blO-AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE. CALIFORNIA 92502 >^^' §op|v f^-at ifa«i>^v«»j \J^Ar'. ■#r ::^^' ^* University of^alifornia Southern Cliifo^--*''"'^^'"^ OF - Plant Pathology SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES BY GEO. W. RAFTER, M. Am. Soc. C. E., M. N. BAKER, Ph.B., Associate Editor, ENomEERrNO NEWS THIRD edition: University of California Southern California Lalwruiury OK — Plant Pathology 5^ NEW YORK D. VAN NOS IRANI) COMPANY LONDON SA3IPS0N LOW, INIARSTON & COMPANY, Limited 1000 (JOPTRIGHT, 1893 By D. van NOSTKAND COMPANY AH rights reserved plant f^^^^^'^tV DEDICATED TO THE HEALTH AND PROSPERITY OP AAIERICAN CITIES AND TO^VNS ic^'K'^io^ PREFACE. Questions of River Pollution and Sewage Disposal have assumed so much importance in this country that no excuse is necessarj- for put- ting forth an American treatise on the subject. The chief object, there- fore, of this book is to speciiically call the attention of sanitary authorities, engineers, and others interested in questions of public sanitation, to the fact that we have already accumulated a considerable stock of experience in sewage disposal in this countrj^, and that for the future Americans, who wish to study the subject in detail, will not be obliged, as until recently was the case, to go abroad for the purpose. In making tliis remark we do not wish to be understood as discour- aging the study of foreign precedents in sewage disposal ; on the contrary, it is cheerfully conceded, inasmuch as the necessity for sew- age purification first arose abroad, that consequently the foreign en- gineers had the opportunity to attack the problem first, and we may very properly profit by their experience. The full idea is that the conditions here are generally quite dissimilar from those obtaining abroad, and that, with most of the feasible methods of sewage purifica- tion now in successful operation, the chances are decidedly in favor of quite as much profit from studying carefully the results obtained here as can be expected from the casual examination of executed projects abroad, which, after all, are for the most part only relatively appli- cable. The experience at Worcester, Massachusetts, is a striking exemplifi- cation of the truth that in the end the American engineer must design works to suit his specific case. In the preliminary discussion at Worcester it was nearly universally assumed that, by reason of an identity of climatic conditions between Worcester and Danzig, the sewage irrigation fields of the latter city might be duplicated a^ Worcester, and results obtained quite as successful as those attending sewage farming at Danzig. But Mr. Allen took the ground that the climatic conditions wen; sufliciently dissimilar to render an extensive sewage farm at Worcester an experiment, relative to which it was im- possible to ])redicate success from what had occurred at Danzig. At Soutli Framiiigham, Massachusetts, however, disposal by broad Vi PREFACE. irrigation and intermittent filtration is in operation on a comparatively large scale ; and inasmuch as the distance from this town to Worcester is only twenty-three miles, we may hope to g-ain in a few years some useful experience from these two towns on the relative value of different systems of treatment at low temperatures. The extensive intermittent filtration works at Marlborough, Massachusetts, in the immediate vicinity, may also be looked to for interesting information on the same point. An attempt has been made to present in Part I. the governing prin- ciples of sewage disposal with special reference to American needs ; while in Part II. there have been given the salient features of the principal American sewage disposal works, with, so far as they can be obtained, reliable statements of cost of construction and operation. It is hoped that the information may be of use, not only to such sanitary authorities as Sewer Commissioners and Health Ofiicers, but also to those engineers who are looking into the subject for the first time. We even venture to hope that it will prove of material benefit to the few engineers of ability and experience who have thus far designed most of the sewage disposal works of the country ; for American knowledge of and practice in sewage purification is growing rapidly, and has never before been brought together with any degree of com- prehensiveness. Our references, citations of authorities, and quotations are drawn very largely from American sources of information. The reason for this is, as already indicated, that we need to know first of all about our own special conditions. At the same time we have not hesitated to use foreign data Avhen necessary for the completeness of the discussion. As conducing to a knowledge of our own special conditions, the ex- periments of the Massachusetts State Board of Health may be cited first of all. The views of a high English authority on the comparative value of these experiments have been referred to in the footnote on page 265, and it appears unnecessary to further elaborate this part of the subject. The work accomplished by our Agricultural Experiment Stations has also been freely drawn upon, with the result, it is believed, of furnishing a large amount of new data of special value in projecting American seAvage disposal works. Concluding this part of the subject, it is sincerely hoped that Ameri- can engineers and physicists may, by their improvements and increase of accurate knowledge of sewage disposal, be able to pay back some portion of the obligation which we owe chiefly to English engineers, and investigators for our preliminary ideas in relation to sewage puri- fication. It will be noticed that the amount of original matter in the book is relatively small. This is partially owing to the use of the language of PREFACE. vii the aiitliorities drawn upon, instead of veiling its identity under slig-lit verbal changes. For all this, of necessity many elaborate and valuable contributions to the literatin-e of sewage disposal have been either condensed into a few sentences or dismissed with a brief reference. In all cases the aim has been to present as clearly and yet as briefly as possible the best available information on the subject under discus- sion and to indicate the sources of information. Quoted matter has generally been indicated by the use of smaller type. Quotations have been freely made in Part I. in all those cases where the quoted matter appears necessary for a complete discussion, or where nothing can be added to what the various authors have originally written. In Part II. we have preferred to quote at length from available memoirs prepared by the engineers who have actually designed and constructed the diflerent works, because these memoirs, by reason of embodying the results of personal experience, are more valuable than anj^ mere abstract coidd be possibly made. We have assumed, in short, that the making of the ideal sewage disposal manual is to some extent a matter of discreet editing. AVliile Ave have used footnote references liberally, we have not at- tempted to make the references to any part of the subject absolutely complete. To do this would involve an amount of labor out of all proportion to the results. Nevertheless it is hoped that the references to original sources of information are numerous enough to enable any person wishing to go further into the subject than the limits of a volume of this character would permit, to find readily, so far as the American literature is concerned, practically all there is of value at the present time. A word in regard to the joint authorship. In the fall of 1891 Mr. Rafter began, at the request of the publishers, D. Van Nof?trand Co., the preparation of a Manual of Sewage Disposal in the United States. Early in 1892 Mr. Baker began the collection, largely by personal visits to existing purification works, of data in regard to executed works as the basis of a series of articles in Engineering News. Neither was aware of the work of the other until about July 1, 1892 ; at which time Mr. Rafter had nearly completed the task to which he had set himself, while Mr. Baker was just beginning the series of articles on ex(>cuti'd works which have since appeared in the journal named. A coiiqiarisou of data indicated that Mr. Baker's work on the executed ])r()je('ts, by reason of bringing the information more nearly down to date, woiild add to the completeness of the book, and accordingly arrangements were made for joining forces. In addition to considera- bly extending Part II., Mr. Baker has also made material additions to Chapter VII. in Part I., and has revised the whoh^ work so far as necessary to include any additicjnal information in his possession. viii ■ PREFACE. This revision brings the work down to June, 1893, as completely as is practicable in a work of such a character, and the additions include descriptions of all the town and city purification works known to be in operation to date. That the book is now other than relatively com- plete is not pretended ; it is merely put forth as representing- the best effort in this direction of which the joint authors are capable at this time. Our sincere thanks are due to the many engineers who have cordially responded to our requests for information, as well as to the superin- tendents of a number of public institutions to whom we have applied. Among engineers to whom we are specially indebted may be men- tioned Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C.E., J. Herbert Shedd, M. Am. Soc. C.E., Samuel M. Gray, M. Am. Soc. C.E., and Chas. A. Allen, M. Am. Soc. C.E. The major portion of the illustrations have been prepared, specially for this work, under the direction of Mr. F. P. Burt, of Engineering News. For the illustrations not so prepared, we are indebted to The American Society of Civil Engineers, The Engineering Magazine, The Engineering Record, and Engineering News. G. ^\. R. M. N. B. New York, June 1, 1893. CONTENTS. PART I. DISCUSSION OF PKINCIPLES. CHAPTEK I. PKELIMINABY DISCUSSION. DEFmmoN OF Terms, .... The Germ Theory op Disease, Typhoid Fever, ..... Kesponsibility of Purification, Typhoid Fever at Loavell and Lawrence, The BAcrLLUS of Typhoid Fever, . Vitality of the Typhoid Bacillus, Limit of Influence in the Merrimac Eiver, Limit of Influence in Lakes and Ponds, The Case of Schenectady, Cohoes, West Troy, and Albany, Why Crude Sewage Should be Kept out of Streams, List of W^ater-uorne Cojimunicable Diseases, Disinfection of De.tecta, . Importance of Disinfection, . Typhoid Fever at Lausen, Switzerland, .... Typhoid Fe\t3R in Massachusetts Cities, .... Typhoid Fever at New York, Philadelphia, and CmoAGO, Typhoid at Bochester, New York, The Fundamental Proposition PAGE 1 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 10 12 12 12 13 15 17 18 20 23 CHAPTER II. THE JNFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANBIALS. Definition of Terms, . . . . Important Intercommunicable Diseases, Glanders 24 24 25 X CONTENTS. PAGE Hoo Choleba, 25 Texas Fever, 26 Anthrax, 27 Tuberculosis, 27 Actinomycosis, 28 Typhoid Fever in Animals, 28 Blyth's Theory of Typhoid Fever, 29 The Entozoic Diseases, 30 The Tape or Intestinal Worms, 30 An Iowa Case, 30 Need fob Definite Information, 31 CHAPTEE III. ON THE POLLUTION OF STREAMS. The State of Massachusetts Leads in the Study of Stream Pollution, 33 Amount of Stream Pollution Investigation, 33 The Massachusetts Work Reviewed, .* 34 Maine, 45 Connecticut, 45 Manufacturing Processes and Refuse, 46 New Jersey, 57 The Pollution of the Passaic River, 58 Investigations in Pennsylvania, 63 Minnesota, 65 The Illinois Studies, 65 Self -purification in the Illinois and Michigan Canal, .... 66 The Law of the Self-purification of Streams, 69 Stream Pollution in New York 70 Protecttve Legislation in New York, 71 Classification of Streams with Reference to Pollution, .... 72 CHAPTEE IV. THE SELF-PURIFICATION OF RUNNING STREAMS AND THE RA- TIONAL VIEW IN RELATION TO THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE BY DISCHARGE INTO TIDE-WATER. The Biological Point of View, o . 75 Beaver Dam Brook, Massachusetts, .80 Manurial Constituents of Sewage, 82 Money Value of Sewage, .......... 83 Fallacy of the Argument, . 83 The Right Way to Approach the Problem 84 Sewage Disposal Works not Properly Subject to Franchisb, ... 85 Disposal into Tide-water, . , . 86 CONTENTS. XI PAGE Disposal xnto Fresh Water, 86 The LEGiriMATE Conclusion, 89 The Rational View of Disposal into Tide-water, ..... 89 CHAPTEK V. THE COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE MUDS. The Conditions Favorable to Sedimentation, Macadam's Study of the Water of the Leith, Scotland, . Dr. Beale's Study of Thames Mud, Lortet's Eesults from a Study of the Mud of Lake Geneva, "What the Several Studies Indicate, 92 93 94 95 96 CHAPTER VI. LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE CASE. Use How the Right of Property in a Water-course is Derived, Riparian Proprietor's RiciUT to a Stream in its Natural Condition Natural and Artificial Uses of a Stream, . Actionable Pollution, ...... Distinction between Natural and Artificial Use, The Case of Evans v. Merriweather, . Riparian Proprietors can Abrogate the Right to the Natural Right to the Use of a Stream can be Acquired by Grant, Prescriptive Rights in Streams, The Case of Bealy v. Shaw, ...... Popular Views of Prescrii'tion, ..... The Law op Custom, The Proper Application of the Fundamental PRXNClPiiES, The Case of Lake Cochituate, Chancellor Kent's Views, ...... Gould's Definition of Prescription, .... Engllsh Cases, Original Application of the Doctrine of Adverse Possession, The Relation of Legal Principles to the Development of Science, 'J'he ^Mill Acts, 'J'hk Law op Eminent Domain, .... Chief-.Ti^stice Bioelow on Eminent Domain, The Underlying Principle of the Mill Acts, The Principle of Permissh'e Pollution, The Views of the Massachusetts Drainage Commission, The Right of the Legislature to Prescribe Rules for the Protbotion of Stkeams, The Important Points, 97 97 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 105 107 107 108 109 109 110 110 111 112 113 113 11") 117 xu CONTENTS. CHAPTEE VII. QUANTITY OF SEWAGE AND VARIATION IN EATE OF FLOW. FAOB Dearth of Accurate Information, .119 The Use of Water in American Cities, 119 The Use of Water does not Follow any Law, 123 Necessity for Considering Future Growth, 127 How TO Determine the Law of Increase of Population, .... 129 Generalizations, 131 Cause of Variations in Quantity of Sewage, 131 The Infiltration of Ground-water, 131 Provision for Rainfall in Combined Systems, 132 The Time of Occurrence of Maximum and Minimum Flow, . . . 137 Results of Sewer Gagings, . 140 A Year's Daily Sewage Pumping Record at Atlantic City, New Jersey, . 144 CHAPTEK VIII. GENERAL DATA OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL. The Constituents of Sewage, .... Sewer Systems — Separate or Combined, The A\'erage Composition of American Sewage, The Average Composition of English Sewage, Relation of A:«erican to English Sewage, . The Composition of London Sewage, Character of Drainage from Street Surfaces, The Data of Huthan Excrements, . Analyses and Values op Fertilizers, Theoretical Values, The Fixed Data of Sewage Disposal, The Mechanical Analysis of Soils, Classification of Soil Particles, Quality of ]Material Required for Intermittent Filteation, Mechanical Composition of Materials Used at Lawrence, Relation between Quality of Filtering INIaterial and Quantity of Ap lied Sewage, 150 150 152 153 153 154 154 155 160 162 163 163 163 163 166 168 CHAPTER IX. DISCHARGE INTO TIDAL OR OTHER LARGE BODIES OF WATER. Early American Sewerage Systems, .169 Sewerage at Chicago, 169 Condition of English Towns Fifty Years ago, 170 Results of the Early Sewerage Systems, • . 171 CONTENTS. XIU PAGE Mr. Chesbrough's Chicago Eeport, 172 The Chicago Eiver, 173 The Chicago Water Supply, « . 176 Contamination of the Chicago Water Supply, 177 The Boston Main Drainage, 177 Early Se-wtirs of Boston, 177 The Massachusetts Sewer Act of 1709, 178 The Limits of Original Boston 179 The Boston Sewerage Commission of 1875, 180 Description of the Boston Main Drainage, ...... 182 CHAPTER X. ON NITRIFICATION AND THE NITRIFYING ORGANISM. 1882, Warington's Paper before the Society of Arts in Warington's Paper of 1884, .... The Massachusetts Investigations, . Disappearance of a Portion of the Nitrogen, Practical Experiments, Present Theory of Nitrification, . DENriRinCATION, 188 189 190 194 195 201 201 CHAPTER XI. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION. Definition op the Process, Re -agents, .... Theory op Precipitation Conditions Essential for Success, Classification of Chemical Treatments, . . . Capacity of Precipit.\tion Tanks, Vektical Tanks, jNIethods of Sludge Disposal, ...... Methods of Mixing Chemicals, ..... The Massachusetts Experiments on Chemical Purification, Co.ST OF Chemicals, Detail of the Experiments, IIki'euimknts with Lime, Lime and Copperas, ........ Ferric Sulphate, Aluminum Sulphate, Results with Different Amounts of Chemicals but of EqU4 Deductions, ......... PcHtFi(".\TioN of Sewage by Akr.viion, .... CuE.MicAL Precipitation hy the Use of Mang.vnate op Soda and Nitbe, aij Value 203 203 203 204 205 205 206 207 208 209 209 210 212 214 216 217 218 219 222 223 Xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. BROAD IRRIGATION. PAOK Special Applications of Broad Ikrigation in the United States, . . 225 Preparation op Land for Pipe and Hydrant System of Distribxttion, . 225 Ridge and Furrow System, 227 Catchwork System, 228 Cost of Distribution Systems 229 Underdraining, 232 Irrigation Practice, 234 Sewage Irrigation Fallacies, 234 Report of the Sewage of Towns Commission, 235 Results Obtained on the Application of Sewage to IVIeadow and Italian Rye Grass, 238 Results Obtained with Fattening Oxen, 239 Results Obtained with Milch Cows, 239 Composition of the Rugby Sewage, 240 Chemical Composition of the Grass, 240 Effect of Sewage on the Mixed Herbage of Grass Land, . . .241 Composition of the Milk from the Unse waged and the Sew aged Grass, 241 Results Obtained on the Application of Sewage to Oats, . . . 241 General Conclusions, 242 The Royal Agricultural Society's Sewage Farm Competition, . . . 243 Exploded Objections, 248 CHAPTER XIII. ON SILOS AND THEIR USE IN SEWAGE FARMING. Definition of Terms, 254 How Silage is Produced, 254 Early Use of Silos, 255 The Modern Use of Silos, 255 The Value of Ensilage in Sewage Farming, 256 Ensilage in the United States, 257 Sources of Information, 257 Experiments with Rye Grass, 258 CHAPTER XIV. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION. Origin of Intermittent Filtration, 261 Definition of Intermittent Filtration, 262 The Theory op Intermittent Filtration, 262 The New Thesis of Intermittent Filtration, 265 CONTENTS. XV PAGE EESUiiTS WITH Tank No. 1, 266 Tank No. 2 270 Experiments with Trenches, 270 ExPERniENTs with Fine Soil, 272 Experiments with Sand Co%'ered with Soil, 273 Experiments with Peat, Loam, etc., 271 Experiments with Coarse Gravel, 275 On the Use of the Effluents for Drinking Water, 277 Permanency of Filters and Eenewal of Sand, 279 The Effect of Frost and Snow upon Intermittent Filtration at Law- rence, Massachusetts, 280 Frost and Snow at the South Framingham, Massachusetts, Filtkb Beds, 284 Snow on the Filter Beds at Summit, New Jersey, 285 Nummary, 286 CHAPTER XV. SUB-SUEFACE ieeigation, . . . . . 292 CHAPTER XVI. THE DISPOSAL OF MANUFACTUEING WASTES. Classification, • . 294 Manufacturing Wastes — How Purified 294 Eelative Danger to Health, 295 Difficulties in the Way of Purification, 295 American Examples, 296 A Study of Paper Mill Wastes, 299 CHAPTER XVII. ON THE TEIVIPEEATUEE OF THE AIE AND OF NATUEAL SOILS, AND ITS EELATION TO SEWAGE PUEIFICATION BY BEOAD IEEIGATION AND INTEEMITTENT FILTEATION. Empirical Tendency of English Practice in Sewage Disposal, Information Still Lacking, .... Temper vTiRKS of Air and Sewage at Lawrence, Comparison of Air Temper ATUitES at a Number of Soil Temperature Observations Abroad, E ELATION OF SPECIFIC HeAT TO SeWAGE DISPOSAL, How Heated Bodies Cool, .... Solar and Terrestrial Eadiation, . Amerkun Soil Temperature Observations, Eemedies for Frost, Comparative Estimates, Deductions, Places, 303 303 304 306 308 309 312 317 321 333 334 339 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XYIU. PAOK ON BEGGIATOA ALBA AND ITS EELATION TO SEWAGE EFFLUENTS, 342 CHAPTER XIX. THE EFFECT OF THE POLLUTION OF STEEAMS BY MANU- FACTURING WASTES UPON THE LIFE OF FISH. Penny and Adams' Experiments, 344 Saare and Schwab's Experiments, 346 Experiments of the United States Fish Commission, . • • . . 346 CHAPTER XX. CONCLUSIONS TO PAKT L, 349 PART II. DESCRIPTIONS OF WORKS. CHAPTER XXI. PAIL SYSTEM AT HEMLOCK LAKE, NEW YOEK, . . . .351 CHAPTER XXII. THE FULLEETON AVENUE CONDUIT AND THE BEIDGEPOET PUMPING STATION, CHICAGO, 357 CHAPTER XXIII. CHEMICAL PEECIPITATION PLANTS AT CONEY ISLAND, BOUND LAKE, WHITE PLAINS, AND SHEEPSHEAD BAY, NEW YOEK, 369 CHAPTER XXIV. CHEMICAL PEECIPITATION AND FILTRATION AT EAST OEANGE, NEW JEESEY 383 CONTENTS. XVll CHAPTER XXV. PAGE CHEMICAL PEECIPITATION AND IMECHANICAL SEPAEATION AT LONG BRANCH, NEW JERSEY, 399 CHAPTER XXVI. THE MYSTIC VALLEY CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION WORKS, . , 405 CHAPTER XXVII. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, . 415 CHAPTER XXVIII. DISCHARGE INTO TIDE-WATER AND PROPOSED CHEMICAL PRE- CIPITATION AT PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND, ... 441 CHAPTER XXIX. BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE STATE HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, 456 CHAPTER XXX. BROAD IRRIGATION AND INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT PULLMAN, ILLINOIS, 460 CHAPTER XXXI. BRO.\D IRRIGATION AT THE MASSACHUSETTS REFORMATORY, CONCORD, . 468 CHAPTER XXXII. BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE RHODE ISLAND STATE INSTITU- TIONS, ........ 475 CHAPTER XXXIII. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AND BROAD IRRIGATION AT SOUTH rUAMIXGHAM, MASSACHUSETTS, 480 Xvill CONTENTS. CHAPTEK XXXIV. PAGE INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MEDFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS, . 490 CHAPTEE XXXV. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AND BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE LONDON, ONTARIO, HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, . . .494 CHAPTEE XXXVI. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AND INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT THE ROCHESTER, MINNESOTA, HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, 500 CHAPTEE XXXVII. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MARLBOROUGH, MASSACHU- SETTS, 504 CHAPTEE XXXVIII. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT THE MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOL FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED, 507 CHAPTEE XXXIX. SUB -SURFACE IRRIGATION AT THE LAWRENCEVILLE, NEW JERSEY, SCHOOL FOR BOYS, 511 CHAPTEE XL. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT GARDNER, MASSACHUSETTS, , 516 CHAPTEE XLI. XNTER^HTTENT FILTRATION AT SUMMIT, NEW JERSEY, . . 522 CHAPTEE XLII. LAND DISPOSAL AT HASTINGS, NEBRASKA, . .... 528 CONTENTS. XIX CHAPTEE XLin. PAGE SURFACE IRRIGATION AT WAYNE, PENNSYLVANIA, , . . 532 CHAPTER XLIV. THE USE OF SEWAGE FOR IRRIGATION IN THE WEST, . . 539 CoLOEADO Springs, Col.— Trinidad, Col. — Fresno, Cal. — Pasadena, Cal. — Redding, Cal. — Los Angeles, Cal. — Santa Rosa, Cal. — Helena, Mont. — Cheyenne, Wyo. — Stockton, Cal. CHAPTER XLV. MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS, 560 Sub-Surface Disposal at Lenox, Mass. — Disposal Upon Land and Sedi- mentation AT Amher-st, Mass, — Disposal on Land at Greenfield, Ma.ss.— Mechanical Separation at Atlantic City, N. J., and Lead- viLLE, Col. — Electrical Treatment at Brewsters, N. Y. — Chemical Precipitation at Canton, O., Chautauqua, N. Y., and the World's Co- lumbian Exposition. — Purification Works under Construction. APPENDICES. I. The English Rivers Pollution Act of 1876, 569 n. The New York State Act of 1885, 574 III. Rur,ES and Regulations for the S.\nitary Protection of the Waters of Hemlock Lake, 575 IV. The Massachusetts Act for the Protection of Inland Waters as Amended in 1888, 578 V. Decision of Chancellor. Newark, New Jersey, Aqueduct Board v. City of Passaic, 579 VI. The Virginia Act to Prex'ENT the Pollution of Potable W.\ter Used for the Supply of Cities, Passed in 1892, 586 VII. Rules of the New York State Board of Health Governing the Preparation of Slch Plans for Sewerage and Sewage Disposal Works as are Required ry Law to be Sitbmitted to th.\t Board FOR Approval, VIII. The Minnesota Act to PRE^•ENT the Pollution of Rivers and Sources of Water Sui'I'ly, 588 586 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. TO PACK PAGK I. Chemical Examinations of Croton Water, 1876, 1885-86, and 1888, 71 II. Daily Sewage Pumpage at Atlantic City, N. J., for One Year, . 145 III. Chevhcal Precipitation Works at White Plains, N. Y., . . . 375 IV. Details of Worce.stek Precipitation Tanks, ..... 434 V. Maps of Marlborough Town and Plan op Filter Beds, . . . 504 VI. Details of Intermittent Filtr.\tion Plant at Marlborough, Mass., 505 VII. Plan and Details of Sewage Farm, Hastings, Neb., . . . 529 FIGUEES IN TEXT. 1. Water- Works Intakes at Junction of Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, 2. Map of Lausen, Switzerland, ....... 3. Decrease of Free and Albuminoid Ammonia in the Illinois and Mich IGAN Canal between Bridgeport and Lockport, 4. Proposed Multiple Discharge Outlet Sewer at Milwaukee, Wis. 5. Diagram illustrating the Law of Gbo-\vth of American Cities, 6. Water Consumption and Sewage Pumpage at Atlantic City, N. J., 7. MEf^HANicAL Composition of Sand Used for Filtration at the Law rence Experiment Station, ....... 6. Proportion of Sewage and Lake Water in the Chicago River, 9. Map showing Original Boston, Old Sewer Outlets, New Intercept iNG Sewers, and the Outfall Sewer to Moon Island, 10. View of Moon Island Storage Reservoir, Boston Sewerage System 11. Floating Arm for Decanting Effluent from Tank, . 12. Plan and Section of Ridge and Furrow System, 13. Ridcje and Furrow Beds with Cropping, ..... 14. Catchwork System of Irrigation, ...... 15. Distribution Sy.stem applicable to Land with a Uniform Slope, 16. Distribution System applicable to a Field Intersected by a Ridge 17. Combined Pipe and Ovks Carrier System of Di.stribution, 18. Italian Rye Grass. ......... 19. View of Sewage Farm at Hkuidud, England, .... 11 16 69 88 130 147 167 176 181 185 205 226 227 228 231 232 233 246 248 XXii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOK 20. View of Sewage Fabm at Wimbledon, England, .... 249 21. Sewage Filtration Fields at Mitcham, England, .... 250 22. Large Experimental Tanks at Lawrence, Mass., .... 266 23. Plan and Section of Filter Trenches at Lawrence, . . . 271 24. Snow-covered Sewage Filter Bed at South Framingham, Mass., . 284 25. Suggestions fob Covered Winteb Absorption Drains, . . . 289 26. Cultivated Filtration Abea with Absorption Ditches, Luton, England, 290 27. Method of Adapting Intermittent Filtration Area to Cultivation BY Means of Absorption Ditches, 291 28. Section of High Grade Intermittent Filtration Beds, . . . 291 29. Settling Basins at Woollen Mills, Hyde Park, Mass., . . . 298 30. Mechanical Filter at Tannery, Winchester, Mass., . • . 298 31. fullerton avenue conduit pumping station, chicago, . . . 358 32. Sections through Fullertox Avenue Conduit, ..... 359 33. Plan showing Location of Bridgeport Canal Pumping Station, . 363 34. Plan of Bridgeport Pumping Station, 364 35. Cross-section of Bridgeport Pumping Station, .... 365 36. Longitudinal Section of Set of Bridgeport Pumping Engines, . 366 37. Sections op Centrifugal Pumps, Bridgeport, 367 38. Sketch Plan of Sewage Purification Works at Coney Island, N. Y., 370 39. Longitudinal Section through Coney Island Tanks and Pump Well, 370 40. Sectional Plan of Sewage Purification Works at Round Lake, N. Y., 373 41. Vertical Sections through Round Lake Works, .... 373 42. HiNGFJD Screen in Seavage Tank at White Plains, N. Y., . . . 377 43. Automatic Feed Cock from Lime Tank, 377 44. Automatic Three-way Cock for Perchloride of Iron Tank, . . 378 45. Map of East Orange, N. J., and Vicinity, 384 46. General View of Sewage Disposal Works, East Orange, N. J., . 387 47. View of East Orange Works, showing Filtration Area, . . 389 48. General Plan op East Orange Disposal Works, .... 391 49. Sections through East Orange Disposal Area, ..... 391 50. Plans and Sections of East Orange Chemical Precipitation Works, 392 51. East Orange Sludge and Sludge Forcing Receivers, . . . 393 52. Johnson Filter Press in Operation at East Orange, . . . 395 53. Plan and Section of Sewage Purification Works at Long Branch, N. J., AND Sections through Tidal Chamber, 400 54. Plan of Sludss Compressing Appar.vtus, Long Branch, N. J., . . 401 55. Details op Sludge Compressing Apparatus, Long Branch, N. J., . 402 56. Det.uls of Slud(4E Compressing Apparatus, Long Branch, N. J., . 403 57. General View op Mystic Valley Sewage Disposal Works, . . 411 58. General Plvn of the Mystic Valley Sewage D.sposal Works, . 412 59. Cross-section through Mystic Valley Sewage Disposal Works, . 413 60. Plan of Sewage Disposal Tanks at Worcester, Mass., . . . 432 61. General View of Worcester Disposal Works, ..... 433 62. View of Central Channel. Worcester Precipitating Tanks, . . 434 63. Cross-section of New Lime Agitator, Worcester, Mass., . . 435 64. Plan of Outlet Sewer at Fields Point, Providence, R. I., . . 451 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXlii PAGE 65. Sections of OdtijET Sewek, Providence, R. I., 452 66. Sections of Outlet Sewer, Providence, R. I., 453 67. View in Storm OutllEt of Providence Intercepting Sewers, . . 454 68. Plan of Disposal Area, Hospital for the Insas-e, Worcester, Mass., 457 69. Settling Tank at the Hospital for the Insane, Worcester, Mass., 458 70. Plan of Sewage Farm at Pullman, III., as Laid Out in 1880, . 462 71. Screening Tank and Pressure Regulating Valve at Pullman, III., 464 72. Plan of Disposal Works, Massachusetts Reformatory, Concord, . 469 73. Receiving and Separating Tanivs, Massachusetts Reformatory, . 470 74. Plan of Dlsposal Area, Rhode Island State Institutions, Cranston, 476 75. Screening Basket, Rhode Island State Institutions, . . . 477 76. Details of Carrier and Drain, Rhode Island State Institutions, . 478 77. Map of South Framingham, Mass., and Vicinity 481 78. Plan of Reservoirs and Pumping Station, South Frasiingham, Mass., 485 79. Sections through Settijng and Filtering Tanks, Medfield, Mass., . 491 80. Plan and Section through Sewage Outlets and Cesspool, Med- field, Mass., 492 8L Disposal Area, Hospital for the Insane, Lont>on, Ont., . . . 495 82. Section of Arsorption Ditches, 496 83. Collecting Tank ant) Pumping Station, Hospital for the Insane, London, Ont., 497 84. Section of Carrier Ditches, 498 85 Details of Distributing Well, Hospital for the Insane, London, Ont., 498 86. Section of Dlstributing Ditches, 499 87. Plan of Disposal Works, Second Minnesota Hospital for the In- sane, Rochester, Minn., ......... 500 88. Precipit.\tion Tank, Second Minnesota Hospital for the Insane, . 501 89. Detaining Tank, Massachusetts School for the Feeble-minded, . 508 90. Plan of Disposal Works, School for the Feeble-minded, . . 509 91. Receiving and Settling Tank, Lawtrenceville, N. J., School, . . 512 92. Pl.\n of Disposal Worls, Lawrenckst:lle School, .... 513 93. Pl.\n and Section of Settling Tank, Gardner, Mass., . . . 517 94. Inlet to Settling Tanks, 518 95. Gates on Outlet-pipe from Tank, 518 96. Plan of Filter Areas, Gardn-er, Mass., 519 97. Plan of Filter Areas, Summit, N. J., 523 98. View of Summit Filter Areas from Road near Northwest Corner, 524 99. Details of Sewage Carrier, 525 100. Plan and Elev.\tion of Plug for Carrier, 526 101. Plan and SEcnoN through Tile Chamber, 526 102. SErTioNs through Tile Chambers .\nd Underdrains at Changes of Gr^de at Embankments, Summit, N. J., 527 103. Plan op Disposal Works, Wayne, Pa., 533 104. Screening Chamber, 534 105. RECEmNO Tank and Pump House, 534 106. Distributing Well, 535 107. Cross-section through Cinder Bank 535 XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 108. Genebaij View of Disposal Works from North Side of Cbeee, . 536 109. GENERAii View of Works from South Side of Creek, . . . 537 110. PiiAN OF Sewage Farm at Colorado Springs, Col., .... 541 111. Pii.\N of Sewage Farm at Trinidad, Col., 544 112. Sketch of Sewage Outlet Gate, Pasadena, Cal., .... 547 113. Plan of Sewage Farm, Bedding, Cal., 550 114. Plan of Chemical Precipitation Plant, Canton, O 564 115. Sections of Canton PREcrpiTATiNG Tanks 564 116. Elevation and Section of Eeceiving and PBEOiPiTATiNa Tanks, World's Columbian Exposition, . • 566 LIST OF TABLES IN PART L KUMBEB 07 TABLB 1. 2. 3. 4. 4 A. 4B. 4C. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 13 A. 13 B. 13 C. 14. 14 A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. FAGB Statistics of Typhoid Fever in Lowell and Lawrence, Mass., 1890-91, 9 Deaths from Typhoid Fever in 13 Cities of Massachusetts before and after the Introduction of Public Water Supplies, .... 18 Statistics of Tvphoid Fever and Deaths from all Causes in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, 1870 to 1891, .... 19 Typhoid Fever at Eochester, N. Y., from 1870 to 1891, ... 20 Analyses of Water of Blackstone River, made in 1887, 1888, and 1889, 43 Analyses of Waters of Blackstone River, made in 1889 and 1890, . 44 Analyses of Connecticut River Water, made in 1890 and 1891, . . 57 Analyses of Passaic River Water above the Great Falls at Paterson, . 60 Analvses of Passaic River Water between the Great Falls and Dundee Lake, 60 Analyses of Dundee Canal Water at and near Passaic, N. J., . . 61 Chemical Changes in Passaic River Water at Six Points, ... 62 Chemical Changes in the Water of the Illinois and Michigan Canal while flowing 29 miles from Bridgeport to Lockport, ... 67 Analyses of Water from South Framingham Underdrain, ... 80 Results of Microscopical Examination of Framingham Samples, . 81 Constituents of Sewage, ......... 83 Daily Consumption of Water in Cities of the United States with a Population of over 10,000 in 1890, .120 Daily Consumption of Water, classified by Amounts and Size of City, 123 Population per Water-Tap, classified by Numbers and Size of City, . 124 Consumption of Water and Use of Meters in the 50 Largest Cities of the United States, 125 Increase in per Capita Consumption of Water, ..... 126 Water Pumiced per Family at Detroit, Mich., 1853 to 1892, inclusive, 126 Inci'ease in Population in 10 Years in a Number of Cities and Towns of the United States with from 8,000 to 50,000 Inhabitants in 1890, 127 Increase in Population in 10 Years in Cities of the United States of over 50,000 Inhabitants in 1890, 128 Population of a Number of the Smaller Cities and Towns of the United States at each 10-Year Period from 1800 to 1890, . . 129 Population of a Number of the Largest Cities of the United States at. each 10-Year Period from 1800 to 1890,, 130 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Milwaukee, Wis., 1871 to 1892, . 134 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Detroit, Mich., 1871 to 1892, . . 134 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Cleveland, O., 1871 to 1892, . . 135 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Rochester, N. Y., 1872 to 1892, . 135 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Cincinnati, O., 1871 to 1892, . . 136 Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Atlanta, Ga., 1879 to 1892, . . 136 Rainfalls in Excess of 2.5 Inches in 24 Hours at Vicksburg, Miss., 1872 to 1H92, 136 Heaviest Rainfalls, with Duration, at Shreveport, La., 1872 to 1891, . 137 Total Average Daily Use of Water at Rochester, N. Y 138 XXVI LIST OF TABLES IN PART I. StJMBER OF TABIJC 28. 29. 30. 31. 31 A. 31 B. 31 C. 31 D. 31 E. 32. 33. 33 A. 34. 35. 36. 36 A. 36 B. 36 C. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 41 A. 41 B. 42. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 53 A 54. 55. 56. 57, 58. Approximate Use of Water at Rochester, N. Y., from the Hemlock Lake System by Hours on Three Different Days in 1890, Flow of a Number of Outfall Sewers in Providence, li. I., in 1884, Flow of the Main Outfall Sewer of the State Insane Hos^jital at Weston, W. Va., in January, 1891, Hourly Flow in the Main Sewer at Schenectady, N. Y., Sewer Gagings at Toronto, Ont., in 1891, A Year's Daily Sewage Pumpage at Atlantic City, N. J., Water Consumi)tion and Sewage Pumpage at Atlantic City, N. J., Maximum and Minimum Daily Pumpage of Sewage, by Months, at Atlantic City, N. J., for the Year ending with November, 1892, Monthly Temperatures and Precipitation at Atlantic City, N. J., Average Composition of the Sewage Experimented with at Lawrence, Average Composition of Sewage of English Towns, Means of Analyses of London Sewage, made by W. J. Dibdin in 1883, Weight of the'Excrements of 100,000 Persons for a Year, . Weight of Excrements per Person per Day and the Organic Nitrogen and Phosphates contained therein, ..... Weight of Excrements per Person per Year, .... Average Composition of Human Excrements, .... Analyses of Night Soil from Vaults, Manurial Constituents of the Excrements of Domestic Animals and Human Beings, ......... Analyses of Soils from the South Carolina Experiment Farms, . Approximate Number and Average Diameter of Particles in One Gram of Soil from the Farms of the South Carolina Experiment Stations, Surface Area of Particles in One Gram of Soil from the Farms of the South Carolina Experiment Stations, Per Cent, of Empty Space in a Number of Soils in Comparison with Average Size of Particles, Approximate Niimber of Particles, and Surface Area, per Gram, ......... Mechanical Composition of the Materials used in a Number of the Experimental Filter Tanks at the Lawrence Experiment Station, Size and Uniformity Coefficient of Lawrence Filtering Materials, Quantity of Sewage applied to Different Filtering Materials at Law- rence, ............ Amount of Sewage iiussing through the Deposit Sewers of the Boston Main Drainage in 1887, and the Amount of Sludge removed, . Tank Capacity in Relation to Population and Quantity of Sewage at Three English Towns, ......... Results of Chemical Treatment in Large Tank at Lawrence, Summary of Second Experiments on Chemical Treatment at Lawrence, Results of Precipitation with Large Excess of Lime, .... Results of Precipitation with Lime about Equal to the Carbonic Acid, Results of Treatment of Sewage with about 500 Pounds of Copperas per 1,000,000 Gallons, and Lime adjusted to the Cop])eras, Results of Treatment of Sewage with 1,000 Pounds of Copperas per 1,000,000 Gallons, and Lime adjusted to the Copperas, Results of Treatment of Sewage with Ferric Sulphate, Results of Treatment of Sewage with Alum, ..... Results of Treatment with Equal Values of Different Chemicals, Per Cent, of Soluble Organic Matter removed by Chemicals of Equal Valne, Treatment with Lime and Copperas, followed by Aeration of Effluent, Three Years' Experiments at the Sewage Farm in Rugby, England, . Per Cent, of Dry Substance in Crops raised on Experimental Fields, Results of Feeding Unsewaged and Sewaged Grass to Milch Cows, . Statistics of Foreign Sewage Irrigation and Filtration, Per Cent, of applied Nitrogen that appears in the Effluent as Nitrates, 139 141 142 143 144 145 146 148 148 152 153 155 155 156 156 157 157 158 164 164 165 165 166 167 168 184 206 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 217 218 219 222 237 237 238 247 267 LIST OF TABLKS IN PART I. XXvii NUMBEE OF TABLE 59. Number of Bacteria in Sewage applied to Coarse Sand Filter No. 1, in the Effluent tlierefroni ; together with the Amount aj^plied, Amount of Effluent, and Temperature of Sewage and Effluent, . 2G7 60. Mineral Analyses of Sewage applied to Tank No. 1, and of its Effluent, 2G8 Gl. Per Cent, of the Ammonias in the Sewage applied to Tank No. 1, which appeared in the Effluent in Comparison with the Percentage of tlie Total Nitrogen in the Effluent, 268 62. Total Nitrogen applied to Tank No. 1, Amount appearing in the Efflu- ent, Amount stored in the Tank, and the Unaccounted-for Balance, 269 63. Daily Quantity of Effluent in Gallons per Acre, the Average Amounts of Ammonia, Nitiates, and Bacteria in the Effluent, and the Time of passing through One Foot in Tank No. 2, Clean, Fine Sand, . . 275 61. Average Quality of the Effluent from a Fine Gravel Filter in Compari- son with the Original Sewage when filtering at the Bate of 108,500 Gallons |)er Acre ]ier Day, ........ 276 65. Average Qnulity of the Effluent from a Fine Gravel Filter in Compari- son with the Original Sewage, after Filtering at Rate of 70,000 Gallons per Acre per Day foi' Seven Months, ..... 276 66. Comparison of the Effluent from Several of the Experimental Filters with Water from Wells in the City of Lawrence in Common Use, 278 66 A. Per Cent, of Organic Matter remaining in Filters in Winter, . . 282 66 B. Bacteria in Effluent from Ex])erimentui Filters in Winter, . . . 283 67. Examination of Various Saniples of Eefuse from Crehore's Paj^er Mill, 301 68. Examination of Various Samples of Refuse from Crehore's Paper Mill, 302 69. Mean INIaximum, Mean Minimum, and Mean Temperatures of Air at Lawrence during the Winters of 1887-88 and 1888-89, . . .304 70. Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Tenii)eratures of Aiii:)lied Sewage and Effluent at Lawrence, from January, 1888, to Ajnil, 1889, inclusive, 305 71. Winter Temperatures in Europe and the United States, . . . 306 72. Winter Temperatures of 1886 and 1887 in Michigan, . . . .307 73. Winter Temperatures for a Series of Years in Alabama, . . . 307 74. Soil Temperatures at the Berlin Sewage Farms in 1884 and 1885, . 309 75. Heat Retaining Power of Different Soils, 311 76. Time Sewage remained on Surface when applied to Sand Filters, . 312 77. Heating Effect of the Sun on Wet and Dry Soils of Different Colors, 319 78. Tomi)eratui-es of the Air and of tlie Soil at Various De])tlis, Novem- ber, 1890, to April, 1891, inclusive, at State College, Pennsylvania, 322 79. Temperatui-es of the Air and of the Soil at Various Depths, Terres- trial and Solar Radiation, Mav to October, 1889, inclusive, at Maine State College, Orono, Me., " 323 80. Temperatures of the Air and of the Soil of Various Dejjths, January to Ai)ril, 1889, inclusive, at St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, . '. 324 81. Tem])eratures of the Air and Soil at Lincoln, N(»l)., .... 325 82. Tempeiatures of the Air, Januarv to A]n'il, inclusive, 1889 and 1890, at Fort Collins, Col.. . ' 327 83. Weeklv Means of Soil 'I'lMnjicatnies at Various Dejiths, Januarv to May, 1889 and 1890. Fort Collins, Col., ' . 327 84. Teni])ei'atutes of .Air and Soil and Terrestrial Radiation, for 1890, at Fort Collins, Col., 327 85. DitFeicnce in Temi>eratur(' of the Soil at Various Dejitlis in Div and Wet Giound at F(M-t Collins, Col., in 1890, . . . ." .328 8('>. :\ronthlv Evu))oration at Fort Collins, Col.. 1887 to 1890. inclusive, . 329 87. Solar and Terrestrial Radiation at Fort Collins, Col., . . . . 329 88. Teni])pratnies of Air and Soil at Vaiious Depths, Auburn, Ala., . 331 89. Mean of .\ii-, Teircstrial, and Soil 'i'hermometers at Auburn. Ala., . 332 90. Maximum and 'Minimum Tempeiaturi^s of T<'rrestrial Radiation, Air and Soil Thermometers, for 1889, at .\uburn, Ala., . . . 332 91. General Re-sults of Penny and Adams' Experiments on Fish, . 345 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN" THE UNITED STATES. PART I. DISCUSSION OF PRINCIPLES. CHAPTEE I. PRELIMINAEY DISCUSSION. Definition of Terms. One occasionally meets a misuse of the terms sewerage and sewage, and by way of giving a clear idea of the thing discussed we may properly begin a treatise on sewage disposal with a definition of the leading terms. By sewerage, as here used, we refer to the general process of removing the liquid and solid wastes of the human economy by water-carriage, while a seicer is the conduit through which, by the medium of water, such removal is eftected ; sewage, on the other hand, will be used as the generic term not only for the combined water and waste matters flowing in sewers, but for the mixed solid and liquid matters handled by a pail or pneumatic system as well. Sewjige disposal in its broadest sense may be taken, then, as refer- ring to any disposal or treatment of sewage which renders it innocuous to human beings ; it may include disposal by discharge into tidal or other large l)odies of water, utilization in sewage farming, or by burying, as is sometimes practised with jDail systems. Classification. AVith this definition, methods of sewage disposal may be classified under the following heads : T. The use of privies and cesspools. II. Collection by pail systems. 2 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITP:D STATES. III. The pneumatic systems of Liernur, Berlier, Shone, and others. IV. Simple subsidence or sedimentation. V. Simple filtration through some artificial substance, as coke, excelsior, or ashes. VI. Discharge of crude sewage into tidal or other large bodies of water. VII. Chemical precipitation. VIII. Broad irrigation. IX. Intermittent filtration. X. And finally electrolysis; although this method, while promis- ing good results, must still be considered as in the experi- mental state.* The first three methods will not be considered at all in this treatise, * Mechanical filtration may be also possibly regarded as another method of sewage disposal, and the Farquhar-Oldham filter is cited as a device of this character, which apparently has limited application to small quantities of sewage, as, for instance, to the sewage of detached houses. So far as the writer knows, it has never been successfully nsed on a large scale in the United States. An unsuccessful trial was made at the Mystic Valley Sewage Disposal Works a few years ago. (See reference to same in Part II.) The Lortzing sy.stem of combined mechanical and chemical purification may be referred to. According to the Inventor's Circular the following combinations of advantages have been successfully incorporated in this filter : 1. The mechanical and chemical treatments are strictly separated, all impurities capable of being eliminated mechanically being first extracted before recourse is had to chemicals. 2. By thus reducing the quantity of chemicals used, not only their cost is saved, but the quantity of the final jtroducts is diminished, and thetefore the expense of dealmg with them reduced to a proportionate degree. 3. By the provision of means for circulating the same chemicals repeatedly, it is possible to employ certain diflicultly soluble chemicals, which at present cannot be used at all, and the cost of which is merely nommal. The small cost of these materials is, however, only part of the advantage gained by their use ; a further great advantage is, that being difficultly and slowly soluble, they act at first as mechanical precipitants ; and afterwards, as they slowly dissolve in their course of circulation, their chemical action comes into play. 4. The working of the apparatus is almost automatic, and requires very little manual labor. 5. Owing to its special mechanical principles of construction and its contmuous working, no interruption being necessary for the purpose of clearing out the sediment, the space taken up by the apparatus and buildings, as compared to the quantity of work done, is reduced to a small fraction of what is now necessary. 6. Owing to the provision of natural filter-beds within the apparatus, which are formed by the sedimentary matter itself, the prime cost of additions, as well as the disadvantage of their unduly increasing the bulk of the by-products, is saved. 7. Such filters act automatically, and can be continuously and expeditiously cleaned out without any stoppage of the working. Owing to the sediments being thus removed from day to day, no time is given for decomposition and its iniurions consequences. 8. It will be clear that, as the quantity of mechanical and chemical admixtures during the process is very greatly reduced, the really valuable mgredients of the sewage are contained in the final by-products in a concentrated form, which transforms these products into a valuable marketable commodity, whilst for the converse reason the products attained by the present method are rarely worth the cost of transport, and often absolutely valueless. For further details of the Lortzing system see (1) the inventor's circular, " Improvements in the Method of, and Apparatus for. Purifying the Water-Carried Sewage of Towns," etc.; (2) an abstract of this circular, with the illustrations, may be found in Eng. News, vol. xxii. (188'.)), p. 3G2. The Lortzing system appears to be, so far as the actual purification process is concerned, essen- tially a chemical treatment, to which a certain amount of mechanical detail has been added.* It also illustrates the recent development of chemical treatment in vertical tanks, for further infor- mation regarding which see Chapter XI., on Chemical Precipitation. SEWAGE DISPOSAL A NEW SUBJECT IX THE UNITED STATES. d except that a short chapter is iuclucled in Part II. descriptive of the pail system at Hemlock lake, N. Y.* Sedimentation and simple filtration will not be considered any fur- ther than as, at times, useful adjuncts to the more positive systems of purification. Experience in England has amply demonstrated that they have little claim to be considered systems of purification by themselves. In the case of disposal into tidal or other larg-e bodies of water the problem to be solved is, in its engineering- features, purely one of physics, while that involved in disposal by chemical precipitation, broad irrigation, or intermittent filtration, may be considered as also including, in addition to the physical features, problems in chemistry and biology. With this understanding it may be premised that the chief object of the present work is to treat of sewage disposal by chemical precipitation, broad irrigation, and intermittent filtration, and that only a relatively small amount of space will be devoted to the dis- cussion of disposal into tidal or other large bodies of water. Again, electrolysis will not be discussed in this work.f Sewage Disposal a New Subject in the United States. I Sewage disposal, in its practical application, is comparatively a new subject in the United States; but the rapid growth of population, with its movement into cities and towns, has led to a large number of cases throughout the country in which sewage is discharged into streams, ponds, or lakes which are also the sources of public water * The pneumatic systems have been thoroughly described elsewhere, and inasmuch as it is im- possible, at the present time, to either add anything to what has already been said in regard to such systems, or give any examples of their use in American practice, it is sufficient to merely refer the reader to some of the sources of information which are accessible in American sanitary litera- ture, namely : (1) The Sanitation of Cities and Towns, an2) ; and (2) in a Report to the Trus- tees of the Weston, W. Va., State Insane Hospital. In Jour. W. Va. House of Delegates for Feb. 18, 1891. Both by .Mr. Rafter. 4 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. supplies. The driuking- of water containing- human excrement is a disgusting- and dangerous practice, and we cannot hope for immunity from communicable diseases until the custom is entirely discontinued. The fact that there are a number of places where this condition exists has enforced the necessity for sewag-e purification, and made it a vital question demanding immediate solution. As always happens when new conditions arise, numerous remedies are proposed, many of them bearing little or no relation to the case to be treated ; and by way of assisting to a clear understanding of the present state of the whole question, it is proposed to give herein a presentation of (1) some of the main reasons why sewage purification may be considered in many cases an imperative necessity ; (2) a brief statement of the approved methods of effecting sewage purification ; and (3) an account of the principal sewage purification works, already in operation in this country, together with a description of a few notable disposal works designed to remove sewage without purifica- tion. In the beginning, then, we need to understand clearly Avhy sewage purification is, in many cases, an imperative necessity ; and by way of assisting to such understanding, we will present a short statement of the leading facts, as now understood, in relation to the causation of communicable diseases, and the bearing of such facts on sewage disposal. The Germ Theory op Disease. Certain diseases of men and animals are communicable from one in- dividual to another, and the modern studies in bacteriology show that some of them are not only communicable between individuals of the same species, but are interchangeable between animals and men, and between men and animals. The germ theory of disease as announced in the last few years is the most rational explanation of the causation of communicable diseases that has yet been advanced, and, without asserting its absolute cor- rectness, it may be still said that at the present time all advanced sanitarians assume its correctness, and the best sanitar}^ work is exe- cuted on the supposition that the said theory is essentially correct. It is important that this be thoroughly understood, because the as- sumption of essential correctness of the germ theory forces upon sani- tary authorities the responsibility of not only taking certain precautions and providing ]ireventive measures always, but leaves upon them the responsibility of possibly imperilling human life in case of neglect. The germ theory assumes that the active causes of communicable or contagious diseases are minute, living organisms, for the most part capable of independent life both within and without the animal body. TYPHOID FEVER. 5 They belong- among the Schizomycetes, or fission-fimg-i, embracing the lowest and least developed forms of life in the vegetable kingdom, and they may hence be considered the very simplest forms of plants. Some of the forms are bacilli, micrococci, spirilla, vibrios, all of which may be referred to as bacteria. Many forms of bacteria are harmless and must be looked upon as the beneficent friends of man, doing him many a good turn which other- wise he would find it difiicult to accomplish. Others are the morbific causes, when they gain access to the human economy, of the various infectious or communicable diseases. Attention may be here directed to the fact that the bacteria, although microscopic in size, are still, so far as the evidence g"oes, divided into distinct species, and by conse- quence each contagious disease has its own specific germ, which must be present in every case before that particular disease can be de- veloped. Once introduced into the animal body, however, the specific g-erm, after a period of incubation, finally grows and multiplies enormously; so that while a single germ, or the least atom of infectious material, serves to inoculate a disease in a susceptible person, the contagious matter produced in the course of the disease may be sufficient to inocu- late many thousands. In each special disease, the contagion multi- plies chiefly in the particular tissues which are especially subject to its action, and the infective germs are cast off from the body wdtli the secretions of those tissues. Thus, in typhoid fever, the seat of the disease is such that the infectious matter passes away in large quanti- ties in the dejections from the boAvels. Typhoid Fever. The period of incubation in typhoid is a long one, of from 14 to 20 days, while the course of the disease after full development is usually as many more. Frequently this disease is of so mild a character, that the person having it is unaware of its jiresence. This constitutes a walking case, but the dejections from such are quite as dangerous as from the severest cases. A walking case of typhoid may go about for a number of weeks, sowing the germs of the disease broadcast with every dejection, absolutely without knowledge of the fact, and with no unpleasant sensation other than that which accompanies being slightly unwell. How Typhoid Germs Gain Access to the Human Economy. The germs of tvi)hoid usn.-illy gain access to tlio animal ocouomy through the medium of drinking-water, although the germs may be 6 SEWAGK DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. present in the air of sewers receiving- the dejections of typhoid patients, as has been demonstrated by Dr. Victor C. Vaughan, of the University of Michigan. When this is the case, breathing- the sewer air will lead to the production of the disease, as happened at the Jack- son prison, in a case studied by Dr. Vaughau.* Usually, however, the germ of typhoid, by reason of passing from the body of the patient in the dejections, is liable to be present in the water we drink rather than in the air we breathe, and the length of time the germs will survive, after passing from the human body into a stream of water as a constituent of sewage, becomes a practical ques- tion of considerable importance in connection with sewage disposal, especially where a stream of moderate size receives sewage at a given point, and is at the same time, lower down, the source of a public water supply. Kesponsibility of Purification. The question, Upon whom does the resi^onsibility of purification rest? has been raised in a number of cases, and from the foregoing considera- tions it may be concluded that it rests upon every community, manu- facturing establishment, public institution, or individual Avhose sewage outfall is into a stream, pond, lake, or other bod}" of water, which either is or may be the source of a public water supply at any point fairly within the influence of the inflowing sewage. In this view, the further question at once arises as to what may be considered the legitimate limit of influence ; to this a definite answer is afforded, in one case, by some experiments on the vitality of the germ of typhoid fever, as detailed by Hiram F. Mills, A.M., C.E.f Typhoid Fever at Lawrence and Lowell. In the month of November, 1890, the Massachusetts health returns indicated that the number of deaths by typhoid fever in Lowell far exceeded that of the whole city of Boston. The returns also showed a rapid increase at the same time in Lawrence, and, as no similar in- crease appeared in the other cities of the State, the State Board of Health made the matter the subject of special investigation in these two cities. Lowell has a population of 77,696, Lawrence 44,654, and Boston 448,477, all in 1890. Lawrence and Lowell are on the Merrimac river, Lawrence being nine miles down the river from Lowell. Both cities take their water supply from the Merrimac, and the crude sewage of Lowell is discharged into the same stream a short distance below * 16th An. Rept. Mich. St. Bd. of Health, pp. 180-104 (1888). t22nd An. Rept. of the Mass. St. Bd. of Health (1890). Typhoid Fever in its Relation to- Water Supplies, by Hiram P. Mills, A.M., G.E., pp. 535-543. TYPHOID FEVKi: A PEEVENTABLE DISEASE. 7 the Lowell water supply intake. A probable cause of the contamiua- tioii of the Lowell water supply at this time was found in the discovery of the discharge of the dejections of typhoid patients into Stony brook, a tributary of the Merriniac, three miles up stream from the Lowell water works intake.* The Bacillus of Typhoid Fever. It was also found that such discharge was, in proper sequence of time, follow^ed by a rapid increase in the number of deaths from typhoid in Lowell ; the increase there being further followed by an alarming increase in the number of deaths from typhoid in Law- rence. In December, bacteriological examinations of water drawn from the service pipes in Lawrence resulted in tinding the bacillus of typhoid in the Lawrence supply. The bacillus of typhoid, or, as it is freqiiently called, El)erth's bacillus, is a rod-like bacillus with rounded ends. It is a plant with normal specimens tfuoo iii- i^ length and about ^fTTTTro i^i- in diameter. At the ends are hair-like appendages, technically called cilia. In cases of typhoid these bacilli multiply in enormous numbers, the seat of their greatest activity being in the Payers' glands, although they have also been found in the mesenteric glands, larynx, and lungs of patients dead of typhoid. The typhoid germs are propagated either by fission or from spores. In propaga- tion by fission each rod divides into two, each of which, after attaining maturity, again divides, and so on. Multiplication by spores is not yet f ulh' understood, though in a general way it may be stated that spores form in the interior of bacilli, after the manner of spore multiplication in other cryptogams. The spores are much smaller than bacilli, and can only be seen with the most powerful objectives known to modern microscopists. It is probable that spores, when once formed, jiossess the power of survival under very adverse conditions, while the bacilli, by reason of possessing less vitality, more easily succumb. f Typhoid Fever a Preventable Disease. The statement may be made that typhoid fever is, in the fullest sense, a preventable disease. Keeping it out of the food we eat, the air we breathe, or the water we drink, is an absolute preventive ; or, if * Nashua and Manchester, New Hampshire, and a number of other towns on the river above Lowell also discharge crude sewage into the Merrimac. + For discussion of formation of typhoid spores, with references to th*? literature and history of the subject, see papsr, F^xpfriment il i^tudio^ on the C lusation of Typhoid Fever, with Special Ref- erence to the Outbreik at, Iron Mountan, Michi;,^an. by Vaughan and Novy ; 1.5th An. Rept. Mich. St. Bd. Health (18^7), pp i-ll ; aho. The Specific Organism of Typhoid Fever, by C,>-a. \V. Fuller, S.B., Technology Quarterly (Boston) vol. iv.. No. 2, .July, IS'Jl. .\n extended biVdiography urgh and Troy, which are in the immediate vicinity, draw their public supplies from the Hudson above the mouth of the Mo- hawk ; a portion of the public supply of Troy is from lakes to the back of the town by gravity. The approximate locations of the several in- takes are shown by the squares on the map, Fig. 1. The populations of these towns are : Waterford, 5,400 ; Lansingburgh, * Notes on some Cases of Drinking-Water and Disease. By William P. Mason. Jour. Frank. Inst., Nov. 1891. Reprint, pp. 6-9. SCHEXECTADY, COHOES, WEST TROY, AND ALBANY. 11 10,550 ; Cohoes, 22,509 ; AVest Troy, 12,967 ; Tro}^ 60,956 ; Albany, 94,- 923 : total, 207,305. There is also a town of a population of 4,463 on Green Island, which derives its water supply from a filter gallery. In October, 1890, an epidemic of typhoid began in Cohoes, and con- tinued until the middle of March, 1891. Altogether there were abo^^t 1,000 cases (1 in every 22.5 of the population); fortunately they were mostly mild in character, resulting in very few deaths. In West Troy an epidemic of typhoid began in the latter part of November, 1890. On about December 15, 50 cases were reported. Of these 42 used Mohawk river water, the remainder well water. On December 20, the Mohawk supply was discontinued, and arrangements made for a suppl}' of filtered water from Green Island, which had no LANSIN6BUR6H Schenectady to Cohoes .... /7mi/es Cohoes . Wei t Troy . i ■■ West Troy • Albany, — 6 . /5ifl/)/VV Fig. 1.— Towns and Water-Works Intakes at and near Junction op Hudson AND Mohawk Rivers. typhoid. In one week the n^port of new cases showed 15, while in two weeks but 1 was reported. On returning to the Mohawk supply, in the middle of January, a slight increase was observed. The total number of cases in West Troy excetnled 100. An epidemic of typhoid l:)egan at Albany in the latter part of De- cember, 1890, and continued during January, February, and March, 1801. A total of 411 cas(^s were reported, but this figure is stated to be far below the real fact. Of the 411, only 18 are reported as occurring in the district supplied with water by gravity from the inland lakes. Wat«!if(jrd, Laiisingburgh, and Troy, whose entire water su])plies are from fairly i^ncoiit.iiniiiatcd sources, were ordinarily free from tyi)lioid during this period. The same is true of Green Island, the water sup- 1)1 y of which is filtered from the Hudson river by means of a filter gallery. The statistics of this e]iid(Mnic, while not very couiplete, are of the greatest interest. Tliey show that in a total pojinlation of 150,000 liv- 12 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. ing- in several towns, all of which are supplied with a grossly contami- nated water, the number of cases of typhoid occurring in a few months was over 1,800, or about 1 in every 84 persons. At the same time, in a similarly situated adjacent population of about 77,000, with an un- contaminated water supply, very few or no cases at all occurred. It will be understood that the upper Hudson is only slightly con- taminated with sewage. Why Crude Sewage should be Kept Out of Streams. Facts and discussions of the character of the foregoing lead to the conclusion that, as a mere matter of ordinary prudence, it is unsafe to allow raw sewage to flow into streams which are, at any point bt^low where the sewage flows in, the source of a public water supply. The question of production of a nuisance by causing bad odors along the stream is the least important part, and in many cases it is certain that no material effluvium nuisance is ever created. Usually a mini- mum volume of flow in a stream of about ten times the volume of sew- age will be sufficient to prevent this.* List of Water-borne Communicable Diseases. Returning to the general question of infectious diseases, we may note that the most important diseases which are usually water-borne, but of which the germs may be present in the air of sewers receiving the dejections of patients, are : Typhoid fever, Cholera, Diarrhoea, Dysentery. In the case of these infectious water-borne diseases, it may be laid down as a fundamental proposition that the dejections of patients sick with them should never be allowed to pass into the sewers until they have been thoroughly sterilized by treatment with a proper disinfect- ant. Such treatment should be used as an additional precaution, as a mere matter of justice to any human being wishing to use the water of a sewage-contaminated stream for drinking, and it should be further used absolutely without reference to whether or not the sewage into which the dejections are discharged is to be treated at disposal works. The only exception to this rule may be found in the case of discharge directly into tide water. Disinfection of Dejecta. The American Public Health Association in 1884 appointed a com- mittee to investigate the subject of disinfectants ; a series of experi- * Notes on the Pollution of Streams. By Rudolph Hering, C.E., Trans. Am. Pub. Health Assoc, 1887. Also Eng. and Bldg. Record, vol. xvii., p. 228. IMPOirrANCK OF DISINFECTION". 13 ments were iustituted and a valuable report was made. Among- many other recommendations, the committee say, that for disinfecting- ex- creta in the sick room there may be used — (1) chloride of lime in four per cent, solution (five ounces to one gallon of water) ; (2) mercuric chloride in solution, 1 to 500 (two drachms of mercuric chloride to one gallon of water). In order to give the mercuric chloride solution a distinct color as a g-uard ag-ainst mistakes, two drachms of permanga- nate of potash may be added to each g-allon when it is mixed in stock. The label should bear the word " poison " as an additional precaution against mistakes. The dejections having- been received in a vessel, an amount of either (1) or (2) equal to the quantity of dejections should be added, and after thorovigh stirring the whole allowed to stand for at least one hour. The mixture may then be safely permitted to go into the sewer,* Of these two disinfectants the chloride of lime solution is the more certain in its application to excrement, i^rovided fresh chloride of standard strength is used. It has the disadvantage that the dry chlor- ide loses its strength quickly on exposure, and when there is doubt on this score the quantity of chloride jier gallon of water may be in- creased. The mercuric chloride solution is, however, certain in its effects, pro- vided the precaution is always taken to thoroughly stir the excrement until every minute particle is brought into contact with the mercuric chloride solution. When not thoroughly stirred there is a tendenc}^ to the formation of an insoluble coating, by the action of the mercuric chloride on the albuminous constituents of the excrement, with the result that the germ material in the interior of the masses may re- main entirely unaffected, and still capable, when liberated, of propa- gating disease the same as before disinfection. The chloride of lime, on the contrary, has a tendency to disintegrate the masses of fecal matter, thus bringing every particle in contact with the germ-destroy- ing material. Efficient disinfection of the dejections of typhoid and other patients may be accomplished by the use of either of these formuhr, due re- gard being given always to the precautions indicated in the fore- going. iMrORTANCE OF DISINFECTION. In illustration of the importance of disinfection of dejecta frtmi patients suffering from ty]ihoid fever and other water-borne commu- nicable diseases before allowing them to pass into sewers, it may be stated that the most efficient means of purifying sewage yet knoAvn, intermittent sand filtration, cannot be de]iondedupon to absolutely re- * Report of Committee on Disinfectants, loc. €44. 14 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. move all the bacteria. Such means of purification will, however, ordina- rily remove at least 99 i)er cent., and among- those removed are presum- ably a large proportion of the disease germs, if any are present, thereby reducing greatly the chance of infection in any given case ; but we cannot j^et assume complete removal of all disease germs, especially of the more hardy varieties, as for instance the spore of typhoid fever. An experiment at the Lawrence Station aptly illustrates this point. Bacillus j)rodiglosus is a hardy, harmless variety of bacteria which is said not to occur naturally in this country.* It has a bright blood-red color, and grows luxuriantly in many situations. In order to test whether sand filters would fully destroy a hardy variety, this bacillus was added to the sewage applied to some of the experimental tanks, and the effluent examined with reference to its appearance therein. The result was that with coarse sand filters a few might be expected under ordinary conditions to pass through ; while with fine sand filters, to which comparatively small quantities of sewage were applied, the re- moval of Bacillus prodigiosus appeared complete. In a practical way, therefore, we may conclude that, under the ordinary conditions of work- ing, a few of the more hardy bacteria may pass through sand filters and ajjpear in the effluent. On this point there is still some uncer- tainty, as will be shown further on in the discussion. f *See Crookshank's Manual of Bacteriology, orcl ed., p. 27.5, for morphology oi Bacillus livoili- giosns. + The following is the general account of the experiment with Bacillus prodigiosus, as given by Professor William T. Sedgwick in Part II. of the Mass. Spec. Report : From what has been said * * * it is clear that a very large percentage of the organisms of the sewage perish in the filters during intermittent filtration. The question naturally arises, Uo any of the sewage organisms live to pass through, or are they all de.stroyed within, the filters ? those that are found in the effluent being accounted for as having come from the discharge pipes, under-drains, tank floors, etc., or from the air. The hygienic importance of this question is obvi- ous, when we consider the extreme desirability of removing all pathogenic germs from the sew- age. At the same time the difficulty of solving the problem was great in some cases, inasmuch as the kinds of bacteiia likely to occur in the air, in sewage, in pipes and drains, are very similar, or perhaps even identical ; and consequently the comparison of tiie species in the sewage and the efHu- ents, apart from its inherent difficulty, was not likely to yield immediate results. It was, therefore, decided to experiment directly with rich cultures of a species of the bacteria foreign to the station, which could be applied in the sewage, and detected, if present, in the effluents. For this purpose Bacillus 2)ro(/igiosus was chosen. This species has never been observed in the sewage or effluents, and is said not to exist native in this country. It is tolerably hardy, and owing to its exceedingly rapid growth upon gelatine, iind its production of a bright-red color in well- developed colonies, is comparatively easy to recognize Luxuriant vegetations of this species were prepared either in the usual " gelatine tubes '" or in the ordinary •" bouillon," and after at- taining the extraordinary development of which it is capable, so that a single cubic centimeter of the fluid contained millions of the individual germs, it was ready to be applied to the tanks. One or two liters of this fluid, swarming with the germs of Bacilhis 2'>rndi(iiosiis, were then added to the ordinary charge of sewage, for the larger tanks, and thirty cubic centimeters, or there- abouts, to that for the smaller tanks, after which the mixture was poured upon the sur- face. The smaller tanks of coarse mortar sand were first experimented with, and samples of the efflntnt were collected, beginning several hours after the application. From data obtained since that time it appears likely that these collections did not begin early enougii to secure the largest discharge of germs. The results proved conclusively, however, that Bacillus prodigiosus parses through these tanks of coarser sand. The number of germs discharged, as compared with the number applied, was extremely small, which indicated, so far as it went, that most of those applied had perished in the sand, precisely as those from the sewage mostly perish, during the ordinary operations of inter- mittent filtration. In the first experiment Tank No. 14 was used, and three tuljes of gelatine al- ready liquefied by the culture, in all some thirty cubic centimeters, were added to the sewage TYPHOID FEVEll AT LAU8EX, SWITZERLAND. 15 By way of enforcing- the statement that dejections of typhoid patients should not be allowed to pass into streams, or to be even cast on to the ground before thoroug-h sterilization, and also to farther indicate the probable vitality of the typhoid germ, we may refer to another illus- trative case, which, while often referred to in sanitary literature, may still be once more profitably reproduced by reason of the many useful deductions to be drawn from it. The case referred to is that of the outbreak of typhoid at Lausen, Switzerland, in 1872, the facts in reg-ard to which are as follows : Typhoid Fever at Lausen, Switzerland, The house at A, Fig-, 2, contained a number of cases of typhoid fever, during- the summer of 1872, the first occurring on June 10, fol- lowed by recovery in September ; the second on July 10, with recovery in October ; there were also two mild cases of short duration in August, The dejections of all these cases passed into the Furlen brook, flowing near. At about the point C there is an area of land which it was custom- ary to irrigate each year, from the middle to the latter part of July. "While the irrigation was in process this year, the public well of Lau- sen, at D, became so turbid and foul-tasting that many people gave Tip using it. This well distributes water through a wooden pipe to four public pumps, marked on Fig. 2 by dots. At that time Lausen was a village of 780 inhabitants, living in 90 houses. Its location is on gravelly soil from 35 to G5 feet above the Ergholz brook, the elevation of which is about the elevation of the ground-water under the village. The last epidemic of typhoid fever was in 1814, when the village was occupied by soldiers ; so free had it charge. This tank had previously been fitted with side taps at diffeient levels, in order to test the bacterial composition of the descendins^ fluid, step bv step. Whenever it wa.s desired to use these tans, they wer^ first sterilized \>y directing against them the flame of a plumber's naphtha burner. In the present experiment the fluid collected from such a tap, one foot from the surface, seven minutes after the application, contained litirilhis pr(>!<>tn. The outflow from the same tap, three minutes later, also contained this species, as did that from a tap thirty inches from the sur- face, twelve minutes after aj)plication. It was not looked for in tlie effluent on this day (Nov. '21, 18.SH), but was found in the effluent of the '.l'2n(] on three separate trials, as well as in that from the thirty-inch side tap. It was also found in the effluent of the same tank three days after the application (November 'J4). and seventeen days after ( F^ecember S). It was not found at any later time, and although hundreds of examinations of the effluent of this tank, and of the sand compos- ing it, have been made, it has never Iieen found since. The conclusion is inevitable th.at it speed- ily died out. The next experiment was upon a tank of similar material. Tank No. 13, on Dec. .5, 18SS. As before, three tubes, or thirty cubic centimeters of a rich culture of />. proiIifjiDsiis, were ap- plied in the sewage charge. On the 7th this species was found in the effluent, and also on the 8th, aft-r which it disappeared completely. Apparently it died out even more speedily than in the first experiment. Further experiments, made at the Lawrence Eixperiment Station in ISitl and ISO'i, and given in 2:?d llcpt. Mass. Bd. Hlth. (1890-01), pp. 604-7, show several instances of complete and nearly complete removal of the BnciUi ty/ifiosiis. protlii/insus, roll rotinniDiU, and the bacillus of canal water. An account of these experiments was given in Eiig. News, vol. xxix. p. 19 (189.'J). 16 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. been from typhoid that not a single case had occurred since 1865, when a few were imported from Basle. The first case occurring- in the house A, in 1872, was thought to have been impoi-ted, as the patient had been away from Lausen during the period of infection. On August 7, 1872, 10 j^ersons in Lausen were attacked with typhoid fever ; from the 7th to the 16th, 57 ; from the 7th to the 28th, 100 ; and in September and October, 30, after which the epidemic ceased ; 8 cases were fatal. Of the 130 cases, every one had used the public water supply from Fig. 2. — Map of Lausen, Switzerland. the well at D. Not one case occurred among those who drank other water only. Thus the 6 houses marked S are supplied from their own private wells ; in them only two persons were taken sick with the fever, and it was found that they had drunk the public water when away from home. On looking into the matter it was found that in 1862 a hole in the earth had appeared at the point B, 8 feet deep and 3 feet wide, which disclosed at its bottom a running stream, apparently fed by the Furlen brook from a point higher up. At that time the brook was led into this hole, with the result that the water all disappeared and in an hour or two streamed out at the well D, showing a connection which had TYPHOID FEVER IX MASSACHUSETTS CITIES. 17 been suspected for years. On refilling- the hole the brook returned to its bed. At the investig-ation in 1872, after the epidemic had ceased, the hole B was reopened and a large quantity of salt thrown in ; its presence at D was soon ascei-tained by chemical examination. A considerable quantity of fiour was also added at B, but its presence could not be de- tected at D. As a result of the investigation it was found that : (1) The Furleu brook was contaminated with typhoid dejections in June, July, and August, 1872. (2) The contaminated water was used for irrigation at C in July for about two to three weeks before the outbreak of the epidemic. (3) This irrig-ation water could not have been filtered in any proper sense of the word as it was turbid and foul enough to cause many peo- ple to discontinue the use of water from the well ; hence : (1) It seems fair to conclude that the g'erm of tyi^hoid passed throug-h the g-round from C to D, a distance of nearh' a mile without losing- its vitality.* It may be remarked that the non-appearance of the flour at D althoug-h frequently cited as proof of the indestructibilit}' of the g-erm of typhoid fever by filtration is in reality no special proof on that point, for two reasons : (1) because the i^asty nature of the flour would of itself conduce to its quick retention even in coarse gravel ; (2) in the case cited the t3"phoid germ was present in a comparatively rapid flowing- stream which, apparently, entirely filled all the voids of the gravel for a considerable space, producing a case of rapid continu- ous filtration in which the only filtering action would be that due to a retention of suspended material ; hence before it can be assumed that the typhoid germ would not under any circumstances be filtered out, it must be shown that all the voids in the filtering material are of less size than the germs. In considering questions of this character it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between continuous filtration and intermittent. Typhoid Fevei? in ^lAssAcnusETTS Cities. In Table No. 2 we have the statistics of typhoid fever in 13 cities in Massachusetts, for a series of years, both before and after the intro- duction of public water supplies from sources nearly all of which * For more complete accounts of the epidemic of typhoid fever at Lausen, 8e« (I) The Lancft (London), .Tulv 1.5, 1S7(». Vl) Jour. Chem. Soc . June. 187»>. (3) f.th Rept. Riv. Pol. Com., p. W,. (4) Rept. for 1873, Armv M.-d. Dept. (English). (.5) 8th An. Rept. Mass. St. Bd. Health, p. I'i4. 18 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX IIIK r.MTED STATES. Table No. 2. — The Yearly Ndmber of Deaths from Typhoid Fever per 10,00ft OF the Population in Thirteen Cities of Massachusetts before and after THE Introduction of Public Water Suppues. Name. Fall River . . , Springfield... Taunton Northampton Lynn New Bedford. Newton Maiden Fitchburg Wobum Somerville . . . Chelsea Waltham . . . . Yearly deaths by typhoid fever per 10,000 people, 1859 to 1868. Public water supply introduced. 1874 187.5 1876 1871 1871 1869 ]87(> 1870 1872 1873 1867 ]8fi7 1873 I Yearly deaths by typhoid fever per 10,000 I people, 1878 to 1889. Percentage deaths in the latter period to those in the former, 6.32 5.29 5.02 4.04 3 87 3.80 3.65 3.54 3.16 2.95 2.95 2.89 2.42 81 55 82 37 43 49 56 44 30 36 69 48 30 Population. 1870. 26,766 26,703 18,629 10,160 28,233 21, .320 12,825 7. .367 11,260 8,560 14,685 18.547 9,065 1890. 74.398 44,179 25,448 14.990 55.727 40.733 24.37!> 2:^,031 22,( 37 13,499 40.152 27,!)09 18,707 are reasonably free from sewage contamination. If we take into ac- count the development of i^opulation in that state as illustrated by the increase in these 13 cities for the 20 years from 1870 to 1890 we cannot but admit that the showing- in favor of pure water supplies^ as a preventive for typhoid fever is a very strong one. In Lowell and Lawrence, the jDublic water- works of which were constructed at about the same time as those tabulated (1872 and 1875, respectivel,\> we find that the Merrimac river, a stream known to be badly contami- nated by sewage, was selected and that the typhoid rate has not decreased in either town. In Lawrence it has remained the same as. previous to the introduction of the public water supply, Avhile in Lowell the rate is considerably greater for the period following the introduction of the Merrimac river water than before. Of the several preventable diseases, typhoid is the best known both in its etiological and pathological aspects ; and in order to show its- relation to public health, Table No. .3, which has been compiled from the health reports of the cities of New York, Philadelphia and Chi- cago, is included.* Typhoid Fever at New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. From Table No. 3 we learn that the deaths from typhoid, in both Philadelphia and Chicago, are on an average double what they are iu New York. The reason for this is found, it is believed, entirely in the * This table is derived from data given in a paper, Typhoid Fever in Chicago. By Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick and Allen Hazen. Eng. News, vol. xxvii., pp. 399, 400 (April 21, 1892) ; also reprinted in pamphlet form. Reference to this paper may be made for a lar;,'e amount of statistical infor- mation in regard to typhoid fever in its relation to polluted water supplies. cs IN CO TT in t- <» o be tn (/J (jO ■v.. X '-' " ■^ '-' " " " " " -<1 1 ^§'ii re m '"' « a * •" ^ _ _ ,^ cn r- ^ ■d O OS ao :£ to TT to »-< -T X OS la to to o CO TO •a e« ffj at "^ " "^ 5< »-( ■fl" CO SO c< TO TO ot IN IN ■* t- H' 00 o» ■^ ■N ^ ^ :r> s: ;o (T) on nt ^ ^ ._ en „ in CO .Tl r- 2 O =3 (N ih (?» eo CO ■rr H^ -' o <^ -^ m o; to w ■* in ,-4 OS f- r/J o CO IN CO in 117 1- " " " " " " " " ^ ■ 1 o CO ,^ _ c ^ 1 o o *- => Ol o to c= O o O g = S ci r< CO ■w •* ^' to iO lO CO t- (N s ^ ^ " CO r- OS tn «ra in rN r- w nn C" CO rr> eo (N cf> in (N t- o ■3" o I;- CO CO CO t- t- to CO CO «M t- o» ■«• en c* CO C5 r- o _f t-) ^ on ,_) in — ; CO m r- £ a "1 5C o O: CO o o CO lO 00 IN eo oo o ao in a. ^§*s« a* Qt '- s« CO OJ ■ oo o» a> g co' o „ 00 00 IN IN OS 00 < 1 20 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. relative degree of pollution in the water supplies of these cities. On this point a considerable amount of evidence is submitted in the chap- ters following-. The effect of introducing into a city a public water supply uncon- taminated by sewage has been almost universally to materially reduce the death rate from typhoid. In order to illustrate this point we may refer to Tables Nos. 2 and 4. Typhoid Fever at Kochester, N. Y. Table No. 4 presents the deaths from typhoid in the city of Roches- ter, N. Y., by months, from 1870 to 1891, inclusive. Previous to the year 1873 this city, which then had a population of nearly 74,000, was en- tirely without a public water supply. Water for domestic purposes was drawn from shallow wells, which in the course of time had become badly jjolluted through the operation of soil saturation. The extent of the pollution may be apf)reciated by considering the results of a series of analyses of the water of 40 wells made in 1877, when it was found that the average amount of sodium chloride per IT. S. gallon of the well water was 16.78 grains. The normal sodium chloride of the region, as determined from an unijolluted well, was 1.36 grains per Table No. 4.— Statistics op Typhoid Fever at Rochester, N. Y., from 1870 to 1891, inclusive. Months. Population. ».2 Year. a 3 1^ p. 0) c 3 1-3 3 1-3 1 3 B o B §; o 1 1 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 .... 1877 1878 .... 1879. ... 1380 1881 1S82 1883.... iSM 1885 18,S6 1887 188S.... 1889 1890. ... 1891 2 3 6 5 1 5 3 2 1 1 1 3 3 8 3 8 1 3 5 1 3 1 3 2 1 6 1 4 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 4 3 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 1 1 4 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 2 3 1 2 2 3 6 1 4 1 3 •i 1 4 1 3 4 1 2 3 2 5 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 5 3 4 I 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 5 6 5 2 2 8 5 5 2 2 4 3 2 5 2 4 2 2 3 10 4 3 2 12 2 10 5 4 3 2 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 7 9 14 6 6 8 14 7 17 12 11 11 6 5 1 7 6 5 6 7 8 5 9 9 8 7 6 6 2 8 6 5 4 4 6 4 3 4 4 5 9 2 3 5 2 3 3 4 3 3 10 10 6 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 5 3 9 I 3 2 7 5 9 54 3U 70 61 41 44 31 27 17 17 21 26 30 39 43 32 .33 38 54 39 43 51 62.386* 66.253 70,120 73.987 77,854 81,782* 83,250 84,7,^0 86,310 87,840 89,366* 91.860 94,6511 97.960 101,710 105,950 110,450 115,150 120,150 126,400 133.896* 142,500 8.65 4.53 9 99 8.24 5.27 5.39 3 72 3.19 1.97 1.93 2.35 2.82 3.17 3.98 4.93 3.02 2.99 3.30 4.49 3.09 3.21 3.58 Totals. 68 42 37 38 39 26 46 74 120 167 92 92 841 Official population. TYPHOID FEVER AT ROCHESTER, N. Y. 21 g-allon. At the same time the averag-e amount of sodium chloride in samples of sewage collected from nine of the principal sewers of the city was found to be 5.26 grains per gallon. In some of the badly polluted wells free ammonia was found to the amount of 1.5 grains per gallon, and albuminoid ammonia 0.5 grain per gallon.* "With a water supply of this character it was inevitable that sickness of all kinds would rapidly increase and we accordingly find the typhoid rate 10 per 10,000 inhabitants in 1872. In January, 187-4, a partial water supiDly was introduced from the Genesee river, which, while not suitable for domestic purposes, was still of value by reason of furnishing a means of Hushing sewers and assist- ing in maintaining the general cleanliness of the town. In January, 1876, a domestic supply from Hemlock lake was intro- duced. Its use rapidly extended among all classes of citizens, until in 1892 at least 95 per cent, of the total population used the water from Hemlock lake for all domestic purposes. From such general use of an uncontaminated water resulted a permanent material lowering of the typhoid rate, as indicated in Table No. 4. The detailed statistics of typhoid at Rochester show that in 1878 to 1880, the death rate from the disease was only 2.05 per 10,000 of the population. During these years the use of Hemlock lake water was extending very rapidly, and by the end of 1880 the use of the uncon- taminatod water liad become nearly universal in the localities most affected by tyi^hoid fever. A marked rise in the typhoid death rate began in 1881, which has continued permanent to the present time, averaging 3.51 per 10,000 for the period 1882 to 1891. The reason for this increase is apjjarently as follows : The city of Rochester is situated upon the Genesee river, a few miles south from the point where the river empties into Lake Ontario. The river now receives the crude sewage of over one-half the population, and in the near future, when constructions now under way are com- pleted, will receive it all, or the sewage of a p()]iulation of say 140,000. The total fall in the river in its course through the city is about 266 feet, the major portion of this being included in the three falls known as the Upper, Lower, and Middle falls of the Genesee. The balance of the total is included in several reaches of rapids. A short distance below the Lower fall the river has found the approximate level of Lake Ontario, and there clianges its character from that of a shallow stream with alternating falls and rajiids to that of a stream with slug- gish flow in a deep, wide channel. From this point to tlie lake, a dis- tance of a tritle less than 6 miles, the channel is from about 300 to 500 ♦Report to the Board of Health and the Executive Board of the city of Rochester. N. Y. , in regard to the chemical examination of samples of water from suspected wells. By Professor S. A. Lattimore. In An. Rept. Ex. Bd., City of Rochester for 1S77. 22 sewagp: disposal ix the united states. feet in width, Avitli an averag-e depth for the greater portion of the dis- tance of about 24 to 25 feet. The river rises in Potter county, Penns3dvania, and flows north across the state of New York. A considerable portion of its drainag-e area is characterized by steep slopes, and the stream, in consequence, responds quickly to a rainfall. The ordinary flood flow is perhaps 35,000 cubic feet per second, while its minimum flow is as low as 130 cubic feet per second. Hence during the time of minimum flow the velocity in the deejD water below the Lower fall is very slight ; at times it does not exceed 1 mile in 24 hours. Into such a body of at times nearly still water the sewage of over one-half of the population is now discharged, although before reaching the deep water it has passed over the Middle and Lower falls and the intervening- rapids. (A small portion has further passed over the Upper fall.) The river carries a considerable amount of silt in susj^ension, and in times of low water a very thoroug-h sedimentation takes place in the upper reaches of the still water. During high water the velocity is sufficient to sweep the precipitated matter out into the lake, as is proven (1) by the channel maintaining a nearly uniform depth from year to year ; and (2) by the formation of a bar off the mouth at the lake. About 1880 a number of large hotels were constructed on the lake beach not far from the mouth of the Genesee river. Numerous cottages were erected and there soon gathered about and near the river's mouth a considerable summer population, consisting almost entirely of citi- zens of Rochester. On Sundays and holidays it is no uncommon thing for from 25,000 to 30,000 people to visit the lake beach. Drinking water is supplied through j^ipes which lead a short distance into the lake, and through which at times the sewage polluted water of the Genesee river, mixed with lake water, is drawn. With the information at hand there seems reason to infer that the growth of the summer resorts at Lake Ontario and the consequent drinking by a large number of citizens of a seriously polluted water, has directly contributed to nearly double the tj'phoid rate in the city of Rochester. The influence of the out-go of population to the lake is forcibly shown by the increase in number of deaths from typhoid fever in the months of May, June, and July in 1889, 1890, and 1891, these months being usually free from that disease. As the matter stands a warm May is followed by an increase in the typhoid death rate, either in the latter part of the month or in the following month of June. We have here the case of a city which, properly enough, has spent several million dollars in procuring an uncontaminated water supply but in which a lack of clear views on sanitary questions has led to a condition of affairs which in a considerable degree negatives the result THE FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITION. 23 of tlie large expenditure. The conditions at tlie present time, while the Genesee river receives only one-half the sewage of the city, are alarming enough, in view of the statistics here presented; when the river receives the entire sewage of the city, a still further increase in the typhoid rate in summer may be expected. The Fundamental Proposition. From the consideration of a large number of cases similar to the fore- going we derive the conclusion that crude sewage should never be dis- charged into any body of water used as a water supply at any point within the influence of the sewage. This statement may be considered the fundamental proposition of modern sewage disposal. In the following chapters we shall discuss the various cognate ques- tions requiring consideration in order to determine how the indis- pensable purification may be best attained in any given case. CHAPTEK II. THE INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS. The subject of water-borne communicable diseases of human beings may be considered as standing closely allied to that of the communi- cable infectious diseases of animals ; and while this important branch of the general subject has not, as a whole, received the attention which it deserves, we still have accumulated in the last two or three decades a considerable body of information, some of which will be referred to here. Definition of Terms. In this discussion the word infection will be taken as opposed to contagion in the sense that contagious diseases are only communi- cated by immediate personal contact, as by touching or by breathing the breath. Infectious diseases will be considered as those Avhich may be communicated through considerable space, as tyi^hoid fever, the germ of which may be, as already pointed out, borne long distances in water. Under these definitions it is apparent that some diseases are both infectious and contagious (tuberculosis, for example), though such are for convenience here referred to as infectious only, the present discussion having no reference to their communicability from the contagious point of view. It has already been stated that some of the infectious diseases are communicable from men to animals, and from animals to men ; and the oi3inion is rapidly gaining ground that the animal diseases com- municable to human beings have a greater influence over health and life than has been generally supposed.* Important Inter-communicable Diseases. Among the water-borne communicable diseases of animals which have either been proven also common to man, or are strongly suspected of being so, may be mentioned, as of great importance, glanders, hog cholera, Texas fever, anthrax, tuberculosis, and actinomycosis. All of these have been widely prevalent among animals in this country in recent years, and if in any way communicable to man, every opportunity for their dissemination by running water has been offered. There are * 1st Rept. Beau. An. Ind. (Ib84). p. 68. HOG CHOLERA. 25 a uumber of other infectious diseases of animals, probably a score in all, but with the exception of Texas fever, none of such diseases are regarded as having originated in this country.