlass. 
 
 Cuseforne. A long, open whale-boat of Japan. 
 
 Gushing, W. B., Commander U.S.N. Wil 
 liam B. Cushing was born in Delafield, Wis., 
 November 4, 1842 ; entered the Naval Academy 
 at Annapolis, Md., September 25, 1857; resigned 
 March 23, 1861, and as soon as possible there 
 after entered the naval service afloat as an acting 
 master s mate. His disposition and temperament 
 would not permit him to remain at a naval school 
 in time of war ; he would not have been able to 
 give a single thought to theoretical study. 
 
 Ir. the following October he was restored to 
 his rank as midshipman. March 27 he was de 
 tached from the " Cambridge" sick, and granted 
 one month s leave. The following May he was 
 ordered to the " Minnesota," and was promoted 
 to the rank of lieutenant from the 16th of July, 
 with a large number of young officers, made 
 necessary to supply the demands of the service 
 growing out of the civil war. 
 
 Henceforth, for a period of nearly three years, 
 his career was singularly conspicuous in deeds of 
 daring, in a service where a lack of gallantry 
 would have brought disgrace. 
 
 When in command of a small steamer engaged 
 in blockading, he sought opportunities of visiting 
 the inland waters of the enemy in his boats, 
 usually after night, and would sometimes lie 
 concealed during the following day, always hav 
 ing in view some definite object, whether com 
 mensurate with the risks involved or otherwise. 
 At other times in narrow waters, in the vessel 
 he commanded, he would find himself fiercely 
 engaged with the field-batteries of the enemy. 
 
 When blockading the coast near New Topsail 
 Inlet he discovered a schooner within, and made 
 a reconnoissance in his boats, but soon found 
 himself under fire of the enemy s field-pieces and 
 small-arms, in the hands of a considerable force 
 guarding the inlet. He retired, but determined 
 
188 
 
 CUSTOM 
 
 to* destroy the s<# oon - ep } > some miles from 
 the guarded poj t o f entrance . 
 
 Persons f am ^]iar with inlets in marshy countries 
 know that % ua i} y they are very tortuous, and 
 
 nftckn laorl f* .1 - i 
 
 ouen ieau/f or mi } es along or near sand-spits 
 which s^ ara t e the channels from the ocean, 
 buch w s tne con fig ura tion of New Topsail In 
 let. J^ate j n the evening, August 22, 1863, 
 Lle % Gushing anchored the "Shokokon" close 
 fco 4;he beach abreast the schooner, and several 
 "Yiles distant from the entrance to the inlet. 
 /He sent two boats with crews on shore, the 
 / larger one to act as a support. The men hauled 
 1 the smaller boat across the sand beach and 
 launched it in the stream. Acting Ensign James 
 C. Coney was sent in this boat with a force of 
 six men to destroy the schooner. They pulled 
 along until within a short distance from the ves 
 sel of the enemy, where they landed and sent a 
 man to reconnoitre, who brought the information 
 that some twenty men with a small piece of 
 artillery were guarding the vessel. A charge 
 was made, the enemy routed, ten prisoners, one 
 howitzer, and eighteen small-arms captured ; the 
 schooner and adjacent salt-works were destroyed, 
 and the expedition rejoined the vessel without 
 loss. 
 
 In the winter of 1864, when blockading the 
 Cape Fear River, Gushing determined to pay a 
 visit to Smithville in a boat having a crew of 
 but six men. In entering the river he had to 
 pass Fort Caswell, mounting heavy guns, and at 
 Smithville, his destined point, two miles above, 
 he knew there was a battery of five guns and a 
 considerable garrison. He landed one hundred 
 yards above the battery, came ^into the village, 
 and across the street into Gen. Hebert s house, 
 a large building with a piazza ; the hour was 
 about 11 P.M. Major Hardeman and Capt. 
 Kelly, of the general s staff, were down-stairs 
 and about retiring, when the former hearing 
 footsteps on the piazza and supposing his ser 
 vant was there, threw up a window, when a 
 navy pistol was thrust in his face and a demand 
 made to surrender. He instantly pushed the 
 pistol aside, and escaped through a back-door, 
 calling upon Kelly, his companion, to follow, as 
 the enemy were upon them. The latter failed 
 to comprehend, and was taken prisoner and car 
 ried off by Gushing, who embarked at once, 
 knowing that an alarm would immediately be 
 given. In speaking of this occurrence, Gushing 
 said that it was a beautiful, bright moonlight 
 night, and that he counted upon a lack of 
 vigilance of the enemy from that fact. The 
 soldiers were quartered in the immediate vicinity 
 where his prisoner was captured. 
 
 An army officer who was at the capture of 
 Newbern mentioned that Gushing in command 
 of navy howitzers passed along with his sailors, 
 aided by soldiers, dragging the pieces. In land 
 ing in the marsh Gushing had lost his shoes and 
 in the bushes his hat. Pressing on bareheaded 
 and barefooted, he encountered the servant of 
 Capt. Johnson, of the army, who had a pair of 
 spare boots slung over his shoulder. Gushing 
 asked the servant the name of the owner of the 
 boots, and said, "Tell the captain that Lieut. 
 Gushing, of the navy, was barefooted and has 
 borrowed them for the day," and in spite of the 
 remonstrances of the servant put the boots on in 
 haste and pursued his way. 
 
 In the destruction of the plated ram " Albe- 
 marle" we see Gushing in a true heroic light. 
 The press correspondents had for a month or 
 more apprised the public and the enemy that 
 Gushing was on his way from the North with a 
 torpedo-boat to blow up the " Albemarle." No 
 method could have been taken that would seem 
 more efficacious to render her destruction im 
 possible. The enemy was apprised of the arrival 
 of the torpedo-boat in the adjacent waters ; the 
 "Albemarle" was secured to a wharf at Ply 
 mouth ; a cordon of logs was placed around her 
 at a distance of about thirty feet ; a company of 
 soldiers with small-arms and howitzers were on 
 the wharf to defend her, and her crew on board 
 to make use of her guns. The enemy was vigi 
 lant and Cushing s approach was discovered. 
 Yet he pushed forward amidst a shower of bul 
 lets and the fire from the howitzers stationed on 
 the wharf, forced his way in over the cordon of 
 logs, lowered his torpedo and blew the vessel up 
 at the very instant when a shell from one of the 
 heavy guns of the " Albemarle" struck the tor 
 pedo-boat and she went down swamped by the 
 column of water and spray, which rose high in 
 the air when the torpedo exploded. 
 
 For this act of heroism Gushing was advanced 
 to the grade of lieutenant-commander. 
 
 His entire career was filled with daring, 
 cleverly planned and admirably executed ; hence 
 his unvarying success in what he undertook. 
 
 Cushing s life in war was active and heroic in 
 the extreme ; in peace he seemed to suffer as it 
 were from inanity, or, more property speaking, 
 from the apparent lack or absence of a strong 
 purpose. 
 
 After the close of the war he was for some two 
 years the executive-officer of the " Lancaster," a 
 position which required close attention and study 
 to fulfill its duties in the best manner. 
 
 Afterwards he served three years in command 
 of the " Maumee," on the Asiatic station. He 
 was promoted in regular order of vacancies to 
 commander January 31, 1872, and soon after 
 was ordered to the command of the " "Wyom 
 ing," on the home station, and was relieved at 
 the end of a year, the vessel being put out of 
 commission. 
 
 In the spring of 1874 he was ordered to the 
 Washington Navy-Yard, and the following 
 August he was detached at his request. He 
 then seemed in impaired health, and expressed 
 a desire to go South ; after the lapse of a few 
 days he showed symptoms of insanity and was 
 removed to the government hospital, where he 
 died December 17, 1874, at the age of 32 years 
 and 13 days. Daniel Ammen, Rear- Admiral 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Cushion. A term applied when the exhaust- 
 valve of a steam-engine closes before the piston 
 has reached the end of its stroke, thus compress 
 ing the remaining steam. It causes the engine 
 to run smoothly, and its resistance to the piston 
 is compensated by the compressed steam filling 
 the clearance and port, which would otherwise 
 have to be filled with fresh steam from the 
 boilers. 
 
 Cusk. A fine table-fish taken in cod-schools. 
 
 Cusp. A projecting point or horn. 
 
 Custom. Long-established practice or usage, 
 having the force of law by reason of the general 
 consent which it implies. The customs of ike 
 
CUSTOMS 
 
 189 
 
 CUSTOMS 
 
 
 service constitute the unwritten part of the law 
 military. 
 
 Customs. Duties or imposts laid on the im 
 portation or exportation of certain commodities. 
 Such duties were levied in ancient times, and 
 have continued to form an important part of the 
 revenue of most modern states. (See TARIFF.) 
 
 CUSTOMS, COLLECTION OF. The collection of 
 custom duties in the United States is part of the 
 business of the Treasury Department, and is con 
 fided to a hureau of that department, presided 
 over by a Commissioner of Customs. To this 
 bureau pertain the examination of all questions 
 arising under the tariff laws upon appeals from 
 decisions of Collectors of customs involving the 
 rates and amount of duties on imports ; the con 
 sideration of cases involving errors in invoices 
 and entries, refund and abatement of duties, 
 drawback of customs, duties on articles manu 
 factured in the United States out of imported 
 material, and establishing the rates of draw 
 back ; also the consideration of all questions 
 arising upon the construction of the customs 
 laws, and the general regulations thereunder 
 in regard to the entry, appraisal, and delivery 
 of merchandise, and payment of duties thereon. 
 It also conducts correspondence with consular 
 officers, through the Department of State, in re 
 gard to dutiable values, invoices, etc. It exer 
 cises supervision over Appraisers in securing uni 
 formity of valuation of dutiable merchandise at 
 the various ports, and in respect of compromises 
 in customs cases. It has also supervision of the 
 seal-fisheries in Alaska, and such other matters 
 in that Territory as are placed by law in charge 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury. There are 131 
 collection districts and ports, to the more im 
 portant of which, viz., Boston, New York, 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San 
 Francisco, a Collector, a Naval Officer, and a 
 Surveyor are appointed. Of the lesser districts 
 and ports some have a Collector only ; some a 
 Surveyor only. At each of the ports having the 
 three officers it is the duty of the Collector to re 
 ceive all reports, manifests, and documents to be 
 made or exhibited on the entry of any ship or 
 vessel, according to law and regulations; to 
 record in books, to be kept for that, purpose, all 
 manifests; to receive the entries of all ships or 
 vessels, and of the goods, wares, and merchan 
 dise imported in them ; to estimate, together with 
 the Naval Officer, the amount of the dues payable 
 thereupon, indorsing such amount upon the re 
 spective entries; to receive all moneys paid for 
 duties, and take all bonds for securing the pay 
 ment thereof; to grant all permits for the un 
 lading and delivery of goods; to employ, with 
 the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 proper persons as weighers, gangers, measurers, 
 and inspectors at the several ports within his 
 district; to provide, with the like approval, at 
 the public expense, store-houses for the safe 
 keeping of goods, and such scales, weights, and 
 measures as may be necessary. At ports to 
 which a Collector and Surveyor only are ap 
 pointed, the Collector alone executes all the 
 duties in which the co-operation of the Naval 
 Officer is requisite at the ports where a Naval 
 Officer is appointed. And he acts in like man 
 ner in case of the disability or death of the Naval 
 Officer until a successor is appointed, unless 
 there is a deputy duly authorized, under the 
 
 hand and seal of the Naval Officer, who in that 
 case continues to act until an appointment is 
 made. At ports to which a Collector only is 
 appointed, the Collector alone executes all the 
 duties in which the co-operation of the Naval 
 Officer is requisite at ports where a Naval Offi 
 cer is appointed ; and he also, as far as may be, 
 performs all the duties prescribed for Surveyors 
 at ports where Surveyors are authorized. 
 
 At ports to which there are appointed a Col 
 lector, a Naval Officer, and a Surveyor, it is the 
 duty of the Naval Officer to receive copies of all 
 manifests and entries ; to estimate, together with 
 the Collector, the duties on all merchandise sub 
 ject to duty, and no duties shall be received with 
 out such estimates ; to keep a separate record of 
 such estimates ; to countersign all permits, clear 
 ances, certificates, debentures, and other docu 
 ments to be granted by the Collector ; to examine 
 the Collector s abstracts of duties and other ac 
 counts of receipts, bonds, and expenditures, and 
 certify the same if found correct. 
 
 At ports to which there are appointed a Col 
 lector, Naval Officer, and Surveyor, it is the 
 duty of the Surveyor, who is in all cases subject 
 to the direction of the Collector, to superintend 
 and direct all inspectors, weighers, measurers, 
 and gaugers within his port ; to report once in 
 every week the name or names of all inspectors, 
 weighers, gaugers, or measurers who are absent 
 from or neglect to do their duty ; to visit or in 
 spect the vessels which arrive in his port, and 
 make a return in writing every morning to the. 
 Collector of all vessels which have arrived from 
 foreign ports during the preceding day, specify 
 ing the names and denominations of the vessels, 
 the masters names, from whence arrived, 
 whether laden or in ballast, to what nation be 
 longing, and, if American vessels, whether the 
 masters thereof have or have not complied with 
 the law, in having the required number of mani 
 fests of the cargo on board, agreeing in substance 
 with the provisions of the law ; to put on board 
 each of such vessels one or more inspectors im 
 mediately after their arrival in his port ; to ascer 
 tain the "proof, quantities, and kind of distilled 
 spirits imported, rating such spirits according to 
 their respective degrees of proof, as defined by 
 the laws imposing duties on spirits ; to examine 
 whether the goods imported in any vessel, and 
 the deliveries thereof agreeably to the inspectors 
 returns, correspond with the permits for the 
 landing of the same; and if any error or dis 
 agreement appears, to report the same to the 
 Collector, and to the Naval Officer, if any ; to 
 superintend the lading for exportation of all 
 goods entered for the benefit of any drawback, 
 bounty, or allowance, and examine and report 
 whether the kind, quantity, and quality of the 
 goods so laden on board any vessel for exporta 
 tion correspond with the entries and permits 
 granted therefor; to examine, and from time to 
 time, and particularly on the first Mondays of 
 January and July in each year, try the weights, 
 measures, and other instruments used in ascer 
 taining the duties on imports, with standards to 
 be provided by each Collector at the public ex 
 pense for that purpose ; and where disagreements 
 or errors are discovered, to report the same to 
 the Collector; and to obey and execute such 
 directions as he may receive for correcting the 
 same, agreeably to the standards. 
 
CUT 
 
 190 
 
 CUTTER 
 
 At ports to which Collectors and Surveyors 
 only are appointed, the Surveyor performs all 
 the duties enjoined upon Surveyors by the pre 
 ceding clauses, and also receives and records 
 the copies of all manifests transmitted to him 
 by the Collector; records all permits granted by 
 the Collector, distinguishing the gauge, weight, 
 measures, and quality of goods specified there 
 in ; and takes care that no goods be unladen 
 or delivered from any ship or vessel without a 
 proper permit for that purpose. 
 
 Surveyors, at certain ports to which no Col 
 lector or Naval Officer is appointed, perform all 
 the duties which would be required of a Collector. 
 
 Every Collector, Naval Officer, and Surveyor 
 is authorized, with the approval of the Secretary 
 of the Treasury, in case of his sickness or un 
 avoidable absence, to exercise and perform his 
 functions, powers, and duties by deputy duly 
 constituted under his hand and seal. 
 
 Cut. To separate or divide. Shape; style; 
 fashion ; as, the cut of a sail. A passage, chan 
 nel, or canal. A short cut, a cross route, which 
 shortens the distance to be sailed. To cut, to 
 adjust or turn around a spar, cask, etc. ; also, to 
 strike with the edge of a sword. To cut stick, to 
 make off clandestinely. To cut and run, to make 
 off suddenly and rapidly ; from the necessity of 
 cutting the cable when getting under way in an 
 emergency. To cut off, to intercept a vessel or 
 vessels. To cut out, to seize and remove from 
 under the guns of an enemy ; as, a ship from a 
 convoy, or a vessel from a "harbor. (See CUT 
 TING OUT.) To cut down, to take a deck off a 
 vessel, thus converting a line-of-battle ship into 
 a frigate, a frigate into a sloop, etc. ; also, to cut 
 the laniard of a hammock and let the occupant 
 down to the deck. A ship cuts a feather when 
 her bow is so sharp as to make the spray feather 
 in cleaving the water. 
 
 CUT-OFF. A term applied when the admis 
 sion of steam to a cylinder is stopped before the 
 piston has completed its stroke, the remaining 
 portion of the stroke being accomplished by the 
 expansive force of the steam. The term is also 
 applied to the various mechanical devices for 
 effecting such stoppage, such as the Stephenson 
 link combined with the "lap - of a plain slide- 
 valve, "tripping" a counter-weighted valve or 
 poppet-valve by means of cams, springs, and 
 catches, and by independent cut-off valves. See 
 EXPANSION OF STEAM. 
 
 CUT-OFF VALVE. A valve used for effecting 
 a cut-off, which, with its mechanism, is inde 
 pendent of the main valves and their gear. 
 
 CUT OF THE JIB. The general appearance of 
 a ship or person. 
 
 CUTTING-DOWN LINE. A curve bounding 
 the inside of the timbers of the ship at the cen 
 tre-line. 
 
 CUTTING OUT. The exploit of capturing and 
 removing or destroying a vessel protected by the 
 guns of a fort or fleet. 
 
 When a vessel is to be cut out from a convoy, 
 a favorable opportunity is waited for, the vessel 
 is boarded, and the crew confined ; if able to do 
 this without creating a noise or otherwise attract 
 ing the attention of the armed vessels, it is pos 
 sible to remove the ship from the convoy and 
 take her into port as a prize. When impossible 
 to remove the vessel, her crew is sent into her 
 boats, and she is fired. 
 
 When it has been determined to cut out a 
 vessel at anchor, from under the guns of a fort 
 or fleet, the boats are provided with essentials 
 only, and extra men are carried if considered 
 necessary. The crews are specially instructed 
 in their various duties, some of them being pro 
 vided with combustible material for setting the 
 I vessel on fire. The men are armed with cut 
 lasses and revolvers, and some means of identi 
 fication in the dark is decided upon. 
 
 Taking advantage of wind, weather, darkness, 
 and the state of the tide, the oars are muffled, 
 and the boats are rowed noiselessly towards 
 their destination. If discovered, the boats make 
 a dash for the vessel, the men are thrown on 
 board, the enemy s crew is overpowered or 
 driven below, and the vessel is fired in several 
 places. If not discovered, the boats are rowed 
 alongside quietly, and the vessel is boarded in 
 silence, the hatches are guarded to keep the 
 enemy s crew below, and the ship is fired, the 
 boarding-party remaining by her until assured 
 that the fire cannot be extinguished. 
 
 Cute. Sharp ; crafty ; cunning. 
 
 Cuth. A name for the coal-fish before it is 
 fully grown. 
 
 Cutlass. The short, heavy sword supplied to 
 the navy ; called cutlash by Jack. 
 
 Cut-line. The space between the bilges of 
 casks stowed chine and chine. 
 
 Cutt. An old horse-ferry boat. 
 
 Cutter, George F., Paymaster-General 
 U.S.N. Entered the navy as captain s clerk to 
 Commander John Percival, April 18, 1838, on 
 board the sloop-of-war " Cyane," Mediterranean 
 Squadron; discharged May 18, 1841. 
 
 Commissioned as purser, June 5, 1844 ; or 
 dered to brig "Truxtun," African Squadron, 
 June 18, 1844; detached December, 1845. Or 
 dered to brig "Perry," West India Squadron, 
 April 24, 1846; detached May 15, 1846, and 
 ordered same day to brig "Truxtun," West 
 India Squadron (Mexican war). Wrecked and 
 taken prisoner, August, 1846 ; released on parole, 
 September, 1846, and exchanged November, 1846. 
 Ordered to receiving-ship "Franklin," navy- 
 yard, Boston, December 4, 1846, and detached 
 May 1, 1847. Ordered to sloop-of-war "Albany," 
 West India Squadron, August 12, 1847 (Mexi 
 can war) ; detached September 11, 1850. Ordered 
 to receiving-ship "Ohio," navy-yard, Boston, 
 | April 1, 1851 ; detached April 1, 1854. Ordered, 
 April 25, 1854, to steamer " Massachusetts," Pa^ 
 cific Squadron ; detached August, 1857. During 
 the cruise was eighteen months in Puget Sound, 
 Washington Territory, during the Indian war 
 there. Ordered, October 7, 1857, to navy-yard, 
 Portsmouth, N. H., and detached September 1, 
 1860, and ordered to the steamer " Eichmond," 
 flag-ship Mediterranean Squadron, September 
 10, 1860. When the Rebellion broke out the 
 I " Richmond" was ordered to the Mexican Gulf 
 | Squadron, and in her was present at the pas 
 sage of the forts below New Orleans, capture of 
 that city, the attack on Vicksburg, running 
 the batteries, and the general operations on the 
 Mississippi River, attack on the forts at en 
 trance of Pensacola Harbor, and on blockade 
 duty; detached from the " Richmond," October 
 20, 1862. Ordered North, and was ordered as 
 fleet paymaster North Atlantic Squadron, but 
 before taking charge of duty was detached, and 
 
CUTTER 
 
 191 
 
 CYMBA 
 
 ordered, April 2, 1863, as fleet paymaster East 
 ern Gulf Squadron, flag-ship "San Jacinto" ; 
 detached December 1, 1863. Ordered North, 
 and March 7, 1864, ordered as inspector in 
 charge of stores, navy-yard, Boston ; detached 
 April 1, 1867. Ordered as purchasing paymas 
 ter, New York, June 24, 1887 ; detached Sep 
 tember 2, 1867. Ordered, October 1, 1867, to 
 flag-ship " Piscataqua," as fleet paymaster of 
 Asiatic Squadron ; detached July 23, 1869, and 
 ordered home. January 1, 1870, ordered as in 
 spector in charge of stores, navy-yard, Boston. 
 Received commission as pay director March 3, 
 1871. Detached, as inspector, October 1, 1872, 
 and ordered as paymaster of New York Navy- 
 Yard ; detached February 12, 1873, and ordered 
 as purchasing and disbursing paymaster, New 
 York ; detached March 5, 1877, and appointed 
 general inspector, Bureau of Provisions and Cloth 
 ing ; detached November 17, 1877, and appointed 
 paymaster-general U. S. navy, Washington, 
 D. C., where now on duty. 
 
 Cutter. A single-masted, sharp-built vessel, 
 furnished generally with a running-in bowsprit, 
 and carrying a fore-and-aft mainsail, gaff-top 
 sail, stay-foresail, and jib. There is no jib-stay, 
 the jib hoisting and hanging by the halliards 
 alone. The name is derived from its fast sail 
 ing. The name cutter is also given to the small 
 steamers in our revenue marine service. Pull 
 ing boats called cutters are the medium-sized 
 boats supplied to the navy. They are square- 
 sterned, double-banked, and pull 10 to 12 oars. 
 See SAILS, BOAT S. 
 
 CUTTER-BRIO. A square-rigged vessel with a 
 jigger and a fore-and-aft mainsail. 
 
 CUTTER-STAY FASHION. A method of turn 
 ing in dead-eyes, so called because originally 
 used for the forestays of cutters. The end part 
 of the shroud or stay is taken around the stand 
 ing part and stopped back to its own part. This 
 plan allows a sail to be hauled close down. The 
 method is sometimes used for lower rigging; it 
 presents a neat appearance, but is not so strong 
 as the ordinary mode. 
 
 Cuttie. A name for the black guillemot 
 ( Uria grille). 
 
 Cuttle-fish. A common marine animal of 
 the genus Sepia and class Cephalopoda. When in 
 danger it ejects a black inky substance, which 
 discolors the water for some distance; hence 
 sometimes called the ink-fish. 
 
 CUTTLE-BONE. The oval, internal, calcareous 
 shell of the cuttle-fish. 
 
 Cutty. A short-stemmed pipe. A loose wo 
 man. 
 
 Cut-water. That part of a vessel forward of 
 the stem ; it divides the column of water through 
 which the vessel passes. 
 
 Cycle. A periodical space of time marked by 
 the recurrence of something peculiar. The cycle 
 of the sun, or solar cycle, is a period of 28 years, 
 after which the same days of the week recur on 
 
 the same days of the year. The cycle of the 
 moon, or Metonic cycle, is a period of 19 solar 
 years, after which the new and full moon fall on 
 the same day of the year that they did 19 years 
 before. The cycle of indiction, or Roman indic- 
 tion, a period of 15 years, employed in Roman 
 and ecclesiastical chronology. Calippus cycle, a 
 period of 76 years, proposed by Calippus as an 
 improvement on the Metonic cycle. Cycle of 
 eclipses, a period of about 6586 days, the time of 
 revolution of the moon s node, called Saros by 
 the Chaldseans. 
 
 Cycloid. A curve generated by a point in 
 the plane of a circle rolled along a straight line. 
 When the generating point is on the circumfer 
 ence of the circle the curve is a common cycloid ; 
 when it is within the circumference the curve 
 is & prolate, or inflected cycloid ; when without, 
 the curve is called a curtate cycloid. 
 
 Cyclone. A revolving storm (which see). 
 
 Cygnus (Lat. "The Swan"). A constellation 
 between Lyra and Pegasus, a Cygni, Arided, 
 Deneb Adige. /3 Cygni, Albireo. 
 
 Cylinder. A right prism whose bases are cir 
 cles. That portion of a gun between the base and 
 reinforce. That part of a steam-engine in which 
 the steam acts upon the piston. As its name im 
 plies, it is cylindrical in form. The ends are 
 closed, and the piston, though closely fitted, and 
 so kept by packing, is free to move, in direction 
 of its axis, from end to end, the piston-rod passing 
 though a stuffing-box on the cylinder-head. The 
 material is of cast iron, and in the same casting 
 are contained the " ports" for the admission and 
 ejection of the steam, the necessary brackets for 
 securing it to the frame, and flanges for securing 
 the cylinder-covers and valve-chests. Steam- 
 jacketed cylinders have a double shell, live 
 steam being admitted to the annular space. In 
 modern practice, the inner shell, in which the 
 piston runs, is made separately, of very hard 
 material, and secured by bolting and packing. 
 Slide-valve seats are made of steel and bolted on. 
 The cylinder casting also contains various brack 
 ets and projections for securing some lighter 
 parts of the machinery. 
 
 CYLINDER COVER. The end of a cylinder 
 which is bolted on and easily removable. It is 
 usually made with a double shell, the two shells 
 being supported by ribs, and the space between 
 the shells is filled either with live steam or some 
 non-heat-conducting material. 
 
 CYLINDER ESCAPE-VALVE. A valve, gov 
 erned by a weight or spring, for relieving the 
 cylinder of such water as may result from con 
 densation or from priming of the boilers. 
 
 CYLINDER HEAD, or BOTTOM. The end of a 
 cylinder which forms part of the cylinder cast 
 ing ; it has a double shell containing non-radi 
 ating material. In screw-propeller engines the 
 piston-rod stuffing boxes are attached to the 
 head. 
 
 Cymba. A Phoenician row-boat. 
 
192 
 
 DAHLGREN 
 
 D. 
 
 D. An abbreviation on the paymaster s books 
 for discharged. In the log-book d denotes driz 
 zling rain. 
 
 Dab. The sea-flourider. An old term for a 
 flat-fish of any kind, but usually appropriated to 
 the Platessa limanda. The word is familiarly 
 applied to one who is expert in anything. 
 
 Dabberlack. A kind of long sea- weed. 
 
 Dab-chick. The little grebe, Podiceps minor. 
 A small diving-bird common in lakes and rivers. 
 
 Dace. A small river fish of the carp variety. 
 
 Dacoits. Robbers in India; also, the pirates 
 who infested the rivers between Calcutta and 
 Burhampore. 
 
 Dactylopterus. A genus of fishes contain 
 ing two species, of which the most remarkable 
 is ^he flying -gurnard. 
 
 Daggar. An old term for a dog-fish. 
 
 Dagger. A term given to any timber lying 
 diagonally. 
 
 DAGGER-KNEE. Any hanging-knee which is 
 inclined forward or aft. 
 
 Dagges. An old term for pistols or hand 
 guns. 
 
 Dahlgren, John A., Rear-Admiral U.S.N., 
 was born in Philadelphia, Pa. Appointed mid- 
 sbipman from Pennsylvania February 1, 1826, 
 and made his first cruise in the frigate "Mace 
 donian," Brazil Squadron, in 1827-29; attached 
 to sloop " Ontario," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 in 1830-32. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 20, 
 1832 ; served on the coast survey 1836-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 8, 1837 ; 
 cruised in frigate " Cumberland," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1844-45; on ordnance duty from 
 1847-57, during which time he perfected the in 
 vention of the famous Dahlgren heavy guns, in 
 troduced howitzers for use afloat and ashore, and 
 wrote several works relating to ordnance. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanded ordnance practice-ship "Ply 
 mouth," 1858-59; on ordnance duty at navy- 
 yard, Washington, 1860-61. 
 
 On the 22d of April, 1861, a few days after 
 the attack of the Baltimore mob on the Massa 
 chusetts regiment, all the officers of the Wash 
 ington Navy- Yard resigned and left, except Com 
 mander Dahlgren, Lieut. Wainwright (who was 
 absent sick), and the boatswain. The officers 
 who left were the commodore commandant, a 
 commander, two lieutenants, the surgeon, and 
 paymaster ; their resignations not being accepted, 
 they were dismissed. The command, therefore, 
 devolved on Commander Dahlgren, and vigorous 
 measures were taken to defend the yard. After 
 the alarm had subsided and the danger passed 
 away, it was suggested that an old law (27th 
 March, 1804) required a captain to command the 
 yard. He was only a commander, and applica 
 tions were made for his place ; but the President 
 
 refused to listen to them, and on August 2, 1861, 
 Congress passed an act enabling him to retain 
 the command. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862, and 
 shortly afterward appointed chief of Bureau of 
 Ordnance. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, February 7, 1863, 
 and in the summer following ordered to the com 
 mand of theSouth Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 relieving Rear-Admiral Du Pont, July 6, 1863. 
 A combined operation of naval and army forces, 
 the latter under Gen. Gillmore, was instituted 
 for the occupation and possession of Morris 
 Island, on the south side of the entrance into 
 Charleston harbor. After a long and severe 
 struggle, the army operating upon land, with 
 the efficient co-operation of the monitors, the 
 new " Ironsides," and other vessels of the squad 
 ron, Morris Island with all its batteries was cap 
 tured, and Fort Sumter was soon made a pile 
 of ruins by the fierce artillery fire of the com 
 bined forces. 
 
 The fleet of Admiral Dahlgren remained in 
 side the bar, and after the capture of Morris 
 Island, blockade-running, as far as Charleston 
 was concerned, was at an end. 
 
 In February, 1864, a successful expedition, 
 commanded by Admiral Dahlgren in person, as 
 cended the St. John s Eiver to aid a military 
 force intended to be thrown into Florida. 
 
 Early in July, 1864, a concerted move was 
 made up the Stono River by Gen. Foster and 
 Admiral Dahlgren. The military force was, 
 however, too small. On this occasion Fort John 
 son, the principal work defending Charleston on 
 the south side of the harbor, was surprised by 
 an adroit attack detached from the right, and 
 the leading companies of a column headed 
 by Col. Hoyt actually got into the work, but 
 not being supported were made prisoners. Gen. 
 Foster in promulgating by General Order the 
 finding of a court of inquiry, stated that "the 
 expedition was well planned, and would have 
 succeeded had it not been for the absence of 
 the commanding officer and the want of spirit 
 and energy on the part of many of his subordi 
 nates." 
 
 On the 12th of December, 1864, Gen. Sher 
 man having successfully accomplished his march 
 to the sea, reached the vicinity of Savannah, and 
 communication between him and Admiral Dahl 
 gren was immediately established. The latter 
 made the best possible disposition of the vessels 
 then under his command to assist the army in 
 attaining possession of Savannah, which was 
 occupied by Gen. Sherman on the 21st of De 
 cember. 
 
 On the 18th of February, 1865, the city of 
 Charleston was evacuated, and Admiral Dahl 
 gren at once moved his vessels up to the city. 
 
 The evacuation of Charleston was followed by 
 
DAHM 
 
 193 
 
 DARNING 
 
 that of Georgetown, and on the 26th of February, 
 the place itself was occupied by the admiral. On 
 the 1st of March, immediately after the surrender, 
 his flag-ship was blown up and sunk by a tor 
 pedo. 
 
 In 1866, Rear- Admiral Dahlgren was ordered 
 to the command of the South Pacific Squadron ; 
 and returning from that service in 1868, was for 
 the second time appointed chief of Bureau of 
 Ordnance. In the fall of 1869 was relieved from 
 the bureau at his own request, and ordered to 
 the command of the Washington Navy- Yard, 
 where he died in 1870. 
 
 DAHLGREN GUN. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Dahm. An Arab or Indian decked boat. 
 
 Dairs. Small unsalable fish. 
 
 Dak-boat. See DAWK-BOAT. 
 
 Dale, Richard, Commodore U.S.N., was born 
 November 6, 1756, near Norfolk, Va. He went 
 to sea at twelve years of age, and rose to first 
 mate in 1775. Served as lieutenant in a Vir 
 ginia cruiser in 1776, and was captured by the 
 British and confined in a prison-ship in Nor 
 folk harbor ; was there induced to join the 
 enemy, but returned to his allegiance on being 
 captured by Capt. Barry. Appointed midship 
 man in the navy, July, 1776 ; served in the 
 " Lexington," and when that vessel was cap 
 tured was instrumental in her recapture. Ap 
 pointed master s mate, and sailed again in the 
 " Lexington," in 1777, and cruised in Commodore 
 Wicke s squadron in Irish waters. Captured by 
 the "Alert, "on the 19th September, he was 
 thrown into Mill Prison, Plymouth, England. 
 After an ineffectual attempt, he escaped to France 
 in February, 1779, and there joined Jones, and 
 was named first lieutenant of the " Bon Homme 
 Richard" ; sailed in that vessel July, 1779, and 
 in her participated in the action with the " Se- 
 rapis." He was the first to board that ship, and 
 was severely wounded, September 19, 1779 ; 
 served with Jones in the " Alliance," and re 
 turned home in the " Ariel" in October, 1780, 
 receiving his commission as lieutenant. Sailed in 
 the "Trumbull," and captured in her by the 
 "Iris" and "General Monk," August 8, 1781. 
 Sailed in merchant vessels, commanding some 
 of the finest Indiamen until the reorganization 
 of the navy in 1794 ; was then named fourth 
 captain on the list, furloughed, and in the mer 
 chant service until 1798. He commanded the 
 "Ganges," 20, the first ship under the new or 
 ganization. Furloughed again until 1800. May, 
 1801, sailed in command of the European Squad 
 ron, in the " President," 44; blockaded Tripoli, 
 and returned home July, 1802. Was again or 
 dered to the Mediterranean, but, becoming dis 
 satisfied, resigned. He died at Philadelphia, 
 February 26, 1826, aged 69. .F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Dale. A trough or spout to carry off" water ; 
 usually named from the office it has to perform ; 
 as, a pump-dale, etc. 
 
 Dallop. A heap or lump in a clammy state. 
 A large quantity of anything. 
 
 Dam. A barrier of stones, stakes, or rubble 
 constructed to stop or impede the course of a 
 stream. 
 
 Damascened. The mixing of various metals 
 in the Damascus blades, the kris, or other 
 weapons ; sometimes by adding silver to produce 
 a watered effect. 
 13 
 
 Damascus Blade. Swords famed for the 
 quality and temper of the metal as well as the 
 beauty of the jowhir, or watering of the blades. 
 Damask. Steel worked in the Damascus style, 
 showing the wavy lines of the different metals ; 
 usually termed watered or twisted. 
 
 Damber. An old word for lubberly rogue. 
 Damelopre. An ancient flat-floored vessel 
 belonging to Holland, and intended to carry 
 heavy cargoes over their shallow waters. 
 
 Dammah. A kind of turpentine or resin, 
 from a species of pine, which is used in the East 
 Indies for the same purposes to which turpentine 
 and pitch are applied. It is exported in large 
 quantities from Sumatra and Bengal, and other 
 places, where it is much used for paying seams 
 and the bottoms of vessels, for which latter pur 
 pose it is often mixed with sulphur, and answers 
 admirably in warm climates. 
 
 Dampier, William. Born in Somersetshire, 
 England, 1652. Beginning life before the mast 
 and involved during the earlier part of his career 
 in many questionable enterprises, Dampier sailed 
 about in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans until 
 1699, when he was taken into the service of the 
 king of England and sent out on a voyage of 
 discovery. He was chiefly engaged in exploring 
 the northern coast of New Holland and the 
 islands in the East Indian Archipelago. The 
 results of his explorations and voyages were pub 
 lished and are still extant. The most notable is 
 entitled " A Voyage round the World." 
 
 Damsel. A name for the skate-fish. 
 
 Dancers, The Merry. See AURORA BOREALIS. 
 
 Dandies. The rowers of the budgerow boats 
 on the Ganges. 
 
 Dandy. A sloop or cutter with a jigger, on 
 which a lug-sail is set. 
 
 Dank. Moist ; moldy. 
 
 Danskers. Natives of Denmark. 
 
 Dantzic. Capital of the government of the 
 same name, province of West Prussia, situated 
 on the left bank of the Vistula, 3 miles from 
 its mouth. The river is here joined by the Mott- 
 lau and Radaune. Lat. 54 2V 4" N. ; Ion. 18 
 39 34" E. The city is nearly of circular form, 
 and ranks as a fortress of the first class, being 
 surrounded by walls and bastions, defended by a 
 citadel and outworks, and provided with the 
 means of laying a part of the surrounding 
 country under water. Among the public edifices 
 are a school of navigation, navy-yard, and an 
 arsenal. Vessels drawing eight or nine feet of 
 water can reach the city ; others lie in the Neu- 
 fahrwasser, at the mouth of the river, or in the 
 roads, which afford good anchorage for vessels 
 of any burden. The proper port of Dantzic is 
 Neufahrwasser, at the mouth of the Vistula, the 
 number of sand-banks which encumber the river 
 immediately above seriously obstructing the 
 navigation. Pop. 98,000. 
 
 Dar. A fish of the genus Leuciscus ; called 
 also dace and dart. 
 
 Darbies. A cant word for irons, or hand 
 cuffs. 
 
 Dark, or Colored Glasses. Shades fitted to 
 instruments of reflection for preventing the 
 bright rays of the sun from hurting the eye of 
 the observer. 
 
 Darks. Nights on which the moon does not 
 shine, much looked to by smugglers. 
 
 Darning the Water. A term applied to the 
 
DARSENA 
 
 194 
 
 DAWK-BOAT 
 
 action of a fleet cruising to and fro before a 
 blockaded port. 
 
 Darsena. An inner harbor or wet-dock in 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 Dart. A sort of fish ; the dace (Leuciscus vul- 
 garis). See DAR. 
 
 Dartmouth. A town of England, county of 
 Devon, on the west side of the estuary of the 
 Dart, 32 miles S.W. of Exeter. The town is 
 picturesquely built on a steep bank, forming a 
 succession of terraces, and its dock-yard and 
 quay project into the river. The Dart is de 
 fended at its mouth by a castle and strong bat 
 teries, and is navigable to the town. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Dash. The present with which bargains are 
 sealed on the coast of Africa. 
 
 Dash-board. A term sometimes applied to 
 a screen placed at the bow of a steam-launch, to 
 throw off the spray when running rapidly through 
 rough water. A spray-board. 
 
 Dash-pot. A device for easing a cut-off 
 valve of a steam-engine to its seat when it is 
 "tripped" or detached from the positive motion 
 of the valve-gear and allowed to return to its 
 seat or position of rest by the force of weights, 
 springs, steam, or atmospheric pressure. The 
 liquid dash-pot consists of a cylindrical vessel 
 fitted with an air-tight plunger or piston, which 
 is attached to the cut-off valve and moves with 
 it, and when near the end of its descent, or posi 
 tion of rest, after being "tripped," impinges 
 upon water or other liquid, the escape of which 
 is so regulated as to permit the valve to settle 
 gently to its seat, avoiding destructive shocks. 
 When the plunger is withdrawn from the cham 
 ber by action of the valve-gear a partial vacuum 
 is formed, and when it is released by the cut-off 
 gear the atmospheric pressure causes its instan 
 taneous return. In the Corliss engine an air- 
 cushion is used, the valve being closed by the 
 action of powerful springs. See CUT-OFF. 
 
 Data (Lat. from dare, to give). Things given 
 or admitted. In problems the data are the 
 known quantities from which are to be found the 
 unknown quantities. 
 
 Datoo. The west wind in the Strait of Gi 
 braltar. A Malay name for each one of the 
 four officers who form the council of the sultan 
 of the Malaya Islands. 
 
 David s Staff. A kind of quadrant formerly 
 used in navigation. 
 
 Davie. An old term for davit. 
 
 Davis, Charles Henry, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Boston, Mass., .January 16, 1807. Ap 
 pointed midshipman, August 12, 1823; com 
 missioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1834 ; com 
 mander, June 12, 1854; captain, November 15, 
 1861 ; commodore, July 16, 1862 ; chief of Bu 
 reau of Navigation, July 17, 1862; rear-ad 
 miral, February 7, 1863. From 1844 to 1849 
 he was engaged in the IT. S. Coast Survey. In 
 1846-49, while surveying the waters about Nan- 
 tucket, he discovered the New South Shoal and 
 several smaller shoals directly in the track of 
 ships sailing between New York and Europe, 
 end of coasting-vessels from Boston. He was 
 subsequently engaged in examining the state of 
 the harbors of Boston, New York, Charleston, 
 etc. These investigations led him to the study 
 of the laws of tidal action. See his " Memoir 
 upon the Geological Action of the Tidal and 
 other Currents of the Ocean" (Memoirs of the 
 
 American Academy, new series, vol. iv.), and 
 " The Law of Deposit of the Flood-Tide" (Smith 
 sonian Contributions, vol. iii.). He founded the 
 "American Nautical Almanac," superintending 
 it from 1849 to 1856, when he was ordered to 
 naval service in the Pacific, in command of the 
 sloop-of-war "St. Mary s." He was fleet-cap 
 tain in Dupont s expedition against Port Royal, 
 and second in command, and was assigned to the 
 Mississippi Flotilla. May 9, 1862, he was ap 
 pointed flag-officer of the flotilla, and on the llth 
 repulsed an attack by the rebel fleet. June 8, 
 he attacked the rebel fleet opposite Memphis, 
 capturing or destroying all but one vessel. The 
 surrender of Memphis immediately followed. 
 He then joined Admiral Farragut, and was en 
 gaged in the various operations above Vicks- 
 burg. With Gen. Curtis, he operated up the 
 Yazoo in August, 1862, with complete success. 
 Superintendent Naval Observatory, Washing 
 ton, 1865-67 ; commanded South Atlantic Squad 
 ron, 1867-69; LL.D., Harvard College, 1868; 
 superintendent Naval Observatory, 1870-77. 
 Died at Washington, D. C., in 1877. Author 
 of an English translation of Gauss s "Theoria 
 Motus Corporum Coelestium," Boston, 1858, and 
 of some shorter translations and articles on 
 mathematical astronomy and geodesy. 
 
 Davis, John, an eminent navigator of the 
 latter part of the 16th century, was born at 
 Sandridge, near Dartmouth, and is principally 
 distinguished for having, between 1585 and 1588, 
 undertaken three voyages to the northern seas 
 in search of the northwest passage. In the first 
 voyage he sailed as far north as the 73d degree 
 of latitude, and discovered the strait which bears 
 his name. He afterwards made five voyages to 
 the East Indies, in the last of which he was killed 
 in a fight with some Japanese on the coast of 
 Malacca in 1605. " The World s Hydrographical 
 Description, wherein is proved that the World in 
 all its Zones, Climates, and Places is Habitable 
 and Inhabited, and the Seas likewise universally 
 Navigable" (London, 1595), and " The Seaman s 
 Secrets, wherein is taught the Three Kinds of 
 Sailing, Horizontal, Paradoxal, and Sailing 
 upon a Great Circle" (London, 1595), are the 
 two principal works written by Davis, but he 
 was also the author of several others. 
 
 Davits. The boat-davits are pieces of iron or 
 wood projecting over the side or stern ; to them 
 are attached the falls for hoisting the boats. 
 They are supported by guys, spans, topping-lifts, 
 and strong-backs, and are fitted in a variety of 
 ways that the boats may be landed on the rail, 
 swung in on deck, topped up to be secured for 
 sea, rigged out for lowering, etc. They are 
 sometimes so fitted that one pair supports two 
 boats. A fish-davit was formerly used in fishing 
 the anchor. It was a perpendicular spar tem 
 porarily stepped abaft the bill-board, and was 
 supported by guys, bill-tackle, topping-lift, and 
 jiggers. 
 
 Davy Jones. The spirit of the sea ; a sea- 
 devil. 
 
 DAVY JONES S LOCKER. The ocean, the com 
 mon receptacle for all things thrown overboard. 
 Gone to Davy Jones s locker, dead, buried at sea. 
 
 Daw-fish. The Scyllium catalus, a small dog 
 fish. 
 
 Dawk-boat or Dak-boat. An East Indian 
 mail-boat. 
 
DAY 
 
 195 
 
 DEAD CENTEE 
 
 Day. The time occupied by a complete revo 
 lution of the earth on its axis. Some point must 
 be chosen to mark the commencement of a day, 
 and the choice gives rise to several different 
 days which differ from each other slightly in 
 length. The scientific term "day" is never used 
 in the sense of day opposed to night. 
 
 DAY, ASTRONOMICAL. The day used by as 
 tronomers to which to refer their observations, 
 being distinguished from the civil day which 
 regulates the ordinary business of life. The as 
 tronomical day begins at noon and ends at noon, 
 its hours being reckoned from O h to 24 h ; the civil 
 day begins at midnight and ends at midnight, 
 its hours being reckoned through twice 12. The 
 astronomical is later than the civil day by 12 
 hours. The cause of this inconvenient differ 
 ence in the modes of reckoning is, that astrono 
 mers carry on their observations chiefly at night, 
 and if they, therefore, adopted the civil method 
 of reckoning, they would have to change the 
 date at midnight, the former and latter portions 
 of every night s observations belonging to two 
 differently numbered civil days of the month. It 
 has, however, been questioned whether this in 
 convenience would be as great as that resulting 
 from the present neglect of uniformity in reckon 
 ing time. According to the point of definition 
 chosen the astronomical day is either a sidereal 
 day, an apparent solar day, a mean solar day, 
 or a lunar day ; the term, when used alone, is 
 usually understood to refer to the mean solar 
 day. Reckoning in mean solar time, which is 
 the same as civil time, a mean solar day is 24 h , a 
 sidereal day 23 h 56 m 4.09 s , and a lunar day, 24 h 
 O m 54*,. 
 
 DAY, CIRCUMNAVIGATOR S. A ship sailing 
 westward runs away from the sun in his diurnal 
 course, and, when she has circumnavigated the 
 globe, the sun will evidently have crossed her 
 meridian once less frequently than if she had re 
 mained stationary. On the contrary, a ship sail 
 ing eastward meets the sun in his diurnal course, 
 and, when she has circumnavigated the globe, 
 the sun will evidently have crossed her meridian 
 once more frequently than if she had remained 
 stationary. Hence a westwardly circumnavigator 
 loses a day in his reckoning, an eastwardly cir 
 cumnavigator gains a day. The alteration of 
 the date, by inserting a day or leaving out one, 
 in the ship s log-book should be made on cross 
 ing the meridian of 180. 
 
 DAY, CIVIL. The day used for the ordinary 
 purposes of life. The motion of the sun in the 
 heavens, bringing the alternations of light and 
 darkness, determines generally our social arrange 
 ments, and time being kept by mechanism, the 
 day must be of invariable length. Hence the 
 civil is of the same length as the mean solar day. 
 It differs, however, from the astronomical mean 
 solar day in the following points. The astro 
 nomical day begins at noon and ends at noon, its 
 hours being reckoned from O h to 24 h ; the civil 
 day begins at midnight, and its hours are reck 
 oned through twice 12, from midnight to noon 
 (ante meridiem, A.M.), and then from noon to 
 midnight (post meridiem, P.M.). The commence 
 ment of the astronomical day is placed 12 hours 
 later than that of the civil day. 
 
 DAY, INTERCALARY. The day that is inter 
 calated or inserted in the calendar in leap-year 
 to make up for the odd hours, minutes, and 
 
 seconds of the tropical year which have been left 
 out in making the civil year to consist of 365 in 
 teger days. See CALENDAR. 
 
 DAY, LUNAR. The time elapsed between two 
 successive transits of the moon over the merid 
 ian. 
 
 DAY, NAUTICAL, or SEA. This begins at 
 noon, 12 hours before the civil day and 24 hours 
 before the astronomical day. It is now little 
 used. 
 
 DAY, SIDEREAL. The interval between two 
 successive transits of the first point of Aries over 
 the same meridian. This is called a sidereal day, 
 although not strictly determined by the stars ; 
 but the very slow motion of the first point of 
 Aries relatively to the stars makes this day 
 practically the same as if a fixed star had been 
 taken, for if two clocks be set, the one on the 
 first point of Aries, the other on the fixed star, 
 so as always to mark O h O m s when the point or 
 the star respectively comes to the meridian, the 
 difference of the two clocks would only be about 
 3 s in a whole year. The length of the sidereal 
 day in mean solar time (which is the same as 
 civil time) is 23 h 56 111 4.09 s . 
 
 DAY, SOLAR. The interval between two suc 
 cessive transits of the sun s centre over the same 
 meridian. The apparent solar day is the interval 
 between two successive transits of the actual sun s 
 centre over the same meridian ; it begins when 
 that point is on the meridian. The apparent solar 
 day is variable in length from two causes : first, 
 the sun does not move uniformly in the ecliptic, 
 its apparent path sometimes describing an arc 
 of 57 X , and at other times an arc of 61 X in a day ; 
 secondly, the ecliptic twice crosses the equinoc 
 tial, the great circle whose plane is perpendicular 
 to the axis of rotation, and hence is inclined 
 differently to it in its different parts ; at the 
 points of intersection the inclination is about 
 23 27 , at two other limiting points they are 
 parallel. A uniform measure of time is obtained 
 by the invention of the mean solar day, which is 
 the interval between two successive transits of 
 the mean sun over the meridian. This fictitious 
 body is conceived to move in the equinoctial with 
 the mean motion of the actual sun in the ecliptic. 
 The length of the mean solar day is the average 
 length of the apparent solar days for the space 
 of a solar year. 
 
 DAY-BOOK. An old name for the log-book. 
 
 DAY S WORK. The work of computation re 
 quired in navigating a ship for every twenty- 
 four hours ; the term is generally restricted to 
 the dead-reckoning. At each noon the latitude, 
 longitude, and the course and distance made 
 good are wanted, together with the compass 
 course to be steered during the next twenty-four 
 hours. The data for this work are the latitude 
 and longitude at the preceding noon ; the com 
 pass courses and distance run on each course 
 during the twenty-four hours ; the variation and 
 deviation of the compass; particulars of the 
 force and direction of the wind and the conse 
 quent leeway, and the set and drift of the current. 
 
 D-block (obs.). An oak block of the shape 
 of the letter D, bolted to the ship s side in the 
 channels for the lower lifts. 
 
 Dead-calm. A total cessation of wind ; a fiat- 
 calm. 
 
 Dead Centre or Dead Point. In single steam- 
 engines, a position of the moving parts when the 
 
DEAD-DOOR 
 
 196 
 
 DEATH 
 
 piston is at either extreme end of its stroke, and 
 the axis of the connecting-rod, crank-pin, and 
 shaft lie in the same plane. From this position 
 it is impossible to start an engine at rest by pis 
 ton-pressure, and it becomes necessary to "jack" 
 or turn some rotative part by external force. 
 When the engine is once in motion these points 
 are passed by the momentum of the rotating 
 parts. Double engines are connected by cranks 
 placed at such an angle one with the other that 
 one only can arrive at the dead point at the same 
 instant. 
 
 Dead-door. A door fitted to the outside of the 
 quarter of a ship, to keep out the sea in case the 
 quarter-gallery should be carried away. 
 
 Deaden. To retard, or render less ; as, to 
 deaden a ship s headway. 
 
 Dead-eye, or Dead Man s Eye. A piece of 
 hard wood of oblate form having three holes, 
 through which is rove the laniard for setting up 
 the backstays and lower and topmast rigging. 
 The laniard is rove through two dead-eyes, form 
 ing a threefold purchase ; the lower dead-eye is 
 shackled to the chain-plate, and the upper one is 
 secured to the shroud. There are several ways 
 of securing the dead-eye to the shroud, viz. : 
 splicing, turning in by the old method, turning 
 in cutter-stay fashion, and turning in by the 
 present mode, in which, instead of being taken 
 around the dead-eye itself, the shroud is taken 
 around a heavy iron thimble bolted to the iron 
 strap of the dead-eye. 
 
 Dead-flat. In ship-building, the name of the 
 widest frame in the ship. 
 
 Dead-freight. The sum to which a merchant 
 is liable for freight which he has failed to ship. 
 
 Dead-head. A rough block of wood used as 
 an anchor-buoy. 
 
 Dead-headed. A word applied to trees which 
 have ceased to grow. 
 
 Dead-horse. Wages paid before they are 
 earned. In some merchant ships when the 
 dead-horse has been worked off, i.e., when the 
 men have served long enough to earn the money 
 advanced, they perform the ceremony of drag 
 ging the effigy of a horse around the deck, run 
 ning him up to the yard-arm and cutting him 
 adrift to fall into the sea. 
 
 Dead-lift. The lifting of a thing at the ut 
 most disadvantage. 
 
 Dead-lights. Strong wooden shutters made 
 exactly to fit the cabin ports, into which they 
 are fixed on the approach of a storm, the glass 
 sashes being taken out. 
 
 Dead-lown. Dead-calm. 
 
 Dead-men. The ends of gaskets and points 
 left dangling under the yards, which should 
 have been tucked in when the sail was furled. 
 
 Dead Men s Effects. When a seaman dies 
 on board or is drowned his effects are sold at 
 the mast by auction, and the produce charged 
 against the purchasers names on the ship s 
 books. 
 
 Dead Months. A term for winter. 
 
 Dead-on-end. A term applied to the wind 
 when it comes exactly from the point to which 
 the ship is to steer. 
 
 Dead-pay. See DEAD-SHARE. 
 
 Dead-reckoning. The method of determining 
 the ship s position without the aid of astronomi 
 cal observations. 
 
 Dead-rise. The rise of the floor of the ship 
 
 from a level, usually taken on the midship frame 
 in inches or degrees from the centre line. 
 
 DEAD-RISING. An elliptical line drawn on 
 the elevation plan, or profile of the ship, to de 
 termine the sweep of the floor-heads throughout 
 the ship s length. Sometimes called rising-line. 
 
 Dead-rope. Ropes which do not run through 
 any block. 
 
 Dead-share (Eng.}. An allowance formerly 
 made to the officers of the fleet from fictitious 
 numbers borne on the books, varying from fifty 
 shares for an admiral to half a share for the 
 cook s mate. 
 
 Dead-sheave, or Dumb-sheave. An aper 
 ture in which a rope travels, and which has no 
 sheave. 
 
 Dead Steam. Steam possessing sufficient heat 
 to retain it in a state of vapor at any tension, 
 but incapable of performing work without con 
 densation ; this may be observed in boilers with 
 " banked" or very low fires. 
 
 The exhaust steam from a non-condensing en 
 gine when used for heating purposes. 
 
 Dead-water. The eddy -water under the coun 
 ter of a ship under way ; so called because it 
 passes away slower than the water alongside. 
 
 Dead-weight. A vessel s lading when it con 
 sists of heavy goods ; particularly such as pay 
 freight according to weight. 
 
 Dead-wood. That part of the ship which is 
 built forward and abaft the square frames of the 
 ship, in wooden ships, upon which the cants are 
 stepped and secured. It is firmly bolted, both to 
 the keel and stern-post aft, and to the keel and 
 stem forward. 
 
 DEAD-WOOD-KNEE is the first piece of the after 
 dead-wood, and is placed as a large knee (in 
 wooden ships), with the arm against the stern- 
 post and the body upon the keel, and it is secured 
 to both with heavy bolts. 
 
 Dead-works. All that part of the ship above 
 water when she is laden. 
 
 Deal. A town of England, county of Kent, a 
 member of the Cinque-port of Sandwich, from 
 which town it is 5 miles S.E., on the shore of 
 the North Sea, near the S. extremity of the 
 Downs, 8 miles N.N.E. of Dover. The principal 
 buildings are a court-house, naval store-house, 
 barracks, hospital, and custom-house. At the 
 S. and N. extremities of the town are W aimer 
 and Sandown Castles, and intermediate is Deal 
 Castle, built by Henry VIII. The inhabitants 
 are mostly connected with maritime traffic, and 
 the skill and boldness of Deal pilots are pro 
 verbial. Pop. 8100. 
 
 Deal. Pine and fir boards or thin plank. 
 
 Deal Beach (Eng.). This beach consists of 
 gravelly shingle ; a man who is pock-marked is 
 said to have rolled on Deal beach. See CHOP- 
 DOLLAR. 
 
 Deal-ends. Deal-planks under 6 feet in 
 length. 
 
 Death. If the commander-in-chief be killed 
 in battle he is succeeded by the line-officer next 
 in rank on board the flag- ship, until the senior 
 officer of the fleet announces that he has assumed 
 command. The flag of the deceased is kept fly 
 ing until the battle is decided. 
 
 If the commanding officer die, he is succeeded 
 by the line-officer next in rank, until relieved by 
 orders from the commander-in-chief, or Navy 
 Department, even though there be officers on 
 
DEATH 
 
 197 
 
 DECK 
 
 board, as passengers, of higher rank. On the 
 death of the paymaster of a vessel or station the 
 commanding officer appoints a suitable person 
 to take charge of the money, books, and stores, 
 and to perform the duties of the paymaster until 
 otherwise directed by competent authority. 
 
 On the death of any person in the naval ser 
 vice the medical officer is required to make a re 
 port, in which is stated distinctly the circum 
 stances under which the death occurred, and 
 whether or not in the line of duty. See FUNERAL 
 HONORS. 
 
 Death, or Money Boats (Eng.}. Long narrow 
 boats used by smugglers in the English Channel. 
 
 Death-wound. A law-term for the springing 
 of a fatal leak. A ship had received her death- 
 wound, but by pumping was kept afloat till three 
 days after the time for which she was insured ; it 
 was decided that the risk was at an end before 
 the loss happened, and that the insurer was not 
 liable. 
 
 Debark. To land ; to go ashore. 
 
 Decatur, Stephen, son of Capt. Stephen Deca- 
 tur, was born on the 5th of January, 1779, at 
 Sinnepunxit, Md. Entered the navy in March, 
 1797, as a midshipman, and joined the " United 
 States," Capt. Barry, cruising in the West Indies. 
 Promoted to lieutenant in 1799, and cruised in 
 the brig " Norfolk," 18, returning to the frigate 
 " United States" in 1800. Sailed as first lieu 
 tenant of the "Essex, "in Dale s squadron to 
 Algiers, in 1801-2, returned, and ordered to the 
 "New York," 36, again going to the Mediter 
 ranean. In the fall, on his return, took the 
 "Argus" out to the same squadron, and was 
 transferred to the command of the " Enterprise." 
 Had command of the force that destroyed the 
 "Philadelphia," taking the ketch "Intrepid," 
 which he had captured. For valor in this was 
 promoted to captain in 1804, and a sword given 
 him. Commanded a division of boats in an at 
 tack on Tripolitan gunboats, August, 1805, 
 where he was wounded in a personal combat, but 
 captured two prizes. Commanded the " Consti 
 tution," and engaged in attacks of 28th of Au 
 gust and 3d of September. In November trans 
 ferred to the "Congress," sent to interview the 
 Bey of Tunis, and carried to the United States 
 his minister. Employed on shore 1806-7, and 
 given command of the " Chesapeake," super 
 seding Barren. But in 1811 he hoisted his broad- 
 pennant in the "United States," 44, and cap 
 tured the English sloop " Macedonian," October 
 25, 1812, in a brilliant engagement. Entering 
 New York with his prize, he was blockaded, 
 and his ship laid up, when he was given the 
 "President," 44. He sailed in January, 1815, 
 but was captured by an English fleet on the 
 14th. Commanded a fleet sent to Algiers in 
 May, 1815, in the " Guerriere," 44, and on the 
 17th of June captured the " Mashouda" with the 
 Algerian admiral. Arrived home November 12, 
 1815, having obtained reparation from the Bar- 
 bary powers. Was a Commissioner of the Navy 
 from 1817 to 1819. He having opposed Barren s 
 having a command, a difficulty ensued, and a 
 duel was fought, March 22, 1820, when Decatur 
 was mortally wounded, and died the same day, 
 aged 41. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Decimetre (Fr.}. One-tenth of a metre, and 
 equal to 3.937 English inches. 
 
 Deck. The planking placed upon the deck 
 
 framing which makes a continuous platform, 
 fore and aft the ship. The deck is said to be 
 a Thasian invention, and was at first used as a 
 protection for the rowers. A deck may extend 
 from the stem to the stern; as, the gun-deck; 
 or be but partial ; as, the deck of a topgallant 
 forecastle. The upper, or spar-deck extends 
 from stern to stem ; the part of the spar-deck 
 from the mainmast aft is the quarter-deck; 
 when there is a poop-cabin, the deck which pro 
 tects it is called the poop, or poop-deck; it ex 
 tends from the mizzen-mast aft. A gun-deck is 
 a deck below the spar-deck on which guns are 
 carried. The berth-deck is a deck next below the 
 gun-deck, on which are stowed the bags, etc., 
 and on which are swung the hammocks of one 
 watch. The orlop-deck is the deck on which the 
 cables are stowed ; it is below the water-line. 
 The half-deck is that portion of the deck next 
 below the spar-deck, from the mainmast to the 
 cabin-bulkheads. In a three-decker, the three 
 gun-decks are called the main, middle, and lower 
 decKs. In river-steamers the boiler-deck is the 
 one on which the boilers are placed, and the 
 hurricane-deck is the upper deck. 
 
 DECK-BEAM. One of the heavy pieces of tim 
 ber extending across the ship on which the 
 decks are laid. 
 
 DECK-BEAM KNEE. Any one of the knees in 
 the deck framing, either a lodge or a lap knee, 
 which is secured to the beam by its arm. 
 
 DECK-CARGO. See DECK-LOAD. 
 
 DECKER. According to the number of gun- 
 decks a vessel has, she is distinguished as a 
 single-decker, two-decker, or three-decker. 
 
 DECK, FLUSH. One in which there is no 
 break. 
 
 DECK-HOOK. A large knee either forward or 
 aft, which is placed, as a part of the deck fram 
 ing, at the extremities, and secures both sides of 
 the ship to each other. 
 
 DECK-LOAD. Merchandise carried on the 
 upper deck. 
 
 DECK-PIPE. The aperture in the deck through 
 which the cable passes from the chain-locker to 
 the anchor. 
 
 DECK-PUMP. A pump used for pumping 
 water for washing decks ; it is worked by hand. 
 
 DECK-SEAM. The interstices between deck- 
 planks. 
 
 DECK-SHEET. Lower and topmast stun sails 
 are fitted with two sheets ; the one leading di 
 rectly to the deck is called the deck-sheet. 
 
 DECK-STANDARD KNEE. A large knee of oak 
 or iron fayed on the deck and against the side 
 of the ship. The arm being placed upon the 
 deck, is bolted through the beam and clinched 
 underneath, and the other arm is bolted to the 
 ship s side. Their use was to strengthen the 
 sides. They are sometimes used upon wooden 
 merchant ships, aft on the middle deck, one arm 
 being bolted to the deck and the other arm of 
 the knee fayed against the transoms, to which it 
 is securely bolted. 
 
 DECK-STOPPER. See STOPPER. 
 
 DECK-TACKLE. A heavy luff" or twofold pur 
 chase used for rousing in the cable, or other 
 heavy work. 
 
 DECK-TRANSOM. The transom which comes 
 to the same level or height of the deck at the 
 after-end, and to which the framing of the deck 
 is secured. 
 
DECLARATION 
 
 198 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 Declaration of War. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW. 
 
 Declare. To make a full statement of goods, 
 etc., for the purpose of paying custom-house 
 duties. 
 
 Declination. The angular distance of a heav 
 enly hody from the equinoctial ; it is reckoned 
 from to 90 north or south. The complement 
 of the declination is the polar distance. 
 
 DECLINATION, CIRCLE OF. See CIRCLE. 
 
 DECLINATION, PARALLEL OF. A circle of 
 the celestial sphere parallel to the equinoctial. 
 
 DECLINATION OF THE COMPASS-NEEDLE. A 
 term sometimes used for the magnetic variation 
 of the compass-needle. 
 
 Decoy. The appearance of a man-of-war is 
 sometimes changed by striking topmasts, setting 
 ragged sails, painting, etc., to induce a vessel 
 of inferior force to chase, and thus come within 
 gunshot. 
 
 Decres, Denis. This distinguished French 
 naval officer was born in 1762, and died in 1820. 
 Entering the French navy at the age of 17, he 
 first served in the fleet of Count de Grasse, and 
 in the battle of April 12, 1782, in the West In 
 dies, he won his promotion to ensign, although 
 the fortune of the day was against the French. 
 
 From this time his promotion was rapid, as he 
 distinguished himself in the frigate squadron 
 which France sent to the East Indies. 
 
 In 1793 he was a " capitaine de vaisseau," but 
 was deprived of his rank, and imprisoned by the 
 revolutionists because he was a noble. Escaping 
 more easily than thousands of others, he was at 
 last released, and restored to his rank in the 
 navy, in 1795. In 1798 he had reached the 
 rank of rear-admiral, and in that capacity as 
 sisted in the capture of Malta. 
 
 After this he served at the battle of Aboukir, 
 and led back to Malta the few French vessels 
 which escaped from that action, and these were 
 soon blockaded by the English in the harbor of 
 Yaletta. Decres, in conjunction with Gen. Vau- 
 bois, conducted the defense of Malta, which 
 lasted seventeen months. In March, 1800, pro 
 visions falling short, and much sickness appear 
 ing in the French garrison, Decres embarked 
 about 1200 men onboard the " Guillaume Tell," 
 and forced the blockade. The English frigate 
 "Penelope" followed him, and next day the 
 " Guillaume Tell" fell in with the English ship 
 " Lion," 64, a sanguinary action ensuing, 
 during which Decres boarded the " Lion" twice, 
 but was each time driven off. The " Lion" at 
 last hauled off to repair damages, and just then 
 the English " Foudroyant," 86, came up, and 
 the " Tell" sustained an hour s fight with her, 
 the "Lion" coming again into the action. 
 Decres tried boarding the "Foudroyant," but 
 unsuccessfully, and the "Guillaume Tell" was 
 obliged to surrender. Decres was wounded by 
 an explosion, as were his captain and several of 
 his officers, while nearly half his crew were 
 killed or wounded. The frigate " Penelope" was 
 able to take the dismasted "Tell" in tow, and 
 reached Syracuse, while the two larger English 
 ships with great difficulty got to Mahon. For 
 this hard-fought action Decres received a sword 
 of honor from the First Consul, and the English 
 "Naval Chronicle" states that his was the 
 warmest resistance ever made by a foreign man- 
 of-war against a superior British force. Decres, 
 
 upon his return from captivity in England, was 
 successively appointed prefect maritime, com 
 mandant of the western fleet, and minister of 
 marine. He continued to act in the latter capa 
 city as long as the empire lasted, showing great 
 administrative ability. 
 
 During his administration the great works at 
 Cherbourg were materially advanced, as well as 
 those at Nieuwe-Diep, and Flushing, while the 
 docks and ship-yards of Antwerp were wholly 
 created. He managed to keep up and even in 
 crease the strength of the French navy in spite 
 of their great losses at sea, and collected the great 
 flotilla of Boulogne which events, however, ren 
 dered useless. Napoleon, who made him in 
 succession a count, grand cross of the Legion of 
 Honor, and finally a duke, recalled him to his 
 old position during the Hundred Days, and 
 when the emperor finally fell, he was retired 
 by the Bourbon government. 
 
 Duke Decres survived many bloody battles to 
 be at last assassinated by his valet. This man, 
 who had for a long time been robbing him, 
 placed a quantity of powder, with a slow match, 
 between his mattresses. Stealing into the duke s 
 bedroom in the night, he blew him up. The 
 valet, in his fright and perturbation at what he 
 had done, threw himself out of the window and 
 was killed ; his master died a few days after, 
 aged 58 years. E. Shippen. 
 
 Deep. Lying far below the general level ; of 
 great perpendicular dimension, conceived of as 
 measured downward. The word is figuratively 
 applied to the ocean; as, "Neptune, the mon 
 arch of the deep." A vessel is loaded deep when 
 her cargo causes her to be much immersed in the 
 water ; she sails deep when her expenses run 
 high. See MARKS AND DEEPS. 
 
 DEEPEN. The water deepens in running from 
 shoal into deep water. 
 
 DEEP-SEA LEAD. The sounding-lead used in 
 deep water. See LEAD. 
 
 DEEP-SEA LINE. The line attached to the 
 deep-sea lead. See LEAD. 
 
 Deep-sea Sounding. From the beginning 
 "when the waters were gathered together unto 
 one place," until within the latter half of the 
 19th century, the depth of the sea has been a 
 mystery which in every phase and epoch of civ 
 ilization baffled the skill and patience of the sea 
 man, the quest and genius of the philosopher, 
 the curiosity of the idler, and the impracticability 
 of the dreamer ; but so great has been the fasci 
 nation of the problem that probably no one ever 
 got on blue water, however careless of other 
 aspects of nature, who did not dream and pon 
 der over the seemingly impenetrable mystery 
 that lay below, and long for the seal to be broken, 
 that a glimpse at the secret of the ages might be 
 given him. Indeed, so great and continuous had 
 been the failure of skilled and experienced sea 
 men, of every name and nation, to fathom the 
 depths and get answer to their anxious question 
 ing, that it had come to be a popular belief the 
 ocean was quite bottomless in some places ; that 
 the weight and pressure of the superincumbent 
 water increased the density of the lower strata 
 to such a degree that things thrown into the 
 sea floated at different levels, according to their 
 specific gravity ; that below a certain depth a 
 temperature of 39 F. was uniformly found ; and 
 that no animal life could exist on the lower 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 199 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 planes and valleys of the ocean-bed. And, when 
 it is considered that the pressure for every mile 
 below the surface is a ton per square inch, it is 
 not to be wondered at that such notions prevailed 
 in the general mind, prone to forget that water 
 is practicably incompressible. 
 
 The great difficulty of sounding in "blue 
 water" arose from the fact that, as the plummet 
 descended, the weight of the line, and its run 
 ning out, retarded by the attendant and ever-in 
 creasing friction, and diverted by the action and 
 freaks of submarine currents, neutralized, as it 
 were, the momentum of the lead, playing havoc 
 with its indications, and making it impossible to 
 tell with any degree of certainty the moment of 
 touch bottom beyond a depth of 800 or 1000 
 fathoms; especially as the line, made doubly 
 heavy by its absorption of water, would con 
 tinue to run out simply from its own weight 
 long after the sinker had buried itself in the 
 ocean-bed, and, with the life stretched out of it, 
 often broke in hauling back ; hence the work 
 of hours on such occasions appeared only to de 
 monstrate the seeming impossibility of getting 
 at the depths, and the most extraordinary results 
 were reported and accepted, as, for instance, 
 where Capt. Denham, R.N., assumed that he 
 had made a reliable sounding at a depth of more 
 than 8 statute miles in the South Atlantic ; or 
 where Lieut. Parker, U.S.N., reported an at 
 tempt made in the same ocean oft" the coast of 
 Brazil with 50,000 feet run off the reel-sounding 
 from a boat, without, as he thought, getting bot 
 tom ; or where Capt. Ringgold, U.S.N., reported 
 finding a depth of 9 statute miles in the Indian 
 Ocean, 1855, using the apparatus known as the 
 Brooke. 
 
 In these efforts to measure the depths, distin 
 guished naval officers of the principal maritime 
 powers vied with one another in their endeavors 
 to penetrate the secrets of the ocean-bed, but the 
 impartial student, of whatever nation, will ac 
 cord the U. S. naval service and Coast Survey 
 merited prominence in diligent and persistent 
 effort, inventive appliance, and intelligent adap 
 tation of ideas and methods, from whatever 
 source, towards the satisfactory solution of the 
 problem. It was the good fortune, however, of 
 Sir William Thomson, of Glasgow University, 
 distinguished in many fields of science, and 
 especially for his inventions making practicable 
 ocean telegraphy, to conceive the best and sim 
 plest means of measuring the depths ; and to 
 day, thanks to his genius, it is as easy for the 
 questioning seaman or scientist to bring back 
 answer from the depth of five miles as it formerly 
 was from a depth of a quarter of a mile. The 
 general mistake made by the indefatigable seek 
 ers was in allowing the line to run out too freely 
 as the plummet descended, as will be seen farther 
 on. It was difficult, too, to keep the old sailing- 
 craft in position, owing to drift, heave of sea, and 
 constant motion of the vessel, obstacles well- 
 nigh overcome in these later days of research, 
 when steam has come to the aid of the laborer in 
 every field ; and nowhere does the masterful 
 power of that fierce agent find better illustration 
 than in its triumphs on the restless and turbu 
 lent sea, enabling the seaman to do now with 
 ease and certainty what would have been re 
 garded as impossible and visionary half a cen 
 tury ago. In a paper, prepared by the writer 
 
 for the American United Service magazine in 
 1879, it was stated that the first attempt made to 
 sound with wire was from H. M. S. " Thunder," 
 Capt. Barnett, R.N., August, 1849. This was 
 an error ; most, if not all the vessels of the U. S. 
 Exploring Expedition, which sailed from Nor 
 folk, Ya., in 1888, under command of the late 
 Rear-Admiral Charles Wilkes, then a lieutenant, 
 were supplied with copper wire, about 3.32 of an 
 inch in circumference, the splices twisted and 
 soldered. 
 
 In trying the wire on board the " Belief" of 
 that expedition, it parted when some 500 fathoms 
 were out; on board the flag-ship " Vincennes" 
 the soundings were somewhat deeper, but the 
 results were generally unsatisfactory, owing to 
 constant losses of wire ; and before the expedi 
 tion was on its homeward route, 1842, its use was 
 abandoned. The wire used on board the " Thun 
 der" was of iron, varying in size from Nos. 1 to 
 5, the sinker weighing 61 pounds. Only one 
 trial was made, and the wire broke at 2000 
 fathoms. It had run out in twenty minutes, 
 fifty-three seconds ; rapid work, indicating that 
 no restraint had been put upon the reel, and the 
 break was doubtless due to the parting of a splice, 
 or a jerking strain caused by the rolling of the 
 ship ; this attempt was made between the banks of 
 Newfoundland and the Western Islands. Three 
 months later, the same year, 1849, the U. S. 
 schooner "Taney," Lieut. J. C. Walsh com 
 manding, experimented with steel wire in the 
 vicinity of the Bermudas. The wire broke when 
 5700 fathoms had run out, and Walsh reported 
 no bottom at that great depth ; the fact was that 
 bottom had been struck when half the wire had 
 run out, as subsequent soundings have shown. 
 The wire was of three sizes, Nos. 5, 7, and 8, Bir 
 mingham gauge, and its average weight in water 
 about 180 pounds to the mile. It was wound on 
 an iron reel, controlled by brakes and friction- 
 bands, and swivels were fitted next the sinker 
 and at every thousand fathoms, to counteract 
 the tendency to twist. The lengths were marked 
 with copper labels, and the sinker weighed only 
 10 pounds ; but 6 pounds more should be added 
 for the weight of the registering-machine devised 
 by Maury and used on this occasion. The 
 sinker was obviously too light, for with less 
 than 200 fathoms out, the weight of the wire, 
 the No. 5 size being 0.22 inch in diameter, would 
 already exceed that of the lead, and the momen 
 tum and influence of the latter be swallowed up, 
 as it were. Had the sinker weighed 400 pounds, 
 which the size and strength of the wire seemed 
 to admit, the trial would doubtless have been 
 successful, taking it for granted that the descent 
 was controlled by the friction-brakes. 
 
 Other trials were made from the " Taney," 
 but with no better results, the wire generally 
 parting at 2000 fathoms. Walsh does not seem 
 to have mentioned the cause of these repeated 
 losses, and in the midst of his experiments he 
 found the vessel unseaworthy and had to return 
 home, under convoy of the U. S. brig "Por 
 poise," 1850, the present Rear-Admiral B. F. 
 Sands, U.S.N., commanding, the writer serving 
 on board his first cruise as midshipman, little 
 dreaming that he himself was to become some 
 what identified with deep-sea exploration later 
 on. These experiments with wire in our own 
 and the English service, seem to have convinced 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 200 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 the naval mind of the uselessness of further at 
 tempt in that direction, and the idea slumbered 
 until awakened by the magic touch of Sir Wil 
 liam Thomson s hand twenty-three years later, 
 transforming failure into pre-eminent success. 
 
 Nothing daunted at these repeated failures, 
 the U. S. Coast Survey, under the able super 
 intendence of the learned and energetic Bache, 
 kept actively at work surveying the coasts of 
 the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico, ex 
 ploring the Gulf Stream for depths and tempera 
 ture, and devising new methods and appliances 
 for the advancement of hydrographic science ; 
 while Maury, the father of the science of the 
 physical geography of the sea systematically 
 pursued, and superintendent of the National 
 Observatory, and in charge of all matters per 
 taining to navigation under the cognizance of 
 the Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography at 
 that period. 1850, stimulated effort on the part 
 of the naval service. 
 
 Be it said in passing that as, with the excep 
 tion of the period embraced by the civil war, the 
 greater part of the hydrographic work of the 
 Coast Survey has been done by naval officers, 
 both branches of the service may be considered 
 as twin sisters in that regard; and, indeed, the 
 navy claims to be the elder of the twain in all that 
 pertains to the prestige of skilled achievement, 
 inventive genius shown, and well-earned reputa 
 tions made, in the conduct of that great national 
 work which maps the way for the mariner all 
 along a magnificent coast-line of more than 
 13,000 miles, and puts into the hands of the sci 
 entist the data which, in some measure, tell the 
 earth s ancient story. 
 
 Now discarding both wire and rope, the U. S. 
 naval service, at the instance of Maury, adopted 
 the use of flax twine of exceptional strength, 
 weighing a little less than 9 pounds to the statute 
 mile, wound on light running reels in lengths 
 of 10,000 fathoms. 32-pounder shot were selected 
 for sinkers as available in every ship of war at 
 that period, 1850. These reels of twine were sup 
 plied every cruiser asking for them, but the first 
 approach to success with such appliances was on 
 board the U.S.S. " Albany," Commander Platt, 
 in the Gulf of Mexico, and under the supervision 
 of Lieut, (now Rear-Admiral) Wm. Rogers 
 Taylor. 
 
 Taylor tried and adopted the method of time 
 intervals as a help in interpreting the time of 
 the arrival of the lead on the bottom, and though 
 much ^discouragement resulted from frequent 
 losses of twine, he was pretty confident of having 
 measured the depths with " tolerable accuracy; 
 but no sinkers had been hauled back, owing bo th 
 to weak places in the twine and the wonderful 
 retarding influence of friction, which, though 
 somewhat diminished by waxing the twine, was 
 not enough to more than partially overcome the 
 difficulty. 
 
 Some question has arisen as to who originated 
 the method of "time intervals," but it would 
 seem that Capt. James F. Ross, R.N., noted 
 the intervals March, 1840, sounding the Cape of 
 Good Hope from H. M. S. "Erebus" in 2677 
 fathoms. The cast seems to have been made 
 from boats, the reel of 5000 fathoms line prob 
 ably rigged between them. The first length of 
 line of 437 fathoms next the sinker, which 
 weighed 540 pounds, was of a single strand of 
 
 whale-line, the rest of two strands of spun 
 yarn. Capt. Crozier kept the time of descent. 
 "When the wpight struck bottom," says Ross, " it 
 stopped so suddenly that the boat s crew all 
 called out it is down. " The great weight of 
 the sinkers in proportion to the size of line was 
 a notable step towards the solution of the prob 
 lem, and it is surprising that later explorers did 
 not follow more closely this experience in that 
 regard. The noting of the intervals does not 
 seem to have been with a view to the interpreta 
 tion of the final result; the great weight of the 
 lead was depended upon for that ; and, continues 
 Ross, with pardonable glow, "nothing could be 
 more satisfactory than this sounding, and it is 
 the more so that we have the means of getting 
 soundings however deep the sea may be." Yet 
 despite this rose-colored view how much dis 
 couragement subsequently resulted to other 
 workers ! The fault seems to have been in a 
 lack of system, which did not give sufficient 
 heed to the experience of explorers of different 
 nationalities and at various periods. Capt. Bar- 
 nett, too, of the " Thunder," marked the inter 
 vals, sounding in the North Atlantic, 1849, but 
 Taylor seems to have been the first officer to de 
 duce from the rate of descent a rule whereby to 
 signal with some degree of accuracy the arrival 
 of the lead on the bottom, which rule observed 
 by Lee and Berry man, and perfected by Spratt 
 and Brooke, has been the main reliance m deter 
 mining the accuracy of deep-sea work until the 
 Thomson machine superseded and rendered such 
 method practically obsolete. A notable excep 
 tion to this, however, has been the continued 
 use of the time-interval interpretation by the 
 " Challenger" in her recent famous expedition 
 around the world. 
 
 But to return. Tables were constructed for 
 different weights of sinkers and sizes of lines, 
 showing the rate of descent of each 100 fathoms, 
 and any marked or disproportionate increase in 
 the intervals of time would indicate the reaching 
 of bottom ; but the observer would need to watch 
 the line sharply and become very familiar with 
 all the indications to interpret correctly the mo 
 ment of touch ; hence a good deal of line often 
 ran out before it was discovered that the lead 
 was on the bottom, and some of the soundings 
 reported by Lee and Berryman were in excess 
 of the actual depth as subsequent research has 
 shown. While these experiments on board the 
 " Albany" were still in progress, Lieut, (now 
 Rear- Admiral) S. P. Lee sailed from New York, 
 October, 1851, in the "Dolphin" brigantine, 
 having been detailed for the special duty of 
 " testing new routes and perfecting the discoveries 
 made by Lieut. Maury in the course of his in 
 vestigations of the winds and currents of the 
 ocean," and he was instructed to make deep-sea 
 soundings in favorable weather. The sounding 
 apparatus supplied was similar to that tried on 
 board the " Albany," modified and improved by 
 the experience of that vessel ; but Lee adopted 
 the idea of sounding from a boat instead of from 
 the deck of the brig, believing that by means of 
 her oars the boat could be readily kept over the 
 line and give a plumb sounding, a thing quite 
 impossible from a ship not controlled by steam. 
 Small waxed fishing-line was used, with 32- 
 pound shot for sinker. The line ran through a 
 small bull s-eye, held in one hand by a quarter- 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 201 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 master, who gave line with the other when ne 
 cessary to relieve the sinker from the resistance 
 of the reel. The reel was mounted on a stand 
 placed at the stern of the boat, and turned on 
 friction-rollers. " When the shot struck bot 
 tom," says Lee, "stopped pulling, let the boat 
 settle, and tried the currents ; if the line did not 
 part, then cut the line." No attempt was made 
 to haul back the sinker ; the principal thing con 
 sidered was to ascertain the depth without refer- 1 
 ence to the character of the bottom. The verifi 
 cation of the sounding and the gratification of 
 response from the ocean-bed was lacking to com 
 plete the effort, and such work could only be 
 done in good weather, with smooth sea and all 
 favoring circumstances. The " Dolphin" cruised 
 eight months and made 89 deep casts, but the 
 line parted in 34 of them, and doubt hung over 
 the results in some others ; still, it was considered 
 good work had been done, and that the brush of 
 difficulty had in a measure been cleared away. 
 
 Lieut. O. H. Berryman now succeeded Lee 
 in command, and continued the work of ex 
 ploration in the North Atlantic, 1852-53 ; and 
 though some of his soundings were in excess of 
 the actual depths, as has since been shown, the 
 general results, as with Lee, were regarded as 
 the most satisfactory and accurate that had 
 hitherto been obtained. 
 
 The " Dolphin s" soundings developed a ridge 
 about one-third across the Atlantic to the east 
 ward of the Antilles, with a depth of from. 1900 
 to 2000 fathoms over it, which has been called 
 the Dolphin Rise. This "rise" seems to be a 
 continuation in a south-southwesterly direction 
 from the Azores of what is known as the tele 
 graphic plateau discovered by Berryman. "While 
 Berryman was yet exploring in the " Dolphin," 
 Mr. Cyrus W. Field was beginning to interest 
 himself in the subject of ocean telegraphy, and 
 it was to be the good fortune of Berryman to 
 link his name with that of Mr. Field in connec 
 tion with the first and most important great 
 ocean cable laid. In the latter part of 1853, Mr. 
 Field s aid was solicited towards the completion 
 of the submarine line between St. John s and 
 Newfoundland ; and, enlarging the horizon of 
 that scheme, Mr. Field obtained the grant of 
 a charter for himself and associates to connect 
 Europe and America by submarine cable via 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 The needs of the age demanded submarine 
 communication, and the demand, given living 
 form and embodiment, as it were, by the ener 
 getic and prescient action of Mr. Field, quick 
 ened and stimulated effort to measure the depths; 
 but not only the depth was required, but the 
 character of the bottom also, for a cable made to 
 rest on bed of ooze, sand, or clay would not do 
 for rocky ridge or pebbly plain. 
 
 At this juncture, Passed Midshipman John M. 
 Brooke, U.S.N., now Professor Brooke, Military 
 Institute, Lexington, Va. , came forward with 
 his beautiful and timely invention for leaving 
 the sinker on the bottom and bringing back a 
 specimen of the soil from the ocean-bed. The 
 invention consisted of a light iron rod, terminat 
 ing in a cup at one end and with trigger fitted 
 at the other, the rod passing through a hole, 
 bored or cast, in a cannon-ball or shot of the de 
 sired weight. 
 
 In descending, the shot hung from the trig 
 
 gers by means of slings, and was upheld by the 
 line made fast to the triggers above the ends of 
 the slings. The moment bottom was struck the 
 line would slacken, and the weight of the shot 
 pulling down the triggers would cause the slings 
 to slip off, releasing the shot and leaving it be 
 hind. The cup of the rod had quills fastened in 
 it for the purpose of bringing up specimens of 
 the bottom soil. Though the apparatus was 
 first brought prominently forward in 1854, 
 Passed Midshipman (now Commodore) Earl 
 English, U.S.N., was the first person to test its 
 capabilities in deep water, sounding from one 
 of the "Dolphin s" boats, the brig still under 
 Berryman s command, August 22, 1853 ; lat. 
 50 N.. Ion. 14 W., in 1580 fathoms, or a depth 
 of nearly two miles, bringing up a good speci 
 men of yellowish-white chalky clay. This was 
 undoubtedly the first time a specimen had been 
 brought up from so great a depth, and English 
 states that "during the remainder of the cruise 
 the Brooke machine was almost exclusively used, 
 with perfectly satisfactory results." 
 
 Prior to that sounding the casts had been 
 made as heretofore described, the time-interval 
 method, with no attempt to haul back the line, 
 "which process," English continues, "he 
 never regarded as satisfactory or conclusive." 
 
 Other devices had been tried for bringing up 
 specimens from as great depths as it had hitherto 
 been possible to sound with rope, but Brooke s 
 idea of leaving the sinker on the bottom seems 
 to have been the first successful invention to 
 wards that end. Sir John Ross, R.N., had in 
 Baffin s Bay, 1818, brought up specimens from 
 1050 fathoms with a " deep-sea clamm," invented 
 by himself; arid the late Rear- Admiral Chas. H. 
 Davis, U.S.N., had in 1845 brought up greenish 
 mud from 1350 fathoms, in the North Atlantic, 
 using a Stellwagen lead, called a " cup-lead" in 
 the English service, and the invention of Lieut. 
 Stellwagen, U.S.N. These were non-detachable 
 leads, however, and would not work in the deeper 
 water. Some four years after Brooke s inven 
 tion, 1857, Lieut, (now Rear- Admiral) B. F. 
 Sands, U.S.N., brought forward another ingen 
 ious detaching apparatus which has been pre 
 ferred by some workers to that of Brooke. The 
 Sands cup, indeed, has long been in use both 
 in the naval service and Coast Survey. 
 
 The next important departure in deep-sea work 
 was the equipment at the instance of Mr. Field 
 and associates, 1856 of the first steam-vessel 
 fitted for such purpose, the U. S. S. " Arctic," 
 under Berryman s command, for the surveying 
 of the route for the proposed submarine cable. 
 The " Arctic" was fitted with a steam-reel, which 
 held 10,000 fathoms of line an inch in diameter, 
 and the sounding was done from the bow. The 
 Brooke was used for bottom specimens ; but 
 Berryman modified the apparatus by substituting 
 a conical lead-sinker, weighing from 100 to 150 
 pounds, for the round shot. Massey s self-regis 
 tering machine was used as a check on the line 
 for vertical depth instead of noting the time-in 
 tervals of descent. 
 
 This machine is simply a small brass propeller 
 fixed in a protecting metal frame, which, in de 
 scending, turns by action of the water, commu 
 nicating its motions to the indices of several dial- 
 plates marked in units, tens, and hundreds of 
 fathoms, and so on. The machines furnished 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 202 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 the " Arctic" had their dials improved by Mr. 
 Saxton, of the Coast Survey, to register 21,000 
 fathoms without re-adjustment. Similar ma 
 chines had been made by M. Lecontre, Walker, 
 and Trowbridge ; but their use, except in shoaler 
 soundings, has been abandoned, owing to doubt 
 ful results in deep water and their liability to 
 get out of order. Berryman, however, instanced 
 one cast in 2070 fathoms, as indicated by the 
 " Massey," where only 2150 fathoms of line ran 
 out; and, as the Brooke brought up a specimen, 
 there could be no doubt of the value of the 
 sounding as things went then. 
 
 The "Arctic" was twenty-two days in cross 
 ing the Atlantic from the banks of Newfound 
 land to the Irish coast, making 24 casts in all, 
 the deepest of which was 2700 fathoms. 
 
 The soundings had sometimes to be repeated 
 owing to breakage of the line, and two hours 
 was the average time occupied at each cast. 
 
 Notwithstanding this good work, the discard 
 ing of the use of time intervals, carelessness in 
 preparing profile chart of the bottom, and the 
 publication of the results in England before re 
 port was made to the Navy Department, engen- 
 der,ed differences personal and official between 
 Berryman and Maury, which led the latter to so 
 discredit the "Arctic s" work as to cause the 
 British Admiralty to detail H. M. S. " Cyclops," 
 Lieut. Dayman, R.N., to make a supplementary 
 survey. Dayman had similar appliances to those 
 used on board the "Arctic," but discarding the 
 quills, fitted a valve in the specimen cup, and 
 substituted wire for the rope or cord slings orig 
 inally designed by Brooke. Brooke subsequently 
 modified the rod so as to have only one trigger, 
 insuring more certainty in its working. The 
 same route was gone over, and the 34 casts 
 made substantially agreed with those made by 
 Berryman. The "Cyclops s" deepest cast was 
 2424 fathoms. Maury was obliged to accept the 
 results of this survey, though it interfered with 
 a theory he had put forth in his " Physical 
 Geography of the Sea," " that there is at the 
 bottom of this sea, between Cape Race and Cape 
 Clear, a remarkable steppe, already known as 
 the telegraphic plateau, . . . and the sea is prob 
 ably nowhere more than 10,000 feet deep," 
 whereas the depth was found to be considerably 
 greater, and the bottom not so regular as had 
 been thought. In fact, the so-called plateau is 
 not so uniform in contour as the bed of the 
 Pacific between San Diego and the Hawaiian 
 Islands, or from Cape Flattery, across the Gulf 
 of Alaska, to a point near the Aleutian chain. 
 
 Subsequently, Dayman, in the "Gorgon," 
 sounded another route via the Azores, using non- 
 detachable sinkers weighing 188 pounds, andstout 
 albacore line, which he cut on reaching bottom. 
 Then followed Sir Leopold McClintock in the 
 " Bull-dog," who, in 1860, sounded on a more 
 northerly route than either of the others. Sir 
 Leopold adopted the novel plan of first finding 
 the depth with stout cod-line and iron sinkers 
 of 100 pounds, which he cut away on reach 
 ing bottom ; then sending down with stouter 
 line for specimen a detachable lead of clumsy 
 construction, known as the bull-dog machine. 
 Other British officers took part in these surveys 
 in the North Atlantic, notably Capt. Hoskyn 
 in the " Porcupine" and Lieut. Johnson in the 
 "Greenwood." 
 
 Meanwhile, Brooke had been testing his appa 
 ratus satisfactorily in the North Pacific, in 
 depths ranging from 2000 to 3400 fathoms. His 
 first experiment was in January, 1854, sound 
 ing from one of the " Vincennes s" boats, using 
 fifteen-thread twine .07 inch in diameter, and 
 sinker a shot of 40 pounds weight. It was 
 an anxious day for the enthusiastic inventor, but 
 everything worked smoothly, and he had the 
 great satisfaction of leaving the shot on the 
 bottom, and bringing back a specimen from 2150 
 fathoms, the first soil that delighted the eyes 
 of the persistent seeker from so great a depth. 
 Four years later, and now a lieutenant, and in 
 command of the schooner " Fenimore Cooper," 
 he continued his experiments in the same ocean. 
 
 Following up some extended and suggestive 
 experiments by Capt. F. Spratt, R.N., made 
 in the Mediterranean, 1857, of weighing the 
 line when the lead was thought to "be on the 
 bottom, and tested by Trowbridge s demonstra 
 tion of the laws governing the descent of line 
 in water, Brooke deduced a rule of standard 
 casts, which led to very accurate results, as is 
 now put beyond question by the close approxi 
 mation of the " Cooper s" soundings to those of 
 the U. S. S. " Tuscarora" in the same region 
 of the Pacific, between California and the Ha 
 waiian group, and establishing beyond doubt the 
 superiority of his apparatus to that of any other 
 invented up to that time for measuring the 
 depths; indeed, all other contrivances for leaving 
 the sinker behind and bringing up specimens of 
 bottom soil and there have been many may 
 be said to be modifications of the Brooke appa 
 ratus. 
 
 The next extended and important ..exploration 
 of the depths was made in 1868 by Capt. (now 
 Rear- Admiral) F. P. Shortland, R.N., in H. M. S. 
 " Hydra," who was ordered by the Admiralty to 
 survey a cable-route from Aden across the Ara 
 bian Sea to Bombay. Shortland seems to have 
 had a genius for deep-sea work, and his ship was 
 undoubtedly better equipped for the purpose than 
 any vessel hitherto engaged- in such service. 
 
 The modification of the Brooke apparatus, 
 known as the " Hydra" machine, and improved 
 by Staff Commander Baillie, R.N., is now the 
 favorite machine in the British service. " The 
 original machine," says Capt. Shortland, "was 
 a combination. Her blacksmith, Gibbs, in 
 vented the detaching spring ; a tube used by 
 Capt. Spratt when sounding in the Mediterra 
 nean suggested the tube part. The piston was a 
 contrivance of mine in order to lessen the shock 
 of the strike in hard bottom, and to prevent the 
 machine from turning over on its side, in which 
 case the suspending wire did not slack suffi 
 ciently to be disengaged." One admirable feat 
 ure of the "Hydra" is that the sinker consists 
 of several iron disks of an average weight of 100 
 pounds each, "toothed and notched," so as to 
 form a compact mass when put together. The 
 obvious advantage is that the weight can be in 
 creased or diminished at pleasure. The tube for 
 specimen and bottom water passes through the 
 sinker, as in the Brooke, and is divided into four 
 chambers fitted with valves opening upward, 
 the lower end having a butterfly-valve. In the 
 upper chamber travels a piston, carrying a rod, 
 to which is bent the sounding-line. *The slings 
 of the sinker depend from a stud projecting from 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 203 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 the upper end of the rod, and an arched steel 
 spring, with a slit directly over the stud, is fast 
 ened to the rod longitudinally, the ends having 
 play so that the spring can be readily pressed in 
 ward. When the sinker is suspended the spring 
 is pressed in, and from the stud, now outside the 
 spring, the slings are hung, the weight holding 
 the spring back. 
 
 Commander Baillie s modification does away 
 with the stud and spring, and substitutes a sliding 
 " catch, 1 the bight or loop of the slings passing 
 over it, and when bottom is struck the "catch" 
 drops over a conical end, the slings fly off, re 
 leasing the sinker. Shortland seems to have 
 made the first use of the accumulator to relieve 
 sudden strain in a sea-way and to indicate roughly 
 the amount of strain as the line runs out. This 
 consists of two-score or more of rubber springs 
 rove through stout wooden disks, placed two or 
 three feet apart, with appropriate fastenings. 
 The lower end of the accumulator is fastened to 
 a short pendant hooked into an eyebolt in the 
 deck, and to the upper end is spliced a longer 
 pendant, passing through a fair-leader on the 
 sounding-derrick, and having a block turned in 
 at its other end, through which the sounding-line 
 is rove. The upper pendant is fitted long enough 
 to permit the accumulator to stretch more than 
 double its length, but arranged to keep it within 
 breaking limits. 
 
 The sounding-lines of the "Hydra" were of 
 Kos. 1, 2, and 3, wound on a reel commanded by 
 a brake, and in all the later work of the vessel 
 the descent of the line was retarded. Capt. 
 Shortland was perhaps the first to enunciate the 
 idea " that a sounding line should not be permitted 
 to run free, but should be resisted by a force equal 
 to the weight in water of a length of the line equal 
 to the depth to be determined. 1 Then noting the 
 time intervals the problem seemed easy of solu 
 tion. 
 
 The "Hydra" was a paddle-steamer, and in 
 sounding was kept before the wind, the line run 
 ning down from the stern, a method first tried 
 by Capt. Spratt in the Mediterranean. The 
 sinkers weighed from 200 to 400 pounds, accord 
 ing to expected depth. The deepest water found 
 in the Arabian Sea was 2160 fathoms, but a cast 
 made in the South Atlantic gave a specimen from 
 2830 fathoms. Prof. Sir Wyville Thomson, in 
 his " Depths of the Sea," describes a sounding 
 made from the " Porcupine," Capt. Calver, R.N., 
 in 2435 fathoms, which he considers as " proba 
 bly, the deepest sounding up to that time which 
 was thoroughly reliable," but Brooke s work, 
 long before, in the Pacific, in much deeper water, 
 has been proved to be perfectly reliable, nor is 
 there reason to doubt the results obtained by 
 Koss twenty-nine years previously ; and Capt. 
 Shortland, in a note to the writer, says, " If Sir 
 "Wyville Thomson had been with us on the 21st 
 August, 1868, when we took our last sounding 
 in the Bay of Biscay, 2600 fathoms, with bottom 
 water, and gray sand and shells brought up, 
 he would probably have considered it reliable. 
 We all thought it perfectly so, and I inserted it 
 on the Admiralty chart The Porcupine 
 ought to have had and no doubt did have it on 
 her chart, as well as some copies of the Hy 
 dra s sounding voyage on board, and it is 
 strange all this should have escaped the profes 
 sor s notice." 
 
 The writer, when ordered to do similar work 
 in the Pacific, derived much information from 
 the " Hydra s" published report, and an impar 
 tial examination of extended deep-sea work up 
 to the advent of the " Challenger" and " Tu sca- 
 rora" expeditions, will award the palm for accu 
 racy, originality, and inventive grasp to Brooke 
 and Shortland. 
 
 The genius of Brooke in devising the appa 
 ratus for bringing up specimens of bottom soil, 
 delighting the eyes of the earnest seekers and 
 lending fresh interest to the revelations of the 
 microscope, in the variety and richness of new 
 forms disclosed, but whetted the appetites of the 
 naturalist and geologist, and, like Oliver of the 
 story, they cried for more, or for larger speci 
 mens than the quills and cups would bring up ; 
 and the dredge, which had hitherto been re 
 garded as only practicable for gathering up the 
 fauna of the shoaler water along the coasts, was 
 improved for the exploration of the wider, nay, 
 illimitable fields of the "abyssal regions" where 
 the darksome organisms, biological milestones 
 under the waters, had lain hidden from the 
 creation. Marine zoology became suddenly in 
 vested with fresh and surpassing interest, and, 
 says Prof. Verrill, "Dr. Wallich led off in this 
 new era, 1860, establishing the fact that the 
 deep sea had its own peculiar fauna at depths far 
 greater than life had previously been supposed 
 to exist, unless in the lowest forms, such as the 
 Rhizopods." Milne-Edwards confirmed these 
 observations 1861 " in finding living mollusca 
 and corals adhering to telegraph-cable in the 
 Mediterranean," which had been hauled up from 
 a depth of 1577 fathoms for repairs. The same 
 year followed the "Swedish expedition to Spitz- 
 bergen, and the extensive explorations of Prof. 
 Sars at the Loffoden Islands and on the Scandi 
 navian coast in depths down to 450 fathoms;" 
 but the first more extended and systematic dredg 
 ing expedition was conducted by Count L. F. 
 de Pourtales, under the instructions of Superin 
 tendent Peirce of the U. S. Coast Survey, begun 
 in 1867 and continued until 1869. These ex 
 plorations were made in the Florida Channel of 
 the Gulf Stream, and extended to depths of 700 
 fathoms with great success, resulting in the ob- 
 tainment of " large and remarkable collections 
 embracing numerous representatives of nearly 
 all classes of animals." The first season s work 
 was interrupted by the advent of yellow fever 
 on board, but enough was done " to disclose the 
 interesting fact," says Pourtales, " that animal 
 life exists at great depths in as great an abundance 
 as in shallow water." 
 
 This first year s exploration of Pourtales, so 
 short, yet so rich in its yield of new forms, and 
 so important in the grand fact of nature estab 
 lished, undoubtedly " stimulated to a great ex 
 tent," says Mr. Alexander Agassiz, "the Eng 
 lish expeditions of the Lightning and Por 
 cupine, in 1868, 1869, and 1870," which were 
 fitted out by the Admiralty at the solicitation 
 of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, 
 and Prof, (now Sir) C. Wyville Thomson. 
 
 The "Lightning," Commander May, R.N., 
 used for specimens the Fitzgerald machine, an 
 apparatus with detachable sinker, devised for 
 large quantity, but of heavy, unwieldy con 
 struction and" uncertain in its working. The 
 "Porcupine," Capt. Calver, R.N., was equipped 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 204 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 wth sounding apparatus similar to that used by 
 the " Hydra," for in dredging the depth must 
 first be found, to do the work intelligently, and 
 supplied with appliances for trawling and dredg 
 ing, improved as the experience of the " Light 
 ning" had suggested. 
 
 The great achievement of these cruises was 
 the successful dredging in 2435 fathoms in the 
 Bay of Biscay, July 22, 1869 ; an unparalleled 
 feat up to that time. The machine with which 
 the preliminary sounding was made was the 
 " Hydra," weighted with sinker of 336 pounds, 
 and the line of Italian hemp, with circumference 
 of 0.8 inch. " The line was given off the reel as 
 fast as the weight would take it, so there might 
 not be the slightest check or strain." Capt. 
 Shortland s method of resisting the descent of 
 the line in some measure, was abandoned, an 
 undoubted mistake. The voyages of these two 
 vessels yielded such happy results that the dis 
 tinguished explorers, who had in turn taken sci 
 entific direction of the work, sought still further 
 favor of the Admiralty, which resulted in the 
 equipment of H. M. S. Challenger" for a four 
 years cruise round the world for the further 
 prosecution of those interesting researches in the 
 great domain of the deep ; but of this more anon. 
 
 The civil war intervening had interrupted 
 these researches by American officers, and four 
 years of strife made them rusty in deep-sea work. 
 The Coast Survey was the first to re-enter the 
 field, and in 1866 we find the steamer " Corwin," 
 Master Platt, sounding in the Florida Channel, 
 under the direction of Mr. Henry Mitchell, 
 Superintendent Coast Survey. Then followed the 
 U. S. S. " Yantic," Commander (now Captain) 
 John Irwin, sounding for cable-line in the waters 
 of the West Indies and Caribbean Sea. About 
 this period, too, the Coast Survey steamer 
 " Hassler," Commander (now Captain) P. C. 
 Johnson, TJ.S.N , with Prof. Agassiz on board 
 as passenger, sailed for the Pacific, with instruc 
 tions to make soundings en route. The fittings 
 of these vessels seem to have been crude and 
 clumsy, unsatisfactory in their working, and un 
 reliable in their results ; in short, not in keeping 
 with the knowledge acquired, experience gained, 
 and position won by the service prior to the war. 
 The inspiring presence of Professor and Mrs. 
 Agassiz could not counterbalance the fatal defect 
 of rotten lines and other sounding appliances, 
 far inferior to those used by the " Hydra" and 
 " Porcupine," which had been furnished the 
 "Hassler"; and candor compels the admission 
 that the work of English officers at this period 
 was much more satisfactory than that attempted 
 by our own service, albeit, both the navy and 
 Coast Survey are now in advance, in the writer s 
 opinion, in all that pertains to ease and perfec 
 tion in deep-sea exploration. 
 
 So matters stood until Sir William Thomson 
 brought forward the machine destined to revo 
 lutionize deep-sea work, and which it was the lot 
 of our service to put to the test almost before its 
 inventor could perfect its working or demon 
 strate its success under all conditions and in all 
 depths. Sir William proceeded on the principle 
 that a the art of deep-sea sounding is to put such 
 a resistance on the reel as shall secure that at 
 the moment the weight reaches bottom the reel 
 will stop." Here was the solution in a nut 
 shell: Captain Shortland s practice carried to 
 
 its legitimate and more perfect conclusion ; but 
 the time-interval interpretation was rejected, 
 the reel was to stop, and does stop the moment 
 bottom is struck, or within a second of time. 
 
 The apparatus was first tried, 29th June, 1872, 
 in the Bay of Biscay. "I sounded," says Sir 
 William, "from the Lalla Rookh schooner- 
 yacht with a lead weight of 30 pounds (unde- 
 tachable), hung by nineteen fathoms of cod-line 
 from another lead weight of 4 pounds, attached 
 to one end of a three-mile coil of piano-forte 
 wire, the lengths spliced and wound on a light 
 wheel about a fathom in circumference, made 
 of thin tinned iron plate. The weight was 
 allowed to run directly from the reel into the 
 sea, and a resistance exceeding the weight in 
 water of the length of the wire, actually sub 
 merged at each instant, was applied tangentially 
 to the circumference of the wheel by the friction 
 of a cord wound round a groove in the circum 
 ference, and kept suitably tightened by a weight." 
 The experiment was so successful that the in 
 ventor did not doubt the solution of the problem 
 had been demonstrated ; albeit, the crushing and 
 accumulative force of reeling in had disclosed 
 great weakness in the wheel or reel, which would 
 have to be remedied before the machine could 
 be put satisfactorily forward to do the work re 
 quired, and which caused much trouble and 
 anxiety in hauling back the wire and lead. Bot 
 tom had been reached at about 2500 fathoms, 
 and the stopping of the revolutions of the reel 
 was so sudden and marked that the crew thought 
 something had broken, nor did they feel assured 
 to the contrary until the cup came up filled with 
 soft gray ooze. The wire used was piano-forte 
 wire No. 22, Birmingham gauge, weighing about 
 pounds in air to the nautical mile, and bear- 
 
 ness of the area and the smoothness of the sur 
 face which the wire presents, in contrast with 
 the greatness of the surface and its roughness 
 when rope with a comparable degree of strength 
 is used." 
 
 The " Challenger" was fitting out for her 
 famous cruise around the globe at the time this 
 experiment was made, and, not doubting that 
 11 the difficulties which had seemed to make the 
 idea of sounding by wire a mere impracticable 
 piece of theory had been altogether got over," 
 Sir William hastened to lay the result before 
 the Admiralty, and suggest the use of the appa 
 ratus in the expedition. Its use was declined, 
 however, " until the machine could be perfected," 
 and Capt. (now Sir George) Nares seems to 
 have acquiesced in that decision. Nevertheless 
 the ship was supplied with the original machine 
 and wire, and their working explained by the 
 inventor to the executive-officer, Commander 
 Maclean, R.N. The inventor, too, had, " as one 
 of the committee of the Royal Society, been in 
 vited to make suggestions with regard to scien 
 tific matters connected with the expedition." 
 Yet the practical suggestion he offered for con 
 sideration was neglected, and the vessel pro 
 ceeded on her unmatched errand, equipped with 
 every instrument and appliance that art and 
 science, mechanical skill, and seaman s experi 
 ence could devise or suggest, and yet discarded 
 the use of the incomparable machine that could 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 205 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 not only have rendered her work more accurate, 
 but would have lessened the labors of the cruise 
 more than one half, especially if wire rope had 
 been used for dredging, which the beautiful 
 working of the wire in sounding would naturally 
 have suggested. The line used by the " Chal 
 lenger" was of the best Italian hemp, and the 
 No. 1 size mostly used was one inch in cir 
 cumference, with breaking strain of 14 cwt. 
 
 This, coupled with the fact of the use of heavy 
 sinkers, 400 pounds weight in deep casts, was 
 a great help in the matter of easy and accurate 
 working, but not comparable with the facility 
 and perfectness of action of wire only 0.028 inch 
 in diameter, or considerably smaller in size than 
 the wire used for ladies hair-pins. The time- 
 interval method was used, and be it remembered, 
 that was the only means the experts of the ship 
 had of interpreting the arrival of the lead on 
 the bottom. The sounding was done from the 
 gangway, the vessel kept head to wind and sea, 
 the line marked at every 25 fathoms was kept on 
 reels on the forecastle, "and," says Navigating 
 Lieutenant Tizard, " the weights are allowed to 
 take it freely as they descend ; the reel occasion 
 ally moves faster than the weights take the line, 
 and consequently there is a danger of its fouling ; 
 to prevent this one end of the reel has a circular 
 disk of wood attached to it like a large sheave, 
 over this a gasket is placed and a man stationed 
 to attend it ; should the line unreel faster than 
 the weights take it, he is able to check it at once 
 by tightening the gasket. From the reel the line 
 is led aft through a block to the engine, then up 
 through the block at the mainyard and down to 
 the water," with the " Baillie-Hydra" rod and 
 sinker, as well as water-bottle and thermometer 
 attached for specimen of bottom water and bot 
 tom temperature. "The sounding alone," con 
 tinues Tizard, " at a depth of 2500 fathoms oc 
 cupies three hours (including heaving in the 
 line), the dredge requires three hours to sink, one 
 hour at the bottom, and three hours to heave in." 
 Compare the three hours occupied by the " Chal 
 lenger" in making a cast at 2500 fathoms with 
 the average of one hour, twelve minutes of the 
 " Tuscarora s" time in getting answer from that 
 depth, and what a saving of time results ! 
 
 The " Challenger" put to sea December, 1872, 
 and a few months later, or in April, 1873, the 
 IT. S. S. "Tuscarora," under the writer s com 
 mand, then serving in the South Pacific, was 
 ordered to San Francisco to prepare for the spe 
 cial duty of " making soundings between the 
 western coast of the United States and the east 
 coast of Japan for scientific purposes, and for the 
 purpose of determining the practicability of lay 
 ing a telegraph-cable between these shores." As 
 has been seen, neither the naval service nor the 
 Coast Survey had recovered the ground lost 
 during the war in deep-sea work, and the ap 
 pliances in use were not comparable to those sup 
 plied the "Challenger." But all this was soon 
 to be changed, and the forefront in adaptive 
 equipment and skilled use of appliances was to 
 be resumed. Commodore (now Rear-Admiral) 
 Daniel Ammen, himself an inventor, with broad 
 and sympathetic views concerning the testing 
 and the introduction of new inventions of prac 
 tical promise into the service, was chief of 
 Bureau of Navigation, and, regardless of the 
 action of the English Admiralty, and despite 
 
 the discouragement received in quarters where 
 he had reason to look "for more practical views, 
 he ordered one or more of the Thomson machines 
 and a supply of wire as soon as he heard of the 
 promising experiment in the Bay of Biscay. 
 The machine was still in an imperfect state, but 
 the chief of bureau gave no heed to that ; he 
 knew that while genius conceives, creates, the 
 less brilliant mind can improve and modify, 
 and that the spirit of our service is second to 
 none in its welcome to new ideas, and in its earn 
 est, persistent effort to improve upon them. 
 
 The modest little Thomson machine in its 
 snug iron tub and 180-pound package of wire 
 seemed absurd in contrast with the heavy iron 
 reel and dynamometer, donkey-engine, and the 
 forty-odd miles of rope, of varying sizes, sup 
 plied the " Tuscarora" ; but, like David and Go 
 liath of sacred story, the little drum, which with 
 four miles of wire weighed hardly 130 pounds, 
 was, as steadily improved, to be the easy victor. 
 
 The machine simply consisted of a hollow 
 drum of thin galvanized iron, a fathom in cir 
 cumference and three inches wide, revolving on 
 an iron shaft. The disks forming the sides were 
 enough larger than the drum tp form rims, like 
 the rim of a car-wheel, two or more inches deep, 
 and a third rim projected from one side forming 
 a V-groove ; on one side of the shaft a ratchet- 
 wheel was fitted to receive a pawl, and the other 
 had a wormed brass wheel by which its motion 
 was communicated to the cog-wheels of a coun 
 ter, having three dials to register the revolutions. 
 The shaft, fitted at each end for cranks, revolved 
 on metal standards bolted to a stout oak plank 
 3 feet in length and 15 inches in width. The 
 weight of the drum, including the shaft, was 
 hardly more than 60 pounds. The dynamom 
 eter-wheel revolving in an iron crotch, was 
 placed in rear of and close to the drum, and in 
 a line with the V-groove ; it had one groove in 
 its rim wide enough to take two parts of rope, 
 and another much narrower, to receive a cord. 
 The dynamometer was simply a spring balance 
 with scale and index hand, fastened to the bed 
 of the machine, and connected with the dyna 
 mometer-wheel by a cord which lay in the nar 
 row groove of its rim, and passing down through 
 a hole in the wheel, was made fast to the rod 
 attached to the springs of the dynamometer. 
 Now any strain brought to bear on the dyna 
 mometer-wheel to make it turn would be indi 
 cated on the scale by the pointer. 
 
 When making the machine ready for use, an 
 endless rope of the proper size soft albacore 
 line was used on board the "Tuscarora" is 
 placed in the V-groove of the drum, and the 
 lower part or bight is placed over a grooved iron 
 pulley-wheel and kept taut by means of a pend 
 ant run through a stationary block, the lower 
 part of the pendant having a number of hooks 
 from which to suspend weights of different sizes 
 as required. The machine, as received, was fitted 
 with a tackle to tauten the endless rope; the 
 pendants and weights were substituted after the 
 first trial of the apparatus at sea. It will be 
 understood that the endless rope runs freely 
 round the V-groove as the drum turns, but 
 being kept taut, the friction of the line restrains 
 the action of the drum, and passing round the 
 dynamometer-wheel communicates the amount 
 of tension on the wire to the dynamometer, which 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 206 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 is at once shown on the scale by the movements 
 of the pointer. Now bearing in mind that, when 
 sounding, the resistance applied frictionally is 
 always to be in excess say by ten pounds of 
 the weight of the wire in water, of the amount 
 out at every moment of the sounding, it follows 
 that when bottom is struck the reel or drum will 
 stop, for, released from the weight of the sinker, 
 the descent of the wire is now restrained by a 
 force greater than the weight of the ivire out, and 
 must stoj) and does stop almost instantly. As the 
 weight of the wire in water is hardly more than 
 12 pounds to the 1000 fathoms, it is a very 
 simple matter to know what resistance to apply 
 from time to time, by watching the counter 
 which registers every turn of the drum. On 
 board the " Tuscarora," working in deep water, 
 it was the practice to restrain the wire consider 
 ably at the beginning of a cast, then to take 
 off most of the weights applied to the dyna 
 mometer, and let the wire run freely. As 
 bottom was thought to be neared, the proper 
 weights were restored, always with the happiest 
 results. 
 
 The inventor s idea had been to haul back a 
 30-pound lead with valve-cup for specimen ; but 
 this imposed extra labor, besides bringing un 
 necessary strain on the drum already too weak 
 as well as on the wire ; and, in fact, was not 
 in keeping with the other features of his appa 
 ratus nor the ideas of deep-sea work at this 
 stage. Sir William himself subsequently adop 
 ted the use of detachable leads. A lot of Brooke 
 rods supplied the ship were fitted with a modi 
 fication of the Sands cup, but their stems were 
 so slight they often broke off in use, and the 
 specimen brought up was small. The rod itself 
 when properly constructed seemed to be the 
 best detacher yet devised : simple, easily made, 
 and as sure in its working, when properly han 
 dled, as anything made by man can be. There 
 was no need to go outside our own service for 
 any other device; the only thing needed was an 
 improvement looking towards the bringing up 
 of a larger specimen, and to go with a heavier 
 sinker than the 32-pounder shot. 
 
 After much experiment both at sea and in 
 port, three different cups or cylinders, 2} inches 
 in diameter, were devised to go with 8-inch shot 
 bored through to receive them, which subserved 
 the purpose satisfactorily ; the No. 2, as was ex 
 pected, proving to be the best for general use. 
 The weight of the bored shot was 55 pounds, but 
 in depths beyond 3000 fathoms a heavier sinker 
 was found advisable, and a lead casting of 15 or 
 20 pounds weight was added when working in 
 the deeper water. New rods were made and 
 forged as lightly as possible consistent with 
 strength, so that the weight to haul back would 
 be no greater than absolutely necessary, the ad 
 vantage of which precaution was readily seen 
 when working in depths of 4000 fathoms and 
 upwards. 
 
 When the fittings of the ship were completed a 
 short run was made outside the Heads of San 
 Francisco to test the apparatus and appliances, 
 and familiarize the officers and men with their 
 working. This experimental trip at once de 
 monstrated the superiority of wire over rope for 
 the purpose in hand ; but the drum proved to be 
 too weak for the strain imposed upon it, and 
 other defects were disclosed, which had to be 
 
 remedied before the ship could proceed with con 
 fidence on her mission. Meanwhile, Sir William 
 himself was experimenting with the machine, 
 endeavoring to correct faults of construction and 
 improve its working, so that it would stand the 
 demands likely to be made upon it. His idea 
 was to retain the original lightness of the drum 
 and keep down its inertia, and he devised an 
 auxiliary pulley fixed to the bed of the machine, 
 with a castor-pulley to receive the wire from 
 outboard in coming in. Cranks were fitted to 
 pulley and drum, so that either two or four men 
 could work them, and the wire was so led over 
 the castor-pulley and round the auxiliary pulley 
 that the drum was relieved from two-thirds to 
 nine-tenths of the strain originally imposed upon 
 it. He also did away with the d} r namometer and 
 its wheel, which had been fitted to the machine 
 furnished the " Tuscarora," and went back to 
 the simple friction-brake, such as he had used in 
 the Bay of Biscay, but now controlled by weights, 
 which could be put off and on at pleasure as the 
 depth required. 
 
 The method pursued on board the " Tus 
 carora" was in the direction of preserving the 
 features of the simple reel and dynamometer. 
 The experimental cruise and all subsequent ex, 
 perience demonstrated the fact that the weight 
 could be increased to 250 pounds, if necessary, 
 without affecting the sensitiveness of its indica 
 tions, and there was no time to dream and ponder 
 over radical changes ; the work was laid out and 
 seasons would not wait ; it was expected that 
 the survey would proceed with the means already 
 in hand, and every effort was bent towards 
 strengthening the drum in its original simplicity. 
 The drum which had been badly crushed in the 
 experimental cruise was restored in outline and 
 strengthened, and a new one made of heavier 
 iron, with wider face to give more room for the 
 wire. The new reel would easily carry six miles 
 of wire ; the V-groove was deepened, and the 
 wide groove in dynamometer-wheel widened to 
 lessen the probability of the endless rope flying 
 out in rapid working. The heavy iron reel and 
 dynamometer which had been placed on the top 
 gallant forecastle for sounding with rope, was 
 also improved as experience had suggested, and 
 other modifications in the appliances which the 
 trial at sea had seemed to make imperative. 
 
 The ship now put to sea to begin the work as 
 signed, of running a line of soundings from 
 Cape Flattery to Yokohama, Japan, via the 
 Aleutian Islands; and after a reconnoissance in 
 the waters of Puget Sound for a suitable place 
 to land a cable, departure was taken from Cape 
 Flattery, September 17, 1873. 
 
 Lieut. -Commander T. F. Jewell was assigned 
 charge of the heavy reel forward and an extra 
 wire apparatus for taking serial temperatures; 
 Lieut. G. A. Norris was given the management 
 of the Thomson machine, operated in the gang 
 way ; selected petty officers acted as assistants, 
 so that the machines were always attended by 
 the same persons, who gaining experience all 
 the while came to know how to meet every 
 phase of difficulty attendant upon the ever- 
 varying conditions at sea ; for simple as is the 
 working of the wire machine, " personal equa 
 tion" should not be overlooked, as great care 
 and attention to details is necessary, and the 
 apparatus needs to be managed as deftly and 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 207 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 carefully as a sextant or chronometer to make 
 sure of good results. 
 
 Intending to sound alternately with the rope 
 and the wire, the use of the former was aban 
 doned after the twelfth cast ; it occupied so much 
 more time than wire, though the albacore line 
 used was about the size of the " Challenger s" 
 rope No. 1. It had not near the strength of that 
 carefully-prepared line, however, and was apt to 
 break after two or three casts. 
 
 The weather was such that steam had to be 
 used most of the time, and after a run of 1100 
 miles the ship put back to Puget s Sound for coal. 
 Twenty-five casts had been made with the wire 
 in deep water with marvelous ease, and with the 
 original drum, though now it began to show 
 signs of distress. The last and deepest cast was 
 in 2534 fathoms, and after passing a ridge some 
 200 miles west of Cape Flattery, the average 
 descent had been a fathom to a mile. The 
 time occupied in the deepest cast was one hour, 
 forty-four minutes. This was good for a be 
 ginning, but the " Tuscarora" came to regard 
 a cast of 2500 fathoms as an ordinary matter 
 whatever the state of weather and sea, and with 
 a further saving of half an hour in time. 
 
 The season was now so far advanced that the 
 Department ordered the ship to return to San 
 Francisco, sounding en route " off and on" to 
 ascertain the true continental outline, a work 
 Prof. Agassiz had long had at heart. Eighty- 
 three soundings were made, and some of the 
 lines extended seaward 200 miles. More abrupt 
 in its descent than the shores of the American 
 North Atlantic, a run off the coast of 70 miles 
 would sometimes show a fall of 2^ miles. 
 
 Complications with Spain threatening war, the 
 ship s battery, which had been taken out of her 
 to make room for extra coal and heavy sounding- 
 gear, was restored, and the heavy reel and great 
 stores of rope were landed. The whole wire ap 
 paratus took up little more space than a division- 
 tub, and the ship was now ready to take part 
 either in the stern demands of war, or to continue 
 her beneficent mission of peace. Meanwhile the 
 appliances were improved, and two new drums 
 were made of heavy sheet-iron, one of them, 
 filled in with wood to help resist the crushing 
 pressure in reeling in ; and about the middle of 
 December, the clouds of war having blown over, 
 the ship was ordered to proceed to San Diego, 
 continuing the soundings for continental out 
 line," and to take departure from that port in 
 running a line across the central North Pacific 
 via the Hawaiian and Bonin groups. Fifty-eight 
 casts were made en route, the deepest in 2165 
 fathoms, and the original drum did all the work. 
 The same outline was developed, and a retreat 
 of the waters would show a continent buttressed 
 and bastioned like an immense fortress. 
 
 Having filled bunkers and deck with coal, the 
 ship left San Diego, January 6, 1874, and twenty- 
 seven days after anchored in the harbor of Hono 
 lulu. Sixty casts had been made, the deepest in 
 3054 fathoms ; the apparatus had worked beauti 
 fully, no accident had occurred to dampen the 
 ardor of the surveyors, and the machine, as sen 
 sitively perfect at three miles as in lesser depths, 
 showed, whether sounding by night or by day, 
 results equally accurate and indisputable. The 
 action of the dynamometer, the stopping of the 
 drum, the detachment of the sinker and the bring 
 
 ing up of bottom soil, all gave undoubted proofs 
 of accuracy. The original drum supplied, as will 
 ing as the little donkey-engine on board the 
 "Porcupine," whose pantings excited the pity 
 ing comments of Sir Wyville Thomson in his 
 " Depths of the Sea," had still done much of the 
 work on this line, but was now remanded to 
 the forecastle for the taking of serial tempera 
 tures. 
 
 During the passage a temporary apparatus 
 was contrived to relieve the crew somewhat in 
 the labor of reeling in the wire, which had hith 
 erto been done, hand over hand, by means of the 
 endless rope ; and at Honolulu an iron fly-wheel 
 400 pounds in weight was cast, to which was 
 fastened a grooved wooden disk to take one 
 bight of the endless rope. The wheel was 
 mounted on standards, placed on a flying-bridge 
 thrown across the ship from gangway to gang 
 way, and cranks were fitted on each end of the 
 shaft, with room for four men to work them. 
 This economized both time and labor, and with 
 the large crew of a man-of-war the writer would 
 prefer it to an engine for the purpose in ques 
 tion. A new reel was also constructed of light 
 boiler-iron, and since experience has shown that 
 the weight of the drum might be materially in 
 creased without detriment to accuracy, it was 
 suggested to the Bureau of Navigation that a 
 steel drum might be cast strong enough to with 
 stand any strain likely to be imposed upon it. 
 Such reels are now in use in the service, and Com 
 mander W. S. Schley, U.S.N., was the first to 
 thoroughly test one of them in sounding across 
 the South Atlantic in the "Essex," from St. 
 Paul de Loando to Cape Frio. The soundings 
 were about 100 miles apart, several in depths of 
 over 300 fathoms, and the reels stood the test 
 admirably. 
 
 The soundings from the " Tuscarora" were 
 made from the gangway, the ship brought stern 
 to wind and sea, all sails furled except jib, the 
 yards laid as circumstances of wind and sea re 
 quired, and the vessel, under easy steam, kept in 
 position by working the engines as necessary. 
 Sometimes the heavy sea in the strong trade re 
 gion would board the vessel over the poop, and 
 soundings were made at times when a well-found 
 ship would stagger under treble-reefed topsails. 
 So continued the work week after week, sound 
 ing at night as well as by day, and in all sorts 
 of weather ; yet one never tired watching the 
 working of the reel, so noiseless and perfect in 
 its action, and the wire so fine that it could 
 hardly be seen from the poop-deck in cloudy 
 weather or when passing clouds threw shadows 
 over the ship. Sometimes at the approach of 
 evening the writer stood in the cabin doorway 
 watching, in the deepening twilight, the move 
 ments of the drum, and could detect instantly 
 the moment of striking bottom, although the 
 revolutions could only be distinguished by cer 
 tain discolorations on" the sides of the drum as 
 they met the eye in passing round. At night, 
 too, the gleams of the lantern flashing on the 
 drum only needed for the reading of the counter 
 and the noting of the splices recording tho 
 amount of wire out, revealed its motions and in 
 dications at the far ends of the ship equally well. 
 One of the supposed drawbacks in the use of wire 
 was in the making of safe splices, but the diffi 
 culty was purely imaginary ; made with long 
 
DEEP-SEA. 
 
 208 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 jawed twist, two feet in length, the ends and one 
 or two points in the middle lightly soldered, and 
 the whole served with waxed twine, no splice 
 ever failed, nor did any break ever occur at a 
 splice. When a sounding was completed, the 
 machine was unrigged the work of but a few 
 minutes and the reel put in a tub containing a 
 solution of caustic soda to preserve the wire from 
 rust. The writer has in possession several pieces 
 of the wire taken from the reels, which, after all 
 the work in sea weather and six years exposure 
 to the air, show hardly any signs of rust. The 
 under-currents sometimes played strange freaks 
 with what was called the stray-line, a line of 
 soft rope 25 fathoms in length, placed between 
 the sinker and the end of the wire to prevent the 
 wire from touching bottom ; for, relieved from 
 strain, the end of the wire would be apt to fly 
 upward, kink, and break. To prevent the pos 
 sibility of this, a small lead of 4 pounds weight 
 was made fast to the bend joining wire and stray- 
 line, so that when the sinker struck bottom the 
 wire would still be kept at a tension by this 
 smaller weight. On one occasion when the cur 
 rents made havoc with calculation, the sinker 
 had to be hauled back from 1900 fathoms ; the 
 slings had been freed from the trigger, but the 
 stray-line had taken half a dozen turns round 
 slings and rod and hitched itself, the slings thus 
 lashed to the rod there was no possibility of get 
 ting rid of the sinker. To overcome such difficulty 
 a rod of heavy wire a fathom in length was fitted 
 with an eye in each end to go between detacher 
 and stray-line; the idea being that the rod in 
 falling would carry the line clear of the sinker, 
 which device worked to a charm. The first 600 
 miles from San Diego taking the depth of 1900 
 fathoms at the beginning of the ocean-bed 
 proper, the depth increases in varying curves 
 494 fathoms ; then a distance of 1050 miles the 
 water deepens only 286 fathoms; the next 500 
 miles shows a gradual descent to a depth of 
 3054 fathoms, when, after an intervening ridge 
 3500 feet in height, the bed suddenly rises to a 
 depth of 937 fathoms 18 miles from the Ha 
 waiian group. 
 
 The run to the Bonin group from Honolulu 
 occupied twenty-nine days^ and the results were 
 of a most interesting character. The story told 
 by the lead shows that were the waters of the 
 Pacific drained, six mountains, varying from 
 7000 feet to 12,600 feet in height, would stand 
 revealed between the two groups in bold and 
 rugged outline, clothed on their sides and tops 
 with coral limestone, sand, and lava, and solid 
 rock, with yellowish-brown soil in their valleys. 
 Fifty-nine casts had been made, 18 of them 
 in over 3000 fathoms. The deepest water found 
 was 3267 fathoms, and near the Bonins. Twelve 
 casts were made between the Bonins and Japan, 
 the deepest in 2435 fathoms ; and Yokohama 
 was reached on the 22d of April, 1874, a wel 
 come haven of rest after much hard work and 
 anxiety, and it was a great satisfaction to cable 
 the Department, via China and India, that the 
 mid North Pacific line had been completed. 
 
 The "Challenger" was now and then heard 
 from, and it seemed strange she did not use the 
 wire for sounding as well as wire rope for 
 dredging. So complete had been the demon 
 stration in favor of wire in the soundings to 
 wards the Aleutians, September, 1873, that had 
 
 the scope of the " Tuscarora" expedition justified 
 dredging, steel-wire rope would at once have 
 been asked for. Such rope is now used in the 
 Coast Survey, and was first introduced on board 
 the " Blake" in 1878, at the urgent instance of 
 Mr. Alexander Agassiz, who, as a mining en 
 gineer, had seen the advantages of wire rope so 
 early as 1868, which fact he broached to Pour- 
 tales on his return in the " Bibb" from his second 
 expedition to the Florida Channel that year. 
 Mr. Agassiz had also in the winter of 1869 
 asked the attention of Prof. Wyville Thomson 
 to the advantages possessed by wire rope over 
 the heavy hempen lines, but the " British navy 
 men" interposed the objections of want of pli 
 ability, the liability to kink and break, and so 
 on, as they did later in the case of wire for 
 sounding, forgetting that careful management, 
 more than repaid by the results obtained, readily 
 overcomes all such imaginary difficulties. Mr. 
 Agassiz himself first tried the wire rope on a 
 small scale dredging from a boat off Nahant in 
 1871. 
 
 The wire rope first supplied the u Blake" was 
 of galvanized steel, 1J inches in circumference, 
 with hemp core ; its breaking strain, 8600 pounds. 
 Economy of space was gained as well as a great 
 saving of time and labor, enabling several hauls 
 of the dredge to be made in a day, " while in 
 the Challenger, " says Mr. Agassiz, " the best 
 part of the day was generally consumed in mak 
 ing a haul at a depth of 1500 fathoms." 
 
 While resting the crew and waiting the ad 
 vent of summer at Yokohama before proceeding 
 to finish the northern line of soundings, new 
 drums of still heavier boiler-iron were made, 
 strengthened by every device that experience 
 and skill could suggest ; for practical as were 
 the results of the expedition, the work of the 
 cruise was experimental from beginning to end, 
 and at no time during the survey was the need 
 of best appliances more necessary than on the 
 homeward route via the Aleutians. 
 
 Yokohama Bay was left on the 9th of June, 
 and two days later, and at a distance of only 100 
 miles from the coast, the depth indicated was 
 3427 fathoms, the water having deepened 1833 
 fathoms in a run of 30 miles. The next cast 
 was still more startling, when at 4643 fathoms 
 the wire broke without bottom having been 
 reached ; it was in the KuroSiwo or black stream 
 of Japan, and the current so strong that the 
 wire, in spite of all that previous experience in 
 management could suggest, was swept under the 
 ship, finally parting under the strain. The pur 
 poses of the survey and amount of wire on hand 
 would not admit "of continued experiment, nor 
 was it believed a cable could be laid in such deep 
 water encountering so strong a current. There 
 fore the ship was headed in shore to run up the 
 coast and begin a new line. The great circle to 
 wards Tanaga, of the Aleutian chain, was taken 
 up again in lat. 40 N., but here the water deep 
 ened markedly, and at the third cast from the 
 initial curve of departure the lead sunk to 3493 
 fathoms, followed up by depths of 3587 fathoms 
 and 3057 fathoms 40 and 80 miles farther on. 
 Then, in the next 40 miles, the bed was found to 
 drop to the extraordinary depth of 4340 fathoms, 
 and the Miller-Casella thermometer for bottom 
 temperature came up a perfect wreck ! The next 
 six casts were in 4356, 4234, 4120, 4411, and 4655 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 209 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 fathoms respectively. Good specimens had been 
 brought up from four of these depths, and in one 
 other the cup had struck solid rock. At the last 
 two and deepest casts the wire had parted ; in 
 the first instance the accident was due to care 
 lessness in reeling in, but in the last and deepest 
 cast the wire fairly pulled in two, being part of 
 a new batch not so strong as the wire originally 
 furnished. In view of these losses and the re 
 markable depth developed, it was determined to 
 run back to Hakodadi for a fresh supply of coal ; 
 then to skirt the Kuriles for some distance before 
 heading over for the Aleutians. These deep casts 
 had been made under exceptionally favorable 
 conditions, light wind, smooth sea, and gentle 
 swell. No pi urnmet could have dropped straighter 
 into well than the wire ran down in these four- 
 and five-mile depths ; and the indications of the 
 dynamometer were as wondrously perfect as 
 ever. There could, indeed, be no mistaking the 
 moment of touch, and the demonstration seemed 
 clear and indisputable that any system of show 
 ing when bottom is struck, based on intervals 
 of descent, must be crude and unsatisfactory as 
 compared with the perfect and unmistakable in 
 dications given by the Thomson apparatus and 
 wire. These are the deepest soundings yet made, 
 and the one in 4120 fathoms occupied but l h 47 m 
 42 s from beginning to end. 
 
 The " Challenger" subsequently made one 
 cast in 4475 fathoms between the Caroline and 
 Ladrone Islands, bringing up a bottom speci 
 men, the only depth in over 4000 fathoms she 
 sounded during her voyage of four years. " Of 
 this cast," says Lieut. Campbell, K.N., "we 
 had to sound twice to make sure, as the weights 
 were not sufficient in this case." Concerning 
 these deep soundings, Dr. Wild, of the scientific 
 staff of the " Challenger" expedition, says, in his 
 " Thalassa," " that the greatest of all depths of 
 which we have reliable evidence was found by 
 the Challenger on the 23d of March, 1875, in 
 lat. 11 24 X N.., Ion. 143 16 E., and amounted 
 to 4475 fathoms, or about five miles and a quar 
 ter. Several soundings exceeding 4000 fathoms 
 were obtained by the Tuscarora to the east 
 ward of Niphon and Yesso, and another close to 
 the most westerly of the Aleutians. Two of 
 these soundings are over 4600 fathoms, but as it 
 appears that no sample of the bottom was brought 
 up, there is no evidence of the bottom having 
 been reached." Lieut. Campbell and Mr. Spry 
 both give the same opinion in their entertaining 
 volumes descriptive of the "Challenger s" cruise; 
 and now Dr. Carpenter comes forward with an 
 article on the "Deep Sea and its Contents," in 
 the Nineteenth Century magazine, in which he 
 says, "the deepest trustworthy sounding yet 
 made was in 4475 fathoms, from the Chal 
 lenger. " "What are the facts, remembering 
 that not one of these gentlemen has ever seen 
 the Thomson machine operated? Plainly that, 
 using the time-interval method at great depths, 
 the soundings can never be regarded as satisfac 
 tory unless a sample of bottom is brought up ; 
 but that working with wire and the Thomson 
 apparatus, there can be no more mistaking when 
 bottom is reached, the reel suddenly stopping, 
 pulled back by an irresistible force the instant 
 the sinker strikes bottom, than the emphatic fact 
 shown by the sudden bringing up of a ship in 
 harbor when the anchor is let go. The chain 
 14 
 
 might snap, but there would be no doubt the 
 anchor struck bottom. In short, here was a 
 machine, the invention of a distinguished British 
 scientist, which the conservatism of British offi 
 cers rejected without trial, being operated with 
 the happiest results on board an American cruiser, 
 yet having the indisputably good work achieved, 
 questioned, and denied by the same spirit of 
 prejudice and conservatism which was content 
 to rest under the delusion that no advance could 
 be made over the time-interval method, using 
 rope and letting it run freely from the reel. 
 "But," said Sir~Wyville Thomson, director of 
 the Civilian Scientific Staff, and the master 
 spirit of the " Challenger" expedition, in an ad 
 dress before the Asiatic Society of Japan, June, 
 1875, "since we started Capt. Belknap has sent 
 me an extraordinary series of soundings, which 
 none of us have the slightest doubt of being 
 absolutely correct, which give depths with 
 which we were previously unacquainted." And 
 in a note to the writer he further says, " Of 
 course now none of us would dream of anything 
 but wire for either sounding or dredging." To 
 these opinions may be added the fact that the 
 Geographical Society of Berlin has officially ac 
 cepted the " Tuscarora s" work as being "the 
 deepest sea measurement on record." Were the 
 lists to be entered, indeed, as to the question of 
 accuracy as between the soundings of the " Chal 
 lenger" and the "Tuscarora," there would be 
 little doubt in the minds of those who had seen 
 the working of both rope and wire in deep water 
 as to their verdict. 
 
 Hakodadi was left on the 30th of June, and 
 skirting the Kuriles until latitude 48 N. was 
 reached, the course was laid across to Aggatou, 
 of the Aleutian group. Deepening rapidly 
 again, a depth of 3754 fathoms was found about 
 110 miles east of Cape Lopatka, whence the bed 
 rises and forms a ridge between that point and 
 the Aleutians, like the " Dolphin Kise" in the At 
 lantic, the trough next the latter group having 
 a depth of 4037 fathoms. Arrived at Tanaga 
 Island, a survey was made of Glory of Russia 
 Bay, then the line was continued on through 
 Behring s Sea to Oonalaska, where mails and 
 coal were awaiting the ship. After a stay of 
 nine days the ship put to sea again, and on the 
 21st of August the survey was completed, and 
 all sail crowded for San Francisco. 
 
 Another deep trough- was developed by the 
 soundings to the eastward of Ooneemak Pass, in 
 the Gulf of Alaska, running parallel with the 
 Aleutians, in which the greatest depth found was 
 in 3664 fathoms, and which presumably continues 
 along the whole Pacific side of the chain. 
 
 When the experience of the " Tuscarora" had 
 established beyond cavil or doubt the feasibility 
 of using wire" for soundings, the Coast Survey 
 took it up, and Lieut.-Commander C. D. Sigs- 
 bee, U.S.N., commanding the " Blake," _ set 
 about to master its details in earnest. Sigs- 
 bee was fortunate in having ample time for 
 his experiments, and the earnest co-operation 
 and support of the superintendent of the Coast 
 Survey, Mr. Carlisle P. Patterson. Sigsbee in 
 vented a bottle for bringing up specimens of 
 water from the bottom, the construction of which 
 would do credit to the genius of an Edison, and, 
 besides remodeling and improving the appliances 
 for dredging, rendering those used by the " Chal- 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 210 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 lenger" practically obsolete, he made a sounding- 
 machine on the principle of the Thomson appa 
 ratus, hut differing from the constructive ideas 
 of Sir William and the methods of the " Tusca- 
 rora." His machine is now exclusively used in 
 the Coast Survey ; but, whatever the advantages 
 claimed for it over the original machine as im 
 proved, it is considerably more expensive and 
 cumbersome than the simple steel reel supplied 
 our ships of war by the Bureau of Navigation, 
 inexpensive, portable, taking but little room for 
 stowage, readily put together, easily manipulated, 
 and as perfect in its working at 4600 fathoms as 
 at 100 fathoms. The simpler the machines and 
 instruments, and the fewer the parts of their 
 mechanism for use on shipboard, the better. The 
 idea of Sigsbee was to eliminate " personal equa 
 tion" in the use of the apparatus, i.e., to make 
 a machine that would work without fail, however 
 carelessly handled, a thing exceedingly difficult 
 to do, as the factors of "personal equation" un 
 consciously enter into every incident and effort 
 of human life and affairs, controlling the methods 
 of success as well as dominating the causes of 
 defeat. Sigsbee claims in brief the following- 
 named advantages for his latest improved ma 
 chine, viz. : 
 
 " 1st. To have the effect of a dynamometer to 
 make known the strain on the wire at all times 
 in reeling-in. 
 
 " 2d. To have the effect of a governor on the 
 action of the reel when the vessel is rolling or 
 pitching. 
 
 " 3d. To get an automatically increased resist 
 ance on the reel to stop it at the instant of 
 getting bottom. (The original reel does this in 
 accordance with the main intent of the machine.) 
 
 " 4th. To get a record of the amount of wire 
 paid out, so as not to require interpolation. 
 
 " 5th. To apply resistance to the reel, without 
 using the inventor s unhandy lead or iron weights. 
 
 "6th. To get generally a machine which is 
 easier of manipulation than the original Thom 
 son machine." 
 
 The Sigsbee machine works admirably, and for 
 vessels constantly engaged in hydrographic work 
 it is perhaps better adapted for their use as per 
 manent fittings than the more simple reel used 
 by the cruisers; which reel, simple as it is, 
 speaks for itself in the work of the " Tusca- 
 rora," " Narragansett," "Gettysburg," "Essex," 
 " Wachusett, - "Alaska," and "Saratoga," in 
 the most extended deep soundings on record. 
 
 Sigsbee himself made from the " Blake" 958 
 soundings with wire in the Gulf of Mexico 
 and Florida Channel ; 203 were in 1500 fathoms 
 and upwards, and the deepest in 2119 fathoms. 
 Commander John R. Bartlett, U.S.N., com 
 manding that vessel, made in the winter of 
 1878-79 in the Caribbean Sea and passages 664 
 wire soundings, the deepest in 3138 fathoms, but 
 a great proportion of them in less than 1500 
 fathoms. 
 
 In running the two lines across the Pacific 
 and in making the soundings for "continental 
 outline," all of which was done before the " Chal 
 lenger" entered the North Pacific, the " Tus- 
 carora" had traversed 16,600 miles of ocean and 
 made 483 casts, while the " Challenger s" sound 
 ings during her four years voyage numbered 
 but 384. One hundred and sixty of the " Tus- 
 <;arora s" casts were in depths of 2000 fathoms 
 
 and upwards, 32 in more than 3000 fathoms, 
 and 9 in depths of from 4000 to 4655 fathoms. 
 Shortly after arrival at San Francisco (Septem 
 ber, 1874), the writer relinquished command of 
 the vessel to Commander (now Capt.) Henry 
 Erben, U.S.N., who in November of that year 
 sounded from San Francisco to Honolulu, making 
 62 casts, the deepest in 3252 fathoms. Pretty 
 much the same contour was developed as had 
 been found on the San Diego line, but Erben 
 discovered a submarine mountain about one- 
 third the way across from the coast of Cali 
 fornia, 11,000 feet in height, its peak of solid 
 rock. Subsequently, Commander J. N. Miller 
 took the ship, and ran a line from Honolulu to 
 Brisbane, Australia, via the Phoenix group and 
 the Fejees. He made 107 casts, 18 in upwards of 
 3000 fathoms, and the deepest in 3448 fathoms. 
 Until recently Commander John W. Philip, 
 U.S.N., has been doing deep-sea work in the 
 vessel off the west coast of Mexico and Central 
 America. So far as heard from his deepest cast 
 was in 2921 fathoms, near Acapulco. Comman 
 der Geo. Dewey in the " Narragansett" used the 
 apparatus in his survey of the Gulf of California, 
 the first officer to sound with wire after the 
 return of the " Tuscarora" from Japan, making 
 a cast in 2000 fathoms in fifty-five minutes to 
 start off with, and Capt. Geo. Brown in the 
 "Alaska" found no difficulty as a regular cruiser 
 in stopping to sound at the same depth en route 
 to the Pacific. 
 
 Lieut -Commander F. M. Green had an inter 
 esting experience in the "Gettysburg" 1876 
 in running a line from the vicinity of Porto Rico, 
 and passing over some of the "Challenger s" 
 work. That vessel had made a cast in 3875 
 fathoms, the deepest yet found in the Atlan 
 tic, some 80 miles north of St. Thomas, and 
 Green got bottom in 3595 fathoms, 11 miles 
 south of the "Challenger s" position, and 3697 
 fathoms 130 miles north of it. Lieut.-Com- 
 niander H. H. Gorringe then took the ship, and 
 sounded from the Azores to Gibraltar, discover 
 ing an extensive bank of pink and white coral 
 130 miles to the westward of Cape St. Vincent, 
 the water suddenly shoaling from 2781 fathoms. 
 One of the most important of the lines sounded 
 across the ocean was run by Commander W. S. 
 Schley in the U. S. S. " Essex," 1877-78 
 from St. Paul de Loando, Africa, to Cape Frio, 
 Brazil, via St. Helena, in which he made 39 
 casts, the deepest in 3284 fathoms, the deepest 
 water yet found in the North Atlantic. No 
 accident marred the result of his work ; it was 
 admirably done in every respect, and assured the 
 value of the improved steel reel beyond question. 
 The "Saratoga" training-ship (old sailing-sloop), 
 Commander R. D. Evans, U.S.N., has made 
 some soundings with wire, but at what depths 
 the writer is not informed. The latest extensive 
 deep-sea work done by our service was that of 
 the U. S. S. "Wachusett," Commander Byron 
 Wilson, en route to the Brazils, October and 
 November, 1879, in that portion of the Atlantic 
 embraced between lat. 42 19 N., Ion. 42 34 
 W., and lat. 28 40 / N., Ion. 42 34 W. Com 
 mander Wilson made 41 soundings in all, the 
 deepest in 3284 fathoms. In short, many of our 
 cruisers, besides the vessels detailed for special 
 service, are now furnished with the Thomson 
 apparatus, and have but to seek the depth to 
 
DEEP-SEA 
 
 211 
 
 DEEP-SEA 
 
 find it ; and in time, with international co-oper 
 ation, the features of the ocean-bed may be 
 almost as accurately delineated as the physical 
 aspects of the dry land; but here "personal 
 equation" steps in, and only those commanding 
 officers interested in the spell of the depths will 
 ever attempt to break the seal for fresh glimpses 
 at the secrets hidden beneath the waters, except 
 under the stress of the most positive orders. 
 
 The " Tuscarora" and, presumably, the other 
 ships generally, got the bottom and intermediate 
 or serial temperatures, besides specimens of the 
 bottom soil. Unfortunately, no adequate pro 
 vision was made for the examination of speci 
 mens, which involves much time, labor, and ex 
 pense, and but little progress has been made in 
 giving results to the world, leaving the " Chal 
 lenger" a clear field in the promulgation of her 
 discoveries. 
 
 Automatic machines have been devised from 
 time to time for finding the depth independently 
 of line, but none of them could be depended upon 
 sufficiently to warrant their adoption. The 
 latest of these, perhaps, is an apparatus recently 
 presented by Sr. Henrique de Lima e Cunha to 
 the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, the principle 
 of which is based on the effects of atmospheric 
 pressure. u It consists of a cone of sheet-copper, 
 having for its base a diaphragm of the same 
 metal, and which screws into the bottom of the 
 cone so that it may be readily removed when 
 necessary. In this movable base there are six 
 small holes, one millimetre in diameter, which 
 allow the ingress of the sea to the interior of the 
 cone ; and to the centre of its upper surface there 
 is soldered a vertical wire of pure silver two mil 
 limetres in diameter, and which occupies the 
 axis of the cone. 
 
 "To prepare the apparatus for use the silver 
 wire is moistened with nitric acid, which results 
 in the production of a thin film of nitrate of 
 silver. The base being screwed on, the cone is 
 suspended by means of a ring at its apex, and 
 sunk by means of two separate weights or stones 
 suspended by cords or chains depending from 
 three rings attached to the perimeter of the cone. 
 To insure a vertical position to the apparatus, 
 and to prevent it from being easily turned from 
 its course, a small float is attached just above the 
 suspension-ring at the apex of the cone. As the 
 apparatus sinks into the sea, the water penetrates 
 into it through the orifices of the diaphragm, 
 and gradually rises in proportion as the pressure 
 increases during the descent ; the salt water acts 
 on the thin coating of nitrate of silver on the 
 wire, and turns it perfectly white by the produc 
 tion of chloride of silver as far as immersion has 
 taken place. By this means, therefore, is deter 
 mined to what height the water has risen in the 
 cone, and consequently what the pressure has 
 been; and from these data the depth to which 
 the instrument has descended is easily determined 
 by simple formulae. The author suggests that 
 by suspending the lower weight by means of an 
 apparatus which would detach i t on striking 
 bottom, the apparatus would ascend to the sur 
 face of itself, thus dispensing with the use of a 
 line." 
 
 It is to be feared this machine makes better 
 showing on paper than it would in actual prac 
 tice. Taking into account the inevitable drift 
 of ship, the easy hiding of small objects at sea, 
 
 and the vagaries of submarine currents, where 
 would one look for the apparatus after its return 
 from a voyage to the depths in 3000 fathoms ? 
 Let the wind-tossed balloon answer, for the un- 
 der-currents would act as potently in the one 
 case as the wind in the other 1 
 
 When two-thirds of the "Challenger s" voy 
 age had been completed, Capt. Sir Geo. S. 
 Nares, R.N., was directed to return home and 
 assume command of the Arctic expedition which 
 the Admiralty dispatched towards the pole in 
 1875, and Capt. Frank. T. Thomson, K.N., took 
 command of the " Challenger" ; and while the 
 world accords every tribute of admiration and 
 appreciation to Sir "Wyville Thomson and his 
 able corps of civilian coadjutors, let it not be 
 forgotten that the labor, care, skill, and respon 
 sibility of the actual deep-sea work of the expe 
 dition devolved upon those able captains, sec 
 onded by the untiring efforts of the officers of 
 the ship. "At each of the observing stations of 
 the Challenger, "as succinctly stated by Dr. Car 
 penter in a paper on "The Deep Sea and its Con 
 tents" in a recent number of Nineteenth Century, 
 "a sounding was taken for the determination 
 of the exact depth; the bottom temperature was 
 accurately ascertained ; a sample of bottom water 
 was obtained for chemical and physical exami 
 nation ; and a sample of the bottom itself was 
 brought up. . . . At most of the stations serial 
 temperatures also were taken, so as to enable 
 sections to be constructed, giving what may 
 be called the thermal stratification of the entire 
 mass of ocean-water along the different lines 
 traversed, and samples of sea- water were also 
 obtained from different depths. At most of the 
 stations a fair sample of the bottom fauna was 
 procured by means of dredge or trawl, while 
 the swimming animals of the surface and of 
 intermediate depths were captured by the use 
 of a tow-net, adjusted to sweep through the 
 waters in any desired plane. And while the 
 direction and route of any surface-current were 
 everywhere determined by methods which the 
 skillful navigator can now use with great pre 
 cision, attempts were made to determine the 
 direction and rate of movement of the water at 
 different depths, wherever there was any special 
 reason for doing so." In addition to all this 
 the special work of the expedition the usual 
 meteorological and magnetic observations noted 
 and recorded on board every well-ordered ship 
 of war were made. 
 
 Extensive as were the " Challenger s" explo 
 rations, much unexplored ocean remains to be 
 examined, for while she crossed the North At 
 lantic twice, between the parallels of 20 and 
 40 N., and traversed its length between those 
 parallels three times, and ran a line from the 
 Canaries to the Cape de Verdes, thence south 
 wardly to and along the meridian passing close 
 to Sierra Leone, Ascension, and Tristan da 
 Cunha, and crossed the South Atlantic from 
 a point near Sierra Leone to Pernambuco, and 
 from the Cape of Good Hope to Monte Video, 
 she left the heart of the great Indian Ocean un 
 touched, and crossed the Pacific only once and 
 a half, traversing its length in the central and 
 western portions twice between the parallels of 
 40 north and 40 south latitude respectively. 
 
 The lines run by the "Tuscarora" under the 
 successive command of Belknap, Erben, and 
 
DEEP-WAISTED 
 
 212 
 
 DENSITY 
 
 Miller, crossed the Pacific three times, and 
 Schley s line, in the " Essex," ran through the 
 heart of the South Atlantic ; but much yet re 
 mains to be done, and as the great mass of 
 deep-sea exploration has been conducted by Great 
 Britain and the United States, what more ap 
 propriate than that our government should dis 
 patch an expedition to match that of the " Chal 
 lenger," and, entering " fresh fields and pastures 
 new," gather up more threads of the warp and 
 weft of nature for the weaving of the geologist, 
 the naturalist, and the hydrographer ? Geo. E. 
 Belknap, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Deep-waisted. A vessel is deep-waisted 
 when the poop and forecastle are much elevated 
 above the general level. 
 
 De facto (Lat.}. Literally, from the fact. 
 Used generally to signify what actually is, in 
 opposition to that which has the right to be. 
 See DE JURE. 
 
 Degree. The 360th part of the circumference 
 of a circle, the unit of measure for angles and 
 arcs. See LATITUDE and LONGITUDE. 
 
 De jure (Lat.}. Literally, from the law, by 
 right. Used generally in contradistinction to 
 de facto (which see). 
 
 Dekoyts. See DACOITS. 
 
 Del a bit. Not a bit ; a phrase which has 
 been corrupted to "devil a bit." 
 
 Del Credere. A percentage on a cargo under 
 particular circumstances of trust. Also, the com 
 mission under which brokers sometimes guar 
 antee to the insured the solvency of the under 
 writers. 
 
 Delfyn. The old manner of spelling dolphin. 
 
 Delivered. When the harpoon has been im 
 bedded in the body of a whale so that the barbs 
 hold fast it is said to be delivered. 
 
 Deliverer. An artificer employed in early 
 ships of war in constructing the castles. 
 
 Delivery, Outboard. A hole through a 
 vessel s side, at or about the load water line, 
 protected by a valve, through which the refrig 
 erating water, uncondensed vapor, etc., are 
 ejected from the condenser by means of the cir 
 culating-pump and air-pump. 
 
 Delivery-valve, Discharge-valve. The valve 
 of a pump through which a fluid is forced by 
 action of the plunger or piston, and which by 
 its action, automatic or otherwise, prevents a 
 return of the fluid. 
 
 A valve for regulating or permitting the 
 escape of a fluid from a reservoir. 
 
 Delphinus. a Delphini, Svalocin. See CON 
 STELLATION. 
 
 Delta. A name given by the Greeks to the 
 alluvial tract inclosed between the bifurcating 
 branches of the Nile and the sea-coast. Kivers 
 which deposit great quantities of matter very 
 Dften separate into two or more branches pre 
 vious to their discharge into the sea, thus form 
 ing triangular spaces, aptly termed deltas, from 
 their resemblance to the Greek letter A. 
 
 All deltas appear by their section to be formed 
 of matter totally different from that of the adja 
 cent country. "They are the creation of the 
 rivers themselves, which, having brought down 
 with their floods vast quantities of mud and 
 sand from the upper lands, deposit them at the 
 margin of the sea where the current ceases. 
 
 Demi-cannon. An ancient name for a gun 
 carrying a ball of 33 pounds weight, with a 
 
 length of from 12 to 14 feet, and a diameter of 
 bore of 6| inches ; its point-blank range was es 
 timated at 102 paces, and its random one at 
 2000. 
 
 Demi-culverin. An ancient cannon which 
 threw a ball of 9 pounds weight, was about 9 
 feet long, and 4 inches in diameter of bore ; its 
 point-blank range was called 174 paces, and its 
 random one about 1800. 
 
 Demihag. A long pistol, much used in the 
 16th century. 
 
 Demonstration-ships. Ships kept in a cer 
 tain state of preparation for war, though on a 
 peace establishment. 
 
 Demurrage. A term applied to the detention 
 of a vessel beyond the stipulated or usual time 
 for loading, delivering cargo, or sailing. The 
 compensation due to a ship-owner from a freighter 
 for unduly delaying the vessel in port beyond the 
 time specified in the charter-party or bill of lad 
 ing. A ship unjustly detained, as a prize, is en 
 titled to demurrage. 
 
 Den (Eng.) A sandy tract near the sea, as 
 at Exmouth and other places. 
 
 Den and Strond. A liberty for ships or ves 
 sels to run or come ashore. Edward I. granted 
 this privilege to the barons of the Cinque-ports. 
 * De Nautico Fcenore. Of nautical usury ; 
 bottomry. 
 
 Deneb. An Arabic word signifying the tail. 
 It is used to designate a bright star in the tail of 
 some of the constellations. Thus a Cygni is 
 called Deneb, (3 Leonis is called Denebola, or sim 
 ply Deneb, and there is also Deneb Algedi in 
 Capricornus. 
 
 Denmark, Navy of. From the days of the 
 Vikings, when the Danes ravaged the shores of 
 Britain and Belgium, to the present hour, Den 
 mark has always possessed a navy. The shores 
 of the Baltic supply timber in abundance, and 
 the natives of the kingdom are peculiarly adapted 
 to a sea-life. Brave in temperament, of strong, 
 muscular frames, and capable of much endurance 
 and great self-sacrifice, the Danes combine the 
 skill of navigators with the properly combative 
 properties of seamen of men-of-war. But Den 
 mark has not been fortunate in modern times. If 
 not formidable in herself, she has been sufficiently 
 strong to be coveted as an ally of Sweden, Rus 
 sia, and France. On the first occasion of her 
 confederacy with Sweden and Russia, to curb 
 the naval power of Great Britain, she experienced 
 a heavy check from Sir Hyde Parker, assisted 
 by Lord Nelson. And later, in 1807, when there 
 was reason to believe that Denmark was in alli 
 ance with the French emperor to damage the 
 English, the latter sent a squadron to Copen 
 hagen, and in anticipation of the purposes of the 
 Danes destroyed their fleet. Since then no 
 scope for the employment of a navy has presented 
 itself. The hostile movements of Austria and 
 Prussia within the last decade robbed her of the 
 possession of Schelswig-Holstein, but the struggle 
 with the German powers was limited to military 
 operations on the land. But the energy of the 
 government has been unceasingly employed to 
 give strength to the nation by raising up a suffi 
 cient navy, and she now possesses a fleet of 30 
 steamers, 12 of which are ironclads, manned by 
 2880 seamen, engineers, and officers. 
 
 Density (Lnt. dcnsus, thick). A term used 
 in physics to denote the quantity of matter which 
 
DENTAL 
 
 213 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 a body contains under a given or determinate 
 surface ; for example, a cubic foot. The quantity 
 of matter in any body is called its mass, and is 
 measured by the weight of the body to which it 
 is always proportional. Hence the density of any 
 body is great in proportion as its weight is great 
 and its volume small ; or, the density of bodies 
 are directly as their masses and inversely as their 
 volumes. It follows also from the definition 
 that if two bodies have the same volume their 
 densities are directly as their masses or weights ; 
 and that if two bodies have the same mass or 
 weight, their densities are respectively in the 
 inverse ratio of their volumes. The density 
 of a body is also proportional to its specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Dental. A small shell-fish of the genus Den- 
 talium. 
 
 Dentalium. A genus of gasteropods having 
 a conical, slender shell, open at both ends. 
 
 Dentice. An excellent fish, so named from 
 being well furnished with teeth. It is of the 
 Sparidce family, and frequents the Adriatic. 
 
 Department. A part or branch of the gov 
 ernment; as, the legislative, the executive, and 
 the judicial. Also, a part or branch of the ex 
 ecutive power ; as, the Department of State, of the 
 Navy, etc. 
 
 The heads of the principal executive depart 
 ments are the Secretary of State, the Secretary 
 of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Sec 
 retary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, 
 the Postmaster-General, and the Attorney-Gen 
 eral. These, by custom, constitute the Presi 
 dent s cabinet. They are appointed by the 
 President, by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate, and are removable at pleasure. 
 
 MILITARY DEPARTMENTS are territorial divis 
 ions embracing several posts ; as, the Department 
 of the East, of the Platte, etc. 
 
 Departure. The easting or westing made by 
 a ship, or the distance in nautical miles which a 
 ship makes to the east or west. 
 
 When the two positions are on the same side 
 of the equator and do not differ very much in 
 latitude, the departure is practically equal to the 
 distance between the two meridians, measured 
 on the parallel of middle latitude. 
 
 The departure is connected with the course 
 and distance by the relation, departure distance 
 y^sin. course. When the ship steers due east 
 or due west, sin. course is equal to 1, and the 
 departure is identical with the distance; when 
 the course is due north or due south, sin. course 
 is equal to zero, and the departure is equal to 
 zero. 
 
 DEPARTURE, To TAKE A. To determine the 
 exact position of the ship preparatory to starting 
 on a voyage. This point may be determined by 
 cross-bearings or by two bearings of three ob 
 jects. When the land or lights are not visible, 
 as in a fog, the position may be determined 
 approximately by soundings, or by the sound of 
 fog-horns, etc. 
 
 Depressed Pole. The pole below the horizon 
 of the observer. 
 
 Depression of the Horizon. See DIP. 
 
 Depth of a Sail. The extent of a square- 
 sail from the head-rope to the foot-rope, or the 
 length of the after-leech of a stay-sail or boom- 
 sail. 
 
 Depth of the Hold. The perpendicular height 
 
 from the top of the ceiling in any ship to the 
 top of the main deck, or upper beams at tho 
 centre of the ship ; in single-decked vessels it is 
 the total depth. In large merchant steamers 
 (with three and more decks), the upper or saloon- 
 decks are not counted in the depth of the ship as 
 a rule. 
 
 Derelict (Lat. derelictus, abandoned). Any 
 thing abandoned at sea. A ship is derelict either 
 by consent or by compulsion^ stress of weather, 
 etc., and yet, to save the owner s rights, if any 
 cat, dog, or other domestic animal be found on 
 board alive, the ship is not forfeited. The owner 
 may yet recover, on payment of salvage, within 
 a year and a day, otherwise the whole may be 
 awarded. See SALVAGE. 
 
 Derrick. A perpendicular spar supported by 
 guys, and having a purchase attached for hoisting 
 heavy weights. 
 
 Descending Squall. A fitful gust of wind 
 issuing from clouds which are formed in the 
 lower parts of the atmosphere. It is usually ac 
 companied with heavy showers, and the weather- 
 wise observe that the squall is seldom so violent 
 when it is followed as when it is preceded by 
 rain. See WHITE SQUALL. 
 
 Descent. The landing of troops for the pur 
 pose of invasion. The passage down a stream. 
 
 Descriptive-list* A document which accom 
 panies men when transferred or discharged. In 
 it are noted the name, previous naval service 
 and rating when last discharged, place of birth, 
 age, trade or occupation, and a complete per 
 sonal description of each man. When sent from 
 a rendezvous it is signed by the commanding 
 officer, but when sent from a vessel it is signed 
 by both the executive and commanding officers. 
 
 Desert. To quit one s vessel, station, or duty 
 without leave, and with the manifest intention 
 not to return. 
 
 DESERTER. One who deserts. See DESER 
 TION. 
 
 DESERTION. The gist of this offense is the in 
 tention not to return. Absence without leave, 
 with a probability that the party does not intend 
 to desert, is at first to be regarded as straggling, 
 and at the expiration of ten days, if the absence 
 continue, as desertion. In either case the com 
 manding officer is to decide the point of inten 
 tion, and to cause the offender to be entered on 
 the log and marked on the books of the pay- 
 officer. In the merchant service an absence of 
 forty-eight hours without leave is made conclu 
 sive evidence of desertion. 
 
 Detach. To relieve an officer, permanently, 
 from any duty in which he may be engaged. 
 In the army the word relieve has the significa 
 tion just given for detach, but in the navy relieve 
 is applied generally to a temporary relief from 
 duty. See KELIEVE. 
 
 DETACHED SQUADRON. A squadron separated 
 from the body of the fleet and sent on special 
 service. 
 
 Detaching Apparatus. See LIFE-BOATS. 
 
 Detail. The body of officers or men ordered 
 to any particular duty. To order to any special 
 service. 
 
 Detonation. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Detroit is a port of entry, finely situated on 
 the Detroit River, opposite Windsor (in Canada), 
 18 miles above Lake Erie, and 7 miles below 
 Lake St. Glair. Lat. 42 19 / 50" N. ; Ion. 82 58 
 
DEVELOPMENT 
 
 214 
 
 DIAGONAL 
 
 W. The river is here a half-mile wide, deep and 
 clear, and serves admirably for harbor purposes. 
 Pop. 119,700. 
 
 Development. In naval architecture, the art 
 of delineating a plan of a ship in detail. In the 
 mold-loft, the laying down of the ship from the 
 plan ready for the mold-makers. 
 
 Deviation. The deflection of the compass 
 from the magnetic meridian, due to local attrac 
 tion. A voluntary departure from the usual 
 course of the voyage without any necessary or 
 justifiable cause, a step which discharges the 
 insurers from further responsibility. Liberty to 
 touch, stay, or trade in any particular place not 
 in the usual course of the voyage must be ex 
 pressly stated in the contract, and even this is 
 subordinate to the voyage. The causes of neces 
 sity which justify deviation are (1) stress of 
 weather ; (2) urgent want of repairs ; (3) to 
 join convoy ; (4) succoring ships in distress ; 
 (5) avoiding capture or detention ; (6) sickness ; 
 (7) mutiny of the crew. It differs from a change 
 of voyage, which must have been resolved upon 
 before the sailing of the ship. See COMPASS, 
 THE MARINER S. 
 
 Devil. A sort of priming made by damping 
 and bruising gunpowder. 
 
 Devil-bolts. Bolts with false clinches, often 
 introduced into contract-built ships. 
 
 Devil-fish. The Lophius piscatorius, a hideous 
 creature, which has also obtained the name of 
 fish-frog, monk-fish, bellows-fish, sea-devil, etc. 
 There is also a powerful Raia, which grows to an 
 immense size in the tropics, known as the devil 
 fish, the terror of the pearl-divers. The Mania 
 of Spaniards. 
 
 Devil s-claw. A very strong kind of split 
 hook made to grasp a link of a chain-cable, and 
 used as a stopper. 
 
 Devil s Smiles. Gleams of sunshine among 
 dark clouds, either in the heavens or in the 
 captain s face. 
 
 Devil s Table-cloth. See TABLE-CLOTH. 
 
 Devil to Pay and no Pitch Hot. The seam 
 which margins the water-ways was called the 
 " devil," and the workmen found it difficult to 
 calk. The phrase means " a difficulty to be 
 overcome and no means of doing it." 
 
 Dew. When the temperature in the evening 
 falls below the dew-point (which see), the vapor 
 which can no longer be held in suspension is 
 deposited on the surface of the earth, and is 
 sometimes to be seen falling in a fine mist. 
 This form of the phenomenon of dew is termed 
 by the French serein, but there is another which 
 they call rosee. The surface of the earth is con 
 stantly parting with its heat by radiation ; when 
 the sky is covered with clouds, the radiation 
 sent back from the clouds nearly supplies an 
 equivalent for the heat thus parted with ; but if 
 the sky be clear, no equivalent is supplied, and 
 the surface of the earth becomes colder than the 
 atmosphere. If the night be also calm, the small 
 portion of air contiguous to the earth s surface 
 will be cooled below the dew-point, and its 
 moisture deposited on the surface in the form 
 of dew. If this moisture be chilled below 32 
 F., the dew becomes frozen and is called hoar 
 frost. 
 
 DEW-POINT. The minimum temperature at 
 which any assigned quantity of aqueous vapor 
 can be held in suspension in the atmosphere. 
 
 Dholl. A kind of dried split pea supplied in 
 India to ships. 
 
 Dhony, or Dhoney. A country trading-craft 
 of India from 50 to 150 tons ; mostly flat-bot 
 tomed. See DONEY. 
 
 Dhow. The Arab dhow is a vessel of about 
 150 to 250 tons burden by measurement, grab- 
 built, with 10 or 12 ports ; about 85 feet^long 
 from stem to stern, 20 feet 9 inches broad, and 11 
 feet 6 inches deep. Of late years this description 
 of vessel has been well built at Cochin, on the 
 Malabar coast, in the European style. They 
 have a great rise of floor; are calculated for 
 sailing with small cargoes ; and are fully pre 
 pared, by internal equipment, for defense, many 
 of them are sheathed on 2^-inch plank bottoms, 
 with 1-inch board, and a preparation of chu- 
 nam and oil, called galgal, put between ; causing 
 the vessel to be very dry and durable, and pre 
 venting the encroachments of the worm, or Teredo 
 navalis. The worm is one of the greatest enemies 
 in India to timber in the water, as the white ant 
 (termites] is out of it. On the outside of the sheath- 
 ing-board there is a coat of whitewash, made from 
 the same materials as that between the sheath 
 ing and planks, and renewed every season they 
 put to sea. They have generally one mast and 
 a lateen-sail. The yard is the length of the 
 vessel, and the mast rakes forward, for the 
 purpose of keeping this ponderous weight clear 
 in raising and lowering. The tack of the sail is 
 brought to the stem-head, and sheets aft in the 
 usual way. The halliards lead to the taffrail, 
 having a pendant and treble purchase-block, 
 which becomes the backstay, to support the mast 
 when the sail is set. This, with three pairs of 
 shrouds, completes the rigging, the whole made 
 of coir rope. Several of these vessels were fitted 
 as brigs, after their arrival in Arabia, and armed 
 by the Arabs for cruising in the Eed Sea and 
 Arabian Gulf, as piratical vessels. It was of 
 this class of vessel that Tippo Sultan s navy at 
 Onore consisted. The large dhows generally 
 make one voj age in the season, to the south 
 ward of Arabia ; taking advantage of the north 
 east monsoon to come down, and the southwest 
 to return with an exchange cargo. The Arabs 
 who man them are a powerful, well-grown peo 
 ple, and very acute and intelligent in trade. 
 They usually navigate their ships to Bengal in 
 perfect safety, and with great skill. 
 
 Diacle. An old term for a boat-compass. 
 
 Diagonal Brace. A wooden or iron brace 
 placed in a diagonal direction. 
 
 Diagonal Framing and Stays. A system 
 of framing in which "struts" and "tie-rods" 
 are arranged at such angles that the greatest 
 stress upon them must be in direction of their 
 length. In inverted-cylinder engines, diagonal 
 stays are much used to connect the cylinders 
 with the lower portions of the frame. 
 
 In wooden ship-building, diagonal trussing, 
 consisting of flat wrought-iron bars arranged in 
 a lattice form, is secured to the upper portions 
 of the frames and to the deck-beams of the mid 
 dle body of the vessel. In many vessels diagonal 
 stays extend, between the stanchions, from the 
 deck-beams to the keelson. 
 
 Diagonal Lines. The lines cutting the body 
 plan diagonally from the timbers to the middle 
 line. 
 
 Diagonal Ribband. A narrow plank made 
 
DIAGONAL 
 
 215 
 
 DIP 
 
 to a line formed in the half-breadfh plan of a 
 ship on the mold-loft floor ; by taking the in 
 tersections of the diagonal line with the timbers 
 in the body plan to where it cuts the middle line 
 in the diagonal direction, and applying it to 
 their respective stations or frame-lines in the 
 half-breadth plan, and to mark a spot at each 
 station, to which spots a batten is bent, and a 
 curve is formed, to which a ribband can be 
 made as far as the cant bodies extend, and the 
 square frame adjoining. 
 
 Diagonal Trussing. Sir Robert Seppings, in 
 his " Improvement for Ships of War," about the 
 year 1800, recommended that, instead of laying 
 the interior planking on horizontal lines, the 
 work should be laid diagonally ; and in one of his 
 plans he recommends a truss-frame of wood, in 
 outline similar to the diagonal iron-strapping of 
 to-day, in wooden* ship-building. 
 
 Diameter, Apparent. The angle which the 
 diameter of a heavenly body subtends. The 
 true is the real diameter, commonly expressed in 
 miles. 
 
 Diamond-knot. An ornamental knot worked 
 with the strands of a rope, used on the foot-ropes 
 of jib-booms, man-ropes, etc. 
 
 Dibbs. A galley-term for ready money. Also, 
 a small pool of water. 
 
 Dice. Thus. See STEER. 
 
 Dichotomized. A term applied to the moon 
 when her longitude differs 90 from that of the 
 sun, in which position only half her disk is illu 
 minated. 
 
 Dicky Sam. A cant term applied to an in 
 habitant of Liverpool. 
 
 Diego. A very strong and heavy sword. 
 
 Die on the Fin. An expression applied to 
 whales, which when dying rise to the surface 
 with one side uppermost. 
 
 Dieppe. A seaport town of France, Seine- 
 In ferieu re, at the mouth of the Arques, on the 
 English Channel, and 33 miles N. of Rouen. 
 Lat. of light-house, 49 55 1" N. ; Ion. 1 5 2" 
 E. The port, inclosed by two jetties and bor 
 dered by quays, was small and inconvenient, but 
 has been much enlarged and improved, so that 
 it is now one of the best on the Channel. It has 
 several spacious wet-docks. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 Difference of Latitude. See LATITUDE. 
 
 Difference of Longitude. See LONGITUDE. 
 
 Differences, Second. The differences in the 
 successive values of a varying quantity (cor 
 responding to equal intervals of time), if the 
 quantity do not vary uniformly, exhibit differ 
 ences among themselves, these are called Second 
 Differences. Thus, in a series of altitudes ob 
 served at equal intervals of time (since the alti 
 tude does not vary at the same rate at the begin- 
 ing, middle, and end of the interval), the differ 
 ences between them, taken in succession, will gen 
 erally exhibit second differences. So again with 
 the elements tabulated in the Nautical Alma 
 nac. If these quantities varied uniformly in the 
 interval between the dates for which their values 
 are given, an intermediate value could be cor 
 rectly interpolated by a simple proportion. The 
 method of u proportional parts" would give the 
 actual change in the interval between the date 
 of one of the tabulated values and that for which 
 we wish to interpolate. But the rate of varying 
 itself varies during the interval, and hence, when 
 great accuracy is" required, the necessity for a 
 
 correction to the change found by proportional 
 parts, which correction is called the " Equation 
 of Second Differences." The question of finding 
 the second difference is simply the finding the 
 rate at which the rate of varying varies. This 
 may be done by taking the two values from the 
 table on each side the required one, and setting 
 them down in order : then add together the 1st 
 and 4th and the 2d and 3d, observing which sum 
 is the greater: half the difference of the two 
 sums is the second diiference. The equation of 
 second differences is found by the help of a table. 
 This correction is of the most importance when 
 the quantity under consideration attains a max 
 imum between two times given in the table. 
 The greatest error that can arise in any case 
 from neglecting it is one-eighth of the whole 
 second difference. 
 
 Dight. To set things in order ; to dress and 
 prepare for inspection. 
 
 Digit. A twelfth part of the diameter of the 
 sun or moon ; a term employed to denote the 
 magnitude of an eclipse; as, so many digits 
 eclipsed. 
 
 Dike. See DYKE. 
 
 Dill. An edible dark-brown sea- weed, torn 
 from the rocks at low water. 
 
 Dillosk. The dried leaves of an edible sea 
 weed. See DULSE and PEPPER-DULSE. 
 
 Dilly-wreck. A corruption of derelict (which 
 see). 
 
 Diminishing Plank. A plank which is smaller 
 at one end than at the other. 
 
 Diminishing Strake. A strakeof plank which 
 is continually narrowing in width as it comes to 
 the ends of the ship. 
 
 Diminishing Stuff. Tapering plank or boards. 
 
 Dimsel. A piece of stagnant water, larger 
 than a pond and less than a lake. 
 
 Dinghey, Dinghy, or Dingy. A small boat 
 of India, propelled by paddles, arid fitted with a 
 settee-sail, the mast raking forward. The small 
 est boat that a man-of-war carries ; it is used for 
 the light rough work. 
 
 Dingle. A sort of boat used in Ireland ; a 
 coracle. 
 
 Dinnage. See DUNNAGE. 
 
 Dip. To lower. To dip the colors is to run 
 them down as a salute. An object is said to 
 dip when it disappears below the horizon. A 
 heavenly body is said to dip when it passes over 
 the meridian. 
 
 DIP OF THE HORIZON. The angle through 
 which the visible horizon is depressed below the 
 sensible horizon in consequence of the elevation 
 of the eye of the observer above the surface of 
 the earth. This dip is a correction which must 
 be applied to all altitudes taken at sea, and is 
 calculated for all elevations likely to be used, 
 and the results are arranged in tables. When 
 the sea-horizon is hidden by land, the altitude 
 has to be taken from the shore-line. The dis 
 tance of this shore-line is estimated, and the dip 
 is found by referring to a table of which the 
 arguments are, " distance of the land" and 
 " height of the eye." The amount of dip is af 
 fected by refraction, which raises the visible hor 
 izon; but the amount of consequent correction 
 cannot be very accurately determined on account 
 of the complication of the law of refraction near 
 the horizon. 
 
 DIP or THE NEEDLE. When the needle is 
 
DIPPER 
 
 216 
 
 DISTEMPER 
 
 free to move vertically it forms an angle with 
 the horizontal ; this angle is called the dip, or 
 inclination of the needle. The dip, like the 
 variation, undergoes a cycle of change, and has 
 also diurnal oscillations. 
 
 DIPPING NEEDLE. An instrument for meas 
 uring the inclination of the needle to a horizon 
 tal plane. 
 
 DIP-SECTOR. An ingenious instrument for 
 measuring the true dip of the horizon. 
 
 Dipper. A name for the water-ousel (Cinclus 
 aquaticus). A bird of the Passerine order, but 
 an expert diver, frequenting running streams in 
 mountainous countries. 
 
 Dipping-net. A hand-net used for taking 
 small fish out of the water. 
 
 Direct Acting Engine. A term applied to an 
 engine in which the motion of the piston is 
 transmitted to a crank or pump plunger without 
 the intervention of beams or levers, and distin 
 guishing particularly the type in which the con 
 necting-rod with its cross-head is between the 
 cylinder and crank. 
 
 Direct Fire. See FIRE. 
 
 Direction. The direction of the wind is 
 named after the point of the compass from 
 which it blows. The direction of a current or 
 stream is named after the point towards which 
 it sets. A swell is named after the point from 
 which the waves proceed, like the wind that 
 produces them. 
 
 Dirk. A dagger or short sword worn by 
 midshipmen. 
 
 Dirt-gabbard. A large ballast-lighter. 
 
 Dirty Aulin. See AULIN. 
 
 Disable. To deprive of ability or strength ; 
 to render unfit for service by the infliction of 
 wounds or injury, applied to persons and 
 things. 
 
 Disarm. To deprive of weapons; to render 
 harmless. 
 
 Disc, or Disk. The face of the sun, moon, or 
 planet as it appears projected on the sky. 
 
 Discarcare (ItaL). An old term meaning to 
 unload a vessel. 
 
 Discourse. An old sea-term meaning to 
 traverse to and fro off the proper course. 
 
 Disembark. The opposite of embark ; the 
 landing of men from any vessel or boat. 
 
 Disembogue. The fall of a river into the sea ; 
 the word has also been used for the passage of 
 vessels across the mouth of a river and out of one. 
 
 Disguise. Ships in all times have been per 
 mitted to assume disguise to impose upon ene 
 mies, and obtain from countries in their posses 
 sion commodities of which they stand in need. 
 
 Disinfectants. These substances are of va 
 rious kinds and act in various ways. Air and 
 Tvater are nature s great purifiers ; but when 
 these cannot act advantageously, it is necessary 
 to apply some of the many powerful chemical 
 agents which are available. The most conve 
 nient and efficacious are carbolic acid and its 
 preparations, Condy s fluid, chloride of lime, 
 and Burnett s solution. Chlorine is the most 
 effective agent for fumigating a ship ; it may be 
 evolved from chloride of lime by moistening it 
 with water or dilute sulphuric acid ; it may also 
 be obtained by pouring 4 parts of hydrochloric 
 acid on 1 part of binoxide of manganese placed 
 in a shallow vessel and gently heated. 
 
 In many cases the burning of sulphur will be 
 
 found a simple and efficacious means of disin 
 fecting a room. Infected clothing may be dis 
 infected by plunging in boiling water, or by 
 heating in an oven. Cloths saturated with a 
 solution of chloride of lime may be hung up in 
 an inhabited room to disinfect the air. 
 
 Disk. See Disc. 
 
 Di-slyng. See SLYNG. 
 
 Dismantled. The state of a ship unrigged, 
 and all her stores, guns, etc., taken out, in readi 
 ness for her being laid up in ordinary, or going 
 into dock, etc. 
 
 Dismasted. State of a ship deprived of her 
 masts by accident or by design. 
 
 Dismount. To remove a gun from its carriage. 
 
 Dispart. The difference between the semi- 
 diameters of those parts of a gun on which the 
 sights are placed. To dispart a gun is to bring 
 the line of sight parallel to th e axis of the bore. 
 This is done by erecting at some point on the gun 
 forward of the base-ring a dispart sight, which 
 is equal in height to the dispart plus the height 
 of the rear sight. A wooden dispart sight was 
 formerly sometimes lashed on the reinforce. 
 Guns which are cylindrical for a certain dis 
 tance give at once a line of sight parallel to the 
 axis of the bore. Sights are now so fitted that 
 when the head of the rear sight rests on the 
 sight-box, the line of sight is parallel to the axis 
 of the bore. In using a dispart it is necessary 
 to point a certain distance above the target to 
 make allowance for the fall of the projectile by 
 the action of gravity; this distance, therefore, 
 depending upon the time of flight of the pro 
 jectile. 
 
 Dispatch-boat. A small, swift vessel for 
 carrying dispatches. 
 
 Displacement. The weight of the water dis 
 placed by the immersed sides and bottom of a 
 vessel. 
 
 Disrate. To reduce to a lower rating ; to 
 break a petty officer. See RATE. 
 
 Distance. The length in nautical miles of the 
 rhumb-line joining any two places on the surface 
 of the earth. On Mercator s chart the rhumb is 
 represented as a straight line. 
 
 DISTANCE, SHORTEST. The length in nautical 
 miles of the arc of a great circle passing through 
 any two points on the earth s surface. 
 
 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO HEAVENLY BODIES. 
 This is not the absolute linear distance between 
 the two bodies, but their angular distance meas 
 ured on the arc of a great circle passing through 
 both bodies. The observed, distance is the reading 
 of the instrument by which the measurement is 
 made. This being cleared of " index error" and 
 "semi-diameters" is the apparent distance. The 
 apparent distance being cleared of "refraction" 
 and "parallax" is reduced to the true distance, 
 or the angle which is formed by two straight 
 lines joining the bodies and the centre of the 
 earth. 
 
 DISTANCE, LUNAR. The angular distance 
 between the moon and any other heavenly body. 
 See LUNAR DISTANCE. 
 
 Distemper. A preparation of opaque or body 
 colors with size instead of oil. White distemper 
 is used instead of whitewash (whiting 40 pounds, 
 glue 6 pounds). Yellow distemper is used for 
 smoke-stacks (whiting 40 pounds, glue 6 pounds, 
 yellow ochre 80 pounds). The glue is made into 
 size and added hot to the whiting and yellow 
 
DISTILLER 
 
 217 
 
 DIVING 
 
 ochre, and sufficient water is added to give it 
 the proper consistency. 
 
 Distiller. A name commonly applied to the 
 condenser of a distilling apparatus. 
 
 Distilling Apparatus. An apparatus for ex 
 tracting a liquid from its non-volatile impurities, 
 such as may be held in solution or suspension, by 
 means of evaporation and condensation. It 
 consists principally of a retort, evaporator, or 
 boiler, in which the pure liquid is vaporized, by 
 heat, leaving behind the non-volatile substances, 
 and a condenser in which the vapor is brought 
 in contact with cold metallic surfaces and con 
 densed to liquid again. The condenser is a 
 vessel containing a " worm," or " nest of tubes," 
 kept cold by the circulation of cold water on one 
 surface while the other is exposed to the vapor. 
 In large distillers the circulation of the refriger 
 ating water is generally accomplished by a pump. 
 The non-volatile substances are drawn from the 
 boiler before the contained solution reaches the 
 point of saturation. By this process sea-water 
 is converted into fresh water, which, however, 
 is not considered potable until it has regained 
 its normal quantity of air held in suspension, 
 much of which escapes if the water leaves the 
 distiller at a high temperature. It is impossible 
 to obtain absolutely pure water by a single distil 
 lation, as some impurities are carried mechani 
 cally with the vapor, particularly if the boiler 
 "foams." Volatile matter, the vapor of which 
 condenses at about the same temperature as that 
 of water, cannot be eradicated by this process. 
 In many steamships the steam used in the dis 
 tiller is drawn from the main boilers, but it is 
 desirable that the whole apparatus be indeppn- 
 dent of the main machinery. Distillers are 
 generally provided with filters. 
 
 Distinguishing Pennant. Each vessel in a 
 fleet is represented by a pennant which, hoisted 
 with a signal, denotes the special vessel to which 
 the signal is made. See SIGNALS. 
 
 Distress Signals. When a vessel is in immi 
 nent danger, she hoists her colors upside-down, 
 fires guns, lets fly topgallant-sheets, and if at 
 night, sends up rockets, burns signals, in short, 
 does anything to attract attention. 
 
 Ditty-bag. The name is derived from the 
 dittis, or Manchester stuff of which it was form 
 erly made. See BAG. 
 
 Ditty-box. A small box to hold a sailor s 
 thread, needles, brushes, combs, etc. As ditty- 
 boxes lumber up the decks, they are not gener 
 ally allowed on board a man-of-war. 
 
 Diurnal Arc. That part of a circle described 
 by a heavenly body from its rising to its setting. 
 
 Dive. To plunge head foremost into the 
 water. 
 
 Diver. One versed in the art of descending 
 under water to considerable depths and abiding 
 there a competent time for several purposes, as 
 to recover wrecks of ships, fish for pearls, sponges, 
 corals, etc. 
 
 Divergent. A stream flowing laterally out 
 of a river, contradistinguished from convergent. 
 
 Divie-goo. A northern term for the Larus 
 marinuSj or black-backed gull. 
 
 Divine Service. See ARTICLES FOR THE GOV 
 ERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY (2, 3). 
 
 Diving. The subject of diving has not re 
 ceived the attention which it merits in our ser 
 vice. The necessary apparatus has at times 
 
 found a place in the store-room equipment of 
 our ships, but its practical use has been very in 
 frequent. Want of trained divers has been our 
 drawback. A good diver can command too good 
 wages in civil life to allow of his enlisting in 
 the navy, where if he were not a seaman he 
 could only receive the rating of landsman. 
 Diving is becoming every day of greater im 
 portance. In peace times hardly a month goes 
 by in a cruising-ship that her safety, efficiency, 
 or construction expenditure account might not 
 be benefited by the presence on board of a few 
 good divers. A valve becomes unseated, a leak 
 is sprung and its location cannot be traced from 
 inboard, a propeller is fouled, a cable is un 
 shackled and an anchor lost, a steam-launch is 
 dropped from the davits and sunk, a rifle or 
 pistol is dropped overboard, sheets of copper 
 become displaced or worn, the bottom becomes 
 foul, in all these cases a service diver might 
 have been of great use and have prevented either 
 loss, the borrowing of divers from foreign men- 
 of-war or from the shore, or the docking of the 
 ship. In war times divers become almost in 
 dispensable; besides the duties already sug 
 gested, they become invaluable for torpedo work. 
 
 Ours is the only service known to the writer 
 where attention has not been paid to this valu 
 able branch of the personnel. 
 
 In the British navy seamen-divers are trained 
 on board the gunnery-ships " Excellent" and 
 "Cambridge;" when qualified they receive 2 
 cents a day additional pay, for the time that 
 they are actually employed under water they re 
 ceive 48 cents an hour, this is, of course, in ad 
 dition to the pay they may receive for the ship s 
 rating they hold. Besides the seaman-divers 
 there is a class of mechanical divers taken from 
 the engineer s and carpenter s crews. These 
 receive 2 cents a day like the seamen, and 
 when employed under water 62J cents. The 
 number of divers varies with the complement, 
 ranging from 2 to 6 seamen-, and about the same 
 number of mechanical divers. The " Triumph," 
 flag-ship of the Pacific Squadron, had 6 sea 
 men- and 4 mechanical divers. All ships com 
 manded by post-captains carry one diving appa 
 ratus, flag-ships two. Vessels fitted for spe 
 cial service as many as may be thought neces 
 sary. Each apparatus will supply air to two 
 men under water at a depth not exceeding 10 
 fathoms. The men who are placed under in 
 struction are selected from among volunteers, 
 great attention being given to their physical 
 condition, as perfect health is required for diving. 
 Officers are instructed at their own request, and 
 are allowed additional compensation for the ac 
 complishment. It can readily be understood 
 that it would be of the utmost importance in 
 some cases to be able to use the eyes and intel 
 ligence of an officer. 
 
 "in the French service divers ar e instructed 
 aboard the receiving-ships in each of the naval 
 ports. The men for instruction are drawn from 
 the engineer s, carpenter s, and seamen divisions, 
 being ^first subjected to a rigorous physical ex 
 amination. After the regular course of instruc 
 tion they are forced to keep themselves in con 
 stant practice, and are examined at stated inter 
 vals. Prizes are offered for different feats of 
 diving at the yearly prize contests, which take 
 place aboard every vessel in commission. There 
 
DIVISION 
 
 218 
 
 DOCK 
 
 is no continuous additional pay, but each time 
 that a man is em ployed under water he re 
 ceives 60 cents plus 1 cent for every minute 
 employed. Every screw-vessel carries a com 
 plete apparatus, and additional ones are allowed 
 when it is thought proper. The " Victorieuse," 
 flag-ship of the Pacific Station, had 14 divers. 
 It may be interesting to note that her bottom 
 was thoroughly cleaned by four of her own men 
 in three days at a cost to the government of 
 $72.75, whereas at the same time it was found 
 that to clean the " Pensacola s" bottom would 
 have cost our government nearly $1000, she 
 having no divers. 
 
 In the Italian service there is a regular corps 
 of torpedo men, whose education as machinists 
 and seamen combined fits them for submarine 
 work. These men are all divers, being instructed 
 at the Royal Torpedo School. They receive from 
 40 to 80 cents for each hour of work, according 
 to their rating and proficiency. The frigate 
 "Garibaldi," "of the Pacific Station, had 14 
 divers. 
 
 In the German service there are diving-schools 
 at Kiel and Wilhelmhaven, where a large num 
 ber of machinists and artificers are instructed. 
 The instruction is very thorough. These men 
 receive about 60 cents for each hour of submarine 
 work. No continuous remuneration. The iron 
 clad corvette " Hansa," Pacific Station, had on 
 board 12 trained divers. 
 
 The Chilian service is supplied with divers 
 from the English service, and during the present 
 war has found them of the greatest use. 
 
 The Peruvian service had no divers until the 
 loss of the u Huascar" caused them to see the 
 great necessity of clean bottoms ; they have now 
 supplied the deficiency with foreigners. 
 
 The Denayrouze apparatus is used in all the 
 services cited. It consists of an air-pump, a re 
 ceiver and reducer, a diving costume, and the 
 necessary hose, signal-tubes, ropes, weights,, 
 ladders, and tools. A submarine lamp is also 
 provided. A new form of the apparatus adopted 
 in the Italian service allows the diver to dis 
 connect himself from the pump, carrying a sup 
 ply of condensed air in a magazine on his back. 
 This is a valuable accessory for torpedo work. 
 Theo. B. M. Mason, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 DIVING-BELL. A hollow vessel, sometimes 
 bell-shaped, in which a person may descend and 
 remain for a time below the surface of the water ; 
 it is said to have been used by the Phoenicians 
 320 B.C. 
 
 Division. A secondary group of ships in a 
 fleet. (See F L K ET TACTICS.) A sub-classification 
 of the ship s company ; as, the powder division, 
 master s division, the gun divisions, etc. 
 
 Doa. A Persian trading-vessel. 
 
 Doasta. An inferior spirit, often drugged or 
 doctored for unwary sailors in the pestiferous 
 dens of filthy Calcutta and other seaports in 
 India. 
 
 Dob. The animal inhabiting the razor-shell 
 (Snl.en), used as a bait by fishermen. 
 
 Dobber. The float of a fishing-line. 
 
 Dobule. A fresh-water fish, allied to the 
 roach. 
 
 Dock. An artificial basin or inclosure for 
 the reception of shipping, either for the purpose 
 of loading, unloading, building, or repairing. 
 
 Docks may be divided into two general classes 
 
 wet and dry. Wet-docks are constructed for 
 the purpose of facilitating the lading and un 
 lading of vessels, and for the better preservation 
 and storage of merchandise. They also afford a 
 place of safety in which vessels can lie without 
 exposure to the dangers of an open roadstead, 
 the rapid current of rivers, or extreme changes 
 of tide. In ports which occupy central commer 
 cial positions, but which enjoy but few natural 
 advantages, such improvements in the accommo 
 dation of shipping give them greater importance 
 and encourage maritime enterprise. 
 
 Vessels are admitted into wet-docks through a 
 gate at high tide, which, being closed, the water 
 within is retained at a constant depth, not being 
 affected by the changes of tide without. 
 
 The most extensive systems of wet-docks in the 
 world are found in England. At Liverpool 37 
 wet-docks have been constructed ; the whole 
 dock water-space covering an area of 239 acres, 
 while the quay-space is 16 miles in extent. At 
 Birkenhead, on the southwest side of the Mersey, 
 directly opposite to Liverpool, docks have been 
 constructed with a water area of 165 acres, and 
 an extent of nearly 11 miles of quay. These 
 docks are connected one with another, and most 
 of them have connections with the Mersey. 
 
 The docks of the Thames are built upon both 
 sides of the river, and cover an area of 235 acres. 
 Hydraulic power is used in the docks of London 
 and Liverpool, by which the cranes, capstans, 
 and gates are moved, and warehouses of mag 
 nificent construction and dimensions are built 
 upon the quays. Stringent rules are enforced 
 regarding the use of fire on board the vessels as 
 a precaution against conflagrations. Wet-docks 
 of less extent are found in all of the important 
 sea-ports of Great Britain, in the French ports 
 of Havre, Brest, Toulon, and Cherbourg, and 
 in many ports of the Baltic Sea. 
 
 The Atlantic dock, at Brooklyn, L. I., is 
 another example of a wet-dock. The whole 
 area occupied is about 80 acres, 42 of which is 
 water-surface. The basin is inclosed by piers 
 150 feet wide, and that pier which divides it 
 from the East River has an entrance 200 feet in 
 width. Warehouses are built upon the piers, 
 and in some portions the depth of water is 25 
 feet at low tide. 
 
 Dry -docks include all structures which are 
 used for the examination, repairing, or building 
 of vessels, as graving-docks, floating-docks, hy 
 draulic-docks, etc. The graving-dock at the 
 navy-yard, in Brooklyn, is one of the largest 
 in the United States. It is of granite, and was 
 completed in 1851, having been ten years in 
 building. The main chamber is 286 feet long 
 and 30^feet wide at the bottom, and 307 feet 
 long and 98 feet wide at the top. The width 
 of the entrance is 68 feet, and depth of water at 
 high tide 26 feet. The entrance is closed by a 
 floating-gate or caisson 66 feet long, 16 feet 
 beam, and 30 feet in depth, which is held in 
 position by the keel at each end entering a 
 vertical groove in the masonry at each side of 
 the entrance. It is lowered or raised by admit 
 ting the water or pumping it out. 
 
 Turning-gates are also used in addition to the 
 caisson, when circumstances require, but if they 
 are left open, an additional length of 52 feet can 
 be obtained for dock room. The engines for 
 emptying this dock are of sufficient power to 
 
DOCK 
 
 219 
 
 DOCK 
 
 pump 610,000 gallons of water in two hours and 
 ten minutes. 
 
 The graving-docks at the Boston and Norfolk 
 navy-yards are similar to that above described, 
 but are of less dimensions, the floors of the main 
 chambers being 228 feet long and 30 feet wide. 
 By using the space between the caisson and turn 
 ing-gates, a total length of 306 feet can be ob 
 tained. 
 
 Two graving-docks have been built at South 
 Brooklyn, L. I. No. 1 is 500 feet long, with a 
 width at the bottom of 60 feet, and can admit 
 vessels at high water drawing 18 feet. No. 2 is 
 447 feet long, and admits vessels at high water 
 drawing 22 feet, and at low water, 17 feet. The 
 latter dock may be divided in two parts by 
 means of a central gate, serving the purpose of 
 two separate docks. These docks are emptied 
 by a horizontal engine of 100 horse-power, con 
 nected with a double centrifugal pump capable 
 of ejecting 40,000 gallons of water per minute, 
 and by two oscillators, which are used for drain 
 age, having an average capacity of 1000 gallons 
 per minute. 
 
 Floating balance dry-docks have been built at 
 the Portsmouth and Pensacola navy-yards, and 
 there is a floating sectional dry-dock at the navy- 
 yard at Mare Island, Cal. The latter consists 
 of 10 sections, each 100 feet long, 32 feet broad, 
 and 11 feet 9 inches high, with two end-floats to 
 each section, each 26 feet 8 inches long, 15 feet 
 wide, and 8 feet high. There is also a stone 
 basin and two marine railways extending from 
 one side. The sections can be used as two sepa 
 rate docks, 6 sections being sufficient to lift a 
 ship of the largest class in the navy, while a 
 smaller one can be docked upon the four remain 
 ing sections. A ship of the largest class can also 
 be received upon each of the railways, thus 
 making the dock capable of receiving four vessels 
 at once. The displacement of this dock is 11,040 
 tons, and its lifting capacity about 5000 tons. 
 
 Balance-docks are so called on account of the 
 means which are provided for retaining them at 
 an exact level by pumping water out or letting 
 it into the compartments of the side chambers. 
 The balance-docks at the Portsmouth and Pen 
 sacola navy-yards are a combination of the 
 caisson and camel, and are alike, except that the 
 latter is provided with extra fixtures for steady 
 ing vessels when it is used as a camel for carry 
 ing vessels across the bar. They are 350 feet 
 long, 105 feet 4 inches wide, and 38 feet deep. 
 The interior width is reduced to 90 feet by the 
 chambers on each side, which have a width of 7 
 feet 8 inches. These docks are capable of lifting 
 ships of the largest size. Preparatory to re 
 ceiving a ship the dock is sunk by pumping 
 water into it until it is full to the deck, and then 
 into the chambers, the water operating as bal 
 last and sinking the dock to the required depth. 
 To sink it sufficiently to receive a ship of 2000 
 tons displacement, it is necessary to pump 240 
 tons of water into each side chamber. When 
 the ship is in position for lifting, the water bal 
 last is drawn off by opening valves in the lower 
 side chambers, causing the dock to rise until it 
 touches the bottom of the ship. The water is 
 then pumped out of the side chambers and bot 
 tom tank, and the dock rises with its load. The 
 time required for docking a ship of 2000 tons 
 displacement is about two hours. 
 
 A new iron sectional dock is in process of con 
 struction by John Roach & Sons, of Chester, Pa., 
 to replace the balance-dock at Pensacola. 
 
 Sectional, balance, and docks of other descrip 
 tions have been constructed in all of the im 
 portant seaports of the United States. The 
 Sectional Dock Co. of New York owns 18 sec 
 tions, any number of which may be used for a 
 single ship as required. 
 
 The largest floating-dock in the world is at 
 Bermuda, where it was towed from England in 
 June, 1864. It has an extreme length of 381 
 feet, and an inside length of 333 feet. Width 
 over all, 123 feet 9 inches, and inside width, 83 
 feet 9 inches. Its depth is 74 feet 9 inches, and 
 weight 8350 tons. It is capable of lifting the 
 largest class of armored vessels. It is a balance- 
 dock, having the space between the two skins 
 divided into 48 water-tight compartments, by 
 means of which, with the side chambers, the 
 structure is sunk or raised, and retained in a 
 level position. 
 
 The "Simpson docks," which have been con 
 structed at Portland, East Boston, New York, 
 Baltimore, and Chester, are similar to the grav 
 ing-dock, but are built of wood instead of stone. 
 By the use of this material these docks can be 
 enlarged as the future needs of shipping may re 
 quire at a comparatively small expense, while 
 the first cost of construction is much less. 
 
 The most modern system of dry-docks is that 
 which has been constructed at Nicolaieff, Kussia, 
 by Messrs. Clark, Stanfield & Co., upon the rec 
 ommendation of Admirals Lesovsky and Popoff, 
 of the Russian navy. 
 
 The lifting portion of this dock consists of 14 
 pontoons attached to a lateral side. To this side 
 a floating outrigger is attached to give it greater 
 stability. The side is composed of three parts, 
 any two of which, with its corresponding num 
 ber of pontoons, is capable of lifting a vessel of 
 the smaller class, or the remaining third section 
 if it should require repairs. For vessels of great 
 length all of these sections can be used ; but for 
 vessels of extreme breadth of beam, as the circu 
 lar ironclads of the Russian navy, the pontoons at 
 the extremities of the dock can be detached and 
 joined to the ends of the pontoons which remain 
 fixed to the structure, thus forming an area cor 
 responding in shape t o that of the vessel. A 
 number of transverse apertures are made in the 
 dock, to allow of the entrance of corresponding 
 rows of piling in the landing-stage or dock upon 
 which the vessel is to be deposited. The vessel 
 having been lifted and placed in position over 
 the landing-stage, the floating-dock is sunk and 
 removed, and can then be used for docking other 
 vessels. 
 
 The great advantages of this system are that 
 it is capable of being" extended for lifting vessels 
 of any size or model, and that the acQpmmoda- 
 tions for docking vessels are only limited by the 
 extent of the pilings upon which the vessels are 
 placed. J. T. Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 DOCK-DUES. The charges made upon ship 
 ping for the use of docks. 
 
 DOCK HERSELF. When a ship is on the ooze 
 and swaddles a bed, she is said to dock herself. 
 
 DOCKING A SHIP. The act of drawing her into 
 dock and placing her properly on blocks, in order 
 to give her the required repair, cleanse the bot 
 tom, and cover it anew. See BREAMING. 
 
DOCK TIP 
 
 220 
 
 DOLPHIN 
 
 DOCK-YARDS. Arsenals containing all sorts 
 of naval stores and timber for ship-building. In 
 England the royal dock-yards are at Deptford, 
 Woolwich, Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, 
 Devonport, Pembroke. Those in her colonies 
 are at the Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Malta, 
 Bermuda, Halifax, Jamaica, Antigua, Trinco- 
 malee, and Hong-Kong. There her majesty s 
 ships and vessels of war are generally moored 
 during peace, and such as want repairing are 
 taken into the docks, examined, and refitted for 
 service. These yards are generally supplied from 
 the north with hemp, pitch, tar, rosin, canvas, 
 oak-plank, and several other species of stores. 
 The largest masts are usually imported from 
 New England. Until 1831 these yards were 
 governed^by a commissioner resident at the port, 
 who superintended all the musters of the officers, 
 artificers, and laborers employed in the dock-yard 
 and ordinary ; he also controlled their payment, 
 examined their accounts, contracted and drew 
 bills on the Navy Office to supply the deficiency 
 of stores, and, finally, regulated whatever be 
 longed to the dock-yard. In 1831 the commis 
 sioners of the navy were abolished, and ad 
 mirals and captains superintendent command the 
 dock-yards under the Controller of the Navy and 
 the Admiralty. See ESTABLISHMENTS, NAVAL. 
 
 Dock Up, or Duck Up. To clew up a corner 
 of a sail that hinders the helmsman from seeing. 
 
 Doctor. A medical officer. See SURGEON. 
 
 DOCTOR S LIST. See SICK-LIST. 
 
 Dodman. A shell-fish with a hod-like lump. 
 A sea-snail, otherwise called hodmandod. 
 
 Do For. A double-barreled expression, mean 
 ing alike to take care of or provide for an indi 
 vidual, or to ruin or kill him. 
 
 Dog. The hammer of a firelock or pistol ; 
 that which holds the flint, called also dog-head. 
 A sort of iron hook or bar with a sharp fang at 
 one end, so as to be easily driven into a piece of 
 timber, and drag it along by means of a rope 
 fastened to it, upon which a number of men can 
 pull. Dog is also an iron implement with a 
 fang at each end, to be driven into two pieces of 
 timber to support and steady one of them while 
 being dubbed, hewn, or sawn. Span-dogs. A 
 pair of dogs linked together, and being hooked 
 at an extended angle, press home with a great 
 strain. To dog a rope is to fasten it to a spar or 
 cable in a peculiar manner, causing the parts to 
 bind on each other and thus prevent slipping. 
 
 Dog-bitch-thimble. An excellent contri 
 vance by which the topsail-sheet block is pre 
 vented making the half cant or turn so fre 
 quently seen in the clew when the block is 
 secured there. 
 
 Dog-bolt. A round piece of iron driven into 
 a hole which has been bored for the purpose, and 
 the wedges are driven against this bolt ; they are 
 used in planking wooden ships. 
 
 Dog-drave. A kind of sea-fish mentioned in 
 early charters. 
 
 Dog-fish. A name commonly applied to sev 
 eral small species of the shark family. 
 
 Dogg. A small silver coin of tlie West In 
 dies, six of which make a bit. 
 
 Dogger. A Dutch smack of about 150 tons, 
 navigated in the German Ocean. It is mostly 
 equipped with a main- and a mizzen-mast, and 
 somewhat resembles a ketch or a galliot. It is 
 principally used for fishing on the Dogger Bank. 
 
 DOGGER-FISH. Fish bought out of the Dutch 
 doggers. 
 
 DOGGER-MEN. The sea-faring fishermen be 
 longing to doggers. 
 
 Dogs. The last supports knocked away at 
 the launching of a ship. 
 
 Dog s-body. Dried pease boiled in a cloth. 
 
 Dog s-ear. A small bight made in the leech- 
 rope of a sail in reefing, making up, etc. See 
 AWNING. 
 
 Dog-shore. A piece of timber which used to 
 be placed at the forward end of the launching- 
 ways ; it was intended to hold the ship until all 
 was ready for launching. It was placed in a 
 diagonal position, with one end to the ground or 
 immovable ways. Both ends were rounded so 
 that it could be readily knocked out when the 
 word was given. 
 
 Dog-sleep. The uncomfortable fitful naps 
 taken when all hands are kept up by stress. 
 
 Dog s Tail. A name for the constellation 
 Ursa Minor, or Little Bear. 
 
 Dog-star. The popular name of a Canis Ma- 
 joris. See SIRIUS. 
 
 Dog-stopper. A stopper put on before all to 
 enable the men to bitt the cable, or to fleet the 
 messenger. 
 
 Dog-tongue. A name assigned to a kind of 
 sole. 
 
 Dog-vane. A small vane made of thread, 
 cork, and feathers, or bunting, fastened on the 
 end of a half-pike, and placed to windward, 
 so as to be readily seen, and show the direction 
 of the wind. The term is also familiarly ap 
 plied to a cockade. 
 
 Dog-watch. The half-watches of two hours 
 each, from 4 to 6, and from 6 to 8, in the even 
 ing. By this arrangement an uneven number of 
 watches is made, seven instead of six in the 
 twenty-four hours ; otherwise there would be a 
 succession of the same watches at the same hours 
 throughout the cruise. See WATCH. 
 
 Dog-whelk. The name given by fishermen 
 to the Nassa reticulata, a common species of uni 
 valve shells. 
 
 Doit. A small Dutch coin, valued at about 
 half a farthing. 
 
 Doldrums. Those parts of the sea where 
 calms are known to prevail. They exist be 
 tween and on the polar sides of the trade-winds, 
 but vary their position in the course of the year, 
 depending upon the sun s declination. Also ap 
 plied to a person in low spirits. 
 
 Dole. A stated allowance ; but applied to a 
 scanty share or portion. 
 
 Doling. A fishing-boat with two masts, on 
 the coasts of Sussex and Kent ; each of the masts 
 carries a sprit-sail. 
 
 Do-little, or Do-little Sword. The old term 
 for a dirk. 
 
 Dollop. An old word for a lump, portion, or 
 share. From the Gaelic diolab. 
 
 Dolphin. Naturalists understand by this word 
 numerous species of small cetaceous animals of 
 the genus Delphinus, found in nearly all seas. 
 They greatly resemble porpoises, and are often 
 called by this name by sailors ; but they are dis 
 tinguished by having a longer and more slender 
 snout. The word is also generally, but less cor 
 rectly, applied to a fish, the dorado (Coryphcena 
 hippuris), celebrated for the changing hues of 
 its body when dying. A small light ancient 
 
DOMESTIC 
 
 221 
 
 DORIA 
 
 boat, which gave rise to Pliny s story of the boy 
 going daily to school across, the Lucrine Lake on 
 a dolphin. In old ordnance, especially brass 
 guns, two handles nearly over the trunnions for 
 lifting the guns by. A French gold coin (dau- 
 phine), formerly in circulation. A stout post 
 on a wharf or beach to which hawsers are made 
 fast. A kind of wreath or strap of plaited cord 
 age. A permanent fender around a heavy boat 
 just below the gunwale. The name is also given 
 to a spar or block of wood, with a ring-bolt at 
 each end, through which a hawser can be rove, 
 for vessels to ride by ; the same as wooden 
 buoys. 
 
 DOLPHIN-STRIKER. A short perpendicular 
 spar under the bowsprit, giving spread to the 
 upper head-stays. 
 
 Domestic Navigation. The coasting and in 
 land trade. 
 
 Domicile. A residence at a particular place, 
 accompanied by positive or presumed proof of 
 an intention to remain there for an unlimited 
 time. The residence to create it may be short 
 or long, according to circumstances ; the deter 
 mining consideration is the intention of remain 
 ing, or the contrary. The original domicile of a 
 person always continues until he has fairly 
 changed it for another, and to effect such change 
 there must be a union of intention and act. 
 Domicile may arise either from birth, from the 
 domestic relations, or from election. The domi 
 cile of birth remains until a subsequent one is 
 acquired. A woman on marriage takes the 
 domicile of her husband. The husband s change 
 of domicile changes that of his wife, and the 
 parent also possesses the power of changing the 
 domicile of his minor child by changing his own. 
 The necessarily migratory lives of naval and mili 
 tary men makes the subject of domicile of pecu 
 liar interest to them. The disposition, distribu 
 tion, and succession of personal property are 
 governed by the law of the owner s or intestate s 
 domicile at the time of his death, and not by 
 the conflicting laws of the various places where 
 the goods happen to be situated. See INTERNA 
 TIONAL LAW. 
 
 Don. A general name for Spaniards. To don, 
 to put on. 
 
 Donaldson, Edward, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Maryland. Appointed midshipman, 
 October, 1834, and went to West Indies in " St. 
 Louis," and returned following year in the 
 " Falmouth" ; went out in the fall of 1835 to the 
 West Indies, in the "Warren"; transferred to 
 the " Vandalia," and continued until 1838; in 
 frigate " Columbia," East Indies, 1839-40 ; while 
 attached to her, took part in the attacks on forts 
 on the coast of Sumatra, 1839. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 22, 
 1841 ; in McLaughlin s Mosquito Fleet, in Flor 
 ida, 1841-42 ; in brig " Truxtun," 1843-44 ; sloop 
 " Erie," coast of Africa, 1845 ; on the coast sur 
 vey in 1846; cruise in sloop "Plymouth," East 
 Indies, 1847-48. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, October 23, 1847 ; 
 in brig "Dolphin," East Indies, 1849-50; at 
 rendezvous, Baltimore, 1852; in steamer" Water- 
 Witch," river La Plata, 1853-54; steam-frigate 
 " Merrimac," special service, 1856-57 ; receiving- 
 ship at Baltimore, 1858-59; in steamer "San 
 Jacinto," coast of Africa, 1860-61 ; rendezvous, 
 Philadelphia, 1861 ; commanding steam-gunboat 
 
 "Scioto," West Gulf Squadron, 1861-62; bom 
 bardment, etc., of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, 
 and capture of New Orleans, April, 1862, and 
 other operations in the river. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding receiving-ship at Philadelphia in 
 1862-63; steamer "Keystone State" in trip to 
 the West Indies in search of the " Sumter" ; 
 commanding steamer " Keystone State," North 
 Atlantic Squadron, 1863-64; commanded the 
 steam-sloop " Seminole" at the battle of Mobile 
 Bay, August 5, 1864 ; ordnance duty, Baltimore, 
 1865. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manding receiving-ship at Baltimore, 1866-68; 
 at New York Navy-Yard, March, 1869, to Feb 
 ruary, 1870. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1871. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, 1876, and re 
 tired the following year. 
 
 Donderbass. A Dutch name for bombard. 
 
 Doney. The doney of the Coromandel coast 
 is about 70 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 12 feet 
 deep ; with a flat bottom or keel part, which at 
 the broadest place is 7 feet, and diminishes to 10 
 inches in the siding of the stem and stern-post. 
 The fore and after bodies are similar in form from 
 midships. Their light draft of water is about 
 4 feet, and when loaded about 9 feet. These un 
 shapely vessels trade from Madras and Ceylon, 
 and many of them to the Gulf of Manar, as the 
 water is shoal between Ceylon and the southern 
 part of the continent. They have only one mast, 
 and are navigated by the natives in the rudest 
 way, their means for finding the latitude being 
 a little square board, with a string fast to the 
 centre, at the other end of which are certain 
 knots. The upper edge of the board is held by 
 one hand so as to touch the north star, and the 
 lower edge the horizon. Then the string is 
 brought with the other hand to touch the tip of 
 the nose, and the knot which comes in contact 
 with the tip of the nose tells the latitude. 
 
 Donkey-engine. A small auxiliary steam- 
 engine for performing other work than that of 
 propulsion, such as supplying power to blowers, 
 lathes, steam-winches, capstans, etc. It is gen 
 erally provided with an independent boiler suit 
 able to its size ; but, on shipboard, its steam is 
 sometimes drawn from the main boilers. 
 
 Donkey-pump. An auxiliary pump indepen 
 dent of the main engines, used for feeding boil 
 ers, extinguishing fire, for which purpose nozzles 
 for connecting fire-hose are attached, circulating 
 water through a distilling apparatus, and pump 
 ing water from the bilge of a ship. 
 
 Donny. A small fishing-net. 
 
 Doolah. A passage-boat on the Canton River. 
 
 Dooted. Timber rendered unsound by fis 
 sures. 
 
 Dorado. The Coryphcena hippuris, an oceanic 
 fish, often called "dolphin." See CONSTELLA 
 TION. 
 
 Dorey. A flat-floored cargo-boat in the West 
 Indies named after the fish "John Dory." 
 
 Doria, Andrea, was born in Oneglia, of which 
 his family were princes, in 1468. Descended 
 from one of the noblest Genoese houses, which 
 had been celebrated for many generations, the 
 great admiral numbered among his ancestors the 
 Admiral Lamba Doria, who gained the bloody 
 victory of Curzola, over the Venetians, under 
 
DORIA 
 
 222 
 
 DOUSE 
 
 DuncK.lo, in 1298; Philippi Doria, a distin 
 guished naval commander, whose name was, 
 howe\ ar, stained by political crimes ; and Paga- 
 nino Doria, a great admiral (1351), who repeat 
 edly defeated the Venetians, under Pisani. 
 Lastly came Peter Doria, who was killed in ac 
 tion vvith the Venetian fleet. 
 
 Andrea Doria, the greatest seaman the state 
 of Genoa ever produced, was forced, when a 
 young man, by the banishment of his family 
 from Genoese territory, to enter the service of 
 the Pope, from which he passed into that of 
 several other Italian princes. Having gained 
 military and political experience, he became a 
 knight of St. John of Jerusalem, and made a 
 pilgrimage there, upon his return espousing the 
 cause of Charles VIII. against the Spaniards. 
 
 The latter were commanded by Gonsalvo de 
 Cordova, who so much admired Doria s prowess 
 that he tried, in vain, to draw him over to the 
 Spanish side. 
 
 At last Doria was enabled (by the withdrawal 
 of the decree of banishment) to enter the ser 
 vice of his own country. After subduing a 
 formidable rebellion in Corsica, he was given 
 command of the Genoese navy, which he 
 thoroughly reorganized. After this he was 
 active in repressing the Barbary corsairs, the 
 terror of all nations at that time. Once more 
 banished from Genoa, he again entered the ser 
 vice of France, Francis I. making him "gen 
 eral of the galleys of France." In this capa 
 city he fought the Imperial fleet, raising the 
 blockade of Marseilles, and having other suc 
 cesses. After the battle of Pavia he pursued 
 the Spanish fleet which carried Francis a pris 
 oner ; but the latter sent him word to desist 
 from attack, as he had given his parole not to 
 escape. 
 
 Doria next, in the name of Francis, seized 
 Genoa, which was torn by factions, and estab 
 lished peace there. Francis wishing to make of 
 Savona a rival port to Genoa, Doria protested 
 against it, and the king ordered his arrest; but, 
 strong in the fleet, Doria easily escaped, and sent 
 his commission to the French king. Irritated 
 by this injustice, he then passed over to the ser 
 vice of the Emperor Charles V., and was the 
 means of destroying the vestige of French power 
 in Italy, delivering Genoa in 1528. 
 
 A general peace soon followed, and Doria 
 busied himself in composing the troubles in his 
 native land, refusing the title of doge, and abol 
 ishing the life-tenure of that office. He might 
 then have had absolute power in Genoa had 
 he chosen. Unfortunately, the oligarchy was 
 strengthened by his actions, and, under the name 
 of a republic, existed until Napoleon s time. 
 
 Charles V. loaded Doria with honors and 
 riches ; gave him the order of the Golden Fleece ; 
 made him Prince of the Empire, and General of 
 the Marine, with absolute authority. He con 
 tinued to serve against the Turks, the Algerines, 
 and the French, occupying the very foremost 
 place in all the great events of the time. 
 
 As a seaman he was, without doubt, the first 
 of his period; and, although he had been a free 
 lance, and had served many masters, he has 
 never been charged with betraying any one of 
 them. 
 
 Genoa owed her existence as a state to him, 
 and recognized the obligation by voting him 
 
 "The Father and Liberator of his Country." 
 In his latter days, however, fresh troubles and 
 dissensions arose, and Doria became the object 
 of great haired and dangerous conspiracies by 
 some of the oligarchy, so that the latter part of 
 his life was stained by lamentable cruelty and 
 bloodshed. He died in 1560, at the great age of 
 92. E. Shippen. 
 
 Dornicle. A name for the viviparous blenny. 
 
 Dorra. From the Gaelic dorga ; a crab-net. 
 
 Dorsal Fin. The median fin placed upon the 
 back of fishes. 
 
 Dory. A fish, Zeus faber, commonly known 
 as "John Dory," or truly jaune doree, from its 
 golden hues. 
 
 Double. Two of a sort taken together ; hav 
 ing two similar parts. To increase by the addi 
 tion of the same quantity. To cover a portion 
 of the ship with an extra planking, applied 
 only when the extra planking is not less than 
 two inches thick. To double a cape, to sail round 
 it. To double on the tub, to get twice one s share 
 by sharp practice. To double upon, in a naval 
 engagement is to inclose a portion of the enemy s 
 fleet between two fires. 
 
 DOUBLE-ACTION. See ACTION. 
 
 DOUBLE ALTITUDE. See ALTITUDE. 
 
 DOUBLE-BANK. To double-bank a rope is to 
 clap men on both sides of it. See BANK. 
 
 DOUBLE-BITT. To take two turns of the cable 
 around the bitts. 
 
 DOUBLE-BLOCK. A block having two sheaves. 
 
 DOUBLE-CAPSTAN. A capstan so constructed 
 as to be worked from both decks. 
 
 DOUBLE-CROWN. See CROWN. 
 
 DOUBLE-DECKER. A man-of-war having two 
 gun-decks. 
 
 DOUBLE DUTCH COILED AGAINST THE SUN. 
 Gibberish ; unintelligible language. 
 
 DOUBLE-EAGLE. A gold coin of 20 dollars. 
 
 DOITBLE-FUTTOCKS. Two futtocks in one. 
 
 DOUBLE-HEADED MAUL. A maul with two 
 faces. 
 
 DOUBLE-HEADED SHOT. Two whole balls con 
 nected by a bar. See BAR-SHOT. 
 
 DOUBLE-IRONS. Fetters for both hands and 
 legs. See IRONS. 
 
 DOUBLE-JACK. See JACK-SCREW. 
 
 DOUBLE- LAND. The appearance of the coast 
 when the sea-line is bounded by parallel ranges 
 of hills rising inland, one above the other. 
 
 DOUBLE-SIDED. A double-decked ship painted 
 so as to show both rows of ports ; or, a merchant 
 vessel painted to resemble a double-decker. 
 
 DOUBLE SPANISH BURTON. See SPANISH 
 BURTON. 
 
 DOUBLE-STAR. Two stars so close together 
 that the angle between them is inappreciable 
 except by means of a telescope. 
 
 DOUBLE-STRAP. . See STRAP. 
 
 DOUBLE-TIDES. Working double-tides, doing 
 extra duty. 
 
 DOUBLE WALL-KNOT. See WALL-KNOT. 
 
 DOUBLING. Planking ships bottoms twice 
 with two thicknesses of plank. That portion of 
 two masts included between the trestle-trees and 
 cap is termed the doublings of the masts. 
 
 Doubloon. A Spanish gold coin. See 
 MONEY. 
 
 Dough-boy. A hard dumpling boiled in salt 
 water, a corruption of dough-ball. 
 
 Douse. To plunge into the water ; to dip. 
 
DOUSING-CHOCK 
 
 223 
 
 DKAKE 
 
 To lower ; as, to douse sail. To cover up or ex 
 tinguish ; as, to douse a light. 
 DOUSER. An extinguisher. 
 Dousing-chock. A piece fayed across the 
 apron, and lapped in the knight-heads, or inside 
 planking, above the upper deck. 
 Dout. To put out a light. 
 DOUTER. An extinguisher. 
 Dover. A town of England, county of Kent, 
 one of the Cinque Ports, on the N.W. side of 
 Dover Strait, 66 miles E.S.E. from London. 
 Lat. 51 1 8" N. ; Ion. 1 19 5" E. The harbor 
 consists of three basins, the outer one inclosed 
 between two piers 150 feet apart. Dover has 
 been made a harbor of refuge by throwing out 
 jetties of great magnitude, and a granite pier 
 one-third of a mile long, and still unfinished, 
 into the sea. Dover being one of the chief 
 ports of communication between England and 
 the continent, has continual intercourse by steam 
 boats with Calais and Boulogne. Ship-building, 
 sail- and rope-making employ many of the popu 
 lation. Dover is the principal of the Cinque 
 Ports. Pop. 29,000. 
 
 Dovetail. A score in the end of a piece of 
 wood resembling a dove s tail, and into which a 
 corresponding piece is fitted, for the purpose of 
 securing two pieces, which are placed at right 
 angles with each other. 
 
 Dowbrek. A name for the spirling, or smelt. 
 Dowel. A method of coaking by the use of 
 a round piece of hard wood, instead of an oblong 
 piece, one-half the length of the dowel being let 
 into each piece ; when two pieces of timber, as 
 in the frame of a ship, are to be secured together, 
 the fastenings are sometimes driven through the 
 dowels. 
 
 Down ! To come, take, put, or haul down. 
 To bring the sun down is to bring in contact the 
 horizon and the image of the sun reflected in a 
 sextant. 
 
 DOWN BAGS ! The order from the boatswain s 
 mate for the men to stow away their bags in the 
 proper place. 
 
 DOWN BOOMS ! The order to lower the stun - 
 sail booms when the sails are furled. 
 
 DOWN FROM ALOFT ! The order for the men 
 to come down after furling, reefing, etc. No 
 manoeuvre is completed until the last man is on 
 deck. 
 
 DOWN-HAUL. A rope to haul down, or assist 
 in hauling down, a sail. A stay-sail down-haul 
 is secured to the head cringle of the sail, and 
 leads thence through the hanks, and a leading- 
 block at the tack, to the deck. A try-sail down- 
 haul is made fast to the upper after-corner of 
 the sail, and leads thence through a block at the 
 jaws of the gaff to the deck. A gaff-topsail 
 down-haul (and clewline) is made fast to the 
 clew, and leads thence through a block at the 
 head to the deck. A topgallant studding-sail 
 down-haul is bent to the yard-arm, and leads 
 abaft into the top. A topmast studding-sail down- 
 haul is bent to the outer yard-arm, and reeves 
 thence through a thimble in the leech and a 
 block at the tack, forward of all, to the deck. 
 DOWN HELM ! Put the helm a-lee ! 
 DOWN IN THE MOUTH. Low-spirited ; dis 
 heartened. 
 
 DOWN KILLICK ! Let go the killick or anchor ! 
 DOWN WIND, DOWN SEA. A proverbial ex 
 pression among seamen in the tropics, where the 
 
 wind soon gets up a sea, which soon goes down 
 when the wind abates. 
 
 Downs. An accumulation of drifted sand, 
 which the sea gathers along its shores. The 
 name is also applied to the anchorage or sea- 
 space between the eastern coast of Kent and the 
 Goodwin Sands, the well-known roadstead for 
 ships-, stretching from the South to the North 
 Foreland, where both outward- and homeward- 
 bound ships frequently make some stay, and 
 squadrons of men-of-war rendezvous in time of 
 war. It is defended by the castles of Sandwich, 
 Deal, and Dover. 
 
 D. R. Dead-reckoning. 
 
 Drabler. A piece of canvas laced on the bon 
 net of a sail to give it more drop. " As the 
 bonnet is to the course, so in all respects is the 
 drabler to the bonnet." It is only used when 
 both course and bonnet are not deep enough to 
 clothe the mast. 
 
 Draco (Lat. " The Dragon"). A winding con 
 stellation, which, commencing from between 
 Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, extends to Lyra. 
 The two principal stars, 7 and /3, form a con 
 spicuous pair, situated nearly on the line joining 
 a Lyrce and a Ursce Majoris; the line which joins 
 a Cygni and /3 Bootis also passing near them, y 
 Draconis, also called Rastaban, is the nearest one 
 to Lyra ; it is of historical interest as being the 
 star used by Bradley in the discovery of aberra 
 tion. 
 
 Dracunculus. A species of fish about 10 
 inches long, of a reddish-brown color above, and 
 white beneath ; sordid dragonet ; sculpin ; Cal- 
 lionymus dracunculus. 
 Draft. See DRAUGHT. 
 
 Drag. Anything towing in the water to re 
 tard a ship s progress, or to keep her head up to 
 the wind. A drag-rope. A sea-anchor. A 
 creeper. 
 
 To drag for an anchor or chain is to endeavor 
 to pick it up by means of a grapnel or bight of a 
 rope. A ship drags her anchor when the wind, 
 tide, or current causes her to go astern, trailing 
 the anchor over the bottom. 
 
 DRAG-NET. A trawl or net to draw on the 
 bottom for flat-fish. 
 
 DRAG-ROPE. The rope by which are hauled 
 about Gatlings, howitzers, etc., on field-carriages. 
 Dragoman. The name for a Turkish inter 
 preter ; it is corrupted from tarij-man. 
 Dragon. An old name for a musketoon. 
 Dragonet. A sea-fish, the gowdie, or Cal- 
 lionymus lyra. 
 
 Dragon-volant. An old name for a gun of 
 large calibre. 
 
 Drag-saw. A cross-cut saw. 
 Drake, Sir Francis. Born in 1539, on the 
 banks of the Javy, in Devonshire, England. A 
 sea-rover in the seryice of Queen Elizabeth of 
 England. Plunder and prize-money had greater 
 charms for Drake than honor and glory. The 
 earliest mention made of him refers to a voyage 
 in 1572, when, reaching the Caribbean Sea, he 
 landed on the Isthmus of Darien, and beholding 
 the Pacific from a lofty eminence, he prayed that 
 the Almighty would grant him life and leave to 
 sail once an English ship on that sea. His prayer 
 was heard. Four years later he sailed from Eng 
 land with five ships, and passing along the coast 
 of South America, he plundered all who were 
 incapable of resistance, and going around Cape 
 
DRAKE 
 
 224 
 
 DRIFT 
 
 Horn he steered northerly, visited and sacked 
 Chili and Peru, and took possession of San Fran 
 cisco. From that point Drake crossed to Java and 
 the Moluccas, enriching himself at every step; and 
 this marauding course he continued until 1580, 
 when he returned home via the Cape of Good 
 Hope. In the following year, however, his ser 
 vices were required for a nobler purpose than 
 mere pillage. The Spanish Armada threatened 
 England. To anticipate its attack, Drake, who 
 had now been knighted by Queen Elizabeth for 
 his voyage round the world, the first of the 
 kind ever made by an Englishman, sailed to 
 Cadiz, passed the batteries under a heavy fire, 
 destroyed 100 ships, and inflicted the usual dam 
 age on the adjoining coasts. Making his way 
 back, he was appointed to aid Lord Howard in 
 repelling the Armada, and when that exploit 
 had been performed he proceeded to the West 
 Indies, where he died, December 27, 1595. 
 
 Drake. Aru early piece of brass ordnance. 
 
 Drakkar. A Norman pirate boat of former 
 times. 
 
 Draught. A small allowance for waste on 
 goods sold by weight. A detachment transferred 
 from one ship to another. A drawing, made to 
 scale, of a structure or machine. 
 
 The current of air through a furnace, which 
 causes combustion of the fuel. Natural draught 
 is created by a pressure due to the difference in 
 weight of the column of heated and rarefied gases 
 in the chimney, and that of a similar column of 
 the surrounding atmosphere. Its intensity varies 
 as the square root of the height of the chimney. 
 Artificial draught is a forced current created by 
 mechanical means, such as blowers acting be 
 neath the tires, or by the rapid expulsion of the 
 chimney gases by a " steam-jet." 
 
 The depth of the bottom of a vessel s keel be 
 low the surface of the water. 
 
 Draw. To pull ; to attract ; to procure. To 
 procure anything on requisition or official de 
 mand. A sail draws when it is filled with the 
 wind. A ship draws so many feet of water, ac 
 cording to the depth of her immersed body. To 
 draw upon a ship is to gain upon a vessel in a 
 chase. To let draw the jib is to cease from flat 
 tening in the sheet. To draw off, to move away. 
 To draw the guns, to draw the charges. 
 
 DRAW-NET. See DRAG-NET. 
 
 Drayton, Percival, Captain U.S.N. Born in 
 South Carolina, August 25, 1812 ; died at Wash 
 ington, D. C., August 4, 1865. Son of Hon. 
 William Drayton, M.C. Midshipman, Decem 
 ber, 1827; lieutenant, February 28, 1838; was 
 attached to the observatory, Washington, in 
 1852; commander, September 14, 1855; joined 
 the Paraguay expedition in 1858, and from 
 1800 until the outbreak of the civil war was 
 on ordnance duty at Philadelphia. Though 
 strongly bound by family ties to the seceding 
 States, he remained loyal to the national flag, 
 and in the expedition to Port Royal com 
 manded the steamer " Pocahontas" ; his brother, 
 Gen. T. F. Drayton, commanded at the same 
 time the Confederate troops at Hilton Head 
 Island. He was afterward transferred to the 
 "Pawnee," and July 16, 1862, was promoted to 
 captain, and ordered to the new Ericsson iron 
 battery "Passaic." He was in the bombard 
 ment of Fort McAllister ; in the attack on Sum- 
 ter by Dupont ; fleet-captain of the West Gulf 
 
 Squadron, under Farragut, and was in the 
 " Hartford" at the fight with and capture of the 
 rebel fleet in Mobile Bay, August 5, 1864. He 
 was particularly distinguished as Farragut s 
 chief-of-staff. Appointed chief of the Bureau 
 of Navigation, April 28, 1865. 
 
 Dredge. An instrument for scraping up 
 oysters or specimens of the bottom. To fish by 
 dragging the dredge. To remove the mud, etc., 
 from the bottom of a harbor or channel. 
 
 DREDGING MACHINE. A large flat-bottomed 
 boat equipped with a steam-engine and ma 
 chinery for removing mud, etc., from a harbor 
 or channel. 
 
 DREDGY. The ghost of a person drowned. 
 
 Dreint. An old word for drowned. 
 
 Dress Ship. To ornament the ship by hoist 
 ing the national colors at the peak and mast 
 heads, and setting the jack forward. When the 
 ship is to be dressed full, the national flags are 
 hoisted as before, and the signal-flags and pen 
 nants are arranged according to taste. When the 
 signal-flags form a line from the water to the 
 flying-jib-boom, over the mast-heads, to the end 
 of spanker-boom and water, they are said to be 
 arranged rainbow-fashion. When the ship is 
 dressed in honor of a foreigner, person, or fete, 
 the foreign national flag is given the place of 
 honor, the main. Aside from this, foreign 
 flags are not used in dressing ship, as foreigners 
 sometimes take offense if their flag is not given 
 the prominence which they conceive to be due 
 to it. 
 
 Drew. A name for the Fucus lorcus, a nar 
 row, thong-shaped sea-weed. 
 
 Dribble. Drizzling showers ; light rain. 
 
 Dries. A term opposed to rains on the west 
 coast of Africa. 
 
 Drift. The deviation of a projectile from the 
 plane of fire, due to the rifling of the gun ; for a 
 given range and calibre it depends upon the 
 velocity of rotation as compared with that of 
 translation, the weight and form of the projec 
 tile, and the position of its centre of gravity. 
 The drift is with the rifling, and is allowed for 
 by directing the axis of the bore sufficiently to 
 the opposite side of the target to compensate for 
 the deflection. Practically, this result is accom 
 plished by a drift-piece attached to the rear 
 sight, or by inclining the bar at a certain fixed 
 angle to the left of the plane of fire. The angle 
 at which the bar is set is called the " permanent 
 drift angle." 
 
 An instrument to enlarge or clear a hole in 
 metal. In wooden ship-building, the difference 
 between the size of the bolt and the hole into 
 which it is to be driven ; for instance, if a bolt 
 is made one-eighth of an inch larger than the 
 hole into which it is to be driven, the bolt is 
 said to have one-eighth of an inch drift; the 
 same is applicable to a hoop which is to be driven 
 on a mast. 
 
 The distance through which a current flows in 
 a given time. Drift = time X rate. 
 
 To be driven along on the water. To gather 
 into heaps. 
 
 DRIFT-BOLT. A long punch used for backing 
 out other bolts. 
 
 DRIFT-ICE. The debris of the main pack. 
 
 DRIFT-MUD. Argillaceous earth brought down 
 by streams and deposited in banks. 
 
 DRIFT-SAIL. A sail used as a drag (which see). 
 
DRIFTS 
 
 225 
 
 DROWN 
 
 DRIFT WOOD. Wood floating on the surface 
 of the water. 
 
 Drifts. Those parts where the sheer is raised 
 according to the heights of the decks, and where 
 the rails are cut off and ended by scrolls. 
 
 DRIFT-PIECE. A solid piece fitted at the drifts 
 to form the scrolls. 
 
 Drill. Practice at the various military and 
 nautical exercises. 
 
 Drive. A ship drives when her anchor trips 
 or will not hold ; she drives to leeward when be 
 yond control of sails or rudder; and if under 
 bare poles, may drive before the wind. To strike 
 home bolts, tree-nails, etc. 
 
 Driver. A large sail formerly used with the 
 wind aft or quartering. It was a square-sail cut 
 like a studding-sail, and set with a great yard on 
 the end of the spanker-boom, across the taifrail. 
 The name is sometimes applied to the spanker 
 (which see). Formerly, the foremost spur on the 
 bilge-ways, the keel of which was fayed to the 
 foreside of the foremost poppet ; it was cleated 
 on the bilge-ways, and the sides of it stood fore 
 and aft. 
 
 Driving Piles. The motion of a ship bobbing 
 in a head sea, compared to the vertical fall of 
 monkeys on pile-heads. 
 
 Drogher. A small craft in the West India 
 Islands, to take off sugars, rum, etc., to the mer 
 chantmen. Lumber-drogher is a vessel built 
 solely for burden, and for transporting cotton 
 and other articles coastwise. 
 
 DROGHING. The carrying trade of the West 
 India coasts. 
 
 Drogue. A drag (which see). 
 
 Droits of Admiralty ( Eng. }. Rights, or rather 
 perquisites, which flowed originally from the 
 king by grant or usage, and now reserved to the 
 crown by commission. They are of two kinds, 
 viz., the civil, or those arising from wrecks of 
 the sea, flotsam, jetsam, and lagan, royal fishes, 
 derelicts, and deodands, ejectamenta maris, and 
 the goods of pirates, traitors, felons, suicides, 
 and fugitives within the admiralty jurisdiction ; 
 and the prize droits, or those accruing in the 
 course of war, comprehending all ships and goods 
 taken without commission, all vessels improperly 
 captured before hostilities have been formally 
 declared, or found or by accident brought within 
 the admiralty, salvage for all ships rescued, and 
 all ships seized, in any of the ports, creeks, or 
 roads of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, before any declaration of war or 
 reprisals by the sovereign. 
 
 Dromond. A Saracen term for a large man- 
 of-war. 
 
 Droop. See HOGGED. 
 
 Drop. The depth of a square-sail ; but gen 
 erally applied to the courses only, hoist being 
 the corresponding term for the other square- 
 sails. To drop a vessel is to distance her in a 
 race or chase. To drop astern, to fall behind so 
 as to suifer another vessel to pass beyond. 
 
 Drop -dry. Water-tight. 
 
 Droud. A fish of the cod kind, frequenting 
 the west coast of Scotland. 
 
 Drouge. A piece of board, or kind of drogue, 
 sometimes attached to the harpoon-line, to check 
 in some degree the speed of the whale. 
 
 Drow. An old term for a severe gust of wind 
 accompanied with rain. 
 
 Drown. To suffocate in water. To deluge 
 15 
 
 with water. Drowning was an early naval pun 
 ishment. Richard I. enacted that whoever killed 
 a man on shipboard " should be bound to the 
 corpse and thrown into the sea." 
 
 DROWNED, DIRECT METHOD OF RESTORING 
 THE APPARENTLY. This method is recom 
 mended by Dr. Howard : 
 
 1. Arouse the patient. Unless in danger of 
 freezing do not move the patient an inch ; but 
 instantly expose the face to a current of fresh 
 air ; wipe dry the mouth and nostrils ; rip the 
 clothing so as to expose the chest and waist, and 
 give two or three smarting slaps on the stomach 
 with the open hand. 
 
 If the patien t does not revive, then proceed thus : 
 
 2. To draw off the water, etc. , from the stomach 
 and chest. Turn the patient on his face, a large 
 bundle of tightly-rolled clothing being placed 
 beneath his stomach, and press heavily over it 
 for half a minute, or so long as fluid flows from 
 the mouth. 
 
 3. To produce breathing. Place the patient 
 on his back, the roll of clothing being so placed 
 as to raise the pit of the stomach above the level 
 of any other part of the body. If there be 
 another person present, let him, with a piece of 
 dry cloth, hold the tip of the tongue out of one 
 corner of the mouth, and with the other hand 
 grasp both wrists and keep the arms forcibly 
 stretched back above the head. (This position 
 prevents the tongue from falling back and 
 choking the entrance to the windpipe, and 
 increasing the prominence of the ribs tends to 
 enlarge the chest. It is not, however, essential 
 to success.) 
 
 Kneel beside or astride the patient s hips, and 
 with the balls of the thumbs resting on either 
 side of the pit of the stomach, let the fingers fall 
 into the grooves between the short ribs, so as to 
 afford the best grasp of the waist. Now, using 
 your knees as a pivot, throw all your weight 
 forward on your hands, and at the same time 
 squeeze the waist between them, as if you wished 
 to force everything in the chest upwards out of 
 the mouth. Deepen the pressure while you can 
 count slowly one, two, three, and then sud 
 denly let go with a final push, which springs you 
 back to your first kneeling position. Remain 
 erect on your knees while you can count one, 
 two ; then repeat the same motions as before, at 
 a rate gradually inci eased from 4 or 5 to 15 times 
 a minute, and continue thus this bellows move 
 ment with the same regularity that is observable 
 in the natural motions of breathing, which you 
 are imitating. 
 
 Continue thus from one to two hours, or until 
 the patient breathes. For a while after, carefully 
 deepen the first short gasps into full breaths, and 
 continue the drying and rubbing, which should 
 be unceasingly practiced from the beginning. 
 
 4. After-treatment. A.S soon as the breathing 
 has become established, strip the patient, warm 
 him in blankets only, put him in a bed comfort 
 ably warm, but with a free circulation of fresh 
 air, and leave him to perfect rest. Give a lit 
 tle hot brandy and water, or other stimulant, 
 every 10 or 15 minutes during the first hour, 
 and as often thereafter as may be deemed ex 
 pedient. 
 
 DROWNED, TREATMENT OF THE APPARENT 
 LY. This method is recommended by the Royal 
 National Life-Boat Institution of Great Britain : 
 
DROWN 
 
 226 
 
 DROWN 
 
 *Send immediately for medical assistance, 
 blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat 
 the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, 
 with the face downwards, whether on shore or 
 afloat ; exposing the face, neck, and chest to the 
 wind, except in severe weather, and removing all 
 tight clothing from the neck and chest, especially 
 the braces. 
 
 The points to be aimed at are, first, the res 
 toration of breathing ; and, secondly, after breath 
 ing is restored, the promotion of warmth and 
 circulation. 
 
 The efforts to restore breathing must be com 
 menced immediately and energetically, and 
 persevered in for one or two hours, or until a 
 medical man has pronounced that life is extinct. 
 Efforts to promote warmth and circulation, be 
 yond removing the wet clothes and drying the 
 skin, must not be made until the first appearance 
 of natural breathing; for if circulation of the blood 
 be induced before breathing has recommenced, 
 the restoration to life will be endangered. 
 
 To clear the throat, place the patient on the 
 floor or ground with the face downwards, and 
 one of the arms under the forehead, in which 
 position all fluids will more readily escape by 
 the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall for 
 ward, leaving the entrance into the windpipe 
 free. Assist this operation by wiping and cleans 
 ing the mouth. 
 
 If satisfactory breathing commences, use the 
 treatment described below, to promote warmth. 
 If there be only slight breathing, or no breath 
 ing, or if the breathing fails, then : 
 
 To excite breathing, turn the patient well and 
 instantly on the side, supporting the head, and 
 excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn, and 
 smelling-salts, or tickle the throat with a feather, 
 etc., if they are at hand. Rub the chest and 
 face warm, and dash cold water, or cold and hot 
 water alternately, on them. If there be no suc 
 cess, lose not a moment, but instantly : 
 
 To imitate breathing, replace the patient on 
 the face, raising and supporting the chest well 
 on a folded coat or other article of dress. Turn 
 the body very gently on the side, and a little be 
 yond, and then briskly on the face, back again, 
 repeating these measures cautiously, efficiently, 
 perseveringly, about fifteen times in a minute, 
 or once every four or five seconds, occasionally 
 varying the side. 
 
 ( By placing the patient on the. chest, the weight 
 of the body forces the air out ; when turned on the 
 side, the pressure is removed, and air enters the 
 chest] 
 
 On each occasion that the body is replaced on 
 the face, make uniform but efficient pressure, 
 with brisk movement, on the back, between and 
 below the shoulder-blades, or bones on each side, 
 removing the pressure immediately before turn 
 ing the body on the side. 
 
 During the whole of the operations let one per 
 son attend solely to the movements of the head 
 and of the arm placed under it. 
 
 (The first measure increases the expiration, the 
 second commences inspiration.} 
 
 Whilst the above operations are being pro 
 ceeded with, dry the hands and feet, and as soon 
 as dry clothing or blankets can be procured strip 
 the body, and cover or gradually reclothe it, 
 taking care not to interfere with the efforts to 
 restore breathing. 
 
 Should these efforts not prove successful in the 
 course of from two to five minutes, proceed to 
 imitate breathing by Dr. Silvester s method, as 
 follows : 
 
 Place the patient on his back on a flat surface, 
 inclined a little upwards from the feet ; raise and 
 support the head and shoulders on a small firm 
 cushion, or folded articles of dress placed under 
 the shoulder-blades. 
 
 Draw forward the patient s tongue, and keep 
 it projecting beyond the lips ; an elastic band 
 over the tongue and under the chin will answer 
 this purpose, or a piece of string or tape may be 
 tied round them, or by raising the lower jaw, the 
 teeth may be made to retain the tongue in that 
 position. Remove all tight clothing from about 
 the neck and chest, especially the braces. 
 
 Standing at the patient s head, grasp the arms 
 just above the elbows ; draw the arms gently 
 and steadily upwards above the head, and keep 
 them stretched upwards for two seconds. (By 
 this means air is drawn into the lungs.} Then 
 turn down the patient s arms, and press them 
 gently and firmly for two seconds against the 
 sides of the chest. (By this means air is pressed 
 out of the lungs.} 
 
 Repeat these measures alternate^, deliber 
 ately, and perseveringly, about fifteen times in a 
 minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire is 
 perceived, immediately upon which, cease to imi 
 tate the movements of breathing, and proceed to 
 induce circulation and warmth. 
 
 To promote warmth and circulation. Com 
 mence rubbing the limbs upwards with firm, 
 grasping pressure and energy, using handker 
 chiefs, flannels, etc. (By this measure the blood 
 is propelled along the veins towards the heart. } The 
 friction must be continued under the blanket or 
 over the dry clothing. Promote the warmth of 
 the body by the application of hot flannels, 
 bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, 
 etc., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, be 
 tween the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. 
 
 If the patient has been carried to a house after 
 respiration has been restored, be careful to let 
 the air play freely about the room. 
 
 On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of 
 warm water should be given ; and then if the 
 power of swallowing have returned, small quan 
 tities of wine, warm brandy and water, or cof 
 fee should be administered. The patient should 
 be kept in bed, and disposition to sleep encour 
 aged. 
 
 General observations. The above treatment 
 should be persevered in for some hours, as it is 
 an erroneous opinion that persons are irrecover 
 able because life does not soon make its appear 
 ance. There is an authentic account of recovery 
 after submersion for 20 minutes. 
 
 Appearances which generally accompany death. 
 Breathing and the action of the heart cease en 
 tirely ; the eyelids are half closed ; the pupils 
 dilate ; the tongue approaches to the under edge 
 of the lips, and the lips and nostrils are covered 
 with a frothy mucus. Coldness and pallor in 
 crease. 
 
 Ca,utions. Prevent unnecessary crowding of 
 persons around the patient. Avoid rough usage, 
 and do not allow the patient to remain on his 
 back unless the tongue be secured. Under no 
 circumstances hold the body up by the feet. On 
 no account place the body in a warm bath unless 
 
DKOWN 
 
 227 
 
 DKY-KOT 
 
 under medical direction, and even then it should 
 only be done as a momentary excitant. 
 
 DROWNING PERSONS, INSTRUCTIONS FOR SAV 
 ING. 
 
 1. "When you approach a drowning person in 
 the water, assure him, in a loud voice, that he is 
 safe. 
 
 2. Before jumping in to save him-, divest your 
 self, as far and as quickly as possible, of all 
 clothes ; tear them off if necessary ; but if there 
 is no time, loose, at all events, the foot of your 
 drawers if they are tied, as, if you do not do so, 
 they will fill with water and drag you. 
 
 3. On swimming to a person in the sea, if he 
 be struggling, do not seize him then, but keep 
 off for a few seconds till he gets quiet, for it is 
 sheer madness to take hold of a man when he 
 is struggling in the water ; if you do, you run a 
 great risk. 
 
 4. Then get close to him and take fast hold of 
 the hair of his head, turn him as quickly as pos 
 sible on to his back, give him a sudden pull and 
 this will cause him to float, then throw yourself 
 on your back also and swim for the shore, both 
 hand* having hold of his hair, you on your back 
 and he also on his, and of course his back to 
 your stomach. In this way you will get sooner 
 and safer ashore than by any other means, and 
 you can easily thus swim with two or three per 
 sons ; the writer has even, as an experiment, 
 done it with four, and gone with them forty or 
 fifty yards in the sea. One great advantage of 
 this method is that it enables you to keep your 
 head up, and also to hold the person s head up 
 you are trying to save. It is of primary im 
 portance that you take fast hold of the hair, 
 and throw both the person and yourself on your 
 backs. After many experiments it is usually 
 found preferable to all other methods. You can, 
 in this manner, float nearly as long as you 
 please, or until a boat or other help can be ob 
 tained. 
 
 5. It is believed there is no such thing as a 
 death-grasp, at least it is very unusual to witness 
 it. As soon as a drowning man begins to get 
 feeble and to lose his recollection, he gradually 
 slackens his hold until he quits it altogether. 
 No apprehension need therefore be felt on that 
 head when attempting to rescue a drowning 
 person. 
 
 6. After a person has sunk to the bottom, if 
 the water be smooth, the exact position where 
 the body lies may be known by the air-bubbles, 
 which will occasionally rise to the surface, al 
 lowance being of course made for the motion of 
 the water if in a tide-way or stream, which will 
 have carried the bubbles out of a perpendicular 
 course in rising to the surface. A body may be 
 often regained from the bottom before too late 
 for recovery by diving for it in the direction in 
 dicated by these bubbles. 
 
 7. On rescuing a person by diving to the bot 
 tom, the hair of the head should be seized by 
 one hand only, and the other used in conjunc 
 tion with the feet in raising yourself and drown 
 ing person to the surface. 
 
 8. If in the sea, it may sometimes be a great 
 error to try and get to land. If there be a strong 
 outsetting tide, and you are swimming either by 
 yourself, or having hold of a person who cannot 
 swim, then get on your back and float till help 
 comes. 
 
 9. These instructions apply alike to all cir 
 cumstances, whether the roughest sea or smooth 
 water. 
 
 DROWNING THE MILLER. Adding too much 
 water to wine or spirits. 
 
 Drub. To beat. 
 
 Drugger. A small vessel which formerly ex 
 ported fish from Dieppe and other Channel 
 ports, and brought back from the Levant spices 
 and drugs. 
 
 Drum-fish. A genus of fishes (Pogonias) 
 which make a peculiar drumming or grunting 
 noise under water. 
 
 Drum-head. That portion of a capstan in 
 which the bars are inserted. 
 
 Drumler. An ancient transport. (See DRO 
 MOND.) Also, a small piratical vessel of war. 
 
 Drummer. The marine who beats the drum. 
 Also, a singular fish of the corvinas kind, which 
 has the faculty of emitting musical noises, whence 
 it has acquired the name of crocros. 
 
 Druxy. Timber in a state of decay, the con 
 dition of which is manifested by veins or spots 
 of a whitish tint. 
 
 Dry-bulb Thermometer. The readings of 
 this instrument, when compared with those of a 
 wet-bulb thermometer, indicate the amount of 
 moisture in the air. 
 
 Dry-dock. An artificial receptacle for exam 
 ining and repairing vessels. See DOCKS. 
 
 Dry-ducking. Suspending a person by a rope 
 above the surface of the water. 
 
 Dry-flogging. Punishing over the clothes of 
 a culprit. 
 
 Dry-gales. Those storms which are accom 
 panied with a clear sky, as the northers of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, the harmattan of Africa, etc. 
 
 Dry Holy-stoning. See HOLY-STONE. 
 
 Dry-pipe. A prolongation or system of 
 branches of the main steam-pipe, extending 
 within a steam-boiler at the highest point possi 
 ble, by which the steam is drawn through nu 
 merous small holes or narrow slits in its upper 
 side equally from all parts of the boiler. Its 
 object is to prevent priming and collect the 
 steam in a dry state. 
 
 Dry-rot. This is the result of the growth of a 
 parasitic fungus (Polyporus hybridus* and other 
 species of Polyporus) within the substance of 
 wood, whereby it loses its elasticity and firm 
 ness, becomes brittle, and finally crumbles into 
 dust. This result follows from the nutrition of 
 the plant, which withdraws from the wood por 
 tions of its carbon and nitrogen, and so alters its 
 composition. The fungus consists mainly of 
 minute branching white threads (mycelium), 
 which penetrate between the fibres of the wood, 
 and are nourished at their expense. It may ex 
 tend to all parts of a ship without producing 
 fruit (spores), undermining the interior parts of 
 timber, but avoiding the light and air, under 
 cover of a thin shell of sound wood which con 
 ceals its ravages. It flourishes in dark, damp, 
 and confined places, such as the frame-spaces of 
 ships, and the inner parts of the planking which 
 covers them. When the Polyporus fruits (which 
 is seldom) it seeks the light and develops 
 its spore-bearing organ (pileus), resembling a 
 crust of dried white paint at the surface. On 
 the external side of this crust are innumerable 
 
 * Nat. Ord. Hymenomycette, Fam. Polyporei. 
 
DUB 
 
 228 
 
 DUGUAY-TROUIN 
 
 minute pores, within which the spores are to 
 be found, growing in fours on the summits of 
 slender stalks (basidia), easily visible under a 
 magnifying power of about 200 diameters. The 
 mycelium may, however, be detected with the 
 naked eye as white threads lying between the 
 bundles of woody fibre and parallel with them. 
 Under the microscope, the mycelium is seen to 
 consist of very minute branching filaments, mat 
 ted or felted together. 
 
 Since the dry-rot fungus nourishes only under 
 the conditions of moisture, darkness, and con 
 fined air, its growth may probably be prevented 
 on shipboard by such a system of construction 
 as shall afford free ventilation of the bilges, 
 frame-spaces (by boring through filling-chocks 
 and by openings on the spar-deck), spaces be 
 neath store-room floors, and recesses behind bulk 
 heads ; by forced ventilation, as now practiced 
 in the U. S. S. "Richmond"; and by keeping 
 the holds and lower decks dry. Extensive ex 
 periments are now (1880) being prosecuted by 
 the Navy Department with a view to the preser 
 vation of ship-timber from decay, by impregna 
 tion under pressure with carbolic acid (" Bur- 
 nettizing"), and with barium sulphate (the 
 " Thilmany process"), from which good results 
 are hoped for. 
 
 Besides the pecuniary loss resulting from the 
 ravages of dry-rot, it appears to afford a pecu 
 liarly favorable nidus for the development of 
 the yellow fever poison, and the preservation of 
 its vitality against the unfavorable influence of 
 cold weather. See YELLOW FEVER. 
 
 Other fungi, such as a cobweb-like growth on 
 the under side of wet planks (Helminthosporium), 
 molds, and patches of surface discoloration, are 
 common on shipboard, but do not appreciably 
 influence the decay of wood. J. H. Kidder, Sur 
 geon U.S.N. 
 
 Dub. A term for a pool of deep smooth water 
 in a rapid river. 
 
 Dubb. To cut off and smooth with an adze the 
 superfluous wood. To dub b a vessel bright, is to 
 remove the outer surface of the plank completely 
 with an adze. Spotting with the adze to examine 
 planks is also dubbing. 
 
 Dubbah, or Dubber. A coarse leathern ves 
 sel for holding liquids in India. 
 
 Dubhe. A standard nautical star in the Great 
 Bear, a Ursce Mnjoris. 
 
 Dublin. The capital city of Ireland, on the 
 Liffey, close to its entrance into Dublin Bay, 
 Irish Sea, 66 miles W. of Holyhead, and 135 
 miles W. of Liverpool. Lat. 53 23 2" N. ; 
 Ion. 6 20 5" W. The harbor has been latterly 
 much improved, and near the mouth of the 
 Liffey are the Grand Canal and the custom 
 house docks, the latter occupying 8 acres ; depth 
 at low water 12 feet, at high tides 24 feet. The 
 bay is noble and picturesque, and esteemed one 
 of the finest in the United Kingdom ; it is about 
 7 miles in breadth at its entrance, between 
 Howth Head, on the north, and Kingston, on 
 the south. Pop. 246,300. 
 
 Ducat. A well-known coin in most parts of 
 Europe. See MONEY. 
 
 Ducatoon. A coin of the Dutch Oriental 
 Isles, value about $1.70. Also, a silver coin of 
 Venice, value about $1.10. 
 
 Duck. To dive, or immerse another under 
 water. The finest canvas for small sails is some 
 
 times called duck but it is really a lighter cloth 
 than canvas, and is much used by seamen and 
 soldiers in hot climates for frocks and trousers. 
 
 DUCKING. A penalty which veteran sailors 
 inflict on those who, for the first time, pass the 
 tropics, the equator, or formerly even the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, and usually performed in a tub or 
 half-butt, with the assistance of a few buckets of 
 water ; the usual fine, however, generally pre 
 vents the penalty being inflicted. 
 
 DUCKING AT THE YARD-ARM. A marine 
 punishment formerly inflicted by the French for 
 grave offenses ; the criminal was placed astride a 
 short thick batten, fastened to the end of a rope 
 which passed through a block at the yard-arm. 
 Thus fixed he was hoisted suddenly up to the 
 yard, and the rope being then let go he was 
 plunged into the sea. This operation was re 
 peated several times, conformable to the sen 
 tence ; a gun advertised the other ships of the 
 fleet that their crews might become spectators. 
 If the offense was very great he was drawn un 
 derneath the keel of the ship, which was called 
 keel-hauling. See KEEL-HAULING. 
 
 DUCKS. "The general name for a sailor s dress 
 in warm climates. 
 
 Duck Up. To raise the clew of the mainsail 
 or foresail when it interferes with the steering by 
 shutting out the landmarks. 
 
 Dudgeon Wrath. An old word for the box- 
 handle of a dirk. 
 
 Duds. A cant term for clothes or personal 
 property. The term is old, but still in common 
 use, though usually applied to clothing of an in 
 ferior quality. 
 
 Duel. In former days duels were of frequent 
 occurrence in the navy, but latterly they are al 
 most unknown. It is forbidden by the regula 
 tions to send or accept a challenge to fight a duel 
 or act as second in a duel, and courts-martial are 
 empowered to inflict any punishment for this 
 offense, except death, flogging, or imprisonment 
 at hard labor. 
 
 Duff. A sort of pudding. The posterior. 
 
 Duffer. A low peddler. A woman who as 
 sists smugglers. A stupid or cowardly fellow. 
 
 Dugong. An herbivorous mammal of the 
 East Indian seas, intermediate between the 
 Cetacea and the Pachydermata, having an elon 
 gated body, with flippers near the head, and 
 terminated by a crescent-shaped tail. 
 
 Dug-out. A canoe hewn from one tree. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin, Rene, one of the most illus 
 trious of French sailors, was born at Saint Malo, 
 10th of June, 1673, and died at Paris, 27th of 
 September, 1736. 
 
 He came from a family of sailors, but was 
 himself destined from childhood to be an eccle 
 siastic, going early to the College of Rennes, 
 where he donned the soutane, and received the 
 tonsure, with a view to succeeding to a rich 
 benefice which friends of his family had in their 
 gift. 
 
 His father died when he was only fifteen, and 
 he was then sent to Caen to study philosophy. 
 Here his sanguine temperament and love of 
 pleasure caused him to break bounds, and he 
 neglected his studies for the dissipations of a 
 large city. His escapades at last became quite 
 notorious, and he was forced by his family to re 
 turn to Saint Malo, whence he was soon sent to 
 sea in the corsaire "La Trinite," in which his 
 
DUGUAY-TROUIN 
 
 229 
 
 DUMFOUNDER 
 
 family had a large interest. This was in 1689. 
 He remained in this vessel for two years, under 
 going considerable hardship, but always distin 
 guished for his conduct in numerous engage 
 ments with English and Dutch vessels. 
 
 After this apprenticeship, he went to sea in 
 another vessel, of 18 guns, when he showed so 
 much courage and conduct that he was given a 
 command, being then only 18 years of age. 
 After this he continually distinguished himself 
 by attacks upon the English shipping, both in 
 privateers and in vessels of the state. In 1694, 
 while in command of the " Diligente," a 40-gun 
 frigate, he was surrounded by an English squad 
 ron of six men-of-war, under Admiral Sir David 
 Mitchell. After fighting for twelve hours, his 
 crew were nearly all killed or wounded, he him 
 self was wounded, and his ship on the point of 
 sinking, so he was obliged to surrender. He 
 was imprisoned at Plymouth, where he man 
 aged to make a friend of a pretty bumboat 
 woman, and with her assistance escaped in a 
 small boat, with his lieutenant, his surgeon, the 
 boatswain, and a servant. After forty-eight 
 hours of very rough weather they managed to 
 reach the coast of Brittany. 
 
 He was soon at sea again, in a ship of 48 guns, 
 in which he took two English men-of-war of 
 superior force, one of which he brought in. For 
 this action he received a sword of honor, and 
 was invited to join the fleet of the Marquis de 
 Nesmond, where he had his usual success in 
 making prizes. 
 
 After this cruise he went to Paris, to be pre 
 sented to Louis Quatorze, and received many 
 honors while there. He did not remain long, 
 however, returning to his sea-life, and had com 
 mand of several small squadrons, which he 
 handled with his accustomed ability, having 
 been made capitaine de fregate of the royal 
 marine. 
 
 After the peace of Ryswick he passed four 
 years of enforced idleness ; but upon the breaking 
 out of the war of the Spanish succession, he was 
 again promptly at sea, serving against the Hol 
 landers and the English, in which he passed 
 through many battles and many perils. In 1705, 
 when thirty-two years of age, he was made cap 
 itaine de vaisseau, and very shortly after, in con 
 sequence of continued successes against the Por 
 tuguese, English, and others, he, with his elder 
 brother (two younger ones had been killed while 
 serving under him), received letters of nobility. 
 
 In 1711 he sailed, in command of a fleet of 7 
 line-of-battle ships, 8 frigates, and 2 bomb-ves 
 sels, with nearly 6000 men, for Rio de Janeiro. 
 He entered the bay under the fire of the Portu 
 guese batteries, and the next day disembarked 
 his force. After some slight resistance the city 
 was abandoned by its inhabitants. Duguay- 
 Trouin then threatened to utterly destroy the 
 place unless a handsome ransom was paid. This 
 was done, and he then set out on his return to 
 Brest, but lost two of his largest vessels on the 
 voyage, sunk in a hurricane. For this action 
 he received a pension of 2000 crowns and the title 
 of commandant of the marine of Saint Malo ; 
 and in 1715, at Versailles, he received the com 
 mission of admiral of the fleet. 
 
 Louis XIV. died soon after this, and Duguay- 
 Trouin remained at Saint Malo in retirement 
 until 1723, when, under the regency, he was 
 
 made a councillor for India. In 1728 he was 
 made commander of the order of St. Louis and 
 lieutenant-general. The next year he was made 
 commandant of marine of Brest and of the coasts 
 of Brittany. In 1731 he commanded a fleet 
 fitted out to punish the Barbary corsairs, but the 
 appearance of the force so imposed upon the 
 Moors that they gave every satisfaction without 
 any fighting. Although he continued in service, 
 this was his last active employment. His labors 
 and exposure had undermined a naturally vigor 
 ous constitution, and he died in Paris at 63 years 
 of age. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin was so disinterested and gen 
 erous that, in spite of his many captures, he died 
 comparatively poor. His officers and sailors 
 fairly worshiped him, not only on account of 
 his intrepidity, but because of his liberality in re 
 gard to prize-money. A statue of him is erected 
 in the " Place Duguay-Trouin," at Saint Malo. 
 
 A portrait of this intrepid sailor is in the city 
 hall, and in the museum at Versailles is a statue 
 of him in black marble. The portrait repre 
 sents him in a rich military costume, decor 
 ated with the order of the Holy Ghost. On 
 his bandolier are the arms granted him by 
 Louis XIV., two fleur-de-lis and an anchor. 
 He holds a pistol in his right hand, while the 
 left grasps the hilt of his sword. His hat is 
 ornamented with plumes, which, in our day, is 
 not considered naval. There is also a statue 
 of Duguay-Trouin in the Bourse, at Nantes, 
 and there are two other well-known oil-paint 
 ings of him. He is represented with a youthful 
 and animated countenance, wears a huge wig, 
 and a coat above his cuirass. 
 
 His arms appear upon the picture (given by 
 Louis XIV.), the fleur-de-lis and anchor, and 
 the legend, "Didit haec insignia virtus." E. 
 Shippen. 
 
 Duke of York (Eng.). A nickname for a 
 peculiar storm-trysail used in the northern seas. 
 
 Dulce, Dulse, Delse. One of the edible fuci, 
 Iridea dulce. It is plentiful on the rocky coasts 
 of Ireland and western England. It probably 
 derived its name from being sweet and pleasant, 
 not requiring cooking. 
 
 Duledge Plate. An old name for the tire or 
 iron plate on the circumference of the wheel of 
 a field-piece. Duledge was also used for dowel, 
 the wooden pin connecting the felloes. 
 
 Dull d. Fallen or moderated ; said of the wind. 
 
 Duluth. A city and port of entry of Minne 
 sota, the capital of St. Louis Co., is finely sit 
 uated at the W. end of Lake Superior, and is 
 the eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific 
 Railroad. Lat. 46 48 N. ; Ion. 92 6 W. 
 Duluth has a very advantageous position for a 
 commercial city, being at the head of navigation 
 on the great lakes. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Dumb-chalder. A metal cleat bolted to the 
 back of the stern-post for one of the pintles to 
 rest upon, to lessen both strain and friction. 
 
 Dumb-craft. Lighters, lumps, or punts, not 
 having sails. A name for the screws used for 
 lifting a ship on the slip. 
 
 Dumb-pintle. A peculiar rudder-strap. 
 
 Dumb-scraping. Scraping wet decks with 
 blunt scrapers. 
 
 Dumb-sheave. An aperture without a sheave, 
 through which is rove a rope. 
 
 Dumfounder. To confuse or perplex. 
 
DUMMY 
 
 230 
 
 DUPONT 
 
 .Dummy. A wood frame landing-place in 
 front of a pier. 
 
 Dump-bolt. A short bolt, not driven through 
 two pieces of timber ; sometimes called a blunt- 
 bolt. Also, in wooden ship-building, a fictitious 
 bolt, sometimes driven into knees, merely a 
 short piece of iron with a head on it to make the 
 fastenings appear regular. 
 
 Dumps. Nearly synonymous with down in 
 the mouth. 
 
 Dunbar Medlar. A salted herring. 
 
 Duncan, Admiral (Lord Camperdown). Born 
 in 1731, at Dundee, Scotland; entered the navy 
 as midshipman in 1746; became lieutenant in 
 1755, and in 1761 commander of the " Valiant," 
 of 74 guns ; in 1789 appointed rear-admiral of the 
 blue, and in 1793 vice-admiral of the blue. 
 
 Although this truly good and gallant man saw 
 much service under Admiral Keppel and Lord 
 Howe in Africa, America, and the Mediter 
 ranean, it was not until he obtained independent 
 command in the North Sea that he had a chance 
 of distinguishing himself. By the exercise of 
 patience, constancy, and cool courage he was 
 enabled to draw an immense Dutch fleet out of 
 the Texel, and after a long and severe en 
 counter, in October, 1797, to completely beat his 
 enemy and capture nine large line-of-battle 
 ships (including that of the famous De Wister) 
 and two frigates. For a victory so acceptable to 
 the nation Duncan was created a viscount, with 
 a pension of 2000 a year, and his title (Lord 
 Camperdown) was derived from the locality of 
 the fight. Died August 4, 1804. 
 
 Dunderhead. A term used for a stupid fel 
 low. 
 
 Dun-diver. A name for the goosander (Mer- 
 ffus merganser) in immature plumage. 
 
 Dundonald, Earl. Born December 14, 1775. 
 While still a boy obtained a commission in the 
 104th Regiment. At the age of 17, however, he 
 joined the " Hind" corvette, commanded by his 
 uncle, Capt. Sir Alexander Cochrane, and began 
 the career in which he was destined to win so 
 much renown. 
 
 In April, 1809, a French fleet having assem 
 bled in Basque Roads for the purpose of protect 
 ing Martinique, then threatened by an English 
 force, Admiral Gambier was deputed to blockade 
 the French in the roads. In this enterprise he 
 was assisted by Lord Cochrane, afterwards Earl 
 of Dundonald, an officer of singular intrepidity. 
 To prevent the ingress of the British ships of 
 war the French admiral caused a barrier to be 
 constructed of booms and spars lashed together 
 and anchored at either end. With twelve fire- 
 ships Lord Cochrane dashed through the obstruc 
 tion and advanced towards the fleet of the enemy. 
 Those of the French fleet that escaped being 
 burnt or blown up were run ashore by the 
 French admiral. Thus was the purpose of the 
 French utterly frustrated. Commander-in-chief 
 on the North American and West India Station. 
 In 1851 he was vice-admiral of the white, and 
 in 1854 rear-admiral of the United Kingdom, a 
 distinction which he held to his death. He died 
 October 31, 1860. 
 
 Dunes. An Anglo-Saxon word still in use, 
 signifying mounds or ridges of drifted sands. 
 See DOWNS. 
 
 Dun-fish. A peculiar preparation of cod, by 
 which it retains a dun or dark yellow color. 
 
 Dungaree. A kind of blue cotton stuff used 
 for working-clothes by the cooks, and for facings 
 for collars and cuffs. At present the regulations 
 require that the cuffs and collars shall be of blue 
 flannel. 
 
 Dungaree-duck. A name given to a small 
 dried fish in Bombay. 
 
 Dungiyah. A broad-beamed flat-bottomed 
 Arabian coaster trading between the Red Sea, 
 Gulf of Persia, and the Malabar coast. 
 
 Dunkirk. A fortified seaport town, and the 
 northernmost of France, department of Nord, on 
 the Strait of Dover, 40 miles N.W. of Lille, and 
 45 miles E. of Dover, at the junction of three 
 canals and of several railways. It has a heavy 
 trade and important fishery. It has two harbors, 
 with extensive docks, a breakwater, and other 
 artificial improvements. Pop. 35,100. 
 
 Dunkirks. The well-known name for pirates 
 who sailed out of Dunkirk. 
 
 Dunlin. The name of a species of sandpiper 
 (Tr/.nga cinclus). 
 
 Dunn, Edward T., Paymaster-General 
 U.S.N. Born in District of Columbia. Ap 
 pointed from District of Columbia, February 21, 
 1831 ; attached to sloop "John Adams," Medi 
 terranean Squadron, 1833-34; schooner " Boxer," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1835; sloop "Vincennes," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1836; frigate "Macedonian," 
 West India Squadron, 1837-40; receiving-ship, 
 Norfolk, 1845; frigate "Columbus," East India 
 Squadron, 1846, and in the Pacific Squadron 
 during the Mexican war; navv-yard, New 
 York, 1850-51; frigate "Columbia," Home 
 Squadron, 1852-55; navy-yard, Norfolk, 1857- 
 60; sloop "St. Mary s," Pacific Squadron, 1861- 
 63; Fleet-paymaster, West Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, 1863-65; paymaster at Baltimore, 
 1866-69; chief of Bureau of Provisions and 
 Clothing, 1870-73. Commissioned as paymaster- 
 general in 1871 ; placed on retired list in Janu 
 ary, 1873 ; detached from the bureau in Febru 
 ary, 1873, and ordered on special duty to Naval 
 Station, New Orleans, and navy-yards at Pen- 
 sacola and Mare Island ; returned to Washing 
 ton in August, 1873 ; retired, having attained 
 the age of 62, in 1874. 
 
 Dunnage. Loose wood or other substances, 
 as horns, rattan, coir, etc., to stow among casks 
 and other cargo to prevent their motion. See 
 STOWAGE. 
 
 DUNNAGE BATTENS. An extra floor in a 
 merchantman to preserve the cargo from wet in 
 the event of leakage. 
 
 DUNNAGE-GRATINGS. Gratings on which 
 cargo is stowed. 
 
 Dunter. A name for the porpoise. 
 
 Dupont, Samuel Francis, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born at Bergen Point, N. J., Septem 
 ber 27, 1803 ; died in Philadelphia, June 23, 1865 ; 
 grandson of P. S. Dupont Nemours. Midshipman 
 in the navy at 12 ; lieutenant, April 26, 1826 ; 
 commander, October 28, 1842 . In 1845 he was 
 ordered to the Pacific in command of the frigate 
 "Congress," and during the Mexican war saw 
 much active service on the Californian coast. 
 In the " Cyane," he captured San Diego; 
 cleared the Gulf of California of Mexican ves 
 sels ; took La Paz, the capital of Lower Cali 
 fornia ; assisted in the capture of Mazatlan in 
 November, 1847, and defended Lower California 
 against the Indians and Mexicans. In Feb- 
 
DUQUESNE 
 
 231 
 
 DUQUESNE 
 
 ruary, 1848, he landed at San Jose with a hun 
 dred marines and sailors and defeated and dis 
 persed a Mexican force five times as great. Cap 
 tain, September 14, 1855. Having recommended 
 the occupation of Port Koyal as a central har 
 bor or depot on the southern coast, he was given 
 the command of the South Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, and intrusted with the at 
 tack on that place. Sailing from Fortress 
 Monroe, October 29, 1861, in the "Wabash," 
 with a fleet of 50 sail of war vessels and trans 
 ports, conveying Gen. Sherman s troops, he 
 arrived off Port Royal November 4 and 5, after 
 a violent storm, and on the 7th attacked and 
 captured two strong forts on Hilton Head and 
 Bay Point, which" defended the harbor. He 
 followed up this advantage vigorously, and his 
 operations along the southern coast were inva 
 riably successful. He also succeeded in making 
 the blockade more effective than before. July 
 16, 1882, he was made a rear-admiral on the 
 active list. In April, 1863, he commanded the 
 fleet which unsuccessfully attacked Charleston. 
 He was soon after relieved of the command of 
 the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, and 
 subsequently held no active command. Admiral 
 Dupont aided in organizing the naval school at 
 Annapolis, and is the author of a report on the 
 use of floating-batteries for coast defense, which 
 has been republished and highly commended in 
 England by Sir Howard Douglas in his work 
 on naval gunnery. 
 
 Duquesne, Abraham, Marquis, lieutenant- 
 general of the sea forces, and one of the greatest 
 seamen France ever produced, was born at 
 Dieppe in 1610. Entering the navy early, he 
 soon rose to the command of a small vessel, in 
 which he joined in the recapture of some of the 
 French islands from the Spaniards, for which 
 service he was reported most favorably to Riche 
 lieu. During the operations he learned of the 
 death of his father, in action with the Spaniards, 
 and Duquesne seems to have ever after enter 
 tained the most lively dislike for that nation, 
 causing them to feel the effects of his resentment 
 on numberless occasions. In 1638 he, under cir 
 cumstances of great difficulty and peril, rescued 
 from under the guns of St. Sebastian several 
 French vessels which had been stranded there. 
 The same year, at the battle of Gattari, Du 
 quesne decided the victory by blowing up the 
 Spanish admiral s flag-ship by means of a fire- 
 vessel. 
 
 In 1639 he served in the naval operations on 
 the Biscayan coast, and at the capture of Laredo 
 and Santona. At the latter place he was dan 
 gerously wounded by a bullet in the jaw while 
 boarding a galleon. 
 
 During 1641 he served in the Mediterranean 
 against the Spaniards, was constantly engaged, 
 and again wounded. Two years afterwards he 
 was again actively engaged on the coast of 
 Spain, participating in the battles off Cape de 
 Gatte (where he was again wounded) and at 
 Carthagena. 
 
 Richelieu having died 1 , the French navy fell 
 into neglect, and Duquesne took temporary ser 
 vice under the Swedish crown, which was then 
 engaged in a naval warfare with Denmark. 
 Queen Christina received him very cordially, 
 giving him at first the rank of major-general, 
 and afterwards that of vice-admiral. 
 
 In the latter capacity he bore a part in the 
 naval engagement of 1644, under Nicolas Flem- 
 ming and Torstensen, against the old king 
 Christian IV. of Denmark. He also served in 
 the naval battle off the island of Fremeren, un 
 der the command of Admiral Wrangel, the 
 Danish fleet being commanded by Admiral Pros- 
 mond. 
 
 Peace between Sweden and Denmark being 
 shortly after this concluded, Duquesne retired 
 from the Swedish service and returned to France. 
 In 1645 he was again actively employed against 
 Spain, and in the following year was once more 
 wounded, in a naval battle upon the coast of 
 Italy. 
 
 In 1647, being then a capitaine de vaisseau, 
 he was sent to Sweden to purchase four vessels 
 of the line for the French navy, after which he 
 assumed command of the squadron of Dunkirk, 
 in French Flanders, which position he retained 
 for five years. 
 
 In 1653 occurred the naval operations of the 
 Duke de Vendome about the mouth of the Gi- 
 ronde, consequent upon the civil war of the 
 Fronde. The French navy had by this time so 
 decreased that the duke, in summoning Duquesne 
 from the North Sea to his assistance, was obliged 
 to ask the latter to man and equip some of the 
 vessels at his own expense. On his way down 
 the channel to join the duke, Duquesne met an 
 English squadron, which summoned him to 
 strike his flag, a token of submission at that 
 time imposed upon all foreigners by the English, 
 if within Ushant or even Finisterre. To the 
 demand Duquesne returned a haughty refusal, 
 whereupon a very close and murderous engage 
 ment took place, which resulted in the English 
 (although quite equal in guns to the French) 
 being put to flight. On arriving off the Gironde 
 a Spanish squadron, operating in connection 
 with the insurgents, attempted to bar his pro 
 gress ; but he drove them oft* and succeeded in 
 joining the Duke de Venddme, and greatly as 
 sisted in the reduction of Bordeaux and all 
 Guyenne. 
 
 In recognition of his services Anne of Austria 
 bestowed upon Duquesne a chateau and estate in 
 Brittany, with a promise of further reimburse 
 ment for his expenses in fitting out his squadron. 
 The peace of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, for a 
 time relegated Duquesne to civil life. But Col 
 bert, during this cessation of arms, had the wis 
 dom to imitate Richelieu in fostering and re 
 building the navy of France, so that when war 
 broke out, in 1672, between France and Holland, 
 the former was able to at once send to sea a for 
 midable fleet. 
 
 During this same year Duquesne took part, 
 with a high command, in the great naval battles 
 which took place in the North Sea; particularly 
 those off Southwood, where Vice-Admiral d Es- 
 trees was opposed to the Dutch Admiral Ben- 
 kae rt, and the two battles where the combined 
 French and English fleets, under Prince Rupert, 
 Admiral Spragg, and D Estrees, fought the Hol 
 landers under "Ruyter, Cornells Tromp, and Ben- 
 kaert. 
 
 England suddenly made peace with Holland, 
 but France continued the war, with the alliance 
 of Spain, Germany, and the Two Sicilies. An 
 insurrection occurring in Sicily, Louis XIV. re 
 solved to sustain the revolutionists, and Du- 
 
DUQUESNE 
 
 232 
 
 DUQUESNE 
 
 qjiesne, who was by this time lieutenant-general 
 of the naval forces of France, sailed from Tou 
 lon, in January, 1675, in command of a strong 
 fleet, destined for Sicily. 
 
 In sight of the coast of that island he was 
 attacked by a Spanish fleet much his superior 
 in force, which he not only succeeded in repel 
 ling, but actually drove his opponents to take re 
 fuge at Naples, and successfully conducted to a 
 safe harbor in Messina a large convoy, with 
 provisions and munitions of war. 
 
 He soon returned to France for provisions and 
 stores, so necessary to the French in their opera 
 tions in Sicily, and while at Toulon, preparing 
 to return, learned that the celebrated Admiral de 
 Ruyter had entered the Mediterranean, with the 
 purpose of operating in conjunction with the 
 Spaniards, and soon after received orders to 
 take command of a strong fleet and to go to 
 meet the great Dutch admiral. 
 
 Duquesne was now about 64 years of age. He 
 sailed in December, 1675, with a fleet of 20 ships 
 of the line and 6 fire-ships, direct for Messina. 
 Ruyter no sooner learned that he was at sea than 
 he used all means to encounter him, giving out 
 that his purpose was to fight and conquer the 
 brave Duquesne. Par nobile fratrum. 
 
 The opposing fleets met off the Lipari Islands, 
 on the 7th of January, 1676, and passed the entire 
 day in manoeuvring, and the succeeding night in 
 working for the weather-gage. 
 
 Next morning Duquesne found himself to 
 windward, and bore down to engage Ruyter. 
 The French fleet was in three divisions, the cen 
 tre commanded by Duquesne, in the "Saint 
 Esprit." The Dutch fleet was also in three di 
 visions, and consisted of 24 sail of the line, 2 
 ships armed en flute, and 4 fire-ships. 
 
 The French fleet came down in perfect order, 
 and the battle opened at 9 A.M., the engagement 
 soon becoming general. It was stubbornly con 
 tested, and lasted, with varying fortunes, for 
 four hours and a half, the result being that 
 the Dutch fleet, which had intended to bar Du- 
 quesne s passage, was so handled that the French 
 admiral was able to anchor in Messina on the 
 next day. During this action the two flag-ships 
 exchanged many broadsides, in which encounters 
 the Dutch had rather the advantage. 
 
 Both fleets having been refitted and reinforced, 
 they met again on April 22, 1676; Duquesne 
 having 30 ships of the line and 8 fire-ships, and 
 Ruyter 29 ships of the line, 9 galleys, and 4 fire- 
 ships. 
 
 When the action became general the admirals 
 ships engaged each other, and Ruyter was wound 
 ed in several places. After a tremendous battle 
 the Dutch vice-admiral, De Haan, drew off his 
 forces at sunset, and took refuge in the close 
 port of Syracuse, Duquesne keeping the sea on 
 the site of the battle, with his battle-lanterns 
 burning. Next day he appeared off Syracuse, but 
 without being able to draw out his opponents. 
 
 Ruyter died of his wounds within a few days, 
 and the whole operation was a great victory for 
 Duquesne. On May 26 of the same year the 
 French fleet attacked the allied fleet in the Bay 
 of Palermo, and the fire-ships of Duquesne blew 
 up twelve Dutch and Spanish vessels, and with 
 them Admiral De Haan, Admiral Don Diego 
 Ibarra, and others ; the French loss being com 
 paratively small. 
 
 Upon his return from this action Duquesne 
 met the "Concordia," which ship was carrying 
 back to Holland the remains of the illustrious 
 De Ruyter. Giving her free passage, he saluted 
 the remains in an appropriate manner. Louis 
 XIV. ordered all the forts and batteries in sight 
 of which the Dutch vessel bearing his remains 
 passed to salute. See RUYTER. 
 
 When it came to recompensing Duquesne for 
 all his long and arduous and distinguished ser 
 vices, Louis XIV. required him to renounce the 
 Protestant faith, promising him a marshal s 
 baton and other honors. Duquesne simply re 
 plied that if he was a Protestant his services 
 were Catholic. He received the domain of Du 
 Bouchet, and was made marquis by letters dated 
 February, 1681. 
 
 He continued to serve at sea, though now an 
 old man. Among other exploits of this date, he 
 burned some Spanish vessels in the harbor of 
 Barcelona. 
 
 After the peace of Nimeguen he kept very 
 quiet, and seldom went to court, an unusual 
 thing in those days, especially for those who had 
 claims to distinction. 
 
 In 1682 he was sent with a fleet against the 
 Moors of Algiers, which city he bombarded for 
 several days with great effect, but was forced by 
 the weather to return and winter at Toulon. In 
 June, 1683, he appeared before Algiers again, 
 completely reducing the place, so that the popu 
 lation rose against the dey. The French slaves 
 were given up, but Mezzo Morto, who had suc 
 ceeded to the dey slain by the insurgents, re 
 newed the defense, when the bombardment was 
 continued by Duquesne to an extent which ren 
 dered the Algerines harmless for a long time, by 
 destroying all their vessels and naval stores. 
 
 Two years afterwards 1684 Duquesne com 
 manded the French fleet which bombarded Genoa, 
 and, at different times, inflicted so much damage 
 as to oblige the doge and four senators to come 
 to Versailles, to beg pardon, in person, from the 
 king. It was on this occasion that the doge was 
 asked what he found most surprising in Ver 
 sailles, and answered "that it was to find him 
 self there." The Genoese expedition was Du- 
 quesne s last service. He had served sixty years. 
 The revocation of the Edict of Nantes distressed 
 the veteran seaman beyond measure. He alone 
 of all the Protestants of France was excepted 
 from proscription, and retained his rank and 
 honors, but his children and friends, his relatives 
 and co-religionists, were banished, and this had 
 a most depressing effect upon the veteran ad 
 miral, and, no doubt, hastened his death. 
 
 He died at Paris on February 2, 1688, aged 
 78 years. By his last words he implored his 
 eldest son not to serve against his country, as 
 many of the exiled Huguenots were then doing. 
 So great was the feeling at the time of his death 
 that his remains were privately buried, his son s 
 request to have them sent to him, in Switzer 
 land, being "refused ; but he erected a tablet to 
 his memory. This was a great contrast to the 
 splendid obsequies and tomb given by Holland 
 to his adversary, Ruyter. 
 
 Louis XVI. afterwards made some reparation 
 for this treatment of a great French naval hero, 
 by placing Duquesne s portrait in the royal 
 apartments at Versailles, and in 1844 the city of 
 Dieppe erected u bronze statue in his honor. 
 
DUR-MAST 
 
 233 
 
 EAR 
 
 One of the large vessels of the French navy is 
 generally called u Duquesne." E. Shippen. 
 
 Dur-mast. An inferior kind of oak of rapid 
 growth. 
 
 Dust. Broken particles of hard bread. 
 
 Dutch. The people of Holland. The lan 
 guage spoken in Holland ; hence any gibberish 
 or language which Jack does not understand. 
 
 DUTCH-CAPER. A light-armed vessel of the 
 17th century, adapted for privateering, and 
 much used by the Dutch. 
 
 DUTCH CONSOLATION. Negative consolation. 
 
 DUTCH COURAGE. The excitement inspired 
 by drinking spirits ; false energy. 
 
 DUTCH EEL-SKUYT. A flat-bottomed cutter- 
 rigged sea-boat, carrying lee-boards, fitted with 
 two water-tight bulkheads, making a well for 
 keeping live fish in, the water being admitted 
 through perforated plates fastened on inside the 
 ribs. 
 
 DUTCHIFYINO. A term used for converting 
 square sterns to round ones. 
 
 DUTCHMAN S BREECHES. The patch of blue 
 sky often seen when a gale is breaking is said 
 to be, however small, " enough to make a pair 
 of breeches for a Dutchman." Others assign the 
 habiliment to a Welshman, but give no author 
 ity for the assumption. 
 
 DUTCH PLAICE. The Pleuronectes platessa. 
 When small, it is called fleak ; when large, Dutch 
 plaice. 
 
 DUTCH PUMP. A punishment so contrived 
 
 that, if the prisoner would not pump hard, he 
 was drowned. 
 
 DUTCH RECKONING. A bad day s work, all 
 in the wrong. 
 
 DUTCH REDS. High-smoked herrings pre 
 pared in Holland. 
 
 Duttees. Coarse brown calicoes of India. 
 
 Duty. The exercise of those functions which 
 belong to the service, and are carried out from 
 the highest to the lowest. See CUSTOMS. 
 
 D -valve. A slide-valve provided with semi- 
 cylindrical ends around which steam-tight pack 
 ing is placed, thus relieving the valve-faces and 
 valve-seat of the steam-pressure to which the un 
 balanced plain slide-valve is subjected. The 
 friction of the packing, however, when insur 
 ing a steam-tight joint, is about equal to that 
 due to the steam-pressure, and the device is now 
 obsolete. It was formerly in extensive use in 
 British steam-engines. 
 
 Dyce, or Thyst. See DICE. 
 
 Dyelle. A kind of mud-drag used for clean 
 ing rivers. 
 
 Dying Man s Dinner. A snatch of refresh 
 ment when the ship is in extreme danger. 
 
 Dyke. From the Anglo-Saxon die, a mound 
 or bank. 
 
 Dyke-cam. A ditch-bank. 
 
 Dynamite. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Dynamometer. An instrument for measuring 
 force or power, especially that of animals or 
 machines. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eager, or Eagre. The whole of the flood-tide 
 moving up a river in one tidal wave, or in two 
 or three successive waves. The name seems to 
 be derived from the Anglo-Saxon edgor, water, 
 or JEgir, the Scandinavian god of the sea. See 
 BORE. 
 
 Eagle, Henry, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 New York. Appointed midshipman from that 
 State, January 1, 1818. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1827 ; 
 in sloop " Natchez," West Indies, 1827 ; frigate 
 " Hudson," Brazil, 1829-31 ; receiving-ship, at 
 New York, 1833-34; sloop "Erie," Brazil, 
 1835-37 ; rendezvous, New York, 1840 ; sloop 
 "Yorktown," Pacific, 1841-42; commanding 
 schooner "Shark," Pacific, 1843-44. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, June 4, 1844 ; 
 superintended the construction of Stevens s iron 
 ship, Hoboken, N. J., for three years, to 1846 ; 
 inspector, etc., at New York, 1846 ; commanding 
 bomb-vessel "^tna," and a division of the 
 squadron of five vessels during the Mexican 
 war ; stationed at Tabasco, also civil and mili 
 tary governor of the province, and collector of 
 the port, 1847-48 ; special service, 1851 ; com 
 manding steamer " Princeton," Home Squadron, 
 1854-55. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855 ; 
 volunteered for the command of gunboat " Mon- 
 
 ticello," in April, 1861, and was in command of 
 her during the attack on Se well s Point Battery, 
 Virginia, May 19, 1861 ; commanding frigate 
 "Santee," Gulf Squadron, 1861-62. The boats 
 of the " Santee" captured the privateer " Royal 
 Yacht," Galveston harbor. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862; 
 prize commissioner, New York, 1864-65 ; light 
 house inspector, 1865-66. Retired January 1, 
 1863. 
 
 Eagle. The standard of the eagle was first 
 borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried 
 figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and 
 gold, and sometimes represented with a thunder 
 bolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they 
 adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 
 B.C. When Charlemagne became master of the 
 whole of the German empire, he added the second 
 head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the 
 empires of Rome and Germany were united in 
 him, A.D. 802. The eagle was the imperial stand 
 ard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, 
 and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of 
 the United States of America. 
 
 A gold coin of the value of f 10. See SPREAD- 
 EAGLE. 
 
 Eagle-ray. A large species of ray-fish (Myil- 
 obatis aquila] ; called also miller. 
 
 Ear. A lug cast on old projectiles of great 
 
BAKING 
 
 234 
 
 ECHINEIS 
 
 weight, for convenience in handling. Ears of a 
 boat, an old term for the knee-pieces at the bow 
 on the outside at the gunwale height. 
 
 Earing. A small line used to fasten >the upper 
 corners of a sail to the yard or gatf, or the cor 
 ners of an awning to the rigging or stanchions. 
 Those at the upper corners of a square-sail are 
 called head-earings to distinguish them from the 
 reef-earings. 
 
 EARING, BULL-. An earing to haul out the 
 edge of an awning. An earing composed of two 
 ropes spliced into each other and marled to 
 gether, forming an eye, which goes over the top 
 sail yard-arm; used for the first and second 
 reefs. 
 
 EARING-CRINGLE. The cringle through which 
 an earing is passed. 
 
 EARING, HEAD-. See EARING. 
 
 EARING, REEF-. See REEF-EARING. 
 
 Earne, or Erne. The sea-eagle. 
 
 Earth. The globe which we inhabit. It is 
 the third planet in order from the sun, and the 
 largest within the belt of the planetoids. It is 
 in form an oblate spheroid, the equatorial diam 
 eter being 7925.6 miles, and the polar 7899.1 
 miles, the polar compression being about -fa of 
 the diameter. The surface of the earth contains 
 nearly 150,000,000 square miles. The earth 
 moves around the sun in an ellipse, the journey 
 being performed in about 365^ days. The least dis 
 tance of the earth from the sun is over 94,000,000 
 miles, and the greatest is over 96,000,000, the 
 mean distance being about 95,000,000. The ve 
 locity of the earth in its orbit is about 19 miles 
 per second. The earth has also a daily motion 
 on its axis, the velocity increasing from the pole, 
 being about 1440 feet per second at the equator. 
 
 The globular form of the earth, the five zones, 
 some of the principal circles of the sphere, the 
 opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
 eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, 
 by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Its mag 
 nitude was calculated from measuring an arc of 
 the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 B.C. The 
 Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and 
 the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all 
 towards the west to the kings of Spain. Py 
 thagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes 
 of the stars by change of place, that the earth 
 must be round ; that there might be antipodes 
 on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus 
 was the morning and evening star; that the 
 universe consisted of twelve spheres, the sphere 
 of the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere 
 of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the 
 moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, 
 Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 
 B.C. Aristarchus, of Samos, . maintained that 
 the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved 
 about the sun; which doctrine was held by his 
 contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher 
 had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 B.C. 
 
 The notion of its magnetism was started by 
 Gilbert in 1576. The experiments of M. Richer, 
 in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in 
 the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation 
 of its axis was discovered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. 
 The first voyage round the globe was performed 
 by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magellan s 
 squadron, 1520-24. The first English navigator 
 who performed the same enterprise was Sir 
 Francis Drake, 1577. 
 
 Ease. To ease away or to ease off is to slack 
 off a rope carefully. To ease the helm is to put 
 the helm more nearly amidships, to lessen its 
 effect on the ship, or to lessen the strain on the 
 wheel rope. Ease her, applied to the engine, 
 means to reduce the speed. 
 
 East (Aug. -Sax. y st). The cardinal point 
 in that part of the horizon where the heavenly 
 bodies rise. The east and west points are the 
 points in which the prime vertical intersects the 
 horizon ; and they are the origins whence am 
 plitudes are reckoned. 
 
 EASTING. The distance in nautical miles which 
 a ship makes to the eastward ; it is the departure 
 when sailing eastward. 
 
 Eastport. A port of entry of "Washington 
 Co., Me., on Moose Island, in Passamaquoddy 
 Bay, 25 miles S.S.E. of Calais, and 100 miles E. 
 of Bangor. The tide rises about 25 feet, and 
 prevents the ice from obstructing the harbor. 
 The town is on the eastern frontier of the United 
 States ; principally supported by the fisheries, 
 lumber business, and coast trade. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Easy. A ship rolls easy when she rolls slowly 
 and smoothly without sudden jerks. Easy 
 draft is the same as light draft. 
 
 Eat. To make progress against a difficulty by 
 slow degrees ; as, to eat to windward. To eat the 
 wind out of a vessel is to gain to windward of her 
 by close attention to the helm, and developing 
 the sailing powers to the utmost. 
 
 Ebb. The running out of the tide, from the 
 Anglo-Saxon ep-fod~ See TIDE. 
 
 EBB, LINE OF. The strip of beach left dry 
 by the tide. 
 
 Eburna. A genus of gasteropodous mollusks, 
 having a smooth shell covered with a shining 
 enamel. 
 
 Eccentric. A circular disk keyed on and re 
 volving with a shaft, with the axis of which its 
 centre does not coincide. It is used to convert a 
 rotary motion to reciprocating motion, as in tho 
 valve-gear of steam-engines, and is equivalent to 
 a crank having the distance between the crank- 
 pin and shaft axis the same as the distance be^ 
 tween the centre of the eccentric disk and the 
 axis of the shaft. This device can be applied to 
 shafts of all diameters without impairing their 
 strength. 
 
 ECCENTRIC-HOOK. A hook or notch in one 
 end of an eccentric-rod, by means of which the 
 eccentric motion is readily connected with or de 
 tached from the remaining portion of the valve- 
 gear, thus enabling the valves of an engine to be 
 worked by the starting-bar and hand-gear. It 
 is sometimes called a gab. 
 
 ECCENTRIC-HOOF, or STRAP. An adjustable 
 band encircling an eccentric, which revolves 
 within it, and to which the eccentric-rod is 
 rigidly attached. 
 
 ECCENTRIC-ROD. A rod or bar, one end of 
 which is rigidly secured to an eccentric strap or 
 hoop, and the other end connected with such re 
 ciprocating parts of machinery as a Stephenson 
 link, valve-stem cross-head, or rock-shaft arm of 
 the valve-gear of a steam-engine. In engines 
 that require to be worked by hand in starting, 
 the end of the eccentric-rod is connected to the 
 other valve-gear by an easily detached hook. 
 See ECCENTRIC-HOOK. 
 
 Echineis. A genus of fishes, including the 
 sucking-fish, or remora. 
 
ECHINUS 
 
 235 
 
 EGYPTIAN HERKING 
 
 Echinus. A genus of Echinoderms ; sea- 
 urchin (Echinus esculentus) ; sea-hedgehog. 
 
 Eclipse (Gr. ekleipsis, from ekleipein, to leave 
 out ; to suffer a disappearance). The disappear 
 ing, in whole or in part, of a heavenly body in 
 consequence of the intervention of another body. 
 
 A lunar eclipse takes place when the moon is 
 in opposition, or on the opposite side of the 
 earth from the sun (and when, therefore, it is 
 full moon), provided she is at the same time very 
 near one of her nodes, or the points where her 
 orbit crosses the plane of the ecliptic. If the 
 full moon is in the node, it will also be in the 
 axis of the earth s shadow, and the eclipse will 
 be central, possibly continuing for two hours, as 
 the breadth of the shadow where the moon 
 crosses it is about 2| the moon s diameter ; when 
 the full moon is so near the node as to be wholly 
 immersed in the shadow, the eclipse will be 
 total ; and when only a part of the disk is im 
 mersed, the eclipse will be partial. 
 
 Instead of the earth and moon, we may con 
 template any other planet that has a satellite. 
 The satellite is eclipsed in the shadow of the 
 planet, such phenomenon being to a spectator on 
 the surface of the planet a lunar eclipse. We 
 observe also the shadow of the satellite passing 
 over the disk of the planet. By a spectator on a 
 portion of the surface of the planet in such a 
 case, a solar eclipse would be experienced ; but 
 as viewed from the earth, such a phenomenon is 
 described as a transit of the shadow of the sat 
 ellite. 
 
 The second case is where a body is eclipsed by 
 the spectator passing through the shadow of the 
 intervening body, the appearance being different 
 according to the position of the spectator. This 
 occurs in solar eclipses. When the moon is in 
 conjunction i.e., in the same part of the 
 heavens with the sun (and when, therefore, it is 
 new moon) the intersection of the moon s 
 conical shadow with the earth s surface pro 
 duces a black spot which sweeps over the illu 
 minated hemisphere of the earth from west to 
 east, and resembles in its effects a cloud carried 
 by a west wind which hides the sun from the 
 places nearly below it. To places over which 
 the umbra passes, there will be a total eclipse ; 
 those places which the penumbra reaches will 
 experience a partial eclipse. In case the umbra 
 of the moon does not extend as far as the earth 
 or, in other words, when the moon s apparent 
 diameter is less than that of the sun a spectator 
 below the centre of the umbra will see an annu 
 lar eclipse, the dark disk of the moon being sur 
 rounded by a luminous " ring" of the sun s disk. 
 
 There is another class of phenomena analogous 
 to eclipses, and which are sometimes included in 
 the term. These are occupations and transits. 
 An occultation is the hiding of a heavenly body 
 from view by an apparently, larger body inter 
 vening between it and the spectator. Thus the 
 moon interposes and causes occultations of fixed 
 stars and planets ; the planets hide from view 
 their satellites. A transit is the passing of a 
 small body across the disk of a larger one. Thus, 
 we have transits of the inferior planets, Mercury 
 and Venus, across the face of the sun ; and of 
 this character, strictly speaking, is an annular 
 eclipse of the sun by the moon. We have also 
 transits of Jupiter s satellites across his disk. 
 
 The theory of eclipses was known to the 
 
 Chinese at least 120 B.C. An eclipse was sup 
 posed by most of the Eastern nations to be the 
 effect of magic ; hence the custom among them 
 of drumming during its continuance. The first 
 eclipse recorded happened March 19, 721 B.C., 
 according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was 
 observed with accuracy at Babylon. The revo 
 lution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, 
 the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians say they 
 had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, 
 and 832 of the moon, up to the period from 
 Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. 
 
 Ecliptic (Gr. ekleiptikos, pertaining to an 
 eclipse). So called because, that an eclipse of 
 the moon may be possible, she must be in or near 
 the path which the sun appears to describe an 
 nually in the heavens, round the earth as centre, 
 from west to east, in consequence of the revolu 
 tion of the earth in her orbit round the sun in 
 the same direction. 
 
 The ecliptic is the natural equator of the 
 heavens, and is the primitive circle in one of the 
 systems of co-ordinates for defining points of the 
 celestial sphere, and indicating their positions 
 relatively to each other, the co-ordinates being 
 longitude and latitude. The ecliptic is divided 
 into twelve parts called "signs," each contain 
 ing 30, and receiving their names from constel 
 lations which were situated in them at the time 
 the names were given. These divisions com 
 mence from the vernal equinocti^point, or first 
 point of Aries. 
 
 Eddy. A current of air or water having a 
 circular motion ; the back-curl of the water 
 under the stern. An eddy of wind may be 
 caused by its striking against a bluff, sail, or 
 other obstacle ; an eddy in the water by a shoal, 
 rock, point of land, etc. 
 
 Edge. To edge away or to edge off is to move 
 off by slow degrees. To edge down is to approach 
 an object by slow degrees, more particularly ap 
 plicable to a sailing-vessel approaching an object 
 in an oblique direction from to windward. 
 
 Eduction-pipe. See EXHAUST-PIPE. 
 
 Eduction-port. See EXHAUST-PORT. 
 
 Eel. A species of Anguilla, or of Murcena, 
 etc., genera of soft-finned, snake-like fishes, be 
 longing to the order Apodes. 
 
 The "common eel of the eastern United States 
 is the Anguilla tenuirostns ; the conger-eel is the 
 Murcena conger. The electrical eel of tropical 
 South America belongs to the genus Gymnotus. 
 - EEL-FARES. A brood of eels. 
 
 EEL-GRASS. The sea-wrack (Zostera marina}. 
 
 EEL-POUT. A name for the burbot (Molva 
 lota). 
 
 EEL-SKUYT. See DUTCH EEL-SKUYT. 
 
 EEL-SPEAR. A sort of trident for spearing 
 eels. 
 
 Effects. Personal property. 
 
 Effluent. A stream which runs out of a lake, 
 or another stream. 
 
 Eft. A saurian reptile, the Lacerta seps of 
 Linnaeus ; a salamander, or newt, especially the 
 common smooth newt. 
 
 Egg. To egg on, to provoke, to urge on, from 
 the Anglo-Saxon eggion. 
 
 Egmont Fowls. The large Antarctic gulls 
 with dark-brown plumage; called also shoe 
 makers. 
 
 Egyptian Herring. A name for the gow- 
 danook, saury-pike, or Scomberesox saurus. 
 
EIDER-DUCK 
 
 236 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 Eider-duck. The Somateria mollissima, a 
 large duck of the northern seas ; the down on 
 the breast is valuable on account of its softness 
 and lightness. 
 
 Eighen. The index of the early quadrant. 
 
 Ejectamenta Maris. Sea-products thrown on 
 the beach. See JETSOM. 
 
 Eking. Making good any deficiency in the 
 length of a piece of timber by scarfing or but 
 ting, as at the ends of hooks or knees. It is also 
 a piece of carved work under the lower part of 
 the quarter-gallery of a ship. 
 
 Elbing. A fortified seaport of West Prussia, 
 34 miles E.S.E. of Dantzic. It consists of an 
 old town, a new town, and suburbs, and was 
 until lately inclosed by walls, of which small 
 portions remain. The manufactories of woolen 
 cloths, refined sugar, vitriol, pearl-ash, tobacco, 
 sail-cloth, etc., are very extensive. It has a very 
 large trade. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Elbow. A sudden change in the direction 
 of a stream or channel. A promontory. See 
 HAWSE. 
 
 Electrical Eel. A fish, or eel, of the genus 
 Gymnotus (G. electricus), from 2 to 5 feet in 
 length, capable of giving a violent electric shock. 
 
 Electricity. The theory most readily under 
 stood, and which most satisfactorily explains the 
 various electrical phenomena, is as follows : 
 
 " That every substance and every atom of the 
 world is pervaded by a peculiar, subtle, impon 
 derable fluid which is termed Electricity, but 
 which is not known to exist, or remains in a 
 state of electrical equilibrium, until evoked by 
 certain causes." 
 
 The effect of causing a disturbance of this 
 equilibrium is to increase the normal, or natural, 
 electricity in some particles, and to equally de 
 crease it in other particles, i.e., what one loses 
 the other gains. An excess of natural electricity 
 is denoted by the term positive, or mathematical 
 symbol (-f-)> while a deficiency is denoted by the 
 term negative, or symbol ( ). 
 
 Like electricities repel each other. 
 
 That is to say, two bodies charged with an ex 
 cess of, or positive electricity, being brought to 
 gether repel each other, neither wishing to in 
 crease the excess that has been evoked in them. 
 
 Similarly in the case of two bodies charged 
 with a deficiency of, or negative, electricity, 
 neither wish to add to the deficiency already 
 there. 
 
 In both these cases there can be no tendency 
 to electrical equilibrium, which is the principle 
 at work. In the former case, there being already 
 too much, more will but increase the disturbance. 
 
 In the latter case, further deficiency will but 
 add to the irregularity. 
 
 Unlike electricities attract each other. 
 
 That is to say, if two bodies, one charged with 
 positive, or having an excess of electricity, the 
 other charged with negative, or having a de 
 ficiency of electricity, be brought together, they 
 will attract each other; both being desirous of 
 altering their existing state, the one by decreas 
 ing its excess, and the other by decreasing its 
 deficiency of electricity. 
 
 In this case there will be a tendency to equi 
 librium, caused by attraction. The earth is sup 
 posed to be a vast reservoir of electricity, from 
 which a quantity can be drawn to fill up a de 
 ficiency, and which is always ready to receive an 
 
 excess from other bodies. Every body in nature 
 has its own natural quantity of electricity, and 
 when an object is negatively electrified, or has a 
 deficiency in its normal quantity, there is a tend 
 ency to receive a supply from any convenient 
 source. Such an object would receive electricity 
 from the earth if means were afforded ; and a 
 body positively electrified would tend to part 
 with its excess in the same manner. Where such 
 facilities for establishing electrical equilibrium 
 are afforded, the result is the passage of a current 
 of electricity. 
 
 Conductors. Sensible effects can be produced 
 by electricity at great distances from the source, 
 provided there be a medium of communication, 
 that is, good conductors to transfer it. When a 
 glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk, it be 
 comes charged with an excess of, or positive, 
 electricity, and at the same time the silk becomes 
 charged with negative electricity. 
 
 The glass rod will retain the positive electricity 
 upon it for some time, unless touched with the 
 wet hand, a wet cloth, a metal, etc., when it will 
 instantly cease to be electrified. The electricity 
 is then said to have been conducted away, and 
 the bodies which allow it to run off the glass are 
 called conductors of electricity. Metals, water, 
 the human body, charcoal, damp wood, and 
 many other bodies are conductors. 
 
 Those bodies which conduct electricity hardly 
 at all, such as the air, silk, glass, sealing-wax, 
 gutta-percha, india-rubber, etc. , are termed non 
 conductors or insulators. 
 
 Strictly speaking, all substances conduct elec 
 tricity in some degree, and a non-conductor is 
 merely a bad conductor. 
 
 In the following table the bodies are arranged 
 in their order of conductivity, i.e., each sub 
 stance conducts better than that which precedes 
 it; the first-named body is the best insulator, 
 and the last-named one is the best conductor. 
 
 Dry air. 
 
 Ebonite. 
 
 Paraffin. 
 
 Resin. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Sealing-wax. 
 
 Glass. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Dry paper. 
 
 Porcelain. 
 
 Dry wood. 
 
 Stone. 
 
 Pure water. 
 
 Rarefied air. 
 
 Sea-water. 
 
 Shellac. 
 
 India-rubber. 
 
 Gutta-percha. 
 
 Saline solutions. 
 
 Acids. 
 
 Charcoal, or Coke. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Though two substances are near one another 
 in the above list, they do not necessarily ap 
 proach one another in their power of conducting. 
 For instance, taking the conducting power of 
 pure silver as represented by the number 100, 
 then 
 
 Pure Copper will be equal to 99.9, 
 
 Gold will be equal to 78.0, 
 while Zinc will be only equal to 29.0, 
 
 and pure water, which is half-way down the list, 
 will offer 6754 millions more resistance than sil 
 ver to the passage of the electric current. 
 The metals being the best-known conductors, 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 237 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 are usually employed as the means of trans 
 ferring the electric current from one place to 
 another. 
 
 Electric Circuit. The conditions attending 
 this operation are diiferent from those of any 
 other known method of transmission. 
 
 A complete circuit must always be formed by 
 the electric current, i.e., it cannot start from one 
 place A, travel to another place B, and cease 
 there, but the current must be completed before 
 it can be said to have reached B. There cannot 
 be a current of electricity without a means of 
 recombination, which recombination must be at 
 the source, or place of original disturbance. 
 
 This " place of disturbance" or source must be 
 considered as having two sides, i.e., at some spot 
 the normal or natural electrical equilibrium is 
 disturbed, and electricity is separated into too 
 much (positive) on one side, and too little (nega 
 tive) on the other side. If then no means of re 
 combination be afforded, the electricities remain 
 separated, and no current exists ; but if a con 
 ductor be made to connect the two sides, elec 
 tricity is set in motion, and a current established. 
 Originally, to form a circuit between two stations 
 A and B, a conducting wire and a return wire 
 were necessary, but in 1837 Steinway discovered 
 that the earth itself answered all the purposes of 
 a return wire, in fact, under favorable conditions, 
 much better. Thus, to form a circuit between A 
 and B, a conducting- wire is required, and a 
 buried metal plate at A and B, the earth by 
 these means taking the place of the return wire. 
 
 The aforesaid metal plates are technically 
 termed earth-plates. The greater the size of 
 the earth-plates (up to certain limits), the deeper 
 they are buried, and the better the conducting 
 power of the soil surrounding them, the better 
 conductors the plates become, or the less resist 
 ance the earth portion of the circuit offers. If 
 either plate be not in communication with the 
 earth, or else be separated from the wire, the 
 circuit is not complete, or, as it is termed, "it is 
 broken," and no current will flow, the signal not 
 made, torpedo not fired, etc. 
 
 " Short" Circuit. Due to the fact that recom 
 bination, or a tendency to equilibrium, is always 
 at work when electricity has been evoked, the 
 conducting path along which the electric current 
 flows must be covered with a non-conducting sub 
 stance, or, as it termed, "insulated," or else the 
 current would not perform its duty, but escape 
 to earth, and so form what is termed a "short" 
 circuit. 
 
 A current of electricity always chooses the 
 easiest path to effect recombination, or electrical 
 equilibrium. 
 
 Insulators, etc. On land, telegraph-wires are, 
 as a rule, laid above the ground, and therefore 
 require supporting at every few yards; this is 
 done by means of posts, and as these are formed 
 of substances which are conductors of electricity, 
 the wires require to be insulated from them. 
 The insulators generally employed for such pur 
 poses are cup-shaped pieces of porcelain, or pot 
 tery, fixed to the head of the telegraph-posts. 
 By means of these insulators, the current of elec 
 tricity is prevented from escaping to the earth by 
 the post-conductors. 
 
 A certain amount of leakage, or loss of elec 
 tricity, must occur at each of these posts, as there 
 is no such thing as a perfect insulator. When 
 
 the wires are laid on the ground or underground, 
 or under water, they are insulated by covering 
 them with gutta-percha, india-rubber, etc., and 
 any loss of current is thus prevented. 
 
 "Methods of generating Electricity. For the 
 purposes of torpedo warfare there are two 
 methods of evoking electricity, viz. : 
 
 1. By chemical action. 
 
 2. By friction. 
 
 By Chemical Action. Chemical action is the 
 chief source of free electricity, the representa 
 tive of which is the galvanic, or Voltaic, bat 
 tery. 
 
 The electricity s6 generated is also termed dy 
 namical electricity, due to there being a constant 
 electric current, so long as the poles of the bat 
 tery producing it are kept closed ; the electricity 
 being thus in a dynamic or moving state. 
 
 By chemical action is signified that which oc 
 curs when two or more substances so act upon 
 one another as to produce a third substance dif 
 fering altogether from the original ones in its 
 properties, or when one substance is brought un 
 der such conditions that it forms two or more 
 bodies differing from the original ones in their 
 properties. 
 
 Definition and Properties of a Voltaic Cell. 
 The Voltaic cell consists of an insulating jar, 
 containing a liquid, in which are placed two 
 plates or pieces of dissimilar metals ; the liquid 
 must be composed of two or more chemical ele 
 ments, one of which at least tends to combine 
 with one or other of the metals, or with both in 
 different degrees. 
 
 By a Voltaic battery is meant a number of 
 cells above one ; this term, however, is often ap 
 plied to a single cell when working by itself. 
 
 A " simple Voltaic cell," "element," or 
 "couple," consists of two metals placed in a 
 conducting liquid. If two metals for instance, 
 zinc and copper are placed in water slightly 
 acidulated, without touching each other, no 
 effect is apparent ; but if they be made to touch, 
 bubbles of hydrogen gas are formed over the 
 copper plate, and continue forming there until 
 the plates are separated. After being in contact 
 for some time, the copper plate will be found un 
 altered in weight, but the zinc plate will have 
 lost weight, and the portion so lost will be found 
 in the liquid in the form of sulphate of zinc. 
 The same effects are also produced by connecting 
 the two plates by means of some conducting sub 
 stance instead of placing them in contact. 
 
 Zinc is invariably employed as one of the 
 metal plates, on account of the ease with which 
 it dissolves in dilute acids ; and the greatest re 
 sults are obtained when the second metal plate 
 is not acted upon at all by the liquid, for then 
 the whole effect due to the oxidation of the zinc 
 plate is obtained ; but when the second plate is 
 also chemically acted upon, then only the effect 
 due to the difference between the two chemical 
 actions is obtained, for they each act in directly 
 opposite directions. 
 
 Voltaic Current. The Voltaic current makes 
 its appearance under the general laws of elec 
 trical action. 
 
 When a body charged with an excess of, or 
 positive, electricity, is connected with the earth, 
 electricity is transferred from the charged body 
 to the earth ; and similarly when a body charged 
 with a deficiency of, or negative, electricity, ft 
 
ELECTKICITY 
 
 238 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 connected with the earth, electricity is transferred 
 from the earth to the body. 
 
 Generally, whenever two conductors in differ 
 ent electrical conditions are put in contact, elec 
 tricity will flow from one to the other. That 
 which determines the direction of the transfer 
 is the relative potential of the two conductors. 
 Electricity always flows from a body at higher 
 potential to one at lower potential, when the two 
 are in contact, or connected by a conductor. 
 When no transfer of electricity takes place un 
 der these conditions, the bodies are said to be at 
 the same potential, which may be either high or 
 low. The potential of the earth is assumed to be 
 zero. 
 
 Definition of Potential. "The potential of a 
 body or point", is the difference between the poten 
 tial of the body or point, and the potential of the 
 earth." 
 
 Difference of potential for electricity is analo 
 gous to difference of level for water. Now, 
 since, when a metal is placed in a vessel con 
 taining a liquid, electricity is produced, the 
 liquid becomes of a different potential to the 
 metal, each being electrified in an opposite way ; 
 and therefore, as above stated, there being a 
 difference of potentials, electricity will tend to 
 flow from one to the other. 
 
 This is evidence of a, force being in action, for 
 there can be no motion without some force to 
 produce it. 
 
 Electro-motive Force.- Electro-motive force is 
 the name given to a peculiar force to which is 
 due the property of producing a difference of 
 potential. "When it is said that zinc and water 
 produce a definite electro-motive force, what is 
 meant is, that by their contact a certain definite 
 difference of potentials is produced. 
 
 The electro-motive force of a Voltaic element 
 may be termed its working power, in the same 
 Way as the pressure of steam is the working 
 power of a steam-engine, though this is not to 
 be considered as the real source of power, which, 
 as will be seen, is uncertain. Due to the differ 
 ence of potential of the metal and the liquid, a 
 current of electricity will flow from one to the 
 other, causing the chemical decomposition of the 
 liquid, and the reaction may be taken as the 
 origin of the power employed. 
 
 But while the expenditure of energy (which 
 is necessary to produce a force] is accounted for 
 by taking the chemical action as the source of 
 power, the preceding cause of this chemical ac 
 tion, viz., the flowing of the current of electricity 
 due to the difference of potential of the metal 
 and the liquid, must also have first involved the 
 expenditure of energy ; thus the real source of 
 power is very uncertain. 
 
 Electrolytes. As before stated, a Voltaic cell 
 consists of two plates of dissimilar metals, which 
 must be immersed in a liquid composed of two 
 or more chemical elements, one of which at least 
 will combine with one or other of the metals, or 
 both in a different degree. Those liquids which 
 are thus decomposed by the passage of a current 
 of electricity are termed electrolytes. 
 
 The elements, then, forming the electrolyte 
 may have chemical affinity for both metals, 
 though in a greater degree for one than the 
 other. 
 
 "Oxygen" is the most important element of 
 an electrolyte, and to the affinity for oxygen of 
 
 the metals is the magnitude of the result and 
 effect. 
 
 Terms Electro-positive and Electro-negative. 
 All metals have a definite relation to each other 
 as to the potential which any one may have 
 when brought into contact with another. Thus, 
 when zinc is brought into contact with copper, 
 the former has a potential positive to the latter, 
 i.e., a current of electricity will tend to flow 
 from the zinc to the copper. The metals may 
 be so placed in a list that each one would be 
 positive to any of those that follow it ; it is then 
 said to be electro-positive to them, and they are 
 electro-negative to it. As those metals which 
 are electro-positive to others have a greater af 
 finity for oxygen, and those that are electro 
 negative to others a less affinity for this element, 
 the terms electro-positive and electro-negative 
 signify, in effect, greater or less affinity for this 
 element. Conversely, oxygen will combine 
 more readily with the former than with the 
 latter. 
 
 The following list shows the commoner metals 
 arranged in electro-chemical order: 
 -f Zinc. 
 Lead. 
 Tin. 
 Iron. 
 
 Antimony. 
 Copper. 
 Silver. 
 Gold. 
 
 Take the case of a Voltaic cell composed of 
 zinc and copper plates immersed in water. 
 
 The passage of electricity through the water 
 will decompose it into its elements hydrogen and 
 oxygen, the latter having an affinity for both 
 the plates, but considerably more so for the zinc 
 plate. 
 
 Then, an electro-motive force will be gener 
 ated at each metal, and these forces will act in 
 opposition to each other, but the greater strength 
 of the one will overcome the weaker, and "the 
 real power of the electric current will be the 
 difference between the two. 
 
 Definition of " Elements." The battery-plates 
 are termed the positive and negative elements. 
 A Voltaic battery has two poles, a positive and 
 a negative, which are the terminations of the 
 plates. 
 
 Direction of Current. The course of the cur 
 rent in a Voltaic cell is as follows : Within it 
 leaves the electro-positive plate (or element), 
 and flows to the electro-negative plate, but out 
 side the cell (or as it were on its return path) it 
 flows from the positive pole to the negative pole. 
 The current always leaves the battery by the 
 positive pole, and thus the copper is the negative 
 element, but the positive pole, because the cur 
 rent leaves the battery by it ; and the zinc is the 
 positive element because the current begins there, 
 within the cell, and the negative pole because it 
 ends there, outside. 
 
 The positive pole is the terminal of the nega 
 tive plate, and vice versa. There is but one cur 
 rent from a battery, viz., a positive one ; what 
 is called a negative current is merely the positive 
 current passing in the reverse direction from the 
 same pole, that is, the positive pole. 
 
 Single and Double Fluid Batteries. Galvanic 
 batteries may be divided into single fluid and 
 double fluid batteries. The simplest form of 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 239 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 galvanic cell practically in use is a single fluid 
 cell, consisting of a zinc and a copper element, 
 immersed in water slightly acidulated by the 
 addition of a little sulphuric acid. In a battery 
 of several cells, the zinc and copper plates are 
 generally soldered together in pairs, and placed 
 in a long stoneware or glass trough divided into 
 separate cells by means of partitions. By fill 
 ing the cells with sand, this battery is made 
 more portable, the plates being thus supported, 
 and the liquid prevented from splashing about 
 during transit. 
 
 In this form it is called the common sand bat 
 tery. 
 
 Action in a Single Fluid Cell. The following 
 process goes on in the single fluid cell when the 
 circuit is closed, that is, when the battery is set 
 to work. 
 
 The water (composed of hydrogen and oxygen) 
 is decomposed by the passage of the electric cur 
 rent, and oxide of zinc is formed. The oxygen 
 of the water having greater affinity for the zinc, 
 leaves the hydrogen. The zinc during the pro 
 cess is being consumed, as coal is consumed 
 when it burns, while combining with the oxygen 
 of the air. This oxide of zinc combines with the 
 sulphuric acid, and forms sulphate of zinc ; this 
 salt is found to accumulate in solution in the 
 liquid of the cell. At the same time the hydro 
 gen of the water goes to the negative or copper 
 plate, and gathers over it in bubbles. 
 
 The process will be better seen by the accom 
 panying plan of the chemical decomposition and 
 recombinations. 
 
 Sulphuric acid ) Sulphate of zinc found 
 
 ZhlC -"f Oxygen } Oxide of zinc. / at positive plate. 
 
 Water \ Hydrogen Hydrogen found at 
 
 negative plate. 
 
 No single fluid cell can give a constant electro 
 motive force, because of the polarization of the 
 plates. 
 
 Definition of the term "Polarization." The 
 word polarization means that the plates become 
 coated with the products of the decomposition of 
 the electrolyte, producing a diminution of current. 
 In the above-described battery, the hydrogen 
 gathers on the surface of the copper plate, and 
 an electro-motive force is set up which counter 
 acts the electro-motive force producing the cur 
 rent, the copper plate is said to be polarized. 
 By the bubbles of hydrogen collecting on the 
 face of the negative plate, the surface in contact 
 with the liquid is gradually decreased ; thus the 
 plate becomes practically smaller, and a single 
 fluid cell which at starting gave a good current 
 soon shows that it is really weakened. The con 
 sequence is that the zinc is consumed extrava 
 gantly, as well as the acid, and the cell works 
 with poor results. Also the resistance of the 
 cell is increased, due to the sulphuric acid, which 
 is added to the water to increase its conductivity, 
 being gradually used up, by combining with the 
 oxide (see plan) and forming sulphate of zinc. 
 Liquids are very bad conductors of electricity ; 
 the greater part of the ordinary internal resist 
 ance of a battery arises from this cause. The 
 common sand battery is the worst of all batteries 
 as regards constancy* of electro-motive force, the 
 polarization being greater in this battery than 
 any other, because the gas cannot readily escape. 
 The common copper and zinc cell is the next in 
 
 order of demerit. The Smee single fluid cell, in 
 which the negative plate is a platinum instead of 
 a copper one, is better than the copper zinc cell, 
 because the free hydrogen does not stick to the 
 rough surface of the platinum plate so much as 
 to the copper. 
 
 Double Fluid Batteries. All the defects of the 
 single fluid battery, which are as follows : 
 
 1. Diminution of electro-motive force, 
 
 2. Inconstancy, 
 
 3. Increase of internal resistance, 
 
 are remedied in the double fluid battery, of which 
 the Daniell cell was the first invented, and is a 
 good example. Of this kind of cell many forms 
 are in use, but the principle is the same through 
 out. There is a positive and negative element, 
 and the cell is divided into two receptacles for 
 the two fluids. In the most constant form of 
 Daniell cell, the zinc is plunged into a semi- 
 saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, the cop 
 per in a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, 
 and these two solutions are separated either by a 
 porous barrier, or by taking advantage of the 
 different specific gravities of the two solutions. 
 By a saturated solution is meant a liquid which 
 has dissolved as much of the substance as it pos 
 sibly can. 
 
 The Chemical Action of a Daniell Cell. The 
 chemical action of this form of Daniell cell is as 
 follows : 
 
 The zinc electrode combines with oxygen ; the 
 oxide thus formed combines with sulphuric acid 
 and forms sulphate of zinc. Oxide of copper is 
 separated from the sulphate; and the copper in 
 this oxide is separated from the oxygen. The 
 oxygen of the water is separated at the zinc elec 
 trode from the hydrogen, and at the other elec 
 trode this hydrogen recombines with the oxygen 
 from the oxide of copper. This alternate de 
 composition and recombination of the elements 
 of water can neither increase nor decrease the 
 E.M.F. of the cell, the actions being equal and 
 opposite. The, result of the series of actions 
 above described is that the sulphuric acid and 
 oxygen of the sulphate of zinc are transmitted 
 to the zinc, combine with it, and form fresh sul 
 phate of zinc ; the sulphuric acid and oxygen of 
 the sulphate of copper are transmitted to the 
 zinc set free by the above process, and reconvert 
 it into sulphate of zinc ; the copper of the sul 
 phate of copper is transmitted to the copper 
 electrode, and remains adhering to it. The 
 whole result is therefore the substitution of a 
 certain quantity of sulphate of zinc for an equiv 
 alent quantity of sulphate of copper, together 
 with a deposition of copper on the copper or 
 negative electrode. The following is a plan of 
 the process : 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 (Sulphate of zinc 
 found at p si 
 
 Oxide of /inc - 
 
 Sulphate of 1 "" P"" u -VoxygL j Waten 
 copper. | 0x . do Qf copper J c ^ er -- , c 
 
 The Circuit. In connection with the manipu 
 lation of batteries, there is one important item 
 to consider, viz., the resistance in the circuit, 
 which may be divided into external and in 
 ternal. 
 
 Resistances. The external resistance in prac- 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 240 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 tice is that which exists in the conducting-line, 
 and the various instruments connected with it. 
 
 The internal resistance is that which exists in 
 the battery itself. All known conductors oppose 
 a sensible resistance to the passage of an electric 
 current, and the strength of the current, or in 
 other words, the quantity of electricity passing 
 per second from one point to another, when a 
 constant difference of potentials is maintained 
 between them, depends on the resistance of the 
 wire or the conductor joining them. A bad con 
 ductor does not let the electricity pass so rap 
 idly as a good conductor, that is, it offers more 
 resistance. 
 
 Resistance in a wire of constant section and 
 material is directly proportional to the length, 
 and inversely proportional to the area of the cross- 
 section. 
 
 The electrical resistance of a conductor must 
 not be considered as analogous to mechanical re 
 sistance, such as the friction which water experi 
 ences in passing through a pipe, for this frictional 
 resistance is not constant when different quanti 
 ties of water are being forced through the pipe, 
 whereas electrical resistance is constant what 
 ever quantity of electricity be forced through the 
 conductor. 
 
 Application of Ohm s Law. Ohm s law, which 
 
 governs the strength of the current, is expressed 
 y the equation 
 
 or R 
 
 E 
 
 or E=CR. 
 
 Where C is the strength of the current ; 
 
 E is the E.M.F., or difference of potentials ; 
 
 and R is the resistance of the circuit. 
 
 In words, Ohm s law means that the strength 
 of the current is directly proportional to the 
 E.M.F., and inversely proportional to the resist 
 ance of the circuit. 
 
 As before stated, the resistance of the circuit 
 consists of an external and an internal resistance, 
 therefore when these resistances .are separately 
 
 J^A 
 
 considered, the equation C = j> must be eon- 
 
 E 
 
 verted into C = - >} where x is the external, 
 
 and r the internal, resistance. 
 
 The resistance of the battery or the internal 
 resistance depends on the size of the plates and 
 the distance between them ; that is, it is directly 
 proportional to the distance, and inversely pro 
 portional to the size. 
 
 The electro-motive force of a battery is depend 
 ent generally on the number of cells joined in 
 series, and not on the size of the plates. The 
 cells of a battery may be joined in two ways, as 
 follows : 
 
 1. In series : that is, by connecting the nega 
 tive element of one cell to the positive ele 
 ment of another, and so on. 
 
 2. In multiple arc: that is, by connecting 
 negative to negative, and positive to posi 
 tive; which is the same as increasing the 
 size of the cells. 
 
 If the conductor between the battery poles be 
 such that the external resistance x may be prac- 
 TT 
 
 tically left out, then C = , and no change 
 
 in the strength of the current will be effected by 
 adding any number of cells in series, as r will 
 
 increase equally with E, and therefore C will re 
 main the same ; but if under the same conditions 
 the cells be joined in multiple arc, then rwill de 
 crease as E increases, and therefore C will be in 
 creased. 
 
 Thus with a short circuit of small external re 
 sistance, the strength of the current will be in 
 creased by increasing the size of the plates, or by 
 joining the cells in multiple arc, but not in 
 series. 
 
 If the conductor between the poles of the bat 
 tery be such that the external resistance x be 
 
 E 
 
 -, where x is 
 
 comes very great, then C = 
 
 M -f- 7- 
 
 very great compared to r. By joining the cells 
 in multiple arc r is decreased, but E and x re 
 main the same, and therefore C is not materially 
 altered, as x is very great compared to r. By 
 connecting the cells in series, r is increased, and 
 so is E, but as r is still very small compared to 
 x, the strength of the current C is increased. 
 
 Thus with a long circuit of great external re 
 sistance, the strength of the current will be in 
 creased by joining the cells in series, but not in 
 multiple arc. 
 
 When the external resistance x is neither very 
 large nor very small in comparison with the bat 
 tery or internal resistance r, then the strength 
 of the current C will be increased by adding the 
 cells in series, and also in multiple arc. By the 
 former process the E.M.F. E is increased more 
 than the resistance of the circuit R or (x -{- r}, 
 and by the latter process the E.M.F. E is un 
 altered, whilst the circuit resistance (x -f- r) is 
 decreased. All the above may be practically 
 demonstrated by the employment of suitable 
 galvanometers. 
 
 Frictional Electricity. Frictional electricity 
 is produced by the friction of two insulators. 
 There is no difference whatever in kind between 
 "Voltaic" and "frictional" electricity. 
 
 Comparison with Voltaic Electricity. The elec 
 tricity generated by friction possesses a great 
 electro-motive force, producing on even a small 
 conductor a large charge, whereas the electricity 
 generated by the galvanic cell possesses a very 
 small electro-motive force, and produces only a 
 small charge on a small conductor. But when 
 the conductor is large, the electricity produced 
 by the galvanic cell will almost instantaneously 
 charge the conductor to the maximum potential 
 it can produce, the galvanic cell developing an 
 immense quantity of electricity by the chemical 
 reaction ; whereas the quantity developed by 
 friction between two insulators is so small, that 
 if it be diffused over a large conductor the poten 
 tial of the conductor will be very little increased. 
 
 The late Professor Faraday has proved that one 
 cell of a Voltaic pile possesses the same quantity 
 of electricity as an ordinary-sized frictional ma 
 chine after being wound round 800,000 times, 
 thus showing the contrast between the qualities 
 of frictional and Voltaic electricity. 
 
 The electricity of the frictional machine and 
 that of the galvanic battery maybe made to pro 
 duce the same effect, there being no difference in 
 kind between them. Frictional electricity can 
 be made to pass in a current, but it is com 
 paratively feeble. Again, Voltaic electricity can 
 be made to produce a spark, but under ordinary 
 circumstances it scarcely amounts to anything. 
 
 Description of a Frictional Electric Machine. 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 241 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 A frictional electrical machine consists of a vul 
 canite or glass disk or cylinder, which is made to 
 revolve between cushions or rubbers of leather 
 or silk. By the friction the (silk) rubbers be 
 come negatively, and the glass disk or cylinder 
 positively, electrified. The revolving disk im 
 mediately after contact with the fixed rubbers 
 passes close by a series of brass points, which are 
 connected with a condenser. These points col 
 lect the positive electricity of the glass, the rub 
 bers being put to earth. The positive electricity 
 which the glass loses is supplied through the 
 rubber; a stream of negative electricity flows 
 from the rubbers to the earth during the charg 
 ing of the conductor or condenser ; in other 
 words, the positive electricity flows from the 
 earth to the rubber, whence it crosses to the 
 glass disk and so to the condenser. 
 
 Definition of a " Condenser." A condenser is 
 an arrangement for accumulating a large quan 
 tity of electricity on a comparatively small 
 surface. 
 
 The ll Leyden Jar" The Ley den jar, which 
 is the original type of the condenser, or accumu 
 lator, consists of a glass jar coated inside and 
 out, up to within a few inches of the mouth, 
 with tin-foil pasted on, but having no connection 
 with each other. The mouth is usually closed 
 by means of a wooden stopper, through which 
 a brass rod passes, to the head of which is af 
 fixed a brass knob, etc., the rod and knob being 
 metallically connected with the inner coating by 
 means of a chain. 
 
 The "Leyden jar" may be charged either by 
 connecting the outer coating to earth (the rub 
 bers of the machine being also to earth), and 
 the inner coating to the conductor of the ma 
 chine; or else by connecting the outer coating 
 to the rubbers, and the inner coating to the con 
 ductor, a complete circuit being necessary to 
 charge the jar as highly as the frictional elec 
 trical machine will admit of. 
 
 The conductor of the machine being charged, 
 also forms a kind of Leyden jar, the conductor 
 in this case being the inner coating, the air, the 
 dielectric, and the nearest surrounding conduct 
 ors, such as the walls of the room, etc., being 
 the outer coating. 
 
 Meaning of "Dielectric." By dielectric is 
 meant a non-conducting medium, which in the 
 case of the " Leyden jar" is the glass. 
 
 Frictional Electricity very little used for Tor 
 pedo Purposes. Frictional electricity is now 
 seldom used in connection with torpedo warfare, 
 as on account of its very great power, or electro 
 motive force, a very perfectly insulated cable must 
 be employed, which is somewhat difficult to ob 
 tain ; it is also necessary to employ a condenser, 
 which requires a certain time to charge. For 
 these and other reasons, frictional electricity has 
 been abandoned for the far more practical Vol 
 taic electricity. 
 
 Magnetism. A magnet is a piece of steel, 
 which has the peculiar property, among others, 
 of attracting iron to its ends. 
 
 Certain kinds of iron ore, termed the loadstone, 
 have the same properties. The word "magnet" 
 is taken from the country Magnesia, where the 
 loadstone was first discovered. 
 
 Magnetism in a body is considered to be a 
 peculiar condition caused by electrical action. 
 Both electricity and magnetism have the power 
 16 
 
 of communicating their properties to other bod 
 ies without being in contact with them, i.e., in 
 ducing the power, which on the bodies being 
 placed far apart becomes insensible. 
 
 The " Poles" of a Magnet. Every magnet has 
 two poles, called the north and south poles. A 
 magnetic steel needle if pivoted on an upright 
 point, or suspended from its centre, will fix 
 itself, pointing north and south ; in England the 
 end of the needle pointing to the north is termed 
 the north pole, but in France it is termed the 
 south pole. The reason of this difference is 
 owing to the fact that the north pole of one 
 magnet attracts the south pole of another, and 
 therefore, as the earth is considered as one vast 
 magnet, the end of the magnetic needle at 
 tracted to the north pole of the earth should be 
 the south pole of the magnet ; thus the French 
 south pole in a magnet is the English north pole, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 Permanent Magnets. A piece of steel when 
 magnetized is termed a permanent magnet, be 
 cause it retains its magnetism for a considerable 
 length of time ; but soft iron cannot be perma 
 nently magnetized. 
 
 A piece of soft iron rendered magnetic by in 
 duction retains a portion of its magnetism for 
 some time after it has been removed from the 
 magnetic field, by reason of what is called its 
 coercive force. This remnant of magnetization 
 is called residual magnetism. 
 
 Effect of an Electrical Current on a Magnetic 
 Needle. A magnetic bar or needle pivoted on its 
 centre will point north and south, but if an 
 electric current is caused to flow along a wire 
 parallel to and either over or under the mag 
 netic needle, the latter will be turned from its 
 position, and remain so as long as the current 
 continues ; on the current ceasing the needle 
 will resume its original position. 
 
 The magnetic needle can be turned either to 
 the east or the west, according to the direction 
 and course of the electrical current. 
 
 Thus: 
 
 Current from S. to N. over deflects to W. 
 Current from N. to S. under deflects to "W. 
 Current from N. to S. over deflects to E. 
 Current from S. to N. under deflects to E. 
 
 The Galvanometer, the " Mirror," and 
 "Thomson s Reflector" all depend on this prin 
 ciple for their usefulness. 
 
 The Electro-Magnet. If a piece of insulated 
 wire be coiled round a rod of soft iron, and a 
 current of electricity be made to pass through 
 the coil, the iron core becomes magnetic as long 
 as the current passes ; when the current ceases 
 the magnetism disappears. 
 
 During the passage of the electric current, the 
 iron core possesses "all the properties of a mag 
 net. Therefore if a piece of iron were placed 
 near its poles it would be attracted and released 
 from attraction as often as the current passed or 
 ceased ; and supposing such a piece of iron, to be 
 retained by a spring, etc., a series of movements, 
 attraction, and drawing back would be effected. 
 
 A piece of iron so arranged is termed an 
 armature, and the instrument is called an electro 
 magnet. 
 
 the coil of wire must be carefully insulated, 
 or else the electric current will pass through the 
 iron core to earth, instead of performing its 
 proper work. 
 
ELECTRO-BALLISTICS 
 
 242 
 
 ELECTRO-BALLISTICS 
 
 * An electro-magnet is much more powerful 
 than a steel magnet of equal dimensions, and 
 depends on the strength of the current by which 
 the magnetism is induced, and the number of 
 turns of wire round the core. The north and 
 south poles of an electro-magnet are determined 
 by the direction in which the current flows 
 through the wire. 
 
 At the south pole the current passes with the 
 hands of a watch, and at the north pole against 
 the hands of a watch. 
 
 Definition of the " Ohm." The "ohm" is the 
 standard used for electrical resistance ; it is ob 
 tained by observing what effect is produced by a 
 current of electricity on a certain conductor in a 
 certain time. 
 
 The ohm is a small coil of German silver 
 wire representing the resistance overcome by a 
 current in a certain time. See TORPEDOES. 
 
 Electro-ballistics. In the earlier days of 
 gunnery the accurate determination of the ve 
 locity of a projectile was a most perplexing 
 problem, and taxed the ingenuity of some of 
 the most scientific minds. The celebrated Ben 
 jamin Robins, about the middle of the 18th 
 century, produced his ballistic pendulum, and 
 both he and Count Rumford directed attention 
 to the gun pendulum as a means for determining 
 the initial velocity of projectiles. Each of these 
 devices was extensively experimented with, by 
 Hutton, in England, 1775-91; at Metz, 1839- 
 40; and by Mordecai in this country, 1843-48. 
 
 In 1840, Professor Wheatstone first proposed 
 the employment of electricity in determining 
 the velocity of projectiles, and his suggestion 
 was tested practically with satisfactory results. 
 Subsequent researches by the late Professor 
 Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, led to im 
 proved modes of determining the most difficult 
 problems in gunnery by means of electricity, 
 and to him belongs the credit of having first 
 proposed the use of the spark from what is now 
 known as the Ruhmkorff coil, which has since 
 been employed in the most successful instru 
 ments. 
 
 The mode of determining the velocity of pro 
 jectiles by means of electricity may be stated, in 
 general terms, as follows : Two wire screens, or 
 targets, forming part of a galvanic circuit, are 
 so placed as to intercept the flight of the pro 
 jectile, which, as it passes through them, breaks 
 the circuit. The instant of rupturing the target- 
 wire is recorded by means of the electrical in 
 strument employed, various ingenious designs 
 of which exist, some of which are enumerated 
 below. In this way the time occupied by the 
 projectile in passing from the first to the second 
 target is obtained; dividing the distance be 
 tween the targets by this time, the velocity of 
 the projectile at a point midway between the 
 targets is found. In order to get the muzzle, 
 or initial velocity, it is necessary to calculate 
 the loss due to the resistance of the air over the 
 space from the gun to the midway point between 
 the targets. 
 
 The following are the electro-ballistic ma 
 chines chiefly used by ordnance officers in this 
 country : 
 
 Benton s "West Point machine, which consists 
 of a bed-plate of metal supporting an arc placed 
 in a perpendicular position and graduated. Sus 
 pended perpendicular to the plane of this arc 
 
 are two pendulums, having a common axis of 
 motion passing through the centre. Two elec 
 tro-magnets are attached to the horizontal limt 
 of the arc to hold up the pendulums when they 
 are deflected through angles of 90. There is 
 also an apparatus which records the point at 
 which the pendulums pass each other, when 
 they fall by the breaking of the currents which 
 excite the magnets. The velocity of the electric 
 currents being considered instantaneous, and the 
 loss of the power of the magnets simultaneous 
 with the rupture of the currents, it follows that 
 each pendulum begins to move at the instant 
 that the projectile cuts the wire, and that the in 
 terval of time corresponds to the difference of 
 the arcs described by the pendulums up to the 
 time of meeting. 
 
 The Navez-Leurs chronoscope, in which two 
 similar pendulums chronometer and register 
 having the same axis of suspension, their bobs 
 supported at the extremities of a graduated arc 
 of 180 by electro-magnets, are successively re 
 leased upon the rupture, by the projectile, of 
 the conducting-wires of their respective mag 
 nets. An index-needle oscillating by frictional 
 attachment with the chronometer pendulum, au 
 tomatically clamped at the instant of passing to 
 the graduated arc, affords the means of deter 
 mining the interval. Here may be mentioned 
 the remarkable application by Col. Benton, 
 in his velocimeter, of the principle "that the 
 loosening effect of cutting a taut thread is trans 
 mitted to equal distances along the thread from 
 the point of rupture in equal or sensibly equal 
 times." This velocimeter, operated by a single 
 person, who may also fire the gun, gives results 
 sufficiently accurate for all the practical pur 
 poses of proving powder and making ballistic 
 calculations. 
 
 Le Boulenge s chronograph, in which two 
 weights supported by electro-magnets fall suc 
 cessively. The first, a long cylindrical rod 
 (chronometer), falls at the rupture of the first 
 wire; the second (registrar) falls, at the rupture 
 of the second wire, upon a trigger, releasing a 
 spring-cutter, which indents the chronometer- 
 rod. From the difference of the spaces described 
 the interval of time is computed. 
 
 The Schultz chronoscope, in which upon the 
 lamp-smoked surface of a metal cylinder, having 
 helical motion, a vibrating fork traces a time- 
 scale. The rupture by a projectile of the pri 
 mary wire of a Ruhmkorff coil, with an inde 
 pendent battery, induces in the secondary wire, 
 one end of which is connected with the cylinder, 
 the other carefully insulated, near it and just 
 over the fork, a current ; a spark projected to 
 the surface of the cylinder leaves a bright spot 
 at that point, indicating the instant of rupture. 
 For the Foucault contact-breaker, has been sub 
 stituted, at West Point, with apparent advan 
 tage, Russell s electric interrupter, in which a 
 simple spring makes the fork its own inter 
 rupter. 
 
 The Bashforth chronograph, in which, with 
 the aid of a clock, a time-scale is traced upon 
 a cylinder, rotating about a vertical axis, by a 
 marker at end of a lever actuated by an electro 
 magnet and an opposing spring attached to a 
 plate, having a nearly uniform motion of trans 
 lation in a vertical plane parallel to the axis of 
 the cylinder. The helical path described by the 
 
ELEPHANTER 
 
 243 
 
 EMBEZZLEMENT 
 
 marker is interrupted at each second by a move 
 ment of the lever. A second lever and marker 
 with electro-magnet and spring, also attached to 
 the plate but connected with the screens, records 
 the passage of the projectile. The markers being 
 in close proximity the intervals are readily de 
 termined. 
 
 The Noble chronoscope, with which time rec 
 ords have been obtained for distances of 2.4 
 inches in the bore of a 10-inch gun, while the 
 total time to reach the muzzle, a distance of 
 100 inches, when fired with a full charge, is 
 about the one-hundredth part of a second. In 
 this instrument metal disks, covered on the edge 
 with white paper coated with lamp-black, rotat 
 ing with high velocity, are connected with one 
 end of the secondary wire of an induction coil, 
 the other, carefully insulated, is brought to a 
 discharger opposite the end of its corresponding 
 disk, just clear of it. A spark perforates the 
 paper at the instant of disruption of the primary 
 wire, which, introduced by means of hollow steel 
 plugs into holes bored through the walls of the 
 gun, is severed by a cutter under pressure of the 
 passing projectile. The angular velocity of the 
 disks is determined by means of a stop-cock, 
 which can be connected with the shaft. The 
 linear velocity usually obtained is 1000 inches 
 per second. By a vernier, reading to the one- 
 thousandth part of an inch, intervals of time as 
 minute as the one-millionth part of a second 
 may be measured. 
 
 In the electric clepsydra, invented by Le Bou- 
 lenge, the flow of mercury from a reservoir 
 through a fine orifice, opened or closed by levers 
 actuated by electro-magnets, upon the breaking 
 of the electric current by the projectile, affords 
 the means of determining the interval with 
 great precision. See BALLISTIC PENDULUM, GUN 
 PENDULUM. 
 
 Elephanter. A heavy periodical rain of 
 Bombay. 
 
 Elephant-fish. The Chimcera callorynchus, 
 so called because of a protuberance on its nose. 
 
 Elevate. In pointing a gun, to elevate was to 
 raise the muzzle higher ; the orders are now 
 given in regard to the breech instead of the muz 
 zle, so that the command lower corresponds to 
 the old word elevate. 
 
 Elevated Pole. The pole which is above the 
 horizon of the spectator. 
 
 Elevation, Angle of. See SIGHT, ANGLE OF. 
 
 Eligug. An aquatic bird of passage of the 
 auk kind ; called also razor-bill. 
 
 Elleck. A name for the Trigla cuculus. 
 
 Elliott, Jesse Duncan, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Jesse D. Elliott was born in Maryland in 1782. 
 He entered the navy as a midshipman in 1804. 
 Served in several vessels, and was promoted to 
 lieutenant in April, 1810. Was ordered to Com 
 modore Chauncey s squadron on Lake Ontario 
 in 1812. Having been sent to Lake Erie to 
 gather ships, he captured the English brigs 
 " Detroit" and " Caledonia" in a boat expedi 
 tion. For this, the first naval success on the 
 lakes, he was awarded a sword by Congress. 
 Commanded the "Conquest" in Chauncey s 
 squadron, and led in the brilliant attack on the 
 enemy at Kingston, on the 8th of November. 
 He next commanded the " Madison," 24, in the 
 capture of York, Canada, April 19, 1813, and at 
 tack on Fort George, May 25. Was promoted 
 
 to master commandant in July, 1813. In Au 
 gust he was transferred to Lake Erie, under 
 Perry. Commanded the "Niagara," 20, and 
 participated in the victory on that lake, Sep 
 tember 10, 1813. For bravery in that action he 
 received a gold medal. Received the command 
 from Perry on the 25th of October. Commanded 
 the "Ontario, "22, in Decatur s squadron to Tunis 
 and Algiers, sailing May 20, 1815, and returning 
 the same year. Promoted to captain, March 27, 
 1818. From 1817-24 was a commissioner to 
 select sites for light-houses, and fortifications for 
 North Carolina. Commanded Brazil Squadron, 
 1825-28 ; West India Squadron, 1829-32 ; Charles- 
 town Navy- Yard, 1832-35 ; and Mediterranean 
 Squadron, in the "Constitution," 1835-38. 
 From 1839-40 was waiting orders, and under 
 suspension from 1841-43 for various irregular 
 ities in his conduct. Waiting orders, 1844 ; 
 navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1845 ; and died there, 
 December 10, 1845, aged 63. Was energetic, 
 brave, and reliable, but fitful in temper. F. S. 
 Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Elliott-eye. An eye worked over a thimble 
 in the end of a cable or hawser. 
 
 Ellipse (Gr. elleipsis, a falling short of). A 
 curve such that the sum of the distances to any 
 point from two given points, called the /oci, is 
 constant. The orbits of the planets are ellipses, 
 as are the terrestrial meridians. See CONIC SEC 
 TIONS. 
 
 Ellison, Francis B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New 
 York, May 28, 1819. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, May 17, 1828; 
 schooner "Porpoise," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1827-29; receiving-ship, New York, 1833-34; 
 navy-yard, 1837; frigate " Brandywine," 1840; 
 store-ship " Lexington," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1845 ; navy-yard, New York, 1847-48. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, May 29, 1850; 
 inspector, etc., New York, 1853-54; command 
 ing sloop "Jamestown," coast of Africa, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, March 2, 1857. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 light-house inspector, 1866-68. Retired October 
 1, 1864. 
 
 Ellsworth, a city and port of entry, capital of 
 Hancock Co., Me., is on the Union River, a few 
 miles from the ocean, and 28 miles S.E. of Ban- 
 gor. The prosperity of this place is mainly de 
 rived from the lumber business, navigation, and 
 ship-building. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Elmo s Fire, St. See ST. ELMO S FIRE. 
 
 Elops. A fish inhabiting the seas of America 
 and the West Indies; the Elops saurus, or 
 saury. 
 
 Elver. A young conger- or sea-eel. 
 
 Embargo. A prohibitory order, issued by the 
 government of a state to prevent the sailing of 
 foreign (or, in certain exigencies, home) shipping 
 from its ports. A willful breach of embargo 
 discharges the underwriters from liability. 
 
 Embark. To go on board, or to put on board 
 a vessel. 
 
 EMBARKATION. The shipping of goods, troops, 
 and stores. 
 
 Embarment. An old term, meaning an em 
 bargo. 
 
 Ember-goose. A name for the great north 
 ern diver or loon (Colymbus glacialis). 
 
 Embezzlement. The fraudulent appropria- 
 
EMBOUCHURE 
 
 244 
 
 EMERGENCIES AT SEA 
 
 tion to one s own use of money or property 
 intrusted to one s care or management. 
 
 In the merchant service mariners are bound 
 to contribute out of their wages for embezzle 
 ments of the cargo. If the embezzlement be 
 fixed on any individual, he alone is responsible. 
 If it has arisen from the fault, fraud, connivance, 
 or negligence of any particular portion of the 
 crew, they are bound to contribute to the repa 
 ration of the loss in proportion to their wages ; 
 and when the circumstances of the case create a 
 strong presumption of guilt against the whole 
 crew, all must contribute. Where no reasonable 
 presumption against their innocence is shown, 
 the loss must be borne exclusively by the owner 
 or master. 
 
 Embouchure. A French word adopted as 
 signifying the mouth of a river, by which its 
 waters are discharged, or by which it is entered. 
 
 Emden, or Embden. A fortified seaport town 
 of Prussia, near the Dollart, 14 miles S.W. of 
 Aurich. The town is intersected by canals con 
 nected with the harbor, and is a railway termi 
 nus. Principal edifices, the council and custom 
 houses, barracks, school of navigation, etc. The 
 port is shallow, but the roadstead is deep enough 
 for vessels of any size. Large ship-building 
 docks are located here. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Emeralders. A term for the natives of Ire 
 land, from its evergreen verdure. 
 
 Emergencies at Sea. Emergencies at sea are 
 those sudden and unforeseen occurrences which 
 require the promptest action to avert disaster. 
 The most common of these are an alarm of fire, 
 collision with another vessel, running suddenly 
 into very shoal water, or getting ashore, spring 
 ing a leak, being struck by a squall while under 
 sail, and losing a man overboard. Whenever a 
 sudden demand is made upon a ship s company 
 for putting forth their utmost energy and skill, 
 much depends upon the example of the officers, 
 and much on the normal state of discipline. If 
 the officers have the skill and experience which 
 only come with devotion to one s profession, 
 and, retaining their self-possession, they issue 
 their orders with decision, their example com 
 municates itself to the crew, and order, even in 
 the face of appalling danger, prevails. If the 
 crew have been faithfully exercised at the various 
 manoeuvres likely to claim their attention, there 
 is a ready and intelligent effort on the part of all 
 to secure their common safety ; or, in the last ex 
 tremity, a steadfast purpose to meet their fate 
 like men. 
 
 Inexperienced officers, and such as have made 
 their profession a secondary consideration, and 
 an undisciplined crew, are apt to be thrown into 
 confusion at the very first alarm ; panic ensues, 
 and the danger is enhanced by misguided men 
 seeking their personal safety, or misapplying 
 their efforts. 
 
 An alarm of fire at sea is enough to appal the 
 stoutest heart. To meet this emergency every 
 ship has a regular fire-bill, in which each offi 
 cer and man has his appropriate station and 
 duty. The first step is to assemble the crew at 
 quarters, where they are divided up into small 
 groups of gun s crews under their proper officers. 
 This prevents panic at once, and renders the 
 crew more manageable. Every available pump 
 is put in requisition ; the hose are led out ; a 
 wrecking-party is supplied with axes, etc., and 
 
 a smothering-party with wet blankets. Means 
 are employed to prevent unnecessary currents of 
 air ; the ship s course is changed with reference 
 to the wind, that the latter may be the least 
 favorable for spreading the fire ; the magazines 
 are furnished with flood-cocks, by which they 
 may be filled with water; sentries are posted 
 over the boats to prevent their being lowered 
 without orders. These means, particularly the 
 use of the powerful steam-pumps of our modern 
 ships, have been found adequate, while pre 
 serving the utmost order, to control any ordinary 
 fire. The best preventive against panic is to be 
 found in constantly drilling the crew at their 
 stations, and from time to time by sounding 
 false alarms when the crew are least prepared. 
 
 Should the fire gain the mastery, the boats are 
 resorted to, a raft constructed of spare spars, 
 provisions distributed, and the ship at the last 
 moment abandoned. It is then that officers 
 find their reward in the previous care bestowed 
 upon the boats and their equipments. It is cus 
 tomary now to have a regular station-bill for 
 "abandoning ship," and the crew exercised by 
 it. The total loss by fire of the United States 
 steam-frigate "Missouri," in the Bay of Gi 
 braltar, in 1843, is a memorable example in 
 point. 
 
 Collisions. These generally occur in a fog, 
 during the night, or in a crowded harbor. The 
 Rules of the Road, as recently revised (which 
 see), are sufficient to enable ships to avoid each 
 other on all ordinary occasions. But there are 
 times when it would seem as if no human care 
 were sufficient to prevent collision. 
 
 The lights of one ship may be burning 
 brightly, and yet, from some unsuspected cause, 
 may be screened to the look-out of another ves 
 sel. This has no doubt led to many collisions at 
 night. No rules will supply the want of careful 
 attention to the running lights, the keeping of a 
 good look-out, and the exercise of good judgment 
 in the management of the ship. The running 
 down and sinking of the United States steamer 
 "Oneida," Commander E. P. Williams, United 
 States navy, by the British mail steamer "Bom 
 bay," Capt. Eyre, January 23, 1870, by which 
 120 lives were lost, furnishes a melancholy illus 
 tration of this class of emergencies. 
 
 Getting on shore, or grounding, may some 
 times happen even with the utmost care. The 
 vessel may have been carried out of her course 
 by unknown currents ; continued fogs may have 
 prevented observations of the sun ; or, she may 
 be brought up suddenly by some rock or shoal 
 hot laid down on the charts. Than this there 
 are few emergencies at sea which make greater 
 demands upon the skill, resources, energies, and 
 endurance of both officers and crew. Sails must 
 be instantly laid aback, or the engines reversed. 
 Should this means fail, anchors must be sent 
 out astern, a good strain be brought upon the 
 cables, and the ship lightened, and hove off. 
 
 It is related that an English 64-gun ship 
 having parted her cables in a gale, was drifting 
 helplessly on shore, when the captain ordered the 
 flood-cocks to be opened and the ship filled as 
 much as possible with water. By this means the 
 ship s draft was increased one foot before she took 
 the bottom. On the return of good weather the 
 water was pumped out, and the ship hove off. 
 
 Springing a leakj happily of rare occurrence 
 
EMERGENCIES AT SEA 
 
 245 
 
 EMMONS 
 
 to a man-of-war, calls for prompt and intelligent 
 action. In 1859 the Russian line-of-battle ship 
 "Csesarevitch," while cruising in the Mediter 
 ranean, sprung a leak. Cables and hawsers were 
 passed round and round her, and hove taut to 
 bind her together. She finally put into Malta for 
 repairs, leaking so fast that her crew were well- 
 nigh exhausted by their efforts to keep her afloat. 
 
 Eighteen hundred years before that, St. Paul, 
 while at sea in a corn-ship of Alexandria, was 
 caught in an equinoctial gale (A.D. September 23, 
 60), when the mariners were obliged to " under- 
 gird the ship," and subsequently to run her on 
 shore on the same island, Malta. 
 
 Struck by a squall while under sail calls for 
 good seamanship on the part of the officer in 
 charge of the deck. By putting the helm up 
 the long ship of the present day is apt to go off 
 far enough to bring the wind abeam, and stick 
 there. This is a most dangerous position, and one 
 to be avoided. The better plan is to keep a sharp 
 look-out, and get the ship before the wind and 
 under short canvas before the squall reaches 
 you. If this is not practicable, then take your 
 chances of luffing through it, reducing sail as 
 speedily as possible. No written directions can 
 possibly supply the place of good seamanship 
 acquired in the school of practice. Even in this 
 school close observation and reflection are essen 
 tial. The one supplies mental pabulum ; the 
 other furnishes the digestive process by which 
 the intellectual food is assimilated and converted 
 into the very bone and fibre of the system. 
 
 Man overboard! Few alarms so startle "the 
 little warlike world within" as this. Sympathy 
 and curiosity impel every one to rush at once to 
 the scene, and the direst confusion ensues. By 
 making out a regular station-bill for a " man 
 overboard," and by frequent false alarms, in 
 which a buoy should be dropped and the life 
 boat lowered, the chances of panic, as with false 
 alarms of fire, are reduced to a minimum. 
 
 In a steamer, the life-buoy must be dropped as 
 near to the man overboard as possible, the 
 engines stopped, the life-boat lowered, and the 
 man picked up. 
 
 Sailing on a wind, a ship should be hove about, 
 lowering the boat, and leaving the mainyard 
 square, in stays. Going large with the yards 
 well squared in, the ship should be rounded to, 
 with head-yards aback, sail being reduced as ex- 
 peditiously as possible. 
 
 The following points should be considered : 
 
 First, the quickest and most effectual means 
 of checking the ship s way and keeping her as 
 near the man as possible. 
 
 Secondly, to preserve order, enforce prompt 
 obedience, and discourage fool-hardy volunteer 
 ing. 
 
 Thirdly, to see that the life-boat is in all 
 respects ready for use, and her crew at hand. 
 
 Fourthly, that the boat be not lowered with 
 stern-board on. 
 
 Fifthly, to have persons stationed to keep the 
 man in sight, and by motions to direct the course 
 of the life-boat ; at night to display a good light. 
 
 Finally, to insure success the officer in charge 
 of the deck must be, in every sense, master of 
 the situation. 
 
 Sailing in squadron, there is no alternative but 
 to go about at once, and at night to display the 
 position lights, to prevent your second astern 
 
 from piling upon you. In the daytime there 
 should be a preconcerted signal, by which the 
 commander-in-chief, and the rest of the squad 
 ron, may know what has happened. 
 
 In the French signal-book there is a special 
 rule laid down for this emergency. 
 
 In very bad weather, the question may present 
 itself as to how far it would be justifiable to risk 
 the lives of the seven or nine men of a boat s 
 crew for the doubtful chances of saving one. In 
 this conflict between feeling and discretion one s 
 own judgment must decide. 
 
 The loss of, or injury to, a rudder is an emer 
 gency of rare occurrence in these days. On 
 taking the ground, however, a ship may thump 
 her rudder off; or, through defective workman 
 ship or decayed wood, it may be lost in a gale, 
 or it may be shot away in action. 
 
 The readiest and simplest substitute for a rud 
 der is a hemp cable, or hawser, paid out over the 
 stern, after the manner of a drag. To this are 
 bent, well out from the ship, guys, of smaller 
 hawsers, which are led in through blocks on 
 either quarter. Heavy luffs are clapped on to 
 the guys, and the ship steered by bringing the 
 strain on either guy as may be required. Hav 
 ing made this temporary provision, a jury-rud 
 der may be constructed on the plan proposed 
 some years ago by Capt. Pakenham of the Eng 
 lish navy. This consisted of a spare topmast, to 
 form the rudder-stock, and other spare spars 
 secured to it, and trimmed off in such lengths as 
 to present, when boarded over, the general ap 
 pearance of a rudder. A spare lower-cap serves 
 as a gudgeon ; the round hole embracing the 
 topmast ; the square one being cut away so as to 
 be adjusted to the stern-post, where it is held in 
 place by guys taken well forward and hard taut. 
 
 An order issued by the English Admiralty in 
 1840 required that ships should be furnished with 
 a spare rudder-stock fitted with pintles. To 
 the stern-post were fitted, while the ship was in 
 dock, spare gudgeons. With these arrange 
 ments a jury-rudder could readily be constructed. 
 In the event of wrenching off the rudder-head im 
 mediate resort would be had to the rudder-chains, 
 which are kept for the purpose. 
 
 In regard to emergencies in general, the habit 
 cannot be too often, or too earnestly recom 
 mended to officers placed in positions of responsi 
 bility, whether at sea or in port, of constantly 
 presenting to themselves the various cases which 
 might arise demanding their prompt and vigor 
 ous action. 
 
 By this method they school themselves for the 
 hour of trial, and pass through any ordeal they 
 may be subjected to with the glory of success. 
 S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Emersion. The reappearance of an occulted 
 body. 
 
 Emmons, George F., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Native of Vermont, from which State he was 
 appointed midshipman, April 1, 1828; at Naval 
 School, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1828; thence to steam- 
 frigate "Fulton," in which he remained until 
 she blew up, June 4, 1829; then in frigate 
 "Brandywine," on special service to West In 
 dies, 1830 ; and in Mediterranean, 1830-33. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 14, 
 1834 ; brig " Consort," on our coast, 1836 ; bark 
 " Pioneer," West Indies, 1837, carrying out 
 Gen. Santa Anna, after his defeat in Texas ; in 
 
EMMONS 
 
 246 
 
 ENGINEER, CIVIL 
 
 frigate " Macedonian" (as master) on our coast, 
 1837 ; joined the sloop-of-war " Peacock," and 
 was commissioned as " lieutenant during the ex 
 ploring expedition" of Capt. Wilkes, serving in 
 her from 1838 to July, 1841, when she was lost on 
 the bar at the mouth of Columbia Kiver, Oregon. 
 
 Regularly commissioned as lieutenant, Feb 
 ruary 25, 1841 ; was occasionally in command of 
 schooner "Flying-Fish," and while engaged 
 in surveying and boat expeditions among the 
 Pacific islands, was frequently engaged with the 
 natives. 
 
 After the loss of the "Peacock," had charge 
 of a party consisting of the scientific corps, 
 officers, sailors, marines, and some hunters and 
 trappers, to explore the country south of the 
 Columbia to the head-waters of the Sacramento, 
 and thence through California to San Francisco, 
 where the party arrived, after several skirmishes 
 with hostile natives, but without loss ; in Nov 
 ember, 1841, joined the " Vincennes," flag-ship 
 of the Exploring Expedition, and came home in 
 her via the East Indies, in 1842 ; receiving-ship 
 and recruiting duty in Baltimore in 1843 ; in 
 sloop-of-war " Boston" and frigate " Raritan," 
 Brazil Squadron, in 1843-46 ; during the Mexi 
 can war, in the "Ohio"; 1847-48, in Gulf of 
 Mexico, Brazil, and Pacific ; was frequently em 
 ployed on shore in Upper and Lower California, 
 and once sent to the Sierra Nevada as bearer of 
 dispatches to Gen. Mason; in sloop "Warren" 
 and "Southampton," Pacific, in 1849; on bureau 
 duty, Navy Department, "Washington, 1851-52; 
 in frigate "Savannah," Brazil Squadron, 1854- 
 56 ; during the last year was in command of her 
 as the flag-ship of Commodore Mercer. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, January 28, 
 1856 ; bureau duty and member of Light- House 
 Board in 1861 ; during the Rebellion, was gener 
 ally employed on blockade duty in the Gulf of 
 Mexico and on the Mississippi River in com 
 mand of the steamers " Hatteras," " R. R. Cuy- 
 ler," " Monongahela," and "Brooklyn"; while 
 in command of the first named captured Cedar 
 Keys and Pass Christian, and some twenty prizes, 
 nearly all of which were under English colors. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, February 7, 1863 ; 
 was fleet-captain under Admiral Dahlgren, off 
 Charleston, in 1863, while Fort Sumter was 
 being reduced ; afterward commanded the steam- 
 sloop "Lackawanna" and a division of block 
 ading vessels (from five to fifteen) in the Gulf 
 of Mexico, to the close of the war ; while com 
 manding afloat at New Orleans, assisted in 
 destroying the rebel ram "Webb" and cap 
 turing her officers and crew ; upon two occa 
 sions successfully repelled and thwarted the at 
 tempts of the enemy to burn the shipping and 
 city by fire-rafts and boats laden with hay and 
 combustibles, whereby millions of property were 
 saved; commanded the steam-sloop " Ossipee" 
 to the Pacific and Alaska, in 1866-68, carrying 
 thither our Commissioners and hoisting the 
 American flag over our new possessions. Dur 
 ing the return trip to San Francisco, the ship 
 came near being lost in a hurricane which she 
 encountered off Sitka. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 20, 
 1868; appointed senior member of Ordnance 
 Board in Washington, 1869, and subsequently 
 given charge of the Hydrographic Office ; com 
 manding Naval Station, Philadelphia, 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, November 5, 
 1872. Total sea service, 23 years ; shore or 
 other duty, 11 years. Retired August 23, 1873. 
 
 Emprise. An attempt or undertaking of dan 
 ger ; enterprise. 
 
 Emptions. Stores purchased. 
 
 Encircling Reef. A name given to a form of 
 coral reef. 
 
 End for End. To shift an object end for end 
 is to turn it through an angle of 180. To shift 
 a fall end for end is to reeve it the opposite way, 
 so that the hauling part becomes the standing 
 part. 
 
 End-on. Bow foremost ; the opposite of 
 broadside-on. 
 
 Enemy. In the military and naval sense, the 
 opposing force. 
 
 Energy. The energy or vis viva of a shot is 
 the amount of work stored up in it, and is ex- 
 
 w v 2 
 pressed by the formula = foot-tons 
 
 32.16 X 4880 
 of energy, w representing weight of shot, and v 
 the velocity of impact. 
 
 The above formula classes projectiles in regard 
 to their mashing or racking effect, but to find 
 the punching effect the energy must be divided 
 by the number of inches of the shot s circum 
 ference. 
 
 Enfield Rifle. A rifled musket which took 
 its name from Enfield, in England, the place of 
 its manufacture. It was, in the days of muzzle- 
 loading small-arms, a serviceable and valuable 
 weapon, but has now been superseded by arms of 
 the breech-loading system. 
 
 Engagement. A battle or general action. 
 
 Engine. A machine for applying any of the 
 mechanical powers or principles ; especially a 
 machine for applying steam to propel vessels, 
 railroad trains, etc. See MARINE STEAM-EN 
 GINE. 
 
 ENGINE-BEARER, or ENGINE-KEELSON. Strong 
 timbers or girders, built in the bottom of a ship, 
 on which the engines rest, and to which they are 
 secured. 
 
 ENGINEER. One who plans structures or 
 machines and superintends their construction, 
 or surveys land or water for the location of 
 structures. The term is applicable to those 
 skilled in designing military or naval works, or 
 machines of offense and defense, or in surveying 
 and planning aqueducts, canals, railways, docks, 
 etc. 
 
 One who is skilled in engineering, or the 
 management of engines. 
 
 ENGINE-ROOM. The space allotted to steam- 
 engines and their appurtenances in ships or 
 buildings. 
 
 ENGINE-ROOM TELEGRAPH. An electrical 
 or mechanical device for communicating signals 
 from the deck of a vessel to the engine-room. 
 These signals may appear either in words, by 
 sound of a gong, or by a combination of both. 
 
 Engineer, Civil. There are 10 civil engineers 
 on the active list, one being stationed at each 
 navy-yard and naval station. 
 
 The civil engineer supervises the erection and 
 the repairs of all buildings, docks, and wharves 
 in the navy-yards, and, if required to do so, of 
 magazines, or other naval structures outside the 
 yards. He has the immediate supervision and 
 direction of the architect, when one is employed 
 at the same yard with himself, and of all fore- 
 
ENGINEER CORPS 
 
 247 
 
 ENGINEERING, BUREAU OF 
 
 men and other workmen employed on said works, 
 and recommends their respective wages, and is 
 responsible for the proper distribution and em 
 ployment of all materials for said work. He 
 prepares plans of any proposed improvements, 
 and estimates of cost, with bills of materials and 
 schedules for advertisements, which may be 
 necessary for such works. He supervises the 
 inspection and measurement of all materials 
 under his charge, and he is responsible for the 
 waste or improper use of all material by those 
 under his general supervision. 
 
 Engineer Corps. Though engineer is not a 
 modern title in the military establishment, it is 
 new to the navy. 
 
 The first officer of this name was placed on the 
 official list of the British navy January, 1837, and 
 the first appointment of an engineer in the navy 
 of the United States was in 1838 ; but the corps 
 was not regularly organized and incorporated in 
 the navy register until 1843. 
 
 November 7, 1837, the Secretary of the Navy 
 wrote Capt. M. C. Perry that the " Fulton" was 
 
 allowed, as recommended by the Commissioners 
 of the N 
 ment, 
 
 of the Navy and approved 
 
 )y tne \ 
 by tLu 
 
 Navy Depart- 
 
 2 first-class engineers at $800 per annum each. 
 2 second-class engineers at $500 per annum 
 each. 
 
 4 coal-heavers at $15 per month each. 
 
 8 firemen at $25 to $30 per month each. 
 
 This was the germ of the engineer corps of the 
 U. S. navy, which at present consists of an active 
 list of 
 
 1 engineer-in-chief, having the relative rank 
 of commodore. 
 
 9 chief engineers, having the relative rank of 
 captain. 
 
 15 chief engineers, having the relative rank of 
 commander. 
 
 45 chief engineers, having the relative rank of 
 lieutenant-commander. 
 
 90 passed assistant engineers, having the rela 
 tive rank of lieutenant. 
 
 6 passed assistant engineers, having the relative 
 rank of master. 
 
 42 assistant engineers, having the relative rank 
 of ensign. 
 
 54 cadet engineers, having the relative rank of 
 cadet midshipman. 
 
 On the re ired list there are 7 chief engineers, 18 
 passed assistant engineers, and 23 assistant engi 
 neers. 
 
 This increase, from 4 officers in 1837 to over 
 300 in 1880, shows the rapid development of 
 steam as an adjunct in naval warfare. See STAFF- 
 OFFIOERS. 
 
 Enginesring, Bureau of Steam. This bureau 
 directs the designing, running, and repairing 
 of engines, boilers, and appurtenances afloat 
 and at navy-yards and naval stations. The 
 chief of the bureau is the engineer-in-chief and 
 has the relative rank of commodore. See NAVY 
 DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ENQINEER-IN-CHIEF. See ENGINEERING, 
 BUREAU OF STEAM. 
 
 ENGINEER, FLEET-. The senior chief engineer 
 on a station is detailed to discharge the duties of 
 engineer of the fleet. He is attached to the flag 
 ship, and his duties are as follows : 
 
 1. To exercise a general supervision over all 
 the engineers of the fleet or squadron. 
 
 2. To acquaint himself with the different kinds 
 of engines in use in the squadron, and to recom 
 mend the means to keep them in the highest state 
 of efficiency. 
 
 3. To make quarterly inspections of machinery, 
 and to decide upon all ordinary repairs. If alter 
 ations or additions to the machinery are pro 
 posed, a special report must be made, stating 
 their probable cost and the time necessary for 
 their execution. 
 
 4. To recommend surveys when imperfections 
 or accidents are serious, and to make report where 
 carelessness is known or suspected. 
 
 5. To see that every vessel is provided with 
 the necessary tools, stores, and spare parts of 
 machinery, and that every engine and boiler is 
 properly cared for. As the strictest economy is 
 required in the expenditure of stores, he will, 
 previous to any of the vessels in the squadron 
 leaving on detached service, see that they are 
 provided with all that may be required in the 
 engineer department, to prevent, as far as pos 
 sible, any purchases while absent from the com 
 mander-in-chief, and he will make a report of 
 the same to the commander-in-chief. 
 
 6. To examine the coal used, and report if there 
 is any falling off in quality, or any undue damp- 
 ness, and to see that it is properly stored at the 
 depots, and that there is at all times a sufficient 
 quantity on hand to meet the probable wants of 
 the squadron. 
 
 7. To make frequent reports of the condition 
 of the engineer department of every vessel in 
 the squadron. 
 
 8. To examine all returns and requisitions 
 made by the senior engineers of vessels, and to 
 forward them, with such remarks as he may 
 deem necessary. 
 
 9. To recommend such measures as will, in 
 his opinion, promote efficiency, economy, and 
 uniformity in his department. 
 
 10. And, finally, to perform such other duties, 
 relating to his position, as shall be assigned him 
 by the commander-in-chief. 
 
 ENGINEER, CHIEF. There are 70 chief engi 
 neers ; the senior 10 have the relative rank of 
 captain, the 15 next in seniority have the rela 
 tive rank of commander, and the junior 45 have 
 the relative rank of lieutenant-commander. See 
 ENGINEER-IN-CHIEF. 
 
 When a chief engineer is attached to a navy- 
 yard, he, under the direction of the commandant, 
 has the superintendence of the construction and 
 repair of the steam and other machinery. He 
 has the supervision, under the commandant, of 
 the foremen and all the men employed in the 
 machine- and boiler-shops and foundries, and of 
 the material used in those departments, and is 
 responsible for its preservation and proper use. 
 He has charge of all steam-machinery afloat, at 
 the yard or station, under the direction of the 
 commandant, whether the vessel be under re 
 pairs or in ordinary ; and he is to exercise con 
 trol over all employes in the engineer s depart 
 ment on board such vessels. When the vessel 
 under repair is in commission, he will, before 
 commencing any repair, confer with the com 
 manding officer of the vessel, who will render 
 him every facility for the prompt and economical 
 execution of the work. He is responsible for the 
 condition and preservation of all the machinery 
 of the vessels under his charge. When a steamer 
 
ENGLISH 
 
 248 
 
 ENSIGN 
 
 is to be laid up, be will take charge of tbe ma 
 chinery at the time the chief engineer of .the 
 vessel is detached ; when repairs are to be effected, 
 he makes requisition on the commandant for the 
 work necessary. 
 
 When a chief engineer is attached to a vessel 
 he is in charge of the boilers and engines and 
 their dependencies, distilling apparatus, steam- 
 winches, engines for turning steam-capstans, etc. 
 He keeps a strict account of the expenditures of 
 coal, stores, and other articles in his department, 
 and frequently examines the coal in the bunkers 
 to see that there is no danger of spontaneous 
 combustion. 
 
 ENGINEER, ASSISTANT. When there is no 
 chief engineer on board, the duties assigned to 
 him devolve on the senior assistant engineer. 
 Assistant engineers are at all times faithfully and 
 zealously to carry into prompt execution all 
 orders they may receive ; and they are to be spe 
 cially careful in the management of the engines, 
 boilers, and their dependencies. When the en 
 gines are in operation, the engineer of the watch 
 must execute promptly all orders he may receive 
 from the officer of the deck, though he must be 
 careful in so doing that no risk of injury is in 
 curred. He reports hourly to the officer of the 
 deck whether the engines and their dependencies, 
 the force-pumps, hose, and all other means for 
 extinguishing fire, are in good order, and that 
 the pumps and hose are ready for immediate 
 use. He notes hourly on the steam-log all the 
 information which the columns in it require, 
 and places in the column of " remarks" full 
 information of the state of the weather and sea, 
 and all accidents to, or defects in, the engines 
 or their dependencies, the manner of their work 
 ing, the quality of the coal, and any other cir 
 cumstances which maybe useful for determining 
 the powers and qualities of the vessel and the 
 engines under the various circumstances to which 
 they may be exposed. He must be particularly 
 careful to prevent the waste of coals, oil, tallow, 
 and all other stores in the engineer s department. 
 
 Passed assistant engineers rank as lieutenant 
 or master according to length of service ; assist 
 ant engineers as master or ensign. 
 
 English, Earl, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 New Jersey. Appointed from New Jersey, 
 February 25, 1840; attached to frigate "Con 
 stellation," East India Squadron, 1840-44; steam 
 ship " Princeton, "special service, 1844-45; Naval 
 School, 1846. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 
 1846; razee "Independence," flag-ship, Pacific 
 Squadron, 1846-48 ; present at capture of Mazat- 
 lan, 1847; steamer "Vixen," Home Squadron, 
 1849-50; store-ship "Southampton," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1851-53 ; receiving-ship, Philadel 
 phia, 1853 ; coast survey, 1854-55. 
 
 Promoted to master, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 14, 
 1855; sloop "Levant," East India Squadron, 
 1855-58 ; took part in engagements with Barrier 
 Forts, Canton Kiver, China, November, 1856 ; 
 navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1859 ; steam-sloop 
 " Wyoming," Pacific Squadron, 1860-61 ; com 
 manding steamer "Somerset," East Gulf Block 
 ading Squadron, 1862; capture of fort at mouth 
 of St. Mark s Kiver, Florida, June 15, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; commanding steam-gunboat "Saga 
 
 more," East Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1863; 
 captured and destroyed town of New Smyrna, 
 Fla., July 28, 1863 ; commanding steam-gunboat 
 "Pontiac," 1864; commanding steamer " Wya- 
 lusing," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1864-65; capture of Plymouth, N. C., October, 
 1864 ; in action with rebel batteries and in 
 fantry, on lloanoke Kiver, near Poplar Point, 
 N. C., during the expedition up that river, the 
 advance being prevented by torpedoes, December, 
 1864 ; ordnance duty, navy-yard, New York, 1866. 
 Commissioned as commander, July 25, I860 ; 
 commanding steam-sloop " Iroquois," Asiatic 
 Squadron, 1867-69; commanding flag-ship "Del 
 aware," Asiatic Fleet, 1870. 
 
 Commissioned captain, September 28, 1871 ; 
 special duty, 1872 ; navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. 
 H., 1873; commanding "Congress" (second- 
 rate), European Station, 1873-76; navy-yard, 
 Portsmouth, N. H., 1876-78. 
 
 In 1878 appointed chief of Bureau of Equip 
 ment and Recruiting. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1880. 
 Enlarge. The wind is said to enlarge when 
 it comes out nearer the stern. 
 
 Enlist. To enter upon a list ; to enroll. Thus, 
 the recruiting officer is said to enlist a man. 
 
 To enter into a contract with the government 
 to serve it for a term of years in a naval or 
 military capacity. Men are enlisted in the navy 
 for a term of 3 years, and in the marine corps 
 for 5 years. See" ENLISTMENT. 
 
 ENLISTMENT. The act by which a man binds 
 himself to serve the government for a term of 
 years in a military or naval capacity. Kecruit- 
 ing officers are enjoined to guard against the en 
 listment of improper, unsound, or incompetent 
 persons. Boys between the ages of 16 and 17 
 may be enlisted to serve in the navy until they 
 reach the age of 21, but only with the consent 
 of their parents or guardians given in a pre 
 scribed form. No person under 16, no insane or 
 intoxicated person, and no deserter from the 
 naval or military service shall be enlisted. No 
 person shall be entered as landsman over the age 
 of 25, unless he has some mechanical trade ; nor 
 after 34, even though he has a trade, without the 
 authority of the Department. No person shall 
 be entered as ordinary seaman unless he shall 
 have been two years at sea ; nor as seaman, unless 
 he shall have been four years at sea before the 
 mast, and have passed a satisfactory examination. 
 The recruit is required to declare on oath, in 
 presence of the commanding officer of the ren 
 dezvous or vessel, that he makes a true state 
 ment of his age, to the best of his knowledge and 
 belief. Persons enlisted for general service shall 
 not be detailed as servants for officers. Attend 
 ants selected by the officers themselves are en 
 listed for the cruise, and are not to be turned 
 over to the general service. After selection these 
 men must be retained as attendants until dis 
 charged. 
 
 Ensign. The lowest grade of commissioned 
 officers in the navy, corresponding to the grade 
 of second lieutenant in the army. An ensign is 
 a steerage officer, and may be ordered to duty on 
 the forecastle, in the fire-room, or to any other 
 duty at the discretion of the commanding officer. 
 When assigned permanently to duty as a watch- 
 and division-officer he is entitled to quarters in 
 the wardroom. This title was first introduced 
 
ENSIGN 
 
 249 
 
 EPHEMERIS 
 
 into the U. S. navy in 1862, taking the place of 
 the title of Passed Midshipman, and these officers 
 now continue the duties of the latter. 
 
 Ensign. The national flag. (See COLORS.) 
 It is almost invariably hoisted at the peak of 
 American vessels, but English men-of-war gen 
 erally hoist their ensign to a staff at the stern 
 when in port. See FLAG. 
 
 Entering-ladder. See ACCOMMODATION LAD 
 DER, JACOB S LADDER. 
 
 Entering-port. In three-deckers, a port cut 
 down to the level of the deck on the middle deck. 
 
 Entering-rope. A man-rope over the side at 
 the gangway. 
 
 Entrance. The angle which the bow of a 
 ship makes with the water at the line of flota 
 tion. 
 
 Entrance-money, or Entrance-fee. A pay 
 ment made for mess-furniture, stores, etc., on 
 joining a mess. 
 
 Epact (Gr. epagein, to add in). The number 
 indicating the days and parts of a day to be 
 added to the lunar year of 12 lunar months to 
 make it up to the solar year ; this number is the 
 age of the moon at the commencement of the 
 calendar year. A mean lunation is 29 d 12 h 44 m ; 
 the moon, therefore, describes in 365 days 12 
 complete lunations and 10 d 15 h of the thirteenth; 
 hence on the first of January its age is 10 d 15 h 
 more than on the preceding first of January, and 
 ll d 15 h if the preceding year was a leap-year. 
 
 The epact for the year is the moon s age on the 
 first of January; the epact for the month is the 
 moon s age on the first of the month, supposing 
 the moon to change at noon January 1st. 
 
 Epaulet. A shoulder ornament. See UNI 
 FORM. 
 
 Ephemeris, The Astronomical. Works on 
 astronomical bibliography mention ephemerides 
 as early as the 12th century. The earliest printed 
 ephemerides are those of Johann Regiomontanus, 
 published in the latter part of the 15th century. 
 They included only the predictions of eclipses 
 and positions of the planets, and sold for much 
 more than their weight in gold. The earliest 
 astronomical ephemeris appearing year by year 
 is the Connaissance des Temps ou des Mouve- 
 ments Celestes, which has not suffered interrup 
 tion since the publication of the first volume, 
 by Picard, for the year 1679. Since 1795, the 
 work has been under the direction of the Bureau 
 des Longitudes, established in that year. It is 
 issued two years in advance of date. Each vol 
 ume contains a very full Table des Positions 
 Geographiques, data not conveniently accessible 
 elsewhere. Detailed improvements were intro 
 duced into the volumes for the years 1862 and 
 1863, whereby the Connaissance des Temps was 
 placed on equal footing with the ephemerides 
 of other nations. One marked difference be 
 tween it and similar publications consists in the 
 omission of the Calendar, proper, the several . 
 ephemerides being arranged according to the 
 objects to which they pertain, and not according 
 to the months of the year. The first volume of 
 the astronomical ephemeris of England may be 
 said to be that for the year 1834. The British 
 Nautical Almanac, however, had then long 
 been a regular publication, the >first volume 
 was that for the year 1767 (see ALMANAC, THE 
 NAUTICAL) ; but the ephemerides for the special 
 use of the astronomer had always occupied a 
 
 secondary position. In addition to the impor 
 tant change from apparent to mean time in the 
 computations of the Almanac, the Report of 
 the Committee Relative to the Improvement of 
 the Nautical Almanac recommended, among 
 other things, an extension of the ephemeris of 
 Jupiter s satellites, the insertion of a list of 
 moon-culminating stars, apparent places of fixed 
 stars for upper transit at Greenwich (instead of, 
 as previously, for noon), and the insertion of a 
 table for determination of latitude by Polaris at 
 any time. Almost no important differences of 
 arrangement are to be remarked between the 
 British Nautical Almanac for 1834 and that 
 for 1883, the latest issued. An unparalleled 
 circumstance in the history of nautical almanacs 
 occurs in the British Nautical Almanac for 1882, 
 wherein the positions of the sun and the major 
 planets are all predicted from one uniform 
 series of tables, those by the late Le Verrier, 
 of Paris. The Berliner Astronomisches Jahr- 
 buch (Berlin Astronomical Annual) is among 
 the oldest of the national ephemerides ; the first 
 volume was that for the year 1776. It is pub 
 lished two years in advance of date, and is 
 marked by a lack of design for the use of navi 
 gators ; being gotten up almost solely with 
 reference to astronomical convenience. One 
 characteristic feature consists in the great amount 
 of space devoted to ephemerides of minor plan 
 ets, which now number about 220 (June, 1880). 
 Spain publishes one year in advance its Alma- 
 naque Ndutico, computed for the meridian of 
 San Fernando. It does not need especial notice, 
 except that nearly, all the data of prediction are 
 embraced under the Calendar scheme, thus 
 making it the counterpart of the Connaissance 
 des Temps. The Portuguese publish, two years 
 in advance, the Ephemerides Astronomicas, com 
 puted for the meridian of Coimbra. It is very 
 similar to the Almanaque Ndutico of the Spanish, 
 both in general arrangement and amount of data, 
 except that it gives no apparent positions of fixed 
 stars. The Italian Effemeridi Astronomiche di 
 Milano ranks among the oldest astronomical 
 ephemerides, the initial volume being that for 
 the year 1755. The data of prediction which it 
 contains are mostly for the use of astronomers, 
 only. A good share of the space in many of the 
 volumes is given up to astronomical memoirs and 
 meteorological observations. In treating of the 
 American ephemeris, we shall have to do prin 
 cipally with that portion which is designed quite 
 exclusively for astronomical use, and is adapted 
 to the meridian of Washington. No radical 
 changes ever having been made in the general 
 principles of its construction, we shall take the 
 volume for 1883, now in press, for a descriptive 
 specimen. In addition to the ephemerides of the 
 sun and moon, the lunar distances and ephemer 
 ides of the most conspicuous planets, contained 
 in the navigator s portion of the volume, the 
 American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac 
 contains the heliocentric positions of the major 
 planets, with the logarithms of their distances 
 from the sun and from the earth ; the rectangular 
 equatorial co-ordinates of the sun ; the longitude 
 and latitude of the moon ; data for the libra- 
 tion of the moon ; the aberration and parallax 
 of the sun ; formulae and numbers for reducing 
 a star from its mean to its apparent place or the 
 reverse ; special ephemerides for easy reduction 
 
EPOCH 
 
 250 
 
 EQUINOXES 
 
 of observations of the moon and major planets ; 
 very full data, with maps, of the eclipses ; data 
 for the prediction of occultations of planets and 
 stars by the moon ; phenomena and configura 
 tions of the satellites of Jupiter, and data for 
 identifying all known satellites of the other 
 planets ; the longitude and latitude of about 140 
 observatories ; an article on the arrangement and 
 use of the American Ephemeris and Nautical 
 Almanac ; an appendix on the construction of 
 the same ; and a selection of tables much used in 
 astronomy and navigation. The astronomical 
 tables by which the" American Ephemeris and 
 Nautical Almanac is prepared are as follows: 
 the ephemerides of the sun and moon are from 
 Hansen s Tables; Mercury, from Winlock s 
 Tables ; Venus, from Hill s Tables ; Mars, from 
 Lindenau s Tables, with corrections ; Jupiter, 
 from Bouvard s Tables, with corrections ; Jupi 
 ter s satellites, from Damoiseau s Tables, supple 
 mented by those of Todd ; Saturn, from Bou 
 vard s Tables, with corrections ; Uranus and 
 Neptune, from Newcomb s Tables. D. P. Todd. 
 
 Epoch. A point of time rendered conspicu 
 ous by some historical event ; era ; period ; date. 
 
 Eprouvette. A small piece of ordnance for 
 testing the force of gunpowder. 
 
 Equal Altitudes. See ALTITUDE. 
 
 Equation of Equal Altitudes. See ALTI 
 TUDE. 
 
 Equation of Second Differences. See DIF 
 FERENCES, SECOND. 
 
 Equation of Time. The difference between 
 apparent and mean time. In consequence of 
 the motion of the sun in the ecliptic being vari 
 able, and the ecliptic not being perpendicular to 
 the axis of the earth s rotation, apparent time 
 is variable, and this fluctuation is considerable, 
 amounting to upwards of half an hour, appar 
 ent noori sometimes taking place as much as 
 16 ] m before mean noon, and at others as much 
 as 14 m after. These are the greatest values of 
 the equation of time ; it vanishes altogether four 
 times in the year, this occurring about April 
 15, June 15, September 1, and December 24. 
 It is calculated and inserted in the Nautical 
 Almanac for every day in the year! The equa 
 tion of time is itself a portion of mean time. 
 
 Equator (Lat. ceyuare, to divide into equal 
 parts). The terrestrial equator is that great 
 circle of the earth whose plane is perpendicular 
 to the axis of the earth, and consequently every 
 point of which is equidistant from the north and 
 south poles. It divides the globe into the northern 
 and southern hemispheres. The equator is the 
 primitive circle in the system of co-ordinates 
 used for denning the position of places on the 
 earth s surface. Origin, intersection of the equa 
 tor by the first meridian ; co-ordinates, longitude 
 and latitude. 
 
 The celestial equator is the great circle in 
 which, if the terrestrial equator were extended 
 indefinitely, it would intersect the celestial sphere. 
 It is also called the equinoctial, and is the primi 
 tive circle in a system of co-ordinates used for 
 defining the position of points on the celestial 
 sphere. Origin, first point of Aries ; co-ordi 
 nates, right ascension and declination. 
 
 EQUATORIAL CURRENT. The set, chiefly west 
 erly, met with near the equator, especially in the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 EQUATORIAL PROJECTION OF A SPHERE. A 
 
 projection in which the primitive plane or plane 
 of projection is parallel to, or coincides with, the 
 equator. 
 
 EQUATORIAL SECTOR. An instrument for find 
 ing the difference in the right ascension and dec 
 lination of two heavenly bodies. 
 
 EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE. A telescope so 
 mounted that it enables the observer to follow 
 the stars as they move equatorially. 
 
 Equiangular Spiral. A line which cuts the 
 meridians at a constant angle ; a rhumb-line ; a 
 loxodromic curve. 
 
 Equilibrium-valve. A valve for equalizing 
 the pressure of a fluid or fluids contained in two 
 separate chambers or vessels. The term, though 
 objectionable, is sometimes applied to the main 
 steam- and exhaust-valves of an engine when 
 they are " balanced," or so arranged that differ 
 ence in pressure between the boiler steam and 
 discharged steam will not offer resistance to the 
 movement of the valve. "Double poppet-valves," 
 " D-valves," and " ring" or "piston-balanced" 
 plain slide-valves are examples. 
 
 Equinoxes (Lat. cequus, equal ; nox, night). 
 The two periods of the year, about the 21st of 
 March and the 23d of September, when the sun, 
 in his annual revolution in the ecliptic, crosses 
 the equinoctial. At these times the days and 
 nights are of equal length throughout the world, 
 hence the term. The two equinoxes are distin 
 guished as the vernal equinox and autumnal equi 
 nox ; the former being that when the sun passes 
 from the southern to" the northern hemisphere, 
 the season being " spring" in the northern hemi 
 sphere ; the latter, when the sun passes from the 
 northern to the southern hemisphere, the season 
 being "autumn" in the northern hemisphere. 
 These terms are relative ; for what are the ver 
 nal and autumnal equinoxes for the northern 
 are respectively the autumnal and vernal equi 
 noxes for the southern hemisphere. In cases 
 where there is any danger of ambiguity or con 
 fusion, we may add the qualifying adjectives 
 " northern" or " southern," as the case may be ; 
 thus, one date would be called the northern ver 
 nal equinox or the southern autumnal equinox, 
 and the other the northern autumnal equinox or 
 the southern vernal equinox. It is convenient to 
 restrict the term equinox to indicate a date or 
 epoch of time] and to use the expression, equi 
 noctial point, when we want to refer to a position 
 or place in the ecliptic. Similarly for solstice and 
 solstitial point. 
 
 EQUINOCTIAL. The celestial equator. The 
 name is derived from the fact that at all places 
 on the surface of the earth beneath this circle the 
 nights are equal all the year round, being of the 
 constant length of 12 hours. The equinoctial is 
 the primitive circle in a s} stem of co-ordinates 
 for defining points on the celestial sphere. Origin, 
 first point of Aries; co-ordinates, right ascen 
 sion and declination. 
 
 EQUINOCTIAL COLURE. The hour-circle which 
 passes through the equinoctial points. In the 
 polar co-ordinates for the celestial sphere, it is 
 the initial position of the secondary circles. See 
 
 COLURES. 
 
 EQUINOCTIAL GALES. Storms which occur 
 about the time the sun crosses the equinoctial. 
 
 EQUINOCTIAL POINTS. The two points of the 
 ecliptic in which it is intersected by the equinoc 
 tial. They are distinguished as the vernal equi- 
 
EQUIP 
 
 251 
 
 ESKIPP AMENTUM 
 
 noctial point and the autumnal equinoctial point, 
 but are more generally called the first point of 
 Aries and the first point of Libra, as being the 
 commencement respectively of these signs of the 
 ecliptic, and they are represented by their sym 
 bols T and =c=. The constellations of Aries and 
 Libra, though not now coincident in position 
 with them, give their names to these divisions 
 of the ecliptic, and the figure of the Balance 
 (Libra) has evident reference to the equipoise 
 of the day and night at the equinox. The first 
 point of Aries is the origin or zero point, from 
 which right ascensions are reckoned on the equi 
 noctial and longitudes on the ecliptic. The equi 
 noctial points do not, however, preserve a con 
 stant place among the stars, but travel backwards 
 along the ecliptic, i.e., from east to west, or 
 contrary to that in which the sun appears to 
 move in that circle. This retrogression is ex 
 tremely small, amounting to 50.1" annually, so 
 that a complete revolution occupies 25, 868 years. 
 It is, however, of great inconvenience to prac 
 tical astronomers, as it renders obsolete, from 
 time to time, their catalogues of the stars, which 
 are referred to this shifting vernal equinoctial 
 point as origin. Since the formation of the 
 earliest catalogues on record, the place of the first 
 point of Aries" has retrograded about 30, altering 
 to this extent the longitudes. The technical 
 phrase for the phenomenon is the precession of 
 the equinoxes, a term derived from the fact that 
 the epoch of the equinox every year "precedes," 
 or is earlier than it would have been but for the 
 retrogression of the first point of Aries. 
 
 Equip. To supply with all the articles neces 
 sary for efficient service. To fit out. 
 
 EQUIPMENT. The act of fitting out or fur 
 nishing an individual, vessel, or force with all 
 the essential requirements for efficient action. 
 Also, the collective designation of the articles 
 comprising the outfit. 
 
 EQUIPMENT AND RECRUITING, BUREAU or, is 
 that branch of the Navy Department which has 
 charge of the equipment of all vessels of war, the 
 supply of their sails, rigging, anchors, and fuel ; 
 also the recruiting of sailors of the various grades 
 for the navy. See NAVY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 EQUIPMENT OFFICER. The captain of the 
 yard is the head of the department of equipment 
 in the yard, and discharges the duties of that 
 position in addition to his other duties. The 
 executive-officer is the equipment officer of a 
 ship, and is responsible for all articles and stores 
 in that department. 
 
 Equuleus. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Erichthus. A genus of long-tailed decapod 
 crustaceans, inhabiting tropical seas. 
 
 Ericsson, John, LL.D. Born in the province 
 of Vermeland, Sweden, 1803. At the age of 11, 
 Count Platin gave him a cadetship in a corps 
 of engineers ; and in 1816 he was employed on 
 the grand ship canal between the Baltic and the 
 North Sea. He entered the Swedish army as 
 ensign, rose to the grade of lieutenant, and 
 was for some time employed in the survey of 
 Northern Sweden. One of the earliest of his 
 inventions was the flame-engine, intended to 
 work independently of steam by condensing 
 flame. Visiting England in 1826, he discovered 
 that this engine when worked by mineral fuel 
 was a total "failure. Devoting himself to me 
 chanical pursuits, he invented the steam-boiler 
 
 on the principle of artificial draft. In 1829 he 
 competed for the prize offered by the Liverpool 
 and Manchester Kailway for the best locomotive, 
 and produced an engine that attained the then 
 incredible speed of fifty miles an hour. This 
 led him to construct a steam fire-engine with 
 entire success. Directing his attention to navi 
 gation, he invented the propeller, and that new 
 arrangement of the steam-machinery in ships of 
 war which has revolutionized the navies of the 
 world. Not succeeding in making the British 
 Admiralty believe what they saw, he came in 1839 
 to New York, and in 1841 was employed in the 
 construction of the U. S. ship of war " Prince 
 ton," on the very plan which had been received 
 with such indifference by the British Admiralty. 
 She was the first steamship ever built with the 
 propelling machinery under the water-line, and 
 out of the reach of shot; and she was distin 
 guished for numerous other mechanical novel 
 ties. In 1852 he was made Knight of the order 
 of Vasa by King Oscar of Sweden. The same 
 year he brought out a new form of caloric- 
 engine in the ship "Ericsson." In the Amer 
 ican department of the great exhibition of 1851 
 he exhibited an instrument for measuring dis 
 tances at sea, the hydrostatic gauge for meas 
 uring the volume of fluids under pressure, the 
 reciprocating fluid-meter, the alarm barometer, 
 the pyrometer, the rotary fluid-meter, and the 
 sea-lead, of all of which instruments he has 
 given a brief explanation in a pamphlet pub 
 lished in 1851. For these he received the prize 
 medal of the exhibition. Ericsson s caloric- 
 engine was first placed before the scientific in 
 London in 1833. Its advantages over steam are 
 economy of space, economy of first cost, economy 
 of fuel, of repairs, and running expenses, sim 
 plicity, safety, and power. His great inven 
 tion the ironclad " Monitor" had just been 
 completed, and arrived at Fortress Monroe most 
 opportunely, March 9, 1862, to stay the devas 
 tating progress of the rebel ironclad " Merri- 
 mac." The result of this contest settled the 
 question of "wooden navies." Capt. Ericsson 
 was the first to bring the system of iron turret- 
 ships into operation. 
 
 Eridanus (the river Eridanus, the Po). A 
 winding constellation in the southern hemi 
 sphere, containing one star of the first magni 
 tude, a Eridani, called also Achernar, may be 
 found by bisecting the line joining Eomalhaut 
 and Canopus. 
 
 Erie. A city and port of entry, on Lake Erie, 
 88 miles S.W. of Buffalo, 95 miles E.N.E. of 
 Cleveland. Lat. 42 8 N. ; Ion. 80 8 W. It 
 has a safe land-locked harbor, which is 4 miles 
 long by 1 mile wide, and is protected by the 
 island of Presque Isle, on which two light 
 houses are situated. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Erigone. A name sometimes applied to the 
 constellation Virgo. 
 
 Erne. See EARNE. 
 
 Escape-valve. A weighted or constrained 
 valve, so arranged as to permit the escape of a 
 fluid from a chamber when the pressure exceeds 
 a desired tension. See SAFETY-VALVE and 
 CYLINDER ESCAPE-VALVE. 
 
 Escutcheon. The space on the stern of a ship 
 where her name is painted. 
 
 Eskippamentum. An archaism for a ship s 
 furniture (Anglo-Norman, eskipper> to ship). 
 
ESKIPPESON 
 
 252 
 
 ESTUARY 
 
 Eskippeson. An old law-term for a passage 
 by sea. See ESKIPPAMENTUM. 
 
 Esnecca. A royal yacht of the 12th century. 
 A transport of the middle ages. 
 
 Esox. A genus of abdominal fishes, in 
 cluding the pike. 
 
 Espials. An old term for night-watches 
 afloat, in docks and harbors. 
 
 Esquimalt. A seaport of British Columbia, 
 on Vancouver Island, on the Strait of Juan de 
 Fuca, 65 miles from its entrance, and 3 miles 
 S.W. of Victoria. The harbor is very exten 
 sive, and vessels of the largest size can anchor 
 here in safety. Esquimalt is destined apparently, 
 in connection with the Canada Pacific .Railway, 
 to be the future entrepot of a national commerce. 
 Here are situated a navy-yard, a hospital, and 
 other necessary buildings for the requirements of 
 a squadron, as the town is the station of her Ma 
 jesty s ships of a portion of the Pacific squadron. 
 
 Esquimaux. A name derived from esqui- 
 mantsic, in the Abenaki language, meaning 
 eaters of raw flesh. Many tribes in the Arctic 
 regions are ignorant of the art of cookery. 
 
 Establishments, Naval, of Great Britain. 
 The dock-yards of Great Britain are situated at 
 Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Devonport, 
 and Pembroke. There are victualing-yards at 
 Deptford, Gosport, and Haulbowline, near Cork, 
 Ireland. In her colonies, Great Britain has fine 
 dock-yards at Bermuda, Malta, and Halifax, 
 besides store-ships or store-houses at most of the 
 principal ports. 
 
 Chatham is situated on the Medway River, 30 
 miles E.S.E. from London. In addition to hav 
 ing the School of Military Engineering and the 
 Marine Infirmary, it possesses a fine dock-yard, 
 which is a mile in length, containing several 
 ship-building slips and dry-docks sufficiently 
 capacious for the largest ships It has also 
 basins for the vessels of the Steam Reserve, which 
 is a term applied to the vessels forming the list 
 in ordinary. It has a metal-mill, which supplies 
 the other dock-yards with copper sheets, copper 
 bolts, and other articles in copper and mixed 
 metals. It has also extensive saw-mills, the 
 largest rope-walk in the kingdom, and all scrap- 
 iron is sent to Chatham to be melted and rolled 
 into required shapes. It has also a machine for 
 testing the strength of chain-cables, and block- 
 making machines. The dock-yard has a rear- 
 admiral-superintendent in command, and em 
 ploys 2000 hands. 
 
 Sheerness is situated on the northwest extrem 
 ity of the Isle of Sheppey, at the confluence of 
 the Thames and Medway, 11 miles E.N.E. of 
 Chatham. It has a fine dock-yard covering over 
 60 acres, has immense store-houses, several dry- 
 docks and basins. It is under the control of a 
 captain-superintendent, and with Chatham comes 
 under the command of the commander-in-chief 
 at the Nore. 
 
 Portsmouth is the chief naval arsenal of Great 
 Britain, and is situated on the southwest side of 
 Portsea Island, at the entrance of Portsmouth 
 harbor, and opposite the town of Gosport. It is 
 74 miles S.W. from London. The dock-yard 
 has an area of 300 acres ; it has basins capable of 
 holding all the vessels of the British navy ; has 
 also a dozen dry-docks, and a large deep sea-dock 
 over 600 feet long and 60 feet in depth. It has also 
 a torpedo-ship fur the instruction of officers in 
 
 torpedo warfare, and a gunnery-ship for instruc 
 tion in gunnery. The dock-yard also contains 
 mast- and rope-houses, hemp-stores, rigging- 
 stores, and sail-loft. It has various ship-build 
 ing slips. The wood-mills contain a number of 
 block-making machines. The harbor is 420 yards 
 wide at its entrance, and is defended by forts on 
 each side. It expands into a spacious basin, ex 
 tending inland for 4 miles, forming Porchester 
 Lake. Large war-vessels can enter and lie at 
 anchor at all times of the tide, and in the stream 
 above the dock-yard are moored several hulks of 
 vessels which bear names that they have rendered 
 historical. The " Victory," Lord Nelson s flag 
 ship at the battle of Trafalgar, is kept here in 
 commission, and is open to the general public. 
 The dock-yard is under the control of a rear- 
 admiral-superintendent, and the naval station, 
 comprising Spithead and Gosport as well, is under 
 the general command of the naval commander- 
 in-chief. The importance of this port dates from 
 the reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 Haslar Hospital, near Gosport, is one of the 
 largest naval hospitals in Great Britain. 
 
 Devonport is two miles W.N.W. of Plymouth, 
 and contains a large dock-yard of 358 acres in 
 extent. The yard is situated on the Hanioaze, an 
 estuary of the Tamar. It contains six building- 
 slips for vessels and five dry-docks. It is the 
 principal yard for sail-making, rope-making, and 
 the manufacture of anchors. It employs about 
 2500 hands ; is controlled by a rear-admiral- 
 superintendent, and the station at Plymouth is 
 under command of a naval commander-in-chief. 
 
 Pembroke, situated in South Wales, on a navi 
 gable creek of Milford Haven, is 7 miles S.E. of 
 Milford. Pembroke dock is 2 miles from the 
 town. It has twelve building-slips and dry- 
 docks. The entire naval establishment covers 
 an area of over 80 acres. It is principally a ship 
 building yard, and owes its naval importance to 
 that fact. 
 
 The British government does not confine its 
 ship-building entirely to the dock-yards, but 
 employs, when required, the services of private 
 ship-builders. 
 
 Deptford, which is now a victualing-yard, is 
 situated in the town of that name, about 4 
 miles below London bridge, and opposite Green 
 wich. It has five building-slips and two dry- 
 docks, but they are not much used now, as it is 
 principally a fitting-out yard. It is the chief 
 station for victualing the foreign and home sta 
 tions, also for the small stores and clothing for 
 the navy and marines, which are here inspected, 
 packed, and issued to the naval service. 
 
 At Gosport, opposite Portsmouth, is the Royal 
 Clarence Victualing- Yard, where the bread used 
 in the British navy is made. It has extensive 
 bakeries, etc. 
 
 At Haulbowline, near Cork, is also a victual 
 ing-yard, similar to, but not so extensive as, 
 Deptford. 
 
 At Dartmouth, Devon, on the south coast of 
 England, is the training-ship " Britannia" for 
 the naval cadets. 
 
 At Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport are 
 extensive barracks for the marines when not on 
 service afloat. 
 
 Establishment of the Port. See TIDE. 
 
 Estuary. An inlet of the sea ; the widening 
 of the mouth of a river into an arm of the sea. 
 
ESTURE 
 
 253 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 Esture. An old word for the rise and fall of 
 water. 
 
 Etesian Winds. The Etesice of the ancients ; 
 winds which blow constantly, in the Levant, 
 during the time of the dog-days. 
 
 Etiquette, Naval. Naval "ceremonies ; cus 
 toms of the service. 
 
 Euphroe. A block of wood to extend the 
 small lines called a crow-foot. 
 
 Evaporation. Vapor is any substance in a 
 gaseous condition, at the maximum density con 
 sistent with that condition. It is certain that 
 most substances are volatile, and do exist in a 
 state of vapor at all attainable temperatures. 
 Iron, copper, lead, and tin are examples in which 
 this is obvious to the smell. 
 
 When a body passes from a solid or liquid to a 
 gaseous state, the work necessary to separate the 
 atoms requires a certain quantity of heat for each 
 unit of weight of the substance evaporated, which 
 is dependent on the temperature of the boiling- 
 point, and remains constant for any constant 
 pressure of the vapor produced without, baing 
 sensible to the thermometer. This is called the 
 latent heat of evaporation. The total heat of 
 evaporation is the sum of the Latent heat, and 
 the heat required to raise the temperature before 
 evaporation from some fixed temperature to that 
 of evaporation. When a vapor is condensed an 
 action reverse to that of evaporation takes place. 
 
 Regnault s experiments, the most extensive 
 and accurate known, show that the latent heat 
 of evaporation of pure water at the atmospheric 
 pressure of 14. 7 pounds per square inch is 966. 1F. 
 The boiling-point is 212 F., and the total heat 
 from the temperature of melting ice, 1146.1 F. 
 
 Eve-eel. A name for the conger-eel, from 
 the Danish hav-aal, or sea-eel. 
 
 Evening Gun. The gun fired at tattoo. 
 
 Even Keel. A ship so trimmed as to draw 
 the same water forward as she does aft is on an 
 even keel. 
 
 Evolution. A manoeuvre of a fleet, vessel, or 
 body of men. 
 
 Ewage. An old law-term for the toll paid for 
 a water-passage. 
 
 Examinations. Boards are ordered for the 
 examination of candidates for appointment or 
 promotion, the latter being duly informed of the 
 time and place of meeting. Before proceeding 
 to the examination of any candidate for appoint 
 ment, the medical officers furnish to the board 
 a certificate of the physical fitness of the can 
 didate. No person will be passed by the medical 
 board who is not free from physical defects and 
 all obvious tendency to any form of disease 
 which would be likely to interfere with an 
 efficient discharge of duty. In the case of an 
 assistant surgeon, the board scrutinizes his phy 
 sical qualifications, and makes a separate report 
 in each case direct to the Department. The board 
 to examine professionally, having received the 
 certificate of the physical fitness" of the candi- 
 , date, examines him on all the required quali 
 fications ; it grants certificates to those who may 
 be found duly qualified, numbering them in the 
 order of merit ; it also reports to the authority 
 convening the board, at the close of a session, 
 the result of all its investigations, and forwards 
 the documentary evidence it may have received 
 in relation to the capacity and fitness of those 
 examined. 
 
 Applications for admission into the navy can 
 be made to the Secretary of the Navy at any 
 time by the candidate himself, or by his parent, 
 guardian, or friends. All applications must state 
 age, birthplace, and residence of the candidate, 
 who must also furnish certificates of moral and 
 physical qualifications. No person will be ap 
 pointed an officer in the navy until he shall 
 have passed a physical and a professional ex 
 amination. 
 
 Any person giving a false certificate of age, 
 character, or time of service, or making a false 
 statement to a board of examination, will be 
 dropped. 
 
 A candidate fo v an appointmsnt- to the grade 
 of assistant engineer must be not le?s than 19 
 nor more than 26 years of age ; jve had 
 not less tli an two years service in 5 . an(f a ^>~ 
 ricating and management of steam-f ^ ^ n( j fty 
 for marine purposes, and must give sa^ ^ ,- e n to 
 .widence of his skill in such capacity, or Ihem 
 served not less than that period as an engin^^ 
 on board of a steamer provided with a conde b_ 
 sing-engine, and have a certificate from t) ne 
 director or superintending engineer as to }(n- 
 ability. le 
 
 He will be examined in accordance with th^ 
 forms prescribed by the Navy Department. 
 
 A candidate for the office of assistant naval 
 constructor must be not less than 24 nor more 
 than 30 years of age ; must furnish evidence 
 showing that he is a shipwright by profession, 
 that he has been engaged in that business, and 
 must present the certificate of the person with 
 whom the business was learned, and will be re 
 quired to pass such examination as the Navy 
 Department may direct. 
 
 A candidate for the office of assistant pay 
 master must be not less than 21 nor more than 
 26 years of age. His moral and mental qualifi 
 cations will be subjects of rigid investigation by 
 a board. 
 
 A candidate for the office of assistant surgeon 
 must be not less than 21 nor more than 26 
 years of age. His moral, mental, and pro 
 fessional qualifications will be decided upon by 
 a board. 
 
 An applicant for the office of chaplain must 
 be not less than 21 nor more than 30 years of 
 age. He must be a regularly-ordained min 
 ister. 
 
 A candidate for a boatswain s appointment 
 must be of correct habits, not less than 21 nor 
 more than 35 years of age ; he must have been 
 at least seven years at sea, and have served at 
 least one year as a petty officer ; he must be a 
 thorough practical seaman, and understand cut 
 ting, fitting, and rigging according to regula 
 tions, the weighing, catting, fishing, securing, 
 and transportation of anchors and the working 
 of cables, the erection and securing of sheers, 
 the handling of purchases, masting, securing 
 yards, etc., and be able to write sufficiently to 
 keep an account of stores. 
 
 A candidate for the appointment of acting 
 gunner must be a seaman of sober and correct 
 habits, not less than 21 nor more than 30 years 
 of age. He must understand the manner of fit 
 ting magazines and shell-rooms ; the manner of 
 stowing and preserving powder, projectiles, fire 
 works, and all ordnance-stores afloat and on 
 shore; also the manner of handling and secur- 
 
EXAMINATIONS 
 
 254 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 ing guns. He must be able to put up all kinds 
 of ammunition, to take impressions of vent and 
 bore, to star-gauge guns, to adjust, verify, and 
 use sights, and to n t all gun-gear. He must 
 understand and be able to explain all fuzes in 
 use in the navy, and be conversant with orders 
 and regulations in regard to the care and hand 
 ling of all ordnance material, afloat or ashore, 
 and with the charges of powder for guns and 
 projectiles of every calibre. He must be able 
 to read and write with facility, understand the 
 first four rules of arithmetic and proportion ; be 
 able to keep the gunner s accounts correctly, and 
 he must have mad 2 3, cruise" in a sea-going vessel 
 of war. ~- " 
 
 A candidate for a carpenter -s appointment 
 must b/ 6f correct habits ; be not Jess than 21 
 no? necfe than 30 years of age ; be a good ship- 
 it squadt, understand calking, the fishing of masts 
 jesty .yards, and the quality and strength of tin^ 
 E^ how to unship and hang a rudder, to cofW 
 manuct and hang a jury-rudder, and be able to 
 eafrrite sufficiently well to keep an account of 
 regores. 
 
 fcA candidate for a sailmaker s appointment 
 
 Thmst be of correct habits ; be not less than 21 
 
 Chor more than 30 years of age ; be a good work- 
 
 a man ; be capable of draughting, and understand 
 
 thoroughly the cutting and making of sails, 
 
 awnings, hammock-cloths, boom-covers, and 
 
 wind-sails, and be able to write sufficiently well 
 
 to keep an account of stores. 
 
 No acting gunner will receive a warrant as 
 gunner until, after making a cruise of not less 
 than one year as acting gunner in a sea-going 
 vessel, and after a course of laboratory instruc 
 tion at the Washington Navy-Yard, he has passed 
 a thorough examination before a board of line- 
 officers. He will not be entitled to examination 
 unless he presents commendatory letters from 
 his commanding officers. An acting boatswain, 
 carpenter, or Bail maker is eligible for a warrant 
 bearing the same date as his acting appointment 
 after serving one year at sea : provided the com 
 manding officers under whom he has served have 
 certified favorably as to his merits. 
 
 Boards for the examination of candidates for 
 appointment or promotion arc composed as fol 
 lows : for a mate, boatswain, gunner, carpenter, 
 or sailmaker, of three line-officers, one of whom 
 shall be of or above the rank of lieutenant- 
 commander ; for engineer officers, of three chief 
 engineers ; for passed assistant and assistant pay 
 masters, of three paymasters; for assistant naval 
 constructors, of three naval constructors. See 
 NAVAL ACADEMIES, RECRUITING. 
 
 Examination of Officers for Promotion and 
 Retirement in the Navy, Board of. Officers of 
 the medical corps were first subject by statutory 
 law to examination before promotion to a higher 
 grade by a board of surgeons, designated for the 
 purpose by the Secretary of the Navy. The act 
 requiring the examination of this class of officers 
 was approved May 24, 1824. 
 
 The subsequent legislation of Congress on this 
 subject, as expressed in the acts approved respec 
 tively July 16, 1862, and April 21, 1864, require 
 " all officers below the grade of commodore, and 
 all officers not of the line," and "in time of 
 peace all officers to be promoted from the list of 
 commodores to the grade of rear-admiral," to be 
 examined as to their physical qualifications to 
 
 perform the duties of a naval officer at sea by a 
 board of medical officers, appointed for the pur 
 pose by the Secretary of the Navy. An excep 
 tion is made in cases of officers whose physical 
 disqualifications were occasioned by wounds re 
 ceived in the line of duty, which do not inca 
 pacitate them for other duties in the grade to 
 which they shall be promoted. 
 
 In addition to the physical examination herein 
 stated, the officers aforesaid are required to 
 establish their mental, moral, and professional 
 fitness for promotion to the satisfaction of a board 
 of examining officers appointed by the President 
 of the United States. Said board to consist of 
 not less than three officers, senior in rank to the 
 officer to be examined. 
 
 The officers thus subject to examination before 
 promotion, to a grade limited in number by law, 
 are not entitled to examination in such a sense 
 as to give increase of pay, until designated by 
 the Secretary of the Nav} r to fill vacancies in 
 the higher grade. 
 
 When such vacancies occur, and the officers 
 are designated to fill the-same, the law says that 
 " any such officer whose case is to be acted upon 
 by such examining board shall have the right to 
 be present if he so desires, and to submit a state 
 ment of his case on oath." 
 
 The peculiar wording of this section of the law 
 has occasioned different opinions as to its mean 
 ing. Some officers have questioned the right of 
 such examining board to personally interrogate 
 officers who appear before it as candidates for 
 promotion, and have claimed that the law leaves 
 it optional with the candidates to be present or 
 absent, as they may elect. 
 
 Upon full examination of the law, and after 
 mature deliberation as to its interpretation, it 
 has been decided by the revising authority that 
 such right exists, and that the law creating such 
 examining boards, and such candidates for ex 
 amination, implies without question the right on 
 the part of the former to interrogate, and the 
 duty on the part of the latter to answer. 
 
 The right of personal examination is therefore 
 the fundamental principle of these boards, and 
 indispensable primarily to the accomplishment 
 of their objects, and this power may not be re 
 strained or limited except by express affirmative 
 legislation. 
 
 In addition to this right of personal examina 
 tion, the law confers upon these boards all need 
 ful and convenient power of further collateral 
 examination, such as to summon, swear, and ex 
 amine witnesses, and to inspect the files of the 
 Navy Department ; and those powers are exercised 
 in such forms of procedure and report as will 
 enable the President of the United States, who 
 is the revising authority, to see and understand 
 fully all the facts necessary or desirable for his 
 consideration. 
 
 The boards are organized anew in each case, 
 and sworn in the presence and hearing of the 
 candidate to be examined. 
 
 The record of the proceedings in each case is 
 made up with precision and care, and with scru 
 pulous attention to legal requisites, and is signed 
 by every member and the recorder, and shows 
 who of the members concurred in, and who, if 
 any, dissented from the opinion of the board. 
 
 The requisite mental, moral, and professional 
 qualifications, to be determined by the examina- 
 
EXCHEQUERED 
 
 255 
 
 EXHAUST 
 
 tions, relate to the duties and responsibilities of 
 the grade to which the candidate seeks promo 
 tion, and not to those of any other grade. 
 
 No officer may be rejected until after such 
 public examination of himself, and the records 
 of the Department in his case, unless he shall 
 fail to appear before the board after having been 
 duly notified. 
 
 Whenever any officer of the navy, on being 
 ordered to perform the duties appropriate to his 
 commission, shall report himself unable to com 
 ply with such order, or whenever, in the judg 
 ment of the President of the United States, an 
 officer of the navy is in any way incapacitated 
 from performing the duties of his office, the 
 President, at his discretion, directs the Secretary 
 of the Navy to refer the case of such officer to 
 a board of not less than five commissioned offi 
 cers, two-fifths of whom are members of the 
 medical corps of the navy ; the members of the 
 board, except those taken from the medical corps, 
 are senior in rank to the officer to be examined. 
 
 The board is authorized to inquire into, and 
 determine the facts, touching the nature and oc 
 casion of the disability of any such officer; and 
 has such powers of a court-martial and of a 
 court of inquiry as may be necessary. 
 
 The members are sworn in each case to dis 
 charge their duties honestly and impartially. 
 
 When the board finds an officer incapacitated 
 for active service, from wounds, or injury re 
 ceived in the line of duty, from sickness or ex 
 posure therein, or from any other incident of 
 the service, and the President approve of such 
 finding, the disabled officer is thereupon placed 
 upon the list of retired officers with pay equal 
 to seventy-five per centum of the sea-pay for the 
 grade or rank he may hold at the date of his re 
 tirement. 
 
 But if such disability or incompetency pro 
 ceeded from other causes, and the President con 
 cur in opinion with the board, the officer is 
 retired upon furlough-pay, or he is wholly re 
 tired from the service with one year s pay, at the 
 discretion of the President ; in this last case his 
 name is wholly omitted from the navy register. 
 
 No officer of the navy may be retired because 
 of misconduct, but he is subject to court-martial 
 for such misconduct. 
 
 The members of the board are sworn in each 
 case to an honest and impartial discharge of their 
 duties ; and no officer of the navy may be re 
 tired, either partially or wholly from the ser 
 vice, without having had a fair and full hearing 
 before the board, if he shall demand it, except 
 in cases where he may be retired by the Pres 
 ident, at his own request, or on account of age, 
 or length of service, or on account of his failure 
 to be recommended by an examining board for 
 promotion. James C. Dalin. 
 
 Exchequered (Eng.). Seized by government 
 officers as contraband. 
 
 Executive-officer. The title of " executive- 
 officer" is of quite recent date, and has been the 
 cause of much discussion, bad temper, and bitter 
 opposition; it has grown from the ashes of the 
 old first lieutenant, and finds its parallel in the 
 army adjutant, and in all corporations or factories 
 employing large bodies of men, in the name of 
 superintendent or manager. The executive-officer 
 holds by far the most onerous, most difficult, and 
 most thankless office on board ship, while his 
 
 authority is limited entirely by the dictum of his 
 commander. His duties consist in stationing 
 the officers and crew for the necessary handling 
 of the sails and spars, in the boats, at the great 
 guns, fire-quarters, small-arms, and in their 
 messes ; he must frequently exercise them as pre 
 scribed by navy regulations ; he is always on 
 duty, and must be ever vigilant and watchful ; 
 setting at all times a good example of neat 
 ness and prompt respectful obedience, he must 
 exact it from all others. He must keep a 
 conduct-roll of all the crew, setting forth all 
 their individual merits and carefully noting all 
 their faults. He must keep a liberty-book, in 
 which the names of all who obtain leave are en 
 tered, the length of time grante^, the hour of 
 their return, and their condition. He must 
 keep a punishment-book, in which any and all 
 punishments inflicted, for what cause and by 
 what authority, are recorded. He must listen to 
 all complaints, and, if necessary, present them 
 to his captain. He acts as chief of police, and 
 must be very watchful of his immediate sub 
 ordinates in that department, to suppress the 
 smuggling of liquor, -theft, fighting, and gam 
 bling. He must be ready at all times to lead the 
 crew, to head the battalion, or show the way to 
 the weather-earing ; ready always with his gold- 
 laced and epauletted coat for fair weather, or 
 his trumpet and oil-skin jacket for the midnight 
 gale. He must be ready to promote and encour 
 age all kinds of healthful and proper amuse 
 ments among the crew, such as boat-racing, glee 
 clubs, base ball, and particularly swimming ; the 
 comfort of the crew should be his constant study. 
 But most difficult task of all, he must, by his in 
 fluence and dignity, maintain good order, frown 
 ing down all license, stopping at once all im 
 proper discussion ; if he wishes the cruise to be 
 happy, he must first of all be true and loyal to 
 his commanding officer, never permitting officers 
 to criticise him in the presence of the servants, 
 never himself doing so even to the officers. He 
 must be equally careful not needlessly to open 
 the captain s eyes to any of the little" faults or 
 minor breaches of discipline on the part of 
 officers or men ; he must learn when and what 
 to hear or see, and as his relations with the cap 
 tain are more or less confidential, he must be ex 
 ceedingly prudent in his speech. He is held 
 responsible for the cleanliness of the ship, her 
 good order, neat and man-of-war-like appear 
 ance, and, above all, he is to do as he is told by 
 his captain, to promulgate and execute his orders ; 
 and, last of all his duties, never to go ashore ex 
 cept on the sheet-anchor. W. T. Truxtun, Cap 
 tain U.S.N. 
 
 Exhaust. A term applied to the mechanism 
 for releasing steam from a cylinder after having 
 performed its work ; and, "also, to the ejected 
 steam. 
 
 EXHAUST -PIPE. A pipe for conducting ex 
 haust steam from a cylinder to a condenser, or 
 to the atmosphere, or to any convenient place 
 remote from the engine. When an exhaust- 
 pipe terminates in a chimney, and has a con 
 tracted outlet for increasing the velocity of the 
 escaping steam and inducing a draft, the con 
 tracted termination is called a blast-pipe. 
 
 EXHAUST-PORT. The opening or passage in a 
 steam-cylinder through which the exhaust steam 
 escapes. 
 
EXMOUTH 
 
 256 
 
 EXPANSION OF STEAM 
 
 EXHAUST STEAM. The steam that is ejected 
 from a cylinder after having performed its 
 work. 
 
 EXHAUST-VALVE. A valve for releasing the 
 exhaust steam from a cylinder, or for discharg 
 ing any confined fluid from a vessel or chamber. 
 
 Exmouth, Viscount (Sir Edward Pellew), a 
 celebrated English admiral, was born at Dover 
 in 1757. He^was descended from a Norman 
 family, settled in Cornwall for many centuries. 
 He entered the navy at 13 years of age, and was 
 at once remarked for his daring, activity, and 
 intelligence. Well suited to his profession, he 
 rose to be a typical English sailor. 
 
 His first war-service was in our own country, 
 at the battle of Lake Champlain, when he suc 
 ceeded to the command of the schooner " Carle- 
 ton," and, for gallant and skillful conduct, was 
 given a lieutenant s commission. In the next 
 year he served in Burgo} r ne s unfortunate cam 
 paign, in command of a detachment of seamen, 
 whose tremendous labor, in the lakes and rivers, 
 was entirely thrown away by Burgoyne s cap 
 ture. 
 
 In 1782 he had command of the "Pelican," 
 and destroyed three French privateers at one 
 time, for which service he was made a captain. 
 At the breaking out of the war with the French, 
 in 1793, he was in command of the " Nyinphe," 
 36, which ship is said to have been manned 
 mostly by landsmen. In her, however, he cap 
 tured the French frigate " La Cleopatre," a 
 heavier ship. He was knighted for this action. 
 
 In 1794 he had command of the " Arethusa" 
 frigate, and captured the French frigate " Po- 
 mone" in the course of a general action. In 
 the same year he was given command of the 
 second division of the Western Squadron, where 
 he distinguished himself. 
 
 Always noted for deeds of personal daring, 
 one of the most remarkable of these was his 
 boarding the wrecked transport " Button," ship 
 wrecked on the coast. The danger was imminent, 
 but he took charge, and by his personal influ 
 ence and great exertions saved the lives of all 
 on board. He is, perhaps, better known to sea 
 faring people for this action than from his sub 
 sequent achievements. 
 
 In 1798 he commanded the "Impetueux," in 
 the Channel Fleet, and passed creditably through 
 several actions. 
 
 He then entered Parliament, and was known 
 as a strenuous supporter of Pitt. 
 
 In 1804 he was made rear-admiral of the blue, 
 and Commander-in-chief in India, when, by 
 his rapid and well-considered measures, he sue- . 
 ceeded in nearly clearing those seas of the French 
 cruisers which had caused such havoc. He re 
 turned to England in 1809, and the next year 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in the North 
 Sea. 
 
 In 1811 he was commander-in-chief in the 
 Mediterranean ; and in 1814 was made Baron 
 Exmouth, and K.C.B., and G.C.B. When, in 
 1816, the Dey of Algiers violated the treaty con 
 cerning prisoners, Lord Exmouth was sent out, 
 with a powerful fleet, and made an attack upon 
 that cit} T , so famous in its curious history. The 
 bombardment took place on the 26th of August, 
 with considerable loss on the side of the English 
 and their Dutch allies, and dreadful slaughter 
 occurred among the Algerines. The result was 
 
 the apology of the dey and the surrender of 
 1800 slaves. For this victory Lord Exmouth 
 was made a viscount ; and, shortly before his 
 death, he became a vice-admiral. E. Shippen. 
 
 Exocetus. A fish which comes upon the 
 beach to sleep. A genus of fishes having very 
 long and large pectoral fins, by means of which 
 they are able to fly a considerable distance in the 
 air, the flying-fish. 
 
 Expansion. In naval architecture, the laying 
 off the ship mathematically from a model or 
 drawing to the full or building size. The en 
 largement of a body, whether solid, liquid, or 
 gaseous, due to the separation of its atoms by 
 heat. See EXPANSION OF STEAM, CUT-OFF. 
 
 Expansion of Steam. Accurate investiga 
 tions of this subject are very intricate, and the 
 formulae deduced are complicated ; but calcula 
 tions sufficiently correct for many purposes may 
 be made as follows : 
 
 Suppose a given weight of steam occupying 
 the space represented by O E = V L , at the pressure 
 
 G B p v be admitted into a cylinder and to drive 
 a piston ; then to expand, its volume increasing 
 to O F = v 2 . and its pressure falling to F D 7> 2 > 
 according to the law represented by the curve 
 C D ; and, lastly, to be expelled from the cylinder 
 at the final pressure, then the 
 
 Energy transmitted, E = 
 
 tPl * 
 v dp 
 
 J 
 
 the value of which, as given by Kankine s for 
 mula for a perfect gas, is 
 
 when Y = 1-408 for air. 
 
 If the fluid is discharged from the cylinder at 
 a lower pressure than that at which the expan 
 sion terminates, there is to be added to the pre 
 ceding formula the term 
 
 making 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 This formula becomes still more complex for 
 saturated steam. 
 
 Adiabatic Curve. If the steam be allowed to 
 expand without receiving or emitting heat, and 
 the mechanical energy exerted during the ex 
 pansion be entirely communicated to an exter- 
 
EXPANSION OF STEAM 
 
 257 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 nal body, such as a piston, the pressure p 2 will 
 be less than it would had the temperature been 
 maintained constant, because by expansion, heat 
 is made to disappear. The curve C D governing 
 the pressures of the several volumes is called an 
 adiabatic curve, the simplest equation of which 
 is, for a perfect gas, 
 
 (3) 
 
 If the steam while expanding be maintained 
 at a constant absolute temperature, the curve C D 
 is called an isothermal line. 
 
 The line V may be regarded as a line of ab 
 solute cold, and an asymptote to all other iso 
 thermal and adiabatic curves. 
 
 It is frequently assumed in practice that the 
 temperature remains constant, and that 
 
 
 
 in which case the absolute pressure at any point 
 of the curve C D may be represented by -, and 
 the energy transmitted during an infinitely small 
 expansion by -d v, which being integrated be 
 tween the limits of v = v l and v=v 2 , when v l 
 represents the unit of measure of v 2 , gives the 
 energy transmitted during the whole expansion, 
 
 ^2 
 
 rf 11 
 
 (5) 
 
 r dv 
 
 ij - V -= 
 
 and if the work p l v v done before expansion, be 
 added, the expression for the total energy be 
 
 2 
 
 E =Pif ~ +Pi i =Pi (hyp- log. v 2 + 1) (6) 
 
 *i 
 
 By subtracting the back-pressure p 3 v v and 
 denoting the total mean pressure by Pm, the 
 effective energy 
 Ei=ji(hyp.log. v z + l)-p 3 V2 = Pm.v z -p 3 v 2 (7) 
 
 Mean pressure 
 
 Initial pressure, when the mean pressure is 
 given, 
 
 ^ hyp.log.^ + l 
 
 The relative weight of steam required to main 
 tain a constant mean pressure for various grades 
 of expansion may be represented by the cylinder 
 full of steam at the final pressure, or, 
 
 ^ 2 =^ = , .* . 1 . . (10) 
 
 v 2 hyp.log.v 2 -f 1 
 
 Suppose Pm to be unity and constant, then if 
 
 Per Cent, of Gain. 
 
 = l.OQ; j 2 = 1.000 
 = !. 18 ; jt> 2 = 0.690 
 = 1.675^2 = 
 
 = 0.278 
 
 Successive. 
 
 41 
 17.1 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 Total. 
 
 41 
 58.1 
 67.5 
 72.2 
 
 This is a maximum result, and not nearly at 
 tainable in practice. By applying the exact 
 17 
 
 thermo-dynamic laws of expansion, and deduct 
 ing the losses by back-pressure, clearance, and 
 friction of larger engine required, which in 
 creases with the several values of p v the per 
 cent, of gain will be materially reduced. Albert 
 Aston, Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 
 EXPANSION-GEAR. In the steam-engine, the 
 mechanism for operating an expansion or cut-off 
 valve. 
 
 EXPANSION-VALVE. See CUT-OFF. 
 
 Expedition. An undertaking by sea or land, 
 with a peaceful design or with hostile intent. 
 See EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 Expend. To use up or consume in service. 
 
 Exploit. An achievement ; a feat ; a success 
 ful deed. 
 
 Exploring Expeditions. Exploring expe 
 ditions, to examine coasts and seas unknown 
 or imperfectly surveyed, have been undertaken 
 from the earliest times. Maritime exploration, 
 however, has never been so fruitful as within 
 the past four hundred years. The earlier expe 
 ditions were of a commercial nature, and this 
 was doubtless the motive that induced Jason to 
 undertake the Argonautic expedition, the first 
 in history, 1250-60 B.C. The great Egyptian 
 monarch , Pharaoh Necho, is said to have obtained 
 the circumnavigation of Africa, 630 B.C., Phoe 
 nicians, under his orders, performing it by land 
 ing and sowing grain during the summer, thus 
 occupying three years in the voyage. During 
 the three centuries preceding the birth of Christ, 
 the Carthaginians led the van in maritime dis 
 covery. Impelled by a mercantile spirit, they 
 discovered the Scilly Islands, explored the coast 
 of Spain, Africa as far as Cape Nun, which 
 Hanno is said to have reached. Nearchus, the 
 admiral of Alexander s fleet, made many im 
 portant explorations of the coasts and islands of 
 the Persian Gulf during his five months voyage. 
 The geographical knowledge disseminated by the 
 writings of Erastosthenes, Strabo, Hipparchus, 
 and Ptolemy prepared the way for the modern 
 science of geography, and led to the develop 
 ment of maritime discovery and exploration 
 after the nations had arisen from the wreck of 
 the barbarian incursions, and when better navi 
 gation and sounder ships enabled such voyages 
 to be undertaken. Aside from the general decay 
 of knowledge, the unsettled state of society, and 
 the prevalence of piracy at sea, the dominant 
 nation for centuries the Romans were not a 
 maritime people, and sought their triumphs by 
 land. The navigation of those times was con 
 fined to coasting from head to headland ; the 
 stars and landmarks were the only guides, and 
 daytime and the favorable seasons only were em 
 ployed in navigation. But about the middle of 
 the 14th century the mariner s compass was in 
 troduced ; ships able to breast the stronger 
 waves of the Atlantic, and able to sail with a 
 side wind, were built ; maps and charts of bet 
 ter construction appeared ; the astrolabe, the 
 first astronomical instrument of navigation, was 
 invented, and a maritime school was established 
 by Prince Henry of Portugal. The expeditions 
 sent from there greatly encouraged adventurous 
 mariners to penetrate farther into the unknown 
 west, and these voyages soon bore fruit. 
 
 The first exploring vessel was sent out in 1410, 
 and reached Cape Nun, and this initiatory 
 voyage was followed by others, sent by Henry 
 
EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 258 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 and the kings of Portugal. In 1416 a vessel 
 reached Cape Bojador, and in 1418, Juan Gon- 
 calves Zarco, in a barcha, with Tristan Vaz 
 Teixera, sailed on a voyage of discovery, and, be 
 ing blown off the coast, discovered Porto Santo, 
 one of the Madeiras. In 1420, they again sailed, 
 with three vessels, discovered Madeira (visited 
 before by an Englishman), and burned its woods, 
 planting the vine and sugar-cane. Gil Eanez, in 
 1420, tried to pass Cape Bojador, but failed, suc 
 ceeding, however, in a second voyage in 1433. In 
 two succeeding voyages he finally reached Rio do 
 Ouro, or Gold River. In 1432, Cabral was sent 
 out by Prince Henry, and discovered the Azores. 
 Expeditions were undertaken in 1440 (defeated 
 by stress of weather), in 1441, and in 1442, more 
 for plunder than for discovery, but gold was then 
 first found. In 1443, Nunez Tristan, who had 
 commanded the last two expeditions, again sailed, 
 advancing as far as Alguin Bay, and to the Gam 
 bia River in a succeeding voyage. No important 
 discoveries were made in the three succeeding 
 voyages. In 1447, Lan9arot, with several cara 
 vels, explored as far as the Senegal River. In 
 1455, Cada Mosto, a Venetian, sailed in a Por 
 tuguese caravel, and again in 1456, with two 
 caravels, exploring and describing the coast, 
 then discovered the Cape Verde Islands ; and 
 the same year De Cintra and De Costa, with 
 two vessels, went as far as Cape Mesurado. This 
 was the last expedition under Prince Henry, the 
 founder of modern discovery and exploration. 
 In 1471, Santarem and Escobar discovered the 
 Gold Coast and Cape St. Catherine. The trade 
 with Africa was farmed by the Portuguese gov 
 ernment, and discovery relaxed somewhat. Un 
 der John the Perfect it again revived, and the 
 attention of other nations to the subject was soon 
 manifested by their attempts. In 1484, Diego 
 Cam reached the Congo River, and in 1487, Bar 
 tholomew Diaz sailed with 3 caravels, discov 
 ered the cape at the southern point of Africa, and 
 named it Cabo Tormentoso. In 1484-86, Martin 
 Beheim is said to have reached Brazil, but ac 
 counts of this are vague. These voyages paved 
 the way for the great explorer, Christopher Co 
 lumbus. Ferdinand of Spain was induced to 
 grant him 3 vessels and 90 men, and he sailed 
 from Palos, Spain, August 3, 1492. He touched 
 at the Canaries, and then boldly struck towards 
 the west. Previous explorers had kept nearer the 
 land, until accidental discoveries of the islands 
 led them there in subsequent voyages ; but Co 
 lumbus, firmly believing in the rotundity of the 
 earth, boldly sought the Indies by sailing around 
 it. His timorous sailors feared the unknown 
 sea, and nearly frustrated his plans ; but finally 
 he was rewarded by a sight of the land, and on 
 Friday, October 12, he "discovered Guanahani, 
 which he called San Salvador. He discovered 
 Long Island, Exuma Island, and Watling s 
 Island in the course of his explorations this 
 voyage, and Cuba on the 28th October, and St. 
 Domingo on December 6. He lost his flag-ship, 
 but got safely back, touching at the Azores and 
 the mouth of the Tagus, and arriving at Burgos, 
 Spain, March 15, 1493. The news of his dis 
 covery of the Indies spread abroad, and soon 
 other explorers were seeking western lands. A 
 papal bull granted these waters to the Spanish, 
 reserving to the Portuguese explorations east of 
 a line at first 100 leagues, afterwards 370 leagues, 
 
 west of the Azores. Columbus sailed, as vice 
 roy of the new country, with 17 ships and 150 
 men, to colonize the new lands, September 
 25, 1493. On the 3d November he discovered 
 Dominica (Sunday) Island, and Marie-Galante, 
 Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Antigua, St. Matthew, 
 St. Bartholomew, Santa Cruz, Porto Rico, and 
 others in succession, arriving at the latter island 
 April 24, 1494. He sailed with 3 vessels April 
 24, 1494, discovered many islands near Cuba, ex 
 plored its coasts, discovered Jamaica May 14, 
 and the islands in the Mona passage. He sailed 
 on his third voyage with 6 ships May 19, 1497, 
 and then discovered the coast of Venezuela, 
 Trinidad, and other islands, and, on arriving at 
 Hispaniola, was sent home in chains. 
 
 In his fourth voyage, with 2 ships and 170 
 men, in 1502, he explored the coast of Honduras, 
 and this was his last exploit. 
 
 England was the first to profit by the dis 
 covery, and John and Sebastian Cabot sailed in 
 June, 1496, with 2 ships and 300 men. They 
 discovered the island of Newfoundland, and ex 
 plored the continent as far as Chesapeake Bay. 
 Sebastian Cabot afterwards sailed on other ex 
 peditions, the first in the Spanish service, to 
 South America, and subsequent ones in search 
 of northwest and northeast passages. These 
 latter voyages belong to Polar exploration. 
 
 The Portuguese king sent out in 1496 Vasco 
 da Gama with 4 ships and 120 men. He sailed 
 July 9, 1496, explored the coast of Africa, passed 
 the Stormy Cape, now Good Hope, discovered 
 Mozambique, and first found the passage to In 
 dia, laying the track for future voyages. Jeal 
 ous of the Spanish discoveries in the west, Ojeda 
 and Vespucci were sent in 1499, by the Portu 
 guese king, with 4 ships. They discovered the 
 continent of South America, about the Orinoco, 
 and in a second voyage discovered Brazil. Amer 
 igo Vespucci, the pilot of these expeditions, 
 sailed again in 1501 with 3 ships, explored the 
 Brazilian coast, and crossed to Africa. In 1503, 
 with 6 ships, he discovered St. Matthew Island 
 and Bahia, and first published accounts of the 
 new world, which became known as America. 
 
 With the new century the spirit of discovery 
 and exploration started afresh. The Portuguese, 
 first to open the way, led the van in the 16th 
 century also. Pedro Alvarez Cabral sailed in 1500 
 with 12 ships and 1500 men, partly to colonize 
 the new Indian possessions. He sailed March 
 8, explored the coast of Brazil, crossed to Africa, 
 doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and touched 
 at Sofala, exploring much of the coast. At 
 the same time Gaspar de Cortereal sailed with 
 2 vessels to the westward, explored Newfound 
 land, discovered the St. Lawrence and Labrador, 
 and named them. Returning on a second voy 
 age, in 1502, he was lost. From 1500 to 1510 
 many expeditions were sent from Portugal to 
 India, but they were for colonization and trade, 
 although in many of them important discoveries 
 were made. Albuquerque discovered Zanzibar 
 in 1503. Juan de Nova Castella first saw St. 
 Helena in 1502. Tristan d Acunha discovered the 
 island called after him in 1506, and Madagascar 
 in 1507. Diego Lopez de Sequerem explored 
 the coasts of Malacca and Sumatra, and many 
 other discoveries were made by traders and In 
 dia fleets. Spain was not idle. In 1508, Vin- 
 cente Jafiez Purzon and Juande Solis sailed along 
 
 
 
EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 259 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 the coast of South America from the equator to 
 40 S. In 1512, De Soils explored the whole coast 
 of Brazil, and discovered the La Plata and the 
 Parana, and colonies were soon planted there. 
 The same year Juan Ponce de Leon sailed from 
 the Spanish colonies and discovered Florida. In 
 1517, Cordova explored the coast of Campeachy, 
 in 1518, Juan de Grijalva the coast of Honduras, 
 and the same year Francis de Garay sailed down 
 the coast of Florida. The following year saw 
 the advent of Fernando Cortez and the establish 
 ment of a Spanish kingdom on the continent, and 
 many voyages of discovery ensued thereafter. 
 
 But the greatest maritime event that had hap 
 pened since the voyage of Da Gama was that of 
 Magalhaens. He sailed from Seville in 1519, on 
 the 20th of September. After exploring the coast 
 of Brazil, and wintering in Patagonia, he sailed 
 through the straits that bear his name. Of his 
 5 ships, one was here lost and one returned to 
 Spain, but he pushed into the hitherto unex 
 plored South Sea, discovered the Ladrones, Phil 
 ippines, Jardines, and other islands in that sea, 
 and was killed at Zebu. One vessel reached 
 San Lucar, Sept. 6, 1522, with 18 men, and thus 
 the first circumnavigation of the globe was ac 
 complished in 1154 days. Cortez and subsequent 
 viceroys of New Spain sent out many expedi 
 tions of discovery and exploration from 1520 to 
 1524. In 1525, Francis Pizarro and Diego de 
 Almagro sailed south and discovered Peru, after 
 wards conquering it and establishing an empire 
 there. A fleet of 7 vessels sailed from Corunna 
 in the same year, one of them sailing around the 
 continent of South America, the others going 
 to the Moluccas. 
 
 Francis I. sent John Verrazzani, 1523, to ex 
 plore the new continent, and again in 1524. He 
 is said to have discovered Florida, before seen by 
 Ponce de Leon. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot sailed again for the king of 
 Spain in 1526, explored the La Plata, ascended 
 north 120 miles in his ships, and 480 miles far 
 ther in boats ; also exploring the Parana and 
 Paraguay Rivers. Cortez sent Alvarda de Saa- 
 vedra, in 1527, into the South Seas, and New 
 Guinea was then first seen, and many smaller 
 islands. Francis I. sent Jacques Cartier from 
 St. Malo with 2 ships of 60 tons in 1534. He 
 explored Labrador, discovered the Magdalen 
 Islands, Chaleur and Gaspe Bays, and took pos 
 session of the new country in the name of the 
 king of France. In a second voyage, in 1535, 
 he sailed through Belleisle Straits, and explored 
 the St. Lawrence and Saguenay, wintering there. 
 In a third voyage, in 1541, he made other ex 
 plorations of Canada under the command of 
 Roberval. In 1536, Cortez sent Juan de Gri 
 jalva to explore the west coast of America, 
 and the same year himself sailed, discovering 
 the Gulf and peninsula of California. The 
 same year Grijalva sailed into the South Seas, 
 and discovered many islands about the Moluc 
 cas, Spice, and Philippine groups. In 1539, 
 Francis de Ulloa explored both shores of the 
 Gulf of California, and the west coast of the 
 peninsula as far as 32 north latitude. In 1540, 
 Orellana explored the Amazon, and in 1541 
 Don Stephen de Gama explored the Red Sea, 
 Abyssinian coast, and Arabian shores. In 1542, 
 another Spanish fleet, exploring the west coast of 
 America, sailed north to 40, and saw the Sierra 
 
 Nevadas. The same year a fleet of 6 vessels 
 sailed into the South Sea, and discovered the 
 Pelew and other islands. The next year De la 
 Torre explored the Philippines. The Spaniards, 
 anxious to reach their new possessions, sent ex 
 peditions to find the northwest passage, and, in 
 1542, Cabrillo explored the coast of California 
 as far as 44 north, naming Cape Mendocino. 
 The voyages of Frobisher, Smith, and Davis be 
 long to Polar exploration. In 1553, Sir Hugh 
 Willoughby and Richard Chancellor passed Nor 
 way, and sailed into the White Sea. In 1562, 
 Jean de Ribaut sailed with 2 vessels from France, 
 and explored the coast of Florida and South 
 Carolina. The voyage of Drake in 1577, import 
 ant from discoveries made, was a predatory in 
 cursion against Spanish commerce. In 1582, 
 Gualle, under Spanish colors, first explored the 
 seas north of Japan, discovered New Georgia and 
 many other points on the north westcoastof Amer 
 ica. Cavendish sailed July 2, 1586, with 3 vessels 
 on a voyage of discovery. He explored the coast 
 of California, traversed the South Seas, and 
 sailed around the globe, discovering many islands 
 in his voyages. He essayed a second voyage, 
 but died at its commencement, and nothing was 
 accomplished. Hawkins discovered the Falkland 
 Islands in 1586, and the Dutch sent several ex 
 peditions in search of the northwest passage. 
 But the wars between Spain and England para 
 lyzed discovery during the latter part of the 
 century. Much remained yet to be explored. 
 
 The next century opened with brighter prom 
 ise to the explorer. The invention of the tele 
 scope (1609), of the octant in 1732, of chronome 
 ters in 1736, and the improvement in maps and 
 charts by Mercator (1550) and Wright (1559), the 
 progress in astronomy by the studies of Galileo, 
 Copernicus, and Tycho Brahe, habitude in mak 
 ing longer voyages at sea, and better ships, gave 
 the mariner better instruments and more exact 
 means of making these voyages successful. 
 
 The first to open the way of discovery was 
 Hendrik Hudson. His first voyage, in 1607, was 
 in search of the northwest passage, and he ex 
 plored Greenland. His second voyage was to the 
 northeastward, but the ice stopped him. It is 
 his third voyage that concerns us, when he dis 
 covered the river that bears his name, sailing up 
 it to the head of navigation. His fourth voyage 
 belongs to Polar exploration. In a voyage of 
 a warlike nature in 1606-7, Van Voort discov 
 ered New Holland. In 1607, Quiros sailed to 
 the South Sea in search of a continent, and dis 
 covered Otaheite. Le Maire and Schouten sailed 
 from Holland in 1675 with 2 ships in search 
 of the same continent and a passage to India. 
 They discovered Le Maire Straits and Staten 
 Land, first doubled and named Cape Horn, and 
 discovered many islands in the Pacific, and also 
 New Zealand and New Guinea. Baffin s voyage 
 in 1619 was Arctic, and exploration flagged for 
 a while. 
 
 In 1642, Abel Jansen Tasman sailed with 3 
 ships from Batavia. He discovered Tasmania 
 on the 24th of November, 1642, naming it Van 
 Diemen s Land. Van Vlaming explored care 
 fully the coast of New Holland towards the 
 close of the century. An expedition under De 
 Vries explored the waters north of Japan. Dam- 
 pier s voyages, adding much to our knowledge 
 of the East Indies, at the close of this and the 
 
EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 260 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS 
 
 beginning of the next century, were buccaneer 
 ing expeditions, and many discoveries were made 
 during the privateering voyages of Capt. Woods 
 Kogers in 1708-11. 
 
 But the first exploring voyage of the 18th 
 century was that of Vitus Sabring, a Kussian, 
 in Arctic regions. He first ascertained Kam- 
 skatka to be a peninsula. A Russian trading 
 company made many discoveries in their mer 
 cantile voyages. Capt. John Clipperton explored 
 the coast of China in 1719, and Capt. Shelvocke 
 explored farther the northwest coast of America, 
 and sailed round the world. 
 
 The Dutch East India Company sent an ex 
 pedition, of 3 ships under Commodore Rogge- 
 wein in 1721, to explore the southern continent. 
 Visiting Brazil, they rounded Cape Horn, dis 
 covered Easter Island, Aurora Island, Rogge- 
 wein and other islands, coasted New Guinea and 
 the Moluccas. His ships were seized at Batavia, 
 and he went home in the company s ships, sail 
 ing around the world. 
 
 The voyage of Lord Anson, 1740-43, was 
 against Spanish commerce, although many dis 
 coveries were made. Admiral Byron sailed on 
 a voyage of discovery from England in 1764, 
 explored the Straits of Magellan, discovered Dis 
 appointment, Danger, and many other islands 
 in the South Sea, explored the Solomon and 
 Ladrone Islands, and sailed around the world. 
 Capt. Wallis, in his voyages, 1766-68, sailed 
 around the world, discovered Whitsun Island, 
 Queen Charlotte Island, Egmont Island, Wallis 
 Island, and others, giving their positions care 
 fully. Capt. Philip Carteret, sailing with him 
 from England, parted company at the Straits of 
 Magellan, sailing to the southward, and dis 
 covered Osnaburgh, Keppel, Volcano, Duke of 
 Gloucester, and other islands, explored New 
 Britain, New Ireland, Philippine, Celebes, and 
 other groups, and sailed around the world. But 
 the most famed navigator of the century was 
 Capt. James Cook. He first sailed in 1768, with 
 astronomers, to observe the transit of Venus. 
 Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, Le Maire Straits, 
 and other localities were more carefully explored 
 and described, and Cook sailed to the southward 
 as far as 60, then sailed north, discovered many 
 islands in the Society group, and landed at 
 Otaheite. That and the neighboring islands 
 were thoroughly and carefully explored. He 
 then coasted along the islands of New Zealand 
 and New Guinea, and the continent of Aus 
 tralia. He then returned by way of Batavia 
 and Cape of Good Hope. The same year that 
 Cook sailed, Louis de Bougainville was sent 
 out from France. After surrendering the Falk 
 land Islands to England, he sailed with 2 ves 
 sels into the South Sea, discovered Dangerous 
 Archipelago, visited Tahiti, named Pentecost 
 Island, and, touching at Batavia, completed the 
 circuit of the globe. Cook s second voyage, in 
 the u Resolution" and "Adventure," began July 
 13, 1772. He went to the southward of America, 
 the first to penetrate into the icy sea, advancing 
 as far as lat. 71. He believed that he had 
 disproved the existence of a continent there. 
 He then explored New Hebrides and New Cale 
 donia, Society and Friendly Islands, and dis 
 covered the Sandwich Islands. His third voy 
 age was undertaken in 1778, when he explored 
 the Sandwich Islands and the northwest coast 
 
 of America, advancing as far as lat. 70 40 
 north. He was killed February 14, 1779, at 
 the Sandwich Islands, and little was accom 
 plished during the rest of the voyage. The 
 voyage of Capt. Phipps, in 1773, in which 
 Nelson was engaged, belongs to Arctic explo 
 ration. The Spaniards explored the west coast 
 of North America, advancing in 1775 as far as 
 58 north. The unfortunate La Perouse sailed 
 with 2 vessels from Brest, August 1, 1785, on 
 a voyage of discovery. Carefully exploring and 
 mapping the west coast of North America, from 
 lat. 60 to Monterey, he sailed south, and after 
 many discoveries in the South Seas, his vessels 
 were lost. An expedition sent in search of them, 
 under D Entrecasteaux, explored Van Diemen s 
 Land, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, New Zea 
 land, and other islands, in 1791. In 1791, George 
 Vancouver sailed with 2 ships from England. 
 He surveyed the Sandwich Islands and the coast 
 of Northwest America, naming the island that 
 still is called after him. The French sent Ker- 
 guelen to find the southern continent, which he 
 imagined he had done on his first voyage, but a 
 second proved it to be a barren island, now called 
 by his name. 
 
 The present century has been fruitful in ex- 
 
 Eloration, but by far the greater part of this 
 as been directed to the Arctic regions, and 
 will not detain us. Many important expeditions 
 of general discovery and exploration have nev 
 ertheless been undertaken. England was the 
 first to inaugurate the century, and Capt. Flin 
 ders, in July, 1801, sailed to explore Australia. 
 He made careful surveys of much of the Austra 
 lian coast, of Northumberland and Cumberland 
 Islands, and added greatly to the knowledge of 
 these distant lands. He was detained by the 
 French government, and did not reach England 
 until 1810. The expedition of Krusenstern, in 
 1803-6, was intended to establish relations with 
 Japan ; and although this object failed, he sur 
 veyed much of the coasts of North America and 
 Asia. 
 
 In 1815 the Russians followed this up by send 
 ing Kotzebue on an exploring tour. He spent 
 three years exploring the north coast of America 
 and Asia, and made many discoveries in the 
 South Sea, in this and another voyage in 1823. 
 In 1817, De Freycinet, a French navigator, ex 
 plored the South Seas, adding much to our 
 knowledge of them. In 1819, Capt. Belling- 
 ham, a Russian, went as far south as 70 lati 
 tude ; and in 1821 he discovered Alexis and 
 Peter s Island, near the Antarctic continent. 
 Capt. Weddel, in sealing voj^ages, went as far 
 as 74 south in 1823, and made discoveries in 
 Antarctic regions. Capt. Biscoe, in 1832, in 
 sealing voyages, discovered Graham Land, a 
 part of the southern continent. In 1836, Sir 
 Edward Belcher sailed on a voyage around the 
 world in the u Sulphur," and made valuable ex 
 plorations of the islands and countries in the 
 South Sea, adding greatly to the hydrographic 
 knowledge of those localities. In 1838, the first 
 American exploring expedition of magnitude 
 sailed. Lieut. Charles Wilkes, in command of 
 5 vessels, left Norfolk, August 18, 1838, and 
 spent four years in an exploration of the globe. 
 After touching at Madeira, Cape Verde, and 
 Rio, the fleet separated, reuniting after an ex 
 ploration of the waters about Cape Horn. The 
 
EXPLOSION 
 
 261 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 Paumotoo, Tahiti, and Samoan Islands were then 
 explored, many new islands being discovered, 
 and Wallis and Sydney visited. Capt. Wilkes 
 then sailed southward, and three of his vessels 
 found the Antarctic continent, Wilkes following 
 north up to 70 longitude. The existence of a 
 continent, disbelieved by Cook, was thus proven. 
 "Wilkes then visited New Zealand, Feejee Islands, 
 Sandwich Islands, and explored the Columbia 
 and Sacramento Kivers. He sailed from America 
 again, November 1, 1841, visited Manilla, Soo- 
 loo Archipelago, Borneo, and Singapore, and ar 
 rived at New York, June 10, 1842, having lost 
 2 of his vessels. Wilkes sailed along 3000 
 miles of the Antarctic continent ; and the same 
 year (1840) D Urville, sent out by the French 
 government, sailing from Hobart Town, dis 
 covered the same land, coasting from 136 to 
 142 east longitude. D Urville made many 
 other explorations in the South Seas during his 
 two years voyage. Sir James Ross sailed from 
 England in 1839 with 2 vessels, and discov 
 ered the same continent in 1841, naming two 
 mountains that he saw "Erebus" and "Ter 
 ror," and ascended to 78 10 north, the farthest 
 that has yet been attained in those regions. He 
 afterwards, in 1842, visited Graham Land and 
 Shetland, reaching 72 latitude on that side of 
 the pole. 
 
 In 1852, Commander Lynch explored the coast 
 of Africa, ascending many of the rivers, from 
 the Gambia to Liberia. The same year, a sec 
 ond exploring expedition of 5 vessels sailed from 
 the United States, commanded by Capt. King- 
 gold. After reaching Cape of Good Hope, the 
 squadron divided into two, and explored Van 
 Diemen s Land, Caroline Islands, Ladrone 
 Islands, and Bonin Islands, the Sunda Straits, 
 Sooloo Sea, and the fleet assembled at Hong- 
 Kong. There Lieut. John Rodgers succeeded 
 to the command, and explored and surveyed the 
 Bonin, Ladrone, and Loochoo Islands. One 
 vessel was lost, but surveys were subsequently 
 prosecuted among the islands to the south of 
 Japan, in the Kurile, among the Aleutian 
 Islands, and in Behring s Straits. Lieut. Rod 
 gers advanced as far as 72 north in the Arctic 
 regions, and the expedition returned in 1855. 
 In 1856, Commander Page surveyed the La 
 Plata and Parana Rivers in a steam-vessel, the 
 "Water- Witch," until a rupture with the Para 
 guayan authorities compelled him to quit. Be 
 sides these, other expeditions of a local nature 
 have taken place to survey the Isthmus of Pan 
 ama, the Amazon River, or for the exploration 
 of the continents of Australia and Africa, but 
 these properly belong to inland travels. F. S. 
 Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. See POLAR EXPLO 
 RATION. 
 
 Explosion. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Explosives. Explosion, The sudden and 
 violent expansion of a body by its component 
 parts acquiring a great increase of bulk. Encyc. 
 
 A bursting with noise ; a bursting with a sud 
 den expansion of any elastic fluid with force and 
 a loud report. Diet. 
 
 These definitions include many actions of a 
 physical character, such as the bursting of steam- 
 boilers, and the term is also applied to the sound, 
 to the effect, etc. More strictly, explosion means 
 the result of chemical action occurring in certain 
 substances called explosive agents or explosives. 
 
 In this sense the word is synonymous with ex 
 plosive reaction, and may be defined as a chemi 
 cal action which causes the sudden, or extremely 
 rapid, formation of a very great volume of highly 
 expanded gas. An explosive reaction does not 
 differ in kind from other chemical reactions, but 
 only in degree. The explosive character of a 
 reaction depends upon its possessing the two es 
 sential features, great change of state, and quick 
 ness of action. The volume of the gas produced 
 is very much greater than that of the substance 
 from which it is derived, and it is still more ex 
 panded by the heat evolved during the action. 
 The greater the volume of the expanded gas the 
 more powerful the explosion, and vice versa. 
 The time required for the occurrence of the 
 change must be very short, and the shorter it is, 
 the more highly explosive the reaction becomes. 
 
 Conditions of Explosion. The amount and kinds 
 of gas given oif in an explosive reaction, depend 
 upon the chemical composition of the explosive 
 substance and the character of the change it un 
 dergoes. The conditions or circumstances of 
 explosion may affect these results considerably. 
 Thus, gunpowder fired in a mortar gives different 
 products than when fired unconfined, and nitro 
 glycerine exploded under certain circumstances 
 gives noxious gases which are not found under 
 other conditions. Practically, however, the effect 
 of condition on the character of the change is 
 mostly seen in the comparative rapidity of the 
 action. 
 
 The physical or mechanical condition of the 
 explosive substance is of much importance. 
 Thus, dynamite avoids the inconveniences of the 
 liquid form of nitro-glycerine, while it preserves 
 unimpaired the readiness of explosion by the 
 appropriate means. Gunpowder, in large grains 
 and highly compressed, burns more slowly than 
 if in small grains, or of low density. Gun-cotton 
 in its various mechanical states passes through 
 all gradations from rapid burning to sudden and 
 violent explosion. 
 
 Confinement is the principal external condi 
 tion affecting an explosion. Confinement is ne 
 cessary to obtain the full effect of an explosive, 
 but the more rapid the action the less the con 
 finement needed. Yet even the quickest of ex 
 plosives, like a fulminate or chloride of nitrogen, 
 requires a certain confinement to develop its 
 power. With the rapidly acting agents, how 
 ever, the amount of confinement required is 
 small, and is usually obtained necessarily in use. 
 The slower substances, like gunpowder, require 
 strong confinement, in order to allow time for 
 the spread of the action through the mass of the 
 charge. Or, means may be taken to quicken 
 their action, as by special modes of firing, and so 
 the confinement needed diminished. 
 
 The explosive reaction is very much influ 
 enced by the manner of bringing it about. The 
 effect obtained when a substance is exploded by 
 a sharp shock or blow, derived from the explo 
 sion of a fulminate, is very different from that 
 produced when firing is caused by a flame. This 
 difference is due to the greater rapidity of trans 
 mission of the exploding impulse through the 
 mass of the material acted on. The transmis 
 sion of the ignition by flame proceeds more slowly 
 from particle to particle. Consequently, when 
 a fulminate is the exploding agent, tha time of 
 action is shortened, so that the explosion becomes 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 262 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 sharper and more violent. The term detonation 
 is applied to the sudden and violent explosion 
 produced in this way. The action of the detona 
 tor may be well compared to a sudden applica 
 tion of a powerful mechanical force, like a blow 
 from a heavy hammer. The particles of gas 
 from the initial explosion strike percussively 
 upon the particles of the mass to be fired, and 
 meeting with resistance, their energy is con 
 verted into heat. But the effectiveness of this 
 action will evidently very largely depend upon 
 the suddenness of the percussive blow. In gen 
 eral, then, it may be said that the readiness with 
 which the explosion of one body will produce 
 that of another will be governed by the amount 
 of force it gives in the shortest time. 
 
 While this is true in the main, it does not ac 
 count for certain peculiarities attending explo 
 sions. An explosive body is one which is readily 
 affected by disturbing actions. Its parts are 
 held together in a nicely balanced equilibrium, 
 which is easily overbalanced, and the destruction 
 of the system results. The extremely sudden 
 application of great mechanical force tends di 
 rectly to the disorganization of the body. But 
 there are certain forms of force, or modes of ap 
 plying force, to which the substance is more sen 
 sitive than it is to others. It is found that ful 
 minating mercury is much more effective and 
 ready in producing the explosion of other bodies 
 than many agents which are more powerful or 
 even more sudden. This is as if the shock or 
 blow of the fulminate had some peculiar quality 
 to which other substances were sensitive. The 
 fulminate gives an impulse or vibration to which 
 the others respond, and which, therefore, exerts a 
 greater disturbing action upon them than is 
 caused by a mechanical excitement which does 
 not possess this special vibration. This theory, 
 which is due to Abel, has been strongly sup 
 ported by his experiments, and by those of Cham 
 pion and Pellet. The latter have shown that 
 the vibrations produced by different explosions 
 are unlike, and that certain vibratory motions 
 produced explosion more readily than others. 
 
 The distinction between detonation and sim 
 ple explosion is one of degree, and not of kind. 
 The essential peculiarity of the detonation is 
 found in the shortness of the time required for 
 it. Perfect detonation, then, is the instantaneous 
 explosion of the whole mass of a body. There 
 is a great difference in explosive substances in re 
 gard to their susceptibility to detonation. Some, 
 like nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, and the ful 
 minates, are readily detonated, and are known 
 as the detonating explosives. Probably all ex 
 plosives can be detonated, if the proper method 
 is taken. Evidently, however, detonation will 
 be much less readily brought about with a me 
 chanical mixture like gunpowder than with a 
 definite compound like nitro-glycerine. Still, 
 as has been shown by Abel and by Roux and 
 Sarrau, gunpowder can be exploded with much 
 more violence when the mode of firing is an 
 initial explosion of fulminate (Abel) or of nitro 
 glycerine (Roux and Sarrau) than when it is a 
 simple inflammation. 
 
 Relative Force of Explosive Agents. Knowing 
 the composition of the explosive, the resultants 
 of the reaction and the heat evolved can be de 
 termined, and from these data a comparison of 
 force may be drawn. Berthelot calculates the 
 
 
 si 
 
 *i 
 
 *$*$ 
 
 
 Explosive Substance. 
 
 IM 
 
 * +*X 
 
 i 1 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 
 fll 
 
 *J 
 
 *!! 
 
 A 
 
 
 caZ. 
 
 TO. C. 
 
 
 
 
 641 000 
 
 0216 
 
 139000 
 
 1 01 
 
 
 608 000 
 
 0225 
 
 137000 
 
 i 
 
 
 510 000 
 
 173 
 
 88 000 
 
 064 
 
 
 764 000 
 
 9 48 
 
 190000 
 
 1 38 
 
 
 316 000 
 
 370 
 
 117 000 
 
 085 
 
 
 1 320 000 
 
 710 
 
 939 000 
 
 6 85 
 
 
 590000 
 
 0801 
 
 472000 
 
 344 
 
 
 989 000 
 
 484 
 
 480 000 
 
 35 
 
 
 1 420 000 
 
 484 
 
 680 000 
 
 4 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 quantity of heat generated and the volume of 
 gas formed. The product of these numbers 
 gives him a " term of comparison between the 
 pressures," which, though not an exact measure 
 of the true pressure, is obtained from two char 
 acteristic and experimental elements. 
 
 The following table shows some of his results : 
 
 This comparison, he claims, "accords in gen 
 eral with experience." 
 
 Sarrau considers that the force of an explo 
 sive substance is nearly proportional to the prod 
 uct of its heat of combustion by the weight of 
 the permanent gas produced by the combustion. 
 From experimental determinations of the weights 
 of permanent gas given off on explosion, he cal 
 culates the force of some explosive substances, 
 and thence derives the following table, showing 
 the relative force they exert. In this table the 
 force exhibited by powder is taken as unity, and 
 is the mean of determinations made with five 
 varieties. 
 
 Name of Substance. Relative Force. 
 
 Saltpetre powder 1 
 
 Chloride of nitrogen 1.08 
 
 Nitro-glycerine 4.55 
 
 Gun-cotton 3.06 
 
 Picrate of potash 1.98 
 
 Mixture of 55 pts. picrate of potash and 45 pts. 
 
 saltpetre 1.49 
 
 Mixture of equal weights of picrate and chlo 
 rate of potash 1.82 
 
 If the character of the chemical change occur 
 ring in an explosion were perfectly known the 
 total force exerted might be calculated, but a com 
 parison based upon such calculations would not 
 certainly give the relative useful effect. For the 
 circumstances of use seriously affect the relative 
 practical value. Under certain conditions, the 
 detonating explosives are much more effective 
 than the slower ones, while in other cases the 
 reverse may be true, Therefore, whatever may 
 be the relative force possessed by the different ex 
 plosive substances, their comparative value must 
 be obtained from the results of practice, and 
 then it will be found that the comparison will 
 vary with the conditions of use. 
 
 Roux and Sarrau give a comparison of relative 
 force derived from direct experiment. The rela 
 tive effects were approximately measured by de 
 termining the quantity of each substance re 
 quired to rupture cast-iron shells of nearly equal 
 strength. They also used two modes of firing, 
 so that they had explosions of the first order, or 
 detonations produced by fulminate (except with 
 gunpowder when nitro-glycerine was taken), 
 and explosions of the second order, or simple 
 explosions, produced by the application of flame. 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 263 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 Some of their results are given in the table 
 below: 
 
 Name of Substance. Explosive Force. 
 
 1st order. 2d order. 
 
 Mercury fulminate 928 
 
 Gunpowder 434 100 
 
 Nitro-glycerine 1013 480 
 
 Gun-cotton 646 300 
 
 Potassium picrate 531 182 
 
 Considering the ordinary circumstances of 
 practice, the following comparison may be said 
 to indicate about the average relative force of 
 the usual explosive agents : 
 
 Name of Substance. Kelative Force. 
 
 Gunpowder 1 
 
 Nitro-glycerine 8 to 10 
 
 Dynamite, 759$ nitro-glycerine 6 
 
 Gun-cotton 4 to 6 
 
 Picric powder, from ammonium picrate 2 to 2.5 
 
 General Composition of Explosives. Many sub 
 stances are known possessing explosive proper 
 ties to a greater or less extent, but of these few 
 are of practical value as explosive agents. It is 
 convenient to divide explosives into explosive 
 compounds and explosive mixtures. In a com 
 pound, the elements composing it are in chemi 
 cal combination, while a mixture is prepared by 
 mixing mechanically the ingredients which make 
 it up. 
 
 Explosive compounds, with some unimportant 
 exceptions, are essentially composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. On explosion, 
 the carbon and hydrogen unite with the oxygen 
 to form carbonic acid gas and water (gaseous at 
 the temperature of the reaction), and the nitrogen 
 is set free. The action, then, is like an ordinary 
 combustion, except that it is extremely intense 
 and rapid from the previous intimate association 
 and intermixture of the combustible with the 
 oxygen. The nitrogen plays a very important 
 part in such a compound. It brings into the 
 body a large proportion of oxygen, which it 
 readily yields to the carbon when decomposition 
 occurs. As its attractive power for other ele 
 ments is feeble, its presence in the compound 
 confers the ready decomposibility necessary to 
 an explosion. 
 
 Explosive mixtures, properly so called, are 
 those in which the explosive property is depend 
 ent upon the fact of mixture, that is, the in 
 gredients of the mixture do not have explosive 
 properties separately from it. Gunpowder is 
 such an explosive mixture, as sulphur, charcoal, 
 and saltpetre are not explosive substances, but 
 the explosive property is attained when mixing 
 has been accomplished. In principle, explosive 
 mixtures of this sort are very simple in composi 
 tion and all essentially alike. In general, two 
 kinds of ingredients go to make such an explo 
 sive agent, one being combustible and the other 
 capable of furnishing oxygen. The principal 
 combustible body is almost invariably carbon or 
 some carbonaceous substance which also contains 
 hydrogen. Sometimes sulphur, or other oxidiz- 
 aole material, may be a constituent. The body 
 supplying the oxygen is, in nearly all cases, a 
 nitrate or a chlorate, either of which is a power 
 ful oxidizing agent. In a nitrate, the oxygen is 
 retained with considerable force, so that a strong 
 external influence is required to separate it. In 
 general then, the mixtures made from the ni 
 trates are not very easily exploded, and their 
 action is comparatively moderate. They are 
 
 not sensitive to mechanical actions like friction 
 or percussion. The chlorates yield their oxygen 
 much more readily, and mixtures containing 
 them are very sensitive to friction and percus 
 sion and explode with great sharpness. Of the 
 nitrates, the potassium and sodium salts are the 
 only ones used to any extent in practice. They 
 enter into the numerous compositions included 
 under gunpowder. Of the chlorates, the potas 
 sium salt is the only one used in the preparation 
 of explosive mixtures. 
 
 Evidently, the number of possible explosive 
 mixtures is great, since there are many sub 
 stances of a combustible nature. The action 
 taking place on explosion is the same in all. The 
 carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid gas and the 
 hydrogen to water (steam) with the evolution of 
 great heat and, if a nitrate is present, its nitrogen 
 is set free. Other substances remain behind in the 
 solid residue, or also enter into the formation of 
 gas. This action is very similar to that of an 
 ordinary combustion of carbonaceous fuel, inten 
 sified and hastened by the previous mixture of 
 the materials. 
 
 There is another and numerous class of mix 
 tures having explosive properties which contain 
 explosive compounds. The object of the mechani 
 cal mixing performed in preparing these agents is 
 not to gain thereby the explosive property, but to 
 obtain some advantage in use or handling. Thus, 
 nitro-glycerine is found in a great number of 
 mechanical mixtures, but in them all it is still 
 the same body, and it is the explosive power of 
 the nitro-glycerine which gives value to the 
 mixture. It is therefore better, as well as more 
 convenient, to treat such mixtures in connection 
 with the explosive compounds to which they 
 belong. 
 
 The principal explosive compounds which de 
 mand particular consideration are Nitro-gly 
 cerine, Gun-cotton, the Fulminates, and the 
 Picrates. 
 
 Of the explosive mixtures, gunpowder in its 
 somewhat varied forms is the most important. 
 But a? gunpowder is the subject of a separate 
 article (q. v.) it will not be specially treated in 
 this one. It will only be necessary to briefly 
 allude to some others of the mixtures. 
 
 NITRO-GLYCERINE. Syn. Nitrin ; Glyceryl 
 Nitrate ; Glonoin, or Blasting Oil. 
 
 History and Modes of Manufacture. Discov 
 ered by Sobrero in Pelouze s laboratory, in Paris, 
 in 1847 ; first applied as an explosive agent by 
 Alfred Nobel, in 1863. When first brought into 
 use numerous severe accidents created a strong 
 prejudice against nitro-glycerine, which has 
 been gradually removed as its properties and 
 mode of preparation have become better under 
 stood. Its practicable use as a blasting agent 
 was brought about by Nobel s discovery that 
 fulminating mercury exploded it perfectly. In 
 1866 dynamite was brought out, by which the 
 power of nitro-glycerine is retained in a more 
 convenient form, while its dangers are largely 
 avoided. So that now, nitro-glycerine and its 
 preparations are very extensively used all over 
 the world. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine is formed by the action of 
 concentrated nitric acid upon glycerine at a low 
 temperature. The method of making it consists, 
 essentially, of the careful mixing of the glycerine 
 with the acid, the separation of the nitro-gly- 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 264 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 cerine, and its thorough washing. The strongest 
 nitric acid attainable must be used (sp. gr. 1.5, 
 not less than 1.45). The glycerine must be pure 
 and nearly anhydrous. In order to take up the 
 water, which is a by-product of the reaction, the 
 nitric acid is mixed with twice its weight of sul 
 phuric acid (oil of vitriol). The sulphuric acid 
 takes no direct part in the formation of the nitro 
 glycerine, but serves to prevent the dilution of 
 the nitric acid. 
 
 Nobel s Method. In a leaden tank is placed a 
 large quantity of the mixed acid. This tank 
 stands in a wooden outer tub, with space be 
 tween for the circulation of cold water. In the 
 tank revolves a shaft carrying paddles, and also 
 a cylinder on hollow bearings, so that a current 
 of cold water can be sent through. This cylin 
 der and paddles serve to agitate the liquid, in 
 suring the rapid mixture of the glycerine with 
 the acid, and aid in cooling. The glycerine 
 runs in a fine stream from a vessel above, upon 
 the upper surface of the c} T linder. Sometimes, 
 instead of the revolving cylinder, a coil of pipe 
 for the transmission of cold water is placed in 
 the tank and a vertical agitator in the centre. 
 At some factories the tank is of iron, and has a 
 coil of iron pipe. Over the top of the apparatus 
 should be placed a hood or draft arrangement 
 for carrying off fumes. After the mixing of the 
 glycerine with the acid has been accomplished, 
 the liquid is run off into a large volume of water, 
 which dilutes the sulphuric acid, while the nitro 
 glycerine separates and falls to the bottom of the 
 tub, as it is a heavy liquid, not miscible with 
 water. It is then drawn off for washing by re 
 peated agitations with water and alkaline solu 
 tion. 
 
 Mowbray s Method. The mixed acid is placed 
 in earthenware pitchers, which stand in troughs 
 surrounded by ice and water. Behind the 
 troughs passes a pipe, bringing compressed and 
 cooled air, which is forced down into the acid 
 mixture through glass tubes, connected by rub 
 ber tubing, to jets on the air main. On a shelf 
 over the troughs stand bottles, each containing 
 the amount of glycerine required for the acid in 
 one pitcher, and each having a rubber siphon- 
 tube with a glass tip, through which the glycer 
 ine is drawn over, dropping into the pitcher 
 below. The filled pitchers stand in ice-water for 
 some hours before the operation begins, and while 
 it is going on, the current of compressed air 
 forced into the acid liquid keeps it in constant 
 agitation. After the glycerine has run over, the 
 pitchers are emptied into a large volume of water 
 for the precipitation of the nitro-glycerine, which 
 is then washed by agitation with water (and al 
 kaline solution) and a stream of compressed air. 
 
 JBoutmy and Faucher s Method. The glvcerine 
 is mixed with sulphuric acid (forming glycero- 
 sulphuric or sulpho-glyceric acid), and this mix 
 ture is added to the mixed acid, the whole being 
 allowed to stand 24 hours. The quantities used 
 are mixed together at once, and time is allowed 
 for the completion of the action. 
 
 Kurtz s Method. The acid is contained in a 
 narrow vertical cylinder of lead or iron with 
 conical bottom. Two pipes reach to the bottom 
 of the cylinder, one bringing glycerine and the 
 other compressed air. These pipes have small 
 orifices, and are so placed that the stream of air 
 strikes the glycerine and mixes it rapidly with 
 
 the acid. The nitro-glycerine formed rises to 
 the surface of the acid, either running off stead 
 ily, or drawn off at intervals, through a pipe to 
 the washers. These are placed one above another, 
 so that the nitro-glycerine coming in at the top 
 of one runs out at its bottom to the one below, 
 and so on, a stream of compressed air agitating 
 the water in each. The converting vessel and 
 the various washers can be separated by heavy 
 walls. In the latest form of Kurtz s apparatus, 
 the glycerine is converted into a sort of emulsion 
 by forcing air into it, and this emulsion is blown 
 through a pipe leading to the bottom of the con 
 verting vessel by a stream of compressed air. 
 Thus a more rapid and perfect mixture of the 
 glycerine and acid is obtained. 
 
 The methods above mentioned are the most 
 important and characteristic ones. Nobel s is 
 the one most used. The apparatus is simple and 
 effective for work on a large scale, and the con 
 version can be rapidly performed. As in all 
 processes, care must be taken to avoid rise of 
 temperature, but trouble on this score is less 
 liable to occur when operating with large quan 
 tities. Mowbray s method involves the use of 
 many vessels, and much handling of small quan 
 tities of material, and therefore requires more 
 labor and time, but, with proper care and atten 
 tion, it is a good working method. Boutmy and 
 Faucher s process, it is claimed, is more free 
 from danger, and gives a larger yield than others, 
 but these claims do not seem to be borne out in 
 practice. The mere process of conversion is 
 practically free from danger, accidents at this 
 stage being extremely rare by any method. A 
 yield of 1.8 parts of nitro-glycerine to 1 of gly 
 cerine is claimed for this mode of operating, but 
 this is no better, if as good, as is regularly ob 
 tained at the present time by the other plans, 
 and Kurtz asserts that 2.2 to 1 is attainable by 
 his. The peculiarity of this process lies in the 
 previous union of the glycerine with sulphuric 
 acid, so that the heat given off during conversion 
 is less, and the reacting masses can be mixed to 
 gether at once and not slowly. However, the 
 heat evolved during conversion by the other 
 ways is perfectly controllable without loss of 
 time, while for this process a period of 24 hours 
 is allowed for action, a serious delay and objec 
 tionable as leaving the nitro-glycerine, as it is 
 formed, exposed to the action of strong acid for 
 a long time. Kurtz s method is the newest one, 
 and seems to possess some advantages. The ac 
 tion goes on rapidly, and the nitro-glycerine, as 
 fast as it is produced, is removed, and not allowed 
 to collect in the converter or at any time during 
 the operation, thus lessening the chances of ex 
 tensive explosion, and the nitro-glycerine is not 
 exposed to further action. The difficulty with it 
 in its present shape seems to be that the acid will 
 soon become weakened, when the operation must 
 be stopped to supply fresh acid, or the product 
 will be inferior. But the weakened acid drawn 
 off can be worked up again, and not thrown 
 away, as in other methods, a considerable econ 
 omy. The converting vessel must be high enough 
 to insure sufficient exposure of the glycerine to 
 the action of the acid. When this has been at 
 tained, it is desirable to remove the nitro-gly 
 cerine at once, and this Kurtz s plan permits. 
 It is interesting as the first, though imperfect, 
 attempt at a continuous process, and it promises 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 265 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 to be much used. However, the time is prob 
 ably not far distant when a really continuous 
 method will be practiced. 
 
 Composition and Properties. -^-There are three 
 possible nitrins or nitro-glycerines, mononitrin, 
 C 3 H 7 (NO 2 )0 3 , dinitrin, C 3 H 6 (N0 2 ) 2 O 3 , and trini- 
 trin, C 3 H 5 (N0 2 ) 3 O 3 . The characteristics and 
 conditions of formation of these compounds have 
 not been fully worked out. Probably, as in 
 analogous cases, the two lower ones (mono- and 
 di-) are formed to a greater or less extent when 
 weak acid is used, or the temperature of the 
 reaction is too high, and that trinitrin is the 
 only or principal one formed when proper care 
 is taken. It is usual, therefore, to consider 
 nitro-glycerine as trinitrin, and to give its em 
 pirical formula as C 3 H 3 N 3 O 9 . The equation il 
 lustrating its formation will then be 
 
 C 3 H 8 3 + 3HNO 3 = C 3 H 5 N 3 O 9 + 3H 2 O. 
 
 Glycerine. Nitric acid. Nitro-glycerine. Water. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine is a colorless, oily liquid at or 
 dinary temperatures, sp. gr. 1.6, insoluble in wa 
 ter, and having a pungent, aromatic taste. At 
 40 F., it freezes to a white, crystalline mass. 
 It produces a violent temporary headache if 
 taken into the system, either by placing a drop 
 upon the tongue or on the skin. Persons hand 
 ling it constantly quickly lose their susceptibility 
 to this action. Pure, well-made nitro-glycerine 
 is stable (does not spontaneously decompose) 
 under ordinary circumstances; if it contains 
 free acid, decomposition is apt to occur which 
 may result in explosion or in the attainment 
 of a state of extreme sensitiveness, so that ac 
 cidental explosion may be easily caused. Pure 
 nitro-glycerine is not sensitive to friction or mod 
 erate percussion, when freely exposed. Placed 
 on an anvil and struck with a hammer, only the 
 particle receiving the blow goes off, scattering 
 the remainder. Completely confined, it may be 
 readily exploded by a , blow. Nitro-glycerine 
 may be inflamed and burns slowly. Its firing- 
 point is about 180 C. (356 F.). 
 
 Use and Mode of Firing. Nitro-glycerine is 
 the most powerful explosive agent in use. In its 
 liquid form it is inconvenient and dangerous to 
 handle or transport, so it is not usually employed 
 in that state. It is liable to loss or scattering 
 through leakage of the vessels containing it, 
 which may later give rise to accidents. It may 
 be frozen, arid as long as it remains frozen, its 
 transportation is easy and safe, but it must be 
 thawed before using. Thawing is performed 
 by placing the cans containing the explosive in 
 water, at not over 100 F. 
 
 The mode of firing is a fuze charged with ful 
 minating mercury, which with certainty accom 
 plishes the detonation of nitro-glycerine. With 
 a gunpowder fuze it is fired with difficulty, and 
 only imperfectly. Frozen nitro-glycerine is less 
 readily and certainly fired than the liquid, even 
 by a fulminate fuze. Since nitro-glycerine is 
 readily detonated, strong confinement is not 
 needed for it. 
 
 Products of Decomposition. On explosion, 
 nitro-glycerine is resolved into gases, carbonic 
 acid gas, water (steam), nitrogen, and a small 
 proportion of oxygen (Nobel). If the explosion 
 is imperfect, oxides of nitrogen and other bodies 
 are formed. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine Preparations. In order to 
 
 avoid the disadvantages of the liquid condition, 
 nitro-glycerine may be mixed with various sub 
 stances (absorbents) to form solid or semi-solid 
 preparations. For most purposes,, also, the great 
 intensity of the pure nitro-glycerine explosion is 
 not demanded, while yet a violent explosive is 
 wanted. Therefore preparations containing va 
 rious proportions of nitro-glycerine find very 
 extensive application as blasting agents, as their 
 cost is moderate, and they are very effective. 
 
 Some writers divide the nitro-glycerine prepa 
 rations into those with an active base and those 
 with an inactive base. Preparations with an 
 active base are those in which the absorbent sub 
 stance or substances are explosive, so- that they 
 take part in the explosion, adding to the force 
 exerted. Nitro-glycerine mixed with gunpowder 
 would give a preparation which would be said to 
 have an active base. Preparations with inactive 
 base are those in which the absorbent is an inert 
 substance, like the earth from which dynamite 
 is made. This classification is unsatisfactory, 
 for, though there are preparations in which the 
 other substances do act with the nitro-glycerine, 
 others are included with them in which such 
 joint action does not occur. It must be remem 
 bered, however, that the intermixture of differ 
 ent substances with nitro-glycerine will doubt 
 less affect its explosion, though they do not take 
 part in it. 
 
 Dynamite. The word dynamite is used, to 
 some extent, as a generic term, and it is then 
 made to include all of the mixtures of nitro 
 glycerine with solid substances. Originally, it 
 applied to one particular preparation, and it is 
 still most used in this sense. This preparation 
 is largely employed for military purposes under 
 the name of dynamite, and in this article it will 
 be the one referred to when that name is used. 
 Dynamite is prepared by mixing nitro-glycerine 
 with a natural silicious earth (kieselguhr), which 
 abounds in many localities. This earth is an ex 
 tremely fine powder, composed of the skeletons 
 of infusoria. It has high absorptive power, 
 being capable of taking up from 3 to 4 times 
 its weight of nitro-glycerine without becoming 
 pasty. The usual proportions are 1 part of earth 
 to 3 of nitro-glycerine. This gives a soft ma 
 terial, resembling in consistency slightly moist 
 pale brown sugar. Shaken down in a cartridge or 
 case, it has about .9 sp. gr., but may be packed 
 or driven to a sp. gr. of 1.25. From its nearly 
 solid, soft and pulverulent condition, it is much 
 easier and safer to handle than liquid nitro-gly 
 cerine, and, at the same time, it contains so 
 large a proportion of that agent that it is a very 
 powerful explosive. It is fired, like nitro-gly 
 cerine, by a detonating fuze containing fulmi 
 nating mercury. Dynamite freezes at the same 
 temperature as its nitro-glycerine, to a more or 
 less compact mass, and when frozen its explosion 
 is accomplished with difficulty, and not with cer- 
 taintjr, hy a fulminate fuze. 
 
 The absorbent capacity of the earth must not 
 be exceeded in preparing the dynamite, in order 
 that exudation may not afterward occur. If 
 flame is applied to dynamite, it takes fire and 
 burns with a strong flame, leaving as residue the 
 silicious earth. If dynamite in large quantity 
 is set on fire, explosion may occur after a part 
 has burned away, but in moderate quantity and 
 not closely confined, inflammation only takes 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 266 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 place. Dynamite is little liable to explosion 
 from sparks, in which respect it is much safer 
 than ordinary gunpowder. Although wetting 
 does not prevent the explosion of dynamite, yet 
 if it is exposed to the prolonged action of water 
 in quantity, the nitro-glycerine will be washed 
 off the particles of silica more or less com 
 pletely. 
 
 Dynamite is sold in the United States under 
 the name of Giant Powder No. 1. 
 
 Cellulose Dynamite. Proposed by Trauzl, an 
 Austrian engineer officer. The absorbent is 
 purified wood-pulp which will take up 3 times 
 its weight of nitro-glycerine. This preparation 
 is said to be capable of resisting the action of 
 water, and that if 20 per cent, of water be added 
 to it, it is still perfectly explosive by a fulminate 
 fuze, although it cannot be inflamed. 
 
 Gun-cotton Dynamite. Qlyoxiline. The first* 
 named is a preparation also brought forward 
 by Trauzl, and is a mixture of damp gun-cotton 
 with nitro-glycerine. Glyoxiline has been made 
 by Abel by allowing the porous masses of com 
 pressed gun-cotton to absorb nitro-glycerine. 
 
 Explosive Gelatine, or Gelatine Dynamite. 
 This new and very interesting preparation was 
 discovered by Nobel. He found that nitro- 
 
 flycerine would dissolve the nitro-cellulose 
 nown as photographic gun-cotton or collodion 
 cotton, with the production of a gummy or ge 
 latinous substance, in which the nitro-glycerine 
 is very strongly held, and which has very great 
 explosive power. Explosive gelatine may be 
 prepared in two ways : 1. By using a solvent 
 for the nitro-cellulose and mixing the solution 
 with nitro-glycerine. For this purpose methyl 
 alcohol, or the usual mixture of ether and alco 
 hol, may be used. Afterwards the solvent must 
 be removed by evaporation. This operation may 
 be conducted in the cold, but practically it is 
 less serviceable than 2. By dissolving the nitro 
 cellulose directly in the nitro-glycerine at a 
 moderate heat. A convenient mode of working 
 is to heat the nitro-glycerine in porcelain or 
 enameled vessels of convenient size, standing 
 in a water-bath to about 170 F., adding the 
 required quantity of soluble gun-cotton to the 
 liquid as soon as it has become hot. The mix 
 ture should be frequently stirred. Gelatinization 
 takes place quickly, and as soon as it is com 
 plete the vessels should be removed from the 
 bath. On cooling, there is "obtained a firm 
 jelly free from greasiness. The proportion of 
 soluble gun-cotton used varies from 6 to 10 per 
 cent, of the finished material, depending some 
 what upon its solubility. The gelatine has a 
 pale-yellow or yellowish-brown color, is elastic, 
 and can easily be cut or rolled into convenient 
 shapes. It is quite insensitive to blows or fric 
 tion, and does not give up its nitro-glycerine 
 under action of pressure or of water. An espe 
 cially powerful fuze is required to explode it 
 when unconfined. 
 
 Other preparations may be made by mixing 
 various substances with this gelatine. Of these, 
 camphorated gelatine is the most important. It 
 differs from the simple gelatine in that it con 
 tains a small percentage of camphor. This may 
 be conveniently added when the gelatine is 
 made, as camphor is very easily soluble in nitro 
 glycerine. This camphorated gelatine is ex 
 tremely insensitive to blows. The impact of a 
 
 rifle-bullet fired from a distance of 80 feet fails 
 to fire it. It is not affected by water or any tem 
 perature attained in practice. Its explosion re 
 quires a peculiarly strong fuze, unless it is very 
 strongly confined. Hess states that the Austrian 
 camphorated gelatine (4 per cent, of camphor) 
 is for equal weights 25 per cent, stronger than 
 dynamite or compressed wet gun-cotton, and for 
 equal bulks has 40 per cent, advantage in 
 strength over the dynamite and 75 per cent, 
 over gun-cotton. In many respects, therefore, 
 explosive gelatine seems to be peculiarly suitable 
 for military purposes. 
 
 Other Preparations. Many other nitro-gly 
 cerine mixtures are made for use in blasting, 
 which are not very suitable for military service, 
 and need not be discussed here. They contain 
 usually from 20 to 50 per cent, of nitroglycerine, 
 mixed with various absorbents, ordinarily the 
 ingredients of gunpowder pr similar substances. 
 Of these may be mentioned, as used in the 
 United States, Dualin, Giant Powder No. 2, 
 Hercules Powder (contaii^R magnesium carbon 
 ate), Rendrock, Vulcan Powder, etc. ; in Europe, 
 Dynamite No. 2, Lithofracteur, Lignose, Colonia 
 Powder, Brains Powder (contains a chlorate), 
 etc. 
 
 GUN-COTTON. Syn. Nitro-cellulose ; Pyroxy 
 lin. 
 
 Schonbein, in 1845, stated that he had pre 
 pared an explosive substance from cotton. He 
 kept his process secret until it had been discov 
 ered also by Bottger, Otto, Knopp, and Taylor. 
 In France, England, Germany, and Russia, at 
 tempts were made to manufacture and use the 
 new agent, but not with satisfactory results. 
 By the method of manufacture employed, the 
 liability to spontaneous decomposition was not 
 removed, and consequently many accidents were 
 experienced with it. In Austria, the use of 
 gun-cotton was kept up for a number of years 
 after it had been given up by other governments. 
 This was due to the improvements in the meth- 
 ods of making, which were devised by Von Lenk, 
 an Austrian officer. It was employed in shells 
 and in field-guns. While it was found to be a 
 very serviceable agent, yet its dangerous insta 
 bility still gave trouble, and after a severe acci 
 dent in 1862, its manufacture was largely given 
 up, its use being limited to certain engineering 
 purposes, and in 1865 its making was stopped al- 
 gether in Austria. In 1865, Abel introduced his 
 process by which the quality of the gun-cotton 
 was so much improved that the previous obsta 
 cles to its extensive use seemed to have been al 
 together removed. It therefore grew in favor, 
 until the severe accident at Stowmarket, Eng 
 land, in August^ 1871. Investigation into the 
 causes of the accident showed that the explosion 
 was not due to any defect in the method of prep 
 aration of the gun-cotton, or to its instability, so 
 that confidence was again felt in it. Afterward, 
 it was discovered that Abel s compressed gun- 
 cotton could be violently exploded when wetted, 
 or even saturated, with water. In this way was 
 obtained an explosive agent of great power, as 
 well as one having a high degree of safety. In 
 consequence, compressed gun-cotton has been 
 largely adopted by European governments as a 
 military explosive, particularly for torpedo pur 
 poses. It possesses many advantages for such 
 employment, but for blasting the nitro-glycerine 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 267 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 preparations are preferred, as more convenient to 
 use and more easily exploded. 
 
 Formation and Mode of Manufacture. Gun- 
 cotton is formed by the action of concentrated 
 nitric acid on cotton or cellulose. Cotton being 
 nearly pure cellulose is the best material for this 
 purpose. The method of making consists essen 
 tially in exposing the cotton for a sufficiently 
 long time to the action of a mixture of strong 
 nitric and sulphuric acids, and in thoroughly 
 washing the product. As in the nitro-glycerine 
 reaction, the sulphuric acid does not take any 
 direct part in the formation of the gun-cotton, 
 but takes up the water, which is a by-product. 
 
 AbeVs Process. Cotton-waste is the form of 
 cotton used. It is picked, cleaned, and dried. 
 The acids are the strongest nitric and sulphuric 
 acids, mixed in the proportion of one part of 
 the former to three of the latter. Cotton in 
 one-pound charges is immersed in the acid 
 mixture, which is contained in a trough sur 
 rounded with cold water. After a short expo 
 sure to the action of the acid, the cotton is 
 taken up, placed upon a perforated shelf, and as 
 much as possible of the acid squeezed out from 
 it. It is then put into jars, covered with fresh 
 acid, and the jars placed in cold water, where 
 they remain for 24 hours. The gun-cotton from 
 the jars is thrown into a centrifugal strainer, 
 which expels from it nearly all of the acid. It 
 is then diffused quickly in small quantities 
 through a large volume of water, and again 
 passed through a centrifugal machine. Thor 
 ough washing is necessary to remove the traces of 
 acid still adhering to the gun-cotton. The wash 
 ing is expedited and rendered complete by the 
 operation of pulping. The pulping is performed 
 in pulping-engines, or beaters. A beater is an 
 oblong tub, in which is placed a revolving 
 wheel carrying strips of steel on its circumfer 
 ence. From the bottom, under the wheel, pro 
 ject similar steel strips. By the rotation of the 
 wheel, the gun-cotton suspended in water circu 
 lates around the tub, and is drawn between the 
 two sets of steel projections, which reduce it to a 
 pulp. The bottom is movable, so that the space 
 through which the gun-cotton must pass may be 
 contracted as the operation goes on. When the 
 pulping is complete, the contents are run into 
 the poachers for the final washing. A poacher 
 is a large, oblong wooden tub. At the middle 
 of one side is placed a wooden paddle-wheel, 
 which extends half-way across the tub. In the 
 poacher, the pulp is stirred for a long time with 
 a large quantity of water. The revolution of the 
 wheel keeps up a constant circulation, and care 
 is taken that no deposit occurs in any part of the 
 tub. 
 
 The pulp is next to be separated from the large 
 volume of water in which it is suspended, and 
 compressed into cakes or disks. This is ac 
 complished in two presses. The first press has 
 thirty-six hollow cylinders, in which perforated 
 plungers work upwards. The plungers having 
 been drawn down, the cylinders are filled with 
 the mixture of pulp and water, and their tops 
 covered with a weight. The plungers are then 
 forced up by hydraulic power. The pulp is 
 compressed, the water escaping through the per 
 forations in the plungers. 
 
 In the second press, the cylindrical masses of 
 gun-cotton from the first press are more highly 
 
 compressed, a pressure of six tons to the inch 
 being applied. 
 
 About 6 per cent, of water remains in the 
 cakes, which is usually increased to 20 or 25 per 
 cent, before storing the material. A variety 
 called granulated gun-cotton is prepared without 
 pressing, by making the pulp into small grains 
 or balls. 
 
 In this process, while care is taken to insure 
 complete conversion, still the essential feature is 
 the thorough washing accomplished. This is 
 rendered possible by the pulping operation by 
 which the fibres are torn into shreds, thus facili 
 tating their rapid, as well as thorough, puri 
 fication. 
 
 Composition and Properties. There are a 
 number of varieties of nitro-cellulose. Of 
 these only one is used as an explosive agent. It 
 is derived from the fullest action of the nitric 
 acid upon the cellulose. The others are less 
 explosive, although very inflammable. Some 
 of the less nitrated products are largely used for 
 making collodion for photographic and medical 
 purposes, for celluloid, etc. The composition of 
 the explosive gun-cotton, or tri-nitro-cellulose, 
 may be expressed by the formula C 6 H 7 N 3 O n , 
 and the equation illustrating its formation will 
 be 
 
 Cellu 
 
 io5 + 3HN0 3 = C 6 H 7 (N0 2 \,O 5 -f 3H 2 O. 
 
 lose. Nitric acid. Tri-nitro-cellu lose, Water. 
 
 ulose, 
 or Gun-cotton. 
 
 The appearance of the cotton is very little 
 changed, by the operation of conversion. Gun- 
 cotton is insoluble in and unaffected by water. 
 If flame is applied to dry, loose gun-cotton, it 
 flashes off; dry compressed gun-cotton burns 
 rapidly but quietly if unconfined, and moist 
 compressed gun-cotton slowly, under the same 
 circumstances. If a large quantity of, com 
 pressed gun-cotton is inflamed, the explosion of 
 a part may be produced after the remainder has 
 burned away. The outer portion . confines the 
 inner, and it becomes heated to the point of 
 explosion. Dry, loose gun-cotton is not detonated 
 by fulminating mercury, but if packed in small 
 compass, and especially if highly compressed, 
 the violent explosion is readily produced. Ful 
 minate will not explode wet, compressed gun- 
 cotton. To accomplish this there is required the 
 detonation of a small quantity of dry, compressed 
 gun-cotton, itself detonated by a fulminate. 
 Gun-cotton is not sensitive to friction or percus 
 sion. "Well-made and thoroughly washed gun- 
 cotton is stable, but if free acid has been allowed 
 to remain in it, or if it is contaminated by the 
 lower products, spontaneous decomposition may 
 result. The firing-point of gun-cotton is about 
 360 F. 
 
 Use and Mode of Firing. Gun-cotton was 
 formerly used for artillery by spinning and 
 weaving the fibre into ropes or webs, from which 
 cartridges were made. At the present time the 
 compressed is the only kind made, and this is, of 
 course, not suited for artillery. Compressed 
 gun-cotton is usually made in disks from 1 to 6 
 inches diameter, but any other shape can be as 
 easily made. For torpedo purposes, it is pressed 
 into forms which will fit the cases to contain it. 
 
 Compressed gun-cotton is always stored and 
 used wet. It is then the safest explosive agent 
 known. In order to explode it when in this 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 268 
 
 EXPLOSIVES 
 
 condition, a special "primer" is necessary, which 
 is composed of dry compressed gun-cotton with 
 a fuze charged with 25 grains of fulminating 
 mercury firmly attached to it. This primer must 
 be water-proof, although the main charge may 
 be freely exposed to water. 
 
 Gun-cotton, either as pulp or compressed, is 
 well fitted for bursting charges for shells. 
 
 Products of Decomposition. On explosion, 
 gun-cotton is almost entirely converted into 
 gases, only a trifling residue being left. The 
 gases formed are carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, 
 water (converted into steam by the heat of the 
 reaction), nitrogen, and a small amount of marsh 
 gas (Karolyi). 
 
 The combustion is not so complete as when 
 nitro-glycerine is fired. The latter contains 
 more than oxygen enough to oxidize all its car 
 bon and hydrogen to carbonic acid and water, 
 while the quantity in gun-cotton is insufficient 
 to do this, and a considerable proportion of car 
 bonic oxide is formed. This does not much af 
 fect the volume of gas formed, but the heat 
 evolved is considerably less than if the oxidation 
 of the carbon was more complete. 
 
 Gun-cotton Preparations. Nitrated Gun-cot- 
 i on . This is made by soaking the dry com 
 pressed gun-cotton in a saturated solution of 
 saltpetre (potassium nitrate), and drying. 
 
 Chlorated Gun-cotton. This is similarly made, 
 using potassium chlorate instead of nitrate. 
 
 Tonite, or Cotton Powder. This is a mixture 
 of finely divided gun-cotton with barium ni 
 trate. 
 
 THE FULMINATES. The fulminates are salts 
 of fulminic acid (C 2 H 2 N 2 O 2 ). The mercury salt 
 is the only one of practical value. All of them 
 are easily exploded, and some are excessively sen 
 sitive. 
 
 Fulminating Mercury. Fulminating mercury 
 has the composition indicated by the formula 
 C 2 HgN 2 2 . It is formed by the action of mer 
 curic nitrate and nitric acid upon alcohol. The 
 best mode of preparing it is as follows : 
 
 Dissolve 1 part of mercury in 12 parts of ni 
 tric acid, sp. gr. 1.3, and pour this solution into 
 11 parts of alcohol, 85 per cent. Place the ves 
 sel containing the mixture in hot water until 
 it darkens and becomes turbid, and begins to 
 evolve dense white fumes. It is then removed 
 from the water. The reaction goes on, with 
 strong effervescence and copious evolution of 
 dense, white, ethereal vapors. If red fumes ap 
 pear, cold alcohol should be added to check the 
 violence of the action. The operation should be 
 performed at a distance from a fire or flame, and 
 in a strong draft, so that the vapors will be 
 carried away. When the liquid clears and the 
 dense white fumes are no longer given off, fur 
 ther action is stopped by filling up with cold 
 water. 
 
 The fulminate settles to the bottom of the ves 
 sel as a gray, crystalline precipitate. The super 
 natant liquid is then poured off, and the ful 
 minate washed several times by decantation or 
 upon a filter. 
 
 Properties and Uses. Dry fulminating mer 
 cury explodes violently when forcibly struck, 
 when heated to 186 0. (367 P.), when touched 
 with strong sulphuric acid or nitric acid, by 
 sparks from flint and steel or the electric spark. 
 When wet it is inexplosive. It is therefore 
 
 always kept wet, and dried in small amounts 
 when wanted for use. 
 
 Its explosive force is not much greater than 
 that of gunpowder, but it is much more sudden 
 in its action, so that it produces violent local 
 effects. 
 
 The readiness with which it may be fired 
 makes it an excellent means of causing the ex 
 plosion of other substances, and it is for this pur 
 pose only that it is used. It finds many applica 
 tions, either pure or mixed with other bodies, 
 in percussion-powder, percussion-caps, primers, 
 fuzes, detonators, etc. It presents many advan 
 tages for this use. It is of special importance 
 for the peculiar power it possesses of causing the 
 violent explosions called detonations. It is, 
 therefore, a requisite for exploding nitro-glycer 
 ine, gun-cotton, and their preparations. 
 
 Detonators or detonating fuzes are charged 
 with pure fulminating mercury, 15 to 25 grains 
 in each. Fifteen grains is a sufficient charge 
 for nitro-glycerine or its preparations ; one of 
 25 grains is used with compressed gun-cotton. 
 
 Fulminating Silver. This salt has a similar 
 composition to, and is prepared like, fulminating 
 mercury, using silver nitrate instead of mercuric 
 nitrate. It must be handled with the greatest 
 caution, as it is extremely sensitive, exploding 
 when dry on slight provocation and even when 
 wet, although then requiring a harder blow than 
 if dry. 
 
 THE PICRATES. The picrates are salts of 
 picric acid. Picric or trinitrophenic acid is 
 formed by the action of nitric acid on carbolic 
 acid (phenol, C 6 H 6 0). Three products may be 
 derived from this action, but only one, picric 
 acid, possesses any marked explosive properties. 
 
 Picric acid has the composition indicated by 
 its formula, C 6 H 3 (N0 2 ) 3 O, or C ? H 3 N 3 O 7 . Pic 
 ric acid is found in commerce, being used to dye 
 silk and wool yellow. If the acid is heated, it 
 takes fire and burns sharply and rapidly, with 
 out explosion. The picrates are all exploded 
 with more or less violence by heat or blows. 
 When used as explosive agents, they are mixed 
 with potassium nitrate (saltpetre) or potassium 
 chlorate. 
 
 A large number of picrates are known, but 
 the potassium and ammonium salts are the only 
 ones that have been much used in explosive prep 
 arations. 
 
 Potassium Picrate. C 6 H 2 KN 3 O r Most vio 
 lently explosive of the picrates. Potassium pic- 
 rate and potassium chlorate form a mixture 
 nearly as powerful as nitro-glycerine, but it is 
 so sensitive to friction or percussion as to render 
 it practically useless. With potassium nitrate 
 instead of chlorate, a less violent mixture is ob 
 tained, but one still too liable to accidental ex 
 plosion. 
 
 Ammonium Picrate. C 6 H 2 (NH 4 ) N 3 O.. This 
 salt has been employed by Brugere and by Abel 
 with saltpetre in the preparation of certain ex 
 plosive mixtures. Brugere claims for such a 
 powder, that it is less hygroscopic than gun 
 powder, and that it is more powerful and more 
 uniform in its effects. 
 
 Abel s Picric Powder has been used in Eng 
 land for bursting charges for shells. It is pre 
 pared by the usual gunpowder processes, and has 
 the same form as that agent. It is not affected 
 by blows or friction, and is as safe and perma- 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 269 
 
 EYGHT 
 
 nent as gunpowder, and is fired in the same 
 way. 
 
 A good powder may be made from ammonium 
 picrate, saltpetre, and a small proportion of char 
 coal. The charcoal serves to bind together the 
 other ingredients, and there is obtained a mix 
 ture which can be easily incorporated, pressed, 
 and granulated. Experiment with this powder 
 has shown that it may be serviceable as a sub 
 stitute for gunpowder, when greater violence is 
 wanted, and neither gun-cotton nor nitre-glycer 
 ine is available or suitable. It is handled and 
 fired like ordinary gunpowder, and does not 
 absorb moisture more readily. 
 
 EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES. The general compo 
 sition of these explosive agents has-been already 
 considered. Many of them contain a nitrate or 
 nitrates, in most cases potassium or sodium 
 nitrate or both. These salts are mixed with 
 combustible substances in varying proportions, 
 according to the use for which the explosives are 
 wanted. From charcoal, sulphur, and potassium 
 (or sodium) nitrate are prepared the numerous 
 varieties of war, sporting, and blasting powders. 
 They are essentially alike in their mode of ac 
 tion, and may all be included under the general 
 title of gunpowder. The explosive mixtures 
 which are not classed under gunpowder are of 
 but comparatively little importance and require 
 but brief mention. 
 
 Schultze s Powder is made by converting puri 
 fied woody fibre (sawdust) into nitro-cellulose, 
 by treatment with nitric and sulphuric acids, 
 washing, drying, and mixing with saltpetre by 
 soaking the grains in a saturated solution of the 
 salt, and again drying. It is intended for use in 
 small-arms. A similar powder is made in the 
 United States by Dittmar, for sporting purposes. 
 
 Barium nitrate has been occasionally used to 
 replace saltpetre, as in the preparations called 
 Saxifragin and Wynant s Powder, but with no 
 especial success. 
 
 Mixtures containing potassium chlorate form 
 a separate class. They are characterized by 
 great readiness and sharpness of explosion. They 
 are sensitive to blows or friction, so much so 
 that they are of but little value as explosive 
 agents. The principal preparations of this kind 
 are 
 
 German, or White Gunpowder, Reveley s Pow 
 der. Potassium chlorate with potassium ferro- 
 cyanide (yellow prussiate of potash), or with 
 sugar as a third ingredient. 
 
 Horsley s Powder. Potassium chlorate and 
 powdered nut-galls. When this powder is used 
 as an absorbent for nitro-glycerine, the mixture 
 resulting is called Horsley s Powder No. 2. 
 
 Erhardt s Powder. Potassium chlorate and 
 tannin with powdered coal, sometimes used as a 
 diluent. 
 
 Powder used in u chemical fuzes." Potassium 
 chlorate and sugar, or sugar and nut-galls. 
 
 Oriental Powder. Potassium chlorate and 
 powdered gambier. 
 
 Pertuiset Powder. Potassium chlorate and 
 sulphur. Used in explosive bullets. 
 
 SprengeVs Nitric Acid and Potassium Chlorate 
 Mixtures. Sprengel has found that there are 
 
 many organic substances which dissolve in con 
 centrated nitric acid, forming explosive mix 
 tures. Nitro-benzole, or picric acid, will give a 
 liquid which can be violently exploded. These 
 solutions contain strong nitric acid, so that they 
 are inconvenient to handle or use. 
 
 He also proposes a kind of chlorate mixture 
 which avoids the usual dangers of such prepara 
 tions. The mixing of potassium chlorate with 
 solid combustible substances (the usual method) 
 is a dangerous operation, and the mixture is 
 very sensitive. Sprengel allows cakes or lumps 
 of the chlorate to absorb combustible liquids, 
 which is readily done without danger. If the 
 liquid taken up contains a nitro-compound, or 
 one containing sulphur, the mixture can be ex 
 ploded by a fulminate ; but if not, then tho 
 detonator must be surrounded by an envelope 
 of gun-cotton. Carbon disulphide, nitro-benzole, 
 benzine, petroleum, are examples of combusti 
 ble liquids which may be used in this way. 
 Sprengel claims for these mixtures cheapness, 
 power, and safety. Walter N. Hill. See GUN 
 POWDER. 
 
 Export. To send goods out of a country. 
 
 EXPORTS. Goods sent out of a country. See 
 BALANCE OF TRADE, COMMERCE, CUSTOMS. 
 
 Extreme Breadth. The widest part of the 
 ship, including the thickness of the planking. 
 
 Eye. A loop or ring. The eye of a shroud is 
 that part that goes over the mast-head. The eye 
 of an anchor is the hole in which the ring is 
 inserted. Eyes of a ship, or the eyes of her, the 
 hawse-holes ; they were formerly frequently 
 painted to represent eyes ; the Chinese always 
 paint an eye on each bow of their craft. The 
 term is also applied to those parts of a ship which 
 lie near the hawse-hole, particularly in the lower 
 apartments within the vessel. 
 
 EYE, ARTIFICIAL, or SPINDLE. A neat eye 
 for the end of a stay, and sometimes used for 
 the lower end of man-ropes. 
 
 EYE-BOLT. A bolt with an opening in the 
 head to which a tackle may be hooked. 
 
 EYE, FLEMISH. An eye used for the collar 
 of a stay. It is not strong, soon rots, and is sel 
 dom used where strength is more important than 
 neatness. The name is sometimes applied to the 
 artificial eye. 
 
 EYELET-HOLES. Small circular holes in a sail 
 through which are thrust the reef-points, rob- 
 ands, etc. 
 
 EYE, HOPE-MAKER S. An eye formed in the 
 end of a cable in laying it up. Two of the 
 strands are two legs of a rope, and when laid up 
 they form an eye ; the third strand is then also 
 formed into an eye. 
 
 EYES, LASHING. Eyes formed in two parts 
 of a strap of a block, or in end of a stay, which 
 are connected by a lashing. 
 
 EYE-SORE. Any disagreeable object. 
 
 EYE-SPLICE. A kind of splice made by turn 
 ing the end of a rope back and passing the ends 
 of the strand through the standing part. The 
 eye of a splice, the strand raised up by the mar- 
 linspike to receive the opposite strand. 
 
 Eyght. An alluvian river-island ; called also 
 ait, ayt, ey, eyet, or eyot. 
 
270 
 
 PAIKFAX 
 
 F. 
 
 F. Of the letters used in the log-book to in 
 dicate the state of the weather,/ denotes fog. 
 
 Face. A flat surface ; as, the face of the 
 muzzle, face of a valve, etc. To trim the cuffs, 
 collar, etc., of a garment with a protective or 
 ornamental covering. 
 
 FACE-PIECE. The letting of one piece, which 
 is thinner, into another in order to strengthen it. 
 
 Formerly, it was a term used in making the 
 knee which formed the cut- water of the ship, and 
 was denned as a piece of oak generally tabled 
 into the forepart of the knee of the head, to assist 
 in the conversion of the main piece, and like 
 wise to shorten the upper bolts, and prevent the 
 cables from rubbing against them as the knee 
 gets worn. 
 
 FACING. A piece of cloth sewed on a garment 
 as a protection or ornament. 
 
 Factor. An agent, transacting business for 
 others, and empowered to buy and sell at his own 
 discretion. 
 
 FACTORAGE. The allowance, percentage, or 
 commission paid to a factor. 
 
 FACTORY. A house or quarter where factors 
 reside. The body of factors in a country. A 
 manufactory, mill, or workshop. 
 
 Faculae. The bright streaks on the sun s 
 disk, in which appear the maculae or dark spots. 
 
 Fadome. Old form of fathom. 
 
 Faff. To blow in puffs. 
 
 Fag. To beat. To fag out, to untwist or be 
 come frayed ; as, the end of a rope, or the edge 
 of canvas. 
 
 FAG-END. The frayed end of a rope. The 
 small remaining part of anything. 
 
 Faggot. A man hired to answer to names 
 in a false muster. 
 
 Fagot. A billet of wood used in stowing 
 cargo. 
 
 Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel. The inventor of 
 the mercurial thermometer. He was born in 
 Dantzic in 1686. In 1714 he conceived the idea 
 of substituting mercury for spirits of wine in the 
 construction of thermometers. He took as the 
 zero of his thermometric scale the lowest temper 
 ature observed by him at Dantzic, in the year 
 1709, which he found was that produced by mix 
 ing equal quantities of snow and sal-ammoniac, 
 and which he probably supposed was the abso 
 lute zero of temperature. The space between 
 this point and that to which the mercury rose 
 at the temperature of pure boiling water he di 
 vided into 212 parts or degrees. This scale, 
 though now in common use, will eventually be 
 superseded by the centigrade scale of Celsius. 
 It is denoted by the abbreviation "F." or 
 "Fahr." 
 
 Faik, or Falk. A name for the razor-bill 
 (Alca tor da). 
 
 Fair. Plain; favorable; unobstructed. Ap 
 plied to the weather, clear or cloudless ; to the 
 
 wind, favorable or propitious ; to timbers, when 
 they are trimmed to fit exactly. 
 
 FAIR CURVE. In delineating ships is a per 
 fectly fair line applied to any portion of the 
 ship s surface. 
 
 FAIRING. In ship-building is making a curved 
 surface on any part of a ship perfectly true, or 
 parts of perfect arcs. 
 
 FAIR LEAD. A rope has a fair lead when it 
 does not suffer chafe from obstruction. 
 
 FAIR-LEADER. A block or thimble of wood or 
 metal, placed to give a rope a fair lead, or to 
 change its direction slightly. Fair-leaders are 
 generally made of hard wood, as lignum-vitas, 
 and have one, two, or three holes in them, ac 
 cording to the number of ropes to lead through 
 them. One or two scores are cut in one side for 
 the shroud or stay which they are to embrace, 
 and two smaller scores at right angles to these 
 for the seizings to hold them in place. Also, a 
 board or rail with holes through which ropes lead. 
 
 FAIR PLATE. Has reference to the plating of 
 iron ships, and is a term used when the plate 
 has been finished in perfectly fair or evenly 
 true lines. 
 
 FAIR-WAY. The middle of the navigable 
 channel of a river, strait, or harbor, etc. The 
 proper course through a channel. 
 
 FAIR WEATHER. Weather in which the light 
 sails may be carried. 
 
 FAIR-WEATHER FRIEND. A friend when for 
 tune smiles, but who deserts you in the days of 
 adversity. 
 
 FAIR-WEATHER SAILOR. The nautical equiv 
 alent of carpet-knight. 
 
 Fairfax, D. M., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Virginia. Appointed midshipman from North 
 Carolina, August 12, 1837 ; sloop "John Adams," 
 East Indies, 1837-40 ; at the destroying of towns 
 on the west coast of Sumatra, in 1839 ; ten 
 months in sloop " Fairfield" and frigate " Bran- 
 dywine," Mediterranean, in 1841-42; Naval 
 School at Philadelphia, 1842-43. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843 ; attached to steam-frigate "Missouri" un 
 til she was destroyed by fire at Gibraltar, in 
 1843; coast survey, in 1844; brig "Porpoise," 
 1845 ; transferred, after four months, to frigate 
 " Columbus," East India and Pacific Squadron, 
 1845-47 ; in store-ship " Erie, "Pacific Squadron, 
 for four months, and transferred to sloop 
 " Cyane," 1847-49; at the attack and capture 
 of several towns on the west coast of Mexico, 
 under Commander Dupont ; frigate "Congress," 
 Brazil Squadron, 1850-63. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 26, 
 1851 ; frigate " Potomac," Home Squadron, 
 1855-56 ; transferred to frigate " Wabash," and 
 continued in her during 1856-58 ; at capture of 
 Walker s expedition, at San Juan, Nicaragua; 
 steamer "Mystic," in 1859; "Constellation," 
 
FAJAKDO 
 
 271 
 
 FALSE 
 
 1859-60; "San Jacinto," 1860-61, coast of 
 Africa ; while in the last named, directed in per 
 son the taking from the "Trent" of Messrs. 
 Mason and Slidell ; commanding steamer " Ca- 
 yuga," Mississippi Squadron, in 1862, under 
 Admiral Farragut ; skirmishing along its banks 
 and keeping river open as far as Eed River. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding monitor " Nantucket," South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron ; attack on Charles 
 ton forts, April 7,1863; commanding " Mon- 
 tauk," in night and day work at Charleston, 
 until August 25, 1863 ; commandant of midship 
 men, at the Naval Academy, 1863-65 ; com 
 manding Practice Squadron, two seasons. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 26, 1866; 
 commanding steamer " Rhode Island," flag-ship 
 North Atlantic Squadron, 1866 ; commanding 
 flag-ship " Susquehanna," same squadron, 1867- 
 68 ; on ordnance duty at different periods, at 
 Philadelphia, New York, and Boston ; execu 
 tive-officer of navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 
 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, August 24, 1873 ; 
 commanding Naval Station, New London, Conn., 
 1873-76 ; special duty, 1876-77 ; commandant 
 Naval Station, New London, 1877-78. Total 
 sea-service 22 years and 4 months ; shore duty, 
 15 years. Special duty Washington, D. C., 
 
 1879. Governor Naval Asylum, Philadelphia, 
 
 1880. Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 11, 
 1880. 
 
 Fajardo. On the east coast of the island of 
 Porto Rico, 5 miles S. of the N.E. angle of that 
 island ; has a fine harbor, telegraph-lines to other 
 West Indian ports and the United States. Pop. 
 3500. 
 
 Fake. One complete circle of a rope in a coil. 
 A number of such turns make a tier or sheave, 
 and several tiers superimposed, a coil. To fake 
 a rope is to coil it down carefully, in opposition 
 to coil, to perform the work loosely or hastily. 
 See FLEMISH, FRENCH-FAKE. 
 
 Falcon. An ancient and mediaeval gun. 
 There were various sizes, throwing balls of from 
 1 to 6 pounds. They were about 25 or 30 times 
 their calibre in length (7 to 8 feet). 
 
 FALCONET. A mediaeval piece of ordnance 
 having a ball of \ to 3J pounds smaller in calibre 
 than a falcon. 
 
 Falconer, William, was born in Edinburgh 
 about 1730. He went early to sea, and before 
 he was 18 years of age was second mate of a 
 vessel in the Levant trade, which was wrecked 
 off Cape Colonna, himself and two others be 
 ing the only portion of the crew saved. He 
 published "The Shipwreck" in 1762, and dur 
 ing the next year he entered the navy as mid 
 shipman in the " Royal George." When peace 
 came he resided in London, where he wrote 
 a satire on Wilkes, and compiled a " Nautical 
 Dictionary." He was again at sea in September, 
 1769, as purser in the " Aurora" frigate, and per 
 ished with his companions when the vessel sank 
 in the Mozambique Channel. 
 
 Fall. To descend by the force of gravity. 
 To lessen ; to diminish. To happen ; to come to 
 pass. A precipitous descent of water. A break 
 in a deck. The rope of a tackle or purchase. The 
 ebb of the tide. To fall aboard of, to come into 
 collision with another vessel, either by design or 
 by the mismanagement of the vessel. To fall 
 
 astern, to drop behind. To fall back, to give 
 way; to recede. To fall calm, to become calm. 
 To fall down, to sail or drift down to another 
 position. To fall foul of, the same as to fall 
 aboard of. To fall in with, to meet a vessel ; to 
 make the land. To fall home, to project within 
 the perpendicular, said of the top-sides, the 
 same as to tumble home. To fall off, to pay off 
 to leeward. Fall not off! Keep the ship up to 
 her course ! To fall out, the opposite of to fall 
 home (which see). 
 
 FALLEN STAR. A name for the jelly-fish 
 (Medusa), thrown up on a beach. 
 
 FALLING GLASS. The descending of the mer 
 cury in the barometer. 
 
 FALLING STAR. A shooting-star. See AER 
 OLITES. 
 
 FALLING TIDE. The ebb-tide. See TIDE. 
 
 FALLS. The descent of a deck from a fair 
 curve, lengthwise, to give height to a cabin, as 
 in yachts, small sloops, and schooners. 
 
 FALL WIND. A sudden gust. 
 
 Fall ! A Fall ! A cry to signify that the har 
 poon has been firmly imbedded in the whale. 
 
 Fall Cloud. See CLOUD. 
 
 Fall River. A large manufacturing city and 
 port of entry of Bristol Co., Mass., on the east 
 bank of the Taunton River at its mouth, and on 
 Mount Hope Bay, which is the northeastern arm 
 of Narragansett Bay, 49 miles south of Boston, 
 19 miles N.N.E. of Newport, R. I. Large 
 steam-packets ply daily between Fall River and 
 New York. It is specially noted for its manu 
 factures of cotton, for which there are 40 mills. 
 The harbor is safe, capacious, and deep enough to 
 admit vessels of the largest class. Pop. 44,500. 
 
 Falmouth. A seaport town on a branch of the 
 estuary of the Fal, in Cornwall Co., England. 
 Lat. 50 8 8" N. ; Ion. 5 V V W. The harbor 
 is formed by the estuary of the Fal, and is about 
 5 miles long by 1 mile broad. The entrance is 
 defended by Pendennis and St. Mawe s Castles, 
 both built in the reign of Hen^ VIII., and the 
 former contains large barracks, magazines, etc. 
 Its position at the mouth of the English Chan 
 nel rendered Falmouth for many years a princi 
 pal station for the foreign mail service, and it is 
 still a great resort for shipping. Pop. 5500. 
 
 False. Not genuine ; feigned. 
 
 FALSE ALARM. See ALARM. 
 
 FALSE ATTACK. A feigned attack, to draw 
 away the attention of the enemy. 
 
 FALSE COLORS. An ensign or colors other 
 than that the vessel is entitled to carry. As a 
 stratagem, the carrying of false colors is al 
 lowed; but no gun should be fired until the 
 proper ensign is substituted. 
 
 FALSE FIRE. A composition in a wooden 
 tube, which burned with a light blue flame from 
 a half to several minutes. It was principally 
 used as a night-signal, but often to deceive an 
 enemy. 
 
 FALSE KEEL. A plank from 4 to 6 inches 
 in thickness, which is put on and bolted to the 
 main keel with short bolts, so that, in the event 
 of the ship striking bottom, the false keel may 
 be wrenched off without disturbing the main 
 keel; it also enables the sailing ship to hold a 
 better wind. 
 
 FALSE MUSTER. An incorrect statement of 
 the number of people borne on the ship s books. 
 A quaker or wooden gun. 
 
FALSE POINT 
 
 272 
 
 FAKKAGUT 
 
 FALSE PAPERS. Documents carried by a ship 
 declaring her to be what she is not, representing 
 her cargo, destination, nation, etc., falsely, for 
 the purpose of deceiving a searching-party. A 
 vessel with false papers is a lawful prize. 
 
 FALSE POST. A piece of timber tabled and 
 secured to the after-side of the main post, to 
 make good a deficiency in size. 
 
 FALSE KAIL. A rail fayed down upon the 
 upper side of the main or upper rail of the head ; 
 it is to strengthen the head-rail. 
 
 FALSE STEM. The same as the term fore-foot, 
 the forward lower piece of the stem, and secured 
 to the stem in a manner similar to the method of 
 securing the false keel with short bolts. 
 
 FALSE STERN. A stern built on the original 
 ship or yacht, thereby altering its shape, without 
 destroying the original vessel. 
 
 FALSE TABLING. A tabling, or piece of can 
 vas, sewed on the sides of a cut in an awning or 
 screen. 
 
 False Point. A port of India, on the Bay 
 of Bengal, Cuttack District. Lat. 20 20 N. ; Ion. 
 86 47 E. It has the best harbor between Cal 
 cutta and Bombay, safe, roomy, and accessible 
 to all ships. It communicates by canals with 
 the interior of Orissa. 
 
 Family-head. A figure-head composed of 
 several full-length figures. 
 
 Fan. To widen. 
 
 Fanal (Fr.). A light-house. 
 
 Fancy-line. A line leading through a thim 
 ble in the mizzen rigging or top, and having 
 another thimble near the end, through which the 
 hauling part of the main brace leads, the end be 
 yond being secured to the standing part of the 
 brace. A line rove through a block at the jaws 
 of a gaif, used to haul it down. A line used to 
 overhaul a lee topping lift. 
 
 Fane. An old term for weather-cock. See 
 VANE. 
 
 Fang. To prime a pump. The valve of a 
 pump. The bend of a rope. 
 
 Fanion. A small flag used to mark the 
 stations in surveying. 
 
 Fanning Along. Moving along very slowly 
 with the sails alternately swelling and collaps 
 ing. 
 
 Fanning-breeze. A very light breeze, just 
 sufficient to give a ship steerage- way. 
 
 Fan-tod. A name given to a nervous, fidgety 
 officer. 
 
 Far-cost. A Scotch coasting-vessel. 
 
 Fardage. Dunnage, when laden in bulk. 
 
 Fare. Sum paid for conveyance by water. A 
 fishing-seine for cod. A cargo of cod. 
 
 Faro. A seaport of Portugal, in Algarve, on 
 the Yalfermosa, near the south coast, 20 miles 
 southwest of Tavira. Among the principal 
 buildings are the military hospital, arsenal, and 
 custom-house. Pop. 8210. 
 
 Farragut, David Glasgow, Admiral U.S.N., 
 was born at Campbell s Station, near Knoxville, 
 Tenn., July 5, 1801. 
 
 His father, who was descended from a distin 
 guished family of the island of Minorca, emi 
 grated to America, and entered the colonial 
 army. He married in North Carolina and set 
 tled in Tennessee, but subsequently drifted to 
 Louisiana, and entered the naval service as a 
 sailing-master. Here an acquaintance arose be 
 tween him and the celebrated Commodore David 
 
 Porter, in whom young Farragut found a valu 
 able friend. 
 
 He was appointed midshipman, December 17, 
 1810, served in the frigate " Essex" in her event 
 ful cruise in the Pacific, and at the age of 13 was 
 placed in command of one of her numerous prizes. 
 In the battle between the "Essex" and the 
 British ships "Phoebe" and "Cherub" (March 
 28, 1814), which resulted in the capture of the 
 former, Farragut was slightly wounded, and re 
 ceived the commendation of his commander, who 
 regretted that he was "too young for promo 
 tion." The story of the pig, which he tells in 
 his journal, is not merely amusing, but suggests 
 that some characteristics of the future com 
 mander were already pretty well developed in 
 the boy. After the battle, a young reefer of the 
 " Phosbe" was carrying off a pet pig, when Far 
 ragut claimed it as private property, and deter 
 mined not to let it go. The oldsters cheered his 
 pluck, made a ring, and declared that the winner 
 of a fair fight should have the pig. This was 
 quickly decided in favor of the young American, 
 whose physical education had been exceptionally 
 good. "So," says Farragut, "I took Master 
 Murphy under my arm, feeling that I had in 
 some degree wiped out the disgrace of our de 
 feat." 
 
 With the remainder of the crew of the " Es 
 sex," he returned to the United States in the 
 " Essex, Jr." (a captured whaler). 
 
 After peace was declared he received orders to 
 the " Independence," 74, bearing the broad-pen 
 nant of Commodore Bainbridge, and intended 
 to take part in the Algerine war ; but Decatur 
 succeeded in forcing the bey to terms before the 
 ship s arrival in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Farragut made a second cruise to the Medi 
 terranean in the "Washington," under Com 
 modore Chauncey, and his journal of observa 
 tions at this period of his career is extremely in 
 teresting. Through the interposition of the 
 chaplain of his ship, Mr. Charles Folsom, who 
 had been temporarily appointed consul at Tunis, 
 Farragut had an opportunity to study and travel 
 in the interior. 
 
 In 1823-24 he served under his old commander, 
 Porter, in the Mosquito Fleet, fitted out for the 
 suppression of piracy in the West Indies, took 
 part in a small affair against the pirates at Cape 
 Cruz, and had some romantic and ludicrous ad 
 ventures in chasing them to their haunts on 
 shore. He considered his experience in the Gulf 
 as of great service to him professionally, and 
 looked with pride upon the fact of his getting 
 command of the schooner " Ferret" at the age of 
 22. 
 
 In January, 1825, he was attached to the 
 " Brandy wine," the vessel to which was assigned 
 the duty of conveying Lafayette home to France 
 after his visit and tour in the United States. 
 
 He served on the Brazilian station up to the 
 close of 1837 as executive-officer of the "Dela 
 ware," and in command of the "Boxer" and 
 "Decatur." 
 
 While in command of the sloop " Erie" at 
 Vera Cruz he witnessed the bombardment of the 
 castle of San Juan de Ulloa by the French 
 naval forces (1838), and being always an enthu 
 siastic observer of matters relating to his profes 
 sion, he took notes of the action. At the break 
 ing out of the war with Mexico (1846) he was 
 
FARRAGUT 
 
 273 
 
 FATHER-LASHER 
 
 anxious to turn this experience to good advan 
 tage, remarking that in making his notes he 
 had not looked forward to a war with Mexico, 
 but had made it a rule of his life to note such 
 things with a view to possible use in the future.. 
 After urgent solicitation he obtained command 
 of the "Saratoga" (March, 1847), but too late 
 to do more than to see some hard service on the 
 blockade of Tuxpan. 
 
 After his return home (February, 1848) he was 
 variously employed on ordnance, court-martial, 
 and navy-yard duties. 
 
 In 1854 he was sent to the Pacific coast to 
 establish the navy-yard at Mare Island, Cal. 
 The four years passed here were uneventful, with 
 the exception of the organization of the " Vigi 
 lance Committee" of 1856. Farragut s coolness 
 and judgment in dealing with a delicate question 
 of Federal and State jurisdiction not only saved 
 the government from being drawn into a local 
 quarrel, but prevented bloodshed. 
 
 In 1859-60 Farragut commanded the " Brook 
 lyn" in the Gulf of Mexico, part of the time on 
 special service with the American minister, Hon. 
 Robert McLane. 
 
 At the breaking out of the civil war he was 
 residing at Norfolk, Va., his adopted home. 
 Being a man of broad national views, he prompt 
 ly announced his allegiance to the Union, moved 
 to the North, and after some delay was assigned 
 to the command of the Western Gulf Squadron, 
 January, 1862. 
 
 His passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, 
 the defenses of New Orleans (April 23-24, 1862), 
 in his fleet of wooden ships, was a grand achieve 
 ment in naval warfare, at a time when the the 
 ory of the superiority of forts over ships was 
 everywhere asserted. He seemed confident of 
 success from the first. "As to being prepared 
 for defeat," he wrote, " I certainly am not. 
 Any man who is prepared for defeat would be 
 half defeated before he commenced. I hope for 
 success, shall do all in my power to secure it, and 
 trust to God for the rest. * And with his gallant 
 officers and men he succeeded in passing the bar 
 rier of hulks, logs, and chains, and forts, de 
 stroyed the enemy s flotilla, and placed New 
 Orleans under his guns. 
 
 As soon as possible he pushed on up the river 
 to carry out his orders to open the Mississippi, 
 and successfully passed the batteries of Vicks- 
 burg (June 28, 1882) ; but the great elevation of 
 the batteries, and the absence of a co-operating 
 land force of sufficient strength, rendered this 
 movement of little real importance. His vessels 
 on the coast of Texas, however, succeeded in 
 capturing Galveston and Sabine City. 
 
 On March 14, 1863, in attempting a bold dash 
 past the batteries of Port Hudson, a portion of his 
 fleet was compelled to retire, and one of his ships 
 the " Mississippi" was destroyed. But with 
 his flag-ship and one small gunboat he continued 
 on up the river, penetrating as far as Vicksburg, 
 and finally established a blockade between Red 
 River and Port Hudson. On the arrival of Porter 
 from above, he returned to New Orleans by the 
 Atchafalaya, and conducted the naval operations 
 of the siege of Port Hudson until its surrender, 
 July 8, 1863. 
 
 His most brilliant achievement was in passing 
 Forts Morgan and Gaines, at the entrance to Mo 
 bile Bay, August 5, 1864. In this encounter he 
 18 
 
 captured the ram "Tennessee" and gunboat 
 " Selma." The forts subsequently surrendered 
 to the combined naval and military forces. In 
 this engagement he showed his decision of char 
 acter in taking the lead in his flag-ship at a mo 
 ment when disaster seemed certain. The dra 
 matic incident of his viewing the conflict from a 
 lofty position in the rigging, where he had 
 allowed himself to be secured by a lashing of 
 rope, has been authenticated by an autograph 
 letter of Farragut s (September 25, 1864), in 
 which he says, " I told you that Watson brought 
 me the rope to tie myself in the rigging. So he 
 did ; but Dravton sent one up by the quarter 
 master when 1 was up in the main rigging. I 
 was so much interested in what was going on 
 around me that I hardly noticed it, but took it 
 mechanically, and fastened it to the shrouds and 
 around myself." 
 
 He received the thanks of Congress, and was 
 commissioned rear-admiral July 16, 1862, and 
 vice-admiral Dec. 21, 1864, and was finally pro 
 moted to the rank of admiral, July 25, 1866. 
 
 In 1867, in command of the European Squad 
 ron, he made an extended cruise in the " Frank 
 lin," and was received with marked attention at 
 the European capitals. 
 
 Farragut had a high reputation in the service 
 for industry, character, and efficiency. He was 
 physically and morally brave and essentially 
 modest, though with a pleasant appreciation of 
 his attainments. His education in some re 
 spects was remarkable. He was an indefatigable 
 reader, and spoke several languages. Among in 
 timates his humor was proverbial. The purity of 
 his domestic life was as unsullied as his profes 
 sional career ; there was nothing in either that 
 required explanation or apology. His plans of 
 battle appeared simple enough, but showed a 
 thorough, minute, and painstaking preparation. 
 His quickness of perception and resolution in 
 the midst of conflict were his strongest points. 
 
 He died at Portsmouth, N. H., August 14, 
 1870. His remains were subsequently borne to 
 Woodlawn Cemetery, Westchester Co., N. Y. 
 (September 30), with great ceremony, where 
 they now rest under a monument erected by his 
 widow and son. Loyall Farragut. 
 
 Farthel. An obsolete word for furl. 
 
 Fash. An irregular seam. A mold-mark on 
 projectiles. 
 
 Fashion-piece. In wood construction, it is 
 the aftermost frame timber, and is secured to the 
 ends of the transoms. 
 
 Faskidar. The Arctic gull (Cataractes para- 
 siticus). 
 
 Fast. A rope or chain confining the ship to 
 a wharf. It is called according to its position a 
 bow-fast, head-fast, breast-fast, quarter-fast, or 
 stern-fast. 
 
 Fast Aground. So completely aground as to 
 be immovable. 
 
 Fast-stayer. A ship which goes about or 
 tacks quickly. 
 
 Father (Eng.\ Dock-yard name for the 
 builder of a naval vessel. 
 
 Father-lasher. A certain salt-water fish 
 (Coitus bubatis), allied to the river bull-head. Its 
 head is large, and its spines formidable. It is 
 found on the coasts of Britain, Newfoundland, 
 and Greenland. In the latter country it is ex 
 tensively used for food. 
 
FATHOM 
 
 274 
 
 FEED 
 
 Fathom. A measure of 6 feet, roughly made 
 by extending both arms ; used in measuring 
 cordage, depths, etc. To fathom, to find the 
 depth by sounding ; to comprehend. The table 
 shows the fathom of different countries : 
 
 Country. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 hH 
 
 1 MetreH. 
 
 1 
 
 England and 1 
 America, j 
 
 Fathom. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 1.829 
 
 Russia. Shashainh. *) 
 France. ) Grande Brasse. > 
 Holland. j Groote Vadem. ) 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 1.829 
 
 France. ) 
 Holland. / 
 
 Moyenne Brasse. ) 
 Koopvaarders Va- > 
 dem I 
 
 .916 
 
 5.5 
 
 66 
 
 1.676 
 
 France. \ 
 Holland. f 
 
 Petit Brasse. \ 
 Bussmans Vadem. > 
 
 .833 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 1.523 
 
 Denmark &\ !-u_* 
 Norway. j , Favn - 
 
 1.029 
 
 6175 
 
 74 
 
 1.834 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Braca. 
 
 1 
 
 6.004 72 
 
 1.829 
 
 France. 
 
 Brasse. 
 
 .925 5.541 66.6 1.086 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Fadem. 
 
 .984 5906 71 
 
 1.826 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Braza. 
 
 .916; 5.492 6fi 
 
 1.786 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Famn. 
 
 .974 5.84^ 70 
 
 1.824 
 
 India. 
 
 Bain. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 1.829 
 
 FATHOM-WOOD. Refuse wood from ship 
 building, sold by the fathom. 
 
 Fat-quarter. A broad and full quarter. 
 
 Faucon and Fauconnet. Old form for falcon 
 and falconet. 
 
 Favor. To spare, or to be careful of. The 
 spars are favored by being relieved of undue 
 strain. A ship is favored "when she is eased or 
 allowed to go off during squalls. 
 
 Fay-fena. A Japanese galley of 30 oars. 
 
 Feam. A small lighter s windlass. 
 
 Fearnaught or Dreadnaught. Woolen cloth 
 of great thickness. 
 
 Feather. In mechanism, a prism or bar of 
 metal, usually steel, one side of which is firmly 
 embedded lengthwise in the surface of a shaft, 
 either in a cylindrical or conical portion thereof, 
 the projecting portion being fitted to a slot in 
 the hub of a wheel, pulley, coupling, etc., for 
 the purpose of constraining such hub to the ro 
 tary motion of the shaft, and at the same time 
 permit it to slide or be easily removed in direc 
 tion of its axis. A feather is sometimes em 
 bedded in the surface of the bore of a hub and 
 fitted to a slot in the shaft. It differs from a 
 key in the fact that it is immovable. To cut a 
 feather. See CUT. 
 
 Feather an Oar. To bring the blades in a 
 horizontal position so as to cut the wind as soon 
 as they are out of the water. It is done by 
 dropping the wrist at the proper time. 
 
 Feathering Float. A paddle or float of a 
 paddle-wheel, so arranged as to turn on an axis 
 and present its broadside to the water at its low 
 est submersion, and to turn its edge to the water 
 in entering and emerging. 
 
 Feathering Paddle-wheel. A wheel whose 
 floats have a motion on an axis, so as to descend 
 nearly vertically to the surface of the water, and 
 ascend nearly the same way, avoiding beating 
 the water in the descent, and lifting it in the 
 ascent. The loss of power from these causes is 
 due only to the quantity of water thrown off as 
 spray, or carried around the wheel ; and, so far 
 as this action is concerned, a feathering-wheel is 
 equivalent to a radial-wheel having twice its 
 
 diameter. No economy is accomplished by avoid 
 ing " oblique action" in solid water. There are 
 numerous devices for feathering-wheels. See 
 PADDLE-WHEEL. 
 