* Glanders. The tirst of the important diseases, glanders, is a sjDecific infectious disease especially peculiar to horses, but also capable of transmis- sion to men, sheep, dogs, cats, and some of the rodents ; whether hogs are susceptible to it is yet uncertain, but horned cattle and domes- tic fowls are stated to be proof against it. The seat of the disease is either (1) the lymphatic glands, (2) the mucous membrane of the nasal and respiratory tract, or (3) the lungs and spleen. The definite germ causing it is Bacillus mallei,-\ discov- ered by Loffler and Schutz in 1882. It classifies with the specific diseases caused by a germ (Saprophj'tes), w^liich when planted in the tissues of an animal body, developes therein, but which exists, naturally, as a spore outside the animal body. Although in one form of glanders the discharge from certain ulcers may be a source of infection, the germs are transmitted chiefly by the nasal discharge, by scattering the germs promiscuously in feed-boxes, watering-troughs and the like. They may gain access to the system by way of the digestive tract, when the discharge is present in drinking-water or food. So far as is known, this disease is never air-borne.l Hog Cholera. Hog cholera, or swine plague, is an infectious disease of hogs, resembling in many particulars both typhoid fever and dysentery in man. The disease is apparently distinct from typhoid fever as indicated by generic differences in the micro-organisms producing the two diseases, though they have the common characteristic of each, being the cause of ulceration of the region in and about the intestine, tvphoid fever appearing in the lower part of the small intestine, and hog cholera chiefly in the upper part of the large intestine. Hog choler.i is perliaps more closely allied to dysentery in man, than to typhoid fever; but our knowledge of hog cholera is still too limited to enable us to say definitely tliat its bacilli can produce dysen- tery in uian. The transmission of the bacillus of hog cholera by water is, how- ever, a matter of more certainty, and it may be taken as settled tliat it * Contagious ,\ninial Discasps, Dr. Kzra M. Hunt. 1st llept. Beau. An. Ind. (1884), pp. 437-443. + Crookshank. Manual of Bacteriology, '•'.A eil., p. .S'J.'i. : Glanders, C. A. Gary, Bui. No. -'.5 (June, 18'.tl), .S. Dak. Ag. Col. and Ex. Sta. 26 SKWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. is a water-borne disease, and it is in this connection that we are cliiefl> interested in considering it here. On this point a large amount of evidence is presented by the recent writers,* who conclude that streams are perhaps the most jjotent agents in its distribution. Labo- ratory experiments show that the. bacilli may not only remain alive in water for four months, but they may even multiply when in water con- taminated with sewage or other organic matter. Assuming that they will survive the various adverse inHuences likely to be met with in natural water only two months, and it still appears possible that an original planting at the head of the longest river in the country might infect herds throughout its whole course. Experiments have been made by the biologists of the Bureau of Animal Industry upon the vitality of the bacilli of hog cholera and their resistance to various germicides determined. The general conclusion may be drawn from the experiments that they are some- what tenacious of life, although certain reagents properly applied easily destroy them.f Texas Fever. Exact information relative to the etiology of Texas fever is difficult to obtain. The biologists of the Bureau of Animal Industry affirm on the one hand that it is essentially a blood disease in which all the symptoms and lesions are referable to the destruction of red corpus- cles ; X while on the other hand, according to Paul Paquin, the biol ogist of the Missouri Agricultural College Experiment Station, the germs are found outside of the blood corpuscles in the liver and spleen, under conditions apparently indicating their presence in the blood as an incident of the disease and not its chief cause. Paquin considers that the ordinary source of infection is by ingestion, the same as for glanders and hog cholera, and water contaminated by the excrements of infected cattle is mentioned as a prolific method of dissemination. § The biologists of the Bureau of Animal Industry in their last report have affirmed that cattle ticks are chiefly concerned in spreading the disease from one animal to another. For the present we may look upon Texas fever as probably one of the water-borne com- municable diseases of cattle, although the evidence, so fully establish- ing it, is not yet at hand. * Swine Plague, its Causes. Nature and Prevention. By Frank S. Billings. Bui. of Ag. E.k. Sta. of Neb., vol. ii., No. 4 (June 30, 1888). The Influence of Running Streams upon the Extension of Swinp Plague, pp. 31-3^. Hog Cholera, its History, Nature and Treatment Rep Beau. An. Ind. (1889). Relation of Hog Cholera to tlip Public H'-alrh. pp. I'3n-1'22. Prevention of Hog Cholera pp. 123-1S3. + Ho1 .5-3:2.5. X For some of the more imi)(>rtant points in relation to Anthrax, see Report on Anthrax in fith An. Rept. Prov. \\A. Health of Ontario (ISSS). S Black-leg. liy Paul Paquin, Rul. No. \2, Mo. Ag. Col. Ex. Sta. (June, IS'JO). 28 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Actinomycosis. Actinomycosis has during- several years past been observed in dif- ferent parts of the country, especially at the Chicag-o stock yards, where a large number of cattle are assembled. The disease has long" been known in England under various local designations, but it is only since the comprehensive studies of Crookshank (1887) that the inter- correlation of the various forms has been fully pointed out.- In cattle the disease ajjijears first as a swelling in the lower jaw, subsequently spreading to the upper jaw and neighboring parts. In man the symptoms are sometimes those of chronic bronchitis, accom- panied by fetid expectorations. It also invades the bones, causing caries. Paquin states* that some cases of actinomycosis in man, like cases of glanders, are not recognized as such. A case in Southern Missouri, which local physicians designated by various names, was probably contracted by drinking at the same trough with an ox which was suf- fering from actinomycosis at the lower maxillary. The lesions in the man were in one of the maxillary articulations. The cause of actinomycosis is a fungus closely resembling CJadofJirix, which may be detected, in the fresh discharge of a bovine tumor, \\ ith the naked eye. In man the appearance of the fungus is somewhat dif- ferent, but inoculation experiments have proven the interrelation.f In discussing the preceding communicable diseases they have been considered as communicable chietly by ingestion, that is, by passing into the digestive tract in food or drink, and gaining access to the physical economy through some of the delicate membranes with which they come in contact. Tuberculosis is frequently communicable in this way, but it is further conveyed from one animal to another, from one person to another, or from persons to animals and vice verso, by breathing the breath^! The method by which actinomycosis is trans- mitted is, like Texas fever, not yet well settled, although drinking-water and food appear as the more usual sources of infection. Typhoid Fever in Animals. The foregoing six diseases include the leading diseases of animals which, by reason of prevailing extensively in recent years in this coun- try, are of most importance in the present connection. They, however, do not exhaust the list of diseases common to animals which may he * Actinomycosis. Tlie Bacteriological World, vol. i. , No. 1 (.June, 1891). + Actinomyces, Crookshank, Manual of Bacteriology, 3rd ed. , p. 379, and following. Also see- recent reports of several of the State Boards of Health. X Tuberculosis, Chas. H. Pernald, Bui. No. 3 (Jan., 1889), Hatch Ex. Sta of the Mass. Ag. CoL blyth's theory of typhoid. 29 considered as water-borne, and which are possibly in some degree intercommuuicable. Investigations have been made abroad by Klein and other bacteriologists in reference to the possibility of infecting animals with true typhoid, and in this country Dr. Yictor C. Yaughan, of the University of Michigan, has succeeded in producing typhoid in dogs and cats by inoculation.* There are in addition to the fore- going some reasons for sui^posing that typhoid fever is common among animals, in so modified a form as to be generally unnoticed, al- though the germs from their dejecta may produce the true typhoid in human subjects. A few words about the theory of the propagation of the disease, in addition to what has been said in Chapter I., will make this plain. The specific microbe of typhoid is a bacillus which forms spores within itself, as already referred to on page 7 ; these spore-holding bacilli may be expelled in myriads in the faeces. The resistant power of the spores has been also referred to on page 7, and the further statement may be made, that under favorable circumstances the spores are preserved for an unknown period. There can be no typhoid fever without either the bacillus or the spore, and the fact that this disease has many a time attacked travellers in regions uninhabitable by hu- man beings, but in which various wild animals abound, may be fairly taken as indicating the prevalence of the disease among the animals there, with the existence of the spore in their dejecta the same as in the stools of human beings. In a number of well-attested cases trav- ellers have been attacked after drinking from water-holes to which wild animals also came for drinking-water in times of drought. Again cases have occurred in civilized regions where the most exhaustive inquiry failed to reveal a pre-existent case. If we admit the agency of animals as carriers of the germs, the explanation of very many such cases is greatly simplified. Blyth's Theory of Typhoh). According to Blyth, however, the most reasonable theory is that the cause of typhoid fever is a vegetable parasite capable of existing, propagating its kind, and completing its cycle of existence indepen- dent of an animal body ; i^robably its normal existence is, like glan- ders, that of a Saprophyte, or plant living upon dead organic matter. Hence its endemic pr(!valence in places where its presence cannot be traced to a pre-existing case, and hence the mysterious isolated out- breaks which from time to time occur.f * 16th An. Rept. Mich. St. Bd. Health (1889), p. xlvi t Blyth, A Manual of Public Health (1890), p. 504. 30 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The Entozoic Diseases. The entozoic diseases, while invasive rather than infectious, are also common to men and animals ; they are of interest in a discussion of sewag-e disposal because the advocates of the numerous precipitation processes have at one time somewhat vigorously insisted that sewage farms must inevitably become centres of distribution for entozoic germs.* At present the argument against irrigation derived from the as- sumed distribution of entozoic germs has little weight, and Mr. Slater, whose book is the recent authoritative exposition of the views of the English precipitationists, in his chajater on irrigation does not mention it at all.f The Tape oe Intestinal Worms. The entozoa are of interest in the present connection, not only from their parasitic life in men and animals, but because a common method by which they gain access to the human economy is from drinking- water. They are characterized by a remarkable development of the re- j)roductive system. A common form, 2\enia solium, the tape worm, has neither mouth nor stomach, the so-called head being merely an organ for attachment, the numerous segments of the body each con- taining within itself the necessary generative apparatus to enable it fertilize and mature its own numerous eggs. The relations of Tcenia to cystic entozoa which inhabit the muscles and glands of hogs and sheep has been shown to be very close ; they are in fact the same form modified by the environment. Other forms of entozoa, among which Ascarus lumhricoides, the common intestinal worm, may be considered typical, infest the intestines of almost every vertebrated animal, their eggs passing readily from one to the other through the medium of drinking-water.^ An Iowa Case. M. Stalker gives an interesting account of a severe outbreak of disease, in the latter part of the summer of 1890, among the domestic animals on a farm in Iowa, in wdiich horses, cattle, and sheep were all affected in the same way.§ The local symptoms, largely confined to the throat, were a swelling and partial paralysis of the w^alls of the upper * Tidy, The Treatment of Sewage, No. 94, Van NoBtranrFs Sci. Series, pp. 101-103. t J. W. Slater, Sewage Treatment, Purification, and Utilization (1888). X Carpenter, The Microscope and its Revelations, 6th ed. (1881), p. 693. § Some Observations on Contaminated Water Supply for Live Stock, M. Stalker, Buf. No. 13, (May, 1891), Iowa Ag. Ex. Station. NEED FOR MORE DEFIXTTE TXFORMATIOX. 31 air-passag-es, accompanied by painful and difficult breathing-. The animals attacked uniformly died after an illness of about two days. The extraordinary nature of the case, animals of so many different species all suffering- from the same disease and all dying of it, led to a somewhat close stud}^ of the surroundings, with the result of ascertain- ing that the animals affected had all obtained drinking-water from a small creek which ran in a ravine through the farm. The dry weather for several months previous to the attack had so reduced the flow of the stream that water was found only in pools along its bed. A few animals on the same farm which did not have access to the creek, but which were watered from a well were, although in contact with the sick, entirely unaffected. On inquiry it appeared that earlier in the summer chicken cholera had prevailed among the fowls and hog cholera among the swine, and that a considerable number of dead chickens and hogs were thrown down the steep bluffs of the ravine into the bed of the stream. On other farms in the neighborhood it was customary to dispose of dead animals in the same waj', and inquiry further showed that on no less than four other farms situated on the banks of this stream, animals had died showing symptoms identical with those on the farm first investigated. Mr. Stalker also states another case where contaminated water was distinctly proven as the cause of large mortality among cattle running on the open prairie. An animal dead from anthrax had been drawn into a basin which later filled with rain-water and furnished a drink- ing -place for about 1,000 cattle on the adjacent range. The result was that about ten per cent, of all the animals having access died from anthrax. In tln^ language of Mr. Stalker : The teachings of these object lessons are sufficiently obvious. These animals are endowed with organizations not unlike our own, and the manifest laws of being and of health can no more be violated with impunity by them, than by ourselves. Need fok Mor.E DEFixrrE Ixformatiox. The foregoing remarks on th(> infectious diseases of animals are a very inadequate presentation of the subject as it stands at the pres- ent day. In Europt^ the literature has already become exceedingly voluminous, while in this country there is also too much of it to en- sibh' one to present other than a skeleton in a brief chapter like the ]ires('nt. It is hoj^ed enough has been said to indicate that the sub- j<'('t is of importance in connection with the general question of pol- lution of streams, and the purification of the sewage of any large town where extensive stock yards are located. Certainly the allowing of the drainage from stock yards and abattoirs to contaminate stream i 32 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. which are the sources of public water supplies cannot be considered in touch with the best recent thought on public sanitation.* This discussion must be further taken as indicating that a sewage- polluted stream is not a safe source of drinking water for horses, cat- tle, and other domestic animals. Per contra we may say that a stream to which animals suffering from any of the intercommunicable diseases have access is not a safe source of drinking-water for human beings, though the fact pointed out by Dr. Billings, that " man has far greater receptivity to the con- tagious (infectious) diseases of animals than they have to those of man " may be considered as indicating less danger to animals than to human beings from the use of drinking-water polluted by the excre- ments of either. * Professor J. H. Long states in his report on Chemical Investigations of the Water Supplies of Illinois, 1S88-S9, that, in the summer of 1886, the sewage of the Chicago Stock Yards amounted to about 7,000,000 gallons daily, and gave then b^' several analyses in parts per 100,000 the following : Free ammonia, 4.20 Albuminoid ammonia, 0.64 Oxygen consumed, 20.80 It is also stated that later tests show a great improvement in the character of the Stock Yard effluent, due to the fact that it has been found commercially profitable to remove many of the contaminating matters for use as fertilizers and for other purposes. (Professor Long's report, page 9.) CHAPTEE in. ON THE POLLUTION OF STREAMS. The State of Massachusetts Leads m the Study of Steeam Pollution. The liistory of stream pollution and the discussion of measures for its abatement have been confined in this country, until recentlj^, al- most entirely to the Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. Something- has indeed been done in several of the other states, but to Massachusetts must be assigned the credit of not only first taking- up the subject systematically but of materially advancing accurate knowledge of the subject. In making the preceding statement the authors have not overlooked the work done in several of the other states, as for instance, Maine, Connecticut, Xew York, Xew Jersey, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and Illinois. A large proportion of the work in the other states is, how- ever, considerably later in point of time than that in Massachusetts, and some of it has been modelled after the Massachusetts work as published from year to year in the Annual Reports of the State Board of Health. The credit of a systematic beginning therefore properly belongs to Massachusetts. Amount of Stream Pollution In\t:stigation. The amount of systematic work and discussion of the same have now grown to such proportions as to render any adequate presentation of the tabulated results imjiossible in the limits of a single chapter in a book of this character, and about all that will be attempted here is to give a brief account of the work actually accomplished, in the prepara- tion of whic-li the various reports will l)o used in some sort as a syl- labus. A comi)lete knowledge of stream jiollution as it stands in this country to-day can only be obtained by a study of the original reports. AVe will begin by reviewing the work done in Massachusetts, in regard to which it may be remarked that a portion of the information in the earlier reports, by reason of tlie recent develo]unents, is sonn^- what out of date ; it has nevertheless been deemed proper, in view of 8 34 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UXITED STATES. the historical impoi'tance of the Massachusetts work, to give a brief synopsis of all that has been clone in that state in the way of studies of stream pollution and cognate questions. The Massachusetts Wokk. On April 6, 1872, the Massachusetts legislature directed the State Board of Health to "consider the general subject of the disposition of the sewage of towns and cities " and " report to the next legislature their views, with such information as they can obtain upon the subject from our own or other lands." This order of the Massachusetts legis- ture may be fixed u^Don as the beginning of accurate information in reference to sewerage, sewage disposal, and the pollution of streams in this country.* In compliance with the order the Board employed Professor Wm. Ripley Nichols, who, in conjunction Avitli Dr. George Derby, Secretary of the Board, i^resented a report of 112 pages, which may be found in the Fourth Annual Report of the Board. After defining the terms sewer, sewerage, and sewage, the Report discusses at some length the following questions : (1) The Dry Earth System. (2) The Water Carriage System. (3) The Ventilation of House Drains. (4) Sewage from other sources {i.e., other than human wastes, kitchen drainage, etc.). (5) Other forms of Refuse not Removable by Sewers (as, for instance, swill, ashes, meat and vegetable refuse, etc.). (6) Sewage. (7) Sewers. (8) Sewers now in Use in Massachusetts. (9) Outlets of Sewers in Massachusetts. (10) On the Treatment of Sewage (including value of the sewage, lime process, phosphate process, intermittent filtration, and sewage irrigation). (11) On the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage in Massachusetts, (including tabulated statements of the results of anal^'ses of sewag-e of Boston and Worcester). (12) The Effect of Sewage and Manufacturing Refuse on Running Streams (including examinations of a number of streams, namely. Mill brook, Blackstone river, and Merrimac river). Also condition of certain English rivers. (13) Alleged Self-Purification of Running Streams. * This may be considered a broad statement in view of the systematic design of several large sewerage systems, notably that of Chicago several years previous to 1872. The statement is intended more especially in reference to the design of sewerage systems with regard to systematic disposal other than into large bodies of water. THE MASSACHUSETTS WORK. 35 (14) The Water Supply of Towns. (15) Lakes and " Great Ponds." (16) Great Ponds are Public Property. Under beads (2) and (4) the report states that while drains have been in use for thousands of years it is only in the present century that they have been used as carriers of human excrement. The other waste substances passing into sewers are the liquid slops from wash- ing- and cooking, the washings and scrapings of hides, the washings of slaughter-houses and stables, chemicals used in the preparatiosal at Glasgow ; the Liernur system ; Imef rof(>rences to disposal at Coventry, Leeds, Hille's process, and sewage preci]iitates generally; dry removal: opin- ions of experts as deduced fi-om results of sanitary conference held iji 40 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. 1876 under the auspices of the Society of Arts ; English government statistics published in March, 1876, including purification b}^ overflow of sewage on land ; filtration, precipitation and filtration, cost of pre- cipitation, cost of irrigation, cost of Barking farm, cost of Cheltenham farm, cost of Bedford farm, cost of dry removal, cost of no removal of sewage, and conclusion of the English Local Government Board ; expe- rience in Germany, Austria, and France ; objections to irrigation below Paris ; sewage of Paris ; irrigation with sewage of Paris ; proposed intercepting sewer for Paris and deep sea outlet ; experiments on pre- cipitation at Paris ; present condition of the question at Paris, objec- tions, etc. ; some objections to sewage irrigation considered ; effects on health of bad drainage ; contaminated water ; the purist theory ; con- taminated air and soil ; oxidation of sewage ; filth not safe and specific poison theory ; illustrative cases of disease from poisoned air at Croy- don, Fort Cumberland, and Uppingham school ; illustrative cases of disease from iiolluted water at Eagley and Bolton, England, and Lausen, Switzerland ; * yellow fever and filth : dysentery and fever from filth ; earth-closets ; and the prevention of filth diseases. E. S. Chesbrough, M. Am. Soc. C. E., also discusses in the Eighth Annual Eeport the subject of Sewerage, its Advantages and Disad- vantages, Construction and Maintenance. In the Ninth Annual Pteport, Sewerage and the Pollution of Streams is further discussed by the Board, the investigations for the year having "been made with special reference to the basins of the Hoosac and Housatonic rivers. Statistics in detail of the sources of pollution in the river basins examined are given, same as in the previous reports, iind at the conclusion the Board presents a draft of A Bill to Prevent the Pollution of Streams, and for Other Purposes. In concluding this portion of the report the Board submit the following : Eecommexdations, There are a few points to be borue in mind with reference to water- supply, drainage of houses, and sewerage, which have been suggested by the examinations of the 13oard in tliis State, and may properly be summarized here :- - 1. The privy system, so common tliroughout the State, by which filth is stored up to pollute the air, soil, and water, near dwellings, should be in all cases abolished. 2 Cesspools, unless with extraordinary precautions as to ventilation and pre- vention of pollution of soil and air, are little better, and should be given up for something less objectionable as soon as practicable. 3. Wells cannot be de])ended on for supplies of wholesome water, unless they are thoroughly guarded from sources of surface and subsoil pollution. Some of the foulest well-water examined by the Board has been cleai-, sparkling, and of not un- pleasant taste. 4 "Where wells have already been polluted, and it is not practicable to dig new * This is a good account of the famous case where typhoid germs are proven to have passed through a mile of gravel. Account illustrated by map. Also see Chapter I. THE MASSACHUSETTS WORK. 41 deep wells remote from sources of contamination, or to introduce pure public water supplies, the storage of rain-water, properly tiltered, is a satisfactory method of procedure. 5. In small towns where public water supplies have not been introduced, and, in- deed, wherever water-closets are not used, some method of frequent removal and disinfection with earth or ashes, should be adojjted in place of privies, by which it should be impossible for the tilth to soak into the soil or escape into the air. Ce- mented vaults are not always to be depended upon, as their walls crack from frost or through settling of the ground ; and they thus sometimes become sources of pollution of wells, besides contaminating the air. Nor is the fact of a privy being on a downward slope from the well a sufficient safeguard; for even then the direc- tion of the subsoil drainage may be toward the well. 6. Earth-closets, u^ith proper care, may be satisfactorily adopted. But the earth, after having been once used, should be placed upon the land, not stored within doors and dried, to be again used ; for, in the process of drying, there are emuua- tions from it which are, i^erhaps, not less dangerous from the fact of their being imjierceptible by the unaided senses, or through chemical examination. With earth-closets, a plan similar to that in use at the Pittstield Hospital* may be well used for the chamber slops ; and the kitchen waste may be utilized (with the cham- ber slops, too, if tlesired) in the manner u.sed by Mr. Field and Col. Waring. . . . Less intricate methods are used in scattered dwellings, but with the efliect of having the sloji- water absorbed by the ground and taken up by vegetation so far from the bouse as not to involve a nuisance or danger to health. 7. Where water supplies, water-closets, etc., are introduced, sewers should follow immediately, in most kinds of soil ; cesspools should not be used, unless with extraordinary precautions. But with a few hundred feet square of lawn, the irriga- tion system by agricultural drain-pipes is to be recommended, whereby the filth is at once taken up by the roots of grass. In all cases, of course, with or without cesspools, there should be thorough ventilation of the system of house-drainage, with disconnection from the main outlet drain by means of either a ventilating pipe or rain-water spout between the sewer-trap and the house, and whose ojienings at the top should be only at |)oints remote from windows and chimney-tops. On the whole, a thoroughly satisfactory arrangement of this kind, if properly looktul after, is in many respects to be preferred to connecting witli ]>ublic sewers. 8. While the water-carriage system is the least offensive to a refined jjcople, the least costly in the end if on a large scale, and, when well managed, the least objec- tionable from a sanitary point of view, it should be remembered : (1), that in the case of towns and cities of moderate size its introduction involves the outlay of a large capital ; (2), that the connections between houses and sewers can be made free from danger-bringing elements only with great caie, and that usually from a want of such care they are often productive of a certain amount of harm — a danger often very great, especially to children and delicate persons, since the possibility of the continuous ill effect on tlie system of a slight poison is not often recognized, and as few peo))le can be induced to believe that anything is a poison from which they cannot see immediate and striking ill results; (3), that the outlets of sewers, except near large bodies of water, generally involve a great deal of difficulty, and often of serious nuisance, from the fact that there is at present no really satisfactory way of disposing of the sewage, while a pro]>erly arranged system of frequent dry removal is not attended with especial danger to health, and may at any time be changed for better methods without involving any great pecuniary loss. When sewers are built or sewerage systems adopted, tlie work should be ])lanned and carried out only by tlie best availabh^ talent ; for badly constructed sewers are in many respects woi-se than none; and their ])roper airangement and maintenance involve an amount of knowledge, skill, and experience, which are found only among men : the effete matters are converted by oxidation and by chemical ♦Described in an article on Cottage Hospitals, pp. 83-9.5, *.tth Ann. Rept. 42 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. combination into products that are finally both harmless and inoffensive. In all three the oxygen is the most important agent, and burning, or oxidation, is the es- sential process. The most oft'ensive gases, however, to a certain extent when in the earth, and to a less degree iu the water, are absorbed mechanically ; in the earth, too, the foul-smelling sulphuretted hydrogen unites with the iron found in most soils, forming an inert and inoliensive compound. But in all three, unle.ss the amount of filth is proportionately very small, there are certain gases escaping, and wliat are called emunutions — possibly, too, disease "germs" — often so minute or diluted as not to be a])precial)le to our senses. It is the part of jivudence. there- fore, to liave any and all of these processes reasonably remote from dwellings, and within certain limits to destroy all filth by oxidation, sewage irrigatior,, etc., with as little delay as may be necessary. All of these jioints seem of such importance to the Board, that, in their opinion, no city or town sliall be allowed to einbark upon costly schemes of water-snpplv and sewerage without having the lienefit of advice from somebody who has had ex- perience in such matters. There has therefore been inserted, in the draft of the law which precedes, a section providing that all such plans mu.st be approved by the Rivers Pollution Couunission. The matter of local drainage is also one involv- ing great danger to the jmblic health if not properly regulated; and provisions for that, too, have been made in the bill. Ill 1879 the State Board of Health of Massachusetts was succeeded by the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, and in the first re- port of that Board (1880) the investigations as begun by the previous Board are continued, liy a study of the basin of the AVestfield river, wliicli with a further preliminary examination of the Merrimack river conchides the special work of pollution on streams for the year 1879. Professor Nichols gives m this report an account of a stream pol- luted by a large quantity of sulphuric acid discharged into it by the burning of a chemical works. This case is of considerable value as illus- trating how seemingly great amounts of contaminating material may under favorable conditions be easily lost sight of in large volumes of water. The Second Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Char- ity, contains an investigation of the pollution of the Deerfield and Mil- ler rivers as made by W. E. Hoyt, C. E., with the statistics given in form similar to that of previous years. The Third Beport contains iu Appendix B, (1) a report on the Wor- cester sewage and the Blackstone river, by Drs. Folsom and Wolcott and Joseph P. Davis, M. Am. Soc. C. E.; and (2) a report on the same subject by Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C. E., the latter jDresent- ed on behalf of the town of Milbury, situated on the Blackstone river below Worcester and alleged to be suffering from the nuisance caused by the sewage pollution in the stream.* Appendix C contains extracts from the Report on the First Metro- politan Drainage Commission as presented to the Massachusetts Leg- islature, Jan. 9, 1882. * For further references to these two Reports see Chapter XXVII. on sewage disposal at Worcester. Mass. THE MASSACHUSETTS WORK. 43 The next work on pollution of streams in Massacliusetts is in the Nineteenth Annual Report of the State Board of Health (1888), where a.re given tables of analyses of the waters of several of the streams examined in previous years. An outline of the proposed experiments on sewag-e purification at Lawrence is also g-iven. In the Twentieth and Twenty-first Reports questions of pollution are incidentally discussed from the standpoint of the recent views under the head of advice to cities and towns in relation to water sup- ply and seAverage. In the Special Report, Part I., and in the Twenty-second and Twenty-third Annual Reports, may be found the best exposition of many of the questions arising in connection with stream iDollution that has yet been made. In the Chapter on the Examination of Rivers in the Special Report, the pollution of the Blackstone river is first considered. This river is stated to be, by reason of receiving the sewage of the cit}' of Wor- cester, the most polluted stream in Massacliusetts. For several miles below Worcester the stream was found not only very offensive at times, but too dirty for use in the manufacture of light colored cloths. The rept)rt gives a series of analyses of (1) the unpolluted water of the streams which unite to form the Blackstone above Worcester ; (2) samples taken at Quinsigamond villagfe about one mile below the point where the Worcester sewage enters the Blackstone ; (3) at Uxbridge 17 miles below, and (4) at Millville 24 miles below. Table No, 4 A gives the means of analyses made in 1887, 1888 and a portion of 1889, and is from data in the Special Report. Table No. 4 A. — Means of Analyses of Water of Blackstone River at the Points Indicated, as Made in 1887, 1888 and 1889. (Parts per 100,000.) Locality. Lyntlo Brook reservoir Tatnii'-k Broiik resprv' ir lliv-r tiel'uv Quins. gnm md villagn lliver HI, Uxbriilge River at Millvillo Residue on ev aporatioii. § s 60 S c S IC "s o t o X o H ^ f^ 0.25 2.98 0.91 2.07 0.19 2.« 0.8K 1..57 0.70 ■iS.Ki 5. fit! 18.17 0.40 ♦i.07 1.48 5.19 0.39 5.06 1.2fi 3.S0 Nitrogen as .0040 .010-.' 0.14 .0062 .rooi .0009 .015.5 ' 0.12 .C036 .0001 .21(;0 .121 S 1.19 .0^15 .0027 .1011 .nesi; 0.65 .0292 .0009 .0465 .0253 1 0.46 ; .0211 11005 At !\[illvill('. the lowest point at wliicli the samples wc^v tak(Mi, the dr.iinage area is about four times as great as at Quinsigamond villagfe. 44 SE\VAG1<: DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. while the population is only 34 per cent, greater. A very considerable purification takes place in the flow down the river by reason of dilu- tion, independent of any purification resulting- from other causes. The dilution is nearly sufticient to account for all the purification in- dicated by the chemical analyses. In Table No. 4 B we have the averages of a similar series of analyses made from June, 1889, to December, 1890, and given in the Twenty- second Annual Report. Table No. 4 B. — Means of Analyses of Water of Blackstone River at the Points Indicated, as Made in 1889 and 1890. (Parts per 100,000.) .9 Residue on evaporation . Ammonia, Nitrogen as Locality. ^• Albuminoid. ca ■z O 5 ■c ■a , SS » s ■- S "3 o o ff. o aj o > c 1 o 2 1 ■a 3 "A o H J fa H (5 m o a g » Lynde Brook reservoir 19* 0.22 .3.07 1.15 .0025 .0149 ! .0121 .0028 0.15 .0062 .0001 0.9 TatnucU Brook reservoir. . . . 19* 0.19 2.74 1.24 .0005 .0153 i .0115 .003« 0.13 .01156 .0000 0.9 River above Worcester sew- age disposal works 19« 0.84 9.97 3.04 .2452 .1135 .0015 .0520 1.10 .0295 .0018 2,82 River below Worcester sew- age disposal works 6t 0.95 11.43 3.20 .28(10 .1510 .0787 .072.3 1.44 .0345 .0022 3.72 20t 20t 0.27 0.38 8.27 6.81 ].fi9 2.. 31 .1131 .0544 .0242 .0231 .01<)7 .01 to .0077 .0051 0.67 0,46 .o;:o2 .0216 .0OU7 .0003 2.88 2.25 * Six analyses included in the mean total residue and five in the loss on ignition, t These analyses were all made in I8!t0 after the opening of the sewage disposal works. i Seven analyses included in the mean total residue and six in the loss on ignition. The means for total residue and loss on ignition included in Table No. 4 B are all of analy.ses made after opening of Worcester sewage disposal works in 1800. In considering the results of the analyses embodied in Table No. 4 B it may be remembered that the Worcester disposal works were put in operation June 25, 1890. The Worcester sewage is mostly discharg-ed into Mill brook, which flows into the Blackstone river at Quinsigfamond village. The water- shed of Mill brook is about 12.5 square miles with an average daily flow of about a million g-allons per square mile, or the average daily volume of brook water is something like 12,500,000 gallons. In dry weather the average daily flow is less than this. The sewage proper amounted to about 5,000,000 gallons per day in 1892. At present the main intercepting sewer extends only from the new precipitation works, which are situated about one mile south of Quin- sigamond village, to the lower end of the Mill brook channel, where it intercepts the sewage after dilution with brook water to the extent indicated in the foreg-oing. During" the time covered by the analyses in Table No. 4 B, only CONNECTICUT. 45 about 3,000,000 gallons of the polluted brook water were treated at the disposal works, the balance of the untreated flow of Mill brook enter- ing- the river as formerly. The effect of the treatment of the 3,000,000 gallons daily is indicated by the third an(J fourth series of Table No. 4 B.* The results of I'ecent studies of the pollution of the Charles, Chico- pee, Concord, Connecticut, Deerfield, Hoosac, Housatonic, Ipswich, Merrimack, Millers, Nashua, Neponset, Shawsheen, Stony Brook, Taunton, Ten Mile, and Westfield rivers, are given in the Special Re- port. The Twenty-second Annual Report also contains the continua- tion of the study of a number of the streams. In the Twentj'-third Annual Report the results of studies of the Blackstone are continued to include the year 1891 ; the same is true of the Merrimack and Taunton rivers. In addition advantage was taken of an unusually dry season to make special studies of the Black- stone, Quaboag, Merrimack, Nashua and Neponset rivers. The Report states : Nearly all of the examinations show an increasing pollution of the streams as comimred with previous years. This is caused not only by the fact that the sum- mer and autumn of 1891 were drier than for several years before, but also by an unusually rapid increase in population and manufactures during these years, little being done by the towns and manufacturers to keep the larger streams from being polluted. — (p. 256.) Other Massachusetts Reports of value are (1) the Report of Commis sion Appointed to Consider a General System of Drainage for the Valleys of the Mystic, Blackstone and Charles rivers (1886) ; and (2) the Report of the State Board of Health upon the sewerage of the Mystic and Charles River Valleys (1889). Both of these reports should be read by whoever wishes to fully consider the literature of Sewage Disposal in the United States. Maine. In Maine a few chemical analyses of river waters used as public sup- plies have been made by the State Board of Health in the last few years, the results of which may be found in the Annual Reports of the State Board. Connecticut. In Connecticut the General Assembly, by an Act ajiproved March 24, 1886, made it incumbent upon the State Board of Health to " inves- tigate and ascertain so far as practicable all facts in relation to the pollution of streams and natural waters of this state by artificial causes, * For further in regard to pollution of the Blackstone, see Chapter XXVII. 46 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. which in their judgment may be necessary to determine the sanitary and economic eliects of such poUution." The work authorized by this act was put in charge of Professor S. W. Williston, of Yale College, who submitted a preliminary report in the Tenth Annual Report of the State Board (1888). According to Pro- fessor Williston, this enactment grew out of a conviction on the part of those acquainted with the rapidly growing pollution of the streams of Connecticut that the time had arrived when state jurisdiction was imperatively needed. Many of the streams are already in or approach- ing a state of excessive pollution. The growth of manufacturing inter- ests, and the decrease of the agricultural population, has been steady and general in Connecticut for some years. The manufacturing towns and cities have thus increased rapidly ; many of them showing 50 per cent, or more in the last decade. This has produced a twofold result upon the streams ; not only are the manufacturing wastes added, but the population b}' compacting in towns is brought into the most favor- able condition for discharging sewage and other human waste prod- ucts directly into the rivers. The chapter on Manufacturing Processes and Refuse in Professor "VVilliston's Report gives in brief space the essential facts in relation to pollution from the ordinary manufacturing processes, and it is accordingly included here as a useful contribution to the recent Ameri- can literature of rivers pollution. Manufactueing Processes and Refuse. BRASS MANUFACTURES. As is well known, the various brass manufactories form the chief industry of the Naugatuck vallev, an industry for which not only the chief towns on the river are noted, but also for which the State itself is justly celebrated throughout America. These brass works, notwithstanding their extent, are in reality productive of little harm to the river in a sanitary sense, though they have long since rendered the water of the stream wholly unlit for fish, the chief waste, sulphate of coi:)per, being the most poisonous of any substance known to this form of life. Their refuse, aside from the sewage of their operatives, is almost wholly acids and oils, with a certain considerable quantity of the metals themselves dissolved by the action of the acids. The refuse or waste materials diifer somewhat in character, but not mi;ch, accord- ing to the product of the various mills. Some of the manufactories produce only the sheet or bar brass from the copj^er and zinc ; others are engaged wholly in the ])roduction of the various metal goods from the alloy, while others manufacture both the alloy and tiie goods. Of the rolling mills proper there are a half dozen or more, located in Torrington, Thomaston, Waterbury, Seymour, and Ansonia, and all of them are on a more or less extensive scale, employing about four-tifths of all the operatives engaged in the brass industries in the Naugatuck valley. In the rolling mills, the acids, chiefly sulphuric, are used almost wholly for the removal of the oxidized scales on the surface of the metal after annealing. The metal, in the process of rolling, as is well known, becomes hard and brittle and requires repeated heating in order to render it ductile. After having been thus heated, the tarnished surface is again rendered clean and shining by immersion in MANUFACTURIXG PROCESSES AND REFUSE. 47 diluted acid, a process technically called " pickling." The acid for this purpose is diluted in a large vat with six to twelve times its quantity of water, and is constantly kept renewed by the addition of acid as its strength is weakened. This pickling vat may be emptied and renewed daily, weekly, or at longer intervals, depending iijion the ditferent usages, and the different amounts of metal treated in it. In no case, however, am I aware of the recovery of any part of the acid in the metal salts, except in copper mills, where the cojjper crystals, precipitated from the saturated solution, are removed and thrown intt) the furnace to be again reduced to the metal state. After the metal has been allowed to remain in the jnckling vat for a few minutes, it is removed and placed in another vat of running clean water, to remove the residue of acid. It is thus seen that all or nearly all of the acids employed reach the stream, carrying with them copper and zinc in solution. How much cojjper and zinc is thus lost I cannot say, but, from analysis, I believe that more than one-half of the acid becomes saturated, so that the amount actually going into the stream is at least thirty per cent, gjeater than the amount of acid used. Almost the only other, and the worst, element of contamination from the rolling mills, is that caused by the oils used. The brass that is cast into bars, either for future rolling, or for use as such in other manufacturing purposes, requires the use of oil in the moulds, but this, it is unnecessary to state, is all consumed. In the process of rolling, however, laid, fish, and whale oils in about equal proi)ortions, are ajjplied to the surface of the metal and the rollers. Some little of this oil, it is true, finds its way through and is consumed by the fire in the process of annealing ; but the great pressure of the rolls, it is readily understood, squeezes back this and causes it to flow off, for the greater i>art, into a trough or depression below, whence it is carried off by a stream of constantly flowing water. Very little of the mineral oils is used in rolling, but chiefly for lubrication on bearings. My reports will not .show accurately the amount of oils that are used, for, in some of the manufactories where I am pretty confident they must be employed to a greater or less extent, no reports were given of them. Several of the largest manufactories on the river did, however, give complete repoi-ts, from which it is evident that lard oil is not the one chiefly used, but also whale and flsh oils, as well as large quantities of the mineral oils. The report of one large Arm will give a pretty clear idea of the amount used for the rolling mills. In this manufactory, for each one thousand pounds of metal treated or manufactured one gallon of "fish and mineral" oils was used and fifteen l)ounds of acid. Of course tlie lighter mineral oils are the ones least likely to get into the water and the ones least injurious. The only other refuse from the rolling mills, aside from the sewage of the oper- atives, is derived from the cinders, scoritc, and other matter containing fragments of the metal which it is desired to save. This material, after having been cru.shed, is washed by water and the metals se])arated and again used. Much the larger amount of brass used is C()m])Osed of copper and zinc in the pro- portion of about six to four ; where the alloy is desired of a more granular or brittle character to adapt it for turning, rather than for ductility, a small part (two or three per cent, i of lead is added. In the larger number of the manufactories the alloy is cast or turned, or other- wise formed into the various objects for which the metal is used, and here neces- -saiily they undergo a ditferent treatment, but one not essentially different so far as refuse is concerned, save in the use of oil. In most of these the acid is used to give some desired finish to the goods, and not merely to clean the surface. Sul- phuric acid is still used in by far the larger quantity, but muriatic and nitric acids are also used in diflerent ways and in ditferent combinations to produce difterent ettects. The process is technically called " dip]iing," and the acid is used i!i full strengtii in small kettles kept at a boiling tenii>eratur(>. Before being dipped, the goods are treated with a solution of caustic soda to remove whatever greas(> maybe adhering to them. After dipj)ing tliey are washed in running water and ])olislied. The dipping vats are kept at the n^qnired strength and the conttmts changed from tinui to tim«» (several months before being wholly changed). The combination of these acids, th(>ir pi'oper degrees of strength, and the ])roper methods of using them, lequire a certain degree of technical skill on the jiart of the worker. The metal salts are not recovered in this process, or, if so, are treated as refuse, so that the 48 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. acids all practically find their way into the stream, together with a considerable quantity of the metals. One hundred pounds of sulphuric acid used in the pickling baths require for saturation : 64.3 pounds of copper, producing 254 pounds of blue vitriol [CuO^H...S04-^CuSO, + H,0]. 66.3 pounds of zinc, producing 292 pounds of white vitriol [ZnO +H.SO4 =ZnS04 + H,OJ . One hundred pounds of the same acid used in the hot dipping baths would require : 32. 1 pounds of copper, producing 127 pounds of blue vitriol [Cu+2(H.S04) = CuSO« + SO,-h2(H,0)]. 33.2 pounds of zinc, producing 146.4 pounds of white vitriol [ZnS04 + 7H.O]. Considerable quantities of soap are rei:)orted from the latter class of manufacto- ries, used for wire drawing and lubricating metals in press operations. In the ijolishing of brass and iron considerable quantities of oil and grease are used, which are afterward removed by potash in dift'erent forms, or other alkalies. In all the brass manufactories, save the rolling mills jiroper, considerable quan- tities of cyanide of potash and ammonia are reported. These are used in electro- metallurgical processes, and all are wasted, together with some fatty matters taken U13 by the alkali. Goods to be electroplated are first treated with the alkali to re- move what greasy matters may be adhering to the metal, and are then subjected to a dilute bath of acid to remove the oxides fi'om the surface. They are then placed in a solution of the cyanide of jjotash, which acts as a carrier or agent in the de- position of the metal by the galvanic current. Cyanide of potash, as is well known, is a virulent jjoison, and there is a sufficient quantity employed annually in the Naugatuck valley to destroy all the inhabitants of the United States, yet it is doubtful whether its contaminating influence is very great. The waste solution is more or less neutralized by acids and diluted in the drain-pijies that carry them oflf. The amount of aqua ammonia rejwrted does not diff"er much in the various manu- factories ; from two-thirds as much in weight, as of the cyanide of potash, to an equal quantity are given. IKON MANUFACTDKE. In the manufacture of iron, almost the only waste of importance comes from the pickling baths, used to give a clean non-oxidized surface to the metal. These pick- ling vats, as I saw them in one of the largest iron manufactories in the State, were elongated tanks holding several hundred gallons of dilute sulphuric acid, kept at a boiling temperature. The iron, in the shape of bars or long plates, was brought in, in bundles, by susj^ended pulleys and immersed for a few minutes in the first vat, after which it was carried to a second similar vat and likewise allowed to remain for a short time. It is next dipped into a vat of water to wash off the superfluous acid, and is then dipped into a fourth vat containing a heated solution of lime to neutralize the remaining acid. The common practice is to add fresh acid to these vats from time to time during the day, as it is needed, and then to empty them all at the close of the day's work. A sample which I was kindly permitted to take at the Stanley works, of New Brit- ain, from one of these pickling tubs a little before the contents were to be turned into the stream, gave the following, as stated by Professor Smith : "The 'bath solution' contains 5.66 per cent, of sulphuric acid, calculated as such, of which there is sufficient iron to unite with 87 per cent., leaving but 13 per cent, of the sulphuric acid in the free condition ; or, .79 per cent, is the amount of free acid that the solution contains." It is thus seen that four-fifths or more of the acid enters the stream as sulphate MANUFACTUKIXG PROCESSES AND REFUSE. 49 of iron (copperas). For every ton of acid thus used, nine hundred pounds of iron are taken up in solution, producing four thousand pounds of copperas, to which is to be added four hundred pounds of free acid. Tinning is a process that is often ajjjjlied to iron goods, and especially to j^ins. It is done by boiling the goods to be whitened in a solution of cream of tartar with block tin or " tin crystals" for two or three hours. Practically all the waste here is the cream of tartar alone. In the manufacture of jiins there is but little other waste ; the pins are made by machines which comjilete them ready to whiten ; after whitening they are stuck in papers. Hooks and eyes are whitened in the same way, or are covered witli japan, a varnish composed of asphaltum, linseed oil, and tiiri^en- tine, of which there is little or no waste. In the manufacture of metal buttons and similar goods, another source of waste, aside from that due to the ordinary use of the acids, is the japan varnish removed from tin plate. The articles are boiled in a .solution of caustic soda, and the latter is washed off and carried into the stieam together with the sapouitied varnish. Small amounts of stannate of soda probably go with the soda. In the baking to which the varnished articles are previously subjected the tiirpentiue of the varnish is, of course, dissipated. This waste, however, cannot be very important. In a firm employing two hundred hands, not more than eight pounds of the alkali used daily were i-eported, and there consequently could not be a very large quantity of the varnish removed. In the polishing of the metals, as has already been said, considerable quantities of oil and grease are used, which are afterward removed by potash or other alkalies. PAPER MANUFACTUBE. There are numerous paper mills on the streams examined, and I have been unable to obtain a full knowledge of the waste prodxicts of the very various raw materials used. In many of the smaller manufactories, esjiecially on the Hockauum, heavy binder's boards are made, and as there is no bleaching nor much cleaning of the raw materials, there is little refuse. In others where the coarser papers are manu- factured, and where jute, gunny .sacking, old paper, and colored rags are used, the organic waste may be as gieat or even greater than in those where the higher qualities of writing paper are produced. In the manufacture of paper from rags, the first ^jrocess that the material under- goes is prolonged boiling under pressure in a solution of lime, by which the fibre is freed from the glutinous and other matter. Caustic soda may be used for this j)ur- pose, especially for the lower grades of paper, but in the mills in Connecticut lime is used either alone, or, for colored rags, with a slight addition of the soda. This solution of lime, after use, with all its impurities, is turned into the stream, and the rags are subjected to long and thorough washing. It is seen that almost if not quite all of the lime thus gets into the stream ; certainly but a veiy small jiart can remain in the tiln-e after several hours washing in running water. From ten to fifteen pounds are uscil to every hundred pounds of rag.s, and the extractive matter dis- solved out by it, together with more or le.ss of the til)re itself waslied away, must add materially to the waste. The next ]irocess in the ])roduction of white or light- colored papers is bleaching. The material used for this jmrjiose is called chloride of lime, but is really a combination of tlie chloride and hypoclilorite, aiul even in the best qualities ran^ly has more than thirty live ])er cent, of chlorine, the etJective agent. Tlie residuum of non-soluble jmrts is turned into the stream and the clear solution is ai)i)lied to the pulp. To set free the clilorine, large quantities (u tliird or a half as much as the bleaching ])owders) of alum (or, in .some jilact^s, sulphuric acid) is added to the solution. The pulp is allowed to remain in th(> solution for some time, when it is removed and very thoroughly washed, and the spent .solution is discharged into the river. Again here it is seen that, besides the alum, nearly the whole quantity of the bleaching ])owd(>r finds its way into the stream, either as lime, chloride of lime undissolved, or other chlorides, chlorine gas dissolved in the water, or hydrochloric acid. All this bleaching waste is highly injurious to fishes. 4 50 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE EXITED STATES. The refuse from this class of mills, though containing not a little organic matter from the tilth, grease, etc., of the rags, cannot convey many germs, as they must be destroyed in the boiling ijrocesses, excej^t such as are in the dust and refuse separated in the preliminary sorting out of the rags. The fatty acids, furthermore, are converted into insoluble lime soaps. A large jjart of the material discharged is lime, a substance that can hardly be said to contaminate the water, especially in New England, where the rivers are deficient in this mineral matter. For eveiy million pounds of fine writing-jiaper manufactured, from three to four bundled thousand pounds of solid refuse matter are discharged into the river. According' to the British reports on Rivers Pollution, from line white rags there is about fifteen per cent, refuse ; from colored rags, twenty-five per cent.; from esparto, forty ; and from straw, fifty per cent.* WOOLLEN MANUFACTUKi;. On the rivers examined, the woollen manufactories are chiefly confined to th& Hockanum. On the Naugatuck there are but few that manufacture from the raw material. In former years the woollen manufacture of this stream was much more imi^ortant than it is at present. During the last year, even, one of the jjrincijjal mills, that at Beacon Falls, has suspended indefinitely its operations, throwing out of em2)loy some three hundred operatives. There is jjrobably no class of manufac- tories m the State that pollute the streams more extensively, in proportion to their number, than these, their waste consisting, as it does, chiefly of organic material. " Wool is always accom^janied with other secretions, which issue from the skin along with it and lubricate it, rendering it more or less 'yolky ' and giving it it» peculiar and characteristic odor. These secretions differ enormously in amount between the difierent breeds, and vary greatly in character. Here it is sufficient to- say that besides the oil that accompanies all wool, there is a comi^licated mixture of several chemical substances called together 'yolk ' or gum (or sometimes ' suint,*^ the French name, German ' Fetterschweiss ' and ' Wollscliweiss '),and which consti- tutes a large percentage of the unwashed merino wool. In extreme cases, and with certain fine-wooled breed.s, these secretions constitute upward of sixty j^er cent, of the imwashed fleece, diminishing in quantity as the fibres becomes coarser and the staple longer, and as the wool passes from the carding to the combing varieties, reaching its minimum in certain coarse-wooled native breeds. This ' yolk is chemi- cally a sort of natural soap, and is more or less soluble in water. In certain merino breeds it is bred for, and thus its quantity has been relatively increased, and, when abundant, dirt and dust are more ai)t to cling to the wool,' thus diminishing still further the percentage of actual wool fibre." (Professor W. H. Brewer, Ee2iort of the National Acad, of Sciences, 1885, p. 84.) As is stated by Professor Brewer above, the composition of this "yolk" or "suint" is very comj^jlicated ; in an analysis aj^pended to his report, no less than thirty different chemical compounds are enumerated. " It is the common practice with sheep growers in most countries before shearing- to wash the sheep in running w^ater of natural temperature. The yolk is partly soluble in cold water (more in hot), and if the washing is thorough, a part also of the oil and attached dirt is removed, the oil being somewhat soluble in a solution of the yolk, or else it and other dirt are mechanically removed wdth the soapy- emulsion. No matter how poorly this washing by the wool-grower may be done, or how much impurity may be left in the fleece, it is known in the market as washed wool." (W. H. Brewer, ibid., p. 87.) Raw wool, of ordinary grades as it comes to the manufactui-er, conhiins a third oi* more by weight of organic matter that it is necessary to remove. This removal is accomplished by scouring in alkaline solutions, chiefly soda ash, but also, in some of the mills at least, in urine, the latter being used, I have been told, to give a softer finish to the goods than can be obtained fi'oni the ordinaiy alkalies ; that urine is not used more extensively in many of the Connecticut mills is due to the * For more complete discussion of the constituents of paper mill wastes, see A Study of Paper Mill Wastes, in Chapter XVI. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND REFUSE. 51 difficulty of procuriug it. The amounts of alkalies returned by four diJBferent mills for each thousand pounds of raw material treated, are as follows : Sal Soda 48 130 22 {-..^ SodaAsh 75 32 50 \ ^^^ 128 162 72 150 Of this amount of wool, treated by these and other detergents, probably at least three hundred pounds are removed. In English mills, where urine is used extensively, in this first washing about five hundred jjouuds are used to the thousand weight, with about fifty pountls of alka- lies. As my re[)orts show, a miich larger amount of tlie alkalies is used in the Connecticut mills, and but little urine, at least I was so told by several manufact- urers All this refuse goes into the stream. After rinsing the next process, in the manufacture of line black cloths, is that of " woading," in whicli the wool is steeped for a short time in a solution of indigo. This solution is used constantly with fresh additions and the only part that finds its way into the stream is the little that is removed from the wool in rinsing. From two of my rejiorts I find not more than six or seven pounds of indigo given daily for each thousand i)ounds of raw material. The next step is dyeing, in which the chief substance used is logwood. Four of the mills, from which I have reports of the dyestuffs and the raw material, give from three to five hundred pounds of the logwood for eacli thousand pounds of raw wool. With the logwood and other organic dyestufi's (fustic, camwood, madder, etc.) are used in different methods of dyeing, various mordants, the chief of which is copperas, the next argols (crude cream tartar), then bichromate of potash, ahim, l)lae vitriol and tin crystals or muriate of tin. Tlie wool after having been boiled in the dyeing vat for an liour or more is well washed in running water, and the contents of thti vat turned into the stream. As a half or two-thirds as much dye material is used as the wool weighs it is very certain that only a small proportion is absorbed iu the cloth. It is this waste material that discolors the streams so much, and which causes the chief complaints by the inhabitants along the streams. The amount of spent dye-liquor tui-ned into the .streams has been estimated at G,000 U. S. gallons for each thousand pounds of raw material treated, by the British Commission. Afier the wool has been dyed and dried it is prepared for carding by the recep- tion of oil. One report gives about twelve gallons of lard oil for each thousand ])oun(ls of raw material ; another about ten gallons. In English manufactories about one-tenth part by weight of sweet oil is given for the washed wool, which does not seem to be far from the quantity above given of lard oil. After having been sjjun, the thread may receive a small quantity of thin glue l)efore weaving. This oil and glue is washed out and removed by the aid of soda and urine after weav- ing; the washings of course finding their way into the water. The remaining tiiMtinent is by soap in fulling the oloth, each piece requiring from twelve to ht'te(»n ])ounds. This soa]), where I have seen it, is of a pure white color, and in some of the reports it is given as " palm oil " soap. The chief and worst polluting material in tliese pi'ocesses is the natural grease and allitMl matter washed from the wool, and, next to this, the lard oil and organic dye-stuflfs. The soap is much less important, and the inorganic chemicals harm- less, or positively beneficial in counteracting the organic matter It is to be under- stood, however, that not all the woollen mills manufacture from tlie raw material, or do it only to a small extent. There are several manufactories either in whole or in part, of old wool, and in which a different process is used, and one that causes less pollution in a sanitary sense — than do the manufactures from the raw wool. Tlie material liere is of two kinds, that composed wholly of wool, and that, the larger part, containing more or less cotton. In the former the process is not very different from tliat enijiloyed in ordinary wool, the rags having been fiist reduced to wool by especial machines for the puri30.sc. The washings and scourings of this material remove the grease and 52 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. dirt of the rags, an important polluting substance, it is true, but much less in quantity than the grease from the natural wool. In the larger proportion of rags, however, the cotton must be removed, requiring very ditferent treat- ment, and a treatment that must largely, if not entirely, disinfect them. They are treated with a dilute solution of sulphuric acid in order to convert the cotton tibre into cellulose, as in the treatment of- old rubber material. The acid is dried in and then washed out ; the material is then dyed and manufactured by the ordinary processes. In the scouring processes alkalies and soaps are used, as in ordinary wool, but there is proportionately more of the alkali and less of both in proportion to the amount of raw material treated. COTTON MANUFACTURE. The cotton manufactures on the streams investigated are either of ginghams, or mixed wool and cotton goods, and are not extensive as comi^ared with the other classes of manufactures. The wastes are both organic and mineral, but chiefly the former. The chemicals reported in the manufacture of ginghams are as follows : Sulphuric acid. Pearl ash. Nitric acid. Stannate of soda. Muriatic acid. Brown sugar of lead. Chloride of lime. Indigo. Sal soda. Cutch. Soda ash. Sumac. Bichromate of potash. ^Logwood, Alum. "Soap. Copperas. Aniline colors. Blue vitriol. Oils. Lime. Of the mineral matters, the most important are lime, chloride of lime, and bichromate of potash. Of the organic dye-stuffs, logwood. It is very evident that all, or very nearly all, of the mineral matters are waste ; with the exception of a small j^art of the mineral mordants, none of them are con- tained in the finished goods, and consequently they are lost in the process of manufacture. This is esi^eeially the case with the lime and alkalies, the latter of which are used in small quantities. The acids are used in bleaching to counteract the effects of the lime. The soap is used — not to clean, but to soften the yarn in the process of dyeing, and in bleaching to neutralize the acids. Bichromate of potash, alum, copperas, blue vitriol, stannate of soda, and the acetate of lead are mordants, used to impregnate the cotton, and with which the coloring matter unites to form a chemical compound insoluble in water. After the dyeing, the excess is removed by washing, and, to render the quantity absorl)ed absolutely insoluble, in calico print works it is customary to treat the goods to a hot emulsion' of cow's dung. To what extent, if any, the dunging-process is used in gingham-dyeing, I do not know ; but the process can be substituted by other processes not involving the use of dnng. The waste of the actual dye-stuflfs in cotton-dyeing is large, owing to the fact that the coloring principle forms, usually, only a small proportion of the crude stuflfs, as used. A firm, employing three hundred operatives, reported the con- sumption of logwood, and the other dye-stufTs, at over ten thousand pounds per annum ; but this amount is very small compared with what is actually used in d print works. . >r A much smaller proportion of organic matter is removed from the fibre m the treatment it is subjected to prior to weaving than is the case in woollen mills. It is estimated that about five per cent, in weight of the raw cotton is removed in bleaching, or in the prior treatment with soda. This waste is chiefly color- ing matter and fatty acids, and is not putrescible, or, is so only to a very slight extent, due to a very small quantity of albuminous matter. The removed MANUFACTURIXG PROCESSES AXD REFUSE. 53 matter will not cause a stench, if allowed to remain in a concentrated form, exposed to the atmosphere. Even the larger mills on the Hockanum cannot contribute more than one hundred pounds daily of this waste to the stream pollution. Of the oils used in spinning, chiefly olive oil, at least one half is waste. Here, as elsewhere, the aniline colors, when used, give but comparatively little waste. To recapitulate : the acids, lime salts, and alkalies are virtually wholly turned into the stream ; at least one-half of the mordants are lost, and not far from the same proportion of the dye-stuffs used in the mills reported ; all of the soaji, cue-half of the oil, and perhaps one-tenth of the anilines is wasted ; and five or six per cent, of the raw material. When dung is not used, the putrescible waste is very small. Where starch is used, i^ractically none is waste. SILK MANCFACTUKES. There are but three silk mills in the region examined, but they are important, both by reason of their size, and their effects upon the streams. Raw silk is covered with a so-called " gum," which it is necessary to remove that the silk may not have the elasticity and stiffness that it otherwise would. For the following in relation to this "silk-gum " I am indebted to Professor Johnson : " Silk-gum (sericine) has the following composition in parts per hundred: Carbon 44.32 Hvdrogen 6.18 Nitrogen 18.30 Oxygen 31.20 100.00 " Its empirical formula is CisHasNsOe. It is similar to gelatine in chemical composition and characters, but has 6 per cent, less carbon, 1 jier cent, less hydrogen and nearly i per cent, more oxygen. It is destitute of sulphur, of which gelatine contains 0.56 per cent." " It yields by action of hot dilute acids and oxidizing agents, products simi- lar to, and in a great part identical with, tliose yielded by gelatine, albumen, etc." This sericine constitutes from twenty to twenty- five per cent, of the raw silk, and is chiefly soluble in water. It may be removed by maceration, which pro- duces a most intense and di-sagreeable stench, or it may, as is usually the case, be removed by scouring in a weak solution of soap. The soajjs used are of the best olive-oil kinds, and a very large quantity is required in large mills. The soap is dissolved in hot water, and, if the goods are not intended to be dyed, the silk is boiled in the solution for an hour or more; if the silk is required wiiite, it is first treated for several hours in a warm solution. After scouring, the silk is thoroughly washed, and all refuse, both scourings and washings, are turned into the stream. Whether raw silk is treated as such, or in the co- coons before reeling, the processes so far as refuse is concerned, can not be very diffment. The further processes are those of dyeing, which, so far as the stream is con- cerned. aiP wh >lly of secondary importance. But little oils are iised, and the or- ganic refuse is almost wholly the extractive matter of various dyewoods. Propor- tionately there is less waste of dye-stuffs from the silk mills than from those of other kinds of fabrics. Aniline colors here form a very important part, and of them, owing to their expensiveness, there is less waste. HAT MANUFACTURE. The waste products in the ])rocess of hat manufacture from fur are consider- able in ([uantity, and of a kind that discolor very much the waters of streams that receive them. The character of tht!se wastes, howevt>r, is of a kind tliat ac- 54 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UjS-^ITED STATES. tually pollute the streams much less than would be supi^osed from the visible effects produced, and far less than is caused by the wastes from woolen mills, con- sisting as it does in Connecticut, chiefly of dye-stuffs. Almost the whole of the hatting industry in this State, as is well knowu, is confined to Norwalk, Bethel, and Daubury, which supply a large part of the hats worn in the United States, the only other manufactories of importance being those of New Jersey. In Danbury and Bethel, ihe two i)laces under consideration in this report, the furs are, mostly, jjurchased ready prepiared, and the most of the most deleterious process, so far as the stream is concerned, thus avoided. There are, however, two fur-cutting mills in Danbtiry, which furnish a large ijortion of the carreted fur for that city. When the fur is cut, the first process that the skins undergo is that of washing. The skins, chiefly those of the coney, and nutria, are imported in bales from Aus- tralia, South America, and elsewhere, and contain a considerable quantity of foreign matter, in the shape of sand, dirt, etc. These skins are first placed in large tubs of hot water a,nd allowed to soak, after which they are washed, rubbed, and rinsed, about twenty-five pounds of whale-oil soap being used to each thousand pounds of skins. The water thus used is run into the stream, and must contain a consider- able quantity of offensive organic matter, the waste having a very whitish color. The actual quantity of pollutnig material cannot, however, be very great in Dan- bury, for altogether only about three thousand pountls are washed daily, and with seventy-five ^lounds of soap, not a very large amount of greasy matters can be washed out. I can give no estimate of what this quantity is, for such could only be obtained by carefully weighing the skins before and after washing, and then, too, the inorganic matter removed could hardly be determined without special ex- aminations therefor. lu the treatment of raw wool, a fourth to a third of the actual weight is washed away by the alkalies, but, in the furs, there can be but little fatty matter removed from the hair itself. The other processes of shearing and earreting do not require the waste of water, I was told. Carreting is that process which gives the shrinking or felting proj^erty to the fur required to bring it into the desired compact shape, and consists of a treat- ment with the nitrate of mercury. The process has long been known to have a very injurious result upon tlie health of the workmen engaged in the various hatting processes ; not so great, perhaps, in the actual carreting as in the forming and press- ing of the hats. Since the general use of stiff hats has come into vogue, there has been a decrease in the extent of mercurial poisoning, especially in Connecticut, where comparatively few soft hats are made The manufacture of soft hats requires in finishing a much greater use of the jiressing iron on the damp felt, and a corre- sponding greater inhalation of the mercurialized vapor. Perhajis, also, the shellac now used prevents the vaporization of the mercury. Still, there is not a little mer- curial poisoning among the ojieratives, especially in the hat-forming shops. The dyers' waste liquors are constantly escaping from the factories, partly as rins- ings from the hats, but chiefly from the dye-tiibs themselves after they are no longer of sufficient strength to serve their purpose. There is a difference among the differ- ent manufacturers as to the frequency with which the dye-tubs are emptied, but there seems to be little difference in the amount of dye-stufis used for a given num- ber of hats. Logwood forms by far the chief material used, inasmuch as black hats are those chiefly worn ; the other dye-stuffs are used in the production of diffeient effects, or the lighter colors, but their effect on the stream is essentially the same. The fol- lowing is a recipe given me by one of the manufacturers, and differs only in unessen* tial details fi-om those used by the hatters in general : Bichromate potash 1 i lb. Argols 1^ lb. Madder 2 lbs. Cudbear J lb. Blue vitriol 4 oz. Logwood (chips) 60 lbs. Fustic 3 lbs. Madder lib. MANUFACTURIXG PROCESSES AND REFUSE. 55 The above is the quantity required for the dyeing of twelve dozen stiflf hats. Soft hats require rather a larger quantity, and the extract of logwood is used in place of the chips, about ten pounds being required for each gross of hats. The logwood chips, after the coloring matter is extracted, are either burnt or thrown upon the ground. As ten jjounds of the extract takes the place of the chips in dyeing the soft hats, it is evident that live-sixths of the logwood chips is non-coloring matter. Alum, in the proportion of three ounces to the dozen hats, is used by some hat- makers. The manufacture of wool hats, which is carried on only to a small extent, produces proportionally a much greater degi'ee of contamination. The treatment of the ma- terial is here not much diliereut from that in woolen mills, excejit in the .use of oils. The raw wool is scoured with alkalies to remove the natural greasy matters, and after- ward treated much like the ordinary fur, the chief refuse being the logwood and simi- lar dye-stufts. The hat-forming shops, of which there are two or three in ^Yaterbury and Bethel, receive the carreted fur from the ditferent manufacturers and beat it loosely into conical bags by machinery. The fur is first placed in a blowing or sejjaratiug ma- chine, where it is finely and evenly mixed. It is then removed, weighed out into IjroiJer amounts, and run through a machine that beats it loosely into large conical bags. Next, the bags are dijjped in water and rolled several together in a cloth to give sufficient consistency to handle, and are then sent to the hat-shops. The only refuse, in forming, it is thus seen, is that carried off in the water in which the bags are dipped, and must be small in quantity. The next process these conical bags landergo is that called sizing, and consists of repeated dippings in hot water and rolling with the hands, which produces the shrinkage or felting of the material necessary to bring them to the required size. The water in which they are dipped, carrying with it a small amoiant of refuse, is turned into the stream. After drying and shaving to remove tlie iirojecting fur they go into the dyer's hands, where they are subjected to the ordinary vegetable dyes, such as logwood, camwood, madder, fustic, hypernick, etc., the refuse of ■which, chiefiy logwood, forms almost the whole of the contaminating waste, the treatment with shellac, drying, pre.ssing, and curling producing little or none. The short particles of fur shorn from the hats, with other dry waste, is used wherever practicable, or when not, is usually destroyed, used for fertilizing material, or otherwise disposed of. At the most, but little of it gets into the streams. RUBBER MANUFACTURE. In the ordinary manufacture of rubber there can be but little waste of a delete- rious nature. The only use of water is in tlie washing of the raw gum, to remove the adhering dirt ; and to cool the rolls when they get too hot. The bisulphide of car- bon is about the only chemical used, and this for a solvent to cement the different l>ieces of rubber ; there can but little of it get into the stream. In the manufacture of reclaimed rubber goods, there is a source of considerable refuse in the treatment the material undergoes in the removal of the vegetable fibers contained in it. As in tlio treatment of cotton and wool shoddy mateiial, the old nibber is soaked in a dilute solution (l;5'-' Beaum6) of sulphuric acid : this attacks the vegetable fiber, converting in into the soluble ridlulo.se, wliich, with the spent solution is waslied out and turned into the stream together with a quantity of alkali (about ten percent, of the acid), used in neutralizing the acid. The baliuici' of this Report is chiefly oc-cupicd with detailed state- ments of the s])ecitic sources of polhition in the state, tlie amounts of the various polhitinf^ materials and chemical and bacteriological anal- yses of the waters of several of the streams beino- o-iven. In the Eleventh Annual Kcport of the Connecticut State Board the 66 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Eivers Pollution Report is continued by Professor Williston with further detailed statements of sources of jjollution and chemical and bacteriological analyses of a number of water supplies of the State. Reports of progress are given in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports, and the complete results appear in the Fourteenth Annual Report, covering the year from December 1, 1890, to November 30, 1891. Of the results in the Fourteenth Annual Report brief reference will be made to the analyses of the Connecticut river water, samples of which were analyzed from three points, namely. Warehouse Point, Rocky Hill, and Goodspeed's. Warehouse Point is about 13 or 14 miles below Springfield, and not far from the north line of the State. The samples taken here show the composition of the water as it enters the State and after pollution by the sewage of Northampton, Holyoke, Chicopee, and Springfield in Massachusetts. Rocky Hill, the second point from which samples were examined, is about 20 miles below Warehouse Point, and 9 miles below Hartford. Between this j^lace and Warehouse Point the river receives its chief tributaries in Connecticut, which are the Farmington, but slightly polluted ; the Park river, which is grossly polluted by the sewage of New Britain and Hartford ; and the Hockanum, into which is dis- charged the sewage of Rockville and Manchester. Goodspeed's is about 22 miles below Rocky Hill. The chief pollu- tion between this station and Rocky Hill is at Middletown, about 15 miles above Goodspeed's. The samples were all taken on the same day at each station and always from the same point, well out in the current and one foot below the surface. The series extend from August, 1890, to June, 1891, the samples for analysis being taken about the 25tli of each month. The following table shows the average discharge of the river at Hartford for the ten days preceding the dates on which the samples were taken. Average discharge i Average discharge in cu. ft. per sec. j in cu. ft. per sec. June, 1890 10,320 Jan., 1891 64,370 July " 7,740 Feb. " 39,120 Aug " 8,310 March " 54,200 Sept. " 41,280 April " 89,530 Oct. " 41,820 May " 26,460 Nov. " 26,930 June " 9,800 Dec. " 16,450 July " 8,025 Aug. " 7,550 I Sept. " 7,550 I Oct. " 7,360 The means of the monthly analyses are given in the Table No. 4 c. Ni:W JERSEY. 57 Table No. 4 c— Meam Results of Analyses op Connecticut River Water, MADE IN 1890 AND 1891. (Parts per lC0,0Ot). Water filtered through paper.) s Suspended matter. Residue on evaporation. Nitrogen. >. o ^Xo s i &- 1 ■o Locality. o u i « Total at 10 C. (212° F Lobs on ignition. •c o 3 .2 5 11 1 « ■p ?i-Ei; a X X o .c «.. * = a ^ 5 x=^* Z O bi > C^H o O o O o K O 11 11 11 0.3 0.3 0.3 2.09 0.178 0.138 .27 .22 .29 4.42 4 46 4.50 .86 .87 88 3.56 3.59 3.62 123 .128 1.36 .0034 .0036 .0126 .01.35 .0138 .00018 .00019 .00015 .012 .011 .013 2 3 519 Rocky Hill 2 5 .504 2 5 492 The Connecticut river is not used as the source of a public water supply at any point in the State except at Hartford, Avliere it is in- tended to be used as an emergency supply only. The conclusion of the report is that while the analyses show that the sewage entering the stream has scarcely a perceptible effect on the chemical composi- tion of the water, nevertheless it is unsafe for drinking at any point in Connecticut. Xew Jersey. ^ In New Jersey the question of rivers pollution is in an exceedingly unsatisfactory state. A high court of the State has recently indorsed tlie opinion that the sewage from 15,000 people can enter a stream having a minimum daily flow of 125,000,000 gallons, already largely polluted, and flow only four miles on a level reach before entering the public water supply of 400,000 people without demonstrated danger.* The only law in this State dealing with the pollution of streams is one passed in 1876,t which is stated as entirely inadequate to deal efl'ectively with the evils of stream pollution. Its text is open to various constructions and its letter and sjDirit are constantly violated.^ In a report presented to the New Jersey Sanitary Association in 1890 * Bassett, Inland Sewage Disposal, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. xxv., p. 129. i All. Art to Pieveiit (he Willful Polbition of Water of any of the Creeks, Ponds, or Brooks of the .State. That if any person or persons shall throw, cause or permit to he thrown into the waters of any creek, pond, or brooks of this Stivte the waters of which are used to supply any aqueduct or reser- voir for distriliution or public use any carcass of any dead animal or any ofFal or offensive matter whatsoevt-r, calculate 1 to render such waters impure or to create no.xious or otTensive smells, or shall connect any water clo.set with any sewer or other means wherebj' the contents thereof may V)e conveyed to and into any such creek, pond, or brook, such person or per.sons shall be deemed guilty of a misflemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding 81,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding two years, or both. (Approved, April 21, 1876.) + Report of Committee of New Jersey Sanitary Association, presented Dec. 13, 188y. In Eng. News, vol. XXV., p. Ill (Jan. ;J1, is'.ll). 58 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. the state of the question in New Jersey is fully discussed, and the recommendation made that an act be passed empowering the State Board of Health to act as arbitrator in all matters affecting the pol- lution of streams, water courses, and lakes. In this State studies of stream pollution thus far have been chiefly by the chemical methods and in reference to the jiollution of the Passaic river, which until 1892 was the source of the water supply of the large cities of Newark and Jersey City, and from which stream the water supply of Jersey City is still drawn, although efforts are being made to secure a new supply. Some of them are i>ublished in the earlier reports of the New Jersey State Board of Health. Sources of pollution from manufacturing wastes are also discussed in the Report of the Newark Aqueduct Board on Additional Water Supply, published in 1879. The Pollution of the Passaic River. An extended discussion of the pollution of the Passaic from the chemical point of view is published by Henry Wurtz, Ph. D., formerly State Chemist of New Jersey, in The Engineering and Mining Journal fropor- tioiiate reduction even twice as large as before. * Rimian niuiicials designate ()ii;,'iiiiil talile niinihors, as sriven in the Uih]o liea(iiiif»s in parentheses. 60 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 5 (Table III. op Mr. Wurtz's Report). — Analyses op Water op the Passaic River above the Great Falls at Paterson. (Grains per U. S. gallon.) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. .3 14. ll o Dates. 1 o H ll < 6 o o a o . P o "»-■ * C It •§■1 1° £5 <: 1 1-^ 1 = E = C £ 5 £ r £ i J ^ & - 1 IS Sept. 7, 1881 Sept. 29,1881 Oct. 31. 1881 Nov. 14, 1881 Dec 31. 1881 4.934 4.87.5 4.91.9 5.016 0.711 0.991 1.400 1.266 4.223 3.884 3.569 3.750 3.336 0.286 0.521 0.<>90 0.779 1.020 1.003 .00248 .00851 .'66554 ! 00642 .0053 .0187 .0181 .0088 .0201 '.blt.O .0239 .0264 .0217 9T 0.124 33.. 44 .0347 .0472 .0286 46.. Jan. 7, 1882, river ice-bound 4.794 4.918 1.458 1.1 6(i .0389 3.752 .194 0.802 00560 .0125 .0210 .0391 .0322 Table No. 6 (Table IV. op Mr. Wurtz's Report). — Analyses of Water op the Passaic River between the Great Falls and Dundee Lake. (Grains per U. S. gallon.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 B o H 6.135 5.873 6.059 5. CD ii i = ■e-S c c 6" 1.020 1.557 1 .7.55 6 ■< 5.115 4.316 4.304 7. 8. c o £ £ o o .495 .381 .276 9. o .S ^ 1| = o CO 0..34(i 1.048 1.197 10. S t 11. ■c 'o S-5 '2 - o 5 £•= £■3 ... Bridgeport July 31 . . Lockport Aug. 3... Briilgeport Aug. 7... Lockport Aug. 9... Bridgeport Aug. 14. . . Lockport Aug. 16 . . Bridgeport Aug. 21 . . . Lockport. I Aug. '2:i. .. Bridgeport Aug. 28. . . Lockport Aug. 30... Bridgeport Sept. 11.. Lockport Sept. 13. . Bridgeport Sept. 14.. Lockport Sept. 1 .5 . . Bridgeport Sept. 18. . Lockp >rt Sept. 20 . . BridgefKirt Sept. 2.5 . . Lnrkport Sept. 27. liridgcport Oct. 9... L>K-k|X)rt Oct. 12. . . Bridgeport Oct. IK. . . I/ickport ' Oct. 18... Bridgeport Oct. '£i... Lockport 1 Oct. 25... Bridgeport Oct. 30. . . Lockport Oct. 30. . . 109.90 53.80 45.00 60.85 58.00 69.20 42.81 46.84 50.55 69.90 47.48 42.81 46.49 3H.71 34.75 32.29 .36.70 3.3.19 48.05 .34.67 .34.75 34.25 75.49 48.95 42.03 38.64 .37..30 31.24 32.-35 m.oo .34.12 39.00 .33.68 .34.88 44.70 42.30 58..34 60.70 34.50 33.88 .32.10 .39..54 34.10 37.:i6 41.52 .38.40 38.68 40.50 46.70 4.10 11.51 24.20 2.85 10.70 7.67 5.69 14.70 8.06 7.51 6.45 13.20 5.80 6.23 4.65 15..52 4.70 10.97 3 80 8.45 4.67 14.45 17.14 7.25 4.88 4.98 3.12 5.04 3.25 6..50 4.54 6..55 3.08 9.90 3.90 I 18.42 14..34 9.30 6.70 7.81 I 5.71 1 5.&3 6.58 8..36 I 5..38 1 15.76 6.11 I 0.0 u.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.57 7.78 4.81 2.12 5.95 3.54 3.04 3.54 3.54 12.17 2.55 2.26 3.68 2.55 2.12 2.83 1.42 3.54 6.23 .5.95 2.77 3.29 18.12 2.83 3.12 .3.26 2.55 1.27 2.55 1.27 2.a3 5.84 1.27 1..56 3.97 4.96 7.64 8.78 .3.04 .3.40 2.8:^ 5.95 5.10 5.10 6.11 9.90 1.42 &54 15.90 27. 9U 15.90 18.30 24.24 25.70 21.96 26.1)4 23.52 26.88 23.04 22.80 21.00 21.30 17.40 19.20 19.20 20.00 21.20 21.50 10.80 10.80 24.00 21.60 21.00 20.40 19.20 18.80 19.00 1800 19.40 19.00 16.80 16.80 19.00 18.00 21.00 25.00 18 00 16.60 17.40 18.20 20.00 21.60 24.00 19.00 21.20 19.20 Free ammo- nia. Albu- minoid ammo- nia. 2 92 1.5T 1.11 0.^5 1.08 1.2H O.TT 0.64 0.82 1.73 0.77 1.01 1.05 1.14 0.80 0.72 001 1.05 1.08 1.10 0.72 1.10 .3.10 1.50 0.98 1.08 1.06 0.69 0.76 0.66 0.86 0.98 1.04 0.97 0.98 1.18 2..58 1.90 0.88 0.88 1.18 0.94 0.98 1.10 0.92 0.89 0.69 1.13 O.fiS 0.33 0.37 0.27 18 0.16 (1.25 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.16 0.29 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.38 0.18 0.20 0.12 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.36 0.16 0.19 0..32 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.19 0.18 0.:M 0.23 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.26 0.17 0.19 0.25 0.23 0.26 0.16 0.24 0.16 Oxygen con- sumed. 5.96 2.51 2.96 2.46 2.22 1.59 2.27 1.74 2.08 2.26 2.11 1.72 2.16 1.21 1.98 1.58 1.86 l.fiO 2.63 1.86 2.37 1.54 2.66 2.24 1.80 1.36 2.00 1.47 1.55 1..53 1.58 1.85 1.40 1.52 1.46 1.25 1.57 1.07 1.12 1.31 2.18 1.96 3.04 0.88 3.74 0.69 2.40 1.78 68 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. torn, thereby preventing- the appearance of a self-purification by actual destruction of org-anic matter, which is in reality merely a change of position of polluting material by sedimentation. Further, in relation to sedimentation it may be stated that the current of the canal of nine-tenths of a mile an hour is sufficient to prevent it, and this fact is further said to be proven by numerous dredgings of the bottom, which show no traces of sewage subsidence. The changes which do take place may therefore be considered as due entirely to oxidation ; and in order to show their extent. Table No. 9, derived from Tables II. and III. of Professor Long's report, has been prepared, in which the sami3les are grouped in such way as to give in juxtaposition, so far as possible, the same sample from the two places, the difference in time allowing for the flow from Bridgeport to Lockport. The following are the means of all the analyses made from May to October inclusive (includes a number not given in the foreg-oing" table.) Place collected. Bridgeport Lockport. . . Date of collection. 1888 Total solids. Matter in sus- pension. Nitro- gen in nitrates. Chlo- rine Hardness CaCOg. Free ammo- nia. Albu- minoid am mo- nia. 47 12 43.12 12.92 6.98 0.0 0.0 4.68 4.61 20.13 20.77 1.23 l.OS 0.26 0.20 Oxygen con- sumed. 2.31 1.62 The following are the means of a number of analyses made in Jan- uary, February, and March, 1889. (The single analyses of these two series are not comparable in the same way as the summer series, from the fact that the samx3les were taken at both places on the same day.) Place collected. Date of Total collection. solids. 1 Matter in sus- pension. Nitro- gen in nitrates. Chlo- rine. Hardness CaCOa. Free am mo- nia. Albu- minoid ammo- nia. Oxygen con- Kumed. ) Jan. to ( 37.66 i'Mch.,1889| 1 40.86 2.72 2.46 0.0 0.0 6.29 5.60 89 0.81 28 0.25 2.65 2.28 The amount of purification attained appears from Table No. 9 to be quite slight, although dilution would undoubtedly assist the process somewhat. The indication of the table is, however, quite clear, that an ordinary stream receiving a large quantity of a moderately dilute sewage, of the average quality indicated by these tests at Lockport, can hardly be considered safe as a source of drinking-water for many miles beyond. In a paper, Notes on some Cases of Drinking- Water and Disease, read by Professor William P. Mason, before the Chemical Section of the Franklin Institute, May 19, 1891, and to which we have already referred in Chapter I., page 10, some propositions are advanced in THE LAW OF SELF-PUKIFICATION. 69 reg-ard to the process of self-purification taking- place in the Illinois and Michigan canal, between Bridgeport and Lockport, which are of importance in connection with the present discussion. The Law of Self-pueification. Professor Mason advances the proposition that the rate of purifica- tion varies directly as the amount of sewage contamination, and states r.9 ■^ V ■~>v .. ■-v 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7b 164 ■ ALBUMINOID AMMONIA mOOEPORT TO LOCKPORT >. ■^ ^ ^ ^ ** '^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ ■> ■^ 1.0 63 .84 .71 6a '""' ^ ^ ^ "-5 -- ^ ^ = — 5s, ^ ^ ^ II — ^ ==. — _ 1 _ , . _ . , _ ^ ~" r ~ >>^ i:^ 56 37 SRiD ££* RT 2i mi sd Lj LO Kf> )RT U Fig. 3.— Decrease in Free and Albuminoid Ammonia in the Illinois and MicHioAN Canal fud.m BuinciKroKT to Lockpout, III. 70 SEWAGE DISI'OSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. that : " Given a stream with a certain amonnt of pollution, the per cent, of such pollution which must disappear per mile of flow will continually decrease as the stream flows on." In illustration of this proposition, Professor Mason submits a graphical exhibit of the results of a number of Professor Long-"s analyses (Fig-. 3), showing the decrease in the free and albuminoid ammonias between Bridgeport and Lockport on certain dates. The following figures were used in preparing the diagrams : Parts por 1.000.000 Free ammonia. Albuiiiinoiil ammonia. Bridgeport. Lockport. Bridgeport. Lockport 2.6 2.8 0.64 0.56 2.7 2.4 0.52 0.42 25.0 10.2 1.50 0.72 5.5 9.2 0.37 0.47 23.0 11.0 1.76 0.72 26.0 12.0 1.50 0.48 29.0 15.2 1.64 0.88 27.2 15.0 1.50 0.84 29.2 13.0 1.90 0.88 June 26 July 3 July 17 July 24 July 31 Aug. 7 Aug. 14 Aug. 21 Aug. 28 In regard to these figures and their significance, Professor Mason calls specific attention to the samples of July 3, which, with relatively low ammonias at both ends, show a loss of 11.2 per cent, of the free ammonia, and 19.3 per cent, of albuminoid ammonia ; and also to the samples of August 28, where, with relatively high ammonias at both ends, the indicated losses are 55.5 per cent, free ammonia, and 53.7 per cent, albuminoid ammonia. Many other illustrations of the same law will be noted on examination of the results given iii Table No. 9, in detail. Steeam Pollution in New York. In New York State stream pollution has not, until the last two or three years, received the attention which its importance demands, although the Hudson and Mohawk rivers have been used as the sources of public water supplies for more than 20 years. A few chemical analyses of the waters of these rivers may be found in the earlier w\ater-works reports of some of the towns supplied, but altogether they furnish nothing of special value in studying questions of stream pollution. In 1873 Professor Charles F. Chandler made a number of analyses of the water of the Hudson river at Albany, and strongly recommended the river as a source of supply for that city. In 1885, after 12 j^ears' use of it in accordance with that recommenda- tion, some doubts arq^e as to the propriety of further use in view of 'c Dec 'Jan fe/i Mc"- ^Or May •Jun icy 1^ ^9 13 ^a iz d.-! 'f jy '^ dS /j z^ /^ 1:7 /S 86 bi ^.^JocT^ ^<^, fe}«f~m i^. 4^;^'?i.2^ ^•-7 t-r ^7< \J i.a&, oori^an f-ab Moi- Apr May Jun -Ju/ ^u<^ bep Oo^ /^of Oec I HH80 'i JO la tL9 /5 30 /•> a '4 zy /j i;ts n ^ id z? n <:& 10 ^5 w db w IONS OF CROTON WATER, 1876, 1885-6 AND 1888. (876 /5 30 14 £9 /5 Moy Jun Jul Auo -itx- Ot* A/oi/ - - 1 - '\ \ , 1 \ 1 /> ^ ^■\ f i"' 00 » / ^,. . ' V V \ 1 V , \ \ 'V 7 \ "■n / ■••■ n / s h f) >:i ,r.e ?.-' •./ =b. 'J 'e^ 10 IC' ,0 \ - < / ^- \ V 'i/" ■rr" T ' OOi fiO i; f ^ - ^ A / "^ ■^ \ N. Ij V ~N /- V X J ■s.- \ IS- L_ N^ '// 0/J :*<: r^ ^ ^z' z ■V -JO. m ^ ^ •I 11 V it ,Doc^^'' *'^>' *^<="' ^^w' '^i'4' ■Sefi Oct 'Vtfi' z?ec ' oao 2 /ji ^ '8 Z '7 ^ •? I ^it> J/ /5 JO/ /5 j Mar ^Or May i/w> f-Hb Mat- Apr Moy Jun yJuf ^u^ ba> Oc^ /fj?*' Dec PLATE 1. DIAGRAMS SHOWING CHEMICAL EXAMINATIONS OF CROTON WATER, 1376, 1885-6 AND 1888, Protective legislation in new york. 71 the constant and rapid increase of both sewage and manufacturing^ pollution. Professor Chandler again examined the Hudson river water, and a series of analyses of this and other American rivers may bo found in his report to the Albany Water Commissioners of that year. Protective Legislation in New York. Notwithstanding the lack of organized study of stream pollution, the partial evils of it have been felt in various parts of New York [State, especially in relation to preserving the purity of the public water supplies. This led to the passage in 1885 of an Act conferring upon the State Board of Health the jiower to protect from contamination, by suitable regulations, the water supplies of the State and their sources. Early in that year the Executive Board of the city of Rochester caused to be made a detailed survey of all the various pollutions at and about Hemlock lake, the source of the domestic water supply of the city of Rochester. The information gained was used as the basis of rules and regulations, formulated by the State Board of Health under the act just referred to, for the protection of the Rochester supply. (See Appendices III. and IV.) Similar regulations have since been made for the i:)rotection of the water supplies of the villages of Fredonia, Norwich, Cobleskill, and Oneonta; and the cities of Amsterdam, Mt. Vernon, and New York. The rules and regulations established at these several places are all modelled after the original Rochester rules, although in some eases modified to suit either the locality or to provide for special condi- tions. They may be found in detail in the several reports of the State Board of Health. Furthermore, these rules have all been formulated to meet cases of pollution which were apparent to the unaided senses on inspection, and in regard to which it may be justly claimed that the pollutions were so flagrant that neither chemical nor biological studies were necessary to point out the necessity for improvement. In connecti(ni with the establismcnt of the rules for the protection of the water-shed of the Croton river, an extended survey of the sources of pollution was made by Professor Charles C. Brown, C.E., Avliose report in the Ninth Annual of the State Board confciins a compilation of all th(^ clHMnicid analyses of Croton water as made by the New York City Health Dci)artm('nt for many years. As stated in the report a number of analyses are included in the tabulations which have never before ]hh'u published. The tal)les include analyses from 1843 to 1888 inclusive. 72 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. In a brief discussion of these analyses by Professor Elwyn Waller, who, as chemist for the Metropolitan Board of Health, had made many of them, it is pointed out that as a whole they do not show any seri- ous decrease in the quality of water from year to year. The fact is, however, clearly brought out, that the Croton water is considerably better some years than others. The accompanying diagrams (Plate I.) from the report show some of the fluctuations. In 1889 the State Board of Health began an extended study of the Hudson river with reference to pollution and allied questions. The Tenth and Eleventh Annual Eeports (1890 and 1891) contain prelimi- nary reports, and Professor Brown, who has charge of the work, prom- ises an extended series of chemical and biological determinations for the Twelfth Keport. Classification of Streams with Eeference to Pollution. The foregoing essentially represents the present state of the infor- mation in relation to stream pollution in the United States. Study- ing it analytically, streams may be divided into five classes, namely : (1) Streams which are the sources of public water supplies, and which are not polluted by either sewage or manufacturing wastes. (2) Unpolluted streams which are not now the source of public water supplies, but which are likely to be so used in the future. (3) Streams either polluted or unpolluted which are not the sources of public water supplies, and which are not likely to be so used in the future. (1) Streams which are now the sources of public water supplies, and which are polluted with both sewage and manufacturing wastes. (5) Streams which are now the sources of public water supplies, and which are polluted with manufacturing wastes only. In regard to (1) it is clear that the thing to be done is to keep them in the same condition for all time to come. To this end, sharply cut legislative enactments ought in the majority of cases to prove suffi- cient. The New York State Act of 1885, with some modification in the way of increased powers for the executive sanitary authority, could be taken as a model on which to build. For (2) it is equally clear that definite measures should be inaugu- rated for preserving them so far unpolluted that, when actually needed for water supplies, they may be so used without prejudice by reason of the previous occupation. To this end each State needs some competent authority with a thorough knowledge of all the streams, ponds, lakes, etc., of the State. CLASSIFICATION OF STREAMS WITH REFERENCE TO POLLUTION. 73 In Massachusetts, as already seen, the State Board of Health is made the custodian of the inland waters, and given powers which enable it to properly decide each case on its merits. In New Jersey the last legislature had under consideration an act leading to State custody of inland waters, which, however, failed to pass. For (3) it is probably permissible to use the streams as sewers and common drains, and the chief question to be considered is how much pollution any given stream will stand without becoming offensive to the senses or dangerous to health. In this connection it should be re- membered that a sewage-polluted stream is not an entirely safe source of drinking-water for domestic animals. The second question may properly be. What dilution of sewage in the stream is necessary in order to produce the best results in resolving it through the action of the biological forces? The standard of Mr. Hering, of 150 to 200 cubic feet per minute minimum flow per 1,000 persons contributing, is in the majority of cases probably too small a dilution for the best results. As a matter of judgment based on some laboratory experiments merely, for the present, a minimum flow of 300 cubic feet per minute per 1,000 people contributing may be taken, al- though subject to modification when more data are obtained.* The amount and kind of silt carried by any given stream, whether there are rapids or pools just below the point of discharge, are some of the physical features of the stream which will modify conclusions as to amount of dilution in any given case. If the stream is rapid flowing above the sewage outfall, carries large quantities of clay or other earthy matter in suspension, and is sluggish below, a relatively large amount of the suspended matter of the inflowing sewage may be de- posited through the action of sedimentation in a very short distance.f On the other hand, with rapid flow below the point of discharge and little earthy matter in suspension, the insoluble portion of the sewage may be carried a long distance before there is much deposition. If rapids intervene the process of reduction will go on somewhat faster than when the rapid flow is merely that of a deep channel. All these points and many others will require taking into account before decid ing any given case. In regard to (4) there can be but one conclusion, the pollution should either be removed or their use as a public water supply discontinued. Probably the decision of any given case will depend to some extent upon the bearing of legal questions. The decision of questions relating to (5) will be the most difiicult of * See Purification of S'wagea by Microbes. Editorial discussion in Engineering, Oct. 7, 1802; reprinted in Eng. A Bldg. Rec'd. vol. xxvi., p. .'580 (Nov. I'i, 181V2). + Tn regard to the sanitary bearings of a partial purification by sedimentation only, see Chapter v., The Composition of Sewage Muds. 74 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN TIIK I'MTKD STATES. all. As pointed out in the chapter on The Leg-al Aspects of the Case, several of the States have, by the enactment of Mill Acts, api^arently given legistative sanction to the ordinary pollution due to the use of streams as sites for manufacturing establishments. The development of manufacturing interests has led in Massachusetts to the well settled practice of temporary permissive pollution under State supervision, to- gether with purification of streams by graduall}^ removing sources of pollution, rather than by forcing an immediate abatement in every case ; the experience gained in that State indicates that an independent commission, empowered to consider each case on its merits, can more nearly satisfy the various conflicting interests than any other form of adjudication yet devised. CH.iPTEE IV. THE SELF-PURIFICATION OF RUNNING STREAMS, AND THE RA- TIONAL VIEW IN RELATION TO THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE BY DISCHARGE INTO TIDE- WATER. In this chapter two questions are discussed which at first sight may be considered as possibly bearing no relation to each other. When, however, we take into account the action of biological forces it is found that they are in reality interdependent, a consideration which leads to their discussion together. The Self-Purification of a Kunning Stream from the Biological Point of Vlew. It has been asserted at various times that a running stream so far tends to purify itself after a few miles' flow that the argument against drinking sewage-contaminated streams wliicli have had an opportunity for several miles' tiow is not founded in fact. So generally has this view been held that the Massachusetts legislature, in limiting the distance from the intake of a water supply, derived from a running stream, that sewage may be allowed to enter, has, in Chapter 80 of the General Statutes, fixed upon 20 miles. Beyond this distance, accord- ing to the legislature, there is no objection to polluting a stream with sewage, even though it is used as the source of drinking water. It would be interesting to know just how the legislature arrived at this limit of 20 miles. It is indeed true that under favorable conditions the tendency is toward self-purification, but the uncertainty as to how thoroughly the forces tending in that direction may act in any given case, is merely an enforcing of the views already expressed. By way of illustrating the recent views on the question of self-purification from the biological point of view, the following is given as a partial exhibit merely : "^ Amoii^ tlio invortobrata there are certain classes of microscopic animals which, under favorable conditions of snfficiencv of food supply, multiply in enormous num- bers. As common representatives of tiiese minute animals, we may mention ; (1) certain of the tilth infusorians, as for instance /'2 460 2,812 12 84 20 8 2,664 22 2 92 80 12 24 2 14 4 2 2 9 6385 Plants. 834 2 632 Cyanophyceae. Anabaena 328 Algae 542 66 Eiulorina 4 8 Pediastrum Zoospores 460 a Staurastrum IFungi. Crenothrix Animals. 3 12 4 8 42 24 2 3 6 Triarthra 8 Total oiganiamB 400 34 30 31 5,182 1,758 * Estimated. Studying- tlie results we note first of all the large amount of chlorine in the water of the underdrain, which is taken as meaning that it de- rives a portion of its water from the cesspools in use before the sewers M^ere built and wliich are still in use in many instances. Even if the cesspools had all been abandoned immediately on the completion of the sewerage system in 1889 their effect could hardly have failed to be manifest for some time after. The water issuing fr(^m the mouth of Ihe underdrain is clear and colorless and contains considerable 6'/"C- nofhrix, which rapidly deposits in the sluggish current of the open channel. The water of the brook itself above the mouth of the under- or. Sewerage ; Sewage ; The pol- lutii) I of Stream.s ; The water supply of towns, in the 4th An. Rept. Mass. St. Bd. Healtli (1872). By Nichols and Derby. 84 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. about as reasonable to expect farmers to manure their land with the smoke of cities as with sewag-e, for, as everyone knows, enormous quantities of ammonia must be lost in the aggregate from cities where domestic fires are fed with soft coal. But precisely as it is with smoke so it is with sewag-e ; that is to say, the fluid is so very dilute that it cannot be put to use. David Forbes, also, in replying to calculations based upon the as- sumption that the excrement of each inhabitant of a city represents a value of several dollars a year, argued that it would be equally correct to maintain that a barrel of water into which a bottle of brandy had been poured would be worth as much as the original brandy.* Professor Storer cites, also, another very striking- illustration of a valuable substance so diluted as not to be worth the cost of collect- ing : The city of Philadelphia stands on an extensive bed of clay which contains a pound of gold for every 1,224,000 pounds of clay, and, it api^ears evident that this bed of clay contains, within the corporate lim- its of the city, at least $1,000,000,000 worth of gold. Except as a mat- ter of scientific interest no one has ever dreamed of extracting g-old from this Philadelphia clay. It can be g-ot, with infinitely less trouble, from places where it is more abundant ; and in this, as in everything else, the cost of getting the thing depends upon the amount of labor of some sort that must be expended. It is precisely so with sewag-e utilization, and the sooner a clear appreciation of this fact is g-enerally disseminated, probably the sooner will the question of sewage purifi- cation be placed on a thoroughly practical basis. At the present time agriculturists can g-et commercial fertilizers cheaper than the manurial elements of sewage can be utilized, and, so long- as this proposition remains true, it is idle to talk of making sewag-e utilization, except under favorable circumstances, a commercial success. For a presenta- tion of the manurial constituents of domestic sewag-e in detail, with theoretical commercial values, sec Chapter VIIL, on General Data of Sewag-e Disposal. The Eight Way to Approach the Problem. With this understanding, the problem of sewage purification is nat- urally approached from a different point of view from what it would be if we expected to realize commercial returns, either by utilization in broad irrig-ation or by the sale of a manure from the sludge, resultiug- from processes of partial chemical purification. Experience abroad has apparently settled both these questions, so we can approach the subject in this country in a somewhat more rational way than has characterized a larg-e portion of the early discussion abroad. A full * Storer' s Agriculture, vol. ii., p. 288. SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS NOT SUBJECT TO FRANCHISE. 85 appreciation of the fact, on the part of the jDublic, that ordinarily little commercial profit can be realized from sewage utilization, is of con- siderable importance in the beginning- of sewage purification processes on an extended scale in this country. Such apiDreciation enables san- itarians and others interested in the improvement of the public health to insist upon sewage purification as a right which one community or individual owes to another, independent of the question of commercial profit ; it further prevents the failure of executed projects which are successful in effecting a purification, but which do not return a com- mercial profit on the capital invested ; again, it removes the motive for bolstering up projects, which, while ineflicient in purification, are still operated at a commercial profit ; it puts the whole subject, in short, on a scientific basis, in which the health of communities is placed first, and questions relating to commercial utilization are kept in the background, as of secondary importance only. In advancing the foregoing views it is not intended to assert either that broad irrigation may not be a successful way of both purifying and utilizing sewage when the proper conditions obtain, or that the sludge from a chemical process is not worth something for manure. It is desired merely to point out that in the present understanding of things, commercial utilization of sewage is, so far as this country is concerned, properly subordinate to the more important question of thorough purification. Moreover, in considering this phase of the question of sewage puri- fication, we should not lose sight of the fact that, independently of the manurial ingredients of sewage, it has, when not applied in too excessive quantities, a distinct value for purposes of irrigation. AYliile, therefore, the preceding propositions are fundamentally true, it may be still stated that many cases will undoubtedly arise in practice in which broad irrigation may be an exceedingly valuable method of sewage purification ; and it is in this latter view that the subject has been discussed at length in Chapters XII. and XIII., following. Sewage Disposal Works Not Properly Subject to Franchise. As a corollary to the foregoing, it may be concluded that, generally speaking, sewage disposal works are not properly subject to franchise by private companies. The interests to be served are so important, and the effect of neglecting to render proper service so serious and far- reaching, that the commercial sjiirit should be absolutely eliminated from everything relating to sewage disposal. The problem has gen- erally been regarded in this light, as is shown by the fact that only a few municipalities, mostly small ones, have granted sewerage franchises, New Orleans being the only large city which has taken such action. 86 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Disposal into Tide-Water. Ag-ain it may be further concluded that where the conditions clearly indicate disposal into tide-water as the rational course of procedure there is no valid argument to be urg-ed against such disposition. The view of twenty years ago that turning sewage into the ocean was a drain upon national wealth may be considered as fairly met by Avhat has already been offered in reference to cost of utilization. There is, moreover, another line of argument substantiating the same conclusion from an entirely different point of view. We have already seen that when the amount of sewage per unit volume of water is not too large, the entomostracan Crustacea multiply in enormous uumliers. The Entomostraca are further the favorite food of the carnivorous fishes,* and while it has been the experience in Boston harbor and elsewhere that too much sewage per unit of volume drove the fish away from the vicinity of sewage outfalls, nevertheless the increase in Entomostraca and their utilization for food of iish at points somewhat removed from the centers of sewage pollution may be ccmsidered a practical utiliza- tion of sewage, and a direct return therefrom to the total stock of national wealth. To secure this return in the largest degree, it is still essential that certain general principles be observed in relation to the quantity and quality of the sewage discharge. In the first place the sewerage system should be so designed as to deliver the sewage into tide-water while perfectly fresh, and to this end tidal discharge sewer- age systems need to be self-cleansing, so far as is possible, in order to reduce sewage putrefaction to a minimum. Again the discharge at any given point should be, if possible, relatively small. Any tendency to the production of either an effluvium nuisance or of a foul beach line may be taken as evidence that the limit of quantity at any given point has been exceeded. We arrive, therefore, at the conclusion that for practical utilization of sewage as food for fish, the concentration of large quantities of sewage and the discharge of the same into tide- water at the single point is, generally speaking, undesirable. By dis- charging the sewage at a number of i:)oints, each far enough removed from the other to insure the proper dilution which has been pointed out by Dr. Sorby and others as necessary for the development of the maximum quantity of minute animal life, the best results will be secured. Disposal into Fresh Water. The same conclusion holds good when for any reason it may be con- sidered either necessary or desirable to discharge large quantities of * See the various Reports of the United States Pish Commission. DISPOSAL INTO FKESH WATKK. 87 sewage into bodies of fresh water.* The correct principle governing such discharge has been recognized by the Milwaukee Special Com- mission, appointed " to prejaare and present plans and estimates for the completion of works for the collection and final disposal of the sewage of the city, and for the permanent location of the intake for the water * In this country the most important studies thus far made of the relation of tlie minute life in water to fish life, are those (if Professor S. A. Forbes, of the Uiinuis State Lab. of Xat. History. Beginning in ISTT, Professor Forbes has published in the Bulletin of the Laboratory to date the following : (1 ) The Food of Illinois Fishes, vol. i.. No. 2, pp. 71-89. (2) The Food of Fishes. No. '■). pp. l.S-<).5. (;!) On the Foo(i of Young Fishes. No. o, pp. fifi-79. (4) The Food of tiie Smaller Fresh Water Fishes. No. fi, pp. O.'i-'.H. (.5) The First Food of the Common White Fish, No. fi, pp. 9.5-109. ((')) Studies of the Food of Fresh Water Fishes, vol. ii., art. vii., pp. 433-473. (7) On the Food Relations of Fresh Water Fishes: a Summary and Discussion, art. viii., pp. 474-538. In these several papers Professor Forbes has discussed nearly every phase of the question of food for fi&hes, and pointed out in many cases the specific food of diflerent species of fish. The great economic value of the Eutomostraca is strongly brought out in these papers, and es- pecially as food for young fish. In tne paper on The First Food of the Common White Pish, an account is given of the result of examining the stomach contents of over 100 young fish. After giving the data derived from these eximinations in detail. Professor Forbes says : — * * * \yg aj-g compelled to conclude that the earliest food of the white fish consists almost wholly of the smaller species of Entoinostraca occurring in the lake, since the other elements in their alimentary canals were evidently either taken accidentally, or else appeared in such trivial quantity as to contribute nothing of importance to their support. In the paper on The Food of the Smaller Fresh Water Fishes it is further shown that the cliief food of the young of the family Cyprinidiu (popularly minnows) wliich embraces by far the larger part of the smaller fishes, is composed of such vegetable elements as filaments of Spirofjijra and other filamentous algae, cells of Coxiunrimn. and Closierinm among the desmids, together with CijiiKitopleiira and other diatoms. Among representatives of the animal kingdom Englena was found to be an important item, as was also Bosmina, an Entomostracan. Summarizing the food of the young of this family. Professor Forbes says : * * * we may conclude that the young Cyprinid;e draw almost indiscriminately for their food supply upon Protozoa, Alg;e. and Hntomostraca. ■The fish of the family Cypriniihe are of economic interest because of furnishing an important part of the food supply of larger species. No. (7) of the foregomg list is the concluding numl)cr of the series of papers on the food of fish and in it Professor Forbes has presented a number of highly important facts and conclusions of interest in the present discussion, as for instance a statement in detail of the percentage of the various minute plants and animals found in the food of different species of young fish. Thus, the food of young perch consists of 93 per cent, of Entomostraca, while the food of young bass, sun- fishes, and pickerel consists of from .50 to 70 per cent, of Entomostraca. Young suckers prefer a diet of Entomostraca, Rotifers, Infusoria, and unicellular Alga;, while young catfish apparently dine only on Entromostraca and Chironomus larvie. Reca{)itulating, Professor Forbes says : I find that, taking together the young of all the genera .studied, considering each genus as a unit, and combining the minute di[)terou8 larva- with the Kntomostraca as having essentially the same relation, about seventy-five per cent, of the food taken ijy young fishes of all descriptions is made up of these elements. The conclusions of this paper are based upon a study of \,'l'.l\ fishes obtained from the waters of Illinois at intervals from lS7(i to 1SS7, and in various months from April to November ; they repre- sented eighty-seven species, sixty-three genera and twenty-five families. A detailed recapitulation of data showing the number of examples of each species of fish in which a given food element was detected, ajjpears at the end of the paper. 88 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. supply of the city." In the report submitted to the Mayor and Com- missioners of Public Debt in 1889, this commission presented plans pioviding for the discharge of the sewag-e of the city into Lake Michi- gan, at a large number of different points, instead of one, and while the reasons assigned in the report for this arrangement are not entirely satisfactory from the present point of view, thej'^ may nevertheless be considered sufficient for the particular case. The Commissioners say : * At the lake end of the outfall sewev, a terminal basin is to be built. From this basin, two iron pipes, eacli 56 inches in diameter, are to discharge the sewage into the lake. These pipes are to be of sufficient capacity to carrv all of the dry -weather sewage, and a portion of the storm water. Tlie basin is to be so arranged that the surplus of storm water is dischaiged over a weir, directly into the lake. ** *** * ** In order to dilute the sewage to a high degree in the shortest possible time, aud thus promote the rapid oxidation of the organic matter contained in it, the dis- charge from the 56-inch pipe is to be through eleven branch connections, placed about three hundred feet apart ; the first discharge branch being placed about three thousand feet from shore. The branches are to be 17 inches diameter, and reduced, at the points of discharge, that the same quantity of sewage will be delivered by each brancli. The size of the main pipes is to be diminished, after passing each branch, so that the velocity of flow may be maintained about the same throughout the entire length. The branches are to be placed in a vertical position, discharging about five feet above the bottom of the lake, and to be secured in their j^osition by piles, or rip- rap filling. For a distance of 1,000 feet from its outer end, the main pipe is to be laid on piles, so as to bring the discharge about 6 feet above the bottom of the lake. Any road detritus, or other material that may at long intervals accumulate at the mouth of the jjipe, can be re- moved by dredging. Fig. 4, from the Commission's Report, illustrates the proposed method of discharge. The question of practical util- ization of sewage as food for fish has also recently received consid- erable attention in England, and a number of interesting and valu- able conclusions have been drawn. In the Agricultural Gazette, Sir J. B. Lawes, of Kothamsted, dis- cusses the subject at length,t and cites a number of facts, the real significance of which has not, so far as the authors are aware, been previously clearl}^ pointed out. * Report of the Commission of Engineers on the Collection and Final Disposal of the Sewage and on the Water Supply, of the City of Milwaukee, 1889. + See Colonel Waring's Sewerage and Land Drainage, pp. 231-232, for an extended extract. ^*=^ LAKE / MICHIGAN Fig. 4. — Proposed Multiple Discharge Outlet Skwer at Milwaukee, Wis. THE RATIONAL VIEW OF DISPOSAL INTO TIDE-WATER. 89 Dr. Sorby's results iu relation to the number of entomostraca in rivers, apply entirely to fresh-water forms, but the marine entomos- traca are quite as numerous as the fresh water,* and we may assume that what is true of the one is equally true of the other. The Legitimate Conclusion.. The minute forms of animal life are thus seen to be powerful agents in the self-purification of sewage-polluted waters, but the conclusion which has been drawn that, therefore, sewag-e-polluted streams are, after a few miles' flow, fitted through the action of such and other natural agencies for drinking, is not wholly justified by the present state of knowledge of the subject as a whole. Along with our knowledge of the purifying action of the minute animals and plants has grown up a more definite knowledge of the causation of typhoid fever, cholera, and the other water-borne com- municable diseases ; and before it can be positively afiirmed that a sewage-polluted stream is safe for drinking after a few miles' flow, it must be shown so definitely as to be beyond question by those whose special studies have fitted them for intelligent judgment, that the purifying agencies have practically eliminated the germs of the water- borne communicable diseases. Until such showing is clearly made, the proposition that crude sewage ought not to be turned into running streams, ponds, lakes, or other bodies of water, which either are, or may be, the sources of water-supplies, must be considered as holding good. The Eational View of Disposal into Tide-Water. We may conclude from this brief discussion that the question of rational disposal of sewage in tide-water is not only trauscendently important to the many large cities on the seaboard, but that its mag- nitude is such as to render it difficult to reach a successful solution except by studies of wide range. An investigation by the General Government might therefore be appropriate, by reason of its involving the broad question of national waste versus ultimate economic conser- *See (1) Bair.l's British Entomostraca. (2) Dana's Crustacea of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. (3) Reports of the United States Fish Commission. (4) Catalogue of the Specimens of Amphipodous Crustacea in the Collection of the British Mns"nm. (.5) Brady's (a) British Oceanic Entomostraca ; (b) Copepodaof the Challenger Expedition ; and (c) Osrracnda of the Cliallonger Expedition. (6) Brooks' Stomatopoda of the Challenger Expedition. (7) Sars', (a) Cumacea of the Challenger Exp. dition ; (b) Phyllocrida of the Challenger Expedition ; and (c) Schizopoda of the Challenger Expedition. 90 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. vation.* As the matter stands, it may be asserted that there are abso- hitely no detailed data proving" that sewage disposal in tide-water, under proper conditions, is in any way a waste of raw material. In regard to purification of sewage by intermittent filtration, in such manner as to convert the bulk of the organic matter into soluble mineral nitrates, we are equally unable to affirm that there is here, in any sense, a Avaste of raw material. The nitrates, when flowing into streams, become the chief nourishment of an abundant cryptogamic life, which is again devoured by sponges, rhizopods, infusoria, and other Protozoa.t Protozoa again, with a certain portion of the Cryptogams, are eaten by higher minute forms, until in the universal round we may finally find our sewage utilized by an increase in the piscatorial life of the fresh water inland streams. Moreover, it must be urged that the mere fact of oiir present inability to control these cycles is no argument against the truth of the view here advanced ; such inability can only be taken as merely indicating the dearth of definite data in this direc- tion. * Such a study would seem to be in line with the work of the Fish Commission, and could be made by it without great expense. t In reference to the food supplies of the Protozoa and classes immediately higher in the scale, it may be said: (1) that the chief food of fresh-water sponge is largely minute spores of algae, though the sponge when growing, attached to a fixed place, cannot be considered as having much power of selection, and may, therefore, at times, take into its organization animal foods also. It apparently receives and digests anything which the flowing waters in which it is usually found may bring to it. The proof that alga; may be considered the chief food is derived from the fact that sponge apparently prefers localities where alga; spores are moie abundant than infusoria. {2) Rhizopods, according to Professor Leidy, chiefly devour desmids, diatoms, and other minute algae; and many of the elegant illustrations in his Fresh-Wat r Rhizopods of North America show the little animals in the very act of ingesting the various forms of plants which they apparently prefer. The recurrence of examples of th's character leads to the conclusion that the rhizopods, unlike the sponge, have some power of selection and are able to exercise a degree of preference. (3) The infu- soria, probably, take whatever comes in their way ; the motions of the flagella and cilia of the differ- ent classes set the water in the vicinity of each individual in motion, and whatever is within reach, and not of too large a size to enter the oral aperture, is received, digested, and the refuse excreted the same as with other animals. Some species, apparently, prefer decaying animal matter (Para- iiwcium, Coltpx, etc.), and are usually found in vast quantities wherever such decay is taking place. Others (Trcirfirlnrerfin, etc.), are found among vegetable debris, filaments of decaying algge, etc. As with sponge and rhizopods, algae spores are probably a large j)ortion of the food of the infusoria. (4) In the next higher class of animals we find hydra, which is essentially a car- nivorous feeder, worms, entomostraca, and other animals, falling an easy prey whenever they venture within reach of its moving tentacles. (.5) Polyzoa feed mostly on desmids, etc., with decayed vegetable matter, and have a finger, or tongue-like organ, stretching over the mouth, which enables them to exercise some selection of the food coming within reach. They some- times dine on rotifers. (6) Rotifers are like infusoria, in that the rotating apparatus, from which they derive their name, is in rapid motion when feeding, and brings into the capacious mouth — characterizing most of the species — whatever happens to be in the vicinity, although some power of selection may be observed. The literature of the food-supplies of the minute animals is still comnnratively scarce. The classificatory tendencies of nearly all the writers on this branch of zoology has thiJ% far mostly obscured the biological side of the subject, and with the broader views of the present day we must, to some extent, traverse ground already gone over, in order to supply THE UATIOXAL VIEW OF DISPOSAL INTO TIDE-WATEK. 91 lu the discussions of this question which have taken place in Eng- land, it has been asserted* that the argument in reference to increase and decrease of fish by reason of either sufficiency or insufficiency of food supply is not valid, because " probably all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible." In reference thereto it is answered that twenty years ago it was generally held in this country that the buiialo of the Western plains were inexhaustible, and to any one, who, traversing the plains at that period, saw the immense herds, it did appear plausible to say that no efforts Avhich man could make Avould have any special efi'ect upon such countless numbers. Nevertheless there are to-day less than 1,000 buffalo within the limits of the United States, and this extraordinary extermination has all occurred in 20 years. Again sixty years ago it was not unusual to find large schools of whales just outside New York and Boston harbors, and many successful whaling voyages were made to portions of the sea where now whales are scarcely ever seen. Again the rapid exhaustion of oyster beds is within the experience of everyone engaged in the oyster fishery. Many other similar illustrative examples could be cited, but the foregoing is con- sidered sufficient to indicate that it is quite possible to conceive of a great ocean fishing interest either seriously injured or even actually driven to other localities by systematic catching in excess of the nat- ural increase ; and that this has frequently happened in inland rivers and lakes is attested by the presence on the statute books of every State of protective laws. We may, therefore, fairly conclude that anything which tends to increase the food supply of fish must be looked upon as assisting in conserving the fisheries, through the operation of the natural law that sufficiency of food supply is one of the forces accele- rating natural increase. material deficiencies in the information. The following works may be consulted for hints miTely ; a complete systematic treatise still remains to be written : Baird, British Entomostraca. Carpenter, The Microscope and its Revelations. Cooke, Ponds and Ditches. (Josse. Evenings with the Microscope. Herrick, Crustacea of Minnesota. Hudson and Gosse, The Rotifcra or Wheel Animalcules. Kent, Manual of the Infusoria. Leidy. Fresh Water Rhizopods of North America. Keport of Commissioners on Investigation of the Water-Supply of the city of Boston (1883.) Slack, Marvels of Pond Life. Taylor, The .Aquarium. Tieniann and Gilrtner, Untersuchung des Wassers, etc. In addition, the various journals of Microscopy and Zoology contain notes and observations of more or less interest. *Corfield, Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, 3d ed. , pp. 00.3-305. CHAPTER V. THE COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE MUDS. The Conditions Fayokable to Sedimentation. The fact that a stream which is visiblj^ polhited at one point may be clear and limpid only a few miles below is probably within the expe- rience of every person who has paid any attention to the pollution and self-purification of streams. Widely varying- opinions have been ex- pressed as to the fate of the polluting matter, which, to the unaided senses, appears to have been removed from the flowing- water. On the one hand, it has been claimed that an absolute destruction, throug-h the action of either oxidation or of purely biolog-ical forces, has taken place, while, on the other, it is asserted that the apparent purity of the flowing water is due entirely to sedimentation, according- to which the organic matter may still be found in a nearly unchanged form at the bottom. Probably the real truth is that all these several methods of self-purification may be operative in different streams, although un- doubtedly sedimentation is, where the conditions are favorable, likely to be a leading cause. Relative to the conditions favorable for sedi- mentation, they may be stated in a few words generally as produced by thB presence in the water of some substance which naturally tends to assist sedimentation. For instance, a stream carrying a considerable quantity of clay in suspension is likely to free itself of sewage by sed- imentation more quickly than one in which the water is, under normal conditions, entirely free of earthy matter in suspension. In a stream w^here the conditions are unfavorable for rapid sedimentation we may expect to find of more importance the purifying effect of such minute animals as actually consume in their life processes a portion of the polluting matter ; while, in a rapid flowing stream, where the water tumbles over falls and cascades and flows down rapids, there may be a considerable degree of self -purification through the operation of the chemical process of oxidation purely. The self -purification of a stream may be effected, then, by either mechanical, biological, or chemical agencies, or by all of them acting in conjunction, and to which to ascribe the self-purification in any case can only be determined by a careful study of the attendant circumstances. For present purposes we will consider the case of a stream in which an apparent self-purification macadam's study of the water of the leith. 93 from sewag-e inflow is obtained within a short distance through the action of sedimentation. In doing- this we will not concern ourselves as to just what agency is effective in producing sedimentation, but will merely assume such rapid action that a stream of moderate volume in ordinary stages frees itself of the visible evidence of a gross sewage pollution in the course of a sluggish flow of a few miles. We will further assume that the mean flood flow of the stream is at least lUU to 200 times the ordinary flow at the season of low water, from which it results that the velocity through a given cross-section will be from 100 to 200 times as great in flood flow as in low water. Under these conditions, it is clear that the deposited matter of a long period of low water may be swept along for an indefinite distance by the first flood flow, and, if we assume, as we safely may, that the organic matter of the deposited sewage has undergone little change, it follows that water supplies taken from the stream many miles below will be, in times of flood, as thoroughly subject to the deleterioiis influence of the sewage discharge as though water were drawn from that reach of the stream in which the most of the sedimentation takes place.* To appreciate the importance of this conclusion, we have only to consider that, in flashy mountain streams, the accumulated deposits of months may be swept along for many miles in a day. Macadam's Study of the Water of the Leith. Considering the importance of this phase of the self-purification of running streams comparatively few detailed studies have been made, but the few fully substantiate the view that sewage sediments retain their dangerous character for long periods of time. Of such studies, one of the first is that of the water of Leith made by Macadam in 1864, and given at length in the Third Report of the Sewage of Towns Commission.f The Leith is a comparatively small stream, which, at the time of Macadam's report, received the sewage of about 100,000 people in the ncighljoring towns of Edinburgh and Leith. The accumulation of the sediment of this sewage in the mill dam and pools of the stream and in tlie harbor of Leith, had led to the j^roduction of a most disgusting nuisance. Li many places the banks of sewage mud were several feet in depth, and analyses of samples from different parts of the stream * For discussion ot the conditions obtaining on the bottom of a stream in which sedimentation has been effective see paper, On the Amount of Dissolved Oxygen in Waters of Ponds and Reser- voirs at different depths, by Dr. Thomas M. Drown, 22d An. Rept. Mass. St. Bd. Health (1S91), pp. 373-381 ; the greater part of this paper was also published in Eng. News, vol. xxviii. (1892), pp. 309-10. t On the (contamination of the Water ot Leith by the sewage of Edinburgh and Leith. By Stevenson Macjwlam, Ph.D.. etc. 3d Rept. Sew. T. Com., Appendix No. 5. 94 SEWAGK DISPOSAL IN TIIK UNITED STATES. showed, in some cases, amounts of org-anic matter as high as 55, 66, and in one case, of 82 per cent. The means of one series of four sam- ples of mud from the stream was, organic matter, 48.1 per cent., and earthy matter, 51.9 per cent. The same series showed a mean of 1.63 j)er cent, of nitrogen. Another series of eight samples gave as a mean, organic mutter, 43.7 per cent., earthy matter, 56.3 jjer cent., and ni- trogen, 1.14 per cent, of the whole. A series of 12 samples from the harbor, where more or less sand is brought in with the tide, gave a mean of organic matter 28.3 per cent., earthy matter, 71.7 per cent, and nitrogen, 0.64 per cent. Macadam's investigations were before the days of bacteriological examinations, and we are accordingly left in the dark as to what would now be a very important division of such a stud}' ; but he recognized the imi^ortauce of a knowledge of the larger microscopical forms, and notes the presence of masses of infu- soria belonging to the family Yoi-ticellida?, including the genera Vorii- cella, Carchesium, Zoofhcuiaiiuni and Epi.sfi/Iis. Paratiuxiiuit and Euglena were also abundant. Macadam's results have been verified by a number of studies of the muds of the Thames river, the more recent of which are those of W. J. Dibdin, made in 1879-80, and 1882-83, Mr. Dibdin found in some samples from sewage of 24 hours as high as 57.4 per cent, of volatile matter in dried mud, with nitrogen of the dried mud amounting to 3.3 per cent, and nitrogen of the dried volatile matter 5.75 per cent. The phosphoric acid of the dried mud in the same sample was 0.8 of one l)er cent. The means of the samples of mud taken at different points are, however, considerably lower than this. The net result, not onlj- of Macadam's but of the more recent investi- gations, is to emphasize the statement already made, that usually the effect of a flood flow Avould be to actually increase temporarily the pollution at points far below where sedimentation takes place. Dr. Beale's Study of Thames Muds. After Macadam, nothing so interesting appeared until the publica- tion h\ Dr. Beale of a paper on The Constitutents of Sewage in the Mud of the Thames, in 1884,* in which are detailed the results of a microscopical study of 25 samples of Thames mud taken from various banks between Gravesend and Chelsea, the observations relating chiefl}^ to the demonstration by microscopical investigation of the existence in sewage muds, which have been deposited a considerable length of time, of constitutents which can be identified as derived from human excrements. So thoroughly can this conclusion be demonstrated that Dr. Beale states in his judgment " that the several constitutents of * Jonr. Roy. Micr. Soc, Sec. ser., vol. iv. (Feb. 1884), pp. 1-19. LORTET S RESULTS. 95 human faeces are present in all the specimens of mud submitted for examination/' Among- the constituents of human food which Dr. Beale found, may be mentioned starch grahules, fragments of vegetable tissue, the spiral fibers of cabbage, cooked muscular tissue and yellow elastic tissue, the latter in the state in which they are often found in fecal matter. Tea leaves, cotton fibers, probably from jDaper, fatty matter and crystals of fatty acids, fragments of paper and rags and many other substances Avere also present. " Even blood corpuscles of man or of one of the higher animals have been detected in the mud, having withstood all the destructive agencies to which they have been exposed, during probably many months." Dr. Beale's paper furnishes methods of working and nuu' be profita- bly consulted by anyone pursuing a similar line of investigation. The methods of bacterial investigation, which were just coming into use, were applied, with the result of showing the presence of immense num- bers of bacteria in all the muds examined. Following Dr. Beale's paper, there appeared in 1885, in the Report of the Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge, an exten- sive paper bj^ Dr. H. C Sorby; which is in many respects the most important contribution to the literature of sewage pollution that has 3'et appeared.* In this paper Dr. Sorby covers substantially the ground traversed by Dr. Beale, with the addition of developing many points which Dr. Beale left untouched. He agrees with Dr. Beale as to the ease and certainty with which the microscope may be used to determine the presence of sewage in river muds. The chief value of Dr. Sorby's paper lies in the development of a new method of quantitativel}^ determining the amount of pollution in any given sample, and it is somewhat extraordinary that with a definite method of making such examinations before the scientific world for eight years it has not been more used. By its use the progress of the contaminating material may bo tractnl down a stream, both in the fiow- ing water and in the deposited muds ; and consequently the quantity' and quality of any self-purification which may be attained more thor- ougldy measured than by any otlier method of examination thus far made known. Lortet's Results. Prohablv the most useful study of this character in the wa\' of defi- nite results ol)tained is that of Lortet, as recorded in his paper The Pathogenic Bacteria of the Mud of the Lake of Geneva,t in wliich it is * Rf'port of a Microscopical Investigation of Thames Muds. By H. C. Sorby, LL.D., RR.S. Appendix f^. IJ. Rejunt of lletent and cred- itable evidence to have a direct tendency to jiroduce disease in those who driidc tJie water which is supplied to the city from the river Schuylkill. Now, it is a very old and well-settled law that to pollute a public stream is to maintain a common nuisance. It is not only a public injury, but it is crime, a crime for which those who jjerpetrate it are answerable in a tribunal of criminal jurisdiction. An act of Assembly forbids and punishes as crimes all common or jjublic nuisances, and I know of no public nuisance moie serious in its evil eflFects and more obnoxious to the denunciation of the law than to corrupt and poison a public stream from which large numbers of people obtain their driidiiug water. If the jury, therefore, find that the defendants have done the acts charged against them in this indictment, no doubt whatever remains that they are guilty of the offence of maintaining a common nuisance, and ought to be convicted. If the water drained from the defendant's establishment into the river is of a foul and impure character, and if the effect of that is to pollute the water and render it unwholesome for drinking purposes, then they are guilty as they stand indicted, and it is your duty to say so. It is no defence to say that the premises are in the same condition, and the drain- age conducted in the same manner, as when they obtained possession and liepaa their occupancy. Their continuance of the nuisance is itself an offence against the law for which they are personally responsible. The law is perfectly well settled that no man can prescribe for a public nuisance, or defend himself by showing that others have violated the law before him. No length of time can justify a public nuisance, although it may furnish an answer to an action for a private injury. P^^blic rights are not destroyed by private encroachments, no matter how long they have endured. Nor is it any defence that the river is also polluted from other sources, that imi^urities flow into it from sewers, and from towns and places above * Holsman v. Boiling Spring Bleaching Co., 14 N. J. Eq., 355. + Stokee v. Singers. 8 Eh. & Bl. .36, Erie, J. I Wadsworth v. TiUotson, 15 Conn. 360, 37o. RIPARIAX PKOPKIE J UU*S IIIGIIT TO A STREAM, 99 Mauayunk. If the defendants have contributed to the pollution, they are guilty. No man can excuse himself for violating the law upon the ground that others also violated it. It is said that the city ought to have built an intercepting sewer. But what of that? Perhaps it ought. But if the city has been guilty of negligence in that respect that fact does not justify the defendants in their violation of the law. It makes no difference whatever in the guilt of the defendants that the city has not taken steps to protect itself against the unlawful acts of those who pollute the stream. Nor ought your verdict to be affected in the slightest degree by the sug- gestion that if these pollutions of the rivai- are stopped by indictments and couA-ic- tions, the effect of that may be injurious to large business interests, which are pros- ecuted under similar conditions upon the river. You have nothing to do with that. Such considerations cannot affect your duty in the present case. The law is to be enforced, and those who violate it are to be punished, no matter what the effect of that may be upon their business, for the law is above every personal and private interest. All persons engaged in business are bound to conduct that business in subordination to the law, and in such manner as not to injure tlie public. It has been argued also that the city ought to have resorted to a civil remedy against the defendant foi- the correction of these abuses, that it ought to have gone into a civil court and asked for an injunction against their continuance. Such suggestions have nothing to do with the case. It is sutKeient that the defendants are arraigned by the Commonwealth to answer for an infraction of her laws. If they have broken those laws, they are in the proper tribunal to answer for their acts. Civil proceed- ings are slow, and in sucli proceedings, where the parties are private persons or corporations, which are a kind of artificial persons created by the State, many em- barrassing and dilatory questions might obstruct and hinder the speedy abatement of the nuisance. In my judgment the remedy which has been chosen is the speediest and the most effective. It is a proper, a lawful remedy, and you have no concern now with any other. The defendants are before you to answer the charge of maintaining a common nuisance, which is a public offence by the laws of Penn- sylvania. The simple question which you have to decide is, whether the defen- dants are guilty of this offence. If they have done the acts which are charged against them in this indictment, then, as a matter of law, I instruct you that those acts constitute the offence of maintaining a common nuisance, and they are guilty. Upon the question of fact you have the testimony of numerous witnesses examined by the Commonwealth, and thej have not been contradicted by any witness pro- duced by the defendants. While the foregoing- citations have thus affirmed the right of every riparian proprietor to have the stream flow in its natural state, it is still true that the reasonable use of a .stream by each proprietor may modify this right in some way, and it accordingly^ becomes an impor- tant question to determine when one riparian oAvner's use ceases to be rightful by infringing on the rights of others. In the English case of Embrey v. Owen, it was held that the right of a riparian owner to the flow of the stream in its natural state, without diminution or alteration, is not an absolute and exclusive right to all the water in its natural state, but is a right only to the flow of the water and the enjoyment of it, subject to the similar rights of all the proprietors. From these citations it appears that the common law distinctly rec- ognizes within certain limitatir proprietor. Wluire the stream is small, and does not supply water * KvaiiH V. Merriwcather, 'A Scan. (111.), 4'.t«i. BIO-AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA 92502 1U2 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITF:D STATES. more than sufficient to answer the natural wants of the difterent i)roprietors living on it, none of the proprietors can use the water for either irrigation or manufact- ures. So far then, as natural wants are concerned, there is no difficulty in furnish- ing a rule by which riparian proprietors may use flowing water to sujjijly such natural wants. Jilach i:)roprietor in his turn may, if necessary, consume all the water for these purposes. But where the water is not wanted to supply natural wants, and there is not sufficient for each proprietor living on the stream to cairy on his manufacturing purposes, how shall the water be divided? \\'e have seen, that, without a contract or grant, neither has a right to use all the water ; all have a right to participate in its benefits. Where all have a right to participate in a com- mon benefit, and none can have an exclusive enjoyment, no rule, from the very nature of the case, can be laid down, as to how much each may use without infring- ing upon tlie rights of others. In such cases, the question must be left to the judgment of the jury, whether the party complained of has used, under all the cir- cumstances, more than his just proportion. RiPAEiAN Peopeietoes Can Abeogate the Eight to the Natural Use. Concluding- this part of the subject, it may be pointed out that the riparian proprietors can voiuntaril}^ as by ag-reement, abrogate the right to the ordinary use of a stream, giving it up to such extraordi- nary uses as the exigencies of manufacturing or other artificial interests may be expected to subject it to. Custom for a series of years may be considered evidence of such voluntary abrogation. Eight to Use of a Steeam Can be Acquired by Grant. It is evident without special discussion, that the right to uses of a stream outside of the ordinary and reasonable extraordinary use may be acquired by grant or reservation the same as to real proj)erty. Such special rights are of the nature of easements, and can, like ease- ments in real property, only be created by deed, devise, or record. Prescriptive Eights in Streams. There is, however, another way in which the right to the super- extraordinary use of a stream may be apparently acquired, namely, by prescription, and as this is the more important part of the subject for present purposes, we will discuss the matter a little at length. By the common law the right to do a thing, which from the i ature of the case could have been created by a grant, may be acquired by an individual, by reason of long-continued and peaceable possession, and such right or title is denominated prescriptive, though the length of time required before such right can be held as acquired varies in dif- ferent States. In New York it has been fixed by the Statute of Limita- tions at 20 years, while in some other States the lapsing of 15 years sufiices. In order to constitute a prescription in England, according to the old writers, the enjoyment must have existed " time out of POPULAR VIEWS OF PRESCRIPTION. 103 mind," but in modern times not only there but in this countrj' definite periods are fixed by the Statute of Limitations. In its orig"inal sense the term prescription applied to incorporeal heredituinents and not to corporeal titles to land, as to easements of rig-hts of way across land. In this sense prescriptive rights were originally enjoyed by adverse user, and finally by analog-y came to in- clude title to land by adverse possession. A further extension of the doctrine again led to a presumi>tion of some title in running screams not justified by the common-law rule, this latter being also a prescrip- tive title by adverse user. Angell has affirmed the principle of a prescriptive right to pollute water-courses under certain circumstances in the following language :* That a title to aur iucorporeal liereditameut may be supported by an uniuter- rupted enjoyment for the period limited by statute "for the right of entry upon land, was tirst laid down as law in England by Mr. C. J. Wilmot in the year 1761 . . . as twenty years' possession of land is considered a bar to an ejectment, so the pos- session of an easement attached to it for the same period is by analogy deemed evi- dence of right in the party possessing it. Indeed, it would seem absurd to acknowl- edge a right to a greater interest, as having been created by an enjoyment for a given space of time and to deny it to a lesser. The Case of Bealy v. Shaw. The case of Bealy v. Shaw, as cited by Angell, has been a leading case in England on the subject of acquisition of an adverse right to the use of a natural water-course : and it was decided in conforraitv to the doctrine above laid down. Lord EUenborough, C. J., said : The genei'al rule of law, as applied to this subject, is that, independent of any particular enjoyment used to be had by another, every man lias a right to have the advantage of a flow of water in his own land without diminution or alteration, but an adverse right may exist, found'^d on the occupation of anotlier. and, although the stream may be diminished in quantity, or corrupted in quality, yet if the occu- pation of the party so taking it and using it have existed for so long a time as may raise the presumption of a grant, the other party, whose land is below, must take the stream subject to such adverse right. Popular Views of Prescription. In administrating sanitary regulations for the protection of the drainage areas whence public water supplies issue, one quickly finds disseminated among both laity and professionals the idea that such rights of pollution as were enjoyed by the inhabitants, without con- test or objection on the part of anv of tln^ rii)ariaii owners before the taking of a given stream for a i)ublic water sui)i)ly, have be<-onie per- scriptiv<> through adverse use, and that such rights cannot be del)arred except by the ]iaynient of a valnalde consideration. Tlie growth of this view is undonbtedlv laru-'ly due to tlie strong artirmation of the * Angoll, Law (tf W.itiT Courses, fltli ciL, p. 351. 104 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. doctrine of rig-lit to pollute by adverse possession as stated in the fore- going from Angell. It is believed, however, that, in the present under- standing of thing's, such a view is bad law, contrary, indeed, to the first principles of the common law, and an attempt will be made to make good that proposition. The Law of Custom. The laws of England, wdience ours have been derived by inheritance, are defined by Blackstone as of two kinds,* the unwritten or common law, and the written or statute law, and it is from the former that we mostly derive our views as to prescription and adverse possession. We must observe in this connection that the common law is founded entirely in custom f and the sine qua non for the observance of the com- mon-law maxim is that the custom itself be good, and the goodness of the custom under the common-law ruling depends, according to Blackstone, (1) upon its having been used from a " time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary;" if any one can show the beginning of it the custom is not good ; (2) it must have been continued ; (3) peaceable, and acquiesced in, and (4) reasonable. A custom may be good if no good legal reason can be assigned against it. (5) Customs ought to be certain, and, (6) when established, com- pulsory and (7) consistent with each other. Moreover, Blackstone ex- pressly says, in regard to the legality of a custom, that if it is not good it ought not to be longer used. The Proper Application of the Flts^damental Principles. In the application of these fundamentals to the question of sewerage and drainage it is urged that practically all such privileges are recent. The time when the custom began may be readily defined by many. Again it is unreasonable for one human being to turn excrement into streams from which others may take drinking water. The matter looked boldly in the face is so revolting as to need no argument es- tablishing its unreasonableness. Likewise it is inconsistent for human beings, either individually or in the aggregate, to pollute that which for their own uses should remain unpolluted, and, finally, when we un- derstand as we now do, the serious effects of such pollution, the cus- tom of turning sewage into any stream, which either is, or may in the future, be the source of a public water sup]oly, is shown to be so ut- terly bad as to be worth}' only of immediate abatement even though the custom has been maintained from time immemorial. * Blackstone's Commentaries, sec. iii., On the Laws of England. + Customs are either particular or general. It is particular customs only that we are concerned with here. THE CASE OF LAKE COCIIITUATE. 105 Moreover, tlie question of the ri.^ht of the riparian proprietors to continue in the enjoyment of a right of pollution of which they may have been jjossessed at the time of taking- of any given body of water as the source of a public water supply, has been the subject of a deci- sion in the case of the water supply of the city of Boston, which may be considered as marking an era in sanitary history in this country. The case referred to is that of Augustus P. Martin, Mayor of Boston, V. Luther E, Gleason, in regard to which the following preliminary statement is made as derived from the city of Boston's brief.* The Case of Lake Cochituate. In 1816 the Legislature, by an act entitled "An act for supplying the city of Bog- ton with pure water," authorized the city of Boston "to take, hold, and convey to, into and through said city the water of Longiwnd, so called (now Lake Cochituate), in the towns of Natick, Wayland, and Franiingham, and the waters which may tlo\y into and from the same, and any other ponds and streams within the distance of four miles from said Long pond, and anv water rights connected therewith." Acta of 1816, Ch. 167, ^ 1. Pursuant to this authority, and in part execution thereof, the city, in August, 181:6, took' certain water and water rights, described as, "all the waters of Long pond, so called, and other brooks and streams, whether permanent or temi^orary, entering into the same, and of all the bays, coves, and inlets thereof, and of the outlet of the same, and all the water rights thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertaining." August li), 1816, the city filetl in the office of the registry of deeds for the cotinty of Middlesex, the foregoing description of the taking, and a statement of the pur- pose for which taken, as recpiired by said act of the Legislature (see copy, page -it of tlie report) ; and, as soon as the necessary works could be constructed, pro- ceeded actually to use, and lias ever since used, said waters for the supply of its inhabitants. Pegan brook is, and has always been, one of the sti'eams entering into Long pond. (Report, i)age 1.) The defendant is the proprietor of a hotel in Natick, and all the human excre- ment discharged from the water closets, and all the sewage of his hotel are dis- charged directly into said brook in sufficient quantity to contaminate its waters, (Report, page 1.) The city of Boston, by petition of its Mayor (St. 1881, c. 151), prays for an in- junction to restrain the defendant from polluting this water sup2>ly. The following is the decision of the Huprcme Judicial Court, C. Allen, J. Disregarding punctuation, as may propei'ly be done in construing a statute (Gushing i\ Worrick, 9 Gray, 385), and looking at the purpose and contemj^hited scope of Stat, 1H16, c. 167, the city of Boston was authorized by Section 1 of that statute to take the water of Long pond, and the waters wliich may flow into and from the same, and any other pomls and streams witliiii the distance of four miles from said Long pf)nd, and any water rights connected therewitli. so far as may be necessary for tin; preservation and purity of tlie same, for the purpose of furnishing a supply of ]mre water for the said city of iioston. This declared purpose ndates back, and illustrates the extent of the authority conferred. Water-rights may be taken so far as may be noce.ssaiy for the preservation and purity of the water. The words "and any water rights connected tiierewith " are not limited to the immedi- * From 0th An. Rei)t. of BoHton W. Rd., for yr. en.l. Apr. :J0, 1S8.'5, pp. 7(5-7a 106 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. ate antecedent, namely, the ' ' other ponds and streams " there referred to, but they also inchide Long pond itself, and the waters •which may flow into and from the same. It was designed to give a broad and comprehensive authority for the jjur- pose of furnishing a supply of pure water for the city, and to confer the power to take everything included within the meaning of the antecedent words, so far as might be necessary for the preservation and purity of the water. Section 15, im- posing a penalty for wantonly or maliciously diverting the water, or any j)art thereof, of any of the i)onds. streams, or water-sources which shall be taken by the city, or corrupting the same, or rendering it imjjure, confirms this view. Under this authority, the city might lawfully take any water rights connected with the waters flowing into Long pond, including the prescriptive rights which the plaintift" con- tends that he then had to discharge sewage into Pegan brook. It api:>ears that this brook is and always has been a feeder of Long pond ; and that the whole of it is Avithin four miles of the pond. A prescriptive right to foul the waters of a stream is included under the term "water rights." This, indeed, is asserted by the de- fendant in his answer. It is a right in respect to the water of the stream; and the statute conferred power to take all water rights which might interfere with the purity of the waters taken. It is contended for the defendant that, if it was neces- sary to jireserve the brook or the purity of the water, power was granted to the city to take the land on each side of the brook, and thus cut oft' any use either of it or of its waters ; and, indeed, that the water-rights could not be taken separately from the land. But it does not appear to us to be necessary, even if it was competent, for the city to take the land on the sides of the brook in order to extinguish any prescriptive right to foul the water of it. Assuming that the defendant had such prescriptive right, it is further contended that the city did not take it ; but that the taking of the waters of the brooks and streams entering into Long pond only apjiropriated the water as it flowed into the pond at the time of taking, and subject to all legal burdens and uses then existing. This, however, is too narrow a construction of the description of what was taken. The city, after reciting the whole of the flrst section of the statutes, took all the waters of Long j^ond, "and other brooks and streams, whether permanent or tem- porary, entering into the same," "and all the water rights thereunto belonging or in any wise appertaining, for the sole use and benefit of said city." This language does not exactly follow the language of the statute ; but we cannot doubt that it is broad enough to include Pegan brook, and the taking of " all the water rights thereunto belonging or iu any wise appertaining," includes any right then existing to foul its waters. It is urged, by way of illustration, that, if a mill existed on the brook, the right to use the mill was not taken. But it is not necessary to con- sider that question here. It does not appear that there was any mill on tlie brook. If there was, the use of the water for turning its wheels might not foul the water, and might therefore be consistent with the purposes and rights of the city. But the right to use the brook as a discharge for sewage in large quantities, as i^ractised by the defendant, is inconsistent with such purpose. If, therefore, the defendant had any such prescriptive right to foul the water of Pegan brook, as he claimed, such right was taken and extinguished by the act of the city under the Statute of 18-46 ; and by Section 6 of that act the city was liable to pay all damages sustained thereby. The defendant, if he sustained damage, might have applied by jieti- tion for the assessment thereof at any time within three years from such taking. This remedy was the exclusive one. It was not seriously contended in the argument that the defendant has acquired a prescri|)tive right to foul the waters since the taking by the city in 1846. Such prescriptive right could not be acquired, because the fouling of the water, since the right to foul it ceased, would be a ]iublic nuisance. Morton v. Moore, 15 Gray, 576. Brookline v. Mackintosh, 183 Mass., 125, 226. Finally, it was contended for the defendant that, by reason of constructions erected by the city at the mouth of the bi-ook, since the taking in 1846, the waters of Pegan brook do not, iu fact, contaminate the water of the pond ; and that, there- fore, the city is not injured. It appears, however, as a fact, that the water of the brook is contaminated by the acts of the defendent. The city has a right to be protected against the necessity of maintaining works for the preservation of the Gould's definition of prescription. 107 purity of the water from such a cause. If the acts of the defendant in fouling the stream have made it necessary for the city to resort to extraordinary means for pre- serving the purity of tlie water of the i)ond, he cannot justify the continuance of such illegal fouling by showing that the city has thus far been able, by the main- tenance of special works, to prevent the natural result of his acts. The result is that the jjetition for an injunction is maintained. Injunction to issue. Chancellor Kent's Views. Kent has justly observed in his Commentaries "that the nature and extent of the right acquired by prior occupancy of a running stream becomes frequently an important and vexatious question between dif- ferent riparian proprietors," * and, without going into his views exten- sively in this connection, it is sufficient to say that the tendency of American law as indicated by the decisions, is on the whole in the direction of an abridgment of the right to pollute by reason of ad- verse possession, though Kent says that if such occupation of a stream as corrupted it in quality has existed for so long a time as to raise the presumption of a grant and which presumption is the foundation of a title by prescription, the other party whose land is below must take the stream subject to such adverse right. Gould's Definition of Prescription. Gould has defined the law of prescription in its ai^plication to water- courses in this country with great clearness ; and his numerous cita- tions of recent cases are evidence of the most painstaking thorough- ness. According to him a j^rescriptive right in the waters of a stream can onl}' be acquired under substantially the following terms and con- ditions : (1) The enjoyment must have been uninterrupted, adverse, and under a claim of right, and with the knowledge of the owner. (2) The user must have been inconsistent with, or contrary to the interests of the owner, and of such a nature that it is difficult or impos- sible to account for it except on the presumption of a grant. (3) The adverse use must be attended by circumstances of such notoriety that the person against whom the right is exercised may have reasonable notice that the right is claimed against him. (4) Tlie enjoyment must be as of right, and not by license or merely permissive. (5) Tlie burden of proof rests with the person claiming, to show that the use was adverse, uninterrupted, and known to the owner of the land. (6) Prescriptive rights are limited in extent by the previous enjoy- * Kent •. ComraeiitaricB on American Law, sec. 446. 108 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. inent and cannot be materially varied to the injury of others. This amounts to saying- that one proprietor cannot acquire the right by prescription to pollute the stream to a g-reater extent than it was pol- luted at the commencement of the 20 years. Gould, in common with the other le^al writers, affirms that " the right to pollute a stream to a greater extent than is permissible of common right may be acquired by prescription." But the conditions as defined in the foregoing- indicate that prescriptive rights to polhit- ing are limited in this country. In any case a public nuisance cannot be prescribed for howsoever long the adverse enjoyment may have existed. English Cases. In England many cases have arisen where riparian proprietors, ag- grieved by the ijollution of streams, have applied for injunctions restraining the offenders from continuing the pollution. The frequent success of such attempts are stated as among the first causes which led to attempts to purify sewage and manufacturing wastes.* The right to pollute streams has been, however, in some cases in- cluded by prescription in the easements of estates on the banks of streams in England. Mr. Slater cites the case of a calico printer who began experiments on the purification of the waste waters from his w'orks. Shortly after, he received a formal letter from the ground landlord warning him that by so doing, he was emperilling one of the prescriptive rights of the estate, and consequently violating one of the covenants of his lease. A clear case in which a misapplication of the law has led, as Mr. Slater remarks, to making river pollution not only facultative but a clear duty. The English courts, however, have frequently gone to extreme lengths in protecting the rights of parties against pollution. Thus in the case of Goldsmid v. Tunbridge Wells Commissioners,! the plaintiff was tenant for life of an estate in which was a pond used for watering cattle, and in winter for supplying ice for domestic use. The defend- ants were commissioners with full power to make sewers and drains, and turn sewage into any water-course. The sewage was discharged into a brook flowing through the town, and which ran into the plaintiff's pond. The town grew constantly, and thus what at first was, in the language of the Court, " an imperceptible injury," had so increased in the course of years that, at the time of bringing the action, the water in the plaintiffs pond had become unfit for either watering cattle or furnishing ice. It was held that the discharge of the sewage of the town into the brook was a nuisance and the commissioners were restrained from continuing it. * J. W. Slater : Sewage Treatment, Purification, and Utilization, p. 186. + Goldsmid v. Tunbridge Wells Commissioners, L. R. 1, Ch. 349. relation of legal pr[nciple8 to science. 109 Oeiginal Application of the Doctrine of Ajjverse Possession. The arguments and cases cited in the preceding, while not in any sense exhaustive, will serve in a general way to indicate how the views in regard to the right of pollution by adverse possession are likely to be modified as such cases become of more importance throughout this country. In order to show somewhat more clearly the further origin of the doctrine of prescriptive rights in natural water-courses, the fol- lowing skeleton of the subject may be deemed sufficient: As already noted, the doctrine of adverse possession in its first inception must be considered as having applied to land only, and its application later to rights in natural water-courses is, as also noted, an extension of the doctrine by analogy. In the case of laud mere possession does not suffice, there must be some show of title, and as strengthening the show of title the person claiming may be deemed to have possessed and occupied in the following cases : (1) When the land has been cultivated or improved ; (2) where protected by a sub- stantial enclosure ; (3) where not improved it has been used for the supply of fuel or fencing material ; and (4) where a known farm or de- fined lot has been partly improved, the portion of such known farm or lot that may have been left uncleared or unenclosed, according to the local custom, shall be deemed to have been occupied for the same length of time as the part improved or cultivat«jd. None of these can in the nature of the case by any possibility apply to rights in a water- course, and therefore user alone must be deemed the all-sufficient reason for the acquirement of a prescriptive title in a water-course by adverse possession. But the doctrine of ownership by mere user, even though enjoyed long enough to justify, in the absence of any other proof, the presumption of a title, is, as we now understand the matter, in its ax^plication to streams a bad custom, and may be, so far as the right of pollution is concerned, safely abolished, by rulings of our courts in line with the recent additions to human knowledge in the realm of bacteriological science. The Kelation of Legal Principles to the Development op Science. The development of this view through the additions to knowledge which have followed from the recent studies in the etiology of disease is a very striking illustration of how after all, everything in the mate- rial universe is relativ(\ So long as mankind looked ujion dis(>asf' as an infliction of Providence there could bo no general conception of the danger arising from the contamination of a public water supply. Tliis is finely illustrated by the conditions Avhich exist to-day in many parts of India. The natives believe tliat the causation of disease is 110 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITP:D STATES. beyond their control and refuse to accept any explanation of an epi- demic of cholera other than that it is a visitation from the gods. Holding- this view, they see no objection to placing their privies where the contents drain into reservoirs from which water supplies are drawn.* Nor will 'they yet listen to the plain teaching-s of experience, the result being- that in many localities where such conditions exist, cholera is never absent. The unsanitary conditions produced by the Indian water tanks receiving quantities of privy drainage and other objection- able org'anic matter is intensified by the climatic conditions. In many localities the entire water supply must be stored through many months of tropical drought, and the stored waters by reason of the develojj- ment of large quantities of infusorial and cryptogamic growth become in the end disgustingly offensive. The Mill Acts. There are in most of the States a series of enactments known as Mill Acts, which, founded in an extension of the doctrine of eminent do- main, have as their object the encouragement of the erection of mills. In order to understand thoroughly certain modifications of the com- mon-law principle in reference to the pollution of streams, which are essentially peculiar to this country, we may briefly consider the funda- mental ai^plication of the law of eminent domain to rights in natural water, together with the cognate extension of the question which nat- urally arises. The Law of Eminent Domain. Eminent domain is defined as the right which the government retains over the estates of individuals to appropriate them to public use ; but the exercise of this right has nevertheless attached to it as a necessary attendant condition, the principle that due money compen- sation shall be made to every individual whose property is taken, by operation of the law of eminent domain, without his consent. The authority for the exercise of this transcendent power can only emanate from the legislatures, State or National ; and the extent and circumstances under which it may be exercised are among the most important questions which can arise. In England, as with us, there must be a public object of adequate importance in order to justify its use, but Parliament, as the supreme power in the kingdom, may in express terms define to what extent the right may be transferred, as to corporations, private or municipal, etc. ; and may also by statutory enactments define, in a general way, the methods, terms, and condi- *See Blyth's, A Manual of Public Health, Fig. 53, p. 596. Tank in a Calcutta Bustee with Huts and Privies on its Edge. CHIEF JUSTICE BIGELOW OX EMINENT DOMAIN. Ill tions of compensation. The conservative sj)irit in England has, how- ever, usually led to embodying adequate compensation clauses in acts authorizing the exercise of eminent domain, although the extra- ordinary powers conferred upon some of the English railways are without precedent here. In the Constitution of the United States it is defined by the fifth article that '' private property shall not be taken for public use with- out just compensation," and if any legislature should, by enactment, overstep this plain constitutional provision, the courts could step in and by decision nullify such act as not within the constitutional powers delegated by the people to the legislature. Thus the legislature has, within reasonable limits, the power of determining whether a particu- lar use is public or private, although the final decision in a doubtful case may rest with the courts. Chief Justice Bigelow on Eminent Domain. The subject of definition of the line between public use and private use was treated in a case in Massachusetts by Chief -Justice Bigelow, in the following manner :* In many cases there can be no tlifficnlty in determining whether an appropriation of jn-operty is for a public or private use. If laud is taken for a fort, a canal, or a highway, it would cLuirly fall within the first class ; if it was transferred from one person to another, or to several persons, solely for their peculiar benefit and advan- tage, it would as clearly come within the second class. But there are intermediate cases, where public and private interests are blended together, in which it becomes moi'e difficult to decide within wliich of the two classes they may be properly said to fall. Tliere is no fixed rule or standard by which such cases can be tried and determined. Each must necessarily depetul upon its own peculiai- circumstances. Many enterprises of the highest pul)lic utility are productive of great and imme- diate benefits to individuals. 'A railroad or canal may largely enhance the value of private property situated at or near its termini, but it is not for that reason any less a public work, for the coiistrucfion of which ])rivate property may well be taken, . . It has never been deemed essential that tlie entire community, or any con- siderable portion of it, should directly enjoy or participate in an improvement or enterprise, in order to constitute a public use within the true meaning of the words of the constitutional limitation. Such an interpretation would greatly nar- row and ci-ipple tlie authority of the Legislature, .so as to deprive it of the power of exerting a material and beneficial influence on tlie welfare and prosperity of the {state. In a l)road and conipreliensive view, such as has been heretofore taken of the construction of this clause of tlie Declaration of Kights, everything which tends to enlarge tlie resources, increase the indnsti'ial energies, and jiromote the productive power of any consideraVile number of the inhabitants of a section of the State, or which leads to the growth of towns and the creation of new soui'ces for the em- ployment of ])rivate ca])ital and labor, indirectly contributes to the general welfare, and to the i)rosperity of the whole. community It is on this princijile tliat many of the statutes of this commonwealth by wliich private ])ro])erty has been hereto- fore taken and ap|)n)priat(Ml to a snjipostMl public u.se are founded. One of the earliest and most familiar instances of the exercise of such a power under the * BoBt(jn and Iloxbury Mill. Corp. v. Newman, 12 Pink., 476. 112 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Constitution is to be found in the Mass. St. 1795, c. 74, Sec. 1, for the erection and regulation of mills. By this statute the owner of a mill had power, for the purjiose of raising a head of water to operate his mill, to over flow the land of su- per-riparian proprietors, and thereby to take a permanent easement in the soil of another, to the entire destruction of it's beneficial use to him, on paying a suitable compensation therefor. Under the right thus conferred, the more direct benefit was to the owner of the mill only ; private pi'operty was, in effect, taken and trans- ferred from one individual for the benefit of another, and the only public use which was thereby subserved was the indirect benefit received by the community by the erection of mills for the convenience of the neighborhood, and the general advantage which accrued to trade and agriculture by increasing the facilities for traffic and the consumption of the products of the soil. In like manner, and for similar purposes, acts of incorporation have been granted to individuals, with au- thority to create large mill-powers for manufacturing establishments, by taking private property, even to the extent of destroying other mills and water privileges on the same stream. The Underlying Principle of the Mill Acts, Having defined some of the more important features of the doctrine of eminent domain we may now proceed with the discussion of the Mill Acts, and their effect in iiractically modifying, in some of the States, the common-law rule in reference to the possible public nui- sance caused by polluting- running- streams. The exercise of the j^re- rogative of sovereignty in their enactment can only be justified on the ground of the public good, and their original inception in the early colonial period, when mills for grinding corn were an imperative necessity, is usually urged as their reason for being. Their effect in authorizing the overflow of another's land contrary to his wishes, on iDayment of a money consideration, has been to nullify to some extent by statute the natural right which every riparian proprietor has to the natural flow of a stream. In Massachusetts, where manufacturing has always been a chief occupation of the people, the statutory law encouraging mills is ancient ; and the several successive enactments in that State may be cited as showing on the whole the best development of this particular phase of the subject. The Massachusetts acts have been the basis of most of the similar laws passed in the Northern and Western States, while the original Virginia act, which differs very materially from the Massachusetts, has been the basis of similar acts in the several Southern States. In England in early times the construction of mills was encouraged in a different manner. Mills were erected by lords of manors on their respective domains for the public advantage, the gift being fettered by the condition that the people of the respective seigniories bring their corn to be ground at the mills so built ; this custom being called " doing suit " to the mill.* The American acts, however, as founded in the broader principle of the public good and * Woolrych : On the Law of Waters and Sewers, 70, 108. THE VIEWS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS DRAINAGE COMMISSION. 113 as extending- tlie doctrine of eminent domain to the acquisition of rights in running water not authorized by the common law, are purely a development from the conditions of interdependence among- the people which existed in the early colonial days. The progressive de- velopment in most of the manufacturing States has led practically to the enunciation of legal principles somewhat different from any of those derived by precedent from the laws of England. These new principles can hardh" be considered as fully established in all parts of the couutr}', although clearly in the line of the immemorial policy of a number of the States. Thus New York State may be cited as one in which no Mill Act has ever been enacted, and the Supreme Court, in the case of Hoy v. Cohoes Co.,* say " The Legislature of this State, it is believed, has never exercised the right of eminent domain in favor of mills of any kind. Sites for steam engines, hotels, churches, and other pul)lic conveniences, might as well be taken, by the exercise of this extraordinary^ power." The prevalence of this view of the matter in the State of New York has, however, operated to materially discourage such development of manufacturing interests as depend upon the con- struction of large storage reservoirs at points remote from the place where the stored waters are required for use, and in various other ways. The Principle of Permissive Pollution. The Mill Acts, Avliile originally intended merely to secure to parties wishing to build mills the right to How the lands of others, have never- theless led, with other causes, to the development of what may be termed the principle of permissive iiollution. Again, it may be further said that their enactment, by tending to en- courage manufactures, has led to a tacit modification by statute of the common-law rule in reference to moderate nuisances. The Views of the Massachusetts Drainage Comjhssion, The Massachusetts Drainage Commission of 1884-5, discussed the various questions involved so broadly that we can hardly do better than to conclude this chapter by extended quotations from their report. The Commissioners say : Manufacturing? industry has from the earliest days been greatly favored by the law-makers of ^lassacliusotts. To foster and encourapfo it tliey long ago substanti- ally dedicated the unnavigable running waters of the land to its use. Believing its prosperity essential to the common welfare, the Legislature has not hesitated to stop to the veiy verge of its constitutional power to stimulate and maintain it. For more than half a century persons have been authorized by law to dam up streams * Hov V. Cohoes Co., M Barb., 43. 8 114 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. and flood lands of others for their own i^rivate mainifacturiut:: euds. This taking of one man's property against his will for the individual benefit of another has been justitied as a proper exercise of the prerogative of eminent domain, on the ground of the advantage inuring to the public from the imjn'ovement of water jaower, and the importance of encouraging manufactures. It has been supported also, ui)OU the principle which iJermits the State to compel the several possessors of a common interest, wliich they cannot beneficially enjoy in severalty, to submit to measures^ esssential to secure a full and profitable use of their property. As a general proposition of law it is laid down that the owners of the bed and banks of a stream have the right to use the running water in common from its- source to its outlet. Each one has an equal right to its reasonable use as it flows- by his land. This right of each is limited by the like light of every other. But this special qualifled property of the individual in the water does not seem to ex- clude a general ijaiamount interest wliich the public retains. Consequently, while no one can justly diminish his neighbor's enjoyment by greatly vitiating the water during his own short-lived tenure of it, neither may he destroy or greatly impair the public property in it. The factory or the mill may temporarily monoi^olize the flow, but they do so under an implied agreement not to spoil the water for the ordinary uses of the people in general. If they pollute the stream unduly they violate their license, and may be comijelled to abate tlie nuisance they have made. Bnt while it is easy to lay down the principle, it is not easy to insist upon its rigid application without danger of working injustice and of frustrating the immenioiial policy of the Commonwealth. An inflexible enforcement of a rule forbidding any defllement whatever might ruin many mill-owners and stop half the water-wheels of the State. Some diminution of j^urity is inevitable, and tolerable, while other con- tamination is uunece-ssary or excessive. The difliculty lies in distinguisliiiig the legitimate from the destructive usage. A satisfactory definition is imjnacticable. Each case differs a little from the next. The circumstances may be utterly unlike. All will agree that some kinds of corruption may reasonably be sharjjly dealt with. No one, for example, pretends that he can rightfully pour human excrement and household filth into the water below his dam. Neither can he justify dumping into the river waste and refuse and garbage. On the other hand, the most exacting- purist might not care to complain of the sediment washed from some bleacliings or scouiings, the slight taint of certain kinds of harmless chemicals, or the evanescent stain of dyes which are not unwholesome. The task is to discriminate the variety of shades of impurity which occur between these extremes. Then there is a class of cases where it may be an open question whether it is not for the public interest to abandon a stream or sheet of water to the customary pol- lution of industry, so long as it does not imijeril the public health. Unless this be admitted, the alternative may be to drive away thriving communities, and destroy the work of years of jiatient labor and active enterjirise, undertaken under a pre- sumed security of tenure. In such dilemma, if the water is not required for drink- ing purposes, a considerable contamination may be suffered without inordinate in- convenience. No doubt the State cannot entirely escape responsibility even by such a relinquishment as this. The public have a right not to be poisoned by the air they breath any more than by the water they drink. There is a foulness which is inadmissible even in a factory stream, which may embitter the life and undermine the health of the dweller upon its banks. In such cases the State is bound to in- tervene peremptorily if the riparian owners remain obstinately deaf to the publia protest. Generally, however, before this stage is reached, the dirt of the earlier usage has so impaired the value of the water for some subsequent taker that he insists upon an abatement of the abuse above him. We think it will be enough for the present to require that water for dwellings must be protected from every avoidable taint, while water for business must not be ofi"ensive or dangerous. All wanton ill usage, such as jirivies over the stream or cesspools draining into it, may well be put a stop to ; and where the incidental injury characteristic of an industry is detrimental to the next user or to the i3ublic» it should be scrupulously restricted to absolutely unavoidaVde dimensions bv the adoption of the most approved methods of remedial treatment. But even if it should be thought expedient to impose some such restrictions as we THE VIEWS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS DKAIXAGE COMMISSION. 115 have indicate J, there is still room for much diflference of opinion as to the best method of enforcing whatever regulation is adopted. There are several wavs which naturally suggest themselves. We may leave the land owners, the water owners, and the community at large to the ordinary courts and to the common law to define and protect their various interests, or we may erect a special tribunal and prescribe by statute the scojje and method of its over- sight and jurisdiction, or the Legislature may pass upon each case as it arises. For reasons w^hich we state in another place, we are inclined to recommend that the supervision of matters jjertaining to water supply, sewerage, and the pollution of waters generally, be assigned to some board which shall be clothed with powers analogous to those of the Railroad Commissioners and Harbor Commissioners, to enable it to introduce system and method in these important departments of the common welfare. We take it that no one will controvert the general i^roposition of law that every holder of property, however absolute and unqualified be liis title, holds it under the implied liability that his use of it may be so regulated that it shall not be injuri- ous to the rights of the community. The Eight of the Massachusetts Lbgislatube to Presckibe Etjles for the Protection of Streams. In the exercise of its undoubted prerogative to watch over the general welfare and to guard the j^ublic rights by the ample police powers with which it is armed, the Legislature may make exactly such rules respecting the pollution of streams and ponds or other inland waters as it may judge requisite and necessary for the public welfare. It may absolutely prohibit, under suitable penalty, any contamination of any water within the borders of the Commonwealth, if it so please. It is a question always of exjjediency what degree of interference with individual liberty is required by the circumstances. Thus far the Legislature has been content to forbid any jiol- lution of waters used directly or indirectly for a water supply by any city or town within twenty miles above the point of taking, provided this prohibition be not held to impair rights by statute before July 1, 1878, or prescriptive rights of drainage, to the extent to which they lawfully existed on that date. The Merrimack and Connecticut rivers and so much of the Concord as lies within the city of Lowell are also exempt from this rule. Nor can any person save those emjiloyed in getting ice or hauling lumber, drive a horse on any pond iised as a water su])ply for domestic purposes by a city or town. Xeither is bathing permitted in any such pond. The Legislature seems to have drawn the line at drinking water. Water dedicated to household uses is protected, within certain limits and to certain degree, by a speedy, peremj^tory, and effectual process. Municipal authorities may obtain au injunction at any time, from any justice of the supreme or sui)erior court, to restrain any person from violating tlie 8()th chapter of the General Statutes, Mhioh we have r(>cited above. But all other waters are left to the ordinary rules of the common law. We think that a comprehi'nsive knowledge of all the facts will satisfy any un- bi.iss(!d inquirer that under this kind of customary guardianship of no one in par- ticular, the general condition of our waters has suffei'ed a steady degradation, or, to b irrow the language of the State Board as long ago as 1876, "any defence against the impurities which .so conveniently flow into our waters from the settlements and works on their l)anks has thus far been merely nominal ; that is, the law can be used to prevent a nuisance from continuing to be poured into the river, but it is not n:;ed, because the process is too slow, cumbersome, and expensive." The lapse of nine years has only sensed to jioint and emphasize this commentary. The growth of population, the spread of modern refinements of living, the increase in industrial establishments, and all the indefinite multiplication of incidents appertaining to a jjrosperous and progressive community, must naturally and perlia]« inevitably tend to vitiate the waters of its rivers and lakes. But even if a certain degree of taint be unavoidable, there is a vast amount wliich is wanton and preventable. A cursory ghuice at the report of Mr. Clarke will convince any onotliat there is no necessity whatever for a large part of the abuse to which our water-courses are subjected. It 116 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. is a question of time only, and that not a long time either, when, if we hold to the path we are travelling, we shall find ourselves face to face with a state of things as intolerable as that of England twenty-five years ago, when the Sewage of Towns Commission denounced it as an " evil of national urgency requiring the earliest and most serious attention." The condition of many of its important and frequented streams had become so filthy and disgusting that a universal protest arose, and large sums of money had to be expended in haste to mitigate the extremity of tbe of- fence. Meanwhile untold misery and mischief had been inflicted. Now, preventive measures are far less costly and much more effective than remedial expedients. We think it is high time that some steps should be taken here to arrest the prog- ress of rivers pollution at the point it has reached in Massachusetts, and gradually to retrieve some portion, at least, of the ground we have carelessly yielded. Im- pressed with this conviction, we yet consider it impracticable to ask for a summary enforcement of the extreme right of the community in its waters now for the first time. Ajjart from technical points of law, and taking it upon broad, equitable grounds, it would be felt unfair for the community suddenly to insist ujDon a rigid exaction of its abstract right to clean waters after so many years of license and neg- lect. Even if it be law that no one can prescribe for a public nuisance, it does not necessarily follow that it is policy to abate all nuisances forthwith. And sui)posing such a project of law to have been enacted, we do not believe that the statute could or would he enforced. Certainly the existing law is not, then why should one so much more severe ? We therefore cast about a good deal to hit upon some principle of classification, some scheme of discrimination, or even a mere frame of fixed regulations to guide the steps of a guardian of iniblic waters. It was sug- gested that schedules might be made of streams which could be allowed a certain kind and amount of pollution, to be carefially defined, either in general or for each individual case. Certain others might be set apart and reserved for the standard purity expected for drinking water. While posssibly a few might be left to take care of themselves, at least for the present. It was held to be reasonable to forbid certain more dangerous or offensive trades from seating themselves in future at or near the fountain heads of rivers or brooks. It was urged that there would be no hardship in compelling a newcomer, whose lal)ors must grievously deteriorate the quality of the water, to go below the industries which already depended upon the water as they were getting it, and could not endure without suffering any addi- tional impairment of its purity. These expedients, and many like them, were canvassed and weighed in turn, but to all there seemed to be grave objections. After much consideration it was decided to j^ropound a plan of action which seemed to fit the exigency as well or better than any which occurred to us. It had, besides, the strong recommen- dation of shaping itself in exact conformity with precedents which have stood the test of time and have proved themselves to be valuable working agencies. In the year 1879 the Legislatiire intrusted the care of "the lands, flats, shores, and rights in tide-waters belonging to the Commonwealth," and the supervision of " all its tide-waters and all the flats and lands flowed thereby," to a Board whom it empowered "to prevent and remove unauthorized encroachments," or whatever " in any way injures their channels." Every work done within tide- water, not sanctioned by them or authorized by the General Court, where a license is required, is declared to be a nuisance, and the Board may order suits on behalf of the Commonwealth to prevent it or stop the removal of material from any bar or breakwater of any harbor. This legislation is strictly in line with that we offer. It is, indeed, almost identical with it. Alter its wording but a little and it woiild suit our purpose exactly. Precisely the same ininciple which enjoins a watchful care over tiie exterior waters of the State, would seem to call for at least an equal solicitude concerning the abu.se of its interior waters. But mindful of the tenderness with which Massachusetts has always treated her industrial classes, we think it would be wise to embrace in the enact- ment one peculiarly characteristic feature borrowed from the act establishing a Eailroad Commission, and which has proved strong enough to enforce amply all the rights of the public in that class of highways called railroads. This distinc- tive trait is the use of advisory as distinguished from mandatory power. We THE IMPORTANT POINTS. 