 Feathering Propeller. A term applied to 
 any propelling apparatus in which the blades or 
 floats turn upon an axis so as to present their 
 edges to the water in dipping or entering, leav 
 ing or returning, and their broadsides when the 
 propelling force is most effective. The term is 
 suggested by the action of the feathers of the 
 wings of a bird, and is applicable to oars, paddle- 
 wheels, or submerged wheels. 
 
 Feathering Screw. A screw-propeller in 
 which the blades can be set in a fore-and-aft di 
 rection, so as to present a minimum resistance to 
 a vessel s headway when under sail alone. The 
 term also applies to screws in which the blades 
 can be turned and reversed on their axes by the 
 steering apparatus, thereby dispensing with a 
 rudder. 
 
 Feaze. To untwist a rope s end ; to pull it to 
 pieces. 
 
 FEAZIXGS. The unlaid or ragged end of a 
 rope. 
 
 Febiger, John C., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsylvania. Appointed from Ohio, Sep 
 tember 14, 1838 ; attached to frigate " Mace 
 donian," West India Squadron, 1838-40; sloop 
 " Concord," Brazil Squadron, 1841-43 ; wrecked 
 in " Concord" on east coast of Africa, 1843 ; at 
 tached to brig "Chippola," purchased by gov 
 ernment at Rio de Janeiro, and used to re 
 cover and dispose of equipment of " Concord," 
 1843-44. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, May 20, 
 1844; frigate "Potomac," Home Squadron, 
 1844-45; sloop "Dale," Pacific Squadron, 
 1846-47; frigate " Columbus," Pacific Squadron, 
 1848; sloop "Dale," African Squadron, 1850; 
 coast survey, 1852-57. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 30, 1853 ; 
 sloop " Germantown," East India Squadron, 
 1858-60; sloop "Savannah," 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, August 11, 
 1862; commanding the steamer "Kanawha," 
 West Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1862-63 en 
 gagement off Mobile Bay, April 3, 1862; com 
 manding steamers "Osage," "Neosho," and 
 "Lafayette," Mississippi Squadron, 1863; com 
 manding steamer " Mattabeset," North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1864-65; engagement with 
 rebel ram " Albemarle," in Albemarle Sound, 
 May, 1864; commanding steamer " Ashuelot," 
 Asiatic Squadron, 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, May 6, 1868 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Shenandoah," Asiatic 
 Squadron, 1868-69. While commanding the 
 "Shenandoah," entered and surveyed Ping- 
 Yang Inlet, west coast of Corea. Inspector of 
 Naval Reserved Lands, from 1869-72. Com 
 manding U. S. steamer " Ornaha," South Pacific 
 Squadron, 1872-74. Member Board of Ex 
 aminers, 1874-76. Commandant navy-yard, 
 Washington, D. C., 1876 to August, 1880. 
 
 Feckless. Weak and silly. 
 
 Feed. Material for replacing that consumed, 
 wasted, or transformed, in animal or mechanical 
 economy, as the feed-water of a steam-boiler 
 which replaces the water evaporated, or food for 
 animals. To feed, to supply a steam-boiler 
 with water, or a furnace with fuel, etc. 
 
FEEL THE HELM 
 
 275 
 
 FID 
 
 FEEDER. A stream that supplies a body of 
 running water. A passing cloud bringing more 
 wind in a gale. 
 
 FEEDER FORCE-PUMP. See FEED-PUMP. 
 
 FEEDING-GALE. A constantly increasing ga A e, 
 worse after every squall. 
 
 FEEDING PART OF A TACKLE. The running 
 part. 
 
 FEED OF GRASS. A supply of vegetables. 
 
 FEED-PIPE. A pipe, connected with a feed 
 pump or other apparatus, through which water 
 is supplied to a steam-boiler. 
 
 FEED-PUMP. A force-pump for supplying 
 steam-boilers with water to replace that which is 
 evaporated, blown off, or lost by leakage. It is 
 generally worked by some moving part of the 
 main engine. It consists essentially of a cylin 
 der in which a piston or a plunger is fitted, and 
 may be made either single- or double-acting ; re 
 ceiving- and discharge-valves, which in large 
 pumps are usually made of india-rubber ; valve- 
 chests or chambers ; an air-vessel or chamber ; 
 and a "feed safety-valve," which permits the 
 water to escape to the hot- well or reservoir, 
 when communication with the boiler is checked. 
 "When a feed-pump is driven by a small special 
 steam-cylinder, and independent of the main en 
 gine, it is called an " auxiliary," or "donkey"- 
 pump. 
 
 FEED- WATER. The water reserved from the 
 condenser of a steam-engine for the purpose of 
 supplying the boiler. The term is generally ap 
 plied to water passing into a boiler from what 
 ever source. 
 
 FEED-WATER PUMP. A pump for supply 
 ing feed-water to a reservoir, whence it can be 
 readily drawn by a feed-pump or injector. 
 
 Feel the Helm. A ship feels her helm when 
 she obeys it. 
 
 Feint. A pretended attack. 
 
 Fell-head. The top of a mountain not ending 
 in a peak. 
 
 Felt. Fabric made of wool, or wool and fur, 
 or hair, compacted by rolling and pressure, with 
 glue and size. It is used as a non-conductor 
 on steam-pipes, boilers, cylinders, etc. 
 
 Patent felt, mixed with tar, was formerly put 
 between the sheathing and the ship s bottom. 
 
 Felucca. A small vessel of Arabic origin, with 
 lateen-sails ; the helm may be used at either end. 
 
 Female-hemp. See FIMBLE-HEMP. 
 
 Female-screw. A cylinder with a spiral in 
 side, into which a screw works. 
 
 Fencing. The art of using a foil, or sword, 
 in simulated or actual attack and defense. The 
 changes which modern science has brought about 
 in the mode of conducting combats both on sea 
 and land have very much lessened the chance 
 of personal encounters between combatants, and 
 have, as a consequence, relegated the art of fen 
 cing to a far lower degree of prominence than it 
 formerly had. The officer, however, still wears 
 a sword, and occasions demanding a right knowl 
 edge of its use as a weapon of offense and de 
 fense, though not of frequent occurrence, are yet 
 among the chances of active service ; the art of 
 fencing, therefore, should still be cultivated, 
 both as a factor in an officer s efficiency, and as 
 a useful and graceful accomplishment. 
 
 Fend. To keep off. To fend off, to shove off, 
 to keep from contact. Fend the boat, to keep it 
 from touching the ship or wharf. 
 
 FENDER. Wood, rope, or other material used 
 to prevent chafe. Mat-fenders are made of rope 
 mats. Grommet-fenders are rope-grommets 
 grafted or covered over with rope yarns. Canvas- 
 fenders are bags of canvas stuffed with oakum of 
 hair. Cork-fenders are nets of small rope filled 
 with cork-shavings. Rope-fenders are made of 
 short pieces of rope, plaited together. A pile- 
 fender is a loose pile, planted in front of a 
 wharf, to absorb the shock of a boat. 
 
 FENDER-BAR. A bar passing along the ship s 
 side, to absorb the chafe, just above the water- 
 line. 
 
 FENDER-BOLT. An eye-bolt, through which 
 the fender-bar passes. 
 
 FENDER-PILE. One of any number of large 
 piles, the upper part of which projects a suitable 
 distance above the surface of the water, driven 
 at the corners and ends of wharves, piers, or 
 ferry-slips, which, by their resilience, prevent 
 destructive shocks to vessels coming alongside in 
 a strong current, wind, or tide-way. 
 
 Fernan-bag. A small ditty-bag to hold to 
 bacco. A monkey s cheek-pouches. 
 
 Fernandina. A port of entry and capital of 
 Nassau Co., Fla., on Amelia Island, 28 miles 
 N.N.E. of Jacksonville. It has a good harbor, 
 and is the N.E. terminus of the Atlantic, Gulf 
 and West India Transit Kailroad. Steamboats 
 run three times a week from here to Charleston 
 and Savannah. Pop. 3150. 
 
 Ferrara. An old broadsword named after 
 Andrea Ferrara, the famous Spanish sword- 
 maker. 
 
 Ferrol. A seaport town and one of the prin 
 cipal naval arsenals of Spain, in the province 
 of, and 12 miles N.E. of Corunna, on the north 
 arm of the Bay of Betanzos. Lat. 43 29 30" 
 N. ; Ion. 8 13 W. Its harbor, one of the best 
 in Europe, is entered by a narrow strait, and is 
 defended by the castles of San Felipe and Palma. 
 The town on its north shore is strongly fortified 
 on the land side. Its vast arsenal and dock-yard 
 covers nearly 24 acres, and comprises many 
 magnificent docks and store-houses. It has a 
 general and military hospital, naval barracks, 
 and schools of navigation and mathematics. Pop. 
 21,500. 
 
 Ferrule. An iron band on the mizzen topsail- 
 yard. A bushing to expand boiler-tubes. 
 
 Ferry. A place where goods or passengers 
 are conveyed over narrow waters. The boat 
 used in conveying goods or passengers over a 
 stream ; it may be propelled by- hand, or by 
 horse- or steam-power. 
 
 FERRY-BOAT. A boat for transporting goods 
 or passengers over narrow waters. See FERRY. 
 
 Fetch. To reach ; to arrive at ; as, to fetch 
 to windward of a point. To fetch away, to break 
 loose. To fetch headway, to gather headway. 
 To fetch the pumps, to cause the pumps to draw 
 by pouring in water from the top to expel the 
 air. Fetch is also the extent of a bay or gulf from 
 point to point. 
 
 Fettle. To put in order ; to repair. In fine 
 fettle, in good trim ; in high spirits. 
 
 Feu de Joie (Fr.). A salute of musketry by 
 files. 
 
 Fez. A red cloth skull-cap worn by Moham 
 medans, and frequently by sailors in the Medi 
 terranean. 
 
 Fid. A square, wedge-shaped bar of wood or 
 
FIDDLE 
 
 276 
 
 FILL 
 
 iron, placed in a mortise in fhe heel of a topmast 
 or topgallant-mast. The ends, resting on the 
 trestle-trees, take the weight of the mast and 
 sustain it in place. Iron fids are generally used, 
 with a laniard attached to prevent them from 
 falling from aloft. Screw fids have also been 
 designed, so as to be taken out without lifting 
 the mast. A conical pointed piece of lignum- 
 vitse, or other hard wood, used to open the 
 strands of a rope in splicing or working it. An 
 iron fid is properly a marlin-spike. These fids 
 are called hand-fids, and are from 14 to 20 inches 
 long. Larger conical pieces of wood, of vari 
 ous sizes from 30 to 40 inches long, used to 
 open the eyes of rigging, are called setting-fids 
 and standing-fids. A vent-plug of oakum. A 
 quid of tobacco. To fid a mast is to sway it up 
 to its place and insert the fid. 
 
 FID-HAMMER. A hammer having one end 
 of the head pointed, so as to serve as a fid. 
 
 FID-HOLE. The mortise in the heel of a mast, 
 into which a fid is inserted ; they are in length 
 half the diameter of the mast, and their width is 
 two-thirds of their length. 
 
 Fiddle. A rack, used on a table, to keep the 
 crockery on, formed of frames connected by tape 
 or cord. 
 
 Fiddle-block. A block having two sheaves 
 lying in the same plane, one above the other. 
 They are used for burtons, yard-tackles, etc. ; 
 called also long-tackle-block. 
 
 Fiddle-fish. The king-crab (Limulus poly- 
 phemus). 
 
 Fiddle-head. The scroll on a ship s bow, that 
 turns inwards, like the head of a fiddle. 
 
 Fiddler. A small crab with one claw longer 
 than the other. 
 
 Fiddler s Green. A sailor s paradise, where 
 dance-houses and kindred amusements abound. 
 
 Field-artillery. Light artillery for use on 
 shore, in distinction from boat-artillery. See 
 HOWITZER. 
 
 Field-carriage. The carriage for a light piece 
 of ordnance, by which it is transported when on 
 shore. See HOWITZER. 
 
 Field-day. A day of drills or exercises. A 
 day for general cleaning or overhauling. 
 
 Field-gun. See FIELD-PIECE. 
 
 Field-howitzer. A howitzer mounted on a 
 field-carriage for use ashore. 
 
 Field-ice. A large extent of floating ice, 
 adrift or stationary. Detached pieces are fioes, 
 and when they suddenly reunite, cause nips. 
 
 Field of View. The circular space visible 
 through a telescope. 
 
 Field-piece. A piece of ordnance for use on 
 land, so mounted as to be capable of transpor 
 tation. 
 
 Fiery-flaw. See FIRE-FLAIRE. 
 
 Fifer. The marine who plays the fife. 
 
 Fife-rail. A rail about the mast, supplied 
 with pins to belay ropes to, and with blocks to 
 lead them through. 
 
 Fig. In full fiy, in full dress. 
 
 Figala. An East Indian vessel with one mast, 
 and propelled by paddles. 
 
 Figger. A Smyrna trading-vessel. 
 
 Figgie-dowdie. Plum-duff. 
 
 Fight. An engagement or battle. 
 
 FIGHTING-LANTERN (Eng.}. See BATTLE-LAN 
 TERN. 
 
 FIGHTING-CANVAS, or FIGHTLNO-SAILS. Sails 
 
 used in action. Formerly, topsails and courses. 
 In future, sails will be furled. 
 
 FIGHTING-STOPPER. An arrangement of two 
 dead-eyes, connected by rope laniards, and fur 
 nished each with a tail of rope. When a shroud 
 is parted in action, the tails embrace the severed 
 parts, and then they are hauled together by the 
 laniard. See STOPPER. 
 
 FIGHTING-TRIM. In proper trim to commence 
 an action. 
 
 FIGHTING-WATER. Casks or tubs of water 
 placed about the deck for use during action, or 
 in cans in the magazine. Vinegar is added to it 
 in some services. 
 
 FIGHTS. An old word for screens to conceal 
 the men from the enemy. See CLOSE-FIGHTS. 
 
 Figure. The ornament at a ship s prow, 
 whether a scroll, fiddle-head, billet, or figure-head. 
 
 FIGURE-HEAD. An image or carved figure 
 formerly carried at the prow. The Phrenicians 
 carried the figures of the marine-protecting dei 
 ties, adopted from them by the Greeks under the 
 name of Dioscuri, or Castor and Pollux. Ancient 
 Egyptian ships carried a ram s head or a carved 
 lotus. Roman ships carried the head of a lion, 
 ram, dragon, etc. Early Norman ships commonly 
 carried a dragon s head or serpent s head, and 
 sometimes an archer. Full-length figures of 
 Neptune, of Mercury, and other Greek gods 
 were common in 1600-1700, and the statues in 
 carved wood of great men, of allegorical subjects, 
 as Hope, etc., were then used. Busts or half- 
 length statues were more common. Many of 
 these carvings were works of art. The adoption 
 of ramming, and first the straight, then the ram- 
 bow, caused them to fall into disuse, and they 
 are seldom seen on iron or armored vessels. 
 
 Figure-of-eight. A knot made in the shape 
 of the figure 8. 
 
 Fike. See FYKE. 
 
 Filadiere. A small flat-bottomed boat of the 
 Garonne. 
 
 File. In mechanical art, an implement of 
 hardened steel, having its surface cut into sharp 
 furrows or teeth, used principally for shaping or 
 smoothing metals, but frequently used on other 
 substances. There is a great variety of shapes, 
 sizes, and degree of fineness of teeth or cut. The 
 cross-section may be rectangular, square, round, 
 half-round, triangular, or wedge-shaped (knife- 
 edged) ; the longitudinal section usually tapers 
 or curves from the "shank end," which receives 
 the handle, to the point. The sizes of files are 
 denoted by their length in inches, and the prin 
 cipal degrees of fineness by the terms " bastard," 
 "second cut," "smooth, "and "dead smooth." 
 Small round files are called " rat-tail" files ; files 
 having parallel teeth cut in one direction only, 
 that is, not crossed at a right angle by other 
 teeth or furrows, are called " float-cut" files ; and 
 flat files having one or both their edges left 
 blank, or without teeth, are called "safe-edge" 
 files. An old file, a nickname for a cunning, 
 humorous character. 
 
 FILE-FISH. One of a class of fishes having 
 their skin granulated like a file. They are inter 
 mediate between the bony and cartilaginous 
 fishes, and constitute the genus Balistes. 
 
 Filibuster. A freebooter. A name first ap 
 plied to the adventurer Lopez in 1849. 
 
 Fill. To fill the sails, to trim the yards so 
 that the wind shall blow on the after-part of the 
 
FILLET 
 
 277 
 
 FIRE 
 
 sails. To fill a yard, to fill its sail. To fill away, 
 to fill a sail or sails that have been aback. To 
 fill a ship s bottom, to cover her bottom with 
 broad-headed nails so as to give her a sheathing 
 of iron. Copper sheathing is now preferred. 
 To Jill in, to put in timbers wherever solidity is 
 required ; as, between the frames in a ship. 
 
 FILL AND STAND ON. To fill the sails and 
 resume the course after heaving to. 
 
 FILLER. A strip of wood inserted in a made 
 mast to fill up a deficiency. 
 
 FILLING-ROOM. A small room formerly par 
 titioned off from the magazine for a filling-place 
 for shell, etc. 
 
 Fillet. The ornamental rings formerly cast 
 about the muzzle or cascabel of a gun. The 
 rounded surface joining the plane surfaces of a 
 gun. 
 
 Filter. An apparatus for purifying water. 
 Sailors call a stone filter a drip-stone. 
 
 Fimble Hemp, or Female Hemp. The hemp 
 which produces no seed, and is chiefly used for 
 domestic purposes. Carl, or male hemp is used 
 for cordage. 
 
 Fin. An organ of a fish, consisting of a mem 
 brane supported by rays, or little bony or carti 
 laginous ossicles, and serving to balance and 
 propel it in the water. Fishes move through the 
 water chiefly by means of the tail, the principal 
 office of the fins being to balance or direct the 
 body, though they are also, to a certain extent, 
 employed in producing motion. Jocular for 
 hand ; tip us your fin, shake hands. 
 
 FIN-BACK. A whale of the genus Balcenoptera, 
 having a tough fin on its back. Some are 80 to 
 90 feet long. It has little oil, no whalebone, and 
 is hard to catch. Also called finner and fin- 
 whale. 
 
 Find. To provide ; to furnish. 
 
 Finding. The verdict of a court-martial. 
 
 Findon Haddock. A kind of Scotch had 
 dock. 
 
 Fine. To fine the under-water body is to 
 
 Erolong and sharpen the ends. A. fine entrance 
 i a sharp under-water part of the fore-body of 
 the ship. 
 
 Finger-shell. A marine shell resembling a 
 finger. 
 
 Finner. See FIN-BACK. 
 
 Finnic. Scotch salmon less than a year old. 
 
 Finnock. A kind of Scotch salmon. 
 
 Fintrum Speldin. Small dried haddock. 
 
 Fiord. A deep narrow inlet of the sea on the 
 Norwegian coast. 
 
 Fir. Fir is the wood of a tree of the genus 
 Abies. The Scotch fir is a pine. For the frames 
 of men-of-war its use has been rare, but 17 Eng 
 lish men-of-war were built of it from 1750 to 
 1806 Their average life was 9 years. Fir is 
 used for ship s spars, and for plank of the bot 
 tom. The best fir comes from Riga and Dantzic. 
 The early frigates of our navy were made of fir, 
 and lasted fairly well. 
 
 Firbome. An old term for a beacon. 
 
 Fire. The effect of combustion ; a conflagra 
 tion. To kindle ; to set on fire. To discharge a 
 fire-arm ; the discharge of fire-arms. 
 
 A raking fire is delivered from ahead or astern 
 of a vessel, the projectiles passing through in the 
 direction of her length. In early days one of 
 the great points in a sea-fight was to rake the op 
 posing ship without being raked by her. Since 
 
 the introduction of ironclads it is not a matter 
 of so much importance. 
 
 To fire at will is to fire the guns independently 
 of each other, each gun-captain seizing the most 
 favorable opportunity ; this firing is used in 
 action when the object is visible. 
 
 To fire in succession is to fire one gun after 
 another in regular order, beginning with the 
 forward gun if the wind be aft, or with the after 
 gun if the wind be from forward ; this firing 
 may be used at the beginning of an action, or 
 when a steady continuous fire is desired. 
 
 Quick firing is rapid firing at will, the tangent 
 sight not being raised ; this firing is used when 
 close alongside an enemy, when but little point 
 ing is required. 
 
 When a gun is so laid that the projectile 
 strikes the object without grazing between the 
 gun and object, the fire is direct , this firing is 
 used at short range or at great ranges, when 
 great penetration is desired, or when the surface 
 between the gun and the object is so rough that 
 the force and direction of the projectile would be 
 injuriously affected. When the gun is so laid 
 that the projectile makes one or more grazes 
 before reaching the object, the firing is denomi 
 nated ricochet] that properly so called is per 
 formed with the gun laid level, or at most at 8 
 elevation; though shot will often ricochet at 
 greater angles of elevation. 
 
 Practically, ricochet fire is of no value from 
 rifled guns firing elongated projectiles. In ex 
 perimental practice over perfectly smooth water, 
 it will often be observed that successive projec 
 tiles of high velocity and rapid spin maintain a 
 certain uniformity of flight on the first one or 
 two bounds ; but the slightest irregularity of 
 the reflecting surface causes them to lose all 
 certainty of direction. The flatness of the tra 
 jectory of the rifle, by greatly increasing the 
 dangerous space, has correspondingly decreased 
 the importance of ricochet fire. For smooth 
 bores, however, ricochet firing upon a smooth 
 surface, within certain distances, has some im 
 portant advantages over direct firing. When 
 the guns have very little or no elevation, and 
 are near the water, as they are in a ship s bat 
 tery, the projectile strikes the water at a very 
 small angle ; its flight is not greatly retarded by 
 the graze, and it rises but little above the sur 
 face in its course. The distant charge should 
 always be used, but the penetration is not to be 
 depended on beyond 1500 yards against unarm- 
 ored ships of war. , At low elevations it requires 
 only correct lateral direction, since the projectile 
 would rarely pass over and would probably strike 
 a vessel if within its effective range, whether the 
 actual distance had been correctly ascertained or 
 not. The deviation of the projectile is, however, 
 generally increased by ricochet and in propor 
 tion to the roughness of the surface of the water. 
 Even a slight ripple will make a perceptible dif 
 ference not only in direction, but in range, pene 
 tration, and the height to which the projectile 
 will rise in its bounds. 
 
 Although these facts demand attention, yet 
 when the estimated distance does not require an 
 elevation of more than 3, projectiles from guns 
 pointed rather too low for direct firing will prob 
 ably ricochet and strike the object with effect, 
 even when the water is considerably rough. 
 This may be called accidental ricochet. When 
 
PIKE 
 
 278 
 
 FIKE 
 
 the water is not smooth, the most favorable cir 
 cumstances for such firing are when the flight 
 of the shot is with the roll of the sea and that 
 roll is long and regular. Kicochet will be effec 
 tive against small objects up to 2000 yards, but 
 should not commence at less than 600 yards. 
 Shot rarely ricochet at all with elevations above 
 5, and the bounds are always higher, with 
 qual charges from the same gun, as the eleva 
 tion of the gun is increased. 
 
 A fire is said to be curved when the projectile 
 clears an intervening object and descends upon 
 the target. A fire is said to be plunging when 
 the target is below the level of the gun: it is 
 .particularly effective against vessels. 
 
 Horizontal fire includes all kinds where the 
 velocity of the projectile is due to the charge. 
 Vertical fire includes all kinds where the velocity 
 ,of the projectile on impact is mainly due to the 
 attraction of gravity. See MORTAR. 
 
 Concentration of fire may be desirable under 
 certain circumstances ; and arrangements have 
 been sometimes made to secure it by the simul 
 taneous discharge of a number of guns upon 
 .some part of an object whose distance is known. 
 The advantages of these arrangements are not 
 very obvious, excepting in cases where the posi 
 tion of the enemy may be visible from one part 
 of a ship and not from all the guns in the bat 
 tery. The object sought to be obtained is there 
 fore to aim from inboard at an invisible target, 
 the distance and direction of which are indicated 
 by the commanding officer. It is consequently 
 necessary that he shall be so placed as to obtain 
 a distinct view of the enemy, or have suitable 
 observers to inform him of his exact position. 
 
 FIRE-ALARM. A signal to denote that a fire 
 has broken out, and to summon the officers and 
 men to their stations for suppressing it. See 
 FIRE-BILL. 
 
 FIRE-AND-LIGHTS. A nickname for the mas- 
 ter-at-arms. 
 
 FIRE-ARM. A weapon acting by the force of 
 gunpowder, discharging a ball. The Chinese 
 claim to have used fire-arms in 304 B.C. A 
 stone-thrower was used in China in 757 A.D. 
 In 1200 the Mongols used fire-arms, and in 1258 
 Genghis Khan used them. They became of 
 universal use during the 14th century. One of 
 the first instances of their use afloat was by the 
 Venetians against the Genoese, in 1377. Other 
 explosive materials have been tried in them with 
 but little success. 
 
 FIRE-ARROWS. Arrows wrapped with tow 
 soaked in turpentine, used frequently in the 
 naval actions of the 17th century. The last 
 instance of their use afloat in a large action 
 was that of the French in the East Indies in 
 1758. 
 
 FIRE AWAY ! Go on with your remarks. 
 
 FIRE-BALLS. Balls made of tow and tallow, 
 mixed with sulphur and pitch. 
 
 FIRE-BARRELS. Small stout barrels filled with 
 inflammable composition, used in fire-ships, to 
 increase the combustion. 
 
 FIRE-BAVINS. Short bundles of brush-wood 
 dipped in inflammable composition, arid fastened 
 about parts of a fire-ship to spread the flame. 
 
 FIRE-BELL. The quick ringing of the ship s 
 bell, the signal for a tire. 
 
 FIRE-BILL. The bill giving the stations of 
 the crew on an alarm of fire. They are dis 
 
 tributed in proper places to work the pumps, 
 lead out hose, act as axmen, or smotherers, as 
 sist in hauling up sails, in hoisting provisions, 
 in getting out the boats, drawing the charges 
 of the guns, etc. See EMERGENCIES AT SEA. 
 
 FIRE-BOOM. A boom swung out from the 
 ship s side to keep off fire-ships. See FIRE-SHIPS 
 AND HAFTS. 
 
 FIRE-BRICK. An infusible kind of brick used 
 for lining the inside of furnaces or flues not ex 
 posed to water, when necessary to protect them 
 from intense heat. 
 
 FIRE-BRIDGE, or BRIDGE-WALL. A wall 
 which forms the back end of a furnace, and over 
 which the heated gaseous products of combustion 
 pass. It may be built of fire-bricks, or it may 
 be an iron shell filled with water and forming 
 part of the boiler. Fire-bridges are also built at 
 intervals in the large masonry flue under long 
 cylindrical boilers, for the purpose of mixing 
 the gases and bringing them in close contact 
 with the surface of the boiler. 
 
 FIRE-BUCKET. A bucket of canvas, leather, 
 rubber, wood, or metal, used in case of fire. 
 Those used in the navy are made of light tanned 
 sole-leather, and a laniard, several fathoms long, 
 is attached to each, to be used in drawing water 
 from aloft. 
 
 FIRE-CLAY. Clay (a silicate of alumina) from 
 which fire-bricks are made and in which they 
 are laid or cemented. 
 
 FIRE-CREW. The crew of a fire-ship that 
 conduct her into action, and after inflaming her 
 leave her to her fate. 
 
 FIRE-CURTAINS. Curtains of canvas dipped 
 in inflammable mixtures, and suspended from the 
 beams of a fire-ship, to increase the combustion. 
 
 FIRE-DRAKE. A meteor. The corpo santo of 
 old navigators. 
 
 FIRE-EATER. A hotspur. A man fond of 
 fights and fighting. 
 
 FIRE-EXTINGUISHER. A small portable appa 
 ratus for extinguishing an accidental fire in its 
 incipiency. Its action is to throw upon a fire a 
 small stream of water surcharged with carbonic 
 gas. It consists essentially of a very strong me 
 tallic case or vessel, which is filled with water, 
 together with a suitable quantity of carbonate of 
 soda or lime, and which contains a small recep 
 tacle, made of lead, glass, or other suitable ma 
 terial, for holding a quantity of sulphuric acid 
 sufficient to combine with the carbonates and 
 form sulphates, while releasing carbonic acid gas, 
 which the water holds in suspension, and which, 
 by its pressure, gives force to the stream. The 
 acid and carbonates are securely isolated from 
 each other until the apparatus is required for use. 
 There are many devices for effecting the combi 
 nation or mixture, one being designed as early as 
 1816. The fire-extinguishers furnished the navy 
 are now of the Babcock pattern, in which car 
 bonic acid is generated, and cast on the fire. 
 
 FIRE-FLAIRE. The sting-ray (Raiapastinaca}. 
 
 FIRE-FLAUGHTS. The northern lights. 
 
 FIRE-HEARTH. The hearth about the galley. 
 
 FIRE-HOOPS. Hoops wrapped in tow and 
 soaked in inflammables. Used by the Knights 
 of Malta in the middle ages. 
 
 FIRE-LOCK. A gun-lock inflaming the powder 
 by striking a flint. A gun having a flint-lock. 
 
 FIREMAN, or STOKER. A man who manages 
 fires. On board vessels of war firemen are di- 
 
FIKE 
 
 279 
 
 FIRE 
 
 vided into two classes, viz., first- and second- 
 class firemen. A first-class fireman is required 
 to be thoroughly skilled in making, maintain 
 ing, and cleaning fires with all the varieties of 
 coal in general use, and in all the preparations 
 for starting fires and raising steam in boilers. 
 He must be acquainted with the methods of 
 keeping the water in boilers at the proper height 
 and density ; be familiar with the various cocks 
 and valves in common use in marine machinery ; 
 capable of packing stuffing-boxes, making steam- 
 joints, "laying up" and preparing packing, 
 cleaning bright-work, and starting or stopping 
 and lubricating either the main or auxiliary 
 engines or pumps. Skill in the use of mechanics 
 tools adds to his efficiency. 
 
 A second-class fireman must be skilled in the 
 management of fires, boilers, and pumps, and 
 have a good general knowledge of the duties 
 of a first-class fireman. 
 
 A fireman is, also, one whose duty it is to 
 extinguish fire. 
 
 FIRE-QUARTERS. The assembly of the crew 
 on an alarm of fire. The fire-bill gives each his 
 station, and this is to be taken instantly on an 
 alarm. Pumps are rigged and manned, ports 
 closed, charges drawn from the guns, hatches 
 covered, sails trimmed, and preparations made 
 for getting out the boats, if at sea, or they are 
 lowered in port. Friday is the day usually set 
 apart for the purpose of drilling in this. 
 
 FIRE-RAFT. A raft of floating timber, arranged 
 with combustibles, and set afloat against an 
 enemy s fleet. See FIRE-SHIPS AND RAFTS. 
 
 FIRE-ROOM, or STOKE-HOLE. A room or 
 space at the fronts of steam-boilers devoted to 
 the management of the fires, and, generally, to 
 all operations connected with the management 
 of boilers under steam, such as feeding, observ 
 ing pressures and temperatures, height of water 
 in boilers, degree of saturation of water in boiler, 
 blowing, etc. When the fronts of boilers face 
 amidships, it is a fore-and-aft fire-room, and 
 when they face forward or aft, it is called an 
 athwart-ship fire-room. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS AND RAFTS, EXPLOSION-VESSELS 
 AND BOOMS. Fire-ships are vessels loaded with 
 combustibles, set on fire, and drifted or propelled 
 against fleets, forts, or obstructions. Such in 
 ventions have been used for centuries, and have 
 played an important part in many contests. The 
 first account of the use of fire-ships is at the 
 siege of Tyre, 333 B.C. The Tyrians here sent 
 a galley, loaded with stones and prepared with 
 sulphur, etc., against the mole built by Alexan 
 der, partially destroying it. Six other instances 
 of the use of fire-ships before the Christian era 
 are recorded. Fire-ships were used by the 
 Rhodians in a contest with the Syrians, 19i B.C., 
 and Livy alludes to their use by that mari 
 time nation in 190 The Carthaginians, in 149 
 BC.,sent boats filled with combustibles against 
 the Roman fleet under Manlius, attacked and 
 partially destroyed it. In 38 B.C., two of the 
 fleets of Augustus were destroyed by Cassius ; the 
 first, under Pomponius, by several ships filled with 
 pitch, hemp, etc. ; the second, under Sulpicius, by 
 forty fire-ships, in the harbor of Vibo. 
 
 Two more instances of their use are given 
 before the introduction of Greek fire. In 439 
 Genseric towed a number of fire-ships out of 
 Carthage harbor against a Roman fleet under 
 
 Basilicus, and destroyed most of it. Belisarius, 
 in 545, destroyed a bridge thrown across the 
 Tiber near Rome by Totila, by a fire-boat, car 
 ried in a tower erected on two galleys, by means 
 of which the boat was dropped on the bridge. 
 
 In 673, an Egyptian, Callinicus, in the Greek 
 service, invented Greek fire, and the use of this 
 combustible liquid seems to have given a new 
 impulse to the employment of fire-ships. This 
 liquid, long known under its various names of 
 " Ignis Gnecus," " Greek fire," " Wild fire," and 
 " Maritime fire," was the forerunner of powder, 
 consuming all within its reach, and only being 
 quenched by sand, vinegar, and acids. It was 
 poured from sides of ships, from battlements and 
 turrets, shot in balls and arrows, and ejected 
 from horrid-mouthed brazen tubes. The Greeks 
 long preserved the secret, but the Saracens 
 finally obtained it, and its disuse only came with 
 the advent of powder. Sometimes, as at Con 
 stantinople in 717, old vessels were impregnated 
 with this liquid, and thus made more formidable, 
 set adrift against the enemy. There, also, in 
 951, 953, the Russian fleets felt their force, two 
 being nearly destroyed by the fire-galleys sent 
 against them. 
 
 During the Crusades we meet with Greek fire 
 continually, and also with fire-ships. Notable 
 are those used at Zara in 1171 against the Vene 
 tians, two unsuccessful attacks, one with 17 fire- 
 ships, by the besieged Greeks against the Vene 
 tians at Constantinople in 1204, and the fire-ships 
 used by the Pisans at Geneva in 1218. The fire- 
 ships used at Reggio by the Saracens are called 
 " Jeremitas" by old chroniclers. 
 
 In 1370, the English first used them at Zuruck- 
 zee, and they were visited by them at Rochelle 
 in 1372. 
 
 They were first used in a sea-engagement by 
 the Spaniards against the English in 1406. The 
 Venetians at Syracuse in 1433, and the Knights 
 at Rhodes in 1440, used these weapons. 
 
 The more important use of fire-ships, the in 
 auguration of explosion-vessels, and the use of 
 an elaborate boom for defense, occurred at the 
 siege of Antwerp in 1585. Thirteen fire-ships 
 were used, and set afloat against the boom with 
 the explosion-vessels, but the latter only caused 
 disaster The Great Armada was first disorgan 
 ized and thrown into confusion by eight fire-ships 
 sent against it by Lord Howard at Calais, July 
 27, 1588. Fear of these led the Spaniards to run 
 out, and they were met and defeated on Goodwin 
 Sands soon after. 
 
 During the 17th and 18th centuries the use 
 of fire-ships became almost universal. Nearly 
 every fleet had them, from one to twenty in 
 number, and in the long and bloody wars 
 between the English and the Dutch they were 
 often used with disastrous results, the large 
 fleets of cumbersome ships being particularly 
 vulnerable to their attacks. They were then 
 used in sea-actions. Three ships were destroyed 
 by one in 1653, and four Dutch ships in 1665 by 
 one, the loss of life being heavy. One hundred 
 and ninety Dutch vessels were destroyed by fire- 
 ships at Vreeling. Fire-ships were used in con 
 nection with explosion-vessels in the English 
 attacks on St. Malo, Dieppe, and Dunkirk in 
 1693-94, and at Dunkirk a peculiar " smoke-ship" 
 was used to disconcert the aim of the gunners, 
 but it failed. 
 
FIRE 
 
 280 
 
 FIRE 
 
 They were used on this continent at Quebec in 
 1759, and at Philadelphia in 1777. They were 
 last used in sea-actions by Matthews in 1746, and 
 by Boscawen in 1759. From this time they 
 diminished in numbers, and we only hear of 
 them as occasionally employed during the present 
 century. Fire-ships were used at Basque Roads 
 in 1809, again with explosion-vessels, but effected 
 nothing. At Washington in 1814, Commodore 
 Rodgers used them without effect, and the Turks 
 had five in their fleet at the battle of Navarino. 
 In 1822, the Greeks at Scio revenged themselves 
 on the Turks by sending against their victorious 
 fleet two fire-ships and several launches, June 7. 
 Two ships were destroyed, and more than two 
 thousand men killed. 
 
 In 1840-41, the Chinese sent fire-rafts and junks 
 against the English on five occasions, but ef 
 fected nothing. Fire-rafts were sent down the 
 Mississippi, first in October, 1861, throwing the 
 ships into confusion, again from April 16 to 
 April 21, against Farragut s fleet, adding to the 
 terrors of the night-assault of Forts Jackson and 
 St. Philip, but effected little, and were easily 
 avoided. One, however, was pushed by a rarn, 
 and set the "Hartford" on fire, but the flames 
 were extinguished. The steamer " Abtao" was 
 fitted as a fire-ship in 1879 by the Chilians, but 
 was not used. 
 
 Fire-ships were generally old vessels of 50 to 
 150 tons. In a central compartment fire-barrels 
 were placed, filled with powder, pitch, and tal 
 low. Troughs led along the decks, in which 
 reeds, dipped in rosin, pitch, tallow, and powder, 
 were placed, bundles of brush aiding them, and 
 fuzes led through scuttles to the barrels below, 
 and to sally-ports. Small iron pieces blew the 
 ports open, and barrels of composition on deck, 
 boxes in tops, channels, from bowsprit, davits, 
 etc., and fire-curtains from the beams, aided the 
 conflagration. Fire-ships sailed to windward, 
 fought to leeward, prepared for battle, and went 
 into action, on signal. The duty was hazardous, 
 and little quarter was given to captured crews. 
 Steam-vessels will be more formidable as fire- 
 ships, and may yet be used in defending harbors, 
 but fire is not so terrible to iron-cased ships, with 
 wire rigging. 
 
 Explosion-vessels have been used less often than 
 fire-ships. The first was at Antwerp. They were 
 invented by Giambelli, an Italian. Four were 
 used, but one broke the boom and killed 800 
 people, blowing up six ships, and flooding the 
 shores. They were strong flat boats, containing 
 7000 pounds of powder, in a brick well, roofed 
 with heavy stones, and charged with missiles of 
 all kinds. The French prepared a vessel, in 1688, 
 to use at Algiers, but did not use it. Explosion- 
 vessels were sent against the ports of St. Malo, 
 Dieppe, and Dunkirk on four occasions, in 1693- 
 94, but all failed to damage the towns. The next 
 use of explosion-ships was that of our forces at 
 Tripoli, the ill-fated "Intrepid," in which all 
 those engaged were killed. This was during 
 the night of September 4, 1804. The ketch was 
 sailed in, and parted company with her convoy 
 of 3 vessels at the entrance of the harbor, and 
 was last seen from them sailing in towards the 
 mole. Suddenly she blew up, either having been 
 fired by her cre w or exploded by a shot from the 
 forts. 
 
 During the same year a floating-mine was sent 
 
 against Fort Rouge, at Calais, but effected no 
 damage. 
 
 In 1809 several attempts were made against 
 Rochefort with floating-mines, some of which 
 were ships of large dimensions. The explosions 
 shook the earth for miles around, but nothing 
 was gained by them. 
 
 Finally, more formidable attempts were made 
 against the French fleet at Basque Roads. Three 
 explosion-vessels and 9 fire-ships were sent against 
 the fleet and boom. The explosion-vessels were 
 made by placing firmly- wedged logs in the 
 hold, piling spirit-casks, containing 1500 bar 
 rels of powder, and bound round with hempen 
 cables. Several hundred shells were placed on 
 top, and some 3000 hand-grenades wedged with 
 sand. These were sent under sail, and one was 
 swept away by a fire-ship, but one exploded near 
 the boom, breaking it by the force of the wave. 
 
 At Wagram, on the Danube, boats filled with 
 5 barrels of powder, arranged to be fired by the 
 carrying away of the mast on collision with the 
 bridge, were sent down the river, but effected 
 nothing. 
 
 Lord Exmouth took an explosion-vessel to 
 Algiers in 1816, but did not use it. 
 
 The last occasion on which an explosion-ves 
 sel was used was at Fort Fisher, December 24, 
 1864. An old steam-vessel was here used, and 
 the powder was stowed rather loosely in bags 
 about the lower decks, while fuzes, clock-work, 
 and a fire were depended on to ignite the formid 
 able charge. Towed in and anchored within 300 
 yards of the fort, the charge was fired in time, 
 causing a severe shock, but no damage to the 
 fort. 
 
 Booms are naturally connected with this sub 
 ject, having been used principally to keep fire- 
 ships out of harbors. We find records of such 
 defenses as early as the siege of Syracuse, 413 
 B.C. Chains were used in the harbor of Con 
 stantinople as early as 700 B.C. In the middle 
 ages such defenses became more common, and 
 the further defense of sunken ships was inaugu 
 rated by the Rochellais in 1371. The first for 
 midable defense was used at Bonifacio, in Cor 
 sica, in 1420, where a bridge of great plank was 
 defended by 5 ships ranged in a line. This was 
 surpassed by the great Antwerp structure, built 
 by the Duke of Parma in 1585, a structure made 
 partly of piles and partly of a floating-bridge of 
 vessels, moored head and stern, and defended by 
 anchored floating-batteries. As we have seen, 
 this was broken by Giambelli s explosion-vessel, 
 but it was repaired the same night, and served 
 its purpose. 
 
 During the 17th and 18th centuries these de 
 fenses were much used, sometimes chains only 
 being thrown across the harbor, at others ships 
 were sunk, hulks with heavy batteries anchored 
 near, etc. 
 
 The earliest formidable attempt to use a boom 
 was at Basque Roads, in 1809. Heavy cables 
 were here fastened to logs and anchored across 
 the channel, while line-of-battle ships at either 
 end defended the structure. This boom was 
 broken by Cochrane s explosion-ships. 
 
 During the civil war in this country torpedoes 
 planted in the stream added their force to the de 
 fense of a boom, and elaborate systems of booms 
 were made. At Charleston extensive series of 
 such were found. When Farragut s fleet at- 
 
FIRES 
 
 FISH 
 
 tacked New Orleans formidable chains stretched 
 across the river, and buoyed up by hulks, were 
 first encountered, and destroyed by slipping. 
 
 Sunken vessels were frequently employed, 
 notably at Charleston, effectually closing the 
 channels. 
 
 The latest use of booms was by the Paraguayans, 
 in their war of 1864-68 with Brazil. 
 
 Booms will not answer alone to obstruct a 
 harbor, but combined with torpedoes, batteries, 
 and sunken obstructions, they will always be 
 found useful for the purpose. F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 FIRE-SURFACE. The surface of a steam-boiler 
 which is exposed to the fire or furnace heat. 
 
 FIRE-TUB. A tub, provided with a wire 
 grating, placed at the foot of a canvas shute, 
 by which empty powder-boxes are returned from 
 the deck above. 
 
 FIRE-WORKS. The rockets, blue-lights, false 
 fires, and chemical signals used on board ships. 
 They are packed in light boxes, and placed under 
 the eye of a sentry, away from the magazine. 
 
 FIRING-KEY. That key of an electric machine 
 or battery which, upon being pressed, closes the 
 circuit, and fires the gun or torpedo connected 
 with it. 
 
 FIRING-LEVER, FIRING-PIN, FIRING-BOLT. 
 The assemblage of levers, etc., by which the 
 charge of a towing torpedo is fired. 
 
 Fires. In mechanics, the masses or beds of 
 burning fuel in furnaces. 
 
 FIRES, BANK. To collect fires into small heaps 
 or "banks," covering them heavily with fresh 
 coal, and leaving a large portion of the grates 
 bare, so that the draft may not pass through 
 the incandescent fuel ; the object being to sup 
 press combustion, and the consequent formation 
 of steam when no longer required for immediate 
 use, and, at the same time, to preserve a desired 
 pressure and temperature of steam, and retain 
 sufficient fire to readily ignite the fuel required 
 for a full or "spread" fire. The best place to 
 form a bank is near the mouth of the furnace, 
 and a few inches clear of the dead-plate, and it 
 should be as compact as possible. 
 
 FIRES, HAUL. To entirely withdraw the fires 
 from the furnaces, either while they are burning 
 briskly or nearly extinguished. This operation 
 is performed whenever a boiler becomes useless 
 or dangerous from excessive leakage or from 
 overheating caused by scant water-supply, or 
 when it is known that steam will not be required 
 for a definite period of time, and it is desirable 
 that the boiler be cooled, cleaned, or repaired 
 expeditiously. 
 
 FIRES, SPREAD. To open or spread banked 
 fires over the whole surface of the grates, and, 
 at the same time, to supply them with the requi 
 site quantity of fuel for forming steam. 
 
 FIRES, START. In steam-enginery, to kindle 
 new fires in the furnaces of a steam-boiler for 
 the purpose of raising steam when the machin 
 ery has not been in use for a period of time. 
 The principal preparations required are, that the 
 man-hole, hand-hole, and other "joints" are 
 properly made; that the boiler is filled with 
 water to the proper level ; that the mouth or 
 front of the furnace is supplied with kindling- 
 wood and other inflammable material ; and that 
 the grates, on parts not occupied by kindling- 
 stuff, be thinly covered with coal so as to check 
 
 the draft through them at the back ends of 
 the furnaces and direct it upon the fire in front. 
 In vessels of war these preparations are usually 
 completed before the order to start fires is given. 
 
 FIRING. The act of kindling or maintaining 
 fires. 
 
 FIRING TOOLS. Tools or implements for 
 managing fires. They consist of large steel 
 "scoop-shovels" for handling coal and ashes; 
 "slice-bars," which are stout bars of round 
 iron flattened and pointed at one end and formed 
 into an eye-handle at the other, and having suf 
 ficient length to reach the back end of a furnace, 
 leaving two or three feet to project outside, 
 used to pass under the fires close to the grates 
 for the purpose of detaching clinkers or break 
 ing up caking coal; "pickers," which are bars 
 or rods having the same length as slice-bars, 
 though of lighter material, and having the fire end 
 bent at right angles and flattened so as to pass 
 between the grate bars from underneath, used 
 for removing ashes and stirring fires without 
 opening furnace doors; "devil-claws," bars or 
 rods having three bent prongs at their ends, used 
 for withdrawing clinkers from a fire; and" hoes," 
 the fire ends of which are provided with flat 
 " blades" or plates of iron fixed at right angles 
 to the bar, used in banking or hauling fires. The 
 above-mentioned tools, except shovels, are some 
 times called " fire-irons," and, like the slice-bar, 
 are provided with handles, and have sufficient 
 length to reach the back of a furnace and project 
 a proper distance outside, so that the fireman may 
 not be compelled to approach the fires too closely. 
 
 First Lieutenant. The executive-officer 
 (which see). An officer of marines ranking 
 with a master in the navy. 
 
 First Mate, or First Officer. The officer of a 
 merchant ship next in rank to the master. 
 
 First, or Prime Meridian. See MERIDIAN. 
 
 First Point of Aries. The vernal equinoctial 
 point. See ARIES. 
 
 First Point of Cancer. The summer solstitial 
 point. See CANCER. 
 
 First Point of Capricorn. The winter sol 
 stitial point. See CAPRICORN. 
 
 First Point of Libra. The autumnal equi 
 noctial point. See LIBRA. 
 
 First-rate. A ship of the first-rate is one of 
 the highest grade. In our navy it comprises all 
 steamers of 4000 tons or more, and ironclad 
 steamers of 3000 tons or more. 
 
 First Watch. The watch, or period of time 
 from 8 to 12 P.M. The portion of the crew on 
 duty at that time. 
 
 Firth. See FRITH. 
 
 Fish. To angle for fish ; hence, to take any 
 thing out of the water. To hoist the fluke of 
 the anchor up to the bill.board. To secure a 
 spar with a fish. To search for a star. A ver 
 tebrate animal breathing through gills and liv 
 ing in the water; the name is also applied to 
 mammals, as whales, etc. Fish are divided by 
 naturalists into six families, most of which are 
 marine. A purchase used to raise the fluke of 
 the anchor up to the bill-board. A piece of 
 wood or iron used to strengthen a damaged spar. 
 Fish is used as an epithet ; as, queer fish, odd 
 fish, etc. Fresh fish, greenhorns. As mute as a 
 fish, as dry as a fish, expressions used to denote 
 perfect silence, extreme thirst. Fish! Fish! 
 The cry of a whaler when a whale is sighted. 
 
FISH 
 
 282 
 
 FLAG 
 
 FISH-BACK. A line from the back of the fish 
 hook, to assist in hooking it to the arm of the 
 anchor. 
 
 FISH-BOOM. A boom or spar by the aid of 
 which the anchor is fished. It usually has one 
 end connected to an eye on the foremast by a 
 goose-neck, and the tackle connected to the 
 other end, a double block hooking to it, and the 
 fall leading up through a sheave in the boom, a 
 block on the foremast, and then on deck. Some 
 times a pennant is used, leading through the 
 sheave on the boom. A topping-lift elevates the 
 boom, and it is moved by small guys on either 
 side. When not in use the boom is lowered into 
 an iron crutch on the forecastle. 
 
 FISH-DAVIT. See DAVITS. 
 
 FISHER-FISH. A species of Remora, said to 
 be trained by the Chinese to catch tifrtle. When 
 a turtle is perceived basking on the surface of 
 the sea, the men, avoiding all noise, slip one of 
 their remoras overboard, tied to a long and fine 
 cord. As soon as the fish perceives the floating 
 reptile he swims towards it, and fixes himself on 
 it so firmly that the fishermen easily pull in both 
 together. 
 
 FISHERMAN S BEND. A knot, for simplicity 
 called the king of all knots. Its main use is for 
 bending studding-halliards to the yard, by taking 
 two turns round the yard, passing the end be 
 tween them and the yard, and half hitching it 
 round the standing part. 
 
 FISHERMAN S WALK. The short walk afforded 
 by the deck of a fishing-boat, "three steps and 
 overboard." 
 
 FISH-FAG. A fish-woman. A female fish- 
 porter. 
 
 FISH-FALL. The rope forming the purchase 
 known as the fish. 
 
 FISH-FLAKE. A stage on which fish are dried. 
 
 FISH-FRONT. A strengthening slab on the 
 front of a made mast. 
 
 FISH-GARTH. A fish-weir on a river-bank. 
 
 FISH-GIG. A spear with several barbed prongs 
 for spearing fish. 
 
 FISH-HACK. The fish Gobius niger. 
 
 FISH-HOOK. A hook used in angling. A 
 large iron hook attached to the fish-pendant, or 
 to the lower block of the fish-purchase, used to 
 hook the arm of the anchor so as to fish it. 
 
 FISHING-BOAT. A small boat used for fishing. 
 
 FISHING-FROG. The devil-fish or angler (Lo- 
 phius piscatorius). 
 
 FISHING-GROUND. A bank or shore frequented 
 by fishermen. 
 
 FISHING-SMACK. A fishing-vessel having a 
 well in the hold to preserve fish alive. 
 
 FISHING-TACKLE. Lines, hooks, rods, nets, 
 etc., for catching fish. 
 
 FISHING-VESSELS. . All vessels employed in 
 fishing. 
 
 FISH-PENDANT. A large rope attached to the 
 lower block of the fish-purchase and leading 
 through a sheave in the fish-boom, having the 
 fish-hook at its lower end. 
 
 FISH-PURCHASE. See FISH-TACKLE. 
 
 FISH-ROOM. A room in old men-of-war, be 
 tween the after hold and the spirit-room, where 
 fish, and sometimes spirits, were kept. 
 
 FISH-SPEAR. A short spear used in fishing. 
 
 FISH-TACKLE. The assemblage of rope, blocks, 
 and hook by which the anchor is fished. 
 
 FISH-TAIL PROPELLER. A propeller consist 
 
 ing of a blade hung on pivots, the axes of which 
 are not coincident with the centre of pressure of 
 the blade, attached to the end of a lever oscil 
 lating in a plane parallel to the direction of the 
 vessel. The automatic oscillatory motion of the 
 blade itself is constrained to a desired angle by 
 stops, and it is so arranged that its action can be 
 reversed. The device has never met with prac 
 tical success. 
 
 FISH-TORPEDO. A self-impelling torpedo. 
 See TORPEDOES. 
 
 FISH-WIFE, or FISH-WOMAN. A woman who 
 deals in fish. A female fish-seller. 
 
 Fist. To lay hold of; to seize. Hand over 
 fist, rapidly. 
 
 Fistularia. A genus of acanthopterygious 
 fishes characterized by having the head pro 
 longed into a slender tube, with the mouth at 
 the extremity, named by Linnaeus. 
 
 Fit. To adapt to any purpose. To fit the 
 rigging, to worm, parcel, and serve it, turn in 
 dead-eyes, in short, to prepare it for use at sea. 
 To fit out, to supply with necessaries. 
 
 FIT-ROD. A small iron rod with a hook at 
 one end, used to sound the holes for bolts in a 
 ship s side. 
 
 FITTED FURNITURE. Spare articles, such as 
 bucklers, chocks, port-lids, etc., furnished to a 
 ship. 
 
 Fiume. A seaport town of Austro-Hungary, 
 and the only important seaport for the outlet of 
 the produce of Hungary, situated on the small 
 river Fiumara, where it falls into the Gulf of 
 Quarnero, at the N.E. extremity of the Adriatic. 
 Lat. 45 19 36" N. ; Ion. 14 26 45" E. The 
 harbor is indifferent, and admits only small 
 vessels, but the roadstead has depth of water for 
 vessels of any size and is well sheltered. Pop. 
 13,500. 
 
 Five-fingers. A name of the star-fish (As- 
 terias). 
 
 Five-share-men. Men who enlist on shares 
 of one-fifth in whalers. 
 
 Fixed-ammunition. See AMMUNITION. 
 
 Fixed-blocks. An old name for the chess-trees. 
 
 Fixed Stars. See STARS. 
 
 Flabbergast. To astonish by extraordinary 
 statements. 
 
 Flag. The national colors or standard. An 
 ciently a standard consisted of an object fixed to 
 the end of a pole and borne like the modern 
 flag, but, unlike it, not intended to wave or 
 flutter with the wind. The Egyptians used 
 an animal, the earlier Greeks a piece of armor, 
 Romulus a bundle of hay, his descendants a 
 hand, and the later Romans the eagle. The Cru 
 sades made the cross a favorite standard with 
 the nations of Europe. Napoleon adopted the 
 eagle of the Romans, and Austria and Russia 
 the double-headed eagle, which had originated 
 with the emperors of the East to symbolize their 
 claim to rule both the eastern and western empires. 
 
 The national flag of the United States assumed 
 the form which it now has after many experi 
 ments and as the result of much thought and dis 
 cussion. The flags used by the colonies before 
 their separation from the mother-country would 
 naturally be those of England. This, however, 
 does not appear to have been strictly the case, 
 several flags, differing more or less from those of 
 that kingdom, having been adopted at different 
 times previous to the Revolution. 
 
FLAG 
 
 283 
 
 FLAG 
 
 The ancient national flag of England was the 
 banner of St. George (a white field with a red 
 cross). 
 
 The cross of St. George, as early as the 14th 
 century, had been a badge almost universally 
 worn by the English soldiery. It was worn over 
 the armor, and was afterwards adopted as the 
 national standard. This formed the national 
 colors of England till 1606, when, by royal proc 
 lamation, the cross of St. Andrew (a white cross 
 on a blue field), which had been the badge of 
 the Scots as early as the Crusades, was united 
 with it. This standard was called the " King s 
 Colors," and was required to be displayed from 
 the maintop of British vessels ; those from South 
 Britain to carry the St. George s cross, and those 
 from North Britain the St. Andrew s cross, from 
 the foretop. As the "King s Colors" were pre 
 scribed authoritatively for "subjects traveling 
 by sea" only, it is probable that the St. George s 
 cross-flag continued to be used quite generally by 
 the English subjects of Great Britain. 
 
 It appears to have been in use in Massachu 
 setts, from the following curious circumstance: 
 It seems from the early records that, in 1635, 
 complaint was entered " that the ensign at Salem 
 was defaced; viz., one part of the red cross was 
 taken out." On an examination of the case be 
 fore the General Court, it was shown that the 
 mutilation was done, not from disloyalty to the 
 flag, but " upon this opinion : That the red cross 
 was given to the King of England by the Pope, 
 as an ensign of victory, and so a superstitious 
 thing, and "a relic of Antichrist." The account 
 continues: " Because the Court could not agree 
 about the thing, whether the ensigns should be 
 laid by in regard that many refused to follow 
 them, the whole case was referred to the next 
 General Court ; and the commissioners for mili 
 tary affairs gave orders, in the mean time, that 
 all ensigns should be laid aside." 
 
 During the interim, a new flag, having for an 
 emblem the red and white roses in place of the 
 cross, was proposed ; and letters in relation to 
 the matter were written to England for the pur 
 pose of obtaining " the judgment of the most 
 wise and godly there." 
 
 This project seems to have been relinquished ; 
 for in December, 1635, the military commissioners 
 "appointed colors for every company, leaving 
 out the cross in all of them, and appointing the 
 King s Arms to be put into that of Castle Island 
 (Boston.)" 
 
 The next year, however, a difficulty arose be 
 tween the authorities and the masters of some 
 English ships, in consequence of the " King s 
 Colors" not being displayed from the fort on 
 Castle Island ; and " the Governor, with the 
 consent of Mr. Dudley, gave warrant to Lieut. 
 Morris to spread the King s Colors at Castle 
 Island when the ships passed by, yet with this 
 protestation : That we hold the cross in the en 
 sign idolatrous ; but, this being the King s fort, 
 the Governor and some others were of opinion 
 that his own colors might be spread upon it." 
 There being no " King s Colors" to be found to 
 display at the fort, they were presented by Capt. 
 Palmer, of one of the ships, "and the Governor 
 in requital sent him three beaver-skins." 
 
 This flag was used only at the castle, being 
 excluded by religious opinion from general use. 
 The one containing the king s arms continued to 
 
 be used till after the establishment of the repub 
 lic in England. The Parliament had adopted, 
 as the colors of England, the old standard of the 
 cross of St. George ; and in 1651, the General 
 Court of Massachusetts ordered that, "as the 
 Court conceives the old English colors now used 
 by the Parliament of England to be a necessary 
 badge of distinction betwixt the English and 
 other nations in all places of the world till the 
 State of England shall alter the same, which we 
 must desire, we, being of the same nation, have 
 therefore ordered that the captain of the Castle 
 shall presently advance the aforesaid colors of 
 England upon the Castle upon all necessary oc 
 casions." 
 
 The St. George s cross-flag appears to have 
 been used in the colonies, but frequently with 
 some variations, during the next half-century, 
 or until the " Union Flag" was prescribed by 
 Parliament, in 1707. A crimson flag, of which 
 the Union was a St. George s cross on a white 
 field, was one most frequently used. Sometimes 
 a pine-tree was represented in one of the squares 
 formed by the cross. Another flag, represented 
 in a work of the time and called " the flag of the 
 New England Colonies," had a dark-blue field 
 with the cross on a white field in the corner ; 
 while, in place of the pine-tree, a half-globe was 
 represented. 
 
 These various departures from the English 
 flag, assuming standards of their own, indicate a 
 growing feeling of independence among the col 
 onies ; while the absence of a desire for a separa 
 tion from the mother-country is evident in the 
 acknowledgment of allegiance implied by repre 
 senting on them the colors of England ; or, when 
 from tenderness of conscience these were left out, 
 the arms of the king. By act of Parliament, 
 January 16, 1707, ratifying the treaty of the 
 union of the two kingdoms of England and Scot 
 land, it was ordained " that the ensign armorial 
 of our Kingdom of Great Britain" should be 
 " the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew con 
 joined" (the same as heretofore described as the 
 " King s Colors"); to be " used in all flags, ban 
 ners, standards, and ensigns, both at sea and 
 land," and " the ensign described on the margent 
 hereof (the crosses conjoined in the corner of a 
 crimson banner) to be worn on board of all ships 
 or vessels belonging to any of our subjects what 
 soever." These flags were known familiarly as 
 " Union Flags," typifying the union of England 
 and Scotland, and were generally used by the 
 colonies till their rupture with the mother- 
 country. 
 
 The necessity for union which then existed 
 among the different colonies led to the adoption 
 of badges and flags ; and we find this sentiment 
 plainly represented in many of them. 
 
 A committee of conference, consisting of Dr. 
 Franklin, Mr. Lynch, and Mr. Harrison, was 
 appointed by the Continental Congress to con 
 sider the subject of a proper flag. It assembled 
 at the American camp at Cambridge, and on 
 the first day of January, 1776, in honor of the 
 organization of the new army, was first displayed 
 the flag of the United Colonies. It was com 
 posed of seven red and six white stripes, with 
 the red and white crosses of St. George and St. 
 Andrew conjoined, on a blue field in the corner, 
 denoting the union of the colonies, while ac 
 knowledging their continued allegiance to Great 
 
FLAG 
 
 284 
 
 FLAG 
 
 Britain, and was named " The Great Union 
 Flag." 
 
 This was the basis of our present national 
 colors. 
 
 In the mean time, various flags had been 
 adopted by different colonies or bodies of troops 
 assembled to resist the aggressions of the mother- 
 country. For the Connecticut troops in 1775, 
 was prescribed " one standard for each regiment, 
 to be distinguished by their color ; for the seventh, 
 blue; for the eighth, orange, etc." Upon these 
 standards were represented the colony arms, with 
 the motto, " Qui transtulit sustinet" ("He who 
 transplanted us will sustain us"), round it in 
 letters of gold. The flag displayed by Gen. Put 
 nam on Prospect Hill, July 18, 1775, is described 
 as a red flag bearing the motto of Connecticut, 
 " Qui transtulit sustinet," on one side, and on 
 the other " An appeal to Heaven." The flag 
 of the floating-batteries had "a white ground, a 
 tree in the middle, and the motto, Appeal to 
 Heaven. " Trumbull, in his celebrated picture 
 of the battle of Bunker s Hill, has represented 
 our troops as displaying a flag combining the two 
 last mentioned, a red flag with the pine-tree on 
 a white field in the corner, and such a flag was 
 probably used in that battle. 
 
 The first American flag displayed in South 
 Carolina was at the taking of Fort Johnson by 
 Col. Moultrie, September 13, 1775, described as 
 a large blue flag with a crescent in one corner. 
 
 In many of the camps red flags were used. 
 
 But these various banners were all supplanted 
 by the " Great Union Flag." 
 
 For use in their infant navy, other flags were 
 also appointed. On February 9, 1776, Col. Gads- 
 den presented to Congress a standard to be used 
 by the American navy, representing, in a yellow 
 field, a rattlesnake of thirteen rattles, coiled to 
 strike, and the motto, " Don t tread on me." 
 
 The device of a rattlesnake was a favorite one 
 with the colonists at this period, and was fre 
 quently adopted as a heading by many of the 
 newspapers of the day ; being represented divided 
 into thirteen parts, with the initial of one of the 
 colonies in each part, and accompanied by the 
 motto, "Join or die." 
 
 The Massachusetts Provincial Congress adopted 
 a flag to be used by the cruisers of the colony of 
 Massachusetts, a white flag with a green pine- 
 tree, and the inscription, "Appeal to Heaven" ; 
 being the same flag as that used on the floating- 
 batteries and before described. The " Great 
 Union Flag," without the crosses, and sometimes 
 with a representation of a rattlesnake, and the 
 motto " Don t tread on me," was also used as a 
 naval flag, and denominated " the Continental 
 Flag." 
 
 During the war of the Revolution, flags with 
 significant and appropriate devices were occa 
 sionally adopted and borne by some of the corps ; 
 many of which, by the valor of the corps to 
 which they belonged, have become historic. 
 Such was the flag of the " Culpepper Minute- 
 Men," who assembled in obedience to the call 
 of Patrick Henry, upon which was represented a 
 rattlesnake and the mottoes "Don t tread on 
 me," " Liberty or Death," and the name of the 
 corps, " Culpepper Minute-Men." Such, also, 
 was the flag of the " Morgan Rifles," which 
 bore upon its field the date " 1776," surrounded 
 by a wreath of laurel, the inscription " XI. Vir 
 
 ginia Regiment," and the words " Morgan Rifle 
 Corps." And the Pulaski banner, prepared by 
 the nuns of Bethlehem, and sent to Count Pulaski 
 " with their blessing," while he was organizing 
 a corps of cavalry in Baltimore ; this was of 
 crimson silk, emblazoned with emblems wrought 
 with the needle by their own 1 hands. The Life- 
 Guard of Washington bore a banner of white 
 silk, with devices, and the/ motto of the corps, 
 u Conquer or die," painted upon the field. 
 
 The "Great Union Flag," however, which 
 was first unfurled on the 1st of January, 1776, 
 over the new Continental army at Cambridge, 
 consisting of but 9659 men, was used as the ban 
 ner par excellence of the United Colonies. 
 
 A standard for the United States was not 
 adopted till some months after the Declaration 
 of Independence. Congress, on the 14th of June, 
 1777, passed the following resolution, which, 
 however, was not made public till Septembers 
 of the same year : " Resolved, that the flag of 
 the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, 
 alternate red and white, that the union be thir 
 teen stars, white in a blue field, representing a 
 new constellation." 
 
 The new constellation which it was intended 
 should be represented is supposed to be Lyra, 
 which in ancient times was the symbol of har 
 mony and unity among men. The difficulty of 
 representing a constellation on a standard prob 
 ably led to a modification of the plan, and a circle 
 of thirteen stars was chosen, signifying union 
 and eternal endurance. Red is an emblem of 
 courage and fortitude ; white, purity ; and blue, 
 constancy, love, and faith. 
 
 This flag was used at the surrender of Bur- 
 goyne, October 17, 1777. 
 
 The first change in this flag was in 1794, when 
 it was enacted by Congress in the following reso 
 lution : " That from and after the first day of 
 May, Anrio Domini one thousand seven hundred 
 and ninety-five, the flag of the United States be 
 fifteen stripes, alternate red and white. That the 
 union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." 
 Approved January 13, 1794. 
 
 The next change was in 1818, the resolution 
 of Congress being as follows : " That, from and 
 after the fourth day of July next, the flag of the 
 United States be thirteen horizontal stripes, al 
 ternate red and white ; that the union be twenty 
 stars, white on a blue field ; and that, on the ad 
 mission of a new State into the union, one star 
 be added to the union of the flag ; and that such 
 addition shall take effect on the fourth day of 
 July next succeeding such admission." Approved 
 April 4, 1818. 
 
 Flags are also used as distinguishing marks of 
 the flag-ships of admirals, vice- and rear-ad 
 mirals ; they are of blue bunting, are worn at 
 the main, fore, or mizzen, and contain four, 
 three, or two stars, according to the grade of the 
 officer. When two or more flag-officers of the 
 same grade are in company, the senior flies the 
 blue, the next in rank the red, and the others the 
 white flag. The distinctive flag of the Secretary 
 of the Navy is worn at the main of the vessel in 
 which he is embarked. When the President is 
 on board a man-of-war, the fact is denoted by the 
 hoisting of the national colors at the main. 
 
 Flags are also used for signaling. (See SIG 
 NALS.) Those which are hoisted at the yard-arms 
 or mast-heads are made of some light rough 
 
FLAKE 
 
 285 
 
 FLEAK 
 
 material, as bunting, that a very light breeze 
 may cause them to blow out ; those which are 
 made use of in signaling by hand are made of 
 some light smooth material, which offers little 
 resistance to the passage of the flag through the 
 air. A black flag is usually adopted by pirates; 
 a white flag is shown as a token of surrender or 
 as a flag of truce (which see) ; a red flag is hoisted 
 when powder is being received or discharged, and 
 it is also shown as a defiance ; a yellow flag is 
 hoisted at the fore when there is any infectious 
 disease on board, being used by all civilized 
 nations as a quarantine flag. To hang out the 
 white flag, to call for quarter, or to indicate 
 friendly intentions. To hang out a red flag, to 
 give a signal of defiance. To lower or strike the 
 flag, to haul it down as a token of submission. 
 To flag, to send a signal-message by means of a 
 hand-flag. 
 
 FLAG-CAPTAIN. The commanding officer of a 
 flag-ship. 
 
 FLAG-LIEUTENANT. A term for an aid to the 
 commander-in-chief. 
 
 FLAGMAN. A man who handles a hand-flag 
 in signaling. 
 
 FLAG-OFFICER. An admiral, vice-admiral, 
 rear-admiral, or commodore. 
 
 FLAG OF TRUCE. A white flag which is shown 
 to denote a desire to communicate with the 
 enemy. A flag of truce is, in its nature, of a 
 sacred character ; and the use of it to obtain 
 knowledge or information surreptitiously against 
 the interests or wishes of an enemy is to abuse it, 
 and will subject the bearer to punishment as a 
 spy. The senior officer present is alone author 
 ized to dispatch or to admit communication by a 
 flag of truce. Flags of truce should never be 
 permitted to approach sufficiently near to acquire 
 useful information. The firing of a gun is gen 
 erally understood as a warning not to approach 
 nearer. On the water, a flag of truce should be 
 met at a suitable distance by a boat from the 
 senior officer s vessel, in charge of a commis 
 sioned officer, having a white flag plainly dis 
 played from the time of leaving until her return. 
 In dispatching a flag of truce the same precau 
 tions are to be observed. When a flag of truce 
 is admitted, the ensign is always to be hoisted 
 and a white flag at the fore on board the vessel 
 of the senior officer present when no engagement 
 is in progress, and kept flying until the flag of 
 truce from the enemy has returned within his 
 lines. A flag of truce cannot insist on being ad 
 mitted, and should rarely be used during an en 
 gagement ; if then admitted, there is no breach 
 of faith in retaining it. Firing is not necessarily 
 to cease on the appearance of a flag of truce 
 during an engagement, and should any person 
 connected with it be killed, no complaint can be 
 made. If, however, the white flag should be ex 
 hibited as a token of submission, firing is to 
 cease. See TRUCE. 
 
 FLAG-SHARE. The commander-in-chief s share 
 of the prize-money awarded to all vessels making 
 captures within the limits of his command. 
 
 FLAG-SHIP. A vessel flying the distinctive 
 flag of an admiral or the broad-pennant of a 
 commodore. 
 
 Flake. A swinging stage hung over the stern. 
 
 Flam. A puff of wind. A shallow spot. 
 
 Flam-few. The glimmer of the moon on the 
 water. 
 
 Flan. A sudden flaw of wind from the land. 
 
 Flanche. To belly out ; to flare. 
 
 Flange. In mechanism, projecting parts by 
 which one portion of a machine or structure 
 is bolted or riveted to another ; as, flanges of 
 pipes, columns, cylinder-heads, boiler-plates, etc. 
 Flanges may project either externally or inter 
 nally. 
 
 A projecting rim of a wheel, as applied to rail 
 way locomotive or car-wheels to constrain them 
 to the track. 
 
 Flap. The cover of a cartridge-box. The 
 violent motion of a sail, caused by the wind 
 or the rolling of the vessel. 
 
 Flare. The skate, Raia batis. To project 
 beyond the perpendicular ; opposed to tumble 
 home. 
 
 Flash. In timber, the marks of the grain. 
 A river opening into a bay, separated from the 
 sea by a reef of rock. A canal at the side of 
 a river, arranged so as to pour its waters into it, 
 and thus shoot boats over falls. To burn loose 
 powder, producing flame but no noise. Flash 
 in the pan, to miss fire ; to fail ; an unsuccessful 
 attempt. To make a flash, to shoot a boat over 
 rapids by a flash. 
 
 FLASHING LIGHT. See LIGHTS. 
 
 FLASHING SIGNALS. See SIGNALS. 
 
 FLASH-RIM. A cup-shaped enlargement of 
 the bore of carronades, facilitating loading, and 
 preserving the rigging from flame. 
 
 FLASH^SHIP. A ship all paint outside and 
 disorder within ; a showy but not efficient vessel. 
 
 Flask. A horn, leather, or metal implement, 
 for holding powder. Priming-flasks are sup 
 plied to prime guns for salutes in the navy. A 
 box to contain a mold for castings. 
 
 Flat. Horizontal; level. A straight part in 
 a curve. A bank over which the tide flows ; if 
 of less than 3 fathoms it is called a shoal, shal 
 low, or bar. A flat-bottomed lighter. The posi 
 tion of a sail when the yard is sharp up, the 
 sheets close home, and the halliards taut up, or, 
 in othe n words, when it lies as nearly as possible 
 in the direction of the keel. A sheet is flat aft 
 when it is hauled as much as possible in the 
 direction of the keel, applied to fore-and-aft 
 sails. Flat aback, see ABACK. 
 
 FLAT-BOTTOMED. Having little rise in floor 
 timbers; flat-floored. 
 
 FLAT-CALM. See DEAD-CALM. 
 
 FLAT-FISH. Sole, turbot, etc., which swim, 
 on one side, and have the eye in the upper side. 
 
 FLAT-FLOORED. Having the bottom timbers 
 lying nearly in a plane perpendicular to the 
 plane of the keel. 
 
 FLAT NAILS. Sharp flat-headed nails used in 
 the mold-loft. 
 
 FLAT-SEAM. When two edges of canvas are 
 overlapped, and thus sewed together, it is called 
 a flat-seam. 
 
 FLAT SEIZING. A seizing with no riding 
 turns. 
 
 FLAT SENNIT. See SENNIT. 
 
 FLATTEN-IN. To haul the sail as nearly fore 
 and aft as may be to produce only its lateral 
 effect. Head-sails are flattened-in to pay the 
 ship s bow off, or turn it from the wind. 
 
 Flaut. See FLUTE. 
 
 Flaw. A defect in wood, metal, etc. A puff 
 of wind. 
 
 Fleak. See DUTCH PLAICE. 
 
FLEATE 
 
 286 
 
 FLOAT 
 
 Fleate. To skim fresh water off the sea near 
 the mouths of rivers. 
 
 Flechera. A fast dispatch-boat used in South 
 American waters. 
 
 Fleech. A slab-cut of timber. 
 Fleet. To pass over quickly ; to skim over 
 the water. To shift from one place to another. 
 To pull the blocks of a tackle farther apart. 
 " Fleet ho!" " Let go and shift I" said when the 
 blocks come together, rendering it necessary to 
 pull them apart. To shift the turns of a rope 
 farther down on the capstan. Fleet the messenger, 
 to shift the eyes past the capstan. An arm of 
 the sea where the tide flows. A bay where 
 vessels can anchor. A shallow tidal creek. The 
 whole naval force of a country. A collection of 
 ships, either war or merchant. A fleet is divided 
 into divisions and squadrons, the centre being 
 under the commander-in-chief, and the van and 
 rear under subordinates. The admiral, vice- and 
 rear-admiral occupy these posts when at sea. 
 A small fleet is called a flotilla, and the same 
 name designates a large fleet of small vessels 
 or boats. Fleets of great size were early used. 
 The Persians first assembled great numbers of 
 ships, and the Carthaginians and Romans counted 
 them by hundreds. The Danes and Normans, 
 in their early incursions, had from 200 to 600 
 vessels, and William the Conqueror came to 
 England with 1000 vessels. In the early naval 
 history of England from 200 to 500 ships sailed 
 together, and they collected more than 1000 
 vessels during the early wars with France; 
 on several occasions Louis IX. of France had 
 1700 vessels, on his expedition to the Holy 
 Land. The Great Armada consisted of only 
 150 vessels, varying from 300 to 1200 tons. Dur 
 ing the Dutch and English naval wars, and 
 the French and English wars, fleets of nearly a 
 hundred ships of the line, and sometimes more, 
 were common. With a great increase in the 
 size and cost of ships, and greater individual 
 power of each, large fleets will be the exception 
 in the future. A designation of the divisions of 
 the cruising navy of the United States, as the 
 European Fleet, the North Atlantic Fleet, the 
 Pacific Fleet, and the Asiatic Fleet. Squadron is 
 also here employed. 
 
 FLEET-CAPTAIN. The senior aid of the 
 admiral of a fleet, when a captain. See CHIEF- 
 OF-STAFF. 
 
 FLEET-GIG. The gig of the fleet-captain. 
 
 FLEET-PAYMASTER, -SURGEON, -ENGINEER, 
 and MARINE OFFICER. The ranking officers 
 of those corps attached to the staff. 
 
 FLEET-TACTICS. See NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 FLEET-WATER (Eng.}. Water that overflows 
 the land. 
 
 Flemish. To coil down a rope in concentric 
 coils, closely pressed together. See FAKE. 
 
 Flemish Accounts. Short or deficient ac 
 counts. 
 
 Flemish Eye. See EYE, FLEMISH. 
 
 Flemish Fake. A fake or coil of rope in 
 which the separate turns are concentric, and lie 
 flat on the deck, without riding over each other. 
 
 Flemish Horse. The outer or short foot-rope 
 of a yard. It is spliced around a thimble at the 
 yard-arm, and has the other end seized to the 
 yard some distance inside. 
 
 Flench-gut. Long slices of whale s blubber. 
 
 Flense. To strip off the blubber of a whale. 
 
 Flesh. To flesh a, sword, to use it in action 
 the first time. 
 
 Flesh-traffic. The slave-trade. 
 
 Flibot. See FLY-BOAT. 
 
 Flibustier (Fr.). See FILIBUSTER. 
 
 Flicker. To veer about ; as the wind. 
 
 Flidder. The limpet (Ancylus}. 
 
 Flighers. An old law-term for masts. 
 
 Flight. A Dutch canal-boat for passengers. 
 A sudden rise in the lines of a ship. The pas 
 sage of a projectile through the air. 
 
 Flinch. See FLENSE. 
 
 FLINCH-GUT. See FLENCH-GUT. 
 
 Flinders. Splinters of wood. 
 
 Flint. Stone to strike fire with, provided to 
 boats and for the galley. Matches are forbidden 
 on board ship. 
 
 Flip. A drink composed of beer, spirits, and 
 sugar. 
 
 Flipper. A fin ; the hand. 
 
 Flitch. The outside cut of a tree or log. 
 
 Flittering. Old English for floating. 
 
 Flizzing. Flight of a splinter through the 
 air, from the Dutch flissen, to fly. 
 
 Float. A place or basin where vessels float. 
 Inner part of a ship-channel. In wet-docks, the 
 basin where the water is maintained at one level 
 by locks. A raft of timber, boxes, or barrels. 
 A camel or floating-stage. The paddle of a 
 paddle-wheel. Any buoyant body used to con 
 strain another body in a constant relative posi 
 tion to the surface of a liquid. To swim on the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 FLOATAGE. Same as flotsam (which see). 
 
 FLOAT-BOARDS. The boards fastened radially 
 on the rim of a paddle-wheel. 
 
 FLOATING ANCHOR. A sea-anchor. 
 
 FLOATING BATTERY. A vessel constructed to 
 float in smooth water, carrying a heavy battery, 
 and strongly protected by plating. A vessel 
 used as a battery to support the landing of troops. 
 The first use of a floating battery is traced far 
 back into antiquity, when two or more galleys 
 were united, with catapults, battering-rams, etc., 
 on their decks, to attack towns. The Knights 
 of St. John, at Malta, first protected a battery 
 with metal, using lead, in 1530. In modern 
 times, the floating batteries used at Gibraltar 
 in 1779-83 are first met with. These were ten 
 in number, and were protected with timber, junk, 
 and hides. In 1855 the French constructed float 
 ing batteries at Kinburn, in the Crimea, and these 
 were effective, and some still remain in use. 
 Four of them are of 280 tons and carry two 5.1- 
 inch guns, and one is of 140 tons, carrying two 
 6-inch guns. Spain has two, the " Duque de 
 Tetuan" and the " Puigcerda." Many modern 
 armored vessels are simply floating batteries with 
 motive-power. 
 
 FLOATING BETHEL. An old ship fitted up as 
 a chapel. 
 
 FLOATING BREAKWATER. A system of an 
 chored cribs, serving to break the force of waves. 
 
 FLOATING BRIDGE. A bridge of boats. A 
 ferry-boat, running on chains laid in a narrow 
 channel. 
 
 FLOATING COFFIN. A name for a vessel which 
 is considered unseaworthy, particularly applied 
 to our monitors and old brigs, the old English 
 10-gun brigs, and to the very long passenger 
 steamers engaged in the transatlantic trade. 
 FLOATING DAM. The caisson of a dry-dock. 
 
FLOE 
 
 287 
 
 FLUX 
 
 FLOATING DERRICK. The application of the 
 Bishop s derrick to a large scow of such a ca 
 pacity as to handle the heaviest weights, such 
 as the boiler of a steamship, and which is also 
 fitted with a sufficient steam-power, in order 
 that the scow and weight appended can be trans 
 ported from one place to another in a harbor. It 
 is useful also in many other ways. 
 
 FLOATING DOCK. A dock built for the re 
 pairs of ships, which is floating instead of being 
 formed by excavations. There are several kinds 
 of floating docks, known as the sectional, bal 
 ance, and hydraulic docks. 
 
 FLOATING LIGHT. A vessel moored off a 
 shoal or rocks with a light at its mast-head. 
 There are 25 light-ships on the coast of the 
 United States, with 35 lights. A light erected 
 on a buoy or floating-stage. Buoy-lights are 
 now furnished with gas-tanks in the buoys, in 
 some instances. 
 
 FLOATING PIER. A stage or camel floating 
 on the water, rising and falling with the tide. 
 
 FLOAT-VALVE. A valve connected with a 
 float so that it may be automatically opened, 
 closed, or regulated according to a varying sur 
 face of a liquid. 
 
 Floe. A detached portion of an ice-field. See 
 CALF. 
 
 Flog. To punish by striking with the cat- 
 o nine-tails. This punishment is now forbidden 
 in our service, though quite common in some 
 others, particularly the Russian. To flog the 
 glass, to agitate and so hasten the flow of sand 
 through it; sometimes practiced in early days by 
 the midshipmen eager for their watch to be up. 
 
 Flome. An old word for a river or flood. 
 
 Flood. The flowing in of the tide. The 
 rising tide, known as young flood, high flood, 
 spring flood, half flood, etc. To overflow ; to 
 deluge with water; as, to flood the magazine. 
 See TIDE. 
 
 FLOOD-ANCHOR. See ANCHOR. 
 
 FLOOD-COCKS. The cocks that are fixed in 
 pipes leading from the ship s side below the 
 water-line into the magazine, used to flood the 
 latter in case of fire. These cocks are turned by 
 levers from the deck. 
 
 FLOOD-MARK. A mark placed on the shore 
 or a wharf at the highest tide ; high- water 
 mark. In England it marks the extent of Ad 
 miralty jurisdiction. 
 
 Flook, or Fluck. A flounder ; a flat-fish. 
 
 Floor. All that part of a ship on either side 
 of the keel which approaches nearer to a hori 
 zontal than to a perpendicular direction. 
 
 FLOOR-HEADS. The outer ends of the floor- 
 timbers. 
 
 FLOOR-PLAN. A plan of the floors or bottom 
 timbers of the ship, upon the drawings of the 
 ship, or the mold-loft floor. 
 
 FLOOR-RIBBAND. The ribband next below 
 the floor-heads. 
 
 FLOOR-SWEEPS. Radii that sweep the heads 
 of the floors. It is an old method of construc 
 tion, not used nowadays. 
 
 FLOOR-TIMBERS. The lower timbers of the 
 frame of a ship placed square across the keel, 
 and which are consequently thoroughly secured 
 to the keel. 
 
 Flory-boat. A small boat used to carry pas 
 sengers from steamers to the shore. 
 
 Flosh. A weedy marsh on the sea-shore. 
 
 Flosk. The sea-sleeve, anker-fish, cuttle-fish, 
 or squid (Sepia loligo). 
 
 Flota. The fleet of Spanish galleys that 
 yearly sailed to Mexico in the 17th century. 
 
 Flota Navium. An old term for fleet. 
 
 Flote. An old term for wave. 
 
 FLOTE-BOTE. An old term for a yawl or row- 
 boat. 
 
 Flotilla. A fleet of small vessels. 
 
 Flot-mann. A very old term for a sailor. 
 
 FLOTSAM, or FLOTSON (Law). Goods floating 
 on the sea, as distinguished from jetsam, or goods 
 thrown into the sea, and which, sinking, remain 
 under water ; and also from ligan, those cast into 
 the sea and buoyed. In olden times, such goods 
 belonged to the finder ; later, they were the prop 
 erty of the sovereign ; at present, salvage or 
 wreckage is allowed on them. 
 
 Flounder. The flat-fish (Platessa flessus}; 
 called a\so floun-dab. 
 
 Flow. To move in a steady stream. The 
 rising of the tide. The current of a river. The 
 direction or set of a current. To flow the head- 
 sheets, to ease them off so the wind will have no 
 effect on the head-sails. 
 
 FLOWING. The position of a sheet when it 
 is eased off. 
 
 Flowerof the Winds. The old compass painted 
 on charts, a rose or lily being drawn in its centre. 
 
 Flowering. The shoals or strata of fish-feed, 
 often seen in the water about spawning-time. 
 
 Flowing Hope. See FORLORN HOPE. 
 
 Flue. The fluke of an anchor. A passage for 
 distributing the gaseous products of combustion 
 of a furnace, or conveying them to a chimney. 
 In steam-boilers, metallic flues surrounded by 
 water constitute the larger portion of the fire or 
 heating surface. Small cylindrical metallic flues 
 are called tubes. 
 
 FLUE-BOILER. A steam-boiler in which the 
 fire or heating surface is chiefly in flues instead 
 of tubes. 
 
 FLUE-SURFACE. The aggregate surface of 
 flues exposed to heat. 
 
 Fluffit. The movement of the fins of a fish. 
 
 Fluid Compass. See COMPASS. 
 
 Fluke. The large triangular tail of the whale. 
 The triangular blade at the end of the anchor- 
 arms, that forms a holding surface when the 
 anchor is down. See ANCHOR. 
 
 Flummery. A dish of oat-meal. 
 
 Flurry. The movements of a dying whale. 
 A light breeze of wind, agitating the surface of 
 the sea. Haste and confusion. 
 
 Flush. Even ; level. Well provided with 
 money. 
 
 FLUSH DECK. A deck extending from stem 
 to stern without a break. 
 
 Flustered. Excited or worried. 
 
 Flute, or Fluyt. A pink-rigged fly-boat, the 
 after-part of which is round-ribbed. Armed en 
 flute, partially armed. 
 
 Flute-mouth. A fish of the genus Fisttda- 
 ridce, with a snout drawn out into a tube. 
 
 Fluvial. Belonging to a river. 
 
 FLUVIAL LAGOON. A shallow lagoon, formed 
 on the sea-coast by the action of a river. 
 
 FLUVIO-MARINE. The combined action of 
 river and sea. 
 
 Flux. The coming in of the tide. In chem 
 istry and metallurgy, any substance or mixture 
 used to promote the fusion of metals or min- 
 
FLY 
 
 288 
 
 FCENUS NAUTICUM 
 
 erals, as alkalies, borax, etc. In large operations, 
 limestone is extensively used. The action of a 
 flux is to combine with the more refractory or 
 infusible components of an ore or mineral, leav 
 ing the pure metal alone exposed to the action 
 of the heat, as in smelting silicious iron ores 
 with lime flux, where the infusible lime combines 
 with the silica, forming "slag," which separates 
 from the metal. 
 
 Fly. In mechanism, a contrivance for resist 
 ing acceleration or retardation of movement in 
 a machine when the ratio between the motive 
 force and the resistance to be overcome in per 
 forming work is variable. When used to pre 
 vent accelerated motion only, as when the motive 
 force is a descending weight or released spring 
 acting against a nearly constant resistance, a 
 fly consists of two or more radial arms, fixed to 
 a rapidly revolving spindle or shaft so as to re 
 volve with it, to the ends of which are attached 
 thin vanes or plates presenting their flat surfaces 
 to the resistance of the atmosphere or other fluid. 
 This device is familiar in striking-clocks and 
 certain automatic musical instruments. When 
 used to prevent fluctuations of speed arising from 
 an alternately varying ratio between force ap 
 plied and resistance to be overcome, weights are 
 substituted for vanes, which, by their moment 
 of inertia, absorb the energy of acceleration 
 when the motive force exceeds the resistance, 
 and yield it when the resistance exceeds the force. 
 The part of a flag from the union to the extreme 
 end. The compass-card. To move quickly 
 or suddenly ; as, to fly up into the wind. To float 
 in the wind ; as, a flag at the mast-head. To let 
 fly, to let go ; as, to^ let fly the sheets. To fly 
 about, to chop about. 
 
 FLY-AWAY, CAPE. See CAPE FLY-AWAY. 
 
 FLY-BLOCK. The upper block of the topsail 
 halliards. 
 
 FLY-BY-NIGHT. A square-sail, set like a 
 stun sail, used by sloops before the wind. A 
 jib used as a stun sail, extending from the top 
 mast head. 
 
 FLYER. A clipper. A fast sailer. 
 
 FLY-GOVERNOR. A governor in which uni 
 formity of motion is secured by means of fly- 
 vanes. See GOVERNOR. 
 
 FLYING DUTCHMAN. A traditional spectre- 
 ship, seen near the Cape of Good Hope. The 
 legends are numerous, but owe their origin to a 
 taTe of a Dutch skipper, who, baffled long by 
 head winds, swore he would double the cape in 
 spite of God and man. Thenceforth his ship 
 sailed without chart or compass, and is seen in 
 all weathers, sometimes with little sail in a calm, 
 sometimes with all sail in a tempest. Sailors also 
 ascribe to its influence white squalls, shipwrecks, 
 and other disasters. Sometimes it visits passing 
 ships, when wine sours, and other disasters hap 
 pen. Sometimes mail is sent from it. when the 
 unlucky ship is never again heard from. His 
 appearance constantly changes, so that he is 
 never recognizable. His crew is composed of 
 the spirits of old thieves, skulkers, and other 
 outcasts from ships. Many other legends are 
 connected with the famous Hollander, and the 
 theme has furnished literature and music with 
 much material. 
 
 FLYING FISH. Fish of the genus Scombere- 
 socidce, or Sclerogenidce, whose pectoral fins are 
 prolonged into a species of wings, smooth-edged, 
 
 and which jump out of the water long distances. 
 Sometimes the name is applied to the flying gur 
 nard. 
 
 FLYING GURNARD. A fish of the genus Dac- 
 tylopterus. These resemble flying fish, but their 
 wing-bones are prolonged beyond the mem 
 branes, and they have a spine on the head. Both 
 these and flying fish are edible, and abound in 
 tropical waters. 
 
 FLYING JIB. The outermost jib, or sail, on 
 the bowsprit, used as a jib to turn the ship s 
 head. It is generally taken in and set with 
 royals, is one of the light sails, and sets on a 
 stay leading to the fore-topgallant mast-head, 
 through the boom end. For the gear of the fly 
 ing jib see under proper heads. 
 
 FLYING JIB-BOOM. The light boom which 
 extends beyond the jib-boom. It is an outrigger 
 for the stay, and lies along the jib-boom for 
 half of its length, being secured by a belly-lash 
 ing to it, and by a heel-clamp to the bowsprit- 
 cap, while it passes through a vvythe on the boom 
 end. For the rigging of the jib-boom see under 
 proper heads. 
 
 FLYING KITES. Those lofty sails, now obso 
 lete, formerly carried above the royals ; as sky- 
 sails, moon-sails, star-gazers, etc. 
 
 FLYING LIGHT. The state of e, ship when 
 she has little cargo, and is light in draft. 
 
 FLYING PROA. A kind of double canoe of the 
 Ladrone Islands. The lee side is flat, keeping 
 the craft up to the wind in the same manner as a 
 lee-board or centre-board. A smaller canoe is 
 attached to an outrigger rigged out to windward ; 
 when the wind freshens a man is sent out on the 
 outrigger. It carries an enormous triangular 
 sail, and sails very close to the wind, to which it 
 always presents the rounded side. It is very 
 light, being held together with coir yarns. 
 
 FLYING SQUID. The genus of Cephalapod 
 fish called Ommastrephes. It sometimes jumps 
 high out of the water. 
 
 FLYING STUN SAIL. A stun sail set flying, 
 between the masts. 
 
 FLY-WHEEL. A wheel with a heavy rim, 
 which, by its great moment of inertia, accumu 
 lates the energy of acceleration, and yields it 
 when motion is retarded, as in equalizing the 
 motion of a crank, or overcoming the resistance 
 of suddenly applied work, as in rolling-mills. 
 
 Foam. Froth produced by agitating the 
 waves, or arresting their motion. A liquid hold 
 ing such a quantity of vapor or gas in suspension 
 as^to cause it to form a mass of small bubbles. 
 
 FOAM-COCK. A cock to blow off the foam. 
 
 FOAMING. In steam-enginery, a condition of 
 the water in a boiler when in a state of foam. 
 The principal causes of this condition are im 
 purities in the water, which are either very 
 volatile or tend to make it viscid, or a higher 
 temperature of the water than is due to the 
 steam-pressure. The latter state may result from 
 temporarily drawing the steam from the boiler 
 more rapidly than it can be formed at the proper 
 temperature and pressure. Foaming endangers 
 both boiler and engine ; the former, because the 
 true water-level cannot be ascertained, and the 
 latter, because the water is carried bodily into 
 the cylinder, producing destructive shocks. 
 
 Focal Distance. The distance between the 
 object-glass and the image. 
 
 Fcenus Nauticum. Usury or bottomry. 
 
FOG 
 
 289 
 
 FOOTE 
 
 Fog. Watery vapor, precipitated in the lower 
 atmosphere, causing a mist or obscurity. Fogs 
 are produced by the rapid cooling of the atmos 
 phere near the earth, causing it to part with its 
 moisture. They are common near banks where 
 currents meet, and hover about the banks of the 
 Gulf Stream. In northern latitudes they are 
 very prevalent. Dry fogs, or dust-clouds, are 
 also met with on the coast of Africa. Fog is 
 generally a sign of good weather. 
 
 FOG-ALARM. An audible signal to warn ves 
 sels from rocks, shoals, or other dangerous places. 
 The sound is made by a bell, trumpet, or whistle, 
 and the apparatus may be worked by the heaving 
 of the sea, by the effect of the tide or current, or 
 by machinery. A notable fog-alarm was the 
 bell on the Inchcape rock ; the clapper was 
 moved by the action of the waves. 
 
 FOG-BANK. A dense fog lying in a cloud or 
 bank about the horizon. Lying at the water s 
 edge it resembles land, and has led to those 
 illusive appearances called Dutchman s land, 
 Cape Fly-away, No-man s land, Butter-land, etc. 
 
 FOG-BELL. A bell rung to warn ships during 
 fogs. When ships are at anchor a bell is thus 
 rung. Bells are placed on buoys or on frame- or 
 iron-work at sea in the vicinity of shoals to 
 warn ships. Some are arranged to toll automat 
 ically by the motion of the waves, tide, or winds. 
 A bell is also sometimes erected, connected with 
 machinery, near a light-house on shore, to ring 
 in case of fog. 
 
 FOG-BOW. A bow formed in high latitudes 
 opposite the sun, sometimes white, sometimes 
 prismatic in colors. It is caused by refraction, 
 and is said to indicate the clearing away of fogs. 
 
 FOG-DOG. A clearing spot in a fog, or a break 
 in the bank, presaging the lifting of the fog. 
 
 FOG-EATER. Much the same as fog-bow and 
 fog-dog, and including both. A break in a fog- 
 bank or mist, a sign of clearing weather. 
 
 FOGGY. Abounding with fog. Obscure ; be 
 clouded. Half drunk. 
 
 FOG-HORN. A horn for making fog-signals. 
 
 FOG-RING. A circular bank of fog. 
 
 FOG-SIGNAL. A signal made during fog to 
 warn ships from each other s path, or of dan 
 gers, such as rocks and shoals. Ships at anchor 
 generally use a bell, and this is used also in other 
 cases. (See FOG-BELL.) Sailing-ships under 
 way use a horn. Automatic horns have been 
 devised, either causing the sound by a motion 
 communicated by the hand, or by the rolling of 
 the ship. Steamers under way use a steam- 
 whistle. More effective signals are desirable, 
 but have not yet been adopted. On shore, besides 
 a bell, a gun has been used, a steam-whistle, and 
 a siren, where the sound is caused by blowing 
 air or steam through revolving disks in which 
 holes are cut. Buoys off shore have in many in 
 stances automatic fog-whistles attached to them. 
 On the coast of the United States there are 54 
 fog-signals, 16 of them duplicates. Many of 
 those on the light-vessels are worked by caloric- 
 engines. 
 
 FOG-WHISTLE. See FOG-SIGNAL. 
 
 Fogram. Liquor of indifferent quality. 
 
 Fogy. An old-fashioned person. An increase 
 of pay due to length of service. 
 
 Foil. A slender, blunt sword used in fencing. 
 
 Folder. The folding sight of a fire-arm. 
 
 Folding Boat. A boat made of frame-work 
 19 
 
 and canvas, so as to be folded up into a small 
 bundle. 
 
 Follis. A large-meshed net. 
 
 Followers (Eng.). A captain or flag-officer s 
 servants and boat s crew. Young midshipmen 
 formerly going with the captain from ship to 
 ship. : 
 
 Fomalhaut. The bright star a Plscis Aus 
 tralia. See PISCIS AUSTRALIS. 
 
 Foo-Choo. One of the treaty-ports and a 
 large city of China, capital of the province of 
 Fo-Kien, on the Min River, 25 miles from its 
 mouth. Lat. 26 12 / 24" N. ; Ion. 119 30 E. 
 It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills 
 about 4 miles distant, and is inclosed by a cas 
 tellated wall 9 or 10 miles in circumference. 
 The whole is commanded by a fortified hill 500 
 feet above the plain, and inside of the walls is 
 another height crowned by a conspicuous watch- 
 tower. Foo-Choo has a naval arsenal, ship 
 yards, and a school of navigation. Pop. 500,000. 
 
 Foolen (Eng,). The space between the high- 
 water mark and the foot of the wall on the banks 
 of a river. 
 
 Fool-fish. The long-finned file-fish of the 
 genus Batistes. 
 
 Foolish Guillemot. The diving-bird, Uria 
 troile. 
 
 Foot. A linear measure of 12 inches ; the 
 foot varies in different countries from 21.022 
 centimetres to 50 centimetres in length. The 
 lower edge of a sail. To foot, to push with the 
 feet ; as, to foot the fore-sheet clear of the 
 backstays. 
 
 FOOT-BOARD. A small board in skiffs, to serve 
 as a stretcher for the foot of the rower. A gang- 
 board. 
 
 FOOT-BOAT. A small boat used to carry foot- 
 passengers. 
 
 FOOT-BRAIL. 
 
 FOOT-CLEW. 
 mock. 
 
 FOOT-HOOK. Same as futtock (which see). 
 
 FOOTING. The fine which a landsman has to 
 pay on first going aloft. 
 
 FOOT-POUND. The unit of measure of work, 
 which is a resistance of one pound moved through 
 a space of one foot. See WORK. 
 
 FOOT-ROPE. The roping on the foot of a sail. 
 The rope extending under a yard, from near the 
 end to the slings, or middle, for the men to stand 
 on. It is also used on the jib- and flying jib- 
 booms, and on the spanker-boom. They were 
 formerly called horses, and are still supported at 
 intervals along the yard by the stirrups. 
 
 FOOT-VALVE. A valve placed between the 
 condenser and air-pump of a steam-engine, and 
 through which the products of condensation are 
 drawn. 
 
 Foote, Andrew Hull, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Son of Gov. S. A. Foote. Born in New Haven, 
 Conn., September 12, 1806; died in New York 
 City, June 26, 1863. Acting midshipman in 
 1822, he made his first cruise in the schooner 
 "Grampus," sent in 1823 to chastise the West 
 Indian pirates. Lieutenant, May 27, 1830 ; com 
 mander, December 19, 1852. He was flag-lieu 
 tenant in 1833 of the Mediterranean Squadron ; 
 and in 1838, as first lieutenant of the "John 
 Adams," Commodore Read, circumnavigated the 
 globe, and took part in an attack on the pirates of 
 Sumatra. While stationed at the Naval Asylum, 
 
 See BRAIL. 
 The clew at the foot of a ham- 
 
FORBIN 
 
 290 
 
 FORBIN 
 
 in 1841-43, he prevailed upon many of the in 
 mates to give up their spirit rations, being one 
 of the first to introduce the principle of total 
 abstinence from intoxicating drinks in the navy, 
 and continued this effort in the " Cumberland," 
 in 1843-45, besides delivering an extemporaneous 
 sermon every Sunday to the crew. In 1849-52, 
 in command of the brig " Perry," he was on the 
 African coast, successfully engaged in suppress 
 ing the slave-trade. He published in 1854 
 "Africa, and the American Flag." He com 
 manded in 1856 the sloop " Portsmouth" on the 
 China station. Arriving at Canton just before 
 the commencement of hostilities between the 
 English and Chinese, he exerted himself in pro 
 tecting American property, and having been, 
 while thus engaged, tired upon by the Barrier 
 Forts, received permission from Commodore Arm 
 strong to demand an apology for this indignity. 
 This being refused, he attacked the forts, four in 
 number, with the " Portsmouth" and " Levant," 
 breached the largest, and, with 280 sailors, landed 
 and carried it by storm. The remaining forts 
 were successfully carried, with a total loss of 40 to 
 the attacking party. The works were of granite, 
 with walls 7 feet thick, mounting 176 guns, and 
 garrisoned by 5000 men, 400 of whom were 
 killed and wounded. In July, 1861, he became 
 captain, and in September flag-officer of the 
 flotilla fitting out in the Western waters. Feb 
 ruary 4, 1862, he sailed from Cairo with seven 
 gunboats, four of them ironclads, to attack Fort 
 Henry, on the Tennessee liiver. "Without await 
 ing the co-operation of Gen. Grant, he attacked 
 the fort at noon of the 6th, and in two hours 
 compelled its surrender. On the 14th he attacked 
 Fort Donelson ; but the fleet was obliged to 
 haul off just as the enemy s water-batteries had 
 been silenced, two of the gunboats having be 
 come unmanageable. Foote was severely wounded 
 in the ankle by a fragment of a 64-pound shot. 
 Though on crutches, he proceeded down the Mis 
 sissippi with his fleet and a number of mortar- 
 boats to besiege Island No. 10. After its reduc 
 tion, April 7, he returned to New Haven. Re 
 gaining his health, he was made chief of the 
 Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. July 
 31, 1862, he was appointed rear-admiral on the 
 active list. On Admiral Dupont s being relieved 
 from his command of the South Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, May, 1863, Admiral Foote was 
 appointed to succeed him. 
 
 Forbin, Claude (Chevalier, and afterwards 
 Count de), a very celebrated French sailor, was 
 born near Aix, in Provence, in August, 1656, 
 and died at Saint Marcel, near Marseilles, on 
 the 4th of March, 1735. His name has often been 
 confounded with two others of the same family 
 who bore the title of chevalier, one of whom 
 was his uncle. 
 
 The Count de Forbin wrote his own memoirs, 
 almost the exception in the case of French sea 
 men of the period, the other one who has given 
 us his life being Duguay-Trouin. Forbin most 
 unjustly abuses his contemporaries, even Jean 
 Bart and Duguay-Trouin, but, with that ex 
 ception, his "Memoirs" are both amusing and 
 instructive. 
 
 From Forbin s own showing it appears that, 
 from extreme youth to the age of nineteen he 
 was involved in every species of dissipation, debt, 
 gambling, and, moreover, a great duelist. 
 
 In 1675 he entered the galley service as a 
 " standard bearer," making several cruises. This 
 grade being suppressed in 1676, Forbin entered 
 the land service, in a corps of rnusqueteers, com 
 manded by a relative, and made a campaign in 
 Flanders. 
 
 In 1677 he re-entered the marine, as ensiegne de 
 vaisseau. He soon lost his commission, how 
 ever, and was even condemned to decapitation, 
 for having killed another officer in a duel. After 
 a time he was pardoned for this offense, and 
 actually contrived to again enter the navy, as an 
 enseigne de vaissea.ii, by substituting himself for 
 a brother whom he much resembled, and who 
 was prevented, by ill health, from going to sea. 
 
 In 1680, Forbin served with D Estrees in the 
 West Indies, and in 1682-83, with Duquesne at 
 the bombardments of Algiers. For his coolness 
 and bravery on these occasions he was made 
 lieutenant de vaisseau. 
 
 Two years later he was a member of the em 
 bassy sent to the King of Siam by Louis XIV., 
 and the Eastern monarch was so pleased with 
 Forbin that he retained him at his court, and 
 made him admiral, and general in his army, be 
 sides bestowing upon him other high dignities. 
 Forbin appears to have very soon got tired of it 
 all, and obtaining leave, on account of his health, 
 to go to the French colony of Pondicherry, he 
 thence, without further ceremony, returned to 
 France, where he appeared at court, and amused 
 Louis XIV. with his descriptions of court-life in 
 Siam. 
 
 In 1689, after the rupture of the peace of 
 Nimeguen, Forbin re-entered active service, re 
 ceiving a commission as capitaine de /regale. In 
 this capacity he served under Jean Bart, and, 
 forming part of the escort of a convoy, had a 
 desperate fight with two English vessels of 
 greater force. They were both captured, both 
 made prisoners, and both made escapes remark 
 able for the endurance and intrepidity shown, 
 and were both, as a reward, made capitaines de 
 vaisseau. Forbin almost at once went to sea 
 again, in a low, fast-sailing vessel called the 
 " Marseillaise," and became a scourge to the 
 commerce of the English. The year after, he 
 commanded the "Fidele," in the battles under 
 Tourville, and afterwards cruised in the North 
 Sea. 
 
 In 1692 he again served under Tourville at 
 the disastrous battle of La Hogue, where he was 
 most severely wounded in the knee, and his ship, 
 " La Perle," was cut to pieces, and very nearly 
 burnt by fire-ships. In spite of all this he suc 
 ceeded in getting in to Saint Malo. 
 
 Having recovered from his wounds, Forbin 
 next served under Jean Bart, in his celebrated 
 cruise in the North Sea, where he inflicted such 
 damage on the Dutch and English commerce. 
 
 In 1693 he served in the brilliant action off 
 Lagos, where Tourville dispersed and ruined the 
 great Smyrna fleet and its escort. Forbin here 
 captured three ships and burnt a fourth. He 
 continued constantly in service, both in the 
 North Sea and in the Mediterranean, and as a 
 reward for his services was, in 1699, made a 
 Chevalier of St. Louis. 
 
 During the war of the Spanish Succession he 
 had a separate command in the Adriatic, where 
 he burnt Trieste, and so preyed upon Austrian 
 commerce that the prayers of the Dalmatian 
 
FOR-BY 
 
 291 
 
 FOKE 
 
 sailors, on going to sea, was that they might not 
 encounter the Chevalier de Forbin. 
 
 In 1706-7 he took or destroyed, in the North 
 Sea, more than 180 English and Dutch vessels, 
 and was made chef d escadre and count. 
 
 The next cruise he made was to the White Sea, 
 and the result was the ruin of the fisheries for 
 that season. In the same year, 1707, he came 
 south with his squadron to join that of Duguay- 
 Trouin, and, together, they fought a large Eng 
 lish squadron. Owing to some misapprehension 
 of orders, Forbin did not arrive in line until late 
 in the day, which caused a drawn battle, although 
 the English suffered most damage. 
 
 In 1708, Forbin was commissioned to conduct 
 to Edinburgh the Pretender, the Chevalier St. 
 George, son of James II. Forbin was much 
 blamed for the non-success of the Pretender s 
 venture, and, being already dissatisfied because 
 he had not been made lieutenant-general of the 
 marine, he abandoned the naval service, and 
 settled down near Marseilles, where he died. 
 He was a brave man, x and a good sailor, but of 
 unmeasured pride, and never made any personal 
 friends. He was 77 when he died, and had 
 served 40 years at sea. E. Shippen. 
 
 For-by. Near ; close at hand. 
 
 Force. A condition between two bodies 
 tending to change their relative positions ; its 
 unit of measure is one pound avoirdupois. 
 Strength ; power ; might. Violence ; coercion. 
 Strength or power for war ; hence, a fleet or 
 body of troops. To compel ; to coerce. 
 
 FORCED-MEN. Men who are forced by pirates 
 to serve with them, but who do not sign the 
 articles. 
 
 FORCE-PUMP. A pump for forcing a fluid 
 against a resisting pressure ; as, the pumps of a 
 fire-engine or the feed-pump of a steam-boiler. 
 
 FORCER. Piston of a force-pump. 
 
 Fore. The distinguishing characteristic of all 
 that portion of a ship and appurtenances which 
 lie near the stem ; the opposite of aft, or after. 
 To the fore, in advance. At the fore, at the fore- 
 royal mast-head, said of a flag or set of flags. 
 
 FORE-AND-AFT. From stem to stern. In a 
 line parallel to the keel. 
 
 FORE-AND-AFTER. A cocked hat worn with 
 the peaks in front and behind. A vessel rigged 
 with fore-and-aft sails only. 
 
 FORE-AND-AFT SAILS. Sails that are not bent 
 to yards, but extend from the mast or stay to the 
 lee side of the vessel. They include sails setting 
 on stays, on masts, with gaffs, booms, sprits, and 
 lateen-yards, and are divided into stay-sails (in 
 cluding jibs), trysails (including spanker), la 
 teen-sails, lug-sails, sprit-sails, gaff-topsails, and 
 shoulder-of-mutton sails. They allow the vessel 
 to approach nearer to the wind, as they may be 
 trimmed more nearly in a line with the keel than 
 square-sails. Schooners, sloops, boats, and small 
 craft generally use them, but they also make a 
 part of the sail-rig of every vessel. 
 
 FORE-AND-AFT~TACKLE. A tackle used in the 
 line of the keel for any purpose. 
 
 FORE-BAY. The sick-bay. The galley-room 
 on the spar-deck of merchantmen. The rise of 
 a floor of a lock-gate. See SICK-BAY. 
 
 FORE-BODY. That portion of the vessel for 
 ward of dead-flat. 
 
 FORE-BOOM. An old name for the jib-boom. 
 The boom of a fore-and-aft foresail. 
 
 FORE-CABIN. The forward cabin of a vessel. 
 
 FORECASTLE. That portion of the spar-deck 
 from the after fore-shroud forward. The name 
 arose from the structure resembling a castle 
 which was formerly erected on the forward part 
 of the spar-deck. A partial deck level with the 
 rail at the forward part of the ship is called a 
 topgallant forecastle. 
 
 FORECASTLE-AWNING. See AWNING. 
 
 FORECASTLE-DECK. The forward part of the 
 upper deck. 
 
 FORECASTLE-JOKES. Sailors practical jokes. 
 
 FORECASTLE-MEN. That part of the crew sta 
 tioned on the forecastle, generally the oldest and 
 most reliable seamen. They handle the head- 
 sails, the foresail and lower studding-sail, work 
 the anchor-gear, clean and keep the forward part 
 of the ship in order, etc. 
 
 FORECASTLE-NETTINGS. That portion of the 
 hammock- nettings on or near the forecastle. 
 
 FORE-COURSE. The sail bent to the fore-yard. 
 See FORESAIL. 
 
 FORE-FOOT. The forward end of the keel. 
 
 FORE-GAFF. The gaff of the fore-trysail. 
 
 FORE-GANGER. A short piece of rope con 
 necting the line with the harpoon. 
 
 FORE-GUY. See FORWARD GUY. 
 
 FORE- HATCH. The hatch nearest the fore 
 mast, generally abaft it, on all decks. 
 
 FORE-HOLD. The forward part of the hold. 
 In it, in men-of-war, are stowed tar, pitch, 
 rigging, anchor-gear, etc. 
 
 FORE-LEECH. The luff of a stay-sail or trysail. 
 
 FOREMAST. The mast nearest the bow. For 
 the rigging of the foremast, see under proper 
 heads. 
 
 FOREMAST HAND, or FOREMAST MAN. A 
 blue-jacket not above the rating of seaman. The 
 term may include all who are shipped " before 
 the mast." 
 
 FORE MAST-MAN. A man stationed to attend 
 to the gear of the foremast. See MAST-MAN. 
 
 FORE-ORLOP. The part of the ship next for 
 ward the hold, and under the berth-deck. On 
 it, in frigates and large sloops, are the sail-rooms, 
 etc. 
 
 FORE-PASSAGE. A gangway or passage on 
 the fore-orlop-deck, leading to the fore-peak. 
 
 FORE-PEAK. That part of the hold in the 
 extreme forward part of the ship, occupied by 
 paint-room, yeoman s store-room, and a block- 
 room in men-of-war. 
 
 FORE-RAKE. The part of the ship projecting 
 over the forward end of the keel. 
 
 FORE-REACH. To shoot ahead after the pro 
 pelling power has ceased. To gain ground ahead 
 in tacking. 
 
 FORE-ROYAL. See ROYAL. 
 
 FORE-RUNNER. The piece of bunting inserted 
 in a log-line, to mark the extent of stray-line, 
 and the point at which the glass must be turned. 
 
 FORESAIL. A square-sail, bent to the fore- 
 yard, the lowest on the foremast. The fore-and- 
 aft sail on the foremast of a schooner. The fore- 
 stay-sail of a cutter or sloop. For the gear of 
 the foresail, see under proper heads. See SAILS. 
 
 FORE-SHEET HORSE. An iron bar fixed across 
 the deck, for the clew of the fore-stay-sail to 
 travel on. 
 
 FORE-SHEETS. The forward portion of a boat 
 having a grating shipped over it. See STERN- 
 
FORECAST 
 
 292 
 
 FOYST 
 
 FORE-SHEET TRAVELER. An iron ring or 
 triangle fitted to the clew of a fore-and-aft fore 
 sail, running on the horse, so as to traverse the 
 sail. 
 
 FORE-SHIP. An old term for the fore part of 
 a ship. 
 
 FORE-SPENCER. A name for the fore-trysail. 
 
 FORE-STAGE. An old name for the fore 
 castle. 
 
 FORE-STAY-SAIL. The stay-sail just forward 
 of the foremast, setting on the fore-stay. In 
 men-of-war it has its own stay, and is only bent 
 in bad weather, and is called the /ore storm-stay 
 sail. See STAY-SAIL. 
 
 FORE STAY-TACKLE. See TRIATIC STAY. 
 
 FORE STUDDING-SAIL. See STUDDING-SAIL. 
 
 FORE-TOP. See TOP. 
 
 FORE-TOPGALLANT. See TOPGALLANT. 
 
 FORE-TOPMAST. See TOPMAST. 
 
 FORE-TRYSAIL. See TRYSAIL. 
 
 FORE-YARD. The lower yard across the fore 
 mast. For the rigging of the fore-yard, see 
 under proper heads. See YARDS. 
 
 Forecast. Foresight ; forethought. To fore 
 see ; to project. 
 
 Foreign-built. Built in a foreign country. 
 
 Foreland. An advanced headland, cape, or 
 promontory forming the limit of a stretch of 
 coast. 
 
 Fore-lock. A flat piece of iron, wedge-shaped, 
 driven in a slit in the end of a bolt, so as to hold 
 it in place. A spring fore-lock has a spring, 
 keeping it in place. 
 
 FORE-LOCK BOLT. A bolt having a fore-lock 
 attached to it. 
 
 Foreness. A peak or promontory. 
 
 Fore-staff. A nautical instrument for tak 
 ing altitudes, now discarded. In the fore-staff, 
 the eye was directed along the instrument to the 
 object. In the back-staff, the image by reflection 
 was used. See BACK-STAFF. 
 
 Forge Ahead. To shoot ahead after the sails 
 are in, or steam is shut off. When hove-to, or 
 lying-to, to gain distance ahead. 
 
 Forge-over. To force over a shoal or rock. 
 To crowd sail or steam to get over a rock, etc. 
 
 Fork of a Stay. The place where a stay is 
 divided into two parts, so as to embrace the 
 mast. 
 
 Forkers (Eng.}. People who reside near a 
 navy-yard for the purpose of stealing, or receiv 
 ing stolen goods. 
 
 Fork-tail. A salmon in its fourth yea r s 
 growth. 
 
 Forlorn Hope. * A term applied to a body of 
 officers and men who volunteer, or are detailed, 
 more generally the former, for some important 
 and desperate undertaking in war, the extreme 
 peril of which affords scant hope of safe deliver 
 ance, and correspondingly enhances the merit of 
 the service. A contemplated enterprise of great 
 danger and doubtful issue. 
 
 Former. A pattern for cartridges. A wad- 
 mold. 
 
 Formicas. Chains of small rocks at the 
 water s edge. 
 
 Fornax. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Forrest. French, Captain U.S.N. Born in 
 Maryland in 1796; died in Georgetown, D. C., 
 December 22, 1866. Midshipman, June 9, 1811 ; 
 lieutenant, March 5, 1817 ; commander, February 
 9, 1837 ; captain, March 30, 1844 ; dismissed April 
 
 19, 1861. He fought bravely in the war of 1812, 
 distinguishing himself in the battle on Lake 
 Erie, and in the action between the " Hornet" 
 and "Peacock," February 24, 1813, and in the 
 Mexican war was adjutant-general of the land 
 and naval forces. When Virginia seceded he 
 was put at the head of the navy of Virginia ; 
 commander at the Norfolk Navy- Yard ; was 
 afterward commander of the James River squad 
 ron, and then Acting Assistant Secretary of the 
 Confederate navy. 
 
 Fort-de-France. On the west coast of Mar 
 tinique, French West Indies. Has a fine harbor, 
 strong fortificatipns, a naval arsenal, and several 
 hospitals. Pop. 13,300. 
 
 Forth. An arm of the sea. 
 
 Forty Thieves (Eng.}. A name given to 
 forty line-of-battle ships commenced in 1815, 
 many of which never got to sea except as razees. 
 
 Forward. In the fore part. In advance of. 
 
 FORWARD-FIRE CARTRIDGE. A metallic 
 cartridge, in which the fulminate is attached to 
 the base of the shot, and fired by a pin running 
 through the powder. 
 
 FORWARD GUY. A rope leading from the 
 bowsprit through a block near the end of the 
 lower or swinging-boom, then back through a 
 block on the bowsprit, and in on deck. Any 
 guy leading forward. 
 
 Fother. A weight of lead equal to 19J cwt. 
 Leaden pigs for ballast. To stop a leak by haul 
 ing under the bottom a sail closely thrummed 
 with yarns and oakum, the pressure of the water 
 forcing the sail into the aperture. 
 
 Foul. Not clear ; entangled ; jammed. Un 
 clean ; filthy. Unfavorable. 
 
 FOUL ANCHOR. See ANCHOR. 
 
 FOUL BERTH. A berth in which a ship is ex 
 posed to the danger of fouling, or of being 
 fouled by, other ships. 
 
 FOUL BILL. See BILL OF HEALTH. 
 
 FOUL BOTTOM. A term applied to the bottom 
 of a harbor where rocks or wrecks endanger the 
 safety of vessels. The state of a ship s bottom 
 when sea-weed, shells, etc., adhere to it. 
 
 FOUL COAST. A coast lined with reefs and 
 breakers. 
 
 FOUL FISH. Fish during the spawning 
 season. 
 
 FOUL GROUND. See FOUL BOTTOM. 
 
 FOUL HAWSE. The state of the hawse when 
 the chains are so intertwined that neither anchor 
 can be picked up without fouling. See HAWSE. 
 
 FOUL WEATHER. Wet, windy weather. 
 
 FOUL-WEATHER BREEDER. A name given to 
 the Gulf Stream, which occasions great perturba 
 tions in the atmosphere. An oppressive state of 
 the atmosphere presaging foul weather. 
 
 FOUL-WEATHER FLAG. A flag hoisted as a 
 storm-signal. 
 
 FOUL WIND. A head wind ; an unfavorable 
 wind. 
 
 Founder. To fill with water and sink. 
 
 Four-cant. Four-stranded rope. 
 
 Fox. Two or more yarns laid up by hand ; 
 used for sennit, gaskets, mats, seizings, etc. A 
 Spanish fox is a single yarn twisted up in a di 
 rection contrary to its original lay ; used for 
 small seizings. 
 
 Foyst. An old name for a brigantine. Early 
 voyagers applied the name to large barks in India, 
 which were probably grabs. 
 
FRAME TIMBEKS 
 
 293 
 
 FRENCHMAN 
 
 Frame Timbers. The several pieces which 
 compose the frame of a ship, as the floor tim 
 bers, first, second, third, and fourth futtocks, 
 and top timbers, which are united, having a 
 proper shift or scarf with each other, and bolted 
 together. 
 
 Frames. The timbers spoken of above after 
 being united or bolted together securely. In 
 iron construction it is the floor plate and its 
 angle-irons, as well as the reverse angle-irons 
 united in one rib, which when completed is 
 called bframe. 
 
 France, Navy of. Although unfortunate in 
 her encounters with the British during the lat 
 ter part of the last and the commencement of the 
 present century, France has always enjoyed a 
 high reputation for the skill and bravery of her 
 naval officers, and for their services in the cause 
 of science and discovery. The names of D Estaing, 
 Villeneuve, La Perouse, La Bougainville, La 
 Grasse, and Duquesne, embellish her historical 
 pages, while the possessions which she still re 
 tains illustrate their conquests. The fluctuations 
 in the government of the country during the past 
 seven decades have more or less interrupted her 
 progressive arrangements, but the elasticity of 
 her resources and the energy of her people have 
 more than compensated the caprice of events. 
 France had, at the close of 1879, a navy of no 
 fewer than 498 Vessels, of 235,162 horse-power, 
 the entire number carrying 2834 guns. This 
 force is divided into 59 ironclads, 264 unarmored 
 screw-steamers, 62 paddle-wheel steamers, and 113 
 sailing-vessels. The ships are distributed among 
 five maritime divisions, viz., Cherbourg, Brest, 
 L Orient, Rochefort, and Toulon. But compara 
 tively very few of the ships are equipped for ser 
 vice : they are laid up in ordinary, and can be 
 promptly put into fighting trim, and in the mean 
 while no fewer than 50 additional vessels are in 
 course of construction. The navy is manned 
 partly by conscription and partly by voluntary 
 enlistment. None but men above 20 and under 
 40 years of age are admitted into the service. At 
 the head of the administration of each maritime 
 division there is a vice-admiral, called a prefet 
 maritime. There are 19 other vice-admirals in 
 active service, and 13 on a reserved list ; 30 rear- 
 admirals, and 21 reserved ; 109 captains of first- 
 class men-of-war, and 209 captains of frigates ; 648 
 lieutenants, and 516 ensigns. The engineers are 
 in proportion to the number of vessels actually 
 placed on the service list. 
 
 Frank. The fish-eating heron. 
 
 Franklin, Sir John. An English navigator 
 and Arctic explorer. Born in Spilsby, Lincoln 
 shire, April, 1786; died June 11, 1847. Enter 
 ing the navy about 1800, he served with distinc 
 tion at Trafalgar, and was slightly wounded in 
 the attack on New Orleans, January, 1815. As 
 a lieutenant he commanded the " Trent" in the 
 Arctic expedition of 1818, under Capt. Buchan. 
 In 1819 he led an overland expedition to trace the 
 coast-line of North America, an account of which 
 he published on his return, and was made a cap 
 tain. In 1825 he renewed this enterprise, tracing 
 the coast from the mouth of the Coppermine 
 Kiver to the 150th meridian, for which service 
 he was knighted. Governor of Van Diemen s 
 Land in 1836-42. In May, 1845, he sailed with 
 the " Erebus" and "Terror" to discover a north 
 west passage and never returned. Several expe 
 
 ditions were sent in search of him from England 
 and America without success, but Dr. Rae found, 
 in 1854, some relics of the party. In the sum 
 mer of 1859 Capt. McClintock discovered on the 
 shore of King William s Land a record depos 
 ited in a cairn by the survivors of Franklin s 
 company, dated April 25, 1848, stating that Sir 
 John died June 11, 1847; that the ships were 
 abandoned April 22, 1848, when the survivors, 
 148 in number, started for the Great Fish River. 
 Many relics were found of this party, who per 
 ished on their journey, probably soon after leav 
 ing their vessels. 
 
 Frap. To bind tightly with a rope or piece 
 of small stuff". When a ship is very old and her 
 timbers work, cables may be passed round, serv 
 ing to hold her together. St. Paul s ship was 
 under girded. 
 
 Fredericton, a port of entry and city of New 
 Brunswick, capital of the province of the county 
 of York, is situated on the west side of the river 
 St. John. Lat. 45 55 N.; Ion. 66 31 30" W. 
 The public buildings comprise the parliament 
 buildings, the government house, city hall, and 
 barracks. The river, which is here three- fourths 
 of a mile wide, is, however, only navigable for 
 sea-going vessels of 120 tons. Pop. 6150. 
 
 Free. To clear ; to set at liberty ; as, to free 
 a boat of water, to free a prisoner. The wind is 
 free when the ship is not obliged to brace her 
 yards sharp up. To run free, to sail with the 
 yards braced in and sheets eased off. 
 
 FREEBOOTER. A robber ; one who scours the 
 seas for purposes of pillage, a pirate. 
 
 FREE PORT. A port where goods may be 
 landed free from custom-house restrictions. A 
 port where goods of all kinds are received at 
 equal rates. 
 
 FREE SHIP. A neutral vessel. The doctrine 
 that " free ships make free goods," which means 
 that an enemy s goods, other than such as are 
 contraband of war, found on board a neutral 
 vessel are free from confiscation, has been much 
 discussed and alternately admitted and rejected 
 by mosc maritime nations. Great Britain has, 
 however, uniformly maintained the opposite doc 
 trine, viz., that enemy s goods found on board a 
 neutral ship may lawfully be seized as prize of 
 war, and the latter proposition has been explicitly 
 incorporated into the jurisprudence of the United 
 States, and declared by the Supreme Court to be 
 founded on the law of nations. This rule, known 
 as the "belligerent rule," is, however, even by 
 those nations which insist on its being the origi 
 nal doctrine of international law, often made to 
 yield to the other and more liberal doctrine by 
 conventions between themselves. 
 
 In the days when piracy was more common 
 than it is now, piratical craft were often called 
 free ships. 
 
 FREE TRADER (Eng.}. A ship formerly 
 trading to India independently of the East India 
 Company. A prostitute. 
 
 French Fake. A fake or coil of rope where 
 the turns dip one under the other, so as not to 
 foul in running. 
 
 French Lake. The Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 French Leave. Absence without permission. 
 To take French leave, or to French, is to leave 
 without permission. 
 
 Frenchman, or Frenchy. A sailor s name for 
 any foreigner, particularly of the Latin race. 
 
FKENCH SENNIT 
 
 294 
 
 FRIGATE 
 
 French Sennit. Sennit in which an odd num 
 ber of nettles are regularly and evenly woven one 
 under and then over the others in succession. See 
 SENNIT. 
 
 French Shroud-knot. A shroud-knot in which 
 the three strands of one end are walled over those 
 of the opposite end. 
 
 French the Ballast. To freshen the ballast. 
 
 Fresh. New ; not impaired by use nor time. 
 Slightly intoxicated. Impudent; cheeky. Not 
 salty. Overflow of running water. The current 
 of a river in the sea beyond its mouth. Fresh 
 breeze, a breeze blowing from 13 to 15 miles per 
 hour, in which royals may be carried ; indicated 
 by 5 in the Beaufort scale. Fresh topgallant 
 breeze, a breeze blowing from 15 to 17 miles per 
 hour, in which topgallant-sails may be carried ; 
 indicated by 6 in the Beaufort scale. Fresh 
 wind, a wind blowing from 17 to 18 miles per 
 hour, in which topgallant-sails are taken in and 
 topsails reefed down ; indicated by 7 in the Beau 
 fort scale. 
 
 FRESHEN. To renew. To freshen the hawse, 
 to veer out a little more cable to bring the chafe 
 and strain on another part. To freshen the bal 
 last, to shift or restow it. To freshen the way, 
 to increase the speed of the ship. To freshen the 
 nip, to veer on the cable or pull upon a back 
 stay to shift the chafe from a particular spot ; 
 also, to take a drink, especially just after the sun 
 dips ; this was accompanied by the toast " down 
 fall of the barbarous Moors." 
 
 FRESHES. Swollen ebb-tides due to heavy 
 rains. 
 
 FRESHET. A current or stream swollen by 
 heavy rains or melting snow. 
 
 FRESH GRUB. Provisions not salted. 
 
 FRESH HAND. A greenhorn ; a new hand. 
 When a gale increases the sailors say there is a 
 fresh hand at the bellows. 
 
 FRESH WATER. Water fit to drink, in oppo 
 sition to salt water. In early days ships were 
 obliged to carry immense quantities of fresh 
 water, but of late it has been obtained by distil 
 lation of salt water. See DISTILLER. 
 
 FRESH-WATER SAILOR. One who is not ac 
 customed to the sea, his experience having been 
 confined to lakes and rivers. 
 
 FRESH-WATER SEAS. The Great Lakes. 
 
 FRESH WAY. Increased speed. To gather 
 fresh way, to recover speed after being stopped 
 or checked. 
 
 Fret. A narrow strait of the sea from f re 
 turn. To chafe. A fret of wind, a light flaw. 
 
 Friar-skate. The sharp-nosed ray (Raia 
 oxyrinchus}. 
 
 Friction. A force which acts between two 
 bodies at their surface of contact, and in the 
 direction of a tangent to that surface, so as to 
 resist their sliding on each other, and which de 
 pends on the force with which the bodies are 
 pressed together. 
 
 There is also a kind of resistance to the sliding 
 of two bodies upon each other, which is inde 
 pendent of the force by which they are pressed 
 together, and which is analogous to that kind of 
 strength which resists the division of a solid body 
 by shearing, that is, by sliding one part over 
 another. This kind of resistance is called ad 
 hesion. 
 
 Friction may act either as a means of giving 
 stability to structures, as a means of transmit 
 
 ting motion in machines, or as a cause of loss of 
 power in machines. 
 
 FRICTION-BAND, or STRAP. A flexible band 
 used as a brake to resist the rotary motion of a 
 wheel, shaft, or pulley. It is firmly secured to 
 a rigid part of a machine or structure, and is 
 made to clasp or release a revolving part at will 
 by means of screws or levers. It is applied on 
 steamships to check the revolving motion of the 
 screw-propeller when the vessel is under sail 
 headway, and it is desired to " couple" the engines 
 with the screw for the purpose of using steam- 
 power. 
 
 FRICTION-BAR. A bar on the slide of an iron 
 gun-carriage that is made by friction to absorb 
 the recoil. 
 
 FRICTION-PRIMER, or FRICTION-TUBE. A 
 primer used to inflame the charge of a gun. It 
 consists of a metal tube filled with fine-grained 
 powder, having at its upper end a short tube at 
 right angles, in which is a notched iron wire, 
 imbedded in fulminating composition. A loop 
 in this notched wire receives the laniard, and its 
 friction ignites the fulminate. 
 
 FRICTION-RAIL. An iron rail on an iron gun- 
 carriage, that by pressing against the friction-bar 
 absorbs the recoil. 
 
 FRICTION-ROLLERS. Boilers of hard wood or 
 metal placed in a metal bushing about the axis 
 of a sheave or truck to aid in reducing the fric 
 tion. 
 
 FRICTION-TRANSOM. The transom of a gun- 
 slide to which the friction-bars are attached. 
 
 Friday. An unlucky day in the seaman s 
 calendar. By old sailors it was, and is, con 
 sidered imprudent to commence any undertaking 
 on Friday. 
 
 The superstition extends to India, among the 
 Brahmins. Friday s moon was an unlucky one 
 in England. 
 
 Probably it owes much of its unlucky character 
 in the sailor s mind to its being a jour maigre, a 
 banian-day, or one on which no meat was al 
 lowed to the crew ; hence, a black-letter day in 
 the seaman s calendar. Fish brought in on Fri 
 day were likely to decay, as they would not be 
 sold before the following week ; hence the fish 
 erman s superstition. Good-Friday is called in 
 German charfreitag, mournful Friday, and here 
 its unlucky character would seem to originate. 
 
 Friezing. The ornamental carving or paint 
 ing above the drift-rails and around the bow and 
 stern. 
 
 Frigate. A familiar name for the Portuguese 
 man-of-war, Physalis pelagica. 
 
 Frigate. The name was anciently written in 
 English friggot and frigat, meaning, according 
 to Webster, an open ship or vessel ; this authority 
 also says it is probably derived from the Latin 
 fabricata, something constructed or built. 
 
 In Portuguese it signifies a boat as well as a 
 ship. The word as generally used at the present 
 time signifies a ship of war with two decks for 
 guns, and mounting from 20 to 60 guns. In 
 1799, "The British Naval Chronicle" says, 
 " Frigates mount from 20 to 40 guns, and some 
 taken" from the French mount 46." 
 
 The author of the Dictionnaire de la Marina, 
 published in Amsterdam in 1739, is the only 
 writer that treats of the frigate. He says the 
 word derives its origin from the Mediterranean, 
 where it was used to designate long vessels that 
 
FRIGATE 
 
 295 
 
 FRIGATE 
 
 used both sails and oars, and carried a deck of 
 which the topside, being higher than that of gal 
 leys in general, had openings resembling port 
 holes for the passage of oars. What occasioned 
 this name for swift sailing and pulling galleys is 
 not known. The same name was applied by the 
 French to a very swift-flying sea-gull. It is easy 
 to conceive that France, bordering upon the 
 Mediterranean, should, ere long, have launched 
 similar vessels from her channel- washed shores, 
 adapting them, by a bluffing body and larger 
 size, to encounter the storms and swells of a 
 northern sea. 
 
 Towards the middle of the 16th century Eng 
 lish merchant ships were generally called " fri 
 gates," as are the Spanish merchant ships of the 
 present time, " da guerra" being added to dis 
 tinguish a ship or frigate of war. Towards the 
 close of the 16th century some of these merchant- 
 frigates were hired to serve in the navy. In 1588, 
 we find among the ships serving with Sir Francis 
 Drake the " Friggat Elizabeth Fonnes, of eighty 
 tons and fifty men," about the size of a small 
 fishing-schooner, and not so large by one hundred 
 tons as modern yachts such as the "America" 
 and " Henrietta." The "Elizabeth Fonnes" was 
 one of the English ships fitted out to oppose the 
 far-famed and self-styled " Invincible Armada." 
 
 Sir Robert Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, 
 prepared drafts of seven distinct classes of ships 
 of war, among which was one 160 feet in length, 
 and having 24 feet beam, constructed to carry a 
 tier of guns on a single whole deck, beside other 
 guns on two short decks, resembling the quarter 
 deck and forecastle, or, rather, not being united 
 by gangways, the poop and topgallant forecastles 
 of modern ships. The disposition of the guns 
 on board this vessel was precisely the same as in 
 the modern single-banked frigate, and Sir Robert 
 called his ship thus constructed and armed 
 "frigata." 
 
 The first English navy list on which the name 
 occurs was published in 1604, and contains only 
 a "French Frigat." She is placed on that list 
 the last but one, and could have been but little 
 more than a boat, her burden being only 15 tons. 
 
 The next English navy list that bears the name 
 is that of 1633, on which we find registered 
 "Swann Frigat" and " Nicodemus Frigat," 
 each of 60 tons, 10 men, and 3 guns. These 
 were probably pleasure-yachts, built to attend 
 Charles I. on his frequent visits of inspection to 
 his different naval depots. 
 
 Fuller, writing about the year 1660, says : 
 " We fetched the first model and pattern of our 
 friggots from the Dunkirks, when in the days of 
 the Duke of Buckingham, then admiral, we took 
 some friggots from them, two of which still sur 
 vive in His Majesty s navy by the names of the 
 Providence and Expedition. " The duke, 
 then Marquis of Buckingham, was the lord 
 high admiral from 1619 to 1636, and the names 
 of these two vessels occur in the lists of 1632 and 
 of 1652. They seem to have been small ships, 
 mounting from 20 to 30 guns, chiefly on a single 
 deck. 
 
 Mr. Pepys, the historian, who, from his posi 
 tion in the Admiralty, may be considered good 
 authority, says that the first frigate built in 
 England was the "Constant Warwick," built 
 by Mr. Peter Pett, the elder, at RatclifFe in 
 1646 as a privateer for the Earl of Warwick, and 
 
 afterwards sold by him to the Commonwealth. 
 This Peter Pett was also the constructor of the 
 first English three-decker, "The Sovereign of 
 the Seas," but he had it recorded on his tomb 
 stone, evidently esteeming it the greatest honor, 
 that he was the "inventor of the first frigate." 
 
 His son confessed to Pepys that his father took 
 his model of a frigate from a French frigate 
 which he had seen in the Thames. Probably 
 the Frenchman was a privateer, and quite likely 
 one of the many which the enterprising Dun- 
 kirkers had equipped. 
 
 Fuller and Pepys both refer to a model or pat 
 tern showing some distinguishing peculiarity 
 between a frigate and the ordinary ships of war, 
 yet neither give the faintest description of what 
 the peculiarity was, whether in form, armament, 
 rig, or all three united. 
 
 The dates of the transfer of this "frigate" to 
 the navy by the Earl of Warwick is unknown ; 
 but her first appearance on any list as a national 
 vessel was in 1652, when she is classed as & fifth- 
 rate of 28 guns ; in another list of the same year 
 her guns are stated at 32. When a privateer 
 she mounted but 26. In 1677 she appears on the 
 list as a fourth-rate, mounting 42 guns. The 
 " Constant Warwick s" length of keel was 90 
 feet, her breadth of beam 28 feet 2 inches, depth 
 of hold 12 feet, draft of water 12 feet 8 inches, 
 and her tonnage, modern measurement, 380 to 
 400 tons. 
 
 Her armament consisted at first of 18 light 
 demi-culverins, or short 9-pounders, on the main 
 deck ; two minions, or 4-pounders, on the roof 
 of the officers cabin, or poop, and six light sack- 
 ers, or short 6-pounders, on what may be called 
 the quarter-deck. The main, or gun-deck of this 
 frigate, as in modern vessels of this class, had 
 originally a continuous tier of guns, nine of a 
 side, to which subsequently one was added for 
 each bow port, before unprovided, making 20 in 
 all ; on her second, or spar-deck, the bulwarks, 
 or barricades, only extended, in the first in 
 stance, to the gangway or mainmast; behind 
 them were mounted the six sackers, or 6-pounders. 
 These bulwarks were afterwards extended for 
 ward, and thus gave room for a second whole 
 tier of guns, which, with the minions on the 
 poop, extended forward to the side of the quarter 
 deck, and mounting six 4-pounders instead of 
 two, as formerly, converted her into the 46-gun 
 ship she was represented. 
 
 She was disposed of by the earl, after having 
 shown decided proofs of superior sailing over all 
 other classes of vessels ; nevertheless, we may 
 credit a writer who, in 1665, complains of the 
 ships of the British navy being " over-gunned, " 
 and instances " The Constant Warwick from 
 twenty-six gunns and an incomparable sayler to 
 forty-six gunns and a slugg." Retaining her 
 original appellation, we see that from a properly 
 armed, snug one-decked vessel, the " Constant 
 Warwick" was converted into an over-gunned, 
 top-heavy, two-decked ship, the only good qual 
 ity remaining to her being the original sharp 
 ness of her lower body, or what a modern naval 
 architect would call *the fineness of her lines. 
 This sharpness of form appears to be the only 
 characteristic of the frigate which English build 
 ers thought worthy of being retained, and seemed 
 to them a property suited to all sizes and classes 
 of ships. Accordingly, we find, between the 
 
FRIGATE 
 
 296 
 
 FRIGATE 
 
 years 1646 and 1653, upwards of 60 "frigates" 
 were built or building, and one of the latter de 
 signed to mount from 50 to 80 guns, while the 
 others are variously classed from 56 down to 12 
 guns. The name at that time seems to have been 
 general to all but ships of the first class. The 
 natural effect of this sharpness applied to an 
 overloaded ship of 60 or 70 guns was to immerse 
 her so deep in the water that her lower battery 
 was sunk too low and too near the water-line to 
 be useful. 
 
 According to Mr. Pepys, " In 1663 and 1664, 
 the Dutch and French built ships of two decks, 
 which carried from 60 to 70 guns, and were so 
 contrived that they carried their lower deck guns 
 four feet from the water, and to stow four months 
 provision ; whereas our frigates from the Dun 
 kirk build, which were narrower and sharper, 
 carried their guns but little more than three feet 
 from the water, and but ten weeks provision." 
 Mr. Pepys then states that five frigates, viz., 
 three of 70, one of 66, and one of 64 guns, were 
 ordered to be built of such dimensions as to 
 obviate those defects. Eight or ten years later 
 Mr. Pepys, still complaining of the want of 
 buoyancy of the British frigate, says : "In 1672 
 and 1673 the French brought a squadron of 35 
 ships to join our fleet at Spithead. There were 
 several excellent ships with two decks and a half 
 that carried from 60 to 70 guns, more especially 
 one called the Superbe, which his Majesty and 
 Royal Highness went on board of. She was 40 
 feet broad, carried 74 guns, and six months pro 
 visions. Our frigates being narrow could not 
 stow as much provision, nor carry their guns so 
 far from the water, which, Sir Anthony Deane 
 observing, measured the ship, and gave his 
 Majesty an account thereof, who was pleased to 
 command Sir Anthony to build the Harwich 
 as near as could be of the l Superbe s model and 
 dimensions, which was done accordingly with 
 such general satisfaction as to be the pattern of 
 the second- and third-rates built by the late act 
 of Parliament." 
 
 Thus in less than twenty years the first frigate 
 spread her name, if not her qualifications, over 
 nearly the whole of the British navy. 
 
 From 1677, the date when first- and second- 
 rates excluded two-decked ships, the name 
 "frigate" was confined to the third and three 
 inferior rates. Towards the close of the 17th 
 century the first four rates of the British navy 
 assumed the name of line-of-battle ships, or ships 
 of the Hue, and the frigate was restricted to the 
 fifth- and sixth-rates. 
 
 When first arranged the ships of the line com 
 prised all vessels of over 50 guns, and frigates those 
 from under 50 to 20 guns. In 1727 frigates were 
 of three classes, viz., 40, 30, and 20 guns, meas 
 uring 600, 420, and 374 tons respectively, and 
 mounting 12-, 9-, and 6-pounders. Two new 
 classes were added in 1740. The one a 44-gun 
 ship, of about 710 tons, with 40 guns upon two 
 decks, with batteries of 18- and 9-pounders in 
 stead of 12 s and 6 s, also with four 6-pounders 
 additional on the quarter-deck. The other was 
 a 24-gun ship, of 440 tons, with twenty 9-pound- 
 ers on the main, or gun-deck, two 9-pounders on 
 the spar-deck, and two 3-pounders on the quar 
 ter-deck. "Within the nine years next succeeding 
 thirty-eight of the 44 s were built, and several of 
 the old 40 s made to carry four 6-pounders on the 
 
 quarter-deck, and thus, in 1755, the old class of 
 40 s became extinct. In 1748 a 28-gun ship, of 
 585 tons, and carrying twenty-four 9-pounders 
 on her main and four ^-pounders on her quarter- 
 deck, was constructed, and proved a decided im 
 provement on the old 24, as well as the 30-gun 
 class. This 28 is the first ship which in the ar 
 rangement of her guns conveys any idea of a 
 modern frigate. 
 
 In 1757 two new classes a 32 and the other a 
 36 were added. On the 29th of March, 1756, 
 the navy board agreed with Robert Inwood to 
 build a fifth-rate ship, on a plan proposed by Sir 
 Thomas Slade, a surveyor of the navy. This ship 
 was to measure 671 tons, and to mount twenty- 
 six 12-pounders on the main, four 6-pounders 
 on the quarter-deck, and two 6-pounders on the 
 forecastle. She was launched May 5, 1757, and 
 was called the "Southampton," a name still 
 retained in the English navy. Another like her, 
 and named "Diana," was launched in August, 
 and others followed. The "Alarm," on which 
 copper sheathing was first tried, in 1761, was of 
 this class. Much smaller ships, however, con 
 tinued to retain the designation of frigates, for 
 between 1757 and 1760 four ships were built for 
 the English navy and four captured by it, which 
 averaged only 312 tons, and mounted from 14 
 to 18 guns, and these, in the record of 1760 and 
 of 1762, are styled frigates. They were soon after 
 stripped of that name, and called "sloops," or 
 " sloops-of-war. " 
 
 The " Southampton" must be considered as 
 the first genuine frigate of English build, that 
 is, she was the first English ship constructed to 
 carry her guns on a single whole deck, a quarter 
 deck, and a forecastle, the unvarying character 
 istic of the sailing-frigate of our later times. The 
 " Southampton" bore the character of a good sea- 
 boat and prime sailer, and after a successful 
 career of fifty-six years was wrecked on a reef 
 in the Crooked Island Passage. 
 
 The 36-gun frigate of this date averaged 720 
 tons, and was armed with four additional 6- 
 pounders on the quarter-deck. Three of this 
 class and rate only were built, viz., the "Pal 
 las," launched in 1757, and the " Brilliant" and 
 " Venus." In 1774 some newly-discovered vir 
 tues in the old 44-gun ship caused twenty-nine 
 of them to be built. Like their predecessors, 
 they proved crank, and carried their guns too 
 low, and, after several endeavors to improve 
 them, they were deprived of their guns on the 
 lower deck and, being fitted with poops, con 
 verted into store-ships. 
 
 The first Admiralty order establishing the 
 38-gun frigate is dated September 30, 1779, and 
 marks their first appearance as a British class. 
 Previous to 1782 five had been launched, aver 
 aging 946 tons. These ships were named " Are- 
 thusa," "Latona," "Minerva," "Phaeton," 
 and " Thetis." The " Minerva," the first afloat, 
 was launched at Woolwich, June 3, 1780. These 
 ships mounted twenty-eight 18-pounders on the 
 main deck and eight 9-pounders on the quarter 
 deck and forecastle, throwing 300 pounds of 
 metal at a broadside. 
 
 Carronades were invented the year these ves 
 sels were ordered by the Admiralty, and eight 
 18-pound carronades and fourteen swivels, in ad 
 dition to their original armament, were placed on 
 board them, converting them in reality into 46- 
 
FRIGATE 
 
 297 
 
 FKOG 
 
 gun ships. The swivels were disposed of when 
 the two forecastle guns were reduced from 12- to 
 9-pounders. In 1781 there were 604 carronades 
 in the royal navy, of sizes from 32-pounders to 
 12-pounders. With the advance in ordnance 
 and marine architecture the frigates of the Old 
 World increased in size and military value ; but 
 they continued to be used, as originally intended, 
 as the "scouts," so to speak, of the main body 
 of a sea army. Nelson called them the " eyes 
 of the fleet." 
 
 On July 10, 1797, was launched at Phila 
 delphia the "United States," frigate, the first 
 of those American "forty-fours" which were 
 destined to become so celebrated in the annals 
 of naval warfare. They were longer propor 
 tionally, had heavier scantling, and carried 
 heavier batteries than any ships of equal rating 
 in the world. They were spoken of in England 
 as "74 s in disguise." Their appearance on the 
 ocean effected a marked change in the designing 
 and arming of ships of war of foreign navies. 
 " It is but justice in regard to America," writes 
 an eminent English authority, "to mention that 
 England has benefited by her example, and that 
 the large class of frigates now (1840) employed 
 in the British service are modeled after those of 
 the United States." 
 
 Passing^ over the periods marked by the ap 
 pearance of the "Fulton," "Missouri," and 
 "Princeton," we may come at once to the 
 " Minnesota" class of steam-frigates, launched 
 in 1855. These magnificent specimens of naval 
 architecture, with their enormous batteries, were 
 in their day the wonder and admiration of the 
 entire maritime world. 
 
 A clever writer on English naval affairs says, 
 " It was not until comparatively recent times 
 that the navies of different powers began seri 
 ously to vie with each other in the introduction 
 of the very destructive ordnance now in use, the 
 largest known specimens of which are to be seen 
 on board the new American frigates" (the " Min 
 nesota" class). 
 
 The "forty-four" of 1812 carried a battery 
 of thirty 24-pounders on the gun-deck, fourteen 
 32-pounder carronades on the quarter-deck, and 
 six 32-pounder carronades on the forecastle ; mak 
 ing a total of fifty guns^ throwing 1360 pounds 
 of solid shot, or 680 pounds at a broadside. She 
 had a complement of 430 men, and cost, to build, 
 $220,910. The "Minnesota s" battery in time 
 of war consisted of twenty-eight 9-inch shell 
 guns on her gun-deck, twenty 9-inch guns on the 
 spar-deck, and two 11-inch pivot-guns mounted 
 on the forecastle and quarter-deck, respectively. 
 This gave a total of fifty guns, throwing 3799 
 pounds of loaded shell, or 4320 pounds of solid 
 shot; or a broadside of 2035 pounds of shell, or 
 2492 pounds of solid shot. Her displacement 
 is 4700 tons. The " Ohio," a fair representative 
 of the line-of-battle ships, has a displacement of 
 4250 tons, and threw at a broadside 1612 pounds 
 of solid shot. By comparing these figures and 
 considering the increased mobility due to steam- 
 power, an idea may be formed of the relative 
 military value of the frigate of the steam period 
 and the line-of-battle ship of the last of the sail 
 period. 
 
 The estimated cost of a line-of-battle ship in 
 1812 was $333,000. The cost of a modern frigate 
 may be seen from the following table : 
 
 
 Cost of Hull. 
 
 Machinery. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 $828,143 
 707 062 
 
 $170,000 
 172 004 
 
 $998,143 
 879 126 
 
 
 694,711 
 
 154,982 
 
 849 693 
 
 
 85S,904 
 
 234 3G1 
 
 1 093 265 
 
 
 644,215 
 
 170 000 
 
 894 215 
 
 Wabash 
 
 813,644 
 
 165,924 
 
 979 568 
 
 
 
 
 
 From this comparison it will be seen how com 
 pletely the term frigate has ceased to convey any 
 idea of the military value of a vessel of war. 
 
 A. frigate-built ship is one having the decks ar 
 ranged like those of the earlier frigates, i.e., with 
 a raised quarter-deck and forecastle. From these 
 there was a descent of a few steps to the waist. 
 Her forecastle extended from the stem to the 
 belfry ; the quarter-deck from the stern to the 
 gangway. The open space between was the 
 waist; hence the term a " deep-waisted ship." 
 
 FRIGATE-BIRD. A large and rapacious tropi 
 cal fowl of the genus Tachypetes (T. aquila), with 
 very long wings ; allied to the pelican. 
 
 FRIGATOON. A Venetian vessel built with a 
 square stern, with a mainmast, jigger-mast, and 
 bowsprit. The name is also applied to a ship- 
 rigged sloop-of-war. 
 
 Frigid Zone. See ZONES. 
 
 Fringing-reefs. Narrow reefs of coral for 
 mation at short distances from the shore. 
 
 Frisk. To freshen, as the wind. 
 
 Frith. Derived from /return maris, a narrow 
 strait : an arm of the sea into which a river flows. 
 Synonymous with firth (which see). 
 
 Fritters. Tendinous fibres of the whale s 
 blubber, running in various directions, and con 
 necting the cellular substance which contains the 
 oil. They are what remains after the oil has 
 been tried out, and are used as fuel to try out the 
 next whale. 
 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin. This distinguished 
 naval adventurer of the Elizabethan period, 
 the first Englishman who sought to discover 
 a northwest passage to China, was a native of 
 Doncaster, but the year of his birth is unknown. 
 After endeavoring in vain for many years to 
 secure money and vessels to search for the north 
 west passage, he was patronized by several per 
 sons of rank and fortune, and succeeded in 
 securing money enough to fit out two small 
 vessels of 25 tons each, and a pinnace of 10 
 tons. With these he sailed from Deptford, 
 June 8, 1576. On the llth of August he entered 
 the strait which bears his name. The second 
 expedition under his command sailed in May, 
 1577, and the third in the following year. He 
 afterwards served under Drake in the West 
 Indies, and was knighted for distinguished 
 bravery in the fight with the Spanish Armada, 
 July 26, 1588. He died November 7, 1594, the 
 result of a wound received while leading an 
 attack by sea against Brest. 
 
 Frog. An old term for a seaman s coat or 
 frock. A leather pocket or case for a pistol, 
 bayonet, or cutlass. An amphibious animal of 
 the genus Rana. 
 
 FROG-EATERS. Frenchmen. 
 
 FROG-FISH. See FISHING-FROG. 
 
 FROG-LANDERS. Hollanders. 
 
 FROG-PIKE. The female pike, spawning at 
 the same time as frogs. 
 
FRONTAGE 
 
 298 
 
 FUNERAL HONORS 
 
 Frontage. The length or face of a wharf. 
 
 Frost. The congelation of the vapor of the 
 atmosphere. The hoar frost, or white frost, 
 which is seen in the mornings during spring and 
 autumn, is merely frozen dew. See DEW. 
 
 FROSTED. Having a lustreless appearance, as 
 metals, glass, etc., when not polished; this ap 
 pearance somewhat resembles hoar-frost ; hence 
 the name. Frosted work is introduced as a foil 
 or contrast to burnished work, in which the metal 
 is liighly polished. 
 
 FROST-FISH. A small fish, called also torn- 
 cod; they are taken in large quantities in the 
 depth of winter by fishing through holes cut in 
 the ice. 
 
 FROST RIME. See FROST-SMOKE. 
 
 FROST-SMOKE. A thick mist in high latitudes, 
 arising from the surface of the sea when exposed 
 to a temperature much below freezing ; the 
 vapors as they rise are condensed either into a 
 thick fog, or, with the thermometer about zero, 
 hug the water in eddying white wreaths. The 
 latter beautiful form is called a barber, probably 
 from its resemblance to soap-suds. 
 
 Froth. See FOAM. 
 
 Frumentariae. The ancient vessels which 
 supplied the Roman markets with corn . 
 
 Frush. A term for wood that is apt to splinter 
 and break. 
 
 Fry. Young fishes. 
 
 Fucus Maximus. An enormous sea-weed, 
 growing abundantly round the coasts of Tristan 
 d Acunha, and perhaps the most exuberant of 
 the vegetable tribe. Said to rise from a depth 
 of many fathoms, and to spread over a surface 
 of several hundred feet. 
 
 Fuddled. Not quite drunk, but unfit for 
 duty. Confused. 
 
 Fuel. Any substance used to produce heat by 
 combustion, as coal, wood, peat, oil, etc. Carbon 
 and hydrogen are the elements of heat in fuel. 
 
 Fuell. An old nautical word signifying an 
 opening between two headlands. 
 
 Fu-fu. A sea-dish of barley a*hd molasses. 
 
 Full. Complete ; plump ; filled out. Sails 
 are full when th(/wind inflates them, so as to 
 give the ship headway. The yards are said to 
 be braced full when the sails are filled. Keep 
 her full! an order to the helmsman to keep the 
 sails full, and not allow them to shake. 
 
 FULL AND BY. Sailing close to the wind with 
 yards sharp up and sails full. 
 
 FULL-BOTTOMED. Of great capacity below 
 the water-line. 
 
 FULL DRIVE. Forcibly ; with great vigor. 
 
 FULL DUE. For good ; final. 
 
 FULL FEATHER. In full dress; attired in 
 best clothes. 
 
 FULL FIG. See FULL FEATHER. 
 
 FULL MAN (Eng.}. A rating in coasters for 
 one receiving whole pay as being competent to 
 perform all his duties ; able seaman. 
 
 F TT LL MOON. When the moon is in opposi 
 tion the whole illuminated disk is turned toward 
 the earth ; the moon is then said to \>&full. 
 
 FULL PAY. The pay allowed when on actual 
 service. 
 
 FULL SEA. High water. 
 
 FULL SPEED. Highest speed. 
 
 FULL SPREAD. All sail set. 
 
 FULL SWING. Complete control. 
 
 Fulmar. A web-footed sea-bird, Procellaria 
 
 glacialis, of the petrel kind, larger than the 
 common gull ; its eggs are taken in great quan 
 tity at St. Kilda and in the Shetlands. 
 
 Fulminates. The salts of fulminic acid. See 
 EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Fumado. A commercial name of the pilchard, 
 when garbaged, salted, smoked, pressed, and 
 packed. 
 
 Fumble-fisted. Awkward in catching a turn, 
 or otherwise handling a rope. 
 
 Fumigate. To purify confined or infectious 
 air by means of smoke, sulphuric acid, vinegar, 
 and other correctives. See DISINFECTANTS. 
 
 Funeral Honors. On the receipt of official 
 intelligence of the death of the President of the 
 United States, the senior officer present, on the 
 following day, causes the ensign of each vessel 
 under his authority to be hoisted at half-mast 
 from sunrise to sunset, and a gun to be fired by 
 his vessel every half-hour, beginning at sunrise 
 and ending at sunset. At naval stations the 
 same ceremonies are observed. 
 
 On the death of a commander of a fleet, squad 
 ron, or division, at sea, the ensigns of all the 
 vessels present, and the distinguishing flag of 
 command which he wore, are hoisted at half-mast 
 during the performance of the funeral ceremony ; 
 and on committing the body to the deep, the 
 flag-ship fires as many minute-guns as he was 
 entitled to receive for a salute when alive, and 
 his flag is hauled down on firing the last gun. 
 If occurring in port, the ensigns and distinguish 
 ing flag mentioned are hoisted at half-mast 
 during each day from that of his decease until 
 sunset of the one on which the funeral service is 
 performed, and,bn sending the body to the shore, 
 the prescribed number of minute guns is fired. 
 The escort fires three volleys of musketry over 
 the grave. 
 
 On the death of an officer commanding a 
 vessel, at sea, the ensigns of all the vessels 
 present, and the pennant of the vessel he com 
 manded, are hoisted at half-mast during the per 
 formance of the funeral ceremony ; and, on 
 committing the body to the deep, the vessel he 
 commanded fires as many minute-guns as he was 
 entitled to receive as a return salute when alive. 
 If in port, the pennant of the vessel he com 
 manded is hoisted at half-mast during each day 
 from that of his decease until sunset of the one 
 on which the funeral service is performed ; and, 
 on sending the body to the shore, all the vessels 
 present half-mast their ensigns until sunset, and 
 the number of minute-guns indicated is fired. 
 The escort fires three volleys of musketry over 
 the grave. 
 
 On the death of a commissioned officer, other 
 than those already mentioned, at sea, the ensigns 
 of all the vessels present are hoisted at half-mast 
 during the performance of the funeral service ; 
 and if in port, the ensigns are so hoisted during 
 the time that the body is being conveyed to the 
 shore, and until the return of the funeral escort 
 to the ship. In either case, after the funeral 
 services, three volleys of musketry are fired \)y 
 the full marine guard. 
 
 On the death of an officer of the staff corps, 
 the same funeral honors are observed as those 
 prescribed for a line-officer of the same relative 
 rank, except that the distinctive flag or pennant 
 of the vessel is not hoisted at half-mast, and that 
 no minute-guns are fired. 
 
FUNGUS 
 
 UNlVtKgfTY 
 
 - - 
 
 299 >v -. 
 
 UZE 
 
 On the death of a warrant-officer, the ensigns 
 of all the vessels present are hoisted at half-mast 
 during the performance of the funeral service 
 when at sea ; and when in port, during the time 
 that the body is being conveyed to the shore, and 
 for one hour afterward. In either case, three 
 volleys of musketry are fired by a sergeant s 
 guard of fourteen men. 
 
 On the death of a petty officer, or other person 
 of inferior rating, the ensigns of all vessels 
 present are hoisted at half-mast during the per 
 formance of the funeral service when at sea ; and 
 when in port, during the time that the body is 
 being conveyed to the shore. 
 
 On the death of an officer, non-commissioned 
 officer, or private -of the marine corps, the 
 funeral honors are to be regulated by his relative 
 rank. 
 
 If it should not be practicable to fire with 
 musketry at the grave of any officer in a foreign 
 country, the volleys are fired over the body after 
 it is lowered into the boat alongside the ship. 
 
 Funeral honors are ndt to be paid before the 
 rising nor after the setting of the sun. 
 
 Fungus. See DRY EOT. 
 
 Funk. To become frightened ; to show the 
 white feather. To blow tobacco smoke in a per 
 son s face. 
 
 Funnel. A metal tube for carrying off smoke 
 from a furnace. The galley-funnel is familiarly 
 known as Charley Noble. 
 
 Funny. A light clinker-built pleasure-boat, 
 rowing a pair of sculls. It is long and narrow, 
 and used for racing. 
 
 Fur. Scale formed in a boiler. To clean off 
 the scale from the interior of a boiler. 
 
 Furl. To roll up and bind a sail to its yard 
 or boom. 
 
 FURLING-LINE. A small line for binding a 
 sail to it s gaff or boom when furled. A sea- 
 gasket. 
 
 Furlough. The correct definition of the word 
 furlough as used by the Navy Department is 
 leave or license given by the Secretary of the 
 Navy to an officer to be unemployed for a speci 
 fied time. This is done upon request of the 
 officer, and sometimes by decision of the Depart 
 ment, as in cases of officers who get duty on 
 board vessels carrying IT. S. mail. Furlough 
 under such circumstances is not a punishment. 
 Where an officer is put on furlough by the Sec 
 retary of the Navy as a penalty, or in the sense 
 of implying censure, the word is used in the past 
 tense, viz., furloughed. It so appears at least in 
 the Navy Register. 
 
 Officers on furlough and officers furloughed re 
 ceive one-half of the pay to which they would 
 have been entitled if on leave of absence on the 
 active list. (Rev. Stat., Sec. 1557.) 
 
 The Secretary of the Navy has a legal right to 
 furlough any officer on the active list. (Rev. 
 Stat., Sec. 1442.) 
 
 Furnace. A structure in which intense heat 
 is produced by combustion and applied to such 
 purposes as the manufacture and working of 
 metals, generation of steam, etc. The general 
 peculiarities of furnaces are designated by specific 
 names, such as blast-furnace, reverberatory-fur- 
 nace, steam-boiler furnace, etc. 
 
 FURNACE-BRIDGE. See FIRE-BRIDGE. 
 
 FURNACE-DOOR. A door for closing the mouth 
 of a furnace. 
 
 Furniture. The rigging, sails, spars, anchors, 
 cables, boats, provisions, etc., which make up a 
 vessel s equipment. 
 
 Furole. The luminous appearance known as 
 the corpo santo. See ST. ELMO S FIRE. 
 
 Furube. A fish taken on the coast of Japan, 
 and considered to be poisonous. 
 
 Furze. Brushwood prepared for breaming. 
 
 Fuse. See FUZE. 
 
 Fusible Alloy. An alloy composed prin 
 cipally of tin, lead, and bismuth, which will 
 melt near or below the temperature of boiling 
 water. When the component parts are tin 19, 
 lead 31, and bismuth 50, the alloy will melt at a 
 little less than 212 F. 
 
 Fusible Plug. A plug of easily fusible metal 
 or alloy screwed into a crown-sheet or other 
 suitable part of a> boiler-furnace, which, by melt 
 ing when not covered by water, gives warning 
 of low water and partially releases the pressure 
 from the boiler. The device has never proved 
 successful, and is not now in use. 
 
 Fust. A low but capacious .armed vessel, 
 propelled with sails and oars, which formerly 
 attended upon galleys ; a scampavia, barge, or 
 pinnace. 
 
 Fustick. In commerce, a dye-wood brought 
 principally from the West Indies and Spanish 
 Main. 
 
 Futtocks. The crooked timbers placed in 
 the lower parts of the frames of a wooden ship, 
 commencing with the heads of the flqor timbers, 
 and as they go upwards are called first, second, 
 third, and fourth futtocks until the top timbers 
 are reached. The term hook is frequently applied 
 to anything bent or curved, as boat-hooks, fore- 
 hooks, after-hooks, etc. Futtock is a corruption 
 of foot-hook, and is so named from its being 
 placed at the foot of a timber. 
 
 FUTTOCK-BAND. An iron band around the 
 lower mast, to which the futtock-shrouds are 
 secured. 
 
 FUTTOCK-HOLES. Holes in the top-rim for the 
 futtock-plates. 
 
 FUTTOCK-PLATES. Certain iron plates having 
 their upper parts open like a ring, to fix the 
 dead-eyes in; and round holes are punched at 
 the lower end of these plates for the futtock- 
 shrouds to hook into. 
 
 FUTTOCK-RIDERS. These are used in mer 
 chant ships built of wood. They are placed on an 
 angle of 40, more or less, with the stem and 
 stern-post, and are secured at the lower end to a 
 hook which crosses the stem and at the upper 
 end to the diagonal knee, towards which the 
 rider is pointed ; they are generally placed inside 
 of the ceiling. 
 
 FUTTOCK-SHROUDS. Lengths of iron chain 
 connected with the futtock-band and the fut 
 tock-plates, and serving to take the strain of the 
 topmast rigging. In large ships they are some 
 times rattled down for convenience in getting 
 into the tops. 
 
 FUTTOCK-STAFF. A leather-covered iron rod 
 inside the topmast rigging for the topgallant 
 shrouds to lead over. 
 
 Fuze. The local apparatus for inflaming the 
 charge of a shell or torpedo. 
 
 The fuzes for shells are classified as time-, 
 percussion-, and concussion-fuzes, according to 
 their mode of operation. 
 
 The time-fuzes used in the navy are : 
 
FUZE 
 
 300 
 
 FUZE 
 
 1. Navy metal stock time-fuze, for S. B. spher 
 ical and for M. L. K. shell. 
 2 Bormann fuze. 
 
 3. Time-fuze, wooden stock, for B. L. how 
 itzers. 
 
 4. The bomb or mortar fuze. 
 
 5. Rear fuzes, in base of rifle-shell. 
 
 The navy time-fuze is fitted to all spherical 
 shell (except the 24-pounder and 12-pounder boat- 
 howitzer ammunition) and to a part of the ex 
 panding shell for rifle guns. This fuze consists 
 of a column of inflammable composition driven 
 in a paper case, intended to burn a certain num 
 ber of seconds, having a safety-plug attached to 
 its lower orifice in such a way as to prevent the 
 issue of flame so long as it remains fixed, and 
 also to guard the composition against the effects 
 of moisture. 
 
 In practice, this plug, which consists of a short 
 solid cylinder of lead, is detached from its posi 
 tion upon the firing of the gun, the jar caused by 
 the explosion being sufficient, thus leaving the 
 fuze-composition in contact with the shell charge. 
 The safety-plug is omitted in time-fuzes intended 
 for use in rifle-shell. 
 
 The paper case in which the composition is 
 driven is made slightly tapering to fit into the 
 metal stock, the safety-plug attached to the lower 
 end projecting through the stock about half an 
 inch. 
 
 The composition is covered on top by a water- 
 cap, of peculiar construction, being primed on 
 its outer surface with a strand of quick-match 
 and powder ; its object is to protect the flarne 
 from being extinguished on ricochet; this is 
 next covered by a thin piece of parchment, and 
 over all by a leaden patch, which is firmly fixed 
 by being expanded to fill the recess in the metal 
 stock ; it is provided with a lug, that it may be 
 stripped off to expose the priming, otherwise the 
 fuze will not ignite, and consequently the shell 
 will not explode. The length of fuze, in seconds, 
 is stamped upon the leaden patch, and outside of 
 all, printed upon paper, is pasted the date of 
 manufacture, length of fuze, with initials of in 
 specting officer. 
 
 These fuzes are of 3J, 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20 
 seconds time of burning, a certain proportion 
 of each being supplied to each ship, although all 
 shell, unless otherwise ordered, are fitted and 
 issued from the shell-houses with the 5-second 
 fuze, which is regarded as the general work 
 ing fuze. For greater or less distances this fuze 
 may be drawn, and any of the others substituted. 
 The navy time-fuze is rarely extinguished by 
 several ricochets on water ; and near the end 
 of its flight, when fired direct, frequently acts 
 by concussion. The fuze used should not be of 
 longer time of burning than requisite to reach 
 the object ; the shorter times are of quicker com 
 position, therefore more certain ; also on firing 
 on ricochet the shell may sink short of the dis 
 tance necessary for its explosion, and conse 
 quently be supposed to fail. 
 
 For special firing, as, for example, at shore bat 
 teries or masses of uncovered troops, any of these 
 fuzes may be shortened. To do this, unscrew 
 the water-cap and back the paper case out from 
 the lower end with a drift and mallet ; cut off 
 from the lower end with a fine saw, or sharp 
 knife struck with a mallet, the proportional part 
 required, and insert the upper part in the stock, 
 
 forcing it down with a few gentle blows with 
 the drift ; screw on the water-cap. But this 
 operation should only be performed by an expert, 
 and in cases of necessity : as when done by inex 
 perienced persons, premature explosions have 
 been caused, seriously damaging the guns. It 
 is preferable, therefore, when circumstances will 
 admit, to take up such distance as will corre 
 spond with the time of flight of one of the regu 
 lation lengths. When firing against ships or 
 earth-works, the fuze should be a little longer 
 than necessary, in order to reach the object 
 before bursting ; but a little shorter when firing 
 against boats or masses of troops, in order to 
 insure its bursting in front of them. 
 
 Time-fuzes are generally very unreliable in 
 rifle guns, as expanding or forced projectiles cut 
 off the flame from the fuze ; but with the Par 
 rot shell, the navy time-fuze is comparatively 
 certain of ignition and regular in its time of 
 burning. The safety-plug must be removed 
 when the navy time-fuze is used in rifled cannon, 
 as recent experiments show that it is a probable 
 cause of premature explosion of shells. In test 
 ing the navy time-fuze by the watch or michro- 
 nometer, the safety-plug must be removed ; other 
 wise the fuze will burn longer than the time for 
 which it is marked, as all navy time-fuzes, being 
 intended for use under a water-cap, burn a longer 
 time in the open air. 
 
 The Bormann fuze is fitted to all S. B. shrap 
 nel and the 24-pounder and 12-pounder boat- 
 howitzer ammunition, and has been fitted to 
 certain shell for special firing ; the length of the 
 fuze being the limit of distance within which 
 this fire is effective. It consists of a short cylin 
 drical case of soft metal (composition of lead and 
 tin), containing an annular space charged with 
 fuze-composition of a uniform density and thick 
 ness throughout. The annular space or inden 
 tation for the composition is made on the lower 
 side, in the shape of a horseshoe, one end of which 
 connects with a small magazine in the .centre 
 of the fuze. This indentation extends nearly 
 through the cylinder, that portion of the metal 
 left on top being quite thin. The fuze is charged 
 from the under side, a strand of quick-match 
 being first placed in the bottom of the channel ; 
 the fuze-composition is then laid in a smooth 
 layer throughout, and a ring of the same metal 
 as the case is pressed upon it by machinery, seal 
 ing it hermetically. The cylindrical opening or 
 magazine in the centre is filled with fine powder 
 and covered with a cap of sheet-lead ; with those 
 supplied at present this cap is made quite thin, 
 obviating the perforation heretofore necessary. 
 
 The metal on the upper surface of the fuze 
 over the composition is graduated in equal parts 
 and marked in seconds and quarter seconds, and 
 being quite thin is easily cut with a gouge, thus 
 exposing the fuze-composition to the flames. 
 Care should be taken in making the cut not to 
 pierce the priming-chamber or magazine, which 
 would necessarily cause an explosion at the 
 muzzle of the gun. 
 
 On the side of the fuze the thread of a screw 
 is cut, by which means it is fitted to the projec 
 tile ; and to prevent its being driven into the 
 shell by the explosive force of the charge, the 
 fuze being made of soft metal, it is supported by 
 a composition plate, which is first screwed into 
 the fuze-hole, having a perforation in its centre 
 
FUZE 
 
 301 
 
 FUZE 
 
 for the flame to pass through. No oil is to be 
 used on the threads of this fuze, and on screwing 
 it in it must be started fair, so as to be evenly 
 supported on the plate. 
 
 The date of manufacture and initials of in 
 specting officer are stamped on the upper surface 
 of the fuze, and on the bottom is pasted a piece 
 of paper on which is noted the date when inserted 
 in projectile. 
 
 This fuze is opened at the required number of 
 seconds by cutting close to the right of the mark 
 on the index plate. The cut should be made 
 down to the plane of the table, in order to expose 
 the composition ; and is best made by two or 
 three efforts, instead of trying to effect the cut 
 at once. This fuze should be carefully explained 
 to the men, as shells have been taken from guns 
 with the cut actually made into the priming- 
 magazine. 
 
 The time-fuze for B. L. howitzer, which is 
 virtually a modification of the English Boxer 
 fuze, consists of a beech-wood stock, conical in 
 form, fitted to receive the paper-case fuze, which 
 is somewhat less in diameter than the regulation 
 navy time-fuze already described. Just above 
 the upper face of the fuze-composition is an un 
 occupied space from which four gas-vent chan 
 nels lead to the outside of the stock above the 
 point of the shell. Immediately above this gas- 
 vent chamber the bore of the stock is consider 
 ably enlarged to receive the igniter. This con 
 sists of a small bronze hollow cylinder, closed at 
 the lower end, where it is furnished on the inside 
 with a pierced nipple for a percussion-cap. The 
 upper edge of the hollow cylinder is flanged in 
 such a manner as to rest on top of the stock ; 
 thereby preventing the igniter from being driven 
 bodily into the fuze on discharge of the gun. 
 Inside of this hollow cylinder the plunger is 
 hung on a brittle wire (half copper and half 
 lead). When this arrangement is in place the 
 head of the fuze is covered with a piece of paper 
 or linen, luted down and coated with shellac. 
 Thus far the fuze only burns for the full time 
 for which it was pressed. In order to provide for 
 intermediate times, two side channels are bored 
 from the lower end of the fuze upward. Holes 
 bored at equal intervals from the outside of the 
 stock connect the exterior of the fuze with the 
 side channels ; the lowest communicating hole in 
 each channel being bored entirely through to 
 the fuze-composition. The channels are filled 
 with mealed powder and paper pasted over the 
 exterior of the time-holes. Upper and lower 
 ends of the stock are served with brass wire. 
 
 To use. the fuze, with a suitable tool pierce 
 through the communicating hole, which corre 
 sponds to the number of seconds desired, into the 
 column of fuze-composition, then push the fuze 
 by hand, giving it a slight twist, into the nose 
 of the projectile, and load the gun. On explosion 
 of the charge the igniter acts as usual, and the 
 fuze-composition burns down to the point at 
 which it was pierced ; then the flame flashes into 
 the side channels, down the latter to the lower 
 communicating hole, and thence to the bursting 
 charge. 
 
 The bomb- or mortar-fuze consists of a con 
 ical wooden plug turned off the proper size of 
 the fuze-hole, and about seven and a half inches 
 in length ; the axis of the plug is bored out cylin- 
 drically from the large to within a short dis 
 
 tance of the small end, the latter being left solid. 
 The plug is graduated and marked on the ex 
 terior in inches, the fuze-composition with which 
 it is filled being driven hard and as evenly as 
 possible, so as to burn at the rate of seven seconds 
 to an inch, making the extreme length of the 
 fuze forty-nine seconds. At the large end a cup 
 is hollowed out and filled with mealed powder 
 moistened with alcohol. The rate of burning is 
 ascertained by experiment, and marked on a 
 water-proof covering, which is tied over the cap. 
 A fuze-saw is supplied, and must be at hand 
 during practice, to cut the fuze at the required 
 length. 
 
 Fuzes for sea-coast mortars are also driven in 
 conical paper cases marked with the number of 
 seconds they burn per inch. These cases are in 
 serted in a metal or wooden plug previously 
 driven in the fuze-hole, and accurately reamed 
 out. 
 
 Base-fuze. "With forced and expanding pro 
 jectiles the flame of the discharge frequently 
 fails to ignite the fuze placed in the forward end 
 of the projectile ; there are also objections to the 
 use of the fulminates and chemicals of percus 
 sion- and concussion-fuzes. These reasons have 
 led to the invention of time-fuzes placed in the 
 base of projectiles, several kinds of which are 
 now on trial. 
 
 Percussion-fuzes are those which are prepared 
 for action by the shock of the discharge, and put 
 in action on striking the object. The only fuze 
 of this kind used in the navy is the Schenkle- 
 fuze, which consists of a hollow metallic stock, 
 cylinder, and cap. The stock is made of com 
 position, and in appearance is similar to that of 
 the navy time-fuze. The cylinder is of steel, 
 about an inch and a quarter in length, filled with 
 quick-burning composition, and has fixed at its 
 forward end, in a cylindrical recess, a nipple, 
 projecting slightly, on which an ordinary per 
 cussion-cap is placed. The cylinder fits loosely 
 in the fuze-stock, and is suspended by means of 
 a small brass screw, which passes through a hole 
 in the side of the stock and into the cylinder. 
 This screw is not to be removed, or premature 
 explosion in the gun is likely to occur. 
 
 A brass cap, plain on one side and countersunk 
 on the other, screws into the head of the stock 
 over the cylinder; the object of its being made 
 with one side countersunk, is to guard against 
 the danger of accidental explosion should the 
 cylinder or plunger become loose, as the cavity 
 is of sufficient depth to prevent contact with the 
 percussion-cap, it being particularly ordered that 
 it shall be screwed in with the cavity next the 
 plunger ; to be reversed only when the shell is en 
 tered in the gun, at which time it is absolutely 
 necessary. In firing, the jar caused by the ex 
 plosion of the charge in the gun breaks the 
 screw, the cylinder is released and recedes to the 
 bottom of the fuze-case, and upon striking an 
 object of sufficient resistance the cylinder moves 
 forward with violence, the percussion-cap coming 
 in contact with the plain side of the brass cap 
 explodes, thereby igniting the fuze-composition, 
 which communicates flame to the bursting charge 
 in the shell. These fuzes are all made of one 
 size. 
 
 The best effect of a percussion-fuze is obtained 
 by firing into a mass of timber. They frequently 
 fail if fired into a bank of soft earth, sand, or 
 
FUZE 
 
 302 
 
 GALLAN WHALE 
 
 other material which doe? not offer a sufficiently 
 sudden resistance ; also, if fired at high angles of 
 elevation, owing to the fact that the rifle-shells 
 do not generally strike point foremost. 
 
 Concussion-fuzes are put in action by the shock 
 of discharge, but the action is restrained until 
 the projectile strikes the object. These fuzes, as 
 well as the percussion-fuzes, are wholly inde 
 pendent of the time of flight, and are dangerous 
 to handle on account of the fulminates and 
 chemicals which they contain. 
 
 Combination time-fuze. The composition is 
 ignited by a percussion contrivance put in action 
 by the shock of discharge, after which it burns 
 as an ordinary time-fuze. 
 
 Fuzes used in torpedoes may be classified as 
 percussion-, friction-, chemical, and electric fuzes. 
 
 A. percussion-fuze is one in which the heat is 
 produced by a blow on some fulminating com 
 pound. The blow may be produced by releasing 
 
 a compressed spring which acts on a hammer, 
 by the dropping of a weight, or by the impact 
 of a moving body. 
 
 A. friction-fuze is one in which the heat is 
 evolved by the friction of a metallic surface on 
 the composition, or by the friction of the parti 
 cles of the composition on each other. 
 
 A chemical fuze is one in which substances 
 separated until required for action are then 
 brought into contact, and, uniting chemically, 
 produce heat. 
 
 An electric fuze is one in which the heat is 
 caused by electricity. The heat may be caused 
 by the shock or blow of disruptive discharge 
 acting on a sensitive composition, or by the heat 
 generated by the passage of an electric current 
 over a conductor of high specific resistance. 
 
 Fuzzy. Not firm or sound in substance. 
 
 Fyke. A bow-net for taking shad. The Me~ 
 dusa cruciata, or Medusa s head. 
 
 G. Of the letters used in the log-book to in 
 dicate the state of the weather, g denotes gloomy 
 weather. 
 
 Gab. An old but vulgar term for the mouth. 
 Gift of the gab, facility of expression. See EC 
 CENTRIC-HOOK. 
 
 Gabarre (Fr.}> A river-lighter. A store- 
 ship. 
 
 Gabart, or Gabbert. A flat vessel with a long 
 hatchway ; used in canals and rivers. 
 
 Gabbok. A voracious dog-fish in St. George s 
 Channel. 
 
 Gaberdine. An old name for a loose felt cloak 
 or mantle. 
 
 Gabert. See GABART. 
 
 Gable, or Gabulle. An old form of cable. 
 
 Gaby. A conceited simpleton. 
 
 Gachupin. A South American name for a 
 Spaniard. 
 
 Gadoid. One of a family of soft-finned fishes 
 having the ventral fins below or in advance of 
 the pectoral, of which family the cod is the 
 type. 
 
 Gaff. A small spar projecting abaft a mast, 
 which extends the head of a fore-and-aft sail 
 not set on a stay. The inner end is called the 
 jaws, and the outer, the peak. It has cheek- 
 blocks for the brails, and iron bands with eyes 
 for the vangs, throat- and peak-halliards. It 
 is sometimes stationary, being secured to the 
 mast by eye-bolts on gaff and mast ; when fitted 
 to hoist and lower, it slides on a trysail-mast, 
 batten, or jack-stay. For the gear of a gaff, see 
 under proper heads. 
 
 A barbed iron instrument for spearing fish. 
 
 GAFF-HOOK. A strong iron hook set on a 
 handle for landing large fish that have been 
 caught with a hook and line. 
 
 GAFF-NET. A peculiar fishing-net. 
 
 GAFF-TOPSAIL. A light triangular or quad 
 rilateral sail set above a gaff. It is seldom used 
 
 in men-of-war, but forms a part of the rig of all 
 fore-and-afters. For the gear of a gaff-topsail, 
 see under proper heads. 
 
 Gage. See GAUGE. 
 
 Gained Day. See DAY, CIRCUMNAVIGA 
 TOR S. 
 
 Gaining-twist. A term applied to the rifling 
 of a gun when the twist is not uniform, but 
 greater at the muzzle than at the breech. 
 
 Gain the Wind. To arrive on the weather 
 side of another vessel when both are working to 
 windward. 
 
 Gait-fish. A name for the porpoise. 
 
 Gair-fowl. A name of the great auk, Alca 
 impennis. 
 
 Galaxy (Gr. gala, milk). The galaxy, or 
 milky-way (Via Lactea), is the great luminous 
 band which stretches across the sky and which 
 forms a zone completely encircling the whole 
 sphere, almost in a great circle. At one part it 
 sends off a kind of branch which unites again 
 with the main body, after remaining distinct 
 for about 150 degrees. This remarkable belt 
 has maintained from the earliest ages, the same 
 relative situation among the stars, and when ex 
 amined through powerful telescopes, is found to 
 consist entirely of stars scattered by millions, 
 " like glittering dust on the black ground of the 
 general heavens." 
 
 Gale. A storm. In a gale a ship must scud 
 before it or lie-to. In the Beaufort scale the 
 strength is denoted by 9, 10, 11, or 12, and the 
 velocity is from 20 to iOO miles per hour. 
 
 Galeas. See GALLIAS. 
 
 Galeopis. An ancient war-ship with a prow 
 resembling the beak of a sword-fish. 
 
 Gall. To chafe. See WINDGALL. ^ 
 
 Gallants. Formerly, all flags carried at the 
 mizzen were termed gallants. 
 
 Gallan Whale. The largest whale which 
 visits the Hebrides. 
 
GALLEAT 
 
 303 
 
 GALLEY 
 
 Galleat, or Galliot. A galley having one mast 
 and 16 to 20 oars ; at one time used by most of 
 the maritime nations of Europe. Also, a Dutch 
 or Flemish merchant vessel with very rounded 
 ribs and flattish bottom, with a mizzen-mast 
 stepped well aft, carrying a square main-sail and 
 main topsail, a fore-stay to the main-mast (there 
 being no foremast) with fore-stay-sail and jibs. 
 See SCAMPAVIA. 
 
 Galleon, or Galion. A name formerly given 
 to ships of war having three decks with guns on 
 each. Also applied to large Spanish merchant 
 vessels, much used as treasure-ships ; they were a 
 ready prey on account of their unwieldiness. 
 
 Gallery. A balcony projecting from the after 
 part of a ship. See QUARTER GALLERY. 
 
 GALLERY-LADDER. Synonymous with stern- 
 ladder. 
 
 Galley. The cooking apparatus on board ship. 
 
 GALLEY-GROWLERS. A term applied to a 
 class of grumblers and croakers on board ship 
 who find fault with the food and spread idle 
 rumors through the ship ; hence the terms " gal 
 ley-news" and "galley-yarn." 
 
 GALLEY-NEWS. See GALLEY-GROWLERS. 
 
 GALLEY-PACKET. The mythical ship which 
 brings "galley-news." 
 
 GALLEY-PEPPER. Soot or ashes which drop 
 into victuals in cooking. 
 
 GALLEY-SLANG. The neological barbarisms 
 foisted into sea-language. 
 
 GALLEY-STOKER. A skulker. 
 
 GALLEY-YARN. An unfounded rumor. See 
 GALLEY-GR.OWLERS. 
 
 Galley. French galere, derived from Ital. 
 galera, and adopted by the French about 1500. 
 The Italian galera was derived from the low 
 Latin galea, a helmet, because the figure-head 
 often consisted of a helmet. Ovid says, " Navis ; 
 et a picta casside nomen habet." Some etymolo 
 gists have thought that gale, the name applied 
 to the weasel and the cat, was given to this species 
 of vessel on account of its swiftness, slender form, 
 and ease of manreuvre. 
 
 The name galley has been in modern times 
 applied to vessels of war, using both sails and 
 oars, which the ancients distinguished according 
 to the number of benches of rowers, as biremes, 
 triremes, etc. There is much uncertainty as to 
 the rig and arrangement of the ancient galleys. 
 It is, however, certain that they were used for 
 war, often very long, low, originally without a 
 deck, and having one mast. Later, they were con 
 structed with poop and forecastle, for the fight 
 ing men, and the masts were made to lower, as 
 in the Roman galleys at the battle of Actium. 
 The Greeks and Carthaginians generally kept 
 their masts up during a fight, and kept hoisted 
 at their yard-arms heavy masses of metal to be 
 dropped upon their assailants, often causing them 
 to sink. The Romans used grappling-hooks with 
 which to hold their galleys fast to those of their 
 enemy, and thus make the fighting hand-to-hand, 
 in which case they were apt to be successful. 
 
 The ancient galleys were often armed with 
 a metal spur, or rostrum. They were steered by 
 2 or even 4 broad oars, instead of a rudder. 
 
 All galleys in the beginning had only one rank 
 of oars, the uniremes of the Romans, moneres of 
 the Greeks. These galleys were distinguished 
 among themselves by the number of oars, such 
 as triacontoros, or 30 rowers, and pentekontoros, 
 
 or 50 rowers. It is said that the ranks of oars 
 were gradually increased until, like the great 
 vessel of Hiero, built by Archimedes, and that 
 of Ptolemy Philopator, the ranks were raised to 
 40. Yet, as has been said, no modern has given 
 a thoroughly satisfactory explanation of how 
 these were arranged. 
 
 The modern galley was especially in use in 
 the Mediterranean from the 12th to the 18th cen 
 tury. They were very fast, and capable of per 
 forming rapid evolutions, their breadth in rela 
 tion to length being as 1 to 7, or even as 1 to 8 or 9. 
 They were decked, steered by a rudder and tiller, 
 and carried 2 or more lateen-sails, in later times, 
 but the sails were originally square. Each oar 
 was from 40 to 50 feet long, and manned by sev 
 eral men. An ordinary galley pulled 50 oars, 
 and would have from 250 to 300 rowers. A walk 
 or gangway, called the coursier, ran along the 
 middle of the deck, along which passed the comite, 
 or boatswain and his mates, for the purpose of 
 making the rowers do their best. 
 
 Before the invention of gunpowder the sides 
 of galleys were surmounted by a wall or bulk 
 head of planks, and they had small towers for 
 ward and aft, from which archers launched their 
 projectiles. They were also armed with a spur 
 of wood covered with iron. The use of fire-arms 
 caused the towers and spurs to be abandoned, 
 and a heavy piece of artillery and some smaller 
 ones were mounted forward, behind a sort of 
 bulwark called a rambade. To prevent board 
 ing they had nettings stretched completely over 
 the rowers and the main deck. The poop, which 
 was higher than the prow, was also defended by 
 bulwarks crenelated for musketry. 
 
 The system of recruiting for the rowers of the 
 galleys differed much at different times. During 
 ancient times the rower s place was considered an 
 honorable one. Virgil mentions that the Trojan 
 youth practiced continually at the oar. Later 
 the oar was worked by prisoners of war and black 
 slaves, the latter being especially used by the 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 In the middle ages they chained to the same 
 bench infidel prisoners and criminals ; and in 
 France justice showed herself more or less severe 
 according to the need of rowers for the galleys. 
 The loss of life in the French galleys was fright 
 ful. In 1676 the rowers numbered 4710, but 
 death made such fearful ravages among them 
 that every sort of vagabond was picked up, and 
 even North American Indians were kidnapped 
 for the purpose of being put to the oar. 
 
 The treatment of the galley-slaves was terri 
 ble, even after the great Colbert had interfered to 
 obtain better treatment for them. Fed princi 
 pally upon lentils and black bread, with a little 
 fat or oil, and all in insufficient quantity, a trav 
 eler who wrote at the end of the 17th century 
 says they were eaten by swarms of vermin and 
 scaly with itch ; dressed in a coarse sack, with 
 out shoes or cap, they slept upon the hard deck 
 or bench, chained to it and to each other. If 
 necessary during any manoeuvre to insure silence, 
 they were gagged. " Other particulars still more 
 revolting are given. 
 
 In some of the French dock-yards may still be 
 seen galley-slaves working at the oar and per 
 forming other hard labor, but the system is fast 
 dying out. The Algerines^used galleys up al 
 most to our own time. In 1748 the officers of the 
 
GALLIAS 
 
 304 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 French galleys, who had until then formed a 
 separate corps, were merged in the navy. 
 
 The term galley was also applied to a ship s 
 boat, generally built for speed. 
 
 GALLEY-ARCHES. Spacious and well-built 
 structures in many of the Mediterranean ports 
 for the reception and security of the galleys. 
 
 GALLEY-FOIST, or GALLEY-FUST. An obso 
 lete term for a barge of state. 
 
 GALLEY-SLAVE. A person condemned to work 
 at the oar on board a galley. 
 
 Gallias. A vessel larger and heavier than the 
 ordinary galley ; it had castellated structures at 
 the bow and stern for the fighting men. 
 
 Gallied. Worried; rattled; thrown out of 
 mental equilibrium. 
 
 Galligaskins. Wide hose or breeches formerly 
 worn by seamen, also called petticoat-trousers. 
 
 Gallipoli. A seaport town of European 
 Turkey, in Roumelia, on the Sea of Marmora, 
 132 miles W.S.W. of Constantinople. Lat. 40 
 24 N. ; Ion. 26 40 E. It has two ports, and is 
 the principal station of the Turkish fleet. Pop. 
 20,300. 
 
 Gallipoli. A fortified seaport town of Naples, 
 province of Lecce, 29 miles W.S.W. of Otranto, 
 on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, con 
 nected by a bridge with its suburb Lizza, on the 
 mainland. The harbor is between the town and 
 the island of Sant Andrea, and is 10 to 12 fath 
 oms in depth. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Gallivat. An armed row-boat of India, 
 smaller than a grab, generally 50 to 70 tons. It 
 was built like a grab, but not so large ; it had 
 two masts with a large triangular sail on the 
 main, and generally a deck made of split bam 
 boo. They carried swivel-guns or small cannon, 
 and sometimes pulled 50 oars, by which they 
 were propelled at the rate of 4 miles an hour. 
 
 Gallows. A frame- work above the deck of a 
 flush-decked vessel, used for stowing spare spars ; 
 called also gallows-tops , g allow s-bitts, and gallows- 
 frames. 
 
 Gally-gun. A kind of culverin. 
 
 Galore. Plenty ; abundance. 
 
 Galvanic Battery. The use of electricity as a 
 means of igniting explosive charges is of com 
 paratively recent date. The earliest recorded 
 application of this agent for such purposes was 
 by Moses Shaw, an American, who, in 1831, ex 
 ploded charges used in submarine blasting by 
 means of an ordinary frictional machine, and 
 who, later in the same year, by advice of Dr. 
 Hare, substituted a galvanic battery for the elec 
 trical machine. 
 
 In 1839, Lieut.-Gen. Pasley, R.A., while con 
 ducting operations for the removal of the wreck 
 of the " Royal George," at Spithead, used a gal 
 vanic battery for firing charges of powder. In 
 the same year, Alan Stevenson also applied the 
 same means in submarine blasting. 
 
 Probably the most noteworthy of the earlier 
 applications of electricity to firing purposes was 
 that made by William Cubitt, in 1843, when re 
 moving the Round Down cliff, on the line of the 
 Southeastern Railroad, near Dover. This cliff 
 was about 400 feet high, and in removing it three 
 charges, containing in the aggregate 18,000 
 pounds of gunpowder, were fired simultaneously 
 by means of a galvanic battery. The results of 
 the explosion realized the most sanguine expec 
 tations of the projectors. Over 1,000,000 tons 
 
 of chalk rock were thrown down in less than 
 five minutes, 10,000 and twelve months labor 
 being saved to the company. 
 
 The introduction of the torpedo into modern 
 warfare was followed by earnest attempts to 
 so modify its firing apparatus as to place it 
 more under control, thus rendering it safe to 
 friends and less dangerous to handle. Elec 
 tricity attracted almost immediate attention in 
 this connection, and so satisfactory have been 
 the results obtained by its use, that at the present 
 time it is almost exclusively employed as a firing 
 agent for torpedoes. 
 
 The sources of electricity best adapted to tor 
 pedo operations are three in number : 
 
 1. Contact between dissimilar metals, supple 
 mented by chemical action, illustrated by any 
 form of galvanic battery. 
 
 2. Friction between insulators, for example, 
 Smith s machine. 
 
 3. Mechanical energy so applied as to bring 
 about electro-magnetic induction, Beardslee s 
 and Farmer s machines. 
 
 Much inventive talent has been employed in 
 devising machines of this last class, and, as a re 
 sult, there is a large number of machines, vary 
 ing very widely in their properties. They may, 
 however, be divided into two general classes, 
 viz., induction machines of the first class, com 
 monly called magneto-electric machines, and in 
 duction machines of the second class, called dy 
 namo-electric machines. The magneto-electric 
 machines, of which Beardslee s machine is an ex 
 ample, give a current approximating to that 
 derived from frictional sources. The dynamo- 
 electric machines Farmer s for example give 
 a current similar to that of the galvanic battery. 
 
 A source of electricity to be used in extended 
 defensive operations should have the following 
 properties : 
 
 1. Its power should be great. 
 
 2. It should be ready toact at all times. 
 
 3. There should be no expenditure of material 
 when not in action. 
 
 4. It should, when used to fire any given tor 
 pedo, have no marked inductive influence on 
 neighboring cables. 
 
 5. The fuze required should be safe, simple, 
 little affected by climate or storage ; should be 
 of such a nature as to allow testing the condition 
 of the circuit, from time to time, and should have 
 such a resistance that moderately poor insulation 
 of the leading wires will not prevent its firing. 
 
 6. It should be equally applicable to self-acting 
 torpedoes and those fired at will. 
 
 Considered in reference to the above proposi 
 tions, it will readily be admitted that frictional 
 electricity is of but little value as a firing agent 
 in this class of operations. 
 
 First. Although its power can be made as 
 great as desired, it has always to be generated at 
 the moment required, unless we go into a con 
 stant expenditure of material to keep the gen 
 erator continuously in operation. 
 
 Second. The inductive influence of a current 
 derived from frictional sources is very marked. 
 
 Explosions of fuzes in neighboring circuits 
 have been experienced at the Torpedo Station, 
 due to no other cause than this, and it is also 
 probable that to the same cause were due the 
 "spontaneous explosions" encountered by the 
 Austrians in their earlier experiments. 
 
GALVANIC BATTEKY 
 
 305 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 Third. The fuze best adapted to frictional 
 electricity is not only extremely sensitive and 
 dangerous, but is also very liable to injury in 
 storage, and renders it impossible to test the cir 
 cuit at any time; but, above all, it has such a 
 high resistance that the slightest defect in the 
 insulation of the connecting wires will render it 
 impossible to fire, no matter what may be the 
 power of the machine used. 
 
 Fourth. Electricity from frictional sources 
 cannot easily be used with self-acting or contact 
 torpedoes. 
 
 Frictional electricity being then of little value 
 in this class of operations, let us now consider 
 how well induction machines will answer as a 
 substitute. The current derived from the first 
 class of these machines, approximating to that 
 obtained from frictional sources, we would natu 
 rally expect that the same objections would ap 
 ply. This is the case, the only advantage pos 
 sessed by these machines being that the fuze 
 required admits of testing, and is less sensitive, 
 and therefore safer. It is, however, more liable 
 to injury in transportation and storage, and has 
 also a very high resistance, which prevents its 
 use with poorly-insulated wires. The inductive 
 influence of the current of these machines is not 
 so marked, but is greater as the machines more 
 nearly approach the frictional in the character 
 of the current furnished. 
 
 Induction machines of the second class more 
 nearly fulfill the required conditions. The in 
 ductive influence on neighboring cables is slight. 
 They can be used, when in action, equally well 
 with contact torpedoes or those fired at will. 
 The fuze (platinum wire) best adapted to these 
 machines is simple, safe, sure, offers every facility 
 for testing, is but little affected by climate, 
 transportation, or storage, and, at the same time, 
 has very low resistance, and can be fired when 
 the insulation of the leading wires is very defec 
 tive. However, these machines are not ready to 
 act at all times, unless machinery be provided 
 for driving them, which involves a constant ex 
 penditure of material ; for this reason they must 
 be condemned for defensive operations. 
 
 Frictional and induction machines being thus 
 disposed of, there is left only the galvanic battery. 
 
 1. The power of a galvanic battery is only a 
 question of the number of cells used, and can be 
 made anything desired. 
 
 2. It is always ready to act, requiring only 
 that its circuit be complete. 
 
 3. In a properly constructed battery, properly 
 cared for, there is but little or no expenditure of 
 material, when not in action. 
 
 4. Its current has practically no inductive in 
 fluence on neighboring cables. 
 
 5. The platinum wire fuze can be used, bring 
 ing with it all the advantages enumerated above, 
 and enabling us, by simply increasing the num 
 ber of cells, to overcome all reasonable defects 
 of insulation. 
 
 6. It can be used indifferently with contact 
 torpedoes or those fired at will. 
 
 7. It is easily procured, and in case of neces 
 sity, a fair battery may readily be improvised. 
 
 In view of all these points, the galvanic bat 
 tery seems to be peculiarly adapted for use as a 
 firing agent in defensive operations. 
 
 A good battery should have the following 
 qualities : it should produce a high electro-mo- 
 20 
 
 tive force ; its electro-motive force should be 
 constant, whether used to produce strong or 
 weak currents ; it should have a small and con 
 stant internal resistance ; the materials employed 
 should be cheap and readily obtainable, par 
 ticularly the material consumed ; no material 
 should be expended when the battery is not em 
 ployed to produce a current. This last point is 
 generally attained when the cells are properly 
 insulated from each other, the battery itself well 
 insulated, and the zincs carefully amalgamated. 
 
 The electro-motive force and resistance per 
 cell of any form of battery are known as its 
 electrical dimensions, and it is the relative values 
 of these two quantities which must be the guide 
 in selecting batteries for particular purposes. 
 
 The simplest form of galvanic battery consists 
 of two plates of dissimilar metals plunged into a 
 liquid. A copper and a zinc plate in dilute 
 sulphuric acid or water are . generally used. 
 When the two plates are brought into contact or 
 joined by a conducting wire, a current of elec 
 tricity flows from the copper to the zinc, through 
 the conducting wire, and from the zinc to the 
 copper, through the liquid. The passage of the 
 current through the liquid is attended by chemi 
 cal action. The sulphuric acid attacks the 
 zinc, forming sulphate of zinc and liberating hy 
 drogen, which is carried over, and given off at 
 the copper plate. 
 
 This battery is found to be of no practical use ; 
 its electro-motive force decreases rapidly, and at 
 the same time its resistance is constantly increas 
 ing, until finally the action altogether ceases. 
 This inconstancy has been found to be due to the 
 action of the liberated hydrogen, which, instead 
 of passing off at the copper plate, clings to it, 
 generating an opposing electro-motive force, 
 which subtracts from the original force of the 
 combination. The hydrogen has still another 
 detrimental action ; after the circuit has been 
 closed for some time, the sulphate of zinc formed 
 permeates the whole solution ; the hydrogen acts 
 on this sulphate, depositing zinc on the copper 
 plate, and thus weakening still further the bat 
 tery. Attempts to so dispose of this hydrogen 
 that its action shall not be detrimental have re 
 sulted in many more complicated forms, called 
 constant batteries. 
 
 DanieWs battery consists of a zinc plate, in 
 either a solution of sulphate of zinc, or dilute 
 sulphuric acid, and a copper plate in a saturated 
 solution of sulphate of copper. The two solutions 
 are separated by a porous cup. To the sulphate 
 of copper solution a little sulphuric acid is some 
 times added to increase its conductivity. 
 
 This battery is very constant, particularly 
 when the sulphate of zinc solution is kept at 
 half saturation ; its electro-motive force is about 
 .98 volt, and its internal resistance varies from 
 4 to 10 ohms, according to size and construction. 
 The plates used should be of the same surface, 
 the copper being the larger, if either, and the 
 zinc plate should be in the larger vessel. 
 
 The Gravity battery is a modification of Dan- 
 iell s. In the bottom of a glass jar is a copper 
 plate, surrounded by crystals of sulphate of cop 
 per ; to the copper plate is soldered an insulated 
 wire, which leads up to the top of the jar ; the 
 jar is filled with water, to which a little sulphate 
 of zinc is sometimes added ; in the top of the jar 
 is suspended an annular zinc plate. 
 
GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 306 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 In the form of this battery in use at the Tor 
 pedo Station, the E. M. F. is about one volt, the 
 resistance about 2.4 ohms. In one particular 
 case, in which the copper plate is disposed as a 
 band around the interior wall of the jar, the re 
 sistance is as low as 1.4 ohms. 
 
 In this battery the difference of the specific 
 gravities of the two solutions keeps them sepa 
 rate ; therefore, the battery should never be so 
 agitated as to cause the solutions to mix. This 
 battery is very constant, and with reasonable 
 eare can be used for months without re-setting. 
 
 The Le Clanche battery consists of a glass jar, 
 and a porous cup which is glazed for half its 
 length. In the porous cup is placed a carbon 
 plate, surrounded by a mixture of gas carbon 
 and the needle form of peroxide of manganese 
 (black oxide). Both the carbon and the man 
 ganese should be sifted to get rid of any fine 
 dust, which would materially interfere with the 
 action of the battery. The top of the porous 
 cup is sealed with pitch. The glass jar contains 
 a zinc rod, and is half filled with a weak solu 
 tion of ammonic chloride (sal-ammoniac). The 
 E. M. F. of this battery is about 1.48 volts, and 
 the resistance for the quart jar from 2.5 to 3 
 ohms. 
 
 The battery should not be used on short cir 
 cuits where constant work is required, but for 
 intermittent work it is valuable, constant, and 
 requires but little care. A battery of this kind, 
 carefully prepared at the outset, can be used for 
 ten or twelve months without change, except to 
 supply what the solution loses by evaporation. 
 Sea- water is a very good substitute for the sal- 
 ammoniac solution. 
 
 Grove s battery consists of a zinc plate in dilute 
 sulphuric acid (generally one part of acid to ten 
 or twelve of water), and a platinum plate in 
 strong nitric acid, the two solutions being sepa 
 rated by a porous cap. The E. M. F. and re 
 sistance of this battery are reasonably constant ; 
 the latter, however, increases somewhat with the 
 time the battery has been in operation. With 
 the ordinary quart jar, the E. M. F. is about 1.8 
 volts, and the resistance from .3 ohm, when first 
 set up, to .8 ohm, after working a few days. 
 
 Bunsen tt battery is the same as the Grove, 
 with the exception that carbon is substituted for 
 platinum. The E. M. F. and internal resistance 
 of the Bunsen are both somewhat greater than 
 those of the Grove. The principal objection to 
 both these batteries is the nitrous fumes given 
 off, which are very unpleasant, and also particu 
 larly destructive to any electrical apparatus ex 
 posed to their influence. 
 
 Station battery. At the Torpedo Station a modi 
 fication of Bunsen s battery is much used ; the 
 porous cup is charged with a mixture of nitric 
 acid and a solution of bichromate of potash 
 (Gibb s solution). This solution is prepared as 
 follows : a saturated solution of the bichromate 
 is made, to which is added one-fourth its volume 
 of strong sulphuric acid. In charging the bat 
 tery, five parts of this solution are mixed with 
 one part of strong nitric acid ; dilute sulphuric 
 acid (one to twelve) is used in the outer jar. The 
 battery is reasonably constant ; its E. M. F. is 
 about two volts, and its resistance for the quart 
 jar varies from .5 ohm, when first set up, to 
 something over an ohm at the end of two weeks. 
 No nitrous fumes are given off, which is a great 
 
 advantage where instruments are used in connec 
 tion with the battery. 
 
 Pneumatic battery. A small compact battery 
 invented by Lieut. J. P. Merrell, U.S.N. It i9 
 supplied to all government vessels for use in 
 boats, for which it is very well adapted, being 
 compact and transportable, and possessing suf 
 ficient power to fire through a resistance of 2.7 
 ohms. The liquid (Hertz s battery solution) is 
 separate from the plates, and can only be brought 
 in contact with them by blowing through a rub 
 ber tube attached to the outer jar. 
 
 Selection of batteries. In torpedo work bat 
 teries are used for three distinct purposes, viz., 
 signaling, testing, and firing. The qualities de 
 manded in a signal or testing battery are identical ; 
 it must be constant and must give a weak current, 
 certainly one 50 per cent, below that required to 
 fire the fuze used. A firing battery, on the con 
 trary, must be capable of generating a very 
 strong current, and must have as great constancy 
 as can be obtained without sacrificing this prime 
 consideration. 
 
 The electrical dimensions of a battery form 
 the only criterion by which to judge of the cur 
 rent which it is capable of producing ; and it is 
 evident that for a signal battery one should be 
 selected which, being very constant, has, at the 
 same time, a low E. M. F. and large internal 
 resistance ; while, for a firing battery, one of 
 great E. M. F., low internal resistance, and fair 
 constancy should be chosen. 
 
 For a signal or testing battery, either a Dan- 
 iell, Gravity, or Le Clanche should be chosen, 
 for they are all three very constant, and their 
 electrical dimensions are suitable. Perhaps for 
 a signal or a testing battery, where the work is 
 not continuous, a Le Clanche would be the best, 
 as it requires less care than any of the others ; 
 but for a testing battery, where the work is so 
 much that it may practically be considered con 
 tinuous, the Daniell or Gravity would be most 
 suitable. 
 
 The Grove, Bunsen, and Station batteries, in 
 point of electrical dimensions and constancy, are 
 suitable for firing batteries. The Grove and 
 Bunsen are, however, objectionable on account 
 of the nitrous fumes given off, which soon de 
 stroy all electrical apparatus used in connection 
 with the batteries. The Station battery of half- 
 gallon jars makes a very efficient firing battery ; 
 its power is ample, and it is very easily cared for. 
 
 In the English service, a battery (known as 
 Walker s battery) consisting of large plates of 
 carbon and zinc plunged into very large vessels 
 containing dilute sulphuric acid, has been adopted 
 as a firing battery ; and in this country a similar 
 form, consisting of a plate of lead or chrome 
 iron between two plates of zinc, the plates being 
 very near together, has been recommended. In 
 both these forms the plates are kept suspended 
 over the acid, and are lowered when it is desired 
 to fire. They may easily be so arranged as to be 
 lowered by the action of the signal battery. 
 
 A portion of the firing battery may be used as 
 a signal battery ; but, as accident is possible with 
 this arrangement, it should not be adopted when 
 a suitable signal battery can be obtained. With 
 either of the batteries mentioned above as suit 
 able for signal purposes the torpedo cannot be 
 fired, no matter to what extent the cells may be 
 multiplied, provided they are always connected 
 
GALVANIC BATTEEY 
 
 307 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 in series ; for this reason, signal batteries should 
 always be connected in series. 
 
 Arrangement of battery cells. Batteries are 
 not always arranged in the same way, but are 
 differently grouped, according to the results de 
 sired. The positive pole of one cell may be 
 connected to the negative pole of the next, in 
 which case the battery is said to be connected in 
 series ; or, the positive poles may all be connected 
 together, and also the negative, which connec 
 tion is said to be for conductivity ; and last, the 
 cells may be grouped, i.e., part connected in series 
 and part for conductivity. See ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Electrical measurements. A knowledge of the 
 strength of current required to fire the fuzes 
 used, of the resistance of the circuit, and of the 
 dimensions of the battery chosen, must determine 
 the number and arrangement of the cells of a 
 firing battery. The current necessary to fire a 
 given fuze is practically a constant quantity, 
 and sh6uld be determined in the laboratory, and 
 furnished with the fuzes. The resistances of 
 th e circuits and dimensions of the batteries 
 being subject to change from a variety of causes, 
 a satisfactory knowledge of their value can only 
 be obtained by actual measurement. In a well- 
 conducted system of torpedo defense, such 
 measurements would be made and recorded 
 daily, thus giving a positive indication of the 
 parts of the system needing attention or repairs, 
 and particularly of the time when the batteries 
 should be renewed. 
 
 These measurements are all based on well- 
 known electrical principles, which, together with 
 a description of some of the instruments used, 
 are given below. 
 
 The units used are the ohm, volt, and weber. 
 The ohm is the unit of resistance, and is the re 
 sistance offered by a round wire of pure copper, 
 10 long and .01" in diameter, at 42 F. 
 
 The volt is the unit of E. M. F., the E. M. F. 
 of the Daniell or Gravity cell being a rough 
 approximation to the unit. 
 
 Strength of current is defined as the quantity 
 of electricity which flows by any section or point 
 of a conductor in a given time, and is expressed 
 in webers, the weber being the unit quantity in 
 a second of time. The unit quantity is & farad; 
 a weber current will be, then, one in which a 
 farad passes every point of the conductor in a 
 second of time. 
 
 A tangent galvanometer and box of resistance 
 coils will suffice to make all the measurements 
 likely to be required in torpedo practice. 
 
 A box of resistance coils consists of a number 
 of spools of fine German silver or platinum 
 
 silver wire placed in a box, and so arranged 
 that one or all of them may be conveniently in 
 troduced into a circuit. The wire on the spools 
 is carefully insulated, wound on the bight, and 
 that on each spool has a definite resistance. 
 Such values are generally given to the spools 
 that, by different combinations, any resistance 
 from l*ohm to 10,000 ohms may be obtained. 
 
 A tangent galvanometer is an instrument used 
 for measuring strengths of current, and, indi 
 rectly, resistances of conductors. It consists gen 
 erally of a fixed coil of wire, so placed as to 
 influence a compass-needle; the radius of the 
 coil should be large in proportion to the length 
 of the needle. The arc of the compass is gradu 
 ated to degrees and fractions of a degree, ranging 
 from 0, at the north and south points, to 90, 
 at the east and west points. 
 
 If a current is passed through the instrument, 
 the compass-needle will be deflected to the right 
 or left, according to the direction of the current, 
 and the tangent of the angle of deflection of the 
 needle will be proportional to the strength of 
 the current. The number of turns and the resist 
 ance of the wire in the coil determine the adapt 
 ability of the instrument to different classes of 
 measurements. "When in use, the instrument is so 
 adjusted that the coil lies in the plane of the mag 
 netic meridian when the needle stands at zero. 
 
 Farmer s modification of the Gaugain galvan 
 ometer is a very useful form of this instrument. 
 It consists of four vertical coils of wire, placed 
 two on each side of the needle, their centres 
 being on the same horizontal line ; between the 
 coils is a compass, with a circle graduated, as 
 above described. The point of suspension of the 
 needle lies in the same horizontal line as the 
 centres of the coils, and at a distance from the 
 centre of each coil equal to one-half the radius 
 of the coil ; this having been found to be the best 
 construction. One coil on each side consists of 
 a number of turns of fine insulated wire, and 
 has a resistance of 24 ohms ; and the other of one 
 turn of very coarse copper wire, whose resistance 
 is practically zero. 
 
 At the front of the instrument is a key-board, 
 so arranged that, by placing the pins properly, 
 a current may be sent through either fine coil, 
 through one fine coil after the other (tandem), 
 in branch circuits through the two fine coils 
 (team), and in the same ways for the coarse 
 coils, thus giving virtually six different galvan 
 ometers in the one instrument. At the rear of 
 the galvanometer is a commutator, by which the 
 direction of the current through the instrument 
 can be reversed. 
 
 Table of Batteries. 
 
 Size of 
 Cell. 
 
 Name. 
 
 E. M. F. per Cell. 
 
 Resistance per 
 Cell. 
 
 Constancy. 
 
 Used for 
 
 Quart 
 
 Daniell 
 
 98 volt 
 
 4 to 6 ohms. 
 
 
 Testing and signaling. 
 
 
 Gravity 
 
 1 " 
 
 24 " 
 
 
 
 <> 
 <( 
 
 {< 
 
 Gravity (with cop 
 per band). 
 Le Clanche 
 
 1 " 
 1.48 " 
 
 18 " 
 
 1.4 " 
 2.5 to 3 " 
 
 03 to 8 " 
 
 Very constant on long cir 
 cuits or for intermittent 
 work on short circuits. 
 
 Firing on short circuits, 
 dangerous for signaling. 
 Testing and signaling, 
 particularly for signal 
 ing. 
 Firing, bad for instruments. 
 
 
 
 Station 
 
 2 to 1 8 volts. 
 
 5 to 1 " 
 
 n (< 
 
 Firing. 
 
 V< gal. 
 
 Station 
 
 2 to 1.8 " 
 
 0.25 to 0.5 " 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
GALVANIZED IRON 
 
 308 
 
 GARBLING 
 
 Galvanized Iron. Iron the surface of which 
 is alloyed with zinc. The iron is cleansed, heated, 
 and plunged into a bath of melted zinc covered 
 with sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Galvanometer. An instrument for measuring 
 electric currents. See GALYANIC BATTERY. 
 
 Galveston. A port of entry and the most 
 populous and commercial city of Texas, situated 
 on the Gulf of Mexico, on Galveston Island, in 
 Galveston Bay. Lat. 29 IS N.; Ion. 94 50 W. 
 The harbor, which is the best on the Texas coast, 
 has 12 or 14 feet of water over the bar at low 
 tide. The chief articles of export are cotton, 
 hides, grain, and pork. . Value of annual exports 
 about $33,000,000. Steamships make regular 
 trips from this port to New York, Havana, 
 Liverpool, etc. Pop. 31,000. 
 
 Galway. A town and seaport on the west 
 coast of Ireland, situated on the north side of 
 Galway Bay. Lat. 53 15 / 12" N. ; Ion. 9 3 
 30" W. The commerce of the town was at one 
 time considerable, but has now declined. Pop. 
 16,000. 
 
 Gama, Vasco da, the discoverer of the mari 
 time route to India, was born at Sines, a small 
 seaport of Portugal. In what year he was born 
 is not known. Five years after the corroboration 
 by Columbus of the spherical form of the earth, 
 and the successful exploration by Diaz of the pas 
 sage round the Cape of Storms, the King of Por 
 tugal dispatched three vessels under Da Gama to 
 find the shores of India and open a traffic with the 
 people. The voyage, well described by Camoens 
 in the " Lusiad," was perfectly successful. After 
 establishing communication with the natives 
 of Hindostan at Calicut, on the Malabar Coast, 
 Da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499. The re- 
 joitfings of the court and the people were bound 
 less, wealth and power were in their grasp. A 
 second expedition, on a larger scale than the first, 
 was equipped, and Da Gama placed in command. 
 Proceeding along the eastern coast of Africa, he 
 landed at some places to punish the Moors for 
 certain treacheries practiced on him during his 
 former voyage ; he continued his voyage, and, 
 reaching Cochin in the south, he founded a port 
 and factory. From that date the commerce of 
 Europe with India, round the Cape of Good 
 Hope, was established, and the wealth and con 
 sequence of the Italian republics declined in pro 
 portion as the traffic was withdrawn from the 
 Red Sea route. He died at Cochin, December, 
 1525. His body was conveyed to Portugal and 
 buried with great pomp. 
 
 Gambling. Gambling is strictly prohibited 
 on board men-of-war ; even card-playing is in 
 terdicted except in the cabin of the commanding 
 officer. 
 
 Gammon. To pass the gammoning to secure 
 the bowsprit. Humbug ; hoax. 
 
 GAMMONING. Seven or eight turns of a lash 
 ing passed over the bowsprit and through the 
 gammoning-hole, to secure the bowsprit. The 
 lashing was formerly of rope, later of galvan 
 ized chain, and is now superseded by iron bands 
 setting up with nuts and screws. When rope or 
 chain was used the turns of the lashing were 
 crossed, the forward turn on the bowsprit being 
 the after turn in the gammoning hole. 
 
 GAMMONING-FASHION. A term applied to a 
 lashing in which the turns cross after the man 
 ner of the gammoning. 
 
 GAMMONING-FISH. A batten on the upper 
 side of the bowsprit, over which the turns of 
 the gammoning were passed. 
 
 GAMMONING-HOLE. A scuttle cut through the 
 knee of the head, through which the gammon 
 ing was passed. 
 
 GAMMON-KNEE. A knee-timber bolted to the 
 stem just below the bowsprit. 
 
 GAMMON-PLATE. An iron plate bolted to the 
 stem of some vessels to support the gammoning. 
 
 GAMMON-SHACKLE. The shackle of the gam 
 mon-plate. 
 
 Gand-flook. A name of the saury-pike, 
 Scomberesox saurus. 
 
 Gang. A number of the ship s crew employed 
 on any particular service and under the charge 
 of an officer or petty officer. 
 
 Gang-board. A plank with several cleats 
 nailed to it for convenience in passing back 
 and forth from a vessel to the wharf. 
 
 Gang-cask. A small barrel used for bringing 
 water on board in boats ; larger than a breaker. 
 
 Gang-plank. See GANG-BOARD. 
 
 Gangway. Formerly, in deep-waisted ships, 
 a platform from the poop to the topgallant fore 
 castle ; the name is now applied to that portion 
 of the spar-deck over which this platform ex 
 tended. A thoroughfare of any kind ; but more 
 especially applied to the aperture in the ship s 
 side for the accommodation of persons entering 
 and departing. To bring to the gangway, to bring 
 a seaman to that place to be flogged. 
 
 GANGWAY-LADDER. The ladder extending 
 from the gangway to the water s edge ; the ac 
 commodation-ladder. 
 
 Ganneret. A species of gull. 
 
 Gannet. The Sula bassana, or solan goose, a 
 large sea-bird of the family Pelecanidce, common 
 on the Scottish coasts. 
 
 Ganoidian. One of an order of fishes charac 
 terized by having shining bony scales or plates, 
 the gills as in ordinary fishes, but the optic 
 nerve not decussating. The ganoids were among 
 the earliest of fishes in geological time, and be 
 came afterward very numerous, but are now of 
 few species. The order includes the modern gar 
 and the sturgeon. 
 
 Gantan. An Indian commercial measure, of 
 which 17 make a baruth. 
 
 Gant-line. Synonymous with girt-line (which 
 see). 
 
 Gant-lope, or Gauntlope (commonly pro 
 nounced gantlet}. A race which a criminal was 
 sentenced to run, in the navy or army, for some 
 heinous offense. The ship s crew, or a certain 
 division of soldiers, were disposed in two rows 
 face to face, each provided with a knotted cord, 
 with which they struck the delinquent as he ran 
 between them, stripped down to the waist. Tins 
 was repeated according to the sentence, but sel 
 dom beyond three times, and constituted running 
 the gauntlet. 
 
 Gantree, or Gantril. A wooden stand for a 
 barrel. 
 
 Gape. The principal crevice or crack in 
 shaken timber. The seams gape, or let in water. 
 
 Gaper. A fish with six or seven bands and 
 tail undivided. 
 
 Garbel. A word synonymous with garboard 
 (which see). 
 
 Garbling. The mixing of rubbish with a 
 cargo stowed in bulk. 
 
GARBOARD-STRAKE 
 
 309 
 
 GEE 
 
 Garboard-strake, or Sand-streak. The first 
 range of planks laid upon a ship s bottom, next 
 the Iceel, into which it is rabbeted, and into the 
 stem and stern-post at the ends. 
 Gare. See GAIR-FOWL. 
 
 Gar-fish. The Belone vulgaris, or bill-fish, 
 the bones of which are green. Also called the 
 guard-fish, but it is from the Anglo-Saxon gar, 
 a weapon. 
 
 Garganey. The Querquedula circia, a small 
 species of duck, allied to the teal. 
 
 Garland. A collar of ropes formerly wound 
 round the head of the mast to keep the shrouds 
 from chafing. A strap lashed to a spar when 
 hoisting it in. A rope grommet, to place shot 
 in on deck. A wreath made by crossing three 
 small hoops, and covering them with silk and 
 ribbons ; in early times it was hoisted to the 
 main-topgallant-stay. on the day of the captain s 
 wedding ; but on a seaman s wedding, to the ap 
 propriate mast at which he was stationed. Also, 
 a sort of net used by sailors to contain their pro 
 visions, being hung up safe from cats, rats, ants, 
 and cockroaches. 
 
 Garnet. A sort of purchase fixed to the main 
 stay of a merchant ship, and used for hoisting 
 the cargo in and out. A pendant rove through 
 a hole in the spar-deck and hooked to the cas- 
 cabel of a gun in getting it out or taking it in 
 through a port. See CLEW-GARNET. 
 
 GARNET-TACKLE. The tackle hooked to the 
 upper end of the garnet, the pendant-tackle. 
 
 Garney. A term in the fisheries for the fins, 
 sounds, and tongues of the cod-fish. 
 
 Garnish (Eng.}. Profuse decoration of a 
 ship s head, stern, and quarters. Money which 
 pressed men in tenders and receiving-ships ex 
 acted from each other according to priority. 
 
 Garr. An oozy vegetable substance which 
 grows on ships bottoms. 
 
 Garrooka. A fishing-craft in the Gulf of 
 Persia with overhanging bow and stern. 
 
 Garter-fish. A fish having a long, depressed 
 body, like the blade of a sword ; the Lepidopus. 
 Garters. A slang term for leg-irons. 
 Garth. A fish-weir. 
 
 Gas-check. A ring or plate of metal designed 
 to prevent the escape of gas i n breech-1 oadi ng arms. 
 Gasket. Plaited stuff or a small line used to 
 confine a sail to its yard when furled. The har 
 bor-gaskets are made of plaited stuff painted 
 black, and receive different names according to 
 the positions they occupy ; as, yard-arm-, quar 
 ter-, and bunt-gaskets ; the yard-arm- and quar 
 ter-gaskets are passed square, and the bunt- 
 gaskets cross each other, they are sometimes 
 stitched together at the cross, and sometimes a 
 net is wove between them, A sea-gasket is a 
 long line which is passed around the yard and 
 sail ; it is used at sea when neatness is not so 
 much an object as security ; it is sometimes called 
 a furling-line. A ring of india-rubber, canvas, 
 sheet-lead, or other packing material, placed 
 between flanges, such as those of cylinders, pipes, 
 man-hole plates, etc., for the purpose of making 
 a steam-, water-, or air-tight joint. 
 
 Gat. A swash-way or channel among shoals. 
 Gate, or Sea-gate. When two ships are 
 thrown on board one another by a wave they 
 are said to be in a sea-gate. 
 
 Gather Aft. To take in the slack of a sheet 
 which has been flowing. 
 
 Gather Way. To begin to feel the impulse 
 of the wind on the sails, so as to obey the helm. 
 Gath-linn. A name of Polaris, from two 
 Gaelic words signifying ray and moisture, in 
 allusion to its subdued brightness. 
 Gatling-gun. See MACHINE-GUNS. 
 Gaub-line. See GOB-LINE. 
 Gauge. To measure. A standard of any 
 kind. An instrument to ascertain or regulate 
 the dimensions or form of any particular thing. 
 (See GUNS, INSPECTION OF.) Position of a ves 
 sel with regard to the wind and another vessel. 
 To have the weather- (or lee-} gauge, to be to 
 windward (or to leeward) of a vessel. In former 
 days it was considered very important to have 
 the weather-gauge, and fleets sometimes ma 
 noeuvred for hours to obtain this advantage. 
 
 GAUGE-COCK. One of a number of small 
 cocks inserted in the shell of a steam-boiler at 
 about the proper water-level, which indicate, by 
 the small jet of steam or water drawn from them, 
 the height of the water in the boiler. One cock 
 is placed at the lowest limit of safety, one at the 
 highest, and one or more placed at equal distances 
 between them. The steam-jet, water-jet, and a 
 mixture of the two, are easily distinguished 
 either by sight or sound. There are many varie 
 ties of gauge-cocks. 
 
 GAUGE-ROD. A rod provided with a hook and 
 handle for operating gauge-cocks when beyond 
 reach of the hand. A rod or stick of light wood 
 used as a float in a mercury siphon gauge, 
 usually called a gauge-stick. Any rod, gradu 
 ated or not, used to gauge or measure the dis 
 tance between two points. 
 
 Gaugnet. The Sygnathus acus, sea-needle, or 
 pipe-fish. 
 
 Gaut. In the East Indies, a landing-place ; 
 also, a range of hills. 
 
 Gavelock. An old term for a pike. 
 
 Gaver. A name for the sea cray-fish. 
 
 Gavial. A genus of reptiles of the crocodile 
 family inhabiting the Ganges ; it differs from 
 the true crocodile and alligator in the great 
 length and slenderness of the muzzle. 
 
 Gaw. A term for a boat-pole. 
 
 Gawdnie. The dragonet or yellow gurnard, 
 Callionymus lyra. 
 
 Gaw-gaw. A lubberly simpleton. 
 
 Gawky. The shell called horse-cockle. Awk 
 ward ; lank. 
 
 Gawlin. A small sea-fowl which the natives 
 of the Western Isles of Scotland trust in as a 
 prognostication of the weather. 
 
 Gawpus. A stupid, idle fellow. 
 
 Gawrie. A name for the red gurnard, Trigla 
 cuculus. 
 
 Gaydiang. A vessel of Anam, resembling in 
 construction a Chinese junk. 
 
 Gazzetta. The name of a small coin in the 
 Adriatic and Levant. It was the price of the 
 first Venetian newspaper, and thereby gave the 
 name to those publications. 
 
 Gear (Ang. Sax. geara, clothing). A general 
 name for ropes belonging to any particular spar 
 or sail ; and for the implements used in any oper 
 ation ; as, shaving-gear, mess-gear, etc. 
 
 Gearing. A combination of wheels and pin 
 ions, or shafts and pulleys. 
 
 Gears, or Geers. See JEERS. 
 
 Gee. To suit or fit ; to answer the purpose 
 required. 
 
GEELONG 
 
 310 
 
 GERLETROCH 
 
 Geelong, a town and seaport of Victoria, S.E. 
 Australia, near the head of Geelong harbor, an 
 arm of Corio Bay, 40 miles S.W. of Melbourne. 
 Lat. 38 & S. ; Ion. 144 25 E. The harbor, 
 naturally good, has been much improved by 
 dredging and by construction of jetties. Pop. 
 15,200. 
 
 Gefle. A fortified seaport town of Sweden, at 
 the mouth of the Gefle liiver. The river here 
 separates into three arms, inclosing two islands, 
 on which and on both banks the town is situated. 
 The harbor is excellent. It has ship-yards, 
 sugar-refineries, and tanneries, and exports iron 
 and agricultural products. Pop. 17,700. 
 
 Geily watte. An old term for the captain s 
 boat, the origin of jolly-boat. 
 
 Gemini, Constellation of (Lat. "The Twins"). 
 The third constellation of the zodiac, lying be 
 tween Taurus and Cancer. The two principal 
 stars are a 2 Geminorum called Castor, and (3 
 Geminorum called Pollux. They may at once 
 be found, as they form, with the two bright stars 
 of Auriga, an arch round the head of Orion. 
 As they rise, Capella is the uppermost star of 
 the pair in Auriga, and Castor is the uppermost 
 of the pair in Gemini ; or, again, a line joining 
 Rigel and Betelgeux, and continued a little more 
 than its own length, gives Pollux, and is also bi 
 sected by y Geminorum. 
 
 GEMINI, SIGN OF. The third sign of the eclip 
 tic, including from 60 to 90 longitude. Owing 
 to the precession of the equinoxes, the sign is at 
 present in the constellation Taurus. The sun is 
 in Gemini from about 21st May to about 21st 
 June. Symbol II. 
 
 Gemma (Lat. a jewel). The star a Coronce 
 Borealis. 
 
 General Average. See AVERAGE. 
 
 General Orders. Orders relating to the whole 
 command, in contradistinction to special orders, 
 or those relating to only a portion of the com 
 mand. 
 
 General Ship. When persons unconnected 
 with each other send freight in a ship she is 
 called a general, in contradistinction to a char 
 tered, ship. 
 
 Generator. An apparatus in which vapor or gas 
 is formed from a liquid or solid by means of heat 
 or chemical process, as a steam-boiler, gas-retort, 
 or vessel for generating carbonic acid gas, etc. 
 Also, a machine for transmuting work into elec 
 tricity. 
 
 Genoa, a fortified seaport of Northern Italy, 
 on the Mediterranean, between the rivers Bi- 
 sagno and Polcevera. Lat. 44 24 54" N. ; Ion. 8 
 53 E. The city is inclosed by a double line of 
 fortifications, forming a vast semicircle, sup 
 ported by numerous detached outworks, consti 
 tuting one of the most extensive town fortifica 
 tions in Europe. The port is of a semicircular 
 form, about three-quarters of a mile in diameter, 
 formed by two moles projecting into the sea from 
 opposite sides, but not opposite each other. There 
 are yards for naval construction. The harbor is 
 safe and good, but much too small for the needs 
 of the port ; hence new harbor works are in 
 course of construction. Pop. 161,700. 
 
 Gentle. A grub used as bait in angling. 
 
 Gentle Airs. Breezes which are barely ap 
 preciable, not exceeding a velocity of 1.6 miles 
 per hour ; they are indicated by 1 on the Beau 
 fort scale. 
 
 Geocentric (ge, the earth ; kentron, the cen 
 tre). Concentric with the earth ; distinguished 
 from heliocentric, concentric with the sun. The 
 geocentric place of an object is its position re 
 ferred to a celestial sphere having the centre of 
 the earth for its centre ; the heliocentric place is 
 its position referred to a celestial sphere con 
 centric with the sun : the former supposes the 
 spectator to be in the centre of the earth, the 
 latter in the centre of the sun. Thus, we have 
 geocentric longitudes and latitudes, and helio 
 centric longitudes and latitudes. 
 
 Geodesy. The science of the measurement of 
 the earth s surface, and of great portions of it. 
 Geodesy has many physical difficulties to contend 
 against. In measuring a particular length with 
 a view to obtaining a base-line for calculating 
 other lines by trigonometrical observations, there 
 is first a difficulty arising in the use of the unit 
 of length, whatever it may be, whether rod or 
 chain. In the use of rods, it is difficult to lay 
 them all precisely in the same direction, and to 
 prevent error arising from intervals between the 
 rods. In the use of chains, again, the greatest 
 care is needed to keep all the links stretched, 
 while the difficulty of avoiding error through 
 not preserving the line of direction is but little 
 diminished. Further, in all cases, the tendency 
 of the units to change magnitude with changes 
 of temperature, and the unevenness of the earth s 
 surface, are prolific sources of error. After 
 all these difficulties have been overcome and a 
 sufficient base-line obtained, a new class of diffi 
 culties are encountered. In taking trigono 
 metrical observations of distant objects, it is 
 found that the three angles of any triangle which 
 we may form are together in excess of two right 
 angles ; the angles are, in fact, more of the na 
 ture of spherical than plane angles. For this, 
 in using the angles as plane angles (for greater 
 simplicity), a correction has to be made. Further, 
 a correction is required for the effect of horizontal 
 refraction on the results of Observations of dis 
 tant objects, a most fluctuating source of error, 
 to evade which, as far as possible, it is usual to 
 make observations when the atmosphere has 
 been for some time undisturbed. See COAST SUR 
 VEY. 
 
 Geo-graffy. A beverage made by boiling 
 burnt bread in water. 
 
 Geo-navigation. A term proposed by some 
 writers to distinguish that branch of navigation 
 in which the position of the ship is determined 
 by dead-reckoning, cross-bearings, soundings, 
 etc., from the other branch in which the position 
 is determined by observations of the heavenly 
 bodies, which by them is distinguished as celo- 
 navigation. 
 
 Georgetown. Capital of British Guiana, on 
 the east bank of the Demerara River, at its 
 mouth. The town has a good water-supply, and 
 has telegraph-lines to America and Europe via 
 Cuba and Brazil. There is a bar at the river s 
 mouth with but 8 feet of water, and large ships 
 discharge and load by means of lighters. Pop. 
 37,000. 
 
 Georgium Sidus. The planet discovered by 
 Sir ~W. Herschel was so named at first ; but 
 astronomers adopted Uranus instead, as safer to 
 keep in the neutral ground of mythology. 
 
 Gerletroch. The Salmo Alpinus, red char, or 
 galley-trough. 
 
GERMANY 
 
 311 
 
 GIRDLE 
 
 Germany, Navy of. There was scarcely any 
 establishment in Germany prior to *1848, 
 and even at that time it was begun on a small 
 scale. The unification of the empire, the conse 
 quent accession of additional ports, and the 
 augmented warlike contingencies have, however, 
 accelerated the growth of the armament, and by 
 the latest available returns the navy- consisted of 
 20 ironclads, 59 unarmored steamers, and 4 sail 
 ing-vessels. In addition to the vessels named, 
 there are two or three torpedo-steamers, pro 
 tected by steel armor, and capable of moving at 
 the rate of 20 knots per hour. Five thousand 
 five hundred men and boys man the German 
 navy, which is officered by 1 admiral, 1 vice- 
 admiral, 4 rear-admirals, 68 captains, and 351 
 lieutenants. There are, besides, 10 companies 
 of marines, 6 of infantry, and 3 of artillery, 
 numbering 1500 men. Conscription is the rule 
 of recruitment in Germany, both in the navy 
 and army. 
 
 Gerrack. A coal-fish in its first year. 
 
 Gerret. A samlet or parr. 
 
 Gerrick. A name for a sea-pike. 
 
 Gerron. A name for the sea-trout. 
 
 Ghee (Eng.}. The substitute for butter served 
 out to ship s companies on the Indian station. 
 
 Ghost. A false image in the lens of an in 
 strument. 
 
 Giant-powder. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Gib. A term sometimes applied to the project 
 ing arm of a crane or derrick. A piece of metal 
 or wood to hold another in place. Gib and key, 
 the fixed wedge and the driving wedge for tight 
 ening the strap which holds the brasses at the 
 end of a connecting-rod, or other rod of a steam- 
 engine. Short for Gibraltar. 
 
 Gibb. The beak or hooked lip of a male 
 salmon. 
 
 Gibbous. A term descriptive of the shape of 
 the disk of a heavenly body when it assumes a 
 form intermediate between a circle and a semi 
 circle. 
 
 Gib-fish. A name for the male of the 
 salmon. 
 
 Gibraltar. A town and strongly fortified rock 
 at the southern extremity of Spain, belonging to 
 Great Britain. Lat. 36 9 N.; Ion. 5 21 W. 
 The immense strength of the fortress excites 
 wonder and admiration, and renders it impreg 
 nable ; it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla 
 on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name 
 of the Pillars of Hercules. The height of the 
 rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet: 
 it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik (Gibel- 
 Tarik, Mountain of Tarik, whence its present 
 name) in A.D. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
 Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the 
 English, under Sir George Rooke, the Prince of 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Sir John Leake, and Admiral 
 Byng, bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was 
 surrendered, after a dreadful cannonade, to the 
 British, by the governor, the Marquis de Salines, 
 and it has since continued an appendage to the 
 British crown. The principal buildings are the 
 governor s and lieutenant-governor s houses, the 
 admiralty, naval hospital, "victualing office, and 
 barracks. Pop., including the garrison, 26,470. 
 
 Giddock. A name for the sand-launce or sand- 
 eel, Ammodytes tobianus. 
 
 Giffoot. A Jewish corruption of the Spanish 
 spoken at Gibraltar. 
 
 Gift-rope, or Guest-rope. An old name for 
 the line by which a boat makes fast to the 
 swinging-boom. See GUEST-WARP BOOM. 
 
 Gig. A long, narrow boat used by the com 
 manding officer ; it is generally clinker-built 
 and single- banked. A sort of spear for taking 
 fish. 
 
 GIGSMAN. One of the gig s crew. 
 
 Gijon. A fortified seaport town of Spain, on 
 the Bay of Biscay. The town contains ship 
 yards, a school of navigation, and a large public 
 library. Pop. 6600. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. This brave man, 
 who has often been called the real founder of the 
 empire of North America, made himself con 
 spicuous by his services as a British soldier in 
 the first instance, and afterwards as an adven 
 turer in the interest of a party who had obtained 
 Queen Elizabeth s leave to occupy and colonize 
 Virginia. The patent which Sir Humphrey 
 obtained authorized his discovery and possession 
 of any lands that might be yet unsettled. Sir 
 Humphrey made two attempts to* reach the shores 
 of Virginia and the Carolinas, but he could not 
 get beyond Newfoundland. Here he took posses 
 sion of the harbor of St. John s, and then returned 
 to England to die. He left behind him a good 
 name as a valiant soldier, nn able navigator, and 
 a sound arithmetician. 
 
 Gildee. A name in the Scottish isles for the 
 Morrhua barbata, or whiting-pout. 
 
 Gil-guy. A name applied to various devices 
 for expediting manoauvres, especially when the 
 device is not very efficient. 
 
 Giller. A horse-hair fishing-line. 
 
 Gills. Small hackles for drying hemp. 
 
 Gilpy. Adolescent. 
 
 Gilse. Misnomer for grilse. 
 
 Gilt-head, or Gilt-poll. The Sparus aurata, 
 a fish of the European and American seas with a 
 golden mark between the eyes. 
 
 Gimbals (formerly Gimmals, akin to Lat. 
 geminus, double). Pairs of brass hoops or rings 
 which swing one within the other on diameters 
 at right angles to each other, the pivots being 
 on the inner surface of each successively larger 
 hoop. Anything suspended in their centre re 
 tains a constant position relatively to the hori 
 zontal plane in whatever direction the frame 
 work is tilted ; used for hanging compasses, 
 barometers, etc. 
 
 Gimlet-eyed. Keen-eyed. 
 
 Gimmals. The old form for gimbals (which 
 see). 
 
 Gin, or Gin-block. An iron frame fitted with 
 a metal sheave ; used for topsail-tyes, and for 
 whips for loading and discharging cargo. 
 
 Gingado. See JERGADO. 
 
 Gingal, or Jingal. A long-barreled fire-arm 
 used in the East, especially in China; it fre 
 quently loads at the breech. 
 
 Ginger. To spur up ; to revive one s flagging 
 energies. 
 
 Gingerbread-work. Carved decorations. 
 
 Gingerly. Fastidiously ; daintily ; cautiously. 
 
 Ginners, or Ginnles. The gills of fish. 
 
 Ginseng. A Chinese root, formerly highly 
 prized for its restorative virtues. It is now 
 almost out of the Materia Medica. 
 
 Gip. To take the entrails out of fishes. 
 
 Girandole. Any whirling fire-work. 
 
 Girdle. An additional planking over the 
 
GIRT 
 
 312 
 
 GLIM 
 
 wales or bends. A frapping for girding a 
 ship. 
 
 Girt. The situation of a ship which is moored 
 so taut by her cables, extending from the hawse 
 to two distant anchors, as to be prevented from 
 swinging to the wind or tide. The ship thus 
 circumstanced endeavors to swing, but her side 
 bears upon one of the cables, which catches on 
 her heel, and interrupts her in the act of tra 
 versing. In this position she must ride with 
 her broadside or stern to the wind or current, 
 till one or both of the cables are slackened, so 
 as to sink under the keel ; after which the ship 
 will readily yield to the effort of the wind or 
 current. 
 
 Girt-line. A rope passing through a single 
 block at the head of a mast to hoist up the rig 
 ging; the girt-line is the first rope employed to 
 rig a ship, and the last in unrigging. Hammock 
 girt-lines, lines extending from jib-boom to 
 spanker-boom, on which scrubbed hammocks are 
 stopped to dry. Stripped to a girt-line, entirely 
 stripped ; naked. 
 
 Give. To yield to force or pressure. 
 
 Give a Spell. See SPELL. 
 
 Give Chase. To pursue another vessel. 
 
 Give her Sheet. To ease off the sheet. 
 
 Give the Calf more Rope. An expression 
 conveying an indirect request for silence, ad 
 dressed to one who is making an unusual or 
 unnecessary noise, whicty thus is likened to that 
 caused by the uneasiness of the tethered calf. 
 
 Give Way. To commence rowing. To row 
 with more vigor. Give way together, to pull to 
 gether. Give way with a will, to pull heartily. 
 
 Gladene. A very old designation of the sea- 
 onion. 
 
 Glance. A dark-colored metallic sulphuret. 
 A name for anthracite coal. See NORTHERN 
 GLANCE. 
 
 Gland. In mechanism, a piece of metal con 
 sisting of a cylindrical ring fitted to the annular 
 space between a rod or valve-stem and the in 
 terior of its stuffing-box, provided with a flange 
 by which it is secured and adjusted either by 
 bolts and nuts, or by a large nut encompassing 
 the outside of the stuffing-box ; its use being to 
 confine and adjust the packing. 
 
 Glasag. A certain kind of edible sea-weed. 
 
 Glasgow. The commercial and manufactur 
 ing capital of Scotland, on both sides of the 
 Clyde, 21 miles from its mouth. Lat. 55 51 
 62" N. ; Ion. 4 16 W. When by the union 
 of England and Scotland the trade with the 
 American colonies was thrown open to Scottish 
 enterprise, Glasgow became the centre of the 
 tobacco trade ; later it became a great centre of 
 the sugar trade, and this trade the town still re 
 tains. Her special business consists of iron-ship 
 building and machine-making, and the Clyde- 
 built steamers and engines are world-renowned. 
 In the beginning of the century, the Clyde below 
 the lowest bridge could be forded on foot, now 
 vessels of 2000 tons can lie at anchor at all states 
 of the tide. An excellent harbor has been con 
 structed in the city on the Forth and Clyde Canal. 
 Pop. 700,000. 
 
 GLASS. A sailor s name for anything made 
 of glass ; as, the barometer, telescope, etc. How 
 is the glass ? how is the barometer ? The glass is 
 said to be falling or rising as the mercury falls 
 or rises. 
 
 A time-glass was formerly employed to mark 
 the flight of time; hence glass was used to 
 denote the length of time the sand occupied in 
 running out. To flog or sweat the glass, to hasten 
 the running of the sand by agitation, or to turn 
 it a short time before the sand is out. Twenty- 
 eight-second and fourteen-second glasses are still 
 used to mark the time in heaving the log. Clear 
 glass! To let the sand run out of one end before 
 the chip is hove overboard. To cook a glass, to 
 heat it, and thus absorb the moisture collected on 
 it ; applied to time-glasses and telescopes. Night- 
 glass, a telescope adapted to viewing objects at 
 night; it has a large field of view, and concen 
 trates a large amount of light. Spy-glass, a 
 telescope. 
 
 Glassok. A name of the say, seath , or coal-fish. 
 
 Glasson, John J., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New York City. Appointed midshipman 
 from New York, February 1, 1823 ; served in the 
 store-ship " Decoy" and schooner " Fox," in the 
 West India Squadron, fitted out by special act 
 of Congress for the suppression of piracy, which 
 was successfully accomplished under the com 
 mand of Commodore David Porter, 1823 ; 
 schooner "Grampus," coast of Africa and West 
 Indies, 1824; in the "North Carolina," 74, and 
 sloop " Warren," Mediterranean, 1825-29; sloop 
 "Natchez," West Indies, 1830. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1831 ; 
 revenue-cutter " Rush," as first lieutenant in 
 the Revenue Marine. " New York," 1831-32; 
 schooner "Shark" (as master), Mediterranean, 
 1833-34 ; rendezvous, New York, 1835-37. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 9, 1837 ; 
 sloops " Lexington" and " Falmouth," in the 
 Pacific, 1838-40; steamer "Fulton," on special 
 service, New York harbor, 1841-42; sloop 
 "Decatur," coast of Africa, 1843-44; store- 
 ship "Lexington," with troops to the coast of 
 Texas, 1845; steamer "Spitfire" (executive) 
 and schooner "Falcon," Home Squadron, 1846- 
 48; commanded the latter vessel in the attack 
 on Vera Cruz, and the Castle of San Juan 
 de Ulloa, which were captured by the joint action 
 of the army and navy ; also in the rescue of 121 
 inhabitants of the town of Valladolid, Yucatan 
 (burned and sacked by the Indians in a state of 
 insurrection), landing them safely at the city of 
 Campeachy. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding rendezvous, New Bedford, 
 Mass., 1861-63; navy-yard, Norfolk, Va., in 
 charge of stores for the supply of the Coast 
 Squadron in the Atlantic, and the flotilla forces 
 in the Chesapeake, 1864-65. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 28, 
 1866. Sea service, 17 years 11 months; shore 
 or other duty, 8 years 10 months. Retired 
 October 1, 1864. 
 
 Glaucus. A genus of nudibranchiate mol- 
 lusks, found in the warmer latitudes floating in 
 the open sea, beautifully colored with blue. 
 
 Glave. A light hand-dart. Also, a sword- 
 blade fixed on the end of a pole. 
 
 Glazed Powder. See POWDER. 
 
 Glent. To turn aside or quit the original di 
 rection, as a shot when it impinges on a hard 
 substance. 
 
 Glib-gabbet. Smooth and ready speech. 
 
 Glim. A light ; familiarly used for the eyes. 
 Douse the glim, put out, or cover up, the light. 
 
GLISSON 
 
 313 
 
 GODON 
 
 Glisson, O. S., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Ohio. Appointed midshipman from Indiana, 
 November 1, 1826. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1832; 
 in the "Delaware," 74, Mediterranean, 1832-35. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 9, 1837; 
 sloop "Marion," West India Squadron, 1841- 
 42; sloop "Saratoga," Brazil Squadron, 1843- 
 44 ; commanding schooner " Reefer," during the 
 Mexican war, 1847 ; attached to steam-frigate 
 " Powhatan," East India Squadron, and on the 
 Japan Expedition, 1852-55, was in Japan when 
 the first treaty was made by Commodore M. C. 
 Perry. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding steamer " Mount Vernon," 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; while 
 in the "Mount Vernon," saved the transport 
 "Mississippi," bound to New Orleans, with 
 Gen. Butler and 1500 men on board. It was 
 supposed that she was designedly run on Frying- 
 pan Shoal, N. C. ; and had it not been for the 
 timely assistance of the " Mount Vernon," it is 
 very probable that many lives would have been 
 lost. By this valuable service being rendered, 
 Gen. Butler was enabled to reach New Orleans in 
 time to participate in that great battle. While 
 on the blockade of Wilmington, he burned a 
 light-boat under the guns of Fort Caswell, so 
 close that they could hear the sentinels calling 
 " all s well." This light-boat was all ready to 
 receive her battery of 8 guns, and would have 
 been put in commission in a few days. 
 
 Commanding steam-sloop " Mohican," 1862- 
 63, in chase of the "Alabama"; commanding 
 steamer "Santiago de Cuba," 1864-65; present 
 at the two attacks on Fort Fisher, December, 
 1864, and January, 1865 ; commanded the Third 
 Division in both engagements; was recommended 
 by Admiral Porter for promotion for covering 
 the landing of the troops and carrying his divis 
 ion into action. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866. 
 
 Commanding Naval Station, League Island, 
 Pa., 1867, to May 1, 1870. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, June, 1870, 
 and ordered to the command of the European 
 Fleet, where he remained until retired, on Janu 
 ary 18, 1871. 
 
 Gloaming, The twilight. Also, a gloomy, 
 dull state of the sky. 
 
 Globe (Lat. globus). A word synonymous with 
 sphere, but generally restricted to mean the 
 earth. An artificial spherical representation of 
 the earth or heavens. 
 
 GLOBE-FISH. A fish of the genus Diodon or 
 the genus Tetraodon, which, by inflating an ab 
 dominal sac, can swell out its body to a globular 
 shape. 
 
 GLOBE-RANGERS. A sobriquet for marines. 
 
 GLOBULAR SAILING. An antiquated term for 
 spherical sailing. 
 
 Gloucester. A city and port of entry of Es 
 sex Co., Mass. It has a greater amount of tonnage 
 employed in domestic fisheries than any other 
 town in the United States, amounting in 1878 to 
 32,604 tons, the number of vessels being 520, of 
 which 409 were employed in the fisheries. The 
 quantity of mackerel inspected in 1876 was 
 95,422 barrels. The number of men employed 
 in the cod- and mackerel-fisheries was 5000. In 
 
 1875 the fleet landed 9,710,787 pounds of fish. 
 The cod-fishery has been successfully prosecuted 
 for more than a century. In 1876 the number 
 of vessels owned here and employed in the cod- 
 fishery was 375. The total value of the fisheries 
 in 1876 was $4,000,000. The harbor is one of 
 the best on the coast, and is accessible at all sea 
 sons to vessels of the largest class. Pop. 17,000. 
 Glower. To frown upon ; to look savagely. 
 Glue Cement. One pound glue, one pound 
 black resin, quarter-pound red ochre, mixed with 
 the least possible quantity of water. 
 
 Glue, Marine. One part india-rubber, twelve 
 parts mineral naphtha or coal-tar ; heat gently, 
 mix, and add twenty parts of powdered shellac. 
 Pour on a slab to cool ; when used, to be heated 
 to about 250 F. 
 
 Glum. Gloomy ; low-spirited. 
 Glut. A piece of wood used as a fulcrum for 
 a lever. A becket attached to the after part of 
 a square-sail, into which is hooked the bunt-whip. 
 Topsails frequently have three gluts, two abaft 
 for furling and one forward for a midship bunt- 
 line used in taking in the last reef. 
 Glycerine, Nitro-. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 Gnomon. The hand ; style of a dial. 
 Go-about. To put a ship on the other tack. 
 Go Ashores. The seaman s best dress. 
 Gobarto. A large and ravenous fish of early 
 voyagers, probably a shark. 
 
 Gobbag. A name for the dog-fish. 
 Gob-doo. A term for a mussel. 
 Goblachan. A name for the parr or samlet. 
 Gob-line, Gob-rope, or Martingale Back- 
 rope. A rope which fits over the dolphin- 
 striker with a cuckold-neck, the ends setting up 
 to the bows ; they are frequently made of chain. 
 Gobon. An old English name for the whi 
 ting. 
 
 Gob-stick. A horn or wooden spoon. 
 Goby. A spiny-finned fish allied to the blen- 
 ny, and distinguished by having the ventral 
 fins on the breast capable of forming a funnel- 
 shaped sucker. Several species of the genus 
 Gobius are so called. They are mostly small 
 sea-fishes, and can live for some time out of the 
 water. 
 
 Godon, Sylvanus W., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed midshipman 
 from the same State, March 1, 1819. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 17, 
 1836 ; attached to sloop-of-war " Peacock," East 
 India Squadron, 1836-37; and to sloop-of-war 
 " Cyane," Mediterranean Squadron, 1840; at 
 tached to bomb-brig "Vesuvius," 1847, at the 
 siege of Vera Cruz ; on special duty, 1850; ex 
 ecutive-officer of steamer " Susquehanna," East 
 India Squadron, 1851-53. 
 
 Promoted to commander, September 14, 1855 ; 
 commanding sloop-of-war " Mohican," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1860. 
 
 Commissioned as captain in 1861, and ordered 
 to command of sloop-of-war "Powhatan," one 
 of the vessels of Dupont s Expedition to Port 
 Royal. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, January 2, 1863; 
 on special duty, 1864 ; commanding steamer Sus 
 quehanna," and Fourth Division of Porter s 
 Squadron, at the two battles of Fort Fisher, in 
 December, 1864, and January, 1865. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866 ; 
 commanding South Atlantic Squadron, coast of 
 
GODOWN 
 
 314 
 
 GOLDSBOKOUGH 
 
 Brazil, 1866-67 ; commandant navy-yard, New 
 York, 1868-70. Ketired in 1871, and died May 
 17, 1879. 
 
 Godown. The name given to store-houses 
 and magazines in the East Indies, a corruption 
 of the Malay gadong. 
 
 Godsend. An unexpected relief or prize; 
 wreckers denote by the term vessels and goods 
 driven on shore. 
 
 Goe. A creek smaller than a voe. 
 
 Gogar. A serrated worm used for fishing- 
 bait. 
 
 Goglet. An earthen vase or bottle for holding 
 water. 
 
 Goillear. The Gaelic for a sea-bird of the 
 Hebrides, said to come ashore only in January. 
 
 Going Free. Sailing with a wind which al 
 lows the yards to be braced in and sheets eased 
 off. 
 
 Going Large. Sailing with a wind which 
 permits the stun sails to be set. 
 
 Going through the Fleet. An old method of 
 punishment, long since abolished. The victim 
 was sentenced to receive a certain portion of the 
 flogging alongside the various ships. 
 
 Goldeney. A name for the yellow gurnard. 
 
 Golden Fleece. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed 
 with his companions from lolchos to Colchis to 
 avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and 
 to recover his treasures, which the perfidious 
 ^Eetes, king of Colchis, had seized, after mur 
 dering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus 
 had sailed to Colchis was adorned with the figure 
 of a ram on the poop, which gave occasion to 
 the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
 was for the recovery of the golden fleece, 1263 
 B.C. 
 
 Golden Number. The cycle of 19 years, or 
 number which shows the years of the moon s 
 cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of 
 Athens, about 432 B.C. To find the golden num 
 ber or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the 
 date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is 
 the number of cycles since Christ, and the re 
 mainder is the golden number. 
 
 Gold-fish. A small fish of the genus Cypri- 
 nus (C. auratus), so named from its color being 
 like that of gold. It is a native of China, and 
 is said to have been introduced into Europe in 
 1691. It is often kept in small ponds or glass 
 globes, as an object of curiosity or ornament. 
 
 Gold Mohur. A coin in the East Indies 
 varying a little in each presidency, but averaging 
 15 rupees, or about 8 dollars of our money. 
 
 Goldsborough, Charles W., the first chief of 
 the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, was born 
 at Cambridge, Md., April 18, 1779; died at 
 Washington, December 14, 1843. He was chief 
 clerk of the Navy Department under Stoddart, 
 Smith, and Hamilton, and was secretary of the 
 Navy Board until separate bureaus were estab 
 lished. Author of " U. S. Naval Chronicle" 
 (1824). 
 
 Goldsborough, John R., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born July 2, 1809, in Washington, D. C. Ap 
 pointed midshipman from District of Columbia, 
 November 6, 1824 ; previous to which was a 
 cadet-midshipman on board the flag-ship " John 
 Adams," bearing the broad pennant of Com 
 modore David Porter, West India Squadron ; 
 attached to the ship-of-the-line " North Caro 
 lina," and sloop "Warren," Mediterranean 
 
 Squadron, from November, 1824, until June, 
 1830; on board of the " Warren" was engaged 
 in several important operations against the Greek 
 pirates ; bombarded the town of Miconi, and 
 at one time, when in command of the launch 
 of the " Warren" with 18 men, engaged, and 
 after a short and spirited engagement, captured 
 the Greek armed piratical schooner "Helene," 
 of 4 guns and 58 men; received the thanks of 
 Capt. Kearney, for the handsome manner in 
 which this service was performed. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28. 
 1832. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 6, 
 1837. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding naval rendezvous, Philadel 
 phia, 1855-59 ; waiting orders, 1860 ; command 
 ing steamer 4 Union, "blockading off Charleston, 
 Savannah, and Cape Hatteras, and in Potomac 
 Flotilla, 1861 ; captured and sunk the rebel pi 
 ratical schooner " York," and bombarded a rebel 
 fort off Mathias Point, Potomac River. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding steamer " Florida," South Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1862 ; at the capture of 
 the city and forts around Fernandina ; command 
 ing steam-frigate " Colorado," Western Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron, 1863. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, April 13, 1867. 
 Retired July 2, 1870; died June 22, 1877. 
 
 Goldsborough, Louis Malesherbes, Rear- 
 Admiral U.S.N., was born in Washington, 
 D. C., February 18, 1805, and in December, 1812, 
 when less than 8 years of age, an antedated 
 midshipman s warrant was given to him. In 
 July, 1816, he was given his first orders into 
 service, which were to join the " Independence," 
 74, under Commodore Bainbridge, at Boston. 
 
 In 1817 he was ordered to join the " Frank 
 lin," 74, destined for the Mediterranean, as the 
 flag-ship of Commodore Stewart ; and at the end 
 of this ship s cruise, and while she was at Gibral 
 tar on her way home, he was transferred to the 
 frigate " Guerriere," in which ship he returned 
 to the United States late in the year of 1820. 
 
 In 1821 he was again ordered to join the 
 " Franklin," once more the flag-ship of Commo 
 dore Stewart, but now bound to the Pacific ; 
 and he remained on board of her throughout the 
 cruise. 
 
 In 1825 he obtained permission from the De 
 partment to avail himself of the schools of Paris, 
 at his own expense, with the view of prosecuting 
 his studies in the French language and in the 
 scientific branches of his profession, mathe 
 matics, astronomy, etc. 
 
 In 1827, having received orders from the De 
 partment, he joined the Mediterranean Squadron, 
 then commanded by Commodore Rodgers ; and 
 after remaining for a while on board the " North 
 Carolina," 74, he was ordered to join the schooner 
 "Porpoise," under command of Lieut.-Com- 
 mandant Benjamin Cooper. At this period, pi 
 ratical depredations, in and about the Grecian 
 Archipelago, were of frequent occurrence, so 
 that no merchant vessel, unprotected by a vessel 
 of war, could with safety venture eastward of the 
 island of Malta. In this state of things, the 
 "Porpoise" was kept actively employed in af 
 fording convoy from and to Malta and Smyrna. 
 Vessels of war of other nations were also en- 
 
GOLDSBOKOUGH 
 
 315 
 
 GOLDSBOKOUGH 
 
 gaged in performing the same service, and a 
 general understanding existed that each would 
 give protection to any merchantman that might 
 ask it, regardless of nationality, as the whole 
 civilized world pronounced pirates enemies of 
 the human race. 
 
 In September, 1827, the "Porpoise" left 
 Smyrna for Malta, with a convoy under her 
 charge, consisting of 11 merchant vessels, 5 of 
 which were American ; and while becalmed in 
 the Doro passage at night, one of the convoy, an 
 English vessel called the " Comet," was attacked 
 and carried by some 200 or 300 Greek pirates, 
 who had put out from the islands of Andros and 
 Negropont for the purpose, in 5 very large mys- 
 ticoes, or boats, each arranged to pull some 40 or 
 50 oars. The " Comet," owing to the calm, was 
 at some distance from the " Porpoise" and the 
 rest of the vessels of the convoy perhaps a couple 
 of miles, but in the midst of the noise and con 
 fusion on her deck, her mate and another of the 
 crew succeeded in effecting their escape in the 
 stern-boat, reaching the " Porpoise," and im 
 parting all they knew. Although the firing of 
 arms by the pirates as they approached the 
 "Comet" had attracted anxious attention on 
 board the a Porpoise," and put all on the qui vive, 
 yet up to the moment of the arrival alongside of 
 the mate, nothing had been distinctly ascertained, 
 although efforts with the sweeps were being made 
 to approach the "Comet." It was soon found, 
 however, that the mysticoes were towing the 
 " Comet" faster away from the " Porpoise" than 
 the latter vessel could be moved by the agency of 
 sweeps, and as the only remaining alternative to 
 recover the "Comet" the boats of the "Por 
 poise" were now resorted to. They were promptly 
 prepared to assail the pirates, and all of them 
 were placed under Goldsborough s command. 
 All told, they were manned by some 40 officers 
 and men, nor could they possibly accommodate 
 more. The pirates numbered at least 200. De 
 spite, however, of this disparity, the "Comet" 
 was boarded without hesitation, the pirates driven 
 from her deck, and the vessel was thus fully re 
 covered. In the struggle, from 80 to 90 of the 
 pirates were either killed or wounded. 
 
 The wardroom steward of the "Porpoise," a 
 mulatto of herculean strength, was one of the 
 expedition, and killed with his own hand no less 
 than 11 of the pirates; while the chief of the 
 horde, with several of his men, was dispatched 
 by the pistol of Lieut. John A. Carr, of Vir 
 ginia. These pirates were at this time so numer 
 ous that no merchant vessel, unprotected by 
 convoy, could venture to thread its course among 
 the islands of the Greek Archipelago with im 
 punity ; and so powerful were they, that at one 
 time they succeeded in capturing an Austrian 
 10-gun man-of-war brig. Our merchant marine 
 suffered heavily by their depredations, for they 
 attacked indiscriminately vessels of every nation 
 except their own. In such a state of affairs, a 
 sound thrashing, like that administered by Lieut. 
 Goldsborough and his little company, could 
 hardly fail of good effect. 
 
 In 1830, Goldsborough returned to the United 
 States in the " Delaware," 74, Commodore Crane, 
 as one of her lieutenants, and shortly afterward 
 he brought to the notice of the Department the 
 defectiveness of the implements of navigation 
 charts, chronometers, sextants, quadrants, etc. 
 
 generally furnished to our ships by the pro 
 cess of requisitions upon navy agents, and urged 
 as a remedy the establishment of a depot of 
 charts and instruments, in order that every 
 article might be thoroughly examined and tested 
 before it was issued for use. The suggestion was 
 strongly supported by the Navy Commissioners, 
 and in a little while the depot was under way, 
 with Goldsborough in charge of it. This was 
 the nucleus of the present observatory. 
 
 In 1846, war existing with Mexico, he applied 
 to be employed, and was appointed executive- 
 officer of the "Ohio," 74, commanded by Capt. 
 Stringham, and was present on board that ship 
 at the fall of Vera Cruz, and subsequently com 
 manded a large detachment of her officers and 
 crew at the attack and capture of Tuspan. 
 
 In 1849 he was ordered by the Department as 
 the senior naval officer of a joint commission, com 
 posed of three army and three navy officers, to 
 explore California and Oregon, with the view 
 of ascertaining and reporting upon the advan 
 tages they might possess for military and naval 
 purposes, the proper situations for fortifications, 
 dock-yards, light-houses, etc. In 1851 he re 
 turned from this service to Washington, and in 
 1852 he was ordered to command the frigate 
 " Cumberland," and the flag-ship of Commodore 
 Stringham, destined for the Mediterranean. 
 After serving on board of her, in command, for 
 some time, the commander of the " Levant," 
 one of the vessels of the squadron, died, and he 
 (Goldsborough) was ordered to command that 
 vessel ; and while on board of her at Constanti 
 nople, he received orders to return to the United 
 States to take command of the Naval Academy, 
 and accordingly did so return in October, 1853, 
 and in the following month, November, took 
 command of that establishment, and continued 
 as its superintendent until September, 1857, or 
 nearly four years. In the fall of 1857, he was 
 detailed as one of the Board of Revision in cases 
 which had arisen under the first law of Congress 
 touching officers to be placed on a retired or a 
 reserved list, and subsequently, as the head of 
 a board to revise and rewrite the Book of Ord 
 nance Instructions. 
 
 In 1859 he was ordered to command the frigate 
 " Congress," fitting at Philadelphia as the flag 
 ship of Flag-Officer Joshua R. Sands, appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the Brazil Squadron ; and 
 he returned to Boston as the captain of that ship 
 in August, 1861, shortly after the first battle of 
 the Rebellion at Bull Run, when Flag-Officer 
 Sands, having performed his cruise to the entire 
 satisfaction of the government, was, as a matter 
 incident to the non-return of the ship to Brazil, 
 relieved from his position. She, however, was 
 still continued in commission, and in September, 
 or shortly after reaching home, Goldsborough 
 was ordered to proceed with her, under his com 
 mand, to Hampton Roads, and there report to 
 Flag-Officer Stringham. 
 
 On arriving at Hampton Roads, orders from 
 the Department were placed in his hands, by 
 Flag-Officer Stringham, directing him to take 
 command of the North Atlantic Squadron, and 
 thus to relieve Flag-Officer Stringham, who, it 
 was understood, did not desire to be continued 
 in command of it, and had so expressed himself 
 to the Department. 
 
 He retained the command of the North Atlantic 
 
GOLD-SINNY 
 
 316 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 Squadron during 1861-62, being promoted to rear- 
 admiral July 16, 1862, and performed his impor 
 tant duties at that most critical period of the war 
 to the entire satisfaction of the Department. In 
 1863, he was assigned to the very important duty 
 of preparing a code of regulations for the naval 
 service. On completing this work to the full ex 
 tent he was authorized to proceed, he was then 
 assigned to revise the book of naval allowances 
 in regard to equipment and outfits. 
 
 In April, 1865, he was appointed to command 
 the European Squadron, and after serving out 
 his full time in this command, he was relieved 
 from it by the appointment of Admiral Farragut 
 to take the position, and therefore returned to 
 the United States in his flag-ship " Colorado" 
 in August, 1867. Special duty in Washington, 
 1867 to the date of his death, February 20, 1877. 
 
 Gold-sinny. A small fish, the Crenilabrus 
 Norwegicus. 
 
 Gomer. A form of chamber in ordnance con 
 sisting in a conical narrowing of the bore to 
 wards its inner end. It was first devised for the 
 service of mortars, and named after its inventor, 
 Gomer. See CHAMBER. 
 
 Gomeisa. The name of the star ft Canis 
 Minoris. 
 
 Gomere (Fr.). The cable of a galley. 
 
 Gondola. A light pleasure-barge used on the 
 canals of Venice, generally propelled by one man 
 standing at the stern with one powerful oar, 
 though the largest kind have two or more row 
 ers. The medium-sized gondolas are about 30 
 feet long and 4 feet broad, with a well-furnished 
 cabin amidships, though exclusively black, as 
 restricted by law. They rise at each end to a 
 very sharp point about the height of a man s 
 breast. The stem is always surmounted by the 
 ferro, a bright iron beak or cleaver of one uni 
 form shape, seemingly derived from the ancient 
 Romans, being the rostrique tridentibus of Vir 
 gil. Also, a passage-boat of 6 or 8 oars, used 
 on other parts of the coast of Italy. The name 
 is also, applied to canal-boats having the bow and 
 stern alike. 
 
 GONDOLIER. A man who works or navigates 
 a gondola. 
 
 Gone. Carried away ; parted ; broken. 
 
 Gone-goose. A ship deserted or given up in 
 despair. 
 
 Gong. A kind of Chinese cymbal, with a 
 powerful and sonorous tone produced by the vi 
 brations of its metal, consisting mainly of cop 
 per and tutenag or zinc ; it is used as a signal 
 for calling away the riflemen ; in vessels without 
 field-music it is used to summon the crew to 
 quarters. 
 
 Gonga. A general name for a river in India, 
 "Whence comes Ganges. 
 
 Good-at-all-points. Practical in every par 
 ticular. 
 
 Good-conduct Badge. See BADGE. 
 
 Good Shoaling. An approach to the shore by 
 very gradual soundings. 
 
 Goole. An old term for a breach in a sea-bank. 
 
 Goosander. The Mergus merganser, a sea- 
 fowl, allied to the duck, with a straight, narrow, 
 and serrated bill, hooked at the point. 
 
 Goose-neck. A sort of iron hook fitted on 
 the inner end of a boom, and introduced into a 
 clamp of iron or eye-bolt, so that it may be un 
 hooked at pleasure. 
 
 Goose-wing. The clew of a course or topsail 
 when the middle part is hauled up and lashed to 
 the yard ; this is done in very bad weather only. 
 The term is also applied to the sails of a schooner 
 running before the wind with the sails wing-and- 
 wing. 
 
 Gorab. See GRAB. 
 
 Goramy. A fish of the family Anabnsidce, a 
 native of China and the Eastern Archipelago. 
 It is one of the nest-building fishes, and at the 
 breeding season forms its nest by entangling the 
 steins and leaves of aquatic grasses. 
 
 Gord. An archaism denoting a deep hole in 
 a river. 
 
 Gore. A triangular piece of cloth or canvas 
 set in to enlarge a garment or sail at a particular 
 point. To cut in the form of a gore. 
 
 GORING-CLOTHS. That part "of a sail cut on 
 the bias to give the required sweep. 
 
 Gorge. The groove in a sheave. 
 
 Gorgon Steam-engine. A form of direct- 
 acting vertical cylinder steam-engine, invented 
 by Seaward, as a means of obviating the use of 
 the beam in marine engines. It is called the 
 " Gorgon" engine from having been first em 
 ployed in an English government steamer of that 
 name. 
 
 Gormaw. A name for the cormorant. 
 
 Gorse. Heath or furze for breaming a ship s 
 bottom. 
 
 Gosnold, Bartholomew. Near the close of 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth this navigator 
 crossed the Atlantic, and in seven weeks reached 
 the bay of Massachusetts. Turning to the 
 south he discovered a promontory, to which he 
 gave the name of Cape Cod from the abund 
 ance of cod-fish found there. Gosnold then pro 
 ceeded to take possession of other islands, to 
 which he gave the names of u Martha s Vine 
 yard" arid "Elizabeth." 
 
 Gosport. A fortified seaport town of Eng 
 land, separated from Portsmouth by the mouth 
 of Portsmouth harbor. Pop. 7500, mostly en 
 gaged in the government navy-works, and in 
 the supply of shipping. Gosport has extensive 
 barracks, the Royal Clarence victualing-yard, a 
 powder-magazine and iron-foundries. Outside 
 of the town on the south is Haslar Hospital, a 
 naval infirmary. 
 
 Gossoon. A silly, awkward lout. 
 
 Gothenburg. A seaport city of Sweden, at 
 the head of a fiord of the Cattegat, which receives 
 the Gotha River. The harbor, defended by 
 three forts, has 20 feet of water, and a grand dry- 
 dock cut in solid rock. Pop. 69,000. 
 
 Gouge. An unwarrantable proceeding which 
 inures to the injury of another; a cheat. A 
 reprehensible practice, sometimes indulged in at 
 the Naval Academy, of using concealed bits of 
 paper, etc., as aids to the memory in making a 
 recitation ; also, the article so used. Gouging 
 is equivalent to ponying or papering. 
 
 Gougings. Gudgeons. 
 
 Goulet. Any narrow entrance to a creek or 
 harbor ; as, the goletta at Tunis. 
 
 Gouries. The garbage of salmon. 
 
 Government, Naval, may be defined as that 
 system of fundamental rules by which a navy is 
 governed. The chief desideratum is that the 
 rules shall be so framed as to insure an energetic, 
 efficient, and economical management of the af 
 fairs of a navy. These rules may have either 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 317 
 
 GRAB 
 
 the sanction of custom or the authority of law. 
 In either event they partake of the character of 
 the government under which they are framed. 
 In England, for example, the supreme power is 
 divided into two branches : the Parliament, con 
 sisting of the Crown, Lords, and Commons; and 
 the Executive, consisting of the sovereign alone. 
 Thus the executive forms a co-ordinate part 
 of the legislative branch. It is not surprising 
 then to find that the privy councillors, or mem 
 bers of the cabinet, have seats in one or the other 
 of the two houses of Parliament. The First 
 Lord of the Admiralty has the opportunity, 
 therefore, as a member of Parliament, of present 
 ing the navy estimates himself, and, at the same 
 time, of explaining the naval policy of the ad 
 ministration, and of answering such questions 
 and meeting such objections as may be oifered. 
 Besides the First Lord there is a civil lord, who 
 also is a member of Parliament, and a Parlia 
 mentary or Financial Secretary. This intimate 
 relationship between the executive and the legis 
 lative branches of the government goes far to 
 wards insuring harmony of action between the 
 two, and greatly facilitates the transaction of 
 public business. The five lords and the Parlia 
 mentary Secretary change with the ministry, so 
 that not only the government but the Navy De 
 partment is always in accord with Parliament. 
 The average duration of a ministry, taking the 
 last 150 years, is about three years and eight 
 months. These changes affect the navy at large 
 but little, however, as the greater part of the 
 work of the Admiralty is distributed among 
 heads of departments (in a manner somewhat 
 analogous to the distribution of duties among 
 the chiefs of bureaus of the United States Navy 
 Department), who are quite independent of party- 
 politics. 
 
 While the First Lord is directly responsible to 
 Parliament and controls the navy as a whole, the 
 Senior Sea Lord, under his authority, directs the 
 movements of the fleet, and is responsible to him 
 for its discipline. He is commander-in-chief, as 
 it were, of all the floating force ; or, in military 
 phrase, the adjutant-general to the First Lord, 
 relieving him of those purely professional duties 
 which the civilian frequently finds so difficult to 
 master. The proof of the efficiency of this form 
 of naval government may be found in the fact 
 of its having stood the test, during nearly two 
 centuries, of great wars, wherein the naval re 
 sources of the country have been strained to their 
 utmost, and of its having successfully resisted a 
 formidable combination, in 1861, to abolish it. 
 
 To the foregoing the naval administration of 
 the United States presents some points of strong 
 contrast. 
 
 By the act of September 2, 1789, establishing 
 a Treasury Department, the Congress of the 
 United States provided that the Secretary of that 
 Department might be "required to give infor 
 mation to either branch of the legislature in per 
 son or in writing . . . respecting all matters 
 pertaining to his office." This is the only in 
 stance, it is believed, under the laws of the 
 United States, where a member of the executive 
 branch of the government could be permitted, 
 in the prosecution of public business, to raise his 
 voice in the legislative halls ; but so foreign is 
 such a proceeding to the genius of the Constitu 
 tion, that the provision relating to personal ex 
 
 planations has become a dead letter. This com 
 plete separation between the executive and legis 
 lative branches leaves a hiatus between the two 
 which, however desirable in theory, tends but 
 little to accelerate the dispatch of public busi 
 ness, and renders a definite line of naval policy 
 practically impossible. 
 
 In the organization of the Navy Department 
 of the United States there is a Secretary of the 
 Navy appointed from civil life. The law per 
 mits him to distribute the duties of the Depart 
 ment among eight bureaus, very much as it is in 
 the fixed administration of the English navy ; 
 but it provides him with no professional assistant 
 to occupy towards him the relative position the 
 Senior Sea Lord bears towards the First Lord of 
 the Admiralty ; consequently much of the duty 
 pertaining to that very important office is im 
 perfectly performed, or not performed at all, 
 there is no one to whom it legitimately belongs. 
 
 The proof of the inefficiency of this form of 
 naval government is to be found in the fact 
 that it utterly failed to stand the test of war. 
 The foregoing will serve to illustrate the princi 
 ple of naval administration. For further in 
 formation, see ADMINISTRATION and ADMI 
 RALTY. S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Governor. A machine for regulating the 
 speed of a prime mover, such as a steam-engine, 
 water-wheel, or windmill, by automatically con 
 trolling the quantity of steam admitted to a 
 steam-cylinder, or the supply of water to a 
 wheel, or by feathering or reefing the sails of a 
 windmill. There is a great variety of types and 
 devices in use, but the original invention is at 
 tributed to Watt. Among these is the type of 
 "ball-governor," or revolving pendulum, which 
 consists of two suspended balls, the centrifugal 
 force of which widens their amplitude as the 
 speed is increased, and gravity or the force of 
 springs diminishes it as the speed decreases ; the 
 motion due to the varying position of the planes 
 in which the balls revolve being communicated 
 to the throttle, sluice-valve, or other mechanism, 
 by means of a sleeve on the spindle or a rod within 
 it, and requisite rods and levers. Other devices 
 consist, in principle, of obliquely placed blades 
 or vanes revolving in a liquid or in the atmos 
 phere, and producing an axial motion with vari 
 ation of speed; and again, others depend upon 
 the moment of inertia of a heavy wheel, which, 
 by suitable mechanism, either actuates the throt 
 tle-valve directly, or by the intervention of a 
 small steam and hydraulic cylinder. In some 
 marine steam-governors the action depends upon 
 the head of water due to the .variable immersion 
 of the screw-propeller in a sea-way ; and both 
 mechanical and electrical contrivances are used. 
 Marine governors thus far have met with but 
 limited success. 
 
 Gow. An old term for the gull. 
 
 Gowk. The cuckoo. A stupid, good-natured 
 fellow. 
 
 GOWK-STORM. A late vernal equinoctial gale, 
 contemporary with the gowk or cuckoo. 
 
 Goylir. A small sea-bird whose appearance 
 is said to precede a storm ; hence seamen call 
 them malifiaes. 
 
 Grab. The large coasting-vessel of India, 
 generally with two masts and of 150 to 300 tons 
 burden. It drew but little water, and had a pro 
 jecting prow covered with a strong deck on a 
 
GRABBLE 
 
 318 
 
 GRAYLING 
 
 level with the main deck of the vessel, from 
 which it was separated by a bulkhead that ter 
 minated the forecastle. It was armed with guns 
 varying in calibre from 6- to 12-pounders. 
 
 Grabble. To endeavor to hook a sunken 
 article. To catch fish by hand in a brook. 
 
 Grade. See RANK. 
 
 Graft. To cover a ring-bolt, strap of a block, 
 etc., with a weaving of fishing-line or log-line. 
 In early days the strap of a block was frequently 
 grafted instead of being spliced ; the ends of the 
 strap were joined as for splicing, the strands 
 were opened out and laid up into nettles, and 
 the nettles were grafted over the opposite part. 
 
 Grain. In the transverse section of a tree 
 two diiferent grains are seen ; that running in a 
 circular manner is termed the silver grain ; the 
 other radiates from the centre, and is called the 
 bastard grain. Grain is also a name applied to 
 a whirlwind in Normandy ; it is transitory in its 
 nature, and is accompanied by rain. Bad-grain, 
 a sea-lawyer ; a nuisance. In the grain of, in 
 the wake of. A mast is said to have its grain 
 upset when it suffers an injury by compression, 
 frequently due to too much setting up of the 
 rigging. 
 
 Grained Powder. See POWDER. 
 
 Grains. A large fish-spear with several prongs. 
 
 Gram. A species of pulse given to horses, 
 sheep, and oxen in the East Indies, and supplied 
 to ships for feeding live-stock. 
 
 Grampus (Fr. grampoise, a corruption of grand 
 poisson}. An animal of the cetacean or whale 
 tribe, distinguished by the large pointed teeth 
 with which both jaws are armed, and by the 
 high falcate dorsal fin. It generally attains a 
 length of 20 to 25 feet, and is very active and 
 voracious. 
 
 GRAMPUS, BLOWING THE. Sluicing a person 
 with water, especially practiced on him who 
 skulks or sleeps on his watch. 
 
 Grandsire. The name of a four oared boat 
 which belonged to Peter the Great, now care 
 fully preserved at St. Petersburg as the origin 
 of the Russian fleet. 
 
 Granny s-bend. The slippery hitch made by 
 a lubber. 
 
 Granny-knot. This is a term of derision when 
 a reef-knot is crossed the wrong way, so as to be 
 insecure. It is the natural knot tied by women 
 or landsmen, and derided by seamen because it, 
 cannot be untied when it is jammed. 
 
 Grape, or Grape-shot. Grape-shot consists of a 
 circular cast-iron stand of the proper dimensions, 
 having an upright spindle in the centre, around 
 which balls are placed and held in position by a 
 stout canvas covering, the lower edge of which is 
 secured to a circular plate by a strong seizing, 
 and quilted over the balls by marline, the upper 
 edge of the canvas being drawn in and secured to 
 the upper part of the spindle. It is then painted 
 as a protection against dampness, the balls and 
 stand being well coated with red lead before 
 being made up. To the top of the spindle a 
 shackle or handle is fixed to facilitate handling. 
 
 Grape-shot have not sufficient penetration to be 
 used with effect, generally, against ships-of-war 
 beyond 150 yards. When the men on the spar- 
 decks of the enemy are exposed by the heeling of 
 the ship, grape or canister may be used against 
 them at distances varying from 200 to 300 yards. 
 Against light vessels, a single stand of grape from 
 
 heavy guns may be used at about 400 yards. The 
 dispersion of the balls is about one-tenth the 
 distance, and is practically independent of the 
 charge. 
 
 Grapnel, or Grappling. A pronged implement 
 used as an anchor for a boat ; for the purpose of 
 recovering an object at the bottom of a harbor; 
 for hooking on to ropes, etc., likely to foul the 
 screw ; for securing one vessel to another when 
 boarding is to be attempted; or to unake fast a 
 tow-line to a burning vessel, etc. 
 
 GRAPNEL-ROPE. The rope bent to a grapnel. 
 It is sometimes fitted with a length of chain for 
 towing ships on fire, in order that it may not be 
 burnt off. 
 
 Grapple. To seize ; to hook with a grapnel. 
 
 GRAPPLING. See GRAPNEL. 
 
 Grasp, Death-. The convulsive clutch of a 
 drowning person. See DROWN. 
 
 Grass Combers. A galley-term for lands 
 men who enter the naval service from the rural 
 districts. Many of them make good seamen. 
 
 Grate. A floor or platform consisting of bars 
 of iron or other material, separated one from 
 another so as to allow a vacant space between. 
 Used in steam-boiler and other furnaces for sup 
 porting the bed of burning fuel while permitting 
 free access of air thereto. 
 
 GRATE-BAR. One of a number of bars com 
 posing a furnace-grate. 
 
 Gratings. Lattice-work made of ash to cover 
 the hatchways, etc. 
 
 GRATING-DECK. A light movable deck made 
 of gratings. 
 
 Grave. To clean a vessel s bottom, and pay 
 it over. 
 
 GRAVING BEACH, or SLIP. The portion of a 
 dock-yard where ships were placed to be graved. 
 
 GRAVING-DOCK. See DOCK. 
 
 Gravel. To vex ; to irritate ; to mortify. 
 
 Gravelin. A small migratory fish supposed 
 to be the spawn of the salmon. 
 
 Gravitation (Lat. grams, heavy). A term 
 used to denote that mutual tendency which all 
 the bodies of nature have to approach each other, 
 with forces which are directly as their masses, 
 and inversely proportional to the squares of 
 their distances. This mutual tendency of all the 
 particles of matter to each other is called the at 
 traction of gravitation. In reference to any par 
 ticular body or mass of matter the aggregate 
 attraction of all its particles is usually called 
 simply its gravity. Absolute gravity, that by 
 which a body descends freely in a vacuum. 
 Relative gravity, that by which a body descends 
 when the absolute gravity is opposed by a con 
 stant but inferior force, such as in the descent 
 of inclined planes, or in resisting mediums, as 
 air and water. Specific gravity, the ratio of the 
 weight of a body to the weight of an equal vol 
 ume of some other body assumed as a conven 
 tional standard. The standard usually adopted 
 for this purpose is pure distilled water at a given 
 temperature. See CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 
 
 Grawls. The young salmon. See GRILSE. 
 
 Gray-fish, Gray-lord. Names given to the 
 coal-fish, Gadus carbonarius. 
 
 Grayle. Sand ; small gravel. 
 
 Grayling. A fish of the salmon kind (Thy~ 
 mallus vulgaris], inhabiting many of the streams 
 of England, and also found in Norway and 
 Sweden. 
 
GKAYNING 
 
 319 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Grayning. A species of dace. 
 
 Gray-school. A particular shoal of large 
 salmon in the Solway in July. 
 
 Graze. To rub or touch lightly in passing 
 over. 
 
 Greasy Weather. Dirty, disagreeable weather. 
 
 Great Britain, Navy of. If any reliance could 
 be placed on tradition, the credit of originating 
 a navy for the defense of the coasts of England 
 would be assigned to Alfred the Great. There 
 is no doubt that, at all times subsequently, fleets 
 of small craft were maintained for the national 
 protection, but it does not appear, from authentic 
 records extant, that any large ships were built 
 for warlike purposes until the reign of Henry 
 VII., when a two-decked vessel the first of the 
 kind was launched in the year 1488, and re 
 ceived the appellation of the "Great Harry." 
 Still, nothing in the form of a regular royal navy 
 was established until Henry VIII. ascended the 
 throne. Three years after his accession, Eng 
 land was involved in a war with France, and 
 steps were taken to invade that country. A 
 fleet was equipped for the purpose. The French 
 were prepared, and a battle the first sea-fight 
 in which cannon were employed took place off 
 Brest on the 10th August, 1512. The action 
 was indecisive, and the fleets returned to their 
 respective harbors. In the following year a 
 similar expedition was sent against Brest. The 
 French resisted it with galleys. Sir Edward 
 Howard, the lord high admiral, was killed in 
 the action. Henry now set to work vigorously 
 in the constitution of a royal navy. A large 
 three^decked man-of-war was constructed, and 
 called the " Henri, Grace de Dieu," which name 
 was afterwards changed to that of the Edward. 
 Fifty eight other vessels were built, the tonnage 
 of which ranged from 80 to 1200. For the 
 proper government of the navy, Henry VIII. 
 established an admiralty and a navy office, and 
 Sir Thomas Howard was appointed lord high 
 admiral, in succession to his brother. For close 
 combat, muskets, hackbuts, and matchlocks were 
 introduced in 1514. 
 
 The war with France having come to a close, 
 we read of no more sea-fights until 1523, when 
 the treaty was broken, and an English fleet at 
 tacked and took possession of Boulogne. Con 
 tinual actions were fought without striking re 
 sults, while the French galleys and the English 
 pinnaces, then used for the first time, kept up a 
 sort of desultory guerrilla warfare. In the mean 
 time King Henry persevered in his plans, and 
 established dock-yards at Deptford, Woolwich, 
 and Portsmouth. He made l?.ws for the plant 
 ing and preservation of trees, that timber might 
 always be available for ship-building. Further, 
 he assigned regular pay to the officers and sail 
 ors, which contributed to render the service very 
 popular. 
 
 Edward VI., who succeeded to the throne on 
 the death of Henry VIII., was a peaceable mon 
 arch, and devoted his resources to scientific ob 
 jects. He engaged the services of Sebastian 
 Cabot, and sanctioned an attempt, under Sir 
 Hugh Willoughby, to open a way to India and 
 China in a northwest direction. Queen Mary, 
 who succeeded Edward, did not follow up his 
 measures for the perfection of naval efficiency, 
 doubtless influenced by her husband, Philip of 
 Spain, who desired to cripple a service that 
 
 might become formidable to his own country. 
 But Queen Elizabeth, who knew that the only 
 way to protect the shores and commerce of Eng 
 land was to be prepared for war, proceeded soon 
 after her accession to repair the neglects of her 
 predecessor. She continued the construction of 
 men-of-war, fortified the banks of the Medway, 
 in Kent, which was the rendezvous of the ships, 
 encouraged the manufacture of gunpowder, and 
 established arsenals in the chief sea-board cities. 
 The merchants followed the queen s example, 
 and by the time she had occupied the throne 
 for four years as many as 20,000 seamen were 
 available to man the ships of war. The country 
 was at peace, and opportunity was therefore 
 given for a further prosecution of the endeavor 
 to effect discoveries and acquire distant posses 
 sions. The annexation of Virginia (America) 
 and other places was the result. But the state 
 of peace was not permanent. A religious war 
 between Protestants and Catholics had been 
 waging for many years, and Elizabeth giving 
 countenance to the Dutch Protestants, afforded 
 Philip of Spain a pretext for sending an "Ar 
 mada" of 130 fine war-ships and innumerable 
 transports against England. The j ear 1587 saw 
 the approach of the Armada and its complete 
 destruction, partly by the British vessels, which 
 met isolated Spanish ships and gave them battle, 
 and partly by a furious storm, which dispersed 
 the expedition. This victory and an attack upon 
 Cadiz, Philip s greatest seaport, completed the 
 warlike operations of the navy during the 16th 
 century. The queen was fortunate in her ad 
 mirals. The names of Howard of Effingham, 
 Francis Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins adorn 
 the page of England s naval history. Those 
 gallant men were all lost to the nation towards 
 the close of Elizabeth s reign. Frobisher was 
 killed in an attempt to recover Brest from the 
 Spaniards, and Drake and Hawkins died in 
 India. 
 
 Not until the middle of the 16th century did 
 anything occur to give active employment to 
 the navy. Meanwhile, a third big ship was built, 
 and armed with 100 guns of divers calibre. At 
 the same time the classification of ships ~by rates 
 and guns was begun. In 1652, Oliver Cromwell 
 being then at the head of affairs, war was de 
 clared between England and Holland. It arose 
 from the habitual refusal of the Dutch, under 
 Van Tromp, to lower their flag to the British. 
 Gens. Blake, Monk, and Deane were appointed 
 to lead the English squadrons, and they were 
 opposed by Admirals De Kuyter, Van Tromp, 
 and De Witt. On the 3d of June, 1653, the 
 rival fleets met for the first time in line. After 
 several fights the Dutch were compelled to re 
 treat to the Texel. The loss on both sides was 
 very heavy, and Holland and England again 
 shook hands. Two years later (1653) Blake was 
 dispatched to the coast of Morocco to punish the 
 African marauders, who had plundered and im 
 prisoned British subjects. He attacked and de 
 stroyed the fortifications of Tunis, then pro 
 ceeded to Algiers and Tripoli and rescued the 
 captive English, exacting compensation from the 
 Moors for the injuries inflicted. In 1657, war 
 having been declared with Spain, Blake was 
 sent to Cadiz, thence to Santa Cruz, to capture 
 sundry Spanish galleons with gold on board. 
 While on this service he died. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 320 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Cromwell left the country in peace when he 
 died. His successor, Charles II., maintained 
 amicable relations with foreign powers until 
 1665, when war was proclaimed with Holland by 
 the government of Charles II. A large fleet, 
 under the nominal command of the king s 
 brother, the Duke of York, met an equally pow 
 erful force under Opdam, and in the engagement 
 which took place the evolution called " breaking 
 the line" was first adopted, and proved a suc 
 cess. The Dutch were defeated ; but in the fol 
 lowing year De Ruyter took the field in com 
 mand of the Dutch, and a series of actions 
 ensued, in whicn the Dutch were masters. The 
 peace of Breda was the consequence. In 1667, 
 the Dutch and the French, while the peace was 
 being negotiated, were aggressive in the West 
 Indies. Thither Sir J. Harman sailed with a 
 sufficient force, and routed the enemy off the 
 island of St. Christopher, at the same time de 
 stroying many of their ships. This led to a rup 
 ture of the treaty. Charles having listened to 
 the suggestions of his ministers in favor of a false 
 economy, had dismantled many of his ships and 
 discharged the crews. De Ruyter, being ap 
 prised of the fact, immediately crossed to Eng 
 land with 70 ships. Sir Edward Spragge con 
 fronted him at the mouth of the Thames, and en 
 deavored to defend Sheerness, but the inferiority 
 of the force at his command rendered his efforts 
 unavailing. De Ruyter pushed on, and entered 
 the Medway, where some ships were at anchor. 
 These he destroyed with fire-ships, which were 
 thenceforth used by the English in kindred 
 operations. Subsequently, allied with the French 
 under Count d Estrees, an English squadron 
 commanded by Sir Edward Spragge gave battle 
 to De Ruyter, Von Tromp, and Von Ghirt. 
 The losses were great on both sides. De Ruyter 
 was wounded and Von Ghirt killed. 
 
 In 1685, Charles II. died, and having no 
 legitimate offspring, was succeeded by his brother 
 James. The latter endeavored to restore popery 
 throughout the kingdom, and in the prosecution 
 of this religious object he received aid and coun 
 tenance from the French king, Louis XIV. The 
 Protestants of the realm, however, opposed them 
 selves vigorously to the attempt to reconvert the 
 country to Catholicism, and ultimately King 
 James was obliged, in 1688, to abdicate the 
 throne, giving place to the Prince of Orange, 
 who had married his daughter. Two years 
 later, however, aided by the French and the 
 Irish Catholics, James tried to regain the crown 
 of England. The land forces of both parties 
 came into collision, in 1690, on the banks of the 
 river Boyne, and James s friends succumbed to 
 the resolute valor of his successor, William III. 
 The French, however, under Tourville, gained a 
 triumph over the combined Dutch and English 
 fleet off Beachy Head, which brought Admiral 
 Torrington into great disgrace. ^Undismayed 
 by the failure of the Catholic forces on the Boyne 
 water, the king of France equipped an immense 
 naval and military force to invade England and 
 restore James. To check this invasion Admiral 
 Russell sailed with a fleet of 60 ships, carrying 
 4504 guns and 27,725 men, to which armament 36 
 Dutch ships were added. The opposing forces 
 met off Cape La Hogue in the month of May, 
 1692. The contest which ensued lasted four 
 days, and terminated with the destruction of the 
 
 French fleet. Great joy was manifested by the 
 English people when the news of the victory 
 was proclaimed ; and in the absence of King 
 William, his queen (Mary) founded a royal 
 naval hospital at Greenwich, near London, as a 
 memorial of the gratitude of the nation for the 
 blessing vouchsafed it by the Almighty. 
 
 After the victory at Cape La Hogue the navy 
 ceased for a time to be formidable. It is on rec 
 ord that no fewer than 50 ships were captured 
 by foreign foes down to 1697. King William, 
 however, rapidly repaired the loss, for it appears 
 that before his death he had built 30 large 
 ships, and incorporated into the navy 15 that 
 had been taken from the French. Queen Anne, 
 his successor, continued the improvement of the 
 national sea force to such an extent that when 
 she died and the elector of Hanover ascended 
 the throne as George I., no fewer than 178 
 ships of war constituted the navy of England. 
 Of that number, 7 of the highest class or rate 
 carried 100 guns each, the remainder had 20 to 90 
 pieces of ordnance, according to their size. There 
 were six different classes of ships, ranging from 
 374 to 1869 tons each. The larger were rated as 
 u line-of-battle ships," the lesser as frigates, 
 from the Italian word frigata, a term used to 
 designate certain long vessels of one deck only 
 which swarmed in the Mediterranean and were 
 propelled by oars and sails. The chief defect in 
 all this armament lay in the disproportion of 
 guns to tonnage. The scientific officers of the 
 day were mistaken in their computation of the 
 carrying facility of the ships. All the guns were 
 nearly of the same calibre. It ought not to be 
 forgotten that early in the reign of Anne Gib 
 raltar was taken from the Spaniards, and remains 
 a British stronghold to this day. 
 
 There was neither scope nor occasion for the 
 employment of the navy in the reign of the first 
 George. His successor, being of a more chival 
 rous temperament, espoused the cause of the 
 queen of Hungary, whose territory was men 
 aced by France, Saxony, Prussia, and Bavaria. 
 The land force contributed by Great Britain 
 failed in its efforts to sustain the queen. Ad 
 vantage was taken of this circumstance by France 
 to assert the pretensions of the son of James II. 
 to the throne of England, and for their en 
 forcement a military force under Count Saxe, 
 and 20 ships of the line under the command of 
 the Duke de Roquefeuille, attempted to effect a 
 landing on the shores of Britain. The expedi 
 tion was driven back by Sir John Norris and a 
 naval squadron. Especially unfortunate with her 
 army in the Netherlands, where she lost the battle 
 of Fontenoy, England countered her ill luck by 
 the successes of the navy. Admirals Rowley and 
 Warren upheld her consequence, and Louisbourg 
 was taken from the French. At a later period 
 France endeavored to recover Cape Breton, and 
 made a descent on the British colonial possessions 
 in America, at the same time commencing oper 
 ations against those in India. The French fleets 
 were met by Admirals Anson and Warren, de 
 feated and captured, while Commodore Fox, with 
 6 ships of war, made prizes of 40 merchantmen 
 bound for St. Domingo. These successes were 
 crowned by Lord Hawke s capture of 7 ships of 
 the line and several frigates off Brest. 
 
 The failure of his naval commanders made 
 Louis XIV. desirous of peace. Great Britain, 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 321 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 nothing loth, accepted the proffered terms, and a 
 suspension of arms took place in 1798. But, not 
 long afterwards, the French endeavored to dis 
 possess the settlers in Nova Scotia of their ac 
 quired property, and the dormant warfare was 
 renewed (1756), and continued in America for 
 several years. As before, the land operations of 
 the English were not triumphant, while at sea, 
 as usual, they maintained their reputation. One 
 blot, however, temporarily shocked the national 
 sense. The French made an attempt upon the 
 island of Minorca, then held by the English. 
 Admiral Byng, with a squadron, was deputed 
 to raise the siege. He failed in this, and did 
 not even manage to increase the strength of the 
 beleaguered garrison or replenish its stores. For 
 his neglect and asserted pusillanimity Byng was 
 tried by court-martial and shot. Ultimately 
 the French were expelled from Canada. They 
 made an attempt to recover Quebec, and were 
 frustrated by Lord Colville and a squadron of 
 ships of war. About the same time Commodore 
 More and a small military force took Guada- 
 loupe. 
 
 On the accession of George III. (1760), certain 
 propositions were made by France in relation to 
 Spain, which Mr. Pitt, the prime minister, con 
 strued into an offense to the dignity of England. 
 War with Spain was the issue of the negotia 
 tions. France and Spain, united, then made 
 war on Portugal, and directed their hostile meas 
 ures to Oporto and Lisbon, two ports of great 
 importance to the military and commercial in 
 terests of England. The Portuguese and British 
 land forces, however, defeated the project, and the 
 latter, in retaliation, took possession of several of 
 the French West India Islands, and of the city 
 of Havana, in Cuba. About the same time the 
 "Active" and "Favorite," British men-of-war, 
 captured the Spanish register ship the " Her- 
 mione," with prize worth three million sterling 
 on board. In the same year (1762") Manilla was 
 wrested from Spain, and the frigates "Argo" 
 and " Rantler" seized a galleon with a million 
 and a half of treasure on board. A truce fol 
 lowed upon these affairs in 1763, and lasted until 
 A.D. 1770, when a temporary misunderstand 
 ing occurred between a Spanish and English 
 man-of-war at Port Egmont, on the Falkland 
 Islands. 
 
 Naval operations of every kind were suspended 
 after that affair until 1776, when the North 
 American colonies declared their independence 
 of Great Britain. The French people taking 
 part with the revolted States, British ships of 
 war were sent to capture certain islands in the 
 West Indies. Admiral Byron, in command of 
 the fleet, was opposed by Count d Estaing, who 
 proved too powerful for the English. On the 
 other hand, Admirals Hyde Parker and Row 
 ley repaired the English failures by disturbing 
 French commerce with the islands. Still, it was 
 very apparent to the British Parliament that the 
 navy had deteriorated and required reform and 
 strength. Vigorous efforts were accordingly de 
 creed, and in 1778, Admiral Keppel, assisted by 
 Sir R. Haviland and Sir Hugh Palliser, cruised 
 in the Channel to protect the trade of the country, 
 while Admiral Byron proceeded to America. 
 After two or three isolated combats between the 
 " Arethusa" and "La Belle Poule," the " Amer 
 ica" and the " Licorne," which caused the 
 21 
 
 British vessels to approach closely to the French 
 coast, it was discovered (off Brest) that the 
 French were in great force. A fight ensued, 
 lasting three or four days, and the French get 
 ting away in safety, serious disputes arose be 
 tween the admirals, Palliser bringing charges 
 against Keppel which led to his being tried by 
 court-martial. Keppel was honorably acquit 
 ted, but the Admiralty Board continuing to dis 
 countenance him, Lord Howe and two other 
 admirals resigned, and 20 captains declared their 
 readiness to do the same, but were deterred by 
 the possibility of their services being required. 
 Spain and France were again in alliance. About 
 this time, carronades (so called from the locality 
 of the foundry on the banks of the river Carron, 
 in Scotland) were introduced into the navy, the 
 better to adapt the weight of the metal to the 
 tonnage of the shipping. They proved effective 
 in two actions, in one of which the " Hebe" was 
 captured and used as a model for English frigates. 
 The number of ships in the service at this date 
 was 300 of all classes, and with this force, avail 
 able for active service, Admirals Rodney and 
 Hyde Parker made vigorous war upon the allies, 
 gaining many advantages in the West Indies 
 and on the coasts of Spain and Portugal. The 
 Spaniards used great efforts to recover Gibraltar, 
 but Rodney kept the garrison so well supplied 
 that their exertions proved perfectly futile. A 
 new enemy now arose to tax British strength. 
 The States-General of Holland declared for the 
 Americans, and put the navy to some trouble in 
 1780. Two years later, England was more for 
 tunate, for Rodney defeated the Count de Grasse 
 in an action of fleets, and took the count a pris 
 oner to England, where he was treated with 
 marked consideration. The fight took place 
 off Dominica, and was a fair test of the relative 
 powers of the rival navies. 
 
 From 1780 until 1793 the state of affairs in 
 Europe ( did not call for much activity on the 
 part of the navy, but after the latter date until 
 1814, revolutionary France and the Emperor 
 Napoleon compelled it to "rule the waves." 
 With few reverses, it swept the navies of France, 
 Spain, and Holland off the seas. Its principal 
 exploits will be found recorded in the brief biog 
 raphies of Nelson, Howe, Jervis, Collingwood, 
 Cochrane, Cockburn, etc. The capture or ces 
 sion of the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Cochin 
 and Malacta, etc., are mainly due to its efforts. 
 It was likewise partially engaged in conflicts 
 with the American navy, but without acquiring 
 a superiority. 
 
 No particular change took place in the con 
 stitution of the navy for many years after the 
 establishment of peace with France ; its employ 
 ment was limited to an association with the land 
 forces in acquiring influence and position in 
 Burmah, China, New Zealand, etc. But the in 
 troduction of steam and the screw as elements in 
 propulsion, and the application of breech-loading 
 cannon to the defense of ships, and their offen 
 sive faculty, compelled the adoption of a system 
 of armor-plating and the construction of iron 
 vessels of prodigious magnitude. Turrets, form 
 ing a kind of floating "fortresses, and rams for 
 cutting the hull of a hostile ship at close quar 
 ters, likewise came rapidly into use after the 
 commencement of the American civil war in 
 1861, in which, however, England took no part, 
 
 V 
 
GEEAT BRITAIN 
 
 322 
 
 GREEK ALPHABET 
 
 and now the sailing-vessel is gradually becom 
 ing a thing of the past. The last operations of 
 the British navy which claim a place in its 
 "brilliant annals occurred in the Black Sea, in 
 1855-56, when a war was undertaken, in conjunc 
 tion with France and Turkey, against the empire 
 of Russia, and again in 1877-78, when a demon 
 stration was made in the same locality to force 
 the acceptance of terms of peace on the part of 
 Russia again assailing Turkey in Europe and 
 Asia. 
 
 The British navy is necessarily the most pow 
 erful, and therefore the most costly, in the world. 
 For the current year, the estimate for the ex 
 pense of the permanent establishment, the con 
 tingencies arising out of its employment, and 
 the continued improvements in nautical archi 
 tecture and gunnery, reaches nearly $55,000,000. 
 For the protection of so many distant posses 
 sions, and of the commerce of the country with 
 all nations, numerous vessels of the highest class 
 are essential, and their equipment corresponds 
 with their bulk and faculty of oifense and 
 defense. According to the latest navy lists 
 there are about 400 vessels of all types, and of 
 an aggregate tonnage of 900,000." Of these, 
 58 are armored vessels carrying rifled guns of 
 great calibre, and protected by armor varying in 
 thickness from 4J to 24 inches. The number of 
 men employed on board the ships in the navy 
 varies, of course, with the exigencies of the ser 
 vice. Not all the vessels are in " commission" at 
 the same time ; but they can be placed on a war 
 footing at very short notice, because there is a 
 reserve force comprehending some thousands of 
 seamen who are continually undergoing drill in 
 the principal harbors. The establishment of 
 officers is permanent, and consists of 3 admirals 
 of the fleet, 16 admirals, 19 vice-admirals, 31 
 rear-admirals, 173 captains, 208 commanders, 
 840 lieutenants, 230 sub-lieutenants, 217 mid 
 shipmen, 264 naval cadets, 11 staff-captains, 94 
 statf-commanders, 56 -navigating lieutenants and 
 29 sub-navigating lieutenants, 5 chief inspectors 
 of machinery, 5 inspectors, 180 chief engineers, 
 355 engineers, 120 assistant engineers, 106 chap 
 lains, 23 naval instructors (who may act at the 
 same time as chaplains ) , 478 medical officers of dif 
 ferent ranks and grades, 225 paymasters and 200 
 assistants, and 54 secretaries to flag-officers. The 
 naval reserv officers are 400 in number. Serv 
 ing on board the ships or on shore, as occasion 
 may require, there is in addition to the purely 
 naval establishment a large body of royal ma 
 rines, a highly effective corps at all times. The 
 marine artillery has 90 officers, and the light in 
 fantry 19 colonels, 24 majors, 81 captains, and 
 135 lieutenants. 
 
 The government and direction of the affairs of 
 the British navy are vested in a board denominated 
 the Lords of the Admiralty. The first lord is 
 usually a civilian and a member of the cabinet ; 
 two of the others are naval lords, selected from 
 experienced officers capable of estimating the 
 wants and judging of the capability of the force. 
 The patronage is divided among these lords; 
 but this only extends to selections for particular 
 services and the appointment to certain ships. 
 The promotion from rank to rank is regulated 
 by the seniority of the officers ; the gradation can 
 only be interrupted by the sentence of a court- 
 martial for acts of indiscipline and the pleasure 
 
 of the sovereign, who may visit misconduct either 
 \>y dismissal from the service or by placing an 
 offender at the bottom of the list. All the honors 
 of the Bath, the orders of St. Michael and St. 
 George, the Victoria Cross, the Albert and War 
 medals, are available equally to the navy and 
 the army, and special pensions are conferred for 
 good service in war or peace. Pensions for 
 wounds received in action and to the widows of 
 officers are likewise granted, while the sailors 
 who have served long and commendably are 
 provided for on a similar system, and on a scale 
 commensurate with the position they held in the 
 service. J. H. Siddons. 
 
 Great Circle. See CIRCLE. 
 
 GREAT-CIRCLE SAILING. In great-circle sail 
 ing, the ship keeps on the great circle which passes 
 through the place of departure and the place of 
 destination. This is the shortest distance be 
 tween the two places, and the ship steers for her 
 port as if it were in sight. As the great circle, 
 except in the cases of a meridian and the equator, 
 does not make a constant angle with the merid 
 ians, in order to keep on it, a ship must be con 
 tinually changing her course. This is practically 
 impossible, and hence what is called approximate 
 great-circle sailing is more or less adopted. In 
 approximate great-circle sailing, several points 
 on the arc of the great circle joining the place 
 left and the place sought, are fixed upon, and 
 each of these made in succession by the ship 
 sailing on the rhumb-lines connecting them. 
 The sum of the distances described on these sev 
 eral courses, if the points are not taken too far 
 apart, will not differ much from the shortest dis 
 tance. 
 
 Great Guns. A term for heavy ordnance, ex 
 cluding mortars and howitzers. Blowing great 
 guns, blowing violently. 
 
 Great-line Fishing. Fishing carried on over 
 the deeper banks of the ocean.- Hand-fishing in 
 over 60 fathoms. 
 
 Great Ocean. The Pacific. 
 
 Great Shakes. See SHAKE. 
 
 Grebe. A genus of birds of the family Co- 
 lymbidce, with short wings and no tail. On land 
 their motions are awkward, but in the water 
 they are very agile. They are said to take their 
 young under their wings and dive to escape an 
 enemy. 
 
 Grecale. A northeast breeze off the coast of 
 Sicily, Greece bearing N.E. 
 
 Greece, Navy of. This small state, protected 
 as it is by the more powerful states of Europe, has 
 had little occasion for a navy since it became a 
 monarchy, nor is it in a condition to support a 
 large armed force. Nevertheless a fleet is main 
 tained for the protection of the commerce of the 
 Morea and the isles, consisting of 16 vessels. 
 Two of the vessels are ironclad, the " Olga" 
 and the " Georgius," besides which there are 1 
 screw-corvette, 5 yachts, 1 screw-gunboat, and 
 7 pinnaces and small gunboats. The sailors 
 required for this small armament are obtained 
 by conscription. They are in number 581, 
 with 71 commissioned officers. 
 
 Greek Alphabet. The small letters of the 
 Greek alphabet are used to distinguish the differ 
 ent stars of the constellations ; thus the star 
 Dubhe is a Ursce Majoris, Rigel is ft Orionis. 
 The navigator should not, therefore, be ignorant 
 of these characters : 
 
GEEEK FIEE 
 
 323 
 
 GEEENOCK 
 
 a Alpha (a). v Nu (n). 
 
 ft Beta (b). Xi (x). 
 
 7 Gamma (g). o Omlcron (6). 
 
 6 Delta (d). TT Pi (p). 
 
 e Epsllon (e). p Eho (r). 
 
 Zeta (z). G Sigma (s). 
 
 77 Eta (e). r Tau (t). 
 
 6 Theta (th). v Upsilon (u). 
 
 i Iota (i). < Phi (ph). 
 
 K Kappa (k). x C hi ( ch )- 
 
 A Lambda (1). V Psi (?) 
 
 // Mu (m). w Omega (a). 
 
 Greek Fire. An incendiary composition used 
 in early times. The invention of Greek fire is 
 ascribed to Callicinus, in the 7th century, but 
 there seems reason to believe that it came origin 
 ally from India. The accounts of its effects are 
 so mingled with obvious fable that it is difficult 
 to arrive at any just conclusion as to its power, 
 but the mixture seems to have been highly in 
 flammable, and to have possessed the power of 
 burning under water. The process of making 
 it was kept secret for several centuries, but the 
 knowledge of its composition gradually spread 
 until at the time of the discovery of gunpowder 
 it formed a recognized defensive element in most 
 wars from Western Europe to Asia Minor. See 
 FIRE-SHIPS. 
 
 Green. Eaw ; untutored ; ignorant ; inexpe 
 rienced. 
 
 GREEN-HAND. Embarked for the first time, 
 and consequently inexperienced. 
 
 GREEN-HORN. A lubberly, uninitiated fellow. 
 A novice of marked gullibility. 
 
 GREEN-MEN (Eng.). The rive supernumerary 
 seamen who had not been before in the Arctic 
 Seas, whom vessels in the whale-fishery were 
 obliged to bear, to get the tonnage bounty. 
 
 Green, Charles, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Connecticut. Appointed from Connecticut, 
 May 1, 1826 ; receiving-ship "Independence," 
 Boston, 1826 ; sloop "Erie," West India Squad 
 ron, 1827-28; sloop "Peacock," West Indies, 
 1829-31. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832 ; New York Station, 1831-34 ; frigate " Bran- 
 dywine," Pacific Squadron, 1834-37. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 8, 1837; 
 sloop "Levant," West Indies, 1838; receiving- 
 ship at New York, 1839-40 ; sloop " Falmouth," 
 Home Squadron, 1841-43; steamer "Union," 
 Norfolk, 1847; steamer "Michigan," lakes, 
 1848-50; steamer "Fulton," 1852; receiving- 
 ship "Ohio," Boston, 1853-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14. 
 1855; New York Navy-Yard, 1857-58; light 
 house inspector, Buffalo, 1858-61. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding "Jamestown," 1861-62; on blockade 
 off Savannah, Fernandina, Wilmington, N. C. ; 
 captured and sent into port or destroyed six 
 prizes ; sent the boats and destroyed the bark 
 " Alvarado," under guns of fort at Fernandina ; 
 commanding receiving-ship "Ohio," Boston, 
 1863-65; light-house inspector, ninth district. 
 New Orleans, 1865-67. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, March 12, 1867. 
 Eetired November 15, 1862. 
 
 Green, Joseph F., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Maine, November 24, 1811. Appointed 
 midshipman, from same State, November 1, 
 1827 ; attached to sloop-of-war " Vandalia," Bra 
 
 zil Squadron, 1830; Naval School, Norfolk, 
 1833. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 10, 
 1833 ; frigate " Potomac," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1835-37. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 28, 
 1838; sloop "Erie," West India Squadron, 
 1840; frigate "Columbus," Brazil Squadron, 
 1843-45; rendezvous, Boston, 1846; ship-of-the- 
 line " Ohio," Pacific Squadron, during all of the 
 Mexican war. Lieut. Green took part in all of 
 the important actions on the Pacific coast. He 
 remained in the " Ohio" until 1850; navy-yard, 
 Boston, 1851-52 ; ordnance duty, 1853-54 ; Na 
 val Academy, 1855-58. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855 ; waiting orders, 1859-60 ; ordnance duty, 
 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Canandaigua," South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1862-64; partici 
 pated in the bombardment of Fort Wagner; 
 ordnance duty, Boston Navy- Yard, 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 24, 1867 ; 
 special duty, 1869 ; commanding Southern Squad 
 ron of the Atlantic Fleet, 1870-71. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 13, 1870. 
 Eetired November 25, 1872. 
 
 Green-bone. The trivial name of the vivip 
 arous blenny, or guffer, the backbone of which 
 is green when boiled. 
 
 Greene, Theodore P., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Montreal, Canada. Appointed midship 
 man from Vermont, November 1, 1826 ; in sloops 
 " Warren," " Ontario," and frigate " Constella 
 tion," Mediterranean Squadron, 1827-32. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, 1832 ; sloop 
 " Vincennes," Pacific Squadron, and cruise 
 around the world, 1834-36. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 20, 
 1837; razee "Independence," Brazil Squadron, 
 master and lieutenant, 1837-39 ; receiving-ship 
 at Boston, 1841 r 42 ; schooner " Porpoise," 1843 ; 
 store-ship "Lexington," 1844; frigate "Con 
 gress," Pacific Squadron, during Mexican war, 
 1846-48 (six months in command of land forces 
 at Mazatlan) ; sloop " Cyane," Home Squadron, 
 1852-53 ; navy-yard, Boston, 1854-56. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855 ; light-house inspector, 1858-60 ; navy-yard, 
 Mare Island, Cal., 1861-62. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding "St. lago de Cuba," and "San Ja- 
 cinto," 1863-64; while commanding latter ves 
 sel, left in command of East Gulf Squadron, on 
 return of Eear-Admiral T. Bailey to United 
 States; commanding " Eichmond," West Gulf 
 Squadron, 1865 (protected troops landing for 
 attack upon Mobile) ; ordnance duty, Ports 
 mouth, N. H., 1866 ; commanding " Powhai?,n," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1867. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 24, 1867; 
 commanding Pensacola Navy- Yard, 1868-70. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, May 24, 1872. 
 Eetired November 1, 1871. 
 
 Green-fish. Cod, hake, haddock, herring, 
 etc., unsalted. 
 
 Greenland Dove. The puffinet ; called scraber 
 in the Hebrides. 
 
 Greenland Whale. See EIGHT WHALE. 
 
 Greenock. A seaport town of Scotland, on 
 the S. side of the Firth of Clyde. Lat. 55 56 
 
GREEN SEA 
 
 324 
 
 GRIT 
 
 *54" N. ; Ion. 4 45 / 15" W. Greenock has a 
 flourishing mechanics institute, numerous banks, 
 custom-house, chamber of commerce, seaman s 
 asylum, yards for building iron ships. It has 
 old and new harbors, constructed at great ex 
 pense, with extensive docks and quays. Pop. 
 58,000. 
 
 Green Sea. A large body of water shipped 
 on a vessel s deck ; it derives its name from the 
 green color of a sheet of water between the eye 
 and the light when its mass is too large to be 
 broken up into spray. 
 
 Green-slake. The sea-weed otherwise called 
 lettuce-lav er. 
 
 Green Turtle. See TURTLE. 
 
 Greenwich, co. of Kent, England, on the right 
 bank of the Thames, 3| miles E.S.E. of London 
 Bridge. Lat. of the observatory, 51 28 38" 
 N. ; Ion. 0". The educational establish 
 ments are numerous. Here are royal schools for 
 the children of officers, seamen, and marines. 
 But the principal object of interest in Green 
 wich is its magnificent naval hospital for the 
 maintenance of veteran, wounded, or unfortu 
 nate seamen. It stands on the bank of the river, 
 is 865 feet in length, and covers, with the 
 schools, civil offices, lawns, and burial-grounds 
 attached, a space of 40 acres. A portion of the 
 building is occupied by the Royal Naval Col 
 lege. Pop. of the town, 40,500. 
 
 Greep. An old spelling of gripe. 
 
 Grego. A coarse Levantine jacket with a 
 hood. A cant term for a heavy overcoat. 
 
 Gregory, Francis H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Norwalk, Conn., October 9, 1789; died 
 at Brooklyn, N. Y., October 4, 1866. He first 
 entered the merchant service; became a mid 
 shipman, January 16, 1809 ; lieutenant, June 28, 
 1814 ; commander, April 28, 1828 ; captain, Jan 
 uary 18, 1838 ; rear-admiral (retired list), July 16, 
 1862. His first services were near the Balize, 
 where he captured an English brig having 120 
 slaves on board, also a schooner fitting for pirat 
 ical purposes; had a night action with a priva 
 teer, which he disabled and drove off the coast, 
 and took a Spanish pirate of 14 guns. While 
 serving on Lake Ontario, under Chauncey, in 
 the war of 1812, he was captured in August, 
 1814; sent to England, and confined 18 months. 
 He next served 3 years in the Mediterranean, 
 under Commodore Shaw, whose daughter he 
 married. From 1821 to 1823 he commanded the 
 "Grampus," in the West Indies. Near St. 
 Croix he captured the notorious pirate-brig 
 " Panchita," a vessel far superior to his own in 
 weight of metal and number of men. He com 
 manded the frigate " Raritan" in the Mexican 
 war. His last sea service was in command of 
 the African Squadron. During the Rebellion he 
 superintended the construction of ironclads. 
 
 grenade. A shell thrown from the hand (see 
 HAND-GRENADE), or placed in baskets or barrels 
 and fired from mortars of large calibre. Ram 
 part-grenades are larger than the hand-grenade, 
 and are intended to be rolled down ramparts, 
 etc. 
 
 Grenado. An old word for a live shell. 
 
 Grenville, Sir Richard, an English vice-ad 
 miral, born about 1540. In 1591 attacked a 
 Spanish fleet of more than 50 vessels with a small 
 squadron of 5 vessels. The battle was one of the 
 most obstinate on record, several of the Spanish 
 
 vessels being sunk. The English were finally 
 obliged to surrender, Grenville soon after dying 
 of his wounds. 
 
 Greve. A low, flat, sandy shore. 
 
 Grey-friars (Eng.}. A name given to the oxen 
 of Tuscany, with which the Mediterranean fleet 
 was supplied. 
 
 Grey-head. A fish of the haddock kind. 
 
 Greyhound. A hammock with very little 
 bedding. 
 
 Grey Town. A seaport town of Nicaragua, 
 on the east coast, at the mouth of the navigable 
 river San Juan. It is the principal seaport of 
 Nicaragua. Lat. 10 55 N. ; Ion. 83 43 W. 
 The harbor, once the finest on the coast of Cen 
 tral America, is badly silted up. Pop. 1250. 
 
 Griban. A small two-masted vessel of Nor 
 mandy. 
 
 Gridiron. A stage or frame made of heavy 
 beams of wood for receiving a ship, in order 
 that her bottom may be examined when the 
 tide falls. 
 
 Gridiron-valve. A slide valve containing 
 several ports or openings, working on a corre 
 sponding face, used as an expansion or cut-off 
 valve. 
 
 Grier, William, Surgeon-General U.S.N. 
 Born in Ireland. Appointed from Maryland, 
 March 7, 1838 ; entered the service as assistant 
 surgeon; attached to sloop " Cyane," Mediter 
 ranean Squadron, 1838-41; store-ship "Erie," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1842-44; schooner "Shark," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1844-46 ; hospital, New York, 
 1848; razee "Independence," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1849-52. 
 
 Commissioned as surgeon, April 14, 1852; 
 fleet-surgeon, North Pacific Surveying Expedi 
 tion, 1853-56 ; Naval Academy, 1859 ; sloop 
 "Macedonian," 1861; receiving-ship, Balti 
 more, 1862; Naval Hospital, Memphis, Tenn., 
 1863-65; special duty, Hartford, Conn., 1867; 
 member Board of Examiners, 1868-69 ; special 
 duty, Baltimore, 1869-71 ; member of Examin 
 ing and Retiring Boards, 1871-72 ; Naval Hos 
 pital, Annapolis, 1872 ; member of Naval Medi 
 cal Board, 1872; president of Naval Medical 
 Board, 1872-76; chief of Bureau of Medicine 
 and Surgery (surgeon-general), 1877-78 ; retired, 
 1878. 
 
 Griffin, or Griff. A name given to Europeans 
 during their first year in the East ; it has become 
 a general term for an inexperienced youngster. 
 
 "Grig. A small eel. 
 
 Grilse. Generally considered to be a ^oung 
 salmon after its first sojourn at sea, though 
 by some considered to be a distinct fish. 
 
 Grind. A half kink in a rope. 
 
 Grip. The handle of a sword or pistol. To 
 grasp with the hand ; to hold ; to bite ; as, the 
 anchor grips. 
 
 Gripe. A piece bolted to the foreside of the 
 stem to complete it below the cut-water. A ves 
 sel gripes when she tends to come up to the wind 
 against the helm when sailing close-hauled. This 
 tendency may be remedied by trimming the ves 
 sel by the stern. 
 
 Gripes. Broad bands formed by strands woven 
 together and fitted with thimbles and laniards; 
 used for securing boats when hoisted. Griped- 
 to, the situation of a boat when secured with 
 gripes. 
 
 Grit. Spunk ; nerve. Rough, hard particles. 
 
GRITT 
 
 325 
 
 GUBBER 
 
 Gritt. A kind of sea-crab. 
 
 Groats (Eng.}. A monthly allowance for each 
 man, formerly assigned to the chaplain for pay. 
 
 Grobman. A term for a sea-bream about two- 
 thirds grown. 
 
 Grodan. A peculiar boat of the Orcades. 
 
 Grog. Diluted spirits formerly issued to the 
 navy. In 1740 Admiral Vernon introduced it 
 into the British navy, and it was said to have 
 been named from his grogram coat. Pindar, 
 however, alludes to the Cyclops diluting their 
 beverage with ten waters. The spirit-ration was 
 abolished in our navy September 1, 1862. See 
 RATION. 
 
 GROG-BLOSSOM. A red confluence on the face 
 of an excessive drinker. 
 
 GROGGY. Stupefied by drink. 
 
 Grog-grog. The soft cry of the solan goose. 
 
 Grogram. A coarse stuff of which boat- 
 cloaks, heavy coats, etc., were made. See GROG. 
 
 Gromal. An old word for gromet (which see). 
 
 Gromet. A boy of the crew of the ships 
 formerly furnished by the Cinque Ports. His 
 duty was to keep ship in harbor. 
 
 Grommet, or Grummet. A ring formed of a 
 single strand of rope, laid in three times round. 
 
 GROMMET-WAD. See WAD. 
 
 Groove. The channel between the lands in 
 rifled guns. 
 
 Gropers (Eng.}. Ships stationed in the Chan 
 nel and North Sea. 
 
 Grosetta. A minute coin of Ragusa, some 
 what less than a farthing. 
 
 Ground. To take the bottom or shore ; to be 
 run aground through ignorance, violence, or ac 
 cident. The surface of the earth. To strike 
 ground, to obtain soundings. To break ground, 
 to heave the anchor clear of the bottom. 
 
 GROUNDAGE. A local duty charged on ves 
 sels coming to anchor in a port or standing in a 
 roadstead, as anchorage. 
 
 GROUND-BAIT, or GROUNDLING. A loach or 
 loche. 
 
 GROUND-GUDGEON. A little fish, the Cobitis 
 barbatula. 
 
 GROUND-SEA. The West Indian name for the 
 swell called rollers, or in Jamaica the north sea. 
 It occurs in a calm, and with no other indication 
 of a previous gale. The sea rises in huge billows, 
 dashes against the shore with roarings resembling 
 thunder, probably due to the " northers," which 
 rage off the capes of Virginia, round to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and drive off the sea from America, 
 affecting the Bahama Banks, but not reaching to 
 Jamaica or Cuba. The rollers set in terrifically 
 in the Gulf of California, causing vessels to foun 
 der or strike in 7 fathoms, and devastating the 
 coast-line. See ROLLER. 
 
 GROUND-STRAKE. A name sometimes used for 
 garboard strake. 
 
 GROUND-SWELL. A swell which rises along 
 the shore, often in fine weather and when the 
 sea beyond is smooth. 
 
 GROUND-TACKLE. A general name for all 
 anchors, and for the ropes, chains, purchases, 
 etc., belonging to the anchors. 
 
 GROUND-TIER. The lowest tier of anything. 
 
 GROUND-TIMBERS. In making up the frame 
 of a wooden ship, the timbers of the lower course 
 are called ground-timbers. 
 
 GROUND-WAYS. The large pieces \of timber 
 laid across the slip or dock to place the Ijblocks on. 
 
 Groundling. A fish that keeps at the bottom 
 of the water ; the spined loach (Lobitis trenia). 
 
 Group. Objects arranged in a cluster, in con 
 tradistinction to those arranged in a series. 
 
 Grouper. A variety of the snapper much used 
 for food in the West Indies. 
 
 Grout-head. A certain kind of fish, the grout- 
 nol. 
 
 Grow. A word used in connection with the 
 chain to indicate the direction of the anchor ; as, 
 the chain grows on the starboard bow. 
 
 Growl. To grumble ; to complain. 
 
 Grub. Provisions in general. Fresh grub, 
 fresh provisions. 
 
 GRUB-TRAP. A vulgarism for the mouth. 
 
 Gruff-goods. An Indian return-cargo con 
 sisting of raw materials ; as, cotton, rice, sugar, 
 pepper, etc. 
 
 Grumbler. The gurnard, a fish of the blenny 
 kind, which makes a rumbling noise on reaching 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 Grummet. See GROMMET. 
 
 Grunter. A name of the Pogonias of Cuvier, 
 a fish also called banded drum and young sheep 
 skin, so called from the peculiar grunting sounds 
 made by it. 
 
 Grus (Lot. " The Crane"). A constellation 
 to the south of Piscis Australis ; the only bright 
 star in it bears southwest from Fomalhaut. 
 
 Gryphon. An old term word for typhoon. 
 
 Guano. The excrement of sea-birds, a valu 
 able manure found in thick beds in all tropical 
 climates. The transport of it occupies a number 
 of vessels, called guaneros. It is of a dingy yel 
 low color, and offensive ammoniacal effluvium. 
 Capt. Shelvocke mentions it in 1720, having 
 taken a small bark laden with it. 
 
 Guara. The singular and ingenious rudder 
 by which the rafts or balsas of Peru are enabled 
 to work to windward. It consists of long boards 
 between the beams, which are raised or sunk ac 
 cording to the required evolution, a device not 
 unlike sliding-keels or centre-boards. 
 
 Guard. The body of marines attached to a 
 vessel or naval station. 
 
 Guarda-costas. Spanish vessels of war of 
 various sizes, which cruise against smugglers. 
 
 Guard-boat. A boat appointed to row the 
 rounds among the ships of war in a harbor. 
 A picket-boat. Also, a boat employed to enforce 
 the quarantine regulations. 
 
 Guard-fish. A corruption of the word gar 
 fish. 
 
 Guard-irons. Curved bars of iron placed over 
 the ornaments of a ship, or over life-buoys, to 
 defend them from damage. 
 
 Guardo. A receiving-ship ; a vessel on which 
 men are kept in readiness for sea-service. 
 
 GUARDO-MOVE. A trick upon a landsman. 
 
 Guard-pile. A pile of the nature of a fender, 
 in front of a wharf, to protect the structure from 
 violent shocks. 
 
 Guards. The widening of the deck of a vessel 
 forward and abaft the paddle-wheels. 
 
 Guard-ship. A vessel of war appointed to 
 superintend, for the time being, the marine af 
 fairs in a harbor. Each ship in the harbor takes 
 this duty for 24 hours, being. relieved at colors 
 in the morning. The vessel on duty hoists the 
 guard-flag at the fore. 
 
 Gubber. Black mud. One who gathers drift 
 wood, etc., along a beach. 
 
GUDGEON 
 
 326 
 
 GULF 
 
 Gudgeon. The Gobio fluviatilis, a river-fish 
 6 or 7 inches in length. One of the metal braces 
 bolted upon the stern-post, in the eye of which a 
 pintle works. 
 
 Guebres. Fire-worshipers. 
 
 Guernsey. See JERSEY. 
 
 Guess-warp. A hawser carried to a distant 
 object and made fast, in order to warp a vessel 
 towards it. A portion of the hawser is coiled in 
 the boat to insure reaching the destination ; it is 
 from the necessity of judging the distance by 
 the eye that we have the term guess-warp. 
 
 Guest, John, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 Missouri. Appointed from Arkansas, December 
 16, 1837. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843; frigate "Congress," Pacific Squadron, 
 1845-48; war with Mexico, battle of San Ga 
 briel, Gal., January 8, 1848, battle of Mesa, Cal., 
 January 9, 1848. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 24, 
 1850; sloop " Plymouth," and " Susquehanna," 
 in Japan Expedition, at the first landing of 
 Americans in Japan, under Commodore Perry ; 
 East India Squadron, 1851-55; boarded with 
 the cutter of the "Plymouth," at Shanghai, 1854, 
 the Chinese man-of-war "Sir H. Compton," and 
 liberated a pilot-boat s crew who were under the 
 protection of the American flag ; in April, 1854, 
 was second in command of the "Plymouth," 
 under Capt. John Kelley, in a severe and vic 
 torious action with the Chinese, at Shanghai, to 
 prevent aggression on foreign residents ; special 
 duty, Washington, 1855-56; steam-frigate "Ni 
 agara," laying the first telegraph cable across 
 the Atlantic, 1857-58; rendezvous, Philadel 
 phia, 1859; frigate "Niagara," returning Jap 
 anese Embassy to Japan, 1860; commanding 
 steam-frigate " Niagara," West Gulf Blockad 
 ing Squadron, 1861 ; in command of the boats 
 of " Niagara," cut out the schooner " Aid," then 
 under the protection of Fort Morgan, Mobile Bay, 
 August, 1861; commanding steamer " Owasco," 
 West Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1862 ; at Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip, and capture of New Or 
 leans, 1862 ; battles on the Mississippi up to and 
 including Vicksburg, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862; 
 commanded " Owasco" at the capture of forts at 
 Galveston City; commanding ironclad " San- 
 gamon," the first U. S. vessel fitted with a spar- 
 torpedo, the invention of Capt. Guest, South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1863; com 
 manded the " Galatea," on convoy duty in West 
 Indies, in 1863-65; commanding steamer 
 "losco," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1864-65; present at the two attacks on Fort 
 Fisher. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 12, 
 1872 ; senior officer of Board of Inspection of 
 Vessels, 1872-76; commandant navy-yard, 
 Portsmouth, N. H., 1877-78. Died January 12, 
 1879, while in command of Portsmouth Navy- 
 Yard. 
 
 Guest-warp Boom. An old term for the 
 swinging-boom. 
 
 Guffer. A British sea-fish of the blenny tribe, 
 remarkable as being ovo-viviparous. 
 
 Guide-blocks. In the steam-engine, adjustable 
 metallic pieces, with parallel sides, fitted to a 
 cross-head and sliding in guides for keeping the 
 
 axes of piston-rods coincident with or parallel to 
 that of the cylinder. Sometimes called cross-head 
 gibs. Blocks of wood or metal used to constrain 
 a moving body to a given path. 
 
 Guillem. A sea-fowl. (See LAVY.) 
 
 Guillemot. A w,eb-footed diving sea-bird 
 allied to the auks. 
 
 Guimad. A small fish of the river Dee. 
 
 Guinea-boat. A fast-rowing galley, of former 
 times, expressly built for smuggling gold across 
 the Channel, in use at Deal. 
 
 Guinea-man. A negro slave-ship. 
 
 Guinea-pigs. The younger midshipmen of 
 an Indiaman. 
 
 Gulden. A name for a water-fowl. 
 
 Gulf. A gulf is a wide opening from the sea, 
 generally larger than a bay. Many gulfs, how 
 ever, are really bays, and many bays are larger 
 than most gulfs. The number of gulfs is much less 
 than of bays. Keith Johnson enumerates about 
 170, of which 88 are in Europe, 39 in Asia, 13 in 
 North and 10 in South America, 12 in Oceanica, 
 and 8 in Africa. There are more gulfs, as there 
 are fewer bays, in Corsica and Italy, there 
 being 15 in the former and 13 in the latter coun 
 try. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and 
 Spain have no gulfs, if we except the Bothnia 
 Gulf, washing the shores of Sweden. Prussia 
 has but the Dantzic Gulf, France only the Golfe 
 du Lion, and England the gulf called "The 
 Wash." On the north of Europe there are 6, on 
 the east 9, in the Baltic 4, in the Mediterranean 
 64, on Black Sea coasts, 4. Fewer arms of the 
 sea penetrate the other great divisions of the 
 earth s surface, especially the solid continents 
 of Africa and South America. Under the head 
 of gulfs are included the bodies of water named 
 in Scotland firths, and on the coast of Africa 
 and Australia, bights. 
 
 The great gulfs of the world are 9 in num 
 ber. Others are not much less in size or im 
 portance, but many are small and of compara 
 tively little importance commercially, physically, 
 or historically. 
 
 The two great gulfs of Europe are the Bothnia 
 Gulf and the Gulf of Finland, both arms of the 
 greater Baltic Sea. Of these, the more northern 
 is the Gulf of Bothnia, extending from 60 to 66 
 N. lat , and from 18 to 25 E. Ion., being about 
 400 miles long and 120 average width. Into it 
 empty 18 large rivers, 300 to 400 miles long, and 
 an infinity of smaller streams, coming from the 
 mountains and glaciers of Sweden and Finland, 
 and the outlets of scores of lakes. These render 
 its waters so fresh that it generally freezes over, 
 and a Russian army crossed on the ice in 1809. 
 It contains many groups of islands near both 
 shores, and the mouth of the gulf is partly occu 
 pied by the Aland Archipelago, containing sev 
 eral large and many small islands. Many bays 
 open into it, and a number of important cities 
 are situated on or near the coasts, chief of which 
 is Tornea, at the head of the gulf. Its harbors 
 are more commodious than other parts of the 
 Baltic, but it is not so deep, 20 fathoms being the 
 most usual depth. 
 
 The Gulf of Finland, also an arm of the Bal 
 tic, is included between lat. 59 and 60 30 N, 
 and Ion. 22 and 30 30 E., entirely within 
 the limits of Eussia, being 200 miles long and GO 
 miles average breadth. Its harbors are more nu 
 merous than those of Bothnia Gulf, but its navi- 
 
GULF 
 
 327 
 
 GULL 
 
 gation is more difficult. Many large rivers empty 
 into it, fed by the waters of large lakes, as La 
 doga, Peipus, etc. The Neva is the largest of 
 these rivers. Numerous bays and inlets indent 
 the shores, and multitudes of small islands line 
 them. The city of St. Petersburg is situated near 
 its head, and Revel, Viborg, and other impor 
 tant places are near its coasts. The navigation 
 of the gulf is important and its commerce con 
 siderable, although interrupted by the rigors of 
 the climate. 
 
 Asia possesses three gulfs of great size, the 
 Gulf of Siam, the Gulf of Aden, and the Persian 
 Gulf. The Gulf of Siam extends from lat. 7 to 
 13 N. and Ion. 99 to 105 E., containing about 
 76,000 square miles. It receives the waters of 
 the Menan and a part of those of the Cambodia 
 River. It washes the coasts of Siam and the 
 Malay peninsula. It contains numerous islands, 
 and its fisheries and commerce are important. 
 
 The Gulf of Aden is a narrow inlet by which 
 the waters of the Red Sea find their way to the Sea 
 of Arabia. It lies between Ion. 44 and 52 E. 
 and lat. 10 and 15 N., and washes the burning 
 shores of Arabia and Abyssinia. A few small 
 rivers empty into it, and half a dozen bays line 
 the coasts. It contains but few islands, is deep, 
 and easily navigated, but is excessively hot. 
 Through it passes the commerce of India, going 
 to the Suez Canal. Aden is the most important 
 city on its shores. Its area is about 110,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The Persian Gulf is a sea or inclosed sheet of 
 water, lying between Arabia and the Persian 
 and Turkish dominions. It also empties its 
 waters into the Arabian Sea by the Straits o ( ( 
 Ormuz, 32 miles wide. It is oval in shape, / o f 
 miles long, extending from Ion. 47 to lon ? fo r 
 E., and 160 in breadth, extending from \\\ the 
 to lat. 30 N. The climate here is v/ ns are 
 northwest winds prevail, and violent ns i n the 
 frequent. The most famous empires <to the dry- 
 were situated on its borders, and itery returns, 
 has always been important, but is r; s l ow ly driedj 
 what difficult from the numerq d given a wash 
 ated in it. The chief cities nrh rac i te , German 
 near the head, and Bushire, in^ when they are 
 phrates and Tigris pour into ; e n a gentle heat, 
 of water drained from the hjiy dried, and some- 
 Persia, and have greatly c; sand is put over the 
 sions by the alluvial mu< on plate laid on and 
 down. The pearl-fishery , s k is built up, section 
 the Arabian coast, belong by iron beams to the 
 is very important. jld is now ready for re 
 
 in Australian waters, 3 fi xe d in a tripod, called 
 pentaria is most importble or set-screws under 
 shores of Australia, e> jre it properly. The core 
 17 30 S. lat., and fpipe fluted externally and 
 containing some 75,0 besides having a slight ta- 
 rivers empty into it iWa l. This pipe is wrapped 
 situated near the sbe and covered with the 
 have yet been formed pu t on very damp, and 
 On the American < After this is partially 
 large gulfs, but throwing is applied, and made 
 and importance. Thejndrical by turning on a 
 between the 46th an^t a wooden straight-edge, 
 and the 57th and 65 an d washed as is the rest 
 washing the shores o f the core-stem is fitted 
 Scotia, New Brunswio- having couplings for the 
 nects with the Atlanti lg carefully centred it is 
 Isle to the northward o to the sides of the pit, 
 the St. Paul s Channel ;s to the flask. Grates 
 
 Canso to the southward. It contains the large 
 islands of Anticosti, Prince Edward, and the 
 Magdalen Group. Its shores are steep, rocky, 
 and shrouded in dense fogs. Into it empties the 
 great St. Lawrence, the outlet of the northern 
 lakes, bringing per hour more than 1,670,000 
 cubic feet of water. The fisheries are very im 
 portant and the commerce considerable. 
 
 The great Gulf of Mexico is situated be t ftfeol 
 18 and 31 N. lat., and 81 and 98 W w hi c h 
 containing some 800,000 square mjice, and 
 is circular, deep, and has few islar n without 
 navigation is generally easy, except the metal, 
 coast of the United States, where To prepare 
 islands, etc., lie in the way. The r( j an( j evenly 
 winds prevail, and bring with roug h boards on 
 Gulf Stream, that turns to the different kinds of 
 striking the current of thfeted, weighed, and 
 emerges from the Straits of es and m ^t refrac- 
 sissippi pours the draining^ These pre para- 
 tinent into the gulf, disc_ ance) slight variations 
 for 200 miles, and other of the res ultant metal, 
 The commerce is impq, ^e perfectly dry. The 
 during a part of the ^ n t furnaces are connected 
 tion precarious. ^ -servoir, where the different 
 The Gulf of Cali, e fore running into the gun- 
 washing the shor. furnaces are" all ready the 
 lat. 23 and 32 and so controlled that the iron 
 and containing^ at the same time, or as near 
 A few large The length of time to melt or 
 among tl\ ron " down" may vary several hours, 
 the expends mainly on the size of the charge 
 *Ad the state of the atmosphere. When the 
 Jharge is nearly melted it is stirred with wooden 
 or iron poles to bring unmelted lumps up to the 
 flame. When the iron is well down, a little is 
 ladled out and run into a green-sand mold, 
 cooled and broken, and from it the state of the 
 charge is at once ascertained by the experienced 
 eye of the founder. If not sufficiently decar 
 bonized, the fusion is kept up with a contin 
 uance of the stirring, for on its proper decar- 
 bonization depend in a great measure the density 
 and tensile strength. When all the furnaces 
 are ready they are tapped at the same time, 
 and the metal runs from them into the reser 
 voir or " mixing basin," after which it goes 
 into the runners of the mold and enters into 
 it by the side gates, generally one in each 
 section from each runner, and with an upward 
 direction. As the metal rises in the mold it is 
 stirred and prevented from depositing dirt and 
 scoria about the core and in the trunnions. When 
 the mold is filled the tap-holes of the furnaces 
 are plugged, but from time to time, for an hour 
 or more, metal is poured in from a ladle to the 
 riser to feed shrinkage. As soon as the furnaces 
 are tapped the water is turned on from the hy 
 drant, and entering the core-barrel through a 
 metallic pipe reaching nearly to the bottom, finds 
 its way up along the interior and out by the 
 escape-pipe. Half an hour after casting, the 
 change in temperature of the water having been 
 brought to about 25 F., the flow remains con 
 stant from that time. The fires in the pit are 
 lighted by dropping melted iron on them to 
 wards the end of the casting. When the change 
 in temperature of the water has become constant, 
 say in about fifteen hours, the core is withdrawn, 
 the rope wrapping taking fire as it comes to the 
 air. After the core is withdrawn, the water is 
 conducted to the cavity left by it, and, welling 
 
DUB 
 
 DUGUAY-TROUIN 
 
 minute pores, within which the spores are to 
 be found, growing in fours on the summits of 
 slender stalks (basidia], easily visible under a 
 magnifying power of about 200 diameters. The 
 mycelium may, however, be detected with the 
 naked eye as white threads lying between the 
 bundles of woody fibre and parallel with them. 
 Under the microscope, the mycelium is seen to 
 consist of very minute branching filaments, mat 
 ted or felted together. 
 
 Since the dry-rot fungus flourishes only under 
 the conditions of moisture, darkness, and con 
 fined air, its growth may probably be prevented 
 on shipboard by such a system of construction 
 as shall afford free ventilation of the bilges, 
 frame-spaces (by boring through filling-chocks 
 and by openings on the spar-deck), spaces be 
 neath store-room floors, and recesses behind bulk 
 heads ; by forced ventilation, as now practiced 
 in the U. S. S. "Richmond"; and by keeping 
 the holds and lower decks dry. Extensive ex 
 periments are now (1880) being prosecuted by 
 the Navy Department with a view to the preser 
 vation of ship-timber from decay, by impregna 
 tion under pressure with carbolic acid (" Bur- 
 nettizing"), and with barium sulphate (the 
 " Thilmany process"), from which good results 
 are hoped for. 
 
 Besides the pecuniary loss resulting from the 
 ravages of dry-rot, it appears to afford a pecu 
 liarly favorable nidus for the development of 
 the yellow fever poison, and the preservation of 
 its vitality against the unfavorable influence of 
 cold weather. See YELLOW FEVER. 
 
 Other fungi, such as a cobweb-like growth on 
 the under side of wet planks (Helminthosporium), 
 molds, and patches of surface discoloration, are 
 common on shipboard, but do not appreciably 
 influence the decay of wood. J. H. Kidder, Sur 
 geon U.S.N. 
 
 Dub. A term for a pool of deep smooth water 
 in a rapid river. 
 
 Dubb. To cut off and smooth with an adze the 
 superfluous wood. To dubb a vessel bright, is to 
 remove the outer surface of the plank completely 
 with an adze. Spotting with the adze to examine 
 planks is also dubbing. 
 
 Dubbah, or Dubber. A coarse leathern ves 
 sel for holding liquids in India. 
 
 Dubhe. A standard nautical star in the Great 
 Bear, a Ursce Majoris. 
 
 Dublin. The capital city of Ireland, on the 
 Liffey, close to its entrance into Dublin Bay, 
 Irish Sea, 66 miles W. of Holyhead, and 135 
 miles W. of Liverpool. Lat. 53 23 2" N. ; 
 Ion. 6 20 5" W. The harbor has been latterly 
 much improved, and near the mouth of the 
 Liffey are the Grand Canal and the custom 
 house docks, the latter occupying 8 acres ; depth 
 at low water 12 feet, at high tides 24 feet. The 
 bay is noble and picturesque, and esteemed one 
 of the finest in the United Kingdom ; it is about 
 7 miles in breadth at its entrance, between 
 Howth Head, on the north, and Kingston, on 
 the south. Pop. 246,300. 
 
 Ducat. A well-known coin in most parts of 
 Europe. See MONEY. 
 
 Ducatoon. A coin of the Dutch Oriental 
 Isles, value about $1.70. Also, a silver coin of 
 Venice, value about $1.10. 
 
 Duck. To dive, or immerse another under 
 water. The finest canvas for small sails is some 
 
 times called duck ; but it is really a lighter cloth 
 than canvas, and is much used by seamen and 
 soldiers in hot climates for frocks and trousers. 
 
 DUCKING. A penalty which veteran sailors 
 inflict on those who, for the first time, pass the 
 tropics, the equator, or formerly even the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, and usually performed in a tub or 
 half-butt, with the assistance of a few buckets of 
 water ; the usual fine, however, generally pre 
 vents the penalty being inflicted. 
 
 DUCKING AT THE YARD-ARM. A marine 
 punishment formerly inflicted by the French for 
 grave offenses ; the criminal was placed astride a 
 short thick batten, fastened to the end of a rope 
 which passed through a block at the yard-arm. 
 Thus fixed he was hoisted suddenly up to the 
 yard, and the rope being then let go he was 
 plunged into the sea. This operation was re 
 peated several times, conformable to the sen 
 tence ; a gun advertised the other ships of the 
 fleet that their crews might become spectators. 
 If the offense was very great he was drawn un 
 derneath the keel of the ship, which was called 
 keel-hauling. See KEEL-HAULING. 
 
 DUCKS. The general name for a sailor s dress 
 in warm climates. 
 
 Duck Up. To raise the clew of the mainsail 
 or foresail when it interferes with the steering by 
 shutting out the landmarks. 
 
 Dudgeon Wrath. An old word for the box- 
 handle of a dirk. 
 
 Duds. A cant term for clothes or personal 
 property. The term is old, but still in common 
 use, though usually applied to clothing of an in 
 ferior quality. 
 
 Duel. In former days duels were of frequent 
 occurrence in the navy, but latterly they are al 
 most unknown. It is forbidden by the regula 
 tions to send or accept a challenge to fight a duel 
 or act as second in a duel, and courts-martial are 
 empowered to inflict any punishment for this 
 offense, except death, flogging, or imprisonment 
 at hard labor. 
 
 Duff. A sort of pudding. The posterior. 
 
 Duffer. A low peddler. A woman who as 
 sists smugglers. A stupid or cowardly fellow. 
 
 Dugong. An herbivorous mammal of the 
 East Indian seas, intermediate between the 
 Cetacea and the Pachydermata, having an elon 
 gated body, with flippers near the head, and 
 terminated by a crescent-shaped tail. 
 
 Dug-out. A canoe hewn from one tree. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin, Rene, one of the most illus 
 trious of French sailors, was born at Saint Malo, 
 10th of June, 1673, and died at Paris, 27th of 
 September, 1736. 
 
 He came from a family of sailors, but was 
 himself destined from chi ldhood to be an eccle 
 siastic, going early to the College of Rennes, 
 where he donned the soutane, and received the 
 tonsure, with a view to succeeding to a rich 
 benefice which friends of his family had in their 
 gift. 
 
 His father died when he was only fifteen, and 
 he was then sent to Caen to study philosophy. 
 Here his sanguine temperament and love of 
 pleasure caused him to break bounds, and he 
 neglected his studies for the dissipations of a 
 large city. His escapades at last became quite 
 notorious, and he was forced by his family to re 
 turn to Saint Malo, whence he was soon sent to 
 sea in the corsaire "La Trinite," in which his 
 
DUGUAY-TROUIN 
 
 229 
 
 DUMFOUNDER 
 
 family had a large interest. This was in 1689. 
 He remained in this vessel for two years, under 
 going considerable hardship, but always distin 
 guished for his conduct in numerous engage 
 ments with English and Dutch vessels. 
 
 After this apprenticeship, he went to sea in 
 another vessel, of 18 guns, when he showed so 
 much courage and conduct that he was given a 
 command, being then only 18 years of age. 
 After this he continually distinguished himself 
 by attacks upon the English shipping, both in 
 privateers and in vessels of the state. In 1694, 
 while in command of the " Diligente," a 40-gun 
 frigate, he was surrounded by an English squad 
 ron of six men-of-war, under Admiral Sir David 
 Mitchell. After fighting for twelve hours, his 
 crew were nearly all killed or wounded, he him 
 self was wounded, and his ship on the point of 
 sinking, so he was obliged to surrender. He 
 was imprisoned at Plymouth, where he man 
 aged to make a friend of a pretty bumboat 
 woman, and with her assistance escaped in a 
 small boat, with his lieutenant, his surgeon, the 
 boatswain, and a servant. After forty-eight 
 hours of very rough weather they managed to 
 reach the coast of Brittany. 
 
 He was soon at sea again, in a ship of 48 guns, 
 in which he took two English men-of-war of 
 superior force, one of which he brought in. For 
 this action he received a sword of honor, and 
 was invited to join the fleet of the Marquis de 
 Nesmond, where he had his usual success in 
 making prizes. 
 
 After this cruise he went to Paris, to be pre 
 sented to Louis Quatorze, and received many 
 honors while there. He did not remain long, 
 however, returning to his sea-life, and had com 
 mand of several small squadrons, which he 
 handled with his accustomed ability, having 
 been made capitaine de fregate of the royal 
 marine. 
 
 After the peace of Ryswick he passed four 
 years of enforced idleness ; but upon the breaking 
 out of the war of the Spanish succession, he was 
 again promptly at sea, serving against the Hol 
 landers and the English, in which he passed 
 through many battles and many perils. In 1705, 
 when thirty-two years of age, he was made cap 
 itaine de vaisseau, and very shortly after, in con 
 sequence of continued successes against the Por 
 tuguese, English, and others, he, with his elder 
 brother (two younger ones had been killed while 
 serving under him), received letters of nobility. 
 
 In 1711 he sailed, in command of a fleet of 7 
 line-of-battle ships, 8 frigates, and 2 bomb-ves 
 sels, with nearly 6000 men, for Rio de Janeiro. 
 He entered the bay under the fire of the Portu 
 guese batteries, and the next day disembarked 
 his force. After some slight resistance the city 
 was abandoned by its inhabitants. Duguay- 
 Trouin then threatened to utterly destroy the 
 place unless a handsome ransom was paid. This 
 was done, and he then set out on his return to 
 Brest, but lost two of his largest vessels on the 
 voyage, sunk in a hurricane. For this action 
 he received a pension of 2000 crowns and the title 
 of commandant of the marine of Saint Malo ; 
 and in 1715, at Versailles, he received the com 
 mission of admiral of the fleet. 
 
 Louis XIV. died soon after this, and Duguay- 
 Trouin remained at Saint Malo in retirement 
 until 1723, when, under the regency, he was 
 
 made a councillor for India. In 1728 he was 
 made commander of the order of St. Louis and 
 lieutenant-general. The next year he was made 
 commandant of marine of Brest and of the coasts 
 of Brittany. In 1731 he commanded a fleet 
 fitted out to punish the Barbary corsairs, but the 
 appearance of the force so imposed upon the 
 Moors that they gave every satisfaction without 
 any fighting. Although he continued in service, 
 this was his last active employment. His labors 
 and exposure had undermined a naturally vigor 
 ous constitution, and he died in Paris at 63 years 
 of age. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin was so disinterested and gen 
 erous that, in spite of his many captures, he died 
 comparatively poor. His officers and sailors 
 fairly worshiped him, not only on account of 
 his intrepidity, but because of his liberality in re 
 gard to prize-money. A statue of him is erected 
 in the " Place Duguay-Trouin," at Saint Malo. 
 
 A portrait of this intrepid sailor is in the city 
 hall, and in the museum at Versailles is a statue 
 of him in black marble. The portrait repre 
 sents him in a rich military costume, decor 
 ated with the order of the Holy Ghost. On 
 his bandolier are the arms granted him by 
 Louis XIV., two fleur-de-lis and an anchor. 
 He holds a pistol in his right hand, while the 
 left grasps the hilt of his sword. His hat is 
 ornamented with plumes, which, in our day, is 
 not considered naval. There is also a statue 
 of Duguay-Trouin in the Bourse, at Nantes, 
 and there are two other well-known oil-paint 
 ings of him. He is represented with a youthful 
 and animated countenance, wears a huge wig, 
 and a coat above his cuirass. 
 
 His arms appear upon the picture (given by 
 Louis XIV.), the fleur-de-lis and anchor, and 
 the legend, "Didit ha?c insignia virtus." E. 
 Shippen. 
 
 Duke of York (Eng.). A nickname for a 
 peculiar storm-trysail used in the northern seas. 
 
 Dulce, Dulse, Delse. One of the edible fuci, 
 Iridea dulce. It is plentiful on the rocky coasts 
 of Ireland and western England. It probably 
 derived its name from being sweet and pleasant, 
 not requiring cooking. 
 
 Duledge Plate. An old name for the tire or 
 iron plate on the circumference of the wheel of 
 a field-piece. Duledge was also used for dowel, 
 the wooden pin connecting the felloes. 
 
 Dull d. Fallen or moderated ; said of the wind. 
 
 Duluth. A city and port of entry of Minne 
 sota, the capital of St. Louis Co., is finely sit 
 uated at the W. end of Lake Superior, and is 
 the eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific 
 Railroad. Lat. 46 48 N. ; Ion. 92 6 W. 
 Duluth has a very advantageous position for a 
 commercial city, being at the head of navigation 
 on the great lakes. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Dumb-chalder. A metal cleat bolted to the 
 back of the stern-post for one of the pintles to 
 rest upon, to lessen both strain and friction. 
 
 Dumb-craft. Lighters, lumps, or punts, not 
 having sails. A name for the screws used for 
 lifting a ship on the slip. 
 
 Dumb-pintle. A peculiar rudder-strap. 
 
 Dumb-scraping. Scraping wet decks with 
 blunt scrapers. 
 
 Dumb-sheave. An aperture without a sheave, 
 through which is rove a rope. 
 
 Dumfounder. To confuse or perplex. 
 
GUISTS 
 
 330 
 
 GUNS 
 
 up, emerges through a hole in the riser formed 
 by casting in a wrought-iron pipe near the top. 
 Half an hour after removing the core the change 
 in temperature of the entering and escaping 
 water should be brought to about 100 F., 
 when the flow should be kept constant. It is 
 generally several days before the fires in the pit 
 are allowed to die out, and when the gun becomes 
 sufficiently cool the flask is removed all but the 
 breech-section, the gun hoisted out of the pit, the 
 sand and dirt scraped and cut away, and it is 
 ready to go into the finishing-shop. H. W. Lyon, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Guns, Inspection and Proof of. All cannon 
 for the navy, manufactured wholly or partly at 
 private establishments, are fabricated in strict 
 accordance with the terms of the contract made 
 with the Bureau of Ordnance, and subject to the 
 inspection of an officer detailed to supervise the 
 operations. During fabrication or alteration, 
 the metal of guns is closely examined and tested 
 when necessary, and the pieces themselves are 
 examined and measured inside and out in the 
 various stages of manufacture ; as the detection 
 of defects and errors that pass the limits of toler 
 ation may save useless subsequent labor. Inter 
 nal defects of metal will often be betrayed by a 
 close examination of the core pieces and interior 
 of bore. As rust tends to conceal defects, exam 
 ination of the guns takes place before expo 
 sure to the weather ; and previously to the final 
 examination and proof of guns they are not to be 
 covered with paint, lacquer, oil, or any mate 
 rial which may hide defects of metal. As the 
 water proof, which is of great importance in de 
 tecting defects of metal not otherwise developed, 
 necessarily succeeds immediately the powder 
 proof, and can be effectively applied only in fine 
 weather and when the temperature is above the 
 freezing-point, final inspections are made at such 
 times only. If it is ascertained that any attempt 
 has been made to conceal defects, the gun or 
 guns so treated are rejected without further 
 examination. 
 
 Instruments. 1. A mirror, for reflecting the 
 sun s rays into the bores. Two will be required 
 if the sun be in the rear of the inspector. 
 
 2. A lamp attached to a staff, for examining 
 the bores when the sun is obscured or the guns 
 are under cover. 
 
 3. A standard cylinder-gauge. 
 
 4. A measuring staff of steel or iron. 
 
 5. A chamber-gauge, for verifying the shape 
 and size of conical chambers. 
 
 6. A star-gauge, for measuring the diameter of 
 the bore and the chamber. 
 
 7. An instrument for verifying the interior 
 position of the vent. 
 
 8. Profile-boards for distances in front and rear 
 of the base-line. 
 
 9. A trunnion-square of steel or iron, for ascer 
 taining the position of the trunnions with refer 
 ence to the axis of the bore. 
 
 10. A trunnion-gauge, an iron ring of the 
 proper diameter of the trunnions. 
 
 11. A trunnion-rule, for measuring the dis 
 tance of the trunnions from the base-line. 
 
 12. A beam-caliper. 
 
 13. A cylindrical block, for verifying the size 
 of the breeching-hole. 
 
 14. A vent-guide. 
 
 15. Vent-gauges of untempered steel wire, with 
 
 shoulders to prevent them from slipping into the 
 vent. 
 
 16. A vent-searcher, a steel wire of the length 
 of the vent, bent to a right angle at the lower 
 end and pointed. 
 
 17. A semicircular protractor, of metal, for 
 measuring the inclination of vents or for ascer 
 taining their deviation from the guide. 
 
 18. A set of templates, for verifying the shape 
 of lock-lugs, the angle of the rear sight-mass, 
 the curve between the base-line and the front of 
 rear sight-mass, that at the end of the cascabel, 
 the bevel of the breeching-hole, the opening of 
 the cascabel, and the shape of the muzzle-swell. 
 
 19. A standard foot-rule, for verifying meas 
 ures. 
 
 20. A foot-rule of steel, for measuring the 
 masses, the length of the trunnions, and for other 
 purposes. 
 
 21. A set of ring-gauges, large, medium, and 
 small, for inspecting the projectiles used in proof. 
 
 22. A small beam-caliper, with outside edges, 
 for examining the adjusting rings and the ring- 
 gauges. 
 
 23. A platform-balance, for weighing the pro 
 jectiles used in proof and for bringing the shells 
 up to the standard weight. 
 
 24. A set of implements for loading and clean 
 ing. 
 
 25. A searcher with six or more points, to de 
 tect injuries in the bore. 
 
 26. A machine for taking impressions of the 
 vent. 
 
 27. Hydraulic pump and apparatus for the 
 water proof. 
 
 28. Dies for marking. 
 
 29. Instruments for determining the velocity 
 of projectiles. 
 
 30. A set of internal pressure-gauges. 
 Powder proof. Powder for the proof of guns 
 
 must show the highest initial velocity usually 
 exhibited by service powder used in guns of the 
 same calibre and class as those under proof. It 
 must, when possible, be of the same kind, but 
 in any event must assimilate most closely to the 
 service charge in its rate of burning and in the 
 character of the pressures developed. It must 
 be carefully weighed (never measured) and be 
 filled in service cylinders and well settled. The 
 " density of loading" must be the same as for 
 service. 
 
 The projectiles must be of full weight and not 
 below the mean gauge ; the shells must be filled 
 with a mixture of sand and ashes or sawdust to 
 bring them up to the proper weight of the filled 
 shell. Sabots are used for spherical shell and a 
 grommet-wad over the shot ; no wad of any kind 
 is placed over a rifle projectile. 
 
 The spiral or other standard gauge for deter 
 mining the pressure in the bore must be used, 
 and the results recorded carefully after each 
 round. 
 
 Gutta-percha or wax impressions of the bore 
 of rifle guns should be taken before and after 
 proof, and the bore should be carefully star- 
 gauged. These impressions and star-gauging 
 must be compared to discover whether any de 
 fects have been developed during the powder 
 proof. 
 
 Waterproof. The pressure to be applied in 
 the water proof is two atmospheres, or 30 pounds 
 to the square inch. The penetration of water 
 
GUNS 
 
 331 
 
 GUNS 
 
 in this proof through the metal of the piece 
 in any place will cause the rejection of the 
 gun ; and if, on examination after the water 
 proof, there shall be any defects indicated by 
 weeping or dampness in the bore, the gun will 
 be rejected. The water proof is alone to be de 
 pended on to detect minute clusters of cavities 
 in the bore, which for this purpose should be 
 perfectly dry and examined by sunlight. All 
 inspections, consequently, should take place in 
 fair weather and when the temperature is above 
 the freezing-point. 
 
 Extreme proof. After undergoing the ordi 
 nary proof established for its calibre and class, 
 the gun selected for extreme proof is subjected 
 to at least 1000 rounds with service-charges. 
 
 GUNS, MARKING OF. Guns for the naval 
 service, received by authority of the Bureau of 
 Ordnance, are marked in the following man 
 ner, viz. : 
 
 On the cylinder, in the line of sight near the 
 sight-mass, all accepted guns have stamped an 
 anchor two inches long. 
 
 On the base-ring, or line, the initials of the 
 foundry, the register number, and the weight of 
 gun in pounds. 
 
 On the right trunnion, the calibre and year of 
 fabrication. 
 
 On the left trunnion, the letter P and the in 
 itials of the inspecting officer ; all the above in 
 one-inch letters. 
 
 On the upper jaw of the cascabel, the prepon 
 derance in pounds is stamped lightly with half- 
 inch figures. 
 
 On the end of the upper jaw, the cascabel block 
 and head of the pin, the foundry number in 
 quarter-inch figures. 
 
 The foundry number is also marked on the 
 right rim-base. 
 
 Guns rejected for imperfections of any kind 
 will have the letter C stamped on the anchor, 
 so as to partially obliterate it. 
 
 The founders are to be dissuaded from selling 
 such guns to other parties, and required to break 
 them up. 
 
 Guns rejected for such defects as render them 
 dangerous to those who fire them should be irrep 
 arably mutilated, with the consent of the foun 
 der. 
 
 GUNS, ENDURANCE OF. The endurance of a 
 cast-iron smooth-bore gun with service-charges 
 may be surely predicted by observation of the 
 progressive wear of the interior orifice of the 
 vent. There are certain general forms in which 
 this enlargement takes place. They may be 
 classed as triangular, lozenge, quadrilateral 
 star, circular, and elliptic. 
 
 "With the ordinary central vent, when subjected 
 to a rapid continuous fire, the enlargement 
 usually takes the form of an isosceles triangle, 
 the apex of one of the angles towards the muzzle 
 and the other two perpendicular to it. With 
 the lateral vent of the Dahlgren system it usually 
 takes the lozenge form, the cracks extending 
 from the opposite angles lengthwise of the bore. 
 
 With those rifled cannon in which the vent is 
 bouched, the cracks appear round the bouching ; 
 and although the bouching preserves the vent, 
 yet the formation of fissures around the enlarged 
 orifice, when once commenced, causes a greater 
 tendency to rupture. With the vent not bouched, 
 the wear in cast-iron rifled cannon is about 
 
 double that of the smooth-bore. So long as the 
 wear of the vent is regular and without cracks, 
 a mere enlargement is not indicative of danger ; 
 but when it reaches a diameter of four-tenths of 
 an inch, the vent should be closed and a new 
 one opened. 
 
 A gun of large calibre should not in service 
 be expected to endure more than 400 or 500 
 rounds before it will be necessary to open the 
 new vent ; which, however, will be of no advan 
 tage unless the old one be closed at its interior 
 orifice, on which the gases would otherwise con 
 tinue to act as a wedge. The first distinct ap 
 pearance of the cracks, as shown by the button, 
 is the proper limit. 
 
 GUNBOAT. A light-draft vessel carrying one 
 or more guns. 
 
 GUN-CARRIAGE. A carriage to facilitate the 
 transportation and manipulation of howitzers 
 or great guns. It must have the strength neces 
 sary to resist the shock of discharge, stability to 
 retain its upright position when subjected to vio 
 lent recoil or to the motion of the ship at sea, 
 facility of working, simplicity, and durability. 
 In the navy all gun-carriages except the boat- 
 carriages are built of iron. 
 
 GUN-COTTON. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 GUN-DECK. See DECK. 
 
 GUN-FIRE. The firing of the morning or 
 evening gun; familiarly termed " the admiral 
 falling down the hatchway." 
 
 GUN-GEAR. Everything pertaining to the 
 management of the guns. 
 
 GUN-HARPOON. See HARPOON. 
 
 GUN-LOD. A vessel filled with explosives. 
 
 GUN-METAL. A bronze consisting of 90 parts 
 of pure copper and 10 parts of tin, allowing a 
 variation of one part of tin, more or less. When 
 the mixture is well made the metal is homoge 
 neous ; the fracture is of a uniform yellow color, 
 with an even grain. Its specific gravity is about 
 8.75, being greater than the mean of the specific 
 gravities of copper and tin. It should be re 
 jected for the manufacture of guns if it contains 
 an appreciable amount of sulphur, .001 of arsenic 
 and antimony, .003 of lead, iron, or zinc, or in 
 all more than .005 of foreign substances. 
 
 GUNNADE. A short 32-pounder introduced 
 in 1814. 
 
 GUNNEL. See GUNWALE. 
 
 GUNNERY. A branch of the military art 
 which has for its object the management of guns 
 and mortars, and of charging and pointing them 
 so as to hit a proposed mark at any distance 
 within the range of the projectile. To accom 
 plish this purpose it is necessary to know the 
 nature of the path which a projectile describes 
 in the air with a given initial velocity, the quan 
 tity of gunpowder necessary to produce that ve 
 locity, and the elevation that must be given to 
 the gun in order to counteract the effect of 
 gravity and the resistance of the air on the pro 
 jectile in its flight. Various other considera 
 tions require also to be attended to; as the pro 
 portion between the length of the gun and the 
 diameter of its bore, the system of rifling, the 
 proper windage, or excess of the diameter of the 
 bore above that of the projectile, the shape of 
 the chamber, the strain upon the metal, and the 
 size or weight of projectile proper to produce a 
 certain effect, as to batter down a wall or to 
 penetrate a ship s side. In a more comprehen- 
 
GUNNER 
 
 332 
 
 GUNPOWDER 
 
 sive sense, gunnery includes the whole science 
 of artillery and ordnance. 
 
 GUNNERY-LIEUTENANT (Eng.}. One who, 
 having obtained a warrant from a gunnery-ship, 
 is eligible to large ships to assist specially in 
 supervising the gunnery duties ; he draws in 
 creased pay. 
 
 GUNNERY-SHIP. One devoted specially to the 
 training of officers and men in everything per 
 taining to ordnance. 
 
 GUN PENDULUM. A device employed to de 
 termine the initial velocity of projectiles by 
 means of the recoil of the gun. The principle is 
 that the explosive force of the powder communi 
 cates equal quantities of motion to the gun and 
 to the projectile in opposite directions; conse 
 quently, by suspending the gun, loaded with ad 
 ditional weights, in the manner of a pendulum 
 the extent of its arc of vibration will give the 
 means of estimating the quantity of motion im 
 pressed on it, whence the initial velocity of the 
 projectile can be computed. See BALLISTIC 
 PENDULUM, ELECTRO-BALLISTICS. 
 
 GUN-ROOM (Eng.}. A compartment at the 
 after part of the lower gun-deck of a large ves 
 sel, partly occupied by the junior officers ; but in 
 a small vessel it is below the gun-deck and used 
 as a mess-room by the lieutenants. 
 
 GUN-ROOM PORTS (Eng.}. Stern-ports cut 
 through the gun-room in a frigate. 
 
 GUN-SHOT. The distance a gun will throw a 
 projectile. See RANGE. 
 
 GUN-SLINGS. See SLINGS. 
 
 GUN-STONE. An old term for a cannon-ball, 
 from the circumstance that stone was the first 
 material used for cannon-balls. 
 
 GUN-TACKLE PURCHASE. A purchase rove 
 through two single blocks. See TACKLES. 
 
 GUNWALE (corruption of gun-wall}. In small 
 craft, the fore-and-aft plank which covers the 
 heads of the timbers. 
 
 Gunnel. A spotted ribbon-bodied fish found 
 on rocky bottoms. 
 
 Gunner. From the period when ordnance was 
 introduced on board British vessels of war this 
 officer appears to have formed a distinctive class 
 in the royal navy. The complement of the 
 "Henri, Grace deDieu," consisted of 349 sol 
 diers, 301 marines, and 50 gunners ; these gun r 
 n jrs correspond to what are now called seaman- 
 gunners. Gunners are warrant-officers, and, 
 under the ordnance-officer, have special charge 
 of the battery, small-arms, magazines, and ord 
 nance stores. For necessary qualifications for 
 appointment, see EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 GUNNER, QUARTER. A petty officer attached 
 to each gun-division to take care of the guns and 
 gun-gear, and at quarters, to supply the guns 
 crews with belts, primer-boxes, etc., and to be 
 ready, during action, to furnish any reserved or 
 spare article that may be required, such as 
 breechings, ladles, worms, etc. 
 
 GUNNER S DAUGHTER. The name of the 
 gun to which the men were married or lashed to 
 be punished. 
 
 GUNNER S GANG. The men under the direct 
 superintendence of the gunner, including chief 
 gunner s mate, gunner s mates, quarter-gunners, 
 armorer, armorer s mate, etc. 
 
 GUNNER S MATE. One of the assistants of 
 the gunner, selected by the commanding officer 
 for his experience and reliability. The gunner s 
 
 mates are stationed in the magazines when at 
 quarters, and in the event of the absence of the 
 gunner, the chief gunner s mate assumes his 
 duties. 
 
 GUNNER S PIECE. The fragment of a burst 
 gun which flies upward. 
 
 GUNNER S QUADRANT. A graduated quarter 
 of a circle of sheet-brass of 6 inches radius, at 
 tached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an 
 arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a 
 vernier at its movable end. To get a required 
 elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated 
 degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore 
 parallel to the axis of the piece ; the gun is then 
 elevated or depressed until the level is horizon 
 tal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, 
 of 6 inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches 
 long. It has a plumb-line and bob, which are 
 carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of 
 the rule, covered by a brass plate. 
 
 GUNNER S TAILOR (Eng.}. An old rating for 
 the man who made the cartridge-bags. 
 
 Gunner-flook. A name for^the turbot, Pleu- 
 ronectus maximus. 
 
 Gunny. Coarse canvas made of fibrous ma 
 terial, as jute. 
 
 GUNNY-BAG. A sack made of gunny. 
 
 Gunpowder. Gunpowder is made of salt 
 petre, charcoal, and sulphur, in proportions now 
 generally adopted of 75 parts saltpetre, 15 char 
 coal, 10 sulphur. The objects to be obtained are: 
 
 1. Maximum force. 
 
 2. Minimum of initial pressure in bore of 
 gun. 
 
 3. Uniformity of action. 
 
 4. Freedom from fouling. 
 
 5. Durability. 
 
 Saltpetre, a compound of 54 parts nitric acid 
 and 46 parts of potash, contains in one volume 
 as much oxygen as is contained in 3000 volumes 
 of atmospheric air. This oxygen when heated 
 to a certain degree combines instantly with the 
 carbon to form carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, 
 and which with free nitrogen form the chief 
 gaseous products of combustion. The potassium 
 is found combined in the solid residue. 
 
 Charcoal. Willow and alder are chiefly used. 
 The smaller branches, \ inch to 1 inch in diam 
 eter, are cut in spring when the sap is running, 
 and the bark peeled off. It is generally left to 
 season for a year. 
 
 Sulphur. The oxidation of sulphur by salt 
 petre produces a higher temperature than is ob 
 tained with charcoal, and this accelerates com 
 bustion. 
 
 The ingredients should be thoroughly pulver 
 ized before being combined. 
 
 The saltpetre being thoroughly dried, is ground 
 in a buhr-stone mill. The charcoal and sulphur, 
 in proper proportions, are placed in iron cylin 
 ders or barrels, about 3 feet in diameter and 4 
 feet long, which have iron bolts placed in them 
 about 1 inch in diameter. The barrels being 
 revolved at about 15 revolutions a minute, are 
 run about 24 hours. The bolts in the drums 
 completely pulverize the ingredients. 
 
 The saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal being 
 pulverized, have now to be incorporated into 
 one mass. There are several modes of doing 
 this, stamper-mills, wheel-mills, barrel-mills, 
 and a new method of recent invention by Gen. 
 P. A. Oliver, roller-mills. 
 
GUNPOWDER 
 
 333 
 
 GUNPOWDER 
 
 Barrel-mills consist of a number of barrels 
 about the size of a whisk} 7 -barrel, geared to re 
 volve at about 15 revolutions per minute. They 
 each contain about one-half bushel of common 
 marbles ; the ingredients sufficient for 8 or 10 
 kegs of powder are then placed in each, and the 
 barrels are run for about 10 hours. After a 
 steady run they should be stopped and opened 
 and allowed to cool, and then started up again. 
 The marbles in the drums pulverize the ingre 
 dients thoroughly. 
 
 The powder-meal may now be placed in bins 
 and slightly dampened before going to the press. 
 If desired to still further incorporate it, it is taken 
 to the wheel-mill. A wheel-mill consists of two 
 heavy broad wheels about 2 feet in diameter and 
 5 or 6 feet high, resting on a bed-plate ; they are 
 revolved by a vertical shaft passing through the 
 centre of the bed-plate, to which the axle revolv 
 ing the wheels is attached. Two plows or 
 knives, one near the vertical shaft and another 
 near the rim, throw the composition under the 
 runners as it works outwards. The charge is 
 spread upon the bed evenly, and a small amount 
 of water sprinkled upon it. Water is added from 
 time to time in sufficient quantity to reduce the 
 effect of explosion, and to incorporate more thor 
 oughly. The wheels are revolved at 8 or 10 
 revolutions a minute, and from 4 to 8 hours, 
 according to the powder to be made. After the 
 powder has become incorporated, it is taken to 
 the hydraulic press to be pressed into cakes. The 
 mass is placed upon the press in layers, plates of 
 copper or gutta-percha intervening. Eight or 
 twelve hundred pounds are pressed at a time. 
 A pressure of 6000 to 10,000 pounds to the square 
 inch is exerted. When sufficiently pressed, the 
 press-cake, looking like slate f to 1J inches 
 thick, is taken to the coining- or graining- 
 mill. This mill serves to break up the powder 
 into grains. It consists of a series of adjustable 
 rolls, the top one, of gun-metal, being a toothed 
 roll, to break up the cake; under this is another 
 set of rolls geared two to one, which crush the 
 sizes which are too large, and another set under 
 these still further reduce the remaining grains. 
 Sieves shake the dust out of the powder, and 
 other screens of wire-cloth, of different-sized 
 mesh, retain the sizes desired and reject those 
 that are too large, which are carried back to the 
 hopper of the mill by an elevator to be ground over 
 again. The size and shape of the grain form an 
 important factor in our service. Large grains 
 of spherical shape are made to reduce the press 
 ure on the gun, as large grains of that shape 
 burn slower, but it is always at the expense of 
 the powder. It is not the fault of the powder 
 that the gun bursts : it is the fault of the gun. 
 By firing the charge, next the ball, and using three 
 sections of powder, slow, quicker, and very quick, 
 a better result will doubtless be obtained than has 
 hitherto been reached, and more justice done to 
 the powder. After being broken up into grains, 
 the powder is dried at a temperature of about 
 130 F. Some use boxes or pans, in which the 
 powder is placed in the drying-rooms heated by 
 a furnace. A new patented method, termed hot- 
 air glaze, in which the powder is placed in re 
 volving drums and hot air blown through them, 
 is used by some manufacturers. 
 
 The powder is next finished by being placed in 
 the glazing-drums. These consist of large bar 
 
 rels about 3 by 6 feet. In these the powder is 
 placed. The drums are then revolved at about 
 15 revolutions a minute. The grains of powder 
 are tumbled about in them and rubbed against 
 each other. In the process the powder gets warm 
 and sweats a little, which facilitates the rounding 
 off of the sharp corners. The powder is usually 
 revolved in these drums from 12 to 24 hours, 
 according to the glaze required. When high 
 bright polish is needed, a small quantity of 
 graphite is added. The glazing takes off the 
 rough and sharp edges of the grain, and the 
 powder occupies less bulk in consequence, packs 
 closer, and makes less dust. 
 
 In the Oliver process, the ingredients being 
 thoroughly mixed and dampened, are placed in 
 small boxes holding 25 pounds at a time. A box 
 at a time is then placed in the hopper of the in- 
 corporating-mill. These consist of 5 pairs of 
 adjustable rolls, with atop pair of rolls regulating 
 the feed. The ingredients passing between these 
 rolls in a very thin stream are intimately ground 
 by each set of rolls successively, the rolls being 
 geared two to one, and pass in a thin train by a 
 rubber apron out-doors, and are dumped into 
 another box holding 25 pounds. When full, 
 this box is carried to the hopper of the press. 
 By this method there are never over 50 pounds 
 damp powder in the incorporating-mill, and out 
 side. This quantity can be reduced to 5 or 10 
 pounds if desired. The object is to have so little 
 powder in any one place as to do away with any 
 serious damage in case of fire. The ingredients 
 being incorporated, are next taken to the press- 
 and graining-room, both being combined in one. 
 The box of powder is dumped into the hopper of 
 the press, and is immediately pressed into sheets 
 of the desired thickness between 2 large rolls 
 running at equal speed. A belt running under 
 the rolls carries the pressed powder forward 
 under the grainer. This machine consists of 
 knives set in a frame, which is arranged to move 
 up and down by means of an eccentric, cutting 
 the powder as it passes under them . The grained 
 powder next falls upon a shaker, arranged with 
 different-sized screens. The dust is immediately 
 shaken out, and an elevator carries it back into 
 the hopper of the press to be pressed over again. 
 The grains which are too large are brought back 
 by an elevator, and are reduced to the desired 
 size by a pair of rolls of zinc running two to one, 
 placed at the end of the shaker ; a second shaker 
 outside the building shakes the balance of the 
 dust out, reasserts the sizes, and dumps the grains 
 into a box holding 150 pounds. This box is at 
 once taken on a car to the dry-house. The dry- 
 house contains the dryer, the* joint invention of 
 Patrick Clarch, of Rah way, N. J.,and Gen. Oli 
 ver. It consists of a box 60 feet long by 14 wide, 
 air-tight at all points except the top. It is fur 
 nished with a number of wooden rollers on the 
 top, which revolve in suitable bearings ; at each 
 end is a large pulley or roller 3 feet in diameter 
 and 12 feet long. A woolen cloth is placed around 
 these rollers, forming an endless belt, over the 
 whole top of the dryer. The powder is placed on 
 top of the woolen cloth, and the large pulleys 
 revolving, move the cloth forward very slowly. 
 The damp powder goes on at one end, and the 
 dry is dumped off at the other ; as it falls it goes 
 over screens, which take out the dust and dump 
 it into boxes. An adjoining building contains 
 
GUNTEN 
 
 334 
 
 HAIL 
 
 an engine, steam coil, and powerful blower, 
 
 Eipes lead from coil into box of dryer. The air 
 i blown through the coil, thence into box of 
 dryer, and is forced through the cloth upon 
 which the powder rests, and it is thus dried in a 
 couple of hours. 
 
 Gunten. A boat of burden in the Moluccas. 
 
 Gunter s Chain. The chain ordinarily used 
 in surveying. 
 
 Gunter s "Line. A logarithmic line on Gun 
 ter s scale, used for performing, mechanically, 
 the operations of multiplication and division. 
 
 Gunter s Scale. A wooden rule, on one side of 
 which are marked scales of equal parts, of chords, 
 tangents, sines, etc., and having on the other 
 logarithms of these various parts, by means of 
 which many problems in navigation and survey 
 ing may be solved mechanically. 
 
 Gurge. A gulf or whirlpool. 
 
 Gurnard. A fish of the genus Trigla, so called 
 from its peculiar grunt when removed from the 
 water ; its head being all skin and bone gave 
 rise to the saying that the flesh on a gurnard s 
 head is rank poison. One or two species are 
 known by the local name of piper. 
 
 Gurnet. See GARNET. 
 
 Gussock. A term for a strong and sudden 
 gust of wind. 
 
 Gust, or Gush. A sudden blast of wind ; a 
 squall. 
 
 Gut. A somewhat coarse term for the main 
 part of a strait or channel, as the Gut of Gi 
 braltar, Gut of Canso. 
 
 Gutter-ledge. A cross-bar laid along the mid 
 dle of a large hatchway in some vessels, to sup 
 port the covers and enable them the better to 
 sustain any heavy body. 
 
 Guv. A rope used to support a spar in a lat 
 
 eral direction j as, the jib-guys. A rope used to 
 steady a body when hoisted or lowered. 
 
 GUY, BELLY-. A rope supporting the mid 
 dle part of derrick or sheer-leg. 
 
 GUYS, JIB AND FLYING JIB. These go over 
 the ends of their respective booms, leading thence 
 to the ends of the whiskers, and set up at the 
 bows. 
 
 GUYS, LOWER-BOOM. Hopes used for rigging in 
 and out, and for steadying the lower-boom when 
 rigged out. The standing part of the forward 
 guy is secured at the end of the whisker, and 
 leads thence through a block on the boom, 
 thence through a block at the bowsprit-cap, 
 thence to the forecastle The standing part of 
 the after guy is hooked to a bolt in the ship s 
 side near the gangway, leading thence to a 
 block on the boom and back through a sheave 
 in the ship s side. The lower-boom guys are 
 sometimes fitted single, hooking to eye-bolts on 
 the boom. 
 
 GUYS, SPANKER-BOOM. Fitted in one with 
 the sheets. See SHEET. 
 
 Gwiniad. A fish (the Coregonus fera, or fresh 
 water herring) found in North Wales, and allied 
 to the lake white-fish. 
 
 Gybe. Another form for jibe (which see). 
 
 Gymnotus Electricus. An eel from the Suri 
 nam River, several feet in length, which inflicts 
 electrical shocks. 
 
 Gyn. A three-legged machine fitted with a 
 windlass, heaving in the fall from a purchase- 
 block at the summit, used on shore for mounting 
 and dismounting guns, driving piles, etc. 
 
 Gyp. A strong gasp for breath, like that of a 
 fish just taken out of the water. 
 
 Gyver. An old term for blocks or pulleys. 
 
 Gyves. Fetters ; the old word for handcuffs. 
 
 H. 
 
 H. Abbreviation for have in the IT. S. Gen 
 eral Service Signal Code. Among the letters 
 used in the log-book to register the state of the 
 weather, h denotes hail. 
 
 Haaf. Cod, ling, or tusk deep-sea fisheries of 
 the Shetland and Orkney islanders. 
 
 HAAF-BOOT. One fitted for deep-water fishing. 
 
 Haak. See HAKE. 
 
 Habeas Corpus (Lat. You may have the body}. 
 In law, the name given to a variety of writs (in 
 the ancient forms of which these were the em 
 phatic words) having for their object to bring a 
 party before a court or judge. The most cele 
 brated of these is the writ (Habeas corpus ad sub- 
 jiciendum) to inquire into the cause of a person s 
 imprisonment or detention with a view to obtain 
 his or her liberation. 
 
 Hack. A word applied to a watch or chro 
 nometer used in taking observations, to obviate 
 the necessity of moving the standard chronom 
 eter. 
 
 Hackatee. A fresh-water tortoise having a 
 
 long neck and flat feet, and weighing from 10 to 
 15 pounds, which is found in the West Indies. 
 
 Haddock. The Gadus cegilfinus, a species of 
 cod fabled to bear the thumb-mark of Saint Peter. 
 
 Hag. An eel-like fish (the Gastrobranchus 
 (Myxine) glutinosus] having a cartilaginous skel 
 eton, a ring-like mouth, a strong tooth in the 
 pdlate, and two rows of teeth, by which it enters 
 other fishes and devours them. It is about 6 or 
 6 inches long, and is allied to the lamprey. It 
 is found in polar seas. 
 
 Hag-boat. See HECK-BOAT. 
 
 Hag s Teeth. Those parts of a matting or 
 pointing interwoven with the rest in an irregu 
 lar manner, so as to break up the uniformity. 
 
 Haik. See HIKE. 
 
 Hail. To call, to accost ; thus one vessel hails 
 another at sea, the customary form being " Ship 
 ahoy!" A sentinel hails when he challenges. 
 A ship is said to hail from the port to which she 
 properly belongs ; a man, to hail from the coun 
 try of his birth or residence. Pass within hail, 
 
HAIMUKA 
 
 335 
 
 HALF-TOPSAILS 
 
 a special signal to approach and receive orders 
 or intelligence, when boats cannot be lowered 
 or time presses. Hail fellows, congenial mess 
 mates. 
 
 HAIL-SHOT. Small shot for cannon. 
 
 Haimura (Erythrinus macrodon). A large 
 fresh-water fish of Guiana, highly esteemed for 
 the table. 
 
 Hair-bracket. The molding which terminates 
 the fore ends of the head-rails, and comes at the 
 back of the figure, and breaks in fair with the 
 upper deck. 
 
 Hair-tail (Trichiurus). A genus of acanthrop- 
 terous fishes, sometimes classed in the Ribbon- 
 fish family, but more generally referred to the 
 family Scomber idee. In Cuba it is known as the 
 sabre-fish, and in other parts of the world as the 
 blade- fish. 
 
 Hair-trigger. A trigger whose movement is 
 effected by a very slight force. Its action is 
 communicated to the tumbler-catch by means of 
 a device called a hair. 
 
 Hake. An old term for a hand-gun. Also 
 the fish Gadus merlucius, a gregarious and vora 
 cious fish of the cod family, termed also sea- 
 pike. 
 
 Hake s Teeth. A term for the Dentalium, a 
 species of shell-fish whose presence in the British 
 Channel serves as a guide to pilots in foggy 
 weather. Also, a phrase applied to some parts 
 of the deep soundings in the British Channel. 
 
 Halcyon Piscator. A bird of the king-fisher 
 kind, so called from its supposed identity with 
 the halcyon of antiquity. The ancients called 
 the seven days that precede and follow the 
 winter solstice halcyon days from the circum 
 stance of the halcyon selecting that period for 
 incubation. "While this process was going on the 
 weather was generally remarkable for its calm 
 ness. And hence the expression has passed into 
 a proverb, signifying days of peace and tran 
 quillity. 
 
 Hale. An old word for haul. 
 
 Half-beam. A beam which is of the same 
 size as the ordinary deck-beams, and is cut off 
 for some reason, as a long hatch, and which 
 does not as a consequence extend clear across the 
 ship. 
 
 Half-breadth of the Rising. A term used in 
 the mold-loft, it being the distance beveled out 
 from the centre-line taken at a mark which is at 
 or near the head of the floor-timbers, and after 
 wards applied to the mold, and is used in the 
 framing of the ship. 
 
 Half-breadth Plan. That on which is shown 
 the form of the vessel by horizontal and diagonal 
 longitudinal sections. 
 
 Half-cock. The position of the hammer of 
 a fire-arm intermediate between those which it 
 has when resting on the nipple, or firing-pin, 
 and when drawn back to full cock. Arms should 
 be habitually carried at half-cock, as in that state 
 they are less liable to be accidentally discharged. 
 Going off at half-cock, a metaphorical expression 
 for speech, or action, which fails of effect because 
 uttered, or taken, without due forethought or 
 preparation. 
 
 Half- davit. A name for the fish-davit. 
 
 Half-deck. The portion of the gun-deck- in- 
 eluded between the mainmast and the cabin-bulk 
 heads. 
 
 Half-floor. An expression used in the mold- 
 
 loft to indicate the spoint at which the dead- 
 rise of the ship is taken, which is at one-quarter 
 of the breadth of the ship from the centre-line. 
 Sometimes, in a wooden ship, floor-timbers are 
 made, where the shape is difficult, in two pieces, 
 and they are scarfed, tabled, and bolted to 
 gether. 
 
 Half-hitch. A hitch formed by passing the 
 end of a rope around the standing part and bring 
 ing it up through the bight. 
 
 Half-laughs and Purser s Grins. Hypocrit 
 ical and satirical sneers. 
 
 Half-man (Eng.). A rating in coasters for a 
 boy or landsman. 
 
 Half-mast. To lower a flag midway between 
 the truck and deck, as a mark of respect for the 
 dead. When flags are half-masted they are not 
 hauled down from that position, but are run 
 close up as the call is beaten. 
 
 Half-minute Glass. A time-glass used in 
 logging a ship. A glass that runs 28 seconds is 
 generally used as being more convenient. 
 
 Half-pay. A term with which we are more 
 familiar in the pages of fiction than as a matter 
 of fact. In English novels the half-pay officer is 
 a frequent character, but in this county the ex 
 pression describes nothing known to either our 
 military or naval system. Even in England and 
 other countries employing the term, or its 
 equivalent, it is not confined to its literal mean 
 ing, but is used to signify a money allowance, 
 less in amount though not always to the extent 
 of one-half than the full pay of the officer re 
 ceiving it. This allowance, in England, has not 
 the same character in both services. In the royal 
 navy it is the allowance, usually about 60 per cent, 
 of the full pay, made to all officers not immediately 
 wanted afloat ; and as there are always many more 
 officers, than appointments for them to fill, a con 
 siderable number are at all times on the half-pay 
 list, and the expression thus becomes descriptive of 
 a regular and recognized condition. In the Brit 
 ish army, on the other hand, half-pay is a tem 
 porary grant either to officers thrown out of 
 employment by the reduction of the corps with 
 which they are serving, or those compelled to 
 quit active duties by sickness, and is thus perti 
 nent to a casual rather than a regular condition. 
 The first grant of army half-pay was made by 
 William III. in 1698. 
 
 Half-pike. An iron spike fixed on the end of 
 a short ashen staff, used in repelling the assaults 
 of boarders. 
 
 Half-port. The ports are fitted with heavy 
 shutters having a circular hole to receive the gun 
 when it is run out. These ports are made in two 
 pieces, each piece being called a half -port ; and 
 when in action the upper one is passed inboard 
 or triced up, and the lower one is lowered. In 
 port, during fine weather, they are kept parallel 
 with the water. 
 
 Half-sea. An old term for mid-channel. 
 Half-seas over, moderately drunk. 
 
 Half-tide Rocks. Rocks awash at the middle 
 of the tide. 
 
 Half-timbers. Those timbers in the cant 
 bodies which are answerable to the lower futtocks 
 in the square bodies. 
 
 Half-top. See TOP. 
 
 Half-topsails Under. An expression to sig 
 nify that a vessel is so far distant that she is be 
 low the horizon with the exception of that portion 
 
HALF WATCH-TACKLE 
 
 336 
 
 HAMMOCK 
 
 of her spars and sails from the middle of the top 
 mast up. 
 
 Half Watch-tackle. A luff-purchase. 
 
 Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris). One of the 
 largest kinds of flat-fish, found in great numbers 
 on the Atlantic coast, and much esteemed as food, 
 its flesh being firm and white, though somewhat 
 dry. It is found on the British coast, but more 
 abundantly in the northern than the southern 
 parts. The Greenlanders use it extensively, and 
 obtain oil from it in considerable quantities. 
 
 Halifax. A city and seaport, capital of Nova 
 Scotia. Lat. 45 N.; Ion. 63 35 W. Situated 
 on the west side of Chebucto Bay, now called 
 Halifax Harbor. The city contains many large 
 and handsome buildings, among which can be 
 numbered the provincial buildings, military and 
 naval hospitals, barracks, and military jail. At 
 the northern end of the city is the royal dock 
 yard, covering 14 acres, the finest in the British 
 colonies. The harbor is 6 miles long by 1 in 
 width, with excellent anchorage in every part of 
 it, and at the north end it is connected with Bel- 
 ford Basin, 6 miles by 4 in size, capable of con 
 taining all the navies in the world. The city is 
 protected by 11 fortifications, and is the chief 
 naval station of British North America. Pop. 
 32,500. 
 
 Halley s Chart. The chart showing, by 
 curves, the variation of the compass. 
 
 Halliards, Halyards, or Haulyards. The 
 rope or purchase employed to hoist a yard or 
 sail on its mast or stay. All yards have hal 
 liards except the lower, these being kept sta 
 tionary ordinarily ; when they are hoisted or 
 lowered the jeers are used. 
 
 Topsail-yards have a permanent purchase, vari 
 ously rigged according to the size of the yard. Top 
 gallant and royal yards are hoisted by means of 
 the yard-rope, a tackle being clapped on abaft 
 the mast. Jib- and sfa?/-sm7-halliards are bent to 
 the head-cringles of their respective sails, and 
 lead thence along the stay to a block under the 
 collar of the stay, and down to the deck ; they 
 are sometimes rove double, in which case there 
 is a block at the head of the sail, the standing 
 part being seized to the collar of the stay. Stud 
 ding-sail halliards are bent to the studding-sail 
 yard, and reeve through a block at the yard- 
 arm, thence through a block on the mast, and 
 down to deck ; the fore clew-jigger is used as the 
 inner halliards. Throat- and />ea-halliards are 
 used on gaffs, the former hooked to the jaws, and 
 the latter to the peak. Qaff-topsail halliards are 
 rove through a sheave on the mast, and are bent 
 to the yard or head-cringle of the gaff-topsail. 
 Crow-foot halliards reeve through a block on the 
 lower stay, and are bent to the crow-foot oil the 
 awning. *S%naZ-halliards, light lines extending 
 from the deck to the trucks or gaff-ends ; used 
 for hoisting signal-flags. .Bns^w-halliards, the 
 line by which the colors are run up to the peak 
 or flag-staff. Smoke-stack halliards, Jack s term 
 for the hoisting apparatus of the smoke-stack. 
 
 Halo. A luminous ring encircling the sun or 
 moon, whose light passing through the interven 
 ing vapor gives rise to the phenomenon. Halos 
 are termed lunar or solar according as they ap 
 pear around the moon or sun. The lunar halo 
 is simply a white, luminous circle without color 
 excepting a pale red, which sometimes fringes 
 the interior edge of the circle. Solar halos are 
 
 prismatioally colored. See CORONA, PAR 
 HELIA. 
 
 Halse, or Halser. Archaic spelling of hawser. 
 
 Halve-net. A net to prevent fishes from going 
 out with the falling tide. 
 
 Halyards. See HALLIARDS. 
 
 Hamac. Columbus found that the inhabit 
 ants of the Bahama Islands had for beds nets of 
 cotton suspended at each end, which they called 
 hamacs, or hamacas, whence hammock, a name 
 since adopted universally among seamen. See 
 HAMMOCK. 
 
 Hambroline. A superior sort of small stuff 
 used for seizings. 
 
 Hamburg, one of the principal cities of Ger 
 many, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, 
 about 70 miles from its mouth. Lat. 53 33 
 1" N. ; Ion. 9 58 23" E. Its manufactories 
 comprise sugar-refineries, tar, tobacco, and sail 
 cloth factories, ship-yards, anchor and iron 
 forges, etc. It is the greatest commercial city 
 of the European continent, its trade being chiefly 
 with Great Britain and America, and its many 
 first-class steamers are constantly running to 
 New York, the "West Indies, South America, 
 and the Mediterranean. The channel of the 
 Elbe has been improved, so that vessels drawing 
 18 feet of water can reach the city at high tide. 
 Pop. 264,850. 
 
 Hamel. The star a Arietis. 
 
 Hammer. That appendage of the lock of a 
 fire-arm which, being first drawn back to the po 
 sition of "cock," is, by the operation of the 
 trigger and internal mechanism of the lock, 
 sprung down upon the cap, or against the firing- 
 pin or percussion-cartridge, with such force as 
 to explode the fulminate and to cause the dis 
 charge of the piece. 
 
 Hammer-headed Shark (Zygcena malleus). 
 An extremely ugly fish of the Shark family, dis 
 tinguished by the extraordinary form of its head, 
 which in the adults resembles a double-headed 
 hammer, being extended on both sides to a con 
 siderable length and having the eyes at the ends 
 of the lateral extensions. The mouth is below 
 the centre of the head. In the young the ham 
 mer-headed form is not so perfect. 
 
 Hammock. A suspended bed invented by 
 Alcibiades j the name is derived from hamac 
 (which see). It consists of a strip of canvas about 
 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, to the ends of which 
 are attached combinations of small cords, called 
 clews. When suspended, this canvas forms a re 
 ceptacle for a mattress and blanket ; when not 
 in use, the canvas is wrapped tightly around the 
 bedding and bound with a lashing and stowed in 
 the nettings. Each man on board ship has two 
 hammocks, the one not in use being kept clean 
 and stowed away in the sail-room ; the watch 
 number of the owner is stenciled on the ham 
 mock, and also on a tin tag hung over the proper 
 hook. Up all hammocks, the order to take the 
 hammocks on deck and stow them in the nettings. 
 Down all hammocks, the order to lash the ham 
 mocks and stow them below, when for any rea 
 son, such as rain, they cannot be taken on deck. 
 To sling a hammock, to bend the clews and get it 
 ready for use. To swing a hammock, to hang it 
 up on the hooks. 
 
 HAMMOCK-CLOTH. A painted canvas cover 
 over the netting to protect the hammocks from 
 the weather. 
 
HAMPER 
 
 337 
 
 HANG 
 
 HAMMOCK-GIRTLINES. Lines extending from 
 the jib-boom to the spanker-boom, on which 
 scrubbed hammocks are stopped to dry. 
 
 HAMMOCK-NETTINGS. Keceptacles on the rail 
 for hammocks when not in use. They were for 
 merly formed of net- work, hence the name. They 
 are now boarded in. 
 
 HAMMOCK-STANCHIONS. Iron stanchions fixed 
 on the main-rail or plank-sheer, having a forked 
 end to which the hammock-rails are secured. 
 
 Hamper. Articles which, though ordinarily 
 indispensable, are a great inconvenience at cer 
 tain times. See TOP-HAMPER. 
 
 Hamron. An archaic term meaning the hold 
 of a ship. 
 
 Hance. A sudden fall or break. 
 
 Hand. An adjective applied to anything 
 worked by hand. A man ; one of the crew. 
 All hands, everybody. Bear a hand, to make 
 haste. Lend a hand, to assist. Hand-over-hand, 
 hauling rapidly upon any rope, by passing the 
 hands alternately one before the other, or one 
 above the other if hoisting. A sailor is said 
 to go hand-over-hand if he lifts his own weight 
 and ascends a single rope without the help of 
 his legs. Hand-over-hand also implies rapidly; 
 as, we are coming up with the chase hand-over 
 hand. Hand-under-hand, the manner of descend 
 ing a rope, the weight of the body being sustained 
 by the arms only. Hand-taut, as taut as can be 
 hauled by hand. To hand a sail, to furl it. 
 
 HAND FEED-PUMP. A feed-pump provided 
 with brakes so as to enable it to be worked by 
 hand independent of other motive force. 
 
 HAND-GEAR. An appliance for manipulating 
 a steam-engine or other machine when automatic 
 action is not desired. 
 
 HAND-GRENADE. A shell, weighing about 2 
 pounds, thrown from the hand. The fuze being 
 previously lit, the shell is conveniently thrown 
 from the tops on to an enemy s deck, from the 
 parapet into the ditch, or generally against an 
 enemy otherwise hard to reach. Ketchum s hand- 
 grenade is a small oblong percussion-shell, which 
 explodes on striking the object. 
 
 HAND-GUN. An old term for small-arms in 
 the times of Henry VII. and VIII. 
 
 HAND-HOLE. A small elliptical or triangular 
 hole in any convenient part of the shell of a 
 steam-boiler ; used for cleaning and repairing 
 the structure and withdrawing scale or sediment 
 from the interior. It is covered by a hand-hole 
 plate. 
 
 HAND-LEAD. 
 in shallow water. 
 
 HANDMAID. An old denomination for a ten 
 der; thus, in Drake s expedition to Cadiz, two 
 of her Majesty s pinnaces were appointed to at 
 tend his squadron as handmaids. 
 
 HAND MAST-PIECE. A small hand mast-spar. 
 
 HAND MAST-SPAR. A round mast ; those 
 from Riga are commonly over 70 feet long by 20 
 inches diameter. 
 
 HAND-PUMP. The common movable pump 
 for obtaining fresh water, etc., from tanks or 
 casks. 
 
 HAND-SAW. The smallest of the saws used by 
 shipwrights, and used by one hand. 
 
 HAND-SCREW. A handy kind of single jack- 
 screw. 
 
 HANDSPIKE. A short wooden lever for mov 
 ing heavy articles, as guns. 
 22 
 
 A small lead used for sounding 
 
 HANDSPIKEMAN. One of a gun s crew who 
 handles the handspike in great-gun drill. 
 
 Handle. The title prefixed to a person s 
 name. To handle a ship well is to work her in 
 a seaman-like manner. 
 
 Handsomely. Slowly; steadily; carefully. 
 
 Handy, Robert, Commodore U.S.N. Ap 
 pointed a midshipman from Rhode Island, Feb 
 ruary 1, 1826; sloop " John Adams" and frigate 
 " Constellation," West India Squadron, 1826-27; 
 frigate "Hudson," Brazil Squadron, 1828-31. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832; survey of Narragansett Bay, 1832; sloop 
 " Vincennes ," Pacific Squadron, 1833-35; frigate 
 "Brandywine," Pacific Squadron, 1835-37. 
 
 Commissioned lieutenant, March 8, 1837 ; sloop 
 " Erie," Home Squadron, 1838; navy-yard, Bos 
 ton, 1838-40; steamer "Fulton," special service, 
 1841-42; sloop "Levant," Pacific Squadron, 
 1843-47; receiving-ship, Boston, 1847-48; navy- 
 yard, Boston, 1848-52. 
 
 Commissioned commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding rendezvous, Boston, 1858- 
 61; commanding "Vincennes," Gulf Squadron, 
 1861; commanding "Dale," East Gulf Block 
 ading Squadron, 1863-65. Retired, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned commodore, March 13, 1867. 
 
 Handy-billy. A small jigger used for vari 
 ous purposes about the decks, in the tops, holds, 
 etc. 
 
 Handy Ship. One that works easily. 
 
 Hang. To droop in the middle part. To 
 linger; to stop temporarily ; as, a vessel hangs on 
 the ways. To incline ; as, a mast hangs aft. To 
 support temporarily from above; as, to hang the 
 bight of a chain. To hang on, to persevere; to 
 continue. To throw the whole weight on a rope 
 or tackle; to hold on. The hanging of sheer- 
 strakes and decks is the declining in the centre 
 of the length fore and aft, from a level or hori 
 zontal line. 
 
 HANG FIRE. When there is an unusual slow 
 ness in the ignition of the gunpowder of a piece 
 or train it is said to hang fire. Used figura 
 tively to indicate hesitation. 
 
 HANGING-BLOCKS. Blocks under the eyes of 
 the fore-topmast rigging, through which reeve 
 the jib- and stay-sail-halliards. 
 
 HANGING-BRIDGE. An inverted -fire-bridge 
 or bridge-wall, placed in a furnace or flue for the 
 purpose of deflecting the flame and other prod 
 ucts of combustion downwards. See FIRE 
 BRIDGE. 
 
 HANGING-CLAMP. A semicircular iron with 
 a foot at each end by which it is secured to any 
 part of the ship to receive nails ; it is not often 
 used nowadays. 
 
 HANGING-COMPASS. A tell-tale; a compass 
 so constructed and swung as to hang with the 
 card downwards. 
 
 HANGING-KNEES. Those knees against the sides 
 and beams whose bodies are perpendicular and 
 whose arms extend under the beams at right 
 angles with the bodies of the knees. 
 
 HANGING-STAGE. A stage rigged outside the 
 ship, supported by ropes from above. 
 
 HANGING STANDARD-KNEES. Vertical curves 
 employed generally with the orlop beams ; they 
 are fastened on each side against the vertical 
 side of the beam, and on the other side against 
 the ship s sides ; thus they differ from those which 
 are simply called standard. 
 
HANK 
 
 338 
 
 HARPOON 
 
 HANGING-STOVE. A vessel suspended from a 
 beam and containing fire for drying the decks. 
 
 Hank. A ring of rope, wood, or iron, running 
 on a stay, and to which is seized the luff of 
 a stay-sail. Also, a skein of line or twine. 
 Hank-for-hank, an expression to denote that 
 anything is don,e slowly and laboriously. 
 
 Han-Kow. A city and one of the treaty 
 ports of China, on the Yang-tse-Kiang, at the 
 mouth of one of its tributaries, and 700 miles 
 from the sea. The city, with Han-Yang and 
 Woo-Chang, the capital of Hoo-Pe, all in sight 
 of one another, separated only by the river, forms 
 one of the greatest commercial centres of the 
 world. Lat. 30 30 N. ; Ion. 114 E. 
 
 Happy-go-lucky. An expression to signify a 
 reckless reliance on chance. 
 
 Haque. A small hand-gun of former times. 
 
 Haquebut. A larger sort of hand-gun than 
 the haque ; an arquebuse. 
 
 Harbor. A general name for any safe port. 
 The requisite qualities of a good harbor are, that 
 it should afford security from the effects of wind 
 and sea ; the bottom should be free from rocks, 
 wrecks, and shoals, and the holding-ground 
 should be good ; the opening should be sufficient 
 to permit the entrance and departure of the 
 largest vessels at all stages of the tide ; there 
 should be suitable establishments for the repair 
 ing and refitting of vessels ; a sufficient number 
 of warping-buoys should be planted ; it should 
 be well surveyed, well lighted, and well de 
 fended; and water, fuel, and provisions should 
 be abundant and convenient. Such a harbor, 
 if used as a place of commercial transactions, is 
 called a port. 
 
 HARBOR-DUES. See PORT-CHARGES. 
 
 HARBOR-GASKET. See GASKET. 
 
 HARBOR-MASTER. An officer appointed to in 
 spect the moorings, and to see that the ships are 
 properly berthed, and the regulations of the 
 harbor strictly observed by thie different ships 
 frequenting it. 
 
 HARBOR-REACH. The reach or stretch of a 
 winding river which leads direct to the harbor. 
 
 HARBOR-WATCH. See ANCHOR-WATCH. 
 
 Hard. Firm ; solid. Vehemently ; with force. 
 Cruel ; oppressive. Inflexible ; unyielding. 
 Distressful ; unprofitable. The word hard ap- 
 
 glied to the helm means " to the extreme limit." 
 ee HELM. 
 
 HARD BARGAIN. A useless officer ; a skulking 
 seaman. 
 
 HARD FISH. A term applied to cod, ling, had 
 dock, etc., when salted and dried. 
 
 HARD-HEAD. The Clupea menhaden, an oily 
 fish, taken in immense quantities and used for 
 manuring land. The name is sometimes given 
 to the sea-scorpion and the gray gurnard. 
 
 HARD-HORSE. A tyrannical officer. 
 
 Hards. See ACUMBA. 
 
 Harle. Mists or thick rolling fogs from the 
 sea. Also a name of the goosander, Mergus 
 merganser (which see). 
 
 Harlequin Duck (Clangula histrionica). A 
 species of garrot which receives its name from 
 its variegated markings. It is found in the arctic 
 regions, and in winter comes as far south as the 
 Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Harmattan. A Fantee name for a singular 
 periodical easterly wind which prevails on the 
 west coast of Africa, generally in December, 
 
 January, and February ; it is dry, though 
 always accompanied by haze, the result of fine 
 red dust suspended in the atmosphere and ob 
 scuring the sun ; this wind is opposed to the sea- 
 breeze, which would otherwise blow fresh from 
 the west on to the land. 
 
 Harmony of the Spheres. The ancients sup 
 posed the motions of the stars and planets to pro 
 duce a kind of music, which they called the har 
 mony of the spheres. 
 
 Harness. An old term for the furniture of a 
 ship. 
 
 Harness-cask. A large conical tub for con 
 taining the salt provisions intended for present 
 consumption. Alluding to the beef, which is 
 often called salt-horse, it has been described as 
 the tub where the horse, and not the harness, is 
 kept. 
 
 Harp-cock. An old modification of the har 
 poon. 
 
 Harpins. A continuation of the ribbands at 
 the fore and after extremities of the ship, fixed 
 to keep the cant-frames, etc., in position until 
 the outside planking is worked. 
 
 Harpoon, or Harpago. A spear or javelin 
 with a barbed point, used to strike whales and 
 other fish. The harpoon is furnished with a 
 long shank, and has at one end a broad and fiat 
 triangular head, sharpened at both edges so as 
 to penetrate the whale with facility, but blunt 
 behind to prevent its cutting out. To the other 
 end a fore-ganger is bent, to which is fastened a 
 long cord called the whale-line, which lies care 
 fully coiled in the boat in such a manner as to 
 run out without being interrupted or entangled. 
 Several coils, each 130 fathoms, of whale-line 
 (soft laid and of clean silky fibre) are in readi 
 ness; the instant the whale is struck the men 
 cant the oars, so that the roll may not immerse 
 them in the water. The line, which has a turn 
 round the bollard, fiies like lightning, and is 
 intently watched. One man pours water on 
 the smoking bollard, another is ready with a 
 sharp ax to cut, and the others see that the line 
 runs free. Seven or eight coils have been run 
 out before the whale "sounds," or strikes bot 
 tom, when he rises again to breathe, and probably 
 gets a similar dose. 
 
 HARPOON, GUN-. A weapon used for the 
 same purpose as the preceding, but it is fired 
 out of a gun, instead of being thrown by hand ; 
 it is made entirely of steel, and has a chain or 
 long shackle attached to it, to which the whale- 
 line is fastened. Greener s harpoon-gun is a 
 kind of wall-piece fixed in a crutch, which 
 steps into the bow-bollard of the whale-boat. 
 The harpoon projects about four inches beyond 
 the muzzle. It consists of its barbed point 
 attached to a long link, with a solid button at 
 its opposite end to fit the gun ; on one rod of 
 this link is a ring which runs to the muzzle, and 
 is there attached "to the whale-line by a thong of 
 seal- or walrus-hide, wet. The gun being fired, 
 the harpoon is projected, the ring sliding up to 
 the button, when the line follows. Some of 
 these harpoons or other engines have grenades, 
 glass globules with prussic acid or other chemi 
 cals, which sicken the whale instantly, and little 
 trouble ensues. 
 
 HARPOONER, HARPONEER, or HARPINEER. 
 The expert bowman in a whale-boat, whose duty 
 it is to throw or fire the harpoon. 
 
HAKP-SEAL 
 
 339 
 
 HASTINGS 
 
 Harp-seal. The Phoca gr<znlandica, a species 
 of seal from the Arctic seas ; so called from the 
 form of a dark-brown mark upon its back. 
 
 Harp-shell (Harpa}. A genus of gasteropo- 
 dous mollusks of the whelk family. The shells 
 are much prized on account of their great beauty. 
 
 Harr, or Harl. A cold, thick mist or fog in 
 easterly winds ; the haar. 
 
 Harriot, Thomas. A man of high repute as 
 an algebraist and astronomer. He accompanied 
 the expedition to Virginia, under Sir Richard 
 Grenville, in 1585, and wrote an interesting ac 
 count of it 1 * transactions. He made a careful 
 examination of the natural productions of the 
 Carolinas and Virginia, and was the first to in 
 troduce tobacco and the potato to the knowledge 
 of Europe. Harriot tried also to explain the 
 doctrines of the Bible to the Indians of America, 
 but because of the little community of language 
 between the two races his missionary efforts were 
 unproductive. 
 
 Harrison, Napoleon B., Captain U.S.N. 
 Born in Virginia, February 19, 1823 ; died at 
 Key West, Fla,, November 1, 1870. Midship 
 man, February 26, 1838; lieutenant, January 6, 
 1853 ; commodore, July 16, 1862 ; captain, April 
 28, 1868. Served in California during the Mexi 
 can war; commanding "Cayuga," flag-ship of 
 Capt. Bailey, and led the line in passage of Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip to the city of New Or 
 leans, and specially commended for gallantry 
 and skill in official reports ; commanding steamer 
 " Mahaska" in James River Flotilla; steam- 
 frigate "Minnesota," North Atlantic Blockad 
 ing Squadron, 1862-63; attached to South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1863-65, and took 
 part in the operations on the South Carolina 
 coast up to the fall of Charleston; commandant 
 of midshipmen, Naval Academy, Annapolis, 
 1868-69. 
 
 Harry-net. A net with such small meshes 
 and so formed as to take even the young and 
 small fish. 
 
 Hartlepool, Durham County, England, 19 miles 
 E.S.E. of Durham, is situated on an isolated 
 promontory on the North Sea. The promontory 
 curves so as to form a natural harbor, and pre 
 sents from its high and singularly excavated 
 cliffs magnificent sea and land views. It has a 
 large export trade in coals, and imports Baltic 
 produce, wools, and other staples. Pop. 13,200. 
 
 Hartstene, Henry. Born in South Carolina ; 
 died in Paris, March 31, 1868. Midshipman, 
 April 1, 1828; lieutenant, February 23, 1840. 
 He was in 1851 attached to the coast survey, 
 and afterward commanded the mail-steamer " Il 
 linois." In 1855 he was sent to the Arctic regions 
 in search of Dr. Kane and his party, whom he 
 rescued and brought to New York. In 1856 he 
 was ordered to convey to England the British 
 exploring-bark " Resolute," which, after having 
 been abandoned in the Arctic ice, had been res 
 cued by a New London whaler, and purchased 
 of her salvors by Congress as a present to the 
 British government. He was afterwards em 
 ployed in taking soundings for the Atlantic 
 telegraph cable. At the outbreak of the civil 
 war he resigned, entered the Confederate navy, 
 and in the summer of 1862 became insane. 
 
 Harvest-moon. The full moon nearest the 
 autumnal equinox, when for several successive 
 evenings she rises at the same hour ; this name 
 
 is given in consequence of the supposed advan 
 tage of the additional length of moonlight to 
 agriculture. 
 
 Harwich. A seaport town in Essex County, 
 England. The harbor is among the best on the 
 east coast of England, and is defended by a strong 
 fort and battery. Considerable ship-building is 
 carried on, and it has large manufactories of 
 cement. Pop. 6100. 
 
 Harwood, Andrew Allen, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in Pennsylvania, and appointed 
 midshipman from same State, January 1, 1818 ; 
 served in the gun-brig " Saranac," on the Amelia 
 Island Station, 1818; sloop-of-war "Hornet," 
 1819-21, during which time said ship was chiefly 
 engaged in cruising for the suppression of the 
 African slave-trade, and of piracy in the West 
 Indies; navy-yard, Philadelphia, and receiving- 
 ship " North Carolina," in 1822 ; steamer " Sea- 
 Gull" and barges belonging to the expedition 
 under Commodore Porter, against the West In 
 dia pirates, 1823 ; on July 3, of that year, as 
 sisted in the capture of the piratical schooner 
 " Catalina," of 3 guns, and her barge, by 
 the barges " Gallinipper" and " Musquito" in 
 Signapa Bay; frigate "Constitution," in the 
 Mediterranean, 1824-27, in the latter part of 
 this service as acting master. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1827 ; 
 receiving-ship, Philadelphia, 1828-30; navy- 
 yard, New York, 1831-32; frigate "United 
 States," Mediterranean Squadron, 1832-33; de 
 tached as special messenger to bring home the 
 ratified treaty with Naples ; frigate " Potomac," 
 schooner " Shark," and frigate "Constitution," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1835-37 ; New York 
 Station on special service, 1840-43 ; assistant in 
 spector of ordnance, 1843-52; in 1844, member 
 of a commission to visit dock-yards and foun 
 dries in England and France, and report on ord 
 nance improvements. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, October 2, 1848 ; 
 in 1851-52, member of a board appointed to pre 
 pare the ordnance instructions for the navy, and 
 to make the necessary investigations and ex 
 periments ; commanded frigate "Cumberland," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1853-55. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855; 
 inspector of ordnance, 1858-61 ; member of a 
 board to revise the ordnance instructions, and 
 prepare a new edition. 
 
 Commissioned as chief of the Bureau of Ord 
 nance and Hydrography, August 6, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commandant navy-yard, Washington, and of the 
 Potomac Flotilla, 1862-63 ; secretary Light- 
 House Board, and member of Examining Board, 
 1864-69. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, February 16 ; 
 1869 ; member of Retiring Board and on special 
 duty at Washington, 1869-72; retired October 
 9, 1864. 
 
 Hasega. A corruption of asseguay. 
 
 Hask. An archaism for a fish-basket. 
 
 Hasp. A semicircular clamp turning in an 
 eye-bolt in the stem head of a sloop or boat, and 
 fastened by a forelock in order to secure the bow 
 sprit down to the bows. 
 
 Hastan. The term for a large eel or conger. 
 
 Hastings. One of the Cinque Ports of Eng 
 land, in Sussex County, on the English Channel. 
 The town formerly had an extensive trade, fine 
 
HASTY-PUDDING 
 
 340 
 
 HAWSE 
 
 docks, and ship-yards, but is now chiefly noted 
 as a bathing-place. Pop. 29,500. 
 
 Hasty-pudding. A batter made of flour or 
 oatmeal stirred in boiling water, and eaten with 
 molasses or sugar. 
 
 Hatch. A half door. A contrivance for 
 catching salmon. Any aperture in the deck, 
 more than two feet square ; a hatchway. A cov 
 ering for a hatchway. To batten down the hatches, 
 to place tarpaulins over them and secure the tar 
 paulins with nails and battens. Under hatches, 
 a term for being under suspension or arrest, 
 applied to officers. 
 
 Hatch-boat. A sort of small vessel known 
 as a pilot-boat, having a deck composed almost 
 entirely of hatches. 
 
 Hatch-rings. Kings to lift the hatches by, or 
 replace them. 
 
 Hatchway. See HATCH. 
 
 HATCHWAY-STOPPER. See STOPPER. 
 
 Haul. To pull ; to drag. The wind hauls 
 when it changes its direction with the sun. A 
 ship is hauled up when her course is so changed 
 that her head lies nearer the wind. A ship hauls 
 her wind when from sailing large she is brought 
 by the wind. To haul off, to remove to a greater 
 distance. To haul aboard a tack, to bring the 
 weather-clew of a course down to the tack-block ; 
 to set the sail. 
 
 HAUL-BOWLING. An old name for an able- 
 bodied seaman. 
 
 HAU LING-DOWN VACANCY (Eng.}. The col 
 loquialism expressive of the promotion of a flag- 
 lieutenant and midshipman on an admiral s haul 
 ing down his flag at the expiration of a cruise. 
 This custom is now obsolete. 
 
 HAULING-LINE. A light line sent down from 
 a yard, top, etc., to which a small article is bent 
 to be hauled up. 
 
 HAUL- YARDS. See HALLIARDS. 
 
 Haunch. A sudden fall or break, as from the 
 drifts forward and aft to the waist. The same as 
 hance. 
 
 Havana. The capital city of Cuba, the 
 largest of the West Indies group of islands. 
 Lat. 23 9 4" N. ; Ion. 82 D 22 / W. Pop. 203,- 
 000. The harbor is capable of holding a thousand 
 large ships, and is defended by the Morro and 
 Punta castles and other fortifications. Havana 
 is chiefly noted for its cigars, which have uni 
 versal celebrity. The trade is mainly with the 
 United States, and steamers ply constantly be 
 tween Havana, New York, New Orleans, Gal- 
 veston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. 
 
 Haven (Anglo-Saxon, hcefen). A safe refuge 
 from the violence of wind and sea ; much the 
 same as harbor, though of less importance. A 
 good anchorage rather than a place of perfect 
 shelter. 
 
 Havenent. A small haven. 
 
 Haven-screamer. The sea-gull, called hcefen 
 by the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Havre, in Seine-Inferieure, France, at the en 
 trance of the Seine into the English Channel. 
 Lat. 49 29 16" N. ; Ion. V 9" E. The for 
 tifications are very extensive and complete. The 
 harbor contains five large basins, not including 
 the outer port. Among the principal institutions 
 are a school of navigation and one of geometry 
 as applied to the arts. A great number of sail 
 ing-vessels and steamers are fitted out at the 
 building-yards here. Havre is the port of Paris, 
 
 and regular lines of steamers ply between here 
 and New York, Havana, Brazil, Calcutta, and 
 China. Pop. 92,100. 
 
 Hawke, Edward (Baron). A British admiral 
 of high repute. Before he had completed his 
 twentieth year his talent and conduct procured 
 him the command of a ship. At Toulon, in 
 1749, he broke the line of a Spanish fleet and 
 captured one of the ships of the enemy. But as 
 in this he had violated orders he was sentenced 
 to dismissal by a court-martial. George III. re 
 stored him, as he was too valuable an officer to 
 be turned adrift for an error in judgment. Naval 
 history credits Hawke with two or three victories 
 over the French, the most remarkable of which 
 was gained in Quiberon Bay. An invasion of 
 England was meditated in 1759, but Hawke, by 
 his promptitude and daring, anticipated the 
 event. He rose to be a vice-admiral, first lord 
 of the Admiralty, and a member of the peerage. 
 
 Hawk s-bill (Chelone irnbricata}. A well- 
 known turtle frequenting the Atlantic and In 
 dian Oceans, so named from having a small 
 mouth like the beak of a hawk ; it produces the 
 tortoise-shell of commerce. The flesh is indif 
 ferent, but the eggs very good. 
 
 Hawse. The situationof the cables when the 
 ship is moored with an anchor on each bow. 
 That portion of a vessel s bow through which 
 the hawse-holes are cut. In the hawse, or athwart 
 the hawse, a short distance in advance of the cut 
 water. A ship has a bold hawse when the hawse- 
 holes are high out of water. To freshen the 
 hawse, to veer out a little more cable and bring 
 the chafe and strain on another part. To ride 
 hawse-fallen is to ride at anchor with the water 
 coming in at the hawse-holes carrying every 
 thing before it. Hiding hawse-full, pitching 
 bows under. The hawse is clear when both 
 chains lead direct to their respective anchors, and 
 either anchor can be picked up without fouling. 
 When the hawse is clear, and the ship .brings a 
 strain on both chains, her head bisecting the 
 angle between them, the hawse is open. When 
 the chains are so crossed or intertwined that the 
 hawse must be cleared before the anchors can be 
 hove up, the hawse is foul. If from an open 
 hawse a ship swings 180 she brings a cross in the 
 hawse, a second half-swing in the same direction 
 makes an elbow, a third, a round turn, a fourth, a 
 round turn and an elbow, and so on. The hawse 
 should be cleared before the turns accumulate to 
 such a degree as to render the operation difficult. 
 In the days of rope-cables, clearing hawse was a 
 tedious operation, but -chain-cables, with their 
 shackles at every 15 fathoms, enable it to be done 
 much more rapidly. A cross cannot be cleared ; 
 when unmooring in such a case the anchor to the 
 under chain must be hove up first ; if necessary 
 to heave up the other anchor first, one of the 
 chains must be unshackled and dipped. If the 
 mooring-swivel be used, the hawse never gets 
 foul, but there are some objections to its use. See 
 MOORING-SWIVEL. 
 
 HAWSK-BAG. A canvas bag filled with oakum, 
 used in heavy seas to stop the hawse-hole and 
 prevent the water coming in. See JACK-ASS. 
 
 HAWSE-BLOCK. A buckler or piece of wood 
 made to tit over the hawse-hole when at sea to 
 back the hawse-plug. 
 
 HAWSE-BOLSTER. Pieces of oak timber fayed 
 to the curvature of the bow under the hawse- 
 
HAWSEE 
 
 341 
 
 HEAD 
 
 holes to prevent the cables from damaging the 
 lower cheeks. They are generally ironed. 
 
 HAWSE-BOXING, or NAVAL HOOD. Hawse- 
 boxing is not used nowadays ; it was formerly a 
 projection left upon the hawse-timbers in the 
 wake of the hawse-holes, the thickness of the 
 planking inside and outside against which the 
 planking butted. The purpose of boxing is now 
 answered by the use of a lead pipe turned down 
 and secured inside and outside. 
 
 HAWSE-BUCKLER. See BUCKLER. 
 
 HAWSE-FULL. Riding hawse-full, pitching 
 bows under. 
 
 HAWSE-HOLES. The holes at the fore part of 
 the ship through which the cables pass. 
 
 HAWSE-HOOK. The breast-hook over the 
 hawse-holes. 
 
 HAWSE-PIECES. Pieces in the frame, to the 
 number of from three to six, next aft of the 
 knight-heads, through which the hawse-holes are 
 cut. 
 
 HAWSE-PIPES. Iron pipes fitted in the hawse- 
 holes to prevent the cable from cutting the wood ; 
 a lead lining is placed under the iron pipes. 
 
 HAWSE-PLUG. A block of wood made to fit 
 into the hawse-pipe, and put in from the outside 
 to stop the hawse, and thereby prevent the water 
 from washing into the manger. The plug, coated 
 with old canvas, is first inserted, then a mat or 
 swab, and over it the buckler or shield, which 
 bolts upward and downward into the breast- 
 hooks. 
 
 HAWSE-TIMBERS. The upright timbers 
 through which the hawse-holes are cut. 
 
 HAWSE-WOOD. A general name for the hawse- 
 timbers. 
 
 Hawser. A rope 11 inches or less in circum 
 ference, being composed of three plain-laid ropes 
 laid up left-handed. Plain-laid ropes of corre 
 sponding sizes are called tow-lines. 
 
 HAWSER-LAID ROPE. Cable-laid, or9-stranded 
 left-handed rope. In England, hawser-laid rope 
 is 3- or 4-stranded right-handed rope. 
 
 Haye. A peculiar ground shark on the coast 
 of Guinea. 
 
 Hayler. An archaism for halliards. 
 
 Haze. A light mist. 
 
 Head. The upper part of anything; as, mast 
 head, timber-head, etc. An ornamental figure 
 at the bow of a ship ; as, figure-head, scroll-head, 
 etc. Also, in a more extensive sense the whole 
 fore part of a ship. The name is also applied to 
 that portion of a ship, on each side the bowsprit, 
 which is set apart for the convenience of the 
 ship s company. The upper part of a gulf, bay, 
 etc. The wind heads a ship when it causes her 
 to break off from her course. A ship is trimmed 
 by the head when she draws more water forward 
 than aft. A ship heads in the direction marked 
 out by her keel. 
 
 In mechanics, the height of the surface of a 
 confined liquid of uniform density above any 
 point at which its static or dynamic effect, such 
 as pressure against the confining structure or the 
 velocity of flow of an issuing stream, are ob 
 served or applied, as, for instance, the water- 
 pressure at any part of a ship s side or bottom, or 
 the flow of water from a flume to a water-wheel. 
 The pressure upon any stated surface is due to 
 the weight of a column of the liquid having an 
 area of base equal to such surface, and a height 
 equal to that of the head ; and the velocity of 
 
 flow may, by neglecting the resistance of friction, 
 contracted vein, etc., be computed by the well- 
 known formula v= y lgh, where v = velocity, g 
 = gravity acceleration, and A = the height. 
 
 Head of steam commonly refers to the pressure 
 of steam above that of the atmosphere. It may, 
 however, in computations relating to velocity 
 of outflow, etc., be considered as the height of 
 an imaginary column of steam of uniform den 
 sity due to the pressure, arid of corresponding 
 weight. 
 
 HEAD AND GUN MONEY (Eng. ) . An encourage 
 ment in the prize acts by which 5 a head is 
 given to the captors for every person on board a 
 captured vessel of war or pirate. 
 
 HEAD-BOARDS. Boards placed at the forward 
 and after ends of the hammock nettings. The 
 close boarding between the head-rails. 
 
 HEAD-CRINGLES. Earing-cringles at the upper 
 clews or corners of a sail. 
 
 HEAD-EARING. See EARING. 
 
 HEADER. The person in the Newfoundland 
 fishing-vessels who is engaged to cut open the 
 fish, tear out the entrails, break off the head, and 
 pass it over to the splitter, who sits opposite to 
 him. A dive head foremost into the water. 
 
 HEAD-FAST. A rope or chain employed to 
 fasten the head of a ship or boat to a wharf or 
 buoy, or to some other vessel alongside. 
 
 HEAD-HOLES. The eyelet-holes in the head 
 of a sail ; they are worked button-hole fashion, 
 over grommets of twine of several thicknesses. 
 
 HEAD-KNEE. The knee of the head, or the 
 cut- water, may be defined as a continuation of the 
 stem. It is fayed and bolted to the stem, and se 
 cured to the bows of the ship by strong knees, 
 called cheek-knees. The heel is scarfed to the 
 fore-foot, and it is also secured to the upper 
 part of the stem by a knee which is called the 
 lacing. 
 
 HEADLAND. Wherever the coast presents a 
 high cliffy salient angle to the sea, without 
 projecting far into it, it is called a headland; 
 but if the point be low, it is a spit, tongue, or 
 point. 
 
 HEAD-LEDGES. The ath wart-ship pieces which 
 frame the hatchways. 
 
 HEADMOST. The situation of any ship or 
 ships which are the most advanced in a fleet, or 
 line of battle. The opposite of stem-most. 
 
 HEAD-NETTING. An ornamental netting used 
 in merchant ships instead of the fayed planking 
 to the head-rails. 
 
 HEAD-PUMP. A small pump fixed at the ves 
 sel s bow, its lower end communicating with the 
 sea ; it is mostly used for washing decks. 
 
 HEAD-RAILS. Those rails which extend from 
 the back of the figure-head to the bows. 
 
 HEAD-ROPE. That part of a bolt-rope which 
 terminates any sail on the upper edge, and to 
 which it is sewed. 
 
 HEAD-SAILS. A general name for all those 
 sails which may be set on the bowsprit, jib, and 
 flying jib-boom, and employed to influence the 
 fore part of a ship. 
 
 HEAD SEA. A name given to the waves when 
 they oppose a ship s course. Their effect depends 
 upon their height, form, and speed ; sometimes 
 they are steep, quick, and irregular, so that a 
 ship is caught by a second before she has recov 
 ered from the first ; these render her wet and 
 uneasy. 
 
HEALD 
 
 342 
 
 HEEL 
 
 HEAD-SHEETS. The sheets of the head-sails. 
 
 HEAD-STICK. A short round stick with a hole 
 at each end, through which the head-rope of some 
 triangular sails is thrust before it is sewed on. 
 Its use is to prevent the head of the sail from 
 twisting. 
 
 HEAD-TIMBERS. Small timbers used in build 
 ing up the head, situated on each side to receive 
 the planking. 
 
 HEADWAY. A term to express the progress 
 of a vessel in a forward direction. 
 
 HEAD-WIND. A breeze blowing from the 
 direction of the ship s intended course. 
 
 HEAD-YARDS. The yards on the foremast. 
 
 Heald. The heel over of a grounded ship. 
 
 Heart. A small strand around which the 
 four strands of shroud-laid rope are laid. A pe 
 culiar sort of block, having one large hole in the 
 centre and a groove around the circumference. 
 Collar-hearts are open at the end opposite the 
 laniard. 
 
 HEART- YARNS. The centre yarns of a strand. 
 
 Hearty. Open and free. My hearties, a cheer 
 ful salute to shipmates and seamen in general. 
 
 Heath. Various broom-stuffs used in bream 
 ing. 
 
 Heave. To throw ; to cast ; to push ; to cause 
 to move by the application of force ; to force 
 from or into any position. To heave short, to haul 
 in cable till the ship is nearly over the anchor. 
 To heave down, to cause a vessel to careen by ap 
 plying tackles to her masts. (See HEAVING 
 DOWN.) To heave to, to bring a vessel s head to 
 the wind and adjust the sails so she will remain 
 stationary, or nearly so ; to put a vessel in the po 
 sition of lying to. To heave in sight, to come in 
 sight. To heave up, to throw up ; to vomit ; also, 
 to raise ; as, to heave up the anchor. To heave 
 ahead, to cause a ship to move forward by manual 
 force. To heave in stays, to put a vessel about by 
 tacking. To heave about, to put about suddenly. 
 Heave and aweigh, an encouraging call implying 
 that the next heave will break the anchor out. 
 Heave and awash, implies that the next heave will 
 bring the anchor in sight. Heave and pawl, an 
 order to heave at the capstan till the next pawl 
 drops. Heave and rally, an injunction to the men 
 at the capstan to exert themselves. Heave out, 
 turn out ; to get out of bed. Heave the lead, to 
 take soundings with the hand-lead. Heave the 
 log, to determine the ship s velocity by means of 
 the log-line and time-glass. To heave in, to 
 shorten in the cable. Heaving and setting, the 
 up-and-down motion of the waves, or the similar 
 motion of a ship, produced by the waves. Heav 
 ing through all, the surging and slipping of the 
 cable when the nippers do not hold. 
 
 Heaver. A short wooden bar used as a 
 lever. 
 
 Heaving Down. The process of placing a 
 vessel upon her side for the purpose of calking 
 or repairing. This only becomes necessary when 
 access to docking facilities cannot be obtained, 
 and it is seldom resorted to at the present day 
 except with the smaller class of vessels. The 
 process is practicable with sailing-vessels only. 
 
 A vessel may be hove down or careened to a 
 wharf or a hulk fitted for the purpose. Prepara 
 tions must be made to prevent injury to the 
 masts and hull by straining by removing all 
 weights except such as may be required to assist 
 in careening the vessel. All masts and yards 
 
 above the lower masts must be sent down, and 
 those which are not required for shoring or 
 strengthening the lower masts taken out of the 
 vessel. The decks must be supported by shores 
 wherever they are to be subjected to unusual 
 strain. 
 
 The wedges are removed from the masts, and 
 the latter are carried over against the partners on 
 the offshore side. The lower masts are sup 
 ported by spars, which rest upon the water-ways 
 on the inshore side of the deck, and are lashed 
 to the trestle-trees. The deck underneath these 
 shores must be supported, and shores should also 
 be firmly wedged between the heels of the lower 
 masts and the offshore or upper side, to prevent 
 any strain at the step. Additional shrouds 
 should be placed over the mast-heads and set up 
 to convenient places on the vessel s side, as the 
 gun-deck ports or the air-ports, and an equal 
 strain must be placed upon all the shrouds. 
 Hawsers or chains may also be used as shrouds 
 by setting them up to heavy bolts driven into 
 the side abreast of each mast, the angle of sup 
 port being increased by means of outriggers or 
 spars projecting through the ports. Arrange 
 ments must be made for pumping the water from 
 the vessel while she is careened, and the seams, 
 on the side which is to be immersed, should be 
 calked to prevent leakage. 
 
 The vessel should be moored by cables passed 
 under the bottom and secured through the spar- 
 deck ports on the inshore side, and by hawsers 
 at the bow and stern. 
 
 The upper blocks of the purchases are lashed 
 to the mast-heads, and the lower blocks secured 
 to the wharf. The distance between the latter 
 must be the same as the distances between the 
 upper blocks. A vessel with three masts requires 
 purchases only on the foremast and mainmast, 
 but preventer purchases should be used as a 
 precaution against accident. 
 
 The mast-heads are hove down to the required 
 position by means of capstans or other mechani 
 cal powers. E. T. Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Heavy. Heavy metal, guns of great calibre. 
 Heavy sea, high and strong waves. Heavy gale, 
 a violent storm blowing from 35 to 60 miles an 
 hour; indicated by 11 on the Beaufort scale. 
 
 Heck-boat. The old term for a pink. Lat 
 terly a clincher-built boat with covered fore- 
 sheets, and one mast with a trysail. 
 
 Heckle. To dress flax for rope-making. Also, 
 an artificial fly for fishing. 
 
 Heckle-back. A name of the fifteen-spined 
 stickleback (Gasterosteus spinachia). 
 
 Heda. An early term for a small haven, 
 wharf, or landing-place. 
 
 Hedgehog. A name formerly applied to a 
 vessel which rowed with many oars. 
 
 Heel. The part of a thing corresponding in 
 position to the human heel ; as, the after end of 
 the keel, the lower part of a mast, bowsprit, etc. 
 To heel, to lie over ; to be inclined out of the per 
 pendicular ; usually applied to a ship when she 
 has a list, caused by the force of the wind. To have 
 the heels of, to be able to sail faster than. To 
 show the heels (or a clean pair of heels], to out 
 sail ; to sail away from ; to outstrip in a race or 
 in a chase. 
 
 HE EL-BRACE. A piece of iron-work appli 
 cable to the lower end of the rudder in case of 
 damage to the lower supports. 
 
HEIGHT 
 
 343 
 
 HENRY 
 
 HEEL-KNEE. The knee that is bolted to the 
 stern-post and keel ; the stern-post knee. 
 
 HEEL-LASHINX A lashing to secure the inner 
 end of a boom when it is rigged out. 
 
 HEEL OF THE POST. The name usually given 
 to the after end of the ship s keel, as well as the 
 lower end of the stern-post. 
 
 HEEL-POST. The post supporting the outer 
 end of a propeller. 
 
 HEEL-ROPE. A line to the heel of a topgallant 
 mast to assist in sending it down. A line at 
 tached to the heel of a boom to rig it out. 
 
 HEEL-TACKLE. A purchase hooked to the 
 heel of a heavy boom to rig it out. A tackle to 
 secure the heel of a sheer-leg in masting. 
 
 Height. Height of the tide, the difference in 
 the level of high and low water, the range of 
 the tide. Height of a wave, the distance from 
 the crest to the hollow. Height of the hold, an 
 expression sometimes used for depth of the hold. 
 
 Heliacal. A star rises heliacally when it first 
 becomes visible in the morning, after having 
 been liiddeii in the sun s rays ; and it sets heliac 
 ally when it is first lost in the evening twilight, 
 owing to the sun s proximity. 
 
 Helier. A cavern into which the tide flows. 
 
 Heliocentric. Concentric with the sun. See 
 GEOCENTRIC. 
 
 Heliometer. An instrument designed for the 
 accurate measurement of the diameters of the 
 sun or planets. 
 
 Heliostat, or Heliotrope. This instrument 
 reflects the sun s rays by a silvered disk, and 
 is used in the great trigonometrical surveys. It 
 has been visible at 100 miles distance. 
 
 Hell-afloat. A ship in which the lives of the 
 officers and crew are rendered unhappy by the 
 tyranny of the commanding officer. 
 
 Helm. The apparatus by which a vessel is 
 steered. In small craft it consists of the rudder 
 and tiller ; in large vessels a wheel is added to give 
 additional power. The helm is amidships when 
 the rudder, tiller, and keel are in the same 
 plane. It is a-port (or a-starboard) when the 
 tiller is borne over to the port (or starboard) side. 
 It is a-lee (or a-iveather) when the tiller is borne 
 over to the lee (or weather) side; it is also down 
 (or up) when the tiller is borne over to the lee 
 (or weather) side. It is hard a-port, a-lee, etc., 
 when the tiller is borne over to the extreme limit. 
 In case the tiller projects abaft, instead of for 
 ward of the rudder, the positions of the tiller 
 will, of course, be the reverse of those given above. 
 To right the helm, to put it amidships. To shift 
 the holm, to bear the tiller over to the corre 
 sponding position on the opposite side of the ship. 
 To ease the helm, to let the tiller come more 
 amidships to lessen the strain on the rudder or 
 tiller-ropes. Steady! the order to the helmsman 
 to steer as the ship heads when the order is given. 
 Steady a-starboard (or a-port) ! the order to steer 
 slightly to the left, (or right). Meet her, turn 
 the wheel in the opposite way to that in which 
 the ship s head is moving, in order to check her 
 at the proper point. Nothing to starboard, wind 
 ward, westward, etc., a caution to the helmsman 
 that the ship must not be allowed to go the 
 slightest to starboard, windward, westward, etc., 
 of her course. No higher (or nothing off), a cau 
 tion to the helmsman, when sailing close-hauled, 
 that the ship is too near (or not near enough) the 
 wind ; whereupon the wheel is put a little up 
 
 (or down). When the ship is a good full and 
 by, the fact is announced by saying very well thus 
 or very well dice. Luff, to put the helm down 
 and bring the ship s head up to the wind. Mind 
 your weather helm, a caution to the helmsman 
 to meet her if she begins to fly to, generally 
 given when about to relieve the ship of head-sail, 
 or when some of the gear of the head-sails has 
 been carried away. The terms helm and wheel, 
 are used indiscriminately. To helm, an old word 
 for to steer. See RUDDER. 
 
 H ELM-PORT. The hole in the counter through 
 which the head of the rudder passes. 
 
 HELM-PORT TRANSOM. A timber across the 
 counter at the height of the helm-port and bolted 
 through every timber. 
 
 HELMSMAN. The person who has the man 
 agement of the helm for the time being. When 
 there are two or more men at the helm the man 
 at the weather side of the wheel is the responsi 
 ble helmsman, the others being placed at the 
 wheel to assist in the manual labor or for instruc 
 tion. The best seamen in the ship are sent to 
 the weather-wheel, relieving each other every 
 two hours ; each period of two hours is called a 
 trick. The lee wheel is taken by the ordinary 
 seamen and landsmen. 
 
 Helsingfors, a seaport town on the Gulf of 
 Finland, Russia, in lat. 60 11 N. ; Ion. 24 75 
 E. Pop. 33,700. Its harbor is defended by the 
 strong citadel of Sveaborg. It has an active 
 trade in exporting grain and importing manufac 
 tured goods. 
 
 Hemp (Cannabis sativa). A manufactural 
 plant of equal antiquity with flax. The produce 
 of hemp in fibre varies from 3 to 6 hundred 
 weight per acre, and forms the best of all cordage 
 and ropes. It is mixed with opium in the prep 
 aration of those rich drugs called hasheesh. 
 
 Hen-frigate. A ship wherein the captain s 
 wife interferes in the duty or regulations. 
 
 Henry, The Navigator. A famous prince, 
 fourth son of John I., King of Portugal, born 
 at Oporto in 1394. He first won distinction at 
 the conquest of Ceuta, in 1415. His grand am 
 bition was to discover unknown regions. Hav 
 ing, after the death of his father, taken up his 
 residence at Sagres, in Algarve, he erected there 
 an observatory and established a school for the 
 instruction of the sons of the nobility in naviga 
 tion and its kindred sciences. He dispatched his 
 pupils on voyages of discovery, one of which re 
 sulted in the discovery of the Madeira Islands, 
 in 1418. In 1433 one of his mariners rounded 
 Cape Nun, up to that time regarded as the end 
 of the earth, and took possession of the coasts as 
 far south as Cape Bojador. The following year 
 one of his ships reached a point 120 miles beyond 
 Cape Bojador, and in 1440 Cape Blanco was at 
 tained. Henry had alone borne all the expenses 
 of these voyages, but from this time forth socie 
 ties formed under his patronage and^guidance 
 assumed the cost of prosecuting the work of dis 
 covery, which had become a passion with the 
 whole nation. His own interest and energy, 
 however, continued unabated. In 1446 his cap 
 tain, Nuno Tristan, doubled Cape Verd, in 
 Senegambia, and in 1448, Gonzalez Vallo dis 
 covered three of the Azores. Henry died in 
 1463, having had the satisfaction of learning 
 that his mariners had reached as far south as 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
HEN S-WAKE 
 
 344 
 
 HITCHCOCK 
 
 Hen s-ware. A name of the edible sea-weed 
 Fucus esculentus. 
 
 Hercules. A constellation to the south of 
 Lyra and Draco, a Herculis (called also Ras 
 Algethi) and a Ophinci form a pair, which may 
 be known by their being the first bright stars in 
 aline drawn southward from the pair in Draco, 
 Herculis being nearest to the Great Bear. Ac 
 cording to the calculations of Sir W. Herschel, 
 the solar system is traveling towards the star A 
 Herculis, R. A. 17 h 25. 9 m , Dec. 26 12 N. 
 
 Hercules, Pillars of. The name given by the 
 ancients to the two rocks at each side of the en 
 trance to the Mediterranean. The first author 
 to mention them was Pindar, who places one 
 of them at Gades (Cadiz) ; the most general 
 opinion, however, identified them with Calpe 
 (now Gibraltar) and Abyla (now Ceuta). 
 
 Herling. A congener of the salmon species 
 found in Scotland ; it is small and shaped like a 
 sea-trout. 
 
 Hermit-crab. A name applied to a group of 
 crabs (family Paguridce] of which the hinder 
 part of the body is soft, and which habitually 
 lodge themselves in the empty shell of some 
 mollusk. Also called soldier-crab. 
 
 Hermo. A Mediterranean term f0r the meteor 
 called carpo-santo. 
 
 Herndon, William Lewis. Born in Freder- 
 icksburg, Va., October 25, 1813; drowned by 
 the sinking of steamer "Central America," 
 September 12, 1857. He entered the navy at 
 the age of 15; served in the Mexican war; 
 and was 3 years engaged with his brother-in- 
 law, Lieut. Maury, in the Observatory at Wash 
 ington. In 1851-52 he explored the Amazon 
 River, under the direction of the U. S. govern 
 ment. A narrative of the expedition is con 
 tained in Herndon s " Exploration of the Valley 
 of the River Amazon" (1853), and in Part II. 
 of the same work, by Lieut. Gibbon, who ac 
 companied him during a part of the journey, 
 1854. In 1857 he was commander of the steamer 
 " Central America," which left Havana for New 
 York, September 8. September 11, during a vio 
 lent gale, she sprang a leak, and sank on the 
 evening of September 12, near the outer edge of 
 the Gulf Stream, in lat. 31 W N. 
 
 Herne. A bight or corner, as Herne Bay, so 
 called from lying in an angle. 
 
 Hernshaw, Herne. Old words for the heron. 
 
 Heron. A large bird of the genus Ardea, 
 which feeds on fish. 
 
 Herring. A fish of the genus Clupea (C. ha- 
 rengus}. Herrings move in vast shoals, coming 
 from high northern latitudes in the spring to the 
 shores of Europe and America, where they are 
 taken and salted in great quantities. King of 
 the herrings, a cartilaginous fish (Chimacar 
 monstrosa], allied to the sturgeon, which fol 
 lows the shoals of herring. The males of the 
 species have a spinous disk in front of the eyes ; 
 whence the name. 
 
 HERRING-BONING. A method of sewing up 
 rents in a sail by small cross stitches, by which 
 the seam is kept flat. 
 
 HERRING-BUSS. A peculiar boat of 10 or 15 
 tons, for the herring-fishery. 
 
 HERRING-COB. A young herring. 
 
 HERRING-GUTTED. See SHOTTEN-HERRING. 
 
 HERRING-HOG. A name for the porpoise. 
 
 HERRING-POND. The Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Heterodrprxious Levers. The windlass, cap 
 stan, crank, crane, etc. 
 
 Heteroplon. A kind of naval insurance, 
 where the insurer only runs the risk of the 
 outward voyage ; when both the going out and 
 return of a vessel is insured, it is called ampho- 
 teroplon. 
 
 Hettle. A rocky fishing-ground in the Firth 
 of Forth, which gives name to the fish called 
 Hettle-codling. 
 
 Hidden Harbor. That of which the outer 
 points so overlap as to cause the coast to appear 
 to be continuous. 
 
 Hide. To beat ; to rope s-end or drub. 
 
 High-and-dry. The situation of a ship or 
 other vessel which is aground, so as to be seen 
 dry upon the strand when the tide ebbs from 
 her. 
 
 High Latitudes. Those regions far removed 
 from the equator towards the poles of the earth. 
 
 High-pressure Engine. A non-condensing 
 steam-engine, or one in which the steam, after 
 having performed its work, is expelled into the 
 atmosphere instead of into the vacuum of a con 
 denser. 
 
 High-water. The greatest height of the flood- 
 tide. See TIDE. 
 
 HIGH-WATER MARK. The line made by the 
 water upon the shore when at its greatest 
 height ; it is also designated the flood-mark and 
 spring-tide mark. This constitutes the boundary- 
 line of admiralty jurisdiction as to the soil. 
 
 Higre. See BORE. 
 
 Hike. A brief equivalent to " be off" "go 
 away." It is generally used in a contemptuous 
 sense ; as, he was hiked off", that is, dismissed at 
 once, or in a hurry. To hike up, to kidnap, to 
 carry otf by force. 
 
 Hilt. The handle and guard of a sword. 
 
 Hind-castle. A word formerly used for the 
 poop, as being opposed to fore-castle. 
 
 Hippagines, or Hippagogae. Ancient trans 
 ports for carrying cavalry. 
 
 Hipper, or Hipping-stones. Large stones 
 placed for crossing a brook. 
 
 Hippo-camp. The sea-horse. 
 
 Hippocampus. A small fish, so termed from 
 the head resembling that of a horse. They live 
 among reeds and long fuci, to which they cling 
 with prehensile tails. 
 
 Hippodame. An old word for a sea-horse. 
 
 Hipsy. A drink compounded of wine, water, 
 and brandy. 
 
 Hirecano. An old word for hurricane. 
 
 Hirst. The roughest part of a river-ford. A 
 bank. 
 
 Hitch. A species of knot by which a rope is 
 made fast to a spar or other object. Figura 
 tively, an impediment. To hitch, to make a 
 rope fast by means of a hitch. To pull up with 
 a jerking motion; as, to hitch up the trousers. 
 For the various hitches, see under proper heads. 
 
 Hitchcock, Robert B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Connecticut. Appointed from Connec 
 ticut, January 1, 1825; schooner " Shark," West 
 India Squadron, 1827; frigate "Delaware," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1829-31 ; special duty, 
 1833-34. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1835 ; 
 special duty, 1837; frigate "Ohio," Mediterra 
 nean Squadron, 1840 ; rendezvous, Boston, 1843; 
 frigate " Savannah," Pacific Squadron, 1845-46 ; 
 

 HITCH^R 
 
 345 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 ordnance duty, 1850-52 ; commanding store- 
 ship " Kelief," 1853; inspector, etc., Boston, 
 1854-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commande,*, September 14, 
 1855; ordnance duty, 1850-5 <; commanding 
 steam-frigate u Merrimac," Pacific Squadron, 
 1858-00; inspector of ordnance, 1801. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, 186K 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 1G, 1862; 
 commanding steam-sloop "-Susquehanna," 
 Western Gulf Squadron, 1802-03. During the 
 greater portion of the time Commodore Hitch 
 cock was attached to the Western Gulf Squad 
 ron, and for some months he was the senior 
 officer of the blockading fleet oft Mobile. Ord 
 nance duty, 1804-05; commandant navy-yard, 
 Norfolk, 1800 ; special duty, 1870-72. Ketired, 
 September 25, 1800. 
 
 Hitcher. An old term for a boat-hook. 
 
 Hoam. The dried fat of the cod-fish. 
 
 Hobble. A perplexity or difficulty. Hobbles, 
 irons or fetters. 
 
 Hobbler (Eng.}. A coast-man of Kent, a 
 bit of a smuggler, and an unlicensed pilot, ever 
 ready for a job in either of these occupations. 
 Also, a man on land employed in towing a ves 
 sel by a rope. Also, a sentinel who kept watch 
 at a beacon. 
 
 Hobit. A small mortar of 6 or 8 inches bore, 
 mounted on a gun-carriage, in use before the 
 howitzer. 
 
 Hoboken, Hudson Co., N. J., is a port of 
 entry opposite New York City, and immediately 
 above Jersey City. The Stevens Institute of 
 Technology is located here, and the city has ex 
 tensive manufactories and foundries. It is one 
 of the largest coal-shipping ports in the world, 
 being the principal depot from which New York 
 and its shipping are supplied. Three lines of 
 steamers start from this port. Intercourse with 
 New York is maintained by three lines of ferry 
 boats. Top. 25,000. 
 
 Hobrin. A designation of the blue shark, 
 Sqiidliis glancus. 
 
 Hoc. The picked dog-fish, Sqiialus ancan- 
 thias. 
 
 Hock-saw. A fermented drink along the coasts 
 of China, partaking more of the nature of beer 
 than of spirit. 
 
 Hod. A hole under a bank or rock forming a 
 retreat for fish. 
 
 Hoddy-doddy. A sea-term for a revolving 
 light. 
 
 Hodmadods. The name among early navi 
 gators for Hottentots. See DODMAN. 
 
 Hoe-mother, or Homer. The basking shark, 
 Sgualus )it(i.i:ir/ii(s. 
 
 Hoe-tusk. The smooth hound-fish of the 
 Shetlanders, Squalus innstela. 
 
 Hog. A kind of rough, flat scrubbing broom, 
 serving to scrape a ship s bottom under water, 
 formed by inclosing a number of short twigs of 
 birch, or the like, between two pieces of plank, 
 which are firmly attached to each other ; the ends 
 of the twigs were then cut oft even, so as to form 
 a brush of considerable extent. To this was fit 
 ted a long staff, together with two ropes, the 
 former of which was used to thrust the hog un 
 der the ship s bottom, and the latter to guide and 
 pull it up again close to the planks, so as to rub 
 oft all the dirt. This work was usually per 
 formed in the ship s boat. 
 
 Hogged. A significant word derived from the 
 animal ; it implies that the two ends of a ship 
 droop lower than the midship part, consequently 
 that her keel and bottom are so strained as to 
 curve upwards. The term is therefore in oppo 
 sition to that of sagging. Many ships hog in 
 launching, caused by the after part of the vessel 
 not being properly water-borne till she is clear 
 of the ways. 
 
 HOG-CHAINS. Chains used for keeping a ship 
 of light structure in shape, being attached to a 
 frame called a hog-frame at one end, and secured 
 at the other end to some part of the vessel which 
 needs sustaining. 
 
 HOG-FRAME. A truss-frame which is used in 
 light-draft steamers, especially to compensate 
 for the want of strength in the sides of such 
 steamers. 
 
 Hog-in-armor. A sobriquet for an ironclad 
 ship. 
 
 Hogo. From the French haut (/out, a disa 
 greeable smell, but rather applied to ill-ventilated 
 berths than to bilge-water. 
 
 Hoise. The old word for hoist. 
 
 Hoist. To raise by means of a rope or tackle. 
 The perpendicular height of a flag or sail, ap 
 plied to sails, the yards of which travel up and 
 down masts. The corresponding term for courses 
 is drop. The hoist of a stay-sail is the length of 
 the luff. 
 
 Hold. The interior portion of a ship below 
 the lower deck. The after-hold is abaft the main 
 mast, the main-hold just forward of the main 
 mast, and the fore-hold is in the vicinity of the 
 fore-hatchway. To stow the hold, to arrange the 
 contents of the hold in a proper manner. To 
 break out the hold, to remove all articles there 
 from. To hold the land, to keep a ship near the 
 land in cruising. A ship holds her own when 
 she is not losing ground in a race or chase. To 
 hold a good wind, to have weatherly qualities. 
 To hold water, to check the progress of a boat 
 by immersing the oars and keeping them sta 
 tionary in the water. 
 
 HOLD-UKAM. One of the lowest range of 
 beams in a merchantman. In a man-of-war, 
 they support the orlop-deck. 
 
 HOLD-STANCHIONS. The stanchions which 
 support the hold-beams amidships. 
 
 Holding-down Bolts. The large bolts used 
 for securing the machinery of a vessel to the 
 hull. In wooden ships a number of these bolts 
 pass entirely through the floor-timbers, and are 
 provided with large square washers embedded in 
 the outside of the frame. Such bolts, if of iron, 
 are covered on parts passing through wood by a 
 casing of bronze composition cast upon them to 
 protect them from corrosion. 
 
 Holiday. Any part left neglected or uncov 
 ered in paying, painting, blacking, tarring, etc. 
 
 Holland, Navy of. The growth of European 
 navies has been necessarily contemporaneous. 
 The rivalries born of foreign possessions and 
 commerce put England, Holland, and Portugal 
 on the alert in the 10th century, and the acqui 
 sitions of each nation on the shores of India and 
 the islands of the Eastern Archipelago brought 
 them at an earl} period into hostile contact. 
 France and Spain followed in their wake, and 
 in less than a century all of these nations were 
 alternately in arms against each other, or allied 
 for offensive and defensive purposes. From her 
 
HOLLAKDS 
 
 346 
 
 HOPKINS 
 
 maritime position Holland has been a nursery of 
 seamen for centuries, and at one time she was 
 omnipotent on the ocean. The history of her 
 successes is told in the brief biographies of De 
 Ruyter and Van Tromp (which see), and the 
 record of the Dutch explorers of northern regions 
 and the Pacific Ocean. It is unnecessary, there 
 fore, to detail them minutely here. Let it suffice 
 that, owning valuable lands in the Eastern Arch 
 ipelago, and keeping a watchful eye upon the 
 cupidity of her German neighbor, she now main 
 tains a fleet of 25 armored and 90 unarmored 
 steam-vessels, varying in indicated horse-power 
 from 340 to 4630. the navy is officered by 2 
 vice- and 4 rear-admirals, 19 captains, 43 lieu 
 tenant-captains, 308 lieutenants (first andsecond), 
 52 midshipmen, and 65 medical officers. The 
 marine infantry consists of 45 officers and 2120 
 non-commissioned officers and privates. The 
 navy is recruited by enlistment, but conscription 
 is resorted to in an emergency. The colonial 
 possessions of Denmark in India comprise 16 
 islands and parts of the coasts of Borneo and 
 Sumatra, and 6 West India Islands, besides 
 Surinam. 
 
 Hollards. The dead branches and loppings of 
 trees. 
 
 Hollebut. A spelling of halibut. 
 
 Hollow Sea. The undulation of the waves 
 after a gale ; long hollow-jawed sea ; ground- 
 swell. 
 
 Hollow Shot. Introduced principally for 
 naval use before the horizontal firing of shells 
 from guns became general. Their weight was 
 about two-thirds that of the solid shot ; thus they 
 required less charge of powder and weight of gun 
 than the latter, whilst their smashing effect and 
 first ranges were supposed to be greater. It 
 is clear, however, that if filled with powder, 
 their destructive effect must be immensely in 
 creased. 
 
 Holometrum Geometricum. A nautical in 
 strument of brass, one of which was supplied to 
 Martin Frobisher in 1576. 
 
 Holus-bolus. Altogether ; all at once. 
 
 Holy-stone. A sandstone used in scrubbing 
 decks. The name probably arose from their 
 being most frequently used on Sunday, though 
 by some it is attributed to the kneeling of the 
 men while using it. To holy-stone, to clean a 
 deck with holy-stones. To ^ dry holy-stone, to 
 holy-stone without using water, done on lower 
 decks in damp weather. 
 
 Home. Domicile; residence. The place where 
 a person or thing abides. To haul home a sheet, 
 to haul it to its proper position when the sail is 
 set. The anchor comes home when, in heaving 
 up, the anchor is dragged toward the ship in 
 stead of the ship s being hauled up to the an 
 chor. 
 
 HOME-STATION. The station which includes 
 our Atlantic coast within its limits ; the North 
 Atlantic Station. 
 
 HOMKWARD-BOUND. Returning homeward. 
 
 HOMK WARD-BOUNDER. A very long pennant 
 hoisted by a homeward-bound ship. 
 
 Homocercal. Having the tail symmetrical, 
 the vertebral column terminating at its com 
 mencement ; opposed to heterocercal. 
 
 Honolulu. Capital of Hawaii, on the south 
 west side of Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands. 
 Lat. 21 18 12" N. ; Ion. 157 50 36" W. It 
 
 has a good harbor, and is the principal station 
 for vessels cruising in the Pacific Ocean. Pop. 
 15,000. 
 
 Hood. The foremost and aftermost plank in 
 each strake. A Covering for a hatch or skylight. 
 The cowl of a ftjnnel. Naval hoods, thick pieces 
 of timber encircling the hawse-holes. 
 
 HOODING ENps. The ends of the hoods where 
 they set in the rabbet of the stem and the stern- 
 post. 
 
 Hook. A name given to anything having the 
 end bent or curved ; as, boat-hooks, can-hooks, 
 foot-hooks, etc. 
 
 HOOK AND BUTT. The scarfing of two ends 
 of plank over each other, in such a manner that 
 they cannot be drawn apart endways. 
 
 HOOK-MOTION. In the steam-engine, an ar 
 rangement of valve-gear in which the motion 
 for going ahead or backing is transmitted from 
 the respective eccentrics to a rock-shaft or valve- 
 stem cross-head by eccentric hooks or gabs. This 
 enables the valves, when the hooks are detached, 
 to be worked with a starting-bar by hand, which 
 is convenient in certain classes of single en 
 gines. 
 
 HOOK-SCARF. Differs from the plain scarf, in 
 that the upper end is formed into a hook and 
 projects from one to two or more inches into the 
 timber, thus giving greater security. 
 
 Hooker, or Howker. A coast- or fishing-ves 
 sel, a small hoy-built craft with one mast, in 
 tended for fishing. They are much used by 
 pilots, especially off the Irish ports. Also, Jack s 
 name for his vessel, the favorite "old hooker." 
 Also, a term for a short pipe, probably derived 
 from hookah. 
 
 Hoop. The principal hoops of different kinds 
 used for nautical purposes are noticed under 
 their several names. In wind-bound ships in 
 former times the left hands of several boys were 
 tied to a hoop, and their right armed with a 
 nettle, they being naked down to the waist. On 
 the boatswain giving one a cut with his cat, the 
 boy struck the one before him, and each one did 
 the same, beginning gently, but becoming irri 
 tated, they at last laid on in earnest. Also, an old 
 nautical punishment for quarrelsome fighters 
 was, that two offenders, similarly fastened, 
 thrashed each other until one gave in. The 
 craven was usually additionally punished by the 
 commander. 
 
 Hopkins, Esek, Commodore U.S.N., was 
 born in Scituate, R. I., in 1718. Was appointed 
 brigadier-general of Rhode Island forces by its 
 governor, and on December 22, 1775, was ap 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the American 
 navy, being the first who held that title. Was 
 called commodore and admiral in correspondence. 
 He went to sea in the first squadron of 8 vessels, 
 hoisting his flag in the "Alfred." Captured 
 New Providence in an expedition on the 19th 
 February, and also took a brig and two tenders. 
 Encountering a frigate at sea, he did not suc 
 ceed in capturing her, and, for an alleged want 
 of skill in engaging her, he was censured by 
 Congress, although a defense of his conduct by 
 John Adams partially cleared him, and led 
 the president of Congress to compliment him. 
 Not getting his ships ready for sea, he was 
 again cited to appear to answer for it, but neg 
 lected to obey the summons promptly, and was 
 dismissed by Congress January 2, 1777, having 
 
HOPKINS 
 
 347 
 
 HOUSE 
 
 been at the head of the service 1 year and 10 
 days. 
 
 After the war he resided near Providence, 
 K. I., and was several times a member of the 
 General Assembly for that State, and died there 
 February 26, 1802, aged 84. He was, when made 
 commander-in-chief, 57 years old, and, Bancroft 
 says, was old and incompetent. His portraits 
 show him to be a man of vigor, and he was in 
 fluential in the political affairs of his own State. 
 His bravery was never called into question, but 
 he was doubtless not a good seaman and incom 
 petent to command the navy. F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Hopkins, W. E., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Virginia. Appointed from Virginia, Novem 
 ber 13, 1839 ; Home Squadron, 1841-43 ; Naval 
 School, Philadelphia, 1845; frigate "Cumber 
 land," 1847; schooner " Falcon," Home Squad 
 ron, 1848-49 ; coast survey, 1850-51 ; sloop 
 " Marion," coast of Africa, 1851-55. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, July 10, 1854 ; 
 receiving-ship, Philadelphia, 1856-58; sloop 
 " Macedonian," Mediterranean Squadron, 1859- 
 60; sloop "Preble," 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1882 ; rendezvous, Philadelphia, 1862 ; com 
 manding steamer " Saginaw," Pacific Squadron, 
 1863-65. 
 
 Commissionod as commander, November 4, 
 1863 ; commanding steamer " Shamrock," Euro 
 pean Squadron, 1866-67; League Island, Penn 
 sylvania, 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, June, 1870 ; navy- 
 yard, Mare Island, California, 1870-72 ; com 
 manding " Benicia," North Pacific Station, 
 1872-75; commanding receiving-ship "Inde 
 pendence," Mare Island, 1877-78. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 1, 
 1877 ; leave of absence, 1879-80. 
 
 Hopper-punt. A flat-floored lighter for car 
 rying soil or mud, with a hopper or receptacle in 
 its centre to contain the lading. 
 
 Hoppo. The chief of the customs in China. 
 
 HOPPO-MEN. Chinese custom-house officers. 
 
 Horie-goose. A name for the Anser bernicla, 
 or brent-goose. 
 
 Horiolse. Small fishing-boats of the an 
 cients. 
 
 Horizon (Gr. horizon, the boundary-line). 
 The circle in which the heavens and the earth 
 appear to meet. The horizon is the primitive 
 circle in one of the systems of co-ordinates for 
 defining points of the celestial concave relatively 
 to the position of an observer on the earth s sur 
 face. See CO-ORDINATES FOR THE CELESTIAL 
 SPHERE. 
 
 HORIZON, ARTIFICIAL. A reflector whose sur 
 face is perfectly horizontal, used to observe alti 
 tudes on shore. See ARTIFICIAL HORIZON. 
 
 HORIZON, CELESTIAL. The great circle in 
 which the planes of the sensible and rational 
 horizon (becoming coincident when produced in 
 definitely) cut the celestial sphere. 
 
 HORIZON-GLASS. In reflecting astronomical 
 instruments, such as the sextant, the horizon- 
 glass is that which is fixed in front of the tele 
 scope, the lower portion of it being a mirror, the 
 upper transparent. It derives its name from the 
 fact that in taking an altitude the horizon is seen 
 by direct vision through its upper portion. 
 
 HORIZON, RATIONAL. The plane through the 
 
 centre of the earth drawn parallel to the tangent- 
 plane at the observer s station. 
 
 HORIZON, SEA. The small circle which 
 bounds the view of a spectator in the open 
 sea. 
 
 HORIZON, SENSIBLE. The plane touching 
 the earth at the station of the observer, and ex 
 tended to the celestial sphere. 
 
 HORIZON, SHORE. When the sea-horizon is 
 hidden from view by intervening land, the water- 
 line on the beach often serves the purpose of a 
 horizon in observing altitudes. See DIP. 
 
 HORIZONTAL PARALLAX. The parallax of a 
 celestial body when in the horizon of the ob 
 server; distinguished from parallax in altitude. 
 See PARALLAX. 
 
 HORIZONTAL PLAN. Any level plane or plan 
 to show the length and breadth of the object to 
 be delineated without showing the height. 
 
 HORIZONTAL PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. A 
 projection of the sphere whether orthographic, 
 stereographic, or central in which the primitive 
 plane or plane of projection coincides with, or is 
 parallel to, the horizon. 
 
 HORIZONTAL RIBBAND-LINES. Those rib 
 band-lines used in laying off the ship upon the 
 mold-loft floor, which are. taken off level with 
 the ship s body, or square from the centre line 
 at the intersection of the frame-lines, instead of 
 in the diagonal direction, before being applied 
 to the half-breadth plan, where they are used for 
 fairing the ship s body. 
 
 HORIZON, VISIBLE. The boundary of our 
 view, whether of the heavens or of the earth. 
 
 Horn. One of the arms of the cross-trees, or 
 of a cleat. To place anything to stand square 
 from the middle line of the ship, by setting off an 
 equal distance from each side of the middle line, 
 as in a frame. 
 
 Horn-beak. A fish. See HORN-FISH. 
 
 Horned Pout. A fish of the genus Pime- 
 bodus; cat-fish. See CAT-FISH. 
 
 Horn-fisc. Anglo-Saxon for the sword-fish. 
 
 Horn-fish. The gar-fish, or sea-needle, also 
 called horn-beak. 
 
 Horn-fisted. Having hands inured to hauling 
 ropes. 
 
 Horn-keck. An old term for the green-back 
 fish. 
 
 Hornotinas. Ancient vessels which were built 
 in a year. 
 
 Horologium. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Horologium Universale. An old brass nau 
 tical instrument, one of which was supplied to 
 Martin Frobisher when fitting out on his first 
 voyage, in 1576, for the discovery of a northwest 
 passage. 
 
 Horse. The iron rod placed between the fife- 
 rail stanchions on which the leading-blocks are 
 rove or secured. Also in fore-and-aft rigged 
 vessels it is a stout bar of iron v/ith a large ring 
 or thimble on it, which spans the vessel from side 
 to side just before the foremast, for the fore-stay 
 sail sheet, and when required one is also used for 
 the fore and main boom sheets to haul down to 
 and traverse on. A block in a w-haler for cutting 
 blubber on An old namfi for a foot-rope, and it 
 was also formerly applied to what is now known 
 as a lizard. The name is a ao sometimes given 
 to a jack-stay forward or abaft; the mast, on which 
 a yard or sail is hcist scL Salt-horse, Jack s 
 name for salt-beef. 
 
HORSE-BLOCK 
 
 348 
 
 HOSPITAL GANGRENE 
 
 Horse-block. A grating-platform for the 
 convenience of the officer in charge of the deck. 
 
 Horse-buckets. Covered buckets for carry 
 ing spirits or water in. 
 
 Horse-buckie. The great whelk. 
 
 Horse-cockle. See GAWKY. 
 
 Horse-foot. A name of the Limulus polyphe- 
 mus ; called also the horse-shoe or lantern-crab. 
 
 Horse-latitudes. A space between the west 
 erly winds of higher latitudes and the trade- 
 winds, notorious for tedious calms. The name 
 arose from old navigators often throwing the 
 horses overboard which they were transporting 
 to America and the West Indies. 
 
 Horse-mackerel. A large and coarse mem 
 ber of the Scomber family, remarkably greedy, 
 and therefore easily taken, but unwholesome. 
 
 Horse-marine. An awkward lubberly person. 
 One out of place. 
 
 Horse-potatoes. The old word for yams. 
 
 Horse-power. The unit of measure of the 
 power of prime movers, represented by 33,000 
 foot-pounds per minute. See POWER. 
 
 In the steam-engine, indicated horse-power, the 
 symbol for which is IHP, is computed by multi 
 plying the mean unbalanced pressure on the 
 piston in pounds, as obtained by an indicator, 
 by the velocity of the piston in feet per minute, 
 and dividing the product by 33,000. This in 
 cludes the energy absorbed by friction of the 
 loaded machinery, power required for working 
 pumps, etc. ; but these resistances to useful work 
 bear nearly a constant ratio to the power em 
 ployed in well-constructed machinery of similar 
 type. Gross horse-power includes all prejudicial 
 resistances, such as friction, back-pressure, etc. ; 
 and net horse-power is the actually applied en 
 ergy to the work performed ; and nominal horse- 
 poiver is a British conventional term expressive 
 of the capacity of the cylinder and size of the 
 engine, in which it is assumed that a constant 
 effective steam-pressure of 7 pounds per square 
 inch and a piston velocity of about 200 feet 
 per minute corresponds to an indicated horse 
 power. 
 
 Horse-shoe Clamp. The iron or copper straps 
 so shaped, used as the fastenings which connect 
 the gripe with the fore-foot at the scarf of the 
 keel and stem. 
 
 Horse-shoes. Straps of composition in the 
 form of a horse-shoe, used for securing the stem 
 to the keel, placed on opposite sides, let in flush 
 and bolted through ; rings are now generally 
 used instead. 
 
 Horse-tongue. A name applied to a kind of 
 sole. 
 
 Horsing-iron. An iron fixed in a withy han 
 dle, sometimes only lashed to a stick or tree-nail, 
 and used with a beetle by calkers. To horse-up, 
 to harden in the oakum of a vessel s seams with 
 a horsing-iron. 
 
 Hose. A long flexible pipe, made of leather, 
 canvas, or gum and canvas, used for conveying 
 water for extinguishing fires or for other pur 
 poses. 
 
 HOSE-COUPLING. An arrangement for con 
 necting sections of hose together. It consists of 
 a pair of cylindrical pieces of metal, usually 
 brass, provided with a male and female screw so 
 that they can be firmly connected together and 
 made water-tight by means of a gum or leather 
 washer. The parts are secured to the ends of the 
 
 sections of hose by clamps or by being bound 
 with wire. 
 
 Hose-fish. A name for a kind of cuttle-fish. 
 
 Hospital. A place appointed for the recep 
 tion of sick and wounded men, with a regular 
 medical establishment. An attacking force 
 should avoid firing on hospitals whenever they 
 are designated by flags or other symbols under 
 stood. It is an act of bad faith, amounting to 
 infamy, to hoist the hospital protective flag over 
 any other building, unless the attacking force 
 should request or consent that it might be used 
 in order to spare edifices dedicated to science, or 
 literature, or containing works of art. See NA 
 VAL HOSPITALS. 
 
 Hospital Gangrene. Synonyms. Known 
 under the various titles of putrid ulcer, pulpy 
 gangrene, pourriture d hopital, gangrsena con- 
 tagiosa, phagedaana gangrtenosa, gangraana noso- 
 comialis, hospital mortification, diphtheria of 
 wounds, etc. 
 
 History. The history of this disease may be 
 traced backwards, for a period of more than 150 
 years, in the records of great wars and of large 
 hospitals. 
 
 La Motte, in 1722, mentioned, and Pouteau, 
 in 1783, described, hospital gangrene. Hennen, 
 Blackadder, and Guthrie wrote excellent ac 
 counts of its appearance during the Peninsular 
 war of 1813. The Crimean war, the war of the 
 Rebellion in 1861, and the Franco-Prussian war, 
 all added largely to the records of this now well- 
 recognized disease. 
 
 Nature and Cause. Its essential nature has, 
 however, not been understood. Unsuccessful at 
 tempts to explain its appearance and spread by 
 reference to bad sanitary surroundings have been 
 made. But it has been found to occur under the 
 best hospital conditions, and has failed to appear 
 where filth, overcrowding, and neglect would 
 seem to have specially invited it. 
 
 Without stating various conflicting views, it 
 is suflScient to give what is to the writer a sim 
 ple and complete solution of the question of the 
 origin and epidemic spread of hospital gangrene, 
 viz., that it is identical with diphtheria. 
 
 The facts going to show this are as follows : 
 
 1st. Historical proof s, as of the co-existence of 
 both these diseases in epidemic form at the same 
 time and place. 
 
 This occurred under the writer s observation 
 in Cincinnati, O., during the civil war. Hos 
 pital gangrene attacked the U. S. army hospitals, 
 while diphtheria was rife in civil practice through 
 out the city. 
 
 Similar observations were made in Philadel 
 phia, Pa., and Nashville, Tenn., and other 
 cities during the war. 
 
 2d. Similar causation. An atmospheric miasm 
 or germ, epidemic under favorable circumstances, 
 necessarily exists to account for the origin and 
 spread of diphtheria. 
 
 Von Pitha and Fock declare the same conclu 
 sion as the result of their studies into the cause 
 of hospital gangrene. 
 
 3d. Inter changeable results from the same poison 
 have been observed by the writer. Several cases 
 of hospital gangrene have occurred in his prac 
 tice, caused by direct infection of wounds by 
 diphtheria ; and one case of hospital gangrene 
 communicated diphtheria to two other "members 
 of a family. 
 
HOSPITAL GANGKENE 
 
 349 
 
 HOT-WELL 
 
 4th. Contagion by contact and infection through 
 the atmosphere are known to be modes of spread 
 ing both these diseases. 
 
 5th. Pathological proof s. The microscopic ap 
 pearances in hospital gangrene are bacterise, mi- 
 crococci, and streptococci, exactly as in dipth- 
 theria. Both diseases, also, may be separated 
 into two forms, one being catarrhal, exudative, 
 or pulpy, the other ulcerative, phagedenic, ma 
 lignant, and rapidly fatal. 
 
 6th. Both diseases are local at first, general 
 infection of the constitution only occurring secon 
 darily in either disease. 
 
 7th. Methods of cure are similar, and identical 
 remedies are employed in both diseases. 
 
 8th. Similar modes of death are noticed, and 
 especially is " heart-clot" frequent in both dis 
 eases. 
 
 Hospital gangrene, therefore, is diphtheria at 
 tacking wounded surfaces. 
 
 Symptoms. Such attack is ushered in by 
 stinging pain in the part. The process of heal 
 ing in the wound is arrested. 
 
 Ash-colored and yellowish exudations are seen 
 to spread over its surface. Loss of vitality, 
 sloughing, and destructive changes follow. Ery 
 sipelas may complicate. Hemorrhages are apt 
 to set in, often fatally. Vast destruction of the 
 soft tissues occurs in phagedenic cases. In 24 
 hours a wound may become enlarged from the 
 size of a silver dollar to an extent sufficient to 
 embrace the entire limb. In many there is very 
 little or no fever or constitutional disorder. In 
 others, irritative or adynamic forms of fever 
 may be caused by absorption of putrescent ma 
 terial from the wound. But no constitutional 
 disorder inaugurates the attack, and no increased 
 liability is incurred by the scrofulous, syphilitic, 
 or scorbutic men in hospitals. 
 
 Treatment. Isolation in tents, in the open 
 air, is of the first importance, both as a curative 
 and as a preventive means. 
 
 Next, the local disease must be destroyed in its 
 nest. Entire removal by knife, scissors, and cau 
 terization of all diseased tissue must be effected. 
 
 Disinfection of the wound by the most efficient 
 germicide agents must be thoroughly accom 
 plished. 
 
 Finally, suitable protective and antiseptic dress 
 ings must be applied to guard the purified sur 
 faces from re inoculation by the atmospheric 
 germs of the disease. 
 
 These principles embrace all that is needed for 
 the local cure. 
 
 Either separately or variously combined, they 
 have entered into all the successful plans of treat 
 ment on record. 
 
 Nitric acid, bromine, and the actual cautery 
 have been found the most efficient agents to de 
 stroy the local disease, both from their caustic 
 and their chemical action. 
 
 Chlorine was used with complete success by 
 the writer in the Cincinnati U. S. army general 
 hospitals. 
 
 These agents also accomplish the purpose of 
 disinfection in great measure. 
 
 Dressings of creasote, carbolic acid, charcoal, 
 buttermilk, turpentine, and the hydrocarbons, 
 all have been successfully employed, and act by 
 protecting the wound from renewed atmospheric 
 infection, as well as by promoting the healing 
 process. 
 
 In general, supporting treatment by food stim 
 ulants, iron, quinine, etc., is strongly indicated. 
 
 Results. The fatality of hospital gangrene 
 v/as enormous in the earlier wars, amounting in 
 the hospitals of the Peninsular campaign to one- 
 third of all those attacked. But during the late 
 war the skill and originality of American sur 
 geons very greatly lessened the mortality. 
 
 Goldsmith records 152 cases and 4 deaths. 
 
 North " 60 " 3 " 
 
 Brinton " 88 " 2 " 
 
 Weeks " 115 " 6 " 
 
 Herr " 202 " 14 " 
 
 Over 100 cases were treated at Cincinnati, O., 
 hospitals with but two deaths. 
 
 These results are unprecedented, and are due 
 to early local treatment by strict disinfectant and 
 antiseptic means. 
 
 The malignant form of the disease, however, 
 is often beyond remedy, even under modern 
 methods of care. Death follows close upon the 
 attack, with symptoms of profound shock and 
 blood-poisoning. John T. Carpenter, President 
 of the Pennsylvania State Medical Society, and 
 late Medical Director U. S. Vols. 
 
 Hospital-ship. A vessel fitted to receive the 
 sick, either remaining in port, or accompanying 
 a fleet, as circumstances demand. 
 
 Hostage. A person given up to an enemy as 
 a pledge or security for the performance of the 
 articles of a treaty. 
 
 Hot-air Engine. An engine driven by the 
 expansive force of heated air, a quantity of which, 
 at normal temperature, is compressed by a 
 suitable apparatus ; heated to a high tempera 
 ture ; then allowed to expand and drive a piston 
 until the energy due to its contained heat is 
 nearly expended; and finally expelled from the 
 cylinder. 
 
 * Hot-coppers. See COPPERS. 
 
 Hot-shot. Balls made red-hot in a furnace. 
 Among the savages in Bergon, the women are 
 in the rear of the combatants, and they heat the 
 heads of the spears, exchanging them for such as 
 are cooled in the fight. 
 
 Hot-water Pipe. A pipe for conveying water 
 of condensation, etc., from a condenser to a feed- 
 water reservoir or hot-well. 
 
 A pipe connected with a steam-boiler of a ves 
 sel of war, for the purpose of throwing hot water 
 upon an enemy. 
 
 A pipe for warming an apartment by means 
 of hot water. 
 
 Hot-water Pump. A pump attached to some 
 types of steam-engine condenser for the purpose 
 of withdrawing the water of condensation and 
 discharging into a feed-water reservoir. 
 
 A pump specially adapted to the transmission 
 of ho*t water by having its valves and packing 
 made of material that can withstand the tem 
 perature. Leather, for instance, will not serve 
 for valves and packing, even at a temperature 
 far below that of boiling water. Such a pump 
 cannot be depended upon to draw water, but 
 must be supplied from a head ; and ample pet- 
 cocks must be provided to permit any accumu 
 lated vapor to escape from the barrel- and valve- 
 chambers. 
 
 Hot-well. A reservoir into which is dis 
 charged the water of condensation drawn from 
 the condenser of a steam-engine by an a,ir-pump 
 or hot- water pump. 
 
HOUND-FISH 
 
 350 
 
 HOWITZER 
 
 Hound-fish. The old Anglo-Saxon term for 
 dog-fish (hund-fisc}. 
 
 Hounding. The length of the mast from the 
 heel to the lower part of the head. 
 
 Hounds. Those projections at the mast-head 
 serving as supports for the tressle-trees of large 
 and rigging of smaller masts to rest upon. 
 
 Houndsid. A rope bound round with ser 
 vice. 
 
 Hour-angle. Generally, an angle at the poles 
 of the heavens included between different hour- 
 circles. 
 
 HOUR-ANGLE OF A HEAVENLY BODY. The 
 angle at the elevated pole included between the 
 celestial meridian of the observer and the hour- 
 circle passing through the body. It is reckoned 
 positively from the upper culmination of the 
 body westward from to 360. The hour-angle 
 is sometimes reckoned from the meridian in both 
 directions, positively to the westward, and neg 
 atively to the eastward ; it would be well, how 
 ever, if it were always reckoned in conformity 
 wiih the apparent diurnal motion, just as right 
 ascension is reckoned in conformity with the 
 direct movements of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 Hour-circle. A great circle "of the celestial 
 sphere passing through the poles of the equinoc 
 tial ; so called because it marks out all places 
 having the same hour-angle. 
 
 House. To cover from the inclemencies of 
 the weather ; as, to house a ship over in harbor 
 during cold weather. To house a w,ast, to lower 
 it partly, to lessen the effect of a gale on the 
 masts and rigging. To house the bowsprit, to 
 ship it in its proper place. To house a gun, to 
 run it in clear of its port and secure it. To house 
 an awning, see AWNING. 
 
 HOUSE-BOAT. A boat with a cabin. 
 
 HOUSING. That part of a mast below the 
 ypar-deck. The inboard part of a bowsprit. 
 
 HOUSING-BOLT. A bolt above a port, over 
 which the grommet is placed in housing a gun. 
 
 HOUSING-LINE. A line near the deck, to 
 which the edge of an awning is secured when 
 housed. 
 
 Houseline. Seizing-stuff made of three fine 
 yarns laid up left-handed. 
 
 Houvari. A strong land-wind of the "West 
 Indies, accompanied by rain, thunder, and light 
 ning. 
 
 Hovellers (Eng.). A Cinque-Port term for 
 pilots and their boatmen ; but colloquially, it is 
 also applied to sturdy vagrants who infest the 
 sea-coast in bad weather, in expectation of wreck 
 and plunder. 
 
 Hover. To hang about ; to move to and fro 
 in the vicinity of; as, a vessel hovers about a 
 coast. 
 
 Howard of Effingham, Lord. After many 
 years of service in the reigns of Queen Mary and 
 Elizabeth, this gallant seaman rose to the rank 
 of lord high admiral, and in that capacity was 
 mainly instrumental in preventing the dangers 
 threatened by the Spanish Armada. At a later 
 period (1596) he captured Cadiz in conjunctidn 
 with the Earl of Essex. 
 
 Howe, Richard, Earl. The chronic state of 
 war in which England found herself with France 
 during the chief part of the 18th century af 
 forded naval officers a large field of experience. 
 Howe was constantly engaged in all parts of the 
 world, and in each grade, from midshipman to 
 
 admiral of the white, evinced great professional 
 ability. Lord Hawke said of him that he never 
 needed hints as to the modus operandi of enter 
 prises. Hawke had only to direct that certain 
 things were to be done, and Howe at once per 
 formed them. His chief service was in America 
 when D Estaing went to aid the revolted colo 
 nists, but he likewise did good work in the Med 
 iterranean by supplying Gibraltar with provisions 
 during the siege, and capped the climax of a 
 brilliant career by a great victory over the 
 French in the British Channel. The "glorious 
 first of June" is a landmark in British history. 
 
 Howell, John C., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsylvania, November 24, 1819. Appointed 
 from Pennsylvania, June 9, 1836; sloop " Le 
 vant," West India Squadron, 1837-41. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 1, 1842 ; 
 frigate "Congress," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1842-44; brig "Perry," East India Squadron, 
 1844-45 ; naval storekeeper, Macao, 1846-48. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, August 2, 1849; 
 frigate " Raritan," Home Squadron, 1849-50; 
 sloop "Saratoga," East India Squadron, 1851- 
 53 ; receiving-ship, Philadelphia, 1854-56 ; steam- 
 frigate " Susquehanna," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1856-58; receiving - ship, Philadelphia, 
 1859-60; steam-frigate "Minnesota," North At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1861 ; battle of 
 Hatteras Inlet. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862; 
 commanding steamer " Tahamo," Eastern Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron, 1862-63 ; commanding 
 steamer " Nereus," North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1864-65; two actions at Fort Fisher, 
 December, 1864, and January, 1865. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manding rendezvous, Philadelphia, 1866-68 ; 
 fleet-captain, European Squadron, 1869-70; chief 
 of staff, European Fleet, 1871 ; commanding 
 League Island Station, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, January 29, 
 1872; commanding navy -yard, Portsmouth, 
 N. H., 1872-75; chief of Bureau of Yards and 
 Docks, 1875-78. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, 1877 ; special 
 duty, 1878-79; commanding European Squad 
 ron, 1879-80. 
 
 Howitzer (derived by Grimm and Littre from 
 the Bohemian haufnice, "catapult"). A short, 
 light cannon, intended to throw large projectiles 
 with comparatively small charges. A. howitzer 
 is of larger calibre than a gun of like weight ; is 
 mounted in a similar manner, and is used for 
 shorter ranges. It was introduced by the Dutch 
 in 1606, and soon became of general use, except 
 by the French, who, considering it of small 
 value because of the short range and inaccurate 
 fire, did not introduce it until after Napoleon s 
 wars had shown him its value. The howitzer 
 was made with a chamber for the powder (of 
 smaller diameter than the bore), and with a 
 length of bore regulated to admit of the shell 
 being reached by the hand, to adjust the fuze in 
 the axis of the bore, after the gun was loaded. 
 After the adoption of sabots this could be se 
 cured in long guns, and the howitzers were then 
 made of greater length and came into universal 
 use. 
 
 In the navy the howitzers are principally used 
 in boats and in operations on shore ; they would 
 also be serviceable in repelling boarders. They 
 
HOY 
 
 351 
 
 HUGHES 
 
 are of small calibre, the 24-pounder smooth-bore 
 being the largest. The smooth-bores are being 
 superseded by breech-loading rifled howitzers. 
 
 In the army howitzers of 8 inches bore are 
 used for saige purposes, and for the defense of 
 ditches in fortifications. 
 
 Hoy., A small vessel usually rigged as a sloop 
 and employed in carrying freight and passengers 
 along the sea-coast. It acquired its name from 
 its stopping when called to from the shore, to 
 take up goods or passengers. Hoys are now used 
 for heavy work about a harbor; as transporting 
 provisions, weighing anchors, etc. 
 
 HOYMAN. One who navigates a hoy. 
 
 Hoyse. An old word for hoist. 
 
 Huddock. The cabin of a coal-barge. 
 
 Huddum. An old term for a kind of whale. 
 
 Hudson, Henry. A company of London mer 
 chants, desirous of shortening the route to China 
 and Hindostan, fitted out an expedition, which 
 they placed under the command of this English 
 seaman in 1607. He sailed along the coast of 
 Greenland beyond the 80th degree of latitude, 
 when he was stopped by the ice. He had got 
 within eight degrees of the pole, a point never 
 before attained by any navigator. He then re 
 turned home, but was soon employed by the 
 Dutch East India Company to find a passage 
 by the northeast. Failing in this, through the 
 frozen condition of the seas, he sailed down the 
 south coast of America, sighted Cape Cod, dis 
 covered Delaware Bay, and entered the great 
 inland waters on which the city of New York 
 stands. He went up one river as far as the site 
 of Albany, and that river now bears his name. 
 In 1610, Hudson was again engaged by an Eng 
 lish company to attempt to find an entrance to 
 the Pacific in a northwest direction. He passed 
 through a strait and bay opening westward from 
 the Greenland Sea, and these now bear his name. 
 But his further explorations were stopped by the 
 mutiny of his crew, who sent him adrift in a 
 small shallop with scarcely any food. Neither 
 Hudson, his son, nor the few men who adhered 
 to him, were ever heard of again. 
 
 Huer. A man posted on an elevation near 
 the sea, who by concerted signals directs the 
 fishermen when a shoal of fish is in sight. Also 
 the hot fountains in the sea near Iceland. 
 
 Hug. To hug the land, to sail as near it as 
 possible. To hug the wind, to keep the ship as 
 close to the wind as possible. 
 
 Hugger-mugger. Anything out of order or 
 done in a slovenly way. 
 
 Hughes, Aaron K., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New 
 York, 1838; made first cruise in the Pacific 
 Ocean on board the frigate "Constitution," from 
 January, 1839, until November, 1841 ; in Febru 
 ary, 1842, was ordered to the brig "Boxer"; 
 served in her in the Gulf of Mexico and in the 
 West Indies until the autumn of the same year ; 
 served in the receiving-ship "Pennsylvania," 
 Norfolk, Va., from January, 1843, until June 
 of the same year ; was then ordered to the frigate 
 "Macedonian," African Squadron, and served in 
 her until the winter of 1844. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, May 28, 
 1844; served in the frigate "Columbia," coast 
 of Brazil, from the fall of 1845 until the spring 
 of 1846 ; served during the summer of 1846 in the 
 office of the United States Coast Survey ; in the 
 
 fall of same year was ordered as passed midship 
 man to the steamer " Michigan," on the western 
 lakes, and served in her until the summer of 
 1848; served in the receiving-ship " North Car 
 olina" as passed midshipman from fall of 1849 
 until summer of 1850; was then ordered to the 
 sloop "Albany," and served in her as acting 
 master in the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico 
 for two years and one month ; in the winter of 
 1852 was ordered as acting master to the receiv 
 ing-ship "Ontario," where he received a warrant 
 as master in the line of promotion, and served in 
 her until the summer of 1853. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, August, 1853, and in 
 December of same year was ordered as lieutenant 
 in sloop-of-war "Decatur," Pacific Squadron, 
 until August of 1856; while attached to this 
 vessel in Puget Sound, Washington Territory, 
 in winter of 1855-56, had an engagement on 
 shore, at the town of Seattle, with five hundred 
 hostile Indians, who had attempted to murder 
 the inhabitants, pillage and destroy the place ; 
 but through the unremitting watchfulness of 
 the late Com. Guert Gansevoort their objects 
 were frustrated by the landing of the officers 
 and crew of the " Decatur" ; engagement com 
 menced at 8 A.M., and ended at 4 P.M., on the 
 26th day of January, 1856. It was estimated 
 that the Indians lost 35 killed and 30 wounded. 
 This ended hostilities in the territory. In the 
 winter of 1856-57, ordered as lieutenant, and 
 served on board the receiving-ship " Alleghany," 
 Baltimore, as executive-officer until the fall of 
 1857, when he was ordered as lieutenant and 
 executive-officer to the store-ship "Supply," of 
 the African and Brazil Squadrons, serving un 
 til the fall of 1858; after a month s leave, was 
 again ordered to the receiving-ship "Allegha 
 ny," where he served as a lieutenant until June, 
 1859 ; was then ordered as a lieutenant to the 
 "San Jacinto," and served in her as second 
 lieutenant, executive-officer, and about six weeks 
 in command of that vessel, until January, 1860 ; 
 was then ordered by the flag-officer commanding 
 the African Squadron to the sloop " Portsmouth" 
 as executive-officer, and served in her until June 
 of same year ; was then re-ordered to the " San 
 Jacinto," at the Island of Madeira, and on her 
 way to St. Paul de Loanda, west coast of Africa, 
 was sent as prize-master of the captured slaver 
 "Storm King," and after taking charge of that 
 vessel 200 miles to the westward of the Congo 
 Eiver, and conveying 619 recaptured Africans to 
 Monrovia, Liberia, a distance of 1500 miles, deliv 
 ered them to the charge of the Rev. John Seys, 
 government agent there ; brought the prize to 
 Norfolk, Va., in September, 1860; in Decem 
 ber, 1860, ordered as lieutenant to receiving-ship 
 "Princeton," at Philadelphia; served in her un 
 til April 23, 1861, on which day he was ordered 
 to the Phihadelphia City ice-boat, which had been 
 improvised into a man-of-war in less than twenty- 
 four hours, as executive ; served in her in the 
 Chesapeake, convoying transports with troops 
 and munitions of war until the middle of May 
 of same year ; was then ordered to the frigate 
 " Mississippi" ; served in her as second lieuten 
 ant and executive in the Gulf Squadron until 
 October 31, 1861, when he was ordered in com 
 mand of the steamer " Water- Witch," serving 
 in same squadron until April, 1862, when she 
 was ordered North for repairs ; while in com- 
 
HUISSIERS 
 
 352 
 
 HULL 
 
 mand of the " Water- Witch," participated in 
 several engagements with the enemy. 
 
 In June, 1863, was ordered to command the 
 gunboat " Cimmaron" ; served in her in South 
 Atlantic Squadron, under Rear-Admiral Dahl- 
 gren, until May, 1864 ; while in her participated 
 in the attack on the enemy s works before Charles 
 ton, August 17, 1863, and served in other en 
 gagements at the same place. In October, 1864, 
 ordered to report to Acting Rear-Admiral Lee as 
 ordnance-officer, Mississippi Squadron ; in Feb 
 ruary, 1835, was transferred as executive-officer 
 to the Mound City Naval Station, in which ca 
 pacity he served until February, 1866 ; as light 
 house inspector of the sixth light-house dis 
 trict at Charleston, S. C., 1866-67. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant-commander, July 16, 
 1862. 
 
 Promoted to commander, November 18, 1862. 
 
 Promoted to captain, February 10, 1869; com 
 manding receiving-ship "Boston," 1870; com 
 manding " Pensacola" (second-rate), Pacific 
 Squadron, 1872-74. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, February 4, 
 1875; commanding Naval Station, Port Royal, 
 S. C., 1877-78; leave of absence, 1879; com 
 mandant navy-yard, Norfolk, Va., 1879-80. 
 
 Huissiers. The flat-bottomed transports in 
 which horses were embarked in the Crusades. 
 
 Hulcock. A name for the Squqlus galeus, or 
 smooth hound-fish. 
 
 Hulk. A vessel condemned as unfit for the 
 risks of the sea, dismantled, and used for harbor 
 purposes ; as, sheer-hulk, convict-hulk, etc. 
 
 Hull. The body of a ship independent of 
 masts, sails, rigging, etc. To hull, to pierce the 
 hull with shot. A-hull, the situation of a ship 
 under bare poles with her helm lashed a-lee, and 
 driving before wind and sea. Hull-down, a ship 
 so far distant that her hull is below the horizon. 
 
 Hull, York County, England, is the third 
 port in extent of business in the kingdom. Its 
 docks and basins are very extensive and com 
 plete, surrounded by broad quays and large ware 
 houses, and are crowded with shipping of all 
 nations. The principal exports are cotton and 
 woolen stuffs, yarn, etc. Its coasting-trade is 
 highly important. Ship-building and its aux 
 iliary manufactures, including boilers and steam- 
 engines, are extensively carried on. Lat. 53 
 44 36" N. ; Ion. 20 W. Pop. 140,100. 
 
 Hull, Isaac, Commodore U.S.N., was born 
 at Derby, Conn., on the 9th of March, 1775. He 
 entered the merchant service at 12, and com 
 manded a vessel at 19. Was appointed a lieu 
 tenant in the navy on the 9th of March, 1798. 
 
 He was first lieutenant of the "Constitution" 
 on a cruise as flag-ship of Commodore Talbot in 
 1800, and was given command of an American 
 sloop, the " Sally." In her he entered Port 
 Platte, San Domingo, and cut out and carried to 
 sea the "Sandwich," a privateer, rigging her in 
 a short space of time. Returning home, he was 
 commissioned a lieutenant at the reorganization 
 of the service in 1801. He sailed from New 
 York on the 10th June, 1803, in command of the 
 "Enterprise"; in company with the "John 
 Adams" captured a corsair, which blew up, 
 June 22. On the arrival of the "Argus," No 
 vember 11, he was transferred to her. He was 
 promoted to master-commandant in April, 1804, 
 assisted in the capture of a felucca, April, 1804, 
 
 and participated in the actions of August 3 and 
 September 28, off Tripoli, narrowly escaping 
 capture on the 9th of August. Conveyed Gen. 
 Eaton to Alexandria, and afterwards assisted 
 that officer in the attacks on and capture of 
 Derne, April 27, 1805. Returned home at the 
 close of the war, and was made a captain April 
 23. 1806. 
 
 On the breaking out of the war of 1812 he was 
 in command of the "Constitution," in which 
 ship in 1811 he carried specie to Ireland for pay 
 ment of a debt in Holland, and was chased by a 
 squadron, but escaped. Sailed again, July 12, 
 1812, and from the 17th to the 20th was chased 
 by an English squadron of 7 vessels, escaping 
 by the most consummate skill and seamanship. 
 Sailing again on the 2d of August, he captured 
 5 merchantmen, and on the 19th, after a bloody 
 fight, captured and destroyed the British frigate 
 "Guerriere," 38. For this he was awarded a 
 gold medal. He was a naval commissioner from 
 1815-17. Commanded the Pacific Fleet, in the 
 frigate " United States," from 1824-27 ; leave of 
 absence, 1828-29; navy-yard, Washington, 
 1830-35; leave of absence, 1836-37; waiting 
 orders, 1838-39 ; commanded Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1840-41 ; on leave, 1842-43. Died at 
 Philadelphia, February 13, 1843, aged 68. F. 
 S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Hull, Joseph B., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Westchester, N. Y. Appointed midshipman 
 from Connecticut, November 9, 1813, joined 
 the frigate " Congress" and went to Holland 
 and the Mediterranean, 1815, returning in Com 
 modore Bainbridge s Squadron ; in the " Wash 
 ington," 74, in "the Mediterranean, 1816-17; 
 transferred to the frigate " United States" in 
 1818, and returned in her to Norfolk in the sum 
 mer of 1819; in 1820 attached to the Boston 
 Navy- Yard ; in the "Franklin," 74, Pacific 
 Squadron, 1823, as passed midshipman ; in 1824 
 ordered to schooner "Dolphin" as acting lieu 
 tenant ; rejoined the "Franklin" and returned 
 home in her in 1825. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, January 13, 1825; 
 in frigate "Constellation," West Indies, in 
 1827; ordered to sloop "John Adams," 1828, 
 and returned home ; in frigate " Guerriere," Pa 
 cific Squadron, 1829-31 ; attached to Washington 
 Navy- Yard, 1831-33; in frigate "Potomac," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1834-37 ; attached to 
 receiving-ship at Boston from fall of 1839 to 
 September 8, 1841. 
 
 Commissioned as commander September 8, 
 1841 ; in command of sloop " Warren," Pacific, 
 1843-46, to October, 1847, returning via Pan 
 ama. While in command of the " Warren," off 
 Mazatlan, sent in a boat expedition under Lieut. 
 Radford (now rear-admiral), to cut out the Mex 
 ican gun-brig " Malekadhel," which was success 
 fully done ; was in command of the Northern 
 District of California for a short period before 
 the close of the Mexican war; commanding na 
 val rendezvous, Philadelphia, from November, 
 1849, to December, 1851. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855; 
 in command of frigate " St. Lawrence," Brazil 
 Squadron and Paraguay Expedition, 1856-59, 
 returning in May ; in command of the " Savan 
 nah," coast blockade, from June to September, 
 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 
HUMBER-KEEL 
 
 HYDROGRAPHER 
 
 superintending the building of gunboats at St. 
 Louis, from June, 1862, until 1864, when he was 
 transferred to Pittsburgh ; in command of navy- 
 yard, Philadelphia, from November 10, 1864, to 
 January 1, 1866; president of Examining Board 
 at Philadelphia from December 3, 1866, to July 
 8, 1867; light-house inspector for the first dis 
 trict, with headquarters at Portland, 1869-73. 
 Total sea-service (1878), 22 years 3 months; 
 shore and other duty, 17 years 6 months. Re 
 tired December 21, 1861. 
 
 Humber-keel. A peculiar clinchar-built craft 
 used on the Humber. 
 
 Hummock. A hill with a rounded summit 
 on the sea-coast. When in pairs they are termed 
 paps by navigators. Hummocks of ice, pro 
 tuberant lumps of ice thrown up by some pres 
 sure upon a field or floe, or any other frozen 
 plane. The pieces which rise when large frag 
 ments come in contact, and bits of pack are frozen 
 together and covered with snow. 
 
 Hump-backed Whale. A species of whale 
 bone whale, the Megaptera longimana, which at 
 tains to 45 or 50 feet in length, and is distin 
 guished by its low rounded dorsal fin. 
 
 Hunt, Timothy A., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Connecticut. Appointed from Connecticut, 
 1825; Pacific Squadron, 1827; Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1883-34. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 17, 
 1836; receiving-ships, Boston and New York, 
 1840-43; frigate " Brandywine," East India 
 Squadron, 1845; commanding ordnance-trans 
 port "Electra," 1847-48; navy-yard, Boston, 
 1850; frigate "Columbia," Home Squadron, 
 1853-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; ordnance duty, 1856-59; commanding 
 steam-sloop " Narragansett," Pacific Squadron, 
 1860-61. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, January 2, 1863 ; 
 ordnance duty, Boston, 1862-67; special duty, 
 New London, 1869-71 ; retired July 23, 1867. 
 
 Hurd. The strand of a rope. 
 
 Hurdigers. Particular artificers employed in 
 constructing the castles in early ships. 
 
 Hurleblast. An archaic term for hurricane. 
 
 Hurricane. See STORMS, REVOLVING. 
 
 Hurricane-deck. A light deck over the 
 saloon of a steamer. The upper deck of a river- 
 steamer. 
 
 Hurter. A brass casting at either end of the 
 slide of a gun-carriage for the trucks to take 
 against. 
 
 Hurtle. To send bodily on by a swell or wind. 
 
 Husband, or Ships Husband. An agent ap 
 pointed by deed, executed by all the owners, 
 with power to advance and lend, to make all 
 payments, to receive the prices of freights, and to 
 retain all claims. But this office gives him no 
 authority to insure or to borrow money ; and he 
 is to render a full account to his employers. 
 Also, a person who seldom leaves his ship. 
 
 Hush. A name of the lump-fish, denoting 
 the female. 
 
 Hutch-hooks. Small pieces of oak used for 
 temporary fastening of any work, generally 
 placed over the heads of shores in building or in 
 docking a vessel, secured to the vessel with rib 
 band-screws. 
 
 Hutt. The breech-pin of a gun. 
 23 
 
 Huz-zif. A general corruption of housewife, 
 a very useful contrivance for holding needles 
 and thread, and the like. 
 
 Hyades. The seven daughters of Atlas and 
 ^Ethra ; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasithoe, 
 Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They were changed 
 by Jupiter into seven stars. 
 
 Hydra (Gr. hudros, the water-snake). A con 
 stellation to the south of Cancer, Leo, and Virgo. 
 Its principal star, a Hydras called also Cor 
 Hydrce and Alphard may be found by continu 
 ing the line from 6 and y Ursce Majoris through 
 a Leonis to about half its length ; the line 
 through Castor and Pollux also points it out. 
 
 Hydraulic Block. A block placed under a 
 ship in docking, and which is worked by a hy 
 draulic pump, to be raised and lowered either at 
 the bilge-blocks or at the keel-blocks. 
 
 Hydraulic Dock. An apparatus by which a 
 vessel is raised clear of the water for examina 
 tion and repairs by means of hydraulic presses. 
 The vessel is brought over a platform suspended 
 by chains passing over pulleys in the side-frame 
 of the dock, and which are attached on each side 
 to a strong beam connected with the cross-head 
 of a hydraulic press. 
 
 Hydraulic Press. A machine in which the 
 pressure of a piston or plunger of a pump acts 
 upon a small area of a body of liquid, transmit 
 ting to a piston of larger area in a working cyl 
 inder a pressure or force proportional to the dif 
 ference in area between the working piston and 
 pump- plunger, and a speed inversely propor 
 tional to the difference. The pump draws liquid 
 from a reservoir and forces it into the working 
 cylinder ; and when the return of the working 
 piston is desired the liquid is released by a cock. 
 
 Hydrographer to the Bureau of Navigation. 
 According to the organization of the U. S. Hy- 
 drographic Office, "the officer in charge will be 
 the hydrographer to the Bureau of Navigation, 
 and will be responsible for everything emanating 
 from that office." The regulations of the bureau 
 go on to say, "From intercourse with foreign 
 hydrographic offices, from information received 
 from our naval vessels and mercantile marine, 
 together with the perusal of hydrographic pub 
 lications, etc., he is expected to be acquainted 
 with what has already been done and is doing in 
 this branch, and to point out what may be de 
 sirable from time to time to accomplish." The 
 hydrographer has the superintendence and gen 
 eral control of the various divisions of which 
 the hydrographic office is composed ; to him 
 the head of each division refers any matter 
 out of the ordinary routine of duty for de 
 cision. The position has always been held by an 
 officer not below the rank of commander; he has 
 not been appointed for any special period, but 
 has been retained at the pleasure of the Navy 
 Department. 
 
 There is an assistant hydrographer attached to 
 the office, whose duty it is to act in the absence! 
 of the hydrographer, and also to assist him in 
 any of the duties of the office. 
 
 The regulations of the bureau which established 
 the position of hydrographer were not approved 
 until January 21, 1871, although the act creating 
 the hydrographic office was approved June 21, 
 1866. There was in the interval a chief of the 
 office corresponding to the present hydrographer, 
 but it does not appear that he had any title until 
 
HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE 
 
 354 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY 
 
 the approval of the regulations above referred to. 
 Since the passage of the act creating the Hydro- 
 graphic Office, the following-named officers have 
 been at its head, viz. : Commander Fillebrown, 
 Capt. N. B. Harrison, Commander Simpson, 
 Commodore Emmons, Capt. Wyman, who also 
 continued in the position as commodore and 
 rear-admiral, Capt. Franklin, and Capt. De 
 Kraift, the present incumbent. All maritime 
 nations of any importance have a position cor 
 responding to that of the h}*drographer, which 
 is filled, as with us, by naval officers of the dif 
 ferent grades. S. R. Franklin, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Hydrographic Office. The act of Congress 
 entitled An act to establish a Hydrographic Of 
 fice in the Navy Department was approved June 
 21, 1866. 
 
 Before the passage of this act the charts for 
 our naval vessels were issued from a number of 
 different places which, from time to time, were 
 used as depots of charts. About the year 1835 
 the Depot of Charts was a house on G Street be 
 tween 21st and 22d Streets. From G Street, 
 prior to the sailing of the U. S. Exploring Ex 
 pedition, it was removed to a house on North 
 Capitol Street, owned by Lieut. Wilkes. From 
 Capitol Hill it was moved to a building on 
 Pennsylvania Avenue, opposite to what is now 
 the Columbia Hospital, and known as the For- 
 syth House. When the Observatory was com 
 pleted the charts were issued from there, and in 
 1886, upon the establishment of a Hydrographic 
 Office, which was located at the corner of 18th 
 Street and New York Avenue, they were moved 
 to that building, which building continued to be 
 the Hydrographic Office until its removal to the 
 Navy Department in 1879. The Hydrographic 
 Office is now an annex of the Bureau of Naviga 
 tion, but formerly everything connected with 
 Hydrography was subject to the Bureau of Ord 
 nance and Hydrography. When the Bureau of 
 Navigation was created all matter relating to 
 that subject was transferred to it. 
 
 This office is divided into the following de 
 partments, viz. : Division of Archives, etc., Chart 
 Division, Meteorological Division, Division of 
 Drafting and Engraving, and Division of Longi 
 tudes. There is also a library connected with 
 the office, which contains technical and other 
 works. 
 
 The Division of Archives is in charge of a 
 naval officer, whose duty it is to collect and file 
 all hydrographic information, and issue the same 
 in the form of hydrographic notices and notices 
 to mariners, which are disseminated for the bene 
 fit of navigation and are sent gratuitously to any 
 masters of vessels or others interested in mari 
 time affairs who may desire them. In the files 
 of the archives are kept all the data of original 
 surveys, and everything appertaining to that 
 subject. 
 
 The Chart Division, which comprises the charts 
 of this office and the British admiralty charts, 
 is Also in charge of a naval officer. From this 
 division are issued all the charts to United States 
 ships of war, and also to the agents at the im 
 portant seaports of the United States, by whom 
 they are sold to mariners at the cost of printing 
 and paper. This division has charge also of 
 the printing of the charts. The Meteorological 
 Division is in charge of a naval officer, who, 
 with his assistants, is employed in collecting and 
 
 collating data for the construction of meteoro 
 logical charts, intended finally to comprise the 
 whole navigable ocean. 
 
 The Division of Drafting and Engraving is 
 in charge of a hydrographic expert whose duty 
 it is to superintend the drafting and engraving 
 of all charts published by the office, and to see 
 that the plates are corrected in accordance with 
 the latest hydrographic information. 
 
 The Division of Longitudes is conducted by 
 a naval officer, and when there is a doubtful ques 
 tion of the longitude of any point under consid 
 eration, this division investigates all the au 
 thorities upon the subject before the matter is 
 finally decided. It is at present engaged in col 
 lecting the latitudes and longitudes of the im 
 portant seaports of the world from the latest and 
 most reliable authorities. The most important 
 work, however, upon which it is engaged, and 
 that upon which its other work chiefly depends, 
 is the reduction of the observations for secondary 
 positions of longitudes as determined by electric 
 cable, by parties under the command of Lieut. - 
 Corns. Green and Davis. 
 
 The librarian is a naval officer, whose duty it 
 also is to see to the correction of nautical books 
 and sailing directions, and to their issue to naval 
 vessels and to the agents of the office. 
 
 In order that mariners may receive the publi 
 cations of the office at the lowest possible rate, 
 the law makes it obligatory that they be sold at 
 the cost of printing and paper. S. II. Franklin, 
 Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Hydrography. The general term Hydrography 
 is no wused to include a description of the navigable 
 waters of the earth, their contour and character, 
 of the rocks and shoals likely to endanger navi 
 gation, the tides, currents, and depths of all 
 navigable waters, of ocean meteorology, and of 
 the best methods to adopt in making passages 
 from one port to another. The same word is 
 used to designate the art of making charts which 
 shall show this varied information in .a conve 
 nient form for the navigator. 
 
 As such work is, generally speaking, too ex 
 tensive and costly to be carried on by private in 
 dividuals, all maritime nations of importance 
 have found it necessary to establish as a part of 
 their administrative system a hydrographic of 
 fice, the functions of which are substantially 
 the same for all countries and comprise the con 
 duct of hydrographic surveys, the preparation 
 and publishing of charts and sailing directions, 
 the issuing of charts and books to government 
 vessels and supplying them through agents to 
 the mercantile marine, and the constant inter 
 national interchange of all information which 
 may be of service to the navigator. If war were 
 not to be apprehended, each government need 
 only concern itself with the charts of its own 
 shores, procuring necessary charts of other parts 
 of the world from foreign officer? ; but as at any 
 time such a supply would be subject to interrup 
 tion, the hydrographic office of each prominent 
 maritime nation seeks to supply its public and pri 
 vate ships with charts of all parts of the world, 
 thus being independent in case of hostilities. 
 The English government have published nearly 
 or quite 3000 different charts, and the French 
 about the same number. In the United States 
 the hydrographic establishment is divided into 
 two branches, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
 
HYDROGRAPHY 
 
 355 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 vey, under the Treasury Department, dealing 
 exclusively with the coasts of the United States, 
 of which about 350 charts have been published, 
 and the Hydrographic Office attached to the 
 Navy Department, and engaged in the construc 
 tion of charts of foreign coasts, of which about 
 700 have been published. This office also sup 
 plies all vessels of war with the necessary 
 charts and books, and disposes of its publica 
 tions through agents to the mercantile marine 
 and others. An extensive and mutually valu 
 able exchange of information is constantly go 
 ing on between the hydrographic offices of the 
 United States, England, Prance, Denmark, Nor 
 way, Sweden, Russia, Spain, Italy, Austria, 
 Portugal, Holland, Belgium, Germany, India, 
 Japan, Brazil, Buenos Ayres, and Chili, result 
 ing, in 1879, in the publication by the U. S. 
 Hydrographic Office of 87 hydrographic notices 
 relative to discoveries and changes in the natural 
 features of navigable regions, and 119 notices to 
 mariners relating to additions to and changes in 
 artificial aids to navigation. These form a yearly 
 synopsis of the hydrographic work of the world. 
 
 The general object of the hydrographic survey 
 of a coast-line is to produce such a chart that 
 every part of the coast may be readily recognized 
 and safely approached or passed by a stranger, 
 and that its ports may be safely entered and left 
 without the aid of a pilot. In addition to the 
 charts of the coast-line, information as to the 
 depth, current, and temperature of the sea is of 
 great importance to the navigator, and is when 
 known incorporated into the chart. See CHART, 
 COAST SURVEY, DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 
 
 It is only since the middle of the 18th century 
 that accurate hydrographic surveys have been 
 effected by the officers of various nations, Capt. 
 J. Cook, of the English navy; Des Barres, 
 another Englishman, and Admiral Beautemps- 
 Beaupre, of the French navy, being among the 
 pioneers in this work. 
 
 As regards the extent of foreign coast-line sur 
 veyed, England is in advance of all other na 
 tions, and the work of her naval surveyors is of 
 marked excellence. Although the surveys of 
 foreign coasts by officers of the United States 
 navy are by no means as extensive, their work 
 is of a very high character, and the hydrographic 
 survey of the coast of the United States com 
 pares favorably with any other work of the kind. 
 
 The surveys which have been made of coast 
 lines vary largely in quality, and may be divided 
 into three classes,\iz. : 1st. Complete triangulated 
 surveys, where the adjacent waters have been 
 thoroughly examined, leaving nothing to be de 
 sired in the way of information for the navi 
 gator ; 2d. Running surveys made from ships, 
 giving accurate plans of the harbors, but only 
 approximately correct coast-lines ; and 3d. Rec- 
 onnoissances, where only the general direction 
 and aspect of the coast is given, and where the 
 navigator must be constantly on his guard 
 against hidden dangers. 
 
 The surveys of the Atlantic coast of the United 
 States, with those of England, France, Germany, 
 and one or two other European nations, are the 
 only ones to be placed without reserve in the 
 first class, while those of by far the largest part 
 of the earth s coast-Jine are embraced in the 
 second class. The surveys of New Guinea, a 
 majority of the Pacific and East India Islands, 
 
 parts of the coasts of Africa and South America, 
 and the Arctic and Antarctic regions are to be 
 included in the third class. 
 
 No branch of hydrographic knowledge has re 
 ceived such great accessions during the last 
 few years as that relating to the depths, tem 
 perature, and chemical constituents of the great 
 oceans. In addition to the knowledge derived 
 from the surveys of the United States ships 
 " Tuscarora," " Essex," and " Blake," the Eng 
 lish ships " Challenger" and " Alert," and the 
 German ship " Gazelle," vessels engaged in lay 
 ing submarine telegraph cables are constantly 
 adding to our knowledge of the depths of the 
 sea. 
 
 For an account of the various methods in use 
 in marine-surveying the reader is referred to 
 " General Instructions for Hydrographic Sur 
 veyors," published by the U/S. Navy Depart 
 ment; the annual "Report of the U. S. Coast 
 and Geodetic Survey ;" " Nautical Surveying!" 
 by Capt. W. N. Jeffers, U.S.N. ; " Nautical 
 Surveying," by Capt. E. Belcher, R.N. ; " Prac 
 tical and Theoretical Nautical Surveying," by 
 Prof. J. K. Laugh ton ; " Deep-Sea Sounding 
 and Dredging," by Lieut.-Com. C. D. Sigsbee, 
 U.S.N. ; and " Cours de Navigatione et d Hy- 
 drographie," by E. Dubois. F. M. Green, Lieu 
 tenant- Commander U. S. N. 
 
 Hydrometer. An instrument for ascertain 
 ing the specific gravity or relative density of 
 liquids. It is made of glass or metal, and con 
 sists of a hollow bulb or float provided with a 
 slender stem which is graduated to any arbitrary 
 scale suitable to the purpose for which it is used ; 
 projecting from the bottom of this bulb is a 
 smaller one filled with shot or mercury for the 
 purpose of keeping the instrument upright. 
 
 Hygiene, Naval. Though the principles of 
 hygiene are pretty much the same everywhere, 
 the practice on board ship presents some pecu 
 liarities, some difficulties : good or pure air ; pure 
 water, and enough of it ; good food, enough and 
 of such varieties as afford proper nourishment; 
 proper employment for mind and body, without 
 excessive labor ; good discipline and other com 
 fortable surroundings, are all necessary. Ever 
 since Ulysses, on his raft, removed some of his 
 clothes to enable him to swim ashore (Odyssey), 
 human ingenuity has been contriving means to 
 save life and to preserve health on the ocean. 
 
 Ventilation. Pure air is sufficiently abundant 
 on the wide ocean, so that proper ventilation is 
 the main question with reference to this matter. 
 Respired air has about the temperature of the 
 human body, something near 37. 78 C. (= 100 
 F.); it is much warmer than the air of any- 
 habitable apartment, so that, in obedience to di 
 minished specific gravity, it ascends, escapes by 
 the hatches ; thus any small vessel is sufficiently 
 ventilated if only the hatches can be kept open 
 But as the vessels increase in size the difficulties 
 increase in such a way that the larger the vessel 
 the more numerous the sick-list, the greater rel 
 ative mortality, notwithstanding the great im 
 provement in most other respects. The large ship 
 is subdivided into many apartments, some of 
 them not so well arranged as they might be, and 
 they contain chests of dirty clothes, packages 
 of spoiled cheese, and sometimes worse things ; 
 the air cannot remove everything bad about such 
 things unless it has a fair chance. Devices for 
 
HYGIENE 
 
 356 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 mechanical ventilation have been very numer 
 ous, and though each one has been useful under 
 the careful supervision of the inventor, all of 
 them, ancient and modern, have failed in gen 
 eral utility : the foul-air pump, the bellows, and 
 the fans are all effective in moving the air that 
 comes within their influence, but the openings 
 of the machines cannot reach every accumula 
 tion of foul air, or rather do not; and hence, 
 with all their labor and expense, these machines 
 merely circulate to the next aperture the air 
 that comes within their power In vessels of the 
 monitor class it has been made possible, by the 
 use of fans propelled by steam, to introduce air 
 at one end and discharge it at the other, and by 
 way of variety at both ends, so as to ventilate 
 the interior and supply air for the furnaces at 
 the same time. Formerly there was much in 
 convenience from impure air caused by bilge- 
 water, and from decaying fragments of provisions 
 and cargo ; but this is so well understood and so 
 easily remedied by keeping the ship dry and 
 clean that the matter should no longer be of 
 much interest, except as a matter of history. 
 
 Crowd-poison and typhus. Poor ventilation 
 and crowding, besides general ill health, cause 
 typhus fever, a specific disease, and most fatal 
 contagious pestilence. It seems that the mere 
 perspiration of our bodies, unless promptly re 
 moved by free circulation of air, becomes very 
 quickly a terrific poison (ochlesis, crowd-poison), 
 which thus killed great numbers of our immi 
 grants from Europe. Ships arriving with crowds 
 of passengers had many deaths, and the sick 
 were transferred to the quarantine stations, 
 whence the disease was communicated to phy 
 sicians and nurses at the hospitals ; there were 
 many deaths from this so-called ship-fever, until 
 by Act of Congress (May 3, 1855), this was 
 remedied. The law contains the following among 
 other essential provisions : 
 
 1. The number of passengers shall not exceed 
 1 for each 2 tons measurement. 
 
 2. The apartments shall not be less than 6 feet 
 in height. 
 
 3. Each passenger shall have from 14 to 18 
 feet of floor space, varying according to height 
 and position, and giving about 100 cubic feet. 
 
 4. Every vessel with capacity for 100 passen 
 gers shall have 2 ventilators, 1 at each end, 
 and 1 of them fitted with an exhausting cowl. 
 
 5. These arrangements are enforced by suffi 
 cient fines and other penalties. 
 
 Coolie ships. Curious as it may seem, crowds 
 of passengers have been smothered to death on 
 board "coolie" ships, both English and Ameri 
 can, within the last 25 years. 
 
 Water supply. Pure water is essential to 
 health and well-being ; and generally there need 
 be no difficulty in procuring it. Distilled water 
 is even too pure, but by aeration and the slight 
 mixture of sea-water, unavoidable, it becomes 
 pleasant and wholesome ; and, curious as it may 
 seem, distilled water is generally cheaper than 
 spring water. Formerly the supply of water 
 was a difficult matter ; it was carried in wooden 
 casks, which occupied much space and spoiled 
 the water, so that 4 or 5 pints a day was con 
 sidered a liberal allowance of the disgusting 
 fluid. The first great improvement was the in 
 troduction of iron tanks to preserve the water, 
 ?nd next the simple devices, not yet generally 
 
 understood, for rendering distilled water pala 
 table. The selection of spring- water calls for 
 some care and judgment. There is no need here 
 for any elaborate chemical analysis, as in arrang 
 ing for city supplies. Limpid water from the 
 hills is pretty surely good unless it has a de 
 cidedly objectionable flavor or a bad local repu 
 tation. It is important to avoid small streams 
 in which clothes are washed, into which dirt is 
 thrown, and streams which drain marshy land. 
 This caution at first sight seems superfluous, 
 but it is curious to see with what carelessness dirt 
 is mixed with drinking-water nearly everywhere, 
 from London to Memphis, as well as on ship 
 board. 
 
 Food. The supply of suitable food is a real 
 difficulty ; we may carry salt beef and salt pork, 
 hard bread and dry beans, flour and dried apples, 
 tea and coffee, but no cabbage from the garden 
 or other green thing. The importance of fresh 
 vegetables is quite incomprehensible. In Sep 
 tember, 1740, Lord Anson s fleet sailed from 
 England, and in September, 1741, three of the 
 ships reached the island Juan Fernandez, on the 
 west coast of South America ; of the 961 men 
 who sailed 325 were alive ; 636 had died mostly 
 of scorbutus (sea-scurvy) during the passage 
 around Cape Horn. The first boat that landed 
 was loaded with grass and such weeds as came to 
 hand. The poor invalids on board ate it up as 
 delicious food, and rapidly regained their strength. 
 This terrific record is in accordance with the ex 
 perience of the time. The Spanish fleet attempt 
 ing the same voyage at the same time fared 
 about as badly, and the shattered remnant re 
 turned to Montevideo ; not one of their seven 
 vessels reached the Pacific, and about half the 
 men died in the attempt. 
 
 Improvements. This difficulty in long voyages 
 being understood, there has been a steady im 
 provement to the present time. Cook s voyages 
 of exploration, the third of a century later, were 
 made with very little loss of life ; this is partly 
 due to improved knowledge and hygienic care, 
 and partly to the fact that the passages were 
 short from one landing-place to the next, and 
 much of the time was spent about lands where 
 fruits and fresh vegetables were procurable. At 
 present it is no rare thing for a ship with 200 or 
 300 men to round Cape Horn, make a three 
 years cruise in the Pacific, bringing home every 
 man that sailed in her ; and there is no one or 
 two great things to be pointed out as the cause 
 of this great difference. There is a better and 
 more abundant supply of food, better discipline, 
 more thoughtfulness, more intelligent attention 
 to small things. We can mention only a few of 
 the more important changes. 
 
 Flogging abolished. The abolition of flogging, 
 after many regulations mitigating and rendering 
 it less necessary, came in accordance with the 
 demands of public sentiment (1850). This gave 
 the men spirit to think themselves somewhat 
 better than beasts, and they behaved better ac 
 cordingly. It did much to infuse new life into 
 the degraded men ; it prevented the novices 
 from reaching such a degree of degradation ; and 
 now the other tortures invented to supply its 
 place are gradually passing to oblivion. 
 
 The liquor ration abolished. The abolition of 
 the liquor ration (1862) was still more important. 
 This hud to be gradual. For twenty years or 
 
HYGIENE 
 
 357 
 
 HYGROMETER 
 
 more the allowance was reduced from time to 
 time, with coffee and tea, and many other things 
 experimentally supplied as substitutes. The ces 
 sation of drunken habits has rendered it possible 
 to indulge sailors with frequent liberty on shore, 
 without the filth and disorder formerly in fashion. 
 There is ten times as much liberty, with perhaps 
 one-tenth as much syphilis. 
 
 Coffee and spices, Furthermore this great im 
 provement from 650 deaths per 1000 in Lord 
 Anson s fleet to 4 or 5 per 1000 in late official 
 reports has come by more persistent care about 
 small things. Ground coffee, formerly supplied 
 by contract, was a vile mixture of spoiled coffee, 
 with beans and chicory, etc., parched and ground 
 together. The mustard called English mustard 
 was mostly starch and saw-dust, with potassium 
 bichromate enough to make it pungent ; the 
 whole seeds are now purchased and manufac 
 tured under responsible supervision. 
 
 Fresh bread and early coffee. The hard bread 
 on board is now varied by a constant supply of 
 fresh bread; a competent " ship s baker," with 
 his oven, belongs to the complement of every 
 ship in the navy. Congressional legislation 
 (May 23, 1872), in its liberal supply of coffee, 
 has even prescribed the proper time to use it, 
 " an additional ration of coffee and sugar to be 
 served at his first turning out." The man who 
 is obliged to spend the morning hours from 5 
 o clock to 8 A.M. in scrubbing decks and making 
 things neat till breakfast-time fully appreciates 
 this preliminary bread and coffee. 
 
 Naval experience has made important contri 
 butions to medical science and general hygiene, 
 as appears by the accumulating reports of medical 
 officers ; perhaps the most important of these has 
 reference to malarial fevers. When the distinc 
 tions between the deadly marsh fevers of the 
 tropics and yellow fever were hardly suspected, 
 Dr. Badenoch, July 7, 1768, read a paper on this 
 subject before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
 His ship had been at the Comore Islands ( Mozam 
 bique Channel) for ten days, and a few days after 
 sailing many men sickened and died in quick suc 
 cession ; of course it was generally thought to be a 
 terrible contagious pestilence that destroyed lives 
 in this way, but " I observed that none suffered of 
 those who returned on board to sleep every night. 
 All those who were on shore at night suffered ; 
 all who came aboard to sleep escaped. Lind 
 published very similar incidents, and subsequent 
 experience all accords with this. Hence the 
 well-established facts : malarial poison infects 
 only at night, and the incubation period is not 
 
 less than twelve or fourteen days. If we wish to 
 learn when or how a patient contracted his dis 
 ease, we need not ask where he was last night or 
 yesterday, but where he spent his nights two 
 weeks ago. Even medical men of eminence do 
 not always keep these things in remembrance ; 
 for instance, in an admirable work on military 
 hygiene (1860) there occurs such a slip as this : 
 " The malaria seems to be principally active at 
 night, as many men are attacked wh ile on post 
 early in the morning." The men had probably 
 been thus exposed every night f or two weeks or 
 more. And again (1878), we read of a national 
 vessel at Monrovia, Liberia ; in three or four days 
 after anchoring there were numerous cases of 
 malarial fever on board; and hence the infer 
 ence that the vessel is anchored too near the 
 marshy shore, the fact being quite neglected that 
 two weeks previously the ship was at Porto 
 Praya, and probably the disease was contracted 
 there. 
 
 Bibliography. The most important books on 
 this subject are the volumes of official reports of 
 naval surgeons published by public authority 
 nearly every year. Armstrong, Naval Hy 
 giene," 1858; Blane, "Dissertations," 3d ed., 
 1803; Clarke, " Long Voyages," 1792; Carpen 
 ter, u Use and Abuse of Alcohol" ; Dunglison, 
 "Human Health"; Fonssagrives, " Traite d 
 Hygiene Navale," 2d ed., 1877; Forget, "Na 
 val Medicine," 1835; Gihon, " Naval Hygiene," 
 1873; Hammond, "Military Hygiene," 1863; 
 Larrey, "Surgical Memoirs"; Lind, "Marsh 
 Fevers of Bengal," pamphlet, 1770; Lind, 
 James, "On Scurvy," London, 1757; Lind, 
 James, "Diseases in Hot Climates," Philadel 
 phia, 1811; Maher, "Hygiene Navale," 1874; 
 Plimsoll, "Our Seamen," 1873 ; Turnbull, "Na 
 val Surgeon," 1806; Turner, "Hygiene, Naval 
 and Merchant," in Buck s "Hygiene," 1880; 
 Wilson, " Naval Hygiene," 2d ed., 1879 Joseph 
 Wilson, M.D., Medical Director U.S.N. 
 
 Hygrometer (Gr. hugros, moist; metrein, to 
 measure). An instrument for measuring the 
 moisture of the atmosphere. The simplest form 
 consists of a combination of two thermometers, the 
 bulb of one being kept dry and that of the other 
 wet. The wet bulb is cooled by evaporation as 
 much as the state of the atmosphere admits. In 
 a very moist atmosphere there will be little or 
 no difference in the readings of the two ther 
 mometers, but when the atmosphere is dry the 
 wet-bulb thermometer will show a temperature 
 lower by several degrees than that shown by the 
 dry-bulb thermometer. 
 
ICARUS 
 
 358 
 
 IDOLEERS 
 
 Icarus. The son of Daedalus, who, flying with 
 his father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring too 
 high, melted the wax. of his wings and fell into 
 the sea, thence called the Icarian Sea. 
 
 Ice. Water or other liquid made solid by 
 cold. Water freezes at 32 F., and in freezing 
 expands rapidly and with great force. In con 
 sequence of this expansion the ice becomes lighter 
 than water, and floats with one-ninth of its mass 
 above water. 
 
 ICE-ANCHOR. A bar of round iron tapered to 
 a point, and bent as a pot-hook; a hole is cut in 
 the ice, the point entered, and a hawser bent to 
 the shorter hook ; by this vessels ride safely till 
 any motion of the ice capsizes it, and then it is 
 hauled in. The ice is usually entered by a lance, 
 which cuts its hole easily. 
 
 ICE-BEAMS. Strengtheners for whalers. 
 
 ICEBERG. An insulated mountain of ice, 
 whether on Arctic lands or floating in the sea. 
 Some have been known to be aground in 1500 
 feet water, and rise to the height of 250 feet 
 above it. Cook s obtaining fresh water from 
 floating icebergs was not a new discovery. The 
 Hudson s Bay ships had long made use of it; 
 and in July, 1585, Capt. Davis met with ice 
 "which melted into very good fresh water." 
 
 ICE-BIRDS. Small sea-fowl in the polar regions. 
 
 ICE-BLINK. A streak or stratum of lucid 
 whiteness which appears over the ice in that 
 part of the atmosphere adjoining the horizon, 
 and proceeds from an extensive aggregation of 
 ice reflecting the rays of light into the circum 
 ambient air. 
 
 ICE-BOAT. A heavy boat with great steam- 
 power, for breaking a passage-way through ice. 
 A boat fitted with runners shod with iron for 
 sailing on the surface of the ice. They have 
 one large sail, and lie up very close to the wind. 
 In this situation their speed is greater than the 
 velocity of the wind. 
 
 ICE-BOUND. A vessel so surrounded by ice as 
 to be prevented from proceeding on her voyage. 
 
 ICE-CHISEL. A large socket-chisel into which 
 a pole is inserted, used to cut holes in the ice. 
 
 ICE- CLAWS. A flat claw with two prongs 
 spread like a can-hook. 
 
 ICE-FENDERS. Fenders of any kind, used to 
 protect a vessel from injury by ice. 
 
 ICE-LANE, or ICE-VEIN. A narrow temporary 
 channel of water in the packs or other large col 
 lections of ice. 
 
 ICE-MASTER. A pilot, or man of experience, 
 for the Arctic Sea. 
 
 ICE-PLANK. See SPIKE-PLANK. 
 
 ICE-QUAKE. The rending crash which accom 
 panies the breaking of floes of ice. 
 
 ICE-SAW. A huge saw for cutting through 
 ice ; it is made of f to f inch plates of iron, and 
 varies in length from 10 to 24 feet. 
 
 ICE-SLUDGE. Small comminuted ice, or bay- 
 ice broken up by the wind. 
 
 ICE-TONGUE. A mass of ice projecting hori 
 zontally under water from an iceberg or floe. 
 
 Ichthyosaurus (G-r. ichthus, a fish, and sauros, 
 a lizard). A genus of extinct marine animals 
 which combined the characteristics of Saurian 
 reptiles and of fishes, with some of the peculiar 
 ities of the Cetacea. The head was large, and 
 resembled in structure that of the crocodile, ex 
 cept that the orbit was much larger, and the 
 nostrils were placed, not as in the crocodile near 
 the point of the snout, but close to the anterior 
 part of the orbit. The teeth, conical in shape 
 and hollow, were lodged close together in a con 
 tinuous groove, in which the divisions for sockets, 
 which exist in the crocodile, were indicated by the 
 vertical ridges on the maxillary bone. The most 
 remarkable feature in the head was the eye, which 
 was not only very large, in some specimens 
 measuring 13 inches in diameter, but was spe 
 cially fitted to accommodate itself for vision in 
 air or water, as well as for speedily altering the 
 focal distance while pursuing its prey. The 
 structure which thus fitted the eye so remark 
 ably to the wants of the animal consisted of a 
 circle of 13 or more overlapping sclerotic bony 
 plates surrounding the pupil, as in birds. This 
 circle acted as a sort of self-adjusting telescope, 
 and with the extraordinary amount of light ad 
 mitted by the large pupil, enabled the ichthyo 
 saurus to discover its prey at great or little dis 
 tances, in the obscurity of the night, and in the 
 depths of the sea. The body, shaped like that 
 of a fish, was furnished with limbs developed 
 into paddles, and terminated in a long lizard- 
 like tail, which is supposed to have been sup 
 plied with a vertical fin. 
 
 From the form and position of masses of crushed 
 and apparently half-digested fish-bones and scales 
 in the abdominal cavity of the ichthyosaurus, it 
 is concluded that it preyed chiefly on fish. 
 
 The remains of the ichthyosauri are peculiar 
 to the Secondary strata. They occur in the 
 various members of the series from the Lower 
 Lias to the Chalk, but have their greatest devel 
 opment in the Lias and Oolite. More than 30 
 species have been discovered, differing from each 
 other mainly in the form of the head, some hav 
 ing a long and slender snout, like the gavial of 
 the Ganges, and some a short and broad head, 
 more like the common crocodile. 
 
 Ick. A term for a creek or gullet. 
 
 Ide. A small fish (Leuciscus idus] allied to 
 the graining, and found in the northern parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 Idler. A general designation for all those on 
 board a ship-of-war who are not required to 
 keep watch on deck. A cog-wheel placed be 
 tween two others to communicate the motion of 
 one to the other; by its interposition they are 
 caused to revolve in the same direction. 
 
 Idoleers. The name by which the Dutch au 
 thorities are known in their oriental colonies, 
 
IGNORANCE 
 
 359 
 
 INCLINED-CYLINDER 
 
 the designation being a corruption of edle her- 
 ren. 
 
 Ignorance. If a loss happen through the 
 ignorance of the master of a ship, it is not con 
 sidered as a peril of the sea, consequently the 
 assurers are not liable. Nor is his ignorance of 
 admiralty law admissible as an excuse. 
 
 Iguana. A lizard used for food in tropical 
 climates. 
 
 Ilde. An archaic term for island. 
 
 Ilet. See EYELET. 
 
 Immer. The Colymbus immer of Linnaeus ; the 
 great plunger of Buffon. 
 
 Immersion (Lat. immergere, to plunge in). 
 The commencement of an occultation, or the 
 moment when the occulted body disappears be 
 hind the nearer one. 
 
 Imp. One length of twisted hair in a fishing- 
 line. 
 
 Impact (Lat. impingere, impactum, to push, 
 strike against). In mechanics, the single, in 
 stantaneous blow or stroke of a body in motion 
 against another, either in motion or at rest. 
 
 "impetus (Lat. force, from impetere, to rush 
 upon, attack). In mechanics, nearly synonymous 
 with momentum, yet differing from it as indicat 
 ing the origin and intensity of motion, rather 
 than its quantity or effectiveness. In gunnery, 
 impetus is the altitude through which a. heavy 
 body must fall to acquire a velocity equal to that 
 with which the ball is discharged from the 
 piece. 
 
 Imports. The articles brought into the coun 
 try in the course of commercial transactions. 
 By the articles for the government of the navy 
 all persons connected with the navy are forbidden 
 to import in a naval vessel any thing which is 
 liable to the payment of duty. 
 
 Impressment. The act of seizing for public 
 use, or of impressing into public service ; com 
 pulsion to serve. In England impressment was 
 formerly a means much resorted to for supplying 
 the royal navy with seamen. The practice, ac 
 cording to Lord Mansfield, was " deduced from 
 that trite maxim of the constitutional law of 
 England, that private mischief had better be 
 submitted to than that public detriment and 
 inconvenience should ensue. " Seamen, river- 
 watermen, and at times landsmen were the cus 
 tomary victims of this arbitrary procedure. A 
 press-gang could board a merchant vessel or priv 
 ateer of its own nation in any part of the world, 
 and carry off as many men as could be taken 
 without actually endangering the vessel. Al 
 though the laws which sanctioned impressment 
 have not been repealed, the adoption of a system 
 of bounties has in recent times proved a suffi 
 ciently effective means of procuring seamen 
 without recourse to the oppressive practice of 
 former years. One of the principal causes of 
 the war between this country and England 
 (1812-15) was the assertion by the latter of a 
 right to impress English seamen out of Amer 
 ican vessels on the high seas, thus elevating a 
 practice which derived its warrant solely from 
 the municipal law of England into a right sanc 
 tioned by the law of nations. This asserted right, 
 sufficiently aggravating when confined in prac 
 tice, as it was in theory, to subjects of Great 
 Britain serving in American ships, became in 
 tolerable when extended to native-born- Ameri 
 cans owing no allegiance to the British crown. 
 
 This was constantly done, the English boarding- 
 officers acting, in effect, on the principle that the 
 seaman who failed to prove that he was an Amer 
 ican should be seized as an Englishman, and it 
 has been authoritatively stated that the number 
 of impressed Americans on board British ships 
 of war was seldom less than the entire number 
 of seamen in the United States navy between the 
 years 1802 and 1812. On the declaration of war 
 in the latter year, the number that was turned 
 over to the prison-ships for refusing to fight 
 against their own country is said to have ex 
 ceeded 2000. Impressment has never been 
 adopted in our country. There is nothing 
 (remarks Judge Tucker) in the Constitution of 
 the United States which warrants a supposition 
 that such a power as that of impressment can 
 ever be authorized or exercised under the gov 
 ernment of the United States. On the contrary, 
 the principles of the Constitution and the 
 nature of the government strongly militate 
 against the assumption or countenancing of 
 such a power. 
 
 IMPRESS-GANG. A party of officers and men 
 engaged in the act of impressment. More com 
 monly called press-gang. 
 
 Impulse. In mechanics, the single or mo 
 mentary force by which a body is impelled, in 
 contradistinction to continued force ; force com 
 municated without appreciable gradations ; mo 
 tion produced by suddenly communicated force. 
 
 In. Within ; on board. The situation of a 
 sail when it is furled ; to take in a sail, to clew 
 it up preparatory to furling. In boats ! the or 
 der to hoist in the boom-boats. In bows ! the 
 order to the bow-oarsmen to lay their oars in. 
 In the wind, the situation of a ship so close to the 
 wind that the sails shiver. 
 
 In-and-out Bolts. The bolts that are driven 
 through the ship s side. 
 
 Inboard. Within the hull of a vessel. Nearer 
 the centre-line. 
 
 Incendiary Shell. A shell filled with a highly-, 
 inflammable composition, for the purpose of set 
 ting fire to buildings ; a carcass. 
 
 Inchcape Bell. Tradition says that the ab 
 bots of the ancient monastery of Aberbrothrock 
 fixed the bell in such a manner that it was rung 
 by the heaving of the sea, thus warning mari 
 ners of their danger. Tradition also tells us that 
 the bell was carried away by a Dutchman, who, 
 with his ship and crew, was afterwards lost upon 
 the rock. The site is now occupied by a fine 
 light-house, which was erected in 1806-10. 
 
 Incidence, Angle of. A term which is used 
 by writers on Mechanics and Optics in different 
 senses. Thus, in the case of a body striking 
 against a plane the angle of incidence is by some 
 understood to signify the angle formed by the 
 line in which the body moved with a straight 
 line perpendicular to the plane ; while others 
 use the term to denote the angle which the line 
 of incidence makes with the plane itself. When 
 light or any elastic body is reflected from a sur 
 face, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle 
 of reflection ; and in case of refraction, the sine 
 of the angle of incidence has to the sine of the 
 angle of refraction a constant ratio. 
 