117 think it would be well, then, for the Legislature to designate some one or more persons to look after the public interests in this direction. Let these guardians of inland waters be charged to acquaint themselves with the actual condition of all waters within the State as respects their pollution or purity, and to inform themselves particularly as to the relation which that condition bears to the health and well-being of any part of the people of the Commonwealth. Let them do awav, as far as possible, with all remedial pollution and use every means in their power to prevent further vitiation. Let them make it their business to advise and assist cities or towns desiring a supply of water or a system of sew- erage. They shall put themselves at the disposal of manufacturers and others using rivers, streams, or ponds, or in any way misusing them, to suggest the best means of minimizing the amount of dirt in their effluent, and to experiment upon methods of reducing or avoiding pollution. They shall warn the persistent violator of all reasonable regulation in the management of water, of the consequences of his acts. In a word, it shall be their esjDCcial function to guard the public interest and the public health in its relation with water, whether pure or undefiled, with the ultimate hope, which must never be abandoned, that sooner or later ways may be found to redeem and preserve all the waters of the State. We pro]iose to clothe the Board with no other power than the power to examine, advise, and report, except in cases of violation of the statiites. Such cases, if persisted in after notice, are to be referred to the Attorney-Geneial for action. Other than this, its decisions must look for their sanction to their own intrinsic sense and soundness. Its last protest against wilful and obstinate defilement will be to the Genei'al Court. To that tribunal it shall report all the facts, leaving to its supreme discretion the final disposition of such ofi'enders. If such a Board be able to commend itself by its conduct to the approval of the great coi;rt of public opinion, it will have no difficulty, we think, in materially reducing the disorders and abuses which are threatening to give great trouble in future, if not speedily checked. If, however, we err in this expectation, and more drastic measures prove indispensable, the mandate of the State can always be invoked to re-enforce its advice.* The Important Points. The points which it is chiefly desired to enforce in this chapter are : 1. There is no natural right to pollute a water-course. 2. In the case of a stream which either is, or may be used, as the source of drinking- water by any of the riparian proprietors, prescrip- tion, with the present understanding of the causation of the infectious communicable diseases, ought not be urged as the foundation of a right to pollute. 3. In case the interests of all the riparian proprietors are in favor of using a stream as a common receptacle for manufacturing wastes, mutual agreement, either actually expressed, or implied by the opera- tion of custom, may dedicate the stream to such use, but such dedi- cation cannot be construed to justify such unreasonable use as leads to the creation of a common nuisance. 4. The Mill Acts, while probably not in their original inception in- tended to cover the specific case of such pollution as renders the water * For complete text of the Massachusetts Act which has been enacted as the result of the foregoing recoininendations of the Drainage Commission, see Appendix IV. 118 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. of a stream unfit for domestic use, have still, by fostering- manufactur- ing interests, created new customs and conditions, and consequently tend to modify the strict construction of the common-law rule. 5. From the Mill Acts, as a natural consequence of the development of manufacturing which they have fostered, has come a recognition of the principle of permissive pollution under State supervision as exem- plified in the recent Massachusetts acts. CHAPTER yn. QUANTITY OF SEWAGE AND VAEIATION IN BATE OF FLOW, Before proceeding- to the consideration of tlie various methods of sewage disposal, which experience has indicated as of vahie, we may properly inquire into the question of quantity and variation in the rate of flow of the sewag-e which it is proposed to treat. Dearth of Accurate Information. Accurate information as to quantity is rather difficult to obtain. But few observations have yet been made in this country, and aside from the few, the subject has been treated from a purely theoretical point of view. In Eng-land extensive observations were made by Mr. Haywood, Sir Joseph Bazalgette, and by the Referees in reporting- upon the main drainag-e of London. Obviously the quantity of flow is closely related to the amount of the water supply, and inasmuch as the water supply of American towns is, as an average, at least double that of English, the experience g-ained by gagings there do not greatly assist in determining the quantity of sewage which may reasonably be expected in towns here. We may, therefore, consider in some detail the amount of water used in American towns, but it must be remembered that in designing sewage-disposal works general dis- cussion can only be of use for indicating tested and approved methods of procedure. It cannot be too strongly insisted that each case stands by itself as a problem for special solution. The Use of Water in American Cities. Table No. 13 gives the average daily consumption of water per in- habitant for nearly 200 of the 348 cities in the-United States, which, by the census of 1890, had a population of over 10,000. The wide varia- tion in consumption sliown l)y the table, it will bo seen, is t)uly in small part caused ])y the diff"erences between the populations of the various cities. One of the chief causes for the variiition in consum])- tion is the variation in the proportion of tlu^ total ]i()[)uluti()n, which is quite clearly shown by the last cohinin of Table 13, giving the ]io]ni- lation per tap for each city, so far as the flgures are available. Other 120 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE TNITED STATES. Table No. 13. — Average Consumption of Water per Capita in Cities of the United States with a Population of over 10,000 in 1890.* Bank and name of city. Population, 1890.t Daily consumption. Per inhabi- tant. Population per tap.J 1 New York, N. Y a Chicago, 111.' ■■i Philaiielphi;i, Pa.^ 4 Brooklyn, N. Y.3 .') St. Louis, Mo 6 Uoston, Mass.< 7 Baltimore, MU is Ran Francisco. Cal 9 Cincinnati, 0.* 10 Cleveland 0« 11 Buffnlo, N. Y Vi New Orleans, La 13 Pittsburg, Pa,T • H Washington, D. C.8 1.5 Detroit. Mich Iti -Milwaukee, Wis 17 Newark. N. J,^ i'S Minneapolis, Minn 19 Jersey City, N. J A" 20 Loui.sville, Ky 21 Omaha, Neb. 11 2-i Rochester, N. Y 23 St. Paul, Minn 24 Kansas City. Mo. > ' 2.5 Providence. R. I.i^ 2t) Denver, Col 2" Indianapolis, Ind 28 Allegheny, Pa 29 Columbus, O 30 Syracuse. N. Y.i« 31 Worcester. Mas.-* 32 Toledo. O 33 Richmond, Va 34 New Haven, Conn 85 Paterson, N. J 3fi Lowell. Mass 87 -Nashville, Tenn 38 Fall River. Mass 39 Cambridge, Mass 411 Atlanta, Ga 41 Memphis, Tenn 42 Wilmington, Del 43 Davton. O 44 Troy. N. Y 45 Heading, Pa ,515.301 ,U99,85U ,046.9(14 806,343 451.770 448,477 434,439 398,997 296,908 261,353 2.55,664 242,039 238,617 230 205, 204, 181 164 163. 161 140. l;i3 133 132, 132, 106, li5, 105, 88. 88. 84, 81 81 81. 78, 77, 76 74 70. 65. 64, 61, 61. 60, 58, ,392 ,876 ,468 ,830 ,738 ,003 ,129 ,452 ,896 ,156 716 146 ,713 ,4:36 ,287 ,150 143 ,655 ,434 ,388 298 347 696 ,168 ,398 ,028 533 495 431 320 956 661 121,000.000 152,372,288 137.736.703 55.000.000 32,479,000 42,171100 40,978,229 18,359,000 33,997.007 27.787,158 47,517.137 8.976.715 36,000,000 11,.509,000 36.,5S8.629 33,208,067 22,880,783 14,079.793 12,416,117 19,.300,000 11.874.688 14.000,000 8,800,000 8,000.000 12,000,000 6.743,092 £0.000.000 7.500,000 25,000,000 6.882,333 6,000.000 4,971,; 40 5.842,768 l: .597,103 11,010,000 10.000.000 .5,127.199 11,153,885 2.136.182 4,489.180 2,359..'ifi4 8,000,000 6,934,912 2.848.926 7.608.468 5,000.000 79 140 132 72 72 80 94 61 112 103 186 37 144 153 158 161 110 76 75 97 74 94 66 60 71 48 187 71 238 78 68 59 72 167 ]:» 128 66 146 29 64 36 124 113 47 125 75 13.9 'e.i 8 7 14.8 6.6 5.8 9.9 8.5 8.7 6.3 54.0 '8".2 6.5 5.1 11.1 8.6 16 5 ii;9 24 5.4 12.7 15.3 9.4 7.0 ao 6 7 11.5 21 5 8.9 18.6 7.9 ii'8 9.2 14 9 14 9 6.6 20 11 9 5.0 20.1 10.5 5,8 * Compiled from official returns included in the Manual of American Water- Works for 1890-91. Edited by M. N. Baker. t Pburg. Miss 145 Battle Creek, Mich 146 Paducah, Ky 147 Passiiic, N. J 148 Hannibal, Mo 149 .Manistee. Mich 150 Dover, N. H 151 Raleigh, N. C 152 Portsmouth, O 153 Brookline. Mass 154 Moline, 111 155 Bay City, Mich 156 .Shreveport, La 157 Saratoga Springs, N. Y.'* 158 Fort Scott, Kan 159 Hazleton, Pa 160 Pensacola. Fla ](!1 Cheyenne, \Vy ir,2 Charlotte, N. C 163 Marinette. Wis 164 Nebraska City, Neb 165 Muscatine, la 166 Bridgeton. N. J 167 Streator, 111 168 Chillicothe, O 169 Mahanoy City. Pa 170 Stillwater, Minn 171 Auburn, Me 172 Leadville, Col 173 Ithaca, N. Y 174 Denisoii, Tex 175 Ironton, O 176 .T;inesville,Wis 177 Fresno, Cal 178 Michisan City, Ind 179 Jacksonville, 111 180 Butte Ciry, Mon 181 Jeffersonville. Ind IS'i Menominee. Mich 183 Meridian. Miss 184 Auirusta, .Me 185 Baton Roug -.La 186 El Paso. Tex 187 Cairo. Ill 188 Danville, Va 189 Alton. Ill 190 Asheville. N. 191 Freeport, 111 19S Sioux Falls. S. Dak 193 Peibody, Mass 194 Nanticoke. Pa 195 Jackson, Tenn Population, 1890. 17,747 17,565 17.201 16,841 16,359 16,243 16,159 16,074 15.987 15,361 1J.991 14.590 14,476 14,101 13.963 13.947 13,8(15 1.3,7,57 13.634 13,534 13,499 13.426 13.. 394 13,378 13,197 13,076 13.028 12,857 12.812 12.790 12.678 12.364 12,103 12.000 12,981 11.979 11,975 11,943 11.872 11.750 11.69(1 11.. 557 11.523 11.494 11,454 11.424 11.414 11.21^8 11.286 11,260 11,250 11.212 11,079 10,958 10,939 10,836 10.818 10,776 10.740 10,723 10,666 10 630 10.624 10.527 10.478 10,338 10.324 10, .305 10,294 10.2.-.5 10.189 10.177 10,15 ■< 10,044 10,039 Daily consumption. 1,200,000 751.082 991,194 1,650.000 450,000 1,500.(00 651.286 1,510,000 609.371 800 ( (iO 2,( 63,648 7.o6,401 2,.'^.0 1.000 1,100.000 600.000 40J.000 :^47.885 1.500.0' 1.750.000 1.992.567 775,963 535.480 1,500.000 312,625 410.001' 400,000 400.000 1,130,000 625,000 436,846 375,000 1,500,000 884.000 850.000 2,708.9(i3 1,159,115 3,(00.(00 50U.000 I.ICO.OOI) 350 ( 00 1,500,000 500.000 600.000 200.1 00 400.000 362.000 5(.0.(I00 750.000 400,000 1,000.000 500.000 1.000.000 200,(00 450.000 1.700.000 202.705 2.500.000 1,000.000 500,000 850.000 150,000 565.000 800.000 1,01 O.OOO 200,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,(100 400.(100 .3.^,0.000 70(1.00(1 600.000 826.940 2,000,000 72.5,000 Per inhabi- tant. 6S 43 68 98 27 92 40 93 38 52 138 52 173 78 43 29 25 109 128 147 58 25 112 24 31 31 31 82 49 34 30 121 73 71 209 97 251 42 93 30 128 43 52 17 35 32 44 66 36 89 44 89 18 41 155 19 23 93 47 79 14 53 75 95 19 58 77 97 39 34 69 59 81 199 72 Population per tap. 14.0 13.0 16.0 23.0 22.0 13.0 7.0 16.0 12.0 34.0 12.0 6.0 7.0 18.0 17.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 12.0 6.0 6.« 11.0 4.0 32.0 14.0 11.0 19.0 11.0 14.0 9.0 26.0 9.0 6.0 27.0 8.0 22.0 5.0 8.0 4 18.0 14.0 h'.b 22.0 29.0 8.0 22.0 12.0 8.0 19.0 10 11.0 23.0 16.0 9.0 17.0 5.0 30.0 20.0 m'.b 12.0 17.0 58^6 13 15.0 31 !6 20.0 15.0 24.0 6.0 8.0 13.0 '5 The summer population is much greater thnn th.at given in the Table. THE USE OF WATER IN DIFFERENT TOWNS. 123 conditions affecting- the consumption of water are the character of the population, whether requiring- much water for other than domestic uses ; the use of meters and other efforts to reduce waste ; the source and mode of supply, whether from a source of unlimited capacity, through a proper supply and distributing system, or otherwise, and whether by gravity or pumping, the current expense for the latter sometimes tending to keep down consumption. Some of the figures for consumption are only approximate, but all were originally taken from official reports. The estimates are often indicated by their being an even number of millions or hundreds of thousands. The Use of Water in Different Towns Does Not Follow Any Special Law. The slight relation between the size of cities and their daily use of water per capita is more plainly shown in the summary. Table 13A, where the number of cities with consumption between certain limits is shown for cities of five different classes of sizes. While this summary shows a decrease in per capita consumption with the decrease in size Table 13A. — Average Daily Consumption op Water (Gallons) Classified by Amounts and by Size of City. 200 or over. 100 to 199. 75 to 99. 50 to 74 . 25 to 49. Below 25. Population. 1 i s 6 d 1 d Pi 1 S u 0^ d 1 d PM 1 1 o 0^ 7 29 17 19 33 1 1 d PU Total. No. Above 100,000 1 'i 4 3 3 10 8 9 17 10 36 34 30 35 16 7 2 7 10 13 25 8 23 21 20 8 7 8 8 11 2S 29 27 17 17 2 7 5 9 21 4 7 11 28 50,0UU to 100,000 25,UUI) to 50,000 24 30 15,000 to 25.000 48 10,000 to 15,000 2 64 Totals 4 2 54 28 39 20 42 22 44 23 11 5 194 200 or over. 100 or over. 75 or over. 50 or over. 25 or over. Population. d 1 d d 1 d 1 1 d i 1 d 6 3 o 6 ToUL No. Above 100,000 1 'i ■1 h 3 2 11 8 10 17 12 58 40 31 33 ;i5 19 lo^ 18 10 17 27 25 "i»7~ 65 •12 56 .56 :m 50 26 17 25 35 36 139 03 71 83 Ti 56 72 28 24 30 44 57 183 100 100 100 92 89 95 28 50,00(1 to 100,000 2.5,0110 U) ,50,000 24 SO 15,000 to 2.5,000 48 10,000 to 16,000 2 4 64 TotnlH 194 1-24 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. of the city, tliere are so many exceptions that the rule can be accepted only in a very general way. That there is a quite general increase in the population per water tap, with the diminution in the size of the city, is shown by Table 13 B, but the exceptions to this rule are numerous. Table 13B. — Population per Water Tap* Classified by Numbers and Size op City. Population. 4 to 6 'A 10. s Ph' 11 1< d 'A )20. 1 d 21 to 30. "3 1 d .'i 'A h .31 to 40. 1 d ". 'A fe 50 to 58. Total. No. Above 100,000 14 10 10 15 22 59 46 4« m 36 7 9 8 23 26 29 41 36 51 42 1 2 3 5 9 4 9 14 11 15 1 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 1 •i 4 2 24 50.000 to 100,000 22 25,000 to 50,000 22 15,0(10 to 25.000 45 10,000 to 15,000 61 Totals 71 41 73 42 20 11 8 5 2 1 174 Population. 10 or 20 or less less. , ^ , , ^_. a o '■ d 'A d "A e P Above 100,000. . . 60,000 to 100,000 25,000 to 50,000 . 15,000 to 25,000.. 10,000 to 15,000. Totals 14 59 21 10 4(i 19 10 46 18 15 33 38 22 36 48 71 41 144 30 or less. r 50 or less, 1 — - • ' ■[ o a P^ 6 'A o Total. No. 23 96 22 110 22 1(10 45 U)0 60 9^ 172 99 ♦In American water- works parlance, the word "taps" denotes the number of times the street water dis- tribution main is " tapped " with service pipes to houses or other buildings. The arrangement of cities by size, in Table 13, is intended to make more plain the variation in consumption per capita regardless of the size of the cities in question. This variation is still further illustrated, as is the effect of meters to reduce consumption, in Table 13 C, which gives the average daily consumption per capita of the fifty largest cities in the United States, arranged in the left half by consumptions greatest to least, the rank of the city in size and in consumption being given. New York, the largest city in the United States, ranks twenty-third down the scale in water consumption per capita, while Allegheny, having the highest consumption, ranks twenty-eighth down the scale in size. There are a few cases of exact coincidence in rank of size and THE USE OF WATER IN DIFFERENT TOWNS. 125 Table 13 C. — Consumption of Water (Gallons) and Use of Meters in the Fifty Largest Cities of the United States. Consumption, greatest to least. Rank in: •2 2 11 p. 5 Alleghany 238 Buffalo 18H Richmond 167 Detroit IBl Washington 158 Pittsburg (Co.) 158 Nashville . . \46 Pittsburg (Pub.) 144 Chicago 1-10 Now Haven 135 Philadelphia 132 Camden 131 Paterson 128 Troy 125 Memphis 124 Wilmington 113 Cincinnati 112 Milwaukee 110 CU^veland 103 Jersey City 97 Baltimore 94 Omaha 94 Boston 80 New York 79 Columbus 78 Newark 76 Reading 75 Minneapolis 75 Louisville 74 Toledo 72 Brooklyn 72 St. Louis 72 IndianapoliB 71 Kansas City 71 Syracuse 68 Lowell 66 Uochcster .... 66 Cambridge 64 Trenton 62 San Franciseo.., 61 St. Paul 60 Worcester 59 Providence 48 Dayton 47 New Orleans .37 Atlanta 36 Kail River 29 (!rand Rapids (Co.) Grand Rapids (Pub. ) S(Tanton (Two Co.'s) Albany Denver (Two Co.'s) Ui o 28 1 11 2 84 3 15 4 14 5 13 6 38 7 13 8 2 9 35 11) 3 11 49 12 36 13 46 14 43 15 44 16 9 17 16 18 10 19 19 20 7 21 21 21 6 22 1 23 30 24 17 25 48 26 18 26 2!) 27 33 28 4 28 5 28 27 29 24 29 31 30 37 31 22 31 41 32 50 33 8 34 23 35 32 36 25 37 45 38 12 39 42 40 40 41 47 47 39 2<) 26 Cities arranged in order of Taps metered, least to greatest. small 0.8 0.2 0.3 small small 3.9 3.7 0.2 4.1 31.9 5.8 1.2 1 19 4 5 20.2 6.4 2.4 0.1 6.3 5.9 9.4 2.5 8.2 7.6 17.6 14.6 22.9 11.4 2.4 small 41.4 4.2 89.4 62.4 3.8 0.4 89.6 74.6 15 12 SS 7 6.3 7 9 5.1 6.5 8.2 14.9 6.1 ii!8 10.5 11.9 5 8.5 11.1 8.7 '5.8 24 6.6 13.9 11.5 8.6 5.8 16.5 11 9 18.6 8.7 11.8 35.6 15.3 21.5 9.2 5.4 6.6 6 9.9 12.7 8.9 9.4 20.1 54 20 14.9 0.4 6.2 Rank in: x ^i o 2- a a ^ * . o c3 .J £ S"2 -Si gS BS -So I. S c— = Allegheny 2.38 7 C Camden small 131 .... I Paterson small 128 118 1 Trenton small 62 6 [ I'ittsburg (Co.) small 1.53 8.2 Reading 0.1 75 5 8 Baltimore 0.1 94 5.8 Fitt-burg (Pub.) 0.2 144 .... Buff;ilo 0.2 186 6.3 Wilmington 0.2 113 5 Philadelphia 0.3 132 6.1 Washington 0.3 158 6.5 New Orleans 0.4 37 54 Albany 0.4 6.2 Na>hville 0.8 146 14.9 ♦Denver 0.8 Jersey City 1.2 97 Richmond 1.4 167 7.9 Detroit 2.1 161 8.7 Cambridge 2.4 64 6.6 Newark 2.4 76 8.6 Brooklyn 2.5 72 8.7 Memphis 3.7 124 11.9 Dayton 3.8 47 20.1 Troy 3.9 125 11.5 Cincinnati 4.1 112 8.6 St. Paul 4.2 60 12.7 Boston 5 80 6.6 Cleveland 5.8 103 8.7 Louisville 5.9 74 119 Minneapolis 6.3 75 16 5 Columbus 6.4 78 11.5 Indianapolis 7.6 71 35.6 St. Louis 8.2 72 11.8 Toledo 9.4 72 18.6 Rochester 11.4 66 5.4 Grand Rapids (Pub.) 12 Syracuse 14.6 68 21.5 Grand Rapids (Co.) 15 Kansas City 17.6 71 15.3 Omaha 19.4 94 24 New York 20.2 79 13.9 Lowell 22.9 66 9.2 Milwaukee. 31.9 110 11.1 San Francisco 41.4 61 9.9 Providence 62.4 48 9.4 Fall River 74 6 29 14.9 Worcester 89.4 59 8.9 Atlanta 89.6 36 20 New Haven 135 Scrnnton Chicago 140 • Denver City Water Co. consumption, but the two columns sliowinj? percentag-e of taps metered and population per tap, Table 13C, should always be examined in this connection. Th(! riprht-hand half of Table 13C, showin"- cities arranj^cd in order of percentage of taps metered, least to greatest, illustrates the impor- 126 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. tauce of the water meter as a factor in cities having sewag-e purifica- tion plants.* The tendency of the per capita consumption of water to increase with the population is shown by Table 14, which gives the consump- tion for a few cities at scattering dates from 1860 to 1890. Table No. 14. — Increase in Daily Consumption op Water (Gallons per capita) IN A Number op Cities, f Year. Buffalo, Cincin- Cleveland, Detroit, Jersey Milwau- Trov, Toronto, Wilming- N. y. nati, 0. 0. Mich.t City, N. J. kee, Wis. N. y. Ont. ton, Del. 1860 30 14 52 77 1864 22 57 18fi8 25 67 1870 58 40 33 64 84 1874 60 55 45 87 86 Iii78 66 51 113 55 59 1880 105 75 65 125 106 58 65 80 1882 106 76 68 149 124 71 94 1884 130 82 144 106 134 95 96 1886 1^2 74 91 178 137 113 133 96 92 1888 153 107 210 1890 186 112 103 161 97 110 125 100 113 + From a Report on Additional Water Supply, Rochester, N. y. (1889), by A. Fteley and J. T. Fanning. Sup- plemented by figures from the Manual of American Water- Works for 1890-91. t See Table 14A. The increase in water consumption at Detroit from 1853 to 1892 is shown in detail by Table 14A, in which the consumption per family is the basis of comparison. The table also shows the effect of efforts to Table No. 14A. -Water Pumped per Family at Detroit, Mich., in Each op the 40 Years from 1853 to 1892, Inclusive.§ , — Water pumped Families Ti>tal Years. supi>lied. quantity. 1853 4.2S3 303.531.743 1854 4,619 376.265,126 1855 5.28-2 .542, 807. 364 1855 5.70K 692,124.305 1857 6,189 6»7.19()..523 1858 6,474 718.001.207 1859 . . . 6.794 782.112.n87 18K0 6.750 87(i,(l3(i.151 18fil 7,128 89.5.1 29,423 1862 7,275 90.|.iW5.829 lSti3 7,699 1.035.798.043 18fi4 7,993 1.01'.l.3«0.2.56 ]8(i5 8.351 1.040.514.887 1866 9,08'.» 1,196.317.922 1S()7 10,242 1,42.5,535.230 isr,8 11,544 1,666,545.125 18R9 12.774 1,046.810,325 1870 i:i,722 1.866,060.068 1871 14,896 2,300,150,605 1872.... 16.085 2,782.292.576 gals.-> Per family. 70.868 84.4.50 102.765 121,297 112.659 110.919 115.118 125,185 125.579 136.762 134,534 127,410 12.5.675 l:'1.622 139.184 144.364 152.400 136,000 154,414 173,513 Families Years. supplied. 1873 17,019 1874 18.853 1875 19.606 1876 20,102 1877 20.345 1878 20.603 1-79 21,341 1880 22.465 1881 23,749 1882 25.442 1883 27,415 1884 29.424 1885 30..533 1886 31.946 1887 34.486 1888 .36.863 188911 39.1.'S8 1890 41,467 1891 43,933 1892 46,400 .—Water pumped. Total quantity. 3,198.393.948 3.289.872.635 4.207,454.260 4,065,134.470 4.213.239.790 4,345,743.330 5.129.599.110 5..5.52,06:>,31U 6..54.3.127.9r,8 6,284.000.742 7.379 :;27.788 8.510.611.440 9 9T0,829..58O 10.576.571.2.54 13.168.8.59.808 14,380.166,670 12.875,334,453 12.120.944.532 12.0.57.261.236 12,276,612,482 gals.-> Per family. 187.930 174.511 214,660 202.225 207.090 210,927 240.348 247.183 270 722 243'062 260.170 289,260 .326.886 331,070 381.869 390,098 328.880 292.300 274.470 264.582 § This table is taken from the report for 1892 of L. N. Case, Secretary of the Detroit Water Commissioners. II Commenced metering. * Table 13C was originally designed to show the effect of meters upon the consumption of water, and is taken from the Introduction to the Manual of American Water-Works, for 1890-91, p. xxvii. This table, with a somewhat extended discussion of the ri'lation between the use of meters and water consumption, may be found in Eng. News, vol. xxvii., p. 63 (Jan. 16, 1892). NECESSITY FOR CONSIDERING FUTURE GROWTH. 127 reduce a highly excessive waste of water by the use of meters, which were introduced iii 1889, and not only at once lowered the total yearly water consumption, but also the consumption per family, so that the total yearly consumption, or pumpage, for 1892 was over two billion gallons, or some 14 per cent., less than in 1888, Necessity for Considering Future Growth. In designing sewage disposal works it will be necessary to take into account, the same as in designing the pipe system, the future growth of the town ; and by wa}' of indicating what is now taking place in this particular in the United States Tables 15 and 16, deiived from Census Bulletin No. 52,* are inserted. Table No 15. — In'cke.\se in Population in Ten Years in a Number of Cities and Towns of the United States with from 8,000 to 50,000 Inhabitants in 1890. Names of cities and towns. Population. Increase. Ib90. 1880. Numlier. Per cent. Adams, Mass 9,213 8.756 27.601 11,165 14,3:J9 25,228 11.28;i 10,294 30.337 9.798 17.:!.;6 10,741 9,431 9.998 11,869 8,.347 10,235 8.338 8,639 13,0.55 25.85-f 33.300 27.839 19,033 35.005 48.866 27,294 12,103 13.619 22.5119 15.. 353 17.303 17.004 37.:i71 .•!8,067 9,416 9.2.59 8.424 9,069 39.:i85 11.079 16,038 23.264 9.025 1.3,102 44,654 5..591 7,849 16.512 5.708 13,659 18.063 6,1,53 8,975 19.710 3,355 9.466 4,126 8.061 942 8,005 1.012 2,616 4.445 ti,U99 5.477 21,924 21,891 20.693 9.372 17,317 27,643 13.608 8,0.57 9,052 19.416 10.036 10.123 13.843 29,720 10,358 7,248 6,2-35 4,988 7.464 30,762 9.105 9.3.^7 11.657 5.651 8.319 39.151 3,622 907 11,089 5.4,57 680 7.165 5,1.30 1.319 10,627 6,443 7,870 6.615 1,370 9,056 3.864 7.3.35 7.619 .3.893 2,540 7,578 3,934 11.409 7,146 9,661 I7,«i88 21.223 13.686 4.046 4.. 567 3.093 ,5,317 7.18) 3.161 7,651 27,709 2,168 3,004 3.436 l.tK)5 8,623 1,974 6,681 ]1,M17 3,:W4 4.783 5,503 64.78 Adrian, Mich Akron, 11.56 67 16 95.60 4.98 AUentown, Pa 39 67 Alpena, Mich 83.37 Altim, 111 14.70 Altoimi, P.a 53 92 192.04 Am';tenl;im, N. y Anders'>n, Ind Ann Arbor, Midi 83.14 160.32 17 00 961 36 48 27 724.80 Asheville, N. C 291 .25 Ashtabula, O 87.58 41.65 Atlantic Citv. N. J 138 .36 17 94 52.12 Buy City, Mich 34 53 103.08 Bintrhamton, N. Y Bridi^eport. ('onn 102.14 76.78 100.57 Br.iokline, Mass Clinton, la .50.22 .50.45 Cohoe^, N. Y Columbia, S. C 15.93 5-.' 9S 7(1 93 Concord. N H 2> tKi 25.74 Dall.-is. Tp^ 267. 51 Dunkirk, N. Y 29.91 48.18 Gardner. M.isi (irccn Hnv, Wis 68.89 21 50 Hiirri^buri;, Pa , . . . Ithaca. N. Y 28.03 21.68 .lami-itiiwii, N Y 71.40 Joliei. Ill 99.57 Kankakee. Ill Lnnsinir. Mieh 59.71 57.49 14.06 * Urban Populations in 1.890. April 17, 181>1. 128 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 16. — Inckease in Population in Ten Years in Cities of the United States of over 50,000 Inhabitants in 1890. Name of city. Population. Allegheny, Pa Atlanta, Ga Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass Brooklvn, N. Y Bufifalo. N. Y Cainbiidge. Mass . . . Caiiuten, N. J Charleston, S. C Chicatio, 111 Cincinnati, O Cleveland, O Columbus, O Dayton, O iJenver, Col Des Moines, la Detroit, Mich Evansville. Ind Fall River, Mass . . . Grand Rapiiis, Mich Hartford, Conn Indianapolis, Ind. .. Jersey City, N. J.. . Kansas City, Mo Lincoln, Neb Los Angeles, Cal Louisville, Ky Lowell, Mass Lynn, Mass Memphis, Tenn Milwaukee, Wis Minneapolis, Minn. . Newark, N, J New Haven. Conn.. New Orleans. La . . . New York, N. Y Omaha, Neb Paterson, N. J Philadelphia, Pa Pittsburg. Pa Providence, R. I Reading, Pa Richmond, Va Rochester, N. Y St. Joseph, Mo St. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn San Francisco, Cal. Scranton, Pa Syracuse. N. Y Toledo, O Trenton, N. J Troy. N. Y Washington, D. C. . Wilmington, Del Worcester, Mass . . 1S90. 105,287 65,5.33 434,439 448,477 806,343 255,664 70,028 58,313 54,055 ,099,850 296,908 261,353 88,150 61,220 106,713 50,093 205,876 50,756 74,398 60.278 5:12.30 10.5,436 163,003 132,716* 55,154 50,395 161,12!t 77.696 55,727 64,495 204,468 164,738 181,830 81,298 242,039 ,515,301 140,452 78,347 .046,964 238,617 132,146 58,661 81,-388 1.3.3.S96 52,324 451,770 133.156 298,997 75,215 88,143 81.434 57.4.58 60.9,56 230,.392 61,431 84,655 1880. 78,682 37.409 332,313 362.839 566.663 1.^5,134 52,669 41.659 49.984 503,185 255,1.39 160,146 51,647 38.678 35.629 22,408 116,340 29.280 48,961 32.016 42,015 75.056 120,722 55,785 1.3,003 11,183 123.758 59.475 .38,274 33,592 115,587 46.887 136,.508 62,a^2 216,090 1,206.299 .30,518 51,031 847,170 156,389 104,857 43,278 63.600 89, .366 .32.431 350,518 41.473 233,959 45,850 51,792 50,1.37 29.910 ,56,747 177,624 42,478 58,291 Increase. Numbers. 26,605 28,124 10>.126 85,6KS 239,680 100,530 17,359 16,6.-4 4.971 596,665 41,769 101.207 36,503 22,542 71,084 27,685 89,536 21,476 25,437 28,262 11,215 30,.3S0 42,281 76,931 42,151 39,212 37.371 18,221 17.453 30,903 88,881 117.851 45,322 18.416 25.949 309,002 109,934 27,316 199.794 82,228 27,289 ]5,.38:i 17,788 44.530 19.893 101,252 91.683 65,038 29,.365 36,351 31,297 27,548 4,209 52,768 18,953 26,.361 .33.81 75.18 30.73 23.60 42.30 64.80 32.06 .39.98 9.95 118.58 16.37 63 20 70.68 58.28 199.51 123.55 76.96 73.35 51.95 88.27 26.69 40.48 .35.02 1.37.91 324.16 350.64 30.20 30.64 45 60 92 00 76.90 251 .35 33.20 29.29 12 01 25 62 .360.23 53 .53 23.58 52 58 26.02 35.54 27.97 49.83 61.34 28.89 221 .07 27 80 64 05 70.19 62.42 92 10 7.42 29 71 44.62 45.83 • Includes 13,048 population, which by recent decision of Missouri State Supreme Court, is now outside the limits of Kansas City. Table No. 15, of cities and towns with populations ranging- from 8,000 to 50,000 in 1890, includes onlj^ a portion of those given in the complete list in Census Bulletin No. 52. Only enough have been selected to indicate in a perspicuous manner the rapid increase of population in such towns at the present time. An analysis of the complete list in the Bulletin shows that of the total number of TO DETERMINE THE LAW OF INCREASE OF POPULATION. 129 nearly 400 such towns about 25 per cent. liav,c more than doubled in population in the last decade. Moreover, the towns showing this Irt-rg-e increase are situated in all parts of the country, many of them being- in the older settled States, where it might be considered that fixed conditions are mostly attained. In the" same way it is found that a considerable number of towns of the class indicated have increased in the period from 50 to 100 per cent. If we examine the list of cities of over 50,000 population in 1890, we find that of the 56 which are listed in Table No. 16, only 14 per cent, exhibit an increase of more than 100 per cent., likewise the number increasing from 50 to 100 per cent, is proportionately smaller than in the class of towns illustrated in Table No. 15. How TO Determine the Law or Increase of Population. Various attempts have been made to elucidate the law governing increase of population in towns, but thus far none of them can be considered wholly satisfactory. The problem presents itself with new features in nearly every town, and the decision of what the popu- lation may be at any future period becomes largely a matter of judgment, based upon the special conditions. To assist the judgment, the census returns for each ten-year period may be tabulated as in Tables No. 17 and 18 following : Table No. 17.— Population of a Number of the Smaller Cities and Towns of THE United States at Each Ten-Year Period from 1800 to 1890. Population. Name. lifOO 4,971 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 13..570 lo.om; 1880. 1890. 7,227 8,218 8,241 8,459 8,734 3,266 12.fi.52 3,477 1:3,659 16.512 14,-^39 Akron, 27.600 Aubnrn, N. Y 9,548 10,986 17,22.'-. 21,924 25,858 Augti-ita, Ga 6,403 10,217 12,493 15,3.s9 21,^91 33,:500 Bay City. Mich 1,51S3 7.0(i4 20,693 27,8:59 Burlington, Vt 815 l,(i9(l 2.111 3,525 4,271 7, .585 7,713 14.387 11.365 14.590 Binghamton. N. Y 8,325 12,692 17.317 :3o,005 Chflsea, Mas« 2,.390 6,70i 13.395 18.54: 21.782 27,909 957 1.056 657 817 1,790 l.K(i7 4,229 4.6:^1 8,800 9.485 15,:«7 14.997 19.416 20.226 Oohoes. N. Y 22,. 509 Dallas'. 'Vox 10.:558 .38 067 Dov.T, N. H 5>,0H2 3,18(1 1,39(1 2.228 3,fi06 1.5t;«? 2,»71 3,873 l,73(i ... )4i* 4.331 2,169 6.4.58 4.. 504 2,()04 8.196 5,964 5,120 8,502 7.234 7,81)5 9.294 8.7.53 11.260 11,687 1 1 ,66« 12.790 Daiiburv, Conn l(i.552 FitchbuTL', Maiw 12.429! ■i'ism Hamilton, O 3,210 7.2.W ll.Of^l 12.122 ]7,.5f.5 .lack-ionvilli'. Fa 1,045 2,118 6.912 ^e.'iO! ,7 .^)oi Lanr ister. I'a 4.292 5.405 6,633 7,704 6,417 12,-369 17.603 20,233 2.5,769; ;«.01l Mulilen, Mass 1,059 l,:«M 1.731 2,l'l(i 2,51-1 3..520 5.^65 7..370 12,017, 2.3.031 M inche>t.!r, N. H 761 Kr7 3.23?> 13.932 20.107 2:5,536 .32.(30 44.126 Norrislown. Pa 827 1.089 2,937 6,02-1 s,S48 10.7.5.3 13.063 l!t,791 KHi 413 ' 2,5:59 715 2,937 4,247 5.Wt5 6,140 10,046 (i.154 15.0S7 S.107 20.4-33 24,918 Slenln-nvillo, 12.093 i:j,:w4 San Antonio, Tex 3.48.^ 8.235 12.256 20.5.50 37,673 Wilkesbarre, Pa SS5 131 1,226 :j44 024 2,232 1.718 1,363 2.723 1,615 4.2.S3 6,664 10.174 16,0.30 2:5,:«9| :57,718 18,9341 27.132 1 130 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX IIIK CMTED STATES. Table No. 18. — Population of a Numbeii of the Largest Cities of the United States at Each Ten-Yeak Period prom 1800 to 1890. Population. Baltimore. Md 2ti,514 Boston, Mass 24.93' Brooklyn. N. Y 2,3TS Buffalo, N. Y. . Chicago, 111 Cincinnati, O. . Cleveland, O Detroit, Mich New York, N. Y 60,515 Philadelphia. Pa Rochester, N. Y . . St. Louis, Mo. . . . Washington, D. C. Worcester, Mass.. 41,220 3,210 2,411 1810. 46,555 33,250 4,402 2,540 1820. 62,738 43,298 7,175 96.373 53,722 9,642 606 1,422 123,706 63,802 1830. 80,620 61,393 12,406 8,668 1840. 1850. 1860. 8.208 2,577 10,049 13,247 2,962 24.831 1.876 2,222 197,112 80,462 9,207 14.125 18,826 4,17;; 102, .31 3 93,383 •36,233 18,213 4,470 46,338 6,071 9,102 312,710 93,665 20.191 16,469 23,364 7.497 169,054 136,881 96,838 42.261 29,963 115,435 17,034 21,019 515,54 121.376 .36,403 77,860 40,C01 17,049 212,418 177.840 266.661 81,129 112.172 161.014 43.417 45,61'.l 805.6,58 565,529 48,2114 160.773 61,122 24,96U 1870. 267,354 250.526 396.(199 117.714 298.977 216,2.i9 92.829 79.577 942,292 671.022 62,386 .310,8(i4 109,199 41,105 1880. 1890. 332,313 362. a39 566.663 155,134 5U3,1^5 ■-'.5.5,139 160,146 116,34(1 1,206.299 847.170 ^9.363| S50,.518 177,6241 58,291 434.43» 448,477 8(16,343 255 664 1.099,8.50 296.908 2til ,353 205,876 1,515..;01 1,046,964 r«,896 457.770 230,392 84,655 By plotting" the series for any given town, the population curve is approximately determined. With the census record complete from 1800 to 1890, this curve may be usually projected from 10 to 20 years ahead with considerable probability of deducing results accurate enough to assist an engineer in determining what provision for future population may be reasonably made in designing works at any given place.* Fig. 5, derived from the Preliminary Report of the Chicago Drain- age Commission, illustrates the practical utility of such a method. 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 2.500.000 Z.OO0.00O 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 I8S0 I860 1870 1880 i890 1900 1910 1920 1930 Fjg. 5. — Diagram Illustrating the Rate of Growth op City Populations. * For an excellent example of the analytical method of treating such a problem, see a Report on an Additional Water Supply for Boston, by Joseph P. Davis, city engineer. City Documents, No. 29, 1874. Mr. Davis there forecasts the population of Boston in 1890 as about 423,000 ; the census returns show it to be 448,477, while in 1870, the last return available at the time of mak- ing the computation, the population was 2.50,.526. THE INFILTRATIOX OF GROUND WATER. 131 Generalizations. The tabulations here submitted, although hardly exhaustive, are sufficient to indicate how one may proceed in deducing the future population as the basis of rational design of permanent public works. As a rapid generalization, subject to exception in many cases, we may say : (1) That in American towns under 50,000 population, the present rate of increase may be taken at about 100 per cent, in from 15 to 20 years. (2) That in the larger towns the increase will be say 50 per cent, in the same time. In connection with these generalizations, it is again strongly insisted that special studies in detail are required in each case. Cause of Variations in Quantity of Sewage. The foregoing Tables 13 to 13C showing the daily Avater consump- tion per capita, may be considered as affording an approximate indi- cation of the jjrobable diy-weather flow of sewage projDer in the several towns, except that varying proportions of the population supiDlied with public water also enjoy sewer connections. Variations in quan- tity from the tabulated indications will be due chiefly, in addition to the above, to (1) infiltration of drainage water, and (2) to leakage from the sewers, both of which may be expected to frequently take place. Of these two sources of variation infiltration w411 operate the most disastrously upon the success of disposal works, while leakage from the sewers, with its consequent pollution of the subsoil water, may injuriously affect the public health. The Infiltration of Ground TVater. In reference to the amount of ground water likely to find its way into sewers definite information is rather sciinty. In Boston, accord- ing to a discussion by Frederick P. Stearns, M. Am. Soc. C. E., chief engineer of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, the amount of ground water finding its way into the sewers of the main drainage system is about 45 gallons per inhalntant per day. The question of infiltration into the sewers of Boston and also into separate sewer systems from which storm water is excluded, is discussed at some length by Mr. Stearns, and it is sufficient for present illustration to merely point out the more iiiqiortant facts of the discussion.* It may be remembered, however, that many of the * Special Report by Frndorick P. Stearns, chief enirineor, in Report of State Hoard of Health upon the Sewage of the Mystic and Charles River Valleys, pp. '.)U-%. 132 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. older sewers of Boston are of such open construction as to admit of relatively larg-e infiltration of ground water. Some of them, more- over, follow the threads of old water-courses, which further leads to large contributions of ground water. At East Orange, New Jersey, a separate system of sewers was carried out in 1886-88. In the latter part of November, 1893, there were about 33 miles of sewers in use, with 1,685 house connections. Many of the sewers are laid at such depths as to be over 20 feet below the level of the ground water. At a number of points quicksand was unex- pectedly encountered, and the necessity for using about 4,000 feet of brick sewer on account of size required at the most unfavorable loca- tions for making tight work, still further complicated the problem. The infiltration, as measured before any house connections w^ere in use, was, for the vitrified-tile sewers (25 miles completed at the time of the measurement), 2.5 gallons per second ; for the brick sewer, 5 gallons per second, the total infiltration amounting at these rates to 650,000 gallons per day. The flush-tank flow is estimated at 30,000 gallons per day, and the house- sewage flow from a contributing population of nearly 15,000 at 620,000 gallons per day. The infiltration is thus found to be 50 per cent, of the total quantity. Since the above measure- ments and estimates were made it is stated that the infiltration of ground water lias been decreasing. Sewage disposal works are in use in connection with this system of sewers, and we will further consider the eifect of this amount of ground water in describing the methods of disposal used at East Orange in Part 11.* Concluding this part of the subject, it may be noted that the results obtained under the extremely unfavorable conditions existing at East Orange of a leakage of only 2.5 gallons per second (216,000 gallons in 24 hours) from 25 miles of vitrified tile sewers, with 66,000 joints, is indicative that, under favorable conditions and with careful workman- ship, a system of such sewers may be made nearly impervious, though in designing disposal works it will probably be safe to allow for an infiltration of perhaps 15 per cent, of the flow of sewage proper. Provision for Eainfall in Combined System. Where combined systems are in use it will be necessary in design- ing sewage disposal works, to provide furthei for a certain propor- tion of the rainfall, and just what proportion will be provided for must depend upon a number of considerations, as for instance : (1) T^Tiether tlie outfall sewers are, or can be arranged with refer- * See paper on Inland Sewage Disposal, with Special Reference to the East Orange, N. J., Works, by Carroll Ph. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C. E., in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. xxv., p. 125. Mr. Bassett was engineer of the works at East Orange. PROVISION FOR RAINFALL IN COMBINED SYSTEM. 133 ence to storm overflows, and if so arranged whether any portion of the storm water will go to the disposal works. (2) If any proportion of the storm water is to go to the disposal works, then what proportion. (3) The proportion of the total of any given rainfall which is likely to reach the sewers, the amount reaching them depending upon the slope of the area drained, and its relative imperviousness, as whether fully built up and paved. It thus appears that when the rainfall is taken into account, the disposal problem is considerably complicated, and aside from the modifying circumstances pointed out in the chapter on The Infectious Diseases of Animals, the conclusion is reached that when some form of purification is to be provided, a separate system of sewerage appears preferable to the combined system by reason of not only the greater ease with which the more uniform flow of the separate system can be treated, but also by reason of the materially reduced expense of such treatment. We will consider briefly the efi'ect on the cost of sewage disposal works of actually providing for treating the whole of that portion of the rainfall which runs oif into the sewers of a combined system as well as the sewage proper. In the first place, it may be assumed that a considerable increase in capacity of disposal works would become inevitable in order to treat the rainfall, whatever the method of purification. Again, in order to prevent too great increase in capacity of disposal works, storage for the storm flow would naturally be provided with a view to extending the time of treatment of the excess flow of storms as much as possible. "Without going into a discussion of the elements of the special problem of the ])roporti()nate amount of drainage which may be expected from the partially imi)ervious areas of large northern towns, we will assume as sufticient for an illustration that 50 per cent, of a 24:-hour rainfall may be expected to run off immediately ; and that in towns with com- bined sewerage systems a treatment of the whole flow, including the rainfall, would require the provision of storage for nearly one-half of the greatest rainfall which can be expected in 24 .hours. This large allowance will only provide for a summer rainfall, and a winter rain may occur when the whole area is imiicn-vious from the eftect of frost ; if such a rain occurs when the ground is further covered with snow we may have, because of melting of the snow, an amoitnt of water flowing from a givcni area even greater than the total rainfall for the assumed unit of time of 24 hours. A provision of storage for 50 per cent, of the largest 24-hour rainfall must, therefore, be considered conservative for our northern climates. In the South, with moderate winters of little or no snow, we may take the percentage flowing off as somewhat 134 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. less, say at 40 per cent. Southern towns, too, are built with more open space than northern, from which it follows that the impervious area is relatively less in proportion to the Avliole area, whence we de- rive another reason for using- a smaller per cent. Assuming' a town with an area of 5,000 acres and maximum 24-hour rainfall of 2 inches, the storage required would be 130,000,000 gallons. If we apply these figures to larg-er areas we find that in the great cities the quantity of water derived from the rainfall is so great that Table No. 19. — Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1871 to 1892, Inclusive.* (From 8 p. M. to S p. M.) Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec . Year. 1871 2.50 .21 1.49 .84 .43 1.90 1.18 .8:! .82 .87 .71 .14 .88 .80 .71 1.18 .85 .87 1.00 1.23 1.3H 2 50 .78 .12 .Oti .80 .45 1.07 .Ofi 1.7t) .69 .99 1.01 1.06 .91 .82 .12 .48 .84 .15 .36 .72 .47 .75 1.76 .50 .16 .88 1.04 .48 .85 .88 .75 .25 .72 1.79 .61 .06 .64 .09 .99 1.00 .50 ..32 .64 .88 .74 1.79 1.70 .42 .62 1.68 1.03 1.85 2.92 1.55 1.58 1.26 .21 .45 .26 1.05 1.02 .86 .52 1.05 .80 1.05 2.00 .76 2.92 1.10 .67 1 00 1.17 2.70 1.82 .36 1.06 .80 1.19 1.88 .71 .95 .34 .19 .94 .75 ..58 1 20 1.25 1.14 1..55 2.70 1.02 1.43 .74 1..39 2.14 .84 1.42 1.28 .98 1..56 1.07 1..36 .49 2.08 1.81 .99 .28 .94 1.94 1.07 2.58 1.04 2.14 1.06 .90 .77 1..% .86 2.10 .98 .94 1.07 .81 1.82 .66 1.17 1.44 .85 .85 2.98 1.25 1.01 1.07 1.44 .61 2.98 .91 .80 2.08 .57 .87 2.71 1.63 ..32 1.30 .65 .49 2.17 .16 .41 2.09 1.95 .82 1.00 . 52 .88 1.01 2.52 2.71 .16 8.74 1.24 1.27 1.85 .77 .26 1.48 .84 .86 .70 .63 .89 1.29 1.74 .68 1.14 .88 .32 .30 .14 1.20 3.74 1.45 .22 .72 1.52 .83 .54 1.09 1.25 1.05 .17 1.61 .79 .67 .48 .81 1.25 .89 .51 .20 .46 .98 .92 1.52 1.15 1.05 .99 1.06 .34 1.80 .!f3 .86 .87 .47 .44 .45 .75 .54 .88 .47 .82 .36 .68 l!37 .49 1.80 1.41 .21 .f8 .48 1.13 .81 1.04 .22 .59 .20 ..5(i .41 .81 .72 .72 .37 .82 1.18 .45 .16 .65 L41 2..50 1S72 .■;.74 1878 2.03 1874 1 63 1M7.5 187f) 2.70 2 71 1877 ... 2.92 1S78 1879 1880 1881 1.76 1 58 1 56 1.79 1882 1888 2.17 1.17 1884 1885 1886 2.(8 2.0'.^ 1 95 18N7. ... 1888 , 2.98 1.25 188S 1.94 189U 1891 1.25 2.53 1892 2.52 8.74 * Amounts are expressed in inches. Table No. 20. — Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hours at Detroit, Michigan, 1871 to 1892, Inclusive. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 1..55 .22 ..36 .60 .43 .86 1.57 119 1.16 1(14 1 15 .37 .bl .68 .63 .99 1.46 1.46 .80 1.51 1.43 1.15 1.57 Dec. Year. 1871 .85 .68 1.61 1.81 .22 .47 .47 1.48 .37 .54 .66 .58 .43 ..35 .58 .45 .31 .50 .39 .95 .58 .42 1.61 1.25 .81 .11 .56 .60 2.41 .02 .60 .42 .25 1.17 .66 1.12 .55 .68 .34 1.24 .70 .24 .55 1.32 .52 2.41 1.05 .46 .40 .82 1.25 1.15 1.13 .49 .35 1.85 .93 .93 .75 .41 .24 .47 .49 .77 .83 .47 l.UO .78 1.25 .72 .42 1.72 .63 ..56 .69 1.22 .97 .48 1.57 .75 .45 .61 .41 .75 2.41 .58 .71 .46 88 1.10 .71 2.41 1.09 2.06 .89 1.00 2.12 1.65 .34 .96 1.78 1.61 l.(!9 1.68 1.20 .54 1.28 .76 1.02 .60 2. .57 1..50 .52 2.22 2.57 1.05 1.27 .55 1.87 1.39 .38 1..85 1.16 1.03 1.66 1 62 .99 .68 .81 1.08 .69 1..51 .70 124 .99 .82 3.. 39 3.39 .21 .58 1.00 .76 1.44 1.68 .87 2.48 2.05 1.68 2.25 ..53 1.31 1.35 .84 2. .31 .66 1.27 .62 .94 1.(14 1.07 2.48 .41 1.06 .05 .89 1.88 1.09 2 02 1.08 .60 1.20 1 10 1.06 .26 .86 1.16 .54 1.06 4.42 .10 2.72 .83 1.P9 4.42 .60 .81 .96 .25 1.31 .46 .12 .98 .3.21 2.08 1.38 .86 .53 .67 .65 .94 1.18 .68 ..37 .67 .97 2 75 3.21 .46 .40 .86 .43 1.05 .90 2 02 1.08 .34 ].:0 1.95 .82 ..51 .91 ..33 ..34 ..50 .67 .61 1.29 1.19 .16 2.02 1.00 .22 1.58 .25 1.01 .54 .30 1..35 1.09 .24 1.15 .42 ..55 .63 1.04 .60 .71 .58 .88 .58 .54 .42 1.58 1.5.5- 1872 2.06 1873 1.72 1-74 1875 1.87 2.12 1876 2.41 1877 2.02 1878 2.48 1879 1880 3.21 2 08 1.^81 2.25 1882 1883 1884 . . ■. 1.68 1.31 1.35 1885 1 28 1886 2.41 1887 1.51 1888 4.42 1889 2.57 1890 1891 1892 Period 2.72 1.43 3.39 4.42 PROVISION FOR KAINFALL IX COMBINED SYSTEM. 135 to liold it in storag"e and treat it becomes a practical impossibility. As a compromise, then, we could only hope to provide for treating the first flow of rain water, which, as contaiiiing the bulk of the street washing's, may be looked upon as the most important. In this view we would provide for perhaps 5 to 10 per cent, of the maximum 24- hours rainfall. In order to illustrate this phase of the question, several tables of maximum rainfalls in different parts of the countr}' are included. Table No. 21. — Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Houks at Cleveland, Ohio, 1871 to 1892, Inclusive. Year 1871 1872 1878 Ib74 187.T 1876 1877 1878 1879 18«0 1S81 1882... , ... 188:j 1884 ISa'i lS8fi 1887 18S8 188i> 1890 1891 1892 Period .Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. ; June. July. Aug .1(5 lOi 1.20 .24 .64 .(10 .27 .27 .59 .91 48 .78 .66 1.23 1.00 ..54 l.:« .38 .36 .66 .45 .26 .91 .61 1.06 .27 l.fi6 .65 .43 2.10 80 .07 1.32 1.04 .25 HR .55 1.13 .70 .82 71 .64 .59 .58 ..54 59 1..32 1.08 1.06 1.01 91 .72 .53 .42 .16 74 .87 1.08 .70 1.04 49 3.62 .34 .65 1.40 .S9 1.22 .35 .71 1.:^ 44 .57 .24 .85 1.16 89 .46 .43 .74 .36 .30 1.46 .77 .73 .94 84 .54 .>6 .84 1.13 81 .27 1.42 .60 1.88 70 1.28 1.02 .58 1.16 74 1.45 .75 .29 1.58 73 .71 1.23 .79 1.70 85 3.62 1.42 1.23 2.10 1.55 1 26 211 1.65 1.26 1.28 1.34 .44 .90 1.86 3.01 1.89 .93 2.28 2.12 .27 .58 1.00 .43 1.43 1.S9 1.17 3.01 1.19 2.32 >5 2.13 .45 .69 1.05 2.46 2.69 2..51 .41 2. 06 .74 2.02 1.02 1.42 .46 1.38 1.30 1.65 .47 1.28 2.69 3.14 1.35 .75 1.28 1.55 145 2.59 1.34 2.59 .87 .12 .Sii 1.78 .82 1.14 .53 1.44 .87 .40 .90 1.21 1.41 3.14 Sept. Oct. .27 .28 1.00 .67 .66 .88 1.13 .34 1.87 .80 1..53 l.,56 1.40 1.39 2.30 1.23 .66 .45 .a5 .66 .97 2.45 2.09 .60 .95 1.41 I 1.2S ..50 .72 .78 ! 1.43 01) 1.21 .70 .66 .81 .84 .70 1.95 .84 1.37 .57 .78 .27 1 2..30 2.45 Nov. Dec. Year. 1.05 .30 .46 .53 1.00 .59 .91 .72 .74 1.36 1.41 .44 1.07 .50 1.49 1.39 .84 .84 .80 .97 2.19 .85 2.19 .55 .52 1.87 1.09 .66 .73 .45 3.14 2..32 2.1! 1.65 1.87 1.66 2.59 .70 I 2.4fi .86 2.69 .31 1.22 .91 .44 .30 .67 .91 .57 .26 .54 .33 .75 .33 1.87 2.51 3.01 2. (19 3.62 2. (.2 2.13 1.43 1.46 •].:!8 1.88 1.95 2.19 1.70 3.63 Table No. 22. —Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 IIouus at Rochesteii, New York, 1873 TO 1892, Inclusive. 1872... 1.S73 .. 1874... 1875 . . 1876... 1877 .. 187.S... 1879 .. 18S0 .. 1S81 . . . 1882... isa3 .. lasj... ]8>5... 1886... 1887... 1888... 1889... IMtO... IWII . . . 1892. . feriod. .58 .91 .43 1.46 .22 1.45 .91 1..37 .76 .49 .45 .33 .52 .81 1..57 .30 .40 .81 1.3(1 .59 1.57 .67 2. 01 .53 .93 .97 .67 1.56 .57 ..38 1.52 .53 .68 1.(19 .18 .79 .26 .54 .58 .67 1.25 .68 2.01 April. .50 1.15 1.31 .55 .42 1.05 .85 .21 .58 .60 .51 .48 .55 1.48 1.80 1.40 .32 1.18 .75 ..56 .34 1.80 May. June. .44 2.28 .86 .62 1.02 1.16 ..58 .69 .45 1.67 .70 .69 .71 .65 .62 1.29 1.77 .46 1.30 .68 1.06 .88 1 92 1.00 1.80 ..55 1.67 .76 1 56 .68 .42 .40 1.66 1.92 1.49 1.32 .74 .47 1.04 1.34 2.00 1.92 228 July. Aug. .79 2.10 1.75 .69 .90 2.05 1.14 1.27 .75 .79 .44 1.87 1.29 .25 .73 .54 .92 .m 1.42 2.10 2.10 .59 1.16 .26 1.90 .25 1.13 1.14 2.65 1.75 .69 1.07 .92 .65 3.:^4 .56 1.20 .63 .48 .70 1 .32 3.34 Sept. ■ Oct ..55 1.45 .90 1.29 1.30 .73 .30 .82 .88 .a3 .47 .92 .84 .83 I .29 I .80 ! .78 I 2.10 .39 I .38 I 2.10 1.74 3.77 .62 .78 .21 95 2. 3 J .25 l.!H) .61 .39 .55 1.03 r2 .70 I .34 I .68 I 1.82 1 1.07 1..52 .34 8.77 Nov. Dec. ..'6 .70 1 .76 .98 1 .53 .49 .68 .59 1 .99 .31 ! 1.15 .92 I 1.87 1.64 1.46 .67 .76 .46 . •:^: I ."6 .63 .44 .51 1.15 .27 .46 1.37 2.26 .(iS .90 2.26 ■^8 .30 .48 ..52 .73 ..58 .52 .59 .4S ..57 .itO .32 1.64 2.28 2.10 1.75 1.90 1.67 2.05 2.34 2.65 1 '.«) 1..52 1.07 l'..S7 1.67 3.34 1..57 1.66 1.92 2.26 1..52 2.10 3.34 136 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE TNITED STATES. Table No. 23.— Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Houusat Cincinnati, Ohio, 1871 to 1893, Inclusive. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. 2.00 .88 1.39 .57 2.03 1.89 .!tO 1.22 2.(i8 1.88 .29 2.01 .76 .87 2.69 1.17 .94 2.46 .13 2.66 .81 1.07 2.68 Sept. Got. Nov. Dec. Year. 1871 .60 .55 .58 1.20 ,57 2.95 1.09 1.01 .66 1.16 1.27 1.16 .78 .49 1.69 .99 .77 .72 .as i.;i3 1.31 1.62 2.95 2.00 .55 1..53 2.73 .m .66 .39 .59 .95 1.81 1.50 2.27 1.96 2.50 1.39 .55 2.98 .50 .60 1.24 1.18 2.83 2.83 1.40 .65 .55 1.47 1.U2 1.04 2.13 1.83 1.70 1.39 .54 2.54 1.73 .81 .18 .70 .88 1.27 .36 1.06 1.21 .53 2.54 .80 1.73 .61 1.06 1.00 1.90 .67 1.19 .72 1.93 .89 .56 1.32 1.02 .86 ..58 2.21 .88 .98 1.09 .44 178 2.21 .50 1.36 .95 .60 1.41 .38 .49 .86 2.98 2.18 1.21 2.47 1.76 1.43 .45 1.28 1.00 1.06 1.54 1.16 .54 l.M 2.98 DO data 1.58 .65 .82 1.13 1.51 1..39 2.06 2.05 3.12 1.90 1.26 .97 .69 .78 1.6S 1.79 .57 1.14 1.55 .96 .96 3.12 .90 1.81 .92 1.70 1.50 1.43 1.24 .94 .62 1.54 1.74 .91 .72 .61 .40 .88 .58 .97 2.40 1.16 2.43 .77 2.40 1.05 .93 1.12 1.14 .35 .61 .82 .63 1.75 .73 .'.14 .78 .91 1.31 1.25 M ..57 1.(1 1.50 1.00 1.57 2.02 2.02 .30 1.18 .80 .81 .81 2.64 .61 .57 .36 1.27 2.29 .78 3.06 .55 .58 .42 .37 .63 .95 1.25 .75 .17 3.06 1.85 .85 2.75 1.82 2.28 .70 .97 1.35 1.51 1 50 1.67 .46 2.93 .52 .92 1.39 .81 1..35 1.10 .80 1.59 .54 2.75 2.50 .85 2.75 1.07 1.68 .45 1.41 .90 1.93 3.10 1 60 1.10 2.60 1.27 .90 .71 .98 .45 .93 .72 .93 .m 3.10 1872 1873 1.81 2.75 1874 1875 1876 2.73 2.28 2.95 1877 1«78 2.13 2.06 1879 2.98 IbSO 3.12 1881 2.29 1S82 2.54 1883 1884 3.06 2.50 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 :s9(i 2.62 1.68 2.98 2.46 2.40 2.66 1891 2.43 1892 2.83 3.12 Table No. 24.— Heaviest Rainfalls in 24 Hochs at Atlanta, Georgia, 1879 to 1892, iNCLrsivE. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Ape May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1879 1.28 1.10 2..i5 1.23 4.03 1.87 1.56 2.62 1.05 1.24 1.16 1.08 1.61 3.28 4.03 1.75 2.10 2.98 1.69 .58 1.22 1.18 .33 .81 1.34 1.65 .98 1.53 1.28 2.98 1 25 1.71 3.89 1.66 .98 2.12 1-79 7..S6 .50 1.76 1.18 120 2.35 2.01 7.36 1.59 1.78 1.30 2.11 3.08 2.41 .44 1.2t .85 .63 1.26 .56 .83 3.19 3.19 1.42 2.Fi6 .57 .65 .99 .42 1.43 2.77 1.08 3.28 1.68 3.90 .96 .41 3.90 2.23 1.16 .85 1.45 .80 1.42 1.58 1.69 .65 1..S7 1.27 .43 1.93 2.59 2.59 1.27 1.14 .20 1.80 .46 .85 .98 1.13 3.51 .73 2.32 2.17 1.61 1.06 3.51 1.13 .95 1.54 1.05 .53 .84 4.22 .62 1.51 .90 1.^0 .76 .59 1.56 4.22 1.04 3.17 2.12 2.30 .38 .05 1.64 .34 1.86 3.00 2.00 2.07 .61 2.:?!' .3.17 1.48 .76 2.66 ..55 1.06 .39 1.38 .02 1 06 1.22 .68 2.01 .02 .34 2.(6 1.63 2.19 .95 1 49 1.89 .88 1.18 1.03 .16 1.80 1.21 .09 1.43 1.71 2.19 3.76 1..33 2.14 1.30 1.27 3.74 1.25 1.11 1.47 2.60 .41 1.65 .97 1.57 3.76 3.76 1880 1881 3.17 3.89 1882 2.. SO 188:3 4.03 1884 3 74 1885 1S86 4.23 7.36 1S87 3 51 1888 3.28 1889 2.32 1890 1891 3.90 2.35 1892 Period 3.28 7.36 The two following- tables, Nos. 25 and 26, sliow the actual length of iime of a number of heavy rainfalls at two jjlaces in the Southwest, "where very heavy rainfalls are common. Table No. 25. Dates. -Rainfalls in Excess of 2.5 Inches in 24 Hours at Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1872 to 1892, Inclusive. Duration. April 2, 3, 187-3. . . April 5. 6. 1872. . . May 23, 24, 1872 . Dec. IS, 19, 1872. April 8, 1874 April! 5. 1874 . April IS. 19. 1874. Julv 4. .5. 1S74 . . . Sept. 25, 1874 . . . .Ian. 2.3. 24, 1875. Marcn 31,1875... April 9. 10. 1875.. Sept. 17,18, 1875. From 5.40 p.m. 8.40 a.m. 3.54 p.m. 11.40 p.m. 5.30 a.m. 6 a.m. •S.POp.m. 5.(0 p.m. 4.15 p.m. 8..30 a.m. To 9.50 a.m 9.. 35 a.m. 1 p.m. 4.45 p.m. 6.1n p.m. 2.30 p.m. 4.30 p.m. 10.15 p.m. during night 4.00 p.m. 9.40 p.m 8..30 p.m. 2.15 p.m 7.45 a.m. 2.62 3.33 5. .36 5.05 4.46 4.18 4.86 2.73 2.95 3.76 3.26 2.63 4.99 Duration. Date.«. Nov. 28, 1880 Nov. 30. 1880 Dec. 1. 1880. . Dec. 19, 20. 1882. April 6, lSts3 N..V. 10 & 11, 1883 Nov. 22, 1883.... Dec. 29. .SO, 1883. Sept. 3. 1S84 Dec. 29, 1884 ... Jan. 15. 16, 1885. April, 6. 7, 1885.. April 27, 28, 1886. From To during night 10,04 p.m. during night> durine night/ .5.00 a.m. 12.30 a.m. 8.40 a.m. 3.45 p.m. during night 11. .30 p.m. . 12.50 a.m. 2..55 p.m. 11 p.m. 9.20 p.m. 1.45 p.m. 5.10 p.m. . 12.20 a.m. 1..30 p.m. . 5..S3 p.m. 8.30 p.m. 3.15 p.m. 7.00 a.m. . 7.20 a.m. 10.20 a.m. Amonnt. 2.93 2.92 3.78 4.25 4.79 4.02 4.51 2.69 4.07 3.68 4.29 2,79 THE OCCURRENCE OF MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW. 137 Table No. 25. — Continued. Duration. Dates. March 0. 1876. . . . May 7, 1876 Dec. 2:i, 24. 1876. April 7. 8, 1877... Oct. 17, 18. 1877.. Nov. 1. 1877 Nov. 7,8,1877... March 9, 1878 April 23, 1878 ... Sept. 1, i. 1879... May 3»i, 188U Oct. 4, 1880 Nov. 24, 25, 1880. From To 11.45 a.m. S.OO p.m. .during night 6.0U p.m. . 11.45 a.m. 10.00 a.m. . 8.10 a.m. . 11.15 p.m. . 4..35 p.m. . 3.35 p.m. . 8.30 a.m. . 2.15 p.m. . 8.25 a.m. .during night 9.45 p.m. during night 11.45 a.m . 7.20 a.m. 8 00 a.m. during night 9.40 p.m. 8.45 p.m. 7.35 a.m. 11.40 p.m. 12 midnight during night 2.84 3.40 3.70 3.53 2.97 2.50 2. as 4.46 2.63 .3.97 4.27 2.71 3.18 Dates. Feb. 19. 20, 1887 . . Sept. 14. 15, 1881.. Oct. 27, 28. 18S1... Nov. 11, 1881 March 3, 4, 1888... Aug. l!l, 20, 1888.. June 11, 12, 1889.. Jan. 15, 1890 March 11, 12, 1890. May 2, 3, 1890 March?, 8. 1891.. Nov. 21, 22, 1891.. Feb. 19,20,1892.... Duration. From To 12.50 p.m. during night during night 6.20 a.m. 10.30 a.m. 3.1U p.m. 12..30 p.m. 9.2.i p.m. 8.25 p.m. 8.00 p.m. 11.50 p.m. 4.10 p.m. Unknown 6..')0 a.m. 4.40 p.m. 10.30 p.m. 10.30 p.m. 5.30 p.m. 4, 30 p.m. during night during night Unknown Unknown Dates on which 1.00 inch or more of precipitation occurred in one hour or less. April 15. 1874 3.30 p.m. 6.15 p.m. 3.40 May 2:^, 1879 5 38 p.m. 6 55 p.m. 1.42 June 13. 1879 7.19 p.m. 8.15 p.m. 1..30 Oct. 2, 1879 5.25 p.m. 6.20 p.m. 1.25 Nov. 28, 1879 4.00 a.m. .5.20 a.m. 1.81 Aug. 17. 1880 3.30 p.m. 6.10 p.m. 2.22 Sept. 26. 1881 . July 17, 18S8 . May 2. 189C... Mav .3, IMIQ .. July 8, 1890... 3.45 p.m. 5.00 p.m. 5.45 p.m 11.30 .a.m. 3.50 p.m. 4.50 p.m. 6.16 p.m. 6.45 p.m. 12.30 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 2.53 3.85 6.95 3..32 2.82 2.75 2. .50 2..5:i 2.7* 3.42 6.47 4.28 2.70 1.31 1.38 1.20 1.00 1.12 Table No. 26.— Heaviest Rainfalls, With Actual Duration, at Shreveport, Louisiana, 1872 to 1891, Inclusive. Duration. Duration. Date. Amount. Date. Amounts From To From To Jan. 5. 1872... 9.30 a.m. during night. 3.19 Nov. 8. 1881 . . .During night 8.15 p.m. 2.50 .May 2-3. 1872.. . 11.35 p.m. 10.a5p.mT 24"* 3.21 Dec. 13, 1881.. . 5.20 p.m. 3.00 p.m. 14" 2.55 Oct. 28, 1872.. 8.05 p.m. 1.00 p.m. 29" 2.71 Dec. 19, 1881.. 7.15 a.m. 7.00 a.m. 20" 2.72 Dec. 1,5, 1872.. . 11.15 p.m. 8.15 a.m. 16" 2.,53 Feb. 2. 1882. . . . 4.30 p.m. 3.00 p.m 3" 3.12 Nov. 22, 1873 . 4.40 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 2-3" 4.10 July 18, 1882.. .During night 5.45 p.m. 2.8.? July 9, 1874. . . . 10.25 p.m. 11.50 a.m. 1(1" 3..;6 Oct. 17, 18S2.. . 11.00 p.m. 12.00 p.m. 18" 4.17 Aug. 9, 1875 6.27 a.m. 6.27 a.m. 10" 2.62 Nov. 10, 1883 . 8.00 a.m. 7.00 a.m 11" 4.83 Sept. 17, 1875. 2.00 a.m. 2.00 a.m. 18" 7.00 Mav 21. 1884.. . 10.10 p.m. 8.40 a.m. 22" 5.45 Dec. 21. 1875. . 10.50 p.m. 10.40 p.m. 2i" 4.66 Nov. 22. 1884 . . 7.12 a.m. 7.20 p.m. 3.13 Mar. 11. 1876. 2.30 p.m. 6.30 p.m. 2.81 Dec. 27, 1884.. 7.00 a.m. 7.00 a m. 28" 2.8.3 .Mar. 19. 1876 . . 10.00 a.m. 7.00 a.m. 20" 4.46 Dec. 28,1884.. 7.00 a.m. 7.00 a.m 29" 4.0S May 6. 1876. . . . 3.30 p.m. 12.00 noon 27" 7.37 Dec. 29,1884.. . 7.00 a.m. 7.0(1 a.m. 30" 3. 78 Sept. 3, 1877.. 8.30 p.m. 11.30 p.m. 6.87 Jan. 13, 1!<85.. . 11.00 p.m. 11.00 p.m 14" 5.71 Mar. 8, 1878 . . 7.li0 p.m. 10.30 a.m. 9" 4.50 Jan. 14. 1885.. . 11.00 p.m. 8.30 p.m. 1.5" 4.27 April 15, 1878. . 1.00 a.m. 9 00 a.m. 2.92 April 22. 18 5. 7.0Uia.m. 7.00 a.m. 23" 4.16 July 23, 1878 . . 12.20 p.m. 5.0(1 p.m. 2.56 June 10, 1885. . 3.00 p.m. 3.00 p.m 11" 2.5» April 1.5, 1879. 2.45 p.m. 10,30 p.m. 4.64 Sept. .5. 1885 . . 11.15 a.m. during night 6" 2.87 April 23. 1879. . 1.48 p.m. 10.40 a.m. 24" .3.11 Oct. 25,1885.. . 7.00 a.m. 7.(0 a.m. 26" 2.98 Aug. 23, 1879 . . 9.53 p.m. 8.00 p.m. 22" 3.47 Mar 2(i. l&SS,079 248,800 239,6r0 204,907 161,936 212,638 204.707 169,426 186.026 151,926 118,004 151,505 111,676 67,222 134,146 1.50.7.57 100,326 217.105 266,463 4,647,118 1 1,549;878 1,272,658 ' 936.6i9 392,041 355.035 389.125 386.659 333,590 332,493 .348,811 330,245 277.078 345,676 292,693 291.818 205,479 143,816 170,626 170.326 8 '• 9 '• 9 " 10 •■ 10 •' 11 ■• 11 •• 1-^ " 392.583 330,497 j 2,188,264 .373,238 i 363,562 ' 2,189,943 1 p.m. to 2 p.m 2 •' -.i '• ■3 •• 4 ■' :345,789 345,877 341.381 4 " 5 " 5 " fi '• (i " 7 " 326,262 1 2,096,109 ...... ! ....... 1,886,321 7 ■' 8 •• 8 '• 9 '• 9 " 11) •• 10 " 11 •• 11 " i-i •• 102,063 135.925 135,685 ]01,f,43 118,485 1.35,204 185,607 9RH n.tn 928,235 1 a.m. to 2 a.m 2 •• 3 •• 3 '• 4 " 4 " 5 •' 5 •• H " € •■ 7 " Totals 4.284,373 4.284,.373 4,647,118 * ' * Tables N.- s. 27 and 28 are from a paper by Mr. Rafter, On the Measures for Restricting the Use and Waste of Water in Force in the City of Rochester, N. Y., in Trans. Am, Soc. C. E., vol. xxvi., pp. 2.3-76. (January, 1892.) ure Holly system. With this explanation the significance of table No. 27 will be easily imderstood. In Table No. 28 we have the use of water from the Hemlock lake system by hours on three ditt'erent days — namely, for Saturday, Sunday, and Monday. The Saturday record, unfortunately for really satis- factory comparison, is only complete for the 12 hours from 7 A. M. to 7 r. M. If we till it out by comparison with the Monday record we see that in the summer of 1890 the use of water for all purposes from the Hemlock lake system was, on week days, roundly 0,000,000 g-allons a day, or f(n- a population of 133,896 (amount as per United States Cen- sus) we obtain a daily use of about 44.8 gallons. On Sunday, when manufacturing establishments are closed, the daily use of say 4,650,000 is equivalent to about 34.7 gallons per head of poi)ulati(m per day. This latter figure may be considered as representing, therefore, approxi- mately, the purely domestic use of water in the city of Rochester. The difference of 44.8 and 34.7, equal to 11.1 gallons per head, repre- sents likewise the ordinary manufacturing use. Examining the figures as to hourly flow Ave find the minimum to be 140 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. only 67,222 gallons per hour, amounting- at this rate in 24 hours to 1,613,328 gallons. The maximum hourly flow of 394,238 gallons, amounts for 24 hours to 9,461,712. These figures are sufficient to show the considerable variation from the daily mean which will take place at different times of the day in a system where the amount of sewage is approximately represented by the amount of the water supply. At the time of making these observations no water was used from the Hemlock lake system for either sprinkling streets or flushing sewers, and the figures may in consequence be taken as ap]ilying to the problem in hand without material correction or modification. Results of Sewer Gagings. So far as the authors are aware the most extended series of gagings of sewer discharges thus far made in this country are those of Samuel M. Gray, M. Am. Soc. C. E., at Providence, R. I. Table No. 29, from Mr. Gray's Providence report, gives the results of a number of these gagings. In reference to the variations per inhabitant in different parts of the city Mr. Gray states that sewers laid in wet localities furnish a much greater quantity of sewage per inhabitant connected than do those laid in the drier part of the city ; due, as already noted in Boston, in most localities to spring or ground water which thus finds its way into the sewers. The daily use of water per cajjita in Providence is about 50 gallons, and the new intercepting sewers are designed to carry 60 gallons of sewage per inhabitant per day in addition to ^^^ inch of rainfall per hour and the manufacturing wastes. The manufacturing wastes are estimated to flow off in ten hours ; while one half of the sewage is esti- mated to flow off in seven hours. In 1885 George S. Pierson, C. E., made a series of weir measurements of the flow of the Water street main sewer in Kalamazoo, Mich, Readings were taken on Monday, March 9, 1885, from 1 A. m. to 12 o'clock midnight. The minimum discharge occurred at 3 a.m. and amounted to 224 gallons per minute. The maximum, amounting to 287 gallons per minute, occurred at 4 p.m. The mean discharge for the wdiole 24 hours was 254 gallons per minute. Taking the mean dis- charge at 100, we have the minimum for the day 88 per cent, of the mean ; the maximum 113 per cent, of the mean.* In January, 1891, the flow of the main outfall sewer of the State Insane Hospital at Weston, W. Va., was gaged by weir measure- ment under the direction of Mr. Rafter for a period of 48 hours. This sewer is of vitrified tile, 12 inches in diameter, and probably as * For detail of these gagings see The Separate System of Sewage, by Staley and Pierson. RESULTS OF SEWKR GAGINGS. 141 •3 a ■" o S ^ " o c 5 a -r; £ O .S' -r o j: ti c 'E o O' o .a- o « 'E o oi ^«- 'E 'E o s ^ 'C = .2 ■puooas J3d aSjvuo -sip uinuijxBK •puo33s aad aSjeqosip 3S«J3Ay lO re t~ia iociooc:t-t-:ct-ooiN«T-i'tooe«(Ni-ie»tO'^'»«'cccoQooco ._. . : Sro^'-c'»x«<«<-TX;c5«TOccococoosoqajoCiOiOr-<»-ioO'-'eo-^ ? M CO iri "T oi m IN T-i !-<■ i-i T-i ' ^ i-J to >-< w?j^oox:coooc:*-it-ot--:o;coOw:co— •TiCiric^cunr-t— «C5D" _.,,- _:o— •TiCiriC^cunr-t— sCcDTCCTOirrc-^O TC 05 » 3: X 00 « r^ i; CC TO r^ lO -T 1-- in -^ ?T C 1-1 7* t-; ^- X -^ «£> O O VO (N IN O O O O O = C< t»iOiO00TO'TO'^"TTOTOTOTO"5^C-c:c-TOi-i(NO'NiO've«otcC5t-ooie X o ■-": ;£ t- I'- a: :D lO TO o » TO o 00 = CO cc !-< t- i-^<=_Oi e* k: .- c". t.- TO_ -^■—Tt- ■^< croJ^c: i-'t-'oTiM'TO'-r'ia to Oi-T^' «<" irfoTir* to'to'in to'^'to'' " X ~ o "' r- "O T< >— o I- X o ; ■ '" "" (NOIOIOOC. . .-«,----. . _ _ _-. TO»-X'TTOTO;D»C^X'~0~'r-^iCT^'--wi-'XO:OX£-'^*nOiC:TOIWlN Co •auji a^j3AB A\0[aq 3l!qA\ ■3U![ 3SBadAB 3AOqB3[jI|^ ■^0-T3;^Xint-0C:r". t-TOiCXOTO — : Pt-C^V:*n:CiOC^TOir>i-i»-iX05:Ct-*TO'VTO CO ^ ;C TOOT c; o T "I" IN TO ■» .-I T-l >-i 1-1 X^TO r-c rl J< r-4 X lO tH i-l 1-1 T-. TO ■^ ^ e< K r: X ct i-( X c; TO r- ir: o s^^rox^ ■l:-TOTOin»C;0TOC;OTOifi(?*XOCD»0-^- ;CO^'^'^-TTOC*!Nff*ff<7iNXT^'rin5COTtco;c:ct-x; c: — o I- 1- "lo ■£ 3: in TT TO in *o -T -^ • :3> IN o t- iri ;c o TO O t'-T -f six X -T lO- t-TO-it-t-XO XC. -^C". «i-H -. . — -Tini-Nincj-TNimN-^i-xj— lOto^^^'''^^. *^~^t-xc<^o^TOTOx;D •r »j o -jj N TO o N -n ■^ t^ -T TO t-^ x" X x' in o to' x o ^' a: 2j in !C t-^ to' ai x' n' x' t-X'^TOTOTOTOiO"TC-?(-r"5'TOTOiiC:TO-TTO'N"'-i-^3'. C:"<-lT-l.-iT-iiNX 'T O' t- rt TO T 35 O IN 7^^lN^Nr-tJC^-H-x^:c^-^-:c^-■T-rxXllncCln-r^HX^-<:D^-o•rlnl-■^ "^in'^'r*TOTOiN-T'^TOTON'Nin-5"ininT-in*^incCC5INTOOCOO!DinTOCO a^tf^t-lnln;c•J^t-^-Tln■^■Vlnlnln:ccCln:c^-^-x^:3^-;cxo o; o -r N -r X -T TO :3 -r.' w -r T X 3" s«tco'=rt- i-i(N OOX ■V 0< N S* 1-1 -T TO -^ N -i •:! O O i-i(NOOX3:XOX ■ooinoooin»N — _ — >oxo-r-rinomo-^inx — in — in o?co-^»-«ccoo wNooTOinTOC — -T;^_Tr^in^'^7*-^^i-t' OtOKMn ■•x^oinc; = ::;,in-T>. — oN = :c =s i? (N S in o ■^i-itoSinotoS2to oo * ;i - 2 ^ TO -WWt-c «S«Ol-TO 'paiaan -uoD uoj'joindoj o ^ S 5 —, in in iSS t- lOOT C- ~ X "^ lOit: §^S lOin^ t-SC»l- CO = -.D t-C- ■ - = - »'' n — lO X *-< IN o — T N ■^in — o :£ = -i :c m X0£0 ooo inoo oinooo moo -T C* O • O *-« TO TO O -• - ^TOTO {•^occi^inodododod" ' cdoo'ci in in m to' ■^' -^ in '-c o m in in o .oo m . T-i ^ ^ ^ IN Tt-TCj_,-00"TCO- ; •— 30 t-:c;ct-i-«:dectcin'' t-*t-o6 . „ , «>»TO , ; 00 : t-(j«: o= . «o. 0< r'r:' "O 'p3)a3uuo3 sasnoH 'stinoii J3d 3ido3d 00' - 1-- •aonB[ ■dod )U3sajd lujox s s on : i : Si : 142 SEWAGP] DISPOSAL IN" THE UNITED STATES. nearly absolutely impervious as sucli a sewer can be made. An exam- ination of the joints at a number of test pits indicated that neat or nearly neat Portland cement had been freely used in making- the joints, every one examined showing the bells well filled, with large wads of cement under and around the joints. The tributary population at the Hospital, including patients, offi- cers, attendants, and servants is almost exactly 1,000. In addition to sewag-e proper the sewer receives some roof water, but at the time of making the gagings there was neither rainfall nor melting snow to contribute from this source. The sewer received the water of con- densation from the steam heating apparatus of the Hospital, amount- ing in January to about 10,000 gallons per day. Aside from this addition the results may be taken as representing the normal amount of sewage of the institution. Self-closing fixtures are in use through- out the building, and no serious sources of leakage from the water fixtures could be discovered. The total mean flow for 24 hours Avas found to be 101,047 gallons ; the maximum, amounting to 6,696 gal- lons per hour, occurring between 9 and 10 a.m.; the minimum, of 2,079 gallons pev hour, occurred between 1 and 2 a.m. Deducting the esti- mated water of condensation of 10,000 gallons per day there remains the sewage proper, about 91,000 gallons per day, which, for a tributary Table No. 30. — Results op a Gaging by Weir Measukement of the Flow of Main Outfall Sewer op the State Insane Hospital at Weston, West Virginia, in January, 1891. Day. Wednesday , Thursday. 12 M. 1 P.M. 2 " 3 '^ 4 " 5 •' 6 " 7 " 5 " 9 " 10 " 11 " 12 •' 1 A.M. 2 " 3 " 4 •' .5 •' 6 " 7 " 8 " 9 " 10 ■' 11 " 12 m.* Rate in Mean gallons flow in per I gallons minute. 1 per hour. 78.75 93.60 93.C.0 75.6(1 75.60 7021' 75.H(J 75.60 70.20 58.50 53.55 44.55 44.55 44.55 44.55 44.55 44..55 49.05 64.S-0 75.60 86.40 105 80 li7.no 93.60 93.60 5.170 5,616 5.070 4..536 4.374 4.374 4.536 4.374 3.861 3.C61 2.943 2,673 2.673 2.673 2.673 2.673 2.806 3,415 4.212 4.860 5.7.51 6.696 6,345 5,616 Day. Thursday Friday . Rate in Hour. gallons minute. 12 m.* 93.60 1 P.M. 99.45 2 " 86.40 3 " 93.60 4 " 75.60 5 " 93.60 6 '■ 81.00 7 " 93.60 8 " 5S.50 9 •• 53.55 10 " 53 b-i 11 " 44.55 12 " 44.56 1 A.M. 34.65 2 " 34.65 3 " .39 60 ' 4 " 49 05 5 '• 49.05 6 •' 58.50 7 " 70. SO 8 " b.6..J0 9 '■ 105 3(1 10 " 86.40 11 " 86.40 12 m. 105.30 1 Mean flow in gallons 5.792 5. .576 5.400 5.076 5,076 5.238 5.238 4.563 3,3t;2 3,.-;62 2.943 2,673 2.3 6 2.079 2,228 2.659 2.943 3.227 3.861 4.698 5,751 5,751 5,184 5,751 ' Repeated. RESULTS OF SEWER GAGIXGS. 143 population of 1,000, amounts to 91 gallons j^er day. Table Xo. 30 g-ives the details of these g-agings. In February, 1892, William B. Landreth, M. Am. Soc. C.E., gaged the flow of the main sewer of Schenectady, New York, for a period of 24 hours. The main outfall sewer of Schenectady receives the drainage from about 15 miles of lateral sewers, of the separate system, having 1,500 house connections. At the time of the gagiugs no roof water was flowing into the sewers, but they were receiving 50,000 gallons in 24 hours of flush-tank dis- charge and 60,000 gallons by seepage, as determined before the house oonnections were made. Table No. 31 gives the results.* Table No. 31. — Houki.y Flow and Pekcentage of the Same of the Total Flow IN the M.\xx Seweu at Schenectady, New York, for 24 Hours. Feb. 5, 1892. Hour. Hourly flow, gallo.is. Per cent, of total flow. Feb. 5, 1892. Hour. Hourly flow, gallons. Per cent, of total Qovr. 9 A.M 39.800 43.352 37,475 37,475 38.6:« 39.S00 41.073 38,632 37,475 36.42:! 36.423 36,423 33,884 4.63 5.04 4.36 4.36 4.49 4.(W 4.78 4.49 4. .36 4.23 4.23 4.23 3.94 10 P.M. - 33,884 33,8?4 32,718 32,718 32.718 30,294 32,718 .31,416 31.416 34,014 36,423 3.94 10 ■• 11 - 12 •• 3.94 11 '• .. 3.80 12 M ... Feb. 6. 2 •' 2 " 3 '• 4 '• 5 '• 6 " 7 " 8 " i 3.80 3 •' 3 80 4 •' 3.52 5 •' 3.80 « •' 3.65 3.65 8 " 4.00 9 '• 4.23 From this table it appears that the greatest flow was at 10 a.m., when 5.04 per cent, of the total daily flow of about 860,000 gallons was passing through the sew^er. The minimum floAv of 3.52 jier cent, occurred at 3 a.m. Comparing the Schenectady gagings with those at the Weston Asylum, it appears that both the maximum and minimum flows occurred later at Schenectady than at Weston, which is probably accounted for largely l»y th(> greater distance which the sewage travelled at Schenectady. In the spring of 1891 gagings -were made of the flow of sewage in several sewers at Toronto, Ont. The gagings extended over three days. The results are given in Table 3lA.t *Eng. News, vol. xxvii., p. ?,0r, (March 20, 1892). + Kng. Newg, vol. xxviii., p. 409 (Nov. 24, 1892). This table originally appeared substantially i here given in the report of the City Engineer of Toronto, Ont., for 1891. 144 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table 31A. — Seweb Gagings at Toronto, Ontario, in 1891. Size of sewer. > o .o la If < Population.* Discharge in 2 o H a 3 ** a 11 U P. H 3 6 11 7 ft. 6 in " 6 " " 9 " u .. " 6 " " " •' 9 ■' " 9 " " 8 " " 6 " " 6 " " 6 " " 8 " " 4 " " ' " 3 ' Averag Totals 2,485 372 360 13 101 25 350 263 160 195 740 225 271 770 311 503 15.7 46.2 ,8.8 44.0 45.5 41.8 17.6 42.3 39.8 42.4 11.8 43.7 41.7 9.4 45.7 38.3 39,014 17.186 3.168 572 4,595 1.045 6,160 11,125 6.368 8,268 8,732 9.S32 11,300 7.238 14,213 19,265 278.09 212.28 31. oO 16.74 ,32.C.5 10.89 57.50 71.56 67.20 62.62 82.25 80.83 70.94 70.57 117.10 93.78 .11 ..57 .09 1.29 .32 .43 .16 .27 .42 ..32 .11 ..36 .26 .09 .38 .19 10.27 17.78 11.07 42.14 10.23 15.00 13.44 9.26 15.19 10.90 13.56 11.84 9.04 14.04 11.86 7.02 400,4EO 305,683 45,072 24.105 47,016 15.682 82.800 103,046 96,768 90,168 118,440 116,395 102,153 101.616 168,624 135,043 77 ;^ X 5 ft. ins 133 .8 X 2 " 6 " 83 9, X 3 " " 316 91 X 5 " " 77 9. X 3 " " 113 3 X 2 " 6 •« 101 » X 2 " 6 " 69 9 X 4 " " 113 6 X 5 " " 89 a diam 102 3 X 5 ft. ins 89 9 X 4 " " 68 9 X 3 " 6 " 105 4 X 5 " 6 " 89 4 53 'es 24.0 .200 11.62 87 6,794 168,081 1,356.30 1,953,061 * Estimated from assessments of 1890 and census of 1891. A Yeab's Daily Sewage Pumping Eecords at Atlantic City, New Jersey.* One of the most valuable contributions to the subject under discus- sion is the daily sewage pumping records in connection with the sew- age purification works at Atlantic City, New Jersey, given in full for one year and discussed in detail below. Daily records of pumpage and coal consumption are kept by the Atlantic City Sewerage Companj\ The pumjD register is read at 12 m, each day, allowances being made for slip and wear of the plunger. The diagram, Plate II., shows the pumpage of sewage for each day from December 1, 1891, to November 30, 1892. The diagram also shows the rainy days of the year, and the maximum and minimum temperature of each month, by dates. The figures from which the diagram was compiled are given to the nearest thousand in Table 31B. Sundays and rainy days are indicated both in Table 31 B, and the dia- gram, Plate II. For an understanding of the diagram and the accompanying tables, it is necessary to state that there are two seasons at Atlantic City, a winter and a summer. The winter season begins about January 15, and is said to continue often until June 15, v/hen the summer season opens. In July and August, 1892, it is said that the average popula- tion was 100,000. The resident population is at present about 15,000, * Rearranged from Eng. News, vol. xxi.x. pp. 123-124 (Feb. 9, 1893). July iV. ■^Rc v'n Ic '5tN iqhr ^ •^ ■K >^ \ \ ■s: \ r^' N R \ 1 "^ !^^ ^ \ \ A 3; 1 i h \ R A ^ H / A K\ [/ -R \ \ I Ay \ \/ V 1 R^ \\ \ , -R 1/ V R \ \ V \ \ R I L \ 1 i''', A i' \ V A 1 \. V V\ » r i \ \} v. \/\ \ -^ ^Ai A jVJ R H lA/ fi \- l/'V A . A r V ■R \ r \r M^ J ^ rJ r V" V R 1 1 1 I 1 M( )r7m ' -\- — --•__ . 1, A ^onfi 7 eoi 1 — ^ — - ■- ^ ~~~ - -1 1 -J 4,000, OC bailor 3,500,00 3,000,00 2,500,00 2,000,00 ,500;00( l,000,00( 90 ^ ' PO '■»- OJ 70 jC 60 O) bU ^i2 4-U ' ,0 30 20 s lO dJ June >' Ji X Auqusi" X September x October x November > o/ ', NEW JERSEY. FROM DEC 1, 1891, TO NOV. 30, 1892. December x January x February x March x April x May x June >- July 4,000,000 1 — — r — """ — ~" ^~" July iV_ ■fRi^ir7li^5tt4{^M ^ 1 • '■. V ■ v,- ^ ._ ;i 1 ■s; 1 ^ R = ffa/ 7. ^ \ ^ R ^^ \ 1 'S^ rn\ \ \ I .• 5: fi ^ ■ S - \ R 1 ^ i ^/\ \i / •R ' - A- '^ \/ V \ R ^ R ^ \j V K r- \ K K r;'? 1 k .l(' fl ^ ; 1 V \ VI , r i \'i A \ S/Vl 1 R >^\l ' R \j. \, /\ R R V\l w ■^ R ■ V' / \, 1/v H 1 1 2,000,000 : ^ B A V ■R \ \r M r) 1 ■! -^ R . /^\ P V \-^ (j. R ■ R ^' « R K ft R V \ ' 1 * A,. ■\ K A A A /\ /^ W F R 1 /\. 7 R 1 \/ V J ' ^/Vv ^A, J] J V ' J R n R R R R R 1 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 ?n /^/^ !«/■/! +-' rffJ ■.he i , eacfii ' ' "~- -1 "*■ ~i u . lU i-n^' r^. ■ -^-■ — ~' Mr T mjJj^ t^'onth •n-^ — ■ < — - ■— — — +- ecit j 1 1. "^ - u __ ly ^ei^ ■ - __ l2 4-0 30 ^ ?o S^ lO Q Auqust X September x , October PLATE II. DAILY PUMPAGE OF SEWAGE AT ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY. FROM DEC 1, 1891, TO NOV. 30, 1892. Table No. 31 B.— Daily Pumpage op Sewage in Thousands op Gallons at Atlantic City, New Jersey, prom Dec. 1, 1891, to Nov. 30, 1892. Day of month. December. January. February. March. April. May. 1 1,642 1,604 1.529 1,509 R 1,638 1.560 S 1,547 R 1.670 1.698 1,612 1,662 1.598 1.561 S 1,559 1,509 1,6:57 R 1,530 1.602 1,.^30 1.585 S 1.561 1,542 1..540 1.503 R 1.579 1.507 1,527 S 1,.563 1,616 R 1.7.^8 R 1.623 1,549 1.749 R 1.643 S 1.6-^5 1,615 1.740 R 1.702 1.694 1.681 1.722 S 1,504 R 1,665 1.794 R 1,649 R 1.712 R 1,751 1,T2SS 1.777 R 1.7.39 R 1.807 1.796 1.740 1.712 1.608 S 1.6:34 1,8.30 1.742 1.739 1.721 1.700 1 ,680 S 1.728 1,711 1,681 1,673 1,719 1,757 1,682 SR 1,633 1.621 1,623 R 1,651 1.6:32 1,7!)0 1.694 S 1.709 1.69S 1 .655 1 .681 1.725 1.726 R 1,676 SR 1,746 1,728 1,792 1,765 1.750 1.708 1,728 S 1,874 1,940 R 1,872 1,824 1,807 1,767 1,647 S 1,705 1,740 R 1,845 1,751 R 1,743 1.758 1,745 S 1,732 1,651 1,604 1,678 1.892 R 2,338 2,208 S 1,920 2,004 1,932 R 1,974 1,917 1,824 R 1,892 SR 2.074 1,9:33 1,889 1,824 1,410 1,229 1,760 S 1,842 1,762 1,871 1,965 2,083 R 2.012 R 1,858 S 1,826 1,822 1,818 1.911 R 2,0.57 R 2.062 2,0.34 S 1,921 1.922 1.847 1.851 R 2,451 R 2,087 1.985 S 1,93:3 1,989 1,911 1,821 1,801 R 1,896 1,998 S 1,996 2,002 1.997 1 832 2 3 4 5 6 1,966 1 897 7 8 1,974 S 1.893 1 710 9 lU 11 2,214 R 1 920 12 13 2 082 14 1 "179 15 2.165 S 2.515 R» 2.401 2.275 2,184 2,271 R» 2.427 R 2.260 SB 2 382 16 17 IS 19 20 22 23 24 2;.304 2,264 2.097 2,191 2.216 2,132 S 2,029 2,048 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total 49,l(fl* 1,584 f 52,748 1.701 49, .556 1,709 57,419 1,852 56,735 1,891 65,622 2,117 Average Day of month. June. July. August. September. October. November. 1 2,116 2,08:3 3.456 R 3.390 .3,185 S 3,9:38 R2 3.49S :3,106 .3.087 2.995 2.879 2,877 S 2,7:30 2.756 2,852 2,874 R 2,820 2,762 2,865 S 2,927 2,775 R .3,466 3,264 3,091 2.967 2.955 S 2.890 .3,1.53 2,881 2.821 2.811 2.865 2,998 SR 2.925 2.979 2.999 2.862 2.822 2,8:37 2.880 S 2,897 2.9:36 2.'.l(l7 2.008 2.932 Ri 2,976 3.004 S :3.181 3.699 .3.083 2.915 2.854 2,912 2,968 SR .3,147 3,135 3,207 R .3,168 R 3,209 :3,128 3.1.50 SR 3.054 2.813 2,82U 2.851 2.721 2,614 .3,W1 S 2,897 2,797 2,681 2,66;3 2.657 3,414 2,517 S 2,475 2,477 2.515 R 2,486 2,401) 2,551 2,392 S 2,;382 2.338 2,.347 2,313 R 2,:391 2,.389 2,289 S 2,475 R 2,244 2.285 2,2:n 2,278 3,212 2,250 S 2.120 2,208 2,208 2,200 2,101 2.207 1.949 S 2,175 2,187 2,119 1,958 1,947 1.933 1.920 S l.!»41 1.9.50 1,8^9 1.952 2.168 2.037 2,101 S 2.061 2,069 2.020 2.029 2.074 2,049 2,014 S 1,994 1,941 2,087 1,990 2,1:33 R 1.932 2,026 S 1.928 R» 2,0.59 2,070 2.298 R 2,144 2,472 2,.550 S 2.419 2.600 R 3.073 li 2.999 2.819 R 2.3.58 2,:3T4 S 2.:362 2.313 2. .332 2.:343 2,380 2,297 2.141 S 2.351 R 2.009 B 2,019 .3 2 OM 4 2.179 2.218 S 2.i:v3 2.112 2.018 2.170 R 2.5:37 R 2,:382 2,:309 S 2,602 2,416 2.442 2.509 2,180 2.291 2.214 S 2.293 2.4.>3 2,271 2.293 2,2:37 2,:J55 2.485 S 2..387 2.368 2,-388 2,369 R 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2.S 29 30 31 Total 68.870 2,396 93.935 3.0.30 92.997 3,000 . 76,102 2,503 64,171 2.070 68,719 2,291 Average S = Sunday. R = Rain. R' = Heavy rain previous niglit. R' = Rain previous night. * Footings may not corrcnpond exactly with totals given, as former include the odd figures omitted from hun- dreds column. 10 145 146 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN' THE I'XITKI) ST.XTES. It is stated that there are over GOO hotels and 1)oardmg-liouses and nearly 4:,000 houses in the city. That not all of the building-s are supplied with water, and that all so supplied are not connected with the sewers, is shown by the follow- ing: tisrures: Number of taps. No. of sewer connections. Excess of water over sewer connections. AUaiitic Citv W. \V. Co." Consumers' Water Co. Total. Number. Per cent. December, 1891 2.273 2,468 500 500 2,773 2.963 1,849 2,140 924 823 50 38 The relative average daily amounts of water consumed and of sew- ao-e pumped from December 1, 1891, to November 30, 1892, are shown in Table 31 C, the figures for the Consumers' AVater Company not be- ing based on accurate records, but being estimated by the engineer of the company for use in this connection. These figures show that the excess of average dail}' water consump- tion over sewage pumped ranged from 11 per cent, in July to 75 per cent, in September, and averaged 45 per cent, for the year. As stated above, there were 50 per cent, more water taps than sewage connec- tions at the beginning of the year, and 38 per cent, at its close. The relative monthly consumption of water and pumpage of sewage is also shown graphically by the diagram, Fig. 6. Table 31 C. Average Daily Watek Consumption and Sewage Pumpage by Months, at Atlantic City, New Jersey, from Dec, 1891, to Nov., 1892. Average daily consunipti un of water. Average daily sewage pump- age. Excess watei sewiige. over Month. Atlantic City W. W. Co. Consumers" Water Co. Total. Amount. Perct. 1.863,575 1.960. .374 2.162,669 2.376.137 2. .543. 7.35 .3.006.077 2.604,730 2.815.731 3.. 550. 273 3.S.54.7S1 2,91!t,5.S4 2,232,419 330.000 380,000 450,000 470.000 500.000 4t<0,0( 518.000 550.0(10 540.0:)0 535.01)0 520,000 475,000 2,19.3,575 2,340,374 2,612,669 2,846.137 3,043,735 3,486,077 3.122.7.30 3..365.73t 4,090,273 4.389,7S1 3,439.584 2.707,419 3,142,682 1,583,867 1.701.537 1.708.8.32 1.852,237 1.891.182 2.116.8^3 2.295,6.52 3.030.1.56 2.il99.913 2,.5()3,404 2.070.024 2.290.624 2,172,059 6(19 708 ti3S.h37 '.l0-'i.b.37 993.'.l(i0 1,1525.53 1,369.234 827.078 8S5.5T5 1.09U.3»iU 1,886,377 1,369.560 416.795 97(1,623 32 37 Febniaiy 53 54 April May 61 July 11 August September 36 66 18 Year 45 The greatest amount of sewage joumped in any one day during the year was 3,937,720 gallons, which, it is interesting to note, was on July A year's pumping records at ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. 147 5, ou which date a larg-e crowd of people generally visits the city. The least piimiDage on one day was on April 2. The maximum and min- imum daily pumjiage for each month in the year, with the date of the same, and also the variation between the two, the average for the 4,500,000 Oallons 4,000,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 / y / \ A^ \ *? Ki\ \ C-n\ h li \ /i \ /^ :s\ 1 A? ^ I 1 rs \ T^/ir f \ -'-^ 1 — -V- - \// \ -^(^ "y f^cA \ VI ^ H s \ /(f ■^ ' \ // k ^r» f ^ /f^ h^ ^ y c^ t\ y ^ Ai c- / S^J—T' -A /- y i > / ^c^^ 'J ^^ /inilV y ^ad^ GC*"I . ^ Av Fio. 6.— Average Daily Water Consumption and Sewage Pumpage, by Months, AT Atlantic City, New Jersey. month and the number of sewer connections on the first of each month, arc; shown by Table 3lD. It will be seen by referring to the diagram, Plate II. and Table 31 B, showing each day's pumpage for the year, that nearly every rainy day was accompanied or followed In' an increase in the amount of sewag(\ The foot notes to Table 311) show that for six months of the twelve the niaximiim pumpage was preceded or accompanied by rain, but the same was true of the minimum pumpage of three of the 148 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table 31D. — Maximum and Minimum Daily Pumpage of Sewage, by Months AT Atlantic City, New Jersey, for the Year ending with November, 1892. No. .sewer connections first of each month. Average. Maximum. Minimum. Vari- Mouth. Amount. Date. Amount Date. ation. 1,849 1,887 1,892 1,910 1,912 1,961 2,001 2.035 2,051 2,061 2,081 2,109' 1,583,867 1,701,537 l,7U8,a32 1,852.237 1,891,182 2,116.843 2,295,652 3,030,1.56 2,999,913 2,503,404 2,070,024 2.290,624 2,172,059 1,757,760' 1,830,4322 1,873,728 2,328,1924 2.4.50,784' 2,515.5845 2,601,888 3,9:^7,7209 3,()99,.344 3,(101,440 2„312,160 3.072.864' 3,937,720 30 26 29 19 22 16 13 4 16 4 1 16 1,502,592' 1,5(3,7443 1,620,672 1,603,584 1,228,896 1,710,112 2.017,728 2,730.144 2,607.744 2,230.656 1,888.512'* 1,937,584 1.228,896 24 11 9 16 2 10 8 11 11 29 19 7 255.168 January 326,688 253,056 714,608 April May 1,221,888 805,472 584,160 July 1,207,.576 1,091,600 770,784 423,648 November 1,145,280 1,708,824 ' Rain on this and preceding days. ' Very cold. ^ Rain. * Rain previous day. ^ Heavy rain previous night. • Rain previous night. ' 2,140 on Dec. 1, 1892. 8 Rain in night. twelve months, thoug-h no heavy rains are mentioned in connection with minimum as with maximum pumpage. The separate system of sewers is in use at Atlantic City, with a few roof connections, principally for flushing. Some leakage would be expected under the most favorable circumstances, and some actually occurs, as shown above. The maxi- mum pumpage for January occurred on a day reported in the pumpage records as " very cold." In order to see what, if any, effect temperature had upon the amount of sewage, the maximum and minimum temperatures of each month were compiled from the United States Monthly Weather Review, as given in Table 31E, and tlieii ijlotted on the diagram, Plate II. Low temperatures in winter, through waste of water to keep plumbing from freezing, and high temperatures in summer, might be expected to Table 31 E. — Monthly Temperatures and Precipitation at Atlantic City, New Jersey, for the Eleven Months ending with October, 1892. Degrees F. Month. Max. Date of max. Min. Date of min. Mean max. Mean min. Mean max. and min. + 2. Precipita- tion, ins. Av. daily sewage pumpage. ,56 53 57 55 76 80 89 90 86 80 80 4 2 8 7 6 16 22 28 9 25 1 15 10 10 14 28 40 51 57 61 48 33 18 21 13 15 12 8 11 8 28 27 25 48 39 40 42 53 64 74 76 79 72 63 34 26 29 28 40 51 63 64 68 59 47 41.0 32.5 34.5 35.0 ■ 46.5 57.5 68.5 70.0 73.5 65.5 55.0 3.19 3.02 1.43 3.69 3.05 5.51 4.44 4.23 3.26 1.08 0.30 1,583,867 January February March April 1,7('1,537 1,708.832 1,852,2.37 1,891,182 May 2.11f>.S43 2,295,652 July 3.030,156 2,999,913 2,503,404 October . . 2,070,024 A year's pumping records at ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. 149 cause an increase in the amount of sewage, and doubtless do ; but the fig-ures compiled and plotted have a bearing upon only two days in each mouth, and are of little or no help in the study. Unfortunately, the Weather Review does not give daily temperatures, which would be of interest and value in this connection. As showing something of the temperatures of the whole of each month, the mean maximum, mean minimum, and the half of the sum of the two, are given below for the year, in connection with the maximum and minimum temperatures and their dates. The total monthly precipitation and the average pumpage of sewage for each month is also given at the right. The figures for November were not available. The cold weather during the first part of Jauuarj^ 1893, seems to have had a marked efi'ect upon the amount of sewage, the temperature and pumpage for each of the first 20 days of the month having been as follows, the thermometer and j)ump register being read at 12 m. each day : January 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 Temperature, Pumpage, degrees F. gallons. 40 2,179,584 38 2,199,936 29 2,194,944 18 2,250,528 24 2,1J3,776 24 2.152,472 18 2.173.fi.32 22 2.191.77H 24 2,208.2f<8 14 2,2r,8,9(i8 7 2,326,272 January 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19. 20. Total . . . . Averages Temperature, degrees F. 22 9 12 18 4 6 10 21 It) 19 Pumpage, gallons. 2..393,168 2.401,344 2.4'.I7.!62 2,304.9(10 2.29.5,360 2.312,352 2.343.360 2,2-1(1.208 2, 2C. 1,160 45,.M3.250 2,267,163 The average daily pumpage for January, 1892, was 1,701,537, against 2,267,163 for the first 20 days of January, 1893, and 2,172,059 for the year ending November 30, 1891. The number of sewer connections in- creased only about 16 per cent, between January, 1892, and January, 1893, while the daily amount of sewage pumped in the first 20 days of January, 1893, was about 33 per cent, greater than the average for January, 1892. For the year ending November 30, 1892, the lightest pumpage was in the month of January. From these figures it appears that the cold Aveather of January, 1893, greatly increased the amount of sewage at Atlantic City, although there may have been other causes contril)uting to the increase, such as an unusually large number of visitors in the city, although at this season of the year the latter supposition seems hardly probable. CHAPTER VIII. GENERAL DATA OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL. The Constituents of Sewage. Oedinaiiy city sewag^e contains a great variety of ingredients, as, for instance, urine, fseces, table dropping-s, and the waste water from kitchens, baths, laundi'ies, and other domestic offices. In manufactur- ing- districts it may further contain the refuse substances of various manufacturing processes, the whole diluted with a considerable amount of Avater, to which in rainy weather is added, in towns with combined systems, a large amount of sand, earth, and organic matter from the surfaces of the streets. With a separate system of sewers the street washings are excluded, and the sewage has in consequence a more permanent character than is found in the sewage from combined systems. Sewage from separate systems may be therefore considered somewhat more amenable to economical treatment than that from com- bined systems, not only because of its permanent character, but by reason of uniformity of quantity ; both considerations leading to de- crease in first cost of disposal works as well as to decrease in annual expense of operation. Sewerage Systems — Separate or Combined. The relative advantages of the two systems of sewerage have been ably discussed in American sanitary literature by Eliot C. Clarke, M. Am. Soc. C.E., and Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C.E.,* and oth- ers, and the subject will be pursued no further here than to point out that the recent extensions of knowledge of the causation of typhoid fever and the other water-borne communicable diseases enforce, some- what, the argument for separate systems wherever they are applicable, by reason of the greater amenability of the sewage therefrom to puri- fication treatment. In the chapter on The Infectious Disease of Animals it has been shown that the excrements of animals are nearly as prejudicial as those * The Separate System of Sewerage. By Eliot C. Clarke, 2d An. Rept. Mass. St. Bd. Health, Lunacy and Charity, Supp. 1880, pp. 25-44. Sewerage and Land Drainage. By Geo. E. Waring, Jr., etc., Chapter III, The System, Com- bined or Separate, pp. 28-53. SEWERAGE SYSTEMS — SEPARATE OR COMBINED. 151 of man : aud Avitli this premise admitted it would appear at first sight that the force of the argument in favor of separate systems is con- siderably modified, in consequence of the large amount of animal excrements which must be inevitably washed from the street surfaces into the clean water conduits with every rainfall. This objection has some force, though less than may appear at first sight. To begin with, paved streets are frequently cleaned, and in places Avhere this work is only negligently done a more rigid administration of street cleaning departments may be relied upon to assist in reducing the evil. Again, it must be remembered that absolute immunity from danger cannot be hoped for ; there will always be some risk, even after the best has been done that is possible in any given case. Moreover, so far as public water supplies are concerned, the true remedy lies in the direction of an absolutely uncontaminated source. In regard to the treatment of storm water, the Eivers Pollution Com- mission, after reciting the standards which they propose for liquids deemed polluting and inadmissible to any stream, say : * The enforcement of these standards of purity would, as we have repeatedly stated, inflict no serious injury upon industrial processes and manufactures, nor would the remedies required involve any risk to the public health ; nevertheless there is, in the case of town sewage, a condition of things which ought, in our humble opinion, to be takeu into careful consideration in the framing of a legislative enactment. The condition to which we allude is that caused by excessive rainfall, or " storm water," as it is teclmically called. To provide for the exceptional occasions when this condition prevails would entail in many cases an expenditure, in sewerage woi-ks, many times greater than that necessary in ordinary weather. We are there- fore of opinion that, however undesirable, it will be necessary to permit storm water to flow directly into rivers and streams without preliminary cleansing. Unfortun- ately, chemical analysis shows that storm water, so far at least as its earlier portions are "concerned, is more polluting than dry weather sewage, owing to old deposits in the sewers being then swept to the outfall ; and it will be very important, therefore, to guard against any unnecessary use of this excejitional permission. On the question of separation of sewage from rainfall and the rela- tion of such separation to purification treatment, Eliot C. Clarke writes as follows in his report to the Massachusetts Drainage Commission : So long as it was considered sufficient to put sewage as well as rain into streams or bodies of water, this double use of the sewers was proper and economical. When, however, it was thought necessary to purify the sewage by treating it in various ways before permitting it to escai)e, it was found that such operations were rendered verv dirticult when the sewage, owing to tlie presence of rain water, varied greatly both in amount and character. It is a comparatively simple matter to design works to purify a regular quantity of (say) one million gallons of sewage of nearly uniform quality. It would be almost impossible to design works to handle and purify sew- age liable to vary in quantity from one to fifty million gallons, and also to vaiy greatly in its chemical constituents. For this reason tlie proposition is generally accei)ted at ]>resent, that wherever sewage must be puriheil by any mode of treat- ment, it should be kept sejjarate from the rainfall and conveyed in sewers which are used for no other purpose. In such cases, when it is also necessary to remove the *Tliir.l R.j)t., p. .05. 162 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. rainfall by means of sewers, a distinct system of such structures, devoted to that jjurpose only, nmst be built. Such a double system of sewerage has both advan- tages and disadvantages. The sewers for sewage only can be very small, and will cost only al)out two-lifths as much as do those designed for carrying rain, or say $6,000 to ^8,000 i)er mile. In some places, where the removal of rain is not a pressing necessity, and the cost of a large system of sewers would preclude its con- struction, small sewers for removing sewage 2)roper can sometimes be built for a sum within the means of the town. When the system for removing rain must be co-extensive with that for removing the sewage, the cost of the double system will 1)6 about two-tifths greater than that of a single one. Usually, however, the rain water system need not be so extensive as the other, and the rain can be discharged at less distant outlets into brooks traversing the town, where it would not do to 2)ut sewage. The first i)ortion of a rainfall, which washes yards and streets, becomes very dirty ; but the filth contained by it is not considered so dangerous as ordinary sewage, nor, coming as it does only occasionally, is it so liable to cause nuisances. Notwitiistanding any disadvantages, the necessity for keeping the sewage by itself, whenever it is to be treated in any way, is so apparent that it may be laid down as a rule that it should be done where practicable. The foreg-oing extract is of considerable interest by reason of em- bodying- the views of Mr. Clarke, after he had been confronted, in his investig-ations for the Drainage Commission, with the various serious problems of sewage purification existing- in the region which he spe- cially studied. In relation to the impossibility of treating- the whole flow of com- l)ined systems at times of heavy rainfall, see Chapter VII., on Quan- tity of Sewage and Variation in Eate of Flow. The Average Composition of American Sewage. In American cities using- from 60 to 100 U. S. gallons of water per capita per day, the sewage is naturally more dilute than in foreign cities where 30 to 50 U. S. g-allons per capita is more nearly the daily allowance. As appositely remarked by Mr. Mills in the Special Re- port of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, we may say that the Table No. 33. — Average Composition of the Sewage experimented upon at Lawrence for Four Years. (Paris per 100,000.) Year. Free ammonia. Albuminoid ammonia. Chlorine. Oxygen con- sumed. Bacteria per cubic Total. Soluble. Insoluble, 1888 1.5528 1.8439 1.8200 2.ai96 .6878 .5540 .fi8fi2 .7295 .1611 .2919 .3805 .3446 .5267 .2631 .30.57 .3849 5.19 4.92 5.45 7.37 3.25 3.64 1,000.000 1889 70S 000 1890 1,085,000 1891 693,00(1 Average — 4 yrs.* 1,8591 .6644 .2943 .3701 B.73 3.44 871,000 * As may be expected in any growing town which has not yet attained approximately fixed conditions, the strength of the sewage is slowly increasing, the avprage total nitrogen for 1891 being about 25 per cent, greater than for 1888. RELATION OF AMERICAN TO ENGLISH SEWAGE. lo3 sewage of an average American town will contain, wlien stronger than ordinary, say 998 parts of water, 1 part of mineral matter, and 1 part of organic matter. The mineral matter is not generally harmful, and the object of sewage purification can be stated as chiefly to get rid of the one-thousandth part of organic matter. The composition of the sewage of American towns may be taken as averaging fairly with the results in Table No. 32, in which is given tlio average composition of the sewage received at the experiment station of the Massachusetts State Board of Health at Lawrence for four years. The table also shows the relations of the soluble albuminoid ammonia to the insoluble. The Aveeage Composition of English Sewage. Table No. 33 gives the average composition of the sewage of a largo number of English towns, as taken from the Report of the Elvers Pollution Commission. This table, while containing the averages of the most complete series of analyses of English town sewage that has^ yet been made, is unfortunately not entirel}' comparable with the pre- vious table on account of the use of a different system of chemical analysis. If, however, we bear in mind (1) that free ammonia and am- monia, albuminoid ammonia, and organic nitrogen refer to the same things and (2) that the organic nitrogen is usually at least double the albuminoid ammonia, we are able to make comparisons which are close enough for ordinary purposes.* Table No. 33. — Average Composition op Sewage op English TowNS.f (Parts per 100,000.) c i •a c Suspended matters. s o °1 a o u a 'c o E 11 8£ V a 'C o Classes of towns. •5 1 .2 a s ^ JS a s s i < a c o B p 60 H o o H s o Midden towns 82.4 4.181 l.il75 5.435 6 451 11.54 17.81 21.30 39.11 72.2 4.696 2.205 6.703 7.728 10.60 24.18 20.51 44 69 + 1st Rep, Riv. Pol. Com., pp. 28, 29. Relation of American to English Sewage. Comparing the averages of Tables 32 and 33, with this understand- ing, it becomes apparent that the ordinary sewage of English towns is * Tliis is intended as a general statement only. It is derived from the results of a numlxr of comparative analyses of natural waters in which the albuminoid ammonia was determined by the Wanklyn process and the organic nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method, as giveti in paper On the De- termination of the Organic Nitrogen in Natural Waters 1)y the Kjeldahl Method, by Thomas M. Drown, M.D. , and Henry Martin, S.B. , Technology Quarterly, February, 188'.t. No comparisons were made with the combustion process of Frankland and Armstrong. 154 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. considerably more coneeutrated than that of American towns. This point, let us say, is a very important one to bear in mind in the appli- cation of English data to American conditions. The Massachusetts experiments have indicated that there is a relation between the purify- ing" capacity of different filtering- materials and the amount of impurity to be removed from samples of sewage of varying- strength. This point is strongly brought out by the several series of experiments. From all of which it follows that with hig-h g-rade intermittent filters, prepared in accordance with the indications of the Massachusetts ex- periments, we may expect to filter larger volumes of average American dilute sewage per unit of area than has usually been found expedient in English practice. The use, therefore, of English intermittent filtra- tion data, without reference to either the quality of the filtering medium or the material filtered, will be likely to lead to erroneous conclusions. The Composition of London Sewage. If the comparison is in relation to the average sewage of London, somewhat different results appear. We find, indeed, that at jjresent the London sewage does not differ greatly in composition from that of American towns. This conclusion is derived from Table No. 33A fol- lowing, in which are given the means of a large number of analyses of London sewage, as made by AY. J. Dibdin in 1883, and published in detail in the Report of the Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge : Chaeacter of Drainage from Street Surfaces. In regard to the drainage from street surfaces, the following analyses of the liquid flowing- from two different classes of pavements, situated in the centre of the city of London, may be taken as shoAving the amount of pollution which such drainage will acquire in streets with large traffic : * (In imrts per 1(K1,(I(1U.) Draiiinge from Drainage from Composition. wood puvement. Macadam pavement. Appearance Dark color Slate color Odor Strong urine Urine Chlorine 54.0 24.4 Free ammonia 6.89 3.54 Albuminoid ammonia 4.25 2.47 Oxvgen absorbed bv matters in solution in 15 min- utes ' 0.68 0.38 Oxvgen absorbed bv matters in solution in 4 hours. 4.95 2.81 , , ,, ^ \ Mineral 952.00 2020.60 Suspended matter - ^^^^ ^^ -g^.^.^^^ ,^3^^ 77 ^^ Mineral 462.10 178.60 Dissolved solids ^ ^^^^ ^^ j^^^.^.^^^ jj^ -^q gg g^ * From paper, Sewage Treatment and Sewage Disposal, by W. Santo Crimp, Eng. and Bid Rec. vol. xxvii., p. 237 (Feb. 18, 1893). THE DATA OF HUMAN EXCREMENTS. 155 Table No. 33A— Means op Analyses op London Sewage made by W. J. Dibdin IN 1883. (Parts per 100,000.) Samples from southern outfall , Samples from northern outfall. Average from both outfalls . . . . Percentage composition s i 109 72 181 Dissolved solids. 88..3 79.4 83.9 lOO.O fiO.9 51.6 56.2 67.0 27.4 27.9 27.7 33.0 4.16 5.05 4.60 .523 .584 .553 18.0 12.4 15.2 Suspended matter. 37.5 41.6 39.6 100.0 16.7 19.5 18.1 46.0 20.7 22.0 21.4 54.0 It will be noticed that the drainage from wood pavement is consid- erably more polhited than that from the Macadam, but whether this is due in any degree to differences in the pavements themselves or entirely to variations in traffic is not stated.* The Data of Hum.vn Excrements. Tables Nos. 34:, 35, and 36 furnish important data in regard to the amount of the solid and licpiid excrements from a mixed population, together with the proportion of organic nitrogen and phosphates in the same."*" Excrements, however, do iK^t comprise, as we have already seen, more than one-half of the total pollution in ordinary sewage; but even with this understanding, the variation in quality which results Table No. 34. — Weight in Pou.nds ok the Solid and Liquid Exckements of a Mixed Population op 100,000 Persons fok a Year. Fseces. Urine. Population by sex and age. "3 1 c . .2 S 3 p o t a. o ■3 H 'c . la 03 x: a .37,610 men 4,521,664 1,2:;7,040 1,2.39,504 274,736 52,416 2.s,0()0 20,496 6,270 107,182 98.672 30,038 18,122 4,032 45,217,782 37,4.58,512 6,42:5,670 5,041,344 4.52,144 297,136 53.872 40,-^20 843,472 183,456 34,630 women 14,0ti(l boys 151,648 24,304 13,700 girls 19,152 Totals 7,272,944 1.50,864 94,141,308 .378,560 * Por fliacussion of the effect of different kinds of pavements upon the quality of the w.iter draining off, together vyrith the effect of much or little traffic on streets, see Report of (Jeneral Board of Health on Metropolitan Water Supply. Appendix 8, p. 140. Professor Way, who made the series of analyses there di.scussed, has also given some of them in his paper On the Use of Towu Sewage as Manure, in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc , vol. .xv, pp. 14',t-l.')0. t Ist Rept. of Riv. Pol. Com., p. 27. From the researches of Wolff and Lehmana. 156 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 35. — Weight in Grains of the Solid and Liquid Excrements per Person per Day, and the Organic Nitrogen and Phosphates Contained Therein. Faeces. Uiine. Sex and age. "5 1 "3 . 2 g c ho m p O 10 1 o. § 111 1 '3 . o g 'c M o 1 OS f 04 Men 2,315 694 1,698 386 27 16 29 9 50 17 25 6 23,148 20,8;i3 8,796 6,944 231 166 73 57 94 85 33 Girls 27 1,273 20 25 14,930 132 60 Table No. 36. — Weight in Pounds op the Solid and Liquid Excrements per Person per Year. Faeces. Urine. Sex and age. 1 o 'a . .2g he- o a o JS 1 '3 . .2 g C M d 9 ■ O 1 a .c a O Men 120.45 36.08 88.33 20.07 1.39 0.80 1.51 0.46 2.62 0.86 1.29 0.29 1,204.5 1,083.9 457.7 361.3 12.04 8.61 3.79 2.95 5.28 4..38 1.73 Girls 1.40 m.^i 1.04 1.26 777.68 6.85 3.20 from diflferences in the amount of water supply becomes very ap- parent, especially when we study the question with Tables 34 to 36 before us. In Tables Nos. 85 and 36 we have given the quantity of excrements per day and per year from average single persons, and also from 100,000 persons of an average urban population ; and while we have already expressed the opinion in Chapter IV. that the theoretical values of the manurial constituents of sewage cannot be realized in practice, we nevertheless deem it desirable, for the completeness of the subject, to give a short discussion of fertilizers from the more recent agricultural point of view. The three elements in manures of the greatest value to plant life are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Nitrogen and phos- phoric acid occur abundantly in human excrements, while potash occurs in somewhat smaller quantity. The following from Wolff, as given by Professor Storer,* shows the percentage composition of the leading contituents of human excrements. * Agriculture, vol. ii., p. 70. THE DATA OF HUMAN EXCREMENTS. In? Table No. 36A. — Average Composition of Human Excrements. (Per cent.) Kind. .H u c a ■is O S c bo 2 a o d 0.62 0.U2 0.09 c3 a 77.2 9G..3 93.5 19.8 2.4 5.1 1.00 0.6 0.7 1.10 17 0.20 0.25 0.20 0.21 0.36 0.02 0.06 In estimating- the value of human excrements for manure it must be further remembered that nig-ht-soil, as ordinarily procurable, is not nearly so valuable as fresh excrements, because of the fermentations and leaching-s to which it is usually subject. The following- tabulation, also from Storer {Joe. cif.), gives the averag-e composition of night-soil as taken from vaults, and presumably not subject other than as stated to leaching, dilution, etc. Table No. 36B.— Analyses of Night-soil from Vaults. (Per cent.) Locality. Quesnoy, near Lille (?) (Girardin)* " from large factory* Lille, from a dwelling-house* Paris. L'Hotet Munich, mostly liquid ■' thick liquid Karlsruhe, large public vault (Nessler) Cassel, public vault (Nessler) Stuttgart, public vault (Wolff ) Groningen, average, mostly liquid (Fleischer) Bremen, average, solid and liquid (Fleischer) AveraRe composition of night-soil froin cities, mostly liquid (Wolff) 98.04 99.65 99.86 99.12 99 51 90.52 96.00 96.00 97 10 .31 .70 95.50 2.66 0.05 0.54 1.28 2.01 7.95 3.00 1.51 3.00 0.92 0.18 0.67 0.44 0.18 0.69 0.40 0.90 0.43 0.29 0.53 (t.:!3 0.03 0.10 0.14 0.26 U.52 0.12 0.17 O.dl 0.51 0.35 38 0.21 0.02 0.15 O.iO 36 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.10 0.06 * The first specimen was undiluted and contained 0.76 per cent, of ammonia ; the second, which was much diluted with water, contained only 0.21 per cent, of ammonia : the third, which was diluted with from twelve to fifteen per cent, of water, contamed 0.57 |)er cent, of ammonia ; all of these contained traces of nitrates. + This specimen contained 0.52 per cent, of ammonia. The average of twelve different samples was 0.37 per cent, of nitrogen, the amount having ranged from 0.'25 to 0.62 per cent. Lawes and Gilbert give the following as the amounts of different substances in the solid and liquid excrements of an adult male in a year: Dry substance — faeces, 23.75 pounds ; urine, 34.5 pounds ; total, 58.5 pounds. Mineral matters — faeces, 2.5 pounds ; urine, 12 pounds ; total, 14.5 pounds. Carbon — faeces, 10.0 pounds; urine, 12 pounds; total, 22 pounds. 158 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Nitrogen — faeces, 1.2 pound ; urine, 10.8 jjounds ; total, 12 pounds. Phosphoric acid — faeces, 0.7 pound; urine, 1.93 pound; total, 2.63 pounds. According to Wolff, the amount of potash from the excrements of an adult male per year is : Faeces, 0.24 pound ; urine, 2.01 pounds ; total, 2.25 pounds. In order to illustrate the relative manurial value of the excrements of different domestic animals in comparison with human, we have pre- l^ared Table No. 36C, the data for which are mostly derived from the researches of AVolff. Table No. 36C.— Comparison op Manurial Constituents of the Excrements OF Domestic Animals and Human Beings. (Pounds per net ton.) Serial number. Fresh faeces. Fresh urine. Annaal. o 1 Phosphoric acid. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8.8 .5.8 11.0 12.0 9 4 20 2.02 T.O 3.4 «.2 8.2 6.2 22.0 3.55 7.0 2 3.0 6.2 4.3 5.0 1.10 31.0 31.6 39.0 8.6 92.5 12.0 53 0.2 1.4 0.4 3.4 8.50 so Cow 9.8 Sheep 45.2 16.6 Means of 1, 2, 3, and 4 25.4 4.0 Ratio of (5) to (G) 0.16 In sewage nitrogen is usually present, either as carbonate of ammo- nia and in other ammoniacal salts, or as organic nitrogen in combina- tion with the organic matter. Phosphoric acid is present chiefly as either insoluble phosphates of lime and magnesia, or as soluble phos- phates of soda and ammonia, the latter being the more important in an agricultural point of view. The soluble potash of sewage is mostly derived from excrements, while the insoluble balance chiefly results from the grinding up of granite pavements, the wash therefrom pas- sing into the sewers. According to Hoffmann and Witt in their report to the Commissioners of the Metropolitan Drainage, the manurial constituents in an imperial gallon of the average London sewage of their day were as follows : Nitrogen, grains i^er gallon 6.76 Phosphoric acid, grains per gallon 1.85 Potash, " " " 1.03 A net ton of sewage of this average composition would contain ; Nitrogen 0.19 pound. Phosphoric acid 0.053 Potash 0.029 THE DATA OF HUMAN EXCREMENTS. 159 With nitrogen at 17^ per pound, phosphoric acid at 70, and potash at 50, the theoretical value of the fertilizing- ingredients of such a sew- age would be per net ton, 3.85 cents. If, however, we take into account the various losses of the nitrogen, which is the most valuable element, and the expense of distribution, we reduce the value, even when applied to the best advantage, to not more than from 1 to 2 cents per net ton. When flooded upon land at all times, whether required or not, the value as a fertilizer may quickly become nil* * Many of the cognate questions in regard to the use and utilization of human excrements are of the greatest interest, and the reader who cares to pursue the subject farther should consult Storer's Agriculture, vol. ii., p. 71, and following. Also p. 292 and following of the same volume. The following papers, to be found in Jour, of the Roy. Ag. Soc. of Eng., will be of interest to any person wishing to study the question of the use of fertilizers in all its bearings. They are a few only of the more important which have been published by the Roy. Ag. !£oc. since the begin- ning of its journal in 1840. (1) On the Composition and Money Value of the Different Varieties of Guano, By J. Thomas Way, consulting chemist to the Roy. Ag Soc. Vol. x, pp. 19t>-2o0. (2) On the Power of Soils to Absorb .Manure. By J. Thomas Way. Vol. xi., pp. 313-3T9. Also in vol. xiii., pp. 123-14o. (3) On Agricultural Chemistrj- — Especially in Relation to the Mineral Theorj' of Baron Lie- big. By J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Gilbert. Vol. xii., pp. 1-40. (4) On Superphosphate of Lime : its composition and the methods of making and using it. By J. Thomas Way. Vol. xii., pp. '.i04--,'36. (5) On the Use of Town Sewage as Manure. By J. Thomas Way. Vol. xv., pp. 135-137. (0) The Atmosphere as a Source of Nitrogen to Plants ; being an account of recent researches on this subject. By J. Thomas Waj'. Vol. xvi., pp. 249-267. (7) On the Composition of the Waters of Land Drainage and of Rain. By J. Thomas Way. Vol. xvii. , pp. l^.'3-ir>2. (8) On the Composition of Farmyard Manure, and the Changes which it undergoes on Keep- ing under Different Circumstances. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, Professor Chemistry in the Roy. Ag. CoL, Cirencester. Vol. xvii., pp. 191-:.'G0. (0) On Farmyard Manure, the Drainings of Dungheaps, and the Absorbing Properties of Soils. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Vol. xviii., pp. 111-1,50. (10) On Liquid Manure. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Vol. xix., pp. 519-.552. (11) On the Changes which Liquid Manure undergoes in Contact with different Soils of known composition. By Dr. AugustusVoelcker. Vol. xx., pp. 134-1.57. (12) Farmyard Manure. By J. B. Lawes. Vol. xxiii., pp. 4.5-4S. (13) On the Commercial Value of Artificial Manures. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Vol. xxiii, pp. 277-280. (14) On the Utilization of Town Sewage. By J. B. Lawes. Vol. xxiv., pp 0.5-90. (1.5) Earth vtrsus Water for the Removal and Utilzation i>f Excrementitious Matters. By the Rev. Henry Moiile. Vol. xxiv., i)p. 111-123. (10) The .Money Value of Night-soil and other Manures. By P. H. Frere. Vol. xxiv., pp. 124-131. (17) On the Composition and Practical Value of Several Samples of Native Guano prepared by the ABC ."^ewage Process of the Native Guano Company. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Sec. Ser., vol. vi. , pj). 415-424. (18) On the Composition and Agricultural Value of Earth-closet Manure. By. Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Sec Ser., vol. viii., pp. 185-203. (19) On the Composition of Waters of Land Drainage. By. Dr. Augustus Voelcker. Sec. Ser., vol. X., pp. 132-10.5. (20) On the Valuation of Unexhausted Manures. By J. B. Lawes. Sec. Ser., vol. xi., pp. 1-38. (21) On the Amount and Composition of the Drainage Waters Collected at Rothamsted. By J. igo sewage disposal in the united states. Explanations Concerning the Analysis Of Fertilizers and the Valuation of their Active Ingredients.* Nitrogen is the most rare, and commercially tlie most valuable, fer- tilizing element. Free nitrogen is indeed universally abundant in the common air, but in this form its effects in nourishing vegetation are as yet ob- scure. Organic nitrogen is the nitrogen of animal and vegetable matters, which is chemically united to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some forms of organic nitrogen, as those of blood, flesh, and seeds, are highly active as fertilizers ; others, as found in leather and peat, are comparatively slow in their effect on vegetation, unless these matters are chemically disintegrated. Ammonia (NH3) and nitric acid (N,0.) are results of the decay of or- ganic nitrogen in the soil and manure heap, and contain nitrogen in its most active forms. They occur in commerce — the former in sul- phate of ammonia, the latter in nitrate of soda ; 17 parts of ammonia or 66 parts of pure sulphate of ammonia, contain 14 parts of nitrogen ; 85 parts of pure nitrate of soda also contain 14 parts of nitrogen. Phosphorus is, next to nitrogen, the most costly ingredient of fer- tilizers, in which it always exists in the form of phosphates, usually those of calcium, iron, and aluminum, or in case of some " super-phos- phates," in the form of free phosphoric acid. Soluble phosphoric acid implies phosphoric acid or phosphates that are freely soluble in water. It is the characteristic ingredient of super-phosphates, in which it is produced by acting on "insoluble" or " reverted " phosphates, with diluted sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). Once well incorporated with the soil, it gradually becomes reverted phosphoric acid. Keverted (reduced or precipitated) phosphoric acid means strictly, phosphoric acid that was once easily soluble in water, but from chem- ical change has become insoluble in that liquid. In present usage the term signifies the phosphoric acid (of various phosphates) that is freely taken up by a strong solution of ammonium citrate, which is therefore used in analysis to determine its quantity. " Reverted phosphoric acid " implies phosphates that are readily assimilated by crops. Recent investigation tends to show that soluble and reverted phos- phoric acid are on the whole about equally valuable as plant food, and B. Lawes, J. H. Gilbert, and Robert Warington. Sec. Ser., vol. xvii., Part L, pp. 241-279 ; Part Ll., pp. 311-350; vol. xviii., Part I., pp. 1-71. (22) On the Valuation of Unexhausted Manures. By Sir J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert. Sec. Ser., vol. xxi., pp. 590-611. * From the An. Rept. of the Conn. Ag. Ex. Sta. for 1890, pp. 17-18. CONCERNING THE ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 161 of nearly equal commercial value. In some cases, indeed, the soluble g-ives better results on crops, in others the reverted is superior. In most instances there is probably little to choose between them. Insoluble phosphoric acid implies various phosphates not soluble in water or ammonium citrate. In some cases the phosphoric acid is too insoluble to be readily available as plant food. This is especially true of the crystallized green Canada apatite. Bone-black, bone-ash, South Carolina rock and Navassa phosphate, when in coarse powder, are commonly of little repute as fertilizers, thoug^h good results are occasionally reported from their use. When very finely pulverized (" floats ") they more often act well, especially in connection with abundance of decaying vegetable matters. The phosphate of calcium in raw bones is nearly insoluble, because of the animal matter of the bones, which envelops it ; but when the latter decays in the soil, the phosphate remains in essentially the " reverted " form. The phos- phoric acid of " Thomas-Slag " and of " Grand Caymans Phosphate " is freely taken up by crops. Phosphoric acid ... is reckoned as " anhydrous phosphoric acid " (P,0,), also termed among chemists, phosphoric anhydride, phosphoric oxide, and phosphorus pentoxide. Potassium is the constituent of fertilizers which ranks third in cost- liness. In plants, soils, and fertilizers it exists in the form of various salts, such as chloride (muriate), sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, silicate, etc. Potassium itself is scarcely" known except as a chemical curi- osity. Potash signifies the substance known in chemistry as potassium oxide (K,0), which is reckoned as the valuable fertilizing ingredient of " potashes" and " potash salts." In these it should be freely solu- ble in water and is most costly in the form of sulphate, and cheapest in the form of muriate (potassium chloride). The valuation of a fertilizer . . . consists in calculating the re- tail trade-value or cash cost (in raw material of good quality) of an amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash equal to that con- tained ill one ton of the fei-tilizer. Plaster, lime, stable manure, and nearly all of the less expensive fer- tilizers have variable prices, which bear no close relation to their chemical composition ; but guanos, superphosphates, and similar arti- cles, for which $80 to $50 per ton are paid, depend chiefiy for their trade-value on the three substances, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 7M)tash, which are comjiaratively costly and steady in ]U'ice. The trade- Talun per pound of these ingredients is reckoned from the current market prices of the standard articles which furnish them to com- merce. The consumer, in estimating the reasonable price to pay for high- 11 162 SEWAGE DISPOSAL iN THE UNITED STATES. grade fertilizers, should add to the trade-value of the above named in- gredients a suitable margin for the exi^enses of manufacture, etc., and for the convenience or other advantage incidental to their use. Theoretical Values. In order to indicate the theoretical value of the nitrogen, phosphates and potash of sewage, the following statement of trade values of the fertilizing ingredients in raw materials and chemicals, as used by the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station during 1892 and 1893, is included. It is stated that the valuations obtained by the use of these figures will agree fairly well with the average retail price of standard, raw materials.* 1892. 189:i. Cts. per Cts. per pound. pound. Nitrogen in ammonia salts 17i 17 " in nitrates 15 15 i Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, and blood, and in high-grade mixed fertilizers 16 17^ Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal and castor-pomace . 15 16^ " " in fine ground bone and tankage 15 15 '« " in fine ground medium bone and tankage 12 12 " " in medium bone and tankage 9^ 9 " " in coarse bone and tankage 7^ 7 " " in hair, horn shavings, and coarse fish scraps 7 7 Phosphoric acid, soluble in water 7^ fii " " soluble in ammonium citrate 7^ 6 " " in fine bone and tankage 7 6 *' " in fine medium bone and tankage 5^ 5 " "in medium bone and tankage 4-J 4 " " in coarse bone and tankage 3 S «* " in fine ground fish, cotton-seed meal, castor- pomace, and wood ashes 5 5 Phosphoric acid in fine ground rock phosphate 2 2 Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muriates (chlo- rides) , in ashes, etc 5| 5^ Potash in kainit 4^ 4|^ " in muriate 4^ 4^ Organic nitrogen in mixed fertilizers 17 17^ Insoluble phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers 2 2 VALUATION OP FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN FOODS. Organic nitrogen 1'^^ Phosphoric acid 5 Potash 5^ The authors are not to be understood as in any way implying that the theoretical values indicated by the foregoing table can be realized iu sewage utilization in practice. *Bul. No. 52— New Series (March, 1893), Analysis of Commercial PertilizerB. N. Y. Ag. Exp. Sta., Geneva, N. Y., Peter Collier, Director. material required for intermittent filtration. 163 The Fixed Data of Sewage Disposal. Tables 34 to 36 inclusive are given as about the only approximately fixed data in sewag-e disposal ; all tlie other elements being subject to relatively greater variations than occur in the average amount of excrements of a fixed population. Amount of water used per capita, whether the sewerage system is separate or combined, amount and quality of tlie manufacturing wastes, all these will enter into the problem in any given case. The Mechanical Analysis of Soils. We come now to the consideration of an entirely different class of data, which liave recently been found of fundamental importance in sewage disposal, namely, that derived from a mechanical analysis of the material to be used either for broad irrigation or intermittent filtration. A thorough knowledge of the mechanical properties of soils ^\all, with other data derived from the Lawrence experiments, en- able one to determine beforehand approximately the amount of purifi' cation which can be attained with any given soil. There are a number of methods by which the mechanical ingredi- ents of a soil may be separated from each other, but the most impor- tant ones, aside from or in connection with the use of sieves, are the Hilgard's Elutriator, and Osburn's Beaker method. The use of these two methods is only possible, however, when one has at hand a fairly well equipped physical laboratory, and in a practical way much may be learned by the mere use of a series of sieves of different degrees of fineness. Classification of Soil Particles. The following table gives the classes into Avhich the materials com- posing soils may be separated with reference to the diameters of the particles : mm. mm. Grits of fine gravel "with diameter of 2.0 Coai'se .sand " " Modinni .sand " " Fine .sand " •' Very fine sand or dust " " Silt' " ^' Fine silt *« '• Clay « " 0.005 " 0.0001 Quality of Material Required for Intermittent Filtration, In sewage dis]iosal by intermittent filtration, it is necessary for suc- cessful purification to use material the particles of which are large 2.0 down tc )1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.005 164 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. enough to allow the org-auic matters in suspension in the sewage to pass into the interstices, where they are resolved into primary elements through the action of nitrification. As we shall see in the discussion of the results of the experiments at Lawrence, in Chapter XIV., on Intermittent Filtration, very fine soils are less useful for sewage puri- fication than coarse, clean sands. In order to illustrate the differences Table No. 37.— Mechanical Analyses op Typical Soils from the South Caro- lina Agricultural Experiment Station Farms. (Per cent.) Diameter of grains. Spartanburg • farm. Columbia farm. Darlington farm. Ingredients. Upland. Sandy. Sandy. Millimetres. Inches. Soil. Red subsoil. Soil. Subsoil. Soil. Subsoil. Grits Above 1 mm. 1.0 to 0.50 0.50 to 0.25 0.25 to 0.10 0.10 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.01 Le.ss than 0.01 Above 0.04 0.04 to 02 0.02 to 0.01 0.01 to 0.004 0.004 to 0.002 002 to 0.0004 Le.ss than 0.0004 11.300 6.545 5.541 10.293 .37.709 21. .363 6.956 5.293 4.236 2.742 6.123 23.672 45.021 11.804 1.276 43.390 23.626 11.820 7.875 9.740 1.733 1.4.30 ■ 36.486 25.156 14.537 8.708 12.473 . 1.077 ! 3.361 35.308 14.222 14.211 22.981 10 220 .281 2.565 Coarse sand Medium sand 27..330 10.190 11.501 Very fine sand Silt 19.605 28.180 Clay .166 Totals 99.707 71.388 98.891 42.066 99.460 87.987 99.867 86.317 99.584 89.083 99.537 Per cent, of porosity 71.191 in mechanical constituents which exist in natural soils, reference may be made to Tables 37 and 38, in which are included the mechanical analyses of a number of soils from the South Carolina Experiment Station Farms, as given in the Second Annual Keport of the South Carolina Experiment Stations. Table No. 38. — Approximate Number of Particles in One Gram of Soil from THE Farms of the South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Stations (See Table 37) ; together with the Diameter op the Average Sized Particle in Millimetres. Ingredients. Average diameter. Spartanburg. Columbia. Darlington. Soil. Red subsoil. Soil. Subsoil. Soil. Subsoil. Grits Mm. 1.5 0.75 0.375 0.15 0.075 0.03 0.005 24 112 759 22.040 646.000 5.717.000 402,200,000 10 73 378 13,210 408,800 12.150,000 687.900.000 3 747 8,602 25,370 135,300 2,613.000 100.680,000 3 624 .3,363 31,070 149.000 3,33:1000 60.900,000 5 606 1,951 30,470 385,200 2,677,000 16,270,000 5 Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand 469 1,399 24.670 Very fine sand Silt 386,400 7,557.000 Clay 9,615.000 Total number of particles Diameter of average sized par- ticle 408,.585,935 0.01209 700,472,471 0.01009 103,46:3.022 0.01911 64,417,060 0.0224 19.365,332 0.03337 17,5.34,943 0.04384 MECHANICAL STUDIES OF SOILS. 165 Table No. 39. — Sukface Area op Particles in One Gram of Soil from the Farms of the South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Stations (See Tables 37 and 38). In Square Centimetres. Ingredients. Grits Coarse sand . . , Medium sand,. Fine siind Very fine sand. Silt! Clay Total surface. Avorage diameter in milli- metres. 1.5 0.75 0.875 0.15 0.075 0.0:i (1.005 Spartanburg. Soil. 1.7 2.0 3.3 1.96 in 2 101.7 316.2 618.' Red sub- soil. 0.8 1.2 1.6 9.3 72.2 343.6 540.3 969.0 Columbia. Soil. Subsoil. . 0.2 0.2 13.2 11.0 38.2 18.7 17.9 21.9 1 23.9 26.3 73.9 94.2 79.1 47.8 246.2 220.1 Darlington. Sou. 0.4 10.7 8.6 21.5 68.0 75.6 12.7 197.5 Subsoil. 0.3 8.2 6.1 17.4 59.4 213.7 7.5 312.6 In Table 39 is given the surface area in one g-ram of soil from the same localities.* Thus far, g-eneral studies of the mechanical constituents of soils have been carried to a somewhat g-reater degree of perfection at the South Table No. 40. — Per Cent, of Empty Space in a Number of Soils in Compar- ison with Average Size of Particles, Approximate Number of Particles, AND Surface Area per Gr.\m. Locality. Illinois, " prairio soil " Sea I.sland, " cotton soil "' East Windsdr, Conn., " clay .soil " Granvilli' Co. , N. Citi-.. " tobacco soil " . East Windsor, Conn., " blowing sand ". Columbia, S. C., farm " soil" t Coluinbin. S. C , farm " subsoil " t DarlinRtoii, S. C. farm "soil " t Diirlinnton, S. G., farm "'subsoil" + .. . " Coarse river sand " •' Coarse river sand " Maryland. " pine barrens " Maryland, " truck" • tobacco " ■ wheat " ■ river terrace " ' limestone (grass land)" Maryland, Maryland, Maryland. Maryland, ' Diameter of averaged sized particles, in mm. 0067 Oi.57 0.0087 0.0111 0124 0.01911 0.0-.J24 0.0.i337 04:jS4 O.aOS 0.S.S3 .\pproximate number of parti- cles in 1 gram. 2,372. 42, 1,101, 507. ?.6~, IWl 64, 19, 17, 1,69-2, 6,8(iS. S.2.5S lo.a'-.s, ll,6f.200 Tobacco 84.8.'i0 I Limestone 20.'.»'00 Carolina and Maryland Ag-ricultural Stations than at any other place in this country, the work at both of these stations having been di- * For fornnulK! for computing the (liametorof the average sized particles, number of particles in a gram, surface area, etc., see 2d An. Report S. Car. Ag. Ex. Stations, Appendix, pp. 9.')-96. 166 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. rected by Professor Miltou Whitney, whose researches in this direc- tion are of great theoretical value. But for practical value in connection with sewage purification, the studies of the mechanical conix)osition of filtering- materials made at the Lawrence Experiment Station, and out- lined, with deductions, in the Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1891, are first in rank. In order to further illustrate the differences in soils which exist at various localities, we have included Table No. 40, compiled from the Second Annual Report of the South Carolina and the Fourth Annual Report of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Stations. In Table No. 41 are given the mechanical analyses of the material from a number of the experimental tanks at Lawrence, as detailed in the Massachusetts report mentioned just above. Table No. 41. — Mechanical Composition op the Materials Used in a Number OF THE Experimental Filter Tanks at the Lawrence Experiment Station.* Diameter in millimetres. Per cent. No. 5. No. 4. No. 2. No. 9. No. 6. No. 1. No. 5A. No. 16. Finer than 12.6 " 0.2 99 96 9? 89 80 67 51 33 16 6 100 85 .•?5 10 : 100 DO 43 10 2 W) !tl 26 3 83 73 57 32 13 4 2 0.5 100 97 85 53 7 1.5 100 95 31 4 2 1.5 1.0 0.5 98 27 •'2 2 " .1)8 " .4(5 " .24 12 •' .06 • .03 " '• .01 (Organic) ♦These figures are based on the weight of the sand paiticles finer than the size- given in the first cohimn. The studies at Lawrence are so clearly and concisely set forth by Mr. Allen Hazen f that we cannot do better than to give them here as follows : Mechanical Composition of Materials Used at Lawrence. In making a mechanical analysis the .sand is first sifted thvongh a series of sieves, each, in a general way, twice as fine as the one next coarser. The sand passing the finest sieve is divided into several portions by beaker elntriation. Each jiortion is weighed, and the range in the sizes of its particles is determined by micrometer measurement in the case of the smaller particles, but the diameters of the larger particles can be more conveniently and accurately calculated from their weight. . The diameters of all particles are taken at, as nearly as possible, the diameter of a sphere of equal volume. Of course the sand grains are irregular. With the Law- rence sands the average lengths of their axe.s, selecting the longest and taking the other two at right angles to it, are to each other as 4 : 3 : 2, and the mean diameter, •taken as the cube root of the product of the three axes, 2.88. The longest diameter thus averages to be nearly 40 per cent, longer than the mean diameter, while the middle diameter, which is the width as seen by a microscoj^e, is an approximation to the mean diameter. + Chemist in charge of the station. 23d An. Rept. Mass. St. Bd. Hlth., pp. 428 et seq. COMPOSITIOX OF MATEKIALS USED AT LAWKEXCE. 167 The analyses of .some of the materials which have been most carefullv studied in their relations to sewage puritication are shown in the preceding table [So. 41). The figures given show the per cent, by weight of the different materials having smallei- diameters than the size given in the first column. These results have been revised by improved methods of analysis, so that in some cases the following fig- ures differ slightly from those given in the report upon the Purification of Sewage and Water. For study and comparison the results have been plotted, and are shown on the accompanying diagram (Fig. 7). the height of curve at any point showing the per cent, of material finer than the size indicated wo at the bottom of the diagram. The lines representing the diameters are spaced ac- cording to tiie logarithms of the diameters of the particles, as in this way materials of cor- responding uniformity in the range of sizes of their particles give equally steep curves, regardless of the absolute sizes of the parti- clo-<, thus greatly facilitating a compari.son of different materials. This scale also shows adequately every grade of material from 0.01 to above 10 millimetres in a small space, and without unduly extending any portion of the scale. It is assumed for the imrpose of plotting that the particles of organic mat- ter (determined by the loss due to heating that portion of the material finer than the 140 mesh sieve to a dull red heat) are less than 0.01 millimetres in diameter These materials mav be said to include the whole range of sands available for sewage purification. Anything as fine as No. 5* is too fine for advantageous use, while, at the other end, it would hardly be safe to depend upon a gravel coarser than No. 16 with a filtering stratum not over five or six feet in thickness. With the mixed materials, Nos. 5 and 6, the smaller particles fill the siaaces be- tween the larger, and these finer portions determine the capillary attraction of the filter, its resistance to the passage of sewage, and. in fact, its action in every way. The appearance of No. 6 is coarser than No. 1, and the average size of its particles is greater, but its finest portion determines its character as a filter, so that it is prac- ticallv finer than No. 1. It has been found as the result of a careful studv that the // ^ / / "t/ y mm J m \ f \ m \ 1 M 1 j / i f u ' / /// \ / 1 ^'"'// J j^. / / / Coone ::5^/j^::2t^^ / 80 %so ^ 20 .01 .05 .06 jZ .Z4 .46 -SS 2.Z0 blO iZ.bO Diameter in millimeters Fig. 7. — Mechanical, Composition op Sand used for Filtration at thk Lawrence Experlment Station. Table No. 41 A — Size and Uniformity Coefficient of Filtkking Materials Used at Lawrence. Number of filter. Ten per cent, of material finer than (millimetres). Uniformity co-efficient. No. 5 ^ . 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.17 0.:« O.-IS 1.40 5.00 9.0 A 2.3 2 2.3 9 2.0 6 7.8 1 2.4 5a ; . . 2.4 16 1.8 points where the curves in the diagram cut the 10 per cent, line give the best idea of the total effect of the various materials. Bv measurements of the diagram we * For convenience tho different mat-'tials are numbered to correspond with the filter tanks in which they were first used. 168 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. find that with the various materials 10 per cent. l)y weight of the particles are smaller than the sizes given in the lollowing table. This gives as good an idea of the relative effect of sizes of the materials as can be condensed into a single figure for each. To obtain a definite basis of comparison of the uniformities of the sizes of the grains of different materials, tlie ratios between the diameters of the particles at the 10 per cent, line, as given above, and the diameters at the 60 jjer cent, line are given in the table (No. 41 A.) under the heading " Uniformity Coefficient." If all the grains of a sand were absolutely of the same size, the coefficient would be 1 ; with a majority of our comparatively even-grained sands the coefficient ranges from 2 to 3 ; with No. G and No. 5, the figures are 8 and 9 respectively, and some ex- tremely uneven sands have coefficients as high as 20 or 30, but our data in regard to the action of such materials is as yet very limited. Kelation Between Quality of Filterixg Material and Quantity of Applied Sewage. The actual quantities of sewag-e which have been found to be the best adapted to seven of the Lawrence experimental filters under the most favorable circumstances, together with the size and depth of the filtering- materials, size of dose and frequency of application are given in Table 41B. Table No. 41B. — Quantity op Sewage Applied to Different Filtering Mate- rials AT Lawrence. Material. Diameter of grain, mm. 10 per cent, finer than — Depth of material (ft.). Size o Gallons per acre. f dose. Per cent. of vo nine of filter. Number of doses in one week. Averaere amount applied daily, gala, per acre. No. Ifi 5.00 .48 .••.5 .17 .OH .03 .0-.i 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 2S00 40.0(10 Td.OnO l:iO,UOO 140.000 80,000 0.17 2.45 8.60 • 4.91 500 18 6 3 3 200.000 1 103,000 fiO.OOO 9 103,000 2 60.000 4 34,000 5 Additional data under this head appears in Chapter XIV., on Inter- mittent Filtration. Chapter X^rCI., On the Temperature of Air and Natural Soils, also presents further data applying- to broad irrigation and intermittent filtration. CHAPTER IX. DISCHAKGE INTO TIDAL OR OTHER LARGE BODIES OF WATER. Under this head little needs to be said iu addition to the prelimi- nary discussion iu Chapter I., which has already indicated that the present work is not specially concerned with this particular form of disposal. As useful examples the sewerage of two large cities may be referred to. Early American Sewerage Systems. The sewerage system of the city of Chicago, designed by E. S. Ches- brough, C.E., in 1855, has usually been considered a model on which other towns could safely build. At that time the idea that the preva- lence of typhoid fever and many other infectious diseases was directly related to the presence of sewage in drinking-water had hardly been broached in this country, and even in England, where rational ideas of sanitation developed at a relatively early date, the great bulk of the sanitary literature Mdiieh has since enriched the English language had at that time hardly more than began to come into being. The discus- sions of the tifteen or twenty years immediately preceding that period had, however, awakened sanitary authorities to the necessity of get- ting rid of waste products in some more effectiial way than by turning into cesspools or by merely throwing into streets. The English sewerage systems of the period from 1850 to 18G0 were chiefly con- structed, th(>refore, with reference to getting sewage first of all out of the houses and to^^^^s, and undoubtedly, even though the outfall emp- tied in many cases into the nearest small watercourse, the improve- ment in public health was nevertheless as a whole markedly apparent. Sewerage at Chicago. Thanks to tlie foresight of ^Ir. Chesbrough, Chicago has had, ever since the initiation of permanent sewer construction in 1855, a pre- designed system Avliich has been systematically carried out from year to year. Before designing the same, Mr. Chesbrongh visited England in order to study the state of the art of sewerag** tlun-e, and we may conclude, inasmucli as there were at that time absolutely no models on which to build in tliis country, that tlie Chicago sewerage svstem was 170 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. made a fair epitome of current foreig-n practice with such modification as the ablest municipal engineer of the day considered desirable in order to fit it to the conditions of a rapidly developing- American me- tro])olis. As preliminary, then, to a short description of the Chicago outfall sewers, we may properly examine, though briefly, the antece- dent circumstances which led to considerable activity in systematic sewer building' in Eng-land, in the fifth decade of the present century. Condition of English Towns Fifty Years Ago. The beginning of modern sanitary science in England is indicated by the first report of the Health of Towns Commission in 1844. The rapid and alarming" increase in the death-rate in many of the English towns had been, it is true, the subject of partial investigation by par- liamentary committees previous to that time ; but the earlier reports, while frequently voluminous, add almost nothing- to the stock of knowledge of the evil investigated ; and it was only on the publication of the Health of Towns Commission's Report that exact information as to the cause of the increase became available. The Commission's first report, together with the second and third of the series, revealed a condition of affairs in many of the English towns of that day which has thus far been without parallel in this country. Even New Orleans a,t its worst must have been a cleanly city in comparison with what ex- isted in many of the English towns in 1844. * For instance, in Liv- erpool it was found that a cellar population amounting to more than 20,000 persons was absolutely without any place of deposit for its refuse matter, while in houses inhabited by the working-classes a large proportion were in a similar predicament. t The reports abound in similar statements, many of them in reference to whole streets in populous districts, and in some cases nearly whole towns, where the public streets were the only places of deposit for the most * See vol. xix. of Tenth Census of U. S., Social Statistics of Cities, Pt. II., pp. 204-267, where may be found, in the article on New Orleans, a graphic presentation of the ravages of the several cholera epidemics at New Orleans. Chicago, however, was itself sufficiently unhealthy for the year immediately preceding the beginning of sewer construction in accordance with the general plan of Mr. Chesbrough. Indeed, it was chiefly a succession of epidemics of cholera and dysen- tery for several years which led, in February, 1S5.5, to the passage of an act by the Illinois Legisla- ture creating the Chicago Soard of Sewer Commissioners. The construction of sewers began in 1856. It should be stated in this connection that the first public water supply was introduced in 1840 by a company when the population was small ; that more extensive works were built by the city in 1852 54, just at the close of the first period named directly below. In 1867 the first water intake tunnel was built beneath the lake, greatly improving the supply, and in 1874 a second intake tunnel was added. All these facts should be considered in this connection, and especially in con- nection with the note to the followng table. From 1845 to 1856 the mean annual death-rate had been 39.91 per 1,000. while from 1S.56 to 1870 it was only 23.97. The following table shows the 1 1st Rept. Health of T. Com., vol. i., p. 128. RESULTS OF THE EARLY SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 171 offensive waste products of the human economy ; and into these all such were indiscriminately pitched, even from second-stor}^ windows or balconies, as the case mig-ht be.* As recently as 1861 we tind it stated with regard to one place, that even in the centre of the town no accommodation of any kind is provided, and hence the adult male population defecate habitually in the gardens or in the road,t ami so on ad nauseam. When we consider that the Health of Towns Commis- sion's Reports relate to a period only 50 years past, and the conditions described existed in several places less than 25 years ago, and it is only within 35 or 40 years that any material improvement has been effected in some of the worst localities, we may appreciate the enter- prise of the people of Chicago in sending their chief engineer abroad in 1855 in order that he might profit, in designing the Chicago system, to the fullest extent, by whatever new or useful had been developed under the active agitation of sanitary questions which then prevailed in England.]: Results of the Early Se\verage Systems. As the result of turning the house sewage of a large number of towns, as well as the manufacturing wastes of many rapidly developing manufacturing centres in various parts of the county into the streams, a nuisance of a new character was soon created which was quite as serious as the one which the construction of sewers had been more or number of feet of sewers built annually, the population, mortality, and the death-rate per 1,000 for the series of years from 1850, when the first sewers were constructed, to 1870 : Year. Feet of Hewer built. Population. Deaths. Death-rate per 1.000. 185fi . 31,794 25,081 101,879 55.208 09.024 2.820 15,085 .39.005 25.021 29.948 48.127 89,001 47,8.11 139.705 78,16fi 84,113 93.1100 84,000 90.000 109 200 120.000 137,030 1.50,000 101.288 178.492 200.418 225.000 252.000 280,000 299.227 2,086 2.414 2,255 2.008 2.204 2,279 2.&35 3.875 4.448 4,029 0..524 4.648 5.984 0.488 7,343 24 80 1K57 25.06 185s 20.84 1859 21.36 ISOO 20.70 1 801 18.99 1802 20.69 18fi3 25.83 1804 27.57 1805 ' 22.57 18»Mi 32.22 1807 1H«8 21.17 23.74 1809 1870 2.3.16 24.53 From 1870 to 1879. inclusive, the dcatli-rate was 21.15. (From " Sanitiirv Problems of Chicatro, Past and I'resent." By John H. Rouch, M.D. Ueprint from Rnc. An. Kept, of the 111. St. Bd. of Health, p. 10.) * In verification of these statements see Ist Rept. Health of T. Com., loc. cit.; also 2d Rept. Health of T. Cf)m., vol. i,. p. 370; vol. ii., p. 84. Also see Repta. Med. Officer Priv. Council. + 4th Rept. Health Officer Priv. Coun., 1861, X For more complete resume of tlie sanitary condition of the Hutjlish towns .50 years ago, see Corfield's Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, lird Ed,, Cliaptcrs i. to iii., inclusive. 172 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. less successful in relieving-. Hence, sewage disposal, purification, or utilization, became a pressing question in the fifth decade of the cen- tury. A clear idea of the various views prevailing at that time may be obtained from either the Preliminary Report of the Sewage of Towns Commission or the Report of Henry Austin, On the Means of Deodorizing and Utilizing the Sewage of Towns.* Mr. Chesbrough's Chicago Report. The state of sewage disposal in England at about the time of Mr. Chesbrough's study of the English methods has been briefly presented in order to saliently illustrate the fact that, w^hile no adequate concep- tion of the evils resulting from mixing house sewage with drinking- water existed at that time, even with people who had made sanitation a specialty, nevertheless Mr. Chesbrough must have returned from Eurojje very thoroughly permeated with the prevailing views as to the necessity of some form of sewage purification ; and it is accordingly interesting to notice that the matter of ultimate disposal occupies an important place in his report of 1855. By reason of being, so far as the authors can learn, the first American report in which sewage dis- posal other than by discharge into the nearest water-course is touched at all, we derive an additional incentive for inquiring how this ques- tion happened to receive extended consideration in connection with the sewerage plans of an American city at that relatively early day. The preceding historical paragraphs answer the question thus raised, and without dwelling further on this part of the question, we may proceed to consider the sewerage system actually designed. Mr. Chesbrough's report begins, after a short introductory para- graph, by asking the question. What shall the sewage of the city be drained into 1 The answer is that four principal plans have been pro- posed, namely : (1) Into the river and its branches directly, and thence into the lake. (2) Directly into the lake. (3) Into artificial reservoirs, to be thence pumped up and used as manure. (4) Into the river, and thence by the proposed steamboat canal into the Illinois river. * The Sewage of Towns Commission, the commission of which bears date .January 5, 1857, were directed under its terms " to inquire into the best mode of distributing the sewage of towns and applying it to beneficial and profitable uses." Their first report was issued in 1858. The Report of Henry Austin, C.E., was presented to the President of the General Board of Health in 1857. In these two reports may be found a fair summation of the various methods of sewage dis- posal of that day, the Report of the Sewage of Towns Commission treating the question mostly from the point of view of utilization by agriculture, while the Report of Mr. Austin presents the side of the chemical purificationists of 35 years ago. THE CHICAGO KIVEK. 173 In order, according- to the report, to take advantage of the natural facilities of the site at a minimum of expense, the first plan as given above was adopted ; that is, the sewage of the city was from economic considerations discharged by way of the river into Lake Michigan. The objections to the third jDlan as stated in the report were : (1) The great uncertainty about there being a demand for the sew- age after it is pumped up, sufficient to pay for distributing it. (2) The great evil that would necessarily result from a failure of the reservoirs through insufficiency of capacity, especially if the system of sewers leading to them should have their outlets too low to emjity into the lake or river. If the reservoirs should be made so large as to place them beyond all doubt of having sufficient capacity, they would be very expensive, both on account of the labor and material required in their construction and the ground they would occup}'. (3) There would be danger to the health of the city during the prev- alence of winds from the quarter in which the sewage might be used as a manure, especially if only a few miles distant and spread over a wide surface. Mr. Chesbrough's third objection to the use of sewage has been found l\v the more extended experience of later years to be mostly without foundation for fairly well-managed sewage farms. Mr. Chesbrough remarks that should the time ever arrive when the value of the sewage would be so g-reat as to permit of saving it for this purpose, the sewers as designed would still serve their purpose as conduits for surface water, while a system of small pipes to take house sewage, only, could be laid down at a minimum expense. With regard to the fourth plan of draining into the proposed steam- boat canal, and thence into the Illinois river, Mr. Chesbrough also remarks that this is too remote a contingency to be relied upon for present purposes. "We shall see, however, in Part II., that a partial application of this method by utilization of the Illinois and Michigan canal has been in use more or less continually since 1865.* The Chic.vgo Eiver. Tli(! Chicago river, before its enlargement through the city for purposes of navigation, was a small stream of sluggish flow with a total drainage area of perhaps 800 square miles. It divides in the central part of the city, at a point about a mile from the lake, into two branches, the Noi*th branch and the South branch, the North branch being about 30 miles in lengtli, and the South branch about 5 miU^s. Both run nearly parallel to the lake shore, and only a short * For complete text of Mr. Chesbrough's Chicago Report, see Eng. News, vol. ii. (1875), pp. 42, 55, and 79. 174 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATP:S. distance from it. The enlarged river now comprises the inner harbor, which had, according- to data collected in 1887,* a total dock frontage, including slips, of 20.7 miles, and an area of 406.0 acres. The inner harbor is estimated to contain over 60,000,000 cubic feet of water. In dry weather it receives only a small amount of water from the re- stricted drainage area of the river from which it is formed, and what it does receive is contaminated before reaching Chicago. Into such a broad area of already contaminated water is poured daily, except as noted below, the sewage of a large portion of the city, amounting in 1890 to at least 22,000,000 cubic feet daily. Hence the daily inflow of sewage is about one-third of the total contents of the harbor. This ex- treme pollution of the river-harbor was first relieved in 18G5 by forcing a large amount of water from the river into the Illinois and Michigan canal, thereby causing a flow of water from Lake Michigan through the city into the canal, and so 021 to the Des Plaines river at Joliet. This, however, only partially relieved the South branch. For the re- lief of the North branch, a tunnel 12 feet in diameter was built beneath Fullerton avenue and extended into Lake Michigan. This tunnel was first operated in 1880. Two screws capable of forcing 15,000,000 cubic feet per day at ordinary speeds furnish a motive power by which a current may be sent either from the river into the lake, or by reversal of the machinery from the lake into the river, as may be found most desirable at different stages of the two bodies of water. Fig. 8, from the Keport of the Chicago Drainage Commission, shows the relative proportions of sewage and lake water in the Chicago river and its branches. For the more complete relief of the South branch, pumping ma- chinery of a nominal capacity of 60,000 cubic feet i^er minute was pro- vided at Bridgeport, the point where the Illinois and Michigan canal connects with the Chicago river, in 1883. A brief description of these works, together with one of the Fullerton Avenue conduit, is given in Part II. In 1893 improvements were in progress designed to increase the capacity of the Bridgeport works to 100,000 cubic feet per minute, or over 1,000,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, against 6 ft, head. The continual rapid increase of the population of Chicago has, how- ever, produced such farther fouling of the river as to lead to a revival in the last few years of the project of a large navigable canal from Lake Michigan to the Illinois river drainage at Joliet, through which enough water can be sent each day to not only entirely relieve the river of its present visible pollution, but which will, it is hoped by the projectors, also so far dilute its waters as to render the Chicago sew- age in effect harmless to the Illinois river communities who derive * The Lakes and Gulf Waterway as related to the Chicago Sanitary Problem. By L. E. Cooley, C.E., p. 33. THE CHICAGU KIVER. 176 i t § ■ ' ^ -J t349 bujdairy 4jodabpijg- '|9 6UU33Q- ■+9 30O||OM lo c:i M •+9 4491 •+S>1IOcl Coi°> il •4.5 UOSIpOl/Nj' a'V M4S ijiuiJidn rpooO'SI '31° J uj(/ LijjoM •yujnoqAi)- c- •UHu-ad^rnooo'Qi ' itlOiwOjfpiduindJl4DM ;z; 5 < rt p: 1 > j^ -^ tf C .^ ca » B OS m b «i .D H tn S? 5^ H p: b « 1 oi (<4 9/1 (^ UO^djinj 176 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IIS^ THE UNITED STATES. their water supplies from that river. A complete description of the project in all its bearings would extend beyond the limits of this chap- ter, where the only object is to call attention to some of the difficulties which have attended sewage disposal at Chicago ; but it should be added that work is now in progress, under the direction of the Trus- tees of the Sanitary District of Chicago, on a drainage canal designed to have a capacity of at least 300,000 cubic feet per minute. In rock cut the capacity of the canal will be 600,000 cubic feet. Brief consid- eration of the relations of the discharge of a considerable portion of the sewage of the city in such manner as to finally find its way into Lake Michigan, from which the water supply of the city is also drawn, may be properly made. In favor of the present project of discharging to the Des Plaines river it is urged that in prehistoric times there ex- isted a channel to the south through which at any rate a portion of the waters of Lake Michigan originally discharged to the Illinois and finally to the Mississippi river. The Chicago Water Supply. The present water supply of the city is derived from Lake Michigan through tunnels and intake pipes. The first two tunnels were con- structed in 1864-67 and 1872-74, respectively. They are parallel, 46 feet apart, and are driven through clay about 30 feet below the lake bottom to a distance of two miles from the shore, where they terminate in timber cribs, inclosing shafts. The first tunnel is 5 feet wide by 5 feet 2 inches high, and lined with substantial brick masonry; the second is of the same material and 7 feet in diameter ; it extends under the city for four miles, passing under the river and South In^anch to the West side pumping station. A third tunnel was constructed in 1887-92, which extends into the lake a distance of four miles ; it also extends under the city a distance of I5 miles to connect with the new Central and Fourteenth street pumping stations, and also with the old tunnel. The lake section was started with a diameter of 8 feet, but the unfavorable material encountered necessitated two 6-foot tunnels for a good i^art of the distance. A tunnel 6 feet in diameter and Ij miles long also forms a part of the Chicago water- works. It was built jointly by Hyde Park and Lake, which towns Avere annexed to Chicago in 1889. The former town of Lake View, also annexed to Chicago in 1889, was until quite recently supplied through several iron intakes, but a tunnel 6,500 feet long now takes the place of these intakes ; this tunnel is be- ing extended to a length of 10,000 feet. On March 1, 1893, the total daily capacity of the several tunnels was officially reported as being 504,000,000 gallons and the total pumping capacity of the city water- EARLY SEWERS OF BOSTON. 177 works as 356,000,000 gallons. The average daily water pumpage for the year 1892 was 195,000,000 gallons.* Contamination of the Chicago Water Supply. At various times the evidence of sewage contamination about the water supply intakes has been unmistakable, and it is generally con- ceded that the water supply is ordinarily more or less polluted by the sewage which finds its Avay into the lake. The increase in the death- rate from typhoid fever lias been considerable in the last few years (see Table No. 3), a fact which, with our present views as to the causation of typhoid, can hardly be satisfactoril}' explained except by assuming an increasing contamination of the water supply ; we ma}', therefore take Chicago as an illustration of the force of the statement of the opening chapter, that sewage ought not to be discharged into any body of water also used as the source of a public water supply at any point within the influence of the sewage. The Boston Main Drainage. The most elaborate sj'stem of disposal by special appliances for dis- charge into tide-water yet carried out in this country is that of the city of Boston, the Main Drainage Works of which, as completed in 1881 may be justly regarded a model work of the kind ; before describ- ing the Main Drainage we will briefly discuss the antecedent conditions which rendered the works a necessity .f » Early Sewers of Boston. The first sewers of Boston were undoubtedly constructed in the lat- ter part of the 17th century, as we find that at the town meeting of September 22, 1701, it was ordered "that no person shall thenceforth dig up the ground in any of the streets, lanes or highways in this town, tor the laying or repairing of any drain, without tlie leave or ap- probation of two or more of the selectmen." These early sewers were probably built on the co-operative plan. Several neighbors, needing drainage, joined together and constructed a sewer by th(> shortest line to tiilc-water. The expense was divided between the interested parties who owned the drain in common. Any party outside of the original owners who desired to connect was obliged to pay for the privilege * For the latest detailed information regarding the Chicvgo water supply and sewerage sj-stems and the quality of the water, see the 17-pago ac-connt in the London Lancet, Apr. 8, 189:i, or an e.xtendeil abstract in Eng. News, vol xxix.. pp. A'.iX-'.i (May 11, 189:5). + The followin;^ account of the sewers of Boston and th- Main Drainage \Vorks> is abstracted from Eliot C. Clarke's Main Drainage Works of the City of Boston. 12 178 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE INITED STATES. whatever they saw tit to charge. The expense of repairs was divided, between the parties using- the drain when the repairs were made. The Massachusetts Sewer Act of 1709. This method, while answering the purposes for the construction of the tirst drains, was found unsatisfactory when extended, and in 1709 the Colonial Legislature passed an act regulating the construction of drains and sewers. This act of 1709 is the foundation of the present system of sewer assessments in most of the New England as well as some of the other States, and its jDrovisions may be properly cited at some length. It is entitled : An Act passed by the Great and General Court or Assembly of Her Majesty's Province of the Massachusetts Bay, for Regulating of Drains and Common Shores,* for Preventing Inconveniences and Damages by frequent breaking up of Highways- . . . and of differences arising among Partners in such Drains or Common Shores about their Proportion of the Charge for Making and Repairing the same. The act provides (1) a penalty for breaking up the ground in any highway within any toAvn for laying, repairing, or amending any com- mon shore, without the approbation of the selectmen ; (2) that all such, structures, for the draining of cellars, shall be substantially done with brick or stock : f (3) that it shall be lawful for any inhabitant of any town to lay a common shore or main drain for the benefit of themselvea and others who shall think fit to join therein, and every person who shall afterward enter his or her particular drain into such main drain, or by more remote means receives benefit therefey, for the drainage of their cellars or lands, shall be obliged to pay unto the owner or owners a proportionate part of the charge of making or repairing the same, or that part of it below where their particular drain enters. Disputes were settled by references to the selectmen, who decided the amount each person should pay. An appeal from the selectmen's decision could be taken to the courts. The sewers of Boston were built, repaired, and owned under the pro visions of this act until 1823, when a new charter was obtained. One of the first acts of the new city government was to assume control of all existing sewers and of the building and care of new ones. In regard to the sewers built by private enterprise between the years 1709 and 1823, little can be said in their praise, although the greater part of Boston of that day was thus sewered by private enterprise. The contents of privies were excluded, but they received the wastes from pumps and kitchen sinks, and also rain-water from roofs and yards. That much refuse got into them is proved by their frequently^ * Sewers. + Stone. THE LIMITS OF ORIGIXAL BOS^TOX. 179 tilliug" up. Tills difficulty led to disputes about payments for repairs, so that in 1763 the act of 1709 was amended in such manner as to provide for assessment of cost of repairs on all iiersons benefited. In 1824 Mayor Josiah Quincy, in referring- to the old sewers, said : No system could be more inconvenient to the public or embarrassing to private persons. The streets were oijened with little care, the drains built according to the opinion of private interest or economy, and constant, interminable, vexatious occasions of dispute occurred between the owners of the drain and those who en- tered it, as to the degree of benefit and proportion of contribution. Since 1823 the sewers have all been built by the city, with varying- proportions of the expense, as before, charged to the estates benefited, but apportioned with reference to their assessed valuation. Previoiis to 1838, a small variable portion of the cost was g-enerally assumed by the city in consideration of its use of the sewers for the removal of storm water from the streets ; in that year the city decided to assume one-quarter of the g^ross cost.* The Limits of Original Boston, The orig-inal city of Boston, by reason of being- a town on hills, with quick descent to the water in all directions, was comparatively easy to sewer, but the changes which have taken place through the reclaiming and filling" of the tidal areas bordering- the old limits have transformed it into a city presenting many obstacles to the construction of efficient sewerage. This will be understood by examining Fig. 9, on which the shaded portion represents very nearly the area of the city in 1823, The un- shaded portion consists entirely of reclaimed land, filled to such an extent that the streets of the reclaimed district are seldom over seven feet above mean high water. A large proportion of the house base- ments and cellars are lower than high water, and frequently but from five to seven feet above low- water mark, the mean rise and fall of the tid(? being ten feet. Most house drains are under the cellar floors, and f ill ill reaching the street sewers, while the latter, in their turn, fall towards their outlets, which are rarely much above low water. As a foiisequence the contents of the sewers were dammed back by the tide during the greater part of each tw(»lve hours. Salt water was excluded from many of them by tide-gates, which closed as the sea rose, also at the same time shutting in the sewage, which accumulated, and, being without currents, deposits occurred. At about the time of low wat(>r the tide-gates opened and the sewage escaped, to be met almost immediately by the incoming tide and * Since the above was put in type the Report of the Superintendent of Streets of Boston for 1803 has come to hand, in which is a rt'sumo of all the various forms of assessments, with a dis- cission of recent changes. 180 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. brouglit buck by it to form deposits upon the flats and shores about the city. Stony brook, Back bay, and South bay are the localities where the g-reatest nuisances were created in this way. The position of the principal original sewer outlets is indicated on Fig"; 9, where are also shown the lines of the intercepting sewers which were finally designed as a remedy for the diflficulty. The Boston Sewerage Commission of 1875. In March, 1875, a commission consisting of Messrs. E. S. Ches- brough, M. Am. Soc. C.E., Moses Lane, M. Am. S6c. C.E., and Chas. F. Folsom, M.D., were appointed by the mayor to report upon existing sewerage, and to i^resent a plan for outlets and main lines of sewers for the future wants of the city. Their report contained a compre- hensive and exhaustive statement of the defects in the existing system and of the causes which had led to it, and recommended a well consid- ered plan for remedying the existing defects and providing for future needs. The following extract from the report gives some of the more inter- esting points : The point which miiat be attended to, if we would get increased comforts and luxuries in our houses, without doing so at cost of health and life, is to get our refuse ovit of the wav, far beyond any possibility of harm, before it becomes danger- oiis from putrefaction. In the heat of summer this time should not exceed twelve hours. We fail to do this now in three ways ; (1) We cannot get our refuse always from our house-drains to our sewers, be- cause the latter may not only be full themselves at high tide, but they may even force the sewage vi'p our drains into our houses. (2) We do not empty our sewers promptly, because the tide or tide-gates pre- vent it. In such case the sewage becomes stagnant, a precipitate falls to the bottom, which the slow and gradual emptying of the sewers, as the tide falls, does not produce scour enough to remove. This deposit remains with little change in some jilaces for many months. (3) With our refuse, which is of an especially foul character, once at the outlets of the sewers, it is again delayed, there to decomjiose and contaminate the air. As a result of this failure to carry out the cardinal rule of sewerage, we are obliged to neglect the second rule, which is nearly as important, namely, ventilation of the sewers ; for the gases are often so foul that we cannot allow them to escajie without causing a nuisance ; and we compromise the matter by closing all the vents tliat we can, with the certainty of poisoning the air of our houses. In the opinion of the commission there are only two ways open to us. The first, raising more than one-half of the superficial area of the city proper (exclud- ing suburbs), is entirely out of the question, from the enormous outlay of money which would be required — more tlian four times as much as woiild be needed for the plan which we pro]iose, and which consists in intercepting sewers and jiumping. There are in use now in various parts of the world three methods of disposing of the sewage of large cities, where the water-carriage system is in use : (1) Precipitation of the solid parts, with a view to utilizing them as manure, and to purifying the streams. (2) Irrigation. Neither of these processes has proved remunerative, and the former only clarifies the sewage without purifyivg it ; but if the time comes when, by the advance in THE BOSTON SEWERAGE COMMISSION OF 1875. 181 182 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. our knovv'ledge of agiicultni'al cliemistry, sewage can be profitably used as a ferti, lizer, or if it should now be deemed best to utilize it, in spite of a pecuniary loss, it is thought that the point to which we projiose cari-ying it will be as suitable as any which can be found near enough to the city, and at the same time far enough away from it. (3) The third way is that adopted the world over by large cities near deep water, and consists in carrying the sewage out so far that its ]>oint of discharge will be remote from dwellings, and beyond the jiossibility of doing harm. It is the plan which your Commission recommend for Boston. Fig'. 9 shows the main and intercepting- sewers as finally worked out in detail for Boston proper and South Boston, in accordance with the recommendation of the commission. Their report also included a separate line of interception for East Boston and the territory to the North of the Charles river, which, however, was not adopted at that time.* Description of the Boston Main Drainage. A description of the improved system, as actually carried out, divides naturally into four parts : (1) The intercepting and main sewers which carry the sewage by gravity to the pumping stations. (2) The pumping station where the sewage is raised to a sufficient height to permit it to flow by gravity through a tunnel under Dor- chester bay to Moon island. (3) The deposit sewers leading from the pumping station to the tun- nel shaft and the tunnel itself under the bay. (4) The reservoir at Moon island in which the sewage is stored, and the appliances for discharging the same during ebb tide. The plan included lines of intercepting sewers, by means of which nearly all the original outfalls were cut off and the sewage diverted to the pumx)ing station at Old Harbor point, the most easterly portion of the calf pasture in Dorchester. The main sewer leading to this point is about 3.25 miles long. Beginning at the junction of Hunting- ton avenue and Camden street, its inclination throughout its whole ex- tent is 1 in 2,500. At the pumping station the water line of the invert is about 14 feet below mean low tide, where also the diameter is 10.5 feet, a dimension which holds until the point of junction of the South Boston intercepting sewers is reached in a distance of about a mile. Above the point where the South Boston intercepting sewers join the main sewer, the latter is reduced to nine feet in diameter, and continues of that size to Albany street where the intercepting sewer for the east * The sewerage of this latter territory is now in process of construction under the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. For accounts of the engineering features involved see (1) Mr. Clarke's Report to the Massachusetts Drainage Commission (188('>); and (2) a Report of the State Board of Health upon the Sewerage of the Mystic and Charles River Valleys (1889). DESCRIPTIOX OF THE BOSTON MAIN DRAINAGE. 183 side of old Boston joins. Beyond this tlie main sewer is again re- duced in size to 8 feet 3 inches high, which dimension holds until the end of the main sewer is reached at Huntington avenue, where the in- tercepting sewer for the west side begins. The tirst intercepting sewer from the pumping station is, as already stated, that for South Boston, which by its two branches is intended to encircle the peninsula on which South Boston is situated, and inter- cept the sewage which had been hitherto discharged at 19 outlets. At the point of junction the grade of this intercepting sewer is 1.5 feet higher than that of the main sewer, this rise in grade insuring (1) that the sewage in the former will not be dammed back, and (2) that the established rate of inclination of the surface in both sewers will l)o maintained at the time of maximum discharge. This intercepting sewer is six feet in diameter up to the point where it divides, with an inclination throughout the greater portion of 1 in 2,000. The diameters and sections of the two branches are varied to suit local conditions. The second large intercepting sewer which enters the main sewer is that for the east side, connecting at East Chester park and Albany street. Stony brook intercepting sewer connects at Tremont street ; and the intercepting sewer for the west side at Huntington avenue and Camden street. These intercepting sewers are generally laid at a grade of 1 in 2,000, though in a few places a somewhat more rapid gradient was used. The total length of intercepting sewers now in use is about 12.75 miles, making wdth the main sewer about 15 miles in all. The size of the intercepting sewers varies from about 5.5 to 6 feet in diameter, at their junctions, to 3 to 4 feet and smaller at the extreme ends, according to the needs of the different localities. The flowing sewage, on its arrival at the pumping station, first passes through a filth-hoist, where all floating objects liable to inter- fere with the action of the pumps are intercepted and at stated intervals removed. The sewage then passes on to the piimps, by which it is lifted about 35 feet into the deposit sewers, Avhicli are nearly a quarter of a mile in length. These consist of two parallel conduits 8 feet wide and IG feet deep ; they are dammed at tlnnr lower ends to maintain a depth of 8 to 10 feet, in order that tlic How tlirough tliem may l)e very sluggish, so that suspended matter will l)e de])ositiHl before reaching the tunnel; they are provided with tlie necessary arrangements for draining and cleaning. In Table No. 42 is giv<'n the amount of sewage i)assing through the deposit sewers in each month of the year 1887, and the amount of sludge removed from them in the same time, also by months. From Table No, 42 we derive the fact that the dejiosited matter amounts to 0.31 cubic yard per 1,000,000 gallons of sewage passing through the sewers. 184 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 42. Month. Amount of sewage punii>ed, gallons. Amount of sludge removed, cubic yards. Month. Amount of sewage pumped, gallons. Amount of sludge removed, cubic yarda January, 1887 February 1,818.101,420 1.5('7,17.s..534 1.6:iK..59I.4U4 1.5I->.<.M.\916 ].l-ii6.5n791 l.:il8.9.ill.5!-6 l,18:).:^4-2,2(.-2 69.9 13-<.7 48-3.9 368. -2 5(1.5.3 496.6 August. 1887 1,205.322.183 l.U'?:!. 328.6.55 1.157,233.278 l.n4,037,64ti 1,353.478,600 15,905,146.275 512 4 September October 672 6 605 3 523 Mav December 601.6 1 Totals Julv 4977.5 * Nothing ri moved during this month. At tlie farther end of tlie deposit sewers is a masonry chamber, built about the tunnel shaft and connecting with it. At this shaft chamber are two waste sewers through which, in case of emptying- the tunnel for inspection, etc., the seAvag^e can be temporarily discharged into Dorchester bay. The shaft at the end of the deposit sewers is 149 feet deep. From its foot there are 6,088 feet of nearly horizontal tunnel leading to the east shaft, bej^ond which there are 923 feet of inclined tunnel leading to the end on Squantum neck. From Squantum to Moon island an em- bankment, one mile long, 2'^ to 30 feot high, 20 feet wide on top and 120 feet at its base, in which to construct the outfall sewer, was built. About 4,100 feet of the site of this embankment consisted of beds of mud from 10 to 40 feet deep. After the bank was completed, slight settlement occurring, it was deemed prudent to postpone building a masonry structure for some years, until the bank has assumed a condition of permanent staljility. Hence a wooden flume was con- structed, 200 feet to the south of the embankment, for temporary use. It consists of a wooden box six feet square, supported on bents of three piles each ten feet apart. I'he reservoir, at present covering an area of about five acres, is so built that extension can be made readily at the south side, as required in the future. In this reservoir the sewage is received as it flows from the temporary flume just described, where it is retained until after the turn of the tide, when it is discharged by opening a series of gates which permit the whole contents of the reservoir to flow out in about 20 to 30 minutes. A description of how this is accomplished, with full details of other portions of the work, are given l)y Mr. Clarke, and the reader is referred to his book for a more extended account. A view of the reservoir is shown by Fig. 10. The velocity of the ebb tide from Moon island outward is about two miles an hour ; on account of this velocity and the commanding posi- DESCKIPTION OF THE BOSTON MAIN DRAINAGE. 185 186 SEWAGE ])ISP()SAL IX THE UNITED STATES. tiou of the island, it results that all visible traces of the sewage are so completely lost in the vast bod\^ of water in less than two miles flow as to be indisting-uishable by chemical tests. The Boston Main Drainag-e Works therefore satisfy the conditions laid down in Chapter lY., on The Self -Purification of Running Streams and the Rational View in Relation to the Disposal of Sewage by Discharge into Tide- Water ; indeed, these works may be considered a good illustration of the correct principle governing the discharge of sewage into tide-water. CHAPTER X. ON NITRIFICATION AND THE NITRIFYING ORGANISM.* The FuNDAivfENTAL Principle of Nitrification. The necessary essential for the resolution of organic matter into more primary forms of matter tliroug-li the operation of nitrification is that the nitrif^'ing- organism shall be present in conjunction with an alka- line mineral base. The value of an alkaline base has been practically known for at least 2,000 years, as exemplied by the Greeks, the Gauls, and the Britons liming the land which they cultivated. Varro states that he saw laborers on the banks of the Rhine fertilizing their land with white marl. Puvis, in his Treatise on Manures, mentions the excellent results in the Department du Nord, where the custom of using calcareous ma- nures has been followed for centuries. Nevertheless the real action of the lime on the soil has only been recently understood, and we may profitably review a few of the more interesting investigations of nitri- fication which have been made in the last 150 years. In 1749 Piertsch, in a short treatise addressed to the Academy of Sci- ences at Berlin, stated the circumstances which he considered most fa- vorable to nitrification, as follows : (1) The presence of calcareous matter ; (2) considerable porosity of the earth to offer a free passage to the air ; (3) the putrefaction of animal or vegetable substances ; (4) heat and humidity. In 1778 Clouet and Lavoisier proved that the lime of Touraine and that of Saintonge nitrify very readily. In 1782 Thouvenal, in an essay which gained a prize from the Paris Academy of Science, remarked that a basket of chalk placed over blood- in a state of putrefaction produced a considerable quantity of saltpetre. In 1784 C'avendisli demonstrated that nitrification requires the con- tact of an alkalin(i solution. In 1785 Rozier, in his " Course of Agriculture," said : " Stratifying the dunghill with lime decomposes the air contained in the manure and converts it into nitre, which gives to the soil an extraordinary fertility." * The preliminary discuKsion of this cliapter has been abstracted mostly from a paper on Nitri- fication of the Soil, by M. P. Bortier, Mi'nj Hoy. A'^. Soc, in Jour. Roj'. Ag. Soc. of Enjj. , voL xxiii. (I8(i2), pp. HiA-.i.')!. ]88 SEWAGE DISPOSAL I\ THE UNITED STATES, Subsequently a number of clieinists demoiistrateel that the effect of atmospheric air acting- upon a manure-heap is to nitrify it by degrees. Warixgton's Paper Before the Society of Arts ix 1882, Coming- down to more recent times, so far as the English literature of the subject is concerned, the most exhaustive papers explaiuing the conversion of ammonia and the nitrogen of organic substances into nitrates in the soil are those of Robert Warington. In his pai:)er be- fore the Society of Arts * in 1882 the theory of the purificatic^n of sew- age is so clearly set forth that Ave maj' quote from it at length : Dilute sokitions of urine, or of ammnninm salts, containing the essential constitu- ents of plant food, undergo no nitrification, though freely exposed to the air, if only they have Vyeen pieviously boiled and the aii' supijlied to them is filtered through cotton wool. If to sjLich sterilized solutions a small particle of fresh soil is added, no action at first appears, but after a while nitrification sets in and the ammonia or urea is converted into a nitrate. For the production of nitric acid it is necessary that some base should be present with which the nitric acid may com- bine. The action proceeds best in the dark. AYlien a solution has thus undergone nitrifacation, a drop of it sriffices to induce nitrification in another solution, which, unless thus seeded, would have remained unchanged. Boiling the soil, or tlie solu- tion that has nitrified, entirely destroys its power of causing nitiitication. The presence of antiseptics also prevents nitrification. Lastly, nitrification is confined to the same range of tcmi^erature which limits other kinds of fermentation. The l^roduction of nitrates proceeds very slowly near the fieezing-point, but increases in rapidity as the temperature rises, reaching its maximum of energy, accoiding to 8chla?sing and Muntz, at 87" C. (99" Fahr.). At higher temperatures the late of nitrification rapidly diminishes; it almost ceases, according to the same observers, at 50" C. (12-2'' Fahr.), and at 55° C. (131 Fahr.) no change occurs. It thus apijears that nitrification can only be j^roduced in the presence of some nitrified or nitrify- ing material, and the whole course of the action is limited to the conditions suitable to the activity of a living ferment. The French chemists claim to have isolated the ferment by systematic cultivation ; it belongs to the family of bacteiia. The purifying action of .soil on sewage is probably due to three distinct actions : 1. Simple filtration, or the sejiaration of suspended matter. 2. The precipitation and retention by the .soil of ammonia and various organic substances previously in solution. 3. The oxidation of ammonia and organic matter hy the agency of living organisms. The last mode of action is undoubtedly the most important, as without oxidation the sewage matter must accumulate in the soil and the filter bed lose its efficacy. The filtering power of a soil will depend entirely upon its me- chanical condition. The precii^itating power of soil is, on the other hand, a chem- ical function, in which the hydrated ferric oxide and alumina and the silicates of soils probably play the principal part. The oxidizing power of a soil will dejiend partly on its mechanical, partly on its chemical, and partly on its l)iok)gica] condi- tion. It was formerly supposed that the oxidizing power of a soil dejjended solely on its porosity, oxidation being assumed to occur by simple contact with air in the I^ores of the soil. We now know that a porous medium is by no means essential for nitrification ; sewage may, indeed, be nitrified in a glass bottle, or when passing over polished pebbles. Thoiigh, however, porosity is by no means essential to the nitrifying power of a soil, it is undoubtedly a condition having a very favorable influence on the rapidity of the process; a porous soil of open texture will present an immense surface, covered with oxidizing organisms, and generally well sujiplied with the air requisite for the discharge of tlieir functions. It is doubtless owing to this fact that nitrification takes jalace M'ith so much greater rapidity in a .soil *Jour. Soc. Arts, April, 1882. WARIXGTOX'S PAPP:ii OF 1884. 189 than iu a liquid. The sewage will itself supply the substances required for the nourishmeut of the oxidizing organisms. One material essential to nitrification may, however, sometimes be deficient, namely, the base with wliich the nitric acid is to combine ; without the presence of this salifiable base, nitriticatiou will speedily come to a stand-still. In the case of towns supplied with hard water, the sewage may contain as much carbonate of calcium in solution as will suffice for its subse- quent nitrification in the soil ; but in case of towns supplied with veiy soft water, this can hardly be the case, and the presence of a considerable amount of lime in the soil itself will become essential for efficient nitrification. The organisms which effect the oxidation of organic matter are abundantly present in surface soils, but are probably absent, or nearly so. in subsoils ; in surface soils they will probably be abundant in jjroportiou to the lichness of the soil in oiganic matter. Sewage also contains the organisms necessary for its own destruction, and under favorable conditions these may be so cultivated as to effect the purpose. A filtering medium of pure sand and limestone, treated intermittently with sewage, will, after a time, display consideiable pui'ifying powers, the stirfaces becoming covered with oxidizr ing organisms derived from the sewage. No such medium will, liowever, equal in efltect a porous soil rich iu organic life. It will be gathered from the observations now made that it would be possible to construct a filter-bed having a greater oxi- dizing power than would be possessed by an ordinary soil and subsoil. Such a bed would be made by laying over a system of drain-pipes a few feet of soil obtained from the surface (first 6 inches) of a good field, the soil being selected as one porous, and containing a considerable amount both of carbonate of calcium and organic matter. A filter-bed thus pre23ared would be far more porous than a nat- ural soil and subsoil, and would possess active oxidizing ftmctions throughout its whole depth. The oxidizing ])ower of soil must always be considerably greater in summer than in winter. The favorable infiuenee of the warmer seasons of the year is apparently seen in several of Frankland's experiments on the intermittent filtration of sewage ; the same influence of temperature will be plainly shown in some of the Eothamsted resitlts. When we turn, however, to the analyses of the effluent water from irrigated land, the fact is not alwaA-« manifest. We must recol- lect, however, that a considerable part of the nitrates produced in summer will be a.ssimilated by the growing croi)s, and will therefore not appear in the drainage • water. The oxidizing power of a soil may also be in excess of the work pmvided for it, so that even with a low tem])erature the usual amount of purification may be. attained. A low temperature will also affect only the oxidizing functions of the soil, its power of preciiiitating and retaining sewage matter will remain unchanged. One more point may be worth notice. We have already referred to the fact that nitrification, like all other kinds of fermentation, ceases iu the jiresence of anti- septics ; tiie refuse of chemical works may thus sometimes prove a great hindrance to the purification of sewage by soil. Warington's Paper of 1884. In 1884 Mr. Waringtoii read a paper before the British Association for the Advancement of Science * in which he somewhat extended the views of nitrification whicli lie had expressed in the paper before the Societj' of Arts in 1882. The foHowinof extracts from the paper in 1884 may be made : The evidence for the ferment theory of nitrification is now very complete. Nitri- fication in soils and waters is found to be strictly limited to the range of tempera- ture within which the vital activity of living ferments is confined. . . . Nitrifica- tion is also dependent u])on the presenc<> of plant food suitable for organisms of low character. Recent experiments at Rothamsted sliow that in the absence of phos- phates no nitrification will occur. Further proof of the ferment theory is afforded * Report of .54th Meeting Brit. Assn. for the Adv. Sol., Montreal, 1884. 190 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITP:D STATES. bv the fact that antiseptics are fatal to nitrification. In the presence of a small quantity of chloroform, carbon bisulphide, salicylic acid, and apparently also phenol, nitrification entirely ceases. The action of heat is also equally confirma- tory. Raising sewage to the boiling-point entirely jjrevents it undergoing nitrifi- cation. The heating of soil to the same tem2Jerature efl'ectnally destroys its nitrifying ijower. Finally, nitrification can be started in boiling sewage, or in other sterilized liquid of suitable composition, by the addition of a few i^articles of fresh surface soil, or a few drops of a solution which has already nitrified ; though without such addition these liquids may be freely exposed to filtered air without nitrification taking place. Small qirantities of soil were taken, at depths varying from two inches to eight feet, from freshly-cut surfaces on the sides of pits sunk in the clay soil at Rotham- sted. The soil removed was at once transferred to a sterilized solution of diluted urine, which was afterward examined from time to time to ascertain if nitrification took place. From the results it would apjiear that in a clay soil the nitrifying organism is confined to about 18 inches of the top soil ; it is most abundant in the first 6 inches. It is quite possible, however, that in the channels caused by worms or by the roots of plants, the organism may occur at greater depths. In a sandy soil we should expect to find the organism at a lower level than in clay, but of this we have as yet no direct evidence. The later investig-ations show the presence of the nitrifying- org-an- isrn at as great depths in porous soils as four feet. The Massachusetts Investigations. The work of the Massachusetts State Board of Health on nitrifica- tion, as published in I^art IT. of the Special Report, furnishes us with a large amount of recent information, and we may conclude the theoretical part of this chapter by quoting some of the more impor- tant iJortions of the discussion : * The oxidation of the nitrogen of ammonia, and its ultimate conversion into nitric acid, is called nitrification. This change is especially active in soils near the sur- face, where nitrates are formed abundantly from percolating waters which contain much nitrogenous matter. This phase of nitrification, the formation of nitrates in porous soil, has been at- tentively studied. But less attention has been given to the process of nitrification as it goes on in surface waters, such as streams and ponds ; and it is to this side of the question, namely, nitrification as it occurs in natural waters, that our study has been chiefly directed. Some eighty samples of wate)', selected from two hundred and forty coming each month to the laboratory of the State Board of Health, were examined at intervals of from two to seven days for ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates. These samples were received from all parts of the State, and included all classes of surface water, rivers, ponds, and reservoirs They were examined rejjeatedly during the months of June, July, and August, 1888. The results may T)e briefly stated as follows : The organic matter in suspension decays in about seven days, as shown by the increase in "free ammonia." In about fourteen days this " free ammonia " has disappeared, and nitrite has taken its place, reaching a maximum in about twenty-one days. Later the nitrite, too, dis- appears, and in twenty-eight days or more all the nitrogen has been converted into the form of nitrate. When the suspended matter is removed by filtration through paper or by precipitation with alumina, no change occurs unless free ammonia were * Investigations upon Nitrification and the Nitrifying Organism, by Edwin O. Jordan and Ellen H. Richards. Special Kept. Mass. St. Bd. Health, Part 11. (1890). THE MASSACIirSKTIS INVESTIGATIONS. 191 present at the outset. ... It has long been known that the first step — the de- compositiou of nitrogenous matter and consequent production of ammonia — is due to the vital activity of bacteria. The early experiments of Schwann and Schultze (1839), and the later and thoroughly conclusive work of Pasteur, showed that jjutrefaction of organic matter is brought about solely by the small vegetable organisms known as bacteria. Even after this fact became generally known, it was .some time before the importance of the complete range of this discovery was sus- pected. It was still maintained that the process of nitrification proper — the oxi- dation of ammonia to nitric acid — was of a purely chemical nature, although the burden of proof was soon thrown on those who upheld this view. The close dependence of nitrification upon a rather narrow range of temperature, the cessa- tion of the process on the addition of antiseptics, the operation of "seeding" one .solution with another, the impossibility of effecting rapid nitrification by chemicals, the analogous phenomena of putrefaction — all pointed clearly to the fact that nitrification depends on the presence of living organisms. Tlie first conclusive proof that sm-h was the case, however, came from the work of Schloesing and Muatz in 1877. The work of these observers rendered it practi- cally certain that living organisms of some kind are the true agents of nitrification. "It now remains for us," they said, " to discover and isolate the nitrifying organ- isms."' Schloesing and Muntz, in their subsequent investigations, believed that they had succeeded in making this discovery ; but in view of the facts of modern bacteriology we are unfortunately unable to assign much value to this part of their work. It is not easy to satisfy one s-self that Schloesing and Muntz ever worked with really pure cultures of isolated species. While the work of these investi- gators established beyond all question the fact that nitrification, like the analogous phenomena of fermentation and jjutrefaction, is caused by living organisms, it left entirely open the ijrecise nature of these organisms. Tlie first experiments with species of bacteria isolated by modern methods, and tlierefore undoubtedly pure cultivations, are those recorded by Heraeus. Heraeus experimented with fourteen well-known species of bacteria, and with about as many others freshly isolated by himself from water and soil. He cultivated these in an ammoniacal solution, and obtained in the case of several familiar species good qualitative t»^sts for nitrous acid. Among these species were Bacillus prodigiosus, the Finkler Prior bacillus, the bacillus of typhoid fever, the antlirax bacillus, and others. Heraeus concludes that all these organisms possess oxidizing powers, since they are thus ai)parently able to oxidize ammonia to nitrous acid. The work of Adametz and Frank, on the other hand, did much to offset this posi- tive result reached by Heraeus They found, as other investigators had found be- fore them, that the introduction of a small (]uantity of garden soil into an ammoni- acal solution would produce ra2)id nitrification. The various species of bacteria, however, which they isolated from this soil, and introduced as i)ure cultures into sterilized ammoniacal solutions, refused to nitrify. In no case was more than a trace of nitric acid observed. Frank was so influenced by his continued negative results that at a later date he went so far as to deny that living organisms had anything whatever to do with nitrification. This sceptical attitude seemed for a time to be fully justified by the experiments of Celli and Zucco It was soon, howe%'er, demonstrated again by several skilful investigators that nitrification could not be accounted for by purely chemical influences. There was, nevertheless, no cessation in the jjublication of negative results. Tlie work of Heraeus was extended and elaborated by P. F. Frankland and l)y Warington. Fianklaiul failed entirely to obtain any evidence of oxidation of nitrogen by individual species of bacteria, and on this ])oint came into direct conflict witli Heraeus. Not only is the nitrifying organism present in Boston tap-water, . . . but it ap])ears to be equally common in water from all parts of the State of Massachusetts. So far as our experience has gone;, any natural water containing the ordinary amount of free or albuminoid ammonia contains also the nitrifying organism, as is shown by our long series of tests. In these natural waters the nitrifying organism seems to be under wlK)lly normal conditions, and to be abundantly able toefl'ect the oxidation of the small (piantities of nitrogen usually i)resent in these waters. VJ2 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Waters that contain liigli "albuminoid ammonia," in cases where this "ammonia" comes from the nitrogeii in infusoria, algfe, etc., go tlirough the same changes as those which contain " free ammonia,"' but more slowly. The organisms in time die, the bacteria set free the nitrogen of their bodies, forming free ammonia, and then in turn nitrites and nitrates. It might, perhaps, be reasonably expected that, since the nitrifying organism is undoubtedly present in all these waters, an examination of gelatin jjlate cultures of these waters would reveal some particular kind or kinds of colonies common to all, and in that way aid in sifting out the nitrifying organisms. .Our experience has shown, however, that such a hope is unfounded. 80 far as the inspection of gelatin plate-cultures enables us to judge, no one kind of colony is common to all these waters. This fact, on the surface, seemed to favor the view that the jjower of nitri- fication was not the propeity of any jiai'ticular organism, but was very likely pos- sessed in common by a number of kindred species. There was . . . one possible exjjlanation of our failure to reach consistent positive results by the use of species of bacteria isolated by the method of gelatin plate -culture. It might be that the nitrifying organism did not grow on gelatin. Everything seemed to point in this direction, and the belief was further strengthened by a very signiticant fact observed about this time. We had known for some time that in the history of the tilter-tanks at the Lawrence Experiment Station speedy nitrification was always coincident with a marked decline in the numbers of bacteria. The effluents discharged from the filter-tanks, although high in nitrates, were low in bacteria ; and, moreover, the more complete the nitrifica- tion, the fewer were the bacteria in the effluent. We also observed that, in an ammoniacal solution which is seeded with 01 dinary l^ond-water containing several species of bactena, there is during tlie first few days a rapid multiplication of the contained germs. Nitrification, however, does not as a rule begin until from ten to fourteen days have elap.sed. By the time nitrification begins, the numbers of bacteria, as shown by gelatin plate-cultr;res, have begun to decline; and, while the nitrogen in the form of nitrites in the solution is increas- ing, the numbers of bacteria are as steadily diminishing. Thus, in one instance, an ammoniacal solution, four days after its inoculation with a cubic centimetre of Cochituate water, contained 8,762,000 bacteria per cubic centimetre. Nitrification had not yet begun. When the first signs of increasing nitrites appeared, the num- bers of bacteria had sunk to 19,200 ; and when the nitrites reached their maximum, the bacteria, shown by gelatin plate-cultures, were only 9,454. It was certainly difficult to understand why nitrification, a i)rocess apparently dependent upon the life and activity of Imcteria, should .seem to flourish best under conditions in which bacteria were perishing. If, however, it were assumed that the nitrifying organism could not grow in the usual gelatin media, all the ])ei'plexiKg results above recorded could be more easily explained. Under these circumstances it was natural for us to make such an assumption. There was, of course, the possibility that the nitrifying organism, by its growth on gelatin, had lost its peculiar property ; but it did not seem to us likely that so fundamental a property could Ije parted with in so short a time. However that might be, we determined to test the other hypothesis first, since we believed it to be the more probable of the two. Accordingly experiinents were begun to attempt to isolate the nitrifying organism by the method of dilution. This is the method that was commonly used by investigators in bacteriology before the invention of solid culture-media. It has, as is well known, serious practical as well as theoreti- cal drawbacks. In our practice a small portion of an actively nitiifying solution is transferred on the loop of a sterilized platinum needle to a sterilized ammoni- acal solution, and when nitrification is thus induced in the second solution a fresh transfer is made from this to a third, and so on. Rigid precautions have been taken to avoid the introduction of foreign germs. Hai-dly were these experiments well under way before our interest in this method of procediu-e was stimulated by the publication of communications by- Percy P. Frankland, and Grace Fiankland, and by Robert Warington.* * The Chemical News, vol. Ixi., p. 135, March 21, 1890. nilK MASSACIIUSET'IS INVESTIGATIONS. 193 The Franklands, having reached a conclusion similar to our own regarding the be- havior of the nitrifying organism in gelatin, had also attempted to isolate the nitri- fying organism by the dilution method, and had succeeded in the attempt. They state, in their abstract of the paper read before the Royal Society, that '■ after a very large number of experiments had been made in this direction, the authors at length succeeded in obtaining an attenuation consisting of about 1-1, 000,000th of the origi- nal nitrifying solution employed, •which not only nitrified, but on inoculation into gelatin-peptone, refused to grow, and was seen under the microscope to consist of numerous characteristic bacilli, hardly longer than broad, which may be described, as bacillococci." Warington's communication entirely confirms that of the Franklands, in so far as it relates to their earlier and negative results. He had not, however, at the time of writing, succeeded in isolating the nitrifying organism. A paper by Winogradsky followed soon after. He appears to have discovered independently a nitrifying organism, and attributes his success largely to his mi- croscoijic examinations of the nitrifying solutions, and to his u.se of solutions de- void of organic matter. The following is the composition of the liqiiid finally adopted by him : Gramme?. Ammonium suljihate 1 Potassium phosphate 1 Water from the lake (at Zurich, " tr&s pure ") 1,000 Each portion of 100 cubic centimetres received in addition .5 to 1 gm. of basic magnesium carbonate, suspended in distilled water. Winogradsky found that this layer of magnesium carbonate at the bottom of each flask alforded an excellent gathering place for flocks of the nitrifying organism. The " nitric ferment" does not, as the Franklands had already shown, grow well upon ordinary gelatin plate- cultures ; and this is probably the cause of the failure of all jirevious experimenters to isolate the special ferment. For Winogradsky's detailed description of the nitric ferraeut, and for a statement of his peculiar views concerning its function, " de regnbt fixer la circulation du carbone sur notre plande" we must refer to his original papers.* Before receiving Winogradsky's paper, in the spring of 1890, we had been using in our work, at the suggestion of Mr. Allen Hazen, an ammouiacal solution of the following composition : Grammes. Ammonium chloride fresublimed) 1.9070 Sodium carbonate. 3.784:2 Sodium phosphate 2000 Potassium sulphate 2000 Proceeding with this solution Viy the method of dilution, we at length succeeded in isolating a nitrifying organism. A flask was first inoculated with a few grains of sand from Tank No. 13, at the Lawrence Experiment Station, and when nitrification was at its height in this solution a small portion was transferred from this to a second flask, and so on. After a large number of unsuccessful attempts, two solu- tions were finally ol)tained which nitrified well, but gave no growth upon ordinary gelatin plate-cultiires, although the plates were allowed to stand for seven days. Microscopic examination of the.se solutions showed them to be inhabited by a par- ticular form of bacillus, and apparently by that alone. These bacilli are short, of a slightly oval shape, and vary from 1.1 n to 1.7 u in hnigth ; they are about 0.8 a to 0.9 u broad. They are grouped very characteristically in irregular cluni)is, and are held together by a jelly-like material. Eacli aggregation is indeed a typical zofighea The aggregations of bacteiia were found cliiefly on tiie bottom of the flasks, as was also the case with the organism described by Winogradsky. These masses of /oiigloea obtained as a ])ure culture from a nitrifying solution, resemble significantly the zooglcea di.scharged in considerable (piantities from tlie filter-tanks at Lawrence. . . . The bacilli stain with some difficulty with the usual aniline dyes. We have not ob.served independent movement. Owing to the lack of the ♦Annaleade rinstitnt Pasteur, Tome iv., ISiH), No. 4, p. 21S; No. 5, p. 257. 13 194 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. usual means of diagnosis, it is difficult to determine in a short time whether this species is the same as the one described by the Frauklands and by "Winogradsky. On one important point there appears to be a diti'erence between our results and those reached by the above-mentioned investigators. The organism discovered by them oxidizes ammonia to nitrite, but cai'ries it no further. Our own flasks give complete oxidation to nitrate. Whether this be due to a difference of conditions, a diffei'ence in the virility of the organisms, or a sijecitic ditierence in the bacteria, we are not at i^resent prepared to say. The sliort time at our disposal has made it impossible to settle this and many other questions to our own satisfaction. "We are not even prepared to say that there may not have been a mixture of two or more species in our flasks, all agreeing closely in morphological characters, and in giving no growth on gelatin, but differing in important ijhysiological respects. Further investigation is necessary to settle this and other important j^oints regarding the relations of this organism to the ju'ocess of nitrification. Whether or not we accept the views of Winogradsky, it is certainly worthy of remark, as he observes, that an organism should exist, which, without chlorojjhyll and in the apparent absence of organic nitrogen and of organic carbon, should be able to multiply and thrive upon wholly inorganic compounds. It may well be doubted, we think, whether this is really the case. It seems more reasonable to suppose that exceedingly minute quantities of organic nitrogen and carbon are actually present, and escape detection by our ])resent methods of chemical analysis, although in reality sufficient to nourish generations of bacteria. Our own experience, as well as that of ]u-evious investigators, seems to be a warn- ing against a too confiding use of the gelatin plate-culture in bacteriological work, since in this instance such confidence has left us for a long time in ignorance of a common and widespread as well as highly important organism. Disappearance of a Portion op the Nitrogen. In the practical working- of intermittent sand-filters at Lawrence, it lias been found (1) that during- the first few weeks of service much less nitrogen came away in the effluents than was applied in the sewag-e ; (2) that nitrification is usually somewhat more active in the spring- and early summer than at any other season, there being at this time frequently an excess of nitrogen in the effluent over that apjilied in the sewage, caused by the oxidation of organic matter stored in the filter ; (3) that as a whole less nitrogen flows away in tlie effluent than is applied in the sewage. The Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1891 states that Filter No. 1 stored fifteen per cent, of the nitrogen applied in four years of service, and other filters even more. The storage of nitrog-en seems to decrease from year to year, but the observations have not been sufficiently ex- tended to determine whether the storage would cease before the filter became too much clogg-ed for use. The experimental sand-filters at Lawrence possess the power of self-cleansing and continue to act effi- ciently for a long time, but to obtain the best results it is probable that the surfaces of such filters require raking- over at convenient in- tervals, while after two or three years, at least, the top portion of the sand should probably be removed.* With ample filtering areas, the beds may be given a long- rest, instead of removing the sand. * For extended discussion of this point see Chapter XIV. PKACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 195 Practical Experiments. In the course of the work at Lawrence a number of experiments were made in reg-ard to the effect of different substances upon nitrifi- cation. The following- is a brief account of the more important : (1.) In April, May, and June, 1889, instead of sewag-e, there was ap- plied daily to Tank No. 12 (one of the small tanks) 1^ g-allons of water, to w'hich had been added enough baked and pulverized eg-g albumin to make 2.8 parts of nitrogen per 100,000. The first application of this mixture was made April 18th. Egg- albumin is nearly insoluble in water, and the object of this ex- periment was chiefl}^ to determine to what extent it would be rendered soluble and converted into free ammonia, or carried another step and become nitrified, in passing through the filter. The experiment was interrupted before completion, and the results in consequence are somewhat uncertain. The indications are, however, that about CI per cent, of the total nitrogen contained in the albumin applied was rendered soluble and converted into nitrates. There are no means of determining- how much of the insoluble nitrog-enous matter w^as stored in the sand, though comparing- with results obtained with sew- ag-e, it appears probable that but little was stored. This experiment was repeated from July 10 to August 7, 1889, when there was applied three g-allons of water i^er day, containing- baked and pulverized blood albumin sufficient to supply 1.04 part of nitro- gen per 100,000. This exiierimeut was also somewhat uncertain as to the actual results obtained, though the indications are that about 90 per cent, of the total nitrogen of the mixture aiDpeared as nitrates in the effluent. (2.) We have already referred, in Chapter I., to the experiments upon the passage of Bacillus prodigiosus through the sand-filters, and we will now describe some further phenomena developed by that ex- periment. In order to apply Bacillus prodigiosus a litre of bouillon, containing a pure culture of many millions, was mixed with water and applied to Filter No. 12 on the morning of August 7, 1889. On the morning, of August 8th the number of Ijacteria found in the effluent was 60 per cubic centimetre. At 1 p.m. of the same day the number was 18,440 ; two hours later the number was 58,000 ; at 5 p.m. the nund)er had in- creased to 81,700 ; and at 9 p.m. the count gave 108,100. On August Otli the number of bacteria was high in the forenoon, reaching 12,9(54 at noon, and decresaing to 494 at nine in the evening. At 9 p.m. on Au- gust 10th the numlx-r was 3, and three counts on August lltli aver- aged 4. 196 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. We have here a large increase in the amount of the food material added to the tank, followed by, apparently, a great increase in the number of bacteria in the tank, as indicated by the increase of number in the effluent. The time, however, of such increase was quite short, as the effect of adding- the extra food material appears to have spent it- self on August 10th. The bouillon employed in this experiment consisted of beef-tea en- riched with peptone, as ordinarily prepared for a culture-medium by bacteriologists. Peptone, the principal nutritive constituent, is sol- uble and therefore specially available as bacterial food. It is proba- bly superior in nutrient value to most of the substances found in sewage. On September 20, 1889, the same quantity of bouillon, as previously used on August 7th, was again applied. The bouillon of this second experiment was of the same quality as that used on August 7th, except that it was sterilized so that it contained no bacteria. On September 18th, 19th and 20th, before applying the bouillon, the average number of bacteria in the effluent was 199 ; on the morning of September 21st the number was found to be 51,600 ; at 1.55 p.m. of the same day the number counted was 57,600 ; at 9 p.m. it was 26,400. The greatest num- ber oil September 23d was 4,485. On September 26th the number at the time of greatest flow was 1,820 ; on October 2d the number at the same time was 736. In addition to the experiments with bouillon and peptone mixture just described, experiments had also been previously made in the month of March, 1889, by the application of a solution of peptone alone to Tank No. 11. The results were essentially the same as those found later with Tank No. 12. In every case the af)plication of the nutrient mixture was first followed by a considerable increase in the number of bacteria appearing in the effluent, followed later b}^ a decrease in the bacteria in the effluent with increased nitrification. The effect of applying a nutrient mixture to an intermittent filter is summarized in the Special Eeport (page 856) as follows : At first there is an increased discharge of bacteria and an incomplete oxidation, but this condition gradually changes to one of ahnost complete oxidation, and the dis- charge of very few, if any, Ijacteria. This series of events ajij^ears to be due to the temporary over-feeding of the filter, and consequent increase of the bacteria, fol- lowed by a new- balance of supply and demand. It follows also that jiei^tone is readily and comijletely oxidized by micro-organisms. (3.) Filter Tank No. 13 received sewage for nearly a year previous to January 14, 1889, at the rate of 60,000 gallons per acre per day. Be- ginning on that date, at which time the tank was giving a perfectly nitrified effluent, a solution of ammonium chloride in water, containing 1 part ammonia per 100,000, was substituted for the sewage. Enough PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 197 sodium carbonate was mixed with this solution to combine with the chlorine of the ammonium chloride, and also with the nitric acid equiv- alent to the ammonia. Nitrification was complete from the first, the efiluent being not onh' almost free from ammonia, but containing- nearly all of the nitrogen applied as nitrates. The strength of the solution was increased from time to time, until on April 22d it contained 34 parts per 100,000 of ammonia. After increasing the amount applied complete nitrification was not at once obtained, but the effluent contained ammonia and nitrites. Later the ammonia disappeared from the effluent, to be followed by the nitrites, while increased development of the nitrates went on, until finally a nearly complete nitrification was obtained. The effect of an excess and deficiency of alkali was also experimented u]ion with Tank No. 13. From July 2 to August 5, 1889, the propor- tionate parts of the mixture added to this tank was 4 ammonium chloride to 5 of sodium carbonate. This gave sodium carbonate in excess of the amount required to neutralize the ammonium chloride. Nitrifica- tion was not in the least interfered with. The excess of sodium car- bonate passed through without change, with no other result than to increase the alkalinity of the effluent. Beginning October 8th, the proportion added was •! of ammonium chloride to 3 of sodium carbonate, in which there was a deficiency of alkali. The result was an almost total stoppage of nitrification, which, however, after a time began again, but did not become complete. An imexpected result of the experiment with deficiency of alkali, was the production of an enormous quantity of nitrites. It appears, then, from these experiments that an excess of alkali is without effect upon nitrification, but on the other hand, with an insuffi- cient qujuitity nitrification is incomplete, the effluent containing ammo- nia and nitrites, the latter often in large quantities. (4.) The effect of acid upon nitrification was experimented upon with Tank 15 A, which is one of the small tanks, filled with very coarse gravel, the stones ranging between | and 1;^ inch in diameter. Before placing in the tank the gravel was carefully washed in order to remove any sand, earth, or organic matter which might otherwise remain at- tached to the stones. The empty space in this tank amounted to about 37 per cent, of the whole. In Octol)er, 1889, this tank was puri- fying sewage at the rate of 20,000 gallons per day with fair nitrifi- cation. Beginning October 22d, sulphuric acid was added to the sewage, in quantity equal to 22. ")4 i)arts per 100,000 of sulphuric acid in the solution. The result of this treatment was a great increase of free ammonia, with fluctuation of the albuminoid ammonia and decrease of nitrates in the efflu(Mit. The treatment was continued for four months, during all of which time some nitrification continued, 198 SKWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. altlioug-h gradually decreasing- in amount. Summarizing- the result of this experiment, Mr. Mills says (Special Report, page 563) : We learn from this exiseriment that sewage coiitaiuiug a large percentage of sulphuric acid may have a large part of its organic matter removed by intermittent filtration for a considerable time ; so that we may not exi^ect an unfavorable result if sewage having an excess of acid be occasionally ajaplied to a filtration area ; but, if it is constantly applied, it should be neutralized by lime or some alkali. The effect of using limestone to counteract the acidity of the sewage was subsequently further experimented upon in Filter No. 17 A, in which a little limestone was mixed with the upper layers of the filter- ing material, and strong lye and sewage applied for over a 3'ear. The effluent showed results comparable with those from normal sewage filtered, under similar conditions, through sand without limestone. (5.) The effect of saltpetre upon nitrification was also experimented with in Tank No. 15 A. The i-esult was that when saltpetre was dis- solved in the sewage to the amount of 72 parts of nitrogen per 100,000, the quantity of nitrates in the effluent increased from 2.01 parts per 100,000 two days before the saltpetre was applied, to 61 parts per 100,000 four days after the application. The saltpetre was discon- tinued after five days, and in twelve days from the first application the nitrates had fallen to 15 parts per 100,000. (6.) Experiments were made as to the effect of common salt upon nitrification in Tank No. 11, which, as already stated, had been used for the experiments with the peptone solution. Beginning July 2, 1889, a solution of ammonium chloride with a suitable amount of sodium carbonate in water was applied to this tank, the solution con- taining 2 parts of nitrogen per 100,000. At the end of a month the ef- fluent contained nearly all the nitrogen applied. On August 8th, com- mon salt was added in such quantity that the charge contained 1,200 parts of chlorine per 100,000. Nitrification was checked and the solution passed through the filter almost unchanged. August 27th,'the addition of salt was suspended, the charge from that time until Sep- tember 9th being the same as previous to the addition of the salt. On September 9th nitrification was again complete. Salt was again added, but in much smaller quantities than before : such addition being followed by a decrease of the nitrates in ten days from 2.08 parts per 100,000 to 0.15 part. Upon continuing the same solution eight days longer the nitrates increased 1.31 part per 100,000. The chlorine at this time was 127.1 parts. The quantity of salt in the daily application was then increased for three weeks, until the chlorine amounted to 367.0 parts ; during this Ume the nitrates decreased to 0.2 part ; upon again gradually in- creasing the quantity of salt the nitrates also increased. On December PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 199 14tli cliIoriDe leaclied 1,306.0 parts and the nitrates were 1.0 part per 100,000. In regard to the practical bearings of this experiment Mr. Mills says : By gradual l_v increasing the amount of salt in the solution to a little more than was applied in August at once, without time for a gradual adaptation of tiie filter to the work required of it, we find a very different result. In August the same quantity of salt caused uitritication to cease, and allowed the ammonia to come through the filter nearly unchanged. By the gradual application of the salt in in- creasing quantities, we now find that, when the same quantity is ajiplied, the am- monias are reduced to about 12 per cent, of those which came through in August ; and the nitrates, which were zero, are now equal to one i:)art per 100,000. From this we see that by properly preparing the filter, a solution of ammonia n)ay be quite .satisfactorily purified by uitritication, even when it is as salt as ordinary sea- wat^er. Upon rapidly increasing the amount of salt, from December 1-4, 1889, to Jan- uary 8, 1890, to about four times that which it contained on December lilh, so that it was nearly three times as salt as ordinary sea- water, the nitrates were very much reduced. OVi'ained in the usual way they amounted to .0600 part ; but it is to be noted that the method of determining nitrates, when the solution contains these very large amounts of .salt, gives results which are too low. From these results we may conclude that quite satisfactory nitrification may result when applying to a nitration area sewage containing a very large amount of salt, if only it be aj^plied with reasonable regularity. (7.) The effect of sugar upon nitrification was experimented with in Tank No. 12, which had also been used for filtration of sewage in the experiment with egg-albumin and water. Beginning October 23, 1889, and continuing to December 8th, three gallons of city water contain- ing granulated sugar equal to 100 parts per 100,000 of the solution were applied daily. The result was that nitrification decreased im- mediately. The greater part of the sugar passed through the tank un- changed and in six weeks' time the effluent contained three-fourths of the applied sugar. On December 0th, three gallons of sewage were applied daily, with- out any sugar. Nitrification was resumed at once, and in live days' time tlie nitrates amounted to 0.22 part. During this period the tem- perature of the effluent varied from -49° to 4:0° F. In twelve days the nitrates amounted to 0.86 part. Beginning Januar}' 1, 1890, sugar was applied to the sewage to the amount of 10 parts in 100,000 ; on the 13th, this amount was increased to 20 parts. Tlie effect was to slowly reduce the amount of nitrates in the effluent to 0.08 part on January 31st, without any increase of am- monias. From this time the nitrates increased, until they reached 1.1 part on February 28th, the effluent then contained less than one per cent, of the amount of sugar apjilied, while in November and the early part of December, from one-third U) three-fourths of the amount applied passed tlnongli. From this experiment if appears that a considerable quantity of sugar, when first applied to intenniffent sand-filters, will cause a de- crease of nitrification witliout increase of ammonias. If, however, such 200 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. a tilter can be g-raclually adapted to the special work of nitrifying- sugar, the nitrates are formed about as completely as when sugar is absent. In the special case under consideration after the adaptation of the filter to the work during the low temperature of winter, a satisfactory purification was finally attained of 60,000 gallons of sewage apialied per acre daily. (8.) The efiect of an amount of free oxygen ujion nitrification was also experimented with in Filter Tank No. 14, which was a small tank filled with sand of the same quality as that in Tank No. 1. This tank had been used, previous to the special experiment, for sewage filtration in the ordinary way for about a year. For the special experiments on the effect of free oxygen upon nitri- fication, the tank was fitted with a trap at the bottom, and a cover to the top, with mercury seal, which made it air-tight. A pressure-guage was connected with a small faucet. The daily application of sewage was put in through a large funnel, with a stop-cock to prevent the ad- mission of air, and a perforated folate under the cover distributed the sewage over the surface. The trap at the bottom allowed the efiiuent to flow away, but i^revented the ingress of air to the tank with ordi- nary pressures. From February 21st to 28th, nine gallons of sewage were applied daily. During this time there were a number of leaks, and there must have been a good supply of air. Nitrification was nearly stopped. On March 1st, the tank was shown, by the pressure-guage, to be i^erfectly tight. The same daily application of sewage was con- tinued and in a week nitrification had stopped, and the efiiuent flowed away little better than crude sewage. On March 16th, the cock for ad- mitting sewage was left open in order to ventilate the top of the tank. The efiiuent still remained the same, and on March 27th the cover was taken off. This still did not afford sufficient air, the tank having become clogged by the organic matter which had accumulated during the time when the air was excluded. On April 2d, one-half inch of the accumulation was removed from the surface ; and an aspirator attached to one of the side faucets, near the bottom. Thereupon the efiiuent rapidly improved, and in two weeks nitrification was again nearly com- l^lete. During April and the following months a number of different experiments were made as to the effect of free oxygen upon nitrifica- tion with this tank. The net result of the whole series is to enforce the proposition that nitrification cannot take place in sand-filters without the air in the spaces of the filter contains oxygen. Tlie experiments also show that a small amount of oxygen, in the air in the spaces of the filter, is nearly as effective as a larger quantity, i^rovided the air is changed often enough to insure the presence of some oxygen at every point. DENITKIi'lCATION. 201 Present Theory of Niteefication. We have now exhibited some of the more interesting points in con- nection with nitrification in its application to sewag-e disposal. By way of presenting the present theory in a concise form it may be stated that the ascertained facts indicate that nitrification takes place in two stages, each characterized by a distinct organism. The ol^ce of one of these is to convert ammonia into nitrite ; while the other converts nitrite into nitrate, whence we have the nitrous and nitric or- ganism or ferments.* Both are present in ordinary soils in enormous numbers ; they are also present or quicklj^ develop in sewage, which may be considered a nutrient medium for them by reason of contain- ing a large amount of their natural nitrogenous food. As to which organism will develop in any particular case in the greater quantity will depend upon the existence of a number of special conditions, some of which are not yet well understood. In the mean- time what we do definitely know indicates that the two organisms may be, according to Warington, separated by " successive cultivations in solutions of special composition favoring the development of either." By employing a solution containing potassium nitrate, but no am- monia, we may obtain the nitric organism alone ; or by employing an ammonium carbonate solution a few cultivations give us the nitrous organisms in a pure state. The significance of these facts in relation to sewage purification is partially exhibited in the Lawrence experi- ments already given. Denitrificatiox. We have seen from what has preceded that soil possesses the jjower of nitrification in the highest degree. Under certain circumstances, however, it possesses the power of rapidly destroying nitrates, and as such destruction may have its bearing on the results of sewage purifi- cation it becomes of importance to understand the circumstances un- der which it takes place, especially in view of the fact that sewage itself will destroy nitrates in waters containing them, as first observed by Dr. Angus Smith in 1867, who also pointed out that the nitrogen of the nitrate was, in the case of denitritication, by sewage, evolved as gas. AVe have then, as the first condition for denitrification, the presence in solution of nitrat»>s together with oxidizable organic matter. The power of nitrification is, however, not lost when denitrification has * For photographic illustrations of the nitrons and nitric organisms see Kxpcrinicnt Station Bulletin, Ni). S, Lectures on the Investiijations at Uotliainsted Ex|)eriniontal Station, by Robert Warington, F.R.S., delivered before the Assn of Am. Ag. Colleges and Ex. Stations at Wash- ington, Aug. rj-lS, ISOl, Plates VI., VII., and VIII. 2<'2 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. taken place throug-h the action of organic matter ; in due course the organic matter disappears and nitrification again proceeds. Denitrification is not in any sense a chemical reaction ; on the cou- trar}', like nitrification, it can only take place in the presence of a liv- ing- organism. The efi'ects of micro-organisms upon solutions contain- ing a nitrate and organic matter have been studied by a number of observers in the last few years. The result is the determination of from 20 to 30 species of bacteria which produce some kind of a reduc- ing effect, although onlj^ two species, Baderhua denitrifcans a and /? have been found to certainly possess the property of reducing nitrates to nitrogen gas. The most common form of reduction is from nitrates to nitrites. Denitrification may also be made to take place by the simple pro- cess of excluding oxygen, as, for instance, by saturating a soil with water. In the foregoing we have set forth some of the more important facts relating to the subject of nitrification. In the chapter on Intermit- tent Filtration the necessary conditions for nitrification in its applica- tion to sewage purification are more fully discussed.* * In addition to the papers cited in the chapter, the following partial list of " Rothamsted " papers on nitrification and allied subjects, as given by Mr. Warington in his Washington lectures, loc. cit. , may be consulted : On Nitrification. — Jour. Chan. Hoc, 1ST8, 44. On Nitrification, Part \\. — Trans. Client. Soc, 1879, 429. On Alterations in the Properties of the Nitric Ferment by Cultivation. — Rtjiort British Asso- ciation for the Adi>aii,ceinent of Science, 1881, 59.3. On the Determination of Nitric Acid by Means of its Reaction with Ferrous Salts, Part I. — Trcuis. Chem. Soc., 1S80, 46S ; Part II., ibid., 1882, 34.5. On the Determination of Nitric Acid in Soils. — Trans. Chem. Soc, 1882, 351. Determinations of Nitrogen in the Soils of some of the Experimental Fields at Rothamsted, and the Bearing of the Results on the Question of the Sources of the Nitrogen of our Crops. — Report Amcricafi Association for the Advancement of Science.^ 1882. New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Sulphuric. Acid in the Rain Water Collected at Rothamsted. — Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1883, 313. The Nitrogen as Nitric Acid in the SoUs and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. — Jour. Roij. Agr. Soc, 1883, 331. On Nitrification, Part III. — 2'rans. CJiem. Soc, 1884, 937. On the Action of Gypsum in Promoting Nitrification.— Trans. Chem. Soc, 1885, 758. On some Points in the Composition of Soils, with Results Illustrating the Sources of the Fer- tility of Manitoba Prairie Soils. — Trans. Chem. /Soc..^ 1885, 380. On the Distribution of the Nitrifying Organisms in the Soil. — Trans. Chem. Soc.., 1887, 118. A Contribution to the Study of Well Waters — Trans. Chem. Soc, 1887, 500. The Chemical Actions of .some Micro-organisms. — Trans. Chem. Soc., 1888, 727. On the Present Position of the Question of the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation, with some New Results and Preliminary Notice of New Lines of Investigation. — Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1889, B. 1. The Hist.iry of a Field Newly Laid Down to Permanent Grass. — Jonr. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1889. The Amount of Nitric Acid in the Rain Water at Rothamsted, with Notes on the Analysis of Rain Water.— Trans. Chem. Soc, 1889, .^37. On Nitrification, Part IV.— Trans. Chem. Soc, 1891, 484. CHAPTEE XI. CHEMICAL PEECIPITATION. Definition of the Process. If we refer to Table No. 32, on page 152, we observe that a portion of the organic matter of sewage is in suspension only. When sewage is allowed to stand for a few hours a part of the suspended matter will be deposited at the bottom, through the action of sedimentation ; but such action is ordinarily quite restricted in its range and cannot be relied upon by itself to effect the efficient purification of sewage. If, however, certain chemicals are added. to the sewage, an insoluble pre- cipitant is formed, which, under favorable circumstances, maj^ carry down with it all the suspended matter, as well as a portion of the dis- solved organic matter. The addition of the chemicals, together with the working of the various appliances for grinding and mixing of the same, the decanting of the efiluent and the caring for the sludge, all constitute what is known as the chemical treatment of sewage, the complete process being, in reality, partly chemical and partly me- chanical. Reagents. An enormous number of chemical agents have been, at various times, proposed for this piirpose ; but experience has apparently narrowed the really useful ones down to three, the others having proven either worthless or too expensive for general use. Those chiotly used at the present time are lime, sulphate of alumina, and ferrous sulphate. Fer- ric sulphate has also been experimented with at the Lawrence Experi- ment Station, and found to be, in certain particulars, superior to the others ; but as yet this salt has not been extensively used in actual practice. The chemical reagents are used, either singly or in combi- nation, as may be required to fit the case of each particular sewage undergoing treatment. Theory of Precipitation. The action of these various substances in causing a precipitation of the organic matter is not definitely understood, though, in a general 204 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. way, we may say that the precipitating effect is exerted in accordance with the following : In the case of lime there is (1) a combination of some of the lime with free and partially combined carbon dioxide to form an insoluble car- bonate of lime ; and (2) there is probably a further combination of an additional part of the lime with a portion of the organic matters in solution. The insoluble substances so formed sink to the bottom, car- rying with them the major portion of the suspended matter in the sewage in the form of sludge. Sulphate of alumina exercises a precipitating effect by virtue of (1) a combination of the sulphuric acid with lime and other bases in the sewage, whilst (2) alumina hydrate, forming a flocculent precipitate, entangles and carries down the suspended organic matters. Most of the recent authorities have recommended a combination lime and sulphate of alumina treatment, the proportion in which they are used to be such as to yield as nearly as possible a neutral effluent ; we shall learn^ however, from the results of the Lawrence exi)eriments that a combi- nation lime and sulphate of alumina treatment has little to recommend it. Theoretically frequent tests should be made of the quality of the sewage as delivered at the disposal works, and the chemical treatment adapted to the varying conditions of flow. Practically, also, this has been found to be the best method of procedure, and at Worcester such tests are made and the application of the chemicals gaged, in ac- cordance with results thereof, at times as often as once every half hour. An extended account of such tests is given in Chapter XXVII., descrip- tive of the Worcester Disposal Works, to which the reader is referred for further information on this point. When iron salts are added to sewage which is either naturally alka- line or to which an alkali, as lime, has been artificially added, a floccu- lent hydrated oxide is formed as a precipitate, which carries down with it the suspended organic matter, as well as a portion of the dissolved. Conditions Essential for Success. The conditions which insure the best results from chemical treatment may be stated as : (1) That the sewage be treated while fresh. (2) That the chemicals be added to the flowing sewage and thor- oughly mixed with it before it passes into the settling tanks. (3) That there be a liberal amount of tank space. (4) That the arrangements for removing the sludge be such as to in- sure its frequent removal, for if left in the tanks until putrefaction sets in the sludge is likely to rise to the surface, giving off foul odors. CAPACITY OF PRECIPITATION TANKS. 205 Classification of Chemical Tkeatments. Leaving- out of account the different methods of combining the chem- icals we may classify chemical treatments as follows : (1) Intermittent treatment in shallow tanks from 5 to 8 feet deep, in which, after the addition and incorporation of the chemicals, the sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed until the completion of the process. (2) Continuous treatment in a series of tanks through Avhich, after the addition and incorporation of the reagents, the sewage is allowed to How slowly ; crude sewage, with freshly added chemicals passing in at one end, and purified effluent passing out at the other. (3) Vertical tanks, through which, after the addition of the chemi- cals, the sewage rises slowly. Fig. 11. — Floating Arm for Decanting Effluent from Tanks. There are a number of variations of these three systems, but none of them are impoi-tant enough to justify further subdivision into classes. In England, where chemical treatment was first developed, the sys- tems of intermittent and continuous treatment in shallow^ tanks are used exclusively. Tanks of both systems possess certain features in common, as, for instance, such arrangement of a gang of tanks as will admit of cutting out any one of the series for cleaning and repairs without interfering with the balance of the gang. Capacity of Precipitation Tanks. In operating precipitating tanks intermittentlj^ it is necessary to observe cortuin principles, namely, tln^ amount of tankage should be sutHcicnt to aHow the sewage to stand at least one hour, in order to insure fairly thorough precipitation. With some treatments the time required for complete precipitation is longer than one liour ; hence it is 206 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. desirable before deciding- in any given case the amount of tank ca- pacity to ascertain what form of treatment is best suited to the par- ticular sewage in hand. The Lawrence experiments on chemical purification furnish a larg-e amount of useful information on this point. In computing the total tank capacity it is necessary to take into account the time required for filling, precipitating, and emptying, the maximum fiow of sewage to be expected being taken as the basis of the computation. This portion of the subject still lacks scientific treatment, no good generalization of the relation between the quantity of sewage to be treated and amount of tank capacity required having yet appeared. As an empirical statement, based on practice, we may say the total tank capacity for disposing of the sewage, from systems which are arranged with reference to receiving a portion of the rainfall, should be nearly 50 per cent, of the average daily floAv, an allowance of this amount giving some leeway'' for contingencies when required. For further information on this jDoint see Chapter VII., on Quantity of Sewage and Variations of the Kate of Flow. In any case, it is neces- sary to provide enough tanks, so that when required one or more may be out of service for cleaning or other purposes, without crowd- ing the precipitation in the balance of the tanks. Table No. 43. Tank Capacity in Relation to Population and Quantity op Sewage at Three English Towns. oS ■Si j^ >> ■c £=■3 03 d g c t^O. . -"■O Place. Treatment. Popula- tion. No. of tanks. Flow of Ffw age in 24 hours, gal- lons. Hi Total capac- ity of tanks, gallons. Tank capacit head of po tion, gallons Per cent, of capacity to flow. Bradford 1 Intern.ittent Intermittent 225.000 1 34 8,000,000 3.5 612,000 2.7 7i Coventry < and continuous V 48,000 8 2,200,000 46 1,000,000 20.8 45 Continuous 40,000 4 1,500,('00 37 1,000,000 25.0 67 When tanks are operated continuoush^ the sewage should be thor- oughly screened, in order to intercept any large masses of matter before passing into the tanks. Tanks operated on the continuous principle should be so designed as to readil}^ admit of emptying when- ever it is necessary to clean them, or to remove sludge. Vektical Tanks. The system of vertical tanks was developed in Germany, and, so far as the authors are aware, have never been used in England or the Uni- METHODS OF SLUDGE DISPOSAL. 207 ted States, except at the Cliicago Exposition, where this form of tank has been adapted for the sewage purihcation works. They present the theoretical anomaly of continuous upward movement of the sew- age and a downward movement of the sludge. They are, nevertheless, stated to produce an efficient puiitication. It is found in practice that there is, in vertical tanks, what ma}' be termed a neutral plane of pre- cipitation. Any organic matter which may happen to pass above this plane, as it is more thoroughly acted upon by the chemicals, slowly falls back in opposition to the upward current, to the neutral plane. The tiocculent matter collecting- there forms a sort of filtering medium, which assists in arresting other matter which is floating- upward. When a considerable mass has collected the whole finally falls to the bottom, and the process of collection at the neutral plane again takes place. In upright tanks the sludge is generally withdrawn from the bottom, without interfering witli the regular operation of the tanks; in efiecting this a number of devices are applied, to which it is unneces- sary to refer here. Tanks of this form possess the merit of large ca- pacity on small ground space, and may be of use in localities where limited areas only are available. Methods of Sludge Disposal. Practicable methods of disposing of sludge may be classified as : (1) The sludge may be allowed to flow or may be pumped into sludge basins, fi-oni which it is subsequently conveyed, either by gravity or steam power, to adjacent areas, to be utilized as an agricult- ural fertilizer. (2) The sludge may be deposited in large open basins, surrounded by embankments, where it is allowed to remain until the larger por- tion of the water has evaporated or drained away, after which it is re- moved by carts or other conveyance, either for use as a fertilizer, or to some other point for final disposal, as in filling in low land. (3) Liquid sludge may be run directly on to agricultural areas, and efficiently disposed of by ploughing into the soil as soon as possible. (4) Sludge, either in the liquid state or after partial desiccation, may be mixed with combustibles, such as peat, tanbark, and sawdust, and disposed of by burning. (5) Sludge may l)o mixed with earth, rubbish, vegetable mold, marl, gy])sum, stable manure, leaves, or other suitable materials, to form compost heaps, and in this manner finally utilized as manure. (G) Liquid sludge may, wlien dis])osal works are situated within reach of a large and deep body of water (and for this purpose tide- water is preferable), be disposed of by running into dunqnng scows which convey it to deep water where it may be dumped. The 208 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. minimum distance at which this operation may be safely performed in large bodies of fresh water, like the great lakes, which are also the source of public water supplies, is as yet entirely unknowoi. (7) Sludge may be burned in a furnace of form similar to a garbage destructor, or in a garbage destructor in connection with garbage, as at Coney Island, N. Y. (8) Sludge may be compressed by a filter press into solid cakes, in which form it may be handled and conveniently transported for use as a fertilizer. The use of the filter press has considerably simplified the handling of sludge, which, previous to its introduction, was a source of great difficulty at nearly all precipitation works. At present filter j^resses are in use at only two places in this country, namely, at East Orango and at Long Branch.* For a statement of some of the results at East Orange, the reader is referred to Chapter XXIV., treating of the works at that j)lace.t Sludge, as it ordinarily comes from settling tanks, operated by either the intermittent or continuous system, contains from 90 to 95 per cent, water and from 5 to 10 per cent, solid matter. In upright tanks, from which the sludge is removed by pumping without interfering with the operation of the tanks, a sludge may be obtained with only 70 to 90 per cent, of water. Methods of Mixing Chemicals. Various methods of mixing the chemicals with the sewage are resorted to. When sewage is delivered to purification works by grav- ity, a salmon way, formed by placing bafile boards in the conduit, is a convenient way of obtaining a thorough mixing. When this device is employed, the chemicals, after being first thoroughly ground and mixed with water, or otherwise prepared in special small tanks, are added to the flowing sewage just before it reaches the salmon way. This method of mixing the chemicals with the sewage is illustrated in the plans of the works at Worcester and East Orange, in Part II. * Since the above was written a filter press has been put in operation at Canton, O. + For detaUed information in regard to disposal of sludge by the use of filter presses, etc., see — (1) On the Disposal of Sewage Sludge. By Christopher Clarke Hutchinson. Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry, Feb. 4, 1884. (3) Composition and Manurial Value of Filter Pressed Sludge. By J. M. H. Munro. Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry. Jan. 29, 188.5. (3) Papers on Disposal of Sewage Sludge. By J. W. Dibdin and W. Santo Crimp. Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. Ixxxviii.. Ses. 1886-1887, Part II. (4) Sewage Disposal Works, Crimp, Chapter VIII. {rt) Sewage Treatment and Sludge Disposal. By W. Santo Crimp, Eng. and Bldg. Reed., vol. xxvii., pp. 237-238; pp. 2.56-257; pp. 277-278 (Feb. 18 and 25, and Mar. 4, 1893); also ab, Btractedin Eng. News, vol. xxix., pp. 198-9. (March 2, 1893). COST OF CHEMICALS. 209 A pump may also be made to do the work of mixing' when re- quired in lifting- the sewage for treatment. This method is illustrated in the plans of the Mystic Valley Works, in Part II. Mixing wheels, driven either by the flowing sewage or by independent power, may also be used. The Massachusetts Expeeiments on Chemical Pueefication. Our scientific knowledge of the chemical purification of sewage has been largely extended by a series of experiments made b}' Mr. Allen Hazen, chemist in charge at the Lawrence Experiment Station, during the year 1SS9. The precipitants experimented with were lime, sid- phate of alumina, ferrous sulphate or copperas, and ferric sulphate. Cost of Chemicals. Mr. Hazen states that lime, containing 70 per cent, available calcium oxide, can be bought (presumably at Lawrence) for $9 per net ton; ferrous sulphate or copperas, containing 26 j)er cent, ferrous oxide, at $10 per net ton ; and alumina sulphate, containing 14 per cent, alumina, at S25 per net ton. A ferric salt can be made by oxidizing copperas with chlorine, or with sulphuric acid and nitrate of soda. The approximate cost of the oxides in solution is stated as follows : Alumiiuim oxiile 9 cents per pound. Ferric oxide 3 cents per jDound. Ferrous oxide 2 cents per pound. Calcium oxide 5 cent per lb. In the experiments, the results are generally stated in the form of annual cost per inhabitant, a daily flow of sewage of 100 gallons for €ach inhabitant being assumed as the basis of the comj)utation. The cost of chemicals has been calculated from the foregoing jtrice per pound for the oxides. In regard to the prices used, the authors are of the opinion, after some correspondence with manufacturers and dealers, that the price of $10 per ton for copperas, as an average price for use in this country, is somewhat low, $15 being nearer correct. The most of the crude copperas of commerce consumed in the Ignited states is a bye-product from rolling-mills. Much of it comes from the Cleveland Rolling Mill Co. and the Ferric Chemical & Color Co., of Worcester, Mass., which takes wastes from the Washburne 7 f.O. 60. 0.66 68. 60. 25.8 r>7. 57. 21.2 75. 73. 23.8 71. 53. 0..-)0 30. 0..-0 40. O.fiO oti. 170.000 32. .322.400 2. 507,800 3. Average. 467 pounds. 693 pounds. 0.71 parts per 100,000 61. percent. .53. per cent. 23.6 parts. 71. percent. 61. percent. 0.53 .35. per cent. .335.(00 12. per cent. 216 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 49. — Results of Treatment of Sewage with 1,000 Pounds of Copperas per 1,000,000 Gallons, and an Amount op Lime best adjusted to THE Copperas. Amount of copperas used . Amount of lime used Albuminoid ammonia of sewage Remaining after filtering through paper Remaining after precipitation Loss on ignition, sewage Remaining after filtering through paper Remaining after precipitation Turbidity of sewage Remaining after precipitation Bacteria of sewage Remaining alter precipitation . Oct. 16. 1,000 «U0 0.94 70. 35. 29.2 77. 30. 0.65 18. 1,000 800 0.67 60. 43. 21.2 75. 57. 0.50 30. 322,400 2. Oct. 22. Average. 1,000 800 0.f)6 68. 41. 2.3.8 71. 47. 0.60 28. 507,800 2. 1,000 pounds. bOO pounds. (1.76 parts per 100,000 t)6. per cent. 40. per cent. 24.7 parts. 74. per cent. 45. per cent. 0.58 parts. 25. per cent. 415,000 2. per cent. the turbidity, and 98 per cent, of the bacteria, witli a cost for chemicals of $8.60 per million gallons, or 31 cents per inhabitant annually. Ferric Sulphate. Mr. Hazen states that ferric salts have the advantage over ferrous salts, in that ferric hydroxide is more readily precipitated and more completely insoluble than ferrous hydroxide. A number of experiments were made to determine whether it was necessary to add lime in order to obtain the best results with ferric salts, and, if so, how much should be used ; also to ascertain the effect of difiereut amounts of ferric salts when used alone. As already stated, the ferric salt used for the experiments was ferric sulphate, but Mr. Hazen says there is every reason to suppose that exactly the same results would be obtained with ferric chloride con- taining an equal amount of iron. The experiments, with a combination treatment of lime and ferric sulphate, show that the influence of the lime is ver}^ small. With an amount of ferric sulphate equivalent to 200 pounds of ferric oxide, the result was slightly better, when 800 pounds of lime were used. With the equivalent of 400 pounds of ferric oxide, in combination (1) with 500 pounds of lime and (2) with 1,000 pounds of lime per 1,000,000 gallons treated, the results show that the lime had almost no influence. With 300 pounds of ferric oxide, no better result was obtained by mixing the sewage with 1,000 pounds of lime before adding the ferric sulphate ; when the lime was added to the sewage after the ferric sul- phate, the result was not quite so good as when no lime was used. The conclusion is, therefore, that the best results will be obtained from the ferric sulphate when used alone. ALUMINUM SULPHATE. 217 Table No. 50. — Results of Treatment of Sewage "with Ferric Sulphate, Ferric o.xide used as ferric sulphate. Albuminoid ammonia, sewage RcmaininiT afier filtering through paper Kemainiiig after precipitation Loss on igmtion, sewage Remaining after filtering through paper , Remaining after precipitation Bacteria in sewage per cubic centimetre Remaining after precipitation Suspended organic matter removed. Soluble albuminoid ammonia removed. Soluble loss on ignition removed Turbidity removed Bacteria removed Cost per inhabitant annually for chemicals ... 22 cents. Nov. 5. Nov. 6. Nov. 6. Nov. 5. 200 200 300 400 0.57 56. 45. 0.53 69. 59. 0,52 69. 36. 0.57 56. 33. 22.8 7(1. 36. 22.4 76. 42. 82.4 76. 13. 22.8 70. 18. 218,960 14. 1,398,600 14. 1,398.600 9. 218.960 3. All. All. All. All. 20. 7. 64. 86. l.i. 0. 5^s. 86. 48. 21. 87. 91. 41. 50. ^2. 97. 22 cents. 22 cents. 33 cents. 44 cents. Nov. 6. 400 pounds. 0.52 parts per 100,000 69. per cent, 33. per cent. 22.4 parts. 76. per cent, lo. per cent, l..S98,600 5 per cent. All. 52. per cent. 43. per cent. 87. per cent. 95. per cent. 44 cents. Table No. 50 g-ives tlie results of the experiments in wliicli ouly ferric sulphate was used. Aluminum Sulphate. The next series of experiments were with aluminum sulphate, the action of which upon sewaqe is analogous to the ferric sulphate. Mr. Hazen remarks that there is every reason to suppose that aluminum chloride containing- the same amount of alumina will give exactly the same results as the sulphate. The first experiments with this salt were made for the purpose of determining (1) whether lime could be used advantageously with sul- Table Xo. 5L — Results op Treatment op Sewage with Aluminum Sulphate. Nov, 1. Alum nsed per 1.000,000 gallons, pounds.., Albuminoid ammonia, sewage Remain ng after filtering through paper . ., Remaining after precipitation LoMx r)n ignition, sewage Kemniniii'.; after filterini.' through paper. . . Remaining after precipitation Turbidity of sewage Remaining after precipitation Bacteria in sewaiic. p r cubic centimetre . . Remaining after precipitation Suspenilcd org;inic matter removed Soluble albumino'd ammonia removed .. . , Soluble loss on ignition removed Turbidity removed Bacteria removed Cost of chemicals per I.HOO.IIOO gallons Co<;of lime per 1,00(1 000 gallons of sewage $0.30 0.08 45.6 10.2 35.4 1.25 0.19 4.83 1,911 l.C^O Effluent with 1.000 pounds of cop- peras and 700 pounds of lime. ... 0.80 0.12 4(1.4 9.2 r,7.2 1.25 0.17 4.80 16.044 4(;0 Effluent with 270 pounds of ferric oxide 0..S0 0.08 .38 8.0 30.0 1.25 0.18 4.92 2.047 1,000 Effluent with 0.50 pounds of alum . . . 0.30 0.10 34.4 8.0 26.4 1.50 0.19 4.88 2,475 3,700 Effluent with 8K0 pounds of ferric oxide 0.40 0.(17 37.6 5.8 31. S 1.25 0.15 4.96 1,980 1,000 Effluent with S70 pounds of alum 0.40 0.09 3S.5> 9.6 28.6 1.25 0.19 4.81 1,800 2,200 ♦ Per inhabitant annually. DEDUCTIONS. 219 Table No. 53. — Per Cent, of Soluble Organic Matter Removed by Chemicals OF Equal Value, etc. Yearly cost. Thirty cents. Chemicais used. Copperas | Ferric and lime, oxide. ( Nov. 22 ■ 27 Soluble albuminoid ammonia removed < Nov. 26 • 17 I Average. 22 ( Nov. 22 . 9 Soluble loss on ignition removed < Nov. 26 . / Average. 4 ( Nov. 22 . SO Turbidity removed '! Nov. 26 . 74 j Average. 77 Bacteria removed, Nov. 2' it3 Yeast removed, Nov. 22 92 Amount of chemicals per 1,000,000 gallons in lbs. l.SOO 35 24 29 18 24 21 70 70 70 38 98 1.000 and 700 92 95 270 Sulphate of alu- minum. 27 14 20 29 30 30 75 78 77 91 82 650 Cost of chemicals per 1,000,000 gallons treated. $8.13. Forty cents. Ferric oxide. 42 41 41 48 41 45 83 82 83 93 95 Sulphate of aUi- mmum. 27 31 29 14 26 20 78 76 77 93 90 870 $10.85. sent org-anic matter, it is shown that in addition to all suspended mat- ter, the following- amounts of soluble organic matter have been removed : With lime costing 30 cents per inhabitant annually 22 per cent. With copperas and lime costing 30 cents 29 per cent. With ferric sulphate costing 30 cents 32 per cent. With aluminum sulphate costing 30 cents 20 per cent. With ferric sulphate costing 40 cents 41 per cent. With aluminum sulphate costing 40 cents 29 per cent. With lime costing 27 cents per inhabitant, annually 20 per cent. With copperas ami lime costing 20 cents 13 jjer cent. With cojipeias and lime costing 31 cents 39 jjer cent. With ferric .sulphate costing 22 cents .... 17 per cent. With ferric sulphate costing 33 cents 48 per cent. With ferric sulphate costing 44 cents 46 per cent. With aluminum sulphate costing 23 cents 10 per cent. With aluminum sulphate costing 45 cents 47 per cent. Deductions. The following conclusions may be drawn from Mr, Hazen's experi- ments : (1) The first series in large tanks (Table No. 44) made between May 1, and Juno 14, inclusive, may be considered as approximating more nearly to the actual conditions at sewage disposal works in operation than any of the others ; and the variation in the results are such as may be fairly expected from day to day due to changes in the com- position of the sewage. The results, however, are not comparable 220 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UXITKD STATES. one with another by reason of using samples of varying composition taken on tlifferent days. (2) Mr. Hazen does not consider the second series in barrels as re- liable as the latter ones, by reason of some of the anaylses not being made until the day following the experiment. He therefore considers it probable that changes had occurred which affect the results. (3) It may be said of all the experiments in barrels that {a) the quantity treated was rather small ; tanks holding from 300 to 600 gal- lons would have been preferable, although the use of such would have required more time and additional apparatus, in the way of special appliances for mixing ; and (Z*) that probably by reason of the small volume experimented upon the mixing was more thorough than usually occurs in practice. To obtain the same results on sewage oi the same composition in actual practice will therefore necessitate the use of amounts in addition to the quantities indicated by the exper- iments, of iDerhaps 5 to 10 jjer cent. (4) AVitli lime largely in excess, as in the experiment of May 10, sew- age can be treated on a small scale in such manner as to remove very nearly all the bacteria, the result being that with an original sewage containing 1,881,400 bacteria per cubic centimetre, the number found in the effluent of 5 minutes time was only 12 ; after 1 hour 17 ; and at the end of 24 hours 5. This process, however, could not be used on a large scale, owing to the large amount of lime required and the ex- cess of lime left in solution, which would slowly precipitate out on exposure to the air. (.5) The best practical results with lime were obtained when the amount used was equal or nearly equal to the carbonic acid of the sewage. To produce this condition a definite quantity is required for a given sewage. (6) The use of copperas alone is without much useful effect in the treatment of an ordinary sewage ; the result being very little better than may be obtained by simple sedimentation. It is necessary to add enough lime, when copperas is used, to combine with the excess of carbonic acid over what is required to form bicarbonates, and to combine with the acid of the copperas, as the necessary conditions for precipitation. In general terms we may say that with a lime and copperas treatment there is a definite amount of lime that will give the best results. (7) In using lime and copperas, the lime should be added first. (8) For a given sewage treated with lime and copperas, the proper proportion of each should be determined by experiment. Up to one- half ton per 1,000,000 gallons, using in each case a suitable amount of lime, the more cop^Dcras used the better the result ; beyond that limit the improvement is not commensurate with the cost. DEDUCTIONS. 221 (9) Other thing's being equal, ferric salts are preferable to ferrous salts by reason of quicker action and more insoluble precipitate. (10) Lime is of almost no value for use with ferric sulphate, espe- cially when treating- a sewage which is already alkaline. (11) Within limits, we may say the more of either ferrous or ferric sulphate used the better the result. (12) For the sewage experimented upon, the use of lime with sul- phate of alumina is of very little effect over what may be accomplished by the use of the alumina alone. The chief effect of the lime is to in- crease somewhat the rapidit^^ of action, but the gain in time hardly compensates for the increased cost. (13) The results in Tables 52 and 53 are probably the safest for comparison, subject to the limitations indicated in (3). (14) The removal of bacteria is due partly to the mechanical action of the flocculent precipitates in which they are entangled and carried down, and partly to the action of the reagent as a germicide ; but even the best of the various chemical treatments leave a relatively large number of bacteria in the effluent, together with such quantities of organic matter as may lead in a short time to the development of as many as were present in the original sewage. If any so left are disease germs the effluent may be nearly as dangerous to public health as the original sewage. (15) The microscopical determination of the yeast may be considered a useful method of ascertaining whether or not the suspended organic matter is really all removed. (16) The effluents from treatment with iron salts are slightly colored, which, however, Mr. Hazen does not consider an objection to the treatment. (17) The practical difficulties of working the lime process renders the results in general inferior to those which may be obtained at the same cost in other ways. (18) Copperas and lime treatment is difficult in practice owing to the necessity for adjusting the quantity of lime, although when such adjustment is properly made a good result is obtained. (10) Ferrous hydroxide is more soluble than ferric hydroxide, from which results a larger amount of iron in the effluent from copperas treatment than from a ferric salt. (20) The advantage of both ferric sulphate and aluminum sulphate is that their addition in concentrated solution can be accurately con- trolled without reference to the adjustment of any chemical to the sewage. (21) The results with ferric sulphate have been on the whole more satisfactory than those witli aluminum sulphate. (22) By reason of («) variations in the composition of sewage at dif- 222 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. ferent places ; and {b) cliaug-es in prices of the reagents it is impossi- ble to say that one treatment is universally better than another. (23) An acid sewage containing- iron may be ]3roperly treated with lime. (2-4) By the use of a proper amount of either an iron or aluminum salt, from one-half to two-thirds of the organic matter of sewage may be removed by chemical precipitation. ^Yith the process carried out in detail the effluent can be discharged into a running stream without l^roducing a nuisance. (25) The incompleteness of the purification in comparison with the cost of the process will be likely to confine the application of chemi- cal purification to narrow limits. (26) There is nothing in these experiments to indicate that the efflu- ents from chemical treatment are fit to drink. Purification of Sewage by Aeration. In Table No. 53A are given the results of a series of experi- ments on the treatment of sewage by aeration made for the Metropolitan Board of Works (London), by Dr. A. Dupre and W. J. Dibdin. In each case 1,000 gallons of raw sewage was first treated with 5 grains per gallon of lime as lime-water, and the same amount of copperas. Series (1) and (2) show the means for 10 samples of raw sewage and the effluents from the same. Series (3) shows (2) corrected for the lime-water, of which 72 gallons was added in each case. Series Table No. 53A. — Results of Treatment of Sewage with Lime and Copperas, Followed by Aeration of Effluent. (Grains per Imperial gallon.) Description of sample. Dissolved .solids. Ammonia. 1 O Suspended ter. mat- Oxygen ab- sorbed. 1 g 5 c "3 •E o H "5 .2 c 1 o ."2 'S c 1 < S o 1 5 o 00 a c S in S s § 1 10 10 ]0 8 8 63.29 48.22 51.68 54.78 53.62 42.40 34.34 .S6.80 34.74 31.31 21.07 13.88 14.88 20.04 22.31 3.942 0.5205 3.540 :^847 3.803 0.4122 4.575 0..n4()8 3.250| 0.5480 fi.40 6.32 6.77 6.64 6.80 11.36 6.50 6.96 1.28 3.35 4.84 5.38 5.76 0.89 2.04 6.52 1.12 1.22 0.39 0.853 0.587 0,629 0.710 0.621 3.016 "> Effluent from (1 ) 2.274 3 4 5 Corrected effluent* Effluent before aeration . . After aeration (4) 2.300 2.437 2.292 * In these experiments 1.000 imperial gallons were used in each case. This quantity of sewage was diluted with 72 gallons of clear lime-water added to each 1,000 gallons of sewage; therefore, to compare the effluent with the sewage, it is necessary to correct the results of the analyses for that degree of dilution with clear water, thus : — 1.000 1,072 been corrected, making (3) 0.933 ; hence result obtained 0:933 corrected result. In this way the results of (2) have CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION. 223 (4) is the mean of 8 effluents wliicli were treated by aeration with the result indicated in (5). In studying- the results it must be borne in mind that (4) and (5) are different series from (2) and (3).* By comparing- series 4 and 5 of Table b'SA it will be seen that aera- tion had but little effect upon the sewage. The same conclusion was reai'lied in some experiments with diluted sewage bj' Mr. S. K. Hine.f Dr. T. M. Drown in experiments with natural waters and with water to which a small amount of sewage had been added, concludes that " Tlie oxidation of organic mutter in water is not hastened by vigor- ous agitation with air or by air under pressure. "| In considering the significance of these new views we must not for- get that the presence of oxygen is still imperative in order to secure the operation of the living agents. Moreover when large quantities of organic matter are present it is still permissible to assume some degree of direct oxidation, and it is in this latter view that we have discussed the matter in the beginning of Chapter V. Chemical Precipitation by the Use of Manganate of Soda and Nitre. As we have seen, the tendency of the effluents from chemical proc- esses, especially those dependent upon lime, is on the whole toward putrefaction, even when considerably diluted after discharge into run- ning streams. This result is due primarily to a deficient su]iply of oxygen, whereby the microbes of nitrification may develop in suf- ficient quantity to complete the resolution of the organic matter still remaining in the effluent. If, then, the chemical purification is effected by some reagent Avliich leaves a considerable quantity of oxj'gen in the effluent, we may expect an improvement in this particular. * Table No. .53A is derived from Appendix D H of the Report of the Roy. Com. on Met. Sew. Dischg., p. 201. + Recounted in a paper entitled " Note on the Direct Oxidation of Organic Matter in Water," by Professor W. P. Mason and S. K. Hine, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, vol. xiv., no. 7. The experi- ments were made by Mr. Hine and the results presented as a graduating thesis at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in June, 1S'.)2. Varying proportions of sewage and water were placed in a tin can or in a glass stoppered bottle, mostly in the latter, the receptacle being not over half full. Tiie can or bottle was then fastened to the connecting rod of a horizontal steam- engine of 10-in. stroke and the engine run at 7.5 revolutions per minute, so that in an hour the receptacle was shaken 9,0(MJ times and travelled about l.'i't miles. The samples were shaken from lo to 60 hours and '.'4 samples were tried, analyses being made before and after sliaking. The pai)er states that : An examination of the results shows tliatthe amount of oxidation which took place during the agitation of the water was very trifling, a fin])aration of irrigated urotx are ein]iloyed which we may describe a little in detail, the; pipe and jet mode of dis- 15 226 SEWAGE DISPOSAL liST THE UXITED STATES. tributin^ sewage first claiming" our attention.* In this method a series of pipes is laid according- to a system depending upon the topogra- phy. At such points as will permit of conveniently reaching all parts of the field stand-pipes or hydrants are placed, fitted with the usual coupling for connecting hose. The sewage is forced through these A.ZZ /' *v •*> /- /"• r n A. 3. a Fig. 12. — Plan and Section op Ridge and Furrow System. either by steam power or by gravitation and is distributed to the sur- face of the field by means of the hose, and when necessary by the use of a jet — the rapidity of the distribution depending upon the size of mains and amount of power applied. With gravitation the power will of course be fixed by the height of the receiving tank, into which the sewage is first collected, above the area to be irrigated ; but in a pumping system the power can be va- ried the same as in any other application of pumping. The detail of arranging either system will readily present itself to any skilful en- gineer with all the facts before him. In England a large number of pipe distribution systems are to be met with, while in this country the distribution at the Pullman, Illinois, sewage farm is effected in the same manner. (See Chapter XXX.) As a very complete system of this kind the reader is referred to the description of a sewage farm at Rugby, England, laid out on this system, as given by Mr. E. Scott Burn.f In systems of gravity distribution by carriers there are two methods " See Outlines of Modern Farming, Part V., Utilizing of Town Sewage, Irrigation, etc. By Robert Scott Burn, 6th ed., 1888. t See also Report on the Means of Deodorizing and Utilizing the Sewage of Towns. Bj' Henry Austin, C. E. (1857). RIDGE AND FUKKOW SYSTEM. 227 in common use, namely, (1) the ridg-e and furroAv or bed-work system, shown by Fig-s. 12 and 13 ; and (2) the catchwork system, shown by Fig. 14. Which of these to use in any given case will depend upon the topographical features of the area to be irrigated. The ridg-e and furrow system is specially applicable to level or nearly level land ; while the catchwork system will be used preferably in irregular, steejD, or hilly g'round. Ridge and Fuerow System. In ridge and furrow work the land is laid out in a series of beds along the top of which the irrigating channels are led, and from which the water flows over the sloping- sides. The ridges are laid out in couples, with slopes varying- from 1 in 50 to 1 in 150. The amount of slope to be given in any particular case is a matter of judgment, in the decision of which the controlling factor is porousness of the ground to be irrigated. Common dimensions of the bed are a total breadth of from 30 to 40 feet, that is a breadth of slope on each side of the ridge of from 15 to 20 feet, although in exceptional cases the breadth may by made considerably greater. The land may be underdrained in ac- cordance with the rules for underdraining in ordinary farming, the same rules applying in both cases.* In deciding whether or not to fully underdrain any given area, it may be remembered that the porousness of the soil is always increased by drainage. The Fig. 13. — Rthor and Fi'kkow Beds with Cropping. length of the beds may be anywhere from 100 to 200 feet, according to circumstances. The distribution channels along the ridge should be execHtod with care in order that when full the sewage may flow in a thill film over the edge at both sides and so on in a broad sheet * For rules of underdraining see (1) Waring's Draining for Protit and Draioing for Health; and {'.') Frencli's Farm Drainage. 228 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. over the whole field. At the foot of the slopes the furrow receives whatever water has not been absorbed in the passage over the bed and conducts it away to another and lower series of beds or to the outfall, as the case may be ; though ordinarily the surplus water should pass over several areas, especially if constructed with about the di- mensions given in the foregoing. In order to insure thorough re- moval of the water at the foot of the slopes, and to prevent the land there becoming water-logged, the furrow should be made of about the same size as the feeder on the ridge and with enough fall to produce quick drainage. Fig. 12 shows in plan and section the arrangement Fig. 14. — Catchwork System of Irrigation. of a ridge and furrow system of irrigation, of a ridge and iurrow system in crops. Fig. 13 is a general view Catchwork System. In the catchwork system, which as stated is specially adapted to steep and irregular land, the liquid is delivered at the highest point of the area, the same as with ridge and furrow. A main carrier is led along the highest contour, and the irrigation water caused to overflow the edge by damming at various places. At some distance lower COST OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTKMS. 229 down a catch-gutter is formed also on the contour, into which the unabsorbed overflow of the main carrier is caught as it flows down- ward over the surface. The damming at suitable intervals of the flrst catch-gutter causes it again to overflow to a second, and so on down to the lowest contour of the area irrigated. The detail of this operation may be illustrated by Fig. li, in Avliich a catchwork system is shown in section b}^ the upper portion, and in plan by the lower. Let A rep- resent the main carrier at the highest point of the area to be irrigated, with just fall enough to enable the stream to flow gently from left to right. The relative position of the gutters on the down-hill side are clearl}^ shown by the plan and elevation. The damming of AA at various points will cause the water to flow over the edge, down the slope b to the gutter CC ; and so on until the lower gutter JJ is finally reached. The fall of the main carrier should be about 2 inches to 100 feet, its breadth from 18 to 24 inches and its depth from 8 to 10 inches. The gutters are made level throughout their leng-th, and on very irregular ground a considerable degree of skill is required in order to secure such arrangement as will insure that all parts of the area receive their due proportion of water. As a further refinement of this system of irrigation in the way of securing a more uniform distrilnition of the water over the area, immediately below the main carrier a series of tapering carriers are cut in the line of the greatest descent, as indicated by the arrows on the plan at Fig. 14. These may also be continued below the gutters when necessary'- to assist the distribution on very irregular ground. Cost of Distribution Systems. In reference to the relative cost of the three systems of irriga- tion which have been descriljed, it may be remarked that distril)utiou by pipes will be fairly economical. In England a number of such systems have been carried out with the distribution pipes of iron, but at Pullman vitrified tile pipes have been used with good results.* The advantage of pipe distribution is that it admits, when the hydrants are ]ilaced at short intervals, of a more thorough control of the amount of sewage distributed to any given portion of the area than can be obtained by any other method. No general estimate of the cost of distribution by this system per acre can be given, because the items will vary greatly for every difterent case, but as the use of it does not involve any unknown conditions, an accurate estimate can be easily * See Paf)er, The Pullman Sewerajje, .lour, of the Assn. of Eng. Soca., vol. i. (June, 1882), p. 311. By Benezette Williams, C. E. Tlie moat of the pipe distribution systems in England have been made rather expensive by the use of cast-iron distribution mains, etc., tlie cost reaching frequently as high as $40 to $60 per 280 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. prepared in each case after a topog-raphical map of the area to be irrig-ated has been made. The original cost of preparation of ridge and furrow work in Eng- land has been from $100 to $250 per acre, English prices, which, car- ried into American prices for labor, would be apj^roximately from 1175 to $450 per acre. The latter figure has, however, included the cost of expensive main carriers of masonry or iron, and some other items which are not considered essential to the success of sewage irrigation at the present day. It must be borne in mind, as a fundamental maxim of sewage irrigation, that whatever system of irrigation is adopted the arrangements must be such a'S to absolutely prevent putrefying sew- age from standing in puddles on the ground.* acre served, American values. With the experience vi'hich has been gained there they can, how- ever, be made at the present time at a somewliat less figure. The necessity for economizing water in ordinary irrigation operations has led to a considerable use of pipe systems of distribution in a number of localities in the West, as for instance at Los Angeles and vicinity in Southern California, where cement concrete, vitrified tile, and light wrought-iron pipes have "been extensively used for this purpose. The cost of these systems has ranged in California from $15 to $50 per acre, depending upon the area served, topographical con- ditions, etc. The hose and jet are not, however, used, except incidentally, in the common irriga- tion practice in the West, the cost of the additional labor prohibiting such use. The distribution is effected from a cheap form of cast-iron hydrant designed specially for irrigation practice. As an example of such a device which has come to the authors' notice, the California irrigation hydrant manufactured at Los Angeles may be mentioned. *Rawlinson's Suggestions contain a number of useful hints on the prejiaration of irrigation areas, some of which may be quoted : In preparing land to receive sewage the greatest economy shouM be used. . . . Costly brick or earthenware carriers need not be made for towns below 1(),(HI0, but main carriers can be constructed, in concrete, while tiibutary carriers can be formed with i spade or be ploughed into shape. Main carriers should be in level lengths, as any required fall can be obtained ]>y vertical steps. On some sewage farms more money has been expended per acre in surface forming and levelling than the first cost of tne land, in this way more than doubling the rent without giving an equivalent benefit to the land. In some other cases nothing has been done to the land but to bring the sewage and flood it on in a slovenly way — growing weeds rather than grass — both ex- tremes are to be avoided. Crude sewage may be taken to land in cheap conduits, and may be applied direct in thin films from contour grips, so as to flow regularly and evenly on to the land, where it will be absorbed at once without being any cause of nuisance. Tanking sewage to deposit solids, and straining sewage through material of any sort or under any arrangement of screens, only abstracts the grosser portions of the solids and flocculent matters. Sewage may. however, be deprived of much of its noxious matter in tanks, as also by passing it through what are termed filters ; but the fluid remains unpurified, and is only in an improved state to be used in irrigation over heavy land ; or to be passed on to a prepared deep-drained land-filter ; light free soils will receive crude sewage without causing nuisance. The best land for a sewage farm will have a free loamy soil and open subsoil ; tlie surface will be tolerably even, having a southern aspect gently sloping to the south. Clay land will require deep draining and to have the surface well Viroken up, either by spade lal)or or by deep steam-ploughing ; the drains must be so laid and protected as to remove subsoil- water after filtration, and not nnfiltered surface water or sewage through cracks direct to the drains. Every area, however rough or uneven, may have level contour lines set out over its entire sur- face, so that by forming conduits on these contour lines the surface may be irrigated. It will not therefore be necessary to spend large sums of money to lay a sewage farm out like a bowling- green. Land having an irregularly and steeply sloping surface may have sewage-intercepting drains and carriers so arranged as to intercept the sewage from the upper areas and bring it over the lower areas a second or third time, by such means more effectively purifying the sewage. When land has been properly prepared for the reception of sewage, it may be irrigated in all weathers, so as to purify the sewage. COST OF DISTHIBUTIOX SYSTEMS. 281 The catcliAvork system has ordinarily cost, for original preparation of area, from SlU to $30 per acre, English prices. In Fig. 13* is illustrated a ridge and furrow system with main carrier AA constructed of concrete masonry. Distribution carriers on the ridge are shown at D and D, with a catch-furrow at I. The main carrier is dammed by closing the gate F and the flow deflected to the distrilmtion carriers by opening the gates CI and G ; from these the flow is again deflected over the slopes by the gates D and D, the por- FiG. 15. — Distribution System Applicable to Land with Uniform Slope. tion which is not absorbed finally finding its way into the catch fur- row I. Fig. 15 illustrates a system which may also be employed on land with a gentle slope in one direction only. By it the sewage flows A wet season does not necessarily injure a sewage farm, if the means of removing anil consum- ing till- produce are equal to the growth of the crops. One [ftiipi^ridl) gallon of sewage weighs 10 lbs.; 'J'M gallons, or 2, '240 lbs., are one ton ; 22,400 gallons, or 2"34,000 lbs., are 100 tons -equal to one inch in depth over one acre of land. Ten inohe.-i equals 1,000 tons, and 12,0(K) tons per acre j)er annum equals 120 inches in dejith, and this volume may be used on well-prepared land without swamping it. as land will hlter several inches in di'ptli per day whin the sewage is equally aiid evenly distril)uted. It:ilian rye grass will dispose of most sewage and give heavy crops if the roots are young. The gri-.itrst piodiicing-j)ower will be in the first year's growth. A second year is probably the utmost length of time it should be in the ground. No larger area of Italian rye grass shoidd be sown than the grass upon it can lie disposed of in the district, as it will not keep nor bear distant carriage. Sewage-grown urass will make good and wholesome hay if the season will permit, or if the grass can be artificially dried. (SVv cjmjitn- on Uxe of Silo. ) To give a sewa<;e farm the chance of pavin'.:, tlie land must l)e obtained at a reasonable price and the costs f)f prcj)aration must be mf)di'rate ; tlieri' must also be reasonable skill in cropping, in culti- vation, and in managemcnl, under whiirh conditions laud irrigated with sewage ouglitto pay a rea- sonable rent. If steam-jiower has to be used for pumping the sewage, this of course must be pai;al IX THE rNiTP:D statp:s. under control tliroiigli secoudary carriers along' the line of g-reatest descent ; it is detiected from these by gates into the minor carriers which lead from the secondary carriers at right angles across the line of greatest descent, and overflowing the edges, spreads over the sur- face of the beds from above downward. Fig. 16 illustrates a method of distribution which may be used in a field with a ridge running through it. With regard to secondary carriers, the present practice is to make, them as simple as joossible and, so far as may be, of a temporary character by use of spade or plow, the advantage of this treatment being that when fouled by the subsid- ence of suspended matter they may be purified b}' simply filling with clean earth and digging others to take their place. A modification of the pipe and open carrier system, suitable for mild climates, is shown in Fig. 17. The use or omission of these various refinements will materially in- fluence the first cost in any given case, and clearly much must be left to the judgment of the designing engineer.* Fig. 16.— Distribution System Applicable to a Field In- tersected BY A Ridge. Undeedeaining. In discussing the preparation of ridge and furrow irrigation beds in the foregoing, it has been remarked that the ordinary rules of under- draining may be followed. In the case of heavy clay lands, hoAvever, an exception to this rule may be noted Such soils possess the prop- erty of cracking in dry weather by reason of the contraction of the clay * The practical detail of laying out irrigation areas has been discussed at various times in the Jour, of the Roy. Ag. Soc. of Eng. , and the following papers contained therein may be con- sulted : (1) On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. By Ph. Pusey, M.P., vol. x. (1849), p. 462. In this paper the methods of forming both ridge and furrow, and catchwater s3-stems are given. (2) Some Account of the Formation of Hill-side Catch-Meadows at Exmoor. By Robert Smith, vol. xii. (18.51). p. 130. (3) On an Improved System of Irrigation. By John Bickford. vol. xiii. (18.53), p. 162. (4) On an Improved and Cheaper System of Laying-out Catch- Jleadows. By Sir Stafford Northcote, Bart, vol xiii. (18.52), p. 172. (5) Review of ''Italian Irrigation." by R. Baird Smith, Captain of Engineers, etc. By P. H. Frere, vol. xxiv. (ISB-I), p. ITS. Burns' Outlines of Modern Farming, Part V., contains the detail of preparation of sewage irri- gation areas. UNDKUDKAINING. 233 as it loses water : hence the thorough draiuing of clay soils is likely to result iu au intensification of the tendency to crack. This will be appreciated by considering that uudrained clay frequently shows cracks at least an inch in width, and of considerable depth. AVhen iJ^,iftT«?»y;^/ g"^-V'^v;aW(Q:?K -^; »3»f^%?a^^g^^ ■y --7 ■*^- -.. w^'-v ^-— «■.-»•##'^l^^.^^■:='^S^■^<*■- Fig. 17. — Combined Pipe and Open Carrier Systems of Distribution. such soil is underdrained the cracking is so increased that the applied sewage will at times pass directly down to the drains without any purification at all. This practical difficulty renders the use of heavy clay soils undesirable for sewage irrigation when any other soil can be obtained. In some cases, unfortunately, heav}^ clays are the only soils avail- able, and their utilization becomes in such cases a question of con- siderable importance. At the WiinV)ledon Sewage Farm near London, whore heavy cla^^s are successfully irrigated, the following system has been adopted for portions recently laid out, as described by Mr. Crimp : * The surfaces were very carefully levelled to prevent any iwmlinp: ; the land was divided into plots of about 4 acres by means of roads 12 feet in width ; under the centre of eacli road a drain was laid at a depth of about fi feet ; the surface, prior to beinp; cropped, was ploughed to a depth of about 9 inches, and while iu a rough condition, a thick coating of screened town ashes was placed uj)on it ; the ordinary agricultuial operations followed, and, as a result, a porous surface of upward of a foot in thickni-ss has l)een obtained, through W'hich the sewage passes in a lateral di- rection. As the ground is ])loughed every other year, the ])orosity of the surface is maintained, and the I'esults have liitherto been satisfactory ; certainly the troubles experienced in the older parts of the farm have been aUogether wanting on the newer ])ortions. Tlie farm manager, Mr. Snook, recommends occasional snbsoil- ing, in addition to deep ploughing, for clay soils. These disturbed surfaces will ab- sorb large ([uantities of sewage, and if the liquid be carefully and intermittently ai)plied, " lateral filtration "' will occur with satisfactory lesults ; the quantity ap- plied i)er acre ])er day should not exceed 'JO, 000 gallons, and with that (plant ity pro))erly a)>i)lied it is doubtful if any water will escajie that has not been in actual contact with the soil. The volume might a])iiear to be large, seeing tliat -40 gal- lons of sewage per head per day, 500 persons per acre would be the unit, but it is rarely the case that more than one-fifth of a sewage farm is under irrigation at any one period. * Sewage Disposal, [i. lOG. 234 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Irrigation Practice. The process of sewag-e irrigation consists in allowing" the sewage to flow intermittently over the surface of the land, for a few hours at a time ; the interval between periods of flow being- regulated by the necessities of tiie crops raised. Some crops, as for instance vegetables, will take considerable amounts of sewage at certain periods of growth, while later on, when maturing, the sewage needs to be kept entirely off. This principle, moreover, is not applicable to sewage irrigation alone, but applies to any kind of irrigation whatever. Thus the Cali- fornia fruit growers have learned as the result of experience not to ir- rigate orchards after the period of rapid growth has taken place ; they find, by stopping the irrigation when maturity begins that the final result is a hard, crisp, juicy fruit, as finely flavored as that grown in the most favored regions, where irrigation is unnecessary. Sewage Irrigation Fallacies. This experience of the California fruit growers is specially referred to because there are some fallacies in regard to sewage farming float- ing about, which, while exploded many years ago in England, where they mostly had birth, are occasionally crop]3ing up in this country with as much vigor as though they were new discoveries. One of these is that vegetables from sewage-irrigated farms are of necessity watery ; another is that cows fed on sewage-grown grass give less rich milk than those fed on ordinary grass ; and a third, which may be considered a corollary to the first two, that sewage-grown products are less healthful than those from an ordinary farm. In regard to all these points the English experience is amply sufficient to demonstrate that, with proper management of the irrigated areas, no difficulty will be found in securing products which are fairly equal to those from or- dinary farming. In considering the real significance of much of the jjopular discussion of the value of sewage-grown produce which has taken place in England, it must be remembered that in the early days of sewage purification ^'ery extravagant views were entertained in re- gard to the A^alue of the sludge to be obtained from chemical purifica- tion processes for manurial purposes. The difficulty of so utilizing the manurial elements of untreated sewage in farming operations as to re- turn a commercial profit was realized at an early day, and large amounts of capital were embarked in chemical processes, nearly all of which were either secret or ]^atented. The irrigation processes, on the contrary, were unprotected by patents, and in the fierce commer- EEPORT OF THE SEWAGE QF TOWNS COMMISSION. 235 cial competition which ensued many statements in regard to their utility passed current for a time, which are not substantiated in the light of later experience. Keport of the Sewage of Towns Commission. Questions in relation to the benefits which may be derived from properly conducted sewage irrigation were probably more thoroughly discussed in the three reports of the Sewage of Towns Commission than in any other place.* This Commission, as originally constituted, consisted of the Earl of Essex, Henry Ker Seymer, Eobert Rawlinson, Professor Way, J. B. Lawes, Dr. Southward Smith, John Simon, and Htnny Austin. Mr. Brunell was also appointed on the Commission, but was subsequently relieved from serving on request. The Commis- sion begin in their first report by giving a resume of the more salient questions of sewage purification of the day, as the result of which they state that they have arrived at the following conclusions : 1. That the increasing pollution of the rivers and streams of the country is an evil of national importance, which urgently demands the application of remedial measures ; that the discharge of sewage and of the noxioivs refuse of factories into them, is a source of nuisance and danger to health ; that it acts injuriously not only on the locality where it occurs, but also on the population of the districts through which the polluted rivers flow ; that it poisons the water, which in many cases forms the sole supply of the po[)alation for all purj^oses, including drinking ; that it destroys the fish, and generally that it impairs the value and the natural advantages derived from rivers and streams of water. 2. That this evil has largely increased with the growing cleanliness and internal improvements of towns as regards water-supply and drainage ; that its increase will continue to be iu direct proportion, to such improvements; and that as these im- provements are yet very ])artial, the nuisance of sewage, already very sensibly felt, is e.\tremely slight as compared to what it will become when sewage and drain- age works have been carried into full effect. 3. Tliat in many towns measures for improved water-supply and drainage are retarded, from the difficulties of dis])osing of the increased sewage which results from them ; that the law wliicli regulates the rights of outfall is in an anomalous and undefined condition ; that judicial decisions of a confiicting character have been arrived at in diiferent instances, and that consequently the authorities of towns have constantly before them the fear of harassing litigation. ■4. That the methods which have been adopted with the view of dealing with sewage are of two kinds : the one bring the application of the whole .sewage to land, and the nthm- that of treating it by chemical processes, to separate its most otlensive portions ; tliat tlie direct a])i)lication of sewage to land favorably situated, if judiciously carried out and confined to a suitable area exclu.sively grass, is jirof- itabh^ to ])ersons so employing it : that where the conditions are unfavorable, a small payment on the ])art of the local authorities will restore the lialance. ."). Tliat this mt^thod of sewagi^ a]i])lication, conducted with moderate care, is not productive of nuisance or injury to health. G. Tliat when circumstances ])ievent the disjiosal of sewage by direct application to land, the processes of iireciiiitation will greatly ameliorate, and inactically ob- viate, the evils of sewage outfalls, especially where there are large rivers for the discharge of the licpiid ; that such methods of treating sewage do not retain more * Ist, :id, and M Kepts. Sew. Towns Com., ISoS-l 801 -18(15. 236 SEWAGK DISJ'OSAL IN 'IIIK IMTKl) STATP:.S. tlian a small portion of the fertilizing matter, and that althou^yh in some cases the sale of the manure may repay the cost of i^roduction, they are not likely to be suc- cessful as private speculations. 7. That, considered merely as the means of mitigating the nuisance, these pre- cipitating processes are satisfactory ; that the cost of them in any case is such as town iJ02)ulations may reasonably be called upon to meet ; that the necessary works need not, if properly conducted, be a source of nuisance ; and that, by modifica- tions of the existing methods, even the slightest risk of nuisance may be entirely obviated. 8. That the employment of the one or other method of disposing of sewage, or of both conjoined, must depend upon locality, levels, markets, and a variety of other circumstances, and that the case of each town must be considered ui^ou its own peculiarities. 9. That there is good ground for believing that the methods yet proi^osed for dealing with sewage are not the best that can be devised, and that further investi- gation will probably result in the discovery of jjrocesses more thoroughly equal to the suppression of the nuisance, and at the same time calculated to give more val- uable products. 10. That the magnitude of a town presents no real difficulty to the effectual treatment of its sewage, provided it be considered as a collection of smaller towns. In their second Eeport the Sewag-e of Towns Commission state that a committee of members of the Commission personal!}' visited and examined a number of rivers and streams which are rej)orted as seriousl}'^ polluted. They also state the result of examining- various chemical processes of purification, tog-ether with statement in detail of the results, to the date of the second Rejoort, of the series of experi- ments carried out by J. B. Lawes at liugby, by order of the Commis- sion. The object of these experiments is stated as being to determine so far as possible : 1. The amount and composition of the produce in relation to the volume of •water supjilied to the land by irrigation, to the amount of manurial constituents so aj^plied, and to the jiojjulation contributing the manurial constituents of the water. 2. The most jn-ofitable method of applying the produce, that is, whether it should be used in the green state or as hay ; whether for the i)roduction of milk or as meat ; and whether it should be consumed alone or in conjunction with other food. For the purpose of the experiments, two fields of five acres and ten acres area, respectively, were selected, and each divided into four equal parts. The four jilots of each field were treated as follows : Plot 1, Avithout sewag-e; Plot 2, with 3,000; Plot 3, with 6,000; and Plot 4, with 9,000 (long) tons of sewage per acre per annum. In Tables Xos. 54 and 55 are given some of the results of the experi- ments on the two fields. Table No. 54 shows the amount of grass raised on each of the four j^lots for the j^ears 1861-18G3. Table No. 55 is self-explanatory. Table 56 gives the results of a series of experi- ments in feeding- sewage grass to milch cows. The fig-ures in Table 54 have been reduced, from long tons, hundredweight, quarters, and pounds, to an equivalent in pounds, for convenience. REPORT OF THE SEWAGE OF TUWXS COMMISSION. 287 Table No. 54. — Results of Three Years' Experiments at the Skw age-Farm IN Rugby, England. Five-acre field. Ten-acre field. Year. Without sewage. With sewage. Without sewage. With sewage. Lotl Lot 2 Lots Lot 4 Lotl Lot 2 Lots Lot 4 1861 1862 . 20,814 18,294 11,069 .33,244 62,514 49,851 60.602 77,299 78,231 7.3,564 71,766 80,941 19,951 36,985 18.023 35,478 61.732 56,596 51,268 51,028 71,946 68,500 65,8i5 59.792 70 8;32 1863 78,337 Average 16,725 48,5:^6 72,044 76,424 24.986 69,654 Table No. 55.- Per Cent, of Dry Substance in Crops Raised on Experimen- tal Fields. Five-acre field. Ten-acre field. Number of crop. Without sewage. With sewage. Without sewage. With sewage. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1861. 1 27.9 24.4 .30.5 19.8 13.4 26.9 14.2 13.7 15.4 2T.7 : 13.3 12.9 9.6 15.9 i 15.3 19.4 , 14.2 j 22.0 26.9 23.3 17.1 12.6 16.9 17.5 19.5 16.2 14.5 21.4 15.1 7.3 15.1 18.4 16.1 14.4 17.8 2 3 4 .. .. Mean 26 2 26.7 22. S 21.8 22.8 14.3 18.2 17.6 14.4 16.4 12.9 24.5 26.9 17.9 .... 14.7 13.5 19.0 14.4 33.8 15.6 20.0 16.3 14.6 13.9 16.2 16.7 Vi \ 1862. 1 2 3 16.7 15.8 33.8 4 Mean 24.8 36.1 34.4 18.4 21.5 18 5 17.7 15.8 18.4 14.6 17.6 14.9 10.9 13.0 16.3 16.3 . 17.8 17.6 12.3 15.3 22.4 398 18.2 16.4 18.6 17.7 12.4 15.2 14 6 1863. 1 2 18 8 3 15.8 13.6 4 5 35.3 14.1 15.9 29.0 16.2 15.6 In tlie third report the discussion of these experiments is con- tinned, und the Commission o-ives in dftail the results obtained from definite areas treated, under th(> followinir heads : 1. Quantities of sowap;c applied and of green produce obtained. 2. Experiments witli Italian rve-grass. 3. Experiments with fattening oxen. 4. Experiments witli milking cows. 5. Composition of the lUigln- sewage water. 6. Estimated composition of ^letropolitan sewage. 7. Composition of the Kugby drainage water. (Effluent.) 238 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. Table No. 56. — Results op Feeding Unsewagkd and Sewaged Gbass to Milch Cows. (Parts per 100.) Cows fed on grass alone. Cows fed on grass and oil- cake. Un.sewaged, mean of nine samples. Sewaged, mean of ten Bamples. Unsewaged, mean of four samples. Sewaged, mean of four samples. 3.246 3.604 4.405 0.153 3.241 3.430 4.218 776 3.352 3.657 4.561 0.740 3.423 Butter 3.707 4.689 0.771 Total solids 12.008 87.992 11.665 88.335 12. .310 87.690 12 050 Water 87 950 Total 100. 100. 100. 100. 8. Composition of the unsewaged and sewaged grass. 9. Effects of sewage on the mixed herbage of grass-land in developing the more freely growing at the exj^euse of the less freely growing plants. 10. Composition of the milk yielded from the unsewaged and sewaged grass. 11. Experiments of the application of sewage to oats in 1863. 12. Miscellaneous results obtained in 1864. All the questions formally enumerated in the foregoing- are dis- cussed in the Report in detail, finally folloAved by a summary in which the main points in the discussion are saliently presented. The report as a whole furnishes the most complete information on the subject treated that has thus far been given. The more useful jjortions of the summary are as follows : 1. As there is a daily supply of sewage the year round, which, on sanitary and engineering grounds, it is essential to dispose of as soon as it is j^roduced, and as passing it over land is the best mode both of purifying and utilizing it, it should be employed for purposes of irrigation, and be ajiplied in winter, when of compar- atively little value, as well as in summer, when of more. KESULTS OBTAINED ON THE APPLICATION OF SEWAGE GBASS. TO MEADOW AND ITALIAN ETE- 2. By the application of sewage to grass land during the winter months a very early cut or bite of green food may be obtained, but the amount of increased pro- duce due to the winter aiJijlication is comparatively small for the amount of sewage employed. 3. By means of sewage irrigation the ]")eriod during which an abundance of green food was available was extended con.sideral)ly at the end as well as at the begin- ning of the season, and the more so the larger the quantity of sewage ajiplied, al- most up to the highest amount employed — namely, 9,000 tons per acre.* 4. One of the experimental fields gave much less produce per acre without sew- age than the other, and analysis showed its soil to be much less naturally fertile; but it gave fully as much ]iroduce per acre under the influence of liberal dressings of sewage as the naturally much more fertile soil. * It will be understood that in this quotation long tons (;i,240 pounds) are meant. REPORT OF THE SEWAGE OF TOWNS COMMISSION. 239 5. Taking the average over three years, and iu the two tield.s, the amount of pro- duce obtained without sewage was about 9^ tons of green grass per acre per annum, equal about 3 tons of hay ; and with 3,000, 6,000, and 9,000 tons of sewage per annum the amounts were, respectively, about 22^, 30^^, and 32^ tons of green grass — equal respectively (reckoned according to the percentage of dry substance in each) about 5, 5|, and 6i tons of hay. 6. Tiie largest quantities of produce per acre were obtained iu the third year of the experiments, and with 9,000 tons of sewage per acre per annum ; namely, in one field 35 tons, and in the other 37 tons of green grass, equal respectively about 6 tons 12f cwts., and 7 tons 1 cwt. of hay. 7. The average increase obtained for each 1,000 tons of sewage was — when 3,000 tons i^er acre per annum were applied, about 5 tons of green grass ; when 6,000 tons were applied, -i tons 2i cwts. ; and when 9,000 tons were aiJiJlied, 3 tons 3^ cwts. of green grass. 8. The amount of produce per acre was the greater, the greater the quantity of sewage applied, up to 9,000 tons per acre ; but the amount on increase of produce obtained for a given amount of sewage was the less where the gi'eater amounts were applied. 9. Experiments with rye-grass were made in one season only, sewage was not ap- plied until the end of April, and comparatively small quantities were put on. The results so obtained indicated much about the same amount of increase of produce for a given amount of sewage as with meadow grass. RESULTS OBTAINED WITH FATTENING OXEN. 10. When cut and given to fattening oxen tied \\p under cover, more sewaged than unsewaged grass, reckoned in the fresh or green state, was both consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time, and required to produce a given weight of increase ; but, of real dry or solid substance, less of that of the sewaged than of the unsewaged grass was required to produce a given eftect. 11. Wlien cut grass was given alone the result was very unsatisfactory ; but when oilcake was given in adtlition the amount of increase upon a given weight of animal within a given time, and for a given amount of dry substance of food consumed, was not far short of the average result obtained when oxen are fed under cover on a good mixed diet. 12. The money return, whether reckoned jaer acre or for a given amount of sew- age, was much less with fattening oxen than with milking cows. RESULTS OUTAIXED WITH MILKING COWS. 13. When cows were fed on unsewaged, or sewaged grass, as much as they chose to eat, a given weiglit of the animal was more productive, l)oth of milk and in- crease, but especially of milk, on the unsewaged than on the sewaged grass. 14. From a given weight of unsewaged grass, reckoned in the fresh or green state, more milk was produced than from an ecjual weight of fresh sewaged grass ; but a given weight of the dry or solid substance sui)plied in sewaged grass was on the average more productive than an equal weight supplied in un.sewaged grass. l.j. Tii(i milk-])i'')(liu'ing quality of the grass was very different in difterent season-, and at dirt'erent j)eri()ds of the same season. It was very inferior in the wet and cold seasons of 18(52, and toward the clo.se of the seasons as compared with the earlier jx-riods. It appears i)robable that Italian rye-grass deteriorates less toward tiie end of a season than meadow grass. On the average, about six parts by weight of fresh grass yielded one ])art by weight of milk. 16. By the aid of sewage, the time that an acre would keep a cow, and the amount of milk yielded from the produce of an acre, were increased between three- and four-fold. 17. So far as the results of the experiments afford the means of judging, it is estimated that with an application of about 5,000 tons of sewage per acre per 240 sp:\vagk disposal in the united states. annum to meadow land, an average gross produce of not less than 1,000 gallons of milk per acre per annum may be expected. 18. In experiments conducted with Italian rye-grass (but in one season only), more milk was obtained by the use of a given amount of sewage applied to it than meadow grass. 19. With an application of about 5,000 tons of sewage per acre per annum, an average gross return of from 306 to 356 per acre, in milk at 8d. per gallon, may be anticipated. COMPOSITION OF THE KUGBY SEWAGE. 20. The mean of 93 analyses, of as many samples, of the Eugby sewage, collected over a period of 31 months, shows 6i grains of ammonia, and 87* grains of total solid matter, per gallon ; equal to 207f lbs. of total solid matter per 1,000 tons. Or, taking the mean of the average composition fixed by the analyses for each of the 31 mouths, instead of the direct mean of the total 93 analyses, the average con- tents would be almost exactly 7 grains of ammonia, and 92^ grains of total solid matter per gallon ; equal to 224 lbs. or 2 cwts. of ammonia, and 2,960 lbs., or about 26i cwts. of total solid matter, per 1,000 tons. 21. Although each sample analyzed was the mixture of portions taken every two or three hours for several days together, the variation in composition at diflerent times was very great ; the amount of ammonia varying in the diflerent mixed sam- ples from 2Jr to about 15i grains per gallon, or from 81ii to 500^ lbs. per 1,000 tons, whilst the total solid matter varied from about 37^ to about 270 grains per gallon, or from 1,203 to 8,637 lbs. per 1,000 tons. 22. 1.000 tons of the average sewage of Eugby represent the excretal and other matters of from 17 to 18 average individuals of a mixed poimlation of both sexes and all ages for a year, and contain ammonia equal to that in from 11 to 12 cwts. of Peruvian" guano ; or about 1,700 tons of such sewage would contain nitrogen reck- oned as ammonia equal to tliat in 1 ton of Peruvian guano. 23. It is estimated that there are at Eugby, including rainfall, etc., on the aver- age from 55 to 60 tons of sewage per head of the population per annum. 24. Judging from the average composition of the Eugliy sewage and of various crops, it is concluded that potash would be more likely than phosphoric acid to be- come deficient where town sewage was applied constantly to grass land, while phos- phoric acid would be more likely to become deficient than potash if it were ai^plied to the ordinary crops of rotation. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE GRASS. 35. The sewaged meadow grass, as cut and given to the animals, contained a less proportion of dry or solid substance than the unsewaged ; and the grass cut during the later portions of the season (both unsewaged and sewaged) contained less solid matter than that cut during the more genial periods of growth. 36. Italian rye grass, in the condition as cut, was also found to be more succu- lent and to contain less solid matter when grown with sewage than without it ; but the proportion of dry substance diminished less as the season advanced in its case than in that of the meadow grass. 37. The proportion of nitrogenous substance (and also of impure waxy or fatty matter) was much greater in the solid matter of the sewaged than in that of the unsewaged grass. The ])roi)ortion of nitrogenous substance was also much higher in the solid matter of the grass grown toward the end than earlier in the .season. The proportion of indigestible woody fiV)re Mas much about the same in the dry substance of the unsewaged and of the sewaged grass. It progressively diminished as the season advanced, and was generally lower in the dry substance of the Italian rye than in that of the meadow grass. " 38. A given amount of the dry substance of grass grown in a cold and wet sea- son, or during the cold and wet periods of the year, generally contains more nitroge- REPOKT OF THE SEWAGE OF TOWNS COMMISSION. 241 nous substance, but is less productive than that of grass grown in more genial weather. 39. The greater productiveness in milk and increase of a given amount of the solid matter of the sewaged grass appears to depend more on a favorable condition of maturation, digestibility, and assimilability of the constituents than on the actual jjercentage amount of any of those determined and above enumerated. EFFECTS OF SEWAGE ON THE MIXED HERBAGE OF GF.ASS LAND. 40. The effect of sewage irrigation on the mixed herbage of grass land is to de- velop the graminaceous plants chiefly, nearly to exclude the leguminous, and to reduce the prevalence of miscellaneous or weedy plants, but much to encourage in- dividual species. 41. Among the grasses which have been observed to be the most encouraged by sewage ai'e (according to locality or other circumstances) rough meadow grass, <;ouch grass, rough cock's foot, woolly soft grass, and perennial rye grass ; two or three only remaining in any considerable proportion after sewage has been liberally applied for some years. 42. The jiroduce of sinvagp-irrigated meadows being generally cut or grazed very young, the tendency which the great luxuriance of a few very free-growing grasses has to give a coarse and stemmy later growth is not an objection, as in the case of meadows left for hay ; a given weight of the dry or solid substance of the more simple .sewaged grass being, wlien consumed green, more iiroductive than an equal weight of that of the more complex unsewaged herbage. COMPOSITION OF THE JIILK FKOM THE UNSEWAGED AND THE SEWAGED GRASS. 43. Although more milk was obtained from a given weight of the dry or solid sub- stance of sewaged tlum of unsewaged grass, there was comparatively little difference in tlie comijosition or richness of tlie milk from the two kinds of grass. That from the sewaged grass was. liowever, slightly tlie less rich, containing somewhat less of oasein, butter, sugar, and total solid matter (though more mineral matter) than that from the unsewaged. 44. When oil-cake was given with the grass (whether sewaged or unsewaged), the richness of the milk was notably increased. KESULT.S OBT.VIXED ON THE APPLICATION OF SEW.\GE TO 0.\TS. 45. In an experiment with oats, in which 135^ tons of sewage were applied per acre, the gross value of the increased produce amounted to more than 5d. per ton of the sewage employed, or to about three times the market value of the constitu- ents of the sewage, sujjposing them to have been extracted and dried ; and in another experiment, in whicli 510 tons were applied \iev acre, the gross value of the increased produce amounted to about 1^'/. ]>or ton of the sewage emjjloyed. 46. In the experiment witli the small(>r rpiantity of sewage the supply of water was equivalent to something under an additional 1^ inch of rain at the critical period of growth, and in that with the larger amount to about 5 inches, whicli proved to be a gieat excess at the period of the .season at which it was applied, there being an ov(>r-i)roduction of straw, and the crop being much laid. Both ex- ])eriiiients were made in the unusually productive season of 1»S()3, and with sewage of ai)Out double tlie average strength of that of tlie Metroi)olis. which was apj)lied during a ))eriod of very dry weatlier. It is obvious, therefore, that the results were quite exceptional, and cannot be taken as indicating what might be ex]iected from tiie a])plication of small quantities of sewage to corn crops on different soils and on tlie averagf! of seasons. 47. It is probable that 500 tons of sewage per acre is more than would be appro- priate to arable land otherwi.se treated in the ordinaiT way, taking the average of soils and seasons ; and it is certainly more than would be appropriate for lieavy lauds and for wet seasons. IG 242 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE r:NITED STATES. GENERAL CONCLTTSIOKS. 48. To obtain a maximum amount and gross value of produce from a given amount of sewage, it sliould be applied in small quantities ])er acre and in dry weather ; but the great dilution of town sewage, its large daily sujjply at all sea- sous, and its greater amount in wet weather, when the land can least bear, or least requires, more water, render it quite inappropriate for application on a compre- hensive scale to arable land for corn and other ordinary rotation crops. 49. Supposing arrangements were made for distributing sewage over a sufli- ciently large area to command a full value, both as manure and as water, at the most favorable jieriods of the year, the cost of main distribution Vvould be very great ; the application to the arable land would require to be chiefly by the exjiensive means of piping and hose and jet, instead of open runs, and but a small proportion of the total sewage could be so used, leaving the remainder to be ajiplied in large quanti- ties to grass land, at the less favorable periods of the year, and of course to real- ize a much lower value. 50. Having regard to the cost of distribution, it is i>robable that the most profit- able mode of utilization would be to limit the area by sijecially adai:)ting the arrangements for the apjjlication of the greater part, if not the whole, to permanent or other grasses laid down to take it the year round, trusting to the occasional use to other ciops within easy reach of the line or area so commanded, but relying mainly on the periodically broken up rye-grass land and on the application to arable land of the solid manure resulting from the consumption of the sewaged grass for obtaining other produce than milk and meat by means of sewage. 51. It is probable tluxt about 5,000 tons of sewage per acre, judiciously applied to grass laud properly laid down to receive it, would, in a great majority of cases, secure the most profitable utilization. 52. Supposing an application of 5,000 tons of sewage per acre per annum to grass land, the purification of the water would doubtless be sufficient to admit of the drainage being turned into the rivers without fear of detriment to fish ; while any streams receiving such drainage, instead of that direct from the towns, would at any rate be vastly improved from their previous condition as a water-sup])ly : but whether the purification would be sufficient with such an application is a question which requires further experience and investigation to answer satisfac- torily, and which will probably receive a different answer in different cases. 53. Assuming that the average dilution of the Metropolitan sewage, including rainfall and subsoil water, will amount to 100 tons per annum, 5,000 tons would represent the excreta! and other matters of 50 average individuals ; and a popula- tion of 3,000,000 would require about 60,000 acres constantly under irrigation. 54. The only records of exact quantitative results obtained on the application of town sewage to corn crops are those of the exjieiiments of the Earl of Essex on wheat, and those of the experiments with oats at Eugby, given in this Eeport, and in both cases the increase of produce represented a very high gross money return per ton of sewage emjiloyed. The circumstances of the ex]jeriments at Eugby were, however, quite exceptional ; and, where the most extensive trials of the appli- cation of sewage to corn cro]is have been made with a view to profit — namely, afc Watford, Eugby, and Alnwick — the practice has been abandoned ; while neither at Edinburgh, nor Croydon, where the best results have been obtained with gi-ass, does the apijlicatioii to corn and other rotation crops constitute a part of the gen- eral system adopted. 55. Judging both from the results of the experiments, and from the experience of common practice, it is considered that the most profitable utilization of town sewage will in most cases be attained by the application of about 5,000 tons per acre "to meadow or Italian rye grass, but that the farmer would not pay fr/., and probably not id., per ton, the year round, for sewage of the average strength of that of the Metropolis (excluding storm water), delivered on his land. The experiments of the Sewag-e of Towns Commission indicate varying- amounts of sewag-e as applicable to different crops, the quan- THE ROYAL AGRICULTtTRAL SOCIETY. 24?3 tity necessary for efficient results ranging- from less tlian 500 gross tons per acre per annum on heavy laud, in wet seasons, to about 9,000 tons per acre on grass lands. Assuming, for American conditions, a daily average of 80 U. S. gallons ^er head, the sewage of each person amounts to 97 gross tons per annum ; whence we derive that the api^lication per acre pev annum will, according to the Sewage of Towns Commission, vary from the sewage of 5 persons to 93. If we include some additional sewage which the land may be made to clarify without reference to the results of cropping, we may take from 50 to 150 persons per acre as the average for the whole year, though the quality of the soil and the amount of dilution of the sewage will both influence the result. With unfavorable soils and a large dilution, 50 persons per acre will be sufficient ; while, with favorable soils and a concentrated sewage, we may go as high as from 150 to 200 persons to the acre. The pro^^er solution in each case will depend entirely upon the local conditions. * The Koyal Agricultural Society's Sewage Farm Competition. In 1879 the Koyal Agricultural Society of England offered two prizes each of the value of £100 for the best-managed sewage farms in Eng- land and Wales.f Messrs. Baldwin Latham, Clare Sewell Read, and Thos. H. Thurslield were designated as the judges to make the award. In the first class the following sewage farms were entered : Alder- shot, Bedford, Guisborough, and Wrexham ; in the second class, Birmingham, Croydon, Doncaster, Reading, and Leamington. The report of the judges contains full information in regard to the area, cost of operation, i^opulation contributing sewage, and various other items necessary to a full understanding of the relative efficiency of the several different farms. A tabulation is also given of the chief physic;al properties of the soils of the different farms, the whole fol- lowed by a statement in detail in regard to kind of crops, acreage, and various other items for each competing farm. Many of these tabula- lations are of great interest and value, but their length precludes in- troducing them here. In class 1 the jiidges decided that the sewage farm of the Corpora- tion of Bedford and that of Wrexham were equal in merit. The first prize was therefore adjudicated to them jointly. * In the 19th An. Rcpt. Mass. St. B<1. Health (1888) it is stated, p. ;^8, that, on an ordinary farm in Mass., 2,500 gals, per acre per day are as much as could be applied to any valuable grass crop, and there would be rerpiired 400 acres of irrigation ground for each 1,000,000 gallons of sewage; from which it in concluded that irrigation alone cannot be depended upon in the more thickly settled portions of that State for j)reventing the pollution of streams. tSee Kept., in vol. xvi.. Sec. Ser. (1880), pp. 1-80. 244 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. In class 2 the prize was awarded to tlie Leamiugtou sewage farm. Tlie judges, however, say they are strongly of the opinion that a second prize should be awarded in this class to the Doncaster sewage farm, which they deem an admirable example of thrifty management, also showing how sewage can be applied in general farming. A study of this report will be of use to any one interested in sewage farming. In regard to the crops raised, the rejjort shows that almost any crop which can be raised in ordinary farming in England can be cultivated on proi^erlj^ managed sewage farms with good effect. At the Leam- ington farm, cropping for 1879, and the area into each crop were as follows : A. K. P. Italian rye grass, 49 37 Seeds, 16 2 23 Pasture, 86 2 14 Potatoes, 40 Oats 18 5 Mangolds, 23 3 34 Carrots, 23 A. R. P. Cabbage, 60 Barley, 18 2 Parsnips, 6 3 17 Beans, 45 2 9 Turnips, 23 3 24 Wheat, 68 2 35 Rhubarb, 02 371 38 The following details in regard to the crops raised at Leamington in 1879 are also given : Eye grass. — This crop is grown both for sale and home consumption. It is not allowed to stand longer than two rears, and about 25 acres are sown every year — usually in the autumn, at the rate of three bushels of seed per acre. A crop sown in September, 1877, was cut eight times in 1878 and twice in 1879, and then ploughed up ; the land was pressed, sewaged, and sown on the flat broadcast on the 15th of June, 1879, with green-top turnips and swedes, which looked well and promising at the time of our visit in August. In 1878 the cutting of rye grass com- menced on the 2d of February. In 1879 it commenced on the 7th of Aiu-iJ, having been sown in September, 1878. The first cutting yielded 4 tons per acre of green grass; the second, on the 4th of June, yielded 16 tons of grass per acre; the third cutting, on the 8th of July, 14 tons o'f grass per acre ; fourth cutting, on the 14th of August, 8 tons ; fifth cutting, on the 12th of September, 6 tons ; sixth cutting, on the 6th of October, 5 tons ; seventh cutting, in November, 2 tons per acre. A field of rye grass was seeded as an experiment with 10 lbs. per acre of trifolium ; but it'^did not answer. Eye grass is occasionally made into hay ; but when this is the case, it is carted on to the meadows to finish the drying pro- cess. This crop receives enoimous dressings of sewage during the period of its growth, as will be seen on reference to the tables showing the quantities of sewage that have been applied to the land. MASCJOiiDS.— This is a crop largely grown on this farm. It is drilled on the flat, the drills being 26 inches distant, and the plants are hoed out to 10 inches distance in the rows. Sewage is not applied to the crop until the plants begin to bulb. They are then irrigated. This crop in 1878 received 21 dressings of sewage while under cultivation, or 8,265 tons of sewage per acre, equivalent to an irrigating depth of 81.8 inches of water in addition to the rainfall. The mangolds of 1878, when examined in the spring of 1879, we found to be sound and good, but not equal in weight and bulk to tliose grown on the Eeading sewage farm. One field of mangolds was poor and stunted ; but on the higher and light land they were a capital crop, and in all cases were clean, and the i)]ants regular but late. Cabbage. — Ordinary cabbages for market are planted on the level in rows 22 inches distant, and the plants are 17 inches apai't in the rows. Savoys are planted in a similar manner. Drumhead cabbages are also planted on the flat, 26 inches THE KOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 245 distant, in rows, and 2-4 inches from jjlant to plant. All the cabbages are irrigated during the period of growth, and in 1878 this croj) on one field received 17 dress- ings of sewage, or about 6,102 tons per acre, equal to an irrigating depth of 60.4 inches. Parsnips. — This croji is grown on the level. Six lbs. of seed per acre is drilled in rows 14 inches distant, and hoed out to six inches in the rows. The crop is not irrigated, but usually succeeds cabbage or the second year's rye-grass, which has been sewaged. The crop was clean, and promised to be a fair one. Carkots. — These are drilled in rows on the level, at 14 inches distance, and are hoed out to from 4 inches to 6 inches in the rows. Six lbs. of seed per acre are sown. This crop was not good, nor was it looking well, although it was clean. It is not directly irrigated with sewage, but, like parsnips, succeeds, either directly or after two years, a crop that has been heavily dressed with sewage. Potatoes. — The varieties grown were " Myatt's Early Rose" and "Victoria." They are planted in drills from 24 inches to 26 inches apart, and 12 inches from 2)lant to plant in the rows. The crop of 1879 was planted on the 9th of April, and succeeded rye-grass that had been cut four times the previous year. It was then sewaged, broken up, and sown at the end of July with turnips, which were fed o& on the ground with sheep. This year the potato crop had been sold at the time of our visit in August at £17 10s. per acre, the buyer having to raise the crop and take all risk. Potatoes are not directly sewaged during the period of their growth, and the crop of 1879 was not so good as usual. llHCB.iRB. — At Leamington, as on most sewage farms, this is one of the ^lerma- nent oops. It costs about £50 per acre to purchase roots, prepare the ground, and l^lant out ; and the crop realizes about £40 per acre every year. The roots, how- ever, require to be taken up every three years, to be divided and rej^lanted ; they are planted 30 inches apart, and are irrigated with sewage during the period of growth. After the pulling for market is finished, no further use is made of the crop. The purchaser of the crop pulls and markets the produce. Wheat. — A large acreage of this crop is grown on the farm, but as a rule not under the influence of sewage. Taking the fields of wheat grown during 1879, we found in the first example that the previous crojis had been bare fallow in 1878, wheat in 1877, beans in 1876, oats in 1875, wheat in 1874, beans in 1873, wheat in 1872, permanent pasture and mangolds in 1871, and none of these crops were irri- gated. The second example was immediately preceded by barley in 1878, turnips in 1877, wheat in 1876, beans in 1875, wheat in 1874, mangolds in 1873, wheat in 1872, and swedes and peas in 1871. The turnip crop preceding barley was irri- gated in 1877. The wheat stubble was irrigated in 1874 and the bastard fallow for wheat in 1872. The third example was immediately preceded by beans in 1878, and before that by grass in 1877, mangold, cabbage, etc., in 1876, jiarsnips and potatoes and carrots in 1875, parsuips and potatoes in 1874, wheat in 1873, Italian rye-grass in 1872, and Italian rye-grass in 1871. Mangolds were sewaged in 1876, cabbages, etc., in 1875, bastard fallow was sewaged in 1874, and rye-grass in 1872. The wheat croj) of the present year was sown at the rate of two bushels of seed per acre, about the middle of October, 1878. The wheat was seeded with one peck of rye-grass, 10 lbs. of red clover, 5 lbs. of trefoil and alsike mixed. The plant looked well, especially the " thick set " or square-headed wheat, which promi.sed a good if not a heavy yield. The Browick wheat was also good. Oats. — Oats were heavy and lodged. Tlie land was sown on the 22d of April at the rate of 4 l)U3hels of seed per acre. This crop, like the wheat, is not directly irrigated. This year's crop succeeded Italian rye-grass, which had been grown on the farm the two preceding years, and had been heavily dressed with sewage. Beans. — The winter beans were drilled on the 23d of October, 1878, and were a jxjor plant. The spring beans, however, drilled on the 10th of ^Nlarch, 1879, were a ca])ital crop. This crop is not directly irrigated with sewage. The seed is drilled in rows at intervals of 15 inches, and 3 bushels ])er acre are used. The jn-e- cediiig crojisvarv very mncli ; fur exam])l(>, beans in 1H79 were ])receded in one case by wlieat both in 187H and 1.S77. clover in 187(5, oats in 1875, mangold in 1874 and 1873, beans in 1872, and oats in 1871. The only sewage applied to these crops was 246 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITP:D STATES. to the mangold in 1874. Another field of beans in 1879 was preceded bv wheat in 1878, seeds in 1877, oats in 1876, mangolds and swedes in 1875, oats in 1874, wheat in 1873, beans in 1872, and wheat in 1871. The only sewage applied was to the mangolds in 1875. A third field of beans in 1879 was preceded Viy Italian rye- grass in 1878 and 1877, wheat in 1876, beans in 1875, grass in 1874 and 187s, wheat in 1872, and swedes in 1871. The crop was irrigated with sewage in 1878, 1877, 1876, 1874, 1873, and in 1872. Baeley. — Barley was a fair standing crojx It was sown at the rate of two bushels per acre on the 22d of April. The crop is not irrigated directly with sewage. Of two fields of this crop in 1879, one was preceded by turnips and parsnips in 1878 ; parsnips, cabbage, and turnips in 1877 ; potatoes, carrots, etc., in 1876 ; mangolds in 1875; Italian rye-grass in 1874 and 1873; barley in 1872; and swedes in 1871. Of the above crops the cabbage in 1877, fallow in 1876, fallow for mangolds in 1875, Italian lye-grass in 1874 and 1873, and fallow for grass in 1872, were irrigated with sewage. A second field of barley in 1879 was preceded by turnips in 1878, barley in 1877, wheat in 1876, clover in 1875, barley in 1874, swedes in 1873, and wheat in 1872. The clover and seeds in 1875 were the only crops previously occupying the ground that were irrigated. TuBNiPS AND SWEDES. — Green-top turnips are usually sown broadcast at the rate of 3 lbs. of seed per acre, and are fed off on the ground by sheep. Swedes are also grown on this farm. They are tlrilled on the flat at 16 inches distant, and the bulbs are hoed out to 9 inches apart in the rows. Two lbs. of seed were drilled per acre. The crop is irrigated with sewage to a moderate extent. Turnips and swedes iisually follow a straw crojj of either wheat, barley, or oats, and occasionally green- top turnips are cultivated, chiefly after Italian rye-grass. Seeds are usually sown with the straw crops. The variety and quantity of seed sown has already been given under the head of wheat. Clover is occasionally irrigated in dry seasons with moderate dressings of sewage. By reference to the returns, however, we find that seeds have not been sewaged since the year 1875. Prickly comfkey. — This is a crop which has been grown ujDon this farm for two years, and has been given up, as it was found that the horses and cattle would not eat the produce by choice. It appears, however, that the croj), when once planted, is difficult to eradicate from the ground, as upon the Y>\ot upon which it had been grown during the present year a number of young iJlants had made their appearance. In referring- to these crops it will be noticed that all of them are crops common to American farming-, excejDt Italian rve-grass, Lolivm Ifolicvm, shown by Fig. 18, which, while not \ei cultivated to any very great extent in this conn- try, is still one of the best known grasses in Europe. It is suited above all other grasses for irrigation, and in Italy, Scotland, and elsewhere yields on sewage-irrigated meadows prodigious crops of Fig. 18. — Italian Rye-grass. A NEW PHASE OF SEWAGE FARMING. 247 forage of the best qiialit}'. It is extensively grown in Italy, and the peculiar excellence of the cheese of that country is said to be due to the quality of this grass, which is the chief food of the cattle. It is stated as not only adding to the flavor of butter and cheese, but as also increasing the How of milk. With sewage irrigation it has yielded at times over GO tons of green forage per acre.* There are a number of other grasses which may be utilized in sewage irrigation, although the rye-grass j)roperly heads the list. Osiers are also one of the most useful crops in sewage irrigation by reason of the large quantities of liquid which they can appropriate without detri- ment during the growing season. Table No. 57. — Statistics op Foreign Sewage Irrigation and Filtration. f Locality. Nature of the soil. Berlin, Malchow . Doncaster , Berlin. Falkenburg Leamington Berlin, Osilorf Berlin. Grot-sbeeren . . . Paris, Gennevilliere Sand and gravel Heavy. Sand or gravel. Heavy. Mostly gravel. Sa"nj .54H 4..5S fi.Sfll fil6 5.16 (),.511 «40 5.37 13,270 i 1,30.5 10.94 19,4S3 1,916 16 06 19,905 1.959 16.40 36,70.3 3 616 30.30 39,24.3 3.*^ HO 32.34 39.^09 3,915 32.81 Date. 1554-85 lS8e-«7 1S75 lS86-!.7 li7S 18S6-S7 1SS6-57 1S75-S3 1SS3 lSSl-82 187^79 1884 t Compiled by Chas. S. Swan. M. Am. Soc. C.E. See paper, Notes on European Practice in Sewage Disposal, in Jour. AK.sn. of Eng. Socs., vol. vii.. No. 7, pp. 24S-257 (July, 1888). X Working average for the series of years 1875-1683. Table No. 57 may be taken as showing, subject to the limitations in- dicated, the amount of sewage which can be applied in broad irrigation to various soils. A New Phase of Sewage Farming. The Rugby experiments of the Sewage of Towns Commission indi- cated that sewage-grown grass when made into hay was especially valual)le food for milch cows, hence the practical deduction is to, so far as possible, operate sewage farms as dairy farms. Until recently, how- ever, there has been a practical difficulty in the way of realizing the conclusion to whicli th(^ commission arrived over 25 years ago, namely, the apparent impossibility of curing into hay the heavy ci'ops of grass * For more complete account of Italian rye-cfrass and its adaptability to American conditions, see Bull. No. 73, N. Carolina Ag. Expt. Sta. (Oct. 1.5, IS'.IU), p. 30. 248 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. raised during- the g-rowing- season in order to provide fodder for winter use. The sewage-irrigated grass crops have been mostly disposed of green, which has again considerably complicated the management of sewag"e farms. Italian rye-grass, the most valuable grass for sewage Fig. 19. — View op Sewage Farm at Bedford, England; Field beyond Bushes is Used for Irrigation. irrigation bj^ reason of its capacity to receive large doses of irrigation without injury, is, further, the grass which has been found the most difficult to cure into hay, especially in seasons which are at all wet. The extensive use in the last few years of silos has developed an en- tirely new phase to this question and may possibly, by putting it in the power of sewage farmers to make a specialty of dairying for the whole year, assist in securing an adequate commercial return on the whole investment in sewage farming operations. At any rate the subject appears of importance enough to justify a chapter On Silos and Their Use in Sewage Farming, and to that chapter the reader is accordingly- referred for further information on tl;is branch of the subject. Exploded Oejections. The objection has been frequently ui^ged against sewage farming that the fields are likely to become exceedingly offensive from the production of an effluvium nuisance. It is true when improperly or carelessly managed they are likely to be at times open to this objec- explodp:d objections. 249 tiou. Tlie same is also true of neglected barnyards, althoug-h in the present state of agricultural development no one would serioush' pro- pose to abolish all barnyards because of this patent truth ; neverthe- less it is exactly what is proposed in the case of sewage farms. That such farms are not necessarily offensive as managed in the present time iiiEngland is abundantly shown by Figs. 19 to 21, illustrating a number of sewage-irrigated fields and showing clearly their proximity to a good grade of residential property. It is stated by Mr. Clarke, from whose report tliese views are taken, " that in none of these cases Fig. 20. — View of Sewage Farm at Wimbledon, England, with Pkkcipitation Tank ix Foregkound ; the Fields are Occasionally Used for Irrigation. did the farms cause any nuisance, and that the neighboring property was not depreciated in value." * In the discussion of Mr. Allen's paper on Sewage Disposal, read be- fore the American Society of Civil Engineers, in 1888, the question of the production of bad odors from sewage farms was discussed, and a number of American engineers who had examined the English and other foreign seAvage farms gave their experience on this point at length. The discussion is too long to quote here. Its chief interest centres in the pertinent illustration which it affords of the widely varying vieMs which different peoph^ will obtain of the same ques- tion.f * Rcpt. of Eli.>t C f'lnrkc to Mass. Drain. Com. (1885), p. 126. + Trans. Am. See. C. E., vol. xvii., pp. 29-34. 250 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. In a paper read before the British Medical Associatiou in 1888, Dr. Alfred Carpenter, of Croydon, England, who has for years watched closely the operation of the Bedding-ton sewag-e farm, said ; (1) That the application of the sewage of a water-closet town to land in close proximity to dwelling-houses is not injurious to the health of the inhabitants of those houses provided the sewage be fresh ; that it be applied in an intermittent manner, and the effluent be capable of rapid removal from the irrigated fields. (2) The judicious application of sewage to soil of almost any kind, if it be mainly inorganic, will satisfactorily cleanse the effluent water, and fit it for discharge into Fic. 21. — YiKW OF Sewaok Fri,TH.\TioN- Fields, Mitciiam, England. anv ordinary stream, provided the area treated is not less than an acre for each 250 persons. (8) That vegetable j^roducts grown u]>on fields irrigated by sewage are satisfac- tory and safe as articles of food for both animals and man. (4) That sewage farms, if properly managed, do not set up either parasitic or epidemic disease among those working on the farm or among the cattle fed upon its produce. (5) That this immunity exists because the conditions necessary for the propa- gation and continuance of those disease germs which aftect man and animals are absent ; the microbic life on sewage farms being antagonistic to the life of disease germs, the latter, therefore, soon cease as such to exist. (6) That sewage farms maybe carried on in perfect safety close to })opu]ations. It is not, however, argued that the effluent water is safe to use for dietetic jjur- poses. (7) That there is an aspect in sewage farming which shows that it is a wise policy for the nation to encourage ihat form of utilization from a j^olitical economy point of view. ^8) That to be financially successful such farms require that the rainfall be KXPLOUED OBJECTIONS. 251 separated from the sewage ; the area large enough for alternate cropping, and the capital employed sufficient to insure a continuous and rapid consumption of the crops produced. (9) That, if practicable, sewage utilization by siarface irrigation should be, for financial reasons, within the area of its own watershed and close to the populations producing the sewage ; but it is not a necessity that it should be so, provided it be applieel to the land within a few hours — not more than twelve— of its discharge, and that there is no arrest of movement for more than very short periods before it is so utilized. From all the evideDce now at hand it may be concluded that prop- erly' managed sewage farms will not render the neighborhood in which they are situated sijecially objectionable for residence by reason of the production of oliensive effluvium nuisances. Another question Avliich is cognate to that of effluvium nuisance is in relation to the effect of sewage farming as a whole on health. Obviously, if sewage farms are so managed as to prevent any serious pollution of the air in their neighborhood, one chief source of objec- tion is removed. It is, however, possible that wells in the vicinity may be affected, though the arrangement of the underdrainage wath refer- ence to the natural direction of flow of the ground-water will reduce this danger to a minimum. When imperfectl}' puritied sewage flows over the surface into streams some pollution maj' also result. For this latter, Avhen a high degree of purity of effluent is essential, the prop- er remedy is to prepare area enough to insure the required degree of l")urit3^ With regard to the danger to wells, the Berlin sewage farm of about 19,000 acres may be cited, where a large population of labor- ers live permanently on the farm and draw their entire water supply from wells sunk wherever required throughout the fields. It is stated that no bad effects on health have thus far been observed. In the Re- port of the judges appointed 1)V the Eoyal Agricultural Society in the sewage-farm competition already referred to, it is stated that " the results . . . show that sewage farming is not detrimental to life or health." A large amount of authoritative opinion substantiating this view can be quoted, but the foregoing may be deemed sufficient for the present purpose.* * Probably the best example of successful sewage farms on a large scale are those of the city of Berlin, where about I'.l.tXK) acres have been purchased by the city for sewage irrigation. Of this area only about 1 1 ,000 acres had been used for sewage irrigation at the four original farms of Osdorf, Gross Beeren, Faikenberg, and Malchow to March ol, 1890. 8ewage irrigation was begun at Osdorf in Jannarj-, 1S7() ; Gross Becrcn in Jidj', 1S8'2; Faikenberg in March, 1870; and at Malchow in Octoljer, IS'-a. Additional areas not in use in 180(1 have been purchased at Schenken- dorf, Sputendorf, Klein Beeren, Blankenfelde and Hellersdorf. At the four original farms a portion of the area was still without special j)r('paration in 1800, at which date about 8,000 acres had been specially prepared. The population of Berlin in December, 1800, was 1,1178,700, whence the number of inhabitants per acre of specially prepared area was roundly 198. Tlie tpiautity of sewage avenages about 'M U. S. gallons per head of jjopulation per year. The special areas are added to from year to year. The most complete account of the Berlin sewage farms in English engineering literature is that 252 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. There is, moreover, some reason for belieyiug- that well-maiiag-ed sewage farms are not only not unliealthful to the neighborhood in which they are situated, but that they may be even in some degree the source of an increased healthfulness of the region immediately sur- rounding them. This apparently paradoxical conclusion is derived primarily from the statistics of mortality among those employed and living on sewage farms, from which it appears that sewage-farm lab- orers are as a class quite as healthful as a similar class elsewhere. The following figures in illustration of this point are from the report of the Judges in the sewage farm comj)etition : Name of farm. Aldershot. .. Bedford BirminghaDi Croydon Doncasti r . . . Guisboroiigh Leamington. Beading Wrexham... Totals.. Number of years in operation. 93 Persons em- ployed or liv- ing on farm. 25 28 28 94 44 Q 46 gs 19 380 Children liv- ing on farm. 12 B 9 30 23 ~4 14 32 Number of deaths oc- curring. 2 t 5 t 2 1 10 * These figures do not include the men engaged in laying out additional land for sewage purposes. + These deaths occurred in connection with sewage tanks and not sewage farm. t These deaths have occurred within the last 10 years. As stated by the judges, " An examination of this table will shoAv that the rate of mortality on an average of the number of years these farms have been in ojDeration does not exceed 3 per annum." If we consider that during the growing season the vegetation on a well-managed sewage farm is three or four times as luxuriant as in or- dinary agricultural regions, we have a good explanation of why the irrigated areas are not necessarily more unhealthy than other similar agricultural regions without irrigation. The ofhce of growing plants in converting carbon dioxide, on the one hand, into carbonaceous sub- of H. A. Roechling, Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., as given in his paper, The Sewage Farms of Berlin, in Proc. Inst. C. E., vol. cix., Ses. 1891-92., Part III. Mr. Roechling has there presented the complete statistics and details of management of these extensive sewage farms. The paper came to hand too late to make extended extracts, but to give an idea of its contents the heads dis- cussed are included as follows : Area and General Statistics of Berlin ; Sewerage of Berlin ; Sewage Farms ; Purchase of Sew- age Farms ; Distribution of the Sewage ; Application of Sewage-water to the Land ; Laying out of the Farms ; Productive and Unproductive Acreage ; Drainage of the Plats ; Capital Expendi- tures on Farms; Management of the P'arms ; Labor on the Farms; Cattle kept on the Farms; Meteorological Conditions Prevailing on the Farms ; Results Obtained from the Working of the Farms ; Quantity of Sewage Treated on the Farms ; Crops ; Sewage Irrigation during the Winter Months ; Letting of Sewage-treated Land ; Harvest Returns ; Financial Returns ; Degree of Purification Attained ; Comparison of the Berlin Results with those of English Sewage Farms ; Alleged Liability of the Land to become Sewage-choked ; Utilization of the Manurial Elements of Sewage ; Quantity of EflBuent Water ; Sanitary Condition of the Berlin Sewage Farms. EXPLODED OBJECTIONS. 253 stances (carbohydi-ates, etc.), which go to make up the structure of the xjhmt, and, on the other, into free oxygen, which passes into the g-eneral stock in the atmosphere,* is well known. The increase in energy of these natural purifying agencies may be considered suffi- cient to render the quantity of oxygen in the air in the vicinity of sewage farms somewhat greater than in average agricultural districts ; thereby counterbalancing any possible slight unhealthful tendency by reason of the presence of large quantities of sewage, some of which may be decomposing. This view is fui-ther supported by the researches of Dr. Daubeny, late Professor of Botany, etc., at Oxford, who has shown that growing plants not merely evolve oxygen, but evolve it in the form of ozone.f * Sachs' Physiology of Plants, Part III., Nutrition ; Lecture XVII., Source of the Nitrogen in Growing Plants — Source of the Carbon ; Lecture XVLIL, Evolution of Oxygen, etc. t Jour. Chem. Soc, Jan., 1867. CHAPTEK Xin. ON SILOS AND THEIR USE IN SEWAGE FARMING. The object of this chapter is to call attention to a system of preserv- ing- forage crops which is likely to materially influence the future de- velopment of sewage farming, and to indicate some of the sources from which more detailed information can be obtained. Definition of Teems. The terms silo, silage, and ensilage will be used, so far as the con- fusion which exists will permit, in accordance with the following- defini- tions: (1) Silo, the theoretically air-tight structure in which fodder is pre- served. (2) Silage, the fodder or material i^reserved in silos. (3) Ensilage, the process of preservation. How Silage is Produced. In order to produce silage it is necessary to prepare a pit or chamber either in the ground, with a brick or stone impervious lining, or by build- ing the same above the surface. The object to be gained is the depositing- of the green crop in an air- and water-tight receptacle under conditions admitting of subjecting it to considerable pressure, by which nearly all the contained air is forced out. This is effected in a variety of ways, as : (1) By treading the green crop as it is deposited, and covering with a couple of feet of well-packed earth ; (2) by constructing the silo with a movable covering arranged with chains and rollers for raising and lowering, which, after the crop is placed in the silo, is lowered and weighted to the extent of about 85 to 125 pounds per square foot of sur- face ; (3) silage is sometimes made in stacks either in the open air or under sheds open at the sides, the partial decay of a portion of the material on the outside furnishing the necessary impervious coating. Salt is sometimes added as the crop is placed in the silo, to assist the process of preservation. Closed silos are kept sealed until opened for use. THE MODERN USE OF SILOS. 255 Eaely Use of Silos. In its original sense a silo was neither more nor less than a cellar used for storing" grain, for which purpose underground pits have been used in eastern countries since a very early period, instead of x>lacing it in granaries above ground. Such pits are stated to have been used by the nomadic tribes of Arabia, in order to prevent victorious enemies from obtaining possession of their food supplies. The Spaniards learned the art from the Moors, and in Spain it acquired a new use for the purely commercial object of storing up grain in times of plenty and low prices in order to preserve it to times of scarcity and high lorices. From Spain the silo found its way into France and Germany, from whence its use finally extended to England and this country. * The first record of the modern use of the silo in France is about 1820 and 1821, when the proprietor of an estate in the Puy de Dome stored his grain harvested in those years in silos constructed for the purpose and kept it until 1828, when prices having risen to double the figure of seven years before, the silos were opened, and with the exception of a thin layer at the top the grain was found perfectly preserved. The Modern Use of Silos. The use of silos for preserving fodder crops has, however, grown up in England and this country mostly since about 1880.1 * A French work on agriculture, the first edition of which was puVjlished in 1600, contains the following description of what we now call the silo : There remains for me to speak about another sort of granary, as novel as anj' I have seen, as there seems reason to disbelieve the experience of good found in their use. They are used in La Oascoyne and La (Juyenne, where they employ these granaries more than in any other province of this kingdom. They are deej) pits dug in the ground, called " r;-o.<," into wliich one descends with ladders for bringing in or carrying away the fodiler, etc. Pliny considered such pits to be the best ■way of preserving corn, etc.. as was practised in his time in TIn-aoe, Cappadocia, Harbary, and Spain. Varro was also of his opinion asserting that wheat can be ke{)t sweet and entire .50 years, and millet IDO ; at the same time stating, so as to strengthen his opinion, that when Pompey the Great was sweeping the sea of pirates, tliere was found at Amijratiaa large supply of beans (in "good anfl sound condition), in a cavern where they had remained stored away since the time when King Pyrrhus was fighting in Italy, and nearly 1:20 years had then passed. In the edition of the same work of 1804 it is stated : In 1707 there was discovered in the citadel of Metz a large quantity of corn, placed there in ir)'38, in one of the un lergroimd room-;, where it was so well preserved that tl;e brt-ad which was made from it. two centuries after it had be-n placed there, was found very good. There exists now (1.S04) at A-idres, department of the Pas de Calais, one of these underground places made by the Romans. + Professor J. F. W. .lohnson described the German system of silos for sour fodder or sour grass in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1S43. His paper is a clear account of ensilage as practised at that time, and may be jw-rtly reproduced here as a useful contribution to the English literature of the subject. A method has lately been tried in Germany, which, by the aid of a little salt, seems in a great ni'-asure to attain this oliject (i.e.. to preserve the feeding properties of grass more com])letely than by the process of haymaking). Pits are du-; in the earth from 10 to 13 feet square, and as many deep; these are lineij with wood, and [)uddled, results in the oxidation and transformation of oti'en- 264 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. sive organic substances in sohition, as well as in the mere mechanical separation of the suspended solid matters whicli, when in motion, sewage conveys with it. If the process could be carried one step furtlier, and those harmless inorganic salts, which ai'e carried off by the etfluent Avater of a perfect sewage filter, in too dilute a solu- tion to be profitably extracted, could be converted into something positively useful, the remedy would be complete. We should have succeeded in not only abating an injurious niiisauce, but in realizing a product which would help to refund expenses. This further step is possible in the great majority of cases, and it is to the plan of using sewage in irrigation, as being in reality a filtration of the best kind, jjlnn a conversion of its filthy contents into valuable jn'oducts, that we have now to direct attention. But a filter, as has been already shown, is not a mere mechanical contrivance. It is a machine for oxidizing, and thus altogether transforming, as well as for meiely separating the filth of dirty water. And in tliis respect especially irrigation neces- sarily includes filtration. Sewage traversing the soil undergoes a jsrocess to some extent analogous to that expeiienced by blood passing through the lungs in the act of breathing. A field of porous sod irrig(ded intevmitteidly virtuallit ijerforms an act of respivfdion, copying on an enormous scale the lung actio7i of a hreatldng animal ; for it is alternately receiving and f-npiring air, and thus dealing as an oxidizing agent icith the fillliy fluid ichich is trickling through it. And a whole acre of soil, 3 or 4 feet deep, presenting XL' ithin it such an enormous lung surface, must he far sujierior as an oxidizer, for dealing with the drainage of 100 peojile, to any filter that coiill he practically ivorked for tins jjurpose* To this item in the character of both irrigation and filtration as chemical proc- esses there must be added another cleansing agency, also of a chemical kind, in which the former has very greatly the advantage. "We refer to the actual apjjetite for certain dissolved impurities in filthy water which soil, whether in a tank or covering a field, owes both to general surface attraction and to the chemical affini- ties which some of its ingredients possess. This appetite is doubtless very limited in its amount, but it is directly proportional to the quantity of material exercising it. The superior capability of this kind which the soil of a field jiossesses, in com- parison with that in a limited filtration tank, depends partly on the immensely greater quantity of cleansing material which an acre drained jjerhaps 4 feet deep uecessaiily brings to bear upon the filthy fluid; but also and especially on the fact that in the former case this is, exce})t in winter time, always kept alive and fresh by the action of plant growth in constantly removing the deposited impurities, and re- building them into wholesome organic structures. We see, then, that Dr. Frankland, altliongh strenuously insisting- upon the chemical nature of the purification obtained in intermittent filtration, nevei-theless, in the i)ortion which we have italicized, defined conditions which we now know can onl}" be satisfied by assuming* that micro-org"anisms are an indispensable element in the constitution of a successful intermittent filter, hence the final view is that the operation of such a filter is essentially biolog-ical rather than either mechanical or cliemical. Biological phenomena, however, depend ujDon cliemical phenomena, and in order that Dr. Frankland's act of respiration can take place, the presence of a small but sufficient quantity of free oxj'gen is indispen- sable. This is well established by the experiment upon Filter Tank Ko. 14, as detailed at pages 144, 160, 730, and 734 of the Massachusetts Special Report, Part II. Again, the biological theory demands the presence and activity of living micro-organisms. In the chapter on ".\s enforcing this point refer to Tables 37-41 B in Chapter VIII., pp. 104-l(i8. THE XEW THESIS OF INTERMITTENT FILTKaTION. 265 Nitrification aud the Nitrifying- Organism, we have detailed some of the ditfieulties which have been met by biologists in their endeavors to isolate and identify the particular kinds which appear indispensable to the process of nitrification ; and although the problem has been hedged about by extraordinary difticulties it is believed that the essen- tial organism of nitrification has been successfully isolated. The chief points established are : (1) That the best results are obtained in filters which are mature, and have thus become adapted to their work ; (2) that a distinct regimen is essential to success ; (3) that free oxygen is indispensable ; (1) that the sewage is best purified when held in thin films upon or between sand grains and gravel stones ; and (5) that the period of greatest destruction of the ordinary sewage bacteria corre- sponds closely with the time of most active nitrification. The experiments on intermittent filtration which the Massachusetts State Board of Health has carried out in the last four years, from which the foregoing views as to the present understanding of the theory of intermittent filtration are drawn, are the most extensive that have ever been made.* In the Nineteenth Annual Eeport, at page 43, the Massachusetts State Board describes the arrangements at the experimental station at Lawrence, and gives in detail the method of preparing the material in the several large tanks used in the experiments. The New Thesis of Intermittent Filtration. In the Twentieth Annual Report, page 32, the Board gives some of the results of the first year's work and states the new thesis of inter- mittent filtration, namely : (1) That sewage can be more efficiently fil- tered through open sand than through sand covered with soil ; and (2) that the up[)er layers of intermittent filtration areas should be com- posed of open sand, through which the sewage will raxiidly disapi^ear, leaving room for air to enter and come in contact with the thin laminse of liquid covering the particles of sand. In the Special Report, Part II. (1890), on the Purification of Sewage and Water, etc., the residts of two years' work in the filtration of sewage thn^ngli various grades of sand are discussed in detail gener;dly. by Hiram F. Mills, C.E., while the biological results are discussed by *Pro£t'i-sor Henry Robinson, whose right to speak with authority will be concedpcl. in a jtaper on Sewage Disposal with reference to River Pollution and Water Supply, read in 1891 at the Lon- don Congress of Hygiene and Demography, said : The action th:it has been taken by tlie State Board of Health of Massachnsetts. to protect the purity of iiilanil wati-rs, deserves to l)e si)ccially commejided as an example of broad and wise pulicy in instit'itlnij the systematic investigation by ergineers chemists, anil bioloirists of all that bears npon the pnritieation of scwaire and on the filtration of water. . . Thi' exhaustive reports under tliese diffVrent heads may lie fairly stated to be far in advance of anything that has been fairly attempted in this country (England). 266 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Professor Wm. T. Sedg-wick and his assistants. Nearly every possible phase of sewag-e puritication by filtration is touched upon, and who- ever would compass the subject as it stands to-da}^ must study the original report, and also its continuation^'in the Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1891. Without going- exten- sively into the detail here, we will present a brief digest of some of the FiC4. 22. — View of Large Tanks at the Lawrence Experiment Station. results, tog-ether with a summary, the same as already done for the work on chemical purification. The larg-e experimental tanks used at Lawrence are shown by Fig. 22. Results with Tank No. 1. In the chapter On Nitrification and the Nitrifying Organism the main points in the theory of nitrification of organic substances have been set forth. From various studies made abroad it had been con- cluded that nitrification was almost entirely a summer process, which nearly ceased on the approach of cold weather. The Lawrence experi- ments, however, show that by due attention to details a fairly efficient nitrification may be obtained in winter as illustrated by Table No. 58, giving the results of nitrification in Tank No. 1, the filtering- material in which is " five feet in depth, of very coarse, clean mortar sand taken from a depth of six or eight feet." RESULTS WITH TANK NO. 1. 267 In studying' the results embodied in Table No. 58, it is important to remember that the percentage of nitrification attained during any Table No. 58. — Percentage of Nitrogen Applied in the Sewage that Appears EN THE Effluent as Nitrates. Date. Nitrogen applied in sewage. Nitrates in effluent corrected for quantity. Per cent, of applied nitrogen. Average daily quantity, gallons. Temperature, F". Sewage. Effluent. 1888. May 3.02:^8 1.974 65 156* 47 52 June 1.750 11,020 45 40 I'clMUiMV 19 60.1)00 57.200 l:!7.5,50 30 44 38 Miinh 12 60.00(1 60.008 1.52 1.42 i.49 sis of the crude sewage. This phase of the subject is farther illus- trated by Tables Nos. 61 and 62 following-. The results of purif\dng sewage Avith coarse sand filters, so far as nitrification is concerned, is exhibited b}^ Table No. 58, and inasmuch as such filters possess some advantages over those of finer sand, we may consider their construction a little in detail. In the first place, it has already been indicated that in all soil puri- fication nitrification plays a leading part in resolving the objection- able organic constituents of sewage into inert and harmless inorganic compounds. A study of sewage purification by means of intermittent filtration is therefore in reality mostly a study of the process of uitrifi- Table No. 61. — Percentage of the Ammonias in the Crude Sewage Applied to Tank No. 1, which Appeared in the Effluent, in Comparison with the Per- centage OF the Total Nitrogen in the Effluent for the Months Indicated, etc. Month. May June July August September. . October . . . . Average Peicentage of the ammonias of the sewage, appearing in the iffluenl. 1888. 1889, 4.8 0.1 0.2 0.8 1.5 6.5 2.3 2.7 15 0.2 0.2 3.1 4.6 2.0 Albuminoid. 1888. 1889, 0.8 3 8 4.6 2.0 1.6 6.1 3.1 8.2 5.8 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.5 1888. 1889, 2.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.5 6.4 2.3 3.7 2.3 0.8 0.9 3.2 4,3 Percentage of to- tal nitrogen of the sewage ap- pearing in the effluent. 1888. ias9. 65 90 52 63 52 57 .33 80 2(1 46 42 54 44 65 kp:sults with tank no. 1. 269 Table No. 62. — Summary op Total NrrKOG?:x Applied to Tank No. 1, the Amount Appearing in the Effluent, the Amount Stohed in the Tank, and the Un- accounted for Balance, in Pounds. Dec, 1888. Feb., 1889. June, 1889. Nov., 1889. April 16, 1890. June 18, 1890. Nov. 24, Mar. 25, 1890. 1891. June 29, 1891. Nov. 9, 1891. Total nitrogen ap- plied to date Amount in effluent 16.62 6.63 4.27 5.67 26. 34. 18.83 7.90 5.49 5.44 29. 29. 24.96 12.66 4.05 8.25 16. 33. 35.63 19.19 5.81 10.63 16. 30. 42.93 23.59 6.40 12.94 15. 30, 46.41 26.72 5.40 14.29 12. bl. 63.05 73.66 34.38 41.42 84.85 47.78 13.00 24.07 15. 28. 104.47 57 93 Amount stored in sand to date Amount lost to date. Per cent, stored Per cent, lost 10.10 18.57 16. 29. 12.80 19.44 17. 26. 16.00 30.54 15. 29. cation, and the thing- to be found out is chiefly the conditions most fa- vorable to the action of the nitrifying- organism. These are : (1) The presence of oxyg-en ; (2) of moisture ; (3) of an alkaline basic salt ; and (4) of a temperature somewhat above freezing. In reference to temper- ature it may be said that nitrification is more active at from 60° to 70° F. than it is at materially lower temperatures, but once thoroughly started it will continue active for some time with temperatures only 5° to 10°above freezing. In the later experiments at Lawrence it has been found that oxj^gen and time are the more essential elements in intermittent filtration, or, as expressed by Mr. Hazen : * The i^iirification of sewage by intermittent filtration depends upon oxygen and time ; all other conditions are secondai-}'. Temperature has only a minor influence ; the organisms necessary for purification are sure to establish themselves in a filter before it has been long in use. Imperfect purification for any considerable period can invariably be traced either to a lack of oxygen in the pores of the filter, or to the sewage passing so quickly through that there is not sutficient time for the oxidation processes to take place. Any treatment which keei)s all jnirticles of sewage distrib- uted over the surface of sand particles, in contact with an excess of air for a suffi- cient time, is sure to give a well-oxidized effluent, and tlie power of any material to purify sewage depends almost entirely upon its ability to hold the sewage in con- tact with air. It must hold both sewage and air in sufficient amounts. In Filter Tank No. 1, of the Lawrence experiments, the following are the elements : Total amount of sand, 0,000 gallons ; amount of water contained when saturated, 3,240 gallons ; when draiiunl there remained 1,040 gallons of water, and in the place of the water drained away there had presumably entered into the voids the difference be- tween the 3,240 gallons of water originally required to fill them, and the amount of 1,040 gallons which did not drain away, or 2,200 gallons of air. This sand is so open that when all the water has drained away that will run from it, air can pass freely up through the five feet of sand * --Kill An. Kept. Mass. St. Bd. of Health, Filtration of Sewage, p. 428. 270 sewagp: disposal in the united states. from the bottom to the top, and in addition the air in the sand is forced out through the underdrains by covering the surface with water. Fine sands, on the contrary, may be entirely saturated in the lower portion, while the upper layers are open and contain air. When therefore a filter composed of fine sand is covered with water on the surface, the free circulation of air through the voids is, under these conditions, cut off and the circumstances affecting nitrification and the life of organisms contained in the sewage passing through, materially changed. The effect of these changes may be recognized in two ways, (1) the coarse-sand filters may be made to purify a much larger quan- tity of sewage in a given time than those of fine sand ; (2) the puri- fication effected by the fine-sand filters on the smaller quantities purified by them under the conditions of ordinary o^Deration will be somewhat superior to that effected by the coarse-sand filters, even when ojDerating on quantities not much greater than the average for the fine sands. This phase of the subject will be further touched upon as we proceed. Tank No. 2. The foregoing discussion of intermittent filtration, so far as it re- lates to coarse-sand filters, is drawn from the data and tabulations in reference to Tank No. 1. In Tank No. 2 a clean fine sand of even grain was used, and the results with this tank indicate a somewhat higher degree of purification attained, though for smaller quantities of sewage applied per unit of area. In the effluent the number of bacteria has been, after the begin- ning of nitrification, materially less than in the effluent of Tank No, 1. For a portion of the time they were less than 100 per cubic centimetre, and for a year averaged only 21. In five months of the year they averaged but 7, The number of bacteria present in the sewage may be seen by re- ference to Table No. 59, including results of Tank No. 1, Table No. 61 exhibits in compact form the results obtained wdth this tank after nitrification had fully begun. Experiment with Trenches. The soil of the field adjoining the experimental tanks at Lawrence is of fine river silt, somewhat finer than the sand used in Tank No. 2. In order to test the filtering qualities of such material in situ an area of about one-third of an acre was prepared by partially imder- draining with drains 60 feet apart to catch samples of the effluent. These underdrains have been found of little use. Usually the liquid passes by them directly down to the water table, which is below them EXI'EIMMKNT WITH T11E>'CHES. 271 a varying" distance, depending- upon the stag-e of. water in the Merri- mac river, which Hows near b}". At the location selected the surface slope is about 1 foot in 10 in one direction and about 1 in 100 in the other. A series of shallow trenches which follow the surface of the field and are shown in plan and section by Fig. 23, were excavated in tho orig-inal material in slopes, 1 foot in 30, 1 foot in 50, and 1 in 100. They were mostly made one foot wide, top and bottom, and of varying depths from six inches to three feet, and filled in with coarse mortar sand same as used in Tank No. 1. These trenches are made five feet apart and g"enerally have the surface of the coarse filled-in sand four inches below the adjacent original surface, except at their lower end, where in 50 feet it increases to ten inches below. The length of each is about 200 feet, and except at the lower end the width is one foot, as stated. 10 10 • ^o 30 40 so Scalecrf Feet Fig. 23. — Pl.\n and Section of Filter Trenches at Lawrence. The distance which sewag-e ^^dll flow along- the surface depends upon : (1) The amount applied, and (2) upon the amount of sedi- ment upon the surface: and this ag-ain varies with the quality of the sewage, the completeness of nitrification, and the time elapsed since the surface was cleaned. Sewage was applied to these trenches beginning in May, 1888, the quantity varying from 500 gallons a day for six days in the week, to 1,500 gallons daily, this latter quantity being applied to some of the trenches, 500 gallons at a time, at 9:30 A.M., 2 P.M., and 4:30 p.m. After ai)plying sewage in this way for from one to three months, the surface becomes so coated that a slight cleaning is desirable. This is effected by scraping off ono-quarter of an inch in dcjith from the surface of the coarse sand filled into the trench. In order to protect the trenches from frost, in the winter of 1888-9 they were covered with boards, and the process of purificati(m having been found to proceed as readily under these conditions during the next spring as when exposed to air, the boards were allowed to remain. 272 sp:\vage disposal in tup: united states. The quantity of land through which the sewage applied to these trenches filters varies with the condition of the surface, and this again depends upon the frequency with which they are cleaned. During the fall of 1888 they were cleaned once a month, during the winter of 1889 once in two months, and in summer of 1889 once in four or five months, the board coverings having been added late in the fall of 1888. After a cleaning, the time before 500 gallons of applied sewage "Sfill reach the lower end varies from one to three mouths. In material of the kind here used it appears probable that 50,000 to 60,000 gallons of sewage per day per acre may be efficiently purified with a renewal of the sand in the trenches not exceeding two inches annually. The expense of doing this will be considered further on. Experiments with Fine Soil. The experiments at Lawrence have also included an investigation of the filtering capacity of fine soil, and of areas of sand covered with soil. Filter Tank No. 5, in which the experiments on garden soil were conducted, had the bottom about the underdrains covered with coarse gravel, this again with finer gravel and coarse sand, making a depth of about seven inches, above which was a depth of five feet of fine gar- den soil. From Januar}', 1888, to October, 1889, inclusive, seAvage was applied to this tank at varying average rates per month, from 19,200 gallons per acre i^er day in January, 1888, to 30,100 gallons pev acre per day in April, 1888, after which the monthly average was gradually lessened to 3,800 gallons per acre per day in February, 1889, then rising to an average of 8,400 gallons in August, 1889. During April, 1888, when sewage was ajiplied at the rate of 30,000 gallons per acre pev day, this amount disappeared from the surface within six hours after its application ; but in the latter part of May, it did not always disappear in 24 hours. In June the quantity was re- duced to 20,000 gallons per acre per day, and still accumulated on the surface. For a week, in July, no sewage was applied, and some of the accumulation remained upon the surface five da3^s. The result of the experiments with Filter Tank No. 5, shows that gar- den soil is entirely unadapted to the purification of sewage by filtra- tion, even in small quantities. During the six months, from May to October, 1889, sewage was applied at the rate of only 7,500 gallons per acre per day. During this time there was no nitrification, and the albuminoid ammonia of the effluent was 82 per cent, of that of the sewage. EXPERIMENTS WITH SAND COVERED WITH SOIL. 273 EXPERBIENTS WITH SaXD COVERED WITH SoiL. In Filter Tank No, 7, the lower four feet was composed of the usual seven inches of g-ravel and sand, around and above the underdrains, with a mixture above of fine g-ravel and coarse and fine sand. Above this four feet of gravel and sand there is in addition six inches of brown soil. In May, 1888, sewage was ai)plied at the rate of 30,000 g-allons per acre per day, except on six days when none was applied. In the early part of June this quantity did not all disappear in twentj'-four hours ; after June 1-4 the quantity was reduced to an average of 13,800 gallons per acre per day to the end of the mouth. During this time 9,000 gal- lons per day came through, the remainder evajjorating and accumu- lating on the surface. From July 1 to 11 an average of 9,000 gallons a da)^ was applied ; at the same time the effluent averaged 4,400 gal- lons. After July 11, the application was discontinued until July 25. During this time the sewage remained upon the surface for 12 days, finally disai)pearing July 24tli. On July 25, h inch in depth of the surface was removed, and sewage applied at the rate of 20,000 gallons per acre per day. With a fresh surface this quantity disappeared in 53 minutes. The same amount was applied daily for six weeks. In ten days it required an hour and a half to entirely disappear from the surface. After August 16 the sewage disappeared much more slowly, and some days not at all. After September 8, the quantity was reduced to an average of about 13,000 gallons per acre per day, or exactly 90,000 gallons per week, applied three times a week, 30,000 gallons at a time. In October sewage grad- nally accumulated on the surface, and the a]iplication was in conse- quence reduced in November to a total of 60,000 gallons per acre per Aveek, applied 20,000 gallons at a time, on three days in the week. During this time the effluent amounted to 10,800 gallons per acre per day. The experiments on Tanks Nos. 5 and 7 indicate a marked decrease in the nitrification as soon as the sewage accumulates to any consid- erable extent on the surface. AVhen allowed to accumulate upon the surface^ long enougli to completely exclude air from the interstices of the filter, the nitrification either nearly, or completely ceased. Dis- continuing the application of sewage, until the sui-face cleared itself was followed in every case by an increase in nitrification. The experiments on these two tanks have therefore illustrated one of the chief dilfereuces between continuous and intermittent filtra- tion. 18 274 SEWAGE DI8POSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The following- is the summary of advantages and disadvantages of soil on the filter area, as given by Mr. Mills : The experiments have been limited to fine soils, quite retentive of water. With a depth of 5 feet of soil no purification by nitrification occiirred wlien the quantity filtered was only 7,500 gallons per acre per day ; and the organic nitroge- nous matter in the effluent was nearly as great as in the applied sewage. It is known, however, that for several months the average number of bacteria in the effluent was only one in 25,000 of the number apislied to the filter ; and it is prob- able that none lived to pass through the filter. With the ordinary depth of soil resting on yellow loam, as it is often in thi» State, and this underlaid by four feet of good filtering sand, we find that only about 9,000 gallons of sewage may be filtered upon an acre daily, with the result of removing 99.5 per cent, of the organic matter, and probably removing all of the bacteria ; while if the soil and loam be removed, the underlying sand may be able to filter three times as much, or 30,000 gallons per acre per day, giving an effluent as pure, chemically, as when covered with soil, but not removing so completely the bacteria — allowing, ordinarily, a small fraction of one per cent, to joass through the filter. For filtering sewage upon the margin of a drinking-water stream, a large area, covered with fine soil, or a smaller area of very fine sand, would be preferable to a much smaller area of coarse sand or a mixed sand and gravel, in that the former could be so managed that no bacteria could pass through. For filtering sewage on any land that does not drain into a drinking-water stream, the covering of fine soil is a disadvantage. The quantity applied to it must be kept very small, or nitrification and purification will be jjrevented. The smaller areas of sand can be made to give as good an effluent, chemically, with all the reduction in the number of bacteria that is necessary. Experiments with Peat, Loam, etc. In addition to the experiments upon the filtering capacity of fine retentive soils, an extended series were also made upon peat and loam, and peat mixed with sand, clay, etc., in various jDroportions. The tanks devoted to these experiments with peat were Nos. 3, 15, 16, 17, and 18. Tank No. 3 was one of the large tanks with an area of one two-hun- dredth of an acre. The underdrains were laid in the usual depth of 7 inches of gravel and coarse sand, above which was five feet of peat, consisting of nearly all vegetable matter, except that it contained a little mud. The top of the original bed, from which this peat was de- rived, had been cultivated. The cultivated top layer was removed and the tank filled with selected material to the depth of four feet from the undisturbed lower layers ; after which one foot in depth of tlie cultivated upper layer was added to the peat. Without going into the detail of the experiments with this peaty material, it is sufficient to say, the results indicate that such an area is " entirely worthless for the filtration of sewage." Tanks Nos. 15, 16, 17 and 18 were small tanks, placed within the building, and each having an area of one twenty-thousandth of an acre. Coarse gravel and coarse sand to the depth of about six inches were p]XPEKIMENTS WITH COAIl.SE GRAVEL. 275 placed in the bottom of each tank, and served as underdrains to the filtering- material. In Tank No. 15, the filtering material consisted of 2| feet of peat overlying" peaty sand and sand. In Tank No. 16, the lower 3^ feet of filtering material was peaty sand, and clear sand, with a depth of 1^ feet of peat above. Tank No. 17 contained Sg feet of peat, underlaid with peaty sand and sand. Tank No. 18 contained five feet in depth of peat, mixed with some ver}' fine sand and some cla3'. In regard to the results of experiments with Tanks Nos. 15, 16, 17, IS, filled with jieaty materials, Mr. Mills says : " These materials were all found to be quite worthless for the filtration of sewag^e." Experiments on mixed sand and gravel further indicate the utility of an open material. EXPEKIMENTS WITH COAESE GrAVEL. Probably as interesting and useful experiments as any are those on filtration through clean gravel. In this direction, two series have been made : (1) Those on very coarse, clean gravel ; and (2) those upon fine clean gravel. We will briefly refer to the second series, where the filtering material was composed exclusively of five feet in depth of gravel stones of the size of beans. The sand was screened out and the stones washed clean before putting into the tank. The voids were T.\BLE No. 63. Daily Quantity OF Effluent in Gallons per Acue; the Aveu- AGE Amounts of Ammonia, Nitrates, and Bacteria in the Effluent ; and THE TIME of PASSING THROUGH ONE FOOT FOR THE MoNTH INDICATED. TANK No. 2, Clean Fine Sand. (Parts per 100,000.) Daily quantity of effluent, gallons per acre. Ammonia. 1 a 0.863 0.784 0.762 0.736 0.661 1.713 2.2.56 1.6:W 1 .000 0.504 0.8(M 1.376 Per cent, of nitro- gen applied com- ing off as ni- trates. (Cortect- ed for quantity.) Number of bacteria per cubic centimetre. Date. £ '5 c c s < Time of pa through on of saturatc( er, days. 1888. 13,800 11,800 12.600 11.400 25.8(0 39,6(Ml 27.400 22,600 27.000 24,001 1 .33.400 87,800 0.0003 0.0005 0.0008 O.OOOS 0.0(10!) (1.0-201 Odl'.l 0.(1020 0.0020 0.00i>8 0.0013 0.0044 0.0072 0.0064 0.0060 0.00.59 0.0077 O.OOilo Od'.IS 0.01(14 (I (MiM 0074 0.0078 0.0090 39 29 48 r<5 41 73 96 73 28 21 33 47 11 5 12 23 28 7 57 38 67 6 8 7 11.0 LS.O 1889. 10.7 lY'bruary 13.0 Miroh 6.0 April 4.0 .May 5.5 6.6 July 5.7 6.0 4.6 4.0 276 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. Table No. C4. — Avekage Quality of the Effluent fkom a Fine-gravel Fil- ter IN Comparison with the Original Sewage when Filtering at the Rate of 108,500 Gallons per Acre per day (Sewage Applied 14 Times a Day for Six Days in the Week). (I'arts per 10i»,000.) 1889. Ammonia. Chlorine. Nitrogen as Bacteria per cubic Free. Albuminoid. Sum of. 2.7012 0.0393 1.5 Nitrates. Nitrites. centi- metre. Sept. 24-0ct.24.... Sewage... Effluent.. Per cent . 2.055S 0.0068 3of 1 0.64.53 0.0325 5. 5.55 6.42 0.0 1 .5700 0.0 O.OU03 3,034,000 11,592 4of 1 fully one-third of the total space, as in the sand filters already de- scribed. Tables Nos. 64 and 65 exhibit the results obtained by such a material, the tanks being protected from snow and exposure to cold during winter weather. In concluding the discussion of the results of the Lawrence exjDeri- ments we can hardly do better than to quote the remarks of the Massachusetts Board in the Twenty-second Annual Report in ref- erence to the results of intermittent filtration through gravel stones, namely : These results show more definitely than any others the essential character of intermittent filtration. We see that it is not a straining jjrocess. By the apjilica- tion of small quantities of sewage over the whole surface of the tank each hour, each stone in the tank was kept covered with a thin film of liquid, very slowly moving from stone to stone from the top toward the bottom, and continually in contact with air in the spaces between the stones. The liquid, starting at the top as sewage, reached the bottom within twenty-four hours, with the organic matter nearly all burned out. The removal of this organic matter is in no sense a mechani- cal one of holding back material between the stones, for they are as clean as they were a year ago ; but it is a chemical change, aided by bacteria, by which the or- ganic substances are burned, forming jji-oducts of mineral matter, which pass off daily in the i^urified liquid. Table No. 65. — Average Quality op the Effluent from a Fine-gravel Fil. TER in Comparison With the Original Sewage, After Filtration Had Taken Place at Rate of 70,000 Gali-ons per Acre per day for Seven Months, etc. (Sewage Applied 9 Times a Day for Six Days in the Week). (Parts per 100,000.) Ammonia. Chlorine. Nitrogen as Bacteria per cubic centi- Free. Albuminoid. Sum of. 2.5950 Nitrates. Nitrites. metre. May 23— June 22.... Sewape . . 1.M19 O.fiOSl 5.16 0.0 Effluent . 0.0031 0.0375 0.0406 6.00 2.0700 0.O0O-2 ib,.365 Per cent. 0.2 ofl «. 1.5 June 23— July 22.... Sewage.. 2.2500 0.7255 2.9755 7.46 0.0 6.6 1,813,500 Effluent . 0.0050 0.0354 0.0404 9.01 2.2500 0.0004 13,523 Per cent. 0.2 of 1 5. 1.3 0.7 of 1 ox THE USE OF THE EFFLUENTS FOK DRINKING WATER. 277 The liquid flowing out at the bottom is a clear, bright water, comparing favor- ably, in every respect that can be shown by chemical or biological examination, with water from some of the wells on the streets of our cities that are used foi refreshing draughts by the public during the summer. Ox THE Use of the Effluents for Dkixkixg Water. In regard to the use of the effluent from sand filters for drinking, Mr. Mills writes as follows : We now come to the important qiiestion of the character, as regards healthful- ness, of the elfluents obtained by filtering sewage intermittently through five feet in depth of sand, after the sand has filtered sewage for a year or more without being cleaned. We have found that the siim of ammonias, which have been taken to indicate the amount of nitrogenous organic matter, has been reeluced to about one-half of one per cent, of those in tlie sewage, and is less than the sum of ammonias of most of tiie public drinking-water supplies of the State. The chlorine and nitrates are higher than in the public drinking waters. They indicate in these effluents, as their excess above the normal does in the drink- ing waters, that the water which contains them came from sewage ; but, in the absence of the ammonias, they indicate that, though the water came from sewage, the organic impurities have been destroyed, and these are merely mineral constit- uents which remain after that destruction. They are principally common salt and saltpetre, which, in tlie quantities found in any of the effluents, are regarded as entirely harmless. Judging by the chemical analyses, there is nothing in the effluents known, or even suspected by chemists, to be harmful. Althougli nearly all of the bacteria that were in the sewage did not live to pass through the filters, there have been found in the effluents from filters of coarse sand more bacteria than are found in the public drinking supplies, and some of these evidently come from the sewage ; and, until we learn that disease-producing bac- teria are not among those that come through, we must assume that they may be among them; and, although reduced in numbers to such an extent that they may do no iiarm, we yet know that bacteria in general increase with enormous rapidity when under favorable conditions, and we do not yet Icnow enough to allow us to assun)e that the very small number of one or two in a tliousand of the number in the sewage that come through may not increase in the human body or under other conditions to such numbers as to be harmful. From this cause we are not able to assume that the effluent from the coarse-sand filters five feet in deptli is suitable for diiidcing water. The effluent from the extremely fine sand filter, No. i. and that from tlie soil- covered filter, Xo. 7, and a part of tlie time from the fine sand. No. 2, we have strong ground for concluding confaiued no bacteria from tlie sewage. The num- bers that were found in the effluents were smaller than are usually found in ])ublic drinUi'ig supplies ; and we have good reason for concluding that they all grew in thfi gravel and underdrains beneath the filters. If these conclusions are correct, there is no known reason why these effluents may not be used with safety for drink- ing. The effluarisons. The city of Lawrence is provided with a ]iublic water sui))dy from the river: but tli<>re are a dozen or more wells scattered about the city, on the sides of the striH^ts, that have been used for many years for watiuing horses, and are still used for this purpose, or for su])plying drinking water to families in the neighborhood, and par- ticularly are used by th<> ])ubli(^ for a cool draught of water in summer, when it is much more refreshing than tiu- citv r(>servoir water. 278 SEWAGE DISPOS.\L IN THE UNITED STATES. The water from ten of these wells has been analyzed and examined for bacteria, and tlie results obtained from seven of them are arranged below (Table No. 66), with the average result obtained by analysis of the filtered sewage from six of our filters, covering from two to eight months, after most of them had been in use a year or more. Table No. 66. — Comparison of the Effluent from Several of the Experi- mental Filters with Water from Wells in the City op Lawrence in Com- mon Use. (Parts per 100,000.) Ammonias. 6 a o Nitrogen as o s Average effluent from S f^ 2 'S a S 3 5 1 't. -1 o a m Tank No. 1, for two months 0.0313 .1410 .0011 .0078 .0036 .0184 .0014 .0016 .0025 .0070 .0007 .0012 .0014 .0022 0.0272 .0155 0105 .0118 .0104 .0046 .0074 .0076 .0108 .0086 .0005 , .0070 .0063 .0050 0.585 .1565 .0116 .0196 .0140 .0230 .0088 .0092 .0133 .0156 .0072 .0082 .0077 0072 4.83 8.08 7.28 7.51 4.98 2.r9 4.51 5.29 3.72 7.67 3.98 7.11 4.04 2.44 1.78 2.37 1.25 2 00 1.66 1.50 1.11 4.20 0.75 1.40 0.75 2.10 1.06 0.55 o.ooos .0024 .0004 .0007 .0002 .0018 .0001 .0002 .0014 '.ooie 549 Well water, Atlantic street 4^370 Tank No. 13, for six months 76 Well water, Hampshire street 128 Tank No. 6. for 3 months 678 Well water, Andover street 46 Tank No. 6, for six months 319 Well water. Mechanic street 240 Tank No. 4, for two months 20 Well water, Salem street 447 Tank No. 2. for four months 17 27 Tank No. 7, for eight months 7 Well water, Haverhill street 344 Here we find, for each of the filters filtering sewage, a well the water of which is used for drinking by many people, but is in fact sewage not so well purified as the effluent from the filter witli which it is associated. This is not presented to show that the effluent from the filters is good for drinking, for we have no leason to so regard those at least in the upper half of the table, and we should without hesita- tion pronounce the well waters in the upper half of the table as un.safe to drink ; but we present this comparison to show that waters in every way as imjnire, and as certainly derived from sewage as the effluents from the several sewage filters, are being used daily, and have been used for years by multitudes of peojile, without their knowing that they were harmed by them. Every one of these wells should be regarded as unsafe, some of them dangerous, in their present condition, and others unsafe because of what they may change to from day to day. If these wells contained unpolluted water, the chlorine would be about 0.36, while it is from seven to twentv-two times this amount ; the nitrates would be about 0.01 or 0.02, while they are from 0.55 to 4.20. The latter show that a large amount of organic matter, generally more tlian there is in sewage in a sewer, has been burned out of these waters, and the high chlo- rines show that this organic matter was of the same character as that in sewage. rr()m the amounts in most of these well waters we must conclude that their ]irevi- ous condition was worse — that is, more polluted — than ordinary sewage in sewers, and that on its way to some of the wells it has by intermittent filtration through the ground been purified to such an extent that they may not in their ])resent con- dition be harmful ; and, where the numbers of bacteria are continually small and the ammonias low, they jirobably are not harmful ; but, where the numbers of PERMANENCY OF FII/IEIJS AND RENEWAL OF SAND. 279 bacteria are large and the ammoinas are large, although the waters have been pre- viously much worse than at present, and have to a considerable degree been jinri- fied, their present condition indicates that the material through which they have filtered has not been able to exclude bacteria nor to burn uji all of the food they live on ; hence, if disease germs get into their source, some of them will probably get into these wells. Such of the wells as are included in this latter class should be tilled with earth, and never used again. Others, if examined from time to time and always found with low ammonias and small number of bacteria, would proViably be harmless ; and we should have the same ground for concluding that the effluent from sewage at those tine sand or soil-covered titters, through which no bacteria come from the sewage, would also be harmless for drinking. Permanency of Filters and Renewal of Sand. In the Twenty -third Annual Beport of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, pp. 449-55, the permanency of sand filters is dis- cussed, and the fact brought out that while some of the experimental tanks at Lawrence were doing- good work after four years of continu- ous service, yet others had stored so much organic matter as to " seriously cripple " them. The report then discusses, as two methods of obviating this difficulty, either turning under or removing the clogged layers. Turning under the upper portion of the filtering ma- terial has given good results in the way of reducing the stored or- ganic matter, but it is suggested that while receiving fresh doses of sewage the bacteria will not do their best work upon the insoluble matter, as the stored substances have been found to be, largely. Mr. Hazen's discussion of this point, and the amount of sand necessary to be renewed, is as follows : The fact of continually increasing storage in the large out-door filters is sufficient evidence that they do not afford conditions favorable to the oxidation of this mate- rial. On them we have applied as much sewage as was possible with good results, and much more than is usually api)lied in practice. In a majority of cases — al- ways with the fine materials, and often with the coarser ones — this has meant as much sewage as could be oxidized by the air in the filter. All the air available lias been required to oxidize the more decomposable matters; the more stable insoluble matter, wo may believe, can only receive the attention of the bacteria when there is an excess of air. Filters do their maximum work when the volume of sewage applied is so large that there is no considerable excess of air, when the sui)ply ex- actly meets the present demand, oxidizing only the less stable matters and prevent- ing their passage into the efflnent. There may also be a question as to wlu^ther the bactoiia will do their best work upon this insoluble matter while tliey are receiving a daily dose of fresh sewage, with its rich sujijily of food for them. If tlie fnish scwaire were entirely cut off, wouhl not tin; bacteria turn thcii' atten- tion to th(! sludge? [f tlie uijpcr layer were removed entirely and jiiled up by itself, would it not ])urii'y itself much more ra))idly than anywhere in a filter where it is continually wet with new sewage? If tliis clogged material is removed, the filters will be able to continue doing the large amount of good work wliich they have done in the jiast ; they may do even more in some cases. The removed mate- rial may so purify itself in time as to again allow its advantageous use for filtration, but, if not, fresh sand must eventually he sn])|)li(>d. fn actual ])ractic(> with am])le areas of filtering material a simple way of ap]>lyiiig these ideas would bi^ to abandon for a time an old area, after it had become clogged, without removal of the surface. 280 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. How long a time would be required for such an area to regain its power of sewage purification, and what treatments would hasten the result, are subjects for further research. NATURE OF THE SLUDGE. It may be qiieried whether piling up saud containing large amounts of organic matter stored from the sewage will not create a nuisance. To this we can ansM'er no. The stored matters are the most stable portions of the sewage; they have re- sisted strong oxidizing action, and are incapable of rapid or objectionable decom- position. The matters which would have caused trouble had they been stored are just the ones which have been oxidized. The material should be so placed that a change of air in its pores will be i^ossible, and no ofience need be anticipated. AMOUNT OF SAND NECESSAKY TO BE RENEWED. Filter No. 6 in four years' use has filtered 310,000 gallons of sewage, the equiva- lent of 62,000,000 gallons per acre. The upper 2A inches of material now contain about 70 parts per 100,000 by weight of albuminoid ammonia, and the next o inches about 20 parts. To fully restore the filter to good working order we should re- move the upper 2tV inches, or 1.6H cubic yards for the filter, or 5.4 yards per million gallons of sewage treated. In July, 1891, when Filter No. 1 commenced to be seriously clogged, the layer with excessive organic matters was not more than 3 inches deep, although more than 400,000 gallons of sewage (800,000,000 gallons per acre) had passed. In this case the removal of two yards, or at the rate of 5 yards per million gallons of sewage treated would have sufhced. In June, 1891, the sur- face of Filter No. 2 was clogged not more than two inches deep after filtering 230,000 gallons (4(1,000,000 gallons j^er acre), corresponding to 5.8 yards per million gallons. The sand below this lapper layer contains some stored matter, which would be carried forward to the next accoxmt, and might eventually raise the amount of sand to be removed to eight or even ten yards per million gallons. On the other hand, so far as this sand regains its power of purifying sewage this amount will be reduced. If the sewage contained more or less suspended matter, correspondingly more or less new sand would be required, and if the sus]iended matter was first removed irom the sewage by settling, we may believe that the aiuount of sand to be removed would be veiy small. Experiments are now in progress to dete)-miue this point. The Effect of Fkost and Snow Upon Intermittent Filtration at Lawrence. As lias already been intimated in this chapter, frost checks nitrifica- tion, but its bad effects may be g-narded against so eflectuall}' as to make it no serious obstacle in the way of intermittent filtration. Aside from the winter application of sewage to covered trenches, at the Lawrence Experiment Station other experiments have been made to determine the effect of frost upon filter beds. The results of these experiments are outlined by Mr. Hazen in the Twenty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, pp. 441-7, from which the following is taken : During the first winter, 1887-88, the various filters were exposed to the weather without protection, and no nitrification was obtained until the temperature began to rise in the spring. The result might have been different if the filters had been nitrifying well before cold weather. During the two following winters the filters EFFECT OF FKOST AND SNOW UPON INTERMITTENT FILTRATION. i*81 were protected from snow, and to a certain extent from cold, bv canvas covers. It was fuund that when the filters were so larotected, almost, if not quite, as good re- sults were obtained in the winter as during the warmer mouths, and it was estab- lished, as stated in the special report uijon Purification of Sewage and "Water (pages 29 and 255), that intermittent filtration is entirely practicable in this cli- mate, if snow is kept from the filtering area. We had no satisfactory information, however, as to what results could be ob- tained from unprt)tected filters. Accordingly, in the winter of 1890-91 the out- door filters were left exposed to the weather. Filters 1, 2, i, and 6 were receiving from 34,000 to 103,000 gallons of sewage per acre daily, and were free from com- plications, so that they furnish the best data in regard to frost, . . . CAKE OF THE FILTERS IN WINTER. When sand is frozen solidly after draining there still remain open pores through which the sewage easily finds its way, thawing to some extent the frost as it pro- ceeds. After the sewage has drained away, the portion which remains in the sand again freezes, but open pores are still left which allow the passage of the next por- tion of sewage. If, however, the sewage settles away very slowly, it will freeze before the sand drains, and in this case no pores are left, and the next ap]>lication of sewage will remain upon the surface and freeze solidly, if the weather is cold enough. If snow is upon the surface of the sand and sewage is applied uniformly to it, it is at once chilled to the freezing point, and has then no power of thawing the frost in the upjier layers of sand ; and if the weather is cold the whole will solidify on the surface, effectually closing the filter. The two essential conditions to the pas- sage of sewage through the filters in winter are tliat sewage shall never be put into snow, and that the filtering material shall be open enough to absorb its dose rap- idly.* Sewage was applied uniformly at a temperature of from ii^ to 40°, or the average sewer temperature in winter. . . . All snow was promptly removed from the filters by shovels. Each week the surface was disturbed. If the sand became siif- ficienlly tliawed at any time when it was not sewage covered, it was then raked. When there was no such op])ortunity for raking, the surface was disturbed with a pick in numerous places. During December no record was kept of the exact time required for this work on the several filters ; it was about the same as for January. Foi' January, February, and March it was as follows, in hours' work for one man. on one two-hundredth of an acre : Filter. January. No. 1 2 7 4 4 S 4X t Thi- CI) 11:1111 has been mliied by the authors. These results cannot be taken as in any decrree indicating what will be obtained in actual practice, where, if it became necessary to remove snow and stir up the sand from day to 'lav. as was done in the experiments, it could be accomplished at far less expense by the use of mechanical appiiaiu-es. Apparently, a somewhat more rational treatment of this problem is indicated in Chapter XVII. Certiiinly the use of from l.-'iOO to 3,000 days' labor per winter for hand removal, as indicated by Mr. Hazen's statistics, or any amou'it of labor approximating thereto, would be impracticable. Though it should not be overlooked, in considering Mr. Hazen's results, that while they indicate nothing as to cost . lOX 282 sewagp: disposal in the united states. creased, and soon the nitrates decreased. The organic matters, as shown by the albuminoid ammonia and by the oxygen consumed from permanganate, also in- creased, but not to an extent corresponding with the fee ammonia. During the colder months nitrification was miich checked ; ammonia, instead of nitrates, was largely the end product of the oxidation, so far as nitrogen was concerned. The first stage of purification, namely, the oxidation to ammonia and carbonic acid, was not affected to the same extent. A table introduced at this point (p. 443 of the report) shows the aver- age albuminoid ammonia in the applied sewage and the effluents from the four experimental filters. These same figures, put in the form of l)ercentages of organic matter remaining in the effluent after filtration, are quoted from the report as follows, the tanks being arranged in order of fineness of material, No. 1 being very coarse sand, No. 6 coarsa No. 2 of fine, No. 4 very fine sand : Table 66A. — Pekcentages op Organic Matter in Effluents from Experi MENTAL Filters in Winter. October, 189(1 November, •' Dereiiiber, '* January, ISitl February, " March, " April, May, " Average temperature Per cent, of organic matter remaining in. of t effluentsv Deg. Fahi-. 5S 47 40 37 m.5 38 4,5 54 No. 1. No. e. No. 2. .3.5 2.6 1.3 4.6 2.1 10 15.5 29 1.7 20.0 8.9 4.8 11.0 12.0 5.0 5.0 5.4 4.4 4.7 4.4 3.2 3.7 2.9 2.7 No. 4. 1.9 1.2 1.7 3.0 5.0 4.3 4.7 1.7 Quoting again from the report : Dviring the colder months of the year there was a period with each filter of about three months, during which purification was much less complete than at higher temperatures. The time of this period varied in the different cases : the coarse materials were the first to suffer ; the finer sands were not so soon affected, but the period was as long, extending into warmei- weather. With No. 1 a marked improve- ment occurred while the temjieratuie of the effluent was still decrea.sing. With Nos. 2 and fi the highest organic matter was coincident with the lowest tem])erature, while Ko. 4 followed some weeks later. Dnring December the frost was particularly trouble- some in Filter No. 1. and the distribution of sewage was imperfect, most of it going down through limited niifrdzen areas. Later the frost was l)roken with picks, and better distribution was obtained. This exjilains probably, in a large measure, why the worst results were obtained so early in the season. It is also possible that the filter became in some way adapted to the frost ; that, after a few weeks of use, the portions of the filter below the frost did their work more thoroughly than at first, reaardless of temperature, for the same reason that any filter gives its best result after it has been used for a time. The average numbers of bacteria per cubic centimetre by months were as fol- lows: EFFECT OF FROST AXD SNOW UPON INTERMITTENT FILTRATION. 283 Table No. 66 B. — Bacteria in Effluents from Experimental Filters in Winter. Month. October, 1890 November, •' December, " January, 1891 February, " March, " April, ■' May, |i u be tr-a 58 47 40 .37 .36.5 38 45 54 2,487.000 1,157.700 874,400 4.5H.000 .301.000 niw.oou 375,000 1,370,1)00 16.000 24,000 58.iJ(l0 51.000 9.000 4.4UU 2,900 11,000 .64 2.07 6. HO 11. VO 3.00 .78 .77 .80 Filter No. (i. 13.000 9.000 8.400 27.000 aO.OdO (1,000 4.500 4,700 Filter No. 2. Filter No 4 .5-2 17 .78 36 .96 284 5.90 , 822 fi.70 i 78 l.li) .37 1.20 50 ..34 44 .0007 .0031 .0280 .1800 .02«>0 .006(> .0130 .0032 39 45 35 19 179 15 2S 6 .0016 .0040 0010 .U042 .0.")90 .0026 0074 .0004 Tlie albuminoid ammonia and bacteria in the effluents, in percentages of those of the sewage for tlie worst month, worst three months, and for a period in warm weather as nearly as possible comparable, are as follows : Filter No. 1. Filter No. 6. Filter No. 2. Filter No. 4. "° .5 'U C3 ■a . 'H s§ .3 ■S.S .5 = ■i 1 Albuminoid ammonia. si 1 o OS n Worst month 20.0 11.20 155 7.30 5.0 1.20 3.1 6. 12.0 8.8 2.6 3.3 6.70 4.60 .77 6. 5.0 4.7 1.6 2.9 .18 .078 .0*3 26 5.0 4.7 1.5 3.1 .059 022 Warm wiather .008 3. Ratio, warm weather to worst three mouths With the sub-surface application of sewage on Filter No. 7, which has a distribut- ing pipe eighteen inches below the surface, no bad effects from the cold weather have been observed. The effluent during the months, January to July, 1891, was not of as good a quality as at other times, but it is believed that this was due entirely to over-dosing, and not to the temperature. This view is cnntirmed by the result's during the succeeding winter, when, with a smaller dose, uniformly good purifica- tion was obtained, and the fluctation in the free ammonia bore no relation to the weatlier. To resume : We have found that frost checks both purification and nitrification, altlioufjh the removal of the organic matter is more complete than the oxidation of ainiuoiiia. The ])ritici])al disturbance from cold weather did not last more tlian three months, altliough nitrification was more or less incomplete for a longer period. During Miose tliree montlis the effluents from the different filters contained, in each ca.se, about three times as large a projiortion of tlie organic matters of the a])plied sewage as the effluents from the same filters contained under comparable conditions in warmer months. During the winter months the filters removed : Albuminoid ammonia. Bnoteria. Per cent. Per cent. Filter No. 1, very coarHe sand 84 93 " 6, coarse Hand 92 95 •• 2, tine sand , 95 99.92 " 4, very fine sand 95 99.98 284 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. These results are good, although less perfect than those obtained in the warmer months. With the tine materials the purification is most complete, but even with the coarsest, No. 1, the result is far better than could be obtained by any process of chemical precipitation. Frost and Snow at the Filter Beds at South Framingham, Mas- sachusetts. It has been found in actual practice at South Framingham, Mass., that snow serves as a protection to the filter beds, allowing- the sewage Fia 24.— SNOwcovEREr) Sewage Fit,teu Bed at South Framingham, Mass. to spread over the beds, beneath it, without freezing. The following- account of the application of sewage to frozen and snow-covered beds is of special interest in this connection, as is also the accompanying- view, Fig. 24. During the cold Aveather of January, 1893, some observations of the effect of frost on filter beds were made by the Sewer Commissioners of South Framingham, Massachusetts, at the sug-gestion of Mr. Allen Hazen. The results were published in the Framingham Gazette, from which the following has been abstracted : A filter bed with an area of seven -eighths of an acre received no sewage from some time in September until Jan. 9. On this date there were 18 inches of frost in the bed and 10 inches of snow upon it, the SNOW OX THE FILTER BEDS AT SUMMIT, IST, J. 285 thermometer reaching- 6° F. below zero. Jan. 9, 300,000 g-allons of sewage were applied to the bed, and on Jan. 10, 150,000 gallons. It is said that the effluent ajjpeared in the underdrain in six hours after the application of the sewage. On Jan. 11 the frost was, in places, oiit of the bed for its whole depth, and on Jan. 12 it was nearh' all gone and the sewage had disappeared from the surface. The temperature of the applied sewage was 50° F. On Jan. 16, 17 and 18 observations were made on another bed, with an area of one acre. The frost in this bed was from 20 to 30 inches deep, and there were 15 inches of snow iipon it. On Jan. 16 the ther- mometer indicated 6°, on Jan. 17, 20° ; and on Jan. 18, 4° F. below zero. On Jan. 16, 500,000 gallons of sewage, at a temperature of 49° F., Avere pumped upon this bed, and on Jan. 17, 175,000 gallons. The underdrain started in seven hours after beginning the application of sewace. On Jan. 18, the frost was out of the ground in places, and on Jan. 19 nearly all out, while the sewage had entirely' disappeared from the surface. At the South Framingham pumping station an underground reser- voir provides storage for about 430,000 gallons of sewage, which, with the sewage delivered during pumicing, would allow the application of 500,000 gallons of sewage to one bed in about six hours. This amount of sewage was applied to one of the beds, with an area of one acre, in one day, and 175,000 gallons additional on the following day. The application of so large a volume of sewage at a temperature of about 50° F. in so short a time was certainly favorable to the passage of the sewage, but the presence of 15 inches of snow was decidedly unfavor- able.* A view of one of the South Framingham beds covered with snow is shown by Fig. 23. The bed has an area of about seven-eighths of an acre. It received no sewage from the middle of October, 1892, until Feb. 12, 1893. On the latter date there was from 30 to 36 inches of frost in the ground and 30 inches of snow on top of it. From Feb. 12, to March 1, when the view was taken, about 50,000 gallons of sewage per day was applied to the bed, going beneath the snow, as can be seen in the view. Snow on the Filter Beds at Summit, New Jersey. In the winter of 1893 an unusual amount of snow fell at Summit, New Jersey, which is a shoi-t distance from New York City. The ground having been covered with snow for many weeks, the wi'iter visited the Summit filter beds on March 6. Most of the beds were entirely cov- * Eng. News, vol. xxix., p. 174 (Feb. 3«, 1S08). 286 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. ered with snow and ice, and all partially so. Sewag-e was being ap- plied to several beds and finding its way beneath the snow. The attendants stated that the snow had not stoj)ped the filtration, although it had required unusual care to prevent some of the beds from filling and overflowing,* The special subject of winter management of filter areas is treated at length in Chapter XYII, Summary. We may now pass to the summary.f (1) Intermittent filtration through coarse sand is not a process of straining at all, but is, on the contrary, a biological process in which the nitrifying organism, with the assistance of oxygen from the air and the minerals naturally in solution in sewage, resolves the organic matter of sewage into soluble mineral nitrates and probably free nitro- gen gas, the whole process, when properly conducted, taking place essentially without the production of odor. (2) The conditions for successful treatment are: (a) Intermittency of application, and {b) open spaces between the particles of the filter (the voids) to which air easily gains access. (3) In sand filtration areas the relations of the spaces occupied by sand, liquid, and air will vary for different qualities of material, with the result of producing variations in the quality of the effluents. The experiments, how-ever, enable one to decide approximately : («) What degree of purification may be obtained with a given material ; and (b) the unit quantity of sewage that may be purified within limits to any required standard with a given material. We may therefore say that sewage purification by this process now has not only a scientific basis, but, in general terms, is amenable to computation in reference to what may be accomplished by it under given conditions. (4) As a detail of jjractical management, Mr. Mills says that while with a filter of coarse open sand some bacteria may pass through the filter, nevertheless with the underdrains as deep as practicable and as far apart as will serve to drain the quantity of sewage to be applied, if the sewage be applied in small quantities at a time, rather than in large quantities, and more frequently than with large quantities, the number of bacteria passing through will be less than if the whole daily application is made at one time. These deductions are based on the Special Eeport, covering the * Further details regarding this visit can be found in Eng. News, vol. xxix. (Mar. 16, 1893), p. 248. t The intention here, as in the previous case of the Massachusetts experiments on chemical purification, is, whatever the form of language used, to assume the responsiblity of the views expressed in the summary. This is only just when an attempt is made to condense several hun- dred pages into three or four. SUMMAItY. 287 years 1888 and 1889. In 1890 and 1891 Tank No. 1, in use since 1888, filtered sewag-e at the rate of 85,920 gallons per acre daily for every day of the time, removing- 94r^ of the organic matter, as deter- mined by the albuminoid ammonia, and dSfc of the bacteria. (5) The general result with clean, sharp, coarse sand filters, as deter- mined by experimenting with four such filters, is : {a) That 60,000 gal- lons per acre per day may be filtered, with the result of removing from 97 to 99 per cent, of the organic matter, and giving an effluent always colorless, generally clear, and with verv little or no sediment ; {b) larger quantities up to 180,000 gallons a day may be filtered, and 97 per cent, of the organic matter removed for several months at a time ; and (c) when filtering 60,000 gallons a day, such a filter will remove an average of 99. 9"^ of the bacteria in the sewage. (6) As a deduction from (4) and (5) it may be fairlj' stated that about 100,000 gallons per acre per daj'^ may be filtered through coarse sand filters similar to Tanks No. 1 and Xos. 12, 13, and 14, and results ob- tained more than satisfying the conditions of any standard of sewage purification yet laid down. Such filters may occasionally require either periods of comparative rest during which the amount of sewage applied would be much less than the average, or, in some cases, of abso- lute rest ; it will doubtless be found advantageous to turn under the top layers of the filtering material, while in time it may be necessary to renew them. This rest period may be usually easily obtained in the summer bj' having areas to which sewage is applied for irrigation pur- poses only, and with due reference to the best commercial return from the growing crop. The summer season, too, with its higher tempera- ture, is the time when a given period of rest may be expected to give the most thorough recuperation. In this view broad irrigation may be considered an adjunct of purification by intermittent filtration. (7) Experiments with B((rHhi.s ]>/'o<1igiosus indicate that coarse sand filters, when filtering at the rate of 60,000 gallons per acre per day and ujiward, may allow a few of the more hai'dy varieties of bacteria to pass through; but with fine sand filters, filtering say 20.000 to 40.000 gallons per acre per day, it is uncertain that any bacterium whatever is hardy enough to survive the jiassing through. (8) Filtei's of either clean fine sand or of river silt may be expected to purify at l<*;ist 30,000 galhms per acre per day so thoroughly as to ])r()duce an efiluent organicalh' far superior to ordinarily pure waters, and in which the number of bacteria per unit volume is nuicli less than in such water. Whether the few bacteria actually found in the t>filnent experimented upon, came through from the surface, or whether they are derived from the under-drains, or from bacteria developed in the lower i)()rtions of the filters, is uncertain. It is jiossible that at times, even with the fine sand filters, a few come through. 288 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The actual record of Tank No. 2, fine sand, for the third and fourth years of its service, 1890 and 185)1, shows that it filtered an averag-e of 49,360 gallons daily, removing- 97.5 per cent, of the org-anic matter and at least 99.99 per cent, of the bacteria. (9) With fine river silt, it appears that the best way to apply the sew- age is either in trenches which have been excavated and filled with coarse sand, or possibly to sucli areas the ujjper foot or foot and a half of which has been covered with coarse sand into which the daily application may sink in a short time. (10) The advantages of apjDl^dng sewage to trenches excavated in the original material of an ordinary field, and filled in with clean, coarse sand, are as follows : (a) If sewage is applied over the whole surface, the finer particles are likely to be taken up by the sewage as it fiows- over the field, and deposited in the interstices in such manner as to soon choke the inter-spaces ; if apjilied in winter to the upper layers, of such material, by reason of nearly continual saturation it is more liable to freeze than would be the case if open so that sewage readily passed into and through the spaces ; {h) with trenches about one foot wide, two feet deep, and five feet apart, filled nearly full of coarse sand, we have provided a medium Avhicli will readily receive the sewage and quickly take it below the surface. The area of fine mate- rial on the sides and bottom of the trenches is equal to the area of the whole surface of fine material in the field ; to this equivalent area the sewage comes not only freed from sediment by straining through the coarse sand, but it further comes to it with such slow motion as. not to disturb the particles of fine material ; the underground surface of the original fine material of the field, therefore, remains perma- nently open to receive the sewage ; (c) the surface of sand occasion- ally requiring renewal is at the same time limited to one-fifth ; and {d} this one-fifth portion can be materially assisted, when necessary in cold weather, by covering the trenches with boards. (11) Fields covered Avith an impervious or nearly impervious soil at the surface, but having coarse sand or gravel subsoils, can be j^rovided with trenches cut through the poorer filtering material near the sur- face, and more efficient filtering areas made than when prepared in the usual manner. (12) These trenches, filled with coarse sand, may be the best method of arranging filter areas in the colder climate of the Northern States. With them, sloping areas can be utilized without the expense of level- ling. The field at Lawrence has a maximum slope of about 1 in 10 j while the trenches are arranged in reference to the contours in such manner as to slope from 1 in 50 to 1 in 100. (13) As a deduction from (12) and what has preceded, it may be con- cluded that when in extremely cold climates, liable to heavy snow- SUMMARY. 289 falls, it is found desirable to use full area coarse-saud filters, tliey may be efficiently operated in winter by arranging- the surface before the beginning- of cold weather in trenches, somewhat after the manner de- scribed in the foregoing-, and providing board covers for the same, to be removed and stored in the spring, and at the same time the surface levelled for ordinary full surface application during the warm months. For moderate winter climates, however, the filter areas may be operated without any protective covering- at all. A suggestion for a system of covered winter absorption drains on a level area is given in plan and section by Fig. 24. (14) The mechanical separation of a portion of the sewage which takes l^lace in the coarse-sand trenches referred to in 10 and 11 is nierelj" an in- cident of intermittent fil- tration which under cer- tain conditions favorably modifies the result, /£" huwvy^/;?/.':'M''' WINTER DRAIN . UPPER END. WINTER DRAIN . LOWER END. Fig. 25. — Suggestion for Covered ^VIXTER Absouptiox Drains. (15) In estimating- the relative value of chemical versus ' filtration processes of purification, the practical question arises as to which process may l)e (^xpectod to furnish an eftluent least adapted to sup- port tlie life of l)ucteria. Experiments upon the effluents from the coarse-sand filters indicate that the organic matter remaining- therein is in no case Avell adapted to sn])i)ort bacteria. (16) The further practical question arises in relation to the use of the ]inrified effluents from filtration areas for drinking. The answer is : <'^) That judging by chemical analysis alone, there is nothing in the efiluents known, or even suspected by chemists, to be harmful ; {h) there arc, however, a few bacteria which survive passage through the coarse-sand filters, and until we are able to say that none of these are disease-producing varieties, the drinking of the undiluted effluents from the coarse-sand filters cannot be considered permissible ; (c) the 19 21)0 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. amount and conditions of dilution which may be necessary to render such effluents comparatively safe, depend upon so many elements, that a rational opinion relative to the probable degree of safety in any given case can only be given by an expert after an examination of all the at- tendant circumstances ; {(I) although not absolutely proven, there are nevertheless strong reasons for believing that the effluents from tine- sand filters are entirely free from bacteria of every sort and kind, and if, on further study, it turns out that this is true, so far as present 9"^%-^^.^. .. «««» JVC- T ii« "^■^■^ >-"^- #^. "V Fig. 26. — Cultivated Fii,tration Akra with Absouptton Ditch ks, Luton, England, information goes, there is no reason to be urged against drinking the effluents from such filters. No reference has been made in this chapter to the partial cultivation of intermittent filtration areas by the use of the ridge and furrow sys- tem, which has been employed in England with more or less success. The new views which we derive from the Lawrence experiments seem to indicate that inasmuch as cultivation would not only interfere with the primary object of sewage purification, but furthermore, cannot as a rule be made profitable on such areas, there is no reason why it should be attempted. The statement made by Mr. Clarke, in 1885,* that "if it is proper to dedicate land to use as a park for the pleasure of the public, there is no reason why it may not be dedicated to sewage puri- * Report of Eliot C. Clarke to Mass. Drain. Com., p. 127. SUMMARY. 291 fication in order to preserve health," is considerably enforced by the new views. Fig-. 25, however, illustrates a cultivated filtration field Fig. 27. — Method of Adapting Intermittent Filtration Area to Cultivation, BY Means of Absorption Ditches. at Luton, England, as photographed by Mr. Clarke, in 1885, and Fig. 26 shows a similar filtration area in section, it being common in Eng- land to adapt filtration areas to cultivation by means of absorption ^TileOrain 'J" '-Tf^^Tile Drain *if/- '^H^Tile Drain . Fig. 28. — Section of High Grade Intermittent Filtration Beds. ditches like those shown in these figures. Fig. 27 is designed to show the method of constructing a high grade of intermittent filtration beds with coarse sand as a filtering material and with tile underdrains. CHAPTEE XV. SUB-SUEFACE IRRIGATION. SuB-suEFACE irrigation is a useful modification of broad surface irri- gation applicable to relatively small quantities of sewage, as from isolated houses, hospitals, prisons, asylums summer hotels, manufact- uring establishments, or any other place without access to the sewer- age system of a large town. Originally introduced by the Rev. Henry Moule, the invention of the automatic fiush-tank by Eogers Field gave it at once a utility that rapidly brought it into public notice. In spite, however, of its being an English invention it has probably been more extensively used in this country than there, due largely without doubt to its early introduction by Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C. E., and its persistent advocacy by him, Mr. Philbrick, and other American sanitary specialists. At present the tendency is to use it less here than formerly, before the ease and certainty with which broad surface irrigation and intermittent filtration can be used in our climate were thoroughly understood. It is, nevertheless, a use- ful system under certain circumstances, and as such deserves brief no- tice in a work of this character, though by reason of its having been fully described by others, little more will be attempted than to point out the chief sources of information.* Mr. Olcott, in his paper. The Small-pipe Underground Intermittent System of Sewage Disposal, has given in a tabulated statement the detail of 37 small sub-surface irrigation systems constructed at various places, the most of them for single houses ; he states that he has con- structed about 70 similar works in all.f * These are (1) Waring's Sewerage and Land Drainage, chap, xxvii., sub-sec., The Disposal of Household Wastes, p. 287 and following ; (2) Gerhard, The Disposal of Household Wast ; (S) Philbrick, The Disposal of Sewage in Suburban Residences, pamphlet reprint ; also ir. The Sanitary Engineer, vol. vii. (1883), pp. .530 and 5?A ; (4) paper by Geo. E. Olcott, The Sm 11-pipe Underground Intermittent System of Sewage Disposal, in 11th An. Rept. N. Jer. St. Bd. Health pp. 79-88 ; and (.5) a paper by Col. Waring, Sewage Disposal for Isolated Houses, in Am. Arch., March 13, 1892. + Tabulation include? information in reference to each of the 37 examples cited on the follow- ing points : (1) For whom and where constructed. (2) Number of persons contributing. (,3) Approximate first cost. (4) Length of time in use at date of making the tabulation. (6) Answer to the question. Is system free from nuisance ? SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATIOlSr. 293 As the result of this experience, Mr. Olcott indorses the following- views, as to the cost, etc., of sub-surface irrigation plants on a small scale, expressed bj^ Dr. J. W. Pinkham, of Montclair, N. J., in a paper before the New Jersey Sanitary Association in 1884, from which Mr. Olcott's statistics are chiefly quoted, namely : • (1) The first cost for a family and house of average size is about $200. (2) The cost of annual maintenance is about $10 for such a house. (3) The ground selected should be free from shade and may be either garden or lawn. (4) By means of this system all liquid sewage, from the smallest dwelling-house or the largest institution, may be effectually disposed of without nuisance and with- out peril to health. (5) This system should take the place of cesspools in all suburban and country places which have sufficient ground for the distributing pipes. A reference to the several sources of information here indicated will, it is believed, furnish whatever is needed by any one thinking of using this system. (7) Answer to the question, Is all house waste satisfactorily disposed of? (8) Answer to the question, Have stoppages occurred V (9) Answer to the question, Is the soakage area underdrained ? (10) Answer to the question. Is the soakage area superficially dry? (11) Miscellaneous statements from the parties for whom constructed, including individual opin- ion as to success of operation, etc. CHAPTER XVI. THE DISPOSAL OF MANUFACTURING WASTES. Classification. The English Rivers Pollution Commission gave the disposal of manufacturing wastes extended consideration in their First, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Reports. The information there given is the basis of all the exact knowledge of the subject whicli has thus far been ob- tained. Taking their several Reports as a basis, manufacturing pollu- tions may be classified under the following heads : (1) Pollution by calico dye-works, j)rint-works, and bleach-works. (2) Pollution by flax steeping and by linen and jute bleaching and dyeing. (3) Pollution by starch-works. (4) Pollution by paper mills. (5) Pollution by alcohol distilleries. (G) Pollution by sugar-refining and glucose works. (7) Pollution by petroleum refining. (8) Pollution by woollen works, hat works, etc. (9) Pollution by chemical works. (10) Pollution by tanneries. (11) Pollution by silk-works. (12) Pollution by collieries and coal washing. (13) Pollution by iron and other mining operations. (14) Pollution by iron-works, rolling mills, and other heavy metal- works. (15) Pollution by the cutlery trade. (16) Pollution by iron and steel wire, tin-plate, and galvanizing works. (17) Pollution by brass foundries. (18) Pollution by German silver and electro-plate works. Manufacturing Wastes — How Purified. It is unnecessary to consider in this place the large amount of de- tailed information given by the Commission in these reports. In the chapter on the Pollution of Streams we have already given some of the main facts of stream pollution in this country, and we may simply DIFFICULTIES IX THE WAY OF PURIFICATION. 295 refer to these reports of the English Commission as furnishing' a larger body of detailed information than can be obtained in any other place,* The Commission sug-gests for the purification of manufacturing" refuse substantially the same treatments as are available for the pu- riticatiou of town sewage, namely : Chemical precipitation, broad irri- gation, and intermittent filtration, and the general conclusion may be drawn, that the choice of method, in any given case, will depend largeU' upon special conditions, the same as in the purification of town sewage. A considerable number of large manufacturing" estab- lishments in England and Scotland have constructed jjurification plants, and in some cases the utilization of the refuse matters has more than repaid the cost of constructing, maintaining, and operating the same.f Eelative Danger to Health. As a general proposition it may be stated that a large portion of the refuse of manufacturing" processes is less dangerous to health than domestic sewage, when turned into streams, for the reason that it does not contain, ^^cv -ye?, the germs of infectious diseases. It is nevertheless true, that the refuse of difterent manufacturing operations varies greatly in respect to polluting qualities, as well as the facility with which it can be purified. For instance, the refuse from woollen scoui- ings is frequently large in amount and difficult to treat ; the washings from foul rags in paper-making may also be viewed with suspicivm, but the vegetable dyes, acids, and alkalies are not especially danger- ous wdien considerably diluted. Some chemical reagents, which occur as refuse from manufactories, may even act as precipitants when turned into streams, and in that way conduce to a partial purification of the stream below the ]>oint of their inflow. This fact, lioweA'er, can- not be construed into an argument in favor of indiscriminate pollution of streams by manufacturing refuse. Difficulties in the way of Pithfication. Again, the satisfactory purification of manufacturing wastes is, at many mills, rendered exceedingly difficult on account of the large quantity of water with which they are mixed. In many cases the use of water is unnecessarily large, and the first step toward the general purification of manufacturing refuse will undoubtedly be for the manu- facturers to learn to use less water and to separate their drainage in such manner that water only slightly fouled by use may go back into ♦See 7th Rept. Mass. St. Bii. Health for }-i'sini»- of this infoniifition. + For samyile plans of e.xt'ii'-ivf' plunts (lesi^jncd specially for puriticatiou of manufacturing ■wastes, sec 4th Kept, of Riv. Pol. Com , p. I'll, it sfq. 290 SEWAGK DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES, the stream, while the move seriously polluted drainage is discharged into sewers, or purified by special appliances at the works, as the case may be. American Examples. Thus far in this country manufacturers have not, except in a few in- stances, beeu compelled to purify their own polluted wastes, and inas- much as few have undertaken the purification, of their own volition, very little exi3erience under American conditions has thus far been gained. A few unsatisfactory cases, derived from Mr. Clarke's report to the Massachusetts Drainage Commission, may be cited : (1) The Waiisknck Mills, Providence, T„. I., are among the largest of those in the United States making woollen and worsted goods. Until 1881 the dirty water result- ing from the different operations, amounting to about 400,000 gallons per day, flowed directly into ^Yest river. The yearly amount of refuse contained in this water included about 04,000 pounds of dyestuffs, 100,000 pounds of alkali, 4,000 pounds of acid, 53,000 i)ounds of fuller's earth, and 400.000 pounds of grease. A dyeing and bleaching comi)any below brought a suit against the Wanskuck Com- pany on account of the serious injury to its operations by tJie pollution of ^Yest river. After protracted litigation the Supreme Court granted a permanent injunc- tion forbidding such i)ollution. In comiiliance with this injunction attemjits have been made to purify the waste water before permitting it to enter the I'iver. At first, filtration through land was tried. The foul liquid was pumped on to a tract of gravelly land near the mills, aljout forty feet above the river. An acre and a half was prepared by making furrows four feet aj^art on the surface. The liquid was made to flow during the morning through the furrows on one-half of the land, and during the afternoon through those on the other half. For about three weeks this process was successful, as the water filtered through the land and came out clean. After this time the surface of the furrows became clogged, the water would not soak away fast enough, and the process was abandoned. It is stated, however, that a few days later the water had disapi^eared, and the film of sediment which had choked the ground dried, cracked, and curled uj), showing clean sand underneath it. It is probable that after this interval, if the water had been a2)i)lied again, it would have filtered away as V^efore, and the process might have been continued in- termittently by allowing occasional periods during which the film of sediment could dry and crack. AYhen a considerable amount of sediment had accumulated, and had been allowed to dry, it easily could have been broken up with tools and thrown upon the ridges between the furrows. As the liquid filtered for three weeks before the surface of the ground became clogged, whereas it took less than a week for the film of sediment to dry and crack, continuous purification could have been effected by the use of double the quantity of land, divided into two plots, used alternately. Two gentlemen, one of them the superintendent, who observed the experiment, are now of the opinion that this method would have proved sufficient. At the time that the first experiment was thought to be a failure purification by precijutation was adojited, and has been continued since. A set of six connected basins was excavated on the laud previously used for filtration. Two of these basins, aliout 30 feet by GO feet each, were connected with four others about 75 feet by 220 feet each, all being 5 or 6 feet deep. About a barrel of lime to 100,000 gallons is added to the waste water at the mill before pumping. This addition is made rudely, the lime not being previously ground or even slaked. The water flows through one of the smaller basins, in which most of the deposition takes place. Leaving the small basin it flows through the four larger ones successively, where further deposi- tion takes place. To the eye, the effluent from the last basin looks about as dirty as the water which leaves the pumps. A decided smell from the basins is noticed in muggy weather, and as a whole the result is not satisfactory. As such processes AMERICAN EXAMPLES. 297 have proved eflfective elsewhere, tbe failure must be due to defects in the practical management of the process. For a while after it was attempted, sulphate of alumina was used as a precipitant. The cost of this chemical, which amounted to about ST per day for each 100,000 gallons, or .$6,000 per year for the whole anu^unt treated, was considered so great as to preclude its use. The sludge which is cleaned from the basins is found to be commercially valueless. It is said to have proved beneficial when a^jplied to grass in the neighborhood, but in practice it is found that, although it is given away, nobody conies for it a second time. It is thought that of the whole liquid waste 50,000 gallons wotild comprise all of the water used in washing wool and the greater part of the 2Jolluting refuse. (2) A method of wool scottring is practised in the Lorraine Mills, Saylesville, R. I., by which the grease is preserved, and most of the other dirt is eliminated from the wash water liefore permitting it to escape. The wool is washed in a machine having three bowls. . . . Six hundred pounds of wool are washed at a time, and pass successively from bowl 1 to bowls 2 and 3. When a new charge of dirty wool is put into bowl 1, the water previously used in bowl 2 is transferred to bowl 1, that from 3 is put into 2, and clean water is tised only in bowl 3. Thus, bowl 1, in which the wool is first washed, always contains water which has been used twice before, and bowl 2 that which has been used once. The amoiant of clean water added in bowl 3 at each washing is about 400 gallons. To this about 27 pounds of soap are added, and a small quantity of free lye. Six hundred pounds of wool therefore are washed with about 400 gallons of water, which is very much less than is commonly used for the purpose, and probably is as little as will accom- plish the work. The restilting product is about 300 potinds of clean wool. The water from bowl 1 is drawn off into a " cooler," which is a pit about 30 feet across on top, dug in the ground. In this the water cools, and a small part of it evapo- rates or leaches into the ground. Most of it flows into a tank in the ".save-all" house, from which it is pumped into three smaller tanks for treatment. These latter are about 7 feet square by 5 deep. In them the alkaline liqtiid receives a small quantity of sulpliuric acid. This causes the greasy i)articles to separate from the water and rise as foam. The water below is thou drawn off, and escapes into the river. It is clear, and about the color of amber. It has an odor like that of wool, and is somewhat acid. The greasy scum is drawn off upon four artificial fil- ters of gravel, having a superficial area of about 200 square feet each, and two feet de[)th of filtering material. The scum solitlifies somewhat ujwn the filters, and is shovelled into bags, which are put between sheet-iron plates, in a press contained in a tight box which can be filled with steam. The grease flows from the bags as oil, and what remains in the bags is reduced to '-soot-cake." The oil is some- what further refined, and then barrelled for the market. When cool, it has the consistency of lard or common soap-grease, and is of a reddish color, with an odor of wool. It is used either for stuffing leather, or as a lubricant, or in the man- ufacttire of soap, etc. The " soot-cake," wliicli is principally dirt, contains as it comes from the press about 50 per cent, of moisture. It has been analyzed by two chemists, one of whom reports it valueless, and the other as having some ma- nurial value. From 18,000 pounds of wool there are obtained a ton of grease and 1,200 pounds of "soot-cake " The cost of the jilant for extracting these, not in- cluding buildings, was .S2,500. The process has only recently been pi;t in opera- tion, but is thought to be remunerative. (3) Two mills in Millbnry, .Ma.ss. , each scouring about 1,000 pounds jier day of wool in the grease, retain the first scour, which is su])posed to contain about five- sixths of the dirt, thus lessening in that proportion tlie pollution which they other- wise Would cause to the river. The first scour is retained in vats, which are cleaned periodically, and their contents used as a fertilizer. In these two cases the process is thought to be a paying one. (4) Tiie woollen mills of Robert Bh^akie & Co., at Hyde Park, I^Iass., em]iloy about 275 opoiatives. All refuse from closets, wool scouring, and dyeing goes into a settling basin, from which the effluent goes into the stream. About 3,000 ll)s. of wool are scoured daily with altout 40 lbs. of soda ash, and are dyed chiefly with ground dyewoods. The wool slirinks in cleansing from 50 to 60 i)er cent., so that the refuse amounts to over 1,500 ll)s. dailv. The settling basin through which the 298 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN TIIP] UNITED STATES. waste water flows, as shown by the accompanying cut, Fig. 29, consists of a ce- mented structure 80 feet long by 10 feet wide and 3: 5 feet deep. A large amount of solid refuse is intercepted by this, the heavier portions being retained in the bottom of the basin, and the greasy scum floating on top. The elflnent, however, is still very dirty. The proprietor cleans out the basin at intervals, and uses its Fig. 29.— Settling Basins .vr Woollen Mills, Hyde Park, Mass. contents to fertilize his land. He estimates its value for this purpose at several hundred dollars per year. (5) Next to the pollution caused by wool washing, the refuse from tanneries seems to cause the most trouble. Tliere are very few cases in which attempts have been made to purify this refuse. The drainage from a tannery can be clarifled chemically by the use of salts of iron, sometimes in conjunction with lime, as pre- cipitants. At one place which I visited in England, a little .sulphate of iron was first added to the drainage, uniting with the tan in forming taunate of iron, which was afterwards precipitated by the addition of lime-water from the lime-vats. The liquid, which was nearly colorless, was then filtered through gravel. Where the - Cokeond Hay _ PLAN 'l^. nro^p-^^"^ ■fwed'viff'h^v- ■■'■'■ ' SECTION Fig. 30.— Mechanical Filter at Tannery, Winchester, Mass. water contains a great deal of tan bark, it probably would be necessary to intercept this in some way i)efore purifying the water by intermittent filtration, because other- wise the bark would clog the surface of the ground At Maxwell's tannery, in "Winchester, a mechanical filter. Fig. 30, to strain out the bark and coarse lime, has lately (1885) been put on trial. This consists of a wooden box, about 4 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 60 feet long. This is divided into compartments which are filled with hay, through which the water filters. The effluent generally is clear, but of a deep mahogany color. A STUDY OF PAPER-MILL WASTES. 299 A Study of Papee-Mill Wastes. In 1885, Professor Wm. Ripley Nichols examined, at the request of Mr. Clarke, a number of samples (eigfht in all) of the waste material from the paper-mill of Messrs. C. F. Crehore ct Son, situated at New- ton Lower Falls, Massachusetts. At this mill domestic rag-s and tarred hemp junk are made into card and press j^aper for mills. The stock is first cut and dusted, which removes part of the waste in a dry state : it is then boiled with lime to saponify the dirt, and bleach out the color. The waste water from this process is called bleach liquor. The stock is then washed in a paper engine, where it is passed under a heavy roller with steel blades, acting- against a bed-plate also set with steel blades, the whole so arranged as not to cut the stock but merely to separate the tibres. A constant stream of water passes through the paper en- gine for an hour or more. The effluent, which is called wash-water, at first looks very dirty as it leaves the engine, but toward the end of the operation it appears to fiow away clean. Sand-boxes in the bottoms of the washing engines receive the heavier particles, such as sand, dirt, buttons etc., removed from the stock. The samples submitted to Professor Nichols, comprised : (1), solid refuse from the " sand-boxes ; " (2), samples of " bleach-liquors ; " (3), samples of " wash-waters." The following is from Professor Nichols' report : The details of the examination of the various samples and such recommendations as I am able to make are as follows : 1. materiaij fro;m sand-boxes. The dirt from the " rags " sand-box, after draining off the liquid, weighed 252 grammes while wet, and 98 grammes when drv. In bulk, it was mainly fibre ; by weight, the larger part was sand, buttons, metallic hooks, pins, paper-fasteners, wire, etc. Expressed in per cents, we have : Per cent. Water 61 Buttons and othiu- heavy dirt 24 Fibre and light dirt 15 100 Calculating on the dry material we have : Per cent. Buttons and hoavv dirt 61 Fibre and light dirt 39 100 The fibre and light dirt burned readily, leaving about half its weight of ash, or more exactly we have : Per cent. Volatile and combustible matter 47.72 Ash 52.28 100.00 800 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Per cent. The " fibre aud light dirt " contained matter sohable in ether 1-29 Matter soluble in ether after treatment with hydrochloric acid 5.80 Pliosphoric acid 0.37 Nitrogen 0.59 Potash, not determined. In my opinion there is not grease enough to pay to extract, or fertilizing matter enough to give a commercial value to the material as manure. There is, however, no reason whv it should be discharged into the stream. If removed from the sand- boxes and dried, either by waste heat, if any is available, or by exposure to the air, it can then be burued under the boilers. This is, in my opinion, the best disposi- tion to make of it. It would, no doiibt, be better to arrange for the settling of the heavier portion, containing bits of metal, etc., and dry and burn only the lighter portion. The heavier portion could be simply mixed with the ashes of the estab- lishment without harm and be disposed of with them. 2. MATERIAL FROM THE " ROPE " S.\ND-BOXES. The sample received weighed wet 67 grammes, diy 13 grammes. When dry it burned readily, leaving less than half its weight of ash. We have, then, Per cent. Water 81 Dry fibre and dirt 19 100 The dry fibre, etc., consisted of : •' Per cent. Volatile and combustible matter 63.6 A.sh 36.4 100.0 Ether extracted 18.67 per cent, of a tariy matter which burned with a smoky flame. The fibre contained : Per cent. Phosphoric acid 0.42 Nitrogen 0.10 The best disposition that can be made of this material is the same as that sug- gested in the previous case. 3. BLEACH-LIQUOB FROM THE RAG BOILERS. This was a frothv, dark-colored, turbid, strongly alkaline liquid containing a large proportional amount of organic matter. The results of a partial exauuuation appear in the table. If this liquid had to be disposed of by itself, the best method would probablv be to evaporate it under the grate-bars or in some other way by waste heat if possible. It would give about 9 or 10 per cent, of its weight of a thick syrup, which could then be burned, and by its Inirning return part of the heat required to evaporate it. As, however, the first portions of the wash-water are unfit to discharge into the stream, it would probably be better to mix all the liquors together for treatment. 4. BLEACH-LIQTJOR FROM ROPE. This resembles the previous sample in general respects and might be treated similarly. 5, 6, 7, 8. WASH -WATER FROM RAGS AND FROM ROPE. Samples 5 (rags) and 6 (rope) were taken 10 minutes after washing began, and samples 7 (rags) and 8 (ropej, after 2 hours. The latter, although turbid and unin- A STUDY OF PAPEK-MILL WASTES. 301 viting to the eye, might be discharged iuto the stream after a simple process of filtering through sand or sand and gravel. The first portions of the ■n-ash-water are, however, too foul to be thus discharged. I have made a number of experi- ments with various chemical precipitants ; with the stronger liquors very little satisfaction was obtained. With the weaker liquors, or with a mixture of the strong and weak together, better results were obtained, but the method would be expen- sive and the effltient ought not to go into a stream used for water-supply. In my Table No. 67. — Examination of Various Samples of Refuse fkom Crehores Paper Mill. (Partb per 1UU,0U0.) Rags. Drainings from dirt Bleach-liquor Wash-water after 10 minutes. Wash- water after 2 hours... Rope. Drainings from dirt IJleach-liquor Wash-water after 10 minutes Wash-water after 2 hours . . . Unfiltered. After filtering through paper. o a cJ O Total solids. Volatile. Total solids. Volatile. < 73.2 7326.0 5032.0 7222.6 749.6 360.0 537.5 393.0 i 120.9 IS. 5 ii.5 11.0 4.5 ' 0.5 13.0 8193.0 8120.0 5144.0 i 178.0 51.0 492.5 S69.0 57.0 38.0 28.6 18.0 9.6 1 0.8 opinion, the best way of disposing of these liquors is by " intermittent downwatd filtration," through a sufficient amount of land. Judging from the i^ii^^lished experience in other places this would be quite practicable, but I do not feel wholly sure of the success \Vith the bleach-liquor from the ropes, as the organic matter therein contained is not as readih' oxidized as is that from the rags. Experience might show that a larger area of land was necessary if this liquid were mixed with the rest than is usually required, but I think it would be better to evaporate this liquid as indicated above. The amount of heat required would not be great. I do not possess accurate information as to the amounts of the various liquids of which samples were sent to me ; but I as.sumed, on the strength of rough estimates ■which you gave me, that the daily discharge is approximately made up of : 700 gallons of bleach-liquor (Rags.) 700 " " " •' (Kope.) 50,000 " "wash-water 5 50,000 " " " " 6 150.000 " " " " 7 150,000 " " " " 8 After the samples had been in my laboratory for more than two weeks, and bad, consequently undergone some chemical change, I made a mixture in this propor- tion and had it analyzed with tlie results which follow, and which represent, approximately,* tlie character of the i^resent discharge : Total solids in solution 120. parts in 100,000 Organic and volatile matter 80. " " " Inorganic mattei- 40. " " " Solids in suspension 74. " " " Organic and volatile 30. " " Inorganic 44. " " " •Analytical Notk-^THpsc n'snlts of analyses vary somewhat from those calculattMl from Table 07, mainly hecanse the licjuors had undnru^one some chanj^e since the first (ietorminationa were made, hut partly hccatiso, in lifiiiids of this eliaracter (i.e., containing caustic lime), some of the ficiency that the information embodied in the following has bi'en got to- gether. 304 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The Massachusetts experiments have demonstrated, moreover, that under projoer conditions the nitritication of sewage will proceed dur- ing- cold weather, although not as rapidly as in warm weather.* The detail of Avliat can be actually accomplished in this particular is given, as we have seen, in the Special Massachusetts Report, and in the An- nual Report for 1891, already referred to. Temperatures of Air and Sewage at Lawrence. In order to illustrate the question of temperatures at Lawrence, where the exi^eriments have been carried on, Tables Nos. 69 and 70, derived from the Special Report, are given. The winter of 1887-88, when the mean temperature for January was 15.46°, is stated to have been the coldest in 20 years. It was found necessary, because of the low temperature at which the sewage arrived at the experiment sta- tion, to warm it by passing a hot water-pipe through the measuring tank. In reference to this it may be noted as a very important point Table No. 69. — Mean Maximum, Mean Minimum, and Mean Temperature of Air at Lawrence, from November to March, Inclusive, During the Win- ters OP 1887-88 and 1888-89. (Fahrenheit".) 18S7-88. 1888-89. Month. Mean max. Mean mill. 28.30 20.87 6 32 12.24 20.39 Mean. Mean max. 48.40 .S8.0!» 39.77 82.75 45.38 Mean min. Mean. 47.16 35.54 24.61 35.03 39.13 37.73 28.20 15.46 23.63 29.76 31.30 21.45 23.00 11. S2 26.55 39.85 2!».77 31.38 22.28 35.96 in the discussion that the winter temperature of the sewage was con- siderably reduced by reason of the pipe conveying it from the sewer to the experiment station passing along the bed of the Merrimac river for nearly half a mile. The difference caused thereby is shown in Table No. 70. In reference to Table No. 70 it may be stated that for the purpose of comparing temperature of effluent with the temperature of sewage the effluent from Tank No. 1 has been selected. This tank is composed of a filtering material of 9,000 gallons of clean, coarse mortar sand of even grain, in which the voids were found to equal 36 per cent, of the whole. When saturated Avith water and allowed to drain there remained 12 per cent, of the total volume, which was filled with water, and 24 per cent, containing air, the sand occupying 64 per cent, of the total space. As shown in Table No. 70 the mean temperature of the sewage, as * For statement of winter purification in detail, refer to Chapter XIV., Article on The Effect of Frost and Snow upon Intermittent Filtration at Lawrence, p. 280, and following. TEMPERATURES OF AIR AND SEWAGE AT LAWRENCE. 305 Table No. 70. — Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Tempeuatures in Main Sewer AT Lawkence, the same for Sewage as delivered to Filter Tanks and FOR Effluent from Tank No. 1, from January, 1888, to April, 1889, in- clusive. * (Fahrenheit °.) Temperature in main sewer. Temperature of sewage as delivered to filter tank. ' Temperature of effluent from Tank No. 1. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. 1S88. January 44 44 51 .57 63 66 68 67 59 r>i 48 47 -18 47 57 36 36 45 51 57 61 65 62 54 50 45 44 43 40 45 46.5 41.6 40.5 47.2 53 2 59 4 63.7 67.1 64.3 56.3 51.0 46.5 45.9 44.5 45.2 49.5 .37 65t 80t 46 57 73 73 74 71 53 50 46 45 46 44 53 34 35 51t 36 45 58 65 69 55 45 38 41 44 44 33 39 35.3 47. Ot 6ii.r,t 43.6 51.8 65 9 69 8 71.1 64.1 47.8 45.0 44.7 44.7 44.9 36,6 46 1 .36 37 42 35 35 35 35.7 35.7 36.6 46 40 42.2 May 57 73 74 75 74 61 54 44 41 39 41 53 47 58 68 71 61 52.0 64.1 July Auiriist. 71.0 73.3 68 4 51 55.1 JM.jvemlier 43 49.1 39 44.1 1889. January Febrii:iry .38 39.6 37 1 37 6 36 39.6 40 ' 45.7 * The maxima and minima of this table are not true maxima and minima as derived from maximum and minimnm thermometers ; they are merely the highest and lowest daily readina-s, as taken from the tabulations in the Special Report. t Sewage warmed artiti^;ially. applied to the filters in Jaiuiciiy, 1888, was over 11° below that of the sewage iu the main sewer. In the winter of 1888-89 sewage w^as ap- plied at a temperature of about 45°, Avhich Avas but little below the temperature of the main sewer, except in March, wdieu the tempera- ture of the applied sewage ranged from 44° to 33°, with a mean of 36.6°. The mean temperature of the air for Februaiy of this year was 22,3°, as shown in Table No. 69. "Without going into an elaborate analysis of the winter results of the Lawrence experiments it will be sufficient for present purposes to state : (1) That in winters of the mean temperatures of those of 1887-88 and 1888-89, at Lawrence, sewage can be so far purified by int(U'mittent fil- tration through .sand, that probably 40 to 50 per cent, of the nitrogen applied in the sewag(^ Avill l)e reduced to nitrates in the effluent. (2) That to accomplish this, the sewage needs to be applied at about the temperature 42° to 45°, which may be taken as the mean winter temperature in main sewers, although in manufacturing quarters, where hot waste liquids and condensed steam are admitted into the sewers, the temperature of the sewage may be even much higher.^ tSee Mr. Gray's Providence Rejxirt for temperature in sewers of Paris, where during an ex- tremely cold December in IST'.I tlie mean temperature of the sewage was 4:')°, with a mean tempera- ture of the air at the same time of 1><.!!°, and of water of the Seine of 32°, In another case where a main Paris sewer receives the sewage of a manufacturing quarter, the winter temperature of the sewage was maintained at .53.*i° to 62.C°. 20 306 sewagp: disposal ix the united states. (.3) The complete nitrification of 50 per cent, of the organic matter represents more than 50 per cent, purification. CoMrAEisoN OF AiR Tempeeatures at a Number of Places. Thus far we have comparatively little experience in this country in the winter purification of sewage by either broad irrigation or inter- mittent filtration on a large scale. We may, however, compare the mean temperatures at a number of places where meteorological records have been kept, with the records of places abroad where winter purification has preceded without interruption from frost. Table No. 71, following, gives a number of such records. The column State of Michigan in Table No. 71 may be taken as representing the approximate mean climate of that State. It is intro- duced for the purpose of showing what may be expected in a typical region in the northern part of the United States. The mean tempera- tures here given are from a table at page 17 of the 16th Annual Re- port of the Michigan State Board of Health, the stations reiDresented being in all parts of the State, from Marquette and Escanaba at the North to Detroit, Ann Arbor, and Hillsdale at the South. The mean winter temperatures at Marquette are, however, much lower than the means as here given, and before designing sewage disposal by broad irrigation or intermittent filtration at a point as far north as Marquette,, one would need more definite information in relation to local winter temperatures than is afforded by Table No. 71. Table No. 7L — Mean Monthly Winter Temperatures at the Places indi- cated IN Europe and the United States. (Fahrenheit °.) State of State of London. Dantzic. Providence. Michigan. Alabama. w ■ i £ £ , y 1 g Months. 1 = n tern ature. )f yea ken. es n tern itiire of yea ken. a & . "i = i- -3 o ■" la S- ^ S» s =. i. s - §. S =• z Nov 4?>.3 50 36.3 81 40.0 48 36.0 10 52.9 .30 Dec 3'.).:^ 30.0 29.7 26.6 to 46.6 to Jan :it>.5 26.8 2H.S 20.6 1 42.9 1 Feb 38.4 29.1 27.3 23 6 49.2 March •41.0 32.4 33.!) 2!t.8 .54.1 46.(1 41.2 44.5 44.3 63.5 In order to illustrate the preceding remark, and also to show the range of the mean in a single State, Table No. 72 has been prepared. The range in latitude of places in Table No. 72 is from 46°34' North at Marquette, to 42°17' North at Ann Arbor, a total range of 4°17'. The lowest mean temperature for any month is found at COMPAKISOX OF AIR TEMPERATURES. 307 Table No. 72. — Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Tempehatuues for the Winter Months of 1886-87 at several Places in the State of Michigan. (Fahrenheit °.) Names of places. Dec, 18«6. Jan., 18b7. Feb., 1SS7. March, 18S7. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean., Max. . Min. Mean. Max. Min. ,Mean. Marquette 42 Escaiiaba 39 Mackinaw city 46 Traverse city 46 Graml Haven ' 49 Lansing 46 Ann Arbor [ 45 Detroit 52 -13 -15 -1 -3 -S -2 15.7 15.0 22.6 21.6 22.5 19.6 19.3 42 39 48 48 52 -21 -24 -14 -15 -2 -20 -12 24.0 , 54 8.0 7.6 13.3 16.2 20.1 18.2 19.5 36 36 41 46 46 53 53 -13 -17 -12 -15 -7 -3 -3 -3 23.6 1 54 12.0 46 13.0 44 16.1 39 17.8 48 24.1 60 24.4 50 25.3 51 28.2 52 -14 -12 -10 -7 7 5 5 7 18.7 19.2 20.1 21 5 2';. 3 27.8 29.1 31.0 Escanaba in latitude 45°48' Nortli, for the month of Januaiy; the highest mean for the same month being 23.6° at Detroit in latitude 4:2°20'. The elevations above tide-water range from 930 feet at Ann Ai-bor to 585 at Detroit; Lansing is 900 feet, Marquette 641; while Escanaba, Mackinaw city, Traverse cit\', and Grand Haven are all a tritle less than 600 feet. The highest point at which a series of meteor- ological observations are recorded in Michigan is Reed city, in lati- tude 43°4:4' and 1,016 feet above tide, where in January, 1886. the mean temperature was 17.4°, with the maximum of 44° and minimum of — 18° for the same month. A number of the other States have organized meteorological depart- ments in which the State meteorology is treated somewhat more in de- tail than by the United States Weather Bureau, and information of the kind indicated in the foregoing as likely to be of use in deciding ques- tions of sewage disposal may be in most cases easily obtained. By way of illustrating the climatology of one of the more southerh^ States, the means of the winter temperatures at a large number of places in the State of Alabama are also tabulated in Table No. 71. The details of the observations at a few of the stations in that State are given in Table No. 73. Table No. 73.— Minimum and Mean Temperatures of the Winter Months for A Series of Years at several Places in the State of Alabama. (Fahrenheit °.) — ' > a "3 'U Mean teniperatures. _o S2 3 C O — *i Name of place. 6 (3 3 C 1 o CS g.2_ . >t: > "5 a o- i o i "A HnntRville 84° 45' 3.3° 32' Vi" 07' :«•> 4(1' 32° 23' 31° 50' 80° 41' 690 600 2.50 S-26 219 450 35 41.8 49.0 50.4 47.8 49.5 52.3 47.6 42.1 .39.1 45.1 44.6 48.2 46.9 50.7 42.6 41.7 48.6 .'50.7 52.8 51.3 50 2 51.3 50.1 !56.6 53.6 57.1 60.7 -0 4 4 6 14 11 14 3 TUKCIlllKlS • 6 lU ISi Troy 6 Mobile 22 308 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN^ THE UNITED STATES. The results of Table No. 73 iu comiDarison with the mean temperature at Lawrence, Massachusetts, as shown in Table No. 69, easily indicate that an exceediiii^ly efficient winter purification of sewage by irrigation and filtration can be attained in the State of Alabama. The foregoing- illustrations of mean winter temperatures in Michigan and Alabama are sufficient to illustrate the value of a w^ell-digested State climatology in connection with the selection of the method of sewage disposal to be used iu regions lacking the data of actual ex- perience through a series of years. The variations in climate in dif- ferent parts of the United States are so extensive, and the range of lati- tude so great, that definite information of the kind here collected is of the highest value, though for its full utilization we need a series of allied observations iu relation to the temperatures of the soil at various depths, such observations of the temperature of the soil fur- nishing certain modifying corrections which do not appear from a study of air tem^seratures alone. Soil Temperature Observations Abroad. Observations of the temperature of the soil at various depths have been kept at the Greenwich Observatory, the Edinburgh University and at other places abroad for many years, but it is only recently that the subject has received any special attention in this country. To a number of the Agricultural Experiment Stations established during the last few years may be assigned the credit of beginning a series of studies of soil temperatures of value not only to the agricult- ural interests of the country, but which also throw considerable' light on questions of sewage purification as well. Many of the European observations have been made and studied largely with reference to their bearing on geological dynamics, and while of interest from the geological point of view, are less useful for present purposes than those made at the several American Agricult- ural Experiment Stations. As an exception to this, Table No. 74, of the results at the Berlin sewage farms in 1884 and 1885, is given. The mean winter air temperatures at Berlin are : December, 33.5° r. ; January, 30° ; and February, 31.1°. Soil temperatures have been taken at 14 different points at the depths indicated in Table No. 74. The results here given are the means of all the observations. The deepest frost penetration thus far observed is about 2.5 feet ; in ordinary winters the depth of frost does not exceed 1.7 feet.* * Notes on European Practice in Sewage Disposal. By Chas. H. Swan. Jour, of Assn. of Eng. Socs., vol. vu., No. 7 p. 253 (July, 1888). RELATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 309 Table No. 74.— Average Soil Temperatures at the Berlin Sewage Farms in 1884 and 1885. (Fahrenheit °.) Year. 1884. 1S85. Depth, meters. 0.5 (1.64 ft.) 1 (3.28 ft.) 3 (9.84 ft.) 0.5 (1.64 ft.) 1 1 (.3.28 ft.) 1 3 (9.84 ft.) Day of month. ♦ 40.1 40.1 42.9 43.3 41.1 43.2 44.9 46.8 46.8 56.2 56.7 58.3 611.0 f,6.0 61.8 64 9 61.4 61.8 60.0 m.i 48.7 46.7 .39.5 44.8 43.3 42.4 43.4 44.7 43 5 43.0 45.3 47.0 46.2 51.7 54.6 55.9 57.5 62.3 61.1 62.5 61.2 60.6 59.7 56.1 ,51.8 50.0 44.0 45.4 49.5 48.1 47.5 47.7 47.6 46. S 47.7 47 7 47 9 49.0 51.5 52.2 53.0 54.4 55.9 56.4 57.4 57.3 57.3 56.9 55.5 54.3 52.4 50.8 40.6 39.1 35.9 38.0 41.1 40.6 4;i4 45.3 .54.7 50.3 57.8 61.2 64.7 66.5 62.7 62.9 58.0 57.9 55.6 .53.0 48 1 45.1 43.1 ss.s 43.4 41 9 39.5 40.6 42.3 42.3 43.7 45.9 52.0 50.5 54.6 58.0 60.8 62.9 61.5 61.8 58.3 57.9 57.0 54.4 .50.9 48.2 44.8 42.8 49.9 49.0 February 1 47.7 47.1 j[arcli 1 46.7 46.7 April 1 46.7 April 15 May 1 47.2 48.1 May 15 . 49.5 50.4 51.8 July 1 July 15 53.5 55.0 56.2 August 15. 56 6 56.6 September 15 56.4 56.5 55.8 54.5 Novonibfr 15 December 1 December 15 5:!. 4 .51.9 50.7 Eelatiox of SrEciFic Heat to Sewage* Disposal. The specific heat of a body is defined as the number of heat-nnits necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of the body 1° F. with water at 32° taken as the unit. In either of its three forms water pos- sesses the g-reatest specific heat of any substance known, althousli as ice its specific heat is only one-half that of the liquid form. Notwith- standing- the utility of such information in agriculture, comparatively little has been done in the way of determining the specific heat of soils, the following- table. No. 75, of relative rates of cooling, from Schiibler, embodying- about the most useful results tlius far obtained.* * On the Physical Properties of the Soil and on the Means of Investigating them. By Pro- fessor Schiibler, of the University of Tubingen. Jour. Roy. Ag. See. of Eng., vol. i. (1.-S40), |)p. 17 7--.' 18. The results detailed in this paper of Professor Schiibler. while obtained more than .^0 years ago, are still the best in many respects to be found anywhere. Recently the South Carolina and Mary- land .\g. Ex. Stations have experimented on soil physics, and the following resume from the Second An. Rept. of the S. Car. Sta. (pp. 7C), 77) indicates the nature and extent of the work of this character which it is proposed to carry on at these stations. Soil Particles : 1. Interpretation of the result of mechanical analysis. a. Number of particles in unit weight or volume of soil. h. Diameter of average sized particle of soil and the mean arrangement of the particles. r. Surface area of particles (tliis shows the need of still further perfecting tlie method of mcclianical aiialysis). 2. On a movement of soil particles due t» ch mging water content and changing temperature, as 310 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. In obtaining tliese results a g-iven quantity of dry soil was heated to 145°, aud the time required to cool to 70° observed, the temperature of the atmosphere being- 61°. The observed times of cooling are stated in the first column ; in the second is given the relative power of retaining- heat, with lime sand assumed as 100. In regard to the relative rates of cooling- of the several earths as in- dicated in Table No. 75, it may be remarked that while the relative rate of cooling depends upon the power of retaining heat, it is still not quite identical with specific heat. As stated by Professor Schiib- related to the growth of roots, and the physical action of manure, with the effect of barometric changes and vapor pressure on the same. Soil Moisture : 3. ^lethod for the determination of the moisture in the soil by electrical resistance. 4. On the movement of soil moisture. a. On the cause and laws of the movement. b. On the effect of temperature. c. On the effect of manure. d. On the effect of rain. f. On the effect of cropping and cultivation. 5. Calculation of the relative movement of soil moisture in different soils from the mechanical analysis. 6. Calculation of the relative rate of evaporation and underdrainage from different soils from the meclianieal analysi.s. 7. On the capillary value of different soils from the mechanical analysis. 8. Effect of fineness and compactness on the water-holding power. 9. On the action of underdrains in the soil, and of how they act. 10. On the flocculation and subsidence of clay particles. 11. On the swelling of clay when wet. 13. On the compacting of soils by rain. 13. On the physical action of manures and fertilizers. Soil Temperature : 14. New form of soil thermometer, which registers the maximum and mini- mum temperature of a definite layer oi soil. 15. The relation of the soil to heat as observed in the field in tj'pical soils or under different conditions of cultivation and fertilization. IC). Calculations of the relation of different soils to heat from the mechanical analj'ses, with the effect of the water content, cultivation, and cropping. 17. The actual temperature of different soils, with range, etc. 18. Study of the loss of heat from the different soils. a. As calculated from the mechanical analysis. b. As determined with the radiation thermometer. 19. Specific heat of typical soils. Meteorology : 20. Temperature of the air and soils, and amount of moisture in same most favorable for plant growth. a. Distribution throughout the growing season. b. The relative effect on the growth of plants and crop production. c. How modified by manure and cultivation. 21. The estimation of the actual amount of moisture in the soils from time to time. 22. Influence of meteorological conditions. a. On grain production, as explaining low average yield of grain at the South. b. On the distribution of crops throughout the State. c. On the growth and ripening of crops. 23. Amount and intensity of sunshine available for the crop. 24. Effect of wind movement on plant growth, especially as to the amount of ammonia supplied to crops. KKLATION OF SPECIFIC HP^AT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 311 ler, the rate of cooling' does not depend merely upon specific heat, but on the different capacity as well which bodies possess of con- ducting- heat. A body with a low rate of cooling will possess high specific heat and slight conducting power : these two properties com- bined constitute the power of retaining heat. Table No. 75. Lime sand . . . . Quartz sand . . Clay loam Heavy clay . . . Pure {,'ray clay Garden soil. .. Hnnuis Water Time to cool from I Relative power of 145° to 70° F. retaining heat. 3 h. 30 min. 100 3 h. 27 min. 95.6 2 h. 30 min. 71.8 2 h. 24 min. (18.4 2 h. li» min. 06.7 2 h. Ifi min. 64.8 1 h. 43 min. 49.0 30 h. 7 min. 860.4 Table No. 75 shows that under the stated conditions dry humus will cool about twice as fast as sand, and nearly eighteen times as fast as water, when exposed to the same degree of heat ; it also shows, inde- pendent of the considerations which have been forcibly presented by the Lawrence experiments, the superior value of sand as a sewage purification medium in winter. In order to illustrate this proposition we will review briefiy the rationale of the process of applying sewage to an intermittent filtration area from day to day. According to the Lawrence experiments the daily application of sewage disappeared from the surface of coarse mortar-sand in comparatively short periods of time, the actual length depending, as might be expected, largely upon the amount applied. When applied at the rate of 60,000 gallons per acre per day, about 30 minutes usually sufficed for that quantity to sink entirely beneath the surface. At the rate of 100,000 gallons per day per single application, the surface of coarse sand was usually clear in about one hour,* though at times the periods were somewhat longer, as may be seen by inspection of the record in detail. Li Table No. 76 a few extracts are given from the original tabulations by way of illustrat- ing the ]ioint in question. As tlie li(iuid sewage sinks into the sand, thin lamiiKc of water cover the particles of sand to the extent of about one- ninth of the whole volume, the balance of the, space being occupied by sand two thirds, and air one-fourth. The application of one day is pushed forward by tliat of the next, the last part of each daily applica- tion remaining just below the surface of the sand until the next appli- cation is made, when it is in turn pushed forward as l)efore.t Again, it * For detailed .statement as apjdv.ng to filters of coar.-. 1 ^ Q 95.2 108.7 96.1 109.4 97.3 110.5 97.7 111.7 98.3 111.4 99.1 112.6 99.1 112.1 99.3 112.1 99.3 112.3 99.5 113.0 , 99.5 113.5 ; 101.8 115.3 : 103.6 117.3 1 13.5 13.3 13.2 14.0 13.2 13.5 13.0 12.8 13.0 13.5 14.0 13.5 13.7 Studying this table we note : (1) That the lampblack surface was warmed on an average about 13.5° more than the white ; (2) that the character of the surface determined the temperature. The results show that for all the soils tlie temperatures with either lampblack or magnesia were essentially the same. In the second series with natural surface, and either wet or diy, we * For resume of results in thi« din'otion see, (1) St()rer\s Agriculture, vol. i., pi.. H'i-llt) ; (2) Johnson's How Plants (irow, pp. IfSli-l'.iU 320 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. note for gray soil wet, a temperature of 97.7° ; and for brownisli-black humus wet, 103.6°, giving a range of 5.9°. The same soils dry give, for gray soil, 111.7°, and for humus, 117.3°, a range of 5.6°. Again the difference in favor of the dry soils as against the wet is about 13.5°, the same as observed for the soils with whitened and blackened surfaces. Further we observe : (1) That all the soils when wet uniforndy pre- sent a lower temperature than when dry and whitened ; (2) that the dark-colored soils when wet were Avarmer than the wet light-colored ones. Again comparing the two sets of results it is evident that the deep- ening of the color has in all the wet soils materially assisted the temper- ature, which rises in a clear relation to the deepening of the color until in the case of brownish-black humus it lacks only 3.6° of being as high as the same soil dry with lampblack surface. Among earths and rocks specific heat seems to vary in some degree in proportion to density ; and as a mean value we may saj" that gravel stone in comparison with water taken as unity has a specific heat of about 0.20. The upper surface of a filter area composed of fine dark- colored gravel will therefore possess greater efficiency than one not so covered ; for such covering the rounded slate-colored pebbles of many river-beds will answer admirably. Again the specific heat of wood charcoal is 0.24, and its use for surfacing a filter can be considered, on account of its black color, of possible utility. Further, on the subject of increasing the temperature of the soil of filter areas, it may be stated that the nitrifying process itself is, when active, no inconsiderable source of heat, which is liberated by chemi- cal action from the organic substances in process of disintegration. In regard to increasing the temi^erature of filter areas by the use of dark-colored surfaces it may appear at first sight that, inasmuch as radiation or absorption are apparently converse operations, the net result for a complete cycle Avill be the same as though the surface had been left in its natural condition. The principle of selective absorp- tion, however, shows us that the rays of low intensity of wave-motion may be almost completely absorbed. Again radiation is not in every sense the converse of absorption, the quality of the surface has more to do with its quantity than color, as may be proven by suspending tAvo terrestrial radiation thermometers at the same height, one above sod and the other above sand, when it will be found that the one above sod will show the loAver temperature. Moreover bodies differ in their power of absorbing and radiating heat of different degrees of intensity of wave-motion. If black cloth or black paper be spread on snow on which the sun is shining the snoAv will melt more raiiidly under the cloth than elsewhere. If the cloth is suspended above the snow the AMERICAN SOIL T?:MPKRATURE OBSERVATIONS. 321 melting still goes on the same as when resting upon it. The reasons for this are : (1) That snow has a special capacity for heat of low in- tensity ; (2) the effect of absorption, conduction, and radiation by the black cloth is to transform the solar rays from a state of high intensity to that of low intensity, in which state they are capable of doing their maximum work in restoring the lost latent heat of snow. Expressing the fact in another way we may imagine that the effect of the black cloth has been to so reduce the intensity of wave-motion as to bring solar heat to a state wherein it can act the most effectively upon snow, a substance which is only exceeded by water in the slowness with which it receives and parts with heat. We may conclude then that the selecting of a material for the surface of a tilter of such absorbing and radiating capacity as to utilize to some extent the heat gained during the day in maintaining the temperature during the night is quite within the possibilities of our present knowledge of heat. American Soil Temperature Observations. We may now take up the consideration of a few of the soil tempera- ture observations which have been kept by a number of the Agricult- ural Experiment Stations for the last few years. Tlie soil thermometer in common use in this country was devised for the New York State Station at Geneva, by Henry J. Green, in 1882. So far as known to tht; author, with the exception of a short series made by Dr. Kedzie of the Michigan State Agricultural College a few years previousl}^ the Geneva observations were the first extended series begun in this country. Unfortunately they have been confined entirely to the growing season from April to October, inclusive, and are without value for the present purpose. The station is to be cred- ited, however, with the first systematic beginning of such work. The thermometers devised by Mr. Green are a series of ordinary mercurial thermometers with sufficient length of stem to project above the ground for any depth. The graduation is far enough above the surface to enable the thermometer to be read by the observer when kneeling. They are encased in well-seasoned wood except at the bot- tom of the bulb and at the graduation. At the sides of the bulb, holes are bored through the wood to admit of more perfect contact with the soil. In setting the thermometer a trench is excavated, a groove cut at the side, the thermometers planted tlierein at the proper depths and the trench refilled as nearly as possible to its natural condition. Tlie errors of soil tlun-mometers may be determined by comparison with a standard and corrections api)lied to the observations the same as to any other mercurial thermometer. In Tal)h' No. 78 is given the nu'an soil tenii)eratures and the snowfall 2X 322 SEWAGK DISPOSAL IN rilK I'NITED STATES. Table No. 78. —Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Tempehatures op the Air and THE Same for the Soil at Various Depths, for the Months from Novem- ber, 1890, to April, 1891, inclusive, at State College, Pennsylvania. (Fahrenheit ".) Air 15 feet above j Soil, depth of Soil, depth of Soil, depth of Soil, depth of . ground. 3 inches. 6 inches. Ifoot. 2 feet. £!S Month. ^.a Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. 1890. 1 Nov.... m.o 17.0 41.2 49.5 33.5 40.9 50.0 35.0 41.7 48.5 37.5 43.2 48.0 40..'> 4.5.4 0.6 Dec... 47.0 1.0 25.6 34.0 32.0 32.8 34.5 33.0 33.6 37.5 34.5 35 4 40.5 3ti.5 37.9 32.6 1891. Jan 49.0 1.0 28.9 32.5 23.0 30.6 33.0 27.0 31.4 34.5 33.0 33.3 35.0 34 5 35.0 13.8 Feb. ... 58.0 4.0 3.3.1 45.0 Zi.b 32.4 1 41.5 27.5 32.3 37.5 33.0 33.6 36.5 34.0 34.4 40.5 March. . 54.0 0.0 31.6 41.5 24.0 32.7 \ 40.5 30.0 33.5 39.5 33.0 34.4 .38.0 .34.0 35.1 15.1 April... 82.0 20.0 49.5 62.0 1 31.5 45.9 56.5 i 33.0 46.0 55.0 ( 35.0 45.1 50.5 36.5 43.1 0.5 in comparison with the mean air temperature for the w'inter of 1890 01, as kept at State College, Pennsylvania in latitude, 40° 55' north, longi- tude 77° 51' west. Observations have been made during the growing season for several years, but the foregoing are the first winter records kept. The station is 1,200 feet above tide-water. The soil in which the thermometers stand is a moderately dark, compact loam for a depth of about seven inches and after that a stiff clay subsoil. The surface im- mediately over the thermometers is free from vegetation and during the summer kept loose by stirring from time to time. The most inter- esting point in connection Avith this series is the slight frost penetra- tion in December, 1890, when the minimum temperature for the month was 1.0°, with a mean of 25.6°, the snowfall for the month being 32.6 inches. At the Maine State College, Orono, Maine, in latitude 44° 54' north, and longitude 68° 40' west, a series of soil temperature readings have been kept for the growing season of the last three years. Table No. 79 gives the results for 1889. Terrestrial and solar radiation readings are also given and herewith included by way of illustrating the relation of this class of data to soil temperatures. The terrestrial radiation thermometer was placed over grass and within six inches of the surface of the ground, while the minimum air thermometer with which it is compared was four feet from the ground. The greatest range of the terrestrial radiation thermome- ter from the minimum air was 10.8°. The quality of the soil in which the soil thermometers are placed and the elevation of the station above tide-water are not stated in the reports at hand. The mean winter temperatures of air at Orono in 1889 were : Novem- ber, 38.9° ; December, 27.6° ; January, 25.0° ; February, 15.2° ; March, 82.9° ; April, 45.1°. The minimum winter temperature was — 20.0°, in March. The snowfall was: November, 6 inches; December, 6.5 in- AMERICAN SOIL TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS. 323 Table No. 79. — Mean Temi'euatuke op the Air, Teurkstkial Radiation, So- lar Radiation, and Mean Soil Temperatures at Various Depths for the Months prom May to October, 1889, inclusive, at Maine State College, Orono, Maine. (Fahrenheit ".) Air. Terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation. Soil, depth of 3 inches. Month. .ss. 2 _i IS ti 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. Mean. e a sis 2 of o.-a S a ".a 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. Mean. 1889. May 52.95 f58..30 59.47 60.24 4C>.fi.3 38.48 8.15 133.02! 67.85 05.17 51.50 60..33 59.70 57.18 June nH.m 71.27 08.(17 ' r,sS)7 [ ,53.25 49.20 4.05 134.22; 73.45 00.77 61. 3S 09.62 07.76 60.25 July «5.1-i 75.75 70.. sr, 70.58 .55.08 50 59 4.49 : 139.,55: 75.30 64.25 03.10 7i».86 09.54 67.83 August. . . . 59.97 74. -'11 (itisi (;c,.<.i9 53.05 47.6(i 5.39 1-37.56; 73.72 63.M4 61.75 68.91 OiS.Ol 66.23 September. 54.39 70.M1 (il ..55 6-'.27 49.07 44.00 4 47 122.79 71.23 51.56 57.74 63.01 02.^9 ' 61.21 October . . . :i~.n n-.J.8(l 44.05 1 44.75 83.91 28. 4S 5.43 10.5.86 52.78 5.3. OS 43.80 47.31 40.72 , 45.94 Means. . . 55..">:i ti9.:if> 01.80 62.2;i 4cS.50 43.17 5.33 128.83 69.05 ,59.78 56.54 63.34 62.44 1 60.77 ches ; January, 15.5 inches ; February, 28.3 inches ; March, 4 inches ; Ai)i-il, -i inches. In Table No. 80 we have the means of a series of observations of temperature of air and soil as taken at 2 r. m., the approximate time of maximum daily temperature of each day for the months of January to April inclusive, 1889, at St. Anthony Park, Minnesota. The severity of the Minnesota climate will be appreciated when it is remarked that the mean of 2 r. M. ol)servations for February was 17°. The winter of 1888 8!) is stated, however, to have been on the whole a mild one. Nevertheless the soil of the Minnesota Station, which is g-ravel and sand with an admixture of clay, froze to a depth of between four and five feet ; the f^reatest p(nietration of frost took place in the month of March, when the mean air temperature was 44° and the upper layers of soil had entirely lost their frost to a depth of 12 inches. The temperature^ at depth of fiv<; feet read 32° on three days in that month, 33° beiiig- the lowest in February, that temperature only bein.o- reached for the first time on Februaiy 22. On February 1 the temperature at five feet was 324 SEWAGE DI8POSAL IN TIIK UNITED STATES. Table No. 80. — Appkoximate Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Temperature of the alk and the same for the soil at various depths, for the months FROM January to April, 1889, Inclusive, at St. Anthony Park, Minne- sota, * * (Fahrenheit.") Month. Air 5 feet above ground. Depth of 3 inches. Depth of 1 foot. Depth of 2 feet. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. Mean. 1889. January 38 46 «2 68 10 — 3 14 42 25 17 44 56 33 32 59 66 15 C 21 46 25 19 41 58 30 27 39 50 18 IS 26 35 25 22 32 43 31 28 32 45 24 18 25 32 29 February 24 March 30 April 39 18S9. January February March April Depth of 3 feet. Depth of 4 feet. Depth of 5 feet. Depth of 6 Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. 1 Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. Min. 35 31 33 38 34 36 40 36 38 41 37 31 2.5 29 34 30 32 36 33 34 37 84 32 26 30 ! 32 30 31 33 32 33 34 34 43 32 37 1 ^^ 32 36 40 33 36 34 39 * The results in this table are all based upon the 2 p.m. daily observations. The maximum and minimum are the highest and lowest observations for each month. 36°: it o-radnally fell until 33° was readied on the 22d, as just stated. At the depth of six feet the temperature ranged from 37° to 34° in February and remained stationary at 34° for the whole of March and until April 14, when the temperature advanced to 35°. From that time to the end of the month the tendency was slowly upward at six feet, reaching- 39° at the end of the month. In reference to snow protection at St. Anthony Park, it is stated that the surface about the soil thermometers was nearly bare and fully ex- posed to the northwest winds, which are the coldest of the locality. These Minnesota observations are of special interest as illustrating- the length of time required for the ground to free itself from frost when once frozen. The mean air temperature for March was 44°, with a mean soil temperature at the depth of three inches of 41°. At the depth of two feet the temperature of 32° was not attained until March 28 and remained at tliat point until April 5. These results show the considerable length of time required for the soil and entrained moist- ure to recover its lost latent heat. In winters of extreme cold the soil of Minnesota is said to freeze to the depth of six feet. Experimental verification of this by the use of thermometers is lacking, as those ob- servations have not been carried on since the winter of 1888-89. AMERICAN SOIL TKMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS. 325 lu Table No. 81 we have the results of air and soil temperature obser- vations at Lincoln, Nebraska (latitude 40°50' north, longitude 96°45' west), for the winter of 1890-91, and the months of November and December, 1891. The station is about 1,150 feet above tide-water and subject to a snowfall at times of over two feet. The soil is described as a fine black loam from 11 to 18 inches deep, underlaid bj^ a bed of yellow clay. Table No. 81 is of special interest by reason of Table No. 81. — Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Temperature of Air and Soil FOR THE Months Indicated, at Lincoln, Nebraska. (Fahrenheit".) Air. Soil, depth of Soil, depth of Soil, depth of Soil, depth of a 3 inches. 1 foot. 2 feet. 3 feet. Month. a . a , 13 s c o a « H 0) V 03 w S S S ^ 53 a •a a a a S ^ S S a 1890. November.. . fi6.0 20 38.9 57.5 32.0 37.5 52.5 40.0 44.6 53.7 45.0 49.4 55.5 1 48.0 51.5 December. .. 59.5 5 30.9 41.0 23.0 3a. 1 41.5 34.0 36.1 45.0 39.0 41.0 48.0 1 41.7 44.2 3.2 1891. 1 January aT.9 35.1 22.7 29.4 36.5 31.4 33.0 39.2 35.7 37.1 ! 41.6 3S.5 39.8 February ail. I 31.7 14. C, 24.5 32.6 24 2 28.8 35.9 31.4 33.5 38.4 34.8 :35 4 13.0 March 28.4 41.(5 If) 4 30.7 36.9 22. S 30.3 35.9 30.0 32 36.4 33.2 34.4 18.8 April btiA 69.6 33.7 53.6 6U.9 35. r 48.6 54.3 36.2 44.5 50.6 j 36.5 42.4 1 November... 7S.0 3 :H5 52.6 26.3 3(i.6 51.0 37.3 43.4 53.8 42.8 47.7 55.2 46.0 50.7 0.1 December 64.5 -1 3a.6 44.9 29.2 33.9 42.3 35.0 37.6 43.3 39.0 41.1 45 9 42.0 43.8 0.4 ex]iil)iting' the slig-ht frost penetration in the month of February, 1891, when the mean air temperature was 20.1° ; and by way of illustration Ave will considiu- the meteorology of that and the fol- lowing mouth a little in detail. The preceding month of January had a mean air temperature of 27.9° and a total precipitation of 1.58 inch, all in the form of rain. The ground was in consecpience un- protected during the whole of January, Avhieh resulted in frost pen- etration to a depth of 12 inches on the 17th, when the reading at 12 inches was 31.5°. At the depth of 9 inches a reading of 31.0° was reached on the 13th. On January 31, the reading at G inches was 32.1° ; at 9 inches, 32.1°; at 12 inches, 32.9°; at 2 feet, 36°; and at 3 feet, 38.5°. Except the first 6 inches in depth the ground was entirely clear of frost on that date. The mean temperature of the air on Jan- uary 30 was 32.3° ; on the 31st, 15.3° ; on February 1 it was - 2.2° ; while on February 2 it was 0.2°. On February 3 the soil temperature at depth of 3 inches was 11.6° ; at 6 inches, 17.7° ; at 9 inches, 24° : at 12 inches, 25.0°: and at 24 inches, 35.3°. Several inches of snowfall occurred on the 8tli with a mean air temperature of 16°. From the 8th to the loth, when an additional snowfall occurred, mean air tempera- tuivs ranged from 57° on the 9th, to 45° on the l4th ; to 14° on the 16th iind 17th. and 27° on the 19th. On the 14th tlu; soil temperatures at 326 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. various depths were : 3 inclies, 30.5° ; 6 inches, 29.9° ; 9 inches, 31.6° ; 12 inches, 30.6° ; at 2 feet, 33.4° ; and at 3 feet, 36°. Another fall of snow of a few inclies occurred on the 27th, with a mean temperature of the air for that day of 8.7°. On February 28 the mean air temperature was 3.3°, with soil temperatures for the same date as follows : at 3 inches, 16.3° ; at 6 inches, 19.2° ; at 9 inches, 23.8° ; at 12 inches, 24.2° ; at 2 feet, 31.4° ; and at 3 feet, 34.8°. In March the daily mean tem- jjerature ran below 32° every day except one until the 15th, when it rose to 38°, the exception in the previous part of the month being- 34° on the 10th. From the IStli to the end of the month the mean daily air temperature was above 32° for every day except the 18th and 26th, when 29° and 31° were respectively reached. Heavy snowfalls oc- curred on the 6tli and 7th, the total for the month, the most of which fell on these two days, being 18.8 inches. The soil temperatures in March were: On the 14tli, at a depth of three inches, 24.7°; at 12 inches, 29.8° ; at 2 feet, 31.4° ; and at 3 feet, 33.7. With the great rise in air temperature which began on the 15th the ground cleared itself of frost at various depths as follows : The temperature at 3 inches was 37.7° on the 16th ; at 6 inches it was 32.3° on the 20th ; at 9 inches, 32.1° on the 23d ; at 12 inches, 32.1° on the 23d, at 2 feet, 32.1 on the 17tli ; the minimum temperature at that depth having occurred on March 5 and 6, with readings at 30°. At the depth of 3 feet the minimum soil temperature of the winter was 33.2° on March 9. On March 31 the soil temperatures at various depths were ; at 3 inches, 41.6°; at 6 inches, 40.3°; at 9 inches, 37.8°; at 12 inches, 36.9°; at 2 feet 35.9° ; at 3 feet, 36.4°. In April, with a mean air temperature of 53.4°, the soil temperatures rose rapidly, attaining on the 30th, at a depth of 3 inches, 66.1° ; at 12 inches, 60.9° ; at 2 feet, 54.3° ; at 3 feet, 50.6°. The mean air temperature of May, 1891, was 60°, with soil tempera- tures on the 31st of, at the depth of 3 inches, 77.3° ; at 12 inches, 67.9° ; at 2 feet, 59.9° ; and at 3 feet, 56°. The Nebraska observations contrast strongly with those in Minne- sota, showing how much quicker the fine black soil of the Nebraska prairie cleared itself of frost than did the less responsive material at the Minnesota Station. Again they are of interest in comparison with the results at the Colorado station, in nearly the same latitude, where on account of high altitude entirely different meteorological conditions obtain. The most elaborate set of observations of terrestrial meteorology thus far made by any of the Agricultural Experiment Stations are those of the Colorado Station at Fort Collins. Tables Nos. 82 to 87 show some of the results as compiled from data given in the Annual Reports of the station. The observations at Fort Collins are of considerable AMERICAN SOIL TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS. 327 Table No. 82. — Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Temperature of tue Aiu for THE Months January to April, inclusive, 1889 and 1890, at Fort Collins, Colorado