 Inclinatory Needle. An old term for the dip 
 ping needle (which see). 
 
 Inclined-cylinder Steam-engine. One in 
 which the axis of the cylinder is inclined to the 
 
INCOMPETENCY 
 
 360 
 
 INERTIA 
 
 horizon, in contradistinction to the horizontal 
 and vertical types. Called also inclined-engine. 
 
 Incompetency, or Insufficiency. A bar to 
 any claim on warrantry, as it is an implied con 
 dition in the seaworthiness of a ship that at 
 sailing she must have a master of competent 
 skill, and a crew sufficient to navigate her on 
 the voyage. 
 
 Incrustation. The deposit from the water, 
 adhering to the inside of a boiler. See SCALE. 
 
 Indemnification. A stipulated compensation 
 for damage done. 
 
 Indemnity. Amnesty ; security against pun 
 ishment. 
 
 Indentures, Pair of. A term for charter-party. 
 
 Independence, Declaration of. The written 
 instrument adopted by the Continental Congress 
 assembled at Philadelphia on the 4th of July , 1776, 
 whereby the 13 American colonies declared their 
 independence of the crown of Great Britain. 
 This memorable instrument asserts the right and 
 duty of a people, whenever their form of govern 
 ment becomes destructive of the ends for which 
 governments are instituted, to wit: the security 
 of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, to 
 throw off such government and to provide new 
 guards for their future security. It recapitu 
 lates the oppressions of the British king, and 
 closes with the following solemn appeal and dec 
 laration : "We therefore, the Representatives 
 of the United States of America, in General Con 
 gress Assembled, appealing to the Supreme 
 Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten 
 tions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the 
 good People of these Colonies, solemnly*publish 
 and declare, That these United Colonies are, and 
 of right ought to be, Free and Independent 
 States ; That they are Absolved from all Alle 
 giance to the British Crown, and that all politi 
 cal connection between them and the State of 
 Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis 
 solved ; and, that as Free and Independent States, 
 they have full Power to levy War, conclude 
 Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, 
 and to do all other Acts and Things which Inde 
 pendent States may of right do. And for the 
 support of this Declaration, with a lirm reliance 
 on the Protection of Divine Providence, we 
 mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our 
 Fortunes, and our sacred Honor." 
 
 Index. The flat bar which carries the index- 
 glass of a quadrant, octant, sextant, etc. The 
 integer part of a logarithm. 
 
 INDEX-ERROR. A correction to be applied to 
 the reading of an astronomical instrument. See 
 SEXTANT. 
 
 INDEX-GLASS. A mirror which moves with 
 the index of an astronomical instrument, and 
 reflects the image of the sun or other object upon 
 the horizon-glass, whence it is again reflected to 
 the eye of the observer. 
 
 Indiaman. A term occasionally applied to 
 any ship in the East India trade, but in strict 
 parlance the large ships formerly officered by the 
 East India Company for that trade, and gener 
 ally armed. 
 
 indicator. An instrument, originally invented 
 by Watt for recording, by means of a diagram, 
 the pressure per unit of area upon the piston of 
 a steam-engine at all points of its stroke. From 
 the diagram, which is drawn upon a piece of 
 paper called an indicator card, the mean pressure 
 
 throughout the stroke may be ascertained, and 
 mal-adjustment of valves or leakage through 
 valves, piston, or other parts of the cylinder de 
 tected. The instrument consists essentially of a 
 small vertical cylinder, open at the top and com 
 municating at the bottom with the engine-cylin,- 
 der, provided with a delicately-fitting piston of 
 accurately determined area, which is held in po 
 sition by a spiral spring of known tension, so 
 that the pressure of steam on the bottom of the 
 piston or that of the atmosphere on the top will 
 be indicated by a pencil attached to a rod of the 
 small piston by suitable mechanism. The pencil 
 is brought to bear upon a piece of paper closely 
 wrapped around a cylinder, which is caused to par 
 tially revolve in alternate directions by a motion 
 coincident with that of the piston of the engine 
 while the pencil i,s moving up and down, thus de 
 scribing an irregular continuous line inclosing a 
 space, the area of which represents the unbal 
 anced pressure on the engine-piston. The vertical 
 ordinate of any point of the line, when measured 
 with a scale corresponding to the stiffness of the 
 spring, indicates the pressure per unit of area at 
 that point, and the mean of a number of ordinates 
 gives the mean pressure throughout the stroke. 
 
 INDICATOR CARD. A piece of paper on which 
 an indicator diagram is drawn. Upon the card 
 should be noted the pressure of the steam per 
 gauge in the boilers ; the vacuum in the con 
 denser per gauge ; reading of barometer ; the 
 revolutions of the engines per minute; the rel 
 ative amount of opening of the throttle-valve ; 
 temperatures of the air, injection- or sea- water, 
 discharge-water, and hot- well ; the direction and 
 force of the wind relative to the ship ; the state 
 and direction of the sea ; the amount of sail set ; 
 and any abnormal condition of the machinery. 
 These notes should be made at the instant the 
 diagram is taken, and the card should bear the 
 name of the vessel, the date, and the exact hour 
 and minute of taking. 
 
 Indraught. A particular flowing of the ocean 
 towards any contracting part of a coast or coasts, 
 as that which sets from the Atlantic into the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. It usually applies to a 
 strong current apt to engender a sort of vortex. 
 
 Induction-pipe. The main steam-pipe of the 
 steam-engine, conducting steam from the boiler 
 to the steam-chest. 
 
 Induction-valve. The main steam-valve, or 
 valve admitting steam from the steam-chest to 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Indulto. The duty formerly exacted by the 
 crown of Spain upon colonial commodities. 
 
 Indus. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Inertia (Lat. iners, slothful). That inherent 
 property of matter which renders all bodies ab 
 solutely passive or indifferent to a state of rest 
 or motion, so that they would continue forever 
 at rest, or persevere in the same uniform and 
 rectilinear motion, unless disturbed by the ac 
 tion of some extrinsic force. The ancients attrib 
 uted to matter a certain inaptitude or reluctance 
 to motion ; but that a body in motion required 
 the operation of an extrinsic cause to bring it to 
 rest was first discovered by Galileo. Kepler, 
 conceiving the disposition of a body to main 
 tain its motion as indicating an exertion of power, 
 prefixed the word vis; and the compound ex 
 pression vis inertice, though less accurate, has 
 been generally retained. 
 
INFEKIOK CONJUNCTION 
 
 361 
 
 INMAN 
 
 Inferior Conjunction. See CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Inferior Planets. See PLANETS. 
 
 Ingraham, Duncan Nathaniel, Captain 
 U.S.N. Born in Charleston, S. C., December 6, 
 1802; died there June 10, 1863. Midshipman, 
 June 18, 1812; lieutenant, April 1, 1818; com 
 mander, May 24, 1838 ; captain, September 14, 
 1855. Nathaniel, his father, was a friend of 
 Paul Jones, and was in the action with the 
 British brig " Serapis." His uncle Joseph, Cap 
 tain U.S.N., was lost at sea in the U. S. ship 
 "Pickering." His cousin, William, a lieuten 
 ant in the navy, was killed at the age of 20. 
 Capt. Ingraham married Harriet R., grand- 
 daughter of Henry Laurens. His seizure of 
 Martin Kostza, an American citizen, from the 
 Austrian brig-of- war "Hussar, "at Smyrna, July 
 2, 1853, gave rise to an elaborate discussion at 
 Washington between M. Hulseman, the Aus 
 trian charge d affaires, and Mr. Marcy, Secretary 
 of State. Congress, by joint resolution, August 
 4, 1854, requested the President to present a 
 medal to him for his conduct on this occasion. 
 In March, 1856, he was appointed chief of the 
 Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography, which 
 position he resigned February 4, 1861, and was 
 made chief of ordnance, construction, and re 
 pair in the Confederate navy. 
 
 Inia (Jnia Boliviensix). A cetaceous animal 
 of the family Delphinidce, in form resembling a 
 dolphin, with a long and slender snout. It is 
 the only known species of its genus, and is one 
 of the few Cetacea which inhabit fresh water. 
 It is found in some of the upper tributaries of 
 the Amazon and in the lakes near the Cordille 
 ras. It is from 7 to 12 or 14 feet long. Its food 
 consists of fish. It is generally found in little 
 troops of three or four, and is taken for the 
 sake of the oil which it yields. The females 
 show great affection for their young. 
 
 Initial Velocity. See VELOCITY. 
 
 Injection. In the steam-engine, a stream or 
 jet of water admitted to the condenser for the 
 purpose of condensing the steam, after having 
 performed its work. 
 
 INJECTION-COCK, or INJECTION-VALVE. A 
 cock or valve by which the quantity of injec 
 tion-water is governed. 
 
 INJ ECTION-, or J ET-CONDENSER. A condenser 
 in which the refrigerating water comes in direct 
 coiitact with the steam and mingles with the 
 water of condensation. See CONDENSER. 
 
 INJECTION-PIPE. A pipe that conducts the 
 refrigerating water to the condenser of a steam- 
 engine. 
 
 Injector. An instrument for supplying feed- 
 Water to steam-boilers, the action of which de 
 pends upon fluid friction or "induction," and 
 the energy due to the latent heat of steam being 
 transferred to a stream of water. In the sim 
 plest form of the instrument, a small jet or 
 stream from the boiler is projected from a tube 
 passing partly through a chamber, to which is 
 attached the water-supply pipe, into a conical or 
 bell-mouthed tube of larger dimensions, which 
 passes into another chamber provided with an 
 overflow, and terminates at the entrance of the 
 discharge-pipe leading to the boiler. The dis 
 charge-pipe is provided with a check-valve, and 
 the steam-jet and water-supply are adjusted by 
 suitable mechanism. When started in opera 
 tion, the steam-jet, by its friction or adhesion, 
 
 exhausts the air or vapor, if any, from the sup 
 ply-pipe and chamber, ejecting it through the 
 overflow ; the water fills the vacuum, and, pass 
 ing through the annular space between the noz 
 zle of the jet-pipe and the conical tube, comes in 
 contact with the steam and condenses it ; the 
 energy due to the weight and high velocity of 
 the steam is, after condensation, transmitted to a 
 greater weight of water, the combination moving 
 at a slower velocity, the heat extracted from the 
 steam by condensation being the means of such 
 transmission, enabling the stream to overcome a 
 much greater resistance than that due to the 
 pressure which supplies the steam-jet. The 
 overflow permits the escape of any excess of 
 steam or water resulting from lack of proper 
 adjustment. The weight of water delivered rel 
 ative to that of the steam consumed may be con 
 sidered as a function of the difference between the 
 temperature of the stream and the total heat of 
 the steam. There are several designs of the in 
 strument, their difference depending principally 
 upon proportions and mechanism for adjustment ; 
 but none are considered reliable when hot feed- 
 water is used. 
 
 Injuries to Cannon. The injuries from the 
 powder generally occur in the rear of the projec 
 tile. They consist of enlargement of the bore ; 
 cavities produced by the melting of a portion of 
 the metal by the heat generated by the combus 
 tion of the charge ; cracks ; and furrows or scor 
 ing produced by the erosive action of the gases. 
 The injuries from the projectile consist of an 
 indentation at the seat of the projectile, and a 
 corresponding burr in front of the projectile; en 
 largements formed by the balloting of the pro 
 jectile in the bore and at the muzzle; scratches 
 and cuts made by an imperfect projectile or by 
 the fragments of broken ones ; wearing away of 
 the edges of the lands ; and cracks on the exte 
 rior. 
 
 Ink-fish. The cuttle-fish (which see). 
 Inland Sea. A very large gulf surrounded 
 by land, except at the communication with the 
 ocean, as the Baltic, Eed, and Mediterranean 
 Seas. 
 
 Inland Trade. That which is wholly man 
 aged at home, and the term is in contradistinction 
 to commerce. 
 
 Inlet. A term in some cases synonymous with 
 cove and creek, in contradistinction to outlet, 
 when speaking of the supply and discharge of 
 lakes and broad waters, or an opening in the 
 land forming a passage to any inclosed water. 
 
 Inman, William, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New York. Appointed midshipman from 
 New York, January 1, 1812 ; served on the lakes 
 during the war of 1812, afterward on the Atlantic. 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 1, 1818; 
 served in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic 
 in 1823 ; commanded one of two boats capturing 
 a pirate vessel mounting 3 guns, on the coast 
 of Cuba ; from 1834-37 served as executive-lieu 
 tenant of a flag-ship frigate in the Pacific. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, May, 1838 ; 
 commanded steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 
 1844-46. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, June 2, 1850; com 
 manded steam-frigate " Susquehanna," 1851; 
 from 1859-61, commanded the African Squadron 
 which recaptured and landed in Liberia 3600 
 slaves. Ketired December 21, 1861. 
 
INNER POST 
 
 362 
 
 INSPECTION 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, March 12, 1867. 
 Died, 1872. 
 
 Inner Post. "Worked on the inside of the 
 main post running down to the throat of the 
 stern-post knee. 
 
 Inquiry, Court of. A court of inquiry is held 
 by the same authority as a general court-mar 
 tial ; that is, may be ordered by the President, 
 the Secretary of the Navy, or the commander of 
 a fleet or squadron without restriction as to " ex 
 press authority." 
 
 Their origin is not found in law, but in the 
 exercise of kingly prerogative. Custom grafted 
 them into the military judicature of England, 
 and the United States did not provide for them 
 by statute (although they were probably held 
 earlier) until April 23, 1800. It is gratifying to 
 say that the laws relating to their organization 
 and powers have not undergone the slightest 
 change since then. Their object is to ascertain 
 facts in complicated or difficult cases for the in 
 formation of superior authority. They may be 
 convened to establish responsibility, or crimi 
 nality, as a preliminary proceeding to trial by 
 court-martial, or to clear up matters of public 
 welfare ; or to exculpate individuals believing 
 themselves aggrieved. In any case, they record, 
 sift, and methodize the information obtained, 
 and upon their report is determined whether or 
 not further action is necessary or expedient. 
 
 The functions of courts of inquiry are there 
 fore semi-judicial, and their proceedings are 
 marked by great precision, though, as regards 
 documentary evidence, the same strictness does 
 not prevail as in courts-martial. Their duties 
 depend almost entirely upon their instructions, 
 which should be minute and definite, and the 
 procedure is that of courts-martial so far as ap 
 plicable. Being assimilated to, and held in many 
 respects in the light of a grand jury, its members 
 are, as a rule, disqualified to sit as "judge and 
 juror" in the court-martial which may follow. 
 "Whether they give the facts of the case only, or 
 an opinion, they are held to have been exposed 
 to impressions which might operate against a 
 fair trial of the accused. 
 
 " A court of inquiry shall consist of not more 
 than three commissioned officers as members, and 
 judge-advocate, or person officiating as such." 
 (Rev. Stat., Sec. 1624.) They have power to 
 summon witnesses, administer oaths, and punish 
 contempts in the same manner as courts-martial,- 
 but they shall only state facts, and shall not give 
 their opinion unless expressly required so to do 
 in the order for convening. 
 
 In all investigations, the party whose conduct 
 is the subject of inquiry and his counsel have 
 the right to be present, to challenge members, to 
 address the court, and cross-examine all of the 
 witnesses. His presence is not obligatory, but 
 is customary and advisable. He is usually called 
 before the court ; also the complainant ( if there 
 be one), before the subject to be investigated is 
 announced. The judge-advocate administers to 
 the members the oath, or affirmation, " well and 
 truly to examine and inquire" into the matter 
 before them (see OATHS), after which the presi 
 dent swears the judge-advocate to keep "a true 
 record," etc. It will be observed that this order 
 of administering the oaths is exactly the reverse 
 of that prescribed by law for general courts- 
 martial, and that for general courts is the reverse 
 
 of that for summary courts, and that for an 
 army general court is the- reverse of that for a 
 navy general court ; and yet any departure from 
 the order laid down in either case would, of 
 course, be illegal. 
 
 These courts hold open sessions unless there be 
 good reason to the contrary, which they decide 
 when not anticipated by the convening author 
 ity. There is no statute of limitations for them. 
 Two very notable and illustrative courts recently 
 assembled in the State of New York (1878-80) 
 upon the personal applications of Fitz-John Por 
 ter and Lieut.-Col. Gr. K. Warren, U.S.A., who 
 were major-generals of United States Volunteers 
 during the Rebellion of 1861-65, to examine 
 into and review their military conduct at that 
 time. Civil and military witnesses of all ranks, 
 many of whom had served in the opposing army, 
 were summoned from all parts of the country, 
 and subjected to crucial examinations. 
 
 When a court is ordered to report facts, it 
 does not mean the testimony simply, " but the 
 result and conclusion of the court from hearing 
 the evidence." An opinion is held by the Navy 
 Department to be different from a " conclusion," 
 and to relate to the merits of the case. The pro 
 ceedings of a court are authenticated by the sig 
 natures of the president and judge-advocate, and 
 " in all cases not capital, nor extending to the 
 dismissal of a commissioned or warrant-officer," 
 may be evidence before a court-martial, provided 
 oral testimony cannot be obtained. 
 
 Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, 
 and are dissolved by the authority which ordered 
 them to convene. " A commanding officer act 
 ing singly" has no power to order a court of 
 inquiry, but can order a board of three officers to 
 investigate any casualty, occurrence, or trans 
 action in regard to which the government should 
 be informed. Commanders of squadrons are re 
 quired to order courts of inquiry promptly 
 whenever called for, and transmit proceedings 
 without delay to the Secretary of the Navy. 
 Henry C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Inshore. Toward the shore ; nearer the shore. 
 
 Inspection. Solving a problem by inspection 
 is the obtaining the result at once by looking into 
 a table, the arguments of which are the data of 
 the problem. Though few problems can be 
 wholly solved in this manner, still the method 
 is used in the different steps and portions of 
 nearly every problem in navigation. 
 
 Inspection, Board of. A board was convened 
 for the first time in our navy in 1870, at the in 
 stance and under the direction of Admiral Por 
 ter. Its purpose is to inspect all vessels of war 
 going on, or returning from, a cruise, and it was 
 at first composed of three line-officers of rank 
 and experience. At present its composition is 
 1 commodore, 2 captains, 1 medical and 1 pay 
 inspector, 1 chief engineer, 1 captain of marines, 
 and a recorder. 
 
 When visiting a vessel the board is received 
 with the honors due its senior officer. 
 
 The first step in the inspection is the assem 
 bling of the officers and crew at quarters, every 
 part of the ship being thrown open. Her decks, 
 holds, store-rooms, engine- and fire-rooms, mag 
 azines and shell-rooms, and every part of the 
 vessel, with her various fitments, are closely 
 scrutinized. She is then "cleared for action," 
 and the battery provided in accordance with the 
 
INSTANCE COUKT 
 
 363 
 
 INTEKNATIONAL LAW 
 
 ordnance instructions. The officers in charge of 
 divisions and departments report their readiness 
 for battle to the executive-officer, who in turn 
 reports to the commander, the guns and imple 
 ments for serving them are carefully inspected. 
 
 The board then directs the exercises, consist 
 ing of loading and firing; fighting one and both 
 sides at the same time. The assembling of board 
 ers, riflemen, and pikemen; of boarding and re 
 pelling the enemy. Injuries to gun-carriages, 
 their tackling or implements, provided for. One 
 or more guns are shifted from one carriage, port, 
 or side to the other. Spars and rigging supposed 
 to be shot away or wounded replaced or repaired. 
 Shot-holes and leaks stopped. Fire incident to 
 battle extinguished. Torpedoes fitted and ex 
 ploded. The supply and character of powder 
 charges and projectiles examined. The use of 
 small-arms and Gatling-guns by marines and 
 seamen, and other expedients for purposes offen 
 sive and defensive. 
 
 The boats are then armed and equipped for 
 "distant service," with their respective details, 
 and are exercised under sail and oars in the vari 
 ous evolutions of fleet movements of attack and 
 landing, in the latter case the crews are organ 
 ized to form a battalion, with a battery of how 
 itzers or Gatling-guns. 
 
 The spar and sail exercises are then had, 
 consisting of sending down and up light masts 
 and yards, of making and reducing sail, reef 
 ing topsails and courses, and shifting the same 
 by unbending one set and bending another. The 
 extinguishing of fire when not engaged in battle 
 closes the exercises. 
 
 The watch-, quarter-, and station-bills, quality 
 of clothing and provisions for the crew, are closely 
 inspected, as well the engines, boilers, and their 
 appurtenances, and whatever may tend to affect 
 the health of the crew. 
 
 Some of the above exercises are dispensed with 
 in ships newly commissioned. 
 
 The results of the inspection are reported in 
 duplicate to the admiral of the navy by the 
 senior officer. The admiral forwards a copy to 
 the Navy Department with such recommenda 
 tions as may to him seem advisable. 
 
 It is obvious that it being known to the navy- 
 yard authorities where a ship is fitted out, and 
 to the officers and men attached to a vessel that 
 such an inspection is inevitable, stimulates them 
 to do their utmost to render her efficient.- 
 J. H. Upshur, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Instance Court (Eng.}. A department of the 
 admiralty court, governed by the civil laws of 
 Oleron, and the customs of the admiralty, modi 
 fied by statute law. 
 
 Insulated Wire. A wire suspended by insula 
 tors, as the ordinary telegraph-wire. Wire covered 
 with some insulating material, as gutta-percha, 
 Hooper s material, etc. See CABLE, ELECTRICAL. 
 
 Insulator. A substance of relatively small 
 conductivity. See ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Insult. In a military sense, to attack boldly 
 and in open day, without going through the 
 slow operations of trenches, working by mines 
 and saps, or having recourse to those usual 
 forms of war, by advancing gradually towards 
 the object in view. An enemy is said to insult 
 a coast when he suddenly appears upon it and 
 debarks with an immediate purpose to attack. 
 
 Insurance. See MARINE INSURANCE. 
 
 Insured. The party who obtains the policy 
 and pays the premium. 
 
 Insurer. The party taking the risk of a pol 
 icy. See UNDERWRITERS. 
 
 Intercalary Day. See DAY, INTERCALARY. 
 
 Intermediate-shaft. The shaft crossing the 
 frame of a marine engine between the two en 
 gines and connecting the two paddle-shafts, 
 sometimes applied to counter-shafts. 
 
 Internal Contact. This, in a transit of Mer 
 cury or Venus across the solar disk, occurs when 
 the planet is just within the sun s margin. 
 
 Internal Planking. This is termed the ceiling 
 of the ship. 
 
 Internal Safety-valve. A valve on a boiler 
 opening inward by excess of external pressure to 
 prevent collapsing in case the internal pressure 
 of steam becomes reduced by condensation much 
 below the pressure of the atmosphere. Called 
 also reverse valve and vacuum valve. 
 
 International Law. 1. Sources, authority, 
 sanction. International law is a collection of 
 rules governing the intercourse of civilized states. 
 The rules are derived partly from general princi 
 ples of right and justice, and partly from consid 
 erations of general convenience. The safest 
 method of determining them is by induction 
 from the widest and most lasting usage. Usages 
 vary considerably at different periods, and in the 
 practice of different states, but no usage is likely 
 to be lasting which is opposed either to justice or 
 the general convenience. In cases of conflicting 
 usage, the preference must be given to that which 
 accords most nearly with these two final tests. 
 This process does not always bring about a uni 
 form result, because there is no single authority 
 to pronounce finally upon the validity of any 
 given rule, and individual views of justice and 
 of the general good are apt to be clouded by 
 considerations of individual interest. But in the 
 present state of international relations it affords 
 the nearest method of approach to a universal 
 public law. There is no international legislature 
 to formulate the law, no common judiciary to in 
 terpret it, and no executive to enforce it. Hence 
 it is somewhat variable and shifting, both in 
 principle and practice. Its authority is derived 
 from the general consent of nations, tacit or ex 
 press. Its doctrines are laid down with more or 
 less variety in the works of text-writers, in state 
 papers, in the decisions of courts, and occasion 
 ally in statutes and treaties, though the last more 
 frequently embody exceptions to the law than 
 rules of the law. It is enforced by the govern 
 ments of independent states acting separately or 
 by their agents. Of sanctions, in the sense of a 
 penalty attached to the law for its violation, in 
 ternational law knows little. Acts in violation 
 of international law, committed by individuals, 
 are punished by the government having juris 
 diction over the offender, if its laws take cog 
 nizance of the offense; and, in some cases, as 
 breaches of blockade, or carrying contraband, 
 by a judicial confiscation by courts of the in 
 jured state. But in the first case it is a breach of 
 municipal, not of international, law that is pun 
 ished, and in the second the penalty is inflicted 
 by a tribunal whose authority is derived wholly 
 from the injured state. Where governments or 
 the states they represent are the offenders, there 
 are no sanctions except public opinion and war ; 
 the first of which can be called a sanction only 
 
INTEKNATIONAL LAW 
 
 364 
 
 INTEKNATIONAL LAW 
 
 by a figure of speech, and the second is one that 
 benefits only the stronger party. War is a pen 
 alty that cannot be successfully imposed by a 
 weak state upon a powerful one, where the lat 
 ter has violated its international duties. ^The 
 game is true, though to a less extent, of reprisals. 
 
 In determining the rules of international law, 
 the greatest reliance is to be placed upon state 
 papers and decisions of courts, as embodying 
 principles adopted to meet actual cases and car 
 ried out in actual practice. In the former, how 
 ever, allowance must be made for the interested 
 leanings of statesmen who are advocating a cause, 
 rather than judging impartially both sides of a 
 question. Even in the decisions of courts, a cer 
 tain partiality for national views of public policy 
 is almost unavoidable. Treatises are valuable 
 guides, but, as their authors are under no respon 
 sibility, they may give way to speculative tenden 
 cies, and they often fail to distinguish between the 
 law as it actually is and their views of what it 
 ought to be. Even here it is necessary to know 
 the nationality of the writer, for each nation has 
 its own school of publicists, who view the law 
 largely from an interested stand-point. The 
 principal authorities are Halleck, Kent, Whea- 
 ton, and Woolsey in the United States, Philli- 
 more, Twiss, Ward, and Manning in England, 
 HefFter in Germany, and Ortolan and Hautefeu- 
 ille in France, though the last advocates a theory 
 of international law which is far from receiving 
 general support. The best modern treatise is that 
 of Calvo, a South American, published in French 
 and Spanish. Treaties sometimes contain state 
 ments or definitions of rules of international law, 
 but they are only binding upon the parties 
 to the treaty. Treaties in which a large num 
 ber of states have united in the adoption of a 
 rule, as in the Declaration of Paris of 1856, some 
 times go far towards fixing or modifying a hith 
 erto unsettled doctrine. 
 
 2. States and their attributes. As i nternational 
 law governs the intercourse of states, it is upon 
 states as units, rather than upon individuals, 
 that the law primarily operates. But it also con 
 cerns closely certain officers as agents of states, 
 and citizens who are brought into relation with 
 governments other than their own. A state is a 
 collection of persons united by a political organ 
 ization, occupying a fixed territory, and subject 
 in its relations to other political bodies to no rec 
 ognized control or authority outside of its own 
 organization. The supreme control which a 
 state, through its government, exercises over all 
 its concerns^ called sovereignty. This attribute 
 of states is a thing independent of forms of gov 
 ernment. It resides in the body or bodies to which 
 the state by its constitution or organic law has 
 deputed the powers of government, and which 
 are designated collectively as the sovereign. The 
 sovereign may be an individual, as in an abso 
 lute monarchy, or it may be an assemblage of 
 individuals or bodies of varying complexity and 
 organization, as in most modern states. There 
 are two kinds of sovereignty, internal sov 
 ereignty, which concerns the interior adminis 
 tration of a state, and external sovereignty, 
 which concerns its foreign relations. From one 
 or the other all the particular powers of govern 
 ment are derived ; but it is with the second alone 
 that the system of international law has to do. 
 In a newly-established state the acknowledgment 
 
 of its independence by other states, or recog 
 nition, as it is called, is necessary to the full ex 
 ercise of external sovereignty. The question of 
 according this recognition in doubtful cases is a 
 question of policy rather than of law ; but when 
 the new state gives sufficient assurance of per 
 manence, recognition generally follows as a mat 
 ter of course. In a civil war, when two parties 
 are contending for power, the question arises 
 which of the two parties shall be recognized by 
 foreign states when each claims to be exercising 
 the powers of government. Here again the 
 question is largely one of policy, as long as the 
 issue is doubtful, but it is the general practice 
 for foreign states to recognize, in the end, the 
 government de facto without inquiring into the 
 justice of its foundation. 
 
 For certain limited and temporary purposes, a 
 government may sometimes be recognized with 
 out the recognition of the state which it repre 
 sents. This case only arises when a civil war or 
 insurrection has assumed extensive proportions, 
 and it becomes necessary to maintain relations 
 with the insurgents analogous to those between 
 state and state. Such a limited and partial rec 
 ognition is known as "recognition of belliger 
 ency," and it only lasts during the continuance 
 of the civil war or insurrection. It exists only 
 for war purposes, and its effect is to place both 
 parties to the contest on the footing of belliger 
 ents, with all the rights and duties towards each 
 other and towards neutrals that result from such 
 a condition. 
 
 From the possession of sovereignty flow the 
 three primary rights of states. These are the 
 rights of self-preservation, of independence, and 
 of equality. The right of self-preservation is 
 the right of every state to take hostile measures 
 to protect itself from foreign aggression. The 
 right of independence is the right of a state to 
 manage its own concerns without interference 
 or dictation from without. The right of equality 
 is that by which all states are equal before the 
 law ; that is, equally subject to the operation of 
 its rules, apart from their size, power, or impor 
 tance. By it the obligations of a powerful state 
 to a weak state are the same, under the law, as 
 those between states equal in power. From 
 these three primary and permanent rights all the 
 specific rights of states are derived, the right 
 of making war and peace, of negotiation, of 
 legislative and judicial control of foreigners 
 within the territory, and, in fact, all the rights 
 conceded to sovereign states by the law. 
 
 Though states are not moral persons, in the 
 strict sense that all the principles of ethics apply 
 to them in the same way as to individuals, yet 
 there are certain duties or moral claims, as they 
 have been well called, which lie at the basis of 
 the system governing their relations. Of these, 
 four well-defined classes may be mentioned as 
 receiving general acceptance. These are the 
 duties of humanity, of good faith, of comity of 
 international civility, and of respecting the un 
 questioned rights of another state, and repairing 
 injuries. Other obligations, more or less vague 
 in character and extent, have been referred to by 
 different political moralists ; but it is eminently 
 unsafe to reason in international law from indi 
 vidual views of international morality ; and the 
 four obligations mentioned are all that can rea 
 sonably be assumed as universally binding. 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 365 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 States are sometimes joined with other states 
 in a formal union, by which each parts more or 
 less with its sovereignty. These unions vary in 
 character, and may be divided into three general 
 classes, viz. : Unions under a reigning prince, 
 federal unions, and protective unions. In the 
 first class are: (1) Personal union, which exists 
 when two states have a reigning prince in com 
 mon, but are otherwise entirely independent. 
 An example of this is the union of Holland and 
 Luxemburg, the king of Holland being also 
 grand duke of Luxemburg, but each state re 
 taining its individuality and full powers of sov 
 ereignty. (2) Real union, where internal sov 
 ereignty is reserved to the members, but external 
 sovereignty is given up to the union as a whole. 
 The states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy 
 are an example. (3) Incorporate union, where 
 both internal and external sovereignty reside in 
 the body politic as a whole. The union of Great 
 Britain and Ireland is an example. Federal 
 unions are of two kinds, a federal state, such as 
 the United States of America, where external 
 sovereignty resides in the union, and a confed 
 eration of states, where it is reserved to the mem 
 bers, as in the German Confederation of 1815. 
 Protective unions exist in great variety, but they 
 are all based on the surrender of some part of the 
 power of independent action in foreign affairs to 
 the protecting state. The dependencies are gen 
 erally known as semi-sovereign states. 
 
 3. Diplomatic and other agents. Diplomatic 
 agents are of four classes : ambassadors, min 
 isters plenipotentiary, ministers resident, and 
 charges d affaires. The United States are repre 
 sented by agents only of the last three classes. 
 In order that these agents may be perfectly free 
 and unrestricted in the performance of their du 
 ties they are granted a general immunity from 
 the legal jurisdiction of the government to which 
 they are accredited. The immunity extends to 
 their family and suite, and, within limits that 
 have never been clearly defined, to their resi 
 dence. The immunity consists in exemption 
 from arrest, from civil or criminal process, and 
 from being required to attend as a witness in 
 court. The property of the minister is also ex 
 empt from all proceedings in rem. As to the 
 immunity of the official residence, the better 
 opinion is that no judicial process can be served 
 therein, though some governments the British, 
 for example claim the right to enter and make 
 arrests, after giving notice. The only general 
 exception to diplomatic immunity is where the 
 acts of a minister endanger the safety of the 
 state, as by inciting to insurrection, and where 
 the emergency admits of no delay. Here the par 
 amount right of self-preservation justifies a disre 
 gard of the diplomatic privilege. But in all 
 cases but those requiring instant action the gov 
 ernment to which the minister is accredited must 
 proceed by demanding his recall. 
 
 Consuls. Consuls are commercial agents, hav 
 ing, in general, no diplomatic functions or di 
 plomatic immunities. A state is not bound to 
 allow the residence of foreign consuls, though, at 
 present, the practice is universal among civilized 
 states. Consuls cannot enter upon their duties 
 until they have received an exequatur, or permis 
 sion to act, from the local government. If guilty 
 of offenses against the law, they may be tried in 
 the courts of the country where they reside, or 
 
 they may have their exequatur withdrawn, and 
 be sent back to their own country. The duties of 
 consuls of the United States consist in receiving 
 the protests of masters and seamen ; in adminis 
 tering the estates of Americans dying abroad in 
 testate ; securing the effects of stranded vessels ; 
 sending home destitute seamen, etc. In the East 
 and in the Mohammedan countries of the Medi 
 terranean they have judicial functions, which are 
 defined in the treaties between the United States 
 and those states, and the} 7 are granted immunity 
 from the operation of the local law, similar to 
 that accorded to diplomatic agents. 
 
 Naval commanders. The commanders of ships 
 of war, at sea and on foreign stations, are in a 
 sense agents of the government, and as such 
 must come directly under the operation of inter 
 national law. While on shore in foreign coun 
 tries they have no immunity from local juris 
 diction, unless clothed with the diplomatic 
 character, by virtue of special instructions. 
 Among their duties as agents of the government 
 are, in time of war, the examination of the mer 
 chant vessels of all countries, and the capture of 
 those found violating the laws of war ; in time 
 of peace, the police of the ocean, which requires 
 them to apprehend pirates, and the protection of 
 American interests wherever such protection de 
 mands their interference. It must be remem 
 bered, however, that a forcible demonstration of 
 any kind is a hostile act, which, if unwarranted, 
 violates the sovereignty of the state against 
 which it is directed, and interrupts, as far as the 
 act is concerned, the peaceful relations of the 
 government. The injured state is likely to de 
 mand reparation, and if a blunder has been com 
 mitted by a naval commander, the government 
 will be compelled to sacrifice him, even though 
 he may have supposed that he was acting in the 
 discharge of his duty. If such acts are performed 
 at the request of a consul, the officer s individual 
 responsibility will not thereby be taken away. 
 Though it is the duty of a naval commander to 
 render every reasonable assistance to a consul, 
 yet the consul cannot give him orders, nor can 
 the officer throw the responsibility for his acts, 
 upon the consul. He must, therefore, be sure 
 that he keeps within the bounds imposed by in 
 ternational law. 
 
 4. Nationality. (a) Persons. As international 
 law is concerned (1) with states, and (2) with 
 the agents of states, it also affects (3) individu 
 als, as the members of a state, whenever they 
 come into relations with any other government 
 than their own. It is, therefore, of great im 
 portance to determine exactly the tests by which 
 membership of a state, or nationality, as it is 
 called, is known. A person who has always re 
 sided in the country of his birth, and whose 
 parents were natives of the country, clearly be 
 longs to that country. But if he removes to 
 another country, or if he engages in a business 
 which is partially conducted in foreign territory, 
 he enters upon new relations. While residing 
 abroad, he may retain his allegiance to his native 
 country, or he may transfer it. In the first case 
 he obtains a new domicile, in the second, a new 
 citizenship ; in other words, he becomes natural 
 ized. A man s domicile is the place in which he 
 resides with the intention of remaining. If a 
 man goes to a country, sine animo revertendi, or 
 with only the general intention of returning 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 366 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 after many years, he acquires a domicile there. 
 If he has been there only a short time, the pre 
 sumption is that he has not acquired a domicile ; 
 but this presumption may be removed by proof 
 of intention to remain. If he goes to a country 
 only temporarily, with the intention of return 
 ing shortly, he does not acquire domicile. If he 
 has a house of trade in a foreign country, though 
 retaining his original residence, he is considered 
 as domiciled there, so far as the trade of his 
 foreign house is concerned. Short absences do 
 not destroy domicile ; but, in the case of a long 
 absence, the presumption is that the domicile is 
 changed, especially if the person has returned to 
 his native country. A man simply domiciled in 
 a foreign country retains his original allegiance. 
 If he wishes to change this, he must go through 
 the process of naturalization. The laws govern 
 ing naturalization differ in different countries, 
 but they agree in requiring a certain period of 
 residence, a formal renunciation of former alle 
 giance, and a formal adoption of the new alle 
 giance. Naturalized citizens are regarded in the 
 same lightas natives by international law, except 
 that on their return to their native country they 
 may be made accountable for any obligations to 
 the state which they had incurred, but had not 
 fulfilled, before the change of allegiance. 
 
 (b) Ships. Ships, as well as persons, must have 
 a distinct nationality, and certain rights and 
 duties result from it. The conditions upon which 
 nationality is acquired are determined by each 
 state in its municipal law. Laws determining the 
 national character of ships are known as naviga 
 tion laws. They vary in detail in different coun 
 tries, but they agree in looking to three main 
 facts: (1) place of construction of the ship, (2) 
 ownership, and (3) nationality of officers and 
 crew. In regard to (1), most of the states of 
 Europe and America admit foreign-built vessels 
 to their registry. The exceptions are the United 
 States, Brazil, Portugal, Greece, Mexico, and Co 
 lombia, which require that a vessel should be na 
 tive-built. As to (2), in most countries merchant 
 ships, in order to obtain a register, must be wholly 
 owned by subjects. In Belgium and Holland, 
 however, three-eighths of a ship may be owned 
 by foreigners; in France and Greece, one-half, 
 while in Italy, Sweden, and Chili ships may be 
 owned by domiciled residents. As to (3), na 
 tionality of officers and crew, England, Belgium, 
 Norway, Germany, Holland, Chili, and Uru 
 guay make no limitation ; Austria and Mexico 
 require that the captain and two-thirds of the 
 crew shall be subjects ; Brazil and Portugal, the 
 captain and three-fourths of the crew ; Peru, the 
 captain and one-fifth of the crew ; Denmark, all 
 the officers and crew ; Sweden, only the captain ; 
 Russia, one-fourth of the crew ; the United 
 States, Spain, and Italy, the officers and two- 
 thirds of the crew ; France and Greece, the offi 
 cers and three-fourths of the crew. Evidence of 
 the nationality of a vessel is to be found in her 
 flag and papers. The flag alone is not conclu 
 sive evidence, and in time of war the question 
 can never be decided without reference to the 
 papers. Ships papers relate to the nationality 
 of the vessel, the course of the voyage, and the 
 cargo. The most important are: 1. Register or 
 certificate of nationality, sometimes "replaced 
 or accompanied by 2. Passport, issued by the 
 sovereign authority, or 3. Sea-letter, issued by 
 
 local authorities where the ship was fitted out. 
 4. Charter-party, or contract by which the ves 
 sel is let to hire. 5. Log-book, or daily record of 
 the voyage. 6. Bill of sale (when the ship has 
 been sold). 7. Bills of lading, or duplicate re 
 ceipts of cargo from master to shipper. 8. In 
 voices, detailed statements of separate lots of 
 goods. 9. Manifest, a general statement of the 
 cargo. 10. Clearance, a permission to sail, given 
 by local authorities of port from which the ves 
 sel sets out. 11. Muster-roll, statement of 1 crew. 
 12. Shipping articles, agreement for the hiring 
 of seamen. 13. Bill of health. 
 
 5. Rights of navigation. The high seas are 
 open to the free navigation of ships of all nations. 
 No state can exercise sovereignty or jurisdiction 
 thereon, except on board of its own vessels, pub 
 lic or private. These the municipal law follows, 
 as long as they are at sea ; and offenses committed 
 on board of them at sea are cognizable only by 
 the courts of the country to which the ship be 
 longs. No visit, search, or detention of mer 
 chant vessels by men-of-war can be exercised, 
 except in time of war, when the usage of nations 
 makes an exception in favor of the belligerent 
 right of search. Another exception is in the 
 case of vessels suspected of piracy ; but, in gen 
 eral, no act of sovereignty can be exercised by 
 the agents of any state on the high seas, except 
 on board of its own vessels. 
 
 The territorial waters of a state include the 
 open sea to a distance of 3 miles from the coast, 
 and all rivers, lakes, inland seas, harbors, and 
 roadsteads, and bays included between neighbor 
 ing headlands. Within these limits foreign ves 
 sels must conform to the local laws and regula 
 tions. They may even be refused an entrance, 
 if the government exercising sovereignty sees fit 
 to close its ports to foreign commerce. States 
 within whose borders lie rivers or straits, by 
 which alone access from without can be obtained 
 to another state, cannot deny to the other state 
 the right to use these means of access. They 
 may, however, subject vessels passing through 
 their waters to reasonable tolls and regulations. 
 
 6. Local jurisdiction over foreign ships in ter 
 ritorial waters. A distinction must here be 
 drawn between public and private ships. Public 
 ships are those employed in the service of the 
 state, commanded by naval officers, acting under 
 a commission from the government. The ship 
 may not be owned by the government, it may 
 carry no guns, it may have a cargo on board ; 
 but it will still be a public ship if it answers the 
 conditions named. Public ships carry no papers, 
 in the sense in which merchantmen carry them ; 
 but if the flag and pennant do not sufficiently 
 establish their nationality and their public char 
 acter, the captain s commission and orders are 
 always conclusive. In foreign ports public ships 
 have peculiar immunities. The state to which 
 the port belongs has no authority on board, can 
 exercise no police functions, and can serve no 
 judicial process. Offenses committed on board 
 the ship, by which the local laws are violated, 
 are not cognizable by the local courts. But if 
 an offense is committed on shipboard by an in 
 habitant of the place, and the commander of the 
 ship sees fit as he always would to deliver him 
 up to the local authorities, they can try the of 
 fense. But they could not arrest the offender on 
 board the foreign ship of war. To private or 
 
INTEENATIONAL LAW 
 
 367 
 
 INTEKNATIONAL LAW 
 
 merchant vessels no such immunity is granted. 
 They have no exemption from the jurisdiction of 
 the state in which they are, except by express 
 convention. Police-officers may go on board of 
 such vessels, their officers or seamen may be ar 
 rested on board, writs may be served, and crimes 
 occurring on board, by whomsoever committed, 
 are triable in the local courts. The law of 
 France differs from the general practice in this, 
 that it allows much greater privileges to foreign 
 merchantmen than that of other states. Ac 
 cording to the French rule, acts relating to the 
 interior discipline of the ship, and crimes to 
 which the crew alone are parties, whereby the 
 peace of the port is not disturbed, are left en 
 tirely to the authorities of the ship ; but crimes 
 committed on board the ship by subjects of the 
 state where the vessel lies, or against subjects, or 
 any offenses by which the peace of the port is 
 disturbed, or in relation to which the assistance 
 of the authorities is invoked, are tried in the 
 local courts. This rule is confined to France 
 alone, and must be considered as a waiver on the 
 part of the French government of rights con 
 ceded by the law of nations. In all cases of of 
 fenses committed on shore by the officers or crews 
 of foreign vessels, public or private, the offender 
 may be arrested on shore, and tried and punished 
 by the local courts. But if the offender belongs 
 to a ship of war, and escapes to his ship, the law 
 cannot follow him there, nor can it compel the 
 commander of the ship to surrender him. 
 
 7. Refugees and deserters. (a) From the shore 
 to the ship. The captains of ships of war and 
 the masters of merchantmen have the right to 
 refuse asylum to fugitives ; and they ought al 
 ways to refuse it to persons under accusation or 
 sentence of crimes, generally known as such. 
 Persons charged with light offenses, or with of 
 fenses that are only crimes by the local law (as 
 in Mohammedan countries), or with political of 
 fenses, may be received ; but all these cases call 
 for the exercise of great judgment. In a civil 
 war or revolution, care must be taken to give no 
 assistance to either party ; as, by the transporta 
 tion of an insurgent chief from point to point. 
 In ships of war especially, the commander must 
 do nothing that will compromise his government. 
 The general rule is that the captain may receive 
 such persons, or may refuse to receive them, or, 
 after receiving them, may put them off, being 
 guided always, first, by the paramount necessi 
 ties of the service, and, secondly, by such humane 
 consideration as the fugitive may deserve. Fel 
 low-subjects demanding an asylum should always 
 be received, unless there are grave reasons for re 
 fusal. The rights of the local government are 
 in accordance with the rules governing local 
 jurisdiction, already given. Neither search nor 
 arrest can be made on board a public vessel ; but 
 in merchant ships the local courts have full 
 powers, and the master may even be prosecuted 
 for harboring fugitives. 
 
 (b) From the ship to the shore. If the fugi 
 tives are prisoners of war escaping from a bel 
 ligerent cruiser, they become free immediately 
 upon landing in neutral territory, and no claim 
 for their recovery or surrender will be enter 
 tained. Fugitives belonging to the ship, or de 
 serters, may be reclaimed of the local authorities. 
 The universal usage is for the consul to furnish 
 information, or if there is no consul, the captain 
 
 or master of the ship, and the authorities there 
 upon give such assistance as they see fit. There 
 is great difference in the ease with which desert 
 ers are recovered in different countries and in the 
 assistance that the local government and police 
 are willing to render. The policy of the United 
 States has generally been to insert a clause in 
 consular treaties by which consuls of both con 
 tracting parties are authorized to arrest deserters 
 from ships of war and merchant vessels of their 
 country, and to require the aid of the local au 
 thorities. There are 22 such conventions be 
 tween the United States and foreign powers, but 
 Great Britain is not included in the list. 
 
 8. Piracy. Piracy is robbery or murder on 
 the high seas, done animo furandi, and in a 
 spirit of general hostility. Pirates are consid 
 ered as having no nationality, and the crime is 
 one against the whole human race. They may 
 be seized by any one, and tried in the courts of 
 any state. It is the duty of naval commanders 
 to apprehend them wherever they may be, or 
 against whomsoever the crime has been commit 
 ted ; provided always, that the sovereignty of an 
 other state is not violated by hostile acts com 
 mitted therein. Vessels suspected of a piratical 
 character may even be searched in time of peace 
 by the cruisers of any state; but if the vessels 
 so searched should be found to be innocent, the 
 government whose cruiser makes the search will 
 be responsible to the state to which the searched 
 vessel belongs. Search should therefore only be 
 made upon strong suspicion. Acts have some 
 times been made piracy by the municipal law 
 of a particular state which are not piracy by in 
 ternational law. These cases are purely national 
 in their character, and concern only subjects of 
 the state making the law. Persons guilty of 
 acts which are made piracy by municipal law can 
 only be seized by cruisers of their own state, 
 and can only be tried in their own courts. 
 
 LAWS OF WAR. 
 
 9. Hostile measures falling short of actual 
 war. It often happens that a state or its agents 
 may find it necessary to redress injuries or 
 repel aggressions that are hardly considerable 
 enough to be a casus belli. In these cases the 
 right of self-preservation justifies the use of 
 such measures as may secure the safety of the 
 state without going to war. Every effort must 
 first have been made to obtain redress by peace 
 ful means ; but if this is refused, or if the 
 emergency is such as to leave no time for ap 
 peal to higher authorities, resort must be had 
 to force. In the first case, forcible measures can 
 only be ordered by the sovereign authority ; in 
 the second, action must be taken by the agent 
 of the government on the spot. Hostile acts on 
 the part of the sovereign authority may take the 
 form of embargo, retorsion, or reprisals. A civil 
 embargo is laid by the state upon its ports in the 
 form of a prohibition to merchant vessels of one 
 or more foreign states from entering the ports. 
 A hostile embargo is a detention of foreign mer 
 chant vessels. If a hostile embargo develops 
 into a war, the vessels detained may be regarded 
 as prize. Retorsion is simply retaliation, and 
 consists in redressing an injury by the infliction 
 of a like injury. Reprisals consist in the seizure 
 of property belonging to the offending state or 
 to its subjects. It was effectively used by the 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 368 
 
 INTEKNATIONAL LAW 
 
 United States against France in 1798. To these 
 three forms of hostility may be added pacific 
 blockade, which has been attempted several 
 times, but which is open to many objections 
 and has never received general support, and the 
 performance of treaty guarantees, under which 
 we have occasionally landed forces at Panama. 
 The last is of an anomalous character, and only 
 arises in the cases provided by treaty. 
 
 Forcible measures are taken by the commander 
 of a military or naval force on the spot only when 
 the emergency admits of no delay. Such cases 
 frequently arise in barbarous or semi-civilized 
 countries when outrages have been committed 
 against citizens of the state to which the force 
 belongs, and in revolutionary countries when 
 the lives and property of foreigners are in dan 
 ger. Cases may even arise in civilized countries 
 where an immediate application of force is neces 
 sary. The latter are the most delicate cases that 
 can arise in the conduct of international relations. 
 They are so various and unforeseen in character 
 as to admit of no general rules, and they must be 
 determined by the special circumstances of each 
 case as it arises. A commander must fulfill the 
 duty of protecting the citizens of the state on 
 the one hand, and*the obligation to respect the 
 rights of a foreign and friendly state on the 
 other. Further than this it is impossible to pre 
 scribe rules, and merely to mention the cases that 
 have occurred would exceed the limits of this 
 article. 
 
 10. War and its prosecution. The question 
 whether a war is just or unjust is one which 
 hardly enters into international law, though it 
 is generally discussed in treatises on the subject. 
 A nation has received injuries that cannot be re 
 dressed, or to which redress is refused, and de 
 clares war against the offender. The injured 
 state is alone the judge of the extent and gravity 
 of its wrongs, and it goes to war because war is 
 the only remedy left to it. There is nothing to 
 prevent it from going to war on a frivolous pre 
 text, or for purely aggressive reasons ; third par 
 ties will not interfere by force unless their own 
 safety is threatened. Modern practice varies in 
 regard to declarations of war; but it is always 
 desirable that a formal declaration should be 
 made, in order that both subjects and neutrals 
 may be sufficiently apprised of the new state of 
 affjiirs. If hostilities break out gradually, a sub 
 sequent declaration legalizes all hostile acts that 
 have preceded it. The outbreak of war puts a 
 stop to all trade and other intercourse between 
 subjects of opposing belligerents. Contracts 
 made with an enemy before the war are post 
 poned ; those made during war are void. Part 
 nerships entered into before the war are dis 
 solved. A government may make exceptions to 
 the general stoppage of trade, but licenses are 
 only respected by agents of the government 
 granting them. The grant of a license is a high 
 act of sovereignty, and can only be made by the 
 supreme authority in a state. The license of an 
 admiral, commander-in-chief on a station, binds 
 only those under his orders. The possession of 
 an enemy s license is enough to condemn a ship. 
 At the beginning of a war, enemies in the coun 
 try are generally given a reasonable time to with 
 draw with their effects. The general rule with re 
 gard to enemies private property during war is 
 that it is liable to capture at sea, but not on land. 
 
 The distinction is based on the fact that one of 
 the speediest and most humane methods of bring 
 ing an enemy to terms is by crippling his com 
 merce ; while capture of property on land serves 
 no such purpose, and is attended with the greatest 
 hardship to individuals. Property is not wholly 
 exempt from capture, even on land ; an invading 
 army is always justified in obtaining supplies, on 
 requisition, either with or without payment, and, 
 in general, in living upon the enemy. But there 
 is no such general right of confiscation as at sea. 
 The laws of war have been improved consider 
 ably in recent years, and they are better defined 
 than formerly. The Geneva conventions of 1864 
 and 1868, for securing immunity to the medical 
 service and the wounded, the Brussels confer 
 ence of 1874, and the St. Petersburg treaty of 
 1868, prohibiting the use of explosive bullets for 
 small-arms, are steps in this direction, though 
 the second of these failed to corne to an under 
 standing. As to persons, the general rule is that 
 non-combatants shall be unmolested ; but severe 
 penalties are inflicted upon those who take up 
 arms against an invading force without being 
 distinctly soldiers, and belonging to an author 
 ized organization. This would include guerrillas 
 and partisan bands whose officers held no com 
 mission from the government, and who bore no 
 distinguishing badge or uniform. An excep 
 tion is made, however, in the case of a levee en 
 masse. The practice of private war on the 
 ocean, or privateering, seems to be falling into 
 disuse. Privateers are private persons to whom 
 a commission, called a letter of marque, is issued 
 by the government, allowing them to cruise for 
 the purpose of destroying an enemy s commerce. 
 They are placed under heavy bonds to observe 
 the laws of war and to send in their prizes but 
 the practice is open to many objections, as it is 
 difficult to maintain the necessary supervision 
 and restraint over their movements. The Con 
 gress of Paris in 1856 abolished privateering as 
 between the contracting powers; and though the 
 United States, and some smaller powers, have 
 not acceded to it, yet the Declaration has gone 
 far to discourage the practice. War should be 
 carried on as humanely as possible consistently 
 with the end in view, which is to break the 
 power of the enemy. The bombardment and 
 destruction of unprotected cities is contrary to 
 civilized practice; but a city defended by iorts 
 may be bombarded, as a means of reducing the 
 forts. Good faith is to be kept even with ene 
 mies, but ruses and stratagems of war are per 
 mitted. False colors may be carried to deceive 
 an enemy; a ship may even chase, though she 
 may never fire, under false colors. Surrender 
 is indicated by hauling down the flag, or by a 
 white flag, which puts a stop to fighting at once ; 
 but a vessel that undertakes to escape, or to 
 renew the fight, after the cessation of hostilities 
 caused by hauling down the flag, may be severely 
 dealt with. When a seaport surrenders to the 
 army or navy it may be occupied, and regula 
 tions established for its government during the 
 occupation ; and the commander-in-chief of the 
 forces of occupation may prescribe a tariff for 
 foreign vessels and goods, and levy duties ac 
 cordingly. 
 
 11. Search, detention, and capture. The right 
 of search is the right to stop and examine mer 
 chant vessels in time of war to ascertain their 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 369 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 nationality and character, and the nature of their 
 cargo and of their voyage. It can only be exer 
 cised by ships of war, and only upon merchant 
 vessels. It may be exercised anywhere except 
 within the territorial waters of a neutral state. 
 The usual mode of conducting a search is by 
 sending a junior officer on board the vessel to 
 be searched, who inspects the ship s papers, in 
 terrogates the master, officers, and crew, and, if 
 necessary, examines in detail the cargo and all 
 parts of the ship. The ship of war is not to use 
 force, unless the merchantman willfully evades or 
 resists search. If, upon examination, the vessel 
 is clearly neutral property, and if she is engaged 
 in innocent trade, she is allowed to proceed on 
 her voyage ; otherwise she will be detained. The 
 circumstances, any one of which will justify de 
 tention, are as follows : that the ship is enemy s 
 property ; that she has undergone a fictitious and 
 fraudulent transfer from an enemy owner; that 
 her papers are false, missing, or mutilated; that 
 she is herself contraband, or is carrying contra 
 band goods, persons, or dispatches ; breach of 
 blockade ; sailing under enemy s convoy ; sail 
 ing under enemy s license, and trading with the 
 enemy, if the vessel belongs to a subject or to an 
 ally ; enemy s prize ; recaptured or rescued prize. 
 It is not necessary that the guilt of the vessel 
 should be absolutely proved. If circumstances 
 show a reasonable ground of suspicion, the cap 
 tain of the cruiser is justified in detaining her. 
 But if the vessel be detained without a reasonable 
 ground of suspicion, the captor will be liable in 
 costs and damages. If the circumstances war 
 rant capture, the captor will put an officer as 
 prize-master and a crew on board the vessel, 
 who will take her to the most convenient port 
 where a prize-court may be sitting for adjudica 
 tion, with all her papers and cargo intact. Re 
 sistance to search will subject the vessel to cap 
 ture and subsequent condemnation, though she 
 may be innocent of any other offense. Vessels 
 sailing under neutral convoy are not on that ac 
 count exempt from search, and the resistance of 
 the convoying ship to the search of any vessel 
 under her escort will subject both the convoying 
 and the convoyed ships to capture. All prizes 
 must be sent in for adjudication, unless special 
 circumstances, such as the want of men foraprize- 
 crew, or the unseaworthiness of the prize, make 
 it impossible. In this case, if the prize is clearly 
 enemy s property, she will be destroyed, other 
 wise she must be released. If the prize is de 
 stroyed, her papers, and any part of her cargo 
 that may be saved, must be sent to a prize-court. 
 If, for any reason, the prize cannot be sent to a 
 port of the captor, it may be sent to a neutral 
 port, if the neutral authorities make no objec 
 tion ; and the cargo, if perishable, may be sold 
 there after the proper survey ; but the ship s 
 papers, the most important witnesses, and the 
 proceeds of all sales must be sent to a prize- 
 court in charge of an officer, with a full state 
 ment and explanation of all proceedings in rela 
 tion to the prize. The papers, proceeds, and 
 witnesses will be delivered to the officers of the 
 court, as well as the prize itself, if brought to the 
 place where the court is sitting. 
 
 12. Prize-courts. The court to which the prize 
 is sent must be a prize-court of the captor, and 
 it can only sit in the territory of the captor or of 
 his ally. The prize-master, upon his arrival, 
 
 should immediately cause proceedings for adju 
 dication to be instituted by the proper officer. 
 In the United States the district courts have cog 
 nizance of all cases of prize, and proceedings are 
 instituted by the U. S. district attorney. The 
 hearing of the case is rather in the nature of an 
 inquiry by the government, rather than of liti 
 gation inter paries. The witnesses belonging to 
 the prize are examined privately upon certain 
 standing interrogatories. Upon this testimony, 
 together with the evidence of the ship s papers, 
 the decision of the court is based. The examina 
 tion is called the examination in prceparatorio, 
 i.e., preparatory to judgment by the court. In 
 ordinary cases, no further examination is held, 
 and no testimony is taken in behalf of the cap 
 tors. If, however, the preparatory examination 
 leaves the case in doubt, the court may order 
 further proof, in which any evidence may be re 
 ceived bearing upon the case. If the prize is 
 condemned, the court orders a sale, and mukes 
 the distribution of the proceeds under the statute. 
 If the prize is not enemy s property, and if no 
 illegal act has been committed, the prize is re 
 stored to the claimants, if they have proved their 
 title to the property. Damages may be awarded 
 against the captor in case of detention without 
 probable cause. 
 
 13. Enemy s property and neutral property. 
 Until the year 1856 it had been a general princi 
 ple of prize law that ownership determined the 
 national character of ship s cargoes, irrespective 
 of the flag under which the ship might be. 
 Enemy s property in a neutral vessel was liable 
 to capture, but neutral property in an enemy s 
 vessel was not. The Declaration of Paris re 
 affirmed the second of these rules, but reversed 
 the first. By the new rule free ships made free 
 goods; the neutral flag covered the enemy s 
 cargo, and exempted it from seizure. Although 
 the Declaration has not been universally adopted, 
 the United States among other nations having 
 refused to accede to it, it is not improbable that 
 the rule, " free ships make free goods," may be 
 come general. As the law stands, however, 
 apart from express conventions, vessels laden 
 with enemy s property will be seized and sent in. 
 They are not condemned, and they receive freight 
 for the whole voyage, but no damages for deten 
 tion. The enemy s cargo is confiscated. The 
 other rule simply restores the neutral cargo taken 
 out of an enemy s ship. Freight is paid to the 
 captor if the goods are taken to their port of 
 destination, otherwise not. The character of the 
 property, that is, the question whether it is neu 
 tral or hostile, is determined by the domicile of 
 the owner, independently of his nationality ; 
 property is neutral whose owner is domiciled in 
 a neutral country, and property is hostile whose 
 owner is domiciled in the enemy s country. But 
 these rules are interpreted somewhat in the in 
 terest of captors. Thus, if a person has a neu 
 tral domicile, but a house of trade in the enemy s 
 country, property connected with this house is 
 deemed hostile ; but if he has an enemy domi 
 cile, all his property is deemed hostile, wherever 
 his house of trade may be. Ships sailing under 
 the enemy s flag, wherever owned, have always 
 a hostile character ; and ships that have been 
 transferred from an enemy owner to a neutral, 
 after the war has begun, are regarded with pecu 
 liar suspicion. la determining questions of 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 370 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 domicile, territory in the military occupation of 
 the enemy is regarded as hostile territory ; and 
 the produce of the soil of hostile territory is al 
 ways regarded as enemy s property, no matter 
 who may be the owner. 
 
 14. Contraband. Contraband goods are goods 
 useful for military operations and destined to the 
 service of a belligerent. Two things are there 
 fore necessary to constitute contraband, 1, war 
 like use ; 2, hostile destination. The list of arti 
 cles held to be contraband, when destined for the 
 enemy s country, is not definitely settled. Goods 
 may be divided into three classes, according to 
 their employment, (1 ) those useful primarily and 
 chiefly in war, (2) those useful only for purposes 
 unconnected with war, and (3) those useful alike 
 in peace and in war, or sometimes in one and 
 sometimes in the other. The first are always 
 contraband, the second never ; while the charac 
 ter of the third must be determined by circum 
 stances. In the first class may be mentioned 
 arms, ammunition, and projectiles, their appur 
 tenances, and the materials and machinery for 
 their manufacture ; explosives ; military equip 
 ments and clothing ; military and naval stores, 
 including spars, hemp, cordage, marine-engines, 
 anchors, iron plates, and bars. In the third 
 class are telegraphic materials, railway materials, 
 coal, horses, money, and provisions. The last 
 class are contraband when there is a presumption 
 that they are intended for warlike use ; as, when 
 they are going to a fleet or to a port of military 
 or naval outfit, or when the character of the 
 war is such as to create a special demand for 
 them. The immediate destination of the ship is 
 not always held to be conclusive as to the desti 
 nation of the contraband goods. The vessel 
 may be bound for a neutral port ; but if it can 
 be shown that this is only a screen, and that the 
 goods are ultimately destined for the enemy, she 
 may be captured and condemned. The penalty 
 in cases of contraband is the confiscation of the 
 contraband goods, and of all other parts of the 
 cargo belonging to the owner of the contraband 
 
 Is. The ship is not confiscated unless she 
 jlongs to the owner of the contraband goods, 
 or unless she sails with false papers ; but in any 
 case, no freight for the contraband goods, or 
 damages for detention, are allowed to the ship. 
 Liability begins when the ship carrying contra 
 band has started, with an immediate or ulterior 
 destination for an enemy s port. Liability ceases 
 with the delivery of the contraband cargo ; and 
 the ship cannot be captured on her return voyage, 
 unless she is shown to have made the outward 
 voyage with simulated papers. A ship is contra 
 band when she is fitted for war and destined for 
 the enemy. If a contraband ship is captured 
 she will be condemned, together with all contra 
 band goods in her cargo, and all innocent goods 
 belonging to the owner of the ship or of the 
 contraband cargo. 
 
 15. Carrying contraband persons and dis 
 patches. Contraband persons are persons in 
 the military or naval service of the enemy, and 
 civil officers of the enemy sent out on public 
 duty and at the public expense. Contraband 
 dispatches are official dispatches of the enemy 
 not in the ordinary mails and not diplomatic in 
 character. Ships engaged in carrying such per 
 sons or dispatches are liable to seizure and con 
 demnation, together with all their cargoes that 
 
 belong to the owner of the vessel. The ships 
 are looked upon as being for the time in the ene 
 my s service. To establish their offense it is not 
 necessary that they should be bound for an ene 
 my s port, nor is it considered a justification that 
 they are acting under constraint. Diplomatic 
 persons and papers are not considered contra 
 band. In all cases, vessels captured must be 
 sent in for adjudication, and the obnoxious per 
 sons and dispatches must be sent in with them. 
 Neither persons nor papers can be taken out of a 
 neutral ship without capturing and sending in 
 the prize. 
 
 16. Blockade. Blockade is the stationing of a 
 naval force near a port, river-mouth, or coast of 
 the enemy, and the capture of all merchant ves 
 sels, neutral or otherwise, that attempt entrance 
 or egress past the blockading force. Blockades, 
 to be binding, must be effective; that is, main 
 tained continuously by a force sufficient to make 
 the passage dangerous. Paper blockades, or 
 blockades established by proclamation, without 
 stationing an adequate force near the blockaded 
 port, are illegal. In order to justify the deten 
 tion of a vessel attempting to enter or leave a 
 blockaded port, it is necessary that the vessel 
 should have had notice of the existence of the 
 blockade. This notice may be actual or con 
 structive. Actual notice is notice by the block 
 ading squadron on its station. It is usually put 
 in the form of a statement indorsed on the regis 
 ter of the merchant vessel by the boarding officer. 
 Constructive notice is notice which may be pre 
 sumed to have been given either by a proclama 
 tion or diplomatic circular of the blockading gov 
 ernment, or by the notoriety of the fact. At the 
 beginning of a blockade, a reasonable time may 
 be allowed for the proclamation to become gen 
 erally known ; and during this time actual notice 
 must be given. After the period has elapsed, it 
 is no longer necessary, and the fact of notice may 
 be constructively assumed. The only exception 
 is in the blockade of remote places, ordered by 
 thecommander-in-chief on the spot, where diplo 
 matic notice cannot be given ; in this case, known 
 as blockade de facto, actual notice or warning 
 must be conceded during the whole period of 
 the blockade, and neutral vessels may sail with 
 a contingent destination to the blockaded port. 
 But they are not allowed to anchor, or remain 
 in the neighborhood of the entrance. The pres 
 ence of the blockading squadron is considered 
 sufficient notice to vessels lying in the blockaded 
 port ; but it is customary to allow neutral vessels 
 a short time to leave the blockaded port in bal 
 last, or with cargoes previously laden ; but this 
 privilege must have been expressly granted. The 
 penalty for breach of blockade is confiscation of 
 the ship and cargo. An unsuccessful attempt is 
 regarded by the courts in the same light as a suc 
 cessful attempt, if the intention is proved. In 
 attempts to break blockade inwards, where gen 
 eral notification has been given, liability begins 
 when the vessel, whose destination is the block 
 aded port, has started on her voyage, knowing 
 the port to be blockaded. In breach of the block 
 ade outwards, liability continues till the end of 
 the voyage, unless in the mean time the blockade 
 has been raised ; in which case the liability ceases. 
 A blockade ceases when the blockading force vol 
 untarily withdraws, or when it is driven off by 
 a force of the enemy. In these cases, a new 
 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 371 
 
 INVALID 
 
 blockade requires a new notification. But if the 
 blockading squadron is only temporarily dis 
 persed by stress of weather, and immediately 
 resumes its station, the blockade is not held to 
 have ceased. In strict law, neutral men-of-war 
 have not the right to enter a blockaded port ; 
 but in practice, the privilege is usually conceded 
 by the blockading squadron. 
 
 17. Recapture and rescue. Recapture is the 
 taking of a vessel which, at some previous time, 
 had been captured by the enemy. Rescue is the 
 recovery of a prize by the original crew, and is 
 effected by overcoming the prize crew. Vessels 
 which have been made prize by the enemy may 
 be recaptured by cruisers of the other belliger 
 ent ; but neutral ships of war cannot recapture 
 prizes made by a belligerent, even though the 
 prize was originally owned by subjects of the 
 neutral state to which the cruiser belongs. A 
 recaptured prize reverts to the original owner, 
 if it has not yet been condemned in the enemy s 
 prize-court, and salvage is awarded to the recap- 
 tor. The rule by which the prize returns to its 
 original owner is called the right of postliminy. 
 It can only take place before condemnation. If 
 the prize has been condemned, the proceeds are 
 distributed according to the provisions of the 
 prize act, without regard to the previous own 
 er s claims. If an enemy s vessel has been made 
 prize, and is recaptured by the enemy, and again 
 subsequently recaptured from the enemy, the 
 proceeds go to the last captors. A rescued prize, 
 on recapture from the rescuers, is always con 
 demned, though it may not have been subject to 
 condemnation before it was rescued. The mere 
 act of rescue is considered as a resistance to the 
 exercise of belligerent rights, like resistance to 
 search, and it subjects all the property rescued 
 to the extreme penalty. 
 
 18. Rights and duties of neutrals. When a 
 war breaks out between two states, other states 
 may decide for themselves whether the occasion 
 justifies or requires their joining in the war, or 
 whether they will remain neutral. This is a 
 question of policy, mixed with ethics, but it is in 
 no sense a question of law. The policy of neu 
 trality being once decided on, certain conse 
 quences flow from it. The belligerent must re 
 spect neutral rights, and the neutral must fulfill 
 neutral obligations. Among the first rights of 
 neutrals is that of having their territory free 
 from the operations of the war. No hostile act 
 can be performed within the borders of a neutral 
 state, or within its territorial waters. Within 
 these limits belligerent cruisers may not attack 
 or capture vessels. The only exception is when 
 a fight has been begun outside of neutral terri 
 tory, and the enemy, during the fight, takes 
 refuge within the limit. It is then said that the 
 pressure of instant, overwhelming necessity may 
 justify her capture. A belligerent may not, 
 within neutral territory, increase his armament 
 or military stores, recruit men, or employ force 
 or stratagem to rescue prisoners or recover prizes 
 from the enemy ; nor may he make a neutral 
 port the base of hostile operations. In case of 
 the violation of neutral territory, the belligerent 
 is bound to make reparation for his unlawful 
 acts. Land forces may not march through neu 
 tral territory, but the rule is not so strict with 
 regard to cruisers ; and though a neutral may 
 allow or forbid, as he chooses, the entry of bel 
 
 ligerent cruisers into his ports, there is no re 
 striction in regard to their passage within the 
 three-mile limit along the open coast. On the 
 other hand, neutrals have certain obligations to 
 wards the belligerents. Neutral governments 
 are forbidden to send supplies of men, ships, 
 arms, or money to either belligerent. It is their 
 duty to prevent the forming of armed expedi 
 tions, and the building, equipment, or armament 
 of ships of war for belligerent use; to exercise 
 diligence in the detection and suppression of such 
 attempts, and, if necessary, to pass laws for their 
 prevention ; but they are not responsible for sup 
 plies of arms, or other contraband, made by pri 
 vate citizens in the way of trade, nor for loans to 
 belligerent governments made by private parties. 
 It is their duty to prevent hostile acts between 
 belligerents within their territory. They are re 
 sponsible to the state which suffers by such acts, 
 and they are called upon to demand reparation 
 from the aggressor. If troops of either belliger 
 ent enter neutral territory the neutral must in 
 tern them, i.e., disarm them, and put them 
 under either surveillance or parole. A neutral 
 government regulates the entry into its ports of 
 belligerent cruisers and their prizes, and the sup^ 
 ply of coal to steamers, as seems best to it, but 
 with the general limitation that all privileges 
 granted to one party must be granted to the 
 other. 
 
 19. Treaties of peace. A treaty of peace is 
 binding from the date of its ratification, but a 
 prospective date is sometimes fixed for the treaty 
 to take effect in distant parts of the world. Cap 
 tures made after this date are unlawful, and 
 must be restored ; as is also true of captures made 
 before the date, with knowledge that peace had 
 been concluded. Other captures made previously 
 to the treaty are retained, the treaty being under 
 stood to be upon the basis of present possession, 
 unless otherwise stated. J. Russell Soley, Pro 
 fessor U.S.N. 
 
 Interpolation. The finding a value of an ele 
 ment which falls between two given values. 
 This process is called into constant requisition. 
 in navigation. The different elements tabulated 
 in the Nautical Almanac are given for particular 
 times at Greenwich, and to find their value at 
 any instant between any two of these, a propor 
 tion must be worked. In most cases an approx 
 imation is sufficient, which may be found either 
 by applying roughly a fractional part of their 
 difference to one of them, or more accurately by 
 the use of tables given in works on navigation. 
 When extreme precision, however, is required, 
 it must be remembered that these elements do 
 not change uniformly, and a correction has to be 
 applied which is called the equation of second dif 
 ferences. 
 
 Inundations. In ancient Egypt officers esti 
 mated the case of sufferers from the inundations 
 of the Nile. The changes of property in Ben 
 gal by alluvion are equally attended to. Inun 
 dation is also a method of impeding the approach 
 of an enemy, by damming up the course of a 
 brook or river, so as to intercept the water and 
 set the neighborhood afloat. In Egypt the plan 
 was diametrically opposite, for by flooding Lake 
 Mareotis the English gunboats were enabled 
 greatly to annoy the French garrison at Alexan 
 dria. 
 
 Invalid (Eng.]. A maimed or sick soldier or 
 
INVER 
 
 372 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 sailor. To invalid is to cause to retire from act 
 ive service from inability. 
 
 Inver. A Gaelic name, still retained in Scot 
 land, for the mouth of a river. 
 
 Inverted-cylinder Steam-engine. One hav 
 ing its cylinder inverted over the shaft with 
 direct action downward to the crank; much 
 used in the mercantile marine on account of its 
 economy of space, but objectionable for naval 
 purposes, as the cylinders being high are exposed 
 to the enemy s fire. Called also inverted engine. 
 
 Invincible Armada. See ARMADA, INYINCI- 
 BLE. 
 
 Invoice. An account from a merchant to his 
 factor, containing the particulars and prices of 
 each parcel of goods in the cargo, with the 
 amount of the freight, duties, and other charges 
 thereon. 
 
 Inward Charges. Pilotage and other expenses 
 incurred in entering any port. 
 
 Ipswich. A town of England, capital of Suf 
 folk County, on the Orwell. Although the Or 
 well is only navigable to the town for vessels of 
 500 tons burden, the town contains docks at 
 which some of the largest vessels have been built, 
 and at one time Ipswich-built vessels were con 
 sidered equal to those built in any other part of 
 the globe. 
 
 Iridium. A metal discovered by Dr. Wollas- 
 ton, associated with the ore of platinum. It is 
 gray, brittle, very infusible, and its specific grav 
 ity is about 13.6. It forms several oxides and 
 chlorides, and combines readily with carbon. It 
 takes its name from the Latin iris, the rainbow, 
 in consequence of the variety of colors exhibited 
 by its solutions. 
 
 Iris Ears. A name applied to the shells of 
 the Haliotis, a univalve mollusk found clinging 
 like limpets to rocks. 
 
 Irish Horse. Old salt beef. 
 
 Irish Pennants. Rope-yarns hanging about 
 the rigging; loose reef-points or gaskets flying 
 about ; fag-ends of ropes. 
 
 Iron and Steel. Nomenclature. The ordi 
 nary classification of iron products has been pig- 
 iron, steel, and wrought iron. Karsten estab 
 lished the logical, scientific basis of this nomen 
 clature. But within about 15 years methods 
 have been developed which produce large homo 
 geneous masses of iron or steel at a single opera 
 tion. Thirty years ago homogeneous masses of 
 steel or iron were limited in size to a few hun 
 dred pounds at most, and the iron and steel of 
 commerce was, with the exception of crucible 
 tool-steel, produced in a pasty state as the imme 
 diate product. 
 
 The homogeneity of the new products was so 
 striking as to suggest a classification based solely 
 on the fact of the product having been actually 
 melted, calling these products steel. This was 
 highly illogical ; for on the one hand usual ho 
 mogeneous cast-iron castings would properly be 
 called steel, and on the other, Mushet and others 
 in France and England had long ago melted 
 pure wrought or bar iron, which should also 
 be called steel. This system has justly fallen 
 still-born among metallurgists. Since 1876 the 
 classification proposed by the International Com 
 mittee of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers has been recognized as the best nomen 
 clature for all practical purposes. It has been 
 universally accepted in Europe, and forms the 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 Forgeable ; difficult to melt. 
 
 Not forgeable ; easy to melt. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 Produced in a 
 
 Produced in 
 
 Pig-iron. 
 
 fluid state. 
 
 a non-fluid 
 
 
 
 state. 
 
 
 1. Ingot - iron 
 
 3. Weld -iron 
 
 5. White pig-iron without 
 
 not harden 
 
 not harden 
 
 graphite. 
 
 ing. 
 
 ing. 
 
 
 2. Ingot -steel 
 
 4. Weld-*teel 
 
 6. Gray pig-iron with graph 
 
 hardening. 
 
 hardening. 
 
 ite. 
 
 basis of the official records of the German em 
 pire. It is therefore adopted in this article on 
 account of its general use, as well as its intrinsic 
 value. 
 
 All products of iron ores group themselves 
 naturally in this nomenclature, except "native 
 iron," i.e., meteoric iron, which we may regard 
 as a cosmical curiosity. 
 
 Or in the order in which the products appear in 
 manufacture : 
 
 1. Pig-iron. 
 
 2. Weld-iron (Schweisseisen, Fer soude, Wall- 
 Jem). 
 
 3. Weld-steel (Schweissstahl, Acier soude, 
 Wallstal). 
 
 4. Ingot-iron (Flusseisen, Fer fondu, Got- 
 jern). 
 
 5. Ingot-steel (Flussstahl, Acier fondu, Got- 
 stal). 
 
 The term weld-iron designates all varieties of 
 wrought iron in which merchantable iron has 
 been produced by welding up blooms from a 
 pasty mass, or by welding together bars pre 
 viously rolled from a puddled ball, or otherwise. 
 It includes all kinds of iron not melted and 
 poured. These latter are properly grouped in 
 the term ingot-iron, the different kinds of which 
 have been melted in a furnace or pot and poured 
 into ingots. These are the u homogeneous iron" 
 (Howell, 1856) with very little carbon melted 
 in crucibles, and the same metal melted in the 
 Siemens "open-hearth" furnace, or Bessemer 
 converter. The weld-iron from its mode of man 
 ufacture and the presence of cinder among its 
 particles retains a distinctively fibrous character, 
 while the ingot-iron being free from cinder re 
 mains distinctively granular in all ordinary pro 
 ducts. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that every known pro 
 cess of making iron will also make steel. There 
 fore we need the term weld-steel to designate steel 
 made in Catalan and finery forges, and the direct 
 reduction processes in blooms, from the puddling- 
 furnace in balls rolled to bars, and from the 
 cementing-furnace in bars. The products of 
 the forge are commercially known as " German 
 steel," of the cementing-furnace, as "blister 
 steel" in bars, as they leave the furnace, or as 
 "shear steel," when welded and drawn down 
 for cutlery. The products of this class are all 
 used as the raw material for cast steel, as steel 
 containing a high percentage of carbon is called. 
 
 All steels which have been melted in any man 
 ner and poured into ingots are termed ingot-steel. 
 Ingots of pot steel for tool and cutlery purposes 
 are usually limited to the capacity of a single pot, 
 in the Bessemer and Martin processes to 10 or 15 
 tons ; but by methodical arrangements ingots 
 over 45 tons in weight can be made at Essen by 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 373 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 Krupp, and at Creusot by Schneider, and ex 
 tremely heavy ingots at Bochum, at the Kus- 
 sian Imperial Works, and at Firth s and Vickers 
 works in Sheffield. 
 
 The essential element of commercial iron is 
 carbon. So extremely intimate is the connec 
 tion that in practice iron without carbon is un 
 known, and so great is the influence of carbon 
 that a very slight change in its percentage vastly 
 changes the properties of the metal. 
 
 The total amount of carbon iron in any form 
 is able to take up seems to be about 6 per cent. 
 The least that exists in the purest merchant iron 
 is about 0.06 per cent. Iron or steel capable of 
 being wrought never contains more than 2.3 per 
 cent carbon, cast iron, fusible, and unworkable, 
 beginning at that point. Nothing above 2.3 pos 
 sesses market value as steel, and the only article 
 that possesses any special value at this point is 
 the Wildstahl, a product of Styrian forges, used 
 for its extreme hardness as draw plates for wire. 
 
 In the other direction, the separation of steel 
 from iron is quite as distinctly marked at and 
 below 0.20 per cent, carbon ; Karsten placed the 
 line at 0.25 per cent, carbon, at which the metal 
 would not harden even in mercury, while recent 
 European authorities, like Akerman and Wed 
 ding, define 0.4 per cent, carbon as the point of 
 division at which the difference in hardness be 
 fore and after hardening begins to be noticeable. 
 
 Commercial steel is not, of course, a compound 
 of iron and carbon alone, but contains usually, 
 in addition, small quantities of silicon, sulphur, 
 phosphorus, manganese, and copper, and also 
 chromium, titanium, and tungsten. These ele 
 ments, so commonly present, reduce the percent 
 age of carbon required to impart sufficient hard 
 ness to give sparks with a flint to about 0.5 per 
 cent. ; in steel very free from these elements 
 0.65 per cent, would be required for the same 
 effect. In the best Swedish and Styrian makes 
 0.35 per cent, carbon produces sufficient hard 
 ness to cause the iron to be denominated "steely." 
 
 These statements are based on the use of a 
 heat at hardening proportioned to the content 
 of carbon in the steel. But when the carbon 
 falls below 0.15 per cent., the highest heat and 
 the use of mercury as the most energetic cooling 
 medium fail to produce any perceptible increase 
 of the hardness. 
 
 When the percentage of carbon falls below 
 0.15, every effort to harden the metal results in 
 toughening it and making it more ductile. When 
 a square bar of ingot-iron is broken cold after 
 nicking, the fracture is abrupt and the grain 
 coarsely crystalline, while the other end of the 
 same piece, nicked in the same way and broken 
 after "hardening," will break with great diffi 
 culty, being distorted by the force required, and 
 will present a silky, substantially fibrous frac 
 ture. Siemens-Martin boiler-plate is tested by 
 means of this fact. Any ingot-iron plate is re 
 jected which, after being heated to bright red 
 and plunged into water, cracks when bent back 
 180 on itself. But the ductility developed is so 
 striking that a common quality will stand much 
 severer bending tests after this treatment than 
 before it. All the splendidly bent specimens of 
 open-hearth boiler-plate makers are thus tough 
 ened, and the boiler plates used at Crewe by the 
 London and Northwestern Railway are tough 
 ened or annealed bodily before use. The tough 
 
 ness produced may be measured by the ratio of 
 the elastic limit to the breaking weight before 
 and after "hardening." In 30 specimens of 
 Bessemer iron-plate from three Swedish works, 
 given by Akerman, this ratio was reduced from 
 0.502 in the unhardened to 0.398 in the hardened, 
 and in 4 specimens of Siemens-Martin iron-plate, 
 from 0.418 in the unhardened to 0.389 in the 
 hardened. Bessemer iron, ult. ten. 58,884 and 
 91,739 pounds resp. ; limit elasticity, 29,584 and 
 36,553 pounds resp. Siemens-Martin iron, ult. 
 ten. 54,759 and 77,232 pounds resp. ; and limit 
 elasticity 22,899 and 30,011 pounds resp. In 
 the case of phosphoriferous weld-irons this effect 
 is very striking, and the tenacity, elongation, 
 and contraction of area of fracture may be in 
 creased by hardening. Poor open-hearth boiler 
 plate with 0.15 phosphorus will stand much 
 severer bending tests after, hardening than be 
 fore. The writer proposed in 1875 this great 
 development of toughness and ductility as an 
 independent method of distinguishing steel from 
 ingot-iron, and corroborated as it has since been 
 by many facts and experiments, it may be used 
 with advantage. 
 
 Ingot-iron is chosen for comparison as exhibit 
 ing this property best, but it is as well shown in 
 kind, though not in degree, by weld-irons. In 
 proportion as the weld-iron is denser or freer 
 from cinder, "hardening" has a greater effect 
 upon it, and the great increase of strength and 
 toughness in pretty dense iron has been so long 
 known that even Sefstrom refers to it, as Aker 
 man states. The property has of late been turned 
 to account for cannon, with the use of oil instead 
 of water. 
 
 METALLURGICAL CHEMISTRY. The most im 
 portant compounds are the oxides of iron. In 
 its treatment for the production of refined metal, 
 iron is not directly acted upon by air or oxygen, 
 except in the Bessemer and refinery processes. 
 In all others it is indirectly affected by oxygen 
 absorbed in the cinder associated with the iron. 
 Of this cinder protoxide of iron forms the base, 
 the acid silica, and also alumina, being supplied 
 by the ores, the iron, and the brick of the fur 
 naces. The protoxide possesses a great affinity 
 for oxygen, and will part with it freely and reab- 
 sorb it so long as the proper temperature is main 
 tained . This fact and the affinity of iron for car 
 bon form the basis of iron metallurgy. 
 
 The oxides of iron are noted with an atomic 
 weight of 56 for iron, the old nomenclature with 
 28 atomic weight being inclosed in brackets. 
 
 Protoxide, Fe"0"(FeO), 
 Magnetic oxide, Fe"( Feo)"0" 4 (Fe 3 4 ), 
 Sesqnioxide, ( l t > 2 ) T Vf esQjJ l 
 Hydrated sesquioxide, (Fe 2 ) 
 
 77.77 p. c. iron. 
 72.41 " " 
 7d.UO " " 
 
 0" 6 (2Fe 2 3 ,3HO), 59.92 " 
 
 O J 
 
 The protoxide never occurs free in manufac 
 ture, possesses a strong affinity for oxygen and 
 the power of decomposing water. The magnetic 
 oxide occurs free as an* ore, containing, when 
 pure, 31.04 per cent, protoxide and 68.96 per cent, 
 sesquioxide. The sesquioxide forms, with water, 
 a true chemical combination, the basis of all 
 brown hematite iron ores. 
 
 When metallic iron is heated the air oxidizes 
 it rapidly, forming hammer-scale richer in oxy 
 gen than the protoxide, and sometimes reaching 
 the sesquioxide itself. Moisture, especially when 
 associated with carbonic acid or ammonia, oxi- 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 374 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 dizes iron rapidly, which can be counteracted by 
 a coating of zinc, or the presence of lime or alka 
 lies. Iron burns freely at a very high tempera 
 ture in air, but can scarcely be volatilized by the 
 highest attainable temperature. 
 
 The affinity of iron for carbon is most charac 
 teristic. Within a range of 0.06 to 6.0 per cent, 
 we see almost entirely different metals with prop 
 erties varying in extraordinary ways. This af 
 finity enables the blast-furnace to be successfully 
 worked. 
 
 In speaking of "trow," it must be noted that 
 a combination of carbon and iron is always meant, 
 pure iron being unknown in practice. The alloys 
 of iron are unimportant, except that with zinc, 
 which is commercially applied in galvanizing , with 
 a coat of metallic zinc. The combination of iron 
 and carbon with tin enables plates to be covered 
 in a similar way with a coat of metallic tin. Iron 
 and carbon also combine easily with chromium 
 and aluminium, and with difficulty with tita 
 nium and tungsten. 
 
 The combination of carbon with iron is both 
 chemical and mechanical ; the latter when the 
 carbon separates in flakes as graphite in pig- 
 iron, in which, in those varieties containing most 
 carbon, it may be separated as graphite by slow 
 cooling, and be recombined by quick cooling, 
 i.e., chilling. 
 
 In true steel the combination is purely chem 
 ical, though free graphite is often, if not usually, 
 present. The effect of hardening is to cause the 
 carbon to entirely combine with the iron in steel, 
 and the experiments of Caron have shown that 
 hammering has the same effect. 
 
 The other elements most intimately associated 
 with iron (and carbon) are sulphur, phosphorus, 
 silicon, manganese, and copper. 
 
 Sulphur has great affinity for iron at a low red 
 heat, and is almost universally associated in the 
 form of pyrites with the ores, and by reduction 
 with the iron. It tends to prevent the formation 
 of graphite in pig-iron ; to reduce the total percent 
 age of carbon ; also, to make pig-iron melt with 
 difficulty and run pastily and shrink strongly, so 
 as to unfit itfor castings when present over 0.6 per 
 cent. The influence of sulphur on wrought iron 
 makes it rotten at a red heat (red shortness), and 
 injures its weldability materially; its effect on 
 steel is similar. A percentage of 0.01 is quite 
 perceptible, of 0.05 quite injurious, and 0.1 makes 
 both bar-iron and steel nearly useless. It must 
 be removed in the blast-furnace. 
 
 Phosphorus is as intimately associated with 
 iron as sulphur. It increases the fusibility of 
 pig-iron, and up to say 0.5 per cent, improves it 
 for castings, but more reduces the strength. It 
 assists the separation of graphite. It is often 
 present up to 1.0 in good pig-iron, and 5 or 6 
 per cent, in iron used for Berlin castings. In 
 wrought iron phosphorus causes the iron to 
 weld and work easily when hot, thus antago 
 nizing sulphur (but not neutralizing it, in a strict 
 sense), but makes cold iron hard and brittle 
 (cold shortness). A weld-iron low in carbon 
 may contain 0.3 per cent, without injury, and 
 when harder 0.2 without injury, the latter 
 amount also being possible in passable ingot-iron 
 with 0.10 per cent, carbon or less. Steel, how 
 ever, of any kind is injured materially by phos 
 phorus ; one can note the presence of even 0.01 
 per cent, distinctly, and no reliable steel can con 
 
 tain more than 0.10 if soft, or 0.04 per cent, if 
 harder. Phosphorus is freely removed in pud 
 dling and reheating, by its sweating out with the 
 cinder ; it cannot be removed in the blast-fur 
 nace. 
 
 Silicon is found in all kinds of iron, and its 
 effects are similar to those of phosphorus, but 
 graver. It makes wrought iron rotten at a red 
 heat, 0.05 per cent, injures iron or steel seriously, 
 and 0.4 makes both entirely useless in presence 
 of other deleterious elements. If, however, steel 
 is quite free from phosphorus and sulphur, as 
 are crucible steels, it will bear from 0.15 to 0.25. 
 The presence of this amount of silicon is charac 
 teristic, as other steels as Bessemer, etc. usually 
 contain less than 0.1. The presence of silicon 
 enables steel to be poured free from blow-holes. 
 But for metallurgical purposes silicon is an essen 
 tial element of pig-iron, as its burning during 
 refining forms necessary cinder and generates 
 great heat. White pig-iron contains seldom 
 more than 1.0 per cent., gray usually 2.0, often 
 as much as 5.0 (Scotch), and for Bessemer pur 
 poses 3.0 is generally liked. 
 
 Manganese is a common and most beneficial 
 element. In pig-iron it is present up to 40.0 per 
 cent, from the blast-furnace when specially made ; 
 often up to 10.0 or 12.0 per cent, from manganifer- 
 ous ores. It may be combined with iron and 
 carbon up to 90.0 per cent, manganese (ferro- 
 manganese) for the Bessemer and Siemens-Mar 
 tin processes, a white soft leadlike substance 
 extremely oxidizable. In pig-iron it makes 
 the metal white, and causes the chemical combi 
 nation of the carbon up to the greatest possible 
 content, nearly 6.0 per cent. This form of iron is 
 called Spiegel iron (mirror iron), from its broad, 
 brilliant crystals. Manganese develops great 
 heat in burning, forms an easily fusible cinder, 
 and materially aids in removing the ordinary 
 impurities from iron in refining, while in the 
 blast-furnace it increases the fluidity of the slag. 
 It is seldom present in iron to any great extent, 
 but is usual and beneficial to steel up to 0.3 per 
 cent., or even 1.0 per cent, in special cases. It 
 antagonizes red shortness. Being extremely 
 oxidizable it takes the function of carbon, when 
 the latter is purposely kept low, in removing ox 
 ides from the metal and enables a milder steel to 
 be made. So long, however, as carbon is present 
 in any considerable quantity the rmmganese 
 remains but slightly acted on and goes into the 
 metal. Manganese, if present in decided quan 
 tity, say over 0.4 per cent., is apt to make steel 
 fly to pieces or crack in hardening ; 0.25 per cent, 
 will have this effect if phosphorus be present 
 over 0.02 per cent. More than 1.0 per cent, 
 makes low steel brittle when cold. 
 
 Copper is a very common impurity of iron, 
 more seldom of steel, as it is where possible ex 
 cluded from the latter by the choice of material. 
 It acts similarly to sulphur, and about as strongly. 
 A percentage of 0.5 is highly injurious. 
 
 A statement of the relative hardening power 
 of these elements on steel very approximately 
 exhibits relations of importance. If one unit of 
 phosphorus, say 0.01 per cent., will produce a 
 certain amount of hardness or brittleness, 2-3 
 units silicon, 5 units carbon, and 7-8 units man 
 ganese will produce the same effect. It would 
 be truer to say that carbon increases strength 
 and the other elements brittleness, for the best 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 375 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 steel is that which contains least phosphorus, 
 sulphur, and silicon. 
 
 ORES OF IRON. 1. Magnetic iron ore. This 
 consists mainly of the magnetic oxide of iron, 
 and can, of course, never contain more than 
 72.41 per cent, metallic iron. It often contains 
 a sesquioxide, and rarely carbonate of iron. 
 Quartz, chlorite, or hornblende are its principal 
 gangue, and magnetic pyrites, iron pyrites, cop 
 per pyrites, and apatite its principal impurities. 
 The amount of impurity varies of course, but the 
 ore ranges from 40 to 60 per cent. iron. In the 
 Lake Superior region the No. 1 ore is guaranteed 
 60 per cent. 
 
 It occurs principally in primary massive or 
 schistose rocks, exceptionally in the Devonian 
 (Siegen district) or Lias (Rosendale, England). 
 
 It is in general a red, short ore, tending to 
 produce a hard, not very gray iron, on account 
 of its comparatively difficult fusibility. 
 
 2. Franklinite, a combination of iron, zinc, 
 manganese, and oxygen with 45 per cent, iron 
 and 20 per cent, zinc may be regarded as an ore 
 of iron. Its principal use is for Spiegel iron, 
 rich in manganese, after the extraction of the 
 zinc for zinc paints. It occurs only in New 
 Jersey, near Franklin. 
 
 3. lied hematite, or Specular ore. The ore 
 occurs crystalline in plates or crystals (rhombo- 
 hedric), as specular ore in Elba and Lake Su 
 perior. In spherical aggregations with fibrous 
 texture in the west of England associated with 
 the ore in a sandy form more or less hard. Also 
 massive, as red hematite in England, Spain, Lake 
 Superior, and Algeria. Also in oolitic beds with 
 lenticular formation, as in Northern New York. 
 
 The ore in whatever form leaves a character 
 istic red streak when rubbed on rough porcelain. 
 Its principal gangues are calc spar in Spain, 
 quartz in Lake Superior. Generally clay and 
 often pyrites and apatite occur with it, the latter 
 in inconsiderable amount. The average contents 
 of iron is 30 to 40 per cent., though the Spanish 
 and Algerian ore is generally over 50 per cent., 
 and Lake Superior over 50, with enough of 
 greater purity to form, a grade of 60 per cent, 
 guaranteed. 
 
 It is found in all rocks, from the oldest to those 
 of the coal formations. It occurs abundantly in 
 all parts of the world, and makes as a rule the 
 best iron. The Spanish swOrds owe their fame 
 from immemorial time to the splendid deposits 
 near Bilbao, which are now used in all countries 
 for pig-iron for steel. 
 
 Massive red hematite makes in the blast-fur 
 nace a neutral iron of great purity, which is now 
 almost exclusively devoted to the manufacture 
 of steel of all kinds. 
 
 4. Brown hematite is a widely-distributed ore 
 in all formations. It consists of the hydrated 
 sesquioxide of iron, and is often associated with 
 other ores as the result of their decomposition. 
 The brown hematite in the soil of the valleys 
 along the edges of the Silurian formation in the 
 United States seems largely derived from the 
 oxidation of the iron pyrites in the older slates. 
 
 The ore occurs in every form with a principal 
 gangue or admixture of clay, also quartz in the 
 massive forms, and in general calc spar and dolo 
 mite. A very frequent accompaniment is man 
 ganese ore. The Bog-iron ores come under this 
 variety, and are now in process of formation in 
 
 ponds or bogs along our eastern coast and in 
 Sweden. Sand is, of course, a large impurity, 
 and the bog ores are almost valueless from their 
 cold shortness. 
 
 The value of the ore varies greatly, and that 
 which occurs massive is generally the most valu 
 able and most used. Although seldom injuri 
 ously red short, the ore occurring in the older 
 formations are generally red short, while that of 
 the new formations is cold short often to a very 
 great extent. 
 
 In the purest varieties the percentage of iron 
 may sometimes, but rarely, be as high as 60 per 
 cent., but will probably not average more than 30 
 per cent., often falling lower. Much of this ore 
 cannot be worked at all on account of small per 
 centage of iron. 
 
 5. Spathic iron ore. This ore is a carbonate 
 of the protoxide of iron, and cannot contain 
 more than 48.2 per cent. iron. It also contains 
 carbonate of protoxide of manganese in the crys 
 talline varieties, having often as much as 11 per 
 cent, manganese oxide. What goes under this 
 title is usually more or less crystalline. It 
 usually contains little or no hurtful impurity. 
 
 The percentage averages between 30 and 40, 
 but may always be increased by roasting, often 
 to more than 50 per cent. It makes iron of the 
 greatest purity and value for all purposes, especi 
 ally steel. Its greatest development occurs in 
 the Siegen district of Westphalia, where 500 veins, 
 of 6 to 20 feet thickness, are worked, and in 
 Styria and Carinthia, in Austria, where enor 
 mous deposit exists ; over 150 feet of ore at Eisen- 
 erz. Krupp and the Austrian Royal Works 
 depend largely on this ore. 
 
 A variety of this ore, however, occurs massive 
 in the Lias formation near Cleveland, 15 to 22 
 feet thick, which has given rise to the most con 
 siderable iron district in England, since its dis 
 covery by Bolkow in 1847. Its percentage of 
 iron averages about 34, always enriched to more 
 than 40 by roasting, and it is quite cold sheet. 
 
 6. Clay ironstone, or argillaceous iron ore. 
 This consists of the carbonate of iron in admix 
 ture with clay, and sometimes sand, and more or 
 less water. The carbonate is found generally in 
 timately mixed with clay in nodular masses with 
 conchoidal fracture, which are distinctively ar 
 gillaceous iron ore, often in this country called 
 carbonate ore. Often, in England, these nodules 
 disappear, and the ore and clay form a continu 
 ous stratum called day band. The percentage of 
 iron varies between 25 and 35, but may be en 
 riched by roasting. This ore is found in this 
 country, principally in the lower coal-measures 
 of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In England nearly 
 two-thirds of the iron product is derived from 
 this ore in its different varieties. 
 
 Black-band Ore. When the argillaceous iron 
 ore is found in connection with coal veins it 
 carries a considerable quantity of coal, makes a 
 black streak on porcelain, and is called black 
 band, the term given by the Scottish miners. Its 
 principal occurrence and first discovery (Mushet, 
 1801) are in Scotland, near Glasgow, where it 
 yearly produces in a small district about 900,000 
 tons of pig-iron. 
 
 It carries 10 to 25 per cent, of coal, which 
 enables the ore to roast itself, burning with a 
 good deal of vigor. Its content of iron varies 
 much, and will average 25 to 30. 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 376 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 In the United States this ore is of very little 
 value, occurring seldom, and very sandy. 
 
 Analyses of Iron Ores. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 
 63.18 
 26 5 -* 
 
 70.98 
 
 57.88 
 
 64.57 
 
 0.70 
 
 4950 
 
 4330 
 
 Mangano-manganic 
 
 012 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 060 
 
 1 45 
 
 
 
 Protoxide of inaii- 
 
 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 1.08 
 
 Sesquioxide of co 
 balt 
 
 
 
 
 0.18 
 
 
 
 
 a 23 
 
 201 
 
 405 
 
 2.63 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 Lime 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.05 
 
 1.86 
 
 1.26 
 
 
 trace 
 
 0.20 
 
 108 
 
 0.05 
 
 2.0J 
 
 2.67 
 
 Silica 
 
 6.08 
 
 25.12 
 
 24.40 
 
 19.02 
 
 5.79 
 
 7.20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3490 
 
 2846 
 
 Water etc 
 
 
 1.08 
 
 11.05 
 
 10.97 
 
 1 40 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.13 
 
 3.46 
 
 1.03 
 001 
 
 0.21 
 
 O.G7 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 001 
 
 003 
 
 none 
 
 
 
 0.26 
 
 Carbonaceous mat 
 ter 
 
 
 
 
 
 073 
 
 1510 
 
 Totals 
 
 10019 
 
 10000 
 
 99 69 
 
 99 96 
 
 9990 
 
 100 00 
 
 Metallic iron 
 Phosphorus 
 Sulphur 
 
 64.86 
 0.02 
 0004 
 
 49.33 
 0.05 
 003 
 
 40.50 
 1.51 
 
 42.20 
 0.45 
 0003 
 
 39.00 
 0.09 
 001 
 
 33.68 
 0.29 
 026 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. Is the best grade of Crown Point, Lake Champlain mag 
 netic ore. It often contains much more phosphorus, and some 
 times as much as 16 per cent, titanic acid. 
 
 II. Second class Lake Superior red hematite, McCracken 
 mine. The first-class ore contains over 60 per cent, iron, and 
 less than 8 per cent, quartz or silica. 
 
 III. FiiMil red hematite from Clinton, Northern New York, 
 representing the oolitic varieties of the ore. 
 
 IV. Brown hematite from Chestnut Hill, Pa., representing the 
 best ores of the Siluro-Cambrian formation. They are fre 
 quently far more cold short, and seldom richer in iron. 
 
 V. Carbonate ore from Pittsburgh Coal Horizon, in Fayette 
 County, Pa. These ores are usually more cold short. 
 
 VI. Black band from Llanelly, Wales, characteristic " Mu- 
 shet stone," contains from 3.3 to 8.0 per cent, coaly matter in 
 the vein proper. The sulphur exists as pyrites. 
 
 METHODS OF IRON PRODUCTION. Only two 
 methods are open to iron-workers. Either the 
 ores are reduced at a low temperature directly to 
 steel, and after reduction, if iron be desired," the 
 carbon burnt out sufficiently by exposing the 
 " loup" to the blast, or the ores are powerfully re 
 duced with an excess of carbon, and the resulting 
 iron forced to take up carbon with formation of 
 pig-iron. The older methods using the Catalan 
 and associated forges, all proceeded in the first 
 way, and make to this day both steel and iron 
 wherever the richest ores occur with plenty of 
 charcoal, as in the Adirondacks and Germany. 
 But it was long ago apparent that the best product 
 was got by first making pig-iron, and then oxidi 
 zing it to burn out the carbon and other elements 
 by various refining processes. This change took 
 place about 1545, as described by Agricola. We 
 shall consider the reduction process first, as its 
 logical place in the operations of the present day. 
 
 ^The Blast-furnace. The general idea of a 
 blast-furnace may be put as that of a tall cylin 
 drical shaft of considerable capacity, whose in 
 ternal shape is in general the result of placing a 
 cone on the base of another cone inverted. 
 Three or more cones may often be traced, or 
 the section may be formed by a segment of a 
 circle sweeping from top to bottom. Th shapes 
 are not the result of fancy ; the process itself 
 dictates some details, the kind of pig-iron sought 
 and the fuel used the rest. 
 
 Where the bases of the two cones meet the 
 greatest area for a given height is found, and 
 this is called the boshes. As the inverted cone 
 narrows downward it takes the name of crucible, 
 and that of hearth in its smallest dimensions at the 
 bottom. In this country only hearth and boshes 
 are usually distinguished. The top of the upper 
 cone is called the throat, and its opening the 
 tunnel-head of the furnace. The tuyeres pierce 
 the walls of the crucible at a height (30 to 70 
 inches) sufficient to contain all the iron that can 
 be melted in 8 hours, along with a covering of 
 10 to 18 inches of slag, for the pig-iron must 
 not, when formed, be exposed to the action of 
 the blast. 
 
 The object of the shape is to supply the mate 
 rials regularly as they are melted in the hearth, 
 and at the same time in a condition open enough 
 to be acted on and reduced by the ascending 
 gases. The object of the boshes is both to hold 
 such a supply as will cover all irregularities in 
 melting, and to reduce the temperature quickly 
 to such a degree that the ore cannot be melted 
 into cinder before its entire reduction and the 
 carbonization of the iron. The carbonization 
 takes place in the zone of greatest heat, a frus 
 tum of the cone above the tuyeres not more 
 than 2 feet high. The coal, limestone, and iron- 
 sponge preserve their shape even at this point, 
 which they reach so hot as to melt away like 
 wax. A tapping-hole is provided at the lowest 
 point for the iron, and a cinder-notch just below 
 the tuyeres lets the slag out at proper intervals. 
 
 The exterior of the furnace is now as nearly 
 cylindrical as may be for convenience of bracing, 
 either by an entire iron shell inside of which 
 the furnace is built, or by flat bars tightened 
 round the brick-work after its erection. In both 
 methods the lower part of the furnace is sup 
 ported on columns to afford free access all round 
 to the hearth and tuyeres. 
 
 The size of furnaces varies greatly, owing to 
 the great difference in ores and fuel. The small 
 est are charcoal furnaces, ranging from 452 to 
 about 2000 cubic feet internal contents. The 
 anthracite furnaces of Pennsylvania and Wales 
 vary from 2000 to 6000 cubic feet. Coke fur 
 naces vary from about 3000 to 42,000 cubic feet. 
 Raw coal furnaces in Scotland average 7000 cubic 
 feet and a product of 180 tons a week. 
 
 The product of charcoal furnaces varies from 
 7j to 30 tons a day, according to size and ore. 
 In the other classes 20 to 40 cubic feet produce 
 a ton of iron per week with good management. 
 In the largest furnaces with poor ores 50 cubic 
 feet per ton per week are often required in Cleve 
 land, and on the other hand, with the richest ores, 
 high heat, and an ample blast, about 11 feet of 
 cubic contents produce a ton per week at the 
 Edgar Thomson Works near Pittsburgh ; where 
 1300 tons are made in a furnace of 20 feet bosh. 
 
 Blast-furnace accessories. The heart of the 
 whole process is the blowing-engine, which as 
 now made is usually a short-stroke engine, about 
 4 feet stroke, making 30 to 70 revolutions per 
 minute, and with a blast-cylinder 60 to 84 inches 
 diameter, according to volume of blast desired. 
 The steam-cylinder varies in diameter according 
 to pressure desired, for a 72-inch cylinder 32 to 
 38 inches. The fly-wheels vary with the en 
 gines from 9 to 16 tons to preserve uniformity 
 of motion. It is useless to cut off steam less 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 377 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 than | stroke or more than f as engines are or 
 dinarily situated, counting the vicissitudes of 
 steam-supply and the necessity of blast of uni 
 form pressure. An engine taking steam more 
 than | stroke would take more than its share of 
 the available heat. Long-stroke engines have 
 been considered more durable, and in this coun 
 try, with 84-inch blast-cylinders and 7-foot 
 stroke, they have a very good record. 
 
 The blast, if used cold, would have very little 
 power except in small charcoal furnaces with 
 easily reducible ores, and it has been used hot 
 since Condie invented the water-cooled tuyere 
 in 1830. The waste gases had been in 1814 used 
 for steam by Aubertot, and they were immedi 
 ately applied to heating the blast, thus render 
 ing the blast-furnace a complete organism inde 
 pendent of any source of heat except the coal 
 charged with the ore. 
 
 Hot-blast stoves were at first cast-iron pipes of 
 every imaginable form, the object being to ex 
 pose the greatest amount of heating surface in 
 the stove where the gas was burnt. The Scotch 
 U pipe, where the cold-air pipe ran along one side 
 of the stove carrying a number of U or siphon- 
 pipes connected with the hot-blast pipe on the 
 other, has been superseded by a form of stoves in 
 which several bed-pipes run across the stove car 
 rying close-legged U pipes, often 14 feet high 
 and 9 inches in diameter, the bed-pipe being in 
 tercepted by diaphragms, which force the blast up 
 and down through 5 double legs, or about 140 feet, 
 before reaching the hot-blast side or connection. 
 In order to avoid unequal heating and burning 
 the pipes the waste gas is now burnt in a special 
 chamber below and connecting with that con 
 taining the pipes, and called the combustion- 
 chamber. 
 
 Cast-iron stoves rarely, if ever, have more 
 than 3 square feet of heating surface to the cubic 
 foot of blast. The majority probably not more 
 than 1| square feet. The limit of constant heat 
 producible with safety to the pipes is 900, or 
 thereabout, and the friction of the blast in pass 
 ing through them is considerable. As far as 
 possible the area of the pipes should be increased 
 in accordance with the formula 1 -f- 0.003 ; t 
 being temperature to which blast is heated. At 
 the Moselem Furnace, in Pennsylvania, where 
 cold-blast anthracite iron used sometimes to be 
 made for short periods, the engine made 38 revo 
 lutions with 3 pounds pressure, but when the 
 blast was turned through the stove for ordinary 
 iron only 28 revolutions could be made at a 
 pressure of 5 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Of late years, however, the regenerative fire 
 brick stoves, incapable of injury, and with a vast 
 heating surface, have been found preferable, 
 where the expense can be met. They afford 
 about 8 square feet of heating surface to the lj 
 of a cast-iron stove, and blast may be delivered at 
 1500 unvaryingly. They are used in sets of 3 
 or of 4, with one to spare, the gas being burnt in 
 two while the third is heating blast. They are 
 of the Whitwell and Cowper types, both covered 
 by the Siemens principle. 
 
 The other accessories are steam-boilers fitted 
 to be fired with the waste gas from the furnace ; 
 pumps to supply the tuyeres, etc., with water, 
 1500 to 2500 gallons per hour being used by a 
 furnace with bosh 14 feet in diameter. 
 
 The hoists, by means of which the charges are 
 
 raised to the tunnel-head, are of almost every 
 possible construction, some with a water coun 
 terbalance, others with steam hoisting-engines, 
 with air-cylinders working by vacuum or by 
 pressure, with steam direct, and water-pressure 
 direct and indirect. 
 
 Materials. Ore, fuel, air, and flux are the 
 materials of the process. 
 
 The ores are generally prepared, except in the 
 case of open red hematites, by crushing to con 
 venient size, and roasting before they are charged. 
 They are sometimes washed with water to re 
 move sulphates formed in roasting, and in Bo 
 hemia, with weak sulphurous acid, to remove 
 phosphate of lime. Uniformity and moderately 
 small size improves the working of the furnace. 
 An average of "2\ tons of ore to the ton of iron is 
 thought a good one in the United States, and 
 about If tons is the best attainable. It does not 
 pay to work ores which will not make a ton of 
 iron with less than 3| tons. 
 
 The fuel may be either raw bituminous block- 
 coal, as in Scotland, Ohio, and Indiana; coke, 
 as universally used ; anthracite, in Eastern 
 Pennsylvania and Wales; or charcoal, as in 
 Sweden, Germany, Russia, and United States. 
 Coke well made, from coal washed to remove 
 pyrites and ash, is probably the kindest and best 
 fuel, enabling the quickest work. Anthracite is 
 more refractory, requiring a higher temperature 
 and blast-pressure. Charcoal burns so easily 
 that it will not support either a high tempera 
 ture or much blast. With coke, 1 ton to the 
 ton of iron is the best practice ; with anthracite, 
 about 1^ tons, usually 1 tons ; with raw coal, 2 
 tons (Scotland) to 3 tons (U.S.); and with 
 charcoal, 110 bushels, or about 1980 pounds per 
 ton, with hot blast, and 205 bushels, or 3690 
 pounds, with cold blast. 
 
 Air is required to furnish oxygen. By volume 
 air contains about 21 per cent, oxygen, and by 
 weight 23 per cent. By weight, averaged the 
 year round, the percentage of water is not less 
 than 0.2, as furnaces must be situated in valleys 
 where they can get water. W T ater vapor is dele 
 terious, as returning less heat than it takes to 
 decompose it, and furnaces which make gray iron 
 in winter often cannot keep up heat enough, from 
 this cause, to do so in the spring when the air is 
 saturated. Under ordinary conditions about 6 
 tons of air are required per ton of iron, and 
 more can be profitably used. 
 
 The flux is usually limestone, as free from 
 magnesia as possible, and must be charged in 
 such proportions as to maintain a slag acid, with 
 silica for charcoal furnaces, and basic with lime 
 for coal and coke furnaces. On an average 1 
 tons to the ton of iron is required, much depend 
 ing, however, on the original composition and 
 mixture of the ores. 
 
 About 6 tons of solid material is estimated as 
 the average required for a ton of iron. 
 
 Process. This is mainly a powerful reduction 
 in the upper part of the furnace by means of 
 carbonic oxide at a comparatively low tempera 
 ture, and a carbonization in the zone of great 
 est heat. Before the tuyeres carbonic acid is 
 formed, which, as it ascends, is soon reduced to 
 carbonic oxide by the glowing coal in the charges. 
 Other metals are reduced, of course, beside iron, 
 and the hotter the furnace the more silicon and 
 the less sulphur are present. In manganiferous 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 378 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 ores, the greater the heat the more manganese is 
 reduced, and the less graphite is present. Sub 
 stantially all the phosphorus in the ore and coal 
 goes into the iron. 
 
 The shape of the hearth and boshes depends 
 on the iron desired. For forge-iron a capacious 
 hearth is used, quickly widening upward, that 
 the heat filling a large space may be less intense ; 
 this is especially the case where spiegel or full 
 white iron is made. But for gray iron the 
 hearth is comparatively contracted, and every 
 means taken to increase the temperature. In 
 using the Cowper and Whitwell hot-blast stoves, 
 with enormous reserve of heat, it is found that one 
 is comparatively independent of form of hearth 
 or of moisture, and production can be driven to 
 the utmost extent. We are beginning to find 
 that it is advisable to use a great amount of blast, 
 both for regularity of working and quality of iron. 
 
 Products. Gas, slag, and pig-iron. The gas 
 consists of nitrogen, with carbonic oxide and 
 acid, some cyanides, and the fumes of any vola- 
 tilizable oxides there may be, such as zinc oxide. 
 The carbonic oxide, although only about 20 to 
 28 per cent, by volume, produces more than suf 
 ficient heat for steam and heating blast, with 
 some available for roasting ores. 
 
 The gases furnish the means of regulating the 
 operations of a blast-furnace and calculating its 
 economy. Bell found that with Cleveland ores 
 the gases should contain about 737 pounds car 
 bon to the gross ton of iron produced and escape 
 at about 600. In this country, Mr. J. M. Hart- 
 man finds that with a healthy furnace the gases 
 should not escape higher than 275, and are often 
 as low as 180. Mr. Hartman has suggested a 
 most useful " carbon duty" formula, based on the 
 fact of the furnace having a constant requirement 
 of 2179.19 calories for the heat carried off by con 
 duction, and in the gas, cinder, and iron, and 
 
 throwing the duty on one ton of carbon. Thus, 
 the duty performed may be ascertained by the 
 weight ratio of the carbonic acid to the carbonic 
 oxide in the gas. Thus, in a year s work of a 
 coke furnace this ratio amounted to 0.99 of the 
 carbonic oxide, and the constant requirements to 
 23 per cent, of the entire heat produced. The 
 furnace is doing good work in proportion as its 
 constant requirement falls below 23 per cent, and 
 as the ratio of carbonic acid to oxide approaches 
 1 to 1. 
 
 The slag makes considerable labor to dispose 
 of it, as rarely less than 1| tons and often 4 tons 
 or more are made per ton of iron ; the poorer the 
 ores the more slag. It is capable of application, 
 for bricks, for cement, and for mineral wool. 
 
 Pig-iron is not by any means pure iron ; char 
 coal iron containing not less than 3.5 per cent., 
 and that made with mineral fuels rarely less than 
 6.6, and sometimes 10.0 per cent, of other ele 
 ments. In spiegel iron 17 to 27 per cent, is of 
 other elements, of which 9 to 22 is manganese. 
 This is an important feature in refining. 
 
 According to the state of the carbon and the 
 varying grain and color, iron is graded often into 
 8 grades, but in U. S. usually into 5. 
 
 1. No. 1 Foundry. Dark gray, large crystals, 
 graphitic, soft. 
 
 2. No. 2 Foundry. Lighter gray, small crys 
 tals, less free graphite, and less open texture. 
 
 3. No. 3 Foundry, or gray forge. Quite light 
 gray, little free graphite apparent, and close tex 
 ture, crystals hardly showing. 
 
 4. Mottled iron. A mixture of gray iron with 
 white iron, hard. An intermediate grade is 
 often inserted as a No. 4, in which the white iron 
 is less than about th, mottled being then called 
 full motile. 
 
 5. White iron. Full white, crystals more or 
 less large, brittle. 
 
 Analysis of Pig-iron. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Graphite 
 
 2 970 
 
 2 860 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 3 760 
 
 2 936 
 
 206 
 
 292 
 
 209 
 
 2 12 
 
 Combined carbon 
 Silicon 
 
 0.110 
 3.114 
 
 1.380 
 1409 
 
 3.06 
 129 
 
 4.770 
 0.820 
 
 4.632 
 0.367 
 
 0.658 
 1.017 
 
 1.095 
 2200 
 
 1.78 
 0.85 
 
 076 
 1.59 
 
 2.08 
 0.59 
 
 0.78 
 099 
 
 Slag 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 015 
 
 048 
 
 012 
 
 notdet d 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 101 
 
 0198 
 
 010 
 
 
 
 0021 
 
 
 001 
 
 
 
 006 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 0999 
 
 0546 
 
 095 
 
 0.134 
 
 0196 
 
 0106 
 
 <>70 
 
 0.53 
 
 
 
 029 
 
 
 1 037 
 
 0289 
 
 2 99 
 
 11 120 
 
 11 586 
 
 0756 
 
 3450 
 
 232 
 
 
 
 015 
 
 
 0130 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 0.081 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calcium 
 
 
 0141 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 005 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 trace 
 
 
 
 003 
 
 
 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0021 
 
 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 
 
 Sodium and potassium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 001 
 
 
 
 
 
 91458 
 
 93050 
 
 91 18 
 
 83156 
 
 83250 
 
 93 661 
 
 90 249 
 
 9250 
 
 
 
 9561 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.000 
 
 99.873 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.031 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.41 
 
 
 
 100.000 
 
 I. Is Dunbar foundry pig-iron from carbonate ores and coke. Analyst, McCreath. II. Isabella forge pig from Lake Supe 
 rior ores, mill cinder and coke. McCreath. III. Nearly white iron from Gleiwitz, brown hematite and coke. Finkener. IV. 
 Characteristic German spiegel iron. Tookey. V. Franklinite spiegel iron, New Jersey ores. McCreath. VI. Bessemer pig No. 
 1, Crane Iron Co., Lehigh Valley, from magnetic ores and anthracite. McCreath. VII. Bessemer pig, manganiferous ; 
 Zwickau, quoted by Petzholdt. VIII. Average composition of 13 first-class U. S. guns (regulations of 1841), by Morflt. The 
 per cent, iron is too high, probably containing phosphorus, owing to method of analysis. IX. Average composition, hot-blast 
 
 charcoal iron, in U. S. guns, for elements q\ 
 
 Morfit. XI. Belgian ordnance cast iron, analyzed by Abel. 
 
 X. Average composition, cold-blast charcoal pig, in U. S. guns. 
 
 The melting-points of white iron may be taken 
 at 1900 to 2000, and that of gray iron at 2000 
 to 2100. Gray iron becomes fluid at once, while 
 white goes through a pasty state on melting. 
 
 The specific gravity of dark-gray iron is 6.635 
 to 7.275; of medium gray, 6.916 to 7.572; and 
 of white iron, 7.056 to 7.889. 
 
 The specific gravity, tenacity, and hardness of 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 379 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 Greenwood charcoal pig-iron were determined 
 by Wade, as follows : 
 
 Pigs. Sp. Gravity. 
 
 No. 1 7.1)04 
 
 No. 2 7.153 
 
 No. 3 7.245 
 
 Tenacity. Hardness. 
 
 14,486 8.48 
 
 27,153 13.86 
 
 34,424 21.40 
 
 The highest tenacity, 40,897, of Greenwood iron 
 was associated with a specific gravity of 7.272, 
 the strength decreasing from that point as the 
 density increased. Each pig or mixture of iron 
 has a similar definite point of highest tenacity, 
 the range of density for ordnance lying between 
 7.20 and 7.35 as extremes. 
 
 In castings of this high grade charcoal iron for 
 guns, the appearance of the fracture shows the 
 quality. In smaller castings, a somewhat close 
 grain of regular gray fracture, with a jagged un 
 even surface, taking hold of the finger like a 
 rasp, indicate a metal of the highest tenacity. 
 If the grain be uneven in color and texture, and 
 the surface comparatively smooth, the tenacity is 
 lower. In large masses the grain will be quite 
 coarse and fracture more jagged, and the color 
 very light gray, with darker spots rather sparsely 
 intermixed. 
 
 WELD-IRON WELD-STEEL. As iron and 
 steel are habitually made by the same methods, 
 in the same apparatus, they must logically be 
 associated in any description of processes in 
 volved. 
 
 Either may be made by reducing directly from 
 the ore, that is, burning its oxygen out with 
 carbon, or by burning out the carbon of pig-iron 
 by means of the oxygen of the air. In either 
 method the action may be carried further than 
 necessary to produce steel, and the carbon be in 
 troduced again by cementation with charcoal. 
 As a curiosity, steel can be made from pig-iron 
 bars heated in sand with slight access of air 
 (Tunner ? s steel). 
 
 The first of these methods is usually called the 
 direct, the second the indirect, method of pro 
 ducing iron. 
 
 The direct methods include the following: 
 
 1. Catalan forges. 
 
 2. The iron-sponge processes. 
 The indirect methods are, 
 
 1. The finery forge. 
 
 2. Puddling. 
 
 a. Puddling proper, including refining. 
 
 b. Boiling. 
 
 c. Rotary puddling. 
 
 3. Cementation. 
 
 The Catalan forge is the oldest known method, 
 having been practiced in some form from the re 
 motest antiquity. It is synonymous with the 
 old English bloomery, although the method was 
 abandoned in England nearly 150 years ago. 
 
 The Catalan forge, as improved in Catalonia, a 
 province of Spain, is a low small hearth, in which 
 a single tuyere is used, blown by a bellows, or a 
 trompe or water-jet blast apparatus, at a pressure 
 of about \ to pound per square inch (power 
 utilized, 10 per cent.). The fire of charcoal is 
 built in the small nearly square hearth, mainly 
 in two different ways. In the old Catalan the 
 charcoal is at the back, over the tuyere, and the 
 ore is laid in, and afterwards fed, at the front. 
 The bottom is of charcoal. In working, the ore 
 partially reduces, partially goes into a cinder, 
 which covers the iron as it forms. The loup is 
 kept in the hottest place before the tuyere, and 
 
 the first cinder is tapped off as impure, and after 
 ward let off every hour. The forgeman works 
 the ore into the fire with his bar, opening up the 
 fire also, and when enough ore has been supplied 
 clears away the charcoal, presses the loup to 
 gether, and lifts it out to the hammer. The 
 loup weighs about 350 pounds, and the process 
 lasts 6 hours. The loup is cut at first into 3 
 pieces, which are reheated over the fire at the 
 next heat and drawn down. About 1000 pounds 
 of ore are used each time, and 100 pounds of iron 
 require about 300 pounds ore and 340 pounds of 
 charcoal. In the Genoese forge the ore is roasted 
 beforehand by the waste heat, and scrap-iron is 
 used along with the ore. The yield is thus in 
 creased to 5 heats a day, and the consumption 
 of charcoal diminished about a third. The 
 weekly product is about 4 tons. 
 
 The German Catalan forge is worked differ 
 ently. On a bed of charcoal waste ore is first 
 melted, and then the rest of the charge of ore is 
 laid on in layers alternating with the charcoal. 
 The heat lasted 6 hours, and the loups weighed 
 about 75 pounds. To 100 pounds iron about 800 
 pounds ore and 438 pounds of charcoal were used. 
 
 These German bloomeries have been devel 
 oped in the United States on rich magnetic ores 
 with very good results. Their greatest number 
 is now in the Adirondacks, where they have the 
 characteristic feature of using a hot blast heated 
 by traversing pipes placed in the flame of the 
 fire, which is sometimes also used for steam for 
 blowing-engine, with slight additional fuel. In 
 the Adirondacks the hearths average about 22 X 
 30 inches (660 square inches), by 13 inches deep, 
 with walls at the sides, open at the front, and the 
 D-shaped tuyere at the back. The ore thrown 
 on the fire is reduced, some of it being converted 
 to slag as it works down through the fire. At 
 frequent intervals the cinder is tapped out, and 
 every 3 hours the loup is dug up, weighing 
 about 300 pounds. A fire makes about 2400 to 
 3000 pounds per day. The loups are forged into 
 slabs for boiler-plate, or billets for cast steel. 
 One gross ton of blooms requires 1| tons dressed 
 ore (or about 3 tons raw ore), and 2 tons, or 250 
 bushels of charcoal, with warm blast, against 
 2 T ^ tons, or 300 bushels, with cold blast. 
 
 The Damascus or wootz steel, and the "Wolf" 
 of iron or steel, were made in a high forge, 
 which may be called by its Swedish name of 
 Osmund furnace or forge. It gave rise to the 
 blast-furnace, increasing in size and product as 
 the means of blowing it were invented. The 
 small East Indian forges were of clay, built in a 
 bank or wooden frame, about 3 to 6 feet high 
 and 18 inches square. They produced 10 to 180 
 pounds per charge or heat, which was often al 
 lowed to cool in the forge. The German Wolf 
 furnace produced " wolves" of about 500 pounds 
 of iron in 8 hours with about 2189 pounds char 
 coal. 
 
 The iron-sponge processes represent a vast deal 
 of fruitless labor. Of all tried only the Siemens 
 and the Wilson methods are in use in each case, 
 so far as we know, by the inventors only. Che- 
 not (1831) endeavored to reduce ore by charcoal 
 or carbonic oxide in vertical chambers externally 
 heated. The resulting mass was powdered and 
 the sponge separated by a magnet, and used for 
 cast steel by melting in crucibles. Clay (1837) 
 reduced ore with charcoal in clay retorts opea- 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 380 
 
 IEON AND STEEL 
 
 ing into a puddling-furnace, where the sponge 
 was worked out. Renton (1851) substantially 
 the same, except attempting to weld the sponge 
 into blooms, and Harvey the same, with the sub 
 stitution of inclined soapstone trays. Smith 
 (1855) attempted to reduce ore direct in the 
 puddling-furnace, using petroleum vapor to car 
 bonize the sponge; Gurlt (1857) used Chenot s 
 apparatus in a similar way, letting the sponge 
 fall with its impurities upon a furnace hearth, 
 where it was melted. Whelpley $ Storer applied 
 the same method, blowing a mixture of pow 
 dered ore and coal upon the hearth of a puddling- 
 furnace. Rogers (1862) used Clay s methods, 
 but substituted a rotating retort. Dupuy (1874) 
 proposes a mixture of ore and charcoal in a box 
 of sheet-iron to hinder oxidation. Wilson ap 
 plies the inclined tray or surface, reducing the 
 ore on it and using the resulting sponge in a 
 bloomery forge. Siemens (1870) combined Clay s 
 and Roger s plans, melting the sponge in a bath 
 of pig-iron in a rotary furnace. This is still in 
 operation at Landore, and is not strictly a direct 
 process. Blair (1872) improved Chenot s plans; 
 cooled the sponge before contact with air, com 
 pressed it cold to a bloom, which was either 
 worked in the heating furnace or melted into 
 soft steel. The objections to the sponge pro 
 cesses proper are great waste of iron and of fuel, 
 the difficulty of welding the sponge, and the in 
 termittent character of the work. 
 
 The indirect methods all demand pig-iron as 
 their raw material. 
 
 The oldest one is the finery forge. It produced 
 till 1784 all the iron, and till 1839 the most of the 
 steel used, and was worked on almost number 
 less methods, dictated by the circumstances or 
 caprice of the operators. It made iron or steel 
 with equal facility, a change of the force and 
 direction of blast and the quantity of cinder al 
 lowed to cover the ball constituting the only 
 changes ; for steel the ball is protected as much 
 as possible, and for iron exposed to oxidation as 
 much as is safe. The process is slow as com 
 pared with its successors, 5 tons per week being 
 a good yield. This quantity would be puddled 
 in \\ days, or made into Bessemer steel in 20 
 minutes. The product is adapted to special pur 
 poses, and in this country now furnishes most of 
 the best boiler-plate (C. H. No. 1 Flange and 
 better grades) and sheet-iron, while in Wales it 
 makes tin-plate iron. The Lancashire and Wal 
 loon methods are most followed, the latter in 
 Sweden, for the production of Dannemora iron. 
 
 In the Morfa tin-plate works, as described by 
 Percy, and in the other Welsh works, the iron 
 was first melted in a coke melting finery, and then 
 about 250 pounds run into the charcoal finery, 
 prepared from the previous heat. The cold blast 
 was let on, and the iron becoming pasty, was 
 broken up and exposed to the blast. In 43 min 
 utes cinder was tapped off, and the metal begun 
 to be pressed into a ball. The cinder was tapped 
 out frequently, and in an hour the blast dimin 
 ished. In 73 minutes the blast was lessened and 
 the ball taken out and hammered into a flat slab, 
 which is afterward broken up into stamps of 26 
 pounds each. These are then piled on a porter- 
 bar (about 80 pounds), and being heated in a 
 hollow coke-fire, like a blacksmith s fire, are 
 welded, hammered into slabs about 6 inches wide 
 and 3 inches thick. These slabs are nicked, and 
 
 one-half double back, and welded on the other, 
 so as to make both sides of the tin-plate alike, 
 hammered down again, cut off from the bar and 
 rolled into plates. This process is substantially 
 used in Pittsburgh under the name of " knobbling 
 fire." 
 
 In Sweden pig-iron is used in plates which 
 have been broken up and heated beforehand by 
 the waste heat of the fire. The hot fragments 
 are placed in the hearth with the charcoal, and 
 in half an hour the iron is melted down, and 
 partially oxidizing, forms a cinder rich in iron. 
 This cinder is left in when not too abundant, 
 and the metal is worked in it and subjected to 
 the refining proper for half an hour. Then the 
 heat is increased, and the ball is formed and 
 taken out, and about 1 hours from the start is 
 taken out, hammered, reheated, and hammered 
 into bars for the English steel market. 
 
 This is in general the Lancashire process. The 
 hearths now have commonly two tuyeres oppo 
 site each other, through which the blast enters 
 at a pressure of 3.5 inches of mercury and about 
 220. The charge is about 180 pounds of pig- 
 iron, though sometimes as heavy as 290 pounds. 
 The work goes on uninterruptedly for 6 days, 
 with two to three men per shift with a produc 
 tion of 6 to 14 gross tons of blooms, a waste of 
 13 per cent, of the pig-iron, and the consumption 
 of 1220 to 2064 pounds charcoal per ton. 
 
 The blooms are reheated in the Ekman reheat 
 ing furnace with blast and wood, or in Siemens 
 furnaces with the Lundin condenser for moisture 
 in the gas from the sawdust or wet peat used. 
 Loss of weight in heating, 9 to 12 per cent. 
 
 In the Dannemora district two hearths work 
 together (Walloon method), one reheating the 
 other s bloom, producing 8 to 12 gross tons per 
 week with 4700 to 7000 pounds charcoal per ton. 
 
 In Pennsylvania a finery forge is worked with 
 about 230 pounds in pigs laid on top of the char 
 coal, and the iron as melted drips down before 
 the tuyere. When fully melted the blast is 
 turned down upon the iron, which is also stirred 
 with a bar. The cinder is let off frequently 
 when soft weld-iron is desired, and the loup is 
 squeezed with the bar to free it from cinder as 
 much as possible. The loup is raised and forged 
 into billets. A fire works 13 hours a day, mak 
 ing 6 loups, or about 1000 pounds, that is, about 
 3 tons per week. With refined iron 6 tons per 
 week are made. About 0.9 tons charcoal and 
 24 cwt. of pig-iron are required to the ton of 
 billets. 
 
 Steel made in fineries is produced by the Sie- 
 gen, Styrian, and Carinthian methods, of which 
 the Styrian is perhaps most widely practiced. 
 Most of the cheap cutlery and mechanics tools 
 sold as German are made in Westphalia, or 
 vicinity, of steel from the finery, and the Styrian 
 scythes, the quality of which is highly renowned, 
 are of steel from the Styrian finery forges. In 
 Styria the hearth is 23 inches long, 20 broad, and 
 10 to 12 inches below the tuyere. It has a loam 
 bottom, above which charcoal is stamped in. 
 The white crystalline pig in flat cakes 2 or 3 
 inches thick and some finery cinder are first 
 melted down for a bath in which to work the steel. 
 The cinder should be greater in quantity and less 
 rich in oxide of iron than when iron is intended. 
 The steel from the previous heat is reheated in 
 this bath, the new pig being allowed during the 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 381 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 reheating to melt and drop down before the 
 tuyere. When the reheating is concluded, the 
 iron will generally be found very near the proper 
 degree of decarbonization, and the fining is tnen 
 soon finished by working the metal up with a 
 bar to expose it to the blast. The cinder is used 
 to prevent the burning out carbon beyond proper 
 amoun-t, and is let out after the reheating, and 
 perhaps once or twice more if too abundant. 
 One heat requires about 3.} hours, and 2 fineries 
 with 4 men make about 1200 pounds in 16 hours 
 with the loss of 9 to 10 per cent, iron, and a con 
 sumption of charcoal of 297 to 338 pounds per 
 120 pounds of steel. 
 
 The process has the closest resemblance to that 
 foriron, so that strangers can detect no difference, 
 and the men themselves often make a lump of 
 iron instead of steel. Not unfrequently one 
 finery makes iron while the exactly similar one 
 next it makes steel. 
 
 Puddling is at present the principal source of 
 iron, the product of steel by this process being 
 irregular in quality, and now mainly used for 
 remelting in crucibles. For a long while after 
 its first production in 1835 puddled steel was 
 largely made, but has now been almost wholly 
 superseded by Bessemer steel. 
 
 There are two kinds of puddling, viz., pud 
 dling proper, or dry puddling of pig-iron pre 
 viously refined, as invented by Onions and made 
 successful by Cort, both in 1784; and wet pud 
 dling, or boiling, as it is called, in which gray 
 forge-iron is used without refining. Boiling 
 makes the best iron, puddling probably the most. 
 The distinction lies in the fact that in puddling 
 the air acts more directly upon the iron, while 
 in boiling the action is mainly through the cinder 
 of silicate of protoxide of iron, which absorbs 
 oxygen, giving it up to the carbon of the pig- 
 iron. The great liquidity of both iron and cinder 
 enables the impurities to separate more readily, 
 and the iron to be purer, more uniform in 
 composition, and freer from cinder than when 
 puddled. 
 
 There have been many modifications of the 
 process, the principal one of late years being a 
 modification of the Uchatius (really Wood, 1761) 
 steel process applied to pig-iron as it runs from 
 the blast-furnace. Pulverized magnetic or spec 
 ular ore was poured into the stream of iron, 
 oxidizing the latter somewhat, but mainly chill 
 ing it into a mush, which, when cold, was termed 
 pig-bloom. These were sweated or welded up in 
 the heating furnace and rolled into bars. The 
 process known as the Ellershausen wasted too 
 much iron and attacked the furnace-bed too 
 much, and has long gone out of use. 
 
 The refinery is a most important piece of appa 
 ratus at a works where common iron is made for 
 rails and from forge pig specially smelted from 
 puddling- and heating-furnace cinder with little 
 u mine" ore, as in the Welsh works. There are 
 two objects sought, to remove silicon, graphite, 
 and other elements from the iron, thereby making 
 the iron white, to as great an extent as possible 
 with reasonable waste ; and by producing white 
 iron to have a material which will be pasty as 
 soon as melted, and require comparatively little 
 labor and time for its conversion into weld-iron. 
 
 The modern refinery appears to have been in 
 vented in 1771 by Cockshutt, and is in gen 
 eral a rectangular hearth, say 40 inches wide, 
 
 60 long, and 12 to 18 deep, to contain about 
 a ton of pig-iron. It has 3 tuyeres on each side 
 inclining downward to the centre, and its sides 
 and back are formed of hollow iron castings or 
 " water-blocks," cooled by water; its bottom of 
 sand, on solid brick-work, and the front a solid 
 iron plate with a tap-hole. Coke is the fuel, and 
 cold blast is used at 3 pounds per square inch. 
 When refined, the metal is let out upon a long 
 iron trough kept cool by water, on which it chills 
 in plates, called plate-metal or refined metal. 
 
 The coke is thrown into the heated refinery, 
 and on it about one ton of pig-iron with 30 
 pounds of hammer-scale. The metal melts in 
 about 1^ hours under gentle blast, and after 
 hour of strong blowing with the production of 
 considerable cinder, the metal and cinder is let 
 out, water thrown on the cinder, and the metal 
 separated in plates about 3 inches thick, gen 
 erally honey-combed at the top. About the 
 iron represents weight of coke used, and 8 per 
 cent, the waste of iron. Gray pig-iron, contain 
 ing 3 per cent, silicon and 0.2 sulphur, will re 
 tain, after refining, about 0.3 per cent, silicon 
 and 0.15 sulphur; white pig-iron, with 0.4 per 
 cent, silicon and 2.0 per cent, sulphur, will retain 
 about 0.1 silicon and 1.0 sulphur. Such white 
 iron is cheap, but utterly useless without re 
 fining. 
 
 In all puddling processes the furnace is the 
 same : a reverberatory furnace, with a bed about 
 60 inches long, 48 inches wide, covered by an 
 arched roof 20 to 24 inches high. Thereof in 
 clines downward from the end next the fire-space, 
 and the two sides converging also in the same 
 direction, form with the bed a neck about 20 
 inches square, inclining downward to the draft- 
 stack. The bed may be about 18 square feet, 
 and the grate-surface 12 to 16 square feet, accord 
 ing to quality of coal used, and the whole con 
 struction is such as to throw the flame strongly 
 down on the bed. The latter originally sand 
 was in 1818 made of a single thickness of iron 
 
 Slates carefully joined, and usually cooled by air 
 rawn through a chamber beneath them by the 
 intense heat. The product was thus increased 
 from 8 tons per week to 20 or 24 tons per week. 
 All parts exposed to heat are cooled with water, 
 and the door has a small hole through which all 
 the work is done, the door itself being opened 
 only to remove the balls. 
 
 In puddling, the heat is made on a bed formed 
 on the iron bottom by melting and oxidizing 
 scrap-iron to cinder, mixed with some cinder 
 richest in iron from the furnace itself, and on 
 this, when hot, about 500 to 600 pounds of re 
 fined iron are charged. When melted the whole 
 soon comes into a pasty state, and is worked and 
 stirred about by rabbles (iron bars). At first 
 jets of flame are emitted like a fermentation, but 
 afterward the iron becomes stiff, and must be 
 broken up and exposed to the air. In about 45 
 minutes it begins to form metallic iron, and the 
 whole soon comes to nature, and is carefully 
 worked together, and then separated into 4 to 6 
 balls. At this stage the iron burns and the mass 
 becomes decidedly hotter and more coherent, and 
 absorbs the cinder formed, and the bed appears 
 dry. The cinder is let out only once in two or 
 more heats. In Wales 6 balls are got to a heat, 
 and 8 heats worked in 12 hours, with a waste of 
 9 to 12 per cent. 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 382 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 . In boiling, however, the furnace is differently 
 prepared. On a bed, first made up like the other, 
 ground specular ore or roasted cinder is thickly 
 spread, and the sides are laid up thickly with the 
 same ore or cinder, and the whole fired till it is 
 solid, and with repairs will last a week. This 
 material supplies a great reserve of oxidizing 
 agents, the waste of which must be made good 
 every day. After the cinder has been tapped off 
 from the preceding heat, about 600 pounds of 
 No. 3 iron or best gray forge of good quality are 
 charged with about 120 pounds of roll scale, 
 hammer-slag, and furnace-cinder. The furnace 
 is carefully closed and fired hard for about 35 
 minutes, when the iron is melted. When partly 
 melted it " frizzles" or simmers, and the boiler 
 sees that no solid iron sticks to the bottom. The 
 metal becomes covered with fluid cinder, and in 
 about 48 minutes the bath looks as if in a full 
 boil, jets of flame and metal spurting up con 
 stantly. It is kept well stirred, and in a few min 
 utes becomes frothy, rises to the working-hole, 
 and becomes whiter and hotter when the damper 
 is lowered and the fire slackened somewhat. In 
 about 65 minutes most of the iron " comes to na 
 ture," forming pasty masses in the bath of cinder, 
 and the whole then sinks, becomes pasty, with 
 little apparent fluid-cinder, and the boiler works 
 the mass into 5 or more balls, with his rabble work 
 ing out the cinder and patting the balls together. 
 They seem to be in a bath of fluid-cinder, and 
 in about 80 minutes the first ball is taken out 
 and the rest follow at intervals of 2 minutes. 
 While the metal is melting and the balls being 
 taken out the furnace is kept full of somewhat 
 smoky, reducing flame, but during the boil is 
 kept sharply oxidizing, firing being done as 
 lightly as possible. When the balls are out the 
 cinder is tapped out, a little ore put in and the 
 next heat charged. The boiler and his helper 
 take turn about 7 times on usual forge-irons, 
 each doing all he can. In working purer irons, 
 like charcoal iron, the metal comes to nature in 
 about 4 or 6 similar turns, the boiler always 
 making the balls himself, as he is responsible and 
 paid for good iron only. In the boiling process 
 about f to 1 tons of coal are required, according 
 to quality, and owing to the ore used about as 
 much iron is got out as is put in, the waste not 
 exceeding 2 to 3 per cent. The product of a 
 single furnace is about 12 tons a week on best 
 quality iron, and of a double one about 22 tons. 
 
 The balls are taken hot as possible to a hammer 
 or squeezer, the cinder quickly squeezed out, and 
 the resulting longish cylinder rolled into puddle- 
 bars about 2 to 6 inches wide and \ to 1 inch 
 thick. These are nowadays the basis of all weld- 
 iron manufacture. 
 
 In rotary puddling, principally by the Danks 
 furnace, the most successful form of mechanical 
 puddling*-fiirnace yet introduced, the boiling 
 process is substantially carried out as by hand. 
 But the body or bed of the furnace being a cylin 
 der rotating on its horizontal axis the charge is 
 thoroughly stirred at all periods, and the ball is 
 taken out whole, often weighing 1500 pounds. 
 A charge of refined metal, about 1600 pounds in 
 weight, can be puddled in 35 minutes, or a ton 
 in 40 minutes, with a production of 50 to 85 tons 
 per week. At Middleboro , England, 1000 pounds 
 coal and 1000 pounds fettling (ore) were used per 
 ton of bars with no loss of iron. 
 
 Mr. Williams, of Graff, Bennet & Co., says the 
 Danks furnace as a worker of metals has no 
 equal ; as a melter is inferior to many ; as to en 
 durance, the shortest lived of any ; as to repairs, 
 one of the most difficult ; as to* quality of iron 
 made, it has surpassed all others, standing pre 
 eminent ; and as to product, 9 furnaces made on 
 single turn in 37 days, or 1941 heats, 755 gross 
 tons of bars, thus doubling the product of the 
 puddling-furnace. Test made of the iron by the 
 Keystone Bridge Company of a grade for bridge- 
 work, showed an average tenacity of 67,972 
 pounds per square inch. A more ductile metal 
 has been rolled thinner than 0.001 inch. 
 
 In 1850, puddled steel was regularly fabricated 
 in Lippe, then in Westphalia, and soon after 
 ward in England, all in the puddling-furnace in 
 the same vf&y as for wrought iron. The art es 
 sentially consists in a nice regulation of the tem 
 perature, and in arresting the process at the 
 proper stage of decarbonization during the boil. 
 About 450 to 500 pounds No. 3 or low No. 2 pig- 
 iron are charged. If the iron be not manganif- 
 erous, manganese must be added in some shape 
 to render the cinder more fluid ; the amount of 
 cinder is the same as in puddling. The pig is 
 melted as usual, but then the temperature must 
 be so reduced as to keep the bath in the consist 
 ency of thin cream, and the iron be well rabbled 
 with the cinder. Boiling now takes place at a 
 lower heat than for iron, but hot enough to en 
 able thorough working, that the steel may be 
 uniform. When the metal comes to nature in 
 floating particles of steel the temperature must 
 be lowered to yellow heat, but otherwise the 
 operation of balling gone through with as usual. 
 If the temperature at this stage be too high, iron 
 results. The time occupied is about 15 to 20 
 minutes longer than for boiling, and the coal 1J- 
 to 1 tons per ton of steel. Waste about the 
 same as in puddling. Owing to its having so 
 much manganese, and so little silicon, spiegel 
 iron makes the best puddled steel. Of late years 
 ^t has been principally used for heads of rails, 
 and for rernelting into cast steel. Much of the 
 product of the Low Moor Works is really pud 
 dled steel of the softest grades. It is welded and 
 wrought as iron is, but at slightly lower heat. 
 
 Chemical Composition. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Silicon 
 
 0.045 
 0148 
 
 0.037 
 0158 
 
 0.053 
 0260 
 
 0.501 
 10R 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 0002 
 
 0003 
 
 0064 
 
 0002 
 
 Phosphorus 
 Manganese 
 Copper 
 
 0.248 
 0.020 
 0056 
 
 0.197 
 0019 
 0011 
 
 0.186 
 0.029 
 
 0.096 
 0.144 
 
 Cobalt . .. 
 
 0051 
 
 0049 
 
 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0027 
 
 0021 
 
 
 
 Slag and oxide of 
 
 2164 
 
 2 191 
 
 0020 
 
 
 Metallic iron 
 
 97.239 
 
 97.314 
 
 99.360 
 
 99.151 
 
 Total iron 
 
 100.000 
 98753 
 
 100.000 
 98 817 
 
 99.972 
 
 100.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co., " Ridsdale" iron, coil bar for 
 gun-tube. Analyst, McCreath. 
 
 II. " Ulster" iron, coil bar for gun-tube: four times worked. 
 McCreath. 
 
 III. Best neutral bar-iron from Etna Works of Spang, Chal- 
 fant & Co., Pittsburgh. McCreath. 
 
 IV. Average composition of puddled steel made at Ebbw 
 Yale. Parry. 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 383 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 Bar-iron may be converted in a few hours into 
 weld-steel by exposure at a white heat to carbu- 
 retted hydrogen, or gases charged with carbon ; 
 but the only method practically followed to effect 
 a similar conversion is that of cementation, a 
 process more than 200 years old, having been 
 described by Keaumur in 1722. 
 
 The converting oven is a large conical chim 
 ney, like that of a glass-house, containing at its 
 base a long furnace with a high arch, under 
 which two long chests of fire-brick slabs are 
 placed side by side. These chests average 150 
 inches long by 32 wide and 36 deep. Below 
 these chests a coal fire is placed, whose heat 
 escapes by flues between the chests and up each 
 side, so that the most uniform temperature may 
 be secured for long periods. They are made as 
 air-tight as possible. The iron bars about f 
 inch thick by 3 inches broad and some 12 feet 
 long are placed at first on a bed of hard- wood 
 charcoal (ground so as to go through a sieve of 
 about -inch mesh), on the flat and nearly touch 
 ing each other, but with room for expansion in 
 each direction. On these bars a layer of the 
 same charcoal, f inch thick, is laid, then another 
 layer of bars, another layer of charcoal, and so 
 on till the chest is full with a charge of 8 to 9 
 tons, or 16 to 18 tons in the furnace. The whole 
 is then covered with grinder s sand or swarf, in 
 Sheffield, or clay, or loam, in a layer which must 
 become air-tight when heated. Openings are 
 left in the chests for removing special short test 
 bars from time to time, but all openings are 
 luted up tight during conversion. "When ready 
 the fire is started, and in 24 hours the chests 
 reach a sufficient heat for cementation to take 
 place. The heat is then kept steady for about 7 
 days for spring-steel, 8 days for shear-steel, and 
 9 to 10 days for steel for remelting in crucibles. 
 When the trial bars show the proper " temper," 
 all openings are closed, and very gradual cooling 
 allowed for 4 days, when the furnace may be 
 opened. About 27 per cent, charcoal and 80 per 
 cent, coal are used to the steel produced ; and the 
 steel produced weighs 0.5 to 0.75 per cent, more 
 than the iron charged. 
 
 After conversion the bars are covered with 
 blisters of all sizes, whence the name blister-steel, 
 used in the trade, and their internal structure 
 has been entirely changed. Instead of being 
 more or less. fibrous, with bright, soft, gray color, 
 the fracture has become very coarsely crystalline, 
 with a dull whitish color, with great brittleness. 
 They must be sorted by their fracture, and steel 
 of the same "temper* kept together for subse 
 quent use. 
 
 For the convenience of the trade six varieties 
 have been graded and named, as follows : 
 No. 1. Spring heat, 0.5 per cent, carbon. 
 
 " 2. Country heat, 0.625 " " 
 
 " 3. Single shear heat, 0.75 " " 
 
 " 4. Double shear heat, 1.00 " " 
 
 " 5. Steel through heat, 1.25 " " 
 
 " 6. Melting heat, 1.50 " 
 
 The spring heat shows steel round the outside 
 of the bar, the inside having become crystalline 
 and deadened in color. The envelope of steel 
 gradually thickens, till in the double shear heat 
 the fracture shows about equal parts of iron and 
 steel, the latter rather predominating. The de- 
 markation should be gradual, not an abrupt line. 
 The steel through heat shows no iron, but small 
 
 crystals of steel, while in the melting heat the 
 crystals are large, often shooting across the whole 
 thickness of the bar. 
 
 This easy method of selecting exactly the steel 
 desired has led to the result that the highest 
 grades of ingot or cast steel are almost exclu 
 sively made by remelting blister-steel. Sulphur 
 is also removed by the process to a large extent, 
 thus further improving the product. 
 
 The most probable theory of the process is that 
 it is effected by the permeation of the iron by 
 hydrocarbons evolved from the charcoal. 
 
 A modification of cementation, called case- 
 hardening, is a valuable one. Iron forgings 
 heated for some hours in a coating of nitrogenous 
 matter, as horn, ferrocyanide of potassium, or 
 leather parings. The surface of the forging be 
 comes hard and capable of resisting great wear. 
 
 A process the reverse of cementation, although 
 carried out in similar chests, is Tunner s process 
 of converting cast-iron bars into steel by heat 
 ing them in quartz sand with very slight access 
 of air. It is practiced at Donawitz, in Styria. 
 The pig-iron is Styrian white pig, from spathic 
 iron ore, and the conversion requires 6 weeks. 
 Four grades of steel are made, No. 1 the hardest, 
 No. 4 the softest. It is used for common pur 
 poses, though some of it is good enough for 
 punches. 
 
 INGOT-IRON INGOT-STEEL. As we have seen 
 from the method of production, any kind of iron 
 or steel not melted is apt to be more or less a 
 mush, consisting of layers or particles of iron in 
 terlaid with cinder. For many purposes, both 
 the cinder and the weakness of the weld along 
 the line of cinder are great objections; but it 
 was not till about 1760 that the problem of melt 
 ing steel was solved by Huntsman at Attercliffe, 
 near Sheffield. The Hindoo wootz, although 
 melted, requires subsequent refining before use, 
 while Huntsman s cast steel was ready for any 
 application as it lay in the ingot. 
 
 For the production of ingot-iron, any bar-iron 
 (weld -iron) may be melted direct with proper 
 fluxes. This has been done in France. But 
 Mushet, in 1800, while experimenting on the 
 production of cast steel, found that if he melted 
 iron with 0.0066 of its weight in charcoal " the 
 resulting product occupies a kind of middle state 
 between malleable iron and steel," and if he 
 melted iron with only 0.005 " the quality result 
 ing is nearly analogous to the fusion of iron per 
 se, or that obtained by the fusion of iron with 
 earths." This is the modern homogeneous metal 
 at present synonymous with ingot-iron, and first 
 so termed by Howell in a patent for it in 1856. 
 The thin tubes exhibited in 1862 by Shortridge, 
 Howell & Co. were so soft that they were mis 
 taken for caoutchouc. By modern processes, es 
 pecially the Siemens-Martin, ingot-iron may be 
 made still softer. 
 
 Its principal sources at present are the Besse 
 mer and Siemens-Martin processes, in which, by 
 their easy attainment of high heat, and by means 
 of ferro-manga nese, with a large per cent, of man 
 ganese, iron with less than 0.1 per cent, carbon 
 can readily be made. The Bethlehem Iron and 
 Steel Co. have made a great deal of iron for wire 
 drawing at Washburn & Moen Co. s works with 
 0.12 to 0.14 per cent, carbon, by the Bessemer 
 process. And the homogeneous iron boiler-plate, 
 now so largely used, does not contain more than 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 384 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 fc.10 to 0.18 per cent, carbon. The only differ 
 ence between making these irons and the steels 
 made by the same methods is that the decarbon- 
 ization is carried further, and the recarbonization 
 necess/iry to destroy oxides in the metal is effected 
 with substances which contain as little carbon 
 as possible. As the process is similar, and the 
 amount of product the same in either, on iron 
 or steel, full descriptions of methods will be given 
 under those of ingot-steel. 
 
 We may premise that the steel known as cast 
 steel was the only kind of ingot-steel known com 
 mercially before 1862, or in any quantity before 
 1866. Cast steel and German steel, both true 
 high steels, comprised the whole of the material 
 in use before those dates, while the use of any 
 kind of steel on the large scale was unknown. 
 "What was not cutlery or tools was always iron. 
 So rapid has been the progress of metallurgy in 
 this branch during the last fifteen years, the 
 most eventful known to the metallurgy of iron. 
 
 Cast steel may be made either in pots or cruci 
 bles, or in the Bessemer converter, or the Siernens- 
 Marti n open-hearth furnace. 
 
 The most ancient way of steel-making in pots 
 is by fusing compact iron with carbonaceous mat 
 ter. This is the method of the Hindoos. The 
 production of wootz, the hardest variety of cast 
 steel, is effected by fusing about \\ pounds of 
 Hindoo iron with 531 grains of cassia-wood, in 
 a small unbaked clay crucible holding about a 
 pint. Fourteen of these closely luted are built 
 up over a little circular pit in the ground, fur 
 nished with blast from a leathern bellows. Fuel 
 is supplied through the top, and fusion effected 
 in about 4 fours ; 70 pots, or about 140 pounds, 
 can be melted in a da3 r , and the production of 
 the district was formerly 152 cwt. annually. 
 
 This method has become the ordinary one, and 
 since Heath s discovery of the application of 
 manganese, in 1839, it produces all the ordinary 
 varieties of cast or ingot steel. Huntsman s dis 
 coveries embraced a proper flux (reputed to be 
 bottle-glass), probably the use of blister-steel, 
 and the method of conducting the melting. The 
 Sheffield furnaces now used are said to be identi 
 cal with his. In many works, particularly on 
 the continent of Europe, it has been customary 
 to use charcoal as the carbonizing agent in the 
 pot. But charcoal may be replaced by Spiegel 
 iron, or any pure gray pig-iron containing man 
 ganese. The impurities of the pig go over, of 
 course, into the steel, but for common grades, 
 where cheapness is desirable, this has been held 
 to be no insuperable objection. 
 
 For many years a second method of melting 
 pig-iron in contact with substances capable of 
 yielding oxygen was formerly experimented with. 
 It is very old, but was revived in 1855 as the 
 Uchatius process by the Austrian general of that 
 name. Spiegel iron, or pure white iron granu 
 lated or in small pieces, is charged in a pot with 
 20 per cent, roasted and powdered spathic iron 
 ore, or corresponding quantity of other pure ore, 
 and 4 per cent, clay, and melted in an ordinary 
 steel furnace. The finer the granulation the 
 softer the steel, and charcoal must be added for 
 the harder sorts of steel. It is useful only for 
 small quantities of very pure material, and is 
 generally inclined to be honey-combed in the 
 ingot. It is now unimportant in a manufac 
 turing sense. 
 
 The third plan which has been generally fol 
 lowed in Sheffield for the best steel is to remelt 
 blister-steel assorted so as to produce the desired 
 hardness. The best and most uniform steel is 
 undoubtedly attained by this method. It may 
 be varied with advantage by using Bessemer 
 steel of various grades. In 1839, Heath intro 
 duced the use of a carburet of manganese, really 
 a compound of manganese and carbon, contain 
 ing a considerable quantity of silicon, according 
 to Henry, and found that 1 to 3 per cent, of it 
 would yield malleable, weldable cast steel from 
 blister-steel of low-priced British bar-iron. Be 
 fore this invention only blistered Swedish or 
 Russian bars could be used. Manganese is a 
 correction of red shortness, so that cast steel, 
 which could only be hammered or rolled at a 
 low red heat, may be worked at even a welding 
 temperature when combined with 0.2 to 0.5 per 
 cent. The presence of more than 0.3 per cent, 
 undoubtedly increases the brittleness of the metal 
 when cold, and in tool-steel the less the better, on 
 account of its tendency to cause cracking in hard 
 ening. 
 
 Mr. Seebohm gives the following estimate of 
 the effect of these methods on crucible tool-steel 
 with 1.0 per cent, carbon. It may be made in 
 four ways : 
 
 A. Charging blister-steel double shear heat 
 known to contain 1.0 per cent, carbon. 
 
 B. Charging 50 pounds unconverted iron and 
 8 ounces charcoal. 
 
 C. Charging 40 pounds unconverted iron and 
 10 pounds spiegel iron with 5 per cent, carbon. 
 
 D. Charging 34 pounds blister-steel through 
 heat-steel of 1| per cent, carbon with 16 pounds 
 mild steel scrap containing % per cent, carbon. 
 The value of each method is indicated by the 
 order of the letter after the quality stated. 
 
 Welding easiest B C A D 
 
 Combining must hardness and most elasticity 
 
 when hardened A D B C 
 
 Hardest and toughest when nnhardened C B A D 
 
 Soundest ingots C "D B A 
 
 Least tendency to water crack in hardening D B A C 
 
 Cast steel is melted in England mostly in clay 
 pots, and in this country mostly in plumbago 
 pots, the greater product of the latter offsetting 
 the cheapness of the former. The clajr pots, 
 weight about 25 pounds each, are made of 88 per 
 cent, fire-clay, 8 per cent, old pots, and 4 per cent, 
 coke cinders ; plumbago pots are about 44 per 
 cent, graphite, 44 of burnt clay or old pots, and 
 12 per cent, fresh clay. They are about 10 inches 
 high, 8 inches wide at the middle, and taper 
 more to the bottom than to the top. They hold 
 about 50 pounds for the clay, or 100 pounds for 
 the . plumbago pots. Before using they are 
 brought to red heat, and always kept so, lasting 
 about 3 meltings. Two such pots are placed in 
 a square furnace, about 40 inches ( deep, 32 inches 
 on a side, the opening being on the floor-level, 
 on a "stand," a circular brick resting on the 
 grate-bars. The pots are charged with funnel- 
 shaped charges, holding the full charge, covered 
 with refractory covers, the furnace filled with 
 coke or anthracite, and full draft applied. In 45 
 minutes the furnace is refilled with fuel, and in 
 45 minutes more the melter takes off the lid, and 
 putting more or less fuel in, according to the 
 state of fusion. The full fusion is got as the 
 white hot fuel descends below the top of the pot, 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 385 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 and the metal must present a perfectly quiet, 
 brilliant, mirror-like surface, with a little per 
 fectly fluid slag. When thus "dead melted," 
 as it is termed, the melter encases his legs in 
 gunny-bags, wets them thoroughly, and stand 
 ing immediately over the hole, pulls up the pot 
 on the floor with a pair of tongs ; a boy knocks 
 the cover off, and the melter pours the steel into 
 the ingot-mold. The ingot may be made of 
 any size, but for tool-steel one about 3 inches 
 square by 12 to 18 inches long is usual. If 
 melted the ingot, with 1 per cent, car- 
 
 >on, will "pipe" at the top, that is, the steel 
 will remain fluid, so that the top can feed the 
 bottom of the ingot, making it sound. When 
 used the top is broken off. *The pipe may extend 
 so far down as to render the ingot useless. 
 
 The consumption of fuel is about 3 times the 
 weight of steel produced, and the waste about 4 
 per cent, in melting; 12 per cent, loss in forging, 
 and also 12 per cent, from ends and rejected 
 bars. 
 
 Although the product of the single pot is so 
 small, yet a system of organization and mechan 
 ical appliances for raising the pots up and quickly 
 transporting them to a pool, in which at least 2 
 pots are always pouring (so as to insure a con 
 tinuous stream into the mold), enabled Krupp 
 as early as 1862 to make castings of 25 tons 
 weight. Since then he has made even 50-ton 
 ingots. His method of making forgings may 
 be briefly described as follows, with a probabil 
 ity of accuracy : 
 
 Krupp has 1600 pots at disposal, each holding 
 70 pounds of steel. The product is a soft steel 
 with about 0.5 per cent, carbon, obtained by melt 
 ing puddled or Bessemer steel with iron, special 
 attention being paid to uniformity of grade. The 
 ingots are made in a cast-iron mold in a casting- 
 pit, and cast solid. The pots as they come are 
 poured into a pool over the mold, out of the 
 bottom of which the stream of steel falls, thus 
 separating cinder, etc. As soon as cooled suffi 
 ciently to handle, the ingot is placed in a bed of 
 ashes to anneal for several months, coal being 
 thrown on occasionally to keep up the heat. 
 Great stress is laid on this annealing as the vital 
 part of the treatment. The ingots are then put 
 into large furnaces, most carefully and slowly 
 heated through, to secure uniform work, and 
 forged under 25-ton or 50-ton hammers accord 
 ing to size. A large excess of metal is used, the 
 forging losing half its weight in the lathe, count 
 ing, of course, the bore cut out by a Wahlbach 
 drill, which leaves a core. 
 
 The writer is enabled, however, to give an ac 
 count of ordnance steel manufacture at Obuchow, 
 Imperial Russian Ordnance Works, which is au 
 thentic, having been reported by Tunner in 1871 
 at the instance of the Russian government. The 
 works are in the form of a Latin cross of equal 
 arms, the casting-pit at the centre with a dome 
 roof over it. In each arm there are 20 melting- 
 fires, 10 on a front standing back to back, each 
 fire with 4 pots, or 320 pots available in each 
 arm, or 1280 in the works. Each pot holds 72 
 pounds, or together 92,160 pounds, so that cast 
 ings of 41 gross tons can be made if necessary. 
 The raw materials are puddled steel from Sibe 
 rian charcoal pig-iron, English coke for melting, 
 English coal for the puddling and heating fur 
 naces, and wood for the other operations. The 
 25 
 
 puddled steel bars are sorted into 3 grades, the 
 relative quantity of which is fixed in the charge 
 by the grade of steel desired. No spiegel iron 
 or bar-iron is added to the charge. In melting 
 the pot is charged cold, and only used once ; it 
 is gently heated for 1 hours and then for 3 
 hours with full draft, 300 pounds of coke being 
 required to melt 100 pounds of steel. Tunner 
 saw an ingot cast from 112 pots each of 71 
 pounds ; the ingot weighed 8000 pounds, and 42 
 men were engaged about it. The mold was in 
 two halves vertically, with usual bottom plate, 
 and a bracket upon the rim of the pit sustained 
 the pouring-ladle or pool, which had an opening 
 If inch diameter at centre of its bottom, and 
 held about a ton of steel. An equal number of 
 fires in two opposite arms of the cross were used, 
 consequently the pots were continually brought 
 to each side of the pool. They were so quickly 
 brought that 2 or 3 full ones were always wait 
 ing on each side to be taken up by two men each, 
 emptied, and thrown away. At the pool on op 
 posite sides stood. 2 men with poles to help in 
 pouring, and occasionally skim the steel. In 
 pouring, the pots remaining covered were emp 
 tied through a semicircular hole. Generally 2 
 pots were pouring at once, sometimes only one, 
 and once for a few seconds none, without inter 
 rupting the stream into the mold; but toward 
 the last, when the men were tired and delayed in 
 pulling the pots up out of the fires, the stream 
 was twice momentarily interrupted without in 
 jury of any kind. The pouring lasted 9 min 
 utes, at the rate of 12 to 13 pots per minute; the 
 pool was then quickly swung away, the top of 
 the steel covered with fine sand, then with a 
 thin iron plate, on top of which a good deal of 
 sand was thrown. In the case of heavy castings, 
 where 4 or often 6 pots are pouring together, a 
 runner is used with several arms, each emptying 
 into the pool. The pool is also much larger, and 
 remains closed till a good deal of steel is collected. 
 The ingots were forged under a 35-ton hammer, 
 which was found too light for guns over 9-inch 
 calibre, and in 1871 one of 50 tons was erected. 
 Four specimens for testing were taken from each 
 forging, outside, centre, and each end. The 
 tubes for guns were tempered in oil, but in the 
 Imperial Works at Perm this was not done, as it 
 was not believed to increase the strength. When 
 rough turned and bored, the tubes, or bodies of 
 guns, were heated singly in a special gas-fur 
 nace, in which the tube lies between two rows 
 of small exit flues, and is slowly heated to a 
 uniform red heat. Withdrawn from this fur 
 nace, the tube is lifted by a crane raised high 
 on a masonry pedestal, lowered vertically into, 
 and kept for 5 to 8 minutes in, an iron tank of oil 
 surrounded by water. It is then raised and low 
 ered into an adjacent brick shaft or oven, previ 
 ously well heated with wood, where it is left 24 
 hours to cool, with a cover over the mouth of 
 the oven. On removal it is so warm that the 
 hand can scarcely be held on it. 
 
 The Imperial Works at Perm went into opera 
 tion in 1867 ; produced in two years 19 8-inch 
 steel guns, a trial 9-inch, and several small guns, 
 and in 1870, after the expenditure of $1,213,000, 
 were able to produce yearly 40 steel guns of 
 8-inch calibre. The works were like the Obuchow 
 works, except that the melting-furnaces were 
 blown by fans, requiring each 250 cubic feet 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 386 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 of air per minute. The pots hold 63 pounds, 
 are made of a mixture of fire-clay, old pots, and 
 graphite, 32 per cent, each, with 4 per cent, of 
 birch charcoal. When new they weigh 42 
 pounds; after drying 6 weeks at 100, and 6 
 weeks more at 212, they weigh 34 pounds, ready 
 for use. The raw material is puddled steel made 
 at the works from Siberian pig, and graded into 
 three sorts, first, full steel ; second, steel contain 
 ing some iron ; third, that which when hardened 
 still bends and is hard to break. The charge 
 used for soft steel is 50.6 pounds hard steel, 8.8 
 pounds soft steel, and 2.75 pounds pure, pow 
 dered magnetic ore. The melting requires 5 to 6 
 hours in all, and for 100 pounds steel ingots 700 
 to 900 pounds of pine charcoal are used. Tun- 
 ner saw a 4-ton ingot cast which required 60 
 fires, or 180 pots in all ; also 75 men at the fires, 
 and as many more for the other work, or 150 in 
 all. The molds, in two halves, are 2 to 4 inches 
 thick, and weigh about as much as the ingots 
 cast in them. The 4^-ton ingot was cast in 10 
 minutes without a pool, the mold being covered 
 by an iron plate with two 8-inch holes. At each 
 hole stood a man with a pole to aid two others, 
 who, with pouring-tongs, lifted and emptied the 
 pots. All movements were made on the run, 
 and the places for the full and empty pots dis 
 tinctly understood, a regular drill preceding 
 casting. 
 
 Tunner saw an 11-ton ingot forged under their 
 16-ton hammer with steam over the piston. 
 Under this hammer the forging of 16-ton ingots 
 for the bodies of 9-inch guns was effected with 
 the greatest difficulty ; breakages of the tup, the 
 piston-rod, and dies were frequent. Here, also, 
 a 50-ton hammer was being erected. 
 
 The 11-ton ingot, a square block 31 inches on 
 a side, and with the corners taken off, was han 
 dled by means of & porter-bar of iron 20 feet long 
 by 1 foot square, on one end of which 4 clamps 
 were fastened. Just behind the clamps was a 
 disk like a capstan-head for bars to turn the 
 forging, and at the far end two heavy counter 
 weights. The clamps were heated, fitted to the 
 ingot, and fastened to it by iron bands shrunk 
 over them. The crane chain was slung so as to 
 leave a preponderance to the ingot, which was 
 raised, when required, by the weight of the work 
 men on the far end of the porter-bar. Some 
 40 men were required on the bar, 10 on the 
 cranks, and 10 to swing the heavy hand-crane 
 used. 
 
 The ingot was heated to a full yellow heat in 15 
 hours, or rather the half of its length inside the 
 furnace. It was then forged 35 minutes, re 
 turned to the heating furnace for a wash-heat 
 of about 2 hours, and in 40 minutes further forg 
 ing, the top of the ingot was drawn out to 11 
 inches square, and 7 feet long. The first porter- 
 bar is withdrawn and another fastened to the 
 forged end of the ingot. The bottom half, which 
 is to form the gun, is then heated for 12 hours, 
 and forged down to an octagon to contain, in 
 scribed, the cylinder desired. The forging is 
 then heated for the fourth time, and drawn down 
 to a cylindrical form carefully measured. For 
 an 8-inch gun the forging was 20 inches in diam 
 eter by 10 feet long. The top part, 11 inches 
 square, is now cut off under the hammer, a por 
 ter-bar fastened to the lower end of the forging 
 (or ingot), and the free end heated for the fifth 
 
 time, and forged into a cone about 7 feet long for 
 the chase of the gun ; this operation often re 
 quires a sixth heat before its satisfactory comple 
 tion. The forging is at least 1J inch greater in 
 diameter than the finished gun. 
 
 The forging of the rings is followed in the 
 same way so far as the cylinder, which is then 
 cut up under the hammer into a number of 
 disks of proper thickness. These are then 
 punched, and the holes worked out over the 
 horn of the anvil to the proper diameter. For 
 the trunnion-bands the disks are forged ellipti 
 cal, and as nearly as possible to shape while the 
 hole is being worked out. The trunnions are 
 afterward cut out by machine tools. 
 
 The cost of the finished guns was stated to be 
 75 cents per pound for 8- and 9-inch guns. 
 
 The chemical composition according to a series 
 of analyses, unfortunately incomplete, averaged 
 as follows : 
 
 Pig-Iron. Tube-Steel. Ring-Steel. 
 
 Graphite 3.03 0.21 0.30 
 
 Combined carbon not det d 0.338 0.375 
 
 Silicium 0.66 0.15 0.27 
 
 Sulphur trace not det d not det d 
 
 Copper 0.04 0.04 0.02 
 
 The steel for the tube or body of the gun varies 
 as to its elastic limit from 30,000 "to 40,000 
 pounds, with an extension of 0.8 to 1.8 per cent., 
 and as to its ultimate tenacity from 70,000 to ( 
 85,000 pounds, with an extension at fracture of 
 8 to 20 per cent. The steel of the rings has its 
 elastic limit between 46,000 and 54,000 pounds, 
 with an extension of 0.14 to 0.16 per cent., while 
 its ultimate tenacity is 80,000 to 100,000 pounds 
 per square inch, with an extension of 6 to 10 per 
 cent. It owes its greater strength largely to its 
 having suffered a comparatively great amount 
 of work under the hammer. 
 
 The rings are selected for each tube according 
 to their respective mechanical tests, in order that 
 they may support the tube equally and uni 
 formly, leaving no weak portions. For a 9-inch 
 gun, the body forged out of a 16-ton ingot, 120 
 tests for tenacity were executed for the proper 
 selection of the parts. 
 
 The tube or body of this 9-inch gun weighed, 
 when finished, 14,410 pounds ; the rings, 21 in 
 number, including trunnion-band weighed 21,615 
 pounds ; the breech-plug on the Chambers or 
 French system weighed 1622 pounds with the 
 noseplate and Broadwell ring. The length of 
 bore was 173 inches, number of grooves 32, 
 their depth being 0.11 inch ; the length of an 
 entire revolution of the grooves was 540 inches. 
 The weight of shot was 278 pounds, and that of 
 the powder 47 pounds ; with this charge the gun 
 had been fired 700 times without injury or any 
 change worth mention. 
 
 The method of hardening mild steel in oil, 
 practiced at the Royal Gun-Factory, Woolwich, 
 may be described as follows : A tube of mild 
 cast steel is placed, perpendicularly, in a vertical 
 furnace, upon an iron coil about 6 inches deep 
 and an inch larger in diameter than the tube. 
 This coil rests upon an iron plate laid on the 
 grate-bars of the furnace, to prevent passage of 
 air through the coil. Previous to receiving the 
 steel the furnace has been heated to a red heat 
 with wood, and the coil becomes filled with wood 
 ashes. When the tube is put in its lower end is 
 first carefully heated to a low red heat with short 
 blocks of wood and damper nearly down. The 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 387 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 tube is then entirely surrounded with cord-wood, 
 and slowly heated to a bright-red heat. At this 
 point the damper is closed for a while, that the 
 steel may soak or receive a uniform tempera 
 ture. The more equable the temperature of the 
 steel the straighter the block will keep and the 
 more uniform the temper. 
 
 When the steel has reached a proper heat 
 throughout, a traveling-crane lifts the tube out 
 with a pair of tongs and lowers it into the oil- 
 tank, about 20 feet deep and holding several 
 hundred gallons. The oil-tank is cylindrical and 
 funished with covers closing round the chain, 
 and stands in a cylindrical water-tank sunk ver 
 tically endwise into the ground. The tube has 
 a narrow collar turned round the top to prevent 
 the tongs from slipping. When the red-hot 
 tube is lowered into the tank the surface oil 
 takes lire, but the flame is extinguished by clos 
 ing the covers and covering them with canvas. A 
 gentle stream of water kept flowing through the 
 outer tank gradually carries off the heat of the 
 oil, so that the tube cools uniformly in about 12 
 hours. The coating of charred oil round the 
 steel retards its rate of cooling. 
 
 This operation in soft steel is really annealing, 
 the interior metal varying little from the outer ; 
 on harder steel some noticeable hardening takes 
 place. But in both the tenacity and ductility 
 are greatly increased, thus rendering the steel 
 tougher. This effect is probably caused by the 
 removal of internal strains in the metal of the 
 tube and its uniformity of molecular state, caused 
 by the slow cooling in a liquid of low conducting 
 power. 
 
 A competent metallurgist filling out this out 
 line with his own experience will not fail of 
 making proper steel forgings for ordnance. 
 After an experience of more than 7 years in 
 charge of special steel-making, during which the 
 metallurgical problems relating to the introduc 
 tion of Bessemer steel-making into this country 
 were successfully solved, it is the conviction of 
 the writer that there are no secrets in the pots of 
 Abouchoff, or of any other works, that amount 
 to anything more than the satisfaction of per 
 sonal vanity. Krupp offers to lend a gun for 
 15,000 sterling to the British or United States 
 governments, provided either will guarantee an 
 order to him of 2,000,000 sterling should the 
 trial prove satisfactory. Now, if the United 
 States will make a similar contract with its own 
 citizens, the writer has authority for asserting that 
 the necessary capital will be forthcoming to make 
 the guns here in the best possible manner. An 
 8-inch " Krupp" breech-loader, constructed by 
 the South Boston Foundry on the designs of the 
 Ordnance Department, has already fired 700 
 rounds, 180 pounds Butler battering shot and 35 
 pounds hexagonal powder, without the slightest 
 injury. 
 
 The reasons why such works have not hitherto 
 been established in this country, are the absence 
 of proper spirit and foresight on the part of Con 
 gress, and the consequent piddling character of 
 orders received by the Ordnance-Foundries since 
 the war. The establishments of Krupp and 
 Firth owe the existence of their ordnance de 
 partments, at least, to the direct encouragement 
 of their respective governments by the advance 
 of capital, it is believed to Krupp, but to both 
 by the assurance of steady work. 
 
 Analyses. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Combined carbon 
 Graphite 
 
 1.333 
 0.312 
 
 0.47 
 
 1,18 
 
 0.384 
 
 Silicinm 
 
 0045 
 
 0.24 
 
 033 
 
 0136 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 0.181 
 
 007 
 
 none 
 
 0.008 
 
 
 
 0.02 
 
 002 
 
 0024 
 
 
 
 010 
 
 
 not det d 
 
 Cobalt and nickel 
 
 
 
 012 
 
 
 
 
 
 030 
 
 
 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 
 
 0037 
 
 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 98092 
 
 99.09 
 
 9805 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 
 It is difficult to adduce reliable characteristic analyses of 
 crucible steel, there are so few accessible. No. I. is an analysis 
 of wootz by Henry. It is a red, short, brittle steel, capable of 
 being worked only at a dark-red heat. No. II. Characteristic 
 softest tool cast steel, except as to sulphur, which is rather high. 
 Analyst, Dick. No. III. Analysis by Abel of a cast steel Krupp 
 gun, which exploded on first fire. Steel is too high in carbon 
 and silicium. No. IV. Average of 3 samples of Vicker s cru 
 cible steel axles of great toughness. McCreath. 
 
 In 1856, Mr. Bessemer communicated to the 
 British Association a paper on the " Manufacture 
 of Iron and Steel without Fuel," meaning by this 
 title the production of iron or steel from molten 
 pig-iron without any other fuel than the carbon, 
 silicon, manganese, and a small part of the iron 
 therein contained. The combustion of these ele 
 ments is effected by means of air forced at a high 
 pressure up through the molten metal from be 
 low in numerous streams, so that it may com 
 pletely search and penetrate every part of the 
 metal. The air causes a rapid increase in the 
 temperature, the metal coming rapidly to an in 
 tense white heat. Bessemer clearly discovered 
 the fact that malleable iron could thus be pro 
 duced, but for some reason failed to make his 
 ingots merchantable, as they were more or less un 
 sound from honey-combing, unworkable from 
 oxide of iron contained in the metal. This diffi 
 culty was removed by Mushet, who, in 1856, 
 poured spiegel iron, or a triple compound of iron, 
 manganese, and carbon, into the malleable iron. 
 The carbon of the spiegel removes the oxide from 
 the metal, while most of its manganese remains 
 behind in the steel to remove the red shortness 
 of the latter and render it sound and workable. 
 
 The process was carried on in this country un 
 der the patents of Kelly, as well as Mushet and 
 Bessemer, all relating to the process having now 
 expired. But it would seem that Martien had 
 equal claims with Kelly, both having had in 
 mind the operation of refining, in which Kelly 
 seems to have been anticipated some 300 years by 
 the operation of refining in the blast-furnace itself, 
 practiced in the Eifel Mountains. 
 
 Special machinery was invented by Bessemer 
 for the process. The mixture of gray iron is 
 melted in a cupola, the spiegel iron preferably in 
 a cupola. The gray iron is then run into a large, 
 nearly spherical vessel or converter, which can 
 be rotated on trunnions, and has an opening be 
 low for the tuyere box and another large opening or 
 nose at the top for the emission of the gases. The 
 blast passing through one of the trunnions, may 
 be supplied to the converter in any position of 
 the latter, and going down from that trunnion 
 through a pipe into the tuyere box, it enters the 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 388 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 interior through 8 to 15 tuyeres, each with 12 
 holes about f inch diameter, that is, an area of 
 about 2.0 to 3.0 square inches per ton of metal, 
 and at a pressure of 15 to 28 pounds per square 
 inch. The metal is poured into the belly of the 
 vessel while horizontal, the blast is let on to pro 
 tect the tuyeres and tuyere box, and the vessel is 
 rotated into the vertical position by a rack driven 
 by a hydraulic cylinder at 300 pounds pressure, 
 meshing into a pinion keyed on to that trunnion, 
 through which the blast does not enter ; range 
 of rotation usually about 260. After the blow 
 ing has continued long enough, the spiegel is run 
 in and the contents of the converter emptied into 
 a large pouring-ladle, which is supported on a 
 hydraulic crane, so as to be readily raised, low 
 ered, and swung around from the vessel to the 
 ingot-molds, which are ranged in a circle round 
 the casting-pit. When the ladle comes over the 
 first ingot-mold a stopper is lifted from the fire 
 brick nozzle, in which it fits, and a stream of steel 
 is let out. The stopper is keyed on an iron rod 
 covered with loam, which, curving over the side, 
 runs down through the steel, and at the front is 
 held in a frame, which is raised and lowered by 
 a lever. After pouring, the cinder that remains 
 in the ladle is got rid of by rotating the ladle (by 
 gearing on its trunnions) upside down, when the 
 cinder runs out. The ladles are lined with a 
 mixture of sand and loam. 
 
 In the English type of plant the casting-pit is 
 deep and contracted, and the cranes are self-con 
 tained, the leverage afforded the ram being so 
 short as to make the crane weak and expensive. 
 In the American type of plant introduced by 
 Holley, he has added to the details of the Eng 
 lish a ladle to collect molten iron before conver 
 sion, a platform round the converters, and the 
 crane-rams are guided in the roof as well as 
 below. Both types are expensive, and a third 
 has been designed by the writer with the view of 
 cheapness and still further handiness of work, 
 one of which is now being erected at Pittsburgh. 
 
 The process requires pure gray pig-iron, with 
 about 2.5 per cent, silicon, less than 0^05 sulphur, 
 and 0.08 phosphorus, and 0.05 copper, and ad 
 vantageously with 1.0 per cent, of manganese. 
 If more manganese be present the flame is ob 
 scured, and if the iron be too gray, the conver 
 sion lasts too long ; 6 tons of steel should be 
 converted in 14 to 20 minutes. In the course 
 of blowing three periods are easily distinguished. 
 The first, in a blow of 15 minutes, on hot metal, 
 lasts about 5 minutes, and during it the graphite is 
 converted to combined carbon, and the silicon and 
 most of the manganese are burnt out, some of the 
 iron being also burnt ; this period is marked by 
 an intense heat, and a weak, rather reddish flame, 
 gradually becoming brighter. The second period 
 is marked by the characteristic pasty condition 
 of white iron, and the burning out of the carbon, 
 as in the boil in a puddling-furnace. The metal 
 froths up like soda-water, often filling the vessel 
 and slopping over. The carbonic oxide gener 
 ated carries off a great deal of heat, facilitating 
 the conversion, just as the cooling does during 
 the boil. The flame is very hot, full, yellow, and 
 intensely brilliant like the sun. The third period 
 begins at the 12th to 13th minute after the car 
 bon has been nearly burnt out, and is marked by 
 a transparent bluish flame and a cessation of bril 
 liancy. Iron-smoke indicates the combustion of 
 
 iron, and the heat rises rapidly. The removal 
 of the last portions of carbon proceeds slowly ; 
 the hotter the metal is the less is the carbon 
 acted on, and it is never wholly removed in a 
 well-conducted blow for steel. This third period 
 lasts 2 to 3 minutes, and the end of the blow is 
 marked by a sudden cessation of light and 
 dropping or drawing in of the flame, which has 
 previously fluttered a good deal, as the carbonic 
 oxide ceased being evolved. The heat generated 
 is so intense as to maintain iron itself in fusion 
 15 or 20 minutes. About 0.1 per cent, carbon 
 remains in the metal at the end of the blow. 
 But as considerable oxide of iron remains in the 
 metal at this stage, it must be removed by add 
 ing spiegel iron, usually melted, which diffuses 
 itself through the metal, its carbon burning out 
 the oxide with a brilliant burst of flame and the 
 sound of boiling, heard, in a good heat, all over 
 the shop. The steel, now ready, is poured into 
 the ladle, running out in a milk-white, limpid 
 stream. When iron is being made the blow is 
 kept slightly longer, and the removal of oxide 
 of iron effected by ferro-manganese, 70 per cent, 
 manganese, 30 per cent, iron and carbon, which 
 is heated and thrown in lumps into the metal. 
 
 The heat in the metal must be kept high for 
 successful working, and the blast strong. With 
 very graphitic iron the writer has known blows 
 60 minutes long successfully made, and trials 
 have been made with spiegel iron (8 to 10 per 
 cent.) in which the blow lasted only 8 or 9 min 
 utes, half the metal being thrown out by the vio 
 lent frothing. A mixture averaging between 
 Nos. 2 and 3 pig is about the best, and the 
 waste should not exceed 12 per cent., nor the 
 scrap-steel 3 per cent., while the ingots in good 
 work should not be less than 85 per cent. About 
 0.4 to 0.5 ton of fuel is used, per ton of ingots 
 cast, for the blowing engines and cupolas and 
 warming vessels and ladles. 
 
 At Neuberg, an Imperial Austrian steel 
 works, the Bessemer steel as it comes from the 
 converter is poured into an open-hearth Siemens 
 furnace, where it is held in fusion at the highest 
 heat, and refined by testing and supplying qual 
 ities needed. By th is means the grade and quality 
 of the steel may be very largely controlled. A 
 metal of high quality, known as Refined Bessemer, 
 is thus made there for ordnance purposes, which 
 is very little inferior to the best pot steel. 
 
 Good steel should not rise in the ingot-mold, 
 should throw off gas with slight effervescence 
 while pouring, and should not form honey-comb 
 or sponge-like surfaces anywhere except at the 
 very top of the ingot. It is best made sound by 
 casting it from the top into large molds holding 
 2 tons or more, and subjecting the metal imme 
 diately to the compressing action of a hydraulic 
 press (Whitworth), or in ordinary work to the 
 pressure of steam at least 100 pounds to the square 
 inch (Jones). The fracture should be coarsely 
 crystalline, with a mild grayish-white color and 
 a rather fatty glance. If the color be white and 
 the glance hard and " staring," the steel is cold 
 short and brittle. 
 
 The gases cannot escape from low steel and 
 iron as readily as from high steel, and in both 
 large ingots are exposed to unsoundness or even 
 to cracking during cooling. Whitworth states 
 that extreme pressures like 20 tons per square 
 inch would drive out the gas and compress the 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 389 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 metal to absolute soundness. Five minutes after 
 application of pressure the ingot has shortened 
 one-eighth of its length. After suffering 20 tons 
 per square inch the ingots are strong and ductile 
 as if worked, but at low pressures the ingot re 
 quires further working. To facilitate compres 
 sion Whitworth casts hollow. 
 
 The product of American Bessemer works has 
 been steadily increasing owing to improvements 
 in cupolas, vessel bottoms, and refractory ma 
 terials. /The process became a commercial suc 
 cess at the Pennsylvania Steel- Works in 1869. 
 Their steel department was built in 1867 for 3 
 blows, or 14 tons ingots, per day, at a cost of 
 $600,000. In 1868 it made 8 blows, or 34 tons 
 steel, per half-day ; in 1869 they were able to 
 make per day about 80 tons ; in 1870 the greatest 
 product was 162 tons in a day ; and in 1873 in a 
 week 180 blows, or 890 tons of ingots ; in 1874 
 the Troy (Kensselaer) works made 972 tons in 
 gots in a week ; in 1876 the Cambria (Johnstown) 
 works made 1475 tons per week, 6075 tons per 
 month, and the North Chicago works 1583 tons 
 per week, and 6457 per month, as the greatest 
 product. Now the leading works is probably 
 the Edgar Thomson, at Braddock s Field, and 
 its figures, furnished by Mr. Jones, exhibit not 
 only the wonderful results attained, but also the 
 relations of the products of the Bessemer process. 
 
 The operations for 5 months, January 27 to 
 June 30, 1880, are as follows : 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 Total pig, spiegel, and scrap melted ........................... 64,61931 
 
 Per cent, ingots yielded ........................ 85.78 55,428.75 
 
 3.50 2,262.08 
 10.72 6,928.48 
 
 " scrap " 
 " loss made 
 (Of the loss, 4.21 was in cupola.) 
 
 Gross Tons. 
 
 Total ingots bloomed 55.782.56 
 
 Per cent, blooms produced 94.67 52,807.76 
 
 scrap " 3.91 2,181.51 
 
 " loss made 1.42 793.29 
 
 Total blooms rolled into rails : 
 
 Per cent, rails produced 89.02 43,272.33 
 
 scrap " 7.57 3,678.34 
 
 " loss made 3.41 1,656.40 
 
 Total blooms hammered 1,722.34 
 
 " ingots " 158.65 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, billets produced 90.85 1,708.91 
 
 " scrap 5.69 107.00 
 
 " loss made 3.46 65.07 
 
 Quality of product : 
 
 Per cent, first quality of rails 98.95 
 
 " second " 1.05 
 
 Largest product in 24 hours : 
 
 Ingots 50651 
 
 Rails 445.00 
 
 The effect of the process may be best shown by 
 the following analyses of Neuberg (Styria) char 
 coal pig and its products : 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Graphite 
 
 3180 
 
 
 
 
 
 Comb, carbon.... 
 Silicon 
 Phosphorus 
 Sulphur 
 
 0.750 
 1.960 
 0.040 
 0018 
 
 2.465 
 0.443 
 0.040 
 
 0.949 
 0.112 
 0.045 
 
 0.087 
 0.028 
 0.045 
 
 0.234 
 0.033 
 0.044 
 trace 
 
 Manganese 
 Copper 
 
 3.460 
 0.085 
 
 1.645 
 0.091 
 
 0.429 
 0.095 
 
 0.113 
 0.120 
 
 0.139 
 0.105 
 
 I., original pig ; II., metal at end of first period ; III., metal 
 after the boil ; IV., iron at end of blowing ; V., ingot-iron or 
 steely iron after addition of the original gray pig instead of 
 spiegel iron. 
 
 Bessemer Steels and Irons. 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 0401 
 
 047 
 
 043 
 
 408 
 
 191 
 
 minute 
 
 01 A 
 
 1 (\ 
 
 Silicium 
 
 0050 
 
 
 0038 
 
 0027 
 
 0047 
 
 quantity 
 
 004 
 
 05 
 
 
 0047 
 
 007 
 
 0095 
 
 123 
 
 145 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 0004 
 
 06 
 
 178 
 
 117 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0212 
 
 039 
 
 
 0749 
 
 0152 
 
 trace 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.022 
 
 002 
 
 
 0373 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 98 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 99.85 
 
 VI. Good Bessemer steel rail from Ternitz. Kerpely. VII. Good Sheffield Bessemer rail. VIII. Cold short Bessemer rail, 
 too high in phosphorus. IX. Red short Bessemer rail, too high in sulphur and copper. X. Rotten red short Bessemer (iron) 
 rail, too high in sulphur and phosphorus, and too low in carbon and manganese to counteract the red short tendency ; last three 
 under writer s own observation. XI. Bessemer iron unusually free from all foreign constituents. Analyst, Abel, quoted by 
 then Col. Sir Eardley Wilmot. XII. Bessemer iron, Armstrong 6-pounder, made in 1858. Riley. XIII. Tool-steel made at 
 Graz Bessemer Works. Probiramt, Vienna. 
 
 Although the production of steel by the method 
 of dissolving iron in a bath of pig-iron was described 
 by Agricola and Biringuccio in the 16th cen 
 tury, yet the method progressed substantially no 
 further till about I860. Shortly after that date 
 the Emperor Napoleon paid the expenses of a 
 trial by M. Sudre of melting steel in a reverber- 
 atory furnace. Fusion was effected under a cov 
 ering of bottle-glass, or blast-furnace cinder, 
 without altering the qualities of the steel, of 
 which 2 tons could be melted in the furnace 
 with a notable economy of fuel. But it was not 
 till the Siemens regenerative furnace was used 
 by Martin, at Sireuil, in France, that the pro 
 cess became a success. It was largely used at 
 
 first for the production of a soft ingot-iron for 
 Chassepot barrels, just as the Springfield Armory 
 now uses the same material from the Midvate 
 Steel- Works. It was used till about 1872 prin 
 cipally as an adjunct of the Bessemer process, 
 except at the Landore Works at Swansea, where 
 everything was made by it. But since that 
 date the improvement in refractory materials, 
 and the general increase in the size of the fur 
 naces used, have made the process an economical 
 one everywhere, except for rails, in which it can 
 not compete with Bessemer steel. 
 
 The gas-furnaces used have an open hearth of 
 the most refractory sand rammed upon cast-iron 
 plates, cooled below by air, and covered with an 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 390 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 arch of Dinas or similar silica brick. The regen 
 erative chambers are located below the hearth 
 and below the level of the floor, two on each side, 
 one each for gas and for air. A main flue is at 
 each end of the furnace, communicating down 
 ward with both chambers. When at work the 
 gases pass at their exit through two chambers, 
 parting with their heat, which is taken up again 
 by reversing the current so as to throw the fresh 
 gas and air through the hot chambers. As the hot 
 gas meets the hot air above the flue it burns with 
 an intensely hot flame, which may be kept at will 
 reducing, oxidizing, or neutral for long periods, 
 thus meeting the necessities of steel melting. 
 
 The hearths usually have a length of 13 to 18 
 feet, and a width of 6.5 to 10 feet, the arch being 
 31 to 39 inches high at the centre. They have a 
 door on the working side, and the steel is tapped 
 out on the other side into a ladle, either on a 
 crane, like the Bessemer ladle, or running along 
 on a car over the ingots placed in a straight line. 
 A large part of the working side of the furnace 
 is capable of being taken down for hearth re 
 pairs, and quickly built up. In order to save the 
 furnace as much as possible, the charges, except 
 pig-iron, are heated in a special smaller furnace. 
 
 The process consists in first melting a bath of 
 pure gray pig-iron, the more pig being charged 
 the more wrought scrap-iron is intended to be 
 used. When the bath is fully melted and the 
 hearth clean, the first iron or steel is charged 
 about a full red heat in lots of 100 to 400 pounds. 
 The metal is rabbled with a bar, and this pro 
 cess repeated till the charge is all melted. Steel 
 is usually charged before iron scrap, and with 
 steel alone about 10 times the weight of the pig 
 bath can be charged. Tests are dipped with a 
 ladle, cooled in water and broken, and spiegel 
 iron or ferro-manganese are added, as in the Bes 
 semer process, in kind and quantity according 
 to the material sought, whether iron or steel. 
 When the fracture indicates sufficient decarbon- 
 ization the metal is tapped and cast. 
 
 The charge melted is seldom under 2 tons or 
 over 15 tons. For a charge of about 6 tons the 
 proportions would be about as follows: 2640 
 pounds pig-iron, 3410 pounds steel scrap, and 
 6864 iron scrap, with from 935 to 1265 pounds 
 of spiegel iron added at the last. The waste by 
 oxidation averages about 6 per cent., and the 
 fuel used is about ton for ton. Two or three heats 
 are made in a day, 17 per week being good work. 
 
 The purity of the steel depends on that of the 
 pig used and that of the scrap. The latter if iron 
 may have a serious amount of cinder in it, which 
 is disadvantageous here, as well as in the crucible. 
 But with proper care as to purity, and the use of 
 the Martin process, steel very closely approach 
 ing the best crucible steel may be made in the 
 open-hearth furnace with far greater convenience 
 of manipulation. Of course, a number of the 
 methods previously described may be applied in 
 the open-hearth furnace with the view of greater 
 cheapness, prominent among which is the pig 
 and ore process, in which the pig is decarbonized 
 by the oxygen of lumps of ore thrown in it ; the 
 iron of the ore being also reduced and adding to 
 the product. After special experience required 
 to keep oxygen out of the metal was attained, 
 this process was found well suited to structural 
 uses. With the same case as to exclusion of 
 oxygen in the early periods of the melting, ab 
 
 solutely sound ingots, by the scrap process, have 
 been .made of the best grade for ordnance purposes. 
 
 By the cheap production of pig-iron rich in 
 manganese (20 per cent.) and silicon (10 per 
 cent.) the Terre Noire Company have been able 
 to carry out the ideas of Schafhautt, Bessemer, 
 and Chernoff in regard to steel, and produce 
 steel castings of remarkable quality. They are 
 capable of being tempered, and thereby, it is 
 claimed, receive without hammering the prop 
 erties of wrought steel. The name "cast steel 
 without blow-holes" is given it and the metal, 
 and it contains from 0.26 to 0.55 per cent, sili 
 con and 0.41 to 1.05 per cent, manganese, with 
 0.26 to 0.65 per cent, carbon. The steel is made 
 in the open-hearth furnace, very much in the 
 usual way, but with care as to the point at which 
 the special manganese-silicon-pig is introduced. 
 When cast the articles are tempered at a good 
 cherry-red, with very gradual heating and care 
 ful cooling in oil. Projectiles, after tempering, 
 show a density of 7.9, which is quite high, and is 
 apparently due to a hardening of the steel and 
 consequent compression. 
 
 The higher the carbon in steel the less must be 
 the quantity of the deleterious elements, silicon, 
 sulphur, phosphorus. The highest grade metal 
 must be practically free from sulphur and phos 
 phorus, and the less the quantity of all the better 
 will all steel stand concussive or repeated shocks. 
 Now, by diminishing the carbon the percentage 
 of these elements may be increased without great 
 injury to ordinary metal. Since the cheap pro 
 duction of ferro-manganese at Terre Noire with 
 little carbon, these works have introduced a so- 
 called " phosphorus steel," the main merit of 
 which is the cheap conversion of old iron rails 
 into steel rails. Where rails with 0.4 to 0.6 per 
 cent, carbon could stand no more than 0.8 per 
 cent, phosphorus, the phosphorus steel with 
 less than 0.2 per cent, carbon could carry 0.2 to 
 0.3 per cent, phosphorus, with 0.5 to 1.0 per 
 cent, manganese, which has an advantageous 
 effect on the metal. This variety of steel is 
 inferior (v. tests of Etna iron bars for cold short 
 ness), and requires heavier machinery for rolling, 
 as it cannot be worked so hot as purer metal. 
 
 Trials of various steels, at Creusot, showed that 
 Siemens-Martin steel of the softest grade was 
 found admirably adapted for ordnance (the trial 
 guns being of 3 to 3.74 inches calibre), while 
 similar iron was far too soft and extensible. The 
 composition of both is given below, each being 
 abnormal in the presence of so much calcium 
 and magnesium, while normal material in other 
 respects, except as to copper, which is high for 
 the very best grade. 
 
 
 I. Iron. 
 
 II. Steel. 
 
 III. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 IV. Silicon 
 Steel. 
 
 V. Phos 
 phorus 
 Iron. 
 
 Combined 
 carbon 
 Silicon 
 Sulphur 
 Phosphorus... 
 Manganese.... 
 
 Cast 612 
 0.155 
 0.111 
 0.013 
 0.020 
 0.108 
 0099 
 
 Cast 938 
 0.338 
 0.034 
 0.022 
 0.031 
 0.089 
 109 
 
 0.364 
 0.012 
 0.029 
 0.063 
 0.302 
 
 0.875 
 0.322 
 trace 
 0.085 
 0.772 
 
 0120 
 0.025 
 0.007 
 0.275 
 0.072 
 
 Calcium 
 
 0098 
 
 0151 
 
 
 
 
 Magnesium .. 
 Iron 
 
 0.038 
 99458 
 
 0.022 
 99 204 
 
 90275 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.045 
 
 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 391 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 Nos. I. and II. are analyses of Creusot Siemens-Martin iron 
 and steel, given by M. Bobillier in his report " Sur 1 Acier a 
 Canons," 1873. No. III. is a sample of Nashua Iron and Steel 
 Co. open-hearth steel, scrap-process ; analyst, McCreath. IV. is 
 so-called cast steel without blow-holes, from Terre Noire. V. 
 is a red short ingot-iron, called at one time " Phosphorus 
 steel," from Trenton, N. J. Its red shortness is due to presence 
 of oxides and deficiency of manganese. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF MERCHANTABLE PRODUCTS. 
 The direct products of the processes above de 
 scribed are not, except pig-iron, those in common 
 use. The. blooms and slabs of the bloomery, 
 the billets and slabs of the finery, the muck bar 
 of the puddling-furnace, and the ingot of steel, 
 are all intermediate products requiring further 
 work. All may be hammered direct into bars ; 
 but the usual course is to roll all forms of iron 
 into flat bars about 3 to 8 inches wide, pile these 
 on each other, weld them in a heating furnace, 
 and roll them in powerful trains into various 
 shapes. 
 
 For bar-iron, bars are used about 2 to 4 inches 
 wide by f inch thick, cut up into about 2 to 4 
 feet long, and the pile made somewhat higher 
 than wide, with its length according to length 
 of bar desired. For special grades of bar, the 
 iron is thus piled and rolled into flat bars from 
 two to three times before final piling. Iron made 
 from bars thrice rolled is refined as much as pos 
 sible, as further piling makes it too dry, or too 
 free from cinder and difficult to weld. 
 
 The grades are in England, ordinary, best, 
 best best, and best best best bars ; in this country, 
 refined, best refined, and for higher grades twice 
 or thrice worked, or a special brand, " United 
 States" iron, for instance, four times worked, 
 made during the war by the Wayne Iron-Works, 
 Pittsburgh, for musket-barrels. 
 
 For boiler-plate, usually twice worked, either 
 from puddled iron (C. No. 1) or from finery 
 charcoal slabs (C. H. No. 1), another method of 
 piling is sometimes used, viz., cross-piling, in 
 which some bars are sheared to the width of the 
 pile, which is built of alternate lengthwise and 
 crosswise layers, with the object of securing equal 
 strength in both directions. 
 
 For rails the pile is usually 8 or 9 inches high 
 by 7 to 9 inches wide, but is made of different 
 kinds of bars, special, bars called lops and bot 
 toms being made. The top is usually some special 
 hard, cold short iron, fresh puddled, and the 
 bottom a tough iron for the flange as free from 
 red shortness as may be also fresh puddled, so 
 that each may thoroughly weld to the bars be 
 tween ; next these often come bars from old rails, 
 the rest puddled iron. The Reading Railroad 
 made iron rails with tops of thrice-rolled, the 
 rest twice-rolled iron, about the best made in this 
 country. This same method of piling is used 
 for many other kinds of products, and if the 
 article be large, like some I beams, the pile is 
 made the shape of the finished article, but, of\ 
 course, greatly larger. 
 
 The strength of the product depends on the 
 amount of work upon it, the greater the reduc 
 tion of the pile the stronger the bar. Not less than 
 6 times area of bar is required for good iron ; if 
 this is impossible, the work must be put on the 
 bars before final rolling. Mr. Clay, of the Mer 
 sey Steel-Works, has shown the effect of repeated 
 working by piling and rolling puddled bars, re- 
 piling the bars from each rolling twelve success 
 ive times. 
 
 Tenacity. 
 
 Original bars 43,004 pounds per square inch. 
 
 2d working 5^,640 " " " " 
 
 3d " 59,584 " " " 
 
 6th " maximum ...61,600 " " " " 
 
 9th " 60,480 " " " " 
 
 12th " 43,904 " " " " 
 
 Col. Wilmot stated that ingots of Bessemer 
 metal exhibited the following improvement from 
 working: 
 
 Tenacity. 
 
 Ingot-iron ingota 41,242 
 
 Same ingots rolled to large bars 72,613 
 
 Same ingots rolled to boiler-plate 68,347 
 
 Ingot-steel ingots 68,259 
 
 Same ingots hammered or rolled 154,825 
 
 Steel is usually hammered direct for best tool- 
 steel, or rolled direct from the ingot for other 
 kinds. The choice between hammer or rolls de 
 pends on the quality of the raw material and 
 that of finished product desired, the hammer 
 making the best product from average material, 
 the rolls the cheapest. For steel rails at the Cam 
 bria Iron- Works, large ingots (over 2 tons) are 
 rolled in a reversing-mill into long bars about 7 
 inches square, each of which is cut up into 6 to 
 8 blooms for single rails. Six gross tons of steel 
 (about one charge of the Bessemer vessel) are 
 rolled in 15 minutes or less, and the estimated 
 capacity of the mill is 600 tons of steel reduced 
 from 16 inches square (average) to 7 inches 
 square in 24 hours. Elsewhere smaller ingots 
 are less advantageously rolled in a three high 
 blooming -mill, for 3 to 4 single rails each. Trains 
 of rolls are spoken of as 2 high or 3 high, when 
 two or three rolls are used. In the 3 high train 
 the piece is rolled from back to front as well as 
 to the back only, as in the 2 high train, thus 
 saving the time required to pass the piece back 
 over the top roll. A peculiar 3 high train, known 
 as Lauth s plate-mill, uses a small roll opposed 
 to a large one, the former being prevented from 
 breaking by its rolling against the large roll 
 above or below it. This rolls out the plate 
 quicker than two large rolls could, for the same 
 reason that a hammer with narrow dies draws 
 its bars quicker than with wide dies, the latter to 
 some degree holding the bar. 
 
 The essential rule of rolling is that the piece in 
 every groove or pass must be free sidewise. The 
 greater the draft of the pass, the more room must 
 be left at the sides to secure proper extension. 
 
 This is especially the case in rolling wire rod, 
 where the greatest proportional reductions be 
 tween successive grooves are applied. A 1- 
 inch square bar, 12 feet long, is rolled in 17 
 passes to a rod about 0.17 inch diameter and 175 
 to 250 feet long in one minute, toward the last 
 being rolled in 2 or 3 passes at once. This rod 
 is rolled on a reel ready for the draw-bench. As 
 an instance of the ductility of iron from the finery 
 forge, it may be mentioned that the St. Engidy 
 and Kindberg Iron and Steel Co. exhibited at 
 Vienna a wire only 0.011 inch diameter in un 
 broken coils, each 49,310 feet long, drawn with 
 previous rolling from a single bar. 
 
 APPLICATION OF INGOT-IRON AND STEEL. 
 Cast steel containing less than 0.75 per cent, 
 carbon hardens so little as to be practically use 
 less to the mechanical engineer. Ingot (cast) 
 steel of good quality may be chosen as follows, 
 according to percentage of carbon, the steel or 
 iron being low in sulphur and phosphorus : 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 392 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 TOOLS. 
 Carbon. 
 
 1.5 per cent. Razor and best lathe tools ; very easily burnt. 
 
 1.375 " Saw-file hardness ; must be worked below cherry- 
 
 red. 
 
 1.25 " Turning and planing tools and drills. With 
 
 skill this grade may be welded with diffi 
 culty. 
 
 1.125 " Mill picks, milling tools, and hot sets. Requires 
 
 great care in welding. 
 
 1.00 " Chisel grade ; tough, uuhardened, and welded 
 
 with some difficulty. 
 
 0.875 " Set grade ; where, as in smiths sets and farmers , 
 
 the soft end of set must stand blow of a heavy 
 hammer. 
 
 0.75 " Die grade ; where surface is required hard, the 
 
 rest tough and able to stand pressure. Also 
 for shear-blades, etc. 
 
 STRUCTURAL. 
 (Principally Bessemer, and Siemens-Martin steel and iron.) 
 
 0.65 per cent. Machinery steel for arbors, shafts, springs, etc. 
 
 (and over.) Hardens well, but will scarcely weld, being 
 
 inferior in this respect to cast steel. May be 
 
 called very hard steel considered structurally. 
 
 0.55 " Springs of all kinds, saw-steel, rock-drills, etc. 
 
 Hard steel structurally. 
 
 0.45 " Tires, nails, connecting rods, guides, etc. Me 
 
 dium hard or medium soft steel. Welds badly 
 and hardens badly. 
 
 0.35 " Ordnance, axles, tires, rails, armor-plate, etc. 
 
 Welds somewhat more easily than preceding, 
 but hardens very imperfectly. Soft or low 
 steel. Hardens scarcely at all ; welds well. 
 
 0.25 " Rifle-barrels, ordnance, sheet-steel, etc. For 
 
 merly called extra soft steel, now called ingot- 
 iron, or better, hard ingot-iron. Does not 
 harden at all, and welds with sand-like iron. 
 
 0.10 " Boiler-plate, rivets, horseshoe nails, and all 
 
 purposes to which best weld-iron is applicable. 
 Soft ingot-iron. Becomes tougher and more 
 ductile when " hardened," and welds readily. 
 
 TESTS OF IRON AND STEEL. Mechanical tests, 
 though quickly made, throw little light on the 
 origin or composition of the metal, unless asso 
 ciated with Smith tests of its characteristics. 
 These are tests for red shortness, for cold short 
 ness, for ability to work and weld, for ability to 
 harden, and for ductility, as shown by the angle 
 to which a given bar or plate will bend with or 
 across the grain. This information, combined with 
 the tenacity and elastic limit of the metal, will 
 enable an experienced person to decide very ac 
 curately as to the composition and origin of the 
 metal, and Adamson has introduced a "color 
 test," which will enable one to say very nearly 
 how the metal was made. Special experience in 
 this direction can be carried to wonderful perfec 
 tion. While thorough experience in this depart 
 ment is essential to making reliable products, it is 
 believed that the following notes, indicating the 
 general methods, will afford considerable aid to 
 intelligent criticism. Interference with the man 
 ufacturer should at all events have no further 
 scope than an intelligible statement of the objects 
 in view. 
 
 When one takes a bar for criticism, a cold 
 fracture is usually the first indication sought. 
 If the bar breaks easily without nicking, the 
 metal is very hard steel, or cold short wrought 
 iron. The latter usually shows a crystalline 
 structure of glaring whiteness, while the crys 
 tals of the steel will be small, and its color gray 
 ish white and mild. If the bar requires nicking, 
 it may be a tough, generally red short iron, an 
 ingot-iron, or a medium steel. In this case the 
 fracture will decide between the weld-iron and 
 weld-steel, but not between ingot-iron and ingot- 
 steel ; these latter must be separated by their abil 
 ity to harden and weld, and by ductility, repre 
 sented by comparative softness under the ham 
 
 mer. If the bar be red short iron, its fracture 
 will generally be of a gray silky color, more or 
 less fibrous according to the toughness of the 
 iron, while the ingot-iron will have a quite 
 coarsely granular structure, gray in color for 
 
 food metal, and the ingot-steel have a more 
 nely granular structure of similar color (in 
 each case modified by the presence of impuri 
 ties). Puddled steel can be distinguished by its 
 more or less lamellar structure and frequent pres 
 ence of spots of iron darker in color than the steel. 
 Blister-steel would be distinguished by its some 
 what yellowish color, unusually coarse structure, 
 and its blisters. The above are the usual varie 
 ties met with in construction. 
 
 The iron or steel may have been overheated 
 and rendered coarsely cr3 7 stalline with change 
 of color, or red short iron may have been made 
 crystalline by vibration, as in a car-axle, or con 
 cussion, as in an armor-plate. In such cases iron 
 is weak. The origin of the metal will throw 
 light on such exceptions. 
 
 If, on heating the bar, it will stand a heat so 
 high that sparks fly from its corners on exposure to 
 air, it may be either weld- or ingot-iron. Weld- 
 iron or ordinary piled bars will not work with 
 anything like the perfection or soundness of 
 ingot-iron, but it will weld with greater sound 
 ness, on the average, because it contains cinder. 
 The lowest rail-steel, about the softest steel in the 
 trade, cannot be brought to full iron-welding 
 heat without burning. Steel welds at a lower 
 temperature the harder it is, that is, the more 
 carbon it contains. 
 
 In grading steel, one must bear in mind the 
 exceedingly marked difference in welding ability 
 possessed by the different grades and kinds, well 
 exhibited in the table for selection of steel. By 
 observing the heat required to weld, the facility 
 with which the bar welds, and the character of 
 the metal as above described, one can state very 
 exactly the kind of steel in hand and its percent 
 age of carbon. 
 
 The best method of ascertaining red shortness 
 is that of drawing down at a high heat a flat, thin 
 strip about inch wide by inch thick by 9 
 inches long. Cut it off, reheat to a full yellow, 
 and begin by bending one end at right angles at 
 the high heat, bending, rebending, and hammer 
 ing down the strip each time on itself, like flat 
 tening down an S. Doing this slowly, about 
 6 bends can be made before the heat is * lowered 
 to black heat. The bends being all made at dif 
 ferent temperatures will indicate at which, if any, 
 the bar is red short, that is, tears or cracks 
 while being worked. The degree of cracking 
 will usually indicate the amount of sulphur. 
 If copper and silicon be present in quantity, 
 the break will be rotten, and if a large percent 
 age .of manganese has been added to counteract 
 these elements, the fatty glance and quite gray 
 color of the cold fracture will indicate this fact. 
 
 Cold shortness is very easily determined by 
 attempting to bend a bar about f inch square. If 
 iron, it will not bend to an angle of 90 with its 
 original direction, and if high steel, will scarcely 
 bend at all. The appearance of the fracture will 
 somewhat indicate the cold shortness by the de 
 gree of whiteness. The influence of phosphorus 
 is well shown in appended tests on excellent bar- 
 irons, practically identical in every respect, ex 
 cept the amount of phosphorus. All were boiled 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 393 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 from Isabella forge pig, four bars containing 0.22 
 per cent, phosphorus and four others 0.32 per 
 cent, phosphorus. Those with 0.22 per cent, bent 
 cold to S shape, and were hammered down flat 
 without injury, and three of the four did the 
 same at a nick without breaking, but the fibres 
 tore out to the neutral axis. All those with 0.32 
 per cent, broke short off at the nick, with crys 
 talline fracture ; two broke in the uninjured sec 
 tion before bending 153, one at 162, and only 
 one bent 180. All these tests were made with 
 the fibre, and the face of welds parallel to sur 
 face bent. Bars containing over 0.65 per cent, 
 phosphorus will not bend to 90. While no ap 
 prehension need be felt in structural use for bars 
 containing 0.3 per cent, phosphorus, yet nothing 
 with over 0.2 per cent, is entitled to be consid 
 ered first-class soft iron, like the " Ulster" and 
 "Pembroke" brands. 
 
 Soft rail-steel with 0.35 to 0.5 per cent, carbon 
 and 0.1 per cent, phosphorus is safe, if otherwise 
 good; with 0.2 per cent., decidedly cold short 
 and unsafe. Tool-steel with more than 0.02 
 phosphorus is inferior in toughness and ability 
 to keep its edge. A test bar f inch square, from 
 a Bessemer rail, will not bend at all when it has 
 over 0.25 per cent, phosphorus and over 0.25 car 
 bon, and the rails therefrom will be very brittle. 
 
 As to working or ductility, which is of high 
 importance, the smith usually determines it in a 
 test associated with that for red shortness. If 
 a bar about 1 inch wide by inch thick be 
 slit at the end about an inch in, the ends bent 
 sideways, and inside the bottom of the slit a hole 
 be punched and enlarged till the metal breaks at 
 the slit, the most crucial test for soundness and 
 workability will have been performed. Only the 
 softest ingot-irons and steels of the highest quality 
 will suffer this treatment without tearing in any 
 part. The very best wrought iron will permit 
 the hole to be enlarged till the metal is black- 
 hot, but only the very highest quality, if the bar 
 has been slit. 
 
 Another method of ascertaining this quality 
 is to draw down the metal, at proper heat, into 
 the smallest square-tapered rod it will bear with 
 out splitting. The best steel will thus draw 
 down almost as fine as a needle, and also allow 
 this tapered point to be flattened down, at a black 
 heat, without injury. 
 
 A further measure of ductility is given by the 
 behavior of a small square bar bent cold into an 
 U shape. The ingot-irons and softest steels per 
 mit this to be suddenly done with a bar | inch 
 square and the sides hammered close together 
 without injury. Steel of ordinary quality will 
 break, as above, with 0.6 to 0.7 carbon after 
 bending 50. The angle of flexure seems to be 
 proportional to the amount of carbon, as Greiner 
 asserts. Yickers corroborates this statement, by 
 his tests of best crucible steel, showing that a 
 T 5 plate with 1.25 per cent, carbon will break at 
 38, while a similar plate with 0.33 per cent, 
 carbon will bend 180 and hammered down 
 flat. 
 
 The forge tests prescribed by the British Ad 
 miralty are prescribed on a strip 48 inches long 
 with fibre and full width of plate across it. 
 Bends to be made on smooth cast-iron slab with 
 corner rounded to radius of 0.5 inch. 
 
 Hot test. All plates 1 inch thick or less must 
 bend hot, without fracture, 125 lengthwise, 90 
 
 crosswise for first-class, and 90 lengthwise and 
 60 crosswise for second-class plates. 
 
 Cold test. Plates should bend cold without 
 fracture as follows : 
 
 Thick. 
 
 1st Class or B. B. 
 
 2<1 Class or B. 
 
 Length 
 wise. 
 
 Cross 
 wise. 
 
 Length 
 wise. 
 
 Cross 
 wise. 
 
 1" 
 
 15 
 25 
 35 
 70 
 90 
 
 5 
 10 
 15 
 30 
 40 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 55 
 75 
 
 "5 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 
 Y 
 
 3-16 or under... 
 
 The ability to harden is a very striking one. 
 From time immemorial it has been the distinc 
 tive characteristic of steel, and is its specially 
 valuable property. By their ability to harden 
 the different grades may be distinguished with 
 out the least uncertainty. The fracture of two 
 kinds after hardening is so different as to be as 
 tonishing, although their previous separation by 
 color and grain may have been uncertain. 
 
 Weld- iron bars will often be made weak with 
 disintegration of structure when heated nearly 
 white-hot and cooled in brine, because such bars 
 are wanting in homogeneity, containing some 
 times steely particles, and always cinder. This 
 exhibition, readily distinguished from hardening 
 
 tempted to stick dirty little granules of iron to 
 gether, and then squeeze the impure mass until 
 it is so small as to be useless until it is again 
 fagoted up and imperfectly united, and thus for 
 ever to multiply the defects which its first treat 
 ment entails?" 
 
 Ingot-iron is distinctly separated from weld- 
 iron by its crystalline homogeneous structure 
 and the characteristics in hardening described in 
 the nomenclature of this article. It will be noted 
 that the attempt to harden ingot-iron requires 
 the highest temperature the metal will bear. 
 This is because each grade of steel hardens at a 
 temperature decreasing with its percentage of 
 carbon, the hardest steel, like the Mushet and 
 others, obtaining its proper greatest hardness at 
 the darkest red heat. When steel is what is 
 termed good the heat at which it is hardened 
 should not exceed low redness. The grade of 
 steel is determined by taking a bar about \ inch 
 square, nicking it while cold at equal distances, 
 and then so heating it that one end be yellow, 
 while the other is black-hot. In this condition cool 
 suddenly in brine, and the character of the frac^ 
 ture at each neck will indicate the temperature 
 at which the steel hardens best, and consequently, 
 in general, the grade. In the shop this test is 
 often used before working up any new lot of 
 steel, so as to know its proper hardening heat. 
 The proper fracture for hardened steel is an ex 
 tremely close-grained surface with conchoidal 
 fracture, full white in hard steel, and growing 
 grayer with slightly more open crystalline tex 
 ture as the steel becomes softer. 
 
 When tungsten is present, hardened steel is 
 often tougher than usual ; chromium and tita 
 nium seem to increase the hardness. 
 
 When steel is hardened, and then reheated at 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 394 
 
 IKON AND STEEL 
 
 lower temperature, even far below redness, and 
 again suddenly cooled, the original hardness is 
 softened to a degree inversely proportionate to 
 the temperature. The degree of hardness left in 
 the steel is called temper. When the scale is 
 taken oif with a file, the metallic surface exhibits 
 different colors. 
 
 Temper 
 ature. 
 
 Color. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Exact, 
 
 Practical. 
 
 430 F. 
 450 " 
 
 Pale yellowish. 
 Pale straw. 
 
 | Straw. 
 
 Lancets, razors, etc. 
 
 470 " 
 
 Full yellow. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Penknives, turning 
 
 
 
 
 tools, etc., where 
 
 
 
 
 hardness is more 
 
 
 
 
 important than 
 
 
 
 
 elasticity. 
 
 490 " 
 
 Brown. 
 
 ) 
 
 
 510 " 
 
 Brown with 
 
 V Chocolate. 
 
 Axes, plane-bits, etc. 
 
 530 " 
 
 purple spots. 
 Purple. 
 
 Purple. 
 
 Cutlery, wood tools, 
 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 550 " 
 
 Bright blue. 
 
 Violet 
 
 Swords, cold chisels, 
 
 
 
 
 light springs, etc. 
 
 560 
 600 " 
 
 Full blue. 
 Dark blue. 
 
 | Blue. 
 
 Augers, saws, stone 
 chisels, springs, 
 
 
 
 
 etc., where elas 
 
 
 
 
 ticity is more im 
 
 
 
 
 portant than hard- 
 uess. 
 
 These great differences in hardness may be ap 
 plied to testing as a scale to indicate the quality 
 of a sample by its ability to maintain toughness 
 and uniformity of edge and grain, the readiest 
 test being to make a flat cold chisel, temper it, 
 and t/y it on hard cast iron. The greater the 
 hardness at which it is able to hold its edge the 
 better the steel, and the freer from cold shortness. 
 
 "When a bar of ingot-iron or steel is fully 
 heated through to a temperature of 600 (dark 
 blue) in a bath of molten lead, the molecular co 
 hesion of its particles seems to be lessened. When 
 the bar is broken at that temperature, at a nick 
 made when cold, the break will be found differ 
 ing very greatly from that made cold. The 
 closer the original grain the greater the homo 
 geneity of the iracture, and the higher the tem 
 perature at which the steel was made the less 
 the change which occurs in the appearance of 
 the fracture. Cast steel of good quality scarcely 
 changes its appearance at all. The change in 
 Bessemer, open-hearth, and finery steels is very 
 marked indeed, compared with the change in 
 cast steel, each having quite a characteristic 
 fracture. The circumstances of production being 
 generally known, this "color test" will enable 
 one to conclude as to the temperature and method 
 of conducting the respective processes, the amount 
 and influence of silicium and manganese, and 
 hence very closely the manner and often the lo 
 cality in which the specimen was made. 
 
 Another important application of this color 
 test is the distinguishing of the metal best 
 adapted by its chemical composition to resist 
 percussive action between 450 and 600 F. 
 The poorer class of metals with notable amounts 
 of sulphur and phosphorus are simply rotten 
 between these temperatures, although enduring 
 considerable when cold. But it seems clear that 
 the purer the metal is the better will it resist 
 when heated within its elasticity, although 
 
 weaker when cold than the -poorer metal. Great 
 endurance can only be attained by a pure iron 
 as little as possible combined with other elements 
 except carbon. Ordinary iron, though good for 
 cables and tension rods, would be unsafe in a 
 fowling-piece or military rifle, as by quick firing 
 a color heat may be approximately developed, 
 and the barrel be liable to burst. The barrel 
 should not be allowed to become unduly hot in 
 use, but the selection of the metal should be such 
 as to make the endurance of accidental overheat 
 ing as certain as possible. This consideration ap 
 plies with force to the selection of ordnance ma 
 terial. The forgings should not be worked at a 
 color heat in any case. This dangerous state 
 frequently occurs in engine fly-wheel shafts and 
 car-axles run dry, and steel forgings are fre 
 quently cracked in the journal by water applied 
 to cool them quickly. 
 
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. 
 
 Ordinary Cast Iron. 
 
 Property. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Tenacity, pounds 
 Ult. elongation, per 
 cent 
 
 23,520 
 0.2 
 
 10,976 
 0.12 
 
 15,232 
 0.16 
 
 Crushing, pounds 
 Ult. shortening, per 
 cent 
 
 120,512 
 200 
 
 55,328 
 100 
 
 86,240 
 
 Katio tenacity to 
 crushing 
 
 1 to 6.7 
 
 1 to 4.5 
 
 1 to 5.66 
 
 Transverse resistance, 
 s _lXwt. 
 
 7 840 
 
 4816 
 
 6 104 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 7.35 
 
 6.85 
 
 7.1 
 
 These determinations, for which we are in 
 debted to Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, are on 
 English irons, which do not vary much from 
 ordinary American. The striking superiority 
 of American charcoal iron to even the best Eng 
 lish irons will be seen under ordnance cast iron. 
 
 Bar-Irons. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 English "Yorkshire," 
 like Low Moor. Te 
 nacity, pounds 
 Ult. extension, per 
 
 68,848 
 28.36 
 
 44,584 
 9.14 
 
 57,555 
 20.62 
 
 Swedish; Styffe. Te 
 nacity, pounds 
 Ult. extension, per 
 
 53,729 
 22.85 
 
 43,710 
 17.29 
 
 45,607 
 21.97 
 
 Salisbury " gun-bars," 
 1837, Johnson. Te- 
 
 
 
 58,009 
 
 Greatest elastic 
 strength in tension* 
 Greatest elastic 
 strength in com- 
 
 
 
 
 
 33,600 
 26,880 
 
 Angle-iron, tenacity... 
 Ult. elongation, per 
 cent. 
 
 Best rolled bars, Eng 
 lish 
 
 59,000 
 15.4 
 Sp.gr. 
 7 7626 
 
 42,500 
 5.8 
 Sp. gr. 
 7.5333 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 7.6623 
 
 Angle-iron, English... 
 Forged iron shafts, 
 English 
 
 7.7310 
 7.6585 
 
 7.5297 
 7.6077 
 
 7.6006 
 7.6307 
 
 Common puddled 
 iron, English 
 
 7.5381 
 
 7.2898 
 
 7.4276 
 
 * Hodgkinson s experiments on Con way Bridge. 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 395 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 The tenacity alone does not express the value 
 of the iron ; the elongation and reduction of area 
 must also be considered. A very useful com 
 parison is Poncelet s or Mallet s co-efficient, got 
 by multiplying half the breaking weight per 
 square inch, in pounds, by the ultimate elonga 
 tion, in inches, in one foot of length. This rep 
 resents the toughness of the material, or perhaps 
 the best criterion is the ratio of the elastic limit 
 
 These results are Kirkcaldy s. For admiralty 
 forge-tests of plate, v. tests of iron and steel. 
 
 Large Forgings. In small forgings iron or 
 steel may be hammer-hardened and its tenacity 
 increased. This is not the case with large forg 
 ings, which are always weaker. Mallet found 
 results as follows : 
 
 to the tenacity. 
 
 Plates. 
 
 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Tenacity. 
 Best plates, pounds.... 
 Ult. elongation, per 
 
 62,720 
 17.0 
 
 47,040 
 11.0 
 
 54,880 
 134 
 
 All lengthwise. 
 Diminution of tenac 
 ity across fibre in per 
 cent, of longitudinal 
 
 180 
 
 100 
 
 
 Diminution of elon- 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 Ordinary plates in lon 
 gitudinal tension... 
 Ult. elongation 
 
 Admiralty tests. 
 
 Tenacity, lengthwise. 
 " crosswise... 
 
 61,040 
 13.0 
 
 1st class. 
 Best Best. 
 
 49,280 
 40,320 
 
 36,960 
 3.3 
 
 2d class. 
 Best. 
 
 44,800 
 38,080 
 
 ""s.o 
 
 Specimen. 
 
 Tenacity. 
 
 Ultimate 
 Elongation. 
 
 Original bars before piling 
 From forging from 
 
 48,056 
 43,680 
 
 5.5 per cent. 
 4.3 
 
 Down to 
 
 40,736 
 
 0.6 " 
 
 
 
 
 In a large forging exposed 
 to heat and percussion 
 six weeks 
 
 14560 
 
 35 per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 Specimens from " Peace 
 maker." Original bars 
 
 46950 
 
 Reduction Area. 
 
 Specimen from gun after 
 bursting 
 
 38595 
 
 16 6 per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 This was Commodore Stockton s gun, burst on board U. S. S. 
 " Princeton," 1844. It was made by Ward & Co., from bars 
 about 4 inches square by 8% feet long, drawn from blooms 
 made on the Ausable River in the Adirondacks. 
 
 Tenacity of Ingot-Irons and Steels. 
 Neuberg classification (Tunner s) compared with other results. 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Neuberg Bessemer. 
 
 Ticker s Crucible Steel. 
 
 Carlsdal Bessemer. 
 
 <* 
 
 Mean Tenacity- 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ultimate Elon 
 gation Per 
 Cent. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Approximate Per 
 Cent. Carbon. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 l 
 
 || 
 
 p< 
 
 H 
 
 Per Cent. Carbon. 
 
 Limit Elasticity 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ultimate Tenacity 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ultimate Elonga 
 tion Per Cent. 
 
 1 
 
 6 - 
 
 18 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 14 
 13 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 0.05 
 0.12 
 0.16 
 0.22 
 0.28 
 0.36 
 0.42 
 0.50 
 0.58 
 0.67 
 0.75 
 0.83 
 0.92 
 1.00 
 1.08 
 1.17 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 
 57,390 
 61,981 
 65,424 
 68,868 
 73,459 
 78,050 
 82,641 
 91,824 
 99,858 
 105,597 
 113,632 
 122,814 
 130,849 
 137,736 
 146,918 
 154,953 
 not det d 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 20 
 10 
 
 *5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 
 033 
 0.42 
 0.48 
 0.53 
 0.58 
 0.63 
 0.74 
 0.84 
 
 7.871 
 7.867 
 7.855 
 
 7.852* 
 7.848 
 7.847 
 7.840 
 
 68,096 
 76,160 
 84,000 
 95,200 
 92,960 
 100,800 
 101,920 
 123,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0.32 
 0.40 
 
 34,990 
 34,310 
 
 64,708 
 70,472 
 
 16.7 
 15.2; 
 
 4 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1.00 
 
 7.836 
 
 134,400 
 
 0.985 
 
 65,875 
 
 107,492 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.19 
 
 67,933 
 
 139,916 
 
 4.1 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 7.823 
 
 154,560 
 
 1.89 
 1.85 
 
 t 
 
 69,992 
 57,640 
 64,502 
 
 135,936 
 99,842 
 86,804 
 
 5.5 
 1.75 
 2.96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Neuberg Bessemer classification was worked up by the direction of the Imperial Works at Neuberg, on specimens 
 cut from rolled bars about one inch square. For ordinary purposes they separate the grades thus : VII., 57,390 pounds to 
 68,868 pounds; VI., 68,868 pounds to 80,346 pounds; V., 80,346 pounds to 103,302 pounds ; IV., 103,302 pounds to 126,258 pounds; 
 III., 126,258 pounds to 149,214 pounds. Nos. II. and I. are rarely made. The table for crucible steels was prepared by Mr. Thos. 
 E. Vickers from steel of the River Don Works, on test bars with turned section 1 inch diameter, uniform for 14 inches. The 
 bar marked * was slightly defective. 
 
 The Carlsdal tests were made for the Royal Railway Commission of Sweden, on rolled bars from that works, and reported 
 by Knut Styffe. Besides corroborating the others they show how steel decreases in strength on passing 1.17 to 1.25 per cent, car 
 bon, its maximum point of tenacity. The Carlsdal steel contained 0.023 per cent, phosphorus. 
 
 These general results may be safely taken as a I arid the general published results on similar 
 
 metal. It will be remembered that when speci 
 mens are tested for limit of elasticity, they give 
 
 guide. They were independently prepared by 
 careful men, and are corroborated further by 
 their agreement with the results of Serai ng steel 
 (Durre), of Fagersta steel and iron (Kirkally), 
 
 y 
 
 a lower tenacity (Carlsdal) than when broken at 
 once for tenacity (Neuberg). 
 
IRON AND STEEL 
 
 396 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 Effect of Hardening on Strength of Steel. 
 
 Maker. 
 
 Nature. 
 
 No. of 
 Specimens 
 tested. 
 
 Average Tenacity Pounds per Square Inch. 
 
 Hardened 
 and 
 Temper 
 drawn. 
 
 As re 
 ceived. 
 
 After hardening in Oil at a 
 
 Hardened 
 in Water. 
 
 High 
 Heat. 
 
 Med. 
 Heat. 
 
 Low 
 Heat. 
 
 Not stated. 
 
 Firth & Sons 
 Cammell & Co 
 
 Homogeneous 
 steel 
 
 Cast steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 
 217 
 61 
 9 
 2 
 12 
 
 70,874 
 66,036 
 71,893 
 85,568 
 119,459 
 
 106,893 
 122,248 
 146,463 
 
 107,431 
 102,279 
 121,823 
 107,968 
 217,417 
 
 99,524 
 115,372 
 126,426 
 
 
 
 
 109,684 
 
 114,464 
 
 
 
 
 Whitworth & Co 
 Park Bros. & Co 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 141,856 
 
 165,506 
 
 
 
 
 
 The first four sets of tests were made at the Royal Gun-Factories, Woolwich, for ordnance. The last set was made by W. 
 H. Shock, U.S.N., on steel for St-. Louis Bridge experiments; all his specimens were from the same bar, all heated to a light 
 cherry-red. The specimens hardened in water were tested at their maximum hardness ; those tempered were drawn to a plum- 
 blue. 
 
 The Woolwich specimens were short cylinders 0.5 inch diameter, and 2.0 inch long between shoulders ; those of Mr. Shock 
 were 0.62 inch diameter at the bottom of a circular notch cut in at the middle of breaking cylinder. 
 
 ORDNANCE CAST IRON. 
 
 English. 
 
 Property. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 34279 
 
 9417 
 
 23 257 
 
 
 140056 
 
 44563 
 
 91 061 
 
 Transverse " 
 
 11,200 
 
 2,576 
 
 7056 
 
 Torsional " 
 s trfX 
 
 9773 
 
 3705 
 
 6 056 
 
 d8 " 
 Specific gravity 
 
 7340 
 
 6822 
 
 7140 
 
 
 
 
 
 The gun-metal (iron) of the Bowling Iron 
 Co. was 7.233, with tenacity of 27,838, and trans 
 verse strength 10,095 pounds, and from a gun- 
 head resp. 7.233, 26,896, and 9386 pounds. These 
 figures are mean results from the experiments on 
 850 samples of metal for cannon at Woolwich, 
 1858. The form of specimens and machine itself 
 were exactly similar to the Wade machine and 
 specimens of Ordnance Department, U.S.A. 
 
 The gun-iron used in the United States will 
 he best described by referring to the trial cyl 
 inders for the first 15-inch Rodman gun cast at 
 Fort Pitt Foundry in 1859, and for the 12.25" 
 Palliser rifle-casing cast in 1877 at South Boston 
 Foundry. 
 
 Mean Results. 
 
 Property. 
 
 15" 
 Trial 
 Cylinder. 
 
 12."25 
 Trial 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Density 
 
 72704 
 
 7 2771 
 
 
 30 899 
 
 33 875 
 
 
 7500 
 
 9 750 
 
 
 00318 
 
 00337 
 
 Elastic " 
 
 00033 
 
 
 
 120 410 
 
 114 143 
 
 Elastic limit in compression 
 " elongation " 
 
 9,500 
 0.00061 
 8626 
 
 8,200 
 0.00093 
 11 556 
 
 
 42908 
 
 63 184 
 
 
 
 18 ^ 
 
 
 
 Copper L 
 4.16 j 
 
 The 15-inch trial cylinder was of Bloomfield 
 -iron, while the other was of Dover and 
 uirkirk irons. 
 
 General Uchatius has determined the absolute 
 and the elastic strength of Austrian gun-iron 
 brought into tension by blows of a falling weight. 
 Although the small size of the specimens prob 
 ably aifects the result unfavorably, they are, 
 nevertheless, important. The specimens had the 
 form of a cylinder with two conical ends broad 
 ening outwards, the area was 0.5 square centi 
 metre, the length 75 millimetres, and the fall 
 ing weight 1.15 kilogramme. I have added a 
 comparison in foot-pounds. 
 
 Gun-Iron Tenacity under Shock. 
 
 Weight, 2.5353 pounds. Specimen, 0.0775 square inch area 
 X 2.95 inches long. 
 
 Fall in 
 Inches. 
 
 Foot-Pounds. 
 
 Blows re 
 ceived before 
 Fracture. 
 
 Foot-Pounds 
 per Square 
 Inch. 
 
 Ratios. 
 
 28.346 
 
 5.9833 
 
 1 
 
 77.202 
 
 24 
 
 24.803 
 
 5.2353 
 
 2 
 
 67.551 
 
 21 
 
 21.261 
 
 4.4874 
 
 4 
 
 57.900 
 
 18 
 
 17.716 
 
 3.7395 
 
 8 
 
 48.250 
 
 15 
 
 14.173 
 
 2.9916 
 
 14 
 
 38.600 
 
 12 
 
 10.630 
 
 2.2437 
 
 37 
 
 28.950 
 
 9 
 
 7.086 
 
 1.4958 
 
 352 
 
 19.300 
 
 6 
 
 3.543 
 
 0.7479 
 
 2052 
 
 9.650 
 
 3 
 
 1.181 
 
 0.2484 
 
 elast. limit. 
 
 3.205 
 
 1 
 
 The toughness of gun-iron has been compared 
 with that of ordinary cast iron by Mr. F. Alger 
 for the South Boston Iron Company. The test 
 was made with a 50 pound falling weight striking 
 the centre of a bar of 4 square inches area lying on 
 supports 20 inches apart. Both the striking and 
 the supporting edges were rounded to inch 
 radius. 
 
 
 Best Ordinary 
 Cupola Iron. 
 
 Gun-Iron from 
 Air Furnace. 
 
 Transverse strength 
 Specific gravity 
 
 5,220 
 7 0419 
 
 9,630 
 72916 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 15 542 
 
 33334 
 
 Number of blows (50 foot 
 pounds) before fracture- 
 Greatest number blows 
 Least number blows 
 Number of experiments.... 
 
 9.44 
 18 
 2 
 24 
 
 463.0 
 563 
 S58 
 6 
 
IKON AND STEEL 
 
 397 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 
 
 That this represents most wonderful toughness 
 need not be enlarged upon. Some tests showed 
 that gun-iron melted in the cupola stood 234 
 similar blows as the average of 5 experiments. 
 This relation between the two kinds is partly 
 corroborated by the test of 5 guns made at Bank 
 Quay by Mr. Fairbairn, and proved at Wool 
 wich in 1855. From an identical mixture the 
 air-furnace gun withstood 33 rounds, the cupola 
 gun only 17 rounds before bursting ; the average 
 respective densities were 7.210 and 7.081, and 
 tenacities 28,515 and 18,100. 
 
 An inference from these facts may be that a 
 homogeneous gun subjected to a charge which 
 strains it to 3 times its elastic limit will endure 
 more than 2000 rounds. But if strained to 24 
 
 times its elastic limit under shock it will burst 
 at the first fire. 
 
 Kaiser, in his work on " Theorie der Elastici- 
 tat und Festigkeit rohrenformiger Korper," 
 gives an important table of comparative elastic 
 resistances of hollow cylinders. It shows the 
 inadvisability of exceeding one calibre thickness 
 of wall in homogeneous guns. Above 1 calibre 
 the addition of 40.6 per cent. (1.25 cal.) to weight 
 adds only 4.5 per cent, to the strength. He 
 takes the following limits of elasticity : 
 
 " A. Ordinary gun bronze 11,379 pounds. 
 
 B. Gun-iron, Mariazell, Austria 15,646 " 
 
 C. " Steel bronze" 34,136 " 
 
 D. Neuberg refined Bessemer for can 
 
 non 35,558 " 
 
 E. Krupp steel for cannon 38,403 " 
 
 Types of Ordnance Metal. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 Gun-Iron. 
 
 Coil Tube-Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Weight per Square Inch of 
 Section. 
 
 Extensions in O."00001 Per Inch of Length. 
 
 
 Exten 
 
 Permanent 
 
 Exten 
 
 Permanent 
 
 Exten 
 
 Permanent 
 
 Exten 
 
 Permanent 
 
 
 sion. 
 
 Set. 
 
 sion. 
 
 Set. 
 
 sion. 
 
 Set. 
 
 sion. 
 
 Set. 
 
 1,000 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 " . . 
 
 3,000 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 . . 
 
 5,000 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ... 
 
 21 
 
 . . . . 
 
 8,000 
 
 43 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 26 
 
 f 
 
 9,000 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 53 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 " ", 
 
 11,000 
 
 58 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 63 
 
 2 
 
 * 
 
 
 40 
 
 m 
 
 40 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 82 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 101 
 
 6 
 
 150 
 
 
 62 
 
 .. . 
 
 55 
 
 . . . 
 
 21,000 
 
 128 
 
 13 
 
 150 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 161 
 
 27 
 
 200 
 
 "so 
 
 86 
 
 ""2 
 
 75 
 
 . . . 
 
 26,000 
 
 191 
 
 42 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 88 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 283 
 
 103 
 
 250 
 
 150 
 
 110 
 
 5 
 
 105 
 
 
 31,000 
 
 318 
 
 126 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 118 
 
 . ". 
 
 32,000 
 
 ..... 
 
 broke 
 
 900 
 
 750 
 
 115 
 
 5 
 
 123 
 
 
 34,000 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,200 
 
 154 
 
 40 
 
 166 
 
 "*33 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 
 
 2,550 
 
 2,400 
 
 918 
 
 720 
 
 333 
 
 167 
 
 50,000 
 
 ..... 
 
 M 
 
 11,350 
 
 11,100 
 
 2080 
 
 1905 
 
 833 
 
 600 
 
 52,000 
 
 
 
 29,650 
 
 broke 
 
 2220 
 
 2028 
 
 983 
 
 750 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 4150 
 
 3910 
 
 1,750 
 
 1,450 
 
 66,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 7175 
 
 6890 
 
 2,566 
 
 2,233 
 
 72,000 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 broke 
 
 3^566 
 
 3^183 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6033 
 
 5,550 
 
 85,000 
 
 . .. 
 
 ... 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 9^116 
 
 8J600 
 
 89,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,316 
 
 l>roko 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ultimate tenacity 
 
 32,000 
 11,000 
 0.0005 
 
 52,632 
 23,000 
 0.0015 
 
 72,000 
 24,000 
 0.00083 
 
 89,000 
 33,000 
 0.0014 
 
 Elastic limit 
 
 Elongation at elastic limit... 
 
 Ultimate elongation 
 
 0.0031 
 
 0.2965 
 
 0.1650 
 
 0.1931 
 
 Area of fracture . 
 
 0.9985 
 
 0.5535 
 
 0.5378 
 
 5324 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 7^7259 
 18 
 
 7 .6861 
 8.92 
 
 7^8634 
 
 7^8491 
 16.25 
 
 Hardness 
 
 Ratio elastic to ultimate te 
 
 
 
 
 
 nacity 
 
 0.343 
 
 0.436 
 
 0.333 
 
 0.370 
 
 Diameter specimen- 
 
 1.377 
 
 0/ 582 
 
 0."649 
 
 0."653 
 
 Length between shoulders... 
 
 30. "0 
 
 l ."996 
 
 lO/ O 
 
 6/ 
 
 I. Gun- (east) iron. Specimen from the experimental cylinder for 12."25 experimental ML. rifle, of which average tenacity 
 when cast was 36,089 pounds per square inch, and specific gravity 7.2979, as average of 7 specimens from the gun-head. 
 
 II. Sample was from a bar of Ridsdale weld-iron, 3."75 X 2."625 X 2", with the fibre. The averages of this iron for 4 tests 
 are, specific gravity, 7.6660; tenacity, 53.110; elastic limit, 22,375 pounds per square inch. 
 
 III. Specimen of mild crucible steel from Bochum ; averaged in 3 other tests, specific gravity, 7.8687 ; tenacity, 73,000 ; elas 
 tic limit, 24,333 pounds per square inch. A similar tube, of specific gravity 7.8945 and tenacity 88,019 pounds, cracked through 
 from vent to muzzle in an 8-inch converted rifle at 175th round, the cast-iron casing sustaining 286 full rounds further till it 
 burst at 456th round. At 3 feet from bottom 2 tests indicated an average of 7.8531, and 78,664 pounds for the ruptured tube. 
 
 IV. Whitworth Fluid Compressed Steel. When broken for tenacity only its strength was 110,000 pounds per square inch. 
 Its mean mechanical properties are, tenacity, 86,000 pounds ; elastic limit, 38,500 pound s ; ultimate elongation, O."1750 ; elastic 
 elongation, O."0023 per inch. Both III. and IV. were large forgings. 
 
 All figures for hardness refer to a scale in which copper is 5. 
 
 The "Prussian Ordnance Manual," edition 1877, gives determinations of the Royal Ordnance Foundry of the strength of 
 " Krupp s Steel for Cannon," as follows : tenacity, 74,655 pounds ; elastic limit, in tension, 28,440 pounds, in compression, 28,440 
 pounds; compressive strength, 241,740 pounds per square inch. 
 
IKON 
 
 398 
 
 IRONCLADS 
 
 Internal Pressure (Pounds per Square Inch) Straining Walls to Elastic Limit at Thickness of 
 
 Calibre. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pressures. 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 1970 
 
 3,866 
 
 5.689 
 
 6600 
 
 7174 
 
 7512 
 
 7747 
 
 7 850 
 
 7967 
 
 B 
 
 2675 
 
 5,307 
 
 7,820 
 
 9,070 
 
 9,864 
 
 10,334 
 
 10658 
 
 10790 
 
 10952 
 
 c 
 
 5821 
 
 11,598 
 
 17,067 
 
 19,801 
 
 21,521 
 
 22 535 
 
 23 941 
 
 23549 
 
 23902 
 
 D 
 
 6056 
 
 12,083 
 
 17,787 
 
 20624 
 
 22418 
 
 23476 
 
 24911 
 
 24549 
 
 24902 
 
 E 
 
 6527 
 
 13,068 
 
 19,213 
 
 22,285 
 
 24,196 
 
 25,358 
 
 26,122 
 
 26504 
 
 26886 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 John B. Pearse, Manager South Boston Iron- Works. 
 
 Iron, Angle-. Various angular forms of rolled 
 iron, much used in bridge-construction for gird 
 ers, beams, rails, etc., and for staying the flat 
 sides of rectangular boilers. 
 
 Iron-bound Blocks. Those which are fitted 
 with iron straps. 
 
 Iron-bound Coast. A coast where the shores 
 are composed of rocks which mostly rise per 
 pendicularly from the sea, and, having no an 
 chorage near to them, are therefore dangerous 
 for vessels. 
 
 Ironclads. The term applies to all vessels 
 clad with iron for defense. The introduction of 
 iron armor for the protection of ships is of very 
 recent date. Formerly, as we find by allusions 
 in history, there had been instances where ef 
 forts were made to protect the sides of ships by 
 timber or hides, but these seem to have been 
 isolated cases due to the ideas of some individual 
 commander. With the artillery that was in 
 use in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries there 
 was no call for any aid in the defense of ships, 
 and the term " wooden walls" conveyed the idea 
 of an all-sufficient protection ; and the correct 
 ness of the idea is sufficiently apparent when 
 we refer to the actions of such commanders as 
 Blake and Van Tromp being continued day after 
 day, and being finally closed without definite 
 result. 
 
 In the 18th century artillery had become much 
 more formidable, but it was not until early in 
 the 19th century that any definite shape was 
 given to the idea of protecting the sides of a ship 
 from the fire of an enemy ; and even when it was 
 first seriously proposed it met with great dis 
 favor, and has had to fight its way against deter 
 mined opposition and prejudice. 
 
 Thomas Gregg, of Pennsylvania, is given the 
 credit of the first definite proposition for an iron 
 clad vessel in 1813, but no decided step in devel 
 oping the subject was taken until Mr. Stevens, 
 of New York, made his contract with the U. S. 
 government in 1843 for the construction of an 
 armed vessel. 
 
 The date of this, the first decided step in the 
 direction of armor for ships made by any gov 
 ernment, is worthy of note, for we find that it 
 was at about the same period of time that hori 
 zontal firing of explosive projectiles from the 
 batteries of ships of war became general. The 
 connection between the two circumstances is ap 
 parent, and there can be no doubt that the intro 
 duction of the shell as a projectile has caused 
 the use of iron for armor. 
 
 The development of armor ceased at this time 
 with the above contract for the Stevens battery, 
 and it was not until after the Crimean war 
 (1855) that efforts were renewed to introduce 
 armor. 
 
 During the Crimean war a few ironclad bat 
 teries had been constructed by the French, and 
 it was the behavior of these vessels in their abil 
 ity to resist the effect of shells which induced 
 the English and French governments to com 
 mence the construction of ironclad ships. In 
 1858 the work of conversion and construction 
 was commenced in earnest, and it has been car 
 ried on unremittingly to the present day. As 
 the capacity for defense increased, the power of 
 offense was added to by increasing the power of 
 the guns, and thus have arisen the wonderful 
 fleets of ironclads that we now see on the 
 ocean. 
 
 The different types of ironclads are so numer 
 ous that it is impossible to enumerate them in a 
 paper of this character ; they can be generally 
 ranged under two heads, namely, as broadside 
 and turreted vessels. The first efforts were nat 
 urally confined to the construction of broadside 
 ironclads ; the turreted vessels were of later date 
 of construction, due to an invention of Mr. 
 Ericsson, of which mention will be made later. 
 The broadside ironclads will be first presented, 
 and the rate of development during the past 
 twenty years can be estimated by citing a few 
 instances in the course of the application of the 
 system. The work of developing the system was 
 assumed by England and France alone, and 
 after a certain point had been reached England 
 was left alone to continue the work, carrying it 
 to its present state. The conclusions that have 
 been reached by her investigations and experi 
 ments have been adopted and applied by other 
 nations, but the English ironclads are the proper 
 citations to make in tracing the advancement of 
 the system. 
 
 In 1858 the French built "La Gloire," and 
 the English built the " Warrior." The " Gloire" 
 was a wooden hull, but the " Warrior" was iron 
 built. This error in the French construction 
 was continued for many years, and had the effect 
 of throwing her back in the struggle for suprem 
 acy, as the deterioration of the wood covered by 
 iron-plating made repairs frequent, and increased 
 expense. 
 
 The following table presents the first experi 
 ments made in the development of sea-going 
 broadside ironclads : 
 
IRONCLADS 
 
 399 
 
 IRONCLADS 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 13 
 
 o.2 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 l| 
 
 
 & 
 
 t> 
 
 a 
 
 r a 
 
 S CD 
 
 <~-r 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 Length in 1 
 
 & 
 ja 
 
 Displaceme 
 tons. 
 
 Draft fon 
 
 feet and i 
 
 Draft aft in 
 inch< 
 
 Thickness c 
 at Water 
 inches. 
 
 Warrior 
 
 380 
 
 58 
 
 9681 
 
 256 
 
 265 
 
 \\/. 
 
 Gloire 
 
 252 
 
 56 
 
 5530 
 
 23.1 
 
 27.10 
 
 4.Y2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The " Gloire" carried a battery of thirty-six 
 6-inch guns, but the " Warrior" carried a bat 
 tery of ten 12-ton (9-inch) and sixteen 6-ton 
 (7-inch) guns, which made her much the more 
 formidable vessel. 
 
 After the construction of these vessels the 
 mode of procedure of the two governments was 
 very unlike, the French plan being to build a 
 large number of similar vessels, while the Eng 
 lish plan is apparent in numerous vessels of dis- 
 s^milar construction. Two examples are cited of 
 d type that has been repeated very often in the 
 French service, thus forming the chief part of 
 her ironclad fleet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 B 4 
 
 1 
 
 0-.2 
 
 S jf 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 I" 8 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 | 
 
 d 
 
 If 
 
 % 2 
 
 i| 
 
 J 
 
 11 
 
 83 * 
 
 fi -> * 
 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 
 H t5 
 
 fl~ 
 
 2 
 
 M 
 
 P 
 
 Flandre 
 
 259 
 
 56 
 
 5703 
 
 23.6V 
 
 26.10 
 
 5.9 
 
 Belliqueuse 
 
 230 
 
 46 
 
 3675 
 
 18.10 
 
 23.9 
 
 6 
 
 The class of the " Flandre" type is armed with 
 eight 12-ton guns and four 7-ton guns. The 
 class of the "Belliqueuse" type is armed with 
 six 7-ton guns. 
 
 The following examples (taken , as are the above, 
 from King s " .Report on European Ships of 
 War") illustrate the progress made in England 
 in the development of ironclads of the broadside 
 type: 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 .* 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 a 
 
 a J 
 
 03 
 
 g f 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 VH 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 1^ 
 
 || 
 
 d j 
 
 2s 
 
 
 6 
 
 d 
 
 
 12 i 
 
 "S-- 
 
 ajSj 
 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 s^-s 
 
 
 "* 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 Agincourt 
 Bellerophon 
 Iron Duke 
 
 400 
 300 
 
 280 
 
 59 
 56 
 54 
 
 10,395 
 
 7,540 
 6,034 
 
 26.0 
 21.0 
 22.0 
 
 270 
 260 
 23.0 
 
 f* 
 
 8 to 6 
 
 Hercules 
 
 325 
 
 59 
 
 8700 
 
 230 
 
 265 
 
 9 to 3 
 
 Nelson 
 
 280 
 
 60 
 
 7 323 
 
 24 2 
 
 24 2 
 
 g 
 
 Alexandra 
 
 325 
 
 64 
 
 9,492 
 
 1 26.0 
 
 26.6 
 
 12 to 8 
 
 _ Since the time of the completion of the "War 
 rior" there has taken place a great change in the 
 way of disposing the armor, and this has been 
 influenced by the change in the artillery, which 
 concentrates a greater power now in a few guns 
 than was developed in the " Warrior s" arma 
 
 ment by a larger number of guns. The " War 
 rior" was armored amidships only, that is, 
 abreast of her battery; the ends were unpro 
 tected. In later constructions a continuous belt 
 of armor is considered indispensable all around 
 at the water-line, and the side-armor is carried 
 up around the more contracted space devoted to 
 the battery. In some cases, notably in the " Nel 
 son" type, the broadside of the battery is left 
 unprotected, the amount of armor that would 
 have been placed at that place being disposed in 
 the form of vertical bulkheads and horizontal 
 decks forward and abaft of the battery; all the 
 vital portions of the vessel are thus amply pro 
 tected, and the battery itself is protected from 
 a fire from directly ahead or astern. 
 
 It has always been very desirable to give the 
 guns as much lateral train as possible, but when 
 the guns, few in number, were concentrated in 
 the central part of the vessel, it became the more 
 necessary to increase this property in them. 
 From the effort to achieve this object have 
 arisen many of the modifications in the devel 
 opment of the fleet of ironclads, which account 
 for the diversity in their construction. In some 
 cases the forward and after iron bulkheads are 
 curved to form bow and quarter ports, in which 
 guns are mounted and protected even when the 
 broadside battery is unprotected. In other cases, 
 where the broadside battery is protected, and the 
 side-armor is connected with the athwartship 
 bulkheads forward and abaft the battery, a port is 
 cut in the bulkheads near the corners, and the 
 forward and after guns on each side are made 
 " shifting guns," to fire out of either port at will. 
 In other cases, an additional iron casemate is con 
 structed above the main battery. In other cases, 
 the fire ahead and astern is delivered from sta 
 tionary turrets placed at the bow and stern, the 
 guns being uncovered, mounted in barbette. By 
 these means an all-around fire is obtained from 
 broadside ships without interfering with the use 
 of the whole battery on the broadside. 
 
 The introduction of turreted ironclads is due 
 to a call for ironclads made by the U. S. gov 
 ernment during the war of the Rebellion of 
 1861. Among those who responded to this call 
 was Mr. John Ericsson, of New York, who sub 
 mitted the plans of the " Monitor." 
 
 Agreeably to the conditions named by the 
 Navy Department, the following problem was 
 presented to him : an ironclad vessel of small 
 dimensions capable of navigating the Southern 
 rivers, and absolutely impregnable against the 
 ordnance possessed by the Southern States. 
 
 The draft of water being thus limited to 
 about 11 feet, impregnability could only be in 
 sured by nearly immersing the hull, as high 
 freeboard and impregnability would have called 
 for an amount of weight incompatible with light 
 draft and small tonnage. 
 
 Absolute protection to guns and guns crews 
 being also an imperative condition, called for 
 the adoption of a covered battery, which was 
 made cylindrical, and, in order to obviate the 
 necessity of manoeuvring the vessel in narrow 
 rivers, the battery or turret was made to revolve 
 around a vertical axis, in order to insure an all- 
 around fire while the vessel remained stationary. 
 
 As the light draft of this small ironclad 
 brought the top of the propeller very near the 
 water-line, a projecting deck, or stern-overhang, 
 
IKONCLADS 
 
 400 
 
 IKONCLADS 
 
 was adopted for the protection of the propeller- 
 blades. 
 
 The principal object of the " Monitor" being 
 that of engaging shore-batteries at short ranges, 
 facilities for dropping and lifting the anchor 
 without exposing the crew also presented a prob 
 lem for solution, hence the adoption of the over 
 hang-deck at the bow, provided with a cylindri 
 cal well in which the anchor was suspended after 
 being lifted by mechanism arranged within the 
 hull. In order to give thorough protection, the 
 steam machinery, as well as the quarters for offi 
 cers and men, were located below the water-line, 
 and further protected by a continuous side-over 
 hang. This consisted of the armor and wood 
 backing, first styled " armor timber," which was 
 bolted to the iron hull, being supported by a hori 
 zontal girder running all along the side, called an 
 "armor shelf," which was assisted by vertical 
 gussets of iron secured at intervals to the side by 
 angle-irons. The wood backing was disposed in 
 two layers between these gussets, and the armor, 
 consisting of five 1-inch plates, was bolted on out 
 side of all. The armor shelf, disposed as a hori 
 zontal girder, formed the base of this projection 
 from the side, and presented a very formidable 
 resistance to any inclination or tendency to roll 
 that might be induced by the action of the waves. 
 The whole structure was like a raft on the water, 
 and this was the original design as conceived by 
 the inventor. It was a most perfect gunnery 
 platform. The guns that were mounted on this 
 vessel had to be inclosed, and the most conve 
 nient form of inclosure was circular ; this was 
 arranged so as to give lateral training to the 
 guns by revolving, and thus we have the origin 
 of the system of revolving turrets for ironclad 
 vessels. 
 
 The principle of the Ericsson turret, with 
 modifications in the plan of revolving it, has 
 been adopted by other nations, notably by Eng 
 land, and is perpetuated in her large fleet of 
 turreted vessels, but a decided departure is taken 
 in their construction from the original design of 
 the " Monitor." In fact, it is a misnomer to style 
 all turreted vessels monitors, for they are only 
 such in the one point of common resemblance, 
 that the battery is inclosed in a turret. With the 
 heavy guns now in use a turret is necessary for 
 the manipulation of them, but in the " Monitor" 
 the turret was adopted as a convenience, for the 
 guns that were mounted in the " Monitor" (11- 
 inch Dahlgrens) could be worked by man-power. 
 The turret was not the only principle involved 
 in the "Monitor:" the low freeboard was quite 
 as essential a feature ; thus the foreign turreted 
 vessels, with their high freeboards and breast 
 works and curved bottoms, inducing and favor 
 ing the rolling motion, do not embody the idea 
 of the "Monitor." 
 
 By common, tacit consent of nations, turreted 
 vessels are not supplied with masts and sails. 
 The experiment was tried in England, where 
 were built the " Monarch" and the " Captain" ; 
 both of these vessels had comparatively high free 
 boards, that of the "Monarch" being 8 feet 
 in height. The " Monarch" has not been dupli 
 cated, and the " Captain" capsized under sail 
 and foundered during her first experimental 
 cruise. The effort in these vessels was to raise 
 the turret-ports higher above the water; this was 
 done by raising all the weights and building up 
 
 the armored sides to the required height. The 
 effect of this plan was demonstrated in the mel 
 ancholy catastrophe that befell the "Captain." 
 The same result, so far as raising the ports 
 higher is concerned, is achieved now by the 
 English Admiralty in their turreted vessels of 
 later date by building, on a deck of low freeboard, 
 a breastwork which protects the lower portions 
 of the turrets and smoke-stacks, and affords a 
 shelter to the hatchways from water that may 
 come on deck. The breastwork-turreted vessels 
 carry two turrets, and the space inclosed by the 
 breastworks occupies a large portion of the 
 length of the vessel, consequently this provides 
 a large surface to resist the wash of seas that find 
 their way over the rail on to the deck, and thus 
 a rolling motion is induced which does not obtain 
 in the Ericsson monitor. The rail itself of the 
 breastwork-turreted vessels is much higher than 
 in the monitor as designed, and every inch of 
 height of freeboard increases this tendency to 
 roll to a great degree. 
 
 There is one point about the breastwork- 
 turreted vessel which is referred to as a great 
 advantage, but which is more imaginary than, 
 real ; it Is that the breastwork affords a protec 
 tion to the hatchways, which can be left open 
 when the seas are flowing across the deck, and 
 thus allows natural ventilation to the ship. Care 
 fully-prepared statistics, gathered from the ex 
 perience of the Ericsson monitors during the war 
 of the Eebellion, show that the health of the crews 
 of the monitors was better than that of the crews 
 of the rest of the blockading squadrons. The 
 artificial ventilation of the monitors, effected by 
 centrifugal suction-blowers operated by steam, is 
 thus proved to be all-sufficient. 
 
 In comparing the original design of the " Moni 
 tor" with the turreted vessels of other nations, we 
 find that for harbor defense the monitor is the 
 more steady gunnery platform, but for service at 
 sea the breastwork-turreted vessel is the more 
 efficient. 
 
 Besides England, the only nations in Europe 
 that have adopted the turret system to any ex 
 tent are Holland and Italy. The Russian navy 
 is provided with a few monitors of the " Passaic" 
 class. The following tables present examples of 
 turreted vessels in the navies of the three na 
 tions who have adopted the system in whole or 
 in part. 
 
 The fighting force of the Dutch navy is com 
 posed entirely of turreted vessels. They are de 
 signed for harbor defense, and are considered of 
 sufficient power to cope with such vessels of an 
 enemy as have light draft sufficient to enable 
 them to approach a shallow coast. 
 
 
 +i 
 i 
 
 *5 
 
 
 "1 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 o.3 
 
 Name of 
 Ship. 
 
 3 
 
 fl 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 Battery. 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 c 2 
 
 is 
 
 Un 
 
 
 bo 
 
 a 
 
 | 
 
 
 | 
 
 i 
 
 Is * * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 ft- 
 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 Cerberus 
 Scorpion 
 Buffel. 
 Prince Hen- 
 
 187 
 193 
 205 
 
 44 
 36 
 40 
 
 Two 12-ton guns 
 Two 9-inch guns 
 Two 9-inch guns 
 
 8.6 
 15.6 
 15.6 
 
 8.6 
 15.6 
 15.6 
 
 
 
 drik 
 
 230 
 
 44 
 
 Four 9-inch guns 
 
 17.10 
 
 18.10 
 
 6% 
 
IRONCLADS 
 
 401 
 
 IRON-WORK 
 
 The following are examples taken from the 
 list of English turreted vessels : 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 .2 
 
 rg 
 
 1 
 
 S.S 
 If 
 
 
 jg 
 
 .J 
 
 5 
 
 g-g 
 
 < M 
 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 a 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 1 
 
 "3, 
 
 3 
 
 V Q> 
 
 3J 
 
 | -2 
 
 Is . 
 
 Jfl 
 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ft"* 
 
 ft 
 
 H 
 
 Viper 
 
 160 
 
 224 
 
 32 
 42 
 
 1,220 
 2 777 
 
 10.8 
 IK 1 1 
 
 11.7^ 
 
 16 2 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 225 
 
 45 
 
 3430 165 
 
 16 5 
 
 10 to 6 
 
 Glatton 
 
 245 
 
 54 
 
 4912 190 
 
 190 
 
 14 to 12 
 
 Ajax 
 
 260 
 
 66 
 
 8,492 230 
 
 240 
 
 18 
 
 Thunderer 
 
 285 
 
 62 
 
 9,190 26.2 
 
 26.3 14 to 12 
 
 Inflexible 
 
 320 
 
 75 
 
 11,500 
 
 23.3 
 
 25.4 
 
 24 to 16 
 
 
 The broadside ironclads of Italy are armored 
 with iron of from 4 to 6 inches, but in the de 
 velopment of the turret system they have taken 
 a step in advance of the rest of the world. The 
 following table cites the latest efforts of Italy in 
 this respect : 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 1 
 
 ja 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 Displacement in 
 tons. 
 
 Draft forward in 
 feet and inches. 
 
 Draft aft in feet and 
 inches. 
 
 Thickness of A rmor 
 at Water-line, in 
 inches. 
 
 Duilio 
 
 340 
 
 65 
 
 10650 
 
 255 
 
 265 
 
 22 
 
 
 340 
 
 65 
 
 10650 
 
 255 
 
 265 
 
 22 
 
 Italia 
 
 400 
 
 74 
 
 13,480 
 
 254 
 
 304 
 
 36 
 
 
 400 
 
 74 
 
 13480 
 
 254 
 
 304 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These vessels are armed with four 100-ton 
 Armstrong guns. The central portion of these 
 vessels is plated with steel instead of iron, in 
 consequence of the result of experiments made 
 with the 100-ton gun against targets constructed 
 on different systems of steel and iron. 
 
 In reference to the weight of the guns that can 
 be carried by vessels of the broadside and tur 
 reted systems, respectively, it is shown that it has 
 not been attempted to work a heavier piece than 
 a 25-ton gun in a broadside battery, while we see 
 that the armament of the "Duilio" (turreted 
 vessel) consists of 100-ton guns. So far, then, as 
 capacity to manipulate the heavier gun is con 
 cerned, the turreted vessel has the advantage 
 over broadside ironclads. 
 
 The necessity of providing ironclad vessels 
 with capacity to float the increased weight due 
 to their armor has forced great changes in naval 
 architecture. The V-shaped cross-section of the 
 " Warrior" has given place to one of a U form, 
 and a comparison of the dimensions of the lightly- 
 armored "Warrior" with the heavily-armored 
 "Alexandra" show the modifications that have 
 been introduced in this respect. The graceful 
 overhanging bows have been suppressed, and the 
 sterns are designed so as to afford protection to 
 the screw and rudder. 
 
 So great is the thickness of plates that have 
 now been called into use in consequence of the 
 development of power in guns, that efforts are 
 26 
 
 being made to utilize other metals than iron in 
 hope of reducing the weight of the armor while 
 retaining power of resistance to impact. It has 
 been mentioned above that steel is being used for 
 the plates of the Italian turreted vessels, and it 
 has also been discovered that an iron plate faced 
 with steel, by welding when the steel is in a 
 liquid state, increases the power of resistance to 
 a great degree. It is probable that the latter 
 plan will be very generally adopted for the armor 
 of ironclads. E. Simpson, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Iron Garters. A cant word for leg-irons. 
 
 Iron-horse. The horse of the fore-sheet or 
 boom-sheet traveler. 
 
 Iron-rust Cement. A cement sometimes used 
 in soft-patching boilers ; it is composed of iron 
 borings or filings, sal-ammoniac, and white lead, 
 with sometimes a little sulphur, the object being 
 to form a solid rust. 
 
 Irons. The wedge-shaped tools used by calk- 
 ers. The fetters used to confine a prisoner. A 
 ship is in irons when, owing to her bad working 
 qualities or to mismanagement, she, in the op 
 eration of tacking, comes up head to the wind, 
 and loses her way, lying dead in the water. If 
 she gathers sternway she may be made to fall 
 off the right way by shifting the helm ; the long 
 ships of the present day very seldom go around 
 without getting sternway on. To fill the sails 
 on the same tack, the mainsail and spanker are 
 taken in, the after-yards are squared, and, if ne 
 cessary, the head-yards are braced abox. 
 
 Iron-sick. The condition of vessels when the 
 iron-work becomes loose in the timbers from 
 corrosion by gallic acid. 
 
 Ironsides. A sobriquet for a favorite veteran 
 man-of-war. The famous frigate " Constitu 
 tion" was familiarly known as " Old Ironsides." 
 
 Iron Vessel. A vessel in which the keel, 
 stem and stern-posts, keelsons, frames, string 
 ers, deck-beams, stanchions, knees, stern and 
 breast-hooks, bulkheads, fastenings, etc., and 
 the outside covering or skin, are of iron. The 
 lower masts are frequently made of iron, and 
 sometimes other heavy spars. The decks are of 
 wood, or sheathed with wood; some parts of the 
 interior are ceiled with the same material, and 
 some light bulkheads and "joiner-work" are also 
 of wood. In some iron vessels of war the bottom 
 of the hull is covered outside the iron skin with 
 wooden planking, which is sheathed with copper 
 to a short distance above the load water-line. 
 This is done to protect the iron and prevent 
 fouling of the bottom by grass, barnacles, etc. 
 Vessels having iron frames and the outer skin 
 made of planks bolted directly to the frames 
 without the intervention of an iron skin are 
 called composite. This method is advocated for 
 parts of unarmored vessels of war that are ex 
 posed to shot, in order to avoid the well-known 
 evil effects of shot passing through thin iron 
 plates. Iron vessels are lighter, stronger, and 
 far more durable than wooden ones, which they 
 are rapidly superseding. 
 
 The principal cause of deterioration of iron 
 vessels is the corrosion of inaccessible parts of 
 the interior; but if these parts are thoroughly 
 covered with asphalt, paint, or cement while 
 building, corrosion does not occur to a serious 
 extent. It is necessary to prevent all contact of 
 copper with the iron. 
 
 Iron-work. A general name for all pieces of 
 
IKKADIATION 
 
 402 
 
 ITALY 
 
 iron, of whatever figure or size, which are used 
 in the construction and equipment of ships. 
 
 Irradiation (Lat. irradiare, to cast forth beams 
 upon). The apparent enlargement of the disk 
 of a heavenly body, caused by the vivid impres 
 sion of its light on the eye. This phenomenon 
 is perhaps best illustrated by the appearance of 
 the new moon ; the slender, bright crescent, ap 
 pears to the eye to be a portion of a larger circle 
 than the part of the disk which is visible in the 
 shade. The effect of irradiation on the apparent 
 diameter of the sun may amount to as much as 
 6", but so small a quantity as this is of no prac 
 tical importance. It may, however, be removed 
 by observing both limbs. 
 
 Islands. An island is a tract of land sur 
 rounded by water. From this definition are, 
 however, excluded the great continents, Eastern 
 and Western, and Australia. The seas of the 
 globe are dotted with islands, and their number 
 is legion. An islet is a diminutive island, and a 
 still smaller spot at the surface of the sea is known 
 as a reef. For the most part islands are collected 
 together in groups, and large collections of 
 islands in one locality give it the name of archi 
 pelago, a name originally applied to the chief sea 
 of the Greeks, full of islands. We have also the 
 Farsan and Dhalse Archipelagoes in the Ked Sea, 
 the Low Archipelago in the Pacific, and the 
 Mahe Archipelago in the Indian Ocean. An 
 abundance of islands has given a name to a cer 
 tain quarter of the globe, Polynesia, "many 
 islands." The least number of islands is found 
 in the Black Sea, of all the large sheets of water, 
 there being no more than half a dozen small 
 islands in it near the coast of Turkey. The Dead 
 Sea has no islands, but most inland sheets of 
 water have several. 
 
 Many islands are volcanic in origin, whole 
 groups in the Pacific being formed on the craters 
 of extinct volcanoes, and on many, active vol 
 canoes exist, as in the well-known Lipari Islands. 
 Others have been thrown up by earthquakes, and 
 many have disappeared in, "like convulsions. 
 Other islands have been formed, or their size in 
 creased, by the alluvium brought down by rivers, 
 or by the drifting- sands brought by ocean cur 
 rents in shallow waters. Numbers of islands 
 owe their origin to the labors of marine animals, 
 the coral islands of the Pacific embracing nearly 
 all of the groups. Such islands are atolls, with 
 circular lagoons in their centres, barrier reefs 
 or fringing reefs, the former gradually sinking, 
 the latter rising from the surface of the water. 
 Many islands have been artificially made as on 
 the coast of Holland by the formation of canals. 
 The great rivers of the world contain many 
 islands, some of considerable size. On many 
 islands are situated cities of greater or less size, 
 notably New York, London, Edinburgh, Dublin, 
 Venice, Palermo, Aden, Bombay, Yeddo, Hong- 
 Kong, etc. By far the greater part of the islands 
 of the world are inhabited, and at least two of 
 the great kingdoms of the world, Great Britain 
 and Japan, are island empires. The largest island 
 in the world is Borneo, containing 260,000 square 
 miles, while NovaZembla, Iceland, Great Britain, 
 Ireland, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Ceylon, Su 
 matra, Java, Luzon, Celebes, Mindanao, Hai 
 nan, Formosa, Kiu-Siu, Nippon, Yesso, Sagha- 
 lien, Papua, Tasmania, New Zealand, Vancou 
 ver s, Tierra del Fuego, Marajo, Hayti, Cuba, 
 
 Newfoundland, and Madagascar are among the 
 largest in the world. Many islands are remark 
 able for their products, some for fisheries, as 
 Newfoundland ; some for seals and walrus, as 
 the Aleutian Islands ; for cotton, as the islands 
 on the southern coast of the United States; 
 for coral, as Corsica; for pearls, as the Bahrein 
 Islands, in the Persian Gulf, and the Pearl 
 Islands, in the Caribbean Sea ; for fertilizing 
 phosphates, as the Guano and Chincha Islands, 
 on the Peruvian coasts, and for many other 
 valuable products. 
 
 The Atlantic contains few islands in mid- 
 ocean. The Madeira, Azores, Bermuda, Ascen 
 sion, St. Helena, St. Paul s, Martin Vaz, and 
 Tristan d Acunha are the principal ones. But 
 near its shores are situated many of the more im 
 portant islands of the globe. The Mediterra 
 nean contains many large and important islands 
 scattered about its basin. The Arctic Ocean 
 contains many islands, some of them being of 
 great size, but few are found in the Antarctic 
 waters. The Indian Ocean contains several large 
 islands, and many important groups. The Pa 
 cific Ocean contains by far the larger portion of 
 the islands of the globe, both in size and num 
 ber. Many of its large islands have been enu 
 merated. Chief among its groups are the Kiu- 
 Shiu, Japan, Loochoo, Aleutian, Sandwich, Gal 
 apagos, Paumoto, Marquesas, Society, Friendly, 
 Cook s, Austral, Fiji, Samoan, Union, Ellice, 
 Phoenix, Gilbert, Marshall, Caroline, Ladrone, 
 Philippine, Celebes, Moluccas, Kermadac and 
 Chatham, and New Caledonia and New Hebrides. 
 
 Islands are important to the navigator, form 
 ing a haven in storms and shipwreck, being im 
 portant, stations for supplies, often serving as 
 bases for light-houses, and centres for maritime 
 operations in war. They will prove important 
 as coaling stations for future steam fleets, even 
 when otherwise useless. F. S. Bassett, Lieuten 
 ant U.S.N. 
 
 ISLAND HARBOR. One which is protected 
 from the violence of the sea by one or more 
 islands or islets screening its mouth. 
 
 ISLAND or ICE. A name given to a great 
 quantity of ice collected into one solid mass and 
 floating upon the sea ; thej 7 are often met with 
 on the coast of Spitzbergen, to the great danger 
 of the shipping employed in the Greenland 
 fishery. 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE BLESSED. According to an 
 old Greek myth, certain happy isles in the West 
 ern Ocean where the favorites of the gods, res 
 cued from death, dwelt in joy. 
 
 Isle of Wight Parson (Eng.}. A cormorant. 
 
 Islet, or Islot. An insular spot smaller than 
 an island, yet larger than a key. 
 
 Isthmus. A narrow neck of land which joins 
 a peninsula to its continent, or two islands to 
 gether, or two peninsulas, without reference to 
 size. The Isthmus of Suez alone prevents Af 
 rica from being an island, as that of Darien con 
 nects North and South America. 
 
 Italy, Navy of. This kingdom was never able 
 to boast of a very large navy until the abolition 
 of the Austrian power in Lombardy and the re 
 moval of the territorial rule of the Pope expanded 
 the monarchy of Sardinia to the sovereignty of 
 all Italy. A considerable maritime force is now 
 maintained and is still on the increase. At the 
 end of December, 1879, it consisted of 86 steamers, 
 
ITALY 
 
 403 
 
 JACULATOK 
 
 armed with 676 guns, 16 of which vessels were 
 armor-clad. Two of the first-class ironclads 
 alone had 7500 horse-power each, and carried four 
 100-ton guns. Moreover, they were double-tur- 
 reted and considered the most powerful types 
 of men-of-war ever constructed. Yet two more 
 ironclads are on the stocks, and they will each 
 be of 14,000 tons, carrying guns and horse-power 
 in proportion. In 1879 the Italian navy was 
 manned by 11,200 sailors and 660 engineers and 
 workingmen, with 1271 officers, including 1 ad 
 
 miral, 2 vice- and 10 rear-admirals, and 83 cap 
 tains. The marine-service is comprised in 2 regi 
 ments of 205 officers and 2700 soldiers. 
 
 lurram. A Gaelic word signifying a boat- 
 song, intended to regulate the stroke of the oars. 
 Also, a song sung during any kind of work. 
 
 Ivigar. A name for the sea-urchin, Echinus 
 marinus. 
 
 Ivory Gull, or Snow-bird. The Larus ebur- 
 neus of Arctic seas. It has a yellowish beak, jet- 
 black legs, and plumage of a dazzling white. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jab. A peculiar net used in catching the fry 
 of the coal-fish. 
 
 Jack. A flag corresponding in appearance to 
 the union of the national flag. Thus, in our 
 service it is a blue flag containing a star for 
 each State. It is hoisted at the jack-staff shipped 
 at the bowsprit-cap when in port, with topgal 
 lant yards across. An athwartship bar of iron 
 at the topgallant mast-head, to give spread to 
 the royal shrouds. A popular name for a sailor. 
 A young male pike. A portable machine for 
 moving great weights or resistances slowly or 
 through a small space, by human force exerted 
 rapidly or through a great space. Its principle 
 of action may be either that of a lever, a rack 
 and pinion, a screw, or a hydraulic press. 
 
 Jack Afloat. A popular name for a sailor. 
 
 Jackass. A heavy rough boat used in New 
 foundland. A canvas bag stuffed with oakum, 
 used for making the hawse-holes water-tight 
 when the chains are bent. 
 
 Jackass Frigate. A vessel between a frigate 
 and a sloop-of-war, carrying a whole tier of guns 
 on a covered deck and a few on the quarter-deck 
 and forecastle. 
 
 Jackass Penguin. A name given to the pen 
 guin on account of its stupidity, and its peculiar 
 cry somewhat resembling the braying of an ass. 
 
 Jack-block. A block under the eyes of the 
 rigging for the topgallant or royal yard-rope, 
 used in sending the light masts and yards up 
 and down. It obviates the necessity of reeving 
 or unreeving the yard-rope during the operation. 
 
 Jack Cross-trees. An athwartship iron bar 
 at the topgallant mast-head, to give spread to 
 the royal shrouds. It is usually called a jack. 
 
 Jackee-ja. A Greenland canoe. 
 
 Jacket. A close-fitting outer garment extend 
 ing downward to the hips. An envelope or cov 
 ering of heat non-conducting properties, used to 
 prevent radiation of heat from a body, such as a 
 steam-boiler, cylinder, chimney, etc. An annu 
 lar space surrounding the cylinder of a steam- 
 engine containing live-steam or hot gases, to pre 
 vent initial condensation when working steam 
 expansively. A casing used to confine separate 
 parts of material together. 
 
 Jack-hern. A name for the heron. 
 
 Jacking. Taking the skin off a seal. 
 
 Jack in the Basket. A sort of wooden cap or 
 
 basket on the top of a pole, to mark a sand-bank 
 or hidden danger. 
 
 Jack in the Box. A very handy engine, con 
 sisting of a large wooden male screw turning in 
 a female one, which forms the upper part of a 
 strong wooden box, shaped like the frustum of a 
 pyramid. It is used by means of levers passing 
 through holes in it as a press in packing, and 
 for other purposes. 
 
 Jack-knife. A horn-handled clasp-knife with 
 a laniard, worn by seamen. 
 
 Jack Nasty-face. A cook s assistant. 
 
 Jack of Dover. An old sea-dish, the compo 
 sition of which is now lost. 
 
 Jack O Lantern. The corpo santo, or St. 
 Elmo s light, is sometimes so called. 
 
 Jack-o -the-dust. The assistant of the pay 
 master s yeoman. 
 
 Jack-pins (Eng.}> A name applied to the 
 fife-rail pins. 
 
 Jack s Alive. A once popular seaport dance. 
 
 Jack-shark. A common sobriquet of the 
 Squalus tribe. 
 
 Jack-sharp. A small fresh-water fish, other 
 wise known as prickly-back. 
 
 Jack s Quarter-deck, The topgallant fore 
 castle. 
 
 Jack-staff. A short staff raised at the bow 
 sprit-cap, upon which the jack is hoisted. 
 
 Jackstay. A rope or rod of iron running 
 along a mast, yard, the water-ways, etc., and 
 serving as a traveler, as a means of attaching a 
 sail to its yard, etc. 
 
 Jack Tar. A popular name for a sailor. 
 
 Jacob s Ladder. The assemblages of shakes 
 and short fractures, rising one above another, 
 in a defective spar. Also, a short ladder with 
 wooden rungs and rope sides for getting into the 
 lower rigging, or up to the jack. 
 
 Jacob s Staff, or Cross-staff. A mathematical 
 instrument to take altitudes, consisting of a 
 brass circle, divided into four equal parts by two 
 lines cutting each other in the centre; at each 
 extremity of either line is fixed a sight perpen 
 dicularly over the lines, with holes below each 
 slit for the better discovery of distant objects. 
 The cross is mounted on a staff or stand for use. 
 Sometimes, instead of four sights, there are 
 eight. 
 
 Jaculator. A fish whose chief sustenance is 
 
JAG 
 
 404 
 
 JEFFER9 
 
 flies, which it secures by shooting a drop of 
 water at them from its mouth. 
 
 Jag. To notch an edge irregularly. 
 
 JAGGED. A term applied to denticulated edges, 
 as in jagged bolts to prevent their coming out. 
 
 Jagara^ or Joggaree. A coarse brown sugar 
 of India. 
 
 Jalias. Small craft on the Arracan and Pegu 
 coasts. 
 
 Jam. To confine by pressing against ; to ren 
 der immovable. Generally applied to running- 
 gear when it will not render through the blocks. 
 Figuratively, to involve in a difficulty from 
 which there is no escape. 
 
 Jamaica Discipline. The buccaneer regula 
 tions respecting prize shares, requiring that all 
 prizes be divided among the captors. 
 
 Jangada. A sort of fishing float, or rather 
 raft, composed of three or four long pieces of 
 wood lashed together, used on the coasts of Peru 
 and Brazil. The owner is called a jangadeira, 
 but the term is evidently an application of jer- 
 gado (which see). 
 
 Jangar. A kind of pontoon constructed of 
 two boats with a platform laid across them ; used 
 by the natives in the East Indies to convey horses, 
 cattle, etc., across rivers. 
 
 Janissary. A term derived from jeni cheri, 
 meaning new soldiers, in the Turkish service. 
 
 Jarganee. A term for small worms on the 
 sea-shore, used as bait. 
 
 Jason. A Thessalian prince, son of ^Eson, 
 who, with Medea s help, brought away the golden 
 fleece from Colchis. 
 
 Java Pot. A kind of sponge of the species 
 Alcyonum. 
 
 Javels. An old term for dirty, idle fellows, 
 wandering about quays and docks. 
 
 Jaws. Anything resembling the jaws of an 
 animal ; the points of the jaws are called horns. 
 The inner end of a gaff. The space in a block in 
 which the sheave revolves. One of the adjust 
 able opposing parts of a holding implement, as 
 the jaws of a vise or wrench. 
 
 JAW-BREAKERS. Long and infrequent words. 
 
 JAWING-TACKLE. The organs of speech. Clap 
 a stopper on your jawing -tackle, stop talking. 
 
 JAWING-TACKS. When a person speaks with 
 vociferous fluency, he is said to have hauled his 
 jawing-tacks on board. 
 
 JAW-ME-DOWN. An arrogant, overbearing, 
 and unsound loud arguer. 
 
 JAW-ROPE. A line attached to the horns of 
 the jaws to prevent the gaff from coming off the 
 mast. It is usually furnished with bull s eyes 
 (perforated balls) to make it shift easily up or 
 down the mast. 
 
 Jayls. The cracks and fissures of timbers in 
 seasoning. 
 
 Jeers. A heavy purchase for swaying up and 
 lowering the fore- or main-yard. 
 
 JEER-BITTS. Those to which the jeers are 
 fastened and belayed. 
 
 JEER-BLOCKS. Twofold or threefold blocks, 
 through which the jeer-falls are rove to hoist 
 and lower the main- and fore-yards. 
 
 JEER-CAPSTAN. One placed between the ?ore- 
 and mainmasts, serving to stretch a rope, hsave 
 upon the jeers, etc. It was the spare capstan, 
 and was frequently housed in by sheep-pens and 
 fowl-racks. 
 
 JEER-FALL. The rope rove through the jeer- 
 
 blocks, forming the purchase known as the 
 jeers. 
 
 Jcffers, William Nicholson, Commodore 
 U.S.N., chief of Bureau of Ordnance. Born in 
 New Jersey. Appointed from New Jersey act 
 ing midshipman, September 25, 1840 ; ordered to 
 U. S. S. "North Carolina," 74; served in brig 
 "Washington," tender to that ship, for several 
 winter months on coast relief of ships in distress; 
 September, 1841, to frigate " United States," 44; 
 served four years in that ship, and frigate " Con 
 gress," 44, on Pacific and Brazil Stations ; October 
 10, 1845, to Naval School at Annapolis ; graduated 
 No. 4, and promoted to passed midshipman, July 
 11, 1846; ordered to steamer "Vixen," 3, ancl 
 served through the war with Mexico ; present at 
 attack on forts of Alvarado, under Commodore 
 Connor ; at two attacks on and capture of Ta 
 basco, under Commodore Perry ; at capture of 
 Tuspan ; of Coatzocoalcos and Laguna de Termi- 
 nos ; covered the landing of the U. S. army at 
 siege of Vera Cruz, and took part with others 
 of "Mosquito Fleet in the bombardment of the 
 city of Vera Cruz, and of the castle of San Juan 
 de Ulloa ; in 1848-49, on duty at Naval School 
 as acting master and assistant professor of mathe 
 matics ; December, 1849, to October, 1850, 
 schooner "Morris," coast survey, harbor of 
 Galveston and Gulf of Mexico ; October, 1850, 
 to March, 1852, mail-steamer service, between 
 New York and Aspinwall, Havana, Kingston, 
 and New Orleans, a part of the time in com 
 mand ; March, 1852, to screw-sloop " Princeton," 
 10, as acting master ; November, 1852, transferred 
 to frigate " Macedonian," 22, as acting master ; 
 December, 1852, exploration of Isthmus of Hon 
 duras ; September, 1858, to screw-sloop " Alle- 
 ghany," 10, as acting master; October, 1853, 
 transferred to sloop " Germantown," 20 ; 1853-54, 
 sloop "Germantown," Brazil Squadron. 
 
 Promoted to master, June, 1854. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, January, 1855 ; 
 transferred to U. S. S. " Water- Witch,? 3, sur 
 vey of La Plata and Parana, 1855-56 ; presented 
 with a sword, with gold hilt and scabbard, by 
 her majesty the queen of Spain, for saving the 
 schooner " Cartagenera," of 10 guns, in October, 
 1855 (assent of Congress, April, 1858) ; had an 
 engagement with the fort at Paso de la Patria, 
 which caused the expedition to Paraguay, under 
 Commodore Shubrick, and extorted apology by 
 Paraguay ; 1857, preliminary survey of Isthmus 
 of Honduras for Interoceanic Railway ; 1858-59, 
 gunnery-ship "Plymouth, "9, West Indies; Jan 
 uary, 1859-60, screw-sloop " Brooklyn," 22, and 
 sloop "Saratoga, 20, West Indies ; surveyed Chi- 
 riqui Isthmus while attached to "Brooklyn"; 
 when the Rebellion broke out he was on sick- 
 leave ac his home, but he at once applied for 
 service. 
 
 Be was immediately detailed to relieve Lieut. 
 G. T. Sinclair on ordnance duty at Norfolk, but 
 that yard having been destroyed before he could 
 reach there, was detailed to keep the Potomac 
 River open ; April and May, 1861, command of 
 steamer "Philadelphia," on Potomac River; 
 May to December, 1861, frigate " Roanoke," 
 on blockade Atlantic coast and off Charleston ; 
 engagement with batteries at Sewell s Bluff; 
 December, 1861, command of steamer " Under 
 writer," Pamlico Sound; battles of Roanoke 
 Island, Elizabeth City, and numerous skirmishes, 
 
JELBA 
 
 405 
 
 JENKINS 
 
 under Commodore Goldsborough and Comman 
 der Kowan ; expedition to Currituck Sound, 
 March, 1862, command of " Monitor," after 
 Worden was wounded ; various bombardments 
 and battles of Drury s Bluff, under Commander 
 John Rogers. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; September, 1862, ordnance duty at 
 Philadelphia; September, 1863, to duty as in 
 spector of ordnance, and in charge of exper 
 iments at the ordnance yard, Washington. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March, 1865 ; 
 July, 1865, to command screw-sloop " Swatara," 
 10, West Indies, Mediterranean, and Africa; 
 1865-68, under Admirals Goldsborough and Far- 
 ragut; December, 1868-69, Naval Observatory; 
 1869-70, Board of Examiners. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July, 1870; Sep 
 tember 30, 1870, to duty as assistant in Bureau 
 of Ordnance ; October, 1871, to command gun 
 nery-ship " Constellation," West Indies and 
 coast ; April 10, 1873, chief of Bureau of Ord 
 nance, with relative rank of commodore ; in 1875, 
 introduced a system of B. L. boat howitzers of 
 bronze and of steel ; and in 1876 doubled the 
 power of the Dahlgren M. L. 11-inch smooth 
 bore by converting it into an 8-inch rifle ; also 
 commenced the conversion of Farrott 100- 
 pounder to B. L. on the slotted screw princi 
 ple ; worked up the details of a system of breech- 
 loading for every calibre up to 12-inch ; April 10, 
 1877, renominated chief of Bureau of Ordnance 
 for four years ; author of " Short Methods in 
 Navigation," 1849; "Theory and Practice of 
 Naval Gunnery," 1850; " Marine Surveying," 
 1871 ; and of numerous pamphlets on professional 
 subjects; editor of " Inspection and Proof of 
 Cannon," 1864; "Ordnance Instructions for 
 U. S. Navy," editions of 1866 and 1880. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, February 26, 
 1878. 
 
 Jelba. A large coasting-boat of the Red Sea. 
 
 Jelly-fish. A common name for the Medusce, 
 soft gelatinous marine animals, belonging to the 
 class Acalephce. 
 
 Jemmy. A finical fellow. Also, a handy crow 
 bar or lever. 
 
 Jemmy Ducks. The ship s poulterer. A sobri 
 quet which has universally obtained in English 
 men-of-war. 
 
 Jenkins, Thornton A., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Virginia, and appointed midshipman 
 from that State, November 1, 1828; attached to 
 sloop-of-war " Natchez," West Indies, 1828-31 ; 
 in boat squadron, in 1829, cruising for pirates 
 on coast of Cuba ; in sloop-of-war " Vandalia," 
 West Indies, in 1831-33. 
 
 Passed examination for promotion to lieu 
 tenant, June 2, 1834, and awarded by the Ex 
 amining Board No. 1 of the class of 82 grad 
 uates. On the coast survey, 1834-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 9, 
 1839; served in the frigate Congress," Brazil 
 and Mediterranean Squadron, 1842-45, being 
 present at the capture of the Buenos Ayrean 
 squadron, off Montevideo, September 29, 1844 ; 
 on special service in Europe in 1845-46 ; was ex 
 ecutive-officer of sloop-of-war " German town," 
 in Gulf of Mexico, during the Mexican war ;\and 
 latter part, commanding store-ship " Relief," 
 same squadron, 1847-48 ; commanded part of 
 the forces employed in the capture of Tuspan 
 
 and Tabasco; on the coast survey, 1848-52; 
 acted as secretary of Light-House Board from 
 1858-58. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding sloop-of-war u Preble" on 
 Paraguay Expedition, on Brazil Station, coast 
 of Central America, and in Gulf of Mexico, 
 1858-60. Present at the capture of the armed 
 vessels " Miramon" and " Marquis of Havana," 
 off Vera Cruz, and under the walls of that city 
 and the Fort of St. Juan de Ulloa, during the 
 siege and bombardment by the insurgent forces 
 of Gen. Miramon. Charged with conveying the 
 prizes " Miramon" and " Marquis of Havana" 
 and transporting their crew and passengers as 
 prisoners to New Orleans. Secretary of Light- 
 House Board, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Wachusett," on James 
 and Potomac Rivers, 1862 ; being senior officer, 
 present at repulse of the enemy at Coggin s 
 Point, James River, and at the attack on our 
 flotilla, off City Point, James River, August, 
 1862; commanded steam-sloop "Oneida," West 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, off Mobile, in the 
 fall of 1862 ; was appointed fleet-captain and 
 chief-of-staff of Farragut s squadron, and was 
 
 ? resent at the passage of Port Hudson, March 
 4, 1863 (see Farragut s Report) ; fought Grand 
 Gulf batteries, March 19, 1863; Warrenton, 
 March 21, 23, 25, and 28, 1863; Grand Gulf, 
 March 30, 1863 ; on the blockade of, during the 
 siege prior to the surrender and attack on Port 
 Hudson, May 24, 27, and 28, 1863. Wounded 
 on board steamer u Monongahela" in fight with 
 enemy s batteries stationed on Madame Win 
 chester s farm, College Point, Mississippi River, 
 being in command of three armed vessels con 
 veying provisions, arms, and ammunition to the 
 army and navy operating below Port Hudson ; 
 commanding steam-sloop " Richmond," and 
 senior naval officer in command of naval forces 
 below, at the time of the surrender of Port Hud 
 son, July 9, 1863 ; commanding division, block 
 ading Mobile entrance, etc., from December, 
 1863, to battle of Mobile Bay, August 5, 1864, 
 in which he took part, as well as the surrender 
 of Forts Morgan, Gaines, and Powell, August 
 29 ; left in command of the Mobile Bay Division, 
 until February, 1865 ; March 14, 1865, ordered 
 to James River, remained there until after Lee 
 surrendered to Gen. Grant. 
 
 Admiral Farragut, in his detailed report of the 
 Mobile affair, says, " Before closing this report, 
 there is one other officer of my squadron of whom 
 I feel bound to speak, Capt. T. A. Jenkins, of 
 the Richmond, who was formerly my chief- 
 of-staff, not because of his having held that posi 
 tion, but because he never forgets to do his duty 
 to the government, and takes now the same in 
 terest in the fleet as when he stood in that rela 
 tion to me. He is also commanding officer of 
 the second division of my squadron, and as such, 
 has shown ability and the most untiring zeal. 
 He carries out the spirit of one of Lord Colling- 
 wood s best sayings, not to be afraid of doing 
 too much ; those who are, seldom do as much as 
 they ought. When in Pensacola, he spent days 
 on the bar, placing buoys in the best position, 
 was always looking after the interests of the ser 
 vice, and keeping the vessels from being detained 
 in port one moment more than necessary. The 
 
JERBE 
 
 406 
 
 JIB 
 
 gallant Craven told me only the night before the 
 action in which he lost his life, I regret, ad 
 miral, that I have detained you ; but had it not 
 been for Capt. Jenkins, God knows when I 
 should have been here. When your order came 
 I had not received an ounce of coal. I feel that 
 I should not be doing my duty if I did not call 
 the attention of the Department to an officer who 
 has performed all his various duties with so much 
 zeal and fidelity." 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 in August, 1865, appointed chief of Bureau of 
 Navigation and Detail, and held that position 
 until April, 1869, when he resigned, and was 
 ordered to duty as secretary of the Light-House 
 Board. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, August 15, 1870; 
 ordered to command the U. S. naval forces on 
 Asiatic Station, in December, 1871 ; relieved in 
 China, December, 1873; retired, December 11, 
 1873 ; appointed by the President, March 25, 
 1874, commissioner to represent the Navy De 
 partment at the United States International 
 Centennial Exhibition of 1876, at Fairmount 
 Park, Philadelphia. 
 
 Jerbe. See JELBA. 
 
 Jeremitas. An ancient name for fire-ships. 
 
 Jergado, or Gingado. A term for a light skiff 
 of the 16th century. 
 
 Jerkin: An old name for a coatee, or skirted 
 jacket. 
 
 Jerome. A trading vessel of Egypt. 
 
 Jerquer (Eng.}. A customs officer, whose 
 duty is to examine the landwaiters books, and 
 check them. 
 
 JERQUING A VESSEL. A search performed by 
 the jerquer of the customs, after a vessel is un 
 loaded, to see that no unentered goods have been 
 concealed. 
 
 Jersey. Fine wool, formerly called gearnsey, 
 ganzee, or guernsey. Jersey frocks, woolen frocks 
 supplied to seamen. 
 
 Jersey City. The principal city of New 
 Jersey, on the right bank of the Hudson Eiver, 
 opposite New York City, from which it is 1 
 mile distant and in constant communication 
 with by means of 5 large ferries running over 30 
 boats. The Cunard, White Star, Red Star, and 
 Cardiff lines of ocean steamers have extensive 
 docks in Jersey City, and it is also the terminus 
 of the Pennsylvania, Delaware, Lacka wanna 
 and Western, New Jersey Central, Erie, New 
 Jersey Midland, Northern New Jersey, and 
 several smaller lines of railroads. Large manu 
 factories of all kinds, sugar-refineries, stock 
 yards and ship-yards, are located here. Pop. 
 120,000. 
 
 Jervis, John (Earl St. Vincent). British ad 
 miral. Born January 9, 1734. Commissioned 
 lieutenant, 1755. Promoted to rear-admiral, 
 1787. This officer saw much service afloat, and 
 when a post-captain in the British navy took the 
 islands of Guaduloupe and Martinique from the 
 French. But the event which procured his ele 
 vation to the peerage was his signal defeat of a 
 Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. Died March 
 13, 1823. 
 
 Jet. A stream of fluid issuing from an orifice, 
 as a jet of steam, a jet of water, etc. 
 
 JET-CONDENSER. The vessel in whicu the ex 
 haust steam of a steam-engine is condensed by 
 mingling with a jet or spray of cold water. 
 
 Jetsam, or Jetson (Fr. jeter, to throw). Goods 
 thrown overboard, for the purpose of lightening 
 the ship in case of extreme peril, which sink and 
 remain under water. Goods which remain upon 
 the surface after being cast overboard are called 
 flotsam ; if they are buoyed they are called ligan. 
 
 Jettison. A word allied to jetsam and by 
 some considered as synonymous with it ; more 
 properly, however, it signifies the act of throw 
 ing goods overboard, or the cutting or casting 
 away of anything appertaining to the vessel, to 
 lighten the ship when in extreme peril. The 
 object of a jettison being to secure the safety of 
 the vessel and remaining cargo, the loss incurred 
 becomes the subject of general average (which 
 see). It is to be observed, however, that not 
 every casting of goods overboard, cutting away 
 of masts, etc., constitutes such a jettison as to 
 make a case for general average. To bring the 
 jettison within the rules governing general 
 average it must be voluntary ; the peril must be 
 not merely great, but extreme ; and it must be 
 the price of safety to the ship and remaining 
 cargo. 
 
 Jetty. An erection projecting into the water, 
 of the nature of a pier, dike, or embankment, 
 constructed of timber, earth, fascines, stone, etc., 
 or a combination thereof. By means of jetties 
 at the mouths of rivers and the entrance to tidal 
 harbors, the channel may be so narrowed and the 
 current so concentrated as to much deepen the 
 water over the entrance bars. Numerous in 
 stances of this application of jetties exist in Eu 
 rope and this country, one of the most notable 
 of which is the recently constructed Eads jetties 
 at the mouth of the Mississippi River. 
 
 JETTY-HEAD. The projecting part of a wharf ; 
 the front of a wharf whose side forms one of the 
 cheeks of a dock. 
 
 Jew-balance. A Mediterranean name of the 
 Zycjasna malleus, or hammer-headed shark. 
 
 jewel-block. A small block at the extreme 
 end of the topsail and topgallant-yard, through 
 which reeve the halliards of the topmast and top 
 gallant studding-sails. 
 
 Jew s-harp. The shackle for joining a chain- 
 cable to the anchor-ring. 
 
 Jib. A large triangular sail set on a head- 
 stay. In large vessels it extends from the outer 
 end of the jib-boom well up towards the fore 
 topmast-head. In cutters and sloops it extends 
 from the bowsprit towards the lower mast-head. 
 Of the various sails enumerated below, only the 
 jib and flying jib are in common use. Also, the 
 arm of a crane, one end of which is jointed to 
 the post, the other connected to the post by a tie, 
 so that the downward pull of a suspended weight 
 is decomposed into a tensile strain on the tie, and 
 a compressional strain on the jib, which acts as a 
 strut. 
 
 JIB AND STAY-SAIL JAPK. A designation for 
 a fidgety officer who harasses the watch by con 
 tinually calling jujpo ri them to make, shorten, or 
 trim sail. / 
 
 JIB-BOOM"." A , spar rigged out through the 
 bowsprit-^ap^ the heel being clamped to the 
 bowsprj.^ 
 
 JIB-BOOM, FLYING. A light spar rigged out 
 through a wv the at the end of the jib-boom. 
 
 JIB, FLYING. A sail set on a stay extending 
 from the outer end of the flying jib-boom to the 
 topgallant mast-head. 
 
JIBBER THE KIBBER 
 
 407 
 
 JOHNNY CRAPAUD 
 
 J IB-FORESAIL. The stay-foresail of a sloop. 
 
 JIB-FRAME. The upright frame at the sides 
 of a marine-engine, connecting the cylinder, 
 condenser, and framing ; when applied to the 
 beam-engine it is sometimes called the gallows- 
 frame. 
 
 JIB-GUYS. Ropes which give lateral support 
 to the jib-boom. They lead from the outer end 
 of the jib-boom to the ends of the whiskers, and 
 thence to the bows where they set up. 
 
 JIB-GUYS, FLYING. Ropes which bear the 
 same relation to the flying jib-boom that the jib- 
 guys do to the jib-boom. See JIB-GUYS. 
 
 JIB, PNNER. A head-sail which is sometimes 
 set just abaft the jib proper, which is then called 
 the outer jib. 
 
 JIB-NETTING. A triangular net- work under 
 the jib-boom, which is seized to the whiskers 
 and jib-guys. 
 
 JIB-NETTING, FLYING. A small net-work 
 under the flying jib-boom, which is seized to the 
 flying jib-guys. 
 
 JIB-O -JIB. A sail known only to flying kite- 
 men, it being the outermost of the head-sails. 
 
 JIB, OUTER. See JIB, INNER. 
 
 JIB, SPINDLE-. A jib set between the flying 
 jib and jib-o -jib. 
 
 JIB-STAY. A stay leading from the fore top 
 mast-head through a sheave in the outer end of 
 the jib-boom. In the steam-engine, the jib-stay 
 is a portion of the jib-frame. 
 
 JIB-STAY, FLYING. A stay leading from the 
 fore topgallant mast-head through a sheave in 
 the outer end of the flying jib-boom. 
 
 JIB-TOPSAIL. A light sail set on the topmast 
 stay of a fore-and-after. 
 
 JIB-TRAVELER (0!)s.}. An iron ring fitted to 
 run out and in on the jib-boom, for the purpose of 
 bringing outwards or inwards the tack of the jib. 
 
 Jibber the Kibber. A cant term for the trick 
 of decoying vessels on shore for plunder. A 
 lantern is -suspended from a horse s neck, and 
 one of his fore-legs is hobbled ; being driven 
 along the beach, the irregular motion of the lan 
 tern resembles the motion of a ship s light. See 
 ing a light inshore, the impression is given that 
 there is plenty of sea-room, and the ship is likely 
 to be stranded. 
 
 Jibe. To shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft 
 sail, with the wind aft or on the quarter. 
 
 Jiddah. A seaport town and one of the prin 
 cipal trading entrepots of Arabia. Lat. 21 28 
 3" N. ; lon. 1 "39 13 E. Pop. 18,500. The har 
 bor is good, and the imports from Abyssinia, 
 Egypt, India, Malay Archipelago, and England 
 are very extensive. Slaves are also imported 
 from Zanzibar. Exports consist of coral, Egyp 
 tian cotton goods, sword-blades, matchlocks, and 
 Oriental goods of all kinds, with dates, coffee, 
 etc. 
 
 Jiffy. In a jiffy, in an instant. 
 
 Jig. The weight furnished with hooks, used 
 in jigging (which see). To make short pulls on 
 a rope or tackle. 
 
 Jiggamaree. A mongrel makeshift manoeuvre. 
 Any absurd attempt to substitute a bad contriv 
 ance for what the custom of the sea may be. 
 
 Jigger. A very teazing sand-flea, which pene 
 trates and breeds under the skin of the feet, but 
 particularly at the toes. It must be removed, or 
 it occasions much pain. The operation is effected 
 by a needle, and the sac which contains the brood 
 
 must not be broken, or the whole foot would be 
 infected. A light tackle used about the decks, in 
 the tops, etc. ; a handy-billy. A sail set on a 
 jigger-mast. 
 
 JIGGER-MAST. A small mast stepped on the 
 extreme after-part of small craft. 
 
 Jiggered-up. Done up ; tired out. 
 
 Jigging. A mode of catching fish by dropping 
 a weighted line with several hooks set back to 
 back among them, and jerking it suddenly up 
 wards ; the weight is frequently cast in the form 
 of a small fish. Also, short pulls at a tackle fall. 
 
 Jilalo. A large passage-boat of Manilla, fitted 
 with outriggers. 
 
 Jimmals, or Jimbles. See GIMBALS. 
 
 Jimmy Legs. A sobriquet for the master-at- 
 arms. 
 
 Jingal. A kind of long heavy musket sup 
 ported about the centre of its length on a pivot, 
 carrying a ball of from a quarter to half a pound, 
 and generally fired by a matchlock ; much used 
 in China and the Indies. It is charged by a sep 
 arate chamber, dropped into the breech and 
 keyed. 
 
 Jinny-spinner. One of the names for the 
 cockroach. 
 
 Jobation. A private but severe lecture and 
 reprimand. 
 
 Job Captain (Eng.}. One who gets a tempo 
 rary appointment to a ship, whose regular com 
 mander is a member of Parliament, etc. 
 
 Job-watch. A hack-watch. 
 
 Jocks. Scotch seamen. 
 
 Jog-the-loo. To work the pump-brake, or to 
 pump briskly. 
 
 John. A name given to dried fish. See POOR 
 JOHN. 
 
 John Bull. The origin of this nickname is 
 traced to a satire written in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, by Dr. Arbuthnot, to throw ridicule 011 
 the politics of the Spanish succession. In this 
 satire, which is usually published in Swift s 
 works, the French are designated as Lewis 
 Baboon, the Dutch as Nicholas Frog, etc. 
 
 John Chinaman. A popular name for the 
 Chinese. The earliest known instance of its use 
 is in " A letter to the Committee of Management 
 of Drury Lane Theatre," London, 1819, p. 64. 
 
 John Company (Eng.}. The former board of 
 directors for East India affairs. 
 
 John Dory. A corruption ofjaune dore, which 
 is the color of this fish. It is one of the Scom- 
 beridse, Zeus faber. John Dory was also the 
 name of a celebrated French pirate. 
 
 Johnny Crapaud. A jocose designation of a 
 Frenchman, or of the French nation taken col 
 lectively. In Seward s Anecdotes occurs the 
 following account of the origin of this designa 
 tion: a When the French took the city of Aras 
 from the Spaniards, under Louis XIV., after a 
 long and most desperate siege, it was remem 
 bered that Nostradamus had said, Les anciens 
 crapauds prendront Sara. (The ancient toads 
 shall Sara take.) This line was then applied 
 to this event in a very roundabout manner. 
 Sara is Aras backward. By ancient toads were 
 meant the French ; as that nation formerly had 
 for its armorial bearings three of those odious 
 reptiles instead of the three flowers-de-luce which 
 it now bears." 
 
 The grounds for the belief that three toads or 
 three frogs were the old arms of France are very 
 
JOHNNY KAW 
 
 408 
 
 JUDGE- ADVOCATE 
 
 fully set forth in Elliott s "Horae Apocalypticse," 
 vol. iv. p. 64, ed. 1847. 
 
 Johnny Raw, or Johnny Newcome. An in 
 experienced youngster commencing his career; 
 also applied to landsmen in general. 
 
 Johnny Shark. A common sobriquet of the 
 Squalus tribe. 
 
 John-O -Groat s Buckie (Eng.}. A northern 
 name for the Cyprcea pediculus, a small shell 
 found on the sea-coast. 
 
 John Tuck. The galley corruption of chan- 
 tuck, or jantook, a Chinese viceroy, specially 
 meaning the viceroy of Canton. 
 
 Jol. A Danish yawl. 
 
 Jolly (Eng.). This term is usually applied to 
 a comely and corpulent person, but afloat it is a 
 familiar name for a soldier. Tame jolly, a 
 militia-man ; royal jolly, a marine. 
 
 Jolly-boat (Eng.). A smaller boat than the 
 cutter, but likewise clincher-built. It is gener 
 ally a hack boat for small work, being about 4 
 feet beam to 12 feet length, with a bluff bowand 
 very wide transom ; a kind of washing-tub. 
 
 Jolly Jumpers. Sails above the moon-rakers. 
 
 Jolly Roger. A pirate s flag ; a white skull 
 in a black iield. 
 
 Jones, John Paul, was the son of John Paul, 
 and was born at Kirkcudbright, in Scotland, July 
 6, 1747. Went to sea as apprentice at the age 
 of 12, voyaging to America. Made several voy 
 ages as third mate of a slaver, and at 19 was first 
 mate, and at 21 had command of the "John," a 
 ship in the West India trade. Afterwards traded 
 in a vessel on his own account, and left the sea 
 at the age of 26, adopting the name of Jones. 
 In December, 1775, was appointed lieutenant in 
 the navy, and ordered as first lieutenant of the 
 "Alfred," our first flag-ship. He hoisted the 
 first flag of the colonies afloat, the yellow flag 
 with the pine-tree and rattlesnake. He partici 
 pated in the capture of the "New Providence" 
 and the attack on the "Glasgow." Was made 
 captain of the "Providence," and being chased by 
 a squadron off New York, escaped them by good 
 seamanship, June 13, 1776 ; and he afterwards 
 made 16 prizes, some valuable. On October 10 
 he was named eighteenth captain, and in com 
 mand of the " Alfred" and " Providence" cap 
 tured a valuable armed ship and two prizes, 
 and eluded a recapture by good seamanship. 
 He next went to Europe in command of the 
 " Hanger," 18, and received from the French 
 squadron the first salute to the stars and stripes. 
 He cruised in English waters, burning ship 
 ping at Whitehaven and spiking guns ashore, 
 and then attempted to carry off the Earl of Sel 
 kirk, but failed. Some plate having been car 
 ried away, he gained the name of "Pirate." 
 On the 24th of April he took the " Drake," 20 
 guns. Received from the French the " Due de 
 Duras," an old Indiaman, and sailed in her, in 
 company with 6 other ships, naming his new 
 vessel the " Bon Homme Richard." He had 40 
 guns and a mixed crew of various nationalities. 
 The conditions under which he sailed prevented 
 him from carrying out several projects, but on 
 the 23d September he fell in with a Baltic fleet 
 convoyed by the " Serapis," 44, and " Countess 
 of Scarborough," 20. The latter was captured by 
 one of his squadron, and Jones, in one of the 
 most desperate fights on record, in which his 
 own ship was so disabled as to sink soon after 
 
 wards, captured the "Serapis," a superior ship 
 to his own. He sailed for home in the " Ariel," 
 20, in September, 1780; lost his masts, put back, 
 and sailed again on the 18th December. He was 
 launched in the "America," 74, and transferred 
 her to the French, making a cruise as a volunteer 
 in her. He was a prize agent in Europe in 1783, 
 and finally, in 1787, while in Denmark, he en 
 tered the Russian navy. Hoisted his flag as rear- 
 admiral in the " Walodomir," 26th May, 1788, 
 but found so much jealousy and enmity towards 
 him that he resigned in 1789. He resided in 
 Holland and France afterwards, and was ap 
 pointed commissioner to Algiers just as his death 
 occurred, on the 18th of July, 1792, aged 45. 
 He was brave and energetic, but violent and 
 vain. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U. S. Navy. 
 
 /ones, Thomas Catesby, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Welsh descent. Born in 1789 ; died in George 
 town, D. C., May 30, 1858. Entering the navy 
 November 22, 1805, he became lieutenant May 
 24, 1812, commander March 28, 1820, and cap 
 tain March 11, 1829. From 1808 to 1812 he was 
 engaged in the Gulf of Mexico, and distin 
 guished himself in the suppression of piracy, 
 smuggling, and the slave-trade. When the 
 British naval expedition agains t New Orleans 
 entered Lake Borgne, he, with a small flotilla, 
 endeavored to intercept 40 British boats. Al 
 though wounded and compelled to surrender, 
 his conduct was highly commended. In 1842 he 
 commanded the Pacific Squadron, and having, 
 from erroneous information as to the existence 
 of war between the United States and Mexico, 
 caused the governor of Monterey to surrender 
 that place, he was for this indiscretion relieved 
 from his command. 
 
 Jonk. See JUNK. 
 
 Joso. A small fish of the gudgeon kind. 
 
 Joule s Equivalent. The" quantity of heat 
 that will raise one pound of pure water, at the 
 maximum density and temperature of 39.1, one 
 degree F. ; the equivalent in work being 772 
 foot-pounds. 
 
 Journal. Ensigns and midshipmen are re 
 quired to keep journals, which are presented 
 monthly for the inspection of the commanding 
 officer. In some ships this journal must be a 
 copy of the log-book ; in others, only an abstract 
 is required. Journal is also the part of a revolv 
 ing or oscillating portion of a machine which is 
 supported by or runs in bearings. It may be 
 cylindrical, conical, or spherical/ 
 
 JOURNAL-BEARING. The support of the shaft 
 or axle, composed of the brasses or boxes in a 
 pillow-block, or that part of the engine frame 
 intended for the purpose. 
 
 JOURNAL-BOX. The composition lining of 
 bearings to reduce friction. 
 
 JOURNAL-BOX METAL. Usually an alloy of 
 copper, tin, and zinc, and sometimes antimony. 
 
 Jowder. A term to denote a retail dealer in 
 fish. 
 
 Juan-Mooar. The black-backed gull. 
 
 Jubaltare. The early English word for Gi 
 braltar. 
 
 Judge-advocate. The person appointed to 
 act as public prosecutor at a court-martial is 
 designated by law as the judge-advocate. Re 
 garded etymologically, this term is certainly a 
 misnomer, for the subject is, in point of function, 
 neither a judge nor an advocate. He has no 
 
JUDGE-ADVOCATE 
 
 409 
 
 JUDGE-ADVOCATE 
 
 power to hear and determine cases, nor to pass 
 sentence, and it is not his duty to plead the cause 
 of any one. Bather is he a prosecuting recorder. 
 While his duties are multifarious and highly im 
 portant, the chief ones are to produce and lay 
 before the court all of the evidence against the 
 person accused, and to record with exactness, 
 under a solemn oath, all that transpires which it 
 is necessary for the convening and ultimate re 
 viewing authority to know. We are probably 
 indebted for the imposing title to a fusion of two 
 expressions formerly applied to a higher office in 
 Great Britain, viz., "judge-martial" and " advo 
 cate-general," and since nearly all language is 
 arbitrary, should not seriously object. See JUDGE- 
 ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 
 
 Usually a commissioned officer of the army or 
 navy is appointed to this office, although civilians 
 are eligible, and until within the last ten years were 
 frequently thus employed. Theemolumentsof the 
 office were so liberal to them that in March, 1865, 
 Congress found it necessary to enact that " the 
 fees for record in naval courts-martial shall not 
 exceed in any one case $200." Instances were 
 known where officers had temporarily resigned 
 their positions in order to become entitled to the 
 large fees, as citizens, when appointed judge-ad 
 vocate. The practice of appointing civilians is 
 strenuously objected to on different grounds by 
 all writers on military law, and may now be 
 considered obsolete. Only military persons should 
 so act, and they should be selected for their 
 special fitness. Simmons, a distinguished au 
 thority, speaks of the judge-advocate as " the 
 PRIMUM MOBILE of a court-martial," and 
 Hughes, author of " Duties of Judge-Advo 
 cates," says that fitness consists in the possession 
 of a superior attainments and abilities as lawyers 
 and soldiers, the qualifications of both professions 
 being requisite for this specific duty." As they 
 are called upon to act in the threefold capacity 
 of representative of the government, recorder of 
 the proceedings, and as the legal adviser of the 
 court (and not unfrequently as counsel for the 
 accused), it is necessary that they should have a 
 correct knowledge of the fundamental principles 
 of law in general, and a thorough special knowl 
 edge of the practice of courts-martial. 
 
 The " Regulations for the Administration of 
 Law in the Navy" (Sec. 161) prescribe that 
 "Judge-advocates of all naval general courts- 
 martial, whether convened in the United States 
 or abroad, will be appointed by the Secretary of 
 the Navy only, who will select a competent com 
 missioned officer to perform this important and 
 responsible duty in each foreign fleet or squad 
 ron." The detail generally falls to the officers 
 of the marine corps, many of whom have made 
 military law a- special study, and all of whom, 
 prior to July 1, 1870, received an allowance of 
 $2.50 per diem for every day necessarily employed 
 in the duty of the court. 
 
 The first semblance of a court-martial with 
 judge-advocate and provost-marshal in England 
 our prototype was authorized by an ordi 
 nance of Parliament in 1644, during the reign 
 of Charles I. The Earl of Essex, general of the 
 forces, and 56 others named in the ordinance, or 
 any 12 of them, were made commissioners to 
 try " all such causes as belonged to military cog 
 nizance," and were empowered to appoint "a 
 judge-advocate, a provost-marshal, and all other 
 
 officers needful." The Swiss Guards, in the ser 
 vice of France, had a juge, who was a sort of 
 judge or provost-marshal for each company, and 
 each regiment had a superior one who presided 
 over the others. Their duties seem to have par 
 taken of the nature of those of both judge-advo 
 cate and provost-marshal. 
 
 Notwithstanding the antiquity of the office, its 
 functions are so faintly described by statute that 
 in summing them up one is obliged to resort to 
 the less positive though equally binding authority 
 of established usage and practice, which, as be 
 tween army and navy, is in this, as in other re 
 spects already set forth, far from uniform. (See 
 COURTS-MARTIAL.) For some reason, possibly 
 a morbid jealousy of authority, the office of 
 judge-advocate in the navy, though equally in 
 dispensable, is much less potential than in the 
 army, and unless the former is familiar with and 
 tenacious of his powers and privileges, his char 
 acter as the representative of the government is 
 apt to be dwarfed into that of clerk to the court. 
 
 While the army judge-advocate is not only the 
 medium of communication between the appoint 
 ing power and the court, but between the court 
 and the accused, and the witnesses, and is the 
 first person furnished with the charges, list of 
 witnesses, and other papers bearing on the case, 
 which he has to prepare for trial and present, 
 the naval judge-advocate finds the president, 
 disinterested and distant (sometimes 500 miles), 
 in possession of them, and often enters court at 
 12 M. of the day appointed to get his first knowl 
 edge of what is to be done. The president then 
 turns over to him the papers, and he asks for 
 time to " especially instruct himself in all the 
 circumstances," etc., as required by Regulations. 
 A few other points of difference are worthy of 
 note. In the army the judge-advocate has au 
 thority to alter or amend the charges, and may 
 even substitute a new set, but in the navy, 
 when faulty, they must be returned to the con 
 vening authority. The naval judge-advocate 
 is sworn " to keep a true record" and to secrecy, 
 but he of the army to secrecy only. The latter 
 orders the attendance of prisoners, swears the 
 witnesses, receives the reports of absent members 
 stating cause of non-appearance, and notifies the 
 convening officer of any changes in the court, 
 or adjournments in certain cases ; in the navy all 
 this is done by the president. 
 
 The duties of a naval judge-advocate, as laid 
 down by the Regulations above cited, and other 
 wise understood, are, when practicable, briefly as 
 follows : " Upon being notified that a court is to 
 convene, and furnished (?) with such papers and 
 instructions as may be considered necessary for 
 his guidance," he will ascertain that the accused 
 has a true copy of the charges and specifications 
 preferred against him, at least 24 hours before 
 trial, also a list of the witnesses who are to ap 
 pear against him ; call upon him for a list of 
 persons he may desire to testify in his behalf, and 
 summon all that may be necessary for either 
 prosecution or defense; inquire what facts they 
 can establish prior to their introduction, and 
 prepare a short analysis or plan for the conduct 
 of the case. (See WITNESS.) Under the au 
 thority of the commanding officer of the station 
 or vessel where the court is td convene, he sees 
 that a suitable place is provided, and supplied t 
 with writing materials and such other articles as 
 
JUDGE-ADVOCATE 
 
 410 
 
 JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL 
 
 may be needed for the use and comfort of the 
 court ; obtains such books of reference as may 
 be called for ; has the necessary guards and or 
 derly detailed, and some accommodations made 
 for spectators who may attend. He then " ex 
 amines critically" the charges and specifications, 
 and advises the court of any errors discovered ; 
 notifies the accused of any alterations which may 
 be directed ; sees that the whole is embodied in 
 the record ; and furnishes the court with a dupli 
 cate for its use. He appoints a clerk, or reporter ; 
 procures an interpreter if required ; observes that 
 the court is organized agreeably to precept, and 
 notes each day in the record who are present or 
 absent. He takes care that the accused has 
 counsel if he so desires, and that he enjoys the 
 right of challenge, and, if he declines counsel, 
 will himself act so far as to see that he has every 
 facility afforded him, that his rights are not in 
 fringed, and that he suffers no disadvantage 
 through ignorance. The record must be kept in 
 prescribed form on prescribed paper, and show 
 most particularly that the court, judge-advocate, 
 and all of the witnesses were duly sworn in the 
 presence of the accused ; that he was allowed 
 every opportunity to examine witnesses ; that 
 they pronounced their testimony correct before 
 being discharged ; that he was allowed time to 
 
 Erepare a statement or defense in writing ; that 
 e is the person convicted and sentenced, or ac 
 quitted ; and that the whole is properly authen 
 ticated by the signatures of all of the members 
 and himself. A smooth and legible record made 
 from the rough notes of the preceding day is to 
 be presented and read by him to the court im 
 mediately upon convening each day, and all er 
 rors corrected without erasure or interlineation. 
 Each case must be kept separately, and show all 
 changes in tbe composition of the court, all ques 
 tions and answers, motions, rulings, etc., and 
 have all accompanying documents appended and 
 numbered, or lettered, for reference. The pro 
 ceedings of each day appear as a chapter marked 
 "Second Day," "Third Day," and so on, and 
 the finding and sentence must be in his own 
 handwriting. Questions put to witnesses by 
 others than himself, and all motions and objec 
 tions by the accused are written on slips of paper 
 and pasted to the rough notes. 
 
 He may assist the accused to prepare his de 
 fense, or read it for him, after which he has the 
 right of reply and to the last word. He takes 
 the vote of the court as to finding and sentence ; 
 but the president obtains the opinion of the court 
 on questions of evidence, adjournment, etc. De 
 cisions of the court are announced to the witness 
 or accused by the judge advocate. Not being a 
 member he has no vote, is not responsible to 
 the civil authority for his opinions, and cannot 
 be challenged, although he has the right to chal 
 lenge any member suspected of undue partiality 
 for, or interest in, the accused. While he may 
 sum up the evidence, and call attention to facts, 
 it is not proper for him to give an opinion as to 
 the guilt of the accused, nor earlier in the trial 
 to advise the accused to plead guilty. He is a 
 competent witness for either side, and, if called, 
 should be sworn by the president, interrogated 
 by the court or the accused as the case may be, 
 and have his testimony recorded by the clerk ; or 
 if necessary he may do it himself. Should he die, 
 or be disabled, pending the proceedings, another 
 
 may be detailed, unless it happens between the 
 conclusion of the trial and the authentication of 
 the record, in which rare event the sentence is 
 inoperative (Holt s Digest). The court cannot 
 appoint a judge-advocate, no member can act as 
 such, and a vacancy must be referred to the con 
 vening officer. His absence during the trial 
 does not invalidate the proceedings, but should 
 be avoided if possible. When it cannot be 
 helped it is better for the court to adjourn from 
 day to day until his return. 
 
 Finally, he gives certificates of attendance to 
 the witnesses and such members as are entitled 
 to allowances ; forwards the record through the 
 president, and if he has been patient, respectful, 
 impartial, and sedulously careful of the rights 
 of all concerned, he has performed an arduous 
 duty well. Henry C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Judge-advocate-general. This title is com 
 paratively new in the United States, where it is 
 given to two officials who are appointed by the 
 President, by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate. In the army it is held by the se 
 nior law officer, who is also chief of the Bureau 
 of Military Justice, an outgrowth of the Rebel 
 lion, and enjoys the rank, pay, and allowances 
 of a brigadier-general. The first judge-advocate- 
 general in this country was the Hon. Joseph 
 Holt, of Kentucky, who was appointed colonel 
 and judge-advocate-general, September 3, 1862; 
 promoted to brigadier-general, June 22, 1864, 
 and retired at his own request (being over sixty- 
 two years of age), December 1, 1875. He was 
 succeeded by Brig. -Gen. Wm. McKee Dunn, 
 the present incumbent, who has under his direc 
 tion a corps of eight judge-advocates with the 
 rank and pay of major of cavalry. Prior to the 
 institution of the office of judge-ad vocnte-general 
 (1862), there was but one judge-advocate for the 
 entire army, and he was required to be selected 
 from the captains of the line of the army, and 
 given the brevet rank and pay of a major of cav 
 alry. The office seems to have been finst estab 
 lished in the regular army March 3, 1797, by an 
 act which authorized a judge-advocate to be 
 taken from the commissioned officers of the line, 
 and granted extra pay and rations. 
 
 In the navy, we find that Congress, by act of 
 March 2, 1865, authorized the President to ap 
 point " for service during the Rebellion, and one 
 year thereafter, an officer in the Navy Depart 
 ment to be called the Solicitor and Naval Judge- 
 Advocate-General." To this office was appointed 
 a civilian, the Hon. John A. Bolles, of Massa 
 chusetts, who held it until his death, in 1878. 
 After the term for which it was created had ex 
 pired, it was with great difficulty that the Con 
 gress was induced to continue it. Indeed, one 
 year passed without any appropriation being 
 made for the salary of the incumbent. When 
 the office of the Attorney-General of the United 
 States was reorganized, and the Department of 
 Justice established in 1870, there was included 
 in its personnel "a naval solicitor, at a salary 
 of $3500 a year," and that is all that was said of 
 this important office. Mr. Bolles s name was 
 dropped from the navy register and placed upon 
 the rolls of the new department. At his death 
 he was succeeded by Capt. William B. Remey, 
 U. S. Marine Corps, as "acting judge-advo 
 cate-general" until June 8, 1880, when, mainly 
 through his exertions, a bill was passed by Con- 
 
JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENEKAL 411 
 
 JUPITER 
 
 gress which placed the office upon a better foot 
 ing than it had ever known. This measure 
 authorized the President to appoint from the 
 officers of the navy or marine corps, for the term 
 of four years, a judge-advocate-general of the 
 navy, with the rank, pay, and allowances of a 
 captain in the navy or a colonel of the marine 
 corps, as may be, and Capt. Remey was the first 
 appointee, with the rank of colonel. 
 
 His place of duty, or office, was fixed in the 
 Navy Department, " where he shall, under the 
 direction of the Secretary of the Navy, receive, 
 revise, and have recorded the proceedings of all 
 courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and boards for 
 the examination of officers for retirement and 
 promotion in the naval service, and perform such 
 other duties as have heretofore been performed 
 by the solicitor and naval judge-advocate-gen 
 eral," a title, by the way, then extinct fbr ten 
 years. As these duties had never been very par 
 ticularly defined, or generally understood, the 
 Secretary of the Navy, Hon. R. "W. Thompson, 
 issued a circular June 28, 1880, also a general 
 order of same date (No. 250), prescribing them 
 minutely, and thus the law was promptly made 
 operative and the office strongly established. 
 
 The circular announced that all matter sub 
 mitted to the Secretary involving questions of 
 law or regulation would be referred by him, or 
 the chief clerk acting under him, to the judge- 
 advocate-general for examination and report, and 
 directed that the chiefs of the several bureaus 
 and the officers connected with the Navy De 
 partment, and the clerks of the Secretary s office, 
 should furnish the judge-advocate-general with 
 all such facts and information of record, bearing 
 upon cases under consideration by him, as he 
 might require, and that the records of all courts, 
 boards, etc., should be filed in his office. The 
 general order informed the service of the crea 
 tion of the office, and ordered that the proceed 
 ings of all courts, boards, etc., convened by order 
 of the Secretary of the Navy should be forwarded 
 direct to the judge-advocate-general, who shall 
 report upon and have them recorded ; and all 
 proceedings of courts, boards, etc., convened by 
 other naval authority shall, after action thereon 
 by the convening and reviewing officers, be for 
 warded and treated in the same manner. All 
 communications pertaining to questions of law 
 or regulation arising before courts and boards 
 which may require the action of the Department 
 are also to be sent to this officer direct. 
 
 Turning to England, we find that there was in 
 the olden time a "judge-martial," or " advocate- 
 general," who was the supreme judge in martial 
 law as to the jurisdiction and powers of military 
 courts. It devolved upon him, as well as upon 
 his deputies, " to be well acquainted with the 
 laws of the land, that they may admonish the 
 court, or president, when the proceedings tend 
 to infringe the civil law." He was " the regis 
 ter of courts-martial," and took down the evi 
 dence "in the very words of the witness," but 
 was neither a judge nor a juror as to the charge. 
 
 This official is now " The Rt. Hon. the Judge- 
 Advocate-General, London," the adviser of the 
 crown in matters of military law, a barrister, 
 member of Parliament, and of the Privy Council. 
 The proceedings of all district, garrison, and 
 general courts-martial are submitted to him for 
 approval, the latter being laid before the queen 
 
 by him for confirmation. A deputy judge-advo 
 cate is appointed to attend at all general courts- 
 martial and advise the courts as to points of law. 
 In general courts he prepares the charges against 
 the accused, but in other courts this is done by 
 the commanding officer. See JUDGE-ADYOCATE. 
 Henry C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Julian Period. A period of 7980 years, dating 
 from B.C. 4713 ; being the product of the num 
 bers 15, 19, and 28 multiplied into each other, 
 they being respectively the lengths, in Julian 
 years, of the Indiction, Metonic Cycle, and Solar 
 Cycle. The Julian year was a period of 365 
 days, which was adopted as the length of the 
 year after the reformation of the calendar by 
 Julius Csesar. See CALENDAR. 
 
 Jumper. A loose frock descending to the ship 
 and worn outside the trousers. A rope attached 
 to the outer end of the whiskers to keep them 
 from canting upwards. 
 
 Jump-jointed. Flush-jointed ; applied to the 
 plates of an iron vessel. 
 
 Jumgada. See JANGADA. 
 
 Junk. The Chinese junk is the largest vessel 
 built by that nation, and at one period exceeded 
 in tonnage any war-vessel then possessed by 
 England. The extreme beam is one-third from 
 the stern; it shows no stem, it being chamfered 
 off. The bow on deck is square, over which the 
 anchors slide fore and aft. Having no keel, and 
 being very full at the stern, a huge rudder is 
 suspended, which at sea is lowered below the 
 depth of the bottom. The masts are immense, 
 in one piece. The hull is divided into water 
 tight compartments, like tanks. Junk is also 
 remnants or pieces of old cable or condemned 
 rope, cut into small portions for the purpose of 
 making points, mats, swabs, gaskets, sennit, 
 oakum, and the like. Also, a dense cellular tis 
 sue in the head of the sperm-whale, infiltrated 
 with spermaceti. Also, salt beef, as tough to the 
 teeth as bits of rope, whence the epithet. 
 
 JUNK- WAD. See WAD. 
 
 Junket. A long basket for catching fish. 
 
 Junketing. Good cheer and hearty jollifica 
 tion. 
 
 Jupiter. The largest planet of the solar sys 
 tem. The mean distance of Jupiter from the 
 sun is 496 millions of miles, and, since the eccen 
 tricity of its orbit is about l-20th, this distance 
 is augmented in perihelion and diminished in 
 aphelion by about 24 millions of miles. Jupi 
 ter makes a revolution about the sun in 11.8 
 years; it revolves on its axis in 9 h 55 m ; its 
 equatorial diameter is 92 millions of miles ; ap 
 parent diameter 30 /x to 48 /x , and its volume is 
 1400 times that of the earth. Viewed through a 
 powerful telescope Jupiter exhibits a light yel 
 lowish color, having a series of brownish-gray 
 streaks, called belts, running nearly parallel to 
 the equator. Jupiter is attended by 4 satellites 
 at distances varying from 280 to 1200 thousand 
 miles, and varying in size from 12 hundred to 35 
 hundred miles. Jupiter is a body of the greatest 
 importance to the navigator ; for besides serving 
 in a pre-eminent manner the ordinary purposes 
 of bright stars, such as determining the lati 
 tude, and also by its lunar distances furnishing 
 the means of finding the longitude, the eclipses 
 of Jupiter s satellites give an independent method 
 of obtaining the longitude. Symbol 1J, from the 
 initial of Zeus, the Greek name of Jupiter. 
 
JUREBASSO 
 
 412 
 
 KANE 
 
 Jurebasso (Eng.}. A rating in former times 
 given to a handy man, who was partly inter 
 preter arid partly purchaser of stock. 
 
 Jurisdiction. The legal power or authority 
 of the government or of a branch thereof. The 
 limit within which power may be exercised ; ex 
 tent of power or authority. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW. 
 
 Jury-anchor. See ANCHOR. 
 
 Jury-mast. A temporary mast erected in a 
 ship in the place of one which has been carried 
 away in a gale, battle, etc. Jury-masts are some 
 times erected in a new ship to navigate her down 
 
 a river, or to a neighboring port, where her 
 proper masts are prepared for her. 
 
 Jury-rudder. A contrivance, of which there 
 are several kinds, for supplying a vessel with the 
 means of steering when an accident has befallen 
 the rudder. 
 
 Jus Piscandi. The right of fishing. 
 
 Jute. The fibre of an East Indian plant (Cor- 
 chorus capsularis), and, also, of the plant Cor- 
 chorus olitorius. It is used for making rope, 
 matting, gunny, and other coarse fabrics. 
 
 Juwaur. The spring-flood of the Ganges and 
 adjacent rivers. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kabbilow. Codfish salted but not thoroughly 
 dried. 
 
 Kabozir. A chief or governor on the African 
 coast. 
 
 Kaburns. An old word for nippers. 
 
 Kafila. An old word for a convoy of merchant- 
 vessels. 
 
 Kalmar. A fortified town and seaport of 
 Sweden, capital of a Isen of the same name. It 
 is situated on the southeast coast, on the Kalmar 
 Sound, opposite the island Gland, about 200 
 miles S.S.W. of Stockholm. It is the terminus 
 of a railway, and has a good harbor, a fine 
 church, a prefecture, a strong castle, now a house 
 of correction, an academy, a gymnasium, a dock 
 yard, and manufactories of woolen stuffs, tobacco, 
 and potash. In its castle the treaty called the 
 "Union of Kalmar," which settled the succes 
 sion of the three northern kingdoms upon Queen 
 Margaret of Denmark and her heirs forever, was 
 agreed to by the deputies of the three kingdoms 
 on the 12th of July, 1397. The union, however, 
 lasted only till the death of Margaret. Pop. 
 about 10,000. 
 
 Kamsin. A southwesterly wind which blows 
 over Egypt during March and April. 
 
 Kanagawa. A town of Japan, situated on 
 the west side of the bay of Tokio, and on the 
 railway from Tokio to Yokohama, 15 miles S. 
 of Tokio and 3 miles N. of Yokohama, from 
 which it is separated by a lagoon. It has a fort 
 and barracks, and is one of the treaty ports. It 
 formerly had a larger foreign trade than any 
 other port of Japan, but with the rise in impor 
 tance of Yokohama, Kanagawa has declined. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 Kanaris, Konstantin. A native of the isle 
 of Ipsara, distinguished for his exploits in the 
 Greek war of independence. In 1822 he blew 
 up the Turkish admiral s ship in the Strait of 
 Chios, and the same year performed a similar 
 exploit in the harbor of Tenedos. On the 17th 
 of August, 1824, he avenged the wrongs which 
 his native isle had suffered from the Turks 
 by burning a large Turkish frigate and some 
 transport-ships which were carrying troops to 
 Samos, thereby also saving Samos from the rav 
 ages which Chios and Ipsara had endured. In 
 
 1825 he formed the bold design of burning the 
 Egyptian fleet then lying in the harbor of Alex 
 andria ready to carry troops to the Peloponnesus, 
 and only the springing up of an unfavorable 
 wind prevented the success of his undertaking. 
 He held important commands under the Greek 
 president, Capo d Istrias,and in 1848-49 was war 
 minister and president of the cabinet. In 1862, 
 as admiral of the fleet, he took part in the revo 
 lution which overthrew the government of King 
 Otho. 
 
 Kane, Elisha Kent, was born in Philadelphia, 
 Pa., February 3, 1820, being the eldest of the 
 seven children of the Hon. John K. Kane, 
 United States judge for the Eastern District of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Dr. Kane numbered among his ancestors the 
 Kanes and Van Kensselaers, of New York, and 
 the Grays and Leipers, of Pennsylvania, all 
 well-known and highly-honored names. 
 
 As a boy he was small for his age, but very 
 active and daring ; noted for venturous escapades 
 and for his skill as a rider, and though early 
 devoted to experimental chemistry and physics, 
 showing no great fondness for books. 
 
 At sixteen, however, he began to work, his 
 studies being directed with a view to his ulti 
 mately becoming a civil engineer. When about 
 to enter Yale College he discovered symptoms of 
 disease of the heart, from which he was never 
 afterwards entirely free. This caused a change 
 in the plan of his education, it being thought 
 better, both on account of the climate and the 
 ability to select his course of study, to enter him 
 at the University of Virginia. Here he pursued 
 the natural sciences chemistry, mineralogy, 
 physical geography, and geology under the cel 
 ebrated Professor Rogers, with the usual course 
 of mathematics and classics. He was a good stu 
 dent in all of them, and they were destined to 
 prove of the utmost value to him in his subse 
 quent labors. He took no degree, his studies 
 being interrupted by an attack of rheumatism 
 involving the heart. He was long almost hope 
 lessly ill, with a slow arid doubtful recovery, 
 which left him subject to sudden death at any 
 moment. During his whole after-life he suffered 
 from rheumatism and cardiac disease, except 
 
KANE 
 
 413 
 
 KANE 
 
 when in the high northern latitudes, when 
 scurvy, which in his case seemed incompatible 
 with them, took their place. The breaking down 
 of his health caused him to give up the profes 
 sion of engineering and to take industriously to 
 the study of medicine, following his father s ad 
 vice, " If he was to die, to die in harness." 
 
 In his 21st year, while still an under-gradu- 
 ate, and still in a critical condition of health, 
 he was made one of the resident physicians of the 
 Philadelphia Hospital. In addition to bestow 
 ing sedulous attention upon his regular duties, 
 he here made many original experiments upon a 
 subject relating to pregnancy, which was then 
 much occupying the medical mind, which ex 
 periments were of so thorough and scientific a na 
 ture as to satisfy the profession both in this coun 
 try and in Europe. His graduating thesis, on the 
 same subject, was published at the request of the 
 medical faculty of the University of Pennsyl 
 vania. 
 
 Without the son s knowledge, Kane s father 
 had applied for permission for him to enter the 
 navy as an assistant surgeon, and he was at first 
 much opposed to doing so, but finally yielded 
 and worked hard to prepare for the examination. 
 After passing he told the board of his disability, 
 but he just then seemed so well, and had exhib 
 ited such proficiency, that they declined to revoke 
 their favorable decision. 
 
 While waiting a vacancy, Dr. Kane was ap 
 pointed physician to Mr. Cushing s embassy to 
 China, and sailed in May, 1843, ^in the frigate 
 " Brandywine," for Bombay, there to meet the 
 minister, who was to go overland. The Secre 
 tary of the Navy had given permission for him 
 to accept this post without prejudice to his posi 
 tion in the navy. 
 
 On the voyage out the " Brandywine" was de 
 tained for some time at Rio Janeiro, and Kane 
 seized the opportunity of making a geological 
 reconnoissance of the Eastern Brazilian moun 
 tains, occupying his time while at sea in study 
 ing navigation and languages. Mr. Gushing 
 was delayed for a long time by the burning of 
 the steam-frigate " Missouri" at Gibraltar, and 
 the " Brandywine" waited at Bombay, Kane 
 making several extended trips, and even going 
 as far as Ceylon and there joining in an elephant 
 hunt. 
 
 When the " Brandywine," with the embassy, 
 at length reached Macao, Kane found his com 
 mission there waiting for him, but he continued 
 attached to the commissioner s staff until July, 
 1844, when the treaty was signed. 
 
 With Mr. Cushing s sanction he had, in the 
 mean time, gone to Luzon, traversed that little- 
 known island to its Pacific shores, explored the 
 asphaltic lakes, and descended, with extreme la 
 bor and peril, to the bottom of the crater of the 
 great volcano of Jael, and, in consequence, nearly 
 lost his life at the hands of the savages, who 
 resented his exploration of the mysteries which 
 they worshiped. Only one person had before 
 attempted this perilous feat, and he was unsuc 
 cessful. 
 
 Upon Mr. Cushing s return to the United 
 States, Kane resigned his place in the embassy, 
 and intended to resign from the navy, with a view 
 to practicing in Whampoa until he had amassed 
 a sufficient sum to enable him to carry out a dar 
 ling scheme, the exploration of the remoter parts 
 
 of Eastern Asia. After a short time, however, 
 he broke down with fever and was obliged to 
 change the climate. 
 
 By way of Singapore and Ceylon he i cached 
 India, when he traveled up the country and 
 made an ascent of the Himalayas. From India 
 he passed through Persia and Syria to Egypt, 
 ascending the Nile, and having a number of ad 
 ventures, among others, a fight with a party of 
 Bedouins, losing all his luggage, and receiving 
 a wound in the leg. This necessitated a return 
 to Alexandria for treatment, during which he 
 suffered a nearly fatal attack of plague ; his con 
 valescence from which was rendered doubly 
 tedious by the annoyance caused by the loss of 
 some prized collections which he had sent down 
 the river in a native boat. 
 
 As soon as he was able to travel he set out for 
 Greece, which country he explored, mostly on 
 foot. Thence he visited Italy, Germany, and 
 Switzerland, examining glaciers, and forming 
 theories as to ice action^ which he was destined 
 to put to practical use. From Switzerland he 
 went to Paris, and while there endeavored, by 
 correspondence, to obtain permission from the 
 Spanish government to practice his profession 
 in Luzon, with a view to further exploration 
 there, but in this he failed. 
 
 He now returned to Philadelphia, and, at the 
 earnest solicitation of his family, engaged for 
 one winter in professional occupations, with fair 
 prospects. At this time he would have resigned 
 from the navy had there not been a prospect of 
 hostilities with Mexico ; and when war with 
 that country broke out, he at once applied for 
 duty. Instead of being sent to Mexico, how 
 ever, he was, in May, 1846, ordered to the coast 
 of Africa, in the frigate "United States," Com 
 modore Read. 
 
 During his visit to Brazil Kane had met, and 
 put under obligations, the great slave-trader, 
 De Souza, who had given him letters to his 
 agents in Africa. These now proved useful, and 
 he visited most of the slave-factories from Cape 
 Mount to the Bonny River, and even accom 
 panied (with Commodore Read s permission) a 
 caravan from one of De Souza s factories, Avhich 
 carried a present to the king of Dahomey. 
 
 Some months after this he was prostrated by a 
 severe attack of the coast fever, and in March, 
 1847, it was found necessary to invalid him 
 home, from Liberia. Kane always maintained 
 that this illness was the most shattering of the 
 many which he experienced. 
 
 By the time he had partially recovered the 
 American army was in possession of the city of 
 Mexico, but Col. Childs was besieged in Puebla, 
 and communication with the coast was much in 
 terrupted. An important dispatch had been three 
 times sent to Gen. Scott, and no answer had 
 been received. Just then Kane appeared in 
 Washington, highly recommended, and anxious 
 for any service in which he could distinguish 
 himself; and the President resolved to confide 
 the verbal message to him, as well as important 
 written orders. 
 
 He set out in November, sailing from New 
 Orleans. The steam-transport which carried him 
 was nearly lost in a severe " norther," the pas 
 sengers being obliged to bail the vessel with 
 camp-kettles ; but they at last succeeded in 
 reaching Vera Cruz. From this point he went 
 
KANE 
 
 414 
 
 KANE 
 
 as far as Perote with a detachment of American 
 troops; and as they went no farther he then 
 joined a renegade spy company, under the com 
 mand of the notorious Col. Dominguez. 
 
 On the 6th of January, 1848, the escort ^ en 
 countered, near Nopuluca, a band of Mexican 
 guerrillas, who were escorting some Mexican 
 officers to Orizaba. 
 
 A sharp engagement at once ensued, the spy 
 company fighting " with ropes round their 
 necks," and so desperately that Gens. Gaona 
 and Torrejon, Col. Gaona, 2 captains and 38 
 men were taken prisoners. 
 
 In the charge Kane was wounded and had his 
 horse killed. Gen. Gaona, who was also wounded, 
 surrendered to Kane, who had great difficulty in 
 preventing the murder of his prisoner by the 
 renegades ; and then, in spite of his own condi 
 tion, had to act as surgeon to the general and 
 other wounded. After this adventure Kane re 
 mained for a long time ill at Puebla, from the 
 effects of his injury and from typhus fever, and 
 his life was saved, he always declared, by the at 
 tention and nursing he received from the grate 
 ful family of Gen. Gaona, who were residents of 
 the town. 
 
 When Kane finally reached home he was pre 
 sented with a handsome sword by some of the 
 foremost citizens of Philadelphia. 
 
 In the succeeding year he was attached to the 
 U. S. ship " Supply," in which he visited Lisbon 
 and the Mediterranean, as well as Bio Janeiro. 
 During this cruise he had another dangerous ill 
 ness, nearly losing his life from lock-jaw. In 
 deed, his whole life seems to have been a struggle 
 against disease of some kind, which renders his 
 wonderful energy and industry the more re 
 markable. 
 
 Having passed his examination for promotion, 
 and while serving in Mobile Bay upon the coast 
 survey, he was, in 18-30, upon his urgent appli 
 cation, appointed to the United States Grinnell 
 Expedition; and, in two days after reporting at 
 New York, found himself on his way to the ex 
 treme north. The vessels, supplied by the liber 
 ality of Mr. Henry Grinnell, were two herma 
 phrodite brigs, the " Advance," of 144 tons, 
 and the " Bescue," of 91 tons. Kane was medi 
 cal officer of the " Advance." 
 
 Lieut. De Haven, who commanded the expe 
 dition, had had some experience in the Antarctic, 
 under Wilkes, and was an excellent officer, with 
 qualities peculiarly fitting him for his arduous 
 duties. 
 
 The year 1850 was prolific in Polar expedi 
 tions, no less than 10 British vessels being in 
 search of traces of Franklin, beside a land-party 
 under Dr. Bae. 
 
 Twenty thousand pounds sterling were offered 
 for the discovery and effectual relief of Frank 
 lin s party, but the officers and men of the Amer 
 ican expedition signed a bond not to claim the 
 reward in case of success. 
 
 Kane started on the voyage in very indifferent 
 health, and was so prostrated by sea-sickness that 
 De Haven urged him to go home from Green 
 land, fearing his ability to endure the necessary 
 hardships of the cruise. This he could not be 
 persuaded to do ; and his health improved when 
 the real work of the expedition began. 
 
 In the passage up Wellington Channel, De Ha 
 ven saw and named Grinnell Land, which was 
 
 named Albert Land by Penny, eight months 
 afterwards. Very considerable discussion arose 
 afterwards about this point, but the prior discov 
 ery of De Haven was at last allowed by geog T 
 raphers, greatly through the exertions of Kane, 
 who became the historian of this eventful voyage, 
 which occupied 16 months, during nine of which 
 the vessels were ice-locked and drifting. 
 
 In 1852, before the book was fairly through 
 the press, Kane was off to the Polar regions again, 
 this time in command. Mr. Grinnell again 
 gave the " Advance," in which Kane placed the 
 generous donor s name much farther north than 
 the previous expedition had done. 
 
 The funds for this expedition were derived part 
 ly from the government, which contributed ten 
 naval seamen and their rations, and instruments, 
 books, and medical stores. The American Philo 
 sophical Society, the Smithsonian Institution, 
 the Naval Observatory, and the Naval Medical 
 Bureau also added to the rather meagre outfit, 
 while Kane himself contributed his pay and the 
 proceeds of a number of lectures delivered by him 
 upon Polar Exploration. He also received con 
 tributions from private persons, chief among 
 whom was Mr. Peabody, who gave $10,000. 
 
 There was no Congressional aid. Mr. Ken 
 nedy had promised certain assistance within his 
 own powers, and when he left the Navy Depart 
 ment his successor, Mr. Dobbin, though luke 
 warm, would not undo his predecessor s work. 
 
 Just as the time for sailing came Kane had a 
 violent attack of inflammatory rheumatism, but 
 he persevered, was carried on board, and in good 
 time reached Upernavik. 
 
 On July 25, 1853, having completed his pur 
 chases of furs and dogs, and engaged his Esqui 
 maux, he sent off his last letters and plunged into 
 the unknown regions of the North. He had full 
 faith in the survival of some of Sir John Frank 
 lin s people; hut while he took every means of 
 inquiry in regard to them, he was also careful to 
 keep up the various observations which he was 
 so competent to make. 
 
 He spent two winters in the ice, having a more 
 than usually severe experience of the Arctic win 
 ter. In June, 1854, the brig then ice-bound in 
 Bensselaer harbor (78 37 / 10" N., and 70 40 
 W.), Kane and Sontag, the astronomer, being 
 sick with scurvy, and Dr. Hayes, the surgeon, 
 snow-blind from a survey of Grinnell s Land, 
 Kane sent one of his petty officers (Morton) to 
 81 north to look for the open Polar sea. Morton 
 brought back the report of having seen such a 
 body of open water, which has ever since pro 
 voked so much discussion and comment. 
 
 Far exceeding all other trials during the expe 
 dition was his search, in March, 1855, for a 
 sledge-party which became exhausted upon the 
 ice during an unusually severe storm, when the 
 thermometer reached 78 below freezing. For 
 tunately, the party was found and rescued. 
 
 By the second winter of the absence of the ex 
 pedition great anxiety concerning it began to be 
 felt, especially as the first winter had been a se 
 vere one, and it was known that the outfit was, 
 in some respects, deficient. Congress was me 
 morialized, and public opinion favored an expe 
 dition of relief. By authority of Congress such 
 an expedition sailed in the early summer, well 
 provided, and well officered and manned. The 
 vessels were the propeller " Arctic" and the bark 
 
KANE 
 
 415 
 
 KAYU-PUTIH 
 
 " Release," under command of Lieut. Hartstene, 
 U. S. Navy, who made a request to the Secretary 
 of the Navy that, in case they did not return 
 within the expected time, no expedition should 
 be sent in search of them, " to avoid further risk 
 of human life." 
 
 After a tour of Baffin s Bay, encountering 
 heavy ice, Hartstene picked up the adventurers 
 of Kane s party, who were upon their return to 
 civilization. They had abandoned their vessel, 
 hopelessly ice-bound, and accomplished their 
 own delivery by means of a perilous journey over 
 the ice, bringing their own boats with them on 
 sledges, and making a trip of 1300 miles through 
 Smith s Sound and Melville Bay. They were 
 found at Lievely, on the eve of taking passage in 
 a Danish vessel for Europe. Hartstene took them 
 on board, and they reached New York October 
 11, 1855, after an absence of thirty months. 
 
 Kane at once set about his interesting and com 
 plete work, entitled " Arctic Explorations: The 
 Second Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John 
 Franklin, 1853-54-55." 
 
 Kane s health, always wretched, now steadily 
 failed, as he himself thought from the combined 
 effects of rheumatism and the scurvy taint. But 
 he worked early and late to get his charming 
 book finished, of which he said, " poor as it is, it 
 has been my coffin." On the contrary, it is his 
 best monument. 
 
 The admirable illustrations of this work are 
 all from sketches by himself, afterwards worked 
 up by the distinguished marine painter, Hamil 
 ton, who thought very highly of them ; and 
 Blackwood and other reviews of the time praised 
 these sketches made in a killing temperature by 
 a sick man, with mittened hands, upon a com 
 panion s shoulders. His book was a tremendous 
 success, the copyright upon the first year s sales 
 amounting to $65,000. 
 
 Kane fully intended, if he ever rallied suffi 
 ciently, to publish for "reputation s sake," 
 either through the government or the Smithso 
 nian Institution, a scientific work upon ice. 
 
 No public recognition of his services was ever 
 given by Congress ; not even the extra pay and 
 emoluments usually voted to such explorers. 
 Secretary Dobbin referred to the expedition 
 (which he had no hand in promoting) in his 
 annual report, remarking that "he had ad 
 vanced far beyond his intrepid predecessors," 
 and especially remarking his " miraculous and 
 successful journey over the ice in open sledges 
 for eighty-four days." 
 
 A gold medal was, indeed, ordered by Con 
 gress, but not until after his death. But from 
 other sources the recognition of his services came 
 in thick and fast. He received the gold medal 
 of the Eoyal Geographical Society with favor 
 able mention a high honor : the queen s medal 
 for Arctic explorers arid a testimonial from 
 the British residents of New York. The Legis 
 latures of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ma 
 ryland also gave him a vote of thanks for his 
 exertions. 
 
 The principal results of Kane s expedition 
 may be briefly stated as 
 
 1st. The discovery of 960 miles of coast-line, 
 principally by 2000 miles of travel on foot and 
 by dog-teams. 
 
 2d. The Greenland coast traced to its northern 
 face. 
 
 3d. The survey of the Humboldt glacier. 
 
 4th. The discovery and delineation of the coast 
 of Washington Land. 
 
 5th. The same accomplished for a large tract 
 forming the northern extremity of our continent. 
 
 6th. "The discovery of a large channel to the 
 northwest free from ice, and supposed to lead 
 into the open Polar Sea. 
 
 By the time the book was published the au 
 thor s condition of health became most alarm 
 ing, but his friends still clung to hope of recov 
 ery on account of his well-proved tenacity of life. 
 The hand of death was, however, upon him, but, 
 with faint hopes of improvement from change of 
 climate, he sailed for England. Finding himself 
 worse there, he sailed for St. Thomas, and thence 
 managed to rpach Havana, where his mother and 
 brother arrived about the same time, to find him 
 paralyzed, but consumed with a dying man s 
 anxiety to die at home. His last wish was not 
 
 f ratified, for he died at Havana, February 16. 
 857. 
 
 Just thirty-seven years old at the time of his 
 death, Kane had probably accomplished more 
 arduous travel than any other explorer of his 
 day. Eather spare, and below the average height, 
 with large and well-formed head and chest, he 
 had dark-brown hair, gray eyes, and fair com 
 plexion. With temperate habits and a delicate 
 eater, he possessed great muscular power, and 
 was a skillful horseman, a capital pedestrian, 
 and a good shot. His self-reliance was perfect, 
 and his power to govern his subordinates was 
 very great. His expedition towards the Pole 
 was a private venture, the men volunteers, and 
 yet in the most perilous and doubtful periods 
 they never questioned his movements or orders. 
 He showed especial capacity in his management 
 of the natives at Etah, an Esquimaux village, 
 converting them from attempting plunder of 
 the vessel and threatening the lives of the white 
 men to a friendly condition, in which they ren 
 dered the greatest assistance to the distressed 
 party. 
 
 His professional and scientific attainments, 
 undoubtedly great, were held by him as adju 
 vants to the great object of his life, exploration, 
 by which he built up the world with fame not 
 only for himself, but for his country. 
 
 His remains were brought from Havana to 
 Uew Orleans, and thence by the river to Pitts 
 burgh, and finally to his native city, being re 
 ceived at all points with the highest honors, 
 civic, military, and Masonic. 
 
 He was finally, after lying in state in Inde 
 pendence Hall, interred at Laurel Hill Cemetery, 
 on the banks of the Schuylkill. E. Shippen. 
 
 Kanjia. A passage-bo^t of the Nile. 
 
 Karavalla. See CARAVEL. 
 
 Karbatz. A common boat of Lapland. 
 
 Kava. A beverage in the South Sea Islands, 
 made by steeping the Piper inebrians in water. 
 
 Kayak. A fishing-boat common in northern 
 regions, probably a corruption of caique. 
 
 Kaynard (Fr. cagnard, a skulker). An ob 
 solete term for a rascal ; a cowardly, good-for- 
 nothing fellow. 
 
 Kayu-putih, or Cajeputi Oil. (From the Ma 
 lay words putih, white, and kdyu, tree.) An 
 essential oil obtained from the leaves of two 
 species of Melaleuca. It is fragrant, and has a 
 strong, pungent taste. 
 
KAZTE 
 
 416 
 
 KELP 
 
 Kazie. A fishing-boat used by the inhabitants 
 of the Shetland Islands. 
 
 Keavie. A kind of crab. 
 
 KEAVIE-CLEEK. An instrument used for catch 
 ing the keavie in the north of England. 
 
 Keckling. Small rope or strands wound about 
 cables or hawsers to protect them from chafe. 
 
 Kedge. A small anchor used for moving a 
 vessel from one part of a harbor to another, or 
 for a temporary anchorage. It is usually carried 
 out in a boat and dropped as required. To kedge, 
 to move a vessel by means of a kedge. 
 
 KEDGER. An old English name for a fisher 
 man. 
 
 KEDGE-ROPE. The rope or hawser used with a 
 kedge. 
 
 Keel. The principal timber of a ship, and 
 that which is first placed upon the keel-blocks. 
 It extends from the stem to the stern-post, both 
 of which may be considered as continuations of 
 it. It is composed of several sections scarfed 
 together, each of which should be of sufficient 
 length to allow the fastening of four frames. 
 White oak is used for this purpose in naval ves 
 sels. A flat-bottomed vessel or lighter used in the 
 river Tyne, in England, for carrying coal. A 
 bilge keel is a construction of keel peculiar to 
 ironclad vessels, extending only a portion of the 
 length of the vessel under the bilges. A keel- 
 boat is a kind of freight-boat used on Western 
 rivers. A. false keel is made of oak planks bolted 
 to the under side of the keel, to protect it from 
 injury in case of grounding. A vessel is on an 
 even keel when the draft of water at the bow and 
 stern is the same. The rabbet of the keel is the 
 groove which is cut in each side of the keel to 
 receive the edges of the garboard strake. 
 
 KEELAGE. The duty or tax which is imposed 
 upon a vessel while in port. 
 
 KEEL-BLOCKS. One of the short pieces of tim 
 ber upon which the keel of a vessel rests when 
 being built, or when in a dry-dock undergoing 
 repairs. 
 
 KEEL-DEETER. The woman who sweeps out 
 the keels or coal-lighters used in Newcastle, Eng 
 land. 
 
 KEEL-HAULING. A punishment inflicted for 
 merly in the English and Dutch navies for a cer 
 tain class of offenses. It consisted in hauling 
 the offender under the vessel s bottom from one 
 fore-yard-arm to the other by means of whirjs, 
 weights being attached to his body to cause him 
 to sink rapidly in the water. 
 
 KEELMAN. A bargeman of Newcastle, Eng 
 land. One who manages a keel. 
 
 KEEL-PIECE. One of the timbers or sections 
 of which the keel is composed. 
 
 KEKL-RAKE. To keel-haul. 
 
 KEEL-ROPE. The name of a rope formerly used 
 to keep the limber-holes clear. 
 
 KEELSON. A timber of white- or live-oak 
 placed above the keel and bolted to it, which 
 serves to bind the floor-timbers to the keel. 
 Bilge or boiler keelson, one of the timbers 
 placed in the bilge of a steamer parallel to the 
 main keelson, upon which the boilers rest. En 
 gine keelson, one of the timbers upon which the 
 bed-plates rest, and which form the foundation 
 for the engine. Sister keelson, a timber placed 
 at the side of the main keelson, and bolted to it. 
 It is also bolted through each timber to the gar- 
 board strake. 
 
 KEELSON, RIDER-. A timber bolted on top of 
 the main keelson, sometimes called capping ; the 
 term rider is used generally when an increase of 
 strength is required, such as an additional tim 
 ber or timbers which are not included in the 
 framing of the ship. 
 
 KEEL-STAPLE. A large staple used in fastening 
 the false keel to the main keel. 
 
 Keeling. A kind of small cod. 
 
 Keep a Good Hold of the Land. To keep 
 the land in plain sight. 
 
 Keep a Good Offing. To keep at a safe dis 
 tance from the land. 
 
 Keep a Watch. To be in charge of the deck, 
 or to be on duty with the watch. 
 
 Keeper. A jam-nut, set-screw, or other de 
 vice used to prevent a nut working off or key 
 drawing. 
 
 Keep Full for Stays. An order to the helms 
 man, by which the vessel may have greater speed 
 previous to tacking, or going into stays. 
 
 Keep Her Own. Said of a vessel when her 
 speed against a current is equal to the force of 
 the current, or when she holds her position. 
 
 Keep Her Way. To retain speed through the 
 water after the vessel is deprived of her motive- 
 power, as by stopping the engines or reducing 
 sail. 
 
 Keep Off. To keep a vessel away from the 
 wind. To keep at a distance. 
 
 Keep the Land Aboard. To keep within 
 sight of the land and at a moderate distance 
 from it. 
 
 Keep the Sea. To retain mastery over the 
 sea. The importance of controlling the English 
 Channel was evident during the reign of Henry 
 V., when his successes against the French de 
 pended in a great degree upon the possession of 
 the Channel, or " Narrowe Sea." In lieu of 
 naval vessels, merchants were required to " keepe 
 the sea" with their ships, and from May, 1406, 
 to September, 1407, the British coast was guarded 
 in this manner. 
 
 Keep Your Luff. An order to the helmsman 
 to keep close to the wind, when close-hauled. 
 
 Keg. A small cask. (Eng.] A cant word, 
 meaning to irritate. 
 
 Kelk (Eng.). The roe of fish. A large stone. 
 To stone. 
 
 Kelp. A common term for sea-weed, or vraic, 
 which consists of different species of Fucus. In 
 a strict sense the term kelp is confined to the 
 produce of sea-weeds when burned. These being 
 first dried in the sun, are burned in shallow ex 
 cavations at a low heat. About 20 or 24 tons 
 of sea-weed yield one ton of kelp, which, as met 
 with in commerce, consists of hard, dark-gray, or 
 bluish masses, which have an acrid, caustic taste, 
 and are composed of chloride of sodium, of car 
 bonate of soda (formed by the decomposition of 
 the organic salts of soda), sulphates of soda 
 and potash, chloride of potassium, iodide of po 
 tassium or sodium, insoluble salts, and coloring 
 matter. It used to be the great source of soda 
 (the crude carbonate), but as this salt can now 
 be obtained of better quality and less cost from 
 the decomposition of sea-salt, it is prepared in 
 far less quantity than formerly. Kelp is largely 
 used as a source of iodine, and it is said that a 
 ton of good kelp will yield about 8 pounds of 
 iodine, large quantities of chloride of potassium, 
 and additionally, by destructive distillation, from 
 
KELPER 
 
 417 
 
 KHALISHEES 
 
 4 to 10 gallons of volatile oil, from 4 to 15 gal 
 lons of paraffine oil, 3 or 4 gallons of naphtha, and 
 from 1^ to 4 hundred-weight of sulphate of am 
 monia. 
 
 Kelper (Eng.}. An imaginary being or spirit 
 believed by the ignorant and superstitious to 
 haunt certain localities and warn people of 
 danger. 
 
 Kelt. The name in Scotland for a salmon 
 after spawning. 
 
 Kelter. Order or condition. 
 
 Kemstock. An old name for a capstan. 
 
 Ken. To recognize ; to know. 
 
 Kennet. See KEVEL. 
 
 Kenning by Kenning. An old expression 
 among whalers, denoting that a man received 
 pay according to the value of his services. 
 
 Kenning Glass. An obsolete term for a spy 
 glass. 
 
 Kenspeckle. To mark in such a way as to be 
 easily recognized. 
 
 Kentledge. Pig-iron used for ballast. 
 
 KENTLEDGE GOODS. Heavy portions of the 
 lading of a vessel that can be used as ballast. 
 
 Kent-purchase (a corruption of cant-purchase}. 
 A tackle used by whalers to cant or turn the whale 
 during the operation of flensing. 
 
 Kepler s Laws. Three natural laws discov 
 ered by Kepler, 1st. Each of the primary plan 
 ets revolves in an ellipse, having one of its foci 
 in the sun. 2d. That equal areas are described 
 in equal times. 3d. That the squares of the 
 periodic times of the planets are proportional to 
 the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. 
 
 Kerfe. The notch or slit made in cutting or 
 sawing timber. 
 
 Kerguelen s Land, or Island of Desolation. 
 A rocky island about 100 miles long and 50 
 broad, lying in the Antarctic Ocean, the lati 
 tude and longitude of its southern extremity, 
 Cape George, being 49 54 S., and 70 12 E. 
 It was discovered in 1772 by the French navi 
 gator Ives Joseph de Kerguelen Tremarec, and 
 is said to contain <?oal fit for steamships. 
 
 KERGUELEN S LAND CABBAGE (Pringlea anti- 
 scorbutica). The only known species of a very 
 curious genus of plants of the natural order 
 Cruciferce, and found only in Kerguelen s Land. 
 It is very useful to the crews of whalers and 
 other vessels which have occasion to touch there. 
 It has a long, stout, perennial root-stock, and a 
 boiled head of leaves very similar to those of the 
 common garden cabbage. The root-stocks have 
 the flavor of horse-radish. The dense white 
 heart of the cluster of leaves tastes like mustard 
 and cress, but is coarser. The whole foliage 
 abounds in a very pungent, pale-yellow, essen 
 tial oil, which is confined in vessels that run par 
 allel to the veins of the leaf. This plant was 
 first discovered and brought into notice by Capt. 
 Cook. It is used by voyagers, boiled either alone, 
 or with beef, pork, etc., and is highly valued by 
 them for its antiscorbutic properties. 
 
 Kermes. Dried bodies of the females of the 
 Coccus ilicis, an insect found near the shores of 
 the Mediterranean. They are valuable as a 
 dye. 
 
 Kert. An obsolete term for chart. 
 
 Kertch. A fortified town of Russia, in the 
 
 Crimea, on the peninsula of Kertch. Lat. 45 
 
 20 N. ; Ion. 36 28 E. In 1827 it was declared 
 
 a free port. It has a navy-yard and foundry, 
 
 27 
 
 and a large export trade in stone, fish, hides, 
 grain, etc. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Kertk, Admiral Sir David, commander of a 
 successful expedition against Canada ; had, been 
 a master-mariner at Dieppe, France, but entered 
 the English naval service in the reign of Charles I. 
 Placed in charge of a formidable force, and ac 
 companied by his two brothers, he arrived at 
 Tadoussac, in midsummer, 1628, and after de 
 stroying the stores, etc., sent a summons to 
 Champlain to surrender, which was refused. 
 Kertk, thinking Quebec strongly fortified, after 
 capturing a French convoy on its way to Quebec, 
 went home. In July, 1629, he returned again, 
 demanded a surrender ; and Champlain, being 
 weaker than ever, capitulated. Kertk, leaving 
 his brother Lewis in command of the city, pro 
 ceeded to England, taking Champlain and others 
 with him as prisoners of war. He afterward 
 captured Cape Breton, which was recaptured by 
 Capt. Daniel. These events took place two months 
 after peace had been concluded between France 
 and England, and were not recognized by either 
 nation. As late as 1645 he was on the coast of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 Ketch. A small vessel formerly used as a 
 yacht, and still later as an armed vessel. It was 
 rigged with two masts, which were placed in 
 nearly the positions of the main- and mizzen- 
 masts of a ship, thus leaving a clear deck for 
 ward of the mainmast. On this account they 
 were greatly used as bomb-vessels. 
 
 Kettle-bottom. A name applied to a vessel 
 with a flat floor. 
 
 Kettle-net. A net formerly used in catching 
 mackerel. 
 
 Kettle of Fish. A person makes a pretty 
 kettle of fish when he has involved himself in 
 difficulties by bungling. 
 
 Kevel. A large cleat for belaying ropes, usu 
 ally called a cavil. 
 
 KEVEL-HEAD. The upper end of a timber used 
 for belaying ropes. 
 
 Keveling. A name on the English coast for 
 the skate. 
 
 Key. A wooden pin driven into a scarf to 
 prevent the pieces from slipping. An iron pin 
 driven through a hole in the end of a bolt to 
 prevent it from slipping out of its socket. A 
 piece of metal made tapering, and used to secure 
 wheels, pulleys, couplings, etc., on shafts, and to 
 tighten journal-boxes. A device used for closing 
 and breaking an .electric circuit. A wharf or 
 
 ?ier (see QUAY). The low islands of the West 
 ndies are called keys, or cays, the term being 
 derived from the Spanish word cayo. 
 
 KEYAGE. The charges for the use of a key or 
 quay. 
 
 KEY-BOLT. One secured by a cotter or wedge. 
 
 Keyle. See KEEL. 
 
 Key-model. A model of a vessel formed by 
 different layers of board fastened together by- 
 keys and screws. 
 
 Key West. A port of entry and capital of 
 Monroe Countv, Fla., on Thompson s Island, in 
 lat. 24 32 N.", Ion. 81 48 W. It has a safe 
 harbor, of which the entrance is protected by 
 Fort Taylor. Vessels drawing 20 feet or more 
 of water can be easily admitted. It has exten 
 sive manufactories of cigars, important sponge- 
 fisheries, and some salt-works. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Khalishees. Native East Indian sailors. 
 
KHANIA 
 
 418 
 
 KIMBALL 
 
 Khania. A fortified seaport and the principal 
 commercial town of Crete. Its fortifications, built 
 by the Venetians, are inferior to those of Candia, 
 but its port is the finest in Crete, capable of hold 
 ing many vessels. The town has an arsenal, 
 docks, soap-factories, etc. Pop. 8500. 
 Khizr. An East Indian sea-god. 
 Kibblings. Portions of a fish which are used 
 for bait in the vicinity of Newfoundland. 
 
 Kick. To recoil. A common term used in 
 relation to fire-arms. 
 
 Kick the Bucket. An irreverent expression 
 for dying. 
 
 Kid. A small wooden tub. A slang phrase 
 for a young child. A heap of bushes planted on 
 a beach to gather sand, gravel, etc., to prevent 
 the washing away of the land. 
 
 Kidders. A fence formed of stakes in a river 
 for catching fish. Also an obstruction to vessels. 
 Kidleywink (Eng.). A low beer-shop. 
 Kidnap. To carry off a human being by force 
 or artifice. 
 
 Kidney. Kind or habits, as " men of the same 
 kidney." 
 
 Kiel. A seaport town of Holstein, Prussia, on 
 a fine bay of the Baltic. It has manufactories of 
 iron, goods, and machines, tobacco, starch, and 
 sugar, a good harbor, ship-building, a great 
 navy-yard, arsenals, docks, and fortifications. 
 Pop. 41,000. 
 
 Kiftis. Passenger-boats used on the rivers of 
 India. 
 
 Kihaia. A Turkish officer of customs of high 
 grade. 
 
 Kilderkin. A liquid measure containing two 
 firkins, or from 16 to 18 gallons. 
 
 Kill. A narrow channel or arm of the sea. 
 Kill-devil. Spirits of poor quality ; some 
 times called lightning from, the rapidity of its 
 effects. 
 
 Killer. The name given to. the grampus by 
 whalers on account of its ferocity. 
 
 Killie-leepie (Scotch). The common sand-piper. 
 Killock. A small anchor for a boat, or a stone 
 used as an anchor. 
 
 Kilty, A. H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Maryland. Appointed from Maryland, July 
 4, 1821 ; first cruise, " Franklin," 74, Commo 
 dore Stewart, Pacific, 1821-24; store-ship " De 
 coy," West Indies, sloop "John Adams," Pen- 
 sacola Station, frigate "Constellation," 1825-27; 
 Brazil Station, frigate "Hudson," sloop "Bos 
 ton," 1828-29; surveying coast of Louisiana, 
 1830-31. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832; schooner "Grampus," West Indies, 1832- 
 34; receiving-ship "Sea-Gull," Philadelphia, 
 1835-36. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 6, 
 1837; sloop "John Adams," East India Squad 
 ron, 1838-40; present at the attack on Qualla 
 Battoo and Muckie, by Commodore Reid; "Co 
 lumbus," 74, Mediterranean and Brazil, 1843-44 ; 
 frigate " United States," coast of Africa and 
 Mediterranean, 1846-49; rendezvous, Balti 
 more, 1851-52; receiving-ship "North Caro 
 lina," New York, 1854-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding rendezvous, Baltimore, 1860; 
 ordered to St. Louis, 1861, to aid in organizing 
 naval flotilla under Foote ; took command of 
 gunboat "Mound City," and was engaged at 
 
 Island No. 10 and Fort Pillow. The "Mound 
 City" being sunk in the latter engagement, she 
 was raised, repaired at Mound City, and rejoined 
 the flotilla. 
 
 In June, 1862, was placed in command of an 
 expedition to White River, Arkansas ; on the 
 17th, attacked Fort St. Charles, about 100 miles 
 from the mouth of the river, and, with the aid 
 of military force under Col. Fitch, took it ; but 
 near the close of action a shot entered the steam- 
 drum of the " Mound City," and the escape of 
 steam caused the death of more than a hundred 
 officers and men, the commanding officer receiv 
 ing a severe scald, which caused the loss of his 
 left arm. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862; ord 
 nance duty, Baltimore, 1863 ; command of iron 
 clad frigate "Roanoke," North Atlantic Squad 
 ron, and receiving-ship "Vermont," 1864-65. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 command of Norfolk Navy-Yard, 1867-70. Re 
 tired November 25, 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 13, 1870. 
 Died November 10, 1879. 
 
 Kimball, Sumner Increase, general superin 
 tendent of the U. S. Life-Saving Service. He was 
 born in Lebanon, York County, Me., on Septem 
 ber 2, 1834. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 
 1855, clerking and teaching school in the vaca 
 tions to obtain funds to pay for his college course. 
 Immediately after graduating, he commenced 
 the study of law with his father, the Hon. In 
 crease S. Kimball, one of the most distinguished 
 lawyers in the State of Maine. He discontinued 
 his law studies after a year, to occupy the posi 
 tion of commission clerk in the office of the Sec 
 retary of State at the capital of Maine. This 
 position he resigned in the spring of 1857, and 
 resumed his legal studies. He was admitted 
 to the bar in 1858, and at once commenced the 
 practice of his profession at North Berwick, Me. 
 In September, 1859, he was elected representa 
 tive to the State Legislature as a Republican, 
 and although the youngest member of the house, 
 took high rank in that body. In January, 1860, 
 he accepted a first-class clerkship in the office of 
 the Second Auditor of the Treasury, and success 
 ively passed through all the grades until he be 
 came chief clerk, now called deputy auditor. 
 His recognized ability as an organizer in that 
 office, which the war had increased from a per 
 sonnel of 21 to more than 5UO, caused the Secre 
 tary of the Treasury, in 1871, to invite him to 
 take charge of the Revenue Marine Service, 
 which at that time was in a very unsatisfactory 
 condition. This trust he accepted, and under 
 his administration the service was almost revo 
 lutionized, the results appearing in a great dimi 
 nution in the running expenses and the increase 
 of its efficiency fivefold. He has twice been 
 offered the position of chief clerk of the Treasury 
 Department, which he declined. He consented, 
 however, to act in that capacity during the short 
 administration of Secretary Merrill, retaining 
 charge at the same time of the Revenue Marine 
 and Life-Saving Service. Connected with the 
 Revenue Marine Service he found the nucleus 
 from which he has developed the present Life- 
 Saving Service. The establishment then merely 
 consisted of a few buildings confined to the coasts 
 of Long Island and New Jersey, designed for the 
 storage of surf-boats and a few other meagre life- 
 
KING ARTHUR 
 
 419 
 
 KNEE 
 
 saving appliances, intended for volunteer use on 
 occasion of shipwreck by the local fishermen and 
 wreckers. Both houses and apparatus had fallen 
 into a state of dilapidation through neglect and 
 depredation. There was no organization nor 
 system connected with the establishment, and it 
 was productive of comparatively little benefit. 
 After personal inspection, Mr. Kimball took 
 measures for the creation of an efficient service 
 upon these coasts, and the proper appropriation 
 having been procured, he increased the number 
 of stations, and organized an effective corps of 
 surfmen to man them. He furnished the sta 
 tions with the latest life-saving appliances, and 
 introduced the patrol system, by which the entire 
 coast is placed under constant watch, and the im 
 mediate discovery of wrecks secured. The result 
 of this organization for the first year was strik 
 ing, not a life being lost by shipwreck upon 
 either of these dangerous coasts. This fact 
 caused the extension of the service to other por 
 tions of the Atlantic coast, where similar success 
 followed, the final result being the formal estab 
 lishment of the service upon all the coasts of the 
 country, both ocean and lake, by the act of June 
 18, 1878, which also organized the Life-Saving 
 Service into a distinct bureau, with Mr. Kimball 
 at its head, detaching it from the Revenue Marine. 
 
 King Arthur (Eng.}. A game sometimes 
 played by sailors in warm climates. One, rep 
 resenting the king, allows water to be dashed 
 upon him until another, by laughing, is forced to 
 take his place. 
 
 King-crab. The Limulus polyphemus, a large 
 crustacean in the form of a horse s foot. It is 
 common in the West Indies. 
 
 King-fish. A large flat fish (Lampris gutta- 
 tus) showing brilliant colors. 
 
 King-fisher. The Alcedo ispida of Europe 
 and the Alcedo alcyon of America. It is a bird 
 of gay plumage, inhabiting the vicinity of lakes 
 and streams, and lives upon fish. 
 
 King s Bargain (Eng.}. Refers to a sailor s 
 merits, whether good or bad. 
 
 King s Bencher (Eng.}. A man of many 
 words and little work. A sea-lawyer. 
 
 King s Hard Bargain (Eng.}. A worthless 
 fellow. 
 
 King s Letter Man (Eng.}. A former class 
 of officers in the English navy, ranking with 
 midshipmen, and holding a promise or letter 
 that good conduct should be rewarded with a 
 lieutenant s commission. 
 
 King s Own (Eng.). A term applied to all 
 articles issued from the royal store-houses or 
 magazines, and marked with a broad arrow. 
 
 King s Parade (Eng.}. The quarter-deck. 
 
 Kingston, Ontario, is situated at the outlet of 
 Lake Ontario, in lat. 44 12 / N., Ion. 76 41 W. 
 The harbor is formed at the mouth of Cataraqui 
 River, which here enters the lake. The west 
 side is bold, and shipping of any size can lie 
 here in safety. The city contains manufactories 
 of iron-castings, machinery, steam-engines, loco 
 motives, etc. Ship- and boat-building is carried 
 on to a great extent, and vessels for both lake and 
 ocean navigation are fitted out. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Kingston, the principal commercial city and 
 seaport of Jamaica, has a very fine harbor, which 
 is a landlocked basin available for the largest 
 ships, and is defended by several forts. Lat. 
 17 58 N. ; Ion. 79 47 30" W. Pop. 34,500. 
 
 Kingston. A shark (Aquatina angelus} hav 
 ing broad lateral fins, like a ray, whence it is 
 also called shark-ray, angel-fish^ etc. It is found 
 in the North Atlantic. (Written also king s- 
 stone. } 
 
 Kingston Valve. A valve for closing an 
 orifice in a ship s side or bottom below the water- 
 line. It is a conical-faced valve, fitted to a suit 
 able seat and opening outwards, and so arranged 
 that the outside pressure of water will close it 
 when the force holding it open is removed. It 
 is manipulated from the inside of the vessel by 
 means of a stem passing through a stuffing- 
 box. 
 
 Kink. A short curl or loop in a rope, and oc 
 casioned by an excess of lay or twist. 
 
 Kinkling (Eng.}. A periwinkle. 
 
 Kinn (Scotch). Head or promontory. 
 
 Kintlidge. See KENTLEDGE. 
 
 Kippage. An obsolete term for the crew of a 
 vessel. 
 
 Kipper. A salmon in the state of spawning. 
 The word kipper originally denoted a salmon 
 directly after the spawning season, and as fish in 
 this state are not good for use while fresh, they 
 were usually cured and hung up. Hence the 
 word which properly denotes a spawning salmon 
 came to be generally used for one that is salted 
 and dried. 
 
 KIPPER-TIME (Eng.}. The months during the 
 year when the taking of salmon is prohibited. 
 
 Kismiss. A seedless raisin raised in India. 
 
 Kist. A Scotch pronunciation of chest. 
 
 Kit. A tub or basket used for fish. An out 
 fit, either of tools required in a particular trade, 
 or of clothing. 
 
 Kite. A fish of the genus Rhombus (R. vul- 
 garis}. Called also brill. 
 
 Kites. Lofty sails. See FLYING KITES. 
 
 Kittiwake. A gull found in high northern 
 latitudes (Larus tridactylus}. 
 
 Kitty- witch. A small kind of crab. 
 
 Kleg. A fish of the genus Gadus barbatus. 
 
 Kleptes. The Greek word for robbers. The 
 term was applied to the corsairs of the Archi 
 pelago. 
 
 Klick-hooks. A peculiar kind of hook for 
 catching salmon. 
 
 Klinker. A lighter or boat used on the coasts 
 of Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 Klippen. A German word meaning cliffs. 
 
 Knag. The rocky summit of a hill. A knot 
 in wood. 
 
 KNAGGY. Rough and knotty. Bad tempered. 
 
 Knap (Anglo-Saxon cncep, a knob or button). 
 The top of a hill. 
 
 Knar. A knot in wood. 
 
 Kneck (Eng.}. The twisting of a rope as it is 
 running out. 
 
 Knee. A timber of natural growth with two 
 arms, nearly in shape of a right-angle, or a heavy 
 iron bar bent to a similar shape. They are used 
 to connect different beams and timbers in ship 
 building, and are named from the position in 
 which they are placed. A hanging knee se 
 cures a deck beam to the side of the vessel, and 
 is placed in a perpendicular position under the 
 beam. A lodging knee is secured to the forward 
 side of the beam, and to the vessel s side in a 
 horizontal position, and a lap or bosom knee to 
 the after side of the beam. A dagger knee is 
 placed obliquely against the side of a vessel when 
 
KNETTAK 
 
 420 
 
 LACE 
 
 it would otherwise interfere with a gun-port. 
 The stern-post knee is placed in the angle which 
 is formed by the stern-post and keel. 
 
 KNEE-TIMBER. Timber that can be used for 
 knees. 
 
 Knettar (Eng.}. The string by which the 
 mouth of a bag is secured. 
 
 Knife. Formerly used in the sense of sword 
 or dagger. 
 
 Knight-heads. The timbers in a wooden ship 
 which are bolted next to the apron or dead-wood, 
 one on each side ; they extend upward on each 
 side of the bowsprit, the apron or dead-wood 
 being sided large enough to admit of the bow 
 sprit s being placed between the knight-heads. 
 
 Knittles. The small cords formed from the 
 outside yarns of a rope with which a rope s end 
 is pointed or grafted. See NETTLE. 
 
 Knocker. The name given to a kind of cock 
 roach, from the noise that they make. 
 
 Knock off. To stop; to desist; as, to knock 
 off talking. 
 
 Knoll (Anglo-Saxon cnoll). The round top 
 of a hill, or the highest part of a shoal. 
 
 Knopp. See KNAP. 
 
 Knot. A bunch made in a rope or cord, either 
 for ornament or use. They are made in the 
 ends of ropes to prevent them from slipping or 
 unreeving, by unlaying the strands and inter 
 weaving them in regular order ; and are named 
 either from the manner in which they are made, 
 or the use to which they are applied, as stopper 
 knot, diamond knot, double-diamond knot, single 
 and double wall knots, etc. The ends of ropes 
 are bent together by square knots, single and 
 double bends, fisherman s bend, Carrick bend, etc. 
 The log-line is divided into knots, each of which 
 bears the same proportion to a mile as 30 seconds 
 does to an hour. Hence, in speaking of a vessel s 
 speed, knots are used, meaning nautical miles. 
 
 Knuckle. An angle made on some timbers 
 either at the bow or the stern, such as at the 
 counter- or stern-timbers, and the bulwarks 
 which fall back from the line of the forward 
 
 cant-timbers by a quick reverse of the shape, 
 like a knee. 
 
 KNUCKLE-JOINT. A method of coupling shafts 
 whose axes are not in the same straight line, 
 but meet in a common point, by means of which 
 power can be transmitted obliquely. 
 
 KNUCKLE-RAIL. A rail worked at the height 
 of the knuckle. 
 
 KNUCKLE-TIMBERS. Those top-timbers in the 
 forward or after body whose heads stand nearly 
 perpendicular, or tumble home. 
 
 KNUCKLE-UNDER. To submit. 
 
 Kochab. The name of the star (3 Ursce Mi- 
 noris. 
 
 Koff. A Dutch coasting- vessel, fitted with 
 sprit-sails, flying topsails, and jibs. 
 
 Koond. A cistern in India. 
 
 Kopeck. A Russian coin, .01 of a rouble; in 
 value about two-thirds of a cent. 
 
 Korocora. A vessel with a high curved stem 
 and stern, used by the Malays. 
 
 Koster. A kind of sturgeon. 
 
 Kota. Turpentine of East Indian production. 
 
 Koupang, or Chobang. A Japanese gold 
 coin, equal in value to $3.57. 
 
 Kowdie, Kaurie, or Cowdie. A coniferous 
 tree of New Zealand, valuable for spars (Dam- 
 mara Australis). 
 
 Krabla. An Archangel whaling-vessel. 
 
 Kraken. A fabled Norwegian sea-monster 
 of enormous size. 
 
 Krang, or Kreng. The carcass of the whale 
 after the blubber has been removed. 
 
 Kreel, or Creel. A frame for taking salmon 
 in Scotland. A basket used by anglers. 
 
 Kris, or Crease. A large dagger used by the 
 Malays. 
 
 Kroo-men. A tribe of Africans on the west 
 coast. They are employed on board of vessels 
 for boat-service, where exposure to the heat of 
 the sun would be injurious to foreigners. 
 
 Kyar, or Coir. Fibre of the cocoanut and the 
 cordage made therefrom in India. 
 
 Kyle. A Scotch name for a small bay or creek. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. The three L s refer to lead, latitude, and 
 look-out. The frequent use of the first, a correct 
 knowledge of the second, and the faithful per 
 formance of the latter will generally insure 
 safety in the vicinity of the coast. Of the letters 
 used in the log-book to indicate the state of the 
 weather, I denotes lightning. 
 
 Labarum. The standard borne before the 
 Emperor Constantine, and afterwards applied to 
 any flag or standard * 
 
 Labor. The heavy straining of a vessel caused 
 by violent motion in a gale. 
 
 LABORSOME. Having a tendency to labor, on 
 account of the cargo or fault in construction. 
 
 Labridse. A family of osseous fishes, ranked 
 by Cuvier in the order Acanthopterygii, by Miil- 
 ler in his artificial order, Pharyngognathi. The 
 
 fishes of this family may be recognized by their 
 oblong, scaly body, a single dorsal fin supported 
 in fr~ont by spines, each of which is generally 
 furnished with membranous appendages ; the 
 jaws are covered with fleshy lips, and the pha- 
 ryngeal bones are armed with numerous and 
 strong teeth, so disposed as to be especially 
 adapted for crushing hard bodies and vegetable 
 stems. The most valuable of the family is the 
 Tautog (which see). 
 
 Labrus. A genus of fishes, several species of 
 which are characterized by an elegant and regu 
 lar oval form and beautiful colors ; the wrasse. 
 
 Lace. To fasten with a cord or lacing. To 
 beat or flog. Gold lace sewed upon the cuff de 
 notes the rank of naval officers. 
 
 LACING. The cord or rope which is passed 
 
LACE-PIECE 
 
 421 
 
 LAKE 
 
 through eyelet-holes in a sail to secure it to a 
 stay, or to secure the edges of awnings or sails to 
 each other. 
 
 Lace-piece. One of the principal pieces 
 which compose the knee of the head in wooden 
 ships ; it is the upper piece, and the figure-head 
 and head-rails are secured to it. 
 
 Lacerta. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Laches (Fr. lache). A term in law meaning 
 negligence. 
 
 Lacquer. A varnish composed of gum-shellac 
 dissolved in alcohol. Used upon lower decks 
 and other unpainted wood-work. 
 
 Lacustrine. Pertaining to lakes. 
 
 Ladder. A frame consisting of side pieces 
 connected by rounds or steps. A Jacob s ladder 
 is made by inserting rounds, at regular inter 
 vals, through the lay of two ropes which serve 
 as sides. They are used on lower booms, between 
 the spar-deck and lower rigging, abaft the top 
 gallant-masts when there are no ratlines upon 
 the topgallant rigging, and over the stern of 
 vessels for convenience in getting into or out 
 of boats which are moored astern. Wooden 
 ladders or steps are used for going from one deck 
 to another, and are named from the hatchway 
 or deck to which they belong. An accommoda 
 tion ladder is a stairway extending from the 
 gangway nearly to the water s edge, by which 
 persons can gain access to a vessel from a boat. 
 
 Lade (Anglo-Saxon lladan). To load. For 
 merly used in the sense of throwing out or bailing. 
 
 LADEN. The condition of a vessel when loaded. 
 
 LADEN IN BULK. A cargo not in packages, 
 but thrown loosely into the hold. Grain and salt 
 are often carried in this manner. 
 
 LADING. Cargo. 
 
 Ladia. A Russian river-boat or lighter. 
 
 Ladle. An instrument for drawing the shell 
 from a gun, or for handling hot shot. A small 
 scoop used for dipping or handling liquids. 
 
 Ladron (Sp. ladrone). A rogue or thief. 
 
 LADRONE SHIP. A name given by the Chi 
 nese to a man-of-war or an armed vessel, prob 
 ably on account of the roving character of armed 
 junks. 
 
 Lag. One of the boards or staves forming the 
 covering of the non-conducting material used on 
 steam-cylinders, boilers, and steam-pipes. 
 
 LAGGING. The non-conducting covering which 
 is placed upon stearn-boilers and pipes to prevent 
 the loss of heat by radiation. 
 
 Lagger. An idler or loiterer. (Eng.) One 
 who is transported for crime. 
 
 Laggin. The extension of a barrel-stave be 
 yond the heads. 
 
 Lagoon. A shallow lake connected with the 
 sea. They are usually found on low coasts, or 
 near the deltas of rivers, and also in coral islands 
 where the water is supplied by channels or by 
 the breaking of the surf over the reefs which 
 separate the lagoon from the sea. 
 
 LAGOON ISLAND. An island formed by the 
 coral insect, the peculiar feature of which con 
 sists of a narrow reef encircling a lagoon. 
 
 La Guayra is the principal seaport of Venez 
 uela, on the Caribbean Sea, in lat. 10 36 42" 
 N., Ion. 66 56 30" W., closely surrounded by 
 high mountains, except to seaward. Its trade 
 is extensive, the chief exports being coffee, cacao, 
 indigo, hides, cotton, etc. The harbor is not a 
 very good one, the continued east winds keeping 
 
 the water in a constant state of turmoil. The 
 anchorage-ground, in from 6 to 30 fathoms ac 
 cording to distance from land, is very good. The 
 town is defended by forts and batteries. Pop. 
 7000. 
 
 Lag-wood (Eng.). Wood from the large 
 branches near the head of an oak-tree. 
 
 Laid. A name formerly given to the pullack 
 by fishermen. 
 
 Lake. A lake is a large quantity of water 
 contained in a hollow cavity in the earth s sur 
 face. Lakes, then, are nearly or entirely sur 
 rounded by land. A small lake is called a pond, 
 in France an etang. A shallow lake near a coast 
 is called a lagoon, and such in Ceylon are called 
 jeels, and in Prussia haffs. Lakes in England 
 are called water; in Ireland, lough] in Scot 
 land, loch , in Italy, valle ; in Holland, meer ; in 
 Hanover, Prussia, and Austria, see. A shallow 
 lake, filled with vegetation, is called a marsh, or 
 morass, and a large collection of such in Florida 
 goes by the name of everglades. Ponds some 
 times become lakes in times of great rainfall, 
 especially in desert districts. Lakes are nearly 
 everywhere abundant, and with them are con 
 nected some of the most remarkable phenomena 
 of science. Anciently, many lakes were the 
 habitations of primitive men, who built their 
 villages on piles driven in them, and a tribe of 
 Indians still build such villages in Lake Mara- 
 caybo, in Venezuela. Lakes are either salt or 
 fresh. Those that have a considerable outlet are 
 generally fresh, but the lakes of desert tracts are 
 nearly always salt. The most remarkable salt 
 lakes are the Dead Sea, Lake of Tiberias, Sea of 
 Aral, Urumyeh in Armenia, and the Great Salt 
 Lake of Utah. The quantity of salts furnished 
 is frequently important, and bitumen, naphtha, 
 petroleum, etc., are often derived from lakes. 
 
 Many lakes occupy the craters of extinct vol 
 canoes, and many are at a great elevation above 
 the sea. In most of the mountain ranges of the 
 world are found such lakes. Others are far below 
 the level of the sea, filling depressions often the 
 result of volcanic, glacier, or earthquake action. 
 Lakes also exist in caverns, far below the sur 
 face of the earth. They are often the sources of 
 mighty rivers, and the waters of the Amazon, 
 the Mississippi, and other great rivers find their 
 beginning in small lakes. Lakes are often but 
 the expansion of rivers, and the great American 
 lakes are of this class, as are- the Swiss lakes. 
 
 The finest scenery is often found near lakes, 
 and the lakes of Killarney and the Swiss and 
 Italian lakes are particularly celebrated for this. 
 Some lakes are doubtless the remains of greater 
 seas, as the Sea of Aral, formerly a part of the 
 Caspian. Large lakes are particularly remark 
 able for their sudden and terrible storms. In 
 Lake Constance a peculiar swell, called the ruhss, 
 sometimes occurs without any apparent cause. 
 Nonnenworth Lake, in the Black Forest, con 
 tains an island of floating turf, rising and fall 
 ing on its bosom. A lake in Tunis completely 
 evaporates during the dry season, leaving an in 
 crustation of salt on the soil, gradually increas 
 ing in depth from an inch to a foot towards the 
 centre. In the island of Trinidad is the cele 
 brated Pitch Lake, boiling at its centre. Lake 
 Jordan, in Friesland, is so completely covered 
 by a vegetable growth that a wagon may be 
 driven across it. The Zirkneh See, in Illyria, is 
 
LAMANTIN 
 
 422 
 
 LANDING-PAKTIES 
 
 remarkable for emptying its bed in the summer, 
 so that crops may be raised in it, and the holes 
 by which the water leaves are seen, fish appear 
 ing with the return of the water. In North 
 India a lake appeared in 1819 after an earth 
 quake. Several lakes contain springs of mineral 
 water, some hot water, and many salt lakes have 
 fresh- water fountains in them. Lake Ala-Kal, 
 in the Hindoo Koosh, contains an island vol 
 cano, and Lake Palte, in Thibet, is merely a 
 circular ring about an island. 
 
 Switzerland, Finland, Sweden, and the north 
 ern half of North America are best provided 
 with lakes. 
 
 Lake Ladoga is the largest in Europe. It 
 contains 6300 square miles. It receives about 
 60 rivers and the waters of 2 other large lakes, 
 Onega and Saima, pouring its waters into the 
 Gulf of Finland by the Neva Kiver. The lakes 
 of Kussia are very large. 
 
 Lake Baikal, in Asia, is one of the largest in 
 the world, being 400 miles long and 60 broad. 
 It is shallow, but is well stocked with fish and 
 seal. Many of the high plateaus of Asia are ev 
 idently the beds of former lakes. Lake Urum- 
 yeh, in Armenia, is so salt that a storm covers 
 the shores with foam to a great distance. The 
 Dead Sea, famous in history, is particularly 
 remarkable for the absence of all animal life, 
 owing to its salts and to the petrifying charac 
 ter of its water. It is so salt that storms do not 
 raise waves, and is 1300 feet below the sea, the 
 greatest depression known. 
 
 The greatest lakes of the world are the six 
 contained in the St. Lawrence Basin, containing 
 93,000 square miles, the largest being Lake Su 
 perior and the smallest St. Clair. The lakes of 
 Africa are probably nearly as large, and give 
 rise to the Nile, Zambesi, and other large 
 rivers. 
 
 The five lakes occupying the plateau of Mex 
 ico are remarkable as having been the seat of 
 civilization there. In Tezcuco was the ancient 
 city of Mexico, and in these lakes are now float 
 ing gardens, islands of turf of great size, on 
 which gardens are planted. 
 
 In South America, Lake Titicaca, 12,847 feet 
 above the sea, was equally remarkable as the 
 seat of Peruvian civilization. A temple on an 
 island in it marks the former seat of Manco 
 Capac, founder of the Inca kingdom. 
 
 Australian lakes are remarkable for their 
 want of permanency, being very shallow, and 
 sometimes drying up very suddenly. 
 
 Artificial lakes are numerous in Holland. Lake 
 Moeris, in Egypt, was celebrated as having been 
 constructed by one of the Pharaohs to contain 
 and store up the surplus waters of the Nile in 
 undation for a time of need. 
 
 France, Spain, and Portugal contain few lakes, 
 and those very small ; and the only lakes in Hin- 
 dostan are the salt marshes near the coasts, called 
 runns. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U. S, Navy. 
 
 Lamantin. An old name for the manatus, or 
 sea-cow. 
 
 Lambasting. The use of a rope s end as an 
 incentive to action. (Probably a corruption of 
 the obsolete word lambskin, to beat.) 
 
 Lamb s-wool Sky. The appearance of the 
 sky when small circular clouds are seen. 
 
 Lamprey, or Lamper-eel. An eel-like fish 
 of the genus Petromyzon, having a round, suck 
 
 ing mouth set with numerous minute teeth, and 
 two large teeth on the palate. It was formerly 
 esteemed a great delicacy, and is still eaten. The 
 European sea lamprey is P. marinus ; the Amer 
 ican, P. Americanus. The river lamprey is P. 
 fluviatilis. 
 
 Lamp-shell. A common name for the Tere- 
 bratula of zoology. 
 
 Lancaster Gun. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Lance-corporal. A private who performs the 
 duty of corporal. 
 
 Lanchang. A Malay proa, or swift-sailing 
 boat. 
 
 Land. The earth as distinguished from the 
 sea. The space between the grooves in a rifled 
 gun. The lap of the planks in lap-jointed work. 
 To land signifies to set foot on shore, also to 
 place any object; as, a To land a yard on deck." 
 To make land means to sight it. To shut in the 
 land is to lose sight of it by reason of fog or in 
 tervening land. 
 
 LAND-BLINK. The peculiar brightness in the 
 atmosphere which is seen in the Arctic regions 
 when in the vicinity of land covered with snow. 
 
 LAND-BREEZE. The wind which blows from 
 the land during the night in the tropics. See 
 BREEZE. 
 
 LAND-FALL. A good land-fall is made when 
 land is sighted with the bearing and distance pre 
 viously expected. It is the proof of the correct 
 ness of the navigator s work, whereas a bad land 
 fall would indicate errors in a vessel s navigation, 
 or the effect of unknown currents. 
 
 LAND-HO 1 The cry that is given when land 
 
 Ice that extends out from the 
 
 is first seen. 
 
 LAND-ICE. 
 shore. 
 
 LANDING. A pier, wharf, etc., where passen 
 gers are landed. 
 
 LANDING-STRAKE. The second strake or plank 
 of a boat from the gunwale. 
 
 LANDING-SURVEYOR (Eng.}. A grade of cus 
 tom-house officer who superintends the landing- 
 waiters. 
 
 LANDING- WAITER (Eng.}. An officer of cus 
 toms who attends to the landing and inspection 
 of goods subject to duty. 
 
 LAND-LOUPER (Dutch}. A vagabond or va 
 grant. 
 
 LAND-LUBBER. A sailor s term of contempt 
 for one who lives on shore. 
 
 LANDMARK. Any object on shore serving as 
 a guide by which to enter a harbor, or by which 
 the land may be recognized. 
 
 LAND-SHARKS. The class of people in seaports 
 who subsist by defrauding sailors of their money. 
 
 LAND-SLIP or LAND-SLIDE. The sliding of a 
 quantity of land on the side of a mountain. 
 
 LANDSMAN. A rate in the navy which in 
 cludes persons who have no knowledge of the 
 duties of a seaman. 
 
 LAND-TURN. A land-breeze. 
 
 Landing-parties. The organization of land 
 ing-parties is outlined in the Ordnance Instruc 
 tions, but the details are left to commanding 
 officers, as they have to be varied to suit the 
 circumstances under which a landing is to be 
 made. In well-organized ships something simi 
 lar to the following obtains. 
 
 For expeditions at a distance from the ship, 
 where the journey has to be performed by water 
 in the ship s boats, what is called the organiza- 
 
LANDING-PARTIES 
 
 423 
 
 LANDING-PARTIES 
 
 tion for " distant service" is followed. The boats 
 are manned by their " fighting crews." Each 
 boat carries, besides, a number of marines or good 
 marksmen to act as riflemen. As supplies and 
 extra ammunition have to be carried, the boats, 
 to be perfectly serviceable, must not be over 
 loaded. Each fighting division of the ship mans 
 two boats, one large and one small one, the ofiicer 
 of the division commanding the section going 
 in the larger boat, one of his aids or a petty 
 officer having charge of the other. In the boats 
 carrying howitzers or machine-guns there is an 
 extra officer, who acts as chief of piece. The 
 boats are all numbered, and are arranged so that 
 when in line the artillery will be on the flanks, 
 and that the two boats commanded by a division 
 officer shall be together. The steam-launch, or 
 cutter, is not assigned a permanent position in 
 the line. This boat is assigned to the command 
 ing officer of the expedition, and carries a ma 
 chine-gun. In moving long distances she takes 
 the other boats in tow, the latter being formed 
 in column of boats. Oars and sails should be 
 used in the boats when possible, to assist the tow. 
 
 The equipment of the boats and men must vary, 
 of course, with the service to be performed. On 
 civilized and armed coasts a boat expedition 
 would rarely be attempted, but on uncivilized or 
 unarmed coasts great advantages are derived 
 from them when properly carried out. 
 
 We will assume that an expedition is to be sent 
 from a ship of the class of the a Pensacola," to 
 operate 50 miles up a river against an Indian 
 village. The " Pensacola" is provided with a 
 steam-launch, a sailing-launch, three cutters, a 
 cutter-barge, two whale-boats, a gig, and two 
 dingeys. It has been decided, for example, that 
 it will be safe to send all the boats away from the 
 ship ; if it had not, one or more divisions, with 
 their boats, could have been left behind. It is 
 supposed that the raid can be accomplished in 
 two days, but an extra day s stores are to be car 
 ried in case of accidents. The boats are assigned 
 to the divisions as follows : 1st division, sailing- 
 launch and 3d cutter ; 2d division, 1st cutter and 
 1st whale-boat; 3d division, 2d cutter and 2d 
 whale-boat ; 4th division, barge and gig ; hospital- 
 boat, 1st dingey, the 2d dingey being left for 
 ship s use. The steam-launch is manned from 
 the master s division. The sailing-launch and 
 1st cutter carry howitzers, the steam-launch, a 
 Gatling. 
 
 The boats are supplied for pulling and sailing, 
 and are furnished with anchors, or grapnels, and 
 cables. Provisions (cooked) are carried for three 
 days ; the coffee roasted and ground, ready for 
 use. Water is carried for five days. The how 
 itzers are supplied with 80 rounds of assorted 
 ammunition ; more should be carried if stowage 
 room can be found. The field-carriages are taken 
 if the guns are to be landed. It will generally 
 be found best to take one at least. Spare sponges 
 and rammers are necessary. The men are armed 
 with rifles and sword-bayonets, except the 8 lower 
 numbers of the guns crews, who are armed with 
 cutlasses. Each man carries 40 rounds of am 
 munition, and 1000 rounds of spare ammunition 
 is carried in each boat. Pea-coats and blankets 
 are carried by all. Care is taken that the men 
 are well supplied with tobacco. If wet weather 
 is anticipated oil-skins are taken, and a change 
 of clothing ; plenty of tarpaulins are also sup 
 
 plied with which to cover the stores, ammuni 
 tion, and clothing. Each boat carries a kettle to 
 boil coffee, and each person a pot, pan, and spoon. 
 The boat-boxes, with tools and materials for 
 slight repairs, flint and steel, fish-hooks and lines, 
 lead and line, lantern and candles, etc., are car 
 ried. Boat-compasses and glasses are distributed 
 as far as they will go. The steam-launch is sup 
 plied with a set of signals, and the boats with 
 answering pennants. The surgeon, with his in 
 struments and medicine-chests, embarks in the 
 hospital-boat. 
 
 The marines are distributed among the lighter 
 boats, and a few of the best shots are detailed 
 for the others. Every officer is provided with 
 a full list of what he must take in his boat, and 
 when the order is passed to fit out he collects 
 all his material, and inspects it thoroughly. He 
 then inspects his men fully armed and equipped. 
 Having seen that his boat is completely pro 
 vided, he has her stowed, and then manned, and 
 when ready reports for service. When all the 
 boats are ready, line is formed, and the senior 
 officer inspects his flotilla. Column is then 
 formed, and the steam-launch takes up the tow. 
 A few oars in each boat are kept going, and, if 
 the wind is favorable, sails are set. 
 
 In moving up the river care is taken not to 
 be ambushed. Scouting-parties may be landed, 
 if favorable eminences are near at hand, from 
 which the banks may be viewed ahead. If at 
 tacked in force in a narrow river a fight should 
 be made, and the advance continued after the 
 enemy is repulsed ; in a broad river it may be 
 safe to run by the enemy if he is unprovided 
 with boats. Care should be taken to destroy all 
 boats which may be discovered on the way, as 
 they might be used to cut off a retreat. If it is 
 found necessary to land to cook the coffee, one 
 boat only should be detailed for the work, the 
 others lying off ready for a surprise. If the regula 
 tion boat-stoves have been provided for the larger 
 boats, the cooking may be done without landing. 
 Having arrived within shelling distance of the 
 town, a well-directed slow fire should be opened 
 on it. The howitzer-boats should take up com 
 manding positions ; the lighter boats, after the 
 beach or landing has been cleared, should move 
 in and land their men, with the exception of 
 those detailed as boat-keepers, the steam-launch 
 with the Gatling moving close in to cover the 
 landing. If possible, the work of destruction 
 should be carried out by this party. It may be 
 found necessary to send in some of the heavier 
 boats, but all should not be landed, except in a 
 great emergency. The object of the expedition 
 having been accomplished, the people should 
 embark, and return to the ship as soon as possi 
 ble, using the same precautions as in advancing. 
 
 For expeditions away from the ship, where the 
 service has to be performed by land, the ship s 
 battalion, or part of it, should be employed. 
 As in the previous case, we will take the " Pen 
 sacola" as our example, and give her organiza 
 tion just as it stands. 
 
 The battalion is commanded by the executive- 
 officer, and consists of four companies of blue 
 jacket riflemen, one company of marines, a 
 platoon of howitzers, a Gatling section, an am 
 munition squad, a provision squad, a pioneer 
 corps, a hospital detachment, and a band, whose 
 members in the field act as aids to the wounded. 
 
LANDING-PARTIES 
 
 424 
 
 LANTERN 
 
 The rifle companies are the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th 
 Divisions of the ship s organization, the last being 
 augmented by a detail from the powder division. 
 The division officers command their own men. 
 Each company numbers 36 men, including 2 
 guides and 2 file-closers. This leaves a number 
 of men unassigned in each division. 
 
 The crew of No. 1 gun, 1st division, forms the 
 crew of the Gatling. The first 12 men of No. 2 
 gun, 1st division, form the crew of No. 1 how 
 itzer. The first 6 men of No. 5 gun, 2d divis 
 ion, and the second 6 men of No. 6 gun, form 
 the crew of No. 2 howitzer. 
 
 The supply squads are taken from the different 
 divisions. The pioneer corps from the engineer 
 division. The medical detachment consists of 
 the apothecary and several stretcher-men. 
 
 The men and officers, when fully equipped, 
 carry blankets rolled, in which, if necessary, 
 extra clothing and shoes are packed ; a haver 
 sack, made of canvas aboard ship, in which are 
 carried eating-utensils, rations, tobacco, and 
 spare ammunition ; a water-bottle, made by cov 
 ering old bottles with flannel and securing a 
 shoulder-sling to them; and canvas legging, 
 made by the men themselves. In cold weather 
 pea-coats are added. For long expeditions the 
 hammock, unslung and fitted with side eyelets, 
 would be carried rolled over the blanket, for use 
 as a shelter, several being laced together to form 
 a tent, or to be placed under the men on the 
 ground, or slung between poles as cots. They 
 would also furnish cover to the men when throw 
 ing up rifle-pits, and could be used, in combina 
 tion with poles, for hand-barrows or stretchers. 
 Each man has a waist-belt, on which the rifle 
 men carry a cartridge-box and bayonet. On 
 actual service the cartridge-box would be re 
 placed by an improvised prairie-belt. The can 
 noneers and supply-squad men wear cutlasses, to 
 which the latter add a pistol. The officers wear 
 their swords, and revolvers with cartridge- 
 boxes. The officers are ordered besides to carry 
 glasses, pocket-compasses, paper, pencil, etc., and, 
 if possible, a sketched map of the ground to be 
 operated over. The supply-squads are furnished 
 with carrying-poles, on which are slung ammu 
 nition-boxes, or mess-kettles, and packages of 
 supplies. The hospital detachment has two 
 complete field-stretchers and a carrying-pole for 
 the medicine-chest. These men ca rry no arms, 
 and wear a "red cross" arm-badge. A small 
 " red cross" hospital flag is carried by one of 
 the detachment. The pioneer corps consists of 
 12 men, commanded by an engineer officer ; 
 they are armed with rifles without bayonets, 
 and each "man carries slung over his shoulders two 
 tools. The tools include shovels, picks, crows, 
 axes, hammers, cold-chisels, etc. 
 
 Only one howitzer is intended for landing for 
 distant service ; the second carriage is fitted as a 
 limber, and used for carrying an extra supply of 
 ammunition, a spare wheel, some tools, and a 
 coil of rope. Both crews man this howitzer, and 
 the infantry companies assist over heavy ground. 
 The Gatling is taken, an extra tank of ammuni 
 tion being slung to the carriage. The admiral s 
 and captain s coxswains carry the national 
 colors and a battalion flag (a jack, with the 
 name of the ship in the centre). The markers, 
 who also act as signal-men, carry hand-signal 
 flags. 
 
 "When the battalion, or any part of it, is 
 landed, the boats are towed by the launch as 
 much as possible. Regular boat-keepers under 
 an officer are detailed for all the boats from men 
 not belonging to the battalion. 
 
 There is another variety of landing-party, 
 which, although not intended for war purposes, 
 would seem to come appropriately within the 
 limits of this article ; it is the fire-brigade. All 
 well-organized ships have such an organization, 
 intended for landing to assist in extinguishing 
 fires on shore, or to be sent to vessels on fire. 
 The company organization, when the companies 
 are taken from the same divisions, is the best, 
 one company being equipped as wreckers, with 
 axes, picks, shovels, crows, grapnels and chains, 
 and Jacob s ladders, another as bucket-men. If 
 there are efficient handy-billies, they may be 
 fitted on the howitzer field-carriages, and taken 
 in charge of the artillery-men. The fire-extin 
 guishers should be carried by reliable men, and 
 a supply of tarpaulins will be found useful. 
 Theo. B. M. Mason, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Lane. A passage through ice, or through a 
 crowd. 
 
 Langrage, or Langrel. A projectile which 
 was formerly used for the purpose of injuring 
 the sails and rigging of an enemy s vessel during 
 action. It consisted of various pieces of iron 
 bound together, with sufficient size to fit the 
 bore of the gun. 
 
 Languet (Fr. languette). That part of the 
 hilt of a sword that overlaps the scabbard. 
 
 Laniard, or Lanyard. The rope which con 
 nects the upper and lower dead-eyes of standing 
 rigging, and by which the rigging is set up or 
 tightened. The laniard serves as the fall of 
 a tackle, the dead-eyes being used in place of 
 blocks. A lock-laniard is the long string at 
 tached to the lock of a gun, by which it is fired. 
 A port-laniard is a line by which a port is closed, 
 and by which it is held in position when square 
 or extended parallel with the water. Each port 
 is fitted with two laniards. A knife-laniard is 
 the white cord or braided line, worn about the 
 neck, and to which the knife is attached, to 
 secure it from falling from aloft, and the word is 
 applied to any small line used for a similar pur 
 pose. A bucket-laniard is the rope handle of a 
 bucket. 
 
 Lantcha. The name of a Malay vessel. 
 
 Lantern. A large light which vessels are re 
 quired by law to exhibit from sunset to sunrise, 
 when they are under way. A vessel under steam 
 has a lantern at the foremast head, which shows 
 a white light, and vessels whether under steam 
 or sail carry side-lanterns, that on the starboard 
 bow being green, and on the port bow red. 
 The white light is required to show its rays over 
 an arc of 20 points of the compass, or 225 ; 
 while the side lights each show their rays over 
 an arc of 10 points, or 112 30 . By means of 
 this arrangement of lanterns the general direc 
 tion in which a vessel is steering may be known 
 to others, and by following the "Rule of the 
 Road" the danger of collision is usually avoided. 
 Signal-lanterns are used in communicating be 
 tween ships of war, and are of the three colors, 
 red, white, and green. Battle-lanterns are made 
 of a frame- work of copper, in which glass slides 
 are placed. They are hung in the rear of the 
 guns on a covered deck during an action at night. 
 
LANTIONE 
 
 425 
 
 LAKBOAKD 
 
 LANTERN-BRACE. The iron fixture or rod by 
 which a lantern is secured. 
 
 LANTERN-FISH (Eng.}. The sole. 
 
 Lantione. The name of a Chinese row-boat. 
 
 Lap. The amount which a slide-valve extends 
 over the ports when in mid-position, when work 
 ing steam expansively. It acts by closing the 
 port before the piston arrives at the end of the 
 stroke ; this is called steam-lap^ and necessitates 
 lap on the exhaust side, called exhaust lap, to 
 prevent the steam being exhausted too soon. 
 
 Lapel, or Lapelle. Part of a coat. Previous 
 to 1812 the white lapel denoted the rank of 
 lieutenant in the English navy. 
 
 La Perouse (Jean~Fran9ois de Galoup, Comte 
 de), the celebrated and unfortunate French navi 
 gator, was born in 1741, and died in or near the 
 island of Vanikoro at an uncertain date, supposed 
 to be during the year 1788. 
 
 La Perouse entered the French navy at 15, 
 and was at once actively employed, being wounded 
 and made prisoner at the action of Belle Isle, in 
 1759. Soon exchanged, he returned to duty. 
 "Was made ensign in 1764, and lieutenant de 
 vaisseau in 1775, when he distinguished him 
 self, in command of the " Amazon," by the cap 
 ture of the English frigate " Ariel." 
 
 In 1782 he commanded at the destruction of 
 the Hudson Bay establishments, previous to 
 which he had made many captures of English 
 vessels, and had been promoted to captain. 
 
 In 1785 the French government, stirred by 
 the discoveries of Cook and other explorers, 
 wished to take part in the survey of unknown 
 seas thus happily commenced; and an expedi 
 tion was resolved upon to search for the north 
 west passage, and to explore the Japan Sea, the 
 Solomon Islands, and the southwest part of 
 New Holland. Besides scientific purposes, the 
 expedition was to have commercial aims, espe 
 cially in the development of the fur-trade and 
 the whale-fishery. The field thus blocked out 
 proved too extensive, and the instructions for 
 the voyage, drawn up under the directions of 
 Louis XVI. himself, were entirely too minute 
 and complicated. 
 
 The appropriately-named frigates u Boussole" 
 and " Astrolabe," the latter under Capt. de Lan- 
 gle, were fitted out with every instrument and 
 appliance known at that day, and had a full 
 corps of scientific men and artists. The two 
 vessels sailed from Brest on the 1st of August, 
 1785, and, after touching at various points in the 
 Atlantic, doubled Cape^Horn and put in at Con- 
 cepcion, Chili. Proceeding thence to Easter Isl 
 and and the Sandwich Islands, they sailed for the 
 American coast, in the neighborhood of Mount 
 St. Elias. Here bad weather and other causes 
 prevented him from doing much work. Indeed, 
 it took Vancouver three years to make an in 
 complete reconnoissance of these shores. Aban 
 doning the northwest course, La Perouse coasted 
 down to Monterey, and then struck across for the 
 Japan Sea, discovering islands and reefs on the 
 way. 
 
 In January, 1787, he was at Macao. Sailing 
 thence he touched at the Philippines, and recon 
 noitred Formosa, and in May reached the Corean 
 Strait, of which country, as well as Japan, little 
 or nothing was then known. Then followed a 
 laborious exploration of the coast of Tartary, 
 Japan, and the Kurile Islands, during which 
 
 many bays, islands, and straits were plotted and 
 named, he being the first to recognize the separa 
 tion of Saghalien from Japan. 
 
 In September, 1787, the expedition was at St. 
 Peter and St. Paul, in Kamschatka, where it 
 was, by the order of the Empress Catherine, 
 well entertained. Here they received dispatches, 
 and sent home reports and charts. Soon at sea 
 again, La Perouse searched in vain for a large 
 island laid down in the old Spanish charts to 
 the eastward of Japan. 
 
 On December 9 he reached the Navigator 
 group, lovely islands, with ferocious inhabit 
 ants. Here Capt. de Langle and 11 men were 
 killed by the natives, and 20 wounded. With 
 out making reprisals, La Perouse went on to 
 the Friendly Islands, and thence to Botany Bay, 
 where he arrived in January, 1788. The expe 
 dition sailed from Botany Bay in the latter part of 
 February, and from that time forty years elapsed 
 before any trace of them could be discovered. 
 
 The French Kevolution, with its entire up 
 heaval of social and official life, prevented any 
 action in regard to them until 1791, when a 
 decree of the National Assembly ordered a 
 search. In the same year Admiral d Entre- 
 casteaux sailed upon the mission. He had no 
 success in his search, passed within a short dis 
 tance of Vanikoro without touching there, and 
 died during the voyage. Nothing more of any 
 moment was done until 1826-28, when the English 
 Capt. Dillon and the French navigator Dumont 
 d lJrville each went over the ground where in 
 formation as to the fate of La Perouse was sup 
 posed to be accessible. 
 
 On the island of Vanikoro, or Pitt s, in lat. 
 11 36 BO" S., and Ion. 166 58 24" E., some 
 traces of the French discovery ships were found. 
 According to the reports the two vessels must 
 have been lost on the reefs surrounding the isl 
 and. The crew of one of them were, after a fight, 
 all massacred. Those of the other ship purchased 
 peace with some goods saved, and then built a 
 small vessel from the wreck of their own. In 
 this they left the island, never to be heard of 
 again. They left a few of their number behind 
 in the service of the chiefs, but they were all 
 dead when the searchers arrived. AH the arti 
 cles which Dillon recovered from the wrecks form 
 a pyramid in the marine department of the 
 museum of the Louvre. E. Shippen. 
 
 Lap-joint. The method of joining the plates 
 in iron ships and in boiler construction ; there 
 are two kinds, double and single riveted lap- 
 joints ; their relative strength as compared with 
 the plate is as follows : entire plate 100, double- 
 riveted joint 70, single-riveted 56. 
 
 Lapland Witch. A Laplander who professes 
 to have the power to make the wind blow fair or 
 foul. 
 
 Lapping. The name given to thin ice in the 
 Arctic Seas where one piece overlaps another. 
 The sound made by ripples breaking against the 
 shore. 
 
 Lap s Course. See LOB-SCOIJSE. 
 
 Lap-sided. A term expressive of the condi 
 tion of a vessel when it will not float or sit up 
 right in the water. Lop-sided. 
 
 Lap-streak. A term used in boat-building to 
 denote that the planks overlap. 
 
 Larboard. The left side of a vessel when 
 facing towards the bow. On account of the re- 
 
LARDNER 
 
 426 
 
 LATES 
 
 semblance of the word to starboard, and the 
 consequent liability to mistake, port has been 
 substituted, and is now in general use. 
 
 LARBOARD WATCH. The former name for 
 port watch, one division of the crew of a vessel. 
 
 LARBOLINES. Formerly, a name given to the 
 men of the larboard watch. 
 
 Lardner, James L., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed midshipman 
 from that State, May 10, 1820; served in the 
 schooner "Dolphin" and ship "Franklin," 80 
 guns, flag-ship Commodore Stewart, Pacific 
 Ocean, in"l821-24; August, 1825, joined frigate 
 "Brandywine," and sailed to France, carrying 
 to his home Gen. Lafayette, " the Nation s 
 Guest." Sailed after ward to the Mediterranean, 
 and returned to New York in 1826. October, 
 1826, sailed in frigate "Brandywine," flag 
 ship of Commodore Jacob Jones, to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and served in that ship, schooner " Dol 
 phin," and ship " Vincennes" until June, 1830, 
 nearly three years of which as navigating-offi- 
 eer of the latter ship, in which he circumnavi 
 gated the globe in 1829-30. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, May 17, 1828. 
 Summer of 1832, served as senior lieutenant in 
 schooner " Experiment" ;. 1833-34, served in the 
 " Delaware," 86 guns, flag ship of Mediterranean 
 Squadron, Commodore Patterson. April, 1837, 
 ordered to "Independence," 60 guns, flag-ship 
 of Brazil Squadron, Commodore Nicholson, and 
 served in Russia, England, and in Brazil, 1837- 
 38. In the years 1841-44 served as senior lieu 
 tenant in sloop " Cyane" and frigate " United 
 States," flag-ship of the Pacific Squadron, nearly 
 three years" in the latter ship. Commanded re 
 ceiving-ship, at Philadelphia, in the years 1845- 
 48. May, 1850, sailed in command of brig 
 " Porpoise" to the coast of Africa, and made a 
 cruise of three years in command of that vessel 
 and the sloop-of-war " Dale," returning to Bos 
 ton in April, 1853. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, May 17, 1851. 
 Served as fleet-captain of the West India. Squad 
 ron, in the summer of 1855. 1860, ordered to 
 the Philadelphia Navy-Yard. 
 
 Commission as captain dated May 19, 1861. 
 September, 1861, ordered to command the steam- 
 frigate "Susquehanna," North Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron ; was with Dupont at the cap 
 ture of Port Royal and blockading South Caro 
 lina and Georgia, for which service his name 
 was sent to Congress by President Lincoln, for 
 a vote of thanks, which passed the House, but 
 was thrown out in the Senate. After the battle 
 of Port Royal, Capt. Lardner received a compli 
 mentary letter from Flag-Officer Dupont, of 
 which the following is a copy : 
 
 "WABASH, OFF HILTON HEAD, 
 PORT ROYAL, S. C., November 9, 1861. 
 ********* 
 
 "I inclose a general order, to be read to the 
 officers and crew of the Susquehanna, and I 
 take the occasion to say that your noble ship, 
 throughout the whole of the battle, was precisely 
 where I wanted her to be, and doing precisely 
 what I wanted her to do, and that your close 
 support of this ship was a very gallant thing. 
 
 " Truly your friend, 
 (Signed) " S. F. DUPONT. 
 
 " Capt. J. L. LARDNER, 
 
 Commanding Susquehanna. " 
 
 May, 1862, assumed command of the East 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, with the flag of rear- 
 admiral. Returned home in December, invalided " 
 by a severe attack of yellow fever at Key West. 
 Admiral Lardner lost, by yellow fever, 40 gal 
 lant officers and men, from his flag-ship, in the 
 summer of 1862. In May, 1863, took command 
 of the West India Squadron ; squadron with 
 drawn, October, 1864. Retired November 20, 
 1864. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866. 
 On special duty from 1864 to 1869. Governor 
 of Naval Asylum, Philadelphia, 1869-71. 
 
 Large. Said of the wind when it is fair, so 
 that the sails receive its full effect. A vessel is 
 then said to sail large. By and large, " at all 
 points." See BY. 
 
 Lark. A frolic. 
 
 Larrup. An old word meaning to flog. 
 
 Lascar. A native East Indian sailor em 
 ployed on European vessels. 
 
 Lash. To secure with a rope or lashing. 
 
 LASH AND CARRY. The order given to the 
 watch below when it is called at night, meaning 
 that the hammocks are to be lashed and stowed 
 in the nettings. 
 
 LASHING. A rope used to secure a movable 
 object, or to fasten one object to another. 
 
 LASHING EYES. Eyes or eye-splices made 
 in the ends of a rope by which they may be 
 lashed together. 
 
 Lasher Bull-head (Eng.). The Coitus scor- 
 pius. 
 
 Lask. An obsolete term for sailing with the 
 wind aft. 
 
 Laskets. Small loops made of cord for lacing 
 one sail to another, as the bonnet to the jib. 
 
 Last (Eng.}. A cargo. A weight which 
 varied with different articles, but was generally 
 estimated at 4000 pounds. A last of herrings 
 or cod-fish was 12 barrels, of gunpowder 24 bar 
 rels, and of pitch or tar 14 barrels. 
 
 LASTAGE (Eng.). The duties paid upon such 
 articles as were bought and sold by the last. 
 Also a term which was used to denote the cargo 
 of a vessel. 
 
 Laster (Eng.). The flow of the tide 
 
 Latching Key. The centre loop or lasket 
 which serves as a key to the rest, and prevents 
 them from unreeving. See LASKETS. 
 
 Lateen-sail. A triangular sail used on native 
 vessels from the northern coast of Africa and 
 Turkey, and seldom seen but in the Mediter 
 ranean. It is bent to a long tapering yard which 
 hoists to a comparatively short mast, the hal 
 liards being secured to the yard at one-quarter 
 of the distance from the forward or lower end. 
 
 Lateen-yard. The yard to which a lateen- 
 sail is bent. 
 
 Lateral Resistance. The resistance of the 
 water against the side of a vessel in a direction 
 perpendicular to her length. 
 
 Lates (Lates Niloticus). A fish of the perch 
 family, one of the most delicate and best-flavored 
 fishes of the Nile. It grows to a large size, 
 sometimes 3 feet long. It is mentioned by sev 
 eral ancient authors. In form it resembles a 
 perch. Another species of this genus is the 
 Vacti, called Cock-up by the English in Calcutta, 
 one of the most esteemed fishes of the Ganges, 
 which it ascends as far as the tide does. 
 
LATHE 
 
 427 
 
 LA YALLETTE 
 
 Lathe. The name of a cross-bow used in the 
 early days of the English navy. 
 
 Lather. To beat soundly. 
 
 Latitude. The latitude of a point on the 
 earth s surface may be denned as its angular dis 
 tance from the equator measured on a meridian. 
 This is the geographical latitude as found by 
 astronomical observations, and if the earth were 
 a sphere would coincide with the geocentric or 
 true latitude, which is an angle formed between 
 a line drawn from the place in question to the 
 centre of the earth and the plane of the equator. 
 
 The difference between the two latitudes is not 
 great, but enters into the rigid determination of 
 longitude by the method of lunar distances, as 
 well as into other astronomical problems. This 
 correction has, therefore, been tabulated for use 
 in such cases. It is called the angle of the ver 
 tical, and attains a maximum of II 7 30 X/ at the 
 latitude of 45. 
 
 The direction of the centre of the earth can 
 only be determined by the plumb-line, or by the 
 perpendicular to a fluid surface. 
 
 Astronomical or geographical latitude is de 
 termined in many ways. At sea, the methods 
 most in use are the measurement of the altitude 
 while on the meridian of a celestial body, the 
 declination of which is known, and by the deter 
 mination of two lines of equal altitude by what 
 is called Sumner s method. (See NAVIGATION.) 
 On shore, latitudes can be determined with great 
 exactness by numerous methods. Besides the 
 methods in use in fixed observatories, there are 
 three of great precision in use by surveyors, viz., 
 by circum-meridian altitudes of stars, by either 
 the common or the prismatic sextant and the 
 artificial horizon, by measurement of the differ 
 ence of zenith distance of pairs of stars with the 
 zenith telescope, and by observations of the transit 
 of stars over the prime vertical. (See Chau- 
 venet s "Spherical and Practical Astronomy.") 
 F. M. Green, Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 LATITUDE BY ACCOUNT. The latitude de 
 duced from the course and distance sailed since 
 the last observation. 
 
 LATITUDE BY OBSERVATION. The latitude 
 deduced from an observation of a heavenly 
 body. 
 
 LATITUDE (TERRESTRIAL), PARALLELS OF. 
 Lesser circles of the sphere parallel to the 
 equator. 
 
 LATITUDE, DIFFERENCE OF. The difference 
 of latitude of two places is the arc of a meridian 
 included between their parallels of latitude. 
 
 LATITUDE OF A HEAVENLY BODY. The an 
 gular distance of the body from the ecliptic. 
 
 LATITUDE (CELESTIAL), CIRCLES OF. Great 
 circles of the celestial sphere passing through the 
 poles of the ecliptic ; so called because latitude is 
 measured upon them. 
 
 LATITUDE (CELESTIAL), PARALLELS OF. 
 Lesser circles of the celestial sphere parallel to 
 the ecliptic. 
 
 LATITUDE, HELIOCENTRIC AND GEOCENTRIC 
 (Gr. helios, the sun ; ge, the earth ; and kentron, the 
 centre). Terms applied especially to the planets. 
 The distance of the planets from the earth is 
 small compared with that of the fixed stars, and 
 hence the place of any one of them on the celes 
 tial sphere varies with the position of the spec 
 tator in different parts of the earth s orbit. 
 Thus, viewed from the earth as centre we have 
 
 the geocentric place of a planet and the corre 
 sponding geocentric latitude and longitude. On 
 the contrary, if viewed from the sun as centre 
 we have the heliocentric place of the planet, and 
 the corresponding heliocentric latitude and longi 
 tude. The geocentric differs from the heliocen 
 tric place of a planet by reason of that parallactic 
 change of apparent situation which arises from 
 the earth s motion in her orbit. 
 
 Launce (Eng.}. From the Danish word loens, 
 exhausted. A term used when the pump sucks. 
 
 Launch. The heaviest boat in a ship of war. 
 Each ship usually carries two launches, one a 
 steam-launch and the other a sailing-launch. 
 The former is fitted for the use of torpedoes, and 
 is of great utility in towing the remaining boats 
 of a vessel, or in making trips of considerable 
 extent from the vessel. The sailing-launch is 
 sloop-rigged, and is also fitted with 16 oars. A 
 howitzerls carried in the bow, and by means of 
 a field-carriage it can be landed and used as 
 light artillery. Boats of this class are used for 
 heavy work, such as carrying stores or laying 
 out and weighing an anchor in shoal water, and 
 also in expeditions against an enemy s coast or 
 small vessels. 
 
 To launch a vessel is to cause it to slide from 
 the ways upon which it has been built into the 
 water. To launch a spar or any heavy object is 
 to push or slide it. To launch a topgallant-mast 
 is to slack the mast-rope and allow the weight 
 of the mast to be supported by the fid, after the 
 mast has been swayed aloft. 
 
 LAUNCH-ENGINE. A small engine for pro 
 pelling a steam-launch, usually similar in con 
 struction to the ordinary marine-engine, though 
 sometimes the boiler and engine are attached for 
 compactness. 
 
 LAUNCHING-RIBBAND. An oak plank bolted 
 to the outside of the launching-ways to guide 
 the cradle in its descent in launching. 
 
 LAUNCHING-WAYS. A platform built upon 
 each side of the ship, whereon the bilge-ways 
 slide in the process of launching. 
 
 La Vallette, Jean Parisot de. Forty-eighth 
 grand master of the Knights of Malta. Born 
 1494, died 1568. 
 
 Always prominent in the order, La Vallette 
 was especially distinguished for great courage 
 and ability in constant war with the Turks. He 
 became governor of Tripoli, grand prior of St. 
 Gilles, and of the " Langue de Provence," and 
 lieutenant-general under the grand master, 
 Claude de La Sangle, at whose death, in 1557, 
 La Vallette was thought most worthy to succeed 
 to the grand mastership. He at once instituted 
 needed reforms, exercising his power freely in 
 the interests of the order ; making the priors 
 and commanders of the German and Venetian 
 branches pay their arrears of tax, restoring 
 military discipline, which had become very lax, 
 and increasing very considerably the fleet of the 
 order. 
 
 Desiring to recapture Tripoli, which had been 
 abandoned to the Turks, he allied himself with 
 the viceroy of Sicily, but owing to the miscon 
 duct of the latter the expedition became a failure. 
 
 La Vallette had, however, better success in 
 his contests with the Turkish fleet, of which he 
 captured a very large number in various engage 
 ments. This so enraged Solyman II. that he re 
 solved to attempt the capture of Malta, and, to this 
 
LAYER 
 
 428 
 
 LEAD 
 
 \ 
 
 end, made extensive preparations. In 1565 Malta 
 ^was besieged by 40,000 Turks in 200 vessels. La 
 "Vallette, in his arid and unproductive island, 
 resisted this formidable attack in the most heroic 
 manner for more than four months, when rein 
 forcements arrived and the Turks were forced 
 to raise the siege. 
 
 Having saved Malta, he proceeded to make it 
 impregnable, and, in addition to the well-known 
 defensive works, built the new city, which still 
 bears his name, and which is not very much 
 altered in appearance at the present day. E. 
 Shippen. 
 
 Laver. The leaves of an edible seaweed. 
 
 Lavy. The name of a sea-bird which fre 
 quents the Hebrides, and whose movements are 
 believed by the inhabitants to indicate changes of 
 weather. 
 
 Law, Richard L., Captain U.S.N. Born in 
 Indiana; appointed midshipman, 1841 ; "Dela 
 ware," Brazil Station, 1841-43; "Lawrence," 
 Home Station, 1843-45. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, 1847; 
 "Perry" and " Brandy wine," Brazil Station, 
 1847-50 ; coast survey, 1851-53. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, 1855; "Constel 
 lation," Mediterranean Station, 1856-57; Naval 
 Academy, 1858-59 ; " Hartford," Asiatic Station, 
 1859-61. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, 1862 ; 
 commanding " Clifton," West Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, 1862-63 ; three engagements at Gal- 
 veston, and one at Lavacca ; store-ship " New 
 Hampshire," South Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, 1865-66. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, 1866 ; receiving- 
 ship "New Hampshire," 1866-67; " Tacony," 
 North Atlantic Station, 1867; "Suwanee," North 
 Pacific Station, 1868; " Ashuelot" and " Iro- 
 quois," Asiatic Station, 1868-70; navy-yard, 
 Philadelphia, 1871-72; Naval Asylum, 1873-74; 
 "Dictator," North Atlantic Station, 1874-75; 
 Bureau of Yards and Docks. 1877-78; chief of 
 Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1878-81. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, 1879. 
 
 Law of Nations. The code of laws by which 
 the intercourse between different sovereign states 
 is regulated. " It consists of those rules of con 
 duct which reason deduces as consonant to justice, 
 from the nature of the society existing among 
 independent nations, with such modifications and 
 deviations as may be established by general con 
 sent." See INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 Lawrence, James, Captain U.S.N., was born 
 October 1, 1787, at Burlington, N. J. Appointed 
 midshipman September 4, 1798, he served in the 
 " Ganges," Capt. Tinghey, and in the " Adams," 
 Capt. Robinson. When the navy was reorgan 
 ized he was still named as midshipman (1801). 
 He was soon after promoted to lieutenant, and 
 went to the Mediterranean in the " Enterprise.." 
 He distinguished himself in an attack on boats 
 in Tripoli harbor, led by Porter, and was en 
 gaged in the destruction of the " Philadelphia," 
 in the ketch "Intrepid," February 15, 1804. 
 He was first lieutenant of the "Constitution" 
 in 1808, commanded the "Vixen," 14, in 1809, 
 the " Wasp," 18, in 1810, and the "Argus" the 
 same year. He was promoted to master com 
 mandant in 1811, and commanded the " Hornet," 
 18. He went twice to Europe with dispatches, 
 and sailed for the West Indies in Commodore 
 
 Rogers s squadron in June, 1812; captured i, 
 letter of marque and the brig " Resolution," and 
 on the 24th of February, 1813, the British sloop 
 " Peacock," 18, after a sharp engagement of 
 thirty minutes. For this he was promoted to 
 captain, given a medal, and the command of the 
 frigute "Chesapeake." On the 1st of June, 1813, 
 he engaged the British frigate "Shannon" off 
 Boston harbor. Capt. Lawrence was soon 
 wounded, exclaiming, as he was carried below, 
 " Don t give up the ship !" Weakened by losses 
 and by disaffection among the crew, his ship was 
 captured by a boarding-party and carried to Hali 
 fax, where Capt. Lawrence was buried, having 
 died on the way, on the 6th of June, at the age 
 of 32. He was a fine seaman, brave, chivalrous, 
 and just. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Lay. A share in the proceeds of a whaling 
 voyage paid to each of the crew instead of 
 monthly wages. The direction given to the 
 strands of a rope in laying it up. To lay is used 
 in the sense of to go or come ; as, lay forward, lay 
 down from aloft, etc. To lay a gun is to point it 
 at an object. To lay up a rope is to twist the 
 strands together. To lay on oars is to cease row 
 ing, and keep the oars parallel with the water. 
 To lay in stores is to take provisions on board. 
 A ship lays her course when being close-hauled, 
 the wind permits the desired course to be steered. 
 Lay to. (See LIE To.) To lay up a vessel is to 
 dismantle her. 
 
 LAY-DAYS. The number of days specified in 
 a charter-party which are allowed for the load 
 ing and unloading of a vessel, and beyond which 
 a certain sum per diem, called demurrage, must 
 be paid for the detention. 
 
 LAYING DOWN. The delineation of the differ 
 ent parts of a ship to their full size upon the 
 mold-loft floor. 
 
 Lay-lords (Eng.}. The civil members of the 
 board of admiralty. 
 
 Lazaretto. A hospital for the treatment of in 
 fectious diseases. A place near the stern in some 
 merchant vessels where provisions are stowed. 
 
 Lazy-bars. Bars of iron temporarily placed 
 across the mouth of a furnace to support the fire- 
 irons in working at the back end of a furnace. 
 
 Lazy-guy. A light rope or tackle used for 
 steadying the spanker-boom. 
 
 Lazy-painter. A small rope used for securing 
 a boat in smooth water. 
 
 Lead. An apparatus used on board vessels to de 
 termine the depth of water. It is generally made 
 of lead, of prismatic shape, tapering to the upper 
 end, through which a hole is made-for a strap, to 
 which is attached a marked line. The lead is 
 thrown overboard from the vessel, and when it 
 reaches the bottom, and the line is vertical, the 
 depths are shown by the marks on the line. 
 
 There are three classes of leads in use, the 
 hand-lead, weighing from 7 to 14 pounds, and 
 from 6 to 10 inches in length ; the coasting-lead, 
 weighing from 25 to 50 "pounds, and about 18 
 inches long ; and the deep-sea-lead (pronounced 
 dipsey-lead], weighing from 75 to 120 pounds, 
 and about 2 feet long. The line used with the 
 hand-lead is about 30 fathoms long, and is used 
 in depths of 25 fathoms and under, that of the 
 coasting-lead 120 fathoms long, and used in 
 water from 25 to 100 fathoms in depth, and of 
 the deep-sea-lead 300 fathoms, and used in depths 
 over 100 fathoms. 
 
LEAD 
 
 429 
 
 LEAD 
 
 These lines are marked, hand-lead, at 1 
 fathom from the lead, generally, a toggle is 
 placed for the leadsman to handle it by, at 2 
 fathoms 2 strips of leather, at 3 fathoms 3 strips, 
 at 5 fathoms a white rag, at 7 fathoms a red rag, 
 at 10 fathoms a piece of leather with a hole in it, 
 at 13 fathoms the same as at 3, at 15 fathoms the 
 same as at 5, at 17 fathoms the same as at 7, at 
 20 fathoms a piece of leather with two .holes in 
 it, or a piece of line with 2 knots, at 25 fathoms 
 one knot, at 30 fathoms 3 knots. 
 
 The coasting- and deep-sea-lead-lines are both 
 usually marked in the same manner, viz. : at 10 
 fathoms one knot, at 20 fathoms 2 knots, at 30 
 fathoms 3 knots, etc., and each 5 fathoms is 
 marked by a piece of line with no knot, at 100 
 fathoms a piece of red bunting, at 200 fathoms 
 a piece of white, and at 300 fathoms a piece 
 of blue. 
 
 Heaving or casting the lead. To ascertain the 
 depth of water by the use of the leads and their 
 lines. 
 
 By the hand-lead. The leadsman takes his 
 place generally in the main chains of the vessel, 
 or any place outside where he can have a good 
 foothold and a clear swing, with a broad belt 
 passing around his waist fastened at both ends, 
 to prevent him from falling overboard. From 
 his waist down he is protected from the drippings 
 of the line by a tarpaulin. The end of the lead-line 
 is fastened near by. He takes a coil of line in 
 his hand sufficient, as he estimates, to reach the 
 bottom, holding it clear for running out,, and in 
 the other hand the line at the toggle, swings the 
 lead to and fro until it has sufficient velocity to 
 carry the line out, when he lets it go in the di 
 rection in which the vessel is moving, letting the 
 lead take the line from the hand having the coil, 
 as the ship advances, so that when the ship arrives 
 at where the lead reached the water the line is 
 up and down, when he can feel if the lead has 
 touched bottom. If the lead reaches bottom, he 
 notes the mark at the water s surface, or esti 
 mates the depth from the nearest mark. 
 
 There are several nautical terms used by leads 
 men in reporting soundings. They are reported 
 in fathoms and quarters. All the depths marked 
 on the line are called marks, and the fathoms 
 not marked, " deeps." For example, if the depth 
 were 3 fathoms, it would be reported as " by the 
 mark 3" ; if 4 fathoms, as " by the deep 4" ; if 
 3 fathoms, as " and a quarter 3" ; if 3^ fathoms, 
 as " and a half 3" ; if 3| fathoms, as " and a quar 
 ter less 4-" If no bottom is reached, it is reported 
 as "no bottom" at so many fathoms, the length 
 of line thrown out. 
 
 When a vessel is going at a greater rate of 
 speed than 8 knots, it is very difficult to get 
 soundings in this manner in depths greater than 
 10 fathoms, and then the lead must be whirled 
 around the head to make it carry out enough 
 line. 
 
 A hand-lead as small as from 3 to 5 pounds 
 weight, with a very light line marked to feet, is 
 used from boats for running lines of soundings in 
 shoal water. 
 
 By the coasting- and deep-sea-leads. As it is 
 important to know the character of the bottom, 
 these leads have the lower end cup-shaped, and 
 the hollow filled with soft clean tallow before 
 being cast (called arming the lead). If the 
 lead reach bottom, it is known by a sample 
 
 sticking to the tallow ; usually there is enough 
 to indicate roughly the nature of the ground. 
 
 To get a sounding or cast with these leads, it 
 is necessary to reduce the speed of the vessel, and 
 if the water is deep, to stop her way altogether, 
 and keep her in as near the same position as 
 possible, which is done by " luffing up," or 
 " heaving to," in a sailing-vessel, or by stopping 
 and backing the engines in a steamer. 
 
 The lead is armed and taken to the bows of the 
 vessel, a sufficient number of the crew stationed 
 outside along the weather side of the ship. The 
 line, either wound up on a reel or coiled down in 
 a tub, is placed at the stern, the end rove through 
 a snatch-block made fast outside the vessel at the 
 stern in a convenient place, carried forward out 
 side of everything and made fast to the lead. 
 Each man stationed on the outside takes a coil 
 of the line in his hand and keeps it clear for run 
 ning until sufficient is judged to be out to reach 
 bottom. When the vessel s way has been suffi 
 ciently checked, or she has been brought to a 
 stationary position, the order is given, "Stand 
 by!" "Heave!" When the lead is thrown over 
 board, the person doing it cries out, " Watch-oh- 
 watch !" As the lead sinks each man lets it take 
 the line from his hand, so that he can feel if it 
 has reached bottom; if so, he cries out, "Bot 
 tom!" when the mark is noted and the line 
 hauled in through the block aft. If no bottom 
 is felt as the last part of the line leaves the man s 
 hand, he calls out to his next aft, " Watch-oh- 
 watch!" and so on to the stern, where the rest 
 of the line may be left to run off the reel or out 
 of the tub, watching to see if the lead touch bot 
 tom, which will be known by the line slacking. 
 If the cast is satisfactory, the line is hauled in, 
 the depth and character of the bottom noted, and 
 the vessel resumes her way. 
 
 If the ship is in heavy weather, or drifting to 
 leeward, it is best to take the line outside around 
 the stern from to "windward," so that by the 
 time it has run out it will be nearly up and 
 down, the ship having drifted to that place 
 while the line was running out. Sometimes a 
 buoy and nipper is used to insure an up-and- 
 down cast (called Burt s buoy and nipper). The 
 line is run through a spring catch on the buoy, 
 and the buoy thrown overboard with the lead 
 and line ; the line will run through the nipper 
 as long as the weight of the lead is felt, but when 
 it reaches the bottom the spring of the nipper 
 will catch the line and hold fast, so that the 
 depth may be measured on the line from the 
 buoy. 
 
 The above methods are used to obtain sound 
 ings by vessels approaching an unknown coast, 
 and so as to enable the navigator to tell from the 
 depth and character of the soundings his ap 
 proximate position in foggy weather on a coast 
 of which there are good charts. 
 
 For soundings to be plotted on surveys and 
 for scientific purposes finer work is needed, espe 
 cially in deep-sea soundings. 
 
 Moderate soundings may be accurately deter 
 mined by the hand-lead, as before described, 
 moderating the speed of the vessel for the pur 
 pose. 
 
 A lead coming very much into use of late 
 years is Thompson s pressure-lead, which con 
 sists of a glass tube fitted into the lead, so as to 
 give free access to the water at its lower end. 
 
LEAD 
 
 430 
 
 LEE 
 
 This tube has a chemical preparation on the in 
 side, which the water discolors as it forces its 
 way up in the interior, which it will do in pro 
 portion to the depth the lead descends, and from 
 the known laws of hydrostatics we can deter 
 mine from the length of the discolored part of 
 the tube the depth the lead has reached. J. E. 
 Noel, Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 LEAD-LINE. The line to which the lead is at 
 tached, and by which the depth of water is 
 measured. 
 
 LEADSMAN. A man stationed to heave the lead. 
 
 Lead. The distance the main steam-valve 
 has opened the port, when the piston is at the 
 end of the stroke, or the crank is on the centre ; 
 if referred to the steam-port it is called steam- 
 lead, if to the exhaust-port, exhaust-lead. When 
 two engines are connected to one shaft, as in 
 marine engines, the cranks are usually placed 
 at right angles to each other, but sometimes this 
 angle exceeds 90, and one crank placed as much 
 as 115 ahead of the other; this angular ad 
 vance above 90 is termed the lead of the crank. 
 A navigable channel through field-ice. The 
 course of a rope from end to end ; a rope leads 
 clear when it passes directly from one block to 
 another, or to the deck, without obstruction. 
 
 LEADER, or FAIR-LEADER. A piece of wood 
 (usually lignum-vitse) through which holes are 
 bored, used for the purpose of leading ropes in 
 their proper places. 
 
 LEADING-BLOCK. A block, secured to the deck, 
 through which a rope is led for the purpose of 
 convenience in pulling. 
 
 LEADING-MARKS. "Elevated objects on shore, 
 which, when in range, serve as a guide in enter 
 ing port. 
 
 LEADING-PART. That part of the fall of a 
 tackle which is led out and hauled upon. 
 
 LEADING-STRINGS (Eng.). Yoke-ropes, used 
 in steering a boat in place of a tiller. 
 
 LEADING WIND. A wind abeam or quar 
 tering. 
 
 League. A measure of distance, more com 
 monly used at sea, but in use by some European 
 nations as a measure of distance on land. Among 
 different nations the length of a sea league varies, 
 as follows : United States, Great Britain, France, 
 and Italy, 6075 yards ; Holland and Germany, 
 8100 yards ; Spain, 7416 yards ; Russia, 8468 
 yards, etc. The marine league is the distance 
 from the coast over which a government has 
 jurisdiction, and this distance has been chosen 
 as being the limit of effective range of artillery. 
 
 Leaguer -(Eng.}. A long water-cask used be 
 fore the introduction of water-tanks. Its ca 
 pacity was 159 imperial gallons. 
 
 Leak. A hole through which the water finds 
 entrance into a vessel. To spring a leak is to 
 strain the seams sufficiently to cause leakage. 
 
 LEAKAGE. The loss from a cask by leaking. 
 The allowance which is made for the waste and 
 leaking from casks of wines, liquors, etc., when 
 duties are imposed. 
 
 LEAKIES (Scotch}. Irregularities in the changes 
 of the tide in the Frith of Forth. 
 
 LEAKY. The condition of a vessel which ad 
 mits water through the seatns, or that of a cask 
 which will not retain liquid. 
 
 Lean. Thin or sharp, like the bow of a clipper. 
 
 Leaper (Eng.). A sea that breaks on board. 
 Also, the spray from the waves under the bow. 
 
 Leap-year. See BISSEXTILE. 
 
 Leather. See LATHER. i 
 
 LE ATH ER-JACKET. A fish found in the tropics, 
 and so called from the thickness of its skin. 
 
 Leave, or Leave of Absence. Permission to 
 be absent from a ship or station. A person takes 
 French leave when he absents himself without 
 permission, and breaks his leave or liberty when 
 he does not return at the time specified. 
 
 Le Clanche Battery. See GALVANIC BAT 
 TERY. 
 
 Ledge. A line of rocks below the surface of 
 the water. A short piece of timber in the deck- 
 frame of a vessel, which is placed between the 
 beams and let into the carline and knee. 
 
 Ledo. An old Latin law-term for the flow of 
 the tide. 
 
 Lee, Samuel Phillips, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Virginia, February 13, 1812. Ap 
 pointed midshipman from his native State, No 
 vember 22, 1825; attached to frigate "Java," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1828-32. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 10, 
 1833; frigate " Brandywine," Pacific Squadron, 
 1834-35, and to sloop " Vincennes," same squad 
 ron, 1836-37. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 9, 1837 ; 
 attached to West India Squadron, 1839-42; 
 coast survey, 1841-44; Pensacola Navy- Yard, 
 1845-46 ; coast survey, 1847-51 ; commanding 
 brig "Dolphin," special service, 1852; hydro- 
 graphical duty, 1852-54; Naval Observatory, 
 Washington, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; special service, 1856-60. In 1861, Com 
 mander Lee was ordered to command the sloop- 
 of-war "Oneida," and in that vessel took part 
 in the attack and passage of Forts Jackson and 
 St. Philip, and the various battles on the Mis 
 sissippi from New Orleans to Vicksburg, winning 
 a high reputation for gallantry and devotion to 
 duty. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862, and 
 ordered to the command of the North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, with the rank of acting 
 rear-admiral. While in command of the North 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, he greatly har 
 assed the enemy by numerous expeditions up 
 the navigable streams within the limits of his 
 squadron. He was at all times ready to co 
 operate with the army, and on more than one 
 occasion the presence of his vessels saved the 
 military forces from serious disaster. Wilming 
 ton, N. C., was the most difficult port on the 
 coast to blockade, but Acting Rear-Admiral 
 Lee, by a wise distribution of the vessels of his 
 squadron, made the blockade as effective as it 
 was possible to make it. In the summer of 1864, 
 he was transferred to the command of the Mis 
 sissippi Squadron. In December of the same 
 year he rendered good service to the country, 
 by keeping open the Cumberland River at the 
 time Hood s army was advancing on Nashville, 
 and when the safety of the army under Gen. 
 Thomas depended in a great measure upon rein 
 forcements and supplies reaching them promptly ; 
 the railroad communication between Louisville 
 and Nashville having been>interrupted, the Cum 
 berland River was the only channel of communi 
 cation. During this campaign he was several 
 times under fire, and for his services received a 
 vote of thanks from Congress. In 1805 the 
 
LEE 
 
 431 
 
 LEND YOUK POUND 
 
 
 Mississippi Squadron was disbanded and most of 
 the vessels were sold, Captain Lee being ordered 
 East. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 in 1866-67, he was president of the board to 
 examine volunteer officers for admission into the 
 regular navy ; on special duty at Washington, 
 D. C., 1868-70. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, June, 1870, 
 and to the command of the North Atlantic Fleet. 
 Retired, 1873. 
 
 Lee. The direction towards which the wind 
 blows, used in contradistinction to weather, or 
 the direction from whence it comes. Hence the 
 lee side of a vessel is the side opposite to that 
 against which the wind blows. The word is also 
 used in the sense of shelter; as, "The ship is 
 under the lee of the land," or protected by the 
 land. A ship is brought by the lee when her 
 course is changed so as to cause the wind to blow 
 against what was before the lee side, thus laying 
 the sails aback. 
 
 LEE-ANCHOR. The anchor on the lee-bow 
 when the vessel is under way. "When moored, 
 the lee-anchor is the one to which the vessel is 
 not riding. 
 
 LEE-BEAM. The position of an object on the 
 lee side of a vessel when a line drawn from the 
 object to the vessel would be at right angles 
 to the keel. 
 
 LEE-BOARD. A board or frame fastened to the 
 side of a small vessel, to serve as a keel and 
 lessen the amount of leeway when close-hauled. 
 
 LEE-FANG (Eng.}. A rope passed through the 
 sheet-cringle of a jib, for hauling it amidships 
 while the bonnet is being laced. 
 
 LEE-FANGE (Eng.}. The iron bar or traveler 
 secured to the deck in small fore-and-aft vessels 
 upon which the sheets slide. 
 
 LEE-GAUGE. The position of a vessel when to 
 leeward of another. See WEATHER-GAUGE. 
 
 LEE-GUNWALE UNDER. Said of a boat when 
 carrying such a press of sail that the lee-gunwale 
 is at the water s edge. 
 
 LEE-HATCH. A former order to the helmsman 
 not to steer to leeward of the course was, " Take 
 care of the lee-hatch. 11 
 
 LEE-LURCH. A heavy, sudden roll to leeward. 
 
 LEE-SHORE. A coast against which the wind 
 is blowing. 
 
 LEE-SIDE,, The side of a ship which is far 
 thest from the wind. Junior officers of the 
 watch, and officers not on duty, are allowed to 
 promenade on the lee side of the quarter-deck. 
 
 LEE-TIDE. A tide which runs in the direction 
 of the wind. 
 
 LEEWARD. Towards the lee, used in a general 
 sense. 
 
 LEEWARDLY. Said of a vessel which sags to 
 leeward when close-hauled, showing a lack of 
 weatherly qualities. 
 
 LEEWAY. The drift which a vessel makes 
 when close-hauled. The amount is greater or 
 less according to the weatherly qualities of the 
 vessel, the force of the wind and sea, and the 
 amount of sail which the vessel can carry. 
 
 LEE-WHEEL. The lee side of the wheel, where 
 the assistant to the helmsman is stationed. 
 
 Leech. The side of a square-sail, and the 
 after edge of a fore-and-aft sail. 
 
 LEECH-LINE. A rope with which the leech of 
 a course is pulled up to the yard. 
 
 LEECH-LINE BLOCK. A block fastened to the 
 fore- or main-yard, through which the leech-line 
 is rove. 
 
 LEECH-ROPE. The rope which is sewed to the 
 leeches. See SAILS. 
 
 Left-handed Rope. Hope laid up against 
 the sun. 
 
 Leg. The course and distance made upon one 
 tack. A good leg is made when the course on a 
 tack is near the desired course. Long and short 
 legs refer to the comparative distances sailed 
 upon different tacks. The spars of which a pair 
 of sheers are formed are called sheer-legs. The 
 ends of two ropes spliced together, as bunt-lines 
 are sometimes made, are also called legs. A ship 
 is said to have legs when she is a fast sailer. 
 
 LEG-ALONG (Eng.}. To lead out a rope ready 
 to be manned. 
 
 LEG-BAIL. To give leg-bail is to escape from 
 custody. 
 
 LEGS OF THE MARTINETS. Two ropes, fast 
 ened to the leech-rope of a course and spliced 
 together, to which the martinet was secured. 
 
 LEGS AND WINGS. Said of a vessel with masts 
 of great height, and which consequently has too 
 great spread of sail. 
 
 Legger. A mis-pronunciation of leaguer 
 (which see). 
 
 Leghorn, Italy, one of the best known of 
 the Mediterranean ports, is situated on a tongue 
 of land extending into the Mediterranean, in 
 lat. 43 32 42" N., Ion. 10 27 45" E. The 
 exports consist chiefly of manufactured articles 
 of coral, woolen, and silk goods, straw bonnets, 
 cordage, leather, etc. The harbor is of large ex 
 tent, but is somewhat difficult of entrance. The 
 roadstead W.N.W. of the harbor is protected by 
 a long sand-bank, and has good anchorage. 
 Originally a Roman port, it had dwindled to a 
 fishing-village, when its fine capabilities for 
 commerce were discerned by the celebrated Me 
 dici family, who constructed its harbor and sur 
 rounded it with fortifications, and bestowed upon 
 it the privilege of full toleration for all nations 
 and creeds. Pop. 98,000. 
 
 Leister (Eng.}. A spear with three prongs 
 used for taking fish. 
 
 Leit (Eng.}. A fishing-line made of horse 
 hair. 
 
 Leith, Scotland, is the seaport of Edinburgh, 
 from which it is distant 2 miles, on the south 
 shore of the Frith of Forth. Lat. 55 68 54" 
 N. ; Ion. 3 10 30" W. The chief manu 
 factures consist of ropes, cordage, sails, chem 
 icals, glassware, etc. It has extensive ship-build 
 ing yards, sugar-refineries, and breweries. The 
 harbor is an excellent one, and is protected by 
 two piers or breakwaters, which advance from 
 opposite shores toward each other, making the 
 entrance but 250 feet in width. There are ex 
 tensive wet-docks, graving-docks, dry-docks, and 
 the harbor is also protected by a battery. Pop. 
 45,000. 
 
 Leith (Swe.}. A channel. 
 
 Lembus. An ancient name for a small pi 
 ratical craft having no deck. 
 
 Leming-star. The name formerly given to 
 a comet. 
 
 Lemon Rob (Eng.}. Lemon-juice thickened 
 by evaporation. 
 
 Lend a Hand. To give assistance. 
 
 Lend Your Pound. To assist by one s weight, 
 
LENGTHENING 
 
 432 
 
 LESSEE CIECLE 
 
 as in hauling upon a rope. It refers to the al 
 lowance of meat in the navy ration. 
 
 Lengthening. In a ship, is adding to the 
 length. It is sometimes performed on the ends 
 of a ship, and nowadays 100 feet is often put 
 into the middle of the long steamships. It is 
 done by driving out all of the fastenings in the 
 wake of the butts which secure the ship amid 
 ships ; the ends are then drawn apart to the dis 
 tance required, the keel is then made good, and 
 new floors, frames, and keelsons put in, as was 
 practiced when commencing the ship, and a new 
 ship practically built in the space which has 
 been made by the separation of the two ends. 
 Great care and good judgment are required in 
 connecting the work again, and proper arrange 
 ments made to retain the strength which is lost 
 to the structure by the addition of this central 
 piece. 
 
 Length of a Wave. The horizontal distance 
 between two adjacent crests, or two adjacent 
 hollows. 
 
 Lens. A glass used in magnifying instru 
 ments. 
 
 Lentria. An ancient name of a small vessel 
 used in river navigation. 
 
 Lenunculus. An ancient fishing-boat. 
 
 Leo, Constellation of (Lai. "The Lion"). 
 The fifth constellation of the zodiac, coming be 
 tween Cancer and Yirgo, and situated near the 
 Great Bear on the opposite side of it to the pole 
 star. Its four principal stars form a trapezium. 
 a Leonis, called also Cor Leonis ("The Lion s 
 Heart") and Regulus, may be found by joining 
 a and p Ursse Majoris ("The Pointers") and 
 continuing the line about twice the length of 
 that constellation ; this line also passes y Leonis. 
 8 Leonis, called also Denebola (" The Lion s 
 Tail"), is found by joining ij Ursae Majoris (the 
 last star in the tail of the Great Bear) with Cor 
 Caroli, and continuing it to about twice its 
 length. 
 
 Leo, Sign of. The fifth sign of the ecliptic, 
 including from 120 to 150 of longitude. Owing 
 to the precession of the equinoxes, the constella 
 tion Cancer, and not Leo, is at present in this 
 sign. The sun is in Leo from 22d July to 23d 
 August. Symbol &. 
 
 Leo Minor. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Lepadogaster. A genus of fishes having the 
 ventral fins expanded and curved forward, so as 
 to form the boundary of an adhesive disk beneath 
 the throat, and the body smooth and without 
 scales. 
 
 Lepidosiren. A very remarkable genus of 
 animals, by some regarded as a fish, and by others 
 as a batrachian. The bones are very soft and 
 cartilaginous, or even gelatinous, except those 
 of the head, which resemble those of no other 
 known vertebrate, though most like fishes. The 
 scales are cycloid. The dentition is very re 
 markable. The jaws are covered with an undu 
 lating ribbon of bone, covered with enamel, the 
 undulations of the upper and lower jaw adapted 
 to each other, and along the edges are small, 
 sharp teeth. There are free filamentary gills 
 situated under gill-covers, as in osseous fishes, 
 but two of the arterial arches, which ordinarily 
 supply the gills of fishes with blood, are repre 
 sented by trunks, which proceed to the double 
 air-bladder, and ramify over its cellular surface, 
 so that the air-bladder, having a communication 
 
 with the mouth, is capable of serving to a certain 
 extent the purpose of lungs, and the animal is 
 enabled to sustain a torpid existence during the 
 dry season in mud, in which it forms for itself a 
 kind of nest, which has been likened to the co 
 coon of an insect, by means of a mucous secre 
 tion from its body. It is found in ponds and 
 rivers of intertropical Africa and South America. 
 
 Leppo. A composition used by the Chinese 
 for paying the seams of a vessel. 
 
 Lepus. a Leporis, Arneb. See CONSTELLA 
 TION. 
 
 Le Roy, William E., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, March 24, 1818. Appointed 
 from New York, January 11, 1832; attached to 
 frigate "Delaware," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1833-36; brig "Dolphin," Brazil Squadron, 
 1837-38. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 23, 
 1838 ; frigate " Constitution," Pacific Squadron, 
 1839-40; store-ship "Erie," 1842-43. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, July 13, 1843 ; 
 steamer "Mississippi," Home Squadron, 1846 ; 
 steamer "Princeton," Home Squadron, 1847; 
 engagement with Mexican soldiers at Rio Ari- 
 biqua, while assisting to water the " Princeton" ; 
 sloop "Savannah," Pacific Squadron, 1849-51 ; 
 waiting orders, 1852; frigate "Savannah," 
 Brazil Squadron, 1853-55; Naval Station, Sack- 
 ett s Harbor, New York, 1857-58; frigate " Sa- 
 bine," Brazil Squadron, 1859; commanding 
 steamer "Mystic," coast of Africa, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 1, 1861 ; 
 commanding steamer "Keystone State," South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862-63 ; cap 
 ture of Fernandina, 1862; engagement with 
 ironclads, off Charleston, S. C., January, 1863; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Oneida," "Western 
 Gulf Squadron, 1864; commanding steam-sloop 
 "Ossipee," Western Gulf Squadron, 1864-65. 
 Commanded the " Ossipee" at the battle of Mo 
 bile Bay, August 5, 1864 ; his vessel was struck 
 many times, but, fortunately, not disabled. 
 When about running down the " Tennessee," 
 that vessel displayed a white flag, and Capt. Le 
 Roy received her surrender from Capt. Johnson, 
 her commander, the rebel admiral, Buchanan, 
 being wounded ; naval rendezvous, New York, 
 1866-67. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; fleet- 
 captain, European Squadron, under Admiral 
 Farragut, 1867-68.. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July, 1870; 
 special duty, New London, 1871 ; senior officer 
 Board of Examiners, 1872-73. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, April 5, 1874 ; 
 commanding South Atlantic Station, 1874-76 ; 
 North Atlantic Station, 1876 ; European Station, 
 1878-80. Retired March 24, 1880. 
 
 Lerrick (Eng.}. The sand-piper. 
 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de. A French engineer, 
 rich in original conception and skillful in execu 
 tion. Through his untiring efforts the channel 
 connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, 
 and now known as the Suez Canal, was opened, 
 to the infinite advantage of the trade between 
 Europe and India. He has recently conceived a 
 plan for establishing a communication between 
 the Atlantic and Pacific, across the Isthmus of 
 Panama. 
 
 Lesser Circle. A circle whose plane does 
 not pass through the centre of the sphere. 
 
LET DRAW 
 
 433 
 
 LIBERTY 
 
 Let Draw. The order given in tacking a 
 fore-and-aft vessel, at which the sheets of the 
 jibs are allowed to slip to the lee side, after the 
 vessel s head has fallen off sufficiently from the 
 wind. 
 
 Let Drive. To throw. 
 
 Let Fall. The order to let a sail drop from 
 the yard after loosing. 
 
 Let Fly. To let a rope go quickly without 
 first slacking away. 
 
 Let Go and Haul. An order in tacking, when 
 the fore-bowline and lee head-braces are let go 
 and the head-yards are hauled around. 
 
 Let Go Under Foot. Said of an anchor when 
 it is let go, but, the vessel being stationary, with 
 out veering cable. 
 
 Let In. To secure one timber to another, as a 
 carline to a beam, by a mortise and tenon. 
 
 Let Out a Reef. To increase the size of a sail 
 by untying one line of reef-points. 
 
 Let-pass (Eng.}. A pass or paper furnished 
 to a vessel to prevent detention by a ship of war. 
 
 Let Run, or Let Go by the Run. To let go 
 quickly. 
 
 Letter-board. See NAME-BOARD. 
 
 Letter-book. A book for the preservation of 
 copies of letters. 
 
 Letter-man (Eng.). See KING S LETTER- 
 MAN. 
 
 Letter of Marque. A commission or license 
 issued by a government to a private armed ves 
 sel authorizing reprisals on an enemy. The first 
 commissions of this kind were issued about the 
 middle of the 13th century, during the reign 
 of Edward I. of England, and vessels carrying 
 such commissions, called also "letters of marque," 
 have taken a prominent part in succeeding wars 
 between maritime nations as late as the early 
 part of the present century. 
 
 Letter of Reprisal. See LETTER OF MARQUE. 
 
 Lettuce-laver (Eng.}. The Ulva lactuca, an 
 edible kind of sea- weed. 
 
 Leuciscus. A genus of fishes including the 
 dac-e, chub, minnow, and the like. 
 
 Levant (Fr.). The east, or place of sun 
 rise. The term is applied to those countries 
 which are washed by the eastern part of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. Also a cant-term* used in 
 England, meaning to run away without paying 
 one s debts. 
 
 LEVANTER. A strong easterly gale frequently 
 encountered in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Levantis. The crew of a Turkish galley. 
 
 Levee (Fr. lever, to raise). An artificial em 
 bankment on the banks of a river. 
 
 Level-error. The error of the transit instru 
 ment when the axis deviates from a horizontal 
 plane. 
 
 Leveling. The art of ascertaining the differ 
 ence in the heights of objects or places 011 the 
 earth s surface. 
 
 Level Out. To continue a horizontal line 
 from a given point. 
 
 Level of the Sea. The zero plane from which 
 heights and depths are reckoned. As the actual 
 sea-level is constantly varying with the tides, it 
 is necessary to define more particularly the stand 
 ard for comparison. The mean level of the sea 
 is the middle plane between the levels of high 
 and low water. Though the range of the tide 
 may vary considerably, this mean level fluctuates 
 within very narrow limits. 
 28 
 
 Level-lines. The horizontal lines which de 
 termine the shape of the body of a vessel. 
 
 Level, Spirit-. An instrument for ascertain 
 ing the horizontality of a line or plane. It con 
 sists of a hollow glass tube of uniform bore closed 
 at both ends, and nearly filled with a fluid of 
 great mobility, such as spirit of wine or sul 
 phuric ether, an air-bubble remaining inclosed. 
 The tube is not quite straight, but has a slight 
 uniform curvature, the convex side being placed 
 upwards. The air-bubble will always occupy 
 the highest position, and this will be the middle 
 point of the tube when the instrument stands in 
 a perfectly horizontal position as regards its 
 length. To ascertain the horizontality of a given 
 line, the level is first placed upon it, and the 
 position of the bubble noted ; it is then reversed 
 end for end, and the bubble must remain in the 
 same position as before. For a plane the test 
 must be repeated in a direction perpendicular to 
 the first pair of observations. Astronomical 
 levels are furnished with a divided scale by 
 which the position of the ends of the bubble can 
 be accurately noted. 
 
 Lever-engine. A modification of the side- 
 beam (or lever) engine, in which the beams are 
 levers of the second order, the fulcrum being at 
 one extremity of the lever and the piston-rod 
 connection at the other, the connecting-rod to 
 the crank-pin being joined to the beam at some 
 point between the two. 
 
 Levet (Fr. lever, to raise). A blast or call 
 with the trumpet, corresponding, probably, with 
 the reveille of the present day. 
 
 Levin (Anglo-Saxon). A word for lightning, 
 now obsolete. 
 
 Levis. An ancient name for a small open, 
 boat. 
 
 Levy, Uriah P., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsvlvania ; died in New York City, 
 March 22, 1862. He entered the navy, March 
 29, 1812; was an officer of the brig "Argus," 
 which escaped the blockade, took out Mr. Craw 
 ford, minister to France, and destroyed in the 
 British Channel 21 sail, one of which had a cargo 
 worth $625,000. On the capture of the "Ar 
 gus" he was made prisoner, and held two years. 
 Lieutenant, March 5, 1817; commander, Febru 
 ary 9, 1837; captain, March 29, 1844. His last 
 cruise was in 1858, as flag-officer of the Mediter 
 ranean Squadron. Commodore Levy was the. 
 mover of the effort to abolish flogging in the 
 navy. He published a " Manual of Kules and 
 Regulations for Ships of "War." An ardent ad 
 mirer of Jefferson, he became the owner of Mon- 
 ticello, the valuable estate once owned by that 
 statesman, which, with all its stock, dwellings, 
 pictures, etc., was confiscated by the Confeder 
 ates in consequence of his devotion to the "old 
 flag." 
 
 Levy. To conscript. 
 
 Lewer (Eng.). A corruption of lever; a hand 
 spike. 
 
 Lewis-hole. Formerly, a hole in the surface 
 of a mortar for the admission of the lewis, an 
 iron clamp which served as a handle. 
 
 Lewth (Eng.). From Anglo-Saxon lywd. A 
 place of protection from the wind. 
 
 Libera Piscaria. A term in law, meaning 
 free fishery. 
 
 Liberty. Permission given to a part of a 
 ship s crew to go on shore for a stated number 
 
LIBRA 
 
 434 
 
 LIFE-BOATS 
 
 of hours. To break one s liberty, to remain ab 
 sent beyond the time authorized. 
 
 LIBERTY-DAY. A day upon which the crew 
 are to have liberty. 
 
 LIBERTY LIQUOR (Eng.}. Liquor that was 
 formerly allowed to be sold to a sailor on board 
 ship for the purpose of entertaining a visitor. 
 
 LIBERTY-MAN. One of the crew who has 
 been granted liberty. 
 
 LIBERTY-TICKET, A paper which is some 
 times given to a liberty-man, upon which is 
 specified the extent and date of his liberty. 
 
 Libra, Constellation of (Lot. " The Balance"). 
 The seventh constellation of the zodiac, coming 
 between Yirgo and Scorpio. It contains two 
 principal stars, d z Librse, the North Balance, and 
 ft Librae, the South Balance, the former bisecting 
 the line joining Spica and Antares, the latter 
 with Spica and Arcturus forming a triangle. 
 
 LIBRA, FIRST POINT OF. The autumnal equi 
 noctial point, one of the points where the ecliptic 
 crosses the equinoctial, is so called because it is 
 the commencement of the sign Libra. 
 
 LIBRA, SIGN OF. The seventh sign of the eclip 
 tic, including from 180 to 210" of longitude. 
 Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the 
 constellation Virgo, and not Libra, is at present 
 in the sign. The sun is in Libra from Septem 
 ber 22 to October 23. Symbol =,. 
 
 Libration. In general, the moon always pre 
 sents the same face to the earth, but she passes 
 in her complex movements through certain 
 changes of position which resemble oscillations 
 or vibrations, and in consequence of these vibra 
 tions small portions of the opposite face of the 
 moon are seen. These changes are called libra- 
 tions. There are three, libration in longitude, 
 libration in latitude, and diurnal libration. 
 
 Liburna. An ancient galley used by the 
 Liburni, or Adriatic pirates. It was propelled 
 both by sails and oars. 
 
 License. The certificate given by a board 
 of trade to a master or mate of a merchant ves 
 sel, showing him to be qualified for the position. 
 
 Lick. A slang term for flog or thresh. Also, 
 to excel another. Work imperfectly done is 
 said to have received u a lick and a promise," 
 and an experienced seaman may be said to have 
 received " a lick of the tar-brush." 
 
 Licorn. A short howitzer, used during the 
 last century. 
 
 Lie a Hull. To lie with no sail set. 
 
 Lie Along. To careen with a beam wind. 
 To lie along the shore is to coast, keeping the 
 land in sight. 
 
 Lie Athwart. To lie across, as a vessel when 
 lying to the wind across, or at right angles to 
 the tide. 
 
 Lie By. To arrange the sails in such a man 
 ner that the effect of the wind upon one part will 
 counteract its effect upon the rest, and check the 
 vessel s headway. 
 
 Lie In. See LAY. 
 
 Lie Off. To remain at a distance. 
 
 Lie Out. See LAY. 
 
 Lie Over. To heel or careen with the wind. 
 
 Lie To. To head a ship as near the wind as 
 possible during a gale, in order that she may be 
 in the position of greatest safety. The helm is 
 kept a-lee and sail set, which will steady the ves 
 sel and keep the head to the wind. The main 
 topsail, close-reefed, main trysail, and fore storm- 
 
 stay-sail are usually required for a full-rigged 
 ship, but some ships lie to more easily with a 
 different arrangement of sails. 
 
 Lieutenant. An officer of the navy holding 
 equal rank with a captain in the army. Their 
 duties on shipboard are those of watch-officers 
 and navigators, or executive-officers of the smaller 
 classes of vessels, and they take rank according 
 to the dates of their commissions. See NAVI 
 GATOR, WATCH-OFFICER. 
 
 Lieutenant-Commander. The grade in the 
 navy next below that of commander, and hold 
 ing equal rank with a major in the army. An 
 officer of that grade is usually ordered as the ex 
 ecutive-officer of the first-, second-, and third- 
 rates, or in command of a fourth-rate vessel. See 
 EXECUTIVE-OFFICER. 
 
 Lieutenant-at-arms (Eng.}. Formerly, the 
 junior lieutenant of a ship, who was detailed for 
 drilling the crew with small-arms. 
 
 Life-belt. A belt of rubber, or one contain 
 ing cork, to serve as a life-preserver. 
 
 Life-boats and Boat-detaching Apparatus. 
 A life-boat is one especially built for use in 
 storms, heavy seas, and broken water, where an 
 ordinary boat could not venture without immi 
 nent risk of destruction. See LIFE-BOATS AND 
 LIFE-RAFTS. 
 
 Life-boats in use on shipboard are usually boats 
 calculated by their build to be particularly sea 
 worthy. On men-of-war they are usually light 
 cutters or the New Bedford whale-boat, than 
 which, in proper hands, there is no better sea- 
 boat. 
 
 Being sharp at both endjs and with great sheer 
 of gunwale, they are well calculated for surf- 
 boats, but must invariabty be steered by an oar, 
 and provided with a "drogue" when on such 
 service. 
 
 The so-called metallic life-boat used so gener 
 ally on passenger steamers is built by stamping 
 out the sides of the boat from sheet-metal by hy 
 draulic pressure, a corrugation resembling the 
 seams of a lap-strake-built boat being given for 
 stiffness. These sides are then fastened to a 
 wooden keel, stem, and stern-post. An air-cham 
 ber is placed in each end, as without them, owing 
 to the weight of the metal of which they are built, 
 they would at once sink if filled with water. 
 
 Some English-built ships life-boats have extra 
 buoyancy given them by cylindrical air-tanks 
 under the thwarts, like those just abolished from 
 the American surf-boats. 
 
 In England, steam-cutters for ships u?e have 
 been made unsinkable by giving extra buoyancy 
 with air-chambers in the bow and stern and along 
 the sides. 
 
 When heavy ships boats are to be sent into a 
 surf or heavy sea, additional buoyancy may be 
 given them temporarily by lashing small casks 
 or water-breakers under the thwarts. They 
 should be placed along the sides as much as pos 
 sible to prevent the water from settling there if 
 the boat is thrown on her beam-ends. 
 
 Richardson s tubular life-boat has been used to 
 some extent in England as a surf-boat. It is 
 made of two parallel tubes with the ends turned 
 up and in, and carrying between them a frame 
 work to support the thwarts, masts, etc. 
 
 It is more a form of " balsa" or " catamaran" 
 than a boat. 
 
 Detaching apparatuses are contrivances fitted 
 
LIFE-BOATS 
 
 435 
 
 LIFE-BOATS 
 
 to ships boats, and life-boats in particular, to 
 readily free them from their "falls" or tackles 
 at the will of the person in charge, or automat 
 ically when water-borne. 
 
 The inventions to accomplish this end are 
 numberless, and in the patent records of the 
 United States and Great Britain there are many 
 hundreds. A commission was appointed by the 
 English government about 1870 to look into this 
 subject and select an apparatus for use in that 
 country, but it was poorly advertised, and no 
 definite action was ever taken. 
 
 The advantages gained by the use of a boat 
 apparatus are the following : In the case of a 
 man overboard or other emergency, the boat, 
 with her crew in her, may be lowered nearly to 
 the water and then dropped at the will of the 
 operator without waiting to deaden the ship s 
 headway, as would be necessary under ordinary 
 circumstances. In heavy weather, with the ves 
 sel rolling and pitching, a favorable opportunity 
 may be seized and the boat instantly freed and 
 pushed clear. In case of fire or shipwreck, when 
 it is necessary to abandon the ship, the boats may 
 be lowered with all on board, except those sta 
 tioned to lower, to a safe distance; those remain 
 ing on board can then come down the falls while 
 they are yet taut and the boat clear of the water, 
 and consequently in no danger of being capsized 
 or swept away, and then at the proper moment 
 she can be detached. 
 
 The oldest detaching arrangement in existence 
 has been used for many years by the American 
 whalers in the constant and dangerous boat-low 
 ering they do. It is simply a rope-runner at 
 each end of the boat by which she is lowered 
 into the water, and they are allowed to unreeve 
 as the boat is swept away. This, though very 
 simple, has the disadvantage of requiring a sec 
 ond set of falls to hoist by. The runners must 
 also be tended by two skilled men on the vessel, 
 who must act in unison to place the boat in the 
 water at the proper moment. A kink in the 
 rope in unreeving is also apt to capsize the boat 
 unless quickly cut. 
 
 The first regular apparatus intended to obviate 
 some of these defects came into use in the U. S. 
 navy about 1859, and was the invention of Hun 
 ter Davidson, then a lieutenant in the navy. 
 His apparatus also lowered and detached by one 
 set of falls and hoisted by another, but it was 
 detached in the boat itself at the will of the per 
 son in charge. There was no chance of a foul 
 after it was once started, and one man lowered 
 both ends of the boat at once. 
 
 The objections to this and most of the many 
 others that have followed it in this and all other 
 maritime countries have been, that they were 
 complex, easy to get out of order, hard for the 
 ordinary sailor to understand and manage, and 
 in many cases cumbersome, taking up the best 
 part of the boat. 
 
 A good boat apparatus should be very sim 
 ple, easily understood and managed by the 
 dullest coxswain, not liable to accidentally de 
 tach the boat, or detach her when lifted by a sea, 
 either at the davit-heads or while lowering, as in 
 the latter case especially only one end might be 
 freed and the boat surely swamped. It should 
 not encumber the boat in any way, and espe 
 cially should it not be in the way of the crew. 
 It should provide a simple, easy method of hook 
 
 ing on when the boat returns ; for this is one of 
 the most difficult parts of the operation of hand 
 ling a ship s boat in heavy weather, and is a point 
 which the inventors of boat apparatuses have al 
 most universally neglected, thinking it quite suf 
 ficient to get their boats clear of the ship, and not 
 realizing that it is quite as important at most 
 times to get her back again readily. 
 
 An apparatus is found especially convenient 
 in a stern boat, as it is sometimes very difficult 
 to unhook the ordinary falls in a tide-way, as the 
 boat is swept astern as soon as she touches the 
 water. Boat-detachers have, like all other inno 
 vations, had opponents among professional men, 
 but the necessity for a good contrivance of this 
 kind is now generally acknowledged by all who 
 understand the subject and are not influenced 
 by mistaken economy to object to the outlay 
 necessary to so provide their boats. 
 
 The writer has knowledge of several lives 
 saved which would have been lost but for tho 
 time gained and facilities given by a " detacher," 
 and no one can deny that the long death lists 
 from steamboat disasters, now filling the papers 
 in this month of June, 1880, might have been 
 smaller if these vessels boats had been properly 
 provided in this and other respects. Ships life 
 boats should always be ready to lower at a mo 
 ment s notice, but it too often happens that what 
 might be gained by an apparatus is more than 
 lost by reversed davits, foul falls, lashings, boat- 
 covers, etc., and such will continue to be the 
 case, in passenger vessels at least, until public 
 sentiment forces a law covering these points, and 
 then sees it carried out. W. M. Wood, Lieuten 
 ant U.S.N. 
 
 Life-boats and Life-rafts. For the best types 
 of life-boats it is necessary to look to those na 
 tions whose citizens have given the most atten 
 tion to saving lives from wrecked vessels. In 
 1784, Lionel Lukin designed an " unimmergible 
 boat," and four years later Henry Greathead, a 
 boat-builder, also of Great Britain, built a boat ; 
 the rudimentary points of these boats have been 
 developed, and will be briefly described as they 
 exist. 
 
 To the " Royal National Institution for the 
 Preservation of Life from Shipwreck," founded 
 in Great Britain in 1825, is due in a great de 
 gree establishments for the same object by other 
 peoples as national institutions, usually adopting 
 the life-boats, or the principles of their construc 
 tion, to some extent. 
 
 The life-boats of Great Britain are of two 
 types, one self-righting and self-bailing, the 
 other very difficult to upset but not self-right 
 ing ; both are insubmergible. The largest of 
 the first named are 40 feet long, 10 \ feet beam, 
 and 5 feet deep amidships. They have metal 
 keels of from 600 to 1500 pounds weight, and 
 have the same weight in cork as of ballast, con 
 fined beneath a water-tight deck at the load-line. 
 The boat is propelled by 12 oars, and her buoy 
 ancy, when swamped or capsized, is due to air- 
 cases at the ends and along the inside of the boat, 
 aided, even when stove, by the cork-ballast, and 
 when not stove, the floor part of the boat acting 
 as an air-chamber, being covered by a water 
 tight deck before mentioned. The sheer of the 
 boat is considerable; the elevated end air-cham 
 bers, aided by the weight of keel and ballast, 
 cause her to right if upset. Should a sea fall on 
 
LIFE-BOATS 
 
 436 
 
 LIFE-BUOY 
 
 board it would fill up the space above the water 
 tight deck at the load-line, and would at once 
 discharge itself through valves. The weight of 
 the boat causes a draft of 22 inches, and makes 
 launching and landing difficult, but, on the 
 other hand, gives great steadiness in a heavy 
 sea. Sails are used at will. The usual weight 
 is 4000 pounds; these boats are of the " diagonal 
 build," usually of mahogany, but sometimes of 
 fir-wood. The means of transportation along a 
 beach is a wagon of 2000 pounds weight, drawn 
 by horses. 
 
 The other type of life-boat is from 36 to 40 
 feet in length, and from 10 to 12 feet beam ; 
 sails are employed, and the boat is heavily water- 
 ballasted, on the general principle of being 
 "water-logged," and, when filled, making the 
 water incapable of shifting ; this also as the 
 first-named type has an iron keel of about the 
 same weight. Of the 270 life-boats of the British 
 Institution, 21 have not the principles of con 
 struction which make them self-righting. 
 
 The " surf-boat" usually employed on the east 
 ern coast of the United States in the Life-Saving 
 Service, is, as the life-boat, insubmergible, but 
 not self-righting and bailing, and though in 
 ferior in strength, has the advantage in lightness 
 for passing through surf. It is surrounded by a 
 cork fender, is fitted with life-lines for persons 
 in the water, and is easily managed under the 
 lee of a wreck from its lightness. The boat is 
 propelled by oars and requires a crew of 7 men. 
 Several of our harbors on the Northern lakes 
 are furnished with English life-boats, there be 
 ing facilities for lowering or launching them. 
 In general, from the shoal character of the water 
 on the Atlantic coast of the United States, the 
 surf-boat has been found well adapted and more 
 useful than the English life-boat would be. A 
 modification of the last named, self-righting and 
 self-bailing, but of much less weight and draft, 
 is now introduced at some points on the Atlantic 
 coast where bold water and other facilities exist 
 for launching. 
 
 For some years merchant steamers have been 
 furnished with galvanized sheet-iron cylinders 
 having conical ends, yoked in pairs at some space 
 apart by a frame- work, having slats between 
 them arranged in such manner that, if capsized, 
 the oars attached can be used. The cylinders 
 composing the raft are in several parts or water 
 tight sections, held together by a connecting 
 rod. 
 
 Vessels of war of the United States are fur 
 nished with what is known as the " Ammen 
 balsa," or raft. It is composed of two casks of 
 wood with oval cross-sections, having a slight 
 taper from the centre towards the ends. Five 
 feet from the ends the staves of the floor and sides 
 are so beveled as to make very small heads to the 
 casks, and forming almost a straight back. The 
 casks are yoked together at a space apart equal to 
 the superior diameter of a cask, and slats are 
 screwed from beneath between them so as to 
 make a platform. The largest size issued to the 
 navy has a length of 23 feet, and as yoked, 5 feet 
 broad ; weight, with oars, mast, and sail, 945 
 pounds, with a possible displacement or buoy 
 ancy of 5225 pounds. It pulls fairly, and when 
 fitted with a centre-board will beat to windward 
 in a heavy breeze and sea. The casks have scut 
 tles fitted with thumb-screws, which permit them 
 
 to be stowed with water, provisions, or other arti 
 cles, and then made water-tight. 
 
 The " india-rubber balsa" has been in use since 
 1837. It is composed of two or more air-tight 
 bags with apparatus for inflating them, and a 
 frame-work of wood to keep them in position. 
 It is comparatively light and portable. 
 
 " Balsas," or life-rafts, have been supposed de 
 fective as life-boats for use from the shore on 
 account of the great difficulty, if not impossi 
 bility, of getting them off a beach through a 
 heavy surf in the face of a gale. This difficulty 
 could be obviated by planting disks of iron, with 
 chains attached at such points as might be thought 
 advisable. 
 
 Comparing the different life-rafts : the first 
 named are heavy in comparison to their sustain 
 ing capacity, and have small power of locomo 
 tion by sail or oars ; the second have a great 
 capacity to sustain a load as compared with their 
 weight, and can be made by any cooper or boat- 
 builder, without royalty. If they should be cap 
 sized the sustaining power is not diminished, 
 and they can be righted in the water by a num 
 ber of persons acting together, or by few persons, 
 if one of the casks is allowed to fill partially with 
 water. They pull and sail fairly, and afford the 
 facility of placing water and provisions within 
 them. If made to sustain the dead-weight of 
 60 men, they need not weigh more than 1000 
 pounds. If injured, as the pressure is from with 
 out, a patch of lead, canvas, or wood will serve, 
 or even a rag punched into the hole. Their ap 
 plicability for passenger steamers and ships, from 
 comparative small weight and cost, would seem 
 obvious. 
 
 India-rubber "balsas" are liable to injury from 
 heat and moisture, and become useless if torn or 
 punctured, as they are very liable to be ; the press 
 ure being from within, the escape of air would 
 destroy the buoyancy. They would be useless 
 on a rocky shore, and are necessarily expensive. 
 
 The following may be deduced from the above : 
 no life-boat is known which, under all circum 
 stances of beach, facilities or difficulties of launch 
 ing, etc., is unequivocally the best. For the use 
 of vessels life-rafts may have the following ad 
 vantages over boats : a greater sustaining power 
 at less cost, and with less weight proportionate to 
 their sustaining power ; relative ease of getting 
 them overboard in a sea-way without injury, and 
 if the pressure is from without, very easily re 
 paired when injured. Add to this the impossi 
 bility of swamping, and the ease with which the 
 life-raft could be "righted if capsized in launch 
 ing, which would, under the same circumstance, 
 render the boats ordinarily carried by ships en 
 tirely useless. Daniel Ammen, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S^N. 
 
 Life-buoy. A structure intended to save the 
 life of a person who may have fallen into the 
 water. That in general use in the navy consists 
 of two metallic cylinders connected by a central 
 spindle, to the upper end of which is fixed a 
 port-fire. The frame-work at the lower end of 
 the spindle serves as a resting-place for the feet. 
 One life-buoy is attached to each quarter, and is 
 let fall into the water by means of a knob, which 
 being pulled, detaches the buoy from the ship. 
 If required for use at night, another knob is first 
 pulled, which ignites the port-fire by means of a 
 hammer and percussion-cap. The burning of 
 
LIFE-KITE 
 
 437 
 
 LIFE-SAVING SERVICE 
 
 the port-fire indicates the position of the buoy. 
 A small red flag is attached to the spindle by 
 day to assist in keeping the buoy in sight. Cir 
 cular buoys are also used, which maybe cut clear 
 of a vessel s stern, or thrown to a person in the 
 water. 
 
 Life-kite. A kite contrived for the purpose 
 of sending a line from a wreck to the shore, as a 
 means of escape from the vessel. 
 
 Life-line. A rope stretched about the deck 
 during a gale, by which the men can save them 
 selves from being washed overboard by heavy 
 seas. A life-line is also extended from the lift 
 to the mast above each yard-arm, and serves as 
 a support to the men in manning yards. 
 
 Life-preservers. Devices for preserving the 
 buoyancy of the human body, and for reaching 
 the shore in cases of shipwreck or other casu 
 alty afloat. , The favorite material of their con 
 struction is cork. It has been calculated that 
 one pound of cork is amply sufficient to support 
 a man of ^ordinary size and make. The cork life- 
 preservers have generally the form of a jacket or 
 a belt, and a great variety of them have been 
 patented. A life-buoy held in high esteem 
 among sailors is composed of slices of cork, 
 neatly and compactly arranged so as to form a 
 buoyant zone of about 30 or 32 inches in diam 
 eter, 6 in width, and 4 in thickness. It contains 
 about 12 pounds of cork, and is generally covered 
 with painted canvas to add to its strength and 
 protect it from the injurious action of water. A 
 buoy so constructed can sustain six persons, and it 
 is generally furnished with a life-line (a cord run 
 ning round the outside of the buoy and fastened 
 to it at four points) to afford a more convenient 
 hold. A few years ago, on the invention of india- 
 rubber cloth, inflated belts of this material were 
 made, and found to be superior in buoyancy to 
 the cork belt, besides, when emptied of air, being 
 very portable. They are, however, much more 
 liable to damage by being punctured or torn, or 
 to decay by being put away while damp. Some 
 of these defects are remedied by having the inte 
 rior of the belt divided into several compartments, 
 so that when one is damaged the remainder may 
 suffice. Their susceptibility to damage, how 
 ever, by want of care and the effects of climate 
 militates strongly against their general use. 
 Mattresses stuffed with cork have been exten 
 sively used, and are highly effective as life-pre 
 servers. Faced with one-inch thickness of horse 
 hair, they are very comfortable for ordinary 
 purposes, and are preferred by many to those 
 made wholly of hair. The buoyancy of the 
 cork mattress may be increased by means of a 
 water-proof sheet, which, placed within a ham 
 mock, enfolds the mattress and bedding. Mr. 
 R. B. Forbes, of Boston, who has devoted much 
 time and attention to the subject of life-saving 
 appliances, has shown by experiment that a 
 common hammock and a hair mattress put into 
 a water-tight bag securely tied at its mouth 
 would float indefinitely with two 32-pound shot 
 attached to it. The chairs, benches, stools, seats, 
 cushions, and manv other articles of equipment 
 about ships may be made valuable as life-pre 
 servers by being rendered air-tight or fitted with 
 air-tight attachments. See LIFE-BOATS AND 
 RAFTS. 
 
 Life-saving Service of the United States. 
 This admirable and beneficent institution was 
 
 organized by act of Congress, approved June 18, 
 1878. Its purpose is sufficiently indicated by its 
 title, and it is unique as being the only exclu 
 sively governmental establishment of the kind 
 in the world. Previous to its organization the 
 principal efforts in the direction of succoring 
 shipwrecked voyagers along our coasts had 
 grown out of the operation of the Massachusetts 
 Humane Society, which, as early as 1789, had 
 caused huts to be erected at some of the most 
 desolate points on the coast of Massachusetts for 
 the shelter of shipwrecked persons fortunate 
 enough to reach the shore. The first life-boat 
 station was established by this society at Cohasset 
 in 1807, and subsequently others were added. 
 The society received from time to time pecuniary 
 aid from both the general and State governments, 
 by which it was enabled to extend and improve 
 its operations. Although relieved of a portion 
 of its self-imposed task of benevolence by the 
 organization of the governmental establishment, 
 it still exists, and efficiently supplements the 
 operations of the latter in alleviating the dis 
 tress of shipwrecked mariners on the Massa 
 chusetts coast. Similar societies have at times 
 existed in other parts of the country, but they 
 have now, for the most part, either discontinued 
 their organization, or diverted their operations 
 into other channels. The first step toward a 
 distinctively national life-saving service was the 
 appropriation by Congress in 1848 of $10,000 for 
 providing surf-boats and other appliances for res 
 cuing life and property from shipwreck on the 
 coast of New Jersey. Eight buildings were 
 erected at different points on that coast, and 
 were fitted with the necessary appointments. 
 This was followed by an appropriation of $20,000 
 in 1849, with which 8 buildings were built 
 and furnished on the coast of Long Island, and 
 6 added to those previously erected in New 
 Jersey. In 1850 Congress made another ap 
 propriation of $20,000, half of which was ex 
 pended in establishing additional stations on 
 Long Island, and one at Watch Hill in Rhode 
 Island, and the other half in placing life-boats 
 and boat-houses at different points on the 
 coasts of North and South Carolina, Georgia, 
 Florida, and Texas. Appropriations amounting 
 to $42,500 were made to the Life-saving Service 
 in 1853-54, with which 14 new stations were 
 added to those on the New Jersey coast, and 11 
 to those on the coast of Long Island. Twenty- 
 three life-boats were distributed along the shores 
 of Lake Michigan, and others were placed at dif 
 ferent points on the Atlantic and Lake coasts. 
 Exclusive of the boats at the 55 stations on the 
 New York and New Jersey coasts, there were in 
 1854 82 life-boats at different localities elsewhere. 
 The same year Congress passed an act, under the 
 provisions of which a superintendent at a com 
 pensation of $1500 per annum was appointed for 
 each of the two coasts ; a keeper was assigned to 
 each station at a salary of $250 ; the stations and 
 their equipments were made serviceable, and 
 bonded custodians were secured for the life-boats. 
 The service, however, still lacked drilled and 
 disciplined crews, regulations, and a central ener 
 getic administration of its affairs. An effort 
 made in 1869 to procure from Congress an ap 
 propriation to provide for crews of surfmen, re 
 sulted in securing these crews for each alternate 
 station, and in 1871 the Secretary of the Treas- 
 
LIFE-SAVING-SERVICE 
 
 438 
 
 LIFE-SAVING SERVICE 
 
 ury, to whose department the Life-saving Service 
 owing to its relation to commerce belongs, was 
 authorized to employ crews of surf men at such 
 stations and for such periods as he might deem 
 necessary. From that year the present organiza 
 tion of the service may be said to date. An ap 
 propriation of $200,000 was made by Congress 
 for its support, and an efficient chief was found 
 in the person of Mr. Simmer I. Kimball, who, in 
 February of the same year, had taken charge of 
 the bureau of the Revenue Marine Service, to 
 which the administration of the Life-saving Ser 
 vice at that time belonged. Setting vigorously 
 to work, Mr. Kimball, by means of thorough in 
 spection, acquainted himself accurately with the 
 existing state of the service and the steps neces 
 sary to remedy its defects, and so satisfactory 
 were the results of his efforts that the record of 
 the season s operations (1871-72) on the coasts of 
 New Jersey and Long Island, where the system 
 had been most fully developed, show that every 
 person imperiled by shipwreck was saved. The 
 success of this season stimulated renewed effort 
 and encouraged further development. New sta 
 tions were established ; a code of regulations was 
 prepared, and improved apparatus was selected 
 for the stations, including the New Jersey cedar 
 surf-boat, an eprouvette mortar, the india-rubber 
 life-saving dress invented by Mr. C. S. Merri- 
 man, and Coston night-signals. "Without at 
 tempting to follow year by year the successive 
 stages of development, it must suffice to say that, 
 under the fostering care of Congress and efficient 
 administration by its chief, the Life-saving Ser 
 vice continued to improve and expand, until it 
 had so demonstrated its usefulness that, on the 
 18th of June, 1878, Congress passed an act de 
 taching it from the Revenue Marine and erect 
 ing it into a separate and definite establishment. 
 As now organized the establishment embraces 
 12 districts, comprising 195 stations, which are 
 divided into 3 classes, known respectively as 
 life-saving stations, life-boat stations, and houses 
 of refuge. The following table shows the loca 
 tion of the districts, and the number and class of 
 the stations belonging to each district : 
 
 
 Districts. 
 
 
 Stations. 
 
 No. 
 
 Coasts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Class.. 
 
 1 
 
 Maine and New Hamp 
 shire 
 
 7 
 
 Life-saving 
 
 ? 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 3 
 
 Rhode Island, Block, and 
 Long Islands 
 
 38 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 New Jersey . .. 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 Delaware, Maryland, and 
 Virginia to Cape Charles. 
 Virginia and North Caro 
 lina, from Cape Henry 
 to Cape Fear 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Florida 
 
 5 
 
 
 8 
 
 Gulf of Mexico 
 
 6 
 
 5 life-saving. 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 Lakes Erie and Ontario 
 Lakes Huron and Superior. 
 Lake Michigan 
 
 9 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 1 life-boat station. 
 3 life-saving. 
 6 life-boat stations. 
 10 life-saving. 
 3 life-boat stations. 
 5 life-saving. 
 
 T> 
 
 Pacific 
 
 g 
 
 13 life-boat stations, 
 ife-boat stations 
 
 
 
 
 
 The life-saving stations have houses two stories 
 
 in height, and from 18 to 20 feet wide, by 40 to 
 45 feet long. They are neat and tasteful in ap 
 pearance, and contain on the ground-floor 2 
 rooms, one, the boat-room, about 10 by 16 by 30 
 feet, which opens to the weather by a broad 
 double-leaved door. In this are stored the boats, 
 life-car, wreck-gun, and most of the apparatus. 
 The other room, measuring about 8 by 12 by 16 
 feet, is the common living-room of the crew. In 
 the second story are 3 rooms, one for storage, 
 one the keeper s sleeping-room, and one that of 
 the men, these two sleeping-rooms being fur 
 nished with some extra cots for use in emergency. 
 At stations having signal-service communication 
 there is an additional room in the upper story for 
 the signal-officer. 
 
 The houses at life-boat stations are usually 24 
 feet from base to peak, 42 feet long by 22 feet 
 wide, outside measurements, and contain a loft 
 above, and a room below 12 feet high, 20 feet 
 wide, and 40 feet long, for the accommodation of 
 the life-boat and its gear. They stand on piles 
 at the water s edge or on the inner side of the 
 piers, and are furnished with an inclined plat 
 form or trap in the floor, along which the life 
 boat is let down and launched by means of a 
 windlass. 
 
 The houses of refuge, which exist only on the 
 Florida coast, are two-story structures, having 
 broad gabled roofs, a veranda 8 feet wide on 
 three sides, and large chimneys in the rear, built 
 outside the wall. They are of pine, elevated about 
 6 feet from the ground, and the roofs are 
 shingled with cypress. The windows are fitted 
 with wire-gauze mosquito netting in place of 
 glass. The houses are about 37 feet long by 15 
 wide, not including the veranda space. The lower 
 story has 3 apartments, the upper is not divided 
 into apartments. Each house has capacity for 
 succoring 25 persons, and has a 10 days supply 
 of food for that number. A boat-house is pro 
 vided for each station, furnished with a galvan 
 ized iron boat with sculls. 
 
 The personnel of the Life-saving Service con 
 sists of a general superintendent and an assistant 
 general superintendent, their headquarters being 
 in the Treasury at Washington ; an inspector of 
 life-saving stations, who is an officer of the Reve 
 nue Marine ; 2 superintendents of construction 
 of life-saving stations, who are also officers of the 
 Revenue Marine, and who supervise the erection 
 and repairs of buildings, and the purchase of 
 equipments for new stations. Their office is in 
 New York. An officer of the Revenue Marine is 
 assigned to each district as assistant inspector, his 
 duty being to see that the stations and their 
 equipments are in proper condition, and the 
 crews proficient in the use of the life-saving 
 apparatus. The districts are severally in charge 
 of a superintendent, who is appointed after exam 
 ination, and is required to be an inhabitant of the 
 region, familiar with the coast, and with the action 
 of surf and the use of surf-boats and other life- 
 saving apparatus. He is responsible for the con 
 dition and conduct of his district, makes requisi 
 tion for all repairs, outfits, and supplies therein 
 necessary, pays the crews, keeps the accounts, 
 and conducts the correspondence. For the Rhode 
 Island portion of the third district there is also 
 an assistant superintendent, who resides at Block 
 Island. The superintendent nominates the keep 
 ers of his district, who are subject to an exami- 
 
LIFT 
 
 439 LIGHT-HOUSE ESTABLISHMENT 
 
 nation by a board consisting of the local inspec 
 tor, a surgeon of the Marine Hospital Service, 
 and an expert surfman. Each station is in charge 
 of a keeper. He selects his own crew, subject, 
 however, to the revision of the Examining Board. 
 He is by law an inspector of customs, and has 
 authority to take charge of stranded property, 
 and to prevent smuggling. He keeps invento 
 ries of all property pertaining to his station, and 
 a journal of events, weekly transcripts of which 
 are sent to the general superintendent. He is re 
 sponsible for the good order of the station and its 
 appointments, commands the crew, and conducts 
 all operations. At complete life-saving stations 
 the keepers are required to reside constantly with 
 their crews during the active season. At life 
 boat stations, with only volunteer crews, the 
 keepers must live in the neighborhood, keep 
 sharp look-out for vessels in distress during thick 
 weather, and rally their men upon occasions of 
 need. At houses of refuge the keepers live with 
 their families the whole year, and after storms 
 the beach is thoroughly searched to the greatest 
 extent practicable in both directions for persons 
 cast ashore, who, when found, are succored and 
 tenderly cared for. The crews of life-saving sta 
 tions consist of 6 men, who are required to be 
 hardy and skilled surfmen. They constantly 
 patrol the beaches at night with lanterns and 
 night-signals, and also watch by day, especially 
 in thick weather. This system of patrolling is a 
 distinctive feature of the United States Life-sav 
 ing Service, and its proved value in speedily 
 discovering stranded vessels causes it to be main 
 tained with great vigilance, the manner of its 
 performance to be strictly watched, and any 
 evasion of duty in connection with it to be 
 promptly punished. The volunteer crews at 
 the life-boat stations are groups of 8 persons 
 besides the keeper. They are regularly enrolled, 
 and are required to be vigilant to observe the sig 
 nal for their assembly in thick or stormy weather. 
 See LIFE-BOATS AND RAFTS, LIGHT-HOUSE ES 
 TABLISHMENT, WRECK ARTILLERY, DROWN. 
 
 Lift. To shake slightly, as a sail when the 
 wind blows against it at too small an angle. To 
 raise, as a vessel, when lifted out of the water by 
 a floating-dock. Fog is said to lift when it rises 
 from the surface of the water. A promotion is 
 sometimes called a lift. "Give me a lift 11 is a 
 request for assistance in work. A lift is a rope 
 which extends from the mast-head to each end 
 of a yard to support the yard-arms. A yard is 
 " on the lifts 11 when its weight is supported by 
 the lifts. A topping-lift supports the outer end 
 of a lower studding-sail boom and a spanker- 
 boom. 
 
 LIFTING-JACK. A portable machine for lifting 
 heavy objects. 
 
 LIFTING-PUMP. One by which the liquid is 
 lifted by the piston, instead of being forced to 
 the place of discharge. 
 
 LIFTING-ROD. The rod which receives motion 
 from the rock-shaft of the valve-gear, and im 
 parts motion to the poppet, or other lifting- 
 valve. 
 
 LIFTING-TOE. The revolving arm. on the 
 rock-shaft of the valve-gear, which takes against 
 the toe on the lifting-rod and thus transmits 
 motion. 
 
 Lig (Eng.). A small fish-hook with lead cast 
 on its upper end to serve as a sinker. 
 
 Ligan. A term in maritime law signifying 
 goods that are sunk in the sea, but whose poition 
 is marked by buoys. 
 
 Ligger (Eng.). A contrivance for taking pike 
 at night. 
 
 Light. Small ; inconsiderable. Not dark. 
 The term for all lamps or lanterns used on ship 
 board ; as, running lights, signal-lights, mast 
 head lights, etc. (See LANTERN.) Open lights 
 on the berth-deck require to be extinguished on 
 a ship of war at 8 P.M., in the steerage at 9 P.M., 
 and in the ward-room at 10 P.M., unless permis 
 sion is given for an " extension of light" by the 
 commanding officer. To lift or carry anything 
 along the deck; as, "to light along a rope. 
 To light over to windward is to haul the reef- 
 band to windward when reefing a sail. A ship 
 is light when she has no cargo, or is not deeply 
 immersed ; and she is said to be flying light when 
 she is crank for want of ballast or cargo. 
 
 LIGHT AIR. Wind of least force. It is in 
 dicated by the figure 1 in the scale, where repre 
 sents a calm and 12 a hurricane. 
 
 LIGHT-BALLS. Balls sometimes used in mili 
 tary operations for lighting up the enemy s works 
 at night. They are composed of inflammable sub 
 stances, such as sulphur, saltpetre, and resin, with 
 oil, and burn with great brilliancy in mid-air 
 when fired from a mortar. 
 
 LIGHT-BOX. The place, adjoining a maga 
 zine or shell-room, for the magazine-light. The 
 light is transmitted to the magazine through a 
 thick glass plate. 
 
 LIGHT BREEZE. A steady wind, whose force 
 in indicated in the scale by 2. 
 
 LIGHTEN. To relieve a vessel in .stress of 
 weather by throwing overboard cargo or any 
 heavj 7 weights. 
 
 LIGHTER. A large flat-bottomed barge or boat 
 used in transporting cargo between a vessel and 
 the shore. It is built with great strength, and 
 may be open or covered with a deck, according 
 to the kind of merchandise which it is intended 
 to carry. 
 
 LIGHTERAGE. The price paid for the use of 
 lighters, or the cost of transporting a vessel s 
 cargo in loading or unloading by lighters. 
 
 LIGHTERMAN. A man who is employed on a 
 lighter. 
 
 LIGHT-HANDED. Short-handed. A crew 
 smaller than the complement allowed. 
 
 LIGHT-HORSEMAN (Eng.). An old name for 
 the gig. 
 
 LIGHT ICE. Thin ice. 
 
 LIGHT-PORT. Any port used to admit light 
 into the hold of a vessel. 
 
 LIGHT SAILS. Topgallant sails, royals, flying- 
 jib, and studding-sails. 
 
 LIGHT-SHIP. A small vessel constructed for 
 the purpose, and furnished with one or two large 
 lanterns of great illuminating power. They are 
 anchored upon shoals or in the vicinity of dangers 
 to which vessels are exposed, either on the coast 
 or in harbors. 
 
 LIGHT WATER-DRAFT. The draft when the 
 hull is entirely empty. 
 
 LIGHT WATER-LINE. The line of immersion 
 of a vessel when unloaded. 
 
 Light-house Establishment (The), of the 
 United States is not a creation : it is a growth. 
 The first light-house was built on Little Brew- 
 ster Island,^Boston harbor, Mass., in 1715-16, by 
 
LIGHT-HOUSE ESTABLISHMENT 440 LIGHT-HOUSE ESTABLISHMENT 
 
 order and at the expense of the General Court of 
 the Province of Massachusetts Bay, at an outlay 
 of 2385 17s. 8^., and it was supported by " an 
 impost of Id. per ton inward and Id. per ton out 
 ward" on all passing vessels except coasters, paid 
 to the collector of imposts at Boston. Other 
 lights were erected on various parts of the coast 
 as the necessities of commerce required, so that 
 in 1789 there were 25 light-houses : 2 in Maine, 
 1 in New Hampshire, 10 in Massachusetts, 1 in 
 Khode Island, 2 in Connecticut, 1 on Long 
 Island, N. Y., 1 on Sandy Hook, N. J., 3 in 
 Virginia, 1 in North Carolina, 1 in South Car 
 olina, and 1 in Georgia. 
 
 The United States, by act of 7th August, 1789, 
 assumed, with the consent of the States owning 
 them, the control, proprietorship, and mainte 
 nance of these lights, and placed them under 
 the management of the Secretary of the Treas 
 ury, who devolved their superintendence upon 
 his subordinate, the Commissioner of Revenue, 
 until July, 1820, when his office was abolished, 
 and the duty was assigned to the Fifth Auditor 
 of the Treasury, who, in 1852, turned it over to 
 the Light-House Board, by which it is still exer 
 cised. 
 
 In 1789 there were 25 light-houses; in 1820 
 there were 55; in 1838 there were 210 light 
 houses, 28 light-ships, and numerous buoys and 
 beacons ; in 1852 there were 325 light-houses, 42 
 light-vessels, more beacons and more buoys ; and 
 now the number of lights has more than doubled, 
 various other aids to navigation have been de 
 vised, and the establishment has increased many 
 fold in usefulness. 
 
 Collec-tors of customs have had certain limited 
 and local care of lights and light-keepers from 
 the first. Since the charge of the lights was as 
 sumed by the general government the method 
 of caring for the personnel of the establishment 
 has been subjected to frequent modification ; and 
 now those collectors, who are also superintendents 
 of lights, have nothing to do with light-houses, 
 and no further connection with the keepers than 
 to nominate them for appointment, and in most 
 instances to pay them their wages. In the be 
 ginning collectors contracted for the erection of 
 light-house buildings, and the purchase of all 
 the material used in building, operating, and 
 maintaining the lights. When the Fifth Au 
 ditor became general superintendent he took 
 supervision of these contracts, and in some in 
 stances made them himself, and he attempted 
 the formation of a system which had in it germs 
 of success. But the needs of commerce in 
 creased more rapidly than this crude plan could 
 meet them. Hasty legislation overran itself, 
 and Congress became aware of the necessity for 
 revising its own action. Hence, in May, 1838, 
 it created a board of naval officers to examine 
 and report as to the lights which were actually 
 needed, and also as to how those needs were met 
 by existing lights and by those to be erected. 
 On the report of that commission Congress took 
 such action that the erection of 31 lights, for 
 which appropriation, plans, and, in some in 
 stances, contracts had been made, was stopped ; 
 the coasts were divided into 7 districts, a young 
 and active naval officer was assigned to each, 
 and appropriation was made for the purchase 
 and practical test, in light-houses, of two sets 
 .of French lenticular apparatus. These officers, 
 
 who were required to report among other things 
 as to the plan, site, and need for each proposed 
 light-house, did -their duty so thoroughly that 
 Congress for the first time had a full and clear 
 knowledge of the real needs of commerce, and 
 was enabled to provide for and meet its immediate 
 necessities. 
 
 But the wants of shipping again outgrew these 
 new plans, and complaints were so numerous and 
 specific that, in March, 1851, another, and now a 
 mixed, commission was raised, and required by 
 law " to inquire into the condition of the light 
 house establishment, and to make a general de 
 tailed report and programme to guide legislation 
 in extending and improving our present system of 
 construction, illumination, inspection, and super 
 intendence." This commission, which was corn- 
 posed of three naval officers, two army officers, and 
 the superintendent of the coast survey, made a 
 thorough examination of existing aids to naviga 
 tion, compared them with those of France and 
 other maritime countries, which were visited for 
 the purpose, and then prepared a plan which 
 was intended to combine the best features of the 
 various foreign systems, to adapt them to the 
 ascertained wants of this country, and to provide 
 for its wants in the future. This plan, which 
 was submitted with a full report, was adopted in 
 the main by Congress, and the act of August 31, 
 1852, created the Light-House Board, placed the 
 Light-House Establishment under its direction, 
 attaching it to the office of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, making him its president, and placing 
 it under his superintendence. Tin s board was 
 directed by the organic act " to discharge all the 
 administrative duties relating to the construc 
 tion, illumination, inspection, and superintend 
 ence of light-houses, light-vessels, beacons, buoys, 
 sea-marks, and their appendages, and embracing 
 the security of foundations of works already exist 
 ing, procuring illuminating and other apparatus, 
 supplies and materials of all kinds for building 
 and rebuilding when necessary, and keeping in 
 good repair the light-houses, light-vessels, bea 
 cons, and buoys of~the United States." 
 
 The new board was composed of 9 members : 
 3 officers of the navy, two of high rank, 3 officers 
 of the corps of engineers of the army, and 3 
 civilians, one of whom was to be the Secretary 
 of the Treasury, and the remaining two to be 
 of high scientific attainments. The members of 
 the commission were aopointed on the board, 
 which was completed by adding to it Prof. 
 Joseph Henry, the secretary of the Smithsonian 
 Institution, and Capt. E. L. F. Hardcastle, of 
 the corps of engineers, when it was organized 
 by making Commodore Shubrick its chairman, 
 Lieut. Jenkins its naval secretary, and Capt. 
 Hardcastle its engineer secretary. 
 
 The board then commenced making the rec 
 ommended reforms. The coasts of the Atlantic, 
 the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, and the great 
 lakes were divided into 12 districts, to which the 
 two districts constituting the great Western rivers 
 were added in 1874 ; and an inspector and en 
 gineer, who was in each case an officer of the 
 army or navy, was assigned to each district. 
 The inspectors, under the special direction of the 
 naval secretary, who also had charge, in the 
 absence of the chairman, of the office of the 
 board, were charged with the maintenance of 
 light-houses and lights, and with the discipline 
 
LIGHT-HOUSE ESTABLISHMENT 441 
 
 LIMBEKS 
 
 of the light-keepers ; and the engineers, under 
 the direction of the engineer secretary, were 
 charged with building the light-houses, with 
 keeping them in repair, and with the purchase, 
 the setting up, and the repair of the illuminating 
 apparatus. Both inspectors and engineers were 
 required to make regular and special reports to 
 the board, acting always under its direction ; and 
 the board was required to make a full annual 
 report to the Secretary of the Treasury, who in 
 turn reported to Congress. 
 
 The board divided itself into committees on 
 engineering, lighting, floating aids to naviga 
 tion, location of light-houses, experiments, and 
 finance, and placed an expert in that branch at 
 the head of each. Its committee meetings were 
 frequent, and the board itself met at least 
 monthly, though required by law to meet but 
 quarterly, while the executive committee, con 
 sisting of the chairman and the two secretaries, 
 were in constant session, and carried on the bus 
 iness of the establishment. The individual mem 
 bers of the board had much work to do along all 
 the coasts of the country, and thus became famil 
 iarized with the minutest details of the service, 
 which was soon placed on the best possible foot 
 ing. Then the board set about making all desir 
 able improvements as fast as existing laws and 
 funds in its control would permit. 
 
 It substituted for the old parabolic reflectors 
 the lenticular illuminating apparatus of Fresnel, 
 making at once a great saving in expense for oil, 
 and a "great increase in the light produced. It 
 substituted light-houses for light-ships where 
 possible, making large saving in expense for 
 maintenance in each instance, again with a cor 
 responding increase in light. After a long course 
 of experiments, in which it was joined by some 
 of the first scientists of the country, the board 
 found it possible to substitute as an^illuminant, 
 lard oil for sperm, and invented and manufac 
 tured lamps in which to burn it, with a further 
 saving in cost and another increase in the power 
 of the light. After a series of experiments into 
 the nature and action of sound in wind, rain, 
 fog, and snow, running through many years, 
 with published results, stimulating private en 
 terprise and ingenuity, it tested and finally 
 adopted a number of fog-signals, operated by 
 steam, hot air, or by the action of the waves, 
 and appropriately placed them as rapidly as funds 
 were provided by Congress, and brought that 
 part of the service into such perfection that 
 mariners were satisfied to be guided by sound 
 when sight was impossible, and that other mari 
 time nations sent commissions here to study our 
 methods. It inaugurated a simple and inexpen 
 sive system of lighting the great Western rivers, 
 which is so successful that steamers, which for 
 merly tied up on dark nights, now run as in day 
 light, thus revolutionizing the river commerce 
 of the country. It has recently, after another 
 exhaustive series of experiments, as a measure 
 of economy, substituted mineral oil for lard oil 
 as an illuminant in its lights of the lower orders, 
 certainly with no loss of light thereby. It has 
 so far pushed its experiments into the use of the 
 electric light as to become sensible of its possi 
 bilities for light-house illumination, and to ask 
 Congress thus far unsuccessfully, however for 
 funds with which to practically test it in a light 
 house. 
 
 The board has elevated the character of its 
 personnel, and has, after long effort, succeeded in 
 withdrawing the promotion and transfer of light- 
 keepers, over a thousand in number, from poli 
 tics and making them depend on merit. It has 
 provided for light-keepers, in addition to a well- 
 arranged volume of printed instructions, some 
 250 small libraries, each containing about 50 vol 
 umes of general literature, which pass from light- 
 station to light-station as they are read ; and it 
 is within its plans to place the service on a still 
 higher footing. The members of the board serve 
 without any^pay additional to that which they 
 receive by right of position in the army, navy, 
 or civil service. They now are, and as a rule 
 they have been, persons of scientific attainments, 
 and because they were noted as such were de 
 tailed for light-house service. 
 
 On July 1,1880, the Light-House Establishment 
 had in position 47 first-order lights, they being 
 the largest, 26 of the 2d order, 55 of the 3d order, 
 10 of the 3 order, 204 of the 4th order, 288 of 
 the 5th and 6th order; 24 lanterns and lenses, 
 819 stake-lights on the Western rivers, 31 light 
 ships, 57 fog-signals, operated by steam or hot 
 air, 25 automatic whistling-buoys, numerous day- 
 beacons or monuments, and 3115 other buoys. 
 
 The establishment is entirely supported by the 
 general government, without making any charge 
 in the way of light-dues against vessels of any 
 country. Its cost may be predicated upon ap 
 propriations made for the support of the estab 
 lishment during the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1881, which were as follows : 
 
 For salaries of keepers of light-houses, at an 
 average of $600 each, $565,000; for expenses of 
 light-vessels, $240,000; for expenses of buoyage, 
 $325,000; for expenses of fog-signals, $50,000; 
 for inspecting lights, $4000 ; for supplies of light 
 houses, $375,000; for repairs of light-houses, 
 $285,000 ; for erection and repair of pier head 
 lights, $25,000; for lighting and buoyage of the 
 Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Kivers, $140,000 ; 
 for survey of sites and preparation of plans of 
 light-houses, $10,000. Total for maintenance of 
 the service one year, $2,019,000. For the erec 
 tion of new light-houses and the building of new 
 light-vessels, $476,700. Grand total, ^ $2,495,- 
 700. A. B. Johnson, Chief Clerk Light-House 
 Board. 
 
 Lightning-conductor. A small rope of cop 
 per wire which extends from the truck of each 
 mast to the metallic sheathing on the vessel s 
 bottom. The upper end of the wire rope ter 
 minates in a steel point, tipped with platinum, 
 which is fastened to the upper side of the truck. 
 
 Lignamina (Eng.). Timber for building pur 
 poses. 
 
 Lignite. Fossil wood carbonized to a certain 
 degree, but retaining its woody texture. See 
 COAL. 
 
 Lignum-vitae. A tree (Guaincum cfficinale] 
 found in the West Indies and Central America. 
 On account of the extreme hardness of its wood 
 it is valuable for the sheaves of blocks. 
 
 Limb. A portion of the disk of the sun or 
 moon. The graduated arc of a mathematical 
 instrument. 
 
 Limbers or Limber-holes. The holes cut 
 through the floor-timbers for the passage of water 
 on each side of the keelson. 
 
 LIMBER-BOARD. A short plank fitted into the 
 
LIMBO 
 
 442 
 
 LINE 
 
 floor of a vessel, which can be removed when ne 
 cessary to clear the limber-holes. 
 
 LIMBER-CHAIN. A small chain rove through 
 the limber-holes or limbers, by moving which the 
 holes can be cleared of dirt, and passage given for 
 the water in the bottom to run into the pump-well. 
 
 LIMBER-PLATE. See LIMBER-BOARD. 
 
 LIMBER-STRKAK. The plank in the floor of a 
 vessel nearest the keelson. 
 
 Limbo. A place of confinement. 
 
 Lime-juice. Issued in the English naval ser 
 vice as a part of the ration, on account of its 
 antiscorbutic qualities. 
 
 Lime-pot. A pot for holding lime, which was 
 used in the early time of European naval engage 
 ments for its blinding effects upon the enemy. 
 
 Limerick, the leading port of Ireland, is situ 
 ated on an extensive plain at the interior ex 
 tremity of the estuarv of the Shannon, in lat. 
 52 39 36" N., Ion. 8 39 W. The harbor is 
 about 1600 yards in length by 150 in breadth, 
 with from 2 to 9 feet at low water and 19 feet 
 at the spring tides. The commerce of the port 
 is considerable. The manufacture of lace and 
 fish-hooks has supplanted that of gloves and 
 linen, for which this city was at one time cele 
 brated. There are also distilleries, breweries, 
 ship-building yards, flour-mills, and foundries. 
 Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Limiting Parallels. The most northern and 
 southern parallels of latitude within which oc- 
 cultations of the stars or planets with the moon 
 can take place. 
 
 Limmer (Eng.). The man-rope at the side 
 of a ladder. 
 
 Limnoria. A genus of Crustacea of the order 
 Isopoda, containing only one known species. It 
 does great damage by eating into docks, piles, 
 and other wood- work immersed in the sea. The 
 kyanizing of wood and other expedients have 
 been resorted to to prevent its ravages. 
 
 Limpet. A shell-fish of the genus Patella, 
 found adhering to rocks. 
 
 Linch-pin. An iron pin by which the truck 
 of a gun-carriage is secured upon the axle. 
 
 Line. A common term for the equator. The 
 word is applied to many ropes of different sizes 
 which are used for various purposes on ship 
 board ; as, bow-lines, bunt-lines, clew-lines, leech- 
 lines, spill ing-lines, etc. (See SAILS.) Also, 
 marline, houseline, roundline, etc. (See SMALL 
 STUFF.) A small hawser used in towing is 
 called a towline. A small rope used for hauling 
 the end of a hawser on board is called a hauling- 
 line. A tripping-line is used for clearing the 
 lower lift and brace from the yard-arm intend 
 ing down a topgallant or royal yard. To line, to 
 mark out work in ship-building; to put such 
 lines upon the work as will show its finished 
 shape, to which the workmen are to cut. To 
 place anything in its true position. Also, to pro 
 tect anything with boards, sheet-iron, lead, etc. 
 
 LINES OF A VESSEL. The boundaries or curves 
 generated by planes cutting the solid in different 
 directions, the boundary or curve being defined 
 by the contact of said plane with the surface of 
 the solid. 
 
 They are, 1st. The " water-lines," which are 
 generated by cutting the solid with horizontal 
 planes. 
 
 2d. " Cross-sections," or frame-lines, generated 
 by cutting the solid by vertical transverse planes. 
 
 8d. u Vertical sections," which are generated 
 by cutting the solid with vertical longitudinal 
 planes. 
 
 4l:h. "Diagonals," which are generated by cut 
 ting the solid with a plane whose contact with 
 the "vertical longitudinals" is horizontal, but 
 whose surface transversely is inclined, in order 
 that the plane may approach a perpendicular to 
 the surface of the solid at its point of contact. 
 
 Beam-line, a line showing the height of the 
 beams at the sides of the ship. Bear ding-line, 
 the trace of the inner surface of the skin on the 
 stem, keel, and stern-post. Boundary-line, the 
 trace of the outer surface of the skin on stem, 
 keel, and stern-post. Bow- and buttock-lines, 
 the lines formed by the intersection of a vertical 
 plane parallel with the plane of the keel, and the 
 bow and quarter of the ship. Centre-line, any 
 line formed by the middle, vertical, longitudi 
 nal section. Cutting-down line, a line on the 
 sheer-plan, corresponding to the upper surface 
 of the floor-timbers at the centre-line. Diagonal 
 lines, lines formed by the passing of planes ob 
 lique to the plane of the keel, but intersecting 
 that plane in lines parallel to the keel. Level 
 lines, lines formed by planes perpendicular to 
 the plane of the keel. Main-breadth line, the 
 line which shows the greatest breadth of the 
 ship. Ribband-line, the same as a diagonal line. 
 Sheer-line, a line showing the upward curvature 
 at the extremities of the ship. Stepping -lines, 
 the lines upon which are stepped the heels of the 
 cant-timbers, the forward and after ends of the 
 bearding-line. Load water-line, the line of flo 
 tation when the ship has her full cargo on board. 
 Light water-line, the line of flotation when all 
 the cargo is discharged. 
 
 LINE OF BATTLE. The line formed by the 
 ships of a fleet at regular intervals ahead and 
 astern, and nearly close-hauled upon either tack. 
 This mode of forming line of battle applies rather 
 to the former days of sailing fleets, where one of 
 the objects of manoeuvring was to obtain the 
 weather-gauge of an enemy, than to the present 
 age of ironclad vessels and steam. 
 
 LINE-OF-BATTLE SHIP. A ship carrying not 
 less than 74 guns upon three decks, and of suffi 
 cient size to be placed in line of battle. 
 
 LINE OF BEARING. The position of the ves 
 sels of a fleet in line heading in any direction 
 from which, by hauling upon the wind, a line 
 of battle is formed. A fleet is on the starboard 
 line of bearing when, by coming to the wind, 
 the ships will be in line of battle on the star 
 board tack. Otherwise they are on the port line 
 of bearing. 
 
 LINE OF COLLIMATION. The line which 
 passes through the centre of the telescope of an 
 astronomical instrument at the intersection of 
 the cross-wires at its focus. 
 
 LINE OF FIRE. The prolongation of the axis 
 of the bore of a gun when fired. 
 
 LINE OF FLOTATION. The horizontal line 
 formed by the surface of the water on the outer 
 surface of a vessel at different drafts. 
 
 LINE OF LINE. One of the lines upon Gun- 
 ter s rule, by the use of which a given line can 
 be divided into equal parts, third and fourth 
 proportionals found, or a line increased in any 
 proportion desired. 
 
 LINE OF METAL. That line drawn from the 
 upper point in the base-ring to the upper point 
 
LINE-OFFICERS 
 
 443 
 
 LITHOFRACTEUE 
 
 of the muzzle which lies in the perpendicular 
 plane of the axis of the bore. 
 
 LINE OF METAL ELEVATION. The eleva 
 tion of a gun when the line of metal is hori 
 zontal ; caused by the dispart of the gun. 
 
 LINE OF NODES. The line which passes 
 through the nodes of an orbit. 
 
 LINE OF SIGHT. The right line which passes 
 through the points of sight of a fire-arm. 
 
 LINE OF VESSELS. Vessels owned by the 
 same company or person, and plying regularly 
 between certain ports. 
 
 LINER. A ship of the line. One of a line of 
 vessels. 
 
 LINING-CLOTHS. Canvas sewed in certain 
 places upon the after side of a sail to protect it 
 from chafe. 
 
 Line-officers. The combatants as distin 
 guished from the non-combatants. See STAFF- 
 OFFICERS. 
 
 Below is a list of the line-officers of the navy, 
 showing the corresponding rank of officers of the 
 army : 
 
 Admiral with General. 
 
 Vice-Admiral with Lieutenant-General. 
 
 Rear-Admiral with Major-General. 
 
 Commodore with Brigadier-General. 
 
 Captain with Colonel. 
 
 Commander with Lieutenant-Colonel. 
 
 Lieutenant-Commander with Major. 
 
 Lieutenant with Captain. 
 
 Master with First Lieutenant. 
 
 Ensign with Second Lieutenant. 
 
 Midshipman. 
 
 Cadet-Midshipman. 
 
 Mate, Boatswain, and Gunner, not in the line 
 of promotion. For the duties of line-officers, see 
 under proper heads. 
 
 See COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, CHIEF-OF-STAFF, 
 COMMANDING OFFICER, EXECUTIVE-OFFICER, 
 NAVIGATOR, WATCH-OFFICER, OFFICER OF THE 
 DECK. 
 
 Ling. A marine fish (Lota molva), something 
 like the cod, but more slender, and having only 
 two dorsal fins. It is largely used as food in 
 Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 Linget. Small bullets or slugs cast in molds. 
 
 Lingo. A slang term for language. 
 
 Link. A single division of a chain. A rod 
 or piece to transmit power from one part of a 
 machine to another. Also, a Scottish term for 
 a curve of a river. 
 
 LINK-MOTION. A system of mechanism com 
 posed of the eccentric-rods, link, link-block, 
 valve-stem, etc., common in locomotives and 
 marine engines, for reversing and stopping the 
 engine, and can be used within narrow limits as 
 a variable cut-off. 
 
 The principal kinds are the " Stephenson 
 shifting link-motion," the " Gooch stationary 
 link-motion," the "Allan link-motion," and the 
 " Walschaert link-motion." 
 
 LINK-WORMING. Formerly, when rope-cables 
 were in use, the part of the cable near the anchor 
 which would be liable to injury from a rocky 
 bottom was protected by worming them with 
 chains ; hence called link-worming. 
 
 Linkister (Eng.}. An interpreter. 
 
 Linstock. A short staff for holding a match- 
 rope by which guns were formerly fired. Its 
 lower end was shod with an iron point, which 
 could be stuck into the deck when required. 
 
 Lintre. An ancient canoe. 
 
 Lip. An obsolete term for notch. To notch 
 the edge of a sword. Lips of a scarf, the thin 
 ends of the timbers which are scarfed. 
 
 Lipper (Eng.}. See LEAPER. 
 
 Lira. An Italian coin of the value of $0.19. 
 
 Lisbon, the capital of the kingdom of Por 
 tugal, is situated on the right bank of the Tagus, 
 near its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean, in lat. 
 38 42 4" N., Ion. 9 8 2" W. The scientific 
 institutions comprise the Royal Academy of Sci 
 ences, College of the Nobles, Royal Marine Acad 
 emy, School of Navigation and Ship-building, 
 Royal Academy of Artillery and Engineers, 
 and Royal Military College. The harbor is one 
 of the finest in the world; and the quays, which 
 extend between 2 and 3 miles along the bank 
 of the river, are elegant and commodious. The 
 commerce is extensive. The exports consist of 
 wine, oil, fruit, and salt, and the imports, hemp, 
 flax, corn, iron, steel, hardware, etc. Pop. 
 254,000. 
 
 Lisbonine. The denomination of the moidore. 
 A Portuguese coin of the value of $0.00. 
 
 L Isle Adam, Philippe de. Forty-third grand 
 master of St. John of Jerusalem, was born at 
 Beauvais, 1464; died at Malta, 1534. He is re 
 nowned as the commander at Rhodes when that 
 city was besieged, in 1522, by the Sultan Soly- 
 man the Great, with 200,000 Turks. The siege 
 of the city is one of the most memorable in his 
 tory. It reads like romance, and is too full of 
 incident for even a sketch to be given in this place. 
 
 The grand master, with between 600 and 700 
 knights, and about 5000 men-at-arms, conducted 
 the defense successfully for six months, the most 
 heroic courage and devotion being shown by all, 
 while the tremendous fire and obstinate perseve 
 rance of the Turks in their desperate assaults was 
 quite as remarkable. 
 
 At last, after most terrific slaughter on both 
 sides, and the death of most of the knights upon 
 the battlements, an honorable capitulation was 
 obtained, and the order retired from Rhodes, to 
 wander about for the next eight years without a 
 permanent seat. 
 
 In 1530 they obtained from Charles V. the ces 
 sion of Malta and Gozo : and from that time 
 the chevaliers of the order took the name of 
 Knights of Malta. They had not long taken 
 possession when L Isle Adam died, his death 
 being hastened, it is said, by grief at the dissen 
 sions which arose in the order. 
 
 His tomb, in the crypt of St. John, is one of 
 the most interesting in that very curious church. 
 E. Shippen. 
 
 Lissom. Nimble; active. 
 
 List. Said of a vessel that leans to one side 
 or the other ; as, " The ship is listed to star 
 board," or, " She has 2 list to port." 
 
 Lister (Eng.}. A spear for taking salmon. 
 
 Listing. A narrow strip cut from the edge of 
 a plank. 
 
 Lithofracteur. An explosive mixture manu 
 factured in Cologne, and used to considerable 
 extent in Europe for mining purposes. Its com 
 position is as follows : 
 
 Nitro-glycerine, 52 per cent. 
 Kieselguhr, 30 " 
 
 Coal, 12 
 
 Soda saltpetre, 4 
 Sulphur, 2 " 
 
LITTER 
 
 444 
 
 LOB 
 
 Litter. A temporary bed upon which a wounded 
 person is carried. 
 
 Littoral (Fr. littoral, sea-coast). The sea- 
 coast. The space between high- and low- water 
 marks. Pertaining to, or growing on, tb shore. 
 
 LITTORALA. A coaster of ancient times. 
 
 Live. To withstand a tempest without foun 
 dering ; as, " The boat cannot live in such a sea." 
 
 Lively. Said of a vessel that is quick in her 
 motions. 
 
 Live-oak. A species of timber used in ship 
 building, valued for its density and durability. 
 
 Liverpool, in Lancaster County, England, on 
 the east bank of the Mersey estuary, 4 miles from 
 the Irish Sea, in lat. 53 24 3" N., Ion. 3 4 
 17 X/ W., is one of the largest seaports in the 
 world. Along the shore a line of docks and 
 basins extends over 5 miles in length, having an 
 aggregate water area of 300 acres and a quay 
 space of 20 miles, reclaimed from the river. 
 Some of the docks are connected with the Leeds 
 and Liverpool Canal, and most of the others have 
 half-tide locks and wet-basins. The London and 
 Northwestern, Lancashire and Yorkshire, Great 
 Northern, Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln 
 shire and Midland Railways have extensive sta 
 tions close to the docks, and the Great Western 
 Railway has access to Birkenhead, on the oppo 
 site side of the river, with which there is constant 
 communication by steam-ferries. The town has 
 extensive and varied manufactures, and ship 
 building is carried on to a great extent, but it 
 owes its chief importance to its being a great seat 
 of foreign export and import trade. The Mer 
 sey, at high- water, may be entered by the largest 
 ships. Regular lines of the finest steam-packets 
 in the world ply between Liverpool and Glasgow, 
 Dublin, Cork, Bristol, and the principal ports 
 of France, the Mediterranean, America, India, 
 Australia, China, and Africa. Pop. 520,000. 
 
 Live-shell. A loaded shell. 
 
 Live-steam. Steam direct from the boiler at 
 full pressure; in contradistinction to dead-steam, 
 exhaust-steam. 
 
 Livid Sky. The dark leaden color of the clouds 
 which precede a storm. 
 
 Livingston, John W., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New York, 
 March 4, 1823. Midshipman in sloop-of-war 
 "Ontario" and frigate "Delaware" in the Med 
 iterranean, and in frigate "Constitution," at 
 close of " piratical war" in the West Indies. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, June 21 , 1832, and 
 served as a watch-officer in brig " Dolphin" and 
 sloop " Fairchild" in the Pacific, and in frigate 
 " Columbia - on a voyage around the world, 
 visiting Sumatra, and destroying the piratical 
 establishments on that island, and as executive- 
 officer (a portion of the time in command) in the 
 frigate "Congress" on the coast of California 
 and Mexico during the entire Mexican war; was 
 present at the capture of Guaymas and San Bias, 
 and in the various operations in California. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, May 24, 1855 ; 
 commanding sloop-of-war "St. Louis" on coast 
 of Africa, 1856-58 ; commanding steamer " Pen 
 guin," Blockading Squadron, 1801-64; while off 
 Wilmington, N. C., chased and destroyed a 
 blockade-runner; commanding steamer " Bien- 
 ville," Blockading Squadron, 1861 ; commanding 
 frigate " Cumberland," James River Blockade, 
 in early part of 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 After the evacuation of Norfolk by the rebels, 
 Commodore Livingston was ordered there in 
 command of navy-yard, with directions to re 
 store the dry-dock, so it might be available for 
 the repair of our Southern cruisers. In 1864, 
 he was detached from the Norfolk Yard, and in 
 1865 ordered to the command of the Naval 
 Station at Mound City, 111., and the remaining 
 vessels of the Mississippi Squadron. In 1866 he 
 was detached from this duty and ordered to 
 special service. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, May 26, 1868. 
 Retired May 22, 1866. 
 
 Lizard. A piece of rope with a thimble 
 spliced into one or both ends, used in different 
 parts of a vessel as a leader for ropes. The bunt- 
 line-lizard hooks to the topsail-tye near the yard 
 and serves as a leader for the topsail buntlines, 
 which are rove through the thimbles at the ends. 
 A lizard is used on a light yard for stopping the 
 yard-rope out on the quarter of the yard previ 
 ous to sending it down from aloft. 
 
 Lloyd s (Eng.}. A society of underwriters 
 established in London since 1601, by whom the 
 classes and rates of vessels are established and 
 registered, and the principal business of British 
 marine insurance carried on. 
 
 LLOYD S AGENT (Eng.}. A person employed 
 in any port for attending to the interests of the 
 board of underwriters called Lloyd s, to send com 
 mercial information, assist vessels, etc. 
 
 LLOYD S LIST (Eng.}. A journal devoted to 
 commercial interests, published daily. 
 
 LLOYD S REGISTER (Eng.}. The annual pub 
 lication of the list and register of British and 
 foreign shipping. 
 
 LLOYD S SURVEYOR (Eng.}. One who surveys 
 or examines the condition of vessels for the un 
 derwriters. 
 
 Loach. A small fish allied to the minnow, of 
 the genus Cubitis (C. barbaiula}, inhabiting small, 
 clear streams, and esteemed dainty food (written 
 also loche}. 
 
 Load. To insert the charge and projectile in 
 a fire-arm. To take cargo on board. 
 
 LOADED SHELL. A shell filled with powder 
 and fused. 
 
 LOADING, DENSITY OF. The proportion be 
 tween the cubical contents of the powder-cham 
 ber and the space occupied by the powder. 
 
 LOADING-TRAY. A metallic shelf by which the 
 shell of a breech-loading cannon is placed in the 
 bore. 
 
 LOAD WATER-LINE. The line of immersion 
 when a vessel is loaded. 
 
 LOAD WATER-SECTION. The horizontal sec 
 tion of a vessel at the load water-line. 
 
 Loadsman. An obsolete term for a pilot. 
 
 Loadstar, or Lodestar. The pole-star. Any 
 guiding star. 
 
 Loadstone, or Lodestone. A natural magnet. 
 
 Loam. A mixture of sand and clay used in 
 molding. 
 
 Loath to Depart. The name or commence 
 ment of a popular song which is frequently men 
 tioned in the annals of the English navy during 
 the 17th century. The air was played upon the 
 trumpets at the departure from a vessel of a dis 
 tinguished visitor, and also previous to sailing, 
 as a signal for the ship to be cleared of visitors. 
 
 Lob. Stupid ; slow. Hence, looby or lubber 
 
LOBBY 
 
 445 
 
 LOG 
 
 Lobby (Eng.}. The name sometimes given to 
 the passage-way in the forward part of the cabin. 
 
 Lob-cock. A contemptuous term for a slug 
 gish, lazy person. 
 
 Lobipedidse. A family of birds of the order 
 Grallse, having toes separately margined with 
 a scalloped membrane. They frequent salt as 
 well as fresh water, and are sometimes seen far 
 at sea on patches of sea- weed. 
 
 Loblolly. A former name for gruel or por 
 ridge. 
 
 LOBLOLLY-BOY. The sick-bay attendant. Now 
 called bay-man or nurse. 
 
 Lobscouse, or Lops-course. A stew com 
 posed of vegetables, meat, and hard bread. 
 
 Lobster-boat. A boat used by lobstermen, 
 fitted with a tank, in which the lobsters are kept 
 alive. 
 
 Lobster-toad. A kind of crab. 
 
 Lob-tail. The sperm whale is said to be lob- 
 tailing when it beats the water with its tail. 
 
 Lob- worm, or Lug- worm. The Arenicola 
 piscatorum. It is highly esteemed for bait on 
 the coasts of Europe. 
 
 Local Attraction. The force exerted upon 
 the needle of the compass by the iron in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Local Deviation. The deviation or error in a 
 ship s compass caused by the iron in the vessel s 
 construction, her guns, etc. 
 
 Local Time. See TrME. 
 
 Loch. A Scotch or Irish lake or arm of the 
 sea. 
 
 Lock. That part of a small-arm or great gun 
 by which fire is communicated to the charge. 
 An inclosure in a canal for the purpose of rais 
 ing or lowering vessels from one level to another. 
 To entangle the lower yards of a short ship while 
 tacking. 
 
 LOCKAGE. Charges for passing a vessel through 
 a lock. 
 
 LOCK-FAST. An attachment to the lock of a 
 breech-loading fire-arm. 
 
 LOCKING-IN. The position of the clews and 
 bodies of the alternate hammocks when hanging 
 on the hooks. 
 
 LOCK-LUG. The mass or raised portion on the 
 surface of a gun to which the lock is attached. 
 
 LOCK-NUT. A supplementary nut, screwed 
 down on a primary one to prevent the latter from 
 turning, or slacking up. 
 
 Lock, STOCK, AND BARREL. The whole of 
 anything. 
 
 LOCK-UP SAFETY-VALVE. A safety-valve 
 which, with its weight, is so inclosed in a box and 
 locked up that it cannot be tampered with. A 
 rod extending up through the box enables the 
 engineer to blow oif, and it can be inspected at 
 any time by the proper person having the key. . 
 
 Locker. A small closet where articles may 
 be locked up, or a compartment in a vessel used 
 for the stowage of certain articles ; as, & shot-locker, 
 where solid shot are kept; the ch am- locker, where 
 the chain-cables are stowed. Davy Jones s locker 
 is the bottom of the sea. 
 
 Locket. The metallic case at the end of a 
 sword scabbard. 
 
 Loc-man, or Loco-man (Eng.}. A former 
 name for a pilot. 
 
 Locomotive-power, or Motive-power. The 
 power by which a change of place is produced, 
 as the sails acted upon by the wind, or steam. 
 
 Lodemanship, or Lode-manege. An an 
 cient name for seamanship and pilotage. Also 
 written lode-merege. 
 
 Lode -ship (Eng.}. An old name for a pilot- 
 boat. See LODEMANSHIP. 
 
 Lodesman. The Anglo-Saxon name for 
 pilot. 
 
 Lodestar. See LOADSTAR. 
 
 Lodestone. See LOADSTONE. 
 
 Lodging-knee. See KNEE. 
 
 Lodia. A trading-boat of the "White Sea. 
 
 Lofty Ship. An expression formerly applied 
 to a square-rigged vessel. 
 
 Log. The apparatus used for obtaining the 
 approximate rate of speed of a vessel through 
 the water. It is first mentioned in the early 
 part of the 16th century by Pigaietta, the com 
 panion of the celebrated navigator Magalhaens, 
 who speaks of the log (la catena a popa] as a 
 well-known means of measuring the course 
 passed over. Purchas makes mention of it in 
 1607; but the length of a meridian not being 
 then determined, its divisions were necessarily 
 inaccurate. They were corrected in 1635 by 
 Norwood. 
 
 The apparatus consists of the log-chip, log- 
 line, reel, and 28 and 14 seconds time-glasses. 
 
 The log-chip is a flat piece of thin board in 
 the form of a quadrant of a circle, of about 6 
 inches radius, loaded on the circular edge with 
 lead, sufficient to make it float vertically. At 
 the corners small holes are bored, and through 
 the two near the extremities of the loaded arc 
 are run the ends of a piece of small line about 4 
 feet long; these ends have a knot made in them 
 so as to prevent their being drawn through when 
 a strain is brought against the chip by the water. 
 To the middle of this line is fastened a wooden 
 plug, called a toggle. 
 
 The log-line is a small stout line, about 150 
 fathoms long, the,end of which is taken through 
 the remaining hole in the chip and knotted; at 
 the same distance along the line, as the length 
 of small cord from the face of the chip to the 
 toggle, is fastened a piece of wood with a hole 
 or socket into which the toggle fits. The whole 
 is so arranged that when the toggle is in the 
 socket the chip will hang in a three-legged span, 
 and its surface be perpendicular to the log-line 
 when straightened out, trailing in the water 
 astern of a vessel. The toggle fits closely enough 
 into the socket to require a sharp, quick pull on 
 the line to free it, when the chip will trail point 
 toward the ship, and can be easily hauled on 
 board. The other end of the log-line is made 
 fast to a reel about 2 feet long, which should 
 turn with as little friction as possible, and is then 
 wound up on it. The log-line is divided into 
 distances, called knots, and" these are subdivided 
 into fifths, so that each subdivision will repre 
 sent two-tenths of a knot. These divisions are 
 all marked. The length of a knot is made the 
 same part of a sea mife (6086.4 feet) that 28 sec 
 onds is of an hour, which gives for its length 
 47.4 feet. 
 
 To mark the log-line. It should be first well 
 soaked in water and stretched lightly, so as to 
 take the kinks out, then measure off about 20 
 fathoms from the chip, and place a piece of white 
 rag ; this part is called the stray-line, and should 
 be long enough to let the chip float well clear of 
 the eddies, etc., astern of the vessel before the 
 
LOG 
 
 446 
 
 LOG 
 
 marking of the knots commences ; measure from 
 the white rag the length of the first knot, and 
 mark it by twisting into the line at that point a 
 small piece of cord with one knot made in the 
 end. Measure off the length of the next knot 
 from this mark and mark it, with a piece of cord 
 with two knots in the end, mark the next with 
 three knots, and so on until all the line is marked. 
 Then subdivide each knot into five equal parts, 
 marking them with small pieces of fish-line, with 
 no knots. 
 
 It is well on board ship to mark off on the 
 deck the proper lengths of a knot and the sub 
 divisions, and drive in copper tacks at these 
 places. It will aid in marking a log-line, and 
 will also be of use for future reference, as log- 
 lines should be often examined and remarked. 
 The stretch and shrinkage of the line varies very 
 much under all circumstances. 
 
 The 28 and 14 seconds time-glasses consist 
 each of two glass bulbs, joined by a small neck, 
 placed in a metal or wooden frame for protec 
 tion. One of the bulbs has an opening in the 
 end through which is placed a quantity of clean, 
 dry sand, the opening closed and covered, so as 
 to keep out moisture, before the glasses are placed 
 in their frames. 
 
 The quantity of sand in each glass should be 
 such that it will take exactly 28 seconds of time 
 in one and 14 seconds in the other to run through 
 the neck into the lower bulb when the glass is 
 held in a vertical position. These time-glasses 
 need constant attention, and care should be 
 taken to keep them dry, as moisture causes the 
 sand to run more slowly, which would give in 
 correct results. They may be tested by means 
 of a chronometer or watch, or a pendulum beat 
 ing seconds, and be corrected if they are in error 
 by adding or taking out a proper quantity of 
 sand, or their error may be allowed for when 
 known. 
 
 Logging the ship, or heaving the log, is the find 
 ing the speed of the vessel by means of the ap 
 paratus just described, and is performed thus: 
 one or two men hold the reel, on the lee-side of 
 a sailing vessel s stern or in a convenient place 
 near the stern of a steamer, so that the line will 
 have a clear run, another the time-glass, and the 
 quartermaster, or a junior officer of the watch, 
 adjusts the chip by putting the toggle into its 
 socket on the log-line, so that it will not pull 
 out too easily, then takes the chip and a small 
 coil of line in his hand, and sees all clear. When 
 he is ready he calls out to the glass-holder, 
 " Clear glass! 11 to which the glass-holder, when 
 the sand is all in one bulb, and he is ready, re 
 plies, " All clear!" The quartermaster then 
 calls out, " Look out!" and throws the chip over 
 the lee-quarter, so that it will float out clear, and 
 take the line out straight in the wake of the ves 
 sel, and assists the line off the reel easily by small 
 pulls, so as to overcome friction ; as the white 
 rag marking the stray-line passes the taffrail he 
 cries out, "Turn!" which the glass-holder repeats, 
 at the same time turning the glass so that the 
 bulb with the sand in is uppermost, and the sand 
 runs into the lower bulb, watching it closely. 
 The instant the glass-holder sees the sand all 
 out of the upper bulb he calls, " Out!" when the 
 quartermaster grasps the line, checking it, and 
 noting the last mark run out, or on the line at 
 the taffrail ; if there is> no mark at the taffrail the 
 
 nearest is noted, and the speed estimated from it. 
 It is of no possible use though to try to estimate 
 closer than one-tenth of a knot. A sharp pull 
 on the log-line will easily free the chip, when 
 the line is hauled on board and reeled up for the 
 next heave. If, in the above case, the 28-second 
 time-glass was used and, upon hauling in the 
 line, three fish-line marks and then the 8-knot 
 mark came in, the vessel s speed would be 8|, 
 or 8.6 knots. If using the 14-second time-glass, 
 the speed shown by the line must be doubled 
 to get the actual speed, and in the above case 
 would be 17.2 knots. On board ship it is not 
 customary to ask " How fast is she going?" 
 but, " How much is she logging?" The answer 
 in this case would be, "She is logging 8.6, 
 or 17.2 knots." The 14-second time-glass is 
 used when the speed of the vessel is above (5 
 knots, for the reason that the reel cannot be well 
 handled with above about 10 knots line on it ; it 
 would be too heavy and bulky and take too long 
 to heave, and also the line would be liable to 
 break from its own weight in the water if more 
 was used. It is customary, on board men-of-war 
 under way, to heave the log at the end of every 
 hour and note the vessel s speed, so as to calcu 
 late her run by the rules of navigation. 
 
 This method of determining a vessel s speed is 
 at best but an approximation, requiring great 
 care and skill to obtain any reliable result. A 
 following sea will send the chip home and not 
 give enough speed. A head sea will give too 
 much. One person will give out the line to the 
 chip too fast, another will not give it enough. 
 In a sailing-vessel the wind may be squally, or 
 increasing and decreasing, so that the speed will 
 not by any means be the same through the hour. 
 In such cases the log may be hove more fre- 
 quentty, and an average taken of the results as 
 vthe speed for the hour. 
 
 A number of apparatus have been invented of 
 late years for the same purpose, called patent 
 logs, and taking their names from the inventors, 
 one class of which are Massey s, Trobridge s, 
 Keynolds s, "Walkes s, etc. All of these are so 
 nearly alike in principle and construction, that 
 a description in general will suffice for all. 
 They consist of an elongated metal box con 
 taining a system of cog-wheels connected with 
 the hands of three dials showing on the outside. 
 To the rear of the box is attached a hollow cylin 
 der, on which is a small four-bladed propeller, 
 whose spindle or shaft passes through this cylin 
 der and connects with the cog-wheel work. The 
 pitch of this propeller is known, and consequently 
 the number of revolutions it will make in a 
 mile, and the cog-wheel work simply registers 
 these revolutions in distances passed over on 
 the dials, one of which has the circumference 
 representing 1 mile divided into tenths, the 
 next the circumference representing 10 miles 
 divided into tenths, each division representing 
 1 mile, and the last the circumference represent 
 ing 300 miles divided into thirtieths, each divis 
 ion representing 10 miles, so that they will give 
 readings from one-tenth of a mile up to 300 miles. 
 
 These logs are towed astern of the vessel at the 
 end of a line from 35 to 60 fathoms long, so as to 
 keep them clear of eddies and not allow them to 
 be pulled out of the water by the vessel s pitch 
 ing in a seaway, and have a swivel in the for 
 ward end to fasten the line to, so that it will not 
 
LOG 
 
 44? 
 
 LOGARITHM 
 
 twist up. From their shape they are sometimes 
 called by sailors harpoon-logs. 
 
 When these logs are used the hands of all the 
 dials are set at 0, the log then made fast to the tow 
 ing-line and thrown overboard astern, and it is evi 
 dent that the propeller will move faster or slower, 
 corresponding to the speed of the vessel. This 
 motion is communicated to the cog-wheels, and 
 by them to the hands of the dials, by which 
 means the distance run through the water in 
 any given time is pointed out on the dials. The 
 log is hauled in and the reading noted whenever 
 the course is changed, and is also hauled in, read, 
 and reset every 24 hours, generally at noon, to 
 which time all the calculations of navigation are 
 reduced on board vessels of the navy. 
 
 Under three knots the indications of these logs 
 are not very accurate. They are liable to be 
 stopped by sea-weed or anything floating astern, 
 must be hauled in when the vessel stops or goes 
 astern, and are liable to foul a steamer s propeller. 
 
 When the vessel is going slowly in shoal water 
 and on rocky bottom they should be hauled in, 
 as they are liable to catch on the bottom and be 
 torn off. Sharks often bite them off. It must 
 be recollected also that they do not give the dis 
 tance the vessel has made good over the ground, 
 unless she is running in no current. If she runs 
 against the current, they will indicate the dis 
 tance the vessel has made over the ground plus 
 the distance the current makes over the ground 
 in the same time, and in case of cross currents 
 and stern currents, their indications would be a 
 resultant of the speed of the vessel and the cur 
 rent. 
 
 Taff rail patent log. In this log the principle 
 is precisely the same as in the preceding ones, 
 only the registering cog-wheel work, with its 
 dials, is screwed upon a convenient place on the 
 taffrail, and the propeller towed overboard from 
 it by means of a long line, through which it 
 communicates its motion to the register. The 
 only way in which it is superior to those men 
 tioned before is in its convenience to be read, 
 doing away with the hauling in of the line each 
 time, and only the propeller part is liable to be 
 lost. The towing-line is liable to become full of 
 kinks from the twisting motion. The register 
 of this log has in cases been connected electric 
 ally to a self-registering apparatus in the cabin 
 of the vessel, so that the distance run during the 
 voyage could at any time be read off. A small 
 bell was attached to the register, which would 
 ring automatically at every mile passed. This 
 is said to work well, but its expense has as yet 
 prevented its general adoption. 
 
 The Clark- Russell, or spring-log, consists of a 
 spring something like a grocer s spring-scale, for 
 weight, screwed upon the taffrail, to which a 
 line and chip are attached. The pressures ex 
 erted upon a certain surface when it is towed 
 through the water at different rates of speed 
 are determined by experiment, and these differ 
 ent pressures in pounds form the scale to which 
 the log is graduated. The chip is like the ordi 
 nary log-chip, and is towed from a line attached 
 to a hook at the end of the spring by a loop, and 
 whenever it is wished to ascertain the speed of 
 the vessel the line is looped to the hook and the 
 chip thrown overboard ; the speed is then read 
 off from the scale of the spring. The chip may 
 be kept towing all the time, so that the speed of 
 
 the vessel can be known at any instant ; but this 
 is not advisable, as it would in a short time 
 weaken the spring, causing it to give incorrect 
 results. Also, from constant use, the spring of 
 this log loses its elasticity, yet it is considered 
 very reliable. It, of course, does not give the 
 distance run, but only the speed at the time it is 
 used. 
 
 Current-log.?- The log is often used to deter 
 mine the direction and velocity of currents, and is 
 then called a current-log. It is hove from a boat 
 or ship at anchor, in the same manner as de 
 scribed for heaving it to determine a vessel s 
 speed. The result given will be the number of 
 knots and tenths the current runs per hour, and 
 by taking the bearing of the chip by a compass 
 the direction of the current is ascertained. In 
 strong currents patent logs may be used. 
 
 Ground-log. When surveying in shoal water 
 and in currents, the actual run of the vessel 
 over the ground is often wanted ; to find this 
 the log-line is made fast to a lead or small grap 
 nel, which will hold it fast to the ground, and 
 the speed is measured in a similar way to that 
 before described, with the aid of the 28- or 14- 
 second time-glass. J. E. Noel, Lieutenant- Com 
 mander U.S.N. 
 
 . LOG or LOG-BOOK. The book which contains 
 the official records of all transactions on board of 
 a vessel, of voyages from port to port, and of me 
 teorological observations made. The log-book of 
 a ship of war contains in its columns the courses 
 steered, distance sailed, and the leeway made for 
 each hour at sea ; the direction and force of the 
 wind, state of weather, height of barometer, tem 
 perature of air and surface water, and a descrip 
 tion of the clouds, whether in port or at sea, are 
 also noted ; the position of the ship at noon, by 
 observation and dead-reckoning, the distance run 
 and course made good, and the current by which 
 the ship has been influenced are entered in their 
 appropriate places. Under the head of "re 
 marks" are entered an account of all official 
 transactions, evolutions, drills, courts-martial, 
 boards of inspection, signals with other vessels, 
 punishments and offenses, ratings and disratings, 
 names of all persons discharged, transferred, or 
 received on board, accidents, such as grounding 
 or collisions, and an account of all operations 
 against the enemy, with the injuries sustained. 
 All information of value to navigators, errors 
 of charts, or peculiar appearances of the water 
 are recorded. The log-book is signed by each 
 watch-officer, who is responsible for the record 
 kept during his own watch. It is examined 
 daily by the navigator, who certifies as to its 
 correctness, and is presented by him each day 
 to the commanding officer for his approval. A 
 copy of the log-book is sent everj 7 six months to 
 the Bureau of Navigation at Washington. 
 
 LOGGED. Recorded in the log-book. 
 
 LOG-GLASS. A time-glass measuring an inter 
 val of 14 or 28 seconds, "used in connection with 
 the log-line in ascertaining the speed of a vessel. 
 See LOG. 
 
 LOG-LINE. See LOG. 
 
 LOG-SLATE. A double slate, tin inner sides of 
 which are marked in a similar manner to the two 
 pages of the log-book, upon which each day s 
 events are noted. The record upon the log- 
 slate is copied daily into the log-book. 
 
 Logarithm. The exponent of the power to 
 
 
LOG-CANOE 
 
 448 
 
 LONGITUDE 
 
 which a given number, called a base, must be 
 raised to produce a certain number. The loga 
 rithm of N is the value of #, which satisfies the 
 equation of x = N, where a is the base. Since 
 any positive number except unity may be taken 
 as a base, there may be an infinite number of sys 
 tems ; but there are only two in use, viz., the Na- 
 perian, so named from Napier, a Scottish baron, 
 who invented logarithms, and constructed the 
 system in which the base is 2.71828, and the com 
 mon system constructed by Henry Briggs, the 
 base of which is 10. Every logarithm consists of 
 an integer, or of an integer and a decimal num 
 ber, the former being called the characteristic 
 and the latter the mantissa; and of two factors, 
 one depending on the base, and constant, and 
 called the modulus, and the other upon the num 
 ber, changing as the number changes. The Na- 
 perian logarithms are sometimes called natural 
 logarithms, from the modulus of the system be 
 ing unity; and sometimes hyperbolic logarithms, 
 from their relation to certain areas included be 
 tween the equilateral hyberbola and its assymp- 
 totes. 
 
 LOGARITHM, LOGISTIC. The logarithm of 
 3600 (number of seconds in an hour), diminished 
 by the logarithm of the number of seconds in 
 any period less than an hour, is called the logistic 
 logarithm for that period. It is useful for inter 
 polating for the moon s right ascension and de 
 clination. 
 
 LOGARITHMIC CURVE. A curve in which the 
 subtangent is the same at every point. 
 
 LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL. A curve of which the 
 tangent always makes the same angle with the 
 radius rector. 
 
 Log-canoe. A canoe made from a single log. 
 
 Loggerhead. A small upright piece of timber 
 in the stern of a whale-boat, over which a turn 
 of the line is taken when it is running out too 
 fast. An iron instrument used for heating tar. 
 A species of turtle. 
 
 Logwood. The heart-wood of the Hcematoxy- 
 lon Campeachianum, a tree found in the tropical 
 parts of the American continent. It is used as 
 a dye. 
 
 Loich. An old English statute term, in which 
 were included the cod-fish, ling, and lobbe. 
 
 Lomp. A kind of roundish fish. 
 
 Londage (Eng.}. An obsolete term for land 
 ing from a boat. 
 
 London. The seat of government of the Brit 
 ish empire and capital of England, is principally 
 situated on the north bank of the Thames, in lat. 
 (St. Paul s) 50 30 49" N., Ion. 5 48" W. 
 The area of the city is nearly 118 square miles ; 
 population 3,900,000, and it is the largest and 
 richest city in the world. The docks of London 
 have a river frontage of 4 miles, and an area of 
 566 acres. The two West India Docks cover 295 
 acres, one East India Dock 32 acres, South Dock 
 33, and St. Katharine s Docks 24 acres. The 
 Thames is tidal up to "Woolwich for ships of 
 any burden. The tide ascends about 15 miles 
 above London Bridge. The port extends to 
 Gravesend, 30 miles down the river, and from 
 Limehouse to London Bridge there is a con 
 tinuous line of mercantile shipping. All kinds 
 of manufactures are pursued here, the principal 
 being those of silk, beer, spirits, type-founding, 
 chemicals, engineering, and ship-building. 
 
 Londonderry, Ireland, is situated on the Foyle, 
 
 5 miles above Lough Foyle. The manufactories 
 are mills for spinning flax, flour-mills, roperies, 
 foundries, and ship-building yards. The prin 
 cipal exports are linen and linen yarn, eggs, but 
 ter, wheat, oats, and oatmeal, amounting annu 
 ally to over $5,000,000. Regular communication 
 by steamers is maintained with Liverpool, Glas 
 gow, Greenock, and other ports. Ocean steamers 
 call at Moville, on Lough Foyle, 18 miles below 
 the town. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 London Wagon (Eng.}. The name formerly 
 given to the vessel by which impressed men were 
 taken from London to the receiving-ship at the 
 Nore. 
 
 Longa. A Roman row-boat of large capacity. 
 
 Long Ball. An old term for an engagement 
 between vessels at long range. 
 
 Long Board. A long distance sailed upon 
 one tack. 
 
 Long-boat. The largest boat which was for 
 merly carried by merchant vessels. It was fur 
 nished with masts, sails, and oars, and was prin 
 cipally used in transporting stores, etc. In 
 preparing for sea it was hoisted in and stowed 
 on deck. It corresponds to the launch of a ship 
 of war. 
 
 Long D-valve. An old English slide-valve, 
 the cross-section of which resembled the letter D, 
 having length sufficient to operate both steam- 
 ports. 
 
 Longer (Eng.}. Each row of casks placed in 
 the hold athwartships. 
 
 Long Gasket. A sea-gasket or rope used at 
 sea for securing a sail to its yard. 
 
 Longie (Eng.}. The Uria troile, a sea-bird 
 found on the northern coasts of America and 
 Europe. 
 
 Longitude. The longitude of any point on 
 the earth s surface may be defined as the angle 
 at the pole contained between two meridians, 
 one of which passes through the place in ques 
 tion, and the other through some conventional 
 point regarded as the origin from which the 
 longitudes are reckoned. From the first or 
 prime meridian longitudes are reckoned east and 
 west from to 180 in arc, and from O h to 12 h 
 in time. 
 
 The parallels of latitude beine marked out by 
 the paths followed by the stars in their apparent 
 daily motion, the latitude of a point may always 
 be determined by direct observation of the heav 
 enly bodies, but in the case of longitude the ele 
 ment of time as measured by the daily revolu 
 tion of the eaMh on its axis comes in, and the 
 question resolves itself into the comparison of 
 the local time with the time at the prime me 
 ridian. 
 
 Before the invention of the electric telegraph 
 the transportation of chronometers regulated to 
 the time of the prime meridian, and the motion 
 of the moon, afforded the principal methods of 
 measuring longitudes. By the first method most 
 of the prominent points on the earth s surface 
 have had their longitudes determined, but al 
 though great accuracy has been attained in the 
 manufacture, chronometers are still subject to 
 irregularities from changes of temperature and 
 from induced magnetism of the steel parts, 
 amounting to a considerable degree of error in 
 long voyages. 
 
 The measurement of longitude by means of 
 the moon s motion, although theoretically accu- 
 
LONGITUDE 
 
 449 
 
 LONG TOGS 
 
 rate, is not so in practice for many reasons, 
 among the principal of which is that the moon s 
 apparent motion among the stars being only 
 about one-thirtieth as rapid as that of the earth 
 on its axis, any error of observation is multiplied 
 in the resulting longitude by a factor nearly 
 equal to thirty. As the inaccuracy of chrono- 
 metric measurements increases with the distance 
 between the points whose difference of longitude 
 is to be established, geographers have urged the 
 exact and permanent establishment of as many 
 secondary meridians as practicable, situated at 
 convenient distances around the earth, from 
 which measurements could be quickly and accu 
 rately made to subsidiary points by chronometers. 
 The very general connection of all important 
 points by either land telegraph-lines or by sub 
 marine telegraph-cables at the present day, 
 affords admirable facilities for the most simple 
 and accurate method of determining longitudes, 
 which is, in short, the comparison of the local 
 times of two places by means of electrical signals. 
 
 The principle of this method, which in its 
 present perfected state is due to American as 
 tronomers, is extremely simple. At each of the 
 two places whose difference of time, and conse 
 quently of longitude, is to be determined a 
 transit instrument, clock, and chronograph is 
 established, the chronograph being for^he pur 
 pose of marking the exact time of any occur 
 rence, such as the passage of a star over the wires 
 of a telescope or the arrival of a time-signal. 
 All preliminary arrangements being made, the 
 error of each clock on the time of its place is 
 determined by meridian transits of stars, and 
 the clocks are compared the same evening by 
 signals sent each way over the wire or telegraph- 
 cable, thus, by comparison of the local times, 
 determining the difference of longitude between 
 the two places. The time occupied by a signal in 
 traversing the wire or cable is quite appreciable, 
 but is eliminated by sending an equal number 
 of signals each way. The U. S. Hydrographic 
 Office is now engaged in determining in this way 
 as many secondary meridians as practicable all 
 over the world. Although most maritime na 
 tions refer their longitudes to the meridian of 
 Greenwich, tne French still use that of Paris, 
 which is 2 20 14.5" east of Greenwich, and 
 the Spaniards that of Cadiz, which is 6 12 20" 
 west of Greenwich. Although on some maps 
 American geographers still show the meridian 
 of Washington, it is practically used only as a 
 secondary meridian, the Naval Observatory be 
 ing 77 3 5.8" west of Greenwich, and all the 
 longitudes of the United States being measured 
 from it, or from the observatory at Cambridge, 
 Mass., in longitude 71 7 42.7". F. M. Green, 
 Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 LONGITUDE BY ACCOUNT. The longitude de 
 duced from the course and distance made from 
 the last position determined by observation. 
 
 LONGITUDE BY CHRONOMETER. The longi 
 tude deduced by applying the hour-angle of a 
 heavenly body, corrected for equation of time 
 (or the mean time at the place of observation) to 
 the mean time at a first meridian, which is shown 
 by the chronometer. See LONGITUDE. 
 
 LONGITUDE BY A LUNAR OBSERVATION. A 
 
 method of obtaining the longitude of a place at 
 
 sea by measuring the angular distance of the 
 
 moon from the sun, a planet, or fixed star. This 
 
 29 
 
 method has gradually fallen into disuse since the 
 great improvements that have been made in, 
 chronometers, as the liability to error is greater 
 in a lunar observation than in other methods. 
 
 LONGITUDE IN ARC, and LONGITUDE IN TIME. 
 The earth rotates uniformly on her axis once in 
 24 hours, and thus every spot on her surface de 
 scribes a complete circle, or 360, in that space 
 of time. Hence the longitude of any place is 
 proportional to the time the earth takes to re 
 volve through the angle between the first me 
 ridian and the meridian of the place, and thus 
 the longitude of a place may be expressed either 
 in arc or in time. In reckoning by arc each de 
 gree is divided into 60 minutes, and each minute 
 into 60 seconds. In reckoning by time, each 
 hour is also divided into 60 minutes, and each 
 minute into 60 seconds. But a distinct notation 
 for each of these has been adopted, degrees, min 
 utes, and seconds being represented by / ", and 
 hours, minutes, and seconds by hms ; and care 
 should be observed not to use the same marks for 
 both, great confusion arising from so doing. 
 Longitude in arc and longitude in time are easily 
 convertible, for since 360 is equivalent to 24 h , 
 15 is equivalent to l h , 1 to 4 ra , and 1 to 4 s . 
 
 LONGITUDE (CELESTIAL), CIRCLES OF. Great 
 circles of the celestial sphere passing through the 
 poles of the ecliptic, and so called" because they 
 severally mark out all points which have the 
 same longitude. 
 
 LONGITUDE (TERRESTRIAL), CIRCLES OF. 
 Great circles of the terrestrial sphere passing 
 through the poles of the equator, and so called 
 because they severally mark out all places which 
 have the same longitude. They are also and 
 generally called meridians, because for every 
 place on the same circle it is noon simultaneously. 
 
 LONGITUDE OF A HEAVENLY BODY. The arc 
 of the ecliptic intercepted between the first point 
 of Aries and the secondary circle to the ecliptic, 
 which passes through the place of the body. Or, 
 which is the same thing, the angle at the pole of 
 the ecliptic between the circle of longitude pass 
 ing through the first point of Aries and that 
 passing the place of the body. Longitude is 
 reckoned from the first point of Aries eastwardly 
 from to 360. 
 
 LONGITUDE, HELIOCENTRIC AND GEOCENTRIC. 
 See LATITUDE. 
 
 Long-jawed. Said of a rope that has been 
 used and strained until its lay has been length 
 ened. 
 
 Long-legged. Applied to a vessel of compara 
 tively great length. Also to a vessel of great 
 draft of water. 
 
 Long Oyster (Eng.}. The cray-fish. 
 
 Long-service. Formerly said of a cable, served 
 to protect it from chafe. 
 
 Longshore-man. A dock-laborer or steve 
 dore s man. Sometimes used by sailors as a term 
 of contempt. 
 
 Long-shot. A shot at long range. The term 
 is also used to express the error of another s state 
 ment. 
 
 Long Stroke. An order to a boat s crew to 
 row with a greater length of stroke, and more 
 outlay of strength. 
 
 Long-tackle. The name sometimes given to 
 a top-burton, or the tackle by which a topsail 
 is hoisted to the yard previous to bending. 
 
 Long Togs. Clothes worn by civilians. 
 
LONG TOM 
 
 450 
 
 LOWKY 
 
 Long Tom. A gun formerly used as a bow- 
 chaser, which was of great length and range com 
 pared with the guns then in general use. 
 
 Long Voyage. One during which the ocean 
 is crossed, as distinguished from a coasting voy 
 age. Also called a deep-water voyage. 
 
 Long-winded Whistler. A long-range gun 
 used as a chaser. 
 
 Loof, or Luff of the Bow. That part of the 
 bow of a vessel where the planks begin to curve 
 towards the stem. 
 
 Look-out. To watch. A person stationed to 
 watch for land or vessels. A look-out is always 
 stationed aloft, usually on the fore-topsail yard, 
 from sunrise to sunset, and others, also, if the 
 vessel is in the vicinity of dangers where extreme 
 vigilance is required. From sunset to sunrise 
 the look-out men are stationed, one on each bow 
 and one at each gangway, and both by day and 
 by night a man is stationed over the life-buoy at 
 the stern. 
 
 Look Out for Squalls. Precautionary advice 
 not confined to the weather. 
 
 Look Up. A vessel looks up towards her 
 course as the changing of the wind allows her to 
 sail nearer to that direction. 
 
 Loom. To appear enlarged, as a vessel or 
 land seen indistinctly through fog. That part 
 of an oar which, in rowing, is inside of the row 
 locks. A loom-gale is a moderate gale. The 
 loom of the land is the darker appearance above 
 the horizon (sometimes seen and often imagined), 
 which indicates the proximity of land before it 
 can be seen. 
 
 Loon. The bird Colymbus glacialis, or the 
 " Great Northern Diver." 
 
 Loop. The bight of a small rope. The nar 
 row part on the under side of a howitzer by 
 which it is secured to its carriage. A loop-bolt 
 is the bolt which passes through the loop of the 
 howitzer and the lugs on the carriage to secure 
 the piece in position. The trail-wheel loop is the 
 aperture in the trail of a field-carriage into which 
 the wheel enters, and the loop-pin holds the 
 wheel in place. 
 
 Loose. To unfurl a sail ; to let go a rope. 
 
 LOOSER. A man whose duty it is to loose a 
 sail. 
 
 LOOSE FOR SEA. To get under way. 
 
 Loose Fall. A whaleman s expression for 
 the loss of a good opportunity to strike a whale. 
 
 Loose Ice. Broken ice. 
 
 Loot. To plunder, and the proceeds thereof. 
 
 Loovared Batten. One of the sloping pieces 
 of which blinds or open partitions are formed, 
 by which air is admitted and rain excluded. 
 
 Lop-sided. Having one side larger than 
 another. See LAP-SIDED. 
 
 Lorcha. A Chinese coasting-vessel, the hull 
 being similar to vessels of European construc 
 tion, while the rig is Chinese. 
 
 Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (Eng.}. 
 The officer by whom the five ports of Hastings, 
 Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwick, and the 
 additional ports of Winchelsea and Rye, are 
 governed. 
 
 Lorient. A fortified seaport at the mouth of 
 the Scorf, in the Bay of Biscay, department of 
 Morbihan, France. The harbor is capacious, 
 safe, and commodious, and lined by handsome 
 quays. At some distance below the harbor its 
 entrance is commanded by a fort on the Isle St. 
 
 Michael, mounting 500 guns. The dock-yard 
 and arsenal are among the most complete in 
 France. The principal building is the Prefect 
 ure Maritime, situated at the entrance of the 
 dock-yard. The city has also forges, foundries, 
 and manufactures of steam-engines. Pop. 31,500- 
 
 Lorn (Scotch). The crested cormorant. 
 
 Lorrell (Eng.}. A old term for a slow, lazy 
 fellow. 
 
 Lose Ground. To fall to leeward. 
 
 Lose the Number of One s Mess. A com 
 mon expression for dying. 
 
 Lose Way. To stop ; said of a vessel when 
 she loses her headway through the water. 
 
 Loss. A term in insurance denoting the dam 
 age to the insured subject by the perils insured 
 against, in accordance with the terms of the 
 contract. No loss can be within the meaning 
 of the contract or policy except it be the direct 
 result of one of the perils mentioned. 
 
 Lost. Said of a sunken or wrecked vessel. 
 
 Lost Day. The day that is lost in crossing the 
 180th degree of longitude from east to west. See 
 DAY, CIRCUMNAVIGATOR S. 
 
 Lost-motion. The motion due to -loose Jour 
 nals and bad-fitting gear. 
 
 Lost or not Lost (Eng.}. A legal clause in 
 serted in marine insurance policies" 
 
 Lot. A contraction of "allotment." 
 
 Lotman. An old name for a pirate. 
 
 Lound (Eng.}. Formerly signifying calm. 
 
 Low and Aloft. An expression used when 
 all sail is set. 
 
 Lowe (Scotch}. A flame. The name applied 
 to the torch used by fishermen at night. 
 
 Lower. A term characteristic of the principal 
 division of a mast and the yard, rigging, etc., 
 belonging to it. To ease away a tackle or any 
 rope to which a weight is attached. To become 
 cloudy. 
 
 LOWER-DECKER. One of the guns on a lower 
 deck of a frigate or ship of the line. 
 
 LOWER HANDSOMELY. To lower away slowly. 
 
 LOWER-HOLD. The space under the lower 
 deck in a merchant vessel having two decks. 
 
 LOWER-HOLD BEAM. A beam of the lower 
 deck. 
 
 LOWER-HOPE (Eng.}. One of the reaches in 
 the river Thames. 
 
 LOWER LIFT. A lift belonging to the fore, 
 main, or cross-jack yard. 
 
 LOWER-MAST. See MAST. 
 
 LOWER TRANSIT. The passage of a heavenly 
 body across that part of a meridian which is be 
 low the horizon, or 180 from the upper transit. 
 
 Low Latitude. A latitude near the equator. 
 
 Low-pressure Engine. The terms low and 
 high pressure were formerly synonymous with 
 condensing and non-condensing, but at present a 
 low-pressure engine is usually considered to be 
 one the working pressure of which does not ex 
 ceed 45 or 50 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Low Sail. A course or close-reefed topsail. 
 
 Low-water. Low-tide. 
 
 Low-water Alarm. A device arranged to blow 
 a whistle when the water in a steam-boiler falls 
 below a certain level. 
 
 Low-water Indicator. An attachment on a 
 steam-boiler to indicate the water-level-within.- 
 
 Lowry, Reigart B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in South America, July 14, 1826. Ap 
 pointed from Pennsylvania, January 21, 1840 ; 
 
LOXODROMIC 
 
 451 
 
 LUNAR 
 
 attached to sloop " Boston," East India Squad 
 ron, 1840-43 ; steamer " Princeton," special ser 
 vice, 1844-45 ; Naval School, 1846. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 
 1846 ; Home Squadron during Mexican war ; 
 present at Tampico, Tuspan, Vera Cruz, Ta 
 basco, Seven Palms, and Alvarado ; wounded 
 slightly at Tuspan ; razee " Independence," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1850-52; sloop "Plym 
 outh," East India Squadron, 1852-54. 
 
 Promoted to master, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 14, 
 1855; steam-frigate "Powhatan," East India 
 Squadron, 1855-56 ; receiving-ship, New York, 
 1857-58; sloop " Preble," Brazil Squadron, 
 1858-59 ; special duty, 1860-61 ; steam-sloop 
 " Pawnee," Atlantic coast, 1861 ; was present in 
 "Pawnee" in first firing on Fort Sumter; en- 
 
 fagement at Acquia Creek, Potomac River, 
 861; commanded steamer " Freeborn" in en 
 gagement at Matthias Point and other affairs on 
 Potomac River; commanded steamer "Under 
 writer," in Albemarle Sound, 1861 ; was execu 
 tive-officer of steam-sloop " Brooklyn" in the 
 battles with the forts below New Orleans, and at 
 the capture of the city ; first attack on Vicksburg, 
 June 80, 1862; commanded steamer "Scioto," 
 Western Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1862-63; 
 engagement at Donaldsonville, La., between 
 " Scioto" and rebel force of 900 men and 7 pieces 
 of artillery, October 5, 1862; engagement with 
 batteries at Galveston, January, 1863. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; special duty, Washington, 1863-64; 
 commanding apprentice-ship " Sabine," 1864-68. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 25, 1866; 
 commanding flag-ship North Atlantic Fleet, 
 1869-70. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, November 2, 1871 ; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Canandaigua," North 
 Atlantic Station, 1872-74; Naval Station, New 
 London, Conn., 1875-77; waiting orders, 1878- 
 80. Commissioned as commodore, April 1, 1880. 
 
 Loxodromic. Pertaining to a vessel s course 
 when it makes an oblique angle with the me 
 ridian. A loxodromic curve is a line drawn on 
 the surface of the sphere which cuts all of the 
 meridians at the same angle ; a rhumb-line. 
 
 Lozenge. An equilateral figure having two 
 acute and two obtuse angles. 
 
 Lubber. A clumsy, awkward person, lacking 
 seamanlike qualities. 
 
 LUBBER T LAND. An imaginary condition or 
 place referred to by seamen as the state of future 
 existence of lubbers. 
 
 LUBBER S HOLE. The space between a top and 
 the mast-head which affords a passage into the 
 top for greenhorns, or persons who are unable 
 to climb outside of the top-rim. 
 
 LUBBER S POINT. The black vertical line on 
 the inside of the compass-bowl which represents 
 the vessel s head in steering. 
 
 Lubricant. The oil or other substance ap 
 plied to the bearings of a machine to diminish 
 friction. 
 
 Lubricator. An oil-cup or other contrivance 
 for supplying lubricants to the working parts of 
 machinery. 
 
 Lucida. The brightest star of a constella 
 tion. 
 
 Lucifer. Son of Jupiter and Aurora, made 
 the morning star. See VENUS. 
 
 Lucky Minie s Line (Eng.}. The name given 
 to the stem of the sea-plant Churda filum. 
 
 Luff. To bring a vessel s head nearer the 
 wind. A name given to the forward leech of a 
 fore-and-aft sail. That part of a vessel s bow 
 where the planks begin to bend towards the 
 stem. Also a familiar term for lieutenant. To 
 keep the luff is to steer a vessel close to the wind. 
 Luff and lie is an old expression, meaning to 
 luff and remain close to the wind. Luff and touch 
 her is to luff until the sails shake or touch 
 slightly. Luff into a berth is to luff into a posi 
 tion for anchoring, bringing the wind ahead. To 
 luff round is to luff into the wind as in tacking, 
 or for the purpose of deadening the vessel s 
 headway. To luff hard is to luff so as to shake 
 the sails. A luff tackle is any tackle with a 
 double and single block, which may be used as 
 required. Rigging luffs, however, which are 
 used for setting up lower rigging and stays, may 
 consist of two double blocks or two single 
 blocks. A luff upon luff is the purchase con 
 sisting of one luff-tackle applied to the fall of 
 another. 
 
 Luff of the Bow. The roundest part of the 
 bow. 
 
 Lug. A short flange or projection used to 
 fasten one object to another. See LOCK-LUG. 
 
 Lug-boat. A boat carrying lug-sails. 
 
 Lugger. The name applied to vessels with 
 two or three masts upon which lug-sails are car 
 ried. They are peculiar to the French and Eng 
 lish coasts. During the early part of the present 
 century they were frequently used as privateers 
 and smugglers, and some vessels of this class 
 were as large as 300 tons. 
 
 Lug-sail. A quadrilateral sail used in lug 
 gers, and frequently in sail-boats. It is bent to 
 a yard, which is hoisted upon the mast by the 
 j halliards, which are attached to it at a quarter 
 of the distance from the forward end. The tack 
 of the sail is secured near the heel of the mast, 
 and in hoisting the yard a strain is brought upon 
 the luff of the sail, by which the yard is kept in 
 an oblique position. It is inconvenient in use 
 on account of the necessity of shifting the yard 
 to leeward of the mast in tacking. 
 
 Lull. An interval of less force of wind during 
 a gale. 
 
 Lull-bag. A wide hose made of canvas 
 which is used on whale-ships for leading the 
 blubber into casks. 
 
 Lumber. Timber sawed and split, ready for 
 use. Articles heaped together in disorder. 
 
 Lump. The name of a heavy lighter used in 
 English dock-yards for transporting anchors, 
 cables, etc. In the lum.p is the whole together. 
 Lump sum,, a full payment in cash. 
 
 Lump-fish. A sea-fish of the genus Cyclop- 
 terus (C. lumpus}. Its head and body are deep, 
 thick, arid short ; the pectoral fins unite under 
 the throat, and with the ventral fins form a 
 single disk. It is soft, without scales, but cov 
 ered with firm, horny spines. Called also lump- 
 sucker. 
 
 Lumper. A dock-laborer. A person em 
 ployed in loading or unloading vessels. 
 
 Lunar (Lat. luna, the moon). Pertaining to 
 the moon. A short term for lunar observation. 
 
 LUNAR DAY. The interval between two 
 transits of the moon over a meridian. 
 
 LUNAR DISTANCE. The moon having a verj- 
 
LUNAR 
 
 452 
 
 MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 rapid proper motion, her distance from other 
 bodies which lie in her path varies very percep 
 tibly in short intervals. Hence these distances 
 have been made the foundation of one of the 
 most important methods of determining the lon 
 gitude at sea. In the Nautical Almanac are 
 registered for certain dates the angular distance 
 of" the moon s centre from certain bodies as they 
 would appear to an observer at the centre of the 
 earth. When a lunar distance has been observed 
 at any station on the surface of the earth, and 
 reduced to the centre by clearing it of the effects 
 of parallax and refraction, the Greenwich mean 
 time corresponding to this true distance can be 
 found from the tables by the method of interpo 
 lation. 
 
 LUNAR INEQUALITY. A variation in the 
 moon s motion depending upon its distance from 
 the sun. 
 
 LUNAR OBSERVATION. A measurement of 
 the angular distance of the moon from another 
 heavenly body, with the altitudes of each, and 
 the chronometer time of observation for compu 
 ting the longitude. 
 
 LUNATION. The lunar month, or, as astrono 
 mers call it, the moon s synodical period. It is 
 determined by the recurrence of the moon s 
 phases, and is reckoned from new moon to new 
 moon, i.e., from leaving her conjunction with 
 the sun to her return to conjunction. In conse 
 quence of the sun s proper motion in the heavens 
 
 in the same direction with that of the moon, the 
 latter body, after leaving the sun, will have more 
 than a complete circle to perform in order to 
 come up to the sun again. Hence a lunation 
 exceeds the moon s sidereal period; its mean 
 length is calculated to be 29 d 12 h 44 m 2.87 s . 
 
 LUNISOLAR PRECESSION. That part of the 
 precessions of the equinoxes which is caused by 
 the combined action of the sun and moon. 
 
 LUNISOLAR YEAR. The space of time at the 
 end of which the eclipses occur in the same order. 
 It is found by multiplying the cycle of the sun 
 by that of the moon. 
 
 LUNITIDAL INTERVAL. The interval be 
 tween the moon s transit and the high-water 
 next following. It varies from day to day 
 during the fortnight between new and full and 
 full and new moon. The lunitidal interval must 
 not be confused with the retard or age of the 
 tide. 
 
 Lunge. A thrust with a sword or boarding- 
 pike. 
 
 Lupus. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Lynx. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Lyra (Lat. " The Lyre"). A constellation to 
 the south of Draco and Cygnus. It contains one 
 bright star a Lyroe, also called Vega, which may 
 be known by its being situated at about the same 
 distance from the pole-star on one side as Capella 
 is on the other, and by its propinquity to the con 
 spicuous pair of the Dragon. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. Of the letters used in the log-book to in 
 dicate the state of the weather, m denotes mist. 
 
 Maash. A large trading-vessel of the Nile. 
 
 Macao. A seaport town in China belonging 
 to the Portuguese, on the island of Macao, at the 
 southwest entrance of the Canton River, in lat. 
 22 IV N., Ion. 118 32 E. The town is situ 
 ated on a semicircular harbor, which is defended 
 by forts north and west of the town. Large ships 
 anchor in the roadstead east of the island, as the 
 harbor will only admit vessels of light draft. 
 The Portuguese obtained their footing in 1560, 
 under pretext of erecting sheds for drying goods 
 alleged to have been damaged in a storm. These 
 sheds gradually gave way to substantial edifices, 
 and finally to forts. The Chinese, however, held, 
 until 1863, a lien upon the place, requiring of 
 the Portuguese a rental of 500 taels, and retain 
 ing jurisdiction over their own people. After 
 the rise of Hong Kong the commerce of Macao 
 almost entirely^disappeared ; but its trade has 
 been somewhat revived by making it a free port. 
 Pop. 72,000. 
 
 Machias, Washington County, Me., is on 
 the Machias River, about 10 miles from the At 
 lantic Ocean, and 70 miles E. by S. of Bangor. 
 It is mainly supported by the coast trade, lum 
 ber business, and ship-building. It is also a port 
 of entry. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Machine. An instrument of a lower grade 
 
 than an engine, its motor being distinct from tne 
 operating part ; it is of a higher grade than a tool. 
 The word machine in its widest sense may be 
 applied to every material substance and system, 
 but it is generally restricted to works of human 
 art. 
 
 MACHINERY. Machines collectively ; the works 
 of a machine, engine, or instrument so arranged 
 and constructed as to apply and regulate force ; 
 as, the machinery of a watch. 
 
 Machine-guns. A machine-gun is a cannon 
 in which the essential operations pertaining to 
 continuous fire are automatically performed by 
 machinery. 
 
 These operations are : 1. The supply of the 
 cartridges and their insertion into the chamber 
 and retention there during the discharge. 2. 
 The storing up of the blow required for their 
 detonation and the delivery of that blow. 3. 
 The extraction of the fired cartridge-cases from 
 the chamber and their ejection from the gun. 4. 
 The direction of the gun in continuous firing. 
 
 The continuous operation of the parts required 
 by the above definition should exclude from this 
 class of guns those requiring or permitting sim 
 ultaneous loading and discharge, and hence those 
 in which the fire is consecutive but intermittent, 
 like revolvers. The former class, often con 
 founded with machine-guns, are properly mi- 
 trailleurs, or volley-guns, deriving their name 
 
MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 453 
 
 MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 from the weapon of this character which first 
 attained decided celebrity in France in 1870, 
 and which in turn inherited its name from the 
 cognate term long used to designate the simul 
 taneous discharge from a single gun of a large 
 number of small projectiles contained in a single 
 envelope. Canister, grape, shrapnel, and even 
 bird-shot are generically mitraille. 
 
 Among the mitrailleurs are included various 
 parallel or slightly diverging systems of barrels 
 arranged either side by side in a row, or, for 
 economy of space and mutual support, grouped 
 together in a bundle. 
 
 The former arrangement finds its prototype in 
 the labor-saving device of the proof-master, 
 crudely imitated in Flanders in 1347, where 
 4 breech-loading tubes of small calibre were 
 mounted on a two-wheeled carriage, and by 
 Fieschi, in 1835, in the infernal machine designed 
 for the assassination of Louis Philippe. This 
 was improved on by the American Requa, in 
 1861, who used breech-loading cartridges, thus 
 permitting the barrels to be simultaneously loaded 
 by mechanical means. A similar device was em 
 ployed in the Franco-Prussian war, and is now 
 known in Europe as the Abbatini. 
 
 This variety finds its last stage in the Norden- 
 feldt (Swedish) gun, which, while capable of sim 
 ultaneous loading, admits of either simultaneous 
 or consecutive fire. Its intervals are so short, 
 however, that the intermittent character of its 
 fire is hardly perceptible, and the gun may prop 
 erly be classed either as a mitrailleur or a ma 
 chine-gun. 
 
 The arrangement of the barrels in a bundle is 
 so evident an advantage that it was naturally 
 adopted at an early date. The barrels being 
 stationary, are loaded by means of charging- 
 blocks or plates pierced to correspond with the 
 barrels, and serving to guide the cartridges simul 
 taneously into their proper chambers from the 
 rear. The motion of pressing the cartridges into 
 place also serves in various evident ways to 
 compress certain springs in the rear, which, on 
 being released, either simultaneously or in suc 
 cession fire the charge ; or the cocking may be 
 done independently. 
 
 Such are the French mitrailleur, the Taylor 
 gun of about the same date, and others. 
 
 One evident objection to the forms of mi 
 trailleur so far described is the recoil. When 
 it is considered that some forms fire from 25 to 
 37 shots at once, it will be readily seen how the 
 aim of the gun may be deranged and a constant 
 correction required, which, aside from the heat 
 of action, may be impossible from the smoke of 
 the previous discharge. 
 
 Hence the development of the revolver prin 
 ciple, by which a cluster of barrels loaded at 
 leisure could be fired in rapid succession. Once 
 discharged, however, the time required to reload 
 gives the fire an intermittent character, which 
 takes it out of the class of machine-guns. 
 
 The origin of the revolver can be found as far 
 back as the fifteenth century, when at an early 
 stage of its career, the idea was improved on by 
 diminishing the aggregate weight of the barrels 
 by making them as short as possible, and bring 
 ing them successively opposite to a single tube 
 of suitable length for aiming and for complet 
 ing the combustion of the charge. 
 
 The axis of revolution is generally parallel to 
 
 tHat of the barrel, but cases are not rare where 
 it is at right angles, and either vertical or hori 
 zontal. 
 
 An example of the former kind is found in 
 one of the earliest English patents for fire 
 arms, No. 418, A.D. 1718, granted to one Puckle. 
 
 His " Portable Gun, or Machine called a De 
 fense," contains, though crudely, some of the 
 most recent improvements in the accessories of 
 machine-guns, and is a close approximation to a 
 weapon known as the " Union Repeating or 
 Coffee-mill Gun," used in the war of the Rebel 
 lion. The latter, though, was properly a machine- 
 gun. 
 
 Puckle s principal limitation seems to have 
 been the " state of the arts" at the time of his 
 invention ; that fatal tether which has checked so 
 many a self-reliant Icarus, and brought him back 
 to earth to await the slow co-operation of the evo 
 lution he had forestalled. 
 
 Nowhere can the effects of such a bar be more 
 plainly seen than in the tardy development of the 
 ammunition intended for these guns ; the most 
 simple, evident, and essential feature of which, 
 the gas-check, was so long unknown. 
 
 The invention and perfection of the self- 
 primed, sheet-metal cartridge has been the main 
 factor in the success of machine-guns, not only 
 for those qualities which have rendered possible 
 the well-known development of portable fire 
 arms, but for the special necessity to maphine- 
 guns of the rigidity of construction and invari 
 ability of dimension which characterize the best 
 ammunition of the present day. 
 
 The automatic nature of the mechanism in the 
 gun, by which the continuous motion of the 
 hand is transmuted into the complicated move 
 ments of the parts, by which so many conflicting 
 operations are rapidly performed in so restricted 
 a space, while possessing manifest advantages, 
 deprives the operator of the benefits of a dis 
 criminating choice of the material with which 
 his machine is supplied. Especially is this evi 
 dent when one considers the exact time required 
 to be kept in the relative motions of the parts, 
 and the shock and strain to which all parts of 
 this machine are subject at the discharge. 
 
 Hence the necessity for great regularity, both 
 in the food and in the feed. 
 
 In the first place the cartridges must not only 
 conform closely to each other" when made, but 
 must be so stiff and strong that their original 
 dimensions will not be injured by transportation, 
 by weather, or by time; and that when fired the 
 least possible resistance will oppose the extrac 
 tion of the empty cartridge-shell in all its parts, 
 nothing being left behind to clog the machinery. 
 
 In the second place the form of the cartridges 
 must be such and the special apparatus employed 
 must be so arranged that the ammunition will 
 be delivered to the machine so uniformly that 
 its motion will continue unchecked, each cart- 
 tridge falling into its appointed place exactly 
 at its appointed time, thus enabling the gun 
 to perform the functions of a true machine by 
 delivering its product as long as its motion and 
 its supply are maintained. 
 
 An individual soldier finding a cartridge too 
 large or too small for his gun, or bursting in it, 
 can readily discover the defect and may remedy 
 it ; but in a machine-gun, the works of which are 
 concealed, and which, especially under excite- 
 
MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 454 
 
 MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 ment, may be driven at their utmost speed, a 
 slight defect may cause a jam which may be 
 aggravated by misguided efforts for relief. 
 
 Hence the general deduction that the machine- 
 gun depends principally on the perfection of its 
 feed, and the feed upon that of the cartridge, or 
 briefly, no cartridge, no feed ; no feed, no gun. 
 
 The following are the principal machine-guns 
 now extant : 
 
 I. Two or more stationary barrels parallel to 
 
 each other in a horizontal plane. 
 Gardner. Two barrels. 
 Nordenfeldt. Five barrels. 
 Taylor of 1878.* Five barrels. 
 
 II. Rotary cluster of parallel barrels. 
 
 a. Gatling. Continuously rotating, and 
 
 firing each barrel in each revolution 
 while moving. 
 
 b. Hotchkiss. Periodically rotating, and 
 
 firing each barrel in each revolution 
 while at rest. 
 
 c. Lowell. Rotating at pleasure by hand 
 
 for cooling and cleaning ; firing con 
 secutive shots through a single barrel 
 at rest. 
 
 The following description is founded on the 
 comparison of the different methods by which they 
 perform the essential operations pertaining to a 
 continuous fire. 
 
 Operation. With one exception they are 
 driven by the continuous motion of a crank, 
 placed either on the side of the gun or directly 
 in rear. The exception is the Nordenfeldt, in 
 which a reciprocating motion is given to a hori 
 zontal hand-lever projecting to the right side. 
 
 The mechanical advantage of the former course 
 is obvious, in that it avoids the resistance due to 
 the inertia of the motor at each end of the stroke. 
 
 Feeding. These guns are all fed from above 
 by an arrangement of the cartridges side by side 
 vertically ; in one row for the rotary guns, and 
 in as many rows as there are barrels for the other 
 class. 
 
 The support for these cartridges is called a 
 hopper, feed-case, feed-tube, or trough, accord 
 ing to circumstances. It may contain a weight 
 supplied with a projecting thumb-piece, by which 
 to accelerate the passage of the cartridges into 
 the gun. In the Gatling the cross-section of 
 the feed-case is continuous, save for a slit left 
 for the movement of the thumb-piece up and 
 down. 
 
 In the Nordenfeldt there is a compact group 
 of such cases, but the weight, etc., are omitted. 
 In the Gardner, Taylor, and Lowell guns the 
 troughs are shallow and open in front, so as 
 only to embrace the head of the cartridges. 
 They can be readily filled by sliding into them 
 with a scraping motion the heads of the car 
 tridges as contained in the original packages. 
 In these guns the troughs are vertical, opening 
 to the front. In the Hotchkiss the cartridges 
 roll into place successively down an inclined 
 trough open on top. 
 
 All of these devices are sought to be arranged 
 with reference to the rapidity of fire of the gun 
 to which they are attached, so that the reserve 
 contained in the hopper will not be exhausted 
 before the next lot of cartridges can be supplied. 
 
 Loading. The cartridges having been deliv- 
 
 * This ia not the Taylor volley-gun of 1870, previously re 
 ferred to. 
 
 ered from the hopper, are pushed into the barrel 
 by a reciprocating piston in all the guns. 
 
 In the Gatling each barrel has its own piston 
 revolving with it under the influence of the 
 crank, but constrained to move obliquely to the 
 axis in an elliptical orbit, by means of a corre 
 sponding stationary rib within the casing of the 
 gun, but outside of the -fluted cylinder which 
 serves to guide the cartridges and pistons in 
 their reciprocating path. 
 
 The action is thus progressive with each car 
 tridge, but simultaneous for them all, giving an 
 independent deliberation to each unit, but rapidity 
 to the whole. 
 
 In the Hotchkiss, Lowell, Gardner, and Tay 
 lor guns the reciprocation of the piston is effected 
 by various vertical cams actuated by the driving- 
 crank. In the first two there is but one piston ; 
 in the last two there is one piston to each barrel, 
 but its action is alternate. 
 
 In the Nordenfeldt gun each barrel has its 
 piston, and they are moved together by the 
 hand-lever. 
 
 Guiding. The method of preventing the ac 
 cumulation of cartridges in front of the piston, 
 and of directing them into place, requires atten 
 tion. 
 
 In the Lowell gun this is done by one or more 
 deeply fluted "carrier rolls," revolving on an 
 axis parallel to that of the gun, beneath the 
 hopper and to one side of it. They take the 
 nearest cartridge from the hopper in their flutes, 
 guide it into its chamber, and receive its remains 
 after the discharge. 
 
 The Gardner and Taylor guns require hori 
 zontally vibrating valves for this purpose, alter 
 nately cutting off and opening the mouth of the 
 hopper. 
 
 In the Hotchkiss this is effected by a little trap 
 door, closing the mouth of the trough until the 
 piston has receded from its insertion of the pre 
 ceding cartridge into place, and has left the way 
 clear for its successor to roll down into its front. 
 
 In the Gatling and Nordenfeldt guns this is 
 accomplished by the proportion and arrangement 
 of the contiguous parts. 
 
 Firing. In almost every case the firing-pins 
 are animated by spiral springs surrounding them, 
 which are compressed against some projection 
 during the forward motion of the piston in load 
 ing. The firing-pins being inclosed by the piston, 
 are, so to speak, left behind until the moment 
 has come for the blow. 
 
 In the Hotchkiss and Lowell guns the spring 
 is compressed by a special cam on the driving- 
 shaft. In both of these guns the firing takes 
 place with the barrel at rest and in line with the 
 axis, so as to avoid the deflection due to the re 
 coil. With the Lowell gun, firing by simple 
 pressure from the piston has been tried. In the 
 Hotchkiss, the moment of rest during the firing 
 is necessarily made use of for the loading and 
 extraction. 
 
 Locking. To support the cartridge against the 
 discharge various similar devices are adopted, 
 depending principally upon some flattening of 
 the stationary or revolving cam by which the 
 mechanism is actuated. This is extended some 
 what to allow for a continued support after the 
 moment intended for the explosion, in the chance 
 of a cartridge missing fire. In the Hotchkiss, 
 owing to the revolution of the cartridge away 
 
MACHINE-GUNS 
 
 455 
 
 MACOMB 
 
 from its loading-point, the recoil is borne directly 
 upon the solid cast-iron breech-block. 
 
 Extraction. The reciprocating motion of the 
 piston readily suggests the spring-hooked ex 
 tractor so commonly used in all bolt-guns. 
 
 In some cases it may work positively by con 
 tact with some projection serving to close its 
 point in, but generally it depends upon its own 
 elasticity for a hold. The hook is sometimes 
 double. 
 
 Ejection. The ejection is generally accom 
 plished by the force of gravity alone, the cart 
 ridge falling on being swept off the hook of the 
 extractor by a "plow," as in the Gatling, and 
 dropping through a proper aperture to the 
 ground. 
 
 The Gardner, Hotchkiss, and Taylor gun sup 
 plement this action by giving to the extracted 
 cartridge-case a blow from an ejector to release 
 it from the hooks. In the Lowell gun the ex 
 tracted cartridge is drawn between the flutes of 
 the carrier-rolls which guided it on its entrance 
 to the chamber, and by their revolution is cast to 
 the ground. 
 
 Direction of Fire. The continuous fire of 
 machine-guns, combining as they do in one 
 weapon the force of many, requires an adequate 
 distribution of their effect. Many ingenious 
 devices have been invented to accomplish this 
 result, but generally they are too complicated 
 for this paper. 
 
 The horizontal dispersion seems likely to be 
 generally effected by the simplest means, by slowly 
 sweeping the gun in a horizontal plane during 
 the act of firing, care being taken not to waste 
 too many shots by unnecessary dwelling on the 
 spot where the motion is reversed. 
 
 For this purpose the gun is generally mounted 
 on a universal joint, moving independently of 
 the carriage, and with its motion limited by 
 suitable means. 
 
 For the vertical dispersion required in firing 
 against torpedo-boats, and against objects requir 
 ing a rapid change of elevation, two especially 
 ingenious devices have been adopted. 
 
 The Gatling has a lever projecting to the rear, 
 and terminating either in a handle or in a cres 
 cent-shaped fork, supported at the gunner s waist 
 by a strap passing over his shoulders. This han 
 dle is so arranged that at whatever elevation it 
 may place the gun, simply relaxing the grasp of 
 the hand sets it there, by releasing a binding 
 wedge impelled forward by a spring. 
 
 The Hotchkiss has another arrangement better 
 suited to the more deliberate nature of its fire. 
 A crutch-like stock projects to the rear, to be 
 drawn against the gunner s shoulder by the 
 left hand, which grasps a convenient handle. 
 Having thus complete control of the direction of 
 the gun, his right hand can fire it at pleasure by an 
 independent trigger, one assistant giving a con 
 tinuous motion to the crank while another feeds. 
 
 Being thus able to follow by the splash of his 
 bullets an attacking torpedo-boat, the gunner 
 has an advantage at least equal to that of the 
 Nordenfeldt mitrailleur, which is intended to 
 deliver a searching volley as soon as the aim 
 and elevation are found. 
 
 Ammunition. The ammunition employed by 
 these guns need only be limited in size, in any 
 case, by the peculiar conditions of the gun. 
 As a rule, on account of the unbounded supply 
 
 of ammunition they require, they are intended 
 to fire the ordinary infantry cartridge. But as 
 this gives them no advantage in range over an 
 opposing force of infantry, they are prone to in 
 crease their calibre and their range. 
 
 Rapidity. The most rapid is the Gatling, 
 which has been fired at the rate of 1000 shots 
 per minute. The least rapid the Hotchkiss 
 revolving cannon, which is timed for about 60 
 or 80 shots per minute. The rest vary, being at 
 about the following rates : Gardner, 350 ; Lowell, 
 350 ; Nordenfeldt, 200-600. The Hotchkiss can 
 non makes up for its deliberation by firing a 
 sensitive percussion-shell, which yields a large 
 number of fragments on impact. Solid shot can 
 also be used in it. 
 
 Great rapidity of fire cannot be long sustained, 
 owing to the heating of the barrels which re 
 sults. An ordinary breech-loading musket may 
 easily be fired fast enough to blue the barrel and 
 char the stock, so much more the machine-gun, 
 which may fire 50 times as fast. 
 
 Adoption. No one nation can be said to have 
 exclusively adopted any one machine-gun. 
 
 England uses the Gatling on shore, and is said 
 to prefer the Nordenfeldt afloat, in which respect 
 she follows Norway and Sweden. 
 
 France, Brazil, and many other nations use 
 the Hotchkiss cannon largely. The Gatling is 
 under trial in Russia. 
 
 In the United States all of these guns but the 
 Nordenfeldt are, or have recently been, under 
 trial. 
 
 Conclusion. Machine-guns are, generally 
 speaking, auxiliary weapons for defense. In 
 spite of their ingenuity and apparent advan 
 tages, they have not yet played a very impor 
 tant part in actual warfare. 
 
 References: Knight s Mechanical Dictionary, 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Appleton s Cyclopaedia 
 of Applied Mechanics, Cooke s Naval Ordnance 
 and Gunnery, Reports of the Chief of Ordnance 
 U.S.A., 1878-79-80, Ordnance Notes U.S.A., 
 Report Group XVI. U. S. Centennial Commis 
 sion. Henry Metcalfe, Captain U.S.A. 
 
 Mackerel. A genus of fishes of the family 
 Scomberidce. It has a spindle-shaped body, the 
 tail tapering greatly and being slightly ridged 
 on each side. It is a beautiful fish of brilliant 
 green and blue, the males having nearly straight 
 dark transverse bands, the females having the 
 bands elegantly undulated. It is generally 14 
 to 16 inches in length, and about 2 pounds in 
 weight. It is readily caught with the hook and 
 line, but the greatest quantities are taken in nets. 
 They were formerly supposed to be migratory, 
 but it is now believed that they merely leave the 
 deep water and approach the coast for the pur 
 pose of spawning. The Spanish mackerel attains 
 a weight of 4 or 5 pounds, and is more obscurely 
 banded. The mackerel-midge, a very small fish, 
 is a species of rockling, of the family Gadidas. 
 The scad is sometimes called the horse-mackerel. 
 
 MACKEREL-BOAT. A stout clinch-worked ves 
 sel, with a large foresail, sprit-sail, and jigger. 
 
 MACKEREL-BREEZE. A smart breeze, favor 
 able for fishing for mackerel with hook and 
 line. 
 
 MACKEREL-SKY. See CLOUD. 
 
 MACKEREL-STURE. A name for the tunny, 
 Scomber thynnus. 
 
 Macomb, William H., Commodore U.S.A. 
 
MACKODACTYL 
 
 456 
 
 MAGAZINE 
 
 Born in Detroit, Mich., June 16, 1818. Mid 
 shipman, April 10, 1834 ; lieutenant, February 
 27, 1847; commander, July 16, 1862; captain, 
 July 15, 1866; commodore, July, 1870. In 
 sloop " Portsmouth," East India Squadron, 1856- 
 58 ; engaged and captured the Barrier Forts, Can 
 ton, China, November 16-22, 1856; commanded 
 " Metacomet," Paraguay Expedition, 1859; 
 steamer " Genesee," 1862-63 ; attempted the pas 
 sage of Confederate .batteries at Port Hudson, 
 March 14, 1863, and was in frequent actions with 
 Confederate batteries in April to June, 1863 ; 
 commanded " Shamrock," North Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, 1864-65; commanded naval 
 force in capture of Plymouth, N. C., October 30, 
 1864, and in action with Confederates on the 
 Eoanoke River, near Poplar Point, N. C., and 
 for his gallantry and energy in this service was 
 advanced in grade ; commanded steam-sloop 
 "Plymouth," European Squadron, 1869; light 
 house inspector, 1871. Died, 1872. 
 
 Macrodactyl (Gr. makros, long ; dactylos, a 
 finger). A tribe of wading birds comprehending 
 those in which the toes are remarkable for their 
 extreme length, by means of which they walk 
 upon the floating leaves of aquatic plants. 
 
 Macrometer ^Gr. makros, long ; metron, a 
 measure). An instrument for measuring the 
 distance of inaccessible objects by means of two 
 reflectors. 
 
 Macropod (Gr. makros, long; pous, foot). 
 One of a tribe of short-tailed decapodous crus 
 taceans remarkable for the enormous length of 
 their feet ; the sea-spider, or spider-crab. 
 
 Macrourans (Gr. makros, long ; oura, the 
 tail). A section of decapod crustaceans, includ 
 ing all those which have the tail, or post abdo 
 men as long as, or longer than, the body. 
 
 Mactra. A genus of lamellibranchiate mol- 
 lusks, having a somewhat triangular shell. It 
 is sometimes called trough-shell. The species are 
 numerous and widely distributed. They burrow 
 in the sand and mud of sea-shores and of the 
 bottom of the sea. Their large, compressed foot 
 enables them also to move with activity after the 
 manner of cockles. The shells of some of the 
 species are not lacking in beauty, while those of 
 other species are coarse. Certain small species 
 that abound on the coasts of Great Britain are 
 gathered and fed to pigs. The fossil species are 
 few. 
 
 Maculae. Dark temporary spots which are 
 very frequently observed upon the sun s disk ; 
 they are of various forms, surrounded by a 
 lighter shade or penumbra. 
 
 Mad. The state of a compass-needle, the po 
 larity of which has been impaired. 
 
 Maddy. A large species of mussel. 
 
 Made. Built up ; composed of several pieces. 
 A made-block is one in which the shell is com 
 posed of several pieces in contradistinction to a 
 mor Used-block, in which the shell is a single 
 piece of wood. A made-mast is composed of sev 
 eral pieces hooped together, in contradistinction 
 to a single-spar mast. 
 
 Madoc. A Welsh navigator whom his coun 
 trymen credit with having discovered America 
 300 years before Columbus sighted the island of 
 San Salvador. He was the son of Owen Gwyn- 
 nedd, a Welsh prince, and the tradition is that, 
 being compelled by civil commotion to leave his 
 native land in 1170, he sailed westward with a 
 
 small fleet, and after a voyage of several weeks 
 reached a strange country differing from Europe 
 both in its inhabitants and its productions. After 
 a considerable stay he returned to Wales and 
 gave glowing accounts of the new land he had 
 discovered. He got together another fleet and 
 set sail again, but was never afterwards heard 
 of. Southey has made the story of Madoc the 
 subject of one of his " epics." 
 
 Madras, a maritime city of British India, in 
 lat. 13 4 6" N., Ion. 80 14 / E., is situated on 
 an open sandy shore, without a harbor or land 
 ing-place, and vessels are obliged to anchor in 
 the roads in from 7 to 9 fathoms of water, exposed 
 to the swell from the Bay of Bengal, which 
 breaks upon the beach with great violence. The 
 natives use catamarans as surf-boats, in which 
 they venture out to ships in the heaviest weather. 
 From October to January storms and typhoons 
 prevail, and from the 15th of October till the 
 15th of December the anchorage is very unsafe. 
 The first British settlement on this coast was at 
 Armagon, 60 miles north of Madras, but the 
 seat of the present fort being granted by a na 
 tive prince in 1639, the nucleus of the city was 
 formed. It soon became a flourishing place. In 
 1744 it was taken by the French, but was re 
 stored to the English in 1749. The roads and 
 city are protected by Fort St. George, which is 
 admirably situated for their defense. The im 
 ports consist of cotton goods, grain, spirits, metals, 
 sugar, etc., and the exports of cotton, indigo, salt 
 petre, pepper, etc. Madras stucco, or cnunam, 
 is much used in the decoration of buildings, 
 and also for paying the seams of ships. Pop. 
 398,000. 
 
 Madrier. The sheathing of a galley. 
 
 Maestral. See MISTRAL. 
 
 Magalhaens. See MAGELLAN. 
 
 Magazine. A chamber in a gun containing a 
 number of cartridges which are fed automatically 
 to the piece. An apartment devoted exclusively 
 to the storage of powder. Large vessels have two, 
 one forward and the other aft. Magazines should 
 be rectangular in form, and should be built strong 
 to resist the working of the ship in heavy weather, 
 and the pressure of water when flooded. As a 
 protection against the fire of an enemy, the mag 
 azine should be as far as possible below the water- 
 line. It should not touch the bottom nor the 
 sides of the ship, but should be battened off to 
 permit the bilge-water to run under it. The 
 magazine and passage must be thoroughly 
 calked, and lined with pine boards tongued 
 and grooved, and over all, sheets of lead sol 
 dered together. There should also be an external 
 lining of sheet-iron as a protection against fire 
 and the intrusion of rats. All the metallic fix 
 tures should be of copper, and magazine-dresses 
 must always be worn by all persons entering the 
 magazine. As a security against lightning, a 
 magazine must be placed so as not to include a 
 pump-well, mast, or anything connecting with 
 the spar-deck. The alleys of a magazine run 
 fore-and-aft, and there should be a communica 
 tion between the two ; each alley has a separate 
 light-box. A sponge dipped in salt water, dried, 
 and weighed, is used to detect dampness ; if the 
 sponge becomes heavier, the magazine is damp. 
 Grating-hatches are fitted, to afford a supply of 
 air to the men, and a ventilating apparatus is, 
 also, generally furnished for this purpose. When- 
 
MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 457 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 ever the magazine is opened, every precaution is 
 taken to guard against fire, the galley-fires and 
 open lights being extinguished, and the maga 
 zine-scuttles screened off. The men are required 
 to wear magazine-dresses, and no metallic article 
 is introduced into the magazine. Coopering is 
 prohibited in the magazine ; when powder is 
 received in barrels, the hoops are started on the 
 berth-deck. See POWDER. 
 
 MAGAZINE-COCKS: Each magazine is fitted 
 with a cock for flooding, and one at the bottom 
 for emptying the magazine after having been 
 flooded. There is also a waste-pipe at the top 
 for carrying off the superfluous water when 
 flooded. Both cocks should be so fitted that 
 they may be turned from the deck above. The 
 flood-cock should also have a lever in the passage 
 accessible to the gunner in action. 
 
 MAGAZINE-DRESS. A worsted frock to reach 
 to the knees ; no metal buttons are worn. The 
 shoes are made wholly of cotton canvas or buck 
 skin ; india-rubber and woolen slippers are pro 
 hibited. 
 
 MAGAZINE-PASSAGE. A small apartment cut 
 off from the main body of the magazine, and 
 communicating with it by means of small doors, 
 which are only opened to permit ingress or egress. 
 The cartridges are passed out through a small 
 scuttle in the door, and thence to the deck above. 
 
 MAGAZINE-SCREEN. A screen made of thick 
 fearnaught or double baize, so hung as to pro 
 tect the scuttle of the magazine-passage from 
 sparks or flame. 
 
 Magazine-gun. A portable fire-arm, contain 
 ing a limited supply of cartridges, which are au 
 tomatically fed into its chamber. (Adapted from 
 Knight.) 
 
 The magazine-gun differs from the machine- 
 gun chiefly by the added difficulty of the condi 
 tions regarding its portability and the convenience 
 of handling it. 
 
 If the limited space afforded to the working 
 parts of a field-piece, and the mobility required 
 for its support, have been found important ob 
 stacles to the development of machine-guns, how 
 much more heavily handicapped is the magazine- 
 musket, which neither in weight nor in dimen 
 sion can greatly exceed the single-barreled muz 
 zle-loader of former times, but which must be 
 capable of easy and certain working, by a single 
 individual, in every operation pertaining to the 
 machine-gun, in whatever position and at what 
 ever speed it may be fired. Its only point d appui 
 also, in case of a mechanical mishap, being the 
 yielding support of the left hand to oppose the 
 unaided efforts of the right. 
 
 If the machine-gun had to suffer for the want 
 of a good cartridge, so much the more therefore 
 was the evolution of the magazine-gun delayed. 
 
 Before discussing the magazine-guns of thepres- 
 ent day, which are all of recent origin, it may be 
 well to examine some of the expedients resorted 
 to in former times to obtain a consecutive fire. 
 
 Naturally the multiple-barrel, mounted on a 
 single stock, was one of the earliest forms. 
 
 A curious example is found in a weapon 
 ascribed to the Black Prince, son of Edward III. 
 of England, date 1370. It consists of a sort of 
 cylindrical iron mace on the end of a stout staff. 
 It is belted by two cheerful rings of spikes, and 
 is pierced so as to form four barrels, the means 
 of discharging which have not been preserved. 
 
 It rejoiced in the name of u Holy-Water Sprink 
 ler," or " Blood-Spiller," depending, it is sup 
 posed, on the end from which it was seen. 
 
 Without reverting to other familiar forms of 
 this type, such as the double-barrel, either side 
 by side or superposed, and the revolver, the de 
 velopment of which has often been described, 
 some account may be given of the efforts made to 
 lighten the load imposed by this clumsy accumu 
 lation of independent barrels. 
 
 Single-barreled muzzle-loading guns have long 
 been made to act as repeaters, the charges being 
 superposed, and fire being communicated to them 
 by a movable lock sliding along the outside of 
 the barrel, or by a stationary lock, with different 
 ducts for each charge. 
 
 The discharge has also been arranged to be 
 consecutive by means of small openings through 
 the bullets or alongside of them. Such was a 
 "great brass hand-gun" described by Porta in 
 his " Natural Magick," 1658. 
 
 This gun has recently been re-invented, and the 
 two former types were exhibited in Philadelphia 
 in 1876. 
 
 In all these cases the. intention was to fire the 
 top charge first, but of course the inflammation 
 was often instantaneous, leading to a simultane 
 ous discharge, with all of its disastrous results. 
 
 An exception to the genera) inutility of multi- 
 barreled muzzle-loading fire-arms may be made 
 in the case of the revolver, in the later forms of 
 which the cylinder was, mechanically speaking, 
 as regards completeness, rigidity of construction, 
 certainty of feed and of fire, and the protection 
 of its contents, one divisible cartridge. 
 
 At no time, however, was it safe from the 
 chance of the simultaneous explosion of several of 
 its charges, until, by the invention of the pres 
 ent cartridge, its safety could be assured without 
 loss of its efficiency. 
 
 The Spencer was the first magazine-gun to at 
 tain decided celebrity, and in its prompt, com 
 plete, and satisfactory utilization of the state of 
 the concurrent arts it still deserves our grateful 
 distinction and regard. 
 
 It failed principally from the objection justly 
 found to the superposed column of cartridges in 
 the butt-stock. Although rim-primed, they were 
 occasionally known to explode when jolted, as by 
 the cavalry, to whose service the arm was other 
 wise so evidently adapted. 
 
 Apart from this objection which has been 
 overcome in recent ammunition, the arm would 
 have failed to meet our present need for a longer 
 cartridge than could well be fed over its curved 
 breech-block, and for a heavier charge of powder 
 than could be safely loaded in the thin rim- 
 primed shell, which was then considered essential 
 to its use, and which was indeed almost the only 
 shell in service. 
 
 The want of a proper cartridge caused the 
 failure of this gun ; but it was from actual expe 
 rience in warfare with this weapon, even in its 
 imperfect state, that the strongest arguments are 
 derived by those who oppose the prevailing opin 
 ion that the use of repeating arms will result in 
 a dangerous waste of ammunition in battle. 
 
 The statement has been made by a distinguished 
 officer, that of two brigades of equal strength, 
 equally engaged on the same side in the bloody 
 battles around Richmond near the close of the 
 war of the Rebellion, the brigade armed with the 
 
MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 458 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 Spencer was found, after several days fighting, 
 to have expended less ammunition than that 
 which had the muzzle-loader. 
 
 Experience soon taught the soldier the value 
 of the " pocket-pieces" he carried in the butt of 
 his gun, anol he reserved them until the need for 
 their expenditure was dire. 
 
 The Henry magazine-rifle, originally known 
 as the Volcanic repeating-rifle, and now as the 
 Winchester, was the only other prominent maga 
 zine arm during the war of the Rebellion. It is 
 used now in part by Turkey, while a close 
 approximation to the Winchester the Yetterli 
 is adopted by Switzerland and Italy. 
 
 An instructive example of the misguided efforts 
 of inventors, who seek only by combination to 
 improve, may be found in the Kirk and Kumsey 
 modifications of the foregoing weapons. In one 
 case there are 7 magazine tubes, and in the other 
 2 in the same gun. (Report Chief of Ordnance, 
 1873.) 
 
 General Requirements. It follows from the 
 automatic loading of magazine-guns that what 
 is essentially a longitudinal sliding motion must 
 be given to the part by which the breech is 
 opened and closed ; so that the cartridge once 
 placed in line with the chamber shall be pushed 
 directly into it. 
 
 Some cases occur in which the breech-block is 
 hinged beneath the barrel as in the Spencer, but 
 it is on so distant a centre that its motion is 
 practically direct. 
 
 Hence the prevailing adoption of the sliding 
 bolt as shown by Table I. hereafter, both on ac 
 count of its simplicity in loading and for the 
 readiness with which it lends itself to the subse 
 quent operations with cartridges of any reason 
 able length. 
 
 For example, by a natural and continuous mo 
 tion it is easily opened and closed, and locked or 
 supported against the force of the discharge by 
 turning one or more projections on it into corre 
 sponding notches in the frame in which it slides. 
 Its motion also serves naturally either in opening 
 or closing to compress a spiral spring surround 
 ing an axial firing-pin, by which the cartridge 
 may be fired ; or else to cock an ordinary out 
 side hammer in rear for the same purpose. 
 
 In the first of the former cases the spring is 
 ordinarily compressed from the rear, between the 
 bolt and a shoulder on the firing-pin, which rests 
 against the sear. When the sear is pulled down 
 out of the way by the trigger the blow will fall. 
 Should the cartridge miss fire, as the cocking is 
 dependent on the entire movement of the bolt, 
 the bolt must be again withdrawn, which opens 
 the gun unnecessarily. The extent of the com 
 pression which this method of cocking admits 
 of permits the use of a long and elastic spring, 
 which has certain mechanical advantages to off 
 set the above defect. 
 
 In the second form the spring is compressed 
 from the front, generally by the preliminary 
 motion of loading in turning up the handle to 
 open the piece. The independent operation of 
 this form and of the class of outside locks relieves 
 them from the disadvantages of the former com 
 bination. 
 
 The bolt-gun also offers the most ready form 
 of extractor, the spring hook, which also lends 
 itself so naturally to the ejection. 
 
 For almost any slight shock or resistance op 
 
 posite to the extractor, across the face of the bolt, 
 serves to flip the cartridge from its hold and send 
 it spinning from the gun. 
 
 The direct action of the bolt, while offering 
 these advantages, has certain defects which it has 
 taken years of effort to overcome. 
 
 The most evident objection to the motion is 
 the danger of an accidental explosion in closing, 
 from the effect of the blow which some unusually 
 sensitive cartridge may receive ; particularly if 
 its entrance into the chamber should be checked, 
 or the point of the firing-pin should protrude. 
 
 This is met by three devices : 1. In all good 
 bolt-guns the firing-pin is positively retracted 
 within the block by the very motion of opening, 
 and is kept back until the time comes for the 
 piece to be fired. This is variously accomplished 
 by contiguous spiral surfaces or cams, changing 
 the rotary motion of the bolt in opening the gun 
 into a longitudinal motion of the firing-pin. 
 2. In the act of closing, the face of the bolt strikes 
 some spiral surface, along which it gradually ad 
 vances as it is turned down into place, so as to 
 relieve the cartridge itself of any shock, by screw 
 ing it, as it were, into its place. 
 
 8. The face of the bolt carrying the extractor 
 is made loose upon its axis, so that in turning 
 down it shall not grind the head of the cartridge 
 either about the fulminate nor under the flange 
 where the extractor bears. 
 
 This convenient transmutation of the rapid, 
 direct, reciprocating motion of the bolt into a slow 
 rotary motion is also made available for the first 
 operation of extracting, as follows: The princi 
 pal resistance offered by a cartridge to extraction 
 lies in the start ; if the backward pull is given 
 too suddenly the extractor may break, or its 
 hook may ride over the rim of the cartridge or 
 cut through it ; but if it is started slowly its sub 
 sequent withdrawal is an easy matter, owing to 
 its conical form and that of the chamber in which 
 it lies. 
 
 This has given rise to various plans by which 
 the first rotary motion of opening is converted 
 into a slow longitudinal motion, serving not 
 only to start the cartridge, but also to half or full 
 cock the piece, and retract the firing-pin as be 
 fore described. 
 
 Sure extraction and ejection are even more im 
 portant in magazine-guns than in the ordinary 
 breech-loader, for if the spent shell be left in the 
 chamber, or be not ejected in time, the succeed 
 ing cartridge may be driven against it with such 
 force as to block and injure the gun. 
 
 So far have been considered the functions 
 which the magazine-gun shares with the ordi 
 nary breech-loader, but in which, from the neces 
 sity of the case, much greater perfection of 
 operation is required. There remains to consider 
 the fundamental difference, which is the supply 
 of the cartridges from the magazine to the part 
 by which they are passed into the chamber, or the 
 feed. 
 
 However this may be accomplished, it should 
 have the following conditions and be free from 
 the following defects, viz. : 
 
 1. It should be prompt, direct, automatic, sure, 
 and continuous within the limits of the supply. 
 
 A failure in either of the last respects, if un 
 observed, exposes the firer to the confusion and 
 other evil consequences of a misfire, on which his 
 life may depend. 
 
MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 459 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 The cartridge should be guided into the cham 
 ber so that it may enter freely when driven for 
 ward by the breech-block. 
 
 The cartridge should be guarded against loss 
 while in transit. 
 
 2. The feed should be regulated so that not 
 more than one cartridge should escape from the 
 magazine at once, otherwise the gun may be 
 blocked, or cartridges may be lost. 
 
 This result is effected by various forms of au 
 tomatic magazine stops. Being in a concealed 
 position the} should be strong, simple, and posi 
 tive in their action. They should not depend 
 upon invariability in the length of the cartridges 
 employed, which will vary both in manufacture 
 and from the jolting they receive in the maga 
 zine. 
 
 3. It should have a simple cut-off, by which 
 the piece can be used as a single-loader, holding 
 the magazine in reserve. 
 
 To prevent confusion this condition of the gun 
 should be plainly indicated outside, and for safety 
 so should the fact of its being cocked. 
 
 4. It should be capable of easy replenishing 
 without unnecessary exposure of the working 
 parts. 
 
 5. It should be adapted to the standard infantry 
 ball-cartridge without loss of its accuracy and 
 range, and with sufficient latitude to permit of 
 the easy adaptation of the system to other special 
 ammunition, carbine, long-range, blank, etc. 
 
 6. It should be free from the risk of accident 
 due to the inadvertent inversion of a cartridge 
 in filling the magazine. 
 
 7. Taken together with the cartridge used, it 
 should be free from the danger of an accidental 
 explosion of the contents of the magazine or car 
 rier, due to the escape of gas from defective 
 cartridges. 
 
 8. The firing-pin or hammer should never fall 
 before the block is securely and independently 
 locked. Otherwise, even if no accident result, 
 the effect will be the same as of a misfire. 
 
 Generally speaking, the construction of the 
 piece should involve no difficulty in its poise, in 
 working it, or in handling it as in drill or on the 
 march. Its strength as a whole should be suf 
 ficient to resist ordinary accidents of transporta 
 tion and service. The parts, besides being strong 
 enough for their respective functions, should not 
 depend upon too close fitting, or have too many 
 " working points." A certain freedom of motion 
 should be sought, not only on account of the re 
 sulting economy of manufacture and the avoid 
 ance of repairs, but to overcome the injurious 
 effects of rust, dust, and dirt. The parts should 
 be readily accessible without special tools, but 
 should not be liable to be accidentally detached. 
 Their motions should be positive, depending on 
 their relative forms rather than on the use of 
 springs or the force of gravity ; and pins, rather 
 than screws, should be preferred in their connec 
 tions. 
 
 Finally, combination of the parts should be 
 avoided rather than sought; each part should 
 have as far as possible a distinct duty which it 
 may be depended on to fulfill. 
 
 As will be seen by Table II., the position of 
 the magazine has much to do with the perform 
 ance of the gun. 
 
 As a rule, the cartridges are carried in a tube, 
 experiments having shown that the perfected 
 
 central fire cartridge may be less dangerous 
 when so carried than the old rim-fire cartridge so 
 long considered essential to a magazine arm. An 
 escape from the apparent danger of the central- 
 fire cartridge has been sought in various ways : 
 
 1. Making the point of the bullet flat or 
 sunken. 
 
 2. Sinking the primer beneath the head of the 
 cartridge, separately or in combination with 1. 
 
 3. Making the primer small in diameter, and 
 not sensitive, depending for the certainty of its 
 ignition upon a powerful lock, or a sharp firing- 
 pin. 
 
 A single tube is generally used, though several 
 tubes are sometimes assembled as a fluted cylin 
 der, rotating, 1st, automatically, or, 2d, inter 
 mittently, at pleasure. 
 
 When a single tube is used it may be either 
 above the barrel or beneath it, or in the butt- 
 stock. The last is the better position, on account 
 of the poise of the arm being less affected by the 
 consumption of the cartridges in the magazine. 
 It has, however, less capacity than the other 
 form, the length of which is onJy limited by that 
 of the barrel. 
 
 The clustered tube is generally found in the 
 butt, replacing the "small" of the wooden 
 stock, and its prolongation to the butt-plate. 
 
 To further protect the superposed cartridges, 
 they are often kept apart by a long notched slide, 
 or a fixed spiral surrounding a rotary fluted 
 cluster. (Evans.) 
 
 To avoid all possible danger from this source, 
 in one gun, Lee s, the cartridges are fed upwards 
 side by side, through a mortise in the bottom of 
 the groove in which the bolt works, and in front 
 of the bolt when it is drawn back. This mortise 
 interferes somewhat with the use of the gun as a 
 single-loader. 
 
 The cartridges are generally expelled from the 
 magazine by a spring, sometimes by the force of 
 gravity, and sometimes, as in the Evans gun, 
 positively by the operation of the parts. 
 
 They are sometimes, as with the Lee and 
 Hotchkiss, delivered directly in front of the 
 breech-block or bolt, but more frequently have 
 to be transferred to a different level by a carrier ; 
 as in the Spencer, Winchester, Ward-Burton, etc. 
 
 In the report of the Board of Officers of which 
 Gen. Alfred H. Terry was president, appointed 
 in pursuance of the act of Congress, approved 
 June 6, 1872, for the purpose of selecting a 
 breech system for the muskets and carbines of 
 the military service, may be found the following 
 opinion on the value of magazine-arms : 
 
 " Resolved, That in the opinion of the board the adoption of 
 magazine-guns for the military service by all nations is only a 
 
 rstion of time ; that whenever an arm shall be devised which 
 11 be as effective as a single breech-loader, as the best of the 
 existing single breech-loading arms, and at the same time 
 shall possess a safe and easily manipulated magazine, every 
 consideration of public policy will require its adoption." May 
 5, 1873. 
 
 No magazine-gun was adopted thereafter by 
 the United States until upon the report of a 
 Board of Ordnance Officers convened in con 
 formity with the act of Congress, approved No 
 vember 21, 1877, to select a magazine-gun for 
 the military service. The Hotchkiss gun was 
 recommended September 23, 1878. 
 
 To the very full and interesting report of that 
 board by Capt. John E. Greer, of the U. S. Ord 
 nance Department, and to the report of the former 
 
MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 460 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 board by the writer, found in the reports of the 
 Chief of Ordnance to the Secretary of War, 
 1873 and 1878, the reader is referred for the 
 details of almost all prominent magazine-guns 
 now extant. See also Lieut. T. B. M. Mason s 
 
 (U.S.N.) translation of Keport of French Naval 
 Board, New York, 1879. 
 
 The following tables are taken from Capt. 
 Greer s report, as giving in the most condensed 
 form the information generally desired : 
 
MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 461 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN 
 
 TABLE III. ABRIDGMENT. 
 
 Showing the performance of the four principal magazine-guns before the board under the following 
 
 rules marked *. 
 
 \ 
 
 Name of 
 Gun. 
 
 I No. of Cartridges carried. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 Rapidity of Fire. 
 
 With Accuracy 
 Shots in 2 minutes. 
 
 At Will in 1 Minute. 
 
 Time of 
 Firing 20 
 Shots with 
 Aim. 
 
 Time of Firing 6 Shots 
 in Seconds. 
 
 As a Maga 
 zine-gun. 
 
 As a Single- 
 loader. 
 
 As a Maga 
 zine-gun. 
 
 As a Single- 
 loader. 
 
 Not loaded. 
 Ibs. oz. 
 
 | Fully loaded. 
 * 1 lbs.oz. 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Misfires. 
 
 Left in Magazine. 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 : Left in Chamber. 
 
 . 
 
 Left in Magazine. 
 
 , 
 
 Left in Chamber. 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 From the Shoulder. 
 
 At 
 
 Will. 
 
 Hotchkiss. 2 
 
 
 
 Hotchkiss. Mag- 
 ) azine. 
 
 A * 1? 
 
 fcC fl *^]Q ft* PH 
 
 * a ".2 oj 
 
 00 S CD 
 
 3 < P 
 
 Hotchkiss 
 
 9.0 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 26 
 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 ... 
 
 97 
 
 43 
 
 8 16 18 
 
 Winchester.. 
 
 11 
 
 10.6)4 
 
 11.6 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 ... 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 118 
 
 48 
 
 
 Remington... 
 Sharps 
 
 9 
 
 9.9 
 
 10.6 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 149 
 
 47 
 
 11 
 
 10.0 
 
 10.15 I 
 
 24 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 ... 
 
 154 
 
 38 
 
 
 Tests to which the above guns were subjected. 
 
 REGULAR TESTS. 
 
 Safety test: To be fired 10 rounds by the exhibitor or with a 
 laniard. 
 
 The piece to be first fired 10 rounds by the exhibitor, as a 
 test of safety ; the same firing to be also a test of rapidity by 
 one familiar with the arm. The time to be noted in the 
 record. 
 
 The firing to be then continued according to the rules an 
 nexed, by an employe of the armory, or soldier detailed by the 
 War Department. 
 
 The service-cartridge to be used in all cases. 
 
 I. RAPIDITY WITH ACCURACY.* 
 
 The number of shots which, fired in two minutes from the 
 gun, both as a magazine-gun and as a single-shooter, strike 
 a target 6 feet by 2 feet at a distance of 100 feet. Any car 
 tridges missing fire in this or other tests to be tried with a prick- 
 punch, or opened to ascertain the cause of failure. The test 
 to be begun with the chamber or magazine filled ; other car 
 tridges to be disposed at will on a table. 
 
 II. RAPIDITY AT WILL.* 
 
 The number of shots which can be fired in one minute, irre 
 spective of aim, under the same circumstances as in Test I. 
 
 III. ENDURANCE. 
 
 Each gun to be fired 500 continuous rounds without clean 
 ing, using the magazine. The state of the breech mechanism 
 to be examined at the end of every 50 rounds. 
 
 IV. DEFECTIVE CARTRIDGES. 
 
 Each gun to be fired once with each of the following defec 
 tive cartridges: 1. Crossed-filed on head to nearly the thick 
 ness of the metal. 2. Cut at intervals around the rim. 3. 
 With a longitudinal cut the whole length of the cartridge, 
 from the rim up. A fresh piece of white paper, marked with 
 the number of the gun, being laid over the breech to observe 
 the escape of gas, if any occur. 
 
 V. DUST. 
 
 The piece to be exposed in the box prepared for that purpose 
 to a blast of fine sand-dust for two minutes; to be removed, 
 fired 20 rounds, replaced for two minutes, removed and fired 
 20 rounds more. 
 
 VI. RUST. 
 
 The breech mechanism and receiver to be cleansed of grease, 
 and the chamber of the barrel greased and plugged, the butt 
 of the gun to be inserted to the height of the chamber in a 
 solution of sal-ammoniac for ten minutes, exposed for two days 
 to the open air standing in a rack, and then fired 20 rounds. 
 
 VII. EXCESSIVE CHARGES. 
 
 To be fired once with 85 grains of powder and one ball of 405 
 grains of lead ; once with 90 grains and one ball, and once 
 with 90 grains and two balls. The piece to be closely ex 
 amined after each discharge. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS. 
 
 1st. To be fired with two defective cartridges, Nos. 1 and 2, 
 and then to be dusted five minutes, the mechanism being in 
 the mouth of the blow-pipe, and closed, the hammer being at 
 half-cock ; then to be fired 6 shots, the last two defective Nos. 
 1 and 2 ; then, without cleaning, to be dusted with the breech 
 opened, and fired 4 shots. The piece to be freed from dust 
 only by pounding or wiping with the bare hand. 
 
 2d. To be rusted for four days after immersion as before, and 
 then fired 5 rounds with the service-cartridge ; then, without 
 cleaning, to be fired 5 rounds with 120 grains powder and a 
 ball weighing 1200 grains ; the gun to stand twenty-four hours 
 after firing without cleaning, and then to be thoroughly ex 
 amined. 
 
 Provided, " That all arms selected for supplementary tests 
 be rusted simultaneously, i.e., that they be immersed at the 
 same time, for ten minutes, in the same sal-ammoniac solution, 
 and afterward exposed. side by side to its corroding action for 
 four days, when they will each be fired 5 rounds with ser 
 vice-cartridges ; then, without cleaning, fired 5 rounds with 
 20 grains of powder and a ball weighing 1200 grains ; after 
 this, each gun to stand twenty-four hours without cleaning, 
 and then to be thoroughly examined." 
 
 * 3d. Facility of manipulation by members of the board. 
 
 " That to determine the comparative rapidity of fire and 
 facility of manipulation, as contemplated by the third sup 
 plementary test, each gun be fired 20 shots by three enlisted 
 men of the armory detachment, loading from the cartridge- 
 box and firing with aim at a target 6 by 24 100 yards distant. 
 The average of the three trials to be the recorded time of firing 
 20 rounds. The magazine to be loaded from the cartridge-box 
 before the start, the remainder of the cartridges to be fired 
 away first, using the gun as a single-shooter, and the maga 
 zine to be emptied last." 
 
 Aside from the magazine-guns proper, which 
 depend on an automatic feed, many devices called 
 
MAGELLAN 
 
 462 
 
 MAILED CHEEKS 
 
 detachable magazines have been invented, some 
 of them attached to the person of the firer, as 
 well as to the guri. (See report above, 1873 ; also 
 Lieut. Greene s Keport on Kusso-Turkish War, 
 1878.) 
 
 These devices occupy an intermediate place 
 between the single breech-loader and the per 
 fected magazine-gun, but owing to the rapid 
 development of the latter arm have not been 
 received with favor. 
 
 As with machine-guns, but owing to the suc 
 cess of the Spencer, in a less degree, magazine- 
 guns have yet to win their spurs by actual con 
 flict in battle with single breech-loaders of good 
 quality in the hands of equally good troops. 
 
 Speculation as to their future Is useless, except 
 as far as it shows the general drift of public opin 
 ion in their direction. It is safe to say that they 
 will not be generally adopted until the develop 
 ment of many other questions affecting the sup 
 ply of their ammunition has been greatly ad 
 vanced. Henry Metcalfe, Captain U. S. Army. 
 
 Magellan, or Magalhaens, Fernando de. A 
 famous Portuguese navigator, born about 1470 ; 
 died April 27, 1521. He served under Albu 
 querque in the East Indies, and especially dis 
 tinguished himself at the taking of Malacca, in 
 1511. He afterwards entered the Spanish ser 
 vice, and was intrusted by Charles v . with the 
 command of a fleet destined to explore a passage 
 to the Molucca Islands by sailing westward. The 
 voyage was begun September 20, 1519. About 
 the end of October, 1520, he entered the strait 
 since called after him, and November 27, dis 
 covered and named the Pacific Ocean. Continu 
 ing his course, he arrived at the Ladrone Islands 
 about March 6, 1521, and subsequently at the 
 Philippines, on one of which he lost his life in a 
 skirmish with the natives, or, as some accounts 
 state, by the mutiny of his crew. One of his 
 ships, with 18 men, escaped, and reached Seville, 
 September 8, 1552, under Sebastian del Cano, 
 who first circumnavigated the globe. An Ital 
 ian named Pigafetta, who accompanied Magel 
 lan, kept a journal of this last voyage, which was 
 published. 
 
 MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. Nebulous patches near 
 the south pole of the heavens. Early voyagers 
 called them the " Cape Clouds," afterward they 
 were named for Magellan. They contain a great 
 number of single stars from the fifth to the elev 
 enth magnitude ; many star-clusters, irregular, 
 oval, and globular ; and nebulae. The large cloud 
 occupies a space of 40 square degrees ; the small 
 one is only one-fourth as large. 
 
 MAGELLAN JACKET. A name given to a 
 watch-coat with a hood, worn in high latitudes, 
 first used by Cook s people. 
 
 Magged. Worn, fretted, and stretched ; as, a 
 magged brace. 
 
 Magnet. A substance which has the property 
 of attracting iron and some of its ores, and which, 
 when suspended freely, adjusts itself in the plane 
 of the meridian. A natural magnet is known by 
 various names in different parts of the world. 
 Pliny called it ferrum vivum ; the Chinese call 
 it tchu-chy, the directing stone ; in Swedish it is 
 segel-sten, the seeing stone ; in Icelandic, leider- 
 stein, the leading stone ; and in English, load 
 stone or lodestone (Sax. Iceden, to lead). 
 
 An artificial magnet is one to which polarity has 
 been communicated by artificial means. When a 
 
 bar remains long in the magnetic meridian its 
 particles acquire the magnetic polarity. On board 
 ship the iron-work often becomes magnetized 
 and affects the local deviation of the compass. 
 Spare compass-cards should be stowed with the 
 north pole of one to the south pole of the other. 
 According to their forms artificial magnets are 
 called bar-magnets, horse-shoe magnets, compound 
 magnets, etc. 
 
 MAGNETIC Axis. The direction of the mag 
 netic polarization of a needle. 
 
 MAGNETIC EQUATOR. A line encircling the 
 earth, on every point of which the dipping- 
 needle remains horizontal, the line of no dip. 
 It crosses the terrestrial equator in several places, 
 never receding from it more than 12 ; the posi 
 tions of the two nearly coincide in the part of the 
 Pacific where there are no islands, and diverge 
 most when crossing large bodies of land, as Africa 
 and South America. 
 
 MAGNETIC MERIDIAN. The direction which 
 a magnet assumes when suspended freely, and 
 not subject to local attraction or disturbing in 
 fluences. 
 
 MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A slender bar or plate 
 of magnetized steel. 
 
 MAGNETIC POLES. Two spots, or rather short 
 lines, on the earth s surface where the dipping- 
 needle assumes a position perpendicular to the 
 horizon. See COMPASS, THE MARINER S. 
 
 Magnitude of Stars. Astronomers have dis 
 tinguished the fixed stars according to apparent 
 brightness. The brightest stars, of which there 
 .are about 20, are of the first magnitude ; stars of 
 second magnitude number about 50 ; of third 
 magnitude, 200, and so on, the numbers increas 
 ing rapidly in the lower classes. The seventh 
 magnitude includes the smallest stars visible to 
 .the naked eye. The stars of less than the seventh 
 magnitude are known as telescopic stars. The 
 divisions between the magnitudes are not clearly 
 defined, being arbitrary and conventional. 
 
 Magnus-hitch. A round turn around a spar, 
 the turn being jammed by a half-hitch around 
 the spar on the opposite side of the standing 
 part. 
 
 Magootee. A musical instrument used by 
 the snake-charmers of the East Indies. In it is 
 a mirror, on which the snakes fix their eyes in 
 dancing. 
 
 Mahone, Mahonna, or Maon. A Turkish 
 flat-bottomed vessel of burden, mentioned among 
 the ships of Soliman Pasha in the siege of Diu. 
 
 Maid. A name of the skate. 
 
 Maiden. A fortress which has never been 
 taken. 
 
 Maigre. A fish of the family Scicenidce, com 
 mon in the Mediterranean. It is from 3 to 6 
 feet long, and so strong that a stroke of its tail 
 will throw a man down. It is one of those fishes 
 which emit a purring or buzzing sound, and has 
 been heard from a depth of 120 feet. It is the 
 umbrina of the Romans. The stones of its ears 
 were formerly set in gold and worn around the 
 neck, imaginary virtues being ascribed to them, 
 particularly in the cure of colic ; but it was requi 
 site that they should be obtained as a gift, and 
 not by purchase. 
 
 Mail-shell. A name for the chiton. 
 
 Mailed Cheeks. A family of acanthopterous 
 fishes characterized by an extension of certain 
 sub-orbital bones to the gill-covers to form a bony 
 
MAIN 
 
 463 
 
 MALTA 
 
 armor for the cheeks. To this family belong the 
 gurnards, bull-heads, and sticklebacks. 
 
 Main. A continent or mainland. The great 
 sea as distinguished from an arm. The chief 
 part of anything. The distinguishing charac 
 teristic of all those articles belonging to, or con 
 nected with, the principal mast in a vessel. 
 
 MAIN-BOOM. The boom that extends the foot 
 of a boom-mainsail. 
 
 MAIN-BRACE The brace attached to the 
 main-yard. (See BRACE.) Splicing the main- 
 brace, a figurative expression for drinking spirits. 
 
 MAIN-CENTRE. In side-lever engines it is the 
 shaft on which the levers vibrate; in general it 
 is the centre of the heaviest revolving part. 
 
 MAIN CHECK-VALVE. An automatic valve 
 connecting the feed-pipe to the boiler, to prevent 
 the water running out of the boiler in case the 
 feed-pipe bursts, etc. 
 
 MAIN-COURSE. A square mainsail. 
 
 MAIN-DECK. A gun-deck next below the 
 spar-deck. 
 
 MAIN-HATCH. The hatch just forward of the 
 mainmast. 
 
 MAIN-HOLD. The division of the hold in the 
 vicinity of the main-hatch. 
 
 MAIN-LINK. One of the pieces in the parallel 
 motion of a beam-engine, connecting the piston- 
 rod to the beam ; the piece connecting the back 
 ing and go-ahead eccentric-rods of a steam- 
 engine for reversing motion. 
 
 MAINMAST. The principal mast, the second 
 from the bow. For the rigging of the mainmast, 
 see under proper heads. 
 
 MAIN MAST-MAN. A man stationed to attend 
 to the gear of the mainmast. See MAST-MAN. 
 
 MAIN-PIECE. The principal piece of the head. 
 
 MAIN-ROYAL. See EOYAL. 
 
 MAINSAIL. The sail bent to the main-yard. 
 The principal sail of a fore-and-after. For the 
 rigging of the mainsail, see under proper heads. 
 
 MAINSAIL HAUL ! The order to swing the 
 after yards in tacking. 
 
 MAIN-STAY-SAIL. A sail set on the mainstay ; 
 it is used only in bad weather, and is generally 
 called the main storm-stay-sail. 
 
 MAIN STAY-TACKLE. See TRIATIC STAY. 
 
 MAIN STORM-STAY-SAIL. See MAIN-STAY 
 SAIL. 
 
 MAIN-TOP. See TOP. 
 
 MAIN TOP-BOWLINE. As long as the main top- 
 bowline, a sailor s simile for anything of absurd 
 length. 
 
 MAIN-TOPGALLANT. See TOPGALLANT. 
 
 MAIN-TOPMAST. SEE TOPMAST. 
 
 MAIN-TOPSAIL. See TOPSAIL. 
 
 MAIN-TOPSAIL HAUL! The order to swing 
 the after yards, in tacking, when the mainsail is 
 not set. 
 
 MAIN-TRYSAIL. See TRYSAIL. 
 
 MAIN -WALES. An assemblage of planks 
 placed upon the widest part of the body. 
 
 MAIN-YARD. The lower yard across the main 
 mast. For the rigging of the main-yard, see 
 under proper heads. 
 
 MAIN-YARDMAN. A man stationed to loose, 
 furl, reef, etc., the mainsail and rig the pur 
 chases for swaying up or striking the main- 
 yard, generally a quartermaster, quarter-gun 
 ner, or afterguardsman. The term is also applied 
 to a man on the sick-list. 
 
 Make. To make bad weather, to roll and pitch 
 
 violently in a moderate sea, generally caused by 
 injudicious stowage or negligent steering. To 
 make fast, to belay a rope. To make free with 
 the land, to approach closely the shore. Make 
 it sol the order of the commanding officer to 
 strike the bell when 8 A.M., 12 M., or 8 P.M. is 
 reported. To make sail, to clap on additional 
 canvas. To make the land, to sight it from a 
 distance coming from seaward. To make water, 
 to leak. A ship makes foul water when the 
 water is so shallow that her keel stirs up the 
 mud. To make off", to cut into pieces the blub 
 ber of a whale. 
 
 Malafiges. A sailor s name for the goylir, a 
 small sea-bird supposed to precede a storm. 
 
 Malaga is situated on a bay of the Mediterra 
 nean, in the southern part of Spain, in lat. 36 
 43 5" N., Ion. 4 26 E. The principal manu 
 factures are linen, woolen, and cotton fabrics, 
 sail-cloth, rope, paper, hats, leather, and soap. 
 The haroor is capable of holding a large number 
 of ships, and can be entered during any wind. 
 The exports consist of wines, olive oil, figs, al 
 monds, raisins, grapes, lead, iron, etc. Pop. 
 95,000. 
 
 Malapterurus. A genus of small malacopter- 
 ygious fishes, possessing a high degree of elec 
 trical power (Malapterurus electricus). M. elec- 
 tricus is found in the Nile. 
 
 Malduck. One of the names given to the 
 fulmar, Procellaria glacialis. 
 
 Male-thread. The thread of a bolt, that of 
 the nut, or internal thread, being called a female- 
 thread. 
 
 Malingerer. One who counterfeits illness for 
 the purpose of avoiding duty. 
 
 Mallemak, or Mollymauk. A sea-bird ; the 
 Procellaria glacialis, called also fulmar. 
 
 Mallemaroking. The visiting and carousing 
 of seamen in the Greenland ships. 
 
 Mallet. A hammer-shaped wooden imple 
 ment. A cal king-mallet is used to drive oakum 
 into the seams ; its head is long, cylindrical, and 
 hooped with iron. A serving-mallet is used as a 
 lever in putting on service, wrapping it more 
 tightly than could be done by hand 
 
 Mallotus. A genus of small fishes found 
 along the coast of Greenland ; the capelan. 
 
 Malstrom. The most famous whirlpool in the 
 world, off the Norwegian coast, between two of 
 the Loffoden Isles. The current runs 6 hours in one 
 direction and then 6 hours in the opposite way, 
 producing violent whirls. The depth of water is 
 about 20 fathoms, while immediately to the west 
 it is over 100 fathoms. The whirlpool is most 
 violent at the turn of the tide, and if at this time 
 the wind blows against the current the sea be 
 comes extremely dangerous. The stories of ships, 
 whales, etc., being swallowed up in the vortex 
 are mere fables, but there is no doubt that a ship 
 would be in danger of being dashed upon the 
 rocks, and whales have been found stranded on 
 the coast of Flagstadt from the same cause. 
 
 Malta. An island in the Mediterranean whose 
 central position makes it important as a commer 
 cial depot and of great value as a naval station. 
 It belongs to Great Britain, and is situated 62 
 miles S.S.W. of Sicily, and 197 miles N. of 
 Africa. Lat. 35 53 48" N. ; Ion. 14 31 15" 
 E. On all sides except the south its coast-line is 
 deeply indented. Its largest bays are those of 
 Mursa and Sirocco on the S.W., and Melleha 
 
MALTHA 
 
 464 
 
 MANLY 
 
 and St. Paul s on the N.E. ; but the most impor 
 tant in every respect is the double bay formed by 
 the opposite sides of the remarkable peninsula 
 on which the capital, Valetta, stands. Malta is 
 strongly fortified, and is provided with excellent 
 docks. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Maltha. Mineral pitch. 
 
 Man. To furnish with a complement of men ; 
 as, to man a boat, to man a rope, etc. One of 
 the ship s complement, be he seaman, boy, or 
 marine. 
 
 MAN-BOUND. Detained in port in consequence 
 of being short-handed. 
 
 MAN-BROKER. A boarding-house master. 
 
 MAN-HANDLE. To move by the force of men 
 without the assistance of levers or purchases of 
 any kind. 
 
 MAN-HOLE. A hole in a boiler, tank, etc., 
 designed for the entrance of a man, for examina 
 tion, cleaning, repairs, etc. ; it is closed by a piece 
 called a man-hole plate. 
 
 MAN-OF-WAR. A national vessel. 
 
 MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. See FRIGATE-BIRD. 
 
 MAN-OF-WAR FASHION. A neat, orderly, sea- 
 manlike manner. 
 
 MAN-OF-WAR S MAN. One of the crew of a 
 man-of-war, as distinguished from a sailor in 
 the merchant marine. 
 
 MAN OVERBOARD! The alarm when a person 
 has fallen overboard. See EMERGENCIES AT 
 SEA. 
 
 MAN-ROPE. A rope at each side of a ladder 
 as an assistance in getting up and down. 
 
 MAN-ROPE KNOT. A knot in the upper end 
 of a man-rope ; it is double walled and double 
 crowned. 
 
 MAN-TRAP. An open hatch, an insecure lad 
 der, or anything left unguarded and therefore 
 likely to cause an accident to a man. 
 
 Manametor. An instrument for measuring 
 the elastic force of gases. A pressure-gauge. 
 
 Manarvel. To pilfer small stores. 
 
 Manatee, Manati, or Sea-cow (Manatus Amer- 
 icanus). A herbivorous aquatic animal of the 
 order Sirenia, found in the West Indies and 
 South American rivers. Another species (Ma 
 natus Senegalensis) inhabits the west coast of 
 Africa. 
 
 Manatidse. A family of Cetacea, including 
 all the herbivorous section of the 1 order. They 
 differ from the ordinary Cetacea in having swim 
 ming-paws rather than pectoral fins. It is sup 
 posed that many of the stories of mermaids 
 originated in some of the females being seen with 
 their head and breasts raised out of water. 
 
 Manche, or Mangalore. A flat-bottomed 
 boat of burden, about 25 to 35 feet long, 6 or 7 
 feet broad, and 4 or 5 feet deep, for landing the 
 cargoes of the patamira, which are discharged 
 and loaded at the mouth of the river. These 
 boats are sewed together like the Masulah boats 
 of the Madras. The Manche of Calicut^ is very 
 similar to the foregoing, with the exception of a 
 raking stem for the purpose of taking the 
 beach. 
 
 Manchineel. Hippomane mancinella, a tree 
 which grows to a vast size on the coasts of the 
 Caribbee Isles, and neighboring continent. The 
 fruit and sap are highly poisonous, but sleeping 
 beneath the branches does not cause death, as was 
 erroneously supposed. See UPAS. 
 
 Manganese. A metal resembling cast iron. 
 
 Equivalent, 27.6; symbol, Mn ; specific gravity, 
 8. 
 
 Manger. A small space athwart the deck of 
 a ship of war immediately abaft the hawse-holes, 
 and separated on the after part from the rest of 
 the deck by the manger-board, a strong coaming 
 rather higher than the hawse-holes, serving to 
 prevent the ingress of the sea when the cables 
 are bent. 
 
 Mangrove. The mango-fish. 
 
 Manifest. A list of the vessel s cargo, con 
 taining the marks and number of each separate 
 package, the names of the shippers and consign 
 ees, a specification of the quantity of goods con 
 tained in each package, as rum, sugar, etc., and 
 also an account of the freight corresponding with 
 the bills of lading. 
 
 Manila, the capital of all the Philippine Isl 
 ands, situated on the island of Luzon, at the 
 mouth of the river Pasig, in lat. 14 36 N., 
 Ion. 121 E. Vessels of some hundred tons may 
 come up as far as the bridge. The city is very 
 strongly fortified. A royal marine school, com 
 mercial school, barracks, arsenal, and custom 
 house are among the principal buildings. It is 
 admirably situated for trade, and is the centre to 
 which all the productions of the Philippine Isl 
 ands flow, and its exports consist of sugar, to 
 bacco, indigo, and manilla hemp, gold-dust, cof 
 fee, etc., but it is also widely known for its cigars 
 and cheroots. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 Manilla, or Manila. A fibrous material ob 
 tained from the Musa textilis, a plant allied to 
 the banana ; used for hawsers and running-gear. 
 It is light and flexible, and does not require 
 tarring. 
 
 Manly, John, Captain U.S.N. In command 
 of the schooner " Lee," Capt. Manly, acting, it 
 is believed, under the authority of Gen. Wash 
 ington, in November, 1775, captured the trans 
 port "Nancy," loaded with munitions of war 
 and bound to Boston for the use of the British 
 army ; thus transferring the ownership and use of 
 the cargo from the British to the American army. 
 The event was announced in a letter from Gen. 
 Washington to Congress of 30th November as 
 one of great importance, furnishing our army 
 with many essential articles of which" it had been 
 in great want. While in this command Capt. 
 Manly made other valuable captures. His zeal 
 and enterprise attracted the attention of Con 
 gress, and that body, on the 17th April, 1776, ap 
 pointed him a captain in the navy, and gave him 
 the command of the frigate then building in 
 Massachusetts Bay, afterwards called the " Han 
 cock," of 32 guns. In this frigate, after a severe 
 action of more than an hour, Capt. Manly cap 
 tured the "Fox," of 28 guns, nnd ordered her 
 into port, but she was recaptured by the " Flora" 
 of 32 guns. In July, 1777, Capt. Manly, after 
 a chase of more than thirty hours, was captured 
 by the frigate "Rainbow," Sir George Collier, 
 of 40 guns, and the brig "Victor." Capt. 
 Manly displayed great seamanship in his attempt 
 to escape from this greatly superior force, but 
 fortune proved unpropitious in this instance, and 
 the "Hancock" was surrendered. The "Bos 
 ton," Capt. Hector McNiel, was in company 
 with the "Hancock" when the "Rainbow" was 
 first discovered, but she afforded no assistance. 
 Capt. McNiel was dismissed from the service for 
 his conduct in separating from the " Hancock." 
 
MANNHEIM 
 
 4S5 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 The conduct of Capt. Manly was investigated, 
 but the result left him without reproach. Hav 
 ing been exchanged, he took command of the 
 privateer "Cumberland," and while cruising 
 in her was captured by the frigate " Pomona" 
 and carried into Barbadoes. Being there denied 
 the privilege of parole, he made his escape, and 
 we next find him in command of the privateer 
 "Jason," in which vessel he was, in July, 1779, 
 attacked by two British privateers, one of 18, 
 the other of 16 guns. Reserving his fire, Capt. 
 Manly ran between them, and poured his star 
 board broadside into one and his larboard broad 
 side into the other, and both struck their colors 
 to him. In September, 1782, Capt. Manly was 
 appointed to the "Hague" (formerly the 
 " Deane 7 ). Cruising in the West Indies he 
 made a wonderful escape from an overwhelming 
 force, the particulars of which are not, however, 
 sufficiently known to be stated with any degree of 
 confidence. An account of his having grounded 
 on a sand-bank near Guadaloupe, and while in 
 that situation having sustained the broadsides 
 of four ships of the line within point-blank shot 
 for three da^ys, has been published, but is prob 
 ably mythical. The affair, however, gained Capt. 
 Manly much eclat, and on his safe return to 
 Boston he was received with distinguished atten 
 tion by the citizens. He died in Boston in 1793. 
 
 Mannheim, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 between it and the Neckar, in the grand duchy 
 of Baden, is admirably situated for commerce 
 owing to its position on two important navigable 
 rivers and its excellent artificial port. The 
 trade has been very much extended, and it is 
 now the first commercial town of the duchy. 
 The principal articles of trade are tobacco, corn, 
 petroleum, fruits, wine, hops, ironmongery, cat 
 tle, etc. Pop. 47,000. 
 
 Mantillis. A kind of shield anciently fixed 
 upon the tops of ships as a cover for archers. 
 
 Mantissa. The decimal part of a logarithm. 
 
 Map. A representation upon a plane of, or a 
 portion of, the surface of the terrestrial or celes 
 tial sphere. When the water is the principal 
 subject of consideration, the delineation is known 
 as a chart (which see). 
 
 Marabut. A sail which galleys hoisted in 
 bad weather. 
 
 Maranhao is a city of Brazil, situated on the 
 island of Maranhao, in lat. 2 3 31 S., Ion. 44 18 
 W. On the north and south it is encircled by 
 the small streams Sao Francisco and Maranhao, 
 at the mouths of which is a basin accessible at 
 high-water to vessels drawing 20 feet. The 
 trade is of great importance, the provinces of 
 Para, Piauhy, Ceara, Rio Grande do Morte, and 
 Gayaz having here the entrep6t for their prod 
 uce. The principal exports are rice, cotton, 
 rum, drugs, isinglass, and hides. Pop. 32,000. 
 
 Marblehead, a port of entry in Essex County, 
 Mass., on Massachusetts Bay, is situated on a 
 small, uneven, and very rocky peninsula. Its 
 harbor is narrow, deep, and safe, and will admit 
 the largest vessels. Its prosperity is partly de 
 rived from commerce and the fisheries, and 
 many vessels are owned by its citizens. Pop. 
 8000. 
 
 Marches. Borders or confines of a country. 
 
 Marena. A kind of fish somewhat like a 
 pilchard. 
 
 Mare s Tails. A peculiar modification of the 
 30 
 
 cirrus, indicating wind. They consist of wisps, 
 fibres, and streaks. 
 
 Margot. A fish of the perch kind, found in 
 the waters of Carolina. 
 
 Marinarus. An old term for a sea-faring 
 man. 
 
 Marinate. To salt fish and afterwards pre 
 serve it in oil or vinegar. 
 
 Marine. Pertaining to the sea. A sea-soldier. 
 Dead marine, an empty bottle. 
 
 MARINE BAROMETER. A barometer adapted 
 for use at sea, the tube being contracted to avoid 
 sudden oscillations in consequence of the rolling 
 of a vessel. 
 
 MARINE GLUE. See GLUE, MARINE. 
 
 MARINE GOVERNOR. A governor for marine 
 engines, intended to counteract the effect of the 
 ship s motion on the engine, and prevent racing. 
 See GOVERNOR. 
 
 MARINE OFFICER. An officer of the marine 
 corps (which see). 
 
 Marine Corps. Soldiers enlisted for service 
 either on shore or on board of ships of war are 
 known by the distinctive name of Marines. In 
 nearly all maritime countries, claiming to be war 
 powers, they constitute a separate military body, 
 trained to fight either as infantrymen or artil 
 lerists, and especially for participation in naval 
 engagements. They are organized, clothed, and 
 equipped very much as soldiers of the land forces, 
 and their preliminary instruction is usually the 
 same. For these reasons they become qualified 
 for duty with either the army or navy, and there 
 fore are of double value to the nation which em 
 ploys them. Their headquarters, barracks, and 
 depots are on shore, and from them details are 
 made when required for service on shipboard. 
 These detachments vary in size with the ship, 
 from a dozen men under a sergeant to a hundred 
 under one or more commissioned officers, and are 
 all called " marine guards." 
 
 The marine guard of a man-of-war has been 
 aptly described by one writer as " its backbone," 
 and by another as "the bulwark between the 
 cabin and the forecastle." To fully appreciate 
 the force of the latter comparison one needs to 
 bear in mind that all nations contribute quotas 
 to the vast throng which follows the sea, and that 
 in the larger vessels are often found motley crews 
 containing elements exceedingly heterogeneous 
 and reckless, sometimes desperate, and always 
 with capacities for mischief highly cultivated. 
 The muster-roll of the U. S. steamer " Shenan- 
 doah," a ship of medium size, serving in the 
 European Squadron, 1873, at one time exhibited 
 21 nationalities, some scarcely half-civilized. In 
 the frigates and large ironclads the proportion 
 of officers to crew is as 1 to 12, and sometimes as 
 1 to 18, and the result of a mutinous conflict with 
 such odds, and without any interposition or as 
 sistance, could hardly fail to be most lamentable. 
 Unfortunately, such things have happened in 
 the past, but "the bulwark," although severely 
 tested, has seldom been found wanting. The 
 support afforded by "a steady column of bayo 
 nets," remarked Rear-Admiral Chas. Stewart, 
 "has made mutinies scarce." His successor, as 
 the senior officer of the American navy, Admi 
 ral Farragut, " always deemed the marine guard 
 one of the great essentials of a man-of-war;" 
 and the distinguished and accomplished Admiral 
 Wilkes wrote : " The marines constitute the great 
 
MAEINE CORPS 
 
 466 
 
 MAEINE CORPS 
 
 (I had almost said the only) difference between 
 a man-of-war and a privateer." Commodore 
 Perry, also of world-wide fame, said : " Marines 
 on board of ships of war are not only necessary 
 to the proper preservation of discipline, but are 
 useful in the ordinary duties of the vessel ;" and 
 the gallant and impetuous Porter (present admi 
 ral of the navy) declared: "If the marines are 
 abolished, half the efficiency of the navy will be 
 destroyed. They are as necessary to the well- 
 being of a ship as the officers." Long before 
 them the immortal Nelson was wont to remark 
 that when he became first lord of the admiralty 
 "every fleet should have a perfect battalion of 
 marines," and the Earl of St. Vincent, another 
 famous English admiral, urged upon his coun 
 trymen that " without a large body of marines 
 we shall be long, very long, before an efficient 
 fleet can be sent to sea." 
 
 The origin of the marine service is of very 
 great antiquity. Capt. Luce, of the TJ. S. Navy, 
 in a most interesting chapter written for " The 
 History of the TJ. S. Marine Corps," prepared by 
 Capt. R. S. Collum, U.S.M.C., and M. Almy 
 Aldrich, Esq. (Boston, 1875), recites that the 
 employment of marines as a part of the regular 
 complement of vessels of war was common to the 
 Phoenicians and to all of the maritime states of 
 Greece at least five centuries before the Christian 
 era. Prior to that time the warriors were the 
 oarsmen ; but as naval science progressed and 
 the size of vessels increased, there gradually 
 sprang up two distinct classes, which together 
 made up the personnel of the navies about 500 
 B.C. These were the rowers, or seamen proper, 
 who had the management of the vessel, oars, and 
 sails, and the marines or fighting men. Marines 
 are specially mentioned in the accounts of the 
 battle of Lade, in the time of Darius, king of 
 Persia, about 497 B.C. In this battle between the 
 Greeks and Persians, over 100 Greek ships had 
 each "forty armed citizens on board, and those 
 picked men." The Persians also carried soldiers 
 in their vessels. To the Greek soldiers was given 
 the name epibatce, a term which all authorities 
 agree in rendering into English by the word 
 marines. 
 
 The largest number of these men found on 
 board of the regular war-ships at this period was 
 40. Plutarch says that at Salamis each Greek 
 trireme carried 18. Thucydides makes frequent 
 mention of them in his writings, and Boeckh re 
 marks that even in those ancient times these epi- 
 batce. were a corps entirely distinct from the land 
 soldiers and belonged to the vessels. They had, 
 moreover, their own officers, called trlerarchoi. 
 During the naval supremacy of Rome, the larger 
 vessels carried 300 rowers and 120 marines (clas- 
 siarii milites), and in fighting, the latter "used 
 arrows and darts at a distance, spears and swords 
 in close combat, and as vessels increased in size 
 they added the balistce and turres (turrets), and 
 fought from them as from castles on land." 
 
 In the early history of the English navv we 
 read of men-at-arms still serving afloat, their 
 armor and weapons differing but little from those 
 of the ancients. The Scandinavians called them 
 bat-karler, or sea-soldiers, that is, carls or sturdy 
 fellows who fought in boats. Later, they were 
 called supra-salientes, a word still preserved in 
 the Spanish sobiesaliente, a military term which 
 literally means "surpassing, excellent." It is 
 
 recorded that Genoese cross-bowmen, the best 
 marines of the period, were in the 13th century 
 employed and very highly esteemed in the Eng 
 lish ships, and that in August, 1387, Sir Henry 
 Percy (" Gunpowder Percy") was appointed 
 captain of all the men-at-arms and archers of the 
 fleet. He was, in fact, commandant of marines. 
 
 The introduction and gradual increase of naval 
 ordnance caused the occupation of men-at-arms 
 afloat to become auxiliary instead of principal, 
 and the employment of marines in their present 
 form seems to date from 1653, when Admiral 
 Blake embarked a number of soldiers to act as 
 small-armsmen in the battle with Von Tromp, 
 off Portland. The famous corps of marines of 
 Great Britain was originally instituted in 1664. 
 Beaude states that in 1684 mention is made of 
 the Duke of York s " maritime regiment of foot," 
 and that during the reign of William III. several 
 regiments of foot were placed on the marine es 
 tablishment, but subsequently disbanded. In 
 the beginning of the reign of Queen Anne "six 
 regiments of maritime soldiers were raised, and 
 these also were disbanded in 1749. The neces 
 sity for this kind of troops was so pressing, how 
 ever, that six years later 130 companies, num 
 bering above 5000 men, were raised upon the 
 recommendation of the great English admiral, 
 Lord Anson, and it is recorded that, in 1760, this 
 force had grown to 18,000. We are also in 
 formed that in 1740 three regiments of marines 
 were raised in America, and assembled at New 
 York. All of the officers, except the captains of 
 companies, who were colonists, nominated by the 
 provinces, were appointed by the crown, and 
 Col. Spotiswood, of Virginia, was made colonel 
 commandant of the whole. This is a grade supe 
 rior to colonel, and seems to be peculiar to the 
 marine service. 
 
 Nicolas, in his history of the royal marine 
 forces, pays handsome tribute to their valor and 
 gallantry in many a hard-fought action, and 
 Capt. Luce adds that on no occasion did they 
 prove themselves of more value to their country^ 
 and to the navy to which they belonged, or re 
 flect more honor on their corps, "than during 
 the momentous period covering the great muti 
 nies at Spithead, the Nore, and Bantry Bay." 
 
 This inestimable quality of the marine fidel 
 ity no doubt arises from that want of sympathy 
 with the sailor which his military training, habits, 
 and esprit de corps create. In concluding his 
 chapter, Capt. Luce says that the " United States 
 marine corps has well sustained the high repu 
 tation for steadfast courage and loyalty which 
 has been handed down to it from the days of 
 Themistocles," and, might have added, wears 
 with pardonable pride and jealous care the title 
 of Everfaithful." 
 
 We come now to the genesis of this particular 
 corps, which antedates the organization of the reg 
 ular navy and the Declaration of Independence. 
 November 10, 1775, the Continental Congress, to 
 promote the " publick defense," cautiously 
 
 " Resolved, That two battalions of marines be raised, con 
 sisting of one colonel, two lieutenant-colonels, two majors, and 
 other officers, as usual in other regiments ; that they consist 
 of an equal number of privates with other battalions : that 
 particular care be taken that no persons be appointed to offices, 
 or enlisted into said battalions, but such as are good seamen, 
 or so acquainted with maritime affairs as to be able to serve 
 to advantage by sea when required; that they be enlisted and 
 commissioned to serve for and during the present war between 
 Great Britain and the colonies, unless dismissed by order of 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 467 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 Congress; that they be distinguished by the names of the First 
 and Second Battalions of American Marines." 
 
 This was the first step taken toward the crea 
 tion of the naval establishment which has won 
 such imperishable fame for the United States, 
 and upon it is based the claim of the marine 
 corps to be " the oldest in the service." Aldrich 
 says that " before a single vessel of the navy went 
 to sea the corps was organized," and, further, 
 that a detachment of it gained on the island of 
 New Providence, one of the Bahamas, early in 
 1777, " the first fight in the history of the regu 
 lar navy." In this noteworthy engagement the 
 attacking party, consisting of 300 marines and 
 landsmen under Major Nichols, captured the 
 forts and other defenses of the enemy after a 
 struggle of a few hours, and secured a quantity 
 of stores and British cannon. The marines be 
 longed to the fleet of Commodore Hopkins, who 
 was operating against Lord Dunmore. 
 
 During the following years of the Revolution 
 they were found at work proving their patriot 
 ism and devotion to the cause which gave them 
 being ; and, in fact, throughout their entire ex 
 istence they have been, as will be seen, in the 
 front rank of the Republic s defenders, zealous 
 participants, per mare et terrain, in nearly every 
 expedition and action of moment in which the 
 navy has been engaged ; and in many trying cam 
 paigns with their brethren of the army have won 
 distinction for themselves and honor for their 
 country. The globe (which is one of the em 
 blems of the corps device) has been their stage, 
 and every zone has heard their watch-cry, 
 "All s well!" 
 
 The patient labors of Capt. Collum have put 
 many of their deeds of record, so that one can 
 now follow them with little effort. Conspicuous 
 among these is their part under John Paul Jones, 
 in the action between the "Ranger" and the 
 " Drake," in which Lieut. "Wallingford, of the 
 marines, lost his life at the head of his men ; 
 again, in the great battle between the " Bon 
 Homme Richard" and the " Serapis," in which 
 they numbered 120 rank and file, led by Lieut.- 
 Colonel Stack and two lieutenants ; in the 
 fight between the frigate " Philadelphia" and 
 the Tripolitans, where, " after most gallant 
 exertions," Lieut. Osborne and his guard were 
 made prisoners ; in the attack on the Tripoli- 
 tan gunboatSj August 3, 1803, in the course of 
 which Lieut. Trippe, engaged in a hand-to-hand 
 fight with a Turk, was saved by a sergeant, who 
 "passed a bayonet through the body of the 
 Turk" ; in the remarkable march of Gen. 
 Eaton from Alexandria to Derne, nearly 600 
 miles through Northern Africa, where a small 
 detachment of marines under the brave Lieut. 
 O Bannon, mounted on camels and asses in the 
 caravan, leavened the lump of Arabs and Greeks 
 in the service of the United States, and in the 
 attack on Derne stormed the principal work, 
 took possession of the battery, planted the Amer 
 ican fL&gfoT the first time on a fortress in the Old 
 World, and turned its guns upon the enemy. 
 Thereafter " Tripoli" was engrossed on the 
 banners of the marine corps. 
 
 During the war of 1812 they were exceedingly 
 active at sea and on shore. In the glorious vic 
 tory of the "Constitution" over the " Guerriere," 
 the first officer killed was Lieut. Bush, who com 
 manded the marine guard, and with his junior, 
 
 Lieut. Contee, was assisting in repelling boarders 
 " at a critical moment of the engagement" ; in 
 the victory of the " United States" over the 
 " Macedonian," Lieuts. Anderson and Edwards 
 fought the marines "with the utmost steadiness"; 
 in the brilliant operations of the " Essex" in the 
 Pacific Ocean, Lieut. Gamble gained great repu 
 tation for " skill and efficiency," commanding in 
 turn his guard, a prize-ship, and a fort at Nuka 
 Hiva, in the Marquesas Islands ; in the bloody 
 battle between the " Shannon" and the " Chesa 
 peake," Lieut. Broom and 11 of his men were 
 killed and 20 wounded ; in the ever memorable 
 battle of Lake Erie, Lieut. Brooks, of the " Law 
 rence," was killed, and 18 marines of the fleet 
 placed hors de combat; in the battle of Lake 
 Champlain the marines suffered severely ; when 
 the frigate " Constitution" captured the corvettes 
 "Cyane" and " Levant," Capt. Henderson was 
 " specially mentioned" ; in the struggle between 
 the "President" and the "Endymion," Lieut. 
 Twiggs "particularly distinguished himself"; 
 and in the fight on Lake Ponchartrain, the 
 senior marine officer was killed, making four- 
 elevenths of the officers of the corps who were 
 slain in that war. 
 
 On shore, they were with the army under 
 Scott (then colonel) in Canada; with Gen. 
 Winder at Bladensburg, where, after the militia 
 ingloriously fled, they, with Commodore Bar 
 ney s sailors, "kept the whole British force at 
 bay until there was scarcely a man on our side 
 who was not killed or wounded," Capt. Sevier 
 wounded and Capt. Miller (afterwards lieuten 
 ant-colonel) wounded and a prisoner; with Gen. 
 Jackson at New Orleans, where Maj. Carmick 
 was wounded; at North Point, Baltimore, where 
 the British were driven off; and in sundry affairs 
 on the coast of Maine and shores of Chesapeake 
 and Delaware Bays. Near Norfolk, " Lieut. 
 Breckenridge, with 150 marines, assisted in pre 
 venting the enemy s boats from ascending James 
 River." 
 
 In the interval between 1815 and the Florida 
 war (1836-37) they were called upon, among 
 other things, to quell a serious revolt in the 
 Massachusetts State prison, which was done ; to 
 act against Spanish pirates in the "West Indies 
 and Malays in Sumatra; and to guard public 
 and private property at the time of the great fire 
 in New York (1835), for which they received a 
 vote of thanks from that city. "When Indian 
 hostilities broke out in Georgia in 1836, the dis 
 posable force of the army being found inadequate, 
 Col. Comdt. Henderson promptly volunteered his 
 services and those of the corps serving on shore. 
 They were accepted, and their places at the navy- 
 yards temporarily filled by watchmen from civil 
 life. Two battalions proceeded to Charleston from 
 rendezvous at New York and Fortress Monroe, 
 and thence went to Fort Mitchell, Ala., where 
 they were consolidated into a regiment and sent 
 to Tampa Bay via Apalachicola. In the ever 
 glades they shared the arduous campaigns of 
 Gen. Jesup against the treacherous Creeks and 
 Seminoles, " bearing an honorable and important 
 part at Hatch ee-Lustee" (January 22, 1837), and 
 in other actions. Besides these, two companies 
 (130 men) served in the Mosquito Fleet on the 
 west coast, co-operating. Their combined losses 
 were 48 men, killed or died. 
 
 From 1846-48 the corps was engaged in the 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 468 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 war with Mexico, where it figured in every 
 quarter, and made a most excellent record. Sev 
 eral detachments were on the Pacific side with 
 Commodores Sloat, Shubrick, and Stockton ; 
 others in the squadron on the east coast under 
 Commodores Connor and Perry, and at times 
 with the army under Gens. Scott, Taylor, and 
 "Worth. They were present at the capture of 
 Monterey, San Francisco, and Mazatlan ; fought 
 at Los Angeles, San Diego, San Gabriel, San 
 Jose, and Guaymas, and with such credit that 
 Commodore Shubrick recommended the govern 
 ment to double the guards of all vessels coming 
 to the station, reducing, if necessary for the pur 
 pose, the complements of ordinary seamen and 
 landsmen. , On the east coast they were engaged 
 in the capture of Matamoras, Tampico, Frontera, 
 Tabasco, and Vera Cruz. The first battalion, 
 which came from Fort Hamilton, New York 
 harbor, joined the main army at Puebla in June, 
 1847, and being assigned to Gen. Quitman s di 
 vision, in which Lieut.-Col. Watson, of the 
 marines, commanded the second brigade, par 
 ticipated in all of the brilliant operations which 
 marked the march to the city of Mexico, where 
 it was with the first portion to enter the Grand 
 Plaza, and was specially detailed to clear the 
 ancient palace of intruders and protect it from 
 spoliation, a fact which completes the explana 
 tion of the inscription since found on the corps 
 banners: "From Tripoli to the Halls of the 
 Montezumas." 
 
 The crowning honor, however, was at Cha- 
 pultepec, September 13, where the party assigned 
 to the storming of the castle 120 men, " selected 
 from all corps" was led by Maj. Levi Twiggs, 
 and the pioneers, equipped with ladders, pick 
 axes, and crows, by Capt. John G. Reynolds, 
 both of the marine corps. Gen. Quitman, in his 
 official report, dated National Palace, Mexico, 
 September 29, says: "The storming-parties 
 led by the gallant officers, who had volun 
 teered for this desperate service, rushed forward 
 like a resistless tide. For a short time the con 
 test was hand-to-hand ; swords and bayonets 
 were crossed and rifles clubbed. Resistance, 
 however, was vain against the desperate valor 
 of our brave troops." The gallant and lamented 
 Twiggs fell on the first advance at the head of 
 his command, and Lieut.-Col. Watson died in 
 Vera Cruz two months later. In March, 1848, 
 a second battalion of four companies of 90 
 men each, commanded by Maj. John Harris, 
 sailed from New York to co-operate with the 
 squadron on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ; but 
 on their arrival at Vera Cruz the war was vir 
 tually over, and they were ordered to garrison 
 Alvarado. 
 
 A few years later (1852-53) some of these Mex 
 ican heroes were marching to the same music 
 through the streets of Yeddo, the capital of 
 Japan, as a part of the celebrated expedition of 
 Commodore Perry. Brevet Maj. Zeilin was the 
 second person to land, and "the presence of 
 these trained American soldiers contributed in 
 no small degree to the speedy success achieved." 
 In 1856 we find a detachment from the " Deca- 
 tur" fighting Indians at Seattle, Washington 
 Territory, and another from the " San Jacinto," 
 "Portsmouth," and "Levant," attacking the 
 Chinese and demolishing the Barrier Forts of 
 Canton. 
 
 During the Know-Nothing political excite 
 ment of 1857 they were ordered out by the Pres 
 ident, upon request of the mayor of Washington, 
 to suppress an armed mob of " Plug-Uglies" 
 from Baltimore who had overawed the police. 
 These miscreants hooted and defied the marines, 
 and showered stones and pistol-shots, but a well- 
 directed volley caused them to disperse and seek 
 shelter. 
 
 In 1858, 40 marines and sailors from the " Van- 
 dalia" had a fierce conflict in the Fiji Islands 
 with a body of 300 naked warriors who had killed 
 two American merchants. The natives were 
 punished, and the Secretary of the Navy pro 
 nounced the conduct of the officers and men as 
 "in the highest degree commendable." The 
 same year a detachment from the Brazil Squad 
 ron was landed in Montevideo, upon application 
 of the governor, to protect the lives and prop 
 erty of the foreign residents from domestic vio 
 lence. Brevet Maj. Reynolds commanded, and 
 they remained until the revolutionists capitu 
 lated. In the Paraguay Expedition there were 
 8 marine officers and the usual complements of 
 men. At home, in August, when the enraged 
 citizens of Staten Island burned part of the quar 
 antine buildings through fear of yellow fever, 65 
 marines were sent from Brooklyn to protect those 
 remaining "at all hazards," and did, although 
 the rioters, fully armed, made further attempts 
 at arson. 
 
 October 17, 1859, the United States were con 
 vulsed by news of the John Brown insurrection 
 at Harper s Ferry. The President ordered Col. 
 Comdt. Harris to send forward the available force 
 at headquarters by special train, and 100 men, 
 with a battery of Dahlgren howitzers, were at 
 the railroad depot in one hour. They were met 
 by the Secretaries of War and the Navy, who 
 gave Lieut. Greene, commanding, his instruc 
 tions. Upon arrival they found the militia held 
 in check by the insurgents, who had been driven 
 into an engine-house. Under the orders of Col. 
 Robert E. Lee, then in the U. S. army, the ma 
 rines assailed the barricaded engine-house, using 
 a long ladder as a battering-ram, and, after kill 
 ing two of the band and mortally wounding an 
 other, captured the "remarkable old man" and 
 the remainder of his followers. Scouting-par- 
 ties sent into the country captured 1500 pikes. 
 One marine was mortally and another slightly 
 wounded. 
 
 In March following, 50 marines and sailors 
 from the " Marion" were instrumental in saving 
 from destruction the property of the American 
 residents of Kisembo, on the west coast of Africa, 
 and on the 27th of September another party was 
 landed from the sloop " St. Mary s," at Panama, 
 to protect the Isthmus railroad. On the 28th the 
 governor delivered up the city to the joint occu 
 pation of the men of the " St. Mary s" and of the 
 British ship "Clio." Since then Panama and the 
 railroad have been repeatedly guarded by our 
 marines and sailors. 
 
 The Great Rebellion (1861-65) made the next 
 special demand upon the services of the marine 
 corps, and they were rendered " nobly and well" 
 afloat (Alden), and "admirably in camp and 
 field" (Dahlgren). In the beginning, when the 
 defections from the army and navy occurred, the 
 marine corps, being largely composed of South 
 ern men, lost its full share of officers. There 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 469 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 were in all 6 resignations and 14 dismissals 
 (those who tendered their resignations after 
 May 1, 1861, being summarily dismissed). The 
 last to leave was First Lieut. A. W. Stark, Jan 
 uary 9, 1862. These vacancies were rapidly filled 
 by loyal men, and July 25, Congress authorized 
 a large increase to be made by the appointment 
 of candidates between 20 and 25 years of age, 
 which caused 50 of the 60 lieutenants to be 
 young and inexperienced. 
 
 The first duty to which it was called was on 
 January 7, when 250 artillery and marines 
 left New York during the night on the steamer 
 " Star of the West" to reinforce the beleaguered 
 garrison of Fort Sumter. 
 
 During the same month Lieut. Hebb (now 
 lieutenant-colonel) was sent with a detachment 
 to garrison Fort Washington on the Potomac, 
 near the capital, and on the 22d the force at the 
 Brooklyn barracks was put under arms to repel 
 a rumored assault by rebel sympathizers on the 
 navy-yard. April 12, Lieut. Cash (since major), 
 with the guard of the frigate "Sabine," rein 
 forced Fort Pickens, Fla., and on the 20th, 
 the garrison at Norfolk, and the guards of the 
 "Pennsylvania," "Cumberland," and "Paw 
 nee," acting under orders, destroyed the navy- 
 yard and ships at that place, spiking the heavy 
 guns and breaking up thousands of small-arms. 
 " At midnight, when the moon sank, the bar 
 racks near the centre of the yard were set on 
 fire, that by the illumination the work might 
 be continued." 
 
 In the first battle of Bull Run, or Manassas, a 
 battalion of 350 officers and men, mostly recruits, 
 commanded by Major Reynolds, served in Por 
 ter s brigade as the support of Griffin s battery. 
 Lieut. Hitchcock and 8 men were killed, 2 offi 
 cers and 17 men wounded, and 16 missing. At 
 the capture of Hatteras Inlet, in August, the 
 marines of the "Minnesota," " Wabash," and 
 " Cumberland," under Capt. Shuttleworth (after 
 wards colonel), landed with the troops of Gen. 
 Butler in surf-boats and entered Fort Clarke. 
 "When the Confederate privateer " Judah" was 
 destroyed at Pensacola by a boat expedition at 
 night, in September, the first to board was a 
 private of marines, who, by a mistake, having 
 lost his distinguishing mark, was subsequently 
 killed by one of his own party. In the Dupont 
 Expedition and battle of Port Royal they took a 
 prominent part, and after the victory occupied 
 the captured forts until relieved by the army. 
 A separate battalion, Major Reynolds (after 
 wards lieutenant-colonel), accompanied the ar 
 mada in a transport called the " Governor, which 
 was wrecked at sea, but the troops were luckily 
 rescued by the " Sabine," with a loss of 7 men. 
 In nearly all of the expeditions and actions which 
 followed, along the coasts and up the rivers of 
 South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, the marines 
 shared as sharpshooters, skirmishers, or artiller 
 ists, leading advances, covering retreats, build 
 ing batteries, repelling torpedo-boats, or garri 
 soning captured towns. The mayor, city council, 
 and citizens of St. Augustine paid " the urbanity 
 of the officers and good conduct and discipline 
 of the troops" exalted compliment, and begged 
 that they might remain. 
 
 In the celebrated " Trent affair" 8 marines 
 from the " San Ja-cinto" bore a very dramatic 
 part, subduing the defiant and insulting attitude 
 
 of the passengers and crew while the Confederate 
 commissioners were being removed from the ship. 
 The first shot from the ironclad " Merrimac" 
 killed 9 marines on the "Cumberland," and in 
 the hopeless resistance made by the " Congress" 
 their faithful blood crimsoned the decks. In this 
 most famous of modern naval battles the marines 
 of the " Minnesota," " Roanoke," and " St. Law 
 rence" were also engaged, and "justly won the 
 praise of the officers under whom they acted 
 and of the whole of the loyal nation" (Aldrich). 
 At Roanoke Island, off Wilmington, in the op 
 erations in the sounds of North Carolina, and in 
 the James and Potomac Rivers, they also as 
 sisted, and were on the blockade of all the prin 
 cipal ports, suffering a heavy loss when the fleet 
 off Charleston was raided by 2 rebel ironclads 
 from within in 186. One hundred and fifty 
 men, Capt. Kintzing (now colonel), guarded 
 the naval stations at Cairo and Mound City, 
 111. ; 30 were on the flag-ship " Black Hawk" 
 in the Red River Expedition, and a thousand 
 more could have been advantageously em 
 ployed in the Mississippi Squadron, but they 
 could not be spared. Ten thousand marines 
 were really needed for this war, but the oppor 
 tunity, like many others, was allowed to pass 
 unimproved. The Marine Brigade, a kind of 
 substitute, which operated in steam-rams and 
 transports on the Western rivers, was a volunteer 
 organization, and had no connection with the 
 marine corps. 
 
 On the lower Mississippi, and in the terrible 
 tumult at the passage of the forts, "they more 
 than maintained their reputation" (Admiral 
 Boggs). The honor of perfecting the conquest 
 of New Orleans, of hoisting the stars and stripes, 
 and holding that excited and turbulent city until 
 the arrival of the army under Gen. Butler (May 
 1), fell to a battalion of 250 marines of Farra- 
 
 fut s fleet, under Capt. J. L. Broome. June 
 8, in passing the batteries at Vicksburg, the 
 guard of the " Hartford" fought the broadside- 
 guns, and the following March, at Port Hudson, 
 the guards of the "Hartford," "Richmond," 
 " Mississippi," and " Monongahela" were badly 
 cut up. Capt. Ramsay, in command of the 
 marine division of the " Richmond," had nearly 
 a whole gun s crew swept away by a single shot. 
 
 December 7, 1862, 2 companies, Major Gar 
 land, going to California via Panama, on the 
 mail-steamer " Ariel," were captured by Semmes 
 off the coast of Cuba. A rebel lieutenant ad 
 dressed the command and offered every induce 
 ment to get 20 volunteers for the marine guard 
 of the "Alabama," but not a man proved rec 
 reant to his trust. They were paroled, and 
 proceeded on their journey. During July, 1863, 
 the " Draft Riots" provided duty for a battalion 
 at home, which won "marked approbation" in 
 New York, quelling the disturbances and guard 
 ing the public property. In August, a second 
 battalion, Major Zeilin, was sent from New York 
 to the South Atlantic Squadron to co-operate in 
 the attack on Charleston, and to relieve the 
 marines of the ships who had helped to erect 
 the naval battery. It was encamped on Mor 
 ris Island, and, September 8, furnished 6 officers 
 and 100 men, all volunteers, under Capt. McCaw- 
 ley, to engage in the combined night attack on 
 Fort Sumter, in which Lieut. Bradford was 
 mortally wounded, Lieut. Meade captured, and 
 
 I 
 
MAKINE CORPS 
 
 470 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 30 men killed, wounded, or missing. Ten officers 
 and 104 men of all corps were taken prisoners. 
 
 When the career of the "Alabama" was so 
 abruptly ended by the " Kearsarge," off the 
 coast of France, it was fitting that the marines 
 should begin the fight on our part, which they 
 did from a rifle-gun on the forecastle, "firing 
 rapidly and effectively throughout, and nobly 
 sustained the high repute of their service" 
 (Thornton). The same year, on board of the 
 " Wyoming," they were fighting the Japanese 
 in their forts at Simonosaki, where private 
 Furlong was killed and another wounded. At 
 Mobile, u one of the fiercest naval combats on 
 record" (Farragut), "the marines performed most 
 efficient service (Drayton). And the medals of 
 honor received by them for this action and the 
 previous battles on the Mississippi made a long 
 list. About this time, Capt. Hey wood, the senior 
 marine officer (aged 25), could muster nearly 800 
 marines in the fleet of Admiral Farragut. 
 
 A notable illustration of their usefulness in 
 emergency occurred in this year. The steam- 
 frigate " W abash," returning North in October 
 to get a new crew, went ashore on the outer edge 
 of Frying-Pan Shoals. She was short-handed, 
 and manned principally by negroes, landsmen, 
 and boys. Finding it impossible to get a kedge- 
 anchor out otherwise, Capt. De Camp called on 
 the marines, under Lieut. Fagan, who responded 
 with alacrity, filed into the boat, took the oars, 
 placed the anchor, and when the tide rose the noble 
 ship floated and was hauled off safe. In after- 
 years, Capt. De Camp (since rear-admiral) told 
 the writer that " the Wabash owed her life to 
 Fagan s marines." Thirteen years previously, 
 in the East Indies, Lieut. Broome ran a bower- 
 anchor from the sloop "Marion," which was 
 ashore in the breakers of Formosa. She got off, 
 and he was thanked on the quarter-deck by Com 
 mander William Glendy. 
 
 In November, 1864, two batteries of naval 
 howitzers and nine companies of marines and 
 sailors, under Commander Preble, ascended 
 Broad River, S. C., to co-operate with Gen. Fos 
 ter in establishing connection with Gen. Sher 
 man, who was coming to the sea. On the 30th 
 they were repulsed at Boyd s Neck ; but on the 
 6th of December made a successful attack at 
 Tulifinny Cross-roads. Killed and wounded, 21. 
 First Lieut. George G. Stoddard commanded the 
 marines, who numbered about 300. When 
 Charleston was abandoned, Lieut. Stoddard oc 
 cupied Georgetown, S. C., with six companies 
 of marines, and Lieut. Breese, with one com 
 pany, held the battery of 15 guns. Seven com 
 panies, with only two first lieutenants to officer 
 them, recalls the fact that a Federal brigade at 
 Pensacola, with a general, colonels, majors, etc., 
 contained fewer men than Capt. Hey wood had 
 in the marine battalion of the fleet. 
 
 Among the last and most momentous events 
 of this war were the two attacks on Fort Fisher. 
 About 60 vessels constituted the fleet, and many 
 of them, being heavy steamers, carried large 
 guards. Lieut. Pile, of the "Juniata," was 
 killed in the first attack, and over 50 enlisted 
 men were either killed or wounded in the sec 
 ond, where 1400 marines and sailors constituted 
 an assaulting column. While the conduct of 
 the marines, as a body, in this terrific struggle 
 has been the subject of more discussion than in 
 
 any other enterprise that they were ever engaged 
 in, there can be no doubt of the individual gal 
 lantry of officers and men, many of whom were 
 specially commended and rewarded for conspicu 
 ous service. The unfortunate failure to organize 
 the different marine detachments thrown to 
 gether on the beach leaves a blot and teaches a 
 lesson which, like the story of the " Chesapeake" 
 and the " Leopard," should never be forgotten, 
 and which it would not be honest to ignore in 
 view of the deluge of praise and thanks of Con 
 gress which they received elsewhere in this great 
 war. 
 
 The government having determined to bring 
 the industrious Raphael Semmes to trial for his 
 depredations on the high seas, Lieut. French was 
 sent with two sergeants in December, 1865, to 
 arrest and deliver him in Washington. After 
 visiting Memphis, Yicksburg, and N <?w Orleans, 
 he was found in Mobile and brought to the capi 
 tal, where he remained a close prisoner at the 
 marine barracks until April, when he was re 
 leased without trial and restored to his parole. 
 
 When Portland, Me., was devastated by fire, 
 July 4, 1866, as is usual in times of public dis 
 tress or excitement, the evil-disposed from other 
 cities gathered for plunder. The authorities 
 telegraphed to Portsmouth Navy-Yard for ma 
 rines, and in a few hours Lieut.-Col. Jones ar 
 rived with two companies. Lines of sentinels 
 were posted in the burned district, many per 
 sons arrested, and quiet restored." From 1867 to 
 1871 the illicit distillation of whisky, upon which 
 there was a high tax, gave great trouble to the 
 revenue officials, and they frequently met with 
 such fierce resistance that it became necessary to 
 call on the marine garrisons of Philadelphia and 
 Brooklyn for assistance. This was given, but 
 proved to be a most delicate and dangerous duty, 
 more unwelcome than actual war. Violent mobs 
 armed with revolvers, stones, and bricks had to 
 be encountered and overcome, and murderous 
 missiles from housetops were frequent incidents. 
 Lieut.-Col. Broome had the largest share of this 
 disagreeable work to do, and received the ap 
 proval of the government for himself and com 
 mand. 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt, in 1867, to punish 
 some savages on the island of Formosa, who 
 had murdered the crew of the American ship 
 "Rover," was shared in by 43 marines from the 
 "Hartford" and "Wyoming," under Capt. 
 Forney. Better success attended a boat expedi 
 tion from the "Mohican," in June, 1870, which 
 captured and burned in a Mexican river, near 
 Mazatlan, the piratical steamer< "Forward." 
 First Sergeant Moore and a corporal received 
 "special notice." In 1871 a very serious fight 
 occurred in Corea, in which 4 officers and 105 
 marines from the "Colorado," "Alaska," and 
 "Benicia," under Capt. Tilton, fleet marine 
 officer, formed portion of a landing-party of 680 
 men. They advanced through a strange and 
 rough country, the marines leading, and stormed 
 a citadel upon a hill 150 feet hiigh ; overcame a 
 garrison of several thousand men, killing 243; 
 captured 50 flags and 481 pieces of ordnance, be 
 sides many match-locks and, gingalls. Com 
 mander Kimberly, U.S.N., gave the marines 
 full honor as the advance-gcuard, and Lieut.- 
 Commander Casey reported that "their conduct 
 excited the admiration of all." 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 471 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 July 13, 1869, Lieut. Breese was ordered from 
 the marine barracks, Brooklyn, to report to Gen. 
 Barlow, U. S. Marshal, to aid in preventing a 
 violation of the neutrality laws. He proceeded 
 in the revenue-cutter " Mahoning" to Gardiner s 
 Island, at the east end of Long Island, where, on 
 the 16th, with a company of 50 marines, he sur 
 rounded a camp of Cuban filibusters and cap 
 tured 125 of them. The prisoners were sent on 
 board of the "Mahoning" and carried to New 
 York, where the expedition arrived next day. 
 
 The great fires in Boston. November 9, 1872, 
 and May 30, 1873, called them out again, and 
 enabled them to render very valuable service to 
 the city and United States authorities. Capt: 
 Collum, who commanded on each occasion, ob 
 tained for himself and men "most compliment 
 ary recognition." A month later, at Callao, 
 Peru, Capt. Pope received the thanks of the 
 Italian government for services rendered on the 
 occasion of a fire on a vessel belonging to that 
 nation. 
 
 The war-cloud which arose after the " Virgin- 
 ius" massacre caused a great fleet to gather at Key 
 West, in 1874, to menace Cuba, and the oppor 
 tunity was improved by landing 650 marines, 
 who were found in excellent condition for active 
 service. In 1877, the terrible and unprecedented 
 labor riots, which paralyzed business in nine 
 States, and led to wholesale arson and murder, 
 culminating in Pittsburgh, called all of the avail 
 able regular forces into the field. Marines were 
 taken from ships and barracks ; a battalion was 
 sent to Baltimore, another to Philadelphia and 
 Reading, and companies to garrison the U. S. 
 arsenals at Watervliet, Frankford, and Wash 
 ington, D. C., all coming under the command 
 of Maj.-Gen. W. S. Hancock (see "United 
 Service" magazine, Philadelphia, 1879). They 
 encamped in depots, patrolled streets, dispersed 
 angry mobs, arrested the destruction of prop 
 erty, escorted railroad trains into the interior 
 (riding on the locomotives), and guarded public 
 and private interests with such zeal, that Gen. 
 Hancock, in returning them to their stations, 
 wrote: "Citizens and soldiers are united in ad 
 miration of the soldierly bearing, excellent dis 
 cipline, and devotion to duty displayed by them," 
 and inclosed a report of an official inspection 
 made at Reading by the venerable Col. Cuyler, 
 of his staff, who said : " I do not recollect ever 
 having seen a more soldierly or a more orderly 
 set of men." The Secretary of the Navy re 
 viewed them in Washington before they were 
 dismissed, and in orders recognized the readiness 
 with which they responded to the summons of 
 the Department, and their proficiency in dis 
 cipline, and pronounced them "a most impor 
 tant arm of the national defense, confidently to 
 be relied upon whenever the public exigency 
 shall call them into active service." 
 
 Their latest conspicuous special service was in 
 France, where a picked company, sent out in the 
 honored old frigate " Constitution," was sta 
 tioned during the Universal Exposition of 1878, 
 under Lieuts. Russell and Zeilin. They had 
 charge of the American department, and the 
 Hon. R. C. McCormick, Commissioner-General 
 for the United States, reported to the Navy De 
 partment that " their excellent conduct, both on 
 and off duty, were spoken of in the most com 
 plimentary terms by the French authorities, by 
 
 the citizens of Paris, and the visitors to the Ex 
 position," and at the ceremonies attending the 
 distribution of prizes in October, their military 
 bearing elicited " a grand outburst of enthusi 
 asm, and they throughout reflected honor upon 
 our flag by their admirable performance of an 
 important duty in a foreign land." 
 
 This incomplete outline of the principal public 
 services of the marine corps for 105 years ex 
 hibits an infinite variety, and gives some idea of 
 the great utility and mobility of " web-footed 
 soldiers." These qualities have helped to secure 
 for them the highest commendations of the most 
 famous naval commanders of every age, and 
 when, in 1866, a proposition was made to abolish 
 the marine corps as such and transfer it to the 
 army, Congress was overwhelmed with the re 
 corded views of such old heroes as Hull, Deca- 
 tur, Bainbridge, Biddle, Parker, Perry, Morris, 
 Stockton, Shubrick, and Tattnall, and of later 
 days, Farragut, Porter, Rowan, Stringham, 
 Paulding, Dupont, Sands, Rodgers, Foote, Davis, 
 Worden, and Dahlgren, a mighty list, which 
 might be much further extended. As a result, 
 the House Committee on Naval Affairs, charged 
 with the resolution, not only reported adversely, 
 but went so far as to say : " From the beginning 
 this corps seems to have satisfactorily fulfilled 
 the purposes of its organization, and no good rea 
 son appears either for abolishing it or transferring 
 it to the army ; on the contrary, the committee 
 recommend that its organization as a separate 
 corps be preserved and strengthened, and that 
 its commandant shall have the rank of brigadier- 
 general."* March 2, 1867, that grade was estab 
 lished, and continued until 1874, when selfish 
 motives secured its abolition. 
 
 The marines, as an institution, certainly can 
 make no serious complaint of lack of appreciation. 
 Congress has nineteen times, by joint resolution, 
 tendered its thanks to them, or expressed its high 
 sense of their valor and good conduct, and the 
 greatest generals have added their tributes to 
 those of the naval commanders. Napoleon Bona 
 parte, when reviewing the marines of the " Beller- 
 ophon," exclaimed: "What might not be done 
 with a hundred thousand such men !" Winfield 
 Scott, in Mexico, said of our own, that he " put 
 them where the heaviest work was to be ac 
 complished, and had never found his confidence 
 misplaced ;" and Gen. Grant, on the quarter-deck 
 of the " Vandalia," while crossing the Mediter 
 ranean, remarked that they were "as fine sol 
 diers as he ever had seen." 
 
 Legislation affecting the marine corps has been 
 abundant, and generally liberal. So long ago as 
 January 8, 1780, Congress provided that "the 
 marines of the navy of the United States whilst 
 doing garrison duty be allowed the same subsist 
 ence moneys as the line of the army." At the 
 close of the Revolutionary war, the poverty of 
 the Confederation caused the battalions to be dis 
 banded, and in 1787 there is record of a "commis 
 sioner of marine accounts" settling up the busi 
 ness of "the late navy of the United States." 
 In 1794, the cupidity of Algerine corsairs com 
 pelled "the late navy" to be revived for the 
 protection of commerce, and the President was 
 
 * He was then a colonel commandant, with a colonel, 98 
 other officers, and about 3600 rank and file under his orders, 
 the equivalent of two strong brigades. 
 
MARINE COKPS 
 
 472 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 authorized to provide for ships of 44 guns " one 
 lieutenant, one sergeant, two corporals, one drum, 
 one fife and fifty marines," and for those of 36 
 guns the same less 10. In 1797, when the frig 
 ates "United States," 44, "Constitution," 44, 
 and " Constellation," 38, were ordered to be 
 "manned and employed," the guards were in 
 creased, viz. : "two lieutenants, three sergeants, 
 three corporals, one drum, one fife, and fifty 
 marines" each to those of 44 guns, and "one 
 lieutenant, two sergeants, two corporals, one 
 drum, one fife, and forty marines" to those of 
 36. This was to last " a year and thence to the 
 end of the then next session of Congress and no 
 longer;" but by that time the act of July 11, 
 1798, was passed providing, "in addition to the 
 present military establishment, a corps of ma 
 rines, which shall consist of [see table of strength 
 below], including t"he men who have already been 
 enlisted or authorized to be raised for the naval 
 armament." 
 
 The said corps was to be formed into as many 
 companies as the President might direct, to be in 
 lieu of the respective quotas which had been 
 already established for the frigates and other 
 armed vessels and galleys in the service. The 
 pay and subsistence of officers were fixed, the 
 highest rate being $50 per month and four ra 
 
 tions per day, and that of the enlisted men " con 
 formably to the act entitled an act providing a 
 naval armament." The President was author 
 ized to continue the enlistment of men to serve 
 for three years ; to appoint officers when vacan 
 cies occurred ; to detach and appoint such of the 
 officers as he might judge necessary to act on 
 board of the armed vessels ; to assign this corps, 
 or any part of it, to duty in the forts and garri 
 sons of the United States on the sea-coast, or to 
 any other duty on shore, and when so serving 
 the commandant was given power to appoint 
 an adjutant, paymaster, and quartermaster, and 
 non-commissioned staff-officers from the line, 
 who were to have extra pay and allowances. 
 All the members of the corps were to take the 
 same oaths and be governed by the same rules 
 and articles of war as may be prescribed for the 
 military establishment (see OATHS), and by the 
 rules and regulations for the navy according to 
 the nature of the service in which employed ; 
 and in case of wounds or disabilities, were to re 
 ceive the same allowances according to rank as 
 are granted to the military establishment. The 
 same act also exempted seamen and marines 
 during their term of service from all personal 
 arrest for debt or contract. The greater part of 
 the above still remains in force.* 
 
 Table of Strength from November 10, 1775, to October 1, 1880. 
 
 
 Brig.-Genl. 
 
 J 
 
 Colonel. 
 
 Lieut-Colonels. 
 
 S 
 
 Staff-Majors. 
 
 Staff-Captains. 
 
 Captains. 
 
 First Lieuts. 
 
 Second Lieuts. 
 
 Non.-Com. Staff. 
 
 Sergeants. 
 
 Corporals. 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 Drummers. 
 
 i 
 
 Privates. 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 Resolution, Nov. 10, 1775 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Act July 11 1798 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 720 
 
 881 
 
 Added March 2 1799f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 170 
 
 204 
 
 " April 22 1800 
 
 
 
 
 Iff 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 " March 3, 1809 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 
 594 
 
 784 
 
 " April 16 1814 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 ... 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 696 
 
 846 
 
 PEA March 3 1817J 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 .. 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Act June 30, 1834 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 1000 
 
 1287 
 
 Added, act March 2, 1847 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 1000 
 
 1112 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 105 
 
 105 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 2000 
 
 2399 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Act July 25, 1861 
 
 
 l 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 on 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 2500 
 
 3167 
 
 Authorized July 1, 1867|| 
 Oct.l, 1880tf 
 
 1** 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 15 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 240 
 190 
 
 260 
 180 
 
 lo 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 48 
 
 60 
 48 
 
 3000 
 1500 
 
 3747 
 2078 
 
 From time to time the corps has been increased 
 and reduced as war or peace or politics suggested 
 (see table), and has now by law the strength of 
 July 25, 1861, although annual appropriation 
 
 * Among the earlier acts passed by Congress relating to the 
 marine corps are: an act for the establishing and organ 
 izing of a marine corps, June 11, 1798; an act authorizing an 
 augmentation, March 2, 1799 ; to fix rank anrt pay of com 
 mandant (substituting lieutenant-colonel for major), April 22, 
 1800; an act authorizing an augmentation, March 3, 1809 ; an 
 act for same purpose, April 16, 1814; to fix the peace estab 
 lishment, March 3, 1817 ; resolution relating to compensation 
 of officers, May 29, 1830 ; an act concerning certain officers, 
 July 14, 1832 ; resolutions respecting the pay, May 25, 1832 ; an 
 act to improve the condition of the enlisted men of the army 
 
 has been made for one thousand privates less 
 since 1874. The President has power to substi 
 tute marines for landsmen (act March 3, 1849) ; 
 to provide regulations for their discipline; to 
 
 and marine corps and prevent desertion, March 2, 1833 : an act 
 for the better organization, June 30, 1834 ; and an act making 
 certain allowances to captains and subalterns, June 30, 1834. 
 
 t This act added 8 surgeons. 
 
 I Peace Establishment Act. 
 
 \ For the war with Mexico. 
 
 || By President, under act of March 3, 1849. 
 
 fl By appropriation act. 
 
 ** Substituted for colonel commandant March 2, 1867, and 
 reversed June 6, 1874. 
 
 ff Lieutenant-colonel commandant substituted for major. 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 473 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 make alterations in the component parts of the 
 ration ; to retire officers who may be disabled, 
 or have attained the age of 62 years ; to advance 
 officers not exceeding 30 numbers in rank for 
 " eminent and conspicuous conduct in battle or 
 extraordinary heroism" ; to advance officers one 
 
 frade who have received the thanks of Congress 
 y name; to confer brevet commissions as in like 
 cases in the army (act 1814) ; to fill vacancies in 
 the line first by promotion and then by appoint 
 ment ; in the latter case to be between 20 and 25 
 years (if from civil life), and subject to mental 
 and physical examination (act July 25, 1861). 
 
 Officers are on the same footing as to rank and 
 privileges as similar grades in the army ; take 
 precedence of like rank in the volunteers and 
 militia ; may be associated with officers of the 
 army on courts-martial, the senior to preside; 
 are promoted by seniority up to colonel ; cannot 
 exercise command over the navy-yards or vessels 
 of the United States (act June 30, 1834) ; and 
 no officer can absent himself without leave un 
 til notified of the acceptance of his resignation. 
 The staff is separate from the line, and appointed 
 by the President by selection from the officers of 
 the corps, as is the commandant. The judge- 
 advocate-general of the navy may be appointed 
 from the officers of the marine corps. (See 
 JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL.) Both officers and 
 men, when serving with the land forces, are en 
 titled to transportation, subsistence, camp equip 
 age, etc., on requisition ; are entitled to the 
 benefits of the homestead laws and of the gov 
 ernment hospital for the insane ; to pensions x for 
 wounds, injury, or disease; to artificial limbs or 
 commutation therefor in certain cases ; to credit 
 for previous service in the volunteer army or 
 navy ; to share in prize-money and the salvage 
 of recapture ; to indemnity for loss of effects 
 where vessel is sunk or destroyed (since April 
 19, 1861) ; and to pay and allowances of like 
 grades in the infantry of the army, which is 
 paid monthly by the paymaster of the corps 
 while serving ashore, less 20 cents deducted for 
 naval hospital fund. Officers receive mileage at 
 8 cents per mile, and the men 75 cents per diem 
 when traveling without rations. 
 
 Officers enter at the foot of the list of second 
 lieutenants, appointed, usually from civil life, 
 through political or personal influence, are in 
 structed at the headquarters of the corps in 
 Washington, and thence distributed to posts; 
 later they may attend the artillery and torpedo 
 schools. Being combatants, they are, in refer 
 ence to "line and staff," classed as line-officers, 
 except the five who constitute the marine staff 
 (adjutant, paymaster, quartermaster, arid two 
 assistant quartermasters) ; on shore, are subject to 
 detail for all military duties, and on board ship 
 either command the guard or serve as juniors 
 with the commander ; the senior is assigned the 
 fourth room from forward on the port side, and 
 the junior takes quarters according to his rank ; 
 when two or more are attached to same ship, one 
 is required to be on board at all times for duty. 
 By regulation the senior is required to report 
 daily, in writing, to the commanding officer of 
 the vessel the state of the guard ; to keep the 
 muster-rolls, and have charge and make returns 
 of the clothing, arms, and other property belong 
 ing to the marines ; to exercise them in the pre 
 scribed drills at such times and places as the 
 
 commanding officer of the vessel may appoint ; 
 to be attentive to their comfort and cleanliness, 
 as well as their soldier-like appearance and effi 
 ciency ; to inspect the extra clothing once a 
 month, and report its condition ; to report his 
 guard or division when mustered at quarters ; to 
 see that they are properly stationed and in 
 structed as sentinels, and to frequently visit them 
 at night. All general orders to sentinels must 
 pass through him, and any misbehavior on guard 
 or on duty as sentinels must be reported to him 
 by the officer-of-the-deck. When serving on shore 
 w"ith sailors in mixed detachments, the marines 
 are posted on the right without regard to the 
 rank of the officers commanding companies. The 
 senior marine officer of a squadron is known as 
 the fleet marine officer. He organizes and in 
 spects all the marines in the squadron, com 
 mands the guard of the flag-ship, and is usually 
 the judge-advocate of the station. (See JUDGK- 
 ADVOCATE.) A bill has been reported favorably 
 in Congress to give this officer while so serving 
 the rank and pay of major. Field-officers are 
 not sent to sea. All company officers are on the 
 sea-roster, which is kept by the commandant, 
 and they are expected to go in regular turn. 
 Three years constitutes a cruise and entitles to 
 shore duty. 
 
 Non-commissioned officers correspond in grade 
 to those of the army ; are selected from the pri 
 vates for character, bearing, and proficiency in 
 drill ; are examined in reading, writing, spell 
 ing, arithmetic, tactics, and duties, and when 
 recommended by a board of at least two officers 
 receive parchment warrants from the command 
 ant, and can only be reduced by his authority or 
 the sentence of a court-martial ; vacancies oc 
 curring at sea may be filled by the commanding 
 officer of the vessel upon the recommendation of 
 the marine officer, provided the candidate be re 
 ported qualified by a board of three officers ; if 
 reduced the warrant is returned, but if honorably 
 discharged it may be retained ; upon re-enlist 
 ing within thirty days their rank is continuous ; 
 they recite tactics from time to time, and being 
 borne on a general corps roster have many op 
 portunities for promotion. Pay for 50 first 
 sergeants is at present appropriated, some of 
 whom are in charge of small guards. Their 
 chevrons, or distinguishing marks of rank, are 
 the same as in the army, but are worn inverted ; 
 the colors are orange on a scarlet ground. 
 
 Enlistments are for a period of five years ; are 
 not to be made on foreign stations, nor are men 
 to be discharged except from a barracks ; enlisted 
 men receive same pay and bounty for re-enlist 
 ing as those of like grades in infantry ; persons 
 enlisted in the military service may, on applica 
 tion, be transferred by the President to the ma 
 rine corps ; the band receives $4 per month ex 
 tra pay, each man, for playing on the Capitol 
 grounds or the President s grounds ; and all 
 marines are entitled to one navy ration daily. 
 Formerly the ration was prescribed for each day 
 in the week, by law, with the liberal addition of 
 " a half-pint of distilled spirits or one quart of 
 beer daily." In old times marines were allowed 
 to the revenue cutters, and in the regulations for 
 the navy, enacted in 1798, are referred to as 
 " marine soldiers." Enlistments were then made 
 for one year, subject to extension or discharge by 
 the President. In the primary legislation great 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 474 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 stress was laid upon the importance of both 
 officers and men being " good seamen," or ac 
 quainted with maritime affairs. Now, while it 
 is desirable that they should know something of 
 the sea, it is not required and not advisable that 
 they should be " good seamen." That would go 
 far to neutralize their chief value as an ele 
 ment non-assimilating in the ship s complement. 
 Credit is given to both officers and men for pre 
 vious service in the volunteer army or navy, 
 and as re-enlistment in either the army or marine 
 corps within thirty days of honorable discharge 
 entitles to increased pay for continuous service, 
 men are frequently found in each who have 
 served one or more enlistments in the other. 
 
 Recruits must be at least 5 feet 6 inches high, 
 between 18 and 35 years of age, able to read and 
 write, of steady habits, unmarried, well made, 
 sound as to senses and limbs, and of good health. 
 They enter voluntarily,- undergo strict medical 
 examination by a naval surgeon, and are at 
 tached to barracks for instruction before being 
 sent to sea. The drill on shore embraces the 
 schools of the soldier, company, and battalion, 
 skirmishing, target-practice, the bayonet exer 
 cise, and all military duties and ceremonies. 
 Afloat, this continues so far as may be practi 
 cable, and to it are added the great gun or artil 
 lery drill, and by some officers instruction in 
 swimming, rowing, the signal code, and the 
 broadsword. Upton s Tactics and the Ordnance 
 Manual are employed, the former since 1867. 
 Reports of drills and instructions are required to 
 be made monthly ; the commandant inspects 
 each post (except Mare Island) annually, the ad 
 jutant does the same quarterly, and a captain, 
 who is a member of the permanent Inspection 
 Board, sees the guards of all ships sailing upon 
 or returning from a three years cruise. Boys 
 over 14 are enlisted as apprentices to learn music, 
 the drum and trumpet, and bandmen are en 
 listed and classed after examination at head 
 quarters, Washington, where the band is per 
 manently stationed. The regulations for the 
 recruiting service of the army apply to the ma 
 rine corps so far as practicable. 
 
 The arm in use at present is the Springfield 
 (U. S.) rifle, calibre .45, and the knapsack, 
 haversack, canteen, and rifle-sling are of the 
 infantry pattern. Belts are of English buff 
 leather worn white, and boxes black. Cloth 
 ing, rations, quarters, fuel, medicines, and medi 
 cal attendance are furnished by the government. 
 The former, now made by the quartermaster s 
 department in Philadelphia, is of excellent 
 quality, a-nd a careful soldier can save out of 
 his allowance of clothing from $75 to $100 in 
 five years, which is paid to him in cash on dis 
 charge. The ration is sufficient and substantial. 
 The uniform (revised in 1876) is varied and elab 
 orate. The full dress rather gaudy, but the rest 
 neat and in good taste ; caps and coats dark blue ; 
 trousers and overcoats sky-blue ; trimmings 
 for officers are scarlet and gold, for men scarlet 
 and orange; musicians wear scarlet coats with 
 white piping for full dress ; fur hats and Arctic 
 shoes are issued for winter, and white helmets 
 and linen trousers for summer and the tropics. 
 The cap device, formerly a bugle, has been since 
 1869 a metal hemisphere on an anchor and sur 
 mounted by an eagle. Blouses braided with black 
 inohair were adopted for officers in 1870. 
 
 The discipline is based upon the laws and regu 
 lations for the government of the navy, which 
 apply to them at all times, except when serving 
 with the army (act June 30, 1834). (See COURTS- 
 MARTIAL. ) The military spirit is sedulously cul- 
 tivated, and severe punishments seldom infl icted. 
 Whenever a man is transferred, his character 
 must accompany him, the words used being 
 "excellent," "good," or "bad," and no others. 
 This is entered upon his descriptive list, and on 
 his final discharge. " Bad" on a discharge pre 
 cludes re-enlistment. Intemperate and unrelia 
 ble men are specially discharged upon recommen 
 dation of their commanding officers, accompanied 
 by their records, as "unfit for the service." 
 Drunkenness and desertion are decreasing each 
 year. The sale of malt or spirituous liquors in 
 barracks is forbidden, and enlisted men are not 
 allowed to act as sutlers or sutler s agents, nor to 
 trade with each other. 
 
 A marine detachment serving within a navy- 
 yard is subject to the orders of the commandant 
 of the yard, but no part is to be relieved or 
 withdrawn except by order of the commandant 
 of the marine corps, approved by the Secretary 
 of the Navy. Officers joining such a detach 
 ment report first to the commandant of the 
 yard, then to the officer commanding detach 
 ment. The latter is charged with the police, 
 internal government, and instruction of the 
 marines; causes guards and sentinels to be 
 posted wherever required by the commandant 
 of the yard, and makes a daily report to him 
 of the number and disposition of the force under 
 his command. He issues every morning, in writ 
 ing and under seal, the countersign for the en 
 suing night ; grants the customary liberty to the 
 enlisted men ; requires the daily rations and meals 
 to be inspected and made to comply with the 
 contract ; reports misconduct on the part of 
 the guards or sentinels to the commandant of 
 the yard ; enlists recruits, and forwards staff 
 returns of men transferred ; sees that the exer 
 cises and formations at parades, reviews, inspec 
 tions, funerals, etc., and the camp and garrison 
 duties, and the salutes, are the same as the army ; 
 requires a daily drill of one hour, and that officers 
 and men in garrison wear the prescribed uniform. 
 
 Details of enlisted men for sea-service are made 
 from rosters kept at each post, so that they may 
 go in turn, unless they volunteer. Three years 
 is the tour, at the expiration of which time they 
 are relieved. Unless a ship is unpopular, there 
 is generally a surplus of volunteers. Indifferent 
 or unworthy men are not permitted to go. Guards 
 for ships are made up at the nearest barracks, 
 and march on board when the ship goes into 
 commission fully organized, accompanied by 
 their officers and ready for duty. They salute 
 the flag when it is hoisted, salute it when it is 
 hauled down at the end of the cruise, and are 
 the last to leave the ship. They are entered sep 
 arately on the books ; are upon* the same footing 
 as seamen with regard to provisions ; are furnished 
 with certain articles of clothing and small stores 
 by the paymaster when their commanding officer 
 certifies that they require them ; when not on 
 guard or on duty as sentinels, are subject to the 
 orders of the sea-officers in the same manner as 
 the crew ; are not to be diverted from their ap 
 propriate duties, nor called upon to coal ship or 
 work as mechanics, except in cases of emergency ; 
 
MAKINE CORPS 
 
 475 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 are not to perform duty abov^ the rail, unless to 
 act as sharpshooters in the tops ; may be assigned 
 as parts of gun s crews in divisions other than 
 their own ; when sentinels, must receive orders 
 through the sergeant or corporal of guard. 
 
 Their particular duties on board ship are, as 
 sentinels to watch over the magazines, store 
 rooms, gangways, galleys, boats alongside, ap 
 proaching, or passing, and all lights and fires 
 required for the use of the ship, and to give 
 the alarm in case of fire ; to preserve order, and 
 allow no swearing, gambling, or immoral prac 
 tices ; to prevent injury or theft of public or pri 
 vate property, or interruption of the cooking 
 duties ; to allow no smoking or washing except 
 at the prescribed hours ; to allow no enlisted 
 man or boat to leave the ship without the au 
 thority of the omcer-of-the-deck ; to guard the 
 ordinary prisoners and the prisoners of war, who 
 sometimes outnumber the crew ; and at all times 
 to sustain discipline by their organization, distinc 
 tive character, and peculiar training. In port 
 they constitute the deck guard, to render honors 
 or assistance, and at sea they are (at least a large 
 portion of them) always near their arms, to pre 
 vent surprise from without and check insubordi 
 nation from within. In action, they man and 
 fight a division of the spar-deck battery, fill 
 vacancies at other guns, scour the enemy s 
 decks from the tops, the poop, or forecastle with 
 their rifles, cover the boarding-parties with their 
 fire, and repel boarders with fixed bayonets. 
 
 Should the enemy gain a foothold, they rally 
 at the mainmast, so as to command the deck. 
 In case of fire they guard the boat s falls and 
 officers quarters, prevent panic or pillage, com 
 pel compliance with the orders of the officers, 
 and allow no one to throw overboard any prop 
 erty or fittings, or abandon the ship, until duly 
 authorized. 
 
 In the landing-parties and boat expeditions 
 they go thoroughly equipped, and are distrib 
 uted among the several boats. In mixed opera 
 tions on shore, such as the surprise of a camp or 
 post, or the escalade of a fort, picked men are 
 sent with the pioneers, and the rest form the 
 supporting column, and in case of failure, cover 
 the retreat and embarkation of the sailors. The 
 venerable Senior Flag-Officer Stewart said of sail 
 ors : " They are a class whose onset and first 
 eiforts are tremendous and formidable, but if 
 resisted and discomfited they break into groups, 
 become a mere mob, and without a body of reg 
 ular troops to sustain them must fall a sacrifice." 
 A frequent duty abroad is to guard the American 
 legations and consulates, and the interests of 
 American citizens in times of revolution or 
 public disorder, and to protect surveying and 
 astronomical parties. 
 
 The present allowance of marines to ships 
 varies with their class or rate. The old rule was 
 a marine to each gun ; but guns were then 
 smaller and much more numerous. This table is 
 generally used : 
 
 Vessel. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 Displacement. 
 
 Captain. 
 
 Lieutenant. 
 
 d 
 
 Corporals. 
 
 .0 
 
 Privates. 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 
 1st 
 
 30 
 
 4700 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 51 
 
 
 2d 
 
 14 
 
 3980 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3250 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 Alaska " . 
 
 H 
 
 12 
 
 2400 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 Yaudalia " 
 
 K 
 
 9 
 
 2200 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 
 3d 
 
 8 
 
 1900 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 Alliance " 
 
 
 6 
 
 1375 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 
 4th 
 
 3 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flag-ships are allowed 5 privates additional. 
 
 The following is a list of the commandants 
 from the beginning, with their rank and date of 
 commission or appointment : 
 
 Samuel Nichols, major, June 25, 1776. 
 
 William W. Burrows, lieutenant-colonel, May 1, 1800. 
 
 Franklin Wharton, lieutenant-colonel, March 7, 1804. 
 
 Anthony Gale, lieutenant-colonel, March 3, 1819. 
 
 Archibald Henderson, lieutenant-colonel, October 17, 1820; 
 colonel, July 1, 1834; brevet brigadier-general, January 27, 
 1837. 
 
 John Harris, colonel, January 7, 1859. 
 
 Jacob Zeilin. colonel, June 10, 1864; brigadier-general, March 
 2, 18G7. 
 
 Chas. G. McCawley, colonel, November 1, 1876. 
 
 Gen. Henderson died January 6, 1859, having 
 served his country 53 years, of which 39 were in 
 command of the corps. Col. Harris died May 
 12, 1864, having served 50 years, and 5 in com 
 mand. G-en. Zeilin was on the active list 45 
 vears, 12 years in command, and is living at this 
 date (October 1, 1880) in Washington. Henry 
 C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Marine Corps of the Confederate States. 
 Before the attack on Fort Sumter, the Confeder 
 
 ate States began the organization of a marine 
 corps, the first appointment bearing date March 
 25, 1861. Mr. Mallory, the Secretary of the 
 Navy, cordially welcomed all seceders from the 
 United States service, and generally gave them 
 precedence over other appointees. The organiza 
 tion was that of an infantry regiment of 10 
 companies, numbering 1000 men, with a colonel 
 commandant and three staff-officers with the 
 rank of major. Its headquarters were in Rich 
 mond, and Major Lloyd J. Beall,who had been 
 a paymaster in the U. S. army, and was an old 
 friend and classmate at West Point of Mr. Jef 
 ferson Davis, the President of the Confederate 
 States, was appointed commandant. 
 
 The principal command four companies, un 
 der Capt. John D. Simms : was stationed during 
 the war, when not engaged in expeditions, at 
 Drury s Bluff, on James River, as a permanent 
 garrison. "When it was believed in Richmond 
 that the Federal ironclads intended to force an 
 entrance into Charleston harbor, Capt. Simms 
 
MARINE CORPS 
 
 476 
 
 MARINE CORPS 
 
 was sent with 200 men to that point, where they 
 were provided with liquid fire in bottles and then 
 distributed among the different blockade-runners 
 in port, with orders to board the ironclads upon 
 their approach and pour the combustible into 
 any apertures which might be accessible. The 
 marines remained at Charleston about a month, 
 and then returned to Drury s Bluff, which they 
 held until Richmond was abandoned, and later 
 were captured as a part of E well s corps, after a 
 three hours fight at Sailor s Creek, and sent to 
 the prison camp at Johnson s Island. 
 
 Other companies served at the naval depots in 
 Richmond, Savannah, and Mobile, at Pensacola 
 and Norfolk until those places were captured, and 
 at Fort Fisher. Capt. R. T. Thorn commanded 
 the marines of the " Merrimac" in the great 
 fight with the fleet at Hampton Roads, and Lieut. 
 B. K. Howell, a brother-in-law of the Confed 
 erate President, was on the privateer "Alabama" 
 until she was destroyed. The marines of Tatt- 
 nall s fleet, at the battle of Port Royal, were 
 commanded by Capt. Geo. Holmes and Lieut. 
 Raney, and the guard of the naval depot at 
 Mobile by Capt. Meiere. Other officers were as 
 signed to vessels in the river and harbor flotillas, 
 and some were on duty with the armies. Capt. 
 Tattnall was for a time colonel of an Alabama 
 regiment, and Capt. Hays a lieutenant-colonel 
 on the staff of Gen. Bragg. Lieut. Sayre was 
 also with the army. Capts. Jacob Read and Geo. 
 P. Turner were dismissed. Major Allison had 
 been a purser in the U. S. navy. Henry C. 
 Cochrane, Captain V.S M.C. 
 
 Marine Corps, Foreign. Until the year 1664 
 the British navy was manned by means of the sys 
 tem of impress, or by enlisting landsmen ; but the 
 commerce of England at that period was so lim 
 ited that these measures were found inadequate to 
 procure sufficient seamen for the public service, 
 and this difficulty suggested the formation of 
 marines. The men were raised with the object of 
 forming a nursery to man the fleet, and being 
 quartered in or near the principal seaports, their 
 great utility in the equipment of squadrons soon 
 made it desirable to augment their strength. The 
 first order in council which has reference to this 
 subject is dated the 16th of October, 1664, author 
 izing 1200 soldiers to be raised and formed into 
 one regiment. From 1776 to 1784 the average 
 strength of the royal marines amounted to 18,790 
 officers and men. In 1844 the total strength 
 amounted to 10,469. The aggregate strength 
 at the present time is 15,000 non-commissioned 
 officers, musicians, and privates, and the follow 
 ing officers : 
 
 ARTILLERY General Officers. I general, 1 
 lieutenant-general, and 2 major-generals. 
 
 LIGHT INFANTRY General Officers. 2 gen 
 erals, 2 lieutenant-generals, and 5 major-generals. 
 
 General Staff. 1 deputy adjutant-general, 
 with rank of major-general, 1 quartermaster. 
 
 ARTILLERY 16 Companies. 1 colonel com 
 mandant, 1 colonel, 3 lieutenant-colonels, 40 
 captains, 47 lieutenants. 
 
 Staff. 1 staff-captain, 3 instructors of gunnery, 
 1 instructor of musketry, 1 adjutant, 1 military 
 instructor, 4 quartermasters, 1 barrack-master, 
 1 paymaster, 1 staff-surgeon, 2 surgeons. 
 
 LIGHT INFANTRY 48 Companies. 3 colonels 
 commandant, 5 colonels, 12 lieutenant-colonels, 
 111 captains, 146 lieutenants. 
 
 Staff. 3 instructors of gunnery, 4 instructors 
 of musketry, 7 adjutants", 7 quartermasters, 4 
 paymasters, 4 barrack-masters, 1 deputy inspec 
 tor-general of hospitals, 1 staff-surgeon, 6 sur 
 geons. 
 
 The military education of the officers of the 
 Royal Marine Artillery is thorough. The cadets 
 are obliged to undergo a course of study for two 
 years, during which they are expected to acquire 
 a competent knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, 
 geometry, plane trigonometry, the use of the 
 sextant, fortifications, a practical course in naval 
 gunnery, English history, and French. If, on 
 obtaining his commission, the young officer is 
 selected to qualify for the artillery, he must be 
 prepared at tn*e end of the year to pass an ex 
 amination in analytical trigonometry, differential 
 and integral calculus, conic sections, static.-; and 
 dynamics, hydrostatics and steam. The men are 
 volunteers from the light infantry divisions. 
 The course of training is very comprehensive ; 
 it includes the usual infantry drills and musketry 
 instructions, field guns and rockets, field-battery 
 movements, the service of heavy ordnance ; a 
 laboratory, including use and preparation of 
 tubes, rockets, and fuses, making up cartridges, 
 the manufacture of port-fires, signal-lights, and 
 rockets, and all matters connected with the 
 theory of projectiles as may have a practical 
 application. 
 
 The marines of Germany were selected, when 
 organized, from the elite of the army, and that 
 corps ranks next to the English marines in dis 
 cipline and efficiency. Spain and Italy have, 
 also, a large and well-disciplined force of ma 
 rines. The organization of the French marines 
 is considered the most important and efficient of 
 the military forces. The duties of this corps are 
 entirely confined, however, to the protection of 
 dock-yards and arsenals, and to the occupation 
 of forts on the sea-coast. Turkey, although oc 
 cupying an unimportant position among the 
 great naval powers, has organized a corps of 
 marines which compares favorably with those of 
 other countries. 
 
 It is a fact not generally known that a corps 
 of marines existed in the Roman army, but it is, 
 nevertheless, a fact ; and also that a marine co 
 hort was stationed in England. In Bruce s 
 u History of the Roman "Wall," which divided 
 England from Scotland, the author states that, 
 u In ascertaining the number and the names 
 of the stations, a most valuable document has 
 come down to our times from the period of 
 the Roman occupation. The Notitia Imperil 
 was, probably, written about the end of the 
 reign of Theodosius the Younger, and was cer 
 tainly composed before the Romans abandoned 
 this island. It is a sort of list of the several 
 military and civil officers and magistrates, both 
 in the Eastern and Western Empires, and the 
 places where they were stationed. It may, in 
 fact, be regarded as the Army List of the Roman 
 Empire." The portion of the section containing 
 the information we quote is headed, Item, per 
 Lineam Valli, "Along the line of wall," and 
 after detailing 17 cohorts or wings of cohorts, 
 with their stations, arrives at " The Tribune of 
 the First Marine Cohort, styled ^Elia, at Tunno- 
 celum." Thus there was a first, and therefore a 
 second, and possibly many other marine cohorts, 
 in the Roman army. 
 
MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE 477 MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE 
 
 Marine Hospital Service of the United 
 States. This service dates its establishment from 
 July 16, 1798, at which time an act for the relief 
 of disabled and sick seamen was passed by Con 
 gress, after the subject had been before that body 
 for several years. Hospital money had been col 
 lected in the colonies for nearly sixty years pre 
 vious to the establishment of the service, so that 
 Congress was undoubtedly familiar with the sys 
 tem. The first hospital exclusively for seamen 
 was the magnificent naval hospital at Greenwich, 
 England, commenced by Charles II., and or 
 dered by Queen Mary to be completed " as a re 
 treat for seamen disabled in the service of their 
 country." The Royal Hospital for Seamen at 
 Greenwich was built by order of King William 
 soon after Queen Mary s death. By an act of 
 Parliament passed in the second year of George 
 the Third s reign, the seamen of the American 
 colonies were obliged to contribute to the support 
 of this hospital, and sixpence per month was the 
 tax deducted from the wages of all seamen, Eng 
 lish subjects, sailing to and from American ports. 
 The Archives of Pennsylvania (vol. i. p. 251) 
 show that four receivers, Richard Fitzwilliam 
 and John Moore, Philadelphia, Alexander Keith, 
 Newcastle, and Henry Brooke, Lewes, were ap 
 pointed in 1729 for the province of Philadelphia. 
 This example of the utility of marine hospitals 
 had a marked effect upon the colonies, and as 
 early as 1780 the Commonwealth of Virginia 
 taxed all seamen and marines in the State the 
 sum of ninepence per month as hospital money, 
 and the naval officers were authorized to collect 
 it, being allowed five per cent, commission on all 
 moneys collected. In October, 1782, the tax was 
 increased from ninepence to one shilling per 
 month. December 20, 1787, Virginia passed a 
 law establishing a marine hospital, and author 
 ized the governor to appoint a commission to se 
 lect a site in the town of Washington, Norfolk 
 County, Va. In 1789 North Carolina enacted a 
 law creating a hospital fund, and in 1790 the 
 commissioners of the poor at the various ports 
 of entry were appointed the collectors for this 
 fund. The tax (per capita) was graded as fol 
 lows : captains 5s., mates 2s. 6c., and each 
 member of the crew Is. &d. A bill was pre 
 sented to Congress on August 28, 1789, providing 
 for the adoption of harbor regulations and the 
 establishment of hospitals. The records of the 
 Boston Marine Society show that they are en 
 titled to the credit of presenting the first memo 
 rial to Congress on this subject, their petition 
 praying for the establishment in the United 
 States of three marine hospitals having been 
 presented in the House January 27, 1791, but it 
 was not until 1794 that any action was taken in 
 regard to this or other petitions which had been 
 presented to Congress, and the bill passed then 
 was one providing for the aid of our seamen in 
 foreign countries, and two resident agents, one 
 for Great Britain and one for the West Indies, 
 were appointed. In February, 1797, the com 
 mittee appointed to inquire into the operation of 
 the act for the protection and relief of American 
 seamen, recommended the passage of resolutions 
 fixing a tax on the wages of every seaman sail 
 ing from any United States port, and to the es 
 tablishment of hospitals for the relief of disabled 
 and sick seamen, but it did not become a law 
 until the following July. The tax fixed by this 
 
 law was 20 cents per month from the pay of 
 all seamen. On March 2, 1799, an additional 
 act passed Congress authorizing all moneys col 
 lected within any one State to be expended in 
 such State ; this, however, did not apply to the 
 States of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Con 
 necticut, and Massachusetts, as they mutually 
 supported the Charlestown, Mass., hospital. This 
 act also taxed the officers, seamen, and marines 
 of the navy, and entitled them to the benefits of 
 the hospital fund. 
 
 The report of the Secretary of the Treasury 
 on the condition of the service, dated February, 
 1802, shows that hospitals had been established 
 at Boston, Newport, Norfolk, and Charleston, 
 solely supported by funds raised under the au 
 thority of the United States ; that the Baltimore 
 hospital was under the control of the Board of 
 Health, although supported by the United States ; 
 that the sick seamen of New York and Philadel 
 phia were received in the city hospital, a fixed 
 rate per week being paid for their care and 
 treatment out of the marine hospital fund ; 
 and that at Portland, New London, Wilming 
 ton, N. C., Newbern, Edenton, and Alexandria, 
 they were afforded temporary relief in private 
 boarding-houses ; that the total amount received 
 from seamen, in public and private service, was 
 $147,875.58, |6185.33 of which had been applied 
 to the purchase of the Gosport hospital ; $74,636.51 
 was the total cost for the relief and treatment of 
 sick seamen, and $6707.87 was returned to agents 
 who had expended more than they had collected, 
 $73,761.61 remaining unexpended. In May, 
 1802, an act was passed, amending the act of 
 1797, by which the sum of $15,000 was appro 
 priated for the erection of the Boston hospital ; 
 the moneys collected on account of the hospital 
 tax were constituted a general fund ; and the 
 directors of the marine hospitals were to be held 
 accountable for the moneys received, and also be 
 allowed one per cent, commission on all moneys 
 disbursed. 
 
 In 1803 the marine hospital at Charlestown, 
 Mass., was built; the same year one was per 
 manently established at New Orleans, and in 
 1804 the necessary equipments were furnished to 
 this hospital. The Secretary s report of 1806 
 shows that contract physicians were employed at 
 Newport, New London, and Baltimore, the only 
 marine hospitals in operation at this time being 
 at Boston and Norfolk ; and that sick and disabled 
 seamen were treated in the almshouses at Ports 
 mouth, N. H., Portland, Me., Newport, R. I., 
 and Alexandria, Va., and that at New York, 
 Philadelphia, and New Orleans the local hospitals 
 furnished the necessary relief. The amount of 
 $55,649.29 was reported by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, February, 1811, as having been paid 
 in, on account of the hospital fund. February 26, 
 1811, the law creating the naval hospital estab 
 lishment and separating the naval fund, was 
 passed. The following table shows the number 
 of American seamen who received treatment and 
 relief in the marine hospitals from 1796 to 1812: 
 
 1805 10,722 
 
 1806 9,900 
 
 1807 7,937 
 
 1808 1,121 
 
 1809 9,170 
 
 1796.. 
 1797.. 
 1798.. 
 1799.. 
 1800.. 
 1801.. 
 1802 . 
 1803.. 
 1804.. 
 
 ... 4,849 
 9,021 
 
 ... 7,031 
 
 ... 6,514 
 
 3,390 
 
 ... 6,917 
 
 891 
 
 ,. 10.724 
 
 1810. 
 1811. 
 1812. 
 
 3,668 
 4/28 
 3,252 
 
MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE 
 
 478 
 
 MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE 
 
 In February, 1818, the hospital at Boston was 
 partially destroyed by fire, and the new Boston 
 marine hospital was not finally located until 
 1827, at Chelsea; in 1836 this and the hospi 
 tals at Norfolk and Charleston, S. C., were the 
 only marine hospitals, and the last was not man 
 aged by the government, but under contract with 
 the city authorities. On March 3, 1837, an act 
 was passed appropriating $70,000 for the erection 
 of the New Orleans marine hospital, $15,000 for 
 three sites on the Mississippi and one on Lake 
 Erie, and $10,000 for the erection of the Mobile 
 hospital, and the sum of $150,000 was appro 
 priated for the relief of seamen, and at the 
 same time the tax of 20 cents per month on the 
 wages of each seaman was suspended for one 
 year; it was, however, a long time after the 
 passage of this act to the date of the establish 
 ment of the marine hospitals along the Mississippi 
 River and the Lakes, as the circumlocutory man 
 ner followed by the government caused innumer 
 able delays ; for example, the act authorizing the 
 establishment of a hospital at Ocracoke, N. C., 
 was approved August, 1842 ; the site was selected 
 January, 1843 ; purchase sanctioned by the Secre 
 tary of the Treasury, April, 1844 ; title examined 
 and made good by Attorney-General, May, 1844 ; 
 the Department advised of the transfer by the 
 State to the United States, January, 1845; pro 
 posals for building received in March, 1845; 
 papers referred to the collector of customs at 
 Ocracoke, May, 1845, and it was reported to the 
 House that the building would cost $5497, and 
 be finished in September, 1845, three years being 
 required to select the site, purchase the ground, 
 and erect a building which could have been com 
 pleted with all its details in six months. The act 
 passed March 1, 1843, extended the provisions and 
 penalties of the service to the owners, masters, and 
 seamen of registered vessels employed in the coast 
 trade. The report of Drs. Edwards and Loring, 
 who were appointed a board to inspect the hos 
 pitals then in operation and in process of con 
 struction, states that the condition, arrangement 
 internally, and expense of the hospitals in oper 
 ation vary with their number and location, and 
 recommends that the hospital grounds and build 
 ing at Chelsea be sold, a part of the naval tract 
 purchased, and a new building be built thereon ; 
 that the hospital at Ocracoke be discontinued, 
 and one at Wilmington be established, as the 
 necessity for a hospital at this place was very 
 urgent. The report also mentioned very favor 
 ably the hospital at Louisville, nearly completed, 
 also the one at Pittsburgh ; it favored a tonnage 
 duty on all vessels, including fishing-vessels, and 
 also recommended hospitals- at Detroit, Buffalo, 
 Cincinnati, and one or more ports in Maine ; and 
 also proposed to place jthe hospitals under the 
 control of a " chief surgeon," who shall have his 
 bureau attached to the Treasury Department. 
 No action having been taken by Congress to 
 secure proper uniformity in the marine hospi 
 tals, it is not surprising that the Secretary be 
 came disgusted, and reported, as he did , June 
 30, 1852, adversely to the erection of more marine 
 hospitals. Secretary Cobb desired the abolition 
 of the entire system, his report of June 30, 1858, 
 showing astonishing discrepancies between the 
 necessities of the case and the amount appro 
 priated : "At Natchez, Miss., the hospital cost 
 $53,250, and no return of patients admitted 
 
 during the year had been received ; at Portland, 
 Me., the building constructed had cost $100,000, 
 and only Gl patients had been relieved during 
 the year, at an average cost of $3 per week ; at 
 Pensacola, 17 patients, at an average cost of 
 $3.50 per week, had been medically treated." 
 
 In 1861 there were United States marine hos 
 pitals at Mobile, Ala. ; Louisville, Ivy. ; Key 
 West, Fla. ; Galena, 111. ; Evansville, Ind. ; 
 Detroit, Mich. ; Cleveland, O. ; Chicago, 111. ; 
 Charleston, S. C. ; Cincinnati, O. ; Burlington, 
 Vt. ; Chelsea, Mass. ; Natchez, Miss. ; Napoleon, 
 Ark.; Norfolk, Va. ; Burlington, Iowa; Wil 
 mington, N. C. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; St. Marks, 
 Fla. ; St. Louis, Mo. ; Portland, Me. ; Pitts 
 burgh, Pa. ; Paducah, Ky., and Ocracoke, N. C. 
 In March, 1862, Congress appropriated $200,000 
 for the marine hospital fund, and authorized the 
 Secretary of the Treasury to sell the hospital at 
 Burlington, Iowa, to use it for sick and wounded 
 soldiers, or to close it, whichever he should deem 
 the best for the interests of the government. 
 During the war, owing to the sale or transfer of 
 many American vessels abroad, the receipts from 
 the marine hospital tax were lessened to a con 
 siderable extent ; and to obviate this difficulty 
 Congress enacted (April 29, 1864) that all hos 
 pital money that had become due should be col 
 lected by the agent or consul at the time of the 
 transfer or sale of the vessel, and if not paid by 
 the owner or master of the vessel, the transfer or 
 sale was declared void. The hospitals at Charles 
 ton, S. C., Cincinnati, Ohio, and Burlington, 
 Vt., were sold in 1866, and in 1867 the hospitals 
 at Evansville, Ind., and Burlington, Iowa, and 
 the hospital grounds at Paducah, Ky. (the build 
 ing having been destroyed during the war), were 
 sold, and the marine hospital at St. Marks, Fla., 
 was transferred to the War Department. In 
 
 1868, the hospital at San Francisco was partially 
 destroyed by an earthquake, and the one at Na 
 poleon, Ark., was swept away by the river. In 
 
 1869, Dr. W. D. Stewart was appointed inspector 
 of marine hospitals for the Treasury Depart 
 ment; he was succeeded by Dr. Billings, of the 
 army. January, 1870, a bill reorganizing the 
 service was submitted to the House by Secretary 
 Boutwell. It provided for a s\ r stematic national 
 service, and the regulations adopted in accord 
 ance with it provided for the examination of 
 medical officers. Section 1 of the act of June 29, 
 
 1870, increased the hospital dues to 40 cents per 
 month, and section 6 authorized the Secretary 
 of the Treasury to appoint a surgeon to act as 
 supervising surgeon of the Marine Hospital Ser 
 vice, which title was changed by the act of March 
 3, 1875, to supervising surgeon-general, and the 
 office was made a Presidential appointment. Dr. 
 John M. Wood worth, of Illinois, a distinguished 
 surgeon during the war, was appointed supervis 
 ing surgeon, March 23, 1871, and he was also the 
 first supervising surgeon-general. In June, 1872, 
 the contract system was abolished by act of Con 
 gress. 
 
 Since the reorganization of the service the 
 annual reports show that all useless hospitals 
 have been abandoned, the hospitals at San Fran 
 cisco and Chicago have been completed, a system 
 of dispensary relief inaugurated, and all medi 
 cines are purchased in bulk by the medical pur 
 veyor, who distributes them to the various hos 
 pitals. During the year ending June 30, 1873, 
 
MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE 479 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE 
 
 13,529 sick and disabled seamen were furnished 
 medical and surgical relief; 12,697 seamen were 
 maintained in the hospitals, and 832 others, not 
 requiring hospital treatment, were relieved by 
 furnishing them with medicines and appliances 
 without admission. The following is the result 
 obtained in the treatment of the 12,697 hospital 
 patients : 
 
 Discharged cured o 8,927 
 
 " improved 1,975 
 
 " not improved 161 
 
 Deserted while under treatment 108 
 
 Died 646 
 
 Remaining under treatment, June 30, 1873 880 
 
 Total. 
 
 ..12,697 
 
 The average daily number of hospital patients 
 throughout the year was 1151. The total cost of 
 the service for the year, including everything, 
 administration of the service, maintenance, care, 
 and treatment of patients, and the medicines fur 
 nished them, expenses attending the burial of 
 those who died, and the entire outfit of the new 
 marine hospital at Chicago, was $422,502.98 ; 
 the average cost of maintaining and treating 
 each patient being $1.002 per day. The amount 
 collected from seamen during the year was 
 $335,845.95, an increase of $12,145 over the 
 amount collected in 1872, and an increase of 
 $47,700.53 over the amount collected in 1871. 
 
 Of the 31 hospitals built by the government 
 since the organization of the service, there re 
 mained in use in 1873 ten, situated as follows: 
 Chelsea, Mass. ; Chicago, 111. ; Cleveland, Ohio ; 
 Detroit, Mich. ; Louisville, Ky. ; Mobile, Ala. ; 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Portland, Me. ; St. Louis, Mo., 
 and Key West, Fla. Of the remaining 21, four 
 teen had been sold, one transferred to the War 
 Department, one abandoned, one burned, one de 
 stroyed by a flood, and one by a hurricane ; one 
 was injured by an earthquake and abandoned, 
 and one remained unfinished, its completion 
 being impracticable. There were also 81 ports 
 where hospital relief was furnished to sick and 
 disabled seamen in private or municipal hospitals 
 at rates authorized by the Treasury Department. 
 
 During the year ending June 30, 1875, the 
 seventy-seventh year of the operations of the 
 service, and the fourth year of its reorganiza 
 tion on its present basis, its relief operations em 
 braced 94 sea and inland ports of the United 
 States, at which were relieved 15,009 sick and 
 disabled seamen ; 12,939 of these were treated in 
 hospitals, and 2070 were relieved at the offices 
 of the surgeons. The amount of hospital tax 
 collected in 132 customs districts during the 
 year amounted to $338,893.78, and the net ex 
 penditures out of the appropriation were $404,- 
 390.60. The legislation of the Forty-second Con 
 gress, in relation to the Marine Hospital Service, 
 provided (1 and 2) for the collections of dues and 
 the seamen s time-book; (3) definition of the 
 term seaman ; (4) lease of hospital buildings 
 and grounds; (5) provision for insane seamen; 
 (6) rate of charge for care of foreign seamen and 
 of seamen belonging to the engineer corps of the 
 army, the navy, the coast survey, and light-house 
 service, and it is a noticeable fact that each of 
 the above services has taken advantage of this 
 provision, which is intended for their conve 
 nience and accommodation. From the estab 
 lishment of the service in 1798 until 1873 ap 
 pointments of medical officers were made without 
 
 any preliminary examination. Since 1873 no ap 
 pointments have been made except of such per 
 sons as have passed a good practical examination 
 of professional qualifications. The new pavilion 
 hospital at Mountain Lake, near San Francisco, 
 which was commenced in June, 1874, was occu 
 pied in June, 1875, though not entirely finished. 
 The aggregate cost of the hospital was $73,884.06. 
 For the years 1876-77 the results attained were 
 particularly gratifying, as within the fiscal year 
 ended June 30, 1877, the collections of the hos 
 pital-dues amounted to $372,465.70, while the 
 expenditures amounted to $368,395.28, show 
 ing a surplus of receipts over expenditures of 
 $4070.42. During this yea.r 15,175 seamen (10,975 
 in hospitals and 4200 office patients) were relieved 
 by the service, the average cost, $24.22 for 
 each patient, being the lowest ever reached. 
 March 14, 1879, Dr. Woodworth, the first 
 supervising surgeon-general, having died, the 
 present incumbent, Dr. John B. Hamilton, at 
 that time a surgeon, was promoted to fill the 
 vacancy. The officers of this service are of five 
 grades, viz., supervising surgeon-general, med 
 ical purveyor, surgeons, passed assistant sur 
 geons, and assistant surgeons. These are des 
 ignated medical officers. At ports where the 
 service is not large enough to warrant the as 
 signment of a regular officer a resident physician 
 is appointed as acting assistant surgeon. During 
 the fiscal year ended June 30, 1879, 20,922 sea~- 
 men (11, 499hospital and 9423 dispensary patients) 
 were furnished relief by the service. The receipts 
 were $361,409.58, and the expenditures $375,- 
 164,01, and the per capita cost was reduced from 
 $24.22 in 1877, and $20.04 in 1878, to $17.93 for 
 1879. The steadily increasing number of patients 
 treated by this service is abundant proof of its 
 able management and the high esteem with 
 which it is regarded by all of our sea-faring 
 population, and it is also gratifying to add that 
 it is meeting with the attention at the hands of 
 Congress and commercial interests throughout 
 the country that its object, character, and grow 
 ing importance demand. The annual report for 
 the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, shows that 
 while the 11,356 patients treated in 1869 cost 
 $406,089, the 24, 860, sick seamen relieved this 
 year cost only $402,185, and the per capita cost 
 has been still further reduced from $17.93 in 
 1879 to $16.18 in 1880. These gratifying re 
 sults are attributed chiefly to the fact that the 
 appointment of the medical officers of the service, 
 upon whose professional skill, fitness, and faith 
 fulness its character and conduct of course largely 
 depend, have been removed from the influence 
 of politics. The service is also now giving 
 special attention to the physical examination 
 of seamen. The medical officers of the service 
 now examine without fee the crews of all vessels 
 whose owners request it, and the adoption of this 
 method of examination by all vessel-owners and 
 masters will naturally result in the crews of 
 American vessels attaining a high rate of physi 
 cal ability. 
 
 Marine Insurance is a contract whereby one 
 party, for a consideration or premium, which is 
 usually paid in money, either in one sum or at 
 different times during the continuance of the 
 risk, undertakes to indemnify the other against 
 certain perils or sea risks, to which his ship, 
 freight, or cargo, or some of them, may be ex- 
 
MARINE RAMS 
 
 480 
 
 MARINE RAMS 
 
 posed during a certain voyage or for a fixed 
 period of time. 
 
 The party who takes the risk upon himself, or 
 who undertakes to indemnify, is called the as 
 surer, insurer, or underwriter (the latter term 
 growing out of the practice of his subscribing 
 his name at the bottom of the contract) ; the party 
 protected by the contract, the assured or insured ; 
 and the money paid as the price of the indem 
 nity, the premium. The contract itself, or, 
 rather, the written instrument evidencing it, is 
 called a policy of insurance. In England, con 
 tinental Europe, and in most of the States of the 
 United States, statutory enactments render it 
 imperative that the contract should be reduced to 
 writing ; but in the absence of such statutes the 
 contract is not invalid by reason of its having 
 been made by word of mouth. 
 
 Printed forms of policies are now almost uni 
 versally used. There are six essential parts to 
 every policy, 
 
 1. The parties. 
 
 2. The premium. 
 
 3. The subject insured. 
 
 4. Amount insured. 
 
 5. The risks. 
 
 6. The voyage or terms of the risk. 
 
 When the insurance is on a voyage from one 
 port to another, without reference to time, the 
 policy is called a voyage policy ; but when it is 
 from one fixed period to another, or for so many 
 months, it is called a time policy. 
 
 When the value of the property insured as 
 between the assured and the underwriter is ex 
 pressed on the face of the policy, the policy is 
 called a valued policy. When it is not so ex 
 pressed, but is left to be estimated in case of loss, 
 the policy is called an open policy. 
 
 The contract requires the most perfect good 
 faith. If the insured makes false representations 
 to the underwriter in order to procure his insur 
 ance on better terms, it will avoid the contract, 
 though the loss arose from a cause unconnected 
 with the misrepresentation or concealment. 
 
 For further information recourse to the follow 
 ing authorities is suggested : Marshall on In 
 surance, Duer on Insurance, Pardessus on In 
 surance, Flanders on Insurance, Addison on 
 Contracts, Kent s Commentaries. Theodore M. 
 Etting. 
 
 Marine Rams. From the earliest history of 
 man afloat the marine ram was a weapon of war, 
 until improvements in the use of sails and the 
 increased size of vessels made mere muscular 
 exertion impotent, however many men might be 
 employed in rowing. It must not be supposed 
 that sails were not in use in those long periods 
 of time during which the waters of the Mediter 
 ranean bore those exponents of naval power of 
 many succeeding nations and peoples. Sails 
 transported them over long distances, but the 
 effective use of a vessel in ramming can exist 
 only when her course can be changed at will, 
 quite independent of the direction of the wind. 
 Yet seamen in the olden time watched their op 
 portunity, when vessels were engaged under sail, 
 to "run down" an adversary. Blows thus de 
 livered were sometimes effective, but if not, when 
 once in contact, it became a hand-to-hand affair, 
 known in modern times as "carrying a vessel 
 by boarding." The invention of gunpowder, 
 until steam became a motor, made the act of 
 
 ramming almost obsolete, inasmuch as the at 
 tempt would expose the vessel to a " raking fire" 
 of the enemy. As soon as the use of stearn was 
 established a power existed quite obedient to the 
 action of the helm ; the course was no longer 
 dependent upon the direction of the wind. In 
 force, too, and continued exertion, the propelling 
 power as compared with oars was gigantic. 
 
 Able naval men were not slow to recognize 
 again the marine ram as a powerful weapon, as 
 will be seen by examining a model at the Naval 
 Academy at Annapolis, made by Capt. Samuel 
 Barren, U.S.N., in 1827. Years passed, however, 
 before steam became the usual motor of vessels of 
 war ; until that period arrived no vessel designed 
 for ramming was built, and even then ramming 
 was regarded simply as an addiiional force to a 
 gun-power, nor has it passed yet in public accep 
 tation beyond that relation. With those accus 
 tomed to the use of ordnance, having a heavy gun 
 available means almost the certainty of using it 
 when an enemy is near. The loud noise, the 
 unmistakable exhibition of force, and the clouds 
 of smoke when the gun is discharged, all tend to 
 give prominence and support to such action. It 
 may be inferred that so long as a marine ram is 
 armed with a gun, so long will its superior power 
 be subordinated to a secondary place as a means 
 of attack. 
 
 Heretofore the ram has been combined with a 
 gun or torpedo, and sometimes with both ; ves 
 sels have been called rams because of different 
 constructions of the bow, in some cases entailing 
 liability to its own destruction, as in striking a 
 vessel having fair headway, moving at right 
 angles to her course. The "Amazon" and the 
 " Stonewall," built in 1864, are of this description. 
 The first named, by accident, ran into a small 
 vessel and sank immediately. The projection, or 
 "snout," of those vessels extended some twenty 
 feet forward from the upper part of the stem, 
 forming an easy curve from it to the line of the 
 keel. 
 
 The French constructed the first ram of this 
 description, called the " Taureau," in 1863. Her 
 dimensions were the same as the five other ves 
 sels of their navy called rams ; her armament, 
 however, was different ; she had one 18-ton gun 
 in lieu of the two 12-ton guns carried by the 
 other vessels, which will be mentioned hereafter. 
 The "Taureau" is no longer designated as a 
 ram, but is put down for coast defense. The 
 danger to a ram so constructed is so well recog 
 nized now that even what is known as a " spur" 
 projects little beyond the upper part of the stem. 
 A false bow, attached and detached at will, is 
 now fitted by the English, which striking a 
 vessel becomes detached. Only two vessels now 
 completed, in the English navy, are designated 
 as rams, the " Rupert," 250 feet long, having a 
 displacement of 5358 tons, with an armament of 
 two 18-ton guns, and the " Hotspur," 235 feet 
 long, with a displacement of 4012 tons, and an 
 armament of one gun of 25 tons weight. 
 
 The Italians followed the construction of the 
 "Taureau," completing the ram " Affondatore," 
 which was regarded as a very formidable vessel, 
 just before the battle of Lissa, in 1866. Her 
 armament was two 9-inch Armstrong guns. It 
 is stated that her steering-gear and speed were 
 defective ; her history during that battle was dis 
 astrous, and since has been unsatisfactory. Her 
 
MARINE RAMS 
 
 481 
 
 MARINE RA/MS 
 
 length is 290 feet, draft 20 feet, and displace 
 ment 4070 tons. 
 
 The " Belier" was the first of a class of five 
 vessels in the French navy not unlike the " Tau- 
 reau," except in a reduced prolongation of bow. 
 Their length is 216 feet, draft 17 feet, and dis 
 placement 3313 tons, armament as stated be 
 fore, two 12-ton guns. 
 
 The " Polyphemus," now nearly completed for 
 the English navy, has a spur of considerable 
 length, and a tube fitted in it to discharge a tor 
 pedo ; her length is 240 feet, draft 20 feet, and 
 displacement 2640 tons. A peculiarity of the 
 model is that the keel of the fore body of the 
 vessel is not straight, but rises 12 feet to the 
 "spur," which is 7 feet below the water-line 
 and 7 feet in advance of the upper part of the 
 stem. The frame and armor-plating are of steel ; 
 the crown of the armored part is 6 feet above the 
 water-line. There is a false bow built over the 
 armored shell, which would of course be destroyed 
 in ramming a vessel. The "spur" is of such 
 length and form as to make it liable to be car 
 ried away in ramming on the beam of a vessel 
 having good headway. If not sunk from injury 
 sustained, the ram will owe her preservation 
 to well-constructed water-tight bulk-heads, and 
 could be of no further use until repaired. She 
 is built on a transverse frame with intercostals 
 called girders, which must be regarded as a very 
 imperfect development of the girder or longitu 
 dinal system of construction. ^The design is that 
 the hull should present as little perpendicular 
 surface as possible to the destructive effect of 
 projectiles discharged from heavy guns, but the 
 purpose does not seem to be satisfactorily carried 
 out. A supposed speed of 17 miles is reckoned 
 upon. Twin-screws are employed for propulsion. 
 
 A marine ram designed by a navy officer of 
 the United States was presented for the exami 
 nation and suggestions of a chief constructor of 
 the navy, whose recommendations were adopted 
 and the plans and specifications presented to the 
 Navy Department. The length of the proposed 
 ram is 200 feet, beam including sponsons of 3 
 feet width 36 feet, draft 14 feet, and displace 
 ment 1600 tons, the propulsion to be effected 
 either by twin-screws or the Mallory propeller. 
 The amidship cross-section of the vessel is com 
 posed of semi-ellipses of 7 and 9 feet semi-conju 
 gates, the latter being the lower section ; the 
 plating over the sponsoning forms sharp edges, 
 which are 2 feet below the deep load-line, the 
 steel plating being at that line 6 inches thick, 
 and diminishing towards the crown of the arched 
 deck to 1^ inches over an oak deck, and on the 
 lower section reduced in thickness and riveted 
 to the hull just below the sponsoning. The lon 
 gitudinal lines are nearly straight for 100 feet, 
 then curves of a parabola towards the ends form 
 ing a jointure on the plane of the two ellipses. 
 A pilot-house of heavy steel blocks is designed 
 to inclose the smoke-stack and the steering ap 
 paratus ; horizontal and angular slits between 
 some of the blocks give a fair sight to direct the 
 movements of the vessel. She is designed to be 
 constructed on 20 girders and a transverse frame 
 to give them a lateral support. In the bow, the 
 girders are bolted in pairs on opposite sides of 
 flanges cast on a steel head, which has a core 
 into which a steel punch is placed, and which 
 projects 2 feet beyond the head. A water- 
 31 
 
 tight skin incloses the frame ; two longitudinal 
 bulk-heads are placed far enough from the sides 
 to permit a man to pass, and transverse bulk 
 heads are placed at distances apart equal to the 
 distance between the floor and the girders above. 
 No armament is proposed except Gatling-guns 
 and small-arms to repel boarders. 
 
 The form of the vessel and her construction 
 give her fore body great lateral strength. It is 
 supposed no danger would occur in striking a ves 
 sel having a high rate of speed, the sponsoning 
 and steel knife edge of the plating being intended 
 to crush in abaft and rip out forward of the point 
 of impact on an enemy. 
 
 The lines of the ram present above the water- 
 line strong re-entering curves, so that the course 
 of a shot striking at the water-line would, if not 
 fired from a distance or from a considerable ele 
 vation, vary only 23 degrees from a line tangent 
 to the plating, and diminishing towards the 
 crown, at which its course would be practically 
 tangent. The estimated cost of this vessel is 
 about one-seventh of such armor-plated vessels 
 as she would be expected to attack and destroy. 
 
 In considering elements of strength resulting 
 from position it is worth while to consider the 
 anatomy of the sword-fish, a marine ram fash 
 ioned by nature. We observe that the flat part 
 of the sword is placed at right angles to an im 
 aginary plane passing through the spine, and 
 that if it pierced the side of an enemy which was 
 moving rapidly, the edges of the " sword" would 
 present the most favorable conditions for ripping 
 itself out, and at the same time the greatest lat 
 eral strength of the "sword" would be utilized. 
 The old rams before mentioned are unlike the 
 sword-fish in the placement of the "snout" to 
 the line of keel ; the American ram, as designed, 
 has the lateral strength of bow analogous to the 
 anatomy of the sword-fish referred to, or na 
 ture s marine ram. 
 
 Naval men and others who are not favorably 
 disposed towards the building of marine rams 
 are pleased to assign them some office in a fleet 
 engagement between armor-plated ships. Those 
 who regard rams as capable of destroying fleets 
 of armor-plated, gun-bearing ships propose to 
 meet the latter in fleets, vessel for vessel, or more 
 probably employing two or three rams on each 
 vessel of the fleet and destroying them in detail. 
 Really, the question is whether a given amount 
 of money spent in building marine rams of the 
 best design would not prove more economical 
 than building armor-plated, gun-bearing ships. 
 
 No marine ram has yet been constructed which 
 embodies the idea of looking to her striking force 
 as the single element to be employed ; until that 
 is done the question naturally is problematical. 
 It can only be solved through a practical devel 
 opment of the best physical conditions to obtain : 
 
 1st. Great speed and facility of manoeuvre. 
 
 2d. Great strength of construction, so that the 
 blows delivered would be diffused throughout the 
 mass of the ram, and if the bows of the ram enter 
 the hull of an enemy even 20 feet or more, that, 
 however great the velocity may be of the vessel 
 struck, the lateral strength of the ram may be 
 sufficient to insure immunity from serious in 
 jury, not to say destruction. 
 
 3d. A pilot-house that is capable of resisting 
 any projectile known, and provided with suit 
 able arrangements to secure a proper vision. 
 
MARINE STEAM-BOILER 
 
 482 
 
 MARINE STEAM-ENGINE 
 
 4th. An impenetrable armor-plated hull of 
 varying thickness, depending upon the angle it 
 presents as a target for the fire of an enemy. 
 Daniel Ammen, Rear- Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Marine Steam-boiler. A form of steam-boiler 
 adapted to use or^-shipboard. It is composed of 
 an exterior shell or casing, either of a perfect 
 cylindrical form, or with rectangular sides stayed 
 together by tie-bars, or of a combination of both, 
 as in the locomotive boiler, within which are 
 contained the furnaces, flues or tubes, connec 
 tions, and, generally, the ash-pits ; the whole 
 surface exposed to fire being surrounded by water, 
 except the furnace-front, and even this is some 
 times partially closed by a water-space, leaving 
 only the area required for the furnace-door open 
 ing and the front of the ash-pits. In modern 
 practice the water-front has been abandoned, and 
 it is customary to cover the furnace-front by a 
 perforated plate of iron, shielded from the in 
 tensity of the flame by an inner plate also per 
 forated, for the purpose of admitting the air re 
 quired for the complete combustion of the im 
 perfectly combined gases after they have left the 
 bed of coals ; the furnace-doors are also per 
 forated. The quantity of air thus admitted 
 should be about three-tenths of that required for 
 the perfect combustion of the fuel. " Water 
 bottoms" of the ash-pits of flat- bottomed boilers, 
 which are useful only as a protection from fire, 
 are a source of great trouble and expense, and 
 their use has been abandoned in iron ships. The 
 flues or tubes may be variously arranged, the 
 usual method being to place them above the fur 
 naces, thereby returning the gases from the back 
 connection or combustion-chamber to the front 
 of the boiler, where they are discharged through 
 the uptake into a common chimney ; but they are 
 sometimes placed so as to return at the sides of the 
 furnaces, or, as in the locomotive boiler, extended 
 beyond the furnace, in which case the flame passes 
 directly to the chimney without change of direc 
 tion. " Man-holes," of such size as to readily 
 admit the body of a man for the purpose of clean 
 ing and repairing, are provided in convenient 
 positions ; and " hand-holes," for removing scale 
 and sediment, are placed at and near the bottom. 
 These holes are covered by elliptical or triangular 
 plates fitted from the inside, so that the steam- 
 pressure has a tendency to tighten them. 
 
 The principal attachments to marine boilers 
 are safety-valves, which automatically release 
 the steam when the pressure exceeds a stated 
 amount ; steam-gauges for indicating the steam- 
 pressure ; stop-valves, which admit steam to the 
 engine steam-pipe ; feed check-valves for supply 
 ing the boiler with water ; water-gauges for as 
 certaining the height of the water ; salinometer- 
 pots for determining the density of the water ; 
 re verse- valves for relieving the boiler from out 
 ward pressure when the steam-pressure falls 
 below that of the atmosphere ; blow-valves or 
 cocks, connected with pipes passing through the 
 bottom or sides of the vessel, for discharging the 
 brine or super-salted water, or clearing the boiler 
 of water altogether. 
 
 The number of boilers in a steamship varies 
 from two to ten, depending upon the power re 
 quired and the design of the boiler. 
 
 The cylindrical boiler is in universal use when 
 compound engines are used, or when high press 
 ure is required. The ends and back connections 
 
 are the only parts requiring stays, the furnaces 
 being cylindrical, and the whole structure is 
 easily accessible for operations pertaining to clean 
 ing, preservation, and repairs inside and out ; 
 and, although it occupies on the floor of the hold 
 of the vessel more room than the rectangular- 
 faced boiler, it will probably be the model type 
 for many years to come. Boilers with vertical 
 water-tubes are obsolete. 
 
 In the most successful marine boilers of the 
 present day, the water surface exposed to the fire 
 is not less than 1^ square feet for one pound of 
 coal consumed per hour ; the diameter of the 
 tubes not less than 3J inches, and their aggregate 
 cross-sectional area not less than -|- of the area 
 of the grates. Such proportions w ill admit of a 
 combustion of 20 pounds of semi-bituminous coal 
 on each square foot of grate per hour, and will 
 give an evaporation of about 9 pounds of water 
 for each pound of coal. In the steamship " Gal- 
 lia," of the Cunard line, about 9| horse-power 
 was developed for each square foot of grate. 
 Albert Aston, Chief Engineer U.S.N, 
 
 Marine Steam-engine. A form of condensing 
 steam-engine adapted to use on shipboard. The 
 principal objects to be attained in the modifica 
 tion of the land engine to suit the changes of 
 condition are, compactness, because the ma 
 chinery necessarily occupies a portion of the most 
 valuable space in the vessel ; minimum weight 
 consistent with proper strength ; ready accessi 
 bility to all parts, and such structural arrange 
 ment that all the stress due to the power exerted, 
 except the resultant thrust tending to move the 
 vessel through the water, shall be supported 
 within the machine itself without depending 
 upon the vessel s hull as a foundation. Two or 
 more cylinders, with their pistons connected 
 with cranks placed at such angles as to enable 
 the machinery to be started from any position, 
 are generally adopted, though there are cases 
 where single engines are in use. The two dis 
 tinct classes of marine engines are the "screw- 
 propeller engine" and the "paddle-wheel en 
 gine," the former having superseded the latter 
 for all purposes except river or other light-draft 
 navigation. 
 
 The types of engines best adapted to paddle- 
 wheels are the " oscillating engine," the "direct- 
 acting inclined" engine, and, for river service, the 
 " American beam-engine." Side-lever engines are 
 obsolete. For screw-propellers, "direct-acting," 
 or "back-acting" engines, working either^hori- 
 zontally, inclined, or" vertically, are in general 
 use. The term "direct-acting" implies that the 
 connecting-rod is extended from the cylinder to 
 the crank, and " back-acting" that it returns to 
 wards the cylinder, immediately at the end of 
 which the crank revolves. Oscillating engines 
 are not adapted to screw propulsion, for the con 
 stantly varying moment of inertia of the prin 
 cipal moving parts, caused by the rapid transi 
 tion of the piston and its attachments from one 
 end of the stroke to the other, tends to create an 
 abnormal stress that no mechanism can sustain ; 
 and the valve-gear is necessarily inconveniently 
 complicated. Trunk-engines, and engines geared 
 to the screw-shaft by cog-wheels, are no longer 
 designed by modern engineers, the principal ob 
 jections to the former "being the inaccessibility 
 of important parts and the loss in economic effect 
 due to the radiating and friction-producing sur- 
 
MARINER 
 
 483 
 
 MARITIME LAW 
 
 face of the trunk, and to the latter their excess 
 ive weight and lack of compactness. 
 
 In unarmored vessels of war it is essential that 
 the machinery should be placed below the draft 
 water-line of the vessel, to avoid danger from the 
 shot of an enemy, therefore the cylinders are 
 placed in a horizontal position, or with their 
 axes slightly inclined thereto ; but in vessels of 
 the comYnercial marine, and armored vessels of 
 war, modern experience has demonstrated that 
 the "inverted cylinder" type, in which the cyl 
 inders are situated over the cranks, with their 
 axes vertical, is the most successful arrange 
 ment. In this form, the friction and consequent 
 wear due to the weight of the reciprocating parts 
 is avoided, and the alignment of the machine 
 readily preserved. These remarks are appli 
 cable whether the engines be single or double, 
 plain or compound. 
 
 Surface-condensers are now considered indis 
 pensable to marine service. Although much 
 heavier and more costly than jet-condensers, the 
 economy due to restricting the use of salt water 
 in boilers fully justifies their adoption. See 
 CONDENSER. 
 
 Compound engines are growing into universal 
 favor. They permit the expansion of steam to 
 its utmost beneficial limit without the use of 
 complicated machinery, and high-pressure steam 
 can be used without subjecting the machinery to 
 undue strains therefrom. Their great economy 
 in the use of fuel is but little doubted. See 
 COMPOUND ENGINE. 
 
 Vessels of war are frequently propelled by two 
 screws, or a twin-screws," in which cases two in 
 dependent sets of engines are provided. The 
 principal object of this arrangement, which is 
 accomplished by driving one screw ahead and 
 the other back, is to secure facility in turning a 
 vessel, a quality of extreme importance in rams 
 or vessels designed to fight "end-on." Twin- 
 screws are also advantageous on light-draft 
 vessels when a single screw of suitable diameter 
 cannot be properly submerged. The weight, and 
 space occupied by machinery, is, however, some 
 what increased. 
 
 There is a great variety of types of steam-en 
 gine adapted to marine service, but the above 
 mentioned include most of those in general use. 
 Albert Aston, Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 
 Mariner. A sea-faring man of whatever rank. 
 In early days the term mariner was confined to 
 experienced seamen. 
 
 MARINER S COMPASS. See COMPASS, THE 
 MARINER S. 
 
 Maritime. Bordering on, or situated near, the 
 ocean. Pertaining to those who, or that which, 
 border on the ocean. Relating to navigation 
 and naval affairs. In some senses synonymous 
 with marine. 
 
 MARITIME COUNTRY. A country bordering 
 upon the sea. 
 
 MARITIME INTEREST. See BOTTOMRY. 
 
 MARITIME POWER. A state which possesses 
 seaports and a navy to protect them. 
 
 Maritime Law is that system of jurisprudence 
 which prevails in courts having jurisdiction of 
 maritime causes. 
 
 It differs materially from both the civil and 
 the common law in origin, history, and prin 
 ciples, unlike either it is not the outgrowth of 
 the wants of any one nation, nor is it mainly the 
 
 product of any one mind, nor is it the embodi 
 ment of the learning of any one age or of any 
 one people, but it is, on the contrary, the result 
 of the necessities of all, of a necessity experienced 
 by each at a certain stage in its national develop 
 ment, and which, by reason of the universality 
 and inherent justice of its principles, has so 
 commended itself as to lead to its universal 
 adoption. 
 
 It is founded on the practices of merchants, 
 the principles of the civil law, approved compi 
 lations of maritime rights and usages, the writ 
 ings of eminent authorities, and the adjudications 
 of the admiralty courts of different countries. It 
 is to the wants of commerce that maritime law 
 owes its origin. 
 
 Rhodes was its birthplace, the Mediterranean 
 its nursery, 900 years B.C. The inhabitants of 
 this little island, then the centre of a flourishing 
 commerce, gave to the world its first maritime 
 code. The Rhodian code was subsequently 
 adopted by the Romans, and was incorporated 
 in the Pandects, and thus became the, basis of 
 maritime law as known to the ancients. 
 
 With the disruption of the Roman empire 
 commerce, almost entirely disappeared ; and for 
 some years the history of maritime law is buried 
 in oblivion. With the revival of commerce 
 came the re- establishment of consular courts, 
 and the necessity for a system of jurisprudence 
 by which to govern their decrees. The subsequent 
 occurrence of the Crusades and the discovery of 
 the compass gave to commerce an impetus far 
 surpassing any which it had hitherto possessed. 
 And this it was that gave rise to the maritime 
 law of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Various maritime codes were promulgated in 
 different parts of Europe, the Consolato del 
 Mare, the laws of Oleron, the laws of Wisbuy, 
 and the maritime ordinances of the Hanseatic 
 League being those most worthy of note. The 
 precise date of publication as well as the author 
 ship of these various codes is doubtful. The 
 question, however, is mainly of antiquarian in 
 terest. The laws of Oleron found their way to 
 England in the time of Richard I., and formed 
 the basis on which were decided the earliest cases 
 in the High Court of Admiralty, and even during 
 the present century, in the American courts, de 
 cisions have been based on the same authority. 
 
 The most noticeable of the maritime ordi 
 nances of modern times have been promulgated 
 in France. The Ordinance de Marine, promul 
 gated during the reign of Louis XIV., forms 
 one of the most lasting monuments erected to 
 the memory of that monarch. 
 
 Codes have continued to form the basis of the 
 maritime law of continental Europe. Such, 
 however, has not been the case with regard to 
 either England or the United States; though 
 there are points of divergence between the 
 American and English maritime law, yet they 
 are both based, not upon a code, but upon the 
 custom of merchants, upon generally received 
 authorities on maritime law, statutory enact 
 ments, and upon precedents established by judi 
 cial decisions. 
 
 Maritime law is a branch both of international 
 and of commercial law. It is included in the 
 former because it defines the rights, duties, and 
 obligations of nations with respect to each other 
 on the sea ; it forms a part of the latter because 
 
MARK 
 
 484 
 
 MAES 
 
 of the protection which it gives to individuals 
 engaged in commerce, both as to their person 
 and their property, whether the wrong be one 
 sounding in tort or in contract ; it defines the 
 reciprocal rights and obligations of owners and 
 masters, of masters and mariners, gives an ade 
 quate remedy to those engaged in supplying the 
 necessities of ships, governs questions of salvage, 
 general average, marine insurance, charter- 
 parties, contracts of affreightment, etc. 
 
 For further information refer to Kent s Com 
 mentaries, Flanders s Maritime Law, Parsons s 
 Admiralty and Shipping, Abbott on Shipping, 
 Etting on Admiralty Jurisdiction in United 
 States. Theodore M. Etting, 
 
 Mark. An} T object serving for the guidance of 
 a ship ; as, sea-marks, land-marks, etc. Square- 
 marks, sharp-up marks, bits of twine on braces, 
 lifts, etc., to serve as a guide in bracing, top 
 ping up, etc. In marking the lead-line the sec 
 ond, third, fifth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, fif 
 teenth, seventeenth, and twentieth fathoms are 
 designated by bits of leather and differently- 
 colored bunting. These divisions are called 
 marks; the intermediate fathoms are estimated 
 by the leadsman, and are called deeps, and in 
 sounding the leadsman gives the result by sing 
 ing out by the mark, 5, 7, 10, etc., or by the deep, 
 6, 8, 11, etc. The two expressions serve to dis 
 tinguish the soundings even when the numeral 
 part of it is not distinctly heard. The two ex 
 pressions may be rendered more dissimilar by 
 using be when the sounding given is a deep, and 
 by when it is a mark; as, " by the mark," " be 
 the deep." See LEAD. 
 
 MARKS AND DEEPS. When a youngster goes 
 on board ship he is first taught the lead of the 
 ropes, boxing the compass, and the marks and 
 deeps of the lead-line. "To learn the ropes" 
 and "to learn the marks and deeps" have be 
 come expressions signifying to become familiar 
 with the fundamental principles of any subject, 
 or with the inside working of any scheme or 
 project. 
 
 Markab. The bright star a PeaasL 
 
 Marl. To wind marline, spun-yarn, etc., 
 around a rope, each turn being secured by a pe 
 culiar hitch ; commonly done to secure the par 
 celling preparatory to serving. 
 
 MARLINE. Fine seizing-stuff, consisting of 
 two yarns laid up left-handed ; it is also used for 
 serving. 
 
 MARLING-HITCH. A jamming half-hitch, in 
 which the hauling part comes out underneath 
 the standing part ; used in marling down parcel 
 ling and in lashing up hammocks. 
 
 MARLING-SPIKE, or MARLINE-SPIKE. A 
 pointed iron implement used to separate the 
 strands in splicing, and as a lever in marling, 
 putting on seizings, etc. 
 
 MARLING-SPIKE HITCH. A peculiar hitch 
 through which the marling-spike is put in heav 
 ing taut a seizing. 
 
 Maroon. A name given in Jamaica and Dutch 
 Guiana to a runaway slave. The term was first 
 applied to slaves deserted by their masters, the 
 Spaniards, when the British conquered Jamaica 
 (1655). 
 
 MAROONING. A custom among former pirates 
 of putting an offender on shore on some desolate 
 cape or island, with a gun, a few shot, a flask of 
 powder, and a bottle of water. 
 
 Marque, Letter of. See LETTER OF MARQUE. 
 
 Marquette, Jacques, one of the first explorers 
 of the Mississippi. Born at Laon, France, in 1637 ; 
 died May 18, 1675. Becoming a Jesuit at the age 
 of 17, he sailed for Canada as a missionary in 1666. 
 After passing about eighteen months at Three 
 Eivers, in April, 1668, he founded at Lake Supe 
 rior the mission of Sault Ste. Marie. In 1699, 
 after a short stay at Lapointe, he followed the 
 Hurons to Mackinaw, where, in 1671, he built a 
 chapel at the mission of St. Ignatius, or Michili- 
 macinac. In May, 1673, he accompanied Jol- 
 liet s expedition to explore the Mississippi, and 
 after traveling in canoes over 2500 miles, re 
 turned in September. They proceeded to Green 
 Bay, through Fox River to the Wisconsin, and 
 thence by Portage to the Mississippi, which they 
 descended to the Arkansas. Returning they as 
 cended the Illinois, proceeded thence across to 
 Lake Michigan and Green Bay, and to the mission 
 without serious accident. During this expedi 
 tion he prepared a map of the route. Having 
 promised the Kaskaskia Indians to return and 
 preach to them, after being detained a year by 
 sickness, he set out in October, 1674, with two 
 white men and a number of savages, for the vil 
 lage of Kaskaskia. After wintering at the Port 
 age in the Chicago, he reached Kaskaskia, 
 April 8, 1675, and at once began a mission by 
 erecting an altar and celebrating the festival of 
 Easter ; but conscious that his end was approach 
 ing, he soon attempted to return to Mackinaw, 
 but died near the mouth of a river on the east 
 shore of Lake Michigan, which still bears his 
 name. He was of a cheerful, joyous disposition, 
 playful even in his manner, and universally be 
 loved. His narrative was published at Paris in 
 1681, in Thevenot s " Recueil de Voyages." This 
 account, as well as a journal of the missionary s 
 last expedition, is in Shea s " Discovery and Ex 
 ploration of the Mississippi Valley," New York, 
 1852. 
 
 Marrot. A name for the guillemot. 
 
 Marry. To place two ropes alongside of each 
 other that both may be grasped and hauled on at 
 the same time. To join two ropes end to end so 
 both will pass through a block, as in reeving a 
 new brace by the old one. 
 
 Marryat, Captain Frederick, R.N.,an English 
 novelist. Born in London, July 10, 1792; died 
 August 2, 1848. His mother was the daughter 
 of Frederick Geyer, of Boston. Entering the 
 navy at an early age, he distinguished himself 
 in several engagements, particularly in 1814, by 
 cutting out four vessels in Boston Bay, and in 
 an action with gunboats on Lake Pontchartrain. 
 He also benefited the naval profession by the in 
 vention of his well-known code of signals. He 
 commenced his literary career in 1829, producing 
 a great number of sea-tales, among the best of 
 whichare" Peter Simple," " Midshipman Easy," 
 "Percival Keene," etc. In 1837 he visited the 
 United States, and on his return published his 
 "Diary in America," which reflected somewhat 
 severely on our national characteristics. This 
 was followed by three additional volumes, and 
 by his "Travels of M. Violet," supposed to be 
 founded on the adventures of Chateaubriand in 
 the woods of the New World. 
 
 Mars. The superior planet coming next in 
 position to the earth. Mean distance from the 
 sun, 145 millions of miles ; diameter, 4500 miles; 
 
MAKSALA 
 
 485 
 
 MARTINGALE 
 
 apparent diameter, 4" to 24". Mars is dis 
 tinguished by its red, fiery appearance. Symbol 
 - , representing a shield and a spear. 
 
 Marsala, on the west coast of Sicily, is a 
 strongly fortified seaport town inclosed by bas- 
 tioned walls. Its ancient port was filled up in 
 1580 by Don John of Austria, and it now has an 
 artificial port. Its importance is due to its wine 
 trade, the district yielding annually about 30,000 
 pipes of wine, two-thirds of which are exported. 
 It also exports corn, cattle, oil, salt, and soda. 
 Pop. 34,000. 
 
 Marseilles, the most important seaport of 
 France, is situated at the head of a finely shel 
 tered bay, on the Gulf of Lyons, in lat. 43 17 
 48" N., Ion. 5 22 15" E. It possesses a 
 naval observatory, maritime syndicate, a first- 
 class school of hydrography, a special school of 
 commerce and industry, and many other institu 
 tions of importance. The harbor is one of the 
 finest in France, perfectly secure in all weathers, 
 with good anchorage for 1200 vessels in from 18 
 to 24 feet of water. It is strongly defended by two 
 forts, the Tower of St. John and Fort St. Nich 
 olas. Its foreign commerce exceeds that of every 
 other port in France, and extends to all parts of 
 the world. Pop. 318,000. 
 
 Marsiliana. A square-sterned Venetian ship 
 of burden. 
 
 Marston, John, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 February 26, 1796. Entered the navy as mid 
 shipman, April 15, 1813 ; served on board the 
 frigate " President," Commodore John Rodgers ; 
 " Washington," 74, Commodore Isaac Chauncey; 
 frigate "Java," Commodore O. H. Perry; brig 
 " Prometheus," Capt. Alexanders. Wadsworth ; 
 brig " Prometheus," Capt. William Bolton 
 Finch ; frigate " Constellation," Commodore 
 Charles Morris ; frigate " Constitution," Com 
 modore Jacob Jones ; frigate " Congress," Com 
 modore James Biddle; frigate " Brandywine," 
 Commodore Charles Morris, when she took 
 La Fayette to France, and afterwards in the 
 Mediterranean; frigate "Brandywine," Com 
 modore Jacob Jones, in the Pacific Ocean ; 
 schooner "Dolphin," Capt. John H. Aulick ; 
 sloop " Vandalia," Commodore John D. Hen 
 ley ; frigate " United States," Commodore Law 
 rence Kearney; frigate "Potomac," Capt. 
 George W. Storer ; sloop " Yorktown" ; sloop 
 " Cumberland," at the bombardment of Hat- 
 teras ; steam-frigate " Roanoke," commanded 
 at Hampton Roads in that ship when the " Mer- 
 rimac" came down from Norfolk, Va. ; in addi 
 tion to this, a variety of service performed at 
 the Portsmouth and Philadelphia Navy- Yards. 
 
 Promoted from a midshipman, July 13, 1825, 
 to a lieutenant. 
 
 Promoted from a lieutenant to a commander, 
 September 8, 1841. 
 
 Promoted from a commander to a captain, 
 September 14, 1855. 
 
 Promoted from a captain to a commodore, July 
 16, 1862. 
 
 Retired December 21, 1861. 
 
 Martello Towers. So named from a tower in 
 the bay of Mortella, in Corsica, which, in 1794, 
 maintained a very determined resistance against 
 the English. A martello tower is built circular, 
 with walls of vast thickness, pierced by loop 
 holes, and the bomb-proof roof is armed with 
 one heavy traversing gun. They are 30 to 40 
 
 feet high, surrounded by a dry fosse, and the 
 entrance is by a ladder at a door several feet 
 from the ground. The following is also given as 
 the origin of the name: "When piracy was 
 common in the Mediterranean, and pirates made 
 plundering descents upon the coasts, the Italians 
 built towers near the sea, in order to keep watch, 
 and give warning if a piratical craft was seen 
 to approach the land. The warning was given 
 by striking a bell with a hammer ; hence these 
 towers were called Torri da Martello." 
 
 Martial Law. Anciently, in England, this 
 term meant the law military. It was not a fixed 
 and permanent code, but a body of regulations 
 which the king, preparatory to actual war, com 
 posed, with the advice of the constable and mar 
 shal, who were high ministerial officers of the 
 king, and which was administered by the Court 
 of Chivalry, of which the constable and marshal 
 were the constituent members. With the deca 
 dence of the Court of Chivalry martial law lost 
 whatever character for regularity of administra 
 tion it had possessed, and was dispensed by 
 councils of war, commissions, and courts-mar 
 tial, so called. Being defined by no written 
 statute, its exercise was capricious and tyran 
 nical, and it became an instrument of oppression 
 in the hands of arbitrary sovereigns, who ex 
 tended its operation to non-rnilitary as well as 
 military persons, and to times of peace as well as 
 of war. In the reign of Charles I. its abuse 
 had become so great that the king was compelled 
 by the Commons to give his assent to the bill 
 which they had prepared, called the Petition of 
 Right, one clause of which provided that the 
 commissioners for proceeding by martial law 
 should be dissolved and annulled, and that no 
 such commission should be issued for the future. 
 Under the Commonwealth martial law became 
 somewhat more S3^stemized than it had previously 
 been, but it was not till the passage of the 
 Mutiny Act, April 3, 1689, that there existed in 
 England a regularly enacted statute for the gov 
 ernment of the military state. (See MUTINY 
 ACT.) From the passage of this act dates what 
 is now properly understood as military law 
 (which see). It is to be regretted that more care 
 has not been taken by writers on law to distin 
 guish between martial law and military law, as 
 much of the opprobrium which is justly visited 
 upon the former, on account of its capricious and 
 arbitrary character, has come, by reason of such 
 want of discrimination, to attach to the latter. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale, in his history of the Com 
 mon Law, observes of martial law, that " in 
 truth and reality it is no law, but something in 
 dulged rather than allowed as law" ; and the 
 Duke of Wellington has defined it as "the will 
 of the general who commands the army." A 
 more expanded definition is given by an English 
 authority as follows : 
 
 " Martial law is the suspension of all law but 
 the will of the military commanders intrusted 
 with its execution, to be exercised according to 
 their judgment, the exigencies of the moment, 
 and the usages of the service, with no fixed or 
 settled rules or laws, no definite practice, and 
 not bound even by the rules of the military law." 
 
 Martinet. A rigid disciplinarian, but one 
 who, in matters of inferior moment, harasses all 
 under him. An old word for leech-line. 
 
 Martingale. Ropes or chains from the ends 
 
MAKTIN S SHELLS 
 
 * 
 
 486 
 
 MASTING 
 
 *of jib- and flying jib-boom, to assist in counter 
 acting the strain of the head-stays. 
 
 MARTINGALE BACK-ROPES. Kopes or chains 
 from the dolphin-striker and setting up at the 
 bows. 
 
 Martin s Shells. An incendiary shell lined 
 with loam and hair and filled with molten iron. 
 
 Mascaret. A peculiar movement of the sea 
 near Bordeaux in summer at low-water. 
 
 Masoolah Boat. See MASULAH BOAT. 
 
 Master. A line-officer of the grade next below 
 that of lieutenant ; he ranks with a first lieuten 
 ant in the army. He may be ordered to duty as 
 navigator or watch officer, and messes in the 
 ward-room. See NAVIGATOR, WATCH-OFFICER. 
 
 Master. The officer commanding a merchant 
 man. His duties comprise the maintenance of 
 discipline, the handling and navigation of the 
 ship, the direction of the internal arrangements 
 and economy of the ship, and the proper stowage 
 of the cargo. To him great powers are confided 
 and upon him great responsibilities rest. His 
 legal rights, duties, and remedies in regard to 
 owners, shippers, passengers, and crew are regu 
 lated by special statutes, by agreement with the 
 owners, and by the customs of the sea. 
 
 In different ships different methods obtain of 
 manning and provisioning the vessel. In some 
 cases the master makes out an inventory of the 
 stores required and they are accordingly supplied 
 by the owner s order; in others the owners put 
 the provisions on board with directions, more or 
 less liberal, as to the manner in which the master 
 is to dispense them. Usually the shipping of the 
 crew is left to the shipping-masters, who are re 
 sponsible for their appearance on board at the 
 time of sailing; in other cases, the master, or per 
 haps the owner, selects his men himself. 
 
 Before sailing, the duties of the master (unless 
 also supercargo) are mostly confined to looking 
 after the outfit of the vessel and seeing that she 
 is in sea-going trim. Everything being in readi 
 ness, the custom-house and other regulations 
 complied with, the vessel is put under charge of 
 the pilot to be taken clear of the land. While 
 the pilot is on board the master has little else to 
 do than to see the orders of the pilot carried out; 
 when the pilot is discharged, the entire control 
 and responsibility is thrown upon the master ; he 
 does not keep a watch, but is to be called when 
 ever circumstances require it. The entire con 
 trol of the navigation lies with him, though he 
 may call upon his officers for assistance if neces 
 sary. He has a power and influence, both direct 
 and indirect, which may be the means of much 
 good or much evil. 
 
 Master, or Sailing-master. Formerly, the 
 officer who did the duties now required of the 
 navigator. See NAVIGATOR. 
 
 MASTER S DIVISION. The division of the men 
 stationed at the wheel, in the chains, tops, etc., 
 and who are under the immediate direction of 
 the navigator. The navigator s division. 
 
 Master-at-arms. The chief petty officer of a 
 man-of-war. With his subordinates he attends to 
 the police duties of the ship, prevents the smug 
 gling of liquor, quells all disturbances, arrests 
 all disorderly persons, keeps a vigilant watch over 
 the conduct of the men, exercises supervision over 
 all lights and fires, and has special charge of all 
 men in confinement. In early days he instructed 
 the crew in the use of small-arms. 
 
 Master-attendant (Eng.}. An officer in the 
 royal dock-yards appointed to assist in the fitting 
 or dismantling, removing or securing vessels of 
 war, etc., to inspect the moorings in the harbor, 
 to visit all the ships in ordinary, and to attend at 
 the general musters in the dock-yard, taking care 
 that all the individuals registered in the navy- 
 book are present at their duty. 
 
 Master Mariner. The shipmaster or captain 
 of a merchant vessel. 
 
 Master of Misrule. An officer of an hour or 
 two when the hands were piped " to mischief." 
 The lord or abbot of misrule on shore has im- 
 memorially been a person selected to superintend 
 the diversions of Christmas. In these "larks," 
 however, malicious mischief was unknown. 
 
 Master s Mate. In early days an officer who 
 assisted the master in his duties in the hold, on 
 the decks, etc. , generally a midshipman or passed 
 midshipman. See MATE. 
 
 Masting. The determination of the position 
 in which the masts of a vessel should be placed, 
 and the mechanical process by which they are 
 placed in position. 
 
 The first part of the definition is one of the 
 problems of naval construction, full explanations 
 of which can be found in works upon that sub 
 ject. 
 
 The position in which the masts should be 
 placed varies with the number with which a ves 
 sel is to be furnished, the rig, and, in some de 
 gree, upon the model. The object to be attained 
 is to place the masts so that the centre of effort 
 of the sails will be at a certain point depending 
 upon the centre of lateral resistance of the vessel. 
 The latter point varies with the trim of the ves 
 sel ; but in a vessel that is perfectly balanced un 
 der sail with the wind on the beam, the centre 
 of effort of sail is directly over the centre of 
 lateral resistance. 
 
 By reason, however, of the pressure of the water 
 in the lee bow when the vessel is in motion, the 
 shape of the bow, the length of the middle body, 
 heeling of the vessel, strength of wind, etc., the 
 vessel has the tendency to fly into the wind, 
 called ardency, which must be corrected by 
 moving the centre of effort of the sails a sufficient 
 distance forward of the centre of lateral resist 
 ance. The result, in a small degree, may be ob 
 tained by raking the masts forward or aft ; but, 
 as a general rule, the centre of the effort of the 
 sails should be placed one-twentieth of the length 
 of the water-line forward of the centre of lateral 
 resistance. 
 
 In the masting of steam-vessels this rule can 
 not always be followed, on account of the neces 
 sary position of engines and boilers, and in 
 steam-vessels where the sail-power is merely aux 
 iliary, the placing of the masts by this rule is of 
 less importance, as the sails are merely designed 
 to steady the vessel in a rough sea without add 
 ing materially to the speed, or to keep her to the 
 wind when hove to. 
 
 The mechanical operation of placing the lower- 
 masts is the work of the seaman, and is performed 
 by means of sheers or a derrick, under which the 
 vessel is hauled, or by sheers rigged on the deck. 
 In the former case either mast may be stepped 
 first, the vessel s position being changed as re 
 quired in order that the main purchase may 
 plumb the mast-hole. 
 
 When a vessel is to be masted without the aid 
 
MASTING 
 
 487 
 
 MASTS 
 
 of permanent sheers, they must be constructed on 
 board the vessel. The deck must first be sup 
 ported by shores placed under that part where 
 the sheers are to stand. 
 
 Heavy spars, such as lower yards or topmasts, 
 should be selected, and these may be strengthened 
 by lashing lighter spars to them. The spars are 
 placed in position one on each side of the deck, 
 with their heels a little forward of the partners 
 and a few feet from the vessel s side. The heads 
 of the spars are crossed amidships, forming the 
 sheer-head, and are lashed in such a manner that 
 by spreading the legs of the sheers the lashing is 
 tightened. The upper block of the main pur 
 chase is secured to the sheer-head by a lashing, 
 which passes over the sheer-head lashing and 
 allows the block to hang under the cross, while 
 the upper block of the small purchase is lashed 
 to the after fork of the sheers. Blocks are also 
 lashed to the forks through which girtlines are 
 rove, and guys are placed at the sheer-head and 
 near the middle of the legs to support them, and 
 retain them in position. . Under the heels heavy 
 shoes of plank should be placed, and the heels 
 must be securely lashed to prevent them from 
 slipping forward while the sheers are being raised. 
 The sheers are raised by means of the main pur 
 chase and capstan, and if necessary a single spar 
 may be used as a derrick to assist in starting the 
 sheer-head. 
 
 If all of the lower-masts and the bowsprit are 
 to be taken in, the mast nearest to the stern 
 should be stepped first, as in transporting the 
 sheers from the narrower to the wider part of 
 the deck the sheer-legs will be spread and the 
 sheer-head lashing tightened. Also, when the 
 sheers are raked over the bow, as is required in 
 getting in the bowsprit, they can be better sup 
 ported if the foremast has been previously 
 stepped. 
 
 The mast having been placed alongside with 
 the head aft, the lower block of the main pur 
 chase is toggled to the garland, or large selvage 
 strap, which is lashed to the mast at a sufficient 
 distance from the heel to cause it to hang heel- 
 heavy. The garland for the small purchase 
 should be lashed as far above the larger as there 
 is distance between the upper blocks of the two 
 purchases. The mast is then raised by means of 
 the capstan, eased inboard by guys as it comes 
 above the rail, and lowered into its place, using 
 the two purchases for sluing and pointing the 
 mast as desired. 
 
 In stepping the other masts the same process 
 is repeated, the sheers having first been trans 
 ported to a new position. 
 
 For a more minute account of masting and 
 sending aloft topmasts, topgallant-masts, etc., 
 works on seamanship should be consulted. ^ 
 
 Boat s masts are placed in accordance with the 
 principles already stated, but great precision is 
 not as necessary, as the balance of sail can be 
 easily obtained within certain limits by trim 
 ming the boat with the weights on board, and 
 thus changing the centre of lateral resistance as 
 required. Care should, however, always be 
 taken to retain the ardency of the boat, as with 
 the wind abeam or close-hauled its pressure on 
 the sails can be quickly lessened by a movement 
 of the helm. 
 
 The number of the masts and the rig depends 
 upon the service that is required, but in general 
 
 those for ship s boats should combine strength 
 with lightness, in order that they may carry the 
 sail with safety and be easily handled by the 
 crew ; they should be sufficiently short to allow 
 of being stowed snugly in the boat when not in 
 use, and there should be a sufficient number to 
 give to the boat the requisite amount of sail. 
 E. T. Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Masts. The upright spars which are placed 
 in a vessel to support the yards, gaffs, and booms 
 upon which the sails are spread. 
 
 Masts are named from the position in which 
 they are placed. In a vessel with two masts that 
 nearest the bow is called the foremast, and the 
 other the mainmast. When there are three masts 
 they are named the fore-, main-, and mizzen- 
 masts, and with four masts that nearest the stern 
 is called the spanker-mast. In vessels of small 
 size and simple rig each mast may be made from 
 a single spar, but vessels of larger size and of a 
 more complicated rig require the masts to be 
 made in sections on account of the great difficulty 
 in obtaining spars of sufficient length, the incon 
 venience in handling them, and the necessity of 
 being able to send down the upper parts of the 
 mast and leave the lower in position. These sec 
 tions in a square-rigged mast are named the 
 lower-mast, topmast, topgallant-mast, and royai 
 mast. With masts fore-and-aft rigged there are 
 but two sections, the upper one being called the 
 topmast. 
 
 The lower-masts are stepped upon the keelson, 
 and extend to a certain height above the upper 
 deck, depending upon its position in the vessel, 
 the rig of the vessel, and whether moved by 
 steam or sails. Square-rigged sailing-vessels 
 have comparatively shorter lower-masts than 
 those of fore-and-aft rig, as the latter require 
 them of greater length in order to accommodate 
 the lower sails. The principal parts of the lower- 
 mast are the heel, which rests upon the keelson ; 
 the partners, which are at the height of the deck 
 where the mast is wedged ; the hounds, or shoul 
 ders, where the head commences and upon which 
 the trestle-trees rest ; the head, which is that part 
 above the hounds ; and the bibbs, which are fitted 
 pieces of timber bolted to the sides of the mast 
 with their upper edges level with the hounds and 
 giving additional support to the trestle-trees. 
 The bibbs also strengthen the mast in that part 
 which is most liable to strain and injury. 
 
 Lower-masts for small square-rigged vessels, 
 and for all those of fore-and-aft rig, are made 
 from a single spar, and are called single-tree 
 masts. For large vessels the lower-onasts are 
 composed of several pieces united by dowels and 
 hooped, and are called made-masts. These are 
 stronger and more durable than single-tree masts 
 and less liable to be defective. 
 
 The topmast is stepped forward of the lower- 
 mast head, and its weight is sustained by the fid, 
 which, passing through the fid-hole in the heel, 
 rests upon the trestle-trees. The topmast also 
 passes through the round hole of the cap which 
 is placed on the lower-mast head, and that part 
 of the two masts between the trestle-trees and 
 the cap is called the doublings of the mast. 
 
 Platforms of semicircular shape, called tops, 
 are placed over the lower-mast heads previous to 
 stepping the topmasts and placing the caps, and 
 rest upon the trestle-trees. The maintop is 
 equal in breadth to half the breadth of beam, 
 
MASULAH 
 
 488 
 
 MATE 
 
 . while the fore- and mizzen-tops are proportion 
 ally smaller. Being secured on the underneath 
 side to the mast below the bibbs, the topmast 
 shrouds are set up to the rim on each side and 
 give lateral support to the mast. 
 
 The topmast head is similar in construction to 
 the lower-mast head. The hounds support the 
 trestle-trees upon which the fid of the topgal 
 lant-mast rests, and the head of the topmast is 
 surmounted by the cap through the round hole 
 of which the topgallant-mast passes. Each mast 
 is secured in position by shrouds, stays, and back 
 stays independently of each other, so that the 
 upper-mast can be sent down without disturbing 
 the security of those below it. 
 
 To ascertain the dimensions of the several 
 masts of a vessel, both as compared with the size 
 of the vessel and with each other, works on ship 
 building should be consulted. 
 
 Timber for masting should be not only strong 
 and durable, but also light and elastic. These 
 qualities are found in the cone-bearing trees, as 
 the pine, spruce, fir, etc. 
 
 The timber is principally obtained from the 
 forests of Maine, Oregon, Canada, and the north 
 ern countries of Europe. Great care is required 
 in its selection. The trees should be of sufficient 
 age and well charged with resin, which gives 
 strength to the wood and preserves it from in 
 sects and premature decay. After the timber is 
 felled care is required in its preservation, and 
 to this end the rough spars are buried in mud, or 
 submerged or floated in wet-basins, where they 
 are protected from changes of temperature. 
 
 Masts of iron have been constructed to some 
 extent, but its use is confined principally to ves 
 sels of that material, as steamers, where extreme 
 length of mast is not required. Iron lacks the 
 elasticity and flexibility which is found in wood, 
 and for that reason is not likely to come into 
 general use. There are, however, some consid 
 erations in its favor, such as strength and dura 
 bility, cheapness in localities where iron abounds, 
 purposes of ventilation, and the facility with 
 which masts of required dimensions may be con 
 structed. 
 
 A jury-mast is a temporary mast constructed 
 from such masts or spars as may be at hand to 
 replace one that has been injured or lost by stress 
 of weather or during an engagement. E. T. 
 Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 MAST-COAT. A canvas covering setting close 
 over the wedges and partners of a mast to keep 
 water out. 
 
 MAST-HEAD. The part of a mast above the 
 hounds. To mast-head, to hoist up, or send up, 
 to the mast-head ; a well-known punishment for 
 midshipmen. 
 
 MAST-HOLE. An aperture in a thwart of a 
 boat or deck of a ship to receive a mast when it 
 is stepped. 
 
 MAST-HOOPS. Iron hoops on a made-mast. 
 
 MAST-ROPE. A heavy rope used in swaying 
 up or striking a mast. 
 
 Masulah, or Masoolah Boats. Madras boats, 
 of which the planks are sewed together with coir- 
 yarn, crossing the stitches over a wadding of 
 coir or straw, which presses on the joints and 
 prevents much leakage. The vessel is thus ren 
 dered pliable, and yields to the shock on taking 
 the ground in the surf, which at times runs from 
 10 to 16 feet high. They are rowed by 12 men 
 
 in double banks, with oars formed by an oval 
 piece of board lashed to the end of a rough piece 
 of wood. They are guided by one man with a 
 long steering-oar, who stamps and yells with ex 
 citement as he urges the men to pull when a roll 
 ing surf is coming up astern. These boats are 
 from 30 to 35 feet in length, 10 to 11 feet in 
 breadth, and 7 to 8 feet in depth. 
 
 Mat. To prevent chafing a thick mat is woven 
 from strands of old rope, spun yarn, or foxes, 
 containing a number of rope-yarns in proportion 
 to the size of the mat to be made. The largest 
 and strongest kinds are called paunch-mats. The 
 thrum-mat is similar to the cocoa-nut fibre door 
 mats. "Where it is possible rounding is used in 
 stead of mats, it being neater and holding less 
 water. 
 
 Matanzas, on the northwest coast of the island 
 of Cuba, in lat. 23 3 N., Ion. 81 40 W., is a for 
 tified seaport town, and in commercial importance 
 ranks next to Havana. The imports consist 
 chiefly of articles of food, machinery, and mate 
 rials for sugar and coifee plantations. Among 
 the exports are sugar, coffee, molasses, tobacco, 
 honey, wax, and fruits. The bay is spacious, 
 easy of access, and completely sheltered from 
 winds except those from the northeast, which 
 bring in a heavy swell. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Match. A slow-match is a loosely-twisted 
 cord dipped in a solution of lime-water and salt 
 petre ; it burns 4 to 6 inches per hour. A quick- 
 match is cotton-wick saturated with a compo 
 sition of mealed powder, gum, and spirits ; it 
 burns about three inches per second. 
 
 MATCH-STAFF. A pointed staff with a slit in 
 the upper end ; used to hold the slow-match. 
 
 MATCH-TUB. A conical tub about 18 inches 
 in height, with a sunken head perforated with 
 holes, in which the slow-match was hung. 
 
 Mate. A line-officer in the navy not in the 
 line of promotion. He holds his position by ap 
 pointment, messes in the steerage, and may be 
 ordered to do duty in the boats, as mate of a 
 deck, or such other duty as the commanding 
 officer prescribes. The term is also applied to 
 the assistant of the boatswain, gunner, armorer, 
 etc. ; and it also means an equal or partner ; as, 
 messmate, shipmate, etc. 
 
 Mate, Chief. The officer next in rank to the 
 master of a merchantman. He is the active 
 superintending officer carrying out the ideas and 
 orders of the master. While in port the chief 
 mate has more control of the vessel than when 
 at sea, the master being generally engaged in 
 transactions with the merchants and owners on 
 shore. The chief mate has the charge of receiv 
 ing, stowing, breaking out, and discharging of 
 cargo, and is in command of the ship during the 
 absence of the master. At sea the chief mate 
 has command of the port watch; when all hands 
 are called the master takes charge, and the mate 
 is stationed on the forecastle. He is also in 
 trusted with keeping the log. He is consid 
 ered a confidential person to whom the owners, 
 shippers, and insurers look for special duties and 
 qualifications ; the master, therefore, cannot re 
 move him from office except under peculiar cir 
 cumstances, and then must be able to prove a 
 justifiable cause. The law makes the chief mate 
 the successor to the master in case he should die 
 or be unable to perform the duties of his office, 
 and this/ without any action on the part of the 
 
MATE 
 
 489 
 
 McCAWLEY 
 
 crew. It is, therefore, important that he should 
 have a sufficient knowledge of navigation to take 
 the ship to her destination. 
 
 Mate, Second. The second mate commands 
 the starboard watch at sea, but when all hands 
 are called on deck he leads the crew in their 
 work, taking the weather earing in reefing and 
 furling the bunts of the topsail and courses. He 
 ought to have a good knowledge of marline-spike 
 seamanship, as he is expected to attend to the 
 most difficult of jobs in that line. In port the 
 boat-duty falls to his lot, and in receiving and 
 discharging cargo his station is in the hold. 
 
 Mate, Third. Merchant vessels bound on 
 long voyages sometimes carry a third mate, but 
 this^is so unusual that his duties have not become 
 settled by custom. He belongs to the port watch ; 
 he takes the bunt and the weather earing forward 
 as the second mate does aft, and in port does a 
 part of duty which would be otherwise allotted 
 to the second mate. 
 
 Mates of Decks, Hold, and Hull. Junior 
 officers who are responsible for the condition of 
 decks, hold, or hull, and superintend all work 
 done within their limits. 
 
 Mathemeg. A fish of the cod kind, inhabiting 
 Hudson s Bay. 
 
 Maties. Dock-yard artificers, shipwrights, 
 carpenters, etc. 
 
 Mato. A shell formerly of some commercial 
 value on the west coast of Africa. 
 
 Matthew Walker. A knot, so termed from 
 the originator. It is formed by a half-hitch on 
 each strand in the direction of the lay, so that 
 the rope can be continued after the knot is 
 formed, which shows as a transverse collar of 
 three strands. It is the knot used on the end jof 
 the laniards of rigging where dead-eyes are em 
 ployed. 
 
 Maud. A salmon net fixed in a square form 
 by four stakes. 
 
 Maund. An Indian weight, which varies in 
 amount, depending on the part of the country. 
 Also, a basket used by fishermen ; a measure of 
 small fish. 
 
 Maunjee. The native boatmen of the river 
 Hooghly. 
 
 Maury, Matthew Fontaine, LL.D., naval offi 
 cer and hydrographer. Born in Spottsylvania 
 County, Va., January 14, 1806. While he was 
 young his parents removed to Tennessee. Mid 
 shipman, February 1, 1825, and while circum 
 navigating the globe in the " Vincennes" began 
 his treatise on "Navigation." Lieutenant, June 
 10, 1836. In 1839 he met with an accident 
 which resulted in permanent lameness and unfit 
 ted him for active service afloat. While confined 
 from this cause he amused himself by writing a 
 series of articles on various abuses in the navy, 
 published in the Southern Literary Messenger, 
 entitled " Scraps from the Lucky Bag, by Harry 
 Bluff." He was then placed in charge of the 
 Hydrographical Office, and on its union with the 
 Naval Observatory, in 1844, he became superin 
 tendent. He investigated the physical geography 
 of the sea, and gathered many observations of 
 the ocean winds and currents from the records 
 of naval and merchant vessels. In 1844, Lieut. 
 Maury s paper respecting the Gulf Stream, ocean 
 currents, and great circle sailing was read before 
 the National Institute, and printed in the South 
 ern Literary Messenger. The principal results 
 
 of his researches are embodied in the wind and 
 current charts and the sailing directions published 
 by the Observatory for general distribution 
 among mariners, and in the " Physical Geogra 
 phy of the Sea" (New York, 1855). In 1855 he 
 was made commander, and in 1861 threw up his 
 appointments and joined in the Kebellion. Re 
 signed the presidency of the University of Ala 
 bama in 1871. Member of the principal scientific 
 associations of America and Europe, from whom, 
 as well as from foreign governments, he has re 
 ceived distinguished honors. He has beside the 
 above published "Letters on the Amazon, and 
 the Atlantic Slopes of South America," "Rela 
 tion between Navigation and the Circulation 
 of the Atmosphere," "Astronomical Observa 
 tions," 1853, and also several addresses before 
 literary and scientific bodies. 
 
 Mavis Skate. The sharp-nosed ray. 
 
 Maw, or Sea-maw. The common gull, Larus 
 canus. 
 
 Mayaguez is the third town of importance of 
 the island of Porto Rico. It has a very good 
 harbor, and the exports and imports have each 
 exceeded $3,000,000 in a year. Sugar, molasses, 
 coffee, hides, fruit, and turtle-shell are leading 
 exports. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Maze. In the herring trade, 500 fishes. 
 
 Mazolet. An Indian bark-boat, calked with 
 moss. 
 
 McCawley, Charles G., Colonel U.S.M.C. 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed from Louis 
 iana. 
 
 Commissioned as second lieutenant, March 3, 
 1847 ; in June, ordered to join battalion of ma 
 rines for service with army in Mexico ; partici 
 pated in the storming of the castle of Chapul- 
 tepec and taking of the city of Mexico ; brevetted 
 first lieutenant for gallant and meritorious con 
 duct in these actions, September 13, 1847; in 
 August, 1848, was ordered for duty at marine 
 barracks, Philadelphia ; December, 1848, marine 
 barracks, Boston; July, 1849, " Cumberland," 
 Mediterranean Squadron ; March, 1850, at Na 
 ples, to razee " Independence" ; August, 1852, 
 marine barracks, Philadelphia ; June, 1853, 
 "Princeton," Home Squadron. 
 
 Promoted first lieutenant, January 2, 1855; 
 July, 1855, marine barracks, New York ; De 
 cember, 1855, marine barracks, Boston ; July, 
 1857, " Mississippi" ; detached, and ordered to 
 Philadelphia; December, 1857, "Jamestown," 
 at Philadelphia, for Home Squadron ; March, 
 1860, marine barracks, Philadelphia ; December, 
 1860, " Macedonian," Home Squadron, Atlantic 
 coast, West Indies, and Spanish Main ; January, 
 1862, marine barracks, Boston ; detached imme 
 diately, and ordered to join battalion of marines 
 at Bay Point, S. C. ; April, 1862, returned with 
 battalion to Washington. 
 
 Received commission as captain, July 26, 1861 ; 
 ordered in command at headquarters ; May, 1862, 
 ordered with detachment of 200 men to reoccupy 
 the Norfolk Navy-Yard ; hoisted the flag again 
 on the part of the navy ; October, 1862, ordered 
 to headquarters, Washington, D. C. ; in com 
 mand until July, 1863; ordered to join battalion 
 of marines, for service in South Atlantic Squad 
 ron ; served with same on Morris Island during 
 bombardment and destruction of Fort Sumter, 
 and capture of Forts Wagner and Gregg ; com 
 manded a detachment of 100 men and officers in 
 
McCLINTOCK 
 
 490 
 
 McKEEVER 
 
 the boat attack on Fort Sumter, September 8, 
 1863 ; received a brevet as major for gallant and 
 meritorious conduct in this action ; served on 
 Folly Island ; and in December, 1863, battalion 
 returned to Philadelphia; marine barracks, 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Promoted major, June 10, 1864 ; ordered to 
 marine rendezvous, Philadelphia; March, 1865, 
 ordered to command marine barracks, Boston. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant-colonel, December 5, 
 1867 ; August, 1871, ordered to command ma 
 rine barracks, Washington, D. C. ; June, 1872, 
 appointed superintendent of recruiting, in addi 
 tion to other duty ordered to New York to attend 
 to organizing the recruiting service ; returned to 
 Washington, November, 1872. 
 
 Promoted colonel commandant of the U. S. 
 marine corps, November 1, 1876. 
 
 McClintock, Sir Francis Leopold. Born at 
 Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819. Entered the British 
 navy in 1831, at 12 years of age; accompanied 
 Sir John Ross s Arctic Expedition in 1848, and 
 Capt. Austin s expedition in 1850 in search of 
 Sir John Franklin as a lieutenant. Promoted 
 to commander in 1851, and accompanied the ex 
 pedition of Sir Edward Belcher, which rescued 
 Capt. McClure, who had been imprisoned for 
 three years by the ice near Melville Island ; in 
 1857 he was sent by Lady Franklin in com 
 mand of the " Fox" in search of Sir John Frank 
 lin, and had the satisfaction of proving that Sir 
 John had made a discovery of the northwest pas 
 sage communicating with the Pacific, and also 
 ascertained the positive fate of Sir John and his 
 expedition ; for this he was knighted in 1860. In 
 October, 1871, he was promoted to rear-admiral, 
 and in 1872 was made superintendent of the 
 Portsmouth dock-yard. Promoted to vice-ad 
 miral, August 5, 1877. 
 
 McDonough, Thomas, Commodore U.S.N., 
 was born in New Castle, Del., December, 1783. 
 He was appointed a midshipman in 1800. He 
 sailed in the " Philadelphia," Capt. Bainbridge, 
 arriving off Tripoli August 24, 1803. When 
 that ship was captured, he was absent in a prize, 
 and did not suffer captivity. He was then sent 
 to the " Enterprise" with Decatur, and was en 
 gaged in the destruction of the "Philadelphia" 
 in the ketch " Intrepid." He was engaged in the 
 attacks of August 3 and September 28, particu 
 larly distinguishing himself in the former. In 
 1806 he was a lieutenant in the " Siren" under 
 Stewart, and was very intrepid in protecting 
 American seamen from imprisonment. 
 
 In January, 1806, he was promoted to lieuten 
 ant. He was sent to command the forces on Lake 
 Champlain in the summer of 1812. In 1813 two 
 ships of his small squadron were captured, but it 
 was increased the following year, and on the llth 
 of September, while at anchor near Plattsburg, he 
 was attacked by an English squadron of 4 ships 
 and 13 galleys, but by consummate ability and 
 seamanship, particularly in anchoring his ships, 
 he defeated the enemy with his squadron of 4 
 ships and 11 galleys, after a long and bloody 
 battle. He was wounded slightly. Received a 
 medal, 100 acres of land from the State of Ver 
 mont, and was promoted to captain, September 
 11, he having been already promoted to master 
 commandant, July 20, 1813. From 1816 to 1818, 
 he was attached to the navy-yard, Portsmouth, 
 N. H. From 1819 to 1821, he was in command 
 
 of the frigate " Guerriere" in the Mediterranean. 
 He was then in command of the " Ohio," 74, in 
 ordinary at New York Navy-Yard, and in 1825 
 he went again to the Mediterranean, flying his 
 flag on the frigate " Constitution." He died of 
 consumption, while on his way home in her, 
 November 10, 1825, aged 42. F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 McDougal, David D., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Ohio. Appointed from Ohio, April 1, 
 1828; sloop "Natchez," West India Squadron, 
 1829-31 ; frigate " Brandy wine," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1832-35. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834; navy-yard, New York, 1835-36; sloop 
 "Natchez," West India Squadron, 1837-39; 
 brig " Consort," coast survey, 1840-43. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 25, 
 1841; navy-yard, New York, 1843-44; steamer 
 " Michigan," on the lakes, 1845-46 ; sloop " St. 
 Mary s," 1846; attached to steamer "Missis 
 sippi," at the capture of Vera Cruz ; brig " Bain- 
 bridge," 1848-50, coast of Africa ; steamer 
 " Michigan," on the lakes, 1852-54 ; command 
 ing store-ship "Warren," 1855-57. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, January 24, 
 1857; navy-yard, Mare Island, Gal., 1859-60; 
 commanding steam-sloop " Wyoming," Asiatic 
 Squadron, 1861-64; while in command of the 
 " Wyoming," engaged 6 batteries and 3 vessels 
 of war, at Simonsaki, Japan, July 16, 1863, 
 sinking a brig and exploding the boilers of a 
 steamer, with a loss of 11 killed and wounded on 
 the "Wyoming." 
 
 Commissioned as captain, March 2, 1864 ; 
 commanding navy-yard, Mare Island, Gal., 
 1865-66; commanding steam-sloop " Powhatan," 
 South Pacific Squadron, 1868-69. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1869 ; command 
 ing South Squadron, Pacific Fleet, 1870-72 ; re 
 tired, December 27, 1871. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, September 27, 
 1873. 
 
 McKean, William, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsylvania, in 1801 ; died near Binghamton, 
 N. Y., April 22, 1865. Son of Judge McKean. 
 Midshipman, November 30, 1814; lieutenant, 
 January 13, 1825. Commander, September 8, 
 1841 ; captain, September 14, 1855; commodore, 
 July 16, 1862 ; governor of Naval Asylum, 1858- 
 61 ; retired, July 16, 1862. Commanded a schooner 
 in Porter s West India Squadron, 1823-24, and 
 active in suppressing piracy there. In 1860 on 
 special service of conveying the Japanese Em 
 bassy home, and on his return was for a short 
 time in command of the West Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron. 
 
 McKeever, Isaac, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsylvania, April, 1793; died in Norfolk, 
 Va., April 1, 1856. Midshipman, December 1, 
 1809; lieutenant, December 9, 1814, and com 
 manded a gunboat in the flotilla of Lieut. Jones, 
 which was captured by the British on Lake 
 Borgne, La., December, 1814. In the engage 
 ment, which was very warm, he was severely 
 wounded. In the galliot "Sea-Gull," in 1825, 
 aided by some boats of the British frigate " Dart 
 mouth," he, after a sharp fight, captured two 
 pirate schooners. May 27, 1830, he was made a 
 commander, and a captain in December, 1838. 
 He commanded the squadron on the coast of 
 Brazil in 1851-54. 
 
MEALED POWDER 
 
 491 
 
 MEDICAL OFFICERS 
 
 Mealed Powder. See POWDER. 
 
 Mean. A term implying medium ; average. 
 
 MEAN NOON. See NOON. 
 
 MEAN SUN. A fictitious sun which is con 
 ceived to move uniformly in the equinoctial 
 with the mean velocity that the true sun has in 
 the ecliptic. 
 
 MEAN TIME. See TIME. 
 
 Meek. A notched staff in a whale-boat on 
 which the harpoon rests. 
 
 Medical Corps of U. S. Navy. The active 
 list of the medical corps of the navy consists of 
 15 medical directors, ranking with captains ; 15 
 medical inspectors, ranking with commanders ; 
 50 surgeons, ranking with lieutenant-command 
 ers or lieutenants ; and 100 passed assistant and 
 assistant surgeons, ranking with lieutenants, 
 masters, or ensigns, according to length of ser 
 vice. 
 
 Assistant surgeons enter the service after ex 
 amination by a board of medical officers, and at 
 the completion of two years sea-service are sub 
 ject to another thorough examination, which is 
 competitive, and which determines their perma 
 nent place upon the register. 
 
 The surgeon-general is selected by the Secre 
 tary of the Navy, and appointed by the Presi 
 dent from among the senior medical officers, and 
 is commissioned for four years, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate. The surgeon r 
 general is chief of the Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgery in the Navy Department, and has charge 
 of all matters pertaining to the medical outfit 
 of vessels, to naval hospitals, and to the naval 
 laboratory ; the detailing of medical officers for 
 service ; and all papers and records pertaining to 
 the medical department, as well as the expendi 
 ture of all moneys for the purchase of supplies 
 and for the maintenance of hospitals. See MED 
 ICAL OFFICERS, DUTIES OF. E. Shippen. 
 
 Medical Officers of U. S. Navy, Duties of. 
 Surgeons of the fleet, who are usually medical in 
 spectors or senior surgeons, are to exercise super 
 vision over all medical officers serving under 
 them, and from time to time to inspect their 
 journals, abstracts, instruments, dispensaries, and 
 store-rooms. The fleet-surgeon is also to assure 
 himself of the correctness of all medical reports 
 and returns, and indorse as approved all certifi 
 cates of death or disability, and reports of sur 
 vey, before forwarding them to the Bureau of 
 Medicine and Surgery. 
 
 He also examines and approves all requisitions 
 for medical and hospital stores for the fleet or 
 squadron, and inspects their quality. On for 
 eign stations he purchases these supplies, or 
 selects them from the naval store-house, making 
 requisitions therefor, as far as possible, at regular 
 periods. 
 
 He makes and transmits to the Bureau of Med 
 icine and Surgery records of the character and 
 treatment of diseases occurring in the fleet or 
 squadron. He is also to suggest measures for 
 the preservation of health in the fleet. 
 
 On the probability of an engagement he is to 
 assure himself that the medical department of 
 every ship is prepared for the treatment of 
 wounded ; and after battle will make to the 
 commander-in-chief, and to the bureau, a sum 
 mary report of casualties. He is also to forward 
 to the bureau an aggregate report for each quar 
 ter, comprising all diseases in the squadron, with 
 
 a summary of bills incurred, and an epitome of 
 the remarks of medical officers in cases likely to 
 give ri.se to claims for pension. 
 
 General Duties of Naval Medical Queers. The 
 senior medical officer of every naval station and 
 of every vessel in commission shall keep, or 
 cause to be kept by a medical officer subordinate 
 to him, the following official records, viz. : 
 
 A list of patients, with complete description of 
 person, details of and final disposition of each 
 case. This is to be embodied in a quarterly 
 report. 
 
 A medical journal, with complete description 
 of person, and history of cases, properly indexed. 
 
 A yearly abstract of patients, a concise, alpha 
 betical record of every case of injury or disease 
 occurring in the navy, with full personal descrip 
 tion, and whether occurring in the line of duty 
 or not. 
 
 A daity report of sick, made every morning 
 to the commanding officer, in a sealed envelope. 
 
 A daily binnacle list, of all persons excused 
 from duty. 
 
 Whenever a patient is transferred from the 
 charge of one medical officer to that of another, 
 he must be accompanied by his effects, with a 
 list thereof upon a hospital ticket, which ticket 
 gives a description of the person, and all facts in 
 the case, as well as the origin of the disability, 
 whether in line of duty or not. 
 
 A report of sick is made quarterly to the sur 
 geon of the fleet, or to the Bureau of Medicine 
 and Surgery, and with it are forwarded triplicate 
 receipts for articles obtained from public stores 
 during the quarter, and a triplicate of all bills 
 paid; a daily record of atmospheric observa 
 tions, and, on April 1 and October 1, requisitions 
 for supplies for the next six months. Medical 
 officers of cruising vessels are required to note 
 on this quarterly report of sick the ports visited, 
 and the number of days at sea and in port during 
 the quarter. 
 
 Certificates of disability, and certificates of 
 death, and all other papers interesting to parties 
 claiming pensions, are to be forwarded without 
 delay, through the proper channel, to the sur 
 geon of the fleet or to the bureau direct. 
 
 The senior medical officer is to prepare his own 
 receipts and returns ; and if relieved, is to leave 
 to his successor all necessary official papers, 
 taking a receipt for them in duplicate. 
 
 At shore-stations, hospitals, and receiving- 
 ships the senior medical officer is required to 
 make, on July 1 of each year, an inventory of 
 all property in his charge, which inventory is to 
 be transmitted to the Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgery. 
 
 The senior medical officer of every vessel and 
 station is required, on each 1st of January, to 
 make a sanitary report to the bureau, embracing 
 hygiene, climatology, and medical topography of 
 all places visited, with all attainable informa 
 tion respecting statistics of disease and its causes, 
 medical schools, hospitals, charitable institutions, 
 etc. 
 
 By law, all spirits on board ship are to be un 
 der the charge of the senior medical officer, and 
 issued only on his prescription. 
 
 Assistant surgeons, candidates for promotion, 
 must present to the Board of Examiners testi 
 monials of proper habits from the medical offi 
 cers with whom they have been associated on 
 
MEDICAL OFFICERS 
 
 492 
 
 MEDICAL OFFICERS 
 
 duty, and a medical journal in the candidate s 
 own handwriting. Also observations upon the 
 hygiene of vessels and stations to which they 
 may have been attached, and upon medical topog 
 raphy, hospitals, and other matters of profes 
 sional interest. 
 
 Passed assistant and assistant surgeons, when 
 in separate charge, will be governed by the same 
 instructions as surgeons. 
 
 Director of the Laboratory will receive timely 
 notice of the probable force to be kept afloat, and 
 for this and other current wants will keep in 
 hand, by manufacture or otherwise, an adequate 
 stock of the articles enumerated in the supply 
 table. Accurate invoices, inventories, and re 
 ceipts are required in receiving supplies from the 
 laboratory, or in returning them, after a vessel 
 has been put out of commission ; at which time 
 a final return of property is also to be made to 
 the bureau. When medical stores are publicly 
 sold, an invoice and account of sale are to be sent 
 to the bureau, and the money resulting from 
 such sale to be deposited, without delay, with the 
 nearest government depositary, proper receipts 
 being taken. 
 
 Recruiting. An important duty of medical 
 officers is connected with recruiting, and they 
 are held strictly accountable to the bureau for 
 improper enlistments. 
 
 Medical officers are required to make certificates 
 of physical examinations of enlisted men, and 
 to keep a record of physical condition of all 
 minors, including cadets and apprentices, ex 
 aminations of whom are to be made at intervals 
 of twelve months. The record of the cadets is 
 to be retained at the Naval Academy. In case 
 of apprentices arid enlisted minors it will consti 
 tute their descriptive list, and accompany them 
 throughout their career in the service. 
 
 An accurate list of persons examined for en 
 listment or appointment is to be kept wherever 
 such enlistments are made, in every case to be 
 signed by the medical officer making the ex 
 amination. 
 
 A descriptive list of all men transferred or dis 
 charged is to be signed by the executive-officer 
 and the senior medical officer. 
 
 When defects are waived by the Navy De 
 partment, in cases of enlisted men, the medical 
 officer is fully to describe the same, and report 
 the case to the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, 
 as a bar to claims for pension. 
 
 Medical officers are to vaccinate all recruits, 
 and to make regular reports of the results. 
 
 In sea-going ships, as soon as possible after re 
 porting for duty, the senior medical officer is to 
 inspect the dispensary and store-rooms, examine 
 the outfit, prepare medicines and instruments for 
 use, and report his department ready for inspec 
 tion. Having secured everything for sea, he 
 opens his medical journal upon the day when the 
 officers and crew are received on board. He ex 
 amines the crew, by divisions, and reports those 
 whom he considers disqualified for service, and 
 calls for a medical survey if necessary. He 
 causes all who may require it to be vaccinated, 
 and instructs such persons as the commanding 
 officer shall designate in the use of the tourniquet. 
 He will always be prepared for battle, and, after 
 an engagement, will report casualties to the com 
 manding officer and to the surgeon of the fleet, 
 with complete details of each case. 
 
 On board ship, all wines, spirituous liquors, 
 mineral acids, and inflammable fluids in the 
 medical department must be locked up by them 
 selves, to be disposed of, in case of fire, as the 
 exigency demands. 
 
 Naval Hospitals. The medical officer in charge 
 of a naval hospital is to enforce strict obedience 
 to the laws and regulations of the Navy Depart 
 ment, in accordance with the established usages 
 and discipline of the service. The hospital, its 
 grounds and appurtenances, and all persons and 
 property attached to it, are to be under his con 
 trol. He is responsible for the proper treatment 
 of the sick and wounded, and for the good order, 
 cleanliness, discipline, and economy of the entire 
 establishment, and is to preserve everything in 
 good condition. No punishment is to be inflicted 
 without his orders. The medical officer second 
 in rank is to reside in the hospital, and to have 
 general charge in medical duty, but is to consult 
 the officer in charge in all important matters. 
 He is to assign duty to the junior medical offi 
 cers, and to report to the officer in charge any 
 neglect of duty or breach of discipline. 
 
 He is to see that the hospital records are care 
 fully and neatly kept, and signed by the proper 
 officers with name and rank. He, or an assist 
 ant, by his order, is to make a careful inspection, 
 daily, of the wards, dining-rooms, kitchens, 
 Laundry, and cellars, and report their condition 
 to the medical officer in charge. He is also to 
 inspect all provisions, medicines, groceries, and 
 bed and table furniture that may be received, 
 and report any deficiency to the officer in charge. 
 
 Junior medical officers serving in hospitals, in 
 addition to their duties in the wards, shall be 
 detailed, in turn, as officer of the day, and are 
 not to leave the building during their tour of 
 duty. The officer of the day is to inspect the 
 food at meal-times, and to attend to the admis 
 sion and discharge of patients, and to see that 
 proper papers are sent and received. 
 
 The medical officer in charge of a hospital 
 ward is responsible for order, neatness, and good 
 conduct therein, as well as for everything regard 
 ing the welfare of the sick and wounded. 
 
 The medical officer in charge of a hospital is 
 to make no changes in the hospital buildings or 
 grounds without permission of the Bureau of 
 Medicine and Surgery. He is carefully to scru 
 tinize the monthly pay-roll of persons employed 
 under the bureau before signing it. 
 
 The products of the ground attached to a naval 
 hospital are to be expended for the benefit of the 
 hospital, at the discretion of the surgeon in 
 charge. 
 
 The official papers pertaining to the conduct 
 of naval hospitals are principally as follows, viz. : 
 hospital tickets, alphabetical register, quarterly 
 list, abstract of patients, journal of subsistence, 
 case papers, ration notices, certificate book, cer 
 tificates of ordinary disability and certificates of 
 death, reports of surveys, declarations for pen 
 sion, vouchers for expenditure, hospital ration 
 return, receipt and expenditure book, requisi 
 tions, weekly report of sick, weekly report of 
 beds, and monthly pay-roll. 
 
 Surveys, upon persons and upon medical prop 
 erty. Personal surveys, next to the preserva 
 tion of life and limb, are the most important 
 duties of medical officers. The Commissioner of 
 Pensions founds his decisions upon them. In 
 
MEDICINE-CHEST 
 
 493 
 
 MERCHANTMAN 
 
 case of surveys, and all matters connected with 
 the evidence in pension claims, medical officers 
 are forbidden to give information to agents or 
 others. All such persons must be referred to 
 the Commissioner of Pensions. E. Shippen. 
 
 Medicine-chest. A chest containing a sup 
 ply of medicines for the use of the crew of a mer 
 chantman. Every vessel of 150 tons or more, 
 navigated by 10 or more persons in all, and 
 bound on a voyage beyond the United States^ 
 and every vessel of 75 tons or more, navigated 
 by 6 or more persons in all, is required to have 
 a chest of medicines, put up by an apothecary 
 of known reputation, and accompanied by direc 
 tions for administering the medicines. The chest 
 must be examined at least once a year, and sup 
 plied with fresh medicines. In case of dispute 
 the owner must prove the sufficiency of the 
 medicine-chest ; it does not lie with the seaman 
 to prove its insufficiency. If a seaman requires 
 further medicines and medical advice than the 
 chest and directions can give, it would seem that 
 the ship ought to bear the expense. If the medi 
 cine-chest can furnish all the needs, the ship is 
 exempted. 
 
 Medico. A familiar appellation for the ship s 
 surgeon. 
 
 Mediterranean Pass (Eng.}. A document 
 formerly granted by the lords of the Admiralty 
 to registered vessels, which was valuable when 
 the Barbary powers were unchecked. 
 
 Meermaid. A name given by the English 
 fishermen to the Lophius piscatorius, or frog- 
 fish, without reference to the mermaid. 
 
 Meer-swine. The porpoise (from the Ger 
 man meerschwein). 
 
 Meet Her ! The order to adjust the helm so 
 as to check any further lateral movement of the 
 ship s head. 
 
 Melanurus. A small fish of the Mediterra 
 nean ; a species of Spams, or gilt-head. 
 
 Melbourne is situated on the Yarra Yarra, 8 
 miles from its mouth, in Southeastern Australia, 
 colony of Victoria, of which it is the capital. 
 Lat. 37 43 53" S. ; Ion. 144 47 42" E. The 
 river has a bar at its mouth, and a second half 
 way to the town, which compels the largest 
 shipping to anchor at Hobson s Bay, near the 
 mouth of the harbor, to which there is now a 
 railway direct from Melbourne, with two piers 
 projecting into deep water. The commerce of 
 Melbourne is very extensive, and represents about 
 nine-tenths of the entire trade of the colony. 
 Melbourne is the first and last port of call for 
 the mail-ships to Galle. Pop. 62,000 ; including 
 adjacent boroughs, 247,000. 
 
 Memel. A seaport town of Prussia, at the 
 north end of the Curische-Haff, where the Dange 
 falls into the Baltic. Lat. 55 43 42" N. ; Ion. 21 
 6 12" E. It is the seat of an admiralty court, 
 and contains an exchange, marine hospital, school 
 of navigation, and other fine buildings. It is the 
 entrepot of the foreign trade of Western Russia. 
 It has extensive manufactures, but the great 
 source of its prosperity is its trade, which con 
 sists chiefly of timber, corn, flax, hemp, etc. The 
 harbor is large and safe, and has a depth of water 
 of from 14 to 17 feet. Ship-building is carried on 
 to a considerable extent. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Memphis, Shelby County, Tenn., is the prin* 
 cipal city in the State, and is the most important 
 and populous town on the Mississippi River be 
 
 tween St. Louis and New Orleans. It is beauti 
 fully situated on a bluff, elevated about 60 feet 
 above high-water mark, the base of which is 
 washed by the river for a distance of three miles, 
 while a bed of sandstone projects into the stream 
 and forms a convenient landing. It occupies the 
 only eligible site for a commercial depot from the 
 mouth of the Ohio to Vicksburg. As a market 
 for cotton it is surpassed by only two or three 
 cities in the United States ; the quantity re 
 ceived in a year is about 400,000 bales, valued at 
 $33,000,000. Pop. 62,500. 
 
 Mend. To mend sail, or mend the furl, to 
 skin the sails up afresh when they have been 
 badly furled. 
 
 Menendez de Aviles, Pedros, a distinguished 
 Spanish officer of an ancient Asturian family. 
 Born in 1519; died about September 15, 1574. 
 Wild in his youth, hegained distinction in cruises 
 against the corsairs and the French ; acquired 
 wealth in the New World ; was captain-general 
 of the fleet sent with troops to Flanders, con 
 tributing, it is said, to the victory of St. Quentin. 
 Afterwards went to the West Indies as general 
 of the fleet and army ; amassed vast riches, and. 
 in 1561, on his return to Spain, was arrested by 
 the Council of the Indies, imprisoned, and heavily 
 fined for his conduct there. At the head of an 
 expedition for the conquest and colonization of 
 Florida, he sailed from Cadiz, June 29, 1565. 
 September 7 he discovered the bay and river, 
 which he named St. Augustine, and landing, 
 took formal possession on the 8th, and laid the 
 foundation of St. Augustine, the oldest town in 
 the United States. September 21, at daybreak, 
 he surprised and put to the sword the French 
 Huguenot garrison at Fort Caroline, a piece 
 of cruelty afterwards avenged by De Gourgues 
 upon the Spanish garrison there. He returned 
 to Florida two years later, rebuilt San Mateo, 
 and in 1574, after his return to Spain, was given 
 the command of the Armada of 300 sail at San- 
 tander, destined against England, when he died 
 suddenly, at the age of 55. 
 
 Menkalinan. The star j3 Aurigce. 
 
 Menkar. The bright star a Ceti. 
 
 Menopome. One of the largest batrachians 
 found in some of our rivers, and known by many 
 
 names such 
 
 as hell-bender, 
 etc. 
 
 tweeg, mud-devil, 
 
 ground-puppy, 
 
 Mensa. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Merak. The star ft Ursce Maj oris. 
 
 Mercantile Marine. A collective designation 
 of the persons and vessels engaged in transport 
 ing the commodities exchanged in commerce. 
 
 Mercator s Chart. A chart constructed on 
 what is called Mercator s projection. All the 
 meridians are parallel right lines, and the degrees 
 of longitude are all equal ; the parallels of lati 
 tude are at right angles to the meridians, and the 
 degrees of latitude increase in length from the 
 equator to the pole in the same proportion as 
 the degrees of longitude decrease on the globe. 
 It may be constructed with the aid of a table 
 of meridional parts. The property which makes 
 the Mercator s chart so useful for purposes of 
 navigation is, that on it the track of a ship ap 
 pears as a straight line. See CHART. 
 
 Merchantman. A vessel employed in con 
 veying freight or passengers, as distinguished 
 from a national vessel, and from vessels in the 
 revenue service, coast survey, etc. 
 
MERCHANT SERVICE 
 
 494 
 
 MESSINA 
 
 Merchant Service. The mercantile marine. 
 
 Mercurial Gauge. A pressure-gauge which 
 depends for its action upon the effect of the fluid 
 on a column of mercury ; the pressure may act 
 directly on the column or be transmitted by an 
 intervening fluid, one or more pistons, or an elas 
 tic diaphragm of metal or other suitable ma 
 terial. 
 
 Mercury. The nearest planet to the sun. 
 Mean distance, 37 millions of miles ; diameter, 
 3000 miles ; apparent diameter, 6" to 12". Sym 
 bol 5, representing a wand. See VULCAN. 
 
 Merganser. A genus of birds of the family 
 Anatidce. They inhabit the coasts of northern 
 regions, but migrate southwards in winter. 
 
 Meridian. A great circle passing through the 
 poles of a sphere. A terrestrial meridian is an 
 ellipse formed by the intersection of the earth s 
 surface by a great circle passing through the 
 poles. A celestial meridian is a great circle of 
 the celestial sphere passing through the poles ; it 
 intersects the horizon in its north and south 
 points. Prime meridian, the origin whence 
 longitude is reckoned. A meridian-line is the 
 line formed by the intersection of the meridian 
 and the plane of the sensible horizon ; a north- 
 and-south line. Meridian altitude, the altitude 
 of a heavenly body when it bears due north or 
 due south. Meridian zenith distance, the com 
 plement of the meridian altitude. Meridional 
 difference of latitude, the quantity bearing the 
 same proportion to the difference of latitude that 
 the difference of longitude bears to the departure. 
 Meridional parts. At the equator a degree of 
 longitude is equal to a degree of latitude, but, 
 as we approach the poles, while (supposing the 
 earth to be a perfect sphere) the degrees of lati 
 tude remain the same, the degrees of longitude 
 become less and less. In the chart on Mercator s 
 projection the degrees of longitude are made 
 everywhere of the same length, and therefore, to 
 preserve the proportion that exists at different 
 parts of the earth s surface between the degrees 
 of latitude and the degrees of longitude, the for 
 mer must be increased from their natural lengths 
 more and more as we recede from the equator. 
 The lengths of small portions of the meridian 
 thus increased, expressed in minutes of the equa 
 tor, are called meridional parts. Meridional 
 projection, a projection of a sphere in which the 
 plane of projection coincides with or is parallel to 
 the meridian. 
 
 Merkin. An old name for a sponge for clean 
 ing cannon. 
 
 Merling. A small fish ; Merlangus vulgaris 
 (Gadus merlangus of Linnaeus) ; the whiting. 
 
 Mermaid (German meer, sea, and magd, 
 maid ). A fabulous creature, the fore part woman, 
 the hinder part fish. The species of actually 
 existing animals that, viewed at a distance in the 
 sea, may have originated the idea of mermen and 
 mermaids are the cetaceous dugong and manatees 
 These have their fore fins rudely fashioned like 
 arms and hands, and terminate behind in a fish- 
 like tail. The nipples are pectoral, and they are 
 often seen ascending to the surface to breathe, 
 clasping their sucking young to the breast. 
 The mermaid is a not unfrequent heraldic bear 
 ing. In the heraldry of France she is called a 
 siren, and in Germany she is occasionally fitted 
 with two fishy tails. 
 
 MERMAID S GLOVE. The name of a peculiar 
 
 sponge (Spongia palmata] abundant at Bermuda. 
 It derives its name from a somewhat finger-like 
 arrangement of its branches. 
 
 MERMAID S PURSE. The oblong, horny cases 
 with long filiform appendages developed from 
 each of the four corners, found on the sea-shore, 
 being the outer coverings of the eggs of several 
 species of rays and sharks. Also, the hollow 
 root of the seaweed Fucus polyschides. 
 
 Merman. See MERMAID. 
 
 Merry Dancers. The glancings and corusca 
 tions of the aurora borealis or northern lights. 
 
 Merry Men of May. Dangerous currents 
 formed by the ebb-tides. 
 
 Mesh. The opening between the lines in a 
 net. 
 
 Mess. A company of officers or men of a ship 
 who take their meals together. The command 
 ing officer messes alone ; if there be more than 
 one cabin-officer on board, they may form one 
 mess if they desire. The wardroom mess is com 
 posed of the staff-officers above the grade of en 
 sign, and of line-officers from lieutenant-com 
 mander to master, inclusive. If an ensign has 
 charge of a watch and a division he messes in 
 the wardroom. If a staff-officer having the 
 relative rank of ensign is the head of a depart 
 ment he messes in the wardroom. The steerage 
 mess is composed of ensigns, midshipmen, and 
 clerks. The warrant-officers mess is composed 
 of the boatswain, gunner, carpenter, and sail- 
 maker. Passengers mess with the officers of 
 corresponding rank. The caterer of a mess has 
 charge of its general conduct and order, but the 
 executive-officer has the power to interfere to 
 prevent disorder. 
 
 The master-at-arms, orderly sergeant, all yeo 
 men, apothecary, machinists, coppersmiths, and 
 boiler-makers mess together on the berth-deck. 
 Petty officers may be messed by themselves. 
 The crew is divided into messes of convenient 
 size, and a certain part of the deck assigned 
 them ; they are allowed to commute as many ra 
 tions as may be authorized by the commanding 
 officer, and the money is expended for fresh pro 
 visions or may be divided up among them. 
 
 MESS-CLOTH. A tarpaulin spread on the deck, 
 answering the purpose of a table-cloth. 
 
 MESS-GEAR. Pots, pans, spoons, knives, forks, 
 etc. 
 
 MESSMATES. Members of the same mess. 
 
 MESS-TRAPS. Mess-gear (which see). 
 
 Messenger. An endless rope or chain going 
 around the capstan and a roller at the manger. 
 The messenger is securely bound to the cable by 
 nippers, and as the capstan is hove around the 
 cable is hauled in. As the nippers approach the 
 capstan they are taken off and others put on 
 near the hawse-hole. Messengers are out of 
 date, and are not to be met with on board men- 
 of-war, except in a few old sailing-vessels. The 
 cable is now brought direct to the capstan. See 
 CAPSTAN, NIPPERS. Also, a boy to carry mes 
 sages from the quarter-deck. 
 
 Messina, Sicily, is situated on the Strait of 
 Messina, in lat. 38 11 10" N., Ion. 15 34 45" 
 E. ; is strongly fortified, being walled and de 
 fended by a citadel and forts. The harbor, one 
 of the best in the Mediterranean, is of great 
 depth and perfectly secure in all weather. Its 
 manufactures of silk goods and satins have long 
 been famous, and its commerce is very extensive. 
 
META-CENTRE 
 
 495 
 
 MIDDLE TIMBER 
 
 The exports consist chiefly of silks, fruits, wine, 
 spirits, sumac, etc. It has valuable tunny and 
 other fisheries. Population, including suburbs, 
 112,000. 
 
 Meta-centre. The meta-centre of a floating 
 body is the point where the vertical passing 
 through the centre of buoyancy in the position 
 of equilibrium meets the vertical drawn through 
 the new centre of buoyancy, when the body has 
 been slightly displaced from this position. It is 
 a point in a ship above which the centre of grav 
 ity of weight must never be placed, because if it 
 were the vessel would at once capsize. 
 
 Metal. The ordnance of a ship. Heavy metal, 
 guns of great calibre. 
 
 Metallic Packing. Piston-packing of one or 
 more metallic rings, usually iron or brass ; also, a 
 patent piston-packing composed of braided wire. 
 
 Metalline. A soft metallic compound for 
 lining journal-boxes. 
 
 Meteor. See AEROLITES. 
 
 Meteorology. The science which treats of the 
 air and its phenomena. 
 
 Metonic Cycle. A cycle of 19 years, which 
 contains 235 lunations, and results in a corre 
 spondence of the solar and lunar years. The 
 discovery of this astronomical period may be 
 assigned to Meton in 432 B.C. See CYCLE. 
 
 Metre (Fr., from Gr. metron, a measure). The 
 French standard measure of length, being the 
 ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the merid 
 ian. The other measures of length are referred 
 to this, the whole system being decimal ; Latin 
 prefixes are used to indicate division, Greek pre 
 fixes, multiplication. Thus, a decimetre (decem, 
 ten) is the tenth of a metre ; a centimetre (cen 
 tum, a hundred), the hundredth part of a metre ; 
 a millimetre (mille, a thousand), the thousandth 
 part of a metre. Again, a decametre (&/ca, deka, 
 ten ) is ten metres ; a hectometre (f/carov, kekaton, 
 a hundred) is one hundred metres ; a kilometre 
 (X .hioi, chilioi, a thousand), one thousand metres ; 
 a myriametre (fivpiuc, murias, ten thousand), ten 
 thousand metres. A metre is equal to 39.37079 
 English inches; and from this all the other 
 French measures may be obtained by shifting 
 the decimal point. 
 
 Micrometer (Gr. mikros, little, and metron, 
 a measure)^ An instrument used with the tele 
 scope or microscope for measuring minute dis 
 tances, or the diameters of objects which subtend 
 very small angles. Contrivances of various kinds, 
 and depending on different principles, have been 
 employed for this purpose. The micrometer is 
 of the utmost importance in astronomy, and to 
 it that science is as much indebted as to the tele 
 scope itself. Its most simple form, as applied to 
 astronomical purposes, is that of a short tube, 
 across the opening of which are stretched two 
 parallel threads, which can be made to approach 
 or recede from each other by means of screws. 
 These two threads are crossed by a third perpen 
 dicularly, and the whole apparatus is placed in 
 the focus of a lens. The distance of two stars is 
 found by adjusting the two parallel threads, one 
 to pass through the centre of each star, taking 
 care that the threads are placed perpendicular to 
 the line joining the stars, and finding how many 
 turns and parts of a turn of the screw are re 
 quired to bring the wires to coincide. The an 
 gle of position of two stars is also obtained by 
 turning round the instrument till the third wire, 
 
 which is normally horizontal, bisects both stars, 
 and reading off on the circumference the arc 
 passed over. Another form of micrometer is the 
 circular, the principle of which may be described 
 as follows : if the field of a telescope be perfectly 
 circular, and if its diameter be determined from 
 observation, the paths of two celestial bodies 
 across the field may be considered as two parallel 
 chords, which are given in terms of a circle of 
 known diameter. The differences of the times at 
 which two stars arrive at the middle of their paths 
 will be their ascensional difference ; and the dis 
 tance between the chords, which is readily com 
 puted from their lengths, gives the difference of 
 the declinations of the two bodies. The most ap 
 proved construction of the annular micrometer 
 is that of Fraunhofer, which consists of a steel 
 ring surrounded by a flat rim of glass and 
 mounted in a brass tube, so that it may be accu 
 rately adjusted in the focus of the eye-piece of 
 the telescope. When so applied the steel ring 
 is alone visible and appears as if suspended in 
 the atmosphere, whence the instrument is called 
 the suspended annular micrometer. The advan 
 tage of this construction consists in the accuracy 
 with which the moment of ingress or egress is 
 determined from the body being seen in the field 
 of view before it comes up to the edge of the steel 
 ring. The annular micrometer is conveniently 
 used for comparing the place of a small star or a 
 comet with that of a known star in nearly the 
 same parallel of declination. The Abbe Rochon, 
 in the beginning of the present century, con- 
 ceived the ingenious idea of applying the princi 
 ple of double refraction to micrometrical measure 
 ment. He constructed an instrument composed 
 of two prisms of rock-crystal or Iceland spar. 
 These prisms were fixed together with their axes 
 of crystallization at right angles to each other, to 
 increase the deviation of the two images ; and 
 the micrometer thus constructed was placed 
 within the focus of the object-glass of a telescope, 
 thus giving two images to be observed by the 
 eye-piece. The distances between these images 
 depend on the relative positions of the eye, the 
 micrometer, and the object ; and consequently, 
 after the instrument has been graduated, all that 
 is required to determine the apparent diameter 
 of a heavenly body is to move the crystal back 
 wards or forwards till the two images appear to 
 touch, and the graduation corresponding to the 
 place of the crystal gives the required result. 
 This form of micrometer has been improved by 
 Arago, Dollond, and others. Besides the instru 
 ments here mentioned many other micrometers 
 exist. 
 
 Microscopium. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Mid. Abbreviation for midshipman. 
 
 Mid-channel. The middle part of a channel. 
 
 Middle Latitude. With reference to two places 
 situated in the same hemisphere, the middle lat 
 itude is the latitude of the parallel passing mid 
 way between them ; its value is therefore half 
 the sum of the latitudes of the two places. 
 
 MIDDLE-LATITUDE SAILING. An approxi 
 mate method of solving certain cases of spher 
 ical sailing, founded on the consideration that 
 the arc of the parallel of middle latitude of two 
 places intercepted between their meridians is 
 nearly equal to the departure. 
 
 Middle Timber. That timber in the stern 
 which is placed amidships. 
 
MIDDLE WATCH 
 
 496 
 
 MILITAKY LAW 
 
 Middle Watch. The period from midnight to 
 4 A.M. The men on watch during that time. 
 
 MIDDLE-WATCHER. A light meal taken by 
 the officer of the middle watch. 
 
 Middleton, Edward, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in South Carolina. Appointed from South 
 Carolina, July 1, 1828; frigate "Java," Medi 
 terranean Squadron, October, 1828, to May, 
 1831 ; sloop " Vandalia," West India Squadron, 
 1831-33 ; receiving-ship, Brooklyn, 1833-34. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834; frigate "Constitution," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1835-38; sloop "Marion," Brazil 
 Squadron, 1839-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 2, 1841 ; 
 store-ship " Lexington," 1843-44 ; sloop " Plym 
 outh," Mediterranean Squadron, 1844-45 ; frig 
 ate "Cumberland," Home Squadron, 1846; 
 steamer "Princeton," 1847-49; store-ship 
 "Erie," 1849; navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1849- 
 51 ; razee " Independence," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1852; receiving-ship, New York, 
 1853 ; executive-officer of sloop " Decatur," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1854-56 ; operating against 
 a combination of hostile Indians of the various 
 tribes of Washington and Oregon Territories 
 during the war of the winter of 1854-55 ; attacks 
 upon Seattle, Washington Territory, January 
 26, 1856. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, April 16, 1856 ; 
 commanding sloop "Decatur," 1856-57; com 
 manding steam-sloops " St. Mary s" and " Sara- 
 nac" at diiferent times, Pacific Squadron, 1861-65. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, April 24, 1863 ; 
 special duty, New, York, 1866 ; navy-yard, Mare 
 Island, Cal., 1867-68; commanding steam-sloop 
 "Pensacola," Pacific Squadron, August 27, 
 1868, to January 7, 1869. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 26, 
 1868 ; commanding steam-sloop " Lacka wanna," 
 Pacific Fleet, February 6, 1869; commandant 
 navy-yard, Pensacola, Fla., June 1, 1870, to 
 March 8, 1873. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, August 15, 
 1876. Retired, December 11, 1872. 
 
 Middy. An abbreviation for midshipman. 
 
 Mid-feather. A water-bridge in the rear of 
 the furnace of a steam-boiler, in a mid-position 
 in the flue-space to enable the flame to pass above 
 and below it ; object, to increase circulation. 
 
 Midshipman. This term originated from the 
 place assigned to the " young gentlemen," as they 
 used to be called, amidships, or abreast of the 
 mainmast. 
 
 In the larger class of vessels which, in the old 
 build, had immensely high forecastles, quarter 
 decks, and round-houses, there were no means 
 of going from the quarter-deck to the forecastle 
 without descending into the waist ; hence mes 
 sengers were necessary in order to prevent the 
 captain, or the officer of the watch, from having 
 thus, in a measure, to desert his station, and 
 these messengers took the orders from the officer 
 at the break of the quarter-deck, and carried 
 them to the forecastle, and likewise brought the 
 various reports from the officers stationed for 
 ward to those in command abaft, and thence 
 from their station were called midshipmen. It 
 was from this class and that of quartermaster in 
 the British navy that the master s mates were 
 generally taken, as the contact into which they 
 were naturally thrown with their superior offi 
 
 cers led to this distinction when their conduct 
 was meritorious ; the promotions from the class 
 of midshipman were much more numerous than 
 those from the class of quartermaster, the for 
 mer being necessarily selected from active, smart 
 young men, while the latter were taken from 
 the thoroughbred old tars. This patronage in 
 vested in the captains of ships of war gradually 
 led to the sons of persons of respectability being 
 appointed to these stations, whence with a slight 
 degree of interest they were advanced to superior 
 rank. Later, a set of youngsters was introduced 
 into the British service by what is called a 
 "king s letter." These were called "king s 
 letter boys," and were but little relished by 
 the rougher class of their associates for having, 
 as they termed it, " Come in at the cabin win 
 dows instead of at the hawse-holes." 
 
 The midshipmen at first messed with the ship s 
 company, having one or more tables given them 
 on the lower deck, according to their number. 
 They afterwards, in some vessels, had the heart 
 of one of the cable tiers quite a roomy place 
 when hemp-cables were in vogue given them 
 as a mess-place, the quartermasters and boat 
 swains mates having the other. Those midship 
 men or master s mates in whom the captain or 
 officers took an interest were occasionally in 
 vited to their table, and in process of time 
 the custom became general. See ACADEMIES, 
 NAVAL. 
 
 MIDSHIPMAN, PASSED, is a midshipman who 
 had passed an examination entitling him to pro 
 motion to a lieutenant whenever there occurred 
 a vacancy in that grade. Since the title of en 
 sign has been adopted, graduates of the U. S. 
 Naval Academy waiting promotion to the grade 
 of ensign are styled midshipmen, while under 
 graduates are called cadet-midshipmen. 
 
 In October, 1819, a board of senior captains, 
 of whom Commodore Wm. Bainbridge was the 
 president, was ordered by the Secretary of the 
 Navy to convene at New York to examine mid 
 shipmen for promotion. This was the first ex 
 amination instituted in our navy. It has con 
 tinued ever since, and was the origin of the title 
 "passed midshipman." 
 
 MIDSHIPMAN S NUTS. Broken pieces of bis 
 cuit as dessert. 
 
 MIDSHIPMAN S ROLL. A slovenly method of 
 rolling up a hammock transversely, and lashing 
 it endways by one clew. 
 
 Midships. The middle part of the vessel, 
 either with regard to her length or breadth. 
 
 MIDSHIP BEND, or MIDSHIP FRAME. The 
 frame of the ship which is the most capacious. 
 
 Mile (Lat. mille passus, a thousand paces). 
 The common mile is the statute mile so called, 
 from being incidentally defined in a statute of 
 Queen Elizabeth. The geographical, nautical, 
 or sea-mile is the mean length of a minute of 
 latitude, and hence is sometimes called a minute. 
 The length of the statute mile is 5280 feet ; that 
 of the nautical mile, 6082.66 feet ; therefore one 
 nauticalmile = 1.1515 statute miles, andone stat 
 ute mile = .8684 nautical mile. The kilometre is 
 sometimes called a metrical mile, and its length 
 is equal to 1093 yards. 
 
 Military Law may be defined as a rule of con 
 duct for military persons prescribed by the legis 
 lative power in a state, commanding what is to 
 be done, and prohibiting the contrary. 
 
MILKY-WAY 
 
 497 
 
 MIZZEN 
 
 In the United States, military law is principally 
 expressed in Articles of War enacted by Congress 
 pursuant to authority vested in it by the Constitu 
 tion (Art I. Sec. 8) " to make rules for the govern 
 ment and regulation of the land and naval forces." 
 To this principal code is, however, to be added a 
 body of regulations formulated by the Executive 
 and ratified by Congress. These two, the Arti 
 cles of War and the Army Kegulations, taken 
 together, constitute the written military law of 
 the United States. What is known as the " cus 
 tom of war" forms the unwritten part of the law 
 military, and its aid is sought to explain doubt 
 ful questions arising in the course of procedure in 
 militar} T tribunals. The custom appealed to must 
 be that of our own service, must be certain and 
 well defined, and must not contravene any por 
 tion of the written military code. 
 
 Naval law has the same source and authority 
 as military law, is constructed on the same prin 
 ciples, and is similarly administered, the points 
 of divergence being mainly such as necessarily 
 result from the differing spheres of action of the 
 land and naval forces. See COURTS-MARTIAL, 
 JUDGE-ADVOCATE, JUDGE- ADVOCATE-GENERAL, 
 MARTIAL LAW, MUTINY ACT, OATHS. 
 
 Milky-way. See GALAXY. 
 
 Miller. To drown the miller, to put an extra 
 quantity of water into grog. A fish of the genus 
 Myliobatis. 
 
 Miller s Thumb. A fresh- water fish, the 
 Coitus cataphractus . 
 
 Milt. The soft roe, or spermatic part, of the 
 male fish. 
 
 Milwaukee, the most populous town of Wis 
 consin, is situated on the west shore of Lake 
 Michigan, at the mouth of Milwaukee River, in 
 lat. 43 3 45" N. , Ion. 87 57 W. The Menom- 
 onee River joins the Milwaukee about half a 
 mile from its mouth, and the largest boats of the 
 lakes can ascend the Milwaukee 2 miles from 
 its mouth, as also the Menomonee for some dis 
 tance from its confluence with the Milwaukee. 
 The city has now one of the best harbors upon 
 the whole chain of lakes. This city is the outlet 
 and shipping port of a rich and rapidly improv 
 ing country, and is said to be the greatest pri 
 mary wheat-market in the world. Steamers run 
 across the lake during the whole year. Six rail 
 roads centre here, the Chicago, Milwaukee and 
 St. Paul, Chicago and Northwestern, Detroit and 
 Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Lake Shore and West 
 ern, Western Union, and Wisconsin Central. 
 Pop. 130,000. 
 
 Mine, Submarine. A defensive torpedo. See 
 TORPEDO. 
 
 Minion. An old 4-pounder gun about 7 feet 
 long. Its point-blank range was 120 paces, with 
 a random one of 1500. Bourne, in 1578, men 
 tions the minion as requiring shot 3 inches in 
 diameter. 
 
 Minister. In affairs of state the designation 
 of two classes of functionaries. The first of these 
 embraces those officials who preside over the ad 
 ministrative departments of public business, and 
 who in most countries form what is generally 
 known as the "cabinet" of the executive head 
 of the government. In the United States these 
 officers are officially known as "secretaries." 
 
 The other class of public servants known as 
 ministers are diplomatic agents accredited to the 
 sovereigns or chief executives of foreign states. 
 32 
 
 In the diplomatic service of the United States 
 two grades of ministers exist, the higher being 
 designated ministers plenipotentiary, and the 
 lower ministers resident. 
 
 Minnow. A small fresh-water fish, the Leu- 
 ciscus phoxinus. 
 
 Minor Planets. See PLANETS, MINOR. 
 
 Minute. The sixtieth part of an hour. The 
 sixtieth part of a degree. A nautical mile is 
 sometimes called a minute, as being the mean 
 length of a minute of latitude. 
 
 MINUTE-GUNS. Guns fired at an interval of a 
 minute, as a mark of respect, on the death of a 
 high official. 
 
 Mira. A remarkable variable star, o Ceti. 
 
 Mirach. A name given each of the stars ft 
 Andromedce and e Bootis. 
 
 Mirage. An optical illusion very common at 
 sea, especially in high latitudes, and sometimes 
 also witnessed on land, particularly in Lower 
 Egypt, Persia, Tartary, the western plains of 
 the United States, and on the margin of rivers 
 or lakes, or on the sea-shore. It arises from 
 unequal refraction in the lower strata of the at 
 mosphere, and causes remote objects to be seen 
 double, as if reflected in a mirror, or to appear as 
 if suspended in the air. When the effect is con 
 fined to apparent elevation, the English sailors 
 call it looming ; when inverted images are formed, 
 the Italians give it the name of Fata Morgana. 
 Ships in the whale-fisheries are often descried 
 and sometimes recognized by means of the mi 
 rage at considerable distances. Capt. Scoresby, 
 while cruising off the coast of Greenland in 1822, 
 recognized his father s ship at the distance of 
 more than 30 miles, and consequently when be 
 low the horizon, by its inverted image in the air, 
 though he did not previously know that it was 
 cruising in that part of the fishery. A very re 
 markable case of mirage occurred at Hastings, 
 England, on the 26th of July, 1796, when the 
 French coast, 50 miles distant and extending 
 from Calais to near Dieppe, was distinctly visible 
 for the space of three hours. 
 
 Mirfak. . The star a Persei. 
 
 Mirkles. The radical leaves of the Fucus 
 esculentus. 
 
 Mirzam. The star J3 Canis Majoris. 
 
 Misrepresentation. Misrepresentation to the 
 underwriters of any fact or circumstance mate 
 rial to the risk of insuring, whether fraudulent 
 or not, and whether by the insured or his agent, 
 renders the contract null and void. 
 
 Miss Stays. To fail to get around in tacking 
 ship, whether from the bad working qualities of 
 the vessel, the lightness of the wind, or the care 
 lessness or inexperience of the officer in charge 
 of the deck. 
 
 Mist. Visible vapor suspended in the air near 
 the surface of the earth ; a light fog. 
 
 Mistico. Equivalent to hermaphrodite, being 
 a small Mediterranean vessel, between a xebec 
 and a felucca. 
 
 Mistral. A cold northwest wind experienced 
 on the Mediterranean shores of France. 
 
 Mitre. The joining of two pieces together so 
 that when connected the joint shall make an angle 
 with the side of each piece that shall be common 
 to both. 
 
 Mizar. A name given to each of the stars 
 P Andromedce, e Bootis, and f Ursce Majoris. 
 
 Mizzen. A term which distinguishes the 
 
MOBILE 
 
 498 
 
 MOLLY-MAWK 
 
 mast next abaft the mainmast, and the yards, 
 sails, and rigging belonging thereto. The name 
 is sometimes given to the spanker. The lower 
 yard across the mizzen-mast is called the woss- 
 ,jar,k yard. 
 
 MIZZEN MAST-MAN. A man stationed to at 
 tend to the gear of the mizzen-mast. See MAST- 
 MAN. 
 
 MIZZEN-ROYAL. See KOYAL. 
 
 MIZZEN STAY-SAIL. A sail which hoists on 
 the mizzen-stay. 
 
 MIZZEN-TOP. See TOP. 
 
 MlZZEN-TOPGALLANT. See TOPGALLANT. 
 
 MIZZEN-TOPMAST. See TOPMAST. 
 
 MIZZEN-TOPSAIL. See TOPSAIL. 
 
 Mobile, Ala. (port of entry), is situated on the 
 west bank of the Mobile River, at its entrance 
 into the bay of the same name, in lat 30 41 48" 
 N., Ion. 87 59 W. It is the most important 
 city in the State, and ranks third as a cotton-mar 
 ket in the United States. It has an advantage 
 ous position for trade, being the natural outlet 
 of the greatest cotton region in the United States. 
 The harbor has been improved by the govern 
 ment, and it will now admit vessels drawing 13 
 feet of water to the wharves. The total value 
 of foreign exports in the year 1877 was $12,812,- 
 066, and that of foreign imports $648,404. Pop. 
 42,000. 
 
 Mocha. The most strongly fortified seaport, 
 and once the capital, of the province of Yemen, 
 in Arabia. It is situated on the Red Sea, at the 
 head of a little bav, near the Strait of Bab-el- 
 Mandeb, 130 miles "W.N.W. of Aden. 
 
 Model. A model of a ship is the exact shape 
 of the ship intended to be built, and is made to 
 a scale. It is sometimes made solid or in one 
 piece, but generally in horizontal pieces, for the 
 convenience of taking off the lines from all the 
 parts. 
 
 Moderate Breeze. A breeze blowing from 8 
 to 12 miles per hour ; it is denoted by 4 on the 
 Beaufort scale. 
 
 Moidore. A former gold coin of Portugal, 
 equal to 4800 reis ; called also Lisbonine. 
 
 Moist Daughters. Spenser s terni for the 
 Hvades, a group of seven stars in the head of the 
 Bull. See HYADES. 
 
 Moke. The mesh of a fishing-net. 
 
 Mold. The matrix in which an object is cast. 
 A pattern by which an object is shaped. In 
 founding, molds are made in green sand, dry 
 sand, or loam. 
 
 MOLDED. The size of a timber the way the 
 mold is applied. The opposite of sided. 
 
 MOLDED BREADTH. The greatest breadth of 
 a ship to the outside of the frame-timbers. 
 
 MOLDER S CLAMP. A frame which holds to 
 gether the parts of a flask. 
 
 MOLD-FACING. A fine powder sprinkled over 
 the pattern before it is covered with loam. 
 
 MOLDING. The marking out of the ship s 
 timbers by the use of the molds made in the 
 mold-loft, by placing the molds and bevels upon 
 each separate piece, and lining it into the shape 
 of the mold. 
 
 MOLDING-BOARD. The board on which the 
 pattern lies when ramming the loam. 
 
 MOLDING-EDGE. The edge which is traced 
 by the molds from which the. bevels are applied 
 in order to obtain the required shape of the tim 
 ber. 
 
 MOLDING-LOAM. A mixture of sand and clay 
 used in molding. 
 
 Mole. A massive work of solid masonry ex 
 tending into the sea to defend a port from the 
 violence of the waves ; also, sometimes, the har 
 bor itself. 
 
 Mole-bat. A clumsy fish of the genus Ortha- 
 goriscus; the short sun-fish. 
 
 Mollusks (Lat. mollis, soft). The name ap 
 plied by Cuvier to the great primary division of 
 the animal kingdom, which includes all those 
 species having a gangliated nervous system, with 
 the ganglions or medullary masses dispersed 
 more or less irregularly in different parts of the 
 body, which is soft and inarticulate. The pul 
 monary or branchial circulation is separate and 
 distinct, but is aided by the direct propulsion 
 of a heart in one class only. There is always a 
 heart for the systematic circulation, and it mostly 
 consists of one ventricle and one auricle. Some 
 of the mollusks breathe air, but the greater part 
 respire through the medium of salt or fresh 
 water. The blood of the mollusks is white or 
 bluish. In one class only is there a rudiment of 
 an internal skeleton giving attachment to a part 
 of the muscular system ; in the rest it is absent, 
 and the muscles are attached to various points of 
 the skin. Their contractions produce inflections 
 and extensions of their different parts, and, alter 
 nating with relaxations, enable the species to 
 creep, climb, swim, burrow, and seize upon vari 
 ous objects, according as the form of these parts 
 may permit ; but as the locomotive organs are 
 not supported by articulated and solid levers, the 
 mollusks cannot leap or advance rapidly on dry 
 land. Many of the aquatic species are encum 
 bered with a heavy shell. Nearly all the mol 
 lusks have an extensive fold of the skin reflected 
 over their body, which it covers like a mantle ; 
 it is sometimes produced into a breathing pipe, 
 or extended and divided in the form of fins. 
 When the mantle is simply membranous or 
 fleshy, or when a horny or testaceous .rudiment 
 of a shell is developed, but remains concealed in 
 the substance of the mantle, the mollusk is said 
 to be naked. When the shell is so much enlarged 
 that the contracted animal finds shelter beneath 
 or within it, the species is said to be testaceous. 
 In many of the mollusks the shell is composed 
 of a single piece, which is usually a spiral tube, 
 closed at one end and gradually increasing in 
 size towards the open extremity, from which the 
 animal is able to protrude itself. Shells of this 
 description are called univalves. In others the 
 shell is composed of two pieces or valves, at 
 tached to each other at one point by a hinge, 
 which is furnished with an elastic ligament that 
 serves to open the valves when it is not opposed 
 by the action of the abductor muscles, whose 
 office it is to keep the shell closed. Shells of this 
 kind are termed bivalves. These differences in 
 the character of the shells correspond with dif 
 ferences in the conformation of the animals in 
 habiting them. The bivalve mollusks exhibit 
 no traces of a head, and hence are termed 
 Acephalous mollusks ; while the univalves have 
 a distinct head, provided with organs of the spe 
 cial senses, and hence, by way of distinction, 
 some writers have termed them Cephalophora 
 (head-bearing). 
 
 Molly-mawk. A small kind of albatross which 
 follows in the wake of a ship rounding the Cape. 
 
MONEKES 
 
 499 
 
 MONK 
 
 Moneres. Galleys with but one rank of oars. 
 
 Money. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 10 mills = 1 cent. 
 
 10 cents = 1 dime. 
 
 10 dimes = 1 dollar. 
 
 10 dollars = 1 eagle. 
 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 
 
 100 centesimos = 1 dollar or patacon = 
 $1.00. 
 
 17 patacons =1 doubloon. 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 100 kreutzers = 1 florin = $0.47. 
 BELGIUM. See FRANCE. 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 Mil reis = $0.50. See PORTUGAL. 
 BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 12 pies = I anna. 
 
 16 annas = 1 rupee = $0.48. 
 
 15 rupees 1 mohur. 
 
 Lac of rupees = 100,000= 10,000. 
 
 Crore of rupees = 10,000,000 = 1,000,000. 
 
 BURMAH. 
 
 4 great rweh (rees) = 1 bais = $0.03. 
 4 bais = 1 math. 
 4 maths = 1 tical or kyat. 
 CANADA. 
 
 Accounts are kept in dollars and cents, and 
 also in pounds, shillings, and pence. See 
 UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN. 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. See GREAT BRITAIN. 
 CHILI. 
 
 100 centavos = 1 dollar = $0.90. 
 CHINA. 
 
 10 cash = 1 candareen (fun). 
 
 10 candareens = 1 mace (tsien). 
 
 10 mace = 1 tael (le ang). 
 
 Among foreigners 1000 cash (about) = 1 
 
 dollar = $1 00. 
 
 The only native coin in use in China is the 
 tsien, called cash by the English, and sapeque by 
 the French, who derive it from the Portuguese 
 sapeca. It bears on one side the name of the 
 province in which it is cast, in Manchu letters, 
 and also the Chinese word " money" ; and on the 
 other side the name of the reigning emperor, and 
 above and below the words "current money," 
 in Chinese characters. 
 
 Spanish, Mexican, South American, and United 
 States trade dollars, though not acknowledged 
 by the government, are employed as a commercial 
 medium throughout the maritime provinces and 
 at the interior treaty ports. Lumps of stamped 
 silver, called sycee, pass current at a fixed stand 
 ard of purity. 
 
 The nominal moneys of account are the leang, 
 tsien, fan, and li, called by foreigners tael, mace, 
 candareen, and cash, the proportion of which, 
 one to the other, is decimal ; but, from various 
 causes, there is great diversity in the number of 
 cash given in exchange for the tael. The terms 
 tael, mace, candareen, and cash are merely de 
 nominations of weight. 
 
 The circulating medium, in transaction with 
 foreigners at the open ports, is chiefly in whole 
 or broken dollars, "clean" or u chopped" ; and 
 the value of the dollar in relation to the tael is 
 variable, the latter being approximately one- 
 third more. 
 
 i)ENMAKK. 
 
 96 skillings = 1 daler or rixdaler = $0.53. 
 EGYPT. See TURKEY. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 100 centimes = 1 franc = $0.193. 
 
 20 francs = 1 napoleon or louis. 
 GERMANY. 
 
 10 pfennings = 1 groschen. 
 
 10 groschen = 1 mark = $0.235. 
 GIBRALTAR. 
 
 16 quartos = 1 real. 
 
 12 reals = 1 dollar = $1.00. 
 
 100 cents = 1 dollar. 
 
 10 decimas de real vellon = 1 real de vellon. 
 
 20 reals de vellon = 1 dollar = $1.00. 
 
 100 reals de vellon = 1 doblon. 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 12 pence = 1 shilling. 
 
 20 shillings = 1 pound = $4.8665. 
 GREECE. 
 
 100 lepta = 1 dracham = $0.193. 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 100 cents = 1 guilder or florin = $0.40. 
 ITALY. 
 
 100 centimes = 1 lira = $0.193. 
 JAPAN. 
 
 10 rin = 1 sen. 
 
 100 sen = 1 yen = $1.00. 
 MEXICO. 
 
 100 cents = 1 dollar = $1.00. 
 NORWAY. 
 
 24 skillingen = 1 mark or ort. 
 
 5 marks = 1 species-daler = $1.07. 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 400 reis = 1 cruzado. 
 
 480 reis = 1 cruzado novo or pinto. 
 
 1000 reis = $1.08. 
 
 4500 reis = 1. 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 100 copecks = 1 silver rouble = $0.75. 
 
 10 roubles = 1 imperial. 
 
 The paper rouble = $0.60 (about). 
 SIAM. 
 
 200 to 450 cowries or bier = 1 p hainung. 
 
 4 p hainungs = 1 fuang. 
 
 2 fuangs = 1 salung or miam. 
 
 4 salungs = 1 tical. 
 
 4 ticals = 1 tamlung = $2.40. 
 SPAIN. 
 
 100 centimes = 1 peseta = $0.19. 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 100 ore = 1 riksdaler = $0.27. 
 TURKEY. 
 
 40 paras = 1 piastre. 
 
 100 piastres = 1 medjidie or lira turca = 
 
 $4.32. 
 
 MONEY-BOUND. A phrase expressive of such 
 passengers as are detained on board till a remit 
 tance arrives for paying the passage made. 
 Monger. A fishing-vessel of small size. 
 Monitor. A vessef of war designed by Erics- 
 gon. See IRONCLADS. 
 
 Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle. Born 
 in Devonshire, England, December 6, 1608. 
 After spending the earlier years of his life in the 
 service of Holland, he entered the English army 
 at the age of 30, attaining the rank of lieuten 
 ant-colonel in the war against the Scots in 1639. 
 During the Irish rebellion (1642) he was colonel 
 of Lord Leicester s troops sent to crush it. When 
 the civil war began he was supposed to favor 
 Parliament, and was imprisoned, but soon after 
 
 released. In 1644 he was defeated and captured 
 by Fairfax. After two years imprisonment in 
 the Tower, he was liberated on his swearing to 
 
MONK-BAG 
 
 500 
 
 MONSOON 
 
 the Covenant. He was then given the command 
 in the north of Ireland. Cromwell having a 
 high opinion of his military ability, made him 
 his lieutenant-general and chief of artillery ; and 
 for extraordinary services rendered at the battle 
 of Dunbar he was promoted to commander-in- 
 chief of the army in Scotland. It required in 
 those days but a small amount of professional 
 training to convert a general into an admiral, so 
 in 1653 we find Monk in command of a division 
 of the fleet of Admiral Blake, consisting of 100 
 ships, with which he defeated Admiral Van 
 Tromp off Nieuwpoort. He also fought with 
 him again off Katwijk, in which battle Van 
 Tromp was killed. In 1654 he was made gover 
 nor of Scotland, his principal residence being 
 at Dalkeith, where he lived until the death of 
 Cromwell, when seeing everything in confusion, 
 and regarding his own position as perilous, he 
 crossed into England with 6000 men in January, 
 1660, and uniting his troops with those which 
 Fairfax had collected for Charles II., he entered 
 London unopposed, although as yet he had kept 
 his views profoundly secret. On the 21st of 
 February he, called together the remaining 
 members of the Parliament, and Charles II. 
 being presently recalled, Monk was made Duke 
 of Albemarle, and intrusted with the highest 
 offices in the state. In 1666 we again find him 
 at sea, as second in command of the fleet sent 
 against the Dutch. He was defeated by De 
 Kuyter in a sea-fight off Dunkirk, but soon after 
 gained a bloody victory over him off North 
 Foreland. He died January 3, 1670. 
 
 Monk-bag. A small bag strung around the 
 neck, in which sailors keep their money. See 
 BAG. 
 
 Monkey. A heavy weight which acts by the 
 force of gravity, as in driving piles, etc. 
 
 Monkey-boat. A half-decked boat above- 
 bridge on the Thames. A small boat used about 
 docks. 
 
 Monkey-block. A small swivel-block used as 
 a leader for running rigging. 
 
 Monkey-jacket. A short, close-fitting coat 
 worn in cold weather. 
 
 Monkey-pump. Straws or quills for sucking 
 the liquid from a cask, through a gimlet-hole 
 made for the purpose, a practice as old as the 
 time of Xenophon, who describes tbis mode of 
 drinking from the prize jars of Armenia. 
 
 Monkey-spars. Small masts and yards for a 
 vessel devoted to the instruction and exercise of 
 boys. 
 
 Monkey-tail. A lever for training a carron- 
 ade. 
 
 Monkey-wrench. A wrench with an adjust 
 able jaw, usually worked by a screw. 
 
 Monk-fish. The Squatina angelus. 
 
 Monk-seam. The seam made after seving 
 the edges of sails together, one over the other, by 
 stitching through the centre of the seam. Also, 
 the fash left at the junction of the molds when 
 a ball is cast. 
 
 Monmouth Cap (Eng.}. A flat worsted cap 
 formerly worn by soldiers and sailors. 
 
 Monoceros. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Monoxylon (Gr.}. Boats in the Ionian Isles 
 propelled with one oar. 
 
 Monsoon (Malayan, musim) is derived from 
 the Arabic word mausim, a set time or season of 
 the year, arid is applied to those winds prevailing 
 
 in the Indian Ocean which blow from the south 
 west from April to October, and from the oppo 
 site direction, or northeast, from October to April. 
 The existence of these winds was made known 
 to the Greeks during the Indian expeditions of 
 Alexander, and by this knowledge Hippalus was 
 emboldened to sail across the open sea to Muzeris, 
 the emporium of Malabar. The monsoons de 
 pend, in common with all winds, whether regular 
 or irregular, on the inequality of heat at different 
 places and the earth s rotation on its axis ; but 
 more particularly they are occasioned by the 
 same circumstances which produce the trade- 
 winds and the land- and sea-breezes, being, in 
 fact, the combined effect of these two sets of 
 causes. 
 
 If the equatorial regions of the earth were en 
 tirely covered with water, the trade-winds (see 
 TRADE-WINDS) would blow constantly from the 
 northeast in the north, and from the southeast 
 in the south torrid zone, with a belt of varia 
 ble winds and calms interposed ; the whole sys 
 tem, following the sun s course, moving north 
 ward from December to June, and southward 
 from June to December. But, especially in the 
 eastern hemisphere, large tracts of land stretch 
 into the tropics, and give rise to the extensive 
 atmospheric disturbances for which those parts 
 of the earth are so remarkable. During the 
 summer half of the year, the north of Africa 
 and the south of Asia are heated to a higher de 
 gree than the Indian Ocean, while Australia and 
 South Africa are much colder. As the heated 
 air of Southern Asia expands and rises, and the 
 colder air from the south flows in to supply its 
 place, a general movement of the atmosphere of 
 the Indian Ocean sets in towards the north, thus 
 giving a southerly direction to the wind ; but as 
 the air comes from those parts of the globe which 
 revolve quicker to those which revolve more 
 slowly, an easterly direction will be communi 
 cated to the wind ; and the combination of these 
 two directions results in the southwest monsoon, 
 which prevails there in summer. Since, during 
 winter, South Asia is colder than the Indian 
 Ocean, which, again in its turn, is colder than 
 South Africa, a general motion of the atmosphere 
 sets in from the south and west. As this is in 
 the same direction as the ordinary trade-wind, 
 the effect in winter is not to change the direction, 
 but only to increase the velocity of the trade- 
 wind. Thus, while south of the equator, owing 
 to the absence of sufficiently large tracts of land, 
 the southeast trade-winds prevail throughout the 
 year ; on the north of the equator we find the 
 southwest monsoon in summer and the northeast 
 in winter, it being only in summer and north of 
 the equator that great changes are effected in the 
 direction of the trade-wind. 
 
 Similar, though less strongly marked monsoons 
 prevail off the coasts of Upper Guinea in Africa 
 and Mexico in America. The east and west di 
 rection of the shores of these countries, or the 
 large heated surfaces to the north of the seas 
 which wash their coasts, produce, precisely as in 
 the case of South Asia, a southwest monsoon in 
 summer. As might have been expected, the 
 monsoon off the coast of Mozambique is easterly, 
 and that off the coast of West Australia north 
 westerly. The trade-winds also suffer consider 
 able change in their direction on the coasts of 
 Brazil, Peru, Lower Guinea, etc. These, though 
 
MONTE PAGNOTE 
 
 501 
 
 MOON 
 
 sometimes considered monsoons-, are not truly 
 such, for they do not change their directions pe 
 riodically, so as to be opposite to each other, like 
 true monsoons, but only veer through a few 
 points of the compass. 
 
 In April, the northeast monsoon changes into 
 the southwest, and in October the southwest into 
 the northeast. These times depending on the 
 course of the sun, and consequently varying with 
 the latitude, are called the " breaking up" of the 
 monsoons, and are gene/ally accompanied by 
 variable winds, by intervals of calm, and by fu 
 rious tempests and hurricanes. 
 
 Monsoons, when compared with the trade- 
 winds, will be found to play a most beneficial 
 and important part in the economy of the globe. 
 Their greater velocity, and the periodical changes 
 which take place in their direction, secure in 
 creased facility of commercial intercourse be 
 tween different countries. But the full benefits 
 following in their train are not seen unless they 
 be considered in their relation to the rain-fall 
 of Southern Asia. Indeed, the fertility of the 
 greater part of this fine region is entirely due to 
 the monsoons, for if the northeast trade- wind had 
 prevailed there throughout the year, Central and 
 Western India, and many other places, would 
 only have been scorched and barren saharas. 
 The rain-fall of India depends entirely on the 
 monsoons. The coast of Malabar has its rainy 
 season during the southwest monsoon, which 
 brings thither the vapors of the ocean. On the 
 Coromandel coast, on the other hand, it is the 
 northeast monsoon which brings the rain from 
 the Bay of Bengal. The two coasts of Hindos- 
 tan have therefore their seasons reversed, the 
 dry season of one corresponding with the wet 
 season of the other. 
 
 Monte Pagnote. In former days an eminence 
 out of cannon-shot of operations, where spec 
 tators were not exposed to danger. 
 
 Montevideo, a seaport city and capital of 
 the republic of Uruguav, is situated on a penin 
 sula in the estuary of the La Plata, in lat. 34 
 53 S., Ion. 56 15 W. Its port, open to the 
 southwest, is the best on the Plata. The prin 
 cipal exports are hides, beef, hair, feathers, Chil 
 ian copper, and Paraguayan tea. Pop. 92,000. 
 
 Montgomery, John B., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New Jersey. Midshipman, June 4, 
 1812 ; lieutenant, April 1, 1818 ; commander, De 
 cember 9, 1839; captain, January 6, 1853; com 
 modore, July 16, 1862; rear-admiral (retired list), 
 July 25, 1866 ; served on Lake Ontario, in attack 
 on Kingston, Canada, November 10, 1812; cap 
 ture of York, April 27, and of Fort George and 
 Newark, May 27, 1813; in the "Niagara" in 
 Perry s victory on Lake Erie, September 10, 1813 
 (receiving a sword and the thanks of Congress) ; 
 in Decatur s squadron in the Mediterranean in 
 1815, and participated in the capture of Alge- 
 rine frigate and brig, and blockade of Algiers ; 
 commanded sloop " Portsmouth," Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1845-48. During the cruise of the " Ports 
 mouth" in the Pacific, he took possession of Cali 
 fornia, and blockaded Mazatlan some months. 
 In October, 1847, he, with Capt. Lavalette, in 
 the "Congress," captured Guayamas, on the 
 Gulf of California; commanded Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1860-61. 
 
 Month. Originally, the period of the moon s 
 revolution round the earth. If this is reckoned 
 
 from the position of the moon among the stars to 
 her return to the same position, the period is 
 called a sidereal month, and consists of 27 d 7 h 
 43 m !!; but if from new moon to new moon, 
 it is longer, being 29* 12 h 44 m 3 s ; this is called a 
 synodic month. There are several other periods 
 used by astronomers to which this name is ap 
 plied, as the tropical or periodic month (27 d 7 h 
 43 m 4.7 s ), reckoned from the moon s passing the 
 equinox till her return to the same point ; the 
 nodal month (27 d 5 h 5 m 29 s ), from ascending node 
 to ascending node ; the anomalistic month (27 d 
 13 h 18 m 37 s ), from perigee to perigee; and the 
 solar month, which is the twelfth part of a solar 
 year, consisting of 30 d 10 h 29 m 4 s . Distinct from 
 these is the civil or calendar month, fixed by law 
 for ordinary purposes, and consisting of a fixed 
 number of days, from 28 to 31. 
 
 MONTHLY ALLOWANCE. A sum paid monthly 
 to seamen, marines, and boys serving on board. 
 
 Montreal, the commercial metropolis of the 
 Dominion of Canada, is situated on the island of 
 Montreal, in the St. Lawrence River, in lat. 45 
 31 N., Ion. 73 34 W. It is at the head of 
 ocean navigation, and at the commencement of 
 lake and river navigation. The harbor, which 
 is formed towards the St. Lawrence, is secure, 
 and improvements are being made every year to 
 accommodate the large increase of shipping. 
 Among the manufactories are foundries of iron, 
 distilleries, breweries, sugar-refineries, manufac 
 tories of hardware, carriages, locomotives, steam- 
 engines, etc. Pop. about 115,000. 
 
 Montrose. A seaport town of Scotland, in 
 lat. 56 42 30" N., Ion. 2 28 W. The harbor 
 is one of the best on the east coast of Scotland. 
 It is formed by the entrance of the South Esk 
 into the North Sea, and has good docks and 
 quays. The quays and wet-dock are about \\ 
 miles from the entrance of the river. The chief 
 imports are flax, hemp, coals, etc., the exports 
 manufactured goods, grain, and cattle. Pop. 
 15,000. 
 
 Moon. The earth s satellite. Diameter about 
 2214 miles; mean apparent diameter 32 ; dis 
 tance from the earth 240,000 miles. The light of 
 the full moon is equal to about 1-800,000 that of 
 the sun ; the heat is about equal to that of a can 
 dle 15 feet distant. The moon always shows the 
 earth the same face, with little variation ; hence 
 it is known that she turns on her axis just once 
 during each revolution about the earth. But on 
 account of oscillations and vibrations, called 
 librations, small portions of the opposite face are 
 occasionally seen, so that an observer on the 
 earth is enabled in the course of time to see four- 
 sevenths of the surface. The absence of twilight, 
 the absence of refraction when the light of a star 
 passes near the moon, and researches with the 
 polariscope indicate that the moon has no at 
 mosphere. "Without air, water can exist in the 
 form of vapor only ; but there is no evidence even 
 of vapor of water. Without air and water no 
 form of vegetable or animal life can exist. Even 
 if these conditions were satisfied, the slow rota 
 tion of the moon, alternately shutting oif the 
 sun s rays, and exposing plants and animals to : 
 their fierceness for two weeks at a time, would 
 require organizations materially different from 
 those found on the earth. See WEATHER, TIDE. 
 
 MOON-BLINK. A temporary evening blind 
 ness occasioned by sleeping in the moonshine in 
 
MOOR 
 
 502 
 
 MOORING 
 
 tropical climates ; it is technically designated 
 nyctalopia. 
 
 MOON-CULMINATING STAR. A star which 
 comes to the meridian about the same time with 
 the moon. The difference of the right ascensions 
 of the moon and star are observed at two places ; 
 the change in the difference is the moon s proper 
 motion ; as the moon s proper motion is known, 
 the difference of longitude can be thus deter 
 mined. 
 
 MOON-FISH. A fish whose tail-fin is shaped 
 like a half- moon. 
 
 MOON-RAKERS. Sails above the sky-sails. 
 Thev are usually called moon-sails. 
 
 MOON-SHE BRED. A ship the upper works of 
 which rise very high, forward and aft. 
 
 MOON-STRUCK. An influence imputed to the 
 moon in the tropics, by which fish, particularly 
 of the Scomber class, though recently taken, be 
 come intenerated, and even spoiled ; while some 
 attribute poisonous qualities to them in this 
 state. Human beings are also said to be injured 
 by sleeping in the moon s rays. 
 
 "Moor. To secure a ship with cables attached 
 to two anchors, to a wharf, or to permanent moor 
 ings. To moor head and stern, to moor ship 
 with one cable leading from the hawse-hole and 
 others leading aft from the stern ; from this 
 position the ship cannot swing. To moor with 
 an open hawse, to lay out the anchors in a line 
 at right angles to the prevailing wind. To moor 
 across, to lay out the anchors on each side of a 
 stream. To moor along, to anchor in a river 
 with a hawser on shore to steady the ship. To 
 make & flying-moor , see MOORING. 
 
 MOORING-BRIDLE. The fasts attached to per 
 manent moorings, and taken through the hawse- 
 holes when mooring. 
 
 MOORING-POST. A heavy vertical timber in 
 the ground or on a wharf, to which vessels are 
 made fast by means of chains or hawsers. 
 
 MOORINGS. Heavy chains permanently an 
 chored in a harbor; to them are attached buoys 
 with chains of sufficient length and strength 
 to heave the fast up the hawse-hole. 
 
 MOORING-SWIVEL. A device used to connect 
 two chain-cables in such a manner that the 
 swinging of the ship will not bring turns in the 
 hawse, the object being to avoid the trouble of 
 tending ship and clearing hawse. Frequently, 
 one of the chains is unshackled in order to facili 
 tate veering. With the mooring swivel on, if a 
 gale comes on in a line with the anchors, the 
 vessel is in the same condition as if at single 
 anchor, except that in case another anchor is to 
 be let go, it must be the sheet. If the gale comes 
 on at right angles to the line of the anchors, the 
 anchors and cables are in the worst possible situ 
 ation, it being impossible to alter the angle be 
 tween the cables from the swivel to the anchors. 
 See MOORING. 
 
 Mooring (Dutch marren, to tie; to fasten). 
 Securing a vessel in a particular position by 
 means of cables attached to the shore, or to her 
 own anchors at the bottom of the anchorage. 
 To moor ship, or simply "to moor," is gener 
 ally understood to mean the letting go of a 
 second anchor in such a relative position to 
 the first that the vessel may ride between the 
 two. It may be readily understood that a vessel 
 riding to a single anchor and a good scope of 
 cable would take up too much room in any 
 
 ordinary harbor. Tending, moreover, to each 
 change of tide, the cable would soon become 
 wound about the upper fluke of the anchor, 
 rendering it liable to trip in the first puff of 
 wind that struck the ship. If, then, the ship is 
 to remain some time in port, it is customary to 
 moor. This is effected as follows : after letting 
 go the first anchor (see ANCHORING) cable is 
 veered to double the ordinary scope, paying out 
 the chain gradually as the vessel drops astern, 
 so that it may lie on the bottom in a straight 
 line from the anchor. Anchored in 6 fathoms 
 water, veer to, say 90 fathoms chain, and let go 
 the second anchor. The first cable is then brought 
 to the capstan and hove in 45 fathoms, veering 
 meanwhile on the second, so that when the op 
 eration is completed the ship may be midway 
 between the two anchors and have 45 fathoms 
 on each chain. She will now swing in a very 
 small circle and keep both anchors clear. 
 
 In the foregoing it is supposed that the tide 
 enables the ship to drop into the proper position 
 for letting go the second anchor. Should this not 
 be the case, a steamer would effect the object by 
 resorting to her engines, a sailing-vessel to her 
 sails ; or a kedge and hawser may be run out in 
 order to haul the ship over to the desired place ; 
 or the anchor may be carried out by the ship s 
 launch, as must be done when it is to be planted 
 in shoal water. After mooring put on the moor- 
 ing-swivel (which see). 
 
 A flying-moor is made on first anchoring by com 
 bining the two manoauvres in one. Standing in 
 for the anchorage, let go the first anchor with 
 good headway on, running out double the moor 
 ing scope and then letting go the other anchor, 
 after which proceed as before. This method is 
 rarely desirable, particularly with sailing-ves 
 sels. 
 
 In a tide-way a ship is moored with her anchors 
 up and down the stream. In roads where there is 
 little or no tide, they are generally placed at right 
 angles to the quarter whence the strongest winds 
 are expected. To be moored under the Tatter con 
 ditions, however, is not always desirable. For let a 
 ship be riding to her anchors placed on an east and 
 west line and a gale to come on from the north 
 ward, then is the ship riding to a span, and does not 
 derive the full benefit of her two anchors. Should 
 the wind haul to the eastward, the lee-anchor, 
 being astern, or to the westward, is of no use at 
 all. Should the mooring-swivel part, the ship 
 is entirely adrift with the loss of both bowers. 
 Should it become necessary to let go a third 
 anchor, the swivel still holding on, and the 
 wind haul to another quarter, there would be 
 danger of the three cables becoming hopelessly 
 fouled. These, among other reasons, induce 
 many good seamen to lie at single anchor where 
 admissible, and veer to a long scope on the ap 
 proach of bad weather. If obliged to let go the 
 second anchor, a good scope is veered on each 
 chain, the ship in that case getting the full ben 
 efit of both. This is not u mooring," however. 
 There is a prejudice, too, against the mooring- 
 swivel, many seamen preferring to take the oc 
 casional trouble of tending ship (see TENDING 
 SHIP) and clearing hawse (which see) when 
 necessary. A vessel may be moored " head 
 and stern" by dropping one, or both, bowers 
 under foot, and then veering astern the proper 
 distance, letting go both sheets, bringing the 
 
MOOT 
 
 503 
 
 MOTELLA 
 
 cables in through the stern chocks or ports. 
 This done, heave in to the proper scope on 
 the bowers. Or she may veer away on her bow 
 cables till her stern is within the proper distance 
 of the shore, mole, or pier, and then secure to 
 the latter by fasts (hawsers or cables, either of 
 hemp or chain) run out astern. 
 
 To moor to a buoy, or fixed or stationary moor 
 ings. The latter are large buoys well anchored 
 in convenient positions, to which ships may se 
 cure instead of anchoring. To one of these a 
 ship may moor by shackling her chain to the 
 ring fitted for the purpose. A vessel may also 
 moor alongside of a wharf or dock. 
 
 To unmoor is simply to pick up one of the two 
 anchors (generally the lee one) used in mooring 
 in the stream. To pick up either anchor, it is 
 necessary to veer away on one cable as the other 
 is hove in. After weighing one anchor, heave 
 in to the proper scope on the other cable. The 
 term unmooring is applied almost exclusively to 
 this case, never to that of a ship moored to a 
 dock. 8. B. Luce, Captain U.8.N. 
 
 Moot. A gauge for sizing tree-nails. 
 
 Mop. A young whiting. 
 
 Moppat. An early name for the sponge of a 
 cannon. 
 
 Mopusses. A cant-term for money in gen 
 eral. 
 
 Mormyrus. A Linnsean genus of malacop- 
 terygious fishes, resembling the pike, found only 
 in the rivers of Africa. 
 
 Morning Gun. The gun fired from the flag 
 ship to announce daybreak. 
 
 Morning Star. See VENUS. 
 
 Morrhua. A genus of fishes, including the 
 common cod. 
 
 Morris, Charles, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 at Woodstock, Conn., July 26, 1784. Entering 
 the navy in 1799, he made his first cruise as a 
 midshipman in the " Congress" ; his next cruise 
 was in the "Constitution" (1803-5), under the 
 famous Commodore Preble, in the war against 
 Tripoli ; he was in the attack on the " Philadel 
 phia" in the harbor of Tripoli, under Decatur, 
 and was the first of the boarders on the deck of 
 the captured vessel, and also participated in all 
 the attacks on Tripoli in the following summer. 
 The next four years were passed in a short cruise 
 in the "Hornet" in European waters, and on 
 duty enforcing the embargo of Jefferson at Port 
 land, Me. From 1810 to 1812 he cruised in the 
 " Constitution." Soon after his return to the 
 United States, and while still executive-officer of 
 the "Constitution," with Hull as captain, the 
 war of 1812 broke out, and he was on that ves 
 sel when she made her famous escape from a Brit 
 ish squadron, and in the fight between the " Con 
 stitution" and " Guerriere" he was wounded 
 through the body. Upon his recovery he was 
 promoted to a captaincy and given command of 
 the " Adams," which vessel he commanded until 
 she was destroyed at Hampden to avoid capture 
 by the British. After the establishment of peace 
 with England, Morris commanded the " Con 
 gress," in the war against Algiers. Upon his 
 return, and while still in command of the " Con- 
 
 ress," he was sent on a mission to Hayti and 
 an Domingo, where he conducted important 
 negotiations for the State Department. In 1819- 
 20 he was sent with a squadron to Buenos Ayres 
 on a mission of political importance. On his 
 
 return he was appointed a navy commissioner, 
 which high position he held for many years. In 
 1825 he commanded the " Brandy wine," the ves 
 sel which carried Lafayette back to France. 
 After leaving France he made a tour of inspec 
 tion of the naval stations of France and England, 
 returning to his position of navy commissioner 
 in 1827. This position he held until 1841, ex 
 cept during two years when he was in command 
 of the Boston Navy- Yard. For some years after 
 this he was on duty in Washington as chief of 
 the Bureau of Ordnance, and died at the age of 
 72, in 1856, while on that duty. 
 
 Morris. A fish of the genus Leptocephalus, 
 resembling the eel, but having a very slender 
 body compressed so far as to be thin and flat, like 
 tape. 
 
 Morris-pike. A formidable Moorish weapon, 
 the precursor of the boarding-pike. 
 
 Morse. See WALRUS. 
 
 Morsing Powder. An old term for priming- 
 powder. 
 
 Mort. A salmon in his third year. 
 
 Mortar. A short piece of ordnance with large 
 bore, used for throwing shells at high angles in 
 order to reach objects by their vertical fire. 
 They are used in the navy only under excep 
 tional circumstances, the one pattern used being 
 the 13-inch of 17,000 pounds, made of cast iron. 
 
 MORTAR-VESSEL. A vessel fitted for carrying 
 and working a mortar. To enable the mortar to 
 be properly manoeuvred and to resist the recoil, 
 the vessel should have considerable breadth in 
 proportion to her length. The mortar is slung 
 amidships in a massive bed. The ancient form, 
 of mortar-vessel was the bomb-ketch, convenient 
 because of the length of deck without a mast. 
 
 Mortised Block. A block of which the shell 
 is made of a single piece mortised out to receive 
 the sheave. 
 
 Moruach. A peculiar seal, which has been 
 frequently mistaken for a mermaid. 
 
 Moscow is situated on the Moskva River, is 
 the capital of the government of Moscow, and 
 one of the most important cities of Russia. Lat. 
 55 45 21" N. ; Ion. 37 84 E. Manufactures 
 of various kinds are carried on to a great extent 
 within the city, the principal of which are for 
 textile fabrics, chiefly woolen, cotton, and silk. 
 The other principal articles are hats, hardware, 
 leather, chemical products, beer and brandy. 
 From its central position Moscow is the great 
 entrepot for the internal commerce of the empire. 
 Great facilities for this commerce are given by 
 water communication, which extends on one side 
 to the Baltic, on another to the Caspian, and on 
 a third to the Black Sea, and by the important 
 railways which centre here. Pop. 602,000. 
 
 Moses. A flat-bottomed boat used in the 
 West Indies for bringing off hogsheads of sugar ; 
 it is termed single or double according to its 
 size. 
 
 Moses Law. The term among pirates for 
 inflicting 39 lashes on the bare back, forty save 
 one. 
 
 Moses-seam. See MONK-SEAM. 
 
 Mosquito Fleet. An assemblage of small 
 craft. 
 
 Moss-bunker. A name for the hard-head 
 (Alosa menhaden). 
 
 Motella. A genus of fishes, including the 
 whistle-fish. 
 
MOTHER GARY S CHICKEN 
 
 504 
 
 MITLLANY 
 
 Mother Gary s Chicken. The stormy petrel, 
 Procellaria pelagica. 
 
 Mother Cary s Goose. The name given by 
 Captain Cook s people to an oceanic brown bird, 
 Procellaria gigantea, which Pernety calls que- 
 branta-huesos (bone-breaker). 
 
 Mother-of-pearl. The iridescent nacreous in 
 ner layer of several species of shells, especially 
 the " pearl-oyster" (Meleagrina margnritifera). 
 
 Motion. The relation between two points in 
 space when a straight line joining them is changed 
 in length, or in direction, or in both ; its unit 
 of measure is one foot or one degree of arc. 
 
 MOTION, PROPER. The motion of a heavenly 
 body due to its own movement as distinguished 
 from its apparent change resulting from a change 
 in the position of the spectator. The term is 
 technically used for such motion of a body as is 
 independent of the earth s diurnal motion. Thus, 
 the proper motion of the sun is his motion in the 
 ecliptic as distinguished from his apparent mo 
 tion in a diurnal circle ; .the former is the result 
 of the earth s motion in her orbit, as the latter is 
 of her diurnal revolution. 
 
 Motor. A mechanical contrivance to utilize 
 force ; a prime mover, such as a steam-engine, a 
 water-wheel, or an electro-magnetic machine. 
 
 Mount. To place a gun on its carriage. To 
 carry; as, a ship mounts 44 guns. 
 
 Mountebank. The Gammarus arcticus, or 
 arctic shrimp. 
 
 Mourning. In the navy mourning is denoted 
 by half-masting the ensign, narrow-pennant, 
 broad-pennant, or the flag of an admiral, and by 
 the firing of minute-guns. (See FUNERAL HON 
 ORS.) In the merchant service the colors are 
 half-masted and the yards topped up. In early 
 days, on special occasions the sides were painted 
 blue. 
 
 Mouse. A bunch raised on a piece of rigging 
 by means of spun-yarn, parcelling, etc., to pre 
 vent a running-eye from slipping. To mouse a 
 hook, to take several turns of small stuff around 
 the point and back of a hook to prevent its un 
 hooking. 
 
 MOUSING. The small stuff used to keep a hook 
 from unhooking. 
 
 Mouth. The opening of a port or outlet of a 
 river. 
 
 Moving-sands. Synonymous with quick 
 sands. 
 
 Mud-digger. A light-draft vessel fitted with 
 appliances for dredging out a harbor or channel. 
 A dredging-machine. 
 
 Mud-dredger. See MUD-DIGGER. 
 
 Mud-fish. The Lepidosiren, a very remark 
 able fish of the Gambia and other African waters. 
 
 Mud-hole. A covered opening in the bottom 
 of a boiler, for removing dirt and sedime.it. 
 
 Mud-hook. A familiar term for an anchor. 
 
 Mudian, Mugian, or Bermudian. A boat 
 special to the Bermuda Islands, usually decked, 
 with the exception of a hatch ; from 2 to 20 tons 
 burden ; it is short, of good beam, and great draft 
 of water abaft, the stem and keel forming a 
 curved line. It carries an immense quantity of 
 ballast. Besides a long main- and -short jib-boom, 
 it has a long, tapering, raking rtfast, stepped just 
 over the forefoot, generally /unsupported by 
 shrouds or stays; on it a jib-beaded mainsail is 
 hoisted to a height of twice, and sometimes three 
 times, the length of the keel.) This sail is trian 
 
 gular, stretched at its foot by a long boom. The 
 only other sail is a small foresail or jib. They 
 claim to be the fastest craft in the world for work 
 ing to windward in smooth water, it being re 
 corded of one that she made five miles dead to 
 windward in the hour during a race ; and though 
 they may be laid over until they fill with water, 
 they will not capsize. 
 
 Mud-lands. The extensive marshes left dry 
 by the retiring tide in estuaries and river mouths. 
 
 Mud-larks. People who grovel about bays 
 and harbors at low water for anything they can 
 find. 
 
 Mud-lighter. A flat-bottomed boat which 
 receives the mud or other matter from a dredg 
 ing-machine. 
 
 Mud-plug. A tapered plug, in the lowest part 
 of the bottom of a boiler, which can be conve 
 niently removed to allow the escape of mud and 
 sediment. 
 
 Mud-valve. A valve placed in a pipe con 
 nected to the bottom of the boiler, or in the bot 
 tom itself, for the removal of mud and sediment, 
 much used in Western river steamboats. 
 
 Muffle. To deaden the sound of; as, to muffle 
 a drum. "When necessary to deaden the sound of 
 the oars, as on a night expedition, thrum-mats or 
 pieces of canvas are wrapped around the looms 
 of the oars in the wake of the rowlocks or thole 
 pins. Whaleboats have their oars muffled to 
 avoid frightening the whales. 
 
 Mufti. Citizen s clothes. Officers are required 
 to wear their uniform when on board ship, or 
 when on duty at a navy-yard. When on shore 
 they may wear citizen s clothes or their uni 
 forms ; but no portion of the uniform must be 
 worn with citizen s dress. 
 
 Muggy. Half intoxicated; a sheet in the 
 wind. Also used to express damp, oppressive 
 weather. 
 
 Mullany, J. R. Madison, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in New York, October 26, 1818. 
 Appointed from New Jersey, January 7, 1832; 
 attached to frigate " Constellation," Mediter 
 ranean Squadron, from February, 1832, to De 
 cember, 1834 ; receiving-ship, and Naval School, 
 navy-yard, New York, from June, 1835, to April, 
 1836 ; frigate " United States," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, from May, 1836, to December, 1837 ; 
 schooner "Shark," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 from December, 1837, to March, 1838; Naval 
 School, navy-yard, Norfolk, from March, 1833, 
 to June, 1838. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June, 1838 ; 
 naval rendezvous, New York, from November, 
 1838, to August, 1839; brigantine "Dolphin," 
 coast of Africa, from August, 1839, to Septem 
 ber, 1840; receiving-ship "and rendezvous, New 
 York, from October, 1840, to December, 1841 ; 
 steam-frigate " Missouri," Home Squadron, from 
 December, 1841, to July, 1842; receiving-ship 
 at New York, from July, 1842, to April, 1843. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 29, 
 1844 ; brig " Somers," West Indies, from April, 
 1843, to April, 1844; brig " Washington," coast 
 survey, deep-sea soundings, and observations for 
 temperature in Gulf Stream, from July, 1844, to 
 May, 1847 ; brig " Washington," Home Squad 
 ron, from May, 1847, to August, 1847 ; active 
 service on the Mexican coast during the Mexican 
 war ; took part in the attack on and capture of 
 the dty of Tabasco, June, 1847; brig "Wash- 
 
MULLANY 
 
 505 
 
 MULLET 
 
 ington," coast survey, from September, 1847, 
 to May, 1848, engaged in deep-sea soundings, 
 and observations for temperature in Gulf Stream; 
 sloop-of-war " St. Louis," Brazil Squadron, from 
 June, 1848, to April, 1849; frigate "Brandy- 
 wine," Brazil Squadron, from May, 1849, to De 
 cember, 1850; receiving-ship at New York, 
 from April, 1851, to September, 1851; gunboat 
 "John Hancock," special service on coast of 
 United States, and in West Indies to search for 
 filibustering vessels, from September to October, 
 1851 ; receiving-ship at New York, from Oc 
 tober, 1851, to September, 1852; frigate "Co 
 lumbia," West India Squadron, from September, 
 1852, to April, 1855; inspector of ordnance, 
 navy-yard, New York, from May, 1855, to May, 
 1858; brig "Arctic," special service, West In 
 dies, from May to August, 1858; frigate " Niag 
 ara," as executive-officer, special service, coast 
 of Africa, from September to December, 1858 ; 
 frigate " Constellation," as executive-officer, 
 fitting her for sea, April and May, 1859 ; frigate 
 "Sabine," as executive-officer, West India 
 Squadron, May, 1859, to December, 1860 ; frig 
 ate " Sabine," off Pensacola, commencement of 
 war, from January to March, 1861, assisting in 
 the protection of Fort Pickens ; commanded 
 gunboat " Wyandotte," April and May, 1861, 
 occupying a position inside of the harbor of Pen 
 sacola, in rear of Fort Pickens, to aid in protect 
 ing it from a threatened attack from the enemy ; 
 assisted in towing in the boats and landing forces, 
 composed of sailors and marines, April 12, 1861, 
 reinforcing Fort Pickens ; commanded store-ship 
 " Supply," Home Squadron, May and June, 
 1861, off Pensacola, and during passage to New 
 York; inspector of ordnance, Fort Pitt Foun 
 dry, Pittsburgh, and other places, from July, 
 1861, to March, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, October 18, 1861; 
 commanded steamer " Bienville," North Atlan 
 tic and West Gulf Squadrons, from April, 1862, 
 to May, 1865, except as hereafter noted, fre 
 quently engaged with, and coming under the 
 tire of the forts off Charleston and other points 
 on the Southern coast. 
 
 Arriving in command of the " Bienville" off 
 Mobile shortly before the battle of August 5, 
 1864, volunteered his services for the engage 
 ment then being planned. The " Bienville" not 
 being considered by Admiral Farragut a fit ves 
 sel to engage the forts, he was assigned by Ad 
 miral Farragut to the command of the " Oneida," 
 which, on the passing of Fort Morgan, occupied 
 the side exposed to the fire of the fort, the " Ga 
 lena" being lashed to the opposite or port side, 
 and being under his control by virtue of his 
 seniority. The " Oneida" occupied the rear of 
 the line of battle, and was exposed to a very de 
 structive fire from Fort Morgan. The first shell 
 by which she was struck entered the ship just 
 under the mizzen rigging, killing the cabin 
 steward, cutting the wheel-ropes, and setting the 
 cabin on fire. The steering-gear being promptly 
 repaired, the vessel was again struck, the shot 
 exploding the starboard boiler and scalding 16 
 men. The " Oneida" was partly disabled by 
 this shot, but steam on the port boiler was still 
 available, and sufficed to move the ship. 
 
 As rearmost vessel, the ship was exposed to a 
 very heavy fire for some time after she was able 
 to return it, owing to the fact that she had passed 
 
 too far beyond the fort to be enabled to train her 
 guns sufficiently aft to bring them to bear on it. 
 
 When nearly free from the fire of Fort Mor 
 gan, the " Oneida" was assailed by the ram 
 " Tennessee," with whom she exchanged shots in 
 passing. The latter, coming up under her stern, 
 was enabled to rake her, one shot visiting serious 
 loss upon the ship, and inflicting several severe 
 wounds upon Commander Mullany, one of which 
 necessitated the amputation of his left arm. 
 
 Up to this time he had exercised active com 
 mand of the two vessels, standing upon the 
 poop and "conning" the ship, and encouraging 
 the crew by voice and example. After this in 
 jury the vessel was not again struck, and the 
 engagement, as far as the " Oneida" and " Ga 
 lena" were concerned, terminated. 
 
 While commanding the "Bienville," off 
 Charleston, 1862, captured steamers "Stettin" 
 and " Patras," under English flag, loaded with 
 munitions of war, vessels and cargoes valued in 
 the aggregate at half a million dollars. Also 
 captured 9 schooners from Nassau, all under 
 English colors. 
 
 Commanded division of West Gulf Squadron, 
 extending from Sabine Pass to Rio Grande, from 
 April to September, 1863. 
 
 While in the " Bienville," off Galveston, Texas, 
 sent in boat expedition, and captured and 
 brought off two schooners with 576 bales of 
 cotton. 
 
 Inspector in charge of ordnance at navy-yard, 
 New York, from May, 1865, to May, 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; spe 
 cial duty as one of Board of Visitors to Naval 
 Academy, May and June, 1868 ; special duty on 
 board to select sites for powder-magazines, Ports 
 mouth, N. H., Boston, and New York, June 
 and July, 1868 ; court-martial duty at New 
 York, August, 1868; commanded sloop "Rich 
 mond," European Squadron, December, 1868, to 
 November, 1871. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, August 15, 1870 ; 
 commanded Mediterranean Squadron, European 
 Fleet, from October, 1870, to November, 1871 ; 
 occasional court duty from November, 1871, till 
 September, 1872 ; commanded navy-yard, Phila 
 delphia, from October, 1872, to June, 1874; in 
 addition to which, commanded Naval Station, 
 League Island, from April, 1873, to June, 1874. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, June 5, 1874; 
 commanded North Atlantic Station from June, 
 1874, to February, 1876 ; during this period was 
 engaged with portion of squadron at New Or 
 leans from September, 1874, to March, 1875, act 
 ing in co-operation with Gen. Emory, and after 
 wards with Gen. Sheridan ; in September and 
 October, 1875, was at Aspinwall with his flag 
 ship and one other vessel of squadron, to protect 
 American interests on the Isthmus, then menaced 
 by the rebellion in the state of Panama. Was 
 authorized by Navy Department at this time to 
 command for the purpose the vessels of the 
 South Pacific Squadron, then in the harbor of 
 Panama, consisting of the flag-ship " Richmond" 
 and the " Omaha" ; Naval Asylum and station, 
 Philadelphia, as governor, from March 1, 1876, 
 to October 26, 1879, when he was retired. 
 
 Mulct. A Portuguese craft with three lateen- 
 sails. 
 
 Mullet. A well-known fish, of which there 
 are several species. The gray mullet, Mugil 
 
MULLS 
 
 506 
 
 MUKEAY 
 
 capita, and the red mullet, Mullus surmuletus, 
 are the most common. 
 
 Mulls. The nickname of the English in Ma 
 dras, from mulligatawney having been a stand 
 ard dish among them. 
 
 Mulrein. A name in the Firth of Forth for 
 the frog-fish, Lophius piscatorius. 
 
 Multiple Star. When several stars appear 
 in close proximity to each other they are spoken 
 of, collectively, as a multiple star. 
 
 Multi-tubular Boiler. A boiler in which the 
 water passes through a large number of tubes of 
 small diameter. Object, rapid circulation and 
 increased generation of steam. 
 
 Mumbo Jumbo. A strange minister of so- 
 called justice on the Gold Coast, who is usually 
 dressed up for the purpose of frightening women 
 and children. He is the arbiter of domestic 
 strife. 
 
 Mummy-chog. A small fish of the carp kind. 
 
 Munduc. A sailor employed in the pearl- 
 fishery, to haul up the diver and oysters. 
 
 Mundungus (from the Spanish mondongo, re 
 fuse, offal). Bad, rank, and dirty tobacco. 
 
 Munition. Military or naval stores of every 
 description. Munition ships are vessels which 
 carry military and naval stores, and attend or 
 follow a fleet to supply ships of war. 
 
 Munjak. A kind of pitch used in the Bay of 
 Honduras for vessels bottoms. 
 
 Munnions. Pieces placed up and down to di 
 vide the panels in framed bulk-heads. 
 
 Muraena. An eel-like fish, very highly es 
 teemed by the ancient Komans. 
 
 Mural Circle. A circle of metal, which, as it 
 turns on a pivot, keeps the telescope always in 
 the meridian ; the circle is accurately graduated 
 on its rim. When the telescope is horizontal, a 
 stationary index points to zero on the circle ; as 
 the telescope is moved .a portion of the circle 
 passes by the index, which thus shows the amount 
 of elevation. 
 
 Murderer. The name formerly used for large 
 blunderbusses, as well as for those small pieces 
 of ordnance which were loaded by shifting metal 
 chambers placed in the breech. 
 
 Murex (Lat. murex, a shell-fish). A name 
 applied by Linnaeus to a genus of gasteropodous 
 mollusks having a univalve spiral shell, with an 
 oval aperture ending in an entire, straight, or 
 slightly ascending canal. The mollusks thus 
 characterized form a family (Muricidce, or rock- 
 shells), belonging to the order Pectinibranchiata 
 of Cuvier. The Muricidce all prey on other mol 
 lusks, boring through the shells with their hard- 
 toothed proboscis. Species are found in all parts 
 of the world, the largest in tropical regions. 
 Some, from the length of the beak, are called 
 "woodcock shell." Some have the shell beset 
 with long and regularly arranged spines. The 
 whorls of the shell are marked with ridges or 
 varices. The celebrated dye of the ancients, 
 called Tyrian purple, was derived from species 
 of the Muricidce. Another species Muricidce 
 tribulus is the "Venus Comb" of the Indian 
 Seas, a very delicate and beautiful shell, with 
 numerous long, thin spines. Fossil Muricidce 
 are numerous, but are seldom found in any for 
 mation older than the eocene tertiary. 
 
 Murlock. The young pickled dog-fish. 
 
 Murray, Alexander, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed midshipman 
 
 August 22, 1835 ; served three years in West 
 Indies ; 1839 and 1840, Seminole war. Passed 
 midshipman in 1841, and returned to Seminole 
 war ; joined the Pacific Squadron in 1843 ; was 
 made acting lieutenant, and served in the 
 " Shark," " United States," and " Levant," and 
 returned home in 1845. In 1846 joined the Gulf 
 Squadron, and was at the battles of Alvarado, 
 Tabasco, Vera Cruz, Tuspan, and Tampico ; was 
 slightly wounded at Alvarado. 
 
 Commissioned lieutenant in August, 1847 ; 
 served on coast survey until 1849, when he 
 joined the razee "Independence," Mediterra 
 nean Squadron ; returned to United States in 
 1851. In January, 1852, appointed to command 
 the steamer " Fulton," and sailed, with Vice- 
 President King on board, for the West Indies; 
 after visiting two or three ports, Mr. King s 
 health demanded his return, and the " Fulton" 
 landed him at Mobile, where he died in a few 
 days; the "Fulton" returned to Norfolk in 
 May ; served on board the " Pennsylvania" (re 
 ceiving-ship) until 1853. Appointed to com 
 mand the surveying steamer " Bibb" ; joined the 
 frigate "Cumberland" in 1860 as executive-offi 
 cer, and after arriving at Vera Cruz was ap 
 pointed to command the " Pocahontas" ; was 
 detached in Norfolk, and returned to the " Cum 
 berland" without orders ; was present at the 
 burning of the navy-yard. Appointed to com 
 mand the steamer " Louisiana," August 3, 1861 ; 
 had a conflict, and repulsed the rebel steamer 
 " Yorktown" off Newport News, September 20; 
 October 5 had another fight, in Cocklin s Creek, 
 Eastern Shore, resulting in the destruction of a 
 vessel being equipped as a privateer ; participated 
 in the battles of Koanoke Island, February 9, of 
 Elizabeth, February 10, of Newbern, N. C., 
 February 14; was appointed senior officer in 
 York and Pamunkey Rivers ; co-operation with 
 the army in its movement on Richmond. 
 
 May 17, 1862, pushed up the river in advance 
 of the army, and, aided by some volunteers from 
 the army in small transports, forced the enemy 
 to destroy his transports, 17 vessels in all, 2 of 
 them steamers. Battle was not offered, though 
 he sighted the enemy at many points. 
 
 Commissioned commander on July 16, 1862; 
 ordered to navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H. ; Nov 
 ember, 1862, was ordered by telegram to return 
 to sounds of North Carolina as senior officer; 
 attacked Kingston, N. C., to create a diversion 
 in favor of the army, which was moving on Golds- 
 boro ; February 14, with the gunboats repulsed 
 the attempt of the enemy to recover Newbern ; 
 April, 1863, ordered to resume duties at Ports 
 mouth Navy- Yard ; September, 1865, appointed 
 to command " Rhode Island" ; and October 24, 
 sailed for Havana with tender "Hornet" and 
 crew for " Stonewall," which Commander Murray 
 had been directed to receive from authorities 
 in Havana ; November 24, 1865, returned to 
 Washington, bringing " Stonewall" ; May 6, 
 
 1866, sailed from New York with "Augusta" 
 (side-wheel), " Miantonomah" (double-turret), 
 and " Ashuelot" (double-ender), for Russia. 
 
 Promoted to captain, July 25, 1866 ; in July, 
 
 1867, the expedition returned to United States, 
 having, in company with the monitor, visited 
 the Mediterranean and West Indies, after leav 
 ing the Baltic ; navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1868- 
 69 ; light-house inspector, 1870-72. 
 
MUSCA 
 
 507 
 
 MUZZLE 
 
 Promoted to commodore, April, 1871 ; member 
 of Light-House Board until June, 1866. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, April 26, 1876, and 
 ordered to command Pacific Fleet; May 1, 1878, 
 retired at his own request after forty years 
 " faithful service," under act March 3, 1873, 
 the admiral s service in the Pacific being highly 
 commended by the Navy and State Departments 
 in official documents. 
 
 Musca. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Muscat is a seaport of great commercial im 
 portance on the Indian Ocean, near the eastern 
 angle of Arabia, in lat. 23 34 N., Ion. 58 50 
 E. The cove of Muscat, as the harbor is called, 
 is an inlet of the sea about three-quarters of a 
 mile long by one-half of a mile wide, opening 
 to the northwest, and completely sheltered from 
 the prevailing monsoons. The excellence of its 
 port and its convenient position near the en 
 trance of the Persian Gulf make it important 
 as a station for shipping. The docks for build 
 ing and repairing shipping are situated at Mut- 
 tra, at the foot of the bay, about 3 miles from 
 Muscat. The imports of Muscat consist chiefly 
 of almonds, aloes, sulphur, nitre, coffee, etc., 
 from Persia and Africa, most of which are re-ex 
 ported. Large quantities of dates, wheat, horses, 
 and fish are among the exports. Population of 
 Muscat, Muttra, and intervening villages is 
 about 50,000. 
 
 Musgum, or Misgurn. A kind of fish resem 
 bling the eel in size and form. 
 
 Mushroom-anchor. An anchor with a head 
 like a mushroom, and having no stock ; it is 
 used for permanent moorings. See ANCHOR. 
 
 Musketoon. A short kind of blunderbuss 
 with a large bore, to carry several musket- or pis 
 tol-bullets. It was much used on boat-service. 
 They were mounted on several crutches, and 
 termed top-pieces or quarter-pieces in barges and 
 pinnaces, where timbers were especially fitted for 
 them. 
 
 Muster. "When all hands are called to muster, 
 the men assemble on the port or lee side of "the 
 quarter-deck, and the officers on the opposite 
 side. If, after the special purpose for which the 
 crew has been assembled has been accomplished, 
 it be desired to call the roll, the petty officers 
 form a line in the opposite gangway, where they 
 are mustered by the paymaster s clerk. Having 
 finished with the muster of the petty officers, the 
 remainder of the crew is mustered, beginning 
 with the seamen. As each man s name is called, 
 he takes off his cap, crosses the deck, and walks 
 forward. At muster, the officer of the deck ac 
 counts for those on duty, the master-at-arms for 
 those in confinement, and the apothecary for the 
 sick. Every person unaccounted for is so en 
 tered in the log-book. To muster the watch, to 
 call the names of the watch, in order to make 
 sure that all are on deck ; this duty is done by 
 the junior officer of the watch just after 8 bells, 
 and as often thereafter as the officer of the deck 
 directs. To pass muster, to pass inspection ; to 
 answer the purpose intended. 
 
 Mute. A prisoner arraigned before a court- 
 martial, when called upon to~plead, may, through 
 obstinacy, remain silent. This is technically 
 termed standing mute. In such a case the court 
 proceeds with the trial as though a plea of not 
 guilty had been made. The same course is pur 
 sued in cases where the prisoner, instead of 
 
 pleading properly, answers foreign to the pur 
 pose with the deliberate design to obstruct the 
 proceedings. 
 
 A prisoner may stand mute by the visitation 
 of God, in which case, if it be only an inability 
 to articulate, the court proceeds as above. 
 
 By the common law of England, obstinately 
 standing mute, upon arraignment for certain 
 species of offenses, was deemed equivalent to 
 conviction, upon which judgment followed. 
 
 Mutiny. An insurrection against constituted 
 authority, particularly military or naval au 
 thority. An open and violent resistance to the 
 authority of officers. It may be the act of an in 
 dividual or the concerted action of several. The 
 Articles for the government of the navy provide 
 that any person in the navy who makes, or at 
 tempts to make, or unites with, any mutiny or 
 mutinous assembly, or who being witness to or 
 present at any mutiny does not do his utmost to 
 suppress it ; or who, knowing of any intended 
 mutiny or mutinous assembly, does not imme 
 diately communicate his knowledge to his supe 
 rior or commanding officer, shall suffer death or 
 such other punishment as a court-martial may 
 adjudge. 
 
 MUTINY ACT. An English statute for the gov 
 ernment of military persons, and vesting in the 
 crown power to frame articles of war. 
 
 The occasion that gave rise to the Mutiny Act 
 was a rebellion on the part of some English and 
 Scotch troops in the first year of William and 
 Mary s reign, upon their being ordered to Hol 
 land to replace some of the Dutch troops which 
 King William had brought over with him, and 
 intended to keep in England. The Scotch were 
 disgusted because Lord Dumbarton had been 
 supplanted in the command of one of their regi 
 ments by Marshal Schomberg, and the disaffec 
 tion of the English was occasioned by emissaries 
 of James, who intimated to them that they were 
 being ordered out of the country because of their 
 fidelity to theii* late sovereign. King William 
 immediately communicated this event to both 
 houses of Parliament, who readily agreed to- 
 give their sanction to punish the insurgents ; 
 and on the 3d of April, 1689, passed an act for 
 punishing mutiny and desertion, and establish 
 ing a code for the general government of the 
 army, which was to continue in force till Novem 
 ber following, and no longer. It was, however, 
 renewed again the next January, and has, with 
 the interruption of about three years only, in 
 the peaceable part of King William s reign, viz., 
 from the 10th of April, 1698, to the 20th~of Feb 
 ruary, 1701, been annually renewed since, with 
 occasional alterations and amendments. 
 
 The Mutiny Act was the first regularly enacted 
 statute ever passed in England for the regulation 
 of the military state, and may therefore with 
 propriety be considered as the original of military 
 in contradistinction to martial law. (See MAR 
 TIAL LAW.) It formed the model of our own 
 Articles of War, though, unlike it, our Articles 
 are not limited to one year s duration, necessi 
 tating, as in the case of the Mutiny Act, their 
 annual re-enactment. 
 
 Mutton-snapper. A large fish of the Meso- 
 prion genus, frequenting tropical seas, and prized 
 in the Jamaica markets. 
 
 Muzzle. The forward extremity of a piece of 
 ordnance. 
 
MUZZY 
 
 508 
 
 NATURALIZATION 
 
 MUZZLE-BAG. A painted canvas-bag placed 
 over the muzzle of broadside-guns at sea to keep 
 the water out. 
 
 MUZZLE-LASHING. The rope which confines 
 the muzzle of a gun when housed. 
 
 Muzzy. Half-drunk. 
 
 Myopara. An ancient corsair s vessel. 
 
 Myrmidon (from mur-medon, a sea-captain). 
 The Myrmidons were a people of Thessaly, said 
 to have first constructed ships. 
 
 Mystico. A Greek piratical boat. See Mis- 
 TICO. 
 
 Myth. Obelisk, tower, land, or anything for 
 directing the course by sight. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. Abbreviation for not in the U. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. 
 
 Naca, or Nacelle. A French row-boat used 
 as early as the twelfth century. 
 
 Nacta. A small transport of early times. 
 
 Nadir. The inferior pole of the celestial hori 
 zon. It is the point of the heavens vertically 
 under a spectator s feet, the vertex of the in 
 visible hemisphere. The nadir is diametrically 
 opposite to the zenith. 
 
 Nagasaki, on the southwest side of the island 
 Kioo-Sioo, Japan, in.lat. 32 44 8" N., Ion. 
 1^9 51 33" E., is one of the import seaports 
 of the empire. The harbor is about 1 miles long 
 by 1 mile wide, with good anchorage, securely 
 sheltered, in from 5 to 7 fathoms of water. It 
 has a large European and Chinese trade, and is 
 also the supply station for U. S. men-of-war, as 
 the naval store-house for the Asiatic Station is 
 located here. Pop. about 70,000. 
 
 Naides. A natural order of endogenous plants 
 found in the ocean, and also in lakes and streams. 
 
 Nail. To nail a gun, to spike it. 
 
 Nake. The old word to unsheath swords, or 
 make them naked. 
 
 Naked. State of a ship s bottom without 
 sheathing. 
 
 Nakhadah, or Nacodah. An Arab sea-cap 
 tain. 
 
 Name-board. The arch-board, or part where 
 on the ship s name and port are painted. 
 
 Nancy Dawson. A popular air by which 
 seamen were summoned to grog. 
 
 Nankin. A species of cloth used for making 
 working-clothes, and for facings for cuffs and 
 collars. 
 
 Nantes, on the river Loire, at the confluence 
 of the Erdre and Sevre-Nantaise, is the capital 
 of the department of Loire-Inferieure, and one 
 of the principal cities of France. Merchant ves 
 sels are built here, and the town has numerous 
 manufactories of cottons, muslins, cordage, etc. ; 
 also an extensive maritime commerce, although 
 the harbor receives only small vessels, large ves 
 sels being compelled to unload at Paimboeuf. It 
 possesses among its many institutions a tribunal 
 of commerce, a hydrographical school, and a 
 magazine of munitions for the marine. Pop. 
 123,000. 
 
 Naphtha. A very inflammable, fiercely-burn 
 ing fluid, which oozes from the ground or rock 
 in many different localities, and may be obtained 
 by the distillation of coal, wood, and other sub 
 stances. 
 
 Naples, the most populous city of Italy, is 
 situated on the Bay of Naples, at the foot of 
 Mount Vesuvius, in lat. 40 51 8" N., Ion. 14 
 15 5 X/ E. The city is surrounded by walls, and 
 defended by three castles, St. Elmo, Nuovo, and 
 Del Ovo. Immediately adjoining is a large 
 arsenal and cannon-foundry. The city contains 
 a royal marine hospital, ship-building yards, and 
 a military school. The most important manufac 
 tories are those of macaroni, vermicelli, silk stuffs, 
 fire-arms, chemical products, etc. Although the 
 Bay of Naples is very extensive, the harbor 
 proper is of small dimensions, and the water near 
 the town is only deep enough to float shallow 
 vessels. It is a regular stopping-place for the 
 Mediterranean steamers. Pop. 450,000. 
 
 Narke. A ray of very wonderful electric 
 powers. 
 
 Narrowing of the Floor-sweep. For this 
 peculiar curve, see RISING HALF-BREADTH 
 
 Narrows. The most confined part of a chan 
 nel between two lands ; any contracted part of 
 a navigable river. 
 
 Narwhal. The Monodon monoceros, an ani- 
 mal^of the cetacean order, found in the Arctic 
 seas, and distinguished by the single long 
 pointed tusk projecting straight forward from 
 its upper jaw, whence it is also termed sea- 
 unicorn. 
 
 Nath. The name of the bright star (3 Tauri. 
 
 Naturalization. The process by which an alien 
 is made a citizen. By Art. I., Sec. 8, of the Con 
 stitution of the Unite d States, Congress is vested 
 with power " to establish an uniform rule of natu 
 ralization," and although formerly it was held 
 by some that the State governments possessed a 
 concurrent authority with the United States 
 upon the subject of naturalization, it has now 
 long been settled that the power vested by the 
 Constitution in Congress respecting naturaliza 
 tion is exclusive. The power to admit to citizen 
 ship aliens desiring naturalization has been com 
 mitted by Congress to the various courts of record, 
 both Federal and State having common law 
 jurisdiction. The naturalized citizen of the 
 United States enjoys all the privileges and im 
 munities of the native-born, save only eligibility 
 to the office of President. 
 
 The process of naturalization in the United 
 States consists in the declaration, on oath or 
 affirmation by the alien, before a court of com 
 petent jurisdiction, or the clerk of such court, of 
 his intention, bona fide, to become a citizen of 
 the United States, and his renunciation of all 
 
NATURALIZATION 
 
 509 
 
 NAUTILUS 
 
 allegiance to any foreign prince or power, and 
 particularly of his allegiance to the sovereign or 
 state of which he is at the time a subject ; which 
 declaration and renunciation must be made at 
 least two years before his admission to citizen 
 ship. At the time of his application for admis 
 sion he must further declare, in the same manner 
 and form, that he will support the Constitution 
 of the United States, and make a further abso 
 lute and entire renunciation of all allegiance and 
 fidelity to every foreign prince, potentate, state, 
 or sovereignty whereof he was before a citizen or 
 subject ; and of these proceedings the clerk of 
 the court makes record. The court, before ad 
 mitting the alien, must be satisfied by evidence, 
 other than that of the applicant himself, that he 
 has resided in the United States five years at 
 least, and in the State or Territory wherein the 
 court is held, at least one year ; and it must fur 
 ther appear that during that time he has behaved 
 as a man of good moral character, attached to the 
 principles of the Constitution of the United States, 
 and well disposed to the good order and happiness 
 of the same. If the alien shall have borne any he 
 reditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobil 
 ity, in the kingdom or state from which he came, 
 he must make renunciation of the same. The pre 
 vious declaration of intention is dispensed with 
 in the case of an alien who, being a minor, shall 
 have resided in the United States three years next 
 preceding his coming of age, and who shall have 
 continued to reside therein to the time of his ap 
 plying for admission to citizenship, but, includ 
 ing the three years of his minority, he must have 
 had a continuous residence of five years, and at 
 the time of his admission he must declare on oath 
 or afiirmation that for the three years next pre 
 ceding it has been his bona fide intention to be 
 come a citizen of the United States. If an alien 
 who has declared his intention dies before he is 
 actually naturalized, his widow and children are 
 considered citizens, and shall be entitled to all 
 rights and privileges as such upon taking the 
 oaths prescribed by law. The children of j5fer- 
 sons duly naturalized, who were minors at the 
 time of their parents admission to citizenship, 
 are, if dwelling in the United States, considered 
 as citizens ; and the children of persons who now 
 are, or have been, citizens of the United States, 
 are citizens ; but the rights of citizenship cannot 
 descend to persons whose fathers have never re 
 sided in the United States. The naturalization 
 of a father ipso facto makes his son then residing 
 in the United States, and under 21 years of age, 
 a citizen. No alien who shall be a native, citi 
 zen, denizen, or subject of any country, state, 
 or sovereign with whom the United States shall 
 be at war at the time of his application can be 
 then admitted to be a citizen of the United 
 States. A seaman, being a foreigner, having de 
 clared his intention of becoming a citizen of the 
 United States in any competent court, and hav 
 ing served three years on board a merchant ves 
 sel of the United States subsequent to the date of 
 such declaration, may be admitted to citizenship 
 on making application to any competent court, 
 and producing his certificate of discharge and 
 good conduct, together with the certificate of 
 his declaration of intention. This provision does 
 not extend to seamen in the naval service. Ad 
 mission to citizenship does not necessarily carry 
 with it the right to vote. The elective franchise 
 
 is regulated by the several States, each for itself, 
 the only restriction imposed by the Federal Con 
 stitution being that contained in Art. XV., Sec. 
 1, that " the right of citizens of the United States 
 to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the 
 United States, or by any State, on account of 
 race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 Natural Projections. Perspective delineations 
 of a surface on a given plane. They are formed 
 by drawing from the eye straight lines, indicat 
 ing the visual rays, through every point of the 
 surface to meet the plane. The original and the 
 representation produce the same effect on the 
 organ of vision. Examples, the orthographic, 
 stereographic, and central projections of the 
 sphere. 
 
 Naumachia. The appellation given by the 
 Romans to a spectacular diversion consisting in 
 a naval engagement which usually took place in 
 theatres (called also naumachiae) made espe 
 cially for the purpose. These exhibitions were 
 originally instituted for the purposes of naval 
 discipline, but in process of time only malefac 
 tors or captives whose lives had been forfeited 
 participated in them. They appear to have been 
 conducted on a scale of such magnificence as 
 almost to exceed belief. Within the places set 
 apart for them whole fleets went through their 
 evolutions without inconvenience or confusion, 
 and all the appliances of human ingenuity were 
 put in play to give an air of reality to the repre 
 sentation. Suetonius narrates that in an exhibi 
 tion of this sort given by Nero, sea-monsters 
 were seen swimming about in the artificial lake; 
 and in the sea-fight on the lake Fucinus, given 
 by Claudius, there are said to have been no fewer 
 than 19,000 combatants. Julius Caesar appears 
 first to have given a naumachia on an extensive 
 scale; his example was followed by many of his 
 successors on the imperial throne ; and at last 
 they were frequently exhibited at the expense 
 of private individuals as a means of increasing 
 their popularity. 
 
 Nauropometer. An instrument for measur 
 ing the amount of a ship s heel or inclination at 
 sea. 
 
 Nauscopy. The tact of discovering ships or 
 land at considerable distances. 
 
 Nautical (Lat. nauta, Gr. nautes, a seaman ; 
 Lat. navis, Gr. naus, a ship). Belonging to ships ; 
 pertaining to a seaman s business. The term is 
 applied in a general, comprehensive sense; thus, 
 nautical science includes the two branches of nav 
 igation and seamanship. 
 
 NAUTICAL ALMANAC. See ALMANAC, NAU 
 TICAL. 
 
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. That part of astron 
 omy made use of in navigation. 
 
 NAUTICAL DAY. See DAY, NAUTICAL. 
 
 NAUTICAL MILE. See MILE, NAUTICAL. 
 
 NAUTICAL SCHOOL-SHIPS. See SCHOOL-SHIPS, 
 NAUTICAL. 
 
 NAUTICAL STARS. The bright stars used by 
 navigators in observations for the determination 
 of latitude and longitude. 
 
 NAUTICAL TABLES. Tables especially com 
 puted for the solution of problems in navigation. 
 
 Nauticum Fcenus. Marine usury ; bottomry. 
 
 Nautilus. The pearly nautilus, N. pompilius, 
 is a marine animal, belonging to the same class 
 (Cephalopoda) as the cuttle-fish, but protected by 
 a beautiful, chambered, discoid shell. The paper- 
 
NAVAL 
 
 510 
 
 NAVAL BKIGADE 
 
 nautilus (Argonauta argo] belongs to a different 
 family of the same class, and has a simple, deli 
 cate, boat-like shell. 
 
 Naval. Pertaining to ships. Of, or belong 
 ing to, the navy. 
 
 Naval Apprentice. See NAVAL TRAINING 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 Naval Architecture. See SHIP BUILDING. 
 
 Naval Brigade. In a preceding article on 
 " landing-parties," the equipment and organiza 
 tion of men from single ships, for operations on 
 shore, has been treated. It has been customary 
 in the service to give the name of "naval brigade" 
 to even a single ship s company, although by 
 rights it refers to a larger organization. We 
 shall treat it in its true meaning, although what 
 applies to it will be found applicable on a reduced 
 scale to smaller parties. 
 
 The ships of a squadron being assembled for 
 offensive operations, and each ship having a bat 
 talion organization, the organization of the bri 
 gade becomes a very simple matter. In modern 
 armies the tactical unit is the company, having 
 a war strength sometimes as high as 250 men. 
 As the naval company is necessarily small, on 
 account of the limited number of officers and the 
 comparative want of experience of the men, the 
 battalion of four such companies would seem to 
 furnish a good basis. The larger ships would 
 each furnish a full battalion, any companies 
 remaining over being joined with those of the 
 smaller ships to complete their quota, the ma 
 rines forming a battalion under their own officers. 
 Arrangements should also be made to form a 
 brigade supply-corps and brigade hospital. The 
 artillery should be formed into batteries of two 
 or three platoons each, care being taken to have 
 the guns in each battery of the same class. An 
 artillery supply-train must also be organized. 
 
 The naval brigade is commanded by a commo 
 dore or captain, assisted by a staff consisting of 
 an adjutant-general, an ordnance-officer, a signal- 
 officer, a paymaster, a surgeon, and several aids. 
 Attached to the headquarters are a squad of or 
 derlies and signalmen, one of whom carries the 
 headquarters flag, which should always mark 
 the point where the commander-in-chief is to be 
 found, but should not be so conspicuous as to 
 draw the enemy s re. 
 
 The battalions should each have two field-offi 
 cers, an adjutant, and a paymaster ; the batteries 
 one field-officer, an adjutant, paymaster, and 
 gunner. 
 
 Landing. All the details of organization hav 
 ing been completed, such as the assignment of 
 companies .and guns, the appointment of com 
 manders of battalions and batteries, the assign 
 ment of battalions and batteries to positions in 
 line, the amount of ammunition and stores to be 
 carried by the men, the amount for the brigade 
 supply and for the base of operations, the detail 
 of ships to cover the landing, or in the absence 
 of such ships, the fitting out and arming of such 
 small vessels as may be available. In the ab 
 sence of either, when the landing is to be in force, 
 beyond the range of the ship s guns, gun-rafts 
 should be built, on which some of the lighter 
 ship s guns or heavier howitzers should be 
 mounted behind hammock breastworks. At any 
 rate, some of the large boats should be fitted to 
 carry the heavy howitzers and to act as gunboats. 
 The boats should all be distinctly numbered on 
 
 each bow and on the stern. Each boat should 
 be provided with a good anchor and long cable. 
 The force is divided into fighting line, sup 
 porting line, and reserve line. Writers on this 
 subject generally advocate the use of the marines 
 for the skirmish or fighting line, the reason being 
 that the marines are supposed to be better drilled 
 in skirmishing. This may be the fact, but it 
 should not be so, as blue-jackets can be just 
 as well instructed when there is a desire to do so. 
 The marines are undoubtedly the best-disciplined 
 infantry, and should, therefore, form the reserve. 
 If it is decided to assign the marines to the fight 
 ing line, they should be put in boats by them 
 selves, pulled by men from the reserve battal 
 ions, unless the marines have been instructed in 
 rowing, as they certainly should be. All the 
 large boats should have four, and the smaller ones 
 two, boat-keepers, armed as riflemen. The steam- 
 launches and permanent covering-boats should 
 have regular crews. An officer, with assistants, 
 should be assigned to the command of the boats 
 and boat-keepers. 
 
 The men to form the expedition having been 
 thoroughly inspected on board their ships, signal 
 should be made for them to embark in their boats. 
 The lines should then be formed in order that all 
 may learn their stations. When all is ready to 
 start, the boats should be taken in tow by the 
 steam-launches or small vessels. The tows should 
 proceed in the order most convenient for reform 
 ing the lines. The artillery-boats should be on 
 the flanks, and in rear of the centre of the line. 
 A convenient method of towing artillery-boats 
 near the enemy is to lash one on each side of the 
 towing boat. 
 
 The circumstances under which a landing has 
 to be made are so variable that no general rule 
 can be laid down. We will discuss the two 
 which seem the best to cover the subject: 1st, 
 landing on the water front of. a town ; and, 2d, 
 landing on a beach, the enemy opposing the 
 landing in both cases. 
 
 On approaching the town the covering-vessels 
 will take up position so that they can shell the 
 landing, and at the same time cover the land- 
 approaches to prevent the arrival of reinforce 
 ments. The artillery-boats will then advance 
 and take up positions to clear the landing and 
 command the principal streets and buildings 
 likely to shelter the enemy s riflemen. The 
 sea-force having been well shelled, the first line 
 of infantry will pull in to the best landing-places ; 
 once ashore, the first line of buildings will be oc 
 cupied and manned on the land side. The sec 
 ond line will now pull in and land ; forming 
 under cover of the buildings, they will prepare 
 to move up as many of the streets normal to the 
 shore as possible. The light guns and machine- 
 guns will now be landed. Some will be placed in 
 position on the first line of buildings, others will 
 join the different street columns. The reserve 
 will now be landed and massed so as to move 
 by the principal thoroughfares. The advance 
 will then be sounded. The first line will move 
 through the buildings to the front, dislodging 
 all of the enemy s men. The second line will 
 move in support of the first through the streets, 
 extending wherever it is found possible, and 
 clearing all the streets parallel to the shore. 
 Care must be taken to keep up a good line of 
 communication. The reserves will support the 
 
 
NAVAL BKIGADE 
 
 511 
 
 NAVAL CHAPLAIN 
 
 second line, and will be prepared to reinforce 
 any point of the fighting line which may be 
 hard pressed. In moving up streets it will be 
 found best to have the men remain close to the 
 houses, taking advantage of the shelter oifered 
 by door-steps, doorways, etc. The men on the 
 right side of the street must dislodge any of the 
 enemy who may appear in the windows or on 
 the roofs on the left side, and vice versa. In case 
 the enemy exposes masses of men, the machine- 
 guns must be brought up. If barricades are 
 met, counter-barricades must be erected as soon 
 as possible and the howitzers brought up. 
 
 On approaching a beach, the covering-vessels 
 must take position so as to enfilade any work 
 which the enemy has erected, and to command 
 the approaches. The artillery-boats must clear 
 the beach and sand-hills of bushes backing them. 
 The first line must then land, contending as 
 skirmishers and taking possession of the first 
 line of sand-hills. The second line and light 
 guns must then land and occupy the positions 
 taken by the first line, the first line advancing 
 to new positions if possible. The reserve will 
 then land and the enemy will be attacked in 
 force. The first line will be in extended skir 
 mish order, the second in line in single rank, 
 the reserve in column of fours or double column 
 of fours. The artillery will take up and main 
 tain the most commanding positions which can 
 be found, and, having gotten a good position, 
 will retain it until the range becomes too great. 
 Great care will be taken to have all persons who 
 are not actually engaged kept as much under 
 cover as possible ; this not only protects the 
 men, but deceives the enemy. The reserve 
 should be kept constantly intrenching itself, 
 and the advance should do the same whenever it 
 is possible and does not retard the movement. 
 
 In both cases, as soon as the main body has 
 moved to the front, the boats should be placed 
 so as to render an embarkation as speedy as pos 
 sible. Off a beach it will be found best to an 
 chor and have a hauling-line to the shore from 
 the stern, the cable being long enough to run 
 into the beach. The boat-guard will then throw 
 up rifle-pits along the first line of sandhills or 
 barricade the firsfline of houses and street open 
 ings as the case may be. 
 
 In case of a retreat, the first troops at the land 
 ing will relieve the boat-guards, who will pro 
 ceed to the boats. 
 
 If the objective-point of the landing is inland 
 and necessitates a regular campaign, the great 
 est care must be taken to observe all the precau 
 tions and provide all the essentials which would 
 be observed and provided by regular land-troops. 
 
 Every means should be taken to collect wheeled 
 transportation, and draft animals, not only for 
 the wagons, but for the guns. If possible, the 
 field-officers and a number of marines, or other 
 men who can ride, should be mounted as order 
 lies and videttes. 
 
 The column should never move without a 
 regular advance- and rear-guard and flankers. 
 Scouting-parties should be sent out in all direc 
 tions. The artillery should be massed in the 
 centre with the baggage, a few of the lighter 
 guns being detailed to the out-guards. 
 
 If it is found necessary to bivouac, the ground 
 should be selected in regard to its defensibility, 
 its healthiness, and its nearness to water. Strong 
 
 lines of sentinels and outposts should be estate 
 lished to guard against surprise. 
 
 When the main body is in a valley or gorge, 
 the heights should always be occupied. 
 
 For those who wish to prepare themselves more 
 thoroughly for naval brigade duties we would 
 recommend a perusal of portions of the " Ord 
 nance Instructions," 1880; Cook s "Gunnery," 
 2d edition; Bedford s "Sailors Pocket-Book," 
 3d edition; Worsley s " Soldiers Pocket-Book," 
 etc. Theo. B. M. Mason, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Chaplain. The origin of the title chap 
 lain is said to be this. St. Martin divided his 
 cloak with a naked beggar whom he found per 
 ishing with cold at the gate of Amiens. The 
 cloak, miraculously preserved, was carried by 
 the French monarchs as a sacred banner. The 
 oratory in which this cloak or cape (French, 
 chape) was preserved acquired the name"cAa- 
 pelle," and the person intrusted with its care 
 was termed " chapelain," and thus, according 
 to Collin de Planey, came our words " chapel" 
 and "chaplain." The office of chaplain is one 
 of the most ancient in the British navy, being 
 almost coeval with its establishment. In a re 
 port of the commission appointed to inquire into 
 the state of the navy in 1618, it is shown among 
 other abuses that "in the narrow seas there 
 is an allowance demanded for a preacher and 
 his man, though no such devotion be used on 
 board." July^26, 1620, George, Duke of Buck 
 ingham, wrote to the University of Cambridge in 
 behalf of the appointment of Daniel Ambrose to 
 one of the king s ships, and about the same date 
 there was a grant of groats from the seamen s 
 wages to chaplains. In 1678, Henry Teonge was 
 chaplain of the " Bristol," 48, who, though fond 
 of " piggs," " ghoose," and that " strange liquor, 
 punch," which he first tasted on board, was 
 evidently an honest, pious, and orthodox Parson 
 Adams of the sea. His Diary, when chaplain on 
 board the "Assistance," "Bristol," and " Koyal 
 Oak," 1675 to 1679, first published in 1825, is a 
 most amusing book, as well as portrait of a chap 
 lain in the royal navy 200 years ago. He says 
 in the beginning: "May 20, 1675. This day I 
 began my voyage from my house" " with smalb 
 accoutrements, saveing what I carried under me 
 in an old sack." " My steed like that of Hu- 
 dibras." (23d) "My stock of moneys was also 
 proportionable to the rest, being little more than 
 what brought me to London in an old coate, and 
 britches of the same, an old payre of hose and 
 shoes, and a leathern dublett of 9 yeares olde and 
 upward. Indeed, I had (by reason of the sudden- 
 nesof myjurny) nothing but what I was ashamed 
 of, save only 
 
 1 An old fox broade-sword, and a good black gowne ; 
 And thus Old Henry cam to London towne. " 
 
 Chaplains have been in the U. S. navy almost 
 from its commencement. We find Elie Vallette 
 a chaplain February 26, 1800, discharged June 
 8, 1801, under the Peace Establishment Act. 
 Kear-Admiral Elie A. F. Vallette, or La Vallette, 
 as subsequently called, was appointed a lieuten 
 ant December 19, 1814, and was probably his 
 son. 
 
 At the present time (1880) there are 24 chap 
 lains on the active list in the IT. S. navy, 4 hold 
 ing the relative rank of captain, 7 the rank of 
 commander, 13 the rank of lieutenant. On the 
 
NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS 
 
 512 
 
 NAVAL HOSPITAL 
 
 retired list, 6 with the rank of captain, and 1 
 with that of commander. 
 
 Naval Constructors. The first naval con 
 structor of the U. S. navy who was appointed 
 under the War Department before the Navy 
 Department was established was Joshua Hum 
 phreys, who died or retired from office October 
 26, 1801. His son, Samuel Humphreys, succeeded 
 him, and died in office August 16, 1846. There 
 are now (1880) in the service on the active list: 
 
 One chief constructor with the relative rank of 
 commodore. 
 
 Two naval constructors with the relative rank 
 of captain. 
 
 Three naval constructors with the relative rank 
 of commander. 
 
 Five nnval constructors with the relative rank 
 of lieutenant. 
 
 One assistant naval constructor with the rela 
 tive rank of lieutenant. 
 
 Four assistant naval constructors with the rel 
 ative rank of master. 
 
 And on the retired list : 
 
 One chief naval constructor with the relative 
 rank of commodore. 
 
 Three naval constructors with the relative rank 
 of captain. 
 
 Naval Crown. One of the nine crowns in 
 heraldry, consisting of a rim of gold or silver, 
 round which are placed alternately prows of 
 galleys arid square sails. It is said to have origi 
 nated with the Roman emperor Claudius, who, 
 after the conquest of Britain, instituted it as a 
 reward for maritime services. He who first 
 boarded an enemy s ship, and was the occasion 
 of its being captured, was entitled to a naval 
 crown. 
 
 Naval Hoods. Those hoods wrought above 
 and below the hawse-holes, outside a ship, where 
 there are no cheeks to support a bolster. 
 
 Naval Hospital, Brooklyn. The United States 
 Naval Hospital Establishment for the New York 
 Station is in Brooklyn, half a mile to the east 
 ward of, but separated from, the navy-yard. 
 It occupies the hill portion (56 feet above tide 
 water) of the Schenck farm, purchased by the 
 government in 1820. The grounds, inclosed by 
 a high and substantial brick wall, comprise 20 
 acres, laid out in lawns, walks, flower- and 
 kitchen-gardens, with an abundance of well- 
 grown shade- and fruit-trees. 
 
 At first the family mansion and farm build 
 ings were metamorphosed and extended so as to 
 answer the hospital requirements of our adoles 
 cent navy, and it was not until 1828 that the 
 main building of the present hospital became 
 ready for occupancy. This edifice, 200 by 60 
 feet, is two stories, with full basement and attic. 
 There were added to it in 1840 two wings, each 
 73 by 49 feet, of same height as main building ; 
 and at the same time was built a " pest-house" of , 
 uniform height and style, this latter structure 
 was subsequently transformed into the naval 
 laboratory, and an ample building for pestilen 
 tial diseases located more remotely. By another 
 change the dead-house was converted into a taste 
 ful chapel. These buildings are of white marble 
 from the quarries near Sing Sing. 
 
 The hospital is appointed to accommodate 125 
 patients, though during the Rebellion the lists 
 ran up as high as 450, but many of these were 
 billeted in a wooden annex, which was torn 
 
 down after hostilities ceased. The general con 
 veniences and appurtenances of the hospital, and 
 the system of heating and ventilation, are as 
 complete as it is possible to arrange. The same 
 machinery that drives heated air throughout the 
 buildings during winter fans the wards and 
 rooms and corridors with a cooling breeze in 
 summer. 
 
 Connected with the grounds is a naval ceme 
 tery, where many officers and members of their 
 families have been buried, as well as sailors and 
 marines. Up to 1880 there had been registered 
 1134 interments. 
 
 The residence of the medical officer in charge 
 is a comfortable suburban villa, built half a cen 
 tury ago, and sequestered by an intersecting 
 wall. The more modern and conspicuous dwell 
 ing near the hospital was erected during the war 
 for the director of the laboratory. Besides these 
 are the usual and necessary lodges and houses for 
 employes, conservatory, engine-house, sheds, 
 barns, stables, etc. 
 
 Medical Inspector Delavan Bloodgood is in 
 charge of the hospital, and Medical Director 
 Samuel F. Coues of the laboratory. Delavan 
 Bloodgood, Medical Inspector U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Hospital, Chelsea, Mass., is beauti 
 fully situated on the left bank of the Mystic 
 River. It furnishes accommodations for all the 
 sick or wounded officers, seamen, and marines of 
 the navy at Boston, Portsmouth, N. H., and New 
 London, Conn., and for all invalids from our 
 naval vessels on foreign stations who may come 
 into the port of Boston. The land occupied by 
 the hospital was purchased from Dr. Aaron Dex 
 ter, of Boston, on the 22d of September, 1823, 
 by a commission composed of the Secretary of 
 the Navy, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the 
 Secretary of War. There were originally 115 
 acres in the tract, for which the government 
 paid $18,000 ; there now remains about 75 acres, 
 the remainder having been transferred to the 
 Ordnance Department of the navy, and to the 
 Marine Hospital Service. The hospital building 
 is 149 feet by 71 feet, and was completed January 
 7, 1836 ; a wing was added in 1865. It is sub 
 stantially built~of granite, and is capable of ac 
 commodating 100 sick men comfortably. It has 
 three floors beside the cellar and the attic, and has 
 a pyramidal roof. On the first or ground floor 
 are the entrance-hall, the dispensary, kitchen, 
 and offices. The second story contains the wards 
 that are usually occupied by the sick. The 
 hospital fronts the river, and is on the south 
 ern exposure of the hill. There is a good supply 
 of sunlight, the sun shining into all the windows 
 at some period of the day. There are westerly 
 breezes from the river, and the hospital is per 
 fectly protected by the hill from the northeast 
 storms, which prevail for six months of the 
 year, and are very penetrating. The ventilation 
 of the hospital is by flues in the partition- walls, 
 which are continued four feet above the roof. The 
 water is supplied from the Mystic reservoir, and 
 is abundant in quantity v and very good in quality. 
 The particular merit of this hospital is that it is 
 the only naval hospital on the entire Atlantic 
 coast that is absolutely free from malarial poison. 
 Patients suffering from this disease have been 
 sent here from all the naval hospitals south of 
 Boston, and often recover. Most of the cruising 
 of our naval vessels is within the tropics, and 
 
NAVAL HOSPITAL 
 
 513 
 
 NAVAL HOSPITAL 
 
 nearly all cases of sickness are more or less com 
 plicated by malarial poison, so that this hospital 
 is better situated for treating the sick of the navy 
 than any other that we have. Wm. T. Hard, 
 Medical Director U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Hospital, Mare Island, Cal. Topog 
 raphy. This hospital comprises an area of about 
 27 acres, situated near the southeastern ex 
 tremity of Mare Island, and about 1 mile from 
 the navy-yard, with which it is connected by a 
 smooth roadway and a planked walk. It lies 
 upon the eastern slope of a series of curving, 
 somewhat elevated hills, which incline gently 
 to the straits, an arm of San Pablo Bay, sepa 
 rating the island from the mainland. 
 
 The soil is a thin, dark loam, with underlying 
 clay and a bedrock of granite. Midway upon 
 the hill-side, the ground has been leveled for the 
 site of the hospital building. Above this is a, 
 young park of eucalyptus-trees, while the re 
 mainder of the grounds is covered with a variety 
 of trees, chiefly eucalyptus and acacia, and orna 
 mental shrubbery, all laid out into roadways, 
 walks, and garden-plots, where flowers of the 
 temperate and subtropical zones are grown in 
 profusion. Here and there a fountain throws a 
 jet or a spray from the centre of a fish-pond or a 
 rockery. 
 
 The view from the hospital affords a pleasing 
 variety. To the left is the navy-yard, with the 
 town of Vallejo opposite; in the middle distance 
 lie the straits, with a cultivated, rolling plain 
 beyond them, dotted with residences, while a 
 chain of mountains fills in the background and 
 the right, as we look eastward from the hospital 
 front. 
 
 Buildings. The hospital building was erected 
 in 1869-70, under the supervision of Medical 
 Director (then Surgeon) J. M. Browne, U.S.N., 
 and was opened for the reception of patients in 
 February, 1871. 
 
 Its length is 256 feet, height 3 stories, in 
 cluding the basement, and the shape a rectangu 
 lar parallelogram, the regularity of the outline 
 being broken by jutting portions. 
 
 The structure is brick, made from clay obtained 
 near the site of the hospital. It is strengthened 
 by perpendicular iron rods anchored in the walls 
 and crossing five lines of similar rods, which en 
 circle the building in a horizontal direction. 
 
 The building consists of a central portion and 
 two wings. The latter are provided with veran 
 das for the first and second stories, which extend 
 their entire length, and are easily accessible 
 from the wards. In the central portion is the 
 main, entrance, protected by a portico, at each 
 end of which a jutting tower rises several feet 
 above the Mansard roof, and supports an iron 
 tank from which water is distributed to various 
 parts of the house. 
 
 In the basement are the general mess-room, 
 kitchen, smoking-room, store-rooms, chambers,, 
 and mess-room for all attendants, bakery, laun 
 dry, with stationary tubs and drying coils, and 
 the fire-room, with donkey-engine for filling the 
 tower-tanks and flushing the sewers. 
 
 On the first floor are the reception-room, gen 
 eral and private offices, quarters and mess-room 
 for the attending medical officers, and the dis 
 pensary on either side of a central corridor, 
 near the extremities of which are a nurse s room 
 and a diet-kitchen. At each end of this corridor 
 
 is a ward for patients of the following dimen 
 sions, viz. : length 68 feet 5 inches, width 24 
 feet, height 14 feet 9 inches. It is lighted by 13 
 windows, 5 on each side and 3 at the farther end, 
 each 9 feet 2 inches by 2 feet 11 inches, heated 
 by an open grate at either end of the ward, and 
 ventilated satisfactorily by the windows and 8 
 ventilating flues. It is provided with water- 
 closets, stationary marble wash-basins, and a 
 bath-room with hot and cold water. The capacity 
 is 20 beds, and when all are occupied each 
 patient has about 82 square feet of floor-space. 
 
 On the second floor are the two remaining 
 wards, similar in all respects to those below. 
 They also are connected by a corridor, opening 
 upon which are apartments for invalid officers 
 and the executive surgeon. A nurse s room and 
 a diet-kitchen are near each ward. 
 
 On the attic floor are additional chambers for 
 attendants, the post-mortem room, a prison for 
 refractory patients, and the bag-room for the. 
 patients hammocks. 
 
 There are two water-closets and a bath-room, 
 on each floor besides those in the wards. A 
 linen shute near each ward and an elevator ex 
 tend from the attic to the basement. 
 
 Electric call-bells are attached to the officers 
 rooms, and a telephone connects the hospital 
 with the navy-yard. 
 
 The building is lighted at night by gas man 
 ufactured on the premises, heated throughout by 
 open grates, and provided with a good sewerage, 
 the conformation of the grounds rendering effi 
 cient drainage easy. 
 
 The water used in the hospital is rain-water 
 collected by drainage from the neighboring hill 
 sides into a large reservoir, whence it is delivered 
 through iron pipes into two subterranean cisterns^ 
 near the building having each a capacity of 
 90,000 gallons. 
 
 The ward for patients affected with contagious 
 diseases is situated beyond the hills, and about 
 one-half mile west of the hospital. It is an ordi 
 nary frame building, and merits no particular 
 description. 
 
 The administration of the hospital consists of 
 a medical director in charge, an executive and 
 two attending surgeons, an apothecary, purveyor, 
 two nurses, and general subordinates. 
 
 Climatology. In the absence of complete me 
 teorological data it must suffice to say that the 
 mean annual temperature of Mare Island is 
 about 60, the extremes 35 and 86 F. The 
 latter are the minimum and maximum recorded 
 during the 10 years from 1869 to 1879. The 
 rain-fall varies from 16 to 38 inches, approxi 
 mately, and occurs almost wholly between No 
 vember and May in a succession of April show 
 ers. Snow rarely falls, and never lies upon the 
 ground longer than a few minutes. Ice, and 
 even heavy frost, is exceptional, so that flowers 
 may be seen blooming in the open air throughout 
 the year, and but little fire is commonly needed 
 even in midwinter. 
 
 The prevailing winds are westerly, and during 
 the summer months are steady, fresh, and some 
 times chill. The nights are always cool. 
 
 As a sanitarium, this hospital is probably 
 unsurpassed by any similar institution in the 
 country. The mildness and equability of the 
 climate, and the picturesque surroundings, invite 
 the invalid to an out-of-door life with its attend- 
 
NAVAL INSTITUTE 
 
 514 
 
 NAVAL LYCEUM 
 
 ant sunshine, fresh air, and gentle exercise, and 
 while conveniently near Vallejo and San Fran 
 cisco for the purchase of supplies, the compara 
 tive isolation of the hospital affords the quiet and 
 repose of country life. It is the sanitary resort 
 of patients from all the United States men-of-war 
 cruising on the Pacific, and although they come 
 from the coast of Mexico, Central and South 
 America, Japan, and China, yet all find the 
 climate grateful and conducive to restoration of 
 health. J. M. Browne, Medical Director U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Institute. The United States Naval 
 Institute was organized at Annapolis, in the fall 
 of 1873. The object of the institute is to pro 
 vide a medium for the circulation of knowledge 
 on subjects of interest to the profession, and to 
 bring the subjects under discussion. 
 
 As the officers of the navy are scattered all over 
 the globe, it is impossible to get any very great 
 number of them together in one locality ; for this 
 reason the society is divided into branches, each 
 branch holding its own meetings and electing its 
 own local officers. The headquarters are at An 
 napolis. 
 
 The papers read in the branches, and the dis 
 cussions which arise from them, are forwarded 
 to headquarters, where, with those from that 
 place, they are published for general circulation 
 among the members. All officers holding posi 
 tions under the Navy Department are eligible to 
 membership. Provision is also made to admit, 
 as associate and honorary members, such persons 
 out of the profession as may desire to become 
 members, or whom it may be thought desirable 
 to associate with the undertaking. 
 
 Any person eligible to membership has only 
 to send in his name to the secretary of the insti 
 tute, who is stationed at the Naval Academy, 
 Annapolis, in order to become a member. 
 
 The published proceedings form a very inter 
 esting and instructive collection of service litera 
 ture. As we have stated, they are sent to all 
 members from the date of admission, and may 
 be purchased by any person at a slight advance 
 on the cost price. 
 
 The institute has met with great success in the 
 service, and the membership is becoming larger 
 every year. There is hardly a quarter of the 
 globe where, during one evening in each month, 
 some of the members may not be found assem 
 bled for discussion. 
 
 Each year the institute offers a gold medal 
 and a life-membership as a prize for the best 
 essay on some subject selected and published 
 during the preceding year. 
 
 The general officers of the institute are a presi 
 dent, a secretary, a corresponding secretary, and 
 a treasurer. Each branch has a vice-president 
 and a corresponding secretary, who acts as local 
 secretary and treasurer. 
 
 The dues are very small, $3 for a member, 
 and $1 for an associate, and are payable an 
 nually on the first day of January. The ad 
 mission fee is only nominal. As yet the gov 
 ernment has done but very little to foster this 
 undertaking, but it is hoped that before long it 
 may be recognized as one of the institutions of 
 the Navy Department, as is the case with similar 
 societies under foreign governments. Theo. B. 
 M. Mason, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Lyceum. The United States Naval 
 Lyceum was organized at the New York Navy- 
 
 Yard, November 28, 1833, by the officers of the 
 navy and marine corps stationed at the yard or 
 living in its vicinity. Master-Commandant M. 
 C. Perry presided at the first meeting, and Com 
 modore Chas. Gr. Ridgely, then commandant of 
 the yard, was the first president. In May, 1835, 
 the lyceum was incorporated by the Legislature 
 of New York, and authorized to hold, property 
 valued at $25,000. 
 
 The constitution of the society in its preamble 
 declares that it was formed " in order to promote 
 the diffusion of useful knowledge, to foster a 
 spirit of harmony and a community of interests 
 in the service, and to cement the links which 
 unite us as professional brethren." To carry out 
 the objects mentioned a library and reading- 
 room were formed, a museum was established, 
 and papers on naval ordnance, construction, and 
 equipment, etc., were read and discussed, the 
 lyceum being thus the forerunner by forty years 
 of the United States Naval Institute. 
 
 During the years 1836 and 1837 a bi-monthly 
 called The Naval Magazine was published by 
 the lyceum, with Chaplain C. S. Stewart as edi 
 tor ; it contained articles on professional subjects, 
 narratives of cruises, and general naval intelli 
 gence. J. Fenimore Cooper, Commander A. S. 
 Mackenzie, Wm. C. Redfield, Esq., Chaplain 
 Walter C. Colton, and Dr. Usher Parsons were 
 among the contributors to what it is believed was 
 the only purely naval periodical ever issued in 
 the United States. The lyceum was an earnest 
 advocate of the establishment of a naval school 
 and of the increase of the steam navy, and in 
 addition to its magazine published, during its 
 earlier years, various pamphlets on professional 
 subjects. In those days, having a permanent 
 librarian, the lyceum took charge of letters di 
 rected to its care and forwarded them to the vari 
 ous foreign stations. The society flourished with 
 a very large membership for over 25 years ; during 
 the war of the Rebellion, however, it dwindled in 
 size, and its organization was suspended for some 
 time; it was reorganized in 1871, and now has 
 over a hundred members. 
 
 The museum, library, and reading-room oc 
 cupy the upper floor of the building in the navy- 
 yard, which derives its name from the society, but 
 which is also used for the offices of the command 
 ant, captain, and paymaster of the yard, and 
 their assistants. 
 
 The museum grew very rapidly at first, and 
 received many donations from citizens as well as 
 more numerous contributions from officers; it 
 contains a fair collection of coins, minerals, 
 models of vessels, and general curiosities, a fine lot 
 of autographs, and a valuable set of portraits in 
 oil of the earlier Presidents of the United States 
 and of distinguished naval officers, including 
 Bainbridge, Chauncey, Decatur, Hull, Nicholson, 
 Shaw, and Rogers. It is one of the chief objects 
 of interest in the yard, and is daily visited by 
 numerous parties from all sections of the United 
 States, and even from other countries ; in 1879 
 the number of visitors was over 10,000. 
 
 The library, like the museum, received many 
 valuable contributions during the earlier years 
 of the society from citizens, as much as $500 be 
 ing given at one time by some marine insurance 
 companies for the purchase of books ; of late 
 years many books have been donated by the 
 various bureaus of the Navy and War Depart- 
 
NAVAL OFFICER 
 
 515 
 
 NAVAL SONGS 
 
 ments, the naval observatory and the coast sur 
 vey. It now has 5000 volumes, many of them 
 of great value, and not easily replaced ; this is 
 particularly the case with the volumes pertain 
 ing to military and naval history, biography, 
 and science ; there is also a valuable collection 
 relating to voyages and travels. Nearly all the 
 professional journals of this country and some 
 of the best European ones are taken, as well as 
 several of the literary periodicals of the day. 
 
 The officers of the society consist of a presi 
 dent, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, libra 
 rian, auditor, and library committee. The com 
 mandant of the yard is ex officio the president. 
 The entrance fee is $3, and the annual dues 
 $1 ; the regular meetings occur monthly, on 
 officers pay-day, at 11 A.M. All cadet midship 
 men and cadet engineers are invited to avail 
 themselves of the benefits of the institution by 
 the tender on the part of the society of access to 
 its rooms, cabinet, and library; and the same 
 privilege is extended to all the officers of vessels 
 temporarily at the New York Navy- Yard. Con 
 tributions of books and pamphlets and curiosities 
 are solicited from old members and friends of 
 the society, particularly of books relating to na 
 val affairs and maritime explorations. F. Han- 
 ford, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Officer. An officer in the naval service. 
 A custom-house officer. See CUSTOMS. 
 
 Naval Songs. Lyrical poetry is the most 
 ancient and enduring method of instructing the 
 young, and of keeping alive the history and tra 
 ditions of a nation. 
 
 With every intelligent people there is a natu 
 ral curiosity to know something of past events, 
 and of those who have rendered themselves illus 
 trious. When, therefore, books were scarce and 
 libraries unknown, metrical composition became 
 a necessity. Those who could compose or recite 
 high themes in pleasing numbers were held in 
 great esteem ; not simply that their verses de 
 lighted the ear, but because they instructed the 
 heart and mind, and stimulated the memory to 
 retain all that was good and noble and worthy of 
 emulation in the past. These verses were not only 
 repeated at high festivals and great banquets, but 
 beneath the vine and fig-tree, and in the seclusion 
 of home ; the earliest lays that caught the infant 
 ear told of the glories of other days. Thus was 
 handed down from father to son the history of a 
 race. 
 
 Of all the works of man, Song is the most en 
 during. The great Assyrian empire has crum 
 bled into dust, Nineveh and Babylon, Tadmor 
 and Baalbek have suffered Time s remorseless 
 doom ; and yet the Song of Moses, telling how the 
 Lord delivered his people out of the hands of 
 Pharaoh s hosts, is as fresh to-day as when Mir 
 iam and all the daughters of Israel raised their 
 dark Jewish eyes to heaven and to the sounding 
 timbrels sang praises to their fathers God. 
 
 The Sacred Songs of David have carried hope 
 and comfort to the hearts of thousands upon 
 thousands; and the "Song of Songs," so old 
 that its authorship is unknown, has told, and 
 will for all ages continue to tell, of the ineffable 
 pleasures of pure and faithful love. 
 
 The wrath of Achilles, the devotion of Patro- 
 clus, the noble actions of Hector, the love of An 
 dromache, all embalmed in immortal verse, have 
 served to incite countless generations of youths 
 
 to deeds of daring. From the days when the 
 Argonauts rowed in unison to the charmed mel 
 odies of Orpheus, the sailors of ancient Greece 
 ceased not to enliven with song the labors of the 
 oar. They chanted hymns on going into battle, 
 and sang paeans in honor of victory. 
 
 Cato, the Censor, in speaking of the ballad 
 poetry of ancient Rome, unhappily lost, said 
 that many ages. before his time there were bal 
 lads in praise of illustrious men, which it was 
 the fashion for the guests, at banquets, to sing in 
 turn while the piper pla} r ed. 
 
 " Where," Cicero mournfully asks, " are those 
 old verses now?" Valerius Maximus observes 
 that the ancient Roman ballads were probably 
 of more benefit to the young than all the lectures 
 of the Athenian schools, and that to the influence 
 of the national poetry were to be ascribed the 
 virtues of such men as Camillus and Fabricius. 
 This observation certainly lends weight to the 
 oft-quoted remark of Andrew Fletcher, of Sal- 
 toun, who said, "I knew a very wise man that 
 believed that, if a man were permitted to make 
 all the ballads, he need not care who should make 
 the laws of a nation." 
 
 We have the authority of Tacitus for saying 
 that songs were the only memorials of the past 
 which the ancient Germans possessed. The brave 
 actions of the ancient Gauls were commemorated 
 by their bards, and the ancient Skalds sang in 
 Runic rhymes the deeds of the sons of the 
 fjords. 
 
 The exploits of Athelstane were sung by the 
 Anglo-Saxons ; those of Canute by the Danes. 
 The chants of the Welsh harpers preserved 
 through ages of darkness a memory of Arthur, 
 and the long struggle of the Servians against the 
 Ottoman power was recorded in lays full of 
 martial spirit. 
 
 The sea victories achieved by the heroes of 
 modern times have not wanted poets to celebrate 
 them in verse. The " Battle of the Baltic," by 
 Thomas Campbell, will continue to tell of " Nel 
 son and the North" long after St. Paul s shall 
 have fallen into ruin. But the poet par excel 
 lence of the English navy was Dibdin. What 
 was said of the effect of the ballads of ancient 
 Rome in forming the character of the Roman 
 youths is certainly true of the sea-songs of 
 Charles Dibdin. He not only sang of England s 
 naval heroes and their victories, but of the sailor 
 and the sailor s life ; of his loyalty, his courage, 
 and his devotion. Most of Dibdin s sea-songs, 
 indeed, are pervaded by a wholesome moral tone 
 and an elevation of principle that could not but 
 exert the happiest influence on the young. 
 
 " Poor Jack," quoting the chaplain, says: 
 
 ..." let storms e er so oft 
 Take the topsails of sailors aback, 
 
 There s a sweet little cherub that sits up aloft, 
 To keep watch for the life of poor Jack." 
 
 What more touching tribute to the memory 
 of a departed shipmate than the lines to poor 
 Tom Bowling? He was 
 
 " The darling of our crew ; 
 No more he ll hear the tempest howling, 
 
 For death has broached him to. 
 His form was of the manliest beauty, 
 
 His heart was kind and soft ; 
 Faithful below he did his duty, 
 
 But now he s gone aloft." 
 
NAVAL SONGS 
 
 516 
 
 NAVAL STATION 
 
 The virtues of another tar are told of Tom 
 Tackle, who 
 
 " Was noble, was true to his word ; 
 If merit brought titles, Tom might be a lord ; 
 How gayly his bark through life s ocean would sail ! 
 Truth furnished the rigging and Honor the gale." 
 
 And so of Tom Transom, " a seaman sound to 
 the backbone," and scores of others. 
 
 The great influence of Dibdin s songs may be 
 estimated from the fact that in 1803 the British 
 government engaged him to write a series of 
 songs, " to keep alive the national feelings against 
 the French." His biographer adds, "His engage 
 ment ceased with the war he thus assisted in 
 bringing to a glorious close. 
 
 While Dibdin s songs of victory were being 
 sung, not only on every forecastle, but in every 
 town and hamlet of England, the infant navy 
 of the United States found itself suddenly con 
 fronted by ships fresh from the glories of Traf 
 algar ! When, therefore, the news spread over 
 the country that the "Constitution" had cap 
 tured the "Guerriere," an English frigate of 
 about the same rating, there was scarcely any 
 bounds to the popular enthusiasm. Songs were 
 composed in honor of the event, and sung at 
 public dinners, public meetings, and in the navy. 
 For years after the close of the war of 1812, 
 such songs as "Constitution and Guerriere," 
 "Decaturand the Navy," "The United States 
 and Macedonian," "The Hornet; or, Victory 
 Number Five," contributed very materially to 
 wards keeping up the popularity of the navy. 
 The Revolutionary war gave rise to compara 
 tively few naval songs. One of them, how 
 ever, " Paul Jones s Victory," was for many 
 years a great favorite in the navy. A memory 
 of the quasi war with France is well preserved 
 in " Truxtun s Victory" : 
 
 " Come all ye Yankee sailors, with swords and pikes advance, 
 Tis time to try your courage and humble haughty France ; 
 The sons of France our seas invade, 
 Destroy our commerce and our trade, 
 Tis time the reck ning should be paid 
 To brave Yankee boys." 
 
 The war with Mexico gave rise to very few 
 naval songs, the late war of the Rebellion to 
 very few. 
 
 That our old naval songs have died out is due 
 in no slight degree to the comparatively small 
 proportion of native-born seamen who have 
 manned our ships. Of those who could claim to 
 be Americans, many were interchangeable with 
 the merchant service, so that the recognized body 
 of American men-of-war s-men was extremely 
 limitedi Furthermore, there were no means of 
 making good the waste by death, casualties, etc. 
 The old type of sailor, therefore, died out, and 
 with him passed away the songs and traditions 
 of the old navy. 
 
 But a new era has opened for the American 
 sailor. The training of boys for the navy will 
 now yield a continuous supply of American men- 
 of-war s-men of the best type. The songs which 
 commemorate our early naval victories, once re 
 vived, could not fail to inspire the rising gen 
 eration of seamen with that spirit of loyalty to 
 their flag and devotion to duty which distin 
 guished those who laid the foundation of our naval 
 renown. (Macaulay s u Laysof Ancient Rome," 
 Aikin s " Origin of Songs," Dibdin s " Universal 
 
 Songster," London, 1827; " Songs for Sailors," 
 W. C. Bennett ; " The Book of Battle Songs and 
 others.") S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Station, Key West, Fla. The naval 
 station at Key West, Fla., is situated on the 
 western side of the island, and directly on the 
 harbor. It embraces 2J acres of land, with an L- 
 shaped wharf. Length of wharf from store-house 
 to water front 225 feet, and breadth 31 feet ; 
 length of water front 250 feet, with a breadth 
 of 41 feet. The wharf contains a double rail 
 road track and a heavy crane. Mean depth of 
 water at low-tide at wharf is 18 feet, running 
 abruptly to 25 feet, so that the largest ships can 
 remain alongside at all times. 
 
 At the northern end of the station is the store 
 house, a heavy brick building of two stories, 184 
 by 80 feet, the brick-work of which was completed 
 in 1857. The building underwent the necessary 
 improvements at different times until it was fin 
 ished in 1866, and has been used ever since as a 
 store-house for the different bureaus, and con 
 tains offices for the officers of the station. The 
 room at present occupied by the paymaster of 
 the station was the first office of the Interna 
 tional Ocean Telegraph Company in Key West. 
 
 Connected with the store-house are two cisterns 
 containing 76,000 gallons each, which were con 
 structed in 1862. 
 
 The next naval building is the coal-shed, built 
 1^1868 of wood, 150 by 60 feet, capable of con 
 taining 2400 tons, and connected with the water 
 front of wharf by a railroad track, but separated 
 from the store-house by the U. S custom-house, 
 U. S. light-house building, and the lots called 
 the Mallory property. 
 
 Next is the foundry, built of brick in 1873, 73 
 by 43 feet ; and very near the foundry, at the 
 southern end of the station, is the machine-shop, 
 built of wood in 1862, 137 by 41 feet. 
 
 There are the following smaller buildings: 1 
 store-house, 25 by 16 feet, of wood; 1 store 
 house, 23 by 13 feet, of wood ; 1 scale-house, 
 8 by 6 feet, of- wood; 1 transit-house, 8 by 6 
 feet, of wood ; 1 carpenter s shop, 23 by 1.7 feet, 
 of wood. Total value of property, $230,000. 
 
 In 1874, on account of anticipated trouble with 
 Spain, the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and 
 the greater part of the European fleets were or 
 dered to Key West, numbering in all 26 ves 
 sels of every description, under the command 
 of Admiral A. L. Case. Commodore F. A. 
 Parker was detailed for special duty as chief- 
 of-staff, to superintend the grand naval drill 
 in accordance with his tactics. Four thousand 
 men were landed on the south beach of the 
 island, and were exercised in .skirmish and bat 
 talion drill. In May of the same year, the 
 trouble having been amicably settled,*the fleets 
 were dispersed to their respective stations, and 
 the North Atlantic Squadron was left in com 
 mand of Rear-Admiral G. H. Scott. In April, 
 1875, the fleet left this place on account of yel 
 low fever, and it has never since that time been 
 used as headquarters for the squadron. 
 
 List of line- and staft-officers from 1872 to the 
 present time : 
 
 Line-officers. Lieut.-Com. A. N. Mitchell, 
 from 1872 to 1873; Commander A. E. K. Ben- 
 ham, from 1873 to 1874; Commander A. R. 
 Yates, from April, 1874, to June, 1874; Lieut. 
 J. K. Winn, from 1874 to 1875 ; Lieut. E. B. 
 
NAVAL STATION 
 
 517 
 
 NAYAL STATION 
 
 Thomas, from December, 1876, to 1879 ; Lieut.- 
 Com. J. K. Winn, from November, 1879, to the 
 present time. 
 
 Paymasters. Passed Assistant Paymaster 
 Henry Girrard, from 1871 to 1872 ; Passed As 
 sistant Paymaster F. C. Alley, from 1872 to 
 1873 ; Assistant Paymaster F. Clark, tempo 
 rarily, 1873 ; Passed Assistant Paymaster F. 
 Bissell, from 1873 to 1874 ; Paymaster A. J. 
 Clark, from 1874 to 1875 ; Passed Assistant Pay 
 master E. Melach, from 1875 to 1877 ; Passed As 
 sistant Paymaster H. C. Machette, from 1877 to 
 1879 ; Assistant Paymaster Wm. W. Gait, from 
 1879 to the present time. Passed Assistant Pay 
 master E. Melach was in charge of depot from 
 1875 to 1876. 
 
 Surgeons. Acting Assistant Surgeon E. J. 
 Perry, from April, 1872, to May, 1876 ; Acting 
 Assistant Surgeon L. H. Armstrong, from May, 
 1876, to May, 1878 ; Acting Assistant Surgeon 
 R. J. Perry, from May, 1878, to June 30, 1879, 
 when he was discharged by the Hon. Secretary 
 of the Navy, in accordance with act of February 
 15, 1879, to abolish the volunteer navy of the 
 United States. 
 
 In February, 1878, by order of the Secretary 
 of the Navy, this was made a station, and no 
 longer included as a part of the Home Squadron. 
 
 One beautiful feature is the monument oppo 
 site the front entrance of the store-house, at the 
 intersection of Whitehead and Front Streets, on 
 land owned by the city of Key West, which was 
 erected by the Navy Club of Key West in mem 
 ory of the gallant officers, sailors, and soldiers of 
 the U. S. army, navy, and marine corps who 
 died while on duty on this station from 1861 to 
 1865. 
 
 Until Lieut. Thomas, who rebuilt the wharf 
 and otherwise improved and beautified the sta 
 tion, assumed command, owing to very limited 
 appropriations, very little care had been bestowed 
 upon this monument and its surroundings, but 
 one of his first acts was to have the lot on which 
 it stands surveyed and inclosed in a neat picket- 
 fence, grass-seed sown, and shade-trees planted ; 
 and his successor, Lieut.-Com. Winn, has con 
 tinued to bestow the same solicitous supervision, 
 so that each year it is becoming more beautiful 
 in appearance and creditable to those who had it 
 erected. 
 
 The importance of Key West as a naval sta 
 tion has never been overestimated by the govern 
 ment, and as far back as 1824 it was used as a 
 .rendezvous by the gallant Commodore Porter 
 when in command of a fleet of gunboats en- , 
 gaged in cruising for pirates on the coast of 
 Cuba and in the West Indies. 
 
 During the late civil war the port of Key 
 West was brought prominently into notice by 
 being the headquarters of the Gulf Squadron. 
 It was the only port in the Gulf possessed by 
 the government, until the capture of New Or 
 leans and the evacuation of Pensacola. 
 
 Key West has a fine harbor, easy of access, 
 and safe anchorage ; 28 feet of water can be car 
 ried at all times through the southwest channel. 
 
 Naval ships of the class of the u Colorado" and 
 " Niagara" have visited this port often, and have 
 never experienced any difficulty in entering it. 
 
 Naval Station, New London, Conn. The 
 New London Naval Station was established by 
 the government in 1868. It is situated on the 
 
 east bank of the Thames River, and about 6 
 miles from its entrance to the sound, contain 
 ing about 100 acres of land with a mile of shore 
 front. The Thames River has depth for the 
 largest vessels for some miles above the site, 
 within the harbor of New London, reputed to be 
 one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. It 
 is about equidistant from New York and Boston, 
 and has a fine, clear entrance to and from the 
 ocean. 
 
 The government has made appropriations from 
 time to time for improvements at this site; a 
 wharf 800 feet long, 2 store-houses, and sev 
 eral other buildings have been constructed, and 
 some 25 acres of ground has been graded to a 
 proper level for the purposes of the yard. 
 
 Commodore T. A. Hunt was the first com 
 mandant; then Commodore R. Werden, who 
 was succeeded by Commodore D. McN. Fairfax. 
 Commodore Edward Simpson is the present com 
 mandant of the yard. 
 
 No vessels have yet been built at this yard, but it 
 is considered admirably adapted for that purpose, 
 and for the erection of any structures which may 
 be required at a navy-yard, the foundations being 
 solid and plenty of excellent granite close at 
 hand. It was recommended by a board of offi 
 cers in 1862, of which Rear-Admiral Stringham 
 was president, and it is believed has the unani 
 mous approval of all nautical men. 
 
 The " Dictator," " Florida," and other vessels 
 of large draft have been at its wharf. The u Min 
 nesota," the largest of the Training Fleet, com 
 manded by Capt. Luce, is stationed there during 
 the winter, with 500 or 600 men and boys in 
 training. The site was a gift from the State of 
 Connecticut to the government for naval pur 
 poses, and it has been recommended by the dif 
 ferent Secretaries of the Navy as one of the best 
 locations for a national navy-yard, as the Thames 
 River never freezes, and is accessible from the 
 sea at all seasons. 
 
 Naval Station, Port Royal, S. C. Port Royal 
 possesses many natural advantages, one of the 
 greatest being its salubrity of climate, which is 
 much warmer than many places situated far 
 south of it. The depth of water on the bar at 
 the entrance to the harbor is 20 feet at dead low- 
 water, with a mean rise and fall of tide of between 
 6 and 7 feet, and as it is from 200 to 300 miles 
 nearer to all the Southern and Western shipping 
 centres than New York, this fact of itself would 
 seem to insure its eventually becoming a place 
 of importance ; but, in addition to this fact, it is 
 the only place on our whole coast between Nor 
 folk and Key West which has this great depth 
 of water in the harbor, and at the same time is 
 large enough to afford shelter to our largest ships 
 of war, and where a naval station possessing 
 the requirements for refitting and replenishing 
 our squadrons could be established. But before 
 establishing such a station it would be necessary 
 to select the site beyond the reach of an enemy s 
 long-range guns, and to have the approaches de 
 fended by fortifications which an enemy would 
 not attempt to pass. 
 
 Port Royal was first occupied by Rear-Ad 
 miral Dupont in 1861, and continued an impor 
 tant naval station until 1865, since which time 
 its importance has been decreasing until the 
 present time, when, although the vessels of the 
 North Atlantic Squadron may obtain supplies 
 
NAVAL STORES 
 
 518 
 
 NAVAL TACTICS 
 
 of nearly every description, there are no facilities 
 for repairs. 
 
 Although no ships have ever been built, the 
 government had large shops established here 
 during our late war, where repairs of nearly every 
 description could be effected. The town of Port 
 Royal is gradually increasing in mercantile im 
 portance, and capitalists are realizing the fact 
 of its many natural advantages, and recently 
 large and extensive docks and a large steam 
 cotton-compress have been constructed, and a 
 grain-elevator and cotton-factory are now under 
 contemplation. 
 
 The harbor of Port Royal was the rendezvous 
 for our ironclad fleet until the spring of 1877, 
 and after its removal the " New Hampshire" 
 was converted into a training-ship for appren 
 tices ; but owing to her being so heavily sparred 
 as to render anything like seamanship evolutions 
 impossible, the apprentices, 60 in number, were, 
 in June, 1879, transferred to the other training- 
 ships, since which time she has been used as a 
 store- and receiving-ship, the only other perma 
 nent vessel being the "Pawnee," which is used 
 as a store-ship for coal. 
 
 The station has generally been commanded by 
 a flag-officer, the first being Commodore I. M. B. 
 Clitz, who was relieved, in the spring of 1877, by 
 Commodore A. K. Hughes, who remained in 
 command until August, 1878, when he was suc 
 ceeded by Commodore George M. Ranson, who 
 was relieved by Commodore Thomas Pattison, 
 in January, 1879, and he was succeeded, in Aug 
 ust, 1880, by Capt. James E. Jouett. W. E. 
 Whitfield, Ensign U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Stores. Ship s stores. 
 
 Naval Tactics (Greek ro/m/cof, capable of 
 being arranged, as in the order of battle). Tac 
 tics may be defined as the art of military 
 movements. Naval tactics comprehend those 
 evolutions which are designed to bring the 
 ships of a fleet or squadron into a determined 
 order, or to change them from one order to 
 another. They have for their object the con 
 ducting, according to certain rules, of a naval 
 force in and out of port; anchoring and get 
 ting it under way; navigating it on the high 
 seas ; the formation of the line of battle ; the 
 pursuit of any enemy ; the protection of a con 
 voy; retreating from a superior force; and, when 
 the several ships of the command have been dis 
 persed by battle, by the violence of the elements, 
 or other cause, their restoration to any one of 
 the recognized orders. These various move 
 ments, and the evolutions necessary to effect 
 them, are to be found in the Signal Book (see 
 SIGNALS), each evolution being accompanied by 
 a diagram showing the movement of each ship 
 of the command. 
 
 On paper they appear so simple that the possi 
 bility of mistakes seems remote indeed ; and yet 
 we have the melancholy examples of the u Van 
 guard," the "Grosser Kiirfurst," a collision be 
 tween two ironclads in the French navy, and the 
 sinking of a Russian man-of-war while engaged 
 in tactical evolutions, to say nothing of numer 
 ous collisions of lesser note, to show that nothing 
 but the school of actual and continued practice 
 will ever enable officers to handle their ships so 
 skillfully as to insure the invariable success of fleet 
 evolutions. If the weather were always pleasant 
 and the sea smooth ; if signals could always be read 
 
 with certainty and correctly interpreted ; if the 
 several ships of the command were all homogene 
 ous ; if they all maintained the same speed, and 
 under similar circumstances described equal arcs 
 of evolution, the manoeuvring of a fleet would 
 be comparatively easy. But these conditions are 
 rarely, if ever, fulfilled. Scarcely any two ships 
 will be found possessed of the same facility of 
 turning, or able to maintain the same speed 
 under varying circumstances. Hence the fol 
 lowing definitions : 
 
 The co-efficient of speed is the ratio between the 
 number of revolutions per minute of the engines 
 of a given ship and those of the flag-ship, when 
 the speed of both is the same. 
 
 The co-efficients of helm are the ratios under 
 various conditions of speed between the angles of 
 a given ship s helm and those of a flag-ship s 
 helm, when both are describing the same circle. 
 
 Every ship of a command should know its 
 own co-efficient of speed and its own co-efficients 
 of helm for different rates of steaming. Every 
 ship should know, also, the mast-head angles of 
 every other ship of the command, both for open 
 and for close orders : 2 cable s lengths, or 240 
 fathoms, and 1 cable s length, respectively. This 
 is the only means by which the proper distances 
 may be observed. Distances are reckoned from 
 mainmast to mainmast. 
 
 An assemblage of vessels of war takes the name 
 of fleet when it consists of 12 or more ships of 
 the line, or vessels of equal military value; dis 
 patch-boats, transports, etc., are not considered. 
 
 A naval force of less than 12 line-of-battle 
 ships, or vessels of equal military value, takes 
 the name of squadron or division, according to 
 its numerical strength. 
 
 A fleet is separated into three divisions of one, 
 two, or three squadrons each, each squadron 
 comprising not less than four vessels. 
 
 The command is distributed as follows : the 
 commander-in-chief commands the fleet, the sec 
 ond in command the van division, the third in 
 command the rear division, the fourth in com 
 mand the centre. 
 
 The smaller and lighter vessels constitute the 
 light squadron ; the transports, the convoy. 
 
 The reserve division should be about one-fourth 
 the strength of the whole fleet, and be drawn 
 equally from the van, centre, and rear divisions. 
 
 There are but three formations, any one of 
 which may form an order of battle, viz. : 
 
 1. The line (Fig. 1), in which the ships are 
 ranged on a line at right angles to the course ; 
 in natural order when the van is on the right, 
 inverse order when it is on the left. 
 
 2. The column (Fig. 2). Single column is when 
 each ship follows in the wake of the leading ship ; 
 double column when the two leading ships are 
 on a line at right angles to the course, and at a 
 prescribed distance from each other, and the two 
 columns are parallel. The column is in natural 
 order when the van is leading, in inverse order 
 when the rear squadron or division is leading. 
 
 3. The echelon (Fig. 3), when the ships of the 
 command steering the same course are ranged 
 on a line of bearing four points from the course. 
 Double echelon is when there are two such lines 
 of bearing, the two wings forming a right angle, 
 as in Fig. 4. The echelon is in natural order 
 when the van is on the right, in inverse order 
 when it is on the left. 
 
NAVAL TACTICS 
 
 519 
 
 NAVAL TACTICS 
 
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NAVAL TACTICS 
 
 520 
 
 NAVAL TKATNING SYSTEM 
 
 "When the ships steer in direct double echelon, 
 as in Fig. 4, they are said to be in the offensive 
 order, or order of chase. When reversed, as in 
 Pig. 5, the order is termed the defensive, the 
 order of retreat, or the order of convoy. 
 
 The foregoing constitute the simple orders. 
 Compound orders are those wherein the squad 
 rons or divisions, considered as units and in the 
 same formation, are ranged on one of the simple 
 orders, thus : 
 
 Fig. 6, a column of squadrons or column of 
 fours, in natural order, heading north. 
 
 Fig. 7, columns of vessels abreast by squadrons, 
 in natural order, heading north. 
 
 Fig. 8, in echelon of squadrons, natural order, 
 heading north. 
 
 Taking now the two simple orders, line and 
 column, and regarding the ship as a company of 
 infantry and the squadron as a battalion or, 
 better still, the ship as a section of artillery and 
 the squadron as a battery we have only to apply 
 the rules of military tactics to enable us to form 
 the command in any desired order. The fleet be 
 ing in line, for example, heading north (Fig. 1), 
 let it be required to form column of squadrons to 
 the right. The commander-in-chief signals, Fleet, 
 by squadrons, wheel, to east. The movement is 
 then effected as in Fig. 9. The column may be 
 brought into line again by a left oblique move 
 ment of the centre and rear, or by Fig. 6. From 
 this it would appear that Admiral George Monk, 
 whilom chief of artillery under Cromwell, was 
 simply wiser than his generation when he moved 
 the mirth of the sailors by calling out, " Wheel 
 to the right! 1 when he wanted to tack ship. 
 
 The foregoing is a summary of what is called 
 elementary tactics, that branch of the art of war 
 which immediately precedes grand tactics, or the 
 tactics of battles, strategy being the highest 
 branch, for which reason it has been called the 
 science of generals. 
 
 In what order soever the fleet may be formed, 
 whether at anchor or under way, the ultimate ob 
 ject of elementary tactics is the formation, in the 
 most expeditious manner possible, for battle ; the 
 two first branches above named, therefore, merge 
 in 
 
 The order of battle. This, in the sail-period, 
 when ships carried their batteries in broadside 
 only, and depended on the wind for the motive- 
 power, was the close-hauled line ahead. The 
 tactical order of battle of the steam-period is the 
 column (Fig. 2) for vessels carrying their bat 
 teries in broadside, and the line (Fig. 1) for ves 
 sels whose offensive powers lie in the ram and 
 " end-on" fire. 
 
 But the single line, by its liability to be broken 
 or doubled up, is considered the weakest of all 
 recognized orders of battle. The ablest tacti 
 cians of both ancient and modern times have 
 therefore doubled the line (Figs. 10 and 11), and 
 added a reserve to strengthen any particular 
 point at will. 
 
 With a view to the formation of a strong line 
 of battle, as well as facility of manoeuvring, and 
 a system of mutual support, the French have in 
 troduced into their system of tactics the peloton, 
 or groups of three vessels acting together. Thus, 
 in Fig. 12 we have the column of pelotons, and 
 in Fig. 13 the pelotons in line. 
 
 The expression order of battle is, in fact, an ar 
 bitrary term applicable to any disposition of a 
 
 fleet for battle which the commander-in-chief 
 may adopt to suit the occasion. Conon, Phor- 
 mio, Alcibiades, Themistocles, the Athenian fleet 
 at Arginusae, the Koman fleet at Ecnomus, Csesar 
 at Alexandria, Agrippa and Antony at Actium, 
 afford some admirable illustrations of orders of 
 battle of the ram-period, the period, in fact, to 
 which we have returned. 
 
 Of the naval powers of modern times the 
 French have paid most attention to naval tac 
 tics, though in actual warfare they were charged, 
 during the sail-period, with a somewhat too close 
 adhesion to rules. 
 
 De Grasse, after the action of 12th of April, 
 1782, justified himself against the charges brought 
 against him by the other flag-officers of his fleet by 
 pleading his compliance with the Ordonnance du 
 Roy, which specified a particular line of condnet 
 under similar circumstances. Rodney s fleet being 
 to leeward, was enabled by a shift of wind during 
 the action to lead through the enemy s line. 
 The Ordonnance prescribed that the French fleet 
 was then to tack together. De Grasse made the 
 signal for that purpose, which was not obeyed 
 by M. de Vandreuil, the second in command, 
 and his squadron, under the pretense that no 
 man in his senses would have ordered such a 
 manoauvre under an enemy s fire. An eminent 
 French writer notices the same defect, and ridi 
 cules what he terms the pious regard of his coun 
 trymen for the " sacred order of the line of bat 
 tle" to which the combined fleets were sacrificed 
 at Trafalgar. 
 
 While Nelson advanced in two close columns 
 to overwhelm the centre of this "sacred line" 
 the two wings remained immovable ; they were 
 " in line," he says, and that was enough; and in 
 this position they looked on " avec une effrayante 
 impassibilite" until the centre was destroyed; 
 then, and not till then, forgetting all respect 
 for the " sacred order of the line," they thought, 
 not of seeking to remedy any part of the evil, 
 but of making their escape. (See " Fleet Tactics 
 Under Steam," by Commodore F. A. Parker, 
 U.S.N.) S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Training System. In 1835, Mr. John 
 Goin, of New York, first suggested the idea of 
 opening nautical schools for boys wishing to 
 follow the sea as a livelihood. There was such a 
 large proportion of foreign seamen in both the 
 national and mercantile marines, that the train 
 ing of boys for the sea was thought to be the 
 only means of manning our fleets with native- 
 born Americans. The press advocated Mr. Goin s 
 proposition with much zeal. When the subject 
 was brought to the attention of Congress, an act 
 was passed (approved March 2, 1837) making it 
 lawful to enlist boys for the navy (with the con 
 sent of their parents or guardians) not under 13, 
 nor over 18 years of age, to serve until 21. Under 
 this act enlistments commenced at once and pro 
 ceeded with vigor, the boys being sent to the 
 " Hudson," frigate, then a receiving-ship at 
 New York, to the line-of-battle ships "North 
 Carolina" and " Columbus," and to the "Java," 
 frigate, the receiving-ship at Norfolk. The Sec 
 retary of the Navy in his instructions to the com 
 manders of ships having boys on board, directed 
 that they (the apprentices) were to be thoroughly 
 instructed, so as to best qualify them to perform 
 the duties of seamen and petty officers. In his an 
 nual report of November 30, 1839, the Secretary 
 
NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEM 
 
 521 
 
 NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEM 
 
 says, " Should this system of apprenticeship be 
 carried to the extent of which it is susceptible, I 
 look forward to it. as a source of great and lasting 
 benefit to the navy. There is every reasonable 
 prospect of its becoming a nursery for the supply 
 of petty officers, one of the most important con 
 stituents in the service ; nor can I doubt that it 
 may be made the means of supplying a large 
 number of capable, intelligent seai.oen, more 
 strongly attached to their country by the bene 
 fits she* has conferred on them." But the idea 
 got abroad that the apprentice-boys weie in time 
 to be advanced to the grade of midshipmen, and 
 thus enter the line of promotion to the highest, 
 rank. Many boys of excellent family enlisted 
 under this impression. By dint of political in 
 fluence two or three of the enlisted boys vvere 
 appointed midshipmen. This had the effect of 
 rendering the less fortunate ones discontented 
 with the service. This, with the discovery of 
 the true nature of the apprentice system as set 
 forth in the letter of the Secretary of the Navy, 
 caused a general clamoring for discharges, and 
 as these applications were backed up in most 
 cases by strong political influence, they were 
 generally successful. Failing to obtain their 
 discharge, many deserted. The apprentice sys 
 tem of 1837 lacked organized effort, cohesion, 
 stability, in short, every element of perma 
 nency. After lingering a few years it finally 
 died out. 
 
 In 1863 a repoi^t was made to the Navy De 
 partment on the training system of the English 
 navy, with a recommendation that a similar sys 
 tem be adopted for the U. S. navy. The recom 
 mendation was so favorably received that the 
 Department authorized (circular of March 27, 
 1874) the resuming of the enlistment of boys 
 under the provisions of the act of March 2, 1837. 
 The u Sabine," frigate, was selected as the school- 
 ship, and in due course of time the "Saratoga" and 
 " Portsmouth" were added. For a time every 
 thing proceeded so well as to justify the most 
 sanguine hopes. Unfortunately, the Secretary 
 of the Navy, in his annual report for 1864, gave 
 expression to the following views in relation to 
 the boys on board the " Sabine" : " Commencing 
 as apprentices on the school-ship, it would be 
 well to open to the sailor-boy the way to promo 
 tion by giving him an opportunity, if he shall 
 deserve it, of entering the Naval Academy. 
 From among the apprentices on the school- 
 ship a selection of one-half of the midshipmen 
 annually appointed might be made with great 
 advantage to the service and the country. . . . 
 It would popularize the navy, and open to those 
 who may have enlisted the highest positions and 
 honors of the service." In accordance with these 
 views a limited number of apprentice-boys were 
 sent every year to the Naval Academy to be ex 
 amined for admission. There followed naturally 
 a repetition of the experiment of 1837. Many 
 boys of our best families, having failed to secure 
 appointments to the Naval Academy in the usual 
 way, had enlisted for the sole purpose of gaining 
 admission into that institution. Failing in their 
 object, and having no longer a motive for re 
 maining in the service, some obtained their dis 
 charge, others deserted. Among the several 
 school-ships there seems to have been no con 
 cert of action ; there was no controlling power, 
 no head, in short, no system. The experiment 
 
 of 1864 lingered, like its predecessor, for a few 
 short years, and, like it, died out. 
 
 Under date of November 12, 1872, the subject 
 of training-ships was again brought to the notice 
 of the Navy Department, but failed for the 
 time to gain the attention its importance de 
 served. In the meanwhile the Legislature of 
 the State of New York passed an act to estab 
 lish a nautical school " for the education and 
 training of pupils in the science and practice 
 of navigation." To aid this school, and to 
 encourage other States to follow the example 
 of New York, Congress passed the " Marine 
 School" bill (approved June 20, 1874), author 
 izing the Secretary of the Nav}* 1 to furnish a 
 suitable vessel of the navy to any nautical school 
 established at the ports of New York, Boston, 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, or San Fran 
 cisco. Under the provisions of this act the Navy 
 Department turned over to the city of New York 
 for the use of her nautical school the old sailing 
 sloop-of-war "St. Mary s," to be used as a school- 
 ship. Shortly after the " Jamestown" was loaned 
 to the city of San Francisco for the same purpose. 
 The latter, however, was soon given up. Stim 
 ulated, perhaps, by the example of New York, 
 the Navy Department, under date of April 8, 
 1875, issued a circular stating that a limited 
 number of boys between the ages of 16 and 17 
 years would be enlisted under the provisions of 
 the act of Congress of March 2, 1837. The 
 steam-frigate " Minnesota," then flying the flag 
 of Vice-Admiral S. C. Rowan, at New York, 
 was designated as the school-ship. As yet the 
 number oP-boys enlisted had to be taken from 
 the 7500 men allowed the navy by Congress. 
 As this drain on the complement of men hamp 
 ered the operations of the navy, an act was 
 passed (approved May 12, 1879) authorizing the 
 enlistment of 750 boys over and above the com 
 plement of 7500 seamen, and reducing the age 
 of admission from 16 to 15 years. The Navy 
 Department thereupon issued the following : 
 
 " Circular relating to the Enlistment of Boys in 
 the U. S. Naval Service. 
 
 "NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, May 31, 1879. 
 
 " The circular of April 8, 1875, relating to the 
 enlistment of boys in the U. S. naval service, 
 is hereby rescinded, and the following substi 
 tuted, in accordance with the amendments to the 
 Revised Statutes of the United States, approved 
 May 12, 1879, to wit: 
 
 " SECTION 1418. Boys between the ages of 
 fifteen and eighteen years may be enlisted to 
 serve in the navy until they shall arrive at the 
 age of twenty-one years, etc., etc. 
 
 " SECTION 1419. Minors between the ages 
 of fifteen and eighteen years shall not be enlisted 
 for the naval service without the consent of their 
 parents or guardians. 
 
 " SECTION 1420. No minor under the age of 
 fifteen years, no insane or intoxicated person, 
 and no deserter from the naval or military ser 
 vice of the United States shall be enlisted in the 
 naval service. 
 
 " These boys will be sent on board of suitable 
 vessels, to be trained for the naval service, under 
 the following regulations : 
 
 " Every boy previous to being enlisted must 
 satisfy the Examining Board of Officers 
 
 
 
NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEMS 
 
 522 
 
 NAYAL TRAINING SYSTEMS 
 
 " That he is of robust frame, intelligent, of 
 perfectly sound and healthy constitution, free 
 from any physical defects or malformation, and 
 not subject to fits. 
 
 " That he is able to read and write. 
 
 " In special cases where the boy shows a gen 
 eral intelligence, and is otherwise qualified, the 
 Examining Board, if they think fit, may enlist 
 him, notwithstanding his knowledge of reading 
 and writing is imperfect. 
 
 "That his height and measure are sufficient, 
 being as follows : 
 
 
 Height. 
 
 
 Chest Measure 
 
 Ago. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ment breath 
 ing naturally. 
 
 Fifteen years 
 
 4 feet 11 inches. 
 
 85 pounds. 
 
 27l< inches. 
 
 Sixteen " 
 
 5 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 90 " 
 
 28 
 
 Seventeen " 
 
 5 
 
 " 2 inches. 
 
 100 " 
 
 29 
 
 Eighteen " 
 
 5 
 
 " 3 " 
 
 110 " 
 
 30 " 
 
 " The education of the boys will comprise the 
 elements of an ordinary English education, al 
 ternating with practical seamanship and other 
 professional occupations designed to prepare 
 them for sailors in the navy. 
 
 "The prime object is to place in the naval 
 service, with the consent of their parents, such 
 good and deserving boys as will elevate its stand 
 ard, and make the navy more reliable as an arm 
 of the national defense. Boys who have been 
 convicted of crime cannot, therefore, be received, 
 as it is not advisable that they should become the 
 associates of the better class. 
 
 " The boys will be enlisted as third-class boys, 
 at the rate of $9.50 per month and one ration. 
 "While serving on the training-ships, they may, 
 if deserving, be promoted to the rating of second- 
 and first-class boys, at the pay of $10.50 and 
 $11.50 per month, respectively, and on cruising- 
 vessels will be entitled to higher ratings, at the 
 discretion of their commanding officers, as a re 
 ward of proficiency and good conduct." 
 
 At the present date (October 19, 1880) the 
 training-ships "Minnesota," "Constitution," 
 "Saratoga," and "Portsmouth," having on 
 board a total of 715 boys, have been assembled 
 at Hampton Roads for the purpose of being in 
 spected by the Secretary of the Navy ; after 
 which they will be sent to different ports to re 
 sume enlistments. 
 
 The present system has been in operation about 
 five years ; just about the lifetime of the experi 
 ments of 1837 and 1864. It is yet to be seen 
 whether it will meet with the fate of its prede 
 cessors, or justify the hope expressed by Mr. 
 Secretary Paulding in 1839, "that it will be a 
 great arid lasting benefit to the navy." S. B. 
 Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Naval Training Systems, Foreign. Schools 
 have been established by most of the more im 
 portant naval powers of Europe for the training 
 of the men of their fleets, both naval and mer 
 cantile, England, France, Germany, Italy, and 
 Holland having well and completely organized 
 systems for this purpose. The importance of so 
 doing was recognized by these long before it was 
 felt by the government of the United States, which 
 has, until within the last five years, had nothing 
 of the kind which might be called a system. 
 
 England, of course, as being pre-eminently a 
 naval and mercantile power, has taken the lead, 
 and has at present, all things considered, the 
 most complete and satisfactory methods of train 
 ing her sailors. There are at present employed 
 in this duty in the United Kingdom five line- 
 of-battle ships (with brigs as tenders) for the 
 navy, and twenty large ships for the boys in 
 tended for the merchant service ; two ships of 
 the latter class are for the education of officers 
 only. There are besides these, at several of the 
 great industrial (reformatory) schools, vessels 
 built ashore, from the berth-deck up, which serve 
 for the training of boys who evince a taste for the 
 sea ; at Hull is a special free school for the teach 
 ing of navigation (established under an old en 
 dowment), and finally, at Greenwich is a govern 
 ment school for the sons of seamen, in which are 
 at all times 1000 boys, who are admitted between 
 10 and 13 years of age and retained until 15J 
 years, when they are sent into the navy, if phys 
 ically fit. All the foregoing establishments are 
 for young boys who have not been to sea ; for 
 the further training of seamen in the navy, there 
 are the gunnery and torpedo schools at Ports 
 mouth and Devonport, established on board the 
 " Excellent" and " Cambridge," to each of which 
 ships are attached several other vessels as sub 
 sidiary schools. 
 
 To take first the navy : the five line-of-battle 
 ships are stationed, the " St. Vincent" at Ports 
 mouth, the "Boscawen" at Portland, the "Im 
 pregnable" and " Implacable" at Devonport, the 
 "Ganges" at Falmouth. In these, at present 
 writing (September, 1880), there are a few over 
 3000 boys, 2400 of which are the entries of this 
 year. The number entered varies with the de 
 mands of the service, and is estimated to be such 
 as will fill the vacancies in the blue-jacket class 
 of the navy. The total number in this class is 
 about 19,000 out of the 30,000 men of the navy, 
 so that the annual waste of the blue-jacket class 
 may be estimated as about 12 per cent. 
 
 The boys are received from 15 to 16^ years of 
 age, and undergo a training which lasts through 
 16 months before being ready for sea-service. 
 When first received he is placed for a week on 
 board a hulk, which is used as a tender to the 
 parent ship ; he is there supplied with his cloth 
 ing and bedding (which is given him free of 
 charge), takes a daily bath, is taught to lash his 
 hammock, stow his clothing, and made to learn 
 many other small details which are necessary to 
 enable him to take care of himself when he goes 
 on board the training-ship. 
 
 The training received thereafter is divided be 
 tween school-work, drill, and practical seaman 
 ship in the brig tender. The schooling consists 
 in learning reading and writing from dictation ; 
 arithmetic, to include decimals ; geography, 
 and religious knowledge. Daily exercises in 
 drills of various kinds take place ; boat sailing 
 and pulling, swimming, signaling, etc., are 
 taught, a special class of boys being selected for 
 the last. In April the brigs are ready for sea 
 and the boys are sent on board, about 100 at a 
 time, as they are prepared, for a cruise of six 
 weeks or two months, in the vicinity of the pa 
 rent ship ; they are then sent to the gunnery-ship 
 for a six weeks course in gunnery, after which 
 they are ready for sea-service. At 18 years of 
 age they are rated ordinary seamen, or ordinary 
 
NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEMS 523 NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEMS 
 
 seamen, 2d class, and serve from that time until 
 they are 28, which is the end of the period for 
 which they are bound. The bandsmen and 
 buglers of the English service are also trained in 
 these ships, boys not under 14 years of age being 
 received for this purpose. 
 
 The entire system is under one head, the cap 
 tain of the " Impregnable" ; all the other ships 
 are commanded by commanders, who refer all 
 questions relating to the training-service to this 
 officer. A complete system of regulations has 
 been adopted, which is rigidly adhered to, so that 
 every ship is supposed to be doing the same thing 
 at the same time ; rigid uniformity is sought, so 
 that the boys turned out from one ship are quite 
 the same as those from either of the others ; this 
 has great benefits, as it tends to make a perfectly 
 homogeneous mass of the seamen of the fleet. 
 
 The ship s writers, ship s steward s boys, 
 schoolmasters, yeomen, etc., of the British fleet, 
 are furnished from the Greenwich Hospital 
 School, these being specially selected from the 
 mass of boys, and specially trained for their 
 duties ; the remainder of the boys are sent, on 
 arriving at the age of 15J, to the training-ships, 
 where they take a front rank on account of their 
 previous excellent training. The school has a 
 sloop-of-war built in its grounds from the berth- 
 deck up, on which the boys get their seamanship 
 training. The} 7 also have excellent working 
 models in the school-rooms. The education 
 given at this school is excellent throughout, 
 making it in many respects a model school. It 
 is on the half-time system, in which half the 
 time is given to the learning of trades, those 
 being taught which go to make the establishment 
 as self-supporting as possible, such as mattress- 
 making, tailoring, shoe-making, etc. 
 
 The course of those intended for schoolmasters 
 covers a period of six years after they are selected 
 for such training. While undergoing this course, 
 which is divided into three periods of two years 
 each, they are termed pupil teachers. The first 
 period is passed at Greenwich, the second on board 
 the training-ships, and the third again at Green 
 wich. During all these years their time is largely 
 taken up with teaching, though a fixed and 
 very difficult course of study is laid down for 
 themselves. The result is that the British navy 
 is supplied with one of the most efficient and 
 able body of schoolmasters in the world. Too 
 high praise can scarcely be given them as a 
 .class. 
 
 To complete the naval training there are, as 
 aiefore stated, the gunnery-ships and their ad 
 juncts, in the training of the older seamen. The 
 course on board these ships includes everything 
 connected with the subjects of practical gunnery 
 and ammunition ; it is usually for six months, 
 but many of the men stay three years. There are 
 at this time in the British navy 3000 seamen gun 
 ners, and 6000 trained men who have undergone 
 the course in whole or part. 
 
 For the mercantile marine there are the " Con- 
 way," at Liverpool, and the "Worcester," in 
 the Thames, for officers ; the " Indefatigable," at 
 Liverpool, for the sons and orphans of sailors 
 and for destitute boys ; the " Warspite, " off Wool 
 wich, for poor boys ; the " Shaftesbury," off 
 Grays, in the Thames, under the jurisdiction 
 of the ^London School Board, for boys who de 
 sire a sea-training; and the " Exmouth," at the 
 
 same point, for pauper boys. The remaining 
 vessels, the " Akbar" and "Clarence," in the 
 Mersey, the " Chichester," "Arethusa," and 
 " Cornwall," in the Thames, the" Cumberland," 
 in Row Bay, Scotland, the "Formidable," 
 "Bristol," "Gibraltar," at Belfast, " Havan- 
 nah," at Cardiff, " Mars," at Dundee, the 
 "Southampton," at Hull, the " Wellesley," in 
 the River Tyne, and the " Mount Edgecumbe," 
 at Devenport, are all ships of the reformatory 
 class, in which are received convicted boys. The 
 great number of such ships militates much 
 against the successful training of boys for the 
 merchant service, as it gives the service itself a 
 bad character to have so many boys of this kind 
 sent into it. The aim should be to raise the tone 
 of the merchant sailor by inducing the better 
 class boys to enter, and there are very few ships 
 in England where boys of this class are received. 
 The training given in all the ships above men 
 tioned is the teaching the duties of the sailor in 
 general. The elements of an English education 
 are likewise given. The most successful appears 
 to be the " Exmouth," in which the drill, disci 
 pline, and general appearance of the boys are 
 most admirable. About 600 boys are kept in 
 this ship, which in three years has sent over 200 
 boys to sea, and 30 into the army, the latter as 
 musicians. 
 
 The " Warspite," supported by voluntary con 
 tributions, is under a society which was founded 
 in 1772, and since that time has sent 59,000 boys 
 to sea. All the other ships have been founded 
 within the past 30 years, and most of them are 
 of much later date. 
 
 The reformatory (or industrial) school-ships 
 are largely supported by government grants, and 
 all have in addition large sums given by sub 
 scribers. The total amount expended on these 
 various ships is about 90,000, the expenditure 
 per boy being about 20, there being about 4000 
 boys under training. 
 
 The " Conway" and "Worcester" are prac 
 tically nautical colleges, which are supported by 
 the fees of the pupils, 50 guineas a year being 
 charged for the two terms in each year. As 
 neither ship has a tender, the nautical practice 
 in the two years on board is limited. The school 
 ing given includes trigonometry, navigation, 
 nautical astronomy, French, and some steam- 
 engineering. The boys of these two schools have 
 been very successful in the merchant service. 
 
 In France there is a school similar to the 
 Greenwich Hospital School, of England, which 
 receives the sons of sailors to the number of 400 ; 
 a ship (the " Austerlitz") which has a comple 
 ment of 800 boys, who are received between 13 
 and 14 and kept until 16, when they are trans 
 ferred for further instructions to the " Bretagne." 
 In this latter ship are nearly 1400 young men 
 and boys under instruction, w ho are taken (with 
 the exception of those from the " Austerlitz") 
 from the various divisions established at the five 
 principal naval ports and trained for specialties. 
 All the foregoing are at Brest, which may be es 
 teemed the headquarters of the French naval 
 training system. After from four to six months 
 training on board the "Bretagne" (to which a 
 small frigate is attached, which daily gets under 
 way,, being manned for a week at a time by one of 
 the six companies into which the " Bretagne s" 
 complement is divided) the young appren- 
 
NAVAL TRAINING SYSTEMS 
 
 524 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 .tices are distributed to the various schools of 
 specialties : to the cruising training-ships (of 
 which there are two), to train as topmen, and for 
 quartermasters and signal-men ; to the school of 
 musketry at Lorient (a fifth of the ship s com 
 pany of a French man-of-war being made up of 
 these sailor-musketeers, no marines going to sea); 
 and to the gunnery school at Toulon (similar to 
 that on board the " Excellent," at Portsmouth). 
 About 8000 men are at all times in the divisions, 
 who undergo such instruction as can be given 
 there ; they are housed in capital barracks, and 
 have at hand excellent means for drill and in 
 struction otherwise than in seamanship. Each 
 division has its permanent cadre, and has in 
 divisions of the first class (those of Brest and 
 Toulon) one company of seamen-gunners, one 
 company of musketeers, one company of ma 
 chinists and firemen, three companies of men of 
 the Inscription Maritime, and one company of 
 volunteers or conscripts. The divisions of the 
 second class (Cherbourg, L Orient, and Roche- 
 fort) have one company of seamen-gunners. and 
 musketeers, and two companies of inscrits-mari- 
 times and recruits. Excellent schools have been 
 established at the divisions, and there are good 
 libraries open to the men, and means of amuse 
 ment and exercise. Schools are established also 
 on board of each ship, which are held four days 
 in the week, such returns being made by the 
 commanding officer that there is no chance of 
 avoiding the regulations regarding these. 
 
 The French sailor is thus becoming a far less 
 illiterate man than those of a few years since, 
 22 per cent, of the ship s companies knowing how 
 to write and cipher in 1878, and 58 per cent, 
 additional being able to read and write a little, 
 but not to cipher. 
 
 The schoolmasters of the French navy are edu 
 cated at Rochefort, where there is a normal school 
 for that purpose ; they are selected from the men 
 of the service who desire to undertake these duties 
 and are considered fit for them. The course com 
 prises grammar and composition, arithmetic, 
 French history, and geography in its principal 
 branches. 
 
 To all the preceding should be added the school 
 for firemen and machinists at Toulon, the train 
 ing of instructors in gymnastics in the army 
 school at Joinville le Pont near Paris, and the 
 school of coast pilots, which furnishes pilots to the 
 fleet, in ships which are employed on the French 
 coast. 
 
 In each of the large ports of France are estab 
 lished schools for the free teaching of navigation 
 to officers in the merchant service. The close 
 connection of the navy and mercantile marine in 
 France does away to a great degree with the 
 necessity of specially training boys for the latter, 
 as nearly all the merchant sailors in deep-sea 
 ships are men of the Inscription Maritime who 
 have taken service in these after having com 
 pleted their time of service in the navy. 
 
 Germany has 400 boys at all times under train 
 ing, the course lasting three j ears. They are 
 received in October and spend the winter in bar 
 racks ; in the spring they are placed on board 
 ship for the summer, hut do not leave the Baltic ; 
 in the fall they go again into barracks, and the 
 succeeding year make a cruise at sea of eight 
 months, and then return again into barracks. A 
 very complete routine, which compels a great deal 
 
 of work, is laid down ; the ships in which they 
 go to sea are fitted and laid up by the boys them 
 selves ; much infantry is taught, long marches 
 being taken, and the whole course is a very rig 
 orous one. These boys become the warrant and 
 petty officers of the German navy, and certainly, 
 if training can make good men, they are such. 
 At Wilhelmshaven is the gunnery school of the 
 German service, similar to those of the French 
 and English. The Germans also have a school 
 of pilots, and one for engineers and firemen. 
 
 Italy has also its school for seamen and for fire 
 men, the course followed being similar to that of 
 the French. Holland also trains the larger num 
 ber of its men ; indeed, throughout Europe a 
 very great attention has been wisely given to 
 this subject, and the sailors of the fleets of its 
 greater powers are a very superior class of men 
 to those of even a decade since. F. E. Chadwick, 
 Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Navel Laver. The sea-weed Ulva umbilicus. 
 
 Navigable. Capable of being passed by ships 
 or boats. 
 
 Navigant. An old word for sailor. 
 
 Navigation (Lat. navigo, to sail, from navis, 
 a ship, and ago, to do business) may be defined 
 as the art or science of conducting a ship from 
 one part of the world to another. 
 
 The two fundamental problems of this art or 
 science are, first, the determination of the ship s 
 place at the present moment, and, second, the 
 deciding on the future course to be steered to 
 reach the desired port with the least delay and 
 the least wear and tear of the vessel, and, if in a 
 steamer, with the least expenditure of coal. 
 
 The limits of this article will not admit an 
 elaborate account of the history of navigation, 
 but it will be interesting to glance at a few of 
 the improvements and discoveries which have 
 gradually made the task of the navigator easier 
 and his results more accurate. 
 
 Although the mariner s compass is supposed 
 to have been used at an earlier period among the 
 nations of the East, it was not commonly used 
 by Europeans till about the year 1420. Until 
 that time navigation was of a very rude and un 
 certain kind, being chiefly confined to coasting; 
 when out of sight of land, rough bearings of the 
 heavenly bodies affording the only indication of 
 the course sailed. In 1485, Martin de Bohemia, 
 a native of Fayal, calculated tables of the sun s 
 declination for the use of navigators, and recom 
 mended the use of the astrolabe, an instrument^ 
 consisting of a graduated circular arc, with sight 
 attached for measuring altitudes of the sun an*_ 
 stars. 
 
 The variation of the compass was discovered 
 about 1492, the credit of the discovery being 
 claimed by Christopher Columbus and by Sebas 
 tian Cabot. 
 
 The first treatise on navigation in the English 
 language appeared in 1561, being translated from 
 the work of a Spanish author named Cortez. 
 
 About 1569 the first chart on Mercator s pro 
 jection, so called, was published. 
 
 Early in the 17th century logarithms were in 
 vented by Baron Napier, and have proved of in 
 estimable service to the art of navigation. - 
 
 About the beginning of the last century; Sir 
 Isaac Newton invented the reflecting sextant, 
 which is still the principal instrument iry nauti 
 cal astronomy. See SEXTANT. 
 
NAVIGATION 
 
 525 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 Among the later discoveries in navigation, 
 that of finding the longitude with accuracy is 
 the principal. To Dr. Nevil Maskelyne, an 
 English astronomer, who determined the method 
 during a voyage which he made to St. Helena in 
 1761 to observe the transit of Venus, we are in 
 debted for the means of solving this problem by 
 lunar observations, and to the rewards offered 
 and paid by the British government the present 
 degree of perfection of the solution by means of 
 time-keepers is due. Of late years, probably the 
 invention of the widest usefulness is that by 
 Capt. T. H. Sumner, of finding a ship s position 
 at sea, which will be described hereafter. Al 
 though known and practiced before Capt. Sum 
 ner s publication, it is now universally known 
 as Sumner s method, and has been elaborated 
 by many others, notably by Lieut, de Magnac, 
 of the French navy, and Sir William Thomson. 
 
 Generally speaking, the place of a ship at sea 
 is found by one of the four following methpds : 
 (1) by reference to one or more known and visi 
 ble landmarks ; (2) by ascertaining by sounding 
 the depth of water and character of the bottom ; 
 (3) by calculating the direction and distance 
 sailed from a previously-determined position ; 
 and (4) by ascertaining the latitude and longi 
 tude by observations of one or more of the heav 
 enly bodies. See LATITUDE, LONGITUDE. 
 
 The first of these methods is readily employed 
 when known landmarks are in sight, by deter 
 mining simultaneously their bearings by com 
 pass, and laying off on the chart the lines of di 
 rection from these terrestrial points, when the 
 place of the ship must necessarily be at the inter 
 section of the lines of bearing. The exact posi 
 tion of the ship with regard to any landmark by 
 which the ship is sailing is also determined by 
 successive angles between the ship s course and 
 the bearing of the landmark, in connection with 
 the distance sailed between the bearings. 
 
 In th,ick, foggy weather, or at night, when not 
 in the vicinity of a light-house, the second method 
 becomes of great importance. "When the depth 
 of water is less than about 100 fathoms, a ship is 
 said to be on soundings, and when near, though 
 out of sight of land, the skillful navigator can,, 
 with the aid of the chart, ascertain a ship s place, 
 and direct her course frequently with great accu 
 racy by observed changes in the depth of water, 
 or in the character of the bottom, as the ship 
 proceeds on her way. See LEAD. 
 
 The third method is known as Dead- Reckoning, 
 and consists in calculating from the recorded 
 courses and distances the ship has sailed (see 
 Loa) the amount of change in latitude and 
 longitude to be applied to a previously-ascer 
 tained position to determine the present one. 
 For this purpose the compass gives the direction 
 the ship sails, and by the log is measured the 
 distance on each course. Where the distance in 
 volved is small, no great error will be made by 
 considering that part of the earth s surface sailed 
 over as a plane, and when any two of the four 
 elements, course, distance, difference of latitude, 
 and departure, be given, the others may be found 
 by the solution of a right-angled plane triangle, 
 the term departure being understood as the dis 
 tance in nautical miles made by the ship toward 
 the east or west. This method of solution is 
 known as Plane Sailing. Parallel sailing is em 
 ployed where a ship s track lies along a parallel 
 
 of latitude. Middle-latitude sailing is a com-, 
 bi nation of plane and parallel sailing, and is 
 founded on the consideration that the arc of the 
 parallel of middle latitude between two places, in 
 tercepted between the meridians of those places,, 
 is very nearly approximate to the departure. 
 
 Mercator s sailing is founded on the principles 
 which govern the construction of Mercator s 
 chart, in which all the meridians are parallel to 
 each other, but proportionally lengthened, so as. 
 to conform to the spherical figure of the earth. 
 (See CHART.) This method accurately solves the 
 
 Eroblems of spherical sailing, and is characterized 
 y the use of a table of meridional parts found 
 in all treatises on navigation. 
 
 If the course and distance sailed could always 
 Be accurately determined, the place of the ship 
 could be computed with sufficient exactness by 
 dead-reckoning, but these data can be only roughly 
 approximated owing to errors in the estimated 
 distance sailed, to unknown currents, faulty 
 steering, errors in the assumed variation of the 
 compass, or in its local deviation, and numerous 
 other uncertainties. For this reason, when the. 
 weather will permit, a careful navigator loses no. 
 opportunity of determining the position of the 
 ship by observations of the sun, moon, and stars.. 
 
 Astronomy thus applied to navigation is 
 termed nautical astronomy, and, concisely speak 
 ing, the problems solved by its practice are the 
 determination of the latitude, the longitude, and 
 the error of the compass by which the ship s 
 course is directed. 
 
 For such determinations the navigator must 
 have a sextant or quadrant (see SEXTANT, QUAD- 
 KANT) for measuring the altitudes of heavenly 
 bodies above the horizon, or their distances from, 
 each other, a watch or other time-piece to mark 
 the instant of an observed altitude, distance, or 
 bearing, one or more chronometers (see CHRO 
 NOMETER) to show the time at the first meridian, 
 a nautical almanac (see NAUTICAL ALMANAC),, 
 an azimuth compass (see COMPASS), and a set of 
 tables for facilitating computations. These tables 
 are contained in all treatises on navigation, and 
 are also published separately. 
 
 The simplest problem of nautical astronomy is 
 the determination of the latitude from the alti 
 tude of a heavenly body when on the meridian, 
 only its declination (or distance from the equi 
 noctial measured on the meridian) and its angu 
 lar distance from the zenith of the observer (the 
 complement of its altitude) being required. Ob 
 servations of the sun s altitude at apparent noon, 
 or of a star s altitude at its meridian passage, give 
 the latitude with the greatest facility. 
 
 As the altitude of the pole of the heavens above 
 the horizon at any place is exactly the same as 
 the latitude, the close approximation of the north 
 star to the pole affords an excellent method of 
 determining the latitude at any time when it and 
 the horizon are visible, and tables have been com 
 puted affording the exact correction to be applied 
 to its altitude for latitude determinations. To 
 insure a greater degree of accuracy than can be 
 obtained by one observation when exactly on the 
 meridian, a number of altitudes maybe observed 
 when the body is near the meridian, taking, if 
 practicable, an equal number before and after its 
 meridian passage, and noting the time of each. 
 These are called circum-meridian altitudes. The 
 determination of latitude by the meridian alti- 
 
NAVIGATION 
 
 526 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 tude of the moon is slightly more complicated 
 and uncertain. The method of determining the 
 latitude by two altitudes of the sun, moon, or 
 stars, or by simultaneous altitudes of two bodies, 
 though formerly much practiced has been al 
 most entirely superseded by the practice of Sum- 
 ner s method, which will be mentioned here 
 after, and by which both latitude and longitude 
 are determined at the same time with great 
 accuracy. 
 
 As it is frequently the case that just at noon 
 the sun is obscured, preventing the navigator 
 from measuring its altitude when on the merid 
 ian, a most valuable method has been devised by 
 which an altitude measured near noon can, with 
 in certain limits, when the time at the ship is 
 approximately known, be used with great success 
 for determining the latitude, and by careful navi 
 gators is very "generally used, even in perfectly 
 clear weather, as a check on the meridian obser 
 vation. 
 
 The problem of finding the longitude at sea 
 was formerly a very difficult one for navigators, 
 and many ingenious devices have been practiced 
 for its solution. 
 
 In 1700, Dr. Halley published a chart on which 
 lines of equal magnetic variation were laid down, 
 and it was proposed to ascertain the longitude by 
 comparing the observed variation at the ship 
 with the data on this chart; but the fallacy of 
 the method was soon shown. A reward of 
 10,000 was for many years offered by the Eng 
 lish government to any one who would devise 
 an efficient method of determining the longitude 
 at sea with accuracy, and this reward was finally 
 divided between Mr. Harrison, who first made 
 trustworthy chronometers, and Dr. Nevil Mas- 
 kelyne, whose tables made the method of lunar 
 distances practicable. The latter method is now, 
 however, seldom used, the increased accuracy 
 and decreased cost of chronometers having made 
 their use almost universal. 
 
 Observations of eclipses, of occultations of the 
 satellites of Jupiter and of stars by the moon, 
 although of great value on shore, cannot be ac 
 curately made at sea on account of the ship s con 
 stant motion. 
 
 The determination of longitudes at sea by 
 chronometer being effected by comparing the 
 time at the ship with the time of the prime me 
 ridian as shown by the chronometer, it is neces 
 sary for the navigator before sailing to inform 
 himself of the exact error of his chronometer on 
 the time of the prime meridian, and of its daily 
 rate gaining or losing. The determination of 
 the time at the ship then becomes of the first im 
 portance. In consequence of the perpetual ap 
 parent revolution of the heavenly bodies, the ex 
 act measure of time is afforded by the observed 
 hour-angle of a celestial object ; that is, the 
 angle at the pole contained between the meridian 
 of the place and the celestial meridian passing 
 through that body. 
 
 At sea, where the only fixed object to which 
 the positions of the heavenly bodies can be re 
 ferred is the horizon, the measurement of the 
 altitude affords a ready and accurate method of 
 determining the hour-angle. The hour-angle of 
 the sun, reckoning westward from the meridian, 
 is apparent time, which, by applying the equa 
 tion of time from the Nautical Almanac, gives 
 the desired mean time. 
 
 Mean time is determined from the hour-angle 
 of a star or planet by allowing for the difference 
 between the right ascension of the body observed 
 and that of the sun. 
 
 Government vessels and many mail-steamers 
 now almost universally carry three chronometers 
 to guard against an accidental error. 
 
 The lunar method of finding the longitude at 
 sea consists in an exact measurement of the 
 moon s distance from the sun or from one of 
 certain planets and stars, and a simultaneous de 
 termination of the local time. " 
 
 This method was first proposed by John Wer 
 ner, of Nuremberg, as early as 1514 ; but the 
 theory of the lunar motion was for a long time 
 after too imperfect to permit its practical appli 
 cation. The distance of the moon from the sun, 
 from Jupiter, Saturn, Venus, and Mars, and 
 from certain fixed stars, is given in the Nautical 
 Almanac for every third hour of Greenwich 
 mean time. 
 
 A measurement with a sextant or reflecting 
 circle of the angle between the moon and any 
 one of these bodies gives the apparent distance, 
 to which various corrections are applied to obtain 
 the true distance. From the Nautical Almanac 
 by interpolation is found the Greenwich time 
 corresponding exactly to this true distance, and 
 by comparison with the time at the ship the lon 
 gitude is deduced. Simple as this problem may 
 appear, its rigorous computation is by no means 
 brief, and, in spite of all precautions, the longi 
 tude thus obtained is liable to serious error, as 
 the moon s motion among the stars being nearly 
 thirty times slower than the rotation of the earth 
 on its axis, any error in the observed distance 
 will be multiplied by a factor nearly equal to 
 thirty in the resulting longitude. 
 
 For this reason this method of obtaining the 
 longitude is seldom practiced at present, except 
 when trustworthy chronometers are not procur 
 able. 
 
 As the latitude enters into the computation of 
 the hour-angle, if the latitude is uncertain the 
 longitude by chronometer is also uncertain to a 
 greater or less degree ; but if the Greenwich time 
 by chronometer be trustworthy, the ship s posi 
 tion may be accurately determined by a process 
 generally known as Sumner s method. This 
 process is founded on the principle that the ship 
 is somewhere on a constantly changing curve of 
 equal altitudes, which may be defined as an arc 
 of a circle joining points in different latitudes, 
 where the sun or other heavenly body in ques 
 tion has the same altitude. If, therefore, two 
 latitudes be assumed, one 10 greater and the 
 other 10 less than that calculated for the ship, 
 and the corresponding longitudes be ascertained, 
 the ship s position will certainly (if her com 
 puted latitude be not in error more than 10 r ) 
 be somewhere on a line drawn on the chart 
 joining these two positions, as the small portion 
 of the curve of equal altitudes between two 
 points so close together would be almost exactly 
 represented by a straight line. A second obser 
 vation of the same or of a different body gives a 
 second line of equal altitudes, and their intersec 
 tion corrected for the run of the ship between 
 the observations gives the position. When 
 only one set of observations can be obtained 
 giving one line, if this line is parallel to the 
 shore the ship s distance from the shore is de- 
 
NAVIGATION 
 
 527 
 
 NAVIGATOR 
 
 termined, or if the line being produced passes 
 through a point of land, the bearing of the point 
 is known ; and this information, combined with 
 that derived from sounding, frequently serves to 
 fix exactly the ship s position. The various cases 
 in which Sumner s method may be utilized have 
 been very fully elaborated by Lieut, de Magnac, 
 of the French navy, in " La Nouvelle Naviga 
 tion," by a recent writer in the " Nautical Maga 
 zine," and by Sir William Thomson, who has 
 computed and published tables to facilitate the 
 use of this method. 
 
 In addition to the instruments and books al 
 ready mentioned, charts of the regions to be 
 visited, with sailing directions and meteorological 
 charts, are necessary to the navigator. The sail 
 ing directions contain accounts of the winds and 
 currents for certain coasts and seas, with descrip 
 tions of the coasts and anchorages. From the 
 various works of this kind information with re 
 gard to all the coasts of the world may be ob 
 tained, including the physical aspect of the 
 shores, climate, and natural phenomena, as well 
 as accounts of the manners and customs of the 
 inhabitants, the productions, and articles of mer 
 chandise. The meteorological charts give in 
 formation for each month in the year of the 
 probable winds, weather, and currents the navi 
 gator will encounter, assisting him to direct his 
 course to the best advantage. 
 
 From the position of the ship to the port of 
 destination the shortest distance is on the arc of 
 a great circle ; i.e., a circle the plane of which 
 passes through the centre of the earth. 
 
 As, however, to keep on a great circle, except 
 in the case of the equator or a meridian, a ship 
 must constantly keep changing her course, great- 
 circle sailing is practiced only when an appreci 
 able distance may be saved" without any cor 
 responding disadvantage. Steamers between 
 Europe and America almost invariably follow a 
 great-circle track, and all telegraph-cables where 
 practicable are laid on the arc of a great circle. 
 On a Mercator chart a great-circle track is repre 
 sented by a curve, but charts have been made on 
 such a projection that a great-circle arc is shown 
 by a straight line. The computation of the course 
 and distance between two points on a great- 
 circle arc is slightly more complicated than by 
 Mercator s or middle-latitude sailing, and vari 
 ous devices have been invented to facilitate it ; 
 among the best of which are Prof. Chauvenet s 
 Great-Circle Protractor, Mr. G. Herrle s Gno- 
 monic Chart, Godfrey s Diagram and Tables, 
 Towson s Index and Tables, etc. 
 
 When the distance to be saved by the practice 
 of great-circle sailing is of no special importance, 
 or when it is impracticable from other reasons, 
 the straight course to be followed may be exactly 
 computed by Mercator s sailing, or it may be 
 shown on the chart by laying a ruler along the 
 line joining the ports of departure and destina 
 tion. The angle between this line and the me 
 ridians will be the true course to which the vari 
 ation of the magnetic needle and its local devia 
 tion must be applied to determine the course to 
 be steered. (See COMPASS.) For a more detailed 
 account of the methods in use in navigation, the 
 reader is referred to the " American Practical 
 Navigator," by Dr. Bowditch ; Professor Coffin s 
 " Treatise on Navigation"; Lieut. Kaper s "Prac 
 tice of Navigation" ; Harbord s " Glossary of 
 
 Navigation," Professor Chauvenet s " Lunar 
 Distances and Equal Altitudes," etc. Francis 
 M. Green, Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Navigation Laws. The laws determining the 
 national character of ships. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW 4 (b). 
 
 Navigator. The officer or person to whom is 
 intrusted the navigation of the vessel. 
 
 In the navies of the world the duties of this 
 important position are performed by different 
 officers. In some there is a special corps for it, 
 in others one of the line or executive officers is 
 detailed for the purpose. 
 
 In the merchant marine usually the com 
 manding officer navigates the vessel ; but some 
 times the work is done by the first mate, under 
 the supervision of the commander. 
 
 In the United States navy, formerly the junior 
 line-officer of a man-of-war was by the regula 
 tions the navigator, under the title of the " mas 
 ter" of the vessel, and the title "sailing-master" 
 was synonymous with that of navigator. Now 
 the line-officer third in rank is the navigator, 
 though for sufficient cause the proper authority 
 may detail some other line-officer to do the duty, 
 but this case rarely occurs. 
 
 The navigator s duties consist in shaping the 
 vessel s course from port to port across the oceans 
 and seas; finding her position at sea from time to 
 time by observations of the celestial bodies and 
 by dead-reckoning; piloting the vessel into port 
 to her anchorage, and out again to sea, when 
 pilots cannot be had ; surveying, etc., when called 
 upon, or in places where it is necessary from the 
 meagre hydrographic information of the locality. 
 
 The navigator has charge of all the instru 
 ments, charts, and books pertaining to the 
 navigation of the vessel, exercises a supervision 
 over the anchors and cables, sees that they are 
 properly secured at all times, that the cables are 
 distinctly marked, and that all necessary ar 
 rangements are made for getting under way, 
 anchoring, mooring and unmooring, flipping or 
 shifting parts of a cable, and that the shackle- 
 pins can be removed easily. 
 
 He has charge of the steering-gear, and sees 
 that it is at all times in proper condition. 
 
 He must examine frequently the compasses, 
 time-glasses, log- and lead-lines, and see that they 
 are in proper order. 
 
 He has charge of the stowing of the hold, bal 
 last, water, provisions, etc., and must place in 
 the log-book plans specifying the quantity and 
 arrangement of the ballast, the number, size, 
 and disposition of the water-tanks, and the quan 
 tity and stowage of provisions nd other stores. 
 
 He must inspect the hold, cable-tiers, chain- 
 lockers daily, and see that they are kept clear 
 and in good order, reporting to the executive- 
 officer at 9.30 A.M. 
 
 He has charge of the time of the vessel, and 
 must determine the error and rate of the chro 
 nometers before going to sea, and at all practi 
 cable places during the cruise. 
 
 He must make frequent observations for deter 
 mining the local deviation of the ship s compasses 
 on all courses, tabulating the results for use in 
 shaping the vessel s course, and place a copy of 
 the result in the log-book. 
 
 He must make tidal observations at all places 
 visited where careful observations have not been 
 made. 
 
\ 
 
 NAVVIES 
 
 528 
 
 NAVY 
 
 He must keep a book in which all calculations 
 connected with the navigation of the vessel are 
 made; no erasures are allowed, but the book 
 must be a complete record of all observations, 
 computations, and results, with their date. At. 
 the end of the cruise the book is to be sent to the 
 Bureau of Navigation. 
 
 He has charge of the ship s log-book, commen 
 cing it when the vessel is put into commission, 
 sees that all particulars are duly entered accord 
 ing to prescribed forms, that the watch-officers 
 sign their remarks daily, and takes it to the 
 commanding officer for his inspection at noon 
 each day. He sends a certified copy to the com 
 manding officer for transmission to the Bureau of 
 Navigation every six months. See LOG-BOOK. 
 
 At sea he ascertains and reports daily to the 
 commanding officer the position of the vessel at 
 8 A.M., at meridian, and at 8 P.M., and makes 
 daily observations for the variation of the com 
 pass*, when the weather permits, with such other 
 determinations as the commanding officer may 
 direct. 
 
 In every port he must determine the variation 
 of the compass free from local deviation. 
 
 When there are three, or less than three watch- 
 officers on duty, he will be required to keep a 
 night-watch. 
 
 He is also ordnance-officer of the vessel, and in 
 action or battle handles the ship under direction 
 of the commanding officer. <7. E. Noel, Lieuten 
 ant-Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Navvies. The vigorous laborers employed in 
 cutting canals, railroads, or river works in tem 
 porary gangs. 
 
 Navy. The armed force of a nation operating 
 at sea or on coast and harbor defense. 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (1775 TO 
 1812). The navy came into existence soon 
 after the Declaration of Independence, and was 
 based upon the laws of Congress preceding and 
 following that declaration. 
 
 Descendants of a warlike nation, whose security 
 on land and supremacy at sea were manifestly 
 due to her naval power, it was natural that the 
 wisdom of the leading statesmen should have 
 turned their thoughts in this direction.. 
 
 The country was rich in her forests, which 
 afford a variety of timber suitable for ship-build 
 ing, and was not entirely destitute of mechanics 
 and artisans, but was compelled to rely almost 
 entirely upon a foreign market for ordnance, am 
 munition, sails, rigging, etc., for an outfit suit 
 able for cruisers before passing into the hands of 
 the officers and crew who were finally to man 
 and control them. 
 
 As early as October 13, 1775, an act of Con 
 gress authorized the building of one vessel of 10 
 guns and another of 14 guns, to be equipped 
 as national cruisers. At the same time a law 
 was passed establishing a marine committee, con 
 sisting of Messrs. John Adams, John Langdon, 
 and Silas Deane, the place of Mr. Adams being 
 afterwards supplied by Mr. Gadsden. 
 
 This committee, subsequently enlarged to 13, 
 was chosen by Congress from its own body and 
 given control of all naval matters. 
 
 October 29, a resolution was passed forbidding 
 privateers and merchantmen wearing pennants 
 in the presence of Continental ships or vessels of 
 war without the permission of the commanding 
 officers of the latter. The following day another 
 
 law was passed authorizing the fitting out of two 
 more cruisers, one to be armed with 20 guns, the 
 other with 36 guns; and following this (Decem 
 ber 13), the construction of 13 vessels, 3 of 
 which were to be armed with 24 guns each, 5 
 with 28 guns, and 5 with 32 guns, was authorized. 
 In the mean time the immediate wants of the 
 service were supplied by purchasing and equip 
 ping such vessels as could be procured in open 
 market. 
 
 These vessels constituted the first naval force 
 of the country. They were as follows : 
 
 < Alfred," 24 guns. 
 Columbus," 24 guns. 
 
 Ship 
 
 
 Brig Lexington," 16 guns. 
 Cabot," 16 guns. 
 4 Reprisal," 16 guns. 
 1 Andrea Doria," 14 guns. 
 Hampden," 14 guns. 
 Providence," 12 guns. 
 Schooner " Wasp," 8 guns. 
 
 (i Fly," 8 guns. 
 Sloop " Hornet," 10 guns. 
 " " Independence," 10 guns. 
 " "Sachem," 10 guns. 
 " " Mosquito," 4 guns. 
 In this hastily improvised force were repre 
 sented the various types of vessels carrying their 
 battery on one deck, with which were fought the 
 first battles of the Revolutionary war. They were 
 ordered to cruise on the coast and intercept trans 
 ports laden with munitions of war intended for 
 the English army or navy. 
 
 To officer, man, and equip this little fleet from 
 the raw material of the country, and in the ab 
 sence of educated and trained officers, of arsenals,, 
 store-houses, and dock-yard facilities, was a labor 
 perhaps little less than that encountered by the 
 sailor King Alfred, 1000 years previous, in fitting 
 out the fleet that he personally commanded 
 against the Danes. 
 
 There was no lack of patriotism and activity 
 in this transition period of the country ; but there 
 was necessarily a want of order and system, which 
 experience and time alone could supply. 
 
 The act of Congress, December 22, appointed 
 the following officers : 
 
 Ezekiel Hopkins, commander-in-chief. 
 Dudley Saltonstall, captain of his flag-ship 
 "Alfred." 
 
 Abraham Whipple, captain " Columbus." 
 Nicholas Biddle, captain " Andrea Doria." 
 J. B. Hopkins, captain " Cabot." 
 
 First Lieutenants. 
 
 John Paul Jones,* " Alfred." 
 Rhodes Arnold, " Columbus." 
 
 Stansbury, " Andrea Doria." 
 
 Hoysted Hacker, " Cabot." 
 Jonathan Pitcher, " Hornet." 
 
 Second Lieutenants. 
 
 Benjamin Seabury, " Alfred." 
 Joseph Olney, "Columbus." 
 Elisha Warner, " Andrea Doria." 
 Thomas Weaver, "Cabot." 
 McDougal, "Alfred." 
 
 * Claims to have first hoisted the American flag (pine-tree 
 and rattlesnake) on board of the " Alfred," lying in the DelaT 
 ware River, December, 1775, upon the occasion of Commodore 
 Hopkius s visit to her. 
 
NAVY 
 
 529 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Third Lieutenants. 
 
 John Fanning, "Columbus." 
 
 Ezekiel Burroughs, " Andrea Doria." 
 
 Daniel Vaughn, " Cabot." 
 
 The" Alfred," " Columbus," " Cabot," " An 
 drea Doria," "Providence," "Wasp," "Fly," 
 and " Hornet" composed the squadron of Commo 
 dore Hopkins, that put to sea February 17, 1776, 
 bound to the West Indies. On the second night 
 out the "Hornet" and " Fly" parted company, 
 and did not rejoin during the cruise. The re 
 mainder of the squadron finally made a descent 
 upon New Providence, capturing some military 
 stores, including nearly 100 cannon, which 
 were much needed at this period in arming 
 cruisers. 
 
 Leaving here March 17, and taking with him 
 the governor and a few other persons of note, 
 Hopkins returned North, and off Long Island 
 fell in with and captured an English bomb-brig of 
 8 guns, a tender of 6 guns, and had a running 
 fight of several hours with H. B. M. ship " Glas 
 gow," of 20 guns, which made a very creditable 
 defense, and finally escaped by good management. 
 Early in April the squadron arrived in New Lon 
 don, and in October following Congress passed a 
 vote of censure upon the commanding officer for 
 not performing the duties upon which he had 
 been sent, and he was dropped from the service 
 in the following year, January 2. 
 
 Thus ended the title of " Commander-in-Chief 
 of the Navy," except as applied to the President, 
 asthecommander-in-chiefof both army and navy. 
 
 March 23, letters of marque and reprisal were 
 issued by the Continental authorities of the United 
 States against Great Britain, and on February 
 7 following, retaliatory edicts Were issued by the 
 latter. 
 
 June 25, a marine corps, consisting of a major 
 (Samuel Nichols), 9 captains, 10 first and 7 sec 
 ond lieutenants, was appointed. 
 ^See, also, acts of January 8, 1780, and July, 
 
 Following the Declaration of Independence, 
 July 4, 1776, wasaneffort toequipthefleetalready 
 ordered, and the following officers were assigned 
 to their respective vessels in the order of rank: 
 
 James Nicholson, to command the " Virginia," 
 28 guns. 
 
 John Manley, to command the "Hancock," 
 32 guns. 
 
 Hector McNiel, to command the "Boston," 
 24 guns. 
 
 Dudley Saltonstall, to command the " Trum- 
 bull," 28 guns. 
 
 Nicholas Biddle, to command the " Ran- 
 dolph," 32 guns.* 
 
 Thomas Thompson, to command the " Ra- 
 leigh," 32 guns. 
 
 John Barry, to command the "Effingham," 
 28 guns. 
 
 Thomas Reed, to command the "Washing 
 ton," 32 guns. 
 
 Thomas Grennall, to command the " Con 
 gress," 28 guns. 
 
 Chas. Alexander, to command the " Dela 
 ware," 24 guns. 
 
 * Was completely dismasted on the coast in a gale, in 1779. 
 Subsequently lost a mast by a stroke of lightning, and was 
 finally blown up at sea, March 7, 1778, during an action with 
 H. B. M. ship " Yarmouth," 64 guns, ami all but 4 out of 315 
 souls perished. 
 
 34 
 
 Lambert Wickes, to command the " Repri 
 sal," 16 guns.f 
 
 Abraham Whipple, to command the " Provi 
 dence" (2d), 28 guns. 
 
 John B. Hopkins, to command the " Warren," 
 32 guns. 
 
 John Hodge, to command the " Montgomery," 
 24 guns. 
 
 William Hallock, to command the " Lexing 
 ton," 16 guns. 
 
 Hoysted Hacker, to command the " Hampden," 
 14 guns. 
 
 Isaiah Robinson, to command the "Andrea 
 Doria," 14 guns.J 
 
 John Paul Jones, to command the " Provi 
 dence," 12 guns. 
 
 James Josiah, to command the " Camden" 
 (galley). 
 
 Elisha Hindman, to command the "Alfred," 
 24 guns. 
 
 Joseph Olney, to command the " Cabot," 14 
 guns. 
 
 James Robinson, to command the "Sachem," 
 10 guns. 
 
 John Young, to command the " Independ 
 ence," 10 guns. 
 
 Elisha Warner, tocommand the " Fly," 8 guns. 
 
 November 9, a law was passed authorizing the 
 building of the first line-of-battle ship of 74 guns ; 
 her keel was laid at Portsmouth, N. H., where 
 she was completed in 1781, and named the 
 "America"; her armament was reduced to 56 
 guns, and in the following year she was presented 
 by the government to Louis XVI. of France to re 
 place the "Magnifique," 74, lost in Boston harbor. 
 
 The same month, a Continental Navy Board, 
 consisting of three persons, was appointed subor 
 dinate to the Marine Committee. These were 
 John Nixon, John Wharton, and F. Hopkinson, 
 who were supposed to be skilled in maritime af 
 fairs ; they were given a salary of $1500 each per 
 annum, and were empowered to regulate the rank 
 of lieutenants and subordinate officers. 
 
 November 15, 1776, Congress apparently con 
 templating higher grades of rank in the navy, 
 established the following relative rank between 
 the navy and army officers : 
 
 Admiral, with general. 
 
 Vice-Admiral, with lieutenant-general. 
 
 Rear-Admiral, with major-general. 
 
 Commodore, with brigadier-general. 
 
 Captain of a 40-gun ship and upwards, with 
 colonel. 
 
 Captain of a 20- to 40-gun ship, with lieuten 
 ant-colonel. 
 
 Captain of a 10- to 20-gun ship, with major. 
 
 Lieutenant, with captain. 
 
 And officers of marines with similar commis 
 sions in the land service. 
 
 The first four naval grades above were only 
 created by law in 1862, although in the official 
 correspondence of the State Department the title 
 of admiral was conceded to John Paul Jones just 
 previous to his death, in 1792, and his commission 
 may have been so worded, though I find no law 
 
 f The first American vessel of war that visited European 
 waters, where she took several prizes this year, and being joined 
 by the " Lexington" and " Dolphin" in the following year, 
 cruised in English waters, making captures and causing a sen 
 sation that raised the rates of insurance 25 per cent. In 1778 
 foundered at sea, and all but the cook lost. 
 
 Received the first foreign salute, which cost the Dutch, 
 governor of St. Eustalia his commission. 
 
NAVY 
 
 530 
 
 NAVY 
 
 creating the title. The subordinate grades of 
 master, surgeon, purser, chaplain, midshipman, 
 boatswain, gunner, carpenter, and sailmaker, 
 came early into existence with prescribed duties, 
 pay, and responsibilities corresponding very 
 much to those of the English service, from which 
 the navy very naturally copied. 
 
 The same is true in regard to naval laws, regu 
 lations, and customs, as well as naval construc 
 tion, armament, etc., which have since under 
 gone many changes. Vessels at this period were 
 poorly armed and hastily put together ; often built 
 of green timber, which decayed in a few years.* 
 
 By those familiar with the early history of 
 the country it will be noticed that several very 
 spirited conflicts of a nautical character took 
 place that have been passed over, for the reason 
 that they were not purely naval. One of these 
 was fought by Capt. Broughton, of Marblehead, 
 who, upon the authority of the biographer of 
 Gen. Washington (Mr. Sparks), was the first 
 officer commissioned by him in the navy. 
 
 It would be difficult at this day to name or 
 properly locate all of the early appointments 
 that were made. Some had but a brief exist 
 ence, and changes were frequent. 
 
 Limited appointments were conferred abroad 
 by the minister to France, Dr. Franklin, who 
 was also authorized to purchase or accept the 
 loan of vessels from foreign subjects. Among 
 these were the " Duras," "Pallas," " Cerf," 
 and "Vengeance," which, with the "Alliance," 
 composed the little squadron that cruised in Eng 
 lish waters under Commodore J. P. Jones in 1779, 
 niakjng many captures. While in command 
 of the former (her name being changed to the 
 " Bon Homme Richard") he engaged H. B. M. 
 ship " Serapis," Capt. Pearson, September 23, in. 
 the British Channel, and captured her after one 
 of the most obstinate naval duels on record. 
 The ships were nearly equally armed and 
 manned, and each lost about one-half of her 
 crew in killed or wounded ; the former sank 
 two days after the action. 
 
 October 28, 1779, naval administration was 
 intrusted to a Board of Admiralty consisting 
 of five persons, three of whom were Congress 
 men, and these were given control of all naval 
 and marine affairs. April 20, 1780, this board 
 drafted the commission which in substance is 
 the same as that now issued to all officers entitled 
 to a commission.! 
 
 February 7, 1781, Secretaries of War, Fi 
 nance, and Marine were appointed. The latter 
 office was conferred upon Brig.-G-en. Alex. Mc- 
 Dougall, who had been a seaman in his early 
 manhood, with all the powers and duties pre 
 viously confided to the Board of Admiralty, and 
 in the following August an Agent of Marine was 
 appointed to supersede all agents, boards, or com 
 mittees previously established by law. The 
 duties of this office subsequently devolved upon 
 the celebrated Robert Morris, who was the Secre 
 tary of Finance until November, 1784.| 
 
 * June 14, 1777, it was " Resolved, That the flag of the thir 
 teen United States he 13 stripes, alternate red and white ; that 
 the union be 13 stars, white, in a blue field, representing a now 
 constellation." 
 
 t The " Saratoga," 16 guns, Capt. J. Young, was lost at sea 
 this year and never after heard from. 
 
 I August 5, 1783, he reports "that it is an object highly 
 dcsirutile to establish a respectable marine, yet the situation 
 of the public treasury renders it not advisable to purchase 
 shipe for the present, nor until the several States shall grant 
 
 For some reason there appears to have been 
 much difficulty in finding the right man to place 
 at the head of the navy, arid these frequent 
 changes operated unfavorably to the service in 
 many ways. The war of the Revolution had wit 
 nessed many gallant encounters and the capture 
 of some 800 prizes. Nevertheless, the navy had 
 suffered severely, losing by capture 11 vessels of 
 war, besides the little fleet of gunboats on Lake 
 Champlain ; so that, including 13 others de 
 stroyed to prevent their falling into the hands of 
 the enemy, with 3 foundered at sea and 5 con 
 demned or sold, the country was virtually with 
 out a navy from 1780 to 1785. A treaty of peace, 
 however, had been concluded with Great Britain 
 as early as September 23, 1783. 
 
 Taking advantage of this lull, commerce in 
 creased, and ventured into the Mediterranean, 
 where in its defenseless condition it soon became 
 a prey to the cruisers of the Barbary powers. This 
 revived the naval problem, and demonstrated to 
 the country not only the necessity of providing 
 a navy capable of protecting our commerce 
 abroad, but that it should be placed upon a more 
 permanent basis at home, by constructing docks, 
 arsenals, etc., and by building ships under the 
 supervision of experienced naval officers. 
 
 August 7, 1789, the Secretary of War was 
 given control of naval affairs. 
 
 It was during this and the following year 
 that the American ship "Columbus" and sloop 
 " Washington" circumnavigated the globe, 
 the first American vessels it is believed that ac 
 complished this feat. 
 
 Efforts at negotiation with the Barbary pow 
 ers failed; up to 1793 13 vessels had been cap 
 tured by the Algerine corsairs, and their officers 
 and crews, to the number of 119, had been con 
 fined as prisoners, when President Washington 
 recommended the building of 6 frigates, which 
 recommendation a subsequent act of Congress, 
 March 27, 1794, adopted, prescribing that 4 of 
 them should be armed with 44 guns each, and 2 
 with 36 guns. 
 
 Other sections of the law prescribed the num 
 ber of officers and men of each grade, including 
 pay and rations, that should make up the com 
 plement of each class of vessels. Naval construc 
 tors and agents were also appointed. 
 
 It is worthy of record that at this early date an 
 act prohibiting the slave-trade was passed. 
 
 A treaty of peace with Morocco, Algiers, and 
 Tripoli following in 1796, the number of frig 
 ates previously authorized was reduced one-half. 
 In the discussion that arose in Congress in re 
 gard to this reduction, the President strongly 
 urged a gradual increase of the navy, remarking 
 that "it is our own experience that the most 
 sincere neutrality is not a sufficient guard against 
 the depredations of nations at war," that "the 
 protection of a naval force is indispensable to an 
 active, external commerce," and that " to secure 
 respect to a neutral flag requires a naval force 
 organized and ready to vindicate it from insult 
 or aggression." 
 
 1797. The frigate "Constitution," 44 guns, 
 was launched at Boston; the "United States," 
 44 guns, at Philadelphia; and the " Constella- 
 
 such funds for the construction of ships, docks, and naval ar 
 senals, and for the support of the naval service as shall enable 
 th United States to establish their marine upon a permanent 
 and respectable footing." 
 
NAVY 
 
 531 
 
 NAVY 
 
 tion," 36 guns, at Baltimore. Each of these ships 
 has won an enviable reputation in the navy. The 
 first and last still belong to the service. Their 
 timbers have of course been often renewed, as the 
 life of a ship seldom exceeds 15 years ; but their 
 name and fame will outlast the material of which 
 they are constructed. 
 
 They were beautiful models of their time, with 
 strength and stability, carrying capacity, sailing 
 and manoeuvring qualities, that modern types 
 have not always improved upon. They were 
 modeled by Naval Constructor Samuel Hum 
 phries, and built under the superintendence of 
 Commodores Samuel Nicholson, John Barry, and 
 Thomas Truxtun. The first two had a length 
 of 175 feet, beam 43 feet, and depth of hold 14 
 feet, with a tonnage of 1607, old measurement. 
 The latter was : length, 161 feet ; beam, 40 feet ; 
 depth of hold, 13 feet ; and tonnage, 1278. Their 
 batteries frequently underwent change conform 
 ably to the continual changes in ordnance. 
 
 April 30, 1798, the Navy Department was es 
 tablished, and Benjamin Stoddart became the first 
 Secretary of the Navy, with a salary of $3000 
 per annum. The marine corps was re-established, 
 and there were added to the navy 11 ships, car 
 rying from 18 to 24 guns, and as many smaller 
 vessels, carrying from 10 to 18 guns each. 
 
 The personnel available for this reorganized 
 navy was 28 captains, 7 master-commandants, 
 and a proportionate number of lieutenants and 
 other subordinate officers. 
 
 Among the lieutenants was Charles Stewart, 
 who alone lived to be promoted to the rank of ad 
 miral, and was probably the only survivor in 1862. 
 
 To our republican form of government, our 
 growing and competing commerce, our weakness 
 as a naval power, or to all combined, may per 
 haps be attributed a certain unfriendly spirit on 
 the part of European powers, especially mani 
 fested in the changed relations of France, and 
 the wanton attacks of her cruisers upon the com 
 merce of the country, until forbearance ceasing 
 to be a virtue, the acts of May 28 and July 9 
 authorized the President to instruct the com 
 manders of public armed vessels and privateers, 
 duly commissioned, to make reprisals. 
 
 The Secretary of the Navy urged in his report 
 to Congress a large increase of the navy, adding, 
 " that it should be so augmented as to make the 
 most powerful nations desire our friendship, and 
 the most unprincipled respect our neutrality."* 
 
 * The committee in Congress appointed to take this matter 
 into consideration sustained and amplified the Secretary s rec 
 ommendations. 
 
 Then followed a lively debate, upon which the opponents of 
 course wished to impress upon their constituency, if not the 
 country, that they were in favor of economy and retrenchment, 
 and above all, that they were opposed to " large military and 
 naval organizations as dangerous to the liberties of the people" ! A 
 very ancient weapon, but fortunately having no application to 
 either the army or the navy so far as its present history. The 
 contest finally ended in giving discretionary power to the Secre 
 tary to erect a dock, to increase the number of men and guns 
 in certain vessels, and to have built C line-of-battle ships, none 
 of which were launched until after the war with Great Britain. 
 
 The theory of the English government, that their subjects 
 wherever found owed their first allegiance to the crown, was 
 exemplified this year in the seizure of 5 men on board of the 
 U. S. S. " Baltimore," Capt. Phillips, off Havana, by the Brit 
 ish squadron under Commodore Loring, resulting in the dis 
 mission of the former and instructions from President 
 Adams, through the Secretary of the Navy, to the commanders 
 of all United States vessels of war to resist to their utmost any 
 future insult of detention, search, or seizure, and when no 
 longer aide to resist, to surrender the vessel, but not the men 
 without the vessel. 
 
 March 2, 1799, an act was passed deducting 20 
 cents per month from the pay of each officer, 
 seaman, and marine of the navy to constitute a 
 hospital fund. 
 
 To carry out previous instructions the follow 
 ing squadrons were dispatched : 
 
 Windward Islands. Rendezvous, Rupert s Bay : 
 " United States," 44, Commodore John Barry. 
 "Constitution," 44, Captain Samuel Nicholson. 
 "George Washington," 24, Captain P. Fletcher. 
 " Merrimack," 24, Captain Moses Brown. 
 "Portsmouth," 24, Captain Danl. McNiel. 
 "Herald," 18, Master-Commander C. C. Russel. 
 " Pickering," 14, Lieut.-Commander E. Preble. 
 "Eagle," 18, Captain H. G. Campbell. 
 " Scammel," 14, Captain J. Adams. 
 "Diligence," 12, Captain J. Brown. 
 
 Leeward Islands. Rendezvous, St. Kitts : 
 " Constellation," 36, Commodore T. Truxtun. 
 "Richmond," 18, Captain Samuel Barren. 
 " Baltimore," 20, Captain Isaac Phillips. 
 " Norfolk," 18, Captain Thomas Williams. 
 "Virginia," 14, Captain Francis Bright. 
 
 To guard the passage between Cuba and San 
 
 Domingo : 
 
 " Ganges," 24, Commodore Thomas Tingey. 
 " Gen. Pinckney," 18, Captain S. Hay ward. 
 "South Carolina," 12, Captain J. Payne. 
 
 To cruise off Havana : 
 " Delaware," 20, Captain S. Decatur, Sen. 
 " Gen. Green," 10, Captain Geo. Price. 
 " Gov. Jay," 14, Captain J. W. Leonard. 
 
 The act of March 2, 1799, for the government 
 of the navy of the United States, was followed 
 by the act of April 3, 1800, for the better govern 
 ment of the navy of the United States, usually 
 known as the Articles of War, that have since 
 been in force, and are frequently read to the offi 
 cers and crew assembled on the quarter-deck of 
 vessels in commission. 
 
 In 1800 the seat of government was transferred 
 to Washington, D. C. 
 
 The previous acts of Congress of May and July, 
 1798, amounted to a virtual declaration of war 
 against France, and during its continuance till 
 the close of 1800 nearly 100 prizes were captured 
 by the squadrons previously named, and many 
 sharp conflicts occurred between single vessels, 
 which were generally short and decisive, and re 
 flected credit upon the young navy. 
 
 Among these were the actions of the U. S. S. 
 "Constellation," Commodore Truxtun, with the 
 French frigate " L Insurgente," in 1799, and " La 
 Vengeance," in 1800, in which the enemy were 
 superior in number of guns and men, and suffered 
 a greater loss in killed and wounded. In the latter 
 action the enemy opposed a battery of twenty- 
 eight 18-pounder, sixteen 12-pounder, and eight 
 42-pounder carronades to the "Constellation s" 
 twenty-eight 18 pounder and ten 24-pounder 
 carronades ; the latter are believed to be the first 
 ever used in the United States service, and are 
 only effective at very close quarters. 
 
 The " Constellation" lost her mainmast in this 
 action, Midshipman Jarvis and all the topmen 
 going with it. Commodore Truxtun was given 
 a gold medal for his gallantry by an act of Con 
 gress. 
 
 The U. S. brig " Pickering," commanded by 
 Lieut. Hillar, that sailed in August of this year 
 on a cruise to the West Indies, was never more 
 heard from. 
 
NAVY 
 
 532 
 
 NAVY 
 
 The whole expense of the navy up to this 
 period, including the purchase of six sites for 
 navy-yards, was estimated at about $10,000,000, 
 while the annual exports had increased to $93,- 
 000,000, and the revenue to $10,000,000. 
 
 February 3, 1801, a treaty of peace was rati 
 fied with France, and Capt. C. C. Kussel was 
 dispatched with the "Herald" to recall the 
 squadrons in the West Indies. 
 
 By the act of March 3, the navy was reduced 
 to a peace-footing by the sale of all the remaining 
 vessels, excepting the frigates "Constitution," 
 " Adams," "General Green," " Constellation," 
 " J. Adams," " New York," "Congress," " Bos 
 ton," "President," "Chesapeake," "Essex," 
 " Philadelphia," and the schooner " Enterprise." 
 Those sold were first divested of their armaments 
 and stores, and brought less than it would now 
 cost to build a first-class frigate. 
 
 Their services, however, in protecting com 
 merce and maintaining the honor of the country 
 cannot well be estimated. 
 
 Unfortunately, this reduction of the navy oc 
 curred at a period when the bashaw of Trip 
 oli was threatening to dispatch his cruisers to 
 prey upon the commerce of the country unless 
 presents were immediately sent him, adding that 
 he had always exacted this from the English, 
 French, and Spaniards. 
 
 The bey of Tunis made demands no less im 
 portunate, saying that Denmark, Spain, Sicily, 
 and Sweden had made concessions to him, and 
 that if the President did not send him without 
 delay forty cannon of different calibres (adding 
 that he wished them all to be 24-pounders), be 
 sides 10,000 stand of arms, peace would be no 
 longer possible. 
 
 The dey of Algiers, to whom the government 
 presented the frigate "Crescent" in 1798, was 
 also becoming inconsolable again. 
 
 The government therefore wisely concluded 
 that an exhibition of force instead of presents 
 would better meet the occasion. 
 
 Commodore Dale was dispatched January 1, 
 1801, with a small squadron to the Mediterra 
 nean, with full instructions from Secretary S. 
 Smith to meet all demands, and, if necessary, to 
 punish these insolent people. " Millions for de 
 fense but not one cent for tribute" had become the 
 watch-word. 
 
 This squadron consisted of the frigate " Presi 
 dent," 44, flag-ship, Capt. Jas. Barron ; frigate 
 "Philadelphia," 36, Capt. Sam. Barron; frigate 
 "Essex," 32, Capt. Wm. Bainbridge; schooner 
 " Enterprise," 12, Lieut. Sterrett. 
 
 The commodore reached Gibraltar in July, 
 where he found at anchor a Tripolitan ship of 
 26 guns and a brig of 16 guns, which looked 
 suspicious ; but the officers declared that they 
 were not at war with the United States, and the 
 contrary did not fully appear until their arrival at 
 Malta. 
 
 Lieut. Sterrett, in the " Enterprise," had in the 
 mean time, August 1, fallen in with and captured 
 a Tripolitan corsair of 14 guns, her commander, 
 Mahomet Sous, making an obstinate resistance, 
 and being rewarded on his return to Tripoli in his 
 disarmed vessel, used as a cartel, by a public 
 "bastinado." Lieut. Sterrett, for his gallant 
 conduct on this occasion, was rewarded by the 
 presentation of a sword by Congress. 
 
 President Jefferson, in alluding to this duel in 
 
 his message to Congress, remarked that " the 
 measure was seasonable and salutary ; . . . the 
 bravery exhibited by our citizens will, I trust, 
 be a testimony to the world that it is not a 
 want of that virtue which makes us seek their 
 peace." 
 
 The bashaw of Tripoli still declining all friendly 
 overtures, and refusing to surrender American 
 prisoners in his possession, Congress enacted laws 
 that were equivalent to a declaration of war as 
 early as February 6, 1802, and a squadron was 
 sent out to relieve Commodore Dale. This 
 squadron was under the command of Commodore 
 K. V. Morris, and consisted of the following 
 vessels : 
 
 Chesapeake," 38, flag-ship, Lieut. Chauncey. 
 
 Constellation," 36, Capt. A. Murray. 
 
 New York," 36, Capt. Jas. Barron. 
 Adams," 32, Capt. H. G. Campbell. 
 John Adams," 32, Capt. John Rodgers. 
 Enterprise," 12, Lieut. A. Sterrett. 
 
 Commodore Truxtun had been selected for this 
 squadron, but declined on a question of a flag- 
 captain. 
 
 The crews were shipped for two years instead 
 of one, as heretofore. The ships were well offi 
 cered and manned ; but the guns were mostly ill 
 suited to long-range bombardment. 
 
 Commodore Morris was also authorized to de 
 tain the U. S. S. " Boston," Capt. McNiel, then 
 in the Mediterranean ; also to purchase from the 
 European powers some small gunboats, to pro 
 tect commerce in the Strait of Gibraltar and 
 assist in blockade duty. 
 
 The vessels sailed as tl\ey were ready, and 
 arrived out at different periods between May and 
 September. The "Chesapeake" sprung her main 
 mast and the "Constellation" her foremast on 
 their way out. The latter was the first frigate 
 to reach Tripoli, and the first to open hostilities 
 by an attack upon some gunboats that were 
 driven on shore near Tripoli. 
 
 The commodore reached Gibraltar May 25, 
 where he found Capt. Bainbridge in the "Es 
 sex" blockading a Tripolitan ship of 22 guns. 
 Malta was the port appointed as a rendezvous, 
 where the squadron finally assembled. 
 
 The year passed without anything especial be 
 ing accomplished, and Commodore Morris was 
 subsequently censured for this. 
 
 1803. Early this year the squadron visited 
 the Barbary powers that were evidently in collu 
 sion with each other and meditating mischief. 
 
 Commodore Morris transferred his flag to the 
 " New York," and sent the " Chesapeake" home 
 under Capt. J. Barron. Being recalled in June, 
 he returned home in the " Adams" ; he was cen 
 sured by a court of inquiry, and in the following 
 year was dismissed from the service by the Presi 
 dent. This left the squadron in command of 
 Commodore J. Kodgers, who was in turn relieved 
 by Commodore Ed. Preble, at Gibraltar, Sep 
 tember 12, 1803, having previously destroyed the 
 " Meshouda," of 22 guns, when attempting to 
 evade the blockade off Tripoli,* June 21. 
 
 Commodore Preble s squadron consisted of his 
 flag-ship " Constitution," 44 guns ; ship " Phila 
 delphia," 36 guns, Capt. W. Bainbridge ; brig 
 
 * This vessel, originally Tripolitan, then belonged to the 
 emperor of Morocco, and is the same one previously men 
 tioned as blockaded at Gibraltar. 
 
NAVY 
 
 533 
 
 NAVY 
 
 " Siren,"* 16 guns, Lieut. C. Stewart ; schooner 
 Vixen,"* 14 guns, Lieut. J. Smith ; schooner 
 Nautilus,"* 12 guns, Lieut. R. Somers ; brig 
 Argus,"* 16 guns, Lieut. I. Hull; schooner 
 Enterprise," 12 guns, Lieut. S. Decatur, already 
 in the Mediterranean. 
 
 As in the case of the previous squadron, the 
 vessels left the United States singly as their out 
 fits were completed, and had an average passage 
 of 35 days to Gibraltar. 
 
 August 26, the " Philadelphia" being off Cape 
 de Gatt, fell in with and captured the armed ship 
 " Meshboha," of 22 guns, belonging to Morocco, 
 having in company the American brig " Celia" 
 as a prize. The officers confessed they were or 
 dered by the governor of Tangier to capture 
 American vessels ; and this necessitated a visit 
 of the squadron to Tangier, where the emperor 
 of Morocco expressed his regrets that any hostile 
 acts had been committed, declared that he would 
 punish the authors, and would release all vessels 
 previously captured under the orders of his gov 
 ernors ; and further, that he would ratify the 
 treaty made by his father in 1786, adding " that 
 his friendship for America should last forever." 
 Friendly salutes were exchanged, arid Commo 
 dore Rodgers sailed for the United States. Com 
 modore Preble sailed up the Mediterranean, after 
 touching at Cadiz and Gibraltar, and reached 
 Malta on the 27th of November, where he re 
 ceived a confirmation of the report of the loss 
 of the U. S. S. "Philadelphia," Capt. Bain- 
 bridge, off Tripoli, Oct. 31, 1803, having run 
 upon a rock while endeavoring to intercept the 
 enemy s vessels near the land. The officers 
 and crew of the "Philadelphia," numbering 
 307 souls, became prisoners, and were retained 
 as such during the war. This unfortunate ac 
 cident increased the pretensions of the enemy, 
 and rendered peace negotiations more difficult. 
 A subsequent decision of a court of inquiry held 
 at Syracuse exonerated Capt. Bainbridge from 
 all blame for the loss of his ship. The sailor of 
 the present day, with the advantages of steam 
 and reliable charts, would not have fared so well. 
 Previous to surrendering the ship, Capt. Bain- 
 bridge had, while under the fire of the enemy s 
 gunboats, made every effort to extricate her by 
 cutting away the foremast, throwing overboard 
 guns, etc. The enemy, with the aid of their gun 
 boats and the high tides, were more successful 
 a few days after, not only floating the vessel 
 into their harbor, but weighing and remounting 
 her guns, thus affording a temptation for her de 
 struction, which was not long deferred. De 
 cember 23, Lieut. Decatur, in the " Enterprise," 
 captured the ketch " Mastieo," loaded with 
 female slaves, and bound to Constantinople as a 
 present to the Porte. This vessel was taken into 
 the service under the name of the "Intrepid," 
 and armed with 4 guns. The cargo was of course 
 released. 
 
 February 3, 1804, having been prepared with a 
 view of destroying the " Philadelphia," she was 
 placed in charge of Lieut. S. Decatur, and dis 
 patched from Syracuse by Commodore Preble, 
 
 * Built under the act of February 28, the brigs having a 
 battery of two long 12-pounders and sixteen 24-pounder car- 
 ronades; the schooners two long 9-poumlers and twelve 18- 
 pounder carronades. They were a class of vessels much needed 
 on this service, and having survived this war, were all captured 
 in the subsequent war with England. 
 
 with a crew, including officers, numbering 75 
 souls, all volunteers, and under the escort of 
 Lieut. Charles Stewart in the " Siren." Febru 
 ary 9, Tripoli was sighted, but owing to gales 
 and stormy weather a favorable opportunity did 
 not offer until the night of the 16th, when, favored 
 by the darkness, Lieut. Decatur laid his vessel 
 alongside of the " Philadelphia, "drove the Turks 
 overboard, set fire to the ship, and in less than 
 half an hour was sweeping the "Intrepid" out 
 of the harbor under the fire of the batteries, 2 
 corsairs, and 1 galley, which was returned by 
 the guns of the " Philadelphia" as the tire pro 
 gressed and the guns became heated. 
 
 As this has been regarded as one of the best 
 planned and most successful and gallant feats of 
 this war, I here add the names of the officers 
 who volunteered and took part in it: Lieut. 
 Commandant S. Decatur, in the "Intrepid"; 
 Lieuts. J. Lawrence, J. Bainbridge, J. Thorn; 
 Surgeon Heerman ; Midshipmen C. Morris, T. 
 McDonough, R. Isard, A. Laws, J. Davis, J. 
 Rowe, T. O. Anderson ; Pilot Salvador Cata- 
 lano. All of these officers were promoted. 
 
 During March, Lieut. Stewart, in the " Siren, 
 captured" the brig " Transfer," of 16 guns and 80 
 men, while attempting to run the blockade. She 
 had an English commission. Was taken into the 
 service, and named the "Scourge." 
 
 Commodore Preble, who had made his head 
 quarters at Syracuse, was in the mean time pre 
 paring his squadron for more serious work. 
 Leaving here July 14, in the "Constitution," 
 with 3 brigs, 3 schooners, 6 gunboats, and 2 
 bomb-vessels, he touched at Malta, and appeared 
 off Tripoli on the 25th. Here he found opposed 
 to him batteries mounting 115 cannon of various 
 calibre, 19 gunboats, 1 brig of 10 guns, 2 schoon 
 ers of 8 guns each, and 2 galleys, all moored in 
 front of the town. 
 
 The first attack, August 3, was made by all the 
 squadron, the " Constitution" covering the 
 smaller vessels and occasionally delivering a 
 broadside at the batteries, which could only be 
 reached by the thirty long 24-pounders mounted 
 on her gun-deck, and six 26-pounders mounted 
 on the spar-deck, if the shells thrown by the 
 mortar-vessels are excepted, and a shot from a 
 long 24-pounder carried by each of the gun 
 boats which was used against their immediate 
 foe afloat. The bombardment lasted two hours, 
 and resulted in the death of Lieut. James Deca 
 tur, and 13 wounded ; the enemy had 3 of their 
 gunboats sunk, 3 captured, and suffered more 
 severely in killed and wounded. 
 
 The second attack, August 7, lasted three hours. 
 The 3 prize gunboats, numbered 7, 8, and 9, went 
 in under the command of Lieuts. Crane, Cald- 
 well, and Thorn. After being engaged about one 
 hour, No. 8 received a hot shot through her maga 
 zine and blew up, killing her commander, Lieut. 
 Caldwell, and Midshipman Dorse and 6 men, and 
 wounding as many more. The other vessels re 
 ceived more damage aloft than in their hulls. 
 The " Constitution" remained out of this action, 
 but maintained a signal supervision. During 
 the evening the "John Adams," 28, Capt. 
 Chauncey, arrived with stores and dispatches 
 from the United States. 
 
 The third attack, August 24, was made by two 
 bomb-vessels sent in to practice upon the town 
 without drawing the enemy s fire, and it was sub- 
 
NAVY 
 
 534 
 
 NAVY 
 
 sequently learned that all the shells fell short, 
 and of those previously fired, only one burst 
 owing to defective fuzes. This was learned 
 from Capt. Bainbridge, who occasionally com 
 municated with the squadron. 
 
 The fourth attack, August 28, was a night at 
 tack. All the small vessels, excepting the bomb- 
 brigs, accompanied by the boats of the squadron, 
 were sent in, and were joined by the commodore, 
 in the "Constitution," at daylight. The rapidity 
 and accuracy of the latter s guns created much 
 loss and havoc among the enemy, sinking one of 
 their gunboats and driving others ashore. A boat 
 belonging to the "John Adams" was destroyed 
 by a double-headed shot, and 3 of the crew killed. 
 Nothing more serious occurred. Seven hundred 
 shot had been fired by the flag-ship, and the enemy 
 confessed that they had been roughly handled. 
 
 The fifth attack, September 3, was madefy the 
 whole squadron, and lusted for one and a half 
 hours, the enemy judiciously changing their tac 
 tics and gradually retreating when hard pressed. 
 The " Constitution" ran in close, and as her 
 broadside would bear, silenced the enemy s bat 
 teries by her rapid and well-delivered fire. That 
 she should have escaped with only slight damage 
 aloft is due to poor gunnery on the part of the 
 enemy. The bombards suffered more severely, 
 but no one was killed. 
 
 Following this last squadron attack, and during 
 the next night, the ketch "Intrepid," that had 
 been employed in destroying the " Philadel 
 phia," was sent in with powder and combustibles 
 and a picked crew to destroy the shipping in 
 port. For some cause which will never be 
 known she blew up when near her destination, 
 killing all on board, including her commander, 
 Lieut. Commandant R. Somers, H. Wadsworth, 
 J. Israel, and 10 men. 
 
 In the language of the naval historian Cooper, 
 this "scene of sublime destruction" was really 
 the last blow aimed at this weak and arrogant 
 power, and was a sad winding up of a war last 
 ing over three years on an exposed and misera 
 ble coast, in which ships, officers, and men suf 
 fered alike in wear and tear. It was, nevertheless, 
 an excellent school for professional training, 
 while it taught a severe lesson to the Moham 
 medan race, and put an end to further tribute. 
 
 A few days later, September 10, the frigate 
 "President," Commodore Samuel Barren, and 
 the " Constellation," Capt. H. Campbell, ar 
 rived, when the squadron was turned over to 
 the former, and Commodore Preble left for 
 Malta, taking with him the two prizes captured 
 on the 12th. At this port he turned over the 
 " Constitution" to Capt. S. Decatur, and pro 
 ceeded to Syracuse in the "Argus," from thence 
 home in the "John Adams," where, upon his 
 arrival, he was presented with a gold medal and 
 the thanks of Congress to himself, officers, and 
 crew for gallant and faithful services. 
 
 In November, Capt. J. Rodgers being senior 
 officer, was transferred to the " Constitution," 
 and Decatur to the " Congress." 
 
 The blockade of Tripoli was still maintained, 
 and to create a favorable diversion a combined sea 
 and land force was dispatched, April 27, 1805, to 
 assist the deposed bashaw, Hamet Caramalli, in 
 an attack upon the Tripolitan town of Derne, 
 Which was bombarded by the " Argus," " Nau 
 tilus," and "Hornet" from seaward, and at the 
 
 same time attacked in the rear by the land forces 
 under Consul-General Eaton and Lieut. O. Ban- 
 non. After a spirited resistance of one hour and 
 a half the town surrendered, and was given in 
 charge of the deposed bashaw, whose brother 
 was the power at Tripoli. Of the assailing force 
 only 14 were killed, and among the wounded was 
 Gen. Eaton. 
 
 Following this, a demonstration was made 
 against Tunis, and so well followed up by Com 
 modore Rodgers (who had relieved Commodore 
 Barron, May 26) that negotiations were much 
 facilitated, and a treaty of peace followed, June 
 3, when all prisoners were surrendered and it 
 was stipulated that no more tribute should be paid. 
 
 The squadron, which had increased to 20 ves 
 sels, including the 2 bombards "Etna" and "Ve 
 suvius," and the ship "Wasp," 18, and brig 
 " Hornet," 18, was gradually withdrawn from 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 The gunboat policy, which originated in 1803, 
 was this year, March 2, revived by an act au 
 thorizing" the President to have 25 built for 
 the protection of the harbors of the country. 
 These were increased to 50 by the act of April 
 21, 1806, and to 188 by the act of December 18, 
 1807. They were numbered as they were built 
 or purchased ; and of the first 9 sent to the Medi 
 terranean in 1805, all but No. 7, though sailing 
 from different ports of the United States, arrived 
 in Syracuse within 28 hours of each other. No. 
 7, commanded by Lieut. Ogilvie, was lost at sea. 
 No. 2 was armed with one long 32, and the re 
 maining 8 with two long 32 s. Of the other 
 vessels of this class but very few performed valu 
 able service on the coast. Some were lost and 
 others condemned. At best they were only an 
 auxiliary force, and never in favor with the offi 
 cers of the navy. 
 
 From this period on to the war with Great 
 Britain the navy was sadly neglected, and but 
 for the appeals of the older officers, and the in 
 creasing depredations upon the commerce of the 
 country, it was in a fair way of being forgotten. 
 
 The nation, although slow in her resentment, 
 was not disposed to excuse continual encroach 
 ments upon her commerce, much less to condone 
 the insult conve} r ed in the act of the commander 
 of H. B. M. ship " Leopard," in firing into the 
 TJ. S. S. " Chesapeake" on the coast, June 22, 
 1807. In consequence of this outrage all British 
 vessels were ordered to leave the ports of the 
 United States. War would seem to have been 
 the proper remedy, but the country was ill pre 
 pared for this, and negotiations continued. 
 
 The embargo laid upon vessels (December 22) 
 this year was repealed, and a non-intercourse act 
 passed March 4, 1809. 
 
 At the close of this year it became painfully 
 manifest that a crisis was approaching, for which 
 the country was unprepared. A feeble effort was 
 made to increase the personnel of the navy to 
 about 7000 officers and men, and the frigates 
 "United States," "President," " Essex, ""and 
 "John Adams" were ordered to be equipped; 
 the last named had been razeed to a sloop-of-war. 
 June 24, 1810, H. B. M. ship " Moselle" fired into 
 the U. S. brig "Vixen" near the Bahamas, and 
 May 16, 1811, Commodore Rodgers, in the frig 
 ate " President," exchanged shots with H.B.M. 
 ship " Little Belt," killing and wounding sev 
 eral of her crew. This was at night, and partly 
 
NAVY 
 
 535 
 
 NAVY 
 
 accidental, but it showed a preparation for return 
 ing compliments, and an earnest of what was 
 soon to follow in the declaration of war against 
 Great Britain, June 18, 1812. 
 
 And here I will leave to another the continua 
 tion of this record, commencing with the war 
 with Great Britain, the principal actors in which 
 have passed away ; but the history of the navy 
 in this crisis, and during subsequent events, may 
 well challenge the criticism of the world. 
 George F. Emmons, Rear- Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR WITH GREAT 
 BRITAIN IN 1812 TO 1880. From the commence 
 ment of the great wars between Napoleon and 
 England and the Continental powers of Europe, 
 our rights as a maritime nation had been fre 
 quently violated by the principal maritime bellig 
 erents, and England, by her course of conduct, 
 had exasperated the national sentiment to such 
 a degree that quiet submission to her pretensions 
 and exactions became no longer possible. The 
 injury to our commerce through her orders in 
 council, the impressment of our seamen upon the 
 high seas, the arrogant and oppressive conduct 
 of her officers in asserting the right of search, 
 together with the discovery of a plot on the part 
 of English agents to sever the American Union, 
 roused the indignation of the country, and led 
 to a declaration of war by Congress against the 
 king of Great Britain on the 18th of June, 1812. 
 
 At the breaking out of the war the navy of 
 Great Britain contained 1080 sail, of which be 
 tween 700 and 800 were efficient cruisers, and 
 she possessed in her West India possessions and 
 Bermuda and Halifax ports proximate to our 
 coast for refitting her vessels of war and places 
 of refuge for her prizes. The naval force of the 
 United States consisted of 17 cruising-vessels, of 
 which 9 were of a class less than frigates, and a 
 number of gunboats of limited size and arma 
 ment for the protection of our rivers, bays, and 
 inlets. Under this great disparity in naval 
 strength and with a vast extent of sea-coast, 
 every port upon which was liable to blockade, 
 the United States was about to engage in war 
 with a nation who possessed a navy more pow 
 erful than all the rest of Christendom combined, 
 and which had proven its invincibility upon the 
 ocean. Under such conditions and disparity of 
 means it was thought impossible to keep our 
 cruisers at sea, and a project was entertained 
 by the Cabinet of laying up all our vessels in 
 ordinary to prevent their capture. Fortunately, 
 at this time Capts. Bainbridge and Stewart were 
 at the seat of government, and through their vig 
 orous representations and remonstrances the Cab 
 inet was induced to change its policy. Outside 
 of the navy even its friends looked forward to the 
 conflict with distrust, while the English officers 
 many of them veterans who had served with 
 Nelson and England s famous captains, and had 
 seen the flag of England always triumphant 
 felt a degree of confidence that begets success. 
 
 Upon the declaration of war the " President," 
 44, Commodore Kodgers ; " Essex," 32, Capt. 
 Porter; and " Hornet/ 18, Capt. Lawrence, were 
 in New York. These vessels, with the exception 
 of the " Essex," which vessel was fitting for sea, 
 were ready to sail. Commodore Kodgers, with 
 the "President" and "Hornet," dropped into 
 the bay, where he was joined by the "United 
 
 States," 44, Commodore Decatur ; "Congress," 
 38, Capt. Smith; and "Argus," 18, Lieut Com 
 mandant Sinclair. Within an hour of the re 
 ceipt of his orders and official information of 
 the declaration of war Commodore Rodgers was 
 under way, passing Sandy Hook with hfs squad 
 ron the afternoon of June 21. On the 23d, at 
 6 A.M., a vessel was seen to the northward and 
 eastward, to which chase was given, and at half- 
 past four the " President" opened with her chase- 
 guns. The first hostile shot afloat, it is under 
 stood, was fired by Commodore Rodgers in per 
 son. This shot struck the chase in the rudder- 
 coat arid lodged in the wardroom. Several 
 effective shots followed, but at the fourth dis 
 charge, fired from the first division below, the 
 gun burst, killing and wounding 16 men, the 
 commodore being thrown by the explosion into 
 the air and breaking a leg by the fall. The fore 
 castle deck was damaged, and through the acci 
 dent firing was delayed for some time. This en 
 abled the^enemy to open with his stern-guns, one 
 shot killing a midshipman of the " President" 
 and 2 men. By lightening the enemy managed 
 to escape It was afterward known that the 
 vessel chased was the " Belvidere," Capt. Byron. 
 She arrived in Halifax a few days after, and car 
 ried with her the news of the declaration of war. 
 The " President" had 22 men killed and wounded, 
 16 of whom were by the bursting of the gun. 
 The "Belvidere" lost 7 killed and wounded by 
 shot and several others by accidents, and she was 
 materially injured in her spars, sails, and rigging. 
 Capt. Byron was among the wounded. The in 
 juries to the " President" were slight. On the 
 9th of July the " Hornet" captured an English 
 letter of marque. Commodore Rodgers, after 
 continuing his cruise until within a day s sail 
 of the chops of the English Channel, stood to 
 the southward, and, after passing Madeira, re 
 turned to Boston. Early in July an English 
 squadron, of which Capt. Broke, of the "Shan 
 non," was senior officer, appeared off New York 
 and made several captures, the " Nautilus," 14, 
 Lieut. Commandant Crane, being one of the 
 number. She was captured, after all the re 
 sources of an accomplished officer were exhausted, 
 by an overwhelming force. This was the first 
 vessel of war taken by either side. After refit 
 ting on her return from Europe, the " Constitu 
 tion" sailed from Annapolis on the 12th of July, 
 and stood to the northward. Upon this cruise she 
 was chased for three days by the English squadron, 
 composed of the "Africa," 64, Capt. Bastard; 
 "Shannon," 38, Capt. Broke; "Guerriere," 38, 
 Capt. Dacres; "Belvidere," 36, Capt. Byron; 
 and "Eolus," 32, Capt. Townsend, and only 
 escaped capture through the most skillful sea 
 manship of her commander and officers and 
 the perfect discipline and obedience of her crew. 
 The story of the chase is familiar to every reader 
 of American naval history. Not a boat was 
 stove nor an anchor or gun lost. 
 
 The "Essex," Capt. Porter, sailed from New 
 York shortly after the departure of Commodore 
 Rodgers, going to the southward. When a few 
 weeks out she discovered a fleet of vessels consist 
 ing of a few transports under convoy of a frigate, 
 one of which she made prize of, capturing about 
 150 soldiers in her. It was Capt. Porter s inten 
 tion to make a dash at the convoying frigate, 
 but day dawning before he could come up with 
 
NAVY 
 
 536 
 
 NAVY 
 
 her, the attempt was given up ; this vessel was 
 said to be the " Minerva," 36. A few days after 
 this success the "Essex" surprised and captured 
 H. B. M. ship " Alert," Capt. Langhorne, mount 
 ing twenty 18-poundercarronades,and with a full 
 crew. There was great disparity in the arma 
 ment and size of the two vessels, but the resist 
 ance of the "Alert" was so feeble as to excite 
 surprise. The " Essex" continued to cruise to 
 the southward of tht, Grand Banks, and at one 
 time was so hard pressed by the enemy s frigates 
 that Capt. Porter determined as a last alternative 
 to make the attempt to carry one of them by 
 boarding in the night. The arrangements for 
 this purpose were so complete as to give reason 
 to think the plan would have been successful. 
 
 On the 2d of August, a short time after his 
 famous escape from the English squadron, Capt. 
 Hull sailed from Boston in the " Constitution," 
 and on the 19th, at 2 P.M., lat. 41 44 N., Ion. 55 
 48 W., a sail was made bearing E.S.E., and to 
 leeward, to which chase was given. At 5 o clock 
 the chase hoisted three English ensigns, and im 
 mediately after opened fire at long range. At 6 
 o clock the enemy bore up under his three topsails 
 and jib, with the wind on his qua rter; the "Con 
 stitution" immediately set her main topgallant- 
 satl and foresail to get alongside. Shortly after 
 the bows of the American frigate began to double 
 on the quarter of the English ship, when the 
 former opened with her forward guns, drawing 
 slowly ahead, both vessels keeping up a close and 
 heavy fire as their guns bore. Just as the ships 
 were fairly side by side the mizzen-mast of the 
 Englishman was shot away, when the American, 
 ranging ahead, luffed short round on her bow to 
 prevent being raked. In attempting this she 
 fell foul of her antagonist, when both parties 
 prepared to board. Both sides now suffered 
 severely by the closeness of the musketry fire, 
 Mr. Morris, the first lieutenant of the "Con 
 stitution," being shot through the body. It 
 being impossible to board owing to the heavy 
 sea, the sails were filled on the " Constitution," 
 and as she shot ahead the fore- and mainmast of 
 the enemy fell, leaving her a helpless wreck. 
 Shortly after the enemy struck. She proved to 
 be the " Guerriere," 38, Capt. Dacres, though 
 actually carrying 40 guns, one of the ships that 
 had so lately\-hased the " Constitution" off New 
 York. Mr. Charles Morris, the first lieutenant 
 of the " Constitution," was promoted to a post- 
 captain for his part in this brilliant achievement. 
 The loss of the " Guerriere" was 79 killed and 
 wounded; that of the "Constitution," 7 killed 
 and 7 wounded. 
 
 Sunday, October 25, the "United States," 44, 
 Commodore Decatur, then in lat. 24 N., Ion. 29 
 30 / W., captured, after a brief action, H. B. M. 
 frigate " Macedonian," 38, Capt. Garden. On 
 taking possession the enemy was found fearfully 
 cut up, having received no less than 100 round 
 shot in her hull alone. Of 300 men, 36 were 
 killed and 68 wounded. The "Macedonian" 
 was a fine ship, actually mounting 49 guns. The 
 "United States" suffered comparatively little 
 nloft, and but slightly in her hull. She lost 5 
 killed and 7 wounded. The style in which the 
 " Macedonian" was captured added materially 
 to Commodore Decatur s high reputation, his 
 services were handsomely acknowledged, and Mr. 
 Allen, his first lieutenant, was promoted. These 
 
 brilliant successes changed the whole current of 
 public opinion on the part of our people, and a 
 feeling of just pride replaced that of despondency. 
 
 On the 17th of October, lat. 37 N., Ion. 65 
 W., the " Wasp," 18, Capt. Jones, captured, 
 after a spirited contest, H. B. M. brig " Frolic," 
 18, Capt. Whinyates. The " Wasp" had 5 men 
 killed and 5 wounded. Capt. W T hin3 r ates, in his 
 official report, states that not 20 of his entire 
 crew escaped unharmed. Both vessels were 
 nearly equally matched in size and armament, 
 the advantage in the latter respect being with the 
 English. The conduct, skill, and seamanship 
 displayed in this conflict greatly increased the 
 reputation of the American navy. Capt. Jones 
 and Mr. James Biddle were both promoted, be 
 sides receiving other testimonials for their con 
 spicuous gallantry. Both the " Wasp" and 
 " Frolic" were shortly after captured by the 
 " Poictiers," 74. 
 
 In lat. 13 06 / N., Ion. 31 W., the " Consti 
 tution," 44, Commodore Bainbridge, captured, 
 after an hour s actual fighting, H. B. M. frigate 
 "Java," 38, Capt. Lambert/ Though rated at 
 38, as vessels of a similar class to the "Java" ac 
 tually carried 49 guns, it is fair to presume this 
 was the case with that vessel. In this combat, 
 though the " Constitution" was a somewhat 
 heavier vessel in all respects, in the difference in 
 the execution of the fire of the two vessels there 
 is a wide disparity. The " Constitution" lost 9 
 killed and 25 wounded, among the latter Com 
 modore Bainbridge and the junior lieutenant, 
 Mr. Alwyn, who died some time after of his in 
 juries. The " Java," according to the statement 
 of Commodore Bainbridge, lost 60 killed and 101 
 wounded, Capt. Lambert mortally ; one of her 
 lieutenants, the master, and many of her inferior 
 officers, were slain or seriously hurt. The " Con 
 stitution" went into action with her royal yards 
 across, and came out with all in their places, and 
 her injuries were slight. The "Java" lost her 
 three masts and bowsprit, and her hull was 
 greatly injured. No friendly port being at 
 hand to refit the " Java," she was blown up. 
 
 On the 24th February, 1813, the "Hornet," 
 18, Capt. Lawrence, being then about 7 miles off 
 the Demarara River, South America, encoun 
 tered and, after an engagement of 15 minutes, 
 captured H. B. M. ship "Peacock," 18, Capt. 
 Peake. Shortly after she struck she went down 
 with 3 of the "Hornet s" crew and 9 of her 
 own. The "Hornet" lost 1 man killed and 4 
 wounded. The " Peacock" lost her captain and 
 4 men killed, and 33 wounded. The " Hornet" 
 was not materially damaged. The tine handling 
 of the "Hornet" and her superior gunnery 
 quickly decided the day. Inspired by these 
 brilliant successes, Congress empowered the 
 President, in January, 1813, to build 4 ships to 
 rate not less than 74 guns, and 6 frigates to rate 
 44 guns each ; and on the 3d of March ensuing 
 directed 6 sloops-of-war to be built on the sea 
 board, and as many vessels on the lakes as the 
 public service required. 
 
 The space allowed for an article on the navy 
 in a work of this character compels only a brief 
 notice of the famous cruise of the " Essex," 32, 
 Capt. Porter, a cruise which for boldness of con 
 ception, fertility of resource, self-reliance, and 
 indomitable energy and enterprise, is almost 
 without a parallel in any navy. Cutting adrift 
 
NAVY 
 
 537 
 
 NAVY 
 
 from all provided means of supplies, he struck 
 boldly out for the Pacific, capturing and destroy 
 ing the enemy s commerce wherever found, and 
 for many months he continued, with his con 
 sort, the"" Essex Jr." (a prize converted into a 
 man-of-war), his work of destruction and depre 
 dation. Up to the time of the arrival of the two 
 ships at Valparaiso, about the 1st of February, 
 1814, the cruise had been one of uninterrupted 
 success, and a brilliant victory over a vessel of 
 equal force alone was wanting to its complete 
 ness. Entertaining this sentiment, so character 
 istic of the officer and man, Capt. Porter con 
 cluded to remain in Valparaiso and wait for the 
 arrival of H. B. M. frigate "Phoebe," 36, one 
 of the ships fitted out expressly to search for 
 him. In due time the " Phoebe" arrived, but 
 not alone, being accompanied by the " Cherub," 
 20, Capt. Tucker. Various devices were resorted 
 to by Capt. Porter to engage the "Phoebe" 
 singly, but without avail. Finally, as he had 
 reason to believe his vessel outsailed both the 
 enemy s ships, he decided to go to sea, and draw 
 ing the enemy away from the port, give the 
 " Essex Jr." a chance to escape. This intention 
 was frustrated by the loss of his main topmast 
 off Angel Point in a squall, which compelled his 
 return. Unable to reach the harbor, he anchored 
 about 3 miles from the town, within pistol-shot 
 of the shore, where the Chilians had a small bat 
 tery. Disregarding the neutrality of Chili and 
 all neutral rights, he was attacked by both the 
 " Phoebe" and " Cherub," and after a most de 
 termined and bloody resistance, and a display 
 of unexampled heroism against overwhelming 
 odds, in which his loss was 152 out of a comple 
 ment of 255 men, he was obliged to yield. The 
 loss of the enemy was 5 killed and 10 wounded, 
 the first lieutenant of the " Phoebe" being among 
 the former. The English ships were cut up more 
 than could have been expected, the " Phoebe" 
 having received, besides other injuries, 18 shot 
 below the water-line. From the dauntless and 
 determined spirit displayed on the part of the 
 Americans in this conflict, it is more than probable 
 the result would have been different had Capt. 
 Porter been able to fight his ship under way. 
 Mr. Gamble, of the marines, who commanded 
 the " Andrew Hammond," another prize of Capt. 
 Porter s converted into a cruiser, was with Capt. 
 Porter s command during most of his memorable 
 cruise. He and his command were, shortly after 
 the loss of the " Essex," captured at the Sand 
 wich Islands by the " Cherub." 
 
 The action between the "Chesapeake," 38, 
 Capt. Lawrence, and the "Shannon," 38, Capt. 
 Broke, which resulted in the capture of the for 
 mer after a sanguinary struggle, occurred on the 
 1st of June, 1813, about 30 miles off Boston 
 Sound. The capture of the " Chesapeake" is to 
 be attributed to various causes. It is well known 
 that the "Shannon" had been officered and 
 manned with a picked crew with a view to en 
 gaging the " Chesapeake," and was in a high 
 state of discipline. The officers of the " Chesa 
 peake," on the contrary, were most of them 
 young and inexperienced, and her first lieuten 
 ant, though an officer of merit, was new to his 
 duties. Her crew was a mixed one, raw and 
 disaffected, and composed of a large proportion 
 of landsmen. Under these circumstances it is 
 thought Capt. Lawrence should have declined 
 
 the challenge of Capt. Broke until ,the ship and 
 crew were in a better state of preparation. Capt. 
 Lawrence was a man of the loftiest and most 
 chivalrous spirit; and upon a previous occasion, 
 while in command of the "Hornet," having 
 sent a challenge to the captain of the " Bonne 
 Citoyen," he felt it incumbent upon him to ac 
 cept the gage of battle offered. Few battles have 
 been more sanguinary. The " Chesapeake" lost 
 48 killed and "98 wounded, the "Shannon" had 
 23 killed and 56 wounded. On board the " Ches 
 apeake" fell or died of their wounds Capt. 
 Lawrence, Lieuts. Ludlow and Ballard, of the 
 navy, and Broome, of the marines, Mr. White, 
 the master, Mr. Adams, the boatswain, and 3 
 midshipmen. Mr. Budd, second, and Mr. Cox, 
 third lieutenant, were also wounded. The 
 " Shannon" lost her first lieutenant and one or 
 two inferior officers, and Capt. Broke was badly 
 wounded, the boatswain lost an arm, and one 
 midshipman was wounded. Capt. Lawrence and 
 Mr. Ludlow were both buried at Halifax with 
 military honors. 
 
 On the 12th of July the brig " Siren," 14, was 
 captured by the " Medway," 74, after a long chase. 
 
 Off Portland, Me., on the 4th September, 
 1813, the " Enterprise," 14, Lieut. Commandant 
 Burrows, captured, after a heavy combat, H.B.M. 
 brig " Boxer," 14, Capt. Blythe. In this en- 
 
 fagement both the commanding officers were 
 illed. Both vessels were fought gallantly. The 
 damage to the American was comparatively 
 slight, while the " Boxer" was badly cut up in her 
 hull, spars, sails, and rigging, and had several 
 guns dismounted. The " Boxer" had 14 men 
 wounded and several men killed ; the " Enter 
 prise" 1 man killed and 13 wounded, of whom 3 
 subsequently died. Capts. Burrows and Blythe 
 were both buried at Portland with military hon 
 ors. This success was the first that had fallen to 
 the American navy since the capture of the 
 "Chesapeake," and its effect in restoring the 
 confidence of the nation was very great. 
 
 In June, 1813, the brig " Kattlesnake," 16, 
 Lieut. Commandant Kenshaw, was captured by 
 the British frigate "Leander," 50. After a 
 daring and most successful cruise off the English 
 coast, rivaling in audacity the exploits of Paul 
 Jones, the "Argus," 18, Capt. Allen, was cap 
 tured by H. B. M. brig "Pelican," 18, Capt. 
 Maples, a greatly superior vessel in armament, 
 the " Pelican" mounting 32-pounder carronades, 
 while the "Argus" carried 24 s. The "Argus," 
 in an action lasting three-quarters of an hour, 
 had 2 midshipmen and 4 men killed, and 17 
 wounded, among the latter Capt. Allen, who 
 subsequently died in the hospital of Mill Prison, 
 and was buried with the honors of war. The 
 " Pelican" lost 7 in killed and wounded. 
 
 In June, 1813, the "Constellation" being 
 blockaded near Norfolk by a large English force, 
 several attempts were made to destroy or capture 
 her by boats from the English fleet, all of which 
 resulted in heavy loss to the enemy from the fire 
 of the batteries on Craney Island, and that of 
 our gunboats. In one of the minor conflicts with 
 the enemy, Mr. Sigourney, a gallant and prom 
 ising young officer, was killed, while defending, 
 sword in hand, his command, the "Asp," then 
 lying in the Yeocomico. She was finally carried 
 by boarding by an overwhelming force, and set 
 on fire and abandoned ; but Mr. McClintock, the 
 
NAVY 
 
 538 
 
 NAVY 
 
 officer second in command, upon the enemy re 
 tiring again, got on board and extinguished the 
 flames. 
 
 About this time the frigates "United States" 
 and "Macedonian" and sloop-of- war " Wasp," 
 under Commodore Decatur, were chased into 
 New London, where they were blockaded, and 
 never again got to sea during the war, though 
 every effort was made to elude the enemy. 
 
 For the defense of the bays, rivers, and inlets 
 several small vessels had been fitted out, and 
 among them the " Alligator." While this ves 
 sel was lying at anchor near Cole s Island, she 
 was attacked by the enemy s boats. Mr. Bas- 
 sett, her commander, cut her cables and made 
 sail, and with the assistance of a light breeze, 
 which enabled him to bring his vessel under con 
 trol, succeeded in defeating the attempt of the 
 enemy and inflicting upon him heavy loss. Mr. 
 Bassett was promoted for his gallantry upon this 
 occasion. The "Alligator" was subsequently 
 capsized in a violent squall in Port Royal Sound, 
 and many of her crew perished. 
 
 Among the gallant exploits of the war, those 
 performed by Lieut. Lawrence Reamey are 
 among the most conspicuous. In January, 1815, 
 this officer, in command of 3 barges, captured, 
 under the guns of the English frigate " Hebrus," 
 a heavily-armed tender and launch belonging to 
 that vessel, with 40 men, and a few days later, 
 in the captured launch of the "Hebrus," with 
 a crew of 25 men, he captured a tender belonging 
 to the frigate "Severn," having on board be 
 tween 30 and 40 men. No more dashing exploits 
 occurred during the war. 
 
 In October, 1814, gunboat No. 160, com 
 manded by Mr. Payne, while convoying a num 
 ber of coasters from Savannah to St. Mary s, was 
 captured by a tender and 10 armed boats after a 
 spirited and obstinate resistance, in which half 
 her crew were killed or wounded. The enemy 
 suffered severely. Mr. Payne was badly wounded. 
 
 In July, 18i3, gunboat No. 121, commanded 
 by Mr. Shead, was captured by 8 armed boats 
 from the "Innon," 38, and the "Martin," 16, 
 after a persistent defense, in which the enemy 
 lost 7 killed and 12 wounded. No. 121 had 7 
 men wounded. 
 
 During the summer of 1813 our government 
 had but 3 vessels of war at sea, the " Presi 
 dent," 44, the "Congress," 38, and "Essex," 
 32. Within a year after the declaration of war 
 all the brigs, with the exception of the " Enter 
 prise," had been captured. The loss of these 
 vessels induced a change of policy with the gov 
 ernment, and it was decided to build sloops-of- 
 war of a class sufficiently large to cope with any 
 thing beneath the small frigates of the enemy. 
 In June, 1814, the " Guerriere," 44, was launched 
 at Philadelphia, and on the 20th July following 
 the "Independence," 74, was launched at Bos 
 ton. The first two-decked ship that ever prop 
 erly belonged to our navy the "Java," 44 
 was soon after launched at Baltimore. Commo 
 dore Rodgers was appointed to the first-, Bain- 
 bridge to the second-, and Perry to the third- 
 named vessels. The new sloops-of-war began to 
 get to sea during the summer. The " Frolic," 
 18, was captured shortly after sailing by H. B. M. 
 frigate "Orpheus," 36, without resistance, as 
 during the chase her guns were thrown over 
 board. The " Adams," 28, had been cut down 
 
 at Washington to a sloop-of-war, and lengthened 
 so as to carry 28 guns on a single deck. Under 
 the command of Capt. Morris she succeeded in 
 getting to sea, and after several narrow escapes 
 and an extended cruise, in which she made many 
 captures, she was obliged, on account of damages 
 by grounding, to go into the Penobscot liiver for 
 repairs, going as far up as Hampden. While 
 the vessel lay ready to be hove out, and with 
 nothing in her, she was attacked by a strong 
 force of the enemj-, consisting of troops and ves 
 sels of war, and to prevent her capture she was 
 destroyed, the crew all escaping and reaching 
 Portland but 1 man and 1 marine, who fell into 
 the enemy s hands. 
 
 On the 28th June, 1814, the "Wasp," 18, 
 Capt. Blakelev, one of the new sloops-of-war, 
 in lat. 48 36 N., Ion. 11 15 W., captured 
 H. B. M. sloop-of-war "Reindeer," Capt. Mari 
 ners. On the part of the enemy this fight lasted 
 28 minutes, on that of the " Wasp," 19 minutes. 
 It is conceded the English captain fought his ship 
 with great skill and gallantry. In attempting 
 to board he was mortally wounded. The cool 
 ness, skill, and seamanship displayed by Capt. 
 Blakeley during every phase of this conflict has 
 never been surpassed. The " Reindeer" was cut 
 to pieces in a line with her ports. The " W T asp" 
 was hulled 6 times, and she was pitted with 
 grape. She had 5 killed and 22 wounded, 
 among the latter 2 midshipmen, who subse 
 quently died of their wounds. The " Rein 
 deer" lost 25 killed and 42 wounded, her first 
 lieutenant and master among the latter. The 
 prize was destroyed to prevent recapture. On 
 the 1st of September, 1814, Capt. Blakeley, in 
 the same vessel, being then in lat. 47 30 N., 
 Ion. 11 W., engaged "and sunk the "Avon," 18, 
 Capt. Arbuthnot, within sight of her consort, the 
 "Castilian," 18, and two other vessels, one of 
 them known to be a man-of-war. After the 
 engagement, Capt. Blakeley ran off dead before 
 the wind in order to reeve new braces and to 
 draw the nearest vessel from her consort. This 
 vessel, the " Castilian," 18, continued the chase, 
 but after firing a broadside into the "Wasp," 
 hauled her wind to rejoin her sinking consort, 
 who was making signals of distress. The "Avon" 
 is supposed to have lost from 30 to 50 in killed 
 and wounded. The " Wasp" lost 1 killed and 
 2 wounded. Capt. Blakeley s conduct in the 
 destruction of the "Avon," and his ready prep 
 aration to engage the "Castilian" after the de 
 struction of the "Avon," indicate the splendid 
 character and spirit of the man and the school 
 in which he was trained. The last heard of the 
 " Wasp" and her glorious commander was in a 
 letter brought to Savannah on the 4th of No 
 vember, 1814, in a prize called the " Atlanta," 
 commanded by Lieut Geisinger. Various con 
 jectures have been formed as to her fate, but it 
 is generally believed she foundered in a gale. 
 Lieut. McKnight, late of the "Essex," and 
 Master s Mate Lyman, passengers, were also 
 lost in her. 
 
 In lat. 27 47 N., Ion. 80 09 W., the " Pea 
 cock," 18, Capt. Warrington, on the 29th April, 
 1814, engaged and captured after an engagement 
 of 45 minutes H. B. M. brig " Epervier," 18, 
 Capt. Wales. The loss of the latter was 22 
 killed and wounded, and at the close of the 
 engagement she had 5 feet of water in her hold, 
 
NAVY 
 
 539 
 
 NAVY 
 
 and in her spars and rigging was extensively in 
 jured. The " Peacock" had but 2 men wounded, 
 and her injuries were slight. The prize was put 
 under the charge of Mr. J. B. Nicholson, the first 
 lieutenant of the " Peacock," who, after several 
 critical escapes from the enemy, carried her safely 
 into Savannah. The establishment of peace in 
 Europe, owing to the downfall of Napoleon, 
 enabled England to employ a largely increased 
 force in the prosecution of the war against the 
 United States and in carrying out her policy, 
 which seemed to be twofold, that of conquest 
 and the infliction of injuries of a partisan char 
 acter. To meet the operations of the enemy 
 the U. S. government had equipped a force in 
 the Chesapeake under the command of Capt. 
 Joshua Barney. This force consisted principally 
 of barges carrying heavy guns, a few galleys, and 
 one or two schooners. With this force Commo 
 dore Barney distinguished himself in defeating 
 the plans and attacks of the enemy, and upon 
 every occasion displayed the highest and best 
 qualities of the officer, notably "in the Patux- 
 ent, where he resisted successfully the heavy 
 attacks of the enemy, in one of which the " Sev 
 ern," frigate, or the " Loire," was seriously in 
 jured, and in opposing at Bladensburg the march 
 of the enemy upon Washington, where Barney 
 and his flotilla-men, who had left the flotilla 
 to co-operate with the army, sustained a large 
 share of the fighting. Upon this occasion the 
 flotilla in the Patuxent was destroyed to prevent 
 falling into the enemy s hands. With the cap 
 ture of Washington, for a similar reason, the 
 "Columbia," 44, on the stocks, was destroyed, 
 the "Boston," 28, and the " Argus," 18, beside 
 quite an amount of naval stores. The seamen 
 and marines of the " G-uerriere," "Java," and 
 flotilla, tinder command of Commodore Rodgers, 
 assisted materially in resisting the advance of 
 the enemy upon Baltimore, and in the battle of 
 North Point were conspicuous for valuable ser 
 vice. In the attacks also upon Fort McHenry, 
 the warm and well-directed fire from Fort Cov- 
 ington, manned by men from the "Guerriere," 
 and commanded by Mr. Newcomb, and of Fort 
 Babcock, manned by 50 men from the flotilla 
 under charge of Sailing- Master Webster, together 
 with that of the barges under Lieut. Rutter, as 
 sisted materially in the repulse of the enemy. All 
 of these gentlemen were distinguished by their 
 steadiness and efficiency. The complete failure 
 of the enemy in these attacks terminated active 
 operations in the Chesapeake. 
 
 In December, 1814, Vice-Admiral Cockburn 
 suddenly appeared off the mouth of the Missis 
 sippi, with the intention of making a formidable 
 attempt against New Orleans. Mr. Thomas 
 Ap Catesby Jones with a division of 5 gunboats 
 guarded the entrance of Lake Borgne, one of 
 the approaches to the city. On the"l4th of De 
 cember, 1814, he was attacked by an overwhelm 
 ing force, consisting of 40 or 50 barges, mounting 
 42 guns, principally 12-., 18-, 24-po\inder carron- 
 ades, manned by 1200 men, and after a persistent 
 and heroic defense on the part of all engaged, he 
 was forced to yield. Our loss was comparatively 
 light, while the loss of the enemy in killed and 
 wounded is supposed to have reached between 
 200 and 300, which exceeded the number of the 
 Americans engaged. Lieut. Jones was badly 
 wounded. Mr. McKeever, in No. 23, was the 
 
 last vessel taken, after a most gallant defense. 
 The country, while regretting so important a 
 loss, looked upon the result against hopeless odds 
 as a triumph. 
 
 Capt. Daniel T. Patterson commanded the 
 naval force at New Orleans, and after the capture 
 of the gunboats he had but two vessels remain 
 ing, the "Louisiana," 16, and the "Carolina," 
 14. The latter vessel rendered signal service, 
 under Capt. Patterson, in assisting Gen. Jackson 
 by threatening the enemy s left flank, and by 
 her galling fire to resist, by a spirited night at 
 tack, the first demonstration of the enemy, under 
 Maj.-Gen. Keane, upon New Orleans. Shortly 
 after this vessel, under command of Capt. Hen 
 ley, was destroyed by the fire of a battery of 
 heavy guns. In this affair 7 men were killed 
 and wounded. All but these escaped, and volun 
 teered to man some of the heavy guns mounted 
 on the American lines, and rendered valuable 
 service in all the subsequent successes under Gen. 
 Jackson in his memorable defense of New Or 
 leans. The " Louisiana" alone remained to co 
 operate with the army, and in the great battle 
 of the 8th January her services, under Capt. 
 Patterson, were of eminent value. Capt. Patter 
 son also erected a battery on the right bank of 
 the river, which he placed in charge of Capt. 
 Henley, and which rendered important service. 
 Upon "the retreat of the enemy, several expedi 
 tions in boats were dispatched" by Capt. Patter 
 son to harass and cut off the enemy, and Mr. 
 Thomas Shields, a purser, with 6 boats and 50 
 men, captured one of the enemy s large boats 
 with 40 officers and men belonging to the dra 
 goons and 14 seamen, and immediately after cap 
 tured a barge, a transport schooner, and 5 other 
 boats, with 83 more prisoners. Sailing-Master 
 Johnson also performed creditable service in de 
 stroying a transport and capturing a number of 
 men. In all the important service connected 
 with the defense of New Orleans the na vy bore 
 a conspicuous part. Capts. Patterson and Hen 
 ley, Lieuts. Jones, Thompson, McKeever, Sped- 
 den, Cunningham, Norris, and Crowley, with 
 other junior officers, were distinguished for gal 
 lant conduct and services. The spirited conduct 
 and gallant exploits of Purser Shields have been 
 before mentioned. The marines under Major 
 McCormick, who was wounded in resisting an 
 advance of the enemy upon the American lines 
 on the 20th of December, bore their share in the 
 glories of this brilliant and decisive campaign. 
 
 Upon the commencement of hostilities, the 
 American government caused the " Oneida," 16, 
 to be built on Lake Ontario, where the English 
 had long maintained a small force. Shortly after 
 the English built the "Royal George," a vessel 
 designed to carry 22 guns. " On the 29th July, 
 1812, Lieut. Commanding Woolsey, in command 
 of the "Oneida," then lying at Sackett s Harbor, 
 successfully resisted an attempt to capture this 
 vessel, made by a squadron composed of the 
 "Royal George," 22, "Prince Regent," 16, 
 "Earl of Moira," 14, "Duke of Gloucester," 
 "Seneca," and "Simcoes." This was the com 
 mencement of hostilities on the great lakes, ere 
 the conclusion of the war to become the theatre 
 of grand events. In August, 1812, Commodore 
 Isaac Chauncey was ordered to this important 
 command. With characteristic energy, judg 
 ment, and enterprise, under the authority of the 
 
NAVY 
 
 540 
 
 NAVY 
 
 government, he immediately adopted prompt 
 measures to increase our force to an extent com 
 mensurate with that of the enemy on Lake On 
 tario. Several vessels were immediately bought, 
 armed, and equipped, and put in service, and 
 called the " Hamilton," " Governor Tompkins," 
 " Conquest," " Growler," " Julia," and " Pert." 
 Their armament consisted of long guns, mounted 
 on circles, with a few light guns, averaging 
 about 4 guns each. The keel of a ship to carry 
 twenty-four 32-pounder carronades was laid in 
 September. With the " Oneida," the entire 
 flotilla mounted 40 guns, manned by 430 men, 
 including marines. At this time the force of 
 the enemy was more than double that of the 
 Americans in guns and men, and, as cruisers, 
 were greatly superior. On the upper lakes the 
 enemy had two or three vessels, which, for the 
 time, gave them control of those waters before 
 the arrival of Commodore Chauncey at Sackett s 
 Harbor. Lieut. I. D. Elliott was ordered to the 
 upper lakes to purchase suitable vessels for the 
 creation of a suitable force in those waters. On 
 his way in the execution of these orders, learning 
 that the first detachment of seamen for service 
 on the lakes was within a short distance of the 
 Niagara frontier, and that the "Detroit" and 
 "Caledonia," armed vessels of the enemy, were 
 anchored under Fort Erie, he organized, in con 
 nection with Capt: Towson, of the army, an ex 
 pedition for their capture. Beside the officers 
 named, Sailing-Master Watts, of the navy, and 
 Lieuts. Roach and Pressman, of the army, par 
 ticipated. The success was complete, and re 
 sulted in the capture of both vessels. The 
 " Caledonia" was brought to the American side. 
 The " Detroit" having grounded on Squaw Island, 
 within reach of the guns of Fort Erie, she was 
 burned by the Americans after removing most 
 of her stores. The enterprise was full of daring, 
 and was the first success on either side in the 
 warfare on the lakes. Congress voted Mr. Elliott 
 a sword, and Capt. Towson acquired great repu 
 tation for his part in the enterprise; to his un 
 flinching courage and skill the capture of the 
 "Caledonia" is materially due, while all par 
 ticipating in the glowing achievement deserved 
 and received high praise. Soon after the arrival 
 of Mr. Angus, who was senior to Elliott, the 
 latter rejoined Commodore Chauncey s command. 
 On the 8th November, Commodore Chauncey 
 hoisted his broad-pennant on the " Oneida," 16, 
 Lieut. Commandant Woolsey, and having the 
 rest of his flotilla in company, sailed to cut off 
 the enemy s vessels. Upon this occasion the 
 " Royal George," having sought protection un 
 der the forts at Kingston, a spirited engagement 
 between the flotilla and forts followed, but, 
 owing to the coming on of a gale, without ma 
 terial results, and the vessels^ on the 10th, re 
 turned to Sackett s Harbor. Commodore Chaun 
 cey, in the "Oneida," used every possible means 
 to bring on an engagement with the " Royal 
 George," a much heavier vessel, but without 
 success. JBrig.-Gen. Smythe, towards the close 
 of November, preparatory to a descent on the 
 Canada shore, requested the co-operation of Mr. 
 Angus, with a naval force, in driving the enemy 
 from the batteries on the Canada side. The night 
 of the 28th November was selected for the occa 
 sion. The expedition was divided into two par 
 ties, one consisting of 10 boats and 70 seamen, 
 
 exclusive of officers, under Mr. Angus, accom 
 panied by Capt. King, with a detachment of 150 
 soldiers, and Mr. Samuel Swartout, of New York, 
 as a volunteer. The other, with 10 more boats 
 and a detachment of 200 strong, was commanded 
 by Col. Boerstler. The arrangements being 
 completed, the expedition left the American shore 
 about 1 A.M. The plan was for one party to as 
 cend the river while the other descended with 
 the current. Upon nearing the shore, the enemy, 
 who were prepared, opened a destructive fire ; 
 but the boats, commanded by efficient officers, 
 dashed in and effected a landing. A body of 
 the enemy was drawn up in front of the bar 
 racks, known as the Red House, their left flank 
 protected by two guns. As soon as the troops 
 formed the fire was returned. 
 
 At this juncture a few seamen armed with pis 
 tols and pikes, led by Sailing-Master Watts and 
 Midshipman Holdup Stevens, made a detour 
 around the hill, and charging the artillerists, 
 captured the guns in the most gallant manner, 
 mortally wounding Lieut. King, who com 
 manded them ; the remaining troops and sea 
 men charged in front, when the enemy fled to 
 his barracks, where his fire becoming very de 
 structive, it became indispensable to dislodge 
 him. Several spirited young midshipman, Messrs. 
 Wragg, Dudley, and Holdup Stevens, neither 
 of whom were yet twenty, with a few men suc 
 ceeded in bursting open a window in the bar 
 racks, through which an entrance was made, and 
 unbarred an outer door, when Mr. Angus and 
 the seamen rushed in and drove the enemy 
 out. Some confusion here followed, owing to 
 an order to retreat by some irresponsible person, 
 and a portion of the soldiers and seamen em 
 barked. Mr. Angus attempting in vain to stop 
 the retreat, retired with his men. Capt. King, 
 however, with a part of his troops, still re 
 mained engaged, and with him a few seamen, 
 with Messrs. Wragg, Dudley, and Stevens at 
 their head. A charge being ordered, the enemy 
 again broke, and fled into a battery ; he was 
 driven from place to place until completely 
 routed and all the batteries at that point were 
 captured. The young sea-officers who remained, 
 believing their part of the work accomplished, 
 crossed to the American side in the best manner 
 they could, Messrs. Dudley, Wragg, and Stevens 
 crossing with some wounded men in a leaky 
 canoe, which sunk twice before they reached our 
 shore. The fighting was of the most desperate 
 character, and the impression made by the sea 
 men with their pikes was long remembered. 
 Their loss was equal to their gallantry. Of 12 
 sea-officers engaged, 8 were wounded, Sailing- 
 Masters Sisson and Watts mortally. Mr. Car 
 ter, another master, was wounded ; Midshipman 
 Wragg was wounded in the abdomen, Midship 
 man Graham lost a leg, Midshipman Holdup 
 Stevens received a wound which shattered his 
 hand, Mr. Brailesford was wounded in the leg, 
 and Mr. Mervine received a ball in the side. 
 Most of the seamen who were not killed got back 
 to the American side. Our entire loss on the 
 part of the navy was 30 in killed and wounded, 
 which was quite half of all who landed. Capt. 
 King and several army officers, with about 60 
 men, having no means of retreat, eventually fell 
 into the enemy s hands. The troops behaved 
 gallantly, and Capt. King was conspicuously dis- 
 
NAVY 
 
 541 
 
 NAVY 
 
 tinguished. Many of the officers were wounded. 
 The enemy was effectually beaten, batteries 
 carried, barracks burned, guns spiked, and cais- 
 ons destroyed. 
 
 On April 25, 1813, the American squadron, 
 under Commodore Chauncey, consisting of the 
 flag-ship " Madison," Lieut. Commandant El 
 liott ; " Oneida," Lieut. Commandant Woolsey ; 
 "Fair American," Lieut. Chauncey ; " Hamil 
 ton, "Lieut. McPherson; " Governor Tompkins," 
 Lieut. Brown ; " Conquest," Mr. Wallaby ; 
 " Asp," Lieut. Smith ; " Pert," Lieut. Adams ; 
 "Julia," Mr. Trant ; "Growler," Mr. Mix; 
 "Ontario," Mr. Stevens; "Scourge," Mr. Os- 
 good ; "Lady of the Lake," Mr. Flinn ; and 
 " Raven," transport, having on board a body of 
 1700 men, under Gen. Pike, appeared off York. 
 All the vessels ran within a mile of the shore to 
 the southward and westward of the principal fort. 
 Two hours after the troops under Gen. Pike were 
 disembarked, and, under cover of a fire of grape 
 from the vessels, a successful landing was effected, 
 with a loss to the army of about 40 men. As 
 soon as Gen. Pike with his command moved to 
 the assault, the small vessels worked up to within 
 600 yards of the principal fort, when they opened 
 fire upon the enemy, and contributed largely to 
 the success of the day. Commodore Chauncey 
 directed in person the naval operations, pulling 
 in his gig through the enemy s fire, encouraging 
 all by his coolness and conduct. After sustain 
 ing some loss by an explosion, which killed Gen. 
 Pike, the place capitulated, and remained in our 
 hands until the 1st of May. The loss to the 
 navy was 14 men killed and wounded. The 
 "Duke of Gloucester," undergoing repairs, fell 
 into our hands, a 20-gun vessel was burned, a 
 number of boats for transportation of troops were 
 taken, and a large amount of naval and military 
 stores were destroyed, after sending a considera 
 ble amount to Sackett s Harbor. The navy con 
 tributed largely to the success, and the different 
 vessels were well handled. 
 
 On May 27, 1813, a combined army and navy 
 demonstration was made against Fort George, 
 resulting in its capture. Upon this occasion 
 Capt. Perry, who was second in command, at 
 tended to the disembarkation of the troops. The 
 marines of the squadron were embodied with 
 the regiment of Col. Macomb. The arrange 
 ments for landing being completed, under cover 
 of the fleet the boats under Capt. Perry dashed 
 in, and Col. Scott effected a landing, though 
 opposed by a concealed party, who advanced to 
 repel the boats, which was driven back by the 
 grape and canister of the vessels and the steady 
 fire of our troops. When Scott landed the suc 
 cess of the day was assured. He was supported by 
 the remainder of the brigade under Gen. Boyd, 
 and after a short conflict the enemy was driven 
 from the field and retreated towards Queens- 
 ton. Upon this occasion Lieut. Brown, in the 
 "Governor Tompkins," was highly commended 
 for the handsome manner in which he brought 
 his ship into action, and the splendid execution 
 of his fire. The skill and service of Commodore 
 Chauncey upon this occasion were handsomely 
 recognized by the army and by Gen. Dearborn, 
 the commander-in-chief. Commodore Chauncey 
 commended all acting under him, and made spe 
 cial mention of CapC Perry arid Lieut. McPhcr- 
 son. Lieut. Brown was not named in the dis 
 
 patches, the omission doubtless being an accident ; 
 no officer was more distinguished. After the oc 
 cupation of Fort George the British evacuated 
 the whole Niagara frontier. Capt. Perry was 
 shortly after sent to Erie to superintend the fit 
 ting out of the squadron at that place. 
 
 About the same time as the descent on Fort 
 George, Sir Geo. Prevost, the British commander- 
 in-chief, and Commodore Sir I. L. Yeo, planned a 
 coup de main against Sackett s Harbor in retalia 
 tion for the blow they had received at York, and 
 to destroy the new ship building there. The expe 
 dition was a failure as regarded its main objects, 
 but owing to false information conveyed to the 
 officer in charge of the store-house most of the 
 stores captured at York, with quite an amount 
 from the sea-board, were destroyed. Every effort 
 was made on the part of Commodore Chauncey 
 to get the new ship afloat, and on June 12 she 
 was launched and placed in command of Capt. 
 Sinclair. She was named the "General Pike." 
 At this time many promotions occtirred in the 
 navy : Sinclair was posted, Woolsey, Trenchard, 
 and Elliott made master commandants, and 
 Holdup Stevens, Dudley, Packett, Yarnall, 
 Wragg, Adams, Pearce, Edwards, Ives, Conklin, 
 and Smith were raised to the rank of lieuten 
 ants. 
 
 Towards the close of the season Capt. Thomas 
 McDonough was sent to assume command on 
 Lake Champlain. In the spring of 1813 our 
 force on that lake consisted of the "President," 
 "Growler," and "Eagle." The two last were 
 sho rtly after captured by the enemy after a stub 
 born resistance, and transferred to the British 
 flotilla. In August the enemy appeared off Bur 
 lington, and succeeded in destroying some stores 
 and in capturing several small tniding-craft. 
 Capt. McDonough now commenced building and 
 purchasing vessels to secure again the command 
 of the lake. In June, Lieut. Chauncey, in the 
 " Lady of the Lake," captured on Lake Ontario 
 a schooner loaded with provisions and ammuni 
 tion. On June 30, Col. Scott embarked in the 
 vessels of the squadron, landed at York without 
 opposition, and seized a quantity of provisions 
 and ordnance stores, and 5 cannon ; 11 boats, built 
 to transport troops, were destroyed. 
 
 In the early part of August the squadron sailed 
 from the mouth of the Niagara in pursuit of the 
 English squadron, Commodore Chauncey doing 
 bis\itmost to bring on an engagement. On the 
 night of the 7th the " Hamilton" and " Scourge" 
 capsized in a squall, and only 16 of the crew of 
 both vessels were saved. On the 10th, while the 
 squadrons were manoeuvring for the weather- 
 gauge, the "Growler," Lieut. Deacon, and the 
 "Julia," Mr. Trant, became separated from the 
 rest of the squadron, and were captured after a 
 dashing attempt to run the gauntlet of the Eng 
 lish vessels. On the 28th September an engage 
 ment occurred between the two squadrons, which 
 resulted in the discomfiture of the English and 
 in chasing them into Burlington Bay. The 
 English flag-ship, in the engagement, lost main 
 and mizzen topmast and main yard, and was 
 only saved from capture by flight and the gal 
 lant interposition of the "Royal George," Capt. 
 Mulcaster. It is thought if Sir James Yeo had 
 not borne up when he did, and waited long 
 enough for the carronades of the " Madison" and 
 "Oneida" to reach, his entire force would have 
 
NAVY 
 
 542 
 
 NAVY 
 
 been captured or destroyed. A storm coming 
 on, and for other weighty considerations, Com 
 modore Chauncey was prevented from attacking 
 the English in Burlington Bay. In this affair 
 the late Capt. W. C. Boltin was prominent for 
 the gallant and effective manner in which he 
 handled the "Madison." The "Pike" having 
 for some time borne the brunt of the fight, was 
 a good deal cut up in her hull, spars, and rigging, 
 and by the bursting of her bow-gun 22 men were 
 slain or wounded. On the part of the enemy the 
 " Wolfe" and " Royal George" suffered most, 
 the former sustained a heavy loss in men. Upon 
 the abatement of the weather on the 29th, Com 
 modore Chauncey, still in pursuit, chased the 
 English squadron again into Burlington Bay. 
 Every precaution was taken to prevent his 
 escape in the thick weather prevailing. Upon 
 the weather clearing a trusty officer was sent in to 
 reconnoitre, who reported nothing was to be seen 
 of the squadron. Commodore Chauncey then 
 ran off the Ducks. It was known afterward 
 that the English fleet had not left Burlington 
 Bay. But for this mistake the English fleet 
 would have been taken, as this end of the lake 
 being near the weather shore our vessels could 
 have safely attacked. At 3 P.M. on the 5th 
 October seven sail were seen ahead, and chase 
 was made ; the strangers now set fire to one of 
 their vessels, the others vainly attempting to 
 escape. At sunset, opposite the Real Ducks, the 
 " Confiance," " Hamilton," and " Mary" struck 
 to the "Pike," The "Sylph" captured the 
 " Drummond" cutter, and the "Lady Gore." 
 The other vessel, the " Enterprise," escaped. The 
 prizes were gun- vessels, mounting from one to 
 three guns each, and were used as transports. 
 Two hundred and sixty-four prisoners were 
 taken, including some officers belonging to an 
 English regiment. The " Confiance" and " Ham 
 ilton" were the schooners " Growler" and " Ju 
 lia," taken from us on the night of the 8th Au 
 gust. For the rest of the season Commodore 
 Chauncey was co-operating with the army and 
 in watching the enemy off Kingston. The suc 
 cess of the naval operations for the season was 
 largely with the Americans. The hostile squad 
 rons were three times engaged, twice the enemy 
 avoided the conflict, and on the third occasion 
 Commodore Chauncey attacked so vigorously 
 with an inferior force as to leave no doubt of the 
 result had not the English vessels put before the 
 wind. The success at York and the fall of St. 
 George, which depended entirely upon the co 
 operation of the navy, and the captures recently 
 alluded to, were all important results, rarely or 
 ever before had English officers declined a com 
 bat with an inferior force. The more our naval 
 operations on Lake Ontario are studied, the more 
 conspicuous, brilliant, and successful will the ser 
 vices and splendid qualities of Commodore 
 Chauncey appear. 
 
 By extraordinary exertions Capt. O. H. Perry, 
 who had been ordered to the command on Lake 
 Erie, assisted materially by Sailing-Master Dob 
 bins, had succeeded, by purchase and building, 
 in organizing at Erie a force of vessels, con 
 sisting of the "Lawrence," 20, "Niagara," 20, 
 "Caledonia," 3, "Ariel," 4, " Trippe," 1, 
 "Somers," 2, "Scorpion," 2, "Ohio," 1, and 
 " Porcupine," and on the 4th of August, 1813, 
 by the use of camels, floated the heavy vessels 
 
 over the 7-foot bar lying at the entrance to the 
 harbor of Erie and anchored outside. At this 
 time the force of the enemy consisted of the flag 
 ship "Detroit," 19, the "*Queen Charlotte," 17, 
 the " Lady Prevost," 13, the " Hunter," 10, and 
 three or four light cruisers, all under command 
 of Capt. Barclay. On the 5th September, Capt. 
 Perry sailed with his squadron in quest of the 
 enemy, and after cruising several days anchored, 
 on account of the illness of Capt. Perry, in Put 
 in-Bay. On the morning of the 10th, while 
 still at anchor there, the enemy s squadron was 
 discovered bearing N.W., when a signal was 
 made to get under way. The wind was light at 
 S.W., but shortly after changed to S.E., which 
 placed the Americans to windward. About 10 
 o clock the enemy hove to in line ahead, heading 
 S.W., and distant about 3 leagues. When within 
 about a league of the enemy, discovering how 
 the enemy had formed, Capt. Perry communi 
 cated his order of attack. The English com 
 mander had formed his line with the " Chippe- 
 way," Mr. Campbell, armed with one pivot- 
 gun, in the van; the " Detroit," his own vessel, 
 next; the "Hunter," Lieut. Bignall ; "Queen 
 Charlotte," Capt. Finnis ; "Lady Prevost," 
 Lieut. Commandant Buchan; and "Little Belt," 
 astern, in order named. To oppose this the 
 "Ariel," Lieut. Packett, four long 12 s, was 
 placed in the van; the "Scorpion," Mr. Champ- 
 lin, one long and one short pivot-gun, next; 
 then the " Lawrence," Capt. Perry ; the " Cale 
 donia, Lieut. Turner, next astern; the "Niag 
 ara," Capt. Elliott, followed by the "Tigress," 
 Lieut. Conklin ; the "Somers," Mr. Almy ; 
 "Porcupine," Mr. Sennalt ; and "Trippe," 
 Lieut. Holdup Stevens, in order named, pre 
 scribed distance being half a cable s length. 
 
 From the commencement of the battle, shortly 
 after meridian, and for two hours, the fire of 
 the enemy was mainly directed against the 
 "Lawrence," her only support being the two 
 schooners ahead, which were gallantly fought. 
 The cannonade had deadened the wind, and 
 during this time there was little air. The 
 "Queen Charlotte" having filled passed the 
 "Hunter," and concentrated her fire with that 
 of the " Detroit," upon Perry s flag-ship, pro 
 ducing great slaughter on board and almost 
 dismantling her. After the firing had con 
 tinued some time, the "Niagara" hailed the 
 " Caledonia" and ordered her to make room for 
 the former to pass ahead. Mr. Turner immedi 
 ately bore down upon the enemy, and took up a 
 position closer to his line than any other vessel. 
 At the end of 2 hours, the enemy having filled 
 and the wind increasing, the two squadrons drew 
 slowly ahead, leaving the " Lawrence" partially 
 out of the fight. At this time the " Niagara" 
 passed to windward of the " Lawrence," steer 
 ing for the head of the enemy s line, the " Cale 
 donia" falling to leeward. The vessels astern 
 had not been idle, but, by dint of great efforts, 
 had gradually been closing, though not in regu 
 lar order. The rear of the line seems to have in 
 clined toward the enemy, bringing the "Trippe," 
 Lieut. Holdup Stevens, so near Turner s vessel, 
 the " Caledonia," that the latter had sent a boat 
 to her for a supply of cartridges. Capt. Perry, 
 finding the " Lawrence" thoroughly disabled 
 and dropping out of the combat, got into his 
 gig and pulled for the " Niagara," which vessel 
 
NAVY 
 
 543 
 
 NAVY 
 
 he boarded at half-past two. Soon after the 
 " Lawrence," then a wreck and with hardly a man 
 uninjured aboard, hauled down her colors. After 
 a short consultation between Perry and Elliott, 
 the latter volunteered to go in Perry s boat and 
 order the smaller vessels, already hotly engaged, 
 into closer action, within half-pistol distance of 
 the enemy; this accomplished, Capt. Elliott re 
 mained on board and took charge of the " Som- 
 ers." According to the statement of several of 
 Perry s captains, up to the time Perry arrived on 
 board the " Niagara" and took command of her 
 that vessel had taken but a slight part in the 
 conflict, and was almost uninjured. When the 
 " Lawrence" lowered her colors, the enemy, 
 supposing they had won the day, cheered lus 
 tily, and for a few minutes there was a general 
 cessation of firing, both parties preparing for the 
 final struggle. The wind had freshened, ena 
 bling the gunboats to close rapidly. At 45 
 minutes past 2 the " Niagara," then to wind 
 ward of the leading vessels of the enemy, made 
 signal for close action (which order was received 
 with cheers and obe} r ed with alacrity), and bore up 
 immediately under foresail, topsails, and topgal 
 lant-sail. The enemy observing this, attempted 
 to wear to get fresh broadsides to bear, but in 
 doing so his two ships for a time got foul, throw 
 ing liis whole line into confusion and bringing 
 the "Lady Prevost" to westward and leeward 
 of the " Detroit." At this juncture the " Niag 
 ara 1 bore steadily down upon the enemy, pass 
 ing between the " Chippeway" and " Lady 
 Prevost" on the one hand and the "Detroit," 
 " Queen Charlotte," and "Hunter" on the other, 
 and, pouring in both broadsides as she passed, 
 ranged ahead of the ships, and luffing athwart 
 their bows, continued delivering a close, deadly, 
 and raking fire. Simultaneously the " Caledo 
 nia," with the gun-vessels, was throwing in at 
 close quarters a raking fire of grape and canis 
 ter, and 15 or 20 minutes from the. time the 
 "Niagara" bore up a hail was passed among 
 the small vessels that the enemy had struck. 
 When the smoke of battle cleared the two squad 
 rons were found partly intermingled; the "Ni 
 agara" lay to leeward of the " Detroit," "Queen 
 Charlotte," and "Hunter," and the "Caledo 
 nia," with the " Trippe" and another gun-ves 
 sel, were between the "Hunter" and "Lady 
 Prevost," while the "Lawrence," with her col 
 ors again flying, was astern. The " Little Belt" 
 and " Chippewa" attempting to escape, were 
 chased and captured about an hour after by 
 Champlin in the " Scorpion," and Holdup Ste 
 vens in the " Trippe." The opposing squadrons 
 suffered equally in killed and wounded. The 
 " Lawrence" was cut up to a degree almost un 
 paralleled in naval warfare; of her crew, 22 were 
 killed and 61 wounded. When Perry left for 
 the i Niagara" hardly a sound man remained 
 on board. The "Niagara" had 2 killed and 25 
 wounded. The "Caledonia," Lieut. Turner, 
 though carried into the thickest of the fight and 
 entirely without quarters, had but 3 men wounded. 
 The " Trippe," Lieut. Holdup Stevens, which 
 for some time was as hotly engaged, and was 
 equally without quarters, had 2 men wounded ; 
 the"Somers,"Mr. Almy, the same; the "Ariel," 
 Lieut. Packett, 1 man killed and 3 wounded ; the 
 "Scorpion," Mr. Champlin, 2 killed, one being 
 a midshipman ; the others had no one hurt. More 
 
 than a hundred men of Perry s fleet previously 
 to the action were unfit for duty, and Perry him 
 self, when he met the enemy, was suffering from 
 the effects of sickness, which greatly enhanced 
 the value of his great services and heroic ex 
 ploits. On the part of the Americans, Lieut. 
 Brooks, commanding the marines, and Midship 
 men Clark and Lamb, were killed, and Lieuts. 
 Yarnall and Forrest, Mr. Taylor, the master, 
 Mr. Hambleton, the purser, and Midshipmen 
 Swartout and Claxton, all of the "Lawrence," 
 were wounded. Mr. Edwards, second lieuten 
 ant of the "Niagara," and Midshipman Cum- 
 mings were also wounded. The loss of the 
 English was 41 killed and 94 wounded. The 
 "Detroit" had her first lieutenant killed, and 
 Capt. Barclay and the purser were wounded. 
 Capt. Finnis, of the "Queen Charlotte," was 
 slain and her first lieutenant wounded. The 
 commanding officer of the "Lady Prevost," 
 with the first lieutenant and commanding officer 
 of the " Chippewa," were also wounded. What 
 ever may have been said and written of the supe 
 riority of the Americans in guns and weight of 
 metal over the English in the commencement of 
 the conflict, it must be conceded this advantage 
 was more than offset by the complete disability 
 of the "Lawrence," which ceased to be in the 
 supreme crisis of the fight a factor, and that 
 the complete success of this great and glorious 
 achievement, when defeat seemed inevitable^ is 
 due greatly to the unconquerable will and daring 
 spirit of the American commander-in-chief, when 
 he, seizing the opportune moment, bore gallantly 
 down upon the enemy, and, in breaking his lines, 
 shattered his ships by his broadsides and achieved 
 victory and immortal renown. Congress voted 
 to Perry and Elliott each a gold medal, to the 
 commanding officers a silver medal, and to the 
 others a sword ; prize-money was given to all. 
 The results of the victory were of the first impor 
 tance. The English evacuated Detroit, and Perry 
 soon after reached that place in the "Ariel, "and, 
 in conjunction with the army, took possession. 
 Perry co-operated with Harrison in his move 
 ments against the enemy, and was present with 
 the latter in the battle of the Thames. Most of 
 the upper part of the province fell under our con 
 trol, and large quantities of military stores were 
 captured. 
 
 On the 23d of October, Perry with his squad 
 ron transported Harrison s army to Buffalo, 
 where he resigned his command to Elliott, hav 
 ing been promoted to a captain and ordered to 
 command the "Java," 44, then at Baltimore. 
 
 Upon Lake Ontario the energetic and inde 
 fatigable Commodore Chauncey vied with the 
 English in increasing his force, and in the spring 
 of f814 the keels of several sizable vessels were 
 laid down by the Americans, and on the 2d of 
 May the "Superior," 50, was launched. 
 
 In the early part of May, Sir James Yeo, with 
 Lieut.-Gen. Drummond, having a force of from 
 1200 to 1800 men, made a descent upon Oswego, 
 and captured a small quantity of stores. The 
 defense, though hopeless, was obstinate. The 
 Americans lost in killed, wounded, and missing 
 79 men. Lieut. Pearce, of the navy, took part in 
 the defense and fought bravely. The " Growler" 
 was sunk, but was raised and carried off by the 
 enemy, who admitted a loss of 95 men. About 
 the middle of June, Commodore Chauncey sent 
 
NAVY 
 
 544 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Acting Lieut. F. H. Gregory with 3 gigs into 
 the St. Lawrence, where the enemy had a line 
 of gunboats stationed to protect his communica 
 tions. Mr. Gregory lay in ambush on one of 
 the islands, where he was discovered, and a gun 
 boat sent in chase. Instead of retiring, Mr. 
 Gregory made a dash at the vessel, and carried 
 her without loss. She was armed with an 18- 
 pounder carronade, having a crew of 18 men. 
 While proceeding up the river he was again chased 
 by a much larger gunboat, carrying 2 guns, which 
 compelled him to scuttle and abandon his prize. 
 Two days later Mr. Gregory, accompanied by 
 two gallant lake seamen, Messrs. Vaughan and 
 Dixon, destroyed at Fresque Isle a cru iser nearly 
 ready to launch, intended to carry 14 guns. Mr. 
 Gregory was promoted for these gallant exploits. 
 Subsequently this brave officer, while reconnoi 
 tring off Kingston in a gig, was pursued by 2 
 barges of the enemy, carrying 20 men, and after 
 sustaining the loss of Midshipman White, who 
 was killed, and having 5 out of a crew of 8 
 wounded, was compelled to surrender. 
 
 During the season no encounter occurred be 
 tween the hostile squadrons, ours being employed 
 in watching, blockading, and harassing the 
 enemy, and in transporting troops and stores for 
 the army operating on the frontier. On the 19th 
 of November, Midshipman McGowan, accom 
 panied by Mr. Johnson, a famous partisan, at 
 tempted to blow up the " St. Lawrence, ; 120, 
 recently built and supposed to be at Kingston ; 
 being discovered, 2 boats were sent in pursuit, 
 which he captured, with as many men as his own 
 crew numbered, when, learning that the "St. 
 Lawrence" was not in Kingston, he returned to 
 Sackett s Harbor. 
 
 To counteract and oppose the movements of 
 the enemy, who contemplated, it was thought, a 
 descent upon Northeastern New York, the com 
 mand of Lake Champlain, flanking as it did 
 for 200 miles the march of an invading army, 
 became of the first importance. With this object 
 both parties during the spring of 1814 were 
 actively engaged in building and equipping ves 
 sels and gunboats. About the middle of May, 
 while the American squadron lay in Otter Creek, 
 a force under Capt. Pring, consisting of the brig 
 "Linnet" and 8 or 10 galleys, made an ineffectual 
 attempt to fill up the channel with vessels loaded 
 with stones. On the 3d of September, Commodore 
 McDonough anchored his squadron off Platts- 
 burg, the point selected for defense, on the flank 
 of our troops intrenched there. About this time 
 Sir George Prevost, with an army of 12,000 men, 
 advanced against Plattsburg, then held by Gen. 
 Macomb, with a force of about 1200 effective 
 men. Commodore McDonough selected an an 
 chorage a little to the southward of the mouth of 
 the Saranac, with his vessels in line parallel to 
 the shore, running north and south, and distant 
 from the western shore 2 miles. The " Eagle," 
 20, Capt. Henley, lay at the northern extremity 
 of the American line; the "Saratoga," 26, Mc 
 Donough s flag-ship, second ; the " Ticonderoga," 
 17, Lieut. Commandant Cassin, third; the 
 "Preble," 7, Lieut. Charles Budd. The last 
 vessel was anchored near the shoal to prevent 
 the enemy passing that end of the line. The 
 Americans had also 6 large and 4 small gunboats, 
 each of the former carrying a long 24 and an 18- 
 pounder columbiad, and each of the latter one 
 
 long 12. The American force consisted of 14 ves 
 sels in all, mounting 86 guns, with a total comple 
 ment of 850 men, including officers, and a small 
 detachment of soldiers. To complete his order 
 of battle, Commodore McDonough placed 2 of 
 the gunboats inshore of the "Eagle," and the 
 rest of the gunboats were placed in the intervals 
 between the different vessels, thus forming two 
 lines, distant from each other about 40 yards. 
 The force of the enemy was largely in excess of 
 that of the Americans. The " Contiance," Capt. 
 Downie, carrying on her gun-deck thirty long 
 24 s, an armament similar to that of the " Con 
 stitution" ; on her topgallant forecastle she 
 mounted a long 24 in circle, and 4 heavy car- 
 ronades, and on her poop-deck 2 heavy carron- 
 ades, making in all 37 guns. The " Linnet," 
 Capt. Pring, carried sixteen long 12 s ; the 
 " Chubb," Lieut. McGhee, carried ten 18-pounder 
 carronades, and one long 6, and the "Finch," 
 Lieut. Hicks, one 18-pounder columbiad and four 
 long 6 s. In addition, the English had 12 or 13 
 gunboats, 8 mounting 2, and the remainder 1 
 gun each. Their whole force consisted of 16 or 
 17 vessels, mounting in all 95 guns, and carrying 
 about 1000 men. About 8 A.M. of the llt h of 
 September the enemy stood in, with the wind 
 northeast, to the attack. When the two squad 
 rons were distant about a league, the enemy hove 
 to to complete his line of battle, and as soon as 
 his gunboats were in position the English filled 
 with their starboard tacks aboard, and headed 
 for the American squadron in line abreast; the 
 " Chubb" heading well to windward of the 
 " Eagle," the " Linnet" steering for the bows of 
 the same brig, the " Contiance" shaping a course 
 far enough ahead of the " Saratoga" to lay that 
 vessel athwart hawse, and the " Finch," with the 
 gunboats, standing for the "Ticonderoga" and 
 " Preble." The Americans were anchored with 
 springs. In addition, Commodore McDonough 
 had run out a kedgeboard on each bow, and 
 brought the hawsers in upon each quarter, letting 
 them hang in bights below the water. To this 
 seamanlike and wise provision the victory to a 
 degree is due. The action was opened by the 
 " Eagle," and as soon as her shots began to tell 
 Commodore McDonough sighted a long 24- 
 pounder and fired. The shot is said to have 
 struck the " Contiance" in the outer hawse-hole, 
 and, passing the whole length of her deck, killed 
 and wounded several of her crew and disabled 
 her wheel. Immediately all the long guns of 
 the Americans opened, and it was soon apparent 
 that the English flag-ship was suffering severely. 
 Still she kept on in the most gallant manner, 
 hoping to get to close quarters, when the over 
 powering battery of the " Confiance" would soon 
 decide the day. Finding this impossible under 
 the telling fire of the Americans and the baffling 
 of the wind, Capt. Downie determined to anchor 
 head and stern, but in using the kedge astern 
 with this object the hawser fouled, when the star 
 board bows was let go, and the kedge became 
 almost useless. The " Linnet" anchored soon 
 after in a good position nearer than the " Confi 
 ance," and forward of the " Eagle s" beam. 
 The " Chubb" kept under way, intending if pos 
 sible to rake the American line. The "".Finch" 
 got abreast of the " Ticonderoga," supported by 
 the gunboats. As soon as the " Confiance" was 
 secured, Capt. Downie, with his whole broadside, 
 
NAVY 
 
 545 
 
 NAVY 
 
 opened with fearful execution upon the a Sara 
 toga." It is supposed by this single broadside 
 one-fifth of her crew were killed or wounded. 
 Among the killed was the first lieutenant, Mr. 
 Gamble, and Acting Lieut. Vallette was the only 
 ofiicer left of that rank on board the "Sara 
 toga" at this early stage of the action. 
 
 The battle now became general. The " Chubb," 
 about a quarter of an hour after the enemy 
 anchored, while manoeuvring near the head of 
 our line, was disabled by the fire of the " Eagle," 
 and drifting down between the contestants, a 
 shot was fired into her by the " Saratoga," 
 when she struck, and was taken possession 
 of by Midshipman Platt, and anchored near the 
 mouth of the Saranac. About an hour later 
 the " Finch" was crippled and driven out of her 
 position by the " Ticonderoga," and drifting 
 down upon Crabb Island, was taken possession 
 of by the invalids belonging to the hospital. At 
 this end of the line the enemy s gunboats made 
 desperate attempts to close, and forced the 
 " Preble," soon after the capture of the " Finch," 
 from her place in line to a position considerably 
 inshore, where she was of no further service. 
 This accomplished, the enemy turned their at 
 tention to the "Ticonderoga," and so deter 
 mined were some of these assaults that several 
 times the gunboats laid in their sweeps prepara 
 tory to boarding, but the cool, determined fire 
 they encountered defeated every attempt. At 
 the other end of the line the Americans were 
 suffering severely. The " Linnet" secured a 
 commanding position, while the "Eagle" was so 
 situated her springs having been shot away 
 as not to be able to bring her guns fairly to bear 
 on either the " Confiance" or " Linnet," who 
 were firing into her. Capt. Henley now shifted 
 his berth, and took up a position, anchoring by 
 the stern, between the "Saratoga" and " Ticon 
 deroga," necessarily a little inshore of both, and 
 opened with better effect on the " Confiance" 
 and her supporting gunboats ; this change, un 
 fortunately, left the "Saratoga" exposed to the 
 raking fire of the " Linnet." Shortly after, the 
 fire of the " Saratoga" and " Confiance" materi 
 ally lessened. On the " Saratoga" every gun in 
 her starboard battery was disabled, nothing re 
 mained but to wind the ship, which McDonough, 
 through the timely provisions already alluded 
 to, succeeded in accomplishing, and her fresh 
 broadside was brought to bear upon the " Con- 
 fiance," which ship also attempted to wind, but 
 failed, and having borne for some time the fresh 
 broadside of the " Saratoga," until she had barely 
 a gun to return the fire, the English commander- 
 in-chief, two hours and a quarter after the com 
 mencement of the battle, lowered his flag. The 
 " Saratoga s" broadside was immediately brought 
 to bear upon the " Linnet," which vessel struck 
 fifteen minutes later, when all the enemy s gun 
 boats lowered their colors. All but two of these 
 finally escaped, owing to the disabled condition 
 of the large vessels, which required the crews of 
 our gunboats at the pumps to prevent their 
 sinking. This prevented pursuit. Our total loss 
 was 52 killed and 51 wounded. The English 
 lost 57 killed and 110 wounded on board the 
 large vessels, and the two gunboats captured lost 
 30 in killed and wounded between them. The 
 slaughter on board the gunboats that escaped is 
 believed to have been very heavy. Though a 
 35 
 
 report was circulated to the contrary, the Eng 
 lish gunboats were well fought, and bore a con 
 spicuous part in the conflict. Many of the 
 American officers were wounded, though but 
 two commissioned line-officers were killed, 
 Mr. Gamble, the first lieutenant of the "Sara 
 toga," and Mr. Stansberry, the first lieutenant 
 of the "Ticonderoga." Mr. Smith, the first 
 lieutenant of the "Eagle," though severely 
 wounded, after his wounds were dressed returned 
 to his post, and remained during the action. Be 
 sides Capt. Downie, who was killed, the English 
 lost several officers, and three or four were 
 wounded. Both squadrons were fearfully cut 
 up in hull, spars, and rigging. Commodore 
 McDonough, by his consummate skill, heroic 
 endurance, and indomitable courage, won in this 
 splendid triumph a reputation second to none in 
 the long line of our great naval captains. He 
 was promoted and honors showered upon him. 
 Capt. Cassin, who was throughout this memo 
 rable contest conspicuous for his heroic and de 
 termined courage in the defense of the rear of 
 our line and for noble conduct, received high 
 praise and merited honors, and all participating 
 received also their share in distinction and 
 honors. Mr. Vallette was specially mentioned, 
 and the services of Mr. Brum, the master who 
 superintended the winding of the "Saratoga" 
 in the climax of the fight, were handsomely 
 acknowledged. Capt. Henry and Lieut. Com 
 mandant Cassin gave merited praise to all under 
 their command. Messrs. Conner, Breese, Kobins, 
 and Stellwagen, in command of gunboats, fought 
 gallantly. Capt. Downie has been censured for 
 his mode of attack, which brought him for some 
 time under a raking fire, a plan of attack which 
 had been successfully adopted by the English in 
 their naval fights with the European naval 
 powers. That he was not successful with his 
 largely superior force is to be attributed to the 
 firm and unconquerable courage and magnificent 
 gunnery of his adversaries. During the progress 
 of the fight Sir George Prevost was skirmishing 
 in front of the American works and preparing 
 for a grand attack. The fate of the day was 
 scarcely determined when he commenced a hasty 
 and disorderly retreat, leaving behind him many 
 of his heavy guns, stores, and supplies. From 
 that time to the end of the war the northern 
 frontier was cleared of the enemy. 
 
 In August, 1814, Commodore Sinclair, then 
 in command on the upper lakes, made an unsuc 
 cessful attempt upon Mackinaw, though several 
 vessels belonging to the Northwest Company 
 were captured and a block-house destroyed. On 
 the night of the 12th August the "Somers," 
 " Ohio , " and " Porcupi ne, while lying at anchor 
 near the outlet of Lake Erie engaged in protect 
 ing the left flank of the American works, were 
 attacked by six or eight heavy bateaus manned 
 by a party of seamen under Capt. Dobbs. The 
 " Ohio" and " Somers" were both surprised and 
 captured, but the "Porcupine," having timely 
 warning, escaped. The American loss was 1 
 killed and 10 wounded. By the resistance on the 
 " Ohio" the enemy lost about the same. Lieut. 
 Radcliffe, of the "Netley," was slain. On the 
 night of the 3d September, Lieut. Worsley with 
 five large boats, one conveying a 6- and another 
 a 3-pounder, accompanied Jby 19 canoes and 
 about 200 men, surprised at St. Joseph, owing 
 
NAVY 
 
 546 
 
 NAVY 
 
 to the darkness of the night, and captured, after 
 every officer on board of her was shot down, the 
 "Tigress," Lieut. Champlin, this vessel had a 
 complement of 28 men and carried a 24-pounder. 
 The enemy s guns were transferred to the vessel, 
 and the evening of the next day Lieut. Turner, in 
 the " Scorpion," anchored about 5 miles from her. 
 The next morning, at daylight, the "Tigress" 
 stood down, under American colors, towards the 
 " Scorpion," and Turner, having no cause to sus 
 pect her change of character, permitted her to get 
 close alongside, when she fired all her guns, ran 
 the "Scorpion" aboard, and captured her after 
 a slight resistance. Lieut. Turner was honor 
 ably acquitted, the surprise being attributable to 
 the want of signals. In capturing the " Tigress" 
 the enemy lost a lieutenant and 2 men killed and 
 7 wounded. 
 
 Capt. Steward having succeeded Commodore 
 Bainbridge in command of the " Constitution," 
 sailed in the winter of 1814 for a cruise through 
 the West Indies, upon which occasion he cap 
 tured the " Picton," 14, and made several prizes, 
 and subsequently returned to Boston. On the 
 17th December she again sailed. On the morning 
 of the 25th February, 1815, the " Constitution," 
 then off the coast of Spain, captured, after an 
 actual contest of about three-quarters of an hour, 
 the " Cyane," a frigate-built ship, with an actual 
 armament of 34 guns, and the " Levant," carry 
 ing 21 guns. The splendid seamanship of Capt. 
 Stewart in the handling of the " Constitution" in 
 the encounter with these two vessels, by means 
 of which he not only succeeded in avoiding a 
 raking fire by the enemy, but in raking both his 
 opponents, has always been regarded with admi 
 ration by professional men. The " Constitution" 
 lost 3 killed and 12 wounded. Capt. Stewart 
 estimates the loss of the "Cyane" at 12 killed 
 and 26 wounded, and on the "Levant," 23 
 killed and 16 wounded. Capt. Stewart pro 
 ceeded with his prize to Port Praya, where he 
 arrived on the Wlh March. While lying here a 
 heavy English force appeared in the offing, and 
 knowing that the English would disregard all 
 neutral rights unless supported by force, Capt. 
 Stewart promptly got under way with his prizes 
 and proceeded to sea. The English prisoners 
 ashore manned a battery and fired at the " Con 
 stitution" as she passed out. The cool, prompt, 
 decided conduct of Capt. Stewart in getting to 
 sea saved his command. The ships in chase 
 proved to be the "Leander," 50, "New Castle," 
 50, and "Acosta," frigate. The " Levant" was 
 chased back into Port Praya, where she anchored 
 within 150 yards of a strong battery. The enemy, 
 disregarding the neutrality of the port, opened 
 fire from all his vessels. After sustaining this 
 for some time, Mr. Ballard, the officer in charge, 
 lowered his colors. The reputation of Capt. Stew 
 art, already very high, was largely added to by his 
 conduct on this occasion. The "Constitution" 
 arrived safely at Maranham, where he landed his 
 prisoners, and, hearing that peace had been de 
 clared, sailed for New York, where he arrived 
 the middle of May. Thus ends for the war the 
 exploits of the noble "Old Ironsides," a ship 
 dear to every American heart. 
 
 On the night of the 14th November, 1814, the 
 "President," 44, in command of Commodore 
 Decatur, in attempting to cross the bar at New 
 York in the night got out of the channel, and, 
 
 grounding upon the hard bottom, was considera 
 bly injured. It was inipossible to return owing 
 to the adverse tide, and as a strong blockading 
 force was in the offing it was necessary to carry 
 sail to get off the coast before morning. At day 
 light 4 ships were discovered in chase, when Com 
 modore Decatur immediately commenced lighten 
 ing. Soon after 3 o clock P.M. the "Endymion," 
 40, the nearest vessel, opened with her bow-guns, 
 the "President" returning the fire with her stern- 
 chasers. Finding the fire of the " Endymion" 
 very annoying, and that she was gradually gain 
 ing, Commodore Decatur determined to make an 
 effort to exchange ships by carrying the "Endym 
 ion" by boarding, which intention was received 
 with joy by his crew. All attempts to close, 
 however, failed, when Commodore Decatur di 
 rected his efforts to dismantling her, and for two 
 and a half hours the two frigates kept up a heavy 
 fire, when the " Endymion s" sails being cut from 
 her yards she fell astern. At this time the "Pres 
 ident" was under all sail, and by choosing her 
 position could have forced the enemy to strike, 
 but the near approach of the other ships com 
 pelled Decatur to resume his original course to 
 escape them. All efforts were made for the pur 
 pose, but by 11 P.M. the " Pomona," 38, got on 
 the weather bow of the " President," and poured 
 in a broadside; the " Tenedos," 38, was fast 
 coming up on the quarter, and the "Majestic," 
 razee, was within gunshot astern, when Commo 
 dore Decatur yielded. The loss of the "Presi 
 dent" was 24 men killed and 56 wounded. 
 Among the slain were the first, fourth, and 
 fifth lieutenants, Babbit, Hamilton, and Howell. 
 Much of the loss occurred from the fire of the 
 " Pomona," who continued her fire after the 
 signal of surrender was made. The " End.ym- 
 ion" lost 11 killed and 14 wounded. The fact 
 that this vessel did not join the other ships for 
 three or four hours after shows her crippled con 
 dition. The " President" was taken to Bermuda, 
 where Decatur and his crew were paroled. He 
 was acquitted with honor for the loss of his ship. 
 Off Tristan d Acunha, on the 23d March, 1815, 
 at 1.40 P.M., the "Hornet," 18, Capt. Biddle, en 
 gaged H. B. M. brig " Penguin," 18, Capt. Dick 
 inson. For 15 minutes both vessels kept up a 
 close and sharp cannonade, when the enemy, find 
 ing the fire of the "Hornet" too hot, bore up with 
 the intention of boarding. The enemy s bowsprit 
 came in between the main and mizzen rigging 
 of the "Hornet," affording the opportunity, but 
 the attempt was not made. The vessels lay in 
 this position for a few minutes, the Americans 
 pouring in a raking fire, when the sea lifted 
 the "^Hornet" ahead, the enemy swinging 
 round and hanging on her starboard quarter. 
 Capt. Biddle ordered the foresail to be set, 
 when the enemy called out that they surren 
 dered, but after this two marines fired at and 
 wounded Capt. Biddle quite seriously, when the 
 crew of the " Hornet" poured in a volley and 
 shot them dead. The two vessels were equal in 
 size, armament, and weight of metal and crew, 
 but notwithstanding the " Penguin" had the 
 advantage of the wind she was taken in 28 
 minutes. The "Penguin" lost 14 killed and 
 28 wounded. Among the slain was her com 
 mander and the boatswain ; among the wounded 
 a lieutenant, a midshipman, and the purser. 
 The " Penguin" was completely riddled, and 
 
NAVY 
 
 547 
 
 NAVY 
 
 lost both lower masts and bowsprit. The "Hor 
 net" had 1 man killed and 10 wounded, includ 
 ing Capt. Biddle and Mr. Connor, her first lieu 
 tenant, whose life for a time was in great danger. 
 The " Hornet" was a good deal cut up in her 
 sails and rigging, otherwise her injuries were 
 slight. A few hours after the action a suspicious 
 sail heaving in sight, Capt. Biddle towed the 
 " Penguin" some distance off the land and scut 
 tled her, after taking such stores and provisions 
 as he required. Shortly after the "Hornet" was 
 chased by the "Belvidere," 74, and he only es 
 caped capture by lightening his vessel and throw 
 ing overboard his battery. At times the " Belvi 
 dere" was so near that her shot passed beyond 
 the " Hornet." Arriving at San Salvador, Capt. 
 Biddle learned of the peace, when he sailed for 
 New York, arriving on the 3d of July. For his 
 splendid achievement in the capture of the " Pen 
 guin" Capt. Biddle received distinguished hon 
 ors. The action between the " Hornet" and 
 " Penguin" was the last regular action of the 
 war. 
 
 In the Straits of Sunda, on the 30th June, 1815, 
 the "Peacock," Capt. Warrington, captured the 
 East India Company s schooner "Nautilus," 14, 
 but Capt. Warrington on learning, a few days 
 after, that peace had been ratified, gave her up. 
 Government was about fitting out two flying 
 squadrons of small vessels when peace was de 
 clared, and all operations ceased. Thus closed 
 the war of 1812, a war in which the American 
 navy, by the splendid prowess and signal suc 
 cesses over a power that had never found its 
 equal upon the sea, covered itself with glory. 
 The nation points with just pride to the exploits 
 of our illustrious line of naval heroes, and as 
 long as the republic lasts their gallant deeds 
 will be remembered and honored. 
 
 At the breaking out of hostilities between the 
 United States and Great Britain the Barbary 
 powers, particularly Algiers, committed wanton 
 aggressions wpon our commerce, which at the 
 time the government could not properly redress. 
 These powers were little better than communities 
 of pirates, to whom tribute for a long time had 
 been paid by every nation, England included. 
 Shortly after the termination of the war with 
 that country war was declared by the United 
 States against the dey of Algiers, and two squad 
 rons were fitted out to punish him for his aggres 
 sions and perfidy. One was commanded by Com 
 modore Bainbridge, and the other by Commodore 
 Decatur, the former being appointed commander- 
 in-chief. Decatur, with a squadron composed 
 of 3 frigates, 1 sloop-of-war, 4 brigs, and 2 
 schooners, sailed from New York, May 20, 1815, 
 for the Mediterranean. On June 17 an Algerine 
 frigate was. made out, which Decatur, in the 
 " Guerriere," engaged and captured. She proved 
 to be the Algerine frigate " Mashouda," 46 guns, 
 commanded by Admiral Rais Hammada, who 
 was killed. Shortly after, off Cape Palos, an 
 other Algerine corsair, the " Estudio," carrying 
 22 guns, was captured. On June 28, Decatur s 
 squadron anchored in the Bay of Algiers, and in 
 24 hours, by his decision and firmness, Decatur 
 succeeded in compelling a treaty such as had 
 never before been obtained from any of the Bar 
 bary powers. With the prestige of this success 
 Decatur appeared with his squadron in the Bay 
 of Tunis on July 26, and immediately made cer 
 
 tain demands upon the bashaw of Tunis, which, 
 after some blustering on the part of the bashaw, 
 were complied with. The United States was the 
 first nation to compel these faithless powers to a 
 recognition of maritime rights without the con 
 tinuance of tribute, and her example being fol 
 lowed by other nations, these petty states soon 
 declined into their proper insignificance. Since 
 this time our relations with these people have 
 been generally satisfactory. 
 
 In 1815, Commodores Rodgers, Hull, and Por 
 ter were appointed a Board of Navy Commis 
 sioners, and charged with all duties relating to 
 the provision of supplies and stores, and the con 
 struction, armament, and employment of vessels. 
 In 1819-20 Congress passed an act for the grad 
 ual increase of the navy, and authorized the 
 building of 12 line-of-battle ships, 14 first-class 
 and 3 second-class frigates, 6 sloops-of-war, and 
 a proportionate number of small vessels. 
 
 In 1821 an expedition was fitted out for the 
 suppression of piracy in the West Indies, where 
 it prevailed to an alarming extent. On October 
 16, Lieut. Lawrence Kearney, commanding the 
 " Enterprise," captured 2 piratical schooners and 
 1 sloop, with about 40 pirates. On October 29, 
 Capt. Henley, of the "Hornet," captured the 
 schooner " Moscow," which he sent into Norfolk. 
 In the month of December following Lieut. 
 Kearney destroyed the rendezvous of the pirates 
 off San Antonio. On January 7, 1822, Lieut. 
 Rammage, commanding the "Porpoise," des 
 troyed 5 piratical vessels and broke up their 
 depot on the north side of Cuba. On March 6, 
 Lieut. Kearney captured 3 piratical launches 
 and 4 barges w ith their crews, numbering about 
 160 men. On August 16, Lieut. Gregory, com 
 manding the "Grampus," captured off Porlo 
 Rico the privateer "Palinurus," carrying one 
 long brass 18, and eight 18-pounder carronades, 
 with a complement of 85 men, her character as a 
 pirate being well established. In the month of 
 November, Lieut. Wm. H. Allen, commanding 
 the "Alligator," an officer of great merit and dis 
 tinction, was killed, with 2 of his men, in a suc 
 cessful attack upon the pirates. In September, 
 Capt. Cassin captured, in the " Peacock," 5 pirati 
 cal vessels. In February, 1823, piracy being still 
 on the increase, our force in the West Indies was 
 largely augmented, and placed under command of 
 Commodore Porter. The Porto Rico privateers 
 having upon several occasions interrupted our 
 commerce, Commodore Porter sent a communica 
 tion to the authorities upon the subject. Lieut. W. 
 H. Cocke, in command of the "Fox," in attempt 
 ing to enter the port of St. Johns in order to ascer 
 tain the probabilities of an answer, was killed by 
 a shot from the castle, which opened a heavy fire 
 upon the vessel and forced her to anchor. It is 
 supposed that this was in retaliation for the cap 
 ture of the " Palinurus." On the morning of 
 April 8, Lieut. Stribling, in the " Gallinipper," 
 captured the schooner " Pilot," formerly of Nor 
 folk, commanded by the notorious buccaneer Do 
 mingo. About the same time Capt. Cassin cap 
 tured a piratical felucca and broke up sevefal 
 piratical establishments, compelling the pirates 
 to destroy 3 of their schooners. In July, Lieut. 
 Watson, in the " Gallinipper," accompanied by 
 the " Mosquito," Lieut. Inman, having a com 
 plement all told of 25 men and oflicers, attacked 
 and captured a large piratical topsail schooner 
 
NAVY 
 
 548 
 
 NAVY 
 
 and an armed launch, having on board about 
 80 men, most of whom were destroyed. The 
 schooner was the " Catalina," commanded by the 
 noted pirate Diaboleto, who was killed in action. 
 In the same month Kearney, in the " Grey 
 hound," and Newton, in the "Beagle," landed 
 a force at Cape Cruz, and after a sharp encoun 
 ter broke up a piratical settlement, burnt sev 
 eral houses, and captured some guns. In 1824, 
 Skinner, of the " Porpoise," captured a schooner, 
 and Paine, in the " Terrier," recaptured a French 
 ship from the pirates. To add to the difficulties 
 Commodore Porter encountered in his operations 
 against the freebooters, there was an evident col 
 lusion between the authorities of some of the 
 islands and these outlaws. 
 
 In October, Lieut. Platt, commanding the 
 " Beagle," learning that one of our merchants 
 residing at St. Thomas had been plundered, and 
 that the pirates had taken the goods to Foxado, 
 a small port of Porto Rico, proceeded thither to 
 recover the property. On making known the 
 object of his visit, he and Lieut. Ritchie, who 
 accompanied him, were both arrested and de 
 tained under guard for a day. Commodore Por 
 ter upon learning this, with his characteristic 
 promptness, proceeded to Foxado to demand ex 
 planation and redress. Finding that the au 
 thorities, upon his arrival there, intended to fire 
 into his vessel, he landed a force, took their bat 
 teries, and compelled from the offenders the 
 amplest apologies. Unfortunately, for this 
 thoroughly justifiable retaliatory act Commodore 
 Porter was relieved of his command, and Com 
 modore Warrington succeeded him. This officer 
 continued to carry out the plan of operations in 
 augurated by Commodore Porter. 
 
 In March, 1825, Lieut. Sloat, in the " Gram 
 pus," fitted out a trading-sloop with a comple 
 ment of 27, all told, to capture a piratical vessel 
 cruising off St. Thomas. The expedition resulted 
 in the destruction of the pirate ship ; 2 of her crew 
 were killed and 10 made prisoners, among them 
 being the celebrated piratical chief Colfrecinas, 
 who, with the others, was executed by the authori 
 ties of Porto Kico. In May, Lieut. McKeever 
 co-operated with the English in breaking up a 
 piratical retreat and in capturing a large pirat 
 ical schooner. These severe lessons finally broke 
 up the nefarious business, and piracy, as an or 
 ganization, ceased. 
 
 In February, 1832, Commodore Downes, in the 
 "Potomac," arrived off Quellah Battoo for the 
 purpose of chastising the natives for their pi 
 ratical attack upon the ship " Friendship," of 
 Salem. An expedition was fitted out from the 
 "Potomac," and officered by Lieuts. Shubrick, 
 Hoff, Ingersoll, and Mr. Totten, of the navy, 
 and Lieut. Edson, of the marines. The Malays 
 made a determined resistance, but were finally 
 overcome, and several of their forts captured and 
 destroyed. The lesson, though severe, was salu 
 tary and needed, and the good effects of this well- 
 deserved punishment still continue in our inter 
 course with these semi-piratical people. 
 
 The United States Exploring Expedition sailed 
 from Hampton Koads on the l9th August, 1838, 
 under command of Lieut. Charles Wilkes. Mid 
 shipman Spencer and two of the petty officers of 
 the brig " Somers" were executed on board that 
 vessel December 1, 1842, for conspiring to cap 
 ture the vessel and convert her into a pirate. 
 
 Commander Slidell Mackenzie, the officer in 
 command, felt compelled to adopt this summary 
 course for the security of the vessel and the pres 
 ervation of the lives of those under his charge. 
 Upon his arrival in the United States a court of 
 inquiry was ordered to inquire into all the facts 
 connected with the transaction, which resulted 
 in a complete and thorough justification of Com 
 mander Mackenzie and his officers. 
 
 In October, 1842, Commodore Thomas Ap 
 Catesby Jones, commanding the Pacific Squad 
 ron, took possession of Monterey, Cal., under 
 the supposition that war existed between the 
 United States and Mexico ; shortly after, receiv 
 ing advices to the contrary, the town was re 
 stored. Subsequently, and upon the declaration 
 of war between the two countries, Commodore 
 Sloat, then in command of the Pacific Station, 
 took possession of California, and hoisted the 
 American flag at Monterey, San Francisco, and 
 other points. Shortly after Commodore Sloat 
 was relieved by Commodore Stockton, whose 
 services were very valuable in securing the 
 newly-acquired territory to the United States. 
 Detachments of sailors and marines were left to 
 hold the various points taken possession of. 
 While occupying Los Angeles, the capital, in 
 formation was received that Lieut. Gillespie, of 
 the marines, with his command, were besieged 
 in the government-house. The "Savannah," 
 Capt. Mervine, went immediately to his relief. 
 A landing was made of a strong force at San 
 Pedro, and a march then commenced upon Los 
 Angeles. When within about four miles of that 
 place, they were met in force by a party of the 
 enemy, having the advantage of a field-piece, 
 by means of which the advance of our men was 
 checked, and the command fell back upon San 
 Pedro. Shortly after Commodore Stockton 
 arrived and sailed for San Diego. From this 
 point an expedition was fitted out for the pur 
 pose of re-occupying Los Angeles, which Lieut. 
 Gillespie had been compelled to abandon, and of 
 forming a junction with Col. Fremont, who was 
 marching southward. While preparations were 
 making for this purpose intelligence was received 
 of the severe check Col. Kearney had received 
 at San Pasqual, and of his critical condition. 
 Lieut. Gray, of the navy, with a force of 200 
 men, was immediately sent to his relief, and 
 soon after Col. Kearney, with the remainder of his 
 command, arrived at San Diego. When Com 
 modore Stockton s preparations were completed, 
 he took up the line of march for Los Angeles 
 with a force of about 600 men. On the 7th 
 January the command arrived at the San Ga 
 briel River, where the enemy were found strongly 
 intrenched. On the next day our forces attacked 
 vigorously, led by Commodore Stockton in per 
 son, and drove the enemy from the field. On 
 the 9th, Commodore Stockton advanced upon 
 the town, where he was again met by the enemy 
 on the plains of Mesa. A sharp cannonade fol 
 lowed, the Mexicans making several abortive 
 attempts to charge. After a final effort, Gen. 
 Flores abandoned the defense, and moved off to 
 wards Sonora. Soon after re-occupying Los An 
 geles, Commodore Stockton was joined by Col. 
 Fremont, when the combined forces amounted 
 to 1000 men. Negotiations were entered into 
 with Don Andreas^Pico, the governor of Cali 
 fornia, by which the Mexicans agreed to lay 
 
 
NAVY 
 
 549 
 
 NAVY 
 
 down their arms and yield quiet possession of 
 the province. Thus to the navy mainly belongs 
 the acquisition of California, with all its untold 
 wealth. To Commodores Sloat and Stockton, 
 for prompt and energetic management and firm 
 and determined measures in these emergencies, 
 the country owes a deep and lasting debt of 
 gratitude. Shortly after these important occur 
 rences, Commodore Stockton, having learned 
 that Commodore Shubrick had arrived to take 
 command of the naval forces in the Pacific, re 
 turned overland to the United States. In Au- 
 fust, Capt. Lavalette took possession of Guaymas. 
 n September, 1847, Lieut. S. C. Rowan landed 
 with a party at San Bias and destroyed a num 
 ber of guns. A very creditable affair occurred 
 at Muleje, in which Lieuts. G. W. Hainsoii and 
 E. Higgins, with Midshipmen Lewis and 
 Crabbe, participated in the destruction of a 
 Mexican brig by boats from the "Cyane." 
 Later, Lieut." Hainsoii, with three of the " Cy- 
 ane s" boats, successfully resisted an attack at 
 Mazatlan.of the enemy with a greatly superior 
 force. On the llth November, 1847, Commodore 
 Shubrick occupied Mazatlan the most impor 
 tant Mexican seaport on the Pacific without op 
 position. On the 20th November, two parties 
 one in boats under Lieut. S. C. Rowan, and 
 one on land under Lieut. G. L. Selden were 
 sent to disperse a force of the enemy about 10 
 miles from Mazatlan, which resulted in the total 
 rout of the enemy. Our loss was 1 man killed 
 and 3 officers and 17 men wounded ; that of the 
 enemy 7 killed and about 30 wounded. In the 
 same month Commander Selfridge landed at 
 Guaymas and drove the enemy from the place. 
 Commander Selfridge was the only one wounded, 
 while the enemy lost some 30 in killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 On the 19th of November, Lieut. Heywood, 
 with 4 officers, 20 marines, and the same number 
 of volunteers, while occupying San Jose, Lower 
 California, was attacked by 150 of the enemy. 
 Lieut. Heywood upon this occasion repulsed the 
 enemy, inflicting upon him severe loss. On the 
 22d of January, 1848, a detachment of Lieut. 
 Heywood s command, consisting of Passed Mid 
 shipmen Duncan and Warley, with 6 men, were 
 captured on the beach by a large party of the 
 enemy s cavalry, a serious loss to the little gar 
 rison. In the latter part of January the enemy 
 again appeared in force at San Jose, and fired 
 upon all who showed themselves. Several bold 
 and daring sorties were made by the little gar 
 rison who occupied the old mission building for 
 the purpose of checking the advance of the en 
 emy. On the morning of the 12th Passed Mid 
 shipman McLanahan was mortally wounded, 
 and survived but two hours. On the evening 
 of the 14th the " Cyane" arrived and dropped 
 anchor off the town. The next morning Com 
 mander Dupont, with 102 officers and men, 
 landed and marched to the relief of the belea 
 guered garrison. Upon their approach Heywood 
 sallied from the fort, and, charging upon the 
 enemy, effected a junction with the relieving 
 party. The loss to Dupont, though spiritedly 
 opposed, was but 4 slightly wounded, while the 
 enemy lost at least 13 killed. The casualties to 
 Heywood s command during this heroic defense 
 of 16 days, in which there was scarcely a time 
 in which he was not under fire, were 3 killed and 
 
 4 wounded, while the enemy suffered a loss of 
 15 killed and many wounded. The high cour 
 age, inflexible resolution, and heroic endurance 
 displayed in this remarkable defense against an 
 active, vigilant, and untiring enemy with a 
 largely superior force, places it side by side 
 with the most brilliant achievements in Amer 
 ican naval history. Aside from these various 
 duties, the navy was employed on the west coast 
 of Mexico in blockading her ports and in de 
 stroying her commerce. In the Gulf of Mexico, 
 at the commencement of hostilities, Commodore 
 Connor commanded our naval forces, and a sys 
 tem of rigid blockade was at once established. 
 In addition to these duties, the navy was em 
 ployed co-operating with the army whenever 
 its services were required and could be made 
 available. During the battle of Palo Alto, Maj. 
 Monroe, in command of the depot at Point Is 
 abel, having requested the aid of the navy, 500 
 seamen and marines were landed under Capt. 
 Gregory for the purpose. On the 18th of May 
 a detachment of 200 seamen and marines, under 
 Capt. Aulick, effected a junction with a detach 
 ment of the army at Barita, about 15 miles from 
 the mouth of the Rio Grande, and established a 
 post. On the 23d of October, Commodore Perry, 
 with several light-draft vessels, ascended the 
 Tabasco River and took possession of Frontera, 
 capturing all the vessels in port, including 2 
 steamers. Pursuing his way still farther up 
 the river, several merchant vessels were captured, 
 and the noon of the next day he reached Tabasco, 
 where some opposition was encountered. Com 
 modore Perry having effected the object of the 
 expedition, he ordered the prizes to move down 
 the river while the armed vessels followed. One 
 of the prizes grounded near the shore, when the 
 enemy opened fire upon her ; the officer in charge, 
 Lieut. Parker, defended her gallantly, and got 
 his vessel off with 1 man killed and 2 wounded. 
 In carrying a message from the commodore to 
 Lieut. Parker, a very gallant and promising 
 young officer, Lieut. Charles W. Morris, re 
 ceived a fatal wound, of which he died in a few 
 days. Later an unsuccessful demonstration was 
 made against Tabasco, which failed on account 
 of the grounding of the steamer " McLane" on 
 the bar, and also one against Tuspan, which re 
 sulted in the loss of the brig " Truxtun" and the 
 capture of most of her officers and crew. In 
 November an expedition was fitted out against 
 the place, which resulted in its capture without 
 opposition. On the night of the 20th of Novem 
 ber, Lieut. Parker, Passed Midshipmen Rodgers 
 and Hynson, with 5 men, destroyed the bark 
 "Creole," loaded with munitions of war, an 
 chored under the castle arid guns of San Juan 
 de Ulloa. On the 5th of December Passed Mid 
 shipman Rodgers and Dr. Wright, of the "Som- 
 ers," landed for the purpose of a reconnoissance, 
 but were surprised by a party of Mexicans. Dr. 
 Wright made his escape, but Mr. Rodgers was 
 made prisoner and taken to the city of Mexico, 
 from whence, after enduring great hardships, he 
 made his escape, and, joining the army of Gen. 
 Scott, served with distinction during the final 
 battles of the war. On the 8th of December the 
 brig "Somers," in carrying sail to cut off a vessel 
 attempting to enter the harbor of Vera Cruz, was 
 struck by a squall and foundered, carrying with 
 her the gallant Clemson and Hynson and 40 men. 
 
NAVY 
 
 550 
 
 NAVY 
 
 "Upon this occasion boats from the English, 
 French, and Spanish men-of-war succeeded in 
 rescuing quite a number. Gold and silver med 
 als were given by the government to the partici 
 pants in the rescue in acknowledgment of the 
 gallant and humane assistance rendered. On 
 the 20th of December, Commodore Perry took 
 possession of Laguna, in the province of Yuca 
 tan, and seized all the military stores. 
 
 In March, 1847, Gen. Scott having decided 
 upon the investment of Vera Cruz, the navy was 
 employed in landing troops, provisions, and mu 
 nitions of war for this purpose. Through the 
 able and judicious arrangements of Commodore 
 Connor, this was effected speedily and without 
 loss. Gen. Scott made acknowledgment in the 
 most forcible language for the valuable assist 
 ance rendered. Pending the bombardment of 
 Vera Cruz, the health of Commodore Connor 
 having failed, he was relieved by Commodore 
 Perry. On the 22d of March the investment of 
 the city being established, surrender was de 
 manded. Upon this being refused, the batteries, 
 assisted by the " Spitfire" and " Vixen," with 
 5 gunboats under the command of Tatnall, hav 
 ing taken up a position near the shore, opened 
 fire; this position was gallantly maintained 
 during the day. On the morning of the 24th, 
 Tatnall, with his command, moved up still 
 nearer, when it becoming apparent that he was 
 in a highly exposed position, signal of recall was 
 made. The officers of the navy naturally anxious 
 to take an active part in the operations of the 
 siege made known their desire, when Gen. Scott 
 readily assigned a place in the trenches for the 
 establishment of a naval battery of three 8-inch 
 Paixhans and three long 32 s, under the superin 
 tendence of Commander Mackenzie. The battery 
 was served by detachments from the larger vessels, 
 each detachment serving 24 hours, and was first 
 opened under the command of Capt. Aulick, on 
 the 24th, with marked effect until the supply of 
 ammunition failed. The loss from this detach 
 ment was 5 killed and 1 officer and 4 men 
 wounded. The relief arrived in the afternoon 
 under the command of Capt. Mayo, who spent 
 the night in repairing the breastworks, shattered 
 by the severe fire of the enemy. Early on the 
 25th the fire of 4 heavy batteries was turned 
 upon these works. Capt. Mayo opened a well- 
 directed fire, which continued until half-past 
 2 P.M., when the enemy s guns were silenced. 
 Two other batteries now opened upon him, which 
 were soon rendered inefficient. Upon this occa 
 sion Midshipman Shubrick was killed whilesight- 
 ing a gun ; 1 seaman was also killed and 3 
 wounded. In the evening Capt. Mayo was re 
 lieved by a detachment under Capt. Breese. 
 The night was passed in repairing damages. The 
 next day orders were received to discontinue fire, 
 as negotiations were in progress for surrender. 
 In the capitulation, Capt. Aulick represented the 
 navy, and on the 29th of March city and castle 
 were occupied by the army and navy under a 
 grand salute from ships and batteries. Imme 
 diately after the fall of Vera Cruz, it was ar 
 ranged that a combined attack should be made 
 on Alvarado. Commodore Perry was to ap 
 proach by the river, while Gen. Quitman, with 
 a sufficient force, was to attack in the rear for 
 the purpose of cutting off the retreat of the enemy, 
 and securing a large amount of cattle and other 
 
 supplies of the enemy in the neighborhood of the 
 place. The main object of the movement was 
 frustrated by the gallant but overzealous con 
 duct of Lieut. Hunter, who attacked and occu 
 pied both Alvarado and Tlacotalpan before the 
 arrival of either Perry or Quitman s commands. 
 Shortly after Commodore Perry proceeded 
 against Tuspan, which was occupied after a feeble 
 resistance. The guns and ordnance stores of the 
 " Truxtun," lost at the mouth of the river, were 
 recovered. Capt. Mayo, who had been appointed 
 governor of Alvarado, secured the submission of 
 many of the interior towns. On the 16th of June, 
 Commodore Perry again entered Tabasco after 
 a weak resistance. A large quantity of military 
 stores were destroyed, cannon brought off, the 
 powder-magazine blown up, and the fortifications 
 of the city demolished. Commander Bigelow, 
 who was left in command, adopted prompt meas 
 ures to punish the guerrillas operating in the 
 neighborhood. At many points occupied by 
 Commodore Perry provisional governors were 
 appointed, the ports opened, and custom-house 
 regulations established under our officers. During 
 the latter part of the war, a detachment of ma 
 rines under Lieut.-Col. Watson served with the 
 division of Gen. Quitman, and took part in the 
 stormingof the fortress of Chapultepec, the storm- 
 ing-party, led by Maj. Twiggs, being composed 
 of volunteers and marines, a party of sappers 
 arid miners under Capt. Reynolds, and a de 
 tachment of regulars from Gen. Twiggs s division 
 under its own officers. The gallant and lamented 
 Twiggs was killed on the first advance, but 
 through a severe and withering fire the stormers 
 pushed on with resistless force, and, sweeping all 
 before them, captured the Mexican works, when 
 the gallant party fought their way into Chapul 
 tepec by the side of their army comrades. The 
 marines also acquired distinction in the attack 
 upon the Bela gate, and were among the first to 
 enter the city. Lieut.-Col. Watson, with his 
 command, was placed in charge of the palace to 
 preserve order and keep out plunderers. Lieut. 
 Semmes and Passed Midshipman Rodgers, who 
 served as volunteer aids, were specially corn- 
 mended for distinguished conduct in the battles 
 around the city of Mexico. Shortly after the 
 occupation of the city of Mexico peace was de 
 clared. 
 
 In the year 1848, Lieut. William F. Lynch 
 sailed in the "Supply" with an expedition un 
 der his command to explore the river Jordan 
 and the Dead Sea. In May, 1850, an expedi 
 tion sailed from New York, consisting of the 
 brigs "Advance" and "Rescue," for the pur 
 pose of searching for Sir John Franklin. In 
 June, 1855, Kane s expedition and Hartstene s, 
 for the same purpose, followed. In 1854, Com 
 modore Perry, while in command of the East 
 India Squadron, succeeded in establishing com 
 mercial relations with Japan. While Com 
 mander Kelly was at Shanghai in the " Plym 
 outh," 1854, a combined attack of the Ameri 
 can and English naval forces was made upon the 
 encampment of the Imperialists in retaliation for 
 aggressions committed by them. The Imperial 
 ists suffered severely. About this time an Ameri 
 can pilot-boat was captured by the Imperialists, 
 which was retaken in the most gallant style by 
 Lieut. Guest in a boat of the " Plymouth!" In 
 the latter part of June, 1853, while Commander 
 
NAVY 
 
 551 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Ingraham, in thesloop-of-war " St. Louis," was at 
 Smyrna, he received information that a Hun 
 garian refugee with an American passport and 
 papers had been arrested by some Austrian offi 
 cials and placed on board an Austrian brig. 
 Commander Ingraham immediately made a de 
 mand for his release with the guns of the u St. 
 Louis" bearing upon the Austrian, both vessels 
 being cleared for action. Koszta, the Hungarian 
 referred to, was finally released, and the spirited 
 action of Commander Ingraham received the 
 highest commendation from the government, and 
 a gold medal was voted by Congress in recogni 
 tion of his prompt, energetic, and patriotic con 
 duct. In January, 1854, Lieut. Isaac G. Strain 
 landed at Caledonia Bay for the purpose of ex 
 ploring a route across the Isthmus, recommended 
 as suitable for a ship-canal. About this time, in 
 accordance with instructions, Capt. Hollins, in 
 the sloop-of-war " Cyane," bombarded and de 
 stroyed the town of San Juan de Nicaragua, in 
 retaliation for various outrages committed upon 
 the persons and property of American citizens. 
 On the 28th of September, 1854, the sloop-of- 
 war "Albany," Commander Gerry, sailed from 
 Aspinwall, and no trace of her having been dis 
 covered, is supposed to have foundered at sea. 
 
 In 1855, Commander John Rodgers, in the 
 sloop-of-war " Vincennes," penetrated farther 
 the Arctic Ocean, through Behring Strait, than 
 any previous navigator. In the summer of 1855, 
 Commander Boutwell, in the "John Adams," 
 visited the Feejee Islands, and destroyed several 
 villages in retaliation for outrages committed on 
 our countrymen, and compelled ,the high chiefs 
 to a promise of good conduct. During this year 
 Lieut. James Gillis began to publish the results 
 of his astronomical observations, and Lieut. M. 
 F. Maury his wind and current charts, which 
 have been of great value to the navigator and 
 the interests of commerce. In 1855 a board was 
 convened, under a law of Congress, by the Sec 
 retary of the Navy for the reorganization of the 
 navy. Upon a forced construction of the law 
 this board met in secret session, and officers were 
 arraigned, tried, and sentenced without any in 
 timation being given to the parties affected that 
 they were even upon trial. Ninety officers of all 
 grades were dismissed or dropped, and 150 placed 
 on furlough or the reserved list. The whole pro 
 ceeding was so repugnant to the entire country 
 and opposed to all principles of justice, that Con 
 gress passed a bill for the relief of all affected, 
 every officer under this new legislation was 
 afforded a fair hearing, and the opportunity to 
 know wherewith he had been charged. In most 
 instances where the revisory boards were appealed 
 to for redress the work o f the Star Chamber In 
 quisition was annulled, and the officers restored to 
 their rights and rank. Of those who composed 
 this secret organization some took the first occa 
 sion to desert their flag and country in the war 
 of the Rebellion ; others, in the time of trial, were 
 found wanting, and passed into oblivion, while 
 among the foremost for zeal, ability, and service, 
 and distinguished for conspicuous gallantry in the 
 national struggle for life, many were found who 
 had been condemned by these men as unworthy 
 to serve the country. During the year 1857, 
 Berryman, in the "Arctic," was employed in 
 running a line of deep-sea soundings across the 
 Atlantic, to establish the practicability of laying 
 
 wires across the ocean for telegraphic purposes. 
 Our naval forces were engaged in arresting un 
 lawful expeditions against Nicaragua, in resist 
 ing the exercise of the right of search by British 
 cruisers in the neighborhood of Cuba, and in de 
 manding and enforcing redress from the govern 
 ment of Paraguay for an insult to our flag and 
 injuries to our citizens. The English bark 
 " Resolute," abandoned in the Arctic Ocean 
 and picked up by Capt. Buddington, in com 
 mand of a New London whaler, was restored by 
 the United States to the English government. 
 In the beginning of 1858 the exploration of the 
 Paraguay, under Lieut. Page, which had been 
 interrupted by the Paraguayans, was resumed. 
 In April, 1858, Lieut. Almy, in the " Fulton," 
 compelled the release, at Tampico, Mexico, of 6 
 American vessels that had been illegally seized 
 and detained. Lieuts. Craven, of the navy, and 
 Michler, of the army, who had been employed in 
 surveying a route for a ship-canal from the At 
 lantic to the Pacific, by way of the rivers Atrato 
 and Truando, returned in June to New York. 
 In August, Capt. Kelly, in the " Saranac," com 
 pelled by a display of force at San Juan del Sur, 
 in Nicaragua, the release of two American citi 
 zens who had been unjustly imprisoned. In the 
 same month Commander Sinclair visited Waga, 
 one of the Feejees, and inflicted summary pun 
 ishment upon the natives for the murder of two 
 American citizens. In November, 1858, Flag- 
 Officer Lavalette, in the " Wabash," visited 
 Beyrout, Syria, to investigate the outrages com 
 mitted upon our citizens, and the murder of Mr. 
 Dickson near Jaffa. All but one of the party 
 implicated were arrested, tried, and summarily 
 punished. 
 
 War of the Rebellion. The war of the Rebel 
 lion, that had been so long threatening, and 
 finally inaugurated by the firing upon Sumter, 
 found the country in a most untoward state 
 of preparation. Our vessels were scattered in 
 remote seas, and such was the condition of the 
 navy that it might be reasonably supposed the 
 conspirators against the nation s life had made 
 the dispersion of our men-of-war a part of their 
 scheme to assist in breaking up the Union and 
 in carrying out their designs. Orders were im 
 mediately issued for the return of most of the 
 national vessels from abroad, and a proclama 
 tion of blockade issued. To enforce the block 
 ade, vessels of all description that could in any 
 way be made serviceable for these purposes, or 
 improvised as armed vessels, were purchased^ 
 and with the regular vessels of war were di 
 vided into two squadrons, the one known as 
 the Atlantic Blockading Squadron, under Flag- 
 Officer Stringham, the field of whose operations 
 extended from the Capes of Virginia to Cape 
 Florida; the other the Gulf Squadron, under 
 Flag-Officer Mervine, embracing the Gulf of 
 Mexico from Cape Florida to the Rio Grande.* 
 The sound of North Carolina affording more 
 
 * Soon after the secession of Virginia information was re 
 ceived at Washington of the designs of the Confederates upon 
 the navy-yard at Norfolk. Several vessels of war, under a 
 distinguished officer, were immediately ordered thither. Act 
 ing under instructions of the Navy Department, with a suffi 
 cient force for its protection, the great naval station, with an 
 immense amount of valuable property in ships, guns, muni 
 tions of war, provisions, etc., was abandoned without a struggle. 
 The " Merrimac," afterward converted into a powerful iron 
 clad, was one of the abandoned vessels. 
 
NAVY 
 
 552 
 
 NAVY 
 
 .than ordinary facilities for the evasion of the 
 blockade, an expedition, under Flag-Officer 
 Stringham, was fitted out in August, 1861, for 
 an attack upon the defenses of Hatteras Inlet. 
 It consisted of the flag-ship " Minnesota," Capt. 
 Van Brunt; the frigate " Wabash," Capt. Mer 
 cer ; steam-sloop-of-war " Pawnee," Commander 
 S. C. Rowan ; " Monticello," Commander J. P. 
 Gillis; revenue-cutter "Harriet Lane," Capt. 
 Faunce; "Adelaide," Commander H. S. Stell- 
 wagen ; " George Peabody," Lieut. Commanding 
 R. B. Lowry; and tug "Fanny," Lieut. Com 
 manding Pierce Crosby, and a military force, 800 
 strong, under Gen. B. F. Butler. The inlet was 
 defended by Forts Hatteras and Clarke, mount 
 ing heavy guns. The fire of the fleet, which 
 opened about 10 A.M. of the 28th August, drove 
 the enemy from Fort Clarke ; the troops having 
 been successfully disembarked, moved up the 
 beach, and at 2 P.M. took possession. Early the 
 following morning the fire from the fleet was 
 renewed upon Fort Hatteras with such effect 
 that before noon the enemy surrendered to the 
 navy and army, and the fort was occupied by 
 our troops. The enemy lost largely, but not a 
 single casualty occurred on our side. The mili 
 tary force being insufficient, the important ad 
 vantage gained could not be immediately fol 
 lowed up by securing a foothold on the main 
 land. With the breaking out of the Rebellion 
 a flotilla, under the command of Commander J. 
 C. Ward, was organized to prevent the obstruc 
 tion of the Potomac River by the enemy through 
 the erection of batteries. This gallant and ac 
 complished officer was killed in October, 1861, in 
 the prosecution of his arduous duties while in the 
 act of sighting a gun to clear the way for a land 
 ing at Matthias Point. Commander Ward was 
 the first officer of the navy killed in action during 
 the war. Shortly after the capture of Hatteras 
 Inlet the Atlantic Squadron was divided. Capt. 
 L. M. Goldsborough was appointed to the North 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, to guard the 
 coasts of Virginia and North Carolina, and Capt. 
 S. F. Dupont to the command of the South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, which comprised the 
 coasts and waters of South Carolina, Georgia, and 
 Florida. In February, 1862, the Gulf Squadron 
 was also divided, Flag-Officer McKean was ap 
 pointed to the East Gulf Blockading Squadron, 
 and Flag-Oflicer D. G. Farragut to the West 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, the dividing point 
 being just eastward of Pensacola, which was in 
 cluded in the latter squadron. 
 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Early 
 in January, 1862, a joint naval and military ex 
 pedition, under Flag-Officer Goldsborough and 
 Gen. Burnside, moved from Hampton Roads for 
 operating in the waters of North Carolina. The 
 naval force consisted of the steamer " Valley 
 City," Lieut. Commanding S. C. Chaplin, bear 
 ing the flag of Flag-Office/Goldsborough ; " Del 
 aware," Lieut. Commanding J. P. Quackenbush, 
 bearing the divisional flag of Commander S. C. 
 Rowan ; " Stars and Stripes," Lieut. Command 
 ing Reed Werden ; "Louisiana," Lieut. Com 
 manding Alexander Murray; " Hetzel," Lieut. 
 Commanding H. K. Davenport ; " Underwriter," 
 Lieut. Commanding William N. Jeffers ; " Com 
 modore Perry," Lieut. Commanding C.W. Flus- 
 ser; "Commodore Barnev," Lieut. Commanding 
 R. S. Renshaw; "Hunchback," Lieut. Com 
 
 manding E. R. Colhoun; " Southfield," Acting 
 Volunteer Lieut. Commanding C. W. F. Behm ; 
 " Morse," Acting Master Peter Hayes ; " White- 
 head," Acting Master C. A. French; "Lock- 
 wood," Acting Master G. W. Graves; "Henry 
 Brinker," Acting Master J. E. Giddings; " J. N. 
 Seymour," Acting Master F. S. Wells ; " Ceres," 
 Acting Master J. McDirmid; "General Put 
 nam," Acting Master W. S. Hotchkiss ; and 
 "Shawsheen," Acting Master T. J. Woodward, 
 all light-draft vessels, with a total armament of 
 48 guns, most of them of heavy calibre. These 
 vessels arrived about the 15th of January in the 
 neighborhood of Roanoke Island, the first ob 
 jective-point. It was not until some weeks later 
 the army were ready for co-operation. Roanoke 
 Island lies between Pamlico and Albemarle 
 Sounds, being separated from the mainland by 
 Croatan Sound, a shallow body of water. Oppo 
 site the southern extremity of the island the 
 mainland juts out in a low marshy point, around 
 which the vessels course lay. On the morning 
 of the 7th of Februarj 7 , the army being in readi 
 ness, the fleet moved up Croatan Sound in three 
 columns, commanded respectively by Lieuts. 
 Werden, Murray, and Davenport, the whole un 
 der the immediate command of Commander S. 
 C. Rowan. The defenses in this direction con 
 sisted of a double row of piles and sunken vessels 
 between the batteries on Polk and Wier Points, 
 and behind these obstructions the enemy s ves 
 sels, 8 in number, were drawn up. The attack 
 upon the enemy s defenses commenced at half- 
 past 10 ; by noon the action became general, and 
 was continued so hotly that, at 2 P.M., the bar 
 racks behind the fort on Polk Point were burning 
 furiously. At half-past 4 the enemy s batteries 
 ceased firing, and five of the enemy s steamers, 
 apparently injured, retired behind the point, 
 when the first landing of troops took place. 
 This was effected at Ashby s Harbor, the point 
 selected for debarkation, where a large force of 
 the enemy were drawn up, but were soon dis 
 persed by shrapnel from the " Delaware." By 
 midnight some 10,000 of the troops were landed, 
 when they were joined by six launches from the 
 fleet, with their howitzers and crews, to hold the 
 road during the night and be ready for work in 
 the morning. 
 
 At 9 o clock the next morning a continuous 
 firing in the interior showed that Burnside was 
 hotly engaged, when the vessels moved up and 
 re-opened upon the forts, continuing the fire 
 until, the firing in the interior beginning to 
 slack, Flag-Officer Goldsborough concluded our 
 troops were approaching the rear of the bat 
 teries, and made signal to cease firing and to pro 
 ceed to clear the way through the obstructions, 
 which the vessels burst through about 4 P.M., 
 when the American flag was hoisted over the 
 works at Pork Point. Shortly after, the enemy 
 set fire to the works on Red Stone Point, and to 
 a steamer which had taken refuge under its guns. 
 Thus, after a two days struggle, Roanoke Island 
 fell into our hands. Retreating from Roanoke 
 Island, the enemy s vessels fled towards Elizabeth 
 City, while Commander Rowan, with 14 vessels, 
 followed in pursuit. On the morning of the 10th 
 they were discovered drawn up behind a battery 
 of four heavy guns, and, moored to the oppo 
 site bank, lay the schooner "Black Warrior," 
 carrying two heavy 32-pounders. When within 
 
NAVY 
 
 553 
 
 NAVY 
 
 range fire was opened upon our vessels, which 
 moved steadily on until within 1200 yards, when 
 Rowan made signal, "Ahead, full steam," and 
 dashed at the enemy, opening at the same time 
 a vigorous fire. Completely demoralized by the 
 suddenness and rapidity of the movement, the 
 " Black Warrior" was set on fire by the enemy, 
 the battery abandoned, and the entire fleet cap 
 tured or destroyed. Pushing on, the flotilla took 
 possession of Elizabeth City, and Lieut. Murray 
 was sent with a small flotilla to Edenton, of 
 which he took possession, and proceeded to ob 
 struct the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal, 
 which he thoroughly accomplished. At the same 
 time Rowan proceeded up the Chowan River as 
 far as Winton, where, on the 19th, a sharp en 
 gagement occurred ; but the next morning Col. 
 Hawkins entered the town and destroyed the 
 military stores and quarters found there. Com 
 mander Rowan having been left in command of 
 the naval forces in the sound, a combined expe 
 dition of the navy and army was organized for 
 an attack on Newbern, N. C. The fleet and trans 
 ports proceeded up the Neuse River, and an 
 chored, on the evening of the 12th of March, off 
 Slocum s Point, the place selected for the de 
 barkation of the troops. Early the following 
 morning our vessels opened upon the landing- 
 place with grape and canister to clear the way, 
 when the troops landed. As soon as this was 
 effected, the " Delaware" (flag-ship), with a sup 
 porting vessel, proceeded up the river on a recon- 
 noissance, when they were fired upon by Fort 
 Dixie, and a spirited engagement ensued, which 
 lasted until dark. At daylight, on the 14th, 
 Burnside, having with him a battery of how 
 itzers under Lieut. R. S. McCook, engaged the 
 enemy in force, while Rowan advanced steadily 
 up the river with his fleet. The river was ob 
 structed by piles and torpedoes, and at distances 
 of from half a mile to a mile and a half for 
 midable batteries of heavy guns were erected ; 
 but under pressure of the combined attack the 
 enemy abandoned their defenses in succession, 
 and at noon the fleet anchored off the deserted 
 town of Newbern. A large amount of public 
 stores fell into the hands of the navy, and were 
 turned over to the army, who arrived and took 
 possession of the town at 2 P.M. On the 21st, 
 Lieutenant Commanding Murray took posses 
 sion of Washington, N. C. In the beginning of 
 April, Commander Rowan sent to New York 
 9 vessels loaded with captured naval stores. 
 Fort Macon, Beaufort harbor, N. C., next en 
 gaged the attention of the army and navy. On 
 the morning of the 25th of April, Commander 
 Samuel Lockwood, with 3 steamers, the "Day 
 light," " State of Georgia," and " Chippewa," 
 opened fire upon the fort, and continued for 
 about an hour and a half, when the vessels were 
 obliged to haul off on account of the heavy sea. 
 Towards evening a flag of truce appeared on the 
 fort ; negotiations for surrender followed, and 
 terms of capitulation were agreed upon by Burn- 
 side on the part of the army, and Rowan on that of 
 the navy. The army having failed to accomplish 
 the object for which it was landed at Elizabeth 
 City, in destroying the canal, Lieut. Hurser 
 was dispatched for the purpose with 3 gunboats 
 and 2 steamers, which duty he effectually accom 
 plished. 
 
 On the 3d of March the enemy s ironclad 
 
 "Merrimac," supported by several small gun 
 boats, made an attack upon the frigates "Cum 
 berland" and "Congress" off Newport News. 
 The defense, though determined and valorous, 
 was hopeless against this invulnerable monster, 
 upon whose sides the heaviest shot from our 
 vessels made no impression. Ramming the 
 " Cumberland" just under the fore-chains, and 
 inflicting mortal injuries, the noble vessel sank 
 beneath the waters, carrying down with her 
 many of her wounded, whom it was impossible 
 to remove. The gallant and indomitable Morris 
 commanded her, and fought his ship for two 
 hours against all hope. In reporting to his com 
 manding officer, he writes : " I will only say, in 
 conclusion, all did their duty, and we sank with 
 the American flag at the peak." The "Cum 
 berland" lost, in killed and missing, a third of 
 her crew. While the "Merrimac" engaged the 
 "Cumberland" the smaller vessels attacked the 
 " Congress." Her commander, seeing the fate of 
 the " Cumberland," slipped his moorings and ran 
 his vessel ashore. At half-past 3 the " Merri 
 mac" opened upon her, directly astern, at a dis 
 tance of about 150 yards. The smaller vessels of 
 the enemy also opened. To oppose this fire the 
 " Congress" had but 2 stern-guns, which were 
 soon disabled. Lieut. J. Smith, the noble com- 
 manderof the " Congress," fell mortally wounded 
 about half-past 4, when the command devolved 
 upon Lieut. Pendergrast. This officer, seeing the 
 rapid slaughter of his men, finding it impossible 
 to bring any of his guns to bear, with his ship 
 on fire in several places, and with no prospect of 
 relief, decided to lower his colors. An officer 
 from the "Merrimac" boarded the vessel, or 
 dered her surrender, and directed her crew to 
 leave, as he intended to burn her. A sharp fire 
 from the shore compelled the party to leave, 
 when the enemy again opened fire, hauling off 
 finally to engage the "Minnesota," which had 
 grounded within a mile and a half of Newport 
 News in coming to the relief of the " Congress" 
 and "Cumberland." Fortunately, the heavy 
 draft of the "Merrimac" prevented her getting 
 nearer than a mile, but the 2 smaller vessels of the 
 enemy opened with their rifle-guns and inflicted 
 considerable damage until driven off by the heavy 
 gun of the " Minnesota," when all three steamed 
 towards Norfolk. While the " Minnesota" lay 
 in this critical condition, Worden, in the " Mon 
 itor," appeared about midnight upon the scene. 
 At 8 o clock the next morning the " Merrimac" 
 again approached. When within a mile of the 
 " Minnesota," Worden got underway and went 
 to meet her ; then followed a contest upon the 
 results of which not only the fate of the " Min 
 nesota" depended, but also to a large degree the 
 destinies of the Union and the fate of a great peo 
 ple, a contest which was destined to revolution 
 ize the whole system of naval warfare and oper 
 ations, and give rise, in this regard, to a new 
 order of things. With a sublime faith, an un 
 erring judgment, and a stout heart, nobly Wor 
 den went to meet the grave and weighty respon 
 sibilities resting upon him. For four hours the 
 furious combat raged between the monster " Mer 
 rimac" and the tiny " Monitor" the Goliath 
 and David of the deep without apparent injury 
 to either vessel, when the enemy retreated to 
 Sewell s Point. Towards the close of this re 
 markable engagement the gallant Worden was 
 
NAVY 
 
 554 
 
 NAVY 
 
 disabled by the explosion of a shell which struck 
 the look-out slit in the pilot-house, through 
 which, at the time, he was looking. The com 
 mand then devolved upon his sturdy and cour 
 ageous executive, Lieut. Dana Greene. No sin 
 gle encounter ever attracted throughout the 
 civilized world so much attention, and rarely in 
 history has the fate of a great nation been so de 
 pendent upon a single result. But for the genius 
 of Ericsson. Vvho planned the "Monitor," and 
 the skill and courage of Worden and those who 
 fought her, what would the pen of history have 
 written ! 
 
 Gen. McClellan occupied Yorktown May 14, 
 and immediately requested the co-operation of 
 the navy in his advance upon Richmond. On 
 May 7, Gen. Franklin s command, while debark 
 ing from the transports at West Point, "was 
 heavily attacked by the enemy, when the imme 
 diate assistance of the navy was requested. Lieut. 
 Commanding!?. H.Stevens, in the " Maratanza," 
 and Lieut. Wilkes Henry, in the "Sebago," 
 moved up as near to the enemy s position as possi 
 ble and opened fire. The assistance rendered to 
 the army upon this occasion was of great value, 
 and enabled Franklin to repulse the attack and 
 hold his ground. The next day a division of gun 
 boats under the command of Lieut. Commanding 
 Stevens, comprising the "Maratanza"; " Cho- 
 cura," Lieut. Commanding T. H. Patterson ; 
 11 Marblehead," Lieut. Commanding S. Nichol 
 son; " Sabago," Lieut. Commanding W. Henry, 
 and another gunboat, proceeded up the Pamunkey 
 Kiver to open the way and in support of McClel- 
 lan s advance. Stevens, in the " Chocura," pro 
 ceeded as far as the White House, distant 12 
 miles from Richmond, arriving opportunely to 
 give support to the cavalry advance under Col. 
 *L. Williams. Subsequently, Lieut. Command 
 ing Murray, with an expedition of gunboats, went 
 some distance beyond that point and destroyed a 
 large amount of the enemy s property, including 
 2 large steamers and 25 vessels, Lieut. Command 
 ing Stevens having in the mean time been or 
 dered to the James River to take part in the 
 contemplated attack upon the battery at Drury s 
 Bluff. On the 8th of May the " Monitor" opened 
 fire upon the Sewell s Point batteries, when the 
 " Merrimac" came out, but showed no disposi 
 tion to engage. Two days after, Norfolk sur 
 rendered to Gen. Wool, and the next morning 
 the " Merrimac" was blown up by the enemy. 
 About this time Commander John Rodgers, in 
 the "Galena," with the "Aroostook," Lieut. 
 Commanding J. C. Beaumont; "Monitor," 
 Lieut. Commanding Wm. N. Jeffers ; "Port 
 Royal," Lieut. Commanding George Morris, 
 and "Naugatuck," arrived at Drury s Bluff, 8 
 miles from Richmond, where a heavy battery 
 had been erected, which Rodgers with his com 
 mand opened upon. The fire was kept up for 3 
 hours, when the ammunition giving out, and the 
 " Galena" being badly cut up, the vessels with 
 drew. On the 4th of July, Lieut. Commanding 
 T. H. Stevens, in the " Maratanza," captured 
 the enemy s gunboat " Teazer," near Haxhall s 
 Landing. She was provided with all the appli 
 ances for laying down torpedoes, and had on 
 board a large balloon for reconnoitring purposes. 
 
 During the summer the navy was employed on 
 the James in co-operating with the army and in 
 keeping the James River open, and at the battle 
 
 of Malvern Hill the fire of the gunboats contrib 
 uted materially to the success of the day. On 
 the 5th of September, Rear-Admiral S. P. Lee 
 relieved Golds borough (who had asked to be re 
 lieved) in command "of the North Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron. In the sounds of North Caro 
 lina the navy was constantly occupied during the 
 summer in assisting the army to hold the occu 
 pied points and in aiding the movements. On 
 the 6th of September the enemy attacked and 
 entered Washington, N. C., but were driven out 
 by the timely action of Lieut. R. T. Renshaw, 
 who opened fire from the " Louisiana" upon 
 them. About the 1st of October an unsuccessful 
 combined movement was made upon Franklin, 
 Va. Upon this occasion numerous acts of dis 
 tinguished gallantry were performed, and Lieut. 
 Commanding Flusser, who commanded on the 
 part of the navy, specially commended the in 
 trepid and dashing Gushing to the notice of the 
 Department. In the latter part of November the 
 enterprising Cushing led an expedition which 
 had for its object the destruction of salt-works 
 and vessels engaged in the contraband trade, and 
 the capture of public property at Jacksonville, 
 N. C., in all of which he was successful.. On his 
 return his vessel, the "Ellis," grounded. All 
 attempts to lighten her proved unavailing. 
 Everything was removed to the schooner in com 
 pany, but the pivot-gun, some stores, and 6 
 men, who volunteered to remain with their com 
 mander, when she was ordered to drop down. 
 The next morning a heavy cross-fire was opened 
 upon the "Ellis," which soon disabled the en 
 gine, but the brave little party held on until the 
 time came when they must either surrender or 
 attempt to escape in the small boat. The " Ellis" 
 was fired and abandoned, and the gallant party 
 happily escaped to the schooner and passed out to 
 sea. On the 29th of December the famous " Mon 
 itor" foundered off Hatteras with 4 officers and 
 12 of her men ; the rest of the crew were saved 
 through the coolness and gallantry of her com 
 manding officer, Lieut. Bankhead The year 
 1863 was spent by the North Atlantic Blockad 
 ing Squadron in constant activity in guarding 
 the extended coast, penetrating the rivers and 
 sounds, repelling attacks upon occupied points, 
 and protecting and aiding the army in times of 
 difficulty and embarrassment. 
 
 On the 17th April, 1864, the enemy besieged 
 Plymouth, N. C., and two days after the iron- 
 plated ram " Albemarle" descended the Roanoke 
 and attacked the wooden gunboats eft that town, 
 sinking the " Southfield," and disabling the 
 " Miami," whose gallant commander, Lieuten 
 ant Commanding Flusser, was killed, and ob 
 tained possession of the river. The next day 
 the defenses of the town were carried, the gar 
 rison made prisoners, and the control of the upper 
 sounds passed into the enemy s hands. On the 
 5th May the enemy besieged Newbern, when 
 the ram again came out. Capt. llelanctaa 
 Smith, the senior naval officer, promptly en 
 gaged her with the " Mattabassett," " Wyalus- 
 ing," "Sassacus," and "Whitehead." After 
 an engagement lasting 3 hours, the ram re 
 tired up the river. On the night of the 27th 
 October, Lieut. W. B. Cushing, who had been 
 selected for the duty, with 14 men in a light 
 picket launch, having attached a torpedo of great 
 power, ascended the Roanoke River to Plymouth, 
 
NAVY 
 
 555 
 
 NAVY 
 
 approached the ram under a heavy fire and sunk 
 her. A shot from the " Albemarle" just as the 
 torpedo exploded sunk the launch. Gushing with 
 four of his daring party escaped miraculously, 
 the remainder were killed or wounded. This 
 dashing and brilliant achievement accomplished, 
 Commander Macomb with his command pushed 
 into the town, drove the enemy out and took pos 
 session of the place with all its armament, and 
 re-established the supremacy of the government 
 in the waters of North Carolina. In July, 1864, 
 Lieut. Gushing, with Ensign J. E. Jones and 
 Master s Mate William Howertt and 15 men, 
 made a daring reconnoissance to Wilmington, 
 and returned with valuable information in re 
 gard to the enemy s fleet and fortifications off 
 Wilmington. In the fall of 1864, the govern 
 ment having decided upon a demonstration 
 against Fort Fisher and the defenses of Wil 
 mington, Admiral D. D. Porter was assigned 
 to the command of the naval forces, and Gen. 
 B. F. Butler those of the army. On the 18th 
 December, Admiral Porter sailed from Beaufort 
 with all the monitors and smaller vessels, and 
 off New Inlet, N. C., was joined by the larger 
 war- vessels and transports assembled there. 
 Preparatory to the attack a novel experiment was 
 first to be tried, in the attempt to blow up Fort 
 Fisher by the explosive power of a large quan 
 tity of powder placed in a vessel called the 
 " Louisiana," fitted for the purpose. The gal 
 lant and chivalrous officers volunteering for this 
 extremely perilous enterprise were Commander 
 A. C. Lihind and Lieut. Preston, both of whom 
 had been already conspicuous in dashing enter 
 prises. On the night of the 23d the powder- 
 boat was towed so near the shore that the guns 
 in the casemates of Fort Fisher were distinctly 
 to be seen. The vessel being in position, the fuzes, 
 etc., were lighted by the brave little party, who 
 then took to the boat and pulled away. In about 
 an hour a terrific explosion occurred, but without 
 the hoped-for results, no material damage being 
 done to the fort. The morning after the explo 
 sion the fleet appeared off Fort Fisher and opened 
 fire, to which the fort replied briskly for some 
 time, and then relapsed into silence under the 
 concentrated fire of the fleet. Two of the ene 
 my s magazines were blown up. On the 25th the 
 transports arrived, when the fleet again opened 
 fire. Upon an arranged plan 3000 troops landed 
 about 5 miles from the fort, and a reconnois 
 sance was made in the neighborhood of the works. 
 Two light batteries and a few men were captured. 
 Gen. Butler having decided that the works were 
 uninjured as works of defense, and could only 
 be reduced by a regular siege, for which he was 
 not prepared, withdrew his command to the trans 
 ports and returned to Fortress Monroe. The fleet 
 remained and kept up a steady fire. On the 8th 
 of January, 1865, Gen. Grant having decided to 
 send a competent force, Gen. Terry with his com 
 mand arrived at Beaufort. A plan of operations 
 having been decided upon between Admiral Por 
 ter and Gen. Terry, the troops under cover of the 
 fire of the fleet were all landed by 2 P.M. of the 
 14th. The next day was appointed for the grand 
 attack. At 9 A.M. the fleet opened a vigorous 
 fire, which was sustained throughout the day, and 
 the enemy were soon driven to their bomb-proofs. 
 Sixteen hundred sailors and 400 marines, under 
 Lieut. R. K. Breese, were landed to join in the 
 
 assault. When the army was put in motion, 
 the men from the fleet were ordered to advance 
 also ; the former to assault on the land side, 
 the latter on the sea front of the fort. The at 
 tack on the part of the navy resulted in a repulse, 
 though the demonstration served a good purpose 
 in diverting the attention of the enemy, who sup 
 posed this to be the main attack, so that the army 
 met with less opposition. The fire from the fleet 
 was kept up on those portions of the fort held by 
 the enemy, the direction of the fire being changed 
 as the traverses were occupied by our troops. In 
 this remarkable manner the army and the navy 
 co-operated, and in 7 hours this enormous work, 
 assisted by the fire of the fleet, was captured by a 
 handful of men. Seventy-five guns were cap 
 tured, and 2500 men taken prisoners, among 
 them Gens. Whiting and Lamb, who were 
 wounded. Porter, his officers, and men re 
 ceived the thanks of Congress. Twenty-four 
 hours after the fall of Fort Fisher, Fort Cas- 
 well, Baldhead Fort, and Fort Shaw were evacu 
 ated. Fort Campbell was abandoned a few hours 
 later, and this entire chain of rebel defenses fell 
 into our hands. About the 15th February the 
 combined forces resumed operations against Wil 
 mington. Fort Anderson, the most important 
 work remaining to the enemy, surrendered on 
 the 18th February, after a vigorous bombard 
 ment by the vessels of the fleet, supported by 
 Gen. Schofield, who advanced upon the fort 
 with 2000 men. On the 21st February the 
 enemy were driven from Fort Strong, and on 
 the 22d Wilmington was evacuated. 
 
 During the year 1864 a portion of the naval 
 force attached to the North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron was actively engaged in co-operating 
 on the James River with the army of Gen. 
 Grant. A number of sharp and severe engage 
 ments occurred between these vessels and the 
 powerful batteries which lined the shore of the 
 river, in many of which the navy acquired great 
 credit, particularly in the engagement with the 
 rebel batteries at Deep Bottom, where Com 
 mander A. C. Rhind, in the "Agawam," spe 
 cially distinguished himself for "gallantry and 
 endurance," and received the thanks of the Navy 
 Department. 
 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. In Oc 
 tober, 1861, a joint naval and military expedi 
 tion was organized, the object being to seize and 
 occupy points on the Southern coast as places of 
 supply and to afford protection to loyal citizens. 
 Flag-Officer S F. Dupont was appointed the na 
 val commander, and Gen. W. T. Sherman to the 
 command of the military forces. Port Royal, 
 S. C., was selected as the first objective-point. 
 On the 29th of October the fleet, consisting of 
 48 vessels, including transports, sailed from 
 Hampton Roads. OfFHatteras the severest storm 
 known for many years was encountered, in which 
 the steamer " Governor," having on board the 
 battalion of marines, was lost, and also the 
 transport steamer "Peerless." The crew and 
 marines of the former were rescued by Capt. 
 Cadwallader Ringgold in the "Sabine," and the 
 crew, etc., of the latter were saved by Commander 
 S. Godon in the "Mohican." On the morning 
 of the 4th of November the rest of the fleet an 
 chored off the bar of Port Royal. The buoys, 
 etc., having been removed, Commander C. H. 
 Davis and Mr. Boutelle, of the coast survey, 
 
NAVY 
 
 556 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Sounded out the channel and buoyed it. The 
 "Ottawa," Lieut. Commanding T. H. Stevens; 
 " Seneca," Lieut. Commanding D. Ammen ; 
 " Pembina," Lieut. Commanding J. P. Bank- 
 head ; "Pawnee," Lieut. Commanding B. H. 
 Wyman ; and "Curlew," Lieut. Commanding 
 P. G. Watmough, were sent forward to cover 
 the transports, which crossed the bar and an 
 chored in the lower anchorage of Port Royal. 
 The enemy s fleet under Tatnall shortly after 
 steamed down the harbor, when the gunboats 
 got under way and chased them under the forts. 
 The next morning Gen. Wright and Commander 
 John Kodgers, in the "Ottawa," supported by 
 the other gunboats, made a reconnoissance and 
 drew the fire of the forts on Bay Point and Hil 
 ton Head sufficient to show them to be works 
 of strength and well constructed. A fleet of 7 
 of the enemy s vessels, armed with rifle-guns, 
 occupied the inner portion of the harbor. Prep 
 arations for the attack were immediately made. 
 The order of battle comprised a main squadron 
 in line ahead and a flanking squadron to engage 
 the enemy s flotilla and cover the rear of the 
 main line as the ships swung to the southward. 
 The main squadron consisted of the " Wabash," 
 Commander C. K. P. Kodgers; the " Susque- 
 hannah," Capt. J. L. Lardner; "Mohican," 
 Commander S. W. Godon ; "Seminole," Com 
 mander J. P. Gillis ; "Pawnee," Lieut. Com 
 manding R. H. Wyman ; and gunboats " Una- 
 dilla," Lieut. Commanding N. Collins; "Ot 
 tawa," Lieut. Commanding T. H. Stevens ; 
 "Pembina," Lieut. Commanding J. P. Bank- 
 head; sailing sloop-of-war " Vandalia," Com 
 mander F. S. Haggert, towed by the "Isaac 
 Smith," Lieut. Commanding J. W. A. Nichol 
 son ; and the steamer "Augusta," Commander 
 E. G. Parrott. The flanking squadron consisted 
 of the steamer " Bienville," Commander Charles 
 Steedman ; the gunboats " Seneca," Lieut. Com 
 manding D. Ammen; the gunboat "Curlew," 
 Lieut.-Commander P. G. Watmough ; " Pen 
 guin," Lieut. Commanding T. A. Budd ; and 
 the steamer "Augusta," E. G; Parrott. The 
 plan of attack was to pass midway between the 
 forts, engaging both batteries to a point about 
 2^ miles beyond ; then to turn to the southward 
 round by the west, and after passing Hilton 
 Head to turn to the northward by the east. 
 These evolutions were to be repeated. Three 
 times the larger vessels of the fleet circled be 
 tween the forts, while the gunboats "Ottawa," 
 "Seneca," "Pembina," and "Curlew" took up 
 an enfilading position after passing between the 
 forts, and poured in a destructive fire upon the 
 Hilton Head fort, which was very effective. 
 The engagement lasted three hours, when the 
 enemy deserted the Hilton Head defenses. With 
 the fall of these works the fort on Bay Point was 
 also abandoned. Flag-Officer Dupont, his offi 
 cers, and men received the thanks of Congress. 
 In the latter part of November Tybee Island, at 
 the mouth of the Savannah River, was occupied 
 without opposition. At about the same time 
 naval reconnoissances were made by Commander 
 Drayton in St. Helena Sound, and in the Coosa 
 and Ashepoo and the North and South Edisto 
 Rivers. He found the works erected by the en 
 emy abandoned. St. Helena Island was occu 
 pied by the navy. Similar reconnoissances were 
 made in Warsaw and Ossibaw Sounds, with like 
 
 results, excepting on the eastern end of Green 
 Island a battery was found erected of 8 guns. 
 In the latter part of December, Gen. Sherman 
 having requested the co-operation of the navy 
 to arrest the designs of the enemy, who were at 
 tempting to shut up our forces on Port Royal 
 Island by obstructing the Coosa and Whale 
 Back Rivers and by erecting batteries at Port 
 Royal Ferry, Seabrooke, and Boyd s Neck, where 
 the enemy had concentrated a force of 3000 men, 
 Commander C. R. P. Rodgers was appointed to 
 command the naval forces, which consisted of 
 the " Ottawa," " Seneca," " Pembina," " Ellen," 
 and "C. B. Hale." The attack was made on 
 the 1st of January, 1862, and the movement 
 was entirely successful. Gen. Isaac Stevens, 
 who commanded the military forces, rendered 
 the most cordial thanks for the hearty co-opera 
 tion and assistance of the navy. 
 
 On the 1st of February, an expedition under 
 command of Commander C. H. Davis, consisting 
 of the "Ottawa," "Seneca," "Isaac Smith," 
 "Potomska," Lieut. Commanding P. G. Wat- 
 mouth, " Ellen," and "Western World," with 
 3 army transports, having on board 2400 troops, 
 under command of Gen. H. G. Wright, sailed 
 from Port Royal to make a reconnoissance of the 
 Little Tybee River and adjacent streams. Com 
 mander C. R. P. Rodgers, with 2 armed launches 
 of the " Wabash," accompanied the expedition. 
 On the 2d the vessels entered the Little Tybee, 
 and after passing Fort Pulaski without being 
 fired upon, proceeded to a point beyond the high 
 lands on Wilmington Island. Here a row of 
 piles were placed, and the vessels anchored. 
 Scouting-parties were sent out in all directions 
 without seeing anything of the enemy, and Lieut. 
 Commanding Ammen landed and cut the tele 
 graph-wire between Fort Pulaski and Savannah. 
 About noon 5 steamers of the enemy, under 
 command of Tatnall, having scows in tow, at 
 tempted to pass down the Savannah River, but 
 were driven back by the fire of the gunboats. 
 At night-fall the expedition got under way, to 
 the regret and disappointment of most connected 
 with it, and returned to Port Royal. Nothing 
 but a few rotten piles and rusty guns many be 
 lieved stopped the way to Savannah in that di 
 rection. Commander Davis was a strict con- 
 structionist of orders, and, however promising 
 of success, did not feel justified in making the 
 attempt. On the last of February, 1862, Flag- 
 Officer Dupont left Port Royal with most of his 
 squadron and several transports, having on board 
 a brigade of troops under Gen. Wright, for the 
 purpose of attacking Fort Clinch. On the 2d of 
 March, when off St. Andrews, the entrance to 
 Cumberland Sound, all the light-draft vessels 
 were directed to proceed through the sound for 
 the purpose of attacking the fort in that direc 
 tion, while the heavy vessels were to proceed 
 outside and attack from that quarter. In pass 
 ing through the narrow and difficult inside pass 
 age one after another of the vessels grounded ; 
 and the "Ottawa," Lieut. Commanding Stev 
 ens, alone succeeded in getting through. When 
 within about 3 miles of the fort, Commanders 
 Drayton and C. R. P. Rodgers came on board 
 that vessel. It being the impression that the 
 enemy were about to abandon the fort, the " Ot 
 tawa" proceeded at full speed to cut off the re 
 treat of the enemy and to prevent the destruction 
 
NAVY 
 
 557 
 
 NAVY 
 
 of property. In passing Fort Clinch, Lieut. G. 
 
 B. White, the executive of the " Ottawa," was 
 sent in the gig to hoist the American flag over 
 the first national fort retaken from the rebels. 
 While passing up to the draw of the railroad 
 bridge, a train of cars was descried leaving Fer- 
 nandina, to which the " Ottawa" gave chase, and 
 disabled by a shot from her pivot-gun. The 
 steamer "Darlington" also attempted to escape, 
 but was brought to by a well-directed shot from 
 the "Ottawa/ when Commander Kodgers, of 
 the " Wabash," who had brought to that vessel 
 two of his armed launches, boarded the " Dar 
 lington" and took possession. A pilot-boat was 
 also captured, and all the guns, munitions of 
 war, stores, etc., belonging to the fort. That 
 night the "Ottawa" proceeded up the river to 
 the town of St. Mary s, which Commander 
 Rodgers took possession of about midnight, cap 
 turing the horses and accoutrements of a cav 
 alry guard, which, so sudden was the surprise, 
 the enemy did not find time to mount. The 
 next morning, learning that 2 steamers had es 
 caped up the river, Lieut. Commanding Stevens 
 pushed on in pursuit, going as far as Woodstock 
 Mills, a point 50 miles above St. Mary s. On the 
 return of the " Ottawa, "she was heavily attacked 
 from both sides of the crooked river, not 100 
 yards wide, by a large body of the enemy. The 
 firing was kept up for a distance of about 2 miles, 
 and was so severe as to drive our men from all 
 the guns but the howitzers, which were well 
 served, and from the effects of which the enemy 
 must have suffered severely. Scarcely a person 
 on board the "Ottawa" escaped untouched in 
 clothing or person. On the 7th of March, Com 
 mander Godon, in the " Mohican," having with 
 him the " Potomska" and " Pocahontas," took 
 possession of Brunswick, Ga. About the same 
 time an expedition was organized under Lieut. 
 Commanding Stevens, to make a reconnoissance 
 of the St. John s River as far as Jacksonville, 
 Fla. The expedition comprised the "Ottawa," 
 "Seneca," Ammen, "Pembina," Bankhead, 
 "Isaac Smith," Nicholson, and "Ellen," 
 and about 1000 troops. About 10 o clock in 
 the evening of the day the vessels crossed 
 the shallow and difficult bar at the mouth of 
 the river large fires were discovered in the di 
 rection of Jacksonville, which proved to be the 
 burning of saw-mills, the property of men with 
 Union proclivities, and a gunboat on the stocks 
 was also destroyed. The expedition was entirely 
 successful. The batteries at the mouth of the 
 river were abandoned, and also a fort on St. 
 John s Bluff, and their guns secured. Upon ap 
 proaching Jacksonville, a boat bearing a flag of 
 truce came alongside of the "Ottawa" to sur 
 render the city, which was taken possession of 
 without opposition. Penetrating into Dunn s 
 Creek, Lieut. Stevens found the famed yacht 
 " America," which had been sunk by the enemy. 
 She was raised and taken to Port Royal. It is 
 understood she had been purchased by the Con 
 federacy for $60,000 in gold, for the purpose of 
 taking their commissioners, Slidell and Mason, 
 to Europe. On the 12th of May, Commander 
 
 C. R. Rodgers received the surrender of St. Au 
 gustine, Fla. The results of these various expe 
 ditions gave us possession of the coast and inland 
 waters from St. Simon s southward. Upon the 
 information derived from Robert Small, a colored 
 
 pilot, who had made a daring escape from Charles 
 ton, Stone River and inlet were occupied. In 
 March, Lieut. Commanding Budd and Acting 
 Master Mather, and others, were ambushed and 
 killed while engaged on a boat expedition into 
 Mosquito Inlet. After a bombardment of 2 
 days, Fort Pulaski surrendered on the 12th of 
 April. Commander C. R. P. Rodgers, upon this 
 occasion, represented the navy. in command of 
 Battery Siegel, officered and manned by a de 
 tachment from the " Wabash." On the 26th of 
 January, 1863, Commander J. L. "Worden, in 
 the monitor "Montauk," engaged for 4 hours 
 the enemy s battery at Genesis Point, on the 
 Great Ogeechee River. On the 30th of January, 
 the Confederate rams raided the blockading fleet 
 off Charleston, disabling the " Mercedita" by a 
 shot which exploded her boiler and scalded many 
 of her crew, and by the explosion of a shell set 
 the " Keystone State" on fire. Le Roy, who 
 commanded the latter vessel, hauled oft to ex 
 tinguish the fire, which done, he ordered a full 
 head of steam with the intention of running down 
 one of the ironclads. In the act of running for 
 her with a speed of 12 knots, a shot struck her 
 steam-chest and disabled the vessel. In the 
 mean time, Parrot in the "Augusta," Fraley in 
 the " Quaker City," and Watmough in the 
 "Memphis," kept up a steady fire upon the 
 enemy, in which they were shortly joined by the 
 " Housatonic," Taylor, when the enemy soon 
 withdrew. The " Keystone State" lost about a 
 fourth of her crew in killed and wounded. On 
 the 30th of January the steamer " Isaac Smith," 
 having grounded in Stono River under the fire 
 of a heavy battery, after a gallant resistance, 
 was captured. At daylight on the 27th of Feb 
 ruary, Commander Worden, in the monitor 
 " Montauk, "accompanied by the gunboats" Sen 
 eca," Gibson, " Wissahickon," Davis, and 
 " Dawn," shoved up under aheavy fire from Fort 
 McAllister, and destroyed the enemy s armed 
 steamer " Nashville," lying under the fort, by a 
 well-directed shot from the "Montauk," which 
 exploded her magazine. Government having 
 determined to attempt the capture of Charleston, 
 a force consisting of the ironclad "New Iron 
 sides," Turner, accompanied by the monitors 
 "Passaic," Drayton, " Weehawken," John 
 Rodgers, "Montauk," Worden, " Patapsco," 
 Ammen, " Catskill," George W. Rodgers, 
 " Nantucket," Fairfax, " Nahant," Downes, and 
 " Keokuk," Rhind, crossed the bar off Charles 
 ton, on the 6th of April, and anchored out 
 side. At noon the next day the vessels moved 
 to the attack. The plan of attack contemplated 
 passing by Fort Sumter without stopping to en 
 gage any of the supporting batteries, which fort 
 was to be attacked on the northwest front. The 
 heavy fire of these batteries, together with the 
 nature of the obstructions, defeated this inten 
 tion, and the fleet were compelled to make the 
 attack from the outside, on the sea front of the 
 fort. The attack was a failure. Several of the 
 monitors were reported partially disabled, and 
 the "Keokuk," whose chivalrous commander 
 had carried her almost under the walls of Fort 
 Sumter, was so badly cut up that she sank the 
 next morning. On the 17th of June the enemy s 
 ironclad "Atlanta" was captured, after a brief 
 engagement of 15 minutes, by the monitor" Wee 
 hawken," John Rodgers, and taken possession 
 
NAVY 
 
 558 
 
 NAVY 
 
 of by a boat from the " Montauk," Downes. 
 The action was so brief the " Nahant" did not 
 have an opportunity to fire, and the " Weehaw 
 ken" fired but 5 shots. On the 6th day of July, 
 Rear-Admiral Dupont was relieved at his own 
 request by Hear- Admiral Dahlgren, in com 
 mand of the squadron. On the 18th of July a 
 combined attack was made upon Fort Wagner 
 by the troops and ironclads. The fort was en 
 gaged at short range by the latter, and silenced 
 for the day, but the troops were repulsed, owing 
 to the inadequacy of the force. On the 17th of 
 August the land batteries opened upon Sumter, 
 in which the " Patapsco" and " Passaic" joined, 
 while the " Ironsides" and the other monitors 
 engaged Wa,gner. Forts Sumter and "Wagner 
 were silenced. During this engagement the gifted 
 and gallant George W. Rodgers, in command of 
 the " Catskill," was killed, and also Paymaster 
 "Woodbury, who was standing by his side. On the 
 22d of August, Commander T. H. Stevens, in 
 the " Patapsco," and Commander E. Ross Col- 
 houn, in the a Weehawken," engaged Fort Wag 
 ner for about 2 hours. About this time several 
 changes occurred, Commander Rodgers having 
 been killed, and Fairfax and Downes relieved at 
 their own request. Commander Bryson was 
 ordered to the command of the " Lehigh," Lieut. 
 Commanding John Lee Davis to that of the 
 " Montauk," Lieut. Commanding Cilley to that 
 of the "Catskill," and Cornwelf to that of the 
 " Nahant." On the 23d of August the " Iron 
 sides" and all the monitors bombarded Sumter 
 for about 4 hours at a distance of 800 yards under 
 a very heavy cross-fire from the enemy s defenses. 
 On the 31st of August a division of monitors 
 under Commander T. H. Stevens, embracing the 
 "Patapsco," "Weehawken," "Passaic," and 
 "Nahant," attacked Fort Moultrie and the ad 
 jacent batteries for about 3.} hours, when signal 
 was made to withdraw. Some of the monitors 
 were heavily hit. Simpson, commanding the 
 " Passaic," in his work on " Armored Vessels," 
 refers to this engagement as the severest that had 
 occurred between land batteries and ironclads. 
 On the night of the next day another demon 
 stration, participated in by the " New Iron 
 sides" and all the monitors, was made upon 
 Sumter, which lasted for about 4 hours under a 
 heavy cross-fire from the enemy s batteries, con 
 siderable damage being done to some of the mon 
 itors. On the night of the 6th, under the com 
 bined operations of the army and navy, Forts 
 Gregg and Wagner fell, and Morris Island was 
 evacuated by the enemy. 
 
 At 5.30 P.M. of the 7th the "Ironsides" and 
 all the monitors, with the exception of the "Wee 
 hawken" (aground), got under way to attack the 
 enemy s defenses on Sullivan Island. The object 
 of the demonstration was to cover the " Patap 
 sco" while she proceeded to make an exami 
 nation of the obstructions. When the enemy 
 discovered the object of the movement, all the bat 
 teries upon Sullivan Island opened upon the " Pa 
 tapsco." Under this terrific fire she was struck 
 23 times in as many minutes. She proceeded to 
 within 150 yards of Fort Sumter and the obstruc 
 tions, and having made the required examina 
 tion, dropped down to the flag-ship, when Com 
 mander Stevens went on board to report. On 
 the morning of the 8th September, the " New 
 Ironsides " and all the monitors, under command 
 
 of Commodore Rowan, got under way and an 
 chored within 800 yards of the batteries on Sul 
 livan Island to cover the " Weehawken," still 
 aground. The engagement, lasting 3 hours, was 
 very severe, during the close of which the " Pa 
 tapsco" was disabled and towed to her anchorage. . 
 Admiral Dahlgren, having the impression that 
 there was nothing but a corporal s guard in Sum 
 ter, sent, on the night of the same day, an expedi 
 tion composed of 400 men and officers in 40 boats, 
 under Commander Stevens, to surprise the fort. 
 On nearing Sumter the boats were hailed, and 
 simultaneously a rocket was sent up from the 
 northeast bastion, when all the batteries on James 
 and Sullivan Islands, and an ironclad with grape 
 and canister, opened upon the attacking party, 
 and the solitary approach to the fort the parapets 
 being lined with sharpshooters, the boats were 
 being rapidly sunk by hand-grenades and heavy 
 stones ; those who had landed could not get back 
 through the terrific tempest of shot arid shell, 
 grape and canister and musketry, nor could re 
 lief be rendered them, and as a further persist 
 ence in the attack would have been madness, the 
 order was given to fall back. About a fourth of 
 the command was killed or taken prisoners ; 
 among the latter the gallant Porter, Preston, and 
 Williams, who were among the first to land. 
 Gen. Beauregard, who commanded the defenses 
 in Charleston harbor, writes : " If we had not 
 opened so soon and fired so rapidly we would 
 have captured or destroyed your whole com 
 mand." The enemy were enabled to read all 
 our signals, and as the preparations, imperfect as 
 they were, were made in open day, the enemy 
 were fully prepared as Gen. Beauregard states 
 and the sequel shows to repel the assault. Just 
 outside of the line of fire lay a number of army- 
 boats loaded with men ready to participate had 
 the movement been a success, which retired 
 without making a single demonstration. For 
 about. 10 days in November the monitors "Pa 
 tapsco" and " Lehigh" co-operated with the 
 army in bombarding Sumter until it was reduced 
 apparently to ruin ; but no subsequent attempts 
 were made to occupy it until Charleston was 
 flanked by Sherman, when all its defenses were 
 abandoned. In February, 1864, a division of 
 gunboats was sent to the St. John s River to 
 co-operate with the army in a movement into 
 Florida. On the night of the 17th February, 
 1864, the sloop-of-war " Housatonic" was sunk 
 oft Charleston by a torpedo-boat. Other similar 
 but fruitless attempts were made upon our ves 
 sels. In February, Admiral Dahlgren having 
 received a leave, Commodore Rowan was left 
 temporarily in command. In March a diversion 
 was made into Bull s Bay. In May a force was 
 detailed to co-operate with the army in an effort 
 to sever the railroad between Charleston and Sa 
 vannah. Information having been received of 
 Sherman s advance to the sea, at the proper time 
 every available means were used to aid in the 
 success of the movement by creating diversions 
 in various directions and to embarrass the enemy. 
 On the 12th December Sherman arrived in the 
 neighborhood of Savannah, when Dahlgren im 
 mediately opened communication with him. On 
 the 18th December the investment of that city 
 by the army on one side and the navy on the 
 other was accomplished. Savannah was occu 
 pied by Sherman on the 21st. Early in January, 
 
NAVY 
 
 559 
 
 NAVY 
 
 1865, the forces under Dahlgren assisted in trans 
 ferring the right wing of Sherman s army to 
 Beaufort, S. C. On the 12th and 13th February 
 a joint army and navy movement was made 
 along the approaches from Bull s Bay to Mount 
 Pleasant with a view to threaten Charleston, 
 which was evacuated on the night of the 17th, and 
 Georgetown was soon after occupied by the navy. 
 Rear- Admiral Dahlgren received the thanks of 
 the Department for his untiring energy, etc., 
 while in command. 
 
 East Gulf Blockading Squadron. This squad 
 ron embraced within its limits the coast of 
 Florida from Cape Florida to Pensacola. In 
 January, 1862, Flag-Officer McKean, then in 
 command, dispatched Commander Emmons in 
 the "Hatteras" to operate against the enemy at 
 Cedar Keys. The expedition destroyed a large 
 amount of public property, including military 
 stores, and captured several loaded schooners 
 ready to run the blockade, and a battery of 
 2 guns in position at Sea-Horse Key., In the 
 latter part of March, Commander Stellwagen, 
 in the " Mercedita," arrived off Appalachicola 
 with the "Sangamon," Lieut. Commanding 
 Drake, and organized a boat expedition for the 
 capture of a number of vessels above the city. 
 No resistance was offered, and the expedition 
 brought out a number of vessels and destroyed 
 others. On the 4th of April, Lieut. Command 
 ing Gate, in the " Pursuit," captured at St. An 
 drews a valuable side-wheel steamer of 500 tons 
 with 200 bales of cotton. During the year 1863, 
 the squadron, being then under command of 
 Rear-Admiral T. Bailey, captured or destroyed 
 more than 300 blockade-runners. In May, an 
 expedition of several hundred, led lay Confeder 
 ate naval officers, made an attempt to capture, 
 off Appalachicola, the U. S. steamer " Adela," 
 which resulted in their complete discomfiture, 
 the capture of most of them with several boats, 
 their armaments and accoutrements. During 
 the year many armed incursions were made into 
 the interior of Florida, which resulted in the 
 destruction of a number of salt-works. During 
 the year 1864 the East Gulf Blockading Squad 
 ron engaged in no active operations against the 
 enemy. 
 
 West Gulf Blockading Squadron. On the night 
 of the 12th April, 1861, Fort Pickens was re 
 inforced by a party of U. S. troops under Capt. 
 Vogdes, and by the marines of the squadron un 
 der Lieut. Cash. The "Brooklyn," Capt. Wal 
 ker, and the "Wyandotte," Lieut. Command 
 ing Mullany, were engaged in landing them. 
 On the night of September 13, 1861, an expe 
 dition was "fitted out, consisting of the first launch, 
 and the first, second, and third cutters of the 
 " Colorado," under the command of Lieuts. 
 Russell, Sproston, and Blake, and Midshipman 
 Steece, accompanied by Capt. Reynolds, of the 
 marines, Assistant Surgeon Kennedy, Assistant 
 Engineer White, and Midshipmen Forrest and 
 Higginson. The entire force numbered about 
 100, including officers, sailors, and marines. 
 The object of the expedition was the destruc 
 tion of a schooner lying off the Pensacola Navy- 
 Yard intended to be fitted out as a privateer, and 
 the spiking of a gun in the southeast end of the 
 yard. A desperate resistance was made, but the 
 objects of the expedition were gallantly accom 
 plished, the vessel was destroyed and the gun 
 
 spiked. Our loss was 3 killed. Midshipman 
 Higginson had the end of his thumb shot off, 
 and Capt. Reynolds received a severe contusion 
 in the shoulder. Handsome acknowledgments 
 were made to those participating in this dashing 
 enterprise. On the night of the 7th November, 
 an expedition consisting of the first and second 
 launches of the "Santee," under the command 
 of Lieut. James E. Jouett, having with him 
 Lieut. J. J. Mitchell, Acting Gunner William 
 Carter, and Acting Master s Mate C. W. Adams, 
 with 2 armed boats, left the " Santee," then 
 blockading off Galveston, Texas, for thepurposeof 
 destroying the armed steamer "General Rusk," 
 lying under Pelican Island fort. The armed 
 schooner guarding the channel, and Bolivar and 
 Pelican Island forts, were successfully passed 
 without discovery, but the boats having grounded 
 on Bolivar Spit, were discovered. Lieut. Jouett 
 deeming it imprudent after being discovered to 
 make an attempt upon a vessel so heavily armed 
 as the " Rusk," concluded to abandon that por 
 tion of the expedition. In returning he boarded 
 and, after a sharp and severe contest, in the com 
 mencement of which he was severely wounded, 
 captured the schooner "Royal Yacht," armed 
 with a light 32-pounder. Thirteen prisoners 
 were captured, several stands of arms, and the 
 colors. As the pilot of the expedition had been 
 shot down, and the schooner had received a 
 shot between wind and water, Lieut. Jouett con 
 cluded to burn her. After this the party re 
 turned to the frigate. Lieut. Jouett and Gun 
 ner Carter were seriously wounded, as were also 
 6 men, 2 of them mortally. Flag-Officer McKean 
 issued a general order thanking the officers and 
 men who composed the expedition, expressing 
 the conviction "that their names would be en 
 rolled by a grateful country among those who in 
 former years have shed so bright a lustre upon 
 the American navy." Jouett s intrepid conduct, 
 and his indomitable will and courage, which, 
 overcoming all obstacles, carried the enterprise 
 to a successful conclusion, were acknowledged by 
 the Department in his immediate appointment to 
 an important command, and in a letter from the 
 Department to Flag Officer McKean, which says, 
 "The Department cannot in too high terms ex 
 press its admiration of the daring and successful 
 exploit of Lieut. Jouett, and the officers and 
 men under him. The capture of a schooner well 
 armed, and with every advantage of resistance, 
 after a desperate encounter, speaks well of the 
 intrepidity and bravery of the captors." On the 
 25th May, 1862, Lieut. Commanding Abner 
 Read, in the "New London," had a spirited en 
 gagement off Pass Christian with the "Oregon" 
 and " Pimlico," two of the enemy s armed ves 
 sels, which lasted 2J hours, when they retired. 
 
 Capt. D. G. Farragut having been appointed 
 to the command of the West Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, and charged with the reduction of 
 the defenses guarding the approaches to New Or 
 leans and the capture" of that city, arrived at Ship 
 Island on the 21st February, 1862, and at once 
 commenced active preparations for that purpose. 
 Eighteen thousand troops under Gen. B. F. But 
 ler were to co-operate, and a fleet of mortar- 
 vessels and armed steamers under Commander 
 David D. Porter were to take part in the opera 
 tions. The squadron for the purpose had been 
 largely increased by many of the largest frigates 
 
NAVY 
 
 560 
 
 NAVY 
 
 and sloops-of-war in the navy. Much difficulty 
 was experienced in getting some of the former over 
 the bar, and with the " Colorado" it was found 
 impossible. On the 16th March, Porter with his 
 mortar fleet, assisted by the gunboats, com 
 menced the bombardment of Fort Jackson. 
 On the 1st April, Capt. Bell, assisted by Lieuts. 
 Caldwell and Crosby, who had been selected for 
 the purpose, succeeded in cutting the chain placed 
 in the river to obstruct our vessels. At 2 o clock 
 A.M., all preparations for the attack having been 
 completed, signal was made to get under way. 
 Owing to some difficulty with the " Pensacola" 
 and some of the other vessels in getting their 
 anchors, they were not under way for an hour 
 later. The vessels then advanced in two columns, 
 Capt. Bailey leading the right and the advance 
 in the gunboat " Cayuga," Lieut. Commanding 
 N. B. Harrison, followed by the "Oneida," Com 
 mander S. P. Lee; " Varuna," Commander C. 
 S. Boggs; "Katahdin," Lieut. Commanding G. 
 H. Preble ; "Kineo," Lieut. Commanding Geo. 
 M. Ransom ; and " Wissahickon," Lieut. Com 
 manding Albert Smith, supported by the steam- 
 sloop "Pensacola," Capt. H. W. Morris, and 
 frigate " Mississippi," Commander M. Smith. 
 This division was to attack Port St. Philip. The 
 second division of the column was led by the 
 " Hartford" (flag-ship), Commander Richard 
 "Wain wright, followed by the " Brooklyn," 
 Capt. Thomas T. Craven; the "Richmond," 
 Commander James Alden ; and the second di 
 vision of gunboats led by Capt. H. H. Bell in the 
 "Sciota," Lieut. Commanding Edward Donald 
 son, followed by the " Iroquois," Commander 
 John DeCamp ; " Kennebec," Lieut. Command 
 ing John H. Russell; " Pinola," Lieut. Com 
 manding Pierce Crosby ; " Itasca," Lieut. Com 
 manding C. H. B. Caldwell ; and "Winona," 
 Lieut. Commanding E. T. Nichols, in the order 
 named. The fleet soon passed the barrier chains, 
 the right division attacking Fort St. Philip, and 
 the left Fort Jackson. Commander Porter had 
 by previous arrangement moved up to a certain 
 point on the Fort Jackson side with his gun 
 boats, while his mortar-vessels, with the " Ports 
 mouth," engaged the water-batteries to the south 
 ward and east ward of Fort Jackson, and poured in 
 a terrific fire of shells. A fire-raft was started down 
 upon the " Hartford," in avoiding which the ship 
 grounded, when the enemy s ram " Manassas" 
 appeared, and pushed the raft down upon the 
 "Hartford," setting her on fire half-way up to 
 her tops. She was soon backed off and the fire 
 extinguished. In the mean time, Fort St. Philip 
 was soon silenced by the fire of the " Hartford." 
 By the time the enemy s gunboats, reported to 
 be 13 in number, besides the ironclads " Manas 
 sas" and " Louisiana," appeared, they were 
 taken in hand and most of them destroyed. 
 The fleet, with the exception of the " Winona" 
 and " Kennebec," which were unable to pass the 
 forts before the day broke, was now fairly past 
 the forts, and the victory won. The " Varuna," 
 which was some distance in advance of most of 
 the fleet, was sunk. Just at the close of the fight 
 the ram " Manassas" made a demonstration upon 
 the "Hartford," when the " Mississippi" made 
 after her, drove her ashore, and, pouring two 
 broadsides into her, left her a perfect wreck. 
 This closed the morning s fight. Capt. Bailey 
 proceeded on and captured the Chalmette regi 
 
 ment. The fleet reached the English turn about 
 10 A.M. of the 15th. It was now formed in two 
 columns as before. As Capt. Bailey in the 
 advance approached the Chalmette batteries 
 they opened a galling fire, but the larger ves 
 sels coming to his assistance opened, when the 
 batteries were silenced and the troops driven out. 
 New Orleans was shortly after taken possession 
 of by Capt. Bailey, all the steamboats seized and 
 sent down the river to bring up Gen. Butler s 
 forces. Farragut then pushed on to Carrollton, 
 where there were two other forts, which were 
 found deserted. On the 28th April, Forts Jack 
 son and Philip, after a bombardment of 144 con 
 secutive hours by Porter s mortar fleet, surren 
 dered to that officer. On the 29th, Gen. Butler 
 reached New Orleans, and shortly after his troops 
 were in full possession of the city. A detachment 
 of smaller vessels, under Commander S. P. Lee, 
 was sent as high as Yicksburg. Farragut, and 
 Porter and his command, received the thanks 
 of Congress. May 7, Commander James Palmer, 
 in the " Iroquois," took possession of Baton 
 Rouge with all the public property. On the 
 28th June the mortar-vessels commenced the 
 bombardment of the Vicksburg batteries, which 
 were soon silenced by this fire and that of the 
 squadrons, but as there was not a sufficient land 
 force to co-operate, the enemy soon returned to 
 their guns. On the 2d July, Flag-Officer Davis, 
 commanding the Mississippi Flotilla, joined Far 
 ragut above Vicksburg with a force of gunboats 
 and mortar-vessels. On the 15th the enemy s 
 ram " Arkansas" ran past the fleet and took 
 refuge under the guns of Vicksburg. An un 
 successful attempt was made to destroy her. 
 "While the ironclad " Essex," Commander Wil 
 liam Porter, and the gunboats "Kineo," "Ka 
 tahdin," and "Sumter," were lying off Baton 
 Rouge, a vigorous attack was made by the 
 enemy on Gen. Williams s command, occupying 
 that place, and the recapture attempted by a 
 largely superior force led by Gen. Breckenridge, 
 but were repulsed by the fire of the gunboats. 
 The next morning, Commander Wm. Porter, 
 in the " Essex," encountered the "Arkansas" a 
 short distance above Baton Rouge, and after a 
 short engagement the "Arkansas" was aban 
 doned and blown up. The middle of September, 
 Corpus Christi was occupied. Shortly after, 
 Acting Master Francis Crocker, in the " Ken 
 sington," captured and took possession of the 
 defenses of Sabine City. On the 4th of October, 
 Commander W. B. Rensha w, of the "West- 
 field," having with him the "Harriet Lane," 
 "Owasco," and "Clifton," after a feeble resist 
 ance, captured the city of Galveston and its de 
 fenses. On New Year s day, 1863, the gunboats 
 holding the city were attacked by 4 of the ene 
 my s vessels. The " Harriet Lane," after a 
 desperate resistance, was carried by boarding. 
 Wainwright, her gallant commander, was killed, 
 and his executive, Lieut.-Commander Lee, mor 
 tally wounded. The "Westfield," in coming 
 to her assistance, grounded, and, to prevent 
 capture, Commander Renshaw blew her up, 
 that officer, Lieut. Zimmerman, Chief Engineer 
 Green, and nearly a dozen men perishing with 
 her. On the llth of January the " Hatte- 
 ras," a purchased vessel, Lieut. Blake command 
 ing, was sunk by the enemy s steamer " Ala 
 bama," off the coast of Texas, where the " Hat- 
 
NAVY 
 
 561 
 
 NAVY 
 
 teras" was stationed as a blockade vessel. In 
 March, 1863, Farragut, with a strong force of 
 vessels, attempted the passage of the Port Hud 
 son batteries, but only the " Hartford" and " Al 
 batross" succeeded. With them he approached 
 Vicksburg, and opened communication with 
 Rear-Admiral D. D. Porter, commanding the 
 Mississippi Squadron, and Gen. Grant, both of 
 whom were operating against that place. In at 
 tempting to pass Port Hudson the steamer " Mis 
 sissippi" grounded and was destroyed. Upon 
 this occasion the gallant and promising Cum- 
 mings was killed. The navy now held control 
 of the river between Vicksburg and Port Hudson, 
 and, by establishing a blockade of the Red River, 
 cut off the supplies from Texas destined to the 
 use of the enemy. A naval force was always 
 kept ready to co-operate with the army in the 
 reduction of Port Hudson, and a continuous 
 shelling of the place from mortar-boats, vessels, 
 and a naval battery on shore was maintained. 
 Nearly three thousand 13-inch shells were thrown 
 into the works by the mortar-vessels, and the 
 naval battery of 9-inch guns, used as a breaching 
 battery, did good work. With the fall of Vicks 
 burg, Port Hudson surrendered on the 9th of 
 July. Military co-operation having been se 
 cured early in July, and 2 ironclads from the 
 Mississippi and 2 from the James River having 
 arrived, Farragut made his final preparations for 
 the attack on the defenses of Mobile Bay. The 
 ironclad " Tecumseh" arrived on the evening 
 of the 4th of August, and everything being pro 
 pitious, the attack commenced on the following 
 morning. At 5.40 A.M. of the 5th of August 
 the fleet moved in the following order, 2 abreast, 
 and lashed together: " Brooklyn," Capt. James 
 Alden, with the " Octorara," Lieut. -Command- 
 der C. H. Green, on the port side ; flag-ship 
 " Hartford," Capt. Percival Draytori, with the 
 "Metacomet," Lieut.-Commander James E. 
 Jouett; "Richmond," Capt. T. A. Jenkins, 
 with the "Port Royal," Lieut.-Commander B. 
 Gherardi ; " Lackawanna," Capt. J. B. Mar- 
 chand, with the "Seminole," Commander Ed 
 ward Donaldson ; " Monongahela," Commander 
 James H. Strong, with the "Itasco," Lieut. 
 Commanding George Brown ; "Oneida," Com 
 mander J. A. Mullany, with the " Galena," 
 Lieut.-Commander Clark H. Wells. The iron 
 clad "Tecumseh," Commander T. M. Craven; 
 the " Winnebago," Commander T. H. Stevens; 
 the "Manhattan," Commander J. W. A. Nich 
 olson ; and the " Chickasaw," Lieut. -Commander 
 G. H. Perkins, were under Sand Island, and 
 had been ordered to take position on the star 
 board side of the wooden vessels, or between 
 them and Fort Morgan, to keep down the fire of 
 the water-battery, and to attack the ram "Ten 
 nessee" when the fort was passed. As the at 
 tacking vessels, in order of battle, moved steadily 
 up the main channel and neared Sand Island, 
 the monitors weighed anchor and took up their 
 assigned positions. At 6.47 A.M. of the 5th of 
 August the "Tecumseh," the leading monitor, 
 fired the first shot. At 7.06 the fort opened 
 upon the fleet, when the action became general, 
 the vessels firing as their guns could be brought 
 to bear. The leading vessel, the " Brooklyn," 
 had barely passed Fort Morgan when the " Te 
 cumseh" struck a submarine torpedo and sunk 
 instantaneously, carrying down her commander, 
 36 
 
 the noble Craven, and most of her officers and 
 crew. A boat dispatched from the " Meta- 
 comet," Capt. Jouett, rescued 12 of the survivors, 
 who were brought on board the monitor " Win 
 nebago," within 200 yards of the fort. Mr. 
 Nields, a volunteer officer in charge of the boat, 
 won distinction and honor by the gallantry he 
 displayed upon this occasion. With the sinking 
 of the "Tecumseh" the "Brooklyn," the lead 
 ing vessel, stopped, and in doing so without no 
 tice threw the wooden vessels out of line and 
 into a confused and helpless condition, which the 
 enemy took advantage of, and poured in a de 
 structive fire from the forts and vessels, to which 
 the monitors alone were enabled to reply. Farra 
 gut at once comprehended the situation, and when 
 Alden reported a heavy line of torpedoes ahead, 
 the quick response came, " Damn the torpedoes ! 
 Four bells, go ahead, Capt. Drayton." And re 
 sponsive to the will of her master, the grand old 
 " Hartford" dashed by the " Brooklyn," straight 
 ened out the line, restored the fortunes of the day, 
 and swept proudly on to victory. A little after 
 8 o clock, Buchanan, in the ram " Tennessee," 
 made a dash at the "Hartford," who took no 
 other notice of her than to pour in a broadside. 
 In the mean time the enemy s gunboats (particu 
 larly the " Selma") lying athwart the channel 
 poured in a raking fire upon the advancing ves 
 sels, and inflicted considerable damage. Jouett 
 was ordered to cast off and go in pursuit ; he was 
 after her in a moment, and in an hour s time had 
 her as a prize. The "Morgan" and " Gaines" 
 escaped under the guns of Fort Morgan, the lat 
 ter so badly injured that she sunk shortly after. 
 During the night the "Morgan," chased and 
 tired upon by the " Winnebago," escaped to Mo 
 bile. At 8.45, as the vessels were about to anchor, 
 the ram " Tennessee" was perceived making for 
 the fleet. The vessels most adapted to the pur 
 pose, with the monitors, were ordered to attack 
 her, not only with their guns, but to run her 
 down. The "Monongahela," Strong, was the 
 first vessel that struck her, without doing much 
 injury; the "Lackawanna," Marchand, going 
 at full speed, also struck her, the only effect be 
 ing to give her a heavy list; the ""Hartford" 
 struck her a glancing blow, pouring in at the 
 same time, within 10 feet of her casemates, a 
 broadside of 9 inch solid shot ; the monitors d,e- 
 livered their fire as opportunity offered. Imme 
 diately after the collision with the flag-ship, 
 Drayton, in the " Hartford," was directed to bear 
 down for the ram again, and was doing so at full 
 speed when the "Lackawanna" ran into the 
 " Hartford" and cut her down to within 2 feet 
 of her water-line. Just at this time the ram was 
 sorely beset; the "Chickasaw" was pounding 
 away under her stern, the " Manhattan," not far 
 distant, and the " Ossipee" and "Winnebago" 
 near at hand, approaching at full speed, while the 
 "Monongahela," "Lackawanna," and "Hart 
 ford" were bearing down determined upon her 
 destruction, when she hauled down her colors, 
 ran up the white flag, and surrendered. In 
 coming out to attack the fleet the ram made for 
 the " Oneida," when the interposition of the 
 " Winnebago" compelled her to sheer off. 
 
 On the following day the "Chickasaw," Per 
 kins, shelled Fort Gaines with such effect that Col. 
 Anderson, the commanding officer, capitulated. 
 On the 22d August a bombardment was opened 
 
NAVY 
 
 562 
 
 NAVY 
 
 from the shore batteries, the monitors, and one 
 or two of the wooden vessels upon Fort Morgan, 
 which unconditionally surrendered to the navy 
 and army on the 23d. Fort Powell was aban 
 doned on the night of the 5th and blown up. 
 The capture of these forts closed the port against 
 all illicit trade with the enemy. Indications 
 that the enemy were about to evacuate the city 
 led to a naval reconnoissance, consisting of 4 
 monitors. This movement drew such a fire as to 
 show the defenses were still intact. A joint 
 movement by land and water was arranged be 
 tween Rear-Admiral Thatcher, in command of 
 the naval forces after Farragut s departure North, 
 and Gen. Canby, commanding the land forces, 
 for the capture of Mobile. The troops were 
 landed, on the 21st March, on the left bank of 
 Fisher s River and pushed forward, while the 
 naval vessels shelled the woods and co-operated 
 bv signal with Gen. Canby. In crossing the 
 bar of Blakely Kiver the monitors " Milwaukee" 
 and " Osage" and 4 wooden gunboats were sunk 
 by torpedoes. Beyond this and the loss of a few 
 lives no serious consequences attended the cap 
 ture of Mobile. Fort Alexis and Spanish Fort, 
 after a short but severe bombardment, Were cap 
 tured on the morning of the 9th April, and with 
 them about 2000 men and 16 heavy guns. Bat 
 teries Tracy and Huger were evacuated on the 
 evening of the llth. On the 12th all the remain 
 ing defenses were found abandoned. The works 
 .which surrounded Mobile were of great strength 
 and extent. Nearly 400 guns of the heaviest 
 calibre fell into our hands. The city was sur 
 rendered to Admiral Thatcher and Gen. Granger. 
 On the 10th May, Farrand surrendered all the 
 enemy s naval forces in the waters of the Ala 
 bama. Sabine Pass and Galveston soon after 
 surrendered, and the supremacy of the govern 
 ment was established on the entire coast from 
 Maine to Texas. 
 
 Mississippi Squadron. Commander Andrew 
 H. Foote having been appointed to the command 
 of the Mississippi Flotilla, the first important 
 operation was the attack and capture of Fort 
 Henry, on the Tennessee Kiver. At 12.30 P.M. 
 on the 6th February Commander Foote com 
 menced the bombardment of the fort. The 
 attacking force consisted of the flag-ship "Cin 
 cinnati," Commander Stemble ; "Essex," Com 
 mander W. D. Porter; " Carondolet," Com 
 mander Walke ; "St. Louis," Lieut. Command 
 ing Paulding; "Conestoga," Lieut. Command 
 ing S. L. Phelps ; " Tyler," Lieut. Commanding 
 Gwinn; and "Lexington," Lieut. Commanding 
 Shirk. Fire was opened at 1700 yards distance by 
 the flag-ship, followed by the other vessels, and 
 continued until within 600 yards of the fort. In 
 an hour and a quarter Gen. Tilghman, in com 
 mand, surrendered the fort and his forces to Flag- 
 Officer Foote. Gen. Grant arrived about an hour 
 afterward, when they were turned over to him. 
 Lieut. Commanding Phelps, in the " Conestoga," 
 with the "Tyler" and "Lexington," proceeded 
 up the Tennessee River as far as Florence and 
 captured the steamer " Eastport," which the 
 enemy were converting into a gunboat, and took 
 several other prizes. From Fort Henry Flag- 
 Officer Foote proceeded with a portion of his com 
 mand up the Cumberland to attack Fort Donel- 
 son. On the 14th February, with the ironclads 
 "St. Louis" (flag-ship), "Carondolet," "Louis 
 
 ville," and "Pittsburgh" and the wooden gun 
 boats "Conestoga" and "Tyler," he engaged the 
 fort and water-batteries. After a severe fight of 
 an hour and a half, during which the flag-officer 
 was seriously wounded, and when he was on the 
 point of enfilading the fort and the enemy s fire 
 had slackened, the " St. Louis" and " Louis 
 ville" were disabled in their steering-gear, when 
 the vessels retired for the night. The enemy 
 were so demoralized they could not be brought 
 into effective action the next day, and the fort 
 surrendered to Gen. Grant, commanding the 
 military forces. With the " Conestoga" and 
 "Cairo" Foote ascended the Cumberland, and 
 on the 19th seized Clarksville and the 3 forts 
 which defended the city and river. On the 4th 
 March a force of gunboats convoying transports 
 conveying troops moved upon Columbus, on the 
 Mississippi Kiver. When the national forces 
 arrived the forts, of unusual strength, were found 
 unoccupied. On the 14th, Foote, with a force 
 of 10 ironclads and 10 mortar-boats, joined, at 
 Columbus, by Col. Buford with 1500 troops, 
 nioved down and took possession of Hickrnan. 
 The next day, arriving in the vicinity of Island 
 No. 10, the mortar-vessels were placed in posi 
 tion and shelled out several encampments. A 
 siege of 23 days followed, during which a canal 
 was cut to admit the light transports to reach 
 Pope with his army at New Madrid, below Isl 
 and No. 10, and enable him to cross to the Ten 
 nessee shore. A formidable battery was spiked 
 and a floating battery protecting the channel 
 shelled out, to enable the " Carondolet" and 
 " Pittsburgh" to run the blockade, which they 
 did at night in a heavy thunder-storm under a 
 terrific fire from 47 guns. Several batteries, 
 erected to prevent Pope s command from cross 
 ing, were demolished by the 2 gunboats, and the 
 landing was effected. This accomplished, the 
 enemy surrendered Island No. 10 to the com 
 mander of the naval forces. One gunboat, 4 
 transports, immense munitions of war, and many 
 prisoners fell into our hands by this important 
 capture. Proceeding to Fort Pillow, Foote was 
 joined b} T Pope and his army ; while in the act 
 of making a combined attack upon this fort the 
 troops were ordered to Corinth. Flag-Officer 
 Foote, suffering from his long-neglected wound, 
 on the advice of the surgeons was relieved in 
 command of the flotilla by Capt. C. H. Davis in 
 the early part of May. On the llth May the 
 flotilla was attacked near Fort Pillow by 8 of 
 the enemy s ironclad steamers, 4 of them fitted 
 as rams. The action continued for an hour, 
 when the enemy retreated under the guns of 
 Fort Pillow, 3 of their gunboats having boon 
 disabled. Shortly after the ram fleet under Col. 
 Ellet joined Davis, and on the 5th June Fort 
 Pillow was abandoned. On the evening of the 
 7th the fleet anchored a mile and a half above 
 Memphis. The next day an attack was made 
 upon the enemy s gunboats and rams lying oppo 
 site the city. Ellet with his rams pressed into 
 action under full steam, the gunboats in the mean 
 time keeping up a well-directed fire. Two of the 
 enemy s gunboats blew up, and the " Queen of 
 the West," commanded by Col. Ellet in person, 
 encountered the " General Lovell" and sunk her. 
 A running fight followed, resulting in the cap 
 ture or destruction of the enemy s entire fleet, ex 
 cept the " Van Dorn," which escaped. Memphis 
 
NAVY 
 
 563 
 
 NAVY 
 
 was surrendered and taken military possession 
 of by Col. Fitch. 
 
 On the 20th of July, Davis, with a part of his 
 command and 6 mortar-boats, joined Farragut 
 above Vicksburg, where the latter officer, with 
 some of his squadron, had arrived a few days 
 before. The mortar-vessels of both commands 
 bombarded the defenses of Vicksburg for some 
 days from both above and below. On the 18th 
 of July, in the mouth of the Yazoo Kiver, a se 
 vere conflict occurred between the enemy s iron 
 clad ram "Arkansas" and the gunboats "Caron- 
 dolet" and "Tyler," which resulted in the escape 
 of the "Arkansas," which vessel succeeded in 
 passing through the fleets of Farragut and Da 
 vis and finding refuge under the batteries of 
 Vicksburg. In August a joint expedition up 
 the Yazoo under Flag-Officer Davis and Gen. 
 Curtis was successful ; a battery of heavy guns 
 and quantities of munitions of war were captured. 
 A detachment from the squadron under Com 
 mander A. H. Kilty, with the 46th Indiana 
 Regiment under Col. Fitch, left Memphis for 
 "White River on June 13 to form a junction 
 with Gen. Curtis. On the morning of the 17th 
 an attack was commenced by the gunboats on 
 the enemy s fortifications near St. Charles, 
 Ark., when Col. Fitch landed to assault the 
 rear. The front battery was carried by the gun 
 boats, and Fitch gallantly charged the second 
 battery and carried it without loss. A shot ex 
 ploded the steam-drum of the "Mound City," 
 killing and wounding a large portion of her 
 officers and crew. The "Tyler," Lieut. Com 
 manding Gwinn, and " Lexington," Lieut. Com 
 manding Shirk, of the Western Flotilla, preceded 
 the march of the army southward on the line of 
 the Tennessee River, and rendered service in 
 convoying transports, clearing the banks of 
 batteries, and in frustrating the attempts of the 
 enemy to fortify. At Shiloh the services of 
 these vessels were of great value in restoring the 
 fortunes of the day. In September, 1862, Flag- 
 Officer Davis was relieved in command by Rear- 
 Admiral David D. Porter, who, with his charac 
 teristic energy, at once began active operations 
 against the enemy. In the month of Novem 
 ber, Capt. H. Walke, in the "Carondolet," com 
 manded an .expedition of ironclads and wooden 
 gunboats up the Yazoo River, during which 
 the ironclad " Cairo" was sunk by a torpedo. A 
 few days after Porter arrived at the mouth of the 
 Yazoo, and led an expedition up the river to clear 
 the channel of torpedoes and to draw a portion of 
 the enemy from Vicksburg to the defense of the 
 river. By the 26th of December the river was 
 cleared of all obstructions up to where the 
 " Cairo" was sunk. On the 27th the expedition 
 arrived at a bend in the river where a line of 
 fortifications commenced, and the river was ob 
 structed by a heavily iron-plated raft. While 
 the boats were engaged in clearing the river the 
 flag-ship " Benton," Lieut.-Commander Gwinn, 
 moved up to cover them. She was struck some 
 80 times, and many of her crew were killed or 
 wounded, among the latter her commander, 
 mortally. The other vessels handsomely sup 
 ported the flag-ship, two of the guns in the 
 fort were silenced; the enemy s works could 
 only have been captured by a strong landing- 
 party. 
 
 On the 4th of January, 1863, Gen. McCler- 
 
 nand having requested the co-operation of Ad 
 miral Porter in an attack upon Arkansas Post, 
 the "Baron de Kalb," Commander Walke; 
 "Louisville," Lieut. Commanding Owen; and 
 "Cincinnati," Lieut. Commanding Bache, with 
 a number of light-draft vessels, were detailed 
 for the purpose. Rear-Admiral Porter, in the 
 flag-ship " Black Hawk," accompanied the ex 
 pedition. After a battle of two days, Col. Dun- 
 nington, the commander of the fort, surrendered 
 to the army and navy, yielding his sword to Ad 
 miral Porter ; 17 heavy guns and a large num 
 ber of troops were captured. On the day after, 
 Commander Walke, with a force of gunboats, 
 proceeded up White River. On the 14th the 
 town of St. Charles was found evacuated. At 
 Duvall s Bluff he landed a party and took pos 
 session of 2 fine 8-inch guns and about 200 stand 
 of arms and accoutrements. At 4.30 A.M., Feb 
 ruary 2, the ram "Queen of the West," Col. 
 Charles E. Ellet, ran the Vicksburg batteries, 
 with orders from Porter to capture or destroy the 
 enemy s transports between Vicksburg and Port 
 Hudson. Col. Ellet arrived at the Red River,, 
 capturing and destroying on his way several fine 
 transports. The " Queen of the West" then re 
 turned to the vicinity of Vicksburg. A few 
 days later, she steamed down and entered the 
 Red River. On the 13th of February, Lieut. 
 Commanding George Brown, in the " Indian- 
 ola," ran the batteries of Vicksburg with orders 
 to join the " Queen of the West." Shortly after 
 intelligence was received of the destruction of 
 the "Queen of the West" in Red River, and 
 that the " Indianola" had been sunk in the Mis 
 sissippi. They had destroyed a large amount of 
 the enemy s property.* In March a daring and 
 novel attempt was made by Porter to get into 
 the rear of Vicksburg. By ascending Steel s 
 Bayou, which is merely a ditch, he was hopeful, 
 by cutting a way through the woods and widen 
 ing the channel, he could find an entrance into 
 the Yazoo River, and here effect his object. 
 When Porter arrived within a short distance of 
 Rolling Fork, he found the channel impractica 
 ble, and was forced to return. The expedition 
 penetrated into the heart of the enemy s coun 
 try before being discovered, when large quanti 
 ties of cotton were destroyed. An attempt was 
 made by Lieut.-Commander Watson Smith, with 
 a detachment of gunboats, to secure control of 
 the Coldwater, Tallahatchee, Yallabusha, and 
 Yazoo Rivers, which would have opened the 
 way to the capture of Vicksburg, as most of the 
 enemy s supplies were received through these 
 streams. Owing to the want of troops to co 
 operate the object of the expedition failed, al 
 though several steamers and 5000 bales of cotton 
 were destroyed. The "Switzerland" and "Lan 
 caster," in attempting to pass the Vicksburg bat 
 teries to join Farragut at Port Hudson, were 
 both sunk, and many of their officers and crews 
 killed or wounded. *On the 16th of April, 1863, 
 the fleet led by Porter, who had hoisted his flag 
 on board the " Benton," ran past the Vicksburg 
 batteries. The vessels started in the following 
 order, 50 yards apart: "Benton," Lieut.-Com 
 mander Green ; " Lafayette," Capt. Walke, 
 with the "Gen. Price" lashed on the starboard 
 side; "Louisville," Lieut.-Commander Owen; 
 "Mound City," Lieut. Wilson; "Pittsburgh," 
 Acting Volunteer Lieut. Hoel ; "Carondolet," 
 
NAVY 
 
 664 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Acting Lieut. Murphy; and " Tuscumbia, 
 Lieut.-Commander Shirk, with 9 army trans- 
 ports. Nearly all the vessels took in tow barges 
 containing each 10,000 bushels of coal, and all 
 passed the batteries in safety. On the 29th of 
 April, Porter, with most of the armed vessels 
 that had passed the batteries, bombarded for 6 
 hours the formidable works at Grand Gulf. At 
 6 P.M. the transports containing a detachment of 
 Gen. Grant s command passed down under cover 
 of the fire. On the 3d of May, Porter, with 4 
 ironclads, proceeded to Grand Gulf to attack the 
 forts, but found them evacuated ; before leaving 
 the enemy had destroyed all the ammunition and 
 spiked the guns. Next to Vicksburg this was 
 the strongest position on the Mississippi. Its 
 occupation greatly facilitated Grant s operations 
 in reducing Vicksburg. 
 
 On the 29th April, Lieut.-Commander Breeze, 
 with the " De Kalb," " Choctaw," and " Tyler," 
 made a feigned attack upon Haines Bluff in co 
 operation with a division of the army under Gen. 
 Blair, to prevent the enemy from sending rein 
 forcements to Grand Gulf. The desired effect was 
 Accomplished. In the early part of May, Porter 
 proceeded up the Red River as far as Alexandria, 
 which he took possession of and held until Gen. 
 Banks arrived. On the 15th he crossed over to 
 Yazoo River to be ready to co-operate with Gen. 
 Grant. On the 18th, the firing in the rear of 
 Vicksburg indicated the approach of Grant. The 
 cannonading was kept up furiously for some time, 
 when Porter discovered a company of artillery ad 
 vancing, taking position, and driving the enemy 
 before them. Gen. Sherman s division had come 
 in to the left of Snyder s Bluff, and the enemy 
 had been cut off from joining the forces in the 
 city. The " De Kalb," " Choctaw," " Linden," 
 " Romeo," " Petro," and " Forest Rose," under 
 Lieut.-Commander Breeze, were sent up the Ya- 
 zoo to open communication with Gen. Grant and 
 Sherman. This they succeeded in, and in 3 
 hours Porter received letters from Grant, Sher 
 man, and Steele, informing him of their suc 
 cesses, and asking that provisions be sent up, 
 which was at once done. In the mean time, 
 Walker, in the " De Kalb," pushed on to Haines 
 Bluff, which was found evacuated, and took pos 
 session of the guns, tents, etc., which were found 
 in good order. The works were destroyed. 
 Upon this being reported to Porter, he sent up a 
 force of gunboats from below Vicksburg to fire 
 at the hill batteries, which was kept up for 2 or 
 3 hours. At midnight they moved up to the 
 town and opened upon it for an hour, and con 
 tinued at intervals during the night to annoy 
 the garrison. On the 19th, 6 mortars were 
 placed in position, with orders to fire rapidly day 
 and night. On the evening of the 21st, Porter 
 received a communication from Grant stating he 
 intended to attack the whole of the enemy s 
 works at 10 A.M. the next day, and asking the 
 admiral to shell the batteries from 9.30 P.M. 
 until 10.30 A.M. The mortars were playing 
 rapidly on the town and works all night, and the 
 " Benton," "Mound City," and "Carondolet" 
 went up and shelled the water-batteries and other 
 places where troops might find rest during the 
 night. At 7 A.M. the " Mound City" proceeded 
 across the river and made an attack on the hill 
 batteries opposite the canal. At 8 o clock, Por 
 ter joined her with the "Benton," "Tuscum 
 
 bia," and " Carondolet." All the vessels opened 
 on the hill batteries, and finally silenced them. 
 The " Benton," " Mound City," and " Carondo 
 let" then closed with the water-batteries, leaving 
 the " Tuscumbia" out of repair to keep the 
 hill batteries from firing on the vessels after they 
 had passed by. The water-batteries opened furi 
 ously, supported by a hill battery on the star 
 board beam of the vessels. The ironclads ad 
 vanced to within 280 yards and returned the fire 
 without cessation, the enemy s fire being accu 
 rate a.nd incessant. The vessels having been en 
 gaged an hour longer than Grant requested, and 
 all having received shots under water which 
 could not be stopped while under way, withdrew 
 in a cool and handsome style. After dropping 
 back it was found the enemy had taken posses 
 sion again of one of the lower hill batteries and 
 was endeavoring to remove his guns, and had 
 mounted a 12-pounder field-piece to fire at Gen. 
 McArthur s troops that had landed a short time 
 before. The " Mound City" and " Carondolet" 
 opened fire and drove them off in a few minutes. 
 On May 27, Porter, at the urgent request of 
 Grant and Sherman, being led to believe the 
 enemy had removed his guns to the land side, 
 fitted the " Cincinnati" for the occasion by pack 
 ing her with logs and hay, and sent her down to 
 shell some works retarding the progress of the 
 army. At 8.30 the " Cincinnati" left her an 
 chorage and stood for the position assigned her. 
 The enemy fired rapidly from all their guns, in 
 cluding those which were supposed to have been 
 removed to the land side. The fire was very ac 
 curate, striking the "Cincinnati" almost every 
 time, and passing entirely through her protection 
 of iron, hay, and wood. Finding his vessel 
 would sink, Lieut. Bache ran up stream as far 
 as circumstances would allow, ran his vessel 
 ashore, and succeeded in saving his wounded. 
 She sank within range of the enemy s batteries, 
 in about 3 fathoms water. Her fire, until the 
 magazine was drowned, was effective. Lieut. 
 Bache received the thanks of the Department 
 for his brilliant conduct on this occasion. On 
 the night of June 19, Porter was notified by 
 Grant he intended to open a general bombard 
 ment on the city at 4 A.M., and continue it until 
 10 o clock. Commander Woodward,, of the 
 " General Price," received orders from Porter to 
 move up with the " Mound City" and " Benton" 
 and attack at the specified time. Lieut -Com 
 mander Ramsay was given charge of a 100- 
 pounder rifle, a 10-inch gun, and a 9-inch gun, 
 fitted on scows, and placed them after midnight 
 close to the point opposite Vicksburg protected 
 by the bank. At the appointed time all the 
 shore batteries opened fire, and also the guns on 
 the scows and mortars. A little later the gun 
 boats opened and kept up a heavy fire, advancing 
 all the time and throwing shells into all batteries 
 along the hills and near the city. There was 
 no response, the batteries were all deserted. At 
 10 o clock the vessels and mortars ceased tiring. 
 
 On the 4th July, Vicksburg surrendered to 
 Gen. IT. S. Grant. On the 7th June, Porter learn 
 ing that a force of the enemy of about 4000 men 
 were about to attack Milliken s Bend, where a 
 quantity of military stores were kept, guarded by 
 two colored regiments and part of the 29th Jowa, 
 the "Choctaw" and "Lexington," under Lieut.- 
 Commander Ramsay, were dispatched to protect 
 
NAVY 
 
 565 
 
 NAVY 
 
 them. The enemy attacked before daylight. 
 The colored troops met the onset courageously, 
 and a company of the Iowa regiment stood their 
 ground until they were slaughtered to a man, 
 killing an equal number of "the enemy. The 
 fight was desperate, and the troops overpowered 
 were driven behind a bank near the water s edge, 
 pursued by the enemy. When the gunboats 
 opened on the enemy with shell, grape, and can 
 ister they fled in wild confusion. Upon the fall 
 of yicksburg Porter received letters of congratu 
 lation from Sherman and the Navy Department, 
 acknowledging the powerful co-operation of the 
 navy under his command, and its great services 
 during this memorable campaign. The fall of 
 Vicksburg is referred to by Sherman in his terse 
 style as a " victory won by the united navj and 
 army of our country." Porter was made a full 
 rear-admiral, to date from the 4th July, the day 
 Vicksburg surrendered. On the same day 
 Helena, Ark., was attacked by 18,000 of the 
 enemy. Gen. Prentice, the commander, defended 
 the place with great skill and daring, but his 
 small force of 3500 men were fast being over 
 whelmed, when Pritchett, in the gunboat "Ty 
 ler," came to his relief and changed the fortunes 
 of the day. 
 
 Shortly after this the " Baron de Kalb," 
 "New National," Kenwood, and "Signal," 
 under Lieut-Commander J. G. Walker, were 
 sent to drive out from Yazoo City the command 
 of Gen. Johnson, who was fortifying the place 
 with heavy guns for the purpose of making it a 
 depot for military supplies ; 5000 troops under 
 Gen. Frank Herron accompanied them. The 
 army and navy made a combined attack, when 
 the enemy fled, leaving everything in possession 
 of the United States forces but 4 of their finest 
 steamers, which they destroyed. The army pur 
 sued the enemy, captured many prisoners, 6 
 heavy guns, and all their munitions of war. 
 One vessel, formerly a gunboat, was captured 
 by the navy. Upon this occasion the " De Kalb" 
 was destroyed by a torpedo. A force of gun 
 boats under Lieut.-Commander Selfridge was 
 sent about the middle of July into Red River. 
 Many fine steamers, used by the enemy to trans 
 port troops, were captured. While these opera 
 tions were in progress, the gunboats on the Ten 
 nessee and Cumberland were actively engaged. 
 But for the energy and activity of Pennock, the 
 fleet-captain and commandant at Cairo, and of 
 Lieut.-Commanders Phelps and Fitch, the divis 
 ional commanders on these rivers, Rosecrans s 
 army would have been without provisions. In 
 July, Morgan, the famous guerrilla, with his 
 command crossed the river into Ohio, and, hotly 
 pursued by Gen. Judah, endeavored to recross. 
 Lieut.-Commander Fitch intercepted him at 
 Buffingtori Island, where Morgan and his band 
 were captured by the army and naval forces 
 under Judah and Fitch. In November, when 
 Porter heard of Sherman s move from Memphis 
 for Corinth, he assembled at the mouth of the 
 Cumberland and Tennessee a suitable force of 
 vessels. Though the water was low, Fitch suc 
 ceeded in convoying the steamers with stores, so 
 much needed by the army. A fortunate rise 
 enabled Phelps with his gunboats to ascend the 
 Tennessee as far as Eastport, and a few hours 
 after his arrival Sherman reached luka. With 
 the aid of the barges the troops were ferried over 
 
 in an incredibly short time by the gunboats, and 
 Sherman was thus enabled to bring his formid 
 able corps into action before Chattanooga. Later 
 the transports were convoyed with provisions, 
 and the gunboats held Eastport, thus protecting 
 the communications until Grant ordered its 
 evacuation and the troops sent to Columbus, 
 where they arrived safely unc^er convoy of a force 
 of gunboats. On the 1st of March a force of 
 gunboats was sent under Lieut.-Commander 
 Ramsay up the Black and Washita Rivers. The 
 enemy, 2000 strong, under Gen. Polignac, were 
 driven from point to point, some extensive works 
 destroyed, and three heavy 32-pounders cap 
 tured. On the 7th of March, Porter had assem 
 bled at the mouth of the Red River a formidable 
 fleet of ironclads and light-draft vessels. The 
 fleet were joined at the mouth of the Red River 
 by a portion of Sherman s army, in transports, 
 under Gen. A. J. Smith. The joint forces moved 
 on the 10th of March to form a junction with 
 Gen. Banks at Alexandria. On their way some 
 of the vessels branched off into the Atchafalaya. 
 The enemy were driven from Simmsport and 
 Fort De Russy, the latter being again captured, 
 with its guns, munitions of war, and a few pris 
 oners. Alexandria was occupied by the com 
 bined forces about the 1st of April, when they 
 commenced to move towards Shreveport. Only 
 a part of the naval force could proceed farther 
 than Alexandria ; but the assistance of the gun 
 boats was so essential to success that extraordi 
 nary exertions were made to get above the falls. 
 Grand Ecore was reached and occupied. There 
 were indications of the usual rise in the river, 
 and everything promised success, and 23 heavy 
 
 uns had been captured since entering the river, 
 pringfield Landing, the next point of junction, 
 was reached at the appointed time by 6 gunboats 
 and 20 heavy transports. Here they learned, of 
 Banks s reverse, and that he was falling back to 
 Pleasant Hill, some distance below ; Porter was 
 thus compelled to turn back. On his return he 
 was attacked at every assailable point, but the 
 gunboats fought their way through, repelling at 
 times their assailants with terrible slaughter. 
 On reaching Grand Ecore, he found the vessels 
 left there still detained. Instead of rising, the 
 river had fallen. The army was preparing to 
 move back upon Alexandria. There was little 
 prospect of getting the vessels out. and destruc 
 tion seemed inevitable. " Providence," as Por 
 ter says, " provided the man for the occasion" in 
 Lieut.-Col. Joseph Bailey, acting engineer of the 
 19th Army Corps, who devised a plan for con 
 structing a series of dams across the rocks at the 
 falls, thus supplying a sufficient depth of water 
 for the needed want. The dams were built, the 
 project was a success, and the fleet was relieved 
 from its critical situation. Rarely has the genius 
 of man overcome such peril and difficulty. 
 Bailey received the handsomest acknowledgments 
 from Congress, and he was promoted for his 
 great services. A division of vessels under Fos 
 ter, while these operations were in progress, pro 
 ceeded up the Washita as far as Monroe, and 
 captured 3000 bales of Confederate cotton and 
 destroyed much property. On the 25th of March 
 the enemy attacked Paducah, and demanded its 
 immediate surrender, threatening to give no 
 quarter if refused. The gunboats " Peosta" and 
 " Paw Paw," and Fort Hindman opened fire 
 
NAVY 
 
 566 
 
 NAVY 
 
 upon them, and drove them back with great loss. 
 Capt. Pennock, naval commander at Cairo, upon 
 receiving information of the attack on Paducah, 
 at once sent up additional vessels, and saved 
 Columbus, Ky., and recovered Fort Pillow by 
 his zeal and promptness in pushing forward re 
 inforcements. On the 1st of November, Rear- 
 Admiral S. P. Lee relieved Porter in command 
 of the Mississippi Squadron, the latter after two 
 years of arduous, exhaustive, and harassing ser 
 vice, having requested to be relieved. 
 
 In November, 1804, the light-draft vessels 
 "Tawah," "Key West," and "Elfin," after a 
 severe engagement of several hours with the 
 enemy s batteries near Johnsonville, on the Ten 
 nessee, were burned to avoid capture. Lieut.- 
 Commander Shirk, the division commander, 
 adopted prompt measures to regain the control 
 of the Tennessee lost through this cause, and in 
 a few days was able to report the capture of sev 
 eral transports laden with the enemy s troops. 
 On the 4th November, Gen. Hood was driven 
 from Decatur, Ala., in which affair the gunboat 
 " General Thomas" took a prominent part, re 
 ceiving acknowledgments from Gen. Thomas for 
 her efficient services. On the 3d December, 
 Lieut.-Commander Fitch, commanding the tenth 
 district of the Mississippi Squadron, defeated and 
 drove from the Tennessee the left wing of Hood s 
 army under Gen. Buford, with heavy loss to the 
 enemy, including several prominent officers, and 
 recaptured two transports. Early in December 
 the gunboats " Vindicator" and " Prairie Bird" 
 co-operated successfully with the army in de 
 stroying the enemy s railroad communications 
 in Mississippi. The expedition also destroyed 
 the bridge over the Big Black River, and cap 
 tured a considerable amount of the enemy s 
 stores. 
 
 Early in January, 1865, Admiral Lee was 
 enabled to report to the Navy Department that 
 Hood s army, completely demoralized, were re 
 treating rapidly before the victorious force of 
 Gen. Thomas. Under date of December 30, 
 Gen. Thomas wrote a complimentary letter to 
 Admiral Lee, in which he says, " Your co-oper 
 ation on the Tennessee has contributed largely 
 to the demoralization of Hood s army. It gives 
 me great pleasure to tender to you, your officers, 
 and men my hearty thanks for your cordial co 
 operation during the last 30 days." After the 
 battle of Nashville, Gen. Steedman, of Thomas s 
 army, was sent to retake Decatur. Lieut. Moreau 
 Forrest co-operated, and the place, with the ar 
 tillery there, was captured. On the 23d April, 
 1865, the enemy s ram " Webb" ran out of the 
 Red River and continued on to a point 25 miles 
 below New Orleans, where she was intercepted 
 by the "Richmond," and run ashore and de 
 stroyed by those on board. In June, 1865, the 
 enemy s naval forces in Red River surrendered to 
 Lieut.-Commander Fitzhugh, of the "Ouichita." 
 
 West India Squadron. In 1862 a force of 
 vessels was fitted out, placed under command 
 of Rear-Admiral Charles Wilkes, and sent to 
 the West Indies, for the purpose of breaking 
 up blpckade-running to and from these islands ; 
 to capture the piratical steamers preying upon 
 the commerce of the United States, and afford 
 protection to steamers engaged in the Califor 
 nia trade. With an insufficient force of un 
 suitable vessels, Admiral Wilkes, through his 
 
 untiring energy, which he infused into all under 
 his command, and by his skillful arrangements, 
 made many valuable captures. The " Sonoma," 
 Commander T. H. Stevens, a vessel attached to 
 his squadron, while crossing the Bahama Banks 
 from Cay Lobos to the Tongue of the Ocean, dis 
 covered and chased the Confederate steamer 
 " Florida" for 34 hours through the Tongue of 
 the Ocean, past Nassau and Northwest Provi 
 dence Channel, 124 miles to sea. This was the 
 sole instance, it is believed, during their career 
 of destruction and devastation, in which either 
 of these noted cruisers, the " Alabama" or 
 " Florida," were sighted or seen outside of a 
 harbor. While ample provisions were made by 
 the government to establish and enforce the 
 blockade of our extensive coast, from the Capes 
 of Virginia to the Rio Grande, and to provide 
 suitable vessels and means to attack and operate 
 against the defenses of the enemy, the policy of 
 the government in relation to the " Alabama" 
 and " Florida," and vessels of a similar character, 
 was one of absolute weakness. With full and 
 timely warning of the intent of the Confederate 
 government to depredate upon our commerce, no 
 suitable provisions were made for its protection. 
 Month after month, year after year went by, 
 each day bringing intelligence of the doings of 
 the Confederate cruisers ; but no number of fast 
 vessels were dispatched in search of them ; no 
 vessels built or purchased with speed and long- 
 range guns as the first essentials to overhaul and 
 destroy them. A steamer of ordinary speed was 
 dispatched to Europe, one to Asia, and two or 
 three in some other direction, and with these 
 weak and spasmodic efforts the Navy Depart 
 ment seemed content. Admiral Wilkes, after 
 continuing in command of the West India Squad 
 ron for about 18 months, was relieved by Rear- 
 Admiral James L. Lardner, and shortly after 
 the squadron was broken up. 
 
 Potomac Flotilla. Early in 1861 a flotilla was 
 organized and sent to the Lower Potomac to cut 
 off communication between the enemy in Vir 
 ginia and their coadjutors and sympathizers on 
 the Maryland side, to prevent the erection of 
 batteries "on the Virginia side, and to give protec 
 tion to the commerce of loyal citizens. In the 
 heroic discharge of his duty, as previously no 
 ticed, the first commander of the flotilla Com 
 mander James H. Ward was killed at Matthias 
 Point, on the 27th June, 1861. Capt. Thomas 
 T. Craven succeeded Commander Ward, and re 
 mained in command until relieved, in the fall 
 of 1861, by Lieut. R. H. Wyman. During the 
 years 1864-65 Commander F. A. Parker com 
 manded the flotilla. Upon the flotilla devolved 
 the duty of patroling the Potomac and Rappa- 
 hannock, and on all occasions the flotilla actively 
 co-operated in the military movements. While 
 the army was in the vicinity of Fredericksburg 
 the services of the smaller steamers were of great 
 value. The flotilla was disbanded on the 31st 
 July, 1865. 
 
 Vessels on Special Service. On the 8th No 
 vember, 1861, Capt. Charles Wilkes, then in 
 command of the " San Jacinto," while cruising 
 in search of the privateer "Sumter," in the Ba 
 hama Channel, took from the English steamer 
 "Trent" the Confederate ambassadors Mason and 
 Slidell. The prisoners were retained and con 
 veyed to Fort Warren, where they were given in 
 
NAVY 
 
 567 
 
 NAVY 
 
 charge to Col. Dimmick, in command of that 
 fortress. On Sunday, June 19, 1864, the " Kear- 
 sarge," Capt. John A. Winslow, after an engage 
 ment of 1| hours, sunk the enemy s steamer 
 "Alabama," of equal size. For particulars of 
 this memorable Engagement, see biographical no 
 tice of Capt. Winslow. Capt. Winslow was ad 
 vanced a grade, and his executive, Lieut. James 
 S. Thornton, who was the executive of Farragut s 
 Hag-ship, the " Hartford," in the passage of the 
 forts on the Mississippi, was also advanced. His 
 splendid and skillful handling of the " Kear- 
 sarge" in her fight with the "Alabama" deserved 
 and received high praise. Thornton was always 
 distinguished for high professional acquirements 
 and dauntless courage. On the 7th October, 1864, 
 the "Wachusett," Commander N. B. Collins, 
 captured in the Bay of San Salvador, Brazil, 
 the enemy s privateer "Florida." In May, 1865, 
 after the fall of Richmond and the collapse of 
 the Rebellion, the Spanish authorities of Cuba 
 delivered the ironclad " Stonewall," lately a 
 Confederate vessel, to the United States. 
 
 During the war of the Rebellion 4647 men and 
 officers were killed. The number of vessels cap 
 tured was 1149 of all kinds, including 139 small 
 boats ; the number sunk, wrecked, and other 
 wise destroyed was 355, including 96 boats, 
 making a total of 1504, amounting to $31,500,- 
 000, much of which was British property en 
 gaged in unneutral commerce. Nearly ail the 
 captures of value were vessels built in the 
 so-called neutral ports, and fitted out in the 
 ports of the governments with which we had 
 treaties and were on friendly terms, and who 
 had pledged themselves to a strict neutrality. 
 Three hundred and twenty-two naval ofiicers 
 threw up their commissions at the breaking 
 out of the Rebellion and their places were filled 
 by volunteer officers, many proving worthy of 
 the trust reposed in them ; and the additional 
 want of officers required by the war was supplied 
 from this source. The navy contained at the 
 close of the war 51,500 seamen, and 7500 officers, 
 of all grades ; 6880 artisans, of ell kinds, were 
 employed at the different naval stations ; 208 
 steamers were built during the war (since the 4th 
 of March, 1861) ; 481 vessels were purchased, of 
 which 313 were steamers, at a cost of $18.366,681 ; 
 of these 340 have been sold for $5,621,800. By 
 the Geneva award England paid to the U. S. 
 government $15,000,000 for depredations com 
 mitted upon our commerce by Confederate crui 
 sers fitted out in its ports. On the 19th of June, 
 1868, the sloop-of-war "Sacramento," Capt. N. 
 B. Collins, was wrecked on the reefs off the 
 mouth of the Kathapalem, a branch of the Go- 
 davery River, in the Bay of Bengal. No lives 
 were lost. In the autumn of 1866 intelligence was 
 received that the American schooner " General 
 Sherman" had been wrecked in the Ping- Yang 
 River, Corea. and her officers, passengers, and 
 crew murdered. The " Wachusett," Commander 
 R. W. Shufeldt, on the 23d of January, 1867, was 
 dispatched to investigate the circumstances, and 
 to demand of the authorities the survivors, if any. 
 No satisfactory answers were given to Com 
 mander Shufeldt. Information having been 
 received of the wreck of the American bark 
 " Rover" on the southeast end of the island of 
 Formosa, and of the murder of all on board, 
 Commander Febiger, in the "Ashuelot," pro 
 
 ceeded to the locality to gather what information 
 he could in reference to the affair, and to rescue 
 the survivors, if any. He arrived in April, 1867, 
 and required of the three different authorities an 
 immediate investigation of the outrage. They 
 claimed to be unable to bring to justice the per 
 petrators of the crime, who belonged to a horde 
 of savages not obedient to their laws. Com 
 mander Febiger, with his limited force, deemed 
 it unadvisable to resort to hostilities. Admiral 
 Bell, in the " Hartford," with the " Wyoming," 
 left Shanghai in the month of June for the pur 
 pose of destroying, if possible, the lurking-places 
 of the savages who had murdered the crew of the 
 "Rover." Arriving at the locality, a force of 181 
 officers, sailors, and marines, under Commander 
 G. E! Belknap, accompanied by Lieut.-Com- 
 mander A. S. Mackenzie, as second in command, 
 this officer having earnestly sought to go with 
 the expedition, they found the savages well 
 armed and equal in courage to our North Amer 
 ican Indians, who delivered their fire without 
 being seen ; owing to the high grass our men, 
 in charging their coverts, fell into ambuscades. 
 Upon one of these occasions the gifted, prom 
 ising, and gallant Mackenzie was mortally 
 wounded, and died before reaching the ship, 
 lamented by all who knew him. Finding the 
 inutility of further contending against a wily and 
 brave horde of savages with men untrained to 
 warfare of such a character, Belknap, about 2 
 P.M., wisely concluded to re-embark. 
 
 On the 1st January, 1868, Osaka and Hiogo, 
 Japan, were quietly opened to foreigners. The 
 harmony that prevailed on the opening of these 
 ports was of short duration. Those opposed on 
 the part of the Japanese broke out into open re 
 volt. On the 27th January the contending par 
 ties came in conflict at Osaka. The tycoon, who 
 was defeated, and who favored the extension of 
 commercial intercourse, during the night of Jan 
 uary 31, with some of his adherents, sought shel 
 ter on board the " Iroquois," and remained until 
 morning, when the party went on board one of 
 their war-vessels. On the 4th February, 1868, 
 an assault was made by some Japanese troops at 
 Hiogo on the foreign residents, during which one 
 of the " Oneida s" crew was seriously wounded. 
 All the foreign naval forces present united to 
 protect the foreign settlement. On the 8th Feb 
 ruary a change of government occurred, when 
 assurances were given to the U. S. legation that 
 foreigners would be respected. The Japanese 
 officer who ordered his troops to fire on the for 
 eigners was executed in presence of a number of 
 our naval officers, and of those of other nation 
 alities. In April, 1868, Commander Febiger 
 was again sent to the Corea to rescue, if possible, 
 the crew and passengers of the "General Sher 
 man," but on his arrival learned that none were 
 alive. During the year 1868 the " Waterree" 
 and " Fredonia" were destroyed by earthquakes 
 on the western coast of South America. Twenty- 
 seven officers and men were drowned on the 
 " Fredonia." On the morning of the 29th Oc 
 tober the "Saginaw," Commander M. Sicard, 
 was wrecked on Ocean Island, in the Pacific Ocean. 
 Officers and crew were saved through valuable 
 assistance sent by the Hawaiian government, 
 and a vessel sent by our commissioner, Mr. 
 Pierce. Immediately after the disaster, Lieut. 
 John G. Talbot ana 1 5 others volunteered to 
 
NAVY 
 
 568 
 
 NAVY 
 
 make the hazardous voyage to Honolulu, Sand 
 wich Islands, a distance of 1500 miles, in a 
 small boat to seek assistance. After a voyage 
 of 31 days, during which they encountered ter 
 rible difficulties and dangers, and endured great 
 suffering, they arrived on the 19th of Decem 
 ber off Kanai, Sandwich Islands. They had 
 previously lost their oars in a storm, and .in 
 attempting to land the boat capsized, and Lieut. 
 Talbot and 3 others, already greatly debilitated, 
 were drowned. William Halford, who alone 
 survived, delivered Capt. Sicard s dispatches, 
 upon the receipt of which the relief was at 
 once dispatched. During the year 1871, Com 
 mander R. W. Shufeldt sent to the Department 
 his report of and accompanying maps of the 
 survey by the party under his command of the 
 Tehuantepec route for a ship-canal. The survey 
 for the Darien canal has been successfully com 
 pleted by a party under Commander T. O. Sel- 
 fridge, despite the great difficulties encountered 
 in making way through the dense and almost 
 impenetrable wilderness. He found the Atrato 
 Kiver, which he ascended 150 miles, navigable 
 for vessels of the largest class the whole distance, 
 with a width of 1500 feet and a depth of 30 feet. 
 He reported that the actual length of the canal will 
 be 31^ miles. Our government sent the " Worces 
 ter," " Supply," and " Relief" to Europe with 
 supplies for the sufferers of the European war then 
 raging. Our minister to China having been in 
 structed to arrange a convention for the protec 
 tion of sailors and others shipwrecked on the 
 Corean coast, Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, with 
 the " Colorado," " Alaska," " Monocacy," " Be- 
 nicia," and " Palos," proceeded to Bois anchor 
 age, Corea, for that purpose, accompanied by our 
 minister to China. Upon the arrival of the fleet, 
 and after communications and visits from the 
 local authorities, a surveying party was sent out 
 to pass up the channel past the Corean forts. 
 After being allowed to pass, the boats on their 
 return were treacherously fired upon. The small 
 vessels accompanying the party hurried into ac 
 tion, drove the Coreans from their works, and 
 succeeded in rescuing them, with 2 men wounded. 
 An explanation was immediately demanded. At 
 the end of 10 days none being offered, on the 9th 
 and 10th June an attack was made upon the 
 Coreans, 5 of their forts were captured and de 
 stroyed, 50 battle-flags and 481 pieces of artil 
 lery were taken. Our losses were 3 killed and 10 
 wounded, among the former being Lieut. Hugh 
 W. McKee, a dashing and courageous officer. 
 Finding it impossible to conclude a peaceful 
 treaty, the expedition left. In the year 1872, 
 Commander R. W. Meade, in the " Narragan- 
 sett," concluded a verbal treaty of peace and 
 amity with the native chiefs of the Navigator 
 Islands. 
 
 On the 18th June, 1875, the " Saranac," while 
 proceeding to Sitka, in passing through the Sey 
 mour Narrows, was caught in a whirlpool and 
 thrown on a sunken rock, and so badly injured as 
 to sink in deep water soon after. On this occa 
 sion valuable assistance was rendered by direc 
 tion of the officer commanding the English naval 
 forces. Preparations for observing the transit of 
 Venus having commenced in December, 1874, the 
 expedition sailed during 1875, and the results of 
 the observations were forwarded to the Depart 
 ment. Two expeditions were sent out this year 
 
 to complete the surveys for a canal route across 
 the Darien Isthmus : one, under Lieut. Fred 
 erick Collins, to survey the Napipi route ; the 
 other, under Commander E. P. Lull, to make a 
 survey near the line of the Panama Railroad. 
 During the past eight years no less than seven 
 surveys, with a view to ascertain the most prac 
 ticable route for a ship-canal to connect the At 
 lantic and Pacific Oceans, have been made ; three 
 of these have already been noticed. In addition, 
 a route has been surveyed between the Chepo 
 River and the Bluff of San Bias ; another in 
 the vicinity of Caledonia Bay ; also, a route by 
 the way of the Tayra River and the valley of 
 the Atrato. An instrumental survey was also 
 made and a route located via Urana River, the 
 mouth of the Atrato River, and by way of the 
 Napipi River to the Pacific. These surveys have 
 been performed with great zeal, skill, arid self- 
 devotion, several of the distinguished officers 
 employed having been seriously injured in health 
 by protracted exposure in a sickly and pestilen 
 tial climate. Much has been accomplished in 
 the direction of deep-sea soundings. Commander 
 E.G. Belknap, in the "Tuscarora," upon two 
 successive cruises, ran lines of soundings in the 
 Pacific, between California, the Sandwich Isl 
 ands, and Japan, with a view of laying telegraph- 
 cables between those countries. The soundings 
 were taken by means of an apparatus the genius 
 of Belknap had devised, and the merits of which 
 have been acknowledged and have received the 
 highest commendation at home and abroad ; 483 
 soundings were taken on the first cruise; on the 
 second 107 were made. He was assisted by Com 
 mander J. N. Miller. Deep-sea soundings have 
 also been made between St. Thomas, West In 
 dies, and Cape Henry, by way of Bermuda, in 
 the "Gettysburg." During the year 1879 the 
 "Tuscarora," Commander ^J. W. Philip, was 
 engaged in important surveys in the Pacific ; 
 Commander T. O. Selfridge in surveying the 
 river Amazon, etc. ; and Lieut.-Commanders 
 F. M. Green and C. H. Davis were engaged in 
 completing the work of telegraphically deter 
 mining the longitudes of the east coast of South 
 America, A complete chain of telegraphic 
 measurements has been made with great exact 
 ness for the first time from Greenwich to Buenos 
 Ayres, establishing precisely the geographical 
 positions of Lisbon, Madeira, Porto Grande, 
 Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio Janeiro, Montevideo, 
 Buenos Ayres, and Para, and surveys and ex 
 plorations in the interest of commerce have been 
 made by several vessels of the navy cruising in 
 different portions of the world. 
 
 For the facts and incidents connected with 
 this summary of the achievements of the navy 
 acknowledgment is made to Cooper s " Naval 
 History," the "History of the Rebellion" em 
 braced in Hamersly s first edition of the "Rec 
 ords of Living Officers of the Navy," and Far- 
 ragut s life by his son, all of which have been 
 accepted as authority. To the part the navy 
 has taken in the various expeditions in the in 
 terest of science and commerce only allusion 
 has been made, as they form subjects for separate 
 articles in this work. So also in regard to the 
 Naval Academy, the Torpedo School, Ordnance 
 Instruction, Experiments, and kindred subjects. 
 Of the present condition of the navy little can be 
 said. Since the close of the war of the Rebellion 
 
NAVY 
 
 569 
 
 NAVY 
 
 nothing has been done by the government in re 
 lation to the contest which has been going on 
 between ordnance and armor. Our policy seems 
 wise in waiting for the final determination of 
 the question before building heavily-armored 
 vessels. In regard to ordnance the conditions 
 are changed ; and it is a lamentable fact, we 
 have not in service a gun of sufficient power to 
 penetrate the plating of even a moderately arm 
 ored vessel, and, saving some converted guns and 
 howitzers, not a breech-loader. It is to be hoped 
 that Congress will speedily make appropriations 
 to supply guns of the most approved type and 
 construction for our vessels of war, to place us 
 upon an approximate equality with other mari 
 time powers. Time was when our ships of war 
 attracted admiration wherever they floated, and 
 filled with just pride the American heart. Pre 
 eminent in their day were the famous " Old 
 Ironsides" and the "United States"; then the 
 line-of-battle ships "Ohio" and "Pennsylva 
 nia" ; later the sloops-of-war " Portsmouth" and 
 "Plymouth"; and more recently the "Colo 
 rado," " Wabash," and "Minnesota," magnifi 
 cent steam-frigates, full of power and grace and 
 beauty. In their day and generation these were 
 the nrodel ships of the world, and the United 
 States in this regard the leading naval power. 
 How hard to realize this when we are so poor in 
 ships to-day as to be compelled to send an ad 
 miral to represent the power and majesty of a 
 nation of 50,000,000 of people, and to command 
 a foreign squadron composed of two small ves 
 sels, with one of these corvettes for his flag-ship, 
 and with half her captain s cabin for his accom 
 modation ! Thomas H. Stevens, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. 
 
 NAVY, VOLUNTEER. On account of the emer 
 gency created by the great Rebellion of 1861, a 
 large increase in the number of officers of the 
 navy became absolutely necessary. The number 
 of vessels in the navy, of all kinds, on March 4, 
 1861, was 76 ; the number purchased during that 
 year was 138, and the number constructed 52, 
 making the total number of vessels in the navy, 
 in December, 1861, 264, or 188 more than March 
 4, 1861 ; and the number of enlisted men was in 
 creased during the same period from 7600 to 
 22,000. This great increase of vessels and men 
 required more officers than the navy at that 
 period, weakened by the withdrawal of many 
 officers of all grades to engage in the Rebellion, 
 could furnish ; hence the Secretary of the Navy, 
 early in 1861, determined to appoint acting offi 
 cers, or, as they were called, to distinguish them 
 from regulars, volunteer officers. There were 
 several sources from which this required supply 
 of officers could be obtained : 1st, the officers who 
 had, during time of peace, resigned; 2d, acting 
 midshipmen who had resigned, before gradua 
 tion, from the naval school ; 3d, those persons 
 who had formerly served in the navy as petty 
 officers and enlisted men; 4th, pilots and men 
 employed in the Western rivers; and, 5th, 
 and by far the most prolific, the commercial 
 marine. Those appointed from the commercial 
 marine, while being good seamen, were not pro 
 ficient in gunnery, and, besides, they lacked the 
 advantages of naval training ; therefore, they 
 were generally ordered first for ordnance in 
 struction and the requisite and proper training. 
 Notwithstanding the stringent regulations for 
 
 discipline peculiar to the navy, the military 
 bearing and address required, and the disad 
 vantages before referred to, the good services 
 and record of these officers are attested not 
 only by the large number of promotions, after 
 examination, but by many promotions for gal 
 lantry in battle and for faithful service, and by 
 the fact that after the close of the Rebellion 4500 
 were honorably discharged with the thanks of 
 the Department, and many were admitted, after 
 examination, to the regular navy and to the ma 
 rine corps. 
 
 During the year 1861 there were appointed 23 
 acting lieutenants, 29 acting volunteer lieuten 
 ants, 562 acting masters, about 300 master s 
 mates, 88 acting assistant surgeons, 93 acting 
 assistant paymasters, 240_engineers, and 340 offi 
 cers of all grades in the Mississippi Squadron 
 (those in the Mississippi Squadron were mostly 
 appointed early in the year 1862), a total of about 
 1700. The acting lieutenants were officers who 
 had formerly served in the navy ; the acting vol 
 unteer lieutenants had not previously served in the 
 navy, at least not as commissioned officers. Mas 
 ter s mates having been, in many cases, appointed 
 by commanding officers of navy-yards, squad 
 rons, and vessels, under general authority from 
 the Secretary of the Navy, considerable trouble 
 is experienced in arriving at the precise number 
 in that grade, but 300 is doubtless a fair ap 
 proximation. 
 
 Between March 4, 1861, and July 24 of that 
 year, all acting appointments were made as a 
 "military necessity," without direct authoriza 
 tion of law, but the act of July 24 provided that 
 the " temporary appointments made, or which 
 may be made, by the Secretary of the Navy of 
 acting lieutenants, acting paymasters, acting 
 assistant surgeons, acting masters and master s 
 mates are ratified and confirmed as teniporary 
 acting appointments until the return of the ves^ 
 sels in which they are respectively employed, or 
 until the suppression of the present insurrection, 
 as maybe deemed necessary." In July, 1862, 
 the Secretary of the Navy began appointing act 
 ing ensigns, and the act of March 3, 1863, legal 
 ized the appointments. 
 
 As the rank of all the acting officers (except 
 master s mates) corresponded with that of regular 
 officers of like grade, their pay was made the 
 same. By the act of May 17, 1864, the appoint 
 ments of acting commanders and acting lieuten 
 ant-commanders were authorized, and by the act 
 of March 3, 1865, the appointments of acting 
 passed assistant surgeons ; and the same act di 
 rected that master s mates (or acting master s 
 mates) should be styled mates, and also provided 
 that mates could be rated from seamen and or 
 dinary seamen, such rating not to discharge them 
 from their enlistment. The rating of enlisted 
 men as mates had, however, been previously au 
 thorized by the Secretary of the Navy under the 
 Department circular of October 7, 1863. 
 
 It is entirely impracticable to give anything 
 like a fair and correct history of the individual 
 services of these officers of the volunteer navy ; 
 indeed, such history would necessarily be incom 
 plete, and there would, doubtless, be "invidious 
 distinctions." Many acts of personal prowess 
 were not specially reported, and, in the hurry and 
 confusion incident to the times, the gallantry and 
 meritorious services of not a few were uninten- 
 
NAVY 
 
 570 
 
 NAVY 
 
 tionally overlooked, or not properly recognized 
 and rewarded. In the second year of the war 
 (July 16, 1862) it was enacted that any person 
 who shall have received, or shall hereafter re 
 ceive, a temporary appointment as acting volun 
 teer lieutenant, or acting master, in the navy 
 from civil life, may be confirmed in said appoint 
 ment in the navy, and placed in line of promo 
 tion from the date of said confirmation, if, upon 
 the recommendation of the President, he re 
 ceives the thanks of Congress for highly merito 
 rious conduct in conflict with the enemy. Al 
 though no promotions were specially made under 
 this act, there were many made for gallant and 
 meritorious conduct, and at the close of the war 
 a board was organized (act of July 25, 1866) for 
 the examination of candidates from the volunteer 
 for admission to the regular naval service. Any 
 line-officer who had served two or more years in 
 the volunteer service was allowed to appear before 
 the board. The number of candidates summoned 
 to appear before the board was 426, the number 
 appearing was 305, and the number found physi 
 cally, mentally, and professionally qualified was 
 64. The names of those thus found qualified, and 
 also the names of those officers who held the rank 
 of acting lieutenant and acting volunteer lieu 
 tenant-commander, are hereinafter given, as well 
 as the names of those, of all grades, who were 
 transferred from the volunteer to regular service, 
 or to the marine corps. 
 
 Found Qualified for Admission into the Regular 
 Service. 
 
 Found Qualified for Admission into the Regular 
 Service. Continued. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Rank for 
 which found 
 Qualified. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Charles A. Schetky... 
 John K Winn 
 
 Master 
 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lientenant- 
 commander. 
 Retired list (as lieutenant), 
 October 31, 1879. 
 Resigned (as ensign \ 1868. 
 Died (as ensign), March 23, 
 1868. 
 Retired list (as ensign), 
 February 14, 1874. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 Died (as lieutenant) June 
 1, 1879. 
 Died (as lieutenant) De 
 cember 1, 1872. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 Died (as lieutenant) July 
 20, 1874. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 Resigned (as ensign) Sep 
 tember 11,1868. 
 Died (as lieutenant) July 
 6, 1874. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 Did not accept. 
 Died (as lieutenant) July 
 29, 1870. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 u 
 
 (( U 
 
 Declined appointment. 
 Retired list (as lieutenant), 
 December 2, 1876. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 " " 
 
 Retired list (as master), 
 May 23, 1870. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 Lost (as master) in "Onei- 
 da," January 24, 1870. 
 In service, as lieutenant. 
 
 Resigned (as ensign) April 
 4, 1869. 
 
 Thomas M. Gardner- 
 Charles H. Rockwell. 
 Charles M. Anthony.. 
 James M. Forsyth 
 George F Wilkins 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 if 
 
 
 H. Walton Grinnell... 
 Nicholas B. Willetts.. 
 
 Gilbert Morton 
 
 Ensign 
 
 William P. Randall- 
 George B. Livingston. 
 
 
 <4 
 
 F Aug Mil lei- 
 
 << 
 
 William H Mayer 
 
 << 
 
 Henry G Macy 
 
 J 
 
 Oscar W. Farenholt... 
 William B. Newman. 
 Andrew J. Iveison.... 
 William T Buck 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 Edward T. Strong 
 William J. Dumout... 
 
 William H. Brice 
 
 u 
 
 Name. 
 
 Rank for 
 which found 
 Qualified. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 William H Webb 
 
 M 
 
 Charles S. Coy 
 
 u 
 
 Ezra Leonard 
 
 u 
 
 David G. McRitchie... 
 Zera L. Tanner 
 
 ( 
 
 N Mayo Dyer 
 
 Lieutenant... 
 
 M 
 
 < 
 
 ... 
 
 Master 
 
 ({ 
 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commauder. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 Lost (as lieutenant-com 
 mander) in the " Onei- 
 da," January 24, 1870. 
 Did not accept appointment. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commiuider. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander 
 Dismissed (as lieutenant- 
 commander) February 4, 
 1879. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commaucjer. 
 Died (as lieutenant-com 
 mander) September 28, 
 1875. 
 Died (as lieutenant-com 
 mander) November 7, 
 1874. 
 In service, as lieuteJiant- 
 comrnander. 
 Retired list (as lientenailt- 
 commander), November 
 3, 1877. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 lu service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 In service, as lieutenant- 
 commander. 
 
 Francis M. Green 
 Edward Hooker 
 Henry H. Gorringe... 
 Alonzo W. Muldaur... 
 
 Joseph S Cony 
 
 Joseph E. Jones 
 William Welch . 
 
 M 
 
 Samuel Belden 
 
 K 
 
 James H. Stimpson... 
 Henry R Baker 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 Eugene W Watson 
 
 
 
 John F Merry 
 
 u 
 
 William W. Rhoades 
 John C. Morons; 
 William C. Gibson 
 William B. Arrants... 
 
 Thomas G. Grove .. .. 
 
 :::::::: 
 
 Charles O Neil 
 Edward S. Keyser 
 Thomas Nelson 
 
 Walter Sargent 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 De Witt C Kells 
 
 
 William A. Morgan... 
 
 
 
 
 William L. Howorth. 
 
 
 Felix McCurley 
 John McGowan 
 Gerhard C. Schulze... 
 
 Edwin H. Miller 
 
 (C 
 
 H 
 
 Officers holding Appointment as Acting Lieutenant. 
 
 When Ap- 
 Name - pointed 
 
 How and when left Volun 
 teer Service. 
 
 Henry C. Nields 
 Thomas F Wade 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 Thomas F. Wade... M 
 
 James Parker 
 E. Y. McCauley .... 
 John S. Barnes 
 j g Neville 
 
 ay 8, 1861. 
 
 " 8, 1861. 
 " 11,1861. 
 " 13, 1861. 
 " 13,1861. 
 " 13, 1861. 
 " 13, 1861. 
 " 13, 1861. 
 
 Appointment revoked Oc 
 tober 2, 1861, and ap 
 pointed an acting volun 
 teer lieutenant. 
 Trans, to regular service. 
 
 u u 
 Appt, revoked Nov. 12, 1861. 
 Trans to regular service. 
 Resign. Dec. 12,1861 (sick). 
 Trans, to regular service. 
 
 James G. Green 
 George E. Wingate... 
 George R. Durand 
 
 
 
 J. N. Quackenbush 
 J. P. K. Mygatt 
 R. T. Renshaw 
 
 
 
NAVY 
 
 671 
 
 NAVY 
 
 Officers holding Appointment as Acting Lieutenant. 
 Continued. 
 
 George S. Culbreth, Fredk. M. Dearborne, Henry 
 A. Dauker, Isaiah Dewling, J. Milton Flint, 
 
 
 George S. Fife, Leslie D. Frost, Edward Froth- 
 
 Name. 
 
 When Ap 
 pointed. 
 
 How and when left Volun 
 teer Service. 
 
 ingham, Charles L. Green, James N. Hyde, 
 William H. Jones, William T. Kemp, Fredk. 
 
 
 
 
 Krecker, Jerome H. Kidder, Grenville B. Le 
 
 
 
 
 Compte, William V. Marmion, Ernest D. Mar 
 
 Edgar Brodhead... 
 
 May 13, 1861. 
 
 Promoted to acting volun- 
 
 tin, Joseph W. Newcomer, Charles H. Page, 
 
 J P Sanford 
 
 " 13, 1861. 
 
 Trans. to regular service. 
 
 Henry L. Plympton, Henry T. Percy, Jere 
 
 Thomas A. Budd... 
 
 " 13, 1861. 
 
 Killed in action, March 22, 
 
 miah J. Page, William M. Reber, John S. Ram 
 
 Charles Weston 
 P. G. Watmough... 
 
 muz. 
 " 13, 1861. [Resigned August 16, 1861. 
 " 13, 1861. Trans, to regular service. 
 
 say, William J. Simon, John D. Smith, J. Rufus 
 Tryon, Adam Trau, Edmund C. Ver Meulen, 
 
 J. Van Ness Philip 
 
 " 14,1861. | Died September 3, 1862. 
 
 George F. Winslow, William H. Wescott, Rob 
 
 Robert A. Knapp... 
 S. E. Woodworth ... 
 R. Townsend 
 
 July 27, 1861. 
 Sept. 10, 1861. 
 " 17, 1861. 
 
 Resigned Nov. 18. 1861. 
 Trans, to regular service. 
 
 ert Willard, David V. Whitney, James Wilson, 
 F. W. Wunderlich, Edward H. Ware, Robert 
 
 Edm. R. Colhoun... 
 
 " 24,1861. 
 
 " " 
 
 A. Whedon, Holmes Wikoff. 
 
 R. W. Shuieldt 
 S. J. Shipley 
 
 " 25,1861. 
 " 25,1861. 
 
 Appointment revoked Feb 
 ruary 6, 1863 (sick). 
 
 From .Acting Assistant Paymaster to Passed 
 Assistant Paymaster: R. W. Allen, H. M. 
 
 DeG. Livingston... 
 
 " 30,1861. 
 
 Declined appointment. 
 
 Meade, Frank Clark, A. D. Bache, D. B. Ba- 
 
 Simon C. Mish 
 C. II. Baldwin 
 Joseph C. Walsh... 
 
 Nov. 23, 1861. Dismissed Dec. 24, 1861. 
 Dec. 27, 1861. ; Trans, to regular service. 
 Feb. 11, 1862. Resigned May 1, 1862. 
 
 tione, W. F. A. Torbert, E. H. Cushing, L. A. 
 Frailey, John H. Stevenson, T. L. Tullock, J. 
 
 F. S. Conover ! Sept. 13, 1862. 
 
 Aug. 11, 1863. 
 
 W. Fairfleld, E. M. Hart, G. E. Hendee, M. B. 
 
 J. McLeod Murphy 
 J D. Danels 
 
 Dec. 4, 1862. 
 June 3, 1863. 
 
 " July 30, 1864. 
 Promoted to acting volun 
 teer lieut.-commander. 
 
 Cushing, J. H. Bulkley, R. B. Rodney, J. S. 
 Giraud, S. S. Wood, F. J. Painter, G. L. Mead, 
 
 
 E. C. Merriman 
 
 Sept. 25, 1863. ; Trans. to regular service. 
 
 W. W. Woodhull, G. R. Watkins, D. P. Wight, 
 
 j 
 
 H. T. Wright, D. A. Smith, C. A. McDaniel, 
 
 
 F. H. Arms, John Furey, J. Linsly, F. T. Gil- 
 
 Officers holding Appointment as Acting Volun 
 
 lett, G. H. Griffing, E. Mellach, George W. 
 
 teer Lieutenant- Commander. 
 
 Brown, Edward Sherwin, G. A. Robertson, J. 
 
 
 H. Mulford. 
 
 Name. 
 
 When Ap 
 pointed. 
 
 How and when left the 
 Service. 
 
 From Acting Assistant Paymaster to Assistant 
 Paymaster : Charles H. Eldredge, Richd. Wash 
 
 
 
 
 ington, Rufus Parks, William W. Williams, 
 
 Joseph D. Danels... 
 Edgar Brodhead... 
 W. C. Rogers 
 
 May 18,1864. 
 Oct. 22, 1864. 
 " 24, 1864. 
 
 Trans, to regular service. 
 Resigned March 2, 1865. 
 Hon. disch. July 18, 1866. 
 
 Forbes Parker, George W. Beaman, Joseph T. 
 Lisle, F. R. Curtis, W. H. Sells, C. S. Perley, 
 W. S. Blunt, Charles Fairchild, C. E. Chenery, 
 
 William Budd 
 Thomas P. Ives 
 William R. Hoel... 
 
 Nov. 5,1864. 
 " 7, 1864. 
 " 10, 1864. 
 
 " Jan. 6, 1866. 
 Died November 17, 1865. 
 Hon. disch. Dec. 30, 1865. 
 
 H. A. Strong, Jesse P. Woodbury, W. L. Dar 
 ling, G. R. Martin, W. H. Anderson, W. C. 
 
 Joseph B. Breck... 
 
 " 25, 1864. 
 
 Died July 26, 1865. 
 
 Cook, G. S. Benedict, Theoron Merritt, G. R.. 
 
 Theo. B. DuBois ... 
 William H. West... 
 Edward Conroy 
 Pierre Giraud 
 
 " 26,1864. 
 " 30,1864. 
 Dec. 8, 1864. 
 " 9, 1864. 
 
 Hon. disch. Feb. 7, 186R. 
 Oct. 24, 1865. 
 " Oct. 30, 1868. 
 " Jan. 15, 1869. 
 
 Rand, W. N. Watmough, Worthington Golds- 
 borough, G. DeF. Barton, W. R. Winslow, H. 
 P. Tuttle, F. H. Hinman, R. P. Lisle, C. F. 
 
 Wm. B. Eaton 
 
 " 12,1864. 
 
 " Jan. 13, 1866. 
 
 Guild, J. E. Tolfree, L. G. Billings, J. F. Ham 
 
 C. F. W. Behm " 22,1864. 
 J W Smith i^h 7 IRK*; 
 
 " Nov. 28, 1865. 
 " Feb. 21, 1866. 
 
 ilton, C. P. Thompson, F. H. Swan, J. J. Phil- 
 
 Edward Hooker.... 
 
 " 7, 1865. 
 
 Trans, to regular service. 
 
 brick, S. T. Browne, A. W. Bacon, F. C. Imlay, 
 
 Edward F . Devens 
 
 " 7,1865. 
 
 Hon. disch. Nov. 19, 1866. 
 
 R. S. McConnell, C. D. Mansfield, H. T. Ske l- 
 
 J. MacDiarmid 
 L. W. Penniiigton. 
 
 March 3, 1865 
 " 3, 1865. 
 
 " Oct. 28, 1866. 
 " Nov. 12, 1865. 
 
 ding, C. W. Slamm, J. A. Berry, Joseph Fos 
 
 W. S Cheeseman... 
 
 " 9, 1865. 
 
 " Sept. 3D, 1865. 
 
 ter, E. N. Whitehouse, John MacMahon, Theo. 
 
 Wm. P. Randall.... 
 C. H. Rockwell 
 T. A. Harris 
 
 " 9, 1865. 
 " 27, I86.i. 
 Anvil 26. 1865. 
 
 " Dec. 19, 1865. 
 Dec 8, 1865. 
 " Oct. 24, 1865. 
 
 S. Thompson, William J Thomson, H G. Colby, 
 J. R. Carmody, J. B. Redfield, William J. Healey, 
 
 R. B. Smith 1 " 29,1865. 
 
 Jan. 1, 1863. 
 
 Henry Gerrard, John F. Tarbell, I G. Hobbs, J. 
 
 Frederick Crocker May 1, 1865. 
 
 " Oct. 2, 1865. 
 
 P. Loomis, H. T. B. Harris, H. C. Machette, C. 
 
 J. F. Nickels 
 James Trathen 
 
 6. 1865. 
 " 16, 1865. 
 
 " Oct. 26, 1865. 
 " May 26, 1866. 
 
 H. Lockwood, A. T. Hubbard, C. E Boggs, 
 
 John A. Johnston.. 
 
 " 19, 1865. 
 
 " Dec. 9, 1865. 
 
 Frank Bissell, H. T. Stancliff, A. H. Nelson, 
 
 Wm. G Saltonstall " 20, 1865. 
 
 " Oct. 5, 1-65. 
 
 G. F. Bemis, F. C. Alley, G. H. Read, J. Q. 
 
 Frederick S. Wells 
 Chas. A. French.... 
 
 " 27, 1865. 
 " 30, 1865. 
 
 " March 31, 1866. 
 " Oct 21, 1865. 
 
 Barton, A. J. Greeley, S. D. Hurlbut, H. A. 
 
 Samuel Huse 
 
 " 31,1865. 
 
 " March 31, 1866. 
 
 Thompson, Jr., C A Cable. 
 
 H. H. Gorringe 
 Wm Hamilton 
 William Flye 
 
 July 10, 1865. 
 " 17, 1865. 
 " 21, 1865. 
 
 Trans, to regula" service. 
 Hon. disch. April 15, 1866. 
 " Dec. 24, 1865. 
 
 Officers of the Marine Corps who served as Vol 
 unteer Officers in the Navy: D. Pratt Mannix, 
 
 C. J. Van Alstine.. 
 
 Aug. 14, 1865. 
 
 April 30, 1866. 
 
 Lewis R. Hamersly, Henrv C. Cochrane, Wil 
 
 
 
 liam S. Muse, Albert H. O Brien. 
 
 
 From Acting Third Assistant Engineer to As 
 
 Other Volunteer Officers who entered the Reg 
 
 sistant Paymaster: Stephen Rand. 
 
 ular Service. From Acting Passed Assistant Sur 
 geon to Passed Assistant Surgeon : Daniel C. Bur- 
 
 From Acting Chief Engineer to Chief Engineer: 
 J. Q. A. Zieg ler. 
 
 leigh and Francis V. Greene. 
 
 From Acting Third Assistant Engineer to Sec 
 
 From Acting Assistant Surgeon to Assistant 
 
 ond Assistant Engineer : Jabez Burchard, W. B. 
 
 Surgeon: John H. Austin, Joseph G. Ayres, 
 
 Bayley, J. P. Mickley, E. F. McElmell, W. H. 
 
 George A. Bright, Henry W. Birkey, J. Wesley 
 
 Platt, H. E. Rhoades. 
 
 Boyden, Edward B. Bingham, Horatio N. Beau 
 
 From Acting Second Assistant Engineer to Sec 
 
 mont, Hosea J. Babin, Thomas R. Brown, John 
 
 ond Assistant Engineer : T. J. W. Cooper, Geo. 
 
 W. Coles, Elwood M. Corson, Joseph T. Cottrell, 
 
 Cowie, J. T. Smith. 
 
NAVY 
 
 572 
 
 NAVY 
 
 From Acting Third Assistant Engineer to Third 
 Assistant Engineer: George W. Baird, O. B. 
 Mills, W. G-. McEwen, H. L. Slosson, Harrie 
 Webster, E. G Allen. 
 
 As Boatswain: William Allen, W. S. Bond, 
 Jeremiah Harding, Josiah B. Aiken, John H. 
 Brown, T. S. Collier, W. G. Tompkins, F. A. 
 Dran, John Smith, James Heron, James Nash, 
 Joseph McDonald, Hallowell Dickinson, J. S. 
 Sinclair, J. W. Simmons, Thomas Savage, C. 
 E. Hawkins, Daniel Ward, Michael Mickey, W. 
 Burditt, W. P. Burke, Edward Cavendy, Edwin 
 Consey, Woodward Carter. 
 
 As Gunner: Felix Cassidy, James Hayes, D. 
 W. Burroughs, Cornelius Cronin, W. T. Devlan, 
 George Dunn, W. A. Ferrier, John Kussell, C. 
 B. Magruder, A. A. Phelps, C. H. Venable, C. 
 A. Young, C. C. Neil, M. K. Henderson. 
 
 As Carpenter: Oliver W. Griffiths, E. D. Hall. 
 
 As Saiimaker: Thomas S. Gay. 
 
 Appointed from the Volunteer Navy to the Reg 
 ular Navy on the Retired List : Henry C. Keene 
 (as lieutenant), E. E. Bradbury (as master), L. 
 K. Chester (as master), H. F. Moffatt (as master), 
 Wesley W. Bassett (as master). 
 
 Appointed a Lieutenant in the Navy from Mas 
 ter s Mate: William B. Cushing. 
 
 The names of these volunteer officers of the 
 higher ranks are given not because they were in 
 all instances more conspicuous for gallantry and 
 more faithful in their services than others of 
 lower rank, but because the space allotted to 
 this article renders it impossible to give the long 
 roll of those worthy of mention. Nor should it 
 be presumed that those admitted into the regular 
 service were the only ones qualified therefor. A 
 large majority entered the volunteer navy for the 
 single and heroic purpose of giving their services, 
 and, if need be, their lives, for the preservation 
 of the Union. That object attained and the au 
 thority of the government re-established on land 
 and sea, resignations in large numbers immedi 
 ately followed, the volunteer deeming his work 
 and duty done and the object for which he en 
 tered accomplished. 
 
 On May 1, 1865, the Kebellion being then prac 
 tically ended, the work of reducing the volunteer 
 navy was commenced. The Secretary of the 
 Navy ordered that, in mustering out volunteer 
 officers, all in the service on that date should be 
 allowed one month s leave of absence for each 
 year of service. On the 1st of January, 1865, 
 there were 5278 volunteer officers of all grades 
 in the navy, while on the 1st of January, 1869, 
 there were but 170, and on the 1st of January of 
 the year following onl} T 111. 
 
 It was not, however, until July 15, 1870, that 
 all acts or parts of acts authorizing the appoint 
 ment of temporary acting officers of the navy, 
 except as to assistant surgeons, were repealed. 
 The authority of the Secretary of the Navy to 
 retain any volunteer officers after the close of 
 the Kebellion was given by the act of July 25, 
 1866, and the exercise of that authority was by 
 the act made conditional upon its being required 
 by the exigencies of the service. 
 
 The act of February 15, 1879, provided for the 
 honorable discharge or transfer to the regular 
 service, as might be determined, of acting passed 
 assistant surgeons and acting assistant surgeons, 
 and abolished the volunteer navy of the United 
 States. J. E. Dow. 
 
 NAVY OF THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY. 
 The history of the navy of the Southern Con 
 federacy has yet to be written. This article does 
 not aim at giving that history even in its most 
 epitomized form. Our object is simply to notice 
 briefly and cursorily the general character of that 
 service, some of the embarrassments attending 
 its creation, and a few of its more prominent 
 operations, more especially those which may 
 serve to illustrate the action and value of the 
 new class of vessels which the South for the first 
 time ushered into naval warfare. 
 
 The Southern navy was modeled precisely 
 after that of the United States. The same arti 
 cles of war and internal rules were adopted, and 
 the same discipline, usages, and general routine 
 prevailed. With all these accessories, the older 
 officers, holding their accustomed rank and sur 
 rounded very much by their former familiar as 
 sociates, might have had need at times to cast a 
 glance at the flag overhead or at the gray they 
 had donned in place of the blue to realize fully 
 that they belonged to a new service, foreign and 
 hostile to the one in which they had passed the 
 better part of their lives. 
 
 This organization was working smoothly and 
 efficiently when a sweeping change was made by 
 an act of Congress passed in May, 18G3, creating 
 a new service styled the "provisional navy." 
 The officers appointed to it were all taken from 
 the older service, now contradistinguished as the 
 " regular navy." The juniors were transferred 
 in toto ; the seniors were selected by the Secretary 
 of the Navy : all maintained unimpaired their 
 status in the old navy. 
 
 The vessels, with all their materiel and their 
 entire crews, were next summarily transferred en 
 masse to the new creation, and the regular navy, 
 thus stripped of all its properties, was reduced to 
 a small body of veterans still in the vigor of life, 
 yet cutoff from all participation in service afloat, 
 and consigned to the comparative inaction of 
 " shore duties," which, nevertheless, were shared 
 in common with the provisionals. 
 
 This duplicate organization of a general ser 
 vice, which, despite its nominal partition, re 
 mained essentially one and the same, was at 
 tended with confusion, embarrassments, and even 
 more serious objections, that after a year s trial 
 led the chief of the bureau of detail to recom 
 mend that the transfer to the new service should 
 be made to embrace all the officers indiscrimi 
 nately ; but high officials are seldom inclined to 
 brook any interference with pet measures, and 
 the suggestion found no favor. 
 
 About the same time another act was passed 
 to establish what was called the " volunteer 
 navy." The effect of this measure would have 
 been to systematize privateering, and, by combin 
 ing its forces under the guise of a new name into 
 a national marine, to raise it to a higher level 
 than could be attained by single and independent 
 vessels sailing under the authority of letters of 
 marque and reprisal. There is reason to believe 
 that Congress was in some degree prompted to 
 this course by the agreement which had been 
 concluded between the maritime powers of Eu 
 rope, in 1855, to place privateering hors de loi, 
 for, though this agreement was only binding 
 upon the parties assenting to it, its moral effect 
 as a public expression of European sentiment 
 tended to put that method of aggression under 
 
NAVY 
 
 573 
 
 NAVY 
 
 ban and at discredit wherever practiced. The 
 more immediate object, however, was to induce 
 capitalists to invest in enterprises that promised 
 swift and profitable returns, with the advantage 
 to the government of despoiling the commerce of 
 the enemy without cost to the treasury. 
 
 The law authorized the President to accept 
 the services of armed vessels, furnished and 
 equipped at the expense of the owners, to appoint 
 officers, confer assimilated rank, define the rights 
 and duties of those engaged in the ventures, and 
 establish rules for the general government of the 
 whole. But the statute was adapted rather to 
 the genius of a commercial than an agricultural 
 people, and met no hearty response. It is be 
 lieved that no vessel was ever equipped for the 
 service proposed. 
 
 There was yet another marine force, which is 
 only noticed to dissociate it from the navy with 
 which the historians of the day confound it. It 
 was styled the "river defense," or more popu 
 larly "Montgomery s fleet," and consisted of a 
 number of Mississippi steamboats, commanded 
 and manned exclusively by river-men, and 
 placed under the control of the War Depart 
 ment. These boats, with their engines protected 
 by a barricade of cotton and their bows revetted 
 with a plating of iron, were designed for the 
 special purpose of running down and sinking the 
 ironclads of the enemy. Part of the fleet was 
 eventually destroyed by their own commanders 
 after co-operating with the navy in the unsuc 
 cessful attempt to prevent the Federal fleet from 
 passing Forts Jackson and St. Philip, in April, 
 1862, and the rest for the most part were captured 
 or sunk during a hotly contested engagement 
 with a superior force of ironclads off Memphis, 
 in June of the same year. 
 
 It is no disparagement to the Confederate navy 
 to say that it played comparatively a subordinate 
 role in the war. The reason for this is obvious. 
 At the outbreak of hostilities the South had no 
 navy, in the proper sense of the term, nor did 
 she possess at any time during the struggle a 
 sufficient number of efficient vessels to cope with 
 the powerful squadrons mustered along the entire 
 coast. She had a body of valuable recruits of 
 every grade in the naval officers who had re 
 signed from the U. S. service, and a limited 
 number of seamen and stokers who had been 
 thrown out of employment by the stoppage of 
 trade, but was destitute of ships, and before she 
 had time to construct them found herself in 
 the thick of the conflict. In this strait the gov 
 ernment was driven to the usual expedient in 
 such cases, a wretched makeshift at best, that 
 of attempting to turn merchant craft into war 
 ships But no ingenuity of the shipwright could 
 achieve the transformation with such material as 
 the dock-yards of the South afforded. Vessels 
 like British mail-steamers, adapted in their 
 original structure to war contingencies, or the 
 stoutly timbered clipper-ships of New York 
 might be proper objects for such conversion; but 
 the South, with the exception of a few sea-going 
 vessels picked up here and there, had to rely 
 mainly on steamboats and steam-tugs, river 
 barges, canal- and ferry-boats. The inadequacy 
 of trumpery fleets made up of such material soon 
 became evident. 
 
 When Dupont appeared with his large and 
 well-appointed squadron off Port Koyal in No 
 
 vember, 1861, he found nothing to oppose him 
 on the water but 7 small merchant craft impro 
 vised into war-ships, and commonly known under 
 the derisive name of " mosquito fleet." They 
 were under the command of Commodore Tatnall, 
 who could do no more than hover on the out 
 skirts of the enemy, and attempt ineffectually to 
 interrupt the sounding-parties as they were feel 
 ing their way over the bar. Later, during the 
 following February, Commodore Lynch found 
 himself in a similar position. He was stationed 
 on the sounds of North Carolina with orders " to 
 hold those waters to the last extremity." To 
 make good those brave words his pennant was 
 floating over the same number of vessels of in 
 significant size that but a few weeks since had 
 been river traders or canal-boats. When the 
 Federals made their combined attack on Koan- 
 oke Island, on the 7th, he was confronted by 33 
 vessels of various descriptions, comprising 17 
 steam-gunboats armed with guns of the heaviest 
 calibre, among which were 80- and 100-pound- 
 ers. In the first action, conducted at long range, 
 he lost two of his vessels, one sunk and the 
 other disabled. Two days afterwards the battle 
 was renewed off Elizabeth City, and the small 
 flotilla was well-nigh annihilated, one boat only 
 escaping, which made its way through Dismal 
 Swamp, the rest being captured by the enemy or 
 blown up by their own commanders. On the 
 Mississippi similar disasters overtook the same 
 wretched class of vessels about the same time. 
 Here, in February, 1862, Commodore Hollins 
 was co-operating with the land forces with a 
 force of 5 converted gunboats carrying in all 32 
 guns, 7J-inch rifles and 8-inch smooth-bores. 
 These " shells, "^as they were facetiously called, 
 answered pretty well for intercepting military 
 transports or occasional brushes with the hostile 
 batteries ; but as yet they were separated by the 
 formidable batteries on Island No. 10, at the 
 bend of the river near New Madrid, from Foote s 
 ironclads and mortar flotilla, the first alone 
 mounting 75 guns in the aggregate, including 
 10-inch columbiads, 9-inch smooth-bores, and 
 100-pounder rifles. 
 
 They were not, however, fated to encounter 
 that powerful fleet. Upon the fall of Island 
 No. 10 they were dismantled of their guns, 
 which went to strengthen the batteries of Fort 
 Pillow, and in this defenseless state were finally 
 burnt to escape capture on the approach of the 
 Federal squadron from below. 
 
 Early measures were taken for forming a navy. 
 A secret agent employed at New York was di 
 rected in March, 1861, to purchase vessels suit 
 able for conversion into men-of-war. Soon af 
 terwards an officer of the line, accompanied by 
 a competent engineer, was sent for the same 
 purpose to New York, Philadelphia, and Balti 
 more, and yet another envoy was dispatched to 
 buy a certain steamer in Canada. All these 
 efforts proved fruitless ; the Canadian steamer, 
 for some reason, could not be obtained, and the 
 United States had forestalled the South by pur 
 chasing or chartering whatever was available in 
 its own waters. Naval officers were also hurried 
 to England and France, provided with ample 
 funds to purchase ironclads, or, in default of 
 this, to have them built, and to procure arms, 
 ordnance stores, and supplies of all kinds. The 
 hope of acquiring ironclads in this way must 
 
NAVY 
 
 574 
 
 NAVY 
 
 have been prompted by the prevailing delusion 
 of the moment that the great staple of the South 
 would control the policy of those nations by 
 forcing them into open hostilities in her behalf, 
 or at least by inducing them to connive at the 
 equipment of* armaments in their ports. These 
 hopes, as we all know, were not realized. The 
 officers, being thus baffled in their first purpose, 
 were instructed to have wooden vessels built in 
 England for cruising on the high seas. 
 
 To accomplish this required secrecy, tact, and 
 finesse of no common order. The English law 
 known as the "Enlistment Act," passed under 
 one of the Georges, prohibits, " under a penalty 
 of fine and imprisonment, with forfeiture of 
 property," the equipment of any vessel to be 
 employed against the subjects or citizens of a 
 state at the time in amity with England. To 
 evade this act in the face of police authorities 
 kept keenly on the alert by spies and detectives 
 employed by the United States seemed almost a 
 hopeless attempt; yet, in spite of every obstacle, 
 the " Alabama," the " Georgia," the " Florida," 
 and the " Shenandoah," which severally inflicted 
 so much damage on the commerce of the United 
 States, forcing almost the entire trade into foreign 
 bottoms, were all built in British waters, from 
 which, as soon as completed, they sailed openly 
 under the English flag, bound to the appointed 
 rendezvous of some lonely island, where they 
 received their armament, hoisted the Confeder 
 ate flag, and launched forth on their adventurous 
 career. 
 
 The views of the Secretary of the Navy in re 
 gard to the character and extent of the naval 
 preparations that were required to put the South 
 on a good naval footing may be gathered from a 
 communication addressed by him to the Execu 
 tive under the date of March 2, 1882, for the 
 information of Congress. In this document he 
 states that there was or might be necessary dur 
 ing the current year " 50 light-draft and power 
 ful steam-propellers plated with 5-inch bar-iron 
 and equipped for service in our own waters, 4 
 iron- or steelclad 10-gun frigates of about 2000 
 tons each, and 10 clipper-propellers with supe 
 rior marine engines, both classes of vessels de 
 signed for deep-sea cruising." He desires pro 
 vision made for " 3000 tons of boiler- and plate- 
 iron, 1000 tons of rod-, b6lt-, and bar-iron, 3000 
 pieces of heavy ordnance ranging in calibre 
 from 6 to 11 inches and in weight from 6000 to 
 14,000 pounds, 1000 tons of musket-powder for 
 filling projectiles and pyrotechny, 4000 naval 
 revolvers, and 4000 cutlasses with equipments 
 and ammunition." To utilize this vast amount 
 of material he requires "3000 seamen, 4000 or 
 dinary seamen and landsmen, and 2000 me 
 chanics." 
 
 Looking at the poverty of our internal re 
 sources and almost entire dependence for means 
 and appliances for naval purposes on foreign 
 supplies at the time this communication was 
 penned, the project it unfolds would rather seem 
 the Secretary s ideal of what the foundation of 
 the Southern navy should be than a well-studied 
 plan proper for legislative consideration. But 
 that official was looked to by Congress for the 
 initiation of its naval measures, and it was per 
 haps his wisest policy to present affairs under 
 such an aspect as would inspire confidence and 
 promote liberal appropriations. The suggestion 
 
 of ironclads for sea-cruisers at the time seemed 
 premature. The question of rendering that, class 
 of vessels capable of encountering the perils of 
 the sea had not yet been solved by satisfactory 
 tests. As the most advanced ship in that line of 
 improvement, the representative vessel was the 
 French frigate " La Gloire." Sh.e was the final 
 product of the best French engineering science 
 and skill which had been prosecuting its inves 
 tigations through a succession of costly experi 
 mental structures, and it was claimed that she 
 was as invulnerable to the storms of the ocean 
 as to the shot of the enemy. The English, 
 however, better authorities on nautical subjects 
 than their neighbors across the Channel, denied 
 the sea-going qualities of their crack ship, 
 
 But, accepting the Secretary s views as real 
 and earnest, let us examine as briefly as may be 
 some of the difficulties he had to encounter in 
 the attempt to carry them out, and what finally 
 was the outcome of his labors, which continued 
 up to the last year of the war. 
 
 It will be readily seen that it was no easy task 
 to create a navy in a country at once invested 
 by sea and invaded by land, depending largely 
 on foreign supplies for many of the most im 
 portant materials, yet snatching them as it were 
 from the chances of blockade-runners, and con 
 stantly compelled by the advance of the enemy 
 to abandon or destroy vessels still on the stocks 
 or retreat with others more advanced to safer 
 points for completion. Thus the progress of the 
 work was frequently checked and delayed, and 
 much that had been accomplished at great cost 
 rendered abortive. Gunboats in process of build 
 ing were lost in this way by the capture of Nash 
 ville ; 2 were destroyed on the ways when Nor 
 folk was evacuated; some 10 or 15 in various 
 stages of construction on the shores of the York 
 and Pamunkey liivers were sacrificed as the 
 Confederates retired from the Peninsula ; when 
 Memphis was threatened one ironclad unfinished 
 was hurried off to the upper waters of the Yazoo, 
 and the torch applied to her consort still un- 
 launched ; and the greatest loss of all was that 
 of the "Mississippi," a powerful ironclad, de 
 stroyed when nearly completed, off New Orleans, 
 to prevent her capture by the Federal fleet near 
 at hand. 
 
 These were only some of the disasters arising 
 from the cause stated. Had all of them been 
 reckoned at the time, the sum-total might have 
 created a fear that the work of demolition was 
 fast overtaking that of construction. 
 
 Besides such reverses, the inadequacy of our 
 resources beset the task of construction at the 
 outset with endless hinderances. The South had 
 two dock-yards only. That at Pensacola was 
 too remote and isolated for the occasion. The 
 Norfolk yard was a priceless acquisition, with 
 its dry-dock, foundry, machine-shops, its stores 
 of material and supplies and large amount of 
 ordnance, but the facilities it afforded could only 
 be utilized on the spot, while the necessities of 
 the case required that the vessels should be built 
 in every quarter. 
 
 The Tredegar Iron- Works, at Richmond, were 
 the only ones in the whole Confederacy capable 
 of casting guns of heavy calibre, until the gov 
 ernment erected its own establishments at Char 
 lotte and Selma. 
 
 In the entire Confederacy there was not a re- 
 
NAYY 
 
 575 
 
 NAVY 
 
 liable establishment, except in Tennessee, where 
 a first-class marine engine could be constructed. 
 Three rolling-mills only existed in the whole 
 country, two of which, in Tennessee, were una 
 vailable owing to the disturbed condition of the 
 districts in which they were located, and the 
 third, at Atlanta, Ga., had to undergo extensive 
 alterations, involving serious delay, before it 
 could undertake the heavy work of the navy. 
 The private machine-shops and foundries re 
 sorted to by the government in the absence of 
 public establishments of the kind were every 
 where more or less crippled by the loss of opera 
 tives, who had enlisted in the land service. The 
 navy was especially pushed for skilled workmen 
 to build its ships, and seamen to man them when 
 built. Both. of these classes had been largely 
 absorbed by the army, which was unwilling to 
 relinquish them. Laws passed for the recovery 
 of them for naval uses became well-nigh inopera 
 tive from the complicate and dilatory processes 
 of red tape and routine that hampered every 
 effort to attain the object. Not more than one- 
 tenth of those for whom application was made 
 could be obtained, and these were mostly de 
 tailed for limited periods instead of being per 
 manently transferred. 
 
 At the outset the navy was in pressing need of 
 everything, hemp, coal, iron, powder, ordnance, 
 ordnance stores, medical supplies, provisions, 
 clothing ; in short, almost every article of prime 
 necessity. Even the wood of which the vessels 
 were built was generally standing green and 
 flourishing in the forest when the contract which 
 was to utilize it was signed. 
 
 To supply most of these wants the main reli 
 ance of the South, ,as already stated, was upon 
 blockade-runners. All the Southern ports were 
 busily engaged in these enterprises, much of 
 their capital and energy, shut out from the usual 
 fields of activity, being now concentrated in this^ 
 one eager pursuit. Wilmington, N. C., took the 
 lead, trading chiefly with Europe, but Charles 
 ton, Mobile, Savannah, and New Orleans had 
 their full share in the new game of chance. Nor 
 were other places less noted idle. Along the ex 
 tensive Southern estuaries might be found here 
 and there at some obscure inlet or sheltered cove 
 an improvised settlement diligently prosecuting 
 the same traffic, the vessel screened by a con 
 venient headland tufted with trees, and the 
 neighboring beach strewn with cotton in process 
 of shipment, or perhaps piled with a freight just 
 landed and worth now a hundredfold its cost, 
 and all th^se busy doings going on with the 
 watchers outside not a whit the wiser. 
 
 The Navy Department was soon itself com 
 pelled to become an active and direct participant 
 in these ventures. When, from the exhaustion of 
 its funds abroad and the depreciation of its cur 
 rency, it was found impracticable to purchase 
 exchange in the ordinary way, shipments of cot-^ 
 ton were made to Europe on naval account to 
 provide means for obtaining home freights. The 
 appropriations applied in this way incurred the 
 double risk of the homeward and outward voy 
 ages, and the ventures were not always fortu 
 nate. 
 
 In addition to all these drawbacks to the work 
 of construction, one of no little magnitude had 
 to be encountered in the transportation of heavy 
 naval material, such as ordnance, propeller shafts, 
 
 and machinery, from the point of manufacture 
 to the building depots, over dilapidated railways 
 already overburdened by the conveyance of troops 
 with provisions and munitions of war and by the 
 general or it might be called the universal 
 travel, for the whole population seemed to be in 
 motion. 
 
 As time advanced some of these evils were 
 remedied, some wants keenly felt at first abun 
 dantly supplied, and new means and appliances 
 brought into active play. Naval ordnance works 
 and laboratories were established at Kichmond, 
 Charlotte, Atlanta, and Selma, which facilitated 
 the work and largely increased the war products. 
 A special bureau was appointed to foster the coal 
 and nitre interests, with satisfactory results. 
 Powder-works at Columbus, Ga., were made to 
 yield all the powder the navy required. Roll 
 ing-mills at Richmond turned out iron plating 
 whenever the raw material could be obtained, 
 and at rope-walks set up at the same place the 
 cotton fibre was successfully substituted for hemp, 
 making a substantial cordage. But no human 
 agency could find a substitute for iron, the great, 
 the pressing want of the Confederacy during the 
 whole struggle. Scarce at the beginning, to 
 wards the close it was not to be had at any price. 
 In the early part of 1861 it was quoted at $25 per 
 ton, in 1862 it had risen to $200, and in Janu 
 ary, 1865, the price was $1300. The home prod 
 uct, never adequate to meet the ordinary local 
 wants, much less the necessities of the govern 
 ment, had by this time been narrowed down to its 
 minimum through the occupation of the mining 
 areas by the enemy, and the supply from abroad 
 had dwindled to driblets. 
 
 The work of constructing a navy, once com 
 menced, was prosecuted with as much vigor as 
 limited resources and trammeled facilities al 
 lowed. It began to take shape and system in 
 July, 1861, though before that time the keels of 
 some 15 gunboats had been laid at the York 
 River and Pamunkey, and a few others at scat 
 tered points. 
 
 Our active naval force af that period could be 
 easily reckoned. The "Sumter," of 530 tons and 
 10 guns, had run the blockade and was cruising 
 in open sea. The " McRea," of 180 tons and 7 
 guns, with the "Jackson," converted from a 
 river tug-boat, were in commission on the lower 
 Mississippi. Two small steamers had been pur 
 chased from North Carolina for the defense of 
 her sounds. Three side-wheel steamers, the 
 " Patrick Henry," " Jamestown," and "York- 
 town," had been brought from Yirginia. The 
 first of these was our most powerful vessel. She 
 was of 1300 tons burden, armed with six 8-inch 
 broadside guns and two 10-inch pieces on pivot, 
 and had the most vulnerable parts of her engine 
 shielded with iron. These vessels, with the 
 "Lady Davis," the "Simpson," the "Resolute," 
 and perhaps a few other light vessels not worthy 
 to figure in naval annals, "constituted the active 
 naval force of the South at th period stated. 
 The "Merrimac," afterwards the "Virginia," 
 was on the stocks undergoing her conversion into 
 an ironclad. The sloops " Germantown" and 
 " Plymouth," sunk before the Gosport yard came 
 into the possession of the South, had been raised 
 and restored, but were never put in commission. 
 
 The personnel of the navy consisted of 9 cap 
 tains, 28 commanders, 64 lieutenants, 4 masters, 
 
NAVY 
 
 576 
 
 NAVY 
 
 75 midshipmen (full and acting), 19 surgeons and 
 10 assistants, 7 paymasters, 3 chief engineers and 
 10 assistants of all classes, 4 boatswains, 3 gun 
 ners, 4 carpenters, 3sailmakers, and 500 enlisted 
 men. All the officers of the superior grades and 
 the greater part of those of the lower had resigned 
 from the Federal navy. 
 
 In the summer and autumn of 1861 contracts 
 were made for 11 steam-gunboats in all at the 
 several points of New Orleans, Jacksonville, Rich 
 mond, Norfolk, Charleston, Chattahoochee River, 
 and Pensacola Bay. In August two armored 
 vessels were commenced under contract at Mem 
 phis, and in October the keels of two additional 
 ones were laid at New Orleans. 
 
 Reserving for a somewhat more extended no 
 tice the " Virginia," which carne first in the order 
 of construction, let us here trace in a few words 
 the history of these ironclads up to their final 
 fate. One of the two last mentioned, the " Loui 
 siana," Capt. Mitchell, not yet properly sheathed, 
 altogether in an unfinished state, and totally un 
 prepared for action, was forced by the emergency 
 to take part in the defense of the approaches to 
 New Orleans when that city was captured. At 
 the earnest solicitation of Gen. Duncan, com 
 manding Forts Jackson and St. Philip, she was 
 hurried down to the approaching scene of conflict 
 between the forts, where she arrived only three 
 days before the hostile squadron made its mem 
 orable advance up the river on the 24th of April, 
 1852. She had left the levee, under tow of an 
 other vessel, with gangs of mechanics still work 
 ing at her engine and her raw crew short in com 
 plement and eked out by an artillery company, 
 who volunteered for the occasion, busy in mount 
 ing a battery at which they had never been ex 
 ercised. Up to the hour of the fight she had not 
 sufficient motive-power to stem the current of 
 the river, and even to shift her berth from point 
 to point required extraneous assistance. During 
 the desperate contest that took place she was 
 secured to the shore under Fort St. Philip in a 
 position that precluded the use of half her guns. 
 She was so powerful a vessel that had she been 
 thoroughly completed and prepared for battle 
 some interesting incidents would have been 
 added to that night s encounter. 
 
 The " Louisiana" was 264 feet long, with a 
 beam of 64 feet. Her hull, which was nearly sub 
 merged, was surmounted by a casemate protected 
 by a covering of double T-rails as a substitute for 
 iron plates thatcould not be obtained, and inclined 
 at both sides and ends at an angle of 45. A 
 metallic deck formed the top of the casemate, and 
 was the station of the small-arm men when at 
 quarters. It was open overhead, but guarded 
 against grape and canister by heavy bulwarks 
 plated with iron. The battery consisted of 16 
 guns, made up of two 7-inch rifles, three 9-inch 
 shell pieces, four 8-inch and seven 6-inch smooth 
 bores. The propelling power was two central 
 wheels inclosed in the body of the hull and a 
 propeller on each quarter, which last assisted in 
 steering. The armor passed through a severe 
 test during the action, receiving a broadside at 
 close quarters from the 8-inch rifled guns of the 
 " Hartford." The shells buried themselves to 
 about half their diameter, then fell crumbling 
 into the river. 
 
 The surrender of the forts to the mortar flotilla 
 three days after the action with the fleet com 
 
 pletely isolated the ironclad. Hemmed in above 
 and below by overpowering forces, without means 
 of replenishing her supplies, and scarcely capa 
 ble of stemming the current, notwithstanding 
 the completion of her engines since the engage 
 ment, her capture even by simple blockade was 
 a mere question of a few days. In this extremity 
 a council of war was held, which decided upon 
 her destruction. She was accordingly set on 
 fire, and her officers and crew, who had taken 
 refuge on board of tenders, where they were 
 soon made prisoners, witnessed from the decks 
 of the enemy the final catastrophe, when her 
 magazine exploded and her fragments were 
 given to the waters. 
 
 The new ironclad built at New Orleans was 
 pronounced " wonderful" by a veteran commo 
 dore who had served in almost as many ships as 
 he had years. And she was wonderful for her 
 novel structure, her massive weight and strength, 
 and her abundant promise of speed and power 
 The work upon her had been watched and urged 
 with unusual solicitude by the Department from 
 the moment the first plank was laid, and the most 
 glowing hopes were entertained of successes that 
 were to follow her completion. It was believed 
 and the belief was not thought extravagant at 
 the time that when armed and equipped she 
 would almost unaided be capable of assuring 
 naval supremacy in the Mississippi waters, and 
 even of raising the blockade of the Gulf ports. 
 
 The structure of this vessel was peculiar and 
 entirely new. Some years ago a Scotchman who 
 had never been to sea wrote an original treatise 
 on naval tactics which became the text-book of 
 the royal navy, and in the instance of the " Mis 
 sissippi," a planter in the interior of Georgia, 
 Mr. Nelso Tift, who knew nothing of naval 
 architecture, incited by the exigencies of the 
 moment, conceived a new method for building 
 -naval ships, which his brother, Mr. Asa F. Tift, 
 a merchant of Key West, assisted him in devel 
 oping. His device was designed to obviate the 
 difficulties arising from the great scarcity of ship 
 builders, and the equal scarcity of the crooked 
 timber which they employed. The hull of an 
 ordinary vessel is made of a skeleton of futtocks, 
 curved ribs, and crooked cross-knees, to which 
 the planking, artificially bent to follow the lines 
 of the model, is bolted outside and inside. The 
 plan of the Tifts dispensed altogether with this 
 complicate frame-work, and substituted for the 
 sides of the vessel a solid wall of pine planks 
 built with the requisite thickness upon a flat 
 bottom, and having only straight lines and flat 
 surfaces except at the junction of the sides with 
 the ends. This plan made available for every 
 purpose of the structure, from stem to stern, the 
 tall straight timber of the Southern forests, and 
 the simplicity of it placed the work within the 
 capacity of ordinary house carpenters and joiners. 
 
 The Tift brothers submitted their plan to the 
 Secretary of the Navy, and that official, upon its 
 being approved by a board of experts, appointed 
 the inventors agents of the Navy Department to 
 carry the plan into execution by the construction 
 of the " Mississippi" at New Orleans. That city, 
 as the great commercial metropolis of the South, 
 and at the gateway, as it were, of the Mississippi, 
 was one of the most important strategic points 
 indicated in the movements of the enemy, and 
 as yet it was almost naked of naval defenses. 
 
NAVY 
 
 577 
 
 NAYY 
 
 It were tedious to recount all the obstacles 
 these men, who voluntarily served without com 
 pensation, had to conquer to achieve the work 
 they had undertaken. A building depot had" in 
 the first instance to be created, which involved 
 the sinking of piles in the alluvial banks of the 
 river for the bed of the ship, and the erection 
 of sheds, saw-mills, blacksmith-shops, and other 
 adjuncts usually found ready and at hand. The 
 bolt-iron required was collected piecemeal from 
 every quarter, New Orleans, Macon, Mobile, 
 Chattanooga, and elsewhere. The building tim 
 ber was still in leaf, and had to be transported, 
 when felled and sawed, from various points in 
 an area a hundred miles around. The Con 
 federacy was scoured for iron- workers who were 
 willing or able to roll the plates for the casemate, 
 until a contract was made at last with an estab 
 lishment at Atlanta, which had to change its 
 rollers for the purpose, but the scarcity of 
 iron had nearly balked this arrangement. The 
 manufacture of the engines was perforce com 
 mitted to establishments already overtaxed by 
 private work and army contracts. Next to the 
 machinery, the most important object was the 
 shafting for the propellers. It was essential for 
 the security of the vessel that this should be of 
 wrought iron. It is a striking evidence of the 
 nakedness of the land in regard to naval neces 
 sities that in the whole Confederacy there was 
 not a foundry competent to make the shafting. 
 
 When at last the inventors seemed to be driven 
 to the sorry expedient of substituting cast- for 
 wrought-iron shafts, they were fortunate enough 
 to induce a party in New Orleans who was put 
 ting up an air-furnace and forging a large steam- 
 hammer for the purpose of making Armstrong 
 guns for the government, to adapt these appli 
 ances also to making the shafting. The two side 
 or quarter shafts were thus made at New Orleans, 
 and the central one was manufactured at Rich- 
 mond, from a wrought-iron shaft recovered from 
 a burnt ship. 
 
 Superadded to all these difficulties were strikes 
 of laborers for higher wages, delays in the de 
 livery of timber from contractors, and financial 
 troubles from want of proper arrangements at 
 Richmond. 
 
 The first plank of the new vessel was laid on 
 the 14th of October, and, with little exception, a 
 force varying from 500 to 600 men, stimulated 
 by liberal wages and jealously watched by the 
 committee of safety of the city, were kept work 
 ing on her from that day forward. 
 
 Anxiety to avoid interruption in the work in 
 duced the Tifts, with the concurrence of the naval 
 authorities on the spot, to postpone launching 
 the ship to the last moment. This solicitude 
 proved fatal in the end. 
 
 The enemy s preparations for the descent on 
 New Orleans began at Ship Island in the latter 
 part of February. In March the fleet had mus 
 tered at the mouth of the river, with many of 
 the heaviest ships over the bar. The ability of 
 war-ships to run successfully past shore batteries 
 had been too frequently exemplified to admit of 
 question. Such was the opinion of military and 
 naval men at New Orleans at the time. The in 
 adequacy of our naval force to cope with the 
 enemy was also apparent. The first and most 
 effective obstructions stretched across the river 
 had been swept away by the spring freshets, 
 37 
 
 and gaps had been made by drift-wood in those 
 that had been substituted. All these admoni 
 tory considerations, which it might have been 
 supposed would have quickened the action of the 
 Confederates into immediate efforts to save a ves 
 sel so formidable and so invaluable as the " Mis 
 sissippi" by taking her in time to some secure 
 retreat, failed to produce any serious impression. 
 Yazoo River offered a temporary refuge at least, 
 and Vicksburg was still in our possession with 
 foundries and machine-shops available for con 
 tinuing the work. But one dominant idea seems 
 to have filled the mind of the Tifts, who, by spe 
 cial orders, had exclusive charge of the vessel 
 until delivered over for service, that of pushing 
 forward the work; and this all-engrossing pur 
 pose closed their eyes to the palpable danger in 
 which she stood from the menacing attitude of 
 the enemy. 
 
 Though sufficiently advanced for launching 
 long before, it was not until the bombardment 
 of the forts by the mortar fleet had begun that 
 she was put afloat. The first attempt to accom 
 plish this was made on the 17th of April, and 
 proved abortive. Three powerful steamboats 
 attached to her broke their connecting hawsers 
 in the fruitless effort to pull her off the ways. 
 At last it was discovered that she had been bolted 
 to her bed by some treacherous hand. This im 
 pediment being removed, she glided into the 
 river on the following day almost of her own voli 
 tion. It would not yet have been too late to 
 save her. Between the 18th, when she was 
 launched, and the 25th, when the enemy reached 
 the city, ample time and means were at hand to 
 send her up the river, but the golden opportu 
 nity was not improved. She was still allowed 
 to lie at the wharf with the work upon her go 
 ing on, perhaps with more intense earnestness 
 and pressing dispatch, but as serenely as if Far- 
 ragut s fleet were a thousand miles away instead 
 of storming at the cuter gates of the city. 
 
 At last, at early daylight on the 24th, the 
 startling intelligence came that the great body 
 of the fleet had passed the forts and was swiftly 
 steaming up the river. The news fell like a clap 
 of thunder and produced general consternation, 
 followed by a relaxation of all police restraints, 
 during which the dregs of the populace aban 
 doned themselves to violence and plunder. It 
 was in the midst of this riot and uproar that the 
 hot and hurried attempt was at last made to save 
 the "Mississippi." But it was now too late. 
 Commander Sinclair, who had been assigned to 
 the command, took her out of the hands of the 
 builders. The day was passed in freighting her 
 with building materials. At about 8 P.M. he 
 started up the river under tow of two steam 
 boats, but a freshet was prevailing at the time, 
 and half the night was consumed in vain efforts 
 to stem the rapid current. Midnight found the 
 fated vessel again at her old moorings. Early 
 the following morning, when every attempt had 
 failed to obtain additional steam-power, and 
 when the Federal squadron was in full view, the 
 case had become hopeless, and the " Mississippi" 
 was committed to the flames to save her from the 
 hands of the enemy. 
 
 The " Mississippi" was 260 feet long, with an 
 extreme breadth of 58 feet and a depth of hold 
 of 15 feet. Her casemate sloped at an angle of 
 about 36 to the horizon. The upper slopes 
 
NAVY 
 
 578 
 
 NAVY 
 
 were covered with three plates of iron 1^ inches 
 thick, each disposed in two horizontal courses 
 helow, making joints covered by the upper or 
 bolting course running vertically. The lower 
 slopes had two courses of the same thickness 
 crossing each other, the one beneath running 
 lengthwise, and the sides of the ship between 
 these slopes had a double layer of plates placed 
 lengthwise. The level portion of her shield or 
 upper deck was spread with iron plates 1 inches 
 thick. She was pierced for 18 guns. Her in 
 tended battery was a mixture of 7^-inch and 10- 
 inch rifles. Her engines were horizontal, with 
 cylinders 36 inches in diameter, with 2J feet 
 stroke of piston. She was fitted with 10 double- 
 flued boilers in two different sets, 30 feet long 
 each, and 3 propellers, whose shafts, 9 inches 
 in diameter, were, the central one 50 and the 
 others 40 feet in length. She was calculated 
 for a draft, when fully equipped, of 14 feet, and 
 speed in smooth water of from 12 to 14 knots, 
 and was adapted for sea as well as harbor and 
 river service. 
 
 The "Arkansas" we have already referred to 
 as the vessel that was conveyed from Memphis 
 to the upper waters of the Yazoo for completion. 
 Like the others, she had a sloping shield, which 
 was covered by iron rail (double T), and her bat 
 tery, but in this we may be subject to correc 
 tion, we believe, consisted of 10 rifled guns of 
 8-inch calibre. 
 
 Commanded by Commander Brown, this ves 
 sel issued from her river fastness, protected by a 
 barricade of rafts and a small battery, on the 15th 
 of July, 1862, bound to Vicksburg. Near the 
 mouth of the river she met, as had been antici 
 pated, a reconnoitring expedition of the enemy, 
 consisting of the " Carondelet," a Western iron 
 clad, armed with 8- and 9-inch guns and one 100- 
 pounder rifled, the wooden gunboat "Tyler," 
 and the ram "Queen of the West," unarmed, 
 but manned with a crew of sharpshooters. The 
 engagement which followed was sharp and brief 
 and very destructive to the enemy, whose shot 
 and shell were wasted on the shield of their 
 antagonist. The shattered and almost disabled 
 vessels ran for shelter to the combined squad 
 rons of Farragut and Davis, which lay directly 
 on the road to Vicksburg, followed by the " Ar 
 kansas," which dashed through this formidable 
 barrier without a moment s hesitation, receiv 
 ing, unharmed and at point-blank range, the 
 fire of their 9- and 10-inch guns, and delivering 
 her own broadsides with fearful effect. Before 
 the Federals had fairly recovered from the be 
 wilderment of the sudden and unexpected onset 
 she had dropped her anchor under the Vicksburg 
 batteries unharmed in hull or crew. On the 
 other hand, in these rapid encounters, which 
 occupied but a few minutes each, the enemy, 
 besides the damages sustained by their ships, 
 suffered a loss in killed, wounded, and missing 
 of 78 men. 
 
 A few hours after the battle the Federals, 
 under the cover of a dark night, made a des 
 perate attempt to destroy the "Arkansas" in 
 spite of the batteries protecting her, but were 
 successfully repulsed. The attack was renewed 
 on the night of the 22d with the same result. 
 
 The career of this vessel was destined to be 
 brief. While on her way, on the 5th of the fol 
 lowing August, to co-operate with Gen. Breck- 
 
 enridge in an attack on Baton Rouge, she was 
 disabled when she had reached the bend above 
 that place by the breaking down of her port 
 engine. It was patched up with such means as 
 were -at hand, but the engineer would not guar 
 antee that it would last more than half a day. 
 The next morning she started from her anchor 
 age with the immediate purpose of attacking the 
 " Essex," which was seen approaching up the 
 river, when her starboard engine gave way. Be 
 ing thus rendered helpless and unmanageable in 
 full sight of the enemy, her destruction was the 
 only means left to prevent her capture. She was 
 accordingly run on shore and set on fire by the 
 officer then in charge, Lieut.-Communder Ste 
 vens, the officers and crew making their escape. 
 
 The impression made upon the Federals by the 
 exploits and formidable character of the "Ar 
 kansas" is pithily expressed in a letter of Ad 
 miral Farragut to the Secretary. "It is one of 
 the happiest moments of my life," writes the 
 admiral, " that I am enabled to inform the De 
 partment of the destruction of the ram Ar 
 kansas. " 
 
 It is not our purpose to follow up the naval 
 preparations in detail. They began mostly with 
 the construction of wooden vessels, for the 
 American mind had been so little occupied with 
 ironclads that the most enlightened among the 
 officers knew little on the subject. It was Maury 
 who proposed the first vessels that were built, 
 and he rejected the suggestion that they should 
 be mailed with iron. The idea, however, gradu 
 ally gained ground, and at length the success of 
 the " Virginia" in the battle of Hampton Roads 
 determined the policy of the government. There 
 after all the naval engineering skill and mechani 
 cal labor that could be commanded was devoted 
 to the construction of armored vessels. They 
 were built at every available point, Charleston, 
 Wilmington, Richmond, Savannah, and on in 
 land waters of the Carolinas, Alabama, and 
 Georgia. As the work progressed, marked im 
 provements were made on the original models. 
 The submerged ends and knuckles, the charac 
 teristic feature of the " Virginia," were dropped 
 out of the future plans or considerably modified, 
 but the sloping shield prevailed in all the struc 
 tures. In three instances the batteries were 
 placed in low citadels plated with 6-inch iron. The 
 vessels were generally built by contract with pri 
 vate parties, the government agreeing to furnish 
 the metal for armor, engines, and shafting ; these 
 were supplied by the naval works at Richmond, 
 Charlotte, and Columbus, and the armaments, 
 projectiles, and all objects of pyrotechny were 
 prepared by the ordnance establishments at 
 Selma, Charlotte, and Atlanta, or Augusta after 
 the last place had fallen. We have already more 
 than once adverted to the scarcity of iron. Dur 
 ing the whole construction of these vessels the 
 want became more and more urgent. Finally 
 by the fall of 1864 the last supply of that metal 
 had been consumed, leaving on the stocks 12 
 vessels completed but for their armor, which 
 would have required 4230 tons that never was 
 obtained. This brought the construction of that 
 class of vessels to a final close. The number 
 which had been completed and commissioned up 
 to the 24th of No vem ber , 1 864, was 25. Of these, 
 9, at that period, had been lost to the Confed 
 eracy, viz., 2 by casualties, 4 burnt by their 
 
NAVY 
 
 579 
 
 NAVY 
 
 own commanders to prevent capture, 2 captured, 
 and 1 destroyed by the enemy. 
 
 The number of wooden vessels of all classes 
 and descriptions within the waters of the Con 
 federacy fluctuated so much from month to 
 month that it would be hazardous to state it 
 positively without more reliable data than we 
 have on hand. Probably they never amounted 
 to more than 50 at any one time. The Confed 
 erate navy had also a peculiar class of boats 
 fitted for submarine and torpedo service, which, 
 under the charge of officers who devoted them 
 selves to that specialty, proved a valuable auxili 
 ary, not only for its capacity to inflict sudden 
 and unexpected damage, but for the dread and 
 distrust it inspired. In July, 1863, the Federal 
 steamer " De Kalb" was sunk by a torpedo in 
 Yazoo River. In April, 1864, the "Squib," a 
 small torpedo-boat, darted unobserved under the 
 cover of night through the Federal fleet off 
 Newport News and exploded one of these engines 
 under the bilge of the "Minnesota," greatly 
 damaging the vessel without destroying her. In 
 May an expedition of the enemy ascending James 
 River was retarded in its advance to the speed 
 of a half-mile per hour by the necessity of scour 
 ing the banks of the stream and dragging its 
 bottom to clear the path of these dangerous im 
 pediments, and was finally diverted from the in 
 tended descent on Richmond by an explosion 
 under the bottom of one of the leading vessels, 
 which was hurled into fragments. And it is an 
 event to be remembered how, in August, 1864, 
 the monitor "Tecumseh," in the midst of the 
 fleet standing into Mobile Bay, vanished, as it 
 were, from the face of the waters with every soul 
 on board by coming in contact with one of the 
 torpedoes strewn in the channel. 
 
 From what has preceded it may be seen that 
 by the fall of 1864 the Confederate navy had 
 reached its maximum. To recapitulate, it pos 
 sessed then 16 ironclads, 3 of which were rated 
 floating batteries, 50 wooden vessels (assumed), 
 and 1 cruiser, the " Shenandoah," on the high 
 seas. This final result of all the labors of prepa 
 ration falls signally short of that foreshadowed 
 by the letter of the Secretary of the Navy of 
 May, 1862, but, considering the delays and diffi 
 culties and reverses that were encountered, and 
 which we have but inadequately described, it is 
 a proof of wonderful vigor and enterprise that so 
 much could have been accomplished. 
 
 The general policy of the South throughout 
 the war was to act on the defensive. So far as 
 the navy was concerned, no other could have 
 been pursued. Both the character of its vessels 
 and their limited number rendered any sys 
 tematic course of aggression impossible. The 
 armored boats were adapted only for operating 
 in smooth water, and the whole force was neces 
 sarily divided into detachments, occupying the 
 most important points of defense, where each 
 command was kept at bay by the superior 
 strength of the enemy. The Confederacy was 
 therefore compelled to submit to the humilia 
 tion of a continuous blockade without the power 
 to raise it, its vessels for the most part lying idly 
 at their anchors and passively awaiting events, 
 with steam up and fires banked ready for the 
 emergency when it should arrive. 
 
 This state of things afforded but little scope for 
 enterprises of any magnitude, but frequent oppor 
 
 tunities occurred or were made for striking a 
 blow by means of special expeditions. 
 
 The first ironclad employed by the South was 
 a vessel of some power called the "Manassas." 
 She was originally a ferry-boat, and was trans 
 formed into a ram by a private company in New 
 Orleans by the addition of a casemate faced with 
 iron f inch thick, and an iron prow 10 feet long. 
 She swam low in the water, and carried a 60- 
 pound Dahlgren gun. The owners lent this 
 vessel to Commodore Hollins for an attack on 
 the blockading force in October, 1861, then con 
 sisting of the sloops " Vincennes," "Preble," 
 "Water- Witch," and "Richmond," all lying 
 inside of the Southwest Pass. 
 
 With the addition to his flotilla of razeed river 
 boats, 5 in number, and carrying 11 guns vary 
 ing from 24-pounders to 8 inch columbiads, Hol 
 lins, having secretly made his preparations, car 
 ried the enterprise into effect on a night so 
 profoundly dark that objects were not visible 
 20 yards ahead. Issuing from between the Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip, the little squadron, with 
 the" Manassas, "Lieut.-Commander Wharley, in 
 the lead, dropped down the river so quietly Ifcat 
 the surprise was complete. The crash of the ram 
 as she buried her prow into the first vessel that 
 could be discerned, which proved to be the 
 " Richmond," followed by an appalling cry that 
 rang out from the apparently sinking vessel, 
 awakened the whole fleet to its first sense of 
 danger. Fortunately for the " Richmond," her 
 assailant suffered from the shock almost as much 
 damage as she inflicted. Her prow was badly 
 twisted, and one of her engines disabled. In 
 this crippled condition the ironclad found her 
 self carried by the current all alone into the 
 midst of the squadron, and, exposed as far as the 
 darkness permitted to its concentrated fire, she 
 would have fared badly, but, throwing up a 
 rocket, the concerted signal, the fire-barges 
 came sweeping down in full flame upon the 
 Federals, followed by the flotilla, and caused a 
 general stampede. The "Richmond," though 
 with a great hole in her bow, contrived to keep 
 afloat, and daylight disclosed the dispersed block- 
 aders far dow n within the Southwest Pass, with 
 two of their vessels stranded on the middle 
 ground. The Confederates stood down the Pass 
 within range, and the little drama was closed by 
 a distant cannonade, in which neither party 
 suffered further damage. The " Manassas" had 
 so well acquitted herself on this occasion that 
 she became the property of the government by 
 purchase. 
 
 The first great naval triumph of the South was 
 the victory achieved by the ironclad "Virginia," 
 in the memorable battle of Hampton Roads, on 
 the 8th of March, 1861, an event interesting not 
 only for the immediate issues involved, but as 
 introducing a new element in naval warfare, 
 and inaugurating a revolution in the means 
 and methods of future encounters. 
 
 The " Virginia" was the first naval structure 
 of any magnitude invulnerable to shot and shell 
 that was ever launched upon American waters, 
 if we except " Stevens s floating battery," de 
 signed for the protection of New York, the keel 
 of which was laid in 1845. She was originally 
 the " Merrimac" of the Northern service, and 
 had shared in the general conflagration of the 
 men-of-war at the Gosport Navy- Yard, when 
 
NAVY 
 
 580 
 
 NAVY 
 
 the effort was made to destroy that depot by a 
 party under the command of Commander Pauld- 
 ing in April, 1861. She had been scuttled as well 
 as set on fire on that occasion, but on raising and 
 docking her it was found that the destruction had 
 not extended below the water-line, and that the 
 vital portions of her engine had escaped intact. 
 
 The design for converting the wreck of the old 
 steam-frigate into an ironclad ram was furnished 
 by Commodore Brooke, the naval chief of ord 
 nance, who also devised the powerful guns of 
 her battery. She was about 300 feet long, with 
 about 55 feet beam. The chief characteristics of 
 the new form she was made to assume as an iron 
 clad were an armored casemate, sloping at an 
 angle of 45, and the submergence 2 feet below 
 the surface of the water of her entire hull proper. 
 The casemate was constituted by a wooden back 
 ing 7 inches thick, covered with two layers of 
 wrought-iron plates, each 2j inches thick, dis 
 posed horizontally and vertically one above the 
 other. She had in addition a cast-iron stem or 
 prow projecting 4 feet, and somewhat in the shape 
 of a hog s head. Her general appearance sug 
 gested the roof of a house, or perhaps a rope- 
 waiK, floating on the water with its eaves im 
 mersed. Her armament consisted of two 7-inch 
 Brooke rifles, one forward and the other aft, 
 with a broadside of two 32-pounder Brooke rifles, 
 and six Dahlgren 9-inch shell-guns. When she 
 was fitted out, as the pressure for the supply of 
 projectiles was very great on the ordnance de 
 partment, and it was not expected that she would 
 have any but wooden vessels to encounter, she 
 was not supplied with solid shot or bolts. 
 
 The peculiar structure of the " Virginia" in 
 volved new and untried conditions affecting her 
 speed, steerage, and general manoeuvring which 
 there was no opportunity of testing. The ship 
 was begun the latter part of June, 1861, com 
 pleted the latter part of February, 1862, and 
 hurried into action the moment she was equipped. 
 In point of fact, her experimental trip was made 
 when she plunged into battle. 
 
 The Federals had been watching with no little 
 concern the work as it progressed on the " Vir 
 ginia," while hurrying at the same time to com 
 pletion the " Monitor," of which we shall directly 
 have occasion to speak. Meanwhile, a powerful 
 fleet had been mustered in the waters near Fort 
 ress Monroe and Newport News, one of whose 
 principal objects was to intercept and destroy the 
 " Virginia" as soon as she should make her ap 
 pearance, a task which with such a force might, 
 before the unhappy experience of the 8th of 
 March, have been reasonably deemed easy to 
 accomplish. The Federal squadron consisted 
 of the steam-frigates " Minnesota" and " Ro- 
 anoke," of 50 guns each, the sailing-frigates 
 "Congress" and "St. Lawrence," of 50 and of 
 12 guns respectively, and the sloop-of-war " Cum 
 berland," of 24 guns. The guns were all of 8- 
 or 9-inch calibre, and made in the aggregate 186 
 broadside pieces, in addition to which were sev 
 eral 10-inch guns on pivot. This force of the 
 enemy was further swelled by six or seven steam- 
 gunboats heavily armed. 
 
 Everything seemed propitious when the " Vir 
 ginia," bearing the broad-pennant of Commodore 
 Buchanan and accompanied by two small steam 
 ers, the " Beaufort" and " Raleigh," of 1 gun 
 each, at 11 A.M. started from the Gosport Navy- 
 
 Yard to encounter the enemy. The sky was 
 bright, the water smooth, the hostile vessels 
 within easy reach, and the officers and crew 
 cheerful and confident. And yet at the mo 
 ment the success of the enterprise could by no 
 means have been held as certain. The ironclad 
 had yet to prove her invulnerability, and the 
 ordeal in prospect was a formidable one. The 
 Federal squadron was divided into two bodies ; 
 the " Minnesota," " Roanoke," and "St. Law 
 rence" lay near Fortress Monroe, and the "Con 
 gress," with the " Cumberland," was anchored 
 off Newport News, so that, whichever field of 
 battle was chosen, it was not only the guns afloat 
 that were to be met, but those on shore. 
 
 A part of the Confederate fleet, the " Patrick 
 Henry," of 12 guns, the " Jamestown," of 2, 
 and the " Teazer," of 1, at this time were wait 
 ing, a little inside of the mouth of the James 
 River, the first shot from the " Virginia" as the 
 signal to run the gauntlet of the batteries at New 
 port News and take their share in the fight. The 
 accession of these vessels would swell the number 
 of Confederate guns to 27. 
 
 Buchanan reached Sewell s Point at 1 P.M., 
 and found the enemy, who had caught sight of 
 his smoke, on the alert in both directions. Doub 
 ling round Craney Island flats and taking the 
 lead he selected the " Cumberland" as the first 
 object of attack, between which vessel and the 
 Confederates there lay a clear reach of about 3 
 miles of unobstructed water. He bore directly 
 down on that ship, and, notwithstanding the 
 " Congress" lay close to his path, held unflinch 
 ingly to his course till he struck her. As he 
 came within easy range of the " Congress" he 
 opened the battle with his bow-guns charged 
 with grape, which flew over her or lodged in 
 her sides without much damage. This drew 
 from her a full broadside when the two ships 
 were about 1200 yards apart. Her shell burst 
 against the armor and fell in fragments, and 
 her solid shot glanced or rebounded and tum 
 bled into the water ; both were as harmless as 
 would have been a shower of paper bullets. 
 The return broadside of the "Virginia" was 
 terribly destructive, crashing through the wooden 
 sides and slaughtering a large number of the crew. 
 
 Still holding steadily to her course, she pushed 
 onward and past the " Congress," and, receiving 
 the same ineffectual fire from the " Cumberland," 
 poured into her as she approached the contents 
 of her bow-gun, which raked her fore-and-aft 
 and literally mowed down the men in heaps as 
 they stood at their quarters. The next moment, 
 in the midst of this frightful carnage, the iron 
 clad, with the impetus" of a full head of steam, 
 plunged headlong into the bows of her antago 
 nist with instantaneous and decisive effect. The 
 crash of the rending planks and timbers was dis 
 tinctly heard in the midst of the roar of guns 
 and the reverberations of the armored casemate 
 on which the missiles were playing as upon an 
 iron drum. The " Cumberland" was a helpless 
 wreck from that instant.. As the "Virginia" 
 withdrew from the contact she left a great 
 breach behind, into which the water gushed in 
 torrents, and the hapless ship began at once to 
 settle. In a short time she heeled over and sank, 
 grounding at a depth of 50 feet with nothing visi 
 ble left but the tops of her mast and her flag still 
 flying. The contest, though so unequal, had 
 
NAVY 
 
 581 
 
 NAVY 
 
 been as desperate as it was brief. The firing 
 from both ships had never ceased from the be 
 ginning to the end of the encounter, and be it 
 said in all honor to the heroic defenders of the 
 Stars and Stripes the last shot from the sink 
 ing ship came from guns that were about dipping 
 their muzzles in the water. So rapid had been 
 the destruction of the " Cumberland" no time 
 was afforded to save the wounded, and those in 
 capable of helping themselves were carried to the 
 bottom. The rest of the crew jumped overboard 
 as the ship went down, and many were drowned 
 before being reached by the boats which were 
 sent from Newport News to their rescue. Out of 
 a complement of 376 men, officers and crew all 
 told, 117 were lost and 23 missing. 
 
 While the "Virginia" was thus proving her 
 resistless power on the " Cumberland," the 
 "Beaufort" and "Raleigh" were each playing 
 their single rifled piece upon the " Congress" 
 with quick and sharp results, the odds against 
 them being largely compensated by their ability 
 through steam-power to choose distance and posi 
 tion as well as by the larger and fixed target the 
 enemy presented. 
 
 As the "Cumberland" disappeared from the 
 scene the Confederate vessels hove in sight in 
 rapid approach from James River. They dashed 
 through a storm of shot and shell, grape and 
 canister, poured into them from the batteries of 
 Newport News, in which the " Patrick Henry" 
 in the loss of a few men was the only sufferer, 
 and joined the two small steamers in the attack 
 on the " Congress." Meanwhile, to escape the 
 fate of her consort that vessel, with the help of 
 her topsails and a tug-boat, had contrived to put 
 herself in shoal water, where she grounded. 
 
 While all this was going on Buchanan was 
 manoeuvring for the best position to turn his 
 guns on the " Congress." This was a matter of 
 no little difficulty in the contracted space of the 
 theatre of the combat with a vessel of the length 
 and draft of the "Virginia," so that he was 
 compelled to run past the batteries of Newport 
 News for a more roomy area in the mouth of the 
 James, in order to put her head in the proper di 
 rection. The " Congress," mistaking the move 
 ment for a withdrawal from action, gave three 
 cheers. The shore batteries opened a furious fire 
 during the ironclad s passage to and fro in close 
 proximity. The pounding she endured did not 
 start a single rivet or bolt of her armor. Her 
 return fire silenced some of the batteries, blew 
 up a steamer at the wharf, and sank a schooner. 
 
 The fate of the " Congress" was now swiftly 
 determined. The " Virginia" took a raking posi 
 tion under her stern at a distance of about 200 
 yards, and delivered her shot and shell with 
 all the deliberation and precision that might 
 have attended a holiday practice. The "Con 
 gress" had thus the concentrated fire of the 
 whole squadron upon her, which she endured 
 to the last moment. It was not until her whole 
 broadside batteries were disabled and her crew 
 were rapidly falling in every discharge from the 
 enemy that two white flags were displayed, one 
 at the gaff and the other half-masted at the main. 
 
 This gave a momentary pause to the havoc. 
 The " Beaufort" and " Raleigh" were dispatched 
 with orders to take possession, make prisoners of 
 the officers, allow the crew to land, and burn the 
 frigate. While in the execution of this mission, 
 
 and while the white flags were still flying upon 
 the conquered ship, a fire was opened upon those 
 vessels from the shore batteries. This took place 
 after the formal surrender of themselves and of 
 their vessel had been made on board of the 
 " Beaufort" by the commanding officer and ex 
 ecutive, who, at their own request, had been 
 temporarily released to assist in having the 
 wounded transferred to the two steamers. Those 
 vessels were thus compelled to leave, and made 
 their way to Norfolk with such of the wounded 
 as they had received. 
 
 Buchanan now sent a boat in charge of Lieut. 
 Minor, convoyed by the "Teazer," with orders 
 to set fire to the " Congress," but was baffled in 
 this fresh effort by a renewal of volleys from the 
 enemy upon the party, under which some lives 
 were lost and Minor was wounded. Finally, 
 under these repeated provocations, he determined 
 to effect his object by incendiary shot. This 
 was soon accomplished, and the "Congress," 
 which had been abandoned by her officers and 
 crew, who saved the wounded in their retreat, 
 was speedily wrapped in flames and reduced to 
 fragments as soon as they reached the magazine. 
 
 Leaving the burning vessel to her fate, the 
 "Virginia," with the "Patrick Henry" and 
 "Jamestown" in company, next proceeded to 
 attack the " Minnesota." That vessel, manoau- 
 vring in shoal water to avoid the direct onset of- 
 the ironclad, had run aground, and was now a 
 firm and fast fixture about 2 miles from Newport 
 News on the north side of the North Channel. 
 With the " Roanoke" and " St. Lawrence" she 
 had come late into action, in which they engaged 
 at long range. 
 
 The attack on the " Minnesota" occupied the 
 three closing hours of that eventful day. The 
 " Virginia" opened her fire, but without serious 
 effect, at a distance of about 1 mile from the en 
 emy, the nearest point she could reach. The rifled 
 guns of the " Patrick Henry" and " James 
 town" were now telling and did considerable 
 damage. The only gun the " Minnesota" could 
 bring to bear was her 11-inch gun on pivot. 
 
 Night at last put an end to the contest. The 
 Confederates, satisfied that the shoal would hold 
 fast the frigate till next day, doubled the west 
 end of the middle ground and made their way 
 for anchorage under Se well s Point, merely paus 
 ing to give her a parting broadside as they came 
 abreast of her in their passage thither. 
 
 About 9 o clock in the evening of that exciting 
 day the worsted Federal squadron, or what was 
 left of it, was cheered by a new and important 
 accession to its force in the arrival of the " Mon 
 itor." The fame of that iron vessel had pre 
 ceded her, and her arrival at so opportune a 
 moment was as welcome as it was unexpected. 
 She was built after a design and plan devised 
 by the distinguished mechanician Ericsson, and 
 had no antetype in any known naval structure. 
 She was smaller, lighter, and from her inferior 
 draft and greater mobility was infinitely more 
 manageable, than the bulky competitor against 
 which she was about to be pitted. She swam 
 the water at a depth that brought her metallic 
 spar-deck flush with the water, and offered no 
 mark to the shot of the enemy but a revolving 
 central citadel 10 feet high and 20 in diameter, 
 surmounted by a pilot-house in the form of a 
 low turret, and concentrating within its imper- 
 
NAVY 
 
 582 
 
 NAVY 
 
 vious iron walls her whole battery, which con 
 sisted of two 11-inch rifled guns. 
 
 The contest under this change of conditions 
 was renewed early in the forenoon of the 9th, the 
 "Virginia" now commanded by Lieut.-Com- 
 mander Jones, who had succeeded Buchanan, 
 disabled by a severe wound the previous day. 
 The " Virginia" was again supported by the 
 " Patrick Henry" and " Jamestown." 
 
 The combat was of a novel and striking char 
 acter. It resolved itself largely into a duel be 
 tween the ironclad and the " Monitor," the one 
 cumbrous and heavy, dragging at times in the 
 mud owing to her great draft, and requiring a 
 free scope for effective evolutions, but fighting 
 in a very restricted space; the other of light 
 draft, agile, and buoyant, and turning round in 
 an area whose diameter might almost be meas 
 ured by her own length, while each vessel was 
 impenetrable to the missiles of the other. 
 
 The efforts of the " Virginia" were mainly 
 directed to two objects, viz., to sink her antag 
 onist by running her down and to improve every 
 opportunity to hurl her shot into the " Minne 
 sota," still lying helplessly aground. The " Mon 
 itor," on the other hand, while not declining an 
 engagement at close quarters, aimed at manoeu 
 vring so as to elude an onset that might be fatal, 
 and, while endeavoring to crush the armor of the 
 ." Virginia" with her heavy 11-inch guns, at the 
 same time sought to maintain a position that 
 would most effectually cover the stranded frigate. 
 
 Twice the " Virginia" succeeded in running 
 into her, but not with the required impetus or a 
 stroke sufficiently direct to effect her purpose. 
 The buoyancy of the struck vessel saved her : she 
 glided from beneath the blow and swam as up 
 right as ever. 
 
 During the action the " Minnesota" was very 
 much cut up in spite of the interposition of the 
 " Monitor." One shot especially from the bow- 
 gun of the ironclad produced great havoc, bat 
 tering down her bulkheads and in its passage 
 along her decks exploding cartridges, which set 
 her on fire. The next shot blew up a steamer 
 alongside of her. The rifle-guns of the two 
 steamers did also their part in crippling her. 
 
 On this occasion the " Minnesota" was able to 
 employ her broadside guns, which in one in 
 stance, were leveled against her adversary at 
 point-blank range, but they might as well have 
 been discharged in the air. In the midst of the 
 battle the ironclad ran on shore. With her mas 
 sive dead weight the position was a critical one, 
 but luckily she was backed off before any advan 
 tage could be taken of the accident. 
 
 The struggle between the combatants was main 
 tained with desperate earnestness on both sides 
 without other results than those noted, when the 
 Confederate commander thought it useless to pro 
 tract it. He was unprovided with solid shot or 
 bolts which might have proved effective against 
 the citadel of the " Monitor," on which his shell 
 could make no impression, and that vessel had 
 retired to shoal water beyond the reach of attack 
 by ramming. The " Minnesota" was also inac 
 cessible to close approach, and believed to be en 
 tirely disabled. There was, therefore, nothing 
 left to accomplish, and about noon the Confeder 
 ate squadron left for Norfolk to repair such slight 
 damages as they had sustained during the two 
 actions. 
 
 Indeed, the damage, considering the pounding 
 to which the " Virginia" had been exposed, was 
 so inconsiderable that the hopes of the most san 
 guine as to her powers of endurance were more 
 than realized. A shallow indentation on two of 
 her plates was the only mark left upon her armor ; 
 her steam-pipe and smoke-stack were riddled, 
 two of her guns were shorn of their muzzles, her 
 anchors were lost, her stem twisted, and her prow 
 was left in the breach it had gored in the bows 
 of the "Cumberland." Thus in a short time 
 every repair was completed, and supplied with 
 solid shot and bolts, she made the tour of Hamp 
 ton Roads in the hopes of testing them on the 
 " Monitor," but no engagement followed. 
 
 The question of the value of ironclads for har 
 bor defense as compared with wooden vessels was 
 determined in Hampton Roads at once and for 
 ever. In the two actions the entire loss of the 
 " Virginia" was 2 killed and 17 wounded. The 
 disastrous result to the Federals may be summed 
 up as the complete disablement of one frigate and 
 the destruction of another, with a first-class sloop, 
 and the aggregate loss on board of the two latter 
 vessels of 255 killed and 23 missing. The loss 
 on board of the disabled vessel, which must have 
 been considerable, we have no means of ascer 
 taining. 
 
 We have been led to dwell at some length upon 
 the actions in Hampton Roads by the novel and 
 remarkable expedients that were first employed 
 in these contests. The " Virginia" came out of 
 the conflict a historical ship. In all future narra 
 tives of naval war she will loom up conspicuously 
 as having determined a new line of development 
 in naval forces leading to a complete revolution in 
 the naval systems of the whole world, as well as 
 those of coast and harbor defenses. The triumph 
 of that vessel was a brilliant one, but short-lived. 
 The story of her final fate is soon told. 
 
 When the exigencies of the war compelled the 
 evacuation of Norfolk, the "Virginia," now 
 under command of Commodore Tattnall, was 
 left in a critical position. She had no means of 
 sustenance except a limited supply, and no means 
 of renewing that supply when exhausted. She 
 was lying near Craney Island, and merely mis 
 tress of the waters within reach of her guns for 
 a few uncertain days. 
 
 In this dilemma Commodore Tattnall, on whom 
 the government seemed to have silently cast the 
 responsibility of disposing of the ship, determined 
 if possible to reach Richmond. One obstruction 
 only lay in his way, but that was formidable. 
 A shoal, on which at the top of the flood there 
 were 3 feet less water than his vessel drew, 
 stretched across the river a little above City 
 Point. The pilots promised to tide him over 
 safely if he could reduce the draft, which was 
 at the time 22J, to 18 feet. In the emergency 
 nothing was left but to make the attempt. Every 
 object of weight except what was actually neces 
 sary for defense was cast overboard to lighten the 
 ship ; shot and shell, chains, anchors, water, coal, 
 provisions, all followed one another into the 
 river. But all was of no avail. The ironclad 
 rose out of the water until her draft was 
 lessened to 19 feet, and there she stood with 
 all the movable heavy material out of her and 
 a broad streak of unsheathed bottom resting 
 above her water-line. The alternative then pre 
 sented itself of a certain capture by the enemy, 
 
NAVY 
 
 583 
 
 NAVY 
 
 even by blockade, within a time that might be 
 calculated, or her destruction. A council of 
 war decided that she should be burnt, and the 
 career of the " Virginia" was thus closed on the 
 morning of May 11, 1862. 
 
 If, after the fight of the " Virginia," the value 
 of ironclads for harbor defense required any con 
 firmation, it was amply supplied by the extraor 
 dinary display of endurance exhibited by the 
 " Tennessee" in her engagement with the Fed 
 eral squadron in 1864. 
 
 That vessel was in round numbers 209 feet 
 long by an extreme breadth of beam of 48 feet, 
 and drew on the average 14 feet water. She 
 was built of a combination of yellow pine and 
 oak. The sides of her hull proper were about 8 
 feet thick from knuckle to keel, and protected 
 by sponsors coated with a double layer of 2-inch 
 wrought-iron plates. These defenses dipped 5 
 feet below the water-surface, and terminated 
 forward in a stout iron-sheathed -beak projecting 
 from the bow at 2 feet under water. 
 
 The casemate was 79 feet long by 28 feet wide 
 in the clear, leaving unoccupied a considerable 
 margin of waist-deck on either side of its base 
 and the entire quarter-deck, both of which were 
 sheathed with 2-inch wrought-iron plates. The 
 framing was a marvel of strength and solidity. 
 It consisted of heavy yellow pine beams closely 
 joined together in a vertical position, with 5J- 
 inch planking of the same material laid on hori 
 zontally outside, on which again was a layer of 
 4-inch oak timber bolted on vertically ; added to 
 all was an inside lining of 2<}-inch oak planking 
 applied diagonally, the whole constituting a 
 backing to the wrought-iron armor, 25 inches 
 thick. The armor was secured by bolts passing 
 through the entire mass. It was 6 inches thick 
 on the forward slope, and consisted of two courses 
 of plates of equal thickness ; on the side slopes 
 and at the rear three courses of plates were laid, 
 two of which were 2 inches thick covered by one 
 of 1 inch thickness. 
 
 The casemate had a flat top consisting of heavy 
 wrought-iron grating, in which hatchways were 
 contrived by swinging portions of it on hinges 
 so as to open outwardly. The port-holes, 10 in 
 number, two on either broadside, three aft, and 
 three forward, were horizontal apertures long 
 enough to give free scope for training the guns, 
 but affording little space for elevation or de 
 pression. 
 
 The battery of the " Tennessee" consisted of 6 
 rifle Brooke guns, two of which were 7|-inch 
 bore, mounted one forward and one aft, and four 
 6-inch bore, carried two on each side. The pro 
 jectiles were 95 pounds in weight and the solid 
 shot 110 pounds. 
 
 The pressing urgency for the services of this 
 vessel caused her to be equipped with the utmost 
 dispatch, which may account for a remarkable 
 oversight in the arrangement of her steering- 
 gear, which, as we shall see in the sequel, was 
 the proximate cause of her capture. No leisure 
 was left for trial-trips and such corrections and 
 improvements as those tests would have sug 
 gested. Her crew were generally raw and inex 
 perienced. Seamen were so scarce in the Con 
 federacy that they formed but a small fraction 
 of her ship s company. These observations apply 
 equally to the 3 third-class wooden steamers 
 forming, with the "Tennessee," the squadron 
 
 under the command of Admiral Buchanan at 
 Mobile, viz., the "Morgan," Capt. Harrison; 
 " Games," Capt. Bennett : and " Selma," Lieut. 
 Commanding Murphy. The "Morgan" and 
 " Gaines" mounted each six 6-inch rifle-guns, 
 and the " Selma" four guns of the same descrip 
 tion. The aggregate force of the squadron was 
 470 men and 22 guns. 
 
 On the morning of the 5th of August, 1864, 
 this small fleet was waiting under the guns of 
 Fort Morgan, in Mobile Bay, the encounter with 
 the Federal squadron of 18 ships, including 4 
 monitors, manned by 2700 men, and mounting 
 in all 199 guns, which ranged from 9 to 15 
 inches in calibre, and threw projectiles varying 
 in weight from 84 to 428 pounds. 
 
 The bare statement of the immense disparity 
 between the antagonistic forces foreshadows the 
 inevitable result of the conflict we are about 
 briefly to sketch. 
 
 The Federal squadron was commanded by Ad 
 miral Farragut. It consisted of the 4 monitors 
 already referred to, the " Tecumseh," " Man 
 hattan," " Winnebago," and "Chickasaw," the 
 two first armed each with two 15-inch guns, and 
 the others each with four 11-inch guns, and 14 
 steamers, viz., the flag-ship "Hartford," 28 
 guns, "Brooklyn," 26, "Octora," 10, " Meta- 
 comet," 10, "Eichmond," 24, "Port Eoyal," 
 8, " Lackawanna," 14, " Seminole," 9, " Mon- 
 ongahela," 12, " Kennebec," 5, " Ossipee," 13, 
 "Oneida," 10, " Galena," 14, and "Itasca," 4 
 guns. 
 
 The preparations of the enemy for battle, from 
 all accounts, embraced every expedient that the 
 most wary foresight could suggest for putting 
 each vessel in the best possible defensive condi 
 tion. Besides the customary precautions in such 
 cases, the steering-wheels were barricaded with 
 sails and hammocks, the hurricane-decks spread 
 with sand-bags to protect the machinery under 
 neath, while chain-cables, snaked in close fakes 
 up and down the sides, converted each wooden 
 vessel for the time being into quasi-ironclads. 
 
 The squadron passed over the bar at the mouth 
 of Mobile Bay at early daylight of the day stated, 
 and steamed midway up the main ship-channel, 
 which ran, at the nearest point, within about a 
 half-mile of Fort Morgan. It was ranged in an 
 order of battle of one compact line, headed by 
 the monitors, with the " Tecumseh" in the lead, 
 followed by the wooden vessels, lashed two 
 abreast, with the side-wheel steamers on the 
 off-shore or port side of their consorts. The 
 "Brooklyn" was the advance ship at starting 
 of the wooden vessels, the " Hartford" following 
 in her immediate wake. 
 
 As the force drew near Fort Morgan the 
 " Tecumseh" opened the drama by a single shot, 
 which was returned by a volley as the wooden 
 ships came in closer range. The battle then 
 began in earnest, with a furious cannonade on 
 both sides, each ship plying her bow-guns until 
 sufficiently advanced to make her broadside avail 
 able, and the fort, in its turn, maintaining a 
 steady and destructive fire through the hail of 
 shot and shell that was making considerable 
 havoc among the gunners at the embrasures. 
 
 The flag-ship and the " Brooklyn" were the 
 severest sufferers under the fire, both losing a 
 number of men. A startling event occurred soon 
 after the engagement, which might have dis- 
 
NAVY 
 
 584 
 
 NAVY 
 
 turbed the equanimity of a less resolute man 
 than the chief of the squadron. The " Tecum- 
 seh," at the moment some 300 yards in the lead, 
 ran upon a torpedo, and disappeared almost with 
 the suddenness of an apparition, carrying down 
 nearly the whole ship s company of 123 men, 
 including the commander. 
 
 Almost upon the heels of this thrilling inci 
 dent, the " Brooklyn," in order to avoid a sup 
 posed nest of torpedoes, as indicated by buoys, 
 nearly under her bow, reversed her engine, and 
 commenced backing, at the risk of throwing the 
 whole column into confusion at a critical junc 
 ture. The danger was averted by the " Hart 
 ford" promptly dashing to the head of the line 
 and running safely over the suspected spot. By 
 these manoeuvres the flag-ship and the " Brook 
 lyn" interchanged positions. 
 
 As the enemy was about emerging from under 
 the fire of the fort, he met the Confederate fleet 
 drawn up in mid-channel behind a line of torpe 
 does, which, probably from having been too long 
 submerged, proved of no service in checking him. 
 
 The "Tennessee," supported by 3 gunboats, 
 began the battle by opening upon the flag-ship 
 at about 6.30 A.M., and followed up the attack by 
 bearing down upon her antagonist at full head 
 of steam, in the hopes of sinking her. The alert 
 ness and superior speed of the " Hartford" saved 
 her. She steamed ahead untouched. Baffled in 
 this purpose, the ironclad swept round in a wide 
 circle to gain a proper heading and impetus to 
 repeat the attempt upon the " Brooklyn," the 
 next ship in the line. The second attempt was 
 equally fruitless and owing to the same cause, 
 the superior fleetness of her intended victim. 
 Meanwhile, the guns were vigorously plied on 
 both sides, while the Federals still advanced in 
 unbroken column up the bay in the direction of 
 a pocket of deep water known as the " Lower 
 Fleet." 
 
 The Confederate gunboats, comparatively frail 
 structures at best, and bare of all supplemental 
 defenses, gave no very cheering promise of being 
 able to render effective support to their chief 
 against such heavy odds ; but they were handled 
 skillfully and served their rifle-pieces with spirit 
 and effect. One shot alone from one of them, 
 according to the official report of the enemy, 
 killed 10 men and wounded 5 at number one gun 
 on board the " Hartford." 
 
 The " Gaines" was the first one of the three 
 put hors de combat. She kept up an active attack 
 for some time upon the whole line while steering 
 in courses nearly parallel with the advancing 
 fleet at distances gradually diminishing, which 
 at last brought her within short range of some 
 of the heaviest vessels. Finally a shot under her 
 counter, combined with the concussion of a shell 
 that exploded under her bilge, closed her career, 
 and her commander had barely time to put his 
 sinking vessel about and reach the beach near 
 Fort Morgan, where she was stripped of all valu 
 ables and abandoned. 
 
 The " Morgan" used her guns to great ad 
 vantage by keeping well on the bows of the 
 " Hartford" and delivering raking fires, and had 
 a slight brush with the " Metacomet." She sus 
 tained no serious damage in the conflict, and was 
 preserved to the Confederacy by running the 
 gauntlet of the enemy s squadron under the cover 
 of night and reaching Mobile in safety. 
 
 The " Selma," after the loss of two of her best 
 gunners, and with twoof her four guns already dis 
 abled, was attacked by the " Metacomet," carry 
 ing eight 9-inch Dahlgrens, and two 100-pounder 
 Parrott guns, and after a brief but spirited con 
 test, attended with the additional loss of 6 killed 
 and 7 wounded, succumbed to the superior force 
 of her enemy. 
 
 After the capture and dispersion of the gun 
 boats the battle assumed a new phase, and was 
 one of the fiercest ever recorded in naval annals. 
 At this juncture the " Tennessee," by reason of 
 her evolutions and sluggish movements, found 
 herself far astern in the neighborhood of Fort 
 Morgan. From this point Admiral Buchanan 
 started on the desperate venture of engaging 
 single-handed the entire Federal squadron. The 
 act was a splendid specimen of naval intrepidity, 
 but it almost provokes the terse criticism of 
 Count Von Moltke upon the famous charge at 
 Balaklava, " C etait beau, mais ce n etait pas la 
 guerre." 
 
 The approach of the " Tennessee" awakened 
 anew the enemy, who had in the mean time an 
 chored in the "Lower Fleet," into animated 
 movement. Every anchor was at once lifted, 
 and every preparation made to give the ram a 
 warm reception. At length the "Tennessee" 
 steamed into their midst, dealing fearful destruc 
 tion with her shot and shell as fast as her battery 
 could be served, yet mainly intent on sending 
 her opponents to the bottom by direct onset. 
 But all her efforts to sink the enemy by ram 
 ming proved unavailing. She was directed 
 against ship after ship as soon as in each instance 
 she could be swung round to the proper heading, 
 but in each case the object of her attack was en 
 abled by superior speed to dart away from her 
 path unharmed. While this was going on every 
 gun of the 197 that could be brought to bear 
 upon her shield was in full play whenever the 
 opportunity occurred. It hardly seemed possible 
 that any structure of wood and iron wrought by 
 the hands of man could withstand the successive 
 volleys at close quarters, varying in distance from 
 3 to 30 yards, of the heaviest ordnance then ever 
 known to be put afloat. Yet with a single excep 
 tion her casemate resisted every missile. This 
 exception was one out of four shots that struck 
 from the 15-inch guns of the " Manhattan." The 
 ball weighed 428 pounds, and was delivered at 
 close quarters. Even this did not pass entirely 
 through the casemate, but it penetrated the 6- 
 inch armor and buried itself in the wooden 
 backing. 
 
 Finding his guns so ineffective, the enemy now 
 adopted the tactics of his assailant, and three suc 
 cessive attempts were made at running her down. 
 The " Monongahela," one of the heaviest ships, 
 rushed upon her with all the impetus she could 
 derive from 30 pounds pressure of steam, and 
 struck her fair, but with no other effect than 
 carrying away her own prow and cutwater. 
 Swinging round she delivered, in parting, the 
 contents of her 11-inch guns without producing 
 any apparent impression. The " Lackawanna," 
 a vessel of the same class, made the next trial, 
 striking the ironclad at full speed and at right 
 angles, but the only fruits of the collision were 
 the injury to herself of crushed bows and heavy 
 leakage. The " Hartford" now tested her power 
 in the same effort. Her blow was a glancing one, 
 
NAVY 
 
 585 
 
 NAVY 
 
 and equally abortive. As she sheered off she 
 poured her whole broadside against the casemate 
 at the distance of 10 feet without sensible effect, 
 and, in return, received a shell from the ironclad 
 which exploded on her berth-deck, causing great 
 havoc. 
 
 But though, with the exception noted, the 
 shield up to this time had remained intact, the 
 "Tennessee" had by no means escaped without 
 injury. The concussions resulting from the in 
 cessant play of missiles upon her casemate, and 
 the still heavier assaults by collision, had shaken 
 her stout timbering and produced a serious leak, 
 the after port cover had been disabled by a shot 
 which killed one man and broke the leg of the 
 admiral, the sliding covers of the two quarter 
 ports had been so jammed by the fire of the enemy 
 as to become fixtures, and the smoke-stack, long 
 before riddled by shot, had been at last swept 
 away flush with the deck, in consequence of 
 which the steam was fast going down for want 
 of draft. 
 
 The next disaster was utterly irremediable. 
 The shot that caused it may be said to have de 
 cided the battle; it cut away the steering-chains. 
 By some strange fatality these vital appliances 
 had been left entirely exposed. They led along 
 the entire length of the quarter-deck outside of 
 the shield without cover or protection of any 
 kind, though the severance of a single link was 
 the loss of the ship. The relieving tackles, to 
 which recourse was had, were equally bare of 
 protection, and a succeeding shot unshipped 
 them from the rudder-head. 
 
 This sounded the calamity, and made it the 
 beginning of the end of the struggle. To reach 
 those broken organs of a ship s guidance would 
 have been to pass over a deck above which a 
 swallow could not have flown without being 
 brought down, so completely was it swept by 
 the great guns and Minie rifles of the enemy. 
 Hence no thought of repair was entertained. 
 
 With her steering apparatus demolished and 
 her steam fast wasting away, the ironclad was 
 incapable of executing the slightest manoeuvre, 
 incapable, in fact, of changing her position. 
 The enemy was not slow to avail himself of 
 the advantage. The monitors and the most 
 powerful of the wooden vessels took position 
 astern and on each quarter and poured their 
 broadsides into her without longer intermission 
 than was necessary to reload their guns. The 
 "Tennessee" endured this concentrated fire of 
 the heaviest guns nearly thirty minutes, and 
 endured it in silence, for she was unable to 
 bring a solitary gun to bear upon her assailants. 
 At last Commander Johnson, the executive-offi 
 cer upon whom the command had devolved, dis 
 covering that another attempt was about being 
 made by one of the largest ships to sink the ves 
 sel by running her down, and satisfied that all 
 further resistance was useless, with the concur 
 rence of his wounded chief mounted to the top 
 of the casemate, and, amidst the whizzing of 
 countless balls that fortunately spared his per 
 son, hauled down with his own hands the Con 
 federate flag. 
 
 The victory was dearly purchased by the Fed 
 erals, as a comparison of the killed and wounded 
 on both sides will show. 
 
 The casualties on the Confederate side were as 
 follows: on board of the "Tennessee," 1 killed, 
 
 1 mqrtally wounded, 9 wounded; " Gaines," 2 
 killed and 3 wounded ; " Selma," 8 killed and 7 
 wounded. 
 
 The loss of the enemy in killed and wounded 
 was 300 men, exclusive of 100 carried down in 
 the "Tecumseh." Adding the last figure, the 
 entire number in killed and wounded amounts 
 to within 78 of the aggregate complement of 
 officers and crew of the whole Confederate squad 
 ron. 
 
 The commerce of the United States, which in 
 1861 whitened every sea, was the more exposed 
 to attack by the withdrawal of her ships of war 
 from foreign stations to co-operate in the invest 
 ment of the Southern coast. The South im 
 proved the advantage by fitting out sea-cruisers, 
 both at home and abroad, for the special purpose 
 of preying upon it. 
 
 We have only space for a rapid and summary 
 notice of the operations of the more noted of 
 those vessels. 
 
 The "Sumter," a small propeller of 500 tons 
 burden, was the pioneer. She was originally 
 a Havana packet. Altered and strengthened, 
 mounted with an 8-inch shell-gun on pivot 
 amidships and two 24-pounder howitzers on either 
 broadside, and manned by a crew of 105 men, all 
 told, she turned out a swift, staunch, weatherly 
 craft, in every respect adapted to her object. 
 Commander Kaphael Semmes was appointed to 
 the command. 
 
 On the night of the 30th of June, 1861, this 
 vessel put to sea from the mouth of the Missis 
 sippi, dashing through the blockading force, con 
 sisting of the "Brooklyn," "Iroquois," and 
 "Minnesota." Outstripping the "Brooklyn," 
 which gave chase, she found herself in a few 
 hours free to start on her roving mission. 
 
 A week after her departure she entered Cien- 
 fuegos with a fleet of 7 prizes in her wake, having 
 destroyed one during her passage. 
 
 Application was made to the local governor 
 for the privilege of leaving the prizes in charge 
 of an agent for future adjudication in the courts 
 of the Confederacy. A similar request was sub 
 sequently made in the case of another prize at 
 Puerto Caballo. In both instances it was re 
 fused. The European powers had, in fact, for 
 bidden the introduction of prizes into their ports 
 by either party, and the states on the American 
 continent followed the example. 
 
 With the gates of the world thus churlishly 
 closed against her captures, and her own harbors 
 rendered inaccessible by the blockading forces, 
 the " Sumter" was compelled to adopt the policy, 
 which afterwards became general, of burning as 
 fast as she captured, except where the prize was 
 protected against destruction by a neutral cargo, 
 in which case it was released under bonds made 
 payable upon the declaration of peace between 
 the United States and the Confederacy. 
 
 The " Sumter" reaped her first and most abun 
 dant harvest in the Caribbean Sea, where she re 
 mained cruising some weeks in the most fre 
 quented tracts of trade. She then coasted the 
 shores of Venezuela and Guiana, and finally 
 reached her most southern point at Maranham, 
 Brazil. The necessity to renew her supplies 
 obliged her to touch at the principal ports that 
 lay in her way, and, as a general rule, she met 
 with scant courtesy from the authorities. The 
 world-wide influence of a powerful nation was 
 
NAVY 
 
 586 
 
 NAVY 
 
 against her wherever she turned, and the hospi 
 talities she required, when not positively refused, 
 were bestowed in a carping and grudging spirit. 
 
 From Maranham she proceeded to a new cruis- 
 ing-ground, some 4 or 5 degrees north of the 
 equator, in the path of vessels homeward bound 
 from Cape St. Roque. Here several weeks passed 
 without bringing a single capture, and with her 
 coal nearly exhausted she bore up again for the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Rumors were constantly reaching the little 
 craft during her whole cruise of numberless ves 
 sels dispatched in hot pursuit of her. The real 
 ization of these tales seemed at length to have 
 arrived. About the middle of November, while 
 busy coaling at St. Pierre, Martinique, the " Iro- 
 quois" made her appearance. She stood slowly 
 in and swept round her designed prey, narrowly 
 inspecting her, the men of both vessels mean 
 while being assembled at quarters. This was the 
 nearest approach to actual hostilities. The su 
 perior force of the Federal vessel put entirely out 
 of question any thought of a voluntary contest 
 on the part of the " Sumter." Her enemy was 
 double her size, carried nearly twice her number 
 of men, and was armed with nine 11-inch guns. 
 The " Iroquois" stood off and on the port several 
 days, keeping up a close blockade, but the object 
 of her watchfulness, patiently waiting her oppor 
 tunity, at last slipped out, under the cover of 
 night, unobserved, and in a few weeks put the 
 Atlantic between herself and five steamers, said 
 to be engaged in searching every nook and corner 
 of the Antilles in quest of her, viz., the " Iro 
 quois," "Keystone State," "Niagara," " Pow- 
 hatan," and " Jacinto." 
 
 The active days of the " Sumter" terminated 
 at Gibraltar, where she arrived in February, 
 1862. She was an old ship at the outset, had 
 been battered by many storms during her ser 
 vice, and her timbers had been loosened and 
 false keel knocked off by running on a sunken 
 ridge in the shallow approaches to Maranham. 
 A board of survey found her hull unserviceable 
 and her boilers injured beyond repair, and she 
 was laid up for evermore. 
 
 She had captured during her cruise, extending 
 from the 30th of June to the 3d of the following 
 January, 18 vessels, 2 of which were retaken, 7 
 which had been left at Cienfuegos released by 
 the captain-general of Cuba, 4 released on ran 
 som bonds, and 5 burned. 
 
 The Confederacy had five cruisers built in Eng 
 land for the special service of preying upon the 
 commerce of the enemy. These were the " Ala 
 bama," "Georgia," "Florida," " Rappahan- 
 nock," and " Shenandoah." 
 
 The "Georgia," under command of Capt. 
 Maury, was employed some months in cruising, 
 with more or less success, in 1861-62, but proving 
 deficient in the self-sustaining qualities required 
 by a man-of-war, she was sold out of service. 
 
 The " Rappahannock," built late in the war, 
 crossed the Channel to Calais in order to complete 
 her equipment, but the French laws of neutrality 
 so hampered her efforts that it is believed she 
 never put to sea again in the Confederate service. 
 
 The " Alabama" was distinguished \>y her ac 
 tivity and extraordinary success. Her depreda 
 tions reached an extent that caused her name to 
 be afterwards employed to designate all the losses 
 sustained by the United States from the ships 
 
 built in British waters, and it is perpetuated both 
 in diplomatic and naval history. Her career is 
 crowded with interesting and instructive inci 
 dents for which we can find no place in the few 
 paragraphs we have to devote to her. 
 
 She was a small screw-propeller, registering a 
 trifle over 1000 tons, and built at Birkenhead, on 
 the Mersey, with comparatively light scantling, 
 in view of speed rather than strength. She was 
 222 feet long, with 32 feet beam and 18 feet depth 
 of hold, and drew on the average about 14 feet. 
 She had two horizontal engines of 300 horse 
 power each, and a capacity for stowing 350 tons of 
 coal, and berthing 120 men. She was bark-rigged, 
 with a liberal breadth of canvas that rendered 
 her largely independent of steam-power, and, 
 taking her all in all, in speed, stability, and all 
 the weatherly qualities essential to a national 
 cruiser, few vessels ever surpassed her. 
 
 The "Alabama" came very near having her 
 career nipped in the bud at the very outset. The 
 secret of her destination had been well kept, but 
 no vessel of her construction could fail to awaken 
 strong suspicion in the minds of the British min 
 istry. At last it was determined to seize her. 
 The project took wind and reached the ears of 
 those in charge, who had barely time to save her, 
 by hurrying her equipment and sending her to 
 sea. A few hours after her departure, on the 31st 
 of July, 1862, the ministerial mandate for laying 
 her under embargo reached the customs autho 
 rities at Liverpool. 
 
 She left ostensibly for a voyage to Nassau, 
 under the charge of an experienced master, and 
 manned by a crew of 70 men. Standing out of 
 British waters, through the north channel of the 
 Irish Sea, she doubled round the north of Ire 
 land and was soon far beyond the reach of mu 
 nicipal processes, with her course shaped for Ter- 
 ceira, one of the Azores, where she dropped her 
 anchor safely on the 10th of August in the road 
 stead of Porto Praya. 
 
 On the 18th she was joined by the English 
 steamer " Agrippina," laden with coal and stores 
 of all kinds, including munitions of war and six 
 32-pounders, which constituted a part of the bat 
 tery that was to convert the " Number 290," as 
 she was still called, into a Confederate cruiser. 
 
 Two days afterwards, while the transhipment 
 of the " Agrippina s" cargo was in active pro 
 gress, the steamer " Bahamas" arrived from Liv 
 erpool, bringing Capt. Semmes, of Sumter mem 
 ory, who had been appointed to the command, 
 accompanied by his oificers and the rest of the 
 battery, consisting of one 8-inch smooth-bore gun 
 and one 7-inch rifled Blakely. 
 
 By the 24th the equipment was completed, and 
 on that day the formalities of inaugurating "No. 
 290" into the service of the Confederacy took 
 place in the offing, well outside of the marine 
 league that marked the Portuguese jurisdiction. 
 Capt. Semmes, after releasing the assembled crews 
 of his own ship and the " Bahamas" from their 
 articles of shipment, in a short address announced 
 the character and purposes of his command and 
 called for volunteers. Eighty men responded 
 favorably. The English flag, which until now 
 was still waving, was then dropped from the peak, 
 and the ensign of the Confederacy given to the 
 breeze amid the cheers of the new recruits arid 
 the firing of guns. 
 
 The cruise of the "Alabama," thus prosper- 
 
NAVY 
 
 587 
 
 NAVY 
 
 ously begun off the Azores, carried her over al 
 most every ocean highway pursued by the ship 
 ping of the United States. The highest northern 
 latitude she reached was the parallel of 49. She 
 made her way thence to the West India seas and 
 Gulf of Mexico. When her fortunes began to 
 slacken in those fields she crossed the equator, 
 coasted Brazil as far south nearly as Rio de Ja 
 neiro, then, turning eastward, doubled the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and pushed her explorations to 
 the farthest confines of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 It is no part of our purpose to follow her in 
 these wanderings. During the nineteen months 
 that her cruise lasted she was, everywhere and at 
 all times, when in the tract of trade, incessantly 
 engaged night and day in forays upon the ship 
 ping of the enemy, with a success that was never 
 before equaled by that of any single national 
 cruiser. 
 
 She captured in all 63 vessels of every size 
 and description, the estimated value of which 
 amounted in the aggregate to considerably up 
 wards of $4,000,000. Of these prizes, 53 were 
 destroyed, 9 released on ransom bonds, and 1 
 commissioned as a tender under the name of 
 " Tuscaloosa," and armed with two small pieces 
 of ordnance taken from one of the prizes. 
 
 The plans and movements of the " Alabama" 
 were so skillfully conceived and conducted that, 
 in spite of a number of heavy vessels dispatched 
 in pursuit of her, she prosecuted her depredations 
 unmolested in almost every quarter. She was 
 never even sighted by the enemy but on two or 
 three occasions. One of these occurred in No 
 vember, 1862. While renewing her supply of 
 coal at St. Pierre, Martinique, she was blockaded 
 for a few days by the U. S. steamer " Jacinto," of 
 14 guns, 12 of which were 68-pounders, and two 
 11-inch guns. So heavy a force watching for 
 her egress in the immediate offing seemed to 
 threaten an end to her adventures, but she con 
 trived to make good her escape under the cover 
 of night, leaving her enemy ignorant of her de 
 parture until the morning revealed it. 
 
 During the early part of the following Janu 
 ary, while in the Gulf of Mexico, she encountered 
 the U. S. gunboat "Hatteras." The action, 
 fought 38 miles off Galveston, lasted but 13 
 minutes, and resulted fatally to the Federal ship, 
 which surrendered in a sinking condition, her 
 own and the, boats of the "Alabama" rescuing 
 the crew but a few moments before she went to 
 the bottom. The casualties were 2 killed and 5 
 wounded on board of the "Hatteras," and 2 
 wounded on board of the " Alabama." 
 
 In this contest the superiority in number of 
 guns and weight of metal was with the Confed 
 erate vessel, which had also a somewhat larger 
 crew than her opponent. 
 
 The " Hatteras" carried a battery of four 32- 
 pounders (37 cwt.), two 30-pounders, rifled, and 
 one 12-pounder howitzer. The armament of the 
 "Alabama" was six 32-pounders (52 cwt.), one 
 rifled 100-pounder, and one 8-inch smooth-bore 
 shell-gun. 
 
 Her usual good fortune at last forsook her : 
 she was sunk in her famous action with the 
 " Kearsarge" off Cherbourg, in the British Chan 
 nel, on the 18th of June, 1864. The engagement 
 took place at an unpropitious moment for the 
 Confederate vessel. She was not in the best 
 fighting order. She had put into Cherbourg on 
 
 the 4th of June for repairs, battered and worsted 
 by a hundred storms experienced during 19 
 months of arduous service on every sea. "Her 
 boilers were in bad condition : they had to be 
 patched up for the encounter ; her engines re 
 quired thorough overhauling ; her copper is 
 described as partially detached in many places 
 to the serious impairment of her speed. She 
 had no longer the alertness and swiftness of 
 her earlier days. 
 
 Preparations for docking her had been already 
 set on foot, which were postponed indefinitely by 
 the appearance of the " Kearsarge." That vessel 
 passed defiantly through the harbor without 
 anchoring, and then took up a position in the 
 offing in full sight of her adversary. This 
 manoeuvre was regarded as a challenge to bat 
 tle, and the Confederate commander may well 
 have felt that, after lording it so long over un 
 armed merchant ships, he could not afford to 
 count closely the odds against him when the 
 gauntlet was cast down by an enemy the world 
 would regard as his equal. 
 
 The two ships were nearly of the same size and 
 tonnage, but the Confederate was built, as stated, 
 of slight scantling, while her opponent was stoutly 
 timbered. In addition the latter, though in 
 ferior numerically in guns (by one only), carried 
 heavier metal. Her two 11-inch guns gave her 
 a marked preponderance. To crown all, her 
 midship sections were clad with chain-cables 
 enveloped in a wooden casing, while the sides 
 of the "Alabama" were bare of all extraneous 
 defenses. 
 
 The field of battle was well outside of the 
 marine league. The contest was witnessed by 
 throngs of spectators lining the French shore, 
 some straggling French pilot-boats, and the 
 " Deerhound," an English yacht. 
 
 We can give but a mere outline of the engage 
 ment. Besides the advantages mentioned, the 
 " Kearsarge" had the speed of her opponent, and 
 was thus enabled to choose her range., The gen 
 eral manoeuvring of both vessels was somewhat 
 unusual. Each tried to get in position for deliv 
 ering raking fires. This resulted, during nearly 
 the whole combat, in continuous revolutions of 
 the two antagonists round each other in advanc 
 ing circles and at varying distances, with their 
 heads in opposite directions and their starboard 
 broadsides kept constantly vis-d-vis. 
 
 The cannonading was furious and incessant on 
 both sides from the beginning to the end, yet 
 withal marked with much coolness and delibera 
 tion. The battle lasted about an hour and a 
 quarter. By this time the condition of the 
 "Alabama" was hopeless. Her sides were gap 
 ing in wide rents, her fires were out, her steam 
 down, many of her men were killed and wounded, 
 and with her hold filled with water from a gain 
 ing leak, she was visibly sinking. Add to all 
 this, the " Kearsarge" was now getting into posi 
 tion for pouring in raking fires, from which there 
 was no escape, and which she was powerless to 
 return. 
 
 In this desperate extremity nothing was left 
 but to haul down the Confederate flag. Scarcely 
 had it disappeared before the " Alabama" went 
 to the bottom, stern foremost, leaving all the 
 officers and crew, except the wounded, who had 
 been passed into a boat before the final catastro 
 phe, struggling for life in the sea. The English 
 
NAVY 
 
 588 
 
 NAVY DEPAKTMENT 
 
 yacht, referred to above, hastened to the rescue, 
 and saved many lives, including that of the com 
 mander. The boats of the " Kearsarge" also 
 put forth their best efforts in this office of hu 
 manity. 
 
 The officers of the " Alabama" felt, on touch 
 ing the deck of the yacht, that it was at least 
 some alleviation to their defeat that the waves 
 had cast them upon British territory. They had 
 never been in the custody of their conquerors, 
 and, not regarding themselves as prisoners even 
 in a strained and technical sense, they felt free 
 to avail themselves of the refuge they had reached 
 and were landed in England. 
 
 The armament of the " Alabama" in this con 
 flict consisted of one 7-inch rifled Blakely, one 
 8-inch smooth-bore pivot-gun, and six 32-poun- 
 der smooth-bore broadside guns. Her crew 
 amounted to 120 men. 
 
 The " Kearsarge" carried a battery of two 11- 
 inch Dahlgrens, four 32-pounders, and one light 
 rifled 28-pounder. Her crew, in officers and 
 men, is stated to have been 162. 
 
 The loss of the Confederates in killed and 
 wounded was 28, of whom 7 were killed ; the 
 loss by drowning was 19. The " Kearsarge" is 
 alleged to have come out of the fight without 
 serious damage or the loss of a single life. 
 
 The " Florida," originally the " Greta," un 
 der the command of Lieut. Commanding Maffitt, 
 took an active part in the devastation of the com 
 merce of the enemy. She was a small bark- 
 rigged propeller of 560 tons, mounted with en 
 gines of 240 horse-power. She sailed from 
 Liverpool, where she was built, on the 18th Feb 
 ruary, 1862, in ballast, bound to Nassau, where 
 she arrived about the 20th of April. She was 
 here seized by H. M. ship " Greyhound" upon 
 the charge of violating the British Foreign En 
 listment Act, but released by the Admiralty 
 Court after a short detention. The 7th of Au 
 gust found her at a small rocky islet called Green 
 Cay, some 60 miles to the southward and east 
 ward of Nassau, busy receiving her stores and 
 ammunition and mounting her battery, which 
 had all been brought from Nassau under pre 
 concerted arrangements. Her armament con 
 sisted of two Blakely 7-inch pivot-guns, and six 
 short Low More 7-inch broadside guns. 
 
 Sailing from Green Cay on the 20th, the yel 
 low fever in its most malignant form broke out 
 on board on the following day, and forced her to 
 make harbor at Cardenas, Cuba, where the epi 
 demic swept off two-thirds of her crew. It be 
 came necessary in this crippled condition to seek 
 a Confederate port, and on the 4th of September 
 the " Florida" ran into Mobile Bay through the 
 blockading force, receiving some damage from 
 their fire. Refitted and provided with a full 
 crew, she put to sea again early in January, 
 1863, in a northeast gale, again dashed through 
 the blockading force, now much strengthened, 
 and entered upon destructive voyages which 
 lasted many months, and extended from the lati 
 tude of New York to the equator. 
 
 Ultimately the cruise of the " Florida," now 
 commanded by Lieut. Commanding Morris, was 
 brought to a disastrous and sudden termination 
 on the 7th of October, 1864, in the harbor of 
 Bahia, Brazil. She had been preceded in her 
 arrival at this port by the U. S. steamer " Wa- 
 chusett." Capt. Morris, confiding in the neu 
 
 trality of a friendly harbor, whose hospitalities 
 both vessels were enjoying, took up his quarters 
 on shore himself and allowed half of his crew to 
 go on liberty. While his vessel lay in this de 
 fenseless condition she was overpowered, after a 
 brief resistance, in a night attack made by the 
 " Wachusett," captured, and towed to sea. This 
 violation of both international and municipal 
 laws caused Brazil to make prompt reclamations 
 against the United States, in which she insisted 
 upon the restoration of the vessel in statu quo to 
 the waters from which she had been taken. Dur 
 ing the pendency of this demand the "Florida" 
 was run down and sunk, accidentally it is alleged, 
 while in tow of a vessel belonging to the U. S. 
 squadron in the lower waters of the Chesapeake. 
 
 The "Shenandoah" ("Sea King"), com 
 manded by Capt. Waddell, was commissioned 
 in October, 1864. She was a Clyde-built auxil 
 iary screw-ship with an iron frame and teak 
 planking, measuring 900 tons, and carrying a 
 battery of two 32-pounders, rifled, four shell-guns 
 (57 cwt.), and two 22-pounders. She entered 
 upon her cruise with but 13 men, besides the 
 regular staff of officers, trusting to recruiting 
 a full complement by volunteers from captures, 
 and from this source eventually swelled her force 
 to 100. 
 
 Her cruise extended into every navigable sea, 
 except the Antarctic, and carried her through 
 Behring Strait into the Arctic Ocean, where 
 she reached to within 20 miles of the 67th par 
 allel of latitude, where her progress was blocked 
 by ice. Her entire cruise occupied 13 months, 
 during eight of which she was actively employed. 
 She added to the list of captures 38 valuable 
 prizes, 6 of which were released on bonds and 
 the remainder destroyed. 
 
 Intelligence of the fall of the Confederacy 
 reached the commander of the "Shenandoah" 
 while cruising off San Francisco, on the 2d of 
 August, 1865. He thereupon proceeded to carry 
 his denationalized command, by the wa} of Cape 
 Horn, to Liverpool, which place he reached in 
 November, and surrendered her to her majesty s 
 government, which transferred her to the pos 
 session of the United States. 
 
 Eventually, the Confederate navy, at least 
 that portion of it in her own waters, passed out 
 of existence piecemeal. It was a natural pride 
 that prompted the determination in the last strait 
 to destroy the ships rather than leave them as 
 trophies to swell the triumph of the victors. As 
 city after city fell along the coast, the final act 
 before evacuating each was to set fire to the pub 
 lic vessels, and when, after the abandonment of 
 Richmond, the Federals took possession, they 
 found the James strewed with the fragments of 
 the " New Virginia," the " Richmond," and the 
 " Fredericksburg," all ironclads, and about six 
 wooden gunboats, the last remnant of the South 
 ern navy, save one only cruiser on the high seas, 
 the "Shenandoah," which at the moment was 
 unconsciously floating at her gaff the flag of a 
 nation well-nigh passing away. C. H. McBlair, 
 late Captain C.S.N. 
 
 Navy Department. By an act of Congress, 
 approved April 30, 1798, there was established 
 "an executive department to be denominated 
 the Department of the Navy," and the chief 
 officer of it was therein directed to be called the 
 " Secretary of the Navy." 
 
NAVY DEPARTMENT 
 
 589 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT 
 
 During the Revolutionary war Congress had 
 
 Name. 
 
 State. 
 
 Date of 
 
 By whom Ap 
 
 the superintendence of the navy, and appointed, 
 
 
 
 Appointment. 
 
 pointed. 
 
 in October, 1775, Messrs. Deane, Langdon, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gadsden, members of Congress, the " Marine 
 
 George Cabot* 
 
 Mass.. 
 
 May 3, 1798 
 
 1 
 / John Adams. 
 
 Committee. " On December 13 of that year Con 
 gress enlarged and re-constituted the committee, 
 by ballot, from its own members, as follows : 
 
 Benj. Stoddert 
 Robert Smith 
 
 Md.... 
 Md.... 
 
 May 21, 1798... 
 Jan. 26, 1802... 
 Jan. 7, 1809 
 Jan. 12, 1813... 
 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 > James Madison. 
 
 Paul Hamilton 
 William Jones 
 
 S. C.... 
 Pa 
 
 Messrs. Bartlett, Hancock, Hopkins, Deane, 
 
 R.W. Crowninshield 
 
 Mass.. 
 
 Dec. 19, 1814... 
 
 j 
 
 Lewis, Crane, Robert Morris, Read, Chase, R. 
 
 Smith Thompson.... 
 
 N. Y... 
 N. J.... 
 
 Nov. 30, 1818... 
 Dec. 9, 1823 
 
 > James Monroe. 
 
 H. Lee, Hewes, Gadsden, and Houston. While 
 
 John Branch 
 
 N! c"... 
 
 March 7, 1829.. 
 
 ^ 
 
 this committee examined and reported on all 
 
 Levi Woodbury 
 
 N. H... 
 
 May 23, 1831... 
 
 > Andrew Jackson. 
 
 naval matters, Congress appointed all commis 
 
 Mahlon Dickerson.. 
 James K. Paulding. 
 
 N. J... 
 N. Y... 
 
 June 30, 1834... 
 July 1, 1838.... 
 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 
 sioned officers, but gave the committee power 
 
 George E. Badger... 
 
 N. C... 
 
 March 5, 1841.. 
 
 Wm. H. Harrison. 
 
 to appoint all officers of subordinate rank, and 
 
 Abel P. Upshur 
 
 Va 
 
 Sept. 13, 1841... 
 
 
 authorized it to give instructions for the em 
 
 David Henshawf.... 
 Thos. W. GilmerJ.... 
 
 Mass.. 
 Va 
 
 July 24, 1843... 
 Feb. 15, 1844... 
 
 John Tyler. 
 
 ployment of ships. 
 
 Lewis Warriiigton... 
 
 U.S.N. 
 
 ad interim 
 
 
 By a resolution of Congress, approved No 
 vember 6, 1776, it was ordered that three persons 
 well skilled in maritime affairs should be imme 
 
 John Y. Mason 
 George Bancroft 
 John Y. Mason. 
 Wm. B. Preston 
 
 Va 
 Mass.. 
 Va 
 Va 
 
 March 14, 1844. 
 March 11, 1845. 
 Sept. 10, 1846... 
 March 8, 1849.. 
 
 James K. Polk. 
 Zachary Taylor. 
 
 diately appointed to execute the business of the 
 navy under the direction of the " Marine Com 
 
 Wm. A. Graham 
 John P. Kennedy- 
 James C. Dobbin 
 
 N. C... 
 Md.... 
 N.C... 
 
 Aug. 1, 1850.... 
 July 26, 1852... 
 March 8, 1853.. 
 
 j-MillardFillmore. 
 Franklin Pierce. 
 
 mittee," and John Nixon, John Wharton, and 
 
 Isaac Toucey 
 
 Conn.. 
 
 March 7, 1857.. 
 
 James Buchanan. 
 
 F. Hopkinson were appointed. These experts, 
 or advisory persons, were called " The Conti 
 nental Navy Board," or "Board of Assistants 
 
 Gideon Welles 
 
 Adolph E. Borie 
 Geo. M. Robeson 
 
 Conn.. 
 
 Pa 
 N. J.... 
 
 March 7, 1861.. 
 
 March 9, 1869.. 
 June 26, 1869.. 
 
 ) A. Lincoln. 
 j Andrew Johnson. 
 Ulvsses S. Grant. 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 to the Marine Committee," and sometimes the 
 
 Rich. W. Thompson. 
 
 Ind.... 
 
 March 13, 1877. |R. B. Hayes. 
 
 " Board of the Middle District." There was also 
 
 
 an " Eastern Board," consisting of three persons, 
 
 By the act approved February 7, 1815, a Board 
 
 f\-f nnYnmi eeirivtera -fnr //i/> Wniiii r\f i}ip IJ niJP.fJ S\tn1p.& 
 
 who executed the instructions of the committee, 
 in their district. 
 
 The act of October 28, 1779, established a 
 " Board of Admiralty," to consist of three per 
 sons not members of Congress, and two members 
 of Congress ; and on the llth of January, 1781, 
 Congress, by resolution, invested James Reed 
 with full power to conduct the business of the 
 Navy Board in the middle department, and on 
 February 27 of that year Major-General Alex 
 ander McDougall was appointed "Secretary of 
 Marine" under the act of February 7, 1781. This 
 management continued but a short time, for, 
 August 29 of that year, Congress resolved 
 that the functions and appointments of the 
 Board of Admiralty, the several navy boards, 
 and all civil officers appointed under them should 
 cease, and an " Agent of Marine" should be ap 
 pointed, and on September 6 following Robert 
 Morris, Superintendent of Finance, was assigned 
 those duties. He continued the superintendence 
 and management of the navy for nearly eight 
 years. The act of August 7, 1789, charged the 
 Secretary of War with the performance and exe 
 cution of such duties relative to the naval forces, 
 or to such other matters respecting naval affairs, 
 as the President of the United States assigned 
 him. 
 
 It was not until nine years had elapsed that 
 these duties of the Secretary of War ceased, 
 when the act of April 30, 1798, established the 
 " Department of the Navy," or, as it is now 
 called, the " Navy Department," and created 
 the office of a Secretary of the Navy." 
 
 The Secretary of the Navy is appointed by the 
 President, by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate, and is a member of his Cabinet. 
 George Cabot, of Massachusetts, was appointed 
 the first Secretary of the Navy, but he declined, 
 and Benjamin Stoddert, of Maryland (a resident 
 of Georgetown, D. C., at the time of his ap 
 pointment), was appointed. The Secretaries of 
 the Navy, in the order of appointment, are as 
 follows : 
 
 of Commissioners for the Navy of the United St 
 was constituted, but the act provided that no 
 thing in it should be construed to take from the 
 Secretary of the Navy his control and direction 
 of the naval forces of the United States as now 
 by law possessed. This act was repealed August 
 31, 1842, and the following-named bureaus were 
 established : 1. Navy- Yards and Docks. 2. Con 
 struction, Equipment, and Repairs. 3. Pro 
 visions and Clothing. 4. Ordnance and Hydrog 
 raphy. 5. Medicine and Surgery. This organ 
 ization was continued until, by the act of July 
 5, 1862, the number of bureaus was increased 
 and their titles established, as follows : 1. Yards 
 and Docks. 2. Equipment and Recruiting. 3. 
 Navigation. 4. Ordnance. 5. Construction and 
 Repair. 6. Steam Engineering. 7. Provisions 
 and Clothing. 8. Medicine and Surgery. 
 
 The duties of these bureaus are indicated by 
 their titles ; their chiefs are officers of the navy 
 appointed by the President, by and with the ad 
 vice and consent of the Senate. In addition to 
 the duties of the chief of Bureau of Navigation, 
 he is head of the "Office of Detail," and has, 
 under and by direction of the Secretary of the 
 Navy, the detailing and ordering of officers for 
 duty at navy-yards and stations, on vessels, etc. 
 
 The chief clerk of the Navy Department has 
 the care and custody of the files and records of 
 the Department, the general supervision of its 
 correspondence, and such other duties as the 
 Secretary assigns him. 
 
 The office of "Assistant Secretary of the 
 Navy" was created by the act of July 31, 1861, 
 and abolished by the act of March 3, 1869. The 
 following-named gentlemen held that office : 
 Gustavus V. Fox, of Massachusetts, from August 
 1, 1861, until May 31, 1866 ; William Faxon, of 
 Connecticut, from June 1, 1866, until March 3, 
 1869. 
 
 The office of " Solicitor and Judge- Advocate" 
 
 * Declined. 
 
 f Not confirmed by Senate. 
 
 1 Killed on board " Princeton," February 28, 1844. 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 590 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 was created by the act of March 2, 1865, and 
 finally abolished by the act of June 19, 1878. 
 The following-named gentlemen held that office : 
 William E. Chandler, of New Hampshire, ap 
 pointed March 9, 1865; and John A. Bolles, of 
 Massachusetts, appointed June 10, 1865, and 
 died June, 1878. Jesse E. Doio. 
 
 Navy-yard, Boston, Mass. The navy-yard 
 at Boston, Mass., is situated at the confluence of 
 the Charles and Mystic Rivers, on land formerly 
 known as Moulton s Point. Jurisdiction was 
 ceded by the State of Massachusetts to the 
 United States in 1800 over an area of 65 acres, 
 and there was purchased for the government in 
 that year, by Dr. Aaron Putnam, 35 acres for 
 37,356. This area has been increased by subse- 
 
 ?uent purchases of 5186 square feet from Capt. 
 saac Hull, August 15, 1817, for $3889.50, and 
 115,210J square feet from Oakrmm and Eldridge, 
 June 1, 1863, for $123, 100. This, with the fill 
 ing in of the flats and marsh, makes an area of 
 87f acres in 1880. It is surrounded on the land 
 side with a substantial granite wall 12 feet high, 
 that was built in 1825-26, with a water frontage 
 of 8270 feet, which includes 5214 feet of wharf 
 age ; it has 3 building-slip?, 4 ship-houses mak 
 ing 7 building- ways. There is a timber-dock at 
 the eastern end of the yard that has an area of 
 5 acres 36 rods. In the upper part of the yard 
 there are 2 wet-basins, which are only separated 
 by a roadway ; one of them contains an area of 
 2 acres, the other 4J acres, capable of being 
 adapted for an extensive system of dockage. 
 There are now (1880) inside of the walls 20 brick, 
 11 stone, 36 wooden, and 2 iron buildings, with 
 
 4 regular timber-sheds, besides numerous out 
 houses and temporary buildings. Only 8 build 
 ings are standing that were on the yard plan for 
 1823. The oldest is No. 5, built in 1803 of brick 
 for a store-house, offices, sail-loft, etc., now occu 
 pied in part by the naval library and institute, 
 museum, court-martial room, dispensary, offices, 
 etc., and the dwelling-house for the commandant, 
 which was finished in 1809. There are two fine 
 avenues running lengthwise of the yard, orna 
 mented with shade-trees. The commandant s 
 office is in a small one-story wooden building 
 located near the centre of the yard on the main 
 avenue. 
 
 There have been 22 regular commandants, 
 viz. : Samuel Nicholson was the first (1809). 
 He died in command December 29, 1811. Wil 
 liam Bainbridge (who was in command three 
 separate terms), Isaac Hull, William Crane, 
 Charles Morris, Jesse D. Elliott, John Downes 
 (twice), John B. Nicholson, Foxhall A. Parker, 
 Francis H. Gregory, Silas H. Stringham (twice), 
 William L. Hudson, John B. Montgomery, John 
 Rodgers, Charles Steedman, Enoch G-. Parrott, 
 Edward T. Nichols, Foxhall A. .Parker (2d), 
 William F. Spicer (who died in command Nov. 
 29, 1878), and the present commandant, George 
 M. Ransom. There were two of the executive- 
 officers in command for over three months, and 
 one for over two months, during the interval of 
 appointment or continued absence of the regular 
 commandants, viz. : William B. Shubrick, Josiah 
 Tattnall, and Milton Haxtun. 
 
 In 1802, by order of the Secretary of the Navy, 
 
 5 acres of land in the northeast corner of the 
 yard was assigned to the Treasury Department 
 for a marine hospital, on which a hospital with 
 
 all of the necessary outbuildings was erected, 
 and inclosed with a picket-fence from the navy- 
 yard. April 30, 1825, this property was trans 
 ferred to the Navy Department upon payment to 
 the Treasury Department of $12,875, the esti 
 mated value of the buildings thereon, and a ma 
 rine hospital was erected in Chelsea. The work 
 of tearing down the old hospital began August 
 15, 1825, and on its site was erected a block of 
 4 brick dwelling-houses, facing the yard, with 
 the stone wall running along the Salem turnpike 
 in their rear. This was changed in 1836-37 by 
 facing the buildings outwardly to the turnpike, 
 and erecting the wall around them in their rear 
 and an iron picket-fence in front. They were 
 first occupied in August, 1826, by Master-Com 
 mandant Kearney, Surgeon John A. Kearney, 
 Sailing-Master Knox, and Naval Storekeeper 
 George Bates. They are now allotted to the 
 captain of the yard, ordnance-officer, naval con 
 structor, and surgeon of the yard. 
 
 The 5 brick dwelling-houses near the main 
 gate, western entrance, were erected in 1833 for 
 the warrant-officers. They were first occupied 
 by Boatswain W. Hart, Gunner W. B. Brown, 
 Carpenter Calvin Oiks, Sailmaker S. B. Banister, 
 and Sailing-Master C. W. Waldo, check-officer. 
 They are now occupied by the paymaster of the 
 yard, equipment-officer, civil engineer, steam 
 engineer, and pay director in charge of provisions 
 and clothing. 
 
 The mail messenger lives in the brick house 
 next the main gate, and the apothecary has 
 rooms assigned him in building No. 5. These 
 are all who live within the walls except the ma 
 rines. 
 
 The marine barracks is a three-story brick 
 building, in line with the wall on Chelsea Street, 
 between the commandant s house and the rope- 
 walk. It occupies an area, including the parade- 
 ground, of 1^ acres and can accommodate 250 
 marines, with the necessary complement of offices. 
 
 The rope- walk is the finest in the country ; 
 it was built, in 1836, of rough ashlar granite; 
 it runs parallel with the wail on Chelsea Street, 
 and is 1360 feet long, with a laying-ground 1253 
 feet by 45. The second story is 748 feet long ; it 
 was built in 1856 ; and the" head-house is three 
 stories, 60 by 70 feet, slated roofs ; it has 2 
 double engines, one of 200 horse-power, the other 
 150 horse-power, capable of manufacturing 2500 
 tons per year of all kind and sizes of rope. There 
 is a fire-proof store-house for the hemp and a tar- 
 house, both built of granite. 
 
 The two-story brick building to the eastward, 
 in line with the wall, was arranged for the manu 
 facture of wire rigging, etc., in 1873; it is 186 
 by 38 feet; it has an engine of 80 horse-power, 
 and can produce 500 tons per year of all kind 
 of wire-rigging, besides green hide rope in suffi 
 cient quantities to supply the wants of the ser 
 vice. 
 
 In the boiler-house, which is built of brick, 55 
 by 44 feet, one story, are 8 boilers, each inde 
 pendent of the others ; these supply the steam 
 for the engines in the rope- walk and wire-shop. 
 
 The steam-engineering building, erected in 
 1856, is built of brick, with granite trimmings. 
 It is in form a parallelogram, and covers an area 
 of 135,755 square feet. It contains a brass- and 
 iron-foundry, boiler-, blacksmith-, and machine- 
 shops ; these are filled with all the necessary 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 591 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 tools, appliances, and machinery required for an 
 extensive business ; there are 2 engines of 100 
 horse-power each in the building. The boiler- 
 house and chimney are in the centre ; there are 
 8 boilers that Avork in pairs, and 5 donkey- 
 pumps. The chimney is 239 feet high ; it was 
 finished October 7, 1858. 
 
 The rolling-mill is built of brick, 207 by 86 
 feet, and has an engine of 100 horse-power to 
 work the necessary machinery. 
 
 One iron building is occupied by the Thil- 
 many process for wood preserving; it can turn 
 out 1000 cubic feet per day. 
 
 The dry-dock was begun July 10, 1827, under 
 the superintendence of Laomi Baldwin, and 
 finished in June, 1833. It is built of hammered 
 granite in a substantial manner, with a great 
 arch 60 feet in width. It was originally 305 feet 
 long by 86 feet wide, and cost $679,000 ; in 1857- 
 58, however, it was extended 65 feet in length 
 at an expense of $314.825, making its total 
 length 370 feet, and its entire cost $993,915. It 
 has a capacity, with average high-tide, of 5,764,- 
 500 gallons. The head-house was built, in 1832, 
 of granite, and is occupied, in part, by the engine 
 which pumps out the dock. This engine was 
 manufactured at Hartford, Co nn., in "1855; it 
 has a cylinder 20 inches in diameter, with 84- 
 inch length of stroke, makes 25 revolutions per 
 minute, capable of throwing 80J gallons per 
 revolution from the 2 pumps connected with it. 
 The average time it takes to pump out the dock 
 with 25 feet of water is about 4 hours. There is, 
 also, a donkey-pump connected with the above, 
 with a pumping capacity of 160 gallons per min 
 ute. The first vessel put into this dock was the 
 "Constitution" ("Old Ironsides"), June 24, 
 1833, and its present occupant is the " Hart 
 ford," the two most famous vessels in the navy. 
 
 Construction occupies several buildings. The 
 mast-shop, the most easterly building in the yard, 
 is of wood, slated ; the molding-loft, boat- and 
 carpenter-shops are of granite ; the joiner-shop, 
 of the same, with an engine of 100 horse-power. 
 The saw-mill is of wood, and has an engine of 100 
 horse-power. Two masting-shears, one of 130 
 feet in height, will hoist 80 tons ; the small 
 shears at the lower part of the yard is 105 feet 
 high, and will hoist 60 tons. 
 
 The store-houses of equipment, steam-engineer 
 ing, provisions and clothing, and yards and docks 
 are all built of granite in a substantial manner. 
 The ordnance building is of brick, with granite 
 trimmings, 274 by 90 feet ; it has an engine of 
 100 horse-power. The coal- and boiler-house, 50 
 by 64 feet, contains 4 boilers. There are 2 brick 
 shell-houses. The magazine is on the hospital 
 grounds in Chelsea, and the nitre depot in Mai 
 den, Mass. There is a gun-park, 363 by 124 
 feet ; it has 6 skids, built of granite, with iron 
 rails running lengthwise; a shot-park, 317 by 
 125 feet. There is a saluting battery of 30 guns 
 on the quay-wall, with a small magazine to hold 
 saluting powder. A railroad track was laid in 
 1863 the length of the yard ; it is connected with 
 the Fitchburg road. For putting out fires there 
 are 2 steam fire-engines, 9 hose-carriages, 1 hook- 
 and-ladder truck, and 24 chemical extinguishers 
 in the yard. 
 
 Thirty-nine ships-of-war have been launched 
 at this yard. The " Frolic," in 1813, was the first 
 one; "Independence," June 22, 1814; "Alli 
 
 gator," November 4, 1820; "Boston," October 
 15, 1825 ; " Warren," November 29, 1826 ; " Fal- 
 mouth," November 3, 1827 ; " Boxer," Novem 
 ber 22, 1831 ; " Porpoise," May 31, " Pioneer," 
 October 25, " Consort," October 29, 1836; " Cy- 
 ane," December 2, 1837 ; " Marion," April 24, 
 1839; "Bainbridge," April 26, 1842; "Erie," 
 1842 (a sloop-of-war same name, was launched in 
 1813, rebuilt in 1820 at a cost of $56,174, and 
 broken up at Boston in 1841 and this store-ship 
 constructed) ; " Cumberland," May 24, 1842 (keel 
 laid in 1825); "Plymouth," October 11, 1843; 
 "Vermont," September 14, 1848 (keel laid in 
 1818) ; " Princeton," October 29, 1851 ; " Merri- 
 mac," June 14, 1855 ; " Hartford," November 22, 
 1858 ; " Narragansett," February 15, 1859 ; " Wa- 
 chusett," October 10, " Housatonic," November 
 20, " Maritanza," November 26, 1861 ; " Canan- 
 daigua," March 28, "Genesee," April 2, " Ti- 
 oga," April 18, 1862; " Tallapoosa," February 
 17, " Pequot," June 4, "Winooski," July 30, 
 "Saco," August 28, 1863; "Monadnock," a 
 double-turreted ironclad, March 23, " Ammo- 
 noosuc," July 21, 1864, name changed in 1869 
 to "Iowa"; "Guerriere," September 9,1865; 
 " Manitou," August 25, 1866, name changed in 
 1869 to " Worcester"; " Nantasket," August 15, 
 1867; "Alaska," October 31, 1868; "Intrepid," 
 iron torpedo-boat, March 5, 1874; " Vandalia," 
 October 23, 1874, was the last one launched. 
 Several vessels were built for the treasury, light 
 house, and survey, such as the brig "Appren 
 tice," "John Hancock," "Bibb," "Cohassett," 
 "Blue Light," etc. 
 
 There are now on the stocks at this vard the 
 " Virginia" (keel laid in 1818) ; " Connecticut" 
 (keel laid January 2, 1864) ; "Oregon," monitor, 
 double-turreted ironclad (keel laid April 15, 
 1864); and the "Pennsylvania" (keel laid in 
 1865). 
 
 The "Niagara," "Iowa," "Ossipee," and 
 "Ohio" are in ordinary. The "Hartford" is 
 under repairs, and the " Cohassett" is employed 
 as the yard tug-boat. The U. S. receiving-ship 
 " Wabash" lies off the yard. A. H. Massie. 
 
 Navy-yard, Brooklyn. The Brooklyn Navy- 
 Yard, known officially as the New York Navy- 
 Yard, is situated on Wallabout Bay, East River. 
 This bay is about half a mile wide and nearly 
 semicircular in shape, the greater portion of 
 it being occupied by an island, 31 acres in ex 
 tent, known as the Cob Dock ; the channel be 
 tween the Cob Dock and the yard proper is 400 
 feet wide, and upon it is most of the water front 
 of the yard, which includes more than a mile of 
 the most eligible wharfage in the harbor of New 
 York. The total area of the yard, including the 
 Cob Dock and the Naval Hospital grounds, is 
 199.77 acres, of which but about 45 acres are 
 comprised in the yard proper, and occupied by 
 buildings, wharves, docks, etc. 
 
 During the Revolutionary war the "Old Jer 
 sey" and other prison-ships were moored in the 
 Wallabout, and the shores of the bay were used 
 as a burying-place for the thousands of Ameri 
 cans who died on board them. Toward the 
 close of the last century John Jackson estab 
 lished a ship-yard on the west side of Wallabout 
 Bay, and in 1799 he built for the United States 
 a small frigate, called the "Adams," which was 
 the first man-of-war launched at the site of the 
 present yard. In 1801 Jackson disposed of his 
 
NAVY-YAED 
 
 592 
 
 NAVY-YAED 
 
 property, about 30 acres, to the government for 
 $40,000 ; in 1824 the piece of land now occupied 
 by the U. S. Naval Hospital, some 35 acres, was 
 purchased for $7650, and in 1848 the intervening 
 portion was obtained for $285,000; finally, in 
 1867, an irregular piece of land on the northwest 
 corner was bought for $90,000. Excepting the 
 hill on which the commandant s house stands, 
 and that where the hospital is built, this prop 
 erty was originally little more than a mud flat. 
 
 Immediately after the purchase in 1801, Lieut. 
 Jonathan Thome was ordered in charge, and re 
 mained until 1806, nothing being done mean 
 while to improve the property. He has been 
 succeeded by the following commandants, who 
 took charge at the dates mentioned : 
 
 Captain Isaac Chauncey, 1806. 
 
 Captain Samuel Evans, 1812. 
 
 Captain Isaac Chauncey again in 1824. 
 
 Captain Charles G. Eidgely, July, 1833. 
 
 Captain James Eenshaw, November, 1839. 
 
 Captain M. C. Perry, June, 1841. 
 
 Captain Silas H. Stringham, July, 1843. 
 
 Captain Isaac McKeever, September, 1846. 
 
 Captain Wm. B. Salter, October, 1849. 
 
 Captain Charles Boorman; October, 1852. 
 
 Captain Abram Bigelow, October, 1855. 
 
 Captain Lawrence Kearney, February, 1857. 
 
 Captain S. L. Breese, November, 1858. 
 
 Eear-Admiral Hiram Paulding, October, 1861. 
 
 Eear-Admiral Charles H. Bell, May, 1865. 
 
 Eear-Admiral S. W. Godon, July, 1868. 
 
 Eear-Admiral Melancthon Smith, October, 
 1870. 
 
 Vice- Admiral S. C. Eowan, June, 1872. 
 
 Commodore J. W. A. Nicholson, September. 
 1876. 
 
 Commodore George H. Cooper, May, 1880. 
 
 In 1806-7 the present commandant s house 
 was built, 6 brick buildings for store-houses 
 and offices were commenced, and by the sale of 
 chips money was obtained to build the stone em 
 bankments to the terraces on the hill. During 
 the war of 1812 over 100 vessels were fitted for 
 sea, supplied with stores, etc. In 1829 the 
 "Fulton," the first steam war-vessel, which had 
 been built in 1815, was accidentally destroyed by 
 the explosion of her magazine while she was at 
 anchor off the yard. Among other vessels 
 launched were the "Ohio," in 1820; the "Sa 
 vannah," begun in 1822, but not launched until 
 1842; the notorious brig "Somers," in 1842; and 
 the ill-fated " Albany," in 1846. The stone dry- 
 dock, begun in 1841," was not finished until 1851. 
 It is built of granite, and cost $2,113,173; its 
 main chamber is 285 by 35 feet at the bottom 
 and 307 by 98 feet at the top, and its depth is 
 36 feet; it can be emptied by steam-pumps in 
 2 hours. During the civil war 14 vessels were 
 built and over 400 fitted out; the number of 
 men employed increased from 1650 in 1861 to 
 over 6000 in 1863; and in 1865 an average 
 of 5000 was employed, and the pay-roll was 
 $3,952,000, work never ceasing day or night; 
 at present there are about 600 workmen. 
 
 Since the war but two new vessels have been 
 built, the "Trenton" and the torpedo ram 
 "Alarm," but many improvements have been 
 made, and some fine buildings added ; the streets 
 have been graded, paved, and sewered, and hun 
 dreds of trees planted ; the Cob Dock has been 
 made attractive with trees, grass, and flowers, 
 
 and Sailors Hall built for the accommodation 
 of the recruits on the receiving-ships. It has 
 bath-rooms and a barber-shop on the lower floor, 
 and a library, reading-room, and stage for ama 
 teur performances on the upper. 
 
 The Naval Lyceum, founded by officers in 
 1833, is one of the attractions of the yard. It 
 has a library of 5000 volumes, a large collection 
 of curiosities, and valuable cabinets of oins, 
 minerals, etc. On the eastern side of the yard 
 is the naval hospital, a fine building, with a ca 
 pacity for 500 patients. In the same grounds are 
 the naval laboratory and the naval cemetery. 
 The marine barracks, with their parade-ground, 
 cover 6j acres, and have accommodations for 
 750 men. The old line-of-battle ship "Ver 
 mont" and the steam-frigate " Colorado" are 
 used as receiving-ships, and are moored to the 
 Cob Dock ; they can berth 2000 men. The whole 
 number of buildings in the yard, including 2 
 ship-houses and 10 houses for officers, is over 80. 
 The yard fire department includes 2 steam fire- 
 engines and a complete system of fire-alarm tele 
 graph. For a fuller account of the New York 
 Navy- Yard, see " Lecture by Commodore J. W. 
 A. Nicholson before the Long Island Historical 
 Society," from which much of this article is com 
 piled. F. Hanford, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Navy-yard, League Island, Pa., is situated 
 on League Island, in the Delaware Eiver, the 
 western extremity of the island being nearly 
 opposite the mouth of the Schuylkill Eiver, and 
 it extends easterly about 2J miles ; the extension 
 of Broad Street, of the city of Philadelphia, 
 would pass nearly across the centre of the island, 
 and the main entrance of the yard is at the foot 
 of that street. The entire island, which is now 
 the property of the government, consists of, 
 area within dikes, 410 acres ; area between the 
 banks of the back channel, 305.5 acres ; area be 
 tween the back channel and Government Avenue 
 (the northern boundary-line of the property), 
 37.25 acres ; area outside of dikes to wharf-line, 
 170.25 acres ; making in the aggregate an area 
 of 923 acres. The dikes are absolutely necessary, 
 as the natural surface of the island is about 3^ 
 feet below high-water mark; the land is also 
 ditched, and the ditches connect with tide-gates, 
 so that any water accumulating from rains or 
 other sources passes out at low-tide. Owing to 
 the recent establishment of this yard very few 
 buildings have been erected as yet. At the main 
 entrance on the right is a porter s lodge, and on 
 the left a guard-house ; the other buildings on 
 the right of the main avenue are a very neat 
 and attractive residence lately occupied by the 
 civil engineer of the yard, the surgeon s office, 
 commandant s office, naval constructor s offices 
 and shops. The ship-house, which was blown 
 down by a severe storm about two years ago, has 
 not yet (1880) been rebuilt. The machine-shops, 
 gun-park, and stables are on the left side of the 
 main avenue. The quarters of the marine guard 
 of the yard are located in the hull of the frigate 
 "Antietam." The location of this yard is ad 
 mirably adapted for ship-building and repairing, 
 as it has sufficient depth of water on the river 
 front to float the largest vessels in the navy, and 
 it should certainly have a sufficient amount of 
 money appropriated by Congress to make it one 
 of the finest navy-yards in the world. 
 
 Navy-yard, Mare Island, Cal. This navy- 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 593 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 yard is situated on Mare Island, which forms 
 a portion of the eastern side of San Pablo Bay, 
 its southernly end making the intersection 
 of the Strait of Carquinez and Mare Island 
 Strait. The former is the outlet of the two 
 largest rivers of California, the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin, arid the latter constitutes the im 
 proved front of the navy-yard, as well as that 
 of the city of Vallejo, on the opposite shore, and 
 also the outlet of the Napa Creek, which drains 
 the fertile valley above. The distance from San 
 Francisco is 26 miles. The island is about 2| 
 miles long, with an area of about 1000 acres of 
 upland, to which may be added some 2000 acres 
 of tule land adjoining it on the north, also be 
 longing to the United States. The highest point 
 of the island has an altitude of 280 feet. The soil 
 has a rocky foundation, very suitable to sustain 
 the weight of the heavy structures required in a 
 naval dock-yard. 
 
 The position is well adapted for a naval sta 
 tion. The harbor is completely land-locked, 
 easy of access, with excellent anchorage, deep 
 water, large capacity, and is free from the teredo 
 and other destructive marine worms. It is well 
 located for protection in war, being within the 
 defenses of the harbor of San Francisco. It is 
 convenient of access by land, as the railroad sys 
 tems of the Pacific coast form a focus on the 
 shore of the Strait of Carquinez, 1 mile distant 
 from the island. 
 
 The principal structures are: 
 
 The sectional dock, which has been used for 
 raising the largest vessels during the past 25 
 years. 
 
 The stone dry-dock, now in course of con 
 struction, of capacity sufficient for docking the 
 largest ships. 
 
 The foundry and machine-shop. 
 
 The construction workshops. 
 
 The smithery. 
 
 The blacksmith s shops. 
 
 The sail-loft. 
 
 The rigging-loft. 
 
 The yards and docks workshops. 
 
 The iron-plating shop. 
 
 The saw-mill and the timber-shed, all of large 
 capacity and well adapted to the purposes for 
 which they were designed. 
 
 The office building, in which the command 
 ant s and other offices are located, occupies a 
 prominent position. 
 
 The officers quarters, including the residence 
 of the commandant, are built on a beautiful 
 avenue some distance from the water front. 
 
 The navigation store-house, and the ordnance 
 store-houses and magazines, are well located, and 
 kept in a high state of efficiency. 
 
 The marine barracks and U. S. naval hospital 
 are eligibly located on the island. 
 
 The report of the Secretary of the Navy, 
 1878, shows the approximate value of property 
 belonging to the navy at this yard to be $7,181,- 
 720.78, and his report for 1879 remarks: "The 
 great importance of this yard commends it to 
 the special consideration of Congress. It being 
 the only one on our Pacific coast, it is the exclu 
 sive representative of the Department in repair 
 ing vessels attached to the Pacific and Asiatic 
 Squadrons." 
 
 The navy-yard was established on this island 
 in the year 1854, Admiral (then Commander) 
 88 
 
 D. G. Farragut having assumed command in 
 September of that year. 
 
 The following is a list of commandants and 
 date of assuming command : 
 Commander D. G. Farragut, September 16, 1854. 
 Captain R. B. Cunningham, July 16, 1858. 
 Captain David McDougal, March 13, 1861. 
 Captain W. H. Gardner, June 5, 1861. 
 Captain Thomas O. Selfridge, M ay 27, 1862. 
 Captain D. McDougal, October 17, 1864. 
 Commodore T. T. Craven, September 5, 1866. 
 Commodore James Alden, August I, 1868. 
 Captain Reed Werden, March^l7, 1869. 
 Rear-Admiral T. T. Craven, April 15, 1869. 
 Commodore J. R. Goldsborough, January 1, 1870. 
 Commodore E. G. Parrott, April 15, 1871. 
 Rear-Admiral T. O. Selfridge, September 3, 1872. 
 Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, July 3, 1873. 
 Commodore E. R. Colhoun, April 17, 1877. 
 
 The following vessels were reported at this 
 navy-yard in July, 1880, viz. : " Mohican," re 
 building ; "Monadnock," rebuilding; " Beni- 
 cia," in ordinary; "Independence," receiving- 
 ship ; " Cyane," in ordinary ; " Iroquois," under 
 repairs; "Saco," in ordinary; " Narragansett," 
 in ordinary ; " Camanche," in ordinary ; " Ny- 
 ack," in ordinary; "Monterey," tug in yard 
 service ; " Mohican" (old), in ordinary ; " Monad- 
 nock" (old), in ordinary; " Monongahela," in 
 ordinary; "Ranger," under repairs; " Tusca- 
 rora," under repairs ; and the flag-ship " Pensa- 
 co l a ." E. R. Colhoun, Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 Navy-yard (Gosport), Norfolk, Va. No 
 navy-yard belonging to the United States, from 
 its geographical position, is more important than 
 that at Gosport, Va. Located near enough to 
 the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay to be easily 
 accessible, it is, at the same time, in a position 
 readily defended from attacks either by land or 
 by water, and, as has been repeatedly shown, 
 can be held by a small force against a very 
 largely superior one. There is in the vicinity an 
 abundant supply of timber and other material, 
 while the close proximity of a populous city se 
 cures to it the command of all the skilled labor 
 that can be required. Such is the mildness of 
 the climate, that work of all sorts can be carried 
 on at all seasons of the year without interruption. 
 Hampton Roads, the outer harbor, is an excel 
 lent point of rendezvous for a fleet or squadron. 
 
 A glance at the map will demonstrate the very 
 great importance of a naval station in this vicin 
 ity. The Chesapeake, with its navigable tribu- 
 ta ries, penetrates into the heart of several of the 
 richest States in the Union, reaching to the 
 national capital. A foothold in its waters would, 
 therefore, be of the utmost strategic importance 
 to an invading enemy, and would probably be 
 one of the earliest objects sought by them, as 
 past history has fully shown. The width of the 
 entrance of the bay is so great that it would be 
 impossible to defend it except by a naval force, 
 which should have a repairing, coaling, and 
 victualing station as near at hand as possible, 
 consistent with entire defensibility for itself, 
 with a reasonably secure outer harbor, large 
 enough for the necessary manoeuvres of a squad 
 ron in getting under way and forming. All of 
 these conditions are admirably filled by the loca 
 tion of the Gosport Yard. 
 
 Just before the breaking out of the war of the 
 Revolution, the British established a marine- 
 
NAVY- YARD 
 
 594 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 yard, for the use of their navy, on the site of the 
 present navy-yard at Gosport (as that portion of 
 Portsmouth has always been called), having, as 
 is stated in a letter now on file in the Navy De 
 partment, written in 1824, hy Miles King, United 
 States navy-agent, selected this point, after a 
 careful survey of all the ports within its domin 
 ions in North America, as the most eligible situ 
 ation for a naval station. The name of Gosport 
 was doubtless taken from Gosport, near Ports 
 mouth, England, where one of the most impor 
 tant of the "British dock-yards is located. There 
 is a tradition that this spot had been used for 
 some time by the British as a careening-ground 
 for their ships, biit the writer has not been able 
 to find any proof of the fact. Mr. King s letter 
 further states that scarcely had the British gov 
 ernment commenced the works when the Revolu 
 tion began, and the yard, together with the adjoin 
 ing property of Andrew Sprowle, the British 
 navy-agent, became confiscate and forfeited to 
 the State of Virginia. 
 
 Virginia immediately commenced preparations 
 for establishing a navy, and vigorous measures 
 were adopted to that end. Several vessels were 
 built or purchased. A rope-walk was established, 
 which was probably at Gosport, though it is not 
 certain. The published histories of Virginia and 
 of the U. S. navy are alike singularly silent upon 
 the subject of the Virginia navy, which was em 
 ployed mainly for the defense of the bays and 
 rivers of the State. Commodore Barron was 
 appointed its commander-in-chief, being styled 
 "Commodore of all the armed vessels of * the 
 Commonwealth." His two sons, Samuel and 
 James Barron, and also Richard Dale, all after 
 wards distinguished officers of the U. S. navy, 
 served under his command. At the conclusion 
 of the war the State navy was disbanded. 
 
 The marine-yard was retained for the benefit 
 of the Commonwealth, though no use is known 
 to have been made of it until the year 1794. The 
 lands adjoining the yard were sold in 1785. It 
 was lent to the government by the State of Vir 
 ginia, and was purchased by the United States 
 several years later. Capt. Richard Dale* was 
 appointed superintendent of the yard ; Josiah 
 Fox, naval constructor or master-builder ; and 
 William Pennock, navy-agent. 
 
 By an act of Congress passed March 27, 1794, 
 the President had been authorized to procure by 
 purchase or otherwise, equip, and employ to pro 
 tect our commerce from the Algerines, 4 ships 
 of 44 guns each, and 2 ships of 36 guns each. 
 One of the ships thus authorized was laid down 
 at the Gosport yard. Various causes combined 
 to delay its completion, and at the end of the year 
 1795 it was still unfinished. 
 
 In a report of the Secretary of War, dated 
 December 12 of that year, it is stated that about 
 two-thirds of the live-oak frame of the frigate 
 at Norfolk (Gosport) had been received, a part 
 of the planking, the copper for sheathing and 
 fastening, most of the iron-work, the masts and 
 spars, and the most of the other materials neces 
 sary were in store or getting ready. The keel 
 had been laid, and part of the frame bolted to 
 gether ready for raising. 
 
 * Capt. Dale was afterward appointed to the " Ganges," a pur 
 chased ship armed as a 24, and which, under his command, 
 was the first vessel of the present navy to get to sea, sailing in 
 May, 1798. 
 
 On the establishment of peace, early in 1796, 
 between the United States and Algiers, "work was 
 suspended upon the ship at this yard, and such 
 of the materials collected as were thought per 
 ishable were sold, and the rest put in store, Mr. 
 Pennock, the agent, being employed to take 
 charge of them. In June, 1797, the materials 
 on hand at Gosport were valued at $52,989. 
 
 In July, orders were sent to Mr. Pennock to 
 recommence work on the frigate at Gosport, for 
 which the name " Chesapeake" had been chosen. 
 Daring the same month, a brig of 200 tons, 
 which had been built near the navy-yard, by 
 Mr. Herbert, and which was nearly ready for 
 launching, was purchased by the government 
 and fitted out, under the name of " Norfolk." 
 Capt. Thomas Williams, of Norfolk, was ap 
 pointed superintendent, and afterward com 
 mander of the brig, being regularly commis 
 sioned in the navy. 
 
 Mr. Josiah Fox, who had been discharged 
 from the yard upon the suspension of work in 
 March, 1796, was now reappointed as naval con 
 structor, and directed to proceed with the work 
 upon the "Chesapeake," on a plan proposed by 
 himself, by which the size of the vessel was re 
 duced from a 44- to a 36-gun ship. 
 
 Considerable activity prevailed at the yard 
 during the remainder of the year. A brig was 
 purchased by the citizens of some of the princi 
 pal towns of Virginia, and presented to the gov 
 ernment. It was named the " Richmond," and 
 was fitted out under the command of Capt. 
 Samuel Barron, who had served in the Virginia 
 navy during the Revolution. 
 
 The vessels of Commodore Truxtun s squadron 
 frequently resorted to the yard for repairs and 
 supplies, and to pay off their crews. 
 
 We also find that large quantities of bread and 
 of some other articles of provisions were fur 
 nished during the year and the next succeeding 
 for other stations. The yard was also made a 
 depot for the supply of masts and spars to cruis- 
 ing-ship?, and even to vessels fitting at Baltimore 
 and Philadelphia. 
 
 By a report submitted to Congress by the Sec 
 retary of State, March 2, 1799, it appears that 
 commissions were issued for the district of Nor 
 folk, between July 9, 1798, and January 1, 1799, 
 to 10 private armed vessels, mounting in the 
 aggregate 65 guns. 
 
 In June, 1799, a brig, called the "Augusta," 
 was purchased and fitted out at Gosport. 
 
 July 16, 1799, Commodore Samuel Barron was 
 ordered to duty as superintendent of the y<\rd ; 
 Mr. Pennock, the agent, not having exercised 
 the degree of economy which the Department de 
 sired. In the following month, however, Com 
 modore Barron AVHS detached and ordered to the 
 command of the " Constellation," at New York. 
 
 The importance of the Gosport yard, partic 
 ularly as an equipping, recruiting, and victualing 
 station, had now become so well established that 
 the Secretary of the Navy resolved to make it 
 one of the permanent navy-yards of the country. 
 At his suggestion the Legislature of Virginia, 
 by an act dated January 25, 1800, ceded to the 
 United States the property known as Gosport for 
 the purpose of establishing a navy-yard there, 
 such cession to take effect as soon as the value of 
 the property should be ascertained, and the Gov 
 ernor be satisfied that the United States were 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 595 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 willing to pay the amount thereof to the Com 
 monwealth. 
 
 In accordance with the requirements of this 
 act, Thomas Newton, Jr., was appointed on 
 behalf of the State of Virginia, and, by an 
 order dated 7th of April, 1800, Mr. William 
 Pennock was appointed to act on the part of 
 the United States to ascertain, with Mr. New 
 ton, the value of the lands required. In a letter 
 bearing the same date, the Secretary of the 
 Navy enjoined the greatest economy on the part 
 of Mr. Pennock, and informed him that the only 
 funds available, out of which the property could 
 be paid for, were those appropriated for the build 
 ing the " 74-gun ships." He also intimated to 
 Mr. Newton that the less the amount paid for 
 the property the more there would be available 
 for improvements, and suggested $100 per acre 
 as a fair valuation. 
 
 In a report to the President, dated April 25, 
 1800, the Secretary, in recommending the estab 
 lishment of permanent navy-yards, to be the 
 property of the United States, remarks that a 
 large part of the expense of building the frigates 
 arose from handling the timber, owing to the 
 confined space in which it was piled, enough, he 
 thinks, to have purchased ground and to have 
 improved it. He states that the ground at Gos- 
 port had recently been ceded to the United States 
 on condition of the payment of its value, which 
 he hopes will not exceed $2000. 
 
 To the surprise of the Secretary, the value 
 assigned to the land was $12,000, or $750 per 
 acre. In a letter addressed to Mr. Pen-nock 
 on the 7th of August, he expresses the opinion 
 that the ground should have been given to the 
 government without charge, but that it must be 
 taken at the valuation named, though he consid 
 ered it exorbitant. He also directs Mr. Pennock 
 to have prepared plans for improving the timber- 
 dock, a creek making up into the yard, and which 
 was then used as such. 
 
 January 24, 1801, $12, 000 were remitted to Mr. 
 John Hopkins, of Richmond, Va., to be paid to 
 the State, as the purchase-money of the Gosport 
 lands, and under date of June 15, 1801, a deed 
 was executed by Governor Monroe, by which the 
 title and jurisdiction of the property were con 
 veyed to the United States. This deed is now on 
 file in the Bureau of Yards and Docks, Navy 
 Department. 
 
 In a report submitted to the House of Repre 
 sentatives, April 27, 1802, by Mr. Mitchell, from 
 the Committee on Naval Affairs, that gentleman 
 stated that $12,000 had been expended for pur 
 chase and $4000 for improvements at Gosport 
 without authority of law. Under date of March 
 10, 1802, Mr. Mitchell, from the same committee, 
 reported that, in the opinion of the committee, 
 Gosport and Charlestown, Mass., from the im 
 provements already made, and from other circum 
 stances, were the most eligible places for receiving 
 and repairing the ships in actual service ; and that, 
 should any additional improvements be necessary 
 at those places, they ought to be made. He also 
 recommended the appointment of suitable persons 
 to make plans for improving those yards, and the 
 appropriation of $50,000 to carry the plans into 
 effect. 
 
 The $4000 above referred to as having been 
 expended in improvements at Gosport had been 
 used to build a spar-shed, timber-shed, a bridge 
 
 across a small creek, which separated the yard 
 from the rest of Gosport at that time (outside 
 of where the present north wall stands), and 
 probably in part for wooden wharves along the 
 water front, and a fence around the property. 
 
 We find mention of vessels laying up, repair 
 ing, and fitting out at this yard in 1800, 1801, 
 and 1802. In 1801, a squadron under Commo 
 dore Dale fitted out. On the 27th of July, 1801, 
 orders were sent to heave down the Chesapeake 
 for repairs. 
 
 In October, 1801, a marine-guard was sent to 
 Gosport Yard, and the navy-agent was directed 
 to furnish it with quarters. It is probable 
 that the wooden barrack-building which stood 
 on about the same site that the brick barracks 
 were afterwards built upon was erected for the 
 purpose. 
 
 In April, 1802, Mr. Pennock recommended the 
 building of a store-house for provisions, etc., 
 within the yard. Up to that time private ware 
 houses had been hired for the use of the navy 
 stores. 
 
 April 26, 1802, Mr. Pennock was removed, 
 and Daniel Bedinger was appointed navy-agent 
 and superintendent of the navy-yard. 
 
 In April, 1803, $10,000 were sent to Mr. 
 Bedinger to build a warehouse and a timber- 
 shed at Gosport. We find by the correspondence 
 of a little later date that, instead of expending 
 the money for the purpose authorized, Mr. Bed 
 inger built with it, first, a brick wall, beginning 
 a short distance from the water-side, running 
 along the north front of the yard, and down the 
 west side to the creek which formed the southern 
 boundary, and part of which forms the present 
 timber-basin ; secondly, a brick dwelling-house 
 for himself within the yard, and which was 
 afterward for many years used as the command 
 ant s house, and, with what money was left, a 
 very indifferent shed for timber, and a ware 
 house, which afterward had to be taken down 
 to prevent its falling. 
 
 August 6, 1804, an order was sent to Mr. 
 Bedinger detaching the marine-guard from the 
 navy-yard and ordering it to Washington. 
 
 In May, 1805, Bedinger was ordered to repair 
 the wharves, which had been represented by a 
 citizen as being much out of order. We find, 
 under date of February 6, 1806, a report from 
 Mr. Thomas Turner, accountant of the navy, in 
 which that gentleman states that $42,748.78 had 
 been expended in improvements and repairs at 
 this yard, and yet, except the wall, scarcely any 
 thing of permanent value seems to have been 
 done. The wharves were, and continued to be 
 for many years later, of wood, and, of course, in 
 waters infested with the Teredo navalis, were 
 constantly requiring extensive repairs, and oflen 
 complete renewal. During the summer of 1800 
 we find several gunboats and ketches fitting out 
 and laying up, under the direction of Lieut. 
 Arthur Sinclair. 
 
 On the 28th of November, 1806, Capt. Stephen 
 Decatur was ordered to superintend the building 
 of 4 gunboats at Norfolk. He seems to have 
 superseded Lieut. Sinclair in his duties also, 
 although that officer continued on duty under 
 him. In July, 1807, Mr. Bedinger was ordered 
 to contract for materials for 10 additional gun 
 boats, and, a little later, to contract for building 
 the same. Capt. Decatur was ordered to super- 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 596 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 intend the construction. We now find Capt. 
 Decatur addressed by the Department as " Com 
 manding naval forces at Norfolk," and he ap 
 pears to have continued in this command until 
 November, 1811 ; his force consisted of the 
 frigate " United States," which he himself com 
 manded, and of such gunboats and other vessels 
 as were from time to time put into commission. 
 He appears, however, to have had no immediate 
 charge of the navy-yard, which continued under 
 the control of the navy-agent. 
 
 In November, 1807, a marine-guard was again 
 ordered to the yard. February 10, 1808, Bedin- 
 ger s appointment was revoked, and Theodore 
 Armistead appointed in his place as navy-agent 
 and superintendent of the navy-yard. We now 
 find complaints lodged against Bedinger for 
 having used the public wharves and property in 
 repairing his own vessels, though whether these 
 charges were substantiated does not appear. 
 
 The agents up to this time seem not to have 
 been required to give bonds, and, in fact, to have 
 been held very little responsible for their acts, 
 the Department having no military control over 
 them. 
 
 In March, 1808, Mr. Armistead was author 
 ized to contract for 50 tons of native hemp, 
 and to have it made into cordage for the navy. 
 The work was done by private manufacturers, 
 however, and not at the yard. 
 
 In April of the same year authority was sent 
 to Mr. Armistead to build a new timber-shed 
 and a warehouse. 
 
 In May, 1809, an order was sent to build a 
 powder-magazine in the yard. This stood near 
 the creek, now timber-basin. 
 
 In June, 1810, on account of the uncertain 
 relations with Great Britain, a small cruising 
 squadron was ordered to Norfolk under the com 
 mand of Commodore Decatur. 
 
 July 7 of the same year the Department, having 
 become tired of the practice of operating the navy- 
 yard under irresponsible civil administration, 
 ordered Commodore Samuel Barron as com 
 mandant of the yard, the gunboats, the officers, 
 and men. The navy-agent was, however, still 
 continued as purchasing and disbursing agent, 
 and, as such, in charge of " all stores other "than 
 military." The following letter, addressed to 
 Commodore Barron by "the Secretary of the 
 Navy, is of some interest as being the first in 
 structions to the commandant : 
 
 "NAVY DEPARTMENT, September 29, 1810. 
 
 "SiR, In defining your duties and your 
 authority in the yard at Gosport, it will be suf 
 ficient for me to state that all the military stores 
 of every description will be under your care; 
 that the direction of all improvements in the 
 yard and of all reparations to our vessels at the 
 yard are committed to you ; and that within the 
 yard you are to have the entire, undivided com 
 mand. 
 
 " The navy-agent, as heretofore, will have the 
 charge of all stores other than military, and he 
 must have a warehouse at the yard for their 
 safe-keeping, with perfect liberty of ingress and 
 egress. 
 
 " PAUL HAMILTON." 
 
 The house which has been mentioned as having 
 been built by Mr. Bedinger was assigned to Com 
 
 modore Barron as a residence. It was at the 
 time occupied by the storekeeper or clerk of the 
 yard, an eccentric person of the name of Thomas 
 Dulton, an ex-shipmaster. Although the navy- 
 agent was nominally superintendent of the yard, 
 Capt. Dulton had been in immediate charge of 
 it for some years, performing all sorts of offices 
 therein, ringing the bell and mustering the 
 workmen himself. Many singular anecdotes of 
 him are preserved among the traditions of the 
 yard. 
 
 Commodore Barron had scarcely entered upon 
 his command when, on the 29th of October, 1810, 
 he was overtaken by death. Lieut. Robert 
 Henley, under date of November 10, was ordered 
 to assume temporary command of the yard until 
 a relief should be ordered. 
 
 In May, 1811, Capt. Samuel Evans wag or 
 dered as commandant, and from that time we 
 find lieutenants, masters, medical officers, boat 
 swains, and gunners attached to the yard and to 
 the vessels in ordinary. 
 
 Capt. Evans continued in command until 
 August 10, 1812, when Capt. John Casein was 
 ordered to relieve him. Capt. Cassin had, as 
 lieutenant and master-commandant, been for 
 several years attached to the navy-yard at 
 Washington, part of the time as superintend 
 ent and part of the time second in command. 
 The Department seems to have regarded him as 
 a valuable dock-yard officer, and the pay and 
 allowances of a captain commanding a separate 
 squadron were given him in his new position, 
 although he was almost the junior captain on the 
 list when ordered to the command. 
 
 In August, as above stated, Capt. Evan? was 
 relieved by Capt. Cassin. Very little of interest 
 occurred during the remainder of the year. In 
 October a blacksmith s shop was erected. By the 
 letters of Capt. Cassin we find that considerable 
 quantities of timber, lumber, and other stores, and 
 of munitions of war, were furnished from time to 
 time from the navy-yard to the army in the vicin 
 ity, particularly to the engineer officers, who were 
 erecting fortifications. During the summer, Capt. 
 Cassin s little force was increased by an armed 
 yacht under Lieut E. P. Kennedy. 
 
 Early in February, 1813, Capt. Charles Stew 
 art, in the " Constellation," which had fitted out 
 at Washington, in attempting to get to sea, was 
 met by a large force of British ships which were 
 seen entering the Chesapeake as he came abreast 
 the Horseshoe. It being calm when he discov 
 ered the enemy, Capt. Stewart kedged the " Con 
 stellation" from the Horseshoe to a position in 
 the Elizabeth River, just opposite Fort Norfolk, 
 now the navy magazine. 
 
 Capt. Stewart now became commanding officer 
 of the station in general by virtue of his senior 
 ity, though Capt. Cassin continued to command 
 the gunboat flotilla, and made his reports di 
 rectly to the Department. The most untiring 
 vigilance, activity, and skill were now required 
 to defend the frigate and flotilla from capture, 
 and at the same time to annoy the enemy as 
 much as possible. Both objects were successfully 
 accomplished. 
 
 On the 30th of November, 1813, Mr. Jones, 
 the Secretary of the Navy, in answer to a reso 
 lution of the House of Representatives calling 
 for information on the subject of navy-yards, 
 submitted, among other papers, the following 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 597 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 letter of Capt. Cassin, giving a description of the 
 yard at the date of the report : 
 
 "NAVY-YARD, QOSPOBT, May 25, 1813. 
 
 " SIR, I have the honor to inclose you a 
 statement of the accommodations provided in 
 this yard, with the number of officers and men 
 attached. . . . The commander s dwelling of 
 brick, two stories high, made comfortable quar 
 ters ; marine barracks, miserable huts of wood, 
 wanting much repair; the officers quarters are 
 low two-story frame buildings, the whole 150 
 feet from the west wall, which is only 5 feet 
 high ; the northwest is bounded by warehouses 
 and timber-sheds, having to extend a fence on 
 the east end to low-water mark. 
 
 " The marine hospital stands in the centre of 
 the yard, two stories high, was formerly occu 
 pied as boatswain s and gunner s store-rooms, 
 built of wood, the centre of which is occupied as 
 the hospital, the garret as rigging-loft, and lower 
 part gunner s store, store-keeper s office, purser s 
 issuing-room and office. 
 
 "The blacksmith s shops, begun of brick, 165 
 feet by 50, including anchor and plumber s 
 shops, not completed, the old shops being dan 
 gerous to heat a large fire. 
 
 "One large timber-shed, 300 feet long, with 
 brick pillars, and 50 feet wide. 
 
 " One small shed for the armorer and plumber; 
 two sheds appropriated, one for the joiners, the 
 other for mast-makers. 
 
 CASSIN." 
 
 In April, 1815, an order was sent to Capt. 
 Cassin by the Secretary of the Navy to raise the 
 hulks which had been sunk in the channel 
 during the war, and which constituted a serious 
 obstruction to the narrow channel. 
 
 During the summer of 1816, under an order 
 dated the 7th of May of that year, an examination 
 was made by the Board of Navy Commissioners, 
 then consisting of three of the most distin- 
 
 fuished officers in the navy, viz., Commodores 
 ohn Rodgers, Stephen Decatur, and David 
 Porter, to ascertain the best manner of defend 
 ing the Chesapeake Bay, and also to determine 
 the most advantageous site for a naval station 
 and depot within its waters. 
 
 Differing somewhat in their opinions, espe 
 cially as to the best location for a naval station, 
 each officer made a separate report. Commodore 
 Rodgers favored a position in York River, 10 
 miles above York, called the Clay Banks; Com 
 modore Porter, the mouth of the St. Mary s 
 River ; and Commodore Decatur, the site al 
 ready occupied at Gosport. 
 
 No action seems to have been taken upon the 
 reports of the board, and no material changes 
 occurred for the next few years. 
 
 In the summer of 1817 the keel of a line-of- 
 battle ship was laid. The timber for this ship 
 had been in store for years, having been col 
 lected under the provisions of the act of Con 
 gress of February 25, 1799, and subsequent 
 amendments. The name afterward chosen for 
 this ship was "Delaware." We find authority 
 given during the same summer to build a saw- 
 shed and a steam-stove. 
 
 In January, 1818, authority was sent to Capt. 
 Cassin to remove or pull down the old hospital 
 which was situated within the yard. A small 
 frame building, located near the present dry- 
 
 dock, was afterward used for some years as a 
 hospital. 
 
 In June, 1818, the ship "Alert" was assigned 
 as receiving-ship at Norfolk, Commander Jesse 
 Wilkinson being ordered to command her. 
 
 In September, 1818, Capt. Arthur Sinclair 
 was ordered to this navy-yard to superintend 
 the construction of the " Delaware" under Capt. 
 Cassin. Capt. Sinclair is soon after addressed as 
 "Commanding Naval Officer Afloat" at Norfolk, 
 and held a command separate from the yard for 
 several years later. The receiving-ship was a part 
 of his command, and all recruiting was done 
 under his direction. We find about this period, 
 and for some years after, considerable quantities 
 of timber, plank, knees, masts, and mast-pieces, 
 and also of cordage furnished from Gosport to 
 the navy-yards in other parts of the country. 
 
 In the "latter part of 1818, the old wooden 
 buildings used as marine barracks were pulled 
 down and a brick building put up in their place. 
 The line-of-battle ship "New York" was also 
 commenced in this year. 
 
 In October, 1820, the " Delaware" was launched 
 and housed over, not being required for service 
 immediately. 
 
 In June, 1821, Oapt. Cassin was relieved by 
 Capt. Lewis Warrington. During the summer 
 of that year Capt. Warrington was directed to 
 fill in the old timber-basin. This was a shal 
 low basin, originally formed by a creek or 
 cove, and included the spot where ship-house 
 B was afterward built ; its banks were protected 
 by wharf-logs, with a wharf across the entrance 
 provided with slips for boats to enter. A ship- 
 house was authorized to be built over the " New 
 York" ; this was afterward lettered A. A pair 
 of masting-shears was also authorized. 
 
 In August, 1821, a school for midshipmen was 
 established under the charge of Chaplain David 
 P. Adams, on board the "Guerriere," frigate, 
 then in ordinary at Norfolk. 
 
 Improvements to the navy-yard buildings, re 
 pairs to the wharves, filling in and leveling the 
 grounds, were carried on from year to year under 
 the current appropriations. 
 
 In December, 1824, Capt. Warrington was re 
 lieved from the command of the yard by Master- 
 Commandant James Renshaw. 
 
 On the 25th of May, 1825, Commodore James 
 Barron relieved Capt. Renshaw as commandant 
 of the yard. 
 
 On the 28th of November, Commodore Barron, 
 in answer to a complaint of the Secretary of the 
 Navy that too long a time was required to repair 
 and fit out ships, informed the Secretary that the 
 delays were immediately owing to want of proper 
 workshops, store-houses, and a dock, and proposed 
 a plan for the improvement of the yard, which 
 involved the purchase of more land (the yard 
 being altogether too confined for the purpose for 
 which it was required), the erection of suitable 
 buildings and shops, and of a floating dry-dock. 
 He furnished a plan and estimates for the last. 
 He especially urged the inexpediency of erecting 
 wooden wharves and docks in waters infested 
 with the Teredo navalis, which destroyed the 
 structures at the water s edge, and left the sub 
 structure to form actual obstructions in the 
 channel. 
 
 The question of purchasing additional ground 
 seems thus to have been re-opened, and under 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 598 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 date of February 26, 1826, Mr. King, the navy- 
 agent, suggests to the Navy Department the 
 plan of applying to the county court to appoint 
 a jury to appraise the lands required by the 
 government. This suggestion was approved by 
 the Secretary, but seems to have been a very slow 
 process. 
 
 On the 22d of May, 1826, a resolution of Con 
 gress of the following purport was approved, 
 viz. : 
 
 The President to cause an examination and 
 accurate survey to be made by skillful engineers 
 of a site for a dry-dock at the navy-yards at 
 Portsmouth, N. H., Charlestown, Mass., Brook 
 lyn, N. Y., and Gosport, Va., respectively ; and 
 that such engineers be required to state the di 
 mensions necessary for such docks, the advan 
 tages of each of the above-named establishments, 
 and the objections that apply to either, with a 
 detailed estimate of the expense of a suitable site, 
 and of constructing a dock at each of said places ; 
 and the President be requested to communicate 
 the same to Congress in the first week of the next 
 session. 
 
 On the 26th of July, Col. Baldwin (the civil 
 engineer before mentioned) was appointed by the 
 Department to make the required surveys. The 
 first spot selected at Gosport as the site of the 
 dock was at the northern side of the entrance of 
 the creek, now forming a timber-dock ; this site 
 was chosen as being the best in the yard as it then 
 existed. 
 
 During the same year (1826) the frigate " St. 
 Lawrence" was laid down, and a ship-house 
 built, afterward lettered B. 
 
 On the 3d of March, 1827, Congress passed an 
 act entitled "An act for the gradual improvement 
 of the navy of the United States," by which there 
 was appropriated the sum of $500,000 per annum 
 for six years, to be applied to the purposes specified 
 in the act. 
 
 By section 4 of the act, the President was 
 authorized to cause to be constructed two dry- 
 docks on the most approved plan, for the use of 
 the navy of the United States ; one of the said 
 docks to be erected at some point to the south, 
 and the other to the north, of the Potomac River. 
 
 By section 6, the President was authorized to 
 cause the navy-yards of the United States to be 
 thoroughly examined, and plans to be prepared 
 for the improvement of the same and the preser 
 vation of the public property therein ; from which 
 plans, after they should be sanctioned by the 
 President, no deviation should be made but by 
 his special order. 
 
 On the 29th of March, 1827, Mr. King, the 
 navy-agent, reported that the lands from Jeffer 
 son Street, along the line of Third Street to the 
 county road, and thence down to the water, 
 could be purchased for $7825. He was author 
 ized to make the purchase, and also of such other 
 lands adjoining the yard on the south as should 
 be deemed necessary, and was directed to con 
 sult with Commodores Bainbridge, Morris, and 
 Chauncey, who then constituted the board 
 charged, under authority of the act above al 
 luded to, with the examination of the yards and 
 the formation of plans for their improvement. 
 
 The Board of Commissioners, of which Com 
 modore Bainbridge was president, during the 
 winter of 1827-28 made an elaborate plan for the 
 improvement of the yard, based on a thorough 
 
 survey of the yard and the adjacent waters by 
 Col. Baldwin. 
 
 On the 17th of June, 1833, the anniversary of 
 the battle of Bunker Hill, the dock was opened 
 for the reception of the line-of- battle ship " Dela 
 ware," the first liner built at Gosport, and the 
 first national ship ever docked in a dry-dock be 
 longing to the United States. 
 
 The line-of-battle ship " North Carolina" was 
 soon afterward admitted to the dock. 
 
 Commodore Warrington, who had assumed 
 command of the yard May 26, 1831, continued in 
 it until the 7th of October, 1840. The yard was 
 constantly used in the mean time for fitting out, 
 refitting, repairing, and laying up the ships and 
 vessels of the navy. 
 
 The sloop "John Adams" was built in 1830. 
 The frigate " Macedonian" was rebuilt here 
 between the years 1832 and 1836. The survey 
 ing-brig "Pioneer" was launched in 1836. The 
 line-of-battle ship "Pennsylvania" became the 
 receiving-ship in 1837. The sloop " Yorktown" 
 was commenced in 1835 and launched in 1839. 
 
 Of the old buildings that were standing in 
 1837, the ship-houses, the office-buildings along 
 the north wall, the commandant s house, and a 
 portion of the marine barracks, were still stand 
 ing in 1840 ; the rest had all been removed or 
 rebuilt. 
 
 Commodore "W. B. Shubrick assumed com 
 mand of the yard in October, 1840, and retained 
 it until October, 1843. A plan of the yard, made 
 under his direction by Capt. Sanger and received 
 at the Bureau of Yards and Docks in November, 
 1842, shows little progress up to that date be 
 yond what is mentioned above, the continued 
 appropriation for " gradual improvements" hav 
 ing ceased. A blacksmith s shop and turning- 
 machine and a foundry and plumbery had been 
 added to the steam-engine house, and some other 
 store-houses had been begun. 
 
 The steamer "Union" was laid down at the 
 yard in 1841 and launched in 1842. The store- 
 ship "Southampton" was commenced in 1842. 
 
 In October, 1843, Commodore Shubrick was 
 relieved by Commodore Jesse Wilkinson as com 
 mandant. 
 
 In 1842 an appropriation was made by Con 
 gress for a dredging-machine for this } r ard, which 
 was completed the following year, and success 
 fully used for deepening the channel in front of 
 the dry-dock and along the wharves ; the earth 
 brought up was used for filling up where needed 
 in the yard. During the year 1843 the ground 
 around the dry-dock was graded and the pave 
 ment relaid ; by this the dock was protected from 
 injury to which it had been subject from filtra 
 tion. 
 
 The brig " Perry" was laid down in 1843, and 
 some additional machinery was erected in differ 
 ent shops during the same year. The quay-wall 
 was completed during that and the following 
 years, i.e., 1843-44, as far as ship-house B. 
 
 The sloop "Jamestown" was laid down in 
 1843 and launched in 1844. In 1845 another 
 store-house, No. 16, was built. A bridge across 
 the timber-dock was completed. The dock itself 
 was still in an unfinished state, no appropria 
 tion having been made for several years. "Work 
 was suspended on the quay-wall in 1845 for the 
 same reason. A new building-slip was com 
 menced in 1845 under special appropriation. The 
 
NAVY-YABD 
 
 599 
 
 NAVY-YAKD 
 
 store-ship " Southampton" was launched the 
 same year. 
 
 On the 26th of August, 1846, the lot of ground 
 opposite the navy-yard, on the Norfolk side of 
 the Elizabeth, and known as Saint Helena, was 
 purchased and added to the yard. This ground 
 was needed for ordnance purposes. Jurisdiction 
 over it was ceded to the United States by an 
 act of the General Assembly of Virginia, dated 
 March 22, 1847. 
 
 Commodore Lawrence Kearny became com 
 mandant on the 1st of June, 1847. Some prog 
 ress was made that year upon the launching-slip 
 previously spoken of. Another store-house, No. 
 13, commenced the year before, was finished. The 
 frigate " St. Lawrence" and the brig " Perry" 
 were launched. The former had been on the 
 stocks for over twenty years. The steam-frigate 
 " Powhatan" was laid down. 
 
 January 19, 1848, Commodore John D. Sloat 
 was ordered to relieve Commodore Kearny as 
 commandant. 
 
 In 1848 a small appropriation was made by 
 Congress for continuing the quay-wall, and was 
 applied to build a coffer-dam for the north wall 
 of the timber-dock. Appropriations were also 
 made for a new pair of masting-shears, for addi 
 tional machinery, for various shops, and for im 
 provements at Helena. 
 
 In September, 1849, Fort Norfolk and the 
 grounds about it were turned over to the navy 
 by the War Department for the establishment 
 of a magazine for powder and shells. Work was 
 immediately commenced upon the shell-house. 
 A building near the site of the present saw-mill, 
 outside of the yard, when built, had been used 
 as a magazine for some years previously. Dur 
 ing the same year, building No. 51 was erected, 
 also some brick stables. An engine-house to the 
 smithery was commenced. A gun-park, a coal- 
 house, and a landing-wharf were built at Saint 
 Helena. Work upon the quay- wall progressed 
 as far as the appropriation would permit. 
 
 Between the years 1850 and 1880 great progress 
 was made in improving the yard, under current 
 appropriations, while at the same time great ac 
 tivity prevailed in building, repairing, fitting out, 
 and laying up the ships and vessels of the navy. 
 The steam-frigate " Powhatan" was launched in 
 1850. Work upon the quay-wall was steadily 
 continued from year to year. The timber-dock 
 was finished in 1854, together with the bridges 
 across it. A culvert was built in 1853 to drain 
 the lands adjoining the yard and to conduct the 
 water from them into the dock, thereby con 
 siderably freshening that in the dock. The cul 
 vert was built of brick laid upon a pine-plank 
 floor. 
 
 There being but a limited supply of fresh water 
 at Gosport, appropriations were made in 1850 for 
 building cisterns for collecting rain-water; one 
 was completed in 1851, with a capacity of 38,000 
 gallons. Afterward two large reservoirs were 
 built, one completed in 1856, holding 124,000 
 gallons, with a head, when full, 14 feet above the 
 grade of the yard. The other reservoir was 
 completed in 1857 ; its capacity is 128,000 gallons. 
 
 Work upon the magazine and the keeper s 
 house at Fort Norfolk was commenced in 1851, 
 but not completed until 1856. A reservoir was 
 built near the magazine to contain 90,000 gal 
 lons of water. A sea-wall and landing- wharf 
 
 were also built, and two old houses converted, 
 one into a store-house and the other into a filling- 
 house. 
 
 Building No. 19, a rigging-loft, armory, and 
 offices, and the entrance-gateway, was erected in 
 1851-52. A building was constructed in 1853 
 near timber-shed No. 33, which was designed for 
 a saw-mill and burnetizing-house. It was en 
 tirely devoted to the latter purpose, however, 
 and in 1856 a saw-mill was erected at the south 
 end of the yard, on one of the sites intended 
 for a dry-dock. A culvert was constructed in 
 
 1855 from the burnetizing-house to the timber- 
 dock. 
 
 Dredging was carried on from year to year 
 during the decade, deepening the channel and 
 furnishing material for filling in the low places 
 of the yard, and the space between the old 
 shore-line and the quay-wall as well as at Saint 
 Helena. A new dredging-machine was built in 
 1854. 
 
 Grading the yard was also attended to ; pave 
 ments were laid around the buildings, and brick 
 foot-walks through the yard in various direc 
 tions ; roads were macadamized, and a thorough 
 system of drainage established, by which the 
 sanitary condition of the yard was much im 
 proved. 
 
 Gas for lighting the yard and buildings was 
 introduced in 1855. 
 
 On the removal of the saw-mill in 1855 and 
 1856, new machinery was added to the machine- 
 shop, and a new foundry was erected, completed 
 in 1859, on site 41, designed in the "approved 
 plan" for an iron and copper store. A boiler- 
 shop was commenced to the northward of the 
 machine-shop. A new engine for pumping out 
 the dry-dock was completed and set up in 1856. 
 A large and commodious building was erected in 
 
 1856 as a receiving and issuing store for the de 
 partment of provisions and clothing. It was 
 located on the new-made ground, just south of 
 the entrance of the timber-dock, into which a cul 
 vert from its cellars leads. An ordnance building, 
 not on the "approved plan," was commenced 
 in 1858 and completed in 1859. Gun and shot 
 platforms were built at Saint Helena, and also at 
 the yard south of the ship-house A. 
 
 Two large lifting-cranes were erected on the 
 quay-wall in 1857, and a large amount of ma 
 chinery of various sorts was added to the different 
 shops through the yard. Alterations, additions, 
 and improvements were made to some of the 
 buildings under the appropriation for "repairs 
 of all kinds." Bail-tracks were laid down at 
 Saint Helena, and also at the yard ; in the latter 
 connecting the anchor-racks near the dry-dock, 
 the different shops and store-houses, with the 
 wharf near the shears. 
 
 Considerable building, repairs, etc., of ships 
 was carried on during the same period. In 1855 
 the magnificent steam-frigates " Boanoke" and 
 "Colorado" were laid down; these vessels were 
 finished and launched in 1857. The steam-sloops 
 "Dakota" and "Bichmond" were begun in 1858 
 and launched, the former in 1859, and the latter 
 in 1860. A purchased steamer called the " Dis 
 patch" was rebuilt in 1859 under the name of 
 " Pocahontas." 
 
 The following were the commandants of the 
 yard during this period, viz. : Capt. Silas H. 
 Stringham (late rear-admiral), from 17th Feb- 
 
NAVY-YAED 
 
 600 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 ruary, 1851, to 1st April, 1852 ; Capt. Samuel L. 
 Breeze, from 1st April, 1852, to 10th May, 1855 ; 
 Commodore Isaac McKeever, from 10th May, 
 1855, until his death, which occurred on the 1st 
 of April, 1856 ; Capt. Thomas A. Dornin (late 
 commodore), from 6th May, 1856, to 30th April, 
 1859; Capt. Charles H. Bell (late rear-admiral), 
 from 30th April, 1859, to 1st August, 1860, when 
 he was relieved by Commodore Charles S. Mc- 
 Cauley. 
 
 On the 1st of April, 1861, there were, at the 
 yard or in the stream, the following ships and 
 vessels of war, viz. : 
 
 Ship-of-the-line "Pennsylvania," 120 guns, 
 receiving-ship. 
 
 "Ship-of-the-line "Columbus," 74 guns, in 
 ordinary. 
 
 Ship-of-the-line "Delaware," 74 guns, in 
 ordinary. 
 
 Ship-of-the-line " New York," 74 guns, on the 
 stocks. 
 
 Steam-frigate " Merrimac," 40 guns, under 
 repairs. 
 
 Frigate " United States," 50 guns, in ordinary. 
 
 Frigate " Columbia," 50 guns, in ordinary. 
 
 Frigate " Raritan," 50 guns, in ordinary. 
 
 Sloop " Plymouth," 22 guns, ready for sea. 
 
 Sloop " Germantown," 22 guns, ready for sea. 
 
 Brig " Dolphin," 4 guns, ready for sea. 
 
 In addition to these, the frigate " Cumberland," 
 24, the flag-ship of Flag-Officer Pendergrast, 
 commanding the Home Squadron, was also lying 
 off the yard, fully manned. 
 
 The evacuation of the yard ; the destruction of 
 the government property ; the scuttling of the 
 " Germantown," " Plymouth," " Dolphin," and 
 " Merrimac" ; the occupation of the yard by the 
 rebels ; the raising and rebuilding of the " Merri 
 mac" as an ironclad under the name of "Vir 
 ginia," though to the public always known by 
 her old name ; the destruction by her of the frig 
 ates "Congress" and "Cumberland"; the op 
 portune arrival of the "Monitor" under Lieut. 
 Worden (now rear-admiral), by which the " Mer 
 rimac" was driven back to Norfolk, and after 
 ward held for months blockaded in the Eliza 
 beth ; and the capture of Norfolk by the U. S. 
 forces under the immediate direction of President 
 Lincoln in May, 1862, are all well-known mat 
 ters of history. 
 
 The vessels of Admiral Goldsborough s squad 
 ron participated in the attack on Norfolk by 
 shelling the batteries at Sewell s Point. The 
 ironclads " Monitor" and "Stevens," with some 
 wooden steamers to act as rams, endeavored to 
 draw out the " Merrimac," but without success, 
 she declining to engage. 
 
 The city of Norfolk was surrendered by the 
 civil authorities to Gen. Wool on the 10th of 
 May, 1862. Early on the following morning 
 the " Merrimac" was blown up by her own 
 people to avoid capture by Admiral Goldsbor 
 ough s squadron. The navy-yard was fired and 
 abandoned at the same time. 
 
 Admiral Goldsborough immediately moved his 
 flag-ship to Norfolk, anchoring off the naval hos 
 pital. By his order, sanctioned by the President, 
 the forts along the shores of the Elizabeth, and 
 as far down as Sewell s Point, and also those for 
 eome distance up the Nansemond, which had 
 been erected by the rebels, were dismantled and 
 blown up. Lieut. Selfridge was charged with 
 
 the work of destroying the former, and Lieut. 
 John Watters the latter. 
 
 Admiral Goldsborough took possession of all 
 the naval property in the vicinity, including the 
 yard, the magazine, and the naval hospital. By 
 his order a careful examination of the yard was 
 made by Lieut. Selfridge, who, ujider date of 
 May 19, reported substantially as follows : 
 
 The only buildings uninjured by tire were 5 
 brick dwellings, the boiler-shop, the foundry, and 
 one wooden timber-shed. He found and col 
 lected about the yard a quantity of chain-cables, 
 sheet- and bolt-copper, 15 old ships galleys, 
 smiths tools, and detached pieces of machinery be 
 longing to the smithery, a quantity of cordage, a. 
 diving-bell, a large quantity of oak-timber, some 
 pine planks, and 50 pieces of spar-timber, 150 bar 
 rels of pitch, fourteen 32-pounder guns, two 100- 
 pounder rifles, 140 old guns, worthless, and three 
 32-pounder gun-carriages, a number of water- 
 tanks, great quantities of old iron and of pig- 
 ballast, a number of iron plates punched for 
 bolting, 30 anchors, and a number of kedges. 
 He found some of the machinery in the machine- 
 shop in good condition and some injured. 
 
 On the 20th of May, 1862, Capt. John W. Liv 
 ingston was ordered to the yard as commandant. 
 He at once commenced the work of putting the 
 yard in as good order as its ruined state would 
 permit, and of gathering up the public property, 
 a large quantity of which was found outside 
 in various places. Many articles were restored 
 by the citizens, or pointed out so that they 
 could be taken possession of. A considerable 
 quantity of timber, 3 fire-engines, and a number 
 of guns were among the things so restored. Two 
 diving-bells, anchors, shot, shell in boxes, and 
 many other articles were recovered from the 
 water, having been thrown overboard from the 
 quay and the wharves. 
 
 Repairs were commenced as soon as possible, 
 particularly upon those shops which were most 
 immediately needed. The machine-shop was put 
 in working order in a very short time. An ap 
 propriation was made to restore the dry-dock, 
 which the rebels had temporarily disabled by de 
 stroying the gates. New gates were constructed 
 and the dock put in working order during that 
 year. 
 
 Considerable appropriations for the fiscal years 
 ending July, 1865, 1866, 1867, respectively, were 
 made by Congress for restoring the various work 
 shops, stores, wharves, shears, cranes, and ma 
 chinery in the yard. The objects most needed 
 to make the yard a repairing and refitting sta 
 tion were first attended to, in order that the 
 immediate requirements of the service might 
 be met. 
 
 The arrangement of store-houses was systema 
 tized, in which, by the way, this yard set the 
 example to most of the others in the country ; 
 separate buildings or parts of buildinirs were as 
 signed to the different departments, whose heads 
 were made responsible each for his own stores. 
 By this means the public property was much 
 better cared for and preserved than under the 
 old system, the accountability made much more 
 perfect, and the facility for handling and issuing 
 stores vastly increased. 
 
 The restoration of the yard has been steadily 
 progressing under the current appropriations, 
 which, however, have been very small since 
 
 
NAVY-YAKD 
 
 601 
 
 NAVY- YARD 
 
 1867, and only under the head of " repairs of all 
 kinds." 
 
 The following is a list of the buildings which 
 have been repaired or rebuilt, though in some 
 instances the purposes to which the buildings 
 are devoted have been changed from those origi 
 nally designed ; the new arrangement is here 
 given, viz. : 
 
 No. 9. Smithery, etc. 
 
 No. 11. Construction store-house. 
 
 No. 13. Equipment-store. 
 No. 14. Provisioi 
 
 dons and clothing-store. This 
 building was substituted in 1870 for the victual- 
 ing-house, which had been rebuilt on the new- 
 made ground just south of the entrance to the 
 timber-dock, but which commenced to settle and 
 became in danger of falling ; to prevent which 
 the building was taken down. 
 
 No. 15. Steam-engineering store-house. 
 
 No. 16. Ordnance building. 
 
 No. 17. Yards and docks store-house. 
 
 No. 18. Ship-carpenters shop, just north of 
 the dry-dock. 
 
 No. 19 (one of the entrance-buildings, so 
 called). Contains offices, drafting-rooms, court- 
 martial-room, cordage-store, navigation-store, 
 and marine guard-room. 
 
 No. 57 (the other entrance-building). Rig 
 ging-loft and sail-loft. 
 
 Nos. 20 to 25, both inclusive, as marked 
 on the plan, have never been built upon, and 
 some of the numbers have been re-assigned, 
 viz. : 
 
 No. 21. Saw-mill, in the south part of the 
 yard. 
 
 No. 22. Foundry. 
 
 No. 23. Boiler-shop. 
 
 No. 28. Mast-house and house-joiners shop. 
 
 No. 29. Boat-builders shop, boat-house, block- 
 makers and ship-joiners shops. 
 
 No. 30. Timber-shed and furniture store-room 
 for the construction department. 
 
 No. 31. Timber-shed, paint-shop, and sail 
 store-rooms. 
 
 Nos. 36, 37, and 38. Machine-shop. These con 
 stitute one building, and have recently been so 
 extended as to join them with the foundry. 
 
 No. 37. This number is now given to a small 
 building on part of the foundation of the former 
 ordnance-building, just south of No. 9; it is 
 used as a plumbers shop. 
 
 The officers quarters are now lettered, viz. : 
 A, commandant s ; B, executive-officer s ; C, 
 surgeon s house ; and the two houses on the site 
 marked 39 are lettered D and E. 
 
 No. 39. This number is now used to designate 
 a new building, which has been constructed as a 
 workshop for the department of yards and docks. 
 It is built of the materials of the victualing- 
 house, which was taken down in 1870, and is 
 located south of No. 12. In excavating for the 
 foundations of this building, a number of human 
 remains were found, to account for which several 
 theories were advanced. By consulting a very 
 old plan of the yard, which is without date, but 
 which was made about the year 1816, it is found 
 that a burying-place existed on that spot at that 
 time ; it was near the bank of the stream or creek, 
 a part of which now forms the timber-basin. 
 The remains are, therefore, no doubt, those of 
 TJ. S. sailors and marines. 
 
 In addition to the buildings above mentioned, 
 
 there are in the yard stables, sheds, tar-, pitch-, 
 lime-, and oil-houses, watch-houses, offices, etc., 
 in various parts of the yard. The car-tracks 
 have been restored, wharves repaired, new shears 
 and a large lifting-crane have been erected. The 
 reservoirs for rain-water, with their system of 
 pipes leading to various parts of the yard, are in 
 good condition. 
 
 A contract was entered into by the govern 
 ment with companies of wreckers, by which, on 
 terms advantageous to the government, nearly 
 all of the hulks of the vessels destroyed at the 
 yard, as well as of the "Merrimac," have been 
 raised and broken up, thus clearing the channel. 
 
 Dredging has been carried on from time to 
 time, and is going on now, for deepening the 
 channel off the yard, the design being to gain 
 24 feet of water at least. The earth removed 
 is used for filling in where needed in the yard. 
 
 The following have been the commandants of 
 the yard since its repossession by the United 
 States, viz. : 
 
 Capt. John W. Livingston, from Mav 20, 
 1862, to November 16, f864 ; Capt. John M. 
 Berrien, from November 16, 1864, to October 7, 
 1865; Commodore Robert B. Hitchcock, from 
 October 31, 1865, to August 7, 1866 ; Rear-Ad 
 miral S. C. Rowan, from August 7, 1866, to July 
 23, 1867 ; Commodore A. H. Kilty, from August 
 15, 1867, to October 1, 1870 ; Rear-Admiral C. 
 H. Davis, from October 1, 1870, to July 1, 1H73 ; 
 Commodore Thomas H. Stevens, from July 1, 
 1873, to 1876; Commodore J. B. Creighton, 
 1876-79; Commodore A. K. Hughes, 1879 to 
 present time. Edward P. Luce, Caotain U.S.N. 
 
 Navy-yard, Pensacola, Fla. The navy-yard 
 built on Tartar Point, Pensacola Bay, was lo 
 cated about the year 1825, and operations were 
 begun in October, 1826, by a party of mechanics 
 from Boston, under charge of Lfeut. Cunning 
 ham, of the navy. 
 
 In 1836 its importance had become so far rec 
 ognized that Commodores Charles Stewart, A. 
 J. Dallas, and William C. Bolton were appointed 
 commissioners to make thorough examination 
 and report upon a full and complete plan for the 
 development of the yard as a first-class station. 
 Congress made liberal appropriations from year 
 to year, until at the beginning of the civil war 
 it had become one of the best-equipped stations 
 in the country, having a floating dry-dock and 
 all appliances for the docking, repairing, and 
 building of our ships-of-war. The sloops Sem- 
 inole" and " Pensacola" had been built, and 
 timber had been stored for other vessels, when 
 the war of the Rebellion came on, and the 
 yard was betrayed into the hands of the rebels 
 through the treachery of Commander E. Farrand 
 and Lieut. Frank T. Renshaw, both men of 
 Northern birth, education, and citizenship, but 
 who had married in the South. The insurgents 
 held the yard until the autumn of 1862, when the 
 momentous struggle before Richmond compelled 
 the rebel government to concentrate its forces, 
 and the yard was evacuated, together with other 
 points on the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Before the 
 evacuation, however, the yard was gutted of all 
 stores and material, and the buildings were mostly 
 destroyed, including the beautiful and commodi 
 ous naval hospital, located a mile distant from 
 the yard. To insure the more complete destruc 
 tion of the fine row of officers quarters, loaded 
 
NAVY-YAKD 
 
 602 
 
 NAVY-YAKD 
 
 shells were placed in every fire-place when the 
 buildings were fired. 
 
 Upon the reoccupation Admiral Farragut 
 fitted up a temporary machine-shop, and during 
 the rest of the war the yard was of great service 
 as a depot of repair and supplies for the Gulf 
 Squadron. 
 
 Since the war the yard has been gradually im 
 proved and rebuilt, a sectional floating dry- 
 dock of iron is nearly completed, and at the last 
 session of Congress $150,000 was appropriated to 
 put the yard in a more perfect state of efficiency. 
 
 Situated on the Gulf, the place is generally 
 healthy, but the dreaded visitations of yellow 
 fever render the station unpopular with the 
 service, and few officers care to go there, unless 
 citizens of the South and accustomed to its 
 climate. 
 
 The first commandant was Commodore Lewis 
 "Warrington, for whom the principal village in 
 the naval reserve, comprising some 1600 acres, 
 was named. Some of his successors were Com 
 modores Woolsey (father and son), Chauncey, 
 Dallas, Latimer, Tattnall, Rousseau, Stribbling, 
 Newton, Mclntosh, James Armstrong, Smith, 
 Green, Middleton, and Cooper, Capt. Belknap, 
 and Commanders J. F. Armstrong and J. F. 
 McGlensey. G. E. Belknap, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H. Among 
 the state papers of New Hampshire relating to 
 naval affairs, we find recorded the following : 
 
 6th Congress, > 
 2d Session, j 
 
 No. 21. 
 
 Naval Establishment and its expenses. 
 Naval Department, Jan y 12th, 1801. 
 Ground purchased in Portsmouth for a Navy- Yard. 
 
 HARRISON GREY OTIS, 
 Chairman of Committee on Naval Affairs. 
 October 1st, 1800, 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H. For purchase of Land $5,500 
 
 f Improvements 26,304 
 
 Fifty-Eight Acres. 
 
 $31,804 
 
 As soon as the government took possession of 
 the island work commenced at once in repairing 
 a building for the use of the superintendent of 
 the yard, removing the material from the adjoin 
 ing island, building a shed for timber, and a wet- 
 dock for seasoning the same. 
 
 In 180? a house was erected for a dwelling, 
 barracks for marines, and a bell-tower built. 
 An octagon fort, of earth and heavy timber, with 
 embrasures for eight heavy guns, also platforms 
 for the same, was built upon the hill, and a flag 
 staff erected. 
 
 Nothing more was done on the yard, except to 
 collect timber for building purposes, until 1806, 
 when a first lieutenant of marines, Mr. J. M. 
 Gamble, with 1 sergeant, 2 corporals, 15 privates, 
 and 2 musicians were ordered by the Navy Depart 
 ment to this station as a garrison to protect gov 
 ernment property on the island. A small gun 
 boat, called the " Bee," was ordered for the protec 
 tion of the harbor, and to act as guard-ship. No 
 work other than the clearing of the island and 
 erection of sheds, smith-shop, saw-pits, and the 
 building of a few small boats for the use of the 
 yard, was done until the year 1812, when the 
 government changed its former policy respect 
 ing navy-yards, and placed them under the com 
 mand of a naval officer as commandant. 
 
 On the 4th of October, Capt. Isaac Hull took 
 command of the navy-yard as commandant. 
 
 Sailing-Master Nathaniel Stoodley was ordered 
 to the command of the gunboats at the yard. 
 
 In March, 1814, the keel of the 74-gun ship 
 "Washington" was laid, two sheds having been 
 removed to make room for the ways. Work 
 progressed upon this ship very rapidly ; by the 
 following September she was well advanced, 
 and a house built over her (now ship-house No. 
 5) ; she was not launched until January of the 
 year following. During the year that the 
 " Washington" was building, much anxiety was 
 felt lest the enemy should send a party by night, 
 in boats, and burn her, and precautions were 
 taken to prevent it. The "Washington" was 
 launched in July, 1815, peace with England hav 
 ing been declared the February previous. 
 
 The launching of so large a ship as a 74 was 
 an event of uncommon occurrence in this vicin 
 ity, and thousands of persons were attracted 
 hither by it. On the day of the launch the 
 weather was fine, and the shores lined with an 
 enthusiastic multitude ; as the great mass began 
 to move slowly out of the ship-house the cheers 
 were deafening ; the band played a national air, 
 while the roar of the cannon from the surround 
 ing forts added to the din. 
 
 On the 1st of July, 1815, Capt. Hull was re 
 lieved from command of the yard by Capt. 
 Thomas McDonough. From 18i5 to 1818 there 
 was no work done on vessels at the yard, the 
 entire force being employed in laying out walks 
 and making preparations to erect buildings. 
 Quite a number of negro seamen were employed 
 at the yard in the ordinary force, but orders from 
 the Department caused their discharge, and none 
 were allowed to be employed excepting as serv 
 ants to officers. 
 
 In February, 1817, orders were received to 
 lengthen the "ship-house (now No. 5) 12 feet, 
 and to build a ship-of-the-line to measure 9 feet 
 more in length than the " Washington" ; accord 
 ingly, on the 15th of April the keel of the 
 " Alabama," 74, was laid in the lengthened ship- 
 house. 
 
 In July, 1818, Commodore McDonough was 
 relieved as commandant by Capt. Charles Morris. 
 The first portion of wall at this yard was laid 
 west of the ship-house, in March, 1819, and the 
 earth filled in the wall was extended some 500 or 
 600 feet to the west. The force on the yard was 
 largely increased, as a new ship-house was build 
 ing to the west of the old one, and the construc 
 tion of the "Alabama" was being pushed for 
 ward. In 1820 the ship-house (No. 4) was fin 
 ished and the "slip" begun. Capt. E. Watson, 
 U. S. marine corps, received permission to erect 
 barracks for the marine-guard of the yard, using 
 an old house, which is now on the island, in addi 
 tion to the small one now occupied by them. 
 The work was almost entirely done by the guard, 
 and the expense of the new barracks was trifling ; 
 it stood where the gun- and shot-park now 
 stands. 
 
 The schooner "Porpoise" was begun in Sep 
 tember, 1820, and launched on the 26th day of 
 November following. Her cost when ready for 
 sea was $25,529; her tonnage, 178; battery, ten 
 6-pounders and one long 18-pounder. In 1821 
 $12,000 were appropriated for improvements on 
 the yard. The store-house and offices was com 
 menced this year. This building was the first 
 brick one erected in the yard. The keel of the 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 603 
 
 NAVY- YARD 
 
 "Santee," a 44-gun frigate, was laid in the new 
 ship-house, and the present timber-dock with its 
 sea-wall was finished this year. 
 
 In May, 1821, application was made to the 
 State of Maine " for the cession of the jurisdic 
 tion of the island on which the navy-yard at 
 Portsmouth is situated," and in the month fol 
 lowing it was granted ; the State reserving the 
 right to serve processes on the yard and to arrest 
 criminals. 
 
 Wooden buildings for officers quarters were 
 erected upon the site now occupied by those ele 
 gant structures of brick. In May, 1823, Capt. 
 "VVm. M. Crane relieved Capt. Morris as com 
 mandant. 
 
 The store-house had advanced so far towards 
 completion that the officers were removed into it 
 on the 1st of January, 1824, together with the 
 naval stores. The cost of this building was 
 $4000. In 1827 the addition was made to this 
 building (which may be noticed by the roof being 
 higher), and it is now the stores of steam en 
 gineering, equipment, navigation, and sail-loft, 
 the cost of which was $15,000. The old wooden 
 building which had been used for offices was re 
 moved to the rear of the marine barracks, and 
 used as a cook-house for the marines and men of 
 the ordinary. The stone wall from the ship- 
 house (No. 5) to the blacksmith-shop was finished 
 in 1824 ; it was 687 feet long, 10 feet high, and 
 2} feet wide. 
 
 Nothing more was done to improve the yard, 
 excepting to finish the mast- and spar-house (now 
 No. 7) until 182G. 
 
 Capt. Crane was relieved by Capt. Charles G. 
 Ridgeley, in March, 1825. 
 
 In the year 1825 the bridge leading to Kit- 
 tery was built, and the commandant made propo 
 sitions to the owners of the land adjoining the 
 bridge to cut a road leading to the main highway 
 of Kittery. The owners of the land objected to 
 such a road, although the government offered to 
 purchase their land for this purpose. Finding 
 that nothing could be effected by negotiation, 
 application was made to the selectmen of Kittery, 
 with the assurance that the damages would be 
 paid by the government. The road was then laid 
 out by them according to the laws of the State, 
 and became a townway. The damages were 
 paid by the United States, and communication 
 by road opened with Portsmouth in the summer 
 of this year. 
 
 In 1826 activity was resumed, and much work 
 in the way of improvement done. Orders were 
 received to select a proper site for the building 
 of suitable barracks on the island. All wooden 
 buildings and sheds were demolished and re 
 moved, especially those in the vicinity of the 
 ship-houses. The upper story of the mast-house 
 was finished for a rigging-loft, and the black 
 smith-shop enlarged by two additions being 
 built to it. Work was being forwarded also 
 on the 74-gun ship and the frigate in the ship- 
 houses. 
 
 In November, 1826, Capt. J. 0. Creighton re 
 lieved Capt. Ridgeley as commandant. In the 
 spring of 1827 the foundation of four brick 
 buildings for officers quarters was commenced, 
 and in the autumn following they were finished. 
 In the summer of the same year a brick block 
 was built for the accommodation of the warrant- 
 officers, petty officers, and seamen. Three tim 
 
 ber-sheds were also built, 200 feet long, 65 feet 
 wide, and 15 feet to the eaves ; the roofs were 
 slated and supported by stone pillars 10 feet 
 apart ; they are Nos. 45, 46, and 48. The cost 
 of these sheds was $9250 each. In March, 1827, 
 the keel of the sloop-of-war " Concord" was laid 
 at the little slip where the " Porpoise" was built. 
 The leveling for the purpose of building the bar 
 racks was completed and the foundation laid ; the 
 spot selected for the barracks was the extreme 
 northeast point of the island. In August, 1828, 
 Capt. J. D. Henley relieved Capt. Creighton in 
 command. 
 
 On the 24th of September, 1828, the sloop- 
 of-war " Concord" was launched. On the 21st 
 of November, 1828, the yard was visited by one 
 of the most severe gales of wind ever known in 
 the vicinity, and great damage was done to the 
 roofs of the buildings and the timber-dock. 
 During the years 1829-31 nothing of impor 
 tance was done in improving the yard, except 
 the building of a timber-shed at a cost of $9500, 
 no appropriations having been made for improve 
 ments and repairs. In September, 1832, Capt. 
 Henley was detached from the yard, and the 9th 
 of October, Capt. W. M. Crane was again ap 
 pointed commandant. 
 
 The winter of 1832-33 was one of unusual se 
 verity, and all work out-of-doors was in a great 
 measure suspended until the month of April, 
 when, in compliance with orders received from 
 the Department, a brick dwelling was com 
 menced, adjoining the quarters recently built. 
 It was the original intention of the Department 
 to build two dwellings in uniformity with those 
 already built, but it was afterwards decided to 
 build a large dwelling for one family. The 
 building (now Quarters B) was finished in De 
 cember of 1833, and cost $15,000. 
 
 In the year 1834 orders were received from 
 the Department to build a third ship-house in 
 the yard, and after some delay in selecting a 
 site, the present one was chosen, and work was 
 begun at once on the foundation and slip. 
 
 During this year many improvements were 
 made in the yard, extensive repairs being made 
 to the bridge leading to Kittery, which had 
 fallen into decay during the past nine years; the 
 timber-dock was enlarged to accommodate the 
 amount of timber which was required yearly 
 for building and repairing vessels. The quar 
 ters were completed and occupied by the officers, 
 and the old building, which had been occupied 
 by the lieutenant of the yard, was fitted up as a 
 temporary hospital for the station. 
 
 In 1815 the ship-house had advanced so rap 
 idly towards completion that preparations were 
 made to build a ship in it. In 1838 this mag 
 nificent structure was entirely finished, the total 
 cost being $71,000. The " Lexington" and 
 "Congress" were both fitted for sea, and sailed 
 from the yard in 1837. 
 
 The barracks of the ordinary were raised one 
 story and made into dwellings for the warrant- 
 officers, at a cost of $4000. 
 
 On the 14th of April, 1838, Mr. John Floyd, 
 naval constructor of the yard, died, and he was 
 succeeded by Mr. Samuel M. Pook, who re 
 ported in November of the same year. The 
 new ship-house was now finished, and a small 
 sloop was being built therein. On the 14th of 
 June, 1839, the sloop-of-war " Preble" was 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 604 
 
 NAVY- YARD 
 
 launched, having been completed in thirteen 
 months from the laying of the keel, and when 
 ready for sea her cost was $112,782. On the 2d 
 of June, 1840, the sloop "Preble," Commander 
 Breese, sailed from this station, bound for the 
 coast of Labrador, and after making six cruises 
 upon different stations, she was converted into a 
 practice-ship for midshipmen, and afterwards 
 sold. 
 
 For some time past a wharf was being built 
 from the old ship-house to the eastward. The 
 manner of building was by cob- work of timber 
 filled in with stone as a foundation. On the 1st 
 of August the entire fabric gave away, and was 
 precipitated into the deep water. 
 
 About 100 feet of sea-wall was destroyed by 
 this accident, and the Department at once de 
 cided that the services of a civil engineer were 
 required at the yard to obviate any future acci 
 dent of this nature ; consequently, Mr. Calvin 
 Brown was employed as engineer and draughts 
 man at a pay of $3 a day, and from this date the 
 services of a civil engineer have never been dis 
 pensed with at this yard. 
 
 As soon as the " Preble" sloop-of-war had 
 been launched from the new ship-house prepara 
 tions were made to immediately build a frigate 
 of the largest class, and in August, 1839, the 
 keel of the "Congress" was laid, and on the 
 16th of August, 1841, she was launched. 
 
 The old "Congress" was launched from the 
 adjoining island at noon, August 15, 1799. She 
 was 190 feet long on the spar-deck, 50 feet 
 beam, and 1700 tons burden. The cost of the 
 old " Congress" was $197,246, and that of the 
 new $399,088, over twice the cost of the former. 
 Capt. Crane was relieved from the command 
 of the yard in October, 1840, by Capt. John D. 
 Sloat. 
 
 The former practice of masting vessels by 
 erecting sheers on board being tedious and ex 
 pensive, Capt. Sloat received permission to build 
 a pair of permanent sheers, whichhe did, using the 
 lower masts of the " Alabama," 74, for that pur 
 pose ; when erected they cost $2240. The masts 
 of the "Congress" frigate were the first put in 
 with the new sheers. 
 
 A diving-bell was purchased for the use of the 
 yard, and work immediately began by removing 
 the debris of the fallen sea-wall, under the super 
 intendence of the civil engineer of the yard. 
 
 Orders were received to build a first-class 
 sloop at the yard, and as soon as the frigate 
 " Congress" had been launched work began 
 upon the "Saratoga," and continued without 
 interruption until July, 1842, when she was 
 completed, and upon the 26th of that month was 
 launched. 
 
 The appropriation for the improvement of the 
 yard for the year 1843 was $41,000, which al 
 lowed some work to be done on the walls and 
 buildings. The sloop-of-war " Portsmouth" 
 was built and launched this year ; she was an 
 exact counterpart of the "Saratoga," and built 
 in the ship-house recently vacated by that 
 vessel. 
 
 On the 2d of November, Capt. Sloat was re 
 lieved by Capt. George W. Storer as comman 
 dant of the yard. 
 
 The boat-house and landing-stage was built in 
 1844, at a cost of $1221.50, and work commenced 
 in blasting away the ledge in the middle of the 
 
 island; with this exception no other improve 
 ments were made on the yard until 1846. 
 
 November, 1846, Commodore Daniel Turner 
 relieved Capt. Storer in command. 
 
 The attention of the Department had been at 
 tracted to the subject of a dry-dock at this yard, 
 and a board of civil engineers, under Mr. Sanger, 
 was ordered to examine the island for the pur 
 pose of locating the site. The subject was dis 
 cussed in all its points, and the board finally de 
 cided that a floating dock would be much cheaper 
 and better suited to the requirements of this yard 
 than a stone dock, and reported its views to 
 the bureau. A controversy then arose between 
 the two inventors of floating docks. Messrs. 
 Gilbert & Secor, the inventors of the floating 
 balance-dock, claimed for their invention a 
 superiority over that of the sectional-dock of 
 Messrs. Moody & Dakin ; the bureau was much 
 embarrassed by these conflicting claims, and 
 finally settled the controversy by building two 
 of each at the different yards. Cisterns were 
 built in different parts of the yard at a cost of 
 $31,528. 
 
 In May of 1847 the keel of the steamer " Sar- 
 anac" was laid in the new ship-house. Mr. Par- 
 ris reported as civil engineer of the yard, retain 
 ing Mr. Brown as his assistant. In 1848 the work 
 of leveling was carried on with vigor. The smith- 
 ery was enlarged and rebuilt, and the sea-wall 
 finished to the knee-dock. In November, 1848, 
 the side-wheel steam-frigate " Saranac," the first 
 steamer built at this yard, was launched. The 
 powder-magazine, which had been commenced 
 the year previous, was finished in 1849. Capt. 
 Thomas W. Wyman relieved Commodore Turner 
 as commandant on the 2d of November, 1849. 
 
 In 1851 a contract was entered into with 
 Messrs. John S. Gilbert and Zeno Secor, of New 
 York, to construct, with all the necessary ma 
 chinery and appendages, a floating balance- 
 dock and railway to the satisfaction of the su 
 perintending engineer. The test was made in 
 June, 1852, and the works accepted. 
 
 Mr. Parris, the civil engineer, having died, 
 B. F. Chandler, Esq., was appointed to fill the 
 vacancy, and entered at once upon his duties. 
 The site having been selected, a coffer-dam was 
 constructed, within which the excavations were 
 to be made for the foundations, floors, and walls 
 of the dock-basin. The whole was to rest on a 
 foundation of piles, 3000 of which were driven 
 through the earth to solid rock. They were placed 
 3 feet from centre to centre and the interstices 
 filled with clay ; they were then cut off 12 feet 
 below high-water mark, capped with timber, and 
 the entire surface covered with 5-inch plunk. 
 Five courses of hammered granite in the direction 
 of the length of the dock were laid of 1 foot rise, 
 and a bed of concrete 6 inches thick between the 
 stone bearings. The basin completed is 300 feet 
 in length and 125 feet in width, with granite walls 
 14 feet high of large stone, hammered beds, builds, 
 joints, and face, and laid in cement; at the outer 
 end of the walls of the basin, and across the bot 
 tom in the stone-work, is a groove cut 2 inches 
 wide and 6 inches deep to receive the keel and 
 stems of a boat-gate, which, when in place, in 
 closes the dock within the stone basin. The 
 dock was constructed on the island opposite the 
 navy-yard, called Pierce s Island, and when 
 completed was floated across the river. The 
 
NAVY-YARD 
 
 605 
 
 NAVY-YARD 
 
 length of the floating dock is 350 feet ; breadth 
 outside, 135 feet 4 inches, and walls 38 feet high. 
 The walls or chambers on each side are 7 feet 8 
 inches wide, the entire length of the dock. On 
 these walls and amidship of the dock is the ma 
 chinery for working it while docking or undock- 
 ing vessels. November 1, 1852, Capt. Wyman 
 was relieved by Capt. Joseph Smoot. During 
 this winter but little was done on the yard in 
 the way of improvements. The new ship-house 
 was lengthened 50 feet and the keel of the frigate 
 " Franklin" laid therein, the old ship being un 
 der process of demolition. In the month of Feb 
 ruary, 1855, the frigate " Santee" was launched, 
 having been in process of construction since 1820. 
 The keel of a light-ship was laid in the ship- 
 house soon after the launching of the " Santee," 
 and in the summer of the same year she was 
 launched. 
 
 Commodore John T. Newton relieved Capt. 
 Smoot as commandant of the yard in October, 
 1855, and the remainder of this year was devoted 
 to finishing up the work already begun, and in 
 hurrying to completion the frigate " Franklin," 
 now well under way. 
 
 In April, 1856, permission having been ob 
 tained from the Navy Department by the in 
 habitants of Seavey s Island, a bridge was built 
 from the navy-yard across the narrow stream 
 which separated it from that island ; this bridge 
 was of course to be subject to the discipline of 
 the yard, but as may be readily seen, was the oc 
 casion of much annoyance to the yard authori 
 ties, as well as discomfort to the inhabitants of 
 the island. In order to avoid theft from the 
 government, persons carting private material 
 through the yard were compelled to submit their 
 loads to the inspection of the watchman ; and at 
 night, even packages carried by persons were 
 subjected to examinations ; the continued vexa 
 tions attending this privilege of passing through 
 the yard ultimately led to the purchase of the 
 adjoining island by the government. 
 
 In July of 1857, Commodore J. T. Newton, 
 while on a leave of absence, was smitten with 
 paralysis, and after a few hours of great suffering 
 expired. 
 
 Commander Charles ~W. Pickering, being 
 senior officer present, assumed the command of 
 the station until relieved by Capt. John Pope, 
 on the llth of August. During this year the 
 fine building for offices and muster-room was 
 finished and occupied, the entire cost of which 
 was $28,633. The appropriation made in 1857 
 for this yard was $104,422, which admitted 
 of many improvements being made that were 
 much needed. The head-house was raised one 
 story and a half, and fitted with machinery ; the 
 magazine buildings finished, a lodge built for 
 the^ordinary men of the yard at a cost of $4845, 
 and iron fences substituted for the wooden ones 
 around the quarters. The dry-dock was in use 
 the greater part of the year, the " Vandalia," 
 " Constitution," and sloop " Falmouth" having 
 received repairs upon it; and during the year 
 following the sloops " Portsmouth" and "James 
 town," having arrived from a cruise, were both 
 docked and extensively repaired. 
 
 On the 1st of October, 1860, Capt. John Pope 
 was relieved as commandant by Capt. G. F. 
 Pierson. 
 
 The very threatening aspects which the politi 
 
 cal affairs of the country had assumed, caused 
 the commandant to request permission to fortify 
 the defenses of the harbor early in 1861. 
 
 On the 27th of April the commandant of the 
 station received orders to put the yard on a war 
 footing; fortify the earth- work on Seavey s Isl 
 and With 8-inch guns ; open a rendezvous in 
 Portsmouth for recruiting men both for the 
 navy and marine corps. He was also empow 
 ered to examine and appoint officers, subject 
 to the approval of the Department. The " San- 
 tee" and "Sabine," frigates, "Marion" and 
 "Dale," sloops-of-war, were fitted out and 
 sailed on a cruise. War was now considered as 
 declared with the Southern States that had se 
 ceded. All officers in command of ships of war 
 were instructed to capture, sink, burn, or destroy 
 vessels on the high seas hostile to the U. S. gov 
 ernment, or having on board articles contraband 
 of war. The keels of two steam sloops-of-war 
 were laid, the " Kearsarge" and " Ossipee." 
 The latter was launched in November, and the 
 former in December. The steam-sloops " Se- 
 bago," " Mahaska," " Sacramento," " Sonoma," 
 and " Connemaugh" were commenced in 1861. 
 The two former were finished during the autumn, 
 but the last two not until the spring of 1862. 
 The yard was now worked to its full capacity, 
 over 2000 men being employed. Additions were 
 made to the ordnance-building, and the inspec 
 tion building of provisions and clothing was also 
 built, at a cost of $12,586. 
 
 During the years 1862-63 the following ships 
 and gunboats were built, launched, and fitted 
 for sea at this yard: " Sebago," "Sonoma," 
 "Sacramento," "Connemaugh," "Mahaska," 
 "Ossipee," and "Sassacus." The "Constel 
 lation," " Colorado," and " Minnesota" were 
 also repaired and fitted for sea, and work during 
 these two years had progressed upon the steam- 
 frigate "Franklin" so as to insure her comple 
 tion in a short time should she be needed. Sev 
 eral temporary sheds were erected about the yard 
 to accommodate the different departments, which 
 were now being crowded to their utmost extent 
 with work. 
 
 During the year 1863 the gunboats " Patuxet," 
 "Nipsic,"and "Shawmut" were built, launched, 
 and fitted for sea; and the frigate "St. Law 
 rence," bark " Fernandina," and steam-sloops 
 " Alabama," " Dacotah," and " Agawam" were 
 repaired and fitted for sea in addition to those 
 already mentioned. On the 18th of November 
 the keel of the ironclad " Passaconaway" was 
 laid in ship-house No. 4. On the 4th of Feb" 
 ruary the porter s lodge took fire and was en 
 tirely consumed in a short time, a heavy wind 
 blowing from the northwest, and the mercur} r 
 being 13 degrees below zero rendered all assist 
 ance impossible. 
 
 The year 1864 opened gloomily for the coun 
 try ; the war dragged along, and the yard still 
 continued to teem with workmen and the wharves 
 to be crowded with vessels. The sloop-of-war 
 " Vandalia" had been ordered to this station for 
 a guard as well as a receiving-ship. On the 23d 
 day of January the ship-of-the-line "New Hamp 
 shire was launched (she was the "Alabama," 
 74, whose keel was laid on the 15th of April, 
 1817), having been upon the stocks 47 years. 
 She was fitted as a store-ship and sent to Port 
 Royal, S. C. 
 
NAVY-YAKD 
 
 606 
 
 NAVY-YAKD 
 
 During this year the " Colorado" was repaired, 
 docked, and fitted for sea; 2 tugs built and 
 launched, the " Port Fire" and " Blue Light" ; 
 the ironclad " Agamenticus" launched and fitted 
 for sea ; " losco" taken into dock and repaired ; 
 "San Jacinto" repaired and fitted; the steam 
 sloops-of-war " Piscataqua," " Minnetonka," 
 and "Illinois" built; the frigate "Franklin" 
 finished and launched, and the sloop " Contoo- 
 cook" launched, also several of the small pur 
 chased vessels were docked and refitted. The 
 boat- and carpenter-shop was built this year by 
 contract, Messrs. Clement & Cressey doing the 
 work. Numbers of vessels were now arriving at 
 the yard from Southern ports, and many cases 
 of yellow fever were discovered, which caused 
 much alarm in this vicinity. 
 
 In July the " De Soto" arrived, and after re 
 maining a short time in the lower harbor steamed 
 up to the yard and was put out of commission. 
 Immediately the fever broke out among the work 
 men on this ship, and in many cases proved 
 fatal. The sail-loft was closed, the yard put in 
 quarantine, and the ship removed to the lower 
 harbor. 
 
 In October, Commodore T. Bailey relieved 
 Commodore Peirson as commandant of the sta 
 tion. 
 
 In 1866 the adjoining island was purchased by 
 the government for $105,000. This island con 
 tains about 105 acres, with an extensive water 
 front ; the stream separating the two can be filled 
 in, and the area thus added will be sufficient for 
 the requirements of the navy-yard for years to 
 come. The wings of the office-building were 
 raised and extended, a crane built, and a new 
 steam fire-engine added to the fire department 
 of the yard this year. October, 1867, Commo 
 dore Joseph Lanman relieved Commodore Bailey 
 as commandant. Coal-sheds were erected on 
 Seavey s Island and residences furnished upon 
 that island for the naval constructor and civil 
 engineer attached to the yard ; an iron building 
 erected for a boiler-shop for steam-engineering 
 department at a cost of $15,000. The U. S. S. 
 " Benicia" was finished and launched,, and the 
 steam-sloop Monongahela" was taken upon the 
 railway to be rebuilt, having been thrown ashore 
 by the tidal-wave following the great earthquake 
 at the island of St. Croix, West Indies, the year 
 previous. During the year following, 1869, Com 
 modore J. A,. Winslow relieved Commodore Lan 
 man. 
 
 The fire-engine house was also built this year 
 at a cost of $8940, and the wings which were 
 added by Commodore Howell several years after 
 at an expense of $800, made the entire structure 
 cost $9400. In July, 1870, Commodore A. M. 
 Pennock relieved Admiral Winslow in command 
 of the yard. But little improvement was made 
 to the yard owing to the meagre appropriations 
 for that purpose during 1870, 1871, and 1872. 
 The " Narragansett" was fitted out, work was 
 progressing on the " Monongahela," and the 
 sloop "Illinois" was taken to pieces. On the 
 10th of October, 1872, Commodore John C. 
 Howell relieved Admiral Pennock. 
 
 The appropriation for this yard having been 
 increased, work was at once begun in the various 
 departments of the yard. A chain-shed was 
 built ; the floating dock extensively repaired ; a 
 truss-bridge built to connect the yard with Sea 
 
 vey s Island ; gas-pipes laid, gas-works built, 
 and gas introduced for lighting the yard and 
 quarters; wharf and bridge built on Seavey s 
 Island; tool-house built and portico, etc., added 
 to the commandant s quarters. In addition to 
 these repairs and improvements, the beautiful 
 waiting-house at the Portsmouth landing was 
 built to take the place of the miserable shed 
 which had been in use many years. 
 
 The " Monongahela" was rebuilt and refitted 
 and the " Marion" steam-sloop launched. Two 
 steam sloops-of-war were begun in 1873, and both 
 launched the year following; the " Enterprise" 
 being the first of these two sloops launched. She 
 was built by contract by Mr. J. Griffiths, the 
 government furnishing everything excepting 
 labor. The sloop " Essex," the other of the two 
 sloops constructed at the yard, was built entirely 
 by the government. Much difficulty was expe 
 rienced during the summer of 1874 in supplying 
 the yard with fresh water, owing to the dryness 
 of the season ; in fact, it was the occasion of 
 much anxiety, as the various workshops in the 
 yard are dependent upon fresh water to fill their 
 boilers. The fact was laid before the Depart 
 ment, and several propositions were made. One 
 was to cover an artesian well on the island, the 
 estimated cost of which did not fall short of 
 $60,000, owing to the peculiar formation of the 
 strata. By an accidental discovery of several 
 springs upon Seavey s Island, it occurred to the 
 commandant that a dam might be so constructed 
 as to save the water that escaped and form a 
 
 ?ond in the valley, which was already swampy, 
 t was done at small cost, and in a short time a 
 large pond was formed, which is now a never- 
 failing source of supply, being conducted by pipes 
 to a cistern in the yard. The entire cost of this 
 work, including a steam-engine for pumping the 
 water into the reservoir for distribution, was less 
 than $500. This pond has never failed to supply 
 the yard with water, and in the winter also with 
 a large supply of heavy ice, which is stored for 
 the use of the yard and the sick at quarantine: 
 several hundred tons of this refreshing commo 
 dity is thus saved every year. 
 
 Kittery bridge, which for some time had been 
 considered as unsafe, was extensively repaired 
 and put in complete condition. 
 
 In October, 1874, Commodore Howell was or 
 dered to Washington as chief of the Bureau of 
 Yards and Docks, and he was relieved by Com 
 modore Andrew Bryson, who was succeeded in 
 1876 by Commodore Jno. Guest. Commodore 
 Guest died on January 12, 1879, while in com 
 mand of the yard, and the present commandant, 
 Commodore J. C. Beaumont, was ordered to the 
 command. 
 
 Navy-yard, "Washington, D. C. This yard 
 was established in 1800, the ground on which it 
 stands having been purchased for $4000. It is 
 bounded by East Sixth and East Ninth Streets, 
 M Street south, and the East Branch of the Poto 
 mac Eiver. This area covers about 20 acres, and 
 is inclosed by a substantial brick wall, having the 
 principal entrance at the foot of Eighth Street, 
 through a handsome arched gateway. The ex 
 tensive workshops comprise foundries, forges, 
 rolling-mill, and rnachine-shops. The grounds are 
 beautifully laid out, and the officers of the yard 
 have commodious residences within the walls. 
 This yard is the principal ordnance depot of 
 
NEAP TIDES 
 
 607 
 
 NEBULAE HYPOTHESIS 
 
 the navy, and it contains a laboratory, where 
 cartridges, signal-lights, etc., are manufactured. 
 For years the navy has been supplied with 
 anchors and cables from this yard, and since the 
 new rolling-mill has been started it turns out 
 all the chain and most of the round iron used 
 by the navy. The first chain-cable manufactured 
 by the navy was made at this yard in 1829, and 
 from that date up to August, 1868, there had 
 been manufactured 828 cables, besides hun 
 dreds of anchors and small chains. Very little 
 ship-building or repairing has been done here, 
 the frigate "Minnesota" being the largest and 
 most important vessel built ; she was launched 
 in 1856. During the years of the Kebellion the 
 Washington Navy- Yard was a scene of cease 
 less activity ; it was the headquarters of the 
 Potomac Flotilla, and vessels from other sta 
 tions were frequently sent to this station for 
 repairs and supplies; the yard at that time 
 proved of almost inestimable value to the gov 
 ernment. It has been commanded by a long 
 line of distinguished officers, among whom may 
 be mentioned Commodores Aulick, Buchanan, 
 Stevens, Radford, Poor, Patterson, and Febiger, 
 and the late Rear-Admiral Dahlgren was for 
 many years stationed at this yard as ordnance- 
 officer, and at the outbreak of the Rebellion in 
 1861, Capt. Dahlgren and Lieut. Russell were 
 the only officers then stationed here who re 
 mained loyal, all others from the commandant 
 down resigning and joining the Confederacy. 
 Capt. Dahlgren commanded the navy-yard from 
 1861 to 1863, and again from 1866 to 1868. 
 
 Neap Tides (Sax. neafte, scarcity). The 
 smallest tides ; they take place after the first and 
 third quarters of the moon, when the sun and 
 moon do not act in the same line. See TIDE. 
 
 NEAPED, or BE-NEAPED. The situation of a 
 ship left aground on the spring-tides so she can 
 not be floated off until the occurrence of the next 
 spring-tides. 
 
 Near. Near and no nenr are terms sometimes 
 used for no higher. See HELM. 
 
 Nebular Hypothesis. Although Laplace is 
 generally considered the originator of this hy 
 pothesis, it is not strictly true. Kant, a few years 
 before, had in point of fact announced this 
 theory, but Laplace was the first to bring it to 
 general notice. He supposed the atmosphere of 
 the sun to have filled the whole space now occu 
 pied by the solar system, and to have existed as 
 a vast revolving nebulous mass, which, gradually 
 cooling and contracting, threw off, in accordance 
 with mechanical and physical laws, successive 
 rings of matter, from which, in obedience to the 
 same laws, were produced the planets and satel 
 lites. He was led to this theory from the uni 
 formity of direction in the movements of the 
 planets. 
 
 This hypothesis has given rise to much dis 
 cussion. Many advocates of it have contended 
 that it fully satisfies the present condition of 
 affairs. Prof. Ennis undertook to prove that 
 gravity and contraction acting on a nebulous 
 mass would cause a rotation about an axis, and 
 thus start the mass in motion, so that it would 
 necessarily throw off the planetary rings. Others 
 have shown the weak points in the hypothesis so 
 conclusively, that a modification of it is now 
 generally conceded necessary in order to cause it 
 to be generally accepted. 
 
 The writer has advanced the idea that repulsion 
 was a force overlooked in this theory of cosmog 
 ony. If gravity attracts masses to the sun, there 
 must be another force, and by analogy we would 
 expect it to be differently developed, which ex 
 pends energy in repelling bodies from the sun. 
 Gravity acts directly between the bodies attracted 
 and the sun. Repulsion acts from the sun in 
 every direction, being diffused as the light of a 
 lamp; it is given off by all bodies, now cooling 
 and contracting in every direction, its intensity 
 being, like gravity, inversely as the square of the 
 distance. A body is attracted to the sun accord 
 ing to its weight ; it is repelled according to its 
 size. There is nothing in this idea that conflicts 
 with Newton s law of universal gravitation, for 
 the difference between these two forces would 
 satisfy his law. Repulsion and centrifugal force 
 acting together exactly balance the force of at 
 traction. Such a force as this would give per 
 manence to the places and orbits of the planets ; 
 for, were they disturbed by a comet or other 
 body, they would naturally return to that dis 
 tance from the sun where the forces exactly 
 counterbalance. 
 
 The force of gravity, exactly balanced by cen 
 trifugal force, is an unstable equilibrium ; but 
 the supposition of a third force makes a stable 
 equilibrium. 
 
 If we suppose all other suns to have a repulsive 
 force, all nebulous matter would be driven to the 
 confines of the systems ; there it would reach a 
 place of comparative rest, its attraction towards 
 the systems counterbalancing the repulsive force 
 of all the repelling bodies. This mass would 
 now commence to contract, the power of gravity 
 as it contracts would cause it to move towards 
 the systems ; as it approached the heavenly sys 
 tems the force of repulsion would increase rap 
 idly, and consequently the mass would begin to 
 change its course, avoiding the centre of attrac 
 tion and repulsion ; owing to the resistance met 
 the centre of gravity would be in advance of the 
 centre of figure, and a motion of rotation must 
 necessarily ensue. We now have the nebular 
 mass in the condition required by the hypothesis 
 of Laplace. 
 
 This force of repulsion would also regulate the 
 throwing off of the planetary rings. When the 
 planets formed and moved in their orbits about 
 the sun, the centre of weight would be in ad 
 vance of the centre of figure, repulsion would 
 then cause a rotation on an axis approximately 
 perpendicular to the plane of their orbits and 
 from west to east. 
 
 But repulsion has also an important part to 
 act in the gradual dissipation of the system back 
 to nebulous matter ; it is illogical to advocate any 
 explanation of the growth of any system or sys 
 tems without indicating the way for its decay 
 and return to its original condition. Everything 
 we see in nature follows the general law of re 
 production, and it is an acknowledged fact that 
 the same laws prevail in the greatest as in the 
 least of the processes of nature. 
 
 I take it for granted that there is a medium in 
 space for the transmission of heat and light, and 
 that it necessarily offers some resistance, no mat 
 ter how slight, to the heavenly bodies. This re 
 sistance causes the greater part of the atmosphere 
 of a planet to follow it, and thus causes the centre 
 of attraction to be ahead of the centre of figure, 
 
NECESSITY 
 
 608 
 
 NELSON 
 
 the two forces acting at these points in different 
 directions causes diurnal motion. The resistance 
 of the ether of space would cause the planets to 
 gradually stop in their orbits were it not for the 
 slight increase of orbital motion caused by 
 diurnal motion. This increase exactly counter 
 balances the retardation of orbital motion caused 
 by the ether of space. 
 
 Now, it is apparent that if such is the case, 
 upon a planet becoming solidified in its old age 
 its atmosphere would disappear, and consequently 
 diurnal rotation would cease, and orbital motion 
 itself would gradually come to an end. As there 
 is no loss of motion possible, both these motions 
 would be converted into molecular motion, and 
 disruption would occur just as sure as it would 
 occur if the earth were suddenly stopped in its 
 orbital and diurnal motions. The various pieces 
 would follow erratic orbits, and sooner or later 
 fall to the sun only to be repulsed again, and 
 thus, by slow attrition, reach the nebulous con 
 dition. 
 
 Comets, meteors, and systems of meteors have 
 a tendency to fall to the sun, and are repelled 
 again, each time suffering some dissipation from 
 his heat. They are thus gradually converted 
 into nebulous gas, and driven to the confines of 
 the systems, where they go towards forming a 
 new system. 
 
 The sun would, according to the same laws, 
 finally suffer disruption. He would continue to 
 be attracted and repelled by the united efforts of 
 all other suns, and would, in time, suffer the fate 
 of his own planets. The same matter would not 
 again, as a whole, form a new system any more 
 than an old tree furnishes all the matter for its 
 successor. 
 
 The nebular hypothesis has been generally ad 
 vocated by evolutionists, who have used it as an 
 argument in opposition to the belief of a miracu 
 lous creation by the Almighty. 
 
 But it is evident that if worlds and systems of 
 worlds come into existence according to law, to 
 run the natural course of growth and decay, it 
 requires a law-giver, just as^a miraculous creation 
 requires a creator. R. M. G. Brown, Lieutenant 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Necessity. If a ship be compelled by neces 
 sity to change the order of the places to which 
 she is insured, it is not deemed deviation, and 
 the underwriters are still liable. 
 
 Necklace. Formerly, a chain around the 
 lower mast to which the futtock-shrouds were se 
 cured. Also, a strap around a mast, carrying 
 leading-blocks. 
 
 Neckur. A Scandinavian sea-sprite, whence 
 some derive our " Old Nick" in preference to St. 
 Nicholas, the modern patron of sailors. 
 
 Needle. The magnetized bar of steel in the 
 mariner s compass ; the form used by the Chinese 
 was like a needle, being a light thin wire. It is 
 now a regular parallelopiped with the narrow 
 dimension placed vertically. See COMPASS, THE 
 MARINER S. 
 
 Needle-fish. The shorter pipe-fish, stang, or 
 sting, Sjignathus acus. 
 
 Needle-gun (Germ. Ziindnadelgeivehr). A 
 breech-loading fire-arm having a needle or pin 
 traversing the breech-block, which, upon being 
 struck by tho hammer, is driven into the fulmi 
 nate, igniting it and exploding the cartridge. 
 The needle-gun was invented by Nicholaus 
 
 Dreyse, and, until superseded by the Mauser 
 gun, it was the regulation weapon of the Ger 
 man infantry. Its efficiency has been demon 
 strated in all the German wars since 1848. It 
 is clumsy and complicated, but excellent for pre 
 cision and rapidity of discharge. 
 
 Negligence. If an agent or broker engages to 
 do an act for another, and he either wholly neg 
 lects it, or does it unskillfully, an action on the 
 case will lie against him. 
 
 Nelly. Diomedea spadicea, a sea-bird of the 
 family Procellaridce, which follows in the wake 
 of a ship when rounding the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, Lord, was born on the 29th 
 of September, 1758, at Burnham Thorpe, Nor 
 folk. It would be impossible to find a name 
 in the naval annals of the whole world more 
 justly celebrated for skill, valor, and success 
 than that of the British sailor "Nelson and 
 Bronte." He served a long apprenticeship to the 
 ordinary duties of a naval officer before he had 
 an opportunity of making a reputation. Begin- 
 ing his career in the Arctic Seas, and serving 
 afterwards in the West Indies, the coast of Mex 
 ico, and of Canada, always commanding respect 
 for his steady perseverance, his intelligence, and 
 intrepidity, he obtained a command in January, 
 1793, and soon earned fame in independent 
 action. Ordered to the Mediterranean to protect 
 the interests of Italy and England against the 
 assaults of the French revolutionists, he joined 
 the" CorsicanPaoli," and besieged Bastia. Never 
 resting while an enemy was to be met, he boarded 
 and captured several French and Spanish men- 
 of-war. In 1797 he was appointed to join Sir 
 John Jervis in the " Captain," 74, and on board 
 that vessel took part in the victory off Cape St. 
 Vincent, which secured for Jervis his elevation 
 to the peerage. The service which Nelson rend 
 ered in boarding two Spanish ships raised him 
 to the rank of rear-admiral, added to which were 
 the insignia of the Bath and a gold medal. In 
 an operation against Santa Cruz, Admiral Sir 
 Horatio Nelson lost his right arm. In 1798 he 
 was sent in pursuit of a powerful French fleet 
 then covering the operations of a French army 
 under Napoleon in Egypt. Finding the fleet at 
 anchor in Aboukir Bay, near Alexandria, Sir 
 Horatio immediately delivered battle. A tre 
 mendous conflict ensued, which terminated in 
 the complete annihilation of the French arma 
 ment. This action is known in English history 
 as the " Battle of the Nile." 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Russia having com 
 bined to place limits to the naval power of Eng 
 land, Admiral Sir Hyde Parker was dispatched 
 to the North Sea to crush the confederacy. 
 Nelson hoisted his flag in the " Elephant," and 
 led the way to the Baltic. Meeting the combined 
 fleet, the English gave them battle, and the up 
 shot was the complete destruction of the hostile 
 alliance. For this exploit Nelson was raised to 
 the dignity of a viscount, and placed in com 
 mand of the fleet in the North Sea. Campbell, 
 the poet, has immortalized the " Battle of the 
 Baltic." 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, intending to invade Eng 
 land, had assembled a large military force at 
 Boulogne, and only awaited the arrival of a pow 
 erful fleet to convoy the troops across the Chan 
 nel. Aware of this fact, Lord Nelson, with a 
 
NEPTUNE 
 
 609 
 
 NEW OKLEANS 
 
 squadron, went in search of the French ships to 
 prevent their approach to Boulogne. Failing 
 to find the fleet in the West Indies he recrossed 
 the Atlantic, and came up with the object of his 
 search off Cape Trafalgar, near the entrance to 
 the Strait of Gibraltar. He patiently awaited 
 them at the mouth of Trafalgar Bay, and when 
 the fleet emerged from its retreat under Admiral 
 Villeneuve, he gave it battle on the morning of 
 the 21st of October, 1805. The two forces were 
 of equal strength, but the form of attack adopted 
 by Nelson gave the British so great an advantage 
 that, after a fight of many hours duration, the 
 French struck their colors. Nelson s ship was 
 the " Victory," and he stood on the quarter-deck 
 during the whole of the engagement. Wearing 
 all his stars and other decorative insignia, he 
 was a conspicuous mark for the riflemen, and by 
 one of them in the mizzen-top of a French man- 
 of-war he was shot dead. Mourned by the whole 
 British nation he was decreed a pompous funeral, 
 and his remains lie in the crypt of the Cathedral 
 of St. Paul s. 
 
 Neptune. The place of this planet was com 
 puted by Le Verrier and Adams in 1845-46, from 
 the known perturbations of Uranus. It was 
 first seen at Berlin, September 23, 1846, only 
 52 from its place as determined by Le Verrier 
 from his computations. Mean distance from the 
 sun, 2860 millions of miles ; period of revolution, 
 165 years ; diameter, 40,000 miles ; apparent 
 diameter, 3" ; symbol W, a trident. 
 
 Neptune. The god of the sea. See SEA-GODS. 
 
 NEPTUNE S GOBLETS. The large cup-shaped 
 sponges found in the Eastern seas, Raphyrus 
 patera. 
 
 NEPTUNE S SHEEP. Waves breaking into 
 foam, called white horses. 
 
 Nest. See CROW S NEST. 
 
 Netting. A net-work of small lines used for 
 various purposes. See BOARDING, HAMMOCK, 
 SPLINTER. 
 
 Nettle. Two or three yarns laid up by hand ; 
 used for hammock-clews and neat seizings. To 
 nettle, to provoke. 
 
 Neutral. A state that takes no part in a war 
 between other states. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW. 
 
 Newark is a port of entry and city of New 
 Jersey, in Essex County, on the Passaic River, 4 
 miles from Newark Bay. Lat. 40 45 N. ; Ion. 
 74 10 W. Pop. 136,983. It is the largest city 
 in the State, and its rapid growth is due to its 
 extensive manufactories, the principal of which 
 are carriages, beer, machinery, castings, jewelry, 
 shoes, harness, and clothing. The commerce is 
 principally confined to the coast trade, which is 
 very large and important. 
 
 New Bedford, Mass., is situated in Bristol 
 County, near the mouth of the Acushnet River, 
 in lat. 41 38 N., Ion. 70 56 W. The river 
 forms a commodious harbor, which at Clark s 
 Point is defended by a strong fortification of 
 granite. This town has been more largely en 
 gaged than any other town in the world in 
 the whale-fisheries, employing at one time 400 
 vessels, which has now declined to a fleet of 
 125. Since the decline of its whale-fisheries the 
 town has become a manufacturing city, the 
 Wamsutta and Potemska cotton-mills, flouring- 
 mills, and various other manufactories having 
 located here. Pop. about 26,000. 
 39 
 
 Newburyport is situated on the Merrimac 
 River, 3 miles from the ocean, in Essex County, 
 Mass., in lat. 42 48 32" N., Ion. 70 52 47" 
 W. It contains a custom-house, marine museum, 
 has extensive manufactures of cotton goods, ma 
 chinery, and boots and shoes ; ship-building is 
 also carried on. The harbor is safe and spacious, 
 but is obstructed at the entrance by a sand-bar. 
 Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne. A city and port of 
 England, in Northumberland County, on the 
 left bank of the Tyne, 8 miles from its mouth. 
 The manufactures are very extensive, and within 
 the city and its immediate vicinity are numer 
 ous blast-furnaces, malleable and other iron 
 works. Iron goods, fire-arms, ordnance, bronze 
 goods, hardware, etc., are among the principal 
 articles of manufacture. There are also exten 
 sive saw-mills and ship-building yards, at which 
 large numbers of sailing-vessels and steamers are 
 constructed. The import and export trade are 
 very important. Pop. 128,500. 
 
 Newcome. An officer commencing his career. 
 Any stranger or fresh hand newly arrived. 
 
 Newell. An upright piece of timber which 
 receives the tenons of "the rails that lead from the 
 breastwork of the gangway in old-style ships. 
 
 New Haven, a port of entry and the county- 
 seat of New Haven County, and the largest city 
 in Connecticut, is situated at the head of New 
 Haven Bay, 4 miles from Long Island Sound, in 
 lat. 41 18 23" N., Ion. 72 56 30" W. It is 
 quite an extensive business centre, having a large 
 inland arid coastwise commerce, also a consider 
 able foreign trade, carried on both direct and 
 through New York, the exports in 1879 amount 
 ing to $2,362,885, comprising nails, starch, 
 breadstuff s, and fire-arms, and the imports, mostly 
 sugar, molasses, iron, steel, etc., amounted to 
 $788,181. A vast quantity of fire-arms and cart 
 ridges are manufactured here by the Winchester 
 and other arms companies. Pop. 63,000. 
 
 New London, a port of entry and city of 
 New London County, Conn., is situated on the 
 river Thames, 3 miles from the ocean, in lat. 
 41 22 N., Ion. 72 9 W. The harbor is one 
 of the best in the United States, is 3 miles long, 
 with 30 feet depth of water. Above the city, on 
 the east side of the river, is the U. S. Navy- 
 Yard, and below the city are Forts Trumbull and 
 Griswold. The citizens own numerous vessels 
 engaged in the seal, whale, and other fisheries, 
 and the city also contains manufactories of sew 
 ing-silk, mowing-machines, cotton-gins, machin 
 ery, etc. Pop. 10,000. See NAVAL STATION. 
 
 New Moon. See MOON. 
 
 New Orleans, La., is the commercial me 
 tropolis of the Gulf States. It is situated on the 
 Mississippi River, about 100 miles above its 
 delta, in lat. 29 58 N., Ion. 90 5 W. As a 
 port of entry it includes, besides its own port 
 those of Pittsburgh, Pa., Wheeling, W. Va. 
 Louisville, Ky., Nashville and Memphis, Tenn. 
 Cincinnati, O., St. Louis, Mo., Evansville, Ind. 
 Galena and Cairo, 111., Omaha, Neb., La Crosse 
 Wis., Burlington and Dubuque, Iowa. New 
 Orleans is the great cotton market of the coun 
 try, and it is the grand centre of commerce of 
 the entire Mississippi Valley. The value of its 
 exports in 1879 amounted to $81,105,822, and 
 its imports, $8,259,606. The jetties in the river 
 at Port Eads, below the city, now give 30 feet of 
 
NEWPORT 
 
 610 
 
 NICHOLSON 
 
 water over the bar at the mouth of the river, and 
 the commerce is rapidly increasing. Pop. 
 207,000. 
 
 Newport, Christopher, Captain, commanding 
 an expedition authorized by James I. to carry 
 emigrants to Virginia, sailed with 3 ships, of 
 not more than 100~tons burden each, on Decem 
 ber 19, 1606. Roanoke was the objective-point, 
 but a violent storm drove the expedition to the 
 north of its destination, which was so far for 
 tunate that it enabled Capt. Newport, after 
 sighting and naming Cape Henry and Cape 
 Charles, to enter Chesapeake Bay. Thence he 
 entered the Powhatan, to which he gave the 
 name of the James River. He thus became a 
 discoverer, by accident, of localities of great 
 importance and interest. Out of this discovery 
 arose Jamestown, the first city of English origin 
 ever established in America. 
 
 Newport, R. I., is a port of entry and fash- 
 icmable watering-place, situated on Narragansett 
 Bay, in lat. 41 29 N., Ion. 71 19 12" W. It 
 has a good harbor, deep enough to float the 
 largest ships, which is defended by Fort Adams, 
 a granite fortress, which mounts 468 guns. The 
 magnificent steamboats plying between New 
 York and Fall River touch at Newport every 
 day. The Torpedo School of Instruction of the 
 U."S. navy is situated on Goat Island, immedi 
 ately opposite the city, and about -^ mile distant. 
 The city contains manufactures of cotton goods, 
 brass, copper, flour, fish, oil, etc. Its commerce 
 was ruined by the war of independence, which 
 also nearly depopulated the town, and it has 
 never recovered its commercial importance. Pop. 
 about 15,000. 
 
 News (Eng.}. Do you hear the news? A 
 formula used in turning up the relief watch. 
 
 New York, the most populous and important 
 city of the western hemisphere, and the commer 
 cial metropolis of the nation, is situated chiefly 
 upon Manhattan Island, which is 13} miles long 
 on the Hudson River side and 8 miles long on 
 the East River side, separated from the main 
 land by the Harlem River and Spuvten Duyvil 
 Creek. Lat. of city hall, 40 D 42 43" N. ; Ion. 
 74 3" W. The city includes also the islands 
 in the bay (Ellis, Bedloe s, and Governor s), and 
 Ward s, Randall s, and Black well s in the East 
 River. The southern end of the island is occu 
 pied by vast wholesale and importing ware 
 houses, the retail trade lying north of Fourteenth 
 Street. The headquarters of the military divis 
 ion of the Atlantic are situated on Governor s 
 Island, and the other islands of the bay and East 
 River are nearly all occupied by fortifications, 
 magazines, etc. The entrance "to the harbor, 
 called the Narrows, is defended by Fort Wads- 
 worth on Staten Island and Fort Hamilton on 
 Long Island, and in the bay and East River are 
 situated Forts Columbus, Wood, and Schuyler. 
 The Treasury Department reports show that for 
 20 years, from 1859 to 1879, about 56 per cent, 
 of all the export?, and about 65 per cent, of all 
 the imports, of the United States were sent and 
 received through the port of New York ; 73 
 per cent, of the bullion and coin exported went 
 from New York, about 70 per cent, of the 
 duties was collected here, and more than 50 per 
 cent, of the aggregate tonnage of the United 
 States was registered in this city. The tonnage 
 of vessels registered in 1879 was 24,155,157 
 
 tons, the value of imports for that year was 
 $1,718,695,720, and the exports $1,678,328,316. 
 The domestic trade is also immense, largely 
 exceeding the foreign. The manufactures are 
 very extensive, comprising all varieties of tex 
 tile fabrics, machinery, musical instruments, 
 ales, beers, cordage, and sails ; vessels and 
 steamships of all kinds are also built and re 
 paired here; foundries and blast-furnaces for 
 the manufacture of all kinds of castings and 
 machinery are principally located along the 
 East and Hudson Rivers and their immediate 
 vicinity. Manhattan Island was discovered in 
 1609 by Henry Hudson, an English navigator 
 employed by the Dutch East India Company. 
 Settled by the Dutch in 1612, it surrendered 
 to the English in 1664; it was retaken by the 
 Dutch in 1673, and held by them for one year 
 only. In 1783 it was evacuated after a long pos 
 session by the British troops. Its population in 
 1790 was 33,131 ; its present population, by the 
 census of 1880, is 1,209,561. 
 
 Nib-block. A metal block having a rigid 
 hook which causes the block to stand square. 
 
 Nichols, Edward T., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Georgia, March 1, 1823. Appointed from 
 Georgia, December 14, 1836 ; attached to sloop 
 " Levant," West India Squadron, 1837-40 ; 
 Naval School, Philadelphia, 1841-42. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 1, 1842 ; 
 frigate " Columbus," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1842-44; steamer "Colonel Harney," Atlantic 
 coast, 1845; frigate "Columbia," Brazil Squad 
 ron, 1845-47 ; bomb-vessel "Stromboli," Home 
 Squadron, 1847-48 ; frigate " Savannah," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1849-51. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 13, 1850 ; 
 navy-yard, Pensacola, 1852-53; steam-frigate 
 " Saranac," Mediterranean Squadron, 1853-56; 
 navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 1857-58 ; sloop 
 "Jamestown," Home Squadron, 1858-60; com 
 manding steamer " Winona," West Gulf Block 
 ading Squadron, 1861-62; bombardment of Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip ; present at and received 
 the surrender of Fort St. Philip, April 28, 1862 ; 
 attack upon and passage of Vicksburg batteries, 
 June 28, 1862 ; engagement with rebel ram "Ar 
 kansas" ; bombardment and passage of Vicks 
 burg batteries, July 15, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer " Alabama," West India 
 Squadron, 1863 ; commanding steamer " Men- 
 dota," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1864-65; engaged with rebel battery at Four- 
 Mile Creek, James Kiver, June 16, 1864 ; special 
 duty, New York, 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; chief 
 of staff, Asiatic Squadron, 1870-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, May 24, 1872; 
 commandant navy-yard, Boston, 1872-76 ; mem 
 ber of Board of Examiners, 1877. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, February 25, 
 1878; commanding South Atlantic Station, 1878- 
 80 ; light-house inspector since June 30, 1880. 
 
 Nicholson, Captain James, was born in Ches- 
 tertown, Md., in 1737. He was first appointed 
 to the " Virginia," 28 guns. She was lost in the 
 Chesapeake Bay in the year 1778. An inquiry 
 was instituted by Congress 18th April, but the 
 result attached no degree of censure to Capt. 
 Nicholson. On the 2d of June, 1780, in command 
 of the "Trumbull," 28 guns, he had an action 
 
NICHOLSON 
 
 611 
 
 NITRE 
 
 
 with the "Watt," a letter of marque, supposed 
 to be fully a match for one of our heaviest frig 
 ates. She was greatly superior in guns and in 
 number of men to the " Trumbull." The action 
 was within pistol-shot, and being maintained 
 with great gallantry on both sides, it lasted, it 
 is said, nearly 3 hours, when Capt. Nicholson 
 having lost his main- and mizzen-masts, and the 
 foremast being badly wounded, was reluctantly 
 constrained to discontinue the contest, an event 
 which it is presumed was not displeasing to the 
 commander of the "Watt," whose loss has been 
 stated at 90 men killed and wounded. The 
 "TrumbulPs" loss (29) in killed and wounded 
 was less than one-third of that number. On the 
 8th August, 1781, the " Trumbull," with a very 
 reduced crew, estimated at 180 men only, sailed 
 from the Delaware. She had scarcely cleared the 
 capes when 3 enemy s ships were descried in the 
 east. The " TrumbulPs" fore-topmast and main- 
 topgallant-mast having been carried away, she 
 could steer only directly before the wind. She 
 had not cleared away the wreck of her fore- 
 topmast, when one of the ships, the British 
 frigate "Iris," came alongside, the other two 
 being in sight. An action was commenced with 
 the " Iris," and was continued for more than an 
 hour, and rather to the advantage of the " Trum 
 bull," when another of the ships (a frigate also) 
 came up and fired into her. A contest against 
 such odds could not be maintained with any 
 prospect of success, neither could Capt. Nichol 
 son escape, his vessel being a perfect wreck, not 
 having a mast standing. The colors were there 
 fore struck. Alexander Murray, who had re 
 cently been appointed a lieutenant in the navy 
 by Congress, was a volunteer on board the 
 " Trumbull," and displayed great gallantry in 
 the action. Nicholson died in New York City, 
 Sept. 2, 1804. 
 
 Nicholson, J. W. A., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Massachusetts. Appointed from New 
 York, February 10, 1838 ; attached to sloops 
 "Natchez" and "Warren," AVest India Squad 
 ron, 1838-41 ; to " Brandywine," frigate, Med 
 iterranean Squadron, 1841-42; special service, 
 1842-43. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 20, 
 1844; steamship " Princeton," 1844-46; Pacific 
 Squadron, 1846-47 ; store-ship " Fredonia," 
 1848 ; frigate " Raritan," 1849-50 ; " Southamp 
 ton," store-ship, Pacific, 1851-52. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, April 24, 1852 ; sloop 
 " Vandalia," Japanese Expedition, under Com 
 modore Perry, 1853-55 ; participated in all of 
 the, official meetings with the Japanese on that 
 expedition; stationed on shore, with a guard 
 from the " Vandalia," at Shanghai, China, for 
 several months, to protect the foreign settlement, 
 while the contending Chinese were encamped 
 nearby; navy-yard, New York, 1856-57; sloop 
 " Vincennes," African coast, 1857-60 ; 1861, at 
 tached to steamer " Pocahontas," which vessel 
 started for the relief of Fort Sumter, but arrived 
 too late, as the fort capitulated, a short time after 
 the arrival of the "Pocahontas," on April 13, 
 1861 ; stationed in Potomac River until Octqjber, 
 1861 ; engagement with rebel batteries at Acquia 
 Creek ; in command of steamer " Isaac Smith," 
 1861, and participated in actions with rebel fleet, 
 November 5 and 6, and battle of Port Royal, 
 November 7, 1861; also participated in the cap 
 
 ture of Jacksonville, Fernandina, and St. Au 
 gustine, Fla. ; held the towns of Jacksonville 
 and St. Augustine for several months ; while in 
 command of St. John s River, was attacked by 
 rebel infantry, and defeated them with consider 
 able loss ; engagement with rebel flotilla in Sa 
 vannah River, February, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 ordnance duty, New York, 1863 ; South Atlan 
 tic Blockading Squadron, 1864 ; command of 
 monitor " Manhattan," Western Gulf Squadron, 
 1864 ; battle of Mobile Bay forts, and capture 
 of rebel ram " Tennessee," August 5, 1864 ; 
 bombarding Fort Morgan from August 9 until 
 the surrender on the 21st ; commanding the 
 steamer "Mohongo," Pacific Squadron, 1865- 
 66 ; commanding steamship " Wampanoag," 
 1867-68. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; navy- 
 yard, New York, 1868-70; commanding "Lan 
 caster" (second-rate), South Atlantic Fleet, 
 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 8, 
 1878 ; member Board of Examiners, 1873-74 ; 
 president Board of Examiners, 1875-76 ; com 
 mandant, navy-yard, New York, 1876-80. 
 
 Nidget. A coward. A term used in old times 
 for those who refused to join the royal standard. 
 
 Nigger. A hoisting-engine in ri ver steamers. 
 
 Nigger-head. An inferior quality of hard- 
 rolled tobacco. 
 
 Night-cap. Hot grog taken just before turn 
 ing in. 
 
 Night Order-book. A memorandum in which 
 the commanding officer writes his orders con 
 cerning the management of the ship during the 
 night. 
 
 Nilometer. An instrument for measuring the 
 height of the water in the Nile. 
 
 Nimbus. The rain-cloud. See CLOUD. 
 
 Nine -pin Block. A swivel -block shaped 
 somewhat like a nine-pin, and formerly used as 
 a fair-leader under the fife-rail. 
 
 Ning-Po is one of the open ports of China, 
 situated on the Ning-Po River, in the province 
 of Che-Kiang, in lat. 29 51 N., Ion 121 32 
 E. It has a large manufacture of silks, cottons, 
 woolens, etc., and many junks are built here. 
 It exports large quantities of wood and charcoal. 
 Pop. about 200,000. 
 
 Nip. A jamming together of two fields of 
 ice. A sharp turn in a rope. To freshen the 
 nip. See FRESHEN. 
 
 Nipcheese. A sailor s name for the purser s 
 steward. 
 
 Nipper. A short bit of soft rope used in bind 
 ing the chain to the messenger in heaving up the 
 anchor ; it is put on close to the manger and taken 
 off when it arrives near the deck pipe. With 
 chain-cables and chain-messengers iron nippers 
 are used ; they consist of a hinged clamp having 
 an iron ring, which is slipped over the end when 
 the nipper is put on ; when the nipper is to be 
 taken off the ring is knocked off with a hammer. 
 Nippers are now out of date, the chain being 
 taken directly to the capstan. 
 
 NIPPER-MEN. Fore and main topmen who 
 passed and took the nippers in heaving up anchor. 
 
 Nitre, or Saltpetre. The nitrate of potassium 
 (KN() 3 ). It is spontaneously generated in the 
 soil and crystallizes upon its surface in several 
 parts of the world, especially in India. It is also 
 
NOAH S AKK 
 
 612 
 
 NOZZLE 
 
 produced artificially by imitating the conditions 
 of its natural production. The most essential of 
 those conditions seems to be the presence of de 
 caying organic matter, whose nitrogen is oxidized 
 by the action of the atmosphere into nitric acid, 
 which combines with the bases (potash and lime) 
 contained in the soil. The method consists in 
 forming upon a flooring of clay heaps of animal 
 matters mingled with ashes and lime-rubbish, the 
 heaps being exposed to the air but protected from 
 rain, and at intervals moistened with urine or 
 stable-runnings. In these heaps nitrate of lime 
 is slowly formed, which is extracted by lixivia- 
 tion, and carbonate of potash added to the solu 
 tion, which, by double decomposition, gives rise 
 to the formation of nitrate of potash and carbon 
 ate of lime ; the latter is precipitated, the former 
 remains in solution, and is obtained in crystals 
 by evaporation. Nitre crystallizes in six-sided 
 prisms, soluble in seven parts of cold water, and 
 in less than its weight of boiling water. It has 
 a cooling saline taste, and is anhydrous. At 
 about 660 it fuses, and at a red heat is decom 
 posed. Its most important use is in the manu 
 facture of gunpowder, and it is also extensively 
 employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, 
 in the"preparation of nitric acid, as an oxidizing 
 agent in numerous chemical processes, as an in 
 gredient in fire-works^ and as a medicine. 
 
 Noah s Ark. Certain clouds, elliptically parted, 
 considered a sign of fine weather after rain. 
 
 Nock. The forward upper corner of a trysail 
 or spanker. 
 
 Nocturnal Arc. That part of a circle which 
 is described by a celestial object, between its 
 setting and rising. 
 
 Noddy. The Sternia solida, a darb web- footed 
 sea-bird, common about the West Indies. 
 
 Node. One of the two opposite points in 
 which the orbit of a planet or comet cuts the 
 ecliptic, or in which the orbit of a satellite cuts 
 that of its primary. When the body passes from 
 north to south this point is called the descending 
 node; the opposite point is the ascending node. 
 The line joining the two points is called the line 
 of nodes ; in the case of the moon it moves back 
 ward slowly, completing its revolution in 18.6 
 years. 
 
 Nog. A treenail which projects from the bot 
 tom of a wooden ship, while in the course of build 
 ing, as a stop to the heads of the shores ; also, a 
 treenail driven through the shores to secure 
 them. 
 
 No Higher. See HELM. 
 
 No-man s Land. Any space, the cleaning, 
 painting, etc., of which are neglected because it 
 does not fall exclusively within the limits of the 
 space assigned to any man or set of men. 
 
 Non-combatants. A term applied to the offi 
 cers not of the line, as their duties do not require 
 them actually to fight the guns nor manoeuvre 
 the ship. 
 
 Non-condensing Engine. An engine in 
 "which the exhaust steam is not condensed, but 
 escapes into the atmosphere; formerly termed a 
 low-pressure engine. 
 
 Nonius Scale. See VERNIER. 
 No ! No ! The answer to the night-hail, by 
 which it is known that a midshipman or war 
 rant-officer is in the boat hailed. 
 
 Nook-shotten. A Shakspearian expression 
 for a coast indented with bays. 
 
 Noon (Sax.). According to the time reckoned 
 by, noon is the instant the point of definition is 
 on the meridian. When the centre of the sun is 
 on the meridian, it is apparent noon ; when the 
 mean sun is on the meridian, it is mean noon ; 
 when the first point of Aries conies to the me 
 ridian, it is sidereal noon. 
 Noose. A running knot. 
 Nordenskjold, Professor. A Danish explorer 
 of the Arctic Seas. Skirting the outer coast of 
 the Scandinavian peninsula, he passed to the 
 north of Europe and Asia, rounding the north 
 ernmost cape of the latter continent, and, after 
 a winter in the ice, entered the Pacific Ocean. 
 Thence he sailed along the eastern and southern 
 coasts of Asia into the Persian Gulf, passed 
 through the Red Sea, the Suez Canal, and the 
 Mediterranean into the Atlantic. This was ac 
 complished between 1878 and 1880, and is con 
 sequently the latest exploration in the northern 
 direction. 
 
 Norfolk, Va., a port of entry, is situated in 
 Norfolk County, on the Elizabeth River, 8 miles 
 from Hampton* Roads, in lat. 36 51 N., Ion. 76 
 19 X W. It is the most populous city in the State 
 except Richmond, and has a larger foreign com 
 merce than any other city in the State, and, 
 together with Portsmouth (directly opposite), is 
 the most important naval station in the United 
 States. The harbor is large, safe, and easily ac 
 cessible, admitting vessels of the largest size to 
 the wharves. The entrance to the harbor is de 
 fended by Forts Monroe and Calhoun. The ex 
 ports are principally cotton, oysters, fruits, and 
 vegetables. Pop. about 25,000. See NAVY- 
 YARD (GospoRT), NORFOLK. 
 
 Norland. Of, or belonging to, the north 
 land. 
 
 Norma. See CONSTELLATION. 
 Norman. A short, heavy iron pin inserted in 
 the bitts to prevent the cable from flying off in 
 rapid veering. 
 
 North ( Ang.-Sax. nord}. The initial point of 
 the compass. 
 
 Northern Diver. The Colymbus glacialis, a 
 large diving-bird. 
 
 Northern-glance. The old sea-name of the 
 Aurora boreatis. 
 
 Northern Lights. See AURORA BOREALIS. 
 Northers. Those winds so well known to all 
 seamen who have frequented the West Indies, 
 and which are preceded by the appearance of a 
 vast quantity of fine cobwebs or gossamer in the 
 atmosphere, which clings to all parts of a ves 
 sel s rigging, thus serving as a warning of an 
 approaching gale. Northers alternate with the 
 seasons in the Gulf of Mexico, the Florida Chan 
 nel, Jamaica, Cuba, etc. 
 
 Northing. The distance in nautical miles 
 which a ship makes to the northward ; it is the 
 difference of latitude in sailing north. 
 
 Norway Skiff. A particularly light and buoy 
 ant boat, which is both swift and safe in the 
 worst weather. 
 
 Nose. A term often used to denote the stem 
 of a ship. 
 
 Notch-block. A name for a snatch-block. 
 Nothing off! See HELM. 
 Nowel. The core of a heavy casting. 
 Nozzle. A term sometimes applied to the 
 exhaust-pipe of a steam-engine, but more prop 
 erly to the adjustable end of an exhaust-pipe 
 
NUDDEE 
 
 613 
 
 OATHS 
 
 when led into the smoke-pipe to utilize the ex 
 haust steam to increase draft. 
 
 Nuddee. A Hindoostanee word for a river. 
 
 Nuggar. A term in the East Indies for a fort, 
 and also for an alligator. 
 
 Number. Ship s number, the number given 
 on the paymaster s book to each person on 
 board ; it remains unchanged throughout the 
 cruise. Watch-numbers, or hammock-numbers, 
 are changed as a man s station is changed. In 
 the signal-book each vessel is denoted by a spe 
 cial number, which the ship hoists on falling in 
 with another vessel in the navy. Your number 
 is made, a phrase signifying that the person ad 
 dressed has been sent for. To lose the number of 
 the mess, to die. 
 
 Numeral. Numeral signal, a hoist of signals, 
 expressing numbers, and not requiring reference 
 to the signal-book. It is distinguished by the 
 numeral pennant over it. 
 
 Nun-buoy. See BUOY. 
 
 Nurse, or Wet-nurse. A name given to an 
 experienced first lieutenant sent in the ship with 
 an incompetent commanding officer. Thanks 
 to our system of promotion by seniority, this 
 state of affairs is never to be met with in our 
 service. 
 
 Nutation. A gyratory motion of the earth s 
 axis, producing a periodical fluctuation of the 
 apparent obliquity of the ecliptic, and of the 
 velocity of the regression of the equinoctial 
 points. 
 
 O. 
 
 O. In the log-book, o denotes overcast. 
 
 Oakum. Junk untwisted and picked to 
 pieces ; it is used principally in calking seams. 
 White oakum is made from untarred rope. 
 
 OAKUM-BOY. A calker s apprentice. 
 
 Oar. An oar consists of the blade and the 
 loom. The blade is the flat part which is dipped 
 in the water in rowing ; the loom is the inboard 
 part, the inner extremity of which is called the 
 handle. To toss oars, to throw them up perpen 
 dicularly. To boat the oars, to lay them in their 
 places in the boat. Oars! the order to lay on 
 oars. To lay on oars, to cease pulling and keep 
 the oars parallel with the water. To feather an 
 oar, see FEATHER. To trail oars, to throw them 
 out of the rowlocks and permit them to trail 
 alongside. 
 
 OAR-LOCK. A rowlock (which see). 
 
 OAR-PROPELLER. A form of propeller which 
 is made by machinery to imitate the action of an 
 oar in sculling. 
 
 Oaths. An oath, in a legal or judicial sense, 
 is a solemn asseveration, made in the presence 
 of a magistrate or authorized officer, whereby an 
 individual binds himself by the highest obliga 
 tion to observe certain conditions, or to testify to 
 certain facts which he knows of his own kno wl- 
 edge. It is usually accompanied by an appeal 
 to a Supreme Being for the truth and sincerity 
 of what is declared or affirmed. Men in military 
 and naval service have from time immemorial 
 been accustomed to take oaths of fidelity, which 
 among the ancients were administered with much 
 greater solemnity than now. Kennett, in his 
 "Roman Antiquities," p. 188, describes the im 
 pressive manner in which a Raman legion was 
 sworn, each man repeating the oath as he passed 
 by, crying, " Idem in me) 1 
 
 The statutes of the United States are specific 
 in providing the text or substance of all oaths, 
 and minute in prescribing by whom and at what 
 time they are to be administered ; and in courts- 
 martial, courts of inquiry, etc., any deviation 
 from the order laid down is held to invalidate 
 the proceedings. Obviously, the least departure 
 
 from the strict letter of the statute would be 
 illegal, hence great care is enjoined. The pecu 
 liar form or ceremony of administering an oath, 
 however, is subject to such variation as circum 
 stances may render necessary in order to affect 
 the conscience of him who swears. The multi 
 tude of religions, and consequent beliefs as to 
 what is or is not binding, gives rise to many forms, 
 and some exceedingly strange ones. For in 
 stance, in California, in 1870, one frequently 
 heard of Chinese witnesses being sworn on the 
 body of a recently killed chicken, and Capt. 
 Hughes, in his learned treatise, tells of their 
 being sworn in London by breaking a saucer at 
 the moment. 
 
 As a general rule, in Christian countries, the 
 right hand is placed on the Holy Bible, or New 
 Testament, while the oath is being read, and the 
 book is afterwards kissed. Those oaths which im 
 mediately concern the naval service are here pre 
 sented. They differ in many respects and for 
 the better from those in use in the army. 
 
 Of Allegiance or Office. Every person elected 
 or appointed to any office of honor or profit, 
 either in the civil, military, or naval service, ex 
 cepting the President, and those who participated 
 in the late Rebellion, is required before entering 
 upon the duties of such office, and before being 
 entitled to any part of the salary or other emolu 
 ments thereof, to take and subscribe to the fol 
 lowing (called the "ironclad") oath: 
 
 " I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 
 I have never voluntarily borne arms against the 
 United States since I have been a citizen thereof; 
 that I have voluntarily given no aid, counte 
 nance, counsel, or encouragement to persons 
 engaged in armed hostility thereto ; that I have 
 neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to 
 exercise the functions of any office whatever, 
 under any authority, or pretended authority, in 
 hostility to the United States ; that I have not 
 yielded a voluntary support to any pretended 
 government, authority, power, or constitution 
 within the United States, hostile or inimical 
 thereto. And I do further swear (or affirm) 
 
OATHS 
 
 614 
 
 OATHS 
 
 * that to the best of my knowledge and ability I 
 will support and defend the Constitution of the 
 United States against all enemies, foreign and 
 domestic ; that I will bear true faith and allegi 
 ance to the same; that I take this obligation 
 freely, without any mental "reservation or pur 
 pose of evasion, and that I will well and faith 
 fully discharge the duties of the office on which 
 I am about to enter, so help me God." (Revised 
 Statutes, Section 1756.) 
 
 This oath maybe taken before any person who 
 is authorized either by the laws of the United 
 States, or by the local municipal law, to admin 
 ister oaths in the State, Territory, or district 
 where such oath may be administered, and is 
 by law required to be preserved among the files 
 of the department to which it appertains. A 
 less rigorous oath is provided for those who were 
 engaged in the. Rebellion, but are not rendered 
 ineligible to office by the fourteenth amendment 
 to the Constitution. The original oath of office, 
 prescribed by act of June 1, 1789, was a marvel 
 of brevity. It read: "I, A. B., do solemnly 
 swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I will 
 support the Constitution of the United States." 
 
 Of Enlistment. A formal enlistment in the 
 
 giblic service is incomplete without an oath, 
 y law of July 11, 1798 (remodeled in Revised 
 Statutes, Section 1609), the officers and men of 
 the marine corps were required to take the same 
 oath that was prescribed for the military estab 
 lishment. That oath, enacted May 30, 1796, was 
 for both officers and men, and has come down to 
 us very slightly changed. It is still administered 
 to the enlisted men, and reads : 
 
 "I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 
 I will bear true faith and allegiance to the United 
 States of America ; that I will serve them hon 
 estly and faithfully against all their enemies 
 whomsoever; and that I will obey the orders 
 of the President of the United States, and the 
 orders of the officers appointed over me, accord 
 ing to the Rules and Articles of War." (Revised 
 Statutes, Section 1342.) In the enlistment papers 
 of the marine corps there is added after articles, 
 " for the government of the army and navy of 
 the United States ; and, further, that I am the 
 full age of 21." The latter clause is intended to 
 guard against the enlistment of minors, but is 
 not always successful. 
 
 Army and marine officers now take the " iron 
 clad oath," and, in addition thereto, the former 
 are obliged, " before entering on their duties," to 
 subscribe to the Rules and Articles of War. 
 
 Prior to June 12, 1858, civil magistrates were 
 employed to administer the oath of enlistment to 
 recruits. In that year it was made lawful for a 
 commissioned officer to do it, "provided a civil 
 magistrate could not be obtained." And by act 
 of August 3, 1861, this provision was removed, 
 and any commissioned officer of the army or 
 marine corps was authorized to perform the 
 duty. 
 
 Of a General Court-martial. When a general 
 court-martial is ready to be sworn, the president 
 of the court first administers the following oath, 
 or affirmation, to the judge-advocate, or person 
 officiating as such : 
 
 "I, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that I will 
 keep a true record of the evidence given to, and 
 the proceedings of, this court ; that I will not 
 divulge or by any means disclose the sentence 
 
 of the court until it shall have been approved by 
 the proper authority ; and that I will not at anv 
 time divulge or disclose the vote or opinion of 
 any particular member of the court, unless re 
 quired so to do before a court of justice in due 
 course of law." 
 
 The judge-advocate then administers simul 
 taneously to all the members of the court, stand 
 ing uncovered and ungloved as to their right 
 hands, which touch the book (unless they elect 
 to affirm), this oath : 
 
 " I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 
 I will truly try, without prejudice or partiality, 
 the case now depending, according to the evi 
 dence which shall come before the court, the rules 
 for the government of the navy, and my own con 
 science ; that I will not by any means divulge or 
 disclose the sentence of the court until it shall 
 have been approved by the proper authority ; 
 and that I will not at any time divulge or dis 
 close the vote or opinion of any particular mem 
 ber of the court, unless required so to do before a 
 court of justice in due course of law." (Revised 
 Statutes, Section 1624.) 
 
 In practice, the judge-advocate usually puts 
 the oath in the plural, and says, " You, A. B., 
 C. D.," and so on, reciting the name and rank 
 or title of each. Every member must be sworn 
 or affirmed before proceeding to trial in each 
 case. 
 
 Of Witness. An oath in the following form 
 must be administered by the president, or senior 
 member, to all witnesses before general or sum 
 mary courts-martial, and courts of inquiry, and 
 retiring boards, when deemed necessary : 
 
 u You do solemnly swear (or affirm) that the 
 evidence you shall give in the case now before 
 this court shall be the truth, the whole truth, 
 and nothing but the truth, and that you will 
 state everything within your knowledge in rela 
 tion to the charges, so help you God (or, this 
 you do under the pains and penalties of per 
 jury )." . 
 
 Of Summary Court-martial. Before proceed 
 ing to trial the members of a summary court- 
 martial shall take the following oath, which shall 
 be administered by the recorder : 
 
 " I, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that I will 
 well and duly try, without prejudice or partial 
 ity, the case now depending, according to the 
 evidence which shall be adduced, the laws for 
 the government of the navy, and my own con 
 science." After which the recorder of the court 
 takes the following oath, administered by the 
 senior member: u I, A. B., do swear (or affirm) 
 that I will keep a true record of the evidence 
 which shall be given before this court and of 
 the proceedings thereof." 
 
 It will be noticed that summary courts are not 
 sworn to secrecy. 
 
 Of Court of Inquiry. First, by judge-advocate 
 to members : " You do swear (or affirm ) well and 
 truly to examine and inquire, according to the 
 evidence, into the matter now before you, with 
 out partiality." 
 
 By president to judge-advocate : " You do 
 swear (or affirm) truly to record the proceedings 
 of this court, and the evidence to be given in the 
 case in hearing." (Revised Statutes, Section 1624.) 
 
 Of Clerk or Reporter. No form is fixed by 
 statute, but the following is authorized to be 
 administered by the judge-advocate : 
 
OBI 
 
 615 
 
 OCEANS 
 
 " You, A. B., swear (or affirm) faithfully to 
 perform the duty of clerk or reporter in aiding 
 the judge-advocate to take down and record the 
 proceedings of the court, either in short-hand or 
 ordinary manuscript." 
 
 Of Interpreter. No form by statute. Judge- 
 advocate is authorized by regulations for admin 
 istration of law and justice, U.S.N., 1870 (same 
 as in foregoing), to use this form : 
 
 " You, A. B., swear faithfully and truly to 
 interpret or translate in all cases in which you 
 shall be required to do between the United States 
 and the accused." 
 
 Oaths, Profane. Such punishment as a court- 
 martial may adjudge, may be inflicted on any per 
 son in the navy " who is guilty of profane swear 
 ing." Henry C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Obi. A horrible sorcery practiced among the 
 negroes in the West Indies, the threatened inflic 
 tion of which is sufficient to lead the denounced 
 victim to mental disease, despondency, and 
 death. 
 
 Object-glass. The lens which first receives 
 the rays of light. 
 
 Oblimation. The deposit of mud and silt by 
 water. 
 
 Occident. The west. 
 
 Occultation (Lat. occultatio, a hiding). The 
 hiding of a heavenly body by the intervention 
 of some other one of the heavenly bodies. The 
 commencement of the occultation is called thetm- 
 mersion / the termination of the occultation is 
 called the emersion. The two most important 
 cases of these phenomena are the lunar occulta- 
 tions and the occupations of Jupiter s satellites. 
 
 Oceans. By the term ocean we mean, pri 
 marily, the great mass of water that envelopes 
 the globe. The same term is specifically applied 
 to each of the great divisions of that mass of 
 water, five in number. These are as follows : 
 
 1. Pacific. This is the largest of the five great 
 oceans. It was first seen by Balboa in 1518, and 
 by him made known to the Europeans. Magellan 
 was the first to traverse it, in 1525, and it has since 
 been explored by many navigators. It extends 
 from the Arctic circle to 60 south latitude. Its 
 width varies from 170 miles at the Kamskatka 
 Sea to 10,000 at the equator, and it contains 77,- 
 000,000 square miles. The Northern Pacific 
 contains few islands, and the eastern part of the 
 whole ocean is bare of them ; but the western 
 half, and particularly the South Pacific, is full 
 of chains and groups of islands, volcanic or 
 corallic, as well as many large island masses. 
 Chains of islands and many large seas separate 
 the Pacific and the Asian continent ; but the 
 American shore is steep and abrupt, with few in 
 denting bays and inlets. The steady and regu 
 lar currents and periodical winds favor naviga 
 tion, and the absence of rough waters and stormy 
 weather has given the name of Pacific to the 
 ocean. But the islands in the south render 
 navigation more dangerous, interrupt the winds 
 and currents, and typhoons and cyclones are 
 frequent in the western part of the ocean. The 
 Pacific has a general wave motion from west to 
 east at the rate of 28 miles a day. The northeast 
 trades extend from 8 N. to 31 N., and the south 
 east trades from 9 N. to the Tropic of Cancer. The 
 greatest ocean depth yet found was in the Pacific, 
 4655 fathoms, by Capt. Belknap, in the U. S. S. 
 " Tuscarora." Little ice comes in at the north, 
 
 but in the south, owing to less interruption from 
 the land, ice-floes come farther north than in the 
 Atlantic. The whale-fisheries of the Pacific are 
 important, and other fish abound. 
 
 2. Atlantic Ocean. This is the second in size. 
 It washes the east shores of America and the west 
 coast of Europe and Africa. The Carthaginians 
 were the first to navigate it, and the Northmen 
 about A.D. 1000 the first to cross it. It extends 
 from 60 N. to 60 S. lat., and is from 930 to 
 4850 miles wide, comprising 31, 000 square miles, 
 but it has a more extended coast-line than all 
 the other oceans, on account of its numerous in 
 lets. It is the highway of ocean commerce, and 
 possesses few dangers to navigation, and regular 
 winds and currents. The Azores, Canaries, "Cape 
 Verdes, Bermudas, Madeiras, and a few single 
 islands are found in mid-ocean, and these are out 
 of the track of commerce to some extent. The 
 northeast trade-winds extend from 2 to 27 N., 
 blowing so regularly and evenly that the Span 
 iards named that part of the sea " Golfo de las 
 Damas," " Ladies Sea." The southeast trades 
 blow between 1 N. and 40 S. Beyond these 
 farther limits the variable winds blow, prevail 
 ing from the westward ; the mighty Gulf 
 Stream in the north and the southern connecting 
 current in the south favor an easterly voyage. 
 The calmness of the dividing latitudes between 
 the northeast trades and the westerly winds is 
 implied in its name, "the horse latitudes," a 
 tradition existing that a cargo of horses was 
 thrown overboard in a calm there. So the strong 
 westerly winds are typified in the name " roaring 
 40V for those latitudes. In the calm latitudes, 
 20 to 30, lie the masses of accumulated sea 
 weed called the " Mer Sargasso," Weedy Sea. 
 Storms are frequent in the Northern Atlantic, 
 being generally circular in character, and the 
 "pamperos" of the south, and the "white 
 squalls" of the African coast are enemies to the 
 mariner. The existence of these regular winds and 
 currents has led to a selection of routes between 
 Europe and Asia, and now the steamer traffic is 
 carried on in regular steam lanes. The northern 
 passage follows a path between latitudes 52 to 
 45 ; the middle, between latitudes 35 to 40 ; 
 and the southern, between latitudes 10 to 25, 
 the latter only from Europe to America. The 
 Atlantic varies in depth, but averages 2000 
 fathoms. On a plateau in the North Atlantic 
 are laid the telegraph-cables, four in number. 
 
 3. Indian Ocean. This, the third in size of 
 the great oceans, extends from the southern 
 shores of Asia to 50 south latitude, and from 
 Australia to Africa, containing 21,000,000 square 
 miles. It contains several large islands, but they 
 form slight impediments to navigation. The 
 southeast trades exist from 20 to 30 south lati 
 tude, and beyond them the regular monsoons 
 blow from the northeast from November to 
 March, and from the southwest from April to 
 September. The great masses of land surround 
 ing this ocean are the modifying causes of these 
 winds. Cyclones and typhoons attend the changes 
 of the monsoons, and are at times severe. High 
 seas and strong winds are frequent. 
 
 4. Antarctic Ocean. This name is given to the 
 mass of water about the South Pole. It extends 
 to latitude 60 S., and contains some 13,000,000 
 square miles. It was long considered frozen and 
 impassable for ships, but Commodore Wilkes and 
 
OCTANS 
 
 616 
 
 OLERON CODE 
 
 ( Sir James Boss, in 1841, penetrated into it, 
 and discovered land. Koss ascended to 78 04 , 
 the highest point reached. A few islands exist, 
 the South Orkneys and South Shetlands being 
 the largest. The winds are strong, and blow 
 in gales, often terrific, towards the equator, and 
 the seas are often immense. But few vessels 
 penetrate into these waters, and those only on 
 fishing voyages. 
 
 5. Arctic Ocean. The mass of water about the 
 other pole is called the Arctic Ocean. North of 
 Europe it becomes the White Sea, and north of 
 America the Frozen Ocean. It is the smallest 
 ocean, containing some 7,000,000 square miles, 
 and is partly filled by numerous islands, and the 
 peninsula (or island) of Greenland. It has been 
 the field of hardy exploration for centuries, and 
 Capt. Hall penetrated as far as 82 16 north. 
 New efforts are being made to traverse the seas 
 and reach the pole. Ice is more abundant than 
 in the South Sea. Whales, seals, and walrus 
 abound, furnishing subsistence to the hardy in 
 habitants of the coasts, and making the fisheries 
 important. 
 
 The principal phenomena connected with the 
 ocean are its winds, currents, tides, its depth, 
 saltness, temperature, density, and its animal 
 life. The currents, winds, and tides are treated 
 in separate articles. The depth of the ocean is 
 now believed to average 2000 fathoms, or about 
 2 miles. The greatest depth found is 4655 fathoms, 
 and no greater depth than 5000 fathoms is now 
 believed to exist. Extensive plateaus, mountain 
 ranges, sometimes cropping above the sea-level, 
 and valleys exist. The temperature of the ocean 
 varies with the latitude, but the isothermal lines 
 vary with the currents that carry warm or cold 
 water with them; 70 to 80 is the tropical tem 
 perature at the surface, and 50 to 60 the aver 
 age. (See CURRENTS.) The water of the ocean 
 holds in solution various salts, but the propor 
 tion varies with the locality. Near rivers the 
 water is fresher, and in parts of the ocean where 
 evaporation is rapid, it is very salt. With the 
 amount of salt varies the density of the water. 
 With the temperature both these vary, and ani 
 mal life, now found to be everywhere in the 
 ocean depths, also varies with the temperature, 
 as well as with the depth, density, and saltness 
 of the water. Animal life is far more abundant 
 than on land. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Octans. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Octant. A reflecting instrument constructed 
 on the same principle as a sextant. See SEX 
 TANT. 
 
 Odessa, the most important seaport and com 
 mercial city of that part of Kussia bordering 
 on the Black Sea, is situated on the shore of 
 that sea, between the mouths of the Dnieper and 
 Dniester, in lat. 46 28 54" N., Ion. 30 44 
 30" E. Since 1817, when Odessa was declared 
 a free port, it has continued to make unexampled 
 progress. The harbor affords good anchorage 
 for ships, but they are exposed to the eastern 
 and southeastern gales. Both the town and har 
 bor are strongly fortified. Grain is the leading 
 article of trade, which comprises tallow, hides, 
 beef, butter, iron, copper, wool, etc. Pop. 190,000. 
 
 Oe. A violent whirlwind off the Ferroe Isl 
 ands. 
 
 Oferlanders. Small vessels on the Rhine and 
 the Meuse. 
 
 Off. Abreast of. The opposite of near; as, off 
 the wind. Standing off, sailing directly away. 
 Standing off and on, approaching the shore on 
 one tack and receding from it on the other. Off 
 soundings, in water so deep that bottom cannot 
 be reached by the ordinary deep-sea line. Off 
 the reel, see REEL. 
 
 Officer of the Deck. The officer who has 
 charge, for the time being, of the management 
 of the ship. On ordinary occasions, one of the 
 watch-officers performs this duty, but, at quar 
 ters, it is assumed by the navigator, and when 
 all hands are called, by the executive-officer. 
 The officer of the deck represents the command 
 ing officer, and his orders are obeyed and his 
 position respected accordingly, though his au 
 thority is subject to that of the executive-officer. 
 His duties are laid down in the navy regulations. 
 See WATCH-OFFICER. 
 
 Officer of the Watch. See WATCH-OFFICER. 
 
 Offing. In the offing, well to seaward ; beyond 
 anchoring-ground. To get a good offing, to get 
 well clear of the land. 
 
 Off-shore Wind. A wind blowing from the 
 land. 
 
 Ogdensburgh is a port of entry, situated on 
 the St. Lawrence River, in St. Lawrence County, 
 N. Y., at the mouth of the Oswegatchie, in lat. 
 44 41 N., Ion. 75 31 W. The prosperity of 
 the place is principally derived from trade and 
 extensive manufactures of flour, machinery, 
 leather, etc. It has an immense grain-eleva 
 tor, and about 10,000,000 bushels of grain pass 
 through each year from the West to the New 
 England States. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Ogee. A molding with a concave and a con 
 vex outline like the letter S. 
 
 Ohm. The unit of electrical resistance ; it is 
 the resistance offered by a round wire of pure 
 copper, 10 long and .01" in diameter, at 42 F. 
 
 Oil-butt. A name for the black-whale. 
 
 Oiler. A can for supplying oil to a journal. 
 
 Ojanco Snapper. A tropical fish of the Meso- 
 prion family, frequenting the deep-water banks 
 of the West Indies. 
 
 Oke. A Levant weight of 2| pounds, common 
 in Mediterranean commerce. 
 
 Old Hand. A knowing and expert person. 
 
 Old Horse. Tough salt-beef. 
 
 Old Ice. In polar parlance, the ice of pre 
 vious seasons. 
 
 Old Man. A sort of chute used in paying a 
 chain-cable into a lighter. A common appella 
 tion for the master of a merchantman and the 
 commanding officer of a man-of-war. Old woman 
 is sometimes disrespectfully used to indicate the 
 latter personage. 
 
 Old-stager. A person well initiated in any 
 thing. 
 
 OLD-STAQERISM. An adherence to established 
 customs ; sea conservatism. 
 
 Oldster. The opposite of youngster. It is 
 somewhat difficult to draw the line between an 
 oldster and a youngster, each person drawing it 
 to suit himself. 
 
 Old Wife. A fish about 2 feet long, and 9 
 inches high in the back, having a small mouth, 
 a large eye, a broad dorsal fin, and a blue body. 
 Also, the brown long-tailed duck of Pennant. 
 
 Old Woman s Tooth. A peculiar chisel for 
 stub-mortising. 
 
 Oleron Code. A celebrated collection of 
 
OLICK 
 
 617 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 maritime laws, compiled and promulgated at 
 the island of Oleron, near the coast of Poitou, at 
 or about the time of Richard I. This code was 
 borrowed from the Rhodian laws and the Conso- 
 lato, with alterations and additions adapted to 
 the trade of Western Europe. It has served as 
 the model for nearly all subsequent sea-laws, and 
 has been admitted" as authority on admiralty 
 questions in the courts of this country. 
 
 Olick. The torsk or tusk, Oadus callaris. 
 
 Olpis. A classic term for one who, from a 
 shore eminence, watched the course which shoals 
 of fish took, and communicated the result to the 
 fishers. See CONDER. 
 
 Ombre. A fish, more commonly called gray 
 ling, or umber. 
 
 On. On a bow-line, or on the wind, close to 
 the wind with bow-lines hauled ; close-hauled. 
 On board, within a ship. On end, an-end. On 
 is frequently and improperly used for in, or on 
 board ; as, on a ship. On the beam, in a direction 
 at a right angle to the keel. On the bow (or 
 quarter), in a direction forming an angle of less 
 than 45 with the head (or stern) of the ship. 
 
 One-and-all. A mutinous sea-cry used in 
 the Dutch wars. Also a rallying call to put the 
 whole collective force on together. 
 
 Onerariae. Ancient ships of burden, with 
 both sails and oars. 
 
 Onion-fish. The Cepola rubescens, whose 
 body peels into flakes like an onion. It is of a 
 pale red color. 
 
 On-shore Wind. A wind blowing towards the 
 land. 
 
 Oomiak. A light seal-skin Greenland boat, 
 generally worked in fine weather by the women, 
 but in bad weather by the men. 
 
 Opah. A large sea-fish (Lampris guttatus], 
 called also king-fish. Its back is of a steel-blue 
 color, its flanks of a rich green, and its abdomen 
 of a rose color. 
 
 Open. Exposed to. wind and sea. To open fire, 
 to commence firing. Open hawse, see HAWSE. 
 Open ice, fragments of ice, between which a ship 
 may be forced. Open order, see NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 Open-bill (Anastomus}. A genus of birds of 
 the Heron family (Ardeidce}. They are remark 
 able for the structure of the bill, the mandibles 
 being in contact only at the base and tip, with a 
 wide interval between their edges in the middle. 
 They are natives of the East Indies and of Africa; 
 one species is well known in India as the Cor- 
 omandel Heron. They frequent the sea-coast 
 and rivers and prey on fish and reptiles. 
 
 Ophiuchus (Gr. Ophiouchus, "The Serpent- 
 bearer"). A constellation to the north of Scor 
 pio, covering a space not very well supplied with 
 bright stars, a Ophiuchi, Has Alhague. (3 Ophiu- 
 chi, Cebalrai. 
 
 Oporto is situated on the Douro Kiver, 2 
 miles from its mouth, in the province of Douro, 
 Portugal, of which empire it was the capital 
 until 1174, and it is now the second city in rank 
 and commercial importance. It has extensive 
 manufactures of silk, woolen, linen, and cot 
 ton goods, shawls, leather, etc., ship-building 
 yards, and iron-foundries. The principal trade 
 of the city is in port wine ; other exports are 
 bullion, oil, sumac, lemons, oranges, wool. etc. 
 Lat. 41 9 N. ; Ion. 8 37 W. Pop. 90,000. 
 
 Opossum-shrimp. A crustacean, so named 
 from its young being carried about in a sort of 
 
 pouch for some little time after being hatched ; 
 the Musis flexuosus of naturalists. 
 
 Oppignoration. The pawning of part of the 
 cargo to get money for the payment of the duty 
 on the remainder. 
 
 Opposition. Two celestial bodies are in oppo 
 sition when their longitudes differ 180, especially 
 when one of the bodies is the sun. 
 
 Oragious. An old term for stormy or tempest 
 uous weather. 
 
 Oramby. A sort of state-barge in the Moluc 
 cas ; some of them are rowed by 40, 80, or even, 
 it is said, 100 paddles each. 
 
 Orariae. Ancient coasting-vessels. 
 
 Orbis. A fish of a circular form (the Chceto- 
 don orbis of Gmelin) inhabiting the Indian seas. 
 It is covered with a firm, hard skin, full of small 
 prickles, but is destitute of scales. It is unfit for 
 food ; called also orb-fish. 
 
 Orbit. The imaginary line which a heavenly 
 body describes by its proper motion. 
 
 Ore. Wrack, or sea-weed, used as manure on 
 some of the coasts of England. 
 
 Orca. A classical name for a large voracious 
 sea-animal, probably a grampus. 
 
 Order-book. A book kept for the purpose of 
 copying such occasional successive orders as the 
 admiral or senior officer may find it necessary to 
 give. 
 
 Orderly. A private marine detailed as a mes 
 senger for the commanding officer. 
 
 Order of Battle. See NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 Ordinary. Vessels are in ordinary when they 
 are out of commission and laid up. 
 
 Ordinary Seaman. A rating next below that 
 of seaman. 
 
 Ordnance. Gunpowder was not employed in 
 Europe to throw projectiles until near the latter 
 part of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th 
 century. 
 
 Berthold Schwartz, of Freyburg, to whom, in 
 the old German chronicles, is attributed the in 
 vention of gunpowder, but who was rather the 
 disseminator of a knowledge of its ballistic prop 
 erties, which he had discovered, was the first to 
 employ it to project masses, such as were thrown 
 by the ancient ballista, in mortars and bom 
 bards. 
 
 The first large bombards were short, resem 
 bling in form the modern mortar, and are said to 
 have been made of wood strengthened by iron 
 hoops, or of sheet-iron similarly reinforced with 
 hoops sometimes brazed together. The later bom 
 bards, of greater size and strength, were formed 
 of bars of iron arranged like the staves of a bar 
 rel and hooped with rings of wrought iron heated 
 and shrunk on. Such were the great gun of 
 Ghent and the Mons Meg of Scotland. The 
 serpentine, of small calibre but of great length, 
 was of similar construction. 
 
 Among the most remarkable of the ancient 
 forms was the stone mortar, a truncated cone 
 within and without, the smaller diameter corre 
 sponding to the breech, which terminated in a 1 
 conical screw, by which it could be rigidly at 
 tached to a block of wood. All were strength 
 ened by a swell at the muzzle and breech. They 
 had neither trunnions nor handles. In 1427 
 the bombard was described by Redusius as of 
 wrought iron, and consisting of a tube which, 
 cylindrical in the rear, widened like a funnel 
 towards the mouth. 
 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 618 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 The forward or widened part was 8 diameters 
 of the ball in length, the rear part 16. The 
 powder was placed in the latter, which was closed 
 with a disk of wood, upon that, in the large 
 part, the stone ball. The charge was ignited 
 through a vent in the rear part. 
 
 In 1428 the English employed 15 breech-load 
 ing bombards at the siege of Orleans, arms of 
 the preceding century. They were of lengths 
 double or triple their diameters, and half bedded 
 in a sort of wooden case, with which they were 
 consolidated by bolts of iron resting on the tube, 
 and traversing rings nailed to the upper face of 
 the wooden case, their ends keyed. In loading, 
 the movable chamber, filled with powder, was 
 adjusted to the walls of the bore, a wad of hay 
 pushed down from the muzzle, and after that 
 the ball. 
 
 In 1439 the two parts composing the bombard, 
 of iron or copper, were cast together or reunited 
 on the same piece of oak. Towards the close of 
 the 13th century iron balls came into use. In 
 1378 they were cast both solid and hollow at 
 Augsburg, as were also bronze guns ; and from 
 that time guns approached their present forms, 
 but were at first of such dimensions and weight 
 as to be unwieldy. 
 
 The Turks had, in 1453, guns cast by Hunga 
 rian founders of 27-inch calibre, throwing stone 
 balls of from 850 to 1200 pounds, which could 
 be fired only four times in a day. The heaviest 
 required to transport it 200 men and 70 yoke of 
 oxen. One of them burst at the siege of Con 
 stantinople with destructive effect at the first 
 discharge. 
 
 Such are the guns Kemerlicks seen by Yon 
 Moltke in the batteries of the Dardanelles in 
 1828, and by him described as gigantic guns, 
 some 28 inches in diameter, into which a man 
 might creep up to the breech. They lie on the 
 ground on sleepers of oak, instead of gun-car 
 riages, with their butts against strong walls so 
 as to prevent recoil, as it would be impossible to 
 run them forward again in action: some of them 
 throw stone balls of 1570 pounds weight, with 
 charges of more than a hundred-weight. 
 
 Bishop Pococke describes one of iron, " 20 feet 
 long, in two parts, after the old way of working 
 cannon of iron in several pieces. The bore is 2 
 feet, so that a man may sit in it ; 2 quintals of 
 powder are required to load it, and it carries a 
 ball of 14 quintals." 
 
 The first foundries in Germany were not estab 
 lished until 1440. Up to that period only a few 
 cities and wealthy princes possessed one or two 
 large bombards. 
 
 In 1478, Louis XI. caused 12 guns the Twelve 
 Peers of France of 45 pounds calibre to be cast ; 
 also a large bombard which threw an iron ball 
 of 500 pounds weight, with a charge of 300 
 pounds of powder. By a premature discharge 
 of this piece in the same year 14 persons, among 
 them Jehan Mangue, its maker, were instantly 
 killed; 15 or 16 wounded, several fatally; and a 
 poulterer, tending his flock in<a distant field, was 
 killed by the ball. 
 
 In 1494, Charles VIII. invaded Italy. This 
 prince, with an army of 20,000 men, had thirty- 
 six 48-pounder bronze siege-guns, 8 feet long, 
 weighing 6000 pounds ; 104 field-pieces, cul- 
 verins, falcons, and falconettes, with other guns 
 of less calibre, but of greater comparative length, 
 
 all on wheel-carriages drawn by horses. " "With 
 these guns were made more discharges in a few 
 hours than had before been made in several 
 days." 
 
 In the reign of Francis I. progress was made 
 in the improvement of ordnance. From that 
 time efforts were made to fix thickness and calibre 
 of guns, to improve powder, to establish proper 
 charges, and to adopt improved processes in the 
 foundries. 
 
 In 1521, Charles V. caused experiments to be 
 made at Brussels to determine the most advan 
 tageous length of guns ; the pieces, 48-, 36-, and 
 24-pounders, were cast of extra length, with five 
 muzzle swells at which they were successively 
 cut off. The greatest ranges were given by 18, 
 20, and 22 calibres respectively ; a length of 18 
 calibres was adopted for all. 
 
 In 1535 he had 12 guns of new proportions cast 
 at Malaga, the Twelve Apostles, 40-pounders. 
 These pieces long served as models for cannon- 
 founders in Europe. They had a reinforce at the 
 chamber ; length of bore, 18 calibres ; length of 
 reinforce, 8 calibres ; the thickness in ^ of a 
 calibre, 7, 5, 3, at the chamber, trunnions, and 
 neck ; weight of the gun, 6300 pounds, and of 
 the charge, 20 pounds. Improvements continued 
 to be made in France until towards 1550, when 
 civil war interrupted progress until the end of 
 that century. 
 
 In 1547 cast-iron guns are said to have been 
 in general use in England. 
 
 In 1572, Charles IX. suppressed the great va 
 riety of calibres then in use under various names, 
 substituting seven, from the 42-pounder of 9200 
 pounds weight, 11 feet long (double cannon), to 
 the 2- and f-pounders of from 200 to 400 pounds 
 weight, 6.} feet long (falconet). 
 
 About "the middle of the 16th century many 
 guns exploded with fatal effect, and among other 
 causes assigned by Fronsperger, in 1555, was the 
 use of fine-grained powder -instead of the large 
 common powder. 
 
 In 1540 large-grain powder was preferred to 
 fine for large calibres. 
 
 In 1546, according to Tartaglia, cannon-powder 
 was not grained, but musket-powder was. 
 
 The compositions most used were 
 
 For Large Calibres. 
 
 Nitre 50 
 
 Sulphur 33.3 
 
 Carbon 10.7 
 
 Medium. 
 fiG.7 
 20 
 13.3 
 
 Small-Arms. 
 83.4 
 8.3 
 8.3 
 
 In 1593, as given by Vignere, the composition 
 of French war powder was as follows : 
 
 For Cannon. Arquebuse. 
 
 Nitre 75.G8 71.43 
 
 Sulphur 10.81 14.285 
 
 Carbon 13.51 14.285 
 
 The cannon-powder was in grains of the size 
 of small hazel-nuts. 
 
 In 1606, St. Julian, in his "Forge of Vul 
 can," published in Holland, says, u With large 
 cannon-powder the charges are one-half, some 
 times three- fourths, of the weight of the ball. 
 But when the use of musket-powder began the 
 charges were reduced to less than half." 
 
 He thought that effort should be limited to 
 improving the quality of powder while preserv 
 ing its grain, and that the wad of hay placed on 
 it should be as large as possible. 
 
 From this it appears that while on the one 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 619 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 hand it was sought to reduce the initial pressure 
 of the gases in large guns hy adjustment of 
 proportions of the components of powder, on 
 the other, the better means air-space and large- 
 grain powder had at that early day its advo 
 cates. 
 
 In Italy, about 1597, cannon, properly so 
 called, shorter than the culverins, having been 
 suppressed, only culverins of 14 and 30 pounds 
 calibre were cast. 
 
 In the same year Savorgano, who had previ 
 ously cast for the galleys guns 36 calibres in 
 length, | of a calibre thick at the breech, in 
 vented a new breech-loader, its calibre that of the 
 sacre, 12-pounder, but having greater range 
 than the petriera a braga. The piece was closed 
 from the side of the breech by a bronze wedge 
 which traversed it. The ball was attached to the 
 cartridge. The petriera a braga was invented by 
 Beccalua ; some.of 12, others of 14 pounds calibre, 
 their weight 62 times that of the shot. The 
 chamber movable. A thick wad was placed in 
 the piece, then the ball, and after that the charged 
 chamber secured by an iron wedge attached to 
 the carriage, the forward end of which rested 
 upon two supports. 
 
 In 1605, Henry IY. had 50 pieces 45-pound- 
 ers all alike. Sully, Grand Master of Ord 
 nance, said such a park had never been seen 
 before. The 60-pounder was suppressed as too 
 difficult to transport, and rendering no better 
 service than the 40-pounder. All guns were 
 richly chased. In 1609, in Spain, the calibres 
 were reduced to four, 40-, 24-, 10-, and 5-pounders ; 
 lengths, 19, 24, 29 calibres ; ratios of weight of 
 gun to shot, 180, 235, 380. Some time before 
 this there had been added to the culverins then, 
 in use in these states battering guns of the cali 
 bres 96-, 48-, 24-, 12-, and 6-pounders , lengths, 17, 
 18, 20, 24, 29 calibres. To these guns the mod 
 ern French 24- and 12-pounders owe their origin. 
 
 Iron guns are said to have been cast at Erfurt 
 in 1377, in Silesia in 1440, in England in 1547, 
 in Hartz in 1626, and in Prussia in 1667. Nearly 
 all the earlier writers considered cast-iron guns 
 as less strong than bronze, but no mention is 
 made of explosions. As the windage was large, 
 the mode of charging such as gives low press 
 ures, and the powder less violent, accidents were 
 probably rare. 
 
 In 1626, Gustavus Adolphus employed the so- 
 called leather guns, invented by Col. Wurm- 
 brand. The cylinder of bore, of copper, 15 cali 
 bres in length, an eighth of a calibre in thick 
 ness, lightly reinforced about the seat of the 
 charge ; the vent-tube of iron, screwed to the 
 cylinder of the bore. The bottom of the bore 
 was formed by the face of a bronze breech 1 cal 
 ibre in length, with a button, and fixed to the 
 copper cylinder by 6 screws. Strong rings of 
 iron added to the solidity of the cylinder around 
 the charge. At the forward extremity the cop 
 per was rolled on itself to form a muzzle swell. 
 The cylinder, coated with several layers of mas 
 tic, was wrapped with rope and twine, giving a 
 thickness of 1 calibre to the first reinforce, and 
 f to the chase, which served not only to strengthen 
 it, but to secure the trunnions. Over this was 
 placed a coat of plaster, giving an even surface. 
 The whole was then covered with leather. 
 
 In 1631 these guns were discarded, for, in con 
 sequence of the non-conductivity of the envelop 
 
 ing material, they became so hot at the battle of 
 Leipsic as to ignite their charges. The charge 
 being limited to one-quarter the weight of the 
 ball, their range was short. 
 
 In 1640 large gun-foundries were established 
 in Sweden. 
 
 The word " mortar," or " mortier," appears to 
 have been first applied to pieces employed by the 
 Turks at the siege of Belgrade, in 1456. They 
 had also, at the siege of Rhodes, in 1522, 12 
 bronze mortars throwing copper bombs, consist 
 ing of two hemispheres inclosing inflammable 
 matter and small hollow balls which burst (gre 
 nades). Mention is made of bombs larger than 
 hand-grenades at the bombardment of Aries, in 
 1536. 
 
 Bombs 11 and 19 inches in diameter, with 
 fuzes which screwed into the eye, were employed 
 at the siege of Boulogne, in 1542. 
 
 In 1606, according to St. Julian, mortars were 
 of the calibres 6, 12, and 18 inches. They had 
 trunnions at the middle of their lengths, without 
 rim-bases or reinforces ; the charge, 1 pound of 
 powder for each 30 pounds of the weight of the 
 bomb. The chambers of some were cylindrical, 
 of others concave, spherical, or pear-sbaped: 
 some of the latter in the 12-inch containing 18 
 pounds of powder. The bombs of the 18-inch 
 weighed, empty, 490 pounds ; filled, 538 pounds. 
 
 Knowledge of the bomb and of mortar-firing 
 was introduced from Holland into France by 
 Malthus in 1634. 
 
 In 1637 fatal accidents occurred in igniting the 
 fuzes of bombs in mortars prior to discharge. In 
 1638 it was observed at Versailles that the fuze 
 could be ignited by the flame of the charge, but 
 it was not until 1751, when Le Due had shown 
 by extended experiments the certainty of igni 
 tion, that the method was changed. 
 
 The small mortar introduced into France by 
 Coehorn in 1679, and to which his name was 
 given, was invented by Holts in 1668. 
 
 In 1691 the 18-inch bomb was named by Louis 
 XIV. " Comminges," after an officer of remark 
 able girth. In 1697 they were employed at the 
 siege of Ath. In 1733, at the siege of Trarbach. 
 In 1745, producing little effect at the siege of 
 Tournay, and being difficult to transport, they 
 were discarded. 
 
 The partridge mortar (mortier d grenade] was 
 invented by Petri in 1693. In addition to the 
 ordinary bomb, it projected 13 grenades from as 
 many barrels disposed circularly around an 8- 
 inch mortar, which weighed 205 pounds, the 
 total weight 241 pounds ; charge of the 8-inch, 
 pound ; of the others, proportionally less. It 
 was introduced in France in 1700. 
 
 Machinery for boring cannon, invented in 
 Switzerland by Lew, was introduced into France 
 by the founder Maritz, who cast the first solid 
 gun in 1713. Until 1721 service guns were cast 
 hollow. In that year, the brothers Keller in 
 vented a vertical borer which cut out the cylin 
 der of the bore in a single piece. 
 
 In 1744-45, Maritz suppressed hollow casting 
 at Strasbourg and Douai, establishing horizontal 
 boring machinery, and in 1755, as general in 
 spector of foundries, applied the same process to 
 iron guns, employing only the softest iron. In 
 the same year solid casting for bronze guns was 
 adopted in Holland and Prussia. In hollow 
 casting it was difficult, with the imperfect means 
 
OKDNANCE 
 
 620 
 
 OKDNANCE 
 
 then in use, to maintain the core in position. 
 Cavities formed in the metal about it, and scoria 
 did not rise freely. Especially was this the case 
 with the very soft iron employed by Maritz, 
 who obtained more nearly perfect forms by cast 
 ing solid. The iron guns cast by Maritz were 
 deficient in strength ; many failed to resist proof, 
 and others burst on board ship. In consequence, 
 the control of foundries of naval guns was trans 
 ferred to the navy department, with some ad 
 vantage ; but in 1779 it was found necessary to 
 increase the thickness of metal. 
 
 Montalembert, who preferred solid to hollow 
 casting, had pointed out, in 1764, the inferiority 
 of the soft, spongy iron employed by Maritz, 
 and explaining the effect of sudden cooling in 
 rendering iron" brittle, indicated the course to be 
 pursued in the construction of stronger guns of 
 harder and more tenacious iron. The views of 
 Montalembert were in advance of his time, and 
 were neglected. 
 
 In 1732 the system of De Valliere was adopted. 
 Guns, 24-, 16-, 12-, 8-, and4-pounders ; mortars, 12- 
 and 8-inch ; stone mortars of 15-inch, and howit 
 zers of 8-inch ; the bottom of the bore of guns 
 rounded out calibre ; small chambers at the 
 bottom of the bore were retained only in 24- 
 and 16-pounder guns. 
 
 The windage and thickness of the metal were 
 proportional to the diameter of the ball ; thick 
 ness at breech, 1 diameter ; at the beginning and 
 end of the first reinforce, f and || ; of the sec 
 ond reinforce, f| and f ; at the commence 
 ment of the chase, ||, and at the astragal of the 
 neck, ||; and finally, |f at the swell of the 
 muzzle. 
 
 The dimensions of the moldings were ex 
 pressed in terms of the diameter of the bore 
 divided into 36 parts. The length of the cas- 
 cabel, its neck, the bottom of the breech, and 
 the projection and size of the trunnions, the 
 axis of which was tangent to the lower surface 
 of the bore, were not altered. The length of the 
 two reinforces and chase preserved their relation 
 to that of the piece ; the sight and pointing-but 
 ton were suppressed. The 8-inch mortar was 
 for short ranges. The 12-inch were of three 
 kinds, one having cylindrical chambers contain 
 ing 5 pounds powder. 
 
 Two of the new guns cast at Lyons, and proved 
 by De Valliere, were discharged 1500 times in 
 quick succession, with charges of one-third and 
 one-half the weight of the ball, without injury 
 to the chase or bore, the vent of one scarcely 
 widening at all, that of the other a little. The 
 vents were in a piece of pure copper, which was 
 placed in the mold before casting. De Valliere 
 designed the screw bouche, which was found to 
 answer the purpose, but was not then adopted. 
 Until 1739 the charges of guns had been two-thirds 
 the weight of the ball. In that year Belidor deter 
 mined, by experiment at La Fere, that a charge 
 of about one- third was sufficient for all calibres. 
 The French service charges were therefore re 
 duced to that ratio. 
 
 The first of De Valliere s howitzers was cast 
 at Douai, in 1749. The bore 3 diameters in 
 length, the chamber cylindrical, 7 inches long, 
 and 3 inches in diameter. The first howitzers 
 used in France were taken from the allies at the 
 battle of Nerwinden, in 1693. In 1741, the 
 king of Prussia having introduced very light 
 
 iron guns into field service, the French attached 
 to each battalion a Swedish 4-pounder, 4J feet 
 long, of about 600 pounds weight, which could 
 be fired with ease ten times in a minute. 
 
 But the weight of the heavier guns of the 
 model of 1732, forming the heavy artillery, pre 
 vented full ad vantage ^being taken of the light 
 ness of these pieces for extended movements. 
 Austria and other powers lightened their heavy 
 artillery, and in 1756 the French, as proposed 
 by De Broglie, bored up their 12-pounders and 
 8-pounders to 16-pounders and 12-pounders. The 
 guns were then, however, deficient in strength 
 and badly proportioned. 
 
 Experiments at Strasbourg, in 1764, prepara 
 tory to the improvements proposed by Gribeau- 
 val, showed that 12-, 8-, and 4-pounders, reduced 
 in length to 18 calibres, the ratio of weight of 
 gun to that of ball being 150, had the required 
 range and sufficient mass. It was decreed in 
 1769 that there should be two classes of guns ; 
 the first, 24-, 16-, 12-, and 8-pounders, for the 
 attack and defense of fortresses; the second, of 
 12-, 8-, and 4-pounders, for field service, a 1- 
 pounder for light troops. The old 8-inch mortar, 
 a new 10-inch with cylindrical chamber, and the 
 stone mortar were retained. The 8-inch howitzer 
 appropriated to siege purposes, the 6-inch to field 
 service. A few slight alterations were made in 
 siege and garrison pieces of the models of 1732. 
 The length of the second reinforce was increased, 
 to include the rim-bases added to the trunnions ; 
 the handles received a more simple form, many 
 moldings and ornaments were suppressed, as well 
 as the small chamber at the bottom of the bore. 
 The sights and buttons were preserved. The 
 centre of gravity and the trunnions were thrown 
 a little more towards the breech. 
 
 Field-pieces were 18 diameters of the ball in 
 length. The diameter of the ball was subse 
 quently increased to diminish the windage. Siege- 
 and garrison-guns were proved by 4 discharges, 
 2 of one-third and 2 of two-thirds the weight of 
 the ball. All to be cast solid. The stone mortars 
 were cast hollow. Elevating screws replaced the 
 quoin. These changes excited much discussion, 
 but experiments at Douai in 1772 and 1785 estab 
 lished their propriety. 
 
 In 1789 the Gomer mortar was adopted, 
 chamber a truncated cone. The trunnions, their 
 axis intersecting the middle of the chamber, were 
 reinforced. There were three calibres, 12-inch, 
 10-inch, and 8-inch, their profiles similar. 
 
 The calibres of cast-iron guns for coast defense 
 were determined in 1790 : 36-, 24-, 16-, and 12- 
 pounders ; mortars 12-inch and 10-inch, with 
 chambers in the form of a truncated cone, con 
 taining 11 pounds of powder. 
 
 Notwithstanding the advantages of Gribeau- 
 val s system, it was apparent that it could be ren 
 dered still more simple. Steps were being taken 
 to perfect it when, in the year XI (1803), a de 
 cree overturning the whole system of artillery 
 substituted ill-considered innovations. By this 
 decree all guns were to be cast without reinforces 
 or moldings, in the form of a truncated cone from 
 the breech-ring to the tulip. 
 
 To avoid the complication arising from the 
 multiplicity of calibres, in the campaigns of 1808 
 and 1814, guns of Gribeauval s system, exclu 
 sively, were supplied to the armies in Spain and 
 Portugal, whilst the 6-pounder, adopted by the 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 621 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 decree of 1803, was supplied to the other armies, 
 thus practically returning to the system of Gri- 
 beauval, which was gradually perfected in mat 
 ters of detail. 
 
 In 1804 there were cast at Douai four 11-inch 
 bronze howitzers (canons-obusiers), proposed by 
 Col. Yillantroys, and subsequently two others 
 of the same calibre. Length of bore 8 calibres. 
 These guns gave ranges of 2400 toises (5117 
 yards) and upwards. One of similar character, 
 designed by Gen. Ruty, cast at Seville in 1811, 
 gave, with charge of 33 pounds and a bomb tilled 
 with lead, weighing 181 pounds, a range of 2790 
 toises (5948 yards). One of iron, Villantroys s, 
 cast at Liege in 1813, length of bore 8 calibres, 
 weighing 8491 kilogrammes, with a charge of 
 from 30 to 60 pounds, and a bomb of 180 pounds, 
 sabot of 13 pounds, gave a range of 2671 toises 
 (5694 yards). 
 
 Bronze guns were in general use in England 
 in 1768, when John Muller urged, on the ground 
 of lightness and economy, the substitution of 
 cast-iron guns, referring, in illustration, to the 
 armament of the " Royal George," consisting 
 of 100 bronze guns, weighing 218.2 tons, costing 
 28,386. The same number and calibre of his 
 model would weigh 127.8 tons, and cost 2044. 
 
 This and other propositions were favorabty re 
 ceived, and the expenses reduced. When the 
 " Royal George" sank at Spithead, in 1782, the 
 bronze 42-pounders on the lower deck had been 
 replaced by iron 32-pounders, but she still had 
 bronze 24-poimders on main-deck, quarter-deck, 
 and poop, and bronze 30-pounders on the mid 
 dle-deck. The carronade, 12-pounder to 68- 
 pohnder, invented by Gen. Melville, and first 
 cast at the Carron Works, of which Gascoigne 
 was the manager, was adopted as a navy guii in 
 June, 1779, 10 to each ship, from first-rate to 
 sloop. 
 
 Sir William Congreve is said to have been 
 the first to propose diminishing the quantity of 
 metal about the chase, and to increase that 
 about the seat of the charge. The profile of the 
 24-pounder Congreve gun of 41 hundred- weight, 
 7 feet 6 inches long, is, from base-ring to muzzle- 
 astragal, nearly a straight line, interrupted by 
 two flat rings, one at the front of the vent-field, 
 the other just forward of the trunnions; the 
 axis of the latter tangent to the lower surface 
 of the bore. The angle of dispart, 5 ; ratio of 
 weight of gun to shot, 180 ; length of bore in 
 calibres, 14.5; thickness at base-ring, 1.5; at 
 neck of chase, .5. 
 
 In 1814 experiments of comparison were made 
 at Sutton Heath with the Congreve and Blome- 
 field 24-pounder guns, the latter longer and 
 heavier than the Congreve gun, and an or 
 dinary long 24-pounder. In these experiments 
 the guns, being pointed by the line of metal, the 
 extraordinary dispart of the Congreve gun gave 
 correspondingly extraordinary ranges, attributed 
 at the time to the weight of metal at the breech 
 rather than to its form. But, in 1815, Olynthus 
 Gregory subjected three 6-pounders of the new 
 models to test with the ballistic pendulum. The 
 initial velocities were greatest for the common, 
 and least for the Congreve gun. Comparison 
 of the Congreve and ordinary long 24-pounder 
 was also made with the same result. 
 
 Monk, in 1838, and Millar subsequently in his 
 shell-gun, suppressed the ring immediately in 
 
 front of the trunnions of the ordinary gun, con 
 necting the second reinforce with the chase, and 
 the base-ring with the first reinforce, by concave 
 curves. 
 
 Of Monk s 32-pounders, 4279 were proved 
 without a failure. In these guns was a nearer 
 approach to a distribution of metal proportional 
 to the pressure at points along the bore than had 
 before been made. 
 
 In the guns modeled according to the con 
 struction proposed by Commodore Wadsworth, 
 of the U. S. navy, in 1845, all rings, excepting 
 the muzzle- and base-rings, were suppressed, and 
 the profile approaches that of the Dahlgren gun, 
 in which the lines are unbroken. 
 
 French ship-batteries. In 1812 the calibres 
 were 36-, 24-, 18-, and 12-pounder cannon and 
 carronades. In 1829 the 30-pounder, of various 
 weights, was adopted for all batteries. In 1837 
 the 80-pounder Paixhan gun was assigned a 
 place. The decree of 1848 increased the number 
 of 22-centimetre shell-guns, and that of 1849 in 
 troduced 50-pounder cannon as a substitute for 
 some of the former ; it also suppressed the car 
 ronade. 
 
 English ship-batteries. Previously to the war 
 of 1812 the long 32-pounder predominated as the 
 principal piece for the heaviest ships, and in frig 
 ates the long 1 8-pounder. In 1839 the 32-pounder, 
 six classes of different weights, was adopted. With 
 these were combined 8-inch shell-guns of 65 and 
 53 hundred-weight. In 1848 more than 8000 new 
 and reamed 32-pounders were available and about 
 1600 shell-guns. The 10-inch shell-gun of 84 
 hundred-weight, and the 68-pounder of 95 hun 
 dred-weight, were adopted as pivot-guns. 
 
 United States ship-batteries. The new ships 
 built after the war of 1812 were armed as fol 
 lows : Frigates, gun-deck, 32-pounders; spar-deck, 
 42-pounders. Liners, lower-deck, 42-pounders ; 
 gun-deck, 32-pounders ; spar-deck, 42-pounders. 
 In 1841 a few 8-inch shell-guns (63 hundred 
 weight) were introduced. In 1845 the 32-pounder 
 was adopted as unit-calibre, six classes, weighing 
 severally, 56 hundred-weight, 51 hundred-weight, 
 46 hundred-weight, 42 hundred-weight, 32 hun 
 dred-weight, and 27 hundred-weight ; the shell- 
 guns of 63 hundred-weight and 55hundred-weight 
 being almost identically the English system. In 
 1853 it was directed that ten 8-inch shell-guns of 
 63 hundred-weight should form an entire division 
 on the gun-decks of liners and frigates. None on 
 the spar-deck. 
 
 The columbiad, a heavy gun combining the 
 qualities of the gun, howitzer, and mortar, was 
 invented by Col. Bomford, and used in the war 
 of 1812. 
 
 In July, 1841, experiments proposed by Col. 
 Bomford to determine the expansive force of 
 powder in a gun by firing pistol-balls through 
 its sides, were made at Watertown Arsenal. Lat 
 eral tubes were inserted at intervals of 2 cali 
 bres. The balls were fired vertically into a series 
 of pine boards half an inch thick, and seven- 
 eighths inch apart. The number of boards pene 
 trated gave the force exerted. This method was 
 improved by Major W. Wade, the bullets being 
 discharged horizontally into a small pendulum. 
 The gun was bored through the breech and fitted 
 with a movable plug, in order to vary at will the 
 distance of the fixed barrels from the bottom of 
 the bore. 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 622 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 In 1843 the results were reported to Col. Tal- 
 cott. 
 
 Distance of Barrel from centre of Ball, Relative 
 
 in calibres. Velocities. 
 
 In rear, 1 1.0000 
 
 At the centre, 9758 
 
 In front, 1 8149 
 
 2 . 6767 
 
 6135 
 
 5291 
 
 T . . . ."."." . . . . .! 4393 
 
 9 3988 
 
 11. . . . 3667 
 
 15 2858 
 
 In 1844 a 10-inch columbiad and an 8-inch 
 columbiad of new model were tested. The 8- 
 inch burst at the 729th fire ; the 10-inch at the 
 600th fire with service charges. 
 
 In 1840 two 8-inch columbiads were cast at 
 the Fort Pitt Works, one solid, the other accord 
 ing to the plan invented by Lieut. Rodman, on 
 a hollow core through which a stream of water 
 passed while the metal was cooling. The solid 
 cast burst at the 85th, and the hollow at the 21st 
 fire; service charges, 14 pounds. 
 
 In May, 1850, Lieut. John A. Dahlgren, of 
 the navy, proposed to the Navy Department the 
 construction of a gun in accordance with a de 
 sign which he furnished. In 1852 the first gun 
 of this design was constructed by the United 
 States. The proportions, in calibres, are as fol 
 lows : 
 
 Length of fort 2.389 
 
 " junction 2.778 
 
 chase 6.833 
 
 Length of bore 12.000 
 
 breech 1.611 
 
 From face of muzzle to end of breech 13.511 
 
 Diameter at commencement of fort 3.022 
 
 At division-line between junction and chase 2.036 
 At muzzle 1.400 
 
 From a point .35 of a calibre forward of the 
 fort, the profile of the gun, for a distance of 2.28 
 calibres, corresponds with a line drawn with the 
 aid of a draughtsman s batten through the ex 
 tremities of ordinates representing the pressures 
 determined by "Wade at corresponding distances 
 in calibres from that point, the maximum press 
 ures corresponding to maximum thickness. This 
 embraces the junction. Thence, from a point 4.39 
 calibres from the bottom of the bore, the profile 
 approaches the axis, until, at the distance of 5.61 
 calibres, the difference between it and the press 
 ure-curve is 0.1 calibre ; after which it continues 
 nearly parallel to the curve of pressures. 
 
 At the commencement of swell of muzzle 
 the thinnest part of the gun the difference is 
 0.2 calibre. 
 
 It appears that the Dahlgren gun presents the 
 first practical application of results obtained by 
 experimental determinations of pressure at dif 
 ferent points along the bore, by such methods as 
 were proposed by Col. Bomford, that is, by bor 
 ing holes in the walls of the gun, through which 
 the pressure acts upon other bodies, such as pis 
 tol-balls, pistons, etc. 
 
 This, with the hemispherical breech and sup 
 pression of all rings, gives the gun that sym 
 metrical appearance which is its characteristic 
 feature. 
 
 The proving and testing of the Dahlgren shell- 
 gun was .continued during the years 1852-54. 
 
 The first 11-inch shell-gun was fired 500 times 
 with shells, and 655 times with shot weighing 
 
 170 pounds, without bursting, which occurred at 
 the 1959th round; the service charge, 15 pounds. 
 
 In 1853 the endurance of navy guns of dif 
 ferent classes was tested at Old Point Comfort by 
 Commander D. G. Farragut. Two shell-guns 
 exhibited remarkable powers of resistance. A 
 10-inch of 88 hundred-weight, cast in 1848, fired 
 275 rounds, 1 shell of 104 pounds, 10 pounds 
 powder; 28 rounds, 2 shells of 103 pounds, 8 
 pounds powder ; 8 sets of firings of 5 rounds each, 
 with solid shot of 130 pounds weight, and an 
 additional shot for each set after the first ; the 
 last set with 8 shot, charge, 14 pounds of powder 
 throughout ; followed by 62 rounds with 8 shot 
 and 18 pounds of powder ; 11 rounds with 8 shot 
 and 20 pounds of powder; a slight increase of 
 the bore over the seat of the shot, and the wear 
 of the vent being the only evidence of injury. 
 
 The 8-inch of 55 hundred- weight, cast in 1845, 
 with proportional charges, gave equally favor 
 able results. 
 
 It appears from this that the service charge of 
 the 10-inch, 10 pounds, might have been made 
 more nearly commensurate with the calibre of 
 the gun. 
 
 In 1851, to test still further the Rodman plan, 
 two pairs of 8-inch and 10-inch columbiads were 
 cast, one of each pair solid, and the other hollow 
 and cooled as before. 
 
 The 8-inch solid burst at 73 fires. 
 
 The 8-inch hollow burst at 1500 fires. 
 
 The 10-inch solid burst at 20 fires. 
 
 The 10-inch hollow burst at 249 fires. 
 
 In 1856 two 10-inch columbiads, one hollow, 
 the other solid, were tested. The solid cast 
 burst at the 26th fire, the hollow at the 31st 
 fire. 
 
 In January, 1857, Rodman recommended, "as 
 the requisite knowledge to manufacture guns of 
 those calibres which can be relied upon for any 
 given number of fires is not possessed, that the 
 casting of service columbiads be discontinued for 
 the present." 
 
 In 1857 three 10-inch columbiads, 2 solid and 
 1 hollow cast, were tested. The 2 solid cast burst 
 at the 169th and 399th fires respectively. The 
 hollow cast was unbroken after 1600 rounds. 
 
 In 1858 two 10-inch columbiads, one solid, the 
 other hollow cast, withstood 2396 rounds each with 
 service charges ; 54 rounds with charges of from 
 15 to 18 pounds; 2450 rounds, exclusive of proof 
 charges. Subsequently they were each fired 1032 
 rounds with 18 pounds of powder and a solid 
 shot, making a total of 4082 service and 2 proof 
 charges for each gun. Neither gun broken ; the 
 solid most worn. 
 
 The guns of 1857 were of the old columbiad 
 model modified to the extent of the removal of 
 the base-ring and swell of the muzzle ; while 
 those of 1858 were of a new model without cham 
 bers or ratchets in the breech, and with increased 
 thickness of metal in the breech, being over 1 
 calibres thick at that part. The cascabels, with 
 slender necks, dropped from the guns in the 
 course of the firing. The profile was unchanged, 
 with the exception of that due to substitution of 
 a cascabel for the ratchet. 
 
 In 1857-58, at Alleghany Arsenal, Rodman 
 first applied the pressure-gauge (piston and in 
 denting tool) to determine the prpssure of gas 
 in the bore of a 42-pounder, at the bottom of 
 the bore and at intervals of 2 calibres. This 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 623 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 method he had suggested to Major Wade as 
 early as 1851. 
 
 In May, 1860, was completed the first 15-inch 
 gun cast and cooled upon the Rodman plan. The 
 form was determined on the hypothesis that " the 
 pressure is inversely as the square root of the 
 space behind the shot. The expression for the 
 tangential resistance which enters the formula 
 for the bursting tendency, was derived from the 
 hypothesis that, in this resistance, the strain de 
 veloped by the action of a central force in the 
 concentric elementary cylinders, of which we 
 may suppose the gun to consist, diminishes as the 
 square of the distance from the axis increases." 
 Experiment indicated that it would be unsafe 
 to assume the strain to diminish in a less ratio. 
 As the compressibility of the metal prevents 
 the full development of both the transverse and 
 tangential resistance, only one-third of the theo 
 retical transverse resistance was used in com 
 puting the exterior radii of the 15-inch gun. 
 The gun was purposely made somewhat heavier 
 in the chase than the hypothesis that the press 
 ure is inversely as ^/i, would give it, with a 
 view to the employment of charges producing 
 more uniform pressure, and consequently greater 
 pressures in the chase of the gun, for a given 
 maximum pressure, than is obtained by the use 
 of ordinary powder. 
 
 Hodman recommends that the beginning of 
 the taper should be about half a calibre forward 
 of that part in which occurs the most rapid 
 diminution which the law of pressure would give 
 it. The exterior form and proportions of the 
 gun. as cast, are similar to those of the Dahl- 
 gren gun. The trials with the gun were very 
 satisfactory, and simultaneously with this result 
 was demonstrated the superiority of Rodman s 
 perforated cake and very large-grained powder 
 for guns of great calibre. 
 
 Rifled Cannon. Robins, whose "New Prin 
 ciples of Gunnery" was published in 1742, recog 
 nized the superiority of the rifle to the smooth 
 bore, and his prediction of advantage to the state 
 which should first adopt it has been verified. 
 
 In 1774, Dr. Linn and Capt. Alexander Blair, 
 of the 69th Regiment of Foot, invented a species 
 of rifled field-pieces of cast iron, of 1 or 2 pounds 
 calibre, the grooves 6 in number, of semicir 
 cular section, ^ calibre in depth making one 
 turn in the length of the bore, 22 calibres, and 
 cast upon the core, were, at 2 calibres from the 
 bottom of the bore, of full depth, diminishing 
 and ending at \\ calibres from the bottom. 
 Bullets, of "lead with 6 buttons cast on them to 
 fit the grooves. These rifles had telescopic sights 
 with cross-hairs and graduated sectors, and were 
 mounted on carriages. It was then asserted that 
 "rifled ordnance of any calibre might be made 
 to carry iron shot for battering or for other pur 
 poses, provided holes that are a little wider at 
 their bottom than at their upper parts be cast in 
 a zone round the ball for receiving afterwards 
 leaden knobs (studs) to fit the rifles of the 
 cannon." 
 
 Under Napoleon III., and in the light of what 
 had been done by Wahrendorf, Cavalli, and 
 others, rifled field-pieces were constructed in 
 France in 1854 which, with improvements sug 
 gested by experience in Algeria and Cochin 
 China, were employed with great effect in the 
 Italian campaign in 1856. 
 
 In 1858 the light Armstrong gun was adopted 
 for field service in England. And in 1859 the 
 Armstrong system, breech-loading and welded 
 coil, was completely adopted by the government 
 40-, 70-, and 110-pounders for the navy. 
 
 The failure of these guns as breech-loaders led 
 to the substitution of muzzle-loaders. 
 
 About the same time the Russians substituted 
 Krupp s breech-loaders for his muzzle-loaders. 
 
 Breech-loaders. In the infancy of ordnance 
 there were many breech-loading bombards, some 
 of large calibre ; but with the increased tension 
 to which the employment of iron projectiles gave 
 rise, the mechanical devices of that day were in 
 sufficient to resist the pressure, or to prevent 
 leakage of the gas, and the consequent wear 
 ing away and final yielding of the fermature. 
 And although in more recent times attempts 
 were made to accomplish so desirable an im 
 provement, they met, as in the case of Monta- 
 lembert s wall-piece, with but partial success. 
 It was not until after 1843 that the forms devised 
 by Wahrendorf and Cavalli were developed. 
 Nor, until they were united and combined with 
 the Broadwell gas-check (the principle of action 
 of which under fluid-pressure had been illus 
 trated by Bramah in his invention, the cupped 
 leather collar of the hydraulic press), was it 
 known that a properly constructed breech-loader 
 is stronger than a muzzle-loader of the same 
 calibre with a solid breech. 
 
 Built-up Guns. Since the circumferential ten 
 sion or hoop-tension in a hollow cylinder is not 
 uniformly distributed when the thickness is great 
 as compared with the radius, constructors of 
 guns have endeavored by special dispositions of 
 parts in connection with different physical prop 
 erties of cast iron, wrought iron, steel, etc., to 
 distribute the tension more uniformly. First, by 
 subjecting the interior tube or tubes to compres 
 sion under the permanent tension of encircling 
 hoops shrunk or forced on by pressure ; or by 
 the employment for the inner tubes of that metal 
 which within its elastic limit stretches most. 
 
 The systems of " initial tension" and of " vary 
 ing elasticity," as they are called, are employed 
 separately or together. 
 
 In reinforcing cast-iron guns by rings shrunk 
 upon them, Capt. Blakely employed the system, 
 of initial tension, and in the Blakely gun com 
 bined with it that of varying elasticity ; the 
 inner tube of low steel, the next of high steel, 
 over which an outer cast-iron jacket, to which 
 the trunnions were attached, was placed with 
 sufficient tension to make contact. 
 
 The Parrott gun is, in the words of its in 
 ventor, " a hooped gun of the simplest kind, com 
 posed of one piece of cast and one of wrought 
 iron. It has no taper, no screw, no successive 
 layers of hoops." 
 
 Parrott guns of various calibres were much 
 used during the war 1861-65. The 30-pounder 
 and smaller calibres exhibited remarkable en 
 durance. 
 
 The 100-pounder was regarded with some dis 
 trust, several exploding during the war. They 
 had good range, were accurate, and were highly 
 prized by the Confederates when they chanced 
 to fall into their hands. 
 
 The Brooke guns, rifled, were of cast iron re 
 inforced, during the first part of the war, by a 
 single series of bands, each 2 by 6 inches, extending 
 
OKDNANCE 
 
 624 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 * from the breech to near the trunnions. Sub^e- 
 quently, the thickness of cast iron was reduced, 
 the cylinder of the gun extended to just beyond 
 the trunnions, and a second series of bands was 
 shrunk upon the first, breaking joints. The 
 trunnions and sight-masses were united with the 
 gun by curves. There were 3 calibres : 6.4-inch, 
 7-inch, and 8-inch. The 7-inch and 8-inch were 
 chambered ; form, frustrum of cone with hemi 
 spherical bottom. The bottom of the bore of the 
 6.4-inch terminated in a hemisphere. There 
 were also three 7-inch rifles, of extra length, cast 
 without trunnions, and reinforced by three series 
 of 6 by 2 inches wrought-iron bands. The trun 
 nions were forged with their band in one piece or 
 cast in bronze. The trunnion-band was slipped 
 on loosely, the shock of recoil being transferred 
 by a heavy wrought-iron breech-strap to the 
 trunnions and carriage. 
 
 Several 10-inch and 11-inch guns, cast with 
 trunnions, but of extra length, were reinforced 
 by two and three series of bands, respectively, in 
 rear of the trunnions, but were not rifled. Spher 
 ical projectiles of steel, tempered in oil, were 
 made abroad for them, with which large charges 
 of powder were to be used. 
 
 Repeated attempts have been made to forge 
 large wrought-iron guns of bars, disks, or rings 
 welded into a single piece, capable of withstand 
 ing modern charges, but without success. It is 
 impossible to detect faults of welding in such 
 large masses, and no confidence can be placed in 
 guns so made even after proof. A heavy wrought- 
 iron gun, forged in 1843, burst on board the 
 U. S. S. "Princeton" with fatal effect. 
 
 Sir William Armstrong, who, in 1854, proposed 
 to construct rifle-cannon for the English govern 
 ment, succeeded in forming tubes, or pipes, or 
 cylinders, by coiling spirally long bars of iron 
 into tubes, and welding them upon the edges, as 
 is done in gun-barrels. Of these he composed 
 guns of great strength. Three such tubes united 
 by welding the joints were sufficient for a 25- 
 pounder gun. The welded coils were shrunk 
 upon a steel tube. Subsequently, the inner tube 
 was made of coiled iron, but experience demon 
 strated the superiority of steel. 
 
 The 9-inch 12-ton gun consists of a solid ended 
 steel barrel, a forged breech-piece, a cascabel, a 
 B tube, a trunnion-ring, and 7 coils, 12 separate 
 parts. The breech-piece, formed of wrought- 
 iron slabs welded together, drawn out, bored, 
 and turned, is shrunk upon the steel tube, tough 
 ened in oil. The cascabel-screw receives, in 
 conjunction with a shoulder at rear end of 
 breech-piece, the endway pressure of the steel 
 tube. Two coils welded together form the B 
 tube. The breech-piece and B coils are connected 
 by a hook-joint, the rear end of each being hol 
 lowed out to receive a corresponding annular 
 projection of the forward part of the other. 
 
 The steel tube is designated by the letter A ; 
 the successive series of superimposed coils by 
 the letters B, C, D, E. The coils in each serie s 
 are numbered from the rear, forward. The B 
 tube is the terminal envelope of the A tube. 
 
 In the 100-ton gun the A tube is cpmposed of 
 two parts joined by a ring. The forged breech- 
 piece is replaced by a heavy coil, which forms 
 part of the B tube. The trunnions are shrunk 
 on the B tube ; the vent is axial. 
 
 The Frazer gun is a modification of the Arm 
 
 strong, consisting of a few long double and triple 
 coils, instead of several short single ones, and a 
 forged breech-piece. The A tube of the English 
 service gun Woolwich gun is bored out of a 
 solid hammered ingot of cast steel, and oil-tem 
 pered. The B tube is composed of two single 
 tapered coils, united by a joint, and welded end 
 ways. In 7- and 8-inch guns the breech-coil is 
 composed of a triple coil, in which the middle 
 coil is reversed, a double coil, and a trunnion- 
 ring. The forward end of the triple coil is 
 turned down to form a shoulder for the reception 
 of the trunnion-ring. The double coil has a 
 shoulder at its rear end to overlap the trunnion- 
 ring which covers the joint. The three parts 
 are then welded together. The front of the 
 double coil is recessed to overlap the B tube, 
 which is first shrunk on, then the breech-coil. 
 The cascabel is screwed in and splined. The 
 9-inch guns and upwards have two double coils 
 on the breech instead of one triple coil. The 
 higher calibres have an intermediate B coil. 
 
 In the 80-ton gun there is a 2 B coil between 
 the 1 B coil and the B tube. Over the rear end 
 of the A tube is shrunk a breech-piece made of 
 a single bar 12 inches thick. The C coil is a 
 double coil, and carries the trunnions. 
 
 The metal of the Whitworth gun is obtained 
 by melting short bars of Swedish iron with a 
 small quantity of carbonaceous matter in cruci 
 bles and casting in round ingots, which are sub 
 jected to hydraulic pressure while fluid. The 
 smaller guns are forged solid ; the large built up. 
 The barrel is an ingot cast hollow and hammered 
 on a mandrel ; the hoops, also cast hollow, are 
 hammered or rolled, annealed and screwed to 
 gether to form tubes, which are bored with a 
 slight taper, and forced one over the other by 
 hydraulic pressure. In the larger guns the 
 breech is hooped with a higher steel than the 
 barrel. The breech-.screw is made with offsets 
 to screw into the barrel and the two adjoining 
 hoops. The bore is approximately a twisted 
 prism of hexagonal base, the angles rounded off, 
 the middle part of each face coincident with the 
 original circular bore. To facilitate loading, 
 that portion of each half-side of the hexagonal 
 bore of the gun on which the right half-side of 
 the projectile bears as it goes in is removed, 
 thus enabling it to enter with a loose fit. In 
 leaving, it bears on the sides which have not 
 been eased off, and the projectile issues with its 
 axis in line with that of the piece. 
 
 In the 120-pounder the diameter across flats is 
 6.4 inches, across angles, 7 inches ; length, 144 
 inches ; windage in going in, .06 inch ; weight, 
 16,660 pounds; twist, one turn in 130 inches; 
 weight of charge, 27 pounds ; projectile, 151 
 pounds; length of projectile, 20.5 inches; burst 
 ing charge of shell, 5 pounds. It is very accu 
 rate, has great range and penetration. 
 
 The Lancaster gun, patented in 1850, of ellip 
 tical bore and increasing twist, failed in service, 
 the projectiles exerting a wedging action. 
 
 The first Krupp guns were made of single in 
 gots of cast steel forged under heavy hammers, 
 but it was found necessary to reinforce them by 
 hoops of steel shrunk on ; the 6-inch guns having 
 one set, the 8- and 9-inch two, the 11-inch and 
 higher calibres three. 
 
 The tube is cylindrical, eight-tenths of a calibre 
 thick from a point over the middle of the charge 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 625 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 to that at which the rings terminate, thence to 
 the muzzle conical, diminishing to calibre. 
 The rifling is poly-grooved; the width of grooves 
 diminishes as they approach the muzzle. The 
 chamber is of larger diameter than the bore, its 
 axis above that of the rifled part. The rear of 
 the chamber is reamed out spherically, and in 
 this recess is fitted a Broadwell ring whose ex 
 terior is also a spherical segment. A slot cut in 
 the rear end of the tube receives the breech-block, 
 so guided that a motion of translation in or out 
 gives to the front face of the block a movement 
 forward or to the rear parallel to itself; so that 
 the block whose front, top, and bottom are plane 
 surfaces, its rear rounded off, is, when screwed 
 on, well supported from behind by the corre 
 spondingly inclined rear face of the slot. The 
 motion of translation is given to the block by a 
 screw which runs partly in a thread cut in the 
 upper wall of the slot. The locking is effected 
 by a screw working in a nut having rings on its 
 exterior partially cut away, which take in scores 
 cut in the solid mass at the rear of the slot. 
 
 The vent is through the breech-block in the 
 axis of the bore terminating on the face-plate. 
 Steel and chilled projectiles are used ; those of 
 steel have their points water- tempered. They 
 were formerly coated with lead, but rotation is 
 now given by a band of copper which encircles 
 the projectile near its base, being forced by 
 pressure into a groove undercut for its recep 
 tion. The band serves also as a gas-check. In 
 some projectiles there is a second band at the 
 forward part of the cylinder, which, without 
 entering the grooves, steadies the projectile. 
 Krupp s system is also applied to rifled mortars. 
 
 The Vavasseur guns, excepting the trunnions, 
 are of mild cast steel. 
 
 Upon a tube tempered in oil is shrunk a jacket 
 extending from the breech to a short distance 
 forward of the trunnions and the chase-hoops. 
 The trunnion-band and the forward and rear 
 hoops, in short lengths of from 6 to 8 inches, are 
 shrunk on. The rifling on the rib system is a 
 modification of that proposed by Lynafl Thomas. 
 The projectile has 3 corresponding grooves. The 
 twist 1 turn in 30 calibres for all calibres. A 
 breech-plug screwed into the rear end of the 
 jacket supports the tube. The vent is two-fifths 
 of the length of the cartridge from the bottom 
 of the bore. 
 
 In the 9-inch gun two series of hoops are shrunk 
 upon the jacket. In the 12-inch the hoops are 
 first shrunk one over the other, forming a com 
 pound hoop, which is then shrunk upon the gun. 
 
 Breech-loading cast-iron guns, hooped with 
 steel, were introduced into the French navy 
 about 1860. In 1871 the system in use was 
 adopted : calibres, 5.46 inches, 7.32 inches, 9.36 
 inches, and 12.48 inches. 
 
 The guns of gray iron, 2d fusion, are cast 
 hollow, chase down, and cooled from within 
 first with air, then water. A tube of Bessemer 
 steel, forged and tempered in oil, has welded on 
 its rear end a collar which screws into the cast 
 iron, and inside of which is the thread for the 
 breech-screw. The casting is shrunk upon the 
 tube, which does not extend the whole length of 
 the bore, and there is difficulty in making the 
 joint tight. Hoops of mild steel, upon one of 
 which the trunnions are forged, are shrunk upon 
 the gun. The large calibres have two series of 
 40 
 
 hoops, breaking joints. The Broadwell ring and 
 the slotted screw-plug are employed. An annu 
 lar space about the breech-plug in rear of the 
 gas-check, formed by the suppression of both 
 threads of the screws for a length of about half a 
 calibre, which was provided to receive residuum, 
 has also the important effect of transferring the 
 longitudinal pressure to a point somewhat re 
 moved from that part of the gun which is sub 
 jected to radial pressures. 
 
 The screw is turned with the aid of a crank, 
 and retained by a catch when the breech is closed. 
 On withdrawal the plug slides on to a covered 
 bracket, hinged to the right side of the breech, 
 on which it is swung around, leaving the breech 
 clear. A bronze bearer hinged to the left side 
 of the breech facilitates loading. 
 
 To utilize the heavy cast-iron guns made be 
 fore the development of the power of the rifle, 
 several methods have been proposed and success 
 fully applied. 
 
 Parson s System of Conversion. A steel tube 
 with jacket of steel shrunk on the breech part, 
 the whole inserted under pressure from rear of 
 iron casting. A steel plug is screwed into the 
 steel jacket against the rear of the tube, the 
 breech being closed by a cast-iron screw-plug. 
 
 Palliser System. A coiled wrought-iron tube 
 consisting of two thin bands, the outer shorter 
 than the inner one, upon breech end of which it 
 is shrunk. The tube is closed by a solid wrought- 
 iron breech-screw. The tube and the bore of 
 the gun are slightly tapered. The tube is re 
 tained in place by a screw locking-ring at the 
 muzzle, and by a screw through the cast iron 
 just forward of the trunnions. Full and concise 
 descriptions of these various systems of construc 
 tion, in connection with the principles involved, 
 are given in Cooke s " Naval Ordnance and Gun 
 nery," a standard work. 
 
 Rifle projectiles, generally cylindro-conoidal 
 in form, designed to penetrate armor, are of tem 
 pered steel, or of cast iron with chilled heads. 
 The shells without fuzes, the shock of impact 
 igniting the charge. 
 
 The different methods of imparting rotation to 
 the projectile may be classified as follows : 
 
 1st. By knobs (studs) or flanges of greater or 
 less leng*th, of soft metal, rigidly attached and 
 guided by the riflings, by ribs in the bore, and 
 corresponding grooves in the projectile. 
 
 In bores not of circular section, by giving the 
 projectile a corresponding cross-section, as in the 
 Lancaster and Whitworth systems. 
 
 2d. By the expansion into the grooves of a por 
 tion of the projectile, or of an attached cup, ring, 
 or rings of copper or composition, by lateral 
 pressure of the gases, accompanied in less degree 
 by lateral extension of the mass under compres 
 sion between the gases and rounded base of the 
 projectile ; or by the compression of metal of such 
 plastic nature as lead, either as a cylindrical mass 
 attached to the rounded base of the projectile, or 
 as a ring about its middle part compressed be 
 tween a shoulder in front and the forward part 
 of a hard metal cap driven by the gases over the 
 reduced cylindrical rear part of the projectile, as 
 in the Hotchkiss system. 
 
 3d. By the compression of enveloping coats or 
 rings of soft metal, lead, copper, etc., larger than 
 the bore, through which the projectile is forced. 
 The rings are sometimes undercut to obtain radial 
 
ORDNANCE 
 
 626 
 
 ORDNANCE 
 
 pressures and quick gas-check action. This sys 
 tem is employed only with breech-loaders. 
 
 The knob of lead was employed in England in 
 1774 by Dr. Linn and Capt. Blair. 
 
 "Wahrendorf, before 1843, applied lead coatings 
 to spherical shot, and in 1851 to cylindro-conic 
 projectiles, the lead being maintained in place 
 by grooves in the surface of the projectile around 
 Une cylinder, and others in the direction of the 
 riflings. Subsequently he substituted three rings 
 of Wd; the forward ring being generally torn, 
 he added a fourth of the same diameter as the 
 bore, to insure coincidence of axes. 
 
 Cavalli employed iron projectiles with two 
 flanges or wings inclined to suit the grooves, and 
 two others at the junction of the cylindrical and 
 conical parts to steady the projectile in the bore ; 
 their windage .015 inch. 
 
 Experiments in France and Belgium led to 
 increasing tke number of grooves and the sub 
 stitution of pairs of buttons for the flanges. In 
 1855, in England, Mr. Bashley Britten and Mr. 
 Lynall Thomas each took out patents for a coni 
 cal cast-iron projectile having attached to it, in 
 the rear, a hollow belt of lead or other soft metal. 
 
 Mr. Jeffery about the same time produced a 
 projectile for cannon much on the plan of a Minie 
 bullet for small-arms. Mr. Hadden, from a gun 
 with 3 circular grooves, fired a non-expanding 
 projectile cast with studs corresponding to the 
 grooves. Gommander Scott, of the royal navy, 
 recommended one with ribs or " wings," with 
 long bearings. Various modes of rifling Avere ex 
 hibited. Various modifications of grooves, broad 
 and shallow, angular and deep; and in one, rota 
 tion was imparted by ribs which fitted into cor 
 responding grooves in the projectile. Armstrong 
 employed lead coatings for his breech-loaders. 
 
 In the United States, Dr. Reed, of Alabama, 
 attached a cupped ring of wrought iron to the 
 rear part of an elongated projectile, the metal 
 cast upon it. Its diameter was the same as that 
 qf the projectile; its exterior cylindrical. It 
 took the grooves, but the cast iron of the projec 
 tile was spalled off by the pressure of the face of 
 the imbedded ring. The cup was then made 
 with an entire bottom, with several holes bored 
 through it to permit the passage of the molten 
 metal. The exterior opposing edges of the 
 wrought and cast iron were beveled off. 
 
 The cups were punched by machinery out of 
 a piece of sfeeet-iron, and finally assumed the 
 form of a thin conoidal segment, with its forward 
 end imbedded in the base of the shell at some 
 distance from the exterior of the cylinder. This 
 obviated the necassity of beveling the rear edge 
 of the projectile, but the imbedded part, lying in 
 a plane of weakness, rendered its employment 
 dangerous in large guns, although successfully 
 employed in small field-pieces. 
 
 Early in the war of 1861-65 there appeared in 
 the Confederate States a bronze or copper sabot 
 in the form of a comparatively thick spherical 
 segment secured by a central screw, and held 
 firmly by three projections from the convex 
 face of the plate, extending into holes in the face 
 of the projectile, or by three projections from 
 the projectile extending through the plate. The 
 pressure of the gases flattens the plate, increasing 
 its diameter, and thus causing it to take the 
 grooves. It was called the " Tennessee" sabot, 
 the name of its designer being unknown, and it 
 
 was applied by army and navy to projectiles for 
 heavy guns. 
 
 In the latter part of 1862, when, in conse 
 quence of the dearth of steel, solid projectiles for 
 navy rifled guns were forged of wrought iron, 
 an annular groove was turned in the base of each, 
 forming a lip, which was found to take the groove 
 as does a Minie bullet, and to cut off the escape 
 of gas. Some of the 8-inch bolts having been 
 made of bars welded longitudinally, it was 
 thought they might split in the bore of the gun. 
 To obviate this the ratchet-sabot was devised. 
 It consists of a cupped bronze or copper plate, 
 with a thin cylindrical lip, which, like that of 
 the bolt, takes the grooves, and cuts off the 
 escape of the gas. The name " ratchet-sabot" sim 
 ply indicates the mode of attachment. The base 
 of the projectile is divided into several equal 
 sectors, usually seven, their surfaces so inclined 
 to its axis as to form seven oblique radial de 
 pressions, each bounded on the right by a 
 shoulder, increasing in depth with the distance 
 from the axis. The shoulder is made slightly 
 concave. 
 
 The sabot of corresponding form, cast to fit, 
 and in close contact, is secured by a central 
 screw, one screw being sufficient for 8-inch pro 
 jectiles. Trial having shown its superior effi 
 ciency it was adopted for all cast-iron projectiles 
 employed in the Confederate navy. The first 
 made were heavy, but experiment having shown 
 that the weight could be advantageously reduced, 
 they were subsequently made much lighter. De 
 scriptions and accurate drawings of nearly all the 
 rifled projectiles used by the armies in Virginia 
 are given in " Professional Paper No. 14, Corps of 
 Engineers," by Gen. H. L. Abbot, U. S. army. 
 
 By experiments made at Charleston, in Octo 
 ber, 1863, with a 123-inch Blakely rifle, fired 
 with charges of from 30 to 55 pounds of powder 
 placed in front of a chamber 26 inches long and 
 6.2 inches in diameter, and by experiments made 
 at Augusta Arsenal, in March, 1864, by a board 
 of artillery officers, " the fact was clearly estab 
 lished that the common opinion as to the danger 
 incurred on the displacement of the projectile 
 from the charge is without sufficient foundation ; 
 that the maximum strain on the gun is experi 
 enced when the projectile is closely rammed 
 home on the charge, the latter being packed and 
 fitting the bore ; that as the projectile is removed 
 from the charge towards the muzzle the strain 
 decreases, and is at its lowest point when it is at 
 or near the muzzle itself." 
 
 This important discovery directed attention to 
 the utility of the " air-space" as a means of di 
 minishing initial pressure with increased charges, 
 by which, when applied in bores of length suffi 
 cient to afford time for the action of a sustained 
 impulsive force, extraordinary initial velocities 
 have been obtained. In recent experiments at 
 Shoeburyness (May, 1880) with an 8-inch rifle, 
 charge 90 pounds of powder, and shell of 184 
 pounds, a velocity of 2300 feet was given. With 
 a shell of new form a velocity of 3000 feet is said 
 to have been obtained. The employment of 
 enlarged chambers is now general. 
 
 Under the direction of the Bureau of Ordnance, 
 100-ponnder and 60-pounder Parrott guns have 
 been tubed and converted into 6.4-inch and 5.3- 
 inch breech-loaders on the French system ; 11- 
 inch Dahlgren guns into muzzle-loading rifles, 
 
OKDNANCE 
 
 627 
 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 adding 25 per cent, to the power of the gun at 
 the muzzle and doubling it at 1000 yards. Sim 
 ilar conversions of columbiads have been made, 
 and also applications of Krupp s system of ferma- 
 ture. Several rifles of large calibre, designed in 
 accordance with indications afforded by the most 
 recent developments abroad and in this country, 
 are to be constructed. 
 
 In 1880, Col. T. T. S. Laidley, Ordnance 
 Department, U.S.A., made some experiments 
 on the resistance of cast-iron, thick, hollow, 
 cylinders, lined with tubes of different thickness 
 of metals, to an interior pressure. The cast iron 
 was a cold-blast, charcoal-iron having a tensile 
 strength of 30,000 pounds per square inch, and 
 great extensibility. The cylinders were all cast 
 from the same furnace of metal, and were 22 
 inches in length and 11 inches in diameter. 
 They were bored out to a diameter of 3.5, 4.3, 
 and 5.1 inches respectively, leaving a solid breech 
 of 5.5 inches, except two of the first series, which 
 were bored through, and the breech closed with 
 a screw-plug 5.5 inches long. Three of the cyl 
 inders were lined with copper tubes 0.1 inch 
 thick, two with brass tubes .5 inch thick, and 
 three with coiled wrought-iron (Ulster) tubes, .9 
 inch thick, leaving the bores 3.3 inches in di 
 ameter. The bores were filled with beeswax to 
 a depth of 10 inches; a copper ring similar to 
 the Broadwell gas-check placed on the beeswax, 
 and a steel piston on top of it. The base of the 
 cylinder rested against the beam of the testing- 
 machine, and the piston was forced in till the 
 cylinders were burst. The bursting strains were 
 in direct proportion to the area of cast iron in 
 the longitudinal section through the axis. 
 
 No. 2 took a permanent enlargement of the 
 bore of 0.187 inch, and an increase of 0.078 inch 
 in the diameter of the exterior, without breaking 
 or showing any sign of a crack. 
 
 Dimensions of Cylinders and Bursting Strains. 
 
 Lining. 
 
 Thickness of 
 Cast-Iron Walls. 
 
 Bursting 
 Strain. 
 
 Kind of. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Copper 
 
 Inches. 
 O.I 
 O.I 
 01 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 
 Inches. 
 3.746 
 3.746 
 3.746 
 3.343 
 3.347 
 2.945 
 2.945 
 2.943 
 
 Pounds. 
 792,500 
 769,200!= 
 737,600 
 635,500 
 687,900 
 660,-200 
 735,400 
 698,100 
 
 Copper 
 
 Bionze 
 Bronze 
 Wrought iron 
 Wrought iron 
 Wrought iron 
 
 While foreign states, recognizing the superior 
 ity of the rifle, have augmented the power of their 
 armaments, the United States have deferred ac 
 tion until costly experiments and competitive 
 trials abroad have developed all that is necessary 
 to be known in order to construct ordnance of a 
 permanent character. 
 
 A point has now been reached from which a 
 just departure may be taken, and it only remains 
 for the government, in making the necessary ap 
 propriations, to give the ordnance of this coun 
 try a relative efficiency not less than it possessed 
 before the advent of the breech-loading rifle. 
 J. M. Brooke. 
 
 * Diameter of bore of lining, 3.4 inches ; the others, 3.3 
 inches. 
 
 ORDNANCE-HOY. A hulk expressly fitted for 
 transporting ordnance stores. 
 
 Organization. The navy is organized as a 
 department under the Executive of the nation. 
 The President is by the Constitution the com- 
 mander-in-chief of the navy. He is represented 
 by a Secretary, who is an officer of the Cabinet. 
 To aid the Secretary in carrying out his duties 
 the business of the Department is divided under 
 eight permanent bureaus. Each bureau is pre 
 sided over by an officer of the navy, who, if 
 below the grade of commodore, is given that 
 grade or its relative rank whilst in office. 
 
 The bureaus are those of: 
 
 Ordnance. Charged with the administration 
 of everything pertaining to the armament of 
 ships, including the experimental battery at 
 Annapolis, torpedo school at Newport, and nitre 
 beds at Maiden. This bureau is represented on 
 shore, at dock-yards and manufactories, by in 
 spectors and assistant inspectors of ordnance, 
 and at sea by the ordnance-officers and gunners 
 of ships. 
 
 Equipment and Recruiting. Charged with the 
 canvas, rigging, and general equipment of ships, 
 including coals and wood. The enlistment, ser 
 vice, discharge, re-enlistment, burial, and organ 
 ization of the men, including the apprentice 
 system, and receiving-ships or barracks. This 
 bureau is represented on shore, at dock-yards by 
 the equipment-officer, by the commanding and 
 executive officers of receiving-ships or barracks, 
 by the officers detailed for recruiting duty, and 
 by such officers as may be appointed as special 
 inspectors of equipment ; at sea by the equip 
 ment-officers of ships, the boatswains and sail- 
 makers. 
 
 Navigation. Charged with the administration 
 of everything pertaining to the navigation of 
 ships, including the Hydrographic Office, Signal 
 Office, Naval Observatory, Nautical Almanac 
 Office, and Office of Detail, from which orders 
 are issued to officers for service and in which the 
 officers rolls are kept. At dock-yards this bureau 
 is represented by the navigation-officer, and at 
 sea by the navigating officers of ships. Scientific 
 expeditions are usually under its direction. 
 
 Yards and Docks. Charged with the admin 
 istration of everything connected with buildings, 
 wharves, docks, streets, railways, and such other 
 government property of a permanent nature as 
 may be at any of the naval stations. In addition 
 to the foregoing, this bureau is charged with the 
 direction of the Naval Asylum, and, at navy- 
 yards, is represented by the civil engineers. 
 
 Medicine and Surgery. Charged with the ad 
 ministration of everything connected with the 
 hygiene and surgery of the service, including 
 the naval hospitals, sick quarters, and naval 
 laboratory. This bureau is represented on ser 
 vice by the officers of the medical corps. _ 
 
 Provisions and Clothing. Charged with the 
 provisioning and clothing of the navy. This 
 bureau is represented by the officers of the pay 
 corps, who are besides charged with the care of 
 all funds which may be placed in their hands by 
 the Treasury Department for the use of the navy, 
 accounting for the same to the Second Comp 
 troller, and Fourth Auditor of that Department. 
 
 Steam Engineering. Charged with the admin 
 istration of everything connected with the steam 
 machinery of ships. This bureau is represented 
 
ORGANIZATION 
 
 628 
 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 on shore and afloat by the officers of the engineer 
 corps. 
 
 Construction and Repair. Charged with the 
 construction and repair of the hulls, decks, bulk 
 heads, spars, and boats of vessels. This bureau 
 is represented at dock-yards by naval construc 
 tors, and at sea by the executive-officers and car 
 penters of ships. 
 
 The office of judge-advocate-general is to be 
 charged with the administration of naval justice. 
 See JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 
 
 The Secretary is assisted in his legal decisions 
 by an officer detailed from the Attorney-General s 
 Office, and in his pecuniary ones by the Second 
 Comptroller of the Treasury. 
 
 The shore stations, consisting of the navy-yards 
 at Portsmouth, N. H., Boston, Mass., New York, 
 N. Y., League Island, Pa., Washington, D. C., 
 Norfolk, Va., Pensacola, Fla., and Mare Island, 
 Cal., and the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., 
 are commanded by officers detailed as comman 
 dants, who are directly responsible to the Secre 
 tary of the Navy. All the bureaus are repre 
 sented at the yards as has been stated. There 
 are besides the naval stations at New London 
 and Port Royal. 
 
 The marine corps is commanded by a colonel 
 commandant. This officer commands the marines, 
 and has charge of their detailing for sea-service, 
 quartering, commissariat, clothing, and pay, be 
 ing assisted by officers of the corps. He has 
 entire control of the marine barracks at Wash 
 ington, D. C., and controls those at the naval 
 station under the commandants of the yards. 
 
 Many officers of the navy are detailed for duty 
 under the Treasury Department, occupying posi 
 tions in the Light-House and Coast Survey De 
 partments. 
 
 The officers of the navy are divided among 
 the line, and the medical, pay, engineer, and 
 construction corps. There are besides chaplains, 
 professors, civil engineers, and the officers of 
 the marine corps. 
 
 The cruising navy is divided into five squad 
 rons, each commanded by a flag-officer, who 
 hoists his flag on board one of the vessels of his 
 squadron. 
 
 Each flag-officer has certain officers detailed 
 to act as his personal staff, accompanying him in 
 case he shifts his flag. There are two lieutenants 
 who act as flag-lieutenant and secretary, and 
 several lieutenants and junior officers as aids; 
 the number and rank depending on the size of 
 the squadron. 
 
 The general staff, who also perform duty as 
 officers of the flag-ship in small squadrons in 
 peace-time, are a chief-of-staff (commanding 
 officer), a fleet-surgeon, a fleet-paymaster, a fleet- 
 engineer, and a fleet marine officer. In war-time 
 the general staff would always accompany the 
 flag-officer. 
 
 The organization of a ship of war is as fol 
 lows : 
 
 A commanding officer, who is responsible for 
 and commands the ship and everything in her. 
 
 An aid or executive to the commanding officer, 
 who assists him in his duties, and takes special 
 charge of everything belonging to the Bureaus 
 of Equipment and Recruiting, and Construc 
 tion. 
 
 A navigator, who assists the commanding offi 
 cer in navigating the ship, and takes special 
 
 charge of everything belonging to the Bureaus 
 of Navigation and Ordnance. 
 
 Watch- and division-officers, who carry on the 
 routine of the ship, representing the command 
 ing officer, in turn, on the deck of the ship. 
 
 Officers of the forecastle and midshipmen of 
 the watch, who assist the watch-officers in all 
 their duties. 
 
 Assistant navigators, who assist the navigator. 
 
 Aid to the commanding officer. 
 
 Mates of decks, holds, and hull, who have 
 charge, under the executive- and watch-officers, 
 of the parts of the ship named. 
 
 A medical officer and one or more assistants, 
 who attend to the sick and wounded. 
 
 An engineer and assistants, who have charge 
 of the engines and boilers. 
 
 A paymaster, assisted by a clerk, who has 
 charge of the clothing and provisions in store, 
 issuing them on requisition. He also pays the 
 officers and men, and has charge of the disburse 
 ment of the moneys expended by the representa 
 tives of the different bureaus. 
 
 A marine officer, who commands the marine- 
 guard. 
 
 A chaplain. 
 
 A gunner, a boatswain, a sailmaker, and a 
 carpenter also form part of the complement of 
 large ships. 
 
 The organization of the crew is based on the 
 necessities of the ship when under sail and steam, 
 slightly modified in vessels of peculiar rig to suit 
 the requirements of the battery. Theodore B. 
 M. Mason, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Organization, when referred to in works on 
 seamanship, relates to the organization of a ship s 
 company. The duties of officers on board ship 
 are clearly defined by regulations. But the 
 crew, composed of able seamen, ordinary sea 
 men, landsmen, and boys, many of them utter 
 strangers to one another and to the officers, of 
 some foreigners, of merchant-sailors unaccus 
 tomed to the routine of a ship-of-war, of others 
 again totally ignorant of a ship of any kind, 
 forms altogether a motley crowd which must 
 be " sorted out," as it were, and the work of the 
 ship, as a powerful engine of war, so distributed 
 among them that, each one acting the part as 
 signed him, the daily routine may be performed 
 efficiently and expeditiously. The organization 
 and the routine, together with the drills and ex 
 ercises which form their principal feature, all 
 have for their ultimate object a state of prepara 
 tion for immediate battle. 
 
 The first step is the selection of a good corps 
 of petty officers, boatswain s mates, quarter 
 masters, quarter-gunners, coxswains, captains of 
 the five "parts of the ship" (forecastle, fore-, 
 niain-, and mizzen-tops, and after-guard), cap 
 tain of the holds, etc. Next come the able sea 
 men, who are selected according to their age and 
 build, for the forecastle and tops, the younger and 
 lighter being stationed aloft. The ordinary sea 
 men are mostly stationed aloft, while the lands 
 men and boys are distributed nearly equally 
 among the different parts of the ship, with the 
 exception of the after-guard, where the landsmen 
 are in excess. The petty officers being culled 
 out, we next proceed to make out the watch-bill, 
 which forms the basis of the organization The 
 entire crew is divided into two watches, star 
 board and port, taking care in doing so that the 
 
ORGANIZATION 
 
 629 
 
 OSCILLATING-PISTON ENGINE 
 
 intelligence and physical force shall be equally 
 distributed between* the two. Each member of 
 the crew has his watch number, the odd numbers 
 belonging to the starboard watch, the even to the 
 port. Thus, beginning with the forward part of 
 the ship, the captain of the starboard watch of 
 forecastle is No. 1 on the watch-bill ; the captain 
 of the port watch of forecastle No. 2, and so on 
 through the ship s company. Each watch is 
 divided into two equal parts, called respectively 
 first and second parts, each part being headed by 
 a captain. Thus we have the second captain of 
 the starboard watch of forecastle in charge of the 
 second part of starboard watch of forecastle-men, 
 and so on for each part. These subdivisions are 
 called quarter-watches. Having completed the 
 watch-bill, we next fill out the quarter-bill, i.e., 
 station the crew at the guns and in the different 
 parts of the ship, with a view to battle. The 
 guns crews for the odd-numbered guns are se 
 lected from the starboard watch (referring to 
 ships carrying their batteries in broadside) ; the 
 first part of the gun s crew, when preparing for 
 battle, casting loose and providing the starboard 
 gun of the pair, the second part "the port. The 
 port watch man the even-numbered guns, the 
 first part of each gun s crew casting loose and 
 providing the port gun of the pair, the second 
 part the starboard. One-half of each gun s crew 
 are riflemen, provided with the most approved 
 pattern of rifles, and one-half are boarders, pro 
 vided with cutlasses and pistols. There are also 
 wreck-clearer s, who, when called upon, leave their 
 guns and assist in the management of the ship ; 
 and firemen and pumpmen, whose duties are sug 
 gested by the names. In addition to the gun 
 divisions, there are the powder division, for sup 
 plying ammunition, the navigator s division 
 (under which come the steering of the ship, the 
 handling of sails, spars, and rigging, the repair 
 ing of damages, etc.), the engineer s division, 
 and the surgeon s division. The marines form 
 a division by themselves. The fire-bill is the 
 next consideration, after which bills for getting 
 under way, anchoring, loosing and furling sail, 
 bending sail, tacking and wearing, reefing, up and 
 down topgallant and royal yards, mooring and 
 unmooring, etc., to which it has been customary 
 of late to add clearing ship for action, man over 
 board, abandoning ship, cutting-out expedition, 
 and disembarking small-arms men and marines. 
 For the latter purpose the guns crews are formed 
 into companies, and the latter into a battalion 
 when admissible. The station-bills are so ar 
 ranged that any given evolution or manoeuvre 
 may be performed by either watch. By the use 
 of skeleton station-bills much of the labor of 
 organization may be accomplished before the 
 crew is received on board. In addition to the 
 foregoing, every boat in the ship must have its 
 own coxswain and crew, a crew being detailed 
 from each watch at sea for the life-boat, and 
 each member of the ship s company be assigned 
 to a mess. There are also howitzer crews, and 
 crews for Gatling-guns. 
 
 When it becomes a question of organizing a 
 crew of 700 or 800 men, all to be kept within the 
 limits of one ship, and all to work together har 
 moniously and effectively, and to be kept con 
 stantly well in hand, the labor calls forth the 
 very highest qualities an officer can possess. The 
 training system, now happily inaugurated, by 
 
 which American boys are specially trained for 
 men-of-war s men, will, in time, materially 
 lighten the labors of an executive-officer, upon 
 whom the duties of organization chiefly devolve. 
 S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N. 
 
 Organling. A kind of fish ; orgeis. 
 
 Orgeis. A certain fish, supposed to be so 
 called from the Orkneys, on the coast of which it 
 is taken. 
 
 Orion (the mythical lover of Diana). The 
 most brilliant constellation of the heavens, fig 
 ured as a man with club and lion s skin. The 
 stars a, ft, y, K are in the form of a great quad- 
 rilateal ; a at the northeast angle being in the 
 right shoulder of Orion, and the nearest tp the 
 Twins ; ft at the opposite angle in the left foot ; 7 
 is in the left shoulder, and K is in the right leg. 
 In the middle of the quadrilateral are three stars 
 of about the second magnitude, 6, e, f, disposed 
 in an oblique line ;. these form the belt of Orion, 
 from which depend a luminous train of small 
 stars called the sword. This constellation is 
 surrounded by a series of the most conspicuous 
 stars in the heavens, Aldebaran, Capella, Castor 
 and Pollux, Procyon, Sirius, and Canopus. a 
 Orionis, Betelguese, or Betelguex. ft Orionis, 
 Rigel. y Orionis, Bellatrix. 
 
 Orlop. The lowest deck, formerly called 
 "over-lop," consisting of a platform laid over 
 the beams in the hold of ships of war, whereon 
 the cables are usually coiled, and containing 
 a few state-rooms as well as the chief store-rooms. 
 In trading-vessels it is often a temporary deck. 
 
 ORLOP-BEAMS. The beams which support the 
 orlop-deck, but are chiefly intended to fortify the 
 hold. 
 
 Ornaments. The carvings of the head, stern, 
 and quarters of the old ships. 
 
 Ornithae. An ancient term for the periodical 
 winds by which migratory birds were trans 
 ported. 
 
 Orrery. A machine which exhibits the motion 
 of the heavenly bodies on their orbits. 
 
 Orthographic Projection. The orthographic 
 projection of the sphere is a natural projection 
 made by straight lines at right angles to the 
 primitive or plane of projection. The eye is 
 conceived to be infinitely distant from the sphere, 
 so that the visual rays are parallel to one another, 
 and a diametral plane is chosen for the primitive. 
 See PROJECTION. 
 
 Osaka, the principal city in industry and com 
 merce of Japan, is situated on the island of Hon 
 do. It has a large foreign trade, and ships largo 
 amounts of tea, silk, silk-worms eggs, and cop 
 per. It has a steam paper-mill, arsenals, ma 
 chine-shops, and is a great centre of native manu 
 factures. Pop. 282,000. 
 
 Oscillating-cylinder Engine (Oscillating-en- 
 gine). One in which the cylinder is supported, 
 about midway, by hollow axles, called trun 
 nions, and on which it oscillates to allow the 
 piston-rod, which is connected directly to the 
 crank-pin, to accommodate itself to the motion of 
 the crank, thus dispensing with the connecting- 
 rod ; the steam enters through one trunnion to the 
 steam-chest and is exhausted through the other. 
 
 Oscillating-piston Engine. One in which 
 the piston, rectangular in form, oscillates on one 
 side, like a door on a hinge ; the piston-shaft 
 which acts as the hinge, extends beyond the 
 steam-chamber, and by means of a reciprocating 
 
OSCILLATING- VALVE ENGINE 630 
 
 OX-EYE 
 
 arm and connecting-rod to the crank-pin gives 
 motion to the propeller shaft. 
 
 Oscillating-valve Engine. One the main 
 steam-valves of which are cylindrical in form, 
 and act by partial rotation within a cylindrical 
 seat ; the valves are hollow and have parts which, 
 by the oscillating motion, are alternately opened 
 and closed to other parts in the seat which lead 
 to the steam-cylinder. 
 
 Osmond. The old term for pig-iron. 
 
 Osnaburg. In commerce, a coarse linen cloth 
 manufactured in Scotland, but resembling that 
 made at Osnaburg, in Germany. 
 
 Osprey. The fish-hawk, Pandion halicetus. 
 
 Os Sepiae. The commercial term for the sepia, 
 or cuttle-fish bones. 
 
 Ostend. A seaport town of Belgium, in West 
 Flanders, on the North Sea, in lat. 51 14 \" 
 N., Ion. 2 55 5" E. It has a large harbor, 
 docks, piers, and basins, rope- walks, and building 
 docks, a large trade in agricultural products, and 
 regular steam communication with London and 
 Dover. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Ostracion. A genus of rough-skinned fishes 
 having the body covered with an armor of solid, 
 immovable, long plates, the tail, fins, etc., pass 
 ing, as it were, through holes in the coat of 
 mail ; trunk-fish. 
 
 Oswego is situated on Lake Ontario, at the 
 mouth of the Oswego River, in Oswego County, 
 N. Y., in lat. 43 28 N., Ion. 76 35 W. It is 
 the most populous city on Lake Ontario, except 
 Toronto, Canada. It has a good harbor, shel 
 tered by long and costly piers, and defended by 
 Fort Ontario. Great quantities of grain, lumber, 
 etc., are received here, part of which is trans 
 shipped through the Oswego Canal and by the 
 various railroads centring here. The city con 
 tains a great many flour-mills, several iron-foun 
 dries, machine-shops, ship-yards, and a large 
 corn-starch manufactory. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Otary (Otaridce). A family of the seal tribe 
 (Puocidce), distinguished from the other members 
 of the family by a projecting auricle or auditory 
 conch, and by the four middle incisors having a 
 double cutting edge. The membrane which 
 unites the toes of the hind feet is prolonged into 
 a flap beyond each toe. The fore legs are placed 
 farther back than in the true seals, giving the 
 otaries the appearance of having a longer neck. 
 The hind legs bear a closer resemblance to the 
 fore legs than in the true seals. See SEA-LION. 
 
 Otter-pike. The lesser weever, Trachinus 
 draco ; also called sea-stranger. 
 
 Ottomites. An old term for Turks. 
 
 Out-and-outer. An old phrase signifying 
 thorough excellence ; a man up to his duty, and 
 able to perform it in style. 
 
 Out-board. Outside the ship. Farther from 
 the keel. 
 
 Outer-jib. See JIB, OUTER. 
 
 Outfit. The stores and equipments with 
 which a ship or boat is provided. The wearing 
 apparel of an individual. 
 
 Outhaul. A rope for hauling out the clew 
 of a boom-sail or the tack of a lower stun sail. 
 
 Outlandish. Foreign ; but means with Jack a 
 place where he does not feel at home, or a lan 
 guage which he does not understand. 
 
 Outlying. Beyond the coast ; as, outlying 
 rocks. 
 
 Out-pensioners (Eng.}. Those entitled to 
 
 pensions from Greenwich Hospital, but not ad 
 mitted to " the house." 
 
 Out-ports. Those commercial harbors which 
 lie on the coast. 
 
 Outregans. Canals or ditches navigable by 
 boats. 
 
 Outrigger. A counterpoising log of wood 
 thrust out to windward from the side of a canoe 
 to prevent capsizing. Any spar thrust out to 
 give a lead to a purchase, or to extend a sail. 
 
 Outwards. A vessel is said to be entered out 
 wards or inwards according as she is entered at 
 the custom-house to depart for, or as having 
 arrived from, a foreign port. 
 
 OUTWARD CHARGES. Pilotage and other dues 
 incurred from any port ; the reverse of inward 
 charges. 
 
 Ouvre L CEil. A mark on French charts 
 over supposed dangers. 
 
 Over-anent. Opposite to. 
 
 Overbear. One ship overbears another if she 
 can carry more sail in a fresh wind. 
 
 Over-boyed. Said of a ship when the com 
 missioned officers are very young. 
 
 Overfall. A rippling or race in the sea, where, 
 by the peculiarities of the bottom, the water is 
 propelled with immense force, especially when the 
 wind and tide, or current, set strongly together. 
 See RIPS. 
 
 Over-gunned. Said of a vessel rendered in 
 efficient by carrying too many guns, or guns of 
 too great weight. 
 
 Overhang. The part of a deck or bow which 
 projects over the main body of the vessel. 
 
 Overhaul. To examine ; to inspect. To gain 
 upon in a race or chase. To separate the blocks 
 of a tackle by lighting the falls through. 
 
 Over-heating Pipe. A pipe used as a super 
 heater for converting saturated steam into super 
 heated or dry steam. 
 
 Overlay Days. Days for which demurrage 
 can be charged. 
 
 Over-loft. An old term for the upper deck of 
 a ship. 
 
 Over-masted. The state of a ship whose 
 masts are too high or too heavy for her weight 
 to counterbalance. 
 
 Over-press. To carry too much sail on a ship. 
 
 Over-rake. When waves frequently break in 
 upon a vessel riding at anchor in a head-sea, 
 they are said to over-rake her. 
 
 Over-rigged. A ship with more and heavier 
 gear than necessary. 
 
 Over-risen. A ship too high out of the 
 water for her length and breadth, so as to make 
 a trouble of lee-lurches and weather-rolls. 
 
 Over-running. Applied to ice, when the 
 young ice overlaps, and is driven over. 
 
 Over-sea Vessels. Ships from beyond the 
 sea, as distinguished from coasters. 
 
 Overslaugh. A bar in a river. To bar the 
 promotion of; to ignore an officer s claims to 
 any particular duty or privilege. 
 
 Over-swack. An old word signifying the 
 reflux of the waves by the force of the wind. 
 
 Owler. An old term for a smuggler. A per 
 son who keeps late hours. 
 
 Oxbows. Bends or reaches of a river. 
 
 Ox-eye. A small cloud, or weather-gall, seen 
 on the coast of Africa, which presages a severe 
 storm. It appears at first in the form of an 
 ox-eye, but soon overspreads the whole sky, 
 
 - 
 
OXYRHINCUS 
 
 631 
 
 PADDLE 
 
 accompanied by a violent wind, which scatters 
 chips in all directions, and many are sunk down 
 right. Also, a water-fowl. 
 
 Oxyrhincus. A large species of the skate 
 family. 
 
 Oyster (Lat. Ostrea). This name is generally 
 understood to signify the species of Ostracean 
 bivalve called Ostrea edulis, which is one of a 
 numerous genus characterized by an inequivalve 
 shell, composed of two irregular lamellated 
 valves, of which the convex or under one ad 
 heres to rocks, piles, or to the shell of another 
 individual of the species. The animal has neither 
 a byssus nor a foot ; it is the best flavored of its 
 
 class and has, consequently, been always much 
 esteemed. Vast beds of oysters are artificially 
 formed and attended to with great care in many 
 localities. Oysters formed a great luxury among 
 the Komans, and, as is customary now, were 
 served at the commencement of a repast. The 
 various States of the Union in the waters of 
 which oysters abound have regulated by law the 
 time of taking and exposing them for sale. The 
 trade in oysters has grown to enormous dimen 
 sions in the United States, aggregating many 
 millions of dollars in value annually. 
 
 Oyster-catcher, or Sea-pye. The black and 
 white coast-bird, Hcematopus ostralegus. 
 
 P. 
 
 P. In the log-book, p denotes passing showers. 
 
 Pacific. The name given by Magellan, the 
 first European who traversed it, to the ocean 
 which extends between America on the east and 
 Asia and Australia on the west, in consequence 
 of his enjoying fair weather on entering it, 
 having previously experienced tempestuous gales 
 in the strait which bears his name. The Pacific 
 is the greatest expanse of water on the globe. 
 See OCEANS. 
 
 Pacific-iron. An iron at the end of a yard ; 
 over which is shipped the boom-iron for the 
 stun sail boom. 
 
 Pack-ice. A large collection of broken floe 
 huddled together, but constantly varying its posi 
 tion ; said to be open when the fragments do not 
 touch, and close when the pieces are in contact. 
 
 Packing. Metallic rings, braided hemp, cot 
 ton, or wire, and various preparations of rubber, 
 canvas, asbestos, plumbago, etc., used to make 
 steam- and water-tight joints around piston-rods, 
 valve-stems, and between flanges ; also for slip- 
 joints of long pipes. 
 
 PACKING-BOX. The chamber around a piston- 
 rod, valve-stem, etc., to receive the packing; a 
 stuffing-box. 
 
 PACKING-RINGS. Metallic rings surrounding 
 steam- or water-pistons which expand against the 
 side of the cylinder and prevent leakage. In 
 the ordinary steam-piston there are three : two 
 narrow ones surround a third, equal in width to 
 the other two. These rings are turned up larger 
 in diameter than the space they are to occupy, 
 and a piece is cut from their circumference, 
 which permits them to be sprung into place, and 
 their elasticity, aided by springs, causes them to 
 press tightly against the surface of the cylinder. 
 
 Pad. A package of some soft material like 
 oakum, or sail-cloth, or both combined, and 
 used to prevent wear when two bodies are chaf 
 ing each other ; a fender made of soft material. 
 
 Paddle. A wooden implement, shorter and 
 broader than an oar, used in propelling a boat. 
 It is managed with both hands without a row 
 lock, and is held vertically. The float of a pad 
 dle-wheel. 
 
 PADDLE-BEAMS. Two large beams extending 
 
 out sufficiently from the sides of paddle-wheel 
 steamers to receive the spring-beam ; a frame is 
 thus formed on which to erect the paddle-box. 
 
 PADDLE-BOX. The frame of wood which en 
 circles the upper part of the paddle-wheel. 
 
 PADDLE-BOX BOATS. Boats made to fit the 
 paddle-box rim, stowed bottom upwards on each 
 box. 
 
 PADDLE-WHEEL. A wheel with paddles or 
 floats on the periphery, used for propelling ves 
 sels. There are two principal kinds, the radial 
 and the feathering wheel. In the former the 
 paddles are fixed ; in the latter, by a system of 
 mechanism they are made to pass through the 
 water in nearly a vertical position. The first use 
 of steam in the propulsion of vessels of which we 
 have knowledge is that said to have been made 
 by Blaco de Garay, in 1543, in a vessel of 200 
 tons burden, in the port of Barcelona, Spain. In 
 1588, Ramelli designed a paddle-wheel, flat-bot 
 tomed boat, worked by men turning a crank. 
 Before the year 1700 more than a dozen patents 
 were taken out in Europe having for their object 
 the propulsion of boats by wheels, including one 
 by the Marquis of Worcester. In 1682 a tow- 
 boat was used at Chatham, the wheels being 
 turned by horse-power. In 1729, Dr. John 
 Allen obtained a patent in England for propelling 
 a vessel by forcing water through the stern. 
 
 In 1787, Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, Eng 
 land, published a pamphlet describing a vessel 
 propelled by paddle-wheels, designed to be 
 worked by a steam-engine. In 1789, Miller 
 built a boat 25 feet long by 7 feet beam, worked 
 by a double engine having 18-inch cylinders, 
 and with it made 7 miles an hour on the Forth 
 and Clyde Canal. This boat was engined by 
 Symington. 
 
 In 1784, James Ramsay, an American, obtained 
 a patent for an invention designed to work oars 
 by steam. Two years later he had patented an 
 application of steam to the paddle-wheels of ves 
 sels, and in 1787 built a vessel 60 feet long by 12 
 feet beam, with an engine having, a 12-inch cyl 
 inder. This vessel made a speed of 7 miles an 
 hour. In 1790 he built another boat, which made 
 regular passage on the Delaware River. 
 
PADDY 
 
 632 
 
 PAMBAN MANCHE 
 
 In 1797 an experiment took place near Liver 
 pool on oars worked by steam, the engine making 
 18 strokes per minute. 
 
 In 1801, Lord Dundas employed Symington to 
 fit up a steamboat for the Forth and Clyde Canal 
 Company. This boat, completed in March, 1802, 
 was called the "Charlotte Dundas," and made 
 the trip between Port Dundas and Glasgow, a 
 distance of 19 miles, in 3} hours. 
 
 John C. Stevens and Oliver Evans both ex 
 perimented in the same direction, but it was 
 left for Kobert Fulton to practically establish the 
 feasibility of steam navigation. His first attempt 
 was made in France, in 1803, by the aid of Mr. 
 Robert R. Livingston, but this was not suc 
 cessful. 
 
 In 1807, Fulton built his first boat in America, 
 which was launched on the East River, at New 
 York, and an English engine was fitted on 
 board. This boat, named the "Clermont," was 
 130 feet long by 18 feet beam, and 7 feet depth. 
 She started on "her trial-trip from New York to 
 Clermont, and thence to Albany, August 7, 
 1807. The whole distance of 110 miles was made 
 in 24 hours. She created the utmost astonish 
 ment and even dismay along the shores of the 
 Hudson. 
 
 The first steamer to cross the Atlantic was 
 the "Savannah," which made the passage in 
 1819. Her paddle-wheels were made to take to 
 pieces in bad weather. 
 
 Paddy, or Padi. Rice in the husk, so called 
 by the Malays, from whose language the word 
 has found its way to all the coasts of India. 
 
 PADDY-BOAT. A peculiar Ceylon boat. 
 
 Paddy s Hurricane. Not wind enough to 
 float the pennant. 
 
 Padrone, or Patron. The master of a small 
 coaster in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Paduan. A small Malay vessel armed with 
 two guns, one aft and the other forward, for 
 piratical purposes. 
 
 Pahi. The large war-canoe of the Society 
 Islands. 
 
 Painter. A rope attached to the bows of a 
 boat, used for making her fast ; it is spliced 
 with a thimble to a ring-bolt inside the stern. 
 
 Paixhan-gun. Introduced by the French 
 Gen. Paixhan about 1830, for the horizontal 
 firing of heavy shells, having much greater 
 calibre, but proportionately less" metal, than the 
 then current solid-shot guns. 
 
 Palaeoniscus. A genus of ganoid fishes, with 
 a fusiform body, covered with rhomboid scales, 
 a heterocercal tail, and moderately-sized fins, 
 each furnished with an anterior spine. The 
 single dorsal fin is opposite to the interval be 
 tween the anal and ventral fins. Twenty-eight 
 species have been described from the Carbonifer 
 ous and Permian measures. 
 
 Palaver. Flattery ; blarney ; idle talk. 
 
 Palermo, the capital of Sicily, has its port on 
 the north side of the island. The town is built 
 in the form of an amphitheatre, facing the sea, 
 and is surrounded by an old wall. Adjoining 
 the water is Fort Castellamare. The principal 
 buildings are the royal palace, the observatory, 
 armory, mint, custom-house, and public library. 
 The port is inclosed by a mole 1800 feet in length, 
 terminated by a light-house and battery. A 
 second interior port is reserved for the marine. 
 Palermo is the residence of the military com 
 
 mandant of the island, and has an arsenal and 
 ship-building yards. The principal articles of 
 export are sumac, wine, and spirits, fruits, 
 sulphur, skins, oil, essences, etc. The fisheries 
 of the coast are also very productive. Lat. 
 38 8 1" N. ; Ion. 13 22 2" E. Pop. 230,000. 
 
 Palinums. The steersman of the vessel of 
 ^Eneas, drowned, according to Virgil, off the 
 coast of Italy, and afterward met with by the 
 Trojan hero in the shades. A promontory on 
 the coast received his name. 
 
 Pallet. A ballast-locker formerly used to give 
 room in the hold for other stowage. 
 
 Palleting. A light platform above the bot 
 tom of the magazines to keep the powder from 
 moisture. 
 
 Palliobranchiates (Lat. pallium, a mantle, 
 and branchia, gills). The name of an order of 
 acephalous mollusks, including those in which 
 the gills are situated on the internal surface of 
 the lobes of the mantle. 
 
 Palm. The triangular face of the fluke of an 
 anchor. Also, a shield-thimble used in sewing 
 canvas, rope, etc. It consists of a flat thimble 
 to receive the head of the needle, and is fixed 
 upon a piece of canvas or leather across the 
 palm of the hand, hence the name. 
 
 Palma, in Spain, is the capital of the island 
 of Majorca, and of the province of the Balearic 
 Isles, in lat. 39 34 N., Ion. 2 45 E., and has 
 a fine harbor in the Bay of Palmas. Two light 
 houses stand at the entrance off Porti Pi, a nar 
 row road, where the large vessels anchor. Palma 
 is the port for the whole island, and has impor 
 tant coastwise, foreign, and colonial trade. The 
 manufactures comprise cotton, linen, woolen, 
 and silk tissues, etc. The city is surrounded by 
 a wall 36 feet thick, with 13 bastions and 8 gates, 
 3 fronting the sea and 5 facing the land. Pop. 
 54,000. 
 
 Palmer, James C., Surgeon-General U.S.N. 
 Born in Maryland. Appointed from Maryland, 
 March 26, 1834 ; entered the service as assistant 
 surgeon ; attached to frigate " Brandywine," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1835; sloop " Vincennes," 
 cruise around the world, 1836 ; rendezvous, Bal 
 timore, 1837; Exploring Expedition, 1838-42; 
 navy-yard, Washington, 1842. 
 
 Commissioned as surgeon, October 27, 1841 ; 
 sloop " St. Mary s," Home Squadron, 1844-46 ; 
 sloop "Vandalia," Pacific Squadron, 1850-53 ; 
 receiving-ship "Baltimore," 1853-56; frigate 
 "Niagara," Cable Expedition, 1857; sloop 
 "Macedonian," Mediterranean Squadron, 1858- 
 60; Naval Academy, 1861-63; fleet-surgeon, 
 flag-ship "Hartford," West Gulf Squadron, 1863 
 -65 ; battle of Mobile Bay, August 5, 1864; Na 
 val Hospital, New York, 1866-69; special duty, 
 Newport, R. I., 1870-72; chief of Bureau of 
 Medicine and Surgery, 1872-73. Retired June 
 29, 1873. 
 
 Palmipeds (Lat. palma, a palm, and pes, a 
 foot). The name given by Cuvier and Tem- 
 minck to an order of birds corresponding to the 
 Anseres of Linnaeus and the Natatores, or swim 
 ming-birds, of Illiger. 
 
 Pamban Manche, or Snake-boat. A canoe 
 used on the numerous rivers and back-waters of 
 Cochin China, from 30 to 60 feet long, and cut 
 out of the solid tree. The largest are paddled by 
 about 20 men, double-banked, and, when pressed, 
 they will make as much as 12 miles an hour. 
 
PAMPERO 
 
 633 
 
 PARCEL 
 
 Pampero. A violent wind from the south 
 west over the immense plains or pampas of the 
 Rio de la Plata, where it rages like a hurri 
 cane. 
 
 Panama is situated on the Gulf of Panama, on 
 the south coast of the isthmus of the same name, 
 and is the capital of the state of Panama, one of 
 the United States of Colombia of South America. 
 The most important part of the town stands on a 
 peninsular tongue of land. The rise and fall of 
 the tide at Panama is from 16 to 21 feet, owing 
 to which ships lie at anchor in the harbor at 
 some distance from the shore. The harbor is 
 protected by numerous islets, and affords secure 
 anchorage. The city has very little trade, and 
 is only important as a mail station and the Pa 
 cific terminus of the Panama Railroad. Lat. 8 3 
 67 13" N. ; Ion. 79 31 58" W. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Pancakes. Thin rounded spots of floating 
 snow-ice, in the Arctic seas, and reckoned the 
 first indication of the approach of winter, in 
 August. 
 
 Pangaia. A vessel of East Africa, with one 
 mat-sail of cocoa-nut leaves, the planks being 
 pinned with wooden pins, and sewed with twine. 
 
 Pannikin. A small tin pot. 
 
 Pannyar. Kidnapping negroes on the coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 Panshway. A fast-pulling passenger-boat 
 used on the Hooghly. 
 
 Pantograph. An instrument to copy or re 
 duce drawings. 
 
 Pantometer. An instrument for taking angles 
 and elevations, and measuring distances. 
 
 Paper Boat. Paper boats are much used in 
 racing. They are made by applying sheets of 
 manilla, or unbleached linen, paper to a model 
 corresponding to the form of the boat. The 
 whole is covered with boiled linseed oil and tur 
 pentine, and afterward with shellac. The fram 
 ing is then inserted. The boats^ are impervious 
 to water, and weigh about two-thirds as much 
 as a wooden boat of the same dimensions. 
 
 Paper Nautilus. A testaceous cephalopod, 
 so called from the fragile nature of the boat- 
 like shell in which it occasionally floats on the 
 still seas of the warmer latitudes. See ARGO- 
 NAUTA. 
 
 Par, or Parr. The samlet, brannock, or 
 branling. 
 
 Para, one of the principal seaport cities of 
 Brazil, is situated on the Bay of Guajara and 
 the right bank of Para River. The cacao, caout 
 chouc, isinglass, rice, and drugs exported from 
 Brazil are chiefly from Para. The trade is 
 mostly with London, Liverpool, and North 
 American and Brazilian ports. Lat. 1 28 S. ; 
 Ion. 48 30 5" W. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Parachute. An umbrella-like device for pro 
 pelling a sailing-vessel in a calm. It is put 
 overboard forward, and, upon being hauled aft by 
 a line, it expands, and the ship is urged ahead. 
 When the forward line is hauled upon it con 
 tracts, and offers but little resistance to the water. 
 
 Parade. See KING S PARADE. 
 
 Parahiba, a city of Brazil, is situated on the 
 Parahiba River, near its mouth in the Atlantic. 
 The lower part of the town is the commercial 
 quarter, and one of its chief edifices is a tine gov 
 ernment warehouse. The principal buildings 
 are the governor s palace, military arsenal, and 
 treasury. The city has a good port, and its 
 
 trade is chiefly in sugar, cotton, and Brazil wood. 
 Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Parallax. The apparent displacement or dif 
 ference of position of an object, as seen from two 
 different points of view. 
 
 PARALLAX, ANNUAL. The greatest value of 
 the heliocentric parallax. 
 
 PARALLAX, GEOCENTRIC or DIURNAL. The 
 direction in which a heavenly body would be 
 seen if viewed from the centre of the earth is 
 called its true place ; the direction in which it is 
 seen from any point on the surface is called its 
 apparent place. The arc of the heavens, inter 
 cepted between the true and apparent places, is 
 called the diurnal or geocentric parallax. It 
 varies with the altitude of the object, being 
 greatest when the altitude is 0, and zero when 
 the object is in the zenith. 
 
 PARALLAX, HELIOCENTRIC. The parallax of 
 a body with reference to the sun ; its measure is 
 the angle fprmed by lines from the body to the 
 centre of the earth and the centre of the sun. 
 
 PARALLAX, HORIZONTAL. The particular 
 value of the geocentric parallax when the 
 heavenly body is in the horizon ; it is the great 
 est value of the geocentric parallax. It varies 
 with the latitude of the observer, being greatest 
 at the equator. 
 
 PARALLAX IN ALTITUDE. A term used in 
 contradistinction to horizontal parallax, to sig 
 nify any value of the geocentric parallax other 
 than that which it has when the altitude is 
 zero. 
 
 Parallel. See ALTITUDE, DECLINATION, 
 LATITUDE. 
 
 PARALLEL-MOTION. A device invented by 
 Watt, for connecting a piston- or pump-rod to 
 the working-beam, in such a manner that the 
 former must move in a right line. 
 
 PARALLEL RULER. An instrument consisting 
 of two pieces connected by pivoted cross-pieces, in 
 such a manner that the two pieces may be spread 
 apart and yet retain their parallelism. 
 
 PARALLEL SAILING. When the means of 
 determining the longitude were not so reliable 
 as at the present day, it was a common practice 
 first to make the parallel of the place, and then 
 sail due east or west. Hence the importance 
 formerly attached to parallel sailing. See 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 Paramaribo, the capital town of Dutch 
 Guiana, is situated on the west bank of the 
 Surinam, 5 miles from its mouth in the Atlan 
 tic, in lat. 5 49 N., Ion. 55 22 W., and has a 
 population of 22,000, mostly blacks. It is the 
 centre of trade for the colony, and has an ex 
 tensive trade by sea. 
 
 Paranzello. A small Mediterranean vessel, 
 pink-sterned, with a lateen mainsail and mizzen, 
 and a large jib. 
 
 Parbuckle. A purchase for hauling up or 
 lowering a cask, or any cylindrical object, where 
 there is no crane or tackle ; the middle of a rope 
 is passed round a post, the two ends are then 
 passed under the two quarters of the cask, 
 bringing the ends back again over it, and being 
 both hauled or slackened together, they either 
 raise or lower the cask, as may be required. 
 
 Parcel. To wind tarred canvas round a rope. 
 
 PARCELING. Narrow strips of old canvas 
 daubed wfth tar and wound about a rope like 
 a bandage, previous to its being served. 
 
PARCLOSE 
 
 634 
 
 PARIS 
 
 Parclose. A limber-hole. 
 
 Pardoning Power. The President, as com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of 
 the militia when called into service, possesses the 
 supreme pardoning power. (Constitution of 
 United States, Art. II.) By law, in certain 
 lesser cases, this is delegated to subordinates in 
 the military hierarchy, who can virtually pardon 
 by the remission or mitigation of sentences im 
 posed by courts erected by their own authority 
 or that of an inferior. 
 
 Different conceptions of the pardoning power 
 of the President prevail, and its exact capacity 
 has long been a subject of dispute. The judge- 
 advocate of the army (Holt s Digest, 3d ed., p. 
 260) always held that the President could not 
 treat as a nullity, or set aside, the sentence of 
 a competent military court on the ground that 
 the evidence was insufficient, but only on the 
 ground that there had been some " fatal defect" 
 in the proceedings, making them void ab initio. 
 Further, that the pardoning power cannot reach 
 an executed sentence which has been regularly 
 imposed by a competent court, although it 
 might, when executed only in part, remit the 
 remainder. 
 
 In strange contrast with this are two notable 
 naval cases. Capt. Napoleon Collins and Lieut.- 
 Commander Geo. M. Bache, U.S.N., were tried 
 at New York, in 1868, for suffering the U. S. 
 steamer " Sacramento" to be lost on the coast of 
 Coromandel, and were sentenced to be suspended 
 from duty on the retired pay of their grades (the 
 latter for one year) and to be publicly repri 
 manded. The sentences were approved and 
 promulgated in General Orders, Feb. 10, 1868, 
 by the Hon. Gideon Welles, Secretary of the 
 Navy. Thirteen months later, March 11, 1869, 
 the Hon. A. E. Borie, Secretary of the Navy of 
 a succeeding administration, issued General Or 
 der No. 101, by which he "removed the sen 
 tence of Capt. Collins, and restored his forfeited 
 Say to him in consequence of good conduct 
 uring the war of the Rebellion," and the same 
 day, by General Order No. 102, the executed 
 sentence of Lieut-Commander Bache was " re 
 voked on the ground that there is nothing in the 
 record of the proceedings of the court-martial to 
 justify the sentence. So much of Lieut.-Com- 
 rnander Bache s pay as was stopped by the sen 
 tence will be restored to him." 
 
 It is held to be as impossible in law to set aside 
 a valid consummated sentence of dismissal as it 
 is to recall or undo corporal punishment that 
 has been actually undergone. Relief must be 
 had in a new appointment by authority of Con 
 gress ; hence dismissed officers are continually 
 petitioning the National Legislature for restora 
 tion. President Lincoln decided, June 4, 1862, 
 that he could "remove the disability" of dis 
 missed volunteer officers commissioned by gov 
 ernors of States. Though the President has power 
 to remit forfeitures and fines fo/bre they are paid, 
 he cannot authorize their return after being 
 legally forfeited without violating the provisions 
 of Art I., Section 9, of the Constitution, which 
 prohibits the taking of money from the treasury 
 except in pursuance of specific resolves of Con 
 gress. 
 
 The analogy between a sentence prohibiting 
 the drawing of pay that would otherwise become 
 due, and the case of a forfeiture actually paid 
 
 into the treasury by the party himself is deemed 
 to be complete. Ibid. In the case of a soldier 
 dishonorably discharged by a part of the sentence 
 of a court, it was held that a pardon granted sub 
 sequently, while undergoing imprisonment, could 
 not operate to entitle him to an honorable dis 
 charge. The statute of limitation as to amena 
 bility to trial for crimes committed is three years 
 in the navy (see Navy Department, General 
 Order 196), and the expiration of this time, where 
 the offense is known, without charges being pre 
 ferred meanwhile, operates as a full pardon. 
 When the clemency of the President is desired, it 
 is usually invoked by reference through the Navy 
 Department, by direct petition in writing, or 
 through a friend or attorney. (See COURTS-MAR 
 TIAL.) Henry C. Cochrane, Captain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Pargos. A fish resembling a large bream, from 
 which the crews of Quiros and Cook suffered 
 violent pains and bad effects. The porgy of Af 
 rica and the West Indies. 
 
 Parhelia, or Mock Suns. Images of the true 
 sun which appear at the same height above the 
 horizon as the true sun, and are connected with 
 one another by a white horizontal circle or halo, 
 of which the pole is at the zenith, and the ap 
 parent semi-diameter equal to the sun s distance 
 from the zenith. Those which appear on the 
 same side of this circle with the true sun are 
 tinted with the prismatic colors, and sometimes 
 a part of the circle itself contiguous to them 
 appears colored ; but those which appear on the 
 circumference opposite to the sun are always 
 without color; whence it may be conjectured 
 that the latter, as well as the luminous ring 
 itself, are produced by reflection, and the others 
 by refraction. 
 
 Pariah. The low-caste people of Hindostan ; 
 outcasts. Pariah-dogs, outcasts of no known 
 breed. 
 
 Paris, The Declaration of, was adopted in 
 April, 1856, by the plenipotentiaries of Great 
 Britain, Austria, France, Russia, Prussia, Sar 
 dinia, and Turkey, assembled in Paris, and covers 
 the following points : 
 
 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 
 
 2. The neutral flag covers enemy s goods, with 
 the exception of contraband of war. 
 
 3. Neutral goods, with the exception of con 
 traband of war, are not liable to capture under 
 enemy s flag. 
 
 4. Blockades, in order to be binding, must be 
 effective ; that is to say, maintained by a force 
 sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of 
 the enemy. 
 
 And it was agreed that the powers which 
 should adopt this declaration could not there 
 after enter into any arrangement in regard to the 
 application of the right of neutrals in time of 
 war, which did not comprise all the four princi 
 ples of the declaration. 
 
 The French government communicated this 
 declaration to the government of the United 
 States, in order to obtain its assent thereto. But 
 the United States refused to adopt the declara 
 tion, unless the first principle should be amended 
 by adding thereto these words: "And that the 
 private property of the subjects or citizens of a 
 belligerent on the high seas shall be exempted 
 from seizure by public armed vessels of the other 
 belligerent, except it be contraband." 
 
 The U. S. government considered that if the 
 
PARKER 
 
 635 
 
 PARRY 
 
 first principles of the declaration were adopted 
 without the proposed amendr"ent, the states 
 which kept small naval forces would be at the 
 mercy of those which would adopt the policy and 
 have the means of keeping up large navies. " (See 
 dispatch of Mr. Marcy to the Count de Sartiges 
 of July 28, 1856.) Not only the United States, 
 but Spain and Mexico also refused their consent, 
 and so far as these powers are concerned, priva 
 teering that is, the employment of private cruis 
 ers commissioned by the state is still a perfectly 
 legitimate mode of warfare. 
 
 The French Minister of Foreign Affairs made 
 a report to the Emperor of the French, that, 
 besides the states represented at the Congress of 
 Paris, the following governments had declared 
 their intentions to adhere to the four principles 
 of the declaration : Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, 
 Brazil, Duchy of Brunswick, Chili, the Argen 
 tine Confederation, the Germanic Confedera 
 tion, Denmark, the Two Sicilies, Ecuador, the 
 Roman States, Greece, Gautemala, Hayti, Ham 
 burg, Hanover, the Two Hesses, Lubeck, Meck- 
 lenburg-Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Nas 
 sau, Oldenburg, Parma, Holland, Peru, Portu 
 gal, Saxony, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe- Weimar, Sweden, 
 Switzerland, Tuscany, and Wurtemberg. 
 
 Parker, Foxhall A., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from Virginia, 
 March 11, 1839; attached to sloop "Levant," 
 West India Squadron, 1840 ; served in Florida 
 against the Indians. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843; steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 1844- 
 45 ; coast survey, 1848 ; Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1849-50. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 28, 
 1850; steam-frigate " Susquehanna," East In 
 dia Squadron, 1851-53 ; coast survey, 1854-55 ; 
 unemployed, 1856-59; Pacific Squadron, 1859- 
 61 ; navy-yard, Washington, as executive-offi 
 cer, 1861-62; doing duty with the navy on the 
 Potomac, and with the army at Alexandria ; 
 while attached to the navy-yard at Washington, 
 was ordered, two days after the battle of Bull 
 Run, to Fort Ellsworth, with 250 seamen and 
 marines, to protect it from the attack of Gen. 
 Beauregard, who was expected to storm it, and 
 by his prompt and vigorous action contributed 
 greatly to the safety of Alexandria, and to rally 
 ing the men from their demoralization after the 
 defeat at Bull Run. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862; 
 commanding steam-gunboat " Mahaska," 1863 ; 
 in command of the naval battery on Morris Isl 
 and, at the bombardment of Fort Sumter, from 
 the 17th to the 23d of August, 1863 ; engaged 
 with skirmishes with batteries on Potomac and 
 Rappahannock Rivers, and off Wilmington, 
 N. C., with rebel troops on shore, while com 
 manding the " Mahaska," in 1863, and the Poto 
 mac Flotilla, in 1864-65; on one occasion, at the 
 head of a small detachment of soldiers and ma 
 rines, with 2 howitzers manned by seamen, Com 
 mander Parker marched some distance into Vir 
 ginia and drove a force of over 100 cavalry out 
 of Matthew s Court-House, which he took pos 
 session of; Bureau of Navigation, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; spe 
 cial duty, Hartford, Conn., 1867-68; navy-yard, 
 Boston, 1869-70; commanding frigate "Frank 
 
 lin," European Squadron, 1870-71 ; member 
 Board of Examiners, 1872. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 25, 
 1872; was chief-of-staff to the North Atlantic 
 Fleet, 1872 ; ordered to special duty at Washing 
 ton, August 7, 1872, to draw up a code of signals 
 for steam tactics, and chief signal-officer of the 
 navy, 1873-76. In 1863 he prepared, by order of 
 the Navy Department, systems of " Fleet Tactics 
 under Steam," and " Squadron Tactics under 
 Steam" ; in 1865, " The Naval Howitzer Afloat" ; 
 and in 1866, "The Naval Howitzer Ashore"; 
 all of which works are text-books at the Naval 
 Academy. Was one of the founders of the U. S. 
 Naval Institute, organized October 9, 1873, at 
 Annapolis, " for the advancement of professional 
 and scientific knowledge in the navy." In De 
 cember, 1874, Commodore Parker was appointed 
 chief-of-staff of the united fleets under com 
 mand of Admiral Case, which were assembled 
 for instruction in tactics in the Florida waters ; 
 commanding navy-yard, Boston, Mass., 1877-78 ; 
 superintendent Naval Academy, 1878-79, Died 
 June 10, 1879, while in command of the Acad 
 emy. 
 
 Par-line. A term signifying the normal level 
 of a barometer at a given station. 
 
 Parole. A promise on honor given by a prisoner 
 of war, when allowed to go at large, that he will 
 fulfill the conditions specified in his release. In 
 paroling, documents are made out in duplicate, 
 and the names and rank of the persons paroled 
 are entered therein. A person who intention 
 ally misstates his rank forfeits his parole and is 
 liable to punishment. The agreement extends 
 to the existing, and not to any future, war. No 
 one but a commissioned officer can give a parole 
 for himself and his command, and no inferior 
 officer can give it without the authority of the 
 senior officer present. Any officer or man dis 
 obeying this law renders himself liable to be 
 punished as a deserter. The only exception is 
 when a man has suffered long confinement with 
 out the possibility of being paroled through an 
 officer. No person can be forced to give his 
 parole, and ill-treatment or threats, in conse 
 quence of refusal to pledge a parole, are contrary 
 to the laws of war. While the pledging of a 
 parole is a voluntary act on the part of the indi 
 vidual, the capturing power is not obliged to 
 grant it. 
 
 Parol Evidence. Evidence given by word of 
 mouth, in contradistinction to that furnished by 
 writings. 
 
 Parr. A small species of fish common where 
 salmon breed, respecting which there has been 
 much dispute whether it is the young of the 
 salmon, or a trout having the general appearance 
 of these. 
 
 Parrel. A rope or iron collar encircling the 
 mast and attached to the slings of the yard, to 
 confine the yard to the mast, but permitting a 
 vertical movement. 
 
 PARREL-LASHING. The lashing between the 
 two eyes of a rope parrel. 
 
 Parrot-fish. A fish of the genus Scarus in 
 habiting the tropical seas, so named from its re 
 semblance to the parrot in the brilliancy of its 
 colors and the peculiar form of its jaws. 
 
 Parrott-gun. A rifled gun invented by R. G. 
 Parrott. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Parry, Sir William Edward, generally known 
 
PARSES 
 
 636 
 
 PATRON 
 
 As Sir Edward Parry, a skillful and celebrated 
 .English navigator, was born at Bath, December 
 19, 1790. Originally destined by his father for 
 the medical profession, he, instead, acted on the 
 advice of a friend, and entered as a first-class vol 
 unteer on board the " Ville de Paris," the flag 
 ship of the Channel fleet, in 1803. On January 
 6, 1810, he was commissioned as a lieutenant, 
 and in February of the same year was sent in 
 command of a ship to the Arctic regions to pro 
 tect the British whale-fisheries. In 18 13 he was 
 recalled and ordered to the fleet then blockading 
 the United States, where he remained until 1817. 
 In April, 1818, he was appointed to the com 
 mand of the " Alexander," and accompanied Sir 
 John Ross in search of the northwest passage ; 
 again, in May, 1819, he was sent on the same 
 kind of an expedition, and this time immortal 
 ized himself as the greatest of all Arctic explorers. 
 Upon his return he was greeted with the utmost 
 enthusiasm, and was promoted to commander, 
 November 4, 1820, and made a member of the 
 Royal Society. He subsequently made a second 
 and a third voyage to the same regions, but ef 
 fected nothing further of importance. He re 
 mained in England until 1827, when he made 
 another voyage to the Arctic regions in the 
 "Hecla," his old ship. From 1829 to 1834 he 
 was commissioner to the Agricultural Company 
 of Australia. In 1834 he returned to England, 
 where he filled in succession various government 
 offices until 1848, when he retired. June 4, 1852, 
 he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral of 
 the white, and the following year was appointed 
 lieutenant-governor of Greenwich Hospital, an 
 office which he held till his death, July 7, 1855, 
 at Ems, in Germany. 
 
 Parsee (Pers. parsi). The name given by 
 English writers to the Persian refugees, driven 
 from their country by the persecutions of the 
 Mussulmans, who now inhabit various parts of 
 India. Their principal emigration to Baroach, 
 Surat, and the neighboring coast is supposed to 
 have taken place about the end of the 8th cen 
 tury. The sacred fire, the emblem of their re 
 ligion, called behrem, is believed by them to 
 have been brought by the first emigrants from 
 Persia, and, after many changes of place, is now 
 preserved at Odisari and Nausari, near Surat, and 
 at Bombay. In this latter city, under the pro 
 tection of the British government, they have 
 increased in numbers until now, they form about 
 one-fifth of the entire population. They are 
 generally wealthy, and distinguished for activity 
 and enterprise in the various departments of 
 commerce and trade. Their character is vari 
 ously estimated by different observers; but all 
 agree in attributing to them industry and 
 economy, and attachment to their religion, and 
 to those of the higher class strong sentiments of 
 honor and honesty. 
 
 Part. To break ; as, a rope or chain. To part 
 company. See COMPANY. 
 
 Partners. Any plank which is thicker than 
 the rest of the deck-planking, for the purpose of 
 steadying or making stronger whatever passes 
 through the deck, as at the pumps, masts, bow 
 sprit, etc. 
 
 Partridges. Large bombards formerly used for 
 siege purposes. Grenades thrown from a mortar. 
 Party. A gang of men sent on a particular 
 duty. 
 
 Pass. To pass a seizing, gasket, earing, etc., 
 to secure them in the proper manner. To pass 
 the hail is for the sentries or look-outs to utter in 
 succession the prescribed formula to show that 
 they are awake and attentive to their duties. To 
 pass the word for a man is to summon him by 
 name, the cry being repeated by the boatswain s 
 mates on all decks. To pass an examination, in 
 spection, etc., to undergo them with a favorable 
 result. 
 
 Passage. A journey by water from one port 
 to another. 
 
 PASSAGE MONEY. The charge made for the 
 conveyance of passengers in a packet or mer 
 chant vessel. 
 
 Passandeau. An ancient 8-pounder gun of 
 15 feet length. 
 
 Passaree. To passaree the foresail, to haul 
 out the clew, when before the wind with lower 
 studding-sail set, by a jigger on the lower stud 
 ding-sail boom. 
 
 Pass-boat. A punt. 
 
 Passport. A safe-conduct granted by the state 
 to a citizen, which gives him protection whilst 
 traveling. An accurate description is contained 
 in it for the purpose of identification. See SAFE- 
 CONDUCT. 
 
 Passed Midshipman. See MIDSHIPMAN. 
 
 Passe- volant. A name applied by the French 
 to a wooden gun on board ship ; but it was 
 adopted by early voyagers as expressing a mova 
 ble piece of ordnance. 
 
 Patache. A Portuguese tender for carrying 
 treasure, from 200 to 300 tons, well armed and 
 swift. 
 
 Patallah. A large and clumsy Indian boat 
 for baggage, cattle, etc. 
 
 Patamar. An excellent old class of advice- 
 boats in India, especially on the Bombay coast, 
 both swift and roomy. They are grab-built ; 
 that is, with a prow-stern, about 76 feet long, 21 
 feet broad, 11 feet deep, and 200 tons burden. 
 They are navigated with much skill by men of 
 the Mopila caste and other Mussulmans. 
 
 Patamometer. An instrument for measuring 
 the force of currents. 
 
 Pataxos. A small vessel formerly used by the 
 Spaniards as an advice-boat. 
 
 Patch. A piece of lead over the water-cap 
 of a time-fuze, to protect the quick-match and 
 composition from moisture ; it is removed when 
 the shell is entered in the bore. 
 
 Patella. A genus of gasteropodous univalve 
 mollusks the shell of which has nearly the shape 
 of a shallow, conical dish ; the limpet. 
 
 Patent Block. A block fitted with friction- 
 rollers. 
 
 Paterero. A small piece of ordnance, now 
 obsolete, working on a swivel and fitted on the 
 rail, for clearing the enemy s deck and for firing 
 into boats. A kind of small mortar sometimes 
 fired for salutes or rejoicing, especially in Roman 
 Catholic countries on holidays. 
 
 Paternoster-work. The framing of a chain- 
 pump. 
 
 Path. The trajectory of a projectile. The 
 orbit of a heavenly body. 
 
 Patoo-patoo. A formidable weapon with 
 sharp edges, used by the Polynesian Islanders 
 and New Zealanders as a sort of battle-ax to 
 cleave the skulls of their enemies. 
 Patron. See PADRONE. 
 
PATTERSON 
 
 637 
 
 PAUNCH-MAT 
 
 
 Patterson, Daniel T., Captain U.S.N. Born 
 in New York, 1771 ; died at Washington, D. C., 
 August 25, 1839. Midshipman, August 20, 1800 ; 
 attached to the frigate "Philadelphia," Capt. 
 Bainbridge, when she ran upon a reef off Trip 
 oli, and was taken by a flotilla of gunboats, and 
 remained a prisoner in Tripoli until 1805; lieu 
 tenant, January 24, 1807 ; master-commandant, 
 July 24, 1813 ; captain, February 28, 1815 ; navy 
 commissioner, 1828-32 ; and commanded a squad 
 ron in the Mediterranean in 1832-35. In 1832, 
 he commanded the U. S. naval forces at New 
 Orleans, and co-operated so ably with Gen. 
 Jackson in the defense of that city that he re 
 ceived the thanks of Congress. 
 
 Patterson, Thomas H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Louisiana, May, 1820. Appointed from 
 Louisiana, April 5, 1836, as acting midshipman; 
 attached to brig " Porpoise," survey of Southern 
 harbors, July 20, 1835, to February 14, 1837. 
 
 Promoted to midshipman, March 3, 1847; 
 navy-yard, Washington, March 9 to April 20, 
 1837 ; ordered to frigate " Macedonian," Explor 
 ing Expedition, April 20, 1837; sloop " Fal- 
 mouth," Pacific Squadron, 1837-40; navy-yard, 
 Washington, to 1841 ; Naval School, Philadel 
 phia, 1842. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 1, 1842 ; 
 Naval Observatory, 1842-43 ; attached to brig 
 " Lawrence," as acting master, West India 
 Squadron, from August 31 to November 1, 1843, 
 and as acting lieutenant, to April 17, 1844 ; at 
 tached to brig " Washington," coast survey, 
 from April 17, 1844, to October 31, 1848. 
 
 Promoted to master, October 31, 1848. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, June 23, 1849; 
 attached to sloop " Vandalia," Pacific Squadron, 
 from July 11, 1849, to October 12, 1852; special 
 duty, Washington, D. C., to December 23, 
 1852-54; sloop "Jamestown," flag-ship, coast 
 of Africa, to June 8, 1857 ; navy-yard, Wash 
 ington, D. C., to October 13, 1857-59; steam- 
 sloop "Mohican," coast of Africa, to October 
 15, 1861 ; commanding steam-gunboat " Cho- 
 cura," Hampton Roads, York River ; present at 
 the siege of Yorktown, May 4, 1862 ; took part 
 in expedition and was the leading gunboat up 
 the Pamunkey River to the White House, to 
 open the way, and in support of Gen. McClel- 
 lan s army; co-operated with the advance of 
 Gen. Stoneman s command at the White House, 
 in checking the approach of the enemy at that 
 point; from early in June until October, 1862, 
 senior officer of the naval forces in the York and 
 Pamunkey Rivers, and in constant co-operation 
 with the Army of the Potomac. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanded the steamer " James Adger," South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, from November 
 18, 1862, to June 27, 1865 ; towed the ironclad 
 " Montauk" to Beaufort, N. C. ; thence to Port 
 Royal, January 2, 1863 ; blockade duty off Wil 
 mington, N. C., July 7, 1863 ; cut out the steamer 
 " Kate" from under the batteries at New Inlet, 
 N. C., July 31, 1863 ; participated in the attack 
 and capture of a flying battery, a few miles 
 above Fort Fisher, N. C., August 23, 1863; 
 chased ashore and captured the blockade-runner 
 11 Cornubia," between New Inlet and Mason- 
 boro Inlet, N. C., November 8, 1863; chased 
 and captured the blockade-runner " Robert E. 
 Lee," off Cape Lookout, November 9, 1863, 
 
 both vessels loaded with arms and supplies for 
 the Confederate army ; captured schooner " Ella," 
 off Masonboro Inlet, N. C., November 26, 1863 ; 
 blockade duty, South Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, June 14, 1864 ; senior officer of the outside 
 blockade, off Charleston, S. C., September 15, 
 1864; convoy duty, Maraquana passage, April 
 25, 1865 ; detached, waiting orders, June 27, 
 1865 ; commanding the steam-sloop " Brooklyn," 
 flag-ship Brazil Squadron, September 19, 1865, 
 to September 16, 1867. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; navy- 
 yard, Washington, D. C., from December 26, 
 1867, to June, 1871. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 2, 
 1871 ; special duty, Washington, 1871-72; com 
 mandant navy-yard, Washington, 1873-76; 
 president Board of Examiners, 1876-77. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, 1877; com 
 manding Asiatic Station, 1878, to October, 1880. 
 
 Pattison, Thomas, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New York, February 8, 1822. Appointed 
 from New York, March 2, 1839; attached to 
 steam-sloop " St. Louis," Pacific Squadron, 1839- 
 42; receiving-ship, Boston, 1843 ; Naval School, 
 Philadelphia, 1845. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 2, 1845 ; 
 steamer " Princeton," 1846 ; during the Mexican 
 war, served in the following ships as passed mid 
 shipman and sailing-master : " Raritan," " Cum 
 berland," " Electra," "Scorpion," and gunboat 
 " Reefer" ; coast survey, 1850-51 ; sloop "Ports 
 mouth," Pacific Squadron, 1852-55. 
 
 Promoted to master, 1854. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 12, 
 1854 ; receiving-ship, Boston, 1855-56 ; navy- 
 yard, Boston, 1857 ; steam-frigate " Mississippi," 
 East India Squadron, 1857-60; Naval Station, 
 Sackett s Harbor, 1860-61; sloop "Perry," At 
 lantic Squadron, 1861 ; executive-officer of the 
 " Perry" at the time of the capture of privateer 
 " Savannah," off Charleston, June 4, 1861 ; com 
 manding steamer " Philadelphia," Potomac Flo 
 tilla, 1861 ; engagement with Acquia Creek bat 
 teries, October 1, 1864, and engagement with 
 Potomac River batteries, the latter part of Octo 
 ber, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1861 ; commanding steamer " Sumter," South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862; command 
 ing the " Clara Dolson," Mississippi Squadron, 
 1863 ; commandant Naval Station, Memphis, 
 Tenn., 1863-65. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 3, 1865; 
 commanding steamer "Muscoota," Atlantic 
 Squadron, 1866-67 ; navy-yard, Norfolk, 186.7- 
 69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, June, 1870; com 
 manding " Richmond" (second-rate), 1872; com 
 manding " Saranac" (second-rate), North Pacific 
 Station, 1872-73; commanding receiving-ship 
 " Independence," Mare Island, 1874-77. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 11, 
 1877 ; commanding Naval Station, Port Royal, 
 S. C., 1878-80; commandant navy-yard, Wash 
 ington, since July 10, 1880. 
 
 Paugie. A name for the porgy. 
 
 Pauhaugen. An Indian name for the men 
 haden. Written also pohagen. 
 
 Paunch-mat. A thick, strong mat made by 
 interweaving strands of rope ; it is used to pro 
 tect the yards or the rigging from chafe. 
 
PAVO 
 
 638 
 
 PAY COKPS 
 
 Pavo ( Lot. " Th e Peacock "). Anunimportant 
 constellation to the south of Sagittarius, lying 
 between the two bright stars Antares and Fo- 
 malhaut. The northernmost star is a Pavonis. 
 
 Pawk. A young lobster. 
 
 Pawl. A short bar which prevents the back 
 ward motion of a capstan or windlass. 
 
 PAWL-RIM. A cast-iron rim having notches 
 in which fall the lower ends of the pawls when 
 the capstan is hove around. 
 
 Pay. A familiar appellation for the paymaster. 
 To cover with melted pitch, tar, rosin, tallow, 
 etc. ; as, to pay a seam, to pay a vessel s bottom, 
 etc. To pay out, to pass out a rope or chain. To 
 pay off, to fall off from the wind in consequence 
 of the force exerted by the rudder, or the arrange 
 ment of the sails, or both. To pay round, to turn 
 the ship s head. 
 
 Pay Corps of the U. S. Navy. Origin. The 
 pay corps of the navy is the outgrowth of the 
 old system of "pursers," by which name old 
 officers still frequently call the paymaster. 
 
 The pursers were civilian appointments made 
 for the cruise of a vessel only, and the recipients 
 of such appointments were usually practical busi 
 ness men, whose duties were to provide provis 
 ions, clothing, sutler s goods, etc., for men, to 
 purchase all articles needed in the various de 
 partments of a ship, and to pay all officers and 
 men attached thereto, as well as to provide the 
 funds therefor, their duties being of such a 
 nature that they were frequently styled the 
 ship s "husband." They were furnished bills of 
 exchange and letters of credit, and their com 
 pensation was a commission on expenditures ; so 
 large were these commissions that some cruises 
 proved very profitable to the purser. 
 
 Reorganization. To save such heavy commis 
 sions and systematize accounts, as well as to 
 render the service more homogeneous, Congress 
 established the corps of paymasters. The pursers 
 were incorporated into the navy under the new 
 cognomen. Their duties remained the same in 
 all essentials, but their relation to the navy 
 proper, compensation, and accounting were 
 materially changed. Instead of civilians they 
 became officers ; in lieu of commissions they re 
 ceive fixed salaries ; and a Bureau of Provisions 
 and Clothing was formed in the Navy Depart 
 ment for receiving regular returns for those arti 
 cles, as well as sutler s goods, now called "small 
 stores. Abstracts of purchases for other Depart 
 ments are required to be made to the respective 
 chiefs of bureau of those Departments, while ac 
 counts for pay and money proper are rendered to 
 the Fourth Auditor of the Treasury. The office 
 is for life, and the results of this reorganization 
 are such that the losses to the government 
 from all sources, through the administration of 
 the pay corps, are but a small fraction of one 
 per cent, of amount disbursed. 
 
 Organization of pay corps at present. On the 
 first reorganization there were only paymasters, 
 then assistants were added, then passed assistants; 
 the rank (a relative one) was at first arbitrarily 
 fixed by the Secretary of the Navy, but is now 
 fixed by law to correspond as nearly as possible 
 to that of the line-officers entering service at 
 same time with the assistant paymaster. Thus 
 reorganized, the pay corps of the navy consists 
 of 13 pay-directors, ranking with captains ; 13 
 pay-inspectors, ranking with commanders; 60 
 
 paymasters, ranking with lieutenant-commanders 
 or lieutenants ; 30 passed assistant paymasters, 
 ranking with lieutenants or masters ; and 20 as 
 sistant paymasters, ranking Vith masters or en 
 signs, the alternative rank being decided by 
 length of service. 
 
 Conditions of appointment and promotion. As 
 sistant paymasters must be 21 and not over 26 
 years of age on entering the service ; they must 
 pass a physical and a mental examination before 
 a medical board for the first, and a board of pay- 
 officers for the last, to prove their fitness ; they 
 are promoted as vacancies occur, and must pass 
 a similar examination to the first on each pro 
 motion, with the addition that they must be able 
 to speak the French and Spanish languages with 
 sufficient fluency to do business in them, and also 
 furnish to the Pay Board a certificate of the 
 Fourth Auditor of the Treasury that their ac 
 counts have been kept to the satisfaction of that 
 Department. 
 
 Bonds. All pay-officers on entering the ser 
 vice, on each promotion, and as often as called 
 on by the Secretary of the Navy, must furnish 
 a bond with two sureties or more, worth in all 
 double the amount of the bond ; the sufficiency 
 of the sureties must be certified to by the judge 
 or attorney of a U. S. district court, and be ap 
 proved by the Secretary of the Navy. The bond 
 of a paymaster is $25,000, of a passed assistant, 
 $15,000, and an assistant, $10,000. 
 
 Paymaster-general. The chief of Bureau of 
 Provisions and Clothing, the representative head 
 of the corps, is styled paymaster-general, has 
 relative rank with commodores, is appointed by 
 the President from among the senior paymasters, 
 and on confirmation by the Senate is commis 
 sioned for four years. The paymaster-general 
 has supervision over all returns made to his 
 bureau, the records pertaining thereto, the issu 
 ing of instructions to the corps, assignments to 
 duty, in fine, a general supervision over the 
 corps. 
 
 Division of duty. The service of paymasters 
 of all grades is divided into two kinds, termed 
 "shore-" and "sea-service," consisting ordinarily 
 of terms of three years each, with " waiting 
 orders" or leave intervening. "Shore-service" 
 consists, first, of duty at purchasing agencies in 
 the large cities for payment of transportation, 
 purchases, and allotments ; secondly, of duty in 
 charge of provisions, clothing, and small stores 
 at navy-yards, receiving such stores from the 
 purchasing agencies and ships returning from 
 cruises, and supplying ships fitting for a cruise ; 
 thirdly, of duty as paymasters of navy-yards, 
 paying all workmen, all officers attached to the 
 yard, and a certain proportion of officers "on 
 leave" or " waiting orders" ; and, fourthly, of 
 duty as paymasters of receiving-ships where re 
 cruits are received ; the paymaster being fur 
 nished by the recruiting officers with a descrip 
 tive list of the recruit, and a transcript giving 
 his rating, pay, term of enlistment, etc., a copy 
 of which must accompany him on all his trans 
 fers. To the purchasing agencies pay-directors 
 are usually assigned ; to the charge of stores, pay- 
 inspectors ; and to the payment of yards and re 
 ceiving-ships, paymasters ; as assistants to these, 
 passed assistant and assistant paymasters are 
 sometimes assigned. 
 
 The " sea-service" consists of being attached 
 
PAY CORPS 
 
 639 
 
 PAY CORPS 
 
 to a vessel in commission, which vessel is usually 
 on a cruise and attached to a fleet or squadron. 
 
 Fleet-paymaster. The senior paymaster, at 
 tached generally to the flag-ship, is fleet-pay 
 master, and as such makes all purchases and dis 
 tributes funds to the paymasters of other vessels 
 in company with the flag-ship ; but when sepa 
 rated each paymaster acts independently. 
 
 General Duties. The duty of a paymaster at 
 "sea" embraces all those of a paymaster, viz.: 
 the purchasing of all supplies, the charge of all 
 stores in his department, the payment of officers 
 and men, and the providing of means therefor 
 by negotiating drafts, for which purpose he is 
 provided with blank bills of exchange and a 
 letter of credit. 
 
 Purchases. All purchases are made upon 
 requisition by the officer in charge of the de 
 partment needing the articles, and before made 
 must be submitted to and approved by the com 
 manding officer. 
 
 Responsibility for purchases. The division of 
 responsibility is in all cases as follows : the com 
 manding officer is responsible for the necessity of 
 the purchase; the officer requiring the articles 
 for the quantity and quality, and their care, 
 after receiving them ; and the paymaster for 
 their cc,t and arithmetical calculations on the 
 bill. 
 
 Surveys. In case of loss of any unusual quan 
 tity of stores in charge of paymasters, such as 
 provisions, clothing, and small stores, to free 
 himself from loss, the paymaster must request 
 the commanding officer to appoint a "special" 
 board of survey to ascertain and report the facts 
 in the case. For ordinary loss and waste, the 
 commander appoints a quarterly board to serve 
 during a quarter, and report the amount and 
 value of all ordinary waste from deterioration, 
 etc. 
 
 Allotments. In addition to all the regular 
 duties, paymasters on sea-going vessels grant 
 allotments not exceeding half-pay unless spe 
 cially authorized by the Secretary of the Navy 
 to all who desire it, both officers and men, to 
 be paid to whomsoever they select at home. The 
 allotment is paid by the nearest purchasing agent 
 to where the person receiving the allotment re 
 sides, and the paymaster of the ship is respon 
 sible that it be checked on the rolls, and notifica 
 tion made of discontinuance. Blanks are fur 
 nished on requisition at the commencement of a 
 term of duty at a purchasing agency, navy-yard, 
 or the commencement of a cruise, for pay-rolls, 
 bills for purchases, forms of returns, surveys, 
 allotments, etc. ; "also stationery. Returns must 
 be made as follows, viz. : 
 
 Returns and accounts. Paymasters of "sea 
 going" vessels must settle their accounts each 
 quarter as if it were final, in the mean time ren 
 dering a monthly summary statement of their 
 accounts. 
 
 Their returns to the Treasury Department are 
 made direct, although they must bear the ap 
 proval of their immediate commanding officer, 
 and the final or quarterly returns transmitted to 
 the treasury must consist of 
 
 1st. A general pay-roll embracing individual 
 accounts of officers, men, and marines, with 
 credits for pay and debits for money paid, money 
 value of clothing and small stores furnished, and 
 checkages of all kinds j also showing the dates 
 
 of entry and detachment of officers, the entry, 
 discharge, transfer, desertion, death, and ex 
 piration of the terms of enlistment of men, 
 and the vessel or station to which officers, men, 
 and marines have been transferred. It must be 
 signed in a receipt column by each officer, man, 
 and marine, and the signatures of men and 
 marines must be witnessed in each case by an 
 officer, and the roll itself be approved by the 
 commanding officer.. 
 
 2d. An account current showing all his re 
 ceipts and expenditures, and the date of his bond, 
 vouchers for all purchases, and contingent bills, 
 a complete money statement of the value of all 
 receipts and expenditures of clothing and small 
 stores ; also a full statement of all money received 
 for provisions sold. 
 
 3d. An account of the sales of bills of exchange, 
 with the certificate of at least two prominent 
 merchants to the current rate of exchange at 
 the date of negotiating every bill. 
 
 4th. All transfer accounts and rolls of officers 
 or men, whether to or from the vessel (each officer 
 and man on his transfer must be furnished with 
 a duplicate statement of his account, one of which 
 the paymaster receiving him on his roll keeps, 
 and receipts and returns the other to the pay 
 master who makes the transfer). 
 
 5th. All official papers necessary to substan 
 tiate his accounts; and, 
 
 6th. The order of the commanding officer for 
 all ratings and disratings, etc., involving increase 
 or decrease of pay, and for all additions to pay, 
 such as one-fourth for detainment beyond date 
 of enlistment, for enlistments under continuous- 
 service certificates, for honorable discharge 
 money, for 33 cents per diem addition to men 
 employed as firemen or coal-heavers, for money 
 paid for transportation of officers or crew, and 
 for entering newly-enlisted men on the rolls ; 
 and the funds appropriated being made by Con 
 gress under various appropriations, the expendi 
 tures must show under what appropriation they 
 are made. 
 
 The returns to the paymaster-general are made 
 through the commanding officer, and follow the 
 official channels. They consist of 
 
 1st. A quarterly return of provisions and con 
 tingent. 
 
 2d. A quarterly return of clothing. 
 
 3d. A quarterly return of "small stores." 
 
 4th. A duplicate copy of the account cur 
 rent, but without vouchers, and all receipts, in 
 voices, surveys, etc., substantiating the above 
 returns. 
 
 The dividing line between the Treasury and 
 the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing is thus 
 distinctly drawn, the one dealing purely with 
 money values, and the other with property. A 
 paymaster is allowed 30 days after the expiration 
 of a quarter in which to make up and forward 
 his returns, and at expiration of tour of duty is 
 allowed 30, 40, 50, or 60 days, according to the 
 duty he has been on. 
 
 In addition to these returns, an abstract of pub 
 lic bills must be rendered at the same time with 
 the quarterly returns to each bureau of the 
 Navy Department on account of which any 
 expenditure has been made. The paymasters on 
 shore-duty make such portions of the above 
 returns as apply to the particular duties to which 
 they are assigned. 
 
PEA-BALLAST 
 
 640 
 
 PEGASUS 
 
 Times of payment and issue of stores. Officers 
 are paid monthly ; men receive such portions as 
 the commanding officer directs, and are paid the 
 balance on discharge, and workmen at navy- 
 yards, semi-monthly. 
 
 Men receive clothing on monthly division 
 requisitions approved by the commanding officer, 
 and the cost is charged against them on their 
 accounts. 
 
 Men receive small stores, including tobacco, 
 soap, etc., on monthly mess requisitions, also ap 
 proved, and value charged against them. 
 
 Officers can buy such articles as they desire at 
 same rates. 
 
 Rations and commutation. Provisions are 
 served out daily, each man being entitled to one 
 ration. Officers are not entitled to rations unless 
 attached to a sea-going vessel. See RATION. 
 There is a ration-table, but the ration consists in 
 substance of one pound of meat, one of bread, one 
 of vegetables, about a quart of coffee, and minor 
 articles, such as butter, molasses, sugar, vinegar, 
 pickles, etc., in proportion. Meat may be salt or 
 canned or fresh, vegetables dry or fresh, and 
 bread hard or soft, or simply flour, as circum 
 stances dictate, etc., under approval of command 
 ing officer. Canned tomatoes and dried fruits are 
 also included. 
 
 Officers may commute their ration for 30 cents 
 a day ; men are allowed to commute two rations 
 out of a mess of fifteen at same rate to purchase 
 little additional articles for their benefit ; and 
 should a man be sick, he may be subsisted by the 
 medical department, and on notification of that 
 fact the paymaster commutes the invalid s ration 
 at same rate for benefit of the medical department. 
 
 Hospital fund. From the pay of each officer 
 and man in the service a monthly sum of 20 
 cents is deducted for the hospital fund. 
 
 Accountability and percentage of loss. The 
 pay-officer is held to strict accountability for 
 the proper care of all stores and money under 
 his charge, but he is allowed 7 per cent, on pro 
 visions, 2 on small stores, and 1 on clothing for 
 necessary waste in issuing. He is also to make 
 such other additional returns to those above men 
 tioned as he may be called on to make for the in 
 formation of his superior officers in command. 
 
 Clerical assistance. To enable him to perform 
 all these duties a clerk is allowed to the paymas 
 ter of all ships having a complement of 175 per 
 sons or more, to those at shore-stations, in receiv 
 ing-ships, etc.; on board ship a yeoman to issue 
 clothing, small stores, provisions, etc., is al 
 lowed, and at shore-stations additional writers, 
 etc., according to the requirements of the differ 
 ent offices. Thus while there are some changes 
 that might be desirable, the organization and 
 accountability of the pay corps are- very nearly 
 all that could be wished. There are many other 
 incidental duties in addition to those mentioned, 
 which, however, are so interwoven with other 
 departments as to come more properlv under 
 other titles. C. D. Mansfield, Paymaster U.S.N. 
 
 Pea-ballast. A coarse, fresh-water sand used 
 by ships in the China trade for stowing tea-chests 
 upon. 
 
 Peacock-fish. A beautiful fish of the Medi 
 terranean ( Labrus pavo of Linnaeus). 
 
 Pea-crab (Pinnotheres). A genus of brachy- 
 urous crustaceans with nearly circular and not 
 very hard carapace. They are of small size, and 
 
 interesting from their living within the mantle- 
 lobes of lamelli branchiate mollusks. Species are 
 found in almost all parts of the world. 
 
 Pea-jacket. A heavy coat worn by sea faring 
 men in cold weather ; it is generally made of 
 pilot-cloth. 
 
 Peak. The pee of an anchor. The outer end 
 of a gaff. The upper after corner of a four sided 
 fore-and-aft sail. The contracted part of the hold, 
 forward or aft. To raise a gaff or lateen-yard to 
 a sharper angle with the mast. To cant the oars 
 forward or up See A-PEAK. 
 
 PEAK-BRAILS. The brails nearest the peak of 
 a gaff-sail. 
 
 PEAK-HALLIARDS. The outer halliards for 
 hoisting or lowering a gaff. 
 
 Pearl. A beautiful concretion found in the 
 interior of the shells of many species of mollusks, 
 resulting from the deposit of nacreous substance 
 round some nucleus, mostly of foreign origin. 
 The Meleagrina margaritifera, or pearl-oyster of 
 the Indian seas, yields the most numerous and 
 finest specimens. 
 
 Pecten. A kind of shell-fish. 
 
 Pectinal. A fish whose bones resemble the 
 teeth of a comb. 
 
 Pectinibranchiata. An order of gasteropo- 
 dous mollusks, having the gills composed of 
 numerous leaflets or fringes, arranged like the 
 teeth of a comb, and affixed to the internal sur 
 face of a cavity which opens with a wide opening 
 above the head. The sexes are distinct. All 
 have two tentacles and two eyes the eyes often 
 stalked. The mouth is produced into a probos 
 cis, more or less lengthened. The eggs are de 
 posited in a mass, with an envelope often of very 
 remarkable and complicated form, which is pro 
 duced by coagulation of a viscous albuminous 
 matter secreted by a peculiar gland of the female. 
 The order is very numerous, the greater number 
 of gasteropods being included in it. Some have 
 a siphon, and some are destitute of it ; some 
 have spiral, and some simply conical shells. 
 Almost all are inhabitants of the sea or its shores, 
 a few are found in fresh water. To this order 
 belong Whelks, Periwinkles, Cones, Volutes, 
 etc. 
 
 Pectoral Fins. The pair situated behind the 
 gills of fishes, corresponding homologically to 
 the fore limbs of quadrupeds and the wings of 
 birds. 
 
 Pedro. An early gun of large calibre for 
 throwing stone balls. 
 
 Pedro-pee. To dance pedro-pee, to walk a 
 seam, an old plan of testing a sailor s sobriety. 
 
 Pee. The bill of an anchor. 
 
 Peek. See PEAK. 
 
 Pegasus (named after a mythical winged horse 
 of the Greeks). A constellation, the four prin 
 cipal stars of which, a, /3, y, <J, form a remarkable 
 square ; 6 Pegasi is also called a Andromedce, and 
 the two other stars of Andromeda, ft and y, to 
 gether with the adjoining ft Persei, form, with 
 the square of Pegasus, a group very similar to, 
 though much more extensive than, the Great 
 Bear lying on the opposite side of the pole. Cas 
 siopeia lies about midway between Polaris and 
 Pegasus, a Pegasi is the farthest from Androm 
 eda and the westernmost of the constellation, 
 and ft is at the northern angle. There are two 
 small stars, T} and , which are parallel to this side 
 of the square and serve to identify it. a Pegasi, 
 
PEGASUS 
 
 641 
 
 PENSIONS 
 
 I 
 
 Markab. ft Pegasi, Skeat. y Pegasi, Algenib. 
 6 Pegasi, or a Andromeda, Alpheratz. 
 
 Pegasus. A genus of fishes with large pec 
 toral fins, by means of which they take short 
 flights or leaps through the air. 
 
 Pelagians. Fishes of the open sea. 
 
 Pelecanidae. A family of palmiped birds (the 
 Totipalmati of Cuvier) characterized by a long, 
 straight, compressed bill, broad at the base, often 
 with a pouch beneath the lower mandible ; long 
 wings, of which the first quill is the longest ; 
 short strong legs, and all the toes, including the 
 hind one, united by a membrane. They are 
 generally excellent swimmers, expert divers, 
 and birds of powerful flight. Some of them 
 often perch on trees, which few other web-footed 
 birds do. To this family belong pelicans, cor 
 morants, frigate-birds, tropic-birds, and darters. 
 
 Pelican. A well-known water-bird. Also, 
 the old 6-pounder culverin. 
 
 Pemblico. A small bird whose cry was deemed 
 ominous at sea as presaging wind. 
 
 Pemmican. Condensed venison, or beef, used 
 by the hunters around Hudson s Bay, and largely 
 provided for Arctic voyages, as containing much 
 nutriment in a small compass. Thin slices of 
 lean meat are dried over the smoke of wood 
 fires ; they are then pounded and mixed with an 
 equal weight of their own fat. It is generally 
 boiled and eaten hot where fire is available. 
 
 Penang-lawyer. A cane with a very large 
 round head, common in Penang and on the Malay 
 Peninsula. 
 
 Pencel. A small streamer or pennon. 
 
 Penchute. A chute which conducts the water 
 from a race to a water-wheel. 
 
 Pendant. A short piece of rope having gen 
 erally a thimble or block in one end ; as, brace- 
 pendants, mast-head pendants, reef-pendants, etc. 
 See PENNANT. 
 
 PENDANT, IRISH. The loose end of a rope, 
 gasket, etc., hanging about the rigging or sails. 
 
 PENDANT-TACKLE. A heavy tackle, the upper 
 block of which is hooked into the lower mast 
 head pendant. 
 
 Pendulum. See GUN-PENDULUM. 
 
 Penguin (Aptenodytes], a genus of birds of 
 the family Alcidce, and divided into several gen 
 era and sub-genera^ The body is of an elliptical 
 form, the neck of moderate length, the head 
 small, the bill moderately long, straight, and 
 more or less compressed. The tail is very short. 
 Some of them have a long, slender, and pointed 
 bill, the upper mandible a little curved at the tip, 
 and feathered for about a third of its length. 
 Some, sometimes called Gorfews or Gorfous 
 (Chrysocoma], have a stout and pointed bill, a 
 little curved at the tip ; others, Sphenisques 
 (Spheniscus), have a straight and compressed 
 bill, irregularly furrowed at the base. The 
 wings, too short for flight, are covered with 
 short, stiff, scale-like feathers, and are admira 
 bly adapted for swimming. The legs are very 
 short, and are placed far back, so that on land 
 penguins rest on the tarsus, which is widened 
 like the sole of the foot of a quadruped, and 
 stand perfectly erect. Their bones, unlike those 
 of birds in general, are hard, compact, and heavy, 
 and have no air-cavities; those of the extremities 
 contain an oily marrow. Penguins are found 
 only in the southern hemisphere, and chiefly in 
 high southern latitudes. 
 41 
 
 Peninsula. A body of land nearly surrounded 
 by water, but joined to the mainland by a nar 
 row neck, called an isthmus. 
 
 Penknife-ice. A name given by Parry to 
 ice the surface of which is composed of number 
 less irregular vertical crystals, from 5 to 10 
 inches long, about half an inch broad, and pointed 
 at both ends. It is supposed to be produced by 
 heavy drops of rain piercing their way through 
 the ice rather than by any peculiar crystalliza 
 tion while freezing. 
 
 Pennant. A narrow-pennant is worn by all 
 government vessels in commission and com 
 manded by an officer below the grade of com 
 modore. This pennant is not an emblem of 
 rank, but signifies that the vessel flying it is of 
 a public character. It is worn at the main. 
 
 A broad-pennant is the distinctive mark of a 
 commodore ; it is of blue bunting, swallow-tailed, 
 contains one white star, and is worn at the 
 main. When two or more commodores are in 
 company the senior wears the blue, the next in 
 rank the red, and the other or others the white 
 pennant. 
 
 A senior officer s pennant is worn at the mizzen. 
 Pennants are much used in signaling. See SIG 
 NALS. , 
 
 PENNANT-SHIP. A vessel commanded by a 
 commodore. 
 
 Pennock. A little bridge thrown over a water 
 course. 
 
 Penny-widdie. A haddock dried without be 
 ing split. 
 
 Pensacola is a port of entry and the capital of 
 Escambia County, Fla. It is situated on the west 
 shore of Pensacola Bay, 10 miles from the Gulf 
 of Mexico. The harbor has 20 feet of water on 
 the bar, and is one of the safest in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. At the entrance of the harbor are situ 
 ated Forts Pickens and McRae, and at Warring- 
 ton, 7 miles to seaward, the U. S. navy-yard 
 and Fort Barrancas are situated. Steamers ply 
 regularly between Pensacola, New Orleans, and 
 Havana. See NAVY- YARD. 
 
 Pensions, Navy. Payments by the United 
 States to persons disabled in the naval service, or 
 marine corps, and to the dependents of persons 
 killed, or who have died in consequence of in 
 juries received in such service. 
 
 Any person disabled by wounds received or 
 disease contracted in the naval service, or the 
 marine corps, while in the line of duty, and who 
 has been honorably discharged ; and any master 
 serving on a gunboat, >r any pilot, engineer, 
 sailor, or other person not regularly mustered, 
 serving on any gunboat or other war-vessel of the 
 United States, disabled by such service from pro 
 curing subsistence by manual labor, is entitled 
 to a pension. Any enlisted man who has served 
 20 years in the navy or marine corps and is dis 
 abled by age and infirmity, or any enlisted per 
 son who has served 10 years and is disabled, on 
 recommendation of a board of 3 naval officers 
 may receive aid from the navy pension fund. 
 (See NAVY PENSION FUND.) No person is en 
 titled to a navy pension for disabilities received 
 subsequent to July 27, 1868, unless he was at the 
 time in the line of duty and was borne on the 
 books of some vessel of the United States, at sea 
 or in a harbor, actually in commission, or was at 
 some naval station, or on his way by authority 
 to the United States, or to some other vessel, or 
 
PENSIONS 
 
 642 
 
 PERKY 
 
 naval station, or hospital. Loyalty is essential 
 in all cases. 
 
 The following are the monthly rates of pen 
 sions for total disability : Lieutenant-colonel and 
 higher officers in the marine corps, captain and 
 officers of higher rank, commander, surgeon, pay 
 master, and chief engineer ranking with com 
 mander, lieutenant commanding and master 
 commanding, $30. Major, marine corps, and 
 lieutenant, surgeon, paymaster, and chief en 
 gineer ranking with lieutenant and passed assist 
 ant surgeon, $25. Captain, marine corps, and 
 professor of mathematics, master, assistant sur 
 geon, assistant paymaster, and chaplain, $20. 
 First lieutenant, marine corps, and acting assist 
 ant surgeon, $17. Second lieutenant, marine 
 corps, and first assistant engineer, ensign, and 
 pilot, $15. Cadet midshipman, passed midship 
 man, midshipman, clerk, master s mate, and 
 warrant-officer, $10. All other persons, $8. 
 After March 3, 1877, pensions of passed assistant 
 engineers, assistant engineers, and cadet en 
 gineers in the naval service are the same as pen 
 sions allowed officers of the line, with whom they 
 have relative rank. The rate of pensions for 
 other than total disability is governed by the ex 
 tent of the disability. 
 
 The laws and regulations relating to the fol 
 lowing matters are the same for navy as for 
 army pensions, viz. : the rate of pension for per 
 manent specific disability ; the time when the 
 right to a pension accrues ; the rights of widows, 
 children, and other dependents of deceased offi 
 cers and men ; artificial limbs, or money in lieu 
 thereof; places and times of payment of pensions; 
 and the manner of applying for and obtaining 
 all benefits under the pension laws. 
 
 Whenever any person entitled to a navy pen 
 sion is admitted to a navy hospital or to the 
 Naval Asylum, his pension during his continu 
 ance in the hospital is paid to the Secretary of 
 the Navy and returned to the navy pension fund. 
 
 PENSION FUND, NAVY. A fund derived from 
 the government s share of money obtained from 
 the sale of prizes captured by II. S. vessels. 
 (See PRIZE-MONEY.) It is provided by law 
 that money so accruing shall be and remain 
 forever a fund for the payment of pensions to 
 officers, seamen, and marines who may be en 
 titled to receive the same ; and if such fund be 
 insufficient for the purpose, the public faith is 
 pledged to make up the deficiency ; but if it 
 should be more than sufficient, the surplus shall 
 be applied to the making of further provision 
 for the comfort of the disabled officers, seamen, 
 and marines. The Secretary of the Navy is 
 trustee of the fund, which now amounts to 
 $14,000,000, and is invested in government se 
 curities paying 3 per cent, interest. 
 
 Any enlisted man who has served 20 years in 
 the navy or marine corps, and is disabled by 
 age or infirmity, may, if he so elects, receive a 
 sum from the pension fund, equal to one-half 
 the pay of his rating at the time of his discharge, 
 to be paid quarterly by a pension agent. This is 
 in lieu of being provided with a "home in the 
 Naval Asylum at Philadelphia. Applications 
 for this pension must be made to the Secretary 
 of the Navy, who, if satisfied the applicant is 
 entitled thereto, will direct the Commissioner of 
 Pensions to issue a certificate. 
 
 Every disabled person who has served 10 j-ears 
 
 in the navy or marine corps, and has not been 
 discharged for misconduct, may apply to the 
 Secretary of the Navy for aid from the pension 
 fund. A board of 3 officers will examine the 
 condition of the applicant, and recommend a 
 suitable amount for his relief, to be paid quarterly, 
 for a specified time. If the Secretary approve 
 the recommendation, the Commissioner of Pen 
 sions will issue a certificate to the applicant ; but 
 the allowance cannot exceed the rate of a pen 
 sion for full disability corresponding to the grade 
 of the applicant, nor, if in addition to a pension 
 already in the receipt of the applicant, exceed 
 one-fourth the rate of such pension. 
 
 Penumbra. A partial shadow. The shadow, 
 in an eclipse, from which the light is not wholly 
 cut off by the intervening body. 
 
 Peotta. A craft of the Adriatic, of light bur 
 den, propelled by oars and canvas. 
 
 Pepper-dulse. Halymenia edulis ; a pungent 
 sea-weed, which, as well as H. palmata, common 
 dulse, is eaten in Scotland. 
 
 Perca. A genus of fishes including the perch. 
 
 Perch. A pole stuck up on a shoal as a bea 
 con. A spar erected on or projected from a cliff 
 whence to watch fish. An acanthopterygious 
 fish of several species, of the genus Perca, in 
 habiting both fresh and salt water. They have 
 powerful dorsal fins, with strong and sharp 
 spines. The scales are moderately large, with 
 the posterior edge toothed. The name is also 
 applied to several other species of fishes. The 
 common perch of eastern North America is the 
 Labrax rufus ; the yellow perch, Perca flavescens. 
 The black perch of the American seas is the 
 Centropristis nigricans, called also sea-bass. The 
 blue perch is the Cienolambrus coeruleus of the 
 Scomber family. 
 
 Percussion-fuze. See FUZE. 
 
 Perer. An old gun for throwing stone shot. 
 
 Periagua. See PIRAGUA. 
 
 Perigee (Gr. peri, near ; ge, the earth). The 
 point in the moon s orbit nearest the earth. 
 
 Perihelion (Gr. peri, near ; helios, the sun). 
 The point in the orbit of a planet or comet 
 nearest to the sun. 
 
 Periko. An undecked boat of burden in 
 Bengal. 
 
 Perils of the Sea. A term comprehending the 
 accidents peculiar to ocean navigation which are 
 insured against in policies of marine insurance. 
 In England and in this country a specification 
 of the risks is an essential part of the contract. 
 In most of the countries of Europe, where there 
 is no special agreement of the parties, the perils 
 that the policy is to cover are defined by law 
 
 Periodical Winds. See MONSOON. 
 
 Periwinkle. A favorite little shell-fish, the 
 pin-patch, or Turbo littoreus. The win-wincle 
 of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Perpendicle. The plumb-line of the old 
 quadrant. 
 
 Perry. An old term for a sudden squall. 
 
 Perry, Christopher Raymond, Captain U.S.N. 
 Born in Rhode Island, 1760; died at Newport, 
 June 8, 1818. He served with distinction in the 
 Revolutionary navy ; was in the hard-fought 
 action of the " Watt" and the " Trumbull," and 
 was for some months confined in the " Jersey" 
 prison-ship; post-captain, January 7, 1798. 
 April 3, 1801, the navy was nearly disbanded, 
 and Capt. Perry was appointed collector of New- 
 
PERKY 
 
 643 
 
 PERTH 
 
 port. His five sons (Oliver H., Raymond H., 
 Matthew C., James A., and Nathaniel H.), all 
 officers of the navy, distinguished themselves 
 during the war of 1812-15. A daughter, Anna 
 Maria, married Capt. George W., son of Com 
 modore John Rodgers, and died at New London, 
 Conn., December 7, 1858, aged 60. 
 
 Perry, Matthew Colbreath, Commodore 
 U.S.N. M. C. Perry, son of Capt. C. R. Perry, 
 and brother of Oliver H. Perry, U.S.N. , was born 
 at South Kingston, R. I., in 1795. He entered 
 the navy as midshipman in 1809, on the 1st of 
 March. During the war of 1812 he served in 
 the squadrons of Commodores Rodgers and De- 
 catur. Promoted to lieutenant on the 24th of 
 July, 1813. In 1817-19, he was at New York 
 Navy- Yard. In 1820, in the sloop "Cyane," 
 African coast, and the following year also. In 
 1822-23 he was in command of the schooner 
 "Shark," in the West India Squadron, cruising 
 against pirates. In 1824, he was in the receiv 
 ing-ship at New York ; 1825, went to the Med 
 iterranean as first lieutenant of the " North 
 Carolina," 74, and returned home in 1827 ; 
 from 1828 to 1830, he was at the naval rendez 
 vous at Charleston; in 1831-33, sloop "Con 
 cord" ; attached to the navy-yard, New York, 
 in 1835-37. Commissioned as master-comman 
 dant, March 21, 1826, and captain in 1837; in 
 1838-40, in command of the U. S. ship "Fulton," 
 in connection with experiments in steam navi 
 gation, and in Europe on light-house duty ; in 
 1841-43, he was at the navy-yard, New York, 
 part of the time in command; in 1844-45 he 
 commanded the African Squadron ; in 1846, 
 joined the squadron under Commodore Connor 
 in the steamer " Mississippi" ; in 1846, conducted 
 the expedition against Tabasco, in October, cap 
 turing several ships and two towns, and after 
 wards against Laguna ; he was left in command 
 March 21, 1847, and so continued until the end 
 of the Mexican war, conducting all the operations 
 against Vera Cruz, in March, Tuspan, in April, 
 and Tabasco, in June ; he was on special duty 
 from 1849 to 1852, and in 1853 sailed in com 
 mand of the East India Squadron, and during 
 the three succeeding years carried the flag into 
 Japanese waters, and successfully made with 
 them the treaty which opened their ports to 
 American enterprise. He was on special duty 
 connected with that expedition during the years 
 1856-57, and on waiting orders in 1858. He died 
 on the 4th of March, 1858, at New York, aged 
 63. .F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Perry, Oliver Hazard, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Oliver H. Perry, son of Capt. Christopher R. 
 Perry, was born in Newport, R. I., in Au 
 gust, 1785. He as a midshipman in his fath 
 er s vessel, the "General Green," received a 
 warrant April, 1799. Sailed in the "John Ad 
 ams," Capt. Rodgers, in September, 1802, and 
 served in her in the war with Tripoli, being pro 
 moted to acting lieutenant at 17 years of age. 
 Returning, he sailed again for the Mediterranean 
 in the " Constellation," Capt. Campbell, in 1805, 
 and was transferred to the " Nautilus" as first 
 lieutenant, and came home in the " Essex." 
 Commissioned a lieutenant January, 1807. Had 
 command of 17 gunboats in New York harbor 
 in 1809. In 1810 commanded the schooner 
 " Revenge," in Commodore Rodgers s squadron. 
 While surveying the coasts of New England 
 
 he was wrecked on Watch Hill Reef, Conn., 
 January, 1811. In consequence, he was court- 
 martialed, but acquitted of the charges. In com 
 mand of flotilla at Newport, but was transferred 
 to the lakes, in 1812, and promoted to master-com 
 mandant. He led the boats in Commodore Chaun- 
 cey s attack on Fort George, 27th May, 1813. He 
 had been assigned to the command of the forces 
 on Lake Erie, and returned there after this action. 
 By great exertions he assembled a fleet, and on the 
 10th of September, defeated the English squadron 
 of 6 vessels, in the celebrated battle of Lake Erie, 
 off Put-in-Bay. His ship, the" Lawrence," was 
 so battered that he abandoned her during the 
 action, going in a boat to the " Niagara." On 
 his flag was inscribed the dying sentence of Law 
 rence, "Don t give up the ship." He received 
 a gold medal for this victory. He resigned the 
 command to Capt. Elliott, November 20; was 
 appointed a captain September 10, and given 
 command of the " Java," 44. That vessel being 
 blockaded, he was ordered to superintend the con 
 struction of a squadron of gunboats. Returning 
 to the "Java," he went to Algiers in Decatur s 
 squadron. In 1819, sailed in the "John Adams" 
 to command the Brazil Station. Sailed up the 
 Amazon River in the schooner "Nonsuch" to 
 Angostura, was attacked with the yellow fever, 
 and died August 23, aged 34 years, on his return 
 to Port Spain, Trinidad. F. S. Bassett, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 Perseus (named after a mythical hero, the 
 slayer of Medusa). A constellation lying be 
 tween Auriga and Taurus on its east, and Cassi 
 opeia and Andromeda on its west. Of its two 
 principal stars, a lies nearly between Capella and 
 Cassiopeia, ft forms a triangle with Capella and 
 the Pleiades, a Persei, Mirfak. (3 Persei^ Al 
 gol. The latter star is remarkable for its periodic 
 changes of magnitude. 
 
 Personal Error, or Personal Equation. Dif 
 ferent individuals have their peculiarities which 
 materially affect the observations made by them. 
 The organ of vision is more refined and specially 
 educated in one person than in another, and the 
 forming a judgment of the exact instant of a 
 phenomenon is greatly influenced by the tem 
 perament of the observer. The error arising 
 from this cause is called the personal error, or, 
 with reference to the consequent correction to be 
 made to an observation, the personal equation. 
 Even when two images in contact are at rest be 
 fore two observers, one will decide that they over 
 lap, and the other that they are apart ; but especi 
 ally when the images are in motion does such 
 difference of opinion occur. Anxiety lest he 
 should miss the observation may lead a nervous 
 observer to think he sees the contact before it 
 really takes place, while quickness of perception 
 may be deficient in another observer. 
 
 Personnel. A word adopted from the French, 
 and expressive of all the officers and men, civil 
 and military, composing an army or a naval force. 
 
 Persuader. A rattan, colt, or rope s end in 
 the hands of a boatswain s mate. 
 
 Perth, formerly the metropolis of Scotland, is 
 situated on the right bank of the river Tay, in 
 lat. 56 23 50" N., Ion. 3 26 20" W. The 
 river is navigable to the city for vessels of con 
 siderable burden. Ship-bui lding is an extensive 
 interest, and the salmon-fisheries of the Tay are 
 very valuable. The foreign trade is unimportant, 
 
PERTURBATIONS 
 
 644 
 
 PHELPS 
 
 out the coastwise exports include, besides fish, 
 large quantities of potatoes, corn, timber, and 
 slates. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Perturbations. Irregularities or inequalities 
 in the motion of a heavenly body in its orbit. 
 
 Peru, Navy of. The list of vessels at present 
 comprises 2 single-turreted monitors, 2 gun- 
 vessels, 1 unarmored corvette, 4 transports, and 
 3 school-ships. Their most formidable vessel, 
 the "Huascar," was captured by the Chilians, 
 October 8, 1879. The "Atahualpa" and the 
 " Manco Capac" (since sunk by the Chilians at 
 Arica, June 14, 1880) were built for the U. S. 
 navy in 1866, at Cincinnati, O., and sold to Peru 
 in 1867. 
 
 The "Victoria" and " Loa" are small gun- 
 vessels, mounting 2 guns each. The unarmored 
 vessels include the wooden corvette " Union" and 
 the transports "Chalco," " Limena," " Oroya," 
 and " Talisman." The " Independencia," lost in 
 1879 by running on a rock while in chase of the 
 Chilian gunboat "Covadonga," was an iron- 
 armored frigate of the old type, built in England 
 in 1865. 
 
 Petard. A bell-shaped vessel filled with pow 
 der, and fired by a fuze, formerly used for break 
 ing down gates, barricades, etc. Hoist by his 
 own petard, a phrase descriptive of the case of 
 one whose machination against another has re 
 acted to bis own injury. 
 
 Pet-cock. A tap or valve on a pump. A 
 faucet on a cylinder. 
 
 Peter-boat. A fishing-boat of the Thames 
 and Medway. so named after St. Peter, as the 
 patron of fishermen, whose cross-keys form part 
 of the armorial bearings of the Fishmongers 
 Company of London. These boats were first 
 brought from Norway and the Baltic. They 
 are generally short, shallow, and sharp at both 
 ends, with a well for fish in the centre, 25 feet 
 over all, and 6 feet beam ; yet in such craft boys 
 were wont to serve out seven years apprentice 
 ship, scarcely ever going on shore. 
 
 Peter s-fish. A haddock ; so named because 
 the spots on either side are supposed to be the 
 marks of St. Peter s fingers, impressed indelibly 
 when he caught that fish to pay the tribute. 
 
 Petrel. The Cypselli of the ancients, and 
 Mother Carey s chicken of sailors. They collect 
 in numbers at the approach of a gale, running 
 along the waves in the wake of a ship, whence 
 the name petrel, in reference to St. Peter s at 
 tempt to walk on the water. They are seen in 
 all parts of the ocean. The largest of the petrels, 
 Procellaria fuliginosa, is known by seamen as 
 Mother Carey s goose. 
 
 Petticoat Trousers. A kind of kilt formerly 
 worn by seamen in general, but latterly princi 
 pally by fishermen. 
 
 Petty Average. See AVERAGE. 
 
 Petty Officer. A general term, corresponding 
 to non-commissioned officer in the army. He 
 holds his position during the pleasure of the 
 appointing authority, which is generally the 
 commanding officer. The master-at-arms is the 
 chief petty officer. 
 
 Phalarope (Phalaropus). A genus of birds of 
 the family Lobipedidce, having a rather long, 
 slender, weak, straight bill, resembling that of 
 the sandpipers, which, indeed, they "otherwise 
 much resemble, although differing in their 
 aquatic habits, the greater part of their time being 
 
 passed in swimming on the sea, where they seek 
 mollusks and other small marine animals for 
 their food. The gray phalarope breeds only in 
 the Arctic regions, but migrates southward on 
 the approach of winter. It is a beautiful bird, 
 and remarkable for the great difference of its 
 summer and winter plumage, the prevailing tint 
 in winter being a delicate "gray, whilst in sum 
 mer the upper parts exhibit a fine mixture of 
 black, white, and yellow, and the breast and under 
 parts are a reddish chestnut. Its entire length 
 is rather more than 8 inches. The red-necked 
 phalarope breeds in some of the northern Scottish 
 islands, although it is more common in more 
 northern regions. It is rather smaller than the 
 gray phalarope, between which and it Cuvier 
 makes a generic distinction, on account of its 
 sharper and more slender bill. Both are very 
 fearless of man and easily tamed. Their flesh is 
 oily and unpalatable. 
 
 Pharos. An island near Alexandria on which 
 a light-House was erected ; hence, a name for any 
 light-house. 
 
 Phaselus. An ancient small vessel, equipped 
 with sails and oars. 
 
 Phases. The different forms which the illu 
 minated disks of the moon and some planets 
 assume in consequence of their being turned at 
 different angles to the observer. 
 
 Phecda. The star y Ursce Majoris. 
 
 Phelps, Thomas S., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Maine. Appointed from Maine, Janu 
 ary 17, 1840; attached to sloop " Preble," coast 
 of Labrador and Bay of Fundy, March to De 
 cember, 1840 ; Mediterranean Squadron, January, 
 1841, to September, 1843 ; sloop " Boston," Brazil 
 Squadron, October, 1843, to February, 1846 ; 
 Naval School, February to July, 1846. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 
 1846; sloop " Boston," Gulf Squadron, October 
 5, 1846 ; wrecked on the island of Eleuthera, 
 West Indies, November 16, 1846 ; detached and 
 ordered to steamer " Polk," for war and special 
 service ; in Mexico, February 20, 1847 ; returned 
 detached, and ordered to coast survey, May 7, 
 1847 ; attached to schooners " Nautilus," " J. T. 
 Mason," and steamer " Legare," until June, 
 1849 ; razee " Independence," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, June, 1849, to December, 1850; frig 
 ate " Constitution," same squadron, December, 
 1850, to February, 1851 ; schooner "Graham," 
 steamers "Legare" anJ " Hetzel," coast sur 
 vey, May 1, 1851, to November, 1852 ; receiving- 
 ship "Pennsylvania," November, 1852, to Jan 
 uary 1, 1853; steamer "Fulton," one month, 
 rejoined " Pennsylvania," and attached until 
 December, 1853; surveyed Elizabeth River and 
 Norfolk Navy- Yard ; sloop " Decatur," Pacific 
 Squadron, December, 1853, to April 15, 1857; 
 served throughout the Indian war in Washing 
 ton Territory, 1855-56. 
 
 Promoted to master, March 1, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 14, 
 1855 ; battle of Seattle, Washington Territory, 
 January 26, 1856; ordnance duty, Norfolk, Va., 
 May, 1857, to September, 1858; Paraguay Expe 
 dition and Brazil Squadron, September, 1858, to 
 June, 1859; steamer " Crusader," Home Squad 
 ron, June 16 to August 24, 1859 ; commanded 
 steamer " Vixen," coast survey, and on special 
 service, August, 1859, to September, 1861 ; at 
 tached to expedition for the relief of Fort Sumter, 
 
PHILADELPHIA 
 
 645 
 
 PICKERIE 
 
 March, 1861. " In organizing the government for 
 war, it was decided by the chiefs of departments 
 that one naval officer skilled in surveying should 
 be detached for special service to co-operate with 
 army and navy, and Lieut. Phelps was selected 
 by ballot for that duty." In consequence of the 
 destruction of signs, boats, buoys, and ranges, and 
 the erection of heavy batteries by the rebels, the 
 Potomac River was rendered almost impassable, 
 and at this critical moment when the safety of 
 Washington was hazarded, a survey and chart of 
 the river became imperative. For this .purpose, 6 
 steamers were placed at the disposal of Lieut. 
 Phelps. Selecting two, he, in June, successfully 
 executed the work, which fully answered the 
 requirements of the country. Transferred to 
 steamer " Corwin" for secret service, September 
 24, 1861 ; examined five of the inlets of North 
 Carolina, and surveyed and buoyed Hatteras 
 Inlet, for the introduction of expeditions into 
 the interior waters of that State ; skirmished 
 with rebel gunboats, Pamlico Sound, November 
 9, 1861 ; engagement with rebel gunboat " Cur 
 lew," Hatteras Inlet, November 14, 1861; re 
 ceived compliments of Secretary of Navy ; secret 
 service in Virginia waters, December, 1861 ; at 
 tached to North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 March, 1862; assigned to command of division for 
 operations in rear of Gloucester Point, Va., April 
 1, 1862; York River, April 21, three engage 
 ments with Yorktown and Gloucester Point bat 
 teries ; skirmish with rebels, Queen s Point, Va., 
 captured 5, and caused the destruction of 2 of the 
 enemy s vessels ; prevented destruction of White 
 House bridge, May 4, 1862 ; frequent skirmishes 
 with main body of rebel army retreating from 
 Yorktown, May 5 and 6 ; battle of West Point, 
 Va., ascended the Mattapony River and pre 
 vented the junction of a large force of rebels with 
 main army, May 7; made reconnoissance charts 
 of Mattapony and Pamunkey Rivers. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862. In obedience to the demands of Con 
 gress and an order of the Navy Department, ex 
 ecuted a close and complete survey of the Poto 
 mac River; opposed in the work by enemy s 
 infantry and artillery, July 29, 1862, to March 
 1, 1863 ; commanded steamer " Corwin," on 
 special service, from March, 1863, to December, 
 1864, principally employed in making surveys 
 in anticipation of naval and military movements, 
 and in examining dangers in the way of blockaders 
 and transports; ironclad " Saugus," December, 
 1864 ; steam-sloop " Juniata," January 3, 1865; 
 commanded the "Juniata" at the capture of 
 Fort Fisher, January 15, 1865 ; South Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, January 21, 1865; com 
 manded steamer " Lenapee," Atlantic Coast 
 Squadron, March 2, 1865, to April 3, 1867. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, August 5, 1865 ; 
 Mare Island Navy- Yard, Cal., 1867-70; com 
 manding receiving-ship " Independence," 1870- 
 71 ; commanding steam-sloop " Saranac," North 
 Pacific Station, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, June 19, 1871 ; navy- 
 yard, Mare Island, Cal., 1873-77 ; commanding 
 receiving-ship " Independence," 1877-79. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, January 13, 
 1879 ; waiting orders, 1880. 
 
 Philadelphia, the second city of the United 
 States and the metropolis of Pennsylvania, is 
 situated on the Delaware River, 96 miles (by 
 
 ship-channel) from the ocean. The water front 
 on the Delaware reaches from Poquessing Creek 
 to Bow Creek, opposite Tinicum Island, and is 23 
 miles long. The area of the city, including Ger- 
 mantown, Chestnut Hill, Frankford, Manayunk, 
 and many smaller suburban towns, is 129 square 
 miles. The city is divided into two parts by the 
 Schuylkill River, that part lying west of the 
 river being called West Philadelphia. The prin 
 cipal government buildings located here are the 
 Naval Asylum, naval hospital, Frankford and 
 Schuylkill arsenals, custom-house and sub-treas 
 ury, and post-office. The navy-yard is situ 
 ated at League Island, south of the city, and at 
 the end of Broad Street, about 5 miles from 
 Market Street. The city is accessible from the 
 sea by the largest merchant steamers, and several 
 lines of steamships ply between Philadelphia 
 and European ports. A number of large rail 
 roads centre here, and the city takes a high rank 
 as a seat of foreign, domestic, and coastwise 
 trade ; coal, petroleum, live-stock, lumber, grain, 
 iron and iron goods, machinery, cotton (raw and 
 manufactured), and tobacco are the leading arti 
 cles of export. Girard Point, on the Schuylkill, 
 is the grain and provision shipping-point. Port 
 Richmond, on the Delaware, is the coal port, 
 and Gibson s Point, on the Schuylkill, and Green 
 wich Point, on the Delaware, have all the neces 
 sary appliances for the shipment of both petro 
 leum and coal. The only transatlantic line of 
 steamers carrying the American flag plies be 
 tween Liverpool and Philadelphia. The manu 
 factures of this city constitute its largest business 
 interest. Some idea of its vastness can be formed 
 from the following figures : The amount of capi 
 tal invested is $250,000,000 ; number of hands 
 employed, 220,000 ; amount paid in wages, $88,- 
 000,000, and the value of a year s product, $500,- 
 000,000. The textile interests employ more than 
 70,000 persons, and produce more than $85,000,- 
 000. The other leading manufactures are iron 
 and steel, machinery, refined sugar r house-build- 
 ing materials, boots and shoes, etc. The popu 
 lation by the census of 1880 is 847,572. 
 
 Phinak. A species of trout. 
 
 Phoenix (named after a mythical bird of the 
 Egyptians). A constellation the principal star 
 of which, a Phoenicia, is situated midway be 
 tween Fomalhaut and Achernar, nearly on the 
 line joining them. 
 
 Physalia. A genus of Aealephce. Under the 
 name of Portuguese man-of-war this creature is 
 well known to sailors, with whom it is a common 
 trick to induce a green hand to pick up one of 
 them for the fun of witnessing the promptitude 
 with which he lets go of it, owing to a power it 
 possesses of inflicting a sting that not only causes 
 severe local pain, but also constitutional irrita 
 tion. 
 
 Piaba. A small, fresh-water fish of Brazil, 
 about the size of a minnow, much esteemed for 
 food. 
 
 Piccaroon. A swindler or thief. Also, a pi 
 ratical vessel. 
 
 Piccary. Piratical theft on a small scale. 
 
 Pickerel. A fish of the genus Esox, applied 
 to several species of fresh- water fish belonging to 
 the pike family. 
 
 Pickerie. An old word for stealing ; under 
 this name the crime was punishable by severe 
 duckings. 
 
PICKERING 
 
 646 
 
 PILOT 
 
 Pickering, Charles W., Commodore U.S.N. 
 
 B*orn in New Hampshire, from which State he 
 was appointed midshipman, May 22, 1822. In 
 1822-23, sloop " Cyane," stationed on the coast 
 of Africa, lost by fever 50 of her officers and 
 crew. On leave, 1824-26; Naval School, New 
 York, 1827; in 1828, attached to sloop-of-war 
 u Erie," West India Station ; from the summer 
 of 1831 to February, 1834, was attached to the 
 sloop-of-war "Falmouth," Pacific Squadron. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June, 1833 ; 
 serving at navy-yard, Boston, during the years 
 1835-36 ; from 1837-39, attached to frigate Ful 
 ton," stationed on the TJ. S. coast. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 8, 1838; 
 from 1840-42, attached to sloop "Yorktown," 
 Pacific Squadron ; from 1844-45, executive-offi 
 cer of the sloop " Preble," West India and Afri 
 can Squadrons; attached to navy-yard, Ports 
 mouth, N. H., 1846-47; in 1848-49, attached 
 to sloop-of-war "St. Mary s," Pacific Squadron ; 
 commanding the sloop-of-war "Warren," Pa 
 cific Squadron, during the years 1850-51 ; in 
 1854, served as executive-officer of the sloop 
 " Cyane," which vessel took out the Darien Ex 
 pedition under Lieut. Strain, who lost 7 of his 
 men by starvation. Lieut. Pickering, in his 
 search for that party, was within 4 hours march 
 of the head- waters of the Chaquenaque, the course 
 of which it was his intention to follow, when he 
 was apprised by Indian runners of the arrival of 
 Lieut. Strain and party at Chapagana, Pacific 
 side. After landing Lieut. Strain with the re 
 mainder of his party at New York, the " Cy 
 ane" was ordered to Greytown, Nicaragua, which 
 town, in pursuance of redress, was reduced to 
 ashes after a bombardment of 4 hours ; only one 
 house was left standing. In 1855-57, attached 
 to navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H. 
 
 Promoted to commander, September 14, 1855 ; 
 in 1859-61, inspector of the seventh light-house 
 district, headquarters at Key West. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 15, 1862 ; in 
 1862-63, commanding steam-sloop "Kearsarge," 
 Mediterranean and Western Islands; in 1863-64, 
 commanding steam-sloop " Housatonic," which 
 was blown up off Charleston on the night of 
 February 17, 1865, by a submarine torpedo. As 
 soon as recovered from wounds received on board 
 the " Housatonic," took command of the steamer 
 " Vanderbilt," which vessel participated in the 
 capture of Fort Fisher. Detached from "Van 
 derbilt" in August, 1865, and ordered to Ports 
 mouth Navy-Yard ; detached from Portsmouth 
 Navy- Yard, February, 1867, when he was placed 
 upon the retired list at his own request. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore in 1871. 
 
 Pickle-harin. A sea-sprite. 
 
 Pickling. A mode of salting naval timber in 
 dock-yards, to insure its durability. 
 
 Pictarnie. A name for the Sterna hirundo, 
 tern, or sea-swallow. 
 
 Pictor. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Pictou, Nova Scotia, is situated at the head of 
 Pictou harbor, which opens into Northumber 
 land Strait. The annual export of coal from 
 this place is very large, and considerable build 
 ing-stone is also shipped from here. The harbor 
 is one of the finest on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and the town is very well built, and contains 
 several tanneries, saw-mills, iron-foundries, card- 
 ing-mills, and tobacco -factories. 
 
 Piece of Eight. The early name for the coin 
 of the value of 8 reals, the well-known Spanish 
 dollar. 
 
 Pier. A mole or jetty extending out in the 
 water, for the convenience of vessels receiving 
 and landing cargo or passengers. A pillar sup 
 porting a bridge. 
 
 Piggin. A little pail having a long stave for 
 a handle ; used to bail water out of a boat. 
 
 Pig-tail. The common twisted tobacco for 
 chewing. 
 
 Pig-yoke. A familiar name for a quadrant or 
 sextant. 
 
 Pike. A fish of the genus Esox, so named from 
 its length and shape, or from the form of its snout. 
 It is a fresh-water fish, living in deep water. 
 
 Pilchard. A fish of the genus Clupea, resem 
 bling the herring, but thicker and rounder, hav 
 ing the under jaw shorter, the back more elevated, 
 and the belly not so sharp. These fishes are caught 
 on the Cornish coast, in England, about the mid 
 dle of July, in immense numbers, and furnish a 
 considerable article of commerce. 
 
 Pile. A spar pointed at one end and driven 
 into soil to support a superstructure. 
 
 PILE-DRIVER. A machine adapted for driving 
 piles. Also, applied to a ship given to pitch 
 heavily in a sea-way. 
 
 Pillar of the Hold. A main stanchion with 
 notches for descent and ascent. 
 
 Pillaw. A dish composed of junk, rice, 
 onions, and fowls ; it figured at the marriage 
 feast of Commodore Trunnion. It is derived 
 from the Levantine joiWq/ . 
 
 Pillow. That part of a pillow-block or bear 
 ing which contains the lower brass of a journal. 
 A block of timber upon which the inner end of 
 the bowsprit was formerly supported. 
 
 PILLOW-BLOCK. See PLUMBER-BLOCK. 
 
 Pilot. A person specially deputed to conduct 
 ships into and out of port, along the coast, and in 
 other places where navigation is dangerous. The 
 intricacy of almost all coast navigation renders it 
 impossible that any navigator, however skillful, 
 can be acquainted with all the waters to which 
 he may have to sail his ship; the risk of accident, 
 through ignorance of local danger, is avoided by 
 taking a pilot. The pilot, to whom so much is 
 intrusted, must be a person competent and reli 
 able, and all maritime countries grant licenses to 
 qualified seamen to act as pilots in a certain dis 
 trict. Pilots are associated in companies, the 
 profits being distributed according to local regu 
 lations. Pilots are sometimes found at a distance 
 of several hundred miles from port ; their boats 
 are distinguished by a flag, and by a number 
 painted conspicuously on the sails. Pilot regu 
 lations vary in different ports ; in some, pilotage 
 must be paid whether a pilot be taken or not ; in 
 others, the employment of a pilot is optional with 
 the master of the vessel. It is the practice in the 
 navy to employ a pilot, even when the command 
 ing officer and navigator are familiar with the 
 local dangers, the object being to assist the pilots 
 in maintaining an effective force. 
 
 PILOTAGE. The compensation allowed to a 
 pilot. 
 
 PILOT-BOAT. A handy sharp-built boat used 
 by pilots. 
 
 PILOT-BIRD. A bird of the Caribbee Islands, 
 so called because its presence indicates to mari 
 ners the vicinity of land. 
 
PINCH-BAR 
 
 64Y 
 
 PISTON 
 
 Sea-biscuit ; hard bread. 
 
 A heavy cloth used for pea- 
 
 PlLOT-BREAD. 
 
 PILOT-CLOTH. 
 jackets. 
 
 PILOT-FISH. A fish of the family Scomberidce, 
 in shape very similar to the mackerel. It is 
 about a foot in length, the color being a silvery 
 grayish blue, with fine dark blue bands passing 
 around the body; its flesh is delicate and re 
 sembles the mackerel in flavor. It is supposed 
 to be the Pompilius of the ancients, which was 
 believed to point out the desired course to sailors. 
 It is often seen in company with a shark, and is 
 therefore very commonly supposed to direct the 
 shark to its prey. Concerning this many stories 
 are told by both navigators and naturalists. On 
 the other hand, it has been contended that the 
 pilot-fish merely follows the ship to feed on 
 whatever may be thrown overboard ; or that it 
 attends the shark in order to seize small morsels 
 of its large prey. 
 
 PILOT- WATER. The limits within which usage 
 or law requires a ship to pay pilotage. 
 
 Pinch-bar. A lever with a fulcrum close to 
 the point ; it is used in moving very heavy 
 articles. 
 
 Pinching-pin. A pin used to keep a slide- 
 valve from rising off its seat. 
 
 Pinion. The smaller of two toothed wheels 
 in gear, used as a driver to diminish speed, and 
 as the driven to increase speed ; and with a rack 
 to convert rotary motion into rectilinear, or vice 
 versa. 
 
 Pink. A ship with a very narrow stern, having 
 a small square part above. The shape is of old 
 date, but continued, especially by the Danes, for 
 the advantage of the quarter-guns, by the ship s 
 being contracted abaft. Also one of the many 
 names for the minnow, so called from the color 
 of its abdomen in summer. 
 
 PINK-STERNED. Haying a very narrow stern. 
 
 Pinnace. Originally a small vessel propelled 
 by sails and oars, usually schooner-rigged, and 
 employed as a tender to large vessels. The 
 armed pinnace of the French coast was of 60 to 
 80 tons burden, carrying one long 24-pounder 
 and 100 men. The name is now given to a 
 double-banked carvel-built row-boat, and is also 
 applied to a person of low habits. 
 
 Pin-rail. A timber bolted to the interior of 
 the bulwarks at a convenient distance from the 
 deck, and having a number of belaying-pins to 
 which the running rigging is secured. 
 
 Pintail, or Pintail Duck. A duck about the 
 size of the mallard, with a brown head and taper 
 ing tail. It is found in all polar regions, and 
 migrates southward during winter. 
 
 Pintle. A composition bolt having straps at 
 tached to secure it to the rudder ; the bolt rests 
 in the braces fixed upon the stern-post, 
 
 Pipe. A tube to convey steam, water, or 
 other fluid. A boatswain s call. To wind a boat 
 swain s call. To pipe the eye, to weep. 
 
 PIPE-COUPLING. An adjustable joint for the 
 convenience of taking down pipe or renewing 
 portions. 
 
 Pipe -clay. A substance used for whitening 
 the belts of the marines. It should be free from 
 iron. 
 
 Pipe-fish. A genus of osseous fishes of the 
 order Lophobranchii and of the family Syngnath- 
 idce. The form is elongated, there is little flesh, 
 and the body is almost covered with partially 
 
 ossified plates. The males have pouches in which 
 they receive the eggs of their mate, and carry 
 them till they are hatched. They are commonly 
 12 to 16 inches in length. The name is some 
 times given to t\ie flute-mouths. 
 
 Piper. A half-dried haddock. The shell Echi 
 nus cidaris. Also, the fish Trigla lyra. 
 
 Piracy. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, 8. 
 
 Piragua. See PIROGUE. 
 
 Pirate. One who traverses the seas for the 
 purpose of robbing ; a freebooter. The vessel 
 of such a rover is also called a pirate. The pi 
 rate is the enemy of mankind, and is punishable, 
 under the law of nations by any competent tri 
 bunal in any country where he may be found 
 or into which he maybe brought. The armed 
 cruisers of all nations are bound, in the common 
 interest of humanity, to attack and capture or 
 destroy him. A distinction is to be observed be 
 tween the pirate recognized as such by the law 
 of nations and one made such by the municipal 
 law of individual states. Of the former it may 
 truly be said, "his hand is against every man, 
 and every man s hand is against him ;" but the 
 latter may be innocent of any offense against 
 public law, and yet be amenable to the pains 
 and penalties of piracy under the municipal 
 law of his own country. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW, 8. 
 
 Pirie. An old term for a sudden gust of wind. 
 
 Pirogue, or Piragua. A canoe formed from 
 the trunk of a large tree, generally cedar or balsa 
 wood. It was the native vessel which the Span 
 iards found in the Gulf of Mexico, and on the 
 west coasts of South America ; called also a 
 dug-out. 
 
 Piscary. A legal term for a fishery. Also, a 
 right of fishing in the waters belonging to another 
 person. 
 
 Pisces. The twelfth sign of the zodiac. A 
 constellation to the eastward of Pegasus, with 
 out any notable stars. 
 
 Piscis Australis (Lat. " The Southern Fish"). 
 A constellation to the south of Aquarius, con 
 taining the brilliant star called Fomalhaut A 
 line through 3 and a Pegasi, continued a little 
 more than twice their distance, gives the position 
 of a Piscis Australis, or Fomalhaut. 
 
 Piscis Volans. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Pistol-proof. A term for the point of courage 
 for which a man was elected captain by pirates. 
 
 Piston. A cylindrical piece of mechanism 
 which fits the cylinder of a steam-engine or 
 pump and is capable of reciprocation, and in the 
 former case is the means of converting pressure 
 into rectilinear motion, the action being reversed 
 in the case of the pump ; that is, in the one case 
 the fluid gives motion to the piston, and in the 
 other the piston gives motion to the fluid. 
 
 PISTON-HEAD. The body of a piston on which 
 the packing-rings and springs rest. 
 
 PISTONT-HEAD VALVE. A valve in the head 
 of a piston ; usually to admit steam to the inside 
 of the piston to press out the packing-rings in 
 case of steam-packing. 
 
 PISTON-PACKING. Means of preventing the 
 leakage of steam, water, etc., between the piston 
 and the cylinder in which it works ; in the steam- 
 engine it is usually composed of metallic rings ; 
 in pumps, braided hemp, cotton, and wire are 
 common, as well as many patented kinds. 
 
 PISTON-ROD. The rod connecting the piston 
 
PITCH 
 
 648 
 
 PLACE 
 
 to the cross-head, or, as in the case of the oscil- 
 lating-engine, to the crank-pin. 
 
 PISTON-VALVE. A cylindrical slide-valve (not 
 rotary) ; either a solid or packed piston may be 
 used, and there is usually one for each end of the 
 cylinder. They act by sliding back and forth 
 over the parts, admitting steam from between 
 them and exhausting beyond them. 
 
 Pitch. The distance between the centres of 
 two adjacent threads of a screw, measured axially, 
 or the distance that a screw will advance into a 
 nut during one revolution ; the term applies to 
 the screw-propeller, the propelling surface of 
 which is helicoidal, being composed of fractions 
 of two or more threads. The pitch of rivets, boiler- 
 stays, and the teeth of wheels is the distance be 
 tween centres ; in the latter case it includes a 
 tooth and a space. 
 
 Tar and coarse resin boiled to a fluid yet tena 
 cious consistence. It is used in a hot state with 
 oakum to fill the chinks or intervals between the 
 planks of a vessel. 
 
 PITCH-BOAT. A vessel fitted for boiling pitch 
 in, which should be veered astern of the one be 
 ing calked. 
 
 PITCH-CIRCLE. The circle on which the teeth 
 of a wheel are laid out, and the rolling action of 
 which would be equivalent to that of the wheel 
 itself; the angular velocity ratio of two wheels 
 working together is the same as that of their 
 pitch-circles rolling in contact. 
 
 PITCH-MOP. The implement with which the 
 hot pitch is laid on to ship s sides and perpendic 
 ular work. 
 
 PITCH-PINE. Pinus resinosa, commonly called 
 Norway or red pine. 
 
 Pitching. The plunging of a ship s head in a 
 sea-way ; the vertical vibration which her length 
 makes about her centre of gravity, a very strain 
 ing motion. 
 
 Pit-fish. A small fish found in the Indian 
 seas, which has the power of protruding or re 
 tracting its eyes. 
 
 Pit-pan. A flat-bottomed, trough-like canoe, 
 used in the Spanish Main and in the West In 
 dies. 
 
 Pit-powder. Powder made with charcoal 
 which has been burned in pits, not in cylinders. 
 
 Pivot-bolt. A bolt confining either end of 
 the slide of a pivot-gun to the deck. One of the 
 bolts being removed, horizontal motion can be 
 given, the other bolt acting as the axis. 
 
 Pivot-gun. A gun capable of being fired on 
 either side of the ship, the after part of the slide 
 being confined to the deck by a pivot-bolt. 
 
 Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, 
 was an illegitimate son of Gonzalo Pizarro, a col 
 onel of infantry. He was born at Truxillo, in 
 Estremadura, Spain, about 1471. In his youth 
 he was a swineherd, but abandoning this uncon 
 genial occupation, he went to the port of Seville 
 and there embarked to seek his fortune in the 
 New "World. He was* in Hispaniola in 1510; 
 afterwards joined Balboa, and was with him 
 when he crossed the Isthmus of Panama. In 
 1515 he was principally engaged in traffic with 
 the natives on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. 
 Hearing of the splendid achievements of Cortez, 
 and rumors of the existence of a very rich coun 
 try in the south reaching him, he formed a co 
 partnership with Diego de Almagro and Her- 
 nando Luque, and the three fitted out a small 
 
 expedition, with Pizarro in command. In No 
 vember, 1524, he set sail, but got no farther than 
 Quemada Point. On his second expedition he dis 
 covered Peru, but returned to Panama for vol 
 unteers to conquer the country ; failing to do so 
 here, he returned in 1528 to Spain, and by his 
 graphic descriptions of the wealth of the new 
 territory he secured from Charles V. the right of 
 the discovery and conquest of Peru, and various 
 honorable titles, such as governor and captain- 
 general of Peru. On his side he agreed to raise 
 a certain number of followers, and to give to the 
 crown of Spain one-fifth of all treasures he should 
 obtain. He returned to Panama, and with a 
 small but well-equipped force of 180 men he con 
 quered and made the empire of Peru his own. 
 His conquest of Peru is a drama in every act of 
 which there is bloodshed, and the final act (June 
 26, 1541), in which he and his group of followers 
 fell the victims of a conspiracy, shows the drama 
 to have been consistent to the end. 
 
 Pizarro, Gonzalo, like his brother, was also il 
 legitimate. He was a soldier at an early age, and 
 distinguished himself by his skill in martial exer 
 cises ; and when he joined his brother s expedi 
 tion, in 1528, to Peru, he was considered the best 
 lance in the troop. The territory of Quito was 
 assigned to him by his brother, and he was en 
 joined to explore the land to the east. He started 
 on his famous journey in 1540, at the head of 
 350 Spaniards and a great number of Indians. 
 They reached and crossed the Andes, losing a 
 great many lives, the cold rendering many of 
 them helpless. On the eastern side of the Andes 
 they discovered the Land of Cinnamon. Hear 
 ing of a land of gold 10 days distant, they re 
 solved to go there. After the greatest difficulties, 
 and nearly starving to death, they reached the 
 Napo. an affluent of the Amazon. Here Pizarro 
 caused a rude bark to be constructed to transport 
 the baggage and sick travelers, and intrusted 
 Francisco de Orellana with the command of the 
 vessel, and ordered him to proceed to the conflu 
 ence of the Napo and Amazon, where a rich na 
 tion was supposed to live, and to obtain supplies 
 from them and return to him. Orellana reached 
 the Amazon, but, unable to obtain supplies or 
 return against the current, he sailed down the 
 Amazon to the Atlantic, and, strange to say, 
 was successful in reaching Spain. Pizarro, after 
 waiting in vain for the return of the bark, re 
 turned to Quito, where he arrived in 1542, after 
 an absence of two years, the hero of an expedi 
 tion which stands unrivaled in the annals of 
 American discovery for its dangers and suffer 
 ings, and for the heroic fortitude with which 
 they were endured. After the death of Fran 
 cisco, Gonzalo became captain-general of Peru, 
 and he was afterwards defeated in battle and ex 
 ecuted by Pedro de la Gasca, who had been in 
 vested with the powers of sovereign by the king 
 of Spain. 
 
 Place. The place of a heavenly body is the 
 point on the celestial sphere to which it is re 
 ferred by a spectator ; when the spectator is sup 
 posed to be at the centre of the earth, this point is 
 called the geocentric place ; when at the centre of 
 the sun, the heliocentric place. The apparent place 
 is the point to which a heavenly body is referred 
 by a spectator on the surface of the earth, viewing 
 it through the atmosphere ; the true place is the 
 point to which it would be referred by a spec- 
 
PLACES 
 
 649 
 
 PLANETS 
 
 tator at the centre of the earth, viewing it through 
 a uniform medium. The apparent place is de 
 termined by observation ; the true place is ob 
 tained by applying to the apparent place the cor 
 rections for parallax and refraction. These cor 
 rections are greatest when the body is in the 
 horizon, and decrease as it approaches the zenith. 
 
 Places of Call. Merchantmen must here 
 attend to two general rules : if these places of 
 call are enumerated in the charter-party, then 
 they must be taken in the order laid down ; but 
 if leave be given to call at all, or any, then they 
 must be taken in their geographical sequence. 
 
 Plaice, or Plaise. A fish of the genus Pla- 
 tessa (Pleuronectes of Linnaeus), allied to the 
 flounder, and growing to the size of 8 or 10 
 pounds or more. 
 
 Plan. A perfect outline of the ship to be 
 built. There are three principal plans, viz., the 
 sheer, half-breadth, and the body-plan, besides 
 which there are deck-plans, and plans of such 
 details as are necessarily used in the construc 
 tion. The sheer-plan shows the sheer of the ship, 
 shape or outline of the head, stern, and keel ; 
 when drawn in sections, as it usually is, it shows 
 the heights of all the decks and the general ar 
 rangement of all the rooms in profile ; it also 
 shows the section-lines, the location and rake of 
 the masts and bowsprit, the location of the 
 frames, keelson, deadwood, air-ports, scuppers, 
 chain-plates, etc. The rudder and propeller in 
 elevation, and all vertical objects coming into 
 the design, are shown in the sheer-plan. The 
 half-breadth plan shows the outline or shape of 
 the rail, plank-sheer, water-lines, diagonal lines, 
 and ribband-lines in half breadth, and the loca 
 tion of the frames and section-lines. The body- 
 plan shows the shapes of the frames or the ver 
 tical sections, as well as the cants ; and all other 
 frame-lines are drawn to their shape in the body- 
 plan ; it has the water-lines, section-lines, sheer- 
 lines, and diagonal lines drawn upon it. The 
 deck-plan shows the general arrangement of the 
 hatches, beams, knees, and houses to be placed 
 upon the deck ; it gives the horizontal outline. 
 
 Plane Sailing. The method of calculating 
 the position of a ship and the course to be steered, 
 which is founded on the supposition that the sur 
 face of the earth is a plane. The method is sim 
 ple and easy when compared with spherical sail 
 ing, and the term plane sailing has come to denote 
 anything that is easy of accomplishment. It is 
 frequently improperly written plain sailing. See 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 Planets (Gr. aster planetes, a wandering star, 
 from planan, to wander). This term originally 
 described all the heavenly bodies which were ob 
 served to change their place on the celestial 
 sphere, in contradistinction to those whose posi 
 tion appeared to be fixed. The word, however, is 
 now technically restricted to indicate those mov 
 
 lobe, 
 
 which revolve in orbits about the sun of our sys 
 tem. They shine by the reflection of light re 
 ceived from the sun. The principal planets, in 
 the order of their distances from the sun, with 
 their symbols, are Mercury $, Venus $ (the 
 Earth 9, , or $), Mars ^, . . . . Jupiter TJ, 
 Saturn, ^ , Uranus \$, Neptune tjr. Besides these, 
 near to the sun is a small planet named Vulcan, 
 and between Mars and Jupiter is a group of 
 minute planets, called the asteroids, planetoids, 
 
 or minor planets. The paths of the principal 
 planets are in planes making a small angle with 
 the plane of the ecliptic. 
 
 To the practical navigator the actual dimen 
 sions and movements of the planets are not so 
 important as the conspicuous phenomena they 
 exhibit. Pour of them Venus, Mars, Jupiter, 
 and Saturn are remarkably large and brilliant 
 bodies, and of great importance in the problems 
 of navigation ; another, Mercury, is also visible 
 to the naked eye as a large star, but by reason 
 of its propinquity to the sun, is seldom conspicu 
 ous ; Uranus is barely discernible without a tele 
 scope ; the rest are never visible to the naked eye. 
 Observations of Venus and Jupiter may often be 
 obtained in the dajdigbt, even when the planets 
 are invisible to the naked eye. In such cases 
 their meridian altitude may sometimes be ob 
 served with advantage. It is first approximately 
 computed, the corrections for refraction, dip, 
 and index-error being applied reversely ; this 
 angle is then set on the sextant, the inverting 
 telescope being screwed close down to the plane 
 of the instrument. The image of the planet will 
 be by this means detected near the N. or S. point 
 of the horizon, and, once found, its meridian alti 
 tude may be accurately observed. These two 
 planets are seen very distinctly during twilight, 
 and this is the best time for observing them, for 
 then the horizon is in general clearly visible and 
 strongly marked. The four planets, Venus, 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, are used for deter 
 mining the longitude by the method of "lunar 
 distances." It is, therefore, important to know 
 how to identify these bodies. They are collec 
 tively distinguished from the fixed stars by their 
 shining with a steady light, instead of twinkling. 
 By reason of their proper motion they are con 
 tinually shifting their place, and cannot be con 
 nected by imaginary lines with other heavenly 
 bodies, as in the case of the fixed stars. Their 
 positions may be found by referring to the Nau 
 tical Almanac, which gives their right ascen 
 sion, declination, and time of Greenwich merid 
 ian passage. The appearance of the body may 
 also help to distinguish it ; Venus has a bluish 
 light, while Mars is of a red color. For further 
 information, see under proper heads. 
 
 PLANETS, INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR. Those 
 planets whose orbits are within that of the earth 
 are called inferior planets ; those whose orbits 
 are without, superior planets. The inferior 
 planets are Vulcan, Mercury, and Venus; the 
 superior planets are Mars, the asteroids, Jupiter, 
 Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 
 
 PLANETS, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY. In the 
 solar system there are about 20 moons or satel 
 lites ; these are sometimes called secondary 
 planets, the bodies about which they revolve 
 being distinguished as primary planets. 
 
 PLANETS, INNER AND OUTER GROUP or. The 
 planets whose orbits are within the asteroids are 
 designated as the inner group, the others the 
 outer group. 
 
 PLANETS, MINOR. As soon as the planetary 
 distances were determined, astronomers saw that 
 to the orbit of Mars distances increase in a some 
 what regular order, and that between Mars and 
 Jupiter a wide gap destroys the symmetry other 
 wise apparent. Kepler suggested that a new 
 planet might be found in this space. 
 
 Titius, "of Wittenberg, sought for a simple 
 
PLANK 
 
 650 
 
 PLYMOUTH 
 
 Aeries of numbers which should represent the 
 relative distances of the planets from the sun. 
 After many trials he took the series 
 
 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, etc., 
 
 in which each term after the second is twice the 
 preceding term ; adding 4 to each number he 
 found numbers which indicate very nearly the 
 relative distances, thus : 
 
 Mer. Ven. Earth. Mars. Jup. Sat. 
 
 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, etc. 
 
 "When Herschel discovered Uranus, its dis 
 tance was found to correspond to the next num 
 ber, 196 ; but a planet was still wanting whose 
 distance should answer to the number 28. The 
 series of Titius was reproduced by Bode, and was 
 long known as Eode s law. 
 
 By the series the distance of Neptune should 
 correspond to the number 388 ; it is 300, and 
 here the law fails. The gap at 28 has been filled 
 by the discovery of a number of small bodies, 
 the largest of which is but 300 miles in diameter. 
 The first was discovered in 1801, but they now 
 number more than a hundred, and they are 
 called asteroids (star-like), planetoids (planet- 
 like), and minor planets. They are invisible to 
 the naked eye, and are known to be planets only 
 by their motion ; their orbits are very eccentric, 
 much inclined to the ecliptic, and are included 
 in a broad ring at a mean distance of 254 mil 
 lions of miles from the sun. It has been suggested 
 that they are the fragments of a planet shattered 
 by an explosion, or broken in pieces by collision 
 with a comet. The nebular theory supposes that 
 the planets were formed originally by the gather 
 ing of matter collected by gravitation ; that 
 while the matter in the case of Mars and Jupiter 
 concentrated about one nucleus, that which 
 formed the minor planets gathered about many 
 centres, and that these small bodies take the 
 place of the one large body which might have 
 been formed had all been compacted into one. 
 The discoverers of minor planets assigned to them 
 the names of mythological goddesses. They are 
 also designated by numbers denoting the order 
 of their discovery ; thus, Ceres is (1), Psyche 
 (16), etc. 
 
 Plank. A broad piece of timber from 1J to 8 
 inches in thickness. Toplank it, to sleep on the 
 bare deck ; to walk the deck. 
 
 PLANKING. The planks used in covering the 
 frame of a ship. The act of covering the frame 
 of a ship with plank. 
 
 PLANKING-CLAMP. An iron tool made for 
 the purpose of drawing plank up to the tim 
 bers. It is a thin bar of iron bent so as to be 
 open upon one side. On one end of this bar is 
 fixed a point or claw for insertion into the tim 
 ber, on the other end is a powerful screw having 
 a lever attached to the outer end. 
 
 PLANK-SHEER. The pieces of plank laid hori 
 zontally over the timber-heads at the top-heights 
 for the purpose of covering the top of the sides. 
 It is sometimes called the covering-boards. 
 
 Plant. The machinery, fixtures, etc., by 
 which a business or manufacture is carried on. 
 
 Planter. A large snag in a river, the upper 
 end of which is below the surface of the water. 
 In Newfoundland, a person engaged in the 
 fishery. 
 
 Platanist. A fish of the genus Delphinus (D. 
 Gangeticus of Cuvier) ; a species of dolphin found 
 in the Ganges. 
 
 Play. Scope ; swing ; freedom of movement 
 to a certain extent. To play, to put in action. 
 In play, in action. 
 
 Playte. An old term for a river-boat. 
 
 Plebe. A fourth classman at the naval or mili 
 tary academy. 
 
 Plectognathi. An order of fishes having the 
 maxillary bones stiffly adhering to the sides of 
 the intermaxillaries, which alone form the jaws, 
 as the file-fish. Written also j>lectognaths. 
 
 Pledget. A string of oakum used in calking. 
 
 Pleiades. A noted cluster of stars in the neck 
 of Taurus. Six stars may be easily counted, and 
 some persons distinguish as many as 12 or 14. 
 The telescope shows about 100. The largest star, 
 Alcyone, is near the ecliptic. Certain theorists 
 have supposed that the centre of the universe is 
 in this star, and that the solar and stellar systems 
 revolve about it. The Greeks called this group 
 the Pleiades (plein, to sail), because it was visi 
 ble during the months when the Mediterranean 
 was navigable without danger. 
 
 Pleny Tides. Full tides. 
 
 Plesiosaurus (Gr. plesios, near ; sauros, a 
 lizard). A genus of fossil sea-reptiles, the re 
 mains of which are found in the Lias, Oolite, 
 and Cretaceous measures. Its remarkable char 
 acter may be inferred from the description of it 
 given by Buckland, as follows : "To the head 
 of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile, a 
 neck of enormous length, resembling the body 
 of a serpent, a trunk and tail having the propor 
 tions of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a 
 chameleon, and the paddles of a whale." 
 
 Plicatiles. Ancient vessels built of wood and 
 leather, which could be taken to pieces and car 
 ried by land. 
 
 Plot. To delineate, to mark down ; as, to plot 
 a ship s position. 
 
 Plucker. The fishing frog, Lophius pisca- 
 torius. 
 
 Plug. An implement for stopping leaky boiler 
 tubes. The revolving part of a gauge-cock. A 
 piece of metallic alloy which fuses at a low tem 
 perature, placed in the bottom of a boiler to melt 
 and let the water run out in case the boiler is 
 overheated. Any conical piece of wood to fit in 
 an orifice. See SHOT-PLUG. 
 
 PLUG-HOLE. A hole in the bottom of a boat 
 for convenience in letting out water ; the plug is 
 taken out when the boat is hoisted, and put in 
 before lowering. 
 
 Plug-rod. A rod from the beam of an engine 
 to work the air-pump, and sometimes communi 
 cates motion to the valve-gear ; the term is not 
 now in common use. 
 
 Plumb. Vertical ; perpendicular. 
 
 Plumber-block, or Pillow-block. That por 
 tion of the engine frame supporting the main- 
 journals, and containing the brasses. 
 
 Plummer-block. An adjustable pillow-block, 
 
 Plunger. A long, solid, or hollow cylinder, 
 employed as a piston in force-pumps; its action 
 is by displacement entirely. 
 
 Plunging Fire. A pitching discharge of shot 
 from a higher level, at such an angle that the 
 shot do not ricochet. 
 
 Ply. To work to windward ; to beat. 
 
 Plymouth. A naval station and seaport town 
 
POCHAKD 
 
 651 
 
 POLAE 
 
 of England, in the county of Devon, between the 
 rivers Plym and Tamar, at the head of Plymouth 
 Sound. The principal buildings in the town are 
 the royal hotel, royal union baths, custom-house, 
 barracks, hospitals, etc. The structures con 
 nected with the naval establishments are outside 
 the town. The principal dock-yard is at Devon- 
 port. In it is an observatory. The naval and 
 royal military hospitals, the victualing-yard, the 
 gun-wharf, and the military prison, are all fine 
 stone edifices. The harbor of Plymouth is double, 
 consisting of the mouth of the Tamar and the 
 estuary of the Plym. The parts of the port ap 
 propriated to the mercantile shipping are called 
 Sutton Pool and Mill Bay, and in the latter are 
 extensive wet-docks. The city has a large trade, 
 and imports from the West Indies, North 
 America, and the Baltic. It has also manufac 
 tures of glass, soap, starch, etc., and extensive 
 fisheries. Pop. 69,000. 
 
 Pochard (Fuligula}. A genus of oceanic 
 ducks, the species of which are numerous, some 
 of them are natives of the Arctic regions ; some 
 are found, at least in winter, on the coasts of 
 Europe, Asia, and North America, and some in 
 the southern hemisphere. The bill of the pochard 
 is about equal in length to the head, and is broad 
 and flat, a little dilated toward the tip, the 
 lamellae of the upper mandible not projecting be 
 yond the margin ; the wings are short, and the 
 tail short and rounded. The windpipe of the 
 male in all the pochards terminates in a laby 
 
 rinth composed partly of bone and partly of mem- 
 
 Th 
 pochard. 
 
 brane. The canvas-back duck is a species of 
 
 Pocket. A bight on the coast in which ships 
 are likely to be detained by head winds. 
 
 Pod. A company of seals or sea-elephants. 
 
 Podiceps. Synonymous with grebe (which 
 see). 
 
 Poggie. The miller s thumb, Coitus cata- 
 phractus. 
 
 Pogonias. See DRUM-FISH. 
 
 Pohagen. A fish of the herring kind ; called 
 also hard-head. 
 
 Point. A low spit of land projecting into the 
 sea. To point a gun, to direct it at the target. 
 To point a rope, to unlay, taper, and weave some 
 of the outside yarns of the end of a rope, for neat 
 ness, to prevent fagging out, and for convenience 
 in reeving through a block. See COMPASS, KEEF- 
 POINT. 
 
 Point-blank. The term point-blank originated 
 when it was supposed that a shot traveled for a 
 certain distance in a straight line. The French 
 define the point-blank as the second point at 
 which the line of sight intersects the trajectory ; 
 the distance of this point from the muzzle is the 
 point-blank range. The natural point-blank cor 
 responds to the natural line of sight ; all others 
 are artificial points-blank. With us, as in Eng 
 land, the point-blank range is the distance from 
 the muzzle to the point at which the projectile 
 first strikes the horizontal plane on which the 
 trucks of the carriage rest, the gun being laid 
 level. 
 
 Point De Galle Canoe. A canoe consisting 
 of a single stem of Dup wood, 18 to 30 feet long, 
 from 1 to 2 feet broad, and from 2 to 3 feet 
 deep. It is fitted with a balance-log at the ends 
 of two bamboo outriggers, having the mast, yard, 
 and sail secured together, and when sailing is 
 
 managed in a similar way to the catamaran. 
 They sail very well in strong winds, and are also 
 used by the natives of the Eastern Archipelago, 
 especially at the Eeejee group, where they are 
 very large. 
 
 Pointer-board. An old contrivance for train 
 ing a ship s guns. 
 
 Pointers. The two stars a and (3 Ursce Ma- 
 joi*is are called the pointers because they point 
 out Polaris, which lies about as far from a as a 
 does from 77, the extreme star in the tail of the 
 Great Bear. 
 
 Polacre. A ship or brig of the Mediterranean. 
 The masts are commonly formed of one spar from 
 truck to heel, so that they have neither tops nor 
 cross-trees ; neither have they any foot-ropes to 
 their upper yards, because the men stand upon 
 the topsail-yards to loose and furl the topgallant- 
 sails, and upon the lower yards to loose, reef, or 
 furl the topsails, all the yards being lowered suf 
 ficiently for that purpose. Written also polacca. 
 
 Polar. Pertaining to, surrounding, or pro 
 ceeding from, the pole. 
 
 POLAR ANGLE. On the terrestrial sphere, the 
 angle at the pole formed by two meridians ; on 
 the celestial sphere, the angle at the pole formed 
 by two hour-circles. 
 
 POLAR Axis. The axis of an astronomical in 
 strument, as an equatorial, which is parallel to 
 the axis of the earth. 
 
 POLAR CIRCLES. The two parallels of latitude 
 which are at a distance of 23 28 from the poles ; 
 they separate the frigid from the temperate zones. 
 The northern is called the arctic, and the south 
 ern the antarctic circle. 
 
 POLAR CO-ORDINATES. See CO-ORDINATES. 
 
 POLAR DISTANCE. The angular distance from 
 the elevated pole, the complement of the decli 
 nation. 
 
 POLAR EXPLORATION. The list of explorers in 
 the Antarctic regions may be reckoned up upon 
 the fingers, while Arctic exploration has called 
 forth the energies of stout hearts and active 
 minds for more than a thousand years. After 
 the discovery of the sea-routes to the Pacific and 
 Indian Oceans, by the way of Cape Horn and 
 the Cape of Good Hope, there was no practical 
 object to be gained in pushing for the south pole, 
 while exploration in that direction is attended 
 by greater difficulties and infinitely greater dan% 
 gers than in the Boreal region. Expeditions to 
 the south have therefore been undertaken purely 
 in the interests of science, and not, as was long 
 the case with northern exploration, in hopes of 
 finding a short cut to the Indies, and to wealth. 
 
 The Arctic regions were probably visited by 
 Norse walrus-hunters long before the historical 
 period, but the first record of such visits dates 
 back to the 9th century. The voyage of Other, 
 or Octher, around the. North Cape, has for ages 
 been celebrated in song and story. In the 10th 
 century, Eric the Ked visited Southeastern Green 
 land, and founded a settlement there. In the 
 14th century two Italian navigators are supposed 
 to have penetrated within the Arctic circle, and 
 Columbus is supposed to have visited the seas of 
 Iceland and Greenland 15 years before his dis 
 covery of America. 
 
 During the 16th century the Dutch, English^ 
 and other northern nations promoted discovery 
 in the far north, with a view to a free and speedy 
 passage to China and India. The discovery by 
 
POLAR 
 
 652 
 
 POLAK 
 
 Columbus and succeeding navigators of the great 
 western continent, and the success of Vasco de 
 Gama in finding a way to India by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, stimulated commerce and explora 
 tion. The claim of Spain and Portugal to the 
 exclusive right of navigation and trade with the 
 countries discovered by them, forced upon the 
 northern nations the importance of discovering 
 a northwestern passage to prevent a ruinous de 
 cline of their commerce, and maritime suprem 
 acy. Theoretically, nothing appeared more 
 likely than that such a passage existed, and 
 Magalhaen s discovery of the strait bearing his 
 name was adduced by many as a reason why a 
 corresponding passage should exist at the north. 
 Cabot therefore made voyages in search of it, in 
 1495, 1497, and in 1502. Cortoreale did the same 
 in 1500, and in 1501. Then followed Verazzano, 
 Gomez, Kut, Cartier, and Frobisher, so that, 
 by the year 1578, the contour of Newfoundland, 
 and of the North American coast, up to the Arc 
 tic circle, became tolerably well known. 
 
 In 1553, Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor 
 had also penetrated to the northeast, and had 
 reached Nova Zembla ; Willoughby and a por 
 tion of his followers losing their lives in the 
 undertaking. Burroughs tried to the northeast 
 in 1556, and added notably to the knowledge of 
 those regions. Other English explorers followed 
 him in the same direction. In 1594 a Dutch ex 
 pedition, under Barentz, visited Nova Zembla 
 and the Eastern Arctic, and the same leader sailed 
 again in this direction in 1595 and 1597, the 
 leader in the last voyage losing his life on the 
 return from Nova Zembla, where he had lost his 
 vessel and had been obliged to winter. Some of 
 his men reached home by way of Lapland, after 
 untold suffering, and the hut in which the^y win 
 tered was found, intact, by some voyagers in 
 1871. 
 
 The ill success of the attempts to the eastward 
 finally drew the attention of the English to the 
 possibility of crossing near the pole, the idea 
 being suggested by the fact that fishermen and 
 whalemen were able, generally, to penetrate the 
 mysterious icy region farther in that direction 
 than any other. Henry Hudson was sent by the 
 Muscovy Company, in 1607, with instructions to 
 follow this general line. He reached 81 N. 
 lat., to the eastward of Spitzbergen, but was 
 then obliged to return. In 1610 the same com 
 pany sent out Poole who only succeeded in 
 reaching 77 N. to the westward of Spitzbergen: 
 Marmaduke about the same time is said to have 
 penetrated north of Spitzbergen, to 82 N lat. 
 In 1614 and 1615, Fotherby made attempts in 
 the same direction, which came to naught. From 
 this time, with the exception of an abortive voy 
 age of Capt. Wood, in 1676, the English appear 
 to have abandoned all attempts to reach the 
 north pole in that direction for 150 years. 
 
 Interest in the northwest passage was height 
 ened by failure to advance toward the northeast. 
 All the very early explorations had been under 
 taken under the belief that there was a short 
 passage to the northwest, if it could only be 
 found. Interest in the northwest had been re 
 vived in 1585, when some London merchants 
 sent out John Davis, who followed the west 
 coast of Greenland, discovered the strait which 
 bears his mime, as well as Cumberland Island, and, 
 in a subsequent expedition, reached lat. 72 N. 
 
 The Muscovy Company also sent expeditions 
 in this direction in 1602 and 1606, which did not 
 succeed in reaching as high a point as Davis had 
 done. 
 
 Hudson, then in Dutch employ, searched for 
 the northwest passage in 1608. He followed the 
 American coast, and, in the course of his voy 
 age, discovered the great river which bears his 
 name. Two years afterward this time in the 
 English service he discovered Hudson s Strait 
 and Hudson s Bay. In the middle of this great 
 sheet of water he found his fate, being, in con 
 sequence of a mutiny, set adrift to perish. The 
 English continued to send expeditions to the 
 north and northwest. Sir Thomas Button sailed 
 in 1612, Gibbons in 1614, and Baffin in 1615. 
 Important discoveries resulted. Baffin s Bay, 
 the strait between Cumberland Island and the 
 continent, and Horn, Lancaster, and Smith 
 Sounds were all mapped ; but, having found no 
 passage, the English efforts in that direction now 
 relaxed for some years. 
 
 Denmark, however, sent Jens Munk in 1619 ; 
 and in 1631 the English renewed their attempts, 
 which were continued in 1641 and 1646. These 
 made known Southampton Island, Fox Channel, 
 James Bay, Wager Kiver, and Kepulse Bay. 
 The northern coast of Asia was explored by the 
 Russians, who also discovered the Liakhov Isl 
 ands and Wrangel s Land. By the middle of 
 the 16th century Russian navigators, in small 
 vessels, were traversing the Arctic, where it 
 washed the shores of Siberia, and very numerous 
 subsequent expeditions have been sent forth by 
 that nation in that region, under Behring, 
 Kotzebue, Liakhov, Wrangel, and other well- 
 known names ; their efforts continuing from 1610 
 to the present day. Our own territory of Alaska 
 and the Aleutian Islands were discovered by 
 Behring, who was engaged for many years in 
 northern exploration, in which he eventually 
 lost his life. Tchirikow was also a noted ex 
 plorer, about 1740. 
 
 In 1773 an English expedition, in the " Car 
 cass" and "Racehorse," was sent to Spitzbergen, 
 in which Nelson participated, with the rating of 
 coxswain. 
 
 Capt. Cook, in addition to his other achieve 
 ments, has also connected his name indelibly 
 with the northwest of America and Behring s 
 Strait. England renewed the search for the 
 northwest passage in 1818, under Sir John Ross, 
 and continued it, under various celebrated men, 
 until its discovery, in 1850, by Sir Robert Mc- 
 Clure. All these different expeditions, as well 
 as those sent in search of Sir John Franklin, re 
 sulted in the discovery and naming of a vast 
 number of geographical points between 60 and 
 130 W., and up to 77 N., and in 1833 Sir 
 James Ross discovered the North Magnetic Pole. 
 The expeditions to the north and northwest, suc 
 ceeding Sir John Franklin s last one, undertaken 
 in 1845, became so numerous that it is only pos 
 sible here to name a few who have distinguished 
 themselves, such as Sir James Ross, Kellett, 
 Collinson, McClure, Austin, Ommancy, Sher- 
 ard, Osborne, Sir John Ross, Penny, Forsyth, 
 Snow, McClintock, Inglefield, Belcher, Young, 
 and other Englishmen ; De Haven, Kane, 
 Hayes, and Hall, Americans ; while Koldewey, 
 Lamont, Peyer, and Weyprecht followed the 
 course to the north of Spitzbergen with great 
 
POLAE 
 
 653 
 
 POLAR 
 
 success. To the north of our own continent 
 some gallant land travelers have ventured, in 
 a constant struggle with cold and privation ex 
 tending, in some cases, over years. 
 
 Sir John Franklin himself, when a lieutenant, 
 started from York Factory, in 1819, to proceed 
 to the Arctic shore and explore eastward from 
 the Coppermine River. He was accompanied by 
 Doctor (afterwards Sir John) Richardson, Messrs. 
 Hood and Back, midshipmen, and a seaman 
 named Hepburn. They were occupied about 3 
 years, traveled 5500 miles, and failed to accom 
 plish very much, suifering such extremities of 
 cold and hunger that their preservation was a 
 miracle. 
 
 Franklin made another land journey in 1825, 
 descending the Mackenzie River. Parry, in 
 1827, attempted to reach the pole to the east 
 ward by sledging over the ice. He reached 82 
 45 , but found the ice setting to the southward 
 almost as fast as he traveled to the north, and 
 was obliged to return. 
 
 Back,\vho had accompanied Franklin, and 
 Dr. King made an Arctic land journey in 1833. 
 Dease and Simpson journeyed north about the 
 same time, and discovered what is now called 
 Victoria Land, and a sea clear of ice. 
 
 Dr. John Rae, in 1846-47, proved the connec 
 tion of Boothia with the mainland of America, 
 and completed our knowledge of the formation 
 of the land to the eastward. These were all in 
 addition to extensive sledge journeys taken with 
 ships as a base. At this writing, Lieut. Schwatka, 
 of the U. S. army, has just returned from a mar 
 velous journey of 3251 miles in the extreme 
 north, during which the party was exposed to a 
 cold of 71 Fahrenheit for many hours. They 
 were nearly a year in accomplishing their jour 
 ney, and started with only one month s provis 
 ions, living off the game killed, as the natives 
 did. His discoveries only confirm the sad fate 
 of the whole of Sir John Franklin s command. 
 
 The northwest passage discovered by McClure 
 is between Bank s and Prince Albert s Lands, 
 through Prince of Wales Strait, Melville Sound, 
 Barrow Strait, and Lancaster Strait to Baffin s 
 Bay, and is of no practical utility on account of 
 its permanent obstruction by ice. Since its dis 
 covery, Polar exploration has had for its object 
 scientific discoveries chiefly. 
 
 In 1854 the exploration of Dr. Kane, U. S. 
 Navy, through Smith Sound and Kennedy Chan 
 nel, revived the belief in an open Polar sea, 
 the Polynia of the Russians, which had been 
 advocated for two centuries, but this has not 
 been confirmed by subsequent explorers, although 
 his route, by Smith Sound, is now generally be 
 lieved to be the most practicable one to the pole. 
 
 Dr. Petermann, the geographer, maintained 
 that past experience pointed to the belief that 
 the best course to the pole was that between 
 Greenland and Spitzbergen, or to the eastward 
 of Spitzbergen, and his opinion influenced late 
 attempts in this direction by the Swedes, Ger 
 mans, and Austrians, and by Mr. Lament, an 
 Englishman. These attempts have been abor 
 tive, and progress seems hopeless in that direc 
 tion. Franz Josef Land was discovered by the 
 Austrians, extending to 82 N., and the offi 
 cers of that expedition saw nothing to warrant 
 the belief in an open Polar sea. In 1871 the 
 Norwegian Capt. Karlsen sailed round Nova 
 
 Zembla for the first time. In 1872, Capt. Hall, 
 of the United States, by way of Smith Sound, 
 Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Channel, reached 
 82 16 N. lat. All these late expeditions gave 
 important contributions to scientific knowledge. 
 
 Capt. Nares, of the English navy, in 1875, 
 reached by sledge journey the highest northern 
 point, Commander Markham in command of 
 the party. The latitude was 83 20 26", and 
 there was so little evidence of open sea there that 
 he called the ice u paleocrystic." 
 
 In the present year Nordenskjold, already 
 celebrated for exploration of the Kara Sea, suc 
 ceeded in pushing his way along the whole of 
 the northern coast of Siberia, and in coming out 
 safely into the Pacific Ocean, a feat which was 
 believed impossible up to that time. 
 
 Lieut.-Commander De Long, U. S. Navy, in 
 command of the " Jeannette," passed into the 
 Arctic by way of Behring s Strait, in 1879, and 
 has not since been heard of. His expedition was 
 composed of the best material, and it is alto 
 gether likely that he will, in due time, report 
 himself, with great additions to our knowledge 
 of the northern regions. 
 
 The explorers of the Antarctic region have 
 been few, there having been no practical object 
 to serve after the discovery of the routes to the 
 Pacific and the Indian Ocean, by way of Cape 
 Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The name Antarctic should, strictly speaking, 
 be applied only to the ice-bound sea to the south 
 of the Arctic Circle. It is generally, however, 
 extended to include more or less of the cold 
 regions round the south pole, without reference 
 to the Circle. As compared with the Arctic, 
 little is known of it. It is clear that the dangers 
 to navigation, and the cold, greatly exceed those 
 of the north, and that human beings, and most 
 terrestrial animals, have more difficulty in sub 
 sisting within its limits. Capt. Cook, in his 
 voyages, entered the Antarctic at three points, 
 and was the first to throw doubt upon the " Terra 
 Australis Incognita," formerly laid down on all 
 charts. Cook attained 71 10 S. on the 107th 
 meridian. Bellinghausen, in 1821, sailed several 
 degrees within the Circle, and discovered Alex 
 ander s Land. Howell saw Trinity Land in the 
 same year. Palmer, an American, saw Palmer s 
 Land, to the westward of Trinity, in lat. 62. 
 Weddell, an Englishman, saw no new land, but 
 reached lat. 74 15 S. In 1831-32, Biscoe was 
 sent out by Enderby, of London, and discovered 
 Enderby s Land. Dumont d Urville and some 
 others made some unimportant attempts to the 
 southward in 1833-38. In 1840, Dumont d Ur 
 ville (French) and Wilkes (American), in com 
 mand of exploring expeditions, discovered what 
 is probably a group of islands, in 61 S. and 
 160 E., although both reported a continuous 
 coast. 
 
 The most important expedition to the Ant 
 arctic was made by Sir James Ross, in the 
 " Erebus" and " Terror," in 1839-43. He pene 
 trated to 78 II 7 S., the highest ever attained. 
 He discovered land in 70 41 S. and 172 30 E. 
 He also named several volcanoes and other 
 mountains, and ascertained the position of the 
 south magnetic pole to be 75 5 S. lat. and 
 154 S / E. Ion. It was an extraordinary voyage, 
 and full of perils, while the scientific results were 
 very great. In 1845, Capt. Moore was sent by 
 
POLAR 
 
 654 
 
 POLES 
 
 the British Admiralty to observe magnetic phe 
 nomena in a region of the Antarctic not visited 
 by Ross. He reached the 73d parallel with 
 difficulty. 
 
 The two Polar regions differ widely. The 
 Arctic seas teem with animal life, and land 
 animals are comparatively plenty. There are 
 many birds, and vegetation, such as mosses, 
 lichens, scurvy-grass, small shrubs and flowers, 
 are found in their appointed season, and in 
 varieties unknown in the Antarctic. In the 
 latter region vegetation ceases at a comparatively 
 early limit. Trees and shrubs cease to exist in 
 the so.uth at 56. There is plenty of animal life 
 in the sea, but no quadrupeds on the land. 
 Birds, however, exist in great numbers, and in 
 varieties unknown in the Arctic. The Antarctic 
 climate is more severe than that of the Arctic. 
 Researches show that a luxuriant tropical or 
 semi-tropical vegetation formerly existed in the 
 Polar regions. Beds of coal have been found 
 in the Arctic and in Kerguelen Land. Remains 
 of large trees have also been found underlying 
 basalt. Fossil remains of trees and animals, 
 which now exist only in the tropics, have been 
 found at Disco, Smith Sound, and New Siberia. 
 
 It is impossible here to go into the theories 
 which account for this. 
 
 The voyage of the "Eira," containing Mr. 
 Leigh Smith s Arctic explorers, details of whose 
 observations in the Spitzbergen seas were given 
 in the daily papers in the month of November, 
 1880, has been instrumental in elucidating the 
 polynial character of that part of the Polar basin 
 into which the North Atlantic discharges its 
 warm floods. The " Eira" left England on June 
 22, and a week s steaming brought her to Jan 
 Mayen Island, whence with leisurely movement 
 she advanced toward Spitzbergen, clearing its 
 South Cape on July 30. Up to this time nothing 
 remarkable occurred to the explorers, except that 
 they found the ice to the west of Spitzbergen in 
 such quantities as to preclude progress in that 
 direction. But pursuing their way to the north 
 ward they reached Franz Josef Land, discovered 
 a new and well-sheltered harbor, and on their 
 final trip, August 24, attained in their yacht the 
 high latitude of 80 20 N. in longitude about 
 40 E. Since 1865, when Petermann s researches 
 seemed to establish the extension of the Gulf 
 Stream s thermal influence up to Spitzbergen, 
 the Arctic waters in its vicinity have been, in 
 vested with a peculiar interest, as possibly offer 
 ing an advantageous approach toward the Pole. 
 The polynias seen by so many polar voyagers be 
 tween Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla and the 
 readiness with which high latitude has been fre 
 quently made in this direction, apparently con 
 firm the supposed Gulf Stream or Atlantic in 
 fluence between these Arctic islands. " Our 
 observations," says Payer, " proved the exist 
 ence, in the Eastern Nova Zembla seas, of a 
 band of warm water from 86 to 40 feet deep," 
 and Middendorf and Mack found evidences of 
 a warm water agency as far east as 60 and 
 81 E. Ion. North of Spitzbergen, however, 
 Parry found in 1827, as others more recently 
 have, that the Polar stream is pressing its way 
 southward. These facts point to the extension 
 of the Atlantic drift movement far to the east of 
 Nova Zembla, and even north of the New Sibe 
 rian Islands, with the consequent formation of 
 
 occasional polynias. Mr. Leigh Smith s late 
 voyage did not extend so far east, but so far as it 
 did extend it is confirmatory of Petermann s 
 general conclusions as to the comparative open 
 ness of these waters. 
 
 The effect of a warm current on the pack-ice 
 of high altitudes by no means insures a free pass 
 age for a ship, and it may, as Petermann be 
 lieved, only make "a blind alley of_ice." But 
 where such a thermal agency is present Arctic 
 travelers will be encouraged to conclude with 
 Lieut. Payer, that "the hope of finding a navi 
 gable sea in latitudes not hitherto attained is 
 not yet extinct." As it is possible the " Jean- 
 nette," should she have prosecuted her voyage 
 to the northwest of Wrangel Land, may ulti 
 mately enter the seas contiguous to Franz Josef 
 Land and Spitzbergen, she may supplement Mr. 
 Leigh Smith s exploration. 
 
 POLAR FORCES. Forces that act in pairs with 
 opposite tendencies or properties, as in magnet 
 ism, electricity, etc. 
 
 Polaris, or Pole-star. The name of the star 
 a Ursce Minoris, so called from its being the 
 bright star which is nearest to the north pole of 
 the heavens. Its Arabic name is Ruccabah, and 
 it is also known as the Cynosure (from kudn, 
 kunos, a dog, and oura, the tail, the constella 
 tion of Ursa Minor being anciently figured as a 
 dog). Polaris can readily be found by the 
 " Pointers" (3 and a Ursse Majoris, being the 
 first bright star which the line of their direction 
 passes, a Ursse Majoris (Dubhe) is at the same 
 distance from the stars in the extremities of the 
 two constellations the Great Bear and the Little 
 Bear, the former being 77 Ursse Majoris, and the 
 latter a Ursa? Minoris, or Polaris. The star a 
 Ursae Minoris has not always been, and will not 
 always continue to be, the pole-star. The pre 
 cession of the equinoxes may be viewed as a very 
 slow motion of the pole of the heavens among 
 the stars in a small circle round the pole, of the 
 ecliptic. The effect of this is an apparent ap 
 proach of some stars to the pole and recess of 
 others. When the earliest catalogues were con 
 structed, the present pole-star was 12 from the 
 pole ; it is now less than H, and will approach 
 to within ^, when it will begin to recede and 
 give place to others. Four thousand years ago 
 a Draconis was the pole-star, and was but 10 
 from the pole ; after the lapse of 12,000 years, 
 a Lyrce, the brightest star in the northern hemi 
 sphere, will be the pole-star, approaching to 
 within about 5 of the pole. The present pole- 
 star is calculated to be about 292 millions of mil 
 lions of miles from the earth. 
 
 Poldavis, or Poldavy. A canvas from Dant- 
 zic, formerly much used. A kind of sail-cloth 
 thus named was also formerly manufactured in 
 Lancashire. 
 
 Pole-ax. A sort of hatchet, resembling a 
 battle-ax, which was used on board ship to cut 
 away the rigging of an adversary ; and also, in 
 boarding an enemy whose hull was more lofty 
 than that of the boarders, by driving the points 
 of several into her side, one above another, and 
 thus forming a kind of scaling-ladder ; hence 
 were called boarding-axes. 
 
 Poles (Gr. polos, a pivot on which anything 
 turns ; the axis of the sphere). The points at the 
 extremities of the axis of the celestial sphere, 
 which in the diurnal revolution appear station- 
 
POLE-STAR 
 
 655 
 
 POET 
 
 ary, and about which the whole of the heavens 
 appear to turn as upon pivots. This is the pri 
 mary use of the term. Hence it is extended and 
 applied to extremities of the axis of the earth ; 
 hence, also, its more purely geometric uses. The 
 term is still further extended to physics ; thus, 
 when it was found that the magnet did not 
 always point to the north pole, but to another 
 point, this point was naturally named the mag 
 netic pole. Also, the upper ends of the upper 
 masts when they rise above the eyes of the rig 
 ging. 
 
 Pole-star. See POLARIS. 
 
 Policy. The written instrument that evi 
 dences the contract of insurance. (See MARINE 
 INSURANCE.) In another sense it signifies a 
 course of governmental administration or of 
 individual action. 
 
 Poll. A fish, called also chub or chevin. 
 
 Pollack. The Merlangus pollachius, a well- 
 known member of the cod family. 
 
 Pollard. The chub-fish. 
 
 Pollux. The star j3 Geminorum. See GEMINI. 
 
 Polyneme. A sea-fish of the genus Polynemus, 
 characterized by having the ventral fins abdom 
 inal instead of thoracic. 
 
 Pomfret. A delicate sea-fish taken in great 
 quantities in Bombay and Madras. 
 
 Pommelion. An old name for the knob on 
 the breech of a cannon. 
 
 Ponches. Small bulk-heads made in the hold 
 to stow corn, goods, etc. 
 
 Poncho. A blanket with a hole in the centre, 
 large enough for the head to pass through, worn 
 by natives of South and Western America. 
 
 Pond. A cant term for the ocean. French 
 pond, the Mediterranean. 
 
 Pontones. Ancient square-built ferry-boats 
 for passing rivers, as described by Caesar and 
 Aulus Gellius. 
 
 Pood. A Kussian commercial weight, equal 
 to 36 pounds. 
 
 Poop. A partial deck elevated above the spar- 
 deck, and extending from the mizzen-mast aft. 
 A vessel is pooped when, in running before a 
 heavy sea, the waves break over the taffrail. 
 
 POOP-ROYAL. A short deck or platform for 
 merly placed over the aftrnost part of the poop 
 in the largest of the French and Spanish men- 
 of-war. 
 
 Poor, Charles H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Charles H. Poor was born at Cambridge, Mass., 
 in June, 1809. Appointed midshipman from 
 Massachusetts, March 1, 1823 ; attached to sloop- 
 of-war "John Adams," West India Squadron, 
 1827 ; frigate " Java," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1829. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, March 29, 
 1829, and ordered to frigate " Delaware," Medi 
 terranean Squadron, 1830; sloop-of-war " Lex 
 ington," Brazil Squadron, 1833, and brig 
 " Boxer," same squadron, 1834. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 31, 
 1833; rendezvous, Norfolk, Va., 1836; razee 
 "Independence," Brazil Squadron, 1840; navy- 
 yard, Washington, 1846-48; inspector, etc., 
 1850-51 ; frigate " St. Lawrence," Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1852-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; navy-yard, Norfolk, Va., 1856-58; com 
 manding sloop-of-war "St. Louis," Home Squad 
 ron, 1860-61; commanded expedition of sailors 
 
 and marines to reinforce Fort Pickens, 1861 ; 
 frigate "Roanoke," North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1861-62. Commander Poor took com 
 mand of steamer " Illinois," to act as a ram 
 against the "Merrimac," but did not have an 
 opportunity to test the power of his vessel. 
 Passed rebel batteries, under fire, at Sewell s 
 Point, while proceeding from Hampton Roads 
 towards Newport News in frigate "Roanoke," 
 to assist the " Congress" and " Cumberland." 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, January 2, 1863; 
 commanding sloop-of-war "Saranac," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1863-66 ; compelled the authorities 
 at Aspinwall to release U. S. mail-steamer de 
 tained to collect illegal dues (approved by Sec 
 retary of the Navy) ; compelled authorities at 
 Rio Hacha to hoist and salute the American flag, 
 which had been insulted (approved by Secretary 
 of the Navy) ; commanding Naval Station at 
 Mound City, 111., 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, September 20, 
 1868; commandant navy-yard, Washington, 
 1869; commanding North Atlantic Squadron, 
 1869-70 ; member Retiring Board, 1871-72. Re 
 tired June 9, 1870. 
 
 Poor John. Hake-fish salted and dried, as 
 well as dried stock-fish, and bad baccalao^ or cod, 
 equally cheap and coarse. 
 
 Popler. An old name for a sea-gull. 
 
 Poppets. The upright pieces which are fitted 
 between the ship s bottom and the bilge-ways at 
 the extreme ends of the ship, to support her in 
 launching. Small pins on the gunwale of a 
 boat to form a rowlock. 
 
 POPPET-RIBBANDS. Pieces of oak plank run 
 ning across the poppets, fore-and-aft, to which 
 they are secured. 
 
 POPPET-LASHING. Chain-cables passed around 
 the poppets and over the poppet-ribbands, from 
 side to side, to support the extremities of the ves 
 sel in launching. 
 
 Poppet-valve. A steam-valve made in the 
 form of a frustrum of a cone, which acts by open 
 ing and closing a conical port ; it receives its 
 motion from a rock-shaft by means of a lifting- 
 toe, working under a similar toe on the valve- 
 stem ; there are two kinds, the single- and double- 
 poppet valve ; the latter is a balanced valve. 
 
 Poppling. Sea-waves in irregular agitation. 
 
 Porbeagle. A kind of shark. 
 
 Porcupine-fish. A fish of the tropical seas, 
 which is covered with spines or prickles capable 
 of being erected by its inflating the body. It is 
 the Diodon hystrix of Bloch. 
 
 Pores. Minute, dark spots on the sun. 
 
 Porgy. A salt-water fish of the gilt-head 
 kind, much esteemed for food. The common 
 species in North America is the Pagrus argyrops. 
 The sand-porgee is the Sargus arenosus. 
 
 Porpoise (Phoccena). A genus of cetacea of 
 the family Delphinidce, having a form similar to 
 the dolphins, but the muzzle short, uniformly 
 convex, and without a beak ; a dorsal fin ; the 
 teeth very numerous, simple, and equal. The 
 grampus (which see) is generally referred to 
 this genus. 
 
 Port. An opening from the steam-chest to 
 the cylinder of a steam-engine ; if for the admis 
 sion of steam, it is termed the induction, or steam- 
 port ; if for the exhaust, it is termed the eduction, 
 or exhaust-port. 
 
 An opening in the side of a ship-of-war through 
 
POET AU PRINCE 
 
 656 
 
 PORTER 
 
 which a gun is fired. Cargo-ports and lumber- 
 ports are fitted in merchant ships for the purpose 
 of receiving and discharging cargo and lumber. 
 A place of resort for vessels for commercial 
 purposes. (See HARBOR.) A place more or less 
 protected from the wind and sea, and used as a 
 
 ?lace of refuge for vessels in tempestuous weather, 
 he left side of a vessel, a term which has been 
 substituted for the old word larboard, as being 
 less likely to be mistaken for starboard. 
 
 PORT-BARS. Strong pieces of oak by which 
 the ports are secured from flying open in a gale 
 of wind, the bars resting against the inside of the 
 ship ; the port is first tightly closed by its hooks 
 and ring-bolts. 
 
 PORT-CHARGES, or HARBOR-DUES. Charges 
 levied on vessels resorting to a port. 
 
 PORT-FLANGE. A wooden batten coved out 
 and fitted on the ship s side, over the ports, to 
 prevent the water from running into the port. 
 A port-riggle. 
 
 PORT-PENDANTS. Ropes spliced into rings on 
 the outside of the port-lids, and rove through 
 leaden pipes in the ship s sides, to work the port- 
 lids up or down by the tackles. 
 
 PORT-PIECE. An ancient piece of ordnance. 
 
 PORT-SASHES. Half-ports fitted with glass for 
 the admission of light into cabins. 
 
 PORT-SILLS. Pieces of oak dovetailed into 
 the frame-timbers to form the upper and lower 
 part of the ports. 
 
 PORT-STOPPER. A heavy piece of iron, made 
 to swing round and close the port in a turret- 
 vessel. 
 
 Port au Prince, the principal seaport and 
 capital city of Hayti, is situated at the head of 
 Gonaives Bay, in lat. 18 35 N., Ion. 72 18 W. 
 It is partially fortified. The vicinity is marshy, 
 and the climate unhealthy. It is the seat of the 
 greater part of the foreign trade of the island, 
 the annual value of the imports being about 
 $1,200,000. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Porter, B. H., Lieutenant U.S.N. See PRES 
 TON. 
 
 Porter, David, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 Boston, February 1, 1780 ; died in Pera, Turkey, 
 March 28, 1843. At the age of 16 he made a 
 cruise to the West Indies in a merchant vessel, 
 and during the two succeeding years made sev 
 eral voyages in merchant ships. He was twice 
 impressed by British vessels of war, and on each 
 occasion took the first opportunity to escape and 
 work his passage home. In April, 1798, he ob 
 tained a midshipman s appointment in the navy. 
 Midshipman Porter served in the frigate " Con 
 stellation" in her action with the French frigate 
 " Insurgente," February 9, 1799. In October, 
 1799, he was promoted to the grade of lieuten 
 ant, and ordered to the West India Station as 
 first lieutenant of the schooner "Experiment." 
 On the 1st of June, 1800, this vessel, with sev 
 eral sail of merchantmen under convoy, lay 
 becalmed in the bight of Leogane, in the 
 island of San Domingo. While thus lying, they 
 were attacked by 10 piccaroon barges, each con 
 taining 40 men, with swivels mounted in the 
 bows and on the quarters. The " Experiment" 
 had been disguised to look as much like a mer 
 chant ship as possible, and the piccaroons steered 
 for her with the evident intention of boarding. 
 At tbis critical moment her commanding officer 
 showed the white feather, and was about to sur 
 
 render to a force he considered it .hopeless to 
 contend against, when Lieut. Porter, backed by 
 Lieut. Blake, protested so vigorously that it was 
 determined to defend the ship and convoy to 
 the last ; and after a combat which continued for 
 7 hours, the pirates having lost 2 of their 
 barges sunk by the schooner s fire, and many of 
 their men killed and wounded, withdrew from 
 the fight. Shortly after the affair of Leogane, 
 Lieut. Charles Stewart (Old Ironsides), was or 
 dered to command the " Experiment," and for 
 some months these two officers, Stewart and 
 Porter, who afterwards became so famous, served 
 together in the little schooner, and while thus 
 serving captured the French schooner-of-war 
 "Diane." In October, 1803, Lieut. Porter was 
 captured in the frigate "Philadelphia," and re 
 mained a prisoner in Tripoli until peace was pro 
 claimed. 
 
 In 1806 he was promoted to master-command 
 ant, and on the 10th of March, 1808, Commander 
 Porter was married to Miss Anderson, of Chester, 
 Pa. In 1812 he was promoted to the grade of 
 captain. Between the years 1809 and 1812, 
 Capt. Porter was a large portion of the time on 
 special duty in New Orleans, and while there he 
 made the acquaintance of the Farragut family, 
 and took under his special protection young 
 David Farragut, who became in after-years the 
 most renowned of our admirals. At the begin 
 ning of hostilities in 1812, Capt. Porter sailed 
 from New York in command of the " Essex," 
 32, and in a short cruise captured several Brit 
 ish merchantmen and transports. Soon after 
 ward he fell in with and captured the British 
 corvette "Alert," 20. On December 11, near 
 the equator, he captured the British government 
 packet "Norton," with $50,000 in specie on 
 board. In January, 1813, Capt. Porter pro 
 ceeded to the Pacific with the intention of doing 
 all the damage he could to the English whale- 
 fishery in that ocean. 
 
 On March 25, he captured the Peruvian priva 
 teer " Nereyeda" of 19 guns, which had taken 
 two American whalers and had their crews on 
 board as prisoners. They were transferred to 
 the " Essex," and the armament and ammuni 
 tion of the " Nereyeda" thrown overboard, when 
 she was released. After this, Capt. Porter cruised 
 about 10 months in the Pacific, capturing 12 Brit 
 ish ships employed chiefly in the sperm-whale 
 fishery, and for a time that important British 
 interest in the Pacific was almost destroyed. 
 The " Georgiana," captured whaler, was con 
 verted into a vessel of war called the " Essex, 
 Jr.," and cruised with the "Essex." On Feb 
 ruary 3, 1814, the "Essex" and "Essex, Jr." 
 arrived at Valparaiso. On the 8th, H. B. M. 
 frigate "Phoebe" and sloop "Cherub" arrived 
 and anchored near the " Essex," and after ob 
 taining supplies cruised off Valparaiso 6 weeks. 
 On March 28 the " Essex" made an attempt 
 to get to sea, but in doubling a headland was 
 struck by a squall, which carried away her 
 fore-topmast and caused the loss of several 
 of her crew. In this crippled state the ship 
 anchored less than 3 miles from the town, only 
 half a mile from the shore, and while within 
 neutral waters was attacked by the " Phoebe" 
 and "Cherub," the first shot being fired at 
 3.54 P.M. The " Phoebe s" fire proved very de 
 structive, as she occupied a position where her 
 
PORTER 
 
 657 
 
 PORTER 
 
 long guns could rake the "Essex," while that 
 vessel could hardly bring a gun to bear against 
 her, the " Cherub" meanwhile pouring in a gall 
 ing fire. The latter vessel, however, soon found 
 her position such a hot one that she was driven to 
 leeward, near the "Phoebe," where both vessels 
 kept up a raking fire on the American frigate. 
 Capt. Porter now got three long 12-pounders out 
 of the stern port, and these guns were so well 
 worked that in half an hour both the attacking 
 vessels hauled off to repair damages. The ene 
 my s vessels having finished repairs, took up their 
 position on the starboard quarter of the " Essex," 
 out of reach of her carronades, and where her 
 long guns could not be brought to bear upon 
 them. Their fire was very severe, and Capt. 
 Porter had no alternative but to get under way 
 and become the assailant. The flying-jib was 
 set and the cable cut, and the " Essex" ran down 
 upon her assailants, and for a short time suc 
 ceeded in closing with them, so as to use her 
 carronades with such effect that the " Cherub" 
 was forced to haul oif, and for a few minutes the 
 hope was entertained that the enemy were so far 
 disabled as to permit the " Essex" to escape ; but 
 the hope proved a vain one, as the "Cherub" 
 kept up a destructive fire with her long guns, 
 and the " Phrebe" chose the distance best suited 
 to her long 18 s, where, out of the range of the 
 carronades of the " Essex," she kept up a delib 
 erate and destructive fire. The action had now 
 lasted over two hours, and the " Essex" lay like 
 a target, riddled by every shot from the enemy. 
 The crew were completely exhausted, and had 
 become so weakened in numbers that they en 
 treated the captain to surrender in order to save 
 the lives of the wounded, and accordingly, at 20 
 minutes past 6, the order was given to haul down 
 the colors. The contest throughout was a most 
 unequal one, the enemy having the advantage in 
 every way. In this action young Farragut, who 
 was serving on board as a midshipman, fought 
 most bravely, and was especially commended by 
 Capt. Porter in his official report. 
 
 The "Essex, Jr." brought the survivors of 
 the action to the United States, where Capt. 
 Porter was received with great honors. His 
 narrative of this cruise was published in New 
 York in 1822. His son, Admiral Porter, describes 
 it most vividly in his life of Commodore Porter, 
 published in Albany in 1866. From April, 
 1815, to December, 1823, Capt. Porter was a 
 member of the Board of Navy Commissioners, 
 which post he resigned to take command of the 
 expedition fitting out against pirates in the West 
 Indies. In October, 1824, upon evidence that a 
 quantity of valuable goods had been stored by 
 pirates at Foxardo, in the east end of Porto 
 Rico, Commodore Porter dispatched the schooner 
 " Beagle" to investigate the matter, but the offi 
 cers on landing were arrested and thrown into 
 prison. Commodore Porter on hearing of this 
 outrage sailed for the island, landed a force 
 of 200 men, and demanded an apology, which 
 was promptly given. The authorities at Wash 
 ington deeming he had exceeded his powers 
 brought him before a court-martial, and he was 
 sentenced to 6 months suspension. He soon after 
 resigned, and entered the service of Mexico as 
 commander-in-chief of the naval forces, at a 
 salary of $25,000 per annum. He remained 
 in this service until 1829, when having been 
 42 
 
 treated most treacherously by the Mexican offi 
 cials, and betrayed by those he had the most 
 reason to expect good faith from, the very 
 officers he had taught the rudiments of their 
 profession turning against him because he was 
 a foreigner, Commodore Porter resigned his 
 position, returned to the United States, and 
 was appointed by President Jackson consul- 
 general to the Barbary powers, from which post 
 he was transferred to Constantinople as resident 
 minister there, which office he held when he 
 died. His remains are interred in Woodland 
 Cemetery, West Philadelphia. 
 
 Porter, David Dixon, Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 June 8, 1813, in Chester, Pa. In 1824 he ac 
 companied his father, Commodore David Porter, 
 in the " John Adams," and was with him during 
 that memorable expedition which forever sup 
 pressed piracy in the West Indies. The resig 
 nation of Commodore Porter from the U. S. 
 navy on account of the failure of our govern 
 ment to sustain him in his energetic measures, 
 resulted in his becoming admiral of the Mexican 
 navy (1826), that people being then engaged in 
 their struggle for independence. 
 
 David D. Porter was appointed a midshipman 
 in the Mexican service. He obtained service 
 afloat with his cousin, Capt. D. H. Porter, who 
 commanded a Mexican vessel cruising against 
 Spanish commerce. After a most adventurous 
 and successful cruise, Capt. Porter was obliged 
 to return to the rendezvous at Key West on ac 
 count of a mutiny on board. Its early discovery 
 was due to the precocity of Midshipman Porter, 
 who had then arrived at the age of 14 years. In 
 the struggle with the mutineers Midshipman 
 Porter handed the pistols and sword to Capt. 
 Porter, who by his coolness and determination 
 soon disabled the ringleaders and brought all to 
 terms. Of the whole crew, only three remained 
 faithful. 
 
 In order to secure the prisoners and prevent 
 them from meddling with their irons, Capt. 
 Porter cut holes in the poop-deck so as to allow 
 the feet of the prisoners to go through into the 
 cabin, where they were ironed together. The 
 captain, assisted by Midshipman Porter and three 
 men, succeeded in running the Spanish blockade 
 and bringing the vessel and captured property 
 into Key^West. During the spring of 1828, the 
 brig "Guerrero," 22 guns, Capt. D. H. Porter, 
 was fitted out to cruise against Spanish com 
 merce. Midshipman Porter was again detailed 
 to duty under Capt. Porter. The " Guerrero" 
 had a fine crew of 186 men. Soon after arriving 
 on the coast of Cuba, Capt. Porter attacked two 
 Spanish brigs of superior force convoying a mer 
 chant fleet. The firing brought a Spanish 64-gun 
 frigate to the rescue of the convoy, thus robbing 
 Capt. Porter of the fruits of a victory fully 
 secured, and forcing him to fight a vessel in 
 finitely the superior of the "Guerrero. ^ After 
 a desperate resistance the brig was forced to sur 
 render. In this action Capt. Porter and nearly 
 half his crew were killed, and nil the officers 
 were more or less severely wounded. The sur 
 vivors were imprisoned in the guard-ship at 
 Havana. Midshipman Porter, after a short im 
 prisonment, was allowed to go to Vera Cruz, and 
 soon after (1828) he returned to the United 
 States. It is a singular fact that the nation is 
 indebted to Commodore David Porter not only 
 
PORTER 
 
 658 
 
 PORTER 
 
 for his own brilliant career, but also for the two 
 most distinguished naval officers of recent years, 
 as both Farragut and the subject of this sketch 
 were brought up under the personal care of that 
 officer, and under his command fought their first 
 battles. 
 
 David D. Porter was appointed midshipman 
 in the U. S. navy February 2, 1829. He served 
 on the European Station until 1835. 
 
 Many amusing stories are told of his career as 
 a midshipman, although the commodore of the 
 squadron and the captain of his ship may not 
 have fully appreciated them. 
 
 In 1836 he was promoted to passed midship 
 man. He served on the coast survey until he 
 was promoted to lieutenant, February, 1841. 
 Served at sea and at the Naval Observatory 
 until 1846, when he was selected by the Secre 
 tary of State to go on a secret mission to Hayti 
 to report upon the condition of affairs ifflhat 
 island. This he did in a very thorough manner. 
 
 He served with distinction during the entire 
 Mexican war as first lieutenant, and afterwards 
 as commanding officer of the steamer u Spitfire." 
 He was engaged in every action on the coast. 
 After that war he obtained a furlough from the 
 Navy Department, and for some years com 
 manded steamers on important passenger lines. 
 His vessels never met with an accident. 
 
 The Secretary of War during Mr. Buchanan s 
 administration selected him for the duty of im 
 porting camels into this country ; 84 were brought 
 over in the U. S. ship " Supply." The breaking 
 out of the war found Porter a lieutenant on shore 
 duty. In a little over two years he was a rear- 
 admiral, commanding a squadron. As a lieuten 
 ant commanding the " Powhatan," under con 
 fidential orders from President Lincoln, he as 
 sisted in the relief of Fort Pickens. Soon after 
 he was made a commander. The Department 
 was undecided in regard to the officer who should 
 command the expedition against New Orleans. 
 Some foolish doubts had been expressed as to 
 Farragut s loyalty. From the "Life and Let 
 ters" of Admiral Farragut recently published, 
 we learn that " Commander David D. Porter, 
 who had been taken into the confidence of the 
 Secretary, was sent as an intermediary to ascer 
 tain whether the proposed service would be agree 
 able. The result was that Farragut was ordered 
 to report in person at the seat of government," 
 and soon after received his preparatory orders to 
 command the Western Gulf Blockading Squad 
 ron. From the same authority it appears that 
 the Secretary informed Flag-Officer Farragut 
 that " there will be attached to your squadroVi a 
 fleet of bomb-vessels and armed steamers enough 
 to manage them ; all under command of Com 
 mander D. D. Porter, who will be directed to 
 report to you." This was the first of the famous 
 mortar fleet which did such good service. 
 
 The mortar fleet, consisting of 21 mortar- 
 schooners, each carrying a 13-inch mortar, and 
 5 steamers as convoys, reached the mouth of the 
 Mississippi during March, 1862. Soon after, 4 
 of the vessels of Farragut s fleet arrived, and 
 preparations were made Yor the attack on Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip. The vessels of the mor 
 tar fleet were towed to proper range near the 
 forts on the 18th of April, and for six days and 
 six nights fired continuously on the rebel works, 
 the officers and men being divided into three 
 
 watches. Six thousand bombs were exploded in 
 the forts, and the fire from them had destroyed 
 everything combustible in the works ; their gar 
 risons had become so demoralized that in the 
 judgment of the flag-officer the passage of the 
 fleet was practicable, and it was successfully ac 
 complished during the night and early morning 
 of April 24. 
 
 Flag-Officer Farragut having destroyed the 
 enemy s fleet of 15 vessels, proceeded to New Or 
 leans, which place he reached next day. The 
 reduction of the forts was left to Commander 
 Porter. They surrendered to him on the 28th 
 of April, after one day s bombardment. Com 
 mander Porter zealously assisted Flag-Officer 
 Farragut in all his operations between New Or 
 leans and Vicksburg, and at the latter place 
 bombarded the forts very effectively, enabling 
 the fleet to pass safely. Admiral Farragut, in 
 his official report of June 30, 1862, says, "The 
 Mortar Flotilla have never done better service 
 than at Vicksburg, notwithstanding the imper 
 fection of their fuzes. I have no doubt that they 
 did the forts on the heights great damage, and 
 on the morning of the attack did much to dis 
 tract the fire from the fleet." In July, Porter 
 was ordered with most of his mortar fleet to Fort 
 ress Monroe, but as there was no chance for im 
 mediate service at that point, he gave up the 
 command of the Mortar Flotilla, which he had 
 made famous, and was soon after ordered to the 
 command of the Mississippi Squadron, .as acting 
 rear-admiral, September, 1862. He improvised 
 a navy-yard at Mound City, and the small 
 squadron of only a dozen effective vessels was 
 soon increased to over 120, fully manned and 
 officered by 1300 officers, only 25 being regular 
 naval officers. The vessels were river-boats con 
 verted into efficient war-vessels, by covering 
 them with light armor and putting heavy guns 
 on them. The officers were chiefly Western 
 steamboat-men, who, under Porter s rigid dis 
 cipline, soon became valuable and trustworthy 
 officers. In January, 1863, Admiral Porter s 
 fleet, in co-operation with Sherman s army, cap 
 tured Arkansas Post, a very formidable fort on 
 the Arkansas River, 50 miles from its mouth, for 
 which Porter received a vote of thanks. Soon 
 after he ran past the batteries at Vicksburg and 
 succeeded in capturing the rebel forts at Grand 
 Gulf. This put him in close communication 
 with Gen. Grant, who, on the 18th of May, by 
 means of the fleet, put himself in the rear of 
 Vicksburg, and from that time the energies of 
 the army and navy were devoted to the capture 
 of that stronghold, which was finally accom 
 plished July 4, 1863. Porter received the thanks 
 of Congress and was commissioned a rear-admi 
 ral from that day. 
 
 During the remainder of 1863 the squadron 
 of Rear- Admiral Porter was busy keeping the 
 Mississippi River open, and the next spring he 
 went up the Red River to co-operate with Gen. 
 Banks, but the military part of the expedition 
 failed, and the retreat of the army left the gun 
 boats in a bad way, being above the rapids after 
 the fall of the river. However, the energy of 
 Rear- Admiral Porter, and the skill of Lieut.-Col. 
 Bailey, an old river engineer, saved the fleet by 
 building a dam below the rapids, thus sufficiently 
 deepening the water so as to enable the gunboats 
 to pass down safely. (11 ^ 7i>l . ,., ( 
 
POET-FIEE 
 
 659 
 
 POKTSMOUTH 
 
 Admiral Porter now possessed the entire con 
 fidence of the Department and of the nation, and 
 was ordered to the command of the North At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, which embraced 
 within its limits Cape Pear River and the port 
 of Wilmington. 
 
 A fleet comprising all the available vessels at 
 the disposal of the Department was assembled 
 at Hampton Koads. In December it sailed for 
 Beaufort, N. C. On December 24, 1864, Rear- 
 Admiral Porter, with a force of 35 vessels, 5 of 
 which were ironclads, and a reserve force of 19 
 vessels, commenced the bombardment of the forts 
 at the mouth of Cape Fear River, and silenced 
 them in an hour and a quarter. 
 
 General Butler, who commanded the military 
 forces, after a reconnoissance, decided that Fort 
 Fisher could not be carried by assault. He there 
 fore returned with his command to Hampton 
 Roads. Admiral Porter, aware of the necessity 
 of reducing the works and the great importance 
 of closing the port of Wilmington, and confident 
 that with adequate military support the fort 
 could be carried, earnestly requested that the 
 enterprise should not be abandoned. A second 
 military force was promptly detailed, composed 
 of about 8500 men, under command of Major- 
 Gen. A. H. Terry. This force arrived off Fort 
 Fisher on the 13th of January. Offensive op 
 erations were at once resumed by the naval 
 force, while the troops landed and intrenched 
 themselves. The bombardment was continued 
 throughout the 14th with an increased number 
 of vessels. The 15th was the day decided upon 
 for the assault. During the morning of that 
 day 44 vessels poured an incessant fire into the 
 fort. There was besides a force of 14 vessels in 
 reserve. At 3 P.M. the signal for the assault was 
 made. Desperate fighting ensued, traverse after 
 traverse was taken, and by 10 P.M. Fort Fisher 
 was captured. 
 
 Fourteen hundred sailors and 500 marines were 
 landed and participated in the direct assault. 
 Seventy-five guns, many of them superb rifle 
 pieces, and 1900 prisoners were the immediate 
 fruits of the victory. 
 
 Rear-Admiral Porter received the thanks of 
 Congress for the Fort Fisher affair, being the 
 fourth vote of thanks received by him during 
 the war, including the general one for the cap 
 ture of New Orleans. 
 
 He was promoted to vice-admiral in July, 
 1866, and was, ordered as superintendent of the 
 Naval Academy. His energy and ability first 
 brought that institution into prominence, and so 
 changed its character that it has ever since been 
 considered the best naval college in the world. 
 
 Upon the election of Gen. Grant to the Presi 
 dency, Yice-Admiral Porter was detailed for 
 duty in the Navy Department under Secretary 
 Borie. But upon the withdrawal of Mr. Borie 
 from the Cabinet, he, in a short time, also with 
 drew from the Department. In August, 1870, 
 he was promoted to admiral of the navy, and 
 since that time has devoted himself to his duties 
 as senior officer of the navy. R. M. G. Brown, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Port-fire. A stick of highly inflammable 
 composition, consisting of nitre, sulphur, and 
 mealed powder. It is now used principally for 
 life-buoy lights on account of its ability to resist 
 the action of water. In early days it was used 
 
 in firing gtms. It forms good material for in 
 cendiary shell. 
 
 Portland, the commercial metropolis of Maine, 
 is situated in Cumberland County (of which it 
 is the county-seat), on Casco Bay, in lat. 43 
 39 27" N., and Ion. 70 15 40" W. The pen 
 insula on the west shore of Casco Bay, on which 
 the city is located, is about 3 miles in length, by 
 an average breadth of three-quarters of a mile. 
 The harbor is one of the best on the Atlantic 
 coast, is well protected, of sufficient depth to 
 float the largest ships, and is open all the year. 
 It is defended by Forts Preble, Scammel, and 
 Gorges. The city has an extensive coastwise and 
 foreign trade, the annual value of the exports 
 being about $22,000,000, and the imports 
 $20,000,000. There are 2 dry-docks and other 
 facilities for repairing ships, and ship-building 
 was for a long time a leading pursuit. Rail 
 road-cars, locomotives, marine and other en 
 gines are important articles of manufacture. 
 Pop. 37,000. 
 
 Port Royal. See NAVAL STATION. 
 
 Portsmouth, a seaport town and the principal 
 naval station of England, is situated on Port- 
 sea Island, at the entrance to its famous harbor, 
 in lat. 50 48 N., and Ion. 1 16 W. This town, 
 inclosed as it is by bastioned ramparts, faced with 
 masonry, surrounded by trenches and outworks, 
 is the most perfect fortress in Great Britain. The 
 town of Portsea is separated from Portsmouth by 
 a creek, and is also inclosed by a line of fortifica 
 tions. Within this town is the naval dock-yard, 
 containing basins, wet- and dry-docks, large 
 warehouses, anchor -forges, iron- and copper- 
 mills, rope-houses, etc. In the dock-yard are 
 also the royal naval college, and the residence 
 of the port-admiral. Between the dock-yard 
 and Portsmouth is the gun-wharf or arsenal, 
 containing an armory, and artillery and am 
 munition depots. The harbor is large enough 
 to hold the entire navy of Great Britain, al 
 though at its entrance it is only 220 yards wide. 
 Pop. 115,000. See ESTABLISHMENTS, NAVAL, 
 or GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Portsmouth, the commercial metropolis and 
 only seaport of the State of New Hampshire, is 
 situated on a beautiful peninsula, formed by the 
 Piscataqua River, and on the right bank of that 
 river, about 3 miles from the ocean. The harbor, 
 which lies between the town and the mouth of 
 the river, is capacious, deep, easy of access, and 
 is much frequented by vessels in bad weather. 
 Sand-bars or ice cannot form owing to the rapid 
 tides. The main entrance to the harbor, between 
 the mainland and Great Island, is defended by 
 earth-works on Gerrish s Island and Jeffrey s 
 Point, and farther up the harbor are two stone 
 forts (Constitution and McClary). A U. S. 
 navy-yard is located here, for a full description 
 of which see NAVY- YARD, PORTSMOUTH, N. H. 
 The leading articles of manufacture are cotton, 
 cloth, hosiery, shoes, etc. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Portsmouth, Norfolk Co., Va., is on the left 
 bank of the Elizabeth River, nearly opposite 
 Norfolk. The river, which is about two-thirds 
 of a mile wide, forms a good harbor, which 
 admits vessels of the largest size. Large steam 
 boats ply daily between Baltimore and Ports 
 mouth. A naval hospital is located here, and 
 in the adjacent suburb of Gosport the navy- 
 yard commonly known as the Norfolk Navy- 
 
PORTUGAL 
 
 660 
 
 POWDER 
 
 Yard is situated. (See NAVY- YARD (GOSPOBT), 
 NORFOLK, VA.) Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Portugal, Navy of. Not until Columbus had 
 settled the question of the rotundity of the earth 
 could the Portuguese mariners be induced to sail 
 as far as the equinoctial line. In the few trips 
 made in a southerly direction they had encoun 
 tered water-spouts, beheld a comet, and experi 
 enced a degree of heat which alarmed them ex 
 ceedingly, the more ignorant and superstitious 
 believing they were approaching the region of 
 eternal flames. But the return of the vessels 
 which had carried the Genoese explorer to San 
 Salvador reassured the sailors of Lusitania, and 
 raised the hopes of the people that a path might 
 be found to India in an easterly direction. Then 
 it was that John II. caused ships to be con 
 structed for the purpose of contending with the 
 winds and the waves of the tropics, and Bartolo- 
 mew Diaz was selected to make the first attempt. 
 The passage along the west coast of Africa was 
 tolerably smooth, but off the southernmost point 
 the opposition of the winds was so great that no 
 other name could be found for the locality than 
 Tormentoso. The point, however, was settled 
 that Diaz had been sent to determine. He had 
 rounded the cape at the southern extremity of 
 the African continent, and thus demonstrated 
 that there was a clear passage to India. The 
 Capo de buon Esperanza was the name given to 
 the cape, and Diaz went back to carry tidings 
 of "golden times and happy news of price." 
 Not an hour was lost in taking advantage of the 
 discovery. Vasco da Gama was appointed to 
 proceed to India with three ships of 200, 120, 
 and 100 tons burden, and authority to open a 
 traffic with the people who had theretofore sent 
 their produce and manufactures to Europe only 
 by the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, or to war 
 with them if they manifested hostile inclinations. 
 Da Gama s voyage to the west coast of India was a 
 success in every way ; but it aroused the jealousy 
 of Holland and England, and justified the crea 
 tion of a small navy in the event of collision with 
 those powers. There is little to chronicle of the 
 operations of the Portuguese navy at any time, 
 and its strength at the present day consists of 1 
 armored ship, 10 screw-corvettes, 9 gunboats, 1 
 sailing-frigate, 1 sailing-corvette, 3 transports, 2 
 tugs, and 1 yacht. The ironclad " Vasco da 
 Gama," built at the Thames Iron Ship-building 
 Yard, London, and launched in 1876, is the 
 most important vessel of this navy ; the length 
 of the vessel between perpendiculars is 200 feet ; 
 breadth, 40 feet ; depth of hold, 25 feet ; draft 
 of water forward, 17 feet 6 inches ; aft, 19 feet; 
 displacement, 2479 tons ; thickness of iron on 
 the armored belt and battery, 9 inches ; thick 
 ness of teak backing, 10 inches. The motive 
 machinery consists of a pair of vertical com 
 pound engines for each of the two screw-pro 
 pellers. At their trial they developed 3625 horse 
 power, and the ship realized a speed of 13} knots 
 per hour. The ship is fitted with a ram, and her 
 armament consists of Krupp breech-loading rifles, 
 two of 10} inches calibre and 21 tons weight, 
 one 6 inches calibre and 4 tons weight, and two 
 40-pounders. The " Estephania" is the largest 
 of the corvettes, but is an old vessel. The only 
 modern corvettes are the " Rainha da Portugal" 
 and the " Mindello," sister ships, 170 feet long, 
 36 feet beam, having single screw-propellers, 
 
 operated by compound engines of 900 indicated 
 horse-power, and the armament of each consists 
 of two 4^-ton and six 40-pounder Armstrong 
 guns. Two of the gunboats, the " Mandove" 
 and "Bengo," built in 1879, are each 123 feet 
 long, 24 feet beam, and 334 tons displacement, 
 and are armed each with one Armstrong pivot- 
 gun and two 20-pounders. The other corvettes 
 and gunboats are of old date. The naval arsenal 
 is located at Lisbon, and comprises the ship 
 yard, the depots of arms and provisions, the 
 museum, and the naval school. The personnel 
 is comprised as follows : 1 vice-admiral, 5 rear- 
 admirals, 17 captains of line-of-battle ships, 26 
 captains of frigates, 32 lieutenant-captains, 57 
 first-class lieutenants, 78 second-class lieuten 
 ants, 7 engineers of marine construction, 57 me 
 chanicians, 22 surgeons, 38 paymasters, and an 
 active force of 3950 enlisted men, including 
 marines. 
 
 Portuguese Man-of-war. A beautiful float 
 ing acalephan of the tropical seas ; the Fhysalis 
 pelagica. See PHYSALIA. 
 
 Position. The position of a ship at sea is de 
 termined generally by the intersection of two 
 right lines. These lines may represent latitude 
 and longitude, two lines of equal altitude, etc. 
 When in sight of land the position is determined 
 by cross-bearings, by one bearing and a line of 
 equal altitude, by any line and the depth of 
 water, etc. 
 
 Post-captain. See CAPTAIN. 
 
 Pouches. Wooden bulk-heads across the hold 
 of cargo-vessels, to prevent grain or light shingle 
 from shifting. 
 
 Pound. A lagoon, or space of water, sur 
 rounded by reefs and shoals, wherein fish are 
 kept, as at Bermuda. 
 
 Pound-and-pint Idler (Eng.}. A sobriquet 
 applied to the purser. 
 
 Pout. A sea-fish of the cod kind, about a foot 
 in length ; called also the whiting. It has the 
 power of inflating a membrane which covers the 
 eyes and neighboring parts of the head. An 
 American fish of the genus Pimelodus (P. cat- 
 tus) ; catfish ; horned pout ; bullhead. 
 
 Powder for the naval service is classed accord 
 ing to the size and shape of the grain, and desig 
 nated as follows: hexagonal, cubical, mammoth, 
 rifle, cannon, torpedo, small-arm, and shell pow 
 der. They are all, as a rule, made of the same 
 proportion of ingredients, i.e., saltpetre 75, char 
 coal 15, and sulphur 10 parts. Hexagonal and 
 cubical powder must weigh 70 to 75 granules to 
 the pound ; the other classes are sized by means 
 of sieves, the holes in which vary in diameter 
 from 1 to .02 of an inch. When powder is stored 
 on shore, it is put up in barrels marked with 
 maker s name, date and place of manufacture, 
 initial velocity, density, pressure, kind, lot, and 
 class. When stowed on board ship, it is put up 
 in tanks, marked the same as the barrels from 
 which the powder was taken. See GUNPOWDER. 
 
 POWDER-HOY. An ordnance-vessel expressly 
 fitted to convey powder ; it invariably carries a 
 red distinguishing flag, and warns the ship for 
 which the powder is intended to put out all fires 
 before she comes alongside. 
 
 POWDER-MAGAZINE. See MAGAZINE. 
 
 POWDER-MONKEY. The boy who passed car 
 tridges to the guns. 
 
 POWDER-TANK. A rectangular metallic case, 
 
POWELL 
 
 661 
 
 PREBLE 
 
 the sides and bottom being of sheet-copper (tin- 
 coated), and the top of composition. Powder- 
 tanks are made of 4 sizes, though the 200-pound 
 tank is regarded as the standard size for service, 
 the others being issued in special cases only. The 
 calibre, number, and weight of the charges are 
 stenciled upon the lid end, and on the upper side 
 are the marks corresponding to the marks on the 
 barrel from which the powder was taken. In 
 order to distinguish more readily the tanks con 
 taining different kinds of powder, the following 
 manner of painting the lids has been adopted: 
 
 Service charges. Plain white, with calibre in 
 red. 
 
 Saluting charges. Half red, half white. 
 
 Torpedo charges. Ked T on a white ground. 
 
 Shell charges. lied O on a white ground. 
 
 Howitzer charges. Red H on a white ground. 
 
 Rifle charges. Red R on a white ground. 
 
 Shell-powder. Red S on a white ground. 
 
 POWDER-VESSEL. A ship used as a floating 
 magazine. 
 
 Powell, Levin M., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Virginia. Appointed midshipman, 
 March 1, 1817; served as midshipman in the 
 Mediterranean, China Seas, and in the Gulf of 
 Mexico and West Indies for the suppression of 
 piracy. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 28, 1826 ; 
 served in the Mediterranean, West Indies, and 
 Gulf of Mexico ; before Charleston in the sloop 
 " Natchez" during the nullification troubles ; on 
 coast of France pending the demand for payment 
 of the French indemnity, 1834-35; in the West 
 Indies and on the coast of Florida on the outbreak 
 of the Seminole war, commanding several ex 
 peditions against the hostile Indians, in the last 
 of these was wounded in a fight with them on the 
 head-waters of Jupiter River, in January, 1837 ; 
 received the thanks of the Navy Department for 
 these services in Florida; commanded two sur 
 veying expeditions for the rectification of posi 
 tions and soundings of the eastern coast and 
 harbors of the Gulf of Mexico ; and was com 
 missioned commander, while on this duty, June 
 24, 1843 ; appointed assistant inspector of ord 
 nance, October, 1843, and continued on ordnance 
 duty until appointed to command of sloop " John 
 Adams," which sailed for Brazil, July, 1849 ; 
 served in her on the coast of South America and 
 on the coast of Africa until return, in December, 
 1850; from 1851 to 1854, executive-officer of the 
 navy-yard, Washington ; was in command of the 
 flag-ship " Potomac," cruising in North Atlantic 
 and West Indies, to August, 1856. 
 
 Promoted to captain, September 14, 1855 ; in 
 spector of contract steamers in 1858, and ap 
 pointed captain of the frigate " Potomac" early 
 in 1861, and sailed for Gulf Squadron, September 
 of the same year ; was retired by the act of 
 December, 1861, and from command of the 
 "Potomac," June 30, 1862; inspector of third 
 light-house district from November 7, 1862, to 
 October, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866, 
 and on special service from 1867 to 1872. Re 
 tired March 1, 1862. 
 
 Power. The amount of work that can be done 
 in a given time ; it is the product of force, motion, 
 and time. Its usual unit of measure is one horse 
 power, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 
 
 Pozzolana. Volcanic ashes, used in cement, 
 especially if required under water. 
 
 Praecursorise. Ancient vessels which led or 
 preceded the fleets. 
 
 Praedatoriae, or Praedaticse. Long, swift, light 
 ancient pirates. 
 
 Praesepe. A bright spot in Cancer which is 
 resolved by the telescope into a cluster of stars ; 
 it is called also the manger, and sometimes the 
 beehive. 
 
 Praia. The beach or strand on Portuguese 
 coasts. 
 
 Pram, or Praam. A lighter used in Holland, 
 and the ports of the Baltic, for loading and un 
 loading merchant ships. Some were fitted by 
 the French with heavy guns, for defending the 
 smaller ports. 
 
 Pratique. A Mediterranean term, implying 
 the license to communicate with any place after 
 having performed the required quarantine, or 
 upon the production of a clean bill of health. 
 
 Prawn. A marine crustacean larger than a 
 shrimp, much esteemed as an article of food. 
 
 Prayer-book. A small hand-stone used to 
 scrub in confined spaces where a large holy-stone 
 cannot be used. See HOLY-STONE. 
 
 Preble, Edward, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 at Falmouth Neck, the site of the present city 
 of Portland, Me., August 15, 1761 ; died in 
 Portland, August 25, 1807. He made his first 
 cruise in a privateer in 1777-78, and in 1779 en 
 tered the provincial marine of Massachusetts as 
 a midshipman. He was serving on board of the 
 "Protector" at the time of the action between 
 that vessel and the English privateer " General 
 Duff," and greatly distinguished himself in that 
 affair. 
 
 Midshipman Preble was shortly afterward cap 
 tured and confined on board the prison-ship 
 "Jersey," in the harbor of New York. On 
 being liberated he joined the Massachusetts ves- 
 sel-of-war " Winthrop," on which he remained 
 until 1782, winning new honors by boarding 
 with 14 men an armed brig off Castine, and car 
 rying her out under the fire of an English bat 
 tery. After peace was declared he entered the 
 merchant service, where he remained for 15 
 years. 
 
 In 1799 he was commissioned a lieutenant in 
 the U. S. navy, and ordered to command the 
 "Pickering," one of the squadron stationed at 
 the Windward Islands. In June, 1799, he was 
 commissioned as captain and given command of 
 the " Essex," in which he convoyed home from 
 Batavia a fleet of 14 vessels. 
 
 In 1803, Capt. Preble was ordered to command 
 the squadron sent against Tripoli, his flag-ship 
 being the "Constitution." On his arrival at 
 Tangiers in October, he opened and successfully 
 concluded negotiations which averted a war 
 with Morocco. On November 12 he declared the 
 blockade of Tripoli. The " Philadelphia," 38, 
 Capt. Bainbridge, having run upon the rocks, 
 was captured by the Tripolitans, but was de 
 stroyed at her anchorage in the harbor by Lieut. 
 Decatur, on February 16, 1804. (See DECATUR, 
 STEPHEN.) On August 3, his command then 
 consisting of 15 vessels, including 8 small gun 
 boats borrowed from the Neapolitan government, 
 Preble made his first attack upon the enemy s 
 gunboats, protected by batteries on shore. He 
 captured 3 of the largest by boarding, and sunk 
 
PKEBLE 
 
 662 
 
 PKEBLE 
 
 3 others. On the 7th he made a second attack, 
 but with less success, the enemy keeping close 
 within the harbor. One of Treble s gunboats 
 was sunk. Another attack was made on the 
 28th, in which one of the Tripolitan gunboats 
 was sunk and several driven ashore. Preble s 
 flag-ship was closely engaged with the enemy s 
 batteries, and for an hour lay within musket-shot 
 of the mole. On September 3 the fourth attack 
 was made, during which the " Constitution" was 
 badly cut up, but Preble did not withdraw until 
 he had inflicted great damage upon the enemy s 
 batteries. 
 
 The " Intrepid," a ketch .captured from the 
 enemy, which Lieut. Decatur had used in de 
 stroying the "Philadelphia," was converted 
 into" a fire-ship, carrying 100 barrels of gun 
 powder in bulk in the hold, and on the deck im 
 mediately above the powder were laid fifty 13J- 
 inch shells and one hundred 9-inch shells, with 
 a large quantity of shot and fragments of iron of 
 different sorts. Capt. Somers volunteered to take 
 command of the "Intrepid," and Lieut. Wads- 
 worth volunteered to serve with him. Commodore 
 Preble personally superintended all the details 
 of preparing this "powder-boat," and the night 
 of September 4, that of the day which succeeded 
 the attack last related, was selected for the pur 
 pose. When all was ready the "Intrepid" got 
 under way and stood in towards the western 
 passage, by which she was to enter. The last 
 seen of her she was not a musket-shot from 
 the mole, standing directly for the harbor, which 
 a very few minutes afterwards was illuminated 
 by a fierce light, followed by a concussion that 
 shook the vessels in the offing from trucks to 
 keels. A shot from the enemy s batteries had 
 struck the kedge, and caused her premature 
 explosion. None on board of her escaped, and 
 with them perished the boats crews from the 
 " Constitution" and " Nautilus," that had been 
 towed in to bring out the crew of the kedge 
 after they had fired their vessels. The "In 
 trepid" perished a quarter of a mile from the 
 spot she was intended to reach. 
 
 On the 10th of September Commodore Barren, 
 in the " President," arrived at Tripoli and re 
 lieved Commodore Preble, who soon afterwards 
 sailed in the "John Adams" for home. On his 
 arrival he received a gold medal and a vote of 
 thanks from Congress. 
 
 Preble, George Henry, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Portland, Me., and appointed a mid 
 shipman from that State, October 10, 1835 ; frig 
 ate " United States," Mediterranean, May, 1836, 
 to November, 1838; sloop "Warren," frigate 
 " Macedonian," sloop " Levant," and sloop 
 " Erie," West Indies, January, 1839, until Sep 
 tember, 1840; Naval School, at Philadelphia, 
 January to June, 1841, when he was warranted 
 passed midshipman, No. 7, in a class of 24 ; was 
 acting lieutenant of schooner " Madison" and 
 brigantine "Jefferson," on the Florida Expedi 
 tion, from August, 1841, to August, 1842; went 
 on several canoe expeditions into the everglades, 
 and returned with the expedition sick ; in re 
 ceiving-ship " Ohio," at Boston, from October, 
 1842, to May, 1848 ; acting master and acting 
 lieutenant in sloop " St. Louis," East Indies, 
 and circumnavigating the world, May, 1843, to 
 September, 1845 ; had charge of first American 
 armed force ever landed in China, for the pro 
 
 tection of American consulate and residents of 
 Canton, June and July, 1844 ; acting master and 
 executive of schooner "Petrel," in the Gulf of 
 Mexico, May, 1846, to May, 1847 ; participated 
 in surrender of Alvarado, Laguna, Tampico, and 
 Panuco, and assisted at siege, etc., of Vera Cruz ; 
 returned to United States in ship-of-the-line 
 " Ohio," sick, May 31. 
 
 Warranted as master, July 15, 1847. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 5, 1848 ; 
 returned to the Gulf in sloop "Saratoga," Feb 
 ruary, 1848, and came home sick, March, 1849 ; 
 executive-officer of steamer " Legree," coast sur 
 vey, April, 1849, to January, 1851 ; from Janu 
 ary to August, 1851, in frigate "St. Law 
 rence," which conveyed American contributors 
 to World s Fair, at London, and then conveyed 
 our minister to Lisbon ; commanding schooner 
 " Gallatin," etc., coast survey, August, 1851, to 
 December, 1852; December, 1852, to March, 
 1853, attached to the " Vermont," 74 ; on Japan 
 Expedition and in China waters, from April, 1853, 
 to August, 1856, in " Macedonian," and com 
 manding chartered steamer "Queen"; assisted 
 in the surveys of Jeddo and Hakodadi Bays ; and 
 also surveyed the harbor of Kealung, island of 
 Formosa, his chart of which is published in the 
 official report of the expedition ; was on several 
 successful expeditions against pirates in China, 
 and received the thanks of Commodore Abbot 
 and of the English admiral, Sir James Stirling, 
 for the part taken by him in the one to Kulan ; 
 commanded an expedition to Foo-chow-foo, in 
 the American steamer " Confucius," destroying 
 several pirate junks; prepared sailing direc 
 tions for Shanghai, which were published by 
 the English and U. S. governments, and in sev 
 eral private editions ; was light-house inspector 
 of first district (coast of Maine and New Hamp 
 shire) from September, 1856, to October, 1857; 
 at navy-yard, Charlestown, Mass., October, 1857, 
 to September, 1859 ; executive-officer of steam- 
 sloop " Narragansett," Pacific Squadron, Sep 
 tember, 1859, until November, 1861, and ordered 
 home at his own request to serve on the Atlantic 
 coast; in January, 1862, took command of the 
 steam-gunboat "Katahdin," equipping at Bos 
 ton, and, March 29, reported to Admiral Farra- 
 gut, West Gulf Squadron ; passed the forts with 
 the fleet, April 24, 1862, engaged the enemy s 
 fleet, and was at the attack upon the lower de 
 fenses and at the surrender of New Orleans ; par 
 ticipated in all of Farragut s operations on the 
 river that year, as far as Vicksburg, assisting in 
 destroying Grand Gulf; August 4, 1862, was 
 transferred to the command of the steam-sloop 
 " Oneida" ; while steaming up the river above 
 New Orleans, at night, August 8, the " Oneida" 
 was purposely run into by the steamboat " Lewis 
 T. Whitman," and although every effort was 
 made to save her crew and passengers (70 of 
 whom were saved), many lives were lost. Her 
 rebel captain was sent to New Orleans in irons, 
 and after his release served upon the steam-tug 
 " Boston," and conveyed her to the rebels a-t 
 Mobile. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 on the blockade off Mobile, August 25 to Octo 
 ber, 1862 ; on August 29 he was left senior offi 
 cer present, four vessels out of seven of our usual 
 blockading force having left for coal and repairs ; 
 on September 4, about 6 P.M. a steamer flying 
 
FEEBLE 
 
 663 
 
 PREPARING FOR SEA 
 
 English colors, and having every appearance of 
 one of her Britannic majesty s gunboats, ap 
 proached the bar, and was met by our vessels 
 under way ; the " Oneida" fired three shots across 
 the stranger s bow, the last at her fore-foot, with 
 out bringing her to ; and then, within three min 
 utes of the "first gun, fired a broadside into her, 
 and continued the chase, with the other vessels, 
 until she, from her superior speed, was enabled 
 to run in over the southeast shoals under cover 
 of Fort Morgan s guns. This steamer proved to 
 be the rebel cruiser " Oreto," afterwards called 
 the " Florida." Her commander subsequently 
 wrote as follows : 
 
 " I can vouch for his (Preble s) promptness 
 and destructive energy on the occasion of my en 
 tering Mobile Bay. The superior speed of the 
 Florida alone saved her from destruction, 
 though not from a frightful mauling. We were 
 torn to pieces, one man s head taken off, and 
 11 wounded ; boats, standing- and running-rig 
 ging shot away, also foregaff. Four shells struck 
 our hull, and had the one (11-inch) that grazed 
 our boiler and entered the berth-deck (killing one 
 and wounding two) exploded, every man belong 
 ing to the steamer would have been killed, as I had 
 only the officers on deck, Until about to cross the 
 bar, when I made some sail, and one man was 
 wounded in the rigging ; we had about 1400 
 shrapnel-shot (balls) in our hull, and our masts 
 were pitted like a case of smallpox. The dam 
 age done her was so great that we did not get to 
 sea again for over three months. 
 
 For not preventing the " Oreto s" running the 
 blockade, Commander Preble was summarily dis 
 missed from the naval service, by order of Sep 
 tember 20, 1862, but was nominated to the Sen 
 ate by the President, and on recommendation of 
 the Naval Committee was, on February 21, 1863, 
 confirmed and restored to his proper rank and 
 position as a commander, the injustice of his 
 summary dismissal being generally admitted. 
 April 9, 1863, agreeably to orders from the Navy 
 Department, proceeded via England to Lisbon, 
 and June 3 took command of the sailing-sloop 
 "St. Louis" at the latter port, and ordered to 
 cruise for rebel corsairs between Lisbon, the 
 Azores, Canary Islands, and Gibraltar. Though 
 requesting more active duty, and command of a 
 steamer on the coast, he was in command of the 
 "St. Louis," cruising within those limits, until 
 ordered to Port Royal, S. C., September 3, 1864, 
 once falling in with his old foe, the " Florida," at 
 Madeira, and preventing her from getting a full 
 supply of coal, but not able to prevent her from 
 running out in a calm. He gave chase as soon 
 as he got wind, but of course did not catch her. 
 
 Reported to the admiral November 2, 1864 ; 
 took charge of the coal depot, and blockaded in 
 the North Edisto until November 24, when he 
 was ordered to command the fleet brigade then 
 organized by Admiral Dahlgren at Port Royal, 
 to co-operate with an army force designed 
 to assist Gen. Sherman s approach to the coast ; 
 this brigade, consisting of naval artillery, sailor 
 infantry, and a marine battalion, 493 all told, 
 joined an army force under Gen. J. P. Hatch 
 at Boyd s Neck, and on November 30, 1864, 
 engaged in the severe battle of Honey Hill ; it 
 also took part in the actions of the 6th, 7th, and 
 9th of December on De Vaux s Neck, and was 
 daily under fire until withdrawn on December 
 
 28 ; the general orders and written commenda 
 tions of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren and Gens. Fos 
 ter, Hatch, and Porter, were gratifying to all 
 connected with the brigade (see Secretary of 
 Navy s Report, 1865); April 4, transferred to the 
 command of the steamer " State of Georgia," and 
 proceeded to Aspinwall to look after American 
 interests; his vessel and the " Huntsville" res 
 cued 600 or 700 passengers from the wrecked 
 steamship "Golden Rule," near Aspinwall ; in 
 acknowledgment of this service he received the 
 thanks of the rescued people, transmitted through 
 the Navy Department; the "State of Georgia" 
 returned to New York, and went out of commis 
 sion September 11, 1865. At Boston Navy- Yard 
 as general inspector of supplies, from October 14, 
 1865, to July 5, 1867, and continued as equip 
 ment-officer until July, 1868; chief-of-staff, 
 North Pacific Squadron, from August, 1868, 
 until December 19 ; commanding the flag-ship 
 "Pensacola," 1868-70. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, March 16, 1867, to 
 take rank from January 29, 1867 ; commanding 
 naval rendezvous, Boston, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 2, 
 1871 ; commanding navy-yard, Philadelphia, 
 1873-75; special duty, 1876. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, September 30, 
 1876 ; commanding South Pacific Station, 1877- 
 78. Retired February 25, 1878. 
 
 Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoctial 
 points have a backward movement along the 
 ecliptic of about 60 X/ annually, caused by the 
 unequal attraction of the sun and moon on the 
 equatorial belt. The number of seconds in the zo 
 diac divided by the annual motion of the equinox 
 gives the time in which it will make the entire 
 circuit of the ecliptic ; it is about 25,870 years. 
 From a similar computation it is supposed that 
 the zodiac was divided into signs about 2500 B.C. 
 See EQUINOXES, ZODIAC. 
 
 Preparing for Sea. The performance of certain 
 duties previous to leaving port, by which the 
 vessel will be rendered efficient, and additional 
 security given to the equipment and outfit. 
 
 These duties are connected with all of the 
 different departments of the vessel. The prep 
 arations to be made may vary under different 
 circumstances, but the following requirements 
 should be generally observed. 
 
 Provisions in sufficient quantity should be on 
 board and properly stowed. Fill water-tanks 
 and casks with fresh water, unless that is to be 
 done by distillation after leaving port. If a 
 steam-vessel, have a sufficient supply of coal on 
 board, have fires ready for lighting, and hoist 
 the smoke-stack. 
 
 The battery must be secured for sea with extra 
 tackles and lashings, the muzzle-bags put on and 
 the ports closed. Bend sails and all sail-gear, 
 take off sail-covers, and have everything in read 
 iness for making or shortening sail. 
 
 Put on chafing-gear. Cross light yards, or 
 place them in the rigging ready for sending aloft. 
 Send up rolling and pendent tackles, if required, 
 and have storm-sails and their gear easy of access. 
 Hoist all boats and secure them. Life-boats must 
 be kept in readiness for lowering at a moment s 
 notice. 
 
 Take in accommodation-ladders. Secure lower 
 booms alongside, unhooking the topping-lifts 
 and stopping them on the fore-yard. Top the 
 
PRESS-GANG- 
 
 664 
 
 PRICE 
 
 spanker-boom up clear of the crotch, and see that 
 the life-buoys are in order. 
 
 Hand lead-lines must be placed in the chains, 
 and the deep-sea lead and line should be ready 
 for use. Log-lines and time-glasses should be 
 measured and compared to insure their correct 
 ness, and the wheel-ropes and tiller examined, 
 that they may be in working order. 
 
 Loose articles on all the decks should be 
 securely lashed. Close lower-deck air-ports, and, 
 previous to getting under way, take the vessel s 
 draft. 
 
 Preparations must also be made for getting 
 under way. Reeve the cat- and fish-falls, bring 
 the chain to, and rig the capstan. 
 
 In all ports where quarantine regulations are 
 enforced, care must be taken to have a bill of 
 health, certified by the proper authority. E. T. 
 Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Press-gang (Eng.). A party of seamen who 
 (under the command of a lieutenant) were for 
 merly empowered, in time of war, to take sea 
 faring men on shore or afloat and compel them 
 to serve on board men-of-war. Those who were 
 thus taken were called pressed men. See IM 
 PRESSMENT. 
 
 Press of Sail. As much sail as the state of 
 the wind and sea will permit a ship to carry. 
 
 Pressure-gauge. An apparatus to indicate 
 the pressure of fluids ; there are many different 
 kinds, and they may be divided into two prin 
 cipal classes : first, those which act by the effect 
 of pressure (either direct, or transmitted by pis 
 tons, or elastic diaphragms) on a column of mer 
 cury ; and, second, those which depend for their 
 action upon the elasticity of metals, in which 
 the pressure acts against a corrugated plate, 
 within a corrugated box, in resisting a spiral 
 spring, or in tending to straighten a bent tube, 
 the cross-section of which is usually elliptical, 
 but may be any form except circular. 
 
 Preston, Samuel N., and Porter, Benjamin 
 H., Lieutenants U.S.N. Samuel N. Preston 
 was appointed to the Naval Academy from the 
 State of Illinois in October, 1858. Being a dil 
 igent student, he always stood foremost" in his 
 studies, and, graduating first in his class, he 
 was on the 9th of May, 1861, detached and as 
 signed to duty on board of the U. S. S. " Wa- 
 bash," in the South Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, being on the 1st of August, 1862, promoted 
 to the grade of lieutenant, and ordered to duty 
 as flag-lieutenant on the staff" of Rear- Admiral 
 Dahlgren. 
 
 He participated with distinction in the com 
 bined army and navy attacks on Fort Wagner, 
 July 10 and 11, 1863, being complimented highly 
 by the admiral for his gallant conduct. 
 
 He commanded the third division of the as- 
 saulting-party in the attempt on Fort Sumter, 
 September 8, 1863, which was repulsed with 
 great slaughter, and he, with many other offi 
 cers, among them his friend Benjamin H. 
 Porter, was taken prisoner and afterwards con 
 fined in Libby Prison, where he remained until 
 exchanged, in the fall of 1864. 
 
 Benjamin H. Porter was appointed to the 
 Naval Academy from the State of New York 
 on November 29, 1859, and remained a student 
 there until November 8, 1862, when he was 
 commissioned ensign and ordered to duty in the 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, serving in 
 
 turn with great credit on board of the U. S. S. 
 " Ellis," " Canandaigua," and "New Ironsides," 
 displaying on numerous occasions such energy, 
 courage, and ability in the discharge of his du 
 ties as to win the admiration of his commanding 
 officers and compliments from the admiral in his 
 communications to the Department. 
 
 In the attack on Fort Sumter on the 8th of 
 September, 1863, he was among those who were 
 taken prisoners, remaining in Libby Prison until 
 released and exchanged, in the fall of 1864. 
 
 Both of these gallant young officers, as soon 
 as they were free, applied for immediate active 
 duty, and in December, 1864, were assigned to 
 duty under Rear- Admiral David D. Porter ; 
 Lieut. Preston being made his flag-lieutenant, 
 and Lieut. Porter being given the command of 
 the flag-ship " Malvern." They were present 
 in the bombardments of Fort Fisher on the 24th 
 and 25th of December, 1864, and in the land at 
 tack on that fort made by the sailors from the 
 fleet both were assigned to dut} of great respon 
 sibility, and fell nobly at the head of their men 
 in the gallant discharge of that duty. 
 
 Side by side these young officers went through 
 their careers. Together they were students at 
 the Naval Academy ; they served in the same 
 squadron, were fellow-prisoners amid the hor 
 rors of Libby Prison, and together they fell glo 
 riously at Fort Fisher, fine types of able, zeal 
 ous, and brave officers. 
 
 A fitting tribute was paid them by Fleet-Capt. 
 K. R. Breese, who, in reporting their loss, says : 
 
 " Preston, after accomplishing most splendidly 
 the work assigned him by you, which was both 
 dangerous and laborious, under constant fire, 
 came to me as my aid for orders, showing no 
 flagging of spirit or body, and returning from 
 the rear, whither he had been sent, fell among 
 the foremost at the front, as he had lived, the 
 embodiment of a United States naval officer. 
 Porter, conspicuous by his figure and uniform, 
 as well as by his great gallantry, claimed the 
 right to lead the headmost column with the 
 Malvern s men he had taken with him, car 
 rying your flag, fell at its very head. 
 
 " Two more noble spirits the world never saw, 
 nor had the navy two more intrepid men. Young, 
 talented, and handsome, the bravest of the brave, 
 pure in their lives, surely their names deserve 
 something more than a passing mention, and 
 all worthy to be handed down to posterity with 
 the greatest and best of naval heroes." F. P. B. 
 Sands. 
 
 Preventer. A term applied to ropes, etc., 
 when used as additional securities to aid other 
 ropes in supporting spars, etc., during a strong 
 gale ; as preventer-backstays, braces, etc. 
 
 PREVENTER-BOLTS. Bolts passing through 
 the lower end of the preventer-plates. 
 
 PREVENTER-PLATES. Short plates of iron 
 bolted to the lower part of the chain-plates to 
 help take the strain. 
 
 Price, Cicero, Commodore U.S.N. Born in 
 Kentucky. Appointed midshipman from that 
 State, February 1, 1826; frigate " Macedonian," 
 Brazil, 1826-28; sloops "Erie" and "Shark," 
 West Indies, 1829-31. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832; brig "Boxer," 1834-37, and "North 
 Carolina," 1837-38, Pacific Squadron. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 6, 
 
PRICKER 
 
 665 
 
 PRIVATEER 
 
 1837; steamer "Fulton," Atlantic coast, 1840; 
 in "Delaware," 74, Brazil and Mediterranean, 
 1841-43 and part of 1844 ; receiving-ship at New 
 York, 1845; sloop "Marion," coast of Africa, 
 1848; sloop "Marion," Mediterranean, 1848- 
 49 ; navy-yard, Memphis, 1850 ; Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1851; ordnance duty, 1853; receiving-ship 
 at Norfolk, 1854. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; first lieutenant of sloop "Constellation," 
 Mediterranean, 1855-56 ; commanding " Hunts- 
 ville," 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862; com 
 manding sloop "Jamestown," East Indies, 1862 
 -65. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 28, 
 1866. Total sea service, 21 years and 1 month ; 
 shore or other duty, 6 years and 1 month. Re 
 tired December 2, 1867. 
 
 Pricker. A small fid or marling-spike for 
 making and stretching the holes for points and 
 robans in sails. 
 
 Pricking a Sail. Middle-stitching the seams 
 of old sails, or of storm-sails. 
 
 Pride of the Morning. A misty dew at sun 
 rise ; a light shower ; the end of the land breeze 
 followed by a dead calm in the tropics. 
 
 Primary Planet. See PLANET. 
 
 Prime. To carry water with the steam from 
 the boiler to the cylinder of a steam-engine; 
 caused by insufficient steam room in the boiler, 
 resulting in the pressure being reduced below 
 that due to the temperature, by dirty feed- water, 
 and by running from salt water into fresh, which 
 boils at a lower temperature. 
 
 To get a gun ready for firing by pricking the 
 cartridge and inserting the primer. In firing 
 salutes, the vent is sometimes partly filled with 
 loose powder to insure instantaneous ignition. 
 To prime a fire-ship, to lay the train to set it 011 
 fire. 
 
 PRIMER. Percussion- and friction-primers are 
 generally in use, though electric primers maybe 
 used in special cases. The percussion-primer 
 consists of a quill tube filled with grained pow 
 der, and surmounted by a wafer-head containing 
 a detonating composition of fulminating mercury 
 and mealed powder. The lower end of the tube 
 is closed by dipping it in black varnish, and the 
 whole is coated with shellac. The friction-primer 
 is a brass tube 1.5 inches in length* and .19 inch 
 in diameter, filled with fine-grained powder, and 
 having near the head a small spur .44 inch long 
 and .15 inch in diameter. In this spur is a brass 
 wire, the inner end being flattened and having 
 serrated edges. The composition in the spur is 
 composed of two parts of sulphuret of antimony 
 and one part of chlorate of potassa. The outer 
 end of the wire is formed into a loop, into which 
 the lock-string hooks. A longer tube is fur 
 nished for firing guns with very thick walls. 
 The quill friction-primer consists* of two quills, 
 one within the other, the lower end being filled 
 with fine-grained powder, and the upper with a 
 sensitive composition composed of 55 parts of 
 antimony trisulphide, 37 parts of potassium 
 chlorate, 5 parts of flowers of sulphur, and 3 
 parts of gum arabic. In the composition are 
 imbedded wires, which, upon being hauled out, 
 cause the ignition. Electric primers are some 
 times used in firing salutes, and may be used in 
 firing in a seaway, the rolling of the ship closing 
 
 the circuit when the deck forms a certain angle 
 with the horizon. This automatic firing is, as 
 yet, but a matter of experiment. 
 
 PRIMING-WIRE. A wire used in pricking the 
 cartridge when it is home. 
 
 Prime Vertical. That vertical circle which 
 passes through the east and west points of the 
 horizon. Its poles are therefore the north and 
 south points, and its plane is perpendicular not 
 only to that of the horizon, but also to that of 
 the meridian. 
 
 Primitive Plane (Lat. primitivus, the first of a 
 system). In projections the primitive plane is 
 that on which the surface to be represented is 
 delineated. 
 
 Prise. To raise, or slue, weighty bodies by 
 means of a lever-purchase or power. 
 
 Prismatic Compass. A compass so fitted 
 that, when a bearing is observed with it, the 
 graduation of the card is read off by reflection 
 from the interior surface of a prism. This prism 
 is a solid piece of glass, whose sides are parallel 
 ograms and ends triangles. 
 
 Prisoner at Large. A prisoner not in irons 
 or in confinement. 
 
 Prisoner of War. Such captured enemy as 
 is protected by the state, or one in whom the 
 captor claims a right of property and ransom. 
 Before the 16th century they were treated as 
 pirates. See PAROLE. 
 
 Prison-ship. One fitted up for receiving and 
 detaining prisoners of war. 
 
 Pritch. A dentated weapon for striking and 
 holding eels 
 
 Privateer. A private armed vessel, commis 
 sioned by the government in time of war, to 
 prey upon the commerce of the enemy. 
 
 In ancient Rome, in the time of Cato and 
 Cicero, it was held that no one but a regularly 
 enrolled soldier could lawfully kill an enemy; 
 but later, the law of Solon, by which individuals 
 were permitted to associate themselves for the 
 purpose of plundering enemies, was adopted by 
 the Romans, and has been in effect transmitted to 
 our times. No commission for such a purpose 
 was necessary until the 15th century, nor did the 
 practice of granting commissions to privateers 
 become general till the war between Spain and 
 the revolted Netherlands, at the end of the 16th 
 century. The question whether a commission 
 is necessary to give to private armed cruisers, 
 in time of war, the character and immunities 
 of lawful combatants has been much discussed, 
 and in the United States the doctrine of the law 
 of nations is considered to be, " that private citi 
 zens cannot acquire a title to hostile property, 
 unless seized under a commission, but they may 
 still seize hostile property in their own defense. 
 If they depredate upon the enemy without a com- 
 missio n they act upon their peril, and are liable 
 to be punished by their own sovereign ; but the 
 enemy is not warranted to consider them as crim 
 inals, and, as respects the enemy, they violate no 
 rights by capture." It may be said, however, 
 that the present state of sentiment among enlight 
 ened nations would render the practical applica 
 tion of this doctrine highly dangerous, and that 
 hostilities on the part of a cruiser without com 
 mission would doubtless expose the offending 
 party to the most rigorous treatment. At the 
 Congress of Paris (1856) the plenipotentiaries 
 of Great Britain, Austria, France, Russia, Prus- 
 
PRIVATE SIGNAL 
 
 666 
 
 PROJECTILES 
 
 sia, Sardinia, and Turkey united in a declaration 
 that " privateering is and remains abolished." 
 The United States, however, has never assented 
 to this declaration, and as to it, therefore, priva 
 teering remains legitimate. See INTERNATIONAL 
 LAW, 10 ; PARIS, DECLARATION OF. 
 
 PRIVATEERSMAN. One of the crew of a priva 
 teer. 
 
 Private Signal. A signal intelligible only to 
 those having the key. 
 
 Prize. A captured vessel or other property 
 taken in naval warfare. The right to all cap 
 tures vests primarily in the sovereign, and no 
 individual can have any interest in a capture 
 by a public or private vessel except what he re 
 ceives under the grant of the state. See INTER 
 NATIONAL LAW, 11. 
 
 PRIZE-COURT. The court whose jurisdiction 
 includes the adjudication and disposition of 
 prizes. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, 12. 
 
 PRIZE-GOODS. Those taken upon the high seas 
 jure belli from the enemy. 
 
 PRIZE-LIST. A return of all the persons on 
 board, whether belonging to the ship or super 
 numeraries, at the time a capture is made ; those 
 who may be absent on duty are included. 
 
 PRIZE-MASTER. The officer to whom a prize is 
 given in charge to carry her into port. 
 
 PRIZE-MONEY. Proceeds of the sale of cap 
 tures made as prize by authority of the United 
 States. Vessels and their cargoes captured as 
 prize must be sent into port for an adjudication 
 in a prize-court in the manner prescribed by law. 
 If condemned, the property is sold by the U. S. 
 marshal, and the proceeds, when the capture was 
 by a vessel or vessels of the navy, disposed of 
 according to the decree of the court. If the 
 prize was of equal or superior force to the vessel 
 or vessels making the capture, the whole of the 
 net proceeds will be decreed to the captors ; and 
 when of inferior force, one-half will be decreed 
 to the United States and the other half to the 
 captors. The prize-money adjudged to captors 
 is distributed in the following proportions : 
 
 First. To the commander of a fleet or squad 
 ron, one-twentieth part of all prize-money 
 awarded to any vessel or vessels under his im 
 mediate command. 
 
 Second. To the commander of a division of a 
 fleet or squadron, on duty under the orders of 
 thecommander-in-chief of such .fleet or squadron, 
 a sum equal to one-fiftieth of any prize-money 
 awarded to a vessel of the division under his 
 command, to be paid from the moiety due the 
 United States, if there be such moiety ; if not, 
 from the amount awarded to the captors. This 
 fiftieth part is not awarded in addition to the 
 share he would be entitled to as commander of a 
 single ship making a capture, and he may elect 
 which he will receive. 
 
 Third. To the fleet-captain, one-hundredth part 
 of all prize-money awarded to any vessel of the 
 fleet in which he is serving, except where the 
 capture is made by the vessel on board of which 
 he is serving, in which case he will share, in 
 proportion to his pay, with the other officers and 
 men on board such vessel. 
 
 Fourth. To the commander of a single vessel, 
 one-tenth of all the prize-money awarded to the 
 vessel, if such vessel at the time of the capture 
 was under the command of the commanding 
 officer of a fleet or a division, and three-twentieths 
 
 if his vessel was acting independently of such 
 superior officer. 
 
 Fifth. After the foregoing deductions, the 
 residue is distributed among all others doing 
 duty on board, and borne upon the books of the 
 ship, including the fleet-captain, in proportion 
 to their respective rates of pay. 
 
 All vessels of the navy within signal-distance 
 of the vessel making the capture, and in such 
 condition as to be able to render effective aid if 
 required, will share in the prize. Any person 
 temporarily absent from his vessel may share in 
 captures made during his absence. The prize- 
 court determines what vessels shall share in a 
 prize, and also whether the prize was of superior, 
 equal, or inferior force to the vessel or vessels of 
 the captors. The Secretary of the Navy deter 
 mines what persons are entitled to share in the 
 prize-money awarded a vessel, and transmits 
 their names to the Fourth Auditor, who ascer 
 tains, according to the above rules of distribution, 
 the correct amount of each person s share. On 
 application the Auditor will issue a certificate 
 payable to the person entitled, provided Congress 
 has authorized the payment by an appropriation. 
 See BOUNTY FOR DESTRUCTION OF ENEMY S 
 VESSELS. 
 
 The share of prize-money awarded to the 
 United States is set apart forever as a fund for 
 the payment of pensions to naval officers, seamen, 
 and marines entitled to pensions ; and, if more 
 than sufficient for that purpose, the surplus is 
 applied to the making provision for the comfort 
 of disabled officers, seamen, and marines. The 
 Secretary of the Navy is trustee of the naval 
 pension fund, and the fund is invested in securi 
 ties of the United States bearing 3 per cent, in 
 terest. See NAVY PENSION FUND. 
 
 Privateers, and vessels not in the navy, but 
 controlled by other executive departments of the 
 government, do not come within the above pro 
 visions, but are entitled to prize-money under 
 laws relating especially to themselves. 
 Proa. See FLYING PROA. 
 
 Probation. The novitiate period of cadets. 
 
 Procyon (Gr. pro/cuon ; from pro, before ; 
 kudn, a dog, so called from its rising before 
 Sirius). The proper name for the bright star 
 a Canis Minoris. It makes an equilateral triangle 
 with Sirius and Betelguese. See CANIS MINOR. 
 
 Professors of Mathematics. These officers 
 were first appointed in the U. S. navy in 1831, 
 for the purpose of instructing midshipmen on 
 board ship, but such instruction has been found 
 unprofitable, and latterly no professors of mathe 
 matics have been employed at sea. A limited 
 number have been continued on the list at the 
 Naval Academy and Naval Observatory. The 
 first to receive the appointment was Prof. Elisha 
 Fitch, September 25, 1831, who died October 15, 
 1839. At the present time there are 12 professors 
 of mathematics in the navy on the active list, 3 
 having the relative rank of captain, 4 that of 
 commander, 5 of lieutenant, and on the retired 
 list 1 with rank of commodore, 3 of captain, and 
 2 of commander. 
 
 Projectiles. A projectile is properly, from its 
 derivation, anything that is thrown forward, and 
 may therefore not only refer to missiles to be 
 employed against an enemy, but, as well, to 
 signals of danger in peace times, or to the means 
 employed to carry a line to the crew of a stranded 
 
PROJECTILES 
 
 667 
 
 PROJECTILES 
 
 or sinking ship. In this article it will be treated 
 in its former significance. 
 
 The first projectiles used were stones thrown 
 from slings (afterwards lead bullets were pro 
 jected in the same way), arrows from the long 
 bow, and darts and javelins thrown by hand. In 
 the sieges of walled towns, in very early days, 
 ballistge and catapults were used as a species of 
 heavy ordnance, the former to hurl large stones, 
 and the latter, wooden beams shod with iron and 
 often covered with inflammable material pre 
 viously ignited. But the projectile, as it is un 
 derstood in modern times, came in with the use 
 of gunpowder in warfare, and developed with 
 the improvements in weapons using it. While 
 lead answered all the purposes in small-arms, it 
 was found too soft for battering with larger guns, 
 and stone shot being not only too light for good 
 flight, but also deficient in tenacity, early gave 
 way to iron, which excelled in these qualities. 
 Iron projectiles came into general use in Eu 
 rope by the close of the 14th century, and by 
 the middle of the succeeding century, grenades 
 and explosive shells were introduced. The first 
 ones are said to have been made of alloys of lead 
 and tin and of bronze, but later they gave way 
 to cast iron, and in many cases were of extraor 
 dinary size, reaching in Germany and Italy, 
 towards the close of the 17th century, to 1100 
 and 1300 pounds weight. These shell were pro 
 jected from mortars, and it was not until early 
 in this century that shell-guns came into use, 
 first in this country and afterwards in Europe. 
 From this time up to the advent of rifle-guns, 
 projectiles for heavy ordnance were not materi 
 ally changed, except that they grew in size with 
 the increasing calibre of the guns, were cast 
 more carefully and by better methods, and the 
 effect of the shell was heightened by improve 
 ments in the fuzes. 
 
 In smooth-bore guns, besides solid shot and 
 shell, several other projectiles are used, such as 
 "case-shot," which comprise "grape" for spread 
 ing a large number of balls at short range, 
 " canister" for longer distances, and " shrapnel," 
 which are thin shell containing small balls, and 
 with a bursting charge just sufficient to rupture 
 the shell. Other types of projectiles for smooth 
 bore guns are now obsolete in our service, such 
 as chain- and bar-shot for cutting an enemy s 
 spars, sails; and rigging, and hot shot and car 
 casses for setting him on fire, although the latter 
 might be used with good effect on shore, and 
 several European governments retain them, as 
 well as "ground" and "parachute light-balls," 
 to light up an enemy s works at night, and 
 " smoke-balls" to appeal to his nose. Many of 
 these projectiles had prototypes in the hot clay, 
 hot iron, Greek fire, and stink-pots of the an 
 cients. 
 
 The first rifled motion was given to spherical 
 lead bullets fired from small-arms about the close 
 of the 15th century, but the practice seems to 
 have soon fallen into disuse, to obtain again 
 nearly 200 years afterwards, and we have records 
 of the good effects produced by the rifle in our 
 Revolution. Several improvements in rifling 
 and loading were introduced early in this cen 
 tury, and finally led up to the elongated bullet 
 having a conical head, the rammer-head being 
 recessed to prevent flattening out the point in 
 loading. The Minie bullet was introduced in 
 
 1847. This is a cylindrical body with a conical 
 head, and at the base is an iron thimble which, 
 driving in at discharge, wedges the lead out into 
 the grooves of the rifle. But it was soon dis 
 covered that a concave surface at the rear face 
 of the bullet did quite as well as the thimble, 
 which in some cases was driven through the 
 bullet. The present service bullet has a concave 
 base, and 3 grooves in a transverse plane at the 
 forward end of the cylinder. They are made of 
 an alloy of 16 parts lead to 1 of tin, are punched 
 out in steel dies, and for the .45 calibre are of the 
 following dimensions, in inches : Total length, 
 1.11; diameter of cylindrical part, .458; maxi 
 mum diameter of conical part, .445 ; depth of 
 grooves, .03; width of grooves, .125; width of 
 lands, .083 ; weight in grains, 405. Experi 
 ments have lately been made with a bullet of 
 500 grains, using the same charge of powder (70 
 grains); and while the initial velocity has been 
 less, the range has been increased, with a flatter 
 flight during the falling part of the trajectory. 
 
 The rifling of heavy ordnance is of very recent 
 date, for although Benjamin Robins, as early as 
 1742, foresaw its advantages and those of the 
 elongated projectile, and while there are crude 
 specimens preserved in the museums of some 
 European countries, .which date back still farther, 
 it was not until 1854, before Sebastopol, and 
 again in 1859, in the Italian campaign, that 
 rifled cannon were employed with good effect. 
 The war of secession soon following, and the use 
 of armor for the protection of fighting ships, 
 stimulated invention in ordnance to a great de 
 gree, and rang the death-knell of smooth-bore 
 guns and spherical projectiles. Notwithstanding 
 the immense amount of thought and study that 
 has been expended on the subject of rifled guns 
 and their projectiles, the question is far from 
 being settled, and of the many systems pro 
 posed and in use, each has its warm advocates. 
 The flight of an elongated projectile depends 
 primarily upon its taking the rifled motion, and 
 the steadiness with which it retains it about ita 
 longer axis. The devices for rotating the pro 
 jectile are many, and their success depends mainly 
 on the strength of the gun, the strength of the 
 projectile, and the action of the powder-gases. 
 A comparatively weak gun, with a good system 
 of rifling and of projectiles, will stand where a 
 much stronger.gun may be burst by undue strains 
 put upon it by a bad system. The devices now 
 used for securing the rifled motion may be classed 
 under three heads, viz., studded or flanged, forced 
 or lead-coated, and expanding. Studded projec 
 tiles have buttons or flanges which follow corre 
 sponding grooves in the gun, as in the Woolwich 
 and Armstrong muzzle-loaders. Forced pro 
 jectiles are used in breech-loaders only, and are 
 coated with lead or other soft substance to a size 
 larger than the bore of the gun. Examples are 
 shell and shrapnel for the 3-inch breech-loading 
 navy howitzer, and projectiles for Krupp and 
 Armstrong breech-loaders. Expanding projectiles 
 are those where the action of the powder-gases 
 expand into the grooves of the gun a soft rear 
 band, as in the Parrott, Butler, Stafford, and 
 Blakely systems, or a lead zone is forced out by a 
 cap-wedge driven up from the rear, as in the 
 Hotchkiss, or a papier-mache base is driven up 
 on the shot, as in the Schenkl. 
 
 The object to be attained is, with the least 
 
PROJECTION 
 
 668 
 
 PROPORTIONAL PARTS 
 
 strain on the gun, to get a steady, uniform motion 
 without balloting or wedging in the bore, no 
 stripping, uniformity of range and velocities, and 
 a steady flight. Besides these qualities a shell 
 should have large capacity for a bursting charge, 
 and all projectiles should be free from liability to 
 injury in ordinary handling or transportation. 
 Precautions should be taken in cleaning, filling, 
 and fuzing shell to prevent premature explosions. 
 * Shell are generally made of cast iron and fuzed 
 at the point. Battering shell are cast with a 
 chilled head and not fuzed, while the walls are 
 much thicker, the bursting of the shell being 
 effected by the heat generated by impact against 
 armor. Steel projectiles are now being made 
 abroad, and used against armor shields with ex 
 cellent results. At the recent Meppen experi 
 ments they excelled all others. 
 
 During the war many kinds of shell of each 
 system were used, including not only inventions 
 of our own citizens, but some purchased from 
 other countries. The greatest number of shell 
 used on the Northern side were Parrott, Hotch- 
 kiss, and Schenkl. That our ordnance officers, 
 after much experience, should have adopted the 
 expanding system with base rotation in all muz 
 zle-loading guns argues strongly in its favor. Our 
 breech-loaders are few, but in the navy, Parrott 
 shell are used in them, with the exception of the 
 3-ineh breech-loading howitzer, and in recent 
 firing with the 9-inch breech-loading rifle, Butler 
 shell were used. H. W. Lyon, Lieutenant 
 U.8.N. 
 
 Projection (Lat. projectio, a throwing out or 
 stretching forth). A delineation of a proposed 
 figure on a given surface, formed by means of 
 lines drawn according to some definite laws. 
 The projection of a surface is generally conceived 
 as made by straight lines, and on a plane. This 
 plane is called the primitive plane. A distinction 
 is also drawn between natural and artificial pro 
 jections. A natural projection of a surface on 
 a given plane is such a delineation of it as would 
 be formed by drawing straight lines from the eye 
 in a definite position through every point of the 
 surface to meet the plane, the original and the 
 representation producing the same effect on the 
 organ of vision. An artificial projection is a de 
 lineation of the surface on a plane traced accord 
 ing to fixed laws, not being a perspective repre 
 sentation. 
 
 PROJECTIONS OF THE SPHERE. Delineations 
 of the surface of the sphere on a plane made ac 
 cording to definite laws, and furnishing the 
 means of constructing maps and charts. Projec 
 tions of the sphere are either natural or artificial. 
 Natural projections of the sphere are delineations 
 of the surface on a plane, defined in position, rep 
 resenting the sphere as it appears to the eye situ 
 ated at a given point. According to the relative 
 positions of the sphere, the eye, and the primitive 
 or plane of projection, there are different methods 
 of natural projection, the three most important 
 of which are the orthographic, stereoqraphic, and 
 central or gnomonic. In the orthographic the 
 eye is indefinitely distant from the sphere, so 
 that the visual rays are parallel to one another, 
 and the primitive is perpendicular to their direc 
 tion ; in the stereographic the eye is situated at 
 the surface of the sphere, and the primitive passes 
 through the centre so as to have the eye in its 
 pole ; in the central or gnomonic the eye is at the 
 
 centre of the sphere, and the primitive is a tan 
 gent plane. Projections of the sphere, on which 
 soever of the above methods they are made, are 
 further named equatorial, meridional, or hori 
 zontal, according as the primitive coincides with 
 or is parallel to the equator, the meridian, or the 
 horizon. All perspective representations of the 
 sphere distort those parts which are not projected 
 near the centre of the primitive. Thus, in a map 
 on the orthographic projection, countries at a dis 
 tance from the centre of the primitive are unduly 
 contracted, while the reverse is the case in maps 
 on the central projection. In maps or charts 
 of small portions of the earth s surface this is of 
 little consequence, as the middle of the map may 
 be always taken for the centre of the primitive; 
 but for extensive tracts the distortion near the 
 edge of the map is considerable, and constitutes 
 an objection. Artificial projections of the sphere 
 are delineations of the surface on a plane traced 
 according to fixed laws, not being perspective 
 representations. Mercator s chart, which is that 
 of the greatest importance to the navigator, is an 
 artificial projection. Here the meridians are par 
 allel straight lines equidistant from each other, 
 the parallels of latitude are perpendicular to the 
 meridians at such distance from each other, in 
 creasing from the equator, that the measures of 
 a degree of longitude and latitude at any point 
 of the projection shall have the same ratio as 
 exists between their measures on the surface of 
 the sphere at the corresponding point. This pro 
 jection gives a true representation as to form of 
 every particular small tract, but varies greatly 
 in point of scale in its different regions, the polar 
 portions in particular being extravagantly en 
 larged, and the whole map even of a single 
 hemisphere not being comprisable within any 
 finite limits. See CHART. 
 
 Promiscui Usus. A law-term for those arti 
 cles which are equally applicable to peace or war. 
 Promontory. A high point of land or rock 
 projecting into a sea or lake, tapering into a 
 neck inland, and the extremity of which, toward 
 the water, is called a cape, or headland, as Gi 
 braltar, Ceuta, Actium, etc. 
 
 Promotion. Promotions are made by seniority 
 only, except in cases of extraordinary heroism. 
 When an officer arrives at the head of his grade 
 he must undergo examinations in regard to his 
 physical and professional qualifications, and his 
 record is consulted in respect of his moral char 
 acter. See EXAMINATION, BOARD OF. 
 
 Promovent (Eng.). The plaintiff in the in 
 stance-court of the admiralty. 
 
 Proof. The trial of arms, ammunition, etc., 
 before being received for service. 
 
 Propeller. An instrument for propelling ves 
 sels. There are two principal kinds, the paddle- 
 wheel and screw-propeller. The paddle-wheel 
 may be worked by either horizontal or vertical 
 shafts, and the paddles are either fixed or feath 
 ering. The action of the screw-propeller is that 
 of a two or more threaded screw working in a 
 nut, the water acting as the nut ; but being a 
 moving medium, the" full benefit of the pitch is 
 not obtained. See PADDLE-WHEEL, SCREW- 
 PROPELLER. 
 
 Proper Motion. See MOTION, PROPER. 
 Proportional Parts, Table of. An auxiliary 
 table to facilitate the process of interpolation in 
 the use of logarithms. 
 
PKOSPECT-GLASS 
 
 669 
 
 PURGING-COCK 
 
 Prospect-glass. An old term for a spy 
 glass. 
 
 Protractor. An instrument for laying off 
 angles in plotting. 
 
 Providence, R. I., the second city in pop 
 ulation, wealth, and importance of the New 
 England States, is situated around a little lake 
 called the " Cove," into which two small rivers, 
 the Woonasquatucket and Moshasstick, empty, 
 and on Narragansett Bay, at the head of navi 
 gation. The Providence Iliver, which flows 
 out of the "Cove," is on the southeastern side 
 of the city, and the Seekonk forms its eastern 
 boundary. Providence was at one time the seat 
 of a considerable foreign and domestic com 
 merce, but of late years the foreign trade has 
 considerably diminished, balanced, however, by 
 an increase of the domestic trade. This city is 
 one of the great manufacturing centres of the 
 country. The most important establishments 
 are those of the Gorharn Company, manufac 
 turers of solid silverware, the Providence Tool 
 Company, Providence Steam-Engine Company, 
 Barstow Stove Company, Allen Fire Supply 
 Company, Fletcher Manufacturing Company, 
 Corliss Steam-Engine Works, and many others, 
 the total value of the manufactures according to 
 the State census for 1875 being $52,000,000. 
 Pop. 104,000. 
 
 Proviso. A stern-fast, or hawser, carried to 
 the shore to steady by. A ship with one anchor 
 down and a shore-fast is moored a proviso. 
 
 Provost-marshal. This term is applied in 
 the navy to an officer who is charged with the 
 safe-keeping of a prisoner while undergoing trial 
 by court-martial. He does not arrest him, or 
 execute the sentence of the court, as in armies, 
 but receives him from the officer in whose cus 
 tody he may be held, and is responsible for him 
 in transit, and while before the court, and for 
 his return when his presence is no longer re 
 quired. The president of a general court-martial 
 is authorized to order an officer of the navy not 
 above the grade of lieutenant, or an officer of 
 the marine corps not above the grade of captain, 
 to serve as provost-marshal of the court. In 
 addition to the above, it is his duty to serve 
 notices to the witnesses, execute any process of 
 the court, and attend generally as the police- 
 officer of the court. He is not sworn, and re 
 ceives no additional compensation. In the case 
 of a trial of an appointed or enlisted man, the 
 person to act as provost-marshal may, if the 
 president of the court thinks proper, be a petty 
 officer of the navy, or a non-commissioned officer 
 of marines. It has not been the practice in the 
 U. S. army for a provost-marshal to attend upon 
 a military court. H. C. Cochrane, Captain 
 U.S.M.C. 
 
 Pucka, A word in frequent use among the 
 English in the East Indies, signifying sterling, 
 of good quality. 
 
 Pucker. A wrinkled seam in sail-making ; 
 also, anything in a state of confusion. 
 
 Puddening, or Pudding. A thick pad of 
 yarns, matting, oakum, etc., tapering from the 
 middle toward the ends ; used for fenders on the 
 bow of a boat. A covering of parceling and soft 
 rope over the ring of the anchor when rope ca 
 bles are used. 
 
 Pudding-fish. A fish of the genus Sparus (S. 
 radiatus). 
 
 Puff. A sudden gust of wind. 
 
 Puffer. A fish of the genus Diodon ; globe- 
 fish. See GLOBE-FISH. 
 
 Puffin. The Fratercula arctica, a sea-bird 
 with a singular bill, formerly supposed to be a 
 bird in appearance but a fish in substance, in 
 consequence of which notion the pope permitted 
 its being eaten in Lent. 
 
 Pulas. An excellent twine, made by the Ma- 
 lays from the kaluwi, a species of nettle. 
 Pull. To row. 
 
 PULL-AWAY BOYS. A name given on the west 
 coast of Africa to the native Kroomen, who are 
 engaged by the shipping to row boats and do 
 other work not suited to Europeans in that cli 
 mate. 
 
 Pull Foot. To hasten ; to run. 
 
 Pulo. The Malay word for island, and fre 
 quently met with in the islands of the Eastern 
 seas. 
 
 Pulwar. A commodious kind of passage-boat 
 on the Ganges. 
 
 Pump. A hydraulic machine for raising 
 liquids. A machine for exhausting a gas from, 
 or forcing a gas into, a close vessel. To pump 
 ship, to pump the water out the bilge. A pump 
 sucks when the water being exhausted, nothing 
 but air comes up. 
 
 PUMP-BRAKE. A lever by which a pump is 
 worked. 
 
 PUMP-DALE. A trough to carry off water 
 from a pump ; a hose is now used for this pur 
 pose. 
 
 PUMP-GEAR. The apparatus belonging to a 
 pump. 
 
 PUMP-WELL. An inclosure around the bot 
 tom of the pumps to protect them from injury, 
 and to give a ready admittance to the water, 
 as well as to permit an examination into the 
 condition of the pumps ; it usually contains a 
 strainer. 
 
 Punch. An iron implement for backing out 
 a bolt, or for making apertures in metal. 
 
 Punishment. No punishment can be legally 
 inflicted except by the commanding officer, or 
 by the sentence of a summary or general court- 
 martial. 
 
 Commanding officers are authorized to inflict 
 the punishments of extra duties, deprivation of 
 liberty, reduction of rating, and confinement 
 with or without irons, either on full or reduced 
 rations. The confinement must not exceed ten 
 days. Flogging, gagging, and confinement in 
 coal-bunker or sweat-box are forbidden, and no 
 punishment not specially authorized by the regu 
 lations is tolerated. See COURT-MARTIAL. 
 
 Punk. The interior of an excrescence on the 
 oak-tree; used as tinder, and better known as 
 touch-wood. 
 
 Punt. An Anglo-Saxon term still in use for 
 a flat-bottomed boat, used by fishermen, or for 
 ballast lumps, etc. 
 
 Puoys. Spiked poles used in propelling barges. 
 
 Puppet-valve. See POPPET-VALVE. 
 
 Purchase. Any mechanical advantage which 
 increases the force applied. See TACKLES. 
 
 PURCHASE-BLOCKS. All blocks virtually de 
 serve this name, but it is distinctively given to 
 those used in moving heavy weights. 
 
 PURCHASE-FALLS. The rope rove through pur 
 chase-blocks. 
 
 Purging-cock. A cock or valve in the lowest 
 
PUKEE 
 
 670 
 
 PYKOXYLIN 
 
 part of a steam-boiler for the purpose of draining 
 the boiler. 
 
 Purre. A name for the dunlin (Tringa al- 
 pina}. 
 
 Purse-crab (Birgus). A genus of Crustacea 
 of the order Decapoda and suborder Anomoura. 
 It is allied to the Hermit Crab (which see), but 
 has the abdomen or tail shorter and almost or 
 bicular, its under surface soft and membranous, 
 its upper surface covered with strong plates, 
 overlapping, as in lobsters. The first pair of 
 legs have large and powerful pincers, the pair 
 nearest the abdomen are very small, but terminate 
 in rudimentary pincers ; the pair next to them 
 are larger with small pincers ; the second and 
 third pairs of legs are terminated by a single nail. 
 
 Purse-net. A peculiar landing-net in fishing. 
 It is used in the seine and trawl to bewilder the 
 fish, and prevent their swimming out when fairly 
 inside. 
 
 Purser. Falconer, in his Marine Dictionary, 
 says, " A purser is an officer appointed by the 
 Lords of the Admiralty to take charge of the 
 provisions of a ship of war, and to see that they 
 are carefully distributed to the officers and crew 
 according to the instructions which he has re 
 ceived from the Commissioners of the Navy for 
 that purpose." 
 
 Totten defines a purser in the U. S. navy as 
 " a commissioned officer who has charge of the 
 provisions, clothing, etc., and of the public mon 
 eys on board ship." 
 
 Sir Wm. Monson, about 1600, says, " The 
 purser is in the nature of a cape-merchant in a 
 ship of merchandise, that keeps an account of all 
 things brought into the ship ; he ought to be an 
 able clerk." " Likewise if, during the voyage, 
 any of the men happen to die or run away, or 
 for good cause be discharged by the captain s 
 order, to enter likewise the particular day of the 
 month agairtst each of their names in a margent 
 of the books," etc. 
 
 The title was derived from bursar, the old 
 name for a treasurer or cash-keeper ; hence dis- 
 burser, one who pays out money. The term burse 
 magister existed in the English merchant ma 
 rine in the time of Henry VI. The title re 
 mained in the U. S. navy from its organization 
 until 1860. By a general order (1847), legalized 
 by act of Congress, 1854, pursers of more than 
 12 years were to rank with commanders, and of 
 less than 12 years with lieutenants, and to take 
 rank with surgeons according to date of com 
 mission. In 1860 it was enacted " that pursers 
 in the navy of the Unjted States shall be here 
 after styled paymasters. " Why the old time- 
 honored title was discontinued for a longer one, 
 expressive of only a portion of this officer s 
 duties, it is difficult to imagine. See PAY CORPS. 
 
 PURSER S DIP. The smallest dip-candle. 
 
 PURSER S GRINS. Sneers. 
 
 PURSER S NAME. An assumed name. 
 
 PURSER S POUND (Eng.}. The weight for 
 merly used in the navy, by which the purser re 
 tained an eighth for waste, and the men received 
 only seven-eighths of what was supplied by gov 
 ernment. One of the complaints of the mutiny 
 was, having the purser s instead of an honest 
 pound. This allowance was reduced to one- 
 tenth. 
 
 PURSER S SHIRT. Like a purser s shirt on a 
 hand-spike, a comparison for clothes fitting 
 loosely. 
 
 Purviance, Hugh Y., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Maryland. Appointed from Maryland, 
 November 3^ 1818; frigate "Congress," 1819- 
 21, and "Franklin," 74, 1821-24, Pacific Squad 
 ron ; "North Carolina," 74, Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1824-27. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1827 ; 
 sloop "Falmouth," West India Squadron, 1828- 
 30; sloop "Peacock," East India Squadron, 
 1833-34; rendezvous, Baltimore, 1836-37 ; Brazil 
 Squadron, 1837-38, commanding brig "Dol 
 phin" and sloop " Fairfield" ; relieved an Amer 
 ican schooner from the French blockade at Sa- 
 lado, Kiver Platte ; rendezvous, Baltimore, 1839- 
 40; " Brandywine," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1841-42; rendezvous, Baltimore, 1843; com 
 manding brig " Pioneer," coast of Africa, 1843 ; 
 frigate " Constitution," Mexican blockade, 1846. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 7, 1849 ; 
 receiving-ship " Consort," Baltimore, 1850-51 ; 
 commanding sloop "Marion," coast of Africa, 
 1852-55. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, January 28, 1856 ; 
 commanded frigate " St. Lawrence" on the block 
 ade off Charleston and Southern coast, 1861 ; sunk 
 the Confederate privateer " Petrel" off Charles 
 ton when just 12 hours out; captured several 
 prizes ; participated in the fight of the " Merri- 
 mac," gunboats, and batteries off Se well s Point, 
 Hampton Koads. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862 ; 
 light-house inspector, 1863-65. Eeceived a vote 
 of thanks of Maryland Legislature. Ketired 
 December 21, 1861. 
 
 Push. To crowd all sail. To run the engines 
 to their utmost capacity. 
 
 Put. To put back, to return to the point of 
 departure. To put about, to go on the other tack. 
 To put to sea, to quit a port or roadstead and go 
 to sea. 
 
 Pyrosomidse. A family of tunicated marine 
 mollusks. They swim freely, many individuals 
 being usually combined into a nearly cylindrical 
 mass by means of their elastic integument, or 
 tunic. They abound in warm seas, and are 
 brightly luminous. 
 
 Pyroxylin. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
Q 
 
 671 
 
 QUARANTINE 
 
 Q. 
 
 Q. In the log-book, q denotes squalls. 
 
 Quade. An old word for baffling ; as, a quade 
 wind. 
 
 Quadrant. A quadrant (Lat. guadrans, a 
 fourth part) is a reflecting astronomical instru 
 ment on the same principle as the sextant (see 
 SEXTANT), but with a shorter arc, so that angles 
 up to 90 only can be measured. If named on 
 the same principle as the sextant it would be 
 called an octant (Lat. octans, one-eighth), and 
 this name has been given to the metal-framed 
 quadrants made of late years. Quadrants have 
 generally a wooden frame with an inlaid ivory 
 arc, and were formerly made much larger than 
 at present. The arc is generally divided to half- 
 minutes only. See GUNNER S QUADRANT. 
 
 Quadrature. The moon is in quadrature when 
 she is 90 from the sun. 
 
 Quagmire. A marsh in which the water re 
 mains stagnant. 
 
 Quaker. A false or wooden gun. 
 
 Quamash, or Biscuit-root. A plant of the 
 natural order Liliacece. The roasted bulbs are 
 used as an article of food. 
 
 Quamino. A negro. 
 
 Quarantine (Ital. quarantina; L. Lat. quaren- 
 tena; Fr. quarantaine ; Span, cuarantena). The 
 Cyclopaedia of Commerce defines quarantine to 
 be the " interdiction of communication to which 
 a ship is subject for a definite period, for fear of 
 her bringing infectious diseases." 
 
 Webster defines the word as follows: "1. A 
 space of 40 days. 2. Specifically, the term, 
 originally of 40 days, but now of undetermined 
 length, during which a ship, arriving in port, 
 and suspected of being infected with a malignant, 
 contagious disease, is obliged to forbear all inter 
 course with the shore ; hence, restraint or inhi 
 bition of intercourse to which a ship is subjected, 
 on the presumption that she may be infected. 3 
 (law). The period of 40 days, during which the 
 widow has the privilege of remaining in the 
 mansion-house of which her husband died 
 seized." " Quarantine (verb). To prohibit from 
 intercourse with the shore ; to compel to remain 
 at a distance, as a ship from shore when suspected 
 of having contagious disease." 
 
 Falconer, in his dictionary, says, " Quarantine, 
 the state of the persons who are restrained within 
 the limits of a ship or lazaretto, or otherwise pre 
 vented from having a free communication with 
 the inhabitants of any country till the expiration 
 of an appointed time, during which they are re 
 peatedly examined in regard to their health. It 
 is chiefly intended to prevent the importation of 
 the plague." 
 
 The term quarantine is now employed not only 
 for the detention of persons, effects, and mer 
 chandise coming by sea, but also for such deten 
 tion at international or state lines, or at a cordon 
 arbitrarily drawn within a state. There is also a 
 
 quarantine of observation imposed upon vessels 
 that have, for any cause, communicated at sea 
 with another from an infected port, or have 
 been boarded by men-of-war of a hostile nation. 
 
 The original period of 40 days, or 6 weeks, 
 imposed in early times, is supposed by some to 
 have had a connection with the penitential period 
 of lent ; by others, that it was presumed that 6 
 weeks was the term or limitation in which any 
 infectious disorder must certainly show itself. 
 However this may be, the term is, and has long 
 been established, in the senses given above, in 
 the language of every sea-faring or mercantile 
 nation. 
 
 In some countries vessels from the Levant, Bar- 
 bary States, Havana, or Vera Cruz, have always 
 to undergo some days quarantine of observation, 
 even when coming with clean bill of health. 
 But modern experience has shown that some of 
 the pestilential maladies, so called, are not con 
 tagious ; and quarantine of persons has a con 
 stant tendency to become less severe, in northern 
 climates especially ; and a mere routine prohibi 
 tion, like that just referred to, must eventually 
 give way to more reasonable, liberal, and well- 
 founded ipethods. 
 
 In 1852 a sanitary convention was held, most 
 of the European states sending delegates, which 
 body recognized the right of any country or 
 countries to isolate another which was infected 
 with plague, yellow fever, or cholera, either by 
 sanitary cordon or by subjection to quarantine. 
 By agreement two kinds of bills of health were 
 recognized : one attesting the presence of disease 
 in the country whence the vessel sailed, and the 
 other attesting the absence of the malady. But 
 vessels in bad sanitary condition, even if bearing 
 the first-mentioned bill of health, were to be de 
 tained for purification whenever the authorities 
 of the port at which she arrived deemed it neces 
 sary. The minimum of detention was agreed 
 upon as follows : for vessels from countries sus 
 pected of plague, 10 full days ; 3 to 6 days for 
 yellow fever, and 3 to 5 days for cholera. These 
 terms are practically often exceeded, at the dis 
 cretion of the health officers, especially in south 
 ern Europe. By the convention, merchandise 
 was divided into 3 classes : 1st. That which is 
 always quarantined and purified. 2d. That sub 
 ject to detention and purification after examina 
 tion and decision by experts. 3d. Those articles 
 always exempt. Ships were to pay a health due 
 according to tonnage ; and, while in quarantine, 
 to pay a fixed daily rate, as must, also, persons 
 placed in quarantine. Merchandise placed on 
 shore at a lazaretto was to pay a special tax, by 
 weight or valuation. 
 
 England refused to agree to this convention, 
 and took the responsibility of practically doing 
 away with quarantine in her ports for plague, 
 yellow fever, and cholera, except under unusual 
 
QUARANTINE 
 
 672 
 
 QUAKANTINE 
 
 circumstances, when the power to enact quaran 
 tine lies in the crown, by an order in council. 
 The orders in council in regard to yellow fever 
 were revoked in 1869. 
 
 Although this is done there with impunity, at 
 least as to the two first diseases, the wisdom of 
 spasmodic action in regard to cholera may well 
 be doubted. It would" be impossible for coun 
 tries situated in a lower latitude to follow her 
 example. Nowhere, however, is quarantine more 
 strictly enforced than in the British ports of 
 Gibraltar and Malta ; and the reason is that any 
 attempt of the English government to alter the 
 quarantine regulations of the Mediterranean col 
 onies, without the sanction of the neighboring 
 countries, would produce greater inconvenience 
 than that arising from the present system. The 
 pratique granted in those colonies would not 
 then be recognized in the neighboring countries, 
 and all vessels from Malta or Gibraltar would be 
 subjected by them to a quarantine of observation. 
 
 In torrid countries, where yellow fever and 
 cholera are endemic, quarantine is, of course, of 
 little use, while in lat. 50 N. there is no fear 
 of yellow fever. Large discretion must, how 
 ever, in all cases and in all countries, be invested 
 in the officers of health. 
 
 In 1865 another sanitary convention met at 
 Constantinople, principally to deliberate in re 
 gard to cholera. This body again fully recog 
 nized the necessity of restrictive measures, while 
 the importance of striking at the sources of epi 
 demics in the places of their origin was duly set 
 forth. 
 
 The importance of quarantine has been recog 
 nized from the earliest periods, although for ages 
 it only consisted in the isolation of lepers. In 
 the Middle Ages it was chiefly enforced against 
 the plague, which had been the scourge of the 
 Old World for so many centuries. We learn 
 from history that the plague once prevailed at 
 Athens, more or less severely, for 50 years. 
 Hippocrates and Thucydides give accounts of 
 it as far back as 330 B.C. The disease raged 
 throughout the Roman empire from 250 to 265 
 of our era, and for some time 5000 persons died 
 in Rome every day. When the plague appeared 
 in Alexandria, A.D. 542, more than half the pop 
 ulation was carried off. More modern instances 
 of its dreadful ravages in Europe, Asia, and Af 
 rica are quite familiar, and it still prevails almost 
 every year at Bagdad, and other places upon 
 the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 
 In later days, in addition to plague, yellow 
 fever, cholera, and typhus have been the dis 
 eases principally combated by quarantine, and 
 for this purpose lazarettoes have been long in use. 
 Lazaretto is derived from Lazarus, the patron 
 saint of lepers. It may be defined as an iso 
 lated establishment, generally walled, on or 
 near a port, built and arranged to receive the 
 sick and those suspected of contagion, as well as 
 merchandise. Lazarettoes are most common on 
 the routes of commerce and travel on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean. They often have exten 
 sive courts and gardens for air and exercise for 
 those detained there, as well as appliances for 
 disinfecting men, their clothing, and goods. 
 The lazarettoes of Genoa, Leghorn, and Mar 
 seilles are so large and well arranged that ships 
 need not necessarily be detained there, but may 
 unload their cargoes in bond. Important papers, 
 
 and money or letters necessary to be transmitted 
 through quarantine, are still, in many cases, 
 punctured, fumigated, or even immersed in 
 weak acids before being allowed to circulate. 
 
 Although lazarettoes are of considerable an 
 tiquity, they were not established until, in the 
 Middle Ages, the plague had repeatedly swept 
 the great ^commercial cities of the Mediterra 
 nean, whence it spread to those of the interior 
 with deplorable results, more than decimating 
 many of them. At last the idea of protection 
 was forced upon them, and Venice, as the queen 
 of commerce, naturally took the lead. It has 
 been said by some writers that there are traces in 
 her records of some attempt at health regulations 
 about 1130, and she certainly set the example of 
 strict inspection of arriving vessels in 1318, while 
 in 1403 the practice of isolation was introduced, 
 the island of St. Mary of Nazareth being set apart 
 for that purpose. Inspection of vessels was prac 
 ticed at Reggio, in the Straits of Messina, almost 
 at the same time as at Venice. Some accounts, 
 indeed, state that Reggio preceded her. Count 
 Barnabo, finding that those who avoided the 
 sick generally escaped the plague, established a 
 rough kind of quarantine, which consisted in 
 placing those sick of the disease, found in vessels 
 passing through the straits, in an open field, to 
 die or to recover, and the persons engaged in 
 handling the patients were excluded from com 
 munication with the population. In Florence 
 the state took precautions against the spread of 
 epidemics as early as 1348. In 1453 there was a 
 lazaretto in Sardinia. In 1448 Venice had al 
 ready a digest of quarantine laws, and in 1485 
 a regular health commission was established and 
 the purification of cargoes begun. 
 
 The action of Venice, the centre of commerce, 
 went far towards preventing the wholesale mor, 
 tality which threatened to depopulate much of 
 Europe, as the pest, once introduced, was fos, 
 tered by the filthy and unwholesome mode oi 
 living then prevalent among all classes. 
 
 Genoa, always a rival of Venice, speedily fol 
 lowed her example as to quarantine, while ai 
 Marseilles, the third great commercial city oj 
 the Mediterranean, the first measures in this di 
 rection date from the plague of 1476. 
 
 These well-intended efforts were not alwayu 
 successful, for, in Marseilles, in 1656, it was nou 
 possible to bury the dead from plague, and they 
 were obliged to be burnt, as has often happened 
 elsewhere in sweeping epidemics. Marseilles, 
 indeed, suffered from no less than 14 visitations 
 of plague between 1505 and 1650. From the 
 latter year, when more thorough precautions 
 were taken, and a new lazaretto constructed, to 
 1720, she escaped entirely ; and it has never again 
 reached the city, although it has prevailed in the 
 lazaretto twenty times, the last occasion being in 
 the year 1825. 
 
 The annoying precautions necessary, and the 
 time consumed by quarantine, have always varied 
 with the locality, and the port from which the 
 suspected or infected vessel came ; and the se 
 verity of the rules, and the stringency with 
 which they were insisted upon and carried out, 
 have always excited the complaint of merchants 
 and travelers. But as education and general 
 intelligence extend, there is less and less dispo 
 sition to question rules which commend them 
 selves to every reasoning mind ; and business in- 
 
QUARANTINE 
 
 673 
 
 QUARANTINE 
 
 terests and sanitary requirements are now much 
 more in accord. In all places it is a high mis 
 demeanor to evade or break quarantine, and 
 there appears less disposition to do this at the 
 present day than formerly existed. McCulloch, 
 in his Dictionary of Commerce, says, " In some 
 cases, perhaps, quarantine regulations have been 
 carried to a needless extent; but they have more 
 frequently, we believe, been improperly relaxed." 
 
 As an instance of protection afforded by quar 
 antine we may adduce the terrible scourge of 
 yellow fever in Barcelona, in 1821, which was 
 transmitted by sea, thence reached Marseilles, 
 but was excluded from that city by rigorous 
 quarantine. The instances of a like nature in 
 our own country, both North and South, are too 
 numerous to mention, especially in the epidemics 
 of yellow fever in recent times. 
 
 Sanitary cordons, connected with the stamping 
 out of foci of disease, have recently been emi 
 nently successful in preventing the spread of 
 plague in Southern Russia, and of yellow fever 
 in our Southwestern States. 
 
 A ship sailing from a port to one in another 
 country is furnished by the consul of the country 
 to which she belongs, or by the local authorities, 
 with a bill of health, which shows the sanitary 
 condition of the place of departure. If good, 
 it is called a clean bill of health ; and if, on the 
 contrary, epidemic or contagious disease prevails, 
 it is called a foul one. A bill from a suspected 
 port is sometimes called a touched one. 
 
 The nature of the bill of health, and the dec 
 laration of the master of the vessel, regulate the 
 length of quarantine, if any is required. It is 
 not obligatory upon a master to take a bill of 
 health, but the absence of one renders the vessel 
 a suspected one in her port of arrival. 
 
 Pilots are everywhere required to make inquiry 
 in regard to the port of departure and state of 
 health of vessels which they may board, and are 
 required to anchor them in proper place, accord 
 ingly, under heavy penalties. Fine and im 
 prisonment are the usual penalties for gross in 
 vasion of quarantine law; and in France, under 
 certain circumstances, the punishment may be 
 death. 
 
 In the case of a man-of-war sailing from a 
 port, the bill of health is usually furnished gratis 
 by the authorities ; and the declaration of the 
 corf mander and of the medical officer is usually 
 received as regards the state of health upon 
 arrival. 
 
 Much the same precautions are taken with 
 regard to the cattle plague as with merchandise 
 and passengers, except that, in many instances, 
 the animals are required to be killed at once, and 
 always are sacrificed when symptoms of disease 
 are shown. 
 
 In this country all vessels arriving from for 
 eign ports, at any season of the year, must be 
 boarded and examined by the officers of health, 
 and coasting vessels come under the same cate 
 gory, according to the season of the year and the 
 geographical position of the ports from which 
 they come. 
 
 When a vessel and her passengers have leave to 
 communicate freely with the shore, either di 
 rectly upon arrival, or after having gone through 
 a term of quarantine, she is said to have received 
 pratique. This is derived from the Italian pra- 
 tica. In the case of infected or suspected vessels, 
 43 
 
 the crew and passengers, and their effects, are 
 purified in the lazaretto or on board, and the hold 
 of the vessel herself, and all cargoes of cotton, 
 hemp, rags, paper, hides, skins, feathers, hair, 
 and wool, are especially the objects of disinfec 
 tion, while metals, lumber, sugar, live-stock, and 
 other cargoes are treated as the discretion of the 
 health officers may direct. In the Mediterranean 
 all live animals, except horses, are supposed to 
 be ready conveyors of plague, and cats more so 
 than any others, as in Eastern countries they 
 form part of households, which dogs do not. 
 
 On this continent the first quarantine law was 
 enacted in the Province of Pennsylvania, in ref 
 erence to yellow fever, in the year 1700. The 
 quarantine station, still bearing the name of 
 " Lazaretto," exists in the place in which it was 
 originally established, a few miles below Phila 
 delphia, and depuration of passengers and car 
 goes is still performed there. 
 
 The present condition of quarantine in the 
 different States of the Union leaves much to be 
 desired, as the States have different and some 
 times conflicting laws. All provide some sort of 
 quarantine for contagious and infectious diseases, 
 but the practice in carrying out the necessary 
 precautions is not uniform, and in many cases 
 inefficient. 
 
 In 1804, Mr. Jefferson protested against the 
 passage of a general law regulating quarantine, 
 as an interference with States rights ; and each 
 State has continued to have its own code, some 
 very good, and others harassing and contradic 
 tory. A national quarantine law was proposed 
 in 1872, but only. passed one house of Congress. 
 There is no doubt, however, that the passage of 
 such an act is only a question of time. 
 
 The National Board of Health is now doing 
 excellent service, not only in practical work, but 
 in educating the people to a proper appreciation 
 of the necessity of a general quarantine law. 
 The following is the act of Congress establishing 
 the National Board : 
 
 u AN ACT to prevent the introduction of infectious 
 or contagious diseases into the United States, 
 and to establish a National Board of Health. 
 1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Rep 
 resentatives of the United States of America, in 
 Congress assembled, That there shall be estab 
 lished a National Board of Health to consist of 
 seven members, to be appointed by the President, 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
 not more than one of whom shall be appointed 
 from any one State, whose compensation, during 
 the time when actually engaged in the perform 
 ance of their duties under this act, shall be ten 
 dollars per diem each and reasonable expenses, 
 and of one medical officer of the army, one 
 medical officer of the navy, one medical officer 
 of the Marine Hospital Service, and one officer 
 from the Department of Justice, to be detailed by 
 the Secretaries of the several Departments and 
 the Attorney-General respectively, and the officers 
 so detailed shall receive no compensation. Said 
 board shall meet in Washington within thirty 
 days after the passage of this act, and in Wash 
 ington or elsewhere from time to time upon 
 notice from the president of the board, who is to 
 be chosen by the members thereof, or upon its 
 own adjournments, and shall frame all rules and 
 regulations authorized or required by this act, 
 
QUARANTINE 
 
 674 
 
 QUAKTEE 
 
 and shall make or cause to be made such special 
 examinations and investigations at any place or 
 places within the United States, or at foreign 
 ports, as they may deem best to aid in the 
 execution of this act and the promotion of its 
 objects. 
 
 " SEC. 2. The duties of the National Board of 
 Health shall be to obtain information upon all 
 matters affecting the public health, to advise the 
 several Departments of the government, the 
 executives of the several States, and the commis 
 sioners of the District of Columbia on all ques 
 tions submitted by them, or whenever, in the 
 opinion of the board, such advice may tend to 
 the preservation and improvement of the public 
 health. 
 
 " SEC. 3. That the Board of Health, with the 
 assistance of the Academy of Science, which is 
 hereby requested and directed to co-operate with 
 them for that purpose, shall report to Congress 
 at its next session a full statement of its trans 
 actions, together with a plan for a national pub 
 lic health organization, which plan shall be pre 
 pared after consultation with the principal sani 
 tary organizations and the sanitarians of the 
 several States of the United States, special at 
 tention being given to the subject of quarantine, 
 both maritime and inland, and especially as to 
 regulations which should be established between 
 State or local systems of quarantine and a na 
 tional quarantine system. 
 
 "SEC. 4. The sum of $50,000, or so much 
 thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropri 
 ated to pay the salaries and expenses of said 
 Board and carry out the purposes of this act. 
 
 " Approved March 3, 1879." 
 
 This act was supplemented by another, ap 
 proved June 2, 1879, entitled " An act to pre 
 vent the introduction of contagious or infectious 
 diseases into the United States." 
 
 This act provides for the co-operation of the 
 National board with the State boards ; and where 
 there are no local boards, or their regulations and 
 means of prevention are not sufficient, as is often 
 the case, they are to be assisted by proper per 
 sons, to be detailed by the President ; and if 
 they shall fail or refuse to enforce proper rules 
 and regulations, the President may detail proper 
 persons to do so. 
 
 Rules and regulations shall be made by the 
 National board by which information can be ob 
 tained of the sanitary condition of foreign ports 
 from which contagious or infectious diseases are 
 or may be imported into the United States. Con 
 suls are obliged to make constant sanitary reports 
 of the condition of such ports ; and medical offi 
 cers may be detailed for residence at such ports, 
 for the purpose of giving advice and assistance, 
 and for seeing that vessels sailing for the United 
 States are put in good sanitary condition. Do 
 mestic reports are also obtained from all parts of 
 the country, by which any tendency to the de 
 velopment of epidemics is at once detected. The 
 sum of $500,000 provided by this act is to be dis 
 bursed under the direction of the Secretary of 
 the Treasury, upon estimates made by the board, 
 and the appropriation is considered "continuous. 
 Local sanitation, except in rare cases (where dis 
 infectants and money to pay sanitary inspectors 
 and police have been provided), is not one of the 
 duties of the board, as no attainable appropria 
 
 tion would be sufficient to serve such a pur 
 pose. 
 
 This law was hardly promulgated when the 
 board found itself confronted by an alarming 
 outbreak of yellow fever in Memphis, as well as 
 the occurrence of some threatening cases in New 
 Orleans. The disease also appeared in some other 
 localities, and the highest legal authorities recog 
 nized the obvious duty of the board to be the as 
 sistance of the local authorities in the stricken 
 communities in their efforts to stamp out the dis 
 ease and prevent its spread to other States. By 
 the measures recommended by the board, and the 
 pecuniary aid extended to enable the authorities 
 to carry out the recommendations, the spread of 
 the disease was actually restrained within nar 
 row limits. Measures were also advised as to 
 precautionary work during the succeeding win 
 ter, which proved so successful that a very hot 
 summer has just passed without the occurrence 
 of a single case of yellow fever in Memphis. This 
 result is most encouraging. Space does not per 
 mit a reference to other functions of the National 
 Board of Health ; but we may say that the con 
 stant reports of experts received by it, with the 
 publication of essays on drainage, ventilation, 
 and cognate subjects, as well as the collection of 
 statistics on a grand scale, have laid the founda 
 tion for a wise and scientific treatment of the 
 whole subject of quarantine and national hy 
 giene. 
 
 Another international conference upon quar 
 antine is to be held at Washington in January, 
 1881. E. Shippen. 
 
 QUARANTINE-FLAG. A yellow flag hoisted in 
 a conspicuous place to indicate the presence of 
 contagious disease. It is hoisted at the fore of 
 vessels undergoing quarantine, and is familiarly 
 termed yellow-jack. 
 
 Quarry. The prey taken by whalers, a term 
 borrowed from falconers. 
 
 Quarter. The part of a yard just outside the 
 slings. The upper part of the topsides at the 
 after end of a ship. On the quarter, the position 
 of an object 45 abaft the beam. 
 
 QUARTER-BADGE. An artificial gallery; a 
 carved ornament near the stern of those vessels 
 which have no quarter-galleries. 
 
 QUARTER-BLOCKS. Blocks under the quarters 
 of the yards, to act as leaders for the sheets and 
 clewlines. 
 
 QUARTER-BOAT. Any boat is thus designated 
 which is hung to davits over the ship s quarter ; 
 it is used as a life-boat. 
 
 QUARTER- DAVITS. Pieces of iron or timber 
 with sheaves or blocks at their outer ends, pro 
 jecting from a vessel s quarters, to hoist boats up 
 to. 
 
 QUARTER-DECK. The upper deck abaft the 
 mainmast. Naval etiquette requires all persons 
 to salute on coming on the quarter-deck, and to 
 conduct themselves in a decorous manner while 
 thereon. The starboard side in port and the 
 weather side at sea are reserved for the use of 
 the commanding and executive-officers, and the 
 officer of the deck. 
 
 QUARTER-DECKERS. Officers more conspicuous 
 for their observance of etiquette than for their 
 knowledge of the requirements of their profes 
 sion. 
 
 QUARTER-DECKISH. Punctilious ; severe. 
 
 QUARTER-FAST. See FAST. 
 
QUARTEK-GALLEY 
 
 675 
 
 QUOTA-MEN 
 
 QUARTER-GALLERIES. Projections from the 
 quarters which are intended to ornament and 
 make a finish to the quarters, as well as to be 
 useful ; they are only fitted on vessels of war. 
 
 QUARTERING. Wind blowing from a point 
 about 45 abaft the beam. 
 
 QUARTER-TACKLE. A tackle hooked to the 
 quarter of one of the lower yards, and used with 
 the yard-tackle in hoisting heavy articles out or 
 in. It has been superseded by the stay-tackle. 
 
 Quarter-galley. A Barbary cruiser. 
 
 uarter-gunner. See GUNNER. 
 uarter-hung. A gun is quarter-hung when 
 the axis of the trunnions is below the axis of the 
 bore. 
 
 Quarterly Returns. Returns of stores on hand 
 at the end of the quarter, with the receipts and 
 expenditures during the quarter. 
 
 QUARTER-MASTER. A petty officer who assists 
 the navigator in the minor details of his various 
 duties. "The quarter-masters have charge of the 
 log, leads, lights, colors, signal-apparatus, com 
 passes, helm, etc., and in action are stationed at 
 the conn, helm, and relieving-tackles, attend to 
 making and reading signals, and when on sound 
 ings heave the lead. They keep regular watch 
 from the beginning of a cruise till a ship goes 
 out of commission. They are always selected 
 from the most experienced and reliable seamen. 
 
 Quarters. The stations of officers and men at 
 the guns for battle, for exercise, or for inspection. 
 The stations for battle or for exercise, as though 
 engaged in battle, are distinguished as general 
 quarters. The apartment allotted to a person or 
 mess. 
 
 QUARTER-BILL. A bill giving the stations of 
 officers and men in actions. 
 
 Quarter- watch. A division of one- fourth part 
 of the ship s company. In the days when a ship 
 carried a large number of men, a quarter-watch 
 was sufficient to handle her in pleasant weather. 
 
 Quashee. The familiar designation of a West 
 India negro. 
 
 Quator Maria. The four seas which surround 
 Great Britain ; the British Seas. 
 
 Quay. An artificial bank or wharf, at the side 
 of a harbor or stream, at which vessels receive and 
 discharge cargo. 
 
 QUAYAGE. Wharfage. 
 
 QUAY-BERTH. A loading or discharging berth 
 for a ship in a public dock. 
 
 Quebec, the second city of Canada, is situated 
 on the left bank of the St. Lawrence River 
 (which is here joined by the St. Charles), in lat. 
 46 49 6" N., and Ion. 71 13 45" W. Ship 
 building is the principal industry. There are 
 also manufactures of iron castings, machinery, 
 cutlery, nails, leather, musical instruments, rope, 
 etc. The principal export is lumber, furnished 
 
 principally by the forests on the Ottawa and St. 
 Maurice Rivers, and down these rivers it is 
 rafted to the St. Lawrence, and the rafts some 
 times extend for 6 miles along this river at 
 Quebec. Pop. 55,000. 
 
 Quebranta Huesos (%). Literally, bone- 
 breaker. A name for the great petrel, Procellaria 
 gigantea. 
 
 Queche. A small Portuguese smack. 
 
 Queen s Parade (Eng.}. The quarter-deck. 
 
 Queenstown, Cork County, Ireland, is situated 
 on the south side of Great Island, in Cork harbor. 
 It is well protected by batteries, and on the islands 
 opposite are additional fortifications, magazines, 
 etc. American steamers bound for Liverpool 
 usually call at Queenstown. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Queriman. A mullet of Guiana, found in tur 
 bid waters. 
 
 Querquedule. A light vessel ; a boat. Also, 
 a sea-fish. 
 
 Quicken. In ship-building, to give anything 
 a greater curve. 
 
 Quick Firing. See FIRING. 
 
 Quick-match. See MATCH. 
 
 Quick-saver. A span formerly used to pre 
 vent the courses from bellying too much when 
 off the wind. 
 
 Quick-work. All that part of a ship which is 
 under water when she is laden ; it is also applied 
 to that part of the inner upper- works of a ship 
 above the covering-board. Also, the short planks 
 worked inside between the ports. In ship-build 
 ing the term strictly applies to that part of a 
 vessel s side which is above the chain-wales and 
 decks, as well as to the strakes which shut in be 
 tween the spirketings and clamps. In general 
 parlance quick- work is synonymous with spirket- 
 ing. 
 
 Quietus. A severe blow ; a settler. 
 
 Quill-tube. See PRIMER. 
 
 Quilting. A kind of coating formed of sennit, 
 strands of rope, etc., outside any vessel containing 
 water. Also, the giving a man a beating with a 
 rope s end. 
 
 Quink. A name for the golden-eyed duck, 
 Anas clangula. 
 
 Quinquereme. An ancient vessel with 5 
 banks of oars. According to Polybius a quin- 
 quereme carried 300 seamen and 120 soldiers. 
 See TRIREME. 
 
 Quod. Durance ; prison. 
 
 Quoin. A wedge-shaped wooden implement. 
 Before the introduction of elevating screws, 
 quoins were used in elevating guns. Chocking- 
 quoins are used under the trucks of a gun-car 
 riage to prevent its running out or in. 
 
 Quota-men (Eng.}. Men raised for the navy 
 at great expense by Pitt s quota-bill, in 1795. 
 They received bounties of from $100 to $300. 
 
R 
 
 676 
 
 RACING 
 
 R 
 
 R. Abbreviation for are in the U. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. On the ship s books, E 
 denotes run when placed against the name of a 
 deserter. In the log-book r denotes rainy, 
 
 Rabanet, or Rabinet. A small, slender piece 
 of ordnance, formerly used for ships barricades. 
 It had a 1-inch bore, and carried about a -pound 
 ball. 
 
 Rabatment. The drawing of the real shape 
 of the molding of the pieces in the frames in any 
 required position. 
 
 Rabatt, Morocco, is situated on the south side 
 of the Boo Regreb River, at its mouth, imme 
 diately opposite Sale. It has strong walls and 
 batteries, a citadel and barracks. It has manu 
 factures of pottery and carpets, an export trade 
 in wool and corn, and considerable traffic. It 
 was formerly the centre of the European trade 
 with Morocco. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Rabbet. A groove in a piece of timber, cut 
 for the purpose of receiving another piece. On 
 the stem, stern-post, and keel of wooden ships 
 it is cut to receive the planking. 
 
 Race. When the tidal-wave passing along 
 the coast is arrested in its course, the water, 
 under certain conditions, attains a height which 
 causes it to flow off obliquely ; such a current is 
 called a race. The canal by which water is con 
 ducted to and from a water-wheel. 
 
 Race-horse. A duck of the South Seas, thus 
 named, says Cook, for u the great swiftness with 
 which they run on the water." 
 
 Racine is situated on the west shore of Lake 
 Michigan, at the mouth of Root River, in Racine 
 County, Wis., and is the second city in the State 
 in commerce and population. It has large grain- 
 elevators, threshing-machine works, woolen- 
 mills, wagon-factories, fanning-mill factories, 
 wire-works, machine-shops, etc. Owing to its 
 extensive manufacturing enterprises, Racine re 
 quires great shipping facilities, and these are 
 supplied by three lines of railways. On the lake 
 the West \Shore Steamboat Line makes daily 
 trips to Chicago, and the lower lake propellers 
 make regular stops at this port. There are in 
 addition to these quite a number of sailing-ves 
 sels owned here. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Racing. A term applied when a marine en 
 gine suddenly acquires an abnormally high or 
 irregular speed, caused by the propeller being 
 partially emerged from the water by the action 
 of a heavy sea. 
 
 Racing, Laws of Boat- (Adopted by the Na 
 tional Association of Amateur Oarsmen). 
 
 1. All boat-races shall be started in the follow 
 ing manner: The starter, on being satisfied that 
 the competitors are ready, shall give the signal 
 to start. 
 
 2. If the starter considers the start false, he 
 shall at once recall the boats to their stations, 
 and any boat refusing to start again shall be dis 
 qualified. 
 
 3. Any boat not at its post at the time speci 
 fied shall be liable to be disqualified by the um 
 pire. 
 
 4. The umpire may act as starter as he thinks 
 fit ; where he does not so act, the starter shall be 
 subject to the control of the umpire. 
 
 5. Each boat shall keep its own water through 
 out the race, and any boat departing from its own 
 water will do so at its peril. 
 
 6. A boat s own water is its straight course, 
 parallel with those of the other competing boats, 
 from the station assigned to it at the starting to 
 the finish. 
 
 7. The umpire shall be sole judge of a boat s 
 own water and proper course during the race. 
 
 8. No fouling whatever shall be allowed ; the 
 boat committing a foul shall be disqualified. 
 
 9. It shall be considered a foul when, after the 
 race has commenced, any competitor, by his oar, 
 boat, or person, comes in contact with the oar, 
 boat, or person of another competitor, unless, in 
 the opinion of the umpire, such contact is so 
 slight as not to influence the race. 
 
 10. The umpire may, during a race, caution 
 any competitor, when in danger of committing 
 a foul. 
 
 11. The umpire, when appealed to, shall de 
 cide all questions as to a foul. 
 
 .12. A claim of foul must be made to the judge 
 or the umpire by the competitor himself before 
 getting out of his boat. 
 
 13. In case of a foul, the umpire shall have 
 the power a. To place the boats (except the 
 boat committing the foul, which is disqualified) 
 in the order in which they come in. b. To order 
 the boats engaged in the race, other than the 
 boat committing the foul, to row over again on 
 the same or another day. c. To restart the 
 qualified boats from the place where the foul was 
 committed. 
 
 14. Every boat shall abide by its accidents. 
 
 15. No boat shall be allowed to accompany a 
 competitor for the purpose of directing his course 
 or affording him other assistance. The boat re 
 ceiving such direction or assistance shall be dis 
 qualified at the discretion of the umpire. 
 
 16. The jurisdiction of the umpire extends 
 over the race and all matters connected with it, 
 from the time the race is specified to start until 
 its final termination, and his decision in all cases 
 shall be final and without appeal. 
 
 17. Any competitor refusing to abide by the 
 decision, or to follow the directions of the um 
 pire, shall be disqualified. 
 
 18. Boats shall be started by their sterns, and 
 shall have completed their course when the bows 
 reach the finish. 
 
 19. In turning races, each competitor shall 
 have a separate turning-stake, and shall turn 
 from port to starboard. Any competitor may turn 
 any stake other than his own, but does so at his 
 peril. 
 
RACK 
 
 677 
 
 RALEIGH 
 
 20. The umpire, if he thinks proper, may re 
 serve his decision, provided that in every case 
 such decision be given on the day of the race. 
 
 Rack. To bind two parts of a rope or tackle 
 together with spun-yarn, marline, etc. An iron 
 support for shot at the waterways and around the 
 hatches. A receptacle for the hauling part of 
 the topsail halliards. The upper stratum of 
 clouds. Rack of the weather, the direction in 
 which the upper stratum of clouds is passing. 
 
 RACK-BAR. A billet of wood used for twisting 
 the bight of a swifter round, in order to bind a 
 raft firmly together. 
 
 RACKING. Spun-yarn or other stuff used to 
 rack two parts of a rope together. 
 
 RACKING-TURNS. Turns taken alternately 
 over and under the parts of a rope to be bound 
 together. 
 
 RACK-RIDER. The name of the samlet in north 
 ern fisheries, so called because it generally ap 
 pears in bad weather. 
 
 Rack and Pinion. An arrangement of toothed 
 gearing by which motion is converted from ro 
 tative to rectilinear, or from rectilinear to rota 
 tive. The rack consists of a straight bar pro 
 vided with projections or teeth ; the pinion is a 
 revolving piece having teeth to match those of 
 the rack, and both parts are provided with suit 
 able bearings or supports. If the pinion is fixed 
 in position, the rack will slide in direction of its 
 length ; and if the rack is fixed, the centre of 
 the pinion will move parallel to its face. The 
 velocity-ratio between rectilinear and rotative 
 motion depends upon the ratio between the ra 
 dius of the pitch-line of the pinion and that of 
 the circumference through which the rotative 
 motion acts. 
 
 Rack-block. A range of sheaves. cut in one 
 piece of wood. 
 
 Raddle. To interlace ; as in making boats 
 gripes and flat gaskets. 
 
 Radford, William, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 William Radford was born in Virginia. He was 
 appointed from the State of Missouri, March 
 1, 1825; attached to Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1827-28; and to sloop-of-war "Erie," West 
 India Squadron, 1830-31. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1831 ; 
 attached to sloop-of-war "John Adams," Medi 
 terranean Squadron, 1835. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, February 9, 1837 ; 
 attached to sloop-of-war " Warren," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1845-47. 
 
 Lieut. Radford commanded the party that cut 
 out the " Malokadel," a Mexican vessel of war, 
 at Mazatlan, west coast of Mexico ; attached to 
 store-ship "Lexington," 1852-53. 
 
 Promoted to commander, September 14, 1855; 
 commanding sloop-of-war "Dacotah," East In 
 dia Squadron, 1860-61. 
 
 Commissioned as captain in 1862 ; command 
 ing sloop-of-war " Cumberland" in 1861, and was 
 on court-martial duty at Old Point when that 
 ship was attacked by the ram "Merrimac," 
 which had steamed down from Norfolk. Com 
 mander Radford made strenuous exertions to 
 reach his ship before the fight was over, but 
 arrived at Newport News just as the " Cumber 
 land" was sinking. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, April 24, 1863 ; com 
 manded frigate "New Ironsides," an ironclad 
 division of Porter s squadron, at the two attacks 
 
 upon Fort Fisher, in December, 1864, and Jan 
 uary, 1865 ; commandant at Washington Navy- 
 Yard, 1866-68. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral in 1868 ; com 
 manding European Squadron in 1869-70 ; special 
 duty, Washington, 1871-72. Retired March 1, 
 1870. 
 
 Radiant. The point whence numbers of 
 shooting-stars seem to diverge in star-showers. 
 
 Radius-bar, or Radius-rod. A bar or rod re 
 strained to a fixed centre at one end, and guiding 
 a movable body, in an arc, at the other ; as, in 
 Watts s parallel-motion. 
 
 Radus. A name for the constellation Erida- 
 nus. 
 
 Raft. A number of logs, planks, etc., firmly 
 bound together. See LIFE-RAFTS. 
 
 RAFT-DOG. A flat piece of iron, each end of 
 which is bent at right angles and pointed. 
 
 RAFT-PORT. A port cut in a vessel, forward 
 or aft, near the water-line, for convenience in 
 loading or unloading timber ; a timber-port. 
 
 Rag-bolt. A bolt having its surface rough 
 ened by raising sharp prominences by cuts of a 
 chisel, so that it may not be easily withdrawn 
 from the wood into which it is driven. 
 
 Rail. The upper part of the bulwarks. Rods 
 and stanchions across the ship at the break of the 
 poop or forecastle. Rails of the head, curved 
 pieces of timber extending from the bows on each 
 side to the continuation of the ship s stem, to 
 support the knee of the head. 
 
 Rain-cloud. See CLOUD. 
 
 Rains. Belts or zones of calms, where heavy 
 rain prevails ; they exist between the northeast 
 and southeast trade-winds, changing their lati 
 tude several degrees, depending on the sun s dec 
 lination. In India "the rains" come in with 
 the southwest monsoon. 
 
 Raise. To increase the apparent elevation of 
 an object by approaching it. A vessel is raised 
 upon when she is heightened in her upper works. 
 To raise the wind, to procure funds. To raise a 
 mouse, to make a mouse on a stay. (See MOUSE.) 
 The prize-fighters have adopted this expression, 
 and mean by it to raise a lump on the face of the 
 opponent. 
 
 RAISE-NET. A kind of staked net, so called 
 from rising and falling with the tide. 
 
 Rake. The overhang of the stern, stem, or 
 masts of a ship beyond a perpendicular with the 
 keel. To fire at a ship from such a position, 
 ahead or astern, that the projectiles range fore 
 and aft the ship, sweeping the decks. 
 
 RAKING-FIRE. See FIRE. 
 
 RAKISH. Having a saucy appearance indi 
 cative of speed and dash. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, was born in 1552, at 
 Hayes, County of Devonshire, England. In 
 1568 he was sent to Oxford as a commoner of 
 Oriel College, but only remained there one year, 
 going to France as a volunteer in an expedition 
 in aid of the Huguenots. Some years later we 
 find him serving in the Low Countries with the 
 English force sent by Queen Elizabeth to assist 
 the Dutch in their struggle against the Spaniards. 
 Participating in the desire of his half-brother, 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, to establish a colony on 
 the eastern coast of America, this remarkable 
 man accompanied the unfortunate expedition in 
 1579, but happily escaped Gilbert s fate and re 
 turned home. Fired with the idea of creating a 
 
KAM 
 
 678 
 
 KANSOM 
 
 great colonial empire which should make Eng 
 land the equal of Spain, Walter Kaleigh obtained 
 a patent from Queen Elizabeth for the discovery 
 and settlement of parts of the great transat 
 lantic shore, and on the strength of this power 
 he dispatched 2 vessels under Amades and 
 Barlow, to proceed to the coast of Florida. The 
 result was the possession and occupation of the 
 territory called, in compliment to the maiden 
 queen, Virginia. This occurred in 1585-86. Ten 
 years later Kaleigh obtained the means of pro 
 ceeding to what he believed to be a land of gold, 
 El Dorado, in fanciful phrase, but in reality the 
 shore of the northeastern part of South America. 
 He reached Guiana, and proclaimed it the prop 
 erty of England. Leaving his ships at the mouth 
 of the Orinoco, he sailed 400 miles up the river, 
 and succeeded in gaining the good will of the 
 Indians. But beyond the honor of the geo 
 graphical discovery Ealeigh reaped no advantage 
 from his voyage to Guiana, nor was the queen or 
 her successor, James I., disposed to ratify the en 
 terprise by formally colonizing Guiana. On his 
 return home he fell into disfavor with James I., 
 and for an imputed offense suffered 12 years 
 imprisonment in the Tower of London. After 
 his release the king, to gratify his own cupidity, 
 sanctioned a second voyage to Guiana. Its un 
 productiveness revived the animosity which had 
 contributed to his long imprisonment, and being 
 put upon his trial on new charges, he was sen 
 tenced to be beheaded, and on the morning of 
 the 29th of October, 1618, in the 66th year of 
 his age, he was executed. 
 
 Ram. A long spar, iron-hooped at the end, 
 used for driving out blocks from beneath a ves 
 sel s keel, and for driving planks an-end while 
 only wedged to the ship s side. To ram, to force 
 home the charge of a gun. To run bows-on into 
 another vessel. See MARINE KAMS. 
 
 HAMMER. A staff with a cylindrical head, 
 used in loading to press home the charge of a 
 gun. 
 
 Rambade. The elevated platform built across 
 the prow of a galley, for boarding, etc. 
 
 Ram-block. An old name for a dead-eye. 
 
 Ramed. Said of a ship upon the stocks when 
 the frames, stem, and stern-post are adjusted 
 from the use of the rarn-line. 
 
 Ram-head. An old name for a halliard- 
 block. 
 
 Ram-line. A small line which was used in 
 old times for the purpose of determining the 
 centre-line of a ship, and also for running sheer- 
 lines when long battens were not attainable. 
 
 Ramper-eel. A name of the lamprey, Petro- 
 myzon marinus. 
 
 Ram-reel. Synonymous with stag-dance. 
 
 Ramsgate, Kent County, England, is situated 
 on the east coast of the Isle of Thanet. Its arti 
 ficial haven, formed by two stone piers project 
 ing from 1500 to 2000 feet into the sea, incloses 
 an inner basin, and is bordered by wet- and dry- 
 docks. It is a member of the Cinque Port of 
 Sandwich, and has quite a coasting-trade, fish 
 eries, and imports of provisions from the Neth 
 erlands and France. Pop. 14,700. 
 
 Ran. Yarns coiled on a spun-yarn winch. 
 
 Ranee. The strut or support of a Congreve- 
 rocket. 
 
 Randan. A mode of rowing with alternate 
 long and short oars. 
 
 Random Shot, or Random Range. A shot 
 made when the muzzle is highly elevated ; the 
 utmost range may be at an angle of 45, which is 
 supposed to be about ten times as great as the 
 point-blank, but improved gunnery has now put 
 the term out of use. 
 
 Range. The straight line joining two promi 
 nent objects. The distance from the muzzle of a 
 gun to the point at which the projectile first 
 strikes. (See POINT-BLANK.) To range, to sail 
 parallel with and near to ; as, to range the coast, 
 to range alongside, etc. Range of cable, a certain 
 quantity of slack cable hauled up out of the 
 locker and ranged along the deck, to decrease 
 the strain brought on the cable and bitts when 
 the anchor is let go. 
 
 Range-heads. The windlass-bitts. 
 
 Rangoon, the capital of British Burmah and 
 of Rangoon district, India, is situated on the 
 east arm of the Irrawaddy, in lat. 1646 / N., 
 Ion. 96 17 E. It has a great trade in rice, cot 
 ton, petroleum, and teak timber. It is accessi 
 ble to large ships, and also has an immense river 
 traffic. Pop. 99,000. 
 
 Rank. A step or degree in a graduated scale 
 of authority. In this sense it is synonymous with 
 grade, but the conventional use of the two words 
 rank and grade among naval and military men 
 implies a distinction between them which is illus 
 trated by saying that while there may be several 
 individuals of the same grade, there can be but 
 one of a given rank. In this narrow and con 
 ventional sense, therefore, rank may be defined 
 as the expression of relative authorit} between 
 individuals of the same grade. As an example 
 of what is meant by this, the Navy Register 
 contains the names of 50 officers in the grade of 
 captain, but of all this number no two are of the 
 same ran k. 
 
 Actual rank is that held by an officer in his 
 own corps. Relative rank is that given by law 
 to officers acting as chiefs of bureaus, in cases 
 where their actual rank is lower than that fixed 
 by law as appropriate to the position, and to all 
 staff officers, in order to assimilate their respect 
 ive grades to those grades of the line which are 
 deemed equivalent in dignity and importance. 
 Relative rank, as between officers of the army 
 and navy, is established by law, and is sometimes 
 called assimilated rank. 
 
 Brevet rank does not exist in the navy, but in 
 the army means rank in the army at large, and 
 is conferred for gallant actions or meritorious 
 services. 
 
 In another sense rank means a line or row of 
 soldiers reckoning from side to side ; the ranks, 
 the body of common soldiers ; rank and file, the 
 general mass of enlisted men, privates and non 
 commissioned officers, excepting the non-com 
 missioned staff. To rank, or to take rank of, is 
 to be entitled to, or to have, precedence in mat 
 ters involving the exercise of authority, or on 
 occasions of ceremony. 
 
 RANK, INSIGNIA OF. Distinguishing marks 
 established by law to be worn by officers of the 
 army and navy, to indicate the grade of the 
 wearer. In the navy the grade of officers is in 
 dicated by devices in the epaulet, shoulder-knot 
 or strap, and by stripes of gold lace on the cuffs 
 of the coat. See UNIFORM. 
 
 Ransom. To redeem from captivity, punish 
 ment, or forfeit by paying an equivalent ; to buy 
 
HANSOM 
 
 RATLINES 
 
 out of servitude or penalty ; to rescue ; to de 
 liver ; as, to ransom prisoners from an enemy. 
 Ransom bill, a war contract, protected by good 
 faith and the law of nations, by which the cap 
 tor permits the original owner of captured prop 
 erty to redeem it. 
 
 Ransom, George M., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Appointed from Ohio, July 25, 1839. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 2, 1845; 
 master, June 28, 1853; lieutenant, February 21, 
 1854; lieutenant-commander, July 16, 1862; 
 commander, January 2, 1863 ; captain, March 2, 
 1870 ; commodore, March 28, 1877. 
 
 Served as midshipman in the " Marion," coast 
 of Brazil, 1839-42; and in the "Erie," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1843-44; Naval School, Philadelphia, 
 1845. 
 
 As passed midshipman at the Naval Observa 
 tory, Washington, 1845-46 ; seven months in 
 the war on the coast of Mexico, 1847 ; Naval 
 Observatory, 1847-48; in the "Portsmouth," 
 coast of Africa, 1848-50: in the "Relief," 
 1851-52. 
 
 As master in the "Michigan," on the lakes, 
 1853-55. 
 
 As lieutenant in the "Perry," "Dolphin," 
 and "Jamestown," coast of Africa, 1855-57; 
 ordnance duty at Boston, 1857-59 ; in the " Nar- 
 ragansett" and " Saranac," 1860-61, on the Pa 
 cific Station. 
 
 As lieutenant-commander, commanded the 
 "Kineo," of Farragut s fleet, in the Missis 
 sippi River, 1862-63. 
 
 As commander, commanded the " Mercedita," 
 on special service in the West Indies, from April 
 to August 24, 1863; the "Grand Gulf," North 
 Atlantic Blockade, 1863-64; the "Muscoota," 
 1863, .having a general supervision, by appoint 
 ment, of blockading vessels in the East Gulf 
 Squadron ; the " Algonquin," from January 18 to 
 March 21, 1866, in a trial with.the " Winooski" 
 in Long Island Sound ; at League Island, Pa., 
 as executive, 1867-69. 
 
 As captain, commanded the ironclad " Ter 
 ror," North Atlantic Fleet, 1870; at the New 
 York Navy-Yard as executive, 1871-73; com 
 manded the frigate " Colorado," North Atlantic 
 Fleet, 1873-75; and the frigate "Franklin," 
 from December 9, 1876, to March 2, 1877, on 
 special service. 
 
 As commodore, commanded the Naval Station 
 at Port Royal, S. C., from June 3, 1878, to Jan 
 uary 14, 1879, and since then in command of the 
 navy-yard and station at Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rape-oil. A thick yellow oil expressed from 
 rape-seed, used in lamps and light-houses. 
 
 Raper. An old term for a rope-maker. 
 
 Rap-full. A term applied to the sails of a 
 ship close-hauled, when every cloth draws. 
 
 Rapparee. A smuggler, or one who lives on 
 forced hospitality. 
 
 Ras Algethi. The star a Herculis. 
 
 Ras Alhague. The star a Ophiuchi, nearly 
 on the line from Antares to Vega, and 12 north 
 of the equinoctial. 
 
 Rasee. See RAZEE. 
 
 Rasing-iron. An implement used in clearing 
 a seam of pitch and oakum. 
 
 Rasp. A species of file on which the cutting 
 prominences are distinct, being raised by punch 
 ing with a point instead of cutting with a chisel. 
 
 Ratcher. An old term for a rock. 
 
 Ratchet. A bar, or a revolving cylinder or 
 disk, having angular teeth or notches cut upon 
 its surface or edge, into which a pawl or catch 
 drops, to prevent backward motion of a resist 
 ance to be overcome, during a temporary cessa 
 tion of the moving force ; also, an arrangement 
 by which a rectilinear or rotative motion in one 
 direction is, by means of a pawl attached to an 
 oscillating lever or handle, communicated to a 
 sliding bar or rotating disk. 
 
 RATCHET DRILL-BRACE. A drill-brace by 
 which a drill is rotated by means of a ratchet, 
 consisting mainly of an oscillating handle or 
 lever provided with a spring pawl acting upon a 
 notched ring or disk fitted to the drill-socket. 
 The drill is " fed" to its work by means of a 
 screw in the end of the socket bearing against an 
 adjustable standard. 
 
 RACHET-SABOT. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Rate. The class to which a man-of-war be 
 longs by reason of her tonnage and armament. 
 (See CLASSIFICATION.) In all navies the rates 
 change as improvements are made in ordnance 
 and construction. Thus, in the British navy, at 
 one time, the first-rates comprehended all ships 
 of 110 guns and upwards ; they had 42-pounders 
 on the lower deck, the calibre diminishing on 
 the upper decks, to 6-pounders on the quarter 
 deck and forecastle ; they carried from 750 to 
 900 men. Second-rates mounted 90 to 110 guns. 
 Third-rates, 80 to 90. Fourth-rates, 60 to 80, 
 comprehended under the general term " frigates" 
 and never appearing in the line of battle. Fifth- 
 rates mounted from 32 to 60 guns. Sixth-rates 
 embraced all vessels carrying fewer than 32 guns. 
 Since the introduction of massive ordnance a 
 first-rate may carry but 1 or 2 guns. 
 
 Rate is also the daily variation of a time-piece. 
 To rate, to ascertain the rate of a time-piece. 
 (See CHRONOMETER.) Also, to appoint a sailor 
 to a higher grade. See RATING. 
 
 RATED SHIP. In former times, a post-ship. 
 
 RATING, or RATE. The position held by a 
 man before the mast. When a man is rated by 
 the commanding officer, he may be disrated by 
 the same authority ; otherwise, it requires the 
 sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 Ration. The daily allowance of food to an 
 officer, seaman, or marine. Its component parts 
 are established by law, but may be varied by the 
 Secretary of the Navy, or, when necessary, by 
 the senior officer present in command ; the latter 
 may also, in case of necessity, diminish the 
 allowance, but in such case payment must be 
 made to the persons whose allowance is dimin 
 ished according to the scale of prices established 
 at the time of such diminution. Officers are 
 entitled to one ration, or to commutation there 
 for, while at sea or attached to a sea-going ves 
 sel. The commutation price of the navy ration 
 is fixed by law at 30 cents. Rations are allowed 
 to midshipmen on the active list whether on sea- 
 duty or not. Officers on the retired list are not 
 entitled to rations. See PAY CORPS. 
 
 Rational Horizon. See HORIZON. 
 
 Ratlines. Small lines traversing the shrouds 
 parallel with the water. They are from 14 to 16 
 inches apart, and serve the purpose of a ladder. 
 Every fifth ratline extends to the swifter, and is 
 called a sheer-ratline. 
 
 RATLINE-STUFF. Small stuff having from 12 
 to 24 generally 18 threads. 
 
RAT S-TAIL 
 
 680 
 
 RECRUITING 
 
 Rat s-tail. The tapering end of a rope. Also, 
 the round tapered file used for enlarging holes in 
 metal. 
 
 Rattan (Malay, rotan). The stem of a cane, 
 of the genus Calamus, used for wicker-work, 
 seats of chairs, etc. In the Eastern seas they 
 constitute the chief cables, even to 42 inches cir 
 cumference, infinitely stronger than hemp, light, 
 and not easily chafed by rocks ; very useful also 
 to seamen for brooms, hoops, hanks for sail, etc. 
 
 Rattle Down. To hitch and seize the ratlines 
 in their proper places. 
 
 Rave-hook. A hook iron implement used in 
 cutting the butts of planking to afford sufficient 
 opening for calking. 
 
 Raven s-duck. A fine quality of canvas for 
 sails. 
 
 Ray. A flat rhomboidal fish with a rough 
 skin ; genus Raia. 
 
 Raze. To mark timber from a mold with a 
 razing-knife. To cut down. 
 
 Razee. A vessel reduced by a deck ; as, a 
 line-of-battle ship converted into a frigate. To 
 razee, to cut down. 
 
 Razor-back. The fin-whale (Balcenoptera], 
 so called from its prominent dorsal fin. It usually 
 attains the length of 70 feet. 
 
 Razor-bill. A sea-fowl allied to the auks, 
 Alca torda. 
 
 Razor-fish. A small fish of the Mediter 
 ranean, Coryphcena novacula, prized for the 
 table. The razor-shell. See SOLEN. 
 
 Reach. A straight part between the curves 
 in a stream. To head-reach, to forge ahead in 
 stays. 
 
 Read, George Campbell, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in Ireland ; died at Philadelphia, 
 August 22, 1862. Midshipman, April 2, 1804; 
 lieutenant, April 25, 1810 ; commander, April 
 27, 1816 ; captain, March 3, 1825; rear-admiral, 
 July 31, 1862. After the action between the 
 IT. S. frigate " Constitution" and the British 
 frigate "Guerriere," August 19, 1812, in which 
 his gallantry was conspicuous, he was selected 
 to receive the sword of Capt. Dacres. October 25, 
 1812, he was present in the action between the 
 "United States" and "Macedonian." At the 
 time of his death he was governor of the Phila 
 delphia Naval Asylum. He was a gallant and 
 courteous officer, and of a commanding persona"! 
 appearance. 
 
 Ream. To enlarge a cylindrical cavity ; as, to 
 ream out the bore of a gun. To shift the posi 
 tion of a vessel in fishing. 
 
 Rear. The farthest aft ; as, a rear squadron. 
 
 Rear-Admiral. See ADMIRAL. 
 
 Rearing. Tumbling home, applied to a ship s 
 upper works. 
 
 Reasty. Rancid or rusty pork or butter, etc. 
 
 Reaumur s Thermometer. A thermometer 
 named after its inventor. The freezing-point of 
 water is marked 0, and the boiling-point 80. 
 
 Reballing. The catching of eels with earth 
 worms attached to a ball of lead suspended by a 
 string from a pole. 
 
 Rebate. See RABBET. 
 
 Receiver. In the compound steam-engine, 
 a chamber which receives the .steam expelled 
 from the high-pressure cylinder and delivers it 
 to the low-pressure cylinder. While the steam 
 is retained in the receiver it is superheated bv 
 means of steam-jackets or other apparatus. 
 
 Receiving-ship. A ship stationed permanently 
 in a harbor for the purpose of recruiting seamen 
 and holding them in readiness for a cruiser. 
 
 Recife, also called Pernambuco, a city of 
 Brazil, on the Atlantic, in lat. 8 3 6" N., Ion. 
 34 51 X 7" W. It is divided into three distinct 
 quarters, viz. : San Pedro, Goncalves, Sao Sacra 
 mento, and Boa Vista. It is the landing-place 
 of a telegraph cable to Lisbon, and is also a 
 railway terminus. The port is defended by 
 4 forts, and the harbor is protected by a large 
 reef of rocks, and is accessible to vessels draw 
 ing not over 12 feet of water. It has a consider 
 able trade with European ports, and the principal 
 exports are cotton, sugar, and dye-wood. Pop. 
 117,000. 
 
 Reckoning. The ship s position as determined 
 by observations and calculations. A vessel is 
 out of her reckoning when her true position dif 
 fers materially from the one in which she was 
 calculated to be. See DEAD-RECKONING. 
 
 Recruiting for the Marine Corps. Men to en 
 list in the marines must be able-bodied, unmar 
 ried, and between the ages of 21 and 35 years. 
 They must be not less than 5 feet 6 inches in 
 height, of good character, and not addicted to the 
 use of liquor. They must be able to read and 
 write English properly as well as speak it ; and 
 no minors are wanted at all. Marines who have 
 become infirm after 20 years service, or who 
 have been discharged for wounds received or 
 sickness brought on in the service, are entitled 
 to the benefits of the U. S. Naval Asylum at 
 Philadelphia, Pa. The would-be recruit is re 
 quired to swear that he is qualified in all respects, 
 and it is impressed upon him that if he swears 
 falsely he commits perjury, a crime punishable 
 with 8 years solitary confinement and $500 fine. 
 The medical examination is as prescribed by the 
 army and navy regulations. Particular atten 
 tion is paid to the danger of color-blindness. It 
 is most difficult to obtain the kind of men wanted, 
 and the rejections average 9 to 10. When a 
 man applies to enlist, the recruiting-officer s first 
 care is to see that he has not been entrapped, or 
 induced by false representation to enter the ser 
 vice. He personally explains the exact nature 
 of the service, the length of the time, the pay, 
 clothing, rations, and other allowances to which 
 each soldier is entitled. It is incumbent upon 
 him to be present at the examination of the re 
 cruit by the medical officer. Recruits are for 
 warded, under charge of a non-commissioned 
 officer, from the rendezvous to the marine bar 
 racks designated by the colonel commandant. 
 
 The examination of privates for advancement 
 to corporals consists of questions in reading, 
 writing, and the simple rules of arithmetic, as 
 to his knowledge of the duties of corporals and 
 of the school of the soldier and company. The 
 examinations for corporals to be sergeants is the 
 same, with the addition that it is required the 
 man shall have a knowledge of keeping the ne 
 cessary accounts, making out muster-rolls, in 
 struction for skirmishers, and the duties of a 
 sergeant. 
 
 The following tables show respectively the 
 strength of the marine corps at different periods 
 of its history ; the pay of non-commissioned of 
 ficers, musicians, and privates ; and the allowance 
 of clothing to a marine during each year of his 
 term of enlistment : 
 
EED 
 
 681 
 
 REEF 
 
 The strength of the marine corps, under the act 
 of July 11, 1798, establishing and organizing 
 a corps of marines, was 
 
 Under the act of 1799 
 
 Under the act of March 3, 1809 
 
 Under the act of April 16, 1814 
 
 Under the act of March 3, 1817. (Peace estab 
 lishment.) 
 
 Under the act of June 30, 1834 
 
 Under the act of March 3, 1847 
 
 Under the act of July 25, 1861 
 
 
 30 
 
 720 
 890 
 1484 
 2180 
 
 750 
 1000 
 2000 
 2500 
 
 The grade of brigadier-general was established March 2, 1867, and abolished 6th June, 1874. 
 Pay-Table of Non-commissioned Officers, Musicians, and Privates of the U. S. Marine Corps. 
 
 GRADES. 
 
 First Period of 
 5 Years Ser 
 vice. 
 
 Second Period 
 of 5 Years. 
 
 Third Period 
 of 5 Years. 
 
 Fourth Period 
 of 5 Years. 
 
 Fifth Period 
 of 5 Years. 
 
 
 Per month. 
 $-23 
 23 
 22 
 22 
 17 
 15 
 13 
 13 
 79 
 38 
 24 
 21 
 
 Per mcnlh. 
 $27 
 27 
 26 
 26 
 21 
 19 
 17 
 17 
 81 
 40 
 26 
 23 
 
 Per month. 
 $28 
 28 
 27 
 27 
 22 
 20 
 18 
 18 
 82 
 41 
 27 
 24 
 
 Per month. 
 $29 
 29 
 28 
 28 
 23 
 21 
 19 
 19 
 83 
 42 
 28 
 25 
 
 Per month. 
 30 
 30 
 29 
 29 
 24 
 22 
 20 
 20 
 84 
 43 
 29 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drummers and lifers 
 
 Privates ... . 
 
 Leader of the band 
 
 Musician first-class 
 
 
 Musician third-class 
 
 
 All enlisted men, except musicians of the band, serving on a first period of 5 years service, are entitled to $1 per month 
 for the 3d year, $2 per month for the 4th year, and $3 per month for the 5th year s service, in addition to the sums given in the 
 first column above, which additional amounts are retained until expiration of service, and paid only upon final settlement and 
 honorable discharge. 
 
 One dollar per month is retained from all enlisted men (except the marine band) serving under a re-enlistment. This 
 retained pay is not included in the above table, and is to be credited and paid only upon final settlement and honorable discharge 
 from service. 
 
 ALLOWANCE OF CLOTHING. 
 
 Recapitulation (for regular issues only}. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 Pompons. 
 
 Caps. 
 
 Coats. 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 .2 
 
 -M" 
 
 1 
 s> 
 
 I 
 
 Overcoats. | 
 
 Field-music. 
 
 Gloves (pairs). | 
 
 Trousers. 
 
 Shirts. 
 
 Drawers. 
 
 Socks (pairs). 
 
 Shoes (pairs). 
 Arctic Shoes (pairs). 
 
 1 
 p 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 73 
 
 a> 
 1 
 
 1 
 w 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 "3 
 
 Boys 
 Jackets. 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 First year 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 to co co cow 
 : i i :"M 
 
 
 fc Third year 
 Fourth year 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 oil 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 Fifth year 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 Redd. The spawn of fish. Also, the burrow 
 scooped out by salmon in which to deposit their 
 ova. 
 
 Red-eye. A fish of the carp family (Leucis- 
 cus erythrophthalmus], so named from the color 
 of the iris ; called also rudd. 
 
 Red-hot Shot. Shot made red hot in a fur 
 nace and used, before the introduction of shell, 
 for incendiary purposes. 
 
 Red Pine (Pinus rubra}. The red spruce. 
 
 Red-short Iron. Iron brittle when heated, 
 and difficult to weld. 
 
 Reduce. To degrade to a lower rating. 
 
 Reef. That portion of a sail by which it is 
 decreased or increased according to the force of 
 the wind. Square-sails are reefed on the head ; 
 fore-and-aft sails are reefed on the foot ; a lower 
 studding is sometimes so fitted as to be reefed 
 diagonally. Close reef, the last reef that can be 
 put in. Monkey-reefed, the situation of sail with 
 the yard on the cap and the reef-tackles hauled 
 out. See BALANCE-REEF. 
 
 REEF-BAND. A strip of canvas stitched across 
 the sail to support the strain of the reef-points. 
 
EEEL 
 
 682 
 
 REGISTERS 
 
 REEF-CRINGLE. A cringle on the leech of a 
 sail, through which the reef-earing reeves. See 
 CRINGLE. 
 
 KEEF-EARING. A small line used in reefing 
 to haul up and secure the reef-cringle to the 
 yard. 
 
 REEFER. A familiar term for a midshipman. 
 
 REEF-KNOT. A square knot ; a knot used in 
 tying reef-points, the end parts come out par 
 allel with the standing parts, and the knot does 
 not jam. 
 
 REEF-PENDANT. A pendant hooked to a crin 
 gle on the leech of a course. In reefing, the 
 clew-jigger is hooked into the thimble in the 
 opposite end. See REEF-TACKLE. 
 
 REEF-POINTS. Short lengths of line fitted 
 to the reef-band at equal distances from each 
 other, and used to secure the reef-band to the 
 yard. They are fitted in a variety of ways. 
 Beckets are generally preferred for the first reefs 
 of a topsail. 
 
 REEF-TACKLE. A tackle shackled ; a cringle 
 on the leech of a sail below the reef-bands ; the 
 upper block is secured at the extremity of the 
 yard-arm, the fall leading to the deck. When 
 the tackle is hauled on, the upper part of the 
 leech is slacked so that the men can haul the 
 reef-cringle up to the yard. 
 
 BEEF-TACKLE CRINGLE. A cringle below the 
 lowest reef-band, to which the reef-tackle is 
 shackled. See CRINGLE, 
 
 Reel. A frame turning on its axis, upon 
 which lines, hawsers, hose, etc., are wound. 
 
 Reem. To open the seams of a vessel by 
 means of a reeming-iron. 
 
 Reeming. A term used by calkers for open 
 ing the seams of the plank with reeming-irons, 
 that the oakum may be more readily admitted. 
 This may be a corruption of rimer, for opening 
 circular holes in metal. 
 
 REEMING-BEETLE. A heavy mallet hooped 
 with iron, and used by calkers in striking a 
 reeming-iron. 
 
 REEMING-IRON. A peculiar-shaped iron used 
 by calkers to open the seams of wooden ships 
 previous to calking. 
 
 Reeve. To pass, as a rope, through any 
 aperture. 
 
 REEVING-LINE BEND. A bend used for unit 
 ing ropes or small hawsers ; each end is half- 
 hitched over and stopped along the opposite part. 
 
 Reflecting Circle. An astronomical instru 
 ment, the same in principle as the sextant, but 
 the limb forms a complete circle. 
 
 Reflux. The running out of the tide. 
 
 Reformades (Eng.). The sons of the nobility 
 and gentry who served in the navy under letters 
 from Charles II., and were allowed table-money 
 and other encouragements to raise the character 
 of the service. 
 
 Refraction. The change of direction suffered 
 by a ray of light in passing from one medium to 
 another of different density. The incident and 
 refracted rays lie in the same plane with the 
 perpendicular to the surface at the point of in 
 cidence and on both sides of it. The sine of the 
 angle of incidence bears to the sine of the angle 
 of refraction a ratio dependent only on the nature 
 of the media, and on the nature of the light. 
 
 REFRACTION, ASTRONOMICAL. The change 
 in direction experienced by a ray of light from a 
 heavenly body in passing through the earth s 
 
 atmosphere. The term refraction is also applied 
 to the correction to be applied to an altitude to 
 reduce it to what it would be if the body were 
 viewed through a medium of uniform density ; 
 and is, of all astronomical corrections, the most 
 difficult to determine with accuracy. The ef 
 fect of refraction is to cause the heavenly bodies 
 to appear higher than they actually are. The 
 refracting power of the atmosphere varies with 
 its density, which is affected by its temperature 
 and its moisture. In the zenith there is no re 
 fraction ; near the zenith it is nearly propor 
 tional to the tangent of the apparent zenith dis 
 tance, the law, however, becomes complicated 
 as we approach the horizon, where the refrac 
 tion is greatest. At the horizon the refraction 
 amounts to 33 / , which is rather more than the ap 
 parent diameter of the sun or moon, so that when 
 the lower limbs of those bodies are in the horizon, 
 the bodies themselves are actually below it. The 
 tables of refraction are constructed on the suppo 
 sition that the barometer stands at 30 inches, and 
 the temperature is 50 F., the corrections for 
 other heights of thermometer and barometer 
 being given in auxiliary tables. 
 
 REFRACTION, TERRESTRIAL. The change in 
 position of a terrestrial object, due to the differ 
 ence in density of different portions of the at 
 mosphere. It is subject to great irregularity, 
 and the amount varies to ^ of the intercepted 
 arc. The effect on the sea-horizon is of impor 
 tance to the navigator. See DIP. 
 
 Refusal of a Pile. Its stoppage or obstruc 
 tion, when it cannot be driven farther in. 
 
 Regatta. A rowing-match formerly peculiar 
 to the republic of Venice; but the term is now 
 applied to yacht and boat races in general. 
 
 Register. The enrollment of a ship at the 
 custom-house, which confers peculiar privileges 
 upon national-built ships. Registry is the evi 
 dence of such enrollment, and is the security of 
 the ship s title. 
 
 Register, or Counter. In the steam-engine, 
 an instrument for recording the number of revo 
 lutions made by the shaft. It consists essentially 
 of a case containing a number, usually six, of 
 suitably supported rings or disks, the periphery 
 of each of which is marked with numbers from 
 zero to 9, inclusive. The rings or disks are cov 
 ered by a plate having openings to expose one 
 figure of each, all the displayed figures appearing 
 in a horizontal row. The first ring is, by me 
 chanism, attached to any convenient part of the 
 running-gear of the engine, moved through the 
 space of one figure, or one-tenth of a revolution, 
 at each revolution of the shaft, counting units ; 
 at the completion of each of its revolutions it 
 turns the adjacent ring through the space of one 
 figure counting tens; the second wheel moves 
 the third in the same manner, counting hun 
 dreds ; and so on to the last ring, when, if six 
 rings are used, the highest number registered 
 will be one less than a million, or, supposing the 
 instrument to start from zero, one million revo 
 lutions will have been made when all six rings 
 simultaneously return to zero. The reading of 
 the register, or <( counter," is recorded in the 
 steam-log at the end of every hour. 
 
 Registers, United States Navy. Prior to 
 1814 no official annual navy register was issued 
 from the Navy Department. Between 1798 and 
 1814 several lists of officers in the service were 
 
REGISTERS 
 
 683 
 
 REGISTERS 
 
 published, containing the names of the officers 
 in service at the date of their publication. The 
 oldest separate publication of a navy list is a 
 small 12mo of 32 pages, entitled : 
 
 " An Original and Correct List of the United 
 States Navy, containing a list of the ships in com 
 mission and their respective force ; a list of offi 
 cers and their rank, as well those belonging to 
 the navy as the marine corps; and a digest 
 of the principal laws relating to the navy, etc., 
 etc., etc. By Charles W. Goldsborough. City 
 of Washington, November, 1800. Copyright 
 secured according to law." 
 
 This register contains a list of the captures of 
 .^French armed vessels by the ships of war of the 
 United States during the quasi-war with France, 
 amounting to 72 ; and it appears by it that the 
 personnel of the navy then comprised 26 cap 
 tains, 9 master-commandants, 109 lieutenants, 7 
 commanders of galleys, 35 surgeons. 28 surgeon s 
 mates, 22 sailing-masters, 26 pursers, 359 mid 
 shipmen, 1 lieutenant-colonel commandant of 
 marines, 4 captains, 18 first lieutenants, 18 sec 
 ond lieutenants of marines, 16 navy agents, and 
 2 navy constructors. In 1875 fifty copies were 
 reprinted at my request by the chief of the Bu 
 reau of Construction in an octavo pamphlet of 
 12 pages. 
 
 The American State Papers, volume on Naval 
 Affairs, contains a list of the officers in 1806, 
 differing somewhat from the register for 1805-6, 
 published in the Philadelphia " Gentlemen s 
 Annual Pocket Remembrancer" for the year 
 1806, which was reprinted with my annotations 
 in 1875, also a list of the officers of the navy 
 and marine corps, February 3, 1812, with a state 
 ment of their rate of pay and rations allowed ; a 
 list for February 21, 1814, giving the date of 
 appointment or commission of the officers, and 
 a list of the vessels of the navy, with their 
 rates, stations, and by whom commanded on the 
 4th of March, 1814 ; also another list for 1814, 
 probably at the close of the year, which, in ad 
 dition to the names, gives the rate of pay and 
 the employment of each officer. The next list 
 in the volume is the first of the series of navy 
 registers, which has been continued annually 
 ever since in compliance with a resolution of the 
 Senate of the United States, passed December 
 13, 1815. 
 
 The volume also contains annual lists of the 
 officers and .their stations from 1818 to 1825, in 
 clusive. 
 
 In 1813 there was published in Boston, in a 
 12mo pamphlet of 105 pages, " A Complete List 
 of the American Navy, showing the name, num 
 ber of guns, commanders names, and stations of 
 each vessel, with the names of all the officers in 
 the service for October, 1813, and Steele s list of 
 the navy of Great Britain for July, 1813. Bos 
 ton. Published by Russell, Cutter & Co., and 
 Joshua Belcher, 1813." 
 
 The preface informs us of the design and scope 
 of the publication : 
 
 "In preparing the following pages for the 
 press great pains have been taken to present to 
 the public a more correct list of the American 
 navy than has ever been published. Such a list, 
 it is believed, is now completed, and the compiler 
 is much indebted to the politeness of several gen 
 tlemen of the navy for the corrections which 
 could not otherwise* be obtained. 
 
 " The latest Steele s list to be procured is so fac 
 republished as to convey all the information re 
 specting the British navy which possesses an in 
 terest for the general news reader. 
 
 " It is intended to publish every three months 
 a corrected edition of these lists if the sale of the 
 present promises encouragement to the under 
 taking. 
 
 u The deep and general interest which has 
 been excited in the public mind by the valorous 
 achievements of our naval heroes induces a be 
 lief that the permanent establishment of a 
 complete list of the American navy must re 
 ceive adequate patronage. Boston, September 
 30, 1813." 
 
 The anticipations of the publishers do not seem 
 to have been realized, as no further lists appear 
 to have been issued by them, and the Senate 
 resolution of 1815 soon after rendered the print 
 ing of a register by private parties unnecessary. 
 In addition to a list of the officers and ships of 
 the United States navy and ships of the royal 
 navy, the book contains an account of all the 
 British vessels of war taken or destroyed in 1812 
 and 1813 up to the date of its publication ; also 
 an obituary of officers who had deceased during 
 the war. 
 
 A register for 1815 was published in the u Na 
 val Monument," a history of the naval events 
 of the war of 1812-14, published in Boston in 
 1816, and another for the same year in the An- 
 alectic Magazine. 
 
 Registers for 1835 and 1836 were printed in 
 the United States Naval Magazine, published 
 under the auspices of the Naval Lyceum at the 
 Brooklyn Navy- Yard. 
 
 In 1835, Benjamin Romans published a navy 
 register, corrected to July 1, which was to be, 
 but never was, continued annually. In 1843 and 
 1844, the same person published several quarterly 
 registers, which were discontinued for want of 
 patronage. 
 
 In 1848, Messrs. Mechlin & Winder compiled 
 and published a General Register from 1798 to 
 1847, inclusive, the title of which was : 
 
 " A General Register of the Navy and Marine 
 Corps of the United States alphabetically ar 
 ranged, containing the names of all officers of 
 the navy and marine corps, military and civil, 
 commissioned and warrant, who have entered the 
 service since the establishment of the Navy De 
 partment in 1798; showing the dates of their 
 original rank and entry, the dates of their pro 
 motions to higher grades, and in what manner 
 and when they left the service, if not still in it. 
 To which is appended the Constitution of the 
 United States, and a revised edition of all the 
 laws in relation to the navy and marine corps, 
 with reference to the Statutes at Large, with 
 an index. Compiled from the official records of 
 the Navy Department, by authority of the Hon. 
 John T. Mason, Secretary of the Navy, by 
 Mechlin & Winder, attorneys and agents, office 
 opposite War and Navy Departments, Washing 
 ton City. Washington, C. Alexander, printer, 
 1848." 
 
 Many persons are not aware of the data, essen 
 tial to the biographer and genealogist, which are 
 contained in the United States Navy and Naval 
 Academy registers. I will therefore note what 
 may be found in them. Every Congressional 
 district of the United States is entitled to be 
 
EEGISTERS 
 
 684 
 
 EEID 
 
 represented by one cadet at the Naval Academy. 
 Whenever a cadet dies, resigns, is dismissed, or 
 graduates from the Academy, the vacancy is im 
 mediately filled by the member of the House, or 
 Senator then in office, appointing a successor. 
 The President of the United States also has the 
 appointment of ten cadets at large, who are usu 
 ally the sons of naval or military officers, or of 
 his personal friends. Thus the Naval Academy 
 has at all times a representative from each Con- 
 
 ressional and Senatorial district of the United 
 tates, plus 10 appointed "at large" by the 
 President. 
 
 No candidate is admitted, however, into the 
 Naval Academy as a cadet midshipman until he 
 has passed a satisfactory examination before the 
 " Academical Board," and is, in the opinion of a 
 medical board comprised of three medical officers 
 of the U. S. navy, found in all respects physically 
 sound, well formed, and of a robust constitution 
 qualified to endure the arduous labors of an officer 
 of the navy. All candidates are required to cer 
 tify on honor their precise age, and none are ex 
 amined who are under 14 or over 18, the pre 
 scribed limits as to age. 
 
 The candidate having passed the preliminary 
 examinations, his height, weight, and lifting 
 power are taken, and recorded in a register kept 
 by the surgeon of the Academy. A like entry 
 is recorded beneath it when he leaves the institu 
 tion. A comparison of the two records shows his 
 physical development while an under-graduate. 
 
 Immediately upon the cadet s admfssion, his 
 name is enrolled upon the Academy register, 
 with the name of the State from which he is ap 
 pointed, the date of his admission to the Acad 
 emy, and his age at admission in years and 
 months, and this is printed in the first Academy 
 register issued after his appointment. This infor 
 mation is continued for each academic year until 
 he graduates, and there is added to it, in succeed 
 ing registers, his standing in his class each year, 
 his order of merit in each of his studies and 
 practical exercises, the sum of the demerits he has 
 received during the year, and the total amount 
 of his sea-service in practice-ships. There is also 
 an account opened with each cadet in a large 
 day-book, in which is recorded in full the nature 
 of his offenses against good order and discipline, 
 and the penalty exacted. When a cadet passes a 
 whole month without receiving any demerit, 15 
 demerits are deducted from the number pre 
 viously charged against him. If he receives 300 
 demerits he loses his position in the Academy. 
 After graduation, a general merit-roll of the 
 graduating class is made, to show the sum of the 
 merits of each cadet in his several studies and 
 exercises, together with his standing in the class 
 at graduation, and this is printed in the Academy 
 register. 
 
 The annual navy register also contains the 
 names of the cadet midshipmen at the Naval 
 Academy, alphabetically arranged in their classes, 
 with the name of the States of their birth, the 
 States from which appointed, the States of which 
 a resident, and the date of their entering the 
 Academy. 
 
 After graduation, the midshipman s name is 
 entered on the navy register in his order of rank ; 
 and while the information previously given con 
 cerning him as a cadet on the navy register is 
 continued, there is added the date of his gradua 
 
 tion, his present duty, station or residence, his 
 total sea-service (in years and months), total 
 shore or other duty, how long employed, how 
 long in the service, and the date of the expira 
 tion of his last cruise at sea. 
 
 On being promoted to the next higher grade, 
 the date of graduation is omitted, and instead is 
 shown the date of his present commission, and 
 in another column his sea-service under present 
 commission, and these columns are continued 
 through all subsequent promotions. Thus, by 
 an examination of successive registers, the date 
 of each promotion and the amount of sea-service 
 under it can be ascertained. 
 
 The same or similar information is given re-* 
 specting the medical, pay, engineer, and other 
 staff-officers not graduates of the Naval Academy. 
 
 The navy register also contains a list of the 
 deaths, resignations, or dismissals during the pre 
 ceding year, with the date of their occurrence, 
 and in case of death, the place of death ; also a 
 list of all the retired and reserved officers, and a 
 table exhibiting the pay of all officers of the 
 navy and marine corps, whether at sea, on shore- 
 duty, on leave, on waiting orders, or retired. 
 
 The total amount of the pay and mileage 
 actually received by each and every officer of 
 the navy and marine corps is presented to Con 
 gress under a general law, and has been usually, 
 if not always, annually printed in a separate 
 document. 
 
 In addition to the annual register, which is 
 brought up to the 1st of January and is usually 
 issued about the 1st of March, since 1866 there 
 has been a register issued in July, giving the 
 name and rank of every officer in the naval 
 service, the State of which he is a resident, the 
 date of his present leave or order, and present 
 duty, station, or residence. With regard to offi 
 cers on the retired list, it gives the law under 
 which each officer was retired, his name and 
 rank, the State of which he was a resident when 
 appointed, the date of his retirement, his rank* 
 when retired, by which his pay on the retired 
 list is regulated, and his present place of residence 
 or address. 
 
 Annual official navy registers have been pub 
 lished since 1815, in compliance with a resolution 
 of the U. S. Senate of December 13, 1815; the 
 Naval Academy registers since 1858. George H. 
 Preble, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Register-ship. A Spanish plate-ship or gal 
 leon. 
 
 Regular. The regular army or navy, in the 
 United States, is that portion of the land or sea 
 forces which is permanently maintained in the 
 service of the Union, as contradistinguished from 
 that which is called into service temporarily in 
 time of war. 
 
 Regulator. A valve, with necessary attach 
 ments, for instantaneously controlling the quan 
 tity of steam admitted to an engine either by 
 hand or by means of an automatic governor. 
 When operated by hand it is commonly called a 
 throttle-valve. 
 
 Regulus. The star a Leonis. The word is a 
 translation of the Greek name basiliskos, little 
 king. In the constellation Leo six stars form 
 the rude outline of a sickle, Regulus being at the 
 end of the handle. See LEO. 
 
 Reid, Samuel Chester, Sailing-Master U.S.N. 
 Born in Norwich, Conn., August 25, 1783; died 
 
REIGNING 
 
 685 
 
 KESERVE 
 
 in New York City, January 28, 1861. He went 
 to sea at 11 ; was captured by a French privateer, 
 and was 6 months a prisoner at Basseterre. He 
 served as acting midshipman in the " Balti 
 more," in Commodore Truxtun s West India 
 Squadron, and during the war of 1812 com 
 manded the privateer brig " Gen. Armstrong," 
 with which he fought one of the most remarkable 
 naval battles on record, at Fayal, September 26 
 and 27, 1814. Her force was 7 guns and 90 men. 
 She was attacked by the boats of the " Plan- 
 tagenet," 74, "Rota," 44, and "Carnation," 
 18. Reid succeeded in thorough^ disabling and 
 defeating the enemy, and scuttled his own ves 
 sel to prevent her capture. The British lost 120 
 killed and 130 wounded. The Americans had 
 2 killed and 7 wounded. The attack upon the 
 "Armstrong," in a neutral port, led to a pro 
 tracted diplomatic correspondence, but the arbi 
 tration of Louis Napoleon decided the case 
 against the Americans. Capt. Reid was ap 
 pointed a sailing-master in the navy, and held 
 the office till his death. 
 
 Reigning Winds. The prevailing winds. 
 
 Reinforce. An additional thickness given to 
 an object to enable it to withstand strain or press 
 ure brought upon a certain point. The part of 
 a gun having the thickest walls ; it extends from 
 the base-line to the chase. 
 
 Relief-valve. A valve confined to its seat by 
 adjustable weights or springs, so regulated that 
 it will open under any suddenly accumulated 
 pressure ; as, cylinder relief-valves or snifting- 
 valves, which release water of condensation, or 
 that due to priming of boilers, from a steam- 
 cylinder when obstructing the motion of the 
 piston. Such valves are usually operated by hand. 
 
 Relieving-tackles. Tackles hooked to the 
 tiller to steer the ship in case of accident to the 
 wheel or wheel-ropes, and also to assist in steer 
 ing in heavy weather. 
 
 Remark-book. A book containing the navi 
 gator s memoranda of hydrographical informa 
 tion. 
 
 Remey, William B., Judge-Advocate-Gen 
 eral. Born in Iowa. Commissioned as second 
 lieutenant, marine corps, Nov. 25, 1861 ; frigate 
 Sabine," S. A. Blockading Squadron, 1861-63 ; 
 marine barracks, Norfolk, 1863-64. 
 
 Commissioned first lieutenant, February 17, 
 1864; receiving-ship at New York, 1864-65; 
 steamer " Yanderbilt," special service, 1865, and 
 Pacific Squadron, 1866-67 ; receiving-ship "New 
 Hampshire," Norfolk, 1867-68; marine bar 
 racks, Philadelphia, 1868-69 ;> Jan. 13, 1870, 
 reported at headquarters marine corps, as in 
 structor in army code of signals ; July 2, 1870, 
 appointed judge-advocate of the marine corps, 
 and served as such until 1873. 
 
 Commissioned captain, June 21, 1872; " Colo 
 rado," North Atlantic Station, 1873-74; judge- 
 advocate, marine corps, 1874-75 ; fleet marine 
 officer, South Pacific Station, 1875-76, and of 
 South Atlantic Station, 1876-77; acting adju 
 tant marine corps, October to December, 1877 ; 
 marine barracks, Norfolk, Dec. 1877, to May, 
 1878 ; member Board of Inspection, May to July, 
 1878 ; acting judge-advocate-general, Navy De 
 partment, July, 1878, to June, 1880. 
 
 Commissioned judge-advocate-general of the 
 navy, with the rank of colonel in the marine 
 corps, for the term of 4 years from June 9, 1880. 
 
 Render. To pass freely, as a rope through a 
 block. 
 
 Rendezvous. The port or place of destina 
 tion where the several ships of a fleet are ap 
 pointed to join company. 
 
 Rends. Large shakes or splits in timber and 
 plank. 
 
 Repeat. To repeat a signal, to duplicate a 
 signal intended for a third ship, that it may be 
 more easily read. 
 
 Repeater. One of three pennants which indi 
 cate, respectively, that the first, second, or third 
 flag in a hoist of signals is duplicated. 
 
 Repeating Circle. An astronomical circle 
 which repeats the measurement of an angle with 
 out multiplying the single reading of the in 
 strument, thus theoretically reducing the error 
 of imperfect graduation. 
 
 Representation. A collateral statement of 
 such facts not inserted in the policy of insurance 
 as may give the underwriters a just estimate of 
 the risk of the adventure. 
 
 Reprisal. A mode of redress granted by the 
 sovereign to one or more subjects for some spe 
 cific injuries ; the grant is by commission or 
 letter of marque. 
 
 Requisition. An official demand for stores, etc. 
 
 Rescue. A rescue effected by the crew when 
 the captors are in lawful possession is unlaw 
 ful, and is a resistance within the penalty of 
 confiscation. 
 
 Reserve, Royal Naval. The naval reserve of 
 Great Britain is divided into three classes, and 
 consists, by the last returns, of a total of 17,067 
 men. Of these, 11,930 belong to the first class. 
 The rules for enrollment are as follows : The ap- 
 licant must be of good character and health ; 
 must not be above 30 years of age, excepting in 
 the case of the men of the royal navy, who, if 
 they are able seamen, may be received up to the 
 age of 35. For the first class, the applicant must 
 have had at least 5 years sea-service within the 
 preceding 10 years, and at least one of these 
 years as able seaman. He must show that he 
 has been to sea within 4 months of the time of 
 his application, and must declare his intention 
 of following the sea 5 years longer. If he can 
 not prove his application, he must satisfy aboard 
 of two naval officers of his fitness. 
 
 An applicant for the second class must show 3 
 years sea-service, and of this time at least 6 
 months as ordinary seaman. Men in the coast 
 ing trade, or those who are making short voyages, 
 are preferred for the second class. 
 
 The third class is made up of boys who have 
 been trained in the mercantile training-ship, the 
 sum of 3 being granted by the government to 
 the management of a training-ship for each boy 
 supplied. He must have been 2 years under 
 training in a ship, subject to inspection by the 
 Admiralty and Board of Trade. He must also 
 be under engagement to serve in a ship at sea. 
 He must be 16 years of age, not less than 5 feet 
 1 inch in height, 30 inches round the chest, 
 robust, and intelligent ; must be able to read and 
 write, and must show satisfactory proficiency in 
 the usual drills on board men-of-war, and in ele 
 mentary seamanship, and must produce a certifi 
 cate of good character from the captain of his 
 training-ship. They will be, on attaining 19 
 years of age, provided they have served 6 months 
 at sea, eligible for the second class, and higher if 
 
RESPONDENTIA 
 
 686 
 
 RETIREMENT 
 
 qualified. These regulations do not apply to 
 boys from reformatory ships, who are riot re 
 ceived. 
 
 The enrollment is for 5 years, and 4 enroll 
 ments must be served in order to get a pension. 
 No pension is allowed to any one who does not 
 pass from the second into the first class ; but half 
 the time passed in the second class is allowed to 
 count for pension in case the individual passes 
 into the first class. 
 
 The yearly drill is for 28 days. This may be 
 taken, except in the first year, in periods of 7 
 days each. There are 9 drill-ships stationed at 
 as many ports, and a number of shore batteries, 
 where the men assemble for drill. Nothing is 
 taught here but the usual arm-drills of the ser 
 vice, no seamanship exercises taking place. 
 While assembled for drill, the men are rated and 
 paid as seamen and ordinary seamen of the navy, 
 and have their traveling expenses paid to and 
 fro. They are required to appear in a uniform 
 cap and dark blue clothing. 
 
 Any man desiring to make a voyage of longer 
 duration than 6 months must get leave to do 
 so, this leave never extending beyond a year ; 
 nor can a man leave the country until he has 
 made his year s drill. Among the men of the 
 reserve are 47 masters of vessels, 518 mates, and 
 3815 petty officers in the merchant service. 
 
 The retainer for men of the first class is 6 
 annually ; for men of the second class, 2 10s. 
 
 The reserves can only be called out by royal 
 proclamation. Their period of service, under 
 such proclamation, is for 3 years, unless war is 
 declared, in which case they may be held 2 years 
 longer. 
 
 The master of a merchant vessel who belongs 
 to the naval reserve may fly the blue ensign, if 
 he is provided with an admiralty warrant, and 
 if 10 at least of his crew are men of the reserve. 
 
 The estimates for the reserves for the year 
 1880-81 are 213,883, of which amount the an 
 nual retainer amounts to 7900 ; drill-pay and 
 lodging allowance to 37,000 ; erection and re 
 pair of batteries for drill, 7000 ; sea-pay of 
 officers and crews of the naval reserve drill-ships, 
 24,552. 
 
 Great efforts are made to attract the fisher 
 man class to this force, as these men and those 
 serving in coasting vessels are always at hand, 
 and can attain their yearly drills with less diffi 
 culty than can those making long voyages. F. 
 E. Chadwick, Lieutenant- Commander U.S.N. 
 
 Respondentia. A bond which is a loan on 
 the pledge of the cargo, generally a personal 
 obligation of the borrower, and not a specific 
 lien on the goods unless stipulated. It amounts 
 at most to an equitable lien on the salvage in 
 case of loss. See BOTTOMRY. 
 
 Ret. To soak in water, as in seasoning tim 
 ber, hemp, etc. 
 
 Retard or Age of the Tide. The interval 
 between the transit of the moon and the making 
 of the tide. See TIDE. 
 
 Reticule. The system of cross-wires in the 
 focus of an astronomical instrument. 
 
 Reticulum. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Retirement. The legally established process 
 by which an officer worn by long service, super 
 annuated, or disabled by wounds or disease, is 
 honorably withdrawn from active service. The 
 whole number of officers thus withdrawn is 
 
 termed the retired list. Retirement is either 
 voluntary or compulsory. Voluntary retire 
 ment takes place in the case of an officer who 
 has been 40 years in the service of the United 
 States, and who makes application to be retired, 
 except he be either a lieutenant-commander, lieu 
 tenant, master, ensign, midshipman, passed as 
 sistant surgeon, passed assistant paymaster, first 
 assistant engineer, assistant surgeon, assistant 
 paymaster, or second assistant surgeon, in which 
 grades an officer can be retired only on account 
 of physical or mental disability. 
 
 Retirement is compulsory in the case of an 
 officer, below the rank of vice-admiral, who has 
 attained the age of 62 years, unless he be of one 
 of the grades last above mentioned, or, being not 
 below the grade of commander, shall have re 
 ceived, during the war for the suppression of the 
 Rebellion, the thanks of Congress for distin 
 guished service ; in which latter case he cannot 
 be retired, except on his own application or for 
 disability, until he shall have been 55 years in 
 the service. The other cases in which retire 
 ment is compulsory are where an officer having 
 been examined for promotion shall not have been 
 recommended therefor ; and where an officer is 
 found by a retiring board to be incapacitated for 
 active service, said incapacity being the result 
 of an incident of the service. If, however, the 
 board find that the incapacity be not the result 
 of any incident of the service, the officer is re 
 tired on furlough pay, or wholly retired, as the 
 President shall determine. Officers wholly re 
 tired receive one year s pay and are dropped. 
 
 Retired officers are borne upon the N^ivy Reg 
 ister in their respective grades, are entitled to 
 wear the uniform, and are subject to the rules 
 and articles for the government of the navj^, and 
 to trial by general court-martial. They are with 
 drawn from command, and cannot be employed 
 on any active duty except in time of war, when 
 the President, by and with the advice and con 
 sent of the Senate, may detail them for the com 
 mand of squadrons and single ships, when he be 
 lieves that the good of the service requires that 
 they shall be so placed in command. In making 
 such details the President may select any officer 
 not below the grade of commander and assign 
 him to the command of a squadron, with the 
 rank and title of " flag-officer," and the officer so 
 assigned shall have the same authority and re 
 ceive the same obedience from the commanders 
 of ships in his squadron holding commissions of 
 an older date than his that he would be entitled 
 to receive if his commission were the oldest. 
 Retired officers so detailed may be restored to 
 the active list, if upon the recommendation of 
 the President they shall receive a vote of thanks 
 of Congress for distinguished service, but not 
 otherwise. 
 
 Officers on the retired list are entitled to pro 
 motion as their several dates on the active list 
 are promoted. In the case of rear-admirals, 
 however, the number of that grade by promotion 
 on the retired list is limited to nine (except that 
 the Secretary of the Navy may promote to the 
 grade of rear-admiral on that list, in addition to 
 the number mentioned, commodores who have 
 commanded squadrons by order of the Secretary 
 of the Navy, or have performed other highly 
 meritorious service, or who, being at the outbreak 
 of the war of the Rebellion citizens of any State 
 
KETKACTOK 
 
 687 
 
 KEYENUE 
 
 which engaged in such Rebellion, adhered to the 
 flag of the United States), and there can be 
 no promotion to rear-admiral on the retired 
 list while there shall be in that grade the full 
 number allowed by law. Officers promoted on 
 the retired list receive no increase of pay in con- 
 Sequence of such promotion. See EXAMINA 
 TION OF OFFICERS FOR PROMOTION AND KE- 
 TIREMENT, BOARD OF. 
 
 Retractor. A device for withdrawing the cart 
 ridge-case from breech-loading arms. 
 
 Retractus Aquae. An old law-term for the 
 ebb or return of tide. 
 
 Retreat. A call of the bugle or beat of a 
 drum to announce the termination of a drill. 
 
 Retrograde Motion. The general motion of 
 all the planets among the stars is eastward or 
 direct. When they come into the quarter of the 
 sky which is opposite the sun, their motion is 
 westward, or retrograde. 
 
 Returns. Reports and statements made peri 
 odically. 
 
 Return-salute. See SALUTES. 
 
 Revenue Marine Service. The first step 
 in this country toward an organized force for 
 the protection of the revenues from duties on 
 imports was made under an Act of Congress, 
 approved August 4, 1790, which provided for 
 building and equipping 10 revenue-cutters, 
 each to be officered and manned by one master 
 and not more than three mates, who should be 
 appointed by the President, and be deemed 
 officers of the customs. 
 
 The objects for which the re venue -cutters 
 were thus authorized were specifically set forth 
 in a communication to Congress from Alex 
 ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 were understood to be mainly for the enforce 
 ment of the customs laws throughout the whole 
 extent of the sea-board % Two of the cutters 
 were intended for the coasts, bays, and harbors 
 of New Hampshire and Massachusetts ; one for 
 Long Island Sound ; one for the bay of New 
 York ; one for Delaware Bay ; two for the 
 Chesapeake; and one each for the coasts and 
 harbors of North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia. Hamilton said, " Boats of from 36 
 to 40 feet keel will answer this purpose., each 
 having 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, and 6 mariners, 
 and armed with swivels ;" and after estimating 
 the first cost of one of these vessels completely 
 equipped at $1000, he continued : " The utility of 
 an establishment of this kind must depend on 
 the exertion, vigilance, and fidelity of those to 
 whom the charge of the boats shall be confided. 
 If they are not respectable characters they will 
 rather serve to screen than to detect fraud. To 
 procure such a liberal compensation should be 
 given. He suggested giving the officers military 
 or naval rank,^" which," he added, " will not 
 only induce fit men to engage, but attach them 
 to their duties by a nicer sense of honor.* Im 
 mediately after the passage of the act, letters 
 were addressed to the collectors of customs, at 
 Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Balti 
 more, authorizing the construction and equip 
 ment of such cutters as were considered suitable 
 for the service in their respective districts. The 
 records of the Treasury Department contain con 
 siderable correspondence on the subject of the 
 proposed establishment, and perhaps many ob 
 stacles occasioned delay, for the first list of cut- 
 
 Cutter. 
 
 Coast on 
 which 
 stationed. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Rig. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Scammel 
 Massachusetts.. 
 Argus 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 Massachusetts 
 Connecticut... 
 New York 
 Pennsylvania 
 Maryland. ..... 
 Virginia 
 N. Carolina.... 
 
 Hopeley Yeaton.... 
 J. Foster Williams 
 Jonathan Maltbie. 
 Patrick Dennis 
 Jas. Montgomery.. 
 David Porter 
 Richard Taylor.... 
 Wm. Cook 
 
 Schr. 
 Brig. 
 Schr. 
 
 Sloop 
 Schr. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 10 
 14 
 12 
 
 Vigilant 
 Gen. Greene.... 
 Active 
 
 Virginia 
 Diligence 
 
 ters found is dated February 19, 1793, and shows 
 that on October 1, 1792, but 8 of these vessels 
 were in commission, as follows : 
 
 Two others are mentioned as being in course of 
 construction for the coasts of South Carolina 
 and Georgia. They were probably the "South 
 Carolina" and the "Pickering," subsequently 
 mentioned with others in the above list as co 
 operating with the navy. 
 
 On March 2, 1793, an act was passed author 
 izing an increase in the number of mariners, and 
 a slight increase of pay for officers and men, the 
 pay having been fixed by the original act, for 
 captain, at $30 per month, and mates, or lieu 
 tenants, at $20, $16, and $14, respectively, besides 
 which each officer was entitled to the allowances 
 of an officer of the army of corresponding grade, 
 while the men received each $8 per month and 
 subsistence. This pay was further increased by 
 act of May 6, 1796, which also gave to revenue- 
 cutter officers half of the amounts of fines, pen 
 alties, and forfeitures collected upon information 
 furnished by them. 
 
 June 14, 1797, an act was approved which au 
 thorized the President, if circumstances should 
 thereafter arise which, in his opinion, might ren 
 der it expedient, to increase the strength of the 
 several revenue-cutters, so that the number of 
 men employed should not exceed 30 marines and 
 seamen to each cutter, " and cause said revenue- 
 cutters to be employed to defend the sea-coast, 
 and to repel any hostility to their vessels and 
 commerce within their jurisdiction, having due 
 regard to the duty of said cutters in the protec 
 tion of the revenue." It was also provided that 
 the act should continue in force for the term of 
 1 year, " and from thence to the end of the next 
 session of Congress, and no longer." 
 
 The increase of men and addition to the pow 
 ers and duties of the cutters by this act were 
 doubtless in view of threatened hostilities with 
 France. 
 
 In October of 1798, the President, "with a 
 view of producing a concert of action of the 
 naval forces of the United States," placed the 
 armed revenue-cutters at the disposition of the 
 Secretary of the Navy. The revenue vessels 
 selected for this purpose were the " Pickering," 
 " Eagle," " Scammel," " Governor Jay," " Vir 
 ginia"," "Diligence," "South Carolina," and 
 " Gen. Greene"" They were employed in cruis 
 ing among the West Indies, or between the 
 islands and the United States, under command 
 of officers of the navy who had but recently been 
 appointed from the merchant service, and in a 
 few instances from the revenue-cutters. About 
 the close of the year 1798, 4 of these vessels 
 were permanently attached to the navy, and the 
 
EEVENUE 
 
 688 
 
 EEVENUE 
 
 others returned to the Treasury Department or 
 revenue service. 
 
 On March 2, 1799, an act of Congress was 
 approved which was entitled " An act to regulate 
 collection of duties on imports and tonnage." 
 It embraced many of the provisions of previous 
 acts, with numerous new features which the 
 growth of the nation and experience demanded. 
 Six sections of this act relate to revenue-cutters, 
 and are briefly as follows: The President was 
 empowered, " for the better securing the collec 
 tion of duties imposed on goods, wares, and mer 
 chandise imported into the United States, and on 
 the tonnage of ships or vessels, to cause to be 
 built and equipped so many revenue-cutters, not 
 exceeding 10, as may be necessary to be employed 
 for the protection of the revenue, the expense 
 whereof to be paid out of the product of said 
 duties." For each of said cutters there was to 
 be 1 captain, and not more than 3 lieutenants, 
 first, second, and third, and not more than 70 
 men, including non-commissioned officers, gun 
 ners, and mariners. The cutters were to co 
 operate with the navy whenever the President 
 should so direct. The officers were to be ap 
 pointed by the President, and be deemed officers 
 of the customs, and, as such, subject to the di 
 rection of such collectors of customs, or other 
 officers thereof, as from time to time might be 
 designated for the purpose ; and they were em 
 powered, authorized, required, and directed to go 
 on board all ships or vessels arriving within the 
 United States, or within 4 leagues of the coast 
 thereof, if bound for the United States, and to 
 search and examine the same, and every part 
 thereof; and to demand, receive, and certify the 
 manifests required by law, and to affix and put 
 proper fastenings on the hold, hatches, and other 
 communications with the hold of any ship or 
 vessel, and to remain on board the said ships or 
 vessels until they arrive at the port or place of 
 their destination. 
 
 The commanders of revenue-cutters were also 
 required to make weekly returns to the collectors 
 of the transactions of their commands, with 
 minute details of all vessels boarded and ex 
 amined, and all services performed. Such other 
 duties as the Secretary of the Treasury might 
 from time to time enjoin or direct for the col 
 lection or security of the revenue were also to 
 be executed by these vessels. New cutters were 
 provided for in lieu of those unfit for service, 
 which were to be sold. A distinctive ensign and 
 pennant for the cutters was also provided for, to 
 be prescribed by the President ; and in case any 
 vessel liable to examination or seizure failed to 
 bring to, on being required, or chased by a cutter 
 displaying the ensign and pennant, it was made 
 lawful for the commanding officer to fire at, or 
 into, such vessel after having fired a gun as a 
 signal, and he, or his subordinate, to be indem 
 nified from any penalties or action for damages 
 for so doing ; and if any person should be killed 
 or wounded by such firing, and if the command 
 ing officer, or other person acting under his 
 direction, should be prosecuted or arrested there 
 for, he was to be forthwith admitted to bail. A 
 penalty of $100 was prescribed against the master 
 of any vessel, not in the service of the revenue, 
 who should carry or hoist the ensign prescribed 
 for the cutters. 
 
 Another act of same date prescribed the com 
 
 pensation for the commissioned officers, and the 
 rate of wages arid rations for non-commissioned 
 officers, gunners, and mariners. The terms of 
 this act, so far as they apply to the powers and 
 duties of officers, have not been changed by sub 
 sequent legislation. 
 
 The number of cutters employed from 1793 
 up to 1820 cannot be accurately stated, as the 
 necessary information is not at present accessible. 
 During that period there were frequent disturb 
 ances in the foreign relations of the country, 
 which, on account of the limited number of 
 naval vessels, often compelled the government 
 to divert the cutters from their regular duties in 
 anticipation of hostilities, or to engage in actual 
 war. 
 
 The causes that led to the reduction of the 
 navy in 1801, to wit: the cessation of hostilities 
 with France, and the necessity for retrenchment 
 in the expenses of the government, operated in 
 like manner to reduce the number of revenue- 
 cutters. The size of the vessels, also, which in 
 some instances had reached nearly 200 tons, was 
 now limited to 130 tons. In 1809, however, the 
 number of cutters was increased, probably on 
 account of the famous embargo act of 1807, 
 which was repealed in 1809, except so far as 
 related to Great Britain and France and their 
 dependencies. 
 
 In the war of 1812 the cutters were usefully 
 employed as dispatch-vessels, and for coast de 
 fense, duties for which their light draft and 
 good sailing qualities well fitted them, and on 
 several occasions they encountered the enemy s 
 vessels and boat expeditions with creditable 
 results. 
 
 The scope of this article does not admit of the 
 details of particular incidents, or the achieve 
 ments of individuals, but there was one affair in 
 which a cutter was captured after a gallant de 
 fense that deserves mention on account of the 
 unusual compliment paid to her commander by 
 his captor. On the night of June 12, 1813, the 
 revenue-cutter "Surveyor," Capt. S. Travis, on 
 the Chesapeake station, was captured by the 
 barges of the British frigate " Narcissus." The 
 enemy was discovered by the cutter when about 
 150 yards distant ; as the latter s guns could not 
 be brought to bear, each of her crew was fur 
 nished with two muskets, and their fire was held 
 until the British were within pistol-shot. The 
 engagement was sharp, but the enemy carried 
 the vessel by boarding, losing 3 men killed and 
 a number wounded. Capt. Travis and his crew, 
 15 in number, were taken on board the " Junon," 
 and the next day the senior officer of the " Nar 
 cissus" returned the captain his sword with the 
 following letter : 
 
 " His MAJESTY S SHIP NARCISSUS, 
 " June 13, 1813." 
 
 " SIR, Your gallant and desperate attempt to 
 defend your vessel against more than double 
 your number, on the night of the 12th inst, ex 
 cited such admiration on the part of your oppo 
 nents as I have seldom witnessed, and induced 
 me to return you the sword you had so nobly 
 used, in testimony of mine. Our poor fellows 
 have severely suffered, occasioned chiefly, if not 
 solely, by the precautions you had taken to pre 
 vent surprise; in short, I am at a loss which to 
 admire most, the previous engagement on board 
 
REVENUE 
 
 689 
 
 REVENUE 
 
 the Surveyor, or the determined manner by 
 which her deck was disputed, inch by inch. 
 " I am sir, with much respect, 
 
 "JOHN CRERIE. 
 "Capt. S. TRAVIS, U. S. cutter Surveyor. " 
 
 In addition to the active services of the cut 
 ters in connection with the war, they found busy 
 employment in the suppression of smuggling and 
 piracy, which had become quite common pur 
 suits of the many adventurers attracted to Ameri 
 can waters by the unsettled condition of the 
 country. 
 
 Prom 1820 to 1830 no greater number than 10 
 cutters were employed in any one year, and the 
 lists of officers during that period contain the 
 names of a few who also belonged to the navy. 
 It appears that in 1821 several officers of the 
 navy, mostly midshipmen, obtained furloughs 
 for one year, with permission to accept temporary 
 appointments in the revenue-cutter service, and 
 this practice continued until the spring of 1832, 
 when it ceased under the terms of a circular 
 issued by Louis McLane, Secretary of the Treas 
 ury, dated January 17, 1832, in which it was 
 stated that experience having shown that the 
 employment of officers of the navy in revenue 
 vessels was liable to objection, it was deemed 
 proper to discontinue the practice and keep the 
 two services distinct and separate. Officers of 
 the navy then employed in the revenue-cutter 
 service were informed that their commissions as 
 revenue-cutter officers would be revoked on the 
 30th of April following, and for the greater effi 
 ciency of the cutter service, it was determined 
 that promotions would thereafter be made from 
 among the officers of that service, having due 
 regard to fitness as well as seniority. The most 
 of the navy officers then attached to the cutters 
 returned to their own service, while others, about 
 a dozen, resigned from the navy and retained 
 their commissions in the revenue-cutter service. 
 
 At this period there was a gradual extension 
 of the service, and in 1833, 21 cutters are found 
 in commission, fully officered. They were gener 
 ally schooners, many carrying fore-topsails, and 
 guarded the Atlantic, Gulf, and Lake coasts. 
 During the nullification times of 1832-33, several 
 of the cutters were stationed at and off Charles 
 ton, S. C., to enforce the customs laws. Four 
 at least were there in the latter part of 1832, and, 
 joined by two or three others during the winter, 
 remained until the spring, when the troubles 
 ended and the revenue vessels returned to their 
 respective stations along the coast. About this 
 time too (1833), certain of the vessels were en 
 gaged in cruising on the coast, under special 
 orders, during the winter months to aid and 
 assist distressed vessels, a duty with which they 
 were familiar, incidentally with former cruises 
 in their regular line of service. This duty after 
 wards became imperative and annually recur 
 ring, under the act of December 22, 1837, by 
 which the President is authorized to cause any 
 suitable number of public vessels adapted to the 
 purpose to cruise upon the coast in the severe 
 portion of the season, " and to afford such aid to 
 distressed navigators as their circumstances may 
 require." After the passage of the act, a frigate, 
 a sloop-of-war, and 3 brigs of the navy were 
 ordered on that service with 8 of the cutters. 
 The naval vessels proved to be too large and un- 
 44 
 
 wieldy for the coast service, and were withdrawq 
 at an early day. From this time the protection 
 of commerce in this regard devolved upon the 
 revenue vessels, which have been employed undei 
 the act during every winter up to the present 
 time, with such satisfactory results as to earn for 
 the service generally a deserved popularity, es 
 pecially with all persons connected with the 
 maritime interests of the country. 
 
 Early in 1836, several cutters were ordered to 
 Florida to co-operate with the army and navy 
 against the Seminoles, and at one period during 
 that war there were 6 cutters employed, carry 
 ing dispatches, transporting troops and supplies, 
 and in cruising along the coast and among the 
 keys, affording protection to the settlers from 
 hostile Indians. 
 
 Among other duties performed by the cutters 
 from their first establishment, was the inspection 
 and supply of light-houses and buoys under the 
 direction of collectors of customs. In 1845 the 
 light-houses were placed in charge of the Revenue 
 Marine Bureau, and the cutters were more ac 
 tively employed than formerly on light-house 
 duty. This continued until the establishment 
 of the present Light-House Board in 1852, when 
 the improved character of that service required 
 vessels especially adapted for its work. 
 
 Steamers were first introduced into the reve 
 nue-cutter service in 1845, when 4 were put 
 in commission, and 4 others in course of con 
 struction. These steamers were built of iron, 
 and being almost the first vessels constructed 
 of that material in this country, were compara 
 tively experimental, and afterwards proved to 
 be unsuitable for the service. In the following 
 year, however, two of them, the " McLane" and 
 the " Legare," with the sail ing-cutters " Ewing," 
 " Forward," and " Woodbury," performed effi 
 cient service in co-operation with the army and 
 navy on the coast of Mexico. The " McLane" and 
 the " Forward" participated in the naval attack 
 on Tabasco in October, 1846, and subsequently 
 in the attack on Alvarado. They were also 
 engaged in blockading the Mexican Gulf ports, 
 and in conveying dispatches, and for their ser 
 vices generally their officers were highly com 
 mended by the commanders-in-chief of the L T . S. 
 military and naval forces engaged in the war 
 with Mexico. 
 
 After the close of the war these steamers were 
 laid up. A few were afterwards transferred to 
 the coast survey, and the rest otherwise disposed 
 of, so that in 1849 the name of but one was re 
 tained on the list of cutters. This was the " Polk," 
 from which the machinery was removed and the 
 vessel rigged as a bark for the Pacific coast, 
 where the new brig "Laurence" had already 
 been sent. In that year there were but 11 cut 
 ters in active service, an ill-advised economy 
 having reduced their number instead of other 
 wise retrenching the expenses caused by the in 
 troduction of costly and unsuitable steamers, and 
 correcting the evils that always spring up during 
 a period of war. In a short time, however, the 
 bad results of this reduction being shown in the 
 growth of smuggling and other violations of law, 
 an increase of the service was found necessary, 
 and in 1852, 6 new vessels were authorized. In 
 1855, 4 new cutters were added by an act which 
 also provided that no person shall be appointed 
 captain, first, second,, or third lieutenant who 
 
EEVENUE 
 
 690 
 
 KEVENUE 
 
 does not adduce competent proof of proficiency 
 and skill in seamanship and navigation. 
 
 In the following year 6 cutters were provided 
 for the lakes, and the next year a side-wheel 
 steamer was authorized. This steamer was after 
 wards known as the u Harriet Lane," and had a 
 somewhat notable career. She was ordered by 
 the President to co-operate in the naval expedi 
 tion to Paraguay, and rendered valuable services. 
 In the beginning of the Kebellion she was under 
 fire at the attack upon Fort Hatteras, and during a 
 reconnoissance of the rebel batteries near Norfolk, 
 and was subsequently transferred to the navy. 
 
 During the Rebellion the service was consid 
 erably increased. Several vacancies occurred by 
 the resignation of officers of Southern birth. To 
 fill these, and supply the additional vessels with 
 officers, many appointments were made from the 
 merchant service, which was also largely drawn 
 upon for the volunteer navy, and several came 
 into the revenue marine who had previously had 
 but little sea experience. Examining boards to 
 determine the professional qualifications of the 
 candidates were then held, as now, but the 
 urgency of the demand for officers compelled 
 the exercise of leniency in the examinations. 
 The cutters were variously employed during the 
 war, some as dispatch-vessels, others in convoy 
 ing transports or cruising after privateers. The 
 steamer " Naugatuck" took part in the naval at 
 tack on Fort Darling, and the revenue-steamer 
 " Reliance," while pursuing blockade-runners on 
 the Maryland shores, was fired into by some land 
 forces of the enemy, and her commanding officer, 
 Capt. Thomas Dungan, was killed. 
 
 The same injurious effects which had resulted 
 from the participation of the revenue vessels in 
 former wars were apparent throughout the ser 
 vice with the return of peace. 
 
 In 1871, a much-needed reorganization was 
 effected under the then Secretary of the Treas 
 ury, Hon. George S. Boutwell. All officers were 
 subjected to a rigid examination as to their pro 
 fessional qualifications, and those found incom 
 petent were removed. The vacancies thus caused 
 were filled by others who had successfully passed 
 competitive examinations. The old and unsuit 
 able vessels were sold, or altered and repaired, 
 and new vessels specially designed for the ser 
 vice were built. The imperfect system under 
 which the service had been managed gave place 
 to a carefully-devised plan, which exacted a strict 
 accountability from all officers in charge of pub 
 lic property, and instituted many wholesome re 
 forms in the expenditure of the appropriations 
 for the service. The establishment of regular 
 boards of examination and the introduction of 
 the competitive system in the promotions to 
 higher grades stimulated the officers generally 
 to industrious application in the studies neces 
 sary for their improvement. The result of this 
 reorganization was soon manifested in the in 
 creased efficiency of the whole service and the 
 reduction in its annual expenses. 
 
 In 1876, an act of Congress was passed which 
 provides as follows: "That hereafter, upon the 
 occurring of a vacancy in the grade of third 
 lieutenant in the Revenue Marine Service, the 
 Secretary of the Treasury may appoint a cadet 
 not less than 18 nor more than 25 years of age, 
 with rank next below that of third lieutenant, 
 whose pay shall be three- fourths that of a third 
 
 lieutenant, and who shall not be appointed to a 
 higher grade until he shall have served a satis 
 factory probationary term of two years and 
 passed the examination required by the regu 
 lations of said service." Under this act boards 
 of examination are held for candidates for ad 
 mission to the grade of cadet. The scope of the 
 examination, while searching in its character, 
 covers only the ordinary English branches, but 
 the competitive system being adhered to, the ap 
 pointments are not controlled by political or per 
 sonal favoritism. 
 
 The cadets are first sent on a practice-cruise 
 at sea in a revenue-cutter detailed for the purpose, 
 and are carefully trained in practical navigation 
 and seamanship. During the winter they are 
 instructed in mathematics and such other studies 
 as will best fit them for the proper performance 
 of their duties as officers. A second cruise at 
 sea is followed by another winter of study and 
 training on shipboard, when, after examination, 
 they are, if found competent, appointed third 
 lieutenants in the service. 
 
 By an act of Congress, the Secretary of the 
 Treasury has power to designate other necessary 
 duties for the cutters than those previously men 
 tioned under the act of March 2, 1799. These 
 have come to be various, the cutters having been 
 sent on many special cruises in search of missing 
 vessels, or in the enforcement of the neutrality 
 laws by preventing armed expeditions against 
 neighboring and friendly governments. The 
 suppression of mutiny on board vessels arriving 
 at or sailing from our ports is a frequent service 
 performed by the cutters. Since the acquisition 
 of Alaska, its shores and the neighboring islands 
 have been visited annually by one or more of 
 the revenue vessels on the Pacific coast ; and 
 since the withdrawal of the U. S. troops from 
 the Territory, the cutters have afforded the prin 
 cipal means for enforcing the law and protecting 
 the people in that remote country. At this 
 writing (June, 1880) the revenue-steamer " Cor- 
 win" is on her way to the Aleutian Islands, with 
 instructions to extend her cruise into the Arctic 
 Ocean, in search of two missing whalers ; also to 
 bring back tidings, if possible, of the Arctic 
 exploring steamer " Jeannette." 
 
 Under an act passed June 18, 1878, officers of 
 the revenue marine are detailed as inspectors and 
 assistant inspectors of life : saving stations, and 
 act as such under the direction of the general 
 superintendent of that service. For this duty 
 they are well fitted by their familiarity with the 
 coast, as well as from the long association of the 
 two services, which dates back to the first estab 
 lishment of the life-saving stations, in 1848. 
 "While thus employed, however, the officers do 
 not neglect their regular duties in the protection 
 of the revenues, and, .with two or three excep 
 tions, remain in command, or are attached to 
 revenue vessels. 
 
 A fair estimate of the usefulness of the revenue 
 cutters may be drawn from the following state 
 ment, which embraces a period of nine fiscal 
 years, or from June 30, 1871, to June 30, 1879, 
 viz. : 
 
 Number of vessels boarded and examined 218,479 
 
 " " seized or reported for violation of 
 
 law 14,192 
 
 " in distress assisted 1,578 
 
 " miles sailed and steamed 1,600,(>79 
 
 " lives saved 555 
 
REVENUE 
 
 691 
 
 REYNOLDS 
 
 These figures are obtained from the reports of 
 the vessels, made on a form in use only since 
 1871. If it were practicable to examine all the 
 log-books or reports of the cutters since the first 
 establishment of the service, quite as satisfactory 
 figures would no doubt be shown. 
 
 The records of the Treasury Department do 
 not furnish a complete statement of the total 
 value of the services rendered by the cutters to 
 the commerce of the country, but from the re 
 ports made during the last 3 years, it is certain 
 that property consisting of vessels and cargoes, 
 imperiled by the sea, of the value of $9,148,- 
 435.80, has been assisted and saved by the reve 
 nue-cutters, or about five times the total cost to 
 the United States of the whole fleet of revenue- 
 cutters, and it will be apparent that the aggre 
 gate would be enormous could it be ascertained 
 for the period since the organization of the 
 service. 
 
 There are at present employed in the revenue 
 marine 23 propellers, 8 side-wheel steamers, 1 
 bark, 1 schooner, and 4 sloops. These vessels 
 are stationed in the principal ports on the At 
 lantic and Pacific coasts, and in four of the 
 Great Lakes, and their cruising-grounds cover 
 the whole coast of the United States. 
 
 Their armament is from 1 to 4 light guns, and 
 sufficient small-arms, according to the size of the 
 vessel and the probable necessities of the station 
 to which they are assigned. 
 
 The officers consist of 34 captains, 34 first lieu 
 tenants, 34 second lieutenants, 34 third lieuten 
 ants and cadets, 23 chief engineers, 18 first 
 assistant engineers, and 27 second assistant en 
 gineers. 
 
 By act of February 4, 1863, captains in the 
 revenue marine rank with and next after lieu 
 tenants commanding in the navy. 
 
 First lieutenants with and next after lieuten 
 ants. 
 
 Second lieutenants with and next after masters. 
 
 Third lieutenants with and next after ensigns. 
 
 The present duty pay of officers under act of 
 February 28, 1867, is as follows : 
 
 Captains $2500 per annum and 1 navy ration. 
 
 First lieutenants 1800 
 
 Second " 1500 
 
 Third " 1200 
 
 Chief engineer 1800 
 
 First asst. engineer....l500 
 Second " " ....1200 
 Cadet 900 
 
 The wages of petty officers and crews are regu 
 lated by the Secretary of the Treasury from time 
 to time, in accordance with the port wages for 
 merchant seamen in the place where the cutter 
 may be stationed. The number of petty officers 
 and seamen for each vessel is also regulated in 
 like manner according to the size of the cutter 
 and the necessities of her station, rarely exceed 
 ing 30, all told, for a first-class vessel. 
 
 The whole service is under the direction of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury, and its affairs are con 
 ducted by a division of his office, in charge of a 
 chief termed Chief of Revenue Marine, whose 
 responsible duties demand from him good execu 
 tive ability, legal and scholarly attainments, and 
 good business capacity, while he can avail him 
 self of professional advice from any one of the 
 several competent officers of the service in regard 
 to all nautical matters appertaining to the vessels 
 or the personnel of the service. 
 
 The general discipline throughout the service 
 is similar to that of the navy. 
 
 The revenue marine holds a well-earned and 
 deserved popularity, and is generally recognized 
 as a branch of the public service which increases 
 the receipts of the Treasury, and saves to the 
 commerce of the country each year many times 
 more than the annual expenses for its mainte 
 nance. J. H. Mei ryman, Captain U.S.R.M. 
 
 REVENUE-CUTTER. Originally, a sharp-built, 
 single-masted, fast-sailing vessel, armed for the 
 purpose of preventing smuggling, and enforcing 
 the custom-house regulations. The name is now- 
 applied to the small steamers of the revenue 
 service. 
 
 Re verse- valve. A small conical-faced valve 
 attached to a steam-boiler and so arranged as to 
 open inward and admit air when the atmospheric 
 pressure exceeds that of the steam or vapor 
 within, thus preventing external pressure for 
 which the boiler is not braced. A partial vacuum 
 in a boiler may occur when steam of atmos 
 pheric pressure is no longer formed by the fires, 
 and when, with dead or hauled fires, it is per 
 mitted to condense while the safety-valve and 
 other atmospheric communications are closed. 
 
 Reversing-gear. The mechanism attached 
 to the valve-gear of a steam-engine by which the 
 motion of the engine is reversed. In heavy 
 machinery it is actuated by a steam-cylinder con 
 trolled by a screw or hydraulic apparatus. 
 
 Reversing-lever. A lever or bar by which 
 the motion of a machine is reversed in direction ; 
 as, the reversing lever of a locomotive-engine, 
 which throws either the go-ahead or backing ec 
 centrics of the valve-gear into action, causing 
 the engine to move forward or backward. 
 
 Revolution. The time occupied by a planet 
 in passing once around the sun is the time of its 
 sidereal revolution ; as it cannot be observed from 
 the earth on account of the earth s motion, its 
 length can only be computed. A synodic revo 
 lution is completed when the planet, the earth, 
 and the sun come again into the same relative 
 positions, as, into conjunction, or opposition. 
 
 Reynolds, William, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Appointed acting midshipman, from Lancaster, 
 Pa., November 17, 1831 ; first cruise, schooner 
 "Boxer," sloop-of-war "Peacock," coast of 
 Africa, Brazil, East Indies, 1831-34; frigate 
 "Potomac," "Delaware," 74, Mediterranean, 
 1834-36; Naval School, Norfolk, 1836-37. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June, 1837 ; 
 " Pennsylvania," 120, Philadelphia to Norfolk, 
 1837-38; Depot of Charts, Washington, 1838; 
 Exploring Expedition, 1838-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September, 1841 ; 
 frigate " Cumberland," Mediterranean, 1843-44 ; 
 corvette "Plymouth," Mediterranean, 1845; 
 steamer "Alfeghany," "Pittsburgh," Missis 
 sippi River, Gulf of Mexico, Brazil. Mediter 
 ranean, 1846-49; Bureau of Construction, 1850; 
 invalided, 1850; command of store-ship " Fre- 
 donia," Valparaiso, 1855; retired, 1855; naval 
 storekeeper, Honolulu, 1857-61 ; under surgical 
 treatment, 1861-62. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, reserved list, 
 1862; command of "Vermont," Port Royal, 
 November, 1862; of "New Hampshire," and 
 naval depot. Port Royal, 1863-65; restored to 
 active list, February, 1866 ; command of " Lack- 
 awsnna," North Pacific, 1866-69. 
 
EHE 
 
 692 
 
 RIBBAND 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, June, 1870; 
 Chief of Bureau of Equipment, July, 1870-75. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, December, 
 1873; command of Asiatic Station, flag-ship 
 "Tennessee," April, 1875-77; invalided, Au 
 gust, 1877 ; retired, December, 1877 ; died, No 
 vember 5, 1879. 
 
 Rhe. A very old word signifying an overflow 
 of water. 
 
 Rhind, Alexander Golden, Commodore 
 U.S.N. Born in New York. Appointed from 
 Alabama, September 3, 1838 ; attached to line-of- 
 battle ship " Ohio" and sloop " Cyane," Medi 
 terranean, 1839-41 ; sloop "Warren, - West In 
 dies, 1842-43; frigate "Macedonian," coast of 
 Africa, 1843-44 ; Naval School, Philadelphia, 
 1844-45. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 2, 1845; 
 brig "Washington," coast survey, 1845-46; 
 Home Squadron, coast of Mexico, until end 
 of the war ; present at Alvarado and Tabasco ; 
 steamer " Water- Witch," Home Squadron, 1848; 
 coast survey, schooner "E wing," to California, 
 1849-50 ; sloop " St. Mary s," East Indies, 1850- 
 61 ; coast survey, 1851-54. 
 
 Promoted to master, April 30, 1853. * 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 17, 
 1854; sloop "John Adams," Pacific Squadron, 
 1855; sloop "Constellation," coast of Africa, 
 1859-61 ; commanding steam-gunboat " Cru 
 sader," South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1862 ; participated in various small affairs at 
 North Edisto; shore fight at Seabrook s planta 
 tion, S. C., the crew of the " Crusader" defeat 
 ing a rebel mounted force ; capture and destruc 
 tion of rebel works commanding South Edisto, 
 Dawho and Pon-Pon Kivers, for which he re 
 ceived the thanks of the Department. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; commanding steamer " Seneca," South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862; command 
 ing ironclad steamer " Keokuk," South Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1862-63; commanding 
 her in the attack on defenses of Charleston, 
 April 17, 1863. In this engagement the " Keo 
 kuk" was struck 90 times in 30 minutes ; 19 shots 
 pierced her through, at and just below the water- 
 line. Finding it impossible to keep his vessel 
 afloat under such an extraordinary fire, Com 
 mander Khind withdrew from action. Being in 
 smooth water he managed to keep her afloat dur 
 ing the night, although the water was pouring 
 into her in many places ; but at 7.30 A.M. on the 
 following morning she went down ; the officers 
 and crew were saved, but lost all their effects. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, January 2, 1863; 
 commanded steamer " Paul Jones," South At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1863, and took part 
 in various engagements with Fort Wagner and 
 other defenses of Charleston ; commanded steam- 
 frigate "Wabash," flag-ship South Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1863 ; commanding steam- 
 gunboat " Agawam," North Atlantic Blockad 
 ing Squadron, 1864-65, and on duty in James 
 River from May to October, 1864. Engagement 
 with rebel batteries at Deep Bottom, August 13, 
 1864. Rear-Admiral Lee, in his report of this 
 aifair, thus speaks of Commander Rhind: "I 
 take great pleasure in calling the attention of 
 the Department to the gallantry and endurance 
 displayed by Commander Khind of the Aga 
 
 wam, and the officers and men under his com 
 mand, in the engagement with three rebel bat 
 teries, August 13, 1864, reported to the Depart 
 ment by Capt. Smith, divisional commander on 
 the James River." Commander Rhind received 
 thanks of the Department in letter dated Sep 
 tember 7, 1864. In December, 1864, Commander 
 Rhind was detailed by Admiral Porter to com 
 mand the powder-boat " Louisiana," and on the 
 night of the 23d that vessel was exploded within 
 250 yards of Fort Fisher, the officers and men 
 being taken off by the steamer "Wilderness." 
 Rear-Admiral Porter, in his official report to the 
 Navy Department, says, " In conclusion, allow 
 me to draw your attention to Commander Rhind 
 and Lieut. Preston. They engaged in the most 
 perilous adventure that was, perhaps, ever un 
 dertaken. As an incentive to others I beg leave 
 to recommend them for promotion." Command 
 ing receiving-ship " Vermont," New York, 
 1866-67 ; commanding naval rendezvous, New 
 York, 1868 ; navy-yard, New York, 1869-70. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, 1870 ; commanding 
 " Congress" (second-rate), European Station, 
 1872-73 ; light-house inspector, 1876-78. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 30, 
 1876 ; special duty, 1879 ; president Board of 
 Inspection, 1880. 
 
 Rhodes is the capital of the island of Rhodes, 
 in Asiatic Turkey, and is situated at the northeast 
 extremity of the island, in lat. 36 26 9" N., 
 Ion. 28 13 E. It is inclosed by walls, and on 
 the land side is strengthened by ravelins and a 
 moat. On the northeast side two piers projecting 
 form a harbor, and on the north side is another 
 port. Outside of the walls, on the north, are the 
 pasha s palace and the dock-yard. It exports red 
 leather and shoes, which form its principal man 
 ufacturing industry. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Rhodian Laws. A maritime code, asserted, 
 but without sufficient proof, to be the basis of 
 the Roman sea-laws. The code published by 
 Leunclavius and others, as a body of Rhodian 
 laws, is a mere forgery of modern times. 
 
 Rhodings. The brass cleats on which the axles 
 of the pumps work. 
 
 Rhumb. The intersection of a vertical circle 
 with the horizon ; a rhumb-line. 
 
 RHUMB-LINE. A line which cuts the meridians 
 at a constant angle ; the loxodromic curve ; the 
 equiangular spiral. 
 
 RHUMB SAILING. In rhumb sailing, the ship 
 sails on the rhumb-line joining the place of de 
 parture and place of destination. It is the ordi 
 nary mode adopted when out of sight of land, as 
 the compass points it out, and on Mercator s 
 chart it appears as a straight line. 
 
 Rhydal. A ford or channel joining lakes or 
 broad waters. 
 
 Rib. A figurative term for one of the frames 
 of a ship, arising from the comparison of a ship 
 stripped of her planking to the human skeleton. 
 A projection formed upon a metal casting for the 
 purpose of securing strength. Ribs and trucks, 
 fragments. 
 
 Ribadoquin. A powerful cross-bow for throw 
 ing long darts. Also, an old piece of ordnance 
 throwing a ball of one or two pounds. 
 
 Ribband. A long piece of oak or pine from 
 4 to 6 inches square, used to keep the frames in 
 position, after they have been regulated. 
 
 RIBBAND-LINE. The same as a diagonal line 
 
RIBBING-NAIL 
 
 693 
 
 RING 
 
 in the body plan, the difference in their applica 
 tion being that the ribband-line is taken off by 
 the use ofhorizontal lines square from the centre 
 line at the intersection of the frame-line with the 
 diagonal line ; while the diagonal line is taken 
 off in a diagonal direction, before the line is ap 
 plied to the half-breadth to obtain its shape. The 
 diagonal lines cannot be used to prove the cant- 
 lines or frames, while the ribband-lines can be so 
 used. 
 
 RIBBAND-SHORE. A shore placed against the 
 ribband upon the frames in order to keep the 
 body in shape. 
 
 Ribbing-nail. A nail with a large round 
 head to be driven through a ring. 
 
 Ribbon-fish (Tcenioidce, from tcenia, a tape 
 worm). A family of acanthopterous fishes, so 
 called on account of their compressed and elon 
 gated form. They are of very delicate structure, 
 in consequence of which it is difficult to obtain 
 perfect specimens. They have a silvery skin, a 
 long dorsal fin often uniting with the tail-fin, a 
 small mouth, and a protractile snout. They are 
 widely distributed, but, being deep-sea fishes, are 
 nowhere found in abundance. 
 
 Ribbons. Narrow-painted streaks on a ship s 
 side. The tatters of a sail blown away. 
 
 Richmond, the capital of Virginia, and a port 
 of entry, is situated on the north bank of the 
 James River, at the head of tide- water, in lat. 37 
 32 / 17" N., Ion. 77 27 28" W. There are 
 regular lines of steamers to New York, Philadel 
 phia, and Baltimore, and it has admirable rail 
 road facilities. Vessels drawing 16 feet of water 
 can come to Rocketts, at the lower end of the city ; 
 the dockage capacity is large. The James River 
 and Kanawha Canal extends from Richmond to 
 Buchanan, a distance of 210 miles. There are 
 623 manufacturing establishments in the city, 
 embracing 43 plug- and smoking-tobacco fac 
 tories, 40 cigar-factories, flour- and paper-mills, 
 etc. Pop. 75,000. 
 
 Rickers. Lengths of stout poles cut up for 
 the purpose of stowing flax, hemp, and the like. 
 Spars supplied for boats masts and yards, boat- 
 hook staves, etc. 
 
 Ricochet. See FIRE. 
 
 Riddle. A kind of weir. 
 
 Ride. To lie at anchor ; to be supported on the 
 water. A rope rides when the part on which 
 the strain is brought lies over and jams the other 
 parts. To ride down, to force anything, as a 
 yard, or bunt of a sail, down to its proper place 
 oy throwing the weight upon it. 
 
 RIDING-BITTS. The bitts to which the cables 
 are secured. 
 
 Riders. Interior ribs, to strengthen and bind 
 the parts of a ship together ; they are fayed upon 
 the inside planking and bolted through all, and 
 are placed where they are most needed, either at 
 the bow or the stern of the ship. Also, the upper 
 tiers of casks. 
 
 Ridge-rope. The centre-rope of an awning. 
 The rope to which the edges of an awning are 
 hauled out. 
 
 Rifle. See ORDNANCE. 
 
 Rig. The disposition of the masts and yards, 
 the cut of the sails, and manner in which spars, 
 sails, and rigging are fitted. To fit the shrouds, 
 stays, braces, etc., to their respective masts, 
 yards, etc. To cod; to play a sportive trick upon. 
 To rig out (or in), to run a boom out (or in). 
 
 RIGGERS. Men employed in navy-yards to fit 
 the rigging of all ships before being put in com 
 mission. 
 
 RIGGING. A general name for all ropes or 
 chains employed to support and work masts, 
 yards, sails, etc. Standing rigging, rigging set 
 up permanently, as stays, backstays, bobstays, 
 shrouds, etc. Running rigging, the ropes which 
 are hauled upon from time to time, in order to 
 adjust the yards, sails, etc. 
 
 RIGGING-LOFT. A large room where rigging 
 is stretched, cut, served, etc., in readiness to be 
 sent to ships. 
 
 RIGGING-MAT. A heavy mat seized upon the 
 standing rigging to prevent its being chafed. 
 
 RIGGING-SCREW. A machine employed to 
 force the two parts of a stiff rope together in order 
 that a seizing may be put on ; as, in turning in 
 dead-eyes, forming the eyes of shrouds, etc. 
 
 RIGGING-STOPPER. See STOPPER. 
 
 Riga, a commercial port of Russia, is situated 
 on the Diina, in lat. 56 57 N., and Ion. 24 6 30" 
 E. Along the river on both sides are spacious 
 quays. The inner harbor does not admit vessels 
 drawing more than 15 feet of water ; large ships 
 load and unload outside of the bar at the mouth 
 of the River, where is the custom-house. Grain, 
 flax and flaxseed, hemp, wool, hides, tallow, tim 
 ber, and spars are the chief exports. Pop. 99,000. 
 
 Rigel. The star Orionis. 
 
 Right. Directly ; as, right ahead, right abeam, 
 etc. A ship is said to right when she returns to 
 a perpendicular position after having been listed 
 over by the force of the wind. To right the 
 helm, to put it amidships. 
 
 Right Ascension (Lat. rectus, right, straight ; 
 ascensio, rising). The right ascension of a heav 
 enly body is the arc of the equinoctial intercepted 
 between the first point of Aries and the circle of 
 declination passing through the centre of the 
 body. It is reckoned from the first point of 
 Aries eastward, from to 360, or from to 
 24 h . Right ascension and declination are the 
 equinoctial co-ordinates for determining positions 
 on the celestial sphere. 
 
 RIGHT ASCENSION, CIRCLES or. See CIRCLE. 
 
 Right-handed Rope. Rope laid up with the 
 sun. See ROPE. 
 
 Right Sailing. Running a course on one of 
 the four cardinal points, so as to alter only a 
 ship s latitude, or longitude. 
 
 Right Whale. See WHALE. 
 
 Rill. A very small run of fresh water, less 
 than a rivulet. 
 
 Rimbase. The short cylinder at the junction 
 of the trunnion with the gun. 
 
 Rime. Hoar-frost ; condensed vapor. 
 
 Ring. Anything in the form of a circle. An 
 old brass instrument for measuring altitudes of 
 heavenly bodies, having an aperture in one side, 
 through which a ray entering indicated the alti 
 tude on the graduated surface opposite. See 
 SATURN, ANCHOR. 
 
 RING-BOLT. A bolt with an eye in one end in 
 which a ring is fitted for convenience in hooking 
 tackles. 
 
 RING-DOGS. Iron implements used in haul 
 ing timber. They are formed by putting a ring 
 through the eyes of two common dogs. 
 
 RING-ROPE. A rope used, in bending a chain, 
 to haul the end of the chain up to the ring of the 
 anchor. 
 
KING-TAIL 
 
 694 
 
 RIVERS 
 
 KING-STOPPER. See STOPPER. 
 
 Ring-tail. A sail set, like a stun sail, beyond 
 the leech of a sail spread by a gaff and boom. 
 
 KING-TAIL BOOM. A boom extending beyond 
 the spanker-boom or main-boom, to spread a 
 ring-tail. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, the largest and most important 
 city of South America and the capital of Brazil, 
 is situated on the west side of the Bay of Kio 
 de Janeiro, in lat. 22 64 V S., Ion. 43 
 9 W. Its port, which is large and deep, is de 
 fended by a castle. The principal edifices are 
 the palace, the naval and military arsenal, and 
 public hospital. Its imports comprise the prod 
 uct of every country. Its chief exports are 
 cotton, sugar, coffee, rum, gold, diamonds, 
 topazes, amethysts, and aquamarine. The bay 
 is 17 miles long and 11 miles wide, and forms 
 one of the finest harbors in the world. Pop. 
 275,000. 
 
 Rip. A pannier or basket used for carrying 
 fish. See TIDE-RIP. 
 
 KIPPERS. Men from the sea-shore, who sell 
 fish to the inland towns and villages. 
 
 Riparia. A law-term for the water running 
 between the banks of a river. 
 
 Ripary. Inhabiting the sea-shore. 
 
 Ripping-iron. A calker s tool for tearing 
 oakum out of a seam, or stripping copper or 
 sheathing from a ship s bottom. 
 
 Ripple. The small waves raised on the sur 
 face of the water by the passage of a light breeze. 
 
 KIPPLE-MARKS. The ripply appearance left at 
 low- water on the flat part of a sandy beach. 
 
 Risberm. Fascines placed to oppose the vio 
 lence of the surf. 
 
 Rising. A term derived from the shape of a 
 ship s bottom in general, which gradually nar 
 rows or becomes sharper toward the stem and 
 stern-post. On this account it is that the floor 
 of a ship toward the extremities is raised or 
 lifted from a level line, otherwise the shape of 
 the timbers would be so very acute as not to be 
 procurable in wood, or the timber would be so 
 grain-cut as not to be of sufficient strength. 
 Also, the narrow strake just below the thwarts 
 of a boat. 
 
 RISING-FLOOR. The floor-timbers forward and 
 aft, on account of the narrowing of the ship s 
 body, are gradually lifted or raised upon the 
 dead-wood or rising- wood, and are known as 
 rising- floors. They are difficult to obtain in 
 wood from their acute-angled shape. 
 
 RISING-LINE. An elliptical line drawn upon 
 the sheer-plan to determine the sweep of the 
 floor-heads throughout the ship s length. 
 
 RISING-SQUARE. A square used in the mold- 
 .ing of the ship s frame, upon which is marked 
 the rising of each floor at a sirmark, as well as 
 the half-breadth at the same point to which 
 spots the molds are applied for the molding of 
 the floors. 
 
 RISING-WOOD, or DEADWOOD. The wood 
 placed upon the top of the keel at the ends of 
 the ship upon which the cants are secured, where 
 there is so much rise to the floors that it is diffi 
 cult to obtain timbers to cross the keel. The 
 rising-wood is introduced in order to lessen the 
 expense, and also to continue the framing of the 
 ship to the stem and stern-post. As the ship 
 becomes sharper more rising -wood becomes 
 necessary. 
 
 Risks. The casualties against which insur 
 ances are made on ships and cargoes. 
 
 Rittoch. A name for the tern, Sterna hirnudo. 
 
 Rive. The sea-shore. 
 
 River-risk. A policy of insurance from the 
 docks to the sea. 
 
 Rivers. A river is a natural stream of water 
 flowing through the land. Small rivers are 
 called creeks, and still smaller streams are named 
 brooks, rills, and rivulets. The ground through 
 which a river flows is its bed ; the deepest part 
 the channel, and the country drained by it is its 
 basin. Rivers have their origin in lakes, from 
 natural springs, and in mountains, some from the 
 melting snows, others issuing from glaciers. 
 Such beginnings are sources, or heads. Rivers 
 empty into the ocean, or into one of its arms, or 
 they stop in some inland lake, flow into some 
 other river, or are lost in desert sands or arid 
 wastes. The final termination of a river is its 
 mouth, and when there are more than one, it is 
 called a delta. Rivers are oceanic; that is, their 
 waters reach the ocean ; or they are continental ; 
 that is, they are lost in some lake, desert, or 
 waste. Most of the larger rivers are oceanic, 
 but many continental rivers of considerable size 
 exist. A river flowing into another is a tribu 
 tary, or branch, and rivers are affluents of the 
 bodies into which they empty their waters. Con 
 fluent streams are those flowing into the same 
 waters. 
 
 Some continental rivers become oceanic after 
 great rains, as the Mareb, in Abyssinia. When 
 a river falls over a gradual descent, such a place 
 is called the rapids, and when the fall is sudden, 
 it becomes a cataract or fall. Many such de 
 scents occur and interrupt navigation, more or 
 less, according to their character. The greatest 
 falls are those of the St. Lawrence, at Niagara, 
 the stream, 800 feet wide, here falling over a 
 precipice 165 feet high, and gradually wearing a 
 bed 200 feet deep. The highest fall is found in 
 the Himalaya Mountains. Such rapids and falls 
 (and shoals and rocks) often interrupt naviga 
 tion in rivers of considerable size. Rivers are 
 usually fresh, but such as have a tidal flow are 
 salt as far as the tide reaches. The tidal-wave, 
 when it meets the current of rivers, sometimes 
 carries a wave called a bore to some distance above 
 its mouth. The principal one is in the Amazon. 
 Many rivers flow underground during a part of 
 their course, and some are suddenly lost in the 
 ground. Sometimes rivers lose a part of their 
 waters through narrow connecting channels, 
 known as bayous in Louisiana, and as shats in 
 Persia. Many rivers periodically overflow their 
 banks, as the Ganges, Indus, and Nile. 
 
 The following table exhibits the lengths of the 
 chief rivers : 
 
 Rivers of the World. 
 Name. 
 
 Name. Miles. 
 
 Amazon 4700 
 
 Mississippi 3200 
 
 Mississippi and Missouri. 4500 
 
 Yangtze-Kiang 3300 
 
 Nile 3200 
 
 Hoang-Ho 3200 
 
 Obi 3000 
 
 Irtish 2000 
 
 Yenesei 2600 
 
 Tnngouska 2300 
 
 Missouri 2200 
 
 Burramapootra 2200 
 
 Volga 2200 
 
 Arkansas 2150 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Red 2000 
 
 Parana 2000 
 
 St. Lawrence 2000 
 
 St. Lawrence proper 600 
 
 Niger 2000 
 
 Euphrates 1600 
 
 Danube 1800 
 
 Apurrimas 1800 
 
 Ganges 1800 
 
 Rio Grande 1700 
 
 Indus 1700 
 
 Orinoco 1600 
 
 Platte 1600 
 
 Columbia 1500 
 
KIVEKS 
 
 695 
 
 ROCHESTER 
 
 Name. Miles. 
 
 Dnieper 1300 
 
 Paraguay 1200 
 
 Yellowstone 1100 
 
 Kansas 1100 
 
 Mackenzie 1100 
 
 Blue Nile 1000 
 
 Ohio 10UO 
 
 Dwina 1000 
 
 Don 1000 
 
 Senegal 1000 
 
 Magdalena 1000 
 
 Snake , 1000 
 
 Gara 1000 
 
 Tigris 10(10 
 
 Jumna 900 
 
 Tennessee 900 
 
 Cauca 800 
 
 Name. Miles. 
 
 Rhine 800 
 
 Peace 8<X) 
 
 Elbe 700 
 
 Alabama 600 
 
 Appalachicola 600 
 
 Tagus 600 
 
 Oder 600 
 
 Cumberland 600 
 
 Susquehanna 500 
 
 Savannah 500 
 
 Rhine 500 
 
 Illinois 500 
 
 Po 450 
 
 Seine 400 
 
 Connecticut 400 
 
 Garonne, Delaware, and 
 
 St. John, each 350 
 
 A few of these rivers merit an especial men 
 tion. The Amazon, also called the Maranon, and, 
 from its discoverer, the Orellana, is formed by 
 the union of the Tunguragua and Ucayale, the 
 former rising in a lake in Peru, the latter formed 
 by the Apurimac and Payo. It has many 
 islands, some of them 10 miles in circumference, 
 is navigable for 2000 miles, and its mouth is 180 
 miles wide. The tides extend 400 miles, and 
 the bore is 10 to 15 feet high. Besides the 
 branches mentioned, the Napo, Yapara, Negro, 
 Yutay, Madeira, and Xingu, are the chief ones. 
 The Madeira is 1800 miles long. The basin 
 drained by the Amazon embraces 2,400,000 
 square miles. Its head-waters connect with 
 those of the Orinoco. It was discovered by 
 Vincent Yanez Pinzon in 1500, and Orellana, in 
 1539, traced its course. It was thoroughly 
 described and explored by Condamine in 1743, 
 and by Humboldt, Lieut. Herndon, and lately 
 by Commander Selfridge, in the " Enterprise." 
 
 The Mississippi rises in a small lake (Itasca) 
 in Minnesota, although a dozen other lakes 
 might as easily be named as its source, and flows 
 nearly in a straight line south to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, pouring its waters out through five 
 mouths, called here passes. It has scores of 
 tributaries, four of them at least being large 
 rivers, and a dozen others of some size. 
 
 The Yangtze-Kiang and the Hoang-Ho are 
 both large rivers of China. They rise nearly 
 together in the table-lands of Chinese Thibet, 
 the former flowing southeast, the latter north 
 east, until they are 1000 miles apart, when they 
 turn towards each other, and finally empty their 
 waters into the Yellow Sea, 100 miles apart. 
 The alluvium brought down by these rivers 
 gives the name to the Sen and Yellow Rivers, 
 and has sensibly decreased the depth of the for 
 mer. The Yangtze-Kiang receives the several 
 names of Minachoo, Ya Loong, Tachoong, Kin 
 Sha, and Ta Kiang, in portions of its course. 
 It has 7 large tributaries, and is navigable for 
 1000 miles. 
 
 The Obi, Yenesei, and Lena are mighty 
 streams, rising in the centre of Asia, and flowing 
 in a northerly direction into the Arctic Ocean. 
 Each has numerous tributaries, and together 
 they water and drain the vast steppes of Siberia. 
 Although deep and wide, these rivers are navi 
 gable only a small portion of the year because 
 of the ice*. Each drains 1,000,000 square miles 
 of territory. 
 
 The other large rivers of Asia, the Ganges, 
 Indus, Burramapootra, and Euphrates, flow 
 through low and marshy districts, and at certain 
 seasons overflow their banks, rendering the lands 
 fertile. 
 
 The Nile is one of the most remarkable river? 
 of the world. Its source, but recently ascer 
 tained, is in the Lakes Albert and Victoria Ny- 
 anza, in the interior of Africa. It flows nearly 
 north to the Mediterranean, pouring its water 
 through five mouths, the original delta. It 
 receives one large tributary, the Blue Nile, and 
 several smaller ones, but for the last 1300 miles 
 receives none, a solitary instance of such a lack. 
 It periodically overflows its banks, not only 
 watering an arid valley, but fertilizing it by the 
 quantities of mud there deposited. In its course 
 it traverses the ancient countries of Egypt and 
 Nubia, where still exist gigantic remains of the 
 first civilization of the globe. 
 
 The Volga is the largest river of Europe. It 
 rises nearly in the centre of Russia, and empties 
 into the Caspian Sea. During the lower part 
 of its course it has many bayous or canals. The 
 Danube is next, and the Dnieper, Dwina, Don, 
 and Rhine are not far behind it in size and im 
 portance. 
 
 Arabia and the Great Sahara Desert of Africa 
 are most destitute of rivers, and the whole west 
 ern coast of South America is without rivers of 
 any size, none of them being navigable. F. S. 
 Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Rivet. The roe of a fish. A pin or bolt of 
 metal for confining pieces of material together ; 
 the ends are enlarged in diameter and formed 
 into heads, projecting over and clasping the 
 outer surfaces of the united pieces by battering 
 or longitudinal compression. 
 
 Roach. The curvature of the foot of a sail ; 
 the object is to keep the foot from chafing. A 
 gregarious fresh-water fish of the carp family 
 (Leuciscns rutilus). It is of a silver-white color, 
 with a greenish back, having the dorsal fin oppo 
 site the ventral. It is about a foot in length. 
 
 Road, or Roadstead. An off-shore anchor 
 age, affording less protection to vessels than a 
 harbor. 
 
 ROADER, or ROADSTER. A term applied to a 
 clumsy vessel which works its way from port to 
 port by means of the tides, anchoring when wind 
 and tide are unfavorable. 
 
 Roast Beef Dress (Eng.). Full uniform ; 
 probably from its resemblance to that of the 
 royal beef-eaters. 
 
 Roast Beef of Old England. A popular air 
 by which officers are summoned to the dinner- 
 table. 
 
 Robans. Short bits of spun-yarn, foxes, etc., 
 for securing the head of. a sail to the jack-stay 
 on the yard. 
 
 Rochester, a port of entry in Monroe County, 
 N. Y., is situated on both sides of the Genesee 
 River, in lat. 43 8 17" N., Ion. 77 51 W. The 
 city is connected by a net-work of railways with 
 every city of importance in this country and 
 Canada, and it has also two important channels 
 of trade in the Erie and Genesee Valley Canals. 
 The foreign commerce, chiefly carried on by the 
 lakes, although some of it comes by way of New 
 York, is quite large, and its domestic trade is 
 much larger. It is one of the greatest flour-pro 
 ducing cities in the world, and also has extensive 
 manufactories of other kinds. The largest car 
 riage-factory in -the United States is located 
 here. There are 16 flour-mills, grinding each 
 year an average of 3,000,000 bushels of wheat. 
 Pop. 82,000. 
 
ROCK 
 
 696 
 
 RODGERS 
 
 Rock. Half-tide rock, a rock awash at half- 
 tide. 
 
 Rock-cod. A species of cod found on a rocky 
 bottom. 
 
 Rocket-boat. A flat-bottomed boat fitted 
 with rocket-frames to fire Congreve rockets from 
 in naval bombardment. 
 
 Rock-fish. A salt-water fish, a species of 
 goby, Gobius niger. 
 
 Rock-hind. A large fish of tropical regions, 
 Serranus catus. 
 
 Rockling. A fish of the genus Motella (M. vul- 
 garis), belonging to the cod family; whistle-fish. 
 
 Rock-scorpion. A name applied to persons 
 born at Gibraltar. 
 
 Rock-shaft. In mechanism, a shaft which 
 oscillates about its axis ; as, in transmitting the 
 reciprocating motion from the eccentrics to the 
 valves of a steam-engine. 
 
 Rodding-time. The season for fish spawning. 
 
 Rodgers, C. R. P., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born November 14, 1819, in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Appointed midshipman from Connecticut, Octo 
 ber 5, 1833; attached to frigate " Brandywine" 
 and sloop "Vincennes," Pacific Station, 1834- 
 36 ; navy-yard, New York, 1837 ; sloop " Fair- 
 field" and brig "Dolphin," Brazil Squadron, 
 1837-39. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 8, 1839 ; 
 schooner " Flirt," coast of Florida, 1839-40; and 
 in command of schooner "Phoenix," 1841-42, 
 being actively employed in the Seminole war 
 during those three years; sloop "Saratoga," 
 coast of the United States, 1842-43. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 4, 
 1844 ; served in Mediterranean Squadron in 
 frigate "Cumberland," 1843-45, and in store- 
 ship "Lexington." 1845; coast survey, 1846; 
 frigate "Potomac" and sloop "Albany," block 
 ading Mexican coast, 1847 ; present and in the 
 trenches at the reduction of Vera Cruz and at 
 the capture of Tabasco and Tuspan : coast sur 
 vey, 1848-49; frigate "Congress," Brazil Squad 
 ron, 1850-51; frigate "Constitution," coast of 
 Africa, 1852-55 ; coast survey, commanding 
 steamer " Bibb" and schooner " Gallatin," 
 1856-57; steam-frigate "Wabash," Mediterra 
 nean Squadron, 1858-59; commandant of mid 
 shipmen at Naval Academy, 1860-61. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, October 15, 1861 ; 
 served in steam-frigate " Wabash" as captain and 
 fleet-captain, 1861-63, commanding that ship at 
 the battle of Port Royal, November, 1861, and 
 the naval force in the trenches at the reduction 
 of Fort Pulaski, January 27, 1862. While in 
 the "Wabash," much employed on detached 
 service, in command of a division of gunboats 
 in retaking the coast and inlets of Georgia and 
 Florida, and South Carolina south of Port Royal ; 
 fleet-captain in the " New Ironsides" in the at 
 tack on Charleston, April 7, 1863. Rear-Admi- 
 ral Dupont in his official report of that engage 
 ment says, " On this, as on all other occasions, I 
 had invaluable assistance from the fleet-captain, 
 C. R. P. Rodgers, who was with me in the pilot 
 house directing the movements of the squadron. 
 For now over eighteen months in this war this 
 officer has been afloat with me, and in my opin 
 ion no language could overstate his services to 
 his country, to this fleet, and to myself as its 
 commander-in-chief." Commanded steam-sloop 
 " Iroquois," 1863-65, on special service. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; navy- 
 yard, Norfolk, 1865-67; commanded steam-frig 
 ate " Franklin," Mediterranean Squadron, 1868- 
 70. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, August 28, 1870; 
 special service in Europe, 1871 ; chief of Bureau 
 of Yards and Docks, October, 1871-74. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, June 14, 1874 ; 
 superintendent Naval Academy, 1874-78 ; com 
 manding Pacific Station, 1878-80. 
 
 Rodgers, John, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Hartford County, Md., 1771; died at Phila 
 delphia, August 1, 1838. Entering the navy as 
 a lieutenant, March 9, 1798, he was the execu 
 tive-officer of the frigate "Constellation," Com 
 modore Truxtun, when she captured the French 
 frigate " L Insurgente" off Nevis, February 9, 
 1799, and took possession of the prize. Made 
 a captain March 5, 1799, he cruised in the 
 " Maryland," 20, upon the West India Station ; 
 in 1802 he commanded the "John Adams," 28, 
 with which and the "Enterprise," 12, he suc 
 cessfully attacked, in June, 1803, a Tripolitan 
 cruiser of 22 guns, and several gunboats at an 
 chor near Tripoli ; in 1804 he commanded the 
 " Congress," 38, in the squadron employed 
 against Tripoli under Commodore Barren, whom, 
 in 1805, he succeeded in the command. After 
 the peace with Tripoli, he proceeded with his 
 squadron to Tunis, where he engaged in nego 
 tiations which resulted in the establishment of 
 friendly relations. In the spring of 1811, in the 
 " President," 44, off Annapolis, he heard that a 
 seaman had been impressed off Sandy Hook by 
 an English frigate; sailing for that point with 
 out delay, May 16 he hailed, about 8J P.M., a 
 vessel of war, but received no answer. After 
 a little delay, the stranger hailed, and imme 
 diately fired a shot that entered the " Presi 
 dent s" mainmast. After a short engagement, 
 in which his opponent was much crippled, he 
 ceased firing, and on the following morning 
 boarded, discovering her to be H.B.M. ship 
 " Little Belt," 22 guns, Capt. Bingham. The ac 
 counts given by the two commanders of this affair 
 differed materially, particularly as to the firing 
 of the first gun ; and it widened the breach which 
 already existed between the two nations. June 
 21, 1812, receiving official intelligence of the 
 declaration of war against Great Britain, Com 
 modore Rodgers sailed from New York in com 
 mand of a squadron ; June 23, while chasing the 
 British frigate " Belvidere," during a running 
 fight, a gun burst, killing and wounding 16, 
 Commodore Rodgers being among the latter ; in 
 a subsequent cruise he took the British packet 
 " Swallow," with a large amount of specie, and 
 the schooner " Highflyer" ; appointed June 14 to 
 the new frigate " Guerriere," he rendered im 
 portant service in the defense of Baltimore; from 
 April, 1815, to December, 1824, he served as 
 president of the Board of Navy Commissioners ; 
 Acting Secretary of the Navy, September to De 
 cember, 1823 ; and in 1824-27 in command of the 
 Mediterranean Squadron. On his return he was 
 again on the Board of Navy Commissioners, 
 which position he relinquished in 1837. 
 
 Rodgers, John, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Maryland, and appointed midshipman from 
 District of Columbia, April 18, 1828. Attached 
 to frigate "Constellation," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1829-32; Naval School, Norfolk, 1833-34. 
 
RODGERS 
 
 697 
 
 RODNEY 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 1834 ; 
 on leave, 1835; brig "Dolphin," Brazil Squad 
 ron, 1838-38; special service, 1839. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, January 22, 1840 ; 
 brig " Boxer," Home Squadron, 1841-43; special 
 service, 1844-45; sloop "Marion," Mediterra 
 nean Squadron, 1846-47 ; coast survey, 1848-52 ; 
 commanding steamer " John Hancock" and Sur 
 veying and Exploring Expeditions to North Pa 
 cific and China Seas, 1853-56. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855 ; special duty, Washington, D. C., 1857-59 ; 
 waiting orders, 1860. 
 
 In 1861, Commander Rodgers was ordered to 
 special duty in the West, superintending the 
 construction of the Benton class of ironclads. 
 In 1862 he was assigned to the command of the 
 ironclad steamer "Galena," and ordered to the 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. On May 
 10, 1862, Commander Rodgers left Hampton 
 Roads in command of an expedition of gun 
 boats, with orders to enter the James River, 
 and, if possible, to ascend the river to Rich 
 mond. After two engagements with rebel bat 
 teries, which were in each instance silenced, the 
 fleet reached Fort Darling, a casemated battery 
 erected on the crest of a hill, which, together 
 with sunken vessels, effectually obstructed the 
 channel. 
 
 On the morning of May 15, Commander Rod 
 gers anchored the " Galena" in front of and at a 
 distance of 500 yards from the rebel fort. The 
 "Aroostook" and "Port Royal," wooden gun 
 boats, were stationed 800 yards below the flag 
 ship. At 8 A.M. the vessels opened fire on Fort 
 Darling, and from that time until 12 M. kept up 
 a vigorous bombardment. At 12.10 P.M., Com 
 mander Rodgers having expended every shot and 
 shell in the magazine and shell-room of the " Ga 
 lena," made signal to withdraw from action, the 
 vessels retiring in good order, and giving the 
 rebels a parting shot as they steamed down the 
 river. The monitor being unable to give suffi 
 cient elevation to her guns, and the " Nauga- 
 tuck," better known as the Stevens battery, 
 having burst her rifle-gun at the first fire, were 
 rendered useless so far as the fort was concerned, 
 although both vessels did good service during the 
 action by stationing their crews as sharpshooters 
 and picking off the rebel riflemen who greatly 
 annoyed the crews of the wooden vessels. 
 
 The armor of the " Galena" did not prove of 
 any service to her. She was hit 129 times, losing 
 in killed and wounded two-thirds of her crew. 
 The "Aroostook" and "Port Royal" suffered 
 to a less extent. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862. 
 
 In 1863, Capt. Rodgers was ordered to the 
 command of the monitor " Weehawken," and 
 sailed from New York in that vessel for the 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. On his 
 way South, and while off the Delaware Break 
 water, he encountered a heavy gale. He was 
 urged to run in and remain until the storm 
 abated. This he declined to do, saying he 
 wished to test the sea-going qualities of the 
 monitors. The "Weehawken" rode out the 
 gale and reached Port Royal in safety. 
 
 On June 17, 1863, in Warsaw Sound, Ga., 
 Capt. Rodgers, in the " Weehawken," encoun 
 tered the powerful rebel ironclad "Atlanta," a 
 vessel of much greater tonnage than the " Wee 
 
 hawken." So confident were the rebels of a 
 speedy victory, that the " Atlanta" was ac 
 companied from Savannah to the scene of action 
 by boats freighted with gay parties eager to wit 
 ness the triumph of their vessel. Five shots were 
 fired by the "Weehawken." The fight lasted 
 but 15 minutes, at the end of which time the 
 " Atlanta" surrendered. An important feature 
 of this conflict was the final settlement of the 
 dispute as to the value of the new 15-inch gun, 
 which fully proved its merit. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, June 17, 1863 ; 
 commanding ironclad "Dictator," special ser 
 vice, 1864-65 ; commanded monitor " Monad- 
 nock," 1866-67; and in that vessel made the 
 passage around the Horn to San Francisco. Com 
 modore Rodgers touched at Valparaiso, and wit 
 nessed the bombardment of that place by the 
 Spanish fleet. 
 
 Commanding navy-yard, Boston, 1867-69. 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, December 31, 
 1869; commanding Asiatic Fleet, 1870-72; com 
 mandant Mare Island N*avy-Yard, 1873-77 ; su 
 perintendent Naval Observatory since May 1, 
 1877. 
 
 Rodman Gun. See ORDNANCE. 
 Rodney, George Brydges, Lord, was the son 
 of Capt. Rodney, who having won the favor 
 of George I. as the commander of the royal 
 yachts, the king gave his son a " letter of serv 
 ice," and at the early age of 12 he went to sea. 
 In 1739 he was promoted to lieutenant; post- 
 captain in 1742, and commander of the New 
 foundland Station, with the rank of commodore, 
 in 1748. In 1752 he returned home, and was 
 elected a member of Parliament. He after 
 wards commanded the " Fouguex," the " Prince 
 George," and the " Dublin" men-of-war. In 
 1759 he was promoted to rear-admiral. In July 
 of that year he bombarded Havre for 3 days, 
 destroying the town and fortifications. In 1761 
 he took Martinique, Grenada, and Santa Lucia. 
 In 1762 he became vice-admiral, and in 1764 was 
 made a baronet. In 1779 Spain and France 
 joined in war against England. The siege of 
 Gibraltar was undertaken, and Rodney was 
 ordered to the West India Station with 22 sail 
 of the line and 8 frigates, and was also ordered 
 to relieve Gibraltar en route. After capturing 7 
 Spanish ships of war he fell in, January 16, 1780, 
 with Admiral Langura off Cape St. Vincent. Of 
 the Spanish fleet 5 were captured and 2 destroyed. 
 After this action he sailed for the station of his 
 command, and on the 17th of April he defeated, 
 near Martinique, the French fleet under the 
 Count de Guichen. After this Rodney took 
 Eustatia from the Dutch, with 250 ships and 
 other booty. Demerara and Essequibo next sur 
 rendered. On April 12, 1782, together with 
 Hood and Drake, he encountered the French 
 fleet under De Grasse off Dominica. Each fleet 
 consisted of 30 ships of the line. The fight 
 lasted 12 hours, when De Grasse retired totally 
 defeated. The English loss was 7 ships and 2 
 frigates, and 600 men, while the French casual 
 ties were 3000 killed. 6000 wounded, and a train 
 of artillery besides their ships. Count De Grasse 
 was himself taken prisoner. For this great 
 victory, which saved Jamaica, ruined the naval 
 power of Spain and France, and gave the finish 
 ing blow to the war, Rodney was "elevated to the 
 peerage as Baron Rodney, and received a pension 
 
ROGER 
 
 698 
 
 RONCKENDORFF 
 
 *of 2000 per annum for himself and his succes 
 sors. He lived in retirement the rest of his life, 
 and died May 21, 1792. 
 
 Roger. The black flag hoisted by pirates. 
 
 Roger s Blast. A sudden and local motion 
 of the air resembling a whirlwind. 
 
 Rogue s March. The tune appropriated to 
 drumming a bad character out of a ship or out 
 of a regiment. 
 
 Rogue s Yarn. A yarn which differs from 
 the other yarns in a rope. It is twisted the con 
 trary way, or is different in color or material. 
 The object is to detect the theft of government 
 rope. 
 
 Roll. The oscillating movement of a ship 
 caused by the seas striking on her side. Under 
 the same circumstances of wind and sea the roll 
 depends on the position of the centre of gravity, 
 the construction of the ship, and the amount and 
 kind of sail carried. If the centre of gravity is 
 too low, the roll is short and jerky, and there is 
 danger of carrying away the masts ; if too high, 
 there is danger of capsizing ; if in the proper 
 place, the roll is long and deep, but easy, the 
 ship coming to her bearings gradually. 
 
 ROLLING-CHOCKS. The jaw-pieces fitted to a 
 yard. 
 
 ROLLING-ROPE. A rope used on a light- yard 
 to support it in heavy rolling. See ROLLING- 
 TACKLE. 
 
 ROLLING-TACKLE. A tackle from the quarter 
 of a lower or topsail yard to the mast, to steady 
 the yards in heavy rolling. It is also used on 
 the opposite quarter of the yard in taking in a 
 heavy weight, to take up a portion of the thrust 
 ing strain. With jaws or patent trusses rolling- 
 tackles are seldom used. 
 
 Roller. A heavy oceanic swell setting in 
 upon the coast. In mechanism, a piece having 
 a circular transverse section, placed between a 
 moving and a fixed body to avoid sliding contact 
 and its consequent friction. It may have the 
 form of either a c} 7 linder, cone, or sphere. Cyl 
 indrical rollers are used for motion in a plane 
 perpendicular to their axes ; and conical or spher 
 ical rollers for angular motions, as in receiving 
 the axial thrust of a shaft. 
 
 ROLLING-SWELL. That heaving of the sea 
 where the waves are very distant, forming deep 
 troughs between. 
 
 Roman Cement. A cement which hardens 
 under water ; used for piers, docks, etc. 
 
 Rombowline. See RUMBOWLINE. 
 
 Ronckendorff, William, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in Pennsylvania. Appointed from Penn 
 sylvania, February 17, 1832; attached to the 
 schooner " Experiment," on the coast, and trans 
 ferred to the schooner " Porpoise," West India 
 Squadron, 1832-33; frigate " Constitution" and 
 sloop " John Adams," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1835-37. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 23, 
 1838; brig "Consort," coast survey, 1839-41; 
 sloop " Preble," Mediterranean Squadron, 1842- 
 43. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, June 18, 1843 ; 
 frigate " Congress," Brazil Squadron, 1843-45; 
 1845, bearer of dispatches, by the way of the 
 Isthmus of Panama, to the commander-in-chief 
 of the Pacific Squadron, and served in that 
 squadron during the Mexican war, returning to 
 New York from that station in the frigate " Sa 
 
 vannah," September, 1847; sloop " Portsmouth," 
 coast of Africa, 1849-51 ; receiving-ship, New 
 York, 1852; frigate "Cumberland," Mediter 
 ranean Squadron, 1852-55 ; navy-yard, Phila 
 delphia, 1855-58 ; commanding steamer " M. W. 
 Chapin," Brazil Squadron and Paraguay Expe 
 dition, 1859; attached to coast survey, 1860. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, June 29, 1861 ; 
 on February 28, 1861, Commander Ronckendorff 
 was ordered to take command of the steamer 
 " Water- Witch," and proceeded to the Gulf 
 Squadron, on special service, until October 12, 
 
 1861, at which date he was detached and ordered 
 to proceed North as bearer of important dis 
 patches to the Hon. Secretary of the Navy, from 
 Flag-Officer McKean ; December 27,1861, or 
 dered to the steam-sloop " San Jacinto," and on 
 March 4, 1862, ordered to proceed with that ves 
 sel in search of the ship-of-the-line " Vermont," 
 supposed to be on George s Shoals ; March 8, re 
 turned to Boston Navy- Yard, and on the follow 
 ing day ordered to proceed to Hampton Roads 
 with the " San Jacinto," with greatest dispatch, 
 and report to the senior officer present, to watch 
 and attack, if necessary, the Confederate steamer 
 " Merrimac" ; May 15, 1862, participated in the 
 attack on the fortifications on SewelPs Point ; 
 May 18, 1862, proceeded to Norfolk with the "San 
 Jacinto"; May 23, 1862, sailed from Hampton 
 Roads to Key West with Flag-Officer Lardner 
 onboard; August 1, 1862, returned North with 
 the "San Jacinto," by order of flag-officer, 
 having yellow fever on board ; September 29, 
 
 1862, ordered to join the North Atlantic Squad 
 ron with the " San Jacinto," and to proceed off 
 Wilmington, N. C., blockading; October 9, 
 1862, ordered to return from Wilmington with 
 the " San Jacinto" to Hampton Roads ; October 
 26, 1862, ordered to proceed in the " San Jacinto" 
 to Bermuda, and cruise among the West India 
 Islands in search of the rebel steamer " Ala 
 bama" ; May 26, 1863, detached from the " Sun 
 Jacinto," and reported for the command of the 
 steam-sloop u Ticonderoga" ; May 28, 1863, or 
 dered to the West Indies, in the " Ticonderoga," 
 as flag-ship of that squadron, under Rear-Ad- 
 mirarLardner, to look after the rebel cruisers ; 
 September 28, 1863, ordered to Philadelphia in 
 the " Ticonderoga" for repairs ; October 16, 1863, 
 detached from the " Ticonderoga" and ordered 
 to the command of the frigate " Powhatan," and 
 to proceed to the West Indies as flag-ship of that 
 squadron ; October 14, 1864, detached from the 
 command of the " Powhatan," she having re 
 turned home ; October 18, 1864, ordered to report 
 to Rear-Admiral Gregory, at New York, for spe 
 cial duty; was ordered West on a court of in 
 quiry, held at Erie, Chicago, Cincinnati, Louis 
 ville, Ky., and then returned to Philadelphia; 
 February 15, 1865, ordered to command the iron 
 clad " Monadnock," up the James River, was 
 there until the evacuation of Richmond, came 
 down the river and anchored off Fortress Mon 
 roe to look out for the " Stonewall" ; in May, 
 sailed in the " Monadnock," in a squadron com 
 manded by Admiral Godon, to Havana, in 
 search of the " Stonewall" ; July 9, 1865, trans 
 ferred from the ironclad " Monadnock" to the 
 ironclad "Tonawanda," and, after a short cruise 
 in her, was detached, she being laid up, and or 
 dered to command the receiving-ship at Phila 
 delphia, January 1, 1866 ; Commander Roncken- 
 
EOOD-GOOSE 
 
 699 
 
 HOPE 
 
 dorff was actively employed during the whole 
 period of the Rebellion ; in charge of ironclads, 
 New Orleans, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1873. Retired 
 November 9, 1874. 
 
 Rood-goose. A name for the brent-goose. 
 
 Rooke, Sir George, a distinguished British 
 admiral, was born in 1650, near Canterbury. 
 At the age of 30 he was a post-captain, and in 
 1089 was promoted to rear-admiral. He was en 
 gaged in the action off Beachy Head, between 
 the Earl of Torrington and the French Admiral 
 De Tourville, and in 1692 he took part in the 
 memorable battle of La Hogue. On this occa 
 sion, for his dashing and brilliant services, he re 
 ceived the rank of vice-admiral of the red, the 
 honor of knighthood, and a pension of .1000 
 per year. His next service of importance was 
 the destruction of a Spanish plate fleet in the 
 port of Vigo ; and in July, 1704, in conjunction 
 with Sir Cloudesley Shovel, he captured Gibral 
 tar. On August 9 of the same year he fought 
 off Malaga a vastly superior French fleet under 
 the Comte de Toulouse, and although the English 
 fleet won the battle, the victory was a barren one, 
 as the French fleet escaped. Upon Sir George s 
 return he was received with marked distinction 
 by Queen Anne ; but the government being hos 
 tile to him, he resigned his positions, and until 
 his death on the 24th of January, 1709, he lived 
 in retirement on the family property in Kent. 
 
 Rooke, or Rouke. A mist, dampness, or fog. 
 
 Room, Roomer, or Going Room. An old 
 term for going large. To go room, to bear up. 
 
 Room and Space. The space occupied by 
 each frame of the ship, or the distance of the 
 frames from centre to centre. 
 
 Roost. A phrase applied to races of strong 
 and furious tides which set in between the Ork 
 ney and Shetland Islands, as those of Sumburgh 
 and the start. 
 
 Rope. " A large stout twisted cord of not 
 less, usually, than an inch in circumference. It 
 differs from cord, line, and string only in its 
 size." (Webster.) 
 
 The different kinds of rope are designated by 
 the material of which they are made, by the pe 
 culiarities of their manufacture, by their sizes, 
 number of strands of which they are composed, 
 and by the various uses to which they may be 
 adapted. 
 
 Plain-laid rope is made by laying three strands 
 together right-handed, or from left to right. 
 
 Cable- or hawser-laid rope consists of 9 strands, 
 and is made by laying 3 plain-laid ropes together 
 left-handed, or from right to left. 
 
 Cable-laid stay consists of 12 strands or 4 plain- 
 laid ropes, closed as above, to form a single rope. 
 
 Shroud-laid rope is made by laying 4 strands 
 together right-handed, and takes its name from 
 the use to which it is generally applied. It is 
 usually made with a heart to fill up the space 
 in the centre of the strands, which assists in 
 keeping them in place when subjected to a heavy 
 strain. 
 
 Back-handed rope is made by twisting each 
 strand right-handed, or in the same direction as 
 the yarns, and laying the strands together left- 
 handed. 
 
 The materials from which rope is principally 
 manufactured are hemp, or the fibre of the cul 
 tivated hemp plant, abaca, or manilla, which, is 
 
 the fibre obtained from a species of banana found 
 in large quantities in the Philippine Islands, 
 hide, and wire. 
 
 In some localities, rope of an inferior quality 
 is made from cotton, coir, or the fibre obtained 
 from the cocoa-nut palm, and jute, which resem 
 bles hemp, but has less strength and durability. 
 
 The hemp used for rope in the United States 
 is principally of native growth or imported from 
 Russia. An article of superior value is produced 
 in Italy, but it is less used for the manufacture 
 of cordage than for other purposes. The quality 
 of the fibre varies considerably with the climate 
 and soil in which it is raised, experiments show 
 ing that the average breaking strain of rope- 
 yarns No. 20 for a strand of 3-inch rope, made 
 from the different kinds of hemp, are as follows: 
 Italian, 157 pounds; Russian, 153 pounds; 
 American, 141.5 pounds. 
 
 The fibre is prepared for use by a process called 
 retting or rotting, which consists in placing the 
 stalks in water until fermentation takes place. 
 By this means the glutinous matter which binds 
 the fibre to the woody portion of the stalk is set 
 free. The same result is sometimes obtained by 
 exposing the stalks to dew and rain, and the 
 process is then called dew-rotting, but a longer 
 time is required than by the former method. 
 
 The stalks, having been rotted and dried, un 
 dergo the process of breaking, by which they are 
 cracked by repeated blows, and the brittle, 
 woody portion separated from the fibre, which 
 falls away when beaten with a broad wooden 
 blade in the process of scutching. 
 
 The hemp is further prepared for spinning by 
 the operation of hackling, which consists of 
 drawing a bunch of the fibre through a set of 
 long, sharp steel points placed in an upright 
 position, for the purpose of straightening it and 
 removing the tow, or shorter fibre of less value, 
 and dust. The tow which is thus separated is 
 sometimes -used in the manufacture of inferior 
 qualities of rope. 
 
 Hackling is also done by means of a machine 
 consisting of a revolving drum armed upon its 
 surface with steel points, which, gradually in 
 creasing in length, separate the tow from the 
 more valuable fibre. 
 
 The hackled hemp is then passed through the 
 spreader, by which it is again combed and 
 straightened by the teeth attached to the endless 
 chain of hackle-bars, and leaves this machine in 
 a loose strand of fibre called a roping or sliver. 
 Several of these ropings are then subjected to 
 a similar operation in a machine called the 
 drawing-frame, by which they are formed into 
 a smoother and more regular roping of the size 
 required for spinning the yarn. The ropings, 
 which coil themselves into large tin boxes or 
 cylinders as they come from the drawing-frames, 
 are then taken to the jennies for spinning. 
 
 The spinning-jenny consists of an iron frame 
 of rectangular shape, about 12 feet long and 4 
 feet high, and varying in width from 2 to 3 feet. 
 The roping is drawn from its box, which is 
 placed at the end of the jenny, by an endless 
 chain of gill-bars, and carried to the mouth-piece, 
 a flat metallic plate placed in an upright position. 
 
 Connected with the mouth-piece is an attach 
 ment for regulating, automatically, the speed of 
 the gill-bars according to the size of the roping, 
 so as to make a yarn of uniform size. The rop- 
 
EOPE 
 
 TOO 
 
 ROPE 
 
 ing next passes between two calender rollers, 
 tongued and grooved, and lastly through the 
 flyer, by which it is twisted, and is wound upon 
 the bobbin placed between the arms of the flyer. 
 
 The yarns next undergo the process of tarring 
 by placing a number of the bobbins in frames at 
 one end of the tarring-room, and leading the 
 yarns through a guide-plate into a large trough 
 filled with tar heated to a temperature of about 
 200 F. The yarns, after leaving the tar, pass 
 through holes in another plate, by which the tar 
 is scraped off, and from thence between nipper- 
 rollers, which presses them dry, and are wound 
 upon bobbins at the other end of the tarring- 
 room ready for the final processes of the rope- 
 walk. 
 
 The bobbins are again placed in upright frames 
 at the end of the rope-walk, the ends of as many 
 yarns as are required to form the strand are 
 passed through the register-tube into which they 
 fit closely, and are fastened to one of the hooks 
 on the face of the hauling-down machine. This 
 machine runs upon a track the length of the 
 rope-walk. The same band by which it is pro 
 pelled carries the machinery for turning the 
 hooks to which the strands are attached, and the 
 machine, traveling away from the bobbins, draws 
 the yarns through the register-tube and twists 
 them into strands. 
 
 The laying of the strands is performed by two 
 machines called the upper and lower layers, the 
 former traveling on a track as required, and the 
 latter being stationary. Each strand is attached 
 to a separate hook on the lower layer, and all of 
 the strands for the same rope are fastened to the 
 same spindle on the upper layer, each strand be 
 ing twisted while the rope is laid by the upper 
 layer. A wooden frame called the top-sled 
 travels on tracks overhead, and supports a coni 
 cal instrument called a top, which is placed be 
 tween the strands at the point of meeting, and 
 serves to keep them in place by laying them in 
 the grooves on its surface, as well as to regulate 
 the hardness of the lay. Its progress, caused by 
 the pressure of the strands in laying, is retarded 
 by means of stoppers or tails, which are passed 
 around the rope between the top and upper 
 layer. 
 
 The estimated loss in the strength of the fibre 
 in spinning, twisting, and laying is 25 per cent., 
 while 33 per cent, of the length is lost in the 
 same operation. 
 
 Ropes of the smaller sizes are also made by 
 the use of the " Woodward laying machine," 
 which both twists the strands and lays the rope. 
 
 Small-stuff, such as marline, houseline, spun- 
 yarn, etc., is generally made from American 
 hemp by the process of hand-spinning. 
 
 The manufacture of rope from abaca, or ma- 
 nilla, differs only in the preparation of the fibre 
 before it is spun. Rotting is not required as in 
 the preparation of hemp fibre, but the leaf-stalks 
 having been torn into strips, the fibre is separated 
 from the pulp. The coarser qualities of the 
 fibre, which are best fitted for rope, are taken 
 from the outside layer of the stalk. 
 
 Before passing through the spreader the manilla 
 fibre is oiled, but no tar is used except in the 
 making of large cables, when the outside yarns 
 of each strand are sometimes tarred. 
 
 Hides are prepared while in a green state, by 
 being cut into strips of regular width on a re 
 
 volving table, and the strips are then formed 
 into strands and laid into rope by the processes 
 already described. 
 
 Wire rope is used to a great extent both on 
 shore and on shipboard, where strength and 
 durability are required, rather than flexibility. 
 It is made from steel or iron wire. Plain steel 
 wire is about 56 per cent, stronger than plain 
 iron wire, and 65 per cent, stronger than an 
 nealed iron wire. The process of annealing ren 
 ders the wire less brittle and better suited for 
 some purposes on shipboard. Both steel and 
 iron wire may be galvanized, and this process 
 does not detract from its strength. Small sizes 
 of rope made from copper wire are used for 
 lightning-conductors. 
 
 All machinery for the manufacture of wire 
 rope is of the same general construction, but the 
 machines are lighter or heavier, according to the 
 size of the rope required. They consist of two 
 parallel iron rings several feet apart, through the 
 centres of which passes an upright shaft, con 
 nected at their peripheries by several movable 
 iron frames, which hold the wire bobbins, the 
 whole resembling a frame-work of cylindrical 
 shape placed in an upright position. The bob 
 bin-frames are connected with the central shaft 
 by gearing in such a manner that while the 
 cylinder revolves about the shaft, carrying the 
 bobbins with it, a reverse motion is given to the 
 bobbin-frames, which prevents the twisting and 
 consequent injury to the wire. The wires meet 
 above the cylinder, and form the strand by being 
 twisted about a heart of small hemp line, which 
 passes over a pulley down to the reel upon which 
 it is wound. The process of laying the rope is 
 the same as that of forming the strand. 
 
 The following rules for finding the breaking 
 strain of rope manufactured at the navy-yard, 
 Boston, has been furnished by Mr M. H. Web 
 ber, superintendent of the rope-walk : 
 
 Untarred hemp rope, square of circumference in inches X 
 
 1371.4 = strength in pounds. 
 Tarred hemp rope, square of circumference in inches X 
 
 1044.9 = strength in pounds. 
 Manilla hemp rope, square of circumference in inches X 
 
 783.7 = strength in pounds. 
 Steel wire rope, weight in pounds per fathom X 798 = 
 
 strength in pounds. 
 Charcoal wire rope, weight in pounds per fathom X 4480 == 
 
 strength in pounds. 
 
 E. T Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 ROPE-WALK. A long building or room where 
 rope is manufactured. It is so called from the 
 walking back and forth of the workmen in the 
 operation of hand-spinning. 
 
 It is distinguished from manufactories called 
 "cordage works," in which a different kind of 
 machinery is used, and which do not require 
 buildings of great length. 
 
 Connected with the rope-walk are rooms or 
 buildings where the fibre in bales is received and 
 hackled, where the fibre is made into roping?, and 
 where the ropings are spun into yarns. There 
 are also rooms for oiling, tarring, hand-spinning, 
 etc. 
 
 Upon the floor of the rope- walk are placed the 
 tracks for the machines used in twisting the 
 strands and laying the rope. String-posts are 
 placed at intervals near the tracks, from each of 
 which a wooden arm extends several feet in 
 length, and upon which the strands are placed 
 after being completed. The strands are kept in 
 
EOKQUAL 
 
 701 
 
 BOUGH LOG 
 
 place by means of wooden pegs inserted in the 
 upper surface of the arms. E. T. Strong, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 ROPE S-END. The end of a rope. To rope s- 
 end, to administer a drubbing with the end of a 
 rope. 
 
 Rorqual, or Furrowed Whale. A name of 
 Scandinavian origin applied to the finback 
 whales, distinguished from the right-whales by 
 the small size of their heads, shortness of their 
 whalebone, the presence of a dorsal tin, and of a 
 series of conspicuous longitudinal folds or fur 
 rows in the skin of the throat and chest. 
 
 Rose. An attachment to a pipe, spout, or 
 hose-nozzle, by which a stream of water is scat 
 tered into drops or spray by passing through a 
 perforated plate or cap. 
 
 Rose-lashing, or Rose-seizing. A lashing 
 or seizing in which the parts are passed alter 
 nately over and under, the end being expended 
 around the crossing. 
 
 Rosina. A Tuscan gold coin, value about 
 $4.10. 
 
 Ross, Sir James Clark, was born in London 
 in 1800. He entered the navy in 1812, and served 
 under his uncle (Sir John) in the Baltic, the 
 White Sea, the coast of Scotland, and in all the 
 expeditions for the discovery of the northwest 
 passage. It was while on his second Arctic 
 voyage that he discovered, in 1831, the north 
 magnetic pole, and on his return he was re 
 warded with a post-captaincy. In 1836 he crossed 
 the Atlantic to relieve the frozen whalers in 
 Baffin s Bay, and in 1839 he was placed in com 
 mand of the Antarctic Expedition, and ap 
 proached within 160 miles of the south magnetic 
 pole. In 1843 he received the honor of knight 
 hood. In 1848 he made a voyage to Baffin s 
 Bay in search of Sir John Franklin, but with 
 out success. He received a number of medals, 
 and was made a D.C.L. of Oxford. He died in 
 1862. 
 
 Ross, Sir John, C.B., was born June 24, 1777, 
 at Balsarrock, Wigtonshire. He entered the 
 navy in 1787; was promoted to lieutenant in 
 1802, commander in 1809, and post-captain in 
 1818. While a lieutenant he was wounded in 
 cutting out a Spanish vessel from under the bat 
 teries of Bilboa, in 1808. His more important 
 services were rendered in the Arctic regions in 
 1818, with Sir W. G. Parry. In May, 1829, he 
 was employed on a fresh expedition fitted out by 
 Sir Felix Booth, and on this expedition he dis 
 covered the peninsula of Boothia Felix, and 
 upon his return he received the honor of knight 
 hood, and was made C.B. In 1838 he was ap 
 pointed British consul at Stockholm, where he 
 remained some vears. He became a rear-admiral 
 in 1851, and died August 30, 1856. 
 
 Rostock, a city of Germany, in Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, on the Warnow, 9 miles from its 
 mouth in the Baltic, in lat. 54 & N., Ion. 10 
 14 E. It has numerous manufactories of woolen 
 cloth, soap, and chiccory, extensive breweries, 
 distilleries, and sugar-refineries. Its trade is 
 extensive; the exports consist principally of 
 superior red wheat, barley, pease, rape-seed, oats, 
 wool, horses, cattle, and provisions, and the im 
 ports are colonial produce, wines, and manu 
 factured goods. Vessels drawing more than 9 
 feet of water unload at Warnemiinde, its out- 
 port. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Rostral- crown. The naval crown anciently 
 awarded to the individual who first boarded an 
 enemy s ship. 
 
 Rostrum. The prow of a galley. 
 
 Rotary Blower, or Fan. A machine in which 
 a current or blast of air is induced by the motion 
 of vanes, blades, or fans inclosed in a suitable 
 case provided with supply and discharge open 
 ings, and secured by radial arms to a revolving 
 shaft so as to present their broadsides in the di 
 rection of their motion. In the ordinary fan- 
 blower, the action depends upon the centrifugal 
 force of the air induced by rapid revolution ; and 
 in some devices, the vanes or plates act as pis 
 tons passing round a segment of an annular 
 space between two cylinders. 
 
 Rotary Pump. A pump by which water is 
 thrown by the action of a rectangular piston 
 rotating round a cylinder on an axis parallel to 
 one of its sides and* to the axis of the cylinder, 
 though not coincident therewith. There are 
 numerous varieties. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, by which water is thrown 
 by the centrifugal action of rapidly revolving 
 vanes, are sometimes called rotary pumps. 
 
 Rotary Steam-engine. A steam-engine in 
 which the steam acts upon a rectangular piston 
 rotating round a cylinder on an axis parallel to 
 one of its sides and to the axis of the cylinder, 
 though not coincident therewith. This form of 
 engine, of which there are many varieties, is not 
 in general use, owing principally to the imprac 
 ticability of making the piston and valves steam- 
 tight. 
 
 Rotary Valve. A valve which, in rotating 
 about its axis, alternately opens and closes pas 
 sages or parts for the admission or ejection of 
 steam or other fluid to or from a cylinder or other 
 vessel. 
 
 Rotten Row. A row of old vessels in ordi 
 nary. 
 
 Rotterdam, in South Holland, in the Nether 
 lands, is situated at the confluence of the Kotte 
 with the Maas, in lat. 51 55 3" N., Ion. 4 29 
 >" E. This city is more favorably situated for 
 trade than Amsterdam ; its canals admit the 
 largest vessels. Its commerce has increased 
 rapidly, and it now exports to the West Indies 
 provisions, wines, and manufactured goods ; to 
 England and Scotland cheese, butter, flax, 
 fruits, sheep, and cattle, and it has also a con 
 siderable trade with America, France, Spain, 
 Portugal, and the northern countries of Europe. 
 Besides its extensive commerce it has many dis 
 tilleries, breweries, dye-works, refineries, and 
 ship-building yards Pop. 125,000. 
 
 Rouen, the capital of the department of Seine- 
 Inferieure, France, is located on the right bank 
 of the Seine, in lat. 49 26 N., Ion. 1 6 E. 
 The staple manufactures are cottons in a great 
 variety of forms. It is also famous for its con 
 fectionery. There are also tanneries, sugar-re 
 fineries, copper- and iron-foundries, forges and 
 rolling-mills. Situated as it is on a navigable 
 river, accessible by large vessels, it has a consid 
 erable trade in grain, flour, wine, brandy, salt, 
 oil, wool, and the various articles of its manu 
 facture. Pop. 105,000. 
 
 Rough-knots, or Rough Nauts. Unsophisti 
 cated seamen. 
 
 Rough Log. The book in which the journal 
 of the ship is originally written. A smooth copy, 
 
BOUGH-SPARS 
 
 702 
 
 ROUTINE 
 
 signed by the watch-officers, is inspected by the 
 commanding officer, and forwarded to the Navy 
 Department. See LOG-BOOK. 
 
 Rough-spars. Cut timber before being worked 
 into masts, etc. 
 
 Round. The rung or step of a Jacob s lad 
 der. A round of ammunition, a charge for each 
 fire-arm or piece of ordnance. To round a point, 
 to sail round it ; to double it. To round to, to 
 haul by the wind when sailing large. To round 
 in, to haul in on a weather brace. To round 
 up, to haul in on a fall so as to bring the two 
 blocks together, the movable block being dis 
 connected from the weight. To round down, to 
 overhaul a tackle to permit the lower block to 
 descend. 
 
 Round and Grape. A term used when a gun 
 is charged with a solid shot and grape-shot or 
 canister. It was used in former times at close 
 quarters. 
 
 Round Dozen. A term for thirteen lashes. 
 
 Roundhouse. A name given, in large mer 
 chantmen, to a square cabin built on the after 
 part of the quarter-deck. In men-of-war the 
 roundhouse is the place set apart for the con 
 venience of the officers. 
 
 Rounding. Strands wrapped around a rope to 
 prevent chafe. 
 
 Roundly. Quickly. 
 
 Round-ribbed. A vessel of burden with very 
 little run and a flattish bottom, the ribs some 
 times almost joining the keel horizontally. 
 
 Round Robin, A paper signed with the 
 names arranged in a circle, so that it is impos 
 sible to tell who signed it first. The object is to 
 prevent the singling out and punishing of the 
 first signer. 
 
 Round Seam. A seam in which the edges 
 are sewed together without lapping. 
 
 Round Seizing. See SEIZING. 
 
 Round Shot. Spherical solid shot. 
 
 Round Splice. A long splice skillfully made. 
 
 Round the Fleet. A ^diabolical punishment, 
 by which a man, lashed to a frame in a boat, 
 was towed alongside of every ship in a fleet, to 
 receive a certain number of lashes by sentence 
 of court-martial. 
 
 Round-top. A name which has obtained for 
 modern tops, from the shape of the ancient ones. 
 See TOP. 
 
 Round Turn. A turn with a rope entirely 
 around a spar or belaying-pin. To bring up with 
 a round turn, to stop suddenly and effectually. 
 See HAWSE. 
 
 Rouse. To haul with great force. Rouse and 
 bitt! turn out ! get out of bed ! 
 
 Routine of Duty in a Man-of-war. In carry 
 ing on the duties of a man-of-war a systematic 
 routine is adopted. This varies whether at peace 
 or in war, in port or at sea, in warm or in cold 
 climates ; whether the ship is a cruiser, a survey 
 ing-ship, a receiving-ship, a training-ship, a prac 
 tice-ship, a flag-ship, or a gunnery-ship, an ar 
 mored or an unarmored vessel ; but the same 
 general ideas govern the routine in all these 
 cases. The principal written routines are for 
 harbor- or sea-duty, and being prepared by the 
 executive-officer and sanctioned by the captain, 
 are promulgated to the crew, and carried out by 
 the watch- and junior officers. Routines are also 
 prepared for the engine-room, and the duty in 
 the paymaster s and surgeon s department is 
 
 carried on in a systematic way, although no 
 written routines exist. Routines are arranged 
 with reference to the quarter, month, week, day, 
 or watch. The quarterly routine prescribes the 
 arranging and forwarding the reports required 
 from all officers in command or in charge of de 
 partments, and an inspection by the commander- 
 in-chief and staff of all vessels in the fleet. Chains 
 and anchors are carefully overhauled once a 
 quarter, and target practice with great guns and 
 with small-arms, at the most convenient times, 
 is usual. The monthly routine prescribes the 
 reports required, and on the first Sunday the 
 crew are mustered and the "Articles of War" 
 are read to them ; on the first Monday ham 
 mocks are scrubbed, on the second, bedding, 
 on the third, hammocks, and on the fourth, 
 bedding. Once a month hammocks are triced 
 up in the rigging, opened out, and bedding 
 thoroughly aired. Every alternate Saturday it 
 is usual to scrub wind-sails, and every alternate. 
 Wednesday, hose-reels, boat-covers, gangway- 
 screens, etc. On the last day of the month offi 
 cers of divisions inspect the clothing and outfit 
 of each man and make requisitions for defi 
 ciencies therein, and soon after the first of the 
 month the paymaster issues to the crew the ar 
 ticles required". Money in small amounts is paid 
 to the men each month, and mess-stores issued 
 twice in a month. The weekly routine is subject 
 to greater variations. On Sundays only necessary 
 cleaning is done. After quarters and inspection 
 of the crew, divine service is read. On Mondays, 
 Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays 
 clothes are scrubbed at sea, and on Mondays, 
 Wednesdays, and Fridays in port. Decks are 
 scrubbed on these days ; with sand on Wednes 
 days, only. On Saturdays, decks are thoroughly 
 "holystoned" with sand, guns run in, all wood 
 work scrubbed, and the ship thoroughly cleaned 
 inside and out. Sometimes particular parts of 
 the uniform are scrubbed on each day, but this 
 is not usual. With the weekly routine is con 
 nected the drill routine, prescribing the mode 
 of canning on the drills. On Mondays, general 
 quarters as for action and drills thereon, and on 
 Fridays, a fire-alarm and drills connected with 
 it, are usual. On Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and 
 Thursdays the various divisions of men alter 
 nate in exercises at the guns, at small-arms, with 
 singlesticks, pistols, howitzers, or Gatlings. Once 
 a week battalion drill is usual, and the squadron 
 of boats also goes out. 
 
 The daily routine is carried out by watches. 
 The men are roused by "reveille" in port, the 
 " idlers" at sea at early daylight, and the watch 
 at sea at 7 A.M. The "morning" watch is con 
 sumed by the scrubbing of clothes and decks, and 
 at sea, getting sails in order, etc. Sometimes 
 an early breakfast is given, sometimes at 8 in 
 port, allowing three-quarters of an hour. At 
 sea, one watch goes to breakfast at 7.30, and the 
 other at 8. At 8 "colors" are hoisted, and in 
 port sails are loosed to dry or light yards sent 
 up. The forenoon watch lasts until 12. Break 
 fast over at 8.30, bright metal-work is cleaned, 
 and at 9 "sick call" is beaten for the invalids 
 to assemble in the hospital. At 9.30 the drum 
 beats to "quarters" for inspection, and drills 
 follow. After thej T are over, the mechanics and 
 laboring-parties go to work. At sea, the navi 
 gator is sent for at 11.30, and the sun announces 
 
EOVE 
 
 ROWAN 
 
 to him noon and the latitude. In port, sails 
 when loosed are often furled at 11.30, or wash- 
 clothes sent below. Dinner comes in all cases 
 at 12, and one hour is allowed to all in port, 
 half an hour to each watch at sea. Sometimes, in 
 the afternoon, a drill with sails, boats, or mus 
 kets follows, and work is resumed. At 4, 4.30, 
 or 5, half an hour is given to supper. Afterwards 
 evening quarters for muster comes, and at dusk 
 hammocks are given out. Fires are put out at 
 8, and "tattoo" beaten at 9. There is no rou 
 tine for the night watches. F. S. Bassett, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 Rove. A small copper ring or washer over 
 which the end of a nail is clinched. 
 
 Rovens. A corruption of rope-bands. Also, 
 the ravelings of canvas or bunting. 
 
 Rover. A pirate or freebooter. (See PIRATE.) 
 Also, a kind of piratical galley of the Barbary 
 States. 
 
 Roving Commission. An authority granted 
 to an officer in command of a vessel to cruise 
 wherever he may see fit. 
 
 Row. To propel a vessel by oars or sweeps. 
 To row dry, to so manage the oars as not to 
 splash water into the stern-sheets of the boat. A 
 dry row is a punishment administered for some 
 offense connected with boats or rowing. The of 
 fender is sent into a boat at the davits and re 
 quired to go through the motions of rowing, 
 much to his own discomfiture and to the amuse 
 ment of the ship s company. To row in the same 
 boat, to hold similar opinions ; to indulge in 
 similar practices. 
 
 Several styles of rowing are to be met with in 
 different parts of the world. We give a long 
 full stroke with a quick return, depressing the 
 loom just sufficient to clear the water on the re 
 turn ; the English generally feather high, throw 
 ing the blade above the horizontal ; but the 
 most peculiar style is that known as the Dago 
 stroke, in which the oarsmen take a long stroke, 
 and then wait for the headway to cease before 
 giving another ; it is supposed, by the people who 
 are addicted to it, to border on the majestic. The 
 breo.st-stroke is affected in single-banked boats; 
 the oarsmen push the loom of the oar well for 
 ward beyond their bodies, the worst possible 
 application of force. Feathering is inclining the 
 upper edge of the blade forward, after the stroke 
 is finished, in order that it may be released 
 readily from the water, and also to present a 
 small resistance to the air on the return. If the 
 oar is not feathered the blade is apt to be swept 
 aft and the loom jammed in the rowlock, before 
 it can be raised clear of the water ; this is termed 
 catching a crab. 
 
 ROWLOCK. An aperture cut in, or a swivel 
 crutch fitted on, the gunwale of a boat, to act as 
 a fulcrum for an oar in rowing. 
 
 ROW-PORTS. Certain scuttles or square holes, 
 formerly cut through the sides of the smaller 
 vessels of war, near the surface of the water, for 
 the purpose of rowing them along in a calm or 
 light wind, by heavy sweeps, each worked by 
 several men. 
 
 Rowan, S. C., Vice- Admiral U.S.N. Through 
 the influence of the Hon. William McLean, of 
 Ohio, the brother of that distinguished states 
 man and jurist, the Hon. John McLean, an ap 
 pointment as midshipman in the navy was 
 secured for young Rowan. Before entering upon 
 
 this careen a f pareer entirely congenial to his 
 nature and tastes he passed some time at Oxford 
 College, Ohio, devoting his time and attention 
 to such studies as would be most useful in pre 
 paring himself for the profession he was about to 
 embark in. Shortly after receiving his appoint 
 ment, in 1826, he was ordered to the sloop-of-war 
 " Vincennes," attached to the Pacific Squadron, 
 on board of which ship, and on that station, he 
 served a full cruise. In 1831 he was attached to 
 the schooner " Enterprise." 
 
 Promoted to a passed midshipman, April 28, 
 1832, he was ordered to the sloop-of-war " Van- 
 dalia," and remained two years on board that 
 vessel in the West Indies. In 1837 he was or 
 dered to the store-ship "Relief," and in the 
 same year commissioned as a lieutenant. In 
 1840 he was engaged on coast survey duty, and 
 in 1843 was serving on board the line-of-battle 
 ship "Delaware," on the Brazilian Station. 
 In 1846-48 he was the executive-officer of 
 the sloop-of-war " Cyane," attached to the Pa 
 cific Squadron, and took an active part in the 
 war then waging with Mexico.* As the execu 
 tive of that vessel he succeeded in impressing 
 upon the personnel of the ship his own individu 
 ality, and no vessel in that squadron was more 
 conspicuous for discipline, drill, efficiency, and 
 service. Always in readiness, she was actively 
 and constantly engaged, and her opportune 
 arrival at San Jose, Cal., saved that stubborn 
 fighter and brave gentleman, the noble Hey wood, 
 and his gallant party from annihilation or cap 
 ture. While attached to this vessel Lieut. Rowan 
 commanded the naval battalion under Commo 
 dore Stockton in its various operations against 
 the enemy, and at the battle of Mesa was con 
 spicuous for cool judgment, courage, and dis 
 tinguished service. The results of this battle 
 were the occupation of Los Angeles, the capital 
 of the country, and the surrender of California by 
 the Mexican governor, Don Andreas Pico, to the 
 authorities of the United States. After the occu 
 pation of Mazatlan by the naval forces, Lieut. 
 Rowan commanded a landing-party that marched 
 some distance into the country and made a suc 
 cessful night attack upon the enemy, driving 
 them with loss from their position ; he was also 
 engaged while attached to the " Cyane" in the 
 bombardment of Guaymas. During the years 
 1850-63 and 1858-61, Lieut. Rowan devoted 
 himself to ordnance duty in acquiring a thorough 
 knowledge of that important branch of the ser 
 vice, and thus preparing himself in this respect 
 for the high command and heavy responsibilities 
 which were so soon to devolve upon him. 
 
 In September, 1855, he was promoted to a com 
 mander, and ordered to the command of the 
 store-ship "Relief." The breaking out of the 
 Rebellion found him in command of the steam 
 sloop-of-war " Pawnee." Almost without warn 
 ing this terrible civil war, with all its attendant 
 
 * Upon the arrival of Commodore Sloat in Monterey, Cal., 
 the policy of the government in the recently inaugurated war 
 with Mexico had not been announced to that officer, and he 
 was left to his own judgment to determine the question. For 
 tunately he was sin-rounded by officers of the stamp of Rowan 
 and the present Medical Director Charles D. Maxwell, than 
 whom no officers were more zealous in advocating the imme 
 diate occupation of California, and the hoisting of our flag 
 upon its soil. To the navy alone the Republic Is indebted for 
 the acquisition of this splendid territory with all its untold 
 wealth. 
 
ROWAN 
 
 704 
 
 ROWAN 
 
 consequences, shook the land from it centre to 
 its remotest boundaries. Commander Rowan 
 had married, in Norfolk, Va., the daughter of 
 Dr. Starke. an eminent citizen of that city, and 
 there resided ; it was the home of his adoption 
 and of his affections ; there were the friends of 
 many years, the attachments of a life. Those 
 who know the high-strung character of this 
 people know with what an earnest purpose they 
 entered into the strife, and how quick they sprang 
 to action. No time was given and none re 
 quired by Rowan to determine what course he 
 would take. Abandoning home and friends and 
 all that made life attractive, his course was at 
 once determined, and in the cause of the Union 
 and in defense of the flag he drew his sword with an 
 unfaltering spirit and determined heart. Would 
 that the high and lofty motives actuating this 
 gentleman had entered into the souls of those 
 who went astray after false doctrines and heresies, 
 and so preserved them also to the navy and the 
 service of the country to receive its highest 
 honors ! The government, knowing the lofty 
 character and reputation of Rowan, had no mis 
 givings as to his loyalty, and he was continued in 
 command of the "Pawnee." In this vessel he 
 engaged, shortly after the breaking out of hos 
 tilities, the enemy s batteries at Acquia Creek, on 
 the Potomac. This was the first naval engage 
 ment of the war. Later, in the "Pawnee," he 
 participated in the attack on and in the capture 
 of the forts and garrison at Hatteras Inlet, the 
 first important naval success of the war, in the 
 honors of which Commander Rowan fully shared. 
 The joint expedition of the army and navy for 
 operations in the waters of North Carolina, to 
 which Rowan had been ordered as second in 
 command, and which sailed from Hampton Roads 
 in January, 1862, was about to open a suitable 
 field for the display and employment of the high 
 qualities and professional attainments he pos 
 sessed. The naval force, which consisted of 
 17 light-draft vessels, arrived at Hatteras Inlet 
 January 13, 1862, but the army was not fully 
 prepared for active co-operation until three 
 weeks later. On the morning of February 5 the 
 combined expedition proceeded toward Roanoke 
 Island. The naval vessels, placed by Admiral 
 Goldsborough under the immediate command of 
 Commander Rowan, were formed in three sepa 
 rate columns, commanded respectively by Lieuts. 
 Reed Werden, Alexander Murray, and H. K. 
 Davenport. The enemy had formed an exten 
 sive obstruction of a double row of piles and 
 sunken vessels, stretching across the sound be 
 tween the batteries on Park and Wier Points, 
 and behind this their vessels, 8 in number, were 
 drawn up. By. half-past ten on the morning 
 of February 7 the engagement commenced. By 
 noon the action became general, and was con 
 tinued so hotly that a^ two o clock the bat 
 tered barracks behind the fort were burning 
 furiously, and at half-past four the batteries, for 
 the most part, ceased for a while to reply to the 
 firing of the fleet, 5 of the enemy s steamers, 
 apparently injured, retired behind the point, 
 and the first landing of troops took place. The 
 landing was effected in light-draft steamers and 
 boats at Ashby s harbor, a large body of the 
 enemy guarding the shore being soon cleared 
 away by some shrapnel from the guns of Rowan s 
 flag-ship. By midnight 10,000 troops had been 
 
 landed, when they were joined by a battery of 
 six howitzers from the naval force. At nine 
 o clock the next morning a continuous tiring in 
 the interior announced that the army was hotly 
 engaged about midway between the landing and 
 Park Point, and the vessels moved up to re-engage 
 the forts. When Burnside approached the rear 
 of the batteries the vessels ceased firing, and pro 
 ceeded to clear a passage-way through the ob 
 structions. By 4 P.M. this was accomplished, and 
 when the vessels burst through the obstructions 
 the American flag was unfurled over the battery 
 on Park Point. A few minutes afterward the 
 enemy fired the works on Red Stone Point, to 
 gether with a steamer which had taken refuge 
 under its guns, and thus ended the eventful 
 struggle of two days, which secured complete 
 possession of Roanoke Island. Retreating from 
 Roanoke Island, the enemy s fleet fled up the 
 sound and into Pasquotank River toward Eliza 
 beth City, Commander Rowan pursuing them 
 with a flotilla of 14 vessels, and anchoring for 
 the night a few miles from Fort Cobb. On the 
 morning of the 10th they were discovered drawn 
 up behind the battery, which mounted four heavy 
 guns, and supported by a schooner the " Black 
 Warrior" moored to the opposite bank, and 
 carrying two heavy 32-pounders. When within 
 long range fire was opened from the battery, 
 schooner, and steamers, but the vessels moved on 
 silently and steadily, shot and shell falling thick 
 and fast among them. When within three-quar 
 ters of a mile of the battery Commander Rowan 
 gave the signal for a dash at the enemy ; fire was 
 opened with telling effect, and the vessels pushed 
 to their utmost speed. The enemy was com 
 pletely demoralized by the bold and wholly un 
 expected mode of attack. The " Black War 
 rior" was set on fire by her officers and destroyed, 
 the fort abandoned, and the entire fieet captured 
 or destroyed. Passing up the river, the flotilla 
 took possession of Elizabeth City, which the 
 enemy had attempted to fire before hastily leav 
 ing, and Lieut. Murray was dispatched with a 
 small force to Edenton, which he quietly took 
 possession of on the 12th, and was then sent to 
 obstruct the Chesapeake and Albemarle Canal, 
 a duty which he thoroughly accomplished. At 
 the same time Commander Rowan made a recon- 
 noissance of the Chowan River as far as Winton, 
 where a sharp engagement took place on the 19th ; 
 the town was the following morning occupied 
 by the troops under Col. Hawkins, who entered the 
 place and destroyed the military stores and quar 
 ters found there. A combined expedition of the 
 army and navy, under Gen. Burnside and Com 
 mander Rowan, left Hatteras Inlet on the morn 
 ing of March 12 for an attack upon Newbern, 
 N. C. The fleet, numbering 14 vessels, besides 
 the transports, entered the Neuse River in the 
 afternoon, and at nightfall anchored in three 
 columns off Slocum s Creek, the point selected 
 for the debarkation of the troops, about 15 miles 
 from Newborn. Early the following morning 
 the gunboats were deployed on either side of the 
 mouth of the creek, and opened with grape and 
 canister upon the landing-place, while the troops 
 started from the transports, the fire ceasing as 
 soon as the first brigade had landed. At the 
 same time six naval howitzers, under command 
 of Lieut. R. S. McCook, were sent ashore to assist 
 in the attack upon the enemy s works. As soon as 
 
ROWAN 
 
 705 
 
 ROWAN 
 
 the troops had landed, the flag-ship " Delaware," 
 Lieut.-Commander S. P. Quackenbush, with 
 another vessel, proceeded on a reconnoissance up 
 the river, when fire was opened from Fort Dixie 
 upon them, and a spirited engagement was kept 
 up until dark, when all the vessels anchored for 
 the night in a position to support the troops. At 
 daylight on the morning of the 14th, Gen. Burn- 
 side engaged the enemy in force, and Commander 
 Eowan advanced steadily up the river with his 
 fleet. The passage of the river was obstructed 
 by a formidable line of piles and torpedoes, and 
 defended by six well-constructed forts, at dis 
 tances of half a mile to a mile and a half from 
 each other, mounting some 32 heavy guns ; but 
 under pressure of the combined attacks the 
 enemy abandoned their defenses in succession, 
 the navy and army contesting the honor of rais 
 ing the American flag on their ramparts, so that 
 at noon the fleet arrived before the deserted town 
 of Newbern. A large quantity of public stores 
 fell into the hands of the navy and were turned 
 over to the troops, who arrived and took posses 
 sion of the town at 2 P.M. After the fall of 
 Newbern, Lieut. Commanding Murray was dis 
 patched with a naval column to take possession 
 of Washington, N. C. On April 1, Commander 
 Rowan dispatched to New York and Philadel 
 phia 9 vessels freighted with naval stores, some 
 of the fruits of the capture of Newbern. Fort 
 Macon was the next object which engaged the 
 attention of the army and navy. On the morn 
 ing of April 25, Commander Samuel Lockwood, 
 the senior oificer off Beaufort, opened on the fort 
 in conjunction with the batteries on shore, and 
 continued the fire for some -time, until he was 
 obliged to withdraw on account of the heavy sea. 
 Toward evening a flag of truce appeared on the 
 fort, and the next morning the old flag reappeared 
 over its ramparts. Entering the fort, Commander 
 Rowan had an interview with Gen. Burnside, 
 with whom he signed the terms of capitulation 
 on the part of the United States. Commander 
 Rowan, at the same time, finding that the army 
 had failed to accomplish the object for which it 
 was landed at Elizabeth City, and had returned 
 without destroying the canals, determined to 
 undertake the work with the navy. Lieut. 
 Hurser, with 3 gunboats and 2 schooners, with 
 the needed means and appliances, was dispatched 
 upon this duty, and fully accomplished the ob 
 ject, inflicting in two days an amount of damage 
 Ahat it would require months to repair. 
 
 In reviewing this brilliant series of successes 
 and victories, of paramount value to the Union 
 cause, we cannot fail to recognize the fine skill, 
 untiring energy, cool and tempered judgment, 
 quick perception and dash of Rowan, which 
 fully establish his claims to rank with the lead 
 ing naval commanders of the day. No grass 
 grew under his keel ; no victory was gained until 
 all its fruits were fully garnered. Like the waves 
 of the sea, success followed success, and while 
 there was work to be done he rested not, nor 
 allowed others to rest. This was war never 
 better illustrated. Unlike some intrusted with 
 high commands, who failed to follow up the 
 result of a victory, he pursued with untiring 
 energy and determined will the demoralized foe. 
 Quick to perceive and prompt to act, his com 
 mand of the naval forces in the sounds of North 
 Carolina resulted in the complete restoration 
 45 
 
 of the authority of the government over those 
 waters. 
 
 Commander Rowan was promoted to a cap% 
 tain July 16, 1862, and as a reward for these 
 brilliant services and for his distinguished gal 
 lantry was advanced a grade and promoted to 
 a commodore, to take rank from the same date. 
 In 1863, Commodore Rowan was ordered to the 
 command of the armored frigate "New Iron 
 sides," then in Charleston harbor operating 
 against the enemy, and probably at the time, 
 handled and fought intelligently, the most for 
 midable vessel afloat. While upon this duty it 
 was the good fortune of the writer of this article, 
 in command of a monitor, to be a daily witnes 
 to the fine handling of this formidable vessel and 
 the splendid work she accomplished ; to be thrown 
 into daily intercourse with her distinguished 
 commander ; to see him upon this arduous ser 
 vice, in fire and out of fire, always the same wise, 
 cool, capable, self-reliant, considerate leader and 
 officer. While the ship in the hands of the un 
 initiated would have proven powerless and ob 
 stinate, under his guidance she- was always re 
 liable, acting as though she possessed a soul 
 responsive to his own, and dutifully and obedi 
 ently following his will. Nothing finer nor 
 grander than to see this noble ship as she moves 
 to challenge and engage the formidable forts 
 and batteries lining the harbor at Charleston. 
 Presently, as she comes within range, forts and 
 batteries upon all sides open upon her a furious 
 shower of shot and shell, and no response. 
 Grand, gloomy, and defiant, heeding nothing 
 but the will of her master, she moves on through 
 the storm of battle until approaching the desired 
 position ; then Rowan turns to his famous exec 
 utive, "Try the range, Belknap," and the flash 
 and report of a single gun follow. Still, like 
 an avenging angel, the ship moves on till an 
 other shot follows, and then a broadside of 11- 
 inch guns with blast of fire and sound of many 
 thunders breaks the silence of the ship, and she 
 is alive with flame and fur}*, great guns topple 
 over, the crests of the enemy s works go down like 
 grass before the scythe of the mower, and silence 
 again ensues, to be followed by successive broad 
 sides, until the enemy no longer replies. So 
 day after day and month after month, while the 
 monitors, with their deliberate fire of the heaviest 
 guns, attack the defenses of the enemy, and hour 
 after hour the battle rages unabated, when the 
 mighty man-of-war moves majestically into posi 
 tion and opens upon them, the enemy soon flee 
 to their bomb-proofs for shelter, and their guns 
 are silent. And yet so paradoxical are the con 
 ditions of naval warfare, a single shot from one 
 of the heavy guns of the tiny monitors and the 
 proud career of this formidable vessel would 
 have been speedily brought to a close. In this 
 severe, exacting, and arduous service Commo 
 dore Rowan passed many months in command 
 of the " New Ironsides," engaged in almost daily 
 conflict with the enemy, and upon each and every 
 occasion increased his bravely-earned reputation. 
 No one can appreciate but those who have shared 
 in the dangers, trials, and privations the char 
 acter of this service, with its days of toil and ex 
 posure, and its nights of unrest and battle, where 
 exhausted nature only found repose mid the din 
 and sound of the conflict. In the spring of 1864, 
 the services of the " New Ironsides" being no 
 
ROWLE 
 
 706 
 
 RUDDER 
 
 fonger required before Charleston, the ship was 
 ordered North, and Commodore Rowan was 
 shortly after relieved of the command. 
 
 In July, 1866, he was, by selection, promoted 
 to a rear-admiral, and ordered to the command 
 of the Norfolk Navy- Yard, where he remained 
 two vears. During the years 1868-69 he com 
 manded with ability the Asiatic Squadron. 
 While absent upon this duty from the United 
 States he was, upon the death of Farragut and 
 the promotion of Porter, selected by Gen. Grant 
 as the vice-admiral of the navy, in recognition 
 of the conspicuous and valuable service he had 
 rendered to the republic. It was the pleasant 
 duty of the writer to be the first to announce to 
 Vice-Admiral Rowan his promotion, on his re 
 turn to the United States, and the first to salute 
 the flag of the newly-promoted vice-admiral. 
 Several years subsequently, Vice- Admiral Rowan 
 was in command of the naval station at New 
 York, and at present is employed as president 
 of the Board of Examiners. Admiral Rowan 
 has but one descendant, Lieut. Hamilton Rowan, 
 of the U. S. army, now stationed at Fort Mc- 
 Henry, near Baltimore, a young oflicer of excel 
 lent promise and reputation. T. H. Stevens, 
 Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 
 Rowle. A light crane, formerly much used 
 in clearing boats and holds. 
 
 Royal. The sail next above the topgallant- 
 sail. It is the uppermost sail ordinarily carried ; 
 those sails sometimes set above the royals are 
 known as sky-sails, moon-sails, moon-rakers, 
 star-gazers, etc., and are comprehended under 
 the general term kites. Royals are carried only 
 in light breezes, not only because the sails are 
 small and their masts badly supported, but be 
 cause they act with a long leverage and tend to 
 bury the ship and retard her progress. For the 
 gear of a royal, see under proper heads. 
 
 ROYAL-MAST. See MASTS. 
 
 Royal Fish (Eng.}. "Whales, porpoises, stur 
 geons, etc., which, when driven on shore, become 
 droits of admiralty. 
 
 Royal Marines (Eng.}. See MARINE CORPS, 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 Royal Merchant. A title of the Mediterranean 
 traders of the 13th century, when the Venetians 
 were masters of the sea. 
 
 Royal Mortar. An old brass mortar of 5.j 
 inches diameter of bore, and 150 pounds weight, 
 throwing a 24-pounder shell up to 600 yards, 
 convenient for advanced trenches and boat-work. 
 
 Royals (Eng.}. A familiar appellation for 
 the marines since the mutiny of 1797, when they 
 were so distinguished for the loyalty and steadi 
 ness they displayed. Also called royal jollys. 
 
 Roynes. An archaic term for streams, cur 
 rents, or other usual passages of rivers and run 
 ning waters. 
 
 Rubber. A small instrument used to rub or 
 flatten down the seams of a sail, in sail-making. 
 
 Rubble-work. A mass of masonry, formed 
 of irregular stones and pebbles imbedded in 
 mortar. It is used in the interior of docks, 
 piers, and other erections, and is opposed to 
 ashlar-work. 
 
 Rudd. A fresh-water European fish of the carp 
 family ; Leuciscus erythrophthalmus ; red-eye. 
 It is about the size and shape of the roach, with 
 which it is often confounded, but it has the dorsal 
 fin farther back, a stouter body, and red irides. 
 
 Rudder. That part of the helm of a vessel 
 which is attached to the stern-post, and by whose 
 movements the vessel is steered. 
 
 The rudder, being turned out of the line of 
 the keel, is acted upon by the water as the vessel 
 passes through it, and causes the vessel to turn 
 about her centre of gravity, the bow moving in 
 the direction in which the rudder is turned, while 
 the stern moves in the opposite direction. 
 
 The greater the angle which the rudder makes 
 with the -plane of the ke.el, the more it acts as a 
 drag and impedes the speed of the vessel. For 
 this reason it should be turned only so much as 
 is necessary to steer the vessel, and in this the 
 skill of the helmsman is shown. The arc in 
 which the rudder can turn is seldom more than 
 45 on each side of the plane of the keel, and 
 even this amount is not required to turn a vessel 
 in the shortest time. The force that the water 
 exerts upon the rudder varies as the square of 
 the vessel s speed, and it is by this force that the 
 vessel is turned. The proper amount of helm 
 angle varies in vessels of different models, and 
 can best be ascertained by actual experiment. 
 
 Rudders are constructed of wood or iron ac 
 cording to the material of which the vessel is 
 built. A wooden rudder is composed of several 
 pieces of timber coaked and bolted together. 
 The upper part, called the rudder-head, is of 
 cylindrical shape, and passes through the rudder- 
 port in the counter to a height above the deck 
 suflicient to connect the tiller or gear by which 
 the rudder is turned. The piece of timber of 
 which the head is composed extends the length 
 of the rudder and is called the main-piece. On 
 the forward and after sides of the main-piece 
 additional timbers are secured, forming, from 
 the lower part of the head (called the shoulder) 
 to the lowest part of the rudder (called the 
 heel), a flat structure, the after edge of which 
 is usually of a convex shape, while the forward 
 edge is straight and in line with the stern-post 
 of the vessel. The rudder is hung to the stern- 
 post by the pintles, which are fixed to the for 
 ward edge and set into the gudgeons or braces 
 on the stern-post These constitute the hinges 
 by which the rudder is supported and upon 
 which it turns. 
 
 The forward edge of the rudder and the after 
 edge of the stern-post are beveled to allow 
 the required helm angle, and upon the lower 
 part or heel a piece is fastened, called the sole- 
 piece, which, like the false keel, may become 
 easily detached if the vessel takes the ground. 
 To prevent the rudder from unshipping, a 
 wooden block, called a wood-lock, is placed in 
 the aperture under the upper pintle. All of 
 the pintles and braces and the centre of the 
 rudder-head are in the axis of motion of the 
 rudder. The rudder is turned on the deck of 
 the vessel by means of a horizontal bar, called 
 the tiller, placed in a socket in the rudder-head. 
 Greater power is obtained in large vessels by 
 using a wheel which is connected with the tiller 
 by means of ropes, called wheel-ropes, or by 
 other mechanical contrivances. Wooden rudders 
 are sheathed with copper or yellow metal to the 
 same height that it is placed upon the bottom 
 and sides of the vessel to which they belong. 
 
 An iron or steel rudder is of the same gen 
 eral shape as the wooden rudder. It consists 
 of a frame covered on both sides with metallic 
 
KUFFLE 
 
 707 
 
 RUSSIAN NAVY 
 
 plates, which are riveted through the frame- work 
 to each other, and is hung to the stern-post or 
 rudder-post by pintles and gudgeons as already 
 described 
 
 In order to give greater breadth to the rudders 
 of screw-steamers of great length and compara 
 tively small depth, without an increase of strain 
 upon the rudder-head, the equipoise rudder has 
 been devised. It is convex on both forward and 
 after edges, and, instead of being supported by 
 pintles and braces, it rests upon a projection from 
 the keel called the skeg. The axis of motion 
 passes through the centre of the rudder-head and 
 the centre of the socket of the skeg in which the 
 heel rests. About two-thirds of the surface of 
 the rudder is abaft the axis of motion, and one- 
 third forward. 
 
 The breadth of a rudder depends, in some 
 measure, upon the comparative dimensions of the 
 vessel, her model, etc. A short, full vessel re 
 quires a rudder of greater breadth than a long, 
 sharp one ; while a vessel of comparatively light 
 draft of water requires a broad rudder. The 
 proportions in which they are usually made are 
 1 foot in breadth to every 100 feet in length of 
 the vessel and 1 foot additional. 
 
 A jury-rudder is made to replace one that has 
 been injured and rendered unserviceable. It is 
 made from such material at hand as may be best 
 suited to the purpose, as spare spars, plank, 
 etc. 
 
 A vessel may be temporarily steered by a 
 hawser veered out over the stern, and moved to 
 ward one quarter or the other, as required, by 
 means of tackles. E. T. Strong, Lieutenant 
 U.S.N. 
 
 RUDDER-BAND. An iron band placed around 
 the head of a wooden rudder. 
 
 RUDDER-BRACES. The composition hinges on 
 which a rudder turns. 
 
 RUDDER-CASE. The casing placed around the 
 head of a rudder. It is also termed the well. 
 
 RUDDER-CHAIN.. One of the chains by which 
 the rudder is secured to the quarters of the ship 
 in the event of its being unshipped by accident. 
 
 RUDDER-CHOCK. See CHOCK. 
 
 RUDDER-COAT. An outside covering made of 
 canvas, formerly used to prevent the water com 
 ing into the rudder casing and thence into the 
 ship ; there are better plans in use nowadaj^s. 
 
 RUDDER-HORN. A kind of iron crutch bolted 
 to the back of the rudder, for attaching the rud 
 der-chains to in case of necessity. 
 
 RUDDER-IRONS. The pintles, gudgeons, and 
 braces of the rudder are frequently so called, 
 though they are usually of copper. 
 
 RUDDER-PENDANT. A continuation of the 
 rudder-chains in wire rope ; it usually leads up 
 to each quarter, so as to be easily reached from 
 the quarter-deck. 
 
 RUDDER-PERCH. A small fish with the upper 
 part of the body brown, varied with large round 
 spots of yellow, the belly and sides streaked with 
 lines of white and yellow. This fish is said to 
 follow the rudders of ships in the warm parts of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 RUDDER-PORT. The round port made in the 
 stern of the ship in which the rudder ships. 
 
 RUDDER-STOCK. The main piece of a rudder. 
 
 Ruffle. A low vibrating sound of the drum, 
 continuous like the roll, but not so loud; it is 
 used in complimenting officers of rank. 
 
 Rule-staff. A lath about 4 inches in breadth, 
 used for laying off curves in ship-building. 
 
 Rumbelow. A very favorite burden to an old 
 sea-song, of which vestiges still remain. 
 
 Rumbo. Rope stolen from a dock-yard. 
 
 Rumbowline. Condemned rope. Inferior 
 rope used for securing new coils. 
 
 Run. To desert. To scud. The distance sailed 
 by a ship. The after part of the body of a ship, 
 it is clean or full as it is sharp or otherwise. To 
 let go by the run, to let go altogether. To run 
 down a coast, to sail parallel with and near to 
 the coast. To run down a vessel, to run into her 
 bows-on. To run down a port, to sail into the 
 latitude of a port and then run for it on its paral 
 lel, a method practiced in the early days of 
 navigation, before chronometers came into gen 
 eral use. 
 
 RUN, CORRECTION FOR. In "double alti 
 tudes," the correction for the distance passed 
 over in the interval between the taking of the 
 observations, to reduce one altitude to what it 
 would have been if taken at the place of the 
 second observation. 
 
 RUN-MONEY. The money paid as a reward for 
 apprehending a deserter or straggler. It is 
 checked against the accounts of the person appre 
 hended. 
 
 RUNNING-DOWN CLAUSE. A special admis 
 sion into policies of marine insurance, to include 
 the risk of loss or damage in consequence of the 
 collision of the ship insured with other vessels. 
 
 Rundle. That part of a capstan round which 
 the messenger is wound, including the drum 
 head. See WHELPS. 
 
 Rune. A water-course. 
 
 Rung. The round of a Jacob s ladder. 
 
 Rung-head. A name sometimes given by 
 shipwrights to the upper end of a floor-timber ; 
 it is more properly called a floor-head. 
 
 Runner. A single rope rove through a mov 
 able block, having an eye or thimble in the end, 
 to which a tackle is hooked. A ship which risks 
 every impediment as to privateers or blockade, 
 to get a profitable market. Runners of foreign 
 goods, organized smugglers. 
 
 Running Agreement (Eng.\ In the case of 
 foreign-going ships making voyages averaging 
 less than 6 months in duration, running agree 
 ments can legally be made with the crew to ex 
 tend over two or more voyages. 
 
 Running-block. The movable block of a 
 purchase. 
 
 Running-bowline. A bowline made over the 
 standing part of the same rope. 
 
 Running-bowsprit, or Running-in Bowsprit. 
 A bowsprit in small craft which is rigged in 
 when the sail is taken in. It is sometimes so 
 fitted as to be rigged in partially when the sail is 
 reefed. 
 
 Rupee. An East Indian coin. See MONEY. 
 
 Russian Navy. To Peter the Great, who 
 reigned between 1672 and 1725, belongs the 
 honor of creating a regular navy in Russia. The 
 country was still in a state of semi-barbarism, 
 and Peter saw that to enable it to cope with 
 other European nations an effective maritime 
 force was an essential element of strength and 
 an instrument of civilization. As there was no 
 one in his territories of the requisite intelligence 
 and practical knowledge of seamanship to enable 
 him to carry out his projects, Peter overcame a 
 
RUSSIAN NAVY 
 
 708 
 
 RUSSIAN NAVY 
 
 constitutional apathy to the sea and made several 
 voyages in trading-vessels that he might acquire 
 an insight into navigation. Acting upon the 
 wholesome doctrine of never leaving to others 
 that which can be accomplished by oneself, Peter 
 remained for some time at Archangel watching 
 the progress of ship-building. But the crude 
 nature of the operations not satisfying him, he 
 went to Holland, where he labored as a common 
 artisan in the dock-yards, and compelled his 
 suite to follow his example. " Ships, colonies, 
 and commerce" were the great objects of his stu 
 pendous labors. By the year 1721 something 
 like a Russian navy was established, and Peter 
 had the satisfaction, before his death, of achiev 
 ing a victory over the Swedes in his Finland op 
 erations. Some advantages were likewise gained 
 over the Turks in the Black Sea toward the 
 close of the eighteenth century. Not, however, 
 until A.D. 1803 were Russian ships of war much 
 employed, and in that year their mission was 
 peaceful. Two vessels were equipped for a voy 
 age round the world. 
 
 The ambitious schemes and political complica 
 tions of Napoleon Bonaparte compelled Russia 
 to give her attention to her army, and full em 
 ployment was found for it on land. Some years, 
 therefore, elapsed before the efficiency of the 
 navy could be tested, and in that time all the 
 operations of the department were limited to 
 wars with the Turks. But when the Emperor 
 Nicholas came to the throne, in succession to 
 Alexander, a lively movement was made toward 
 the improvement of the maritime power of Rus 
 sia. The Emperor Nicholas saw, what had long 
 been manifest to the rest of the world, that, 
 though the Baltic and the Black Sea afforded 
 fine scope for nautical experiments and the con 
 struction of ships of war, those seas had each 
 but one narrow outlet to the North Sea and the 
 Mediterranean, and that, therefore, when en 
 gaged in hostilities with any other power, they 
 might easily be blockaded, neutralizing the best 
 efforts of the navy. Nothing but superior force 
 could clear the passages for Russian commerce, or 
 for a fair fight on the enemy s ground. Accord 
 ingly, Nicholas invited men of science and 
 skilled artisans to accept employment at the 
 dock-yards, which were established at Cron- 
 stadt, Nicolaief, and Sebastopol. He further 
 founded colleges for the education of naval 
 cadets and schools for the instruction of work- 
 ingmen, and raised a battalion of pilots capable 
 of navigating the seas of the whole world. So 
 rapid, under the emperor s auspices, was the 
 progress of improvement and natural strength, 
 that, by the year 1838, the Baltic force of Russia 
 comprehended 4 three-deckers, carrying 110 guns 
 each, 7 carrying 84 guns, 19 armed with 74 guns, 
 making 30 heavy line-of-battle ships, and 21 
 frigates of different sizes, the whole fleet being 
 manned by 30,000 good sailors. In the Black 
 Sea and in the Caspian there were 16 heavy ships 
 of war, besides a large number of frigates and 
 sloops. In this condition the Russian navy 
 continued until 1854, when the junction of Eng 
 land, France, and Sardinia, in espousal of the 
 cause of Turkey, then at war with Russia, led to 
 hostilities in the Baltic and the Black Sea, caus 
 ing serious damage to the marine force of Rus 
 sia. Since the termination of the war of 1856 
 Russia has busily recuperated her naval force, 
 
 and at the beginning of 1879 it consisted of 30 
 armored ships" and 199 other vessels, includ 
 ing all classes and descriptions, carrying alto 
 gether 561 guns, and having engines aggregat 
 ing 188,120" horse-power. The fleet, although 
 numerous, is not powerful. The "Peter the 
 Great" and " Knuz Minin" are the only two ves 
 sels on the list of sea-going armored ships which 
 are up to the modern standard. For coast defense 
 Russia has a considerable fleet, of which the two 
 circular vessels, the "Novgorod" and "Vice- 
 Admiral Popoff," are the most formidable. The 
 next in power are 10 monitors of early date, 
 on Ericsson s plans, similar to our harbor and 
 river monitors, drawing nearly 12 feet of water, 
 and armored on the sides with 5-inch plates on 
 a backing of nearly 3 feet. The two guns in the 
 single turret are 9-inch rifles or 15-inch smooth 
 bores of old pattern. There are, however, two 
 other monitors of later date and somewhat 
 greater power, built in Russia in 1868. These 
 are the " Tcharogeika" and " Rousalka." The 
 side-armor is 5 inches thick, and on the turrets 
 6 inches. They carry four 11-inch rifles in two 
 turrets. The speed of all these monitors is given 
 at from 6 to 8 knots. The chief characteristic of 
 the two circular ironclads is that they are purely 
 and simply sea-citadels propelled by steam, and 
 without any attempt to make them conform 
 to the shape of an ordinary ship. The regular 
 cruising fleet may be divided into two branches, 
 the American-built cruisers and the Russian- 
 built cruisers. Two of the American vessels, the 
 "Europe" and " Asia," were built by Messrs. 
 Wm. Cramp & Sons, who also constructed from 
 designs prepared by the Russian Admiralty a 
 fourth vessel, the "Zabiaca." The "Africa" 
 was built by Messrs. John Roach & Son, but all 
 of them were converted into war-vessels at the 
 yard of the Messrs. Cramp, of Philadelphia. 
 The principal advantages possessed by these 
 cruisers are light draft of water, high speed, 
 and considerable sail area. The Russian-built 
 cruisers have all been built at St. Petersburg 
 since 1875, and were all designed by Capt. Sub- 
 botin, the Russian naval architect. The navy is 
 represented in the Council of State by the ad 
 miral-general, a prince of the blood, who is 
 commander-in-chief of the naval force. The 
 head of the central administration is a minister 
 chosen from the list of vice-admirals. There are 
 six sections or departments of control : 1st. The 
 Chancellery, having charge of the expenditure 
 of the budget. 2d. The Department of the Per 
 sonnel. 3d. The Hydrographic Department. 
 4th. The Technical Committee, divided into 
 three sections, construction of vessels, construc 
 tion of machinery, and construction of ord 
 nance. 5th. The Supreme Naval Tribunal. 6th. 
 The Direction of the Health Service. The per 
 sonnel is classified as follows : 
 
 Executive-Officers : General admiral, 1 ; ad 
 mirals, 15 ; vice-admirals, 36 ; rear-admirals, 32 ; 
 captains, first class, 223; captains, second class, 
 89; lieutenant-captains, 317; lieutenants, 324; 
 midshipmen, 195. Total, 1232. 
 
 Officers of Naval Artillery : Lieutenant-gen 
 erals, 2 ; major-generals, 2 ; colonels, 13 ; lieuten 
 ant-colonels, 9 ; captains, 21 ; staff-captains, 38 ; 
 lieutenants, 20; sub-lieutenants, 42; ensigns, 47; 
 cadets, 12. Total, 206. 
 
 Engineers of Naval Constructions and Ma- 
 
RUTTER 
 
 709 
 
 RUYTER 
 
 chinery : General, 1 ; lieutenant-generals, 3 ; 
 major-generals, 4 ; colonels, 7 ; lieutenant-col 
 onels, 4 ; captains, 17 ; staff-captains, 22 ; lieu 
 tenants, 31 ; sub-lieutenants, 33 ; ensigns, 17 ; 
 cadets, 6. Total, 145. 
 
 Engineer Mechanicians : Major-generals, 2 ; 
 colonels, 8 ; lieutenant-colonels, 11; captains, 49; 
 staff-captains, 62 ; lieutenants, 99 ; sub-lieuten 
 ants, 164 ; ensigns, 140 ; cadets, 13. Total, 548. 
 
 Hydrographic Engineers : Lieutenant-gen 
 erals, 2; major-generals, 18; colonels, 18; lieu 
 tenant-colonels, 32 ; majors, 9 ; captains, 43 ; 
 staff-captains, 53; lieutenants, 61 ; sub-lieuten 
 ants, 61 ; ensigns, 24. Total, 321. 
 
 Medical corps of all classes, 209. 
 
 Marine Officers : Lieutenant-generals, 3 ; 
 major-generals, 3 ; colonels, 11; lieutenant-col 
 onels, 36; captains, 74; staff-captains, 119; 
 lieutenants, 94; sub-lieutenants, 96; ensigns, 
 60; cadets, 25. Total, 521. 
 
 Total officers, 3182 ; seamen and marines, 
 38,986. Grand total, 42,168 
 
 The cost of maintaining the Russian navy, ac 
 cording to the official estimates of the Minister 
 of Marine for 1879, was $19,421,276.70. There 
 are two docK-yards for the navy at St. Peters 
 burg. The armaments are supplied at Cron- 
 stadt, and the principal engineering establish 
 ment is at Kolpino, on the Eshorra River; 
 there is also a government manufactory of steel, 
 known as the Aboukoffsky Steel- Works, located 
 at Alexandrovsky. 
 
 Rutter, or Routier. An old word for a track- 
 chart ; it was also applied to the log-book. 
 
 Ruyter, Michel Adriaanzoon Van, the justly 
 celebrated Dutch admiral, was born at Flushing 
 in March, 1607, and died of wounds received in 
 battle on April 29, 1676. The word Ruyter sig 
 nifies, in Dutch, a cavalier, but in this case im 
 plies no very long descent, as it is said that the 
 name was given to his grandfather on account 
 of some feat of daring on horseback. The whole 
 story is doubtful. The future admiral early 
 made himself known among his youthful play 
 mates in Flushing for his venturous intrepidity. 
 When a mere child he climbed, by means of the 
 scaffold with which workmen were executing re 
 pairs, to the top of the highest steeple in his native 
 town, and seated himself upon the pinnacle. The 
 workmen, not knowing that he was there, took 
 away the scaffold and ladders ; but young Ruyter, 
 undismayed, managed to kick holes in the tiles, 
 and to make his own way safely down to the 
 earth again. 
 
 His family was poor, and he was early appren 
 ticed to a rope-maker ; but by dint of insisting 
 upon going to sea his indentures were canceled, 
 and he attained his desires by being entered as a 
 "boy" in 1618. Four years after that he had 
 the rating of gunner, and as such did good ser 
 vice during the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom by the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 Soon after he was made boatswain of a man- 
 of-war, when, in a fight with a Spanish vessel of 
 about equal force, he led the boarders, and was 
 severely wounded in the head. The Spaniards 
 had the best of it on this occasion, and carried 
 the Dutch off prisoners. Ruyter managed soon 
 to escape from his Spanish prison, however, and 
 begged his way across the whole of France, 
 reaching Flushing in a dreadful state from 
 hunger and exposure. After his recovery from 
 
 these hardships he became an officer of a mer 
 chant vessel for a time, but soon returned to the 
 national marine, being placed in command of a 
 vessel fitted out for the purpose of convoying 
 merchantmen on distant voyages. Holland was 
 then in the height of her naval power and suc 
 cessful commerce, which extended to every sea. 
 
 Ruyter made several voyages abroad, to Green 
 land, Brazil, the West Indies, and elsewhere, in 
 creasing in experience, and always paying great 
 attention to the study of the sciences of war and 
 navigation. 
 
 In 1641, the Portuguese having thrown off the 
 Spanish yoke, and the Low Countries having 
 also revolted, it was natural that the latter 
 should send a fleet to the assistance of the former. 
 Ruyter served in this fleet, at first in command 
 of a line-of-battle ship and then as rear-admiral. 
 
 Upon his return he took command of a heavily- 
 armed merchant vessel on a venture to America. 
 On the voyage he was attacked by a Spanish 
 man-of-war, when Ruyter not only successfully 
 defended himself but sunk the Spaniard. He 
 was by this time well known, having managed 
 to make his name respected and feared through 
 out maritime Europe. In 1652, after his private 
 voyage to America, Ruyter was placed in com 
 mand of a fleet, with which he engaged that of 
 the English Admiral Askew. Ruyter undoubt 
 edly had much the best of the action. 
 
 In 1654 he was in command of a fleet which 
 was ordered to reconquer the Dutch possessions 
 on the coast of Africa, which had been seized 
 upon by the English. Upon this occasion he 
 made a very important and successful cruise full 
 of very interesting incident, and reflecting great 
 credit upon the Dutch navy and upon himself. 
 Upon his return the States-General made him 
 vice-admiral of Holland, the highest rank to 
 which a seaman could then attain, as the title 
 of admiral was inseparable from that of stadt- 
 holder of the United Provinces. 
 
 Ruyter was at this time 47 years of age, and 
 did not fail to prove himself worthy of the high 
 position given him. But he was, about this 
 period, called upon to undergo great trouble, on 
 account of his outspoken sympathy with the 
 brothers De Witt, patriotic men, who died vic 
 tims of calumny and popular fury. Admiral 
 De Ruyter was, after their butchery, accused by 
 the enemies which every man of great force of 
 character must have of complicity with the De 
 Witts. 
 
 While he was defending his country, in com 
 mand of the fleet, a dangerous mob was threaten 
 ing his house and his family. The latter were 
 rescued, not without difficulty, and placed under 
 the special protection of the government. Ruy 
 ter himself received many anonymous threats of 
 violence and assassination, to which he paid no 
 attention, and, pursuing the even tenor of his 
 duty, outlived this temporary and unmerited 
 unpopularity. 
 
 In 1673 the Low Countries were attacked by 
 land and sea by a combination of the most pow 
 erful nations of Europe, and their very existence 
 hung in the balance. Their action in this emer 
 gency is a model for any people, for they resolved 
 to purchase their liberty, not only by desperate 
 fighting, but by every sacrifice of wealth and 
 comfort. Ruyter was charged with the defense 
 of the coast against the combined fleets of France 
 
RUYTER 
 
 710 
 
 SACKAMENTO 
 
 and England, and in doing this he fought many 
 general and more partial actions, winning, even 
 from his opponents, the greatest admiration for 
 his abilities and dauntless courage. 
 
 Count d Estrees, the French admiral, wrote to 
 Louis XIV. that "he would give his life for 
 Ruyter s glory." This is rather stilted talk, but 
 serves to show how the Dutch admiral s conduct 
 was considered by his enemies. 
 
 When peace came at last Euyter was past 
 middle age, and, tired of the sea and of battles, 
 wished to spend the remainder of his life with 
 his family. Unfortunately for his design, in 
 1675 the United Provinces, now at peace with 
 Spain, and favorably disposed towards that power, 
 were requested to send a fleet to aid them against 
 the French in the operations about Sicily, result 
 ing from the revolt in that island against Charles 
 II. As soon as they determined to send a force, 
 the Dutch government insisted that Ruyter 
 should command it ; a commission which he ac 
 cepted with great reluctance. Upon reaching 
 the Mediterranean he had to meet Duquesne, the 
 commander of the French fleet, a man who, 
 like Ruyter, had risen from very modest begin 
 nings. They had one preliminary and partial 
 engagement, without definite result. But, on 
 April 22, 1676, the two fleets met near Syracuse, 
 and a desperate general engagement ensued. 
 There was great slaughter, and Ruyter was 
 dreadfully wounded in both legs, while, in fall 
 ing, he seriously injured himself again. In 
 spite of this he refused to be taken below, and, 
 lying upon a mattress, continued to give orders, 
 conducting the retreat which he was forced to 
 
 make in good order. A few days afterward he 
 died of his wounds. His remains were taken to 
 Holland, and there given a magnificent funeral. 
 
 All historians unite in giving Ruyter the high 
 est position, not only as regards courage and 
 professional ability, but moral worth. The great 
 powers of his day held him in high esteem, and, 
 after the battle in which he received his death- 
 wounds, the king of Spain sent for him and his 
 posterity the title of duke, with a considerable 
 pension to support it. It was too late to benefit 
 Ruyter, and his sons were too proud of their 
 father s name to change it for a foreign one, even 
 with an exalted title. So they refused it, as Ad 
 miral De Ruyter himself would probably have 
 done. The king of Denmark and Louis XIV. 
 both caused Ruyter s portrait to be painted and 
 placed among those of their own general officers ; 
 and when the king of France heard of the ad 
 miral s death he exclaimed, " He was a redoubt- 
 a ble enemy ; but we are forced to deplore his 
 loss, for the man was an honor to humanity." 
 Such pretty speeches are often put into the 
 mouth of Louis by his historiographers ; but it 
 is at least possible that he made this one, for he 
 is known to have had a great admiration for 
 Ruyter. The portrait of the admiral, by Jor- 
 daens, shows an immense person, with a head 
 large in proportion, a little sunk between the 
 shoulders ; long hair, parted in the middle and 
 falling on each shoulder ; large, well-opened 
 eyes ; a Flemish nose, somewhat retroussee, and 
 with wide nostrils ; a double chin, and a long, 
 fiercely-twirled moustache. E. Shippen. 
 
 Ryd e. A small stream. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. An iron hook, bent to that shape; also 
 called a pot-hook. In the log-book, s indicates 
 snow. 
 
 Sabander (for Shah-bander). The governor 
 of a maritime district in Syria. 
 
 Sabine. A small fish, which is sometimes 
 preserved in oil for food. 
 
 Sabot. A disk of wood or metal fastened to 
 the base of a spherical projectile to keep it in the 
 proper position while loading. All spherical 
 shell and shrapnel in the navy have sabots, fas 
 tened to them by 4 straps of tinned iron, and 
 further secured by a seizing at the base. 
 
 Saccade. The flap of a sail in calms and light 
 winds. 
 
 Saccoleva. A Levantine vessel with one 
 lateen-sail. A Greek vessel of 100 tons, with a 
 foremast raking very much forward, having a 
 square topsail and topgallant-sail, a sprit fore 
 sail, and two small masts abaft, with lateen yards 
 and sails. 
 
 Saccopharynx. A genus of eels which have 
 the power of distending the thorax like a sack. 
 
 Sackett s Harbor, Jefferson County, N. Y., is 
 pleasantly situated at the mouth of Black River, 
 on Lake Ontario. It has a good and safe har 
 
 bor, easy of access, and was formerly an impor 
 tant naval station, and there is now one wooden 
 sailing-vessel (the " New Orleans") belonging to 
 the navy on the stocks at this place. It has 
 greatly declined in the last 20 years, although it 
 is becoming a popular summer resort on account 
 of its fine scenery. Madison Barracks, garrisoned 
 by a battery of artillery, are located here. 
 
 Sacks of Coal. The Magellanic clouds, patches 
 of blue in the southern sky, near the pole. 
 
 Sacramento, the capital of California, and 
 the second city in size and importance, is situ 
 ated on the Sacramento River, at the mouth of 
 the American River, 120 miles by water from 
 San Francisco. Lat. 38 34 N. ; Ion. 121 26 W. 
 As a centre of commerce it possesses great ad 
 vantages, as it is accessible at all times of the 
 year for steamers and sailing-vessels, while both 
 the Sacramento and its important affluent, the 
 Feather River, are navigable for small steamers 
 far above, into the interior of the country, and 
 this city is therefore the entrepdt for supplying 
 the great mining regions of the north. It has 
 also an extensive trade with the great central 
 valley of the State. A large number of mills 
 and manufactories of all kinds are located here, 
 
SADALMELIK 
 
 Til 
 
 SAILS 
 
 the machine-shops of the Central Pacific Kail- 
 road alone employing over 1000 men. Regular 
 lines of steamers ply daily between here and San 
 Francisco. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Sadalmelik. The star a Aquarii. 
 
 Sadalsund. The star /3 Aquarii. 
 
 Saddle. A notched piece of wood, to sup 
 port a spar. The bowsprit-saddle receives the 
 heel of the jib-boom. A wooden saddle-crutch 
 sometimes receives the weight of the spanker- 
 boom when not in use. An angular bar of 
 iron on the inside of the bracket of a monitor- 
 carriage. 
 
 Safe - conduct. A passport. A privilege 
 granted in war exempting the party receiving 
 it from the effects of the war during the time 
 and to the extent prescribed in the permission. 
 It may be granted either by the sovereign au 
 thority in a state or by subordinates in com 
 mand, who are invested with the power by 
 express commission or as an incident to their 
 official trust. The grantor is morally bound to 
 enforce the privilege against his own subjects or 
 forces, and to make good any damages resulting 
 to the holder by its violation. What is known 
 in the army as a "safe-guard" is analogous to a 
 safe-conduct, and its violation by any person 
 belonging to the armies of the United States in 
 foreign ports, or in the United States during 
 rebellion, is by the 57th of the "Articles of 
 "War" made punishable by death. 
 
 Safety-keel (Eng.}. A form of keel designed 
 by Oliver Lang, giving greater security, 
 
 Safety-pin. A pin used sometimes to secure 
 the head of the capstan-bar. A pin used in a 
 boat-lowering apparatus to prevent the acci 
 dental detachment of the boat. A pin inserted 
 in the tube of Singer s torpedo to prevent pre 
 mature explosion. 
 
 Safety-plug. A leaden plug inserted in the 
 inner end of a navy time-fuze to guard against 
 accidental ignition. A plug of cement or papier- 
 mache, used in torpedoes to prevent explosion 
 during transport. In mechanism, a plug in 
 serted in the shell of a steam-boiler or other 
 vessel containing fluid under pressure, so fitted 
 or made of such material as to be forced out or 
 melted when the pressure or temperature is ex 
 cessive. See FUSIBLE PLUG. 
 
 Safety-valve. A valve attached to a steam- 
 boiler, which, by automatic action, opens and 
 permits the escape of steam when the pressure 
 exceeds a stated amount. The valve is confined 
 to its seat by a weight or spring adjustable to 
 any given pressure, and is generally provided 
 with mechanism for opening it at will by hand. 
 In the most common form the valve is controlled 
 by a weighted lever. A lock safety-valve is one 
 so inclosed that, after having been adjusted by 
 an inspector, it cannot be controlled by the per 
 son managing the boiler. The area of opening 
 of the valve should be sufficient to permit all 
 the steam that can be generated by the boiler to 
 escape at a pressure a little above that of the at 
 mosphere. There are many forms of safety- 
 valves, the principal object aimed at in all being 
 to secure certain and prompt action. 
 
 Sag. To settle down, or yield to weight or 
 pressure. To sag to leeward, to shift greatly to 
 leeward by force of wind, sea, or current. 
 
 Sagitta. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Sagittarius, Constellation of (Lat. " The 
 
 Archer"). The ninth constellation of the zo 
 diac, lying between Scorpio and Capricornus. 
 It contains no star above the third magnitude. 
 
 Sagittarius, Sign of. The ninth division of 
 the ecliptic, including from 240 to 270 of longi 
 tude. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, 
 the constellation Sagittarius no longer occupies 
 the sign of this name, the constellation Scorpio 
 having taken its place. The sun is in Sagit 
 tarius from about November 23 to about Decem 
 ber 22. Symbol t. 
 
 Saic. A kind of ketch, with very long masts, 
 used in the Levant. Sometimes it has but one 
 mast, sometimes two, and a bowsprit. No top 
 gallant-sails are used. 
 
 Saidak. See URSA MAJOR. 
 
 Saigon, the capital of French Cochin China, 
 is situated on the Saigon River, 35 miles from 
 the China Sea, in lat. 10 47 N., Ion. 106 45 
 E. It consists of three towns, Pingeh, on the 
 west side of the river, the commercial town, and 
 the native quarter. The citadel, fortified in 
 European fashion, contains barracks, officers 
 quarters, and the governor s residence. The 
 city has a navy-yard, arsenal, floating docks, 
 with piers and basins for shipping. It has quite 
 a foreign trade, chiefly with Siam and China. 
 Pop. 90,000. 
 
 Sailor. A generic term, synonymous with 
 mariner, used to designate all sea-faring men. 
 Not all sailors are seamen. 
 
 SAILOR S HOME. An institution for the main 
 tenance and support of aged and infirm seamen. 
 A Sailors Home was instituted at Quincy, Mass., 
 in 1866. The Sailors Home on Staten Island, in 
 New York Bay, is an excellent institution of 
 many years standing, and there are other insti 
 tutions of the kind on the coast and on the lakes. 
 Government sailors are given a home at the 
 Naval Asylum. 
 
 Sails. The canvas, cloth, or other fabric at 
 tached to the yards, gaffs, stays, etc., of a vessel, 
 which, when extended, are acted upon by the 
 force of the wind. 
 
 The material in general use is canvas or duck, 
 made of cotton, hemp, or flax. The coarser and 
 heavier qualities of canvas are used in the large 
 sails, where great strength is required, while the 
 light sails, which are intended for use only with 
 moderate winds, are made of the finer qualities. 
 
 The breadths of canvas, cut at the required 
 length, are sewed with a flat, double seam, using 
 for the purpose flax or cotton twine, according to 
 the material of which the canvas is composed. 
 The edges of the sail are finished with a broad 
 hem called the tabling, and to this is sewed the 
 bolt-rope or roping, by which the sail is strength 
 ened and rendered capable of withstanding the 
 heavy strain which is required. A draft of the 
 sail should first be made, showing the number of 
 cloths and the dimensions of each. 
 
 When there is sufficient space, as on the floor 
 of a sail-loft, the measurements of the half-plan 
 of the sail may be laid down, and the cloths cut 
 and placed in the position where they are to be 
 sewed. 
 
 Sails should be made to set as flat as possible, 
 to enable a vessel to sail near the wind when 
 close-hauled, and in order that the wind may 
 have greater effect upon them. The set of a sail 
 depends in a great degree upon the manner of 
 roping, for if the canvas is too slack the sail 
 
SAILS 
 
 712 
 
 SAILS 
 
 will extend like a bag, and much of the effect of 
 the wind will thereby be lost. 
 
 Sails may be divided into two general classes, 
 square and fore-and-aft. The former are quadri 
 lateral, but not necessarily rectangular. They 
 are always fastened or bent to the yards, and as 
 the yards decrease in size the higher their posi 
 tion above the deck, each sail is shorter on the 
 upper edge than on the lower. The principal 
 square-sails are called the courses, topsails, top 
 gallant-sails, and royals. On merchant vessels 
 a sky-sail is sometimes carried above the royal. 
 They are also named from the mast to which 
 they belong, as the fore-course, or foresail, the 
 maintop-sail, the mizzen topgallant-sail, the fore- 
 royal , etc. The upper and lower edges are called 
 the head and foot, and the two sides are called 
 the leeches. The ropes which are sewed upon 
 these different parts are also named head-rope, 
 foot-rope, and leech-ropes. 
 
 The sails are bent to the yards by means of 
 rope-yarns or spun-yarn passed through eyelet- 
 holes made in each seam at the head of the sail, 
 and secured to a jack-stay on the yard. At each 
 upper corner a strand is worked through two 
 eyelet-holes, around the roping, forming loops 
 called the head-cringles, through which small 
 ropes or lashings, called head-earlngs, are passed, 
 and by which they are secured to the yard. The 
 lower corners are called clews, and in the larger 
 sails they are fitted with clew-irons, to which 
 the tacks, sheets, and clew-lines are hooked. 
 
 Reef-bands are strips of canvas sewed across 
 the sail parallel to the head. Eyelet-holes are 
 made through the reef-bands at every seam in 
 which short pieces of rope, called reef-points, are 
 fastened, and serve to secure the reef-band to the 
 yard when the sail is reduced in size by reefing. 
 The reefs are called, commencing at the head of 
 the sail, single reef, double reef, third reef, and 
 close reef. At each end of the reef-bands, crin 
 gles are made, inside of which composition or 
 iron rings (called thimbles) are placed. 
 
 Reef-earings are used in securing these cringles 
 to the yards when the sail is reefed. 
 
 A variety of ropes and tackles are used in 
 handling sails, such as halliards, by which they 
 are hoisted ; sheets, by which the clews are ex 
 tended to the extremities of the yard next below ; 
 clew-lines and clew-jiggers, bunt-lines, bunt-jig- 
 gers, and leech-lines, which are used in pulling 
 the different parts of the sail up to the yard upon 
 which it is bent ; bow-lines, which steady the 
 leeches when sailing close to the wind ; braces, by 
 which the yards are moved and placed in such 
 positions that the wind may have the greatest 
 effect upon the sails, and reef -tackles, which assist 
 in reefing the sail. 
 
 Topgallant-sails are seldom made to be reefed, 
 but they have bunt-lines and leech-lines, while 
 royals, being still smaller, require only clew-lines 
 with which to take in the sail. 
 
 Studding-sails are set outside of the leeches of 
 the fore- and main-topsails, topgallant-sails, and 
 royals, and of the foresail. They are all quad 
 rilateral in shape except the lower studding-sail, 
 which is sometimes triangular. They are hoisted 
 to the end of the yards, and the lower part is 
 extended by means of a boom secured on the 
 yard below. They are set and taken in by the 
 halliards, tack, sheet, and down-haul. Stud 
 ding-sails are named from the masts by which 
 
 they are supported, as fore- topmast studding- 
 sail, main-topgallant studding-sail, etc. They 
 are used only with a fair wind and in moderate 
 weather. 
 
 Fore-and-aft sails are those which are bent to 
 the gaffs or masts, or are hoisted upon the stays. 
 All square-rigged vessels carry fore-and-aft sail. 
 In a ship or bark, the sails which are bent to the 
 gaffs at the foremast and mainmast are called 
 trysails or spencers, and that at the mizzen-mast 
 is called the spanker. The trysails are taken in 
 by means of brails, by which the sails are gath 
 ered in to the gaffs and masts, the gaffs being 
 stationary. The spanker may be fitted in the 
 same manner, as is usual in men-of-war, or it 
 may be set and taken in by hoisting and lower 
 ing the gaff. 
 
 All jibs and stay-sails are bent to wooden or 
 iron rings called hanks, which pass freely on the 
 stays. They are hoisted by the halliards, hauled 
 down by the down-hauls, and trimmed or flattened 
 by the sheets. The jibs, fore-topmast stay-sail, 
 and fore-stay-sail are set upon the stays which 
 support the foremast, and are called the head 
 sails. They are triangular in shape, but those 
 stay-sails which are set between the masts are usu 
 ally quadrilateral, and are named from the stays 
 upon which they belong, as main-topmast stay 
 sail, mizzen-topgallant stay-sail, etc. 
 
 The lower forward corner of all fore-and-aft 
 sails is called the tack, and the same term is ap 
 plied to the lower outer corner of a studding-sail, 
 and the weather lower corner of a course. The 
 edge of a stay-sail which lies along the stay is 
 called the luffo? stay. That nearest the stern is 
 called the leech, and the lower edge is called the 
 foot. 
 
 The lower sails of fore-and-aft rigged vessels 
 are named from the mast upon which they are 
 set. A gaff-topsail is nearly triangular in shape, 
 and is set between the topmast and the gaff. 
 
 The depth of a course, or the distance from the 
 head to the foot, is called the drop. The .same 
 dimension of any other square-sail is called the 
 hoist, while the width or distance between the 
 leeches is referred to the number of cloths or 
 breadths of canvas which it contains. 
 
 Various improvements have been made in 
 square-sails by which they may be handled with 
 greater ease with a small number of men, but the 
 only one which is in general use in merchant 
 ships is called the "double topsail-yard rig." 
 By dividing the topsail into two sails, each of 
 which can be set or taken in independently of 
 the other, the work of handling a topsail is 
 greatly reduced, while the same sail-surface can 
 be extended, as in a topsail with a single yard. 
 
 Boat s sails are of different descriptions, and 
 vary with the class of boat or the purposes for 
 which it is to be used. Pleasure-boats are rigged 
 with fore-and-aft sails either on one or two masts. 
 The sails are usually of large size compared with 
 the dimensions of the boat, for the purpose of 
 obtaining greater speed. 
 
 The different classes of boats in the navy are 
 of a uniform rig. 
 
 Sailing launches are sloop-rigged, having one 
 mast, upon which are set a jib and mainsail. 
 
 Barges and first and second cutters are rigged 
 with two sliding-gunter masts, upon which are 
 set two triangular sails, called the foresail and 
 mainsail, and a jib. 
 
SAILS 
 
 713 
 
 SAILS 
 
 A sliding-gunter mast consists of two sections, 
 nearly equal in length, called the lower-mast and 
 topmast. The latter slides upon the former, and 
 is held in position by means of two iron rings or 
 bands secured to the topmast near its lower end. 
 The sail is permanently bent to the topmast, but 
 laced to the lower mast in order that it may not 
 prevent the topmast from being lowered quickly. 
 The sail is set by hoisting the topmast to its 
 place. 
 
 Third and fourth cutters have two masts carry 
 ing sprit-sails and a jib. The sprit-sail is so 
 called from the sprit or light spar that is used to 
 raise and keep in position the peak of the sail. 
 The upper end of the sprit is placed in a grom- 
 met or loop at the peak, while the lower end 
 rests in another grommet on the lower part of 
 the mast. 
 
 Whale-boats are rigged in the same manner 
 with the exception of the jib. 
 
 Gigs are furnished with one mast, which car 
 ries a sprit-sail, and a stay-sail which extends 
 from the head of the mast to the stem of the boat. 
 Dingeys have one sprit-sail. E. T. Strong, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 SAIL-BURTON. A long double purchase, used 
 for hoisting sails aloft, composed of a fiddle- 
 block, a single-block, and a leader made fast at 
 the latter, so that the fall acts as a guy to direct 
 the ascent of the sail. 
 
 SAIL-CLOTH. Duck or other canvas used for 
 making sails, awnings, etc. Hemp, cotton, and 
 linen cloth are used in the navy. 
 
 SAIL-COVER. A canvas cover placed over a sail 
 when furled, to protect it. 
 
 SAIL-HO ! A cry given by the look-out, or any 
 one, discovering a sail at sea. Sailors jocularly 
 use the term when they wish to give comrades 
 warning of the vicinity of an officer. 
 
 SAIL-HOOK. A small hook with a swivel at 
 tached, to hold sail-cloth while it is being sewed. 
 
 SAILING DIRECTIONS. Books containing local 
 information respecting various seas and coasts 
 useful for the purposes of navigation. The chief 
 topics are, an account of the winds, currents, 
 tides, with directions how to take advantage of 
 these in making certain passages ; notices of 
 dangers, such as rocks and shoals, with directions 
 how to avoid them ; descriptions of anchorages 
 and ports, with the appearance and bearings of 
 landmarks for making them ; the particulars re 
 specting the light-houses on the coast; memoranda 
 of watering-places, etc. 
 
 SAILING-ICE. Loose floating ice separated by 
 appreciable intervals. 
 
 SAILING-MASTER was the title of a warranted 
 officer in the U. S. navy as early as 1798. In 
 that year John Fisher was appointed on the 12th 
 of May, and nine others during the year. In 
 the first printed regulations for the U. S. navy, 
 " issued by command of the President of the 
 United States of America," January 25, 1802, 
 among the duties assigned to the sailing-master 
 are " to inspect the provisions and stores," " to 
 take care of the ballast," " to give directions for 
 stowing the hold and spirit-room, trimming the 
 ship, and preservation of the provisions," " to 
 take special care of the rigging," "to navigate 
 the ship and see that the log and log-book are 
 duly kept," etc., etc., all of which duties now 
 devolve upon the navigator, or officer next in 
 rank to the executive. In 1813 there were 162 
 
 sailing-masters in the navy, one of whom was 
 George Farragut, the father of the late admiral. 
 In 1839 the title was changed to master, at 
 which time there were 27 in the service, 11 of 
 whom were in service in 1813. " Masters in the 
 line of promotion," taken from the seniors of 
 the grade of passed midshipmen to fill the death 
 vacancies in the old-time masters, were first in 
 troduced into the service in 1846. Six were ap 
 pointed the first year. In 1861 there were 36 
 of this grade on the active and 1 on the re 
 served list. In 1862, on the reorganization of 
 the navy, by promotion and otherwise, they were 
 all merged in the grades, and the present rank 
 of master, a commissioned officer intermediate 
 between the lieutenants and ensigns, was created, 
 whose duties are simply those of a watch-officer. 
 There still linger on the retired list 4 of the 
 old-time warranted masters not jn the line of 
 promotion. 
 
 SAILING, ORDER OF. The disposition of a 
 fleet under sail. It was customarily in three 
 lines, although two were sometimes used. There 
 were three orders of sailing, and an order of 
 convoy and of retreat. 
 
 SAILING-ORDERS. Orders to sail in the per 
 formance of some duty. 
 
 SAILINGS. The different methods of determin 
 ing a ship s track, of representing it on a chart, 
 and of solving problems connected with it. See 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 SAILING-TRIM. With weights and hull well 
 disposed, a ship is in good sailing-trim, the term 
 having reference to her fitness to perform her 
 best sailing. 
 
 SAIL-LOFT. A loft or room in navy-yards or 
 shore establishments where sails are cut and 
 made. 
 
 SAIL-LOOSERS. Those men detailed to go 
 aloft at the times indicated, to loose the sails. 
 
 SAILMAKER. The person employed in a 
 navy-yard to superintend all cutting, fitting, and 
 other work on sails. A warrant-officer in the 
 navy, charged with the same duties on board 
 ship, receiving from $700 to $1800 a year as pay. 
 
 SAILMAKERS BENCH. A wooden bench used 
 by sailmakers in sewing canvas. 
 
 SAILMAKERS GANG. The gang of men work 
 ing on sail, etc., either on board ship or in a 
 navy-yard. 
 
 SAILMAKERS MARLINE-SPIKE. A slender 
 iron marline-spike, with a wooden handle, used 
 on bolt-rope work by sailmakers. 
 
 SAILMAKERS MATE. A petty officer of a 
 man-of-war, working at sail-making under the 
 directions of the sailmaker, and having the care 
 of the sails and sail-rooms. His pay is $26.50 
 per month. 
 
 SAILMAKERS PRICKER. A small iron awl, 
 used by sailmakers to punch holes in canvas ; 
 also called a stabber. 
 
 SAILMAKERS SPLICE. A neat tapering splice, 
 used by sailmakers in uniting two ropes of dif 
 ferent sizes. 
 
 SAIL-MAKING. The art of cutting, sewing, 
 and fitting sails, awnings, and other canvas struc 
 tures or appendages to a ship. 
 
 SAIL-NEEDLES. Large steel needles used in 
 sewing canvas, half their length round in sec 
 tion, the other half pyramidal. There are sev 
 eral kinds, increasing in size and strength as 
 follows: 1, flat-seam needles; 2, tabling needles; 
 
SAINT 
 
 SALEM 
 
 85 large sail needles ; 4, repair needles ; 5, head- 
 rope needles; 6, small bolt-rope needles; 7, 
 medium bolt-rope needles ; 8, large bolt-rope 
 needles ; 9, small marline needles ; 10, large 
 marline needles. 
 
 SAIL-NETTING. A rope netting or a canvas 
 receptacle for a stay-sail, as the fore- topmast stay 
 sail netting, etc. 
 
 SAIL-ROOM. A room below the berth-deck of 
 a rnan-of-war, where sails and other canvas struc 
 tures are kept. There are more than one on 
 large ships. 
 
 SAIL-TACKLE. See SAIL-BURTON. 
 
 SAIL-TRIMMER. One of each gun s crew, de 
 tailed to go on deck to trim sails during action 
 upon call. 
 
 SAIL-TWINE. Twine used in sewing sails and 
 canvas in general. Two sizes are used, five 
 fold and four-fold, according to the texture of 
 the canvas. 
 
 Saint Cuthbert s Duck. The eider-duck, or 
 Anas mollissima. 
 
 Saint Helier s is situated on the east side of 
 St. Aubin s Bay, on the south coast of the Isle 
 of Jersey, of which it is the capital. Lat. 49 
 11 3" N. ; Ion. 2 6 W. It is located between 
 two rocky heights, on the eastern one of which 
 is the citadel, Fort Regent, overlooking the inner 
 harbor. The town is the residence of many 
 retired ofiicers of the British army and navy. 
 It has an active trade, and is the seat of the rep 
 resentative parliament of Jersey. Pop. 31,000. 
 
 Saint John, the commercial metropolis of New 
 Brunswick, is beautifully situated at the mouth 
 of the St. John River, on a rocky peninsula pro 
 jecting into the harbor. Lat. 45 14 6 N. ; Ion. 
 66 3 30" W. The harbor is safe, capacious, 
 and never obstructed by ice. The entrance is pro 
 tected by Partridge s Island, on which are situ 
 ated a quarantine hospital and light-house. On 
 the east side of the channel a breakwater mod 
 erates the force of the waves, caused by southerly 
 gales. This city is the entrepot for a wide ex 
 tent of country, and its situation on a large river 
 with a good harbor, with railways running from 
 it in all directions, and having extensive mari 
 time and manufacturing interests, indicates its 
 great commercial importance. It also has large 
 interests in the fisheries. Pop. 29,000. 
 
 Saint John s, the capital of Newfoundland, is 
 situated near the extremity of the easternmost 
 peninsula of the island, in lat. 47 33 6" N., 
 Ion. 52 3 W. The harbor, an exceedingly 
 good one, is inclosed by two mountains, between 
 the eastern points of which the entrance called 
 the " Narrows" is located. This entrance is well 
 defended by fortifications. It has 12 fathoms of 
 water, but only one vessel can pass at a time. In 
 the harbor proper there is ample room for ship 
 ping, with good anchorage. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Saint Malo, in the department of Ille-et-Vi- 
 laine, France, is situated on the English Channel, 
 at the mouth of the river Ranee. The town is 
 built upon a peninsula, connected by a causeway 
 with the mainland, and is defended by strong 
 bastioned walls and a castle. Among the chief 
 buildings are the chamber of commerce, naval 
 arsenal, and school of navigation. The harbor 
 is secure and commodious, dry at low-water, but 
 40 feet deep in spring tides. There is also a large 
 floating dock. It has extensive rope-walks, man 
 ufactures of fishing-nets and hooks, and marine 
 
 fittings, an active provision trade with the colo 
 nies, a brisk coasting trade, and many vessels 
 engaged in the fisheries. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Saint Paul de Loanda, the capital of the 
 Portuguese province of Angola, in West Africa, 
 in lat. 8 48 7 V S., Ion. 13 13 E., is situated on 
 a large and secure harbor, sheltered by the island 
 of Loanda, and defended to the seaward by three 
 forts. Its market is well supplied, and it "has an 
 export trade in ivory, hides, coffee, and palm oil. 
 It was once the seat of an extensive slave-trade. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Saint Petersburg, the modern capital of the 
 Russian Empire, is situated on both sides of the 
 Neva, at its entrance into the Gulf of Finland, 
 in lat. 59 56 N., Ion. 30 18 E. The city is 
 chiefly located on the south bank of the Neva, 
 and partly on islands in the river. Owing to the 
 flat, marshy soil upon which it is situated the 
 city is badly drained, and is also subject to de 
 structive inundations, during one of which, in 
 1824, 15,000 lives were lost. The river is open 
 to navigation about 220 days in the year, it being 
 frozen over the remainder of the time. The city 
 contains many scientific schools and academies, 
 an imperial library containing 450,000 volumes, 
 an astronomical and meteorological observatory, 
 naval hospital, school of mines, the imperial 
 academy, and imperial geographical society^ 
 Manufactures of all kinds are carried on, and it 
 has imperial gunpowder, tapestry, and porcelain 
 factories, extensive cannon-foundries, and glass 
 works. It has steam-packet communication with 
 all the principal ports of Europe. The channel 
 at the mouth of the river is impeded by sand 
 and difficult of access, the ship-canal to deep 
 water being not yet completed. It has two dock 
 yards, and many of the vessels of the Russian 
 navy are built here. Pop. 670,000. 
 
 -Saint Sebastian, situated on a small peninsula 
 in the Bay of Biscay, in the province of Gui- 
 puzcoa, Spain, is a fortified city, inclosed by 
 walls, and defended by the citadel of Mota, on 
 the adjacent height, Mount Urgull. Its harbor, 
 protected by a mole, is small, but the city has a 
 large import trade, and an export trade in corn, 
 etc. Lat. 43 19 2" N. ; Ion. 2 5" W, 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Saint Servan, France, is in the department of 
 Ille-et-Vilaine, on the right bank of the Ranee, 
 at its mouth in the English Channel. It has two 
 harbors, one for frigates and the other for com 
 merce, separated from each other by the rock and 
 castle of Solidor, besides which another fort de 
 fends Saint-Servan. It has ship-building docks 
 and an active trade. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Saint Swithin s Day. An old superstition 
 was, that if it rained on this day, the 6th of 
 July, it would rain every day during the next 
 forty. 
 
 Saker. An old gun, called in European lan 
 guages sacre, 8 to 9 feet long, and 5 to 12 pounds 
 calibre. 
 
 Salamander. A heated iron, formerly used 
 in firing guns, especially in saluting. A lacing 
 of rawhide to confine the luff of a sail to its stay. 
 
 Salem, Mass., in the county of Essex, is 
 pleasantly situated on a peninsula formed by two 
 inlets of the sea, called North and South Rivers. 
 It has a good harbor, defended by Fort Picker 
 ing. The town had formerly an extensive trade 
 with India, China, Africa, and South America ; 
 
SALE OF EFFE 
 
 CT$ 
 
 715 
 
 SALUTES 
 
 but at present the foreign trade is smull , although 
 the coasting trade is extensive, the reception of 
 coal for distribution and the shipment of ice be 
 ing the leading interest. Quite a number of 
 manufactories, principally cotton goods, boots, 
 and cordage, are located here. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Sale of Effects. When a sailor dies or deserts, 
 his effects are sold by auction to the highest bid 
 der. 
 
 Salerno, a city and seaport of Italy, capital 
 of the province of Salerno, is situated at the 
 northern extremity of the gulf of the same name, 
 inlat. 40 40 N., Ion. 14 46 E. The port is 
 well sheltered, but is very shallow. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Salinas, or Salines. Natural or artificial 
 ponds for salt- making purposes. 
 
 Salinometer. A salt-gauge, used to ascertain 
 the density of sea-water in the boilers, acting by 
 specific gravity. A receptacle for holding it and 
 the hot water is called the salinometer-pot, and 
 is sometimes affixed to the boiler- front. 
 
 Sally. To make a sudden rush in a body 
 from one part of the ship to another. It becomes 
 useful when a ship is aground forward or aft. 
 A sally would also be made to clear a certain 
 part of the deck of boarders lodged there. 
 
 SALLY-PORT. A large port on either quarter 
 of a fire-ship, serving as a means of escape to the 
 crew after the train is fired. The entering or 
 gangway port of a three-decker, or of a large 
 modern ironclad. 
 
 Salmagundi. A sea-dish, made of slices of 
 dried fish mixed with onions. 
 
 Salmon. A fish of a yellowish-red color, of 
 the genus Salmo ; it is found in all the northern 
 climates of America, Europe, and Asia. It as 
 cends the river for spawning in spring, and 
 penetrates to their head-streams. It is a remark- 
 ably strong fish, and will even leap over con 
 siderable falls which lie in the way of its progress. 
 It has been known to grow to the weight of 75 
 pounds ; more frequently it is from 15 to 25 
 pounds. It furnishes a delicious dish for the 
 table, and is an article of commerce. 
 
 SALMONET. A salmon of small size ; a samlet. 
 
 SALMON-LADDER. A short trough placed in 
 a water-fall, with passages cut for fish to pass 
 through. 
 
 SALMONOID. Belonging to the family of which 
 the salmon is the type. 
 
 SALMON-PEEL. A young salmon. 
 
 SALMON-TROUT. A small species of Salmo, re 
 sembling the common salmon in color ; called 
 also the sea-trout. 
 
 Salonica, in Roumelia, European Turkey, is 
 the capital of a sanjak, at the northeast extremity 
 of the Gulf of Salonica. Lat. 40 38 8" N. ; 
 Ion. 22 67 22" E. The bazaars are extensive 
 and well supplied, and the city has some flour 
 ishing silk-drawing factories. It is the seat of 
 extensive trade. The exports consist of wheat, 
 barley, maize, timber, sponges, wine, raw silk, 
 etc. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Saloon. The main cabin of a steamer or pas 
 senger ship. Passengers there berthed are called 
 saloon-passengers. 
 
 SALOON-DECK. The deck on which the saloon 
 of a steamer is situated. 
 
 Salt. A salt, or an old salt, is an old sailor 
 whose life has been spent at sea. 
 
 Salt-box (Eng.]. A case in which a temporary 
 supply of cartridges for great guns is kept on deck. 
 
 Salt-eel. A rope s end for delinquents. 
 
 Salt-horse, or Salt-junk. Navy salt-beef; a 
 part of the ration. 
 
 Salt-marsh. A marsh subject to the overflow 
 of salt water. 
 
 Salt-water Jack. A sailor who navigates the 
 ocean, ^contradistinction to & fresh-water Jack. 
 
 Salute. To honor a superior by raising the 
 cap, presenting arms, dipping colors, manning 
 the yards, or firing a certain number of guns. 
 In the navy, all persons salute superiors by 
 raising the cap. All sentries salute officers below 
 the rank of lieutenant-commander by raising the 
 hand to the rifle at a carry ; all of and above that 
 grade, by presenting arms. The ensign is dipped 
 in compliment to foreign men-of-war or forts, in 
 reply to a similar salute. Boats salute according 
 to the rank of those meeting in them, by lying 
 on their oars, tossing, or trailing them, or by 
 letting fly the sheets under sail, or merely by 
 raising the cap, sitting or standing according to 
 circumstances. 
 
 Officers on leaving or entering a ship are at 
 tended by a boatswain or his mate, and from 2 
 to 8 boys holding the entering ropes or standing 
 inside the gangway. An admiral, commodore, 
 or captain is received with a guard of marines, 
 and drums are rolled in his honor under certain 
 circumstances. All persons salute the quarter 
 deck on approaching it, by raising the cap. 
 
 Guns are fired when officers of and above the 
 grade of commodore visit a ship, on occasions of 
 ceremony, on national or other holidays, to for 
 eign ships or ports, or on the visit of high civil 
 or diplomatic functionaries. No more than 21 
 guns are ever fired, and they vary from that 
 number to 5, always being of an odd number. 
 This latter custom is very ancient, an even num 
 ber being considered unlucky. Salutes are an 
 swered gun for gun, or according to the rank of 
 the officer saluting ; and the flag of the rank or 
 of the nation saluted is hoisted when the salute is 
 fired, and in case of personal salutes, the jib is 
 hoisted with the first gun, and hauled down with 
 the last. Ships carrying less than 14 guns do not 
 salute. 
 
 Salutes. The theory of firing a salute is that 
 it leaves the guns harmless and at the mercy of 
 the other party, and this is so true that firing 
 salutes with blank cartridge is a modern inven 
 tion, occasioned, however, by the fact that a 
 complimentary cannon-ball once proved fatal to 
 the personage whom it was meant to honor. 
 "When an officer salutes he points his drawn 
 sword to the ground, and the salute of troops is 
 still designated "presenting arms," that is, pre 
 senting them to be taken. 
 
 In early times the salutes were an exchange of 
 a few guns, as is the practice in China to-day, 
 where the usual salute is the sensible one of 
 3 guns only. Edward Skippen, a traveler of 
 the 17th century, writing in 1664, says, "One 
 afternoon while we were at Messina, came 
 into port two Malta gallies hung full of colors, 
 flags, banners, etc., upon the masts, sails, etc., 
 which made a very fair show, which gallies re 
 ceived pratique and then they gave 4 guns, 
 answered by Castle Salvador with 3. Then 
 gave the viceroy 4, who answered also with 
 3. At last the gallies of Sicily were saluted 
 with 4, who returned their welcome with 3 
 shot." 
 
SALUTES 
 
 T16 
 
 SALUTES 
 
 Sir William Monson. in his " Naval Tracts," 
 written some time prior to 1600, and the ear 
 liest writer on the subject of naval salutes, says 
 at the beginning, " I am sorry I have occa 
 sion to complain of the lavish and wasteful 
 expense of powder in saluting ships under a 
 friendly pretence of meeting at sea, mre prac 
 tised of late by our nation than any other." "A 
 castle and the Governor of it is in the nature of 
 a Gentleman that will entertain his Friend at his 
 house and give him a hearty welcome, and be 
 cause the castle cannot perform it in words, he 
 makes his ordnance speak it for him with such a 
 number of pieces as he thinks fit; after which 
 proportion an Admiral is to answer by way of 
 thanks, but to exceed the number of the castle s 
 salutation, because an Admiral s ship commonly 
 carries three times more pieces than the castle 
 has. This is to be referred to the will of the 
 commander on either side. If an Admiral be 
 accompanied by hisVice- Admiral, Bear- Admiral, 
 and the rest of his Fleet, there needs no other 
 salutation from the castle, for the Lord- Admiral s 
 welcome includes all the rest of his friends and 
 fleet ; but notwithstanding a Vice- Admiral must 
 salute a castle with two pieces less than an Admi 
 ral, and the Rear- Admiral with two less than he, 
 and this is as much to honor the Admiral as the 
 castle ; but it must be considered that these three 
 only that carry the flags of command and rule 
 over the squadrons, and no other ship is to shoot, 
 unless by directions of the Admiral, for their 
 shooting will be taken as too great a familiarity 
 with him. 
 
 11 When an Admiral shall depart from under the 
 command of a castle, in sign of his loving accept 
 ance for his entertainment both he and his two 
 other flags are to give the same salutation that 
 the castle gave him at his entrance, and with the 
 same number of form as aforesaid. 
 
 " If a fleet pass within sight of a castle, and not 
 within command of his ordnance to reach him, 
 the castle is not bound to salute, only to afford a 
 welcome and a visit by a gentleman of quality. 
 If a Governor fail to perform any compliment 
 that is meet, he must amend it upon the Admiral s 
 landing, making his ordnance roar aloud his wel 
 come ; but the ship is not to answer, because it is 
 done to the person of the Admiral, who is bound 
 to requite the same upon the Governor s visiting 
 him on board his ship, and his departure from 
 thence." 
 
 It is curious to see how these regulations re 
 garding salutes have been continued for near 
 300 years. Monson continues : 
 
 " The saluting of ships by one another at sea is 
 both ancient and decent, though in this latter 
 time much abused ; for whereas 3, 5, or 7 pieces 
 may have been the ordinary use for an Admiral, 
 and never to exceed thatt proportion, and an 
 Admiral not to answer with above one or three, 
 now they strive to exceed that number, thinking 
 that many pieces add honor to the salutation ; 
 but the owners of merchant ships would be glad 
 den it might be done with less cost and more 
 courtesy in another kind. But tho the Ad 
 miral cannot restrain this compliment in the 
 ship that salutes, yet he may command his gun 
 ner not to return above one or three pieces, 
 according to the old manner. 
 
 "And for such ships as are of his own fleet he 
 may prohibit the saluting of one another, but 
 
 upon the occasions following, viz., in bringing 
 good and fortunate news against an enemy after 
 an escape of a desperate danger, and then not to 
 an exceed three or five, and to be answered at 
 the discretion of the Admiral. 
 
 "The excessive banqueting on board is a great 
 consuming of powder, for as men s brains are 
 heated with wine, so they heat their ordnance 
 with ostentation and professed kindness at that 
 instant, and many times not without danger ; 
 and therefore, to take away the cause, a captain 
 should have directions from under the hand of a 
 General to forbid shooting, which would be a 
 good excuse and give his guests satisfaction, un 
 less, it be done in the manner following as I have 
 devised. 
 
 " The vain drinking of Healths is another means 
 to waste powder, which a General must likewise 
 forbid, except it be the health of a free Prince, or 
 men of that rank and condition, and then not to 
 exceed one piece when the health shall be begun. 
 The King s, the Queen s, or their issues, is ex 
 empted from this strictness. 
 
 " Upon some occasion an Admiral may com 
 mand his whole fleet to fire their guns, as namely, 
 when a foreign Prince, Governors of countries, 
 Ambassadors of great Potentates, and men of 
 Great Blood and Quality, shall, be either trans 
 ported, or make a visit on board the Admiral to 
 behold the stateliness of his fleet, it were neces 
 sary they were as well resolved of their force, 
 as the report they would make of their wel 
 come ; and in that case every ship of the Fleet 
 is to shoot their whole number of pieces distinctly 
 and orderly (as thus) : An Admiral and his 
 squadron first to begin ; the Vice- Admiral to fol 
 low his example, and so the Rear-Admiral to do 
 the like, but with this caution, that no small 
 ship or pinnace do mingle themselves with great 
 ships, but to second one another according to 
 their Ranks and greatness. 
 
 "To come now to my proposition how things 
 should be carried, it is thus : That upon drinking 
 of healths, or leaves taken on board ships, in 
 stead of the excessive charge of burning powder 
 out of great ordnance, it may be done with mus 
 kets ; for a man s welcome consists not so much 
 in the difference betwixt a cannon and a lesser 
 piece, but in the loving heart of him who in 
 vites ; both the one and the other are consumed 
 in the twinkling of an eye, and the report of a 
 Faulconet, when there is no greater piece, is all 
 one to the hearer as if it were a cannon or faulcon. 
 
 "Therefore, to accommodate this difference, 
 and to bring it to a certain custom in the King s 
 ships hereafter, I wish that instead of the charge 
 able waste of powder that is now in use, by 
 shooting out of great ordnance, to have a num 
 ber of musketery placed, and decently armed 
 and apparelled soldier-like, upon the upper deck, 
 that when there shall be occasion to drink healths, 
 or to take their leave at departure, they fire their 
 muskets at a mark, made like the shape of a 
 man, put into a barrel, off at sea within point- 
 blank, where the soldiers shall take their aim 
 duly. This will be an act of more pleasure and 
 delight to the beholders than the other, where 
 nothing is expected but the falling of a bullet hav 
 ing no object to shoot at; the eye, the ear, and 
 sense, are all in action and employed together, and 
 many other benefits arise by it ; for the soldier 
 will by this practise be made a perfect shotsman 
 
SALVAGE 
 
 SANDS 
 
 against he shall encounter the enemy, and with so 
 small a cost and charge that a cartridge of a can 
 non will entertain persons of good rank, and give 
 them as great satisfaction with these few muskets 
 as the number of cannon will do ; for the ear is 
 only pleased with the report a cannon makes, 
 which lasts no longer than a flash of powder ; no 
 Gunner is made more perfect in his -art, for he 
 shoots at random in the air without level." 
 
 Not a bad idea this of the ancient marine, to 
 combine usefulness with the observance of eti 
 quette, which may not be amiss for modern 
 sailors to profit by. 
 
 In 1688, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, writing from 
 on board the "James Galley" to Sir Martin 
 Wescomb, says, " I shall ever be carefull in 
 keeping especially my Royal orders, which posi 
 tively command me to salute neither garrison 
 nor flagge of any forrainer, except I am certaine 
 to receave gunne for gunne." 
 
 Salvage. An allowance made for goods saved 
 at sea. The party saving such goods has a lien 
 on them, and a reasonable satisfaction is made for 
 such services. Salvage is a comparatively recent 
 institution, unknown to the ancients, and first 
 established by the laws of Wisby, Oleron, etc., 
 in the 13th century. Salvage is not allowed to 
 a government vessel. The rate of salvage varies 
 with the danger incurred, the labor and peril of 
 saving the goods, etc. From one-tenth to one- 
 half the value of the property has been allowed. 
 The crew of a ship and the passengers are entitled 
 to no salvage for saving her. Salvage is usually 
 provided for by insurance, and the salvage is paid 
 by the company, except in case of high charges. 
 
 SALVAGE Loss. The amount that the under 
 writers pay on property lost at sea. 
 
 SALVAGER. A wrecker who receives salvage 
 for goods reclaimed from wrecks. 
 
 SALVOR. The claimant for salvage-money for 
 goods saved from wreck. 
 
 Salvo. A simultaneous discharge of several 
 pieces. 
 
 Samakeen. A Turkish coasting-trader. 
 
 Samarang, near the mouth of the Samarang 
 River, on the north coast of Java, in lat. 6 57 A 
 S., Ion. 110 27 E., is a well-built city of 
 60,000 population. It has a large church, mili 
 tary school, hospital, and an extensive trade. 
 Its harbor is not good, and the town is unhealthy, 
 and owes its importance to the adjacent country, 
 which yields large quantities of coffee, pepper, 
 rice, and tobacco. It is the residence of the 
 Dutch governor, and the seat of one of three 
 principal law courts of Java. 
 
 Sambucco. An Arab pinnace, used on the 
 east coast of Africa. 
 
 Sampan. A Chinese boat, 12 to 15 feet long, 
 with a house on it, used in the interior waters of 
 China. All small boats are now called sampans 
 by foreigners. 
 
 Samphire. A sea plant, antiscorbutic, the 
 Crithmiim maritimum. 
 
 Samshoo. A spirituous liquor, distilled in 
 China from the yeasty fluid in which boiled rice 
 has fermented under pressure. 
 
 Samson-post. A strong post, extending from 
 the deck-beam to the keelson of a merchant ship, 
 having steps cut in it, by means of which the 
 hold is entered. A large stanchion placed di 
 agonally on each side and against the deck- 
 beam, its lower end being tenoned and made to 
 
 ship and unship. It was formerly used to bring 
 the fish-tackle to, when fishing the anchor; a 
 single block was lashed near its middle to form a 
 lead for the tackle-fall. 
 
 Sandal. A long, narrow boat of 15 to 50 tons, 
 open, and fitted with two masts, used on the Bar- 
 bary coast. 
 
 Sand-eel. A small eel-like fish (Ammodytes 
 tobianus and A. lancea). It buries itself in the 
 moist sand after the retiring of the tide, and is 
 often dug out for bait and for food. A. lancea is 
 the more common, and is known as the launce, or 
 sand-launce. 
 
 Sand-flea, or Sand-hopper. A small amphi- 
 pod crustacean, found on sandy shores, jumping 
 like a flea. 
 
 San Diego, a port of entry in San Diego 
 County, Cal., on a beautiful bay of the Pacific 
 Ocean^ 15 miles from the Mexican frontier, in 
 lat. 32 41 N., has a good harbor formed by San 
 Diego Bay. There is a depth of 22 feet of water 
 on the bar at low-tide. Hides, whale oil, and 
 wool are the principal articles of export, and it 
 has quite a considerable trade. This city will 
 probably be the terminus of the Southern Pacific 
 Railroad. 
 
 Sand-launce. An eel-like fish, the Ammo 
 dytes tobianus, which buries itself in the sand. 
 
 Sand-piper. A wading-bird of the Totanus 
 and Tringa genera. 
 
 Sand-pride. A very small species of lamprey, 
 rarely exceeding 3 inches in length, found in the 
 rivers of England and Scotland ; called also 
 sand-prey. 
 
 Sands, Benjamin F., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Maryland. Appointed midshipman 
 from Kentucky, April 1, 1828; attached to sloop 
 " Vandalia," Brazil Squadron, 1830-32; in sloop 
 " St. Louis," West India Squadron, 1833-34. 
 
 Warranted as passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834 ; on the coast survey, 1836-41. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 16, 1840 ; 
 in the frigate " Columbus," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1842-44 ; on special duty in 1845 ; at 
 Naval Observatory, 1846 ; Home Squadron, 
 1847 ; passage up Tabasco River, and at Tabasco, 
 June 15, 1847 ; in sloop u Yorktown," and com 
 manding brig " Porpoise," coast of Africa, 
 1848-50 ; on coast survey, 1851-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855 ; continued on coast survey, 1855-58 ; in 
 Bureau of Construction, 1859-60*; commanding 
 coast survey steamer "Active," 1861-62. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Dacotah," North Atlan 
 tic Blockading Squadron, in 1863 ; in engage 
 ment at Fort Caswell, February 23, 1863 ; com 
 manding steamer " Fort Jackson," North Atlan 
 tic Blockading Squadron, 1864-65, present at 
 both attacks upon Fort Fisher ; on blockade of 
 Wilmington, most of the time, senior officer 
 commanding that division, from November, 
 1862, to February, 1865 ; commanding division 
 on blockade of coast of Texas, from February to 
 June, 1865. The surrender of the rebel trans- 
 Mississippi forces to Gen. Canby, U.S.A., was 
 signed by Gen. E. Kirby Smith and Major- 
 Gen. J. Bankhead Magruder, June 2, 1865, and 
 formal possession taken of Galveston by Capt. 
 Sands, commanding division off coast of Texas, 
 by hoisting our flag over the last foothold of 
 rebellion. 
 
SAND-SHOT 
 
 718 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 at navy-yard, Boston, 1865-66 ; superintendent 
 Naval Observatory, Washington, 1867-73. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, April 27, 1871. 
 Eetired February 11, 1874. 
 
 Sand-shot. Shot of coarser kind, cast in sand- 
 molds. 
 
 Sands, Joshua R., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Entered the navy as acting midshipman, Sep 
 tember, 1812, and was at once employed under 
 Commodore Chauncey on Lake Ontario. On the 
 5th of November was put under fire of the enemy 
 in an attack of the " Royal George," which ship 
 was compelled to retire from the fire of the 
 American squadron to Kingston, where, pro 
 tected from the batteries on shore, no further 
 efforts were made to capture her. April, 1813, 
 he joined sloop-of-war " Madison," and was 
 present at the capture of Little York (now 
 Toronto) ; carried orders during the greater part 
 of the attack, from the commodore to the differ 
 ent vessels of the squadron, while engaged with 
 the forts and batteries, until the enemy surren 
 dered. May, same year, was engaged with the 
 enemy at the capture of Fort George, Upper 
 Canada ; then served on board the sloop-of-war 
 "Pike" ; engaged several times the British squad 
 ron under Sir James Yeo ; 26 men killed on 
 board the "Pike" in one of them; served on 
 shore in a battery on opening campaign, 1814; 
 was ordered to join frigate "Superior," and served 
 on board until peace was proclaimed in 1815; 
 then ordered to the "Washington," 74 guns, 
 bound to Mediterranean ; served in her until 
 1818, when promoted to a lieutenant ; in 1819, 
 was ordered to sloop-of-war "Hornet," coast of 
 Africa and West Indies ; in 1821, ordered to the 
 "Franklin," 74 guns, Commodore Stewart, em 
 ployed on the Pacific until 1824 ; 1828, ordered 
 to sloop-of-war " Vandalia," serving on the coast 
 of Brazil ; 1830, returned to the United States, 
 and was variously employed on shore-duty, re 
 cruiting, etc. 
 
 1840, promoted to the rank of commander ; 
 1841, attached to the New York Navy- Yard 
 until 1843, then ordered to command the" " Fal- 
 mouth," and served in her in the years 1843-45, 
 in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies ; 1846, 
 was ordered to command the steamer " Vixen" ; 
 served in her in the capture of Alvarado, Ta 
 basco, and Lagona, of which was made governor, 
 and remained until withdrawn to take part in the 
 attack of Vera Cruz ; engaged with the castles 
 from Point Horwas until ammunition was ex 
 pended ; having been supplied by the commodore, 
 put out in front of enemy s batteries and castles 
 in company with steamer "Spitfire" and 4 gun 
 boats, and remained under fire of the castle until 
 ordered to retire by Commodore Perry; com 
 manded the steamer "Vixen" at the capture of 
 Tampico and Tuspan 1847, was intrusted with 
 the flags, trophies, and brass cannon taken from 
 the castles, and sent home with dispatches with 
 complimentary letter to the Department; re 
 turned to the United States in the sloop-of-war 
 "St. Mary s," in 1848; 1848, was ordered to 
 command the " North Carolina," and remained 
 in her two years ; 1851, ordered to command the 
 frigate " St. Lawrence," sailed in her to World s 
 Fair in England, subsequently visited Portugal, 
 and returned to the United States same year in 
 1853 was ordered to command the "Allegheny" 
 
 for Japan, she proved to be a failure, and was 
 never after employed ; 1856, ordered to command 
 frigate " Susquehanna," visited Central America, 
 Mediterranean, and England; was engaged in 
 her laying the cable in 1857 ; rejoined the Med 
 iterranean Squadron, and was again ordered to 
 Central America, where having laid for some 
 months in the Nicaraguan River, captured part 
 of the filibusters and their steamer, which was 
 left by Commodore Paulding, to whom they were 
 sent, and then forwarded to New Orleans ; while 
 in the river, was visited with the yellow fever, 
 and was compelled, for the want of medicines, 
 to sail for Port Royal, Jamaica, where, after 
 arrival, landed 83 patients, and after taking in 
 coal, some 30 more were landed and left in the 
 hospital ; the ship now being entirely demoral 
 ized as a man-of-war, it was determined to re 
 turn to the United States, and landed at New 
 York in 1858 ; 1859, ordered to command the 
 U. S. Squadron (flag-ship " Congress") on the 
 coast of Brazil, and remained until the breaking 
 out of the Rebellion in the United States in 
 1861. Retired December 21, 1861. 
 
 1862, was commissioned a commodore, and 
 was engaged until 1866 on light-house duty on 
 the Lakes Erie and Ontario, and St. Lawrence 
 River, in which year was commissioned a rear- 
 admiral ; 1869, was appointed port-admiral, at 
 Norfolk, Va., where he was stationed until 1872. 
 
 Sand-smelt. A small fish of the mullet 
 family, and of the genus Atherina (A. presbyter). 
 
 Sand-star. A star-fish of the Ophiura genus, 
 with long, slender arms. 
 
 Sand-strake. The garboard strake. 
 
 Sandusky is a port of entry and the capital 
 of Erie County, O., and is pleasantly situated on 
 the south shore of Sandusky Bay, in lat. 41 
 27 N., and Ion. 82 45 W. In all seasons of 
 the year except winter the wharves are thronged 
 with steamboats and other vessels loading and 
 unloading their cargoes. The harbor is a. very 
 fine one, and the city has an extensive trade. 
 Its chief articles of export are cured fish, wool, 
 wheat, flour, grapes, apples, and wine. Pop. 
 14,000. 
 
 Sand-warpt. Left on a sand-bank by the 
 ebbing tide. 
 
 Sandwich, one of the Cinque Ports of England, 
 County of Kent, on the south bank of the Stour, 
 2 miles from its mouth, in the Pegwell Bay. 
 The town was formerly the seaport of London, 
 but at present it has little trade, the chief ex 
 ports being agricultural produce, wool, malt, 
 bark, etc., and the principal import coal. Pop. 
 4000. 
 
 San Francisco, the commercial metropolis of 
 California and most populous city on the Pacific 
 coast, is situated on the west shore of the mag 
 nificent bay of the same name, about 6 miles 
 from the ocean, in lat. 37 47 35" N., Ion. 122 
 24 15" W. The city was originally built 
 around a semicircular bay, having Rincon Point 
 on the south and Clark s Point on the north, 
 these two points being about a mile apart; all the 
 space between is now filled up, the warehouses 
 and wharves being supported by piles driven 
 into the water. The whole business part of San 
 Francisco is toward the city front. The most 
 remarkable buildings are the new city hall, the 
 custom-house, the grand opera-house, mer 
 chants exchange, the Palace Hotel, Occidental 
 
SANGAKEE 
 
 719 
 
 SARTOKI 
 
 Hotel, Lick House, the mint, and the Bank of 
 California. This city possesses the only large, 
 deep, and secure harbor on the Pacific coast be 
 tween Victoria and Mazatlan, except that of 
 San Diego, and owing to this and its facilities 
 for communication with the interior, it enjoys a 
 monopoly of the commerce of the Pacific slope. 
 About 50 ocean-steamers run in regular lines 
 between this port and China, Australia, Japan, 
 Panama, Mexico, Puget Sound, and Victoria. 
 The harbor has an entrance 35 feet deep at low- 
 tide, and is connected with the ocean by a strait 
 called the Golden Gate. The chief articles of 
 export are the precious metals, wheat, flour, 
 wine, quicksilver, wool, barley, lumber, and 
 hides. The total value of the yearly exports is 
 about $75,000,000. The number of sea-going 
 vessels that arrive each year at this port is about 
 4500, measuring nearly 2,000,000 tons. The 
 city has manufactures of silk goods, cigars, fur 
 niture, boots, shoes, carriages, glass, candles, 
 iron-castings, woolen goods, etc. At Hunter s 
 Point, 4^ miles from the city hall, is a dry-dock 
 hewn out of the solid rock, and said to be one 
 of the best in the world. The entrance of the 
 harbor is defended by Fort Point, and there is 
 also another fort on Alcatraz Island, 2 miles 
 north of the city. Population, according to the 
 census of 1880, 227,350. 
 
 Sangaree. A West India punch, blood-red 
 in color. 
 
 San Juan de Puerto Rico, the principal city 
 and seaport of the island of Porto Rico, is situ 
 ated off a small island on its north coast, in lat. 
 18 29 N., Ion. 66 V 2" W. It is fortified and 
 walled, and is one of the most healthful towns in 
 the West Indies. The harbor is defended by forts 
 and very safe. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 San Miguel, a harbor of the United States of 
 Colombia, is an inlet in the Gulf of San Miguel, 
 having an entrance 6 miles wide, and extending 
 about 8 miles inland, with soundings in from 8 
 to 15 fathoms. It communicates at its inner 
 part with Darien Harbor through two passages. 
 Darien Harbor has a depth of from 9 to 14 
 fathoms at low-water, is about 16 miles long by 
 6 miles broad, and completely sheltered. These 
 two harbors have been pointed out as furnishing 
 an eligible termination to a tidal interoceanic 
 canal between the Atlantic and Pacific. 
 
 Santa Cruz de Teneriffe is the capital of, and 
 chief commercial port of, the Canary Islands. 
 Lat. 28 28 12" N. ; Ion. 16 14 48" W. The 
 harbor is very secure, with a capacity for 10 or 
 12 vessels of war. It has a mole of modern 
 construction, which reaches far out into the sea. 
 The coast is commanded by forts and various 
 redoubts. Wine, brandy, almonds, and cochi 
 neal are exported. The chief industry of the 
 place is building fishing-boats and loading and 
 unloading vessels. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Santander, capital of the province of Santan- 
 der, Spain, in lat. 43 28 N., Ion. 3 41 W., is 
 situated on a headland on the Bay of Biscay. 
 It has a large and secure harbor, with good 
 anchorage and shelter, and a mole and docks, 
 and it is the terminus of a railway to Madrid. 
 It is a busy and thriving place, and has a cigar- 
 manufactory, a foundry, brewery, cooperages, 
 fish-curing establishments and tanneries, and 
 various other industries. Pop. 31,000. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, the second city in rank and 
 
 population of the island of Cuba, on the river 
 Santiago, 6 miles from its mouth, in lat. 19 55 
 9" N. , and Ion. 75 50 W., is a well-built city, 
 with wide streets; but, being hemmed in by 
 mountains, it is unhealthy. Its harbor, 4 miles 
 long, is well sheltered, defended by several forts, 
 and deep enough for large ships. In commercial 
 importance it ranks next to Havana and Ma- 
 tanssas. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 Saraband. A forecastle dance, imported from 
 African Moors. 
 
 Sardan, or Sardel. A sardine. 
 
 Sardine. A Mediterranean fish of the herring 
 family (Engraulus meletta], about the size of 
 the anchovy ; often prepared or put up with olive 
 oil as a delicacy. A nickname for a worthless 
 fellow. 
 
 SAKDINI^RE. A small boat, having two lug- 
 sails, used in the sardine-fisheries. 
 
 Sargasso Sea. From the Spanish sargazo, 
 sea-weed. There are two spaces of ocean com 
 monly known to navigators as Sargasso Seas. 
 That in the North Atlantic, which is in places so 
 densely covered with sea-weed as to actually im 
 pede the progress of ships, may be roughly de 
 fined as lying between the 20th and 70th me 
 ridians, and extending from 3 to 5 degrees on 
 each side of the tropic. 
 
 The Sargasso Sea of the Pacific extends from 
 about 140 to 175 W., and from the tropic to 40 
 N. Similar collections exist in the South Pacific 
 and Southern Indian Oceans, but are of less 
 importance to navigators, consisting principally 
 of the giant kelp (Macrocystis pirifera}. 
 
 The pelagic weed called gulf-weed Fucus na- 
 tans, or Sargassum baccifernum forms the bulk 
 of the Atlantic "Sargasso Sea," together with 
 another variety, almost as plenty, called Fucus 
 vesiculosus. These are both of a uniform brown 
 when preserved, but when fresh their color is of 
 a bright yellow, or chrome, contrasting beauti 
 fully with the intensely blue clear water in which 
 they float, for they occupy the deepest portion of 
 the Atlantic. These weeds all live attached to 
 rocks, in certain places, as well as free, but are 
 said only to produce spores when attached. 
 
 The pelagic varieties multiply by simple 
 growth and subdivision, favored by the placid 
 seas in which they float. 
 
 The Sargasso Sea has a fauna of its own, being 
 inhabited by small fish of the angler family 
 (Antennarius] , which makes of the weed a glob 
 ular nest, as large as a Dutch cheese, glued to 
 gether by a gelatinous secretion of the fish itself, 
 in which is contained the spawn. Peculiar small 
 shrimps and crabs, and a planarian worm, swarm 
 in the weed, as well as small turtles, membrani 
 pores, mollusks, medusae, and various marine 
 insects. Besides these, small flying-fish (Daciy- 
 lopteri) find there a secure retreat from their 
 many enemies. All these are colored so as to 
 blend with the colors of the weed, even to being 
 marked with white spots, exactly resembling the 
 older and darker pieces of the weed, which are 
 covered with patches of membrani pores. Thus 
 from year to year and age to age a peculiar flora 
 and fauna are propagated in the very centres of 
 the deepest parts of the ocean. E. Shippen. 
 
 Sartori, Louis C., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in New Jersey. Appointed from New Jersey, 
 February 2, 1829 ; attached to ship " Warren" and 
 schooner " Enterprise," Brazil Station, 1831-33 ; 
 
SASSE 
 
 720 
 
 SCARBOROUGH 
 
 frigate "Constellation," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1834; frigate " Constellation," West Indies, 
 1835; ship "Natchez," West Indies, 1836-37. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1837; navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1838; frigate 
 "Constitution," Pacific Squadron, 1839-41. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, Septembers, 1841 ; 
 receiving-ship " North Carolina," New York, 
 1842; receiving-ship, Philadelphia, 1843; ship 
 " Plymouth," Mediterranean and Brazil Squad 
 ron, 1845-46 ; bomb-schooner " Stromboli," Mex 
 ican war, 1847-48 ; at the capture of Tabasco ; 
 Mediterranean Squadron, 1849-52; on board 
 steamer "Alleghany," frigates "Constitution" 
 and " Independence" ; receiving-ship " Pennsyl 
 vania," Norfolk, 1853 ; Naval Asylum, Philadel 
 phia, 1853-54; ship "John Adams," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1855-56 ; commanded expedition and 
 engagement against the Fejees, 1855; navy-yard, 
 Philadelphia, 1857-58; commanding steamer 
 "Water- Witch," West Indies, 1859-60. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, April 7, 1861 ; 
 commandingsteamer"Flag," Blockading Squad 
 ron, 1861 ; commanding receiving-ship " Ohio," 
 Boston, 1862; commanding steamer "Florida," 
 North Atlantic Squadron, 1862; commanding 
 ship " Portsmouth," West Gulf Squadron, 1863- 
 65; commanding steamer "Agawam," North 
 Atlantic Squadron, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 26, 1866 ; 
 commanding steamer " Ossipee," Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1868-69; commanding steamers " Saranac" 
 and "Lackawanna," 1870; commanding naval 
 rendezvous, San Francisco, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 12, 
 1873. Retired June, 1874. 
 
 Sasse (Eng.), A fish-weir with a movable 
 gate. A sluice or lock in a navigable river. 
 
 Satellite. A secondary planet. It is of the 
 same nature as the primary planets about which 
 they revolve. Nearly all the planets have one 
 or more satellites ; they are generally called 
 moons, but this name is properly applied to the 
 earth s satellite only. See MOON, PLANET. 
 
 Saturn. The planet next beyond the orbit of 
 Jupiter ; it shines with a steady, silvery light, 
 like a star of the first magnitude, but does not 
 twinkle. In the telescope its system of rings 
 and satellites forms a magnificent display. There 
 are at least two rings and eight satellites, the 
 distance of the satellites from the primary vary 
 ing from 120 thousand to 2300 thousand miles. 
 Mean distance from sun, 905 millions of miles ; 
 length of solar day, 10 h 29 m ; diameter, 77,000 
 miles; apparent diameter, 18"; symbol ^, rep 
 resenting a rude scythe. 
 
 Saucer of the Capstan. An iron saucer- 
 shaped socket let into the step of the capstan, in 
 which the spindle plays. 
 
 Saucer-headed Bolts. Bolts with very flat 
 heads. 
 
 Saucisson. A powder-hose, of tarred canvas 
 or of leather, formerly used to fire the magazine 
 of a fire-ship. 
 
 Saugue. A small Mediterranean fishing-boat. 
 
 Saury. A fish of the genus Scomberesox (S. 
 aaurus), belonging to the pike family. 
 
 Sauve-tete. A splinter netting. 
 
 Savannah, Chatham County, Ga., is thelargest 
 and most important commercial city of the State. 
 It is situated upon the right bank of the Savan 
 nah River, 18 miles from its mouth, in lat. 32 
 
 5 N., Ion. 81 8 W. The principal buildings 
 are the custom-house, court-house, city exchange, 
 cotton exchange, masonic temple, and Armory 
 Hall. The harbor is one of the best on the 
 Southern coast, and the river is navigable for 
 steamers to Augusta. There is on the bar a 
 depth of water of 22 feet, and vessels drawing 19 
 feet can come to the wharves. Steamers run 
 regularly to New York, Boston, Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, and other ports. The chief articles 
 of export are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval 
 stores. As a cotton port it ranks second in the 
 United States. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Save-all. A small sail formerly set beneath 
 other sails to catch the wind passing under them. 
 
 Saw-bill. The goosander, Mergus merganser. 
 
 Saw-bones. A jocular title for the surgeon. 
 
 Saw-fish. A cartilaginous fish of the genus 
 Pristis, closely allied to the sharks. It has the 
 upper jaw prolonged into a long beak or snout, 
 with teeth arranged along both edges. It some 
 times attains the length of from 12 to 15 feet, and 
 is one of the most formidable enemies of the 
 whale tribe. 
 
 Sayth. A coal-fish three years old. 
 
 Scabbard. A leather or metal case for a 
 sword or bayonet. 
 
 Scald-fish. A fish, the Rhombus arnoglossa, 
 allied to the turbot. 
 
 Scaldings ! A cry, used by sailors to clear 
 the way about decks, intimating that there is 
 danger from hot water. 
 
 Scale. A graduated bar, rod, or plate, for 
 measuring or indicating short distances ; as, a 
 drawing scale, the scale of a thermometer, etc. A 
 stony deposit, composed principally of salts of 
 lime, formed on the interior surfaces of steam- 
 boilers, in which sea- water, or water holding min 
 eral salts in solution or suspension, is used. 
 
 SCALING-TOOLS. Tools for removing scale 
 from the interior of steam-boilers. The princi 
 pal ones are small hammers, chisel-shaped at 
 both ends, called scaling-hammers ; chisel-bars, 
 which are bars of iron of assorted lengths having 
 steel chisels wrought upon their ends ; tube-bor 
 ers ; scrapers ; and rakes or hoes for removing 
 loosened scale. In addition to these, there are 
 many devices adapted to special purposes. 
 
 Scampavia. A Neapolitan galley, or war- 
 boat, pulling from 20 to 40 oars, with 2 lateen- 
 sails and a jib, setting on a spit that veered 
 abeam when the 6-pounder brass gun was fired 
 ahead. 
 
 Scandalize. To lower a sail and haul out the 
 reef-tackles without slacking the sheets or tying 
 reef-points. Usually done to the mizzen-top- 
 sail when before the wind. 
 
 Scant. Applied to a wind that heads a ship 
 off so that she can hardly lie her course, with 
 yards braced up sharp. Scant timber is that 
 which is barely convertible to the purpose de 
 signed. 
 
 Scantling. The dimensions of a piece of tim 
 ber, with regard to its breadth and thickness. 
 
 Scar. A steep cliff. Rocks bare at low- water. 
 Gravel- or stone-beds in rivers. 
 
 Scarborough, a seaport town of England, York 
 County, North Riding, on a headland extending 
 into the North Sea, in lat. 54 17 N., Ion. 23 
 5 W. It is much frequented for sea-bathing 
 and for its mineral waters. Scarborough harbor 
 is used as a place of shelter from the easterly 
 
SCARBRO WARNING 
 
 721 
 
 SCHOOL-SHIP 
 
 gales, is easy of access, and safe and commodious 
 within. The bay is protected on the northeast 
 by a high promontory. The town has a limited 
 foreign trade, and large coastwise traffic. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Scarbro Warning (Eng.}. Letting anything 
 go by the run, without singing out. 
 
 Scarf. A joint uniting two pieces, of timber. 
 These are of various kinds, according to the loca 
 tion of the timbers so joined. 
 
 SCARF-BOLT. A bolt driven into a scarf; also, 
 a bolt used for securing the false keel in wooden 
 ships. 
 
 Scarlet-fish. A certain Chinese fish ; the 
 telescope carp. So called from its red colors. 
 
 Scat. A quick-passing shower of rain. 
 
 Scaup. The pochard, or diving-duck (Fuli- 
 gula marila). 
 
 Schedar. The star a Gassiopeise. 
 
 Schenck, James F., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Ohio, June 11, 1807. Appointed from 
 Ohio, March 1, 1825; sloop "Hornet," West 
 India Squadron, 1829; frigate " Brandywine," 
 1830. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1831 ; 
 sloop "John Adams," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1833-34. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 22, 
 1835; sloop "St. Louis," West India Squad 
 ron, 1837; brig "Dolphin," Brazil Squadron, 
 1840; razee "Independence," Home Squadron, 
 1843 ; frigate " Congress," Pacific Squadron, 
 1846-47. During the war with Mexico, Lieut. 
 Schenck, as chief military aid to Commodore 
 Stockton, landed and took possession of Santa 
 Barbara and San Pedro, in California ; serving 
 in same capacity, marched on and was at the 
 first capture of Los Angeles. As second lieu 
 tenant of the frigate " Congress," was at the 
 bombardment and capture of Guaymas and the 
 taking of Mazatlan. Frigate " Congress," East 
 India Squadron, 1848; commanding mail steam 
 ship "Ohio," 1848-52. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding receiving-ship, New York, 
 1848; commanding steamer "Saginavv," East 
 India Squadron, 1$>0-61. On June 30, 1861, 
 the " Saginaw" wa^ fired upon by a fort at " Quin 
 Hone," Cochin Chftna; the fire was returned and 
 the fort silenced. / 
 
 Commissioned/as captain, 1861 ; commanding 
 frigate "St. La.wrence," Blockading Squadron. 
 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 2, 1863; 
 commanding steam-sloop " Powhatan," North 
 Atlantic Squadron, 1864-65; commanded "Pow 
 hatan" and third division of Porter s squadron 
 in the two attacks on Fort Fisher ; commanded 
 Naval Station, Mound City, 111., 1866. Retired 
 June 19, 1869. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July, 1870. 
 
 School. A shoal of fish, or whales. 
 
 Schoolmaster. A petty officer in the navy, 
 whose duty is to instruct boys. 
 
 School-ship, Nautical. A vessel commis 
 sioned under special laws for the instruction and 
 training of boys and young men in practical sea 
 manship and navigation. 
 
 Nautical school-ships may be established at 
 
 any of the principal ports of the United States 
 
 under the act of Congress of June, 1874, which 
 
 allows the detail of sailing-vessels of the navy 
 
 46 
 
 for that purpose, the vessels to be commanded 
 and officered by naval officers, but organized 
 and supported by the local authorities. The 
 purpose of this act is to promote nautical edu 
 cation and benefit the national commerce. Such 
 schools should be established, and as soon as pos 
 sible, since ships of every class will always need 
 skilled ready seamen, whether under sail or steam, 
 and the duties of the seaman can be learned only 
 by practical experience under canvas. 
 
 While gales of wind and currents are encoun 
 tered at sea, the ship having the best trained and 
 organized crew will make the best passages from 
 port to port, and deliver her cargo in better order 
 than vessels manned by inferior crews. 
 
 The necessary instruction to form such crews 
 for our ships can best be given on board vessels 
 specially intended for this service, where a sys 
 tem of daily drills is pursued, and where more 
 time can be given to training boys in the duties 
 of a seaman than would be possible in the ordi 
 nary routine of duty of a man-of-war or mer 
 chant ship making passages at sea. 
 
 The organization of a nautical school-ship 
 should be carefully considered, as upon the char 
 acter and ability of the officers and men will de 
 pend almost entirely the discipline and efficiency 
 of the future seamen. 
 
 The duties are peculiar, and require not only 
 high professional attainments, but also patience, 
 good temper, and a quick appreciation of the 
 natures and feelings of the boys who are under 
 instruction. These qualities are absolutely es 
 sential to the commanding officer, and no one 
 should be assigned to such duty who does not 
 possess them in a high degree, and who is not 
 impressed with the importance of the objects to 
 be accomplished. 
 
 There should be a number of officers, large 
 enough to perform all the duties of the ship at sea, 
 and at the same time act as instructors. The 
 graduates from the Naval Academy could be 
 assigned to this duty with advantage, as they 
 would be benefited in the practical exercise of 
 professional duties while imparting to others the 
 theoretical knowledge they obtain at that insti 
 tution. 
 
 A few thorough seamen of intelligence and 
 good character should be employed to fill the 
 more responsible positions on board, and to act as 
 assistants to the commissioned officers in matters 
 of detail, squads of boys being assigned to them, 
 and for whose conduct they should be account 
 able. 
 
 The discipline enforced should be firm and con 
 sistent, but as far as possible kind, and no severe 
 punishments should be inflicted unless absolutely 
 essential. The attention of officers and men 
 should be directed rather to the prevention of 
 breaches of discipline than to their detection and 
 punishment. Uniforming the boys and putting 
 them as far as possible in positions of trust, will 
 be found a valuable aid in preserving the disci 
 pline on board, and should be resorted to where 
 practicable. 
 
 The course of instruction should include not 
 only all the duties of a seaman, from knotting 
 and splicing to handling ship in a gale or work 
 ing off a lee-shore, but also the branches of an 
 ordinary common school course. 
 
 The length of time to be spent on board a nau 
 tical school-ship would vary, of course, with the 
 
SCHOONER 
 
 722 
 
 SCREEN 
 
 aptitude and intelligence of the boys themselves, 
 and of this the instructors could best judge. 
 
 The greater portion of each year should be 
 spent actually at sea, without regard to the sea 
 sons, as while it would not be advisable to expose 
 mere boys to all the hardships incident to a life 
 at sea, they should be made familiar with the 
 management of a vessel under all circumstances, 
 from a calm to a heavy gale. 
 
 The "St. Mary s" is now in commission as a 
 nautical school-ship, under the management of 
 the Board of Education at New York, and is 
 performing highly valuable service. The "James 
 town," the vessel detailed for duty at San Fran 
 cisco, was withdrawn after three years service. 
 No other nautical schools have yet been estab 
 lished. Henry Glass, Commander U.S.Pf. 
 
 Schooner. A class of vessels first invented by 
 Capt. Andrew Robinson, of Gloucester, Mass., 
 in 1713. The name is derived from their swift 
 motion through the water, the word scoon mean 
 ing to skip over the water. These vessels are all 
 fore-and-aft rig, and have from two to four masts. 
 They vary in size from 50 to more than 1000 
 tons. A topsail-schooner carries a square fore- 
 topsail and topgallant-sail. Sometimes a schooner 
 sets a flying square foresail in addition to her fore- 
 and-aft sail. A Ballahou schooner has the fore 
 mast raking forward. Three-masted schooners 
 are in common use in America, and several four- 
 masted schooners are on trial. Schooners lie 
 nearer to the wind than square-riggers, are less 
 costly, and require fewer men to handle them, 
 and hence are generally adopted for coasters. 
 
 Schout. A Dutch water-bailiff. 
 
 Schreight. A kind of fish. 
 
 Schultze s Powder. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Schuyt. A Dutch galiot, short and round, 
 used in the river trade. 
 
 Scitie. A small Levantine boat with three 
 lateen-sails. 
 
 Scobs. Droppings from the blacksmith s forge. 
 
 Sconce. The head. A magazine-lantern. 
 
 Scoodyn. The furring on a vessel s foul 
 bottom. 
 
 Scope. The length of cable by which a ship 
 rides. This varies with the kind of bottom, 
 nature and force of wind and tide, etc., but 
 should never be less than three times the depth 
 of water in which the anchor is dropped. 
 
 Score. The groove around a block in which 
 the strap lies. 
 
 Scorpio, Constellation of (Lat. scorpio or 
 scorpius, "The Scorpion"). The eighth con 
 stellation of the zodiac, lying between Libra and 
 Sagittarius. The principal star, Antares, may 
 be found by joining Spica with the South Bal 
 ance (a Librae,}, and continuing the line to about 
 the same distance, a Scorpionis (Cor Scorpionis), 
 Antares. 
 
 Scorpio, Sign of. The eighth division of the 
 ecliptic, including from 210 to 240 of longi 
 tude. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, 
 the constellation Scorpio no longer occupies the 
 sign of this name, the constellation Libra having 
 taken its place. The sun is in Scorpio from about 
 October 24 to about November 23. Symbol tt\,. 
 
 Scorpion. A certain sea-fish. The sea-scor 
 pion. 
 
 Scot, or Shot. A fair share or proportion. 
 Hence, to pay his shot is to furnish his share of 
 expenses. 
 
 Scotchman. A piece of wood or stiff hide 
 placed over shrouds and other rigging, to prevent 
 chafe* by the running-gear. 
 
 Scotch Mist. Very tine, drizzling rain. 
 
 Scotch Prize. A prize that is not legal ; one 
 that should not have been made, and must be 
 given up. 
 
 Scott, Gustavus H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Virginia, June 13, 1812. Appointed 
 from Virginia, August 1, 1828; frigate "Guer- 
 riere," Pacific Squadron, 1829-31 ; schooner 
 "Experiment," Chesapeake Bay, 1833. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 
 1834; sloop " Vandalia," West India Squadron, 
 1835-36; waiting orders, 1837; West India 
 Squadron, 1839-40. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 25, 
 1841; frigate "Columbus," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1843-44; special duty, 1845; frigate 
 "United States," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1846-47; ordnance duty, 1848-49; waiting 
 orders, 1850; ordnance duty, 1851; frigate " St. 
 Lawrence," Pacific Squadron, 1852-53; steamer 
 "Michigan," on the lakes, 1855-57. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, December 27, 
 1856 ; light-house inspector, 1858-60 ; command 
 ing steamer "Keystone State," special service, 
 1861 ; commanding steam-gunboat " Mara- 
 tanza," North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1862-63. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, November 4, 1863 ; 
 commanding steamer " De Soto," Blockading 
 Squadron, 1864; commanding steam-sloop 
 " Canandaigua," Blockading Squadron, 1865; 
 commanding stea m-sloop "Saranac," Pacific 
 Squadron, 1866-67 ; member of Examining 
 Board, Philadelphia, 1868 ; light-house inspec 
 tor, 1869-71. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1869. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, February, 1873 ; 
 commanding North Atlantic Station, 1873. Re 
 tired June 18, 1874. 
 
 Scour. To scour a beach, to sweep it by a 
 quick flanking fire. To scour the seas, to cruise 
 piratically; to infest the seas. 
 
 Scouse. A sea-dish made of soaked and 
 pounded biscuit and meat cut into small pieces. 
 Where no meat is used, it is called bread-scouse. 
 W T here other ingredients are introduced, it is 
 called lob-scouse. 
 
 Scow. A large, open, flat-bottomed boat. 
 
 Scrabble (Eng.}. A badly- written log. 
 
 Scraler. The puffinet ( Colymbus grille}. 
 
 Scrape. The upper spars and the yard-arms 
 of a man-of-war are kept bright, and it is cus 
 tomary to scrape them at least once in 3 months, 
 or oftener. After they are scraped with knives, 
 they are covered with slush. 
 
 Scraper. A triangular iron instrument with 
 sharp edges, used in scraping parts of a ship. 
 Scrapers are sometimes square, when they are 
 called tree- scrapers, and sometimes have one 
 point cut off, as in deck-scrapers. Also, a name 
 for a cocked hat. 
 
 Scratch-race. An impromptu race, where 
 crews volunteer or are drawn by lot. 
 
 Scrawl. The young of the doy-crab. 
 
 Scray. The sea-swallow, or tern (Sterna 
 hirundo). 
 
 Screen. A canvas partition used about decks 
 for various purposes. Coal-screens are used 
 while coaling ship, to prevent the dust from 
 
SCKEW 
 
 723 
 
 SCKEW 
 
 coming into the officers quarters. Screens are 
 used to form a room on the gun-deck for a court- 
 martial, for school, or to separate a sick man from 
 the crew. Fire- or magazine-screens are made of 
 thick fearnaught. 
 
 Screw. A convex or concave cylinder with 
 one or more helical projections, called threads, 
 winding round it. The advance made in direc 
 tion of the axis of the cylinder by one convolu 
 tion of the thread is called the pitch. Convex 
 and concave screws are designated technically 
 by the respective names of male and female ; a 
 short concave screw fitted to a convex screw is 
 called a nut, and when a screw is spoken of 
 without qualification, a convex screw is usually 
 understood. Screws intended to penetrate wood 
 are usually pointed at the entering end. 
 
 A compressor-screw is used on a slide gun- 
 carriage to increase the friction and decrease the 
 recoil ; an elevating screw, to depress or elevate 
 the breech of the gun ; a thumb-screw, to hold 
 the sight in place. A jack-screw is a portable 
 machine for raising heavy weight, acting by a 
 screw. Rigger s screws are iron frames in which 
 a screw works, moving a clamp, so that the parts 
 of the rigging may be brought together as in a 
 vise. A rigging-screw is an iron frame with a 
 screw working in it, to the upper end of which 
 a shroud is attached, while the frame is made 
 fast to the channels. See SCREW-PROPELLER. 
 
 SCREW-BOLT. A bolt whose lower end is 
 terminated by a screw. A screw eye-bolt is a 
 screw terminated by an eye-bolt. A screw ring 
 bolt is a screw with a ring attached to its head. 
 
 SCREW-BOX. The box in which the foot of an 
 elevating screw works. 
 
 SCREW-CLAMP. An iron half-frame with a 
 screw attached to its upper portion, so as to be 
 used as a portable vise. Used by ship-carpenters 
 to bring two pieces of timber together. 
 
 SCREW-DOCK. An apparatus used for raising 
 small vessels out of the water for graving pur 
 poses. It consists of a platform which has 
 blocks and shores upon it ; this platform is 
 raised or lowered as required by the use of 
 iron screws of large diameter, the screws being 
 attached to a stationary frame above, as well as 
 to the platform to be raised. The vessel is first 
 floated and secured upon the blocks, and then 
 raised to the desired height. 
 
 SCREW-FID. A fid for a mast, having a screw 
 attached, by which it is withdrawn. 
 
 SCREW-GAMMONING. A gammoning consist 
 ing of a plate or chain fastened by a screw. 
 
 SCREW-PILE. A pile sunk by a screw on its 
 lower end. 
 
 SCREW-POST. The main stern-post in a screw- 
 steamer, through which the screw-shaft passes. 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER. A contrivance for pro 
 pelling a vessel by the action of a screw in the 
 water, which serves as a nut. It consists of two 
 or more blades or vanes, each forming a. portion 
 or helicoidal sector of a screw-thread, attached 
 to a hub or centre revolving in a plane perpen 
 dicular to the direction of the motion of the ves 
 sel. It is made of cast iron, steel, or composition, 
 and the blades may be either cast upon or bolted 
 to the hub. 
 
 There are numerous varieties, differing widely 
 one from another in the number and contour of 
 blades, area presented to the resistance of the 
 water, and in nature of pitch, which may be uni 
 
 form or increasing either in direction of the axis 
 or from hub to periphery. In the plain true 
 screw the generatrix is a straight line projecting 
 radially from the axis in a plane perpendicular 
 thereto, one directrix being the axis and the 
 other a helical curve of uniform pitch ; but the 
 generatrix may be curved or inclined in any 
 direction, the angular directrix of variable pitch, 
 or there may be two angular directrices differing 
 one from another in pitch ; and by combining 
 these various conditions, an infinite variety of 
 warped surfaces may be formed. 
 
 No general theory of the screw-propeller has 
 yet been established, and engineers construct it 
 in accordance with their personal investigations 
 and experience, many preferring the plain true 
 screw. It may be observed, however, in the 
 matter of general proportions, that the pitch 
 should be such as to permit the highest prac 
 ticable velocity of engine piston ; the diameter 
 such that the screw will be so thoroughly sub 
 merged as to avoid loss of power in throwing 
 water off in spray ; the contour of the blades so 
 designed as to reduce to a minimum the vibra 
 tions caused when they pass the stern-post ; and 
 that in some very satisfactory screws the total 
 area projected in direction of the axis is about 
 four-tenths of that of a circle having the same 
 diameter. Screws that produce good results at 
 some rates of speed are found to be less efficient 
 at others. 
 
 This instrument is believed by some to be an 
 early invention of the Chinese. Many claims 
 have been made to its invention in modern times. 
 Mr. J. Stevens, of New York, seems to have 
 made the first attempt to apply it to the propul 
 sion of a vessel. In 1804 he propelled a boat by 
 some form of a screw. In 1815 the English en 
 gineer Trevethick patented a worm or screw re 
 volving in a cylinder at the sides or stern of a 
 vessel. In 1816, Kobert Kinder applied for a 
 patent for a shaft and screw of nearly the form 
 now in use. The French claim the invention, 
 and only a few years ago they erected at Bou 
 logne a monument to Frederic Sauvage as the 
 inventor. 
 
 The first demonstration of its value on a proper 
 scale was made in England during the year 1836, 
 by Capt. John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer, 
 and now a resident of New York. After an ex 
 periment with a model he applied the screw to a 
 boat 45 feet in length, named the " Francis B. 
 Ogden," and made successful runs on the river 
 Thames. Experiments were made in the pres 
 ence of the Lords of the Admiralty by towing 
 their barge 10 miles an hour ; yet this same board 
 reported the screw-propeller unsuited for vessels 
 of war. In 1826, Mr. Woodcroft patented a 
 screw-propeller. In 1836 or 1837, Mr. T. P. 
 Smith took out a patent for a screw made to re 
 volve under water in a recess at the side of the 
 vessel, and the following year exhibited it in a 
 small vessel. Soon after this it was applied to a 
 vessel of 237 tons, called the "Archimedes. 
 This vessel was tested against the "Widgeon," 
 the fastest paddle-wheeler plying between Dover 
 and Calais, and thus established the screw as a 
 successful instrument of propulsion in Eng 
 land. 
 
 The British Admiralty at length ordered a 
 screw-vessel, named the " Rattler," to be built 
 from the same model and dimensions as the pad- 
 
SCRIMP 
 
 T24 
 
 SCURVY 
 
 die-wheel vessel " Alecto," then building. This 
 was 8 years after Ericsson demonstrated its prac 
 ticability, and after he built the screw-vessel 
 "Robert F. Stockton," 70 feet long by 10 feet 
 wide, at Birkenhead. 
 
 The " Rattler" proved successful, and estab 
 lished the necessity of adopting the screw in the 
 British navy. (The screw used on this vessel is 
 now in the South Kensington Patent Museum.) 
 
 Previous to the construction of the " Rattler," 
 Capt. Ericsson came by invitation of Com 
 modore Stockton, U.S.N., to Philadelphia, and 
 there built the first war screw-steamship (the 
 " Princeton") that ever cruised at sea. 
 
 This ship was launched in 1842, cruised on 
 the coast in 1845, burst her big wrought-iron gun 
 on the Potomac in 1843, by which accident sev 
 eral members of President Tyler s Cabinet were 
 killed. She served on the blockade of the coast 
 of Mexico in 1846-47 ; crossed the Atlantic in 
 the latter-named year in search of Mexican priva 
 teers ; returned home in July, 1849, and was 
 broken up. 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER GOVERNOR. See GOV 
 ERNOR, or MARINE GOVERNOR. 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER WELL. A vertical pit or 
 opening at the stern and through the counter of 
 a vessel, into which the propeller is hoisted when 
 sail-power alone is used. 
 
 SCREW-SHAFT. An engine shaft turning a 
 screw-propeller. 
 
 SCREW-STEAMER. A steamer propelled by a 
 screw. 
 
 Scrimp. Scant, applied to the wind. 
 
 Scroll-head. A piece of timber joined to the 
 knee of the head under the bowsprit, in place of 
 a figure-head, which turns outward. 
 
 Scrovies. Old or worthless seamen sent on 
 board by crimps. 
 
 Scrub. To scour the decks, hammocks, etc., 
 with sand or soap. Decks are scrubbed with 
 water only, with sand and broom, or are holy- 
 atoned with sand. 
 
 SCRUB-BROOM. A coarse broom for scrubbing, 
 made out of hickory strips, or coir. 
 
 SCRUB-BRUSH. A brush for scrubbing, made 
 out of coir, or hog s bristles. 
 
 Scruff. The fur adhering to the bottoms of 
 foul vessels. 
 
 Scud. Loose, vapory clouds, driven rapidly 
 by the wind. To scud, to run before a gale with 
 sufficient low canvas to keep the ship ahead of 
 the sea. When a ship carries no sail, she scuds 
 under bare poles. To scud like a Mudian (Eng.). 
 to be off quickly. 
 
 Scull. An oar so short that one man may 
 use a pair readily. A short oar used over the 
 stern in propelling a boat. To scull, to row a 
 boat with a pair of sculls, or to propel her by an 
 oar over the stern, worked from side to side, and 
 turned in the water, like a screw. Japanese 
 boats are propelled very rapidly by means of 
 sculls. 
 
 Sculpin. A fish of the genus Cottin. A fish, 
 the Callonymus dracunculus. 
 
 Sculptor. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Sculptures. The carved decorations of the 
 bow and stern of an old ship of war. 
 
 Scum. Refuse at change of tide. Freshwater 
 running through salt, carrying physalia and 
 other gelatinous animals with it in a line of foam. 
 Thin atmospheric vapor j scud. 
 
 Scupper. A hole cut through the water-ways 
 and the side of the ship, to carry off the water 
 from the decks. Also called scupper-hole. 
 
 SCUPPER-HOSE. A canvas or leather pipe 
 nailed over the lower end of the scupper-holes, 
 to keep the water from staining the ship s side. 
 
 SCUPPER-LEATHER. A leather valve, nailed 
 over a scupper-hole, BO as to allow no water to 
 enter from outside. 
 
 SCUPPER-PLUG. A wooden plug, cut to fit the 
 scupper-hole, so as to close it when desired. 
 
 SCUPPER-SHOOTS. Tubes of metal covered 
 with wood, to carry the water from the spar-deck 
 to the sea. 
 
 Scurry. A sudden fright, as of birds or fish. 
 
 Scurvy. Definition. A special disease of mal 
 nutrition, affecting mainly the constitution of 
 the blood, and dependent upon deprivation of 
 vegetable food, attended by hemorrhages, livid 
 spots under the skin, swollen, spongy, and in 
 flamed gums, and general debility, not neces 
 sarily accompanied by fever. 
 
 History. Hippocrates gives a description of 
 symptoms closely corresponding to what we now 
 recognize as scurvy. 
 
 Celsus (lib. ii. c. vii.) speaks of the ulcera- 
 tions attending scurvy in a graphic manner. 
 
 Aretaeus, Paul of JEgina, and Avicenna, have 
 noted the same chain of symptoms. Strabo and 
 Pliny are supposed to allude to scurvy in the 
 Roman army, and its cure by a certain herb, 
 called Herba Brittanica. 
 
 The Sieur de Joinville gives a particular ac 
 count of the ravages of scurvy in the French 
 army under Louis IX. during the crusade 
 against the Saracens of Egypt. 
 
 But the most terrible records of scorbutus are 
 found in naval annals. More lives were sacri 
 ficed in former times by this disease than by all 
 other causes combined, whether sickness, tem 
 pest, or battle (Wood). 
 
 Inefficiency and neglect in the allied armies 
 commissariat during the Crimean war caused 
 severe suffering from scurvy ; but during the 
 late civil war in America it was not a source of 
 any considerable mortality. 
 
 Nevertheless, some U. S. army hospitals re 
 corded large numbers of cases where the scor 
 butic taint was the cause of serious and pro 
 tracted disease, which was cured by its removal. 
 
 Symptoms. Unwillingness and disability for 
 bodily exertion, pallor," puffiness of face and 
 limbs, livid and swollen gums, hard and painful 
 swellings of the muscles, hemorrhages from mu 
 cous surfaces, bruised discolorations of the skin, 
 excessive debility, and (often) extremely un 
 healthy ulcerations characterize the disease. 
 
 Causes. The one essential cause of scurvy is 
 the absence of sufficient vegetable food. It is 
 not due as formerly supposed to living upon 
 salt meat, but only to living upon it exclusively. 
 It will not occur when vegetables are freely used, 
 and it may break out when they are deficient, 
 though an abundance of fresh meat be supplied. 
 
 Predisposing and assisting causes may be enu 
 merated ; e.ff., previous disease, unwholesome 
 diet, bad water, foul air, or, in fact, whatever 
 weakens the system, or tends to deprave the 
 blood. 
 
 Treatment. This consists in supplying the 
 necessary food whose absence caused the disease. 
 A sufficiency of fresh vegetables and fruits will 
 
SCUTCH 
 
 T25 
 
 SEA 
 
 cause rapid and almost immediate cure of even 
 the most desperate cases. 
 
 Most acidulous fruits, especially limes, lemons, 
 oranges, and others of the family of Aurantiacece, 
 are efficient remedies. To Dr. G. Perin, U.S.A., 
 we owe the knowledge of the superior curative 
 virtues of the juice of the Agave Americana, in 
 doses of two or three fluidounces three times a 
 day. Potatoes, cabbage, turnips, carrots, water- 
 cresses, onions, and radishes are among the most 
 desirable vegetables for use in this disease. 
 
 Cider, malt liquors, and wines should be al 
 lowed. 
 
 Prevention. Absolute certainty attends pre 
 ventive measures against scurvy. It is only 
 necessary in sea-voyages to attend to cleanliness 
 and ventilation of vessels, the general comfort 
 of the crews, and the supply of sufficient lime- 
 juice to distribute an ounce per diem to each man 
 on board ship. 
 
 In armies and hospitals, the only requisite is a 
 varied vegetable diet. 
 
 Practically, scurvy is no longer a scourge by 
 sea or land, and can become so only by inex 
 cusable neglect. John T. Carpenter, President 
 Pennsylvania State Medical Association. 
 
 SCURVY-GRASS. The spoon-wort, a grass of 
 the genus Cochlearia, formerly eaten as a salad, 
 to cure scurvy, or prevent it. 
 
 Scutch. To separate the fibre of hemp from 
 the woody part by beating. 
 
 SCUTCHER. A wooden sword for breaking 
 hemp. 
 
 Scuttle. A small opening in the deck of a 
 vessel not over two feet square ; they are gener 
 ally made flush with the decks, without coam 
 ings. To scuttle a ship, to sink her by boring 
 holes in her bottom. 
 
 SCUTTLE-BUTT. A cask, having a square hole 
 cut in its bilge or head, with drinking-water in 
 it for the men s use. 
 
 Scuttle-fish. The cuttle-fish (which see). 
 
 Sea. The swell or billowy motion of the 
 ocean ; a high wave or billow. At sea, away 
 from the land ; on the ocean. Figuratively, be 
 wildered, confused. To ship a sea, to receive a 
 portion of a wave over the rail of a vessel. Half- 
 seas o er, half-drunk, tipsy. High seas, the open 
 sea; where the tide ebbs and flows. Full sea, 
 high-tide. See CHOPPING, COCKLING, CROSS, 
 GREEN, etc. 
 
 A sea is a body of salt water, only less in size 
 than an ocean. The same word is used to desig 
 nate lakes, as the Dead Sea and Sea of Aral, and 
 likewise expresses the idea conveyed by the word 
 ocean, meaning the whole mass of water. The 
 movement of the water in waves and surges is 
 called by the sailor a sea, the figure of speech 
 being exactly opposite to that in the last case. 
 Seas are only inferior to oceans in size, although 
 there are some small seas, such as Marmora and 
 Azof, neither exceeding 5000 square miles in 
 extent. The seas emptying their waters into 
 the Arctic are the White Sea, having an area 
 of 10,000 square miles, the Kara Sea, contain 
 ing 100,000 square miles, and Greenland Sea, 
 about the same area. These seas, frozen during 
 much of the year, are little navigated. Into the 
 Pacific empty the following Asiatic seas : 1. 
 Behring s Sea, containing some 145,000 square 
 miles, washing also the coast of Alaska and the 
 chain of Aleutian Islands. It is important for 
 
 its fisheries, the seal and whale abounding. 2. 
 Kamchatka Sea, an arm of the latter, containing 
 some 58,000 square miles, and washing the shores 
 of Kamchatka. Several bays open on it, and the 
 important port of Petropaulowski is situated on 
 one of them. 3. Sea of Okhotsk. The Kam 
 chatka peninsula and the Kurile Islands sepa 
 rate this large sea, containing 180,000 square 
 miles, from the Pacific. Many bays open into 
 it, and Saghalien Island is situated in it. 4. 
 The Sea of Japan, connected with the latter 
 by two straits, and separated from the Pacific by 
 the Japan Islands, contains 160,000 square miles. 
 The Corea Channel connects it with (5) the 
 Yellow Sea, opening into (6) the Eastern Sea. 
 Both these seas wash the shores of China, and 
 receive the waters of the mighty Hoang-Ho and 
 Yangtze-Kiang. The former has 130,000, the 
 latter 115,000 square miles of area. Their navi 
 gation is most important. The former gets its 
 name from the mud brought down by the rivers, 
 and a like cause shallows them to some extent 
 near the coast. 7. The China Sea. This im 
 mense sea, containing 420,000 square miles, 
 washes the shores of China, Anam, Malay penin 
 sula, Philippine Islands, and Borneo. It con 
 nects by channels and straits with the Eastern 
 Sea, Bengal Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, 
 and the three following seas. Many important 
 ports, as Singapore, Bangkok, Hong-Kong, Can 
 ton, Manila, and others, are situated on or near 
 it, and its navigation is very important, and com 
 merce extensive. Many shoals and islands exist 
 in it. It is the fourth in size of the great seas. 
 8. Mindon Sea, 142,000 square miles. 9. Celebes 
 Sea, 216,000; 10. Java Sea, 173,000; 11. Floris 
 Sea, 72,000 ; 12. Banda Sea, 75,000 ; 13. Ara- 
 fura Sea, 172,000 square miles. All these are 
 situated in the Malaysian Islands, connecting 
 with each other, and with the Pacific and In 
 dian Oceans. They are the channels of commu 
 nication in this island world, and are much 
 encumbered by small islands. 
 
 The seas emptying into the Indian Ocean 
 are, 1. Bengal Sea. This, with the gulf of the 
 same name, lies between the Eastern provinces 
 and the Western Indian peninsula. It contains 
 360,000 square miles, and is next in size to the 
 China Sea. 2. Arabian Sea. This sea, contain 
 ing 560,000 square miles, washes the shores of 
 Arabia, Beloochistan, and India. Into it empty 
 the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and the waters 
 of the Indus, Euphrates, and Tigris find their 
 way through it to the Indian Ocean. It was the 
 scene of an ancient commerce, and the trade of 
 India and China is again brought through it by 
 the opening of the Suez Canal. 3. Red Sea. 
 This is a long, narrow sea, between the sandy 
 regions of Arabia and Egypt, and is hot, very 
 salt, and difficult of navigation. But the com 
 merce of the East finds its way through it, and 
 its navigation is most important. The northern 
 end is at a lower level than the southern, and its 
 waters find their way into the Arabian Sea by 
 the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf of 
 Aden. It connects with the Mediterranean by 
 the Suez Canal. No seas open into the Pacific 
 from the west coast of America. On its eastern 
 shores is but one, the Caribbean Sea, the largest 
 in the world, containing 705,000 square miles. 
 It washes the shores of South America, Central 
 America, and the West India Islands, which 
 
SEA 
 
 726 
 
 SEA 
 
 latter separate it from the Atlantic. It connects 
 with the Gulf of Mexico by Yucatan Channel, 
 and contains Jamaica and many smaller islands. 
 Its navigation, rendered more important by a 
 railroad, will be far more increased by the com 
 pletion of a projected canal, but its many islands 
 and shoals, and its numerous storms and calms, 
 are serious impediments. 
 
 The seas opening into the Atlantic from the 
 shores of Europe are many and important. To 
 the north are the Irish Sea, measuring 8000 
 square miles; the North Sea, 172,000; and the 
 Baltic, 155,000. The North Sea washes the 
 coasts of the British Isles, Holland, Denmark, 
 Belgium, and Norway, and through it passes 
 the large and important commerce of the North. 
 Into it opens the Zuyder Zee, a shallow sea in 
 the north of Holland, and through it the Baltic 
 empties its watery into the Atlantic by the Cat- 
 tegat and Skager-Kack Sounds. The Baltic, with 
 its arms, the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 
 penetrates far into the European continent, wash 
 ing the coasts of Germany, Sweden, and Russia. 
 Its entrance is exceedingly difficult, and it con 
 tains many large islands and innumerable small 
 ones near the coast, making its navigation diffi 
 cult. Its shores are everywhere flat, and many 
 gulfs and 240 rivers many of them large 
 empty into it. Its water is very fresh, and it is 
 quite shallow in places. 
 
 The Mediterranean, with its chain of seas, is 
 the only other sea opening into the Atlantic. It 
 is only inferior to the Caribbean in size, having 
 an area of 690,000 square miles. It lies between 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, and has for centuries 
 been the scene of the most important commerce. 
 Into it open the following seas : 1. Tyrrhenian ; 
 
 2. Ionian, each containing 18,000 square miles ; 
 
 3. Adriatic, 40,000 ; 4. ^Egean, 40,000 ; 5. Mar 
 mora Sea, 4000 ; 6. Black Sea, 160,000 ; 7. Sea 
 of Azof, 10,000. Many important cities are on 
 its shores, numerous large rivers flow into it, 
 and several islands lie in it. The only remain 
 ing sea is the Caspian, containing 120,000 square 
 miles, an inland sea, shallow on the shores, deep 
 in the centre, containing no currents nor tides. 
 It receives the waters of the Ural, Volga, and 
 other rivers, and is subject to singular variations 
 in size during long periods of time. It is no 
 longer doubted that it was one with the Sea of 
 Aral, and many geographers maintain that it 
 was connected with the Mediterranean by way 
 of the Sea of Azof. Its winds are variable and 
 its storms terrific. Small vessels only navigate 
 its waters, none larger than 150 tons. It is~330 
 feet below the level of the sea, and 100 feet be 
 low the Aral Sea. Properly speaking, it is a 
 lake, but its great size leads it to rank with seas, 
 while the name of sea for the Aral and Dead 
 Seas is considered a misnomer. The Caspian Sea 
 is less salt than the ocean, the fresh water brought 
 in by its many rivers more than compensating 
 for the very rapid evaporation. With the excep 
 tion of Russia, the countries bordering on it are 
 uncivilized, and no great cities are placed on it, 
 and its commerce is small and less important for 
 this reason. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 SEA-ADDER. A British fish, of an elongated 
 and slender form, with 15 short dorsal spines, 
 and the entire lateral line covered with carinated 
 scales ; the Gasterosteus spinachea, or stickle 
 back. The pipe-fish, Syngnathus. 
 
 SEA-ANCHOR. The anchor lying toward the 
 sea. A floating anchor used at sea in a gale. It 
 is easily improvised by making a triangle of 
 small booms, passing a sail between them, back 
 ing or thrumming it with rope, and fastening the 
 cable to a bridle extending from the three apexes 
 of the triangle. A more portable frame is made 
 of two iron bars, joined at their centres so as to 
 make the letter X, which may be shut up when 
 not in use. 
 
 SEA-ANEMONE. The Actinia, a polyp resemb 
 ling a flower. 
 
 SEA-APE. The sea-fox. The otter. 
 
 SEA-ATTORNEY. The brown shark. 
 
 SEA-BANK. A bank or mole to keep the sea 
 from encroaching on the shore. 
 
 SEA-BAR. The sea-swallow. 
 
 SEA-BARROW. See SEA-PINCUSHION. 
 
 SEA-BAT. A kind of flying-fish. 
 
 SEA-BEANS. Acacia-pods, brought down by 
 rivers, and found on beaches in southern waters. 
 
 SEA-BEAR. The polar bear. Seals of certain 
 genera, as Arctocephalus and Otaria, using their 
 hind fins in walking. See SEAL. 
 
 SEA-BEARD. Ctadaphora rupestris, a sea-weed 
 growing in dense tufts. 
 
 SEA-BLUBBER. A marine insect. 
 
 SEA-BOARD. Land bordering on the sea ; the 
 sea-shore. 
 
 SEA-BOAT. A boat, considered with reference 
 to her qualities or behavior at sea ; as, a good, or 
 a bad sea-boat. 
 
 SEA-BORNE. Afloat on the seas ; water-borne. 
 
 SEA-BOTTLE. The seed-pod of the Fucus 
 gigantea, found in Horn latitudes. 
 
 SEA-BREAM. A sea-fish of the genus Pagellus 
 (Spams of Linnaeus), growing to the length of 
 from 16 to 20 inches, and used for food. 
 
 SEA-BREEZE. A breeze setting from the sea 
 toward the land. See BREEZE. 
 
 SEA-BRIEF. See SEA-LETTER. 
 
 SEA-CALF. The common seal, Phoca. 
 
 SEA-CAP. White-caps, or wind-blown wave- 
 summits. 
 
 SEA-CARD. An old name for a chart. The 
 mariner s compass. 
 
 SEA-CARP. A spotted marine fish, living 
 among rocks and stones. 
 
 SEA-CAT. The wolf-fish, A nanhicas lupus. A 
 fish of the family Chimceroidei, intermediate be 
 tween the sturgeon and the shark. The northern 
 sea-cat (C. monstrosa] inhabits northern waters, 
 and has green pupils, which shine at night like a 
 cat s eyes. The southern sea-cat (C. Australii) 
 has a snout turning back like a hoe, and is of a 
 silvery color. 
 
 SEA-CATGUT. The sea-weed Fucus Jilum, or 
 sea-thread. 
 
 SEA-CHICKWEED. A marine plant, Honkenya 
 peploides, growing in tufts in the sand. 
 
 SEA-COAST. The shore or land washed by the 
 sea. 
 
 SEA-COB. The sea-gull. 
 
 SEA-COCO ANUT. Cocoanuts from the palm, 
 Lodoicea seychellarum, found in the Leychelle 
 Islands. First found floating in the sea, they 
 were thought to be fruit of the sea-weed. 
 
 SEA-COMPASS. The mariner s compass. 
 
 SEA-COOT. The coot. (Fulica). 
 
 SEA-CORMORANT. The sea-crow. 
 
 SEA-COUETER. The arctic puffin, Fratercula 
 arctica. 
 
SEA 
 
 727 
 
 SEA 
 
 SEA-COW. The manatee (which see). 
 
 SEA-CROW. The pewit gull, or Xema ridi- 
 fundus. The cormorant. 
 
 SEA CROW-FISH. Crustacea of the genus Pal- 
 nurus. 
 
 SEA-CUCKOO. The red gurnard, or Trigla 
 cuculus. 
 
 SEA-CUCUMBER. The beche-de-mer, an echin- 
 oderm of the genus Holothuria. Salted and 
 dried, it is eaten in China under the name of 
 trepang. They are found in shallow water, and 
 there are 8 genera, with 13 species on the Amer 
 ican coast. 
 
 SE A-CUNN Y. The helmsman in Lascar-manned 
 East India vessels. 
 
 SEA-DAFFODIL. A bulbous plant, the Pan 
 cratium maritimum. 
 
 SEA-DEVIL. A fish of the ray family (Cepha- 
 loptera}. The angler, or Lophius piscatorius. 
 
 SEA-DOG. The common seal. An old salt; a 
 sailor long used to the sea. 
 
 SEA-DOTTEREL. The Strepsilus interpres, a 
 sea-bird belonging to the plover family. 
 
 SEA-DRAGON. "A marine fish of the genus 
 Cottus. 
 
 SEA-DRAKE. See SEA-CROW. 
 
 SEA-EAGLE. The bald eagle. A large ray, 
 with wing-like fins and a long tail, armed with a 
 bone barb. It belongs to the genus Myliobatis. 
 
 SEA-EAR. A gasteropod mollusk of the genus 
 Haliotis, green and violet inside, and resembling 
 the human ear in shape. 
 
 SEA-EDGE. The bounding-line between the 
 frozen and unfrozen regions of the pole. 
 
 SEA-EEL. The conger-eel. 
 
 SEA-EGG. The Echinus, or sea-urchin, after 
 its spines are removed. 
 
 SEA-ELEPHANT. A large species of seal, the 
 Macrorhinus proboscideus, growing to 30 feet in 
 length, and having a fleshy snout about a foot 
 Ions*. 
 
 SEA-FARING. Following the sea as a means 
 of livelihood. 
 
 SEA-FENNEL. The same as samphire (which 
 see). 
 
 SEA-FERN. A kind of coral resembling a fern. 
 
 SEA-FIGHT. A naval action ; an engagement 
 at sea. 
 
 SEA-FISH. Salt-water fish. Any fish that 
 lives usually in salt water. 
 
 SEA-FOWL. A marine fowl. A bird that 
 lives by the sea and gets its food from salt water. 
 
 SEA-FOX. A species of shark, the upper lobe 
 of whose tail is much longer than the lower, 
 and curves upward. It frequently measures 13 
 feet in length, including the tail, which is then 
 more than 6 feet long. 
 
 SEA-FROG. Same as fishing-frog (which see). . 
 
 SEA-GAGE, or GAUGE. A form of sounding in 
 strument, by which the depths are ascertained by 
 the registered pressure of a liquid or vapor in the 
 instrument. 
 
 SEA-GARLAND. A kind of marine plant. 
 
 SEA-GATE, or GAIT. A long, rolling swell. 
 Ships that collide by its means are in a sea-gate. 
 
 SEA-GIRDLE. A marine plant, the Laminaria 
 digitata; also called sea-wand, sea-ware, and 
 tangle. 
 
 SEA-GODS. Deities supposed to have power 
 over the sea. Principal among the Grecian 
 deities were (1) Pontus, the father of sea-deities, 
 and (2) Oceanus. The sons of Pontus were (a) 
 
 Nereus, the god of the quiet sea ; (b) Thaumas, 
 god of the majesty of the sea; (c) Phorcys, (d) 
 Ceto, (e) Eurybia, deities of the dangers and 
 terrors of the sea. The sea-nymphs were the 
 descendants of Oceanus. Aphrodite, born of the 
 foam, was goddess of the sea, tutelary goddess 
 of ships and mariners, and controlled the winds 
 and waves, and gave good voyages. She was 
 wife to Neptune, the principal god of the sea, 
 who dwelt in ocean depths, and from thence con 
 trolled winds and waves. Sacrifices were made 
 to him, especially by the lonians in the temple 
 at Corinth, One of his sons was Triton, and the 
 Nereids, 50 daughters of Nereus, attend on him. 
 
 A favorite sea-deity was Glaucus, especially 
 the god of fishermen and shipwrecked sailors. 
 
 SEA-GRAPE. The gulf-weed. 
 
 SEA-GRASS. An aquatic plant, the Zostera 
 marina. 
 
 SEA-GREEN. A faint green. In ancient her 
 aldry, the color denoted inconstancy. 
 
 SEA-GROCER (Eng.). An old name for the 
 purser. 
 
 SEA-GULL. A sea-fowl, the Xema ridibundus. 
 It is considered indicative of approaching bad 
 weather for them to seek the shore in numbers, 
 or to alight on ships at sea. To kill a gull is 
 bad luck. Their stupidity is proverbial, and they 
 are easily duped. 
 
 SEA-HARE. A marine gasteropod mollusk, 
 the Aplysia. 
 
 SEA-HEATH. Evergreen plants of the genus 
 Frankenia, found on sea-shores. 
 
 SEA-HEDGEHOG. The Echinus, or sea-urchin. 
 
 SEA-HEN. The guillemot, a sea-bird of the 
 genus Uria. The crooner, a fish of the Trigla 
 lyra. 
 
 SEA-HOG. The porpoise. 
 
 SEA-HOLLY. An evergreen plant of the genus 
 Eryngium, found on the sea-shore. 
 
 SEA-HOLM. A small, uninhabited island. 
 
 SEA-HORSE. The walrus. The hippocampus, 
 a fish having a prehensile tail. 
 
 SEA-KALE. An edible plant, the Crambe 
 mantima, found on the sea-shore ; sea-cabbage ; 
 sea-colewort. 
 
 SEA-LAKE. A lagoon. 
 
 SEA-LARK. A sand-piper. The ringed dot 
 terel. 
 
 SEA-LAWS. See MARITIME LAW, OLERON 
 CODE, RHODIAN LAWS. 
 
 SEA-LAWYER. An idle, querulous sailor, 
 given more to questioning orders than to obey 
 ing them ; one disposed much to argue the ques 
 tion. The tiger-shark. 
 
 SEA-LEGS. Ability to walk on the moving 
 deck at sea. To get sea-legs on, to become accus 
 tomed to. the motion, so as to walk on the deck. 
 
 SEA-LEMON. A marine gasteropod mollusk 
 of the genus Doris; it is lemon-colored, oval, 
 and marked with numerous punctures. 
 
 SEA-LEOPARD. A seal, the Stenorhynchus leo- 
 pardinus, spotted like a leopard. 
 
 SEA-LETTER. A document issued by the civil 
 authorities of the port in which a vessel is fitted 
 out, and a certificate of the nationality of the 
 vessel. It specifies the nature, quantity, owner 
 ship, and destination of the cargo. 
 
 SEA-LION. A large seal of the genus Platy- 
 rhynchus, having a mane like a lion. See SEAL. 
 
 SEA-LOG. That part of the log book relating 
 to the ship while at sea. 
 
SEA 
 
 728 
 
 SEA 
 
 SEA-LOUSE. A crab, the Pediculus marinus. 
 
 SEA-MAID. A mermaid or sea-nymph. 
 
 SEA-MALL. The mew ; a sea-gull. 
 
 SEA-MARK. Any object, as a beacon, steeple, 
 chimney, tree, or hill, easily distinguishable 
 from to seaward, and used as a guide in the 
 piloting of a vessel. 
 
 SEA-MEN. Same as SEA-MALL. 
 
 SEA-MOUSE. A marine annelid, the Aphrodita 
 aculeata, covered with long iridescent hairs. 
 
 SEA-NAVEL. A small shell-fish. 
 
 SEA-NEEDLE. The sea-pike, or gar (Belone 
 vulgaris), with long pointed jaws and a forked 
 tail. 
 
 SEA-NETTLE. All Acalcphce, particularly the 
 Medusce, that have the property of stinging. 
 
 SEA-NYMPH. A nymph or inferior goddess 
 of the sea. 
 
 SEA-ONION. A sea-coast plant, the Scilla 
 maritima. 
 
 SEA-OOZE. Soft mud near the shore. 
 
 SEA-ORB. A round marine fish. 
 
 SEA-OTTER. An aquatic mammal, the Enhydra 
 marina, found in the North Pacific Ocean. 
 
 SEA-OWL. The lump-fish. 
 
 SEA-PAD. The star-fish. 
 
 SEA-PANTHER. A fish like a lamprey. 
 
 SEA-PASS. See PASSPORT. 
 
 SEA-PAY. The pay received or due for actual 
 service in a sea-going ship. 
 
 SEA-PERCH. "Salt- water perch. 
 
 SEA-PHEASANT. The pin-tail duck, Dafila 
 caudacuta. 
 
 SEA-PIE. A sea-fowl, the Hcematopus ostra- 
 legus, also called the oyster-catcher, from its 
 thrusting its bill into open oysters and eating 
 them. A dish composed of fish or meat and 
 vegetables in layers between crusts, the number 
 of which decide whether it is a double-decker or 
 a three-decker. 
 
 SEA-PIKE. The gar-fish. 
 
 SEA-PINCUSHION. A star-fish, of the genus 
 Goniaster. 
 
 SEA-PINK. A marine plant, the Cerastium 
 repens. 
 
 SEA-POACHER. The pogge, or Catophroctus 
 Schonosldii. 
 
 SEA-PORCUPINE. This name is given to sev 
 eral fish of the genera Diodon and Tetraodon, 
 whose bodies are thickly covered with spines. 
 Their flesh is poisonous, and one species gives 
 electric shocks if touched. 
 
 SEA-PORK. The flesh of young whales. 
 
 SEAPORT. A haven on the sea. 
 
 SEA-PUDDING. A species of holothurian. 
 
 SEA-PURSE. See MERMAID S PURSE. 
 
 SKA-PURSLANE. A marine plant of the genus 
 Sesurium. 
 
 S KA-QUADRANT. A name for the Jacob s staff. 
 
 SEA-QUAKE. A quaking or shaking of the 
 sea. 
 
 SEA-RATE. See CHRONOMETER. 
 
 SEA-RAVEN. The sculpin, a fish of the genus 
 Hemitripterus. 
 
 SE\-REACH. The straight lower course of a 
 winding river emptying into the sea. 
 
 SEA-REED. A grass (Calamagrostis arenarid) 
 found on the sea-shore. 
 
 SEA-RISK. Hazard or risk incurred by pas 
 sage at sea. 
 
 SEA-ROBIN. The gurnard, a fish of the genus 
 Trigla. 
 
 SEA-ROCKET. A plant of the genus Cakile, 
 growing on the shore. 
 
 SEA-ROKE. A cold fog or mist, spreading from 
 the sea inland. 
 
 SEA-ROOM. Ample space at sea to drive or 
 scud without danger. 
 
 SEA-ROVER. A sea-robber ; a pirate. 
 
 SEA-SCORPION. A voracious marine fish, the 
 Coitus scorpius, having its head armed with 
 spines. 
 
 SEA-SERGEANTS. A Welsh secret society, ex 
 isting from 1726 to 1765. 
 
 SEA-SERPENT. A fabulous animal continually 
 rediscovered at sea. A Mediterranean eel. A 
 large Australian marine serpent, the Hydrus 
 Stokesii. The stories of the sea-serpent were 
 mythological in origin, coming from the north 
 of Europe, but many scientists have acknowl 
 edged the possibility of the existence of Saurians, 
 or sea-reptiles of great size. 
 
 SEA-SHORE. The coast of the sea. In law, 
 the land between low- and high-water marks. 
 
 SEA-SICKNESS. Vomiting caused by the mo 
 tion of a vessel or boat. The premonitory symp 
 toms are vertigo and headache, with a peculiar 
 feeling of sinking and distress about the pit of 
 the stomach, which is soon followed by a pro 
 found nausea accompanied with convulsive heav 
 ing of the stomach and utter prostration of the 
 entire body ; a deadly pallor and profuse cold 
 sweat are commonly present. 
 
 SEA-SLATER. The Ligia oceanica, a small shell 
 fish. 
 
 SEA-SLEEVE. The squid, Loligo vulgaris. 
 
 SEA-SLUG. The sea-cucumber, or Holothuria. 
 
 SEA-SNAIL. A fish found under stones near 
 the sea-shore, belonging to the genus Liparis. 
 
 SEA-SPIDER. A crab with a triangular body 
 and long, slender legs, the Main squinada. 
 
 SEA-SPOUT. The spouting of water through 
 a cleft in a rocky cliff. 
 
 SEA-STAR. The star-fish. 
 
 SEA-STREAM. A polar term, indicating a col 
 lection of bay-ice, affording shelter behind it 
 from the ocean. 
 
 SEA-SWABBER. A term of reproach for an 
 idle sailor. 
 
 SEA-SWALLOW. The tern, Sterna hirundo. 
 The storm-petrel, Procellaria pelagica. 
 
 SEA-SWINE. Porpoises. 
 
 SEA-TANG. Tang, or sea-weed. 
 
 SEA-TOAD. An ugly sea-fish. 
 
 SEA-TRANSOM. The stern-transom bolted to 
 the ends of the counter-timbers. 
 
 SEA-TURN. A breeze, gale, or mist from the 
 sea. A tack to seaward. 
 
 SEA-UNICORN. The narwhal. See NARWHAL. 
 
 SEA-URCHIN. The Echinus. See SEA-EGG. 
 
 SEA-WALL. A wall built to prevent the sea 
 from overflowing inclosed lands. 
 
 SEAWARD. Toward the sea. 
 
 SEA-WARE. Sea-weed thrown on the beach. 
 
 SEA-WATER. The water of the ocean varies 
 greatly in its component parts in different lo 
 calities. The solid parts contained therein are 
 chlorides of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, 
 bromide and sulphide of magnesium, carbonate 
 of lime and magnesium, ammonia, silver, and 
 traces of other metals. Water from the Mediter 
 ranean contains 410 parts in 10,000; from the 
 English Channel, 380 parts; from the North 
 Sea, 312 to 360 parts; and from the Baltic, 66 
 
SEAL 
 
 T29 
 
 SECOND OFFICER 
 
 to 216 parts. The average of solid parts is 3 
 per cent., and the average specific gravity is 
 1.0274. The water of the Dead Sea is really a 
 mineral water, being 25 per cent, of solid parts. 
 
 SEA-WEASEL. The lamprey eel. 
 
 SEA-WEED. See ALG.E. 
 
 SEA-WIFE. A fish of the genus Labrus. 
 
 SEA-WILLOW. A polyp belonging to the genus 
 Gorgonia. 
 
 SEA-WOLF. The wolf-fish. Anarrhicas lupus, 
 found in northern seas about Greenland, Iceland, 
 Norway, Scotland, England, etc., and so named 
 from its fierceness and ravenousness. It grows 
 sometimes to the length of 4, and even 7 feet, and 
 feeds on crustaceous animals and shell fish, as well 
 as on common fish. A kind of seal. See SEAL. 
 
 SEAWORTHY. Fit in every way to make a 
 voyage at sea. Staunch and tight. 
 
 SEA-WRACK. Sea- weed and grass thrown on 
 shore on the coast of Holland, and used for ma 
 nuring land (Zostera marina). 
 
 Seal. An aquatic carnivorous mammal of the 
 family Phocidce. They subsist on fish, and are 
 abundant in the colder waters of the globe. The 
 following are the most important genera and 
 species : The genus Callocephalus, or Phoca, the 
 common seal, C. vitulinus, belonging to it. It 
 is common in European and American waters, 
 and is valuable for its oil, furs, and skin. It is 
 from 4 to 6 feet long. The P. barbata, or bearded 
 seal, is found on icebergs in the open Polar Sea, 
 and attains a length of from 10 to 12 feet. The 
 Greenland seal, P. Groenlandica, is found in 
 herds on floating ice ; is most useful to the 
 Esquimaux for its oil, flesh, and skin, and fur; 
 is but 6 feet long. The hare seal, P. leporina, 
 is from 6 to 7 feet long, and is found about the 
 northern shores of Europe. Another genus is 
 Halichcerus. To it belong the //. griseus, or gray 
 seal, and the H. Caspica, or Caspian seal, found 
 in the Caspian Sea, and valuable for its excellent 
 oil. To the genus Stenorychus belongs the sea- 
 leopard, and to the genus Pelagius, the monk 
 seal, or P. monachus, white-bellied, from 8 to 10 
 feet long, found in the Adriatic and Mediterra 
 nean Seas. To the genus Stemmatopus belongs 
 the crested seal, S. cristatus, 7 to 8 feet long, 
 which has a membranous sac on its head, capa 
 ble of inflation. It is found on the coast of Lab 
 rador. The largest seal, the elephant seal, be 
 longs to the genus Macrorhinus (M. proboscideus] , 
 and attains a length of 25 feet. Its oil is quite 
 valuable. Many seals belong to the genus Otaria, 
 also known as Platyrhynchus and Arcto-cephalus. 
 The sea-lions and sea-bears belong to this genus. 
 There is a northern sea-lion (0. Stelleri) and a 
 southern sea-lion (0. Jubata), as well as a north 
 ern sea-bear (O. Ursina) and a southern sea-bear 
 (O. Irorsteri), the latter nearly extinct. 
 
 Sealed Orders. Orders- sealed, only to be 
 opened at a certain time, for instance, after the 
 ship is at sea, to prevent their being divulged. 
 
 Seam. The openings between the planks of 
 the deck and sides of a ship, that are filled with 
 oakum and pitch in calking. The junction of 
 two pieces of canvas, when they are sewed to 
 gether. Sails, awnings, etc., are sewed with dif 
 ferent seams, varying with circumstances. A 
 flat seam is one in which two edges of canvas 
 are overlapped two inches, and then each edge is 
 stitched to the other piece by a direct seam. 
 "When old canvas is restitched, it is sometimes 
 
 necessary to middle stitch a flat seam, by running 
 a seam midway between the other two. A round 
 seam is one in which two edges of cloth are 
 brought together, and stitched together by over 
 casting the thread. A cord sea-mis one in which 
 the edges are again brought together, as in the 
 round seam, but are slightly rolled in on the 
 cloth, and stitched to it. From 3 to 4 stitches an 
 inch are taken. 
 
 Seaman. A mariner; a sailor. Properly, 
 one competent to perform all the duties of the 
 profession, whether man or officer. The grade 
 of seaman, or able seaman, recognized in all 
 navies, comprises those who are practically con 
 versant with all the duties of common seaman 
 ship ; as, to reef, to hand, to steer, to heave the 
 lead, to rig the spars, sails, etc. In the U. S. 
 navy they are paid $21.50 per month ; in the 
 English navy, from $6 to $7. Ordinary seamen 
 are those only partially skilled in these duties. 
 
 SEAMAN-GUNNER. Seamen who are particu 
 larly trained in gunnery duties, forming a dis 
 tinct grade in many navies. The grade was created 
 in the U. S. navy, but is fast becoming extinct. 
 
 SEAMAN S DISGRACE. A foul anchor. 
 
 Seamanship. The practical science and art 
 of rigging, fitting, manoauvring, and handling a 
 ship or boat. 
 
 Searcher. A customs-officer. An instrument 
 for examining the bore of guns. 
 
 Seasoned Timber. Timber prepared for use 
 by preservation in air, water, or by chemical 
 processes for a certain length of time. 
 
 Seasoning a Ship. Allowing a ship to stand 
 before she receives her planking, so as to dry 
 out the timbers. 
 
 Seat. In mechanism, an accurately fitted 
 portion of a frame or relatively fixed piece on 
 which another piece bears, rests, or is secured ; 
 as, the sent of a bracket or flange, or a valve-seat. 
 
 Seat-lockers. Lockers arranged so as to form 
 seats in the cabins, etc. , 
 
 Secondary Circles. Great circles of the sphere 
 passing through the poles of another great circle, 
 which is called their primary. 
 
 Secondary Meridians. Meridians of the earth 
 which are determined like the first, prime, or 
 primary meridians, such as those of Greenwich, 
 Paris, etc., by astronomical or absolute evidence, 
 independently of the chronometrical or relative 
 method. The primary meridians are those from 
 which the longitudes in the tables and on the 
 charts are reckoned ; the secondary meridians 
 are useful as fundamental and independent start 
 ing-points in making passages. 
 
 Secondary Planet. See PLANET. 
 
 Second Captain. A commander in a ship un 
 der a captain, in some navies. 
 
 Second Differences. See DIFFERENCES, SEC 
 OND. 
 
 Second Futtocks. The timbers of the frame 
 next above and joined to the first futtocks, or to 
 the floor-timbers. 
 
 Second-hand. The second in charge of a fish 
 ing-boat. 
 
 Second Lieutenant. A term often employed 
 to designate the officer next in rank to the execu 
 tive-officer ; the navigator. The^lowest grade of 
 commissioned officers in the marine corps, rank 
 ing with an ensign in the navy. 
 
 Second Officer. The second mate of a mer 
 chant vessel. 
 
SECOND-RATE 
 
 730 
 
 SERPENT-FISH 
 
 Second-rate. The second of the grades into 
 which ships of war are divided. See CLASSIFI 
 CATION. 
 
 Secret Block. A block with a lignum-vitte 
 shell, open only at two orifices sufficiently large 
 to allow the rope to pass through that is to work 
 around the sheave. 
 
 Secretary. A rank in the navy corresponding 
 with lieutenant, bestowed on the person em 
 ployed as the private clerk or amanuensis of the 
 admiral and of the vice-admiral. An officer de 
 tailed to serve as clerk to a flag-officer, usually 
 ranking with lieutenant. The chief or confi 
 dential writer to the commandant of a naval 
 station. See NAVY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Sectional Dock. A form of floating dock, 
 made in sections. Each section is a tank having 
 trestle-work on the sides to which the shores are 
 secured Outside the tanks on each side are floats 
 made of sufficient capacity to impart the proper 
 stability to the tank when the vessel is raised ; on 
 the top of the trestle-work is a walk or platform 
 upon which the machinery used in pumping the 
 dock is placed. It has an advantage over the 
 docks for light and air, and can be used or floated 
 anywhere where there is sufficient water. 
 
 The tanks and blocks of an ordinary sectional 
 dock require fifteen feet more water than the ship 
 which is intended to be raised. For this reason 
 alone a basin dock is better for most purposes. 
 
 Secunda Giedi. The star a 2 Capricorni. 
 
 Secure ! A command in exercising or work 
 ing heavy guns, meaning to so arrange the 
 breeching and tackles that the gun shall be in 
 no danger of breaking loose in a sea-way. Guns 
 are secured more thoroughly for sea than for 
 port. 
 
 Securing-bolts. Eye-bolts placed in the ship s 
 side, nearer to the port than the fighting-bolts, 
 in which the outer blocks of the tackles are 
 hooked when the gun is secured. 
 
 Sediment Collector. A perforated inverted 
 cone, placed at the mean water-level of a marine 
 steam-boiler, to the apex of which the surface 
 blow-pipe is attached. It is not found efficient 
 in practice. 
 
 A cylindrical drum, attached to the bottoms 
 of Western-river steamboat boilers, to which the 
 mud blow-off pipe is connected. 
 
 Sedow. The gilt-head (Sparus auratus). 
 
 Seeling. Sudden heeling over, and return to 
 an upright position. 
 
 Segment-shell. A rifle-shell, having a thin 
 outer shell lined with segmental pieces of cast 
 iron, to separate at explosion. 
 
 Seize. To fasten ropes to each other or a rope 
 to any object by regular turns of a small line. 
 
 SEIZINGS. These are of various kinds, accord 
 ing to their position and use. An eye- or throat- 
 seizing is one or two parts of a rope that cross to 
 form an eye. A round seizing has riding or 
 upper turns over the first layer. Aflat seizing 
 has but one layer of turns. 
 
 SEIZING-STUFF. Small-stuff is used for seiz 
 ings, foxes and rope-yarns for temporary seizings, 
 marline, hambroline, houseline, round line, etc., 
 for permanent seizings. Seizing-stuff is 9-, 6-, 
 or 4-thread stuff, of tarred hemp yarns. 
 
 Selaciun. One of a tribe of cartilaginous 
 fishes, including the ray and the shark. 
 
 Selchie. The seal, Phoca vitulina. 
 
 Self-fastening Rowlock. A metal rowlock, 
 
 whose socket travels in a tube, so that it fastens 
 itself in on reaching the bottom of the tube. 
 
 Self-mousing Hook. A hook closing auto 
 matically by means of a tongue, so that it will 
 not slip. 
 
 Selfridge, Thomas O., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Massachusetts. Appointed from Mas 
 sachusetts, January 1, 1818. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 3, 1827 ; 
 Exploring Expedition, 1829; sloop "Natchez," 
 West India Squadron, 1830; frigate "Dela 
 ware," Mediterranean Squadron, 1834; frigate 
 "North Carolina," 1837; rendezvous, Boston, 
 1840. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, April 11, 1844; 
 navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 1845; frigate 
 "Columbus," East India Squadron, 1846; com 
 manding sloop "Dale," Pacific Squadron, 1848; 
 commanding rendezvous, Boston, 1851-52 ; Bos 
 ton Navy- Yard, 1853-55. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 14, 1855; 
 commanding steamer " Mississippi," 1861 ; com 
 mandant Mare Island Navy-Yard, Cal., 1862- 
 64. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 Retired October 10, 1866 ; commandant navy- 
 yard, Philadelphia, 1867-68; president Exam 
 ining Board, 1869. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July, 1870. 
 
 Selvagee. A rough rope, made of a bundle 
 of rope-yarns wound round or marled with an 
 other yarn. 
 
 SELVAGEE STRAP. A strap made of selvagee, 
 used in securing the breeching of guns, etc. 
 
 Semaphore. An upright post with movable 
 arms, for making signals. 
 
 Semidiameter. Half the angle subtended by 
 the diameter of the visible disk of a heavenly 
 body at the eye of the observer. 
 
 Semimenstrual Inequality. An inequality 
 of the tide, which goes through its changes every 
 half-month. 
 
 Send. To pitch violently into the trough of 
 a sea. To scend. 
 
 Senior Officer. The commanding officer, or 
 the most advanced line-officer in rank at any 
 time or place. 
 
 Sennit. Flat cordage, formed by plaiting rope- 
 yarns or thread together. They "must be of an 
 odd number, and hence the name, seven-knit. 
 There are several kinds. Common or fat sennit 
 is plain plaiting, five to seven strands being used. 
 French sennit is similarly made, but more strands 
 are used, and it is more open, forming a woven 
 band of yarns. Round sennit is formed by plait 
 ing even numbers of strands in twos around a 
 small rope or heart. Square sennit is made of 
 even-numbered strands without a heart. Sen 
 nit of grass was formerly woven into hats by 
 sailors, but is so no longer. 
 
 Sensible Horizon. See HORIZON. 
 
 Sentry, or Sentinel. A marine or seaman 
 placed on post charged to guard certain prop 
 erty, or carry out certain orders. On board ship, 
 marine sentries are stationed at gangways, cabin 
 doors, over prisoners and scuttle-butt, and on the 
 forecastle and poop. 
 
 Serang. The boatswain of a Lascar crew. 
 
 Serpens (Lat. "The Serpent" of Ophiuchus). 
 A constellation lying to the east of the line join 
 ing Arcturus and Antares. 
 
 Serpent-fish. A fish with a body of a ribbon- 
 
SEKPENTINE 
 
 <:.. 
 
 731 SHAFT 
 
 like and compressed form, and a band of red 
 running lengthwise, Cepola rubescens. 
 
 Serpentine. An old 24-pounder, 13 feet long, 
 weighing 4300 pounds. 
 
 Serve. To perform duty on board ship or in 
 government establishments, or under orders. To 
 cover a rope closely with smaller stuff, so as 
 to protect it from the weather. Hope is first 
 wormed, then parceled, then served. To serve 
 the vent, to clear with the priming- wire before 
 loading. 
 
 SERVICE. The small-stuff wound around a 
 rope to protect it from the weather. 
 
 SERVING-BOARD. A flat piece of hard wood, 
 having a handle attached, used in serving small 
 ropes. 
 
 SERVING-MALLET. A short mallet, with a 
 groove on the under side, used in serving large 
 ropes. 
 
 SERVING-STUFF. Spun-yarn is generally used, 
 but hambroline, houseline, and round line are 
 sometimes preferred. 
 
 Set. The direction in which a current flows. 
 A suit, or complete number, as a set of signals. 
 To observe and note the bearings of any object 
 by the compass. To set sail, to put to sea. To 
 set a sail, to spread it. To set the chase, to ob 
 serve well the bearing of a vessel chased. To set 
 the course, to prescribe the course to be steered. 
 To set the watch, to call and formally report the 
 night-watch at 8 P.M. To set up rigging, to take 
 in the slack of the standing rigging, so as to give 
 a better support to the masts. Setting up a ship, 
 raising her from the keel-blocks by wedging. 
 
 Set-bolt. A bolt used as a punch or drift to 
 force a bolt farther in than can be done by driv 
 ing ; it is also used to drive out bolts. A bolt 
 to force planks together. 
 
 Set-screw. A screw binding or clamping an 
 adjustable piece, when set or adjusted, in a de 
 sired position, to another relatively fixed piece, 
 such as a shaft, bar, or portion of a frame ; as, 
 the set-screw of a collar, eccentric, wheel, slide, etc. 
 
 Sett. A power used by shipwrights ; two 
 ring-bolts with a staff, fastened by cleats and 
 lashings. 
 
 Settee. A vessel used in the Mediterranean, 
 with a very long and sharp prow, and with lateen- 
 sails. 
 
 Setting-pole. An iron-shod pole, to move a 
 boat with in shallow water. 
 
 Severalty. A law-term, indicating the refer 
 ence of disagreements among part-owners of a 
 ship, or her cargo, to the courts. 
 
 Sew. To cant or heel when left on the sand 
 by the tide. 
 
 Sewant. The plaice. 
 
 Sewin. A salmon taken in "Welsh waters. 
 
 Sextans. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Sextant. The sextant (Lat. sextans, the sixth 
 part) is a portable instrument for measuring 
 angles by reflection, and is very generally used 
 by navigators and surveyors for measuring the 
 altitudes of heavenly bodies, the angular distance 
 between them, and, in place of a theodolite, the 
 horizontal angular distance between terrestrial 
 objects. The instrument was invented by Sir 
 Isaac Newton, who, however, did not publish 
 his invention, which was subsequently made in 
 dependently by Mr. John Hadley, an English 
 man, and by Mr. Thomas Godfrey, a Philadel- 
 phian. The principle governing the construction 
 
 of the sextant is, that " the angle between the 
 first and last directions of a ray of light which 
 has suffered two reflections in one plane is equal 
 to twice the inclination of the reflecting surfaces 
 to each other." 
 
 The sextant, held in the hand and requiring 
 no fixed support, is peculiarly adapted to use on 
 shipboard. For measuring altitudes at sea the 
 line of the apparent horizon is used, but on shore, 
 where various objects hide the natural horizon, 
 an artificial horizon is used, consisting usually 
 of a flat dish of mercury with a glass cover. 
 The image of an object seen by reflection from 
 the surface of the mercury, appears as much 
 below the horizon as it is really above it, so that 
 the angle between the object itself and its re 
 flected image is double its altitude above the 
 horizon. Attempts have been made to invent 
 a device which would take the place of the sea- 
 horizon when it was hidden by fog or haze, but 
 thus far-without much success. 
 
 With ordinary sextants no angles greater than 
 about 120 can be measured, but with the admi 
 rable prismatic sextant of Messrs. Pistor & Mar 
 tins, angles up to 180 may be accurately meas 
 ured. In this instrument the index-glass of the 
 ordinary sextant is replaced by a rectangular 
 prism, and rays from the object seen directly 
 come to the telescope without passing through 
 any medium, such as the unsilvered portion of 
 the horizon-glass. As both the reflected and 
 direct objects are much better defined than in 
 the ordinary instruments, this sextant is pecu 
 liarly well adapted for determining latitude by 
 altitudes of stars on shore with the artificial 
 horizon. F. M. Green, Lieutenant- Commander 
 U.S.N. 
 
 SEXTANT, ADJUSTMENT OF. The index-glass 
 must be perpendicular to the plane of the arc. 
 The horizon-glass must be perpendicular to the 
 plane of the arc. The necessary adjustments are 
 made by screws at the back of the mirrors. The 
 line of collimation of the telescope must be par 
 allel with the plane of the arc. The adjustment 
 is made by means of the screws on the collar of 
 the telescope. When the index-glass and hori 
 zon-glass are parallel, the index should coincide 
 with on the arc. The sextant need not be ad 
 justed on account of this error, if the proper al 
 lowance is made on each observation. 
 
 Shackle. An iron link, one end of which is 
 closed by a movable bolt. Scre^v- shackle, a 
 shackle in which the bolt is screwed into place. 
 
 SHACKLE-HOLT. The large iron bolt that closes 
 a shackle when in place. 
 
 SHACKLE-BLOCK. A block with an iron strap 
 terminated by a shackle and bolt. 
 
 SHACKLE-NET. A flue-net. 
 
 SHACKLE-PIN. The small pin that confines 
 the shackle-bolt in place. Wooden pins are gen 
 erally used. 
 
 SHACKLE-PUNCH. An iron punch for driving 
 out shackle-bolts. 
 
 Shad. Fish of the genus Alosa. 
 
 Shades. Sets of colored glasses fitted to re 
 flecting instruments to diminish the glare of 
 bright objects. 
 
 Shaft. In machinery, a long cylindrical or 
 prismatic piece, which revolves or oscillates about 
 its axis on journals fitted to suitable bearings, 
 for transmitting to a wheel, lever, or other piece 
 a rotative, oscillating, or reciprocating rectilinear 
 
SHAG 
 
 732 
 
 SHEATHING 
 
 motion at any part of its length. Small and 
 rapidly revolving shafts are called spindles, 
 
 A counter-shaft is a short shaft through which 
 motion is transmitted by belts from line shaft 
 ing, or the shaft of a prime mover to a working 
 machine or tool, such as a lathe, planing-machine, 
 saw, blower, etc. It is provided with a fixed 
 and a loose pulley, and means for shifting the 
 belt of the driving-pulley from one to the other, 
 so that it may be set in motion or at rest at will, 
 and with a pulley, drum, or speed-cone belted to 
 corresponding parts of the driven machine. 
 When it is required to suddenly reverse the mo 
 tion, as with a screw-cutting lathe, two loose 
 pulleys, driven in opposite directions by a pair 
 of belts, one of which is crossed, are used ; the 
 motion being communicated to the shaft by a 
 sleeve and clutch. The speed of the machine is 
 determined by the relative sizes of the pulleys ; 
 and a speed-cone is used when varieties of speed 
 are required. 
 
 An intermediate shaft is used for transmitting 
 motion from one shaft to another when their 
 relative positions will not admit of direct con 
 nection, or when the difference in speed is such 
 as to require inconvenient sizes of wheels or 
 pulleys ; also, for preserving motion in the same 
 direction of two shafts connected by toothed 
 wheels or gearing. 
 
 Line shafting is a long, continuous line of sec 
 tions of shafting held together by couplings ; as, 
 a screw-propeller shaft, or the line shafting of a 
 factory. 
 
 SHAFT-ALLEY. A passage extending from the 
 engine-room to the stern stuffing-box, in which is 
 contained the propeller-shaft and its bearings. 
 
 SHAFT-BEARING. A support for the journal 
 of a shaft. See BEARING. 
 
 SHAFT-COUPLING. A piece, or pair of pieces, 
 for securing sections of shafting together. See 
 COUPLING. 
 
 SHAFT-PIPE. The pipe, of copper or iron, 
 
 Placed in the dead-wood of a screw-ship as a 
 ning ; having glands or a proper packing at 
 each end, it can be made water-tight. 
 
 Shag. The green cormorant, Phalocr.ocorax 
 graculus. 
 
 Shake. To shake out a reef, to let it out and 
 enlarge the sail. To shake a cask, to take it to 
 pieces and pack the staves. These are called 
 shakes, and hence the term " no great shakes." 
 To shake the sails, to luff up in the wind, caus 
 ing the sails to shiver. A shake among ship 
 wrights is a crack or rent in timber. Shake a 
 leg ! hurry up ! be quick ! 
 
 Shakings. Refuse of cordage, canvas, etc. 
 Oakum swept up off decks. 
 
 Shallop, or Shalloop. A small boat rowed 
 by two men. A light fishing-boat, with small 
 fore- and main-lug sails. The term is also ap 
 plied to sloops. 
 
 Shallows. Large extents of shoal water. 
 
 Shallow-waisted. A term opposed to deep- 
 waisted, applied to flush-deck vessels. 
 
 Shan. Knotty or fibrous defects in timber. 
 
 Shang-Hai, the chief emporium of China, 
 now open for European commerce, is situated in 
 the province of Kiang-Soo, on the Woosung 
 River, and 12 miles above the mouth of the Woo 
 sung, in the estuary of the Yang-tse-Kiang. 
 The river, though three-quarters of a mile broad 
 opposite Shang-Hai, is little better than a mere 
 
 tidal channel. It is an important entrepot of the 
 commerce between the north and south provinces 
 of China, exporting manufactured goods to Tien- 
 Tsin, and importing large quantities of pulse, 
 flour, meats, rhubarb, and skins from the shores 
 of the Yellow Sea. It has an extensive river 
 trade with the interior of China, and its coasting 
 trade is also very large. It has regular steam 
 communication with all the open ports of China 
 and Japan, and with India, the United States, 
 and Europe. About 2000 vessels clear port here 
 annually, and the value of the imports and ex 
 ports is about $75,000,000 each year. Lat. 31 
 12 / N. ; Ion. 121 28 E. Pop. 250,000. 
 
 Shank. An arrangement of deep-sea fishing- 
 lines. The main piece of an anchor, connecting 
 the stock and the arms. 
 
 SHANK-PAINTER. A rope or chain which con 
 fines the shank of the anchor to the bill-board. 
 
 Shanny. A small fish (Phohs subfurcatus], 
 which lurks under stones and weeds. 
 
 Shape. To shape the course, to determine the 
 course which the ship is to steer. 
 
 Shark. Cartilaginous fish of the family 
 Squalidce. They are carnivorous and very vo 
 racious. There are some 100 species, varying 
 greatly in size, from 3 feet to 40 feet in length. 
 The Scyllidce contains the dog-fishes, and they 
 all spout. The white shark ( Carcharias vulgaris] 
 and the blue shark (C. glaucus) belong to this 
 family. The basking-shark is the largest, and 
 belongs to the genus Sclache. It attains a length 
 of 40 feet. The thresher-shark belongs to the 
 genus Alopia ; the angel-fish, monk-fish, or fiddle- 
 fish, to the Squahdas. The hammer-headed shark 
 belongs to the Zygcenidce. 
 
 Sharks vary somewhat in their habits, many 
 kinds being dangerous to man, while others are 
 comparatively harmless. The name shark is also 
 applied to crimps, sharpers, and low attorneys. 
 
 SHARK S-MOUTH. The opening for the breech 
 ing at the cascabel of a gun. The irregular 
 opening cut in an awning to embrace the mast. 
 
 Sharp. Prompt and ready. Be sharp! 
 make haste ! Look sharp ! be quick ! A sharp is 
 one versed in some specialty, as a torpedo-sharp, 
 a gunnery-sharp, etc. A yard is sharp-up when 
 it can be braced up no farther. Sharp-bottom, a 
 sharp floor, or one with considerable rise in the 
 timbers. Sharp-iron, a calking-tool. 
 
 Sharpie. A long, flat-bottomed sail-boat, 
 used in the United States. 
 
 Shear. An iron eel-spear. A stress tending 
 to separate a body into parts, overcoming the 
 cohesion of its particles by sliding one part over 
 another in a plane parallel to the direction of the 
 force. 
 
 Shear-bill. A sea-fowl, the Rhynchops nigra. 
 The cutwater, or black skimmer. 
 
 Shear-hooks. A kind of sickle, formerly 
 placed at the yard-arms to cut the rigging of an 
 enemy on boarding her. They are described by 
 Vegetius in his " Re militaris," and were exten 
 sively used in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, 
 and even as late as the 17th century they were 
 seen. 
 
 Shears. See SHEERS. 
 
 Shear-water, or Shear-water Petrel. A sea- 
 fowl, the Pu.ffinus Anglorum. 
 
 Sheat-fish. See SHEET-FISH. 
 
 Sheathing. The casing or covering placed on 
 a ship s bottom for protection. The material for 
 
SHEAVE 
 
 T33 
 
 SHEET FLUE-BOILER 
 
 such covering. Ships were formerly breamed, 
 or charred, for this purpose, but this afforded 
 slight protection. Wood sheathing was also 
 used. Lead was introduced in 1620, the sheets 
 being fastened by copper nails. This lasted un 
 til 1770, the " Marl borough," English line-of- 
 battle ship, wearing hers entirely off. With 
 wood sheathing nails were sometimes used with 
 (heads so large as to meet and cover the sheathing. 
 A coating of tar, pitch, and brimstone was used 
 in 1737, and was quite successful. A Japanese 
 junk of 800 tons was seen in Japan, in 1613, iron- 
 sheathed. In 1761, copper was first applied as 
 sheathing. Galvanic action was the greatest 
 obstacle, and it led to the use of copper bolts. 
 Compounds of copper with other metals have 
 been used, chief among which are the following : 
 Muntz s metal copper, 60, zinc, 1 part; Mushet s 
 metal copper, 100, zinc, ; Revere metal 
 copper, 95, zinc, 5; Wethersted metal copper, 
 90 to 97, antimony, 3 to 10; Collins s red- 
 copper, 8, zinc, 1 ; Collins s yellow copper, 10, 
 zinc, 8; Collins s white copper, 1, zinc, 16, tin, 
 16; Pope s metal lead, 1, zinc, 3, tin, 2 parts. 
 Copper is put on with after and under sides lap 
 ping, and the sheets are of various sizes, shown 
 by the weight in ounces to the square foot, being 
 16, 18, 28, and 32 ounces. 
 
 SHEATIIING-NAILS. Large flat-headed metal 
 nails, used to nail on sheathing. They are from 
 to 2} inches long, and have large flat heads. 
 
 SHEATHING-PAPER. Thick, coarse paper put 
 on under the sheathing. 
 
 Sheave. The wheel on which the rope works 
 in a block, or in a mast or yard. They are of 
 hard wood, generally of lignum-vitse, or of 
 brass or iron. Sheaves are open or solid in make, 
 when of metal. A dumb-sheave is simply a 
 groove in the heel of a topmast for a hawser to 
 lie in. A patent-sheave is one having at its 
 centre a brass frame carrying several small brass 
 rollers, inside which the pin is put. The friction 
 is absorbed by the rollers^. A layer of tiers in a 
 coiled rope is a sheave. 
 
 SHEAVE-HOLE. An aperture cut in a block, 
 mast, or yard, in which a sheave is fitted. 
 
 Shebeen. A low groggery frequented by 
 sailors. 
 
 Shedders. Female fish during the spawning 
 season. 
 
 Sheen-net. A large drag-net. 
 
 Sheep-shank. A hitch made in a rope for 
 the purpose of shortening it temporarily. It is 
 made by taking two long bights in a rope, and 
 half hitching each part over an end of this 
 loop. 
 
 Sheepshead. A fish caught on the shores of 
 Connecticut and of Long Island, so called from the 
 resemblance of its head to that of a sheep (Sparus 
 ovis). It is allied to the gilt-head and sea-bream, 
 and is esteemed delicious food. 
 
 Sheer. The upward longitudinal curve of a 
 vessel s deck or sides. The position in which a 
 ship is kept when at anchor, to keep her clear of 
 her anchor. To sheer off, to avoid a danger by 
 turning the ship s head away from it. To break 
 the sheer, to be forced by wind or wave over the 
 anchor, so as to be in danger of breaking it out. 
 
 SHEER-BATTEN. A long and wide batten used 
 in running the sheer-lines upon the ship while 
 building. 
 
 SHEER-LINE. See LINE. 
 
 SHEER-PLAN. The vertical longitudinal plan 
 of a ship. See PLAN. 
 
 SHEER-POLE. An iron rod, fastened to the 
 shrouds just above the dead-eyes, to which the 
 ratlines are parallel. 
 
 SHEER-RAIL. A rail, molded on the outside, 
 placed along the topsides. 
 
 SHEER-SAIL. A drift-sail. 
 
 SHEER-STRAKE. In merchant ships, the upper 
 strake, or that strake upon which the plank-sheer 
 rests. In vessels of war, the strake worked above 
 the ports and nearest to the deck, and which forms 
 the chief strength of the topsides. 
 
 SHEER-WALES. The same as middle-wales. 
 
 Sheers. Sheers consist of two or more spars 
 raised at an angle, lashed and supported by guys, 
 and having purchases attached by means of 
 which masts are raised, or any other heavy 
 weight lifted. Stationary sheers are erected in 
 navy-yards, and are of various patterns, the 
 most ordinary kind being two inclined spars, 
 supported by ropes or chains, and two breasting 
 spars or skids. Movable sheers are temporary 
 structures erected on board a ship for the pur 
 pose of moving her masts. (See MASTING.) 
 Sometimes sheers are erected on a movable 
 vessel, called a sheer-hulk. Sheers are often re 
 placed by heavy cranes worked by steam. 
 
 SHEER-HULK. An old ship fitted with sheers, 
 etc., for masting. Figuratively, an old sailor 
 worn out in the service. 
 
 SHEER-LASHING. A lash passed about the 
 head of the sheers. 
 
 SHEER-MAST. A mast made of two spars like 
 sheers, inside which a yard works. Used on 
 Peruvian boats. 
 
 Sheet. A rope or chain fastened to the lower 
 corner of a sail, to haul and keep it in place. A 
 course has a sheet and a tack at each lower 
 corner. When before the wind, both sheets are 
 hauled aft, but only the lee sheet under other cir 
 cumstances. Other square-sails use both sheets 
 when the sail is set. The stay-sail, jibs, and try 
 sails have a sheet at their lower after corner 
 only. The studding-sails have two sheets at 
 their lower inner corner only. The sheets are 
 all named after the sails which they extend. 
 Sheet home! An order to haul on the sheets of 
 a sail, until the sail is as close to the yard, 
 boom, or deck as it may be. A sheet in the 
 wind, half-tipsy, fuddled. Both sheets in the 
 wind, very drunk. 
 
 SHEET-ANCHOR, or WAIST-ANCHOR. An 
 anchor stowed on shores in the waist outside 
 the ship, in the wake of the fore-sheet, on either 
 side. Formerly the sheet-anchor was the heaviest. 
 By the allowance-book, bowers and sheets are of 
 the same weight in the navy. 
 
 SHEET-BEND. A bend made by passing the 
 end of a rope through a bight in another, round 
 both parts and under its own part. 
 
 SHEET-BITTS. Bitts for the sheet-chain. Bitts 
 near the mast, to belay the topsail-sheets to. 
 
 SHEET-CHAIN, or SHEET-CABLE. The cable or 
 chain used with the sheet-anchor. They are fur 
 nished to the navy 15 fathoms shorter* than the 
 bower-cables, but of the same diameter. 
 
 Sheet-fish. A large fish, the Siluns glanis. 
 
 Sheet Flue-boiler. A boiler in which the 
 flues are made of sheets or plates riveted together. 
 The cross-section of the flues may be circular, 
 rectangular, oval, or of any arbitrary form. 
 
SHEETS 
 
 734 
 
 SHIP 
 
 Sheets. The sheets of a boat are the spaces in 
 the forward and after ends, unoccupied by rowers, 
 called the fore-sheets and the stern-sheets. 
 
 Sheldrake. The duck, Tadorna vulpanser. 
 
 Shelf. A sand-bank bounded by a ledge of 
 rocks. A shelf-piece. 
 
 Shelf-pieces. Strakes of thick plank, run 
 ning along inside the ship, to support the ends 
 of the beams. 
 
 Sheliak. The star (3 Lyrce. 
 
 Shell. A hollow iron shot containing explo 
 sive materials, destined to burst at the proper 
 time by a charge contained in it. Powder is 
 generally used for this charge (called the burst 
 ing charge), but dynamite and other powerful 
 explosives have been suggested. (See PROJEC 
 TILES.) The outside case or envelope of a marine 
 boiler. It is entirely of iron or steel. (See 
 MARINE BOILERS.) The wooden or metal casing 
 covering the sheave of a block. To shell, to 
 throw shell into a place so as to thoroughly bom 
 bard it. 
 
 SHELL-BAG. A bag used for carrying or hoist 
 ing shells in on board ship, or for stowing empty 
 shell in. 
 
 SHELL-BEARER. A wooden or iron implement 
 for carrying heavy shell. 
 
 SHELL-CRANE. An iron stanchion shipped at 
 or near a hatch, for hoisting shell from below. 
 
 SHELL-EXTRACTOR. A part of the machinery 
 of a breech-loading rifle, designed to remove the 
 empty shell after each fire. 
 
 SHELL-GAUGE. Callipers to gauge the dimen 
 sions of shell. 
 
 SHELL-GUN. A gun designed particularly for 
 throwing shell. 
 
 SHELL-HOUSE. A house on shore for the stow 
 age of shell. 
 
 SHELLMAN. One of a gun s crew who pro 
 vides the gun with shell. In each gun s crew 
 there are two shellmen. 
 
 SHELL-POWDER. Powder used for filling 
 shells. It is now the same as torpedo powder. 
 
 SHELL-ROOM. A room below the berth-deck, 
 constructed and lighted like a magazine, and 
 used to stow loaded shell in. 
 
 SHELL-STRAP. An iron strap used to fasten 
 the sabot to the shell. 
 
 SHKLL-WHIP. A light tackle to whip up 
 shell from below. In monitors, the upper block 
 runs on a bar above, so as to be brought to the 
 muzzle of the gun, or over the shell-room hatch. 
 
 Shellac. Melted resin- or gum-lac. 
 
 Shell-back. A well-seasoned mariner. An 
 old salt. 
 
 Shell-fish. Mollusks or articulates, with a 
 shell-covering, hard or soft. 
 
 Shelves. Dangerous shoals, shallows, or rocks, 
 lying immediately under the surface. 
 
 Shelving. Gradually rising shoals or land. 
 
 Sheratan. The star /3 Arietis. 
 
 Shevo. A sailor-entertainment. 
 
 Shibah. A small Indian vessel. 
 
 Shield-ship. A ship fitted with heavy shields, 
 to protect her guns. An improvement on the 
 cupola-ship, it finally became the turret-ship. 
 
 Shield-tower (Eng.). A revolving turret. 
 
 Shieve. To row the wrong way. To assist 
 the helmsman in a narrow channel. 
 
 Shift. A term applied to the disposing of the 
 butts either in wood planking or iron plating, so 
 that, the greatest strength may be secured. A 
 
 change in direction ; as, a shift of wind. A party 
 of men to relieve another party. To alter the 
 position of anything. To replace one thing by 
 another; as, to shift the ballast, to shift the 
 berth, etc. 
 
 SHIFTER. An assistant to the ship s cook, who 
 washed, steeped, and shifted the salt provisions. 
 
 SHIFTING-BACKSTAYS. Preventer backstays. 
 See BACKSTAY. 
 
 SHIFTING-BALLAST. Pigs of iron, bags of 
 sand, etc., used for ballast, and capable of being 
 moved about. 
 
 SHIFTING-BOARDS. Wooden bulkheads in a 
 ship s hold, used to separate the cargo. 
 
 SHIFTING-CENTRE. See META-CENTRE. 
 
 SHIFTING-SAND. Sand that changes its posi 
 tion by the action of tide or current. 
 
 Shimal. A severe northwest gale, accompa 
 nied by a cloudless sky, in the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Shiner. A light-house. The dace, a small 
 fish. 
 
 Shingle. Coarse gravel or rounded stones. 
 
 SHINGLE-TRAMPER (Eng.). A coast-guards 
 man. 
 
 Shin Up. To climb up a rope or spar by the 
 hands and legs alone. 
 
 Ship. The word ship (from Greek skaptein, 
 to scoop out) is popularly used to designate any 
 sea-going vessel larger than an undecked boat. 
 But a ship, technically speaking, is a large ves 
 sel carrying from 11 to 12 square-sails on three 
 masts, extended by yards, and also a number of 
 jibs, stay-sails, and other square and fore-and-aft 
 sails. 
 
 When we attempt to trace the history of the 
 ship, we lose ourselves in a mass of traditions 
 and conjectures. The early legends of most na 
 tions refer to the ship; but little knowledge of 
 its origin and progress is to be gained from such 
 allusions. First dwelling inland, and thence 
 impelled by successive migrations to river, 
 lake, and sea-shore, means of crossing these 
 waters were devised. At first a floating log, 
 then one hollowed out by fire or stone ax, an 
 swered the purpose ; but larger sheets of water 
 rendered necessary an assemblage of such trunks, 
 and experience increased the buoyancy of such 
 structures by adding a number of inflated skins 
 to them. Others, where timber was scarce, pre 
 pared a wicker structure and covered it with 
 bitumen or pitch, and thus crossed a rapid stream. 
 From these primitive canoes (monoxyles), wicker- 
 boats (coracles), or rafts (schedai, Gr. ; rates, 
 Lat. ), gradually arose the first ship. Nor are we 
 without legends as to these. Sanchoniathon, a 
 Phoenician writer, informs us that Osoiis (a god) 
 took a tree that a storm had thrown down and 
 that lightning had hollowed out, and with it 
 first ventured on the sea. He also says that Chry- 
 sor ( Vulcan) designed the raft. Strabo ascribes 
 the invention of the latter to Ervthras, a king 
 on the Persian Gulf. Isidore ascribes the inven 
 tion of ships to the Lvclians. The first voyage 
 mentioned in the Bible is that of the sons of 
 Noah, in Gen. vii. The ark, the first vessel 
 there mentioned, was but a floating covered raft, 
 450 feet long, 75 feet broad, and 45 feet high, 
 capable of bearing 15,000 tons. That some kind 
 of vessel was designed before the final separation 
 of the nations seems apparent from the fact that 
 the Sanscrit and the Greek words (naus) ship are 
 nearly identical. 
 
SHIP 
 
 735 
 
 SHIP 
 
 The Chaldeans, the earliest historic nation, 
 were doubtless navigators of the Persian Gulf, 
 the Accad rulers being especially alluded to by 
 Isaiah as "exulting in their ships." There 
 originated the sea-god, who under the names of 
 Dagon, Melkarte. Poseidon, and Neptune, en 
 dured for many centuries as the prime deity of 
 the mariner. Thence emigrated the Phoenicians, 
 carrying their sea-knowledge with them to the 
 Mediterranean. The succeeding Assyrian, Me 
 dian, and Persian states were non-maritime, and 
 they and the Jewish kingdom had no influence 
 in the development of the ship. When Sennach 
 erib and Sargon conquered Phoenicia, the ships 
 of that commercial state were used by them in 
 further conquests, and by their aid Cypress was 
 taken and Susa conquered. The earlier Assyrian 
 sculptures show us only boats of reeds, and rafts 
 of logs and inflated skins ; but after these con 
 quests, we see represented vessels with one or two 
 banks of oars, evidently Phoenician, with sharp 
 prow and high stern, or with equally high and 
 curved stem and stern. Some of these were 40 
 feet long, and were rowed by from 18 to 22 men. 
 
 The Lydians, Carians, Cilicians, and other na 
 tions on the Asiatic sea-board, noted for their 
 early piractical exploits, seem to have acquired 
 their maritime knowledge from Phoenicia. 
 
 Egypt, whose monuments give us more exact 
 notions as to her ships, was essentially a non- 
 maritime state, although bordering on the sea. 
 Her people detested and feared the sea, regarded 
 salt water as defiling, and deemed it a disgrace 
 to be buried in the sea. Mariners were of the 
 lower caste, and only on the sacred Nile did they 
 develop maritime knowledge. Monuments of 
 2800-2000 B.C. represent ships, and an inscription 
 of King Una (2000 B.C.) mentions war-vessels, 
 one assisting to tow boats laden with stone for 
 the Pyramids. But until the advent of foreign 
 ers the Egyptians knew little of the sea, and it 
 was only when Carians, Lybians, Phoenicians, 
 and Cyprians brought them ships that they be 
 gan to make conquests by sea. 
 
 The smaller boats used on the Nile were made 
 of papyrus, and the larger, of short planks of 
 acacia, overlapped at the edges, and calked with 
 papyrus. Small vessels were propelled by poles, 
 and larger ones by oars and sails, and the force 
 of the current was utilized in coming down 
 stream. One of the oldest vessels shown on the 
 monuments has 40 oars, and is probably 100 feet 
 long. It had a double mast made of two spars, 
 and a large square-sail bent to a yard, and man 
 aged by sheets and braces. Later, vessels are 
 shown, both war and merchant, with one mast 
 and one square-sail, spread between two yards 
 revolving about the mast in a kind of boxing 
 Kameses II. had a large fleet of war-galleys, and 
 is said to have equipped 300 ships on the Red 
 Sea. Vessels were highly ornamented, the lotus 
 and sacred animals being painted on oar, rudder, 
 prow, and stern, and the sails were, sometimes 
 embroidered and ornamented in colors. King 
 Pepi, of the 6th dynasty, is said to have sent 
 the first expedition beyond the mouth of the 
 Nile. 
 
 But the great maritime people of antiquity 
 were the Phoenicians, whose ships monopolized 
 the entire trade of the Mediterranean for many 
 centuries, and whose merchant fleets sailed from 
 the Syrian Sea into the ^Egean, the Euxine, and 
 
 Tyrrhenian Seas, and to the "Western Mediter 
 ranean, and established colonies that perpetuated 
 their maritime renown. They furnished the 
 models for war and merchant vessels to all the 
 surrounding nations, the Gauli, or round ships, 
 and the Arco, or long ship (query, Ark? Argo?), 
 distinguishing the classes. We know from Ays- 
 syrian sculptures that they invented the bireme, 
 with 2 ranks of oars, and Clement of Alexan 
 dria says they first planned the trireme, with 3 
 ranks, imparting the knowledge to the Corin 
 thians, usually credited with its invention. 
 Greek ships were closely modeled from Phoe 
 nician, and it was the misfortune of this unwar- 
 like and commercial people to be a frequent con 
 quest of other and more mighty powers. Thus 
 they furnished fleets to Egypt, Assyria, Persia, 
 and Judea. 
 
 The earliest beginnings of the Greeks are con 
 nected with navigation and ships. Such begin 
 nings extend back into the heroic ages, and can 
 only be traced in the numerous myths and le 
 gends handed down through various sources. So 
 the stories of the advent of Danaus, Cecrops, 
 Inachus, and others, doubtless involve voyages 
 of settlement and discovery, while the legends of 
 Pegasus, Phryxus, Perseus, Icarus, and the Rapes 
 of Europa and lo refer to the first appearance 
 of the ship. Dardanus is said to have come to 
 Troy, after the flood, in a leather-covered boat. 
 The Homeric vessels at the siege of Troy were 
 small undecked boats, carrying from 50 to 120 
 men, hauled up on shore when not in use, and 
 even carried when necessary. The first long 
 voyage of Greek ships is typified in the story of 
 the Argo. Long before the western Greeks 
 were interested in the revival of navigation, 
 those of the Asiatic towns and the islands were 
 hardy and skillful navigators, and planted many 
 maritime colonies. Minos of Crete first subdued 
 the Carian and Cilician pirates, and is said to 
 have possessed the first marine. The larger 
 islands, Samos, Chios, Lesbos, followed after 
 Crete, and as the Corcyran, Corinthian, and 
 Athenian states became interested in maritime 
 affairs, the ship was perfected more and more, 
 the war-vessel particularly improved, and the 
 Greeks gradually succeeded the Phoenicians as 
 masters of the Eastern Sea. When the great 
 conqueror established the Macedonian empire, a 
 new impulse was given to navigation, and the 
 Indian Ocean, hitherto unknown to the Greek 
 mariners, was soon regularly traversed by their 
 keels. The Ptolemies were especial patrons of 
 the maritime arts, and the foundation of Alex 
 andria favored them in advancing trade and 
 commerce. 
 
 The Carthaginians followed in the wake of 
 their illustrious predecessors, the Phoenicians. 
 Commerce was their aim, as it had been that of 
 their ancestors, but instead of succumbing to the 
 attacks of their enemy, they resolutely contended 
 against the power of Rome, developing the war 
 ship in the course of the struggle in which they 
 finally perished. They are said to have first built 
 the quadrireme and the quinquereme, with their 
 4 and 5 ranks of oars. They extended farther 
 the navigation of their predecessors, sailing be 
 yond the pillars of Hercules, as far as the Scilly 
 Islands north, and Cape Bon south, and even, 
 if we rightly interpret the tradition, circumnavi 
 gated Africa. 
 
SHIP 
 
 736 
 
 SHIP 
 
 Their enemies, the Eomans, at first ignorant 
 of nautical matters, copied their ships and 
 launched huge fleets in incredible spaces of time. 
 They designed new means of contending against 
 their enemies and developed the war-vessel to 
 some extent. The various Greek colonies in Italy 
 and Sicily aided in developing the ship, and the 
 Phocsean colony of Marseilles has not yet lost 
 the prestige early gained in maritime affairs. 
 
 The Arabians and Indians are said to have 
 possessed ships and to have navigated the waters 
 nearest them at an early date, but we know little 
 of them. The Parthians and most barbarians 
 known to the Romans were non-maritime peoples, 
 and only a few possessed boats of leather or can 
 vas. Nor do we know any reliable facts as to 
 the great antiquity claimed by the Chinese to 
 maritime skill and invention. 
 
 Having thus brought the history of the ship 
 down to mediaeval times, we will glance briefly 
 at the ancient ship, as given to us in the writings 
 of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Ancient ships were divided into two great 
 classes, the war-ship or long ship (nees ma- 
 krai, Gr. ; navis longa, Lat. ) ; and the merchant 
 or round ship (stroggule, Gr. ; navis onerarice, 
 Lat.). The Greeks called the real fighting-ships 
 Tacheiai, the transports, Stratiodes, for men, and 
 Hippagoges, for horses. 
 
 The long ships were row-galleys seven or eight 
 times as long as broad. No question has been 
 more unsatisfactorily discussed than that of the 
 arrangement of the oars in these galleys. At 
 first, they seem to have been designated by the 
 number of rowers, as Eisosoroi, singly rowed, 
 Triacontoroi, 30-oared, Pentekontoroi, 50-oared, 
 Exakontoroi, 60-oared, and others, all classed as 
 Monokrotos, or with one rank of oars. But later, 
 vessels with more rows of oars were planned 
 (Polykrotos], and we find the Diereis, or Bi.remis, 
 the Trieris, or Trireme, the Tetreis, or Quadri- 
 reme, the Pentereis, or Quinquereme, the Hexe- 
 reis, or Sexireme, the Heptereis, the Oktoreifs, the 
 Dekereis, or Decireme, carrying respectively 2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 ranks of oars, and we even 
 hear of the Ekkaidekereis, Pentekondekereis, and 
 Tessakontereis, of 15, 16, and 25 banks of oars. 
 Some authorities now believe that in the case 
 of galleys above 5 ranks of oars, the perpendicu 
 lar groups are understood to be numbered, and 
 not the horizontal rows. The Hexereis and 
 Heptereis are said to have been invented by 
 Dionysius II., tyrant of Syracuse. 
 
 The men rowed the oars seated on benches, 
 one to an oar. The oars were 4 feet apart, those 
 of each row 1 foot in advance of that below, and 
 2 feet above it. The lower rank of rowers were 
 called Thalamitai, the next Zugitai, the third 
 Thranitai, the fourth Tetreritai, and the fifth 
 Penteritai. The oars were 7J, 10, 13, 16, and 
 19 feet long, and the third row was 5 feet above 
 the water, the fifth 8 feet. The shape of the 
 galley in section was like a V, expanded at the 
 top. Ships were -built with keels, ribs, beams, 
 stem and stern-post as now. At first, only a 
 partial deck extended along the sides, serving as 
 a deck for the Epibatai, or fighting men, but 
 these are said to have been joined in a deck by 
 Cimon at the battle of the Eurymedon. The 
 stem rose in a curved ornament", shaped like a 
 gooseneck turned back (Ckeniscus), and over the 
 stern was a leaf-shaped shelter, the Aplustre. 
 
 One mast, with a square-sail set on a yard, 
 was used, and sometimes two. Triremes were 
 generally used by the Greeks, and quadriremes 
 and quinqueremes by the Romans. The trireme 
 usually had a crew of 200 rowers and 30 marines. 
 At or near the water-line, sharp prows were 
 added to serve as rams, three or more being some 
 times seen. The Romans added square towers to 
 the decks of their ships, and employed military 
 engines on their decks. About the time of the 
 battle of Actium (30 B.C.) the Libnrnian galleys 
 came into use. We know little of them, except 
 that they were light and handy, a reaction 
 against the ponderous, many-oared galleys then 
 in use. 
 
 Besides "being shorter proportionately, the 
 merchant ships were shaped alike at bow and 
 stern. They were sometimes large, able to carry 
 from 200 to 800 passengers. They used 3 masts, 
 the sails on the middle one being the largest, and 
 there being sometimes 3 on that mast. The 
 Romans used in some vessels triangular topsails, 
 called Suppara (shift). Many sailing-ships made 
 good passages, vying with our modern sailing- 
 vessels, and the galleys made, on occasions, still 
 better speed, 8 to 9 knots not being uncommon. 
 The rudder was always a paddle over the stern, 
 there generally being two, one on each side. 
 
 During the Middle Ages the modern ship had 
 its rise. At first the progress of improvement 
 was slow. Upon extinguishing ancient civiliza 
 tion, the Northern barbarians were at first un 
 mindful of the necessity of a naval force to the 
 peoples living on the border of the great sea, and 
 neglected maritime affairs. The Vandals, how 
 ever, found that the aid of a fleet was necessary 
 to the conquest of the African provinces, and 
 Genseric availed himself of the skill of others to 
 create one. The boats used on the Black Sea 
 were but frail ones, and the lower Latin empire 
 did little toward developing the ship. The 
 Arabians, or Saracens, after overrunning Africa 
 and Spain, engaged in building large ships, but 
 they were somewhat unwieldy and cumbrous. 
 The Rhodian power was prominent early in 
 maritime affairs, and gave the first code of mari 
 time laws to the world. The northern nations 
 of Europe appear early in the Middle Ages as 
 daring seamen, pirates, and fishermen, and their 
 early legends repeat the many heroic deeds of 
 the vikings and their contemporaries. They 
 were the first to undertake long voyages out of 
 sight of land, and first crossed the Atlantic, a 
 terror to the mariner of the Mediterranean. 
 They gave a powerful impulse to the develop 
 ment and improvement of the sailing-ship. The 
 Saxons, after acquiring England, neglected ma 
 rine affairs until the advent of the piratical 
 Danes led Alfred to found a naval force to repel 
 their incursions. Toward the middle of the 
 period we are considering, the gradual rise of the 
 nations of Europe, the founding and growth of 
 the Norman, Venetian, Genoese, and Catalan 
 states gave a remarkable impulse to maritime 
 affairs. Ships increased in number, variety, and 
 types, and while merchant fleets covered the 
 Mediterranean, the jealousy of these maritime 
 powers developed great fleets of formidable row- 
 galleys. The Crusades aided materially in the de 
 velopment of navigation, by leading English, 
 French, and Flemish powers to send ships on 
 longer voyages, and acquainting them with Medi- 
 
SHIP 
 
 737 
 
 SHIP 
 
 terranean ships. Then followed the introduction 
 of the mariner s compass, the invention of ord 
 nance, and of maps and instruments of naviga 
 tion, all directly affecting the ship and rendering 
 possible the great discoveries of the next century, 
 with which, undertaken by Portuguese, Spanish, 
 and English, we close the Middle Ages, with the 
 ship proper fully developed into a strong and 
 stable structure, able to buffet the waves of the 
 Atlantic, and to undertake greater triumphs in 
 the future. 
 
 The vessels o f the Middle Ages, infinite in 
 variety of class and size, are all referable to one 
 of three classes, viz. : 1. The row-galley, com 
 prising many types, the chief of which were the 
 pinaza, galiot, gatte, saette, fuste, brigantine, 
 dromon, galardella, galea, galea bastarda, galea 
 grossa, galeide, galeasse, chelande, ramberge, 
 pamphyle, and demi-galere, and in the North, 
 the esneke, drakar, and jarnbaud. 2. The sail 
 ing-ship, navis, naos, nef, or navire. This com 
 prised a very numerous class, among which we 
 find the nao, balaena, carabella or caravelle, tar- 
 tane, coca or cog, galleon, zelander, huissier, 
 buzo or buss, gumbari, carracca or carrack, tar- 
 ide, grip, heu, hokebot, aak, flibot, barca or bark, 
 barkane, bardetta, brigantina or bergantin, cara- 
 vellone, caramoussal, fregate, fregatone, maone, 
 marsillane, and palandra. 3. A mixed class, in 
 cluding the selandra-pamphyle, zelandra-huissia, 
 buzo-navis, and others. These vessels differed 
 inter se as to form, size, sail-rig, number, and 
 arrangement of oars, etc. 
 
 First, then, as to galleys. These vessels re 
 sembled each other greatly. As in ancient times, 
 they were long, narrow, and low-built vessels, 
 principally propelled by oars. But they differed 
 from those of antiquity in having seldom more 
 than one row of oars. These oars were sometimes 
 arranged as in the modern boat, with one man to 
 an oar. The number of banks on each side 
 varied from 8 to 36, with sometimes a bank less 
 on the port side, to make room for the cooking- 
 place. Other galleys had 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 
 men to an oar, thus increasing the power with 
 out lengthening the galley. Three were more 
 common in the 14th century, and 4 in the 16th, 
 in the light, or subtile galley. The bastard gal 
 leys, or larger ones, increased this to 5 and 6 
 men to the oar, and the chief galley, or capitana, 
 and King s galley, or reale, usually had 6 to an 
 oar. Seven to an oar was rarely found, but gal 
 leys with 5 to the former half and 6 to the after 
 half, or some such arrangement, were not un 
 common. 
 
 Nor was this the only way of arranging the 
 oars. We also find galleys with more than one 
 oar to a bank, two or more coming through the 
 same port, and each being managed by one man. 
 Two oars to a bank was a common arrangement 
 in the 14th century, while we find 3 in the 15th, 
 and 4 and 5 in the 16th centuries. There is also 
 mention of a galley with 7 oars to a bank, but it 
 was not successful. 
 
 These galleys, then, either rowed a sencille, 
 that is, with one man to an oar, or di scaloccio, 
 that is, with many men to the same oar, had for 
 a crew from 100 to 250 men. These were in 
 later times slaves or convicts, and were chained 
 to the banks night and day, protected from the 
 sun only by an awning, and exposed to the 
 water coming in the low row-ports. The banks 
 
 were, with one oar to a bank, perpendicular to 
 the keel, but when many oars were rowed from 
 the same bank, it was at an oblique angle to the 
 keel. The forecastle and poop were sometimes 
 decked over, sometimes occupied by houses or 
 cabins, and were connected by a central gang 
 way, on which the mates promenaded, applying 
 whip and voice to quicken the labors at the oar. 
 After the introduction of artillery, the guns were 
 at first only mounted to fire ahead, under a para 
 pet or rambade, then a few were placed between 
 the oars in broadside. 
 
 Two masts with square-, lug-, or lateen-sails, 
 and occasionally a third small mast, furnished 
 the auxiliary sail-power to the galley. 
 
 The forward or, in case of three, the middle 
 mast carried the largest sail. Upper sails were 
 seldom used on the galleys. 
 
 A galley with 25 oars to a side was 125 feet 
 long, 16 wide, in the 14th century, while the 
 French galley, a century later, was 150 feet 
 long, 30 wide. The hold of the galley was 
 divided into store-rooms, cabins, etc., and a 
 tavern, where wine was sold to the slaves. 
 
 The galiot, pinaza, saette, fuste, ramberge, 
 fregate, fregatone, galea, galeardella, galeide, 
 demi-galere, and brigantine were smaller than 
 the galley, as were the row-galleys of the 
 Northern nations. The taride, the galea grossa, 
 the pamphyle, chelande, dromon, and galeasse 
 were large galleys. Besides these, there were 
 many others of this class, but these are the 
 principal ones. 
 
 The speed of the galleys when under full way 
 was considerable, and 9 or 10 knots were not un 
 commonly attained. 
 
 The galley was a shallow vessel, and its walls 
 were prolonged by knees, forming projecting 
 supports for the oars and for the stanchions sup 
 porting the awning. 
 
 An equally great variety of sailing-vessels 
 meets us in the Middle Ages. The sailing-ship 
 was called navis, nave, or nef, with diminutives 
 of these words. These vessels differed greatly in 
 size, and increased generally toward the end of 
 the period. These were ships of one, two, and 
 three decks, and of various dimensions, but their 
 general characteristics were the same, they being 
 short, round vessels, built for carrying and not 
 for speed, and with bow and stern alike in some 
 cases, but not always. Their sail-rig was equally 
 varied. One, two, three, and four masts were 
 used, and one, two, and three sails on those 
 masts, in form lateen, lug, square, or trapezoidal. 
 These ships were, toward the end of the 13th 
 century, from 1000 to 1500 tons burden, carry 
 ing, some of them, from 500 to 1000 passen 
 gers. The ships of the Normans were smaller, 
 and those used in the invasions of France and 
 England were but large open boats with one sail 
 on a single mast, and this rig of one square-sail 
 on one mast was a common one in the smaller 
 vessels of the llth to the 13th centuries. The 
 nefs were short and round, with bluff bows and 
 square sterns, and forecastle and poop began to 
 rise in height in the 15th century. Lateen-sails, 
 used at first on the larger ships, were gradually 
 replaced by square-sails, except in the case of 
 main and mizzen, which remained lateen-sails. 
 At first paddles were used to steer by, but the 
 rudder came into use in the 14th century, and 
 was soon universal. The galion was longer and 
 
SHIP 
 
 738 
 
 SHIP 
 
 finer than the nef, and became the largest of the 
 class, equaled by the carrick, a high, broad, un 
 wieldy vessel, of some 150 to 165 feet long, and 
 from 40 to 47 broad, and carrying upwards of 
 1000 tons burden. The marsillane was a large, 
 square-sterned vessel ; the hokebot a short, round 
 Dutch fishing-boat. Maones were large and un 
 wieldy Turkish vessels. Tarides were large 
 transports, and uissiers were horse transports, 
 capable of carrying 40 horses. The caramoussal 
 was another large, unwieldy Turkish vessel, and 
 palandries were Turkish transports. Caravelles 
 were small lateen-rigged vessels, from 50 to 150 
 tons burden. Columbus made his voyages in 
 such vessels, which were fast, handy, and easily 
 managed, and were much used in the 15th and 
 16th centuries. Buches were also large vessels, 
 baleiniers short, high-pooped fishing-vessels, and 
 gumbaries large sailing war-vessels. Tartanes 
 were moderate-sized, and the zelandre was a 
 sailing-vessel of 90 to 100 tons in the 13th 
 century. 
 
 The grip, heu, aak, and flibot were small 
 coasting-vessels, and the bark was a small 
 vessel with two masts, having single sails on 
 each. Its diminutive, the barchetta, and its 
 augmentative, the barkasse, resembled it in form 
 and appearance. The brigantine was a small, 
 rapid vessel, much in favor among pirates. 
 
 The fregate of the Middle Ages was a small 
 lateen-rigged vessel with one mast and un 
 decked, and the fregatone a larger vessel of the 
 same class. 
 
 The vessels of the third class resembled both 
 the galley and the nef, partaking of the rig of 
 one and the characteristics of the other. These 
 were not numerous, and merit no particular de 
 scription. 
 
 We are thus brought down to the 16th century. 
 "We have seen larger and more seaworthy vessels 
 resulting from the commercial rivalry of the Ital 
 ian states and the establishment of modern naval 
 powers, and we may thus commence the modern 
 epoch with ships fitted to make those great voy 
 ages of discovery which soon followed. 
 
 The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks 
 had checked maritime development, and the 
 decay of the Italian maritime states had an 
 equally depressing effect. But the rise of more 
 lasting powers on the Atlantic coasts, and their 
 voyages for gain and discoveries, gave an im 
 pulse to the improvement of the ship, while the 
 contests for supremacy on the ocean in which 
 they became involved, also improved and en 
 larged the war- vessel. Spain and Portugal at 
 first, then England, France, and Holland .] were 
 noted for superior and improved vessels, as their 
 successive discoveries led them to make regular 
 voyages. The formation and development of 
 trading companies had their share in the nau 
 tical march of improvement. The permanent 
 navies established by these nations to defend 
 their merchant fleets soon grow in size, and im 
 proved the qualities of theirships. War-galleys, 
 hitherto relied upon in the tranquil Mediterra 
 nean, would no longer do for the more stormy 
 Atlantic, and the sailing ship of war had then 
 its real rise and development. To the clumsily- 
 shaped hull succeeded scientifically-constructed 
 models of great beauty. To the lateen-sail suc 
 ceeded the square-sail, and this, in turn, was 
 partially displaced by the trapezoidal sail in 
 
 small vessels. With the revival of science, the 
 principles affecting the form and conduct of the 
 ship were established, and scientific construc 
 tion gave better vessels and greater speed. In 
 vestigations into the effects and properties of 
 waves, of the wind on the sails, of means of 
 preserving wood, and the ship s bottom, further 
 benefited the construction of the ship. Artil 
 lery increased in size and power, and the war 
 ship became larger and of stronger build, until, 
 in the 18th century, the ship of the line of 110 
 to 120 guns reached the highest development of 
 the fighting-ship of the sail period. The high 
 and unwieldy poop and prow at first were cut 
 down, then a century later the square stern, 
 loaded with sculpture and ornaments, was abol 
 ished, and the ship more nearly approached its 
 present form and more useful proportions. 
 
 The use of iron, first as an aid in building spars, 
 then for the frame, and finally for the rigging and 
 spars of the ship, gave greater solidity and light 
 ness. Iron was first proposed for frames in 1809, 
 and the first iron ship was built in 1818, the 
 "Vulcan," on the Clyde Kiver. But the first 
 sea-going iron vessel was the "Elburkah," of 
 55 tons. Improvements in sail-rig followed. 
 Double topsail yards, giving greater command 
 of the sails with fewer men, were invented by 
 Mr. Forbes in 1845. Other improvements in 
 the form, construction, and conduct of the sail 
 ing-vessel were made, until the clipper, the 
 most perfect sailing-vessel of all ages, was de 
 signed, and speed increased from 8, 9, and 10 
 knots to 15 and 18. 
 
 Before tracing further the history of the ship, 
 we must go back to the first beginning of a new 
 power in propelling ships. Sailing-vessels, with 
 all the improvements, were yet dependent on 
 wind and tide ; but steam came to the aid of the 
 mariner when most needed, in the increased com 
 mercial intercourse of modern times, and ren 
 dered him independent of adverse winds or tides. 
 This is not the place to trace the steps that 
 led to the final construction of the steam-en 
 gine. From Blasco de Garay in 1543, to Fulton 
 in 1793-1800, these experiments and prelim 
 inary steps were made, finally resulting in the 
 marine engine. The first successful application 
 of steam to move a vessel was that of Fitch, in 
 1786; and Fulton, in 1809, built the " Cler- 
 mont," the first regular steamer to ply on 
 rivers. Bell, in 1811, built the "Comet, the 
 first steamer in England. The screw-propeller 
 was the next improvement. It was first applied 
 to steam-vessels in 1836, the " F. B. Ogden," 
 built by Ericcson, being the first screw-vessel. 
 The first steam mun-of-war was the "Comet," 
 built in 1819, in England ; and the "Princeton," 
 built in 1841, was the first screw man-of-war. 
 The first line of steam-vessels was established in 
 1822, in English waters. The " Savannah," in 
 1819, first crossed the ocean by the aid of steam, 
 but a transatlantic line was only established in 
 1838. The first of the present great lines was 
 the Cunard, in 1840. Up to this time the 
 average speed obtained was from 7J to 9 knots, 
 and the greatest 11 knots, per hour. Other lines 
 were soon established, and regular communica 
 tion by steam is now maintained all over the 
 world. As steamers thus came into use, it was 
 found that wood was still less fit for their frames 
 and hulls, and iron rapidly replaced it. Steamers 
 
SHIP 
 
 739 
 
 SHIP 
 
 grew rapidly in size, the first being 40 to 60 tons, 
 until on the establishment of the transatlantic 
 lines they had risen to 1200 and even 2000. The 
 short and broad hull of the sailing-vessel was 
 lengthened, and the lines of the steamer became 
 longer and finer, until it attained the proportions 
 of the old row-galleys. The sailing-vessel had 
 been in length from 4 to 5 times the breadth, 
 and now the steamer reached 9 and 10 times its 
 breadth. The "Great Britain," built in 1843, 
 reached a great size, being 322 feet long and 50 
 broad, and carrying 2984 tons, with engines of 
 1000 horse-power. But considerable sail-power 
 was still retained in her 6 masts, 2 of them 
 square-rigged. This increase in size culminated 
 in the " Great Eastern," launched in 1858. This 
 enormous structure was a double keelless iron 
 vessel, with several compartments, separated by 
 water-tight bulk-heads. She is 692 feet long and 
 85 broad, with a total tonnage of 22,500, and 
 was intended to accommodate 4000 passengers, 
 or 10,000 soldiers. One hundred and ten fur 
 naces, under 10 boilers, supplied the motive- 
 power to the 4 paddle- and 4 screw-engines, 
 besides furnishing steam to the 6 smaller en 
 gines of 300 to 400 horse-power. These engines 
 of 2600 nominal, or 11,000 actual horse-power, 
 are able to move the enormous hull at the rate 
 of 14 miles an hour. Twenty large boats are car 
 ried on davits, and 2 steamers 100 feet long may 
 be carried on the guards. She also had 6 masts, 
 the second, third, and fourth only being square- 
 rigged. But her great draft (30 feet), and the 
 cost of running her, has made her unprofitable 
 as a passenger steamer, and her principal use 
 has been to lay telegraph-cables, for which her 
 great size and steadiness fit her. 
 
 The most successful vessels of the great ocean 
 lines, although they fall far short of this monster, 
 are still of great size. The " City of Berlin" of 
 5000 tons, the " Sardinian" of 4200, the "Scythia" 
 of 4557, and .the " Iberia" of 4761, are among the 
 largest. An average of 3000 tons is not uncom 
 mon. Many of these steamers have 4 masts, 
 others 3, but sail is always auxiliary, steam 
 being the chief reliance. Enormous fleets of 
 these steamers are now possessed by the great 
 steam lines of the world. In 1875 the Cunard 
 line had 49 vessels of 90,000 tons and 14,500 
 horse-power; the Inman line, 16 of 44,000 tons 
 and 7000 horse-power; the Allen line, 20 of 
 54,000 tons and 8QOO horse-power ; the Anchor 
 line, 30 of 70,000 tons and 15,000 horse-power; 
 the Royal Mail, 23 of 51,000 tons and 9300 
 horsepower; the Pacific Company, 54 of 119,- 
 800 tons and 21,395 horse-power ; the Liverpool 
 and River Plate Company, 30 of 32,995 horse 
 power ; the Peninsular and Oriental Company, 
 50 steamers of 122,030 tons and 22,000 horse 
 power; and the Messageries Maritimes of France, 
 the largest number of all, 66 steamers of 175,000 
 tons. 
 
 Since the adoption of iron for the frames and 
 hulls of steamers, the growth of these vessels has 
 been very rapid. In 1861 there were 159 iron 
 vessels of 68,560 tons built in England, the chief 
 mart of this trade ; and in 1867, 224 of 90,823 
 tons ; in 1872, 446 of 335,750 tons. In all, in 13 
 years, there were built there 4185 steamers of 
 2,489,840 tons. 
 
 While iron ships increased, steam-vessels also 
 replaced sailing-ships rapidly. The decrease of 
 
 sailing-vessels from 1870 to 1873 was 5.44 pei 
 cent, in numbers, or 11.57 per cent, in tonnage ; 
 also 6.67 per cent, in size. On the contrary, 
 steamers increased in number 54.9 per cent., in 
 tonnage 24.59 per cent., and in size 6.67 per 
 cent. In 1876 there were 5771 steamers of 
 5,506,842 tons, and 58,208 sailing-vessels of 15,- 
 553,338 tons. Steel has also been used to some 
 extent in building ships. There were some built 
 as early as 1860 ; but only 3 were built from 
 1866 to 1876, and one in 1878. That year 574,- 
 819 tons of shipping were built in England, of 
 which 52,657 was of wood, 517,692 of iron, and 
 4470 of steel ; or 9 per cent, of wood, 3.4 per cent, 
 of steel, and 87.6 per cent, of iron. A steel ship 
 is now building for the White Star line, which 
 is to be 546 feet long, 50 feet beam, and more 
 than 8500 tons in burden. 
 
 But when we come to look at the modern 
 man-of-war, we find more remarkable changes 
 during the modern period. At the beginning of 
 the 16th century, the row-galley was still the 
 main reliance in the fleets of European powers. 
 But as we have seen, it was already being re 
 placed by the sailing war-vessel. As this took 
 place the vessels increased in size, improved in 
 sail-rig and in construction, and the enormous 
 structures on poop and forecastle were leveled 
 to the deck. Ports, usually ascribed to Des- 
 charges, of Brest, were invented before his time, 
 and guns were mounted in broadside in the sail 
 ing-vessel. 
 
 The fleets of sailing-ships that during the 17th 
 and 18th centuries contended for supremacy were 
 principally made up of those lofty three-deckers, 
 short, high, and unwieldy, but formidable 
 from the number of guns they carried, and neces 
 sarily opposed to them were ships of the same 
 class. This supremacy of the ship of the line 
 was weakened by the introduction of the steam- 
 vessel and by the construction of heavier frigates. 
 This, the next vessel in size, gradually attained 
 a greater importance as its dimensions increased. 
 So long as the paddle-wheel was in use, steamers 
 were not of great size, but the introduction of 
 the propeller again brought vessels of the line 
 into use ; but their importance as a fighting-ves 
 sel had ceased, and comparatively few steam- 
 liners were built. With the introduction of the 
 screw the sailing man-of-war was doomed, and 
 steam-vessels thenceforth took the first rank in 
 all navies. Wood is still used for unarmored 
 vessels, but is being replaced by iron, and ar 
 mored ships are built of iron or steel. The latter 
 material is taking a decided place in war-ship 
 construction. Eight unarmored corvettes are 
 building for the English navy, and steel has been 
 used in the construction of some recent armored 
 vessels. The advent of the armored ship has 
 totally changed the types of vessels for war, and 
 all unarmored vessels are now only adjuncts to 
 the more powerful protected ships. The intro 
 duction of armor has caused extensive changes 
 in construction to meet the demands for greater 
 strength and rigidity, and the latest men-of-war 
 differ totally from those of fifty years ago. Better 
 engines, with greater power, have also resulted 
 from the construction of such heavy and pon 
 derous vessels. The unarmored steam-vessel has 
 gradually increased in size, until sloops exceed 
 in size the line-of-battle ships of the 18th cen 
 tury, and armored ships have gradually increased 
 
SHIP 
 
 740 
 
 SHIP 
 
 in size also. In the middle of the 16th century, 
 the " Henry Grace a Dieu," regarded as un 
 usually large, was no more than 1000 tons, al 
 though her high poop and forecastle gave her 
 the appearance of greater size. A century later 
 we find the great " Koyal Sovereign," the largest 
 man-of-war then built, and the first English 
 three-decker, to be 232 feet long by 50 wide, and 
 only 1861 tons burden. 
 
 Still a century later, and the " Royal George," 
 of melancholy fate, the greatest ship of her time, 
 was only 190 feet on the middle deck, 52 feet 
 broad, and 2280 tons burden. But at the end 
 of this 18th century we find the Spanish " San 
 Jose" to have increased to 2457 tons, being 
 194 feet on the middle deck, by 54 beam, and 
 carrying 112 guns, while the English " Caledo 
 nia," the largest of the old wooden liners, was 
 205 feet long, 54 beam, and 2616 tons burden, 
 with 120 guns. Not the less remarkable is the 
 increase in size of steam war-vessels. The first, 
 the "Comet," was 238 tons, and of 80 horse 
 power. This was in 1822, and five years later the 
 " Carron" measured 494 tons, and her engines 
 were 120 horse-power. In 1830, the "Medea," 
 of 835 tons and 220 horse-power, was in use, and 
 in 1839, these dimensions had increased to 1195 
 tons in the " Cyclops," of 320 horse-power. In 
 1843, the " Albert and Victoria" yacht measured 
 1442 tons, with engines of 400 horse-power, and 
 in 1845 the "Terrible," of 1850 tons and 800 
 horse-power, was built. In 1846, the "Daunt 
 less," of 2432 tons, was 218 feet long and 39 
 beam. Iron ships then carried further this in 
 crease in size. The French built seven 120-gun 
 ships in 1845 which were over 5000 tons dis 
 placement, and in dimensions 210 feet by 51. 
 Armored ships checked this development at first, 
 then carried it to greater lengths. "We find the 
 " Warrior," the first English ironclad, to be 380 
 feet long, 58 beam, and of 9681 tons displacement, 
 and the "Northumberland," in 1865, increased 
 this to 10,395 tons, and to 400 feet in length and 
 59 in breadth of beam. The "Dreadnaught," 
 in 1875, further carried these dimensions to 10,- 
 866 tons, but shortened the length to 320 feet, 
 with a beam of 63 feet, and, finally, the " Inflex 
 ible" reached 11,520 tons displacement, and with 
 the same length as the " Dreadnaught," increased 
 the breadth to 75 feet. The probable limit in 
 size of armored vessels is reached in the " Italia" 
 and " Lepanto," which are 13,400 tons in dis 
 placement, 400 feet long and 74 beam. The 
 noticeable feature in the development of size in 
 steam war-vessels has been the gradual increase 
 of length from a proportion of 5 to 1 of breadth, 
 until 7 and 8 to 1 were reached, and then, as 
 weight of armor increased, these proportions 
 came down, until the " Inflexible" presents a 
 proportion of 4.2 to 1. Modern construction has 
 also brought the weight of the hull down to a 
 minimum of 39 per cent, of the whole weight 
 for iron hulls, and 34 per cent, for steel hulls, 
 from an average of 46 per cent, in the wooden 
 hull. Sail-rig has altered little in the man-of- 
 war, but the gradual adoption of steam as the 
 principal motor has led to a rejection of much 
 of the rig of the sailing-vessel, the lighter sails 
 being dispensed with in steamers, and sail-power 
 entirely discarded in certain classes of heavy 
 armored vessels. 
 
 While the types of modern ships are perhaps 
 
 as numerous as at any time in the history of the 
 ship, they are more easily classified by an arti 
 ficial system, many of which have been in use. 
 These have reference : 1. To the number of guns. 
 2. To the tonnage. 3. To the rig of the vessel. 
 4. As regards the condition of the hull. 5. As 
 to the mode of arranging the defensive armor 
 and battery. 
 
 During the 16th and 17th centuries the mode 
 of classifying war-vessels by the number of guns 
 they carried was in common use. We have thus, 
 ships of 120, 112, 100, 98, 86, 82, 80, 74, 64, 60, 56, 
 50, 44, 40, 38, 36, 32, 28, 24, 22, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 
 10, 8, 6, and 4 guns. These ships were also classed 
 from the number of decks on which guns were 
 carried, as ships of the line (double-deckers and 
 three-deckers), frigates, sloops, pinnaces, etc. As 
 to a classification by tonnage, we find such in use 
 in the Spanish Armada ; merchant ships are so 
 classed, and tonnage, or displacement, is made 
 the basis of a classification for modern naval ves 
 sels. See CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 All ships are classed according to rig, and a 
 description of these vessels will be found under 
 the head of sloop, frigate, bark, barkantine, 
 brig, brigantine, schooner, cutter, polacre, xebec, 
 etc. Modern men-of-war are classed by rates, 
 according to the tonnage, and are also vaguely 
 referred to from the manner of their armament 
 or the arrangement of their armor. A proposed 
 division of these vessels as given below is from 
 the Austrian work "Die Marine," by Von 
 Littrow, with additions. Ships are, by this, 
 classed : 
 
 1. By size and draft. 
 
 A. Sea-going. 
 
 B. Coasting-vessels. 
 
 2. By the materials and system of construction. 
 
 A. Wooden vessels. 
 
 a. Transverse frames. 
 
 b. Diagonal built. 
 
 B. Iron vessels. 
 
 a. Transverse frames. 
 
 b. Longitudinal frames. 
 
 c. Bracket frames. 
 
 C. Iron vessels cased with wood. 
 
 D. Composite vessels (iron frames and 
 
 wood planking). 
 
 E. Steel vessels. 
 
 3. According to defensive power. 
 
 A. Unarmored. 
 
 B. Armored. 
 
 4. According to propelling motor. 
 
 A. Sailing-vessels. 
 a. Ship. 
 
 b Bark I 1 Bark " 
 
 ( 2. Barkantine. 
 
 (1. Brig. 
 2. Brigantine. 
 3. Hermaphrodite brig. 
 
 d. Three-masted schooner. 
 
 G i (1. True schooner. 
 
 e. Schooner. | 2 Topsail schooner. 
 B. Steam-vessels. 
 
 a. Paddle-wheel. 
 
 f 1. With 1 screw. 
 
 
 screws. 
 
 c. Hydraulic reaction ship. 
 5. According to the destination of the ves 
 sel. 
 
SHIP 
 
 741 
 
 SHIP 
 
 A. Ships of the line. 
 
 a. For home waters. 
 &. Sea-going. 
 c. Station vessel. 
 
 B. Cruisers. 
 
 a. To capture other cruisers. 
 
 b. To capture mail-steamers. 
 
 c. For cruising and dispatch pur 
 
 poses. 
 
 d. Station gunboats. 
 
 C. Coast defense ships. 
 
 a. Offensive. 
 
 b. Defensive. 
 
 D. Dispatch-vessels. 
 
 E. Transports. 
 
 a. For troops. 
 
 b. For material. 
 
 F. School-ships. 
 
 a. Sea-going. 
 6. Not sea-going. 
 
 G. Torpedo ships. 
 
 H. Harbor vessels, tenders, tugs, pilot- 
 vessels, guard-ships, coal-hulks, 
 powder-hulks, store-hulks, etc. 
 6. According to the arrangement of guns or of 
 defensive means 
 
 A. Kigged vessels. 
 
 1. With full battery. 
 
 a. Guns on spar-deck (flush-deck 
 
 corvette and gunboat). 
 
 b. Guns on 1 covered deck (decked 
 
 corvette). 
 
 c. Guns on 2 decks (frigates). 
 
 d. Three tiers of guns, 2 covered 
 
 (two-decker). 
 
 e. Four tiers of guns, 3 covered 
 
 (three-decker). 
 
 2. With central battery. 
 
 a. Without bow and stern fire. 
 6. With 2 chase-guns. 
 
 c. With 3 chase-guns. 
 
 d. With 4 chase-guns. 
 
 3. With turrets. 
 
 a. Fixed. 
 
 b. Movable. 
 
 B. Mastless ironclads. 
 
 1. Without a central redoubt (mon 
 
 itors). 
 
 a. Single turret. 
 
 b. Double turret. 
 
 c. 3 or 4 turrets. 
 
 2. With central redoubt (breastwork 
 
 monitor). 
 a. With 1 turret. 
 
 *1. In line of 
 
 . With 2 turrets. 
 
 2 . 
 
 placed. 
 
 C. Circular ships. 
 
 a. Pppoffkas. 
 
 b. Livadia style. 
 
 D. With guns en barbette. 
 
 Under some one of these classes comes each 
 man-of-war, armored or unarmored, steam and 
 sail, and all merchant vessels. 
 
 In the matter of speed great progress has been 
 made. As many as 17 knots and even 18 has 
 been attained by the larger ships among the men- 
 of-war, and from 23 to 25 miles an hour has 
 been made by merchant steamers, while the 
 smaller torpedo-boats attain this great speed, and 
 are expected to surpass it. The modern man-of- 
 
 war is a mass of machinery, and reliance is 
 wholly placed upon the engines in case of a bat 
 tle, as was anciently placed in the oar-power. 
 The limit as to size has been attained, both in 
 men-of-war and merchantmen, and much greater 
 speed cannot be expected, while the gun has 
 triumphed over the armor, so that development 
 in that direction seems checked. F. S. Bassett, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 SHIPBOARD. On shipboard, on board a ship. 
 
 SHIP-BREAKER. One who breaks old ships in 
 pieces when no longer fit for use. 
 
 SHIP-BROKER. A mercantile agent who trans 
 acts business for ship-owners and merchants, buy 
 ing and selling ships, procuring cargoes, etc. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDER. A shipwright; one who builds 
 ships. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING, IRON. By the substitution of 
 iron for wood as ship-building material the gen 
 eral theory of naval architecture, including the 
 computations of weights, displacement, centres 
 of gravity, meta-centres and stabilities, strains 
 to which the structure is subjected, speed, etc., 
 is not essentially modified ; but in the mechan 
 ical execution a radical change is effected, the 
 art of the wood-worker yielding its prominence 
 to that of the iron-worker. The saw-mill, broad- 
 ax, adz, auger, and treenail are nearly super 
 seded by the furnace, the rolls, the iron-shearing 
 or planing-machine, the drill, punch, and rivet. 
 The labor of the draughtsman, particularly in 
 such matters as the geometrical constructions for 
 joining necessarily short pieces like timbers, is 
 materially diminished ; but extreme accuracy is 
 required in laying off the mold and beveling tem 
 plates of every frame, as there can be no fairing of 
 the body, as by dubbing with an adz in wooden 
 ships, after the structure is placed in position. 
 As iron can be hammered, bent, twisted, riveted, 
 or welded into any conceivable form, and so ar 
 ranged as to utilize its utmost resistance to all the 
 varied strains to which a ship is subjected, it is 
 eminently adapted to such structures. Experience 
 has amply demonstrated their superiority, both 
 in strength and durability, over wooden ships ; 
 also that the latter are incapable of sustaining 
 the steam-power required at the present day. 
 Of the many notable proofs of the strength of 
 iron ships two may be cited, viz., the ground 
 ing of the" Great Eastern" in Long Island Sound 
 a few years since, and the recent collision of the 
 Guion steamship a Arizona" with an iceberg in 
 mid-ocean while running at a speed of 15 knots 
 an hour. The former vessel was extricated, after 
 replacing a few plates, without strain to her 
 general structure, the latter continued her voyage 
 after a short delay. 
 
 There are three general methods of framing 
 iron ships, viz., the transverse system, the longi 
 tudinal system, and the bracket system, which is a 
 combination of the other two. The solid floor 
 system, as applied to unarmored vessels of war, is 
 also a combination of the two first mentioned, 
 and in a few instances diagonal framing has been 
 attempted, but did not meet with favor. 
 
 In the simplest form of framing, which is the 
 transverse system, the frames are arranged trans 
 versely across the keel in the manner of those 
 of wooden ships. The frame is composed of 
 three parts, viz., the frame angle-iron, or outer 
 angle-iron, to which the outer plates are riveted ; 
 the reverse frame, or inner angle-iron, to which 
 
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SHIP 
 
 744 
 
 SHIP 
 
 fever in the early part of the day and an increase 
 in the evening, while there is great stupor during 
 both periods. 
 
 The peculiar eruption of typhus often occurs 
 on the fourth or fifth day, whence one of its 
 names " spotted fever." The spots are irregular 
 and isolated, or else grouped in irregular patches, 
 looking not unlike measles. 
 
 Soon after they appear they become perma 
 nent ; that is, they do not disappear under press 
 ure. They are confined to no particular part of 
 the body, are light-colored in mild cases and 
 dark in malignant ones ; they are true petechiaz, 
 in fact. They last 11 or 12 days, usually disap 
 pearing before convalescence begins. They are 
 often accompanied or succeeded by the peculiar 
 vesicular eruption called sudamina. 
 
 By the end of the first week, or when the dis 
 ease is fairly developed, the tongue is brown and 
 dry, and dark sordes collect upon the teeth, gums, 
 and lips. Sometimes, but not frequently, the 
 tongue seems deep red and glazed, looking like a 
 piece of raw beef. 
 
 In typhus there is a total want of appetite ; 
 but food is borne by the stomach much more 
 readily than in most other fevers. In excep 
 tional cases the bowels maybe loose; but usually 
 they are only moved by medicine, and the de 
 jecta are always dark and most offensive. 
 
 There is no marked tendency to tympanitis. 
 The urine is generally very scanty. The dusky 
 hue of the face grows deeper, with great suffu 
 sion of the eyes, and a peculiar and character 
 istic odor exhales from the body, which has 
 been variously described. Some liken it to rot 
 ten straw, some to the smell of mice, but it is 
 really sui generis, and most resembles that of 
 confined apartments in which numbers of per 
 sons, whether sick or not, have been long crowded 
 together without attention to cleanliness or ven 
 tilation. When once experienced the odor will 
 always be remembered. 
 
 Even at the most grave period of the disease a 
 patient may generally be roused from stupor and 
 made to answer questions, but generally imper 
 fectly and with reluctance. But often he sinks 
 into coma, or has delirium, generally low and 
 muttering, with twitching and jerking of the 
 muscles, and picking at the bedclothes. If no 
 favorable change takes place, the patient sinks 
 into the last stage, that of complete prostration, 
 slipping down in the bed, eyes half closed, mouth 
 open, pupils dilated, or else very much con 
 tracted, hiccough, tongue like a" brown, dry 
 chip, inability to swallow, involuntary dis 
 charges from the bowels, suppression of urine, 
 and insensibility of the skin to irritants, coldness 
 of surface, collapsed, ashy face, and pulse im 
 perceptible at the wrist. 
 
 No case must be considered hopeless, however, 
 until life is extinct, as wonderful recoveries from 
 this disease have occurred. In fact, it has been 
 regarded as almost a peculiarity of the disease, 
 that persons have been left to die during epi 
 demics, and have been found sitting up and eat 
 ing the food left beside them. 
 
 Sometimes, and generally about the fourteenth 
 day, amelioration of symptoms takes place. The 
 pulse falls, the skin relaxes, the tongue becomes 
 moist and begins to clean, the eruption fades grad 
 ually, and the nervous twitchings subside and 
 consciousness returns. This is often preceded by 
 
 a profuse perspiration, or an unusually profuse 
 discharge of urine. The patient frequently falls 
 into a sound and prolonged sleep, and wakes up 
 a new man. The recovery in such a case is 
 usually rapid ; the appetite is often insatiable, 
 and, if indulged in, is apt to lead to relapse. 
 
 When recovery takes place from a low condi 
 tion or from collapse, it is always slow. Sup 
 porting remedies must be used, for there is ex 
 treme debility to be overcome. The hair is apt 
 to come out, and the skin to peel. The brain 
 and nervous system are slow to recover tone, 
 and the intellect, especially the memory, re 
 mains imperfect for a long time. Kelapses are 
 rare under proper treatment, and ultimate re 
 covery is generally perfect. 
 
 The duration of ship, or typhus fever, is varia 
 ble. When it terminates favorably it runs a 
 course of about three weeks, one week in devel 
 opment, one in the formed state, and one in the 
 decline. 
 
 It may, if mild, terminate earlier. Some cases 
 run on longer than 21 days. Fatal cases may 
 end at any period. Death sometimes occurs, 
 without reaction, within the first 24 hours. 
 This, of course, is where great susceptibility re 
 ceives a tremendous dose of the poison. It is 
 not unusual for death to occur about the fifth or 
 sixth day, but usually it takes place some time 
 in the second week, say from the ninth to the 
 twelfth day. Of course it may occur at a much 
 later period. E. Shippen. 
 
 SHIP-KEEPER. A watchman employed to take 
 care of a ship when laid up, or in ordinary. An 
 officer who remains much on board. 
 
 SHIP-LANGUAGE. Language current among 
 sailors. 
 
 SHIP, LAUNCHING OF. At the commencement 
 of the building of a ship, the foundations are laid 
 with a view to her launching, and the difficulties 
 to be overcome in the particular situation in 
 which the work is to be performed, are carefully 
 considered and provided for. 
 
 Particular care must be taken that the founda 
 tion is sufficient to bear the whole weight of the 
 fabric, so that no settling may occur at any time 
 during the progress of the work, or at the time 
 of launching. 
 
 If the location requires it, piles are first driven 
 both under the keel and the launching-ways the 
 whole length of the ship, and under the exten 
 sion of the launching-ways, as far out into the 
 water as- is necessary to extend them, that the 
 ship maj 7 be floated. Upon these piles, under the 
 keel, are placed the ground-ways, and upon the 
 top of the ground-ways blocks are laid, about 5 
 feet apart, for the whole length of the ship. 
 
 On the top of these blocks, before the keel 
 is laid, other blocks are placed, made wedging, 
 athwartship, from 2 to 3 feet long. These 
 blocks should be carefully selected with refer 
 ence to the grain of the wood, so that they may 
 be easily split at the time of launching the 
 ship. Upon these blocks the keel rests. The 
 height of this foundation should be laid with 
 reference to the work which is to be done under 
 the bottom of the ship, as well as the descent of 
 the ship into the water. The blocks are laid 
 upon an inclination of from f of an inch to 1 
 inch to the foot. 
 
 Great care should be taken in laying the keel, 
 that the forefoot shall not strike the ground- ways 
 
SHIP 
 
 745 
 
 SHIP 
 
 in launching, allowance being made for the set 
 tling of the ship during that process. 
 
 While the ship is building her weight rests 
 upon the blocks under the keel, and such shores 
 as may be needed under the bilge and sides. 
 When the time of launching comes this weight 
 is to be transferred from these keel-blocks to in 
 clined planes, which are placed one on each side 
 of the keel, called " launching-ways." 
 
 These are securely placed upon the top of the 
 "piles" previously prepared and the blocking 
 necessary to bring the ground-, or lower ways, to 
 the required height and inclination. 
 
 The surface of these ways should be calculated 
 with reference to the amount of friction coming 
 from the weight to be placed upon them. And 
 it is a good fault that the ways are too wide rather 
 than too narrow. 
 
 The ground-ways having been placed, they may 
 be carefully smoothed and laid with precision, 
 either to a gentle curve or a straight line, their 
 entire length, and when ready they may be coated 
 with a preparation of tallow, lampblack, castile 
 soap, and oil in suitable proportions. The slid- 
 ing-ways may now be hauled up and fitted. 
 
 In putting together the sliding-ways, take care 
 that the thin part of the snape comes aft, and 
 that everything is removed that may cause the 
 bilge-ways to catch when the movement com 
 mences. 
 
 After the sliding-ways are fitted, a ribband is 
 secured to the outside of the ground-ways. Pack 
 ing, shores, and poppets are built up on the top 
 of the sliding-ways to fit the bottom of the ship, 
 leaving an opening of from 4 to 6 inches, for 
 wedges, between the sliding-plank and the pack 
 ing, these wedges being for the purpose of lift 
 ing the ship from the keel-blocks and transfer 
 ring the weights to the sliding-ways. The packing 
 spoken of may be carried as far forward and aft 
 as the sliding-ways, or as far as the shape of the 
 ship will permit. 
 
 If poppets or short shores are used, they should 
 be secured at the ends to each other and to the 
 plank above the wedges, in order that it may be 
 like a solid mass of wood, trussed and secured 
 with chains under the keel, from side to side. 
 
 The ribbands having been secured to the 
 ground- ways, and the whole of the new fabric 
 upon which the ship is to rest well shored and 
 braced, the foundation is complete for transfer 
 ring the weight of the ship from the keel-blocks 
 to the launching-ways. 
 
 While the packing or chocks are being fitted, 
 wedges of large size are fitted between these 
 chocks and the sliding-ways fore and aft, close 
 together. 
 
 When this work is all done it is usual to shore 
 up and secure the packing to the bottom of the 
 ship, and push the sliding-ways in toward the 
 ship, in order to give them a final coat of the 
 launching composition of tallow, oil, soap, etc. 
 The sliding-ways being thoroughly coated, they 
 are pushed back into their places and the wedges 
 inserted fore and aft, leaving about one-half of 
 their length outside of the packing. The ends 
 of the launching-ways are now secured to the 
 ground-ways. 
 
 The anchors being ready for letting go, and 
 every arrangement having been made which is 
 necessary to check the vessel after she has left the 
 ways, the word is given to "wedge up." The 
 
 men, provided with heavy sledges or battering- 
 rams, wedge up on both sides for a sufficient 
 time to raise the whole mass slightly from the 
 keel-blocks, and the weight is thus transferred to 
 the sliding-ways. 
 
 Now commences the exciting part of the 
 launch. The blocks are removed one by one, 
 commencing at the after end, usually by split 
 ting out the wedge-pieces next to the keel ; and 
 as fast as the blocks are removed and cleared out 
 of the space between the sliding-ways, the bilge- 
 and wale-shores are removed. When all the 
 blocks are out, the plank, or trip, which is the 
 forward end, is all that holds the ship from 
 sliding. 
 
 The word is now given to "cut away," and 
 the men have hardly cut oif the plank, inch by 
 inch, before the whole mass starts for its native 
 element, amid the cheers of those who may be 
 in attendance. S. H. Pook, Naval Constructor 
 U.S.N. 
 
 SHIP, LOG-. The log-chip. See LOG. 
 
 SHIP-LORD. An old term for the owner of a 
 ship. 
 
 SHIPMAN. An old term for a mariner. 
 
 SHIPMAN s CARD. An old name for the com 
 pass. 
 
 SHIP-MASTER. The captain, master, or owner 
 of a merchant ship. 
 
 SHIPMATE. A fellow-sailor. One who serves 
 on board the same ship. 
 
 SHIP-MONEY. Money exacted illegally by 
 Charles I. of England to fit out ships in time of 
 peace. 
 
 SHIP-OWNER. One who owns ships. 
 
 SHIP-PENDULUM. A pendulum to show by 
 its oscillations the roll and pitching motion of 
 the ship. 
 
 SHIPPER. One who embarks freight in a ship. 
 
 SHIPPING. Vessels generally. The whole 
 body of ships in a place. 
 
 SHIPPING-ARTICLES. Articles of agreement 
 between the master and seamen with regard to 
 wages, length of time of service, etc. 
 
 SHIPPING-MASTER. A person legally ap 
 pointed to superintend the shipping of seamen 
 for the merchant service. 
 
 SHIP-RIGGED. Kigged like a ship, with three 
 masts, all provided with yards, and spreading 
 square-sails. 
 
 SHIP S BOATS. The boats belonging to the 
 ship. 
 
 SHIP S BOOKS. The books of the executive 
 and of the paymaster, in which the names of the 
 men are borne. 
 
 SHIP S COMPANY. The crew of the ship. 
 
 SHIP S COOK. See COOK. 
 
 SHIP S CORPORAL. A petty officer, whose duty 
 is to assist the master-at-arms in preserving order, 
 arresting offenders, etc. 
 
 SHIP S DAYS. The lay-days allowed to a ship 
 for loading or unloading cargo. 
 
 SHIP-SHAPE. In a seaman-like manner. Neat 
 and thoroughly done. 
 
 SHIP S HUSBAND. The agent or broker who 
 manages her accounts with regard to repairs, 
 etc., while refitting. 
 
 SHIP-SLOOP (Enff.). A sloop rated as a ship, 
 because commanded by a captain. 
 
 SHIP-STAR. An old name for the pole-star. 
 
 SHIP S WRITER. A petty officer who, under 
 the directions of the executive-officer, does the 
 
SHIVER 
 
 746 
 
 SHORE 
 
 writing and keeps the watch-, muster-, conduct-, 
 and other books of the ship. 
 
 SHIP-TIMBER. Timber to be used for ship 
 building. 
 
 SHIP- WORM. A mollusk, of the genus Teredo, 
 that burrows in timber, secreting a calcareous 
 shell as it goes, and weakening the wood. 
 
 SHIPWRECK. The destruction of a ship by 
 being cast ashore on shoals or rocks ; a ship that 
 has been wrecked. See WRECK. 
 
 SHIPWRIGHT. A builder of ships. 
 
 SHIP-YARD. A dock-yard ; a yard where ships 
 are built or repaired. 
 
 Shiver. A sheave. To shiver a sail, to luff 
 the ship, or brace the yard, so that the wind, act 
 ing on the edge of the sail, causes it to shake. 
 
 Shoal. A school of fish. A shallow or bar 
 where the water is not deep. To become more 
 shallow. 
 
 SHOAL-INDICATOR. A buoy placed on a shoal. 
 
 SHOALED-HARBOR. A harbor secured from 
 the violence of the sea by banks, bars, etc. 
 
 Shock, William H., Chief Engineer U.S.N. 
 Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering. Born in 
 Maryland. Appointed from Maryland, January 
 18, 1845; entered the naval service as third 
 assistant engineer, during the Mexican war, 
 served on board the steamers " General Taylor," 
 " Princeton," " Spitfire," and the frigate " Mis 
 sissippi," in which vessels, at different periods, 
 he participated in the capture of Tampico, under 
 Commodore Connor, and Alvarado, Tuspan, 
 Tlacotalpan, and Vera Cruz, under Commodore 
 Perry. 
 
 Promoted to second assistant engineer, July 
 10, 1847; ordered to the steamer "Engineer," 
 Home Squadron. 
 
 Promoted to first assistant engineer, October 
 31, 1848 ; 1849, was senior engineer steamer 
 " Legare," coast survey; 1850-51, special duty 
 at Philadelphia, superintending construction of 
 machinery of steam-frigate " Susquehanna." 
 
 Promoted to chief engineer, March, 1851 ; 
 1851-52, special duty, Boston, Mass., superin 
 tending construction of machinery of steamer 
 "Princeton"; 1853-54, inspecting engineer of 
 ocean steamers for U. 8. mail service, and chief 
 engineer of steamer " Princeton," Home Squad 
 ron ; 1854-55, West Point, superintending con 
 struction of machinery for steam-frigate " Mer- 
 rimac" ; 1855-56, chief engineer steam-frigate 
 "Merrimac," Home Squadron; 1857-60, chief 
 engineer steam-frigate " Powhatan," East India 
 Squadron; 1860-62, president of Examining 
 Board of Engineers; 1862-63, special duty at 
 St. Louis, superintending construction of river 
 monitors; 1863-65, fleet-engineer, West Gulf 
 Squadron, participating in the capture of Forts 
 Gaines and Morgan, under Admiral Farragut, 
 and the Spanish Fort and city of Mobile, under 
 Admiral Thatcher; 1865-66, chief engineer of 
 Boston Navy- Yard; 1867-68, chief engineer of 
 Washington Navy- Yard ; 1868-69, fleet-engineer 
 of European Squadron; 1869-70, inspector of 
 machinery afloat, and member of Board of Visi 
 tors to Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. ; in 
 the summer of 1870 was appointed acting chief 
 of Bureau of Steam Engineering, retiring from 
 the ofBce with the written thanks of the Depart 
 ment for the efficient manner in which the duties 
 of the bureau were discharged ; in 1871 was again 
 called to take temporary charge of the Bureau of 
 
 Steam Engineering, and on retiring from the 
 position was actively employed on other duty in 
 the United States until 1873, when he was 
 ordered to Europe on a tour of inspection of 
 public and private dock-yards, and to represent 
 the Bureau of Steam Engineering at the Inter 
 national Exhibition at Vienna, and by direction 
 of the President was appointed one of the Amer 
 ican Judges of Awards; returning from Europe, 
 was detailed to other duty until "March 3, 1877, 
 when he was appointed and confirmed engineer- 
 in-chief of the U. S. navy. 
 
 Shod. An anchor is shod when the fluke is 
 covered with mud that has adhered to it. 
 
 Shoe. An iron arming to a hand-spike. A 
 board hollowed slightly, and placed under a 
 sheer-leg, to serve in transporting it. The outer 
 
 Siece of the forefoot. A flat block of hard wood, 
 ollowed to receive the ear of an anchor-fluke. 
 It slides up and down the bows, with the inner 
 fluke resting in it, so as to prevent the anchor 
 from tearing a hole in the bow. A triangular 
 plank structure placed over the fluke to increase 
 its area. Magazine shoes are of canvas, to be 
 worn in the magazine. To shoe an anchor, to 
 place over the palms projecting pieces of hard 
 wood, secured by hoops and nails, so as to give 
 greater holding-power in soft mud. 
 
 Shoe-block. A block consisting of a single 
 piece of wood, without a strap, with two sheaves 
 inserted at right angles to each other. They are 
 used for main-buntiine blocks. 
 
 Shoe-paun-dogee. A gorgeous imperia. yacht 
 used by the emperor of Burmah on ceremonial 
 occasions. It has a very high curved stern, a 
 griffin terminates the bow, and a richly-gilded 
 house is built on the deck. 
 
 Sholes. Pieces of oak placed under the soles 
 of the shores while the ship is building ; they are 
 used to increase the surface under the shore so as 
 to prevent its sinking into soft ground. 
 
 Shoot. To move rapidly; as, a ship "shoots 
 ahead," etc. To pass rapidly through or by ; as, 
 to shoot a rapids, or a bridge. To shoot a net, to 
 run it out into the water. To shoot the sun, to 
 take its altitude. To shoot the compass, to go 
 wide of the mark. 
 
 Shore. The littoral of a country. That part 
 near the ocean. Bold shore, a high, steep shore. 
 Flat shore, a low, flat coast. Shelving shore, a 
 gradually descending coast. 
 
 A prop to support anything from below. Bilge- 
 shore, a shore under the bilge. Cap-shore, a 
 short support under the mast-cap. (See CAP- 
 SHORE.) Breast-shore, a shore near the middle 
 of the ship, extending abeam. Wale-shores, 
 shores supporting the ship at the wales, extend 
 ing vertically downwards. To shore up a ship, 
 to place shores under a ship s bottom. 
 
 SHORE-ANCHOR. The anchor lying toward 
 the shore. 
 
 SHORE-BOAT. A private boat belonging ashore. 
 
 SHORE-CLEATS. Heavy cleats nailed to the 
 side of a ship, against which shores rest. 
 
 SHORE-DUTY. Service on shore, as distin 
 guished from service afloat. Duty at navy-yards, 
 Navy Department, etc. 
 
 SHORE-FAST. A hawser or chain securing a 
 ship to the shore. 
 
 SHORE-PAY. The pay of an officer when on 
 shore-duty. In the U. S. navy it varies from 
 six- to eight-tenths of the highest pay. 
 
SHOKT 
 
 747 
 
 SHROUD 
 
 SHORE-REEF. A fringing-reef. 
 
 SHORE-STATION. A naval establishment on 
 shore. 
 
 Short. To heave short, to heave in on the 
 cable until it is nearly up and down, or until the 
 anchor just holds, without any slack cable. 
 Short-apeek, up and down, applied to the cable 
 of an anchor. Short allowance, a reduction of 
 provisions, water, etc., in case of necessity. 
 Short board, a short run on one tack, when cir 
 cumstances preclude the use of longer intervals 
 between tacks. Short glass, the 14-second glass, 
 used with the log. Short-handed, deficient in 
 men. Short-linked chain, chain without studs, 
 and with short links. Short sea, a confused, 
 tumbling sea. Short-service, service placed on a 
 hemp cable for riding at a short stay. Short stay, 
 that position of the cable when it is nearly up 
 and down, or when the anchor is nearly atrip. 
 
 SHORTEN. To shorten in on the cable is to 
 heave in to a shorter scope. To shorten sail is to 
 reduce the amount of sail by taking in some of 
 them ; to haul up or take in all sail when set 
 or loosed to dry. 
 
 SHORT-SHEET. The shorter of the two sheets 
 fitted to a topmast stun sail. When the sail is 
 set, it is led through a thimble on the lower yard 
 into the top, where it is belayed. 
 
 SHORT-SPLICE. A short union of two ropes, 
 used when an increase of the diameter is not in 
 admissible. 
 
 Shot. The union of two or more cables, for 
 greater length, form a shot of cable. The reck 
 oning or expense. A place where fishermen draw 
 their nets. The sternmost part of a fishing- 
 boat. A kind of trout. To load a gun with 
 shot. See PROJECTILES. 
 
 SHOT-GARLAND. See GARLAND. 
 
 SHOT-GAUGE. A gauge or calliper to measure 
 the dimensions of shot. 
 
 SHOT, GRAPNEL-. A shot with a grapnel at 
 tached, carrying a line, to be used in communi 
 cating with ships in distress. 
 
 SHOT-LOCKER. A strongly-built locker in the 
 hold, to contain shot. Shot in the locker, money 
 in the purse. 
 
 SHOT-PILE. A pile of shot in a navy-yard or 
 magazine on shore. Shot are carefully piled on 
 masonry or wooden platforms. The number of 
 shot in a pile is found by multiplying the sum 
 of the three parallel edges by the number of 
 balls in a triangular face. 
 
 SHOT-PLUG. A wooden plug used in connec 
 tion with fearnaught for stopping shot-holes. 
 
 SHOT-PROP. A wooden prop covered with tarred 
 hemp, used to stop a shot-hole from the inside. 
 
 SHOT-RACK. Iron rods fitted about the hatches, 
 water-ways, and on the berth-deck, to contain 
 shot. 
 
 SHOT-TROUGH. Wooden troughs placed about 
 the decks to convey shot during action. 
 
 SHOT-WAD. A wad of hay or junk placed in 
 front of a shpt to hold it in place in the bore. 
 
 SHOT-WHIP. A whip for hoisting shot from 
 the locker. 
 
 Shotten Herring. Cleaned herring for dry 
 ing. A lean, lazy fellow. 
 
 Shoulder. The projecting portion of a ship 
 about the water-line, that gives her stability 
 under canvas. A ship it said to shoulder the an 
 chor when she drags it in consequence of having 
 too little cable out. 
 
 Shoulder-block. A block with a shoulder or 
 square projection at the upper end, to keep it in 
 an upright position. 
 
 Shoulder- knot. An ornamental knot of gold 
 lace, worn on the shoulder in lieu of strap and 
 epaulet. Officers of the grades of ensign and 
 midshipman, and corresponding grades in the 
 staff corps, and company officers of the marine 
 corps, wear shoulder-knots. 
 
 Shoulder-of-mutton Sail. A triangular sail 
 attached to a mast, and used in boats. 
 
 Shoulder-strap. A narrow strap of cloth 
 worn on the shoulders by all commissioned offi 
 cers above ensign in the navy, and assimilated 
 ranks, and all field-officers in the marine corps. 
 In the strap distinguishing ornaments are worn, 
 as follows : all line-officers, an anchor in the 
 centre or at each end ; master, one gold bar at 
 each end ; lieutenant, two gold bars ; lieutenant- 
 commander, one gold leaf at each end ; com 
 mander, one silver leaf; captain, silver eagle 
 in the centre ; commodore, one star in the centre ; 
 rear-admiral, one star at each end ; vice-admiral, 
 three stars; admiral, four stars. Officers of the 
 staff corps substitute for the anchor: medical 
 officers, a blank ; pay-officers, an oak sprig ; engi 
 neer officers, four oak leaves in a cross ; naval 
 constructors, two oak leaves and an acorn in 
 gold ; chaplains, a silver cross ; professors, one 
 oak leaf and an acorn ; secretaries, the letter S in 
 silver. See UNIFORM. 
 
 Shout (Eng.}. A light flat-bottomed duck 
 ing-punt. 
 
 Shoveler. A duck (Anas clypeata], with a 
 broad bill. 
 
 Show Leg! "Turn out quickly." An ex 
 pression used to get the watch out of their ham 
 mocks. 
 
 Shrab. A Calcutta drink. 
 
 Shrapnel. A species of shell, devised by 
 Gen. Shrapnel, also called spherical case. They 
 are thin shell, being one-tenth of their diame 
 ter in thickness. They contain a bursting charge 
 of powder only sufficient to burst the shell, and a 
 quantity of sulphur, in which a number of balls, 
 from .65 inch to 1 inch in diameter, are im 
 bedded. They are cast like shell. Their use is 
 effective against boats or bodies of men, at con 
 siderable distances. They are boxed and have 
 sabots like shell, but the boxes are painted white. 
 Those for smooth-bore guns and howitzers have 
 Bormann fuzes. They are not yet used in rifle- 
 cannon in the U. S. navy. English shrapnel, 
 also called diaphragm-shrapnel, have a thin iron 
 partition separating the bullets from the bursting 
 charge. 
 
 Shrimp. The Crangon vulgaris, a crustacean 
 used for food. 
 
 Shroud. A rope belonging to the standing 
 rigging of a ship, generally alluded to in the 
 plural. Each shroud is connected with another 
 so as to form a pair. They are made of shroud- 
 laid tarred hemp rope, or more commonly now, 
 of wire rope. A collar is formed by a seizing 
 that embraces the mast-head. In the end of 
 each leg of a pair is placed a dead-eye, or a 
 rigging-thimble, or it embraces the upper part 
 of a rigging-screw, as the case may be. It is 
 fastened by laniard or screw to the chain-wales, 
 and the shrouds, being set up, support the mast 
 sideways. When there is an odd number of 
 shrouds, the forward or after one is the odd one. 
 
SHUBKICK 
 
 748 
 
 SICK-BAY 
 
 The forward shroud is called the swifter. Shrouds 
 after being cut, when of rope, are wormed, par 
 celed, and served where the eyes are formed, and 
 swifters, all the length ; when of wire, they are 
 red-leaded, wormed, and parceled, again red- 
 leaded and served full length. Shrouds are 
 variously named from the spars they support. 
 
 SHROUD-BRIDLE. A bridle formerly placed 
 in the shrouds, with a thimble in the bight, 
 through which the lower sheets led. 
 
 SHROUD-CLEAT. A wooden or iron cleat, 
 seized to a shroud, to belay a rope to. 
 
 SHROUD-KNOT. A knot formed in a shroud 
 that has parted. 
 
 SHROUD-LAID HOPE. Eight-handed four- 
 stranded rope, with a heart. 
 
 SHROUD-PLATES. Iron plates extending from 
 the dead-eyes to the ship s side. 
 
 SHROUD-ROPE. Superior rope for shrouds and 
 stays, of the best Kussian hemp. 
 
 SHROUD-STOPPER. A rigging-stopper. See 
 STOPPER. 
 
 SHROUD-TRUCK. A fair-leader, or short wooden 
 cylinder, having holes in it for rigging and a 
 groove and score, the latter embracing the 
 shroud, and the former filled by a seizing, fast 
 ening it to the shroud. 
 
 SHROUD-WARP. See WARP. 
 
 Shubrick, the name of several gallant officers 
 of the U. S. navy, natives of South^Carolina, sons 
 of Col. Thomas Shubrick, aid to Gens. Greene 
 and Lincoln in the Revolutionary war, born 
 1775; died at Charleston, S. C., March 4, 1810. 
 
 John Taylor, born September 12, 1788 ; died 
 July, 1815 ; midshipman, June 20, 1806 ; lieuten 
 ant, May 28, 1812. He was in the " Chesapeake" 
 in her affair with the " Leopard," in 1807 ; in the 
 action of the "Constitution" with the " Guer- 
 riere," in August, and with the " Java," De 
 cember 29, 1812; of the "Hornet" with the 
 " Peacock," February 24, 1813 (for which he re 
 ceived medals from Congress); of the "Presi 
 dent," when captured by a British squadron, in 
 January, 1815, and on the conclusion of peace was 
 dispatched to the United States in command of 
 the " Epervier" with the treaty. This vessel was 
 never afterward heard from. 
 
 William Branford, born October 31, 1790; 
 midshipman, June 20, 1806 ; lieutenant, Janu 
 ary 6, 1813; commander, March 28, 1820; cap 
 tain, February 21, 1831 ; rear-admiral (retired 
 list), July 16, 1862; commanded battery of 
 one gun on Craney Island in the repulse of 
 the British forces, June 22, 1813 ; lieutenant in 
 the " Constitution" in action with the " Cyane" 
 and " Levant," February 20, 1815; commanded 
 squadron in the Pacific in 1847, and captured 
 Mazatlan and other ports from the Mexicans ; 
 commanded Brazil Squadron and Paraguay Ex 
 pedition, 1859 ; chairman Light-House Board, 
 1860-70. 
 
 Edward Rutledge died at sea, March 12, 
 1844, at about 50, Midshipman, January 16, 
 1809 ; lieutenant, October 9, 1813 ; commander, 
 April 24, 1828; captain, February 9, 1837 ; served 
 under Commodore Rodgers in the war of 1812- 
 15; appointed to command the "Columbia," 
 Brazil Squadron, May 4, 1842. 
 
 Irvine, born in 1797 ; died in Philadelphia, 
 April 5, 1849. Midshipman, May 12, 1814 ; lieu 
 tenant, January 13, 1826; commander, Septem 
 ber 8, 1841 ; served under Decatur in the action 
 
 of the " President" with the British squadron in 
 1815 ; also in the war with Algiers in 1816 ; 
 as first lieutenant of the " Potomac," in 1832, 
 headed the sailors and marines in the destruction 
 of Quallah Battoo. 
 
 Shufeldt, Robert W., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed midshipman 
 from New York, May 11, 1839; first cruise in 
 the frigate "United States," Pacific Squadron, 
 1839-41 ; in brig " Bainbridge," Home Squad 
 ron, 1842-44; at Naval School, Philadelphia, 
 1844-45. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 2, 1845 ; 
 on the coast survey in 1845-46 ; in frigate " United 
 States," Mediterranean Squadron, 1846-47, and 
 sloop "Marion," same squadron, 1847-48; in 
 mail-steamer " Atlantic," 1849-50. 
 
 Promoted to master, February 21 , 1853. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, 1854 ; resigned, 
 June 20, 1854. (While out of the navy he was 
 active in the organization of the steam commer 
 cial marine of New York. Served two years in 
 the Collins line of Liverpool steamers, as chief 
 officer ; superintended the building of and com 
 manded the steamers " Black Warrior" and 
 " Cahawba," between New York and New Or 
 leans ; was engaged for a year in the effort to 
 open a transit across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 
 At the commencement of the war, was command 
 ing the steamer " Quaker City," between New 
 York and Havana, when he was appointed con 
 sul-general to Cuba by President Lincoln ; served 
 in that office for two years, under difficult and 
 trying circumstances, with the entire approba 
 tion of the government. He resigned in April, 
 1863, and accepted a commission of commander 
 in the navy, previously tendered.) 
 
 Reinstated and received commission as com 
 mander, dated November 19, 1862. In May, 
 1863, commanded steamer " Conemaugh," South 
 Atlantic Blockading Squadron ; was present and 
 participated in the capture of Morris Island, and 
 in several of the attacks upon Fort Wagner ; 
 commandingsteamer "Boteus," East Gulf Block 
 ading Squadron, 1863-65 ; commanding steam- 
 sloop " Hartford," flag-ship East India Squadron, 
 1865-66 ; commandingsteam-sloop " Wachusett," 
 Asiatic Squadron, 1866-68 ; commanding naval 
 rendezvous, New York, 1868-69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, December 31, 1869; 
 commanding monitor " Miantonomah," 1870; 
 commanding Tehuantepec and Nicaragua Sur 
 veying Expedition, 1870-71 ; commanding " Wa- 
 bash," flag-ship European Squadron, 1871-72 ; 
 navy-yard, New York, 1872-74 ; chief of Bureau 
 Equipment and Recruiting, 1875-78 ; command 
 ing " Ticonderoga," special service, 1879-80. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 21, 
 1876. 
 
 Shurgnee. A damp southeast wind in the 
 Persian Gulf, preceded by heavy dews. 
 
 Sick-bay. This term is used for the hospital 
 in the navies of English-speaking people. We 
 understand by it a separate apartment, wherever 
 situated, on board ship, for the reception and 
 treatment of the sick and wounded. 
 
 Few single-decked vessels in our navy have 
 any sick-bay, or hospital, at all, the sick being 
 slung up to the beams, in their hammocks, or 
 cots, anywhere about the berth-deck where they 
 will be most out of the way. During the day 
 they unavoidably suffer from noise, constant col- 
 
SICK-BAY 
 
 749 
 
 SICK-BAY 
 
 lision with their swinging-beds, and the heat 
 and odors of cooking from the galley. At night 
 every inch of the space about them is occupied ; 
 the air is mephitic, and, when the watch is re 
 lieved, the noise and jostling of hammocks re 
 curs. To reach a sick man in his "billet," the 
 medical officer, or apothecary, or nurse must fre 
 quently pass under other hammocks, disturbing 
 those well men who need their rest, or other in 
 valids. 
 
 All frigate-built ships, and some corvettes or 
 sloops-of-war, have sick-bays, and almost invari 
 ably these have been placed on the lowest inhab 
 ited deck, and in the extreme forward end of the 
 vessel, about the worst possible place for sick 
 men. 
 
 The chief requisites for a hospital, or receptacle 
 for sick and wounded, either ashore or afloat, are, 
 in addition to proper shelter from the weather, 
 the best attainable quietude, ventilation, and 
 natural light. 
 
 These requisites have been systematically ig 
 nored in our navy, and, until quite recent times, 
 in most other navies. In most of the latter more 
 enlightened views now prevail, however, the 
 French having led the advance. This being the 
 case, it is altogether possible that our navy will, 
 in due time, and in types of vessels permitting it, 
 follow an excellent example, and remove the 
 hospital from the berth-deck. 
 
 The usual position of the " sick-bay" (said to 
 be so called because it made people sick) appears 
 to be a traditional arrangement, derived from the 
 galley period, through the French, and thence to 
 us through the English, who derived many of 
 their ideas in naval architecture from study of 
 the vessels captured from their neighbors across 
 the Channel. 
 
 Henry Teonge, a chaplain in the British royal 
 navy more than two centuries ago, who kept a 
 very minute diary, makes particular mention of 
 sickness and mortality on board three large frig 
 ates, and yet never hints at the existence of any 
 sick-bay or hospital. It is, therefore, to be sup 
 posed that there was no place set apart for the 
 purpose in the English navy at that time. 
 
 Fonssagrives one of the best authorities upon 
 the subject says that from all time the forward 
 part of the ship seems to have been devoted to 
 the sick, and that it was so devoted when rude 
 manners and ideas saw in the sick only useless 
 encumbrances, and when v ss segrotantibus seemed 
 as natural as the vse metis of the ancients. 
 
 These quarters were given to the sick, then, 
 not as the most suitable for them, but with a 
 view to isolate them, and thus to preserve the 
 rest of the ship s company from contagion, often 
 of plague, or of ship fever, putting them some 
 where where well men would not be obliged to 
 touch them, or pass them. The only other place 
 where these conditions could obtain the stern 
 of the vessel was already occupied by the com 
 manding officer. 
 
 Jean Marteilhe, of Bergerac, tells us that in 
 the French royal galleys of the 17th and 18th 
 centuries, the compartment in the bows, under 
 the low deck of the galley s prow, beneath the 
 water-line, close, dark, and dismal, served for 
 the combined purpose of stowing the cables and 
 the medicine-chest, and here, upon the cables, 
 were piled the sick, if they were allowed to 
 leave the oar at all, as well as those wounded 
 
 in battle; so that great mortality ensued. " The 
 wounded died like flies," he says. 
 
 M. Jal also alludes to the hospitals of fighting- 
 gallej S, of an earlier period, which he says were 
 in the forward part of the vessel, and called, at 
 that time, " tollar," from tolerare, to suffer., "It 
 was there the sick suffered." 
 
 Smollett, writing of the Carthagena Expedi 
 tion, 1741, says that the hospital of the man-of- 
 war in which he served was three degrees more 
 offensive and more suffocating than the cock-pit, 
 then, and long after, the quarters of the sur 
 geon s mates, as has been the case in our navy 
 within twenty years. 
 
 In the French navy of more modern times the 
 traditional practice of placing the sick on the 
 lower deck, forward, seems to have been first 
 broken in upon about the year 1810, when 
 strong remonstrances against its impropriety and 
 impolicy cruelty, indeed caused important 
 changes to be inaugurated, and these have been 
 permanent. 
 
 It is, however, within quite recent times that 
 the sick-bay has been taken from the berth-deck, 
 in double-decked vessels of the English navy, 
 and it never has been done in the IT. S. navy, 
 except in some receiving-ships, which are not in 
 any sense sea-going vessels. 
 
 As a precaution and temporary measure, in 
 cholera, yellow fever, and other epidemics, or in 
 case the wounded were so numerous as to over 
 flow the limits of the " sick-bay," they have been 
 placed upon the gun-deck or elsewhere. Still, 
 with us, the old sick-bay, in the most dismal 
 part of the ship, is the only recognized official 
 hospital on board. The usual position of our 
 "sick-bay" is objectionable for many reasons. 
 Ventilation is bad, at the very best. Light is 
 defective in the extreme. The air-ports, of which 
 there are seldom more than two, of a few inches 
 diameter, are seldom open, except in a calm, or 
 in a close harbor. As a rule, candles are used to 
 examine patients, and even to perform important 
 operations. Ether must be used with care in 
 artificial light, otherwise there is danger to the 
 ship and all on board. 
 
 The chains are worked just above the sick-bay. 
 The ship s bell is generally so hung that its 
 jarring tones are more distinctly heard in the 
 sick-bay than anywhere else. The chatter and 
 noise of the berth-deck cooks, and the smell of 
 onions, garlic, and other ingredients of nauti 
 cal "scouses," is generally more perceptible in 
 the sick bay than anywhere else. 
 
 Since the abolition of flogging prisons have 
 become more necessary, and these are now gen 
 erally built against the after part of the sick 
 bay. Sometimes they encroach upon its scanty 
 air-space. Here drunken, noisy men are apt at 
 times to be confined. There is also unavoid 
 able damp and leakage, from the working of 
 the head; the water often trickling down the 
 breast-hooks, or filtering down from the gun- 
 deck, after seas are shipped into the manger, 
 through the hawse-pipes. 
 
 At sea, or even at anchor in roadsteads and 
 other exposed places, with fresh winds and rough 
 water, the monotonous, pile-driving blows of the 
 sea against the bows are almost suiBcient to dis 
 tract a well man, let alone a patient in hospital. 
 
 Our merchant vessels long ago removed their 
 crews from the holes called forecastles, which 
 
SICK-BAY 
 
 750 
 
 SIDE 
 
 answered, in most respects, to the usual position 
 of our sick-bay. 
 
 Serious attention has been given to this im 
 portant matter by many of the naval medical 
 officers, who have made frequent and urgent re 
 ports upon the subject, especially Medical Direc 
 tor A. L. Gihon; while Admiral Leroy, Admiral 
 Porter, and Commodore Shufeldt have officially 
 recommended a change. Their exertions in this 
 direction are worthy of all praise, and may, 
 eventually, be successful in accomplishing a 
 reform called for by considerations both of 
 humanity and expediency. 
 
 With a personnel crowded in the extreme, far 
 beyond all sanitary limits, there is, on the berth- 
 deck of a man-of-war, a permanently contami 
 nated atmosphere which is never very much im 
 proved during a cruise, from the impossibility 
 of evacuating and thoroughly cleansing the 
 deck, even in the daytime. Even if evacuation 
 could be accomplished, the means of thoroughly 
 renewing the air is practically, in most cases, 
 nearly wanting. 
 
 The air-ports do not accomplish it, nor do 
 wind-sails, and, in some cases, patent apparatus 
 has done more harm than good, while other ap 
 paratus have been rejected on account of the ex 
 pense, as if any cost could be too great for ma 
 chinery which accomplished this all-important 
 purpose. Army and navy men, and many in 
 civil life, are continually grappling with the 
 difficult question of the disposition of the emana 
 tions from healthy human bodies alone, and the 
 question has not been solved. Should we, then, 
 expose the sick to these emanations, or the well 
 to those of the sick ? Would any one who could 
 live elsewhere live in a damp and unventilated 
 back cellar? And yet this is about the relative 
 position of the sick-bay in our men-of-war, where 
 the sick and wounded are not afforded the best 
 chance of recovery. 
 
 As has been stated, the sick-bays in the French 
 and English navies are now generally upon the 
 gun-deck ; either arranged with movable, lat 
 ticed bulk-heads and placed amidships, or on 
 each side, taking in about two gun-ports, the 
 guns being slewed round, and lashed against the 
 side, but not removed. In case of action they 
 are readily brought into service, and their crews 
 are exercised at other guns. A favorite way in 
 the French navy was to have the sick-bay for 
 ward upon the gun-deck, bulk-headed with lat 
 ticed windows, and embracing the bridle-ports, 
 which, being mostly kept open, even at sea in 
 fair weather, were a fine source of light and 
 air. 
 
 They had, generally, glass windows for these 
 
 Drts: to be used in cool weather. Here was 
 light, ventilation, and cheerfulness secured. The 
 chains, in this case, were worked by oblique 
 hawse-pipes underneath the sick-bay. 
 
 (Nothing would be interfered with but the 
 traditional chicken-coops and live-stock in the 
 manger, which pollute our gun-decks yet.) 
 
 In our navy the personnel of the sick-bay, 
 besides the medical officers in charge, are the 
 apothecary, whose dispensary, in double-deck 
 ships, is often 100 feet or more from the sick 
 bay, while the medical store-room is elsewhere, 
 either in the darkest part of the cock-pit, or in 
 the shaft-alley, probably to the great detriment 
 of stores and medicaments which, upon a sudden 
 
 ports 
 light 
 
 emergency, may be of the highest value, and ex 
 posed, more or less, to pilfering. 
 
 The apothecary is fairly paid, and ranks as a 
 
 stty officer. 
 
 The attendants upon the sick are now called 
 "nurses" and " bay-men." They are generally 
 selected from the crew, paid as landsmen, and 
 usually without any experience, either in nurs 
 ing or cooking. The apothecary, nurses, and 
 bay-men are selected by the senior medical officer. 
 In the case of the apothecary, he is appointed, 
 under certain regulations, with the approval of 
 the commanding officer. The nurses and bay- 
 men may be appointed in the same way, but this 
 is generally not the case, they being picked up 
 from among the landsmen. 
 
 On board ship men whose sickness is slight are 
 only put upon the "binnacle list." In well- 
 regulated sick-bays they are not allowed to take 
 up the limited air-space by spending their time 
 there, except while being prescribed for or re 
 ceiving medicine. 
 
 More serious cases are put upon the "sick 
 list," and generally allowed to have their ham 
 mocks down in the daytime, should the medical 
 officer consider it necessary. Important cases 
 of illness, or surgical cases of gravity, have 
 cots slung for them, which afford a very fair de 
 gree of comfort. Standing beds, of iron, swung 
 to upright posts, with gimbals, have been used, 
 in some cases with approval, in our sick-bays. 
 Fleet-Surgeon Foltz, who served in the opera 
 tions under Farragut in the " Hartford," always 
 spoke most highly of them. But there are. 
 serious objections to their use, not necessary to 
 be entered upon here, in the confined space at 
 present allotted to the sick-bays. E. Shippen. 
 
 Sick-berth. A place temporarily screened 
 off to accommodate sick men. 
 
 Sick-book (Eng.}. An account of sick per 
 sons on board, or sent to the hospital. 
 
 Sick-flag. The yellow quarantine-flag. In the 
 English service there are two other sick-flags, 
 one yellow with a black ball, the other with a 
 square in the centre, used to denote the presence 
 of contagious diseases. 
 
 Sick-leave. Leave of absence given on a 
 surgeon s certificate of disability, or on medical 
 survey. 
 
 Sick-list. The list of sick, with their com 
 plaints and condition, sent in daily to the com 
 manding officer by the surgeon. A duplicate 
 list of names only, posted on the upper deck, is 
 called the binnacle- list. 
 
 Sick-mess. The mess for the sick, partly pro 
 vided by the surgeon s department. 
 
 Sick-ticket. A paper which is sent with a 
 patient to a hospital, giving rank, description, 
 disease, etc. 
 
 Side. The side of the ship includes all the 
 outside upper works from the gunwale down to 
 the main-wales, where the bottom commences. 
 
 SIDE-BOYS. Boys detailed to attend at the 
 gangway, on the approach of officers, digni 
 taries, etc. By the regulations of the navy, 
 side-boys may be called as follows : for admiral 
 and vice-admiral, 8 ; rear-admiral or commodore, 
 6 ; captain and commander, 4 ; all other officers, 
 2. This time-honored custom is gradually fall 
 ing into disuse. 
 
 SIDE-CLEANERS. Men detailed to keep the 
 side clean, sweep out channels, etc. These are 
 
SIDE-BEAM ENGINE 
 
 751 
 
 SIGNALS 
 
 chosen from each part of the ship in rotation, and 
 clean their own parts. 
 
 SIDE COUNTER-TIMBER. The stern-timber 
 resting on the wing-transom, and extending to 
 the upper rail. 
 
 SIDE-CURTAINS. The awning curtains. 
 
 SIDE-LADDER, or ACCOMMODATION-LADDER. 
 A staircase fitted to ship and unship, used at the 
 gangways on the outside of large ships. On 
 steamers it is usually a short ladder, tricing up 
 at the lower end when not in use. 
 
 SIDE-LIGHTS. Lanterns used at the gangway 
 at night. The running lights placed on either 
 side of the ship, green and red in color. 
 
 SIDE OUT FORA BEND (Eng.}, In coiling a 
 cable, to draw outside the last turn, to begin a 
 new sheave, or tier. 
 
 SIDE-SCREENS. Screens of canvas placed about 
 the side-ladder. 
 
 SIDE-STEPS. Pieces of wood bolted to the 
 ship s side at the gangway, serving as steps to 
 ascend the side. 
 
 SIDE-STOPS. Stops fastened to the side-ropes 
 of an awning, to spread it to the ridge-rope. 
 
 SIDE-WIND. A wind from one side, so that 
 the ship may lay her course, but the yards are 
 braced in more or less. A wind blowing from 
 one point forward to three points abaft the 
 beam. 
 
 Side-beam Engine, or Side-lever Engine. 
 A form of marine steam-engine in which the 
 motion is transmitted from the piston-rod cross- 
 head by side-rods passing downward on each side 
 of a vertical cylinder to a pair of beams or levers 
 working at the sides of the bed-plate near the 
 bottom of the vessel, and from thence, through 
 the cross-tail and connecting-rod, upwards to the 
 crank. The object of the arrangement is to 
 secure conciseness and enable the engine to be 
 placed low in the vessel and well protected below- 
 decks. It is used for paddle-wheels only. The 
 form is nearly obsolete. 
 
 Sidereal (Lat. sideralis, from sidus, sideris, a 
 star). Pertaining to the stars. See DAY, TIME, 
 YEAR. 
 
 Side-keels. Keels on either side of the centre 
 line of the ship s bottom. Used in small vessels, 
 to give greater stiffness to them. 
 
 Side-keelsons. Sister, or side-keelsons, are 
 additional to the main keelson, and are used es 
 pecially in light-draft vessels to add to the stiff 
 ness of the main keelson, when it has not suffi 
 cient depth. 
 
 Side-lever. One of the beams of a side-lever 
 engine. A lever working at the side of any ma 
 chine. 
 
 Side-rod. One of the rods connecting the 
 cross-head of a steam-engine to a side-lever. In 
 back-acting screw-propeller engines having a 
 single piston-rod, the rods or bars connecting the 
 piston-rod cross-head with the connecting-rod 
 cross-head are called side-rods. 
 
 Side-sights. Sights for a cannon placed at 
 the side of the breech, and on the trunnion. 
 
 Side-tackle. A luff-tackle on either side of a 
 broadside gun-carriage, having the inner-block 
 hooked to an eye-bolt in the carriage, and the 
 outer-block to the fighting-bolt or to the securing- 
 bolt in the ship s side. 
 
 SIDE-TACKLE BLOCK. These Mocks are now 
 made of gun-metal, with a nib, or h\!f-hook, cast 
 on them. 
 
 SIDE-TACKLE BOLT. The eye-bolt in the 
 gun-carriage, to which the side-tackle hooks. 
 
 Siding. The breadth of a piece of a timber. 
 Making two sides of a timber parallel. 
 
 Sight. An observation of the altitude or other 
 angular distance of a heavenly body. A piece 
 of metal fixed on a fire-arm for the purpose of 
 directing the fire of the gun. The breech-sight is 
 that placed at the breech of the gun, on which are 
 marked the degrees of elevation and the distance 
 corresponding to such elevation attained by the 
 shot. The front-sight is a small wedge, placed 
 farther towards the muzzle of the gun, which is 
 so brought in line with the bottom of the notch 
 in the breech-sight, and the object, that a straight 
 line is formed by the line of sight. Sometimes 
 this sight is on the muzzle ; at others it becomes 
 a reinforce-sight, when it is placed at or near the 
 reinforce of the gun. Side-sights have been de 
 scribed above, and then the front-sight is a 
 trunnion- sight, placed on the trunnion of the 
 gun. Tangent-sight, see TANGENT. Dispart- 
 sight, see DISPART. Rifle-sights have a small 
 side piece, allowing for the drift of the projectile. 
 The fitting and adjusting of the sights of a gun 
 is an operation requiring great care and preci 
 sion. Leaf-sights are those on small-arms, where 
 a movable leaf or hinge is raised, to obtain long 
 ranges. To sight, to see, as to sight land. To 
 sight the anchor, to heave it up to see if it is 
 clear. 
 
 SIGHT-BAR. A metal bar on which the range 
 in yards, or in degrees, is marked. It is a part 
 of the breech-sight, and, by raising or lowering 
 it, different ranges are obtained. 
 
 SIGHT-COVER. A metal cover, placed over the 
 sight of a gun, to protect it from injury when 
 not in use. 
 
 SIGHT-MASS. A casting, or projection on the 
 gun, on which the sights are placed. 
 
 SIGHT, TELESCOPIC. Sights with telescopes 
 attached, to magnify the "object at great dis 
 tances. 
 
 SIGHT-VANE. See VANE. 
 
 Signals, Marine. Marine signals are certain 
 signs agreed upon for suddenly communicating 
 intelligence to distant objects at sea, to which 
 the voice cannot possibly reach. The necessity 
 for the establishment of a code of communica 
 tion by means of fixed signs must have been 
 made evident and have been provided for simul 
 taneously with the first formation of a fleet for 
 united action. It is well known that signals 
 were made in the early Greek and Persian fleets 
 by means of the sails, certain meanings being 
 attached to the partial loosing of one or more. 
 The exhibition of shields in prominent positions 
 and flaming fires were also modes of communi 
 cation. As the early naval tactics, however, 
 comprised but few manreuvres, no full descrip 
 tion of any single code of signals is to be found 
 in ancient writings. Marine signal systems are 
 properly divided into three main categories, 
 Day signals, Night signals, and Fog signals, and 
 these branches will be treated of separately in 
 considering the developments of the science. 
 
 Day Signals. Of the systems coming under 
 this head those involving the use of flags" are the 
 most important. That flag signals were in use 
 as early as the 13th century is evidenced by one 
 of the articles of the Laws of Oleron, by which 
 it is prescribed that a vessel desiring a tow or a 
 
SIGNALS 
 
 752 
 
 SIGNALS 
 
 pilot shall hoist her ensign. As early as the first 
 part of the 17th century an approach to a regular 
 flag code is noted, in which flags, pennants, and 
 banners were used. 
 
 Papal Code (1614). In the papal fleet instruc 
 tions it is prescribed that : A pennant hoisted on 
 the poop indicates "make sail," and it is to be 
 dipped once for each sail- to be set. A pennant 
 from the mast-head look-out indicates a strange 
 sail in sight ; it is to be dipped once for each sail 
 seen. A pennant from the yard-arm indicates 
 that " wine is being served out to the crew." A 
 square flag at the same place, "bread is being 
 served out" ; and both signals together, " bread 
 and wine." A banner held up by a man standing 
 amidships indicates " distress." A banner held 
 up on the poop indicates " form line ahead." 
 From these examples it is seen that both tac 
 tical and general signals were in use, and that 
 a distinction of color in the flags was made at 
 that day is evidenced by a fragment of fleet 
 instructions issued as early as 1420 by the Ve 
 netian Capt.-Gen. Piero Mozenigo, in which 
 it is stated that each galley of the fleet shall have 
 a ship s signal, or, as it would now be called, a 
 number, consisting of a pennant and a flag, 
 which when hoisted should indicate that the ad 
 miral desired to communicate with such vessel. 
 Although fleet signals were thus used, they ap 
 pear to have been upon no fixed principles pre 
 vious to the middle of the 17th century. 
 
 Duke of York s Code (1665). To King James 
 the Second of England, when, as Duke of York, 
 he commanded the English fleet in the Dutch 
 war of 1665, belongs the honor of first establish 
 ing a signal code upon a regular system. Exactly 
 what this code was is not known, but it is surmised 
 that it was based upon naming flags for the letters 
 of the alphabet. It would seem scarcely prob 
 able that signals were spelled out by this means, 
 as the majority of the commanders in his fleet in 
 all probability were unable to read ; but it is cer 
 tain that his fleet instructions comprehended a 
 long list of tactical and general signals based 
 upon a regular system. By the middle of the 
 18th century this system had been developed to 
 the extent that throughout the English fleet a 
 code system was in use in which 30 flags were 
 used, 1 for each letter of the alphabet and 4 aux 
 iliary flags. This system was, however, quite 
 complex, as different meanings were given to 
 combinations when hoisted in different places. 
 
 Lord Howe s Code (1792). In 1781 a Mr. Mc- 
 Arthur, who had been secretary to Admiral Lord 
 Hood on the American station, devised an im 
 proved code, which was introduced into the British 
 service as Lord Howe s Code in 1792. In this code 
 the number of flags was reduced to 13, and pen 
 nants were abolished. In the make-up of the 
 flags 4 colors were used, Ked, Blue, Yellow, 
 and White, there being but 2 colors in each flag. 
 Each flag was known by a number from 1 to 12, 
 and also by a letter. In designating the letters 
 a very shrewd system was introduced. The flags 
 were made as follows : In 3 the colors were hori 
 zontal ; in 8 perpendicular ; in 3 diagonal ; in 3 
 double diagonal, and the 13th, called the " substi 
 tute" flag, was blue with a square white centre 
 (the present blue peter). The flags taken in regu 
 lar succession were called from the first 12 letters 
 of the alphabet. For the next 12 they were in 
 verted, or where inversion would make no change 
 
 the other color was placed next to the mast. The 
 last two letters were made with two flags. In this 
 manner an alphabetical code was established, 
 while for the numbered code, by means of the 
 inversion and the substitute flag, 20,000 signals 
 were made with not more than 4 flags in a hoist. 
 It was by means of this system that the famous 
 Trafalgar signal was made, " England expects 
 every man to do his duty." In this code also 
 appears for the first time a division of the sig 
 nal book into subjects, Anchoring, Calling 
 Officers, Chasing, Convoy, Fighting Instructions, 
 Sailing Evolutions, Private Signals, and Miscel 
 laneous. 
 
 United States Code (1795). The early United 
 States Code was almost precisely similar to the 
 English development of King James s Code. 
 There were 26 flags, one for each letter, and a 
 number of pennants for special and defining sig 
 nals. There was no fixed code dictionary, but 
 beyond a few general signals each squadron com 
 mander made up his own combination. This 
 continued until about 1816, when a code diction 
 ary was issued, in which, however, no regular 
 method was followed out. About 1826 the Brit 
 ish Admiralty altered their system to a 10-flag 
 code, introducing pennants again for defining 
 the various meanings of certain combinations. 
 
 Rogers s American Code (1846). The United 
 States Navy Department adopted a code in 1846 
 devised by Henry J. Rogers, superintendent of 
 telegraphs. In this code there were 9 square 
 flags and 5 pennants. The flags were numbered 
 from 1 to 9. One pennant was 0, or hoisted singly 
 was the alphabetical signal. The next 3 were 
 repeaters, and when hoisted singly were respect 
 ively, Answering, Yes and No. The fifth pennant 
 was the " Numeral." The first 9 letters of the 
 alphabet were made with the single flag, the next 
 9 by a square flag with a pennant under, and the 
 last 8 by the square flag with the pennant over. 
 The signals in the dictionary were numbered in 
 regular order up to 13,405, the book being di 
 vided into 14 headings. In this system a pilot 
 code was introduced for use in piloting ships 
 into harbor or out when circumstances would 
 forbid boarding. These were made by means of 
 the union-jack hoisted in conjunction with one 
 or more signals. 
 
 United States Code (1861). Rogers s Code was 
 modified in 1861 to a system having 12 square 
 flags and 9 pennants; there being 10 numbered 
 flags, 3 repeating pennants, and 2 square and 6 
 pennants as defining signals. The dictionary 
 was reduced to contain 9999 signals. Thus this 
 system was an elaboration rather than a modifi 
 cation of previous systems. In 1866 this system 
 was still further elaborated by the addition of 
 some 6 or 8 defining flags and pennants. At the 
 same time the signal book was remodeled. Tac 
 tical signals were separated from the general 
 signal book, and the latter was arranged accord 
 ing to the customary method, Alphabetical, 
 Compass, Word, Geographical, and General. 
 
 International Code (1856). The British gov 
 ernment devised a code for international use in 
 1856, which by 1871 had been adopted through 
 out the world with the single exception of the 
 U. S. merchant marine. This code is made up 
 of 1 burgee, or swallow-tailed flag, 13 square flags, 
 and 5 pennants. Eighteen of these flags and 
 pennants represent the 18 consonants of "the al- 
 
SIGNALS 
 
 753 
 
 SIGNALS 
 
 phabet, the nineteenth color being a pennant for 
 answering and defining. In this code appears 
 an arrangement that may well be called the per 
 fection of principle. The signal book is divided 
 into different topical headings, and it is the des 
 ignation of these headings by which they may be 
 known at great distances or in calms that con 
 stitute the excellence of the principle. The des 
 ignations are as follows : 
 
 Two-flag signals having the burgee uppermost 
 are attention signals. 
 
 Two-flag signals having a pennant uppermost 
 are compass signals. 
 
 Two-flag signals having a square flag upper 
 most are urgent signals. 
 
 Three-flag signals are all general in character. 
 
 Pour-flag signals having the burgee uppermost 
 are geographical signals. 
 
 Four-flag signals having a pennant uppermost 
 are spelling signals or names of men-of-war. 
 
 Four-flag signals having the square flag upper 
 most are names of merchant vessels. 
 
 This principle has been adopted in all naval 
 codes except that of the United States, which at 
 present is the most cumbersome extant. 
 
 Tide Signals. At many ports where the rise 
 and fall of the tide is very great, flag signals are 
 used at some elevated shore-station to denote the 
 depth of water in the channel at different tidal 
 intervals. At these stations signals are also pro 
 vided by which a ship may be directed in her 
 course up the channel when circumstances forbid 
 her being boarded by a pilot. 
 
 Storm Signals. A system has been introduced 
 along the coast of the United States, and is 
 rapidly being extended to European coasts, by 
 which the approach of a storm arid the direction 
 from which the wind will blow is signaled to de 
 parting or approaching vessels. 
 
 Distant Signals. Under many circumstances 
 it becomes impossible to communicate by means 
 of flags during the day, and to obviate this diffi 
 culty a system of distant signals is introduced 
 into the International Code. This system con 
 sists in substituting shapes to designate letters in 
 place of flags ; the objects chosen are a ball, a 
 pennant, and a square flag, or objects which 
 would approach these shapes, such as a bucket, 
 an oar, and a shirt. Eighteen different combi 
 nations of these objects give the 18 consonants 
 of the code. The same idea is carried out at 
 shore-stations. 
 
 Semaphoric Signals. At coast telegraph-sta 
 tions semaphores are put up for communicating 
 with vessels. These semaphores consist of a long 
 staff having hinged at its top a disk, and down 
 its length 3 long slats. The disk at horizontal 
 means Answering, at vertical, International 
 Code. A slat pointing angularly downward 
 represents a pennant, horizontal, a ball, and 
 angularly upward, a square flag. Thus any 3- 
 flag signal (all such being general) may be made 
 at one motion. 
 
 Night Signals. The use of night signals prob 
 ably originated about the same time as day codes ; 
 as previously noted, the ancients used signal- 
 fires, and in Mozenigo s fleet instructions we find 
 them provided for. 
 
 Mozenigo s Code (1420). A fire exhibited on 
 
 the poop shall signify " set the mainsail," 2 fires, 
 
 " both the square-sails," 3 fires, " all plain sail," 4 
 
 fires, "lay in the oars and make all sail," In 
 
 48 
 
 the papal prescriptions is found a reference to 
 running lights: "Division and squadron com 
 manders shall carry 3 lanterns at night, other 
 galleys 1 lantern." 
 
 King James s Code (1665). Guns were used for 
 night signals soon after their introduction in 
 naval services. King James instituted a regular 
 numbered code, which, although appearing com 
 ical at this day, shows how wisely the principles 
 of signaling were laid down at that time. In 
 this code guns, blue-lights, and lanterns were 
 used. One gun was attention, or number 0. Then 
 1, 2, 3, and 4 were designated by the correspond 
 ing number of lanterns, 5 by 1 blue-light, 6, 
 1 blue-light and 1 lantern, and so on up to 10, 
 which was 2 guns. There were only 40 signals 
 in the code, but the numbers were unmistakable. 
 Thus, 39 would be 4 guns, 1 blue-light and 4 
 lanterns. The signals were all urgent or tactical. 
 
 Kempenfeldt s Code (1792). The King James 
 Code was used until the adoption of Lord Howe s 
 Day Code, in 1792, when a code of lantern sig 
 nals, devised by Admiral Kempenfeldt, and per 
 fected by Mr. McArthur, was adopted. This 
 code did away with guns and blue-lights, using 
 only lanterns. Eight lanterns were used, divided 
 into 2 groups ; 4 were hoisted either at the star 
 board yard-arm or fore-gaff, and 4 at the port 
 yard-arm or spanker-gaff, depending upon the 
 position of the vessel signaled to. Each lantern 
 was provided with a tin " obscurer," worked by 
 tricing lines from deck, and numbers were sig 
 naled by means of the combinations of two or 
 more lights shown. Whilst this system was 
 used, the old gun and light method was retained 
 for important fleet signals. 
 
 Rogers 1 s Code (1846). Colored lights were in 
 troduced for signal purposes in the first part of 
 the present century, but the first regular pyro- 
 technical system was devised in the United States 
 by Eogers. In this system, pyrotechnical com 
 position was made up in small cylinders, colors 
 corresponding with the day flags. By removing 
 a small cap and igniting the composition with a 
 slow-match, the colors burned in regular suc 
 cession. 
 
 Coston s Code (1858). The Rogers system was 
 modified and improved in 1858, by Gunner Cos- 
 ton, of the U. S. navy. A more brilliant com 
 position was introduced, and the signals were so 
 made that they were held in the hand and ignited 
 by percussion. 
 
 Very s Code (1877). Lieut. Very introduced 
 a code in 1877, in which a departure was made 
 from Rogers s principle. The signals them 
 selves were devised on the principle of a ball 
 cartridge, single stars being shot into the air to 
 a height of about 400 feet. The principle of the 
 code approached closely that of a telegraphic 
 system. Each digital number or letter of the 
 alphabet is made by the same number of stars, 
 so that in transmitting a signal no time interval 
 is made between letters or figures. By a simple 
 method of interjecting stars in the regular course 
 of a signal, the desired message is so completely 
 ciphered as to be entirely unintelligible to any 
 except those understanding the cipher. In place 
 of the 18 or 20 different pyrotechnical pieces used 
 in the Rogers and Coston codes, but 2 are used, 
 and only 2 colors, in place of the 3 of the earlier 
 methods. 
 
 Rule of the Road Signals. It has been stated 
 
SIGNALS 
 
 V54 
 
 SILL 
 
 that running lights were used regularly as early 
 as the 15th century, and probably they were 
 used much earlier, but no change in the method 
 of carrying a light at night appears to have been 
 made from the earliest days down to 1846, when 
 it was prescribed that steamers should carry 2 
 lights. In 1852 the rule for vessels to carry a 
 red light on the port side, and a green light on 
 the starboard side, was adopted. In 1861 steam 
 ers were ordered to carry a white mast-head light. 
 In 1864 the international rules were promul 
 gated, by which sailing-vessels, steamers, vessels 
 in tow, and pilot vessels were made distinguish 
 able by their lights. In 1880 these rules were 
 revised, and additional lights were provided for 
 vessels in distress, and for vessels engaged in dif 
 ferent kinds of fishing. 
 
 Fog Signals. The custom of blowing fish-horns 
 to denote the position of a vessel in a fog is one 
 several centuries old, but no regular rules for 
 fog signals appear to have been made previous 
 to about 1840, when the rule for sailing-vessels 
 of blowing 1 blast when on the starboard tack, 
 2 on the port, and 3 when running free, was 
 made. About this time the rule for steam- 
 vessels to blow the whistle was established. In 
 1864 fog signals were incorporated in the Rules 
 of the Road, the old rule for sailing-vessels being 
 abolished, and in place of it a single signal of 1 
 blast introduced. All vessels at anchor in a fog 
 struck the bell at short intervals, in place of 
 sounding a horn or whistle. In 1868 a rule was 
 adopted in United States waters by which, at all 
 times, when a steam-vessel changed her course 
 to avoid another, she blew 1 short blast if keep 
 ing to starboard, 2 if keeping to port, and 3 if 
 backing. In 1880 the new Rules of the Road 
 made the system complete. By these rules steam 
 ers blow 1 long blast at intervals in a fog, 1 
 short blast if keeping to starboard, 2 if keep 
 ing to port, and 3 if backing. Sail-vessels blow 
 a mechanical horn; 1 blast for the starboard 
 tack, 2 for the port tack, and 3 for running 
 free. Vessels at anchor toll the bell at short 
 intervals. 
 
 Course Signals. In addition to the above- 
 mentioned fog signals, various propositions have 
 at times been submitted to different governments 
 for the introduction of a code of signals that 
 should designate the course a vessel is heading in 
 a fog. One system has been adopted in Sweden, 
 and that government is at present making en 
 deavors to have it made general. 
 
 Ahlborg s Code. In this code 2 whistles are 
 used, a shrill treble and a deep bass. North is 
 denoted by a blast of the treble whistle. N. E., 
 one treble and one bass. E., one treble and two 
 bass. S. E., one treble and three bass. S., one 
 bass. S. W., one bass and one treble. W., one 
 bass and two treble. N. W., one bass and three 
 treble. 
 
 Telegraphic Signals. The first military code 
 of telegraphic signals of which well-authenti 
 cated information exists was devised in France, 
 in 1793. This consisted of a semaphore, having 
 two pivoted and jointed arms, by which combi 
 nation/} representing letters of the alphabet could 
 be readily made. This system was adopted in 
 the French navy, and was shortly afterward 
 introduced into the British navy in a modified 
 form. A system upon the same basis was intro 
 duced in the U. S. navy about 1830. The prin 
 
 ciples of this system are used at present in Euro 
 pean navies; but in that of the United States, 
 the semaphoric method has been replaced by 
 Myer s code, consisting of combinations of two 
 elements, expressing the letters of the alphabet. 
 This system is transmitted by day by means of 
 swinging flags, and at night by swinging lan 
 terns. Edward W. Very, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 SIGNAL-BOOK. A book in which signals are 
 recorded. A book containing the code of sig 
 nals. Signal-books are bound with metal, so as 
 to sink in case of capture, and are kept in the 
 cabin. 
 
 SIGNAL-CHEST. A chest on the poop, arranged 
 with pigeon-holes for signal-flags. 
 
 SIGNAL-FLAGS. The flags used in signaling. 
 
 SIGNAL-LOCKER. A locker to contain signal- 
 flags. 
 
 SIGNAL-MAN. A man who makes and reads 
 signals. 
 
 SIGNAL-OFFICER. The officer charged with 
 the supervision of signals. 
 
 SIGNAL-QUARTERMASTER. A petty officer who 
 has charge of the signals, lights, lanterns, etc. 
 
 SIGNALIZE. To make signals to. 
 
 Signing-officers (Eng.). Officers accountable 
 for stores, who sign the receipt therefor. 
 
 Signs of the Ecliptic, or Zodiac. The ecliptic 
 is divided into twelve equal portions called signs, 
 each occupying 30 of its circumference, com 
 mencing from the vernal equinoctial point, or 
 first point of Aries. The names of the signs, in 
 order, with their several symbols, are as follows : 
 Aries, C Y D , Taurus, ^, Gemini, n, Cancer, 05, 
 Leo, &, Virgo, H ; Libra =G=, Scorpio n^, Sagit 
 tarius f , Capricornus VJ, Aquarius $*, Pisces } 
 The first six are the northern, and the last six 
 the southern signs. These are the names also of 
 the twelve constellations of the zodiac ; and when 
 this notation was established, "the signs of the 
 ecliptic," or, as they are sometimes called, "the 
 signs of the zodiac, " coincided in position with 
 the "constellations" of the same name, which 
 name, consequently, the sign took. This coinci 
 dence, however, no longer exists. The vernal 
 equinoctial point, or first point of Aries, from 
 which the divisions of the ecliptic commence, has 
 a slow retrograde motion along the ecliptic, so 
 that it is no longer in the constellation of Aries, 
 but is now situated in that of Pisces, and so for 
 all the "signs" whose position is defined by that 
 of the origin ; they have retrograded with respect 
 to the corresponding constellations, or, which is 
 the same thing, the constellations have pro 
 gressed relatively to them, the constellation 
 Aries now occupying the sign Taurus, the con 
 stellation Taurus the sign Gemini, and so on. 
 Hence it must be particularly observed that the 
 signs of the ecliptic are now regarded as purely 
 technical subdivisions, and are not to be confused 
 with the constellations of the same name, though 
 they were original!} 7 identical. In former times 
 it was usual to note the longitude of a heavenly 
 body in signs, degrees, minutes, and seconds, a 
 sign being equal to 30. 
 
 Silence ! A command to the men at the guns, 
 when they all face the gun, and await in silence 
 further orders. 
 
 Sill. A young herring. The timber at the 
 base of a dock-entrance, against which the gate 
 shuts. The upper and lower part of the frame of 
 a port. 
 
SILLOCK 
 
 755 
 
 SISTEK-SHIPS 
 
 Sillock (Eng.). Young coal-fish. 
 
 Silometer. A speed measurer; a log towed 
 in the wake of the ship, registering the speed. 
 See LOG. 
 
 Silt. Soft, oozy sediment. To silt up, to be 
 come choked up with mud or sediment. 
 
 SILT-GROUNDS. Deep-water fishing banks off 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Siluridan. A fish of the family of which the 
 genus Slluris is the type. 
 
 Siluris. A genus of large malacopterygious 
 fishes, without true scales, and found in the in 
 land waters of Europe, Asia Minor, etc. 
 
 Silver-fish. A fish of the size of a small carp, 
 having a white color, striped with silver lines. 
 
 Silver-oar (Eng.). A badge of a maritime 
 court. 
 
 Silver-thaw. The ice falling in large flakes 
 from sails and rigging. 
 
 Simoom. A hot, dry wind, blowing from the 
 Arabian deserts. 
 
 Simpson, Edward, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New 
 York, February 11, 1840; attached to sloop 
 " Decatur" and frigate " Potomac," Brazil 
 Squadron, 1840-41 ; returned to the United 
 States in frigate " Constitution," 1841 ; attached 
 to frigate u Independence," Home Squadron, 
 1841-42 ; attached to frigate " Congress," Medi 
 terranean and Brazil Squadrons, 1842-45 ; at 
 tached to receiving-ship " North Carolina," 
 1845 ; Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., 1845-46. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 1846 ; 
 war with Mexico ; attached to steamer u Vixen," 
 1846-47 ; present at attack on forts of Alvarado, 
 under Commodore Connor; at two attacks on 
 Tabasco, under Commodore Perry ; at capture of 
 Tampico, under Commodore Perry ; at capture of 
 Tuspan; at capture of Coatzacoalcos ; at capture 
 of Laguna de Terminos. At siege of Vera Cruz, 
 covered the landing of the U. S. army, and took 
 part with the rest of the Mosquito Fleet in the 
 bombardment of the city of Vera Cruz and of 
 the Castle of San Juan de Ulloa ; attached to coast 
 survey, 1848-50; attached to frigate " Congress," 
 Brazil Squadron, 1850-53 ; attached to Naval 
 Academy, as assistant instructor in naval gun 
 nery and infantry tactics, 1853-54. 
 
 Promoted to master, July 10, 1854 ; coast sur 
 vey, 1855-56. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 18, 1855 ; 
 attached to sloop u Portsmouth," East India 
 Squadron, 1856-58 ; engaged with Commander 
 A. H. Foote in the bombardment and capture 
 of the Barrier Forts in the Canton River ; at 
 tached to Naval Academy, in charge of instruc 
 tion in theory and practice of naval gunnery, 
 1858-62 ; commandant of midshipmen, at Naval 
 Academy, 1862-63. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862 ; commanding ironclad " Passaic," 
 South Atlantic Squadron, 1863-64 ; engaged 
 with Fort Wagner, July 29, 1863 ; Fort Sumter, 
 August 17, 1863 ; Fort Wagner, August 18, 1863 ; 
 Fort Sumter, August 23, 1863 ; Fort Moultrie, 
 August 31, 1863^; Fort Sumter, September 1, 
 1863 ; Battery Bee, September 8, 1863 ; Fort 
 Moultrie, November 16, 1863; commanding 
 steamer "Isonomia," off Wilmington, in East 
 Gulf Squadron, and on Bahama Banks, 1864 ; 
 fleet-captain, Blockading Squadron, 1865-66 ; 
 engaged in operations before Mobile, from March 
 
 27, 1865, to April 12, 1865, when the city capit 
 ulated. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, March 3, 1865 ; 
 commanding steam-sloop "Mohican" and steamer 
 "Mohongo," North Pacific Squadron, 1866-68; 
 in charge Hydrographic Office, Washington, 
 1868-69 ; assistant to chief of Bureau of "Ord 
 nance, Navy Department, Washington, 1869-70. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, August 15, 1870; 
 special service in Europe, 1870-72 ; command 
 ing Torpedo Station, 1873 ; commanding steam- 
 frigate " Franklin," North Atlantic Station, 
 1873-74; commanding frigate " Wabash," 
 North Atlantic Station, 1874 ; commanding 
 Torpedo Station, 1874-75 ; commanding steam- 
 sloop " Omaha," South Pacific Station, 1875-77 ; 
 navy-yard, New York, 1877-78. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, April 26, 1878 ; com 
 mandant Naval Station, New London, Conn., 
 1878-80. 
 
 Sing. To cry out in hauling on ropes, not 
 tolerated in the navy. To sing out, to cry out. 
 
 Single. To unreeve the parts of a doubled 
 rope, as tacks and sheets. 
 
 Single-acting Engine. An engine in which 
 the steam acts on one side of the piston only. 
 
 Single Anchor. A ship is at a single anchor 
 when only one anchor is down. 
 
 Single-banked. When but one man on a seat 
 rows a single oar, a boat is said to be single- 
 banked. Gigs, dingeys, and whaleboats are 
 single-banked. 
 
 Single-block. A block with but one sheave; 
 
 Singlestick. A wooden sword, used in broad 
 sword exercise. 
 
 Sinical Quadrant. An instrument formerly 
 used to work out traverses. 
 
 Sinking-head. An extra length on a casting, 
 into which the poorer metal sinks, and is cut 
 away. Also called sprue-head. 
 
 Sinnet. See SENNIT. 
 
 Sirius, or Dog-star (Gr. Seirios, from seirein, 
 to scorch). The bright star a Canis Majoris is 
 so called for the following reason : In ancient 
 times the heliacal rising of this star followed 
 close upon the summer solstice. This, in the 
 Mediterranean latitudes, was the season of the 
 greatest heats, unhealthy and oppressive, and 
 during which dogs were liable to madness. The 
 Egyptians called this star Sothis, and from its 
 heliacal rising were warned that the annual 
 overflow of the Nile was about to commence. 
 Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the 
 heliacal rising of Sirius has slowly changed ; it 
 takes place now about August 10. 
 
 Sirmarks. Stations marked upon the molds 
 for the frame-timber, etc., indicating where the 
 bevelings are to be applied. 
 
 Sirocco. A hot and dry wind, southeast in 
 Italy, blowing from the desert. 
 
 Sissoo. A kind of Indian ship-timber. 
 
 Sister-block. A double-block, having one 
 sheave over the other, the shell being in one 
 piece. It is seized in between the two forward 
 topmast shrouds. 
 
 Sister-hooks. A pair of hooks, working on 
 the same axis, and closing into one, fitting closely 
 in that position. 
 
 Sister-keelsons. A pair of keelsons placed 
 on each side of the middle line. 
 
 Sister-ships. Ships made on the same model, 
 and rigged alike. 
 
SITCH 
 
 756 
 
 SKETCHING 
 
 Sitch. A little stream of water, dry in sum 
 mer. 
 
 Six-upon-four (Eng.}. Rations reduced at 
 the rate of 6 to 4 men. 
 
 Six- water-grog (Eng.\ Grog weakened to 
 six parts of water, for punishment. 
 
 Size-fish. A large whale, whose whalebones 
 are at least 6 feet long. 
 
 Sizing. A gelatinous solution used in paint 
 ing, gilding, etc. 
 
 Skate. A cartilaginous fish of the genus Raia, 
 having the body flattened, the skin set above 
 with spines or thorns, the branchial openings 
 below, and cartilaginous flaps extending from 
 the nose backward toward the pectoral fins, which 
 last form broad, lateral expansions, and give the 
 whole body a rhomboid form. It is wholly ma 
 rine, and is found in all parts of the world. The 
 Raia batis, called the skate, gray skate, or blue 
 skate, weighs sometimes 200 pounds, and is used 
 for .the table. 
 
 Skate-lurker. Cant for a begging .impostor 
 in sailor-clothes. 
 
 Skeat. The star (3 Pegasi. See PEGASUS. 
 
 Skeel. A wooden bucket, or water-kid. 
 
 Skeer. See SCAR. 
 
 Skeet. A long-handled scoop, used to wash 
 the sides of a ship, and formerly, to wet the 
 sails. 
 
 Skee-tack. A name for the cuttle-fish. 
 
 Skeg, or Skegg. A projecting stump formerly 
 left on the keel, abaft the stern-post. The after- 
 e nd of the keel. The composition piece sup 
 porting the heel of an equipoise rudder. 
 
 SKEOG-SHORES. A name for the shores under 
 the after part of the keel, when launching a 
 ship. 
 
 Sker, or Skerry. A flat rock, always above 
 water. 
 
 Sketching. The art of sketching is of the 
 greatest practical utility to the naval officer, and 
 in every branch of his profession an ample field 
 is afforded for the exercise of this accomplish 
 ment. 
 
 Most of the popular and scientific magazines 
 and journals are filled with skillful reproductions 
 of pen or pencil sketches, and indeed a descrip 
 tive article is hardly considered complete with 
 out these embellishments. 
 
 The intimate relation of drawing to almost 
 every art and trade is generally recognized, and 
 in the principal countries of Europe the instruc 
 tion of artisans in the uses of pen, pencil, and 
 brush is encouraged by the government. 
 
 It is not presumed that one should necessarily 
 be an accomplished artist in order to produce 
 very useful and creditable plans and sketches. 
 Enough for practical purposes can be done by 
 any intelligent person who will devote a reason 
 able amount of time to acquiring a few rudi 
 mentary principles and sufficient practice. 
 
 Whatever may be the advantages of the 
 camera, that valuable instrument is not always 
 at hand, and when it is, circumstances beyond 
 our control often prevent its use ; this is espe 
 cially apt to be the case at sea. 
 
 In time of peace many of our naval officers 
 will be employed in surveying, and on squadron 
 service no officer is more usefully engaged than 
 when collecting and transmitting the informa 
 tion which his surroundings afford. Designs of 
 the novel vessels now building in Europe, forti 
 
 fications, breakwaters, landmarks, approaches to 
 harbors, and new inventions in artillery can in 
 no way be so clearly and accurately described as 
 by sketches. 
 
 In time of war there can be no question about 
 the advantages of an art which is capable of 
 presenting at a glance the order of battle, plan of 
 attack and defense, positions of fortifications and 
 obstructions, and the manifold considerations 
 that must influence the movements of a com 
 mander. 
 
 The report of the Honorable Secretary of the 
 Navy for 1879 is an example of the Depart 
 ment s encouragement and appreciation of such 
 efforts. Our text-books on seamanship and gun 
 nery teem with illustrations, and every inventor, 
 to present clearly his ideas, must be aided by 
 sketches and plans. 
 
 To the marine surveyor the art is invaluable. 
 An officer who has seriously tried to sketch dur 
 ing the progress of a survey will often be grati 
 fied, if not surprised, at the amount of informa 
 tion which even very crude sketches may afford. 
 The pencil is of course the chief instrument for 
 such delineations, a hard one is best, and draw 
 ing-blocks or sheets of paper are necessary. 
 With these simple appliances the boat-officer 
 will be able to sketch in the coast-line, while 
 from the ship the more general outlines of the 
 country surveyed may be drawn. Such work 
 will probably represent only a rough outline, 
 stained by the salt spray and very "shaky" in 
 execution, but if it be neatly copied in the 
 sketch-book before the scene is forgotten, minor 
 details may be supplied, and the purpose is ac 
 complished. Circumstances rarely admit of the 
 selection of positions for pictorial effect, but there 
 are certain essentials which should if possible be 
 complied with. 
 
 The main object is the selection of a station, or 
 point of view, the distance of which from the 
 scene or object should not be less than the width 
 of the latter, in many cases it may be greater, 
 but where the distance equals the width of the 
 scene, the angle of vision will not be much less 
 than 60, which is the greatest the eye can take 
 in at one view. Having determined on and oc 
 cupied this position, and chosen the objects that 
 are to constitute the front of the picture, the 
 paper having been previously cut nearly the size 
 of the intended drawing, the delineator holds it 
 up with his left hand before the scene, its lower 
 edge corresponding with the front line of those 
 objects, at such distance from his eye that the 
 width may exactly comprise the scene to be 
 drawn. With the paper in this position let him 
 first mark on both its sides the exact intersections 
 of the horizon which connect by a line across it, 
 opposite to this mark the point of sight. On the 
 sides and upper and lower edges mark the places, 
 the heights and widths of the principal lines and 
 objects. 
 
 With the assistance of these marks and the 
 point of sight, and frequent careful references to 
 the scene, the objects may be drawn in their 
 proper places and in tolerably good perspective, 
 which may afterward be verified and corrected 
 by rule. The thickness and force of the various 
 marks and lines must be graded to the distance 
 of the objects they respectively represent. In 
 sketching, this is a great aid to perspective effect ; 
 and by beginning first the distance with a finely- 
 
SKETCHING 
 
 757 
 
 SKEWER-PIECES 
 
 pointed pencil, the marks, as they approach the 
 foreground, will of themselves acquire increased 
 thickness by the wearing down of the point. 
 Care must be taken to avoid too many marks 
 and lines, which will produce a confused effect, 
 and is a common error with beginners, who 
 should study to attain the smallest number of 
 marks that will correctly denote the character of 
 the object. Increased boldness in the outlines 
 of the foreground may be produced by using a 
 softer and blacker pencil ; this will often assist 
 the perspective effect by increasing the idea of 
 their nearness to the spectator. 
 
 These are the main points to be attended to in 
 a sketch from nature, so far as perspective is 
 concerned. The character of details, such as the 
 representation of kinds of foliage, should vary 
 according to the distance, which will, in some 
 degree, assist the perspective idea of distance. 
 No precise directions can be laid down for the 
 representation of the objects of nature ; almost 
 every artist has a way or touch of his own by 
 which he conveys his ideas, and this is best ac 
 quired by a contemplation of the objects them 
 selves and studies of the works of the best 
 masters. 
 
 The proper management of light and shade, 
 and their judicious arrangement into breadths 
 and masses, called by painters chiaro-oscuro, are 
 also valuable aids to the perspective effect of a 
 landscape. It is a common mistake with the 
 novice to appropriate to each individual tree, 
 figure, house, or other object its own light and 
 shade, irrespective of the general effect. The 
 consequence is that the picture is cut up into a 
 great number of lights and shadows of nearly 
 equal size and intensity, alternating over the 
 entire surface of the picture, by which means 
 the eye is distracted, and cannot rest with satis 
 faction on any portion of it, since all the objects 
 depicted are thus made to present nearly equal 
 claims to attention. The avoidance of too many 
 lights, the placing of the principal object in one 
 larger and more intensely illuminated space, the 
 keeping of other lights subordinate to it, and the 
 proper regulation of the contrasts between light 
 and shadow, according to distance, all tend to 
 direct attention to the principal object, and to 
 preserve the proper keeping of the picture. The 
 same may be said of the shadows. There should 
 be one principal shadow, to which the others 
 should be subordinate ; they should not be too 
 much subdivided into numerous small shadows, 
 but a proper degree of breadth of shade should 
 be maintained undisturbed by intervening lights, 
 which will much contribute to the repose of the 
 picture. 
 
 Every landscape may be divided with greater 
 or less precision into three parts, the distance, 
 the middle-picture, and the foreground. As the 
 effect of distance is to subdue both lights and shad 
 ows, the first of these seldom plays a conspicuous 
 part in the general arrangement of the chiaro- 
 oscuro, although the deep blue of a distant moun 
 tain in full shadow is sometimes effectively intro 
 duced. The largest breadth of shade is generally 
 spread over the middle-picture, while the deepest 
 shadows, as well as the strongest lights, naturally, 
 from its proximity, occupy the foreground. 
 
 Sometimes, however, this order is reversed. 
 In this case a few strong and scattered touches 
 of light falling on objects in the foreground con 
 
 trast very effectively with its dark tints. In day 
 light scenes, in nature, the principal light is gen 
 erally in the sky ; but in a showery or stormy 
 sky, when the sun is supposed to be shining, but 
 not from within the limits of the picture, the en 
 tire sky may often be in half-shadow, with the 
 principal light in the foreground or middle-pic 
 ture.* 
 
 Guided by these simple instructions, it is sup 
 posed that a sketch of a harbor, bay, or island 
 has been made in pencil. To render such work 
 more permanent and give a greater effect the 
 sketch may be finished in India-ink, sepia, or 
 water-colors by the aid of the pen or brush. 
 Pen and ink are chosen for our present purpose 
 as being best adapted for photolithography and 
 the most simple. A photograph may be taken 
 directly from such a sketch, and to obtain the 
 best results it is necessary to pay particular at 
 tention to clearness, and draw the picture a little 
 larger than required in the published sketch. 
 
 The ink used should be of the best quality, free 
 from hardness and grit, and susceptible of a deep, 
 brilliant, black tint when sufficiently ground on 
 the saucer. Distilled water is preferable for 
 grinding, and if the sketch is to be photo 
 graphed a little alum may be mixed with the 
 ink, which will, neutralize its brilliancy. If 
 flies are troublesome, a small quantity of ox- 
 gall added to the ink will prevent the sketch 
 being spoiled by their encroachments. For very 
 fine work the ink may be ground to advantage 
 on the thumb-nail. The saucer should be thor 
 oughly cleaned and wiped before and after use ; 
 any particle of grease destroys the fixing and 
 fluid qualities of the ink. 
 
 Hot-pressed drawing-paper or Bristol-board is 
 the best to use for such sketches. The pens best 
 adapted for free-hand work are Gillott s No. 303, 
 the mapping-pen, No. 291, and the lithographic 
 pen, No. 290; with these grades all delineations 
 from the finest to the coarsest may be made, but 
 in skillful hands the 303 pen, like the moyen pen 
 cil, suffices for all ordinary purposes. The char 
 acter of the pencil-lines should be accurately ren 
 dered by similar touches of the pen and tints of 
 ink. 
 
 The amount of finish necessary to the sketch 
 depends upon the time and facilities at the dis 
 posal of the delineator. In general, on ship 
 board, it is not convenient to be too minute ; 
 the refinements may be left for office-work, where 
 good light, steadiness of position, and command 
 of the best materials will conduce to greater neat 
 ness and accuracy. 
 
 English surveying-vessels are usually provided 
 with a large, airy, well-lighted house on the upper 
 deck devoted exclusively to the use of the sur 
 veyors and draughtsmen. 
 
 An important" point not to be omitted in the 
 sketch is reference to the point of view by bear 
 ings, which should be carefully noted. 
 
 The best time for making sketches is either in 
 the morning or evening, when the effects of light 
 and shade are most favorable. George P. Colvo- 
 coresses, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Skew. Awry. A rudely-made boat in Eng 
 lish waters. 
 
 Skewer-pieces. Pieces of salt meat without 
 bone. 
 
 * I am largely indebted to a manual of drawing by B. S. Burn, 
 Esq., for the foregoing directions. 
 
SKIDDY-COCK 
 
 758 
 
 SLIDE 
 
 Skiddy-cock (Eng.). The water-rail. 
 
 Skider (Eng.). the skate. 
 
 Skids. Pieces of timber temporarily fastened 
 to the rail or side, to absorb the chafe in hoisting. 
 Pieces of plank under a vessel s bottom for get 
 ting her afloat, when ashore. Boat-skids are 
 frames in which boats are built, or in which the 
 boom-boats rest. Landing-skids are short pieces 
 of plank running from the gunwale to the beach, 
 and are used in boats, for the purpose of landing 
 the guns. Gun-skids are beams arranged in par 
 allel lines, in a gun-park, on which the guns are 
 laid. 
 
 SKID-BEAMS (Eng.). Beams raised on stan 
 chions on the spar-deck of a sloop, where booms 
 and boats are stowed. 
 
 Skiff. A small light row-boat. (Eng.) A sail 
 boat like a sloop, but with no bowsprit. 
 
 Skilly. Oatmeal broth in which meat has 
 been boiled. 
 
 Skillygalee. A drink of oatmeal and water. 
 
 Skin. The inside or outside planking of a ship. 
 The outside part of a sail when furled. To skin 
 up a sail, to pull it up in furling until the out 
 side part is taut and smooth. 
 
 Skip-jack. A fussy, trifling officer; an up 
 start. The bonita, a small fish. A small por 
 poise. 
 
 Skipper. The master of a merchant vessel. 
 A familiar appellation for the commanding 
 officer of a man-of-war. The saury-pike, Scom- 
 bresox saurus. 
 
 Skirling. Small salmon or trout. 
 
 Skiver. A dirk. A fork. 
 
 Skoorie. A full-grown coal-fish. 
 
 Skout. The guillemot, or auk. 
 
 Skouther. The stinging-nettle, or jelly-fish. 
 
 Skow. See Scow. 
 
 Skrae-fish (Eng.). Pish sun-dried without 
 salting. 
 
 Skua. A kind of sea-gull. 
 
 Skulker. A shirker ; a coward who lurks be 
 low during action. 
 
 Skull-fish. A whale more than two years old. 
 
 Skunk-head. The pied duck, Anas Labra- 
 dora. 
 
 Skurrie. The shag, Phalacrocorax graculus. 
 
 Sky-gazer. A fish called Uranosco pus. A 
 light triangular sail, set flying above the royal. 
 
 Skylarking. Frolicking; scuffling or running 
 about decks. It formerly meant mounting to 
 the mast-head, and sliding down the royal back 
 stays. 
 
 Skylight. A hatch covered with glass, admit 
 ting light to the deck below. 
 
 Sky-sail. The next sail above the royal. 
 Often carried in merchantmen, and sometimes 
 set flying. The sail above it was the sky-scraper, 
 if triangular ; the moon-sail, if square. 
 
 SKY-SAIL MAST, or SKY-SAIL POLE. The upper 
 portion of a royal mast when used for a sky-sail. 
 Sometimes it slides on the royal mast, like a 
 sliding-gunter. 
 
 Sky-scraper. A triangular sail set above the 
 sky-sail, or above the moon-sail, when it is often 
 called a star-gazer. 
 
 Slab. The outside cut of a tree. 
 
 Slab-lines. Kopes led through blocks on the 
 yard or under the top, and thence abaft to the 
 foot of the courses. Their use is to haul the 
 sail up snugly. 
 
 Slack. A slack rope, one hanging loose. The 
 
 slack, the loose part of the rope. To slack off, to 
 ease up, or relieve the strain on a rope. Slack 
 helm, with the helm carried habitually too much 
 alee. This occurs often when too much down by 
 the stern, or when there is too much head-sail. 
 Slack in stays, a term applied to a ship that is 
 slow in tacking ; also, jocularly, to a lazy man. 
 To slack up, to ease oif or veer out. Slack- 
 tide, or slack-water, the interval between ebb 
 and flow, either at high- or low- water. The tide 
 slackens when its velocity becomes less. 
 
 Slag. A glass-like substance formed in a 
 blast-furnace by the combination of the silica, 
 alumina, lime, etc., contained in the ore and 
 flux. It floats, in a molten state, upon the sur 
 face of the metal, from which it flows through 
 suitable apertures. 
 
 Slake. Mud or ooze in a river-bed. 
 
 Slant of Wind. A temporary breeze ; also, 
 the duration of a favorable breeze. 
 
 Slant Tack. The most favorable tack ; the 
 long leg. 
 
 Slatch. A transitory breeze. 
 
 Slee. A cradle placed beneath a ship when 
 hauling her up for repairs, as at a marine rail 
 way. 
 
 Sleep. A sail sleeps when well filled and 
 quiet. 
 
 Sleeper. A large acanthropterygious fish of 
 the family Gobiodce, the species of which are 
 natives of warm climates, living in fresh water, 
 and concealing themselves in the mud ; Eleotris 
 dormatrix. 
 
 Sleepers. Pieces of curved timber which are 
 fayed and bolted upon the transoms and counter- 
 timbers inside the ship to strengthen the stern. 
 The lower tier of casks. 
 
 Sleeve. A strait, or narrow channel. 
 
 Sleeve-fish. The squid, Loligo vulgaris. 
 
 Slice. A bar used by whalers, to strip fish 
 with. A tapering piece of plank, driven between 
 the timbers of a ship before planking. A wedge 
 driven under the keel in launching. 
 
 Slice-bar. A bar with a knife-shaped end, 
 used in furnaces to clear the grate of clinkers. 
 
 Slide. A smooth piece, or a part of the frame 
 of a machine, upon which another piece slides or 
 is guided ; as, the cross-head slide of a steam- 
 engine, the slide of a gun-carriage, etc. 
 
 SLIDE-BAB, or SLIDE-ROD. A bar or rod for 
 communicating motion from one piece to another, 
 constrained by guides so as to move or slide in 
 direction of its length only. 
 
 SLIDE-VALVE. A valve that is opened or 
 closed by sliding it over its seat, which contains 
 ports or openings, usually rectangular in cross- 
 section, for the passage of a fluid. It is exten 
 sively used in the steam-engine for alternately 
 admitting and releasing the steam to and from 
 the cylinder ; and for this purpose it is so ar 
 ranged that one reciprocating piece performs 
 these functions for both ends thereof. The sim 
 plest form is the three-ported valve, in which the 
 valve-seat contains three rectangular ports, 
 placed side by side a short distance apart, the 
 two outer ones communicating with their re 
 spective ends of the cylinder, and the middle one 
 with the exhaust-pipe. The valve, in the mid 
 dle of whose face is a niche or recess of sufficient 
 size to span the middle port and one of the end 
 ports, when in mid-position and the engine on a 
 dead centre, covers all the ports ; but when 
 
SLING 
 
 759 
 
 SMAliL BOWEK 
 
 moved in either direction, one of the end ports 
 is uncovered to the live steam surrounding the 
 back of the valve, the other releasing the exhaust 
 steam through the niche in the valve-face and 
 the middle port. Slide-valves having lap are 
 enabled to effect a cut-off within moderate limits. 
 Double-ported valves have two steam and exhaust 
 openings at each end, thereby reducing the 
 length of their stroke. There are many devices 
 for relieving the bases of valves from the steam- 
 pressure, such as the D-valve, the use of balance- 
 rings, etc. 
 
 SLIDING-BAULKS. The floor-timbers of a 
 cradle, sliding on the bilge-ways when the ship 
 is launched. 
 
 SLIDING BILGE-BLOCKS. Large blocks with 
 their upper parts fitted to the form of the ship s 
 bottom, sliding from the dock-steps into place. 
 
 SLIDING-GUNTER. A mast of two pieces, the 
 upper sliding up and down the lower by means 
 of hoops or rings. Used for boats, and some 
 times for sky-sails, etc. 
 
 SLIDING-GUNTER SAIL. A triangular sail bent 
 to a sliding-gunter mast. A handy form of 
 boat s sail, reefing quickly by lowering the upper 
 part of the mast. 
 
 SLTDING-KEEL. A sliding-keel or centre 
 board is an arrangement invented about the year 
 1800 by Capt. John Shanks, R.N. It consists of 
 a well-room or case placed amidships, and car 
 ried above the deepest load-line, generally to the 
 deck. It contains a board made to travel up and 
 down, as the vessel may be required to sail off or 
 on the wind ; it is used principally in yachts and 
 coasters where a light draft of "water is needed. 
 Shuld ham s sliding-keel was triangular, the 
 broadest part being aft. 
 
 SLIDINQ-WAYS. Sliding-ways, or launching- 
 ways, are the ways which are prepared for and 
 used in launching a vessel ; they are placed at an 
 inclination sufficient to allow the ship to slide 
 gradually into the water. 
 
 Sling. To suspend in ropes. To hang the 
 yards with spare chains on going into action. To 
 attach the clews to a hammock. A rope or 
 chain strap fitted to encircle any object, so as to 
 suspend it. The chains that suspend the lower 
 yards and gaffs. Yard-slings are of strong chain, 
 going around the lower mast-head, and connect 
 ing to the yard by a slip-bolt. Gaff-slings are of 
 chain or wire rope, supporting the gaff from 
 above. Boat-slings are lengths of chain termi 
 nated by a large link, placed in the bow and 
 stern of the boat to hook the tackles into. Buoy- 
 slings are rope fittings about a wooden buoy, to 
 which the buoy-rope is so attached that the buoy 
 will ride upright. Butt-slings, or barrel-slings, 
 are used in hoisting casks. Gun-slings are iron 
 chains parceled and marled together fora part of 
 their length, and having a piece of rope fastened 
 to them to pass about the chase of the gun. To 
 get into a sling, a jocular expression, signifying 
 to get into difficulties. 
 
 SLING-BAND, or SLING-HOOP. An iron band 
 on the yard, to which the slings are fastened. 
 
 Slip. To let go suddenly ; as, to slip the cable. 
 An inclined plane on which ships are built. An 
 opening left between docks or wharves. An in 
 clined plane, up which ships may be drawn for 
 repairs. An insurance memorandum, given to 
 the underwriters for their signatures. The dif 
 ference between a vessel s speed and the speed 
 
 that would be attained if the propelling device 
 acted upon a solid or immobile substance instead 
 of a fluid. It is usually expressed as a fraction 
 or per centum of the speed due to the action of 
 the centre of effort of the propeller on a solid. 
 
 SLIP-KNOT, or SLIP-NOOSE. A knot which 
 will travel along a rope or spar; a running- 
 noose. 
 
 SLIP-ROPE. A *ope so arranged that it may 
 be slipped or let go suddenly. 
 
 SLIP-SHACKLE. A shackle consisting of a long 
 bolt with a ring, confining it to its own part, and, 
 when struck off, allowing it to slide through the 
 chain to which it is fastened. 
 
 SLIP-STOPPER. An arrangement for letting 
 the anchor go. Usually, the ends of the anchor- 
 stoppers have a tongue held in a trip, which is 
 held by a trigger and controlled by a line, so that 
 one man may detach both stoppers. 
 
 Sloop. A small vessel having one mast, with 
 a jib, stay-sail, mainsail, and gaff topsail. It dif 
 fers from a cutter in having a fixed bowsprit and 
 stay for the jib. A war-vessel next in size to a 
 frigate. Before the introduction of steam, a 
 sloop-of-war carried from 18 to 32 guns. As now 
 understood, any vessel, larger than a gunboat, 
 carrying guns on one deck only. 
 
 SLOOP-KIGGKD. Rigged like a sloop, with one 
 mast and a fixed bowsprit. 
 
 Slope of Wind. A slant of wind. 
 
 Slops (Eng.). Ready-made clothes and other 
 furnishings for seamen. 
 
 SLOP-BOOK. A register of small stores issued. 
 
 SLOP-ROOM. The issuing-room, or store-room 
 for small stores. 
 
 SLOP-SHOP. A shop where sailors ready-made 
 clothing, small stores, etc., are sold. 
 
 Slow-match. See MATCH. 
 
 Sludge. Thin, slushy ice, just forming. 
 Broken ice in polar seas. 
 
 Sludge-holes (Eng.}. Mud-holes of boilers. 
 
 Slue. To turn around ; to twist about. 
 
 SLUED. Stupefied by drink ; tipsy. 
 
 SLUE-ROPE. A rope for turning a gun, spar, 
 etc. 
 
 Slush. The melted grease from the meat in 
 the coppers. Dirty snow, soft mud, etc. To 
 grease with slush. To slush down, to grease the 
 spars after scraping them. 
 
 SLUSH-FUND. Money obtained from the sale 
 of slush. It is to be used for premiums for tar 
 get firing, etc., and not for ship s purposes. 
 
 SLUSH-ICE. The first young ice. 
 
 Sly-gorse. The . shell-drake, Tadorna vul- 
 panser. 
 
 Smack. A small vessel, rigged like a cutter 
 or a sloop, sometimes with a square topsail. 
 
 Small. The small part of a whale s tail. The 
 shank of the anchor, immediately below the 
 stock. 
 
 Small-arms. Fire-arms, carried in the hand, 
 and fired from the hand or shoulder. 
 
 SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION. Ammunition for 
 rifles, pistols, etc. It is generally fixed ammu 
 nition, and is stowed in boxes, kept in the shell- 
 room or torpedo-room. Metallic cartridges are 
 now used. 
 
 SMALL-ARM MEN. Men trained and selected 
 to use small-arms in boarding, etc. 
 
 Small Bower. Formerly, the bower-anchors 
 were of different sizes, in which case the port 
 anchor was the small bower. 
 
 
SMALL HELM 
 
 760 
 
 SMITH 
 
 Small Helm. That condition of the steerage 
 of a ship when but a slight movement of the 
 helm is required to accomplish good results. The 
 subjection of a talkative, turbulent bully by 
 decisive measures. 
 
 Small Sails. All the lighter sails except the 
 studding-sails. 
 
 Small Stores. Soap, needles and thread, to 
 bacco, spices, tin-ware, razors, brushes, and 
 various other articles, issued to the men through 
 their mess-cooks once a fortnight. 
 
 Small-stuff. The general name given to all 
 of the smaller descriptions of rope or cord which 
 is required for use on shipboard. 
 
 The term includes spun-yarn, marline, house- 
 line, roundline, and the smaller sizes of seizing- 
 and ratline-stuff (all of which are made of hemp 
 and tarred), and the corresponding sizes of un- 
 tarred line, made either of flax or manilla. 
 
 In the manufacture of all these varieties, the 
 finest quality of fibre is or should be used, except 
 for spun-yarn, which is of a coarser description 
 and requires less strength and finish. The long 
 fibre of the tow, called barr, is generally used 
 for that purpose. 
 
 Spun-yarn, marline, houseline, and roundline 
 are made by the process of hand-spinning, as fol 
 lows : at each end of the spinning-room, which 
 is several hundred feet in length, wheels are 
 placed which are turned by hand, and connect 
 by means of bands with several small hooks or 
 whirls supported in an open box. The spinner 
 secures a bundle of hemp about his waist with 
 the ends fastened behind, attaches a small quan 
 tity of the fibre to one of the whirls, which is 
 revolved by the wheel, and walks backward the 
 length of the room, by which movement the fibre 
 is drawn from the bundle. 
 
 The thread or yarn is held in the right hand 
 of the spinner (a piece of flannel being used to 
 protect the hand from friction), the thumb and 
 forefinger serving as a gauge to regulate the size 
 and uniformity of the yarn, while the supply is 
 regulated by the left hand, either faster or slower 
 as may be required. The requisite amount of 
 skill to spin a uniform yarn of a given size can 
 only be obtained by long practice, but by a good 
 workman a yarn of greater evenness and strength 
 can be spun by hand than by machinery. 
 
 Upright posts placed in the floor at regular in 
 tervals have horizontal arms attached at right 
 angles to the walk of the spinner, which are 
 called stake-heads. Iron pins or bolts are driven 
 into the upper edges of the j5 take-heads and hold 
 the yarns in position, as the spinner, in passing, 
 places the yarn upon it. 
 
 Two or three spinners follow each other at in 
 tervals of a few feet. Having reached the end 
 of the room, a bell is rung as a signal to stop the 
 wheel, and the ends of two yarns are knotted to 
 gether and the bight placed over a hook. At the 
 same time the man who turns the wheel detaches 
 the yarns from the whirls, secures them to an 
 other whirl which is turned in the opposite direc 
 tion by the crossing of its band, and by which 
 the yarns are twisted together or laid up. A 
 bundle of the completed lengths is called a junk, 
 the number of which it is composed depending 
 upon the weight. 
 
 Yarns for spun-yarn, marline, and houseline 
 are spun from left to right, and are twisted or 
 laid from right to left. Yarns for roundline are 
 
 spun in the opposite direction and laid up right- 
 handed. Spun-yarn may be made of two, three, 
 or four yarns. They are simply twisted together, 
 but not laid. It is used for the more common 
 and rougher purposes, such as for service to pro 
 tect certain parts of the rigging from chafe, bend 
 ing sails, etc. 
 
 Roundline, houseline, and marline are made 
 with greater care, and in laying the yarns a top 
 is used to give closeness and regularity to the 
 lay. The latter is composed of two yarns or 
 strands ; the others have three yarns, but round- 
 line is somewhat larger than houseline, and is 
 used principally in serving the lower rigging 
 and stays. All of these different kinds of small- 
 stuff are tarred in the junk. 
 
 The different sizes of ratline- and seizing-stuff 
 are distinguished by the number of yarns or 
 threads of which they are composed. Their 
 names imply the uses for which they are inr 
 tended. Ratline-stuff is a little larger than seiz 
 ing-stuff of the same number of threads, and it 
 is also laid up with less twist, by which it is 
 rendered more pliable. The threads may be 
 spun by hand or by machinery, but they must 
 be tarred before being twisted and laid. The 
 larger sizes of ratline- and seizing-stuff are made 
 by the same machinery as the various sizes of 
 rope, the strands being tubed, or drawn through 
 tubes, into which they fit closely, previous to 
 being twisted. The smaller sizes, however (12- 
 thread and less), are not tubed, but the threads 
 are extended to their full length and twisted to 
 form the strand, and the strands are then laid. 
 The machine for this purpose is similar to that 
 used in the manufacture of rope, but is of more 
 simple construction. See EOPE. E. T. Strong, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Smart-money (Eng.}. The pension given for 
 wounds. 
 
 Smart-ticket (Eng.]. A certificate from a 
 captain or surgeon, for a pension for wounds. 
 
 Smasher (Eng.). A seaman from the north 
 of England. 
 
 Smear-dab. A kind of flat-fish ; the Pleuro- 
 nectes Icevis. 
 
 Smelt. A small fish (Osmerus eperlanus), 
 allied to the salmon. It is of a silvery-white 
 color, and is highly esteemed as a delicate food. 
 It emits a peculiar odor, whence the name ; called 
 also spirting. 
 
 Smerlin. A certain fish ; Cobitis aculeata of 
 Linna3iis. 
 
 Smew. The Mergus albellus, or white-headed 
 goosander. 
 
 Smith, John, was born at Willoughby, Lin 
 colnshire, England, in Januar} r , 1579. In 1606-7 
 he was associated with Newport in his expedi 
 tion to Virginia, and was left there to manage 
 the little colony at Jamestown. In 1608 he sur 
 veyed the Chesapeake Bay, Chickahominy and 
 Potomac Rivers, and gave names to several of the 
 islands he encountered on the voyage, and also 
 made a map of his voyage of discovery. In 
 1609 he left Virginia never to return. In 1614, 
 with two ships, fitted out by some London mer 
 chants, he explored a large portion of the North 
 American coast, to which he gave the name of 
 New England, and of which he formed a toler 
 ably accurate map. In 1615 he made another 
 voyage to New England for the purpose of found 
 ing a colony, but was captured by a French man- 
 
SMITH 
 
 761 
 
 SMOXE-SAIL 
 
 of-war and taken to New Rochelle. Afterward 
 he claimed to have participated in sea-fights for 
 the French against the Spaniards.- About 1616 
 he received the title of Admiral of New Eng 
 land, and was thenceforth engaged in promoting 
 American colonization by means of a series of 
 publications on America, written either by or 
 for him. He died in London on June 31, 1631. 
 
 Smith, Melancthon, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, May 24, 1810. Appointed 
 from New York, as acting midshipman, March 
 1, 1826; from July 22, 1826, to June 15, 1830, 
 attached to frigate " Brandywine" and sloop 
 " Vincennes," Pacific Squadron ; Naval School, 
 18"31; frigate "Potomac," May 3 to June 28, 
 1831 ; navv-yard, New York, from June 28, 
 1831, to January 19, 1832. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 1, 1832 ; 
 sloop "St. Louis," West India Squadron, Au 
 gust 8, 1832, to December 14, 1832 ; navy-yard, 
 Pensacola, December 14, 1832, to July 21, 1833; 
 brig "Porpoise" and sloop "Vandalia," West 
 India Squadron, from July 21, 1833, to August 
 15, 1834 ; navy-yard, New York, July 20, 1835, 
 to November 4, 1835. 
 
 Promoted to master, 1836; sloops "Natchez" 
 and "Vandalia," West India Squadron, from 
 1836 to 1838. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, March 8, 1837 ; 
 steamer " Poinsett," operating against the In 
 dians in Florida, from June, 1839, to March, 
 1840; commanded a fort and a 20-oared barge 
 for one month, in 1839, during the Florida war; 
 navy-yard, New York, 1841 ; sloops " Fairfield" 
 and " Preble," Mediterranean Squadron, from 
 April 23, 1841, to September 5, 1843; receiving- 
 ship at New York, from November, 1843, to Oc 
 tober, 1844; store-ship "Erie," from October, 
 1844, to December, 1844; sloop "Vandalia" and 
 steamer "Colonel Harney," Home Squadron, 
 from December, 1844, to January, 1846 ; execu 
 tive-officer of Pensacola Navy-Yard, January, 
 1846, to April, 1848; frigate "Constitution," 
 Mediterranean Squadron, from September, 1848, 
 to January, 1851 ; waiting orders, 1851. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; executive-officer of frigate "Potomac," 
 while she was flag-ship to Flag-Officer Pauld- 
 ing, June, 1855, to October, 1855; light-house 
 inspector, October, 1857; commanding at differ 
 ent times the steamers " Mississippi," " Massa 
 chusetts," and " Monongahela," Gulf Blockad 
 ing Squadron, from May 1, 1861, to June 22, 
 1863. While commanding the " Massachusetts," 
 engaged a fort at Ship Island, July 9, 1861, and 
 3 Confederate steamers and a revenue-cutter off 
 Ship Island in 1861 ; engagement with rebel 
 steamer "Florida-," Mississippi sounds, October 
 26, 1861 ; cut the telegraph-wire between Shields- 
 boro and Pass Christian, September 20, 1861 ; 
 capture of a battery of 2 guns at Beloxi ; De 
 cember 31, 1861, while commanding the steamer 
 " Mississippi," was in the attack and passage of 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip, and the capture and 
 destruction of the rebel ram " Manassas," April 
 24, 1862. Flag-Officer Farragut, in his official 
 report, says, "Just as the scene appeared to be 
 closing, the ram Manassas was seen coming 
 up under a full head of steam to attack us. I 
 directed Capt. Smith, in the Mississippi, to 
 turn and run her down. This order was in 
 stantly obeyed by the Mississippi, turning 
 
 and going at her at fu. .l speed. Just as we ex 
 pected to see the ram annihilated, when within 
 50 yards of each other, she put her helm hard-a- 
 port, dodged the Mississippi, and ran ashore^ 
 The Mississippi poured two broadsides into 
 her, and sent her drifting down the river a. total 
 wreck. Thus closed our morning s light." 
 Chalmette batteries, below New Orleans, April 
 25, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Capt. Smith remained in the " Mississippi," 
 taking part in all the engagernents of the squad 
 ron until March 14, 1863. when, in attempting 
 the passage of the batteries at Port Hudson, the 
 " Mississippi" grounded in 23 feet of water, and 
 keeled over to port. Every effort was made to get 
 the vessel off, but without avail, and the enemy 
 having obtained the exact range of the ship, 
 were hulling her at almost every shot, when 
 Capt. Smith gave orders to fire her, which was 
 done in four different places between decks. 
 When the flames had gained sufficient headway 
 to render the destruction of the vessel certain, 
 Capt. Smith gave orders to abandon her, which 
 was done quietly and without confusion, he 
 being the last man to leave. By his cool and 
 courageous bearing in the trying situation in 
 which he was placed Capt. Smith won the ad 
 miration of all, and his course was approved 
 by both Rear-Admiral Farragut and the De 
 partment. While commanding the "Monon 
 gahela," participated in the attacks on Port 
 Hudson, from June 1 to 20, 1863; from June 
 22, 1863, to July, 1863, under orders North to 
 report for a command, reporting July 7, 1863 ; 
 from July, 1863, to February 16, 1865, at sea, 
 commanding ironclad " Onondaga" ; temporarily 
 transferred, April 23, 1864, by telegraph, to com 
 mand of squadron in North Carolina sounds, to 
 capture rebel ram " Albemarle" ; engaged that 
 vessel and her consort, the steamer " Bombshell," 
 in Albemarle Sound, capturing the latter vessel 
 May, 1864; returned to " Onondaga" as divis 
 ional officer on James River, and was perma 
 nently transferred to frigate " Wabash," for 
 operations against Fort Fisher ; participated in 
 both attacks on Fort Fisher ; 1865, navy-yard, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 chief of Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting, 
 Navy Department, 1866-70. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July, 1870 ; 
 commandant navy-yard, New York, 1870-72. 
 Retired March 24, 1871. 
 
 Smiting-line (Eng.}. A line by which a yarn- 
 stoppod sail is loosed, without sending men aloft. 
 
 Smoke. A dense, sandy vapor on the coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 Smoke-ball. A ball which, when fired, burns 
 with a dense smoke for several minutes. 
 
 Smoke-box. A chamber connected to a steam- 
 boiler, in which the gases of combustion collect 
 after having performed their work, and from 
 which they are discharged into the smoke-pipe ; 
 as, the smoke-box of a locomotive. The term 
 is synonymous with front connection and uptake 
 as applied to marine boilers. 
 
 Smoke-pipe. The metallic chimney or funnel 
 of a steam-boiler furnace. The term smoke-stack 
 is in common use ; but the word stack implies a 
 chimney of masonry. See FUNNEL. 
 
 Smoke-sail. A piece of canvas fastened to 
 
SMOKE-SHIP 
 
 762 
 
 SOLSTICES 
 
 two small yards, hoisted on the foremast to pre 
 vent the smoke from the galley from soiling the 
 mast. To reef the smoke-sail, to take it in entirely. 
 
 Smoke-ship. A novel fire-ship, invented by 
 Meesters in 1794. See FIRE-SHIPS. 
 
 Siiioke-stack. See SMOKE-PIPE. 
 
 Smoking-hours. Certain hours are designated 
 on board aien-of-war when the men may smoke. 
 These are, during meals, half an hour after the 
 men are called in the morning, holidays, Sun 
 days, Saturday afternoons, and after hammocks 
 are down, until 8 P.M. 
 
 Smoking-lamp. A small lamp with a hole 
 in it, lit during smoking hours, so as to furnish 
 a light for pipes. 
 
 Smolt. A salmon of frtmi 4 to 6 inches long, 
 and a little more than a ye&r^old, that has ac 
 quired its silver scales. s ^ 
 
 Smorth. A clear spot in the surf. 
 
 Smug-boat. A Chinese opium smuggler. 
 
 Smurlin. A mollusk ; the Mya truncata. 
 
 Snacot. A certain fish ; the gar-pike ; the 
 sea-needle. 
 
 Snag-boat. A boat used on rivers with ma 
 chinery for removing snags. 
 
 Snake. To pass turns of a rope, then to pass 
 turns across, winding from one to the other. To 
 wind small ropes spirally between two larger 
 ones. Backstays are snaked together, to prevent 
 them from falling, if shot away singly. 
 
 SNAKING. Turns of a rope passed in a zigzag 
 direction, or spirally, between two other ropes. 
 
 Snape. To cut the end of a timber off bevel 
 ing, so as to fay upon an inclined plane. 
 
 Snapper. The red snapper, Serranus erythro- 
 gaster, a fish well known in the West Indies. 
 
 Snarl. In a snarl, in disorder ; confused ; 
 tangled. 
 
 SNARL-KNOT. A knot that cannot be undone. 
 
 Snarley-yow. A discontented grumbler. 
 
 Snatch. To place a rope in a block for a 
 proper lead. A snatch is an open lead, whether 
 in a block or cleat. In the latter case it is called 
 a dumb snatch, 
 
 SNATCH-BLOCK. An iron or wooden block with 
 an aperture into which the bight of a rope may 
 be introduced. They are generally of wood, and 
 an iron strap closes the aperture ; or they hinge at 
 the hook, and close by shutting the block and 
 clasp attached. A large snatch is called a voyal. 
 
 SNATCH-CLEAT. A curved cleat or chock, 
 through which a rope may be led. 
 
 Sneer (Eng.}. To make all sneer again is to 
 strain spars and sails by "cracking on," or 
 crowding sail. 
 
 Sneezer. A stiff gale. 
 
 Snifting-valve. A valve controlled by a 
 spring or weight, used in the earlier forms of 
 steam-engine previous to the adoption of the 
 air-pump, for expelling the air and uncondensed 
 vapor from the cylinder, which also acted as a 
 condenser, by the impulse of the piston and its 
 attachments. The term is now frequently applied 
 to cylinder relief-valves when their action is 
 automatic. 
 
 Sniker-snee. A fiVht with knives. 
 
 Snipe-fish. The. bellows-fish. 
 
 Snood. A small piece of hair fastening a 
 fish-hook to the line. 
 
 Snook. The sea-pike ; the Thyrsites atun. 
 
 Snorter, or Snotter. A small rope bent to 
 the end of a light yard, over which fits the eye 
 
 of the lift and brace. The tripping-line leads 
 from the other end of it to the deck, and when 
 hauled upon pulls off the lift and brace. 
 
 Snotter. A small grommet about a mast, 
 with an eye in it, in which a sprit ships. 
 
 Snow. A two-masted vessel with a boom- 
 mainsail set on a trysail mast. 
 
 Snub. To check the motion of anything. 
 
 SNUB-POST. A bollard, or post on "a dock, for 
 fastening ropes to, in order to check a ship. 
 
 SNUBBER. A check-stopper. 
 
 Snug. A piece for wedging or otherwise 
 combining two or more other pieces together. 
 In a safe situation ; prepared for the worst. 
 
 Sny. The line or shape given to planking 
 put upon the curving surfaces at the bow or 
 stern of a ship. The upward curving of the 
 planking at the bow or stern. It is sometimes 
 called the spiling. 
 
 So! Well! Right as it is! 
 
 Soak and Send (Eng.}. Word passed for wet 
 swabs. 
 
 Soam. The dried air-bladder of herring. 
 
 Soap, Salt-water. Soap made from cocoa-nut 
 or palm-wood oil. It solidifies with 75 per cent, 
 of water. 
 
 Socket. A hole into which a spindle fits. 
 Capstan- socket, the socket for the capstan-spin 
 dle. Pivot- sockets, gun-metal sockets placed 
 in the decks to receive the pivots of gun-car 
 riages. 
 
 Sod-bank. The refraction of banks in the 
 water. 
 
 Soft-laes (En<j.). Small coves and bays worn 
 in soft cliffs by the action of the waves. 
 
 Soft-plank. An easy berth on the deck. 
 
 Soft-tack, or Soft-tommy. Soft bread, or 
 fresh-made wheaten bread. 
 
 Solan-goose. The gannet, Sola bassana. 
 
 Solano. The sirocco. 
 
 Solar. Pertaining to the sun. See DAY, 
 ECLIPSE, TIME, YEAR. 
 
 Soldier. A derisive term for a poor sailor. 
 To soldier, to make a pretense of working with 
 out expending much force ; to play the old soldier. 
 The antagonism long existing between the sailor 
 and the soldier is likewise manifested by the 
 adage, " Tell that to the marines," implying that 
 they will believe anything. 
 
 SOLDIER-CRAB. The hermit-crab. 
 
 SOLDIER S-WIND. An especially fair wind, 
 so that a passage may readily be made. 
 
 Sole. A marine flat-fish (Solea vulgaris] which, 
 with allied species, is peculiar, among vertebrate 
 animals, in having both eyes placed on one side 
 of the head, namely, that side which is upper 
 most when they are swimming. It remains at or 
 near the bottom of the sea. It sometimes grows 
 to the weight of 6 or 7 pounds or more. 
 
 An additional piece on the bottom of the rud 
 der. The lining of bilge- ways and ports. 
 
 Solid Shot. A compact projectile used for 
 battering purposes, and distinguished from hol 
 low shot, grape, canister, shrapneJ, etc. 
 
 Solstices (from Lat. sol, the sun, and stare, to 
 stand still). The two periods of the year, about 
 June 22 and December 22, at which the sun at 
 tains his maximum declination. When the sun, 
 in his annual revolution in the ecliptic, has at 
 tained his greatest northern declination, his 
 course for the moment is parallel to the equinoc 
 tial, and, as far as change of declination is con- 
 
SOLSTITIAL COLUKE 
 
 763 
 
 cerned, he appears " to stand still" ; and similarly 
 he appears to stand still" when at his greatest 
 southern declination. They are distinguished as 
 the summer solstice and the winter solstice. We 
 must bear in mind, however, that these terms 
 are relative, for what is the summer solstice in 
 the northern is the winter solstice in the southern 
 hemisphere, and what is the winter solstice in 
 the northern is the summer solstice in the south 
 ern hemisphere. 
 
 Solstitial Colure. The hour-circle which 
 passes through the solstitial points. See COLURES. 
 
 Solstitial Points. The two points of the 
 ecliptic at the greatest distance from the equinoc 
 tial. They are distinguished as the summer sol 
 stitial point and the winter solstitial point, and 
 called also the first point of Cancer and the Jirst 
 point of Capricorn, as being the commencement 
 respectively of these signs of the ecliptic. They 
 are represented by the symbols of these signs, 05 
 and VJ. The figure of the Crab (Cancer) has 
 evident reference to the sideways and backward 
 motion of the sun at this point of his orbit. The 
 solstitial points, like the equinoctial points, do 
 not preserve a constant place among the stars, 
 but have a slow retrograde motion. 
 
 Soma. A Ja 
 
 panese junk, 
 hant used by 
 
 hauling. The call formerly used by the leads 
 man in giving the soundings obtained. See 
 NAVAL SONGS. 
 
 Son-of-a-gun. Originally, a boy born afloat. 
 A term of slight contempt. 
 
 Sops (Eng.). Detached clouds hanging about 
 mountain tops. 
 
 Sothis. The Egyptian name for the star a 
 Canis Majoris. See SIRIUS. 
 
 Sou . A colloquial abbreviation for south. 
 
 Sough. The sighing or hollow sound made 
 by the wind, especially before a gale. 
 
 Sound. A cuttle-fish. The swimming-bladder 
 of a fish. To measure the height of the water 
 in the pump-well. To measure the depth of 
 water in the sea, by means of a line and weight, 
 or by some machine devised for the purpose. See 
 DEEP-SEA SOUNDING, LEAD. A whale sounds 
 when it dives upon being struck with a harpoon. 
 
 Narrow passes which connect larger bodies of 
 water receive many designations. Among these, 
 sound is used to designate some, but far more 
 are called strait. The three terms, strait, chan 
 nel, and sound, are interchangeably used to name 
 such passes. Besides these, in many places, the 
 word passage is used. Some straits are called 
 belts in the Baltic, firths in the Scottish isles, 
 and pertuis on the French coast. The words canal 
 and canale, in Italy and Austria, designate sounds 
 and straits. A sound or a channel is supposed 
 to be larger than a strait or passage, but such is 
 not always the case. 
 
 Great numbers of these water-passes exist, 
 straits being the more numerous, and sounds 
 next, while channels and passages are not far 
 behind. 
 
 The principal sounds and straits of Europe are 
 those connecting the Baltic with the North Sea, 
 the latter and the Irish and Mediterranean Seas 
 with the ocean, and the various seas and gulfs 
 of the Mediterranean basin with the ocean, or 
 with each other. The Baltic waters find their 
 way out through a succession of passages, called 
 in succession Skager Rack for 150 miles, Kattegat 
 
 for 120 miles, and he Sound 26 miles. T\ie 
 smaller passages abo 1 ^ the Danish islands are 
 named belts, the ch^f being the Great 7 Belt, 
 Little Belt, Langela d Belt, and Fehmer;,i Belt. 
 In the Baltic itself tf e Kalmar Sound -, and sev 
 eral small passes. r 
 
 The North Ser connects with 4]the English 
 Channel by the S rait of -Dover. -* The two pas 
 sages are 270 mitt lon g> and frgjfa 45 to 18 miles 
 wide. The Irish a connects with the Atlantic 
 through St. Patric 8 and Fthe North Channel, 
 and through St. Getg^ Channel. These are 
 wide sounds, and there^are innumerable passages, 
 sounds, etc., among the many islands of this sea. 
 
 The Strait of Gibraltar connects the Mediter 
 ranean with the Atlantic, and the other princi 
 pal straits of this sea are Bonifaccio, Messina, 
 Otranto, and the Dardanelles and Hellespont 
 Channels, through which the various seas con 
 nect with the larger Mediterranean. The pas 
 sages separating the Ionian isles are generally 
 called channels, and are narrow and deep. 
 
 Asia is separated from America by Behring s 
 Strait, connecting the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. 
 The numerous seas that indent the Asiatic coast 
 are connected with one another and with the 
 ocean by passages, channels, straits, and sounds 
 innumerable, chief of which are La Perouse 
 Strait, Corean, Fo-Kien, Balintang, and Bashee 
 Channels, Malacca Strait, Falk Channel, and the 
 Straits of Ormuz and Bab-el-Mandeb. The 
 islands of Malaysia and Melanasia are separated 
 by similarly-named passages, the largest of which 
 are Macassar, Sunda, Torres, and Bass Straits, 
 and Gilolo, Molucca, and Pitt Passages. 
 
 The Mozambique Channel, on the African 
 coast, is one of the largest sounds. It is 1000 
 miles long, and from 240 to 480 wide. 
 
 The many islands in the Frozen Sea, north of 
 America, are separated by straits, sounds, and 
 channels, named to perpetuate the memories of 
 their discoverers or their countries sovereigns, 
 cities, or great men. Davis and Hudson s Straits 
 and Melville Sound are the largest. Here we 
 also find sounds that are really bays, Albert, 
 Kotzebue, and Norton Sound being such bodies 
 of water. On the coast of the United States 
 are many shallow sounds, and in the West Indies 
 are large channels and passages. On the southern 
 coast of South America are numerous straits and 
 channels, the largest being the Strait of Ma 
 gellan. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 SOUND-DUES. Tolls formerly levied on all 
 shipping passing into the Baltic Seas. 
 
 SOUNDING-LEAD. See LEAD. 
 
 SOUNDING-LINE. A lead-line. 
 
 SOUNDING-MACHINE. Several machines have 
 been invented to facilitate sounding. Massey s 
 lead measures the depth by the revolution of a 
 fan, set in an ordinary lead, with counter-wheels 
 attached. Walker s harpoon sounding-machine 
 is on the same principle. The self -registering 
 lead was invented to measure the depth by the 
 compression of the air contained in a tube> and 
 several modifications, Ericsson s among others, 
 have been made, but none are in general use. 
 Trowbridge s electric sounding apparatus has a 
 line coiled in a small cylinder, with a wire inside 
 the line. When the lead strikes the bottom, the 
 circuit is completed, and announced on deck. It 
 is not successful. 
 
 Sigsbee s Sounding-machine. Slightly in ad- 
 
SOUND 
 
 764 
 
 SOUTH-WESTEK 
 
 ? . . 
 
 Vl mce of the reel, which i s practically the same 
 
 as ^hat in the Thomson apparatus, are two pipes 
 parallel to each other and about 6 feet in height, 
 each cd^ tainin & a spiral extension spring fastened 
 at the bo$$p>tn and connecting, by means of ropes 
 taken over pulleys at the to^ O f the pipes, with a 
 cross-head moving between the two pipes, the 
 latter serving s? s guides. The cross-head contains 
 a pulley, one yalS? in circum]f erence, over which 
 the wire leads in it 8 passage f rom the reel to the 
 water. The normal position o f the cross-head is 
 at the top of its guides, n ,tf it can be borne down 
 only against the resistance of the springs. By 
 this means a very sensitive accumulator is pro 
 vided to ease the jerks on the wire while reeling 
 in, and which also shows, by a graduated scale 
 on the pipes, the amount of strain upon the wire 
 at all times during the same operationVtlms- act 
 ing as a dynamometer. An odometer attached 
 to the axle of the cross-head pulley gives without 
 reduction the number of yards of wire payed out 
 or reeled in. 
 
 In paying out no weights are used for tighten 
 ing the friction-line, but the latter is connected 
 with the cross-head in such a manner that the 
 resistance of the springs is made available for the 
 purpose stated. This arrangement also operates 
 as an automatic governor on the motion of the 
 reel when paying out wire in a sea-way. During 
 the downward plunges of the vessel, when the 
 strain upon the wire is suddenly eased, the oper 
 ation of the governor is to increase the strain on 
 the friction-line, slowing down the reel and pre 
 venting the wire flying from the drum. As the 
 decreased speed of the reel or the rising of the 
 vessel restores the tension upon the wire the 
 friction-line is eased in turn, and the reel per 
 mitted to revolve more rapidly. At the instant 
 when the sinker strikes bottom the governor au 
 tomatically increases the resistance upon the reel. 
 There are various accessories to facilitate opera 
 tions and to insure the safety of the wire. The 
 machine as now constructed is almost entirely of 
 steel, and has a small steam-engine attached. 
 The apparatus folds in such a way that the 
 whole may be stowed in a box of small dimen 
 sions. 
 
 Sir William Thomson s Sounding-machine. 
 This machine is designed for the purpose of as 
 certaining accurately and quickly the depth of 
 water under a ship, without stopping or even re 
 ducing her speed. 
 
 The apparatus consists of a light wheel on 
 which is coiled about 300 fathoms of piano-forte 
 steel wire. The stand to which the supports of 
 the wheel are attached is fixed to the taffrail, at 
 the stern of the vessel, so that the sinker can be 
 left hanging ready for a cast. A cord wound 
 round a groove in the circumference of the 
 drum, is so arranged as to form a self-acting 
 brake, which when the sinker is hanging offers 
 enough of resistance to prevent it from running 
 down, but when it is being hauled in offers very 
 little resistance to the turning of the wheel. 
 "When the order is given to take a sounding the 
 brake is released by the hand, so as to leave a 
 force of about 7 pounds pulling on the rope, by 
 which a resistance of about 5 pounds is opposed 
 to the wire while it is running out. Thus, when 
 the sinker reaches the bottom the wheel suddenly 
 stops. The brake is then applied to prevent it 
 from running on again. 
 
 The sinker is a long iron weight of 22 pounds, 
 with a hollow at the bottom to receive the usual 
 arming of tallow, etc., to bring up a specimen of 
 the bottom. It is attached to the end of the wire 
 by means of a rope 6 or 8 feet long. 
 
 A brass tube a little more than 2 feet long is 
 lashed to the rope connecting the sinker with "the 
 wire. A glass tube, 2 feet long, coated inside 
 with chromate of silver, and closed at one end 
 and open at the other, is placed with its open end 
 down, in the brass tube. As the sinker descends 
 the increased pressure drives the sea-water up 
 the glass tube, which, combining with the chro 
 mate of silver, makes a white mark. The height 
 of the white mark registers the height to which 
 the liquor has been forced up the tube. A scale, 
 graduated to fathoms, shows at once the depth 
 to which the glass tube has been. This method 
 of taking soundings depends on the increased 
 pressure as the tube descends, but is independent 
 of the amount of line out, so that the vessel does 
 not require to be stopped in order to take a 
 sounding. 
 
 The advantages of wire over rope of the same 
 strength, are the smallness of area and smooth 
 ness of surface, on account of which it experi 
 ences very little resistance when pulled rapidly 
 through water. This allows the sinker to de 
 scend very quickly, and to be hauled on board 
 again with great ease, so that two men working 
 the machine can take soundings in 100 fathoms 
 every few minutes, from a ship running at any 
 speed, up to 16 or 17 knots. 
 
 When the machine is not required for imme 
 diate use, the drum must be kept in the iron tank 
 covered with lime-water. 
 
 SOUNDING-POLE. A pole used in sounding by 
 small craft in rivers. They are represented in 
 Egyptian wall-paintings of 1800 B.C. 
 
 SOUNDING-ROD. A rod, marked in feet and 
 inches, and suspended by a line, used to sound 
 the pump. 
 
 SOUNDINGS. The depth of water ascertained 
 by the lead. On soundings, within the 80-fathom 
 line. Soundings are expressed in fathoms on 
 charts, except in French charts, where metres 
 are used. See FATHOM, DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 
 
 Souse. To immerse suddenly in a fluid. 
 
 SOUSED-GURNET (Eng.}. A pickled fish. 
 
 South. The region, and the point of the com 
 pass, directly opposite to the north. All Teu 
 tonic and Latin races use the same word, except 
 Italians, who call it Ostro. 
 
 Southampton. A seaport town of England, 
 on a peninsula at the mouth of the Itchen, near 
 the head of Southampton Water. Lat. 50 44 
 N. ; Ion. 1 24 1" W. The manufactures, ex 
 cept, ship-building, which is carried on to a large 
 extent, are chiefly confined to brewing, coaches, 
 castings, silk goods, carpets, and the refining of 
 sugar. The town is a very important steam- 
 packet station, and is much visited by ocean- 
 steamers. It has very fine docks, and is an emi 
 grant station. Pop. 54,000. 
 
 South-easter. A southeasterly gale is gener 
 ally wet on the American coast, but dry and hot 
 in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Southing. The distance in nautical miles 
 which a ship makes to the southward. 
 
 South-wester. A southwesterly gale, accom 
 panied by rain on the American and English 
 coasts. A storm-hat of painted canvas, oiled 
 
SPAIN 
 
 765 
 
 SPAN 
 
 cloth, silk, or rubber, with broad brim or flaps 
 to protect the neck. 
 
 Spain, Navy of. The discovery of the New 
 "World by Christopher Columbus naturally led 
 the government of Spain to extend the desire for 
 exploration and possession in the southern parts 
 of the western hemisphere. This necessitated 
 the construction of more ships for purposes of 
 traffic and travel ; and in anticipation of the 
 hostility of other nations possessing like maritime 
 resources, and inspired by the same designs, a 
 navy became ultimately necessary. The 16th 
 century, however, had seen eight decades before 
 any very decided steps were taken to give em 
 ployment to the armament which Philip II. had 
 devoted so much time and treasure to raise. In 
 1587, after several contests with the Dutch in the 
 great War of Religion, the king of Spain had at 
 command a force of 130 magnificent ships of war, 
 well manned and equipped, and with these he 
 determined to make a descent upon England, 
 with the avowed purpose of taking possession 
 of the country and punishing and converting the 
 heretics. The "Invincible Armada" was the 
 pompous title given to the hostile expedition. 
 It left the Spanish coast, under the command of 
 Admiral Medina Sidoriia, in the summer of 1588, 
 a year later than was intended, but Admiral 
 Drake had, in the interval, crossed to the Spanish 
 coast and destroyed 100 vessels laden with stores 
 of war, besides intercepting and capturing a 
 large treasure-ship. After a few skirmishes and 
 isofated combats on the passage, the Armada was 
 confronted by an English fleet on the 8th of Au 
 gust. The great height and tonnage of the 
 Spanish ships making them rather unmanage 
 able when evolutions were attempted, conspired 
 to place them at a disadvantage in the great 
 battle that ensued. After a combat, which lasted 
 an entire day, as many of the Spanish men-of- 
 war as had not been crippled or captured sailed 
 away in a northerly direction to avoid the Dutch 
 and English cruisers in the Channel. In the 
 North Sea they experienced a heavy storm, which 
 shattered so great a number that, on the arrival 
 of the remnant of the Armada in the harbors 
 of Spain, scarcely one that had escaped was en 
 tirely uninjured. But the enormous wealth of the 
 nation, arising out of its possessions in the In 
 dies, enabled it rapidly to recover from its dis 
 asters, and during the two centuries that ensued 
 Spain held her own, now against England and 
 France, now associated with the latter power. 
 Ultimately, however, the naval forces of her 
 antagonists prevailed, and as the loss of her 
 foreign possessions, either through wars or re 
 bellions, reduced her resources and limited the 
 field for the employment of her ships, she 
 gradually declined as a naval power, and her 
 navy is now represented by 11 armor-clad 
 vessels, 9 wooden screw-frigates, 10 screw-cor 
 vettes, 10 paddle-wheel corvettes, 2 avisos, 75 
 gunboats, 17 other steamers, and 4 sailing-ves 
 sels, a total of 138. None of her fighting-ships 
 possess either the armor, speed, or armament to 
 compare with lately constructed armor-clads. 
 The " Numancia" and the " Vitoria" are the 
 most powerful of the armored ships. They are 
 rated as line-of-battle ships, have broadside bat 
 teries and ram bow, and are built of iron. Both 
 of the above vessels are of the same general di 
 mensions ; the principal difference is in the armor 
 
 and armament. The " Numancia s" plates are 
 5 inches thick at the water-line, and she carries 
 six 18-ton guns, three 9-ton, and sixteen 7-ton, 
 all Armstrong rifles ; the " VitoriaV armor is 5 
 inches thick at the water-line, and her armament 
 consists of four 12-ton, three 9-ton, and twelve 7- 
 ton Armstrong guns. The minister of marine 
 is invariably chosen from the grades of vice- or 
 rear-admiral, having two sub-secretaries (rear- 
 admirals). The corps and grade divisions of the 
 active personnel correspond with those of other 
 nations, the grades of the executive corps being 
 as follows : 
 
 Almirante, vice-almirante, gefe de escuadra, 
 capitan de navio, capitan de fregata, teniente de 
 navio (la cl., 2a cl.), alfarece de navio, guardia 
 marina. 
 
 The grades of the medical corps are medical 
 inspector, medical sub-inspector, surgeon-major, 
 first surgeon, second surgeon. 
 
 The grades of the commissar} corps are super 
 intendent, purveyor (1st class, 2d class), com 
 missary (1st class, 2d class), first assistant com 
 missary, second assistant commissary, third 
 assistant commissary, supernumeraries. 
 
 Chaplains have their grade and rank also. 
 Sub-vicar-general, first chaplain, second chap 
 lain, sacristan (lay official), chorister (lay offi 
 cial). 
 
 The technical corps includes the ship and en 
 gine constructors, and have the grades of gen 
 eral officer, brigadier, ship-of-the-line captain, 
 frigate captain, lieutenant, ensign. 
 
 The corps of machinists who work the engines 
 are graded as first, second, third, fourth, and as 
 sistant machinists. The total active personnel 
 of the fleet is 1792 officers (exclusive of chaplains, 
 midshipmen, and the technical corps). There is 
 also a marine artillery corps, the officers of which 
 are 1 general officer, 3 colonels, 7 lieutenant- 
 colonels, 16 captains, 20 lieutenants, and the ma 
 rine infantry corps, which is divided into 2 
 half brigades of 2 battalions each, and 2 com 
 panies of native infantry in the Philippines. 
 The strength of this corps is 170 officers and 6256 
 men, making a grand total of 1962 officers and 
 20,256 men in the Spanish navy. The Naval 
 Academy at Ferrol furnishes all the officers of 
 the executive corps of the service. There are 
 also special schools under naval control for the 
 education of pilots of the merchant service, one 
 for machinists, and an academy for the artillery 
 and technical corps The Hydrographic Bureau 
 and Naval Museum are located at Madrid, and 
 the Naval Observatorj at San Fernando. The 
 annual expenditure for the navy is a little over 
 $5,000,000. 
 
 Spake-net. A net for catching crabs. 
 
 Spalding-knife. A Newfoundland knife for 
 splitting fish. 
 
 Spaldings (Eng.\ Whitings and other small 
 fish. 
 
 Spales, or Spaling. Cross-bands placed so as 
 to keep the frames of a wooden or iron ship in 
 place until beams, planking, or plating are put 
 on. 
 
 Span. A rope having both ends made fast, so 
 that a purchase may be hooked in the bight. A 
 rope made fast to a stay or. shroud in the centre, 
 so that both ends may be used. To connect by 
 ropes. To span in the rigging, to draw the top 
 mast rigging together by tackles; to seize on the 
 
SPANISH-BURN 
 
 Y66- 
 
 SPENCER 
 
 cathar pin-legs. Span of the rigging, the distance 
 over the mast-head, from the dead-eye on one 
 side to that on the other. Spanning a harpoon, 
 fixing the harpoon-line to it. The staff ships in 
 an iron socket, but is not fast, and the line runs 
 through a becket on the staff, and through the 
 socket, making fast to the head of the harpoon. 
 The staff disconnects on striking, but is retained 
 by the line. 
 
 SPAN-BLOCKS. Blocks seized into each bight 
 of a strap that leads across a cap or mast-head, 
 so as to hang down on either side. 
 
 SPAN-LASHING. The lashing of a span, or a 
 lashing that spans the distance between two 
 ropes separated by a slight interval. 
 
 SPAN-SHACKLE (Eng.). A large bolt through 
 the forecastle deck, with a triangular shackle in 
 the head to receive the heel of the old-fashioned 
 fish-davit. Bolts driven in the deck, by which 
 the spars and boom-boats are lashed in place. 
 
 Spanish-burn (Eng.}. Hiding defects in 
 timber by hacking it with an ax. 
 
 Spanish-burton. A kind of purchase. A 
 single Spanish-burton has two single blocks, the 
 upper, the standing block, with a tail or hook to 
 it, the lower having the standing end of the fall 
 made fast to its strap. The weight is applied to 
 the bight of the fall between these blocks by 
 means of a hook. Double Spanish-burtons have 
 three blocks, all single or one double, two blocks 
 being movable and one fixed, and the weight is 
 applied to the lower of these. The fall is in two 
 parts, one secured to the strap of the leading 
 block, and the other to the lower block, or to 
 the upper one. The increase of power is from 3 
 to 5 times that applied. 
 
 Spanish-fox. A single yarn twisted up left- 
 handed, or contrary to its lay. 
 
 Spanish Mackerel. The tunny-fish. 
 Spanish Reef. The yards are "lowered on the 
 cap, but the reef-tackles are not hauled out, as in 
 a monkey-reef. A knot tied in the head of a jib. 
 Spanish Windlass. A wooden roller, with a 
 rope wound about it, into which a marling-spike 
 is thrust to serve as a lever. A purchase formed 
 by several turns of a rope around two parts of a 
 piece of rigging, both ends being hauled upon. 
 
 Spanker. The aftermost sail in a ship ; a fore- 
 and-aft sail, setting abaft the mizzen-mast, hav 
 ing a gaff, and generally a boom. Formerly 
 called the driver. Until the middle of the last 
 century a lateen-sail was used instead of the 
 spanker. For the rigging of a spanker, see un 
 der the proper heads. 
 
 Spanker-eel (Eng.}. The lamprey. 
 Spanking. Large ; fine ; strong. A spanking 
 breeze, a fine, fresh breeze. A spanking frigate, 
 a large, fine frigate. To go a spanking, to sail 
 with a fine breeze aft, or quartering. 
 
 Spanner. A wrench fitted to gripe and turn 
 a cylindrical piece ; as, a hose-spanner or wrench 
 with which hose-couplings are manipulated. 
 
 Spar. Any round piece of timber used for a 
 mast, yard, boom, etc. A shifting spar is a light 
 spar, with a hook or a grommet attached, used 
 to shift a light gun from one carriage to another. 
 A torpedo-spar is one used to thrust a torpedo 
 from a ship s side or bow. Spare spars, see 
 SPARE. 
 
 SPAR-DECK. See DECK. 
 SPAR-MAKER. A carpenter whose especial 
 trade is the fabrication of ships masts, yards, etc. 
 
 SPAR-PILE. The collection of spare spars on 
 the deck. The locality is called the booms. 
 
 SPAR-SHED. A shed or shop in a navy-yard 
 where spars are fashioned. 
 
 SPAR-TORPEDO. See TORPEDO. 
 
 Spare. A general term for all reserve stores 
 put on board ship, as spare sails, spare spars, etc. 
 
 SPARE ARTICLES. Duplicate sets of small 
 castings, etc., placed under the care of the yeo 
 man. Also, extra sets of gear for the service of 
 the guns issued to each division, such as sponges, 
 breechings, trucks, etc. 
 
 SPARE ANCHOR. An additional anchor, the 
 size of the bower, formerly furnished to ships. It 
 is now replaced by one of the sheet-anchors. 
 
 SPARE SPARS. Certain spars furnished in du 
 plicate. These are fore- and main-topmasts, fore- 
 yard, fore- and main-topsail yard, topgallant and 
 royal yards, and studding-sail booms. Spare 
 spars are not furnished so liberally to steamers, 
 not being so essential to their safety. They are 
 placed in the spar-pile, or on cranes in the chan 
 nels on either side. 
 
 Sparling. The smelt. 
 
 Sparoid. Belonging to a family of spinous- 
 finned fishes, which include the gilt-head, sea- 
 bream, and porgee. 
 
 Spat. The spawn of the oyster. 
 
 Speak. To speak a vessel, to pass within hail 
 and communicate with a ship by voice. 
 
 Speaking-trumpet. See TRUMPET. 
 
 Specific Gravity. See GRAVITY. 
 
 Speck. The blubber of whales. 
 
 SPECK-BLOCK. The block through which the 
 speck-falls are rove. 
 
 SPECK-FALLS. Ropes rove through the speck- 
 blocks, at the mast-head of a whaler, and con 
 nected to the blubber-guy ; used for hoisting the 
 blubber strips. 
 
 SPECKTIONEER. The chief harpooner, who 
 also superintends cutting and stripping the 
 blubber. 
 
 Speed of Ships. Ships under sail make from 
 5 to 15 miles an hour, with good breezes. Their 
 speed varies much with the direction of the wind, 
 its force, and the state of the sea. Ships sail 
 slower close-hauled than when free, and better 
 with a side wind than when it is aft. The aver 
 age rate of sailing is about 120 miles per day. 
 Clipper-ships have far surpassed this, and the 
 "Sovereign of the Seas" averaged 19 miles an 
 hour in a trip to San Francisco. Yachts have 
 made nearly as much, and greater speed has 
 been attained by sailing-catamarans. The speed 
 of steam-vessels is gradually increasing. Two 
 hundred miles a day is thought to be a fair 
 average, but steamers make as much as 20 or 22 
 miles an hour. Some boats have made 25 miles, 
 and even more, in smooth water. An average 
 speed of 10 knots is thought no longer to suffice, 
 and men-of-war should be able to steam 15 miles 
 in a moderate sea, 
 
 Speed-indicator. A log, fixed on the taffrail 
 or at the stem, so that the speed of the vessel is 
 at any time ascertained by looking at it. See 
 Loo. 
 
 Spell. A short period employed in work. A 
 relief or temporary respite from labor. A spell 
 at the wheel is called a trick. Spell ho ! a call 
 for a relief. To spell, to relieve at any work for 
 a short time. 
 
 Spencer. A trapezoidal sail setting on a mast 
 
SPENT 
 
 767 
 
 SPLICE 
 
 and gaff, without a boom, invented by Knight 
 Spencer, in England, in 1802. Fore-spencer, the 
 fore-trysail. Main-spencer, the main-trysail. For 
 the gear of a spencer, see under proper heads. 
 
 SPENCER-MAST. A trysail-mast, stepped abaft 
 the principal mast. 
 
 Spent. Having lost power ; as, a spent shot, a 
 spent mast, etc. 
 
 Sperm-whale, or Spermaceti-whale. A large, 
 square-nosed whale, the Physeter macroceph- 
 alus, or cachalot, of the Delphinoid or toothed 
 order of Cetaceans. It is found in tropical and 
 temperate seas, and its oil is very valuable. It 
 attains a length of from 60 to 80 feet, the head, 
 containing the oil, being a third of this length. 
 See CACHALOT. 
 
 Speronare. An Italian boat, having two 
 masts with lateen-sails, the foremost raking for 
 ward. 
 
 Spew Oakum. The seams are said to spew 
 oakum when, from heat or working, the oakum 
 starts from between the plank. 
 
 Sphera Nautica. A navigating instrument 
 used in 1570. 
 
 Spherical-case. See SHRAPNEL. 
 
 Spica (Lat. an ear of corn). The name of the 
 bright star a Virginia, so called after the device 
 of the ancient Greeks, who placed an ear of corn 
 in the hand of the Virgin, typical of the harvest, 
 which with them coincided with the sun s ap 
 proach to this conspicuous star. See VIRGO. 
 
 Spider. An iron outrigger, to keep a block 
 clear of the ship s side, of the funnel, etc. 
 
 Spider-band, or Spider-hoop. An iron band 
 around the lower mast, to which the futtock- 
 shrouds are attached by hooks inserted in eye- 
 bolts in the band. A band around a mast, with 
 sockets attached, into which belaying-pins are 
 thrust. 
 
 Spider-crab. The sea-spider. 
 
 Spike. To drive spikes in plank or timbers. 
 To close the vent of a gun by driving a steel 
 spike into it. A cut or wrought nail, larger 
 than lOd, used in boat- and ship-building. 
 Boat-spikes are from 3 to 10 inches long, and 
 there are from 2 to 17 of them to the pound. 
 Ship-spikes are stouter, from 4 to 10 inches long, 
 and there are from 1 to 8 in a pound. A round 
 steel file or rod, used to close the vent of a gun. 
 Spring-spikes have a spring at the lower end, to 
 retain them in place. A handspike. 
 
 Spike-plank. A bridge across the deck of 
 Arctic vessels. 
 
 Spike-tackle. The tackle used by whalers to 
 hold the whale alongside while stripping it. 
 
 Spike-tub. A tub receiving the fat, blubber, 
 etc., of whales, until it is rendered. 
 
 Spile. A pin driven in a nail-hole. A pile. 
 A spigot. A wooden peg in a small hole in a 
 cask containing a liquid. 
 
 SPILE-HOLE. An air-hole in a cask. A hole 
 for a spigot. 
 
 Spiling. The edge curve of plank or timber. 
 Taking the shape from a curved surface, as a 
 ship s side, by the use of a straight batten and a 
 rule, and applying the same to a plank which is 
 to be bent to the shape taken off. 
 
 Spill. To take the wind out of a sail by 
 bracing the yard, by hauling up some of the 
 gear, or by luffing the ship. 
 
 SPILLING-LINES. Ropes sometimes tempo 
 rarily fitted to the courses, extending abaft the 
 
 sail to the leeches, for the purpose of spilling the 
 wind out of the sails. 
 
 Spindle. The upper main piece of a made 
 mast. The shaft on which the capstan revolves. 
 The stem or axis of a vane. 
 
 Spindle-valve. A disk-shaped valve which is 
 moved and guided to and from its seat by a spin 
 dle or stem ; as, in stop-valves, poppet-valves, etc. 
 
 Spingard. An old cannon. 
 
 Spire-vapor. Spiral streams of vapor rising 
 from the surface of the ocean, seen in Arctic 
 regions. 
 
 Spirit-ration. The ration of grog, formerly 
 served out to the crews of our ships, and still 
 given in some navies. It was abolished in the 
 II. S. navy in 1862, and five cents a day is paid 
 each man as a commutation. 
 
 Spirit-room. The room in the hold where 
 spirits were formerly kept, under sentry s guard. 
 It was abaft the main hold, and forward of the 
 after-peak, and, where yet existing, is used for 
 paymaster s stores. 
 
 Spirket. A space forward and aft, between 
 the floor-timbers. 
 
 Spirketing. That part of the inside planking 
 in vessels of war which is worked between the 
 top of the water-ways and the lower port-sills. 
 Where there are no water-ways, it is the thick 
 strake wrought on the top side of the beams. 
 
 Spit. A narrow tongue of land or shoal. A 
 light rain-squall. A narrow tongue of land or 
 a shoal making out into the sea. 
 
 Spit-fire Jib. A small storm-jib used in cutters. 
 
 Spithead Nightingales (Eng.}. Boatswains 
 and boatswains mates, piping their calls. 
 
 Spit-kid. A small wooden cask, set about the 
 decks, for spit-boxes. Spitting upon decks is 
 an unpardonable offense, and men are sometimes 
 punished by serving as perambulating stands for 
 spit-kids. 
 
 Spla-boards (Eng.}. Plank fixed at an angle, 
 to reflect light into magazines. 
 
 Splice. To unite two ropes, or to join a rope 
 to a chain, by interweaving them. The union 
 of two ropes, or of a rope and chain. Two 
 ropes joined to reeve through a block are united 
 by a long splice, in which the strands of each 
 rope are replaced by those of the opposite -rope, 
 and the ends are neatly tucked under other 
 strands. A short splice is made where a large 
 diameter is not objectionable. The ends of the 
 strands are tucked under those of the opposite 
 rope two or three times. An eye-splice is one in 
 which an eye is formed in a rope, the end being 
 spliced into its own part. A cut-splice is an 
 oval formed by splicing the ends of two ropes 
 into the opposite rope, at 6 or 8 inches from the 
 end. A horseshoe-splice is made by splicing a 
 short piece of rope between the parts of a bight 
 formed in a rope. A sailmaker s splice is one 
 joining two ropes of different sizes, so that the 
 splice is tapered. A mariner s splice is simply 
 a long splice in cable-laid rope. A drawing 
 splicers one made without tucking the ends, so 
 that it may be drawn out. Ropes are spliced to 
 chain, and wire ropes are spliced together by 
 peculiar methods, and rope is spliced around 
 thimbles and bull s-eyes. 
 
 SPLICED EYE. An eye spliced in the end of 
 a rope. A thimble or bull s-eye is generally in 
 serted in if. 
 
 SPLICING-FID. A tapered wooden fid, used to 
 
SPLINTER 
 
 768 
 
 SPRING 
 
 open the strands of a rope. Marline-spikes are 
 oftener used for splicing. 
 
 SPLICING-SHACKLE. A large shackle in the 
 end of a chain, with a thimble for splicing a rope 
 to it. 
 
 SPLICING THE MAIN BRACE. An expression 
 denoting the act of drinking spirits. It is 
 equivalent to "topping up the boom," and 
 " sweating up the halliards." The Germans say 
 " Besahnshot an!" "Haul aft the spanker- 
 sheet!" 
 
 Splinter. A fragment of wood or iron broken 
 off by the passage of a shot through a ship. 
 
 SPLINTER-NETTING. A netting formed of 
 light rope, to prevent accidents from splinters, 
 falling spars, etc. 
 
 Splitter. The fisherman who splits fish open 
 after they have been headed. 
 
 Splitting-out. Splitting away the wedges 
 from under a vessel s keel before launching. 
 
 Splitting the Books (Eng.). Opening a new 
 set of books after paying off, in which men are 
 continued with their old numbers. 
 
 Spoke. One of the projecting handles of the 
 steering-wheel. " To put a spoke into a man s 
 wheel" is to say a good word for him. 
 
 Sponge. A fibrous and porous substance 
 from the sea-depths, the framework of a ma 
 rine animal. An instrument for cleansing the 
 bore of a gun. The ordinary sponge consists of 
 the handle or staff, and a wooden head covered 
 with alum-dressed sheepskin, and having a small 
 spiral in the end, to bring out pieces of cloth. 
 A rope-sponge has no handle, but merely a piece 
 of rope. A bristle-sponge, used in rifle-guns, 
 has, instead of sheepskin, stiff bristles, disposed 
 in spiral strips, or straight sections, on the sponge- 
 head. A sectional sponge is one whose handle is 
 in sections, for easier manipulation in a turret. 
 A sponge-and-rammer is furnished to boat-how 
 itzers, having one of these instruments on each 
 end of the staff. A valve-sponge has in the end 
 a valve opening by pressure, allowing water to 
 escape, and thus washing the bore. It is used in 
 very heavy guns. To sponge, to clean the bore 
 with a sponge. In some modern ships, this is 
 done from the deck below, by depressing the gun, 
 machinery working the sponge. 
 
 SPONGE-CAP. A canvas bag, fitted over the 
 head of a sponge when not in use. 
 
 SPONGE-COVER. The sheepskin nailed over 
 the head of a sponge. 
 
 SPONGE-FISHING. Sponges are procured in 
 Grecian, Syrian, and Italian waters, and coarser 
 varieties in the West Indian seas. They are 
 procured by diving after them, by spearing them 
 with a long spear from a boat, and by dredging 
 after them. Sponges abound in the Mediter 
 ranean. 
 
 SPONGE-HANDLE, or SPONGE-STAFF. The 
 wooden staff serving to thrust the sponge to the 
 bottom of the bore. It is often in sections, 
 screwed together. 
 
 SPONGE-HEAD. The wooden head attached 
 to the sponge-staff. 
 
 Sponson. The space forward and abaft the 
 paddle-boxes of river-steamers to increase their 
 stability. ^ Sponsons are made sometimes open 
 and sometimes closed, depending upon the rough 
 ness of the water into which the vessel is to 
 run. 
 
 SPONSON-BEAM. A projecting beam in river- 
 
 steamers uniting the paddle-box with the ship s 
 side. 
 
 SPONSON-RIM. The wale upon which the pad 
 dle-beam rests at the ship s side. 
 
 Spoon, or Spoom. To scud under bare poles. 
 
 Spoon-drift. The fine mist blown from the 
 top of the waves, and filling the air with mist. 
 Driving snow at sea. 
 
 SPOUT-FISH. Any marine animal that spouts, 
 as whales, etc. 
 
 Spotts, James H., Commodore U.S.N. Ap 
 pointed midshipman, August 2, 1837 ; made a 
 cruise around the world in the "John Adams," 
 1837-40 ; engaged in two battles on the island 
 of Sumatra, in 1839; in the "Delaware" and 
 " Potomac," on the Brazil Station, 1841-42. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 29, 
 1843; cruised in the " St. Lawrence," in the 
 West Indies, in 1843, and in the "Falmouth" 
 and " Southampton," on the coasts of Mexico and 
 Africa, in 1844-45. 
 
 Promoted to master, April 8, 1851, and com 
 missioned as lieutenant in November of the same 
 year. He was on the Pacific coast, in the " Lex 
 ington," in 1846-49, and again, in the " Ports 
 mouth," in 1851-55. During the Mexican war 
 he was on blockade duty on the west coast of 
 Mexico, and participated in the capture of Ma- 
 zatlan, San Bias, Lapaz, etc.; in the " Michi 
 gan," 1856-58 ; " Cyane" and "Saranac," Pa 
 cific coast, 1858-60 ; "Santee," Gulf Squadron, 
 1861 ; commanded" Wanderer," Gulf Squadron, 
 1861-62, and the " Magnolia," in the latter part 
 of 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862, 
 and commanded the " South Carolina" in 1863 ; 
 commanded the " Pawtuxet" in 1864-65 ; execu 
 tive-officer of the Mare Island Navy- Yard, 
 1865-67. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manded the "Saranac," on the Pacific coast, in 
 1870-71, and the " Pensacola" in 1871-72 ; light 
 house inspector, Pacific coast, 1872-74. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, September 25, 
 1873 -, inspector of government vessels on the 
 Pacific coast, 1877-80. During the war of the 
 Rebellion served in the Gulf, North and South 
 Atlantic Squadrons on blockade duty ; was in 
 both engagements at Fort Fisher, and all the 
 batteries on Cape Fear River up to Wilmington, 
 and several minor engagements whilst on block 
 ade duty during the war; was up the James 
 River when Richmond was captured. 
 
 Spout. Whales are obliged to rise to the sur 
 face and spout at intervals varying from 10 to 15 
 minutes. See BLOW, WATERSPOUT. 
 
 Sprat. A small fish (the Clupea sprattus], 
 allied to the herring. 
 
 SPRAT-WEATHER. Dark days in November 
 and December, favorable for fishing for sprats. 
 
 Spray. Water flying in small drops or parti 
 cles, as from the top of a breaking wave. 
 
 SPRAY-BOARD. A strip on the gunwale of a 
 boat to keep the water and spray from coming in. 
 
 Spread-eagle. To make a spread-eagle of a 
 person is to lash him in the rigging with hands 
 and feet outspread. If the topmen can get a 
 passenger or new-comer aloft, he is thus made to 
 pay a forfeit. 
 
 Sprig, or Sprig-bolt. A small eye-bolt with 
 a ragged point. 
 
 Spring. A crack in a spar, rendering it de- 
 
SPRING-BALANCE VALVE 
 
 769 
 
 SQUARE 
 
 fective. A hawser, run out from any part of the 
 ship to a point on shore, a buoy, etc., to turn or 
 spring the vessel. A hawser, leading from the 
 stern outside the ship, to the cable by which the 
 ship is anchored, so as to spring her in action, or 
 for any other purpose. To split or strain a spar. 
 To turn a ship by means of a spring. To spring 
 a butt, to start the end of a plank from its fas 
 tenings. To spring a leak, to begin to leak. To 
 spring the luff, to luff up into the wind, so as 
 to shake the sails slightly, and then to fill away 
 again. Spring of a beam, the curve upward of a 
 beam from a level or horizontal line, generally 
 from 4 to 6 inches in 40 feet. 
 
 Spring-balance Valve. A valve which is 
 held to its seat and adjusted to a given pressure 
 by a spring-balance; as, the safety-valves of lo 
 comotive-engines, etc. 
 
 Spring-beam. A fore-and-aft beam connect 
 ing the paddle-beams, at their outer ends. 
 
 Spring-block. A block, connected to a ring 
 bolt by a spring, used on tacks and sheets, for 
 greater elasticity. Invented by Hopkinson. 
 
 Spring-forelock. A forelock, formed of a 
 piece of steel bent double, so as to spring open, 
 and keep its place. 
 
 Spring-rowlock. A rowlock, fastened in 
 place by a spring. 
 
 Spring-searcher. A steel pronged tool to 
 search for defects in the bore of a gun. 
 
 Spring-spike. A spike for a gun, with a spring 
 at the lower end to prevent its withdrawal. 
 
 Spring-stay. A duplicate stay, placed apart 
 from the main one, to serve as a substitute for it 
 in case of injury by shot, etc. 
 
 Spring-tides (Sax. springan, to grow, bulge). 
 The greatest tides, taking place after the syzygy 
 of the sun and moon. See TIDES. 
 
 Sprit. A small spar crossing a sail diagonally 
 from the tack to the peak, and resting in a becket 
 at the mast, called a snotter. The supporting 
 spar, or belly-spar of a pair of sheers. 
 
 SPRITSAIL. A sail formerly suspended under 
 the bowsprit, from the spritsail-yard. A boat s 
 sail, extended by a sprit, quadrilateral in shape. 
 
 SPRITSAIL-GAFFS. A name for the whiskers, 
 
 SPRITSAIL-SHEET KNOT. A knot formerly 
 used on the spritsail-sheet, made by walling 
 and crowning the six strands together, forming 
 an eye or short bight, to which the sheet was 
 bent. 
 
 SPRITSAIL-TOPGALLANT-SAIL. A sail for 
 merly set on the flying jib-boom in the same 
 manner as the spritsail-topsail on the jib-boom. 
 
 SPRITSAIL-TOPSAIL. A sail above the sprit- 
 sail, bent to a yard hanging under the jib-boom. 
 
 SPRITSAIL-YARD. A yard formerly suspended 
 under the bowsprit near the cap, to which the 
 spritsail was bent. It had lifts reaching to the 
 cap, and braces coming in on the forecastle, and 
 was trussed to the bowsprit. This yard is re 
 placed by the whiskers in modern vessels. 
 
 SPRITSAIL - YARDING. Thrusting a stick 
 through the gills of sharks, etc., and turning 
 them loose thus. 
 
 Sprue-head. See SINKING-HEAD. 
 
 Spud. A potato. 
 
 Spun (Eng.}. Bilged, or turned back ; rejected 
 in an examination. 
 
 Spun-yarn. Small-stuff, formed by twisting 
 together two or three old rope-yarns by a winch. 
 See SMALL-STUFF. 
 49 
 
 Spur. A projecting spar. A spur-beam. A 
 spur-shore. A projection on the bows of a ram. 
 
 SPUR-BEAM. A curved timber serving as a 
 half-beam to support a deck, abreast of the hatch 
 ways. 
 
 SPUR-SHORES. Long timbers resting on the 
 launching-ways, with their upper ends bolted to 
 the ship s side. 
 
 SPUR-TUBE. See PRIMER. 
 
 Spurket. See SPIRKET. 
 
 Spurling-line. A line wound over the pro 
 longation of the axis of the steering-wheel, and 
 connected to the tell-tale, by means of which the 
 needle followed the motions of the wheel. A 
 line formerly lashed to standing-rigging, with 
 several branches holding thimbles or fair-leaders 
 for running-gear. 
 
 Spurn-water. The water-ways. A channel 
 left above the ends of the deck-plank, to pre 
 vent the water from going farther. 
 
 Spy-boat. A picket-boat, or look-out boat. 
 
 Spy-glass. A small telescope for ship or 
 field use. 
 
 Squadron. A detachment of vessels or boats 
 employed on any particular service. The divis 
 ions of a fleet, as van, centre, and rear. Any 
 assemblage of vessels smaller than a fleet. The- 
 fleets of the U. S. navy in various parts of the 
 globe are sometimes called squadrons, as the 
 European Squadron, etc. See NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 SQUADRON, FLYING. A squadron of observa 
 tion or practice, that cruises rapidly about from 
 place to place. 
 
 Squall. A sudden and violent gust of wind, 
 of greater or less duration. These are frequent 
 in some localities and at some seasons, and are 
 particularly dangerous near high land. They 
 are generally preceded, accompanied, or followed 
 by clouds, which, together with the indications 
 of the barometer, serve as a warning of their 
 approach. White-caps on the surface of the sea 
 also aid the mariner in foreseeing them. As the 
 clouds are heavy and thick, or light and thin, so, 
 generally, will be the character of these squalls ; 
 and the character of the cloud, whether rapidly 
 rising and flying about, or quiescent and slowly 
 changing, also foretells more or less wind. Rain, 
 or snow, attends many of these squalls. A black 
 squall is dark and threatening, and generally at 
 tended with rain. A heavy squall is one attended 
 with much wind. A white squall is a furious 
 blow, generally met with on the African coast, 
 unannounced by signs other than the white-caps, 
 and by a rushing sound, attended by a thin, 
 whitish haze. Rain generally accompanies it. 
 As regards the management of a vessel in a 
 squall, the practice of seamen differs, some luffing 
 her up and shaking the sails until the squall 
 has passed, or sail has been reduced, and some 
 putting the helm up and running before the wind ; 
 which to do would depend somewhat upon the 
 ship, the circumstances, crew, etc., but generally 
 speaking it is more seamanlike, more general 
 usage, and more rational to luff with a wind for 
 ward of the beam, and to bear up with a wind 
 abaft the beam. Sail should be reduced in heavy 
 squalls, before it comes if possible, and too great 
 attention to the warnings cannot be paid. 
 
 SQUALLY WEATHER. Weather in which 
 squalls are frequent. 
 
 Square. The position of the yards when hori 
 zontal and at right angles to the keel. A gen- 
 
SQUATTER 
 
 770 
 
 STAFF-OFFICER 
 
 eral term, signifying level, flush, or in a line 
 with any object. That part of an anchor-shank 
 just at the stock, extending to its upper end. ^ A 
 very long yard, giving great breadth to the sails. 
 To place the frames across the keel at right 
 angles. To place the yards at right angles to 
 the keel and horizontal. To square the dead-eyes, 
 to get them In the same horizontal line. To 
 square the ratlines, to get them horizontal and 
 parallel to each other. 
 
 SQUARE-BODY. The square body comprises all 
 those frames that are square to the centre line of 
 the ship. 
 
 SQUARE-BUILT. With the square frames much 
 of the same length, and with short bow and stern. 
 
 SQUARE-BUTTED. A yard-arm of a large di 
 ameter and square at the end, so as to cut a 
 sheave-hole without detriment to the yard, is 
 square-butted. 
 
 SQUARE-FORESAIL. A course, or foresail bent 
 to the fore-yard. The monkey-foresail, or square- 
 sail set on the yard of a sloop or schooner. 
 
 SQUARE-FRAMES. Frames square with the 
 keel, or at right angles to it. 
 
 SQUARE IN THE" HEAD, or SQUARE-BOWED. 
 Bluff and broad in the fore-body. 
 
 SQUARE-KNOT, See REEF-KNOT. 
 
 SQUARE-MAINSAIL. The sail bent to the main- 
 yard 
 
 SQUARE-MARKS. Marks placed on the lifts 
 and braces, which, when brought to a certain 
 point, indicate that the yards are square. 
 
 SQUARE-RIBBONS. Horizontal lines in a ship s 
 plans. 
 
 SQUARE-RIGGED. Rigged with yards and 
 square-sails principally, although other sails are 
 used. Having especially long yards. Dressed 
 out in full dress. 
 
 SQUARE-SAIL. A four-cornered sail bent to a 
 yard. The foresail of a schooner set on a yard. 
 A cutter s or sloop s sail, boomed out. 
 
 SQUARE-SAIL BOOM. A boom, hooked to an 
 eye-bolt in the foremast of a schooner or sloop, 
 used to boom out the square-sail. 
 
 SQUARE-STERNED. Having a stern formed by 
 a wing transom nearly straight, so as to give 
 little curve to it. 
 
 SQUARE TIMBER. A timber perpendicular to 
 the keel. A timber worked with square edges 
 and no beveling. 
 
 SQUARE-TOPSAIL. The topsail of a sloop or 
 schooner, set on a yard. 
 
 SQUARE-TOPSAIL YARD. The light yard on 
 the topmast of a schooner or sloop to which a 
 topsail is bent. 
 
 SQUARE-TUCK. A stern like a yawl-boat, 
 which is built without counter-timbers, the tran 
 som continuing up to the top-height. 
 
 SQUARE YARDS. To get the yards hori 
 zontal and at right angles to the keel. Figu 
 ratively, to settle accounts. In squaring yards, 
 the boatswain and his mates attend, the former 
 going ahead in a boat, and signaling with flags, 
 while his chief mate is on the head-spars, and 
 interprets the signal to the other mates. Square- 
 yard-men in the tops attend the lifts, and the re 
 mainder, on deck, the braces. 
 
 SQUARING-OFF. The trimming off of the pro 
 jecting edges of the strakes after the vessel is 
 planked. 
 
 Squatter. The fluttering of sea-birds on the 
 water. 
 
 Squeegee. See SQUILGEE. 
 
 Squeteague. A fish (Labrus squeteague of 
 Mitchell), found in Long Island Sound ; called 
 also weak-fish. 
 
 Squid. A variety of the cuttle-fish, the Lo- 
 ligo. 
 
 SQUID-LINE. A fishing-line, baited with 
 squid. 
 
 Squilgee. Formerly, a small swab. An in 
 strument for cleaning the water from the decks, 
 composed of a wooden head, having a strip of 
 rubber in a groove in its under part, and a staff 
 attached to it. A lazy, mean fellow. A line 
 with toggles in the end, used in setting a stud 
 ding-sail. A long line bent to the snorter, in 
 sending down light yards, generally called a 
 tripping-line. 
 
 Squirm. The twist in a rope. 
 
 Stabber. A pricker ; an awl used to pierce 
 holes in canvas. 
 
 Stable. See STABILITY. 
 
 Stability. That quality in a vessel by which, 
 when she is disturbed by wind or wave, she 
 tends to regain her position of equilibrium. The 
 moment of stability is the moment of the couple 
 formed by the weight of the ship and the right 
 ing forces. 
 
 Stack. A precipitous rock rising out of the sea. 
 A pile of guns, made systematically. The smoke 
 stack (which see). 
 
 Stacken-cloud (Eng.}. Cumulus clouds. 
 
 Stade. A station for ships. A landing- 
 place. 
 
 Staff. A light pole on which a flag is to be 
 hoisted. Ensign-staff, a staff shipped astern for 
 the ensign. Jack-staff, a pole stepped on the 
 bowsprit for the jack. A class of nautical instru 
 ments of observation. A measuring and spacing 
 rule used in ship-building. Cutting-down staff, 
 that on which is marked the heights of the cut 
 ting-down line from the keel. A half -breadth 
 staff has marked on it the half-breadth of each 
 beam. A height-staff has on it the height of 
 each frame from the keel to the beams. A room- 
 and-space staff has on it the distance between 
 frames. The officers composing the suite of an 
 admiral or commodore, consisting of the senior 
 or fleet-captain, the fleet-paymaster, fleet-sur 
 geon, fleet-engineer, fleet marine officer, secre 
 tary, flag-lieutenants, masters, ensigns, and mid 
 shipmen, and when separate from any of these, 
 the fleet signal-officer. 
 
 Staff-captain (Eng.}. A captain of the navi 
 gating branch of officers in the English navy. 
 
 Staff-commander. The second grade of navi 
 gating officers in the English navy. 
 
 Staff-officer. An officer attached to the per 
 sonal staff of the commander-in-chief. An officer 
 of the navy not exercising military command. 
 Staff-officers in the U. S. navy are divided into 
 corps, as follows : medical, pay, engineer, con 
 structors, chaplains, civil engineers, secretaries, 
 and professors of mathematics. The medical 
 corps includes the surgeon-general, medical di 
 rectors, medical inspectors, surgeons, passed as 
 sistant surgeons, and assistant surgeons. The 
 pay corps includes the paymaster-general, pay- 
 directors, pay-inspectors, paymasters, passed as 
 sistant paymasters, and assistant paymasters. 
 The engineer corps includes the engineer-in- 
 chief, chief engineers, passed assistant engineers, 
 assistant engineers, and cadet engineers. 
 
STAFF-SURGEON 
 
 771 
 
 STABLY 
 
 Staff-surgeon. A title used in the English 
 navy for the senior surgeons. The next rank of 
 medical officers above surgeon. 
 
 Stag. A rock rising from the sea. 
 
 Stage. A plank platform, or single plank 
 used to support men while working. Floating 
 stage. (See FLOATING.) Hanging stage, a stage 
 suspended over the ship s side. Cable-stage, a 
 platform formerly placed in the hold for cables, 
 hawsers, etc. 
 
 Stagger. A ship is said to stagger when she 
 has as much canvas as she will bear, and when 
 she moves heavily in rolling. 
 
 Stain. Black staining may be done with log 
 wood, \ pound ; green copperas, 6 ounces ; nut- 
 galls, 8 ounces ; vinegar, gallon, applied warm. 
 Or, pound logwood boiled in water, with 1 
 ounce pearlash, J ounce verdigris, and J ounce 
 copperas added, then the mixture strained, and 
 pound rusty steel-filings added. Another 
 (ebony-black) is vinegar, J pound; extract log 
 wood, 2 pounds ; green copperas, pound ; China 
 blue, pound ; nut-galls, 2 ounces. Boil over a 
 slow fire, and add J pound iron-rust. 
 
 Staith. An embankment on a river where 
 vessels are laden. An elevated railway-track 
 extending over the water for loading coal, etc., 
 into a vessel. 
 
 Stake. A weir for fish. A strake of plank. 
 
 Stake-head. A wooden arm in the stake-post 
 of a rope-walk, containing pins, to keep the 
 strands apart in laying rope. 
 
 Stake-post. An upright wooden post, with 
 mortices for stake-heads, in a rope- walk. 
 
 Stammareen (Eng.). The helmsman s seat 
 in a Shetland boat. 
 
 Stamp and Go ! An order to quicken the men 
 at the ropes or at the capstan, intended to make 
 them heave together. 
 
 Stanch. Strong; tight. A stanch vessel, a 
 strong and water-tight ship. See STAUNCH. 
 
 Stanchion. An upright support. Lifting 
 stanchions are of iron, and may be raised and 
 fastened to the beam above. 
 
 Stand. A small rest or support. Stand of 
 ammunition, the projectile, cartridge, and sabot. 
 Stand of arms, a rifle, bayonet, belt, cartridge- 
 box, etc. Stand of grape, one complete assemblage 
 of grape-shot mounted. To stand, to resist. To 
 stand fire, to receive an enemy s fire without 
 yielding. Stand for, to direct the course towards. 
 Stand in, to head in toward land. Stand off, to 
 direct the course off shore. Stand on, to continue 
 in the same course. Stand off and on, to direct 
 the ship s head first to seaward, then shoreward. 
 Stand out, to leave a harbor and direct the 
 course seaward. Stand by a rope, to attend it, 
 ready to lower or ease it off. Stand by! An 
 order to be ready to let sails fall together ; to 
 oarsmen to be ready; to men in heaving the 
 deep-sea lead, etc. Stand by the anchor, to pre 
 pare to let the anchor go. Stand clear of the cable, 
 an order to warn all, before the anchor is let go, 
 to keep away from the chains. Stand from under ! 
 A cry to those about decks to beware of objects 
 falling from aloft. Stand right under! A fa 
 cetious observation, meaning to stand from 
 under. 
 
 Standard. An inverted knee placed above 
 the deck, such as standards at the bitts, etc. 
 Also, a long pole or upright used in building 
 stages around the ship. 
 
 Standard Compass. A compass placed where 
 the local deviation affects it least, and to which 
 the other compasses are referred. It is mounted 
 on a ratchet-stand, or on a tripod, and is usually 
 an azimuth compass. 
 
 Standard-deals. Pieces of boards of fir or 
 pine, in form and thickness conforming to a 
 certain trade standard. 
 
 Standard-knee. An inverted knee fayed on 
 the deck and against the side. 
 
 Standing-backstays. Permanent backstays. 
 
 Standing-bevel. A bevel at an obtuse angle. 
 
 Standing-bowsprit. A bowsprit permanently 
 fixed in place. 
 
 Standing-fid. See FID. 
 
 Standing-jib. The jib proper. 
 
 Standing-masts. The lower masts. 
 
 Standing-orders. Orders or regulations con 
 stantly in force. 
 
 Standing-part. Of a hook, that part opposite 
 to the point. Of a sheet, lift, etc., that part 
 which is secured to the yard, to the side, etc. 
 Of a tackle, that part which is made fast to the 
 block, or to any fixed point. 
 
 Standing-pull. A pull on a rope without 
 moving, facing towards the running part, and 
 pulling 2 or 3 feet at a swig. 
 
 Standing-rigging. The rigging that is perma 
 nent, and does not serve to move yards, masts, 
 sails, etc. 
 
 Standing-stay. The principal stay, as op 
 posed to the spring-, or spare-stay. 
 
 Standing Warrants (Eng.). Officers remain 
 ing with a ship in ordinary, as the gunner, 
 boatswain, carpenter, and cook. 
 
 Standing Water. Stagnant or still water, 
 where there is neither current nor tide. 
 
 Stand-pipe. A supply-pipe to the boiler, so 
 far below the level of the outside water that the 
 pressure may overcome the steam-pressure in the 
 boiler. 
 
 Stangs. Poles placed across a stream. Eel- 
 spears. 
 
 Stanly, Fabius, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Fa- 
 bius Stanly, son of the Hon. John Stanly, was 
 born in Newbern, N. C., December 15, 1815. 
 Appointed midshipman, December 20, 1831; 
 served in the frigate "Constellation," Mediter 
 ranean, 1832-34; receiving-ship " Hudson," New 
 York, 1835; sloops "Concord" and "Warren," 
 West Indies, 1835-36; bark "Consort," survey 
 ing, 1837; sloop "Falmouth," North Carolina," 
 74, Pacific Ocean, 1837-39; "Delaware," 74, 
 Brazil, 1841-43. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, 1841 ; steamer 
 "Union," special service, 1843-44; steamer 
 " Princeton," special service, 1844 ; sloops 
 "Dale," "St. Mary s," and "Warren," and 
 frigate " Congress," Pacific Ocean, 1846-48 ; 
 commanded mail-steamer, 1850 ; commanded 
 sloop "Warren," California, 1853-54; was ex 
 ecutive-officer of navy-yard, Mare Island, 1855; 
 commanded transport " Supply," Paraguay Ex 
 pedition, 1858-59; commanded steamer " Wy- 
 andotte," south side of Cuba, 1859-60; com 
 manded receiving-ship "Independence," Cali 
 fornia, 1861 ; light-house duty, California, 1862 ; 
 commanded sloop " Narragansett" in Pacific, 
 1863-64; ordnance-officer, Mississippi Squad 
 ron, 1864; investigating bounty frauds, 1864; 
 commanded "State of Georgia," South Caro 
 lina, 1864-65; commanded sloop "Tuscarora," 
 
STAPLE-KNEE 
 
 STAKS 
 
 Pacific Ocean, 1865-67; rendezvous in Balti 
 more, 1869. 
 
 During the Mexican war was in the Pacific; 
 took part in the capture of California and de 
 fense of San Francisco ; had a part in the cap 
 ture of Guaymas ; led the advance in storming 
 Fort Cachori ; commanded the expedition against 
 Fort Bacoch Vampa, took it by storm, leading 
 the charge ; was in command of the night expe 
 dition to spike a battery of guns on its way to 
 Guaymas; passed through the enemy s lines of 
 1500 men with 30 men, spiked the guns, and 
 fought his way back to the boats (12 miles), 
 bringing off the wounded and prisoners; was 
 commended in the public dispatches from each 
 of his commanding officers (Capis. Craven, Yard, 
 and Commodore Rudd) for his conduct in each 
 of these actions. There were several other less 
 important affairs not mentioned by name, for 
 which he was also commended in the public 
 dispatches from Guaymas by the above-named 
 officers. Was at the capture of Mazatlan, Ad 
 miral Shubrick commanding, and was assigned 
 the command of the outpost nearest the enemy, 
 who held the approaches to the city, their 
 nightly attacks being so troublesome that two 
 men of straw had to be placed with each senti 
 nel. Was in the battle of Trois, commanding 
 the centre division, which became the rear on 
 the retreat of the rear division. In this action 
 had 1 man killed and 23 badly wounded out of 
 25 men ; was in the action the next day, com 
 manding the artillery at the capture of the vil 
 lage of Trois ; received favorable mention in offi 
 cial reports ; had frequent skirmishes with the 
 enemy about Mazatlan, in one of which a hand- 
 to-hand contest ensued, in which he received a 
 lance wound in the breast. 
 
 In 1860, when in command of the " Wyan- 
 dotte" at Key West, after consulting with Gen. 
 Meigs, U.S.A., he placed his ship so as to pro 
 tect Fort Taylor from the threatened attack of 
 the rebels then mustering in force there; was 
 deprived of his command on reporting his course 
 to the Department. Gen. Meigs was also cen 
 sured, being ordered from Key West. 
 
 Was on the coast of Mexico (Pacific Ocean) 
 during the early years of the Rebellion ; received 
 the thanks of the State Department for his diplo 
 matic services there; had received the thanks of 
 the Navy Department twice during the Mexican 
 war from two different Secretaries of the Navy. 
 
 In 1865, was ordered to report to Admi 
 ral Dahlgren, oflf Charleston, by whom he was 
 ordered to command Fort Johnson; then to 
 arrange and command an expedition up the 
 Santee with Gen. Schemmelfinnig ; then to com 
 mand the expedition of Bull s ^Bay with Gen. 
 Porter against Charleston, the success of which 
 caused the fall of Charleston. In this expedi 
 tion commanded 68 guns and 13 field-pieces. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, June, 1870 ; 
 light-house inspector, 1871-73. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, February 12 
 1874. Retired June 4, 1874. 
 
 Staple-knee. An iron knee made in the form 
 of a staple, having one arm secured to the deck- 
 beam above and the other bolted to the deck- 
 beam below, with the body secured to the ship s 
 side. 
 
 Starboard. The right-hand side ; the right 
 side of the ship when looking forward. From 
 
 the Saxon, steoran, to steer, and bord, a plank or 
 border. Starboard the helm, see HELM. 
 
 STAR-BOWLINES, or STAR-BOLINS. Men of 
 the starboard watch were formerly so called. 
 
 Star-fish. Sea-animals of the sub-kingdom 
 of Radiates, class of Echinoderms, and of the 
 order Asterias. Star-shaped, spiny-skinned an 
 imals, numerous in all seas. 
 
 Star-gazer. A spiny-rayed fish, of the family 
 Trachinidce, genus Uranoscopus, having its eyes 
 directed upward. A light sail, formerly used 
 above the sky-sails. 
 
 Stars, Fixed. Stars which to an observer on 
 the earth maintain their places with reference to 
 each other. Careful observations compared after 
 a lapse of years show that some of them do move ; 
 probably none of them are absolutely fixed in 
 space. Stars are classed by their brilliancy. (See 
 MAGNITUDE.) In the whole heavens about 6000 
 stars may be seen with the naked eye; the 
 number above the 10th magnitude is placed at 
 200,000; Herschel s 18-inch reflector reveals 20 
 millions ; instruments of greater power reveal 
 yet greater multitudes. 
 
 In olden times it was usual to indicate a star 
 by the position it occupied in the constellation ; 
 as, the Bull s Eye, the Lion s Heart, the Belt of 
 Orion, etc. Many of the brighter stars have 
 names of Latin, Greek, or Arabic derivation ; as, 
 Regulus, Sirius, Benetnash, etc. In 1604, Bayer 
 published star-maps in which the stars were in 
 dicated by the letters of the Greek alphabet, the 
 brightest in each constellation being a, the next 
 /?, the third y, and so on. When the 24 letters 
 were exhausted in designating the stars he used 
 the Roman letters, and then numbers. The 
 letters do not now always give the exact order 
 of brightness. 
 
 Several catalogues of stars have been made, 
 the first by Hipparchus, B.C. 128, contains 7026 
 stars. 
 
 The polariscope shows that the stars are lu 
 minous bodies. The stellar light, analyzed by 
 the spectroscope, indicates elements in the stars 
 identical with those in the sun and on the earth, 
 together with others utterly unknown. 
 
 Sirius is computed to be, as a centre of light 
 and heat, 394 times larger than the sun. a Cen- 
 tauri, the nearest of the fixed stars, is 21 millions 
 of millions of miles distant ; Polaris is 292 mil 
 lions of millions of miles distant, and the time 
 required for the passage of light from this star to 
 earth is about 48 years. Periodic stars increase 
 and diminish in brightness at regular intervals ; 
 about 100 are known, having periods varying 
 from a few days to many years. The most re 
 markable periodic star is /3 Persei, in the head of 
 Medusa ; it is of the 2d magnitude for 2 d 13 h ; it 
 then changes, in 3J- hours, to the 4th magnitude ; 
 in 3 hours more it regains its former brightness. 
 Stars which appear single to the naked eye are 
 sometimes resolved into two or more by the 
 telescope. The components of a double star may 
 be only apparently near; in certain cases one of 
 the components describes an orbit about the 
 other. In the latter case the star is known as a 
 physically double or binary star. Single stars 
 show great variety of color, running through 
 shades of rod, yellow, blue, and green ; some 
 stars have changed color. Sirius was formerly 
 red ; afterward it shone with purest white, and 
 of late has a greenish tinge. Aldebaran, Antares, 
 
STAET 
 
 773 
 
 STAY 
 
 and Betelgeuse are red ; Arcturus is orange ; 
 Capella, bluish. Many fixed stars have a small 
 proper motion; hence it appear that the solar 
 system is moving through space. The motion 
 is toward a point in the group Hercules, and is 
 probably about a very remote centre not yet 
 known. 
 STAR-NAMES. 
 
 a Andromedae, Alpheratz. 
 
 a 2 Geminorum, Castor, 
 ft , Pollux. 
 K Herculis, Mursic. 
 
 p , Muacti, JUcar. 
 
 ft Aquarii, Sadulstmd. 
 
 
 8 , Skat, 
 y Aquike, Tarazed. 
 
 a Hydras, Alphard, Cor Hydrse. 
 a Leonis, Regulus, Cor Leonis. 
 yi , Algeiba. 
 
 Q _ ilshain 
 
 a. Argus, Canopus. 
 y Arietis, Mesartim. 
 ft , Sheratan. 
 a Hamal 
 
 ft , Deneb Aleet, Denebola, 
 Deneb. 
 a Leporis, Arneb. 
 a. Librae, Zuben el Genubi. 
 
 a Aurigaj, Cupella. 
 
 y - 7ubcn HuJcrabi 
 
 rj Bootes, Muphrid. 
 
 a Lyrae, Vega, 
 ft tihdiak 
 
 V~ C . ( i r .. M -Ji 
 
 
 Pulcherissima.* 
 B NcH tir 
 
 a. Ophiuchi, Itas Alhague. 
 
 a. Gunum, Ven., Cor CaroU. 
 ft Canis Majoris, Mirzam. 
 
 ft Orionis, lllfjel. 
 
 
 e , ^tZttra. 
 ft Canis Minoris, Gomeisa. 
 
 
 a , Betelgetix, or Betel- 
 geuse. 
 e Pegasi, Eitif. 
 
 a- Capricorn!, Seainda Giedi. 
 8 , Deneb Algiedi. 
 ft Cassiopeiae, Chaph. 
 a , Schedar.. 
 a Cephei, Alderaiidn. 
 ft ilphirJc 
 
 
 a. , Markab. 
 
 ft Persei, Algol. 
 a "Mirfak 
 
 v EiTai 
 
 ft Ceti, Diphda. 
 , Buten Kaitos. 
 o , Mini. 
 a , Menlcar. 
 a. Columbse, Phact. 
 a Coronai Bor., Alphecca. 
 a Corvi, Alchiba. 
 8 , Algores. 
 oCrateris, Alkes. 
 ft Cygni, Albireo. 
 
 a. Piscis Aust., Fomalhuut. 
 Sagittarii, Kaus Austmlis. 
 a. Scorpionis, Antares, CorScor- 
 pionis. 
 a Serpentis, Unukulhai. 
 rj Tuurl, Alcyone (Pleiad). 
 a , Aldeborun. 
 B Nath 
 
 i Ursfs Majoris, Talitha. 
 
 ft Merdk. 
 y , Pftecda. 
 e , A lioth. 
 
 C Mi"ur 
 
 irl , Azetfafage. 
 a Delphini, Svalocin. 
 a Draconis, Thuban. 
 ft , Ahoaid. 
 y , Etanin. 
 a. Eridani, Achernar. 
 
 80 , Alcor. 
 
 a Ursae Miuoris, Polaris. 
 
 ft , Cursa. 
 y Geminorum, Alheua. 
 e , Mebsutti. 
 
 ft Virgiuis, Zavijava. 
 
 a. , Spica Azimech, Spka. 
 
 Start. A point of land. A point of depart 
 ure. The place a whale is expected to rise, after 
 being struck. To move weights. To empty out 
 liquids. To start bread, to pour it out from bags or 
 barrels, and stow it in bulk. To start a butt, to 
 loosen a plank at the butt, by the working of the 
 ship. To start a rope, to ease it off a little. To 
 start the men, to hurry them on deck, formerly, 
 by a vigorous use of a rattan or rope s-end. 
 
 START-HAMMER. A hammer with a small 
 head, used to drive a bolt into the wood. 
 
 START-BOLT, or STARTING-BOLT. A bolt used 
 to dri ve out another bolt. A drift-bolt. 
 
 STARTING-BAR. A bar by which the valve- 
 gear of a steam-engine is manipulated by hand 
 when starting the machine in motion, either for 
 going ahead or backing. 
 
 STARTING-VALVE. A small auxiliary valve 
 
 * A name given by modern astronomers to express the ex 
 treme beauty of this double star (orange and green), viewed 
 with a good telescope. 
 
 for admitting steam to a cylinder of an engine 
 when starting, used to avoid manipulating the 
 main valves by hand. Sometimes called a tail- 
 valve. 
 
 STARTING-WHEEL, A wheel, worked by hand, 
 by which the go-ahead or backing motion of the 
 valve-gear of a steam-engine is thrown into 
 action at will, thereby starting, stopping, or re 
 versing the motion of the engine. 
 
 Stash it there ! An old cry to enforce silence. 
 
 State-room. A small room in the cabin or 
 wardroom of a man-of-war, or in the saloon of a 
 merchantman, for the private use of an individ 
 ual. In the wardroom the state-rooms are occu 
 pied, on the starboard side by line-officers, and on 
 the port, by staff-officers. They are allotted ac 
 cording to rank, the senior officer occupying the 
 forward room. In vessels having the wardroom 
 forward, the senior officers are entitled to the 
 after rooms. 
 
 Station. The allotted place of each person on 
 board. These are designated on the station- and 
 quarter-bill. Cruising station, the locality in 
 which a ship habitually cruises. The ships of the 
 U. S. navy are distributed among 5 stations, viz. : 
 A. The North Atlantic, or Home Station, com 
 prising those ships on the east coast of North 
 America, extending east to Bermuda and south 
 to the equator. B. The South Atlantic Station, 
 comprising the shores of South America and 
 Africa bordering on the Atlantic, south of the 
 equator, and the waters between. C. The Euro 
 pean Station, comprising the European, Medi 
 terranean, and African coasts, as far south as the 
 equator. D. The Pacific Station, comprising the 
 west coasts of North and South America and the 
 islands as far as Australia and the Sandwich 
 Islands. E. The Asiatic Station, comprising the 
 coasts of Asia and Africa, from Behring s Strait 
 to the Cape of Good Hope, with all the islands con 
 tiguous. Shore-station, see SHORE. Every man 
 to his station and the cook to the fore-sheet ! 
 calls all idlers in merchantmen. To station, to 
 post or place a man in a particular place, as a 
 sentry on his post, a hand by the fore-sheet, etc. 
 To station look-outs, is to send them to their al 
 lotted places 
 
 STATION-BILL. A bill containing a list of the 
 crew, with their stations and duties for all evo 
 lutions. See WATCH-, QUARTER-, AND STATION- 
 BILL. 
 
 STATIONER (Eng.}. One who has served long 
 in any particular station. 
 
 STATION-POINTER. An instrument used in 
 maritime surveying, to lay down points on a 
 chart from angles previously measured. Three 
 arms move about a central pivot, and arcs are 
 attached graduated so as to set these arms to any 
 angles, and by this means find the point desired, 
 and lay it down on the chart. 
 
 STATIONS FOR STAYS ! A preliminary order 
 in tacking, or box-hauling ship, to direct the 
 men to their stations. 
 
 Staunch. A flood-gate in a river, so contrived 
 as to form a head of water, and float lighters 
 over shallows. 
 
 Stave. To break a hole in a boat. To drive 
 in the head of a cask. Stave off, to boom off, or 
 to push off with a small spar. Figuratively, to 
 cause to be deferred. 
 
 Stay. A strong rope, leading from the head 
 of any mast, forward. A support to a davit, 
 
STEADY 
 
 774 
 
 STEAM 
 
 bumpkin, etc. A stay-tackle. A bar or rod 
 confining two or more parts of a structure or 
 machine to an invariable relative position. Tie- 
 bars or rods are sometimes called stays. The 
 stays of a ship that lead forward to the centre 
 line of the ship are fore-and-aft stays. Those 
 leading aft to the ship s side are backstays. The 
 various stays will be found described under their 
 headings. A steamer s stay is an iron rod uniting 
 the paddle-boxes. A jumper-stay is a main-stay 
 which comes to the side of the ship. These are 
 necessarily used in steamers, where the funnel 
 interferes with their leading straight. To stay, 
 to support a mast by setting up the rigging. To 
 tack, to bring the ship s head to the wind in going 
 about. In stays, or hove in stays, in the act of 
 going about. To refuse stays, to fail to tack. 
 "To miss stays, to fail in an attempt to put the 
 ship about. 
 
 STAY-APEEK. See APEEK. 
 
 STAY-BAR, or STAY-ROD. Strong bars or rods 
 supporting the top of a furnace. 
 
 STAY-BOLT. A short stay or bolt for support 
 ing the flat surfaces of the shells, fire-boxes, etc., 
 of a steam-boiler. 
 
 STAY-HOLES. Holes in the luff of a stay-sail, 
 for the lacing, rings, or hanks that fasten it to 
 the stay. 
 
 STAY-ROD. See STAY. 
 
 STAY-SAIL. A triangular or trapezoidal sail 
 hoisted on a stay. 
 
 STAY-SAIL-NETTING. A rope or canvas recep 
 tacle on the bowsprit for the fore-topmast stay 
 sail. 
 
 STAY-SAIL-STAY. The stay on which a stay-sail 
 is set. Sometimes, as in the case of the fore-storm 
 stay-sail, this is a separate stay, only gotten up 
 in time of need. When on the standing-stays, 
 the port- or spring-stay is preferably used for a 
 stay-sail. A stay-sail is fastened by its tack, and 
 hoists along the stay, being confined to it by 
 wooden or iron thimbles, or rings, by rope or 
 hide hanks, or by bridles or lacings toggled into 
 the stay-holes, or into eyes. 
 
 STAY-TACKLE. Any tackle put on a stay for 
 hoisting out or moving weights. A stay-pur 
 chase, a tackle used in setting up a stay. Tackles 
 hooked to the ends of the triatic-stay, used in 
 hoisting boats anchors, etc., in conjunction with 
 the yard-tackles. 
 
 Steady ! An order to the helmsman to steer 
 as the ship heads. 
 
 Steady-fast (Eng.}. A hawser carried out to 
 some fixed object, to keep a ship steady in a tide 
 way, or to make sail from. 
 
 Steal. To gain a ratline or two in going 
 aloft, while waiting for the order. To pick up 
 the sail before the order to furl is given. To gain 
 distance ahead in light airs. 
 
 Stealer. A plank introduced at the stem or 
 stern between curved edges and straight-edged 
 planks. 
 
 Steam. An elastic vapor into which water 
 is converted when heated to the boiling-point. 
 This point depends on the amount of salt in the 
 boilers, and for fresh water is 212 F. Advan 
 tage is taken of the elasticity of steam in the steam- 
 engine, where its expansive force is transferred 
 to other mechanical powers through the piston. 
 High-pressure steam is that whose temperature 
 is far above the boiling-point. Low-pressure 
 steam is that at the boiling temperature. Sat- 
 
 urated steam, or wet steam, is that which holds 
 water in mechanical suspension. Superheated, 
 surcharged, or anhydrous steam is that which is 
 heated after separation from the water, until all 
 the water held in suspension is vaporized. Dry 
 steam holds but little water in suspension. The 
 mechanical equivalent of steam is the amount of 
 force it exerts to raise 1 pound of water, 1 F. 
 in temperature, and this is 772 foot-pounds. 
 The conditions affecting steam vary with its 
 temperature, but at 212, saturated steam exerts 
 a pressure of 14.7 pounds per inch. Its total 
 heat is 1.146, its latent heat being 965.2; its 
 weight per cubic foot is .088 pound, and the 
 volume of 1 pound is 26.36 cubic feet. The vol 
 ume of 1 cubic foot of water after evaporation is 
 1642 cubic feet, at a temperature of 212. 
 
 STEAMBOAT. A boat propelled by steam. The 
 term is generally applied to river and coasting 
 steamers. 
 
 STEAM-BOILER. See MARINE STEAM-BOILER. 
 STEAM-BOILER ALARM. An alarm, to tell 
 when the water is low in the boiler. 
 
 STEAM-BOX, STEAM-CHAMBER, STEAM-CHEST, 
 STEAM-DOME, STEAM-CHIMNEY. Synonymous 
 terms for a receptacle of steam from a boiler ; 
 the object of the device is to temporarily check 
 the velocity of the steam so that water held in 
 suspension, either by condensation or being 
 drawn from the boiler by induction, may have 
 time to precipitate before passing to the engine. 
 A steam-chimney is usually an annular steam- 
 space surrounding the lower part of the smoke- 
 pipe, by which arrangement the steam is dried 
 and somewhat superheated. The term steam- 
 chest is frequently applied to the valve-chest of 
 an engine. 
 
 STEAM-CASING. See STEAM-JACKET. 
 STEAM-CUTTER. A steamboat, smaller than a 
 launch. 
 
 STEAM-GAUGE. An instrument for indicating 
 steam-pressure by means of a dial and index, or 
 a plain graduated scale. There are numerous 
 devices, nearly all depending for their action 
 upon the resilience of metal or the weight of a 
 column of mercury. The latter, only, can be 
 considered reliable. 
 
 STEAM-GUN. A gun in which balls are pro 
 pelled by the force of steam. Leonardo da Vinci 
 describes one in a manuscript of 1500. Van Etten, 
 in 1629, also described one. One was made and 
 shown in England in 1824. Bessemer proposed 
 to throw balls from the nozzle of a steam-pump, 
 or fire-engine. Wood and Lay devised a steam- 
 gun to be used under water, but it was not suc 
 cessful. The elastic force of steam is not a con 
 stantly increasing succession of shocks, such as 
 is necessary in a gun, and will probably never be 
 successfully used in this connection. 
 
 STEAM-HOIST. A steam hoisting-machine 
 used in navy-yards for various purposes. 
 
 STEAM-JACKET. A device by which a steam- 
 cylinder is surrounded by a thin film of live 
 steam ; the object being to prevent the condensa 
 tion, due to various losses of heat, of a large 
 quantity of working steam within the cylinder, 
 and the consequent loss of latent heat, by the ex 
 penditure of a smaller quantity of heat from 
 steam of higher temperature. 
 
 STEAM-LAUNCH. A launch fitted with steam- 
 power, furnished to most modern men-of-war. 
 Steam torpedo-launches are for the purpose of 
 
STEEDMAN 
 
 775 
 
 STEEDMAN 
 
 exploding torpedoes under the enemy s bottom, 
 and are long, narrow, and flat. See TORPEDO- 
 LAUNCH. 
 
 STEAM-PIPE. A pipe for conducting steam 
 from a boiler to an engine, heater, evaporator, 
 or other apparatus where it performs work. 
 
 STEAM-PORT. An opening for the admission 
 of steam to a cylinder, and, except in a few 
 special devices, for its expulsion therefrom after 
 having performed its work. 
 
 STEAM-ROOM. The space contained within a 
 steam-boiler for the accumulation of steam above 
 the water-level. 
 
 STEAMSHIP. Any large vessel driven by 
 steam. See STEAM-VESSEL. 
 
 STEAM-TOE. A cam-shaped, oscillating arm 
 or lever, forming part of some kinds of valve- 
 gear, for opening and closing the steam-valve of 
 an engine, as in the Stevens cut-off. 
 
 STEAM-TUG. A small steam tow-boat. 
 
 STEAM-VESSEL. A vessel propelled by steam- 
 power. The first attempt to propel vessels by 
 steam-power was made at Barcelona, by Blasco 
 de Garay, in 1542, and various attempts were 
 made during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, 
 but it was not until the beginning of the present 
 century that successful steamboats were built, 
 Fitch running a boat on the Potomac in 1787, 
 Symington, the " first practical steamboat," the 
 "Charlotte Dundas," in 1801, and Fulton, the 
 " Clermont," first to regularly engage in traffic, 
 in 1802. 
 
 STEAM-WHISTLE. An apparatus attached to 
 an engine, through which steam is discharged, 
 making a shrill sound by striking the edges of 
 a metal cup, causing it to vibrate. 
 
 STEAM-WINCH. A hoisting-machine, or wind 
 lass, which is made to revolve by a crank con 
 nected with the piston of a small cylinder. They 
 are extensively used on modern men-of-war, for 
 various purposes. 
 
 Steedman, Charles, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Native of Charleston, S. C. Appointed mid 
 shipman in the navy, April 1, 1828; first duty 
 at the New York Navy- Yard ; served in the 
 West Indies as midshipman in the sloops-of- 
 war "Natchez" and "Fairfield," and schooner 
 " Grampus." 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, January 14, 
 1834. In the Mediterranean on board of the 
 frigates "Constitution" and "United States" 
 and schooner " Shark" in the years 1836-38 ; and 
 in the West Indies on board the " Macedonian" 
 up to 1840, the last six months as acting lieu 
 tenant. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, February 25, 1841 ; 
 served in the brig " Dolphin" on the Home Sta 
 tion and West Indies ; invalided and sent home 
 1842 ; coast survey, 1843-44 ; served in the West 
 Indies and Gulf of Mexico on board of the " St. 
 Mary s," 1845-47; commanded the 8-inch gun 
 in the naval battery at the bombardment of Vera 
 Cruz, and commanded the "St. Mary s" launch in 
 an attempt to surprise and capture Mexican gun 
 boats inside of Tampico bar ; attached to Naval 
 Observatory from latter part of 1847 to first of 
 1849 ; served on board frigate " Cumberland" in 
 the Mediterranean, 1850-51 ; attached to Naval 
 Observatory, 1853-55. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; special duty in Washington, 1857-58; re 
 vising signal code and framing station-bills for 
 
 ships of the navy; commanded brig " Dolphin," 
 Paraguay Expedition, 1859-60, and was left in 
 command of Brazil Squadron when Flag-Officers 
 Shubrick and Forrest returned home, remaining 
 in command for nine months until the arrival of 
 Flag-Officer Sands ; returned home in December, 
 1860. At breaking out of the Rebellion was on 
 leave ; volunteered to Admiral Dupont for any 
 service, and was by him sent to take command 
 of the Baltimore Railroad Company s steamboat 
 " Maryland 1 ; kept communication open between 
 Havre-de-Grace and Annapolis until the railroad 
 bridges were repaired and communication opened 
 between Baltimore and Philadelphia; was first to 
 telegraph from Havre-de-Grace to Gen. Patterson 
 that Gen. Butler had landed at Annapolis with 
 Massachusetts regiment and Seventh New York 
 Regiment, and had opened communication with 
 Washington ; in 1861, ordered to join Commo 
 dore Foote on the Mississippi ; soon detached 
 and ordered to take command of the " Bienville" ; 
 attached to Port Royal Expedition under Flag- 
 Officer Dupont ; led the second column in the 
 attack and capture of Port Royal ; brought North, 
 in the "Bienville," Flag-Officer Dupont s dis 
 patches reporting the capture ; after this assisted 
 in blockading the coast of Georgia in the " Bien 
 ville," and participated in the capture of all the 
 ports on that coast south of Savannah ; returning 
 North, was detached from the " Bienville" and 
 ordered to the "Paul Jones"; joined Admiral 
 Dupont s squadron with the "Paul Jones" and 
 other gunboats ; engaged Fort McAllister, on the 
 Ogeechee River, in August, 1862; on the 17th 
 September following engaged and , silenced the 
 batteries at St. John s Bluff, on the St. John s 
 River, Fla. ; considering it necessary to have 
 troops to co-operate in capturing the forts and 
 getting possession of the river, applied to Ad 
 miral Dupont for the same on the 30th of same 
 month ; with the co-operation of Gen. Brannon 
 captured the forts on St. John s Bluff, and with 
 the gunboats opened and held the St. John s 
 River to Lake Beaufort. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, September 13, 1862. 
 Transferred to the steam-frigate " Powhatan," 
 and employed in her blockading off Charles 
 ton for several months; with the "Powhatan" 
 towed the captured ram " Atlanta" to Philadel 
 phia ; soon after was detached and took com 
 mand of the " Ticonderoga"; in her was employed 
 on various detached service ; returned in her in 
 November, 1864, with engines disabled from an 
 unsuccessful search of the rebel vessel " Florida," 
 on the coast of Brazil ; volunteered to join Ad 
 miral Porter s command ; vessel temporarily re 
 paired ; joined the admiral and participated in 
 the two attacks and capture of the forts at the 
 mouth of the Wilmington River, December, 
 1864, and January, 1865 ; after the fall of those 
 forts joined Admiral Dahlgren s squadron off 
 Charleston ; the " Ticonderoga" being unfit for 
 service, was ordered to Philadelphia for repairs ; 
 so soon as she was repaired, proceeded, Novem 
 ber, 1865, to the Mediterranean and joined Ad 
 miral Goldsborough s European Squadron. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, July 25, 1866 ; soon 
 after exchanged commands with Capt. Wyman, 
 of the " Colorado" ; returned home in the " Col 
 orado," September, 1867; on special duty, 1868- 
 69, and commanding Boston Navy-Yard, 1869- 
 72. 
 
STEEL 
 
 776 
 
 STEEE 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, May 25, 1871. 
 Retired September 24, 1873. 
 
 Steel. See IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 STEEL-BRONZE. A mixture of steel, tin, and 
 copper, used in making guns. It was patented 
 in 1870 in Boston, and is extensively used in 
 Austria for the manufacture of light guns. 
 
 Stembel, Roger N., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Middletown, Md. Appointed from 
 Ohio, March 27, 1832; attached to schooner 
 "Porpoise," West India Squadron, 1832-33; 
 Naval School, New York, 1834-38. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 23, 
 1838; attached to frigate " Brandy wine," Med 
 iterranean Squadron, 1840-42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, October 26, 1843 ; 
 coast survey, 1844-47; sloop "Levant," Home 
 Squadron, 1849-50; sloop "Jamestown," Brazil 
 Squadron, 1851-53; special duty, Washington, 
 1855-57; steam-frigate "Mississippi," East In 
 dia Squadron, 1857-59; special duty, Cincin 
 nati, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 1, 1861 ; 
 Mississippi Flotilla, 1862 ; engagement at Lucas 
 Bend, September 9, 1861 ; Belmont, November 7, 
 1861 ; Fort Henry, February 6, 1862 ; bombard 
 ment and capture of Island No. 10, Mississippi 
 Kiver, from March 16 to April 7, 1882; engaged 
 near Fort Pillow with rebel rams, May 10, 1862, 
 besides several minor affairs, while attached to 
 Mississippi Flotilla, from August, 1861, to May, 
 1862; wounded near Fort Pillow, May 10, 1862, 
 in engagement with rebel rams ; waiting orders, 
 1863 ; rendezvous, Philadelphia, 1864 ; special 
 duty, Pittsburgh, 1865. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Canandaigua," European 
 Squadron, 1866-67 ; commanding naval rendez 
 vous, Boston, 1869-70. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 13, 1871; 
 commanding North Pacific Fleet, 1872. Retired 
 December 27, 1872. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, February 2, 
 1875. 
 
 Steep-to. Said of a bold shore, near to which 
 vessels may approach. 
 
 Steep-tub. A large tub for soaking salt-pro 
 visions. 
 
 Steer. To direct or govern- a ship by the mo 
 tions of the rudder. It requires considerable 
 skill to steer well, the helmsman being com 
 pelled not only to watch the compass and the 
 ship s head, but also to feel and anticipate the 
 motions of the ship in a sea-way. To steer large 
 is to use much helm, or to steer loosely, and also 
 to go free. To steer small is to steer with little 
 helm, or small movements of the wheel. To 
 steer the course is to lay the course with a free 
 or fair wind. 
 
 STEERAGE. The act of steering. The effect of 
 the helm on a ship. (Eng.} That part of the 
 ship below the quarter-deck and before the cabin 
 bulk-head of a rnan-of-war. (Eng.} The cabin 
 of the middle-deck of a three decker. The for 
 ward part of the lower-deck of a passenger- 
 steamer or ship. That portion of the berth- 
 deck of a man-of-war just forward of the ward 
 room, and furnished with lockers, mess-tables, 
 and sometimes with berths. 
 
 STEERAGE-OFFICER. An officer living or mess 
 ing in the steerage. Steerage-officers in the U. S. 
 navy are clerks, midshipmen, cadet-rnidshipmen, 
 
 mates, cadet-engineers, ensigns when not in 
 charge of a watch and division, and all officers 
 ranking with ensign. 
 
 STEERAGE-PASSENGER. A second- or third- 
 class passenger in a merchant vessel. 
 
 STEERAGE-WAY. The motion of the vessel 
 through the water, sufficient to cause her to 
 obey the helm. 
 
 STEERING APPARATUS. Machinery giving in 
 creased power for the management of the rud 
 der. Many forms have been invented, and some 
 are successfully used. North s steering apparatus 
 consists of a wheel turning a horizontal shaft on 
 a table, geared to a vertical shaft on which is a 
 drum with a chain fastened to it. The ends of 
 this chain connect to a quadrant on the rudder- 
 head, and motion is thus given to the rudder. 
 Jackson s is a right- and left-handed screw on the 
 shaft of the wheel, on which sleeves move, at 
 tached to levers. These levers move the tiller, 
 as the wheel works the screws. These forms of 
 steering gear are generally used as prevonter- 
 gear, situated aft, while a wheel situated for 
 ward steers the ship ordinarily, by means of 
 rods or chains running aft to the tiller. These 
 are now superseded in large ships by steam- or 
 hydraulic gear. The steam-gear is of various 
 patterns. That used in the English navy has 
 two small engines connected with the tiller, 
 whose valves are controlled by a light steering- 
 wheel. Another English apparatus consists of a 
 pair of cylinders acting by gearing on a worm- 
 wheel, to the shaft of which the steering-barrel 
 is keyed, and a chain on this barrel moves the 
 tiller. Automatic gear stops the engine when 
 the rudder is hard over. Sickles s gear, on the 
 " Miantonomoh," consists of two cylinders mov 
 ing a crank attached to the shaft of the steering- 
 barrel. Wire-rope is wound on this barrel, 
 which is so made that double the leverage is 
 effected when the helm is hard over. A hand- 
 wheel on the same shaft moves the engine- 
 valves by a cam and yoke, and the engine 
 stops when the shaft reaches the same point to 
 which the hand-wheel has been turned. The 
 Brotherhood apparatus uses three cylinders, and 
 lays the tiller at any angle. 
 
 Hydraulic steering-gear has been used in some 
 large modern ships, and is very successful. In 
 it a small tiller opens the valves of the hydraulic 
 pump. Other steering-gear connects with the 
 propeller. 
 
 STEERING-PROPELLER. A propeller so con 
 trived that the ship is steered by it without a 
 rudder. The first attempt to so control a ship 
 was made by Stevens, who thought that he could 
 control a vessel by right- and left-handed screws, 
 but these do not act sufficiently well. Other de 
 vices are in use, the Fowler and Mallory wheels 
 being the most successful. Hunt s steering-pro 
 peller changed the angle of the shaft of the screw 
 by a small hand- wheel, connected to it by gear 
 ing from above. 
 
 STEERING-SAIL. A studding-sail. 
 
 STEERING-SIGNALS. Signals made by an elec 
 tric apparatus connected with the helm, so as to 
 indicate the position of the rudder and its move 
 ments. Several such apparatus have been de 
 vised, but none are in general use. Signals from 
 the commander-in-chief prescribing the courses 
 to be steered. 
 
 STEERING-WHEEL. The wheel by which the 
 
STEEVE 
 
 777 
 
 STEVENS 
 
 tiller is moved. The ordinary steering-wheel is 
 a common wheel whose spokes project beyond 
 the rim, and whose hub is prolonged to form the 
 barrel. On this barrel is wound the wheel-rope. 
 By moving the wheel to the right or left, the 
 opposite rope is wound on the barrel, thereby 
 moving the tiller to that side. In men-of-war 
 the wheel is ordinarily aft, just forward of the 
 mizzen-mast, but in some modern ships it is 
 placed in a shot-proof house on the forward 
 part, or near the middle of the deck, or even on 
 the bridge or hurricane-deck. Duplicate wheels 
 are often used in different positions. In mer 
 chant steamers wheels are generally placed in 
 pilot-houses forward, and connect by chains or 
 rods with the tiller. Wheels are also used with 
 screw- and steam-steering-gear, as described in 
 STEERING APPARATUS, which see. 
 
 STEERSMAN. A helmsman. 
 
 Steeve. To elevate at an angle any spar, as 
 a bowsprit. To stow cargo in the hold by a 
 steeve, or by a jack-screw. The angle which a 
 spar, as the bowsprit, makes with the horizon. 
 A long derrick or spar, with a block at one end, 
 used in stowing cargo. 
 
 Stellwagen-cup. A sounding-cup devised by 
 Lieut. Stellwagen, U. S. navy, for bringing up 
 portions of the bottom. 
 
 Stem. The main timber at the forward end 
 of the ship, formed by a combination of several 
 pieces into a curvilinear figure. Its lower end 
 scarfs into the keel, and it receives the ends of 
 the planking around the bow. To stem, to make 
 headway against a tide or current. 
 
 STEMSON, or STEM-KNEE S A piece or pieces 
 of curved timber wrought on the after part of 
 the apron, on the inside of the ship. Its lower 
 end scarfs into the keelson, its upper end being 
 continued as high as the middle or upper deck. 
 
 Step. A step, generally, is a framing in wood 
 or iron, which is intended to receive an upright 
 shaft. To step, to fix a boat s mast or a lower 
 mast in position. At the present time, the fore- 
 and mainmasts are stepped in cast-iron mast- 
 steps, made to fit down over the main keelson, 
 with a broad flange on the sister keelsons, to 
 which they are secured. The mizzen-mast steps 
 in a piece of live-oak timber, scored down over 
 the berth- or orlop-deck beams, to which it is se 
 cured. Steps of the side, pieces of oak, worked 
 with moldings, and fastened on the ship s side 
 at the gangway, for the convenience of ascend 
 ing and descending when the accommodation- 
 ladder is unshipped. 
 
 STEPPING-LINE. The bearding-line, or the 
 line of the top of the rabbet on the dead-wood on 
 which the frame-timbers step. 
 
 Stephenson-link. A part of the valve-gear 
 of a steam-engine by which the motion from 
 either the go-ahead or backing eccentric, or a 
 combined motion of the two, is transmitted to 
 the valves, without " unhooking" or disconnect 
 ing. The engine can be stopped by bringing 
 both eccentrics into nearly equal action upon the 
 valves, which is accomplished by placing the link 
 in mid-position by means of the reversing-gear ; 
 and a variable cut-off within narrow limits may 
 be effected by setting the link in various posi 
 tions by the same means. 
 
 Sterlet. A species of sturgeon (Acipenser ru- 
 thenus), found in the Caspian Sea, and its rivers, 
 from whose roe is made the finest caviare. 
 
 Stern. The whole after part of the ship, as 
 the forward part is called the bows, but more 
 especially that part of the ship which is bounded 
 by the main-transoms and the counter-timbers. 
 
 STERN-BOARD. The backward motion of a 
 ship, resulting from negligence at the helm, or 
 bad seamanship ; or the effect of an intentional 
 manoeuvre, as that of throwing sails aback sud 
 denly to avoid a danger. To make a stern-board, 
 to fall astern in tacking. 
 
 STERN-BOAT. A boat carried astern. 
 
 STERN-CHASE. A chase where one vessel fol 
 lows the other in her wake, both steering the same 
 course. A proverb makes it "long but sure." 
 
 STERN-CHASERS. Guns firing directly aft. 
 
 STERN-DAVITS. Davits to which a stern-boat 
 is hoisted. 
 
 STERN-FAST. A rope confining the stern to a 
 wharf, or buoy. 
 
 STERN-FRAME. The stern-post, transoms, and 
 fashion-pieces, bolted together, constitute the 
 stern-frame. 
 
 STERN-GALLERY. A gallery or walk formerly 
 built across the square sterns of large ships. On 
 three-deckers there were two. 
 
 STERN-KNEE. A large knee which forms the 
 lower piece df the dead-wood aft and connects the 
 stern-post to the keel, the arm being securely 
 bolted to the stern-post and the body to the keel. 
 
 STERN-LADDERS. Eope ladders hung on either 
 quarter, for convenience in ascending. At sea 
 they have long laniards trailing astern. 
 
 STERNMOST. Farthest in the rear. 
 
 STERN-PORTS. Ports made in the stern of the 
 ship, so that guns may be used as stern-chasers. 
 
 STERN-POST. A long, straight piece of timber 
 whose lower extremity is securely fastened and 
 tenoned into the keel, and whose top is secured 
 to the main-transom. It receives the ends of the 
 planking at the after end of the ship. In iron 
 ships it is simply a bar of iron bolted to the keel, 
 to which the plates at the after end are riveted. 
 
 STERN-SHEETS. The after part of a boat, be 
 tween the after thwart and the coxswain s box. 
 
 STERNSON. The upper piece of curved tim 
 ber uniting the dead-wood to the stern-post at the 
 upper end in wooden ships. 
 
 STERN- WALK. A stern-gallery. 
 
 STERN-WAY. The opposite of headway. Mo 
 tion backward, or astern. 
 
 Stevedore. A stower. One employed to stow 
 the hold of vessels, or to unload from the hold. 
 
 STEVEDORE S-HOOK. An iron hook with a 
 handle, to hook in bales, etc. 
 
 Stevens, Thomas Holdup, Commodore 
 U.S.N. The subject of this sketch was born in 
 Charleston, S. C., February 22, 1795. Losing 
 his parents early in life, Gen. Daniel Stevens, an 
 eminent citizen of that State, and the first mayor 
 of that city, became specially interested in him, 
 and eventually adopted him. Entering the navy 
 as a midshipman, January 16, 1809, he was or 
 dered to the Charleston Station, upon which duty 
 he remained until ordered to the sloop-of-war 
 "John Adams," on board of which vessel he 
 remained until the fall of 1812, when, as an 
 acting lieutenant, he accompanied Commodore 
 Chauncey to Sackett s Harbor, where a naval 
 force was being organized for co-operation with 
 the army on the frontier, and to operate against 
 the floating force of the enemy upon the North 
 ern lakes. Shortly after reaching Sackett s Har- 
 
STEVENS 
 
 STEVENS 
 
 bor he was assigned to duty on the Niagara fron 
 tier with Capt. Angus, and was with that officer 
 in the desperate night attack upon the enemy s 
 works opposite Black Kock. Of his conduct upon 
 that occasion Capt. Angus reports : " I was, im 
 mediately after landing, joined by the truly brave 
 Holdup Stevens, who behaved himself like a gal 
 lant and valuable officer." And again: "As 
 for the gallant Wragg, Dudley, and Holdup Ste 
 vens, their conduct speaks for itself." In recog 
 nition of this splendid service he was commis 
 sioned a lieutenant in the early part of January, 
 1813. (For further notice of his war-service see 
 Cooper s "Naval History.") Congress voted 
 him a silver medal for Lake Erie, and the citi 
 zens of Charleston, S. C., presented him a sword. 
 Remaining upon the lakes as executive-officer of 
 the " Niagara" until November 19, 1814, he 
 was then ordered to the frigate "Java," fitting 
 out under Commodore O. H. Perry for a cruise 
 in the Mediterranean. In 1819-20 he was at 
 tached to the frigate " Constellation," and for 
 two years subsequently was attached to the navy- 
 yard, New York, under command of Commo 
 dore Chauncey. When the Mosquito Fleet under 
 Commodore Porter was being fitted out; for the 
 suppression of piracy in the West Indies, he was 
 ordered to report for duty to that officer, and was 
 first assigned to the command of the " Asp," 
 subsequently to the command of the schooner 
 "Jackal," and later to command the schooner 
 " Shark," in which vessels he rendered effi 
 cient and valuable service, and added largely 
 to his brilliant reputation. In March, 1825, 
 he was promoted to a master commandant, and 
 in 1827-29 was the executive-officer of the 
 Washington Navy- Yard, remaining, upon the 
 death of Commodore Tingley, temporarily in 
 command. Upon the expiration of this term 
 of service he was ordered to the command of 
 the sloop-of-war " Ontario," one of the ves 
 sels comprising the Mediterranean Squadron, 
 under the command of Commodore James Bid- 
 die, and upon various occasions was intrusted by 
 that distinguished officer, whose confidence he 
 possessed to an eminent degree, with duties of a 
 highly responsible, grave, and delicate character. 
 Returning to the United States with the respect, 
 esteem, and affection of all with whom he had 
 been associated, he was ordered to the command 
 of the naval rendezvous at Boston, where he 
 remained, popularizing the navy and himself" 
 through his rare social gifts and high qualities, 
 until promoted to a captain, in 1836. In 1840- 
 41 he commanded the navy-yard and station at 
 Washington, D. C., with signal success and 
 ability. While upon this duty a very serious 
 difficulty occurred between the late Commodore 
 M. C. Perry and Admiral F. H. Gregory, which 
 was only prevented from a mortal issue through 
 the earnest and untiring efforts and friendly in 
 terference of that gifted and incomparable officer, 
 Commodore Charles Morris, and the chivalric 
 officer of whom we write. 
 
 Cut off in the vigor and bloom of manhood, 
 with the past an earnest of his future, we have 
 just reason to believe that in the stormy times 
 in which we have recently lived, had his life 
 been spared, he would have been, through the 
 force of his character and his high professional 
 qualities, a prominent actor and a conspicuous 
 leader. 
 
 The National Intelligencer, of Washington, at 
 that time edited by Mr. Seaton, published the 
 following beautiful tribute to Commodore Ste 
 vens at the time of the publication of the General 
 Order announcing his death : 
 
 " The Naval Order which appears to-day will 
 announce to our readers the decease sudden 
 and unanticipated as it is afflicting of Commo 
 dore Thomas Holdup Stevens, of the navy. In 
 the meridian of life, and in the enjoyment of 
 the highest health, he retired to bed on Wednes 
 day night, and before morning the angel of death 
 had stricken him from the number of the living. 
 We know not when any instance of those solemn 
 dispensations which Providence orders, as it were, 
 as admonitions of the uncertain tenure of exist 
 ence, has struck upon us more painfully. 
 
 " Open-hearted, frank, and generous, we know 
 not a man who made his way so directly to the 
 affections of all to whom he became known as 
 this gallant and lamented officer ; and propor 
 tionally keen is the sorrow for his loss and the 
 sympathy which is universally felt for his large 
 and estimable family. 
 
 " Commodore Stevens was a native of Charles 
 ton, S. C., and entered the navy in 1809, at the 
 early age of fifteen. Young as he was, he had 
 distinguished himself in the war of 1812, even 
 before Perry s brilliant victory on Lake Erie, 
 and he commanded one of the vessels in that 
 ever-memorable battle. As a man, he was with 
 out reproach, and as an officer, he was regarded 
 as one of the brightest ornaments of the navy in 
 peace, as he had been one of its most gallant sons 
 in war." 
 
 Stevens, Thomas H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Connecticut. Appointed from Connec 
 ticut, December 14, 1836 ; attached to razee " In 
 dependence," Brazil Squadron, 1838-41. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 1, 1842 ; 
 surveying duty, Gulf of Mexico, 1842-43 ; 
 steamer "Michigan," on the lakes, 1843-44; 
 naval storekeeper, Honolulu, 1845-48; Naval 
 Station, Sackett s Harbor, New York, 1849. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, May 10, 1849 ; 
 attached to steamer " Michigan," on the lakes, 
 1849-51 ; coast survey, 1852-55 ; steam-frigate 
 "Colorado," Home Squadron, 1858-60; com 
 manding steam-gunboat "Ottawa," 1861-62; 
 participated in the engagement with the rebel 
 fleet at Port Royal, November 4, 1861 ; and en 
 gagement with Forts Beauregard and Walker, 
 November 5, 1861 ; battle of Port Royal and 
 capture of Forts Beauregard and Walker, No 
 vember 7, 1861 ; battle of Port Royal Ferry, 
 January 1, 1862; engagement with Tattnall s 
 rebel fleet, February, 1862 ; capture of Fort 
 Clinch and the towns of Fernandina and St. 
 Mary s, and steamer "Darlington," March 3, 
 1862; engagement with enemy s riflemen on the 
 St. Mary s River, March 6, 1862; during the 
 months of March and April, 1862, Lieutenant 
 Stevens was in command of the first expedition 
 up the St. John s River, which captured Forts 
 Steele and Finnegan, with their guns, etc., and 
 the towns of Mayport, Jacksonville, Magnolia, 
 and Pulaski, and yacht "America." 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer " Maratanza," North At 
 lantic Blockading Squadron, 1862; present at 
 the battle of West Point, and in command of the 
 first naval expedition to Cumberland and White 
 
STEVEN S 
 
 T79 
 
 STEWAKD 
 
 House to open the river for and support the ad 
 vance of Gen. McClellan, May, 1862 ; present at 
 demonstration against Petersburg and battle of 
 Malvern Hill, June, 1862; on July 4, 1862, the 
 " Maratanza," under the command of Com 
 mander Stevens, captured the rebel gunboat 
 " Teazer" ; commanding ironclad " Monitor," 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862 ; 
 while in command of the " Monitor," covered the 
 flank of McClellan s army on the James River 
 and the rear in his withdrawal from the Penin 
 sula ; commanding steamer "Sonoma," West 
 India Squadron, 1862-63 ; capture of schooner 
 " Clyde," steamer " Victoria," brigantine " At 
 lantic," bark "Springbok," steamer "Virginia," 
 and chase of rebel privateer " Florida" for 34 
 hours ; commanding ironclad " Patapsco," South 
 Atlantic Squadron, 1863 ; while in command of 
 " Patapsco," participated in engagement with 
 Fort Morgan, August 22, attack on Fort Sumter, 
 August 23, and engagement with Fort Moultrie, 
 Battery Bee, and adjacent batteries, in command 
 of 4 monitors, August 31 ; on September 1, de 
 monstration against Fort Sumter and obstruc 
 tions; September 6, engagement with Forts 
 Wagner and Gregg and capture of the same; 
 September 7, demonstration against Fort Sum 
 ter and obstructions, and engagement with all 
 of Sullivan s Island batteries ; September 8, en 
 gagement with Sullivan s Island batteries; in 
 command of boat assault on Fort Sumter on the 
 night of September 8; bombardment of Fort 
 Sumter, from October 25 to November 4, inclu 
 sive; commanding steam-sloop " Oneida," West 
 ern Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1863-65; opera 
 tions before Mobile, from July 1 to August 3, 
 18ti4 ; to enable Commander Mullany (now rear- 
 admiral), who had volunteered for the occasion, 
 to participate in the fight, Stevens consented to 
 take the double-turreted monitor " Winnebago," 
 and Mullany was assigned to the " Oneida" (by 
 this arrangement both these officers commanded 
 fighting ships) ; commanded monitor " Winne 
 bago" in engagement with Fort Powell, driving 
 off reinforcements and supplies, August 4, and 
 in battle of Mobile Bay, and capture of rebel 
 ram " Tennessee" and fleet, and at capture of 
 Forts Powell and Gaines; bombardment and 
 capture of Fort Morgan ; while in command of 
 " Oneida," May 13, 1865, off Boca Chico, Texas, 
 covering left flank of the army from apprehended 
 attack ; present at the ratification of the agree 
 ment for the surrender of the trans-Mississippi 
 army by Gens. Curtis, Smith, and Magrudcr ; in 
 command of Texas division of Gulf "Squadron, 
 July, 1865 ; in August, returned to New York 
 in command of the " Oneida." 
 
 Upon the occasion of his leaving the squadron, 
 the following letter was addressed him by the 
 late Admiral Dupont : 
 
 " I cannot permit you to leave without ex 
 pressing my regret at your withdrawal from my 
 squadron, having ever found you prompt, ener 
 getic, skillful, and brave in all the duties per 
 taining to your command. Your operations on 
 the St. John s River, as senior officer of the naval 
 forces which took possession of those waters, were 
 attended by circumstances requiring judgment 
 and discretion, both of which you exhibited in a 
 manner highly satisfactory to me. 
 
 " I am, sir, respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 "S. F. DUPONT." 
 
 Upon being relieved of the command of the 
 " Monitor," then in Hampton Roads, the present 
 rear-admiral, John Rodgers, wrote as follows : 
 
 " In all the time of our companionship on duty 
 you have evinced courage and coolness. In our 
 reconnoissance of the forts at Hilton Head pre 
 vious to the grand attack, in the grand attack in 
 which they were taken, in the Cooper River, in 
 the Appomattox, with your vessel aground under 
 very trying circumstances, you have exhibited 
 the characteristics of a valuable officer. I have 
 not cited occasions of which I have only heard, 
 but of which I have been mindful, where your 
 conduct has received the warmest praise. Every 
 where you have shown yourself adashing, zealous 
 officer." 
 
 Rear-Admiral Charles Wilkes, in a letter to 
 the Secretary of the Navy, in reference to Capt. 
 Stevens, writes, 
 
 "I have had many and favorable oppor 
 tunities, having been associated with him (Com 
 mander Stevens), and he served under my com 
 mand in the James River, and in the West 
 Indies, most of the time under my immediate 
 observation. His patriotism is beyond doubt ; 
 his ability as an officer is second to none in the 
 navy ; he has at all times given me on duty en 
 tire satisfaction in the performance of his duties, 
 and the zeal with which he executed them. I 
 think him a high-toned officer and a gentleman, 
 and know him to be an ornament to the service. 
 His duties engrossed his whole attention ; ever 
 ready and prompt in their execution, winning my 
 entire satisfaction and confidence in his willing 
 ness, activity, and ability in the execution of 
 orders. His command was always held ready 
 j for duty, and through his example, energy, and 
 good management he fulfilled many orders, over- 
 I coming great difficulties he had to encounter. 
 I He is brave and chivalric ; no officer could have 
 shown more attachment to the Union cause dur 
 ing the late war, and none exerted themselves 
 more to maintain and restore the Union, and up 
 hold the honor of our flag." 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866; 
 light-house inspector, 1867-70; commanding 
 frigate "Guerriere," European Squadron, 1870- 
 71. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, November 20, 
 1872 ; commanding navy-yard, Norfolk, Va., 
 1873-76. While on this duty, assigned by the 
 President, at the request of the governor of 
 Virginia, as member of the U. S. Advisory 
 Board of Harbor Commissioners of Norfolk and 
 Portsmouth ; continued upon same duty after 
 being relieved as commandant of the yard, upon 
 expiration of term, and also employed at present 
 as president of board for examination of and re 
 port on " Puritan." Special duty, Norfolk har 
 bor, 1876-80. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, October 27, 
 1879 ; commanding Pacific Squadron, 1880. 
 
 Steward. A person employed on board ships 
 to provide for the table, superintend its culinary 
 affairs, etc. In merchant ships he provides for 
 the tables of passengers, crew, and officers, has 
 charge of the saloons, baggage, etc. In men-of- 
 war there are several stewards. The paymaster s 
 steward is now styled in the navy the paymaster s 
 yeoman, and he has charge of the store-rooms, 
 issues small stores, serves out rations, and assists 
 in issuing clothing, etc. The admiral s steward. 
 
STEWAKDESS 
 
 780 
 
 STOCKHOLM 
 
 captain s steward, wardroom steward, steerage 
 steward, and warrant-officers steward, are petty 
 officers, receiving from $19.50 to $41.50 per 
 month, and charged with providing for the 
 various messes under their charge. Hospital 
 steward, the former title of the apothecary, which 
 see. 
 
 Stewardess. A woman employed in passenger 
 vessels to attend to the wants of female pas 
 sengers. 
 
 Stewart, Charles, Rear-Admiral U.S.N., 
 was born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1778. He 
 entered the merchant service at the age of 13, 
 and rose to the command of an East India- 
 man. Was commissioned lieutenant in the 
 navy, March 9, 1798. Was fourth lieutenant 
 of the "United States," under Barry, in the 
 West Indies. In 1800, commanded the schooner 
 " Experiment" ; captured the schooner "Deux 
 Amis." Chased by two French vessels, soon 
 after, he captured one. the " Diane," by a skillful 
 ruse, and next a privateer, the " Laura Bridger." 
 Was in charge of the "Chesapeake," in 1801, 
 and in 1802 sailed for the Mediterranean as first 
 lieutenant of the " Constellation," Capt. Murray, 
 and was in the first brush with Tripolitan boats. 
 Keturning in 1803, was given command of the 
 brig " Siren," and arrived off Tripoli, October 1, 
 1803. Convoyed the party, in the ketch " In 
 trepid." that destroyed the " Philadelphia," and 
 was senior officer of that expedition. Named 
 senior master-commandant in May, 1804, and 
 on the 2d of March captured the privateer 
 " Transfer." Engaged with batteries and boats, 
 in April ; in the attacks of August 4, August 7, 
 August 28, and September 3, on Tripoli. Was 
 promoted to captain April 22, 1806. Superin 
 tended construction of gunboats in New York, 
 1806-7, and was in the merchant service from 
 1808 to 1812; fitting out the "Argus" and the 
 " Hornet," 1812, and then commanded the " Con 
 stellation " In conveying her down Chesapeake 
 Bay, he encountered a British fleet, and only 
 avoided it by superior seamanship. Afterward, 
 assisted in the defense of Norfolk. Commanded 
 the "Constitution" next, joining her in Decem 
 ber, 1813, and in November, 1814, captured the 
 "Pictou" (14) and other vessels. Sailing again, 
 December 17, crossed the Atlantic, and made two 
 prizes. On the 20th of February, 1815, after a 
 gallant fight, he captured the " Cyane" (20) 
 and " Levant" (18). Was chased by a squad 
 ron, and lost the " Levant." He received a gold 
 medal and a sword, the thanks of Congress and 
 of the Pennsylvania Legislature, and the freedom 
 of the city of New York. In 1816, commanded 
 the Mediterranean Squadron in the "Franklin" 
 (74), until January, 1820. In 1821, commanded 
 Pacific Squadron until 1824. For alleged irregu 
 larities he was tried on his return home, in 1825, 
 but acquitted. Waiting orders, 1826, 1827, 
 1828 ; president Examining Board, 1829 ; Com 
 missioner of the Navy, 1830-32 ; waiting orders, 
 1833-37; Philadelphia Navy-Yard, 1838-41. 
 During the latter year he was spoken of as can 
 didate for President, but not nominated ; 1842-43, 
 in command of the Home Squadron ; 1844-45, 
 waiting orders ; 1846, commanded navy-yard, 
 Philadelphia; waiting orders, 1850-54. In 
 1852 he became the senior officer of the navy ; 
 1854, navy-yard, Philadelphia, which position 
 he held until 1861 ; was retired as senior commo 
 
 dore in 1856, when 78, and was promoted to the 
 rank of flag-officer in 1860 ; was on waiting 
 orders until his death. Promoted to rear-ad 
 miral, July 16, 1862. He died at Bordentown, 
 N. J., November 6, 1869, aged 91, having been 
 the senior officer in the navy for 17 years (the 
 eighth to hold that office), and in the service 71 
 years. F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Stick. A term applied to a mast. 
 
 Stickle-back. A small fish of the genus Gas- 
 terosteus, so called from the spines which arm 
 their back, ventral fins, and other parts. 
 
 Stiff. That quality in a vessel which enables 
 her to carry a press of sail without careening 
 much. A stiff ship is not necessarily stable. 
 Stiff bottom, a hard, tenacious, muddy bottom. 
 Stiff breeze, a strong breeze, in which a press of 
 sail may be carried. 
 
 STIFFENING-ORDER (Eng.}. A custom-house 
 warrant, allowing a ship to commence taking 
 cargo before the old is entirely out, to prevent 
 becoming too light. 
 
 STIFF-HOOK BLOCK. A block with a rigid 
 hook. 
 
 Stiles. The up-and-down pieces in a section 
 of a bulk-head, or those that form the two sides 
 of it. The rails lie across and are tenoned into 
 the stiles. When the panels would be too large, 
 or out of proportion, to fill in wholly between 
 the stiles, pieces called munnions are placed be 
 tween them in the same direction, and tenoned 
 into the rails. 
 
 Still Water. Water not agitated by currents 
 or tides. Slack-tide. 
 
 Sting-bull. A fish of the genus Trachinus 
 (T. draco), which is capable of inflicting severe 
 wounds with the spinous rays of its dorsal fins. 
 
 Sting-ray. The Trygon pastinaca, a fish with 
 a saw-like bone on the upper side of the tail, 
 which wounds, but does not poison. 
 
 Stink-balls. Balls carrying an offensive prep 
 aration of pitch, rosin, gunpowder, assafoetida, 
 and colophony, formerly thrown on decks at close 
 quarters. 
 
 Stink-pots. Earthen jars charged with a 
 similar mixture to that in stink-balls, and also 
 with hand-grenades, to throw on an enemy s 
 decks. 
 
 Stirrup. A short rope, hanging from the 
 yard, with a thimble in the lower end, through 
 which the foot-rope is rove ; they are lashed to 
 the iron jack-stay on the yard. An iron plate 
 joining the keel and stern-post, and bolted 
 through them ; called also stirrup-plate. 
 
 Stirrup-plate. See STIRRUP. 
 
 Stoach-way (Eng.}. A small stream of water 
 running through the sand or mud at low-tide. 
 
 Stoak. To choke up the timbers so that the 
 pump will not empty the bilge. 
 
 Stock. A cross-beam of wood or iron at right 
 angles to the shank of an anchor. The wooden 
 part of a musket, carbine, or pistol. In block- 
 making, a wooden tool having a bit at one end, 
 and a pin with a flat head at the other end. To 
 stock to, to pull the anchor stock in an upright 
 position on the bows, by the stock-tackle. 
 
 STOCK-AND-BILL TACKLE, or STOCK-TACKLE. 
 A tackle used across the forecastle for the purpose 
 of stowing the anchor, or getting the stock up 
 right, and the flukes on the bill-board. 
 
 Stock-fish. Cod dried in the sun without salt. 
 
 Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is beauti- 
 
STOCKS 
 
 781 
 
 STOPPEK 
 
 fully situated between Lake Maelar and the 
 Baltic. It stands partly on the north and south 
 sides of the strait, between the lake and the sea, 
 and partly on several islands. A strong citadel 
 has been erected on the small island of Kastell- 
 holm, while the fortifications of Waxholm have 
 been so strengthened as to command the only 
 channel by which a hostile approach by sea 
 could be attempted. Among the educational es 
 tablishments are a technological institute, medi 
 cal college, and a school of navigation. The 
 harbor, though somewhat difficult of access, is 
 capacious, and has depth of water sufficient for 
 the largest vessels at its quays. It has a con 
 siderable foreign, inland, and coastwise trade. 
 Lat. 59 20 36" N. ; Ion. 18 3 / 45" E. Pop. 
 166,000. 
 
 Stocks. A place properly arranged on the 
 shore of a river or bay, upon which a vessel is to be 
 built. It consists of a number of wooden blocks 
 ranged parallel to each other at convenient dis 
 tances, with a gradual decline toward the water. 
 
 Stockton, Robert Field, Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born at Princeton, N. J., 1796; died there Oc 
 tober 7, 1866. A.M. of New Jersey College, 1820. 
 He left New Jersey College in his 15th year ; en 
 tered the navy as midshipman, September 1, 
 1811 ; received honorable notice for gallantry in 
 several battles ; was made lieutenant, December 
 9, 1814; commander, May 27, 1830; captain, 
 December 8, 1838 ; resigned, May 28, 1850. In 
 1815, while first lieutenant of the "Spitfire," he 
 distinguished himself by boarding with a boat s 
 crew an Algerine war-vessel. Ordered in 1821 
 to the coast of Africa, he obtained by treaty 
 from the native chiefs the tract constituting 
 the present republic of Liberia. He also cap 
 tured many slavers, and a Portuguese privateer 
 of 22 guns. On his return he was successful 
 in breaking up the nests of many West India 
 pirates. In 1826-38, he took an active part in 
 politics in favor of Gen. Jackson, and also in aid 
 ing internal improvements in his State. In 1838, 
 he was flag-officer of the "Ohio" in the Mediterra 
 nean. He was one of the first to advocate a steatn 
 navy ; and the" Princeton, "built according to his 
 plans in 1842, furnished the model for numerous 
 other vessels. By the explosion of one of her largo 
 guns, February 28, 1844, Commodore Stockton 
 was seriously injured. Sent to the Pacific in 
 October, 1845; he with 1500 men, including 600 
 sailors, in about 6 months conquered the whole 
 of California, and established the authority of 
 the United States there. Forming a provisional 
 government, he returned to the East in June, 
 1847. The difficulty between him and Gen. 
 Kearney in relation to the supreme command 
 there was subsequently made the subject of a 
 court-martial. U. S. Senator in 1851-53, he 
 strenuously opposed intervention in favor of Hun 
 gary, and procured the passage of a law for the 
 abolition of flogging in the navy. 
 
 Stoer-mackerel (Eng.}. The young tunny- 
 fish. 
 
 Stoke. To tend the furnace-fires, or the galley- 
 fire. To frequent the galley ; to loaf about it. 
 
 STOKE-HOLE. The space in front of a steam- 
 boiler from which the fires are managed. See 
 FIRE-ROOM. 
 
 STOKER. A fireman in a steam-vessel. One 
 who attends the fires in a furnace. See FIRE 
 MAN. 
 
 Stonacre (Eng.}. A sloop-rigged boat for 
 carrying stone. 
 
 Stool. A channel abaft the main channel for 
 backstays. A chock under the lower stem- 
 transom, to which the lower ends of the fashion- 
 pieces are fastened. The ornamental block which 
 was formerly placed over the stem for a poop- 
 lantern. 
 
 Stop. A small projection at the head of a 
 lower-mast, supporting the trestle-trees. A 
 small line used to tie up anything. Clothes- 
 stops, small laniards fastened to clothing, to hang 
 it by when washed. Hammock-stops, laniards 
 on hammocks for the same purpose. Awning- 
 stops, short rope-ends spliced into the ridge of an 
 awning, to serve to tie it when furled. Awning 
 side-stops, small lines to haul the edge of an 
 awning out to the ridge-rope. To stop, to lash 
 anything temporarily with a piece of small-stuff. 
 To close, as to stop a leak. 
 
 STOP HER ! An order to stop the engines. 
 
 STOP-VALVE. A tight-closing valve attached 
 to a steam-boiler or engine for the purpose of 
 isolating one boiler from steam communication 
 with others, or for thoroughly excluding steam 
 from the engine. 
 
 STOP-WATER. An object towed overboard, 
 checking the ship s way. A treenail. 
 
 Stopper. A short piece of rope, secured to a 
 bolt, or to any point near a running rope, and 
 used to check the motion of the latter by its 
 friction when wound about it. The ends of 
 stoppers are usually unlaid, and plaited up, so as 
 to make them soft and pliable. 
 
 Ropes, or more frequently chains, fastening 
 the anchor in place on the bow. 
 
 A rope, chain, or mechanical contrivance serv 
 ing to arrest the motion of a cable, or to prevent 
 its running out when at anchor. These are of 
 various kinds. Deck-stoppers, laniard-stoppers, 
 or rope-stoppers, are short pieces of rope, having 
 a large knot in one end, and a rope laniard, of 
 smaller dimensions, and in the other end a large 
 hook or shackle for hooking it into a bolt in the 
 deck. The laniard is wound about the cable and 
 stopper, and the knot keeps it from slipping. 
 Dog-stoppers are strong ropes fastened to the 
 mainmast, hatch, bitts, etc., to assist the deck- 
 stoppers. When at the bitts, they are bitt-stop- 
 pers ; when in the hatches, hatch-stoppers; and 
 when secured to the knees in the wings of large 
 vessels, wing-stoppers. Ring-stoppers are pieces 
 of rope unlaid and plaited, whose bight is fast 
 ened about a ring in the deck, while the ends are 
 wound about the cable. Iron stoppers are used, 
 as hatch-stoppers in the corners of the hatches, 
 and compressors on the berth-deck, at the bottom 
 of the chain-pipes. Both these are curved iron 
 levers, worked by a tackle, which compress the 
 chain-cable and stop it. A slip-stopper consists 
 of two or three short links of chain, shackled or 
 bolted to an eye-bolt or ring-bolt in the deck, 
 with a slip-shackle at the other end. Check-stop 
 pers are pieces of rope fastened to a chain, which 
 part by the strain, but check the cable in so 
 doing. Mechanical, or patent stoppers, are con 
 trivances for arresting the motion of the cable. 
 Many have been devised, but the more common 
 one, Mix s stopper, serves as a type of them all. 
 It is an iron casting in a wooden frame, in two 
 parts. The upper part is worked by a screw from 
 above. By screwing it down on the lower part, 
 
STOKES 
 
 782 
 
 STORM 
 
 but one link is held in the casting, and the next 
 link is stopped. A lener stopper is on the same 
 principle, a casting holding but one link, but 
 only while the chain is quiescent, there being no 
 upper piece to hold it in place. 
 
 An assemblage of ropes and dead-eyes, used 
 to secure rigging when it has parted. (See 
 FIGHTING STOPPERS.) To stopper, to arrest the 
 motion of a running rope, cable, etc., with a 
 stopper. 
 
 STOPPER-BOLTS. Large ring-bolts driven 
 through the deck and beam. 
 
 STOPPER-KNOT. A knot in the end of a deck- 
 stopper, made by double-walling the end of the 
 rope. 
 
 STOPPER-LANIARD. The rope fastened to the 
 head of a stopper. The rope uniting the dead- 
 eyes in a fighting stopper. 
 
 STOPPING-UP-PIECES. The middle pieces sup 
 porting a ship on the cradle in launching. 
 
 Stores. Supplies of any kind. 
 
 STORE, or STORE-HOUSE. A house in a navy- 
 yard where any property is stored. 
 
 STORE-KEEPER (Eng.). An officer in a dock 
 yard, in charge of all stores and all store-houses. 
 A person superintending a store-house in a 
 navy-yard. 
 
 STORE-ROOM. A room in the hold, or on the 
 lower or orlop-deck of a ship, in which stores are 
 placed. General store-room, a room in the fore- 
 peak, containing spare articles, iron castings, 
 blocks, rope, duplicate tools, etc. It is under the 
 charge of the yeoman, i 
 
 STORE-SHIP. A government vessel used for 
 carrying stores, or for storing them away in for 
 eign ports. 
 
 Storm. A violent disturbance of the atmos 
 phere, producing wind, rain, snow, hail, sleet, 
 etc. Wind-storms are direct, as hurricanes, tem 
 pests, etc., or revolving, by far the greater num 
 ber belonging to the latter class. To storm, to 
 assault a fortified place by open force. 
 
 Storm, Revolving (Hurricane, Typhoon, Cy 
 clone, etc.). Definition^ A disturbed condition 
 of the atmosphere extending over a circular area 
 varying in diameter (according to the locality 
 where it occurs) from 50 to 1000 miles, within 
 the limits of which currents of air move with 
 the extraordinary velocity of from 80 to 130 
 miles an hour around a central calm-space of 
 low atmospheric pressure ; while at the same time 
 the whole storm-area moves forward on a track, 
 either straight or curved, itt the rate of from 1 to 
 43 miles an hour. 
 
 History of Storms. The history of this phe 
 nomenon (which for the sake of brevity I will 
 call cyclone) dates back nearly 200 years, and 
 the first authentic information on the subject was 
 published in England ("Philosophical Trans 
 actions," October, 1698), in a paper on the West 
 India hurricanes, by Capt. Langford, in which 
 paper he speaks of a storm as a whirlwind ; de 
 scribes the veering of the wind within the storm 
 area, and refers to a progressive movement of 
 the storm itself. 
 
 The Spanish navigator, Don Juan d Ulloa, 
 during a cruise on the Pacific coast of South 
 America in the year 1743, experienced several 
 storms in which the wind changed from north to 
 west* (which would occur in the northeast quad- 
 
 * Plddington, p. 82, and " Dove s Law of Storms," p. 108. 
 
 rant of a cyclone in the southern hemisphere 
 traveling southward and eastward). 
 
 In 1801, Col. James Capper published a work 
 entitled " Observations on the Winds and Mon 
 soons," in which he speaks of great whirlwinds 
 on the Coromandel coast, the centres of which 
 pass generally near Madras or Pulicat, and 
 whose diameter, he says, cannot exceed 120 
 miles. 
 
 A French writer named Romme, in a work 
 entitled " Tableaux des vents, des marees et des 
 courans," published in 1806, describes storms in 
 the China Sea near the Gulf of Tonkin, which 
 he distinctly calls whirlwinds, and applies the 
 same name to other storms experienced in the 
 Mozambique Channel, and again others in the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Professor Farrar, of the Cambridge University, 
 Mass., in describing a storm that passed over 
 Boston on September 23, 1815 (the account of 
 which was published in the "American Philo 
 sophical Transactions," 1819), says that he could 
 not determine the place of the centre or the lim 
 its of this storm, but noticed the veering of the 
 wind, and the fact that it veered in opposite di 
 rections at Boston and New York at the same 
 time. 
 
 In the year 1831, Mr. William Redfield, an 
 American philosopher, published in the Ameri 
 can Journal of Science a paper, in which he de 
 monstrated not only that the storms on the 
 American coast were whirlwinds, but also that 
 they had a progressive or forward movement, 
 traveling on curved tracks at a considerable 
 rate, and were traceable from the West Indies, 
 along the coast of the United States, curving off 
 to the eastward at some point between the Ber 
 mudas and the banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 While Mr. Redfield was employed collecting 
 the data from which he eventually deduced his 
 law of storms, a similar investigation was going 
 on in Germany. A number of gales had attracted 
 the attention of German meteorologists, chiefly 
 on account of the oscillations and great fall of 
 the barometer before and during these gales. 
 On Christmas-eve, 1821, the barometer sank so 
 low that many people believed their barometers 
 were out of order, and others, who were not mis 
 taken as to the cause, expected a great catas 
 trophe. 
 
 Professor Brandes, a German meteorologist, 
 who had kept a record of observations for a 
 length of time, obtained the registers kept at 
 various places during the same time, and eventu 
 ally advanced a theory that the winds, during 
 these great storms, blew from all points of the 
 compass in straight lines toward a central space 
 where the barometer was for the time at its 
 lowest stand. ( See Fig. 1.) 
 
 The theory of Mr. Brandes was disputed by 
 Professor Dove, of Berlin, who subjected the ob 
 servations to a new examination, and made it 
 appear that an explanation of all the phenomena 
 was afforded by the assumption of one or more 
 circular currents or whirlwinds of great diame 
 ters, advancing from southwest to northeast. A 
 full account of this is found on page 162, " Dove s 
 Law of Storms," 2d edition, 1862". (See Fig. 2.) 
 
 Professor Dove s theory, although under dis 
 cussion about the same time that" Mr. Redfield 
 by an independent course of investigation arrived 
 at the results above mentioned, was not known 
 
STORM 
 
 783 
 
 STORM 
 
 in the United States when the latter gentleman 
 published his paper in the American Journal of 
 
 FIG. l. 
 
 Science, and an eminent English philosopher, 
 Sir David Brewster, is accredited with saying 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 in connection with Redfield s discovery, "The 
 theory of rotary storms was first suggested by 
 Col. Capper, but we must claim for" Mr. Red- 
 field the greater honor of having fully investi 
 gated the subject, and apparently established the 
 theory upon an impregnable basis. Mr. Redfield 
 had no knowledge of Col. Capper s discovery 
 when he published his own in 1831."* 
 
 In the year 1838, Lieut.-Col. Reid, of the royal 
 engineers, published a valuable work entitled 
 "Reid on the Law of Storms," in which he 
 agreed in all particulars with the views of Red- 
 field, and verified by personal observation all his 
 theory ; adding many substantial proofs to the 
 same by investigations of some of the West India 
 hurricanes, and of some in the Southern Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 Col. Reid by his observations of storms in this 
 latter sea further proves Mr. Redfield s theory, 
 that the storms in the southern hemisphere re 
 volve in a contrary direction to those in the 
 northern hemisphere. Col. Reid embodied in his 
 work many useful rules for manoeuvring in a 
 revolving storm, and thus may be said to have 
 reduced the science from a mere speculative 
 theory to a practical law ; and the recorded ex- 
 
 * " Keid on the Law of Storms," 3d edition, 1850, p. 2. 
 
 perience of hundreds of able and observing men 
 who have carefully and intelligently noted and 
 studied the course and gradual veering of the 
 wind within the limits of the storm-disk goes to 
 prove that correct conclusions have been arrived 
 at in this respect. 
 
 Origin of Storms. With respect to the cause 
 or origin of cyclones we are still comparatively 
 in the dark, but as it is not the purpose of this 
 article to deal with abstract theories or to dis 
 cuss doubtful scientific questions, I shall confine 
 myself to a brief recital of the opinions of a few 
 gentlemen who appear to have given the subject 
 careful consideration, and spent much time and 
 labor in the prosecution of their investigations. 
 
 Mr. Redfield appears to have had no particu 
 lar theory as to the causes of cyclones ; he thought 
 it would be unscientific to attempt to account 
 for them, until better informed, by the exclusive 
 action of any one or more causes. Later, how 
 ever, he inclines to think them produced by the 
 conflicts of prevailing currents in the different 
 strata of the atmosphere giving rise to circular 
 movements, which increase and dilate to storms. 
 
 Col. Reid avoids any general speculation as to 
 the causes of cyclones. He adverts to the pos 
 sibility of there being some connection between 
 storms and electricity and magnetism, and con 
 cludes with an account of an experiment with a 
 10-inch hollow shot, which, he thinks, partly 
 confirms his views. f 
 
 Professor Dove accounts for cyclones by cur 
 rents of air near the equator being from any cause 
 set in motion toward the poles and coming in 
 contact with other currents moving in a different 
 direction. J 
 
 Mr. Piddington, the author of the " Sailor s 
 Hornbook," in the third edition of that work 
 (1860), pp. 324, 325, gives it as his opinion that 
 cyclones are purely electrical phenomena formed 
 in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and de 
 scending in a flattened disk-like shape to the sur 
 face of the ocean, where they progress more or 
 less rapidly, according to circumstances. He 
 thinks that whirlwinds, dust-storms, and water 
 spouts are the same meteor in a concentrated 
 form, but cannot say where the law which regu 
 lates the motions of the larger kinds ceases to be 
 an invariable one. 
 
 The views of Sir John Herschel on the causes 
 of cyclones, says Mr. Piddington (" Sailor s 
 Hornbook," page 21), may be briefly stated as 
 follows : 
 
 " It seems worth inquiry whether hurricanes 
 in tropical climates may not arise from portions 
 of the upper currents prematurely diverted 
 downwards before their relative velocity has 
 been sufficiently reduced by friction on, and 
 gradually mixing with, the lower strata ; and 
 so dashing upon the earth with that tremen 
 dous velocity which gives them their destructive 
 character and of which hardly any rational ac 
 count has yet been given. Their course, gen 
 erally speaking, is in" opposition to the ^regular 
 trade- winds, as it ought to be in conformity with 
 this idea." He then goes on to say that it does 
 not follow that this must always be the case, for, 
 " in general, a rapid transfer, either way in lati 
 tude, of any mass of air which local or tempo- 
 
 1 Keid on the Law of Storms," 3d edition, 1850, p. 490. 
 Dove s Law of Storms," 2d edition, 1862, p. 182. 
 
STORM 
 
 784 
 
 STORM 
 
 rary causes might carry above the immediate 
 reach of the friction of the earth s surface, would 
 give a fearful exaggeration to its velocity. 
 Wherever such a mass should strike the earth a 
 hurricane might arise, and should two such 
 masses encounter in mid-air, a tornado of any 
 degree of intensity on record might easily result 
 from their combination." 
 
 Sir John Herschel also alludes to the possibility 
 of the meeting of two atmospheric undulations 
 or barometric waves traveling in different direc 
 tions, producing a storm and giving a rotary 
 motion to the wind. 
 
 Professor Espy, an American philosopher, in 
 his fourth meteorological report, 1857, page 11, 
 gives as one of the causes of storms the follow 
 ing : Upon any partial heating of the air at the 
 surface of the earth it rises in columns more or 
 less charged with vapor, which as they rise have 
 their vapor condensed into clouds or rain. Next 
 in this changing of state the vapor communicates 
 its latent caloric to the surrounding air, which 
 also expands, is cooled itself by that expansion, 
 but also gives heat to that part of the air in 
 which it is then, and becoming lighter, is carried 
 farther up. In short, Mr. Espy considers the 
 centre of the storm the base of a huge moving 
 chimney, circular, or of any longitudinal shape, 
 the draft of which is occasioned by an exten 
 sive condensation of vapor above. 
 
 Dr. Alexander Thorn, in a work on storms in 
 the Indian Ocean, south of the equator, gives it 
 as his opinion that circular motion is given to 
 the winds in a storm-area by the contact in meet 
 ing on the borders of the monsoons and trade- 
 winds of opposing currents of air, differing in 
 temperature, humidity, specific gravity, and 
 electricity. These, he thinks, give rise to a re 
 volving action which originates the storm. 
 
 It is believed by some that cyclones originate 
 at great volcanic centres, and Mr. Henry Pid- 
 dington is among that number. On page 23, 
 11 Sailor s Hornbook," I find the following: " If 
 we produce at both ends the line of the track of 
 the Cuba cyclone of 1844, we shall find that it 
 extends from the great and highly active volcano 
 of Cosseguina, on the Pacific shore of Central 
 America, to Hecla, in Iceland. And in 1821, 
 the breaking out of the great volcano of Eyafjeld 
 Yokul, in Iceland, which had be"n quiet since 
 1612, was followed all over Europe by dreadful 
 storms of wind, hail, and rain." 
 
 A late writer (Professor Silas Bent), in an ar 
 ticle published in the St. Louis Republican, No 
 vember 3, 1878, gives a very interesting solution 
 of the cyclone problem, attributing the motion 
 of the winds within the storm-disk to the earth s 
 rotation on its axis. 
 
 For full information on the subject, see the 
 standard works of Redfield, Reed, Dove, and Pid- 
 dington, already referred to. Also the works of 
 Professors Loomis and Meldrum ; " Atmospheric 
 
 303 ; " Etude sur les Ouragans de 1 Hemisphere 
 Austral" (2e serie), par M. Bridet; " Die Wir- 
 belsturme, Tornados und Wettersaulen," p. 134; 
 and " IT. S. Naval Institute Proceedings," vol. 
 v. pp. 236-238. 
 
 Law of Storms. The theory of motion of the 
 winds within the storm-area and the progressive 
 
 movement of the storm, discovered by Redfield 
 and Dove, verified by Col. Reid, and confirmed 
 since its publication by numberless actual obser 
 vations at sea, is commonly known as The Law 
 of Storms, and is based on the supposition that 
 the air-currents within the limits of the storm- 
 disk move in nearly concentric circles round a 
 centre of low pressure ; from right to left, or 
 against the hands of a watch (face up) in the 
 northern hemisphere, and from left to right, or 
 with the hands of a watch, in the southern 
 hemisphere; so that, when facing the wind, the 
 centre lies on the right hand in the northern, 
 and on the left hand in the southern hemis 
 phere. 
 
 It must, however, be remembered in this con 
 nection that the author of the cyclone theory 
 does not claim that the winds blow uniformly in 
 circles ; it is well known that certain irregulari 
 ties in the course of the winds due to local dis 
 turbances frequently take place within the storm- 
 disk, and Mr. Redfield, in the American Jour 
 nal of Science and the Arts, second series, No. 
 1, page 14, says* "When, in 1830, I first at 
 tempted to establish, by direct evidence, the 
 rotative character of gales or tempests, I had 
 only to encounter the then prevailing idea of a 
 general rectilinear movement in these winds. 
 Hence I have deemed it sufficient to describe the 
 rotation in general terms, not doubting that on 
 different sides of a rotatory storm, as in common 
 rains or sluggish storms, might be found any 
 course of wind, from the rotative to the recti 
 linear, together with varying conditions as 
 regards clouds and rain. 
 
 " The common idea of rotation in circles, how 
 ever, is sufficiently correct for practical purposes, 
 and for the construction of diagrams. . . . The 
 degree of vorticular inclination in violent storms 
 must be subject, locally, to great variations ; 
 but it is not probable that, on an average of the 
 different sides, it ever comes near to 45 degrees 
 from the tangent of a circle, and that such aver 
 age inclination ever exceeds two points of the 
 compass may well be doubted." 
 
 The nearest approach to the true average mo 
 tion of the wind is probably a spiral curve, any 
 small portion of which may, for all practical 
 purposes, be considered the arc of a circle, whose 
 centre coincides with the storm centre, as in Figs. 
 3 and 4. 
 
 Fio. 3 (North). 
 
 The correctness of the circular theory, although 
 generally accepted by seamen who have had 
 
 * See also Piddington s " Hornbook," p. 108. 
 
STORM 
 
 785 
 
 STORM 
 
 experience at sea and opportunities to observe 
 the changing of the wind, etc., within the actual 
 
 FIG. 4 (South). 
 
 limits of the storm-disk, is, nevertheless, ques 
 tioned by several scientific men who appear to 
 have given the subject careful attention. 
 
 Thus, Capt. Henry Toynbee, in the report of 
 the British Meteorological Office on the Storms 
 in the North Atlantic, August, 1873, represents 
 the wind on the 25th August as blowing in lines, 
 more or less curved, toward the centre, as shown 
 in Fig. 5. And Mr. Meldrum, from his inves 
 tigations of the Mauritius hurricane of February 
 25, 1860, produces a similar figure to represent 
 the movement of the winds in that storm. 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 Circulation of air, hurri 
 cane, August 25, 1873, 
 south of Newfoundland, 
 according to Captain 
 Henry Toynbee. 
 
 Circulation of air in the 
 Mauritius hurricane, 
 February 25, 1860, 
 according to Mr. Mel- 
 drum. 
 
 It is stated in the same report (August, 1873\ 
 that two days previous, or on the 23d August, 
 the American steamer " Albemarle" hove to 
 north of the centre, and that the captain, finding 
 that he was near the line of the storm-track, 
 subsequently kept the vessel off, and ran with 
 the wind two points on the quarter, N. W. by 
 W., wind E. by S., and thereby cleared the 
 dangerous part of the storm, a fact evidenced by 
 a rise of the mercury and rapid improvement of 
 the weather. A glance at Fig. 5 would make 
 it appear that such a manoeuvre was not possible, 
 and it may therefore reasonably be supposed 
 that the diagram does not correctly represent the 
 circulation of air in every storm, and particu 
 larly in the one on the 23d of August. 
 
 With reference to Mr. Meldrum s diagram of 
 the circulation of air in the Mauritius hurricane 
 of February 25, 1860, we have the report of M. 
 Bridet, capitaine de fregate, and captain of the 
 port at St. Denis, that 4 vessels, viz., " 1 Angele," 
 "la Somme," "1 Alfred," and "la Victorine," 
 did cross the track of that storm, and returned 
 60 
 
 to St. Denis and reported the fact.* This feat, 
 according to Mr. Meldrum s diagram, would have 
 been impossible. 
 
 The theory of inblowing or centripetal motion 
 of winds (Fig. 1), advanced by Profs. Brandes 
 and Espy, is sufliciently disproved in practice, 
 as may be seen by the foregoing examples of the 
 " Albermarle" and French vessels above referred 
 to, to require no further comments here. 
 
 A paper entitled " The September Taifuns, 
 
 1878, in the China and Japan Seas," by E. Knip- 
 ping, published at Tokio ( Yedo), Japan, in July, 
 
 1879, gives, among other things in its summary 
 of results, the following: "The centre bore 10 
 points from the wind within a distance of 400 
 miles from the centre." 
 
 " The bearing of the centre varied with the 
 distance, thus: with N. E., N. W., and S. W. 
 winds, the anglef increased with the distance; 
 while with S. E. winds the reverse was the case/ 
 
 Distortion of the Storm-disk. Revolving 
 storms, it is believed, are distinct and separate 
 phenomena, created, existing, and dying in ac 
 cordance with certain natural laws, for which, 
 as yet, no absolute solution has been found ; and 
 further, that when unobstructed in mid-ocean, 
 the winds within the limits of the storm-disk 
 circulate, as nearly as may be, in circles around 
 a centre of low pressure ; but that from various 
 causes, uch as contact with land,;}; meeting or 
 colliding" with another storm, \ or temporarily, 
 from local atmospheric disturbances within the 
 storm-disk, the latter may become so distorted 
 as to render it difficult to determine the position 
 of the centre ; and to one or more of the above 
 causes, I believe, may be traced most of the de 
 fects complained of in the circular system. The 
 fact of but few storms having reached the Mo 
 zambique and Formosa Channels is doubtless due 
 to the effect of the high lands of Madagascar and 
 Formosa Islands in turning the storms off to the 
 eastward ; and the same effect would be produced 
 by any other high land having a clear expanse 
 of ocean on the side on which the storms ap 
 proach. Before, however, the course of a storm 
 is changed by pressure against the land which 
 obstructed its original course the storm-disk 
 must necessarily undergo considerable change in 
 form also, and in such cases the barometer and 
 good judgment are all-important. 
 
 REMARKS ON BAROMETER. The barometer 
 as an instrument of warning, and also an approxi 
 mate measure of the distance from the centre of 
 a cyclone, is of vital importance to the seaman. 
 
 First. The barometer generally indicates the 
 approach of a storm by a restless, oscillating 
 motion of the mercury, caused by a disturbed 
 condition of the atmosphere in the vicinity of a 
 storm, and the consequent passage over it of at 
 mospheric waves of different heights. These 
 oscillations have been observed to vary from a 
 just perceptible motion to 0.02 inch. One in 
 stance is recorded where the oscillations of the 
 barometer amounted to 0.178 inch. II 
 
 * " Etnde sur les Ouragans de 1 hemispheYe Austral" (sec 
 ond edition), pp. 115 to 137, and " U. S. Naval Institute Pro 
 ceedings," vol. v. pp. 251-262. 
 
 f The angle between the direction of wind and bearing of 
 centre. 
 
 t See " U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings," vol. v. pp. 250- 
 252. 
 
 I See Piddington s " Hornbook " 4th edition, pp. 96-100. 
 
 f Ibid., p. 239. 
 
STOKM 
 
 786 
 
 STOKM 
 
 Second. The barometer often rises suddenly 
 just on the border in front of a storm, by reason 
 of the air banking up there ; and therefore, if 
 the clouds and general appearance of the weather 
 indicate the approach of a storm, the rise in the 
 barometer, if any occurs, is no guarantee that it 
 will not come, but rather a sign that a severe 
 storm is coming. The barometer will probably 
 not rise much in front of a slowly-moving storm. 
 
 Third. A very rapid fall of the barometer 
 after fairly entering the storm-disk may be re 
 garded as evidence of a very violent storm of 
 small diameter, and a gradual fall would indi 
 cate the contrary. 
 
 Fourth. If a vessel by any accident was 
 caught in a cyclone in a dangerous position near 
 the land, the knowledge of her distance from the 
 centre might be all-important, even if it could 
 not be determined nearer than 50 miles, and 
 to aid navigators in determining probably within 
 that distance, the distance from the centre, a 
 table is published in Piddington s "Hornbook," 
 3d edition, page 252, which I give here for what 
 it is worth, and which, in an extreme case, may 
 prove of service : 
 
 Average Fall of Baro 
 meter per Hour 
 From 0.02 inch to 0.06 inch. 
 " 0.06 " 0.08 " 
 " 0.08 " 0.12 " 
 " 0.12 " 0.15 " 
 
 Distance in Miles 
 from Centre. 
 
 From 250 to 150 
 " 150 " 100 
 " 100 " 80 
 " 80 " 50 
 
 I have compared the fall of the barometer in a 
 great number of cases with the above, and gen 
 erally found the result very favorable. 
 
 The following table, from Mr. Knipping s 
 publication, " the September Taifuns, 1878, in 
 the China and Japan Seas," shows, according 
 to his observations, approximately the fall of the 
 barometer corresponding to an approach of 50 
 miles, according to various distances from centre, 
 as follows : 
 
 Mean Distance from 
 
 Centre in Miles. 
 
 375 
 
 325 
 
 275 
 
 225 
 
 175 
 
 126 
 
 75 
 
 Fall of Barometer Corre 
 sponding to an approach 
 of 50 Miles. 
 
 0.07 inch. 
 0.08 " 
 0.09 " 
 0.10 
 0.12 " 
 0.14 " 
 0.55 " 
 
 The figures in the barometer column, divided 
 by 5, give about the corresponding fall per hour.* 
 
 The lowest barometer observed^ at the sea-level 
 is in the case of the " Duke of York," at Ked 
 geree, in 1833, when the mercury fell to 26.30 
 inches. In the case of the " Francis Henty" 
 (bark), in a cyclone near the Linchoten group 
 of islands, China Sea, 1872, the mercury fell out 
 of sight, that is, below the wood of which the 
 barometer case was made, the last reading, about 
 one-half hour before reaching the centre, being 
 27.19 inches. The greatest fall of the barometer 
 in any one storm occurred in the case of the brio- 
 "Gazelle," in the China Sea, 1849, when the 
 
 * It will be observed that this column, when divided by 5, 
 gives, for distances from the centre corresponding to hourly 
 fall of barometer, results differing considerably from those ob 
 tained by the use of Piddington s table ; and inasmuch as these 
 results place a vessel nearer to the centre than those from 
 Piddington s table, they, ought, perhaps, as a measure of pru 
 dence, to be preferred. 
 
 mercury fell from 29.80 inches to 27.00 inches, 
 or 2.8 inches. 
 
 STORM INDICATIONS. The indications of the 
 approach of a cyclone do not differ materially 
 from those of the ordinary gale ; but a few such, 
 as a hard steel-gray sky, or having a greenish 
 tint, a blood-red or bright yellow sunset, a heavy 
 swell, unaccounted for in any other way, and a 
 thick, lurid appearance of the sky, may be re 
 garded in connection with a general threatening 
 appearance of the weather, and particularly with 
 a restless state of the barometer, as significant 
 signs of a more than ordinary gale, and, whether 
 seen separately or together, ought not to be dis 
 regarded. 
 
 When by any of these signs, or by the action 
 of his barometer, the navigator has reason to 
 suspect that a cyclone is not far distant, his fii-st 
 care is to devise a plan for avoiding it, and if he 
 knew positively the direction of its course, this 
 might sometimes be accomplished. An approxi 
 mate idea of the storm s movement in certain 
 localities may be had by an inspection of a 
 cyclone chart, such as is found in the standard 
 works on storms ; but although the cyclone 
 tracks generally lie in the same direction, and as 
 a rule not very far apart, probably not more 
 than four or five hundred miles at any given 
 point, yet it does not follow as matter of course 
 that every cyclone travels over the beaten track, 
 and therefore there is no certainty that the ap 
 proaching storm will do so. By a knowledge 
 of the tracks in the locality the navigator may, 
 however, try to avoid it ; but if after doing his 
 very best to effect this he is still caught in the 
 storm, he must then as quickly as possible deter 
 mine his position in the storm-disk, and the 
 course of the storm. This, on the basis of Red- 
 field s law of storms, may always be done by a 
 knowledge of the following few simple facts com 
 mitted to memory, viz. : 
 
 RULES FOR AVOIDING THE CENTRE. Right 
 
 Semicircle : Wind changes to the right, N. 13. 
 S. W., heave to on starboard tack. 
 
 Left Semicircle : Wind changes to the left, 
 N. W. S. E., heave to on;o?^ tack. 
 
 This is all that is necessary to place the ship 
 in a safe position north or south of the equator 
 until the course of the storm is determined. 
 This may further be reduced to six words, by 
 associating the direction of the change of wind 
 with the semicircle of the storm and the tack to 
 heave to on, and taking them in this order we 
 would have for the right semicircle : Right- 
 Right-Starboard, and for the left semicircle : 
 Left-Left-Port. 
 
 The right semicircle is that portion of the 
 storm-disk situated on the right of the axis of 
 the storm-track, looking in the direction of its 
 course, and the left semicircle the portion of the 
 storm-disk lying on the left of that line. 
 
 Rotation of wind. Northern Hemisphere : 
 from Right^ to Left. N. W. S. E., left-handed, 
 or, in nautical language, against the sun. 
 
 Southern Hemisphere : "from Left to Right. 
 N. E. S. W., right-handed, or, as a sailor would 
 say, with the sun. 
 
 Bearing of centre. Northern Hemisphere : 8 
 points (90) to the right of the wind-point, look 
 ing in the wind s eye. 
 
 Southern Hemisphere: 8 points (90) to the 
 left of the wind-point, looking in the wind s eye. 
 
STOEM 
 
 787 
 
 STOKM 
 
 Two bearings of the centre, with an interval 
 of from 2 to 3 hours between, will in general be 
 sufficient to determine the course of the storm, 
 provided an accurate account has been kept of 
 the ship s way ; but if the storm is moving 
 slowly a longer interval may be necessary. 
 There are but two points in the storm-disk of a 
 cyclone where a vessel hove to will not ex 
 perience a change of wind, one is in front of 
 the centre on the line of its axis, and the other 
 in rear of the centre on the same line; for 
 these two cases the barometer must be the guide, 
 in front of the centre it falls, and in rear of 
 the centre it rises. 
 
 There are also five points in the storm-disk of 
 a cyclone where a vessel may run along with 
 the storm parallel to its course, and at equal 
 speed, without having any change of wind, and 
 with a steady barometer. 
 
 Northern Hemisphere. 1st. In front of the 
 centre on the line of its axis. Wind on starboard 
 beam. 
 
 2d. Anywhere in the right forward quadrant. 
 Wind on starboard side abaft the beam. 
 
 3d. In rear of centre on the line of its axis. 
 Wind on port beam. 
 
 4th. Anywhere in the right rear quadrant. 
 Wind on port side abaft the beam. 
 
 5th. Abreast and to the right of the centre. 
 Wind aft. 
 
 Southern Hemisphere. 1st. In front of centre 
 on the line of its axis. Wind on port beam. 
 
 2d. Anywhere in the left forward quadrant. 
 Wind on port side abaft the beam. 
 
 3d. In rear of centre on the line of its axis. 
 Wind on starboard beam. 
 
 4th. Anywhere in the left rear quadrant. 
 Wind on starboard side abaft the beam. 
 
 5th. Abreast and to the left of centre. Wind 
 aft. 
 
 The above manoeuvres are possible providing 
 sail can be carried, but only three of them are 
 advisable, viz. : the position abreast of the 
 centre, in the rear quadrant, and in rear of 
 the centre. Eunning along with the storm in 
 front of the centre, or in the forward quadrants, 
 should never be resorted to, as an accident to 
 sails or spars, temporarily disabling the vessel, 
 would at once place her in great danger of being 
 overtaken by the centre. 
 
 To run out of the storm in the Northern 
 Hemisphere* Eight Semicircle: Haul by the 
 wind on starboard tack, and carry sail as long as 
 possible; if obliged to heave to, do so on star 
 board tack. 
 
 Left Semicircle : Bring the wind on starboard 
 quarter. Note the direction of the ship s head 
 and steer that course. If obliged to heave to, 
 do so on port tack. 
 
 On the stDrm-track in front of centre : Square 
 away and run before it. Note the course and 
 keep it, and trim the yards when the wind draws 
 on the starboard quarter. If, however, obliged 
 to heave to, do so on port tack. 
 
 On the storm-track in rear of centre : Run out 
 with wind on starboard quarter, or heave to on 
 starboard tack. 
 
 To run out of the storm Southern Hemis 
 phere.^ Eight Semicircle : Bring wind on port 
 
 * See Storm Card, Northern Hemisphere. Fig. 8. 
 t See Storm Card, Southern Hemisphere. Fig. 7. 
 
 quarter. Note the course and keep it. If obliged 
 to heave to, do so on starboard tack. 
 
 Left Semicircle: Haul by the wind on port 
 tack. Carry sail as long as possible, and if 
 obliged to heave to, do so on port tack. 
 
 On the storm-track in front of centre: Run be 
 fore it. Note* the course and keep it, and trim 
 the yards as the wind gradually hauls on the 
 port quarter. If obliged to heave to, do so on 
 starboard tack. 
 
 On the storm-track in rear of centre : Run out 
 with the wind on port quarter, or heave to on 
 port tack. 
 
 A rise of the barometer, improvement of the 
 weather, and a gradual abatement of the force of 
 the wind will result from the above manoeuvres ; 
 and the ship should in each case be kept on her 
 course until by these signs it is made evident that 
 she is out of danger. 
 
 All the above manoeuvres depend of course on 
 sea-room, and the ability to carry sail. If sail 
 cannot be carried, or land interferes, the ship 
 must be hove to on the starboard tack in the 
 Right semicircle, and on the port tack in Left 
 semicircle, and never otherwise. The old popu 
 lar idea of heaving to on the starboard tack in 
 the northern hemisphere, and on the port tack 
 in the southern hemisphere, under all circum 
 stances, is dangerous practice and may lead to 
 serious consequences. 
 
 It sometimes occurs, although the cases are 
 very rare, that a cyclone takes a sudden turn, 
 and recurves on its track so much as to render a 
 vessel liable to run into it a second time. See 
 " Eeid on the Law of Storms," p. 173. 
 
 The results of the manoeuvres herein recom 
 mended should, as before stated, be a rising 
 barometer and improvement in the weather. 
 If, however, the barometer continues to fall, or 
 remains stationary, and the weather becomes 
 either worse or remains the same, it is evidence 
 that the indraft is very great, and in either case 
 the ship should be hauled up as near the wind 
 as possible under the circumstances of wind and 
 sea, and so kept until a decided rise of the 
 mercury and improvement in the weather take 
 place. 
 
 Thus the barometer is always a measure of 
 safety, even when the rules laid down for avoid 
 ing the centre fail to carry a vessel out of the 
 dangerous part of the storm. 
 
 In a very extreme case of indraft, where it is 
 found impracticable to distance the centre by 
 sailing, the vessel should be prepared for a 
 heavy blow, and hove to on the proper tack, 
 until either the centre has passed or an oppor 
 tunity occurs (by a change in the wind) for avoid 
 ing it. 
 
 Storm-Tracks. For a correct idea of the tracks 
 generally followed by revolving storms in differ 
 ent parts of the world, reference should be had to 
 the track charts published by Henry Piddington, 
 accompanying the "Sailor s Hornbook." 
 
 Velocity or Rate of Travel. The rate or velocity 
 of translation of revolving storms over their 
 tracks varies not only in different localities, 
 but in storms passing over the same locality, 
 and even in one and the same storm during 
 different stages of its existence. It is generally 
 believed that storms when they originate are 
 nearly stationary, and that after being fully 
 formed they acquire a forward or progressive 
 
STOKM 
 
 788 
 
 STOKM 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 Storm Card 
 
 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
 Storm Card 
 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 
 
STORM 
 
 789 
 
 STRAKE 
 
 movement, which increases more or less rapidly 
 according to the locality in which they blow. 
 
 The idea of a uniform increase in the forward 
 or progressive movement of storms cannot, how 
 ever, be sustained by evidence. Experience, to 
 the contrary, shows that the velocities of trans 
 lation of particular storms have varied irregu 
 larly, increasing and decreasing at different por 
 tions of their tracks. 
 
 The following table of mean, lowest, and high 
 est velocities, compiled from Piddington s " Sail 
 or s Hornbook," may, however, as far as it goes, 
 serve as a guide to the navigator, who, for prac 
 tical purposes, desires to ascertain the probable 
 rate of movement of a coming storm : 
 
 
 Velocity in Miles 
 
 
 
 per hour. 
 
 
 Locality. 
 
 
 *J 
 
 i 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 
 Atlantic (North) 
 
 25. 
 
 9.5 
 
 43. 
 
 This high rate refers to 
 the Cuba hurricane 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 1844. 
 
 Arabian Sea 
 
 10. 
 
 4.0 
 
 16. 
 
 
 Bay of Bengal.... 
 
 9. 
 
 3.0 
 
 39. 
 
 This high rate occurred 
 only in one instance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 3 to 15 miles 
 
 
 
 
 
 per hour may be 
 
 
 
 
 
 taken as the usual 
 
 
 
 
 
 rates. 
 
 China Seas 
 
 15. 
 
 7.0 
 
 24. 
 
 
 Indian Ocean 
 
 
 
 
 
 (South) 
 
 5. 
 
 0.5 
 
 10. 
 
 Col. Reid assigns to a 
 
 
 
 
 
 cyclone which oc 
 
 
 
 
 
 curred in 1809 near 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Mauritius a ve 
 
 
 
 
 
 locity varying from 
 7 to 12> miles per 
 
 
 
 
 
 day. 
 
 There does not appear to be at hand suffic ent data for the 
 determination of rates for other parts of the world. 
 
 Dimensions. The storms in the Atlantic 
 (North) are said to commence with a diameter 
 of from 100 to 150 miles, and then to increase to 
 600 or 1000 miles ; a fair average is, perhaps, 500 
 miles. In the Arabian Sea they probably do 
 not exceed 240 miles. In the Bay of Bengal 
 they are from 300 to 350 miles in diameter. In 
 the South Indian Ocean from 150 to 600 miles, 
 and in the China Seas from 80 to 350, and pos 
 sibly as high as 600 miles.* 
 
 Storm Seasons. The period of the year during 
 which cyclones are most frequent may in a gen 
 eral way be considered. In north latitude, from 
 June to November ; August and September being 
 the worst months. In south latitude, from Sep 
 tember to May ; February and March being the 
 worst months. In other words, the cyclone sea 
 son appears to correspond to the time when the 
 sun is nearing the equator, on his return from 
 his highest declination in either hemisphere. 
 Thomas Nelson, Lieutenant-Commander U.S.N. 
 
 STORM-BRKEDER. Heavy cumulo-stratus 
 clouds ; also, dark, threatening, cumulo-nimbus 
 clouds. A weather-breeder. 
 
 STORM-DRUM. A canvas cylinder hoisted in 
 English ports on the approach of a storm. 
 
 STORM-FINCH. The Mother Carey s chicken. 
 
 * See " U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings," vol. v. p. 242. 
 
 STORM-FLAG. A flag, red with a white square 
 in the centre, hoisted in American ports on the 
 probability of a storm. 
 
 STORM-JIB. The inner jib of square-rigged 
 ships. A strong jib, bent in bad weather. A 
 fifth size of jib, used in cutters. 
 
 STORM-KITE. A kite for sending a hawser to 
 a stranded vessel. 
 
 STORM-MIZZEN. A triangular storm-sail of 
 stout canvas, bent to the spanker-mast, and 
 used in lying to. 
 
 STORM-SAIL. A sail of heavy canvas, bent 
 and set during a storm when lying to. The 
 storm-sails are the fore-st orm-stay-sail, the main- 
 storm-stay-sail, the mizzen-storm-stay-sail, and 
 the storm-mizzen. The main-trysail and the 
 main-topsail are also used as storm-sails, and 
 also the foresail. 
 
 STORM-SIGNAL. A signal hoisted on shore to 
 warn mariners of an approaching storm. 
 
 STORM-STAY. A stay for a storm-sail. 
 
 STORM-WARNING. See FORECAST. 
 
 STORM-WAVES. The waves that precede or 
 follow a storm. 
 
 STORMY-PETREL, or STORM-PETREL. The 
 Mother Carey s chicken, a small bird of the genus 
 Procellaria. See PETREL. 
 
 Stove. Boat stoves are small stoves for use in 
 boat expeditions, neatly packed in a box. Hang 
 ing stoves, or drying stoves, are small charcoal 
 stoves used for drying decks. Stove in, broken 
 i n> applied particularly to a fracture of the 
 casing of a ship caused by collision, grounding, 
 etc. If, on grounding, the bottom is fractured, 
 the ship is said to be bilged. * 
 
 Stow. To put in place or position. To stow 
 the hold, to arrange the stores or cargo properly 
 in the hold. To stow a sail, to furl or pack it 
 neatly on the yard or in the netting. Stay-sails 
 are stowed, other sails furled. To stow the an 
 chor, to get it up in place. To stow the cargo, to 
 get it on board and properly dispose of it. To 
 stow the hammocks, to place them in the net 
 tings. To stow in bulk, to stow goods without 
 any packages, as grain, etc. To stow in bale, to 
 stow goods in packages. 
 
 STOWAGE. The art of properly arranging and 
 disposing the weights in a ship s hold, so that the 
 qualities of the ship shall be the best possible. 
 Reference must be had to stability, speed, easi 
 ness of motion, economy of space, and conve 
 nience of access. The trim must be accurately 
 preserved, and great weights kept as near the 
 centre as possible. 
 
 STOWING-STRAKE. A stealer. 
 
 Straggler. See DESERTER. 
 
 STRAGGLING-MONEY (Eng.}. A reward paid 
 for the apprehension of stragglers. 
 
 Straight of Breadth. The space before and 
 abaft the midship frame of a ship which does not 
 taper, or is all of the same breadth. 
 
 Strain-bands. Bands of canvas across a sail, 
 to take a part of the strain. 
 
 Strait. A narrow passage between two bodies 
 of water. See SOUND. 
 
 STRAIT-GULF. A gulf with a narrow en 
 trance. 
 
 Strake. One breadth of plank, worked from 
 one end of the ship to the other. 
 
 Strakes of plank have various names accord 
 ing to their position. The wales are those strakes 
 which are worked from the water-line or there,- 
 
STKAND 
 
 790 
 
 STKINGER 
 
 abouts to the plank-sheer, or lower port-sill. 
 The bottom-planking is the name for the strakes 
 from the lower edge of the wales to the garboard- 
 strake. The garboard-strake is the name of the 
 strake which comes next to the keel on the out 
 side. The ceiling is the name of the strakes 
 worked below thelower deck-clamps. The bilge- 
 strakes and thick strakes are the strakes worked 
 at the bilge, and are made heavy to support the 
 ship, in taking ground. The limber-strakes are 
 those next the keelson. The lower deck clamps 
 are the strakes worked from the lower edge of 
 the lower deck-beams to the lower ends of the 
 hanging-knees. The spirketing is the two 
 strakes above the water-ways. The upper deck- 
 clamps and ceiling occupy the space between the 
 spirketing and the bottom of the upper deck- 
 beams. Stringers fill the space from the port-sill 
 to the plank-sheer. Thick-strakes are worked on 
 the deck-beams next the water-ways, and are 
 bolted to the water-ways as well as to the beams. 
 Strakes of the deck are the deck-planking, all 
 over the ship. 
 
 Strand. A number of rope-yarns twisted to 
 gether. One of the primary assemblages of wire 
 in a wire-rope. The sea-beach ; the shore. To 
 strand, to break one of the strands of a rope. To 
 run a ship ashore, on the beach. To drift or be 
 driven ashore. 
 
 Strange Sail. A vessel sighted whose nation 
 ality, character, etc., are not known 
 
 Strap. A shoulder-strap. A band of iron 
 used to connect or hold parts together. A ring 
 of rope, or a binding of iron, put on a block. A 
 piece of rope, spliced to form a ring, used to 
 eling heavy weights, etc., or serving to attach a 
 tackle to any object, etc. A circular, or curved 
 iron band, used for various purposes about a 
 steam-engine. 
 
 STRAP-HEAD. A journal-box at the end of a 
 connecting-rod. 
 
 Stratus. See CLOUD. 
 
 Stray-line. The portion of the log-line which 
 is veered from the reel to allow the chip to get 
 clear of the eddies under the stern, before the 
 glass is turned. 
 
 Stray-mark. The mark noting the extent of 
 stray-line. 
 
 Streak. A strake. 
 
 Stream. Flowing water, as a tide-stream, the 
 stream of a current, etc. To stream the buoy, to 
 cast the buoy, attached to the anchor, overboard, 
 previous to letting go the anchor. See GULF 
 STREAM. 
 
 STREAM-ANCHOR. An anchor, from one-fourth 
 to one-third the si ze of the bowers, stowed in the 
 hold or on deck, and used for warping, clubbing, 
 etc. See ANCHOR. 
 
 STREAM-CABLE. A cable used with the stream- 
 anchor. In the navy, chain stream-cables are 
 about two-thirds as long as bower-cables, and the 
 links are one-half the ^diameter of those of the 
 latter. 
 
 STREAM-ICE. Drift- or bay-ice, forming and 
 flowing in a current. 
 
 STREAM-LAKE (Eng.). A lake emptying into 
 the sea by a river. 
 
 Streamer. A long and narrow flag, termi 
 nating in a point. 
 
 Stress of Weather. Continued and sustained 
 violence of the elements. 
 
 Stretch. The distance sailed on one tack. To 
 
 sail by the wind under press of canvas. To 
 stretch out, to extend the stroke, and increase 
 the muscular force in rowing. 
 
 Stretcher. A sheer-pole. A narrow foot- 
 piece in a boat for an oarsman. A cross-piece 
 put in the slings of a -boat, to prevent crushing 
 the sides. A stick placed between the clews of a 
 hammock, to extend them. Jocularly, a lie ; a 
 tough yarn. 
 
 Stribling, Cornelius K., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in South Carolina. Appointed midship 
 man from same State, June 18, 1812; served on 
 board the " Macedonian" from January 1, 1813, 
 to April, 1814, and "Mohawk, "on Lake On 
 tario, until April, 1815, and in "Macedonian," 
 in the squadron under the command of Commo 
 dore Decatur, when the Algerine frigate and 
 brig were captured, in 1815; from " Macedo 
 nian" to " Constellation" in October, 1815, and 
 returned to the United States in " Constella 
 tion," end of 1817. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, April 1, 1818; on 
 board the "Constellation," on coast of South 
 America, 1819-20; in the West Indies, on board 
 the " Hornet," "Peacock," "John Adams," and 
 "Constellation," 1822-25; in April, 1823, com 
 manded two barges on the coast of Cuba, and 
 after a running fight, captured the piratical 
 schooner " Pilot" ; on board the " Brandywine," 
 Pacific Squadron, 1826-27, and sloop " Vincen- 
 nes," 1827-31 ; receiving-ship " Norfolk," 1831- 
 33 ; assistant inspector of ordnance, 1833-35 ; 
 sloop-of-war " Peacock," East India and Pacific 
 Squadrons, 1835-37; rendezvous, Norfolk, 1840. 
 
 Commissioned as commander in 1840 ; com 
 manding rendezvous, Norfolk, 1840; navy- yard, 
 Washington, 1840-41 ; commanding sloop-of-war 
 "Cj ane," 1841-44; Pacific Squadron, frigate 
 "United States," 1844; receiving-ship "Nor 
 folk," 1845-47; fleet-captain, Pacific Squadron, 
 1847-48; commanding ship-of-the-line "Ohio," 
 1848-50 ; superintendent of the Naval Academy, 
 1850-53. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, August 1, 1853; 
 commanding sloop-of-war " San Jacinto," special 
 service, 1854-55; commandant Pensacola Navy- 
 Yard, 1857-59 ; commanding East India Squad 
 ron, 1859-61 ; commandant navy-yard, Philadel 
 phia, 1862-64; commanding East Gulf Block 
 ading Squadron, 1864-65; member of Retiring 
 Board of 1855; in 1861, member of a Board of 
 Commissioners (3 Senators, 3 members of the 
 House of Kepresentatives, 1 army, and 1 navy 
 officer), provided for by act of Congress of July 
 31, 1861, to examine and report as to compensa 
 tion of all officers of the government, and for 
 other purposes ; member of Light-House Board, 
 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866; 
 member of the Light-House Board, 1867-70. 
 Total sea-service, 26 years, 2 months ; shore and 
 other duty, 19 years, 1 month. Died, 1880. 
 
 Strike.* To touch bottom, as a ship strikes on 
 a bar. To haul down the colors, in token of 
 submission. To lower to the deck a topmast, 
 yard, or other upper spar. To send anything 
 below decks. 
 
 Stringer. A shelf-piece. In iron ship-building, 
 certain plates riveted fore-and-aft, to strengthen 
 the structure. Hold-stringers are plates riveted 
 to the frames in the hold, and connected by 
 
STRINGS 
 
 791 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL 
 
 angle-irons to the bottom plating. Deck-stringers 
 are strakes of deck-plating riveted on top of the 
 beams next to the side, and joined by angle-irons 
 to the outside plating. Stringers are required by 
 Lloyd s rules in all iron ships. 
 
 Strings. The highest strakes in the ceiling of 
 the ship. 
 
 Strip. To strip a. mast, to remove all its rig 
 ging. To strip to a girt-line, to remove all the 
 rigging from a ship. A whip or girt-line re 
 mains at the mast-head for convenience in going 
 aloft when the ship is subsequently rigged. The 
 expression is also used, figuratively, to signify 
 the removing from the person of every article of 
 wearing apparel. 
 
 Stroke. In the steam-engine, the distance 
 passed over by a piston in moving from one 
 end of the cylinder to the other. The sweep 
 of an oar. A gig-stroke is that given in a gig 
 or long-oared single-banked boat. A cutter- 
 stroke, that in a short double-banked boat. A 
 long-stroke, one of great sweep. A short-stroke, 
 one of little extent, and quicker. A galley-stroke 
 is that formerly used in the galleys, and still seen 
 in Portuguese and Brazilian waters. In rowing 
 it, the men rise to their feet as they advance the 
 oar, and fall back as they finish the stroke. 
 
 STROKE-OAK. The aftermost oar, giving the 
 time to the others. 
 
 STROKE-OARSMAN. The man who rows the 
 after oar if single-banked, or the starboard after 
 oar if double-banked. Both men on the after 
 thwart in a double-banked boat are called 
 stroke-oarsmen, but the starboard-man gives 
 the stroke. 
 
 STROKE-SIDE. The side of a single-banked 
 boat in which the stroke-oar is placed. 
 
 Strong, James H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York. Appointed from New York, 
 February 2, 1829 ; attached to sloop " Lexing 
 ton," Brazil Squadron, 1832-33 ; schooner "En 
 terprise," Brazil Squadron, 1834; Naval School, 
 New York, 1835 ; frigate " Constellation," West 
 India Squadron, 1836. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1836 ; 
 razee " Independence," Brazil Squadron, 1839- 
 42. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September, 1841 ; 
 frigate " Columbus," East India Squadron, 1844- 
 46; receiving-ship, New York, 1851-52; sloop 
 "Levant," Mediterranean Squadron, 1853-55; 
 receiving-ship, New York, 1856 ; rendezvous, 
 New York, 1857-58; commanding store-ship 
 " Relief," 1859. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, April 24, 1861 ; 
 commanding steamer " Mohawk," South At 
 lantic Squadron, 1861 ; commanding steamer 
 "Flag," South Atlantic Squadron, 1862; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Monongahela," Western 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1863-65. 
 
 In November, 1863, Commander Strong con 
 voyed a division of the army under Gen. Banks 
 from New Orleans to Brazos Island, at Brazos 
 de Santiago. On November 25, 1863, a body 
 of troops under Major-Gen. Banks captured a 
 battery of 3 heavy guns at Arkansas Pass. Com 
 mander Strong, after assisting in the landing of 
 the troops, steamed ahead and opened an effective 
 fire on the battery, which soon hoisted a white 
 flag and was taken possession of by the troops, 
 who had also engaged it. Gen. Banks com 
 mended the effective gunnery of the " Monon 
 
 gahela." Commander Strong commanded the 
 "Monongahela" at the battle of Mobile Bay, 
 August 5, 1864. His vessel was the first to en 
 gage the rebel ram "Tennessee." He sheered 
 out of the line to run into her, and struck her 
 fair, at the same time giving her a broadside of 
 solid 11-inch shot, which had, apparently, little 
 if any effect upon her. Soon after signal was 
 made to his ship to again run into her ; he did 
 so, and was about to try it a third time, when she 
 surrendered to the fleet. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, August 5, 1865 ; in 
 spector at navy-yard, New York, 1866-67; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Canandaigua," European 
 Squadron, 1868-69; attached to navy-yard, New 
 York, 1870. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, March 2, 1870 ; 
 light-house inspector, 1871-72. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, September, 
 1873 ; commanding South Atlantic. Station, 
 1873-75. Retired April 25, 1876. 
 
 Strong. A strong breeze, a breeze blowing 
 some 20 to 25 miles per hour (No. 6 in the Beau 
 fort scale), in which, close-hauled, only single- or 
 double-reefed topsails, jib, courses, and spanker 
 would be carried. Strong gale, a gale reducing 
 a ship to close-reefed topsails and reefed courses, 
 No. 9 of Beaufort scale, blowing 35 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 Strong-back. A samson-post. A lever over 
 the windlass to lift the chain off of it. A light 
 spar lashed to boat-davits, to which the boat is 
 secured at sea. 
 
 Strop. See STRAP. 
 
 STROP-BOUND BLOCK (Eng.\ A clew-line 
 block, with a shoulder on it, and bound with a 
 rope strap. 
 
 Struse. A long, unwieldy craft, used on in 
 land waters in Russia. 
 
 Strut. A stanchion to the lower-deck beams. 
 A stanchion of the hold. A diagonal shore. 
 
 Stubb (Eng.}. The lower end of a rainbow, 
 foretelling squally weather. 
 
 Stub-end. The enlarged end of a connecting- 
 rod, containing the blocks that encircle the pin. 
 
 Stud. A piece of cast iron put across the links 
 of large chain-cables to strengthen them. 
 
 STUD-LINKS. Links of chain that have studs 
 in them. 
 
 Studding-sail. A sail set outside the square- 
 sails in good weather, and when the wind is fair. 
 The word is generally supposed to have been origi 
 nally steering-sail, but a better derivation would 
 seem to be from its former name of scudding-sail. 
 These sails are made of light canvas, and roped 
 with light rope. There are on each side, a lower 
 studding-sail, a fore-topmast studding-sail, fore- 
 and main-topgallant studding-sails, and some 
 times a main-topmast studding-sail. Royal stud 
 ding sails were formerly used. The use of 
 studding-sails on board steamers is becoming 
 obsolete. The topmast studding-sail is set with 
 the wind a point free, but the others not until the 
 wind is abaft the beam. They are set on both 
 sides when the wind is exactly aft. In setting a 
 studding-sail, it is first rolled up and then bound 
 by thrusting a toggle in the eyes of a strap, to 
 the end of which a^laniard is made fast. When 
 the sail is nearly up, the squilgee is pulled out, 
 and the sail unfolds, and is then set by hauling 
 out the tack, pulling up the halliards, and trim 
 ming down the sheet. When taken in, the stud- 
 
STUFF 
 
 792 
 
 SUBMARINE MINES 
 
 ding-sails are neatly rolled up on their yards, 
 and the lower and topmast are stowed about 
 decks, while the topgallant studding-sail is kept 
 in the top, extended along the rigging. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-BOOM. A spar rigged out for 
 the purpose of setting a studding-sail, and taking 
 its name from the sail above it. The lower stud 
 ding-sail-boom swings out from the side of the 
 ship. The topma&t and topgallant studding-sail- 
 booms lie along-the lower and topsail-yards when 
 not in use. When the sail is to be set, they are 
 thrust out beyond the yard-arms. Boom-irons 
 confine them to the yard, in-and-out jiggers 
 handle them, and they are supported by guys 
 when necessary. On the outer end is a jewel- 
 block or a fixed block confined by a pin, through 
 which the tack is rove. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-BOOM BRACE. A rope leading 
 from the end of the topmast studding-sail-boom 
 to the side of the ship abaft, serving as a brace to 
 support the boom. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-HALLIARDS. Hopes used to 
 hoist the studding-sails. They lead through 
 blocks at the yard-arms, and are bent to the 
 yards of the studding-sails. The outer halliards 
 of the lower studding-sail lead through a block 
 on the topmast studding-sail-boom, and a light 
 whip is used to haul up the upper inner corner of 
 the sail, and is then called the inner halliards. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-HALLIARD BEND. A bend 
 used to fasten the studding-sail-halliards to the 
 yard. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-OUTHATTL. The tack of the 
 lower studding-sail, leading through a block 
 near the end of the swinging-boom, and through 
 a sheave in the ship s side near the gangway. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-SHEET. A rope fastened to 
 the inner lower corner of a studding-sail, to assist 
 in retaining it in place. The topmast studding- 
 sail has two sheets, one, the deck-sheet, being 
 kept on deck, and used in setting and taking in 
 the sail. The other is called the short sheet. See 
 SHORT SHEET. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-TACK. A rope fastened to the 
 outer lower corner of a studding-sail, and reeving 
 through a block on the end of the boom, so as to 
 haul the sail out in place. 
 
 STUDDING-SAIL-YARD. The small spar to 
 which a studding-sail is bent. They are flying 
 yards, and are set and taken in with the sail. 
 
 Stuff. Square timber of any thickness. A 
 mixture of tallow, turpentine, etc., applied to the 
 masts, yards, or bottom of the ship in former 
 times. Turpentine and resin was used on the 
 lower masts ; tallow on the topmasts ; for the 
 side, turpentine, oil, and varnish ; for the bot 
 tom, tallow, sulphur, and resin. 
 
 Stuffing-box. A contrivance by which soft 
 packing material, such as hemp, is confined in 
 an annular space about a rod, spindle, valve- 
 stem, etc., entering a cylinder, pump, or other 
 vessel required to be air-tight. The packing is 
 confined by means of a gland and screws. 
 
 Stump. Stamp masts, masts which have been 
 broken off. Stump topgallant-masts, short masts 
 without poles. 
 
 Stun sail. A corruption of studding-sail, in 
 common use among seamen. 
 
 Sturgeon. A large cartilaginous fish of the 
 genus Acipenser. The American species is the 
 A. oxyrhyncus. From its roe caviare is made, 
 and isinglass from its muscular parts. 
 
 Subbrachian. One of an order of malacop- 
 terygious fishes, comprising those which have 
 the ventral fins situated either immediately be 
 neath or between, or a little in front of or behind, 
 the pectoral fins. 
 
 Sub-calibre. A term applied to projectiles 
 that are smaller than the bore of a gun, and that 
 are enlarged by expanding bands, sabots, etc. 
 
 Sub-lieutenant. The rank next below lieu 
 tenant in the English navy. 
 
 Submarine Bank. A bank with deep water 
 over it. 
 
 Submarine Boat. A boat for use below the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 Submarine Explorer. A double diving-bell, 
 furnished with air- and light-chambers, and ap 
 pliances for purifying the air contained within. 
 
 Submarine Gun. A gun intended to project 
 a shot below the surface of the water. Sub 
 marine weapons are said to have been devised 
 by Calluricus for use with Greek fire, but doubt 
 exists of this. In 1797, Saint Cyr proposed a 
 catamaran with a submarine gun. Fulton, in 
 1814, experimented with such guns in New York 
 harbor. Mr. Phillips, of Indiana, in 1855, and 
 Mr. Woodbury, of Boston, in 1861, made ex 
 periments with these guns, firing them under 
 water, and the latter gentleman has made other 
 plans since that time for using these guns. 
 "Jones s submarine battery" shattered a raft 
 passing over it in New York harbor in 1862. 
 A submarine gun was shown in the Paris Ex 
 position in 1867, designed by a Mr. Duify. Ex 
 periments made in England in 1864 demon 
 strated that guns could be successfully fired 
 under water, and that the projectile acquired 
 considerable velocity, and deviated considerably. 
 Ericsson in experimenting with submarine guns, 
 for use in his torpedo-boat, at first used steam, 
 but later, had recourse to explosives. His ex 
 periments are not concluded. The necessity of 
 a weapon that will attack the ship below the 
 water has given, since the advent of armored 
 vessels, considerable impulse to the subject of sub 
 marine guns, but at present they are not so greatly 
 developed as submarine mines or torpedoes. 
 
 Submarine Lamp. A lamp for use under 
 water. Many such have been devised, but they 
 will now be replaced by the electric light. 
 
 Submarine Mines. The term "submarine 
 mines" is applied to defensive mines, or those 
 which would be used to obstruct the channel of 
 a river, or the approaches to a fortified seaport. 
 Col. Samuel Colt, the inventor of the revolver, 
 first demonstrated the practicability of blowing 
 up vessels by submarine mines fired by electricity. 
 After many years devoted to experiments, about 
 the year 1842 he blew up the old gunboat" Boxer" 
 with a submarine mine, exploded by means of a 
 galvanic battery. After destroying several hulks 
 at anchor, on the 13th of April- 1345, on the 
 Potomac River, he b ^v/ up a, brig while under 
 way, sailing at the rate of 5 knots an hour. He 
 had stationed himself at Alexandria, 5 miles 
 distant from the mine. Nothing further was 
 done at the time, although Col. Colt, in a letter 
 to the President of the United States, clearly 
 explainer! the great value of this invention for 
 defend! ig our harbors from an enemy. 
 
 The Russians used submarine mines to defend 
 their \)orts during the Crimean war, but no ves 
 sels v/ere destroyed by them. 
 
SUBMARINE MINES 
 
 SUBSIDY 
 
 The South , during the late civil war, first proved 
 the great value of submarine mines for river and 
 harbor defense. The torpedo and submarine 
 mine were never before fully recognized as legit 
 imate engines of war. 
 
 The first mines encountered by the Federal 
 navy were planted in the Savannah River, about 
 February, 1862, but for some time they were so 
 crude in construction as to cause little damage. 
 However, during the summer of 1863 they be 
 came very effective. One of the most successful 
 of the many kinds employed by them was the 
 Singer torpedo, as it was then called. This con 
 sisted of a tin case holding from 50 to 100 pounds 
 of powder arranged so that it was buoyant, and 
 anchored in the channel at the proper depth. It 
 had on its top a heavy cast-iron cap, which, 
 when the torpedo was struck by a passing vessel, 
 fell off, thus pulling a string fastened to a small 
 pin. The pulling out of this pin caused the 
 explosion of the mine. Obstructions in channels 
 and on bars were frequently made much more 
 formidable by submarine mines fitted with fuzes 
 to explode by contact when struck by a vessel s 
 bottom. Regular frames were sometimes con 
 structed to support the mines. These were called 
 u frame torpedoes." The Federal gunboats never 
 tried to force a passage through a channel de 
 fended in this manner. 
 
 A great number of buoyant mines were used 
 by the rebels, particularly in the beginning of 
 their use of submarine mines. These consisted 
 of barrels or other vessels partially filled with 
 powder, and anchored in channels and harbors; 
 they were fitted with sensitive or contact fuzes, 
 and were much dreaded by our navy. 
 
 Towards the end of the war, during the sum 
 mer of 1864, the rebels planted enormous mines 
 at Charleston, Mobile, Fort Fisher, and in the 
 James River. At first old boilers were used as 
 cases, but soon regular ones were made. These 
 mines were fired by electricity, and proved very 
 effective. During the war 7 monitors and 11 
 wooden vessels of war were totally destroyed by 
 submarine mines, and all these occurred during 
 the last half of the conflict. Had the rebels pos 
 sessed the same knowledge of submarine mines 
 and torpedoes at the beginning of the war that 
 they possessed at its end, the struggle would at 
 least have been much prolonged. While sub 
 marine mines arranged to explode on contact 
 with a vessel may be useful to a blockading 
 force and other special occasions, the certainty 
 of explosion by electricity makes that the desir 
 able method, when they are intended to assist 
 in the defense of a river or harbor. Besides, 
 when fitted with electrical fuzes they allow 
 friendly vessels to pass over them in safety. 
 
 The difficulty originally in using electricity to 
 explode the mines was in determining the exact 
 relative position of the vessel and mine, so as to 
 produce an effective explosion. But by planting 
 the mines in groups, and by careful ranges, to 
 gether with the use of plane tables and other in 
 struments suitable for the purpose, the position 
 of the vessel can be accurately determined. The 
 firing of the mine the instant the vessel is proven 
 to be over it by two distinct ranges is now done 
 by a self-acting instrument, invented for this 
 purpose. The use of gun-cotton has added to 
 the efficiency of this method of defense, as that 
 explosive is not injuriously affected by damp 
 
 ness. Formerly the great number of insulated 
 wires required two, and afterwards one to each 
 mine was a serious trouble in putting down sub 
 marine mines, but a recent invention of Capt. 
 McEvoy s, called " McEvoy s single main sys 
 tem," does away with the necessity of more than 
 one wire from the battery on shore to the group 
 of mines. Each mine is connected by a wire of 
 its own to the "junction," and a single wire con 
 nects this instrument to a similar one on shore. 
 By means of this invention each mine is under 
 as thorough control as though it had a wire of 
 its own. 
 
 The importance of submarine mines for the 
 defense of our harbors and coast cannot be over 
 estimated, yet they should be, in order to be 
 thoroughly efficient, supported by heavy rifled 
 guns, so that the enemy s vessels would be unable 
 to drag for them or destroy them by any means. 
 The manufacture and planting of submarine 
 mines for harbor defense in this country is one 
 of the duties confided to the army. They are 
 exploded from the forts nearest at hand. This 
 is chiefly a matter of nice calculation. Whereas 
 the manufacture and use of torpedoes belongs to 
 the navy. In their successful employment is re 
 quired the highest order- of personal courage, 
 coolness, and determination under the most try 
 ing circumstances. R. M. Cr. Brown, Lieutenant 
 U .S.N. 
 
 Submarine Navigation. Navigation of the 
 depths of the ocean by means of submarine 
 boats. 
 
 Submarine Projectiles. Projectiles for use 
 below the surface of the water. Shot, shell, and 
 rockets are used, and differ little, if any, from 
 those used above the surface. 
 
 Submarine Rocket. A rocket for use under 
 water. Such rockets were used as early as 1730 
 in France. In 1823, Joshua Blair devised them 
 in America, but they were not put in use. 
 Montgery, in France, proposed a battery of 
 rockets i n 1825, firing them from a g\in under 
 the surface, using a lap-valve in the ship s side. 
 Major Hunt tried rockets from a 12-inch gun in 
 a caisson in 1862. He was drowned, and ex 
 periments ceased. Mr. Quich, in England, in 
 1872, Mr. Weir, of New York, in 1874, Gunner 
 Burdett, of the U. 8. navy, in 1874, and Van 
 Schelila, in Russia, in 1874, have all proposed 
 and planned rockets more or less successful. 
 
 Submarine Telegraph. A telegraph wire- 
 cable armed to prevent the action of water, 
 grinding on rocks, etc., crossing the shallower 
 sea-depths. The first was laid in 1858, across 
 the ocean. See TELEGRAPH CABLES. 
 
 Submarine Telescope. A telescope used for 
 looking at objects below the surface. It consists 
 of two tubes united, one of which is thrust into 
 the water, the other throwing light into it. 
 
 Submarine Thermometer. A thermometer 
 for use in sea-depths, specially constructed to 
 sustain the great pressure of the water. See 
 DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 
 
 Submarine Valve. A valve used in connec 
 tion with a submarine gun, opening in the side 
 of the ship, and allowing the gun to emerge. 
 
 Subsidy. A sum paid to the owners of steamer- 
 lines, to aid them in establishing the line. Sub 
 sidized steamers are generally available for war 
 purposes, and some have been built with a view 
 to their use as cruisers. 
 
SUBSISTENCE 
 
 794 
 
 SUFFREN 
 
 Subsistence. The amount of rations, cloth- 
 ins:, etc., furnished to men. 
 
 Suck. To draw air when the water is low, 
 said of a pump. To suck the monkey (Eng.), to 
 rob the grog-can. 
 
 Sucker. The lump-fish. The sucking-fish, or 
 remora. 
 
 Sucking-fish, or Suck-stone. This fish has a 
 long oval plate on the top of the head, by which, 
 having exhausted the air in it, it clings to a ship s 
 bottom, to the sides of a shark, or to turtle. 
 Among the ancients the remora was credited 
 with power to impede and even arrest the pro 
 gress of vessels, the delay of Antony s ship in 
 getting into the battle of Actium being attributed 
 to it. "A curious use of the remora, said to pre 
 vail on the coasts of Mozambique, is as an aux 
 iliary to the fishermen, who, fixing a ring, with 
 a cord attached, around its tail, place it in a ves 
 sel of sea-water and carry it in their boat till they 
 discover a sleeping turtle, when, having ap 
 proached as near as practicable, they throw the 
 remora in the direction of the turtle, to which it 
 seldom fails to attach itself, when drawing in the 
 cord the fishermen secure their prize. 
 
 Suction. A term applied to the tendency of 
 matter, under atmospheric pressure, to fill a 
 vacuum. 
 
 SUCTION-PIPE. A pipe through which a fluid 
 is supplied to a pump, either by its weight or the 
 atmospheric pressure. 
 
 SUCTION-VALVE. The receiving-valve of a 
 pump, or one which prevents the reflux of a 
 fluid through the suction-pipe. 
 
 Suez. A frontier seaport town of Egypt, near 
 the head of the Gulf of Suez. It is connected 
 by railway with Cairo and Alexandria, and since 
 the construction of the Suez Canal, which crosses 
 the Isthmus of Suez from Port Said to this town, 
 it has greatly improved. It has always been a 
 place of extensive transit trade. Two miles south 
 of the town is a spacious new artificial port, 
 with a dry-dock, besides which there is a canal- 
 port, with extensive buildings, and a quay. Lat. 
 29 68 6" N. ; Ion. 32 34 2" E. Pop. 
 13.000. 
 
 Suffren de Saint-Tropez (Pierre Andre de), 
 commonly known as the Bailli de SufFren, and 
 one of the most illustrious of French seamen, 
 was born at Saint Cannat, near Lambesc, in 
 1726, and died in Paris in 1788. 
 
 Sutfren s whole life may be said to have been 
 passed in fighting the English. As was, and is, 
 still customary among noble families, that of Suf 
 fren (to increase the fortune of an elder brother) 
 devoted the younger to the Order of Malta and 
 to a sea-life. Fortunately the young aspirant 
 was eminently fitted for* and loved his des 
 tined profession. He not only possessed the most 
 dauntless courage, but had acquired a great deal 
 of ^ general knowledge, and was early distin 
 guished for elevation of character and coolness of 
 judgment. In spite of his fitness for the naval 
 service he made his way in it rather slowly, con 
 sidering his family, and the spirit of the times. 
 
 Entering the navy in. 1743, he was, after sev 
 eral very active cruises, made ensign in 1748; 
 and with that, rank took part in the operations 
 at Belle Isle, where he was made prisoner by the 
 English. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle re 
 stored him to liberty, and he then went to Malta, 
 where he took active service for a considerable 
 
 period. In 1754 he re-entered the French Royal 
 Marine, and was employed in the squadron of 
 La Galissonniere at the siege of Mahon, in 
 1756. Was again made prisoner in 1759, and 
 after various vicissitudes and constant service, 
 finally attained the grade of capitaine de fregate 
 in 1767. After attaining this rank in the French 
 navy, he made several cruises in the galleys of 
 his order, and became a Commander of Malta. 
 
 The title of Bailli, by which he is best known, 
 was not given to him until some years after this 
 time. 
 
 Becoming capitaine de vaisseau in 1772, he 
 served with great credit in the Levant, and 
 afterwards in the French fleet which served on 
 the American station during our Revolution. 
 
 "When it became plain that most active meas 
 ures were necessary to prevent the seizure of the 
 French and Dutch East Indian colonies by the 
 English, SufFren was the officer selected to pro 
 tect French interests, and to uphold the honor 
 of his flag in those distant seas. 
 
 Sailing from Brest, a^ chef d escadron, or com 
 modore, of a squadron composed of 5 line-of-bat- 
 tle ships and 2 frigates, he carried out a body of 
 troops destined for the Cape of Good Hope. On 
 the passage, in the latitude of the Cape Yerde 
 Islands, April 16, 1781, he encountered an Eng 
 lish squadron, with which he had a successful 
 fight, and proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which colony he reinforced and reprovisioned. 
 
 From the cape he sailed for the Isle of France, 
 where he united his squadron with that of the 
 Count d Orves. 
 
 The death of that officer soon left him in com 
 mand of the fleet, and in February, 1782, he 
 inflicted a crushing defeat upon the English 
 fleet under Admiral Hughes, near Madras, after 
 which he concluded an alliance with the cele 
 brated Hyder Ali, who was then striving against 
 the English with great desperation. 
 
 Suffren again defeated an English fleet off 
 Negapatam, formerly the capital of the Dutch 
 possessions in India, and captured Trincomalee. 
 The English, indeed, never had so capable and 
 worthy an opponent in that part of the world, 
 and were no doubt relieved when the peace of 
 Versailles, in 1783, caused the French seaman to 
 return home, where he was received enthusias 
 tically and loaded with honors. 
 
 New complications with England having 
 arisen in 1787, Louis XVI. gave SufFren the 
 command of a fleet fitting out at Brest ; but he 
 died suddenly, at Paris, just as his orders were 
 made out. 
 
 It was given out at the time that he died of 
 apoplexy; but, according to Jal, the historiog 
 rapher of the marine, he was killed in a duel. 
 The story was that the Bailli de Suffren had 
 punished two young aspirants, serving under his 
 orders, for some military breach ; and when their 
 relative a grand signeur came to the Bailli to 
 plead for them, the latter used no measured 
 language in regard to them and their offense. 
 
 A duel ensued at once, the Chevalier Bemin 
 being the witness. SufFren was greatly at a dis 
 advantage, as he was so fat as to be unwieldy. 
 His groin was pierced by his antagonist s sword, 
 and he died almost instantly. 
 
 The Bailli is described as being not above the 
 ordinary height, but immensely fat. He had 
 very regular features, and a very noble and 
 
SUGAK-LOAF 
 
 SURF 
 
 pleasant expression. His manners are said to 
 have been polished and easy, while to his infer 
 iors he was particularly kind and considerate. 
 
 His men, knowing his courage, coolness, and 
 judgment in action^were willing to follow him 
 anywhere, and Suffren was as quick to notice 
 and reward courage and conduct as he was sure 
 to detect and punish the least ill-conductor cow 
 ardice. E. Shippen. 
 
 Sugar-loaf. A hill shaped like a sugar-loaf. 
 Applied to the waves, a sugar-loaf sea is one in 
 which the waves rise into sugar-loaf shapes, with 
 little wind. 
 
 Sugg (Eng.}. To move or roll heavily on a 
 bank or reef. 
 
 Suit. Suit of sails, a set of sails. 
 
 Sullage. The deposit of mud and silt by 
 water. 
 
 Sullit. A broad and deep Dutch fishing-boat. 
 
 Summary Court-martial. See COURT-MAR 
 TIAL. 
 
 Summer-blink. A transient sunny spell in 
 bad weather. 
 
 Sumner s Method. See NAVIGATION. 
 
 Sump. A swamp or bog. 
 
 Sun. The direction of the sun in the northern 
 hemisphere is to the right of an observer looking 
 to the north, hence motion to the right, or from 
 left to right, is with the sun. Motion in the oppo 
 site direction is against the sun. 
 
 SUN-DOG. A portion of a luminous circle 
 about the sun. 
 
 SUN-FISH. A soft-finned fish of the genus 
 Orthagoriscus (O. mola), having a short disk-like 
 body and two fins. The Selachus maximus, or 
 basking shark. 
 
 SUNRISE AND SUNSET. It is important to the 
 navigator to know the times of sunrise and sun 
 set. A gun is fired at sunset in every harbor 
 where there is a man-of-war, colors are hauled 
 down, etc. The time of sunset is given in nau 
 tical tables, and is tabulated for all latitudes and 
 declinations. It is usual to hoist boats, and some 
 times light yards are sent down at sunset. 
 
 SUN-STAR. A star-fish ; the Solaster pa.pposa. 
 
 Sunderland. A borough and seaport town of 
 England, at the mouth" of the Wear, in the 
 North Sea. The town proper occupies a penin 
 sula between the expansion of the Wear and the 
 sea. This is one of the principal ports of Eng 
 land for the shipment of coal ; it has besides a 
 large export of lime, glass, earthenwares, rope, 
 and chemical products. Mercantile ship-building 
 is extensively carried on. The harbor is defended 
 by batteries, and connected with it are large 
 docks. Lat. 54 54 N. Population of the bor 
 ough 99,000. 
 
 Sunken Rock. One lying beneath the sur 
 face. 
 
 Sunken Vessels, Raising. Sunken vessels are 
 now raised by various methods. One, very suc 
 cessful, consists in sending down and attaching to 
 the hull a number of casks, containing compressed 
 air in chambers, liberated after the casks are at 
 tached. Small vessels are raised by chains and 
 powerful steam appliances for heaving in on them. 
 Sunn-hemp. Also called brown-hemp, or 
 Madras hemp, a kind of hemp made from the 
 fibres of a kind of Indian plant ; the Crotolaria 
 juncea. 
 
 Superannuated (Eng.}. Retired from service 
 on account of age. / 
 
 Supercargo. A person in the merchant ser 
 vice charged with the sale of the cargo, and other 
 commercial transactions. 
 
 Superheat. To heat, as steam, after separation 
 from the water, thereby increasing the elastic 
 properties. 
 
 SUPERHEATER. A part of or attachment to 
 the boiler, in which the steam is superheated. 
 
 Superior. See CONJUNCTION, PLANETS. 
 
 Superior Officer. An officer whose rank is 
 higher in comparison with another. A senior 
 officer. 
 
 Supernumeraries. Men above the regular 
 complement, borne on a separate list. Extra 
 members of a ship s, boat s, or gun s crew. 
 
 Supporter. A curved knee, placed under the 
 cat-head. A pin at the hounds of the mast, to 
 support the trestle-trees in small vessels. 
 
 Sura. Another name for toddy. 
 
 Sures. Southerly winds on the west coast of 
 South America. When rain or fog comes with 
 them, they are sures pnrdos. 
 
 Surf. The swell of the sea breaking upon the 
 shore or on rocks, etc. Properly speaking, surf 
 is only those swells breaking in gradually shal 
 lowing water on approaching a shore, each of 
 which is a roller ; while the sudden breaking up 
 of waves on rocks or other obstacles are breakers. 
 In rowing to seaward the danger is that a heavy 
 sea will up-end the boat, or turn it broadside on. 
 If sufficient command can be kept over the boat, 
 the sea is avoided, if possible, so as not to meet 
 it at the moment of its breaking. If impossible 
 to avoid the sea, give the boat sufficient speed to 
 prevent her being carried back by the wave. 
 
 In rowing before a heavy surf, the effect of a 
 sea is to throw up the boat s stern and to depress 
 her bow. If she then have sufficient inertia she 
 will assume in succession the descending, the 
 horizontal, and the ascending positions, as the 
 wave passes under her stern, her midships, and 
 her bow. If a boat with little inertia be overtaken 
 by a heavy roller, her stern is raised, and the 
 boat is carried along bodily on the front of the 
 wave, the bow meanwhile immersed in the hol 
 low of the sea, where the water is comparatively 
 stationary and offers a resistance. The danger 
 now is that the boat will be turned end-over-end, 
 or that she will broach to. To lessen the danger 
 attendant upon rowing in before the surf, the 
 following instructions have been laid down : 
 
 1. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing 
 the boat so that the sea will break ahead or 
 astern of her. 
 
 2. If the sea be very heavy, or if the boat be 
 very small, and especially if she have a square 
 stern, bring her bow around to seaward, and 
 back her in, rowing ahead against each surf that 
 cannot be sufficiently avoided to allow it to pass 
 the boat. 
 
 3. If it be considered safe to proceed to the 
 shore bow foremost, back the oars against each 
 sea on its approach, and if there is a drogue, or 
 anything in the boat that may be used as one, 
 tow it astern to aid in keeping the boat end-on 
 to the sea. 
 
 4. Bring the principal weights in the boat 
 toward the end that is to seaward, but not to 
 the extreme end. 
 
 5. If a boat worked by sails and oars be run 
 ning under sail for land through a heavy sea, 
 her crew should, unless the beach be quite steep, 
 
SURFACE-CONDENSEK 
 
 796 
 
 SWASH 
 
 take down her masts and sails before entering 
 broken water, and take her to land under oars 
 alone. If she have sails only, her sails should 
 be much reduced, a half-lowered foresail, or 
 other small head-sail being sufficient. A boat 
 should be steered with an oar over the stern. 
 
 Landing in a Surf. On a flat shore the boat 
 is kept end-on to the sea until she is fairly 
 aground, and she is then taken farther in by 
 each sea, aided by the crew, who jump out to 
 lighten her, and drag her in. On a steep beach 
 it" is the general practice, in a boat of any size, 
 to retain speed right on to the beach, and in the 
 act of landing to turn her bows half round, so 
 that she may be thrown on her broadside upon 
 the beach. "When the surf breaks only a short 
 distance from the beach, a boat may be anchored 
 outside the surf, and veered or backed in from 
 her own anchor. 
 
 SURF-BOAT. A boat used to land passengers 
 and freight in a surf. Boats of various forms 
 are used, and the natives of many of the Pacific 
 islands have some very good boats for this pur 
 pose. 
 
 SURF-DUCK. The Anas per spicallata. 
 
 Surface-condenser. A condenser in which 
 steam is condensed by contact with cold metallic 
 surfaces. See CONDENSER, MARINE STEAM- 
 ENGINE. 
 
 Surface-current. The deep-sea currents of 
 the surface. (See CURRENTS.) Fresh water run 
 ning over salt at the mouths of rivers. 
 
 Surface, Water-heating. The surface in a 
 steam-boiler from which the heat of the fire is 
 absorbed by the water. 
 
 Surge. A large swelling wave. The tapered 
 part of the whelps on a capstan. The slacking- 
 up of a cable on the capstan. The swaying 
 motion of a ship that is aground as she rises to 
 the seas. To swell, as the waves. To slacken 
 up a rope suddenly. To rise and fall with the 
 heave of the sea when on a reef. To surge the 
 capstan, to slacken the rope about it. Surge ho ! 
 a warning given when a rope is to be surged. 
 
 Surgeons. The name of surgeon does not ap 
 pear in any of the accounts of the British navy 
 before the year 1557, although probably of much 
 earlier date in that establishment. During the 
 civil wars of Charles I. s time it was not uncom 
 mon for doctors of medicine to act as captains 
 and command regiments of cavalry and infantry. 
 
 The title is a contraction of the French chirur- 
 gien, Latin, chirurgus, both derived from a 
 Greek word signifying operating with the hand. 
 In Spanish the word is cirujano, Portuguese 
 cirurgiao, Italian chirurgo. 
 
 The medical corps of the royal navy is com 
 posed of a director-general, inspector-generals of 
 hospitals and fleets, deputy inspector-generals, 
 staff-surgeons, first and second class, and surgeons. 
 
 Old Sir William Monson says, "The surgeon 
 is to be placed in the hold, where he should be 
 in no danger of shot ; for there cannot be a 
 greater disheartening of the company than in 
 his miscarrying, whereby they will be deprived 
 of all help for hurt and wounded men." See 
 MEDICAL CORPS. 
 
 SURGEON S DIVISION. The apothecary, nurse, 
 and others attached to the medical department 
 on board ship. 
 
 SURGEON S MATE. A former rank in the 
 English navy, now assistant surgeon. 
 
 Survey. An inspection or examination into 
 stores, etc. To ascertain the form, dimensions, 
 position, etc., of a portion of the surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 SURVEY, BOARD OF. A board of three or 
 more officers, appointed to survey government 
 property to ascertain its condition and disposi 
 tion. Surveys are ordered by any commanding 
 officer on representation of the necessity there 
 for, or on all stores purchased or made for the 
 service. Boards may summon experts to assist 
 them. They must ascertain the cause, nature, 
 and extent of the damages, and recommend the 
 disposal of condemned property. All purchased 
 articles must be passed by a board before they 
 are paid for. A medical survey is ordered on 
 any persons so disabled as to make it desirable or 
 necessary. 
 
 SURVEYING. The art of determining the area, 
 etc., of any part of the earth s surface, and delin 
 eating it on paper. See CHART, HYDROGRAPHY. 
 
 SURVEYING-VESSEL. A vessel fitted for mak 
 ing a maritime survey. 
 
 SURVEYORS. Examiners employed by under 
 writers. Two officers, formerly on the English 
 Naval Board, charged with the building and re 
 pairing of ships in the navy. 
 
 Suspend. To debar an officer from the execu 
 tion of the duties of his office. Unless the officer 
 is to be brought before a court-martial, his sus 
 pension cannot exceed 10 days. 
 
 Svalocin. The star a Delphini. 
 
 Swab. A long mop, made by binding rope- 
 yarns in a bundle, used to dry the decks, etc. 
 Hand-swab, a small swab made from the threads 
 of canvas. The term sviab is applied to an epau 
 let, and also, in an uncomplimentary way, to a 
 sailor. 
 
 SWAB-ROPE. A rope bent to a swab, for dip 
 ping it overboard. 
 
 SWAB-WASHER. The captain of the head. 
 
 SWABBER (Eng.}. Formerly, a petty officer on 
 board a man-of-war, whose duty was to see the 
 decks clean. (Eng.) A man formerly appointed 
 to use the swabs in drying decks; called also 
 ship s sweeper, or captam of swabbers. 
 
 Swad. A fish-basket. 
 
 Swag. To sink down ; to sag down. 
 
 Swage. A tool used by shipwrights in driv 
 ing in eye-bolts, etc. ; it is made to fit the head 
 of the bolt, so that in driving or striking on the 
 swage, the bolt is forced in without bruising the 
 head of it. It is also used by shipsmiths in 
 making the various kinds of bolts. 
 
 Swallow. The aperture in a block through 
 which the rope reeves. 
 
 Swallow-fish. The Trigla hirundo, a fish 
 with large gill-fins ; also called Sapphirine gur 
 nard. 
 
 Swallow-tail. The points of a burgee, or 
 swallow-tailed flag. 
 
 Swamp. To capsize or fill a boat with water. 
 
 Swape. A wooden support for a light. A 
 pump-handle. A long oar used in English coal- 
 keels. 
 
 Swart-back. The great black and white gull ; 
 the Larus marinus. 
 
 Swash. A sudden surge of the sea. A shoal 
 in a tideway, over which the tide ripples. A 
 narrow sound inside of a shoal. 
 
 SWASHWAY. A channel across a bank or 
 among shoals. 
 
SWATHE 
 
 797 
 
 SWEEP 
 
 Swathe (Eng.} : The entire length of a wave. 
 
 Sway. To hoist ; to raise. To sway on end, 
 to hoist to a perpendicular position from the 
 deck. To sivay across, to sway a yard to a hor 
 izontal position. To sway away on all top-ropes, 
 figuratively, to go to great lengths. 
 
 Sweat-box. A narrow cell in which prisoners 
 were formerly confined. 
 
 Sweating the Purser (Eng.). Wasting the 
 stores, burning candles up, etc. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, Navy of. Although 
 Gustavus Adolphus set little store by a naval 
 power, the exigencies of later wars than that in 
 which he took so conspicuous a part have obliged 
 the combined states (now under one monarchy) 
 to possess considerable fleets. Washed on one 
 side by the Baltic and on the other by the North 
 Seas, Norway and Sweden have always produced 
 hardy seamen and skillful navigators, and when 
 ever engaged with an enemy they have given a 
 good account of their potency. At the present 
 time the navy of Sweden is divided into two 
 branches, the navy proper and the " coast artil 
 lery." . The navy consists of 38 vessels, all un- 
 armored, and mounting 325 guns. The largest 
 ship, the " Stockholm," is of 2850 tons displace 
 ment, carrying six 7-inch and sixty 30-pounder 
 guns, and has a speed under steam of 63- knots 
 per hour. The next in rank is the " Vanades," 
 of 2130 tons, armed with 16 guns, and having a 
 maximum speed of 11 knots. There are also 18 
 unarmored gunboats, 4 corvettes, and 12 sailing- 
 vessels. The coast artillery is the most impor 
 tant arm of defense, its total force being 120 ves 
 sels of all kinds. The most important are the 
 
 4 monitors, " Loke," "John Ericsson," " Thor- 
 doen," and "Tyrfing." The largest of these, 
 the "Loke," is of 1600 tons displacement, 450 
 horse-power, and has a thickness of armor of 
 
 5 inches at the water-line ; her armament con 
 sists of two 10-inch guns mounted in a single 
 fixed turret. The others are of nearly the same 
 size and power. There are also 10 armored gun 
 boats with fixed turrets, 44 sloop-rigged galleys, 
 
 6 mortar-launches, and 53 yawls. The head 
 quarters of the navy is at Stockholm, the island 
 of Skeppskolm being occupied as the repairing 
 and outfitting yard, and there is also a naval 
 establishment at Carlscrona. 
 
 The small fleet of the Norwegian navy is com 
 posed of 4 monitors, 1 frigate, 4 corvettes, 1 
 sloop, and 22 gunboats ; also 4 sailing-vessels, 
 and 2 torpedo-boats. The monitors are the only 
 armored vessels in the navy. There are, in addi 
 tion to the above, 83 small boats of different 
 kinds, carrying from 1 to 6 guns each. One of 
 the monitors, the " Thor," is of 600 horse-power 
 and 2003 tons displacement ; another, the 
 "Thrudnang," has 500 horse-power and 1575 
 tons; the third, the " Mjalner," 1515 tons and 
 450 horse-power ; and the fourth, the " Skarpi- 
 anen," 1447 tons and 350 horse-power; and the 
 armament of each consists of two 9-irich Arm 
 strong guns mounted in a single revolving tur 
 ret. "The "Thor" has 7 inches of armor, the 
 others 5 inches. The frigate, the " Kang Suerre," 
 is of 1500 horse-power, 3472 tons displacement, 
 and mounts 50 guns. Of the corvettes, the " St. 
 Olaf" is of 1100 horse-power, 2182 tons displace 
 ment, and carries 38 guns; the " Nordstjernen," 
 1609 tons, 720 horse-power, and 19 guns ; the 
 " Nidaros" and " Nornen" are of 1700 and 1550 
 
 tons displacement respectively. The fleet will 
 soon be strengthened by the addition of 3 gun 
 boats building at Stockholm. The navies of 
 these two countries are distinct services, each 
 having its own complete organization and ad 
 ministration. The Norwegian navy is repre 
 sented in the cabinet by a rear-admiral, chief of 
 the marine department, who is assisted by a sec 
 ond rear-admiral, chief of staff. The central 
 control at Stockholm is divided into three main 
 sections, with controllers at their heads, and sub 
 divided into bureaus. The general administra 
 tion is divided in control between two dock 
 yards, Christiania and Stockholm. There is also 
 a naval academy, hydrographic office, and ob 
 servatory. The Swedish navy is represented in 
 the cabinet by a minister of marine, the central 
 control having two main divisions, chancellery 
 and command. There is in addition a com- 
 mander-in-chief of personnel, a military depart 
 ment, construction department, commissariat de 
 partment, pilotage department, naval school, 
 and hydrographic office. The general adminis 
 tration is divided between the two naval stations 
 of Carlskrona and Stockholm. The personnel of 
 both navies is rec/uited by voluntary enlistment, 
 there being a special arrangement for conscrip 
 tion in case of war in the maritime districts of 
 all persons between the ages of 22 and 35 years. 
 The annual expense of the Norwegian navy is 
 about $600,000, and of the Swedish" navy about 
 $1,500,000. The personnel consists of 108 com 
 missioned officers and 150 non-commissioned 
 and 2080 enlisted men in the navy of Norway, 
 and the royal fleet of Sweden is manned by 5607 
 men, distributed as follows : vice-admiral, 1 ; 
 rear-admirals, 3; commanders, 5; captain-com 
 manders, 20 ; captains, 43 ; lieutenants, 43 ; sub 
 lieutenants, 26 ; engineers, 13 ; medical officers, 
 24 ; petty officers of first class, 401 ; petty offi 
 cers of the second class, 844; mechanicians and 
 workmen, 150; seamen, 2385; seamen employed 
 on shore, 1310; recruits, 339. Total, 5607. There 
 are no foreign squadrons in either navy, the 
 Norwegian ships are entirely confined to coast 
 defense, and in the Swedish fleet the cruising 
 is confined to single vessels. There is a royal 
 naval reserve besides the force actually in com 
 mission, and a Beooring which numbers 40,000 
 men. All sea-faring men and dwellers in sea 
 ports are amenable to the maritime conscription. 
 
 Sweep. The trend of a coast to a crescent. 
 A large, broad oar used in racing-boats, and 
 formerly to propel small craft in a calm. The 
 curve of the leech of a sail. To drag with the 
 bight of a rope for an object at the bottom of a 
 harbor. To scan the heavens rapidly, and in a 
 systematic manner, in search of a star. To sweep 
 down, to clean the decks with a broom. Sweep 
 of the tiller, the arc on which the end of the tiller 
 traverses. 
 
 In the year 1800, and for some time after 
 ward, it was customary in forming ship s bodies 
 to design portions of the frames by the use of arcs 
 of circles called sweeps, of which there were gen 
 erally five : 
 
 1st. The floor-sweep, which is limited hyaline 
 in the body-plan perpendicular to the plane of 
 elevation, a little above the keel, and the height 
 of this line above the keel is called the dead- 
 rising. The upper part of this arch formed the 
 head of the floor-timber. If a straight line be 
 
SWEETENING-COCK 
 
 798 
 
 SYZYGY 
 
 drawn from the upper edge of the keel to touch 
 the back of the floor-sweep, the form of the mid 
 ship-frame below the lower height of breadth 
 will be obtained. 
 
 2d. The lower breadth-sweep, the centre of 
 which was a line representing the lower height 
 of breadth. 
 
 3d. The reconciling sweep joins the two former 
 without intersecting either, and makes a fair 
 curve from the lower height of breadth to the 
 rising line. 
 
 4th. The upper breadth-sweep, the centre of 
 which is in the line representing the upper height 
 of breadth of the timber. This sweep describes 
 upwards from the lower part of the top timber.^ 
 
 5th. The top-timber sweep, or back-sweep, is 
 that which forms the hollow of the top timber. 
 This hollow is, however, very often formed by a 
 mold so placed as to touch the upper breadth- 
 sweep, and pass through the point limiting the 
 half breadth of the top-timber. No attention is 
 paid to these instructions nowadays in framing 
 ship s bodies. 
 
 SWEEPER. A person appointed to sweep the 
 deck at intervals. Sweeper of the sky, a sailor s 
 term for a northwest gale. 
 
 SWEEP-NET. A large draw-net used in fishing. 
 
 SWEEP-PIECE. A curved piece of wood fast 
 ened to the port-sill, to aid in training a gun. 
 
 Sweetening-cock. A cock in the ship s side to 
 admit sea-water into the hold. 
 
 Swelchie. A swirling current formed in the 
 Hebrides. A seal. 
 
 Swell. The rise and fall of the waves during 
 a cairn. A rolling wave, the result of winds 
 either present, preceding, or following it. The 
 increase in diameter at the muzzle of a gun. 
 The increased size of a mast at the hounds. 
 
 Swift, or Swifter. A small rope passed from 
 bar to bar of the capstan. A strong rope passed 
 about a frail boat, to strengthen her. A hawser 
 used to swifter in rigging. The forward shroud. 
 Formerly, in the English service, the after pair 
 of shrouds. To swifter a ship, to haul her 
 ashore, or to careen her. To encircle a ship or 
 boat with ropes, to strengthen her. To swifter 
 the bars, to pass a swifter around the ends of the 
 capstan-bars, so as to distribute the strain. To 
 swifter in the rigging, to tauten slack rigging by 
 passing a hawser through blocks in the rigging 8 
 or 10 feet from the rail, and through blocks on 
 the opposite side of the deck, and hauling it taut. 
 
 Swig. A pull on a rope fast at both ends. A 
 tackle whose falls are not parallel. To swig off, 
 to pull a rope that is fast at both ends, by sway 
 ing or throwing the weight on the bight of it. 
 
 Swill (Eng.}. A wicker fish-basket. The air- 
 bladder of a fish. 
 
 Swim. The air-bladder of a fish. To move 
 in the water by means of fins, or by the hands 
 and feet. To float, or be borne up by the water. 
 Swimming should be taught to all sailors. Men 
 may swim from 10 to 15 miles, and it is on record 
 that the Hellespont has been crossed several 
 times, where it is 20 miles wide. 
 
 Swine-fish. The wolf-fish. 
 
 Swing. To turn around by action of wind or 
 tide when at anchor. Swinging ship, the opera 
 tion of determining the local deviation of the 
 compass, by bringing the ship s head successively 
 to each point of the compass, and taking bear 
 ings of a distant object. See COMPASS. 
 
 SWINGING-BUOYS. A set of buoys planted in 
 a convenient place for swinging ship. 
 
 Swinging-boom. A long spar, used at sea to 
 stretch the foot of a lower studding-sail,, and in 
 port for the boats to hang on to. It is secured 
 by an iron goose-neck to the fore-channels, is 
 supported by a topping-lift, leading through a 
 block on the fore yard-arm, and is retained in 
 place by forward and after guys, leading to the 
 bowsprit and to the gangway. When not rigged 
 out, the after end lies in an iron crane. It has 
 ladders and pendants hanging from it, to which 
 the boats make fast. 
 
 Swipes (Eng.}. Weak beer issued to sailors. 
 
 Swirl. An eddy of wind, or in the water. A 
 knot in timber. 
 
 Swish (Eng.}. The light, driving sea-spray. 
 
 Swivel. A link, ring, or pin moving about 
 in a socket. Swivel-bolt, a bolt turning about 
 its axis. Swivel-block, a block turning on a 
 swivel. Swivel-gun, a small gun fixed on a 
 pivot, or swivel. Swivel-hook, a hook fixed so 
 as to turn on a swivel. Swivel rowlock, a 
 rowlock turning on a swivel. Swivel-link, a 
 link in chain fitted to turn about a swivel, so as 
 to keep it free from turns. They are placed in 
 each length of 15 fathoms of a cable. Swivel- 
 eyed, cross-eyed. 
 
 Swona Wells (Eng.}. Whirlpools near Swona 
 Island. 
 
 Sword-fish. The Xiphias gladius, a fish of 
 the Scomberidce, or mackerel family, having a 
 long, pointed, sword-shaped upper jaw. 
 
 Sword-knot. A gilded knot worn on the sword- 
 hilt. See UNIFORM. 
 
 Sword-mat. A mat made of rope-yarns, by 
 weaving them closely, used for chafing-gear. 
 
 Sydney, the capital of the British colony of 
 New South Wales, in Australia, is situated on 
 the southern shores of Port Jackson, 5 miles 
 from the entrance of the harbor. The harbor 
 is quite landlocked, with deep water to the edge 
 of its rocky shores. It has 2 large dry-docks, an 
 observatory, several parks, and a museum. It 
 has an extensive commerce, and a regular line 
 of steam-packets ply between Sydney, Welling 
 ton (New Zealand), and Panama. Lat. 33 51 
 S. ; Ion. 151 11 42" E. Pop. 136,000. 
 
 Sympiesometer. An instrument for measur 
 ing the weight of the atmosphere by the com 
 pression of gas. Hydrogen gas is generally used. 
 
 Syphering. Lapping the chambered edges of 
 planks so as to form a plane surface. 
 
 Syzygy (Gr. suzugia, a yoking together; from 
 sun together, zugon, a yoke). The position of 
 the sun, earth, and other moving bod}-, when 
 their projections on the plane of the ecliptic are 
 in one line. By the syzygies of a planet or of 
 the moon are meant those points of its orbit at 
 which the body is in conjunction or opposition 
 with the sun ; the two points when the body ap 
 pears 90 from the sun being distinguished as the 
 quadratures. " The moon in syzygy" expresses 
 the position both of conjunction and opposition, 
 the times both of new and full rnoon ; and the 
 term, consequently, is a very handy and appro 
 priate one in speaking of the tides. 
 
 SYZYGY TIDE. The tide which takes place on 
 the afternoon of the day the sun and moon are 
 in syzygy : if the syzygy takes place when the 
 sun or moon is on the meridian, the tide is par 
 ticularized as the meridional syzygy tide. 
 
T99 
 
 TACKLES 
 
 T. 
 
 T. Abbreviation for the in the II. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. In the log-book, t indicates 
 thunder. 
 
 Taberin. A species of shark found in the 
 neighborhood of Ceylon. 
 
 Tabernacle. An attachment to the mast of a 
 river-boat by which it can be lowered when pass 
 ing under a bridge. 
 
 Table. An arrangement of numbers express 
 ing the data of the motions and positions of heav 
 enly bodies, by the aid of which computations in 
 astronomy and navigation are made. 
 
 Table-cloth. The name given to the white, 
 fleecy clouds which sometimes hang over the 
 "table" or flat top of Table Mountain at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, indicating the approach of 
 a southeast gale. 
 
 Table-money. An allowance received by 
 the higher grades of officers in some navies with 
 which to furnish their tables. 
 
 Table-shore. A low, flat shore. 
 
 Tabling. A broad hem on the edges of a sail 
 to which the roping is sewed ; also, a method of 
 securing two planks by alternate projections and 
 depressions. 
 
 Tack. The lower corner of the luff of a fore- 
 and-aft sail. The rope by which the outer lower 
 corner of a studding-sail is hauled out to the 
 boom. The purchase by which the weather lower 
 corner of a course is confined. To change the 
 direction of a vessel from one tack to another 
 when close-hauled, by bringing the head into the 
 wind and causing it to fall off with the wind on 
 the other bow, by using the helm and sails. A 
 vessel is on the starboard tack when the wind 
 blows against the starboard side, but on the port 
 tack when the wind is on the port side. Tack 
 and half-tack, a long and short tack. Rise tacks 
 and sheets! An order given in tacking a square- 
 rigged vessel, at which the tacks and sheets of 
 the courses are let go and the clews hauled up. 
 The expression not to start tack or sheet means 
 that no sail is taken in. When applied to a 
 person it implies a resolution not to move. 
 
 TACK-BLOCK. The block through which a 
 tack reeves. 
 
 Tackles. Combinations of ropes and blocks 
 used as a mechanical power for moving or hoist 
 ing heavy weights. 
 
 They are variously applied on shipboard for 
 sending aloft masts and yards, hoisting, setting, 
 or taking in sails, setting up or tightening the rig 
 ging by which the masts are supported, and in 
 moving guns, anchors, etc. 
 
 The necessities for the application of this power 
 are constant, and it is by its use that a limited 
 number of persons are able to control the force 
 of wind and sea which is exerted upon a vessel. 
 
 A block consists of the shell or outside frame 
 work, either of wood or iron, in which the 
 
 sheaves or pulleys are secured by an iron pin 
 passing through their centres, over which the 
 rope or fall passes. The most simple form of a 
 tackle is that in which only a single fixed block 
 is used. In this case there is no gain in lifting 
 power, as the power applied to the rope on one 
 side of the block must be equal to the weight on 
 the other side in order to sustain it. The ad 
 vantage gained, however, is that the power can 
 be more effectively applied. 
 
 If the single block be attached to the weight 
 to be raised, one end of the rope being secured 
 and the power applied to the other end, the lift 
 ing power is doubled, for the weight is then sus 
 tained by two parts of the rope, each of which 
 bears an equal strain. 
 
 Let the rope be passed through another fixed 
 block ; the lifting power of the tackle remains 
 the same, but greater convenience and effect is 
 obtained in the application of the power, or, the 
 men who pull upon the rope. 
 
 It is then evident that the ratio of the lifting 
 power of a tackle to the applied power depends 
 upon the number of parts of rope which are con 
 nected with the movable block, while stationary 
 blocks serve only to give direction or lead to the 
 rope, or a more effective application of the power. 
 
 If the standing-part of the fall is fastened to 
 the movable block, the advantage of one more 
 part is obtained, and in order to exert the great 
 est amount of power with a tackle, that block 
 should be applied to the weight which contains 
 the greatest number of parts of the rope. 
 
 To ascertain the power which it is necessary to 
 apply to a tackle in order to sustain a certain 
 weig ht, divide the weight by the number of parts 
 
 of rope attached to the movable block, or P = . 
 
 Thus far the weight has been considered only 
 as sustained or balanced by the power applied to 
 the fall. If the weight is raised by such an in- 
 . crease in the applied power as shall set the 
 sheaves in motion, the important element of 
 friction must be considered in calculating the 
 amount of power which it is necessary to apply 
 in raising a certain weight. 
 
 On account of friction, the amount of tension 
 upon each part of the rope will differ. The 
 hauling-part, having the friction of all the sheaves 
 to overcome, will bear the greatest strain ; while 
 the standing-part will have only its proportional 
 part of the weight to sustain. Each intermediate 
 part will also sustain its own proportional part 
 of the weight, increased by the friction of each 
 sheave between it and the standing-part. 
 
 The ratio which the friction of a pulley bears 
 to the weight or pressure cannot be determined 
 with any degree of accuracy on account of the 
 great diversity of conditions in the material 
 which is used ; as, for example, the material of 
 
TACKLES 
 
 800 
 
 TACKLES 
 
 which the rope is made, its flexibility, state of 
 dryness, whether tarred or untarred, etc. ; also 
 the materials of which the sheave and pin are 
 made, and the relative diameter of each. It is 
 known, however, that the friction of the pulley 
 follows in all respects the laws by which the 
 friction of sliding bodies is governed, which are, 
 1st. With the same materials and under the 
 same conditions a constant ratio exists between 
 the pressure of the surfaces in contact and the 
 friction. 2d. With the same pressure and under 
 the same conditions of surface the amount of 
 friction is independent of the extent of surface. 
 3d. Friction is independent of the velocity of in 
 dependent motion. 
 
 The friction of the pulley is greater than that 
 produced by rolling bodies, and less than that of 
 sliding bodies. It has been estimated that one- 
 sixth of the power gained by each sheave is ex 
 pended in overcoming friction, and the common 
 rule is that the hauling-part of a fall bears double 
 the strain of the standing-part when raising a 
 weight. This estimate is, however, greatly re 
 duced by the application of rollers to the sheaves 
 of patent blocks. Loss of time is involved in 
 any increase of power ; or, the velocity with ivhich 
 the applied power moves is to the velocity with 
 which the weight rises as the number of parts of 
 rope at the movable block is to unity. Upon this 
 law the convenience of using tackles of great 
 lifting power often depends. The amount of 
 power that may be applied that is, the number 
 of men that can be placed at the fall may gen 
 erally, within certain limits, be considered a 
 known quantity, and upon this depends, in a great 
 degree, the required power of a tackle, and hence 
 the time in which a body can be lifted or moved. 
 The inconveniences which arise from tackles of 
 great power are loss of time and accumulation 
 of fall by which the deck of a vessel would be 
 encumbered. 
 
 Tackles of different sizes and power are used 
 for the various purposes on shipboard, and they 
 are generally named from the particular uses to 
 which they are applied. 
 
 A single whip has one single fixed block. 
 
 A gun-tackle purchase consists of two single 
 blocks. 
 
 A luff-tackle has a double and single block. 
 
 A twofold purchase consists of two double 
 blocks, a threefold purchase of two treble blocks, 
 etc. 
 
 A boom-jigger has usually a double and single 
 block, and is used for rigging studding-sail- 
 booms in and out on the lower yards. 
 
 A boom-tackle is a double purchase, and is used 
 in fore-and-aft rigged vessels in guying out the 
 main-boom over the quarter of the vessel with a 
 fair wind. 
 
 A deck-tackle is a heavy double purchase used 
 in heavy work about the deck, such as hauling 
 in the cable, etc. 
 
 A fish-tackle is a heavy double purchase used 
 in fishing the anchor. 
 
 A fore-and-aft tackle is used for stretching the 
 backbone of an awning in spreading it. Any 
 tackle may be thus designated, when for a special 
 purpose it is used in a direction with the length 
 of the vessel. 
 
 A griolet-purchase is used for dismounting 
 guns on a covered deck. It consists of two 
 tackles, called the muzzle-purchase and breech- 
 
 purchase. The lower block of the former con 
 sists of a short cylindrical block of wood, one 
 end of which fits into the muzzle of the gun, 
 while sheaves are placed in the outer end. The 
 lower block of the breech-purchase has connected 
 with it a shackle which fits into the jaws of the 
 cascabel. The upper blocks of both tackles are 
 of iron, and have three sheaves. 
 
 A hatch-tackle is a small purchase used for 
 hoisting articles from the store-rooms. 
 
 A jeer-tackle is a heavy purchase used in send 
 ing lower-yards up and down. By a recent im 
 provement the upper jeer-block is connected with 
 and forms a part of the slings of the yard, the 
 chain being attached to the base of the block by 
 a slip-link. This block being unwieldy from its 
 size and weight is thus always hooked in place, 
 and there is no loss of time in sending it aloft 
 when required for use. 
 
 A jigger is a small tackle used for various pur 
 poses. 
 
 A rigging-luff, used in setting up rigging, has \ 
 two single blocks, 
 
 A pennant-tackle is composed of a double and 
 single block. It is kept hooked to the pennant 
 under the top, and is used in staying the mast, 
 steadying it in case of injury to the rigging, and 
 other purposes. 
 
 A port-tackle is used in tricing up a lower- 
 deck port of a ship of war. 
 
 A reej-tackle is used in reefing a topsail or a 
 course. 
 
 Relieving-tackles are hooked to the tiller in 
 order to relieve the wheel-ropes in heavy weather, 
 when a great strain is brought upon them ; or 
 to steer the ship in case the wheel-ropes are in 
 jured in action. 
 
 A rolling-tackle is hooked to the quarter of a 
 lower- or topsail-yard and to the mast, in order 
 to relieve the strain of the yard upon the truss 
 or parrel when the vessel is rolling heavily. 
 
 A rudder-tackle hooks to the rudder-pennants, 
 by which a vessel may be steered in case of injury 
 to the rudder-head. 
 
 A sail-tackle is the purchase used in hoisting a 
 topsail from the deck to its yard in bending. 
 
 A side-tackle is used in running out a broad 
 side gun. It consists of a double and single com 
 position block, the latter being the movable 
 block. 
 
 A stay-tackle is a heavy double purchase which 
 is hooked to the triatic stay in hoisting out heavy 
 boats. 
 
 A Spanish burton is a purchase much used in 
 merchant vessels for handling cargo. The single 
 Spanish burton has two single blocks. The 
 leading-part of the fall comes from the lower or 
 movable block, the standing-part leads from the 
 upper or stationary block and is secured to the 
 lower block, while the hook by which the burton 
 is connected with the weight is fastened to the 
 bight of the rope between the two blocks. 
 
 Thedouble Spanish burton consists of one double 
 and two single blocks, by which the lifting power 
 is five times greater than the applied power. 
 
 A stock-and-bill tackle is a small tackle used in 
 securing anchors for sea. 
 
 A tack-tackle is a heavy double purchase, some 
 times used In setting the tack or weather clew 
 of a course. 
 
 A top burton is a tackle generally used in the 
 tops, but is of sufficient length for the lower 
 
TACK-PIN 
 
 801 
 
 TAPER 
 
 block and end of the fall to reach the deck. It 
 is kept hooked to the pendant at the mast-head, 
 and has the purchase of a luff-tackle, or a double 
 and a single block. A fiddle-block is used in 
 place of the double block, on account of the nar 
 row space between the rigging and the mast 
 head. 
 
 A top-tackle is a heavy double purchase used 
 in sending a topmast up or down. 
 
 A train-tackle is hooked to the rear of a broad 
 side gun-carriage and an eye-bolt amidships, 
 serving to run the gun in and prevent it from 
 running out while being loaded. Two training- 
 tackles are used in pointing a gun mounted on a 
 pivot-carriage. 
 
 A watch-tackle is a small tackle convenient for 
 any use as a jigger. The double block is usually 
 fitted with a tail in place of a hook. 
 
 A winding -tackle is a purchase consisting of a 
 double and single block, or two double blocks. 
 It is used in hoisting heavy weights, being 
 hooked to the eye of a top-pendant or other con 
 venient rope at one of the lower yard-arms. The 
 Eendant, being rove through a block at the mast- 
 ead, is secured to the deck near the mast, and 
 serves as a support to the yard-arm. 
 
 A yard-tackle is a heavy tackle hooked to a 
 lower-yard and used in hoisting heavy weights. 
 It is thus named to distinguish it from the stay- 
 tackle, which is hooked to the stay. E. T. Strong, 
 Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Tack-pin. A long belaying-pin used at the 
 fife-rail. 
 
 Tack, Thumb-. A tack with a broad, flat 
 head for attaching paper to a drawing-board. 
 
 Tactics. See NAVAL TACTICS. 
 
 Taffia. A kind of spirits distilled from mo 
 lasses at Mauritius. 
 
 Taffrail. The rail about a vessel s stern. 
 
 Tail. A rope spliced around a block with an 
 end of sufficient length to secure it to another 
 rope, instead of a hook. A tail-block is a block 
 strapped with a tail, which may be used as a 
 leading block. A vessel tails inshore, offshore, 
 up-stream or down-stream, when, being at an 
 chor, her stern tends in that direction. The tail 
 of a gale is the latter part of the gale, after the 
 wind has commenced to moderate. To tail on to 
 a rope is to man it. To tail one rope on to another 
 is to bend or tie them together. 
 
 Tailor. A kind of fish resembling the shad, 
 but inferior to it in size and flavor. 
 
 Tail-race. The disturbed water after leaving 
 the paddles of a steamer. The channel that car 
 ries off the water from a water-wheel. 
 
 Tail-tackle. A watch-tackle. 
 
 Tail-up. Said of a whale when it shows its 
 tail in diving. Also called fluking. 
 
 Tail-valve. A small auxiliary valve to aid 
 in starting a large steam-engine by admitting 
 steam to a cylinder when excluded by the main 
 or cut-off valves. Starting-valve and pass-over 
 valve are synonymous terms. 
 
 Taiste (Eng.). A name for the black guille 
 mot. 
 
 Take. A take of fish is the amount that is 
 caught at a single cast of the net. To take a de 
 parture is to observe the bearing and distance of a 
 point of land, light-house, etc., before losing sight 
 of the land. To take in sail is to reduce sail. To 
 take an observation is to observe the altitude of a 
 heavenly body for obtaining the latitude or lon- 
 51 
 
 gitude. To take in water is to ship water over 
 the rail. The decrease of tides from the spring 
 tides is called their taking off. 
 
 Takel (Ang.-Sax.}. An ancient name for the 
 arrows which were supplied to vessels. 
 
 Take-up. A contrivance for adjusting the 
 length of a connection between two points. The 
 object may be accomplished by moving a bolt or 
 pin from one of a series of holes to another; by H 
 series of hooks ; or by a turnbuckle, etc. A leak 
 in a steam-boiler, or other vessel, is said to u take- 
 up" when it stops, without manipulation, by the 
 action of temperature, pressure, filling in of for 
 eign matter, or corrosion. 
 
 Talero. A silver Venetian coin, equal in value 
 to $1.00. 
 
 Tallant. The upper part of a rudder. 
 
 Tall Ship. A lofty ship ; a former name for 
 a square-rigged vessel. 
 
 Tang, or Tangle. A kind of sea-weed. 
 
 Tangent-screw. A screw acting at a tangent 
 to the arc of a circle, by which a gradual motion 
 may be given to a limb passing over the arc. 
 
 Tang-fish. A Scotch name for the seal. 
 
 Tangier, the diplomatic capital of Morocco, 
 is situated near the western entrance of the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, southeast of Cape Spartel, in lat. 
 35 4V 12" N., Ion. 5 48 30" W. It presents 
 a very striking appearance from the sea, as it 
 stands on a height near a spacious bay, and rises 
 in the form of an amphitheatre. It is surrounded 
 by walls, and defended by a castle and several 
 forts. The harbor, which was once capacious 
 and protected by a mole, was formerly frequented 
 by vessels from nearly all maritime nations, but 
 is now neglected, and the trade is confined chiefly 
 to Gibraltar and the Spanish coast. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Tangles. An instrument used in dredging, 
 for obtaining the more minute forms of animal 
 life from the bottom of the sea. 
 
 Tank. An iron structure for holding fresh 
 water. It is cubical in shape, and usually con 
 tains about 600 gallons. A circular hole in the 
 top, called a man-hole, is of sufficient size t<- 
 admit a person for the purpose of cleaning and 
 whitewashing. Small copper tanks are placed 
 in the magazine for the stowage of powder. 
 See POWDER-TANK. 
 
 TANK-TOGOLE. A short stout piece of wood 
 placed inside the man-hole of a tank when it is 
 to be hoisted, serving as a place to which thc> 
 tackle can be attached. 
 
 Tanka. A covered Chinese row-boat, used in 
 taking passengers to and from vessels. 
 
 Tanned Sails. Sails soaked in oak-bark. 
 
 Tap. A piece of tempered steel having an 
 exterior screw-thread upon its surface, a portion 
 of which is cut away by longitudinal grooves, 
 for cutting interior or female screw-threads. It i> 
 provided with a square head for receiving ;. 
 wrench. An orifice for withdrawing a fluid from 
 a pipe, chamber, or reservoir. To tap a buoy, 1<> 
 empty the water from a buoy which has leaked 
 in, causing it to float low in the water ; to blee<! 
 a buoy. To tap the admiral (Eng.}, an expres 
 sion applied to a person who is willing to drink 
 anything that he can obtain, referring to the 
 story of the theft of spirits from the cask con 
 taining the dead body of an English admiral. 
 
 Taper. To reduce the size of a rope to a poim 
 at the end, by cutting out the rope-yarns as re 
 quired. 
 
TAPERED CLEAT 
 
 802 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 Tapered Cleat. A piece of timber bolted 
 under beams to support them, in place of stan 
 chions. 
 
 Tappet. In machinery, an arm or lever which 
 is moved periodically by contact with a pin, 
 roller, or other piece having a reciprocating 
 motion ; as, the tappets which actuate the steam- 
 valves of the Cornish pumping-engine and other 
 steam-pumps. 
 
 TAPPET-MOTION. A term applied to the valve- 
 gear of a steam-engine when the valves are ac 
 tuated by tappets. 
 
 Tar. "A thick resinous substance obtained 
 from pine wood, used upon rope to protect it 
 from the weather and prevent dampness from 
 penetrating among the fibres. Also, to cover or 
 smear with tar. Tar and feather, an illegal mode 
 of punishment, occasionally resorted to in ex 
 treme cases. During the reign of Richard I. of 
 England it was a legal punishment for theft in 
 the British navy. A sailor is sometimes called 
 a tar. 
 
 TARBRUSH. A touch of the tarbrush, a descrip 
 tion of the color of a person of mixed blood. 
 Tarred with the same brush, said of men of a 
 similar character ; synonymous with " Birds of 
 a feather." 
 
 TARRED LINE. Line to which tar has been 
 applied. 
 
 Tarragona, a seaport city of Spain, is princi 
 pally built upon a large rock at the mouth of 
 the Francoli, in the Mediterranean. It is divided 
 into two sections, an upper and lower town ; is 
 inclosed by walls and ramparts, and defended by 
 two castles. Among the principal buildings are 
 the academies of design and naval architecture. 
 It has manufactures of coarse cloth, hats, bar 
 rels, etc., and a large export trade in wine, 
 brandy, nuts, and cork. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Tarbet. A Scotch name for a low spit of 
 land dividing a lake from the sea. 
 
 Target. A mark for great gun or small-arm 
 practice. The regulation target for great guns 
 consists of a frame-work, made by two boards 
 crossing at right angles, through the centre of 
 which is secured an upright mast about 12 feet 
 in height. Small ropes connecting the upper 
 end of the mast with the ends of the crossed 
 boards serve as stays, upon which the four trian 
 gular sails of the target are set. The target, 
 when ready for use, is of the form of a pyramid. 
 A _ small-arm target is of sheet-iron, "having 
 painted on its face the different inclosed squares 
 by which the shots may be scored. 
 
 TARGET-FRAME. See TARGET. 
 ^TARGET-PRACTICE. The quarterly exercise 
 of the crew of a vessel in firing at a target either 
 with great guns or small-arms. 
 
 Targia. The ancient name for the tartan, a 
 small vessel used in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Tarita. An ancient term for a vessel carrying 
 a cargo. 
 
 Tarn (Scotch). A small mountain lake. 
 
 Tarpaulin. Canvas painted to render it water 
 proof, used as a covering for hatches, etc. Tar 
 was formerly used instead of paint. Painted 
 hats and coats for bad weather are also called 
 tarpaulins. 
 
 Tarrock. A kind of gull (Larus tridactylus). 
 
 Tartan. A coasting vessel of small size, used 
 in the Mediterranean. It carries one mast, upon 
 which a lateen-sail is set. 
 
 Tartar. A commander with a bad temper. 
 To catch a tartar is to mistake the force of an 
 enemy and be obliged to surrender. 
 
 Task (Eng.). To examine a vessel regarding 
 the soundness of her timbers. A timber is tasked 
 by cutting or boring it with an auger to ascer 
 tain its condition. 
 
 Tasman, Abel Janssen. Exploring the coast 
 of New Holland under instructions from Van 
 Diemen, this Dutch navigator came (December 
 1, 1642) upon the island south of Australia, to 
 which he gave the name of his patron, but which 
 is now called Tasmania. Pursuing his investi 
 gations in the Southern Atlantic, he discovered 
 New Zealand, and a group of islands then un 
 known to geographers. 
 
 Tasting Timber. Chipping it with the adze, 
 or boring it with the auger, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining its quality or defects. 
 
 Tattoo. The evening drum-boat before "pip 
 ing down." To mark the body with indelible 
 inks or dyes. 
 
 Taunt. Tall, as applied to the masts of a 
 vessel. 
 
 Taurus, Constellation of (Lat. " The Bull"). 
 The second constellation of the ancient zodiac, 
 lying between Aries and Gemini. This group is 
 easily identified in the heavens, as it contains 
 the two beautiful little clusters of minute stars 
 called the Hyades and the Pleiades ; in the former 
 is situated the bright ruddy star a Tauri. A line 
 joining Aldebaran and Sirius is bisected by the 
 middle star of Orion s Belt, a Tauri, Aldebaran ; 
 /? Tauri, Nath ; 77 Tauri, Alcyone. 
 
 Taurus, Sign of. The second division of the 
 ecliptic, including from 30 to 60 of longitude. 
 Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the 
 constellation Taurus is no longer in the sign of 
 that name, the constellation Aries having taken 
 its place. The sun is in Taurus from about April 
 20 to about May 21. Symbol ^ . 
 
 Taut (Ang.rSax. touaht). Tight, said of a rope. 
 On a taut bowline, said of a ship when close- 
 hauled, as the bowlines are then taut. A tout 
 hand, a firm hand in matters of discipline. Taut 
 weather helm, or taut helm, is caused by the trim 
 of a vessel, or by want of balance of sail, by 
 which the quality of ardency is given to the 
 vessel. Taut leech, said of a sail when hoisted 
 so as to make the leeches taut. 
 
 Taylor, J. Winthrop, Surgeon-General 
 U.S.N. Born in New York. Appointed from 
 New Jersey, March 7, 1838; entered the service 
 as assistant surgeon ; attached to sloop " Erie," 
 West India Squadron, 1838-40 ; sloop " Marion," 
 West India Squadron, 1842-43; sloop "John 
 Adams," Home Squadron, 1845-48; receiving- 
 ship, Boston, 1850; sloop " Dale," 1851-53. 
 
 Commissioned as surgeon, May 1, 1852; ren 
 dezvous, New York, 1854-56; sloop " St. 
 Mary s," 1856-59; steam-sloop " Pensacola," 
 West Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1861-63 ; na 
 val rendezvous, Boston, 1864-66; fleet-surgeon, 
 Gulf Squadron, 1866-67; fleet-surgeon, North 
 Pacific Squadron, 1868-69; Naval Hospital, 
 Chelsea, 1870-72; naval rendezvous, Boston, 
 1873-77; chief of the Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgery, 1878-79. Retired August 25, 1879; 
 died January 19, 1880. 
 
 Taylor, William Rogers, Rear-Admiral 
 U.S.N. Appointed midshipman, April 1, 1828. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 14, 1834. 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 803 
 
 TELEGRAPH CABLES 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, February 10, 1840. 
 
 Promoted to commander, September 14, 1855. 
 
 Promoted to captain, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, July 25, 1866. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, January 19, 1871. 
 
 Retired by law, having attained -the age of 62 
 years, November 7, 1873. 
 
 As midshipman he served on board the frigate 
 "Hudson" and the sloop-of-war "Vandalia," 
 on the coast of Brazil, from 1828-31, and on 
 board the sloop-of-war " Peacock," on the coast 
 of Brazil, in 1832. 
 
 As passed midshipman, on board the sloop-of- 
 war "Peacock," in 1835 and 1836, in the East 
 Indies. 
 
 As acting lieutenant, on board the schooner 
 " Enterprise," in the East Indies and the Pacific 
 Ocean, in 1836-37, and on board the line-of- 
 battle ship "North Carolina," in the Pacific, 
 in 1837-38. 
 
 As lieutenant, on board the steamer " Poin- 
 sett" and the brig " Oregon," engaged in a sur 
 vey of Tampa Bay, under command of Lieut. 
 L. M. Powell, in 1842-43. During a portion 
 of that time he was in command of each of 
 those vessels. Brig "Perry," on the coast of 
 Brazil, in 1843-44 ; and the line-of-battle ship 
 "Columbus," on the coast of Brazil, in 1844; 
 sloop-of-war "St. Mary s," in the .Gulf of Mex 
 ico during the Mexican war, in 1845-46 ; frigate 
 "St. Lawrence," in the North Sea, in 1847; 
 sloop-of-war " Albany," in the West Indies, in 
 1849-50; sloop-of-war "Saratoga," in the Atlan 
 tic Ocean, in 1855, from which ship he was de 
 tached for promotion. 
 
 As commander, he was ordered to the ship 
 " Housatonic," but before sailing was promoted 
 to captain. 
 
 As captain, in command of the " Housatonic," 
 in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, in 
 1862-63; as fleet-captain with Admiral Dahlgren 
 in 1863; and in command of the ship " Juni- 
 ata," in the North Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, in 1864. 
 
 As commodore, in command of the North 
 Squadron of the Pacific Fleet in 1869-71, when 
 he was detached on promotion. 
 
 As rear-admiral, in command of the South 
 Atlantic Station in 1872-73, from which duty he 
 was detached on being retired by law. 
 
 His duties on shore during his early naval life 
 were performed at navy-yards, receiving-ships, 
 the Naval Observatory, and the Naval Asylum. 
 He was president of a board to revise and modify 
 a code of regulations for the navy in 1863-64. In 
 1865-66, he was in charge of the ordnance-yard 
 at Washington, then a branch of the Bureau of 
 Ordnance. His total amount of bureau duty 
 was 9 years and 5 months, as lieutenant, com 
 mander, captain, and commodore, embracing 
 work at Alger s, Cold Spring, Tredegar, Bellona, 
 Fort Pitt, and Hickory and Williams s found 
 ries, and the foundries at Reading, Pa., and at 
 Portland, Me. ; in the Bureau of Ordnance, at the 
 powder-works near Dover, N. H., and at South 
 Acton, Mass., and at the Boston Navy- Yard. 
 
 On the assassination of President Lincoln, he 
 was appointed one of a guard of honor to escort 
 his remains from Washington to Springfield, 
 
 In 1868, he was a member of a board for the 
 examination of officers for promotion ; and in 
 
 1871-72, he was president of the Naval Board 
 for examination and retirement, at the Navy De 
 partment. 
 
 The principal events of his naval life were as 
 follows : When the " Peacock" was stranded on 
 the island of Mazira, in 1836, he was sent in 
 command of a cutter to convey Edmund Rob 
 erts, a diplomatic agent of the United States, 
 from the ship to the port of Muscat, with the 
 ratified copies of some treaties, which he was 
 commissioned to exchange. The boat was single- 
 banked, and pulled 5 oars; the \oyage lasted 
 about 5 days, and was not a perfectly safe one. 
 At Muscat, he was invited by theimaum to take 
 under his orders a slocp-of-war called the " Sul- 
 tane," mounting 16 guns, and proceed to the re 
 lief of the "Peacock" ; that ship had, however, 
 in the mean time, been got off, and he fell in with 
 her at sea. 
 
 On the 8th and the 15th June, 1846, the " St. 
 Mary s" engaged a battery near the point at 
 Tampico Bar, and he bommanded the first divis 
 ion of guns on both occasions. 
 
 At the surrender of Tampico to Commodore 
 Connor, he commanded the "St. Mary s" 
 launch, which was a part of the attacking force. 
 
 During the siege of Vera Cruz, he commanded 
 an 8-iiich gun in the naval battery for 36 hours. 
 
 During the blockade of Charleston, he hap 
 pened to be senior officer off that port when the 
 rebel rams " Chocura" and " Palmetto" attacked 
 the squadron, in January, 1863. He engaged one 
 of them with the "Housatonic," but she with 
 drew over the bar. His ship formed part of the 
 reserve fleet when Admiral Dupont made his at 
 tack upon the Charleston forts. When Admiral 
 Dahlgren relieved Admiral Dupont, he was ap 
 pointed fleet-captain, and served with Dahlgren 
 in all the operations against Morris Island, from 
 July 10 to the 19th, 1863. On the 16th he was 
 in battle with him on board the monitor " Cats- 
 kill," and again, on the 18th, in the monitor 
 " Montauk." 
 
 On the 24th and 25th December, 1864, he com 
 manded the " Juniata" in the attack upon Fort 
 Fisher. 
 
 Admiral Taylor was a member of the Board 
 of Visitors to attend the graduation of the class 
 of midshipmen at the Naval Academy in June, 
 1860, and in January, 1872, he was president of 
 the Board of Visitors to attend the graduation 
 of the class at the Torpedo Station. . 
 
 Teach. A term applied to the direction that 
 any line points out. 
 
 Teak. A tree ( Tectonia yrandis] of East Indian 
 growth, valuable for ship-timber. 
 
 Teal. A small wild duck of the species 
 Querquedula crecca. 
 
 Team-boat. A side- wheel ferry-boat worked 
 by horse-power. 
 
 Tea-wagon. An old name for the British 
 East India Company s ships, tea constituting 
 the greater part of their homeward-bound cargo. 
 
 Teazed Oakum (Eng.}. Oakum prepared for 
 use in calking. 
 
 Teeth. AT fanciful name sometimes given to 
 the guns of a vessel. It was more applicable to 
 the batteries displayed by a ship of the line than 
 to ships of more modern construction. 
 
 Telegraph-cables. The idea of submarine 
 communication by means of electricity was en 
 tertained by some of the earliest electricians, but 
 
TELEGRAPH CABLES 
 
 804 
 
 TELEGRAPH CABLES 
 
 no practical use was made of the discoveries in 
 that direction until, by the inventions of Pro 
 fessor Morse in 1836, apparatus for the recording 
 of telegraphic messages was introduced, and the 
 practicability of communication by this means 
 established. 
 
 Don Francisco Salva is said to have proposed 
 the laying of a submarine cable between Barce 
 lona and Palnia, a port on the island of Majorca, 
 in 1797, but the first cab]e or wire upon which 
 experiments were actually made was constructed 
 and operated by Dr. O Shaughnessy, near Cal 
 cutta, in 1839. The wire was 21 miles in length, 
 and insulated bv a covering of tarred yarns, over 
 which split rattan was placed, and over the rat 
 tan another covering of tarred yarns. 
 
 Professor Wheatstone, in 1840, before a com 
 mittee of the English House of Commons, as 
 serted the practicability of laying and operating 
 a submarine cable between England and France, 
 and in 1842 successful experiments were made by 
 Professor Morse with a copper wire submerged 
 between New York and Governor s Island, which 
 was insulated by winding it with a hemp strand 
 covered with a compound of tar, pitch, and 
 india-rubber. 
 
 In a letter addressed to the Secretary of the 
 Treasury by Professor Morse, in 1843, he said 
 that, judging from his experiments of the pre 
 vious year, telegraphic communication could with 
 certainty be established across the Atlantic. In 
 1848, Samuel Colt also laid a wire from Fire 
 Island to New York City, which was successfully 
 used. 
 
 Experiments for the more perfect insulation 
 of submarine cables followed these trials, and in 
 1845 a process of preparing gutta-percha for this 
 purpose was patented in England, which mate 
 rial has been extensively used in the manufac 
 ture of submarine cables since that time. Its 
 first use was upon a cable one-half of a mile in 
 length, which was laid under the Rhine between 
 Dentz and Cologne, and in 1846 a wire covered 
 with the same material was laid between New 
 York and Jersey City. 
 
 In 1850 a cable was laid across the Strait of 
 Dover, 27 miles in length, from Dover to Cape 
 Grinez. This was the first cable laid in the open 
 sea, and it failed to transmit messages after the 
 first day of its completion. Another was laid in 
 the following year between Dover and Calais, 
 which contained four conducting wires, each of 
 which was insulated with gutta-percha, and these 
 were covered with a layer of hemp, steeped in a 
 solution of tar and tallow. In 1853 a cable 80 
 miles in length was laid between Dover and 
 Ostend, which contained 6 conducting wires and 
 weighed 5| tons per mile. In 1853 England and 
 Holland were connected by a single insulated 
 wire, 120 miles in length, weighing If tons per 
 mile, which was in use for 12 years. From this 
 time the use of submarine cables in connection 
 with shore lines of telegraph-wires greatly in 
 creased, so that between 1853 and 1858 37 cables 
 of various extents had been laid in Europe and 
 its adjacent waters, with a total length of 3700 
 miles. 
 
 The brilliant undertaking of uniting America 
 and Europe by a telegraphic cable was first at 
 tempted in 1857, and with this and succeeding 
 attempts the name of Cyrus W. Field is insepa 
 rably connected. The U. S. S. " Niagara" and 
 
 H. B. M, S. "Agamemnon" were employed in 
 laying the first cable, but owing to the breaking 
 of the cable the undertaking was not successful. 
 In 1858 another trial was made, and the two 
 parts were successfully united in mid-ocean, and 
 the cable completed August 10. Congratulatory 
 messages were exchanged between Queen Vic 
 toria and President Buchanan, and for 23 days 
 the cable continued to transmit messages, al 
 though the signals were with difficulty under 
 stood, owing to the weakness of the current. At 
 the end of this time the transmission of intelli- 
 
 fible messages entirely failed, and the cable was 
 nally abandoned. This cable was composed of 
 7 conducting wires, 6 laid around 1 central 
 wire, covered with 3 layers of gutta-percha. 
 Outside of this a layer of tarred hemp was placed, 
 and the whole surrounded by 18 strands of char 
 coal wire, each strand being composed of 7 wires, 
 6 laid around 1 central wire. The whole cost 
 of this enterprise amounted to $1,834,500. 
 
 After this failure steps were taken for the lay 
 ing of a cable from Labrador to Scotland, by way 
 of Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, 
 and in 1860 soundings were taken of the pro 
 posed route by an English ship of war, and ex 
 aminations made of the different coasts for the 
 purpose of obtaining practicable landing-places 
 for the ends of the cables. The required length 
 by this route is 1800 miles, which could be 
 divided into three sections of about 600 miles 
 each. Although favorable reports of the feasi 
 bility of this route were made, no further steps 
 were taken. 
 
 In 1862, Mr. Field again visited England, in 
 order to make arrangements for carrying out his 
 original design, which resulted in a third attempt 
 to lay a cable between the coasts of Ireland and 
 Newfoundland in 1864-65. The steamship "Great 
 Eastern" was employed in this undertaking, but 
 another failure was experienced on account of 
 the breaking of the cable and the inability to 
 recover the end. During the year 1866 another 
 cable was laid by the same steamer, which was 
 successfully completed July 27, and the cable 
 of 1865 was also recovered and united, thus 
 forming two lines of communication between 
 Europe and America. 
 
 These cables lasted but about 8| years, and in 
 1873 and 1874 two others, similar in construc 
 tion, were laid, the work being successfully ac 
 complished by the " Great Eastern," assisted by 
 three smaller vessels. The work of laying the 
 former was commenced June 16, 1873, and on 
 June 27 the western end was landed at Heart s 
 Content, 1700 miles having been payed out in 
 11 days. The latter extended from Ballenskil- 
 ling s Bay, Ireland, to Nova Scotia, arid thence 
 to Rye, N. H., and was not completed until early 
 in the summer of 1875. 
 
 In 1869 a cable was laid by the "Great 
 Eastern" between Brest, France, and the island 
 of St. Pierre, near the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 
 thence to Duxbury, Mass. The entire length of 
 the two sections o f the cable is 3047 miles. The 
 weight of the section between Brest and St. 
 Pierre is 400 pounds per mile, and that of the 
 western section 107 pounds per mile. The con 
 ductor of both sections is composed of 6 copper 
 wires laid around 1 central wire, which are 
 insulated by alternate layers of gutta-percha and 
 Chatterton s compound, covered with a coating 
 
 
TELEMETER 
 
 805 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 of tarred jute-yarns. Outside of this core gal 
 vanized iron wire, covered with manilla steeped 
 in tar, is placed next a coating of mineral pitch 
 and silica, called Clark s compound, and out 
 side of all a layer of galvanized iron wire. 
 
 A cable was laid between the coasts of Ireland 
 and Newfoundland in 1879, followed by another 
 in the present year, in which the cores consist of 
 homogeneous iron wires covered with two coats 
 of yarn, pitch, and silica. During the past 20 
 years telegraphic cables have been laid in all 
 parts of the world, and it is estimated that, at 
 the present time, their total length is about 
 231,000 miles. Among the principal ones is that 
 from Malta to Alexandria, Egypt, laid in 1861, 
 1518 miles long ; the Persian Gulf cable, in 1864, 
 1330 miles long ; the direct cable from Malta to 
 Alexandria, in 1868, 1053 miles long ; from Suez 
 to Aden, 1460 miles; from Aden to Bombay, 
 1818 miles; and from Gibraltar to Malta, 1120 
 miles, in 1870. The completion of the China 
 cable, in 1871, terminating in Japan, which, 
 with its branches, connect the principal ports of 
 China, Australia, and adjacent islands with 
 western Europe ; also the cables of the West In 
 dia and Panama Company, 2613 miles long, 
 the Panama and South Pacific cable, 1100 miles 
 long, and that which connects the Windward 
 Islands with Demerara during the same year; 
 from Pernambuco to Para, in 1873, 1080 miles 
 long ; and from Lisbon to Madeira, in 1873, 
 which, in 1874, was extended to Cape St. Vincent, 
 on one of the Cape de Verd Islands, 1260 miles, 
 and thence to Pernambuco, Brazil, 1953 miles. 
 From these and other main lines of cables 
 branches extend, in connection with shore lines 
 of telegraph-wires, so that nearly all of the 
 principal inland cities and seaports of the world 
 are now in telegraphic communication. E. T. 
 Strong, Lieutenant u.S.N. 
 
 Telemeter. An instrument used for determin 
 ing the distance of an object whose length is 
 known, from its apparent length when seen be 
 tween the parallel wires of a telescope. 
 
 Telescopic Funnel. A steamship smoke-pipe 
 or funnel made in two or more sections, so ar 
 ranged that one slides within another, in the 
 manner of a telescope, for the purpose of lower 
 ing it clear of the sails and rigging when the 
 ship is under sail alone. 
 
 Telescopium. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Tell Off. To count off or select men for a 
 special duty. 
 
 Tell-tale. A small compass hanging from the 
 deck overhead with its face downwards. It is 
 generally placed in the cabin, where it can be 
 conveniently referred to by the commanding 
 officer. Also, an attachment to the steering- 
 wheel, showing the position of the tiller. Tell 
 tale shake, the shaking of a rope from aloft as a 
 signal to let it go, in place of hailing from aloft. 
 
 Tell that to the Marines ! An exclamation 
 of doubt as to the truth of a statement. 
 
 Temple, William Grenville, Commodore 
 U.S.N. Born in Vermont, March 23, 1824. 
 Appointed acting midshipman from Vermont, 
 April 18, 1840; ordered to receiving-ship "Co 
 lumbus," Boston, September 24, 1840; detached 
 from " Columbus" and ordered to frigate " Con 
 stellation," Boston ; May 8, 1844, detached from 
 " Constellation" at Norfolk, and granted leave 
 of absence ; August 21, 1844, ordered to frigate 
 
 "Potomac," flag-ship of the Home Squadron, 
 Philadelphia; March 14, 1845, detached from 
 " Potomac" at Pensacola, and ordered to brig 
 "Lawrence" at same place; October 21, 1845, 
 detached from " Lawrence" at Pensacola, and 
 ordered back to " Potomac" at same place ; 
 December 5, 1845, detached from the " Potomac" 
 at Norfolk, and ordered to Naval School, An 
 napolis. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 11, 
 1846; July 13, 1846, detached from Naval 
 School ; October 5, 1846, ordered to sloop-of-war 
 "Boston" ; November 15, 1846, wrecked on west 
 end of Eleuthera, one of the Bahamas, opposite 
 Hole-in-the-Wall ; November 29, 1846, ordered 
 to Norfolk in schooner "Volant," in charge of 
 sick men from wreck of the " Boston" ; January 
 7, 1847, ordered to receiving-ship " Pennsyl 
 vania," Norfolk; February 4, 1847, detached 
 from "Pennsylvania," and ordered to steamer 
 "Scourge," New York; March 29, 1847, pres 
 ent at the surrender of Vera Cruz; March 31, 
 1847, present at the capture of Alvarado by the 
 "Scourge," and ordered to take command on 
 shore; April 1, 1847, relieved on shore and or 
 dered back to the " Scourge" ; April 18, 1847, 
 present at the capture of Tuspan ; June 15 and 
 16, 1847, present at the capture of Tabasco; 
 November 27, 1847, detached from the "Scourge" 
 at Frontera ; December 25, 1847, ordered as 
 acting master to the steamer " Mississippi" ; 
 April 21, 1848, detached from the " Mississippi" ; 
 June 14, 1848, ordered to Naval Observatory, 
 "Washington ; May 2, 1849, detached from the 
 Observatory, and ordered as acting master to the 
 coast survey schooner "Petrel," New York; 
 transferred at New Orleans into the coast survey 
 steamer "Hetzel"; August 2, 1850, detached 
 from the "Hetzel," and ordered to the Coast 
 Survey Office; October 11, 1850, detached from 
 the coast survey, and ordered to the Observatory ; 
 November 28, 1850, detached from the Observa 
 tory, and granted leave of absence for the pur 
 pose of taking charge of the h ydrographic works 
 on the survey of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, for 
 a railroad and canal ; April 5, 1852, ordered as 
 acting master to the sloop-of-war " Levant." 
 
 Promoted to master, July 21, 1854. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, April 18, 1855 ; May 
 7. 1855, detached from the "Levant"; June 4, 
 1855, ordered to the steamer " Corwin," coast 
 survey ; December 3, 1855, detached from the 
 " Corwin" and ordered to the CoastSurvey Office; 
 May 19, 1856, detached from Coast Survey Office, 
 and ordered to the steamer " Corwin," coast sur 
 vey ; June 1, 1857, succeeded to the command of 
 the "Corwin"; October 11, 1858, detached from 
 command of the "Corwin," and ordered to the 
 Coast Survey Office ; April 7, 1859, detached from 
 the Coast Survey Office, and ordered to the steam- 
 frigate " Lancaster," flag-ship of the Pacific 
 Squadron; October 11, 1861, detached from the 
 " Lancaster," and ordered to return to New 
 York ; November 11, 1861, ordered to command 
 the steamer "Flambeau"; January 22, 1862, 
 detached from command of the "Flambeau"; 
 February 26, 1862, ordnance duty, New York. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant-commander, July 16, 
 1862; September 22, 1862, detached from ord 
 nance duty, and ordered to command the steam- 
 gunboat "Pembina," and to join the West Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron ; November 22, 1862, de- 
 
TEMPLET 
 
 806 
 
 THATCHER 
 
 inched from command of the "Pembina," and 
 ordered to Key West as fleet-captain of the East 
 Gulf Blockading Squadron; April 10, 1864, or 
 dered temporarily to command the flag-ship 
 "San Jacinto," for special service; April 13, 
 
 1864, detached from command of the "San 
 Jacinto," and ordered to resume duty as fleet- 
 captain ; July 12, 1864, present on duty in the 
 trenches about "Washington, on the occasion of 
 Gen. Early s attack; September 19, 1864, de 
 tached from fleet-captaincy, and ordered to ord 
 nance duty at Cold Spring Foundry ; November 
 8, 1864, detached from ordnance duty, and or 
 dered to command the steamer " Pontoosuc," 
 and to join the North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron ; December 24 and 25, 1864, present 
 at the bombardment of Fort Fisher ; January 13 
 to 15, 1865, present at the capture of Fort Fisher ; 
 February 18 to 22, 1865, present at the passage 
 up the Cape Fear Eiver, and the capture of 
 Wilmington, N. C. 
 
 Promoted to commander, March 3, 1865 ; 
 April 1, 1865, present at the bombardment of 
 rebel fortifications on the James River, above 
 Dutch Gap ; April 3, 1865, present at the cap 
 ture of Richmond, Petersburg, etc. ; May 25, 
 
 1865, detached from command of the "Pontoo 
 suc," Hampton Roads, and granted leave of 
 absence ; August 17, 1865, ordered to command 
 the steamer " Tacony," and to join the Atlantic 
 Squadron ; October 31, 1866, detached from com 
 mand of the " Tacony," and ordered as inspector 
 of ordnance to Portsmouth, N. H. ; October 18, 
 1869, detached from ordnance duty at Ports 
 mouth, and ordered as member of Permanent 
 Ordnance Board, at the Navy Department. 
 
 Promoted to captain, August 28, 1870 ; Octo 
 ber 18, 1870, detached from ordnance duty, and 
 ordered as assistant judge-advocate of the navy ; 
 December 23, 1870, detached from the Navy De 
 partment, and ordered to command the frigate 
 " Tennessee" ; April 25, 1871, detached from the 
 "Tennessee"; May 1, 1871, ordered to duty 
 under the Bureau of Ordnance ; October 5, 1871, 
 detached from ordnance duty, and ordered to 
 flag-ship "Wabash"; July 6, 1872, ordered to 
 command the " Wabash" ; May 31, 1873, de 
 tached from the " Wabash," with leave of ab 
 sence for 18 months, and orders to return to the 
 United States at its expiration; December 11, 
 
 1874, ordered to take charge of the government s 
 reception of the king of the Hawaiian Islands 
 at Washington, for which service, by permission 
 of Congress, received from his majesty Kala- 
 kaua a decoration as Knight Commander of the 
 Royal Order of Kamehameha I. ; relieved from 
 this duty on December 28, 1874; February 1, 
 
 1875, ordered, as captain of the yard, to New 
 York Navy- Yard; October 31, 1877, detached 
 from New York Navy- Yard, and placed on wait 
 ing orders. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, June 5, 1878 ; Octo 
 ber 26, 1878, ordered to Montevideo, South 
 America, for temporary duty on board the flag 
 ship "Hartford"; February 15, 1879, detached 
 and placed on waiting orders ; October 22, 1879, 
 member of the Examining and Retiring Board, 
 which is his present duty. 
 
 Templet, or Template. A mold in wood, or 
 an iron plate cut to any particular shape by 
 which other materials are shaped. 
 
 Temporary Star. One that having become 
 
 visible, increases gradually in brilliancy and 
 then slowly disappears. 
 
 Tench. The Tinea vulgaris, a fresh-water 
 fish. 
 
 Tender. A small vessel used for giving as 
 sistance to a large ship or a flag-ship, as carrying 
 stores or dispatches, transferring men, etc. 
 
 Tenon. The shoulder at the end of a piece of 
 timber which fits into a mortice; as, the tenon at 
 the heel of a mast. 
 
 Ten-pounder. The name of a fish found in 
 the West Indies. 
 
 Teredo Navalis. A worm found in the sea 
 which is very destructive to submerged wood. 
 It is a genus of testaceous mollusks, and has been 
 seen at a depth of 10 fathoms. 
 
 Term-piece. A piece of carved work placed 
 upon the stern, extending from the taffrail to 
 the foot-rail of the balcony. 
 
 Tern. A sea-bird of the genus Sterna, resem 
 bling a gull. 
 
 Terrada. A large Persian boat. 
 
 Terrapin. A large turtle of the genus Chalonia, 
 found in salt water. 
 
 Tertiate. To examine the thickness of the 
 metal of a gun to ascertain its strength and prove 
 the proportions at different parts. 
 
 Test-cock. A cock for withdrawing a small 
 quantity of fluid from a vessel or chamber in 
 which it is confined, for the purpose of observing 
 its condition. 
 
 Testone. A former Papal coin, issued in 1785, 
 in value about $0.32. 
 
 Testoon. A Portuguese coin, about $0.13 in 
 value. 
 
 Tew (Eng.}. To beat hemp in preparing the 
 fibre. 
 
 Thatcher, Henry K., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in Maine, at the seat of his grandfather, 
 Maj:-Gen. Henry Knox, of Revolutionary mem 
 ory. Appointed midshipman from there, March 
 4, 1823 ; Washington Navy- Yard during that 
 year (which was very active in equipping the 
 so-called Mosquito Fleet of Commodore David 
 Porter, to attack the pirates of the West Indies), 
 from thence to frigate " United States," under 
 Commander Isaac Hull, until May, 1827. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, March 23, 
 1829. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, February 28, 1833; 
 served at various navy-yards and on board dif 
 ferent vessels from 1833 to 1855. 
 
 Promoted to commander in February, 1855 ; 
 commanding sloop-of-war "Decatur," Pacific 
 Squadron, from 1855-57; executive-officer, Bos 
 ton Navy- Yard, 1860-61 ; commanding sloop-of- 
 war " Constellation," coast of Europe and Med 
 iterranean, 1862-63, as a commander. 
 
 Promoted to commodore during this command. 
 Relieved July, 1863, and ordered home to com 
 mand steam-frigate " Colorado" and division of 
 Southern blockade ; commanded first division of 
 Porter s squadron in the attacks and capture of 
 Fort Fisher and dependencies, in December, 
 1864, and January, 1865 ; after which he was 
 ordered to command of the West Gulf Squadron 
 as acting rear-admiral, and at once commenced 
 active operations for the capture of Mobile and 
 coast of Texas, in co-operation with the land- 
 forces under Gen. Canby. After a vigorous 
 bombardment, Forts Alexis and Spanish Fort 
 were carried by assault by the army on the night 
 
THEODOLITE 
 
 807 
 
 THKOAT 
 
 of April 9, 1865, leaving the minor works a com 
 paratively easy prey, the Forts Tracy and Hu- 
 ger, near Tracy and Huger, made a spirited 
 resistance until the night of the llth, when their 
 garrisons made their escape through the marshes 
 and in boats. On the following day flags of 
 truce were discovered at the landing, and the 
 announcement made that the rebelGen. Maury 
 had evacuated the city with all his army ; a 
 formal demand was at once made by Gen. Granger 
 and Acting Rear-Admiral Thatcher for the sur 
 render of the city, which was unconditionally 
 complied with. The rebel naval forces, under 
 Flag-Officer Ebenezer Farrand, consisting of the 
 ironclad frigate "Nashville," sloop-of-war "Mor 
 gan" (partially ironclad), the ironclad ram 
 "Baltic," the steamer "Black Warrior," and 
 the rams " Tuscaloosa" and " Huntsville," fled 
 to the river Tombigbee, and sinking the two last 
 named in the channel. Our forces afloat being 
 about to pursue them, Farrand proposed terms 
 of surrender, which having been accepted by 
 Acting Rear-Admiral Thatcher, a suitable force 
 under Commander Edward Simpson (fleet-cap 
 tain) was dispatched by him to take possession 
 and bring them with their officers and men to 
 the city. In May, 1866, Commodore Thatcher 
 was relieved from the Gulf and ordered to the 
 command of the North Pacific Squadron, in 
 which command he remained until relieved, in 
 August, 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, July 25, 1866 ; 
 port-admiral, at Portsmouth, N. EL, 1869-71. 
 Retired May 26, 1868; died 1880. 
 
 Theodolite. An instrument used in survey 
 ing, for measuring angles, leveling, etc. 
 
 There Away. In that direction. 
 
 Thermal Unit. A unit of heat ; or, the quan 
 tity of heat that will raise a unit of weight of 
 matter through a unit of temperature. The 
 English thermal unit is the quantity of heat that 
 will raise one pound of pure water at its maxi 
 mum density, and temperature of 39.1, one 
 degree F. 
 
 Thermometer. An instrument for indicating 
 comparative temperature. In its common form 
 it consists of a capillary glass tube, hermetically 
 sealed at one end and having a bulb blown at 
 the other, thoroughly filled with mercury or 
 colored alcohol at a higher temperature than the 
 instrument is intended to indicate or is likely to 
 be subjected to, a Torricellian vacuum being 
 formed above the liquid when it contracts to 
 lower temperatures. The tube is attached to an 
 arbitrarily graduated scale, usually that of Cel 
 sius, Fahrenheit, or Reaumur, the range or ex 
 pansion of the liquid between the temperature, 
 of melting ice and that of boiling water being 
 divided, respectively, into degrees of 100, 180, or 
 80 parts. The zero of the Celsius (Centigrade] 
 and Reaumur scales is the temperature of melt 
 ing ice ; that of Fahreheit, 32 below. In deli 
 cate physical investigations an air thermometer 
 is employed. 
 
 The thermometers in use on shipboard for me 
 teorological purposes are the dry bulb, from which 
 the temperature of the air is noted ; the ivet bulb, 
 which, by comparison with the dry bulb, gives 
 the amount of moisture in the atmosphere ; and 
 the water thermometer, which is used in obtain 
 ing the temperature of sea-water. A maximum 
 and minimum thermometer is one that regulates 
 
 the extremes of temperatures. A deep-sea ther 
 mometer is used to obtain the temperature of sea- 
 water at great depths, and is constructed so as to 
 resist the pressure of water at such depths. 
 
 Thick-and-dry for Weighing. An expres 
 sion indicating that the nippers should be placed 
 close together on the cable, and as dry as possi 
 ble, to prevent the slipping of the cable when the 
 anchor breaks ground. 
 
 Thick-and-thin Block. A block having two 
 sheaves of different sizes, one above the other. 
 Also called a fiddle-block. 
 
 Thick-stuff. Planking used in ship-building, 
 between 4 inches and 1 foot in thickness. 
 
 Thieves Cat (Eng.}. A cat-o -nine-tails with 
 knots upon the lashes, which is applied as a pun 
 ishment for theft. 
 
 Thimble. An iron ring, the outer surface of 
 which is concave in order that it may be held in 
 position by a rope when spliced around it. It 
 thus serves as a lining for the rope, and protects 
 it from the chafe of a hook or other thimble. 
 
 A lock-thimble is formed by two thimbles 
 which are interlocked. 
 
 THIMBLE-EYES. Holes shaped like thimbles 
 made in an iron plate ; formerly used in place of 
 dead-eyes for setting up topmast rigging. 
 
 Thokes (Eng.}. Fish with broken bellies, 
 which are not allowed to be packed with the un 
 broken, or tale fish. 
 
 Thole, or Thole-pin. A pin, either of wood 
 or metal, fixed to the gunwale of a boat to retain 
 the oar in place when rowing, and which serves 
 as the fulcrum of the lever. The oar may be 
 placed between two such pins, or secured to a 
 single pin by means of a grommet. 
 
 Thorn-back. The fish Raia clavata. 
 
 Thorough -foot. The disarrangement in the 
 parts of a tackle-fall caused by turning or cap 
 sizing one of the blocks through the parts. 
 
 Thorough-put. A thorough-foot (which see). 
 
 Thrasher. The shark Carcharias vulpes. 
 The name is also applied to the grampus on ac 
 count of its supposed mode of attack with its 
 tail. 
 
 Thread. To follow the course of a narrow, 
 tortuous channel. 
 
 Three-cocked-hat. An old style of hat for 
 merly worn by naval officers. 
 
 Three-decker. A ship fitted for carrying 
 guns upon three decks. 
 
 Three Half-hitches are more than a King s 
 Yacht wants is an exclamation peculiar to the 
 English service, meaning that two are enough 
 for any purpose. 
 
 Three Sheets in the Wind is descriptive of the 
 condition of a person partially intoxicated. 
 
 Three Sisters (Eng.). The three rattans 
 formerly carried by the master-at-arms and boat 
 swain s mate. 
 
 Three-square. A surface bounded by three 
 sides ; as, a three-cornered sail. 
 
 Thrift (Eng.). The Armeria, a plant found 
 near the coast. 
 
 Throat. That part of a gaff which is next to 
 the mast. Also applied in ship-building to the 
 midship portion of the floor-timbers, knees, 
 breast-hooks, etc. 
 
 THROAT-BOLT. An eye-bolt either on the 
 throat of a gaff or under the top, into which the 
 throat-halliards are hooked. 
 
 THROAT-BRAIL. One of the ropes or brails by 
 
THROTTLE-VALVE 
 
 808 
 
 TIDES 
 
 which a trysail or spencer is gathered up to the 
 throat of the gaff when the sail is taken in. 
 
 THROAT-HALLIAKDS. The tackle by which 
 the throat of a gaff is hoisted. 
 
 THROAT-SEIZING. The seizing nearest the 
 dead-eye, connecting the end part of a shroud 
 or backstay with the standing part. Also, the 
 seizing by which the strap of a block is made to 
 fit into its score. 
 
 Throttle-valve. A valve situated in the 
 steam-pipe for regulating the admission of steam 
 to an engine, ft generally consists of a disk 
 arranged to rotate about one of its diameters, 
 the throttle-vaive-siem, or axis, being attached to 
 suitable levers and handles. 
 
 Through All. Sail is carried " through all" 
 when it is not reduced to a squall. Formerly, 
 when the anchor was weighed by means of a 
 messenger, the cable was said to " heave through 
 all" when the nippers, being wet and slippery, 
 did not secure the cable to the messenger. 
 
 Through-bolt. A bolt which is driven 
 through and through the sides of the ship, and 
 is riveted on the inside upon clinch-rings. 
 
 Through-fastening. A bolt passing through 
 timber and planking. 
 
 Through the Fleet. A former mode of pun 
 ishment in the English navy, sometimes given 
 for serious offenses, in which the offender was 
 towed to each vessel in the fleet, where he re 
 ceived a part of the lashes to which he had been 
 sentenced. 
 
 Thrums. Short bits of rope-yarns used in 
 making mats. A thrummed mat is made by 
 sewing short pieces of yarns to one side of a 
 piece of canvas or heavy cloth, and is used in 
 protecting sails and rigging from chafe. 
 
 Thrust. A force which acts between two con 
 tiguous bodies, or parts of a body, when each 
 pushes the other from itself, and which tends to 
 compress or shorten each body on which it acts 
 in the direction of its action. It is the kind of 
 force which is exerted by a fluid tending to ex 
 pand against the bodies which surround it. 
 
 THRUST-BEARING. A bearing that receives a 
 force acting in the direction of the axis of a 
 shaft ; as, the bearing that transmits the propel 
 ling force of a screw-propeller to the hull of a 
 vessel. 
 
 Thuban. The star a Draconis. 
 
 Thule. The ancient name applied to the ex 
 treme north. 
 
 Thumb-cleat. A cleat used on a topsail-yard 
 to prevent the turns of the reef-earing from slip 
 ping in on the yard. 
 
 Thumb-stall. A leather covering worn on 
 the thumb by a captain of a gun to protect it 
 from heat in serving the vent. 
 
 Thunder-squall. A squall accompanied by 
 thunder and lightning. 
 
 Thunny. See TUNNY. 
 
 Thus, Very well Thus, or Dice. An old order 
 to the helmsman, the ship being close-hauled, to 
 steer as the ship heads. It is seldom used at the 
 present day but by the oldest of quarter-masters. 
 
 Thwart. The seat in a boat upon which the 
 rower sits. 
 
 Thwart-marks. Objects on shore near the 
 coast, which being in line indicate the channel 
 or the direction of shoals. 
 
 Thwart-ships. Ath wart-ships (which see). 
 
 Tibric (Eng.). An old name for the coal-fish. 
 
 Ticket, Hospital. The document which ac 
 companies a person in the naval service when 
 sent to a naval hospital from a vessel, in which 
 is stated the disease or injury under which the 
 patient is suffering, and the evidence, if any, 
 that said disease was contracted, or the injury 
 received, in the line of duty. It also contains 
 the descriptive list of the patient, and a list of 
 clothing accompanying him. The ticket is 
 signed by the medical officer of the vessel, and 
 approved by the commanding officer of the 
 vessel and the commandant of the station. 
 
 Tides (Sax. tidan, to happen ; from tid, time). 
 Semidiurnal oscillations of the ocean occasioned 
 by the combined action of the sun and moon. 
 The relative effects of these two bodies are di 
 rectly as their mass, and inversely as the square 
 of their distance, and the moon, although very 
 small in comparison with the sun, is so much 
 nearer that she exerts by far the greater influence 
 on the phenomena of the tides. 
 
 The attraction of the moon on different parts 
 of the earth is less as the distance is greater, and 
 thus it influences the parts of the ocean nearest 
 to her more powerfully than the body of the earth, 
 and this again more powerfully than waters most 
 remote. The particles of water under the moon 
 have a tendency to leave the earth, but are re 
 tained by the superior attraction of the earth ; 
 again, the moon attracts the centre of gravity 
 of the earth more powerfully than she attracts 
 the particles of water in the hemisphere opposite 
 to her, so that the earth has a tendency to leave 
 these waters, which are retained, however, by 
 the superior attraction of the earth. The effect 
 of this difference of the attractions on the super 
 ficial water on opposite sides and on the central 
 mass is two risings of the water, the one verti 
 cally below the moon, and the other diametri 
 cally opposite to this place. If the earth were 
 entirely covered with an ocean, the waters would 
 thus assume the form of an oblongated spheroid, 
 having, if the earth had no rotation, its longer 
 axis directed towards the moon and its shorter 
 axis at right angles to that direction. As the 
 moon in her apparent diurnal motion looks down 
 successively upon each meridian, the protuber 
 ance of the ocean follows its motion from east to 
 west ; but by reason of the inertia of the water, 
 this occurs at a meridian about 30 to the east 
 of the moon. This great wave, following all 
 the motions of the moon, is modified by the ac 
 tion of the sun. The sun raises a similar but 
 much smaller wave, which tends to follow his 
 motions, and which consequently at times com 
 bines with the lunar wave and at other times 
 opposes it, according to the relative position of 
 the two bodies. It must be particularly noted 
 that the bodies do not draw after them the water 
 first raised, but continually tend to raise that 
 under them at the time. The tide is not a cir 
 culating current, but an immensely broad and 
 excessively flat wave, which is propagated by the 
 transits of the disturbing body. As this wave 
 strikes the coasts the water gradually elevates 
 itself to a certain height, then as gradually sinks 
 to about the same extent below its mean level ; 
 and this oscillation is continued constantly, with 
 certain variations in the height and in the times 
 of attaining the maxima of elevation and depres 
 sion. Considering the tides relatively to the 
 whole earth and open seas, on the meridian 
 
TIDES 
 
 809 
 
 TIDES 
 
 about 30 to the east of the moon there is high- 
 water, on the west of this circle the tide is flow 
 ing, on the east it is ebbing, and on every part 
 of the meridian at 90 distant it is low-water. 
 
 TIDES, NEAP- (Sax. neafte, scarcity). The 
 smallest tides, being the result of the action of 
 the moon and sun when they are conflicting. 
 They take place after the moon is in quadratures, 
 i.e., after the first and third quarter of the 
 moon. The smallest neap-tides happen when 
 the moon s and sun s attractions tend most to 
 counteract each other, which will happen when 
 the moon s action is the least possible and the 
 sun s the greatest possible. This will evidently 
 be (1) When the rnoon is in apogee and the earth 
 in perihelion at or near the same time ; or, in 
 other words, as the parallax of a body indicates 
 its proximity to the earth, when the moon s par 
 allax is the least, while the sun s is the greatest. 
 (2) When the moon s declination and the lati 
 tude of the place are of different names, and the 
 declination the greatest possible, at the same 
 time that the sun s declination coincides or ap 
 proximates to the latitude of the place, both be 
 ing .north or south ; or, in other words, when 
 the moon s altitude is the least possible and the 
 sun s the greatest, the action being the more 
 powerful in proportion as the body is more 
 nearly vertical. The magnitude of the tide is 
 also affected by strong winds and the state of 
 the atmosphere. The action of the former is 
 most conspicuous in rivers and narrow seas, and 
 of the latter it has been observed that a rise in 
 the barometer of an inch has been accompanied 
 by a depression in the water of the tide of 12 or 
 14 inches. 
 
 TIDES, SPRING- (Sax. spring an, to grow, 
 bulge). The greatest tides being the result of 
 the action of the moon and sun when they are 
 co-operating, they take place after the moon is 
 in syzygies, i.e.. in conjunction or opposition, 
 when it is new and full moon. The greatest 
 spring-tides happen when the moon arid sun are 
 in such positions that their attractions produce 
 the greatest effect upon the waters, especially 
 when these positions are contemporaneous. 
 These are (1) When the moon is in perigee; 
 when the earth is in perihelion. In other words 
 (as the parallax of a body indicates its proximity 
 to the earth), the effect of each body in raising 
 the tide is greater as its parallax is greater. (2) 
 When the moon s declination coincides with or 
 approximates to the latitude of the place, both 
 being north or south; when the sun s declina 
 tion fulfills the like condition. In other words 
 (as, generally speaking, the vertical action is 
 the most powerful), the effect of the two bodies 
 is greater as their altitudes are greater. The 
 magnitude of the tide is also affected by strong 
 winds and the state of the atmosphere; favor 
 able winds and a low barometer are the meteor 
 ological conditions which augment the tides. 
 
 TIDE, SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR. The superior 
 tide is that which takes place in the hemisphere 
 which has the moon above the horizon ; the 
 inferior tide is that which happens simultaneously 
 in the hemisphere which has the moon below the 
 horizon. 
 
 TIDE- WAVE. The accumulation of the waters 
 of the sea which is caused by the action of the 
 moon, modified by that of the sun, changes its 
 position through the day. The moon and sun 
 
 in their diurnal revolutions continually and suc 
 cessively tend to raise the water beneath them at 
 the time, and thus the alteration in the level of 
 the sea is propagated from east to west, though 
 there is no transference of the water itself except 
 near the shore. Interruptions in the regular 
 propagation of the tide-wave are caused by the 
 depth of the ocean and the barriers presented by 
 land stretching athwart its direction. 
 
 TIDE-CURRENT. The current in a channel 
 caused by the alteration of the level of the water 
 during the passage of the tide-wave. The tide- 
 current does not generally change with the tide ; 
 thus, under certain circumstances, the current of 
 the ebb continues to run for some hours after the 
 flood-tide has made. 
 
 TIDE, KANGE OR HEIGHT OF. The difference 
 between the level of high-water and that of low- 
 water. Speaking of the earth at large, the range 
 is greater in those latitudes over which the moon 
 and sun pass vertically, being very small in high 
 latitudes. In the open ocean the range is incon 
 siderable, and in inland seas almost insensible. 
 It is most affected by local causes, as the shoaling 
 of the water and the narrowing of the channel, es 
 pecially if the channel opens in the direction of 
 the tide- wave. 
 
 TIDE, RETARD OR AGE OF. The interval be 
 tween the transit of the moon, at which a tide 
 originates, and the appearance of the tide itself. 
 It is found in general that any particular tide is 
 not due to the moon s transit immediately pre 
 ceding, but to a transit which has occurred some 
 time before, and which is said therefore to cor 
 respond to it. The retard of the tide is thus dis 
 tinguished from the Innitidal interval, which is 
 the interval between the moon s transit and the 
 high-water next following. The name retard is 
 derived from the tide appearing to be " retarded" 
 in following the moon in her diurnal course. The 
 cause of the phenomenon may, however, be best 
 understood by regarding the actual rotatory mo 
 tion of the earth on its axis, instead of the ap 
 parent diurnal revolution of the moon in the 
 heavens. The momentum of the water will 
 cause a continuance of its rise long after it has 
 passed under the excited cause. On the same 
 principle, changes in the parallax and declination 
 of the sun and moon produce their several effects 
 on the time and height of the tide, not immedi 
 ately, but after certain intervals. 
 
 TIDE, TIDE AND HALF-TIDE, TIDE AND 
 QUARTER-TIDE. In the open sea high- and low- 
 water succeed each other at intervals of about 6 h 
 12 m ; such interval is designated " a tide." In 
 channels where a tide-current is formed, when 
 the stream continues to flow up for 8 h after it is 
 high-water, it is said to make "a tide and half- 
 tide" ; if it continue to flow during l h 30 m after 
 high- water, it is said to make " a tide and quarter- 
 tide," and so on. 
 
 TIDE-DAY, PRIMING AND LAGGING. The 
 tide-day is the interval between two successive 
 arrivals at the same place of the same vertex of 
 the tide-wave. It varies in length as the waves 
 due to the separate action of the moon and sun 
 approach to or recede from coincidence, the re 
 sultant maximum being at a point intermediate 
 between them. The lengthening and shortening 
 of the tide-day on its mean is called the priming 
 and lagging of the tide. 
 
 TIDE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PORT. The sun 
 
TIE 
 
 810 
 
 TIME 
 
 and moon being in the same relative position, the 
 time of high-water is different for different ports, 
 owing to the inertia of the water and the ob 
 structions it meets with from the friction of the 
 sea-bed, and the narrowness, length, and direc 
 tion of the channels along which the wave has 
 to travel before reaching the port. It is of great 
 maritime importance to be able to find the time 
 of high-water for harbors and ports, and to this 
 end a standard tide is fixed upon, indicated by 
 a particular relative position of the moon and 
 sun, from which the time of every tide may be 
 deduced. This standard is called the establish- 
 ment of the port, and is the time of high- water 
 at full and change of the moon at the given port 
 reckoned from apparent noon. It is the actual 
 time of high-water when the moon passes the 
 meridian at the same time as the sun, or the in 
 terval between the time of transit of the moon 
 and the time of high-water on full or change 
 days. It may be determined roughly by obser 
 vation on the day of full or change, and is, in 
 this case, distinguished by Whewell as the vulgar 
 establishment of the port. The corrected es 
 tablishment of the port is the interval between 
 the time of the moon s transit and the time of 
 the tide not on the day of syzygy, but corre 
 sponding to the day of syzygy. It may be de 
 termined by observing the intervals of the times 
 of the moon s transit and the times of tide every 
 day for a semi-lunation, and taking the mean of 
 these. If we know by how much "the transit of 
 the moon to which the tide corresponds is ante 
 cedent to the transit next preceding the tide, the 
 corrected establishment may be obtained from 
 one observation of any tide. The establish 
 ment of the port is spoken of by Robinson as 
 "the time of the syzygie high- water for the 
 given port," which may be abbreviated into 
 syzygy tide; similarly, it has been called the 
 change tide. 
 
 Tie. That part of the purchase for hoisting a 
 topsail-yard which is attached to the yard and 
 passes through the sheave-hole in the mast, or 
 the tie-block at the mast-head. Tie of a cartridge, 
 the end of the cylinder secured by a woolen 
 thrum after the cartridge is filled. 
 
 Tie-for-tie. A former expression indicative 
 of exchange of courtesy and good-will, handed 
 down from the days when cues were worn, and 
 tying required to be performed by another. 
 
 Tier. A row or layer ; as, the upper or lower 
 tier of casks. The cable-tier is that part of a 
 vessel s hold where the hawsers or hemp-cables 
 are stowed. 
 
 Ti EREB. A man stationed in the chain-locker 
 to stow the chain ; but formerly, one stationed in 
 
 the cable-tier for the stowing of hemp-cables, 
 
 hence the name. 
 
 TIER-SHOT. Grape-shot in which the several 
 layers or tiers are secured by parallel iron plates. 
 
 Tierce. A cask of the capacity of 42 wine 
 gallons. Also, a measure of the same amount. 
 A cask used in packing salt provisions, contain 
 ing 336 pounds. 
 
 Tie-ties. Stops of small cord, sometimes 
 used in securing a hammock, in place of a ham 
 mock-lashing. 
 
 Tight. Free from leaks ; applied either to a 
 cask which retains a liquid or to a ship which 
 excludes it. Taut is used in place of tight when 
 speaking of a rope upon which there is a strain. 
 
 Tiller. An iron or wooden bar fitting intc 
 the socket near the rudder-head, which forms the 
 lever by which the rudder is moved. 
 
 TILLER-HEAD. The end of the tiller farthest 
 from the rudder. 
 
 TILLER-ROPES, or WHEEL-HOPES. Ropes 
 which connect the tiller with the wheel. They 
 are usually made of hide. Small chains or wire- 
 ropes are sometimes used for that purpose in 
 merchant steamers. 
 
 TILLER-SWEEP. See SWEEP. 
 
 Tilt (Eng.}. A small awning sometimes used 
 to protect the stern of a boat. 
 
 TILT-BOAT (Eng.}. A boat covered with can 
 vas, in which articles can be protected from the 
 weather. 
 
 Timber. A name given to any of the pieces 
 of timber which compose the frame of a ship ; as, 
 floor-timbers, futtock-timbers, top timbers, etc. 
 
 TIMBER AND ROOM. The space from the 
 centre to the centre of the frames. 
 
 TIMBER-HEADS. Projecting timbers for be 
 laying towing-lines, etc. 
 
 TIMBER-HITCH. A hitch made by passing the 
 end of a rope around an object, then over and 
 under the standing part, and securing the end 
 from slipping by taking two or three turns 
 around its own part. 
 
 Time. A definite portion of duration. It is 
 marked, in a general manner, by the recurrence 
 of striking natural phenomena, such as the alter 
 nations of light and darkness, and the succession 
 of the seasons. Thus the two natural measures 
 of time are the day or period of the earth s rota 
 tion on her axis, and the year or period of the 
 earth s revolution in her orbit. See CALENDAR. 
 
 Time, in the abstract, is reckoned from an epoch 
 (or initial instant) independent of local situation, 
 such is that known among astronomers as equi 
 noctial time, which is the same for all the in 
 habitants of the earth. Local time is reckoned 
 at each particular place from an epoch deter 
 mined by local convenience, such as the transit 
 of the sun s centre over the meridian of the 
 place ; what is called Greenwich time and ship- 
 time are both examples of local time. 
 
 The day depends upon the rotation of the earth 
 on her axis, but this is indicated to a spectator 
 on the surface only by the apparent revolution 
 of the celestial sphere in the opposite direction. 
 Diurnal time is, therefore, defined by the motion 
 of some chosen point in the heavens as it appears 
 to revolve from east to west, and is measured by 
 the angle at the pole of the heavens between the 
 celestial meridian and the hour-circle passing 
 through the point of definition, reckoning west 
 ward. Thus we have sidereal time, apparent 
 solar time, and mean solar time, according as the 
 point of definition is the first point of Aries, the 
 actual sun, or the mean sun. 
 
 TIME AZIMUTH. An azimuth determined by 
 calculation from the latitude, the declination, 
 and the hour-angle. An altitude azimuth is an 
 azimuth determined by calculation from the 
 latitude, the declination, and the altitude. 
 
 TIME-BALL. A ball attached to a mast or 
 staff, placed in a position where it can be easily 
 observed. The ball is dropped on its staff at a 
 certain instant of mean time, usually at meridian, 
 and affords an opportunity for correcting chro 
 nometers. 
 
 TIME-FUZE. A fuze so constructed as to burn 
 
TIMENOGUY 
 
 811 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 a certain number of seconds after ignition by the 
 flame from the charge, exploding the shell at the 
 end of that time. 
 
 TIME-KEEPER. An instrument for the meas 
 uring of time. 
 
 TIMS, SHIP-. The mean solar time at the 
 place where a ship happens to be, as contrasted 
 with Greenwich mean time. 
 
 TIME-SIGHT. The name usually applied to 
 an observation of the altitude of a heavenly body 
 for the purpose of obtaining the mean time of 
 observation, from which the longitude is de 
 duced. 
 
 Timenoguy. A rope stretched from one place 
 to another to prevent gear from becoming foul. 
 That most commonly used extends from the fore 
 rigging to the anchor-stock to keep the fore 
 tack and sheet clear of the anchor-stock in tack 
 ing. The pendant which extends from the 
 mizzen-top to the main-brace block as a support 
 to the latter is sometimes called by the same 
 name. 
 
 Timonogy. A gauge or tell-tale formerly 
 used in large ships, by which the position of the 
 tiller could at all times be known. 
 
 Tindal. A Lascar boatswain s mate. 
 
 Tinker (Eng.}. A small mortar which was 
 formerly used in ships of war. Also, a mackerel 
 of small size ; also called skate. 
 
 Tinkerman ( Eng.}. A name formerly applied 
 to fishermen of the Thames who took fish with 
 nets, contrary to law. 
 
 Tin-potter. A galley skulker. 
 
 Tip All Nines (Eng.}. To founder; there- 
 suit of carrying too much sail. 
 
 Tippet (Eng.}. A snood on a fishing-line. 
 
 Tip the Grampus. To duck a look-out for 
 being asleep. 
 
 T-iron. Bar-iron having a cross-section of 
 the form of the letter T. 
 
 Titivate. To clean and put to rights. 
 
 T-joint. In pipe-fitting, a joint by which 
 three pieces of pipe are connected in the form of 
 the letter T ; two pieces being continued on the 
 same axis, and the third branching at right 
 angles therefrom. 
 
 Toad-fish. The Lophiuspiscatorius, or fishing- 
 frog. 
 
 Tobacco-chart (Eng.}. The name formerly 
 given to a worthless kind of chart sold by ship- 
 chandlers. 
 
 Tod-boat. A Dutch fishing-boat. 
 
 Toddy. The juice extracted from the palm 
 and sometimes called palm-wine. Also, a mix 
 ture of spirits, sugar, and water. 
 
 Toe a Seam. To stand on deck without mov 
 ing. a punishment sometimes given for minor 
 offenses. 
 
 Toggle. A piece of wood varying in size and 
 strength, used for connecting two ropes in place 
 of a hook. The toggle being fixed to the end of 
 one rope is passed into the eye made in another, 
 like a button. By this means bowlines are fas 
 tened to their bridles, and buntlines to the foot 
 of a topsail or course. Toggles are frequently 
 fastened to the lower and topsail braces to pre 
 vent them from unreeving from the brace-block 
 on the yard-arm in case of injury to the brace. 
 A heavy toggle is used by whalers for attaching 
 the blubber to the lower purchase-block in " cut 
 ting in," it being more easily handled than a 
 hook. 
 
 TOGGLE-BOLT. A bolt used in confining an 
 iron band or strap in its place ; as, the band by 
 which a boat s mast is secured to a thwart, or a 
 flag-staff to the stern of a vessel. 
 
 Togs. An old name for clothes among sailors. 
 Sunday togs are best clothes, and long togs are 
 those worn by people on shore. An officer 
 togged to the nines is in full dress. 
 
 Toke. A drink made from honey on the 
 island of Madagascar. 
 
 Toko for Yam. An expression used by the 
 negroes of the West India Islands, meaning to 
 cry out before being hurt. 
 
 Tom Astoner. A gay, dashing fellow. 
 
 Tomcod. The fish Morrhua pruinosa, which 
 is found on the coast of America at the time of 
 frosts; hence called frost-fish. 
 
 Tom Cox s Traverse signifies the efforts made 
 by a skulker to avoid work. It has been de 
 scribed by "Up one hatchway and down an 
 other;" also, " Three turns around the long-boat 
 and a pull at the scuttle." But the traverse is 
 not limited to these descriptions. 
 
 Tomnoddy, or Tomnorry. A fish ; the Fra- 
 tercula artica. 
 
 Tom Pepper. The name for a liar. 
 
 Tompion. A wooden plug placed in the muz 
 zle of a gun to keep out water and dust. 
 
 Tom-tom. A rude drum used by the natives 
 in tropical countries. 
 
 Ton. 20 hundred-weight, or 2240 pounds. 
 A short ton of 2000 pounds is frequently used. 
 A ton in space is estimated at about 40 cubic 
 feet. Ton for ton and man for man, an expres 
 sion meaning that all the vessels of a fleet should 
 share, according to tonnage and number of crew, 
 in the prizes taken. 
 
 Tonee. A canoe formerly used, on the coast 
 of Malabar. 
 
 Tongs, Shot-. An iron instrument used in 
 hoisting or lowering shot from one deck to an 
 other. 
 
 Tongue. A low point of land. Also, a mass 
 of ice projecting under water from an iceberg. 
 The name is also applied to the long tapered end 
 of a piece of timber which is joined to another 
 piece by scarfing. Tongue of a bevel, the mov 
 able part of a beveling instrument. 
 
 Tonnage. The contents or burden of a ship 
 .in tons, which is commonly calculated by builders 
 and merchants by a curious rule, given hereafter, 
 producing what is called the builder s tonnage. 
 The real burden a ship is to carry when brought 
 down to the load water-line can be ascertained 
 by the use of one of the several rules in use for 
 finding the displacement of a ship and the making 
 of a scale of displacement therefrom. 
 
 The rule established by law in the United 
 States under act of 1799, and which continued 
 in force until superseded by that given in the 
 law of May 6, 1864, provided that from the ex 
 treme length of the vessel there should be de 
 ducted three-fifths of the breadth ; the remainder 
 was multiplied by the breadth and the product 
 by the depth, which in the case of a double- 
 decked vessel was arbitrarily assumed as being 
 equal to one-half the breadth ; the latter product 
 was then divided by 95, and the quotient was 
 taken as the legal tonnage on which tonnage 
 dues were to be paid. It was thus made the 
 interest of owners to build excessively deep ships, 
 the law in this way discriminating in favor of 
 
TOP 
 
 812 
 
 TOPGALLANT 
 
 clumsy, slow, and inefficient ships, and discour 
 aging attempts at improvements in model. 
 
 By the act of May 6, 1864, vessels are divided 
 into six classes according to length, those in each 
 class being divided into a certain number of 
 equal parts or transverse sections, to which dif 
 ferent values are assigned in computing the total 
 tonnage of the vessel ; the actual depths between 
 decks are measured and taken as factors, and any 
 closed-in space on or above the upper deck and 
 capable of receiving cargo, etc., is included in 
 the measurement. 
 
 The dimensions are all taken in feet and deci 
 mals of a foot, and the number 100 is used as 
 the final divisor for ascertaining the capacity 
 of the ship in tons, instead of 95, as in the old 
 law. 
 
 Class 1. Vessels under 50 feet long, divided 
 into 6 equal parts. 
 
 Class 2. Vessels 50 to 100 feet long, divided 
 into 8 equal parts. 
 
 Class 3. Vessels 100 to 150 feet long, divided 
 into 10 equal parts. 
 
 Class 4. Vessels 150 to 200 feet long, divided 
 into 12 equal parts. 
 
 Class 5. Vessels 200 to 250 feet long, divided 
 into 14 equal parts. 
 
 Class 6. Vessels over 250 feet long, divided 
 into 16 equal parts. 
 
 The details for making the measurements and 
 calculations are too long to be inserted here, but 
 may be found in " Revised Statutes of the United 
 States," Section 4153. 
 
 The rule adopted in England by the Merchant 
 Shipping Act of 1854 is essentially the same as 
 that established in this country: the measure 
 ments are made in feet and decimals, and the 
 principles of calculation are identical. Vessels 
 are divided as follows : 
 
 Not exceeding 50 feet in length, into 4 parts. 
 
 Not exceeding 120 feet in length, into 6 parts. 
 
 Not exceeding 180 feet in length, into 8 parts. 
 
 Not exceeding 225 feet in length, into 10 parts. 
 
 Over 225 feet in length, into 12 parts. 
 
 In steam-vessels the length, breadth, and 
 height of the engine-room are multiplied together, 
 the product divided by 100, and the result de 
 ducted from the gross tonnage. The space occu 
 pied by the,propeller-shaft is considered as a part 
 of the engine-room. 
 
 It would seem that the American method, 
 employing, as it does, a greater number of divis 
 ions for the same length, should be slightly more 
 accurate than the English, or afford at least, on 
 the average, a somewhat nearer approximation 
 to the true capacity of a vessel ; either, however, 
 may be relied on generally as coming within 4 
 or 5 per cent, of the truth. This difference may, 
 in extreme cases, amount to 10 or 12 per cent., a 
 trifling error as compared with those incident to 
 the old system. 
 
 The ton measurement upon which freight is 
 charged is calculated at 40 cubic feet; the differ 
 ence between that and the ton of 100 cubic feet, 
 or that of the register, represents the dead weight 
 or displacement of the ship when light, or 60 per 
 cent, of the whole, 40 per cent, only being avail 
 able flotative power for cargo. 
 
 Top. A platform of semicircular form rest 
 ing upon the trestle-trees of the lower mast of a 
 square-rigged vessel. It gives spread to the top 
 mast rigging, which is set up to the rim of the 
 
 top. It also serves as a place for sharp-shooters 
 during an engagement, and in a large vessel is 
 of sufficient size for the use of a howitzer. It is 
 of use as a landing-place from which the light- 
 yard men start in loosing or furling, as a place 
 where topgallant and royal studding-sails are 
 kept at sea, and from which they are set, and 
 where men are stationed to set or take in 
 royals, and light studding-sails when the gear 
 is brought into the top instead of to the deck. 
 The top is supported on the under side by the 
 futtock-shrouds, which extend from the rim on 
 each side to a band on the lower-mast below the 
 cheeks. The breadth of a main-top is equal to 
 one-half the molded breadth of beam, and its 
 length is five-eighths of its breadth. The size of 
 a fore-top is nine-tenths that of the main-top, 
 and the size of a mizzen-top is five-sevenths that 
 of the main-top. To top a boom, to raise the 
 outer end by means of the topping-lift. To top 
 the glim, to snuff a candle. To top the officer, 
 to take upon one s self airs of superiority. 
 
 TOP-ARMINGS. Hammocks stowed in the tops 
 to serve as a protection for small-arm men during 
 action. 
 
 TOP-BLOCK. A heavy iron-strapped block 
 through which the top-pendant reeves in send 
 ing a topmast up or down. 
 
 TOP-BURTON. See TACKLES. 
 
 TOP-CASTLE. A protected place at the mast 
 heads of ships built in the early days of the Eng 
 lish navy, from which darts and arrows could be 
 thrown upon the enemy s deck. 
 
 TOP-CHAIN. A chain used as an additional 
 support for a topsail-yard in case of injury, during 
 action, to the ropes by which it is held in position. 
 
 TOP-LIGHT. A large lantern carried in the 
 mizzen-top of a flag-ship at night. 
 
 TOP-LINING. A lining-cloth sewed to the 
 after side of a topsail to protect it from chafing 
 against the rim of the top. 
 
 TOPMAN. A man stationed for duty in one 
 of the tops. 
 
 TOP-MAUL. A heavy hammer, resembling a 
 
 TOP-NETTING. A netting fastened to the rail 
 and stanchions at the after rim of a top. 
 
 TOP-PENDANT. A large rope used in sending 
 a topmast up or down. It passes through the 
 top-block at the lower-mast head, then through 
 the sheave-hole near the heel of the topmast, and 
 secures at the head of the lower-mast. It is of 
 sufficient length to allow the heel of the topmast 
 to reach the deck. 
 
 TOP-RAIL. A light iron railing, placed at the 
 after rim of a top. 
 
 TOP-RIM. The circular sweep which forms 
 the edge of a top. 
 
 TOP-ROPE. See TOP-PENDANT. 
 
 TOP-SWIVEL. A small gun formerly used in 
 a ship s top. 
 . TOP-TACKLE. See TACKLE. 
 
 Top-and-butt. A method of working plank 
 ing, causing every other seam to present a fair 
 edge. 
 
 Tope. A species of shark. Also, the name 
 of a small Chinese junk. 
 
 Topgallant. The name applied to the mast, 
 sail, yard, and the ropes belonging to each 
 which are next above the topmast and topsail. 
 It is also applied to portions of the deck or rail 
 raised above the rest. 
 
TOP-HAMPER 
 
 813 
 
 TORPEDO 
 
 TOPGALLANT-FORECASTLE. A short deck in 
 the bow of a vessel above the spar deck. In 
 ships of war it is of sufficient size for the work 
 ing of a gun as large as a 60-pounder, and a part 
 of the crew can be berthed underneath. The 
 cables are also worked under the topgallant- 
 forecastle in sloops-of-war and merchant vessels. 
 
 TOPGALLANT-MAST. The mast above the top 
 mast. The topgallant-rnast and royal-mast are 
 usually made from a single spar. 
 
 TOPGALLANT-BAIL, or BULWARKS. A light 
 rail or bulwarks built upon the main bulwarks 
 of a vessel. 
 
 TOPGALLANT-SAIL. The sail next above a 
 topsail. 
 
 TOPGALLANT-YARD. See YARD. 
 
 Top-hamper. Unnecessary spars and rigging 
 kept aloft. 
 
 Top-knot. A species of flat-fish of the genus 
 Rhombus (R. punctatus). 
 
 Topmast. The mast next above the lower- 
 mast. See MASTS. 
 
 Topsail. See SAILS. 
 
 TOPSAIL SCHOONER. A schooner which carries 
 a square topsail on her fore-topmast. When 
 sailing before the wind a square-sail can then be 
 set upon the lower yard. A schooner which has 
 a square topsail upon both fore- and main-top 
 masts is called a two-topsail schooner. 
 
 TOPSAIL-SHEET BITT. A bitt or timber-head 
 near the lower-mast, through which a topsail- 
 sheet is rove, and to which it is belayed. 
 
 TOPSAIL-YARD. See YARD. 
 
 Top-sawyer. One who takes the leading part 
 in any work. 
 
 Top-sides. The upper part of the ship, in 
 cluding all above the water-line. 
 
 TOP-SIDE LINES. The general outlines of the 
 top-sides, either forward and aft, or vertically. 
 
 TOP-TIMBERS. The uppermost timbers com 
 posing the frame of a ship. 
 
 TOP-TIMBER LINE, or TOP-BREADTH. The 
 curve limiting the height of the sheer at the 
 head of the top -timbers. 
 
 Tor (Ang.-Sax. torr). A high peak or rock. 
 
 Tormenter. A large iron fork with two 
 prongs, used by the ship s cook in taking meat 
 from the coppers. 
 
 Tornado. A tempest distinguished by its re 
 volving as well as progressive motion. See 
 STORM, REVOLVING. 
 
 Torpedo. A species of ray (Torpedo vulgar is] 
 having electric power. It is found in the Medi 
 terranean and Atlantic. It is also called cramp- 
 fish. 
 
 Torpedo. This term is properly applied to 
 a torpedo used in attack only, those used for de 
 fensive warfare being called submarine mines. 
 
 Capt. David Bushnell, of Connecticut, was 
 the originator of the idea of torpedo warfare; 
 but Robert Fulton first called a magazine of 
 powder intended for use under water a torpedo. 
 Bushnell carried on his experiments before the 
 Revolution, and made some unsuccessful at 
 tempts during that war to blow up the enemy s 
 vessels. Fulton s experiments, carried on abroad 
 and afterwards in the United States, came to an 
 end previous to the war of 1812. The non-suc 
 cess of torpedoes during that war, and the general 
 feeling against this mode of warfare, as inhuman 
 and barbarous, caused all experiments to cease 
 for many years. Both these inventors thought 
 
 it necessary to construct and use submarine boats 
 for this kind of warfare. The difficulties met 
 with in the attempted solution of this problem, 
 together with the want of steam as a motive- 
 power, and the necessity of using clock-work to 
 explode their torpedoes, caused almost all their 
 efforts to prove abortive. No further experi 
 ments of importance with movable torpedoes for 
 offensive warfare were made until the civil war 
 of 1861-65. During the summer of 18G3 they 
 were first brought into general use. The tor 
 pedoes employed by the rebels were of various 
 forms and sizes. They were usually made of 
 stout copper, although torpedoes made of barrels 
 and other vessels wereoccasionally extemporized; 
 they contained from 50 to 150 pounds of powder, 
 according to circumstances. Every description 
 of vessel in their service was fitted with tor 
 pedoes, generally a spar attached to the vessel by 
 a goose-neck and controlled by guys and tackled 
 was used. They also constructed boats especially 
 for torpedo warfare ; these boats were generally 
 known as davids, from their small size. The 
 fuzes fitted to the torpedoes were generally of 
 the percussion type, so as to explode on contact. 
 
 The complete destruction of the sloop-of-war 
 " Housatonic," February, 1864, was by a tor 
 pedo fitted with such a fuze, carried by a sub 
 marine boat. The "Minnesota" was consider 
 ably damaged by a torpedo containing 53 pounds 
 of powder carried on the end of a spar from an 
 ordinary steam-launch. The various attacks 
 made at other times as a rule did but little dam 
 age. The destruction of the "Albemarle" by 
 Lieut. Curbing was accomplished by a torpedo 
 consisting of a copper cj lindrical case filled with 
 powder, through the centre of which there was a 
 hollow tube; at the bottom of this tube was a 
 large fulminate cap; a small-sized grape-shot 
 was held at the upper end of this tube "by a pin. 
 
 The torpedo was exploded by pulling a line 
 connected to the pin, which being withdrawn 
 allowed the grape-shot to run down the hollow 
 tube inside the torpedo and explode the fulmi 
 nate cap. 
 
 The rebels were very successful in blowing up 
 vessels by torpedoes planted in their rivers and 
 harbors, but, according to the division already 
 spoken of, these come under the title submarine 
 mines. 
 
 Drifting torpedoes were also used, but with 
 indifferent success, on account of their primitive 
 form. 
 
 They were but little better than those used by 
 Bushnell, at Philadelphia, in 1777, which caused 
 the panic and engagement known as "the Bat 
 tle of the Kegs." This kind of torpedo might 
 be used with advantage against pontoon bridges, 
 booms, etc., and several kinds have been devised 
 for this purpose. In fact, the first torpedoes 
 used were of this nature. They are frequently 
 fired by the revolution of a paddle-wheel, or 
 other action of the current upon the torpedo 
 after it has brought up against the obstruction ; 
 the current having no effect while the torpedo is 
 drifting with it. 
 
 Another kind of torpedo is known as the 
 Otter, or towing-torpedo. These can be fired 
 either by contact or electricity. Considerable 
 interest was manifested a few years since in the 
 " Barvey towing-torpedo." This torpedo was 
 towed on the quarter of the attacking vessel, 
 
TORPEDO 
 
 814 
 
 TORPEDO-BOAT 
 
 which by passing or other means was supposed 
 to bring the torpedo in contact with the vessel to 
 be destroyed. While in theory it was rather 
 plausible, in practice it was not successful. 
 
 There are some other types of towing-torpedoes, 
 but none are much superior to the Harvey. 
 
 Those torpedoes which possess within" them 
 selves the power to move through the water are 
 sometimes called locomotive-torpedoes; to this 
 class belong the Whitehead fish-torpedo, the 
 Lay torpedo, and Rocket torpedoes. 
 
 The Whitehead torpedo is cigar-shaped, being 
 largest at the middle and tapering to each end. 
 It is divided into three compartments ; the for 
 ward compartment carries the charge, the mid 
 dle section carries the adjustment mechanism, 
 in which lies the secret of the invention, and 
 the after part contains the air- and engine- 
 chamber. It is driven by compressed air, the 
 engines being able to exert a force of 40 indicated 
 horse-power, and weighs but 35 pounds. The 
 torpedoes vary in size from 14 to 19 feet in 
 length, and from 14 to 16 inches in diameter, 
 and have a speed varying from 10 to 20 knots an 
 hour for the distance of 1000 yards. It is fired 
 mechanically, either upon contact or after hav 
 ing run to any desired distance. It can be ad 
 justed so as to run any depth from surface from 
 5 to 15 feet. In still water without currents it 
 will travel in a straight line. It can be adjusted 
 to stop after having run any distance up to its 
 extreme range, and after stopping to sink, float, 
 or explode. The torpedo can be projected from 
 tubes under water either right ahead or on the 
 broadside. It can also be projected from the 
 surface. The first time this torpedo was used in 
 actual service was in the engagement between 
 the * Shah" and " Huascar," when it completely 
 failed; it was said the distance was too great. 
 The second attempt to use it was by the Russians 
 against the Turks, December, 1877. Two were 
 fired, both missed, and went ashore on the beach. 
 The third and last time by the Russians, Janu 
 ary, 1878. Their torpedo-boats undertook to 
 enter the harbor of Batoum to attack the Turk 
 ish fleet, but met a Turkish revenue-steamer, at 
 which they discharged their torpedoes and de 
 stroyed her. The alarm given caused this to 
 end the attack. The results accomplished so far 
 are not at all commensurate with the money and 
 trouble expended on this torpedo. 
 
 The Lay torpedo somewhat resembles the 
 Whitehead torpedo in its general design. Am- 
 moniacal gas supplies the motive-power. The 
 torpedo is connected with the ship or shore by an 
 insulated wire, and carries above- water some vis 
 ible object. The wire is carried on a reel in the 
 torpedo, and pays out as the torpedo runs its 
 course. By it the torpedo may be started, stopped, 
 steered, fired, sunk, raised, etc. It has been 
 said of this invention that it can do everything 
 but talk. It can be discharged from ships or 
 from the shore, but it is doubtful if such a tor 
 pedo would prove manageable in a sea-fight. 
 They are besides very expensive, and the suc 
 cessful handling of them requires a person of 
 experience and ability. However, it would ap 
 pear to have advantages over the Whitehead 
 torpedo, which is sure to miss the object aimed 
 at when influenced by tides or currents. 
 
 Finally, there is the spar-torpedo, which re 
 mains a favorite with many of the oflicers of our 
 
 navy. This is a great recommendation in its 
 favor, as torpedo warfare originated and has 
 been chiefly developed in this country. Nearly 
 every success with offensive torpedoes has been 
 made by a torpedo carried on the end of a spar 
 projecting from a boat or vessel. They should 
 explode on contact, and by electricity at will. 
 This makes explosion a certainty. Had it been 
 necessary for the late Commander Cushing to 
 explode the torpedo used by him with a Farmer 
 machine, it is probable he would not have de 
 stroyed the " Albemarle." The ordinary service 
 fuze is exploded by the electricity heating a fine 
 platinum thread, which makes a bridge within 
 the fuze itself. These fuzes are made very per 
 fectly at the Torpedo Station. 
 
 In case of war, the small steam-tugs, yachts, 
 etc., in our harbors would make good torpedo- 
 boats. They could be quickly and cheaply fitted 
 for service. Doubtless it would be better to have 
 a large number of small, very fast boats, espe 
 cially designed for this purpose, on hand ready for 
 an emergency. In an attack it is probable "that 
 many of them would be destroyed, but a success 
 ful explosion by one would destroy any ironclad. 
 
 The torpedoes used on the " Alarm"- are of a 
 shape not unlike an ordinary elongated projec 
 tile, having the outboard end hemispherical. 
 Those for the bow spar are 4J feet long and 1 
 foot in diameter, and hold 100 pounds of pow 
 der. Those for the side spars are not so long. 
 The end of the spar enters the torpedo-shell for 
 about a foot, there is a space then of about f> 
 inches for water to act as a cushioning, then 
 there is a diaphragm with an opening in centre, 
 for the water-tight fitting fuze. The wires are 
 brought up within the spar, and are connected 
 with the key-boards. The torpedoes are fired by 
 a Farmer dynamo-electric machine run by a 
 small steam-engine. The spars run out under 
 water by steam-power, and work satisfactorily. 
 The torpedoes are of the same diameter as the 
 spar, and are put on before the spar is run out. 
 See SUBMARINE MINES. R. M. G. Brown, Lieu 
 tenant U.S.N. 
 
 Torpedo-boat. The torpedo-boat proper is a 
 very light fast boat, carrying no stores and only 
 a few men. They are only used for harbor-work, 
 unless carried at the davits of larger vessels and 
 lowered in action at sea. The term, however, 
 has frequently been applied in a much more 
 general sense, so as to include vessels of several 
 hundred tons displacement, and also such tor 
 pedoes as the Lay torpedo, which is managed by 
 electricit}^ conveyed through an insulated wire 
 from the shore or ship. . 
 
 David Bushnell, of Connecticut, was the first 
 to call attention to torpedoes and torpedo-boats. 
 He designed a submarine torpedo-boat during the 
 latter part of the last century. His boat carried 
 but one man, and held enough air to allow him 
 to remain below the surface for half an hour. By 
 an ingenious arrangement of oars the operator 
 was enabled to propel and steer his boat. A 
 magazine containing a clock-work was carried 
 on the boat, and by a simple device the operator 
 was to fasten a wood screw into the bottom of 
 the enemy s vessel, which screw was connected 
 by a line to the magazine of powder. The screw 
 having been fastened into the vessel s bottom, the 
 magazine and clock-work were to be detached 
 from the boat and left hanging to the screw, 
 
TORPEDO-BOAT 
 
 815 
 
 TORPEDO-BOAT 
 
 after which the boat was immediately to retreat. 
 He made various unsuccessful attempts to destroy 
 the enemy s vessels during the Revolution. 
 "Washington furnished him with means to carry 
 on his operations, as also did the province of Con 
 necticut. It is no wonder he failed, as the expe 
 rience of a century has not produced a successful 
 submarine torpedo-boat. 
 
 Robert Fulton next became enthusiastic on the 
 subject ; he also tried to introduce a submarine 
 boat for torpedo warfare, but after many attempts 
 in France, England, and the United States, was 
 finally forced to give up the plan. He, however, 
 met with some success in blowing up vessels with 
 submarine mines. His experiments came to an 
 end just previous to the war of 1812. During 
 that war some ineffectual attempts by different 
 parties to destroy British vessels further les 
 sened the low estimation held of this method of 
 warfare. Although Col. Samuel Colt successfully 
 experimented with submarine mines, fired by elec 
 tricity, about the year 1840, no advancement in 
 the science of offensive torpedo warfare was made 
 until the civil war. The rebels having been 
 somewhat successful with submarine mines in 
 1862, commenced offensive operations the fol 
 lowing year with torpedo-boats, in fact, all kind 
 of vessels were fitted with torpedoes. Several 
 boats were constructed at Charleston, S. C. As 
 a rule they were cigar-shaped, nearly submerged, 
 and carried only 4 or 5 men. They could steam 
 6 or 7 knots, and were intended for use in smooth 
 water only. One of these boats made an unsuc 
 cessful attempt on the ironclad " New Iron 
 sides" in October, 1863. In the following Feb 
 ruary, in the same harbor, the sloop-of-war 
 "Housatonic" was destroyed by a submarine 
 boat. This boat, however, carried 9 men, and 
 was propelled by a screw worked by 8 of them. 
 She could be submerged at pleasure to any de 
 sired depth, or could be propelled on the surface. 
 She was built of boiler-iron, and was 35 feet long. 
 Her greatest speed was about 4 knots an hour in 
 smooth water. She was carried down with the 
 sloop, but was raised after the war, the 9 men 
 being found in her. Several unsuccessful at 
 tempts were soon after made upon other vessels 
 of the blockading fleet. Torpedo-boats obtained 
 such a reputation that they were greatly dreaded. 
 An attack upon the flag-ship " Minnesota," at 
 Newport News, April 9, 1884, did considerable 
 damage, but did not sink the frigate. The boat 
 used on this occasion was an ordinary steam- 
 launch decked over with boiler-iron, and filled 
 with a spar-torpedo carrying 53 pounds of pow 
 der. The destruction of the " Albemarle" by 
 Lieut. Gushing, in October, 1864, was the only 
 occasion during the war in which a torpedo-boat 
 was successfully used by the Federal navy. This 
 boat was designed by Chief Engineer Woo d, U. S. 
 navy, and Mr. J. L. Lay. It was an ordinary 
 steam-launch, armed with a torpedo. The tor 
 pedo was rigged out ahead of the launch on the 
 end of a spar, and was fired by pulling a laniard, 
 which allowed a small grape-shot to roll down 
 against a fulminate cap. The same parties after 
 wards designed the " Spuyten Dyvil," a very 
 complete torpedo-boat of 200 tons displacement, 
 but the termination of the war prevented a 
 thorough test of efficiency. 
 
 In England, of late years, much attention has 
 been paid to the construction of very fast light 
 
 boats for torpedo warfare. Messrs. Thornycroft 
 & Co. and Messrs. Yarrow & Co. are the best- 
 known firms engaged in this business. The boats 
 they construct are generally of steel, covered 
 over with a light deck. They, generally speak 
 ing, are from 50 feet to 90 feet in length. Some 
 are intended to be carried at sea on large vessels, 
 being hoisted in and out as necessary. Messrs. 
 Thornycroft have also an arrangement by which 
 these boats can carry and use the Whitehead 
 fish-torpedo. The spar-torpedo has been used 
 very successfully with these boats. 
 
 Messrs. Herreshoff, of Rhode Island, have con 
 structed a large number of very light fast boats 
 fitted with the Herreshoff boilers. "The propeller 
 is under the centre of the boat, and they are 
 fitted with a large balance-rudder. They are 
 constructed for use on smooth water only. 
 
 Capt. Ericsson has recently constructed a tor 
 pedo-boat, the " Destroyer" ; she is 130 feet long, 
 11 feet deep, and 12 feet beam. Her speed, 
 though good, has not as yet been entirely satis 
 factory. The torpedoes were to be discharged 
 from a tube under water, by compressed air or 
 other agent, but as yet the plan has not proved 
 a practical success. 
 
 The " Alarm," a torpedo-ram, was built from 
 plans designed by Admiral Porter, U.S.N. Her 
 total length, including a ram 30 feet long, is 173 
 feet, beam 28, and 13 feet depth of hold below 
 spar-deck. She is built on the transverse bracket 
 system, with a double bottom. She has a ton 
 nage of 311 tons within the inner skin, and a 
 displacement of 720 tons. She was originally 
 fitted with the Fowler wheel, an invention which 
 enabled the whole energy of the main or driv 
 ing-engines to be instantly diverted for steering 
 purposes, and then instantly restored for driving 
 purposes. This handiness was, however, at the 
 expense of speed. She is now being fitted with 
 the Mallory propeller, by which it is hoped she 
 will have the same handiness and, at the same 
 time, the speed of the ordinary propeller. She 
 is protected by 4^ inches of armor on the bows, 
 and designed to tight bows-on at all times. This 
 thickness of armor is thought to be sufficient to 
 cause the heaviest projectile to glance when fired 
 from directly ahead. 
 
 There is a 15-inch smooth-bore gun on the 
 bows, and she carries a number of Gatling-guns 
 on the rail. The system of torpedo-spars run 
 out under water by steam-power, one ahead 30 
 feet, and one on each side 18 feet. The torpedoes 
 are fitted to the end of the spars before running 
 them out. They are fired by electricity, as is 
 also the gun. Should the Mallory propeller 
 prove successful, she will be one of the most for 
 midable vessels in the world, and of a type very 
 suitable for the protection of our coast. 
 
 The "Polyphemus," now under construction 
 in England, bears a considerable resemblance to 
 the " Alarm," being a torpedo-ram, but carrying 
 no gun. She is to have a turtle-back armor, and 
 is to be fitted for discharging Whitehead tor 
 pedoes. Length, 240 feet] beam, 40 feet; and 
 draft, 20 feet. A speed of 17 knots over the 
 measured mile is anticipated. 
 
 The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo for 
 actual war is by no means settled : it has failed 
 twice to where it has succeeded once. Nearly 
 every success with offensive torpedoes has been 
 accomplished by the spar-torpedo. 
 
TORPEDO STATION" 
 
 816 
 
 TOESE 
 
 The great expense and delicate handling re 
 quired "in manipulating the Lay torpedo will 
 probably prevent its general use ; yet, if properly 
 handled, it may prove to be extremely valuable 
 for harbor use. The ease with which it can be 
 turned, stopped, fired, etc., is very wonderful. 
 
 As submarine boats have apparently been given 
 up, it is probable that for harbor defense there is 
 nothing cheaper and surer than light boats with 
 the spar-torpedi). These would also be useful at 
 sea if carried by large vessels and lowered in 
 action. 
 
 Forecast defense, torpedo-rams of the general 
 principle of the " Alarm" would seem to be the 
 best. When torpedoes can be discharged from 
 guns or tubes under water, torpedo-ships for 
 cruising upon the high seas will doubtless come 
 into favor. R. M. G. Brown, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Torpedo Station. The civil war first brought 
 torpedo warfare into prominent notice. In order 
 that the naval service should be thoroughly in 
 formed on this subject, Admiral Porter con 
 ceived the idea of establishing a torpedo school, 
 where the officers of the service could be in 
 structed in the manufacture and use of torpe 
 does. In this he was ably seconded by the 
 chief of the Bureau of Ordnance, Eear- Ad 
 miral Case, whose zeal and ability brought the 
 torpedo school up to its present standard. Com 
 mander Matthews was selected as a suitable 
 officer to found the institution. Accordingly, 
 he was ordered on June 9, 1869, to duty un 
 der the Bureau of Ordnance as instructor of the 
 torpedo corps of the navy. During the follow 
 ing summer he was ordered to select a suitable 
 place for the headquarters of the torpedo corps. 
 As it would have required an act of Congress 
 and the consent of the Legislature of the State to 
 obtain possession of any land for this purpose, it 
 was desirable to find a suitable site upon land 
 already owned by the general government. It 
 was finally resolved to establish the station on 
 Goat Island, in the harbor of Newport, R. I., 
 that island being transferred, in accordance with 
 arrangements made by Rear- Admiral Case, from 
 the War to the Navy Department. In the fol 
 lowing September Commander Matthews took 
 possession, and commenced building the neces 
 sary shops, etc. An old frame house was con 
 verted into a temporary machine-shop, and a 
 laboratory and magazine were erected. During 
 the winter the old barracks, now the command 
 ing officer s quarters, were converted into offices 
 and a manufacturing laboratory. In the spring 
 of 1870 the " Nina was ordered to the station, 
 the crew being for general use connected with 
 the station. Several officers had by this time 
 been ordered to duty under Commander Mat 
 thews, and a competent chemist was appointed 
 to take charge of the laboratory. During the 
 summer of 1870 the north end of the old bar 
 racks was fitted up for quarters for the command 
 ing officer, who soon after took up his residence 
 on the island, about the same time the nitro 
 glycerine manufactory was established. During 
 the summer of 1871 three cottages were built 
 for officers quarters, and the following sum 
 mer two more were constructed, completing the 
 present row. In the fall of 1872 the machine- 
 shop was commenced. This important building 
 was finished the following spring. Professor 
 Farmer, an experienced electrician, was secured 
 
 as a permanent instructor in 1872. The first 
 class of officers ordered for instruction reported 
 November 1, 1870, and consisted of 19 members. 
 They remained until April, 1871. 
 
 The difficulty of getting officers of rank and 
 experience to again resume the tasks and recita 
 tions of their school-days was very considerable, 
 but the zeal and patience of the commanding 
 officer was finally rewarded by success. A 
 second class was ordered June 1, and remained 
 until January 13, 1872. The third class suc 
 ceeding this one remained until August 1, 1872. 
 It was now found that the instructors needed 
 more rest, and accordingly the class ordered 
 September 1 remained until the following July 
 (1873), when there was a vacation until Septem 
 ber 1, at which time the succeeding class reported,. 
 Considerable trouble was caused by the dislike 
 of the officers to the manual labor necessary in 
 fitting, laying out, and firing the torpedoes, as 
 no men were allowed to assist in this work. 
 However, this also was overcome, and officers of 
 rank could be seen daily with aprons on, experi 
 menting with chemicals, or carrying powder 
 and fitting torpedoes. All the work was done 
 by the officers themselves, even to pulling the 
 boats and transporting the torpedoes. 
 
 Commander Matthews was relieved by Capt. 
 Simpson on July 1, 1873. During the summer 
 of 1874 a new building for electrical purposes 
 was erected, a change was also made in regard 
 to the time the classes should attend. The 
 officers that year were ordered to report July 1, 
 and were at "the school only four months, the 
 practical part of fitting and firing the torpedoes 
 being particularly taught. This has been the 
 custom since that time, but the course of study 
 has been much elaborated. 
 
 Capt. Simpson was relieved in June, 1875, by 
 Capt. K. 11. Breese, who was relieved by CapL 
 Ramsey, the present commanding officer, in 
 1878. 
 
 The course of instruction embraces chemistry, 
 electricity, and physics, with an additional course 
 of instruction in the practical manufacture of 
 explosives, including nitro-glycerine, dynamite, 
 gun-cotton, and various fulminates used in tor 
 pedo warfare. Instruction is given in the pnuv 
 tical making of fuzes and the testing and firing 
 of them. Each officer is obliged to fit torpedoes, 
 plant and fire them. At the end of every term 
 a board of experienced officers is ordered to wit 
 ness the examination of the officers under in 
 struction, and report to the Department the con 
 dition of the institution. 
 
 The torpedo station undoubtedly accomplishes 
 the object desired by its founder, and the service 
 and country are indebted to the officers who by 
 their zeal and energy made the experiment a 
 success. R. M. G. Brown, Lieuievant U.S.N. 
 
 Torquay, a favorite watering-place of Eng 
 land, Devon County, is picturesquely seated on 
 the shore of a cove of Torbay. It consists chiefly 
 of handsome villas and terraces. It has a good 
 harbor, some timber trade, a share in the New 
 foundland fishery, regular stearn communication 
 with Portsmouth and Plymouth, and well-sup 
 plied markets. Pop. 21,657. 
 
 Torrent. A stream of water in mountainous 
 districts, swollen by rains or melting snow. 
 
 Torse. A coarse kind of hemp used in the 
 manufacture of an inferior quality of cordage. 
 
TORSK 
 
 817 
 
 TOURVILLE 
 
 Torsk. See TUSK. 
 
 Tort. A term in law for a wrong or injury. 
 
 Tortue de Met (Fr.). A sea-turtle. The term 
 is also applied to a French store-ship or trans 
 port. 
 
 Tosh (Ena.). A cant word, meaning to steal 
 copper from a vessel s bottom. 
 
 Toss the Oars. To take the oars from the 
 rowlocks and bring them to a perpendicular posi 
 tion, with the ends resting in the bottom of the 
 boat. Oars are tossed in this manner as a salute 
 from a boat containing an officer below the rank 
 of a commanding officer, to a boat containing an 
 admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral, or commo 
 dore. When a boat goes alongside a vessel or a 
 wharf, the oars are tossed and laid into the boat 
 at the order given by the stroke -oarsman. 
 
 Toss up the Bunt. To roll the bunt of a 
 sail on to the top of the yard. 
 
 Tot. A drinking-cup holding a little less than 
 half a pint, in which the spirit ration was served 
 out. The difference between this measure and 
 the half-pint was the share of the mess-cook. 
 
 Toucan. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Touch. The broadest part of a plank worked 
 top-and-butt, which place is 6 feet from the butt 
 end. The sudden angles in the stern timbers. 
 Touch-and-go, a term descriptive of any narrow 
 escape. Touch-and-take, an expression of Nel 
 son s applied to a vessel about to engage the 
 enemy. To touch at, to stop at a port for a short 
 time, being on a passage between two other 
 ports. To touch the sails, to cause the weather 
 leeches of sails to shake by sailing too near the 
 wind. To touch up a sail, to mend the furl of a 
 sail, or make it more snug on the yard. 
 
 Touch-box. The box in which lighted tinder 
 was formerly carried by soldiers armed with 
 match-locks. 
 
 Touch-hole. A common name given to the 
 vent of a gun. 
 
 Touch-wood. Decayed wood or punk, used 
 for producing fire from a spark. 
 
 Toulon. A seaport city and naval station of 
 France, admirably situated at the bottom of a 
 deep double bay formed by the Mediterranean. 
 Lat. 43 7 N. ; Ion. 5 56 E. In front of the 
 bay is a projecting tongue of land, which nearly 
 closes its entrance, and along it, as well as the 
 adjacent points, numerous forts have been erected. 
 In like manner, on the land side, the fortifica 
 tions are of the most complete description. The 
 arsenal and other marine establishments are on a 
 scale of almost unrivaled magnificence. The 
 port is separated from the roadstead by moles, 
 which are hollow and bomb-proof, and lined by 
 batteries d-fleur-d eau. There are two ports, the 
 eastern one appropriated to merchant vessels, 
 and called the Port-Marchand, and the Port- 
 Militaire, where are immense magazines, arse 
 nals, ship-building docks, rope- and sail-works, 
 and the convict prison. It is the seat of a mari 
 time prefecture, and possesses a school of hydrog 
 raphy, naval medical school, etc. Pop. 71,000. 
 
 Tourniquet. A bandage with a screw at 
 tached which, when applied to a wounded limb, 
 stops the flow of blood by external pressure. 
 
 Tourville, Aime-Hilarion de Cotentin, Comte 
 de, an illustrious French seaman, was born at 
 the chateau of Tourville, in Normandy, in 1642, 
 and died in Paris in 1701. 
 
 Tourville entered the Order of Malta at 14, 
 52 
 
 and at the age of 18 began to serve in the galleys 
 of the order. Some jealous contemporaries ridi 
 culed him for embracing the profession of arms, 
 and spitefully represented him as an Adonis, 
 more fitted to serve among court ladies than to 
 endure the fatigues of the sea-service. Tour 
 ville, however, early made such a reputation in 
 his cruises against the Moors that Louis XIV. 
 sent for him to court, and gave him the grade 
 of capitaine de vaisseau. 
 
 In 1669 the young captain served, under the 
 Duke de Beaufort, at the relief of Candia, then 
 besieged by the Turks, and further distinguished 
 himself, in 1671-73, in the war with Holland. 
 In 1675 he commanded one of the fleet sent to 
 the relief of Messina, which city had revolted 
 against the Spanish rule. 
 
 The following year he was made chefd escadron, 
 and took part in the brilliant expedition of the 
 celebrated Duquesne against the Algerines and 
 Tripolitans, when the corsairs received the most 
 crushing blows which had ever been dealt to 
 them up to that time. He was particularly con 
 spicuous in the bombardment of Algiers. 
 
 In 1684 he participated in the bombardment 
 of Genoa, and, four years after, in the expedi 
 tion against Holland, during which he captured 
 two Dutch men-of-war. Again, in the August 
 of the same year, he nearly ruined the city of 
 Algiers by bombardment. 
 
 In 1689 he received the title of Admiral of the 
 Levantine Seas, in which, however, he was 
 destined never to serve, but was immediately 
 put in command of a fleet of 20 vessels, which, 
 in connection with a fleet under D Estrees, was to 
 support the cause of James II. This combined 
 fleet succeeded, in spite of the exertions of the 
 English, in landing in Ireland a considerable 
 amount of munitions of war and some men. 
 
 While in command of the fleet, in July of the 
 year following he encountered an Anglo-Dutch 
 fleet in the Channel, oif the Isle of Wight, and 
 in the engagement which ensued he captured 10 
 vessels and burnt 5, while the French did not 
 lose a single ship. Soon after this success he 
 appeared 0ff Teignmouth, where he destroyed a 
 number of vessels and carried off the valuable 
 cargoes of others. 
 
 In May, 1692, Tourville was ordered by Louis 
 XIV., for political reasons not necessary to be 
 detailed here, to sail from Brest to meet the 
 Anglo-Dutch fleet, which consisted of 88 vessels 
 of all rates. Tourville had only about half that 
 number, and remonstrated at being forced to an 
 engagement without reinforcements. He was 
 again ordered to fight the enemy, fort ou faible, 
 against any odds. The hostile fleets met just 
 off Cape La Hogue on May 19, 1692, Tourville 
 leading the attack in his flag-ship, the " Soleil 
 RoyaV of 106 guns. The engagement was 
 most obstinate ; the opposing fleets renewing the 
 fighting for three days. On the 22d Tpurville s 
 fleet was completely beaten, but no prizes were 
 made by the allies. The French historians insist 
 that if the minister of marine, Pontchartrain, 
 and his royal master had been willing to wait for 
 the fleet from Toulon, which had been delayed 
 by head-winds, the victory would have been on 
 the side of Tourville. 
 
 In 1693 Tourville was made a marshal of 
 France, and the same year fought an action 
 with the Anglo-Dutch fleet off Cape St. Vincent, 
 
TOUTER 
 
 818 
 
 TRAINING-PENDULUM 
 
 in which there were heavy losses and very little 
 decisive gain on either side. 
 
 After the peace of Ryswick (1697) Tourville s 
 health failed, and he was obliged to give up active 
 service. 
 
 The French navy owed much to Tourville, in 
 morale, organization, and tactics. Saint Simon 
 says he was thoroughly conversant with every 
 duty of the marine service, from that of carpen 
 ter to admiral. His justice, coolness, gentleness 
 of manner and politeness to every one ; his fore 
 sight, prudence, and distinguished courage, led 
 all the young men of the navy to endeavor to 
 serve under him. He was noted for the clear 
 ness and decision of his orders, and established 
 an excellent code of naval signals. 
 
 The French generally have a man-of-war 
 named after this distinguished sailor. 
 
 Tourville had one son, who became a colonel 
 in the army, and was killed at the battle of 
 Denain while still quite a youth. E. Shippen. 
 
 Touter (Eng.}. A slang name for a revenue- 
 cutter. Also applied to an officer of customs. 
 
 Tow. To draw a vessel or boat through the 
 water by means of a rope attached to it. An 
 article is towed overboard from a vessel by at 
 taching a rope and dragging it through the 
 water. A tow, the vessel towed. 
 
 TOWAGE. Charges paid for services rendered 
 by a tow-boat. 
 
 TOWINQ-BRIDLE. A heavy chain or hawser 
 to the bight of which a tow-line is attached, 
 when one vessel is being towed by another. 
 
 TOWING-HOOK. A large hook sometimes fast 
 ened to a towing-bridle, to which the tow-line is 
 attached. 
 
 TOWING-PATH, or TOW-PATH. The track on 
 the side of a canal for horses engaged in towing. 
 
 TOWING-POST. The timber-head on a tow- 
 boat, to which a hawser is secured in towing. 
 
 TOW-LINE. A small hawser used for towing 
 purposes. 
 
 Towel. A term in English maritime law, sup 
 posed by some to have been derived from the ex 
 pression " Oster la touaille" in the laws of Oleron. 
 
 Malloy writes : " If a mariner shall commit a 
 fault, and the master shall lift up the towel three 
 times before any mariner, and he shall not sub 
 mit, the master at the next place of land may 
 discharge him." 
 
 Toxotes. A genus of acanthopterygious 
 fishes, of which the only species known, T. 
 jaculator, is remarkable for its power of spurt 
 ing water so as to bring down insects from 
 aquatic plants within its reach. 
 
 T-plate. A plate of metal cut in the form 
 of the letter T, used for securing different pieces 
 of material together by being bolted or riveted 
 thereto. 
 
 Trabaccolo. A coaster of the Adriatic. 
 
 Trabaleo. An ancient coasting-vessel. 
 
 Trabaria. An ancient name for a small canoe. 
 
 Track. The path of a vessel. Also, to tow a 
 boat on a canal by means of men or horses. 
 Tracks for field-carriage, wooden tracks placed 
 in a launch or other boat carrying a howitzer, 
 upon which the field-carriage is transported from 
 one end of the boat to the other, as may be re 
 quired. The landing-skids are tracks extending 
 from the bow of the boat to the shore, upon 
 which the howitzer is landed or embarked, when 
 mounted on a field-carriage. 
 
 TRACK-BOAT. A boat on a canal moved by 
 towing or tracking. 
 
 TRACK-CHART. A chart on a small scale show 
 ing the path of a ship during a voyage or cruise. 
 
 Trade. The exportation and importation of 
 goods or merchandise. A vessel sailing regu 
 larly between the United States and China is 
 said to be employed in the China trade, etc. She 
 may also be said to be in the foreign or the 
 coastwise trade. 
 
 TRADER. A vessel which makes regular 
 voyages between certain ports for the purpose 
 of trade or barter. 
 
 TRADE-WINDS. The name given to the at 
 mospheric currents of the northern and southern 
 hemispheres, which have a general direction from 
 the northeast in north latitude, and from the 
 southeast in south latitude. They are caused by 
 the combined action of the earth s revolution 
 upon its axis, and the cold air of the polar 
 regions moving toward the equator to take the 
 place of the heated and rarefied air which rises 
 from that portion of the earth s surface. 
 
 The direction, force, and regularity of these 
 winds are greatly influenced by the amount of 
 land in the two hemispheres, its character, for 
 mation, etc. On account of the excess of land-sur 
 face in the northern hemisphere over thesouthern, 
 the average breadth of the belt of northeast trade- 
 winds is estimated at 9 less than that of the 
 southeast trade- winds. The limits of these winds 
 also vary with the declination of the sun, so that 
 with a high southern declination the northeast 
 trades may extend 1 or 2 south of the equator, 
 while with a high northern declination the 
 southeast trade-winds are found to extend 4 or 
 6 north of the equator. Between these two 
 winds a region of calms, called doldrums, ex 
 tends through an average brea&th of about 6 of 
 latitude. The proximity of land affects these 
 winds, examples of which are seen on the west 
 ern coast of Africa, where for nearly 100 miles 
 from the coast the prevailing winds are from the 
 west ; and on the western coast of South America, 
 where, on account of the height of the Andes, 
 the trade-winds are not encountered until at a 
 distance of about 400 miles from land. 
 
 At the commencement of these winds in both 
 hemispheres, when not under the direct influence 
 of land, their direction is more from the east, 
 and changes toward the north and south as the 
 equator is approached. The average direction 
 of the northeast trade-winds is from E.N.E., 
 while that of the southeast trade-winds is from 
 S.E. by E. 
 
 Trail. The trail of a field-carriage is that 
 part which projects to the rear of the piece. 
 
 TRAIL-BAR. The wooden bar which fits into 
 the socket in the end of the trail of a howitzer- 
 carriage, by which the piece is pointed laterally. 
 
 TRAIL-ROPE. A rope attached to the trail of 
 a field-carriage by which it is drawn. Short 
 wooden bars placed through the lay of the rope 
 serve as handles for the howitzer s crew. 
 
 Trail-board. A term for the carved work be 
 tween the cheeks of the cutwater. 
 
 Training-level (Eng.}. A level sometimes 
 used in estimating the elevation or depression of 
 a gun. 
 
 Training-pendulum (Eng.}. An instrument 
 having a pendulum and a level attached, used in 
 pointing guns. 
 
TRAIN-TACKLE 
 
 819 
 
 TRENCHARD 
 
 Train-tackle. See TACKLE. 
 
 Trajectory. The curve described by a pro 
 jectile in its flight. 
 
 Trammel. A large net. 
 
 Tramontana. Literally, from beyond the 
 mountain. The word is applied in Italy to the 
 north wind, blowing from the Alps. 
 
 Tran. A Norwegian word for fish-oil. 
 
 Trankeh. A vessel or large boat of the Per 
 sian Gulf. 
 
 Transfer. To change officers or men from one 
 vessel to another. 
 
 Transire (Eng.). A custom-house document 
 issued to a coasting-vessel. 
 
 Transit. The passage of a heavenly body 
 across the meridian of the observer. The pass 
 age of a heavenly body, or of its shadow, across 
 the disk of a larger body. See ECLIPSE. 
 
 TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. A telescope which 
 moves in the plane of the meridian, and there 
 fore adapted for observing the transit of a heav 
 enly body across the meridian. 
 
 Transom. One of the horizontal timbers com 
 posing the stern-frame. They are secured to the 
 stern-post in the same manner as the floors to the 
 keel; the ends are beveled and trimmed; the 
 fashion pieces are then laid on and bolted to 
 them. The stern-post, transoms, and fashion 
 pieces compose the stern-frame. Transoms of a 
 gun-carriage, the parts on the under side of the 
 carriage by which the brackets are connected. 
 They are called the breast and rear transoms. 
 
 TRANSOM-KNEE. A knee bolted to the tran 
 som and the frames of the ship, and lying level 
 or in the same direction of the transom. When 
 these knees cross the transom they are called 
 sleepers. 
 
 Transport. A vessel used for carrying troops 
 or munitions of war. Also, to move or haul a 
 vessel from one part of a harbor to another by 
 the use of hawsers. 
 
 TRANSPORTING-BLOCK. A large snatch-block 
 used in transporting a vessel. 
 
 TRANSPORTING TRUCKS AND AXLES. Trucks 
 and axles used in moving a gun mounted on a 
 pivot-carriage from one part of the deck to an 
 other. 
 
 Tranter (Eng.}. One who sells fish. 
 
 Trap-creel (Eng.}. A basket used in taking 
 lobsters. 
 
 Travel. To slip, as a thimble upon a rope. 
 Also, to revolve, as the sheave of a block. 
 
 TRAVELER. An iron ring or thimble fitted to 
 slide upon a spar or an iron rod. 
 
 TRAVELER-IRON. An iron bar fitted to the 
 deck, upon which the sheet of a fore-and-aft sail 
 travels. 
 
 TRAVELING-BACKSTAY. A backstay fitted to 
 a traveler on the topmast, by which the mast is 
 supported at the place to which the topsail-yard 
 is hoisted. 
 
 TRAVELING-GUYS. Guys sometimes fitted on 
 small vessels for supporting the jib-boom when 
 the jib is set. 
 
 TRAVELING-MARTINGALE. A martingale fitted 
 to the jib-boom of a small vessel, which is in use 
 only when the jib is set. A martingale which 
 was formerly used to support the jib-boom under 
 the jib-tack. 
 
 Traverse. The various courses made by a 
 vessel in beating against a head wind, or the 
 irregular track made by a vessel sailing on dif 
 
 ferent courses. A boat s traverse is one of the 
 athwart-ship pieces upon which the tracks for a 
 field-carriage are placed. To traverse a yard, to 
 place it fore-and-aft. 
 
 TRAVERSE-BOARD. A board formerly used in 
 recording the courses made by a ship during a 
 watch. It consisted of a circular piece of board 
 having marked upon it all of the points of the 
 compass, and, upon each point, eight holes bored. 
 The course for each half-hour was noted by 
 placing a peg in one of the holes corresponding to 
 the ship s course. 
 
 TRAVERSE-HORSE. See JACKSTAY. 
 
 TRAVERSE-QUESTIONS. Cross-examination. 
 
 TRAVERSE-SAILING. The case in plane sailing, 
 in which the ship makes several courses in vari 
 ous directions. The solution consists in obtain 
 ing an equivalent course and distance from the 
 several courses and distances sailed. 
 
 TRAVERSE-TABLE. A table so called from its 
 use in traverse-sailing. It contains the true dif 
 ference of latitude and departure corresponding 
 to every course (at intervals of a quarter-point 
 and also of degrees) from to a right angle, and 
 every distance up to 300 nautical miles (at inter 
 vals of one mile). It is constructed by solving a 
 right-angled triangle, of which one angle repre 
 sents the course and the hypothenuse the dis 
 tance ; by giving these different and successive 
 values, the corresponding values of the other two 
 sides are found, which sides represent the true 
 difference of latitude and departure. 
 
 TRAVERSE-WIND. A wind blowing into a 
 harbor. 
 
 Traversier. A small fishing-vessel on the 
 coast of France. 
 
 Traversum. The ancient name for a ferry. 
 
 Trawl. A line towed by a boat, having at 
 intervals baited hooks attached for catching 
 fish. 
 
 TRAWL-BOAT. A boat used in fishing with a 
 trawl. 
 
 TRAWL-NET. A small net dragged on the 
 bottom in shoal water for catching fish. 
 
 Trayeres. An ancient term for. a large boat. 
 
 Tread. The whole length of a keel or deck. 
 
 Tread Water. To keep the body in a perpen 
 dicular position at the surface by treading or 
 walking in the water. 
 
 Treble-block. A block containing 3 sheaves. 
 
 Trebling. The strengthening planks put on a 
 vessel s bow to withstand the pressure of ice. 
 
 Trebuchet. An ancient battering-engine in 
 which stones were used as projectiles. 
 
 Treck-schuyt. A Dutch canal-boat. 
 
 Treeing. A peculiar appearance of the ice in 
 Arctic regions, caused by refraction, which indi 
 cates the proximity of open water. 
 
 Treenail. A pin of oak or locust, of a cylin 
 drical form, used as a fastening for plank below 
 the water-line. This kind of fastening is much 
 used in building merchant vessels, but seldom 
 in the naval service. 
 
 Trees of a Ship. Chess-trees, cross-trees, and 
 trestle-trees. 
 
 Trelawney (Eng.). A thin pudding of barley- 
 meal. 
 
 Trench the Ballast (Eng.}. To trim or stow 
 ballast. 
 
 Trenchard, Stephen D., Rear - Admiral 
 U.S.N. Born in New York, July 10, 1818. 
 Appointed from New York, October 23, 1834 ; 
 
TREND 
 
 820 
 
 TRIPOLI 
 
 receiving -ship, New York, 1835-37; Naval 
 School, Philadelphia, 1839-49. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 16, 
 1840; sloop "Preble," West India Squadron, 
 1841-44; sloop "Fairfield," Home Squadron, 
 1844-45 ; coast survey, 1845-49. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 27, 
 1847; sloop "Albany," Home Squadron, 1850- 
 62; receiving-ship, Philadelphia, 1853; coast 
 survey, 1854-57; steam-frigate "Powhatan," 
 East India Squadron, 1857-59; commanding 
 steamer " Rhode Island," supply-vessel to Block 
 ading Squadron, 1861-65. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 two attacks on Fort Fisher, December, 1864, and 
 January, 1865; navy-yard, New York, 1866-69. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866; com 
 manding steam-sloop "Lancaster," flag -ship 
 South Atlantic Squadron, 1869-71. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, May 7, 1871 ; 
 member Board of Examiners, 1872 ; light-house 
 inspector, 1873-75. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, August 10, 
 1875; commanding North Atlantic Station, 
 1876-78; member of Special Board, 1879-80. 
 Retired July 10, 1880. 
 
 Trend. To incline or extend in any direction, 
 as the coast. The trend of an anchor is that 
 part of the shank at a distance from the throat 
 equal to the length of one of the arms. 
 
 Trennel. See TREENAIL. 
 
 Trepang. A name given to the beche-de-mer, 
 used by the Chinese as an article of food. 
 
 Trestle-trees. A heavy frame-work of tim 
 ber placed over the head of a lower-mast and top 
 mast. They rest upon the hounds of the mast, 
 and sustain the weight of the top and cross-trees, 
 and the mast above. 
 
 Triangle. A geometrical figure having three 
 sides. Also, small spars lashed together around 
 a mast in the shape of a triangle, used as a stage 
 in painting, scraping, etc. 
 
 Triangula. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Triangulum Australe (Lat. "The Southern 
 Triangle"). A constellation half-way, bet ween 
 Scorpio and the north pole. 
 
 Triatic-stay. A triatic-stay is used in hoist 
 ing boats in or out of a vessel. It consists of two 
 large pendants, the upper ends of which are lashed 
 to the foremast and mainmast heads, while to the 
 lower ends, fitted with thimbles, the stay-tackles 
 are hooked. The lower ends of the pendants are 
 held in their proper position by a span. 
 
 Tributary. A stream which flows into or sup 
 plies another stream. 
 
 Trice. To pull up and secure by means of a 
 lashing or tricing-line. Trice tip! the order to 
 raise the heels of the studding-sail-booms before 
 the men lie out on the yards in furling or reef 
 ing. A tricing-line is any line or rope used to 
 trice up an object with. In a. trice, in a moment. 
 
 Trick. The time which a man remains on 
 duty at the helm. 
 
 Trie. An old word, meaning trim. 
 
 Triest, the capital of Kiistenland and the prin 
 cipal seaport city of Austro-Hungary, is situated 
 on the Gulf of Triest, at the northeast extremity 
 of the Adriatic Sea, in lat. 45 38 N., Ion. 
 13 46 E. The new part of the town is espe 
 cially well built. A broad canal, deep enough 
 to float vessels of large burden, runs up from the 
 harbor through this part of the town. Outside 
 
 of the town is the new lazaretto, one of the best 
 arranged in Europe. The harbor admits vessels 
 of 300 tons to its quays, and vessels of any size 
 anchor safely at a short distance. It is in the 
 form of a crescent, one side of which is formed 
 by the mole, which projects northwest into the 
 sea, arid terminates in a broad platform, occupied 
 partly by a fort and partly by an intermittent 
 light 106 feet above the sea. On its north side 
 is a quarantine dock, surrounded with hotels and 
 every other convenience. Close to the harbor 
 are extensive building-docks. Triest is a free 
 port, and possesses a large mercantile navy, and 
 is the headquarters of the Austrian Lloyds, and 
 large numbers of vessels are annually built here. 
 It has an immense import and export trade and 
 extensive manufactories. Population, including 
 suburbs, 110,000. 
 
 Trigger. A catch of wood, formerly used in 
 launching, which, upon being struck with a 
 maul, would be displaced and "allow the ship to 
 move. 
 
 Trigger-finger. The fore-finger of the right 
 hand. 
 
 Trig-meat (Eng.\ Shell-fish. 
 
 Trim. To arrange the weights in a vessel in 
 such a manner as to obtain a desired immer 
 sion or draft at the bow and stern. Upon 
 this relative draft depends in a great degree the 
 speed of a vessel and the facility with which she 
 can be handled. A vessel is trimmed by the head 
 when the draft of water at the bow is greater 
 than at the stern ; she is trimmed by the stern 
 when the draft at the stern is greatest. Each 
 vessel has a certain trim most favorable to her 
 sea-going qualities. 
 
 Ballast and cargo stowed in bulk requires to be 
 trimmed or spread from under the hatches into 
 the more inaccessible parts of the hold. 
 
 Sails are trimmed by changing the position of 
 the yards, in order that the wind may act upon 
 them at the proper angle; also, by hauling the 
 sheets home and hoisting the yards to their 
 proper places, in order that the sails may re 
 ceive the full force of the wind. A boat is 
 trimmed by keeping it in an upright position 
 by means of the crew or cargo. A jacket is 
 said to be trimmed when the wearer of it is 
 flogged with a rope s end. 
 
 Trink. An old apparatus for catching fish. 
 
 Trip. A passage made by a vessel from one 
 port to another. A round trip is the whole voy 
 age. An anchor is a-trip when it is raised clear 
 of the bottom. To trip a light yard is to pull it 
 into a perpendicular by means of the tripping- 
 line, preparatory to lowering it to the deck. 
 
 TRIPPING-LIKE. A small line attached to the 
 snorter of a topgallant- or royal-yard, reach ing to 
 the deck, by which the yard is tripped, the lower 
 lift and brace cleared of the yard-arm, and the 
 yard guided to the deck. 
 
 Triple-star. Three stars in such apparent 
 proximity as to resemble a single star. 
 
 Tripoli. The capital of the state of Tripoli, on 
 the north coast of Africa. Lat. 32 53 54" N. ; 
 Ion. 13 11 E. It stands on a rocky promon 
 tory washed by the sea on the north and east, 
 and connected with the mainland on the south 
 and west by a sandy plain. It is defended on 
 the land side by a lofty wall flanked with bastions, 
 and on the sea-front by a formidable line of bat 
 teries. The trade has the advantage of the only 
 
TRIPPING-VALVE 
 
 821 
 
 TRUNK-ENGINE 
 
 good harbor for several hundred miles on the 
 coast. It is not over 6 fathoms deep, but has 
 capacity to admit whole fleets of merchant ves 
 sels in the outer roads, where there is good an 
 chorage in from 16 to 18 fathoms. About 1000 
 vessels clear this port annually. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Tripping-valve. A valve for releasing the 
 fluid and relieving the pressure Jn a hydraulic 
 press or jack. 
 
 Trip-shaft. In the steam-engine, a shaft car 
 rying devices for tripping or detaching cut-off 
 valves from the main valve-gear in cases where 
 they are actuated, in part, thereby. 
 
 Troacher (Eng.}. One who receives and deals 
 in smuggled goods. 
 
 Troite. An obsolete term for the cuttle-fish. 
 
 Troll. To fish by drawing the hooks through 
 the water. 
 
 Trombone. A name formerly applied to the 
 blunderbuss, from the shape of its muzzle. 
 
 Tromp, Martin Van, the celebrated Dutch 
 admiral, was born at Briel in 1597, and died in 
 1653. When only 11 years old he served on 
 board of a frigate commanded by his father. 
 The latter was killed in an engagement with 
 the French, who took the vessel, and detained 
 the boy on board ship as a -mousse for three 
 years. When he obtained his liberty he rose 
 rapidly in the Dutch navy, being lieutenant of a 
 line-of-battle ship at 25, and two years later 
 captain of a frigate. A vice-admiral at 40, he 
 commanded a Dutch fleet which, in 1639, totally 
 defeated a Spanish fleet of superior numbers and 
 weight of metal. This success made him very 
 popular at home, and he was also created a noble 
 of France from the date of his victory. In 
 1652, war breaking out between Holland and 
 England, Van Tromp, in command of the fleet, 
 met Admiral Blake, and in an engagement with 
 him lost 2 line-of-battle ships. Dissatisfied with 
 this result, the States-General caused Van Tromp 
 to be relieved in his command by Van Ruyter. 
 The former was, however, restored to command 
 in a few months ; and, on December 10, 1652, 
 defeated the English admiral, driving him into 
 the Thames, and causing great alarm in London. 
 It was then that Van Tromp swept down the 
 Channel with a broom at his mast-head. After 
 this he had many encounters with the English, 
 with varying fortunes, fighting some gallant 
 actions. , 
 
 At last he was intercepted by Blake near 
 Portland Bill, and badly defeated. In command 
 of a refitted fleet he again had an encounter with 
 the English fleet, under Monk, upon the Dutch 
 coast. In this action he was mortally wounded, 
 but cried out to his crew, " Bear up, my boys. 
 Conduct yourselves so that my death may be as 
 glorious as my life has been !" 
 
 The States-General ordered a medal struck in 
 commemoration of Van Tromp, and erected a 
 splendid monument to him at Delft, "where he 
 was buried. 
 
 Tromp s son, Cornelius, who died in 1691, 
 rose high in the Dutch navy, having attained 
 the rank of vice-admiral. He served principally 
 against the Moorish pirates, and the English and 
 Swedes. 
 
 In consequence of a supposed dereliction in 
 duty during the action in the Downs with the 
 English, in July, 1666, Ruyter, under whom 
 he was serving, demanded his dismissal, which 
 
 was granted ; but after two years he was rein 
 stated, and on RuyteV s death succeeded to the 
 command of the Dutch navy. Upon the peace 
 with England, in 1675, he visited that country, 
 and was received most courteously, Charles II. 
 making him a baronet. E. Shippen. 
 
 Troop-boat. A boat of great capacity used 
 in the transportation of troops. 
 
 Troop-ship. A large ship, either built for 
 the purpose or converted from a frigate or line- 
 of-battle ship, used in carrying troops. 
 
 Tropic-bird. The Phaeton cetherius. Also 
 called the boatswain, on account of the resem 
 blance of its tail to a marling-spike. 
 
 Trough of the Sea. The depression of the 
 water between two waves. 
 
 Trounce. An obsolete word, meaning to pun 
 ish. 
 
 Trouncer (Eng.}. An old term for a waister. 
 
 Trout. A fresh-water fish of the genus Salmo, 
 variegated with spots, and esteemed most delicate 
 food. The brook- trout of America is Salmo fon- 
 tinalis, the lake-trout, S. confinis. The Salmo 
 trutta, sea-trout, is similar to the salmon in its 
 habits. 
 
 Trow (Eng.}. A boat used on the river Tyne 
 for catching salmon. 
 
 Truce. A temporary suspension of hostilities 
 between opposing forces, agreed upon by the 
 commanders for the purpose of negotiation, etc. 
 The desire for such suspension is indicated by 
 showing a white flag, or a flag of truce, and the 
 approach of persons under such a flag toward the 
 enemy s lines, or of a vessel to a hostile coast, 
 insures safe conduct among all civilized nations. 
 See FLAG. 
 
 Truchman. See TRTJGMAN. 
 
 Truck. Small articles used in barter. A 
 wheel of a gun-carriage. A circular piece of 
 wood placed on the head of a mast or flag-staff, in 
 which the sheave for the signal-halliards is 
 placed. A fair-leader is called a leading truck. 
 
 Truckle. The name given on the Welsh coast 
 to the coracle, a kind of boat consisting of a 
 light frame-work covered with leather or oil 
 cloth. 
 
 True-blue. An expression denoting loyalty 
 and sincerity. 
 
 True-tide (Eng.}. A tide which sets in a 
 regular direction. 
 
 True Water (Eng.}. The exact depth of 
 water. 
 
 Truff (Eng.}. A trout. 
 
 Trugman. An old term for an interpreter. 
 
 Trumpet-fish. A sea-fish ; the Centriscus 
 scolopax ; so called from its tubular muzzle ; bel 
 lows-fish ; snipe-fish. 
 
 Trundle-head. The lower drum-head of a 
 double capstan. 
 
 Trundle-shot. A projectile formerly used, 
 about a foot and a half in length, pointed at 
 both ends. 
 
 Trunk. A small net used in catching lobsters 
 and crabs. Also, a species of turtle. 
 
 Trunk-cabin. A cabin half below and half 
 above the level of the spar-deck. 
 
 Trunk- engine. A very compact form of 
 steam-engine, in which the connecting-rod is 
 jointed directly to the piston, without the inter 
 vention of a piston-rod or cross-head. The rod 
 works within a hollow cylindrical piece, or trunk, 
 of sufficient diameter to permit its free oscilla- 
 
TRUNK-FISH 
 
 822 
 
 TUBE 
 
 tion, which is attached to the piston, and passes 
 from the cylinder through a stuffing-box, acting, 
 also, as a guide. See MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Trunk-fish. The Ostracion, a fish having a 
 covering of solid bony plates. 
 
 Trunnion. One of a pair of cylindrical pro 
 jections attached to or formed upon the opposite 
 sides of a gun, oscillating steam-engine cylinder, 
 etc., at right angles to its axis, so that the body, 
 when supported thereby in suitable bearings, is 
 free to oscillate about the trunnion axis. 
 
 TRUNNION-GAUGE. An instrument used to 
 measure the diameter of the trunnion of a gun. 
 
 TRUNNION-LEDGE AND LEVEL. A small shelf 
 attached to the trunnion of a heavy gun, which 
 being placed in a horizontal position by means 
 of a spirit-level, indicates the degrees of eleva 
 tion or depression. 
 
 TRUNNION-RING. A ring formerly placed 
 upon a gun a little forward of the trunnions. 
 
 TRUNNION-RULE. A rule used in the inspec 
 tion of guns for measuring the distance from the 
 trunnions to the base-ring. 
 
 TRUNNION-SQUARE., An instrument used in 
 inspecting guns for ascertaining if the axis of the 
 trunnions is perpendicular to the axis of the 
 bore. 
 
 Truss. A heavy iron fixture by which the 
 centre of a lower-yard is held in position at the 
 mast, and which forms the centre of motion of 
 the yard. Before the invention of the iron truss, 
 rope trusses were used, with which the yard was 
 kept in the required position by means of tackles 
 fitted to the lower ends of the truss-pendants. 
 Truss up, to brail up a sail. 
 
 TRUSS-HOOP. A heavy iron band used in 
 mast-making. 
 
 TRUSS-PARREL. That part of a rope truss 
 which passes around the yard. 
 
 TRUSS-PENDANT. That part of a rope truss 
 which is passed around the mast and to which 
 the truss-tackles are fitted. 
 
 TRUSS-TACKLE. One of the tackles by which 
 the pendants of a rope truss are hauled taut. 
 
 Truxtun, Thomas, Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Jamaica, L. I., February 17, 1755. He went 
 to sea early in life, and during the war of the 
 Revolution established a high character for cour 
 age and nautical skill in command of the private 
 armed vessels "St. James," u Mars," and " In 
 dependence." He was among the first to dis 
 cuss and point out the value of the Gulf Stream 
 to navigation. He was a fine navigator and 
 prime seaman. In 1794 he published from " the 
 Stone House, South Second Street, Philadelphia," 
 "A Treatise on Latitude and Longitude," with 
 an appendix on the formation of our (then) in 
 fant navy, and a plate showing " Truxtun s Sys 
 tem of Masting a 44-Gun Frigate." He was 
 commissioned a captain in the UTs. navy in 1794. 
 February 9, 1799, while in command of the frig 
 ate "Constellation," he captured the French 
 frigate " L Insurgente." February 1, 1880, still 
 in the " Constellation," he fought and drove 
 into Curaqoa, in a sinking condition, the French 
 frigate " La Vengeance, "^being prevented, by the 
 loss of the " Constellation s" mainmast, from tak 
 ing possession of his prize. For this action Con 
 gress awarded him a gold medal. He fought the 
 first battle under the present naval organization, 
 which he was largely instrumental in establish 
 ing. After the quasi-French war he commanded 
 
 the "West India Station, and finally was ordered 
 to hoist his flag on the " President," 44, and as 
 sume command of the Mediterranean Squadron, 
 when, some question arising as to his being al 
 lowed a captain to command the flag-ship, he re 
 signed his commission, in 1802, and took up his 
 residence in Philadelphia, of which city he was 
 subsequently elected sheriff. He died May, 
 1823. His remains lie in Christ Church burying- 
 ground, Fifth and Arch Streets, Philadelphia. 
 
 Try. A word meaning to lie to, but now sel 
 dom used. From this the trysails received their 
 name. To try back for a bend, to pay back 
 enough of a hawser to make a bend. To try 
 down, to separate oil from blubber by melting. 
 To try the range, to ascertain the distance of an 
 object by firing at it. 
 
 TRYSAIL. A fore-and-aft-sail set on the fore 
 and main lower-masts of a ship. It is bent 
 to a gaff, and is considered a storm-sail, or one 
 under which a vessel can lie-to easily during a 
 gale. See TRY. 
 
 TRYSAIL-BRAILS. Ropes used in taking in a 
 trysail. 
 
 "TRYSAIL-GAFF. The gaff to which a trysail is 
 bent. 
 
 TRYSAIL-MAST. A small mast placed abaft a 
 lower mast, to which a trysail is bent by means 
 of hoops. 
 
 TRYSAIL-OUTHAUL. A rope by which the 
 head of a trysail is hauled out on the gaff. 
 
 TRY-WORKS. The boilers and furnaces used 
 on whale-ships for trying down blubber. 
 
 T-square. A rule having a cross-piece at one 
 end placed at right angles ; used in draughting 
 for making parallel lines. 
 
 Tub. A division-tub is furnished to each divi 
 sion of a ship-of-war, in which fresh water is 
 placed during action. A fire-tub is placed on 
 the berth-deck during action at the place where 
 the empty passing boxes are received from the 
 deck above. It is partially filled with water, 
 and is fitted with a grating near the top. As a 
 precaution against explosion from any fire that 
 may be in the box, each one is inverted and 
 struck over the tub before being refilled. Grog- 
 tub, the tub in which the daily allowance of grog 
 was formerly mixed, and from which it was 
 served to the crew. Match-tub, a small tub hav 
 ing holes bored in its upper head, in which slow- 
 matches were formerly placed during action. 
 
 Tube. A hollow cylinder of any material, 
 the length of which considerably exceeds its 
 diameter. A pipe. Quill-tubes, quill-primers. 
 See PRIMER. 
 
 TUBE-EXPANDER. A tool for stretching or 
 expanding the end of a tube in direction of its 
 diameter, so as to cause it to fit snugly, and con 
 fine it, air-tight, to a tube-sheet or -plateby form 
 ing a bead on either side thereof. 
 
 TUBE-SHEET, or TUBE-PLATE. One of a pair 
 of sheets of metal containing accurately-bored 
 holes, to which the ends of the tubes of a steam- 
 boiler, condenser, or other fluid-tight apparatus 
 are secured, either by expanding or packing 
 their ends. These sheets are firmly built in, and 
 form part of the structure. 
 
 TUBULAR BOILER. A boiler in which a great 
 portion of the heating surface, or the surface ex 
 posed to fire, is composed of tubes through or 
 around which the heated gases of combustion 
 circulate. 
 
TUB-FISH 
 
 823 
 
 TURN 
 
 Tub-fish. A fish of the genus Trigla (T. hi- 
 rundo) ; sapphirine gurnard. 
 
 Tuck. That part of a vessel in which the 
 after extremities of the outside planking end, 
 either on the wing-transom or against the tuck- 
 timber. 
 
 TUCK-RAIL. A rail placed at the upper part 
 of the wing-transom, forming an abutment and 
 finish to the ends of the plank in square-sterned 
 vessels. 
 
 Tucker, Samuel, a brave, able, and successful 
 naval officer of the Revolution. Born in Mar- 
 blehead, Mass., November 1, 1747 ; died at Bre 
 men, Me., March 10, 1833. Son of a ship-master. 
 He was apprenticed at 11 on board the " Royal 
 George," and before the Revolution was a cap 
 tain, sailing from Boston to London. Commis 
 sioned a captain in the Revolutionary navy, 
 March 15, 1777, he took command, in Novem 
 ber, of the frigate " Boston," in which, in Feb 
 ruary, 1778, he took out John Adams, minister 
 to France. He took many prizes in 1779 ; aided 
 in the defense of Charleston, S. C., and was a 
 
 frisoner from its capture, in May, 1780, till June, 
 781, when he took command of the "Thorn," 
 and made many prizes. At the close of the war 
 he received the thanks of Congress for his ser 
 vices. In 1792 he settled in Bristol, Me. In 
 the war of 1812 he captured, by a ruse, a British 
 vessel which had greatly annoyed the shipping 
 of Bristol and vicinity. He was several times a 
 member of the Legislatures of Massachusetts and 
 of Maine. 
 
 Tug. A small steamer used for towing. Also, 
 to row with great exertion and make but little 
 progress. 
 
 Tugg (Eng.). A heavy cart for hauling ship- 
 timber. 
 
 Tumble Home. To narrow in. Said of the 
 sides of a vessel when they incline inboard after 
 reaching a certain height. 
 
 Tumbler. An attachment to the jaws of a 
 gaff to prevent chafe upon the mast. Also, a 
 name sometimes given to the porpoise. 
 
 Tumble Up. To hurry on deck from below. 
 
 Tumbling Sea. A rough, irregular sea. 
 
 Turn-turn. A dish made in the West Indies 
 from boiled plantain. 
 
 Tungula. The name of a small boat in the 
 vicinity of Borneo. 
 
 Tunis. The kingdom and city of Tunis pos 
 sesses, as its navy, 2 small armed steamers, an 
 aviso of 500 tons, with 8 guns and engines of 160 
 horse-power, and a transport of 400 tons, with 2 
 guns and 140 horse-power. This small force is 
 soon to receive an accession of 2 ironclad moni 
 tors, now being built in France. 
 
 Tunis, the capital of the state of the same 
 name, is situated at the mouth of the Mejerda, 
 on the west side of an oval lagoon connected by 
 a narrow strait with a bay of the same name. It 
 is surrounded by walls and defended by a strong 
 castle, which completely commands the Goletta, 
 or narrow strait already mentioned. The prin 
 cipal exports are oil, soap, wool, hides, cattle, 
 sponges, senna, wax, gold-dust, etc. The manu 
 factures are linen and woolen cloths, red woolen 
 caps, pottery, and various essences. Lat. 36 48 
 N. ; Ion. 10 24 E. Pop. 125,000. 
 
 Tunny. A fish of the genus Thynnus, of the 
 mackerel family, similar, in form, to the mack 
 erel, but much larger, rounder, and with a shorter 
 
 snout. It is one of the largest of fishes, tunnies 
 weighing 1000 pounds not being rare in the 
 Mediterranean. The tunny is considered excel 
 lent food. 
 
 Turbot. A flat-fish of the genus Rhombus (R. 
 maximus), with a body nearly circular. It grows 
 to the weight of 20 or 30 pounds, and is much 
 esteemed by epicures. The name is applied in 
 Scotland to the halibut. 
 
 Turkey, Navy of. The present effective ar 
 mored fleet of this nation comprises 15 large 
 ships of various types, and a small fleet of gun 
 boats and river monitors. The ships are for the 
 greater part of English and French build, several 
 being of modern type, furnished with Armstrong 
 guns, and engineered by Englishmen. Their 
 principal officer, Hobart Pasha, was formerly an 
 English naval officer. The Turkish navy also 
 possesses 3 old wooden ships of the line, mount 
 ing an aggregate of 254 old smooth-bore guns; 5 
 wooden frigates, and 7 corvettes, mounting about 
 300 guns ; also 21 smaller craft carrying about 
 80 guns. There are also 4 paddle-wheel vessels, 
 mounting 4 guns each ; 3 sailing-cruisers with an 
 aggregate of 8 guns; and 22 dispatch-boats, 
 mounting 64 guns in all. The most powerful 
 ship is the "Mesoodiyeh," built by the Thames 
 Ship-building Company, with machinery con 
 structed by Messrs. Maudslay, Sons & Field. 
 The length between perpendiculars is 332 feet ; 
 extreme breadth, 59 feet; depth of hold, 36 feet; 
 mean draft, 25 feet ; displacement, 8994 tons. 
 The armor-plating on the sides is 12 inches 
 thick, backed by the same thickness of East In 
 dia teak. The armament consists of twelve 18- 
 ton guns on the gun-deck, two 6J-ton guns on 
 the forecastle and one of the same weight aft on 
 the poop. The navy is represented in the cab 
 inet by a minister of marine, and in the divan or 
 chancellery by an assistant secretary. The ser 
 vice is divided into four sections, personnel, ma 
 teriel, naval constructions, and health. The 
 personnel is constituted as follows : 
 
 Executive officers : vice-admirals, 6 , rear-ad 
 mirals, 11 ; captains of ships, 131 ; captains of 
 frigates, 23 ; captains of corvettes, 54 ; lieuten 
 ant-captains of corvettes, 289 ; lieutenants of 
 ships, 228 ; ensigns, 187. Total executive offi 
 cers, 929. Mechanicians, 480; pay-officers, 33 ; 
 medical officers, 47; staff-officers, 20. Marine 
 officers : colonels, 2 ; lieutenant-colonels, 7 ; other 
 officers, 82 ; total, 91. Total officers, 1GOO. Sea 
 men, active, 6000 ; marines, 4500. Total officers 
 and men, 12,100. The navy is recruited partly 
 by voluntary enlistments arid partly by con 
 scription. 
 
 Turk s-head. An ornamental knot made in 
 the upper end of a man-rope. See KNOT. 
 
 Turn. To take or catch a turn, to pass the 
 bight of a, rope over a pin or cleat in order to 
 secure it. Turn ahead, to go ahead slowly, re 
 ferring to the engine of a steamer. To turn tur 
 tle, to capsize. To turn in, to go to bed. To turn 
 in a dead-eye is to fasten a shroud around it. Turn 
 ing-room, sufficient room for a vessel to turn. 
 Turn in the hawses, see HAWSJD. Turn of tlte 
 tide, the change from flood to ebb, and vice versa. 
 To turn out, to get up. Turn out the guard ! the 
 order for the marines to form in line on the quar 
 ter-deck. To turn over men, stores, etc., to place 
 them under the charge of another officer. Turn 
 the glass ! or Turn ! the order to turn the time- 
 
TURNBUCKLE 
 
 824 
 
 TYPHOON 
 
 glass, in heaving the log, when all of the stray- 
 line has run out. To turn to windward, to work 
 to windward. Turn up, the hands! an order for 
 all hands to come on deck. 
 
 Turnbuckle. A link for connecting two parts 
 of a bar or rod together, and adjusting the whole 
 to proper length or tension. Both ends of the 
 link may be fitted to screw-threads, one right- 
 handed and the other left-handed, or one end 
 may be provided with a screw-thread and the 
 other with a swivel. The link is turned by 
 means of a bar or a wrench. 
 
 Turner, Thomas, Rear-Admiral U.S.N., is a 
 native of Virginia. Appointed midshipman from 
 Virginia, April 21, 1825; attached to frigate 
 "Constellation," Mediterranean Squadron, 1827; 
 sloop-of- war "Warren," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1830. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1831 ; 
 frigate "Constellation," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1834, and frigate "Delaware," same squad 
 ron, 1835. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, December 22, 
 1835; frigate "Columbus," East India Squad 
 ron, 1840; receiving-ship at Philadelphia, 1843; 
 sloop " Albany," Home Squadron, 1847. Lieut. 
 Turner was actively engaged in the war with 
 Mexico, and was present at Tuspan, April 7, 
 1847; receiving-ship at Philadelphia, 1850; frig 
 ate " Congress," Brazil Squadron, 1851-53; on 
 ordnance duty, 1854-57. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, September 14, 
 1855; commanding sloop-of-war "Saratoga," 
 Home Squadron, 1859-60. Commander Turner 
 was in command of " Saratoga" in the engage 
 ment between that vessel and two Spanish steam 
 ers, the " Marquis of Havannah" and " General 
 Miramon," in the harbor of Anton Leyardo, 
 Mexico, when they were captured, March 6, 
 1860, at midnight. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 16, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, December 13, 
 1863; commanded frigate "New Ironsides," 
 special service, 1863 ; commanded frigate " New 
 Ironsides" in the attack upon Forts Sumter, 
 Moultrie, and Beauregard, in Charleston har 
 bor, April 7, 1863. Admiral Dupont was on 
 board the "New Ironsides," and commended 
 Commodore Turner for the judgment and abil 
 ity with which he handled his vessel. Special 
 duty, New York, 1864-65 ; special duty, Phila 
 delphia, 1866-67; on ordnance duty, Philadel 
 phia, 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, May 27, 1868 ; 
 commanding Pacific Fleet, 1869-70. Retired 
 April 21, 1870. 
 
 Turnpike-sailor (Eng.}. An impostor, dressed 
 as a sailor and asking charity. 
 
 Turret. See IRONCLADS. 
 
 Turtle. The popular name of a marine rep 
 tile having fin-like paddles instead of legs, suited 
 for swimming and not for walking. They deposit 
 their eggs in the sand on the beach, two hundred 
 being sometimes found in a single nest. Some 
 of the species feed on aquatic plants, others on 
 crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes. The flesh of 
 those who feed on vegetable matter is much 
 esteemed for food. 
 
 The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) attains a 
 weight of 700 to 800 pounds : the name is derived 
 from the color of its fat. The hawkbill turtle is 
 valuable as yielding the best tortoise-shell. To 
 turn turtle, to capsize. 
 
 TURTLE-CRAWL. A shallow pond where tur 
 tles are kept. 
 
 TURTLE-PEG. A kind of spear for taking 
 turtle. 
 
 Tusk (Eng.}. A fish, the Brosmus vulgaris. 
 
 Tween-decks. A contraction of between- 
 decks. The lower deck of a merchant vessel. 
 The space between two decks. 
 
 Twice-laid Rope. Rope made from second 
 hand yarns. 
 
 Twiddling-line. A former name for a line 
 used to steady the wheel when not in use. 
 
 Twig. A slang term, meaning to know or 
 observe. 
 
 Twig-ait (Eng.}. A place where osiers grow. 
 
 Twilight (Sax. tweon-leoht, doubtful light). 
 Twilight begins and ends when the sun is about 
 18 below the horizon ; and its duration, there 
 fore, varies with the latitude, for the time which 
 is required for the sun to rise through 18 verti 
 cally depends upon the inclination of its diurnal 
 path to the horizon of the place, and is greater as 
 this inclination is less, i.e., the higher the lati 
 tude. The twilight is the best time for observ 
 ing the altitudes of the stars at sea, for then the 
 horizon is in general clearly visible and distinctly 
 marked. 
 
 Twine. Small cord. 
 
 Twin-screws. A pair of screw-propellers ar 
 ranged with one under each quarter of a vessel, 
 and driven bj 7 separate engines, so that one may 
 back while the other is going ahead, or that both 
 may act together in either direction. This ar 
 rangement gives great handiness to the ship, and 
 foi 4 light-draft vessels two screws are more effi 
 cient in a seaway than a single one. 
 
 Two-blocks. The condition of a tackle when 
 both blocks have been drawn together. 
 
 Two-handed Fellow. A name applied to a 
 man who has served both as a sailor and a 
 marine. 
 
 Twy. The name given to a sudden squall on 
 some parts of the English coast. 
 
 Tye. That part of the purchase for hoisting a 
 topsail-yard which is attached to the yard, and 
 passes through the sheave-hole in the mast or the 
 tye-block at the mast-head. 
 
 TYE-BLOCK. A block sometimes used at the 
 head of a topmast in place of a sheave in the 
 mast, through which the topsail-tye is rove. 
 A tye-block is sometimes used on the topsail- 
 yard in order to increase the purchase, the stand 
 ing-part of the tye being fastened to the mast 
 head. 
 
 Tymoom. A boat Used on Chinese rivers. 
 
 Tyndarides. The ancient name for the lumi 
 nous appearance now called corposants. 
 
 Typhoon (Gr. tuphos, a violent wind which 
 whirls up clouds of dust or mist). The name 
 given to the hurricanes or revolving storms 
 which occur in the China Sea and Indian Ocean 
 at the seasons of the change of the monsoons. 
 See STORM, REVOLVING. 
 
825 
 
 UNIFOKM 
 
 U. 
 
 U. Abbreviation for you in the U. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. In the log-book, u denotes 
 ugly threatening weather. 
 
 Udometer. A rain-gauge. 
 
 Ugly. Disagreeable ; dangerous ; threaten 
 ing, applied to the weather or sea. 
 
 Ulcus. An old term for the hulk of a ship. 
 
 Uliginous. Muddy ; slimy. 
 
 Ultra Mare. Beyond the sea. 
 
 Ultra-zodiacal. Beyond the limits of the 
 zodiac. 
 
 Umber. An African bird of the family Ar- 
 deidce, allied to the storks, but having a com 
 pressed bill with a sharp ridge. 
 
 Umbrina. A genus of acanthopterygious 
 fishes, common in the Mediterranean, and found 
 also upon the shores of England. The flesh is 
 white and of good flavor, and some of the spe 
 cies are remarkable for their beauty. 
 
 Under. Under canvas, under sail. Underfoot, 
 under the bows, said of the anchor when the 
 chain is nearly perpendicular. Under manned, 
 short-handed ; having an insufficient number of 
 men. Under masted, having masts too short or 
 too slender to allow of sufficient sail being car 
 ried. Under sail, propelled by the action of the 
 wind on the sails. Under steam, propelled by 
 steam-power. Under the lee, sheltered from the 
 wind by some intervening object. Under the sea, 
 lying-to in a gale, and making bad weather of 
 it. Under way, see AVAY. To under-run a haw 
 ser, to haul a boat along under a hawser, lifting 
 it out of the water. 
 
 Under-beveling. See BEVEL. 
 
 Under-bright. The bright streak which often 
 appears under clouds near the horizon. 
 
 Under-current. A stream which sets beneath 
 the surface-water of the sea whilst that is either 
 in a quiescent state or moving in a contrary di 
 rection. Swift rivers may run out at the surface 
 whilst the flood-tide runs in below. 
 
 Under-tow. An under-current found at the 
 mouths of rivers and in tide- waters. 
 
 Underwriter. An insurer ; so called from his 
 underwriting or subscribing the policy of insur 
 ance. See MARINE INSURANCE. 
 
 Undines (Lat. unda, a wave). A name given 
 in the fanciful system of the Paracelsists to the 
 elementary spirits of the water. They are of 
 the female sex, and intermarry with human 
 beings. 
 
 Undress-uniform. See UNIFORM. 
 
 Unicorn. An old name for a howitzer. 
 
 Unicorn-fish. The sea-unicorn, or narwhal. 
 
 Uniform for the U. S. Navy. Full-dress uni 
 form, to be worn on occasions of special ceremony. 
 Body-coat, epaulets, cocked hat, sword with 
 sword-knot, and blue cloth pantaloons. 
 
 Undress-uniform for official visits. Frock- 
 coat, epaulets, cocked hat, sword with knot, 
 
 and blue cloth or white drilling pantaloons to 
 suit the season, weather, or climate. 
 
 Service - dress uniform. Frock - coat with 
 shoulder-straps, cap, pantaloons, blue or white, 
 to suit the seasons of the year, weather, or cli 
 mate. 
 
 Officers making special official visits of cere 
 mony to the President of the United States, 
 the Secretary of the Navy, or to foreign au 
 thorities and vessels of war, wear the full-dress 
 uniform. 
 
 When making an official visit to the President 
 of the United States, the Secretary of the Navy, 
 or to the heads of other Departments of the gov 
 ernment, and to foreign authorities and vessels 
 of war, officers wear the undress-uniform or the 
 service-dress, as occasion may require. 
 
 Officers serving on courts-martial, courts of 
 inquiry, boards of examination or special boards, 
 or when attending as witnesses before courts- 
 martial or courts of inquiry, or in any other 
 capacity, wear the service-dress uniform, with 
 out swords, unless otherwise specially directed 
 by competent authority. 
 
 Officers, in their social intercourse, when it is 
 requisite for them to appear in evening-dress, 
 may wear a body-coat of blue cloth, after the 
 prevailing style of a civilian s dress-coat, with 
 rolling collar, five navy buttons on each side, two 
 at the waist behind, and two at the bottom of the 
 skirt. The lace and corps distinctions on the 
 cuff, same as on full-dress coats. This coat may 
 be worn with or without epaulets, but not with 
 shoulder-straps or sword. 
 
 It is optional with officers to wear their uni 
 form while on duty in the Navy Department, at 
 the Observatory, Hydrographic Office, or on 
 light-house duty ashore. 
 
 Service-dress uniform is worn by all officers 
 when attached to any vessel of the navy or coast 
 survey, to any navy-yard or station, or to any 
 hospital or other naval establishment, for duty, 
 unless when absent on leave. 
 
 Chaplains, when performing divine service, 
 may wear either the vestments of the church to 
 which they belong, or the uniform prescribed in 
 the regulations. 
 
 Gloves worn with uniform are always to be 
 white. 
 
 Officers on furlough will not wear their uni 
 form, and officers are strictly prohibited from 
 wearing any part of it while suspended from 
 duty by sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 Officers are forbidden to wear any part of their 
 uniform with citizen s dress. They must wear 
 the whole of their uniform or none. 
 
 Full dress. The full-dress body-coat for all 
 commissioned officers is of navy-blue cloth, swal 
 low-tailed, double-breasted, and lined with white 
 silk serge ; two rows of large navy buttons on the 
 
UNIFORM 
 
 826 
 
 UNIFOKM 
 
 breast, nine in each row ; standing collar, to have 
 one strip of gold-embroidered white-oak leaves for 
 admiral and vice-admiral ; to have a strip of 
 navy gold lace one inch wide around the top and 
 down the front for rear-admirals, commodores, 
 captains, and commanders, and one-half inch wide 
 for lieutenant-commanders, lieutenants, masters, 
 and ensigns. 
 
 All staff-officers wear the same widths of gold 
 lace around the top and down the front of the 
 collars of their full-dress body-coats as prescribed 
 for line-officers with whom they have relative 
 rank, respectively. 
 
 Midshipmen, after graduation, are allowed a 
 full-dress double-breasted coat, nine buttons in 
 each row, with a gold cord around the sleeve, 
 and an anchor in gold embroidery on each side 
 of the collar. 
 
 The full-dress coat is worn only with epaulets, 
 cocked hat, sword and sword-knot. 
 
 Midshipmen at the Naval Academy wear a 
 strip of lace one-eighth of an inch wide around 
 the outer edge of the collar of their parade- 
 jackets. 
 
 The undress and service frock-coat. The un 
 dress and service frock-coat for all commissioned 
 officers is of navy-blue cloth, faced with the same, 
 and lined with black silk serge ; rolling collar ; 
 double-breasted, with two rows of large navy 
 buttons on the breast, nine in each row. 
 
 Frock-coats for midshipmen are the same as 
 for commissioned officers, except that the buttons 
 will be of medium size only. 
 
 The uniform coat for boatswains, gunners, 
 carpenters, and sail-makers is a frock-coat sim 
 ilar in every respect to the frock-coat of the line 
 and staff commissioned officers. 
 
 Clerks and mates wear a double-breasted frock- 
 coat, with nine navy buttons of medium size on 
 each side. 
 
 Sleeve ornaments. An admiral has three, a 
 vice-admiral two, and a rear-admiral one, strips 
 of gold embroidered white-oak leaves on the cuff 
 of the full-dress coat. The undress-coat of an 
 admiral has one two-inch, and three half-inch 
 strips of gold lace on the cuffs. A vice-admiral 
 has but two strips of half-inch lace above the 
 two-inch strip. A rear-admiral has only one 
 strip. 
 
 Commodores wear one strip of two-inch gold 
 lace on the cuffs of both full-dress and undress- 
 coats ; captains, four strips of half-inch lace ; com 
 manders, three; lieutenant-commanders, two, 
 with a strip of quarter-inch lace between ; lieu 
 tenants, two ; masters, one; ensigns, one quarter- 
 inch strip ; and midshipmen a gold cord. 
 
 Staff-officers wear the same as line-officers with 
 whom they rank, the corps being distinguished 
 by differently-colored cloth between the strips of 
 gold lace. Medical officers wear cobalt-blue; 
 paymasters, white ; engineers, red ; naval con 
 structors, dark violet ; professors of mathematics, 
 olive-green. 
 
 All line-officers wear a five-rayed star above 
 the gold lace on the cuffs, the star for an admiral 
 having a steam-frigate raised in the centre. 
 
 Epaulets, shoulder-straps, etc. All commis 
 sioned officers above the rank of ensign wear 
 two gold-bullion epaulets, with their respective 
 strap ornaments on the frogs. 
 
 All shoulder-straps are of navy-blue cloth with 
 a border embroidered in gold. The centre and 
 
 end ornaments, corps distinctions, and indications 
 of rank are as follows : 
 
 Admiral, four silver stars, with a gold foul- 
 anchor under each of the outer stars. 
 
 Vice-admiral, three stars, with an anchor under 
 the centre star. 
 
 Rear-admiral, two stars, with a silver foul- 
 anchor in the centre 
 
 Commodore, one/star, with a foul-anchor at 
 each end of the strap. 
 
 Captain, a silver spread-eagle, with a foul- 
 anchor at each end of the strap. 
 
 Commander, two silver oak-leaves, with a 
 foul-anchor in the centre. 
 
 Lieutenant-commander, two gold oak-leaves, 
 with a foul-anchor at each end. 
 
 Lieutenant, two gold bars at each end, a foul- 
 anchor in the centre. 
 
 Master, one gold bar at each end, a foul-anchor 
 in the centre. 
 
 Ensigns and midshipmen wear shoulder-knots 
 in lieu of straps or epaulets. 
 
 Staff-officers wear the same strap as the line- 
 officers with whom they hold relative rank, with 
 the following exceptions : medical officers omit 
 the anchor ; paymasters substitute an oak-sprig 
 for the anchor ; engineers, a device formed of 
 four oak-leaves in the form of a cross ; naval 
 constructors, two oak-leaves and an acorn ; chap 
 lains, a silver cross ; professors of mathematics, 
 one oak-leaf and an acorn ; secretaries, the letter 
 <$ in silver. 
 
 In lieu of shoulder-straps, boatswains and gun 
 ners wear on each side of the collar a gold star ; 
 carpenters and sail-makers, a gold diamond. 
 
 Cocked hat, cap, etc. All commissioned officers 
 above the grade of ensign wear a black cocked 
 hat bound with black silk lace, and ornamented 
 with a gold loop and a black cockade. Cocked 
 hats are always worn with epaulets. 
 
 The cap is of dark-blue cloth, with a plain 
 black silk band, and may be worn with a black 
 glazed, or a white linen cover, as circumstances 
 demand. The cap ornament for all commissioned 
 officers and midshipmen is a silver shield, with a 
 silver eagle and two crossed anchors in gold. A 
 double-looped gold cord is also worn. Warrant- 
 officers wear two gold anchors crossed. Mates 
 wear a plain, vertical, gold anchor. 
 
 Pantaloons. For full-dress the pantaloons of 
 all commissioned officers is of blue cloth, with a 
 heavy strip of gold lace down the outer seams. 
 For undress and service-dress, pantaloons are of 
 blue cloth or white duck. 
 
 Vests. Single-breasted, standing collar, nine 
 small buttons, and made of navy-blue cloth or 
 white duck. 
 
 Jackets. Jackets may be worn as service-dress, 
 except at general muster, or on occasions of special 
 ceremony. They are of navy-blue cloth, with a 
 rolling collar, and trimmed in the same manner 
 as the service-coat. White linen jackets with 
 out straps and sleeve ornaments may be worn in 
 warm weather. 
 
 Sack-coats. Single-breasted sack-coats with 
 standing collar, cuffs trimmed with black lace 
 in lieu of gold, with the shoulder-strap device 
 (omitting the duplicate end device) on the col 
 lar, may be worn under certain circumstances. 
 
 Overcoats. Overcoats are of heavy navy-blue 
 beaver or pilot cloth, with or without a cape ; 
 double-breasted, five buttons on each breast. 
 
UNION 
 
 827 
 
 TJESA MAJOK 
 
 On the collar are worn the devices authorized for 
 sack-coats. Mates, clerks, and warrant-officers 
 wear no device on their overcoats. 
 
 Swords, sword-belts, etc. The sword has a cut- 
 and-thrust blade, half-basket hilt, white grip, 
 and a black leather scabbard, with mountings 
 of yellow gilt. Midshipmen may wear a dirk. 
 
 The full-dress sword-belt of admjral and vice- 
 admiral is of navy-blue cloth with a gold cord 
 around the edge, and a strip of gold-embroidered 
 white-oak leaves running through the centre. 
 The full-dress sword-belt of all other commis 
 sioned officers is.of blue webbing with gold cord 
 woven in, the arrangement of the gold cord in 
 dicating the rank of the wearer. The service- 
 dress sword-belt for all officers is of plain black 
 glazed leather. 
 
 The sword-knot for all commissioned officers 
 is a gold strap 24 inches long, including the tas 
 sel, gold slide, tassel of twelve gold bullions and 
 basket-worked head. 
 
 Union. The upper inner corner of a flag, 
 which generally contains objects emblematical 
 of the country represented by the flag. Thus, 
 the union of the flag of the United States is a 
 blue field containing a white star for every State. 
 In small flags there are ordinarily but thirteen 
 stars, one for each of the original States. When 
 a ship hoists her flag union down it is a signal 
 of distress. 
 
 Union Coupling. A contrivance for joining 
 two sections of small pipe, so that thej may be 
 readily connected or disconnected without dis 
 turbing other joints. It consists mainly of a 
 pair of cylindrical shells, screwed or otherwise 
 secured to the ends of the pipes, one of which, 
 the male part, has a screw-thread cut upon its 
 outer surface, and the other a flange which re 
 tains a flanged ring, free to turn and provided 
 with suitable projections (usually forming a hex 
 agon) to receive a wrench, and on the interior 
 surface of which is cut a female screw-thread 
 matching the thread of the male part. The joint 
 between the two parts is made fluid-tight by 
 washers or packing of leather, gum, cotton- wick- 
 ing, etc. See HUSK-COUPLING. 
 
 Union Jack. A small flag corresponding in 
 appearance to the union of the national flag. 
 See JACK. 
 
 Universal Coupling. A coupling which per 
 mits the parts united to assume various angular 
 relations to each other. 
 
 Universal Joint. A contrivance for coupling 
 rotating shafts whose axes intersect each other in 
 a point. A joint, or system of joints, so arranged 
 between two pipes or sections of pipe that their 
 axes may be turned in any direction relatively 
 one to the other. 
 
 Unrig. To strip of rigging. 
 
 Unukalhai. The star a Serpentis. 
 
 Up. The helm is up when the tiller is borne 
 over to windward. Up anchor! the boatswain s 
 cry to the men to take their stations for weigh 
 ing anchor. Up-and-down, perpendicular ; ver 
 tical. Up boats! the order to the men to take 
 their stations for running the boats up to the 
 davits. Up courses! the order to haul up the 
 courses. 
 
 Uphroe. A wooden slat with a range of holes 
 through which the small lines of a crow-foot are 
 rove. 
 
 Upper Deck. The spar-deck. 
 
 Upper-works. The ship s frame above the 
 water-line. 
 
 Upshur, John H., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Virginia, December 5, 1823. Appointed from 
 Virginia, November 4, 1841 ; attached to frigate 
 " Congress, Mediterranean Squadron, 1841-43 ; 
 sloop "St. Mary s," Mediterranean Squadron, 
 1843-46 ; Home Squadron, during Mexican war ; 
 in the Naval Battery, during the bombardment 
 of Vera Cruz ; Naval School, 1847. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, August 10, 
 1847; frigate "Cumberland," Mediterranean 
 Squadron, 1849-50 ; ordnance duty, 1852 ; store- 
 ship "Supply," East India Squadron, 1853-56. 
 
 Promoted to master, 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September 14, 
 1855; ordnance duty, Washington Navy- 
 Yard, 1856-57; sloop "Cumberland," coast of 
 Africa, 1858-59 ; instructor at Naval Academy, 
 1859-60; North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1861 ; at capture of forts at Hatteras, N. C. ; 
 steam-frigate " Wabash," South Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, 1861 ; present at battle of Port 
 Royal; commanding steamer "Flambeau," 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 1862-63; 
 several expeditions up the rivers of South Caro 
 lina. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-commander, July 
 16, 1862; commanding steam-frigate "Minne 
 sota," flag-ship North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1863-64; commanding steamer "A. 
 D. Vance," North Atlantic Blockading Squad 
 ron, 1864-65; at capture of Fort Fisher, Janu 
 ary, 1865; commanding steamer "Frolic," Eu 
 ropean Squadron, 1865-67. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 25, 1866 ; 
 commanding apprentice-ship "Saratoga," 1868- 
 70; special duty, New London, Conn., 1871-73. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, January 31, 1872; 
 commanding " Brooklyn" (second-rate), South 
 Atlantic Station, 1875-76; member Board of In 
 spection, 1877-80. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, July 11, 1880. 
 
 Uptake. The portion of a marine steam- 
 boiler in which the gases of combustion, after 
 having passed through the flues or tubes, are col 
 lected and turned upwards toward the chimney. 
 
 Uranus. In 1781, Sir William Herschel dis 
 covered what was thought to be a comet ; fur 
 ther observation proved it to be a planet. Her 
 schel proposed to name it Georgium Sidus in 
 honor of the reigning king of England. La 
 place proposed to call it Herschel for its discov 
 erer. It finally received the name of Uranus, 
 who in ancient mythology was the father of 
 Saturn. Its mean distance from the sun is 1828 
 millions of miles ; diameter, 36,000 miles ; ap 
 parent diameter, 4 X/ ; period of revolution, 84 
 years. It is attended by 4 satellites at distances 
 varying from 120,000 to 380,000 miles. Con 
 trary to the general law, the motion of the sat 
 ellites in their orbits is retrograde. Symbol $, 
 the initial of Herschel, with a globe suspended 
 from the cross-bar. 
 
 Urea. An armed Spanish fly-boat. 
 
 Ursa Major (Lai. " The Greater Bear"). The 
 most brilliant constellation of the northern hemis 
 phere, consisting of 7 principal stars. By the 
 common people of most countries this group is 
 called the wagon f the great dipper, and sometimes 
 the plow; in England it has been known as 
 Charles s wain. The four stars, a, (3, y, 6, form a 
 
UKSA MINOR 
 
 828 
 
 VANCOUVER 
 
 trapezium, the longest side of which contains a 
 and 6, y being in the opposite angle to a ; next 
 to 6 is affixed a scalene triangle, formed by the 
 stars e, 77, which represent the tail of the Bear. 
 The two stars /? and a are called the pointers, as 
 they point to the pole star. They are 5 apart, 
 and hence convenient to measure distances by. 
 a Ursce Majoris, Dubhe ; ft, Merak ; y, Phecda. 
 The star at the bend of the handle is called Mizar ; 
 near it is a small star ( Alcor), which was regarded 
 in early days as a test of keen visioil ; the Arabs 
 called it Saidak, or the proof. It is now easily 
 seen. 
 
 Ursa Minor (Lai. " The Lesser Bear"). A con 
 
 stellation popularly known as the little dipper. 
 It is similar in form to Ursa Major, the trapezium 
 of the one being adjacent to the triangle of the 
 other, a Ursce Minoris, Polaris ; ft, Kochab. 
 See POLARIS. 
 
 Usages. Besides the general laws of mer 
 chants, there are certain commercial and sea 
 faring usages which prevail in particular countries 
 with the force of law. Underwriters are bound 
 by usages ; and they are legal precedents bind 
 ing in courts-martial. 
 
 Ushant Team (Eng.). The sobriquet given 
 to that portion of the Channel fleet which block 
 aded Brest. 
 
 V. 
 
 V. In the log-book, v denotes visibility of 
 distant objects. 
 
 Vacuum-gauge. An instrument for indicat 
 ing the degree of vacuum, or the preponderance 
 of the atmospheric pressure over that of the air, 
 vapor, or gas contained within a vessel, such as 
 the receiver of an air-pump or the condenser of 
 a steam-engine. Like a steam- or pressure-gauge, 
 it depends for its action upon the resilience of 
 metal or the height of a column of mercury or 
 water. The indications are observed either by 
 an index on a disk, or a scale showing the vary 
 ing height of a column of liquid; and the unit 
 of measure is usually considered as one inch in 
 height of a column of mercury. 
 
 Vacuum-pump. A pump for exhausting an 
 air-tight chamber or reservoir of its fluid con 
 tents, leaving a vacuum within. 
 
 Vacuum-valve. A valve for admitting air 
 or other fluid to a vacuum within a vessel or 
 chamber, and restoring equilibrium with atmos 
 pheric pressure. The reverse-valve of a steam- 
 boiler is sometimes called a vacuum-valve. See 
 REVERSE-VALVE. 
 
 Vail. An old word for lower ; as, to vail the 
 topsails as a salute or in token of submission. 
 
 Vakka. A large canoe of the Friendly 
 Islands. 
 
 Vallejo is situated on the northeastern shore of 
 San Pablo Bay, at the mouth of Napa Creek, and 
 near the west end of the Strait of Carquinez, in 
 Solano County, Cal. It has a large and safe har 
 bor, and is accessible to the largest sea-going ships. 
 It has several flouring-mills, ship-yards, and shoe- 
 factories. Large quantities of grain are shipped 
 here. It has manufactories of steam-engines, 
 boilers, sash, doors, etc. A U. S. navy-yard is 
 located here, on Mare Island, for a description of 
 which see NAVY- YARD, MARE ISLAND, CALI 
 FORNIA. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Valparaiso, the capital of the province of the 
 same name, and the principal port of Chili, is 
 situated on a large bay in the Pacific, in lat. 33 
 V 66" S., Ion. 71 41 45" W. The Bay of 
 Valparaiso is of a semicircular form, and capable 
 of accommodating a very large fleet. It is well 
 
 sheltered on the east, south, and west, but is en 
 tirely open toward the north ; and during the 
 prevalence of winds from this quarter in the 
 winter season, accompanied by a heavy, rolling 
 sea, the shipping is much exposed. The city is 
 the greatest commercial port of the Pacific coast 
 of South America ; about 3000 vessels enter and 
 clear the port annually, and the city has an im 
 port trade of $35,000,000, and the exports amount 
 to $15,000,000. Pop. 98,000. 
 
 Valve. In mechanism, a contrivance for con 
 trolling the flow of confined fluids. Automatic 
 valves, used in pumps, are usually made of hinged 
 plates or of flexible material, such as leather, 
 gum, etc., or consist of lifting disk-valves guided 
 by spindles or vanes. These valves, which are 
 fitted to seats having necessary openings for the 
 passage of the fluid, yield readily to its pressure 
 in one direction ; but, by their weight or resil 
 ience, descend to their seats and prevent its re 
 flux when the pressure ceases ; stop-valves, or 
 valves for regulating the flow of fluid, are so 
 arranged as to be opened, closed, or adjusted by 
 hand ; and the steann- and exhaust-valves of en 
 gines, of which there are many varieties, are 
 actuated by mechanism called valve-gear. 
 
 VALVE-CHAMBER. A chamber which con 
 tains a valve (or set of valves) with its seat, 
 guides, and guards, and in which it performs its 
 functions. 
 
 VALVE-GEAR. The mechanism by which the 
 valves of a steam-engine are actuated by the 
 main running-gear. It includes eccentrics, 
 eccentric straps and rods, links, pins, cross-heads, 
 rock-shafts, and arms or levers, valve-stems, etc. 
 
 VALVE-SEAT. The surface upon which a 
 valve bears when closed, and to which it is so 
 accurately fitted as to prevent the passage of 
 fluid. 
 
 Van. That part of a fleet which is in front. 
 
 Vancouver, George, navigator and explorer of 
 the north west coast of America. Born about 1757; 
 died May 10, 1798. Entering the navy in 1771, 
 he accompanied Capt. Cook in his two last voy 
 ages, and in the latter part of 1780 was appointed 
 a lieutenant ; in 1790 he was made master and 
 
VANGEE 
 
 829 
 
 VEKA CRUZ 
 
 commander of the " Discovery," in which ship 
 he was sent out to ascertain if there existed in 
 North America, between the 30th and 60th de 
 grees of north latitude, an interior sea, or any 
 canals of communication between the known 
 gulfs of the Atlantic and the great sea. He 
 sailed from England April 1, 1791, and after an 
 examination of the Sandwich Islands, crossed, 
 in March, 1792, to the American coast, where he 
 received the surrender of Nootka from the Span 
 iards, and spent the summers of 1792-94 in sur 
 veying the coast as far north as Cook s Inlet, 
 wintering in the Sandwich Islands. He con 
 sidered his explorations to have settled the ques 
 tion of a northwest passage in the negative. 
 Vancouver s Island was named by him. On his 
 return he surveyed most of the west coast of 
 South America from the island of Chiloe, visit 
 ing the chief Spanish settlements. He was 
 made a post-captain in 1794, and arrived in Lon 
 don in November, 1795, in a state of declining 
 health from the effects of his voyages, but de 
 voted himself to the arrangement of his manu 
 scripts for publication until within a short time 
 of his death. His Voyages, edited by his brother, 
 was printed at the expense of the government, 
 and was shortly afterward translated into French, 
 German, and Swedish. 
 
 Vangee. A contrivance for working the 
 pumps of a vessel by means of a barrel and 
 crank-breaks. 
 
 Vangs. Ropes from the end of a gaff to the 
 side of the ship to steady the gaff. 
 
 Variables. Those parts of the sea where a 
 steady wind is not expected. 
 
 Variation. The angle which the magnetic 
 meridian makes with the geographical meridian. 
 See COMPASS. 
 
 VARIATION-CHART. A chart on which is 
 shown, by curved lines, the variation of the 
 compass. 
 
 Veer. To pay out a rope. To wear ship. To 
 change direction, applied to the wind ; the 
 wind hauls forward and veers aft. It is also said 
 to veer when it changes direction against the 
 sun. 
 
 Vega. The star a Lyrce. See LYRA. 
 
 Vein. Clear water in the openings between 
 ice-floes. 
 
 Velocity (Lat. vel/ox, swift). Rate of motion. 
 The velocity of a body is uniform when it passes 
 through equal spaces in equal times, and vari 
 able when the spaces passed through in equal 
 times are unequal. Velocity is purely a relative 
 term, for there is nothing which in itself is either 
 swift or slow, any more than great or small. 
 The velocity of a cannon-ball appears very great, 
 yet it is slow compared with the motion of a 
 point on the earth s equator, carried round by 
 the diurnal motion ; and this, again, is far in 
 ferior to the velocity of the earth in its orbit, 
 which in its turn is greatly exceeded by the 
 velocity of light. 
 
 Initial velocity, in gunnery, is the velocity of 
 the projectile at the muzzle of the piece ; called 
 also muzzle velocity. 
 
 Remaining velocity is the velocity of a pro 
 jectile at any point of its flight intermediate 
 between the piece and the point of striking. 
 
 Terminal velocity is the velocity with which 
 the projectile strikes its object. 
 
 Final velocity is the uniform velocity with 
 
 which a projectile, descending through the air, 
 moves after the resistance of the air has become 
 equal to the accelerating force of gravity. It is 
 directly proportional to the product of the diam 
 eter and density of the projectile, and inversely 
 proportional to the density of the air. 
 
 Vena Contracta. The contracted portion of 
 a jet of fluid issuing from an orifice in a thin 
 plate always observed at a short distance from 
 the orifice, the effective area of which is thus re 
 duced, at an average, to about five-eighths its 
 actual area. 
 
 Vendace. A rare species of trout, found in 
 Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, Scotland ; Coregonus 
 WUlughbii. 
 
 Vendaval. A stormy time on the coast of 
 Mexico, in the autumn, with violent thunder, 
 lightning, and rain. 
 
 Venice, a fortified city of Northern Italy, one 
 of the noblest, most famous, and singular cities 
 in the world, is built upon a crowded cluster of 
 islets in the lagoons of the same name, on the 
 northwest of the Adriatic Sea, in lat. 45 25 
 N., Ion. 12 20 E. Immediately west of the 
 island of Lido are the islands on which Venice 
 is built, and immediately south of it is the Porto 
 di Malamocco, now the deepest entrance to the 
 lagoon, and the seaway for vessels of the greatest 
 draft. Venice was for many years the first mari 
 time and commercial power of the world. The 
 islands upon which it is built are 80 in number, 
 are intersected b} 7 147 canals, and are divided 
 into two great groups by the Grand Canal, which 
 is about two miles long and from 160 to 230 feet 
 broad. Many of the inhabitants are employed 
 in fishing and in navigating vessels belonging to 
 the port, of which there are about 30,000. The 
 value of the imports is about $25,000,000, and 
 exports $12,500,000. Lat. 45 25 49.5" N. ; 
 Ion. 12 2V 8" E. Pop. 129,000. 
 
 Vent. The aperture through which fire is 
 communicated to the charge of a gun. An axial 
 vent is supposed to give a slight increase of 
 initial velocity. 
 
 VENT-DRILL. A machine for clearing the vent 
 of a gun when choked. 
 
 VENT-PLUG. A leather stopper for the vent . 
 of a gun not in use. 
 
 Venus. When most brilliant, Venus is about 
 40 from the sun. When it appears in the south 
 west just after sunset, it is known as the evening 
 star, the Greeks called it Hesperus. When it 
 appears in the southeast just before sunrise, it is 
 called the morning. star, or Lucifer. Transits of 
 Venus across the disk of the sun are of special 
 importance in determining the solar parallax ; the 
 next one occurs in December, 1882. Diameter, 
 7600 miles ; mean distance from the sun, 69 
 millions of miles. Symbol 9, representing a 
 mirror. 
 
 Vera Cruz, the capital of the state of Vera 
 Cruz, Mexico, is situated in a sandy, marshy, 
 and unhealthy plain on the southwest shore of 
 the Gulf of Mexico. It is defended by the strong 
 castle of San Juan de Ulloa, built upon an island 
 about half a mile from the shore. The harbor, 
 a mere roadstead between the town and the 
 castle, is very insecure, having neither good an 
 chorage nor sufficient protection from the north 
 winds. It is provided with a good stone mole, 
 and on the island of San Juan de Ulloa there is 
 a light-house, showing a brilliant revolving light, 
 
VERITAS 
 
 830 
 
 VILLENEUVE 
 
 89 feet above the sea. The trade of this city is 
 equal to that of all the other Mexican ports 
 combined. The chief exports are the precious 
 metals, cochineal, sugar, flour, indigo, provis 
 ions, leather, vanilla, soap, logwood, and pi 
 mento. Lat. 19 IV 64" N. ; Ion. 96 8 36" W. 
 Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Veritas. A register of shipping established 
 in Paris, on the principle of Lloyd s List. See 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Vernal Equinoctial Point. The first point of 
 Aries. See EQUINOCTIAL POINT. 
 
 Vernal Equinox. See EQUINOX. 
 
 Vernier. A small graduated scale for the 
 measurement of minute divisions on the limb 
 of a sextant, scale of a barometer, etc. 
 
 Vertical Circles. Great circles of the sphere 
 intercepting each other in the zenith and nadir, 
 and cutting the horizon at right angles. 
 
 Vespucci, Amerigo, was born at Florence, 
 March 9, 1451. His first voyage was in the ex 
 pedition commanded by Admiral Hojeda, which 
 sailed from Cadiz, May 20, 1499. The continent 
 of America received its name from this navigator 
 in virtue of his having sailed along the coast, and 
 being the first to publish an account of the New 
 World. But the discovery by Columbus was 
 anterior to the voyage of Vespucci. Upon his 
 return to Europe he was sent to Brazil, and 
 after this his voyages were unimportant. He died 
 at Seville, February 22, 1512. 
 
 Vessel. A general name for all the different 
 sorts of ships, boats, etc., navigated on the ocean 
 or on rivers and canals. 
 
 Vessels, Title to. The title to a vessel rests 
 in an instrument in writing, in the nature of 
 a bill of sale, which is required by law to be 
 duly acknowledged before a notary public, or 
 other officer authorized to take acknowledgment 
 of deeds. This instrument, as well also as every 
 mortgage, hypothecation, or conveyance of any 
 vessel, or part of any vessel, must be recorded in 
 the office of the collector of customs where such 
 vessel is registered or enrolled ; and without 
 such record no bill of sale, mortgage, hypothe 
 cation, or conveyance, is valid against any per 
 son other than the grantor or mortgagor, his 
 heirs and devisees, and persons having actual 
 notice thereof. It is made the duty of the col 
 lector to record all such bills of sale, mortgages, 
 hypothecations, or conveyances, and also all cer 
 tificates for discharging and canceling any such 
 conveyances, in books" kept for that purpose, in 
 the order of their reception ; noting in such 
 books, and also on the instrument "itself, the 
 time when the same is received, and to certify on 
 the bill of sale, mortgage, hypothecation, or con 
 veyance, or certificate of discharge, or cancella 
 tion, the number of the book and page where the 
 same is recorded. All bills of sale of vessels 
 registered or enrolled are required to set forth 
 the part of the vessel owned by each person sell 
 ing, and the part conveyed to each person pur 
 chasing. See Revised Statutes U. S., Sections 
 4192, 4193, 4196. 
 
 Via Lactea. See GALAXY. 
 
 Vice-Admiral. See ADMIRAL. 
 
 Victualer. A vessel which carries provisions. 
 In early days each man-of-war had a victualer 
 especially attached to her; as, in Henry VIII. s 
 reign, we find the "Nicholas Draper," of 140 
 tons and 40 men, was victualer to the " Trinity 
 
 Sovereign" ; the " Barbara" of Greenwich to the 
 " Gabriel Royal," and so on. 
 
 Vi et Armis. By force of arms. 
 
 Vigia. A hydrographical warning on a 
 chart, to denote that the pinnacle of a rock, or a 
 shoal, may exist thereabout. 
 
 Villeneuve, Peter Charles John Baptist Syl 
 vester de, a French vice-admiral, was born at 
 Valensoles in 1763, and died at Rennes in 1806. 
 He entered the navy in 1778, and had attained 
 the rank of capitaine de vaisseau when the French 
 Revolution occurred. He was made a rear- 
 admiral in 1796, and ordered to take part in the 
 Irish expedition, but failed to do so, on account 
 of adverse winds detaining the vessels of his 
 squadron. In the Egyptian expedition he had 
 a command, and was in charge of a division of 
 the French fleet at the battle of Aboukir, and 
 came out of that terrible action with four vessels, 
 which he succeeded in taking to Malta. 
 
 In 1801, Napoleon, being then first consul, 
 placed him in command of Martinique, and in 
 1804 promoted him to be vice-admiral, intending 
 to place him in charge of the naval forces during 
 the contemplated descent upon the English 
 shores, for which such extensive preparations 
 were making at Boulogne and elsewhere. The 
 plan was for Villeneuve and his fleet, in combi 
 nation with the Spanish fleet, under Admiral 
 Gravina, to sail for the West Indies, as if to 
 operate against the British possessions there, and 
 thus to draw off the bulk of the British fleet in 
 pursuit. He was then quickly and secretly to 
 return to Europe, enter the Channel, and there 
 find the rest of the French fleet concentrated to 
 protect the crossing of the army, while the Eng 
 lish were searching for him in far distant seas. 
 Villeneuve sailed from Toulon in January, 1805, 
 with 28 sail of the line, but put back on account 
 of bad weather, and by delay disarranged plans 
 which depended upon too many contingencies. 
 He did not join Gravina at Cadiz until April 
 9, at least two months later than the arrange 
 ments called for. With the combined fleet he 
 then sailed for the West Indies, where he took 
 Fort Diamond, and captured a valuable convoy. 
 During this time Nelson, who was ignorant of 
 his destination, was scouring the Mediterranean 
 in search of him, but came back from Egypt to 
 Naples, no wiser than he went. At last he got 
 upon Villeneuve s track, followed him, and was 
 reported at Barbadoes. The French admiral, 
 having drawn the English fleet to a great dis 
 tance, then hastened to return to Europe. He 
 captured on the passage a most valuable prize 
 in a privateer with a rich lading of specie cap 
 tured from the Spaniards, but unfortunately he 
 was detained by bad weather, and was 42 days 
 between the Azores and the Continent. Off 
 Cape Finistere his fleet encountered that com 
 manded by Sir Robert Calder, consisting of 19 
 vessels, and an engagement followed, which was 
 by no means decisive, and the inferior English 
 fleet withdrew, after inflicting much damage 
 upon that of the allies. This equivocal victory 
 irritated Napoleon exceedingly, and he caused a 
 note to be printed in the Moniieur, which may be 
 rendered as follows : 
 
 " If we can some day find a man combining 
 character, courage, coolness, and audacity, the 
 world will see what our sailors are capable of ac 
 complishing." 
 
VIOL 
 
 831 
 
 VULPECULA 
 
 This severe reflection upon Villeneuve was 
 caused by his delay interfering so seriously with 
 Napoleon s plans, who did not consider that he 
 could not control the weather, and who resented 
 fiercely Villeneuve s failure to destroy or capture 
 Calder s squadron. It was not yet too late for 
 the invasion to have taken place, if the combined 
 fleet had made for Brest ; but Villeneuve saw tit 
 to go into Cadiz, where Nelson, who had returned 
 from his fruitless cruise, at once blockaded him, 
 and Bonaparte was obliged to give up his cher 
 ished plan, especially as the state of affairs in 
 Austria forced him to give his personal attention 
 in that direction. Villeneuve, deeply mortified 
 by Bonaparte s reprimand, determined to re-es 
 tablish himself in the emperor s favor by a bril 
 liant and decisive action with the English fleet. 
 Alluding to the note in the Moniteur, he wrote 
 to the Minister of Marine: " If it be true that 
 nothing but firmness and audacity are needful, 
 I will leave nothing to be desired on that score 
 the first time that I go to sea." 
 
 He was, indeed, at that time making up his 
 mind to measure forces with his great adversary, 
 Nelson. Villeneuve finally sailed from Cadiz 
 on the 21st of October, with 33 ships of the line, 
 "French and Spanish. The English fleet had the 
 same number, but some preponderance in weight 
 of metal, and a great advantage in discipline and 
 ability to manoeuvre. The plan of battle which 
 the French admiral had laid down was rendered 
 nugatory by the audacious movements of Nelson, 
 who, at the very outset, broke the French line, 
 and fought the two wings separately. It was 
 Napoleonic strategy applied to a sea-fight. The 
 whole world knows the story. Villeneuve, in 
 the " Bucentaur," was soon overmatched and 
 captured, and the French navy received that day 
 a blow from which it was many a year in recov 
 ering, while the English lost Nelson. 
 
 Napoleon heard of the disaster while in the 
 midst of his own successes in Germany, and 
 never pardoned Villeneuve. The latter, when 
 liberated by the English, in April, 1806, re 
 turned to France, in hopes of justifying himself. 
 
 He wrote to Paris, and then followed his let 
 ter, but received the answer of the Minister of 
 Marine while on the road, which answer so over 
 whelmed him with mortification that he stabbed 
 himself through the heart with a dagger. E. 
 Shippen. 
 
 Viol, or Voyol. A large messenger formerly 
 used to assist in weighing an anchor by the cap 
 stan. 
 
 VIOL-, or VOYOL-BLOCK. A large single- 
 sheaved block through which the "messenger 
 passed when the anchor was weighed by the fore 
 or jeer capstan. 
 
 Virgiliae. A denomination of the Pleiades. 
 
 Virgo, Constellation of (Lat. " The Virgin"). 
 The sixth constellation of the ancient zodiac, 
 lying between Leo and Libra. It contains a 
 very brilliant star, a Virginia, called also Spica, 
 which may be found by drawing a line from 
 Dubhe through Cor Caroli, and producing it to a 
 little more than the same distance ; or it may be 
 recognized as forming an equilateral triangle 
 with Arcturus and /3 Leonis (Denebola), of which 
 it is the southern angle. 
 
 Virgo, Sign of. The sixth sign of the ecliptic, 
 including from 150 to 180 of longitude. Owing 
 to the precession of the equinoxes, the constella 
 tion Virgo is no longer in the sign of this name, 
 the constellation Leo having taken its place. 
 The sun is in Virgo from about August 23 to 
 about September 23. Symbol "MJJ. 
 
 Visible Horizon. See HORIZON. 
 
 Vis-viva. The product of the mass of a body 
 multiplied by the square of its velocity. It is 
 double the actual energy of the body, which is its 
 weight multiplied by the square of its velocity 
 and divided by 2 g. Expressed in formula, the 
 
 m v* Wv* 
 
 notation of which is evident, - = . 
 
 2 2g 
 
 Vitry. A kind of light, durable canvas. 
 
 Vivier. A French fishing-boat having a well 
 amidships in which to keep the fish alive until 
 arrival in port. 
 
 Vizy, or Vize. An old name for the muzzle- 
 sight on a musket. 
 
 Voes. Arms or inlets of the sea, or sounds, 
 in the Shetland and Orkney Isles. Also applied 
 to creeks and bays. 
 
 Vogovans. From voguer and avant, chief 
 rowers in the galleys. 
 
 Volans. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
 Volley. The simultaneous discharge of a 
 number of fire-arms. 
 
 Volligue. A small boat used on the shores of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Voluntary Stranding. The beaching or run 
 ning a vessel purposely aground to escape greater 
 danger ; this act is treated as particular average 
 loss, and not a damage to be made good by gen 
 eral contribution. 
 
 Voucher. A written document upon which 
 any public account or charge is established. 
 
 Voyage. A journey by water, including both 
 the outward and homeward voyages. 
 
 Vrach. Sea- weed used as fertilizing mate 
 rial. 
 
 Vulfe. A rapid whirlpool or race on the coast 
 of Norway. 
 
 Vulgar Establishment of the Port. See TIDE. 
 
 Vulpecula. See CONSTELLATION. 
 
w 
 
 832 
 
 WALKE 
 
 W. 
 
 W. Abbreviation for word in the U. S. Gen 
 eral Service Signal Code. In the log-book, w in 
 dicates wet dew. 
 
 Wad. A plug of hay, junk, etc., fitted to the 
 bore of a gun, and placed over the shot in load 
 ing to keep it in place. G-rommet-wads are simply 
 rope grommets. Junk-wads are made of coiled 
 junk. Selvagee-wads are made of rope-yarns, 
 coiled up selvagee-fashion, and are only used 
 with round shot. 
 
 WAD-HOOK. A worm (which see). 
 
 Wadmarel (Eng.}. Coarse hairy cloth, used 
 formerly in making pea-jackets. 
 
 Waffle-powder. A large-grained powder, de 
 signed by Commodore Jeffers. 
 
 "Waft, Weft, or Wheft. A flag knotted or 
 stopped in the middle is said to have a waft in it. 
 This is a signal, used at the staff or half-way up 
 to the gaff to show that a man is overboard ; at 
 the peak, a desire to communicate ; at the mast 
 head, to recall boats, etc. 
 
 Wafter. A passage-boat. 
 
 Waftors (Eng.}. Blunted swords for exercise. 
 Certain officers appointed to guard the coast 
 fisheries. 
 
 Wagering-policy, or Wager-policy. An in 
 surance policy where there is no interest in ship 
 or cargo. A kind of wager on the performance 
 of the voyage. 
 
 Waggel. The young of the black-backed 
 gull , Larus marinus. 
 
 Waghorn, Thomas. The feasibility of* re 
 viving a communication between Europe and 
 India via the Ked Sea having been established, 
 this enterprising Bengal pilot took the lead in 
 practically showing how much economy in time 
 might be effected by the formation of a company 
 that could equip steamers for the conveyance of 
 mails and passengers to and fro. His scheme was 
 carried out by an enterprising association, bring 
 ing Bengal 10,000 miles nearer to London. He 
 was made a lieutenant in the royal navy, and re 
 ceived other rewards. 
 
 Waif. Derelict goods ; goods not claimed. 
 
 Waist. That part of the ship between the 
 quarter-deck and forecastle. 
 
 WAIST-ANCHOR. The anchor stowed in the 
 waist ; the sheet-anchor. 
 
 WAIST-BOARDS. Boards put in the waist to 
 prevent the water from coming on board, espe 
 cially in the gangways. 
 
 WAIST-BOAT. A boat carried in the waist. 
 
 WAIST-BLOCKS. Chess-trees in the waist. 
 
 WAIST-CLOTHS. The hammock cloths of the 
 waist-nettings. 
 
 WAISTERS. Landsmen and worn-out seamen 
 formerly stationed in the waist. 
 
 WAIST-NKTTINGS. The boxes on the rail in 
 the waist, in which hammocks are stowed. 
 
 WAIST-RAIL. The molding-rail in the waist. 
 
 WAIST-TREE. See ROUGH-TREE. 
 
 Wale-knot. A wall-knot. 
 
 Wales. Main wales are the strakes from the 
 lower port-sill of the gun-deck to the bottom 
 plank. Channel-wales, sometimes called strings, 
 are those strakes between the spar- and main-deck 
 ports in ships of three decks, and spar-deck ports 
 in those of two decks. Middle wales are placed 
 between the main- and gun-deck ports in ships 
 of three decks. 
 
 WALE-PIECE. A piece of timber bolted hori 
 zontally along a dock, about the height of the 
 wales of a ship, to serve as a fender. 
 
 WALE-REARED. Wall-sided. 
 
 Wales, Philip S., Surgeon-General U.S.N. 
 Born February 27, 1837, in Annapolis, Md. 
 After graduation at the University of Maryland, 
 and a course of study in the Medical Department 
 of the University of Pennsylvania, he settled 
 at Baltimore, Md., whence he removed first to 
 Philadelphia, Pa., and afterwards to Washing 
 ton, D. C. Appointed assistant surgeon August 7, 
 1856; Naval Academy, 1857 ; steam-frigate "Mis 
 sissippi," East India Squadron, 1858-60; steamer 
 "Water- Witch," 1861. Commissioned as sur 
 geon, October 12, 1861 ; naval hospital, Norfolk, 
 1863 ; steamer " Fort Jackson," North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, 1864, and same vessel, 
 West Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1865 ; Exam 
 ining Board, 1868; sloop "Portsmouth," South 
 Atlantic Squadron, 1868-69 ; steam-sloop " Guer- 
 riere," European Station, 1870-72; member 
 Board of Examiners, 1872-74. Commissioned 
 as medical inspector, June 30, 1873 ; special 
 duty, Washington, 1874-79. Surgeon-general 
 and chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Sur 
 gery, with relative rank of commodore, January 
 26, 1880. 
 
 Surgeon-General Wales is a member of the 
 Academy of Natural Sciences, the American 
 Medical Association, and the Gynaecological So 
 ciety of Boston. His contributions to medical 
 literature comprise "Surgical Operations and 
 Appliances," "A New Method of Controlling 
 the Velum Palati," " A New Rectal Dilator and 
 Explorer" ; papers in the American Journal of 
 Medical Sciences on " Cerebro-Spinal Meningi 
 tis," " Amputation of Shoulder-Joint," " Frac 
 ture of Lower Jaw," " Gunshot Wound of 
 Stomach," " Ligature of the Femoral Artery," 
 " Fracture of Thyroid Cartilage," "Operation 
 for Hydropthalmia," and "Aneurism of the 
 Heart" ; a series of papers in the Philadelphia 
 Medical and Surgical Reporter on " Instrumental 
 Diagnosis," with a paper entitled "Description 
 of a New Endoscope" ; a paper in the New York 
 Medical Record on " Traumatic Tetanus," and 
 numerous reviews in various medical journals. 
 
 Walke, Henry, Rear-Admiral U.SiN. Born 
 in Virginia, Princess Ann County, on Lyn 
 
WALKE 
 
 833 
 
 WALKE 
 
 Haven Kiver, Dec. 24, 1808. Appointed mid 
 shipman from Ohio, February 1, 1827 ; attached 
 to receiving-ship "Alert," Norfolk, March 27, 
 1827; attached to "Natchez," West Indies, 
 July, 1827 ; " Ontario," Mediterranean Station, 
 February 8, 1829 ; frigate " Constellation," June 
 5, 1829 ; detached, November 16, 1831 ; Naval 
 School at Norfolk, 1831-33. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 10, 
 1833; "North Carolina," Pacific Station, No 
 vember, 1836, to July, 1839 ; same ship in New 
 York until October 5, 1840 ; "Boston," East In 
 dies and around the world to August 8, 1843 ; brig 
 " Bainbridge," Brazil, May 18, 1844, to Septem 
 ber 17, 1845; bomb-brig "Vesuvius," West In 
 dies, 1847 ; present at the surrender of Yera 
 Cruz, Tabasco, Tuspan, and Alvarado ; trans 
 ferred to frigate " Mississippi" ; frigate u Cum 
 berland, " Mediterranean Squadron, 1849-51. 
 
 Promoted to commander, Sept. 14, 1855 ; com 
 manded the "Supply," coast of Africa, 1858-59, 
 and in the West Indies, 1859-60. In the begin 
 ning of the Rebellion Commander Walke ren 
 dered most important service in preventing the 
 capture of Fort Pickens by the Confederates, 
 which enabled our forces ultimately to recapture 
 the navy-yard, Forts Barrancas and McCrea, 
 and Pensacola, with all that section of the State 
 of Florida which borders on those extensive in 
 land bays. He also rescued all our loyal officers, 
 sailors, marines, and government employes from 
 want and imprisonment. This service was per 
 formed under extraordinary difficulties and un 
 usual circumstances, which compelled him to act 
 contrary to the orders of the commodores on that 
 station and the Secretary of the Navy; this con 
 duct, although highly approved by all fair- 
 minded officers, was censured by the Secretary 
 of the Navy. The late Board of Rear- Admirals 
 reported that it was especially struck with this 
 highly creditable and meritorious conduct, and 
 that it had a marked and important bearing on 
 the success of our arms. Commander Walke was 
 the senior naval officer present when this service 
 was performed. Steamer " Mount Vernon," May 
 14, 1861 ; ordered as light-house inspector of llth 
 district, September 6, 1861, but orders changed 
 to Mississippi Flotilla, September 6, 1861 ; com 
 manded gunboat " Taylor," September 12, 1861, 
 at Cairo, 111. ; commanded gunboats at the battle 
 of Belmont, Nov. 7, 1861, and protected the 
 army under Gen. Grant, and prevented the Con 
 federate army from cutting off a portion of our 
 troops on their retreat to the transports, for 
 which he was highly commended in the general s 
 report of the battle ; commanded gunboat " Ca- 
 rondelet," 13 guns, partly ironclad, at the battle 
 of Fort Henry, February 6, 1862, the first de 
 cisive victory over the enemy s fortifications in 
 the Western waters, for which Flag-Officer Foote 
 and all his officers received the thanks of the 
 Secretary of the Navy, of Congress, and of the 
 State of Ohio ; commanded the " Carondelet" at 
 the battle of Fort Donelson, on the 13th, 14th, 
 and 16th of February, 1862 ; commenced the 
 battle alone on the 13th, and on the 14th held 
 his position in the front line of battle in the 
 general engagement, being the last to retire ; the 
 " Carondelet" was thrice as long under fire as 
 any other gunboat in this battle of two days, 
 and her loss in officers and men greatly exceeded 
 that of all the rest of the flotilla ; commanded 
 53 
 
 the " Carondelet" at th.e bombardment of Island 
 No. 10, March 17, 1862, and voluntarily ran 
 the gauntlet of the enemy s batteries April 4, 
 1862 with the "Carondelet" alone, being the 
 first example of successfully passing the enemy s 
 batteries and attacking them in the rear on the 
 Mississippi, and finally captured the enemy s 
 batteries below the island on the 6th and 7th 
 (with but little assistance), without which no 
 further attempt would have been made to cap 
 ture or pass that island by our army and navy. 
 This action was then considered the most im 
 portant victory and meritorious achievement 
 of the war, as it broke the blockade of the 
 enemy s line of fortifications without the loss 
 of a man on our side. The Secretary of the 
 Navy referring to it wrote, " It was a daring 
 and heroic act, well executed, and deserving a 
 special recognition. These fearless acts dismayed 
 the enemy, and eventuated in the surrender to 
 yourself of Island No. 10; and that a nation s 
 thanks were due, etc." These statements of the 
 Secretary of the Navy were approved and in 
 dorsed by Flag-Officer Foote. May 11, 1862, 
 Commander Walke led our fleet at the battle of 
 Fort Pillow, with the first division of the flotilla 
 attacked the enemy and rescued the gunboat 
 " Cincinnati," the "Carondelet" being the first, 
 or one of the first in, and the last out of the battle, 
 and much longer under fire at close quarters 
 than the rest of the fleet, and she remained alone 
 in possession of the battle-field. In the battle 
 of Memphis, June 6, 1872, the " Carondelet," 
 under his command, was second in the line of 
 battle with the flag-steamer when the fleet cap 
 tured that of the enemy (except one gunboat 
 and two which were sunk), with several of their 
 largest steamers, also the nav}--yard and all their 
 public property, with the city of Memphis. The 
 " Carondelet," still under his command, was the 
 principal gunboat that engaged the famous Con 
 federate ram "Arkansas," which was greatly 
 her superior in size and strength, and after a 
 well-contested battle the latter relinquished the 
 contest, with the loss in killed and wounded 
 greatly exceeding that of the " Carondelet." 
 
 Commissioned as a captain, July 16, 1862; 
 commanded the ram " Lafayette" (partly clad 
 with 1-inch iron) ; passed the batteries at Vicks- 
 burg, April 16, 1863, with the Mississippi Flotilla, 
 under Rear- Admiral Porter. At the battle of 
 Grand Gulf, April 29, 1863, he led the second 
 division of our fleet, which, with the first, nearly 
 silenced all the enen^ s batteries at close quar 
 ters, being under fire more than 5 hours, when 
 the fleet was withdrawn, and he was ordered back 
 to silence the main fort, on the Point of Rocks, 
 with the " Lafayette" alone, which he did in 
 about 25 minutes. Having passed these forts 
 three times under close fire, and having made 
 the last attack upon them alone the day before 
 they were evacuated, the " Lafayette" was un 
 der fire with that formidable chain of heavy bat 
 teries 8 or 9 hours, and much longer than the 
 rest of the fleet, without the loss of any of her 
 officers or crew, and but one officer slightly 
 wounded, this being the seventh desperate and 
 victorious battle, in which there was but 1 
 killed and 2 wounded under the command of 
 Capt. Walke, whose vessels were always as much 
 and generally more exposed to the fire of the 
 enemy s guns, and as frequently struck by their 
 
WALL-KNOT 
 
 834 
 
 WASH 
 
 shot and shell at close quarters as any gunboat 
 of the flotilla. And it is worthy of record that 
 his officers and crew were always required to 
 " remember to keep holy the Sabbath-day," ac 
 cording to our naval regulations. He dis 
 persed the Confederates under Gen. Taylor at 
 Simmsport, La. ; blockaded the mouth of the 
 Red River, June 4, 1863 ; ordered to the command 
 of the steamer " Fort Jackson," July 24, 1863. 
 Capt. Walke was the leader and one of the 
 principal actors in all the above-mentioned ac 
 tions, and for one or two of these Rear- Admirals 
 Foote, Davis, and Porter were thanked and pro 
 moted. September 24, 1863, to August 22, 1865, 
 he commanded the " Sacramento" on special ser 
 vice in search of the " Alabama," and was close 
 on her track when she was sunk by the " Kear- 
 sarge." He blockaded the Confederate steamer 
 " Rappahannock" at Calais, France, until the 
 end of the war, and intercepted her when she 
 escaped into British waters under British colors. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 25, 1866 ; 
 commanded the Naval Station at Mound City, 
 111., May 1, 1868, to November, 1869. 
 
 Promoted rear-admiral, July 13, 1870. Retired 
 voluntarily, April 26, 1871 ; member Light-House 
 Board, 1871-72. Rear-Admiral Walke s ser 
 vices were equal, if not superior, to those of any 
 other officer of the navy with the forces under 
 his command. 
 
 Wall-knot. See KNOT. 
 
 Wall-piece. An old heavy musket. 
 
 Wall-sided. Having sides nearly perpendic 
 ular. 
 
 Walrus. An aquatic mammal, the Triche- 
 chus rosmarus, allied to the seals, with long 
 canine teeth. Its flesh is good for food, and its 
 skin and tusks are valuable. 
 
 Walt (Eng.). An old word for crank, or tot 
 tering. 
 
 Walty. Crank. 
 
 Wane (Eng.}. Deficiency in timber; want 
 of squareness at the corners. 
 
 Wane-cloud. Cirro-stratus. 
 
 Wangan. A provision-boat, used in Maine. 
 
 Wany. Tapering or uneven ; spoiled by wet, 
 as timber. 
 
 Wapp, or Whap. Formerly, any short pendant 
 or thimble, through which running rigging was 
 rove. A rope connecting the shroud to the 
 laniard; a kind of stopper for the shroud with 
 wall-knots in it. 
 
 War-caperer. A privateer. 
 
 Wardroom. The apartments of the commis 
 sioned officers, including mess- and state-rooms. 
 It is on the berth-deck of frigates and sloops, but 
 was on the gun-deck of line-of-battle ships. 
 
 WARDROOM-COUNTRY. The open space be 
 tween the state-rooms in the wardroom. 
 
 WARDROOM-OFFICERS. Commissioned officers 
 messing in the wardroom. All commissioned 
 officers in the U. S. navy are wardroom-officers, 
 except those ranking with ensign. When an 
 ensign, or an officer having the equivalent rank, 
 is a watch-officer or the head of a department, 
 he is a wardroom-officer. 
 
 Ware. See WEAR. 
 
 Warehousing. Placing goods in bonded 
 warehouses until cleared. 
 
 Warm-sided. Mounting many heavy guns. 
 
 Warner (Eng.}. A beacon, buoy, light, etc., 
 to warn vessels of dangers. A sentinel formerly 
 
 placed on heights to give notice of the approach 
 of vessels. 
 
 Warning-lights. Flash-lights, burned in case 
 of emergency, to warn vessels of danger, etc. 
 
 Warning- signal (Eng.}. A signal hoisted to 
 warn vessels not to cross a bar. A storm-signal. 
 
 Warp. A tow-rope or light hawser, used to 
 move a ship about. (Eng.) A term for four 
 herrings. Land between sea-banks and the sea. 
 A given length of rope, rope-yarns, etc. The 
 threads along the length of canvas. Shroud- 
 warp, the length from which shrouds are to be 
 cut. To warp, to move a vessel with warps, or 
 lines, fast to fixed points. To stretch rope-yarns 
 into fixed lengths for tarring. (Eng.} To flood 
 land near rivers. 
 
 WARPAGE. A charge per ton for warping 
 ships. 
 
 WARPING-BLOCK. A large block used in mak 
 ing warps in rope- walks. 
 
 WARPING-CHOCK. A large chock placed in a 
 port to lead hawsers through, in warping. 
 
 WARPING-HOOK. A hook used by rope-makers 
 for hanging the rope on, in warping yarns. 
 
 WARPING-POST. A strong post in a rope- 
 walk, used in warping yarns. 
 
 Warrant. An instrument conferring author 
 ity upon persons, inferior to a commission. A 
 writ issued by an inferior power, as by the Sec 
 retary of the Navy. A document assembling a 
 court-martial, court of inquiry, etc. Dock-war 
 rant, a custom-house license or authority. Press- 
 warrant, a warrant formerly issued giving power 
 to press seamen. Brown-paper warrants (Eng.}, 
 those given by a captain, and revokable by him. 
 Acting warrant, a warrant given by a com- 
 mander-in-chief, or by the Secretary, to a person 
 temporarily chosen to fill a warrant office. 
 
 WARRANT-OFFICER. An officer holding his 
 position by virtue of a warrant issued by some 
 power inferior to the supreme magistrate, as by 
 a navy board, the Secretary of the Navy, etc. 
 Warrant-officers are selected or promoted from 
 seamen, ship-carpenters, etc., and comprise the 
 boatswain, gunner, carpenter, and sailmaker. 
 They receive at sea, in the U. S. navy, from 1200 
 to 1800 dollars per year, according to length of 
 service. They rank next below mates, and are 
 quartered and messed separately. Formerly 
 their rooms were forward, and they were then 
 culled forward officers, but this name is no longer 
 used. 
 
 Warranty. A contract or clause in marine in 
 surance policies, engaging that certain things 
 affecting the risk shall be done, or shall exist, 
 etc. Certain warranties are implied in all in 
 struments. 
 
 Warren, Sir J. Borlase. After a lengthened 
 service in a subordinate grade, this excellent 
 officer was fortunate enough to capture a French 
 line-of-battle ship and 3 frigates, and thus gained 
 promotion to the rank of admiral. In 1812, 
 during the war between England and the United 
 States, Sir J. B. Warren was employed on the 
 eastern coast of America, and likewise visited 
 the West India Islands. 
 
 Warren-head (Eng.}. A dam across a river. 
 
 War-ship, or War-vessel. A vessel built to 
 engage in war : a national ship, armed and 
 equipped for war. 
 
 Warth (Eng.}. A ford. 
 
 Wash. Accumulated silt in river mouths. 
 
WASH-BOARD 
 
 835 
 
 WATCH 
 
 Flooded banks or sands. A shallow inlet or 
 gulf. The blade of an oar. (Eng.) A Billings 
 gate oyster-measure, two-thirds of a bushel. 
 Awash, even with the water s edge. 
 
 Wash-board, or Wash-strake. Broad, thin 
 plank fastened on the gunwale of a boat or 
 small vessel, to keep the spray out. Boards 
 fitted to the sills of lower-deck ports of a liner. 
 The white facings of old naval uniforms. 
 
 Wash-clothes. The clothes that have been 
 washed and hung on the clothes-lines to dry. 
 
 Wash-deck Gear. The brooms, squilgees, 
 holy-stones, buckets, etc., used in washing decks. 
 
 Washer. A ring or plate of metal, leather, 
 gum, or other material suitable to the purpose 
 intended, placed under a bolt-head or nut, either 
 for distributing the strain of the bolt over a 
 greater area than that of the face of the nut, 
 relieving the friction of turning the nut, or 
 rendering the junction tight. A loose ring 
 placed between the hub of a wheel or gun-truck 
 and the linchpin. A ring of leather or gum placed 
 between hose-couplings to prevent leakage. 
 
 Washington, the capital of the United States, 
 is finely located on the Potomac River, in the 
 District of Columbia. Lat. (of Observatory) 
 38 53 9"N., Ion. 77 2 48" W.,from Green 
 wich. That portion of the American ephemeris 
 which is designed exclusively for astronomical 
 use, is adapted to the meridian of Washington, 
 and American maps are frequently constructed 
 with this meridian as the origin whence longi 
 tudes are reckoned. The city is situated between 
 two small tributaries of the Potomac, the one on 
 the east called the East Branch , and the one on the 
 west called Rock Creek. In addition to its being 
 the seat of the national government, and contain 
 ing all the Department buildings, it is also the 
 seat of the U. S. Naval Observatory, one of the 
 institutions most creditable to the government, 
 occupying a commanding site on the banks of the 
 Potomac southwest of the President s mansion. 
 The arsenal on Greenleaf s Point, at the junction 
 of the East Branch with the Potomac, is one of the 
 principal establishments of its kind in the United 
 States. About 1|- miles northeast from the arsenal 
 on the East Branch is the navy-yard. (See NAVY- 
 YARD, WASHINGTON, D. C.) The government 
 asylum for insane soldiers and sailors, and the 
 Soldiers Home for disabled soldiers, are also 
 located here. Pop. 160,000. 
 
 Wash-water (Eng,). A ford. 
 
 Waste. Material which cannot be utilized 
 for the purpose for which it was intended. Cot 
 ton-waste is the portion of yarn that will not un 
 wind from the bobbins of cotton machinery. It 
 is used for wiping oil and dirt from machinery, to 
 which purpose it is better adapted than any other 
 substance. 
 
 Waste-board. See WASH-BOARD. 
 
 Waste-steam. Steam that escapes from the 
 safety-valve of a steam-boiler, or leaks through 
 the joints, valves, or pistons of a steam-engine. 
 
 Waste-steam Pipe. A pipe for conducting 
 superfluous steam from a steam-boiler or other 
 apparatus to some convenient point. 
 
 Waste-water Pipe. A pipe for discharging 
 superfluous water from a reservoir of any kind. 
 Watch. The part of a ship s company that 
 work her for an allotted time. The crew is 
 generally divided into the starboard and port 
 watches, but it may also be divided into three 
 
 watches, as is at times customary with the 
 firemen. The watch are not required to keep 
 their feet, or even to keep awake, but must be 
 ready for a call, and cannot go below-decks. 
 They are mustered at the beginning of, and often 
 during, the watch, by a midshipman, or other 
 junior officer, or by the captains of the parts of 
 the ship. Both watches, or all hands, are called 
 at any time in a sudden emergency, when the 
 executive-officer takes charge of them. The 
 watch is set at 8 o clock each evening, and the 
 relief watch is called generally ten minutes be 
 fore 12, 4, etc. The watches go to meals sepa 
 rately, except in fair weather, under steam alone, 
 when both may go. With each watch is a boat 
 swain s mates, one or two quarter-masters, one or 
 two quarter-gunners, a carpenter s mate, and a 
 ship s corporal. The marines are also watched, 
 in connection with their sentry-duty, and assist 
 in working ship. The officers of the line (and 
 engineers when steaming) are also divided into 
 watches, and the lieutenants have charge of the 
 watch, the midshipmen and mates being junior 
 officers, stationed on the forecastle or quarter 
 deck. The first and second lieutenants, and 
 staff-officers, warrant-officers, many petty officers, 
 cooks, stewards, etc., are not watched, and me 
 chanics, etc., are only watched at night. Watch 
 and watch, the usual arrangement in two watches, 
 alternating in duty. Anchor-watch, a detail of 
 men, or a quarter-watch kept when the ship is at 
 single anchor. Quarter-watch, one-fourth the 
 working hands, half of each watch. The watch 
 is divided into first and second parts, and these 
 comprise the quarter-watches. To relieve the 
 watch, to formally shift watches, after the new 
 watch is on deck. 
 
 The length of time into which the day is di 
 vided, or the time one watch remains on deck. 
 First watch, from 8 P.M. till midnight. Middle- 
 watch, or mid-watch, from midnight until 4 A.M. 
 Morning-watch, from 4 to 8 A.M. Forenoon- 
 watch, from 8 to 12 M. Afternoon-watch, from 
 12 M. to 4 P.M. Dog-watches, two watches of 
 two hours length : first dog, from 4 to 6 P.M. ; 
 second dog, from 6 to 8 P.M. These are necessary 
 for shifting the two watches, so as to give each a 
 turn of 8 hours below at night. There are no 
 dog-watches in the French service, and instead, 
 there are two 6-hour watches. Port- or harbor- 
 watch, an arrangement of the officers watches, 
 by which, when in port, two remain on duty 
 at a time, alternating the watches. By the 
 usual arrangement of the officers watches at 
 sea, they follow each other in succession. A 
 buoy watches when it floats properly on the 
 surface. Watch ho, watch! a warning-cry used 
 in heaving the deep-sea lead, to indicate that the 
 line is running out, and to warn the next person 
 holding it. To watch a smooth, to look out for 
 a smooth sea before putting the helm down. To 
 watch the crew, to arrange them in watches. 
 
 WATCH-BELL. A small bell sometimes used 
 in night-watches instead of the larger ship s bell. 
 
 WATCH-BILL. The list of the crew divided 
 into watches. It is generally in connection with 
 the quarter-bill and the station-bill. See WATCH-, 
 QUARTER-, AND STATION-BILL. 
 
 WATCH-GLASS. A half-hour glass, formerly 
 used to indicate time during the watches. 
 
 WATCH-GUN. A gun sometimes fired at 8 
 o clock, on setting the watch. 
 
WATCH 
 
 836 
 
 WATCH 
 
 WATCH-OFFICER. From three to five officers, 
 of the grade of lieutenant-commander, lieuten 
 ant, master, or ensign, are ordered to each vessel 
 as watch-officers. Lieutenant-commanders have 
 been seldom assigned to this duty since the re 
 duction in the number of officers in that grade, 
 and ensigns are sent to the smallest vessels only. 
 
 The watch-officer, while on duty, is the repre 
 sentative of the commanding officer, and his 
 authority is subject only to that of the command 
 ing and executive-officers. He executes all or 
 ders received from the commanding and execu 
 tive-officers, and must conform, in his manner 
 of carrying on duty, to the regulations and to 
 the customs of the service. 
 
 On taking charge of the deck, he informs him 
 self of the position of the ship in regard to all 
 dangers, as shoals, rocks, land, other vessels, etc. 
 Throughout his watch he pays strict attention to 
 the steering and logging, and is careful to insert 
 in the log-book the various facts and data re 
 quired by the instructions in the regulations. 
 He reports to the commanding officer all facts 
 of special interest, such as the making of land, 
 or of a sail or light. He should never, on his 
 own authority, carry sail beyond the limits of 
 prudence. He sees that the etiquette of the 
 quarter-deck is observed, attends all commis 
 sioned officers as they leave the ship, and re 
 ceives them when they come on board. During 
 his watch he is responsible for the proper man 
 agement of the ship under all circumstances, and 
 for the discipline of the crew. On his judg 
 ment frequently depends the safety of the ship, 
 and he should, therefore, be prepared to meet 
 any emergency that may arise, such as a squall, 
 fire, collision, etc. 
 
 An officer s value is better shown in avoiding 
 difficulties than in extricating himself from them. 
 If the subordinate officers and look-outs are kept 
 on the alert, and the instructions concerning the 
 running-lights, fog-signals, etc., are strictly en 
 forced, collisions will be of rare occurrence. If 
 the corporal of the guard and master-at-arms are 
 thorough in their inspections, a fire can make 
 but little headway before discovered. 
 
 And so in regard to emergencies in general, it 
 may be observed that they can be avoided ordi 
 narily by timely precautions. In case an emer 
 gency does occur, there are two qualities which 
 are necessary to an officer to carry him through 
 creditably, i.e., coolness and common sense. 
 Common sense cannot be acquired, it is a natu 
 ral gift. Coolness is born of confidence, and 
 confidence is inspired by experience; of this 
 latter article, the watch-officer of to-day is likely 
 to have a surfeit. 
 
 WATCH-. QUARTER-, AND STATION-BILL. Bills 
 or lists of the crew, with their stations, etc., at 
 guns and on the yards, prepared by the execu 
 tive-officer, and posted so that the crew may see 
 them. The bills in the IT. S. navy are now uni 
 form for all ships, and consist of several parts. 
 A general description of the vessel and of her 
 engines is first given. Next a description of her 
 battery, of the capacity of magazines, shell-rooms, 
 and of the powder-tanks, and the number of 
 small-arms. A diagram of the vessel follows, 
 then a description of the boats, of the life-rafts, 
 life-preservers, pumps and hose, and of the ca 
 pacity of the water-tanks. The dimensions of 
 spars and the sail-areas follow, then the anchors, 
 
 chains and hawsers, and the spare spars and 
 sails. A list of the officers, the complement of 
 the crew, and the force-bill terminate this pre 
 liminary portion. 
 
 Next comes the watch-bill. The crew are di 
 vided into several parts, aside from the main 
 division into two watches, viz., forecastle, fore- 
 top, main-top, mizzen-top, and after-guard, each 
 consisting of first and second parts, and petty 
 officers, watched messengers, idlers, mechanics, 
 engineer s force, marines, and bandsmen. Each 
 man s name is written, with his rate or rank, 
 opposite a number, odd numbers in the starboard, 
 even in the port watch, beginning with 1, and 
 opposite his name is also written, in appropriate 
 columns, his gun or division, boat, company, 
 mess, and his station at loosing and furling sails. 
 The engineer s watch-bill gives a list of the men, 
 their watch- and engine-room numbers, and 
 their rates. The watch-bill is terminated by a 
 description of the manner of stowing hammocks, 
 and diagrams of the decks, showing the berthing 
 arrangements. 
 
 Then follows the quarter-bill. This gives a 
 list of the men, with their watch-numbers, rates, 
 ship s- or paymaster s-numbers, gun-numbers, 
 and stations at the guns, together with the 
 quarter-gunners and officers of divisions. From 
 3 to 5 guns constitute a division, and some 
 times a pivot-gun on the upper deck is in a 
 division by itself. Following the gun-divi 
 sion are the navigators division, comprising 
 those men who work and steer the ship during 
 action, the powder-division, to furnish powder, 
 shot, and shell to the guns, the marine-guard, 
 and the surgeon s and the paymaster s divisions. 
 A list is then given of the boarders, of the rifle 
 men, of the firemen, pumpmen, and sail-trim 
 mers. A list of stations at torpedo-exercise and 
 the fire-bill follow, and terminate the quarter- 
 bill. A list is then given of the life-boats crews, 
 detailing them, with their duties, in each watch. 
 Then follow the boats crews, both for ordinary 
 work and for equipping for action, and with 
 the station of each person in abandoning the 
 ship, in case of wreck. Each man s duty, and 
 the articles he shall furnish in providing the 
 boat, are prescribed. The battalion organization 
 then follows, giving each company and howitzer 
 crew, with its place in the battalion. 
 
 The concluding portion of the book is the sta 
 tion-bill, giving the officers stations, diagrams of 
 the spars, with the position of each looser and 
 furler, and the detailed station of each man in the 
 crew for the various evolutions of loosing sail, 
 furling sail, bending sail, sending up and down 
 light yards, housing and fidding topmasts, send 
 ing up and down topsail-yards and lower-yards, 
 hoisting out and in boats, mooring and unmoor 
 ing, making sail and getting under way, setting 
 and taking in stun -sails, tacking and wearing, 
 reefing topsails and courses, shortening sail and 
 anchoring, manning yards and clearing ship for 
 action. The combination-bill shows the duties of 
 each one of the crew in all these evolutions at a 
 glance. Details are then given for preparing 
 ship for sea, cleaning ship, spreading and furl 
 ing awnings, and stopping on scrubbed ham 
 mocks. The routines of divisional exercises, and 
 of spar- and sail-drills for each day, and a 
 monthly, half-monthly, and daily routine, com 
 plete the bills. See ROUTINE. 
 
WATCHET 
 
 837 
 
 WATER 
 
 Watchet (Eng.). Light blue cloth formerly 
 worn by sailors. 
 
 Watch-tackle. See TACKLE. 
 
 Water. The drinking water for use on ship 
 board was formerly kept in casks, stowed in sev 
 eral tiers, the lowest being the ground-, the others 
 the riding-tiers. More recently, iron tanks, fitted 
 to the form of the ship, and placed in the hold, 
 have been used. Later, iron ships have had 
 hollow masts, so that water may be carried in 
 them. Fresh water is now distilled from sea- 
 water, by distilling apparatus, in steamers, and in 
 some sailing-vessels, and thus purer water is 
 insured. One ton of coal should distill 7 tons of 
 fresh water. Each man is allowed 1 gallon of 
 water per diem. Water, before being received 
 on board, must be tested by the medical officer, 
 for impurities, and should not be received until 
 passed by him. Fresh water is only used on ship 
 board for drinking and culinary purposes, by the 
 crew, and occasionally, paint-work is scrubbed 
 with fresh water. To make water, to leak. To 
 water ship, to take a supply of water on board. 
 This is done by filling the large casks, and 
 emptying them afterwards, by filling the launch 
 in fresh water and towing her off, or through 
 the medium of a water-boat, or hydrant. 
 
 WATER-ANCHOR. See SEA-ANCHOR. 
 
 WATER-BAILIFF (Eng.). An officer who 
 searches vessels for suspected persons and goods, 
 etc. 
 
 WATER-BALLAST. Water used to ballast a 
 ship or boat. When the tanks are emptied of 
 fresh water, it is sometimes necessary to let salt 
 water run into them, to be used as ballast. Some 
 English colliers have large tanks below the coal- 
 bunkers, to be filled when the latter are emptied, 
 with salt water, as ballast. 
 
 WATER-BARK. A Danish water-boat. 
 
 WATER-BATTERY. A battery nearly on a 
 level with the water. 
 
 WATER-BEWITCHED DRINKS (Eng.} . Tea, 
 geograffy, 5-water grog, and other diluted drinks. 
 
 WATER-BOARD. A board set up to windward 
 in a boat to keep the water out. 
 
 WATER-BOAT. A boat containing a large 
 tank, filled with fresh water, and having steam- 
 or hand-pumps for convejnng it into ships. A 
 boat filled with water in bulk or in casks, for 
 ship s use. 
 
 WATER-BORNE. Floating on the water. A 
 ship is water-borne when "she is just off the 
 ground. 
 
 WATER-BRIDGE. In steam-boilers, a hollow 
 bridge-wall, of metal, filled with water having 
 circulation with the water contained in the boiler. 
 
 WATER-BUTT. A large water-cask. See 
 WATER-CASKS. 
 
 WATER-CAP. A cap in a navy time-fuze, to 
 prevent the water from entering a nd extinguish 
 ing the fuze. 
 
 WATER-CASKS. Casks for storing or bringing 
 water to a ship. The following sizes of casks, 
 with their weights when full, embrace those 
 most in use: 
 
 Butt 110 gallons, weight 1100 pounds. 
 
 Puncheon 72 gallons, weight 720 pounds. 
 
 Barrel 36 gallons, weight 360 pounds. 
 
 Cask or kilderkin 18~ gallons, weight 180 
 pounds. 
 
 Small casks for use in boats, about decks, etc., 
 are called breakers. 
 
 WATER-CONDENSER,, or WATER-DISTILLER. 
 See DISTILLING APPARATUS. 
 
 WATER-CRAFT. All vessels plying on the 
 water. 
 
 WATER-CROW. The shag, or lesser cormorant. 
 
 WATER-DOG. A sea-dog ; an old sailor. 
 
 WATER-FLEAS. The Entomostraca, a group 
 of Crustacea of the genera Cyclops and Daphnia. 
 
 WATER-FOX. The carp ; so called on account 
 of its cunning. 
 
 WATER-GALL. A name for the wind-gall. 
 
 WATER-GAUGE. A sea-wall. An instrument 
 to measure the rise of water. A gauge which 
 indicates the quantity or height of level of water 
 within a chamber or reservoir, such as a steam- 
 boiler, etc. An instrument for indicating press 
 ure by means of a column of water. 
 
 WATER-GAVEL (Eng.}. Rent paid for fishing- 
 rights in a stream. 
 
 WATER-GUARD. A custom-house officer em 
 ployed to watch incoming vessels, or those pass 
 ing out. 
 
 WATER-HEMLOCK. The (Enanthe crocata, a 
 poisonous aquatic plant. 
 
 WATER-HORSE. Codfish stacked in a pile to 
 drain. 
 
 WATERING-PLACE. A locality where fresh 
 water may be procured for ships use. 
 
 WATER-LAID ROPE. Rope laid up against the 
 sun, or left-handed. 
 
 WATER-LEG. A space in a marine boiler be 
 tween the furnaces, filled with water. 
 
 WATER-LINES. Horizontal lines supposed to 
 be described by the surface of the water on the 
 bottom or sides of a ship, and which are ex 
 hibited at certain parallel depths upon the sheer- 
 plan. Of these the most important are the light 
 water-line and the load water-line. The light 
 water-line is the line of immersion of the ship 
 when light or unladen. The load-water line is 
 the line described around the ship s body when 
 the cargo is all on board and the ship is ready 
 for sea. In the half-breadth plan the water-lines 
 are outward curves, limiting the half-breadth of 
 the ship at the same height as the corresponding 
 lines in the sheer and body plans. 
 
 WATER-LINE MODEL. A model made up 
 from horizontal or water-lines and the sheer- 
 lines. 
 
 WATER-LOGGED. The condition of a leaky 
 ship when she is so full of water as to be heavy 
 and unmanageable. 
 
 WATERMAN. A man who plies for hire on 
 the water ; a boatman. 
 
 WATERMAN S-KNOT. A name for the clove- 
 hitch. 
 
 WATER-MARK. A mark on a water-gauge 
 indicating the height of water. 
 
 WATER-PADS. River-pirates ; water- thieves. 
 
 WATER-PLOW. A kind of dredging-machine 
 formerly used in rivers. 
 
 WATER-ROOM. The space in a steam-boiler 
 that is filled with water. 
 
 WATER-SAIL. A small sail set under the 
 lower studding-sail. A sail formerly set under 
 a projecting spanker-boom, extending to the 
 water s edge. 
 
 WATER-SCAPE. A passage for water 
 
 WATER-SHELL. A shell invented by Abel, 
 filled with water, and containing gun-cotton in a 
 cylinder in the centre. 
 
 WATER-SHOT. That condition of a ship 
 
WATEKFOED 
 
 838 
 
 WAY 
 
 moored neither across tide nor up and down, 
 but midway between the two positions. 
 
 WATER-SKY. A dark blue sky caused by re 
 flection of deep water, seen in Arctic seas. 
 
 WATER-SNAKES. The marine snakes of the 
 genus Hydrophis, with broad flat tails. 
 
 WATER-SPACE. The space occupied by the 
 water in a marine boiler. 
 
 WATER-SPOUT. A vertical column of water 
 moving along the surface of the sea, having also 
 a gyratory motion. As considerable masses of 
 water are raised, they are dangerous to small 
 ships. They may be broken by firing into them. 
 
 WATER-STANG. A pole across a stream. 
 
 WATER-STOITP (Eng.}. 
 
 See TANK. 
 
 The periwinkle. 
 
 WATER-TANK. See TANK. 
 
 WATER-TIGHT. Well calked ; staunch. Not 
 admitting water. 
 
 WATER-TUBE BOILER. A steam-boiler in 
 which the tubes are so arranged that the water is 
 within the tubes around which the heat circu 
 lates. 
 
 WATER-WAR (Eng.}. The bore of the Severn. 
 
 WATER-WAYS. Pieces of oak or yellow pine 
 timber lying in the angle made by the top of the 
 deck-beams and inside of the frame-timbers. 
 
 WATER-WITCH. The dipper, a sea-bird. 
 
 WATER-WRAITH. Supposed sea-spirits in the 
 Shetland Islands. 
 
 Waterford, the capital of Waterford County, 
 Ireland, on the right bank of the Suir, which 
 forms its harbor, and is lined by a fine quay 
 about 1 mile in length ; 9 miles from the 
 sea. Among the principal buildings are the 
 chamber of commerce, custom-house, and artil 
 lery barracks. The city is the entrepot for a 
 large extent of country, the exports of which 
 are bacon, live-stock, dairy and agricultural 
 produce, salmon, and cotton goods. It has two 
 large ship-building yards, and manufactories of 
 glass and starch, with distilleries and breweries. 
 Pop. 24,000. 
 
 Waters, Captain Daniel. In January, 1776, 
 Capt. Waters was appointed to the schooner 
 " Lee," of eight 6-pounders. While command 
 ing her he captured or assisted in capturing 
 several valuable transports, in one of which 
 was Col. Campbell, with a part of the 71st 
 British regiment ; in another a quantity of mer 
 chandise which the British had plundered from 
 the merchants of Boston when they evacuated 
 that city. In command of the privateer " Thorn" 
 of 16 guns, of Boston, Capt. Waters, in the year 
 1778, engaged the " Governor Tryon" of 16 guns, 
 Capt. Stebbins, and the "Sir William Erskine" 
 of 18 guns, Capt. Hamilton, each having a greater 
 number of men than the " Thorn." The action 
 lasted for two hours, when the " Tryon" struck, 
 and the "Erskine" made sail to escape. The 
 "Thorn" pursued her, and compelled her to 
 strike. Capt. Hamilton and the other officers 
 of the "Erskine" were removed on board the 
 "Thorn," and the "Erskine" was ordered to 
 follow in pursuit of the "Tryon," which ves 
 sel, however, escaped, owing to the darkness 
 of the night. The next morning the "Er 
 skine" was manned and ordered for Boston, 
 leaving the " Thorn about 60 men only. A 
 few days after this the "Thorn" fell in with 
 the " Sparlin" of 18 guns and 97 men, and after 
 a close action of nearly an hour the "Sparlin" 
 struck. The "Thorn" and her two prizes ar 
 
 rived safe in Boston. Capt. Waters was appointed 
 by Congress a captain of the navy, March 15, 
 1777, upon the recommendation of Gen. Wash 
 ington, by whom he had been employed, and 
 who wrote of him in terms of high approbation. 
 
 Wattles. Bristles near the mouths of certain 
 fish. 
 
 Wave. A volume of water raised by the 
 action of the wind, tide, or current, upon the 
 ocean. Waves may arise from no apparent cause, 
 as when they precede or follow a storm. Waves 
 are either natural that is, proportioned in size 
 to the strength of the producing force or acci 
 dental, being increased or diminished by collision 
 with other waves, concussion with intervening 
 bodies, etc. Simple waves are those proceeding 
 directly from the producing causes, without in 
 terruption in any direction, and unaccompanied 
 by any other waves. Compound waves occur 
 when several producing causes have resulted in 
 waves of different heights, etc., as in a confused 
 or chopping sea. So when certain waves occur, 
 greater than the majority in the same locality, it 
 is due to a greater cause, or to their coming from a 
 shorter distance. Waves are in section cycloidal 
 curves. They do not probably extend more than 
 2000 yards below the surface, and the effect of 
 generating causes is less the farther you recede 
 from the surface. 
 
 Dimensions and velocity of waves. The velocity 
 of waves is dependent on their length . If length 
 (I) is known, the velocity is that that a body 
 would acquire in falling through a height 
 equal to \ r, where r is the radius of a circle 
 whose circumference equals I. This would give 
 
 as a mathematical expression v ==-* / . Where 
 
 \ Z 7T 
 
 g is the force of gravity, and TT the quantity 
 3.1415, etc., g may be taken as 16 T V This would 
 
 I I no 
 
 then reduce to v=+\ , But as waves ap- 
 
 75.396 
 
 proach a shelving shore their lengths decrease, 
 but they become higher, while their lower part 
 decreases in velocity on account of friction, and 
 thus they break into surf when their height 
 equals the depth of the water. Dr. Scoresby, in 
 1850, measured Atlantic waves, finding some 43 
 feet high from trough to crest. Other waves in 
 100 feet of water were 4 to 5 feet in height, and 
 30 to 40 feet long, but did not extend to the bot 
 tom. He found the mean height of Atlantic waves 
 to be 10 feet. Six hundred feet in breadth, from 
 crest to crest, is usual in waves 30 feet high, 
 and with a velocity of 32 miles per hour. North 
 west gales caused waves off Cape Horn 40 feet 
 high, but only 32 feet off Cape of Good Hope. 
 Tidal waves are caused by the regular fluctua 
 tions of the tides. An earthquake is often ac 
 companied by a wave, that of Lisbon being some 
 40 feet in height, and that at Arica, more than 
 50 feet high. 
 
 WAVE-LINE. A method of shaping the hull 
 of a vessel, invented by Scott Russell, in which 
 the lines of the vessel were cycloidal, or approach 
 ing that curve in character. 
 
 WAVESON. Goods found floating on the waves 
 after shipwreck. 
 
 Way. The progress of a ship through the 
 water. Head-way, motion ahead. Stern-way, 
 motion astern. Fresh-way, increased motion 
 from any cause. To be under way, to be in mo- 
 
WAY-GATE 
 
 839 
 
 "WEATHER 
 
 tion. To have way, to have motion through the 
 water. To gather way, to acquire motion through 
 the water. To lose way, to cease moving. See 
 LEE- WAY. 
 
 GETTING UNDER WAY. The manoeuvre by 
 which a vessel is released from the restraint of 
 anchors and cables and placed under the control 
 of its motive-power. 
 
 The manner of performing the evolution may 
 differ with the force and direction of wind, tide, 
 or current, rig of vessel, motive-power, whether 
 steam or sail, and the berth in which the vessel 
 may be anchored. 
 
 Except when fixed moorings are employed, the 
 anchor or anchors are hove up by means of the 
 capstan, windlass, or deck-tackle. 
 
 When great haste is necessary the cable may 
 be slipped by unshackling it as near the hawse- 
 pipe as possible, and allowing that part con 
 nected with the anchor to go overboard, having 
 first attached a buoy by which it can be easily 
 recovered. 
 
 With a vessel under steani the evolution is 
 the most simple, as she is tp^ a great extent inde 
 pendent of both wind and" tide. The anchor be 
 ing aweigh, the engmcis started, and the vessel 
 is at once under the/control of the machinery and 
 helm. 
 
 When sail-pmver alone is used, the operation 
 is more difficult, as the direction and force of 
 wind and current must be regarded, and also 
 the proximity of dangers or of other vessels. 
 The cable is hove in to a short stay when sail is 
 rn ^- -^i, in the case of a square-rigged vessel, 
 t J 1 } j6Jj are braced in such a manner as to as- 
 gjsides tn/ lv j n g t jj e re q u i rec i direction and head- 
 Pfhs vessel after the anchor is aweigh ; 
 enc edj can on ]y k e determined by the action 
 of s 1 es P e jvind and current upon the vessel, their 
 rela^ 6 / strength, and the direction in which it 
 is nec^sary that the vessel should move. The 
 anchor is then hove up, the head-sails hoisted 
 when the anchor is aweigh, the helm used as re 
 quired to bring the vessel on her course, and the 
 yards are trimmed as may be necessary. 
 
 The; time at which the square-sails should be 
 set m,6y depend upon the direction of the wind 
 witii the desired course of the vessel ; for if that 
 course will bring the wind well aft, the anchor 
 is first weighed, the vessel turned in the required 
 direction by means of the head-sails and helm, 
 and: all sail made when she is upon her course. 
 
 With a fore-and-aft-rigged vessel the process 
 is similar, but it is more simple on account of 
 the advantages of rig. 
 
 To get under way from fixed moorings the 
 cable which is shackled to the buoy is replaced 
 *by a slip-rope, which is let go at the proper mo 
 ment and the delay of heaving up the anchor is 
 avoided. In a crowded harbor it may be neces- 
 -ary to heave up the anchor and warp the vessel 
 lear of others before proceeding to make sail, or 
 . ? the vessel is anchored in the vicinity of dan 
 gers, a part of the manoeuvre may consist in 
 taking a temporary berth bv using a kedge. 
 E. T. Strong, Lieutenant U.S.N. 
 
 Way-gate. The tail-race of a mill. 
 
 Ways. See SHIP, LAUNCHING OF. 
 
 Weak-fish. A fish of the genus Otolithus (0. 
 regalis). 
 
 Weal (Eng.}. A wicker-basket for catching 
 eels. 
 
 Wear. A weir. To put a ship on the other 
 tack by turning her bow away from the wind. 
 Wear is more generally used than veer in this 
 sense. 
 
 Weather. To sail to windward of. To weather 
 a ship, to get to windward of her ; to sustain the ef 
 fects of the weather. To weather a gale, to come 
 out of a storm safely. To weather the cape, figur 
 atively, to become skilled. To weather difficulties, 
 to contend with and surmount difficulties. 
 Weather side, the side next to the wind. 
 
 The air or atmosphere, with respect to its state 
 of dryness or moisture, heat or cold, clearness or 
 cloudiness, or any other physical state ; as, dry, 
 cold, wet, hot, warm, calm, pleasant, windy, 
 squally, fair, foul, stormy, rainy, cloudy, clear 
 weather. Stress of weather, tempestuous weather, 
 violent winds. The following notation is used 
 by seamen to indicate states of the weather, in 
 the log-book : 
 
 Beaufort Weather Notation. 
 
 s. Snow. 
 
 t. Thunder. 
 
 u. Ugly, threatening. 
 
 v. Visibility, clearness. 
 
 w. Wet dew. 
 
 A bar ( ) under any letter 
 augments its signification, 
 and a bar and a dot -s- in 
 dicates heavy and continu 
 ous weather of the kind 
 denoted. 
 
 b. Blue sky. 
 
 c. Clouds (detached). 
 
 d. Drizzling rain. 
 /. Foggy. 
 
 g. Gloomy. 
 
 h. Hail. 
 
 /. Lightning. 
 
 m. Misty. 
 
 o. Overcast. 
 
 p. Passing showers. 
 
 q. Squally. 
 
 r. Rainy. 
 
 WEATHER-ANCHOR. The anchor laid out to 
 windward, by which the ship will ride, when 
 tides permit. 
 
 WEATHER-BITT. To take an extra turn of the 
 cable about the bitts in bad weather. See BITTS. 
 
 WEATHER-BOARD. The side of the ship to 
 windward. Planks placed in the ports of a ship 
 in ordinary, inclined so that the water may run 
 off. 
 
 WEATHER-BORNE. Oppressed by wind and 
 sea. 
 
 WEATHER-BOUND. Detained by wind or sea. 
 
 WEATHER-BREEDERS. Wind-dogs, fog-dogs, 
 and other indications of bad weather. 
 
 WEATHER-CLOTH. A covering for the ham 
 mocks, boats, etc., of painted canvas. A tar 
 paulin, placed in the weather rigging, to shield 
 the men and officers on watch. 
 
 WEATHER-COIL (Eng.). The position of the 
 ship when she has been reversed so as to head op 
 posite to her former course, either by a shift of 
 wind, or by the helm, or swell in calm weather. 
 To resume the course when taken aback, by 
 making a stern-board and backing around. 
 
 WEATHER-EYE. A figurative term, "Keep 
 your weather-eye open" ; be on your guard. 
 
 WEATHER-GAGE, or WEATHER-GAUGE. The 
 position of a ship to windward of another, a 
 position of great advantage in the days of sail 
 ing-ships, but not so much so now. 
 
 WEATHER-GALL. See WIND-GALL. 
 
 WEATHER-GLASS. The barometer. 
 
 WEATHER-GLEAM. A clear sky near the 
 horizon after stormy weather. 
 
 WEATHER-GO. The end of a rainbow in the 
 morning. 
 
 WEATHER-HEAD. A secondary rainbow. 
 
 WEATHER-HELM. See HELM. 
 
 WEATHER-LURCH. A sudden and heavy roll 
 to windward. 
 
WEAVER 
 
 840 
 
 WELLS 
 
 WEATHERLY. Holding a good wind, and 
 making little leeway ; working well to wind 
 ward. 
 
 WEATHERMOST. The farthest to windward. 
 
 WEATHER-RHYMES. Seamen find it conve 
 nient to express many important facts in these 
 rhymes, and a few of the more prominent are 
 here given : 
 
 " A weather-gall at morn, 
 Fine weather all gone." 
 
 "A rainbow (or red sky) in the morning, 
 Sailors take warning ; 
 A rainbow (or red sky) at night 
 Is the sailor s delight." 
 
 "The evening gray and the morning red, 
 Put on your hat or you ll wet your head." 
 
 "When the wind shifts against the sun, 
 Trust it not, for back it will run." 
 
 " When the sun sets in a clear, 
 An easterly wind you need not fear." 
 
 " The evening red and morning gray 
 Are sure signs of a fine day ; 
 But the evening gray and morning red 
 Make the sailor shake his head." 
 
 " With the rain before the wind. 
 Your topsail halliards you must mind ; 
 But when the wind s before the rain, 
 You may hoist your topsails up again." 
 
 Or 
 
 Or, 
 
 " When rain comes before wind, 
 Halliards, sheets, and braces mind; 
 When wind comes before rain, 
 Soon you may make sail again." 
 
 1 First rise after very low 
 Indicates a stronger blow. 
 
 "When rise begins after low, 
 Squalls expect and clear blow." 
 
 "Long foretold, long last, 
 Short notice, soon past." 
 
 " When the glass falls low 
 Prepare for a blow ; 
 When it rises high 
 Let all your kites fly." 
 
 " Mackerel sky and mares tails 
 Make tall ships carry low sails." 
 
 WEATHER-ROLL. The roll of a ship to wind 
 ward. 
 
 WEATHER-ROPE. An old term for tarred 
 rope. 
 
 WEATHER-SHORE. A shore to windward of 
 the ship. 
 
 WEATHER-SIDE. The side toward the wind. 
 At sea, the weather-side is the royal side, that 
 is, the weather gangway is not a loafing-place. 
 The weather side of the quarter-deck is for the 
 officer of the deck, captain, and executive-officer 
 only, and the weather-side of the gun-deck is 
 kept clear. 
 
 WEATHER-TIDE. A tide running toward the 
 wind. 
 
 WEATHER-WHEEL. The helmsman on the 
 weather-side of the wheel. 
 
 Weaver. A fish of the perch family; the 
 Trachinus vipera. 
 
 Wedding-knot. A crossed seizing between 
 two eyes in ropes. 
 
 Wedge. Mast-wedges, wedges placed about 
 the ma.st in the partners, for confining it in place. 
 Launching-wedges, wedges used to lift a ship in 
 
 launching. Set-wedge, a wedge used to drive 
 together two timbers. 
 
 Wedge-fid. A fid in two parts, wedge- 
 shaped. 
 
 Weed. To clear rigging, etc., of rope-yarns. 
 
 Weel. A baited basket-trap for catching fish. 
 
 Weep. To ooze in small quantities, as the 
 water from the side of a ship. 
 
 Weever. See WEAVER. 
 
 Weevil. The Curculio, a variety of which is 
 very destructive to bread, rice, etc. 
 
 Weft. See WAFT. 
 
 Weigh. To weigh anchor, to lift the anchor 
 from the bottom. 
 
 Weighage. A charge for weighing goods at 
 a dock. 
 
 Weight-nails. Nails of great size, larger 
 than deck-nails, with flat heads. 
 
 Weight of Metal. The weight of iron that a 
 ship can throw at one round from all her guns. 
 A line-of-battle ship, mounting 74 guns, would 
 have thrown but 1570 pounds of rnetal 200 years 
 ago, but the recent frigates, such as the " Alex 
 andra," throw upwards of 4000 pounds, and the 
 Italian " Duilio" will throw at a round 8000 
 pounds of metal. 
 
 Weir. An old term for sea-weed. An inclo- 
 sure in which fish are caught. A dam across a 
 river. 
 
 Well. An inclosure from the hold to the 
 lower deck, protecting the pump from injury. 
 An aperture in the upper-works of the stern of 
 a steamer, for the propeller to travel in.^ A 
 compartment in a fishing-vessel in whif" a cjfc 
 circulates ; in this fish are preserved alive ou ia a\{ 
 synonymous with belay. To well off, to 
 leak by surrounding it with a temporary Wher 
 well, carried above the water-line. 
 
 WELL-BOAT. A fishing-boat provided <] uai l a 
 well. is 
 
 WELL-CABIN. A cabin in a small ves; el en 
 tered from above, with no ports or ventilation 
 from the sides. 
 
 Well Fare Ye ! (Eng.}. An expression for 
 merly used to encourage the men at heavy 
 heaving. 
 
 Well-found. Fully provided or equipped. 
 
 Wells, Clark H., Commodore U.S.N. Born 
 in Reading, Pa., September 22, 1822. Ap 
 pointed midshipman from Pennsylvania, Sep 
 tember 25, 1840; attached to the line-of-battle 
 ship "North Carolina," 1840 ; frigate " Brandy- 
 wine" and sloop *" Fairfield," Mediterranetn 
 Station, 1840-41 ; razee " Independence," Home 
 Squadron, 1842-43; sloop "Levant," Pacific 
 Station, 1844-45 ; Naval School, Annapolis, Md., 
 1846. 
 
 Graduated and became a passed midshipman, 
 July 11, 1846 ; during the Mexican war, attached 
 to the brig " Somers," blockading Yera Cruz, in 
 1846, and to gunboat " Petrel," 1846-47, during 
 which time the latter vessel was one of Tatinall s 
 flotilla in the attack upon the Castle of San Juan 
 de Ulloa and the city of Yera Cruz ; took part 
 also in the capture of Tuspan and Tampico ; 
 to the East Indies, and around the world in 
 sloop "Plymouth" and brig "Dolphin," 1848- 
 51; receiving-ship "Princeton," in 1852, and 
 Naval Observatory ; store-ship " Fredonia," at 
 Valparaiso, Chili, in 1852-55. 
 
 Promoted to master in 1855. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, September, 1855; 
 
WELLS 
 
 841 
 
 WERDEN 
 
 Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C., in 1856 ; 
 served as executive-officer of the bark " Reso 
 lute," originally an English man-of-war, aban 
 doned in the Arctic seas, and subsequently re 
 covered by the American whale-ship " George 
 Henry," which vessel found her in a field of ice 
 some 900 miles from where her crew left her. 
 Congress, by a joint resolution dated August 28, 
 1856, purchased her from the salvors, and ordered 
 her restoration to the British government, which 
 order was complied with on her arrival in Eng 
 land, where she was honored by a visit from the 
 queen of England and Prince Albert, to whom 
 the vessel was presented by Capt. Hartstene ; in 
 the "Niagara," 1857; employed in the first 
 Atlantic Cable Expedition, and then joined the 
 "Susquehanna," in 1858, one of the Mediter 
 ranean Squadron ; shortly afterwards the vessel 
 was sent to the West Indies, and to Greytown, 
 Central America, when the yellow fever broke 
 out on board, carrying off 60 of her crew and 2 
 officers, which necessitated her return North, and 
 being put out of commission ; in the same year 
 was attached to the "Water-Witch," Home 
 Squadron; executive-officer of " Metacomet," 
 Paraguay Expedition, in 1859 ; when the Re 
 bellion broke out, was ordered as executive- 
 officer of the " Susquehanna," then commanded 
 by Capt. James Lardner, now rear-admiral, and 
 which vessel took a very prominent part in the 
 battle of Port Royal, S. C., sustaining consider 
 able damage by the fire from the two forts, 
 Hilton Head and Bay Point, having been struck 
 some 35 times, and losing several of her crew, 
 besides the wounded ; received a commendatory 
 letter from Rear-Adrniral Lardner for services 
 rendered on that occasion ; the " Susquehanna" 
 was especially mentioned in the official report of 
 the late Rear-Admiral Dupont, who commanded 
 the expedition ; was sent several times with a de 
 tachment of sailors and marines to reinforce the 
 " Unadilla," when much exposed to night attacks 
 in Wright River, S. C. ; was present at the oc 
 cupation of Fernandina, Fla., the enemy having 
 abandoned the place on the appearance of the 
 expedition under the late Rear- Admiral Dupont ; 
 was then transferred to the sloop-of-war " Van- 
 dalia," engaged in the blockading of Warsaw 
 Sound and Charleston, S. C., for a number of 
 months ; transferred to the command of the 
 sloop-of-war u Dale," and brought her to Phila 
 delphia. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant-cOmmander, July 
 16, 1862 ; executive-officer of the navy-yard, 
 Philadelphia, in 1863 ; applied for and received 
 orders to command the " Galena," when rebuilt 
 as a wooden vessel ; joined the West Gulf Squad 
 ron in 1864; was sent several times by the late 
 Admiral Farragut, then in command of the fleet, 
 to shell a blockade-runner, ashore under the 
 guns of Fort Morgan ; was engaged in the battle 
 of Mobile, and during the passage of the forts 
 the "Galena" was secured to the "Oneida," 
 bringing up the rear, both vessels being exposed 
 to the fire of the forts from the commencement 
 to the close of the action, also from the rebel 
 ram "Tennessee"; when near the forts, a shell 
 from the latter exploded one of the boilers 6f the 
 " Oneida," which necessitated her being turned 
 in by her consort, the "Galena," and after 
 Capt. Mullany, of the former vessel, had his 
 arm shot off, which occurred opposite the forts. 
 
 The services of the " Galena" were duly ac 
 knowledged in the official report of the action by 
 Admiral Farragut, and a commendatory letter 
 was received from him, in which he says, " That 
 in your case I depart from my usual custom, not 
 to give letters for good conduct in time of war, 
 where there is an immediate commander first to 
 forward it, but, inasmuch as Capt. Mullany was 
 wounded, and the command of the two vessels 
 ( Oneida and Galena ) devolved upon you, 
 and were carried through the battle with great 
 gallantry, I take pleasure in giving my official 
 testimony to your very meritorious conduct in 
 that engagement, and trust that in the future it 
 may be of service to you." East Gulf Squadron, 
 in 1864; refitted in Philadelphia, and joined 
 the fleet of Admiral Porter, in the James River, 
 and remained there until the close of the war; 
 commanded the " Kansas," South Atlantic Sta 
 tion, in 1864-66 ; visited most of the ports of 
 that station ; received a letter of thanks from the 
 English government and the British admiral for 
 going to the assistance of H. B. M. gunboat 
 "Gleaner," reported to be dangerously ashore 
 in Maldonado Bay ; the services of the "Kan 
 sas" were also acknowledged by the British ad 
 miral for assisting in rescuing an English mer 
 chant-vessel, aground on the English Bank, 
 River La Plata. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 25, 1866, 
 and was one of the number selected for promo 
 tion by a board of officers for services in the war ; 
 attached to the navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 
 in 1868-70; sent to Europe, in 1870, in com 
 mand of the " Shenandoah." 
 
 Promoted to captain, June 19, 1871 ; visited 
 most of the ports on the Mediterranean, and 
 during this cruise, which continued until 1874, 
 received a letter of thanks from the Italian gov 
 ernment, for assistance rendered to the Italian 
 ironclad " Compt de Verde," in the harbor of 
 Spezia, which vessel broke from her moorings in 
 a gale of wind, and came near drifting on the 
 rocks ; received the decoration of the Legion 
 of Honor from President Thiers, of France, 
 and Congress, by a joint resolution, March 3, 
 1875, authorized its acceptance ; detached from 
 the "Shenandoah" at Key West, Fla., January 
 31, 1874; February 26, 1874, ordered as execu 
 tive-officer of the navy-yard, Boston, Mass.; 
 transferred as captain of the navy-yard, Phila 
 delphia, and equipment-officer, October, 1874 ; 
 thence to League Island Navy-Yard, January 
 1, 1876, and ordered in command of that station, 
 January 10, 1876; detached, November 1, 1877, 
 on the completion of the full term of three years 
 on duty at the Philadelphia Station ; 1878-79, on 
 court-martial and board duties, and member of 
 Board of Visitors to the Naval Academy in 1878 j 
 chief signal officer, 1879-80. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, January 22, 1880. 
 
 Welshman s Breeches. See DUTCHMAN S 
 BREECHES. 
 
 Welt. A batten riveted over a seam in steam- 
 boilers. Welt-joint, one made with a welt. 
 
 Wentle-trap. A shell ; the Scalnria pretiosn. 
 
 Werden, Reed, Rear-Admiral U.S.N. Born 
 in Pennsylvania, 1818. Appointed from Ohio, 
 January 9, 1834; attached to schooner " Enter 
 prise," Brazil Squadron, 1834-35; sloop-of-war 
 " Ontario," Brazil Squadron, 1836 ; sloop-of-war 
 "Erie," Brazil Squadron, 1837; sloop-of-war 
 
WEST 
 
 842 
 
 WHALE 
 
 " Cyane," Mediterranean Squadron, 1838-39; 
 Naval School, Philadelphia, 1840. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 16, 
 1840; sailed for China in the sloop-of-war 
 "Boston," October, 1840; frigate " Constella 
 tion," East India Squadron, 1841-42; sloop-of- 
 war " Boston," East India Squadron, as master, 
 1842-43 ; receiving-ship, New York, 1844. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, February 27, 
 1847 ; sloop-of-war "Germantown," Home Squad 
 ron, 1847 ; commanded a party of seamen at the 
 capture of Tuspan, Mexico; receiving-ship 
 "Vermont," Boston, 1848; sloop-of-war " Van- 
 dalia," Pacific Squadron, 1849-52 ; naval rendez 
 vous, Baltimore, 1853; sloop-of-war "Albany," 
 Home and West India Squadrons, 1853-54; 
 special duty, West Indies, 1855 ; Naval Observa 
 tory, Washington, D. C., 1856; frigate "Cum 
 berland," on the coast of Africa, 1857-59 ; frigate 
 " Minnesota," Home Squadron, 18G1 ; command 
 ing steamer " Yankee," North Atlantic Block 
 ading Squadron, 1861 ; commanding steamer 
 " Stars and Stripes," North Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1862 ; at the capture of Roanoke 
 Island and Newbern; commanding steamer 
 "Connemaugh," South Atlantic Blockading 
 Squadron, 1862-63. 
 
 Commissioned as commander July 16, 1862; 
 navy-yard, Philadelphia, 1864 ; fleet-captain, 
 East Gulf Blockading Squadron, 1864-65; com 
 manding "Powhatan," East Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron, 1865 ; blockaded the rebel ram "Stone 
 wall," in the port of Havana, West Indies, 
 until her surrender to the Spanish government ; 
 special duty at navy-yard, New York, 1865 ; 
 commanding " Bienville," West Indies, 1866. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; navy- 
 yard, Mare Island, California, 1868-71. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, April 27, 1871 ; 
 commanding naval station, New London, 1872- 
 
 Commissionedas rear-admiral, February, 1875; 
 commanding South Pacific Station, 1875-76. 
 Retired March 27, 1877. 
 
 West. The point ninety degrees to the left of 
 north. So called in all European languages, 
 except Italian, where it is Ponente (setting). 
 
 WESTERLY. Moving toward the west, as a 
 current, or from the west, as a wind. Tend 
 ing toward the west. 
 
 WESTING. The distance in nautical miles 
 made good to the westward. 
 
 West-country Parson (Eng.). A fish; the 
 hake (Gadus marducius), so called from a black 
 streak on its back. 
 
 Wester, or Waster (Eng.). A salmon trident. 
 
 Wet. To wet sails, to throw water on the 
 sails, in order to make them hold wind better. 
 This was formerly done with a sheet, but after 
 wards a pump and hose were substituted. To 
 wet a commission, to give an entertainment on 
 getting a new commission. Wet provisions, salt 
 beef and pork, vinegar, molasses, canned beef, 
 and spirits. Wet goods are charged to the owner 
 and master of a vessel. 
 
 Wethers. The flukes of a harpoon. 
 
 Wet-nurse. This term is used to signify an 
 officer acting as an instructor over a junior in 
 watch-duty. See NURSE. 
 
 Wexford, capital of Wexford County, Ireland, 
 on the right banks of the Glaney, where it widens 
 into Wexford harbor. The city contains a cham 
 
 ber of commerce, ship-building docks, s ome malt 
 ing establishments, and has an acth /e export 
 trade in cattle, dairy and agricultural produce, 
 timber, tallow, hides, cotton, yarn, am* wool. 
 Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Whale. The popular name of the 
 cetaceans, particularly of those belonging to 
 families Balsenidse and Physeterida?, or Cat- 
 dontidae. The latter of these families has beIi 
 already noticed under Cachalot (which see). 
 The baleen whale, popularly known as the 
 Greenland Whale (Balcena mysticetus), derives 
 its name from the plates of whalebone, or baleen, 
 with which its inouth is furnished in lieu of 
 teeth. These are arranged in two series, con 
 sisting each of several hundred plates, which are 
 suspended from the roof of the mouth, extending 
 from each side of its middle line like the barbs 
 of a feather, and terminating in a fringe of fibres 
 or pliant bristles. Through this apparatus are 
 strained out of the water containing them the 
 small crustaceans and mollusks which constitute 
 the food of the whale, the water being allowed 
 to escape by the sides of the mouth. Only very 
 small animals can pass through the gullet of the 
 whale on account of its extreme narrowness, its 
 diameter, even in a large whale, being, it is said, 
 not more than an inch and a half. The head 
 is very large, constituting from a third to a fourth 
 of the whole length of the animal, which varies 
 from 50 to 70 feet. The skull is un symmetrical, 
 the right side being larger than the left. The 
 eyes are small, but the animal s sense of sight 
 seems to be acute. The mouth is very large. 
 The tongue is a soft, thick mass, not extending 
 beyond the back of the mouth. The flesh is red, 
 firm, and coarse. The skin is naked, with the 
 exception of a few bristles about the jaws, and 
 its surface is moistened by an oily fluid. The 
 lower surface of the true skin extends into a 
 thick layer of blubber, an open net-work of 
 fibres in which fat is held, and which serves the 
 double purpose of keeping the animal warm and 
 of making the specific gravity of the body much 
 lighter than it would otherwise be. In the 
 genus Balcena there is no dorsal fin, nor elevation 
 of the back corresponding to it, as in some of the 
 familj T . The pectoral fins are 8 or 9 feet long, 4 
 or 5 broad, and are placed about 2 feet behind 
 the angles of the mouth. The tail-fin consists 
 of 2 lobes of great breadth, measuring from 20 
 to 25 feet across in the larger specimens, and is 
 wielded by muscles of enormous power. It is 
 this part which constitutes the animal s sole or 
 gan of offense and defense. The body is thickest 
 just behind the pectoral fins, whence it tapers 
 conically toward the tail, and slightly toward 
 the head. On the highest part of the head are 
 situated the blow-holes, which are from 8 to 12 
 inches long, but of comparatively small breadth. 
 The upper parts of the body are velvety black, 
 but in very old whales sometimes become pi- 
 bald, the lower parts are white. The whale has 
 usually but one young at a birth. The period of 
 gestation is unknown, but that of suckling lasts 
 a year. The mother manifests great affection for 
 her offspring. 
 
 The Southern, or Cape Whale (Balcena Aus 
 tralia), formerly regarded as identical with the 
 Greenland Whale, is now considered as a distinct 
 species, the head being smaller in proportion 
 than that of the northern species, and the color 
 
WHALE 
 
 843 
 
 WHEEL 
 
 a uniform black. It attains a length of 50 or 60 
 feet, and is usually found in comparatively shal 
 low water near the coasts. Its range embraces 
 not only the colder parts of the southern hemis 
 phere, but also the temperate regions and the 
 tropics. Another variety, the Right Whale 
 (Balcena cisarctica), heretofore identified with 
 the Greenland Whale, is now recognized as more 
 nearly resembling the Cape Whale. It diifers 
 from the former in having the body more slender, 
 and the head proportionally smaller; the under 
 jaw very deep, round, and broad ; and the plates 
 of baleen comparatively short. It is of a black 
 color, except as to the lower part of the head, 
 which is a brilliant white. 
 
 The species of the genus Megoptera are called 
 Hump-backed Whales. They have a rudimen 
 tary dorsal fin, in the form of an elevation of the 
 back. There are several species, but some of 
 them are very imperfectly known. 
 
 The genus Balcenoptera, Physalus, or Rorqua- 
 lus, belonging to the same family (Balcenidce) 
 to which the Greenland Whale belongs, is dis 
 tinguished by its species having a dorsal fin ; an 
 upper jaw less arched than in the Greenland 
 Whale ; much shorter plates of baleen, or whale 
 bone ; and along the throat and belly numerous 
 longitudinal folds, allowing the distention of the 
 integuments so as to form a great pouch for the 
 reception of water and prey, to be afterwards 
 sifted by the plates of baleen. The cetaceans of 
 this genus are the largest animals now existing, 
 their length being greater, and their girth at 
 least as great as those of the Greenland Whales. 
 
 WHALE-BIRD. A small bird seen in whaling- 
 grounds, hovering about shoals of whales, hunt 
 ing for food. 
 
 WHALE-BOAT. A long, narrow boat, from 20 
 to 50 feet in length, and from 4 to 10 feet beam, 
 sharp at both ends, and admirably fitted for all 
 uses at sea. Whale-boats are supplied to men- 
 of-war, from one to three to each, and are either 
 single-banked or double-banked. Some gigs are 
 whale-boats. These boats are best in a surf, and 
 they should then be steered with a long oar in 
 stead of a rudder. See SURF. 
 
 WHALE-CALF. The young whale. 
 
 WHALE-CHARTS. Charts prepared by Com 
 modore Maury, giving the localities where whales 
 abounded. 
 
 WHALE-FISHERIES. The Northmen were the 
 first to hunt the whale before the 10th century. 
 After them the Biscayans engaged in the whale- 
 fishery from the 12th to the loth centuries. But 
 the Dutch and English were the first to hunt in 
 Arctic regions, beginning in 1GOO. Large boun 
 ties were paid to whale-ships, and companies 
 formed to prosecute the fisheries. The Dutch 
 fisheries flourished some 30 years, the English 
 much longer. In 1789 the English had 161 ves 
 sels engaged in the whale-fisheries, but this num 
 ber diminished steadily to 82 in 1795, to 61 in 
 1800, then increased gradually to 91 in 1805, and 
 112 in 1814, and in 1815 there were 150 vessels 
 and 6000 men engaged in it. From this time it 
 has gradually declined. Hull, Peterhead, and 
 London are the principal whaling ports. The 
 United States began the hunt for whales in 1690, 
 and from 1758 to 1775 Massachusetts alone sent 
 out annually 183 vessels north and 121 south to 
 fish for whales. In 1858, 680 ships were em 
 ployed, but since then the trade has very much 
 
 declined. Nantucket, New Bedford, and Glouces 
 ter have been the great whaling ports. The word 
 whale- fisheries also is used to denote the locali 
 ties in which the capture of whales is carried on. 
 See WHALING-GROUND. 
 
 WHALE-LINE. Rope about 2 inches in cir 
 cumference, made of the best Russia hemp, 
 tarred and laid up by hand. It is used for har 
 poon-lines. Is also made of manilla hemp. 
 
 WHALER. A whaling- vessel, or one employed 
 in the whale-fishery. A man employed in the 
 whale-fishery. 
 
 WHALE S FOOD. The Clio borealis, a mollusk 
 on which the whale feeds. 
 
 WHALE-SHOT. Sperm oil when just from the 
 whale. 
 
 WHALING-FLEET. The body of whaling-ves 
 sels belonging to a port or country. 
 
 WHALING-GROUND. The localities in which 
 whales are found. For the right whale this is 
 on the coasts of Greenland and in Davis Strait, 
 and in the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans ; for 
 the southern whale, in the South Pacific and 
 Antarctic Oceans ; for humpbacks, the neigh 
 borhood of the Bermudas ; for sperm-whales, in 
 all tropical and temperate seas. 
 
 WHALING VOYAGE. A voyage out after 
 whales, and back with the oil. 
 
 Whanger. A fish-curer in Newfoundland. 
 
 Whapper. A large turtle, of 7 to 8 hundred 
 weight, found near Ascension Island. 
 
 Wharf. A structure of wood, iron, or stone 
 erected on the shore at the water s edge, for the 
 convenience of vessels in loading and unloading. 
 Gun-wharf, a wharf at an ordnance-yard or in 
 a navy-yard, appropriated to the use of the ord 
 nance department. Sufferance-wharf, in Eng 
 lish law, is a wharf where only certain goods may 
 be landed. Wharves where all kinds of goods 
 are landed are there known as legal quays. Sheer- 
 wharf, a wharf in a navy-yard on which the 
 sheers are erected. 
 
 WHARFAGE. Wharves in general. Wharf 
 age-dues, dues or fees for landing or shipping 
 goods at a wharf. 
 
 WHARF-BOAT. A boat moored at the side of 
 a river and used as a wharf. 
 
 WHARF-HOUSE. A house built on a wharf. 
 
 WHARFINGER. One who keeps a wharf, or 
 who has the care of it. 
 
 WHARF-RATS. The small boys and loafers 
 that infest wharves in large cities. 
 
 WHARF-STEAD (Eng.). A river-ford. 
 
 What Ship is That ? A quizzing question put 
 to a sailor using a long word. 
 
 Whaup. The large curlew, Numenius arcua- 
 tus. 
 
 Wheel. A circular frame connected to the 
 tiller by the wheel-ropes. In small craft it is not 
 necessary. 
 
 WHEEL-HOUSE. A small house erected on 
 the deck, hurricane-deck, or bridge of many 
 ships for the purpose of sheltering the helms 
 man. The paddle-box of a steamer. 
 
 WHEEL-ROPES. Ropes or chains leading from 
 the tiller or helm through blocks in the decks 
 and trunks under the beams to the barrel of the 
 steering-wheel, where they are fastened. Soft, 
 pliable rope must be used. In the U. S. navy 
 hide-rope is generally used, and wire-rope for 
 steam steering-gear. See STEERING APPARATUS, 
 RUDDER. 
 
WHEFT 
 
 844 
 
 WHITING 
 
 Wheft. See WAFT. 
 
 Whelk. A shell-fish ; the Buccinum undatum. 
 
 Whelps. The projecting parts on every other 
 square of a capstan-barrel. 
 
 Where Away? A query in regard to the 
 bearing of an object reported by the look-out. 
 
 Wherry. A decked vessel used in fishing in 
 English waters, sometimes having two lug-sails, 
 at others two shoulder-of-mutton sails. A small 
 light row-boat for one person. 
 
 Whiff. A sudden and transient puff of wind. 
 A fish of the genus Pleuronectus ; the Rhombus 
 cardina. A fish of the turbot group ; the Rhom 
 bus megastoma. To fish for mackerel by trolling 
 from a boat in rapid motion. 
 
 Whimbrel. The smaller curlew, Numenius 
 phcepus, 
 
 Whimsey. A small crane for hoisting goods 
 into warehouses. 
 
 Whinyard (Eng.}. An old name for a hanger 
 or cutlass. 
 
 Whip. A small and light purchase. Single 
 whip, a rope rove through a single block. Dou 
 ble whip, a rope rove through two single blocks, 
 the standing-part being near or fast to the upper 
 block. Whip upon whip, one whip applied to 
 the falls of another. Whip and runner, a whip 
 whose block is attached to a pendant, itself rove 
 through a block and applied to the weight. To 
 whip, to bind the end of a rope with twine to 
 prevent it from unlaying. 
 
 WHIPPING. Turns of small-stuff or twine 
 around the end of a rope to keep it from unlay 
 ing. 
 
 Whip-jack. A fresh-water sailor. 
 
 Whippers (Eng.}. Men who clear colliers in 
 the Thames River. 
 
 Whip-ray. The sting-ray, or stingaree. 
 
 Whip-staff. A strong bar fastened to the 
 tiller, to move it more easily. 
 
 Whirler, or Troughton s Top (Eng.}. An in 
 strument intended to serve as an artificial hori 
 zon at sea, counteracting the motion of the ship 
 by a centrifugal motion given to it. 
 
 Whirlpool. An eddy or vortex, where the 
 water moves in circles, caused by the meeting 
 of powerful currents. The most celebrated ones 
 are the Oarofalo, or ancient Charybdis, on the 
 coast of Sicily, and the Malstrom and Salten- 
 strom, on the Norway coast. 
 
 Whirls. Small hooks set in wooden or iron 
 cylinders, which are moved by a band extending 
 to the wheel, and generally used in sets of three. 
 They are used to give the twist to the yarns in 
 making rope. See ROPE, SMALL-STUFF. 
 
 Whirlwind. A violent wind moving on its 
 axis, and having also a progressive movement. 
 
 Whiskers. Two booms, or iron bars, project 
 ing on either side of the bowsprit, serving as out 
 riggers to the jib-guys. They are the successors 
 of the spritsail-yard. Sometimes they are dis 
 pensed with in small vessels, and instead of them 
 a small boom (called a spread-yard) is lashed 
 across the forecastle. 
 
 Whistle. Whistling is not tolerated in a man- 
 of-war. It is an old superstition that whistling 
 in a calm brings on a breeze, and also that whis 
 tling during a gale increases its violence. To 
 whistle psalms to the taffrail, to give unheeded 
 advice. To wet one s whistle, to take a drink. 
 
 Whistle-fish. A species of cod ; the Moiella 
 vulgaris. 
 
 White-bait. A small sea-fish of the herring 
 kind ; the Clupea alba. 
 
 White Boot-top. A painted line or ribband 
 carried around the ship under the hammock- 
 nettings. 
 
 White-caps, or White-horses. The white 
 patches caused by the breaking of the crests of 
 waves in deep water. They are caused by the 
 wind, and indicate that it will freshen. 
 
 White-coat. The skin of a young seal. 
 
 White-feather. A symbol of cowardice, a 
 white feather in a cock s tail being considered a 
 proof of cross-breeding. 
 
 White-fish. The hard-head. A small fish 
 (the Alosa menhaden], used for fertilizing land. 
 A fish of the salmon family (Coregonus albus), 
 abundant in the American lakes. The Beluga 
 catodon, or white-whale. A general name for 
 ling, cod, halibut, haddock, and tusk, and for 
 roach and dace, whose scales are used to make 
 artificial pearls. 
 
 White-herring. A pickled herring. A fresh 
 or unsalted herring. 
 
 White-horse, or White Horse-fish. A ray ; 
 the Raiafullonica. See WHITE-CAPS. 
 
 White-lappel (Eng.}. A nickname for a lieu 
 tenant, alluding to white lappels formerly worn 
 on the coat. 
 
 White-nun. The Mergus albellus, a mer 
 ganser, or goosander, with a white belly, breast, 
 and throat. 
 
 White-powder. A chlorate explosive mixture, 
 composed of 3 parts of potassium chlorate, 1 
 part white sugar, 1 part potassium ferrocyanide. 
 It is also called German powder. It is ex 
 tremely sensitive, and dangerous to use. See 
 EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 White-rope. TTntarred hemp rope. 
 
 White-shark. See SHARK. 
 
 White-squall. See SQUALL. 
 
 White-tape (Eng.}. A smuggler s name for gin. 
 
 White-water. Water over shallow sand 
 banks, white by the reflection from the bottom. 
 
 White-whale. The Beluga. See WHALE. 
 
 Whiting, William B., Commodore U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, November 13, 1813. Ap 
 pointed from New York, February 2, 1829 ; at 
 tached to receiving-ship at New York, 1831 ; 
 sloop "Falmouth," Pacific Squadron, 1831-33; 
 surveys of San Lorenzo, including Boca del Di 
 ablo, 1832; surveys of Bays of Ferrol and Sa- 
 mana, and island of Lobos de Tierra, 1833; 
 schooner " Dolphin," Pacific Squadron, 1833; 
 frigate "Potomac," Pacific Squadron, 1833-34; 
 receiving-ship at New York, 1835 ; frigate " Con 
 stellation," West India Squadron, 1835-36. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, June 4, 1836; 
 receiving-ship at New York, 1836-37 ; coast sur 
 vey, 1837-42 ; survey of Potomac, 1842-43 ; frig 
 ate " Macedonian," coast of Africa, 1843-45 ; sur 
 veys of Las Palmas and Bay of Gando, 1844 ; 
 Observatory, Washington, 1845-50; was em 
 ployed, 1847, under direction of the Navy De 
 partment, in drawing plans of the castle of San 
 Juan de Ulloa and the approaches to Vera Cruz ; 
 coast survey, 1851-52; sloop " Vandalia," East 
 India Squadron, 1852-56 ; surveys of Mew Bay 
 and Cumsingmoon, 1852 ; surveys of west coast 
 of Loo Choo, including Deep Bay, 1853; sur 
 veys of Toobootch, Shah Bay, Yeddo Bay, and 
 Hakodadi, 1854; retired, 1855; Naval Observ 
 atory, Washington, 1861-71. 
 
WHITING 
 
 845 
 
 WILSON 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 21, 1861. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, 1867. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, 1871. 
 
 Whiting. A sea-fish ; the Merlangus vulgaris. 
 The Salmo albus, or white-salmon. 
 
 Widow s Men (Eng.}. Imaginary men for 
 merly borne on the ship s books, for pay in every 
 ship in commission. The pay was applied to a 
 widow s pension fund. 
 
 Wild. Wild-roadstead, an unsheltered, open 
 roadstead. To fire wild, to fire guns with bad 
 aim. To steer wild, to steer badly. 
 
 Wild-fire. See FIRE-SHIPS. 
 
 Wild-wind. An old term for a whirlwind. 
 
 Wilkes, Charles, Rear- Admiral U.S. N. Born 
 in New York City, in 1801. He entered the navy 
 as midshipman, January 1, 1818, joining the 
 " Franklin," 74, Capt. Stewart, going to the 
 Mediterranean; was transferred to the " Guer- 
 riere," but back again to the "Franklin" in 
 1820; went to the Pacific Station in the same 
 ship in 1821, returning in 1822; on furlough in 
 1820-25. 
 
 Promoted to lieutenant, April 28, 1826 ; on 
 waiting orders, 1827-28. In 1829, was on duty, 
 preparing for exploring expeditions, and in 1830, 
 was on duty at Chart Depot, in Washington. 
 In 18oO, was attached to the " Delaware," 74, on 
 the Home Station, and in 1831, to the sloop 
 "Boston," in the Mediterranean. In 1833 he 
 was on duty again, preparing for explorations. 
 From 1834-37, was on special duty, being in 
 charge of chronometers part of the time in 
 1835. In 1838, was ordered to the brig " Por 
 poise," to prepare for, and in August sailed on 
 an exploring expedition, in command of 2 sloops, 
 a brig, store-ship, and 2 schooners. While 
 absent, he explored the islands of the Pacific, 
 and made important discoveries in the Antarctic 
 continent, and returned to New York in June, 
 1842. Was tried on charges of irregularities, 
 and reprimanded for illegal punishments. He 
 was in the coast survey during 1842-43, and was 
 promoted to commander, July 13, 1843 ; was on 
 special duty at Washington, connected with the 
 exploring expedition, from 1844-61 ; was pro 
 moted to captain, April 4, 1855. He wrote the 
 narrative of the expedition, was the author of the 
 volume on " Meteorology," and also published, 
 in 1849, a work called " Western America," and 
 in 1856, " Theory of the Winds." He was given 
 command of the "San Jacinto" in 1861, and 
 sailed in search of the privateer "Sumter," and 
 on the 8th of November took from the English 
 mail-steamer "Trent" the persons of Messrs. 
 Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners 
 to England. He was complimented for this by 
 the Secretary of the Navy, although the prison 
 ers were given up, it being an illegal capture. 
 In 1862, commanded James River Flotilla ; 
 shelled City Point, August 28; in 1863, com 
 manded a special West India Squadron, and 
 captured many blockade-runners. 
 
 Promoted to commodore, July 16, 1862, and 
 retired in 1864. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, July 25, 1866, and 
 died at Washington on the 8th of February, 1877, 
 aged 76, having been in the service 59 years. 
 F. S. Bassett, Lieutenant U.8.N. 
 
 Williwaw. A light, sudden whirlwind. 
 
 Willock. The guillemot ( Uria troile}. 
 
 Wilson, Theodore D., Naval Constructor 
 
 U.S.N. Born in Brooklyn, May 11, 1840; 
 served a regular apprenticeship as shipwright 
 under Naval Constructor B. F. Delano, U.S.N., 
 at the navy-yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; served for 
 three months at the outbreak of the war as a 
 non-commissioned officer in the 13th Regiment, 
 N. Y. M. On the return of the regiment he was 
 appointed a carpenter in the navy from August 
 3, 1861, serving afloat in the North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron until 1863, during which 
 time he took part in the fight with the " Merri- 
 mac," and was in several minor engagements 
 on the coast. On December 15, 1863, he was 
 ordered to special duty under Rear-Admiral 
 Gregory, general superintendent of work out 
 side of navy-yards, and by his order was in 
 trusted with the building, repairing, and altera 
 tions of scores of vessels, involving the exercise 
 of great judgment and skill. 
 
 Mr. Wilson remained on this important duty 
 until May 17, 1866, when he was appointed as 
 sistant naval constructor in the navy. Or 
 dered to duty in charge of the construction 
 department of the navy-yard, Pensacola, Fla. ; 
 detached December 28, 1867, he was ordered to 
 the navy-yard, Philadelphia, Pa. While at 
 tached to this station as assistant to Naval Con 
 structor S. M. Pook (deceased) he finished and 
 launched the " Omaha," completed the rebuild 
 ing of the " Juniata," commenced the rebuilding 
 of the frigate " Brooklyn," and repaired the 
 "Sangamon" and "Dictator"; detached on 
 the 3d of July, 1869, he was ordered to the 
 Naval Academy as instructor in ship-building 
 and naval architecture, where he remained for 
 a period of four years, giving great satisfaction. 
 During the summer of 1870 he was ordered by 
 the Secretary of the Navy to England and 
 France on special service, for the purpose of ob 
 serving personally the improvements in the con 
 struction of iron vessels of war. This duty was 
 satisfactorily performed and much reliable infor 
 mation obtained. Detached from Naval Acad 
 emy July 16, 1873, he was ordered in charge of 
 the department of construction and repair at 
 the navy-yard, Washington, D. C., and while 
 there rebuilt the sloop-of-war " Shawmut" and 
 fitted her for sea, and put the sloop-of-war 
 " Nipsic" in frame. 
 
 He was promoted, and commissioned as naval 
 constructor from July 1, 1873; detached and 
 ordered to the navy-yard, Portsmouth, N. H., 
 June 1, 1874, where he has been stationed for a 
 period of seven and one-half years. He had the 
 supervision of the work on the "Plymouth," 
 "Kearsarge," and " Wachusett," finished the 
 sloop-of-war " Enterprise," launched the sloop- 
 of-war " Essex," fitted for sea the sloop-of-war 
 " Marion," rebuilt and fitted out the sloop-of- 
 war "Ticonderoga," rebuilt and fitted for sea 
 the corvette " Lancaster," the latter vessel being 
 almost entirely rebuilt from his own designs. 
 
 Mr. Wilson is a member of the Institution of 
 Naval Architects, England, and is, the author 
 of "Ship-building, Practical and Theoretical," 
 which is now used as the text-book at the^Naval 
 Academy. He has been longer in the service 
 than any officer on the constructors list, and is 
 the only officer who has served actively both in 
 the army and navy, ashore and afloat. Selected 
 one of two constructors from the active list as a 
 member of the Naval Advisory Board, for the 
 
WINCH 
 
 846 
 
 WIND 
 
 purpose of recommending a plan for the recon 
 structing of vessels in the navy. 
 
 Winch. A simple machine having a hori 
 zontal shaft turned by a crank or lever. Steam- 
 winches are frequently furnished to ships for 
 hoisting boats, ashes, etc. A rope-winch is used 
 in laying up rope. See ROPE. 
 
 Wind. To turn a ship end for end by warps, 
 boats, a tug, or by her sails or engine. To blow 
 a call ; to pipe. To wind away, to steer through 
 a tortuous channel. 
 
 Wind. A current of air in motion. The 
 winds were the mariner s chief reliance until 
 the advent of steam. On them all sailing-ships 
 depend, and they have always been the study of 
 sailors. The Greeks personified the winds. 
 Boreas, Zephyrs, Euros, and Notos (north, south, 
 east, and west winds) were to them actual per 
 sons, causing disasters or bringing favoring 
 breezes. A general belief existed in the Middle 
 Ages that they were salable. The Finns and 
 Huns sold them for centuries, and Eric the 
 Norseman was quite an agent of the elements. 
 They delivered 1, 2, or 3 knots in return for 
 fees ; to untie 1 brought a good wind, 2 a very 
 strong wind, and 3 a tempest. Bessie Miller, an 
 Orkney maiden, sold them as late as 1814 to the 
 fishermen, at 6 d a man. Witches were generally 
 believed to deal in them, and the spirit of the 
 storm-wind has yet his believers. 
 
 Winds are named from the direction from 
 which they blow, and receive the compass- 
 names, as west winds, east winds, etc. Reign 
 ing winds, lending winds, trade-winds, monsoons, 
 cyclones, typhoons, sea- and land-breezes, also are 
 designations of particular classes of winds A 
 gentle wind is a zephyr, while a breeze is more 
 forcible, a wind next, a gale next, then a tem 
 pest, and a hurricane or tornado. In the Med 
 iterranean various local names apply to the 
 winds, as Tramontana and Gli Secchi (the dry 
 winds) for the north winds, Solano, Levante, 
 Bentu de Sole, and Chocolatero for the east winds, 
 Mezzo giorno, Simoom, and Siume for southerly 
 winds, Ponente and Liberator for west winds, 
 Gregale and Bora for northeast winds, Scirocco, 
 Maledetto (evil), Levante, Molezzo, and Furiante 
 (when strong) for the southeast winds, Venda- 
 vales, Lehe.ches, Virazones, Labeschades (when 
 squally), Ouragani (when tempestuous), Lab- 
 
 betch, and Siffanto for southwest winds, Mistral, 
 Mistrasu, Bize, Grippe, Vent de cers, Maestrale, 
 and Mamatete (when light) for the northwest 
 winds, Provenzale for north-northwest winds, 
 Imbattu, for sea-breezes, Rampinu for land- 
 breezes, Raggiature for land-squalls, Burrasche 
 and Raffiche for hard squalls, Bonaccia for calms, 
 and Golfada for hard gales. 
 
 Generally speaking, winds are prevailing winds, 
 periodical winds, or variable winds. Prevailing 
 winds are those that blow a great part of the time 
 from one direction. Such are the trade-winds, 
 and others less known. South and southwest 
 winds prevail on the west coast of Africa all 
 the year. Periodical winds are those that blow 
 a certain part of the time in each year from 
 a certain direction. Such are the monsoons. 
 Besides these, on the coast of Africa from Cape 
 Verde to Sierra Leone southwest winds blow 
 from June to September, and northeast winds 
 from October to May, and on the east coast of 
 Africa northerly and southerly winds alternate 
 in winter and summer. The Levante blows from 
 the northeast in the ^Egean Sea from 9.30 A.M. 
 during the day only. As a rule, beyond the 
 trade-winds the winds prevail toward the pole. 
 But by far the greater part of the inter-trade 
 region is occupied by variable winds, depending 
 on circumstances of temperature, pressure, moist 
 ure, and magnetism for their force and direction. 
 
 As a general rule, barometric changes of press 
 ure are followed by changes in the wind, and 
 these, in connection with careful observations 
 of changes in temperature and the hygrometric 
 condition of the atmosphere, indicate to the mar 
 iner to some extent the nature of the change in 
 the wind. When the wind in the northern 
 hemisphere shifts with the sun i.e., from left to 
 right it is said to haul, when in the opposite 
 direction it is said to back. The former change 
 is more of a permanent character, the latter a 
 temporary and unsettled change. In the southern 
 hemisphere, this is reversed. In general, a rise in 
 the barometer indicates polar, and therefore 
 drier, winds ; a fall, equatorial and wet winds. A 
 violent wind is & gale, storm, hurricane,, typhoon, 
 cyclone, or tornado. The following table gives 
 the rate and pressure of winds, with the adopted 
 notation in use among sailors, devised by Beau 
 fort : 
 
 Miles per 
 Hour. 
 
 Feet per 
 Minute. 
 
 Pressure in 
 Pounds per Square 
 Foot. 
 
 Beaufort 
 Number. 
 
 Description 1 of 
 Wind. 
 
 Speed of a good ship, or sail she 
 could carry. 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 .000 
 
 
 
 Calm. 
 
 Nnlhing all sail. 
 
 1 
 
 88 
 
 .005 
 
 1 
 
 Light air. 
 
 All sail just steerage-way. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 176 
 
 264 
 
 .020 
 .044 
 
 2 
 
 Light breeze. 
 
 One to two knots. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 352 
 440 
 
 .079 
 .123 
 
 3 . 
 
 Gentle breeze. 
 
 Three to four knots. 
 
 10 
 15 
 
 880 
 1320 
 
 .492 
 1.107 
 
 4 
 
 Moderate breeze. 
 
 Five to six knots. 
 
 20 
 
 1700 
 
 1.970 
 
 5 
 
 Fresh breeze. 
 
 Close-hauled royals. 
 
 25 
 30 
 
 2200 
 2640 
 
 3.067 \ 
 4.429 ; 
 
 6 
 
 Strong breeze. 
 
 Single reefs, topgallant-sails. 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 3080 
 3520 
 
 6.027 1 
 7.870 J 
 
 7 
 
 Moderate gale. 
 
 Double reefs and jib, etc. 
 
 45 
 
 3960 
 
 9.900 
 
 8 
 
 Fresh gale. 
 
 Three reefs and courses. 
 
 60 
 
 4400 
 
 12.304 
 
 9 
 
 Strong gale. 
 
 Close reefs and courses. 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 5280 
 6160 
 
 17.788 
 
 24.153 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 Whole gale. 
 Storm. 
 
 Main-topsail nnd foresail, close-reefed. 
 Storm stay-sails. 
 
 80 
 
 7"40 
 
 31.490 ) 
 
 
 Hurricane or tor 
 
 No canvas. 
 
 100 
 
 8800 
 
 49.200 J 
 
 
 nado. 
 
 
WINDAGE 
 
 847 
 
 "WIKE 
 
 With regard to the position of the ship with 
 reference to the wind, she is close to the wind, by 
 the wind, or on a wind, when the yards are braced 
 up and the wind blows from a quarter from 4 to 
 6 points from the bow. The wind is a head wind, 
 a leading wind, a fair wind, a free wind, a large 
 wind, or a scant wind, as it blows toward the sails 
 from different angles with the keel. In the wind, 
 with the wind ahead, so that the sails shake. In 
 the wind s eye, directly toward the wind. Down 
 the wind, in the same direction the wind is blow 
 ing. Between wind and water, near the water- 
 line ; in that sector of the ship s side which, when 
 she rolls, is covered and uncovered by the water. 
 All in the wind forward, sir ! a notification from 
 the officer of the forecastle that the head-sails 
 shake. When the wind goes toward the bow of 
 a ship it is said to haul, when towards the stern, 
 to veer or draw aft. Wind in the teeth, wind 
 directly ahead, or against the course. 
 
 WIND-HANDS. Long stratus clouds, supposed 
 to indicate wind. 
 
 WIND-BOUND. Detained by contrary winds. 
 
 WIND-PALL. A violent rush of w ind from 
 high land. Also, a good stroke of luck. 
 
 WIND-GAGE. See ANEMOMETER. 
 
 WIND-GALL. Aluminous halo on the edge of 
 a distant cloud, where there is rain, generally to 
 windward, and the precursor of bad weather. 
 Similar halos are seen to leeward. 
 
 WIND-RODE. A ship is wind-rode when rid 
 ing by the force of the wind, independent of 
 the tides, or against their force. 
 
 WIND-SAIL. A funnel of canvas, used to ad 
 mit air into the lower part of a ship. It is cir 
 cular, distended by hoops, and hoisted by hal 
 liards, while near the head large flaps, extended 
 by bowlines, catch the air and. direct it into an 
 aperture in the side of the wind-sail. Another 
 kind has the head entirely open, and there are 
 four flaps, so as to fix it, and avoid constant trim 
 ming with every shift of wind or swing of the 
 ship. A wind sail is also sometimes used pro 
 truding from the hawse-holes, to catch the wind 
 when at anchor. Wind-sails are named from 
 the hatches down which they lead, or from the 
 part of the ship they ventilate. 
 
 WIND-TAUT. A vessel at anchor heeling over 
 to the force of the wind. 
 
 WIND-TIGHT. A cask when it does not leak 
 is wind-tight and water-tight. 
 
 WINDWARD. Toward the wind. The weather- 
 side. To lay an anchor out to windward, a fig 
 urative expression, signifying to adopt precau 
 tionary measures ; borrowed from a seamanlike 
 manoeuvre in times of necessity. To ply to wind 
 ward, to work the ship on a wind. 
 
 WINDWARD-SAILING. Turning to windward, 
 or navigating a ship toward the wind by mak 
 ing frequent tacks. 
 
 WINDWARD-SET. A set toward the wind, or 
 a flow in that direction. 
 
 WINDWARD-TIDE. See WEATHER-TIDE. 
 
 Windage. The crescent-shaped space between 
 a shot and the bore of a gun, due to their differ 
 ence of diameter. 
 
 Winding-tackle. See TACKLES. 
 
 Windlass. A machine moved by levers or 
 bars, used in small vessels for raising the anchor. 
 A large horizontal cylinder of wood rests in up 
 right pieces bolted to the deck, and called car- 
 rick-heads, carrick-bitts, windlass-heads, or wind- 
 
 lass-bitts. Strong knees support these bitts. On 
 the horizontal roller or barrel are whelps, and 
 around it the chain is wound when heaving up. 
 Two chocks support the middle portion, and on it 
 two ratchet-pawls work in ratchets on the cylin 
 der. The ordinary windlass is moved by hand 
 spikes inserted in holes in the cylinder. Another 
 has brakes like a pump, whose rods are connected 
 to pawl-boxes on either side of the cylinder. 
 These have pawls which take in ratchets on the 
 cylinder on the up and down stroke. Another 
 form has a brake acting by friction on the cyl 
 inder on the up-stroke. 
 
 The windlass is more powerful than the cap 
 stan, but fewer men can be used with it. In the 
 lever-windlass, when the levers are perpendicu 
 lar, each man exerts from 20 to 30 pounds on it, 
 but when they are horizontal, this is increased 
 to 140 or 150 pounds. A windlass-capstan is a 
 combination of the two, in which a windlass 
 moves the spindle of a capstan by gearing. It 
 was patented in 1866, but is little used. 
 
 WINDLASS, SPANISH. See SPANISH WIND 
 LASS. 
 
 Windle-stray. A kind of sea-side grass or 
 reed. 
 
 Windlipper. The first ripples on smooth 
 water, caused by a breeze. 
 
 Wine and Beer. These are allowed to sea 
 men in all navies except that of the United 
 States. (See SPIRIT -RATION.) Officers are al 
 lowed fermented drinks, but rfoi spirituous 
 liquors. 
 
 Wine of Height (E-ng.}. An extra allowance 
 formerly given to men on the accomplishment 
 of some difficult navigation. 
 
 Wing. The projecting part of a steamer s 
 deck before and abaft the paddle-boxes. The 
 extremities of a fleet or squadron, either in line 
 or in any order of sailing. The part of the hold 
 and orlop nearest the side of the ship. The 
 wings near the water-line should be kept clear, 
 so that access may be had to them during ac 
 tion to stop shot-holes. To wing up ballast, to 
 carry the bottom weights high up to ease the 
 rolling motion. 
 
 WING-AND-WING. Before the wind with 
 studding-sails on both sides. In a fore-and-aft- 
 rigged vessel, before the wind with the mainsail 
 on one side and the foresail on the other. 
 
 WING-PASSAGE. A passage formerly left in 
 large ships about the wings, to afford a ready ac 
 cess to the side of the ship in action. 
 
 WING-SAIL. A quadrilateral sail bent to 
 hoops on the mainmast, and to the gaff of a 
 ketch. 
 
 WING-TRANSOM. The largest or main transom 
 in the stern-frame. 
 
 WING-WALE. The sponson-rim. 
 
 Winnold-weather (Eng.). Stormy March 
 weather. 
 
 Winter-fish (Eng.}. Dried cod and ling. 
 
 Winter-gull, or Winter-mew. A gull ; the 
 Larus canus. 
 
 Winter-quarters. The quarters of a block 
 ading fleet during the wintry gales. In the 
 Arctic, the spots where ships winter from October 
 to July. 
 
 Wiper. See CAM. 
 
 WIPER-SHAFT. A shaft carrying a wiper. 
 
 Wire. Plain, galvanized, tempered, annealed, 
 and galvanized annealed iron and steel wires 
 
WISBY 
 
 848 
 
 WOOD 
 
 are used in making wire-rope, each possessing 
 peculiar properties. 
 
 Wisby, Laws or Code of. An early mari 
 time code framed at Wisby, in England. See 
 MARITIME LAW. 
 
 Wise, Henry Augustus, Captain U.S.N. 
 Born in Brooklyn, N. Y., May 2, 1819; died 
 at Naples, April, 1869. Son of George Stuart 
 Wise, an officer of the U. S. navy, who came 
 from an old royalist family, several of whom 
 were taken prisoners, after the Penruddock re 
 bellion, and sent to Virginia, about 1665. At 
 the age of 14, by the influence of his cousin, 
 Gov. Wise, he was appointed a midshipman, 
 and first sailed under Capt. John Percival, 
 the "Jack Percy" of his "Tales for the Ma 
 rines." He served in the squadron on the coasts 
 of Florida during theSeminole war, and after 
 promotion to a lieutenancy, in the Pacific, in 
 California, and Mexico during the war of 1846- 
 48. On his return to the United States he mar 
 ried the daughter of Edward Everett. In 1862 
 he was promoted to commander, and made as 
 sistant chief of the Bureau of Ordnance and 
 Hydrography ; captain, January, 1867 ; resigned 
 his connection with the Ordnance Bureau, 
 January, 1869. He published in 1849, "Los 
 Gringos"; in 1855, "Tales for the Marines"; 
 "Scampavias," 1857; "Captain Brand of the 
 Schooner Centipede," 1860. 
 
 Wishes. Lowlands frequently overflowed. 
 
 Wishy-washy. Weak ; over- watered. 
 
 Wismar. A fortified seaport town of North 
 Germany, at the head of a deep bay of the 
 Baltic. It has manufactories of tobacco and 
 sail-cloth, and important breweries and distil 
 leries. Its harbor is commodious, and nearly 
 landlocked by the island of Poel. It has large 
 ship-building docks. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 With, Withe, or Wythe. An iron hoop or 
 ring fitted to the end of a spar or boom, to pass 
 another spar through, so as to hold it in place. 
 
 With the Sun. "in the direction in which the 
 sun appears to move, i.e., from left to right. In 
 the direction in which the.hands of a watch move. 
 
 Withershins. See WIDDERSHINS. 
 
 Witheys (Eng.). A low place near rivers 
 where willows grow. 
 
 Witness. A pile of earth left in digging a 
 dock, etc., to judge how much has been removed. 
 
 Witness. Military and naval courts sum 
 mon witnesses through the judge-advocate or 
 recorder. Any person subject to the jurisdic 
 tion of the United States can be compelled to ap 
 pear and testify. In the event of refusal, the 
 judge-advocate is authorized to issue a process 
 of attachment, similar in form to that employed 
 by the civil courts, and the person appointed to 
 serve such attachment is justified in using need 
 ful force to secure obedience. The same rules 
 of evidence obtain in the main as in civil courts, 
 and a witness cannot be required to criminate 
 himself. All testimony is given under oath or 
 affirmation (see OATHS), and a witness who will 
 fully gives false evidence, or corruptly suborns 
 others to do so, " shall, and may be prosecuted in 
 any court of justice in the United States." A 
 witness who refuses to testify, or " behaves with 
 contempt to the court, may be imprisoned, at the 
 discretion of the court, for a term not exceeding 
 two months." 
 
 Witnesses are not to be summoned at the expense 
 
 of the United States, unless their testimony is 
 material and necessary. Civilian witnesses, not 
 in government employ, are entitled to mileage at 
 the rate of 8 cents per mile, and to a per diem 
 of 2 dollars, from and to their domiciles. They 
 must have certificates of attendance from the 
 judge-advocate. Those belonging to the navy 
 and marine corps receive mileage both ways if 
 officers, and actual transportation if enlisted men 
 (Navy Kegulations, 1876). Witnesses neces 
 sary to substantiate charges against merchant- 
 seamen, sent home on men-of-war from foreign 
 stations to be tried, must accompany them (ibid.). 
 Naval witnesses are to appear in service dress 
 (ibid.}. All witnesses are required to withdraw 
 when charges and specifications are read, and to 
 remain outside of court until called. Exceptions 
 to competency are to be made before the witness 
 is sworn, but, if at any stage of a trial incom- 
 petency appear, the court may stop the witness 
 and disregard the testimony. Witnesses must 
 be sworn in open court, and in the presence of 
 the accused ; they must not converse with each 
 other concerning the trial. All questions must 
 be put in writing, and the testimony read over 
 for correction before the witness is discharged 
 or withdraws. Any member of a court, the 
 judge-advocate or recorder, can be a witness 
 for either prosecution or defense. When the 
 senior member is called, the next in rank ad 
 ministers the oath. When the judge-advocate 
 takes the stand, the senior member swears him, 
 and he may record his own testimony if there be 
 no clerk. A member called as a witness is not 
 thereby disqualified for the duties incident to 
 his membership, including those in regard to 
 the admissibility of questions put to himself. 
 A witness for the prosecution may also be called 
 for the defense, and need be sworn but once in 
 each case. A court-martial can call witnesses 
 not previously summoned by either side, and 
 this even after both have closed their case. 
 The accused person is entitled to a list of the 
 witnesses to be presented against him, and to 
 have such as are essential to his proper defense 
 summoned. His affidavit can be required as to 
 the materiality of a witness, and he can, at his 
 own request, but not otherwise, be sworn as a 
 competent witness. His failure to so request is 
 not to create any presumption against him (act 
 approved March 16, 1878). See COURTS-MAR 
 TIAL, PROVOST-MARSHAL. H. C. Cochrane, Cap 
 tain U.S.M.C. 
 
 Wittee-wittee. A fish-hook of mother-of- 
 pearl, with hair-bait on it, made in the Pacific 
 Islands. 
 
 Woare (Eng.}. An old name for sea- weed. 
 A beach- or shore-margin. 
 
 Wolf, or Wolf-net. A kind of fishing-net. 
 
 Wolf-fish. The cat-fish, or Anarrichas lupus, 
 a fish 2 to 3 feet in length, with large teeth. 
 Also called sea-wolf. 
 
 Wongs (En a.}. Same as wishes. 
 
 Wood, William Maxwell, Surgeon-General 
 U.S.N. Appointed from Maryland, May 16, 
 1829 ; entered the service as assistant surgeon. 
 Commissioned as surgeon, 1838 ; steamer" Poin- 
 sett," Home Squadron, 1838-42; served at that 
 time in co-operation with the army in the Semi- 
 nole war; Naval Station, .Baltimore, 1843; fleet- 
 surgeon, Pacific Squadron, 1844-46 ; in this pe 
 riod he rendered the service referred to in the 
 
WOOD 
 
 849 
 
 WORDEN 
 
 following official documents. Commodore Sloat, 
 commander-in-chief of the Pacific Squadron, 
 writes him : "I am most happy to acknowledge 
 the very important services you rendered the 
 government, and the squadron in the Pacific, 
 under my command, at the breaking out of the 
 Mexican war. The information you furnished 
 me at Mazatlan, from Guadalaxara (at the risk 
 of your life), was the only reliable information 
 I received of that event, and which induced me 
 to proceed immediately to California, and upon 
 my own responsibility to take possession of that 
 country. I have always considered the perform 
 ance of your journey through Mexico at that 
 time as an extraordinary feat, requiring great 
 presence of mind and address. How you escaped 
 from the heart of an enemy s country and such 
 a people has always been a wonder to me, and 
 has been so characterized on all occasions." The 
 chairman of the Naval Committee of the Senate 
 commented on his valuable services as follows : 
 " Every intelligent mind must at once appreciate 
 the importance of the service which you have 
 rendered the country, and your personal hazard 
 in traveling through the heart of the enemy s 
 country, communicating with your military su 
 perior, and furnishing him with the sole and 
 otherwise unattainable information upon which 
 he based the acquisition of California. The im 
 portance of this acquisition can best be estimated 
 by asking ourselves, What would have been our 
 national position in the Pacific and upon our 
 Oregon frontier had Great Britain, instead of 
 ourselves, acquired permanent possession of it ? 
 I have always contended that its acquisition con 
 stitutes one of the navy s strongest claims upon 
 the gratitude of the nation, and this chapter in 
 its history, furnished by your own service, but 
 strengthens this conviction." Receiving-ship, 
 Baltimore, 1847-48; steamer "Michigan," on 
 the lakes, 1850-51; Naval Station, Sackett s. 
 Harbor, New York, 1853-55 ; fleet-surgeon, East 
 India Squadron, 1856-58 ; during this service, 
 taking part in the Chinese war, and, on board 
 the flag-ship, participating in the brilliant cap 
 ture (by Commodore Armstrong and the late 
 Admiral, then Commander, Foote) of the 4 forts 
 on the Canton River; steamer " Michigan," on 
 the lakes, 1859-61 ; fleet-surgeon, North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron, during the Rebellion ; par 
 ticipating, on board the flag-ship "Minnesota," 
 in the first battle of ironclads, that of the 
 "Monitor" with the " Merrimac" and other 
 vessels of the Confederate squadron, in Hampton 
 Roads, also in the capture of Sewell s Point; 
 Baltimore, 1866-67 ; president of the Examining 
 Board, 1868; chief of Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgery, 1870. Retired, 1871 ; died, 1880. 
 
 Wood. To take in wood. To run a gun out 
 against the side of the port, port-sill, or water 
 ways. Wood has universally been used in the 
 construction of ships, but is fast being replaced 
 by metal. (See SHIP.) Various kinds of wood 
 are used in the construction of a ship, and many 
 of the more expensive and ornamental kinds are 
 used in the interior decorations of steamers, 
 yachts, and even of men-of-war. The following 
 are the chief woods used in ship-building : pine, 
 fir, larch, cedar, ash, locust, elm, red willow, wal 
 nut, acacia, gum-wood, greenheart, cocoa-wood, 
 lignum-vitse, teak-wood, saul, sisso, peon-wood. 
 
 WOOD-AMD- WOOD. A close union of two 
 54 
 
 pieces of timber. A nail-head, flush with the 
 wood. 
 
 WOOD- ENDS. Hood-ends. 
 
 WOODEN WALLS. The fleet; a term origi 
 nating with the Athenians, but since appropri 
 ated by the English. 
 
 WOODEN WINGS. Lee-boards. 
 
 WOODLOCK. A piece put in the throating or 
 score of the pintle above the load water-line, or 
 as near it as possible, to prevent the rudder from 
 unshipping. One end abuts under the lower side 
 of the brace and the other against the score. It 
 is coppered before being put in, and when in 
 place is secured by driving a copper bolt through 
 it into the stock of the rudder. 
 
 WOOD-MULLS (Eng.). Thick hose worn by 
 fishermen, 
 
 WOOD-SHEATHING. See SHEATHING. 
 
 WOOD-TAB. Tar obtained from wood by dis 
 tillation. 
 
 Woof (Eng.}. The gray gurnard. The weft 
 or cross threads in cloth. 
 
 Woold. To wind rope about a mast or yard 
 where it is fished. 
 
 WOOLDER. A bandage. A stick used in 
 woolding. The bolt of a Spanish windlass. The 
 handle of a rope-maker s-top. 
 
 WOOLDING. The act of binding with rope. 
 The rope used in binding a mast or spar. 
 
 Wool-packs. Light fleecy cumulus clouds in 
 a blue sky. 
 
 Woolwich, County of Kent, England, and for 
 merly a naval port, is the seat of the chief gov 
 ernment arsenal of Great Britain. It stands on 
 the south bank of the Thames, 7 miles E.S.E. of 
 St. Paul s, London, and now included in the me 
 tropolis. The dock-yard, the most ancient in the 
 kingdom, has been enlarged of late .years, and 
 has some very fine docks ; some of the largest 
 ships of the British navy were launched from it. 
 The yard comprises large dry-docks, and a basin 
 400 feet long by 300 feet wide. The Royal Ar 
 senal, the largest in Great Britain, contains not 
 only the largest stores of all kinds, but it com 
 prises also establishments for manufacturing 
 them, and for constructing gun-carriages and 
 preparing ammunition for cannon and small- 
 arms. It is the seat of the Royal Military Acad 
 emy for the education of cadets destined for the 
 artillery and engineers, and is also the headquar 
 ters of the royal horse and foot artillery and 
 sappers and miners, for whom and other corps 
 there are extensive barracks here. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Word. The watch-word. 
 
 Worden, John L., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Born in New York, March 12, 1818. Appointed 
 from New York, January 12, 1835 ; sloop "Erie," 
 Brazil Squadron, 1836-37 ; Naval School, Phila 
 delphia, 1840. 
 
 Promoted to passed midshipman, July 16, 
 1840; store-ship "Relief," Pacific Squadron, 
 1843; special duty, 1845; Naval Observatory, 
 1846 ; store-ship "Southampton," Pacific Squad 
 ron, 1846-47. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, November 30, 
 1846; frigate "Ohio," Pacific Squadron, 1848- 
 50 ; Naval Observatory, Washington, 1851-52 ; 
 frigate " Cumberland," Mediterranean Squad 
 ron, 1853-55; Naval Observatory, Washington, 
 1856 ; navy-yard, New York, 1857-58 ; sloop 
 "Savannah," Home Squadron, 1859; Home 
 Squadron, 1860; commanded ironclad " Moni- 
 
WORK 
 
 850 
 
 WRECK 
 
 tor" in her engagement with rebel ironclad 
 " Merriraac," inllampton Roads, March 9, 1862. 
 During the action Capt. Worden was injured in 
 the eyes by the explosion of a shell from the 
 " Merrimac" upon the outside of the eye-hole of 
 the pilot-house exactly opposite his eye. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 12, 1862 ; 
 commanding ironclad steamer " Montauk," 
 South Atlantic Blockading Squadron ; com 
 manded the ironclad " Montauk" in the block 
 ading fleet in Ossabaw Sound, and engaged Fort 
 McAllister, on the Ogeechee River, January 27, 
 1863, and again, February 1, 1863 ; attacked and 
 destroyed the rebel privateer " Nashville" under 
 the guns of Fort McAllister, on February 28, 
 1863 ; commanded the u Montauk" in the attack 
 made by Admiral Dupont, with the ironclad 
 fleet, on" the defenses of Charleston, on April 7, 
 1863. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, February 3, 1863. 
 Capt. Worden was promoted out of the line 
 and received the thanks of Congress for distin 
 guished gallantry in the engagement with the 
 " Merrimac," and in other battles in which he 
 had taken part. Special duty, New York, 1834- 
 66; commanded the steam-sloop "Pensacola," 
 North Pacific Squadron, 1867 ; special duty, 
 1868. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, May 27, 1868 ; 
 superintendent Naval Academy, 1870-74. 
 
 Commissioned as rear-admiral, November 20, 
 1872 ; commanding European Station, 1875-77 ; 
 member of Board of Examiners since December 
 29, 1877. 
 
 Work. The product of force and motion in 
 overcoming resistance ; its unit is one foot-pound. 
 To labor or strain ; as a ship works in a sea. To 
 perform ; to operate. To work ship, to direct or 
 manage a vessel by sails and helm. To work the 
 engine, to put it "in motion. T*.) work a dai/ s 
 work, to compute the run and position of the 
 ship for a day. To work an observation, a lunar 
 distance, etc., to make the calculations necessary 
 to find the latitude, etc., from the observations 
 made. To work a lunar, figuratively, to sleep 
 during a conversation; to proceed with effort 
 or laboriously. To work to windward, to gain 
 to windward by successive tacks. To work a 
 passage, to pay for a passage by doing duty. 
 To work double tides, to work three days in two, 
 or to work two tides work in 24 hours. To work 
 up junk, etc., to make over junk, old yarns, 
 etc., into gaskets, foxes, and the like. Working 
 up, keeping men beyond hours, or working need 
 lessly, as a punishment. To work off dead-horse, 
 to perform work paid for in advance. See 
 POWER. 
 
 WORKING-HOURS. In a navy-yard the time 
 from bell-ring to 12, and from 1 to bell-ring. 
 The bell rings at 7 or 7.30 A.M., and at 5 or 6 
 P.M. On board ship, working-hours are from 8 
 A.M. to 4 P.M., except during meals. 
 
 WORKING-PARTY. A gang of men employed 
 in any specified labor. 
 
 Worm. To wind a small rope spirally in the 
 spaces between the strands of a large rope. A 
 rope is wormed before being parceled and served. 
 WORM. A piece of metallic pipe coiled in the 
 form of a helix or spiral, used in distilling. It 
 is immersed in a vessel of constantly circulating 
 cold water, the vapor entering at one end being 
 condensed before reaching the other. 
 
 A helical piece of steel wire with a sharp point, 
 attached to a staff, for withdrawing a cartridge 
 from a gun. A small worm is attached to a gun 
 sponge for the purpose of withdrawing fragments 
 of unconsumed cartridge. A screw-thread. See 
 TEREDO NAVALIS. 
 
 WORM-EATEN. Perforated by the ravages of 
 the teredo navalis. 
 
 WORMING. Small-stuff used to worm a rope. 
 
 WORM-WHEEL. A toothed wheel, the teeth 
 of which are acted upon, as a nut, by a short 
 screw or worm. It is an imperfect piece of 
 mechanism, as the bearing contact can be only a 
 point. 
 
 * Wrack. A marine plant (the Zostera marina], 
 from which kelp is made ; also called sea-wrack, 
 sea-ioreck, sea-oak, and sea-tangle. 
 
 Wrain-bolt. A ring-bolt used by shipwrights 
 to bend and bind the planks in place until they 
 are bolted. 
 
 Wrain-staff. A stout piece of wood, fitting 
 into the ring of a wrain-bolt, to tighten it up, and 
 so bind the planks in place. 
 
 Wrasse. The Crenilabrus tinea, or old-wife. 
 A genera of fish (the Labrus), containing some 21 
 species. 
 
 Wreck. To destroy or wreck a vessel. To 
 plunder goods from a wrecked vessel, or to 
 gather stranded goods from the beach. The de 
 struction of, or serious injury to a vessel by 
 a stress of weather, or by being cast on shore, on 
 a rock, etc. The ruins of a stranded or wrecked 
 ship. Goods cast up on land from a wrecked 
 vessel. 
 
 Among the ancients, shipwrecked persons and 
 vessels were lawful prize, but toward the end 
 of the Roman empire, better laws protected per 
 sons and property. The ancient practice was 
 revived during the Middle Ages, when pirac} r 
 was common. This practice of selling or killing 
 the persons and destroying the ships was con 
 tinued down to 1680 in Uie north of Europe. 
 Early English laws gave wrecks to the king, but 
 by laws passed during the reign of Henry III., 
 goods, if marked, could be claimed within a year 
 and a day. But in the reign of Queen Anne, laws 
 were enacted enjoining all magistrates to sum 
 mon people to assist in saving wrecked persons, 
 goods, etc., on the English coast, and the estab 
 lishment of a coast-guard and live-saving service 
 has aided there, as elsewhere, in ameliorating the 
 lot of shipwrecked persons. Superintendents of 
 wreck and receivers of wreck were appointed 
 some years since in England, to look out for 
 them. Wise rules as to their conduct, and also 
 laws as to salvage, etc., have been productive of 
 much good in England. 
 
 The number of wrecks is yearly great. From 
 1793 to 1829, there were annually lost 577 ves 
 sels of the English mercantile navy, or one- 
 fortieth of the entire amount. In the 5 years, 
 1863-67, there were 7646 wrecks and 1873 collis 
 ions, or in all, 9519 vessels and 3459 lives lost in 
 the English merchant service. About $12,000,- 
 000 and 800 lives represent the yearly loss to 
 that nation alone. In 1874, 1999 sailing-vessels, 
 or 3.5 per cent, .of all in the world, were lost. 
 Previous to this, in 1870, 2313 were lost, in 1871, 
 3426, in 1872, 2682, and in 1873, 2165. In 1873 
 there were 204 steamers, or 4 percent, of all, lost ; 
 and in 1874, 175, or 8J per cent. 49,322 vessels 
 were wrecked on the English coast in 25 years 
 
WRECK 
 
 851 
 
 WRECK 
 
 (1855-1880). Disasters to steamers on the line of 
 travel between Europe and America have been 
 frequent. From 1840-78, there were 40 steamers 
 lost and 4362 lives sacrificed. Wrecks occur 
 from causes connected with 1. Weather, as 
 gales, currents, seas, fog, lightning, etc. 2. De 
 fective vessels, compasses, chart*, etc. 3. Inef 
 ficient officers. 4. Machinery and boilers. 5. 
 Miscellaneous, as accident, fire, collision, leaks, 
 absence of buoys or lights, scuttling, and other 
 causes. 
 
 Annual reports of wrecks are now made, and 
 summaries published from time to time, notably 
 by the Bureau Yeritas, of Paris, and Lloyd s, in 
 London. The United States Life-Saving Service 
 publishes full statistics for the United States. In 
 1876, 1281 casualties occurred to American ves 
 sels, nearly half being total losses. In 1876-77, 
 there were 85 vessels foundered, 220 stranded, 
 39 collided, and 178 lost from other causes, 
 making a total of 528 vessels lost, involving the 
 sum of $14,500,000, and 1573 were damaged, 
 worth in all more than $63,000,000. In 1877- 
 78, there foundered 79 vessels, while 231 were 
 lost by stranding, 35 by collisions, and 105 from 
 other causes, besides 1492 damaged ; 598 lives 
 were lost, and the value of these vessels was 
 $51,000,000, of which $12,000,000 was lost. In 
 1879-80 there were 300 disasters, 67 vessels being 
 lost. The decrease was 15.72 per cent, in num 
 ber, and 16 per cent, in tonnage from one to the 
 other year. November, December, and January 
 are the worst months, and the most wrecks then 
 occur. 
 
 WRECKAGE. Spars, rigging, and other float 
 ing wreck-stuff. 
 
 WRECK -ARTILLERY. Wreck - artillery, or 
 wreck-ordnance, comprises such devices as are 
 designed to establish communication between 
 the shore and stranded vessels by means of a 
 projectile carrying a line from the shore to the 
 vessel, or vice versa. 
 
 There are two principal methods of effecting 
 this intercommunication, one by means of a 
 line carrying a projectile impelled by the explo 
 sive force of powder contained in a gun or mor 
 tar, and the other, in which the impelling force 
 is generated in the projectile itself. 
 
 To the former class belong all guns, mortars, 
 and muskets used for throwing line-carrying 
 projectiles ; to the latter, belong the several life- 
 saving rocket systems. 
 
 The U. S. Life-Saving Service has retained the 
 gun and mortar system. 
 
 This government first used the old-fashioned 
 cast-iron eprouvette mortar, throwing a 24-pound 
 round ball ; then followed a small number of 
 3-inch Parrott mortars, which gave way in 
 1878-79 to the 2.5-inch Lyle gun. 
 
 The Parrott mortar was made of cast iron lined 
 with a steel tube. The projectile was oblong, 
 rounded at the front end, and somewhat pointed 
 at the rear end, near which was pierced a hole 
 for attaching the line. When loaded the rear 
 end of this projectile extends beyond the muzzle 
 of the piece. 
 
 The Lyle gun and system was devised and 
 perfected by Lieut. D. A. Lyle, Ordnance De 
 partment U.S.A., in 1877. 
 
 It, like the Parrott, is a development of the 
 Manby system, invented during the early part 
 of the present century. Lieut. Lyle prepared 
 
 guns of three different calibres, 2, 2.5, and 3 
 inches ; the calibre to depend on the range re 
 quired and the size of line to be used. All 
 these guns are made of bronze, mounted on. 
 wooden beds or carriages strengthened with 
 wrought iron. 
 
 The 2.5-inch Lyle gun has been adopted by the 
 U. S. Life-Saving Service, and 200 of them have 
 been made, the greater part of which are in use. 
 The braided linen lines made by the Silver Lake 
 Company, of Newtonville, Mass., is used in this 
 country, as giving the greatest satisfaction for 
 shot-lines. These lines, like all others, deterio 
 rate with the lapse of time when stored, and 
 should be replaced every two or three years, else 
 breaks will occur in firing. 
 
 The Lyle projectile is made of cast iron, and 
 is cylindro-ogival in form. A wrought-iron 
 shank having an eye at its rear end is screwed 
 into the base of the shot to which the line is at 
 tached. The projectile is fired base first, and is 
 reversed by the strain of the line. 
 
 I. Instructions for Use of Lyle Gun. Keep the 
 bore of the gun clean at all times. There is often 
 a deposit left after firing, near the seat of the 
 charge, which prevents the projectile from going 
 entirely down to the cartridge. This deposit 
 should always be removed.* 
 
 The projectiles should be kept free from rust. 
 The use of emery-cloth and the application of a 
 little oil will protect the shot from rust. 
 
 In loading, always measure the distance from 
 the charge to the muzzle with the ramrod or 
 wiper and apply it to the shot. In this man 
 ner the gunner can always tell whether the pro 
 jectile is fully down or is obstructed by dirt or 
 sand. 
 
 If the piece be fired when the projectile is not 
 " home," it strains the gun unnecessarily. 
 
 II. Directions for Firing. Having the gun 
 and apparatus on the ground, to prepare for 
 firing : 
 
 1. Select a place where the gun and carriage 
 may recoil without striking rocks or other ob 
 structions. 
 
 2. Note the position of the vessel to be re 
 lieved 5 her distance from the shore, the direction 
 and approximate force of the wind. 
 
 3. Place the gun in position, making allow 
 ance for the force of the wind and for the drift 
 of the line. 
 
 4. Place the faking-box and line on the wind 
 ward side of the gun, and two or three feet from 
 it, not more. The box should be on a line with 
 the muzzle of the gun. Loosen the hasps, in 
 vert the box, and incline it to the front at an 
 angle of about 45. 
 
 5. See that the vent is clear by inserting the 
 priming- wire. 
 
 6. Wipe off the shot with care, freeing it from 
 dirt and sand. 
 
 7. Remove the frame and faking-pins, press 
 ing at the same time gently upon the "false" 
 bottom to keep the fakes in place. Then remove 
 the "false" bottom by lifting it slowly until 
 clear of the box. 
 
 8. Seize the end of the line, drawing out just 
 enough to reach to the gun without disturbing 
 the fakes in the box, pass the end through the 
 
 * Generally removed by using a wet sponge. In very cold 
 weather, alcohol should be used instead of water to prevent 
 freezing. 
 
WRECK 
 
 852 
 
 WRECK 
 
 eye-hole in the shank and tie two or three half- 
 hitches in it, drawing the knot down close to 
 the eye ; then wet about three or four feet of the 
 line. 
 
 9. Remove the tompion or muzzle-cover from ., 
 
 the piece. 
 
 10. Insert the cartridge. 
 
 11. Insert the projectile slowly until it resti 
 upon the cartridge. 
 
 12. Prick the cartridge with the priming-wire 
 to avoid disturbing the elevation after being 
 given. 
 
 13. Set the " combination level" to the desired 
 
 14. Place the lower arm of the level length 
 wise upon the chase. 
 
 15. Elevate the muzzle until the bubble of the 
 level stands at the middle of the tube. 
 
 16. Adjust the quoin. 
 
 17. Unroll the lanyard and insert the hook in 
 the wire loop of the friction-primer. 
 
 18. Insert the primer gently in the vent. 
 
 19. Stand clear of the line. 
 
 20. Fire the piece. 
 
 NOTE. If any of the fakes should slide from 
 the box to the ground, place the loose line in 
 small fakes not more than 18 inches long in front 
 of the box. The necessity for this operation 
 should be avoided if possible. 
 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 Weight of Weight of ,.* Extreme 
 
 Piece. Piece with Projectile, ^undk Kange 
 
 Bed, pounds. pounds. P uaas - yards. 
 
 Old mortar 288 24 312 421 
 
 3o"Parrott r,35 33 568 631 
 
 3"Parrott 288 22 310 473 
 
 2.5"Lyle 185 17 202 695 
 
 2" Lyle 89 13 102 477 
 
 The weight of the Lyle gun, with carriage, as 
 adopted, is 162 pounds ; quoin, 4.5 pounds ; pro 
 jectile, 18.7 pounds; total, about 185 pounds. 
 This projectile carries braided lines, Nos. 3, 4, 
 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, over ranges varying from 
 300 to over 600 yards, depending on the size of 
 line, charge of powder, and elevation used. 
 
 In 1866 the French adopted two pieces of ord 
 nance, le perrier and L espingole, for projecting 
 lines over shipwrecked vessels. Later, M. Del- 
 vigne invented a gun for the same purpose. All 
 these pieces project line-carrying arrows (fleches) 
 of wood or iron. 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 Weight Weight of Diameter Extreme 
 
 Piece. of Gun, Projectile, of Range, 
 
 pounds. pounds. Line. yards. 
 
 Le perrier 182.9 11.0 0.177" 355 
 
 L espingole 44.1 4.4 0.177" 196 
 
 Delvigne 44.1 17.6 0.315" 328 
 
 M. Delvigne obtains a range varying from 196 
 to 382 yards, depending on weights of projectile 
 and powder-charge, elevation, size of line, di 
 rection and force of wind. He claims cheapness 
 and portability combined, with an equal or better 
 range than that obtained with either le perrier 
 or Vespingole. 
 
 The English have discarded the clumsy system 
 of Capt. Manby, and now use the Boxer life- 
 saving rocket. 
 
 The Boxer rocket consists of two rocket bodies, 
 placed end to end, with a conical cavity in each. 
 A portion of solid composition separates the two 
 
 cavities, so that the forward rocket is not ignited 
 until the composition in the partition and rear 
 one is consumed. The consecutive ignition of 
 the rockets prolongs the time of burning and of 
 flight, thereby extending the range. The line is 
 attached to a long stick fastened on one side of 
 the rocket. The latter is fired from a stand made 
 for the purpose ; the line steadying the flight and 
 tending to prevent its deflection from the plane 
 of fire. 
 
 The end of the line attached to the rocket is 
 wet, but that does not always prevent its being 
 burned off by the intense heat of the flame that 
 issues from the vent. In firing, a fuze is in 
 serted in the vent at the rear end of the case, 
 and ignited by means of a port-fire. 
 
 The rocket bodies are made of Bessemer metal. 
 The Germans employ 5- and 8-centimetre 
 rockets for carrying lines over stranded vessels. 
 
 These rockets have strong metallic bodies, with 
 pointed heads and tripodaf bases, into which the 
 rocket-sticks are screwed so as to be in the pro 
 longation of the axis of the rocket. A chain 
 fastened to the end of the stick extends to the 
 rear, in order to protect the line from the flames 
 of the burning composition. The line is attached 
 to the end of the chain. 
 
 They also possess an 8-centimetre anchor-rocket 
 for carrying a line beyond the breakers, to be 
 used in hauling a life-boat through the surf after 
 launching. This rocket carries an anchor-head 
 with four flukes or palms at right angles to each 
 other. 
 
 With a fair bottom, the "holding" capacity 
 of this anchor is good. 
 
 The German rockets all have a fixed fuze in 
 the prolongation of the axis, which is ignited by 
 a short port-fire called a pillenlicht. The rockets 
 are fired from an inclined sheet-metal trough. 
 The elevation is given \>y a quadrant. 
 
 The English, Germans, and Americans all have 
 their shot- or rocket-lines put up in boxes. 
 
 The lines are stowed away in tiers of peculiar 
 loops, called "fakes," in such a manner that they 
 do not become entangled. 
 
 The line is wound or faked upon a frame car 
 rying spindle-shaped pins, that hold the loops 
 in position until conveyed to the firing-point, 
 when the box is inverted, the frame and pins 
 withdrawn, leaving the line in readiness for 
 firing. 
 
 The Russians make use of a metallic case- 
 rocket, with a stick screwed into the rear end in 
 the prolongation of the axis. Six holes or pos 
 terior vents furnish egress to the gases generated 
 by ignition. 
 
 In this system the line is not directly attached 
 to the rocket. A chain is fastened to the line to 
 protect it from the flame ; the free end of the 
 chain terminates in a ring that is placed upon a 
 projection on the front end of the stand. The 
 under side of the rear end of the rocket-stick is 
 armed with a strong iron hook, which engages 
 the ring as the rocket leaves the tube, and carries 
 out the chain and its appendant line. 
 
 The rocket-tube or stand is mounted on a tri 
 pod, and consists of a rectangular sheet-iron 
 tube, placed with one of its diagonal planes in a 
 vertical position. 
 
 A graduated brass semicircle on one side, fur 
 nished with a clamp-screw, serves to fix the ele 
 vation. 
 
WRECK 
 
 853 
 
 WYMAN 
 
 Comparison of Rocket System. 
 
 Weight of Rocket, 
 Kind. complete, 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Boxer (English) 17.5 
 
 5 cm. German 15.5 
 
 8 cm. German 42. 
 
 8 cm. German anchor..46.5 
 Russian 25.5 
 
 Weight Extreme 
 
 of Stand, Range, 
 
 pounds. yards. 
 
 30 540 
 
 35 404 
 
 35 545 
 
 35 about 400 
 
 39^ ? 
 
 The range of all line-carrying projectiles de 
 pends on their weight, form, on the weight of 
 the powder-charge or composition, elevation, 
 size of line, direction, and force of wind. 
 
 The great advantage of rockets is their porta 
 bility, but this is more than counterbalanced by 
 their erratic flight, their liability to deteriorate 
 from storage, from the expansion and contraction 
 due to changes of temperature, which loosen the 
 composition from the case, allowing the flanres to 
 envelop the whole mass, and producing more 
 gas-pressure than the case can stand. 
 
 Again, they are very expensive, which pre 
 cludes any attempt at extended practice by crews 
 of surfmen. 
 
 The Massachusetts Humane Society has 
 adopted for use at their life-saving stations 
 partially, at least the Hunt line-carrying pro 
 jectile. This shot consists of a tin cylinder, with 
 a leaden head cast upon one end. Just above 
 this head is a galvanized sheet-iron band, which 
 surrounds the tin case to give greater stiffness to 
 it, and to prevent upsetting by the shock of dis 
 charge. A coil of small line, about 0.12 of an 
 inch in diameter, is inserted in the case, which 
 is closed by a wooden plug having a hole in the 
 centre, through which the line is drawn as the 
 shot describes its trajectory. Four trapeziform 
 pieces of tin, styled " wings," are soldered to the 
 outside of the case, near the rear end, to control 
 the flight. 
 
 These wings perform a similar function to the 
 feathers on an arrow. A second coil of line is 
 placed at the firing-point. The line is payed out 
 from the two coils simultaneously. 
 
 Among other line-carrying projectiles may be 
 mentioned those of Lieut.-Commander W. M. 
 Folger, U. S. Navy, Capt. Butler, TJ. S. Army, 
 Capt. Chandler, TJ. S. Navy, Mr. Tatham, of 
 Philadelphia, Mr. Spencer, of New York, and 
 the Lyle-Emery grapple-shot. D. A. Lyle, Lieu 
 tenant of Ordnance, U.S.A. 
 
 WRECK-CHART. A chart giving the locality 
 and date of shipwrecks on any coast. 
 
 WRECK-CLEARER. A station at quarters, the 
 same as sail-trimmer. 
 
 WRECKER. One who wrecks ships or causes 
 them to be wrecked by false lights, etc. One 
 who visits or searches wrecks for the sake of 
 plunder. One employed in saving life and prop 
 erty from wrecked vessels. 
 
 WRECK-FREE. An exemption from forfeiture 
 of wrecked goods. 
 
 WRECKING-COMPANY. A company organized 
 to save ships or their cargoes after wreck. 
 
 WRECKING-PUMP. -A powerful pump used 
 about wrecks, with large suction- and discharge- 
 pipes. 
 
 WRECK-MASTER. A person given charge of 
 a wreck or stranded goods by owners or salvors. 
 
 WRECKING-TUG. A boat fitted with special 
 appliances for raising, towing, or clearing a 
 wreck. 
 
 Wrench. An instrument for screwing or un 
 screwing bolts and nuts, or pieces connected by 
 screw-threads. It may be either a solid piece, 
 or lever, fitted to a certain-sized nut, etc., or 
 adjustable to different sizes; as, a screw- or 
 monkey-wrench, or a key- wrench. 
 
 Wright s Sailing. Same as Mercator s sail 
 ing. 
 
 Wring. To bend, twist, or strain. To wring a 
 mast, to distort it by setting up shrouds un 
 equally, etc., or by any strain about the mast 
 head. To wring a capstan, to strain it unduly 
 and twist the parts of it out of place. 
 
 WRING-BOLT. See WRAIN-BOLT. 
 
 WRING-STAVE. See WRAIN-STAFF. 
 
 Wrung-head. See RUNG-HEAD. 
 
 Wyman, Robert H., Rear-Admiral U.S.N. 
 Appointed midshipman, 1837 ; attached to razee 
 " Independence" and sloop " Fairfield," Brazils, 
 1837-38; sloop "John Adams," East Indies, 
 1838-40; Brazil Squadron, 1840-42; at Naval 
 School, 1842-43. 
 
 Promoted to passed-midshipman, June 29, 
 1843 ; East Indies, 1843-46 ; served in the Gulf 
 during the Mexican war ; present at the siege 
 of Vera Cruz ; Observatory, Washington, 1848 ; 
 receiving-ship at Boston, 1849-50. 
 
 Commissioned as lieutenant, July 16, 1850; 
 sloop "St. Mary s," Pacific and East India 
 Squadrons, 1850-52; Observatory, Washington, 
 1853-54 ; practice-ship " Preble," 1855-56 ; razee 
 "Independence" and sloop "St. Mary s," Pa 
 cific, 1856-59; practice-ships, 1859-60; sloop 
 "Richmond," 1860-61; commanding steamers 
 "Yankee" and "Pocahontas," 1861; "Paw 
 nee," South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, 
 1861-62 ; battle of Port Royal, November, 1861 ; 
 commanding Potomac Flotilla, 1862. 
 
 Commissioned as commander, July 16, 1862 ; 
 commanding steamer " Sonoma" in James 
 River, and " Wachusett" and "Santiago de 
 Cuba," West India Squadron, 1862-63; special 
 duty, Washington, 1863 ; special duty, Navy 
 Department, 186465; commanding steam-frigate 
 " Colorado," flag-ship European Squadron, 1865 
 -67. 
 
 Commissioned as captain, July 25, 1866 ; com 
 manding steam-sloop " Ticonderoga," European 
 Squadron, 1867-69 ; Hydrographic Office. Wash 
 ington, 1869-70; in charge of Hydrographic 
 Office, 1871-77. 
 
 Commissioned as commodore, July 19 t 1872. 
 
 Promoted to rear-admiral, April 26, 1878; 
 special duty, Washington, 1878 ; commanding 
 North Atlantic Station since January 15, 1879. 
 
XANTHO 
 
 854 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 X. 
 
 Xantho. A genus of brachyurous crustaceans, 
 containing numerous species, and existing in all 
 seas. 
 
 Xebec. A Mediterranean coasting-vessel from 
 200 to 400 tons, and carrying from 18 to 24 small 
 guns. It is sharp-built, with far-projecting bow 
 and stern, flat floor, and very convex decks. It 
 has three masts, with the fore-raking forward, 
 and sometimes the others also, and a bowsprit 
 and stern-boom. Square yards are used on the 
 fore and main when the wind is fair, but are re 
 placed by lateen-sails when it is not. Oars are 
 
 sometimes used. Square topsails are sometimes 
 seen on all three masts. 
 
 Xero-potamo. Torrents in Greece, dry at times. 
 
 Xiphias. A genus of acanthopterygious fishes, 
 including the sword-fish. A constellation in the 
 southern hemisphere, called also dorado and 
 sword-fish. 
 
 Xugia. The second bank of rowers in a 
 trireme. 
 
 Xylogodine. Dittmar s powder, an explosive 
 compound of nitric or sulphuric acid and gly 
 cerine cellulose. See EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Y. Abbreviation for why in the U. S. General 
 Service Signal Code. 
 
 Yachts and Yachting. 1. Derivation.^ Web 
 ster defines the word yacht to mean " a light and 
 elegantly furnished vessel, used either for private 
 parties of pleasure, or as a vessel of state to con 
 vey princes, etc., from one place to another; a 
 sea-going vessel used only for pleasure-trips, 
 racing, and the like." The word "yacht" is 
 unquestionably to be traced to the old Danish 
 "jagt," implying a vessel for the chase of others, 
 such as the capture of pirates and smugglers. 
 As a matter of course, speed was in them an 
 essential, and the same property being largely 
 aimed at in pleasure-craft, the original meaning 
 of the word was gradually widened until the in 
 terpretation given by Webster became generally 
 accepted. While many vikings of the olden 
 times indulged in pleasure-cruising, combining 
 a voyage of exploration with the adventures of 
 the chase, or the excitement of a piratical descent 
 upon an enemy s coast, the first authentic record 
 we have of any vessel built and owned especially 
 for the purposes of yachting dates back to 1588, 
 when the "Rat of Wight" was launched at 
 Cowes, England. From that day the sport may 
 be said to have firmly planted itself in the favor 
 of the English people, and the town of Cowes 
 has ever since maintained the first position among 
 the yachting ports of the world. From the 
 original little "Rat" has grown a vast fleet of 
 fine vessels of all types and sizes, representing 
 
 in the aggregate millions of money, and employ 
 ing a large body of men in the capacity of sailors 
 and attendants. In 1661, Charles II. sailed 
 the first regular match on record, on the river 
 Thames, from Greenwich to Gravesend, his com 
 petitor being his brother, the Duke of York. In 
 the words of a historian of the times, " the king 
 lost it going, the wind being contrary, but saved 
 stakes in returning, his majesty sometimes steer 
 ing himself." From this the modern critic will 
 conclude that the king s yacht was not good for 
 much in windward work, but had the advantage 
 of the opposing craft on. the free run home. 
 Charles II. and his brother may fairly be rated 
 as the first " Corinthians" in history, for they 
 handled the tiller and evidently skippered their 
 yachts themselves. The construction of yachts 
 became common enough in the 18th century, and 
 their numbers had increased so rapidly in and 
 about Cork Harbor, that the first club, or organ 
 ized association, to promote the sport was founded 
 in 1720, under the title of " Cork Harbor Water 
 Club." Cowes followed in 1810, the club con 
 taining some vessels of considerable tonnage, in 
 which the features of the man-of-war were more 
 or less closely imitated, while the older boats of 
 the Cork club partook of the nature of open har 
 bor craft, being shaped something like a walnut, 
 with the mast amidships and the bowsprit point 
 ing skyward. The pastime soon became fashion 
 able, being patronized by the Duke of Clarence, 
 afterwards George IV. The Royal Yacht Club, 
 
YACHTS 
 
 855 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 in reality the parent of all similar institutions of 
 modern times, was organized and adopted a seal 
 in 1812, at which time the number of legitimate 
 yachts reached about 50, belonging almost ex 
 clusively to noblemen and functionaries of the 
 government. The number rapidly grew, until 
 in 1850 it is estimated there were 500 afloat. 
 From all sorts of nondescripts, racing had gradu 
 ally developed something like a recognized type 
 or standard in the prevalence of the " cod s head 
 and mackerel tail" form, as the bluff bows and 
 sharp sterns of the day were denominated. The 
 largest athwartship section, or in technical par 
 lance, the midship section of these yachts was 
 full and round bilged with a moderate angle 
 of dead-rise to the floor, the whole being copied 
 from the carrying vessels of the times. Even at 
 this early period the rules by which tonnage was 
 calculated began to exert a powerful influence 
 upon the shape of the hull, and as measurement 
 for racing purposes has really had more to do 
 than any other cause in directing the course of 
 builders and modelers, it will be well to follow its 
 influences closely. In order that large and small 
 vessels might be raced together with some degree 
 of fairness a certain amount of time was granted 
 by the former to the latter, depending generally 
 upon the length of the course sailed and the dif 
 ference in size. To obtain a gauge of size the 
 first rule applied was that in vogue in the con 
 temporary commercial marine. 
 
 Tonnage was measured by multiplying together 
 the length on the keel and the breadth and the 
 depth, and then dividing by 94, the result being 
 assumed as the actual contents of the vessel 
 expressed in tons. Owing to the difficulty of 
 measuring depth, and the general conformity 
 thereof to one-half the vessel s breadth, the latter 
 fraction was substituted in the rule in place of 
 the actual depth. It worked well enough as long 
 as constructors were inclined to follow such pro 
 portions. Yacht-builders, however, were not 
 slow to discover the weak points of the tonnage 
 rule, and, appreciating the advantage of size in 
 relation to speed, they reduced the beam and 
 increased the depth in successive models, obtain 
 ing by such stratagem a large boat which would 
 nominally be of small tonnage. The success of 
 such craft in overpowering their smaller rivals 
 rated at the same, or even a larger figure, soon 
 made the narrow and deep hull quite the fashion, 
 all sorts of virtues being imputed to it, the sup 
 posed virtues having no other foundation in truth 
 than in the additional size smuggled in at a race 
 and the increased momentum in a seaway. Nor 
 did the builders stop with the modifications indi 
 cated, but they gained still further advantage by 
 giving a violent rake to the stern-post, and an 
 overhang to the stem, so completely circumvent 
 ing the object of measuring the length on keel, 
 that yacht clubs were finally compelled to stretch 
 their tape-line on deck from stem-head to stern- 
 post instead. In later years, the persistent 
 evader of the spirit of measurement crooked or 
 elbowed the upper part of the stern-post to save 
 what he could on the length, and finally took 
 to moving the post bodily forward, until his 
 sharp practice was at last checkmated by meas 
 uring for length on the line of flotation itself. 
 These alterations in the rule produced in succes 
 sion the various types of yachts which, in their 
 day, were regarded as invincible and as the high 
 
 est development of naval architecture, though 
 being, as a matter of fact, simply more or less 
 successful evasions of equity, and owing their 
 fame to untaxed superiority in size more than to 
 anything else. Wanhill, of Poole, gained fame 
 in this way between 1840 and 1850, when great 
 depth and dead-rise obtained such prominence 
 by the performance of his "Cygnet," "Hero 
 ine," and others, while Harvey, of Wivenhoe, in 
 1852, then an apprentice in his father s yard, 
 carried the rake of the stern-post to the greatest 
 extreme, in rebuilding the well-known little cut 
 ter " Kitten," of 10 tons, now owned in Boston, 
 Mass. The amount of experimenting and inno 
 vation incidental to the manreuvring for untaxed 
 size was not entirely without its advantages to 
 naval architecture. A great deal was added to 
 our store of practical knowledge concerning the 
 behavior of vessels of various kinds. While 
 Scott Kussell and others were engaged in formu 
 lating the theories of the science, yacht-builders 
 contributed their quota in the way of actual 
 experiment. The most notable influence upon 
 the design of vessels for speed was produced by 
 the arrival of the schooner "America" at Cowes, 
 July 31, 1851. She may be said to have fairly 
 opened the eyes of the world to the fact that 
 America was rapidly assuming a leading rank as 
 a maritime nation, and that the greatest pitch of 
 perfection in model was to be found in the ports 
 of the new continent, and not in those of the old. 
 The "America" was built in 1851, by George 
 Steers, for Mr. J. C. Stevens, commodore of the 
 New York Yacht Club, then a young, and the 
 only organization of the kind on this side of the 
 Atlantic. The schooner was 87 feet long on the 
 load-line, 22.2 feet beam at the same line, and 
 had a mean draft to the rabbet of 8.2 feet. Her 
 load displacement in cubic feet was 5133.2, or 
 146.6 tons. She carried 45 tons of ballast ; her 
 hull weighed 60, and the equipment 41J tons. 
 The area of her 3 lower sails was 5263 square 
 feet. After her voyage across, made under short 
 spars, she was refitted at Havre, and on the 22d 
 of August, 1851, started in a race for the Royal 
 Yacht Squadron cup around the Isle of Wight, 
 beating the entire English fleet out of sight. 
 Subsequently she defeated the " Titania," and was 
 then bought by Lord de Blacquiere. Under the 
 management of her English crew she was beaten 
 by the "Arrow" and "Mosquito," but in turn 
 vanquished the Swedish schooner " Sverige," a 
 smart vessel, built on much the same principles 
 as the " America," but lacking the latter s beauty 
 and harmony of lines. The great victory of the 
 transatlantic visitor caused a profound sensation 
 among the nautical public. 
 
 She differed radically from the English boats of 
 the day in having a long, fine, and hollow en 
 trance, with very easy section-lines to her after 
 body, and carried the greatest breadth, as well as 
 her centres, abaft the middle. In short, she was 
 a " cod s head and mackerel tail," but turned end 
 for end, while the Englishmen had nothing bet 
 ter to pit against her than the round-bodied, 
 bluff-bowed old boxes belonging to a bj gone 
 age. The " America s" sails were cut so as to 
 set flat on the wind, while in the English fleet 
 the old "square-riggers" idea of bellying canvas 
 still held sway. In a few words, the English 
 yachtsman was behind the age. Nor was he long 
 in discovering this, for he set to work energetic- 
 
YACHTS 
 
 856 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 ally remodeling and altering, with the form of 
 the " America" always in view. From the date 
 of her visit the birth of the really modern period 
 of yachting may be reckoned. "Wave-lines," 
 and "wave-line" areas of the cycloidal family, 
 became the standards of the new departure, to 
 which it may be said all the successful yachts of 
 the present era closely conform. The "America" 
 was, however, by no means the first representa 
 tive of the new departure in design, though the 
 prominence she achieved by her victory at 
 Cowes gave a greater impetus to the new order 
 of things than anything else could have accom 
 plished. Steers himself had built a number of 
 successful yachts on the same principles prior to 
 the construction of the world-renowned schooner, 
 and others in Europe had already discerned the 
 true path, and had put the wave-line theory into 
 practice. The most notable example abroad of 
 the early introduction of the long and hollow 
 bow and cycloidal design is the cutter " Mos 
 quito" of 40 tons. She is also the first authentic 
 iron yacht of note. Both Mr. Ditchburn and 
 Mr. Waterman claim the honor of originating 
 the plans from which the cutter was built by 
 Mare, of Blackwell, in 1848. Her record as a 
 racer is a brilliant one, and upon one occasion 
 she gave a good account of herself in a match 
 with the "America." Like that schooner, the 
 " Mosquito" is a vessel of extraordinary beauty 
 and fairness in all her proportions, and it is an 
 open question whether at this late day anything 
 superior or even equal to these two representa 
 tive yachts has ever been launched. It is quite 
 certain that we have nothing to equal the "Amer 
 ica" on this side of the Atlantic, either in point 
 of speed or seaworthiness, and were it not for the 
 faulty tonnage rule in vogue in England, it is 
 doubtful whether anything of superior mold to 
 the "Mosquito" has -left the builders hands 
 across the sea. The tonnage rule places such 
 a heavy premium upon narrow boats, that the 
 comparatively beamy " Mosquito" would be 
 rated so much in excess of her real size as to 
 seriously interfere with her chances in a race 
 with the lean English cutters of to-day. Both 
 these yachts are remarkable, because at one 
 jump their projectors gave to the world two 
 craft which have been standards ever since, and 
 two craft which must certainly be counted nearly 
 faultless in form. Mechanical structure and con 
 trivances have undergone changes and improve 
 ments, details have. been perfected, but in form 
 in the principles of design exemplified by the 
 " America" and the " Mosquito" the world has 
 not advanced an iota. The efforts of later years 
 have been to equal, rather than to surpass them. 
 Since 1851, a great refinement in model, canvas, 
 gear, and ballasting of the world s yachting 
 marine has taken place in consequence, espe 
 cially in England; but the old Thames rule, 
 now renovated in some details, and disguised 
 under the nameof Yacht-Racing Association rule, 
 still has such an effect upon the form of yachts, 
 that the representative boats of England and 
 America have become widely divergent in all 
 their chief characteristics. Fortunatety, actual 
 experiment has shown that the peculiar type of 
 vessel fostered by the Yacht- Racing Association 
 rule is not incompatible with the essentials a 
 rough-water yacht should possess, and if it cir 
 cumscribes the latitude of the designer, it, at all 
 
 events, does not hinder the production of a style 
 especially suited to the wants and necessities of 
 British waters ; the worst which can be urged 
 against the modern English cutter being her 
 great first cost, as lead ballast has in them become 
 a necessity. In America, on the other hand, 
 through the custom of measuring by length 
 only, without regard to the other two cardinal 
 dimensions, the builder has to an equal extent 
 been driven to the adoption of one set form, from 
 which he finds escape impossible. The size he needs 
 must be sought in those directions which are not 
 taxed in racing. Hence the prevalence, even 
 among our large yachts, of great breadth of 
 beam, and the consequent shallowness of hold 
 and flat floor. While we have not advanced in 
 the least in form, the Englishman may be said 
 to have created, if not invented, an entirely new 
 style of craft, many features of which we are now 
 tardily beginning to copy. If to us the English 
 man owes his conversion from the ancient faith 
 of bluff bows and bellowing sails, so have we in 
 turn learned from him the value of ballast on the 
 keel, of easy forms and large displacement for 
 work in open water, and from him we have 
 taken the handy rigs of the cutter and yawl, 
 which have of late come into popularity. From 
 the small nucleus of 500 yachts 30 years ago, 
 the fleets of the world have grown with great 
 strides, until those of Great Britain alone number 
 3000 sail and over, " Lloyd s Yacht Register" 
 for 1880 showing more than 2500 of which sta 
 tistics have been gathered. The following table 
 will give an idea of the classification, according 
 to size and rig, of this fleet up to 1878 : 
 
 Number of Yachts. 
 
 1850. 
 
 5 tons, not exceeding 9 tons. 
 
 . 50 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 19 " . 
 
 .127 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 29 " 
 
 . 85 
 
 30 
 
 " 
 
 39 " 
 
 . 59 
 
 40 
 
 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 . 41 
 
 50 
 
 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 . 27 
 
 60 
 
 " 
 
 80 " 
 
 . 40 
 
 Qf\ it 
 
 100 " 
 
 .. 15 
 
 100 " " 150 " 
 
 .. 33 
 
 150 " " " 200 " . 
 
 .. 9 
 
 Above 200 tons 10 
 
 Steam-yachts , 
 
 Total 503 
 
 According to Rigs. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Cutters 372 
 
 Schooners , .. 76 
 
 Yawls 45 
 
 Other rigs 7 
 
 Steamers 3 
 
 1864. 
 
 52 
 
 137 
 
 207 
 
 113 
 
 69 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 895 
 
 1864. 
 
 574 
 
 207 
 
 54 
 
 27 
 
 1878. 
 
 160 
 
 300 
 
 403 
 
 180 
 
 96 
 
 89 
 
 50 
 
 87 
 
 40 
 282 
 
 1883 
 
 1878. 
 754 
 328 
 3-28 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1850. 1864. 1878. 1880. 
 
 Average 44 44 47 45 
 
 Gross tonnage 22,141 39,485 89,420 120,000 
 
 This fleet in 1880 employed no less than 12,000 
 hands regularly under pay, and re{,n.>sents a 
 value of nearly ten million dollars. 
 
 If we turn to America, we find even a more 
 rapid development of the sport, considering the 
 want of leisure and wealth prevailing in a new 
 country. 
 
 Statistics relating to the earlier days are of 
 
YACHTS 
 
 857 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 course very meagre, but enough can be gathered 
 from the following compilations to see that if the 
 advance in the future keeps pace with that of 
 the past decade, we may soon expect to surpass 
 Great Britain in the number of our yachts, 
 though it will be a long time before we can 
 out-ton the average of her fleet. , At the close 
 of " the war," in 1865, there were only 10 organ 
 ized clubs in America, with hardly 800 members. 
 In 1879 we find 100 organized clubs, with a 
 membership of over 7500. The fleet in 1865 
 consisted of about 200 cabin yachts and 150 
 "open boats." In 1879 it had grown to 530 
 cabin yachts of which records could be obtained, 
 and the fleet has since then been still further in 
 creased by new additions to fully 600. In 1879 
 they were classified as follows : 
 
 150 schooners, average 52 tons. 
 
 308 sloops, 
 40 steamers, 
 20 yawls, 
 10 cutters, 
 
 Total, 530 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 Average, 27 
 
 In addition, there are now some 500 small 
 yachts and open boats under 5 tons, of the 
 jib-and-mainsail and cat-boat varieties, and 
 also a score of catamarans. During the past 
 year the popularity of the cutter and yawl has 
 developed, and the leading clubs have from three 
 to a dozen each of the new-fashioned rigs. The 
 total tonnage for 1880 may be set down as about 
 18,000 tons, employing 2000 hands, and repre 
 senting nearly $1,500,000. The racing statistics 
 subjoined serve to give an idea of the extent of 
 that phase of the sport and the activity of 
 recent years : 
 
 Classification. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Number of starters 
 
 
 2373 
 
 2365 
 
 
 144 
 
 237 
 
 261 
 
 
 436 
 
 713 
 
 684 
 
 " " winners 
 
 307 
 
 467 
 
 508 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 9/4 
 
 Races in Boston and East 
 " " New York waters 
 " Philadelphia waters 
 " " Southern waters 
 " on lakes and in West 
 
 48 
 59 
 5 
 7 
 20 
 45 
 
 80 
 61 
 26 
 13 
 44 
 49 
 
 107 
 53 
 32 
 20 
 
 55 
 58 
 
 Number of winners over 40 feet 
 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 Number of winners under 40 feet 
 
 
 436 
 
 470 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 132 
 
 " " " sloop-rigged... 
 Number of winners schooner-rigged 
 " " " not classified 
 
 .r.! 
 
 167 
 24 
 146 
 
 205 
 31 
 140 
 
 2. Types of Yachts. Of late there seems to be 
 a tendency among architects and owners in Amer 
 ica to devise what may be termed a "happy 
 mean" between the extreme types representing 
 the customary practice of Great Britain and this 
 country. The principal characteristics of the two 
 varieties, and the possibility of striking the most 
 satisfactory results by adopting something about 
 half-way between them, can be gathered from the 
 following. The British yacht is the outgrowth, 
 on the one hand, of the old Thames rule of 
 measurement, and on the other, of the demand 
 for capable qualities of all kinds in rough water. 
 
 These requisites have been successfully attained 
 in the most recent specimens, such as the famous 
 "Vanduara" and the "Samoena," both of 90 
 tons, the " Jullanar" and "Florinda," of 100 
 tons, and among the smaller classes by such 
 splendid performers as "Neva," "Britannia," 
 "Vanessa," "Louise," "Madge," and down to 
 the beautiful little 5-ton cutters "Freda," " Co- 
 ralie," " Vril," and a host of others. They are 
 all yachts of great length and depth in propor 
 tion to their beam, and have much of their bal 
 last in lead on the keel. Their sea-going quali 
 ties are of the highest order, and leave little to 
 be desired. They are fast in very light winds 
 and in heavy weather. They are uncapsizable, 
 having their greatest range of stability when on 
 their beam-ends, require only small rigs, are 
 easy on their helms, sure in stays even in rough 
 water, and under complete control. The objec 
 tions to such boats may be counted as their com 
 paratively great first cost, their excessive heel 
 ing, and their large draft of water. None of 
 these objections are serious, and upon consider 
 ation lose much of their force. Their great cost 
 arises from the universal excellence of their build, 
 such as the use of copper and through fastenings, 
 the best material, hard-wood trimmings, a very 
 complete inventory in all departments, and the 
 prevalence of lead as ballast. As the latter is 
 becoming the metal generally used in all first- 
 class yachts, even in America, the expense at 
 taching to British boats arises rather from their 
 superior quality than from considerations of 
 model. Their excessive heeling takes place 
 only in strong lower-sail winds; in light weather 
 and when reefed down the objection disappears, 
 for they are stiff enough for comfort under such 
 circumstances. In the matter of draft, practice 
 proves a liberal amount an obstacle only in iso 
 lated cases or under special circumstances. The 
 normal condition of boats supplied with centre 
 boards, ostensibly to obviate large draft, is with 
 the board down, in which condition they actu 
 ally draw more water than if supplied with a 
 keel. There are times when the option of rais 
 ing the board is a decided advantage, but the 
 occasions for so doing are rare enough to ques 
 tion the advisability of foregoing the advantages 
 inherent to the fixed keel, including the low po 
 sition of the "outside" ballast, better perform 
 ance in open water, stronger construction, and 
 increased room in the accommodations, an item 
 of importance in boats of moderate tonnage. 
 Concerning speed, it has by no means been 
 proven that centre-board yachts are faster than 
 keel vessels, though the former have generally 
 been developed in form to a higher degree than 
 the latter in America, and have created the im 
 pression that the centre-board is an essential to 
 high speed. The schooner "America" in com 
 petent hands, although a keel, is still without a 
 peer in the centre-board fleet, and enough races 
 have been sailed between the best of the two 
 classes to cause professional men to question the 
 supposed superiority of the board itself. The 
 following tables show in a marked manner the 
 change in form which has been going on in the 
 British fleet, and how the old round ships have 
 been displaced by the modern craft in compliance 
 with the pressure of measurement and the rough- 
 water qualities the yachtsmen abroad value so 
 highly : 
 
YACHTS 
 
 858 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 The Old British Fleet. 
 
 Name. 
 
 When 
 Built. 
 
 Length on 
 Load-line. 
 
 Beam on 
 Load-line. 
 
 Depth 
 Amidships. 
 
 Mean Draft 
 to Rabbet. 
 
 Displacement 
 in Tons. 
 
 Area of 
 Lower Sails. 
 
 Rig. 
 
 
 
 30 75 
 
 917 
 
 5 
 
 3.15 
 
 9.20 
 
 
 Cutter. 
 
 Mazeppa 
 
 1851 
 
 37 
 
 9.90 
 
 7 
 
 4.80 
 
 14.11 
 
 1232 square feet. 
 
 
 
 
 35.70 
 
 10.50 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 14.20 
 
 1326 " " 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 Emily 
 
 1854 
 
 39 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 1600 " 
 
 Cutter. 
 
 Cygnet 
 Mosquito 
 
 1846 
 1848 
 
 50.90 
 59.20 
 57.80 
 
 12.60 
 15.30 
 18.80 
 
 10 
 10.8 
 
 7.25 
 8.80 
 7.25 
 
 45.43 
 69.25 
 92.70 
 
 2179 " " 
 3077 " " 
 
 
 Pearl 
 
 1852 
 
 65.30 
 70 
 
 19.50 
 14 
 
 "8. 9 
 
 8 
 6.25 
 
 127.50 
 65 
 
 3200 square feet. 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 
 
 
 28 8 
 
 
 11 20 
 
 336.20 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 9220 
 
 22.66 
 
 12 
 
 9.60 
 
 228 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 102.80 
 
 27.40 
 
 
 11.50 
 
 434 
 
 9003 square feet. 
 
 Ship. 
 
 Meteor 
 
 1856 
 
 68.80 
 
 15.70 
 
 8.8 
 
 6.75 
 
 55 
 
 3515 " " 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of Yachts built prior to 1856. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Hull. 
 
 Ballast. 
 
 Equipment. 
 
 Total 
 Displacement. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 1.70 
 
 Tons. 
 5.5 
 
 Tons. 
 2 
 
 Tons. 
 9.20 
 
 Vesper 
 
 2.86 
 
 8.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 14.11 
 
 
 2.20 
 
 9.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 14.20 
 
 
 550 
 
 11.5 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 
 820 
 
 285 
 
 87 
 
 45.40 
 
 Emerald 
 
 28 
 
 51 
 
 13.7 
 
 92.70 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 65 
 
 
 39 
 
 60 
 
 285 
 
 127.50 
 
 Meteor 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Modern British Yachts.* 
 
 Name. 
 
 When built. 
 
 Length on 
 Load-line. 
 
 Beam on Load- 
 line. 
 
 f 
 R 
 
 Mean Draft 
 to Rabbet. 
 
 Displacement 
 in Tons. 
 
 Area of Lower 
 Sails. 
 
 Extreme 
 Draft. 
 
 Rig. 
 
 Guinevere 
 Egeria 
 
 1868 
 1865 
 
 121 
 937 
 
 23 
 19 
 
 13.3 
 101 
 
 11 
 
 98 
 
 297 
 142 
 
 8611 square feet. 
 
 12 
 125 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Sea-Belle 
 
 1874 
 
 905 
 
 189 
 
 11 6 
 
 10 
 
 155 
 
 5785 " " 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Aline 
 
 1860 
 
 100 
 
 209 
 
 11 3 
 
 9 4 
 
 190 
 
 6710 " " 
 
 11 6 
 
 
 
 Cambria 
 
 1868 
 
 100 
 
 205 
 
 11 6 
 
 9 
 
 167 
 
 6418 " " 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 Livonia 
 
 1871 
 
 1075 
 
 23 3 
 
 11 9 
 
 108 
 
 215 
 
 7618 " " 
 
 12 8 
 
 
 
 Gwendolin 
 
 1870 
 
 100 
 
 205 
 
 123 
 
 10 6 
 
 202 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 728 
 
 18 3 
 
 8 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 11 5 
 
 
 Miranda 
 
 1876 
 
 885 
 
 18 
 
 I -* 7 
 
 11 2 
 
 
 5800 " " 
 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 793 
 
 173 
 
 11 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 4405 " " 
 
 12 3 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 100 
 
 16 8 
 
 13 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Ynwl 
 
 Florinda 
 
 1873 
 
 85 7 
 
 19 1 
 
 10 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 735 
 
 15 8 
 
 9 6 
 
 8 6 
 
 
 
 12 2 
 
 
 Bloodhound 
 
 1874 
 1873 
 
 59.8 
 47 
 
 12.1 
 9 8 
 
 7.8 
 
 7 
 
 47 
 
 2600 " " 
 
 9.4 
 
 
 Madcap...., 
 
 1871 
 
 448 
 
 10 1 
 
 6 9 
 
 
 
 
 7 5 
 
 K 
 
 Lily 
 
 1875 
 
 36 6 
 
 g 
 
 7 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Freda 
 
 1880 
 1876 
 
 50.8 
 31 3 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 7 
 
 35.5 
 
 1980 " " 
 
 9 
 
 " 
 
 Heathen Chinee 
 
 1876 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 4.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 335 " 
 
 4.2 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 Weights of Modern British Yachts. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Ballast. 
 
 Ratio to Dis 
 placement. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Ballast. 
 
 Ratio to Dis 
 placement. 
 
 Gwendolin 
 Cambria 
 
 90 tons. 
 65 " 
 
 .445 
 .389 
 
 Vanessa 
 Freda 
 
 16.5 tons. 
 19 " 
 
 .579 
 .535 
 
 Sea-Belle 
 Florinda 
 
 70 
 73 
 62 
 
 .325 
 .471 
 .361 
 
 Lily 
 Pastime 
 Freda 
 
 6.8 " 
 8.4 " 
 4.6 " 
 
 .523 
 .538 
 .605 
 
 Jullanar 
 Arrow 
 
 80 
 40 
 
 .506 
 377 
 
 Heathen Chinee 
 
 1.8 " 
 
 .500 
 
 Bloodhound 
 
 26 
 
 564 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * This table has been taken in part from Kemp s " Yacht Designing," Field office, London. 
 
YACHTS 859 YACHTS 
 
 American Yachts. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Big. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Lepg*h 
 over all. 
 
 Length on 
 Water-line. 
 
 Beam. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Draft with 
 out Board. 
 
 Draft with 
 Board. 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 i< 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 M 
 
 1C 
 
 K 
 ( 
 
 1C 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 Cutter. 
 Sloop. 
 
 
 
 
 ct 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 <( 
 Cutter. 
 Cat. 
 Sloop. 
 Cutter. 
 Cat. 
 Sloop. 
 Cat. 
 <t 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 1867 
 1871 
 1851 
 
 1878 
 1880 
 1869 
 1871 
 1873 
 1877 
 1873 
 1866 
 1871 
 1874 
 1865 
 1870 
 1865 
 1863 
 1866 
 1872 
 1868 
 1872 
 1865 
 1865 
 1865 
 1851 
 1872 
 1871 
 1875 
 1867 
 1867 
 1861 
 1874 
 1869 
 1861 
 1873 
 1868 
 1874 
 1867 
 1874 
 1873 
 1868 
 1858 
 1875 
 1871 
 1864 
 1873 
 1875 
 
 i 869 
 1864 
 1853 
 1867 
 1871 
 1866 
 1873 
 1871 
 1866 
 1872 
 1871 
 1869 
 1869 
 1859 
 1880 
 1879 
 1880 
 1878 
 1879 
 1875 
 1876 
 1880 
 1878 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 1879 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 1873 
 1880 
 1877 
 1871 
 1877 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 135 
 107.10 
 100.6 
 113.9 
 88.7 
 84 
 68.3 
 76.4 
 85 
 65.8 
 120.9 
 117.2 
 90 
 73.3 
 58.3 
 108 
 82 
 82 
 61 
 106.4 
 76 
 96.2 
 112 
 104 
 82.9 
 1019 
 122 
 55.6 
 64.2 
 49 
 50 
 66.6 
 62 
 53 
 49 
 54.2 
 72 
 33.11 
 326 
 476 
 72.6 
 53.6 
 2-4 
 45 
 52.1 
 47 
 47 
 
 "si .iT 
 4411 
 
 52.5 
 50 
 391 
 558 
 34.9 
 62.5 
 35.6 
 66 
 51.1 
 25 
 40 
 60 
 96.6 
 56.6 
 53 
 73 
 114 
 140 
 59.9 
 73 
 46.6 
 
 "47.5" 
 67.5 
 36 
 58.6 
 45 
 36 
 26 
 26.7 
 54 
 17 
 27.6 
 17 
 21.6 
 48 
 
 119.4 
 96.5 
 90.6 
 100.7 
 78 
 80 
 60.6 
 67.11 
 78.3 
 55.2 
 116.5 
 101.11 
 80 
 66.11 
 54.3 
 95 
 76.6 
 79 
 55.5 
 95.2 
 63.6 
 87.6 
 101 
 86 
 74.7 
 86.4 
 103.10 
 50 
 66.6 
 43 
 45.6 
 61.8 
 57 
 48 
 42.9 
 52 
 66 
 31.1 
 27.8 
 39 
 65 
 49.9 
 22 
 41 
 48 
 43 
 42 
 
 "46" " 
 39.8 
 47.3 
 46.10 
 56.4 
 49 
 27.6 
 56.5 
 32.3 
 52.4 
 44.11 
 22.3 
 35 
 55 
 78.6 
 48 
 45 
 65 
 95 
 121 
 55.9 
 65 
 40.6 
 
 "42.9" 
 61 
 33 
 54 
 38.4 
 30.2 
 26 
 24.6 
 45* 
 17.8 
 27.6 
 16.2 
 19 
 41 
 
 27.4 
 25.6 
 22.6 
 24 
 21.6 
 21 
 18.9 
 18.6 
 21.7 
 17 
 24.9 
 24 
 22.6 
 22.4 
 16.5 
 23.4 
 21 
 23.9 
 18 
 24.3 
 19.6 
 22.4 
 25 
 24.11 
 24.3 
 23.5 
 23.6 
 16.6 
 17.4 
 13 
 17.6 
 20.2 
 20.3 
 18.3 
 15.6 
 18 
 23.9 
 11.4 
 10.7 
 14.6 
 21.3 
 18.6 
 7.6 
 14 
 18.6 
 15 
 15 
 
 9.6 
 8.4 
 9.3 
 11.8 
 8.3 
 7 
 6.11 
 6 
 8.3 
 6 
 9.9 
 9.9 
 6.6 
 5.11 
 5.9 
 10 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7.9 
 6.2 
 8.5 
 9 
 7 
 6.6 
 8.2 
 8.6 
 5.6 
 5.1 
 5 
 4 
 6.6 
 5.5 
 6.3 
 4.8 
 4.9 
 6.9 
 4 
 4.6 
 4.8 
 6.6 
 4.4 
 2 
 4.10 
 4.2 
 4.3 
 4.6 
 
 12.8 
 511 
 11.6 
 116 
 7.6 
 7.1 
 4.5 
 5 
 7.7 
 4.8 
 12 
 11 
 6.6 
 5 
 6 
 10.6 
 7.2 
 6 
 7 
 7.3 
 4.6 
 6.8 
 8.4 
 6 
 6.5 
 6.5 
 12 
 4.6 
 4 
 3.6 
 3.9 
 5.6 
 5 
 4.3 
 3.11 
 4.10 
 5 
 3 
 4.11 
 4.4 
 6.3 
 4.6 
 1.2 
 3.9 
 4.6 
 3.6 
 3.9 
 
 Keel. 
 22 
 
 Keel. 
 
 18 
 17 
 12.8 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 Keel. 
 
 15 
 14 
 14 
 Keel. 
 14 
 17 
 Keel. 
 19 
 13 
 18 
 20 
 17 
 16 
 18 
 Keel. 
 11 
 11 
 10 
 9 
 18 
 15 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 17 
 10 
 Keel. 
 11 
 14 
 11 
 6 
 9 
 11 
 13 
 13 
 
 12 
 10 
 Keel. 
 12 
 14 
 14 
 Keel. 
 
 9 
 14 
 10.6 
 4 
 10 
 12 
 18 
 Keel. 
 ( 
 
 31.6 
 10 
 16 
 11 
 
 13 
 15 
 10 
 12 
 12 
 Keel. 
 9 
 Keel. 
 14 
 5.6 
 9 
 5 
 Keel. 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 Magic 
 
 Peerless 
 
 Clio 
 
 Clytie 
 
 Cornelia 
 
 
 Dreadnaught 
 
 Kstclle 
 
 Eva 
 
 Fearless 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meta 
 
 Idler 
 
 Palmer 
 
 
 Silvie 
 
 Viking 
 
 Wanderer 
 
 Active 
 
 Addie 
 
 Alpha 
 
 
 
 
 Drift 
 
 Egeria 
 
 Elaine 
 
 Fannie 
 
 
 Gael 
 
 Genia 
 
 Gracie 
 
 Haswell 
 
 Idle Hour 
 
 Kaiser 
 
 Kate 
 
 Lizzie L 
 
 
 Nimbus 
 
 Orion 
 
 15.1 
 14.4 
 14.10 
 16.2 
 14.6 
 17.6 
 12.2 
 17.3 
 13 
 20.9 
 16 
 9 
 144 
 18.8 
 23 
 15.6 
 15.3 
 20.6 
 20.6 
 30.4 
 18.4 
 18.6 
 153 
 
 5.2 
 4.5 
 5.4 
 6.3 
 4.6 
 5.4 
 6.1 
 7.9 
 5.9 
 5.11 
 5.6 
 3 
 4.6 
 6 
 9.3 
 7 
 7 
 8.6 
 10.6 
 9.4 
 4.3 
 7.9 
 5.2 
 
 4.8 
 3.3 
 7 
 5.3 
 3 
 4.9 
 5 
 8.9 
 3.10 
 5.9 
 4.4 
 1.5 
 3.9 
 5 
 7.6 
 7.6 
 6.9 
 9 
 11.3 
 6 
 4.4 
 7.0 
 4.3 
 
 Qui Vive 
 
 Ray 
 
 Sadie 
 
 
 
 Vanitas .. . 
 
 Vindex 
 
 Violet . 
 
 Vision 
 
 Vixen 
 
 Volante 
 
 White-Cap 
 
 Wliite Wing 
 
 Republic 
 
 Frolic 
 
 Caroline 
 
 White-Cap 
 
 
 Mohawk* 
 
 
 
 
 Peri 
 
 Corsair 
 
 17 
 19.10 
 12.6 
 16.6 
 15 
 12 
 11 
 10.3 
 15.3 
 8.6 
 12 
 7.6 
 8.6 
 15.6 
 
 6 
 7.8 
 4.9 
 6.6 
 5 
 5.1 
 39 
 4 
 7.3 
 2.9 
 2.10 
 2.3 
 3 
 4.10 
 
 4 
 5.8 
 3.10 
 4.6 
 4.6 
 6 
 3.6 
 5 
 7 
 2 
 2 
 1.9 
 3 
 4.2 
 
 Mischief 
 
 Elephant 
 
 
 ^Eolus 
 
 
 Georgie and Annie 
 
 
 
 Cohillt 
 
 W T i>eg 
 
 Bluebell|| 
 
 Rul>y|| 
 
 Ella Treadwell 
 
 
 * Capsi/ed in a squall, drowning owner and passengers. 
 Francisco Bay. $ Philadelphia racing boat, partly decked. 
 Uses shifting "ballast. || Boston racing boats, partly decked. 
 
 t Has jib-headed or Bermuda mainsail for strong winds of San 
 Uses shifting ballast. 3 New York racing boat, partly decked. 
 Use fixed ballast. 
 
YACHTS 
 
 860 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 Spars of American Schooner-Yachts. 
 
 Name. 
 
 * 
 
 5 
 
 Mainmast Deck 
 to Hounds. 
 
 Foremast Deck to 
 Hounds. 
 
 Main-topmast, 
 Extreme Length. 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Main-gafif. 
 
 Fore-gaff. 
 
 4 
 
 p . 
 o-g 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 73 
 
 68.6 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 81 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 69.5 
 
 ,69.5 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 72.5 
 
 31 
 
 34.5 
 
 30 
 
 24.5 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 62.6 
 
 25 
 
 
 58 
 
 Lug. 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 66.6 
 
 63.6 
 
 41.3 
 
 41.3 
 
 69 
 
 29 
 
 36.6 
 
 27.3 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 Mohawk 
 
 i< 
 
 78.6 
 
 77 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 90 
 
 39 
 
 41.6 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 u 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 27.6 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 c< 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 62 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 White-Cap 
 
 Republic 
 
 M 
 
 58 
 61 
 
 56 
 59 
 
 20 
 37 
 
 20 
 35 
 
 56 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 30 
 
 19 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 
 Southern Cross 
 
 l< 
 
 64 
 36 
 
 62 
 34 
 
 38 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 38 
 
 22 
 15 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 22 
 14 
 
 38 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Caroline . . 
 
 It 
 
 68 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 15.8 
 
 18.6 
 
 15.8 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The length of jib-boom of " Intrepid" and " Norna" is given from cap to stay, bowsprit and jib-boom of " Crusader," " White 
 Cap," and Southern Cross" are in one stick. 
 
 The " America" carried a jib only. Area of " Columbia s" lower sails, 8000 square feet. 
 
 "Intrepid" and " Norna" are rigged as cruisers. Area of " America s" lower sails, 5263 square feet. 
 
 Area of Sappho s" lower sails, 10,223 square feet. Area of " Mohawk s" lower sails, 10,500 square feet. 
 
 Spars of American Sloop- Yachts. 
 
 Name. 
 
 * T3 
 "o 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 F 
 
 S 2 
 S a 
 8 
 
 Arrow 
 
 64 
 
 63.11 
 
 33 
 
 3214 
 
 28 
 
 
 30ft 
 
 44 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 Ella Treadwell 
 Wave 
 
 35ft 
 30ft 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 23.6 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 Peri 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 Corsair 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 6 
 
 Elephant 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 206 
 
 15 
 
 18 9 
 
 Bloodhound 
 
 54 
 43 
 
 53 
 
 45 
 
 34 
 25 
 
 23 
 19 
 
 27 
 31 
 
 Fanita 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 23 6 
 
 Georgie and Annie.. 
 Sunbeam 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 31 6 
 
 19 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 
 Hesper 
 
 41 
 
 46 
 
 26 6 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 Cohill 
 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Bluebell 
 
 17ft 
 
 226 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Ruby 
 
 2->ft 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 
 W. T.Lee 
 
 26ft 
 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 26f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ** 
 
 h signifies hoist of mainsail. 
 
 x extreme length of mast. 
 
 / foot of jib. 
 
 The leech of" Bluebell s" mainsail is 24.9 feet. 
 
 The leech of " Ruby s" mainsail is 36 feet. 
 
 Ballast of American Yachts. 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Sappho 80 
 
 Columbia _ 35 
 
 Mohawk 40 
 
 America 46 
 
 Southern Cross 7 
 
 Intrepid* 65 
 
 Crusader 28 
 
 Republic 27 
 
 Frolicf .. .. . .. 1 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Caroline^ 6.5 
 
 Arrow 23 
 
 Mischief 27 
 
 Elephant 7 
 
 Fanita 14 
 
 Regina .. 13 
 
 ^olus 7 
 
 Comfortg 5 
 
 Sunbeam... 3.5 
 
 * 25 tons was in lead on the keel, 
 t 1% tons lead on keel. 
 1 2i/ tons lead on keel. 
 \ 1 ton iron on keel. 
 
 In American practice, we find the wide, light- 
 draft boats still prevailing, although a gradual 
 change in the direction of more depth has been 
 
 steadily showing itself. Owing to the fact that 
 yachting on this side of the Atlantic had its 
 origin in river-sailing, and since much of our 
 sailing is still done in sheltered waters, it is 
 quite natural that the prevailing type of boat 
 should have been largely influenced thereby, 
 and that sea-going qualities in hull and rig 
 should have been neglected. With tne accu 
 mulation of wealth and greater leisure comes the 
 desire to extend our cruising-grounds and to 
 undertake more or less distant voyages, and a 
 modification of model is taking place in response. 
 The chief recommendations of the wide and 
 shallow boat are her great stiffness and conse 
 quent comfort, cheap first cost as long as we re 
 main satisfied with iron ballast, quickness in 
 stays, great speed in strong, lower-sail winds in 
 smooth water, and last, the option of raising or 
 lowering the centre-board as before alluded to. 
 The objections to such boats are serious and 
 numerous. They are very hard on their helms, 
 easily capsized in a squall or through want of 
 close attention ; they have little deck-room ow 
 ing to the almost universal presence of a raised 
 house over the cabin to afford head-room below, 
 and to the length of which the available accom 
 modations are limited in yachts of less than 50 
 feet. They require large sails to drive them ; 
 they are not reliable in stays in rough water, 
 and they are exceedingly bad and violent sea- 
 boats. In light airs they are slow, while in a 
 seaway they are leewardly, and cannot work to 
 windward unless the seas are long, easy swells. 
 Owing to their large draft with the centre 
 board down, there is much danger of twisting 
 the latter by "sounding" in shoal water, and 
 the trunk or well containing the board is liable 
 to give trouble on account of leaking when 
 strained. The boats are expensive in wear and 
 tear, and not long-lived without heavy scantling 
 and kneeing, deducting materially from the 
 amount of ballast, sails, and speed. The sloop- 
 rig, consisting of a large mainsail and jib, is not 
 adapted to yachts of fair tonnage, its unhandi 
 ness involving large crews and being productive 
 of danger in bad weather ; its toleration is to be 
 traced to the prevalence of river-sailing in small 
 
YACHTS 
 
 861 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 boats in years past. As an escape from the 
 sloop s unhandiness the American yachtsman 
 has always exhibited great partiality for the 
 schooner-rig, thereby sacrificing much of his 
 boat s weatherliness and speed to handiness In 
 medium-sized yachts, of 40 to 70 feet, the adop 
 tion of the cutter- or yawl-rig gives the necessary 
 control over the canvas and insures the best sail 
 ing results. The number of cutters and yawls 
 has increased at a rapid pace during the past two 
 years, the yawl having almost entirely super 
 seded the sloop in the San Francisco Yacht Club. 
 These rigs require only to become better known 
 to be appreciated and adopted in place of the 
 sloop and small schooner, neither of which is 
 appropriate to the work in view. As far as 
 practice has developed there is no difference in 
 speed between the cutter- and sloop-rig, the 
 better disposition of the weights in the former, 
 and the superior facility of handling and trim 
 ming the double head-sail, more than counter 
 balancing the presumed advantage of having all 
 head-sail in one. The yawl is slightly inferior 
 in speed to both, but more efficient again than 
 the schooner. It is, in fact, a cross between the 
 two. For cruising it is to be recommended as a 
 safe and snug rig, always leaving the yacht 
 under control while shortening or making sail, 
 and offering the greatest inducements to short- 
 handed crews. There seems little doubt that a 
 well-considered average between the customs 
 of the two leading maritime nations would lead 
 to the best results. Both countries have gone to 
 extremes in opposing directions so far as model is 
 concerned, owing to the special causes already 
 cited. A design seeking a compromise, in which 
 the points of excellence of each type are repre 
 sented and liable to none of their weaknesses in 
 as great a degree, will supply the demands of the 
 great majority, who value " all round" qualities 
 rather than great perfection in one direction at 
 a sacrifice of equally as important requirements 
 in another. If the ideal design be supplied with 
 beam enough to obtain fair stiffness, or statical 
 stability, in conjunction with a keel and low 
 ballast, the principal advantage of the sloop has 
 been incorporated with the keel cutter. On the 
 other hand, the excessive draft of the latter, her 
 narrow cabins, u tenderness," and all lead ballast 
 disappear without interfering with the acknowl 
 edged excellence of good depth and moderate 
 beam in open water-work. If the fine lines, 
 skillful and handsome form of the American 
 yacht, can be engrafted upon a moderately 
 beamy cutter, the yachting world will be a de 
 cided* gainer. In British waters the peculiar 
 measurement rule stands in the way ; in Amer 
 ica, only prejudice and the custom of confining 
 ourselves to sheltered waters near home. Both 
 are giving way ; the venturesome yachtsman 
 learns by experience that his shoal, flat-bottom 
 craft, however convenient for harbor-work, is 
 not to be trusted at sea, and his influence is 
 henceforth exerted in behalf of the modifications 
 which have recently taken root and produced 
 some of the most satisfactory yachts afloat. 
 The fleet of the future, on this side of the At 
 lantic, will probably take shape accordingly, and 
 boats of wholesome dimensions and sailor-like 
 rigs will displace the make-shifts of the day. 
 The prevailing type at present can be gathered 
 from the tables on pages 859, 860. 
 
 Eacing boats like the " W. T. Lee" carry 50 to 
 75 bags filled with sand, weighing 50 pounds 
 each. In the Delaware racing boats, such as 
 the "Cohill," the crew " lay out" to windward 
 by means of rope-spans. 
 
 In general, owing to the diversity of model 
 and scantling, and the habit of over-sparring, 
 the ballast carried by American yachts varies 
 very much in boats of the same tonnage. The 
 wide boats with little dead-rise weigh much 
 more than those of the same tonnage, but of less 
 beam and more depth. This and their excessive 
 stability of form causes them to sail with very 
 little ballast. Such boats are treacherous in 
 rough water or squally winds, and are rapidly 
 going out of favor. 
 
 3. Steam- Yachts. In yachts propelled by steam 
 the naval architect is freed from the necessity of 
 supplying excessive stability, and the problem of 
 successful design becomes much simplified in 
 consequence. As might be expected, such ves 
 sels take on a great variety of form according to 
 the wants they are to supply. The steam-cruiser 
 becomes an elongated box, with the ends more 
 or less fined away and the bilge rounded off; 
 the river-yacht, a light cockle-shell with flaring 
 sides, a sharp entrance and fine run, her lack of 
 depth being made good by superstructures of 
 joiner- work; and the high-speed launch assumes 
 the form of a lean ribbed racer with knife-like 
 entrance and attenuated after body, the entire 
 displacement being devoted to the weights of 
 hull and driving-power. In all these yachts the 
 engineer legitimately supplants the architect to 
 a great extent, and the sailor gives way to the 
 stoker. No strict classification of steam-yachts 
 can be made, one type blending into the other as 
 we pass from river-craft to those designed to nav 
 igate the open sea. For small boats the usual 
 style of construction with wooden frames and 
 skin still prevails, although composite build, 
 iron frames with wood planking, has been success 
 fully introduced where lightness and toughness 
 becomes a prime necessity in the pursuit of 
 high rates of speed. 
 
 ^Practical Construction. Owing to the diver 
 sity of the work expected from yachts, much 
 latitude is permissible in practical construction. 
 Generally too much stress is laid upon the im 
 portance of heavy scantling, while the durability 
 of the material, its capability of taking and hold 
 ing fastenings, and especially the character of 
 the latter, are too often overlooked. Where 
 little "through" fastening or clinching and 
 heading is done, the material should be propor 
 tionally longer. If much clinch-work is made 
 use of, scantling may be considerably reduced, 
 the structure becoming light and tough, and a 
 unity throughout. The weight thereby saved 
 will be so much more to go to account of ballast, 
 and a larger sail spread, and speed. Oak, hack 
 matack, chestnut, and Oregon fir are used for 
 frames ; cedar, oak, white and yellow pine for 
 plank and ceiling ; white pine for decks ; oak, 
 mahogany, and walnut for combings and fittings ; 
 locust for bitts, pin-rails, and stanchions ; and 
 sometimes teak for waist and hatches. Knees 
 are of oak and hackmatack, also of chestnut. 
 The kinds of wood vary much, according to 
 what the local markets afford. Anything that 
 is to give form, hold fastenings, or stand chafe 
 and wear, should be of hard wood ; the rest may 
 
YACHTS 
 
 862 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 British Steam- Yachts. 
 
 
 5- 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Name and 
 Owner. 
 
 j2 | 
 
 It 
 fl 2-g 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 Engines and 
 Maker. 
 
 Big. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Builder. 
 
 General Char 
 acter. 
 
 
 c ^ 
 
 Sf -2 % 
 
 
 
 0, 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 2* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wanderer, C. J. 
 Lambert. 
 
 708 
 
 185.4 
 
 29.2 
 
 16.1 
 
 100 
 
 C. I. 25" & 50" X 
 30". Day, Sum 
 mers & Co., South- 
 
 3 masts. Top 
 sail schr. 
 
 1878 
 
 Steele, 
 Greenock. 
 
 Composite hull. 
 Auxil. steam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hampton. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sunbeam, Thomas 
 Brassey. 
 
 532 
 
 159 
 
 27.6 
 
 13.9 
 
 70 
 
 C. I. 24" & 42" X 
 21". Laird, Birk- 
 enhead. 
 
 3 mats. Top 
 sail schr. 
 
 1874 
 
 Bowdler, 
 Seacombe. 
 
 Composite hull. 
 Auxil. steam. 
 
 Eothen, J. Ash- 
 bury. 
 
 340 
 
 152 
 
 22.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 70 
 
 C. I. 2:i" & 40" X 
 30". Stewart, Lon 
 don. 
 
 3 masts. 
 Schooner. 
 
 ISfA 
 
 Ash, Lon 
 don. 
 
 Iron. Sea-going. 
 
 Cecil, Mrs. C. A. 
 Gamble. 
 
 272 
 
 139 
 
 20.8 
 
 11.3 
 
 45 
 
 C. I. 21" & 36" X 
 21". Penn & Sons, 
 
 3 masts. 
 Pole schr. 
 
 1872 
 
 Earle s, 
 Hull. 
 
 Iron. Sea-going. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greenwich. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cinderella, G. W. 
 
 228 
 
 134 
 
 19.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 68 
 
 C. I. 17" & 34" X 
 
 2 masts. 
 
 1874 
 
 Seath, Ruth- 
 
 Iron. Sea-going. 
 
 H. Warder. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20". Campbell & Pole schr. 
 
 
 erglen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Son, Glasgow. 
 
 
 
 
 Elspeth, Col. J. 
 Campbell. 
 
 174 
 
 130 
 
 17 
 
 9.3 
 
 45 
 
 C. I. 17" & 32" X 2 mastg - 
 24". J. & G. Thorn- Pole schr. 
 
 1877 
 
 Thomson, 
 Glasgow. 
 
 Iron. Sea-going. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 son, Glasgow. 
 
 
 
 
 Ina.W. Colquhoun. 
 
 126 
 
 103.2 
 
 16.5 
 
 7.6 
 
 40 
 
 C. I. 15" & 36" X 
 18". Henderson & 
 
 2 masts. 
 Pole schr. 
 
 1870 
 
 Henderson, 
 Renfrew. 
 
 Wood. Coasting. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Co., Renfrew. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anthracite, R. Mc- 
 Calmint. 
 
 97 
 
 86.4 
 
 16.1 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 Perkins patent. 8", 
 16" & 23" X 15". 
 
 2 masts. 
 Pole schr. 
 
 1878 
 
 Schlesinger, Iron. Sea-going. 
 Newcastle. 
 
 Gueta, R. S. Scott. 
 
 86 
 
 95 
 
 14.1 
 
 7.9 
 
 40 
 
 C. I. 10" & 20" X 
 18". Scott & Co., 
 
 2 masts. 
 Pole schr. 
 
 1878 
 
 Scott & Co., 
 Greenock. 
 
 Iron. Sea-going. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greenock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Firefly, J.S. White. 
 
 54 
 
 71.4 
 
 13.2 
 
 5.9 
 
 15 
 
 C.I. 9"& 18"X9". 
 
 2 masts. 
 
 1877 
 
 Day & Sum 
 
 Iron. Coasting. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Day & Summers, 
 
 Pole echr. 
 
 
 mers, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Southampton. 
 
 
 
 Southamp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton. 
 
 
 Fox, Gen. Dickson. 
 
 33 
 
 59.5 
 
 11.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 20 
 
 I. 9" & 9" X -10". 
 
 2 masts. 
 
 1877 
 
 Wntkins, 
 
 Wood. Coasting. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vesper, Ports 
 
 Pole schr. 
 
 
 London. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mouth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Glow-Worm, J. R. 
 Bridson. 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 5.5 
 
 10 
 
 I. 8" & 8" X ". 
 Yates, Blackburn. 
 
 
 1878 
 
 Allsup, Pres 
 ton. 
 
 Wood. Bay ser 
 vice. 
 
 
 Gamecock, Capt. 
 
 12 
 
 4S.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 3.8 
 
 g 
 
 I. 6" X 8 "- Thor- 
 
 
 1875 
 
 Thorney- 
 
 WnnH Poliin 
 
 Coleraan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 neycroft, Chiswick. 
 
 
 
 croft, Chis- launch. Speed, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wick. 
 
 15 milfs. 
 
 Gitana, Baroness 
 
 71 
 
 90 
 
 12.7 
 
 13.2 
 
 90 
 
 C. I. Three cylin 
 
 
 1876 
 
 Thorney- ^Stc el hull. Cabin 
 
 Rothschild. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ders. Thorney- 
 
 
 
 croft, Chis- launch. Speed, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 croft, Chiswick. 
 
 
 
 wick. 24 miles. 
 
 Sphinx, J. Mack. 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I. 5" X 6". Millei 
 
 Lugger. 
 
 1880 
 
 Miller & Wood. Open 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & Tupp, London. 
 
 
 
 Tupp, Lon 
 
 launch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 don. 
 
 
 Miranda 
 
 
 45.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 70 
 
 I. Two cylinders. 
 
 
 1874 
 
 Thorn ey- 
 
 fitnol f nl.in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 croft. Chis-! launch. Speed, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wick. 
 
 20 miles. 
 
 C. L Compound inverted engines. The diameter and numbor of cylinders and their stroke are given in inches. 
 
 I. Inverted engines. 
 
 The " Miranda" is one of Thorneycroft s hia;h-spee I launches. Her engines indicate 11 horse-power with 300 revolutions 
 and a spec i of 11 mile*. With 50D revolutions they indicate 42 horse-power; speed, 16 miles. With 600 revolutions they 
 indicate 71 horse-power; speed, over 2J miles. 
 
 be of the pine family, but should be free of sap. 
 Spars are of spruce or Oregon pine. Always 
 build under cover when possible. All surfaces 
 exposed to the weather should be well painted, 
 except decks, combings, and rails, when kept 
 "bright" for stylish appearance. They should 
 be scraped or holy-stoned often enough to pre 
 vent the gathering of fungus or weather-eaten 
 spots, as they rapidly extend. A good plan is 
 to whitewash or coat with Stockholm tar all in 
 accessible parts inside, and especially the skin 
 which is to receive the iron ballast. If the 
 wood has not been well seasoned, especial means 
 should be provided for the circulation of air 
 between the frames by supplying automatic 
 valves in the covering-board, or boring holes in 
 the clamps between the beams. Iron coming 
 
 in contact with salt water should.be galvanized, 
 and an extra allowance made to its thickness 
 where strength is an object. In general, all the 
 rules which apply to ship-building should govern 
 the practice of yacht-builders, "it may be said 
 that yachts as a class are too lightly and care 
 lessly built, and much too lightly and negli 
 gently rigged and incompletely fitted. The fol 
 lowing rules will serve as a guide, though they 
 may be departed from according to the service a 
 yacht is intended for. Where a vessel s form is 
 abnormal, allowances must be made in propor 
 tion to the increased strains. In long and nar 
 row boats, greater longitudinal strength must be 
 provided, and in wide, flat-floored boats, addi 
 tional athwartship strength, and ties must be 
 introduced for stiffening purposes. 
 
YACHTS 
 
 863 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 American Steam- Yachts. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 Name and 
 Builder. 
 
 
 || 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 Engines and 
 Makers. 
 
 || 
 
 Boilers. 
 
 Big. 
 
 Character. 
 
 
 
 rj J^. 
 
 | 
 
 
 VI 
 
 
 -M < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ii 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Corsair, William 
 Cramp & Sons, 
 
 1880 
 
 185 
 T65~ 
 
 23.8 
 
 14 
 
 10.5 
 
 C.I. 24"&44X 
 
 24". 
 
 9 
 13 > 
 
 2 tubular. 10.5 
 long, 11 diam 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Iron. Flush-deck. 
 Sea-going. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 Polynia, Ward, 
 
 1880 
 
 157 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 C. I. 24" & 32" 
 
 9 
 
 eter. 
 2 tubular. 10 feet 
 
 3 masts. 
 
 Iron. Flush-deck. 
 
 Stanton & Co., 
 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 
 X 24." 
 
 14 
 
 diameter, 11 ft, 
 
 Pole schr. 
 
 Sea-going. 
 
 Newburgh. 
 Henriette, Ward, 
 
 1880 
 
 205 
 
 26 
 
 
 12 
 
 C. I. 45" & 38" 
 
 10.5 
 
 long. 
 2 tubular. 
 
 Topsail 
 
 Wood. Flush-deck. 
 
 Stanton & Co., 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 
 
 X 40". 
 
 ~16 
 
 
 echooner. 
 
 Sea-going. Area 
 
 Newburgh. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of sails, 25,000 
 
 Gleam, Herre- 
 shoff, Bristol, 
 
 1880 
 
 120 
 110 
 
 16 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 
 C. I. 1014" & 18" 
 X18". 
 
 
 
 Patent coil. 5 8" 
 diameter. Her- 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 feet. 
 Composite. Bay 
 service. Speed, 
 
 R. I. 
 
 
 inn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 reshotf. 
 
 
 20 miles. 
 
 Leila Herre- 
 
 1878 
 
 JLUU 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 
 C. I. 9" & 16" X 
 
 
 Patent coil. 5 8" 
 
 2 masts. 
 
 Composite. Joiner 
 
 sho ff, Bristol, 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 diameter. Her- 
 
 Pole schr. 
 
 work house. 
 
 R.I. 
 
 
 QA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 reshoff. 
 
 
 Bay service. 
 
 Julie, Piepgrass, 
 Greenpoint. 
 
 1880 
 
 oO 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 
 c.i. n"&8"X 
 
 10". 
 
 
 1 return tubular, 
 5.5 diameter, 
 
 2 masts. 
 Pole schr. 
 
 Wood. Joiner- 
 work house. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.5 long. 
 
 
 Bay and river 
 
 
 
 QJ_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 service. 
 
 Emu, Sam. Pine, 
 Brooklyn. 
 
 1830 
 
 77 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 4.5 
 
 Simple. 2 cylin 
 der, 10" X 10". 
 
 If 
 
 Tubular. 6 di 
 ameter, 7 long. 
 
 
 
 Wood. Bay and 
 river. Joiner- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work house. 
 
 Bretagne, Reany 
 
 1880 
 
 240 
 
 32.5 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 C.I. 28"&50"X 
 
 4 blades. 
 
 2 return tubular. 
 
 Bark.* 
 
 Wood. Flush- 
 
 & Malster, Bal 
 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 
 33". 
 
 13 
 
 12 long, 10.5 
 
 
 deck. Sea-going. 
 
 timore. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 wide, 13 high. 
 
 
 
 Ideal 
 
 1874 
 
 130 
 
 20.2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Wood. Coasting 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and bay service. 
 
 Lurline 
 
 1879 
 
 96.8 
 
 16.7 
 
 6 
 
 6.2 
 
 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Wood. Bay and 
 
 
 
 88.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 river. Joiner- 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work house. 
 
 Ocean Gem 
 
 1875 
 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 Schooner. Wood. Bav and 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 river. Joiner- 
 
 Lookout 
 
 1876 
 
 105 
 
 16.3 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 work house. 
 "Wood. River ser 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vice. Joiner- 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work house. 
 
 Emily 
 
 1869 
 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Wood. Bay and 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 River. Joiner- 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work house. 
 
 Elf 
 
 1874 
 
 
 12 
 
 g 
 
 5.3 
 
 
 
 
 Schooner. 
 
 Wood. Coasting 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and bay. Flush- 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 deck. 
 
 Paddle steamer. 
 
 1880 
 
 
 12 
 
 j 
 
 1.8 
 
 ^simrlft inrlin^fl 
 
 Wheels 8 
 
 Vertical. 7 high, 
 
 
 Light draft for 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 16" X 20". 
 
 diameter. 
 
 52" diameter. 
 
 
 shoal water. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joi ner-work 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31.3 
 
 
 
 house. 
 
 TTprr AqVi nfT 
 
 188C 
 
 331 
 
 8.8 
 
 3 8 
 
 1.7 m. 
 
 C I 4 5" & 7" X 
 
 
 Patent coil. 6 
 
 
 Composite. Open 
 
 launch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 44 
 
 sq. ft. grate. 
 
 
 launch. For ten 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 der service. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Speed, 11 miles. 
 
 U. S. navy 
 
 1880 
 
 33.7 
 
 8.6 
 
 3.8 
 
 2.1m. 
 
 TTio-Ti nrp! 1 PV! 
 
 35 
 
 Return tubular. 
 
 
 "W o o d. () p e n 
 
 launch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S" X 8". 
 
 54 
 
 6.5 sq. ft. grate. 
 
 
 launch. For 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tender service. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Speed, 8.5 miles. 
 
 New York Safety 
 Steam - Power 
 
 1880 
 
 25 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.3 
 
 Simple. 1 cyl., 
 3" X 5". 
 
 36 
 
 Vertical. 28" 
 high,45"diam. 
 
 
 
 Wood. Open 
 launch. Speed, 
 
 Co. s launch. 
 
 
 55.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 miles. 
 
 Javelin by Her- 
 
 1879 
 
 
 8.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 2 
 
 C I 5" & 9" X 
 
 37 
 
 Patent coil. 8.5 
 
 
 Wood. Cabin 
 
 reshoff. 
 
 
 50.9 
 
 
 
 
 10 ". 
 
 56.7 
 
 sq. ft. grate. 
 
 
 launch. Speed, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 miles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 * The " Bretagne" is sparred as follows : foremast, deck to hounds, 46 feet; topmast, 37 feet; mainmast, deck to hounds, 48 
 feet; topmast, 37 feet; mizzen-mast, 48 feet; yards, 60, 46, and 30 feet; bowsprit outboard, 15 feet. 
 
 C. I. Compound inverted engines. 
 
 Patent Coil. The Herreshoff coil boiler weighs one half and consumes one half the coal (for power developed) of the ordi 
 nary locomotive boiler, and is rapidly displacing the latter in yachts. It requires only a few minutes to raise steam. See New 
 York Forest and Stream, vols. xiv. and xv. 
 
 m. Mean draft loaded with 7 persons on board. 
 
 "When ballast is carried on the keel, the latter 
 is made larger, both from considerations of 
 strength as well as to obtain the room required 
 for the weight. Some English yachts carry 
 nearly all their ballast on the keel. Thick keels 
 
 have not proven a hindrance to speed. The bal 
 last is held to the keel by through bolts with nuts 
 and washers. A new plan is to cast the floors of 
 iron or lead, thereby bringing the inside ballast 
 as low as possible. 
 
YACHTS 
 
 864 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 Wooden Yachts. 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 
 bet\ 
 res. 
 
 ft 
 o,. 
 
 n&& 
 
 f* I 
 
 J* ft a 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 * I 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 25 
 34 
 46 
 60 
 80 
 100 
 
 IS 
 
 5 
 
 x 
 
 $ 
 
 /row Yachts. According to Lloyd s rules, the 
 following table is based upon the proportions as 
 well as the tonnage of the yacht. The scantlings 
 are for boats of not unusual form. 
 
 The number for regulating sizes of frames, re 
 versed frames, and floors is obtained by the addi 
 tion of the half beam amidships, the depth from 
 upper part of keel to top of upper deck beams, 
 
 and the girth of the half-midship frame measured 
 from centre line at top of keel to the upper deck 
 stringer-plate in feet. 
 
 The number for regulating sizes of keel, stem, 
 stern-post, keelson, and outside plating arid 
 deck, etc., is obtained by multiplying that which 
 regulates the size of frames, etc., by the length of 
 the vessel. 
 
 Iron Yachts. 
 
 111 
 
 1100 
 170>) 
 3100 
 5100 
 6800 
 
 7X1% 
 
 10 
 
 3% 
 
 These examples are of actual steam-yachts of 
 25, 50, 100, 250, and 400 tons respectively. 
 
 On the two smaller ones angle-irons are worked 
 over the floors in place of a keelson. The larger 
 ones have also angle-irons on upper and lower 
 edge of the keelson-plate, besides deck-stringer 
 and tie-plates. The garboards and sheer-strakes 
 are somewhat heavier than the side plating. The 
 plating tapers at each end. Up to the number 
 3500, reverse frames need be fitted only under bal 
 last, engines, and boilers. From 3500 up to 6500, 
 reverse frames are required on every frame, and 
 should run well up to the turn of the bilge. If 
 over 6500, every other one must be run up to the 
 gunwale. Bulk-heads are made of \ inch iron, 
 and stiffened with angle-iron. In steel yachts a 
 deduction of 10 to 15 per cent, may be allowed, 
 but is not advisable in open- water yachts, as the 
 thin platinc: is liable to buckle and corrode 
 through. The size of beams depends upon the 
 beam of the yacht. For 8 feet beam angle-iron 
 is used, 1} X 2 X i 5 for 12 feet beam, 3 X 2 X 
 A; for 15 feet beam, 4^X3X^; for 20 feet 
 beam bulb-iron takes its place, 5XfV, with 
 double angle-irons at the upper edge, 2 X 2 X 
 ft ; for 25 feet beam, 6 X & bulb-, with angle- 
 irons 2JX2JXA- Ki vets for J plate are f 
 
 inch in diameter ; for J plate, inch ; for plate, 
 inch. The corresponding spacing should be H, 
 2J, 3^ inches between centres for water-tight 
 work. Double those distances nearly for ordi 
 nary work. The same rules and tables apply to 
 iron sailing-yachts. 
 
 Anchors, Chains, and Hawsers. 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 _fl 
 
 S 
 
 e . 
 
 | 
 
 S? is 
 
 Approximate 
 on Watei 
 
 Number of A 
 
 \ 
 
 Diameter of 
 for Same 
 
 Circumferem 
 Suitable Ua 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 50- 75 
 
 A 
 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 80-100 
 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 135-150 
 
 4 
 
 4^ 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 200-225 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 375-425 
 
 \k 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 625-700 
 
 H 
 
 6^ 
 
 For steam-yachts deduct 20 to 33 per cent., 
 the greater difference being between small yachts. 
 
YACHTS 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 Spars and Sails. The masts of sloops, cutters, 
 and yawls, when supplied with a single head-sail 
 only, are stepped from 28 to 33 per cent, of the 
 load-line from the forward end. When rigged 
 with double head-sail, the mast is stepped 40 to 
 
 45 per cent, from forward, to allow foot enough 
 to the fore-stay-sail. In schooners the position 
 of the masts varies much, the object to be kept 
 in view being the balancing of the centre of the 
 sails, and the centre of the immersed longitudinal 
 plane. The former, known as the "centre of 
 effort," should be placed slightly forward of the 
 latter in round-bodied boats with flare to the bows, 
 and in narrow, long-bowed, deep boats, it may 
 be placed almost directly over the centre of lat 
 eral resistance. This plan of arranging sails 
 works very well in vessels which are not ex 
 travagant in form. Practical men term the 
 operation "hanging a vessel, and often obtain 
 an excellent balance by .the thumb rules derived 
 from long experience. In English cutters masts 
 are stayed about plurnb. Some of their schooners 
 have a moderate rake of 1 to 8 or 1 to 10. Amer 
 ican sloops have a rake of 1 to 10 or less, and 
 some of our yachts have none at all. Rake is 
 purely a matter of fashion, and has not been 
 found of any practical value, unless in excep 
 tional cases, where lifting power was desired in 
 the sails, or to bring the dynamical moment of 
 the spars farther aft. Masts are given 1 inch in 
 diameter to every 4 feet of length, booms and 
 gaffs 1 to every 5 feet. 
 
 Fixed bowsprits of small yachts are made of 
 more or less rectangular section, with the long 
 est side placed transversely. English yachts have 
 running bowsprits, which can be reefed or housed 
 in bad weather, when a small jib is set. Storm- 
 jibs in American sloops are carried out and 
 hooked to an eye-bolt about half-way out on 
 the bowsprit. Fixed bowsprits are objectionable 
 in sea-going yachts unless very short, and are 
 disappearing in such craft. Topmasts should 
 be long, half the length of the mast, and housed 
 when not wanted. Fixed topmasts will serve in 
 small craft intended for river-work only. Sails 
 for yachts of moderate size are made of 10-ounce 
 duck, for large boats of No. 7 and No. 6 canvas, 
 while storm-sails are made of No. 5 and No. 4. 
 The numbers of canvas are regulated by the 
 weight of a bolt or yard. Thus, No. 1 weighs 
 
 46 pounds to the bolt of 40 yards ; No. 2 weighs 
 43 pounds ; No. 3 weighs 40 pounds, and so on. 
 Bolt-rope should be of the best Riga hemp, the 
 yarns tightly twisted, but the strands not laid 
 up too tightly. It is about If inches in circum 
 ference for head and foot of schooners sails, and 
 2 and 2 inches for luff and leach. For small 
 yachts 1J to 2 inches, and for sailing-boats from 
 1 to 1J inches, a "drawing-string" in the after- 
 seam often taking the place of the bolt-rope on 
 the leach of the mainsail. For storm-sails add 
 10 or 15 per cent. 
 
 6. Organization. Yacht clubs are organized 
 with a board of officers composed of a commo 
 dore, vice-commodore, treasurer, secretary, and 
 measurer. To these a rear-commodore is added 
 when the fleet is numerous enough to justify it. 
 The constitution of a club provides for the elec 
 tion of officers, generally once a year, specifies 
 their duties, the manner of voting, rules govern 
 ing the admission of new members, honorary 
 members, life members, meetings, assessments, 
 55 
 
 and amendments. The duty of the commodore 
 is to take command when cruising in squadron, 
 to preside at meetings, to enforce the rules and 
 regulations, and he may call special meetings. 
 The vice-commodore acts for him in his ab 
 sence, and the rear-commodore in the event 
 of both being absent. The latter two also take 
 command of subdivisions of the fleet. The sec 
 retary keeps the records of the club, roll of mem 
 bers, list of yachts, etc., and does all the corre 
 spondence incidental to his duties. The treasurer 
 takes charge of all dues, fines, and moneys, and 
 keeps an account of the same, reporting at spe 
 cified times to the club. The measurer takes the 
 dimensions of yachts necessary to calculate their 
 racing-measurement and time-allowance, for 
 which he generally receives a fee to compensate 
 for time and expense. On all matters concerning 
 the yachts voting is restricted to owners; on gen 
 eral subjects all members have a vote. A regatta 
 committee is also elected to arrange and supervise 
 the details of all club regattas and matches, and 
 also to act as judges, time-keepers, etc., for the 
 same. The house committee looks after the club 
 headquarters, annual dinners, etc., and the com 
 mittee on membership reports for or against the 
 propriety of electing applicants. The by-laws 
 define the dues, when payable, when overdue, 
 and how they are to be enforced. They specify 
 dates and places of meetings, manner of notify 
 ing members, club-signals, hoisting colors, and 
 discipline in general, compensation to officers, 
 expulsions, publication of club-books, regatta- 
 courses, etc. 
 
 SAILING RULES. 
 
 The most perfect and clearly-defined sailing 
 rules, now universally accepted, are those 
 adopted by the Yacht-Racing Association of 
 Great Britain, and we cannot do better in Amer 
 ica than accept them as they stand, barring the 
 rule of measurement, which is open to the ob 
 jections before noted. They are as follows : 
 
 1. Management of races. All races, and all 
 yachts sailing therein, shall be under the direction 
 of the flag-officers or sailing committee of the club 
 under whose auspices the races are being sailed. 
 All matters shall be subject to their approval and 
 control; and all doubts, questions, and disputes 
 which may arise shall be subject to their decision. 
 Their decisions shall be based upon these rules so 
 far as they will apply, but as no rules can be de 
 vised capable of meeting every incident and ac 
 cident of sailing, the sailing committee should 
 keep in view the ordinary customs of the sea, 
 and discourage all attempts to win a race by 
 other means than fair sailing and superior speed 
 and skill. The decisions of the sailing committee 
 shall be final, unless they think fit, on the appli 
 cation of the parties interested, or otherwise, to 
 refer the questions at issue for the decision of the 
 council of the Yacht-Racing Association. No 
 member of the sailing committee or council 
 shall take part in the decision upon any disputed 
 question in which he is directly interested. The 
 sailing committee, or any officer appointed to 
 take charge for the day, shall award the prizes 
 subject to Rule 31. If any yacht be disqualified, 
 the next in order shall be awarded the prize. 
 
 2. Postponement of races. The sailing com 
 mittee, or officer in charge for the day, shall have 
 
YACHTS 
 
 866 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 power to postpone any race, should unfavorable 
 weather render such a course desirable. 
 
 3. Tonnage. Cites the English manner of 
 measuring tonnage by multiplying length on 
 load line," less the beam, by the beam, and again 
 by the half beam. For this rule it is better to 
 adopt some method more compatible with the 
 needs of American yachts, such as the addition 
 of length and beam, the multiplication of the 
 two, the multiplication of all three cardinal di 
 mensions, or something in conformity with the 
 remarks at the close of this article. The rules 
 of the Seawanhaka and Koyal Nova Scotia 
 Yacht Clubs will serve as guides where tonnage 
 is estimated by a consideration of two or three 
 dimensions. 
 
 4. Time allowance. Time shall be allowed on 
 arrival for difference in tonnage, according to 
 the annexed scale, increased or decreased in pro 
 portion to the length of different courses. 
 
 Shortening course. If it is necessary during a 
 race to shorten the course, the signal-flag denot 
 ing the race hoisted under the white peter, or 
 in case of fog or darkness two guns fired shall 
 show that the race is to finish with the round 
 about to be completed, and the time allowance 
 shall be reduced in proportion. 
 
 5. Entries. Entries shall be made with the 
 secretary at least 48 hours previous to noon of the 
 day appointed for starting each race. In case 
 of a Sunday intervening, 24 hours shall be 
 added. Entries may be made by telegram, and 
 it shall be deemed sufficient that the same shall 
 have been dispatched before noon of the day on 
 which the entries close, subject to the provision 
 as to Sundays. 
 
 Form of entry. To be signed by the owner, 
 or his representative, previous to the race : 
 
 Please to enter the yacht for the 
 
 race at , on the 
 
 Her distinguishing flag is ; her rig 
 
 is ; and her tonnage is 
 
 tons. I undertake that while sailing under this 
 entry she shall not have on board any bags of 
 shot; that all her ballast shall be properly stowed 
 under the platform or in lockers, and shall not 
 be shifted or trimmed in any way whatever ; and 
 that I will obey and be bound by the Sailing 
 Kules of the Yacht-Racing Association. 
 
 Races re-sailed. Should any yacht duly entered 
 for a race not start, or having started should she 
 give up or be disabled during the race, such 
 yacht shall, in the event of the race being re- 
 sailed, be entitled to start ; but no new entries 
 shall be received under any circumstances what 
 ever for a postponed race. 
 
 6. Ownership. Each yacht entered for a race 
 must be the bona fide property of the person or 
 persons in whose name or names she is entered, 
 who must be a member or members of a recog 
 nized yacht club. 
 
 7. Only one yacht of same owner. No owner 
 shall be allowed to enter more than one yacht in 
 a race, except in cases in which a prize is given for 
 each rig, when one yacht of each rig may be en 
 tered, nor shall he be entitled to enter the same 
 yacht under different rigs for any race. 
 
 8. One yacht entitled to sail over. When a prize 
 has been offered for competition, any yacht duly 
 entered may claim to sail over the course and 
 shall be entitled to the prize ; subject, however, 
 to Rule 2. 
 
 9. Sliding keels. No yachts which are fitted to 
 shift keels, or to otherwise alter their form, shall 
 be permitted to enter. 
 
 10. Member on board. Every yacht sailing in 
 a race shall have on board a member of a recog 
 nized yacht club, who, before the prize is 
 awarded, shall sign a declaration that the yacht 
 under his charge has strictly conformed to all the 
 sailing regulations, as follows : 
 
 Declaration that rules have been observed. I 
 hereby declare that the yacht whilst 
 
 sailing in the race this day, has 
 
 strictly observed the sailing rules and regula 
 tions. 
 
 11. Distinguishing flo.gs. Each yacht must 
 carry, at her main-topmast head, a rectangular 
 distinguishing flag of a suitable size, which must 
 not be hauled down unless she gives up the race. 
 If the topmast be lowered on deck or carried 
 away, the flag must be re-hoisted in a conspic 
 uous place as soon as possible. 
 
 12. Instructions. Every yacht entered for a 
 race shall, at the time of entry, or as soon after 
 as possible, be supplied with written or printed 
 instructions as to the conditions of the race, the 
 course to be sailed, marks, etc. Nothing shall be 
 considered as a mark in the course unless spe 
 cially named as such in these instructions. 
 
 13. Sails. There shall be no restrictions as to 
 sails, or the manner of setting and working 
 them ; but steam-power must not be used for 
 hoisting sails. 
 
 14. Crew and friends. There shall be no limit 
 as to the number of paid hands, and no restrictions 
 as to the number of friends, or to their working. 
 No paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after 
 the signal to start. [This rule is not intended to 
 apply to Corinthian matches.] 
 
 15. Fittings and ballast. All yachts exceeding 
 
 5 tons shall be fitted below deck with the ordi 
 nary fittings of a yacht, including two transverse 
 bulk-heads of wood, and their platforms shall be 
 kept down and bulk-heads standing. No water 
 shall be started from or taken into the tanks 
 after the signal to start has been made. No 
 more than the usual anchors and chains shall be 
 carried during a race, which must not be used 
 as shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the 
 yacht. No bags of shot shall be on board, and 
 all ballast shall be properly stowed under the 
 platform or in lockers, and shall not be shifted 
 or trimmed in any way whatever during a race. 
 No ballast shall be shipped or unshipped after 9 
 P.M. of the day previous to the race. A race re- 
 sailed shall, so far as regards this rule, be con 
 sidered a new race. 
 
 16. Boats and life-buoys. Every yacht ex 
 ceeding 30 and under 70 tons, shall carry a boat 
 on deck not less than 10 feet in length and 3 feet 
 
 6 inches beam, and every yacht of 70 tons and 
 over, one of not less than 12 feet in length and 
 3 feet 6 inches beam, with oars lashed in them, 
 ready for immediate use. Each yacht shall carry 
 at least one life-buoy on deck ready for use. 
 
 17. Starting. The yachts shall start from 
 moorings, or under way, as directed by the sail 
 ing committee. Half an hour before the time of 
 starting one of the following flags of the Com 
 mercial Code shall be hoisted as a preparative 
 flag for the yachts of each successive race ; in 
 case of a start from anchors or moorings to take 
 up their stations for the start with head-sails 
 
YACHTS 
 
 867 
 
 TACHTS 
 
 down, or all sails down, as the sailing committee 
 may direct ; or in case the start be a flying one, 
 to approach the starting-line, viz. : 
 
 B of Commercial Code for the yachts of the 1st race. 
 
 C 2d " 
 
 D 3d " 
 
 f 4th " 
 
 and so on. 
 
 Signals to start Five minutes before the start 
 the preparative flag shall be lowered, a blue peter 
 hoisted, and a gun fired ; after which, the yachts 
 in the race shall be amenable to the rules. At 
 the expiration of five minutes exactly, the blue 
 peter shall be hauled down and a second gun 
 fired as a signal to start. If the start is to be 
 made from anchors or moorings, lots shall be 
 drawn for stations, and springs shall be allowed 
 on the same bridle or anchor chain or warp 
 as the bow-fasts, but are not to be carried to a 
 buoy, pier, other vessel, or fixed object. 
 
 Dragging moorings, If any yacht lets go or 
 T>arts her bridle before the signal to start, or if 
 she drags any moorings or anchor to which she 
 is made fast for the purpose of starting, she shall 
 be liable to be disqualified, unless such parting 
 or dragging be explained to the satisfaction of 
 the committee, or unless she has returned, after 
 the signal to start, within the line of starting- 
 buoys, so as not to obtain any advantage by the 
 accident. 
 
 Crossing the line. In a flying start, if any 
 yacht, or any part of her hull or spars, be on or 
 across the line before the signal to start is made, 
 she must return and recross the line ; a yacht so 
 returning, or one working into position from the 
 wrong side of the line after the signal to start 
 has been made, must keep clear of all competing 
 yachts. Should the gun miss fire, the lowering 
 of the blue peter shall be the signal to start. 
 
 18. Meeting end-on. If two yachts are meeting 
 end-on, or nearly end-on, so as to involve risk of 
 collision, the helms of both shall be put to port, 
 so that each may pass on the port side of the 
 other. 
 
 19. Two yachts crossing. "When two yachts are 
 crossing so as to involve risk of collision, then 
 if they have the wind on diiferent sides, the 
 yacht with the wind on the port side shall keep 
 out of the way of the yacht with the wind on the 
 starboard side, except in the case in which the 
 yacht with the wind on the port side is close- 
 hauled and the other yacht free, in which case 
 the latter yacht shall keep out of the way ; but 
 if they have the wind on the same side, or if one 
 of them has the wind aft, then the yacht which 
 is to windward shall keep out of the way of the 
 yacht which is to leeward. 
 
 20. Overtaking, rounding -mark*, etc. A yacht 
 overtaking another yacht shall keep out of the 
 way of the last-mentioned yacht, but when 
 rounding any buoy or vessel used to mark out 
 the course, if two yachts are not clear of each 
 other at the time the leading yacht is close to, 
 and actually rounding the mark, the outside 
 yacht must give the other room to pass clear of 
 it, whether it be the lee or weather yacht which 
 is in danger of fouling the mark. No yacht 
 shall be considered clear of another yacht, unless 
 so much ahead as to give a free choice to the other 
 on which side she will pass. An overtaking 
 yacht shall not, however, be justified in at 
 tempting to establish an overlap, and thus 
 
 force a passage between the leading yacht and 
 the mark after the latter yacht has altered her 
 helm for the purpose of rounding. 
 
 21. Obstructions to sea-room. When passing a 
 pier, shoal, rock, vessel, or other obstruction to 
 sea-room, should yachts not be clear of each 
 other, the outside yacht or yachts must give 
 room to the yacht in danger of fouling such ob 
 struction, whether she be the weather or the lee 
 ward yacht ; provided always that an overlap 
 has been established before an obstruction is 
 actually reached. 
 
 22. Luffing and bearing away. A yacht may 
 luff as she pleases to prevent another yacht pass 
 ing to windward, but must never bear away out 
 of her course to hinder the other passing to lee 
 ward, the lee side to be considered that on 
 which the leading yacht of the two carries her 
 main-boom. The overtaking vessel, if to lee 
 ward, must not luff until she has drawn clear 
 ahead of the yacht she has overtaken. 
 
 23. Close-hauled approaching shore. If two 
 yachts are standing towards a shore or shoal, or 
 towards any buoy, boat, or vessel, and the yacht 
 to leeward is likely to run aground, or foul of 
 such buoy, boat, or vessel (a mark-vessel ex- 
 cepted), and is not able to tack without coming 
 into collision with the yacht to windward, the lat 
 ter shall at once tack, on being hailed to .do so by 
 the owner of the leeward yacht, or the person 
 acting as his representative, who shall be bound 
 to see that his own vessel tacks at the same time. 
 
 24. Running aground, etc. Any yacht running 
 on shore, or foul of a buoy, vessel, or other ob 
 struction, may use her own anchors, boats, 
 warps, etc., to get off, but may not receive any 
 assistance except from the crew of the vessel 
 fouled. Any anchor, boat, or warp used must 
 be taken on board again before she continues 
 the race. 
 
 25. Fouling yachts, marks, etc. Each yacht 
 must go fairly round the course ; and must not 
 touch any buoy, boat, or vessel used to mark it 
 out, but shall not be disqualified if wrongfully 
 compelled to do so by another yacht. Any yacht 
 causing a mark-vessel to in any way -shift her 
 position to avoid being fouled by such yacht, 
 shall be disqualified. If a yacht, in consequence 
 of her neglect of any of these rules, shall foul 
 another yacht, or compel other yachts to foul, 
 she shall forfeit all claim to the prize, and shall 
 pay all damages. 
 
 26. Means of propulsion. No towing, sweep 
 ing, poling, or pushing, or any mode of propul 
 sion except sails, shall be allowed. 
 
 27. Anchoring. A yacht may anchor during a 
 race, but must weigh her anchor again, and not 
 slip. No yacht shall during a race make fast to 
 any buoy, stage, or pier, or send an anchor out 
 in a boat, except for the purpose of Kule 24. 
 
 . 28. Sounding. No other means of sounding 
 than the lead and line allowed. 
 
 29. Side-lights. All yachts sailing in a race at 
 night shall observe the Board of Trade rule as to 
 the carrying of side-lights. 
 
 30. Man overboard. In case of a man falling 
 overboard from a competing yacht, all other 
 yachts in a position to do so shall use their ut 
 most endeavors to render assistance ; and if it 
 should appear that any yacht was thereby pre 
 vented winning the race, the committee shall 
 have power to order it to be re-sailed between 
 
YACHTS 
 
 YACHTS 
 
 any yacht or yachts so prevented and the actual 
 winner. 
 
 31. Protests. Should the owner of any yacht, 
 or the person acting as his representative, con 
 sider that he has a fair ground of complaint 
 against another for foul sailing, or any violation 
 of these rules, he must, if it arise during the race, 
 signify the same on first passing the committee 
 vessel, by showing an ensign conspicuously in 
 the main rigging. The protest shall be made in 
 writing, and under such regulations (if any) as 
 the sailing committee may have determined, 
 within 12 hours of the arrival of the protesting 
 yacht, and shall be heard by the sailing commit 
 tee and decided, after such inquiries as they may 
 consider necessary. They shall also, without a 
 protest, disqualify any yacht, should it come to 
 their knowledge that she has committed a breach 
 of the rules. 
 
 32. Removal of flag-boat. Should any flag-ves 
 sel or other mark be removed from its proper po 
 sition, either by accident or design, the race shall 
 be sailed over again, or not, at the discretion of 
 the sailing committee. 
 
 33. Penalty for disobeying rules. Any yacht 
 disobeying or infringing any of these rules, which 
 shall apply to all yachts whether sailing in the 
 same or different races, shall be disqualified from 
 receiving any prize she would otherwise have 
 won, and her owner shall be liable for all dam 
 ages arising therefrom. 
 
 Should a flagrant breach of these rules be 
 proved against any yacht, her sailing-master 
 may be disqualified by the council for one season 
 from sailing in an} r race held under the Rules of 
 the Yacht- Racing Association. 
 
 34. Cruising trim. When yachts are ordered 
 to sail in cruising trim, the following rules are 
 to be strictly observed ; 
 
 1. No doors, tables, cabin skylights, or other 
 cabin or deck fittings (davits excepted) shall be 
 removed from their places before or during the 
 race. 
 
 2. No sails or other gear shall be put into the 
 main cabin in yachts exceeding 40 tons. 
 
 3. Anchors and chains suitable to the size of the 
 yacht shall be carried, one at the cat-head (or in 
 yachts of 40 tons and under, at the usual place on 
 the bow), which anchor shall not be unshackled 
 from the chain before or during the race. 
 
 4. Every yacht exceeding 30 and under 70 tons, 
 shall carry a boat on deck not less than 10 feet 
 in length and 3 feet 6 inches beam, a yacht of 
 70 tons and over, her usual cutter anddinghey. 
 
 5. No extra hands, except a pilot, beyond the 
 regular crew of the yacht, shall be allowed. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Yacht-Racing Association further recom 
 mends/or the consideration of sailing committees: 
 
 1st. Allowance to schooners and yawls. That as 
 mixed races are no satisfactory test of the rela 
 tive speed of yachts, the different rigs should, 
 whenever practicable, be kept separate; but 
 when mixed races are unavoidable, the follow 
 ing rule shall be observed : 
 
 The tonnage of schooners and yawls to be 
 reckoned for time allowance as follows, viz., 
 schooners at three-fifths, and yawls at four-fifths 
 of their actual tonnage ; provided that in case of 
 a yawl, her main-boom when in its place and 
 
 parallel to the deck, does not extend more than 
 one-fifth her extreme beam abaft the aft side of 
 her stern-post on deck. In calculating the de 
 duction for difference of rig, the tonnage by 
 certificate to the exact fraction to be used. The 
 time allowances to be calculated from each 
 vessel s reduced tonnage. Schooners and yawls 
 shall not be allowed to enter in classes of 40 tons 
 and under at the reduced tonnage. 
 
 2d. Flying starts. That flying starts should 
 be adopted when practicable, but no time should 
 be allowed for delay in starting. 
 
 3d. No limit to race. That any limit to the 
 time for concluding a race should be avoided as 
 far as possible. 
 
 4th Classification. That the classification of 
 yachts should, when practicable, be as follows : 
 
 Not exceeding 5 tons. 
 
 Above 5 tons and not exceeding 10 " 
 
 " 10 " " 15 " 
 
 " 15 " " " 20 " 
 
 " 20 " " " 40 " 
 
 40 " " " 80 " 
 
 " 80 " 
 
 5th. Courses. That as distance is an important 
 element in the calculation of time allowance, the 
 marks and flag-boats should be placed so as to 
 mark as accurately as possible the length of the 
 course, for which time is allowed. 
 
 6th. Rounding marks. That in heavy weather 
 it should be arranged, if practicable, for yachts 
 to stay instead of g.ybe round marks. 
 
 7th. Room at starting. Sailing committees 
 should be particularly careful to provide ample 
 room between the points marking the starting- 
 line. 
 
 Measurement. The sole object of measurement 
 and allowing time is to enable yachts of various 
 sizes to compete upon terms of equality. A fair 
 and logical rule must therefore be based upon 
 size. Any rule which places a tax upon model 
 is erroneous in foundation and misleading in its 
 workings. Rules based upon any one or two 
 dimensions, however much they may be the 
 custom, are manifestly not equitable, because 
 they do not tax differences of size, but differences 
 of model in the one or two particular directions 
 measured. They do not tax size because any 
 one or any two dimensions added or multiplied 
 are in no wise an expression of size, nor does 
 such measurement necessarily represent the ratio 
 of size between the vessels gauged. Yachts will 
 shrink in the direction taxed, as witness the 
 short, dumpy American sloop seeking to escape 
 the penalty of length, and the English cutter 
 squeezed into untaxed depth, the designer being 
 restricted to their production against his will. A 
 measurement of actual magnitude is the only 
 mode which satisfies the fundamental proposition 
 from which the reasoning takes its start. A 
 rule taxing the actual size of a vessel does not in 
 the slightest degree tax shape or model ; it taxes 
 quantity only, and not its location. Under such 
 a system the designer is left absolutely free, and 
 can mold a given quantity into any shape he 
 deems most desirable ; he may proportion length, 
 beam, and depth to his taste, and a rival will 
 not be compelled to pay unjustly because he may 
 prefer some other shape, involving an excess in 
 one or two directions without any excess in size. 
 The rule of the New York Yacht Club is the 
 most perfect in theory, and, so far as racing is 
 
YACHTS 
 
 869 
 
 YARD 
 
 concerned, gives the fullest satisfaction. It calls 
 for the measurement of the actual cubical con 
 tents of a yacht to the outside of her plank. 
 There exists one objection to it in practical ap 
 plication. It does not admit of quick and ready 
 gauging, nor can a yacht s size be easily verified 
 upon the spot by an owner or a regatta com 
 mittee. A simplification of the method of arriv 
 ing at the same results with sufficient accuracy 
 for practice is desirable. To this end a multi 
 plication of all three chief dimensions, length, 
 depth, and breadth, has been adopted with suc 
 cess by some clubs as a short-cut leading to like 
 results. The- correctness of this plan is based 
 upon the assumption that the true size of all fast 
 yachts bears so nearly a like proportion to their 
 circumscribed solids that the products of the 
 three extreme dimensions will express the ratio 
 of their sizes to one another with sufficient accu 
 
 racy for racing purposes. The only danger to 
 be apprehended from a general and permanent 
 adhesion to this rule arises from the probability 
 of cutting down freeboard, and thereby decreas 
 ing the depth, and with it the racing size of 
 yachts, whose owners would sail them only in 
 fair weather. A long string of prizes won in 
 midsummer breezes would be a strong induce 
 ment for others to follow suit, and one of the 
 most desirable qualities of a cruising boat am 
 ple freeboard would be sacrificed to the greed 
 for prizes. Should this fear turn out to be well 
 grounded, the tendency can be counteracted by 
 including in the rule of measurement a standard 
 amount "of freeboard, which would at once re 
 move the inducement to cripple cruising effi 
 ciency in the manner indicated. The rule and 
 allowances of the New York Yacht Club are as 
 follows : 
 
 TABLE OF ALLOWANCES 
 
 In Minutes and Decimals, by a Yacht measuring Sixteen Thousand Cubic Feet, to Yachts of the 
 
 Measurements given below. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 2 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 ** 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 o 
 
 ? 
 
 
 < 
 
 15.900 
 
 .0275 
 
 13900 
 
 .7677 
 
 11.900 
 
 2.0413 
 
 9.900 
 
 4 2323 
 
 7.900 
 
 80018 
 
 5.900 
 
 144869 
 
 3.900 
 
 25.6441 
 
 1.900 
 
 44.8393 
 
 15800 
 
 .0558 
 
 13.800 
 
 .8164 
 
 11.800 
 
 2.1249 
 
 9.800 
 
 4.3762 
 
 7.800 
 
 8.2493 
 
 5.800 
 
 14.9128 
 
 3.800 26 3768 
 
 1.800 46.0999 
 
 15.700 
 
 .0848 
 
 13.700 
 
 .8663 
 
 11.700 
 
 2.2108 
 
 9.700 
 
 4.5240 
 
 7.700 
 
 8.5037 
 
 5.700 
 
 15.3504 
 
 3.700 27.1297 
 
 1.700 47.3951 
 
 15600 
 
 .1146 
 
 13.600 
 
 .9176 
 
 11600 
 
 22991 
 
 9.600 
 
 4.6759 
 
 7.600 
 
 8.7650 
 
 5.600 
 
 15.8000 
 
 3 600 27.9033 
 
 1 .600 48.7260 
 
 15.500 
 
 .1453 
 
 13.500 
 
 .9704 
 
 11.500 
 
 2.3899 
 
 9.500 
 
 4.8320 
 
 7.500 
 
 90356 
 
 6.500 
 
 16.2620 
 
 3.500 28.6981 
 
 1.500 50.0935 
 
 15.400 
 
 .1708 ; 
 
 13.400 
 
 1.0245 
 
 11.400 2.4*31 
 
 9.400 
 
 4.9924 
 
 7.400 
 
 9.3095 
 
 5.400 
 
 16.7368 
 
 3.400 
 
 295148 
 
 1.400151.4985 
 
 15.300 
 
 .2091 
 
 13.:tOO 1.0802 
 
 11.300 
 
 2.5789 
 
 9.300 
 
 5.1572 
 
 7.300 
 
 9.5930 
 
 5.300 
 
 17 2245 
 
 3.300 
 
 30.3540 
 
 1.300 j 62.9423 
 
 15.200 
 
 .2424 
 
 13.200 1 1374 
 
 11.200 
 
 2.6773 
 
 9.200 
 
 5.3265 
 
 7.200 
 
 9.8843 
 
 5.200 
 
 17.7257 
 
 3.2001 31.2162 
 
 1.200154.4257 
 
 15.100 
 
 .27(55 
 
 13.100 1.1962 
 
 11.100 
 
 2.7784 
 
 9.100 
 
 5.5005 
 
 7.100 
 
 10.1836 
 
 5.100 
 
 18.2406 
 
 3.100 
 
 32.1022 
 
 1.100 55.H99 
 
 15.000 
 
 .3117 
 
 lrt.0001 1.2566 
 
 11.000 
 
 2.8823 
 
 9.000 
 
 5.6793 
 
 7.000 
 
 10.4912 
 
 5000 I 18.7698 
 
 H.OOO 33.0125 
 
 l.OHO i 57.5160 
 
 14.900 
 
 .3477 
 
 12.90 J 1.3187 
 
 10.900 
 
 2 9891 
 
 8900 
 
 5.80:19 
 
 6.900 
 
 10.8072 
 
 4.900 
 
 19.3134 
 
 2.900 
 
 33.9178 
 
 .900 ! 59.1252 
 
 14.800 
 
 .3848 
 
 12.800;1.3824 
 
 10.800 
 
 3.0988 
 
 8.800 
 
 6.0317 
 
 6.800 
 
 111319 
 
 4.800 
 
 19.8720 
 
 2.80d 
 
 34.9089 
 
 .800 
 
 60.7786 
 
 14.700 
 
 .4229 
 
 12.700 1.4479 
 
 10.700 
 
 3.2115 
 
 8.700 
 
 6.2156 
 
 6.700 
 
 11.4^5 
 
 4.700 
 
 20.4460 
 
 2.700 
 
 35.8964 
 
 .700 
 
 624775 
 
 14.600 
 
 .4620 ! 
 
 12.600 
 
 1.5153! 
 
 10600 
 
 3.3273 
 
 8.600 
 
 6.4448 
 
 6600 
 
 11.8083 
 
 4.600 
 
 21.0358 
 
 2.600 
 
 3(5.9110 
 
 .600 
 
 64.2232 
 
 14.500 
 14.400 
 
 .5022 
 .54:55 
 
 12.500 1.5844 | 
 12.400 1.6555 
 
 10.500 
 10.400 
 
 3.4163 
 3.5686 
 
 8.500 
 8.400 
 
 6.6496 
 6.8599 
 
 6.500 
 6.400 
 
 12.16)5 
 125225 
 
 4.500 
 4.400 
 
 216418 
 22.2644 
 
 2.500 
 2.400 
 
 37 9536 
 39.0248 
 
 .500 
 .400 
 
 66.0108 
 67.8598 
 
 14.300 
 
 .58(50 ; 
 
 12.300 jl.7285 
 
 10.300 
 
 3.6942 
 
 8.300 | 7.0761 
 
 6.300 
 
 12.8943 
 
 4.300 
 
 22904. 
 
 2.300 
 
 40.1255 
 
 .300 i 69.7534 
 
 14.200 
 
 .6296 1 
 
 12.200 1.8036 
 
 10.200 
 
 3.8233 
 
 8.200 
 
 7.2982 
 
 6.200 
 
 13.2764 
 
 4.200 
 
 23.5616 
 
 2.200 
 
 41.2564 
 
 .200 i 71.6991 
 
 14.100 
 
 .6744 
 
 12.100 1.8807 
 
 10.100 
 
 3.9560 
 
 8.100 
 
 7.5264 
 
 6.100 
 
 13.6690 
 
 4.100 
 
 24.2370 
 
 2.100 
 
 42.4185 
 
 .100 
 
 73.6984 
 
 14.000 
 
 .7204 
 
 12.000 
 
 1.9599 
 
 10.000 
 
 4.0923 
 
 8.000 
 
 7.7609 
 
 6.000 
 
 14.U724 
 
 4.000 
 
 24.9310 
 
 2.000 
 
 43.6125 
 
 
 
 The water-line of each yacht shall be divided 
 into four equal parts, and a section taken at each 
 point of division, making five sections. The area 
 of each section, from the rabbet-line of the keel to 
 the line of the lowest point of the top of the plank- 
 shear, as described in the rules, shall be measured 
 and determined in square feet, and the cubical 
 contents of the yacht shall then be got by the 
 following formula taken from Chapman s rules 
 for measuring vessels : 
 
 To the sum of the areas of the first and last 
 sections add the sum of the areas of the even sec 
 tions multiplied by 4, and the areas of the odd 
 sections multiplied by 2. Multiply this sum by 
 one-third of the distance between the sections, 
 and add the cubical contents of the overhangs, 
 measured in each case, as shall, from the form 
 of the boat, be most expedient, and the result 
 thus obtained shall, for the purposes of this 
 measurement, be deemed the cubical contents 
 of the yacht. 
 
 To find the allowance to a yacht whose meas 
 urement comes between any two even hundreds 
 in the tables, deduct from the allowance to the 
 
 even hundreds next below hers, such proportion 
 of the difference between that allowance and the 
 one next above it in the table as the excess of her 
 measurement over the lower hundred bears to 
 one hundred. C. P. Kunhardt, N.A. 
 
 Yarage. The power of moving or being man 
 aged at sea ; said with reference to a ship. 
 
 Yard. A spar suspended from a mast, to 
 which the head of a sail is bent. Stun sail-yards 
 are suspended from the yard-arms by their hal 
 liards. The centre of a yard is called the slings, 
 the extremities, the yard-arms, and the inter 
 mediate parts, the quarters. Yards for lateen- 
 and lug-sails have their halliards bent on near the 
 forward end ; yards for square-sails are supported 
 at their centres by slings, tyes, or halliards, and 
 at the extremities by lifts. Lower yards are 
 fixed, being attached to the mast by trusses, 
 which permit angular movement only ; all other 
 yards are confined to the masts by parrels, which 
 permit a vertical as well as an angular move 
 ment of the yards. Yards are hoisted by hal 
 liards, and trimmed by braces. Lower yards 
 are supported by the lower-masts ; topsail-yards, 
 
TARE 
 
 870 
 
 YELLOW FEVER 
 
 topqallant-yards, and royal-yards follow in order, 
 and traverse up and down their respective masts. 
 Skysail-yards are sometimes carried, and are 
 placed next above the royals. A rjaff-topsa.il 
 yard is a small yard to which the head of a gaff- 
 topsail is sometimes bent. 
 
 Yard is also the popular name given to the 
 three stars in Orion s belt. See NAVY-YARD. 
 
 YARD-ARM. The extremity of a yard. Yard- 
 arm and yard-arm, the situation of ships close 
 alongside each other. 
 
 YARD-ARM CLEATS. Wooden wedges nailed 
 to the yard-arm to prevent the lifts and braces 
 from slipping in. 
 
 YARD-ROPE. A rope bent to the slings of 
 a vard by which it is swayed aloft or lowered. 
 
 YARD-TACKLE. A heavy tackle hooked to 
 lower yards, and used in hoisting heavy articles 
 in or out. 
 
 Yare. Be yare at the helm ! quick with the 
 helm ! an old nautical phrase 
 
 Yarmouth, County of Norfolk, England, is 
 situated on a narrow strip of land between the 
 sea and the river Yare. The quay, considered 
 one of the finest in Britain, extends along the 
 river for about 1 mile. On the coast are several 
 batteries and barracks for 1000 men. The har 
 bor is in the Yare, and is accessible by vessels 
 of about 200 tons, and the navigation of the 
 coast is dangerous, but Yarmouth Roads, which 
 extend between the coast and a line of sand 
 banks a short distance off shore, are a safe an 
 chorage. Ship-building is carried on, and it has 
 a manufactory of silk goods, but the principal 
 industry is the herring-fishery, and as much as 
 9000 tons of fish have been shipped from here in 
 a year. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 YARMOUTH CAPON. A red herring ; a bloater. 
 
 YARMOUTH HERRING-BOAT. A clinch-built 
 boat with lug-sails, used in the herring-fishery. 
 
 Yarn. A rope-yarn. A tale ; a story. To 
 spin a yarn, to relate a story. 
 
 Yaugh. An old term for a small yacht. 
 
 Yaw. To deviate from the course. Yawing 
 is caused by a heavy sea under the quarter, by 
 bad steering, or by an injudicious arrangement 
 of the sails. 
 
 YAW-SIGHTED. Squint-eyed. 
 
 Yawl. A small fishing-vessel. A carvel- 
 built vessel of the cutter class with a jigger and 
 short main-boom. An English man-of-war s 
 boat, carvel-built, and pulling generally 12 oars. 
 
 Yaw-yaws. A nickname for seamen from the 
 Baltic. 
 
 Year. The period in which the earth com 
 pletes a revolution in her orbit. Some point 
 must be taken to mark the origin whence the 
 revolution is reckoned ; if a fixed star be taken, 
 the period is called a sidereal year (365 d 6 h 9 m 
 9.6 8 ) ; if the first point of Aries, the period is 
 known as the solar, equinoctial, or tropical year 
 (365* 5 h 48 m 49.7 s ). The anomalistic year is the 
 period between two successive returns of the 
 earth to perihelion. The civil year consists of 
 an integral number of days, a common of 365 
 and leap-year of 366 days. See CALENDAR. 
 
 Yell. An old sea-term to express a rolling 
 motion. 
 
 Yellow Admiral (Eng.}. A. retired post-cap 
 tain who, not having served his time in that rank, 
 is not entitled to promotion. 
 
 Yellow-belly. A dago ; a mulatto. 
 
 Yellow Fever ( Ti/phus icterodes, fievre jaune, 
 fiebre amarilla, gelbesfieber, mal de Siam, etc.}. 
 An acute, specific, infectious disease, of a single 
 paroxysm and remarkable malignancy, origi 
 nating on the coasts and included islands of the 
 great intercontinental gulf of the western hem 
 isphere, as does cholera in those of the Indo- 
 Chinese gulf. Like cholera also, it spreads from 
 its region of origin (the "yellow fever zone"), 
 following the paths of commerce, into other parts 
 of the world, but never becomes naturalized (en 
 demic) outside of its geographical habitat. It is 
 limited to the neighborhood of the sea, and to 
 elevations not exceeding 2500 feet. For its con 
 tinued activity are required a temperature not 
 below 72 F., a humid atmosphere, the presence 
 of its specific cause and of decomposing organic 
 matter, and, probably, a peculiar but unknown 
 meteorological condition (perhaps, as suggested 
 by Dr. Findlay, of Havana, a highly alkaline 
 atmosphere). 
 
 Yellow fever is mentioned as attacking the 
 Spanish conquistadores, at San Domingo, in 
 1494 ; and is first recorded at Porto Kico in 1508, 
 Darien in 1514, Guadaloupe in 1635, Marti 
 nique in 1641, Havana in 1761, etc. It was 
 introduced into Rio de Janeiro and the west coast 
 of South America about 1849, by the stream of 
 travel attracted to California at the time of the 
 gold excitement, and, like many an exotic plant, 
 has often flourished more vigorously in its new 
 than in its old home. The name mal de Siam orig 
 inates from its supposed introduction into Mar 
 tinique from that country by the"0riflamme," in 
 1690. The " Oriflamme" did not, however, come 
 directly from Siam, and yellow fever had cer 
 tainly appeared in Martinique as early as 1641. 
 Increased commerce has facilitated the dissemi 
 nation of the yellow fever poison, which is as 
 portable as merchandise, until there is now 
 scarcely a port within its climatic limits which 
 has not suffered from one or more epidemics. 
 Notable examples are the epidemics at Philadel 
 phia in 1793, Gibraltar in 1828, New Orleans 
 in 1853, and Memphis in 1878-79, which are 
 considered as epochs in the history of yellow 
 fever, from the fact that each has been reported 
 upon by observers of remarkable trustworthiness 
 (Drs. Benj. Rush, Simon, E. H. Barton, and the 
 National Board of Health). The importance of 
 yellow fever from a military stand-point attaches 
 rather to the navy lhan to the army, since soldiers 
 can always be moved from an unhealthy locality 
 and segregated from sources of infection. Its 
 terrors are immeasurably augmented when they 
 invade the inhabitants of a ship at sea, where the 
 sick cannot be separated from the well, and all 
 possibility of escape by flight is cut off, while 
 close crowding affords great facilities to its in 
 crease. An early instance in the history of the 
 U. S. navy was the ship "Gen. Green," in 
 which yellow fever appeared while making a 
 voyage from Newport to Havana, in 1799, and, 
 notwithstanding efforts at disinfection at the 
 mouth of the Chesapeake on her homeward voy 
 age, reappeared at sea, and continued to spread 
 while she lay at Newport, attacking even those 
 who bathed near the ship. The " Macedonian" 
 suffered from yellow fever at Havana, in May, 
 1822, so severely, that she returned to Norfolk in 
 July, and was put out of commission. Of 376 
 persons on board, 101 died in this short time. 
 
YELLOW FEVER 
 
 871 
 
 YELLOW TAIL 
 
 Yellow fever appeared on board of the British 
 steamer "Eclair," at Sierra Leone, in 1845, 
 whence she sailed to Boa Vista. There the dis 
 ease spread rapidly, although the crew was 
 landed on an island, and of 4 officers from the 
 "Growler," who visited the empty ship as a 
 board of survey, 3 had yellow fever. She re 
 turned to England in September, having 41 cases 
 at sea. The pilot who boarded her was attacked. 
 In 1847, after having been cleansed and disin 
 fected, the " Eolair" sailed for the Cape of Good 
 Hope, but was obliged to put in at Ascension 
 with yellow fever again on board. The " Sus- 
 quehanna" suffered from yellow fever at Grey 
 Town in 1856, and landed 200 cases at Jamaica 
 and New York. She was repeatedly broken out, 
 cleansed, and exposed to a freezing temperature, 
 to be finally abandoned as incorrigibly infected. 
 The "Plymouth" had a return of yellow fever 
 in the spring of 1879, before touching at any 
 port, after having been broken out, disinfected, 
 and exposed to the low temperature of Boston 
 during most of the preceding winter. At this 
 writing (May, 1880) the " Marion" is reported at 
 Montevideo, with yellow fever on board, under 
 going disinfection. Of late years the ports of 
 Havana, Rio de Janeiro, and St. Thomas have 
 most frequently been credited with being the 
 sources of yellow fever epidemics, the two latter, 
 in particular, so far as men-of-war are concerned. 
 Severe naval epidemics have also occurred at the 
 navy-yard, Pensacola, and at Key West. 
 
 Yellow fever is characterized by a period of 
 incubation seldom exceeding 5 days, a sudden 
 and prostrating onset, with high body tempera 
 ture (105-107 F.), flushed face, suffusion of the 
 eyes, and albuminous urine, deficient in chlorides. 
 To the paroxysm, which lasts from 24 to 48 hours, 
 succeeds a "stage of calm," during which the 
 fever subsides, hemorrhages occur from the nose, 
 gums, stomach (black vomit), and intestines 
 (tarry stools), and a yellow tint colors the whole 
 surface, deepening during convalescence or after 
 death. Renewal of fever, or a sudden rise in 
 body temperature, indicate a fatal termination, 
 which generally occurs between the fourth and 
 seventh day. After death there is a notable rise 
 in the body temperature (to 105 F.), which lasts 
 for 12 hours, putrefaction progresses rapidly, and 
 an odor, said to be peculiar to the disease, is 
 developed. The blood is found to be thin, fluid, 
 of acid reaction, with its white corpuscles in 
 creased in number and undergoing fatty degen 
 eration. It is said to contain a great excess of 
 urea (Dr. Joseph Jones, of New Orleans). The 
 liver is also subject to fatty degeneration, and 
 presents a fawn-yellow color. Lesions have been 
 observed in the kidneys, spleen, and nervous sys 
 tem, but are not invariably characteristic of this 
 disease. No peculiar organism has yet been dis 
 covered in the blood of yellow fever patients 
 where proper precautions against its artificial 
 introduction have been observed. When death 
 does not occur, convalescence is tedious, and 
 likely to be interrupted by changes of weather 
 or sfight imprudence, the blood having become 
 profoundly impaired as to its nutritive functions 
 during the paroxysm. There is no drug which 
 has been proved to be a specific cure, the most 
 successful treatment confining itself to hygienic 
 measures, fluid diet, promotion of perspiration, 
 and a free use of ice. 
 
 The cause of yellow fever has not yet been dis 
 covered. It is, however, known to be portable 
 and specific (reproducing its like and no other 
 disease), is almost certainly material, and is very 
 probably either a living organism or a substance 
 resulting therefrom (as alcohol, acetic and lactic 
 acids result from the growth of fungi and bacte 
 ria). It is capable of lying dormant indefinitely 
 under a low temperature and unfavorable con 
 ditions, to revive when congenial surroundings 
 are restored. In this regard it suggests a parallel 
 with the passive forms of many fungi. Decom- 
 .posing organic matter, coal, and especially decay 
 ing sea-weed and rotten wood, favor its develop 
 ment, wood affected with dry rot (see DRY ROT) 
 appearing to afford peculiar facilities to its pres 
 ervation in a dormant state. 
 
 Prevention should include such construction as 
 will obstruct the development of dry rot and 
 afford no inaccessible recesses in a ship, cleanli 
 ness, ventilation, anchorage at a distance from 
 shore, and a rigid observance of sanitary regula 
 tions relating to intercourse with the shore, 
 clothing, food, hours of labor, and fresh-water 
 supply. 
 
 Disinfection by chemicals, such as carbolic 
 acid, chlorine, sulphate of iron, etc., has not 
 proved satisfactory, the foul odors which these 
 agents destroy having no necessary connection 
 with yellow fever. Exposure to a low tempera 
 ture causes the disease to cease for the time, but 
 has not always prevented its later recurrence, as 
 in the cases of the " Susquehanna" and "Plym 
 outh," and experiments upon low organisms 
 found to be connected with other diseases have 
 shown that their vitality is not destroyed even by 
 so low a temperature as 10 F. Live steam was 
 injected into the holds of the " Don" (at Santa 
 Cruz) and " Mahaska" (at New Orleans) in 
 1867, with success, the vessels remaining on the 
 station without any return of the disease. Sul 
 phurous acid gas and air at a temperature ex 
 ceeding 260 F. have been found to be alike fatal 
 to all living organisms, and a naval board 
 ordered to investigate the subject, has this year 
 (1880) recommended the use of this gas, super 
 heated, in the holds of infected vessels. (Aitken s 
 "Practice of Medicine," art. Yellow Fever; 
 Ziemssen s " Cyclopaedia ;" "La fievre jaune a 
 la Martinique," par L. B. Berenger Feraud, 
 M.D., Paris, 1878; "Naval Medical Essays," 
 Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Washington, 
 1873-75-79; " Preliminary Report of the Havana 
 Yellow Fever Commission," Supp. National 
 Board of Health Bulletin, November, 1879 ; 
 Dr. A. Stille, Medical, Record, N. Y., March 1, 
 1879; "Disinfectants," G. W. Sternberg, Sur 
 geon U.S.A., National Board of Health Bulle 
 tin, January 17, 1880; "Pathological Histology 
 of Yellow Fever," Surgeon J. J. Woodward, 
 U.S.A., 4th Supplement do. ; Surgeon J. S. 
 Billings, U.S.A., in Contemporary Review, 
 January, 1880, etc.) J. H. Kidder, Surgeon 
 U.S.N. 
 
 Yellowing (Eng.}. The overslaughing of cap 
 tains in a flag-promotion. 
 
 Yellow Jack. Yellow fever. The quaran 
 tine flag. 
 
 Yellow Tail. A well-known tropical fish, 
 often in company with whip-rays ; it is about 4 
 feet long, with a great head, large eyes, and 
 many fins. 
 
YEO-HEAVE-YEO 
 
 872 
 
 ZUMBKA 
 
 Yeo-heave-yeo ! The chant of merchant 
 sailors in hauling and heaving. 
 
 Yeoman. An appointed officer who has charge 
 of stores and keeps the accounts in his special 
 department ; as, ship s yeoman, paymaster s yeo 
 man, engineer s yeoman. 
 
 Yoke." An athwartship piece of wood or metal 
 fitted over the head of a hoat s rudder, and serv 
 ing as a substitute for a tiller. 
 
 YOKE-LINES. Lines from each extremity of 
 
 a yoke and extending to the stern-sheets, and 
 used in steering a boat. 
 
 Young Gentlemen. A general designation 
 for midshipmen. 
 
 Young Ice. Ice recently formed. 
 
 Youngsters. A general term for young offi 
 cers, or men. See OLDSTER. 
 
 Young Wind. The commencement of the 
 land- or sea-breeze. 
 
 Yow-yow. A small Chinese sampan. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Z. In the log-book, z denotes haze. 
 
 Zambo. A sobriquet on the Spanish Main 
 for a race produced by the union of the negro 
 and the Indian ; it literally means bow-legged. 
 
 Zenith. The superior pole of the celestial 
 horizon ; the point of the heavens directly over 
 head. 
 
 ZENITH-DISTANCE. The angular distance of 
 a heavenly body from the zenith ; the complement 
 of the altitude. 
 
 Zephyr. The west wind. A gentle breeze. 
 
 Zero. The point from which the marks on a 
 graduated scale are numbered, the marks pro 
 gressing in one direction being read plus, and 
 those in the contrary direction minus. A zero 
 as a point of reference may be established arbi 
 trarily. The absolute zero of temperature, the 
 most convenient base for scientific computations, 
 as computed from the apparent law of expansion 
 of a perfect gas, is 461.2 degrees below the zero 
 of Fahrenheit. 
 
 Zodiac (Gr., from zddion, the diminutive of 
 zdon, an animal). That region of the heavens 
 within which the apparent motions of the sun, 
 moon, and the most conspicuous of the planets 
 are confined. The apparent paths of the moon 
 and all the known planets were found to be spiral 
 curves of more or less complexity, and described 
 with very unequal velocities in their different 
 parts. These bodies were observed, however, to 
 have this in common, that the general direction 
 of their motions is the same with that of the sun, 
 viz., from west to east, contrary to that in which 
 both they and the stars appear to be carried by 
 thediurnal motion of the heavens ; and, moreover, 
 that they cross and recross the ecliptic at regular 
 and equal intervals of time, never deviating from 
 the ecliptic on either side more than 8 or 9. It 
 is this zone of about 17 broad, having the ecliptic 
 running along its middle, which was named the 
 zodiac. Before the discovery of the asteroids, the 
 zodiac restricted to the above limits formed the 
 zone of the moving bodies of the heavens. But 
 the orbits of many of the asteroids have a very con 
 siderable inclination to theecliptic, Pallas nearly 
 35, so that the significance of the zone of the 
 zodiac is now, except in the most general sense, 
 all but obsolete. The term zodiac is derived from 
 the constellations of this zone being anciently 
 figured as "animals." Its circuit was divided 
 into 12 equal parts, the " sign" or symbol of each 
 being taken from the constellation with which it 
 then coincided. They are as follows : 
 
 NORTHERN SIGNS. 
 
 T Aries, the Ram. 
 8 Taurus, the Bull. 
 H Gemini, the Twins. 
 
 Cancer, the Crab. 
 Lfio, th Lion. 
 Virgo, the Virgin. 
 
 SOUTHERN SIGNS. 
 
 : Libra, the Balance. l> Capricornus, the Goat. 
 
 \\[ Scorpio, the Scorpion. ^ Aquarius, tlte Water-bearer. 
 f Sagittarius, the Archer. X Pisces, the Fishes. 
 
 These constellations, however, do not cover the 
 same parts of the ecliptic they formerly did, in 
 consequence of the retrograde motion of the first 
 point of Aries along the ecliptic, from which its 
 divisions are reckoned. Hence the necessity of 
 distinguishing between the signs of the ecliptic 
 or zodiac and the constellations of the zodiac, the 
 former being purely technical subdivisions of 
 ecliptic of 30 each, commencing from the first 
 point of Aries. 
 
 ZODIACAL LIGHT. A cone of faint light ap 
 parently proceeding from the rising or the setting 
 sun ; it is most commonly seen in the tropics. 
 
 Zoel, or Saul. A timber much used in the 
 construction of the vessels of India. 
 
 Zone (Gr. zone, a belt). In consequence of 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic, the earth s surface is 
 naturally divided into 5 zones. The torrid zone 
 embraces the region situated between the paral 
 lels 23 28 N., and 23 28 S. ; at some season 
 of the year the sun will be in the zenith of each 
 point of this region. The temperate zones extend 
 from the torrid zone to the parallels 66 32 N., 
 and 66 32 S. ; the sun is seen to rise every day, 
 and it is never in the zenith of any point of 
 these zones. The frigid zones extend from the 
 poles to the temperate zones ; at some time during 
 the year the sun will be below the horizon for 
 more than 24 hours, and at another time it will 
 be above the horizon for more than 24 hours, the 
 length of this time depending upon the proximity 
 of the point to the pole. 
 
 Zopissa. Tar or pitch scraped off the bot 
 toms of old ships, and thought to be good for 
 ulcers. Also, a highly preservative varnish in 
 use by the ancients for ship s bottoms, sarcoph 
 agi, etc. 
 
 Zuben el Chamali. /? Librce. 
 
 Zuben el Genubi. a Librae. 
 
 Zuhn. A species of rush from which inferior 
 canvas and cordage is made, in the East. 
 
 Zumbra. A small Spanish row-boat. 
 
 Ry" 
 
LD 21A-50m-8, 61 
 (Cl795slO)476B 
 
GENERAL LIBRARY - U.C. BERKELEY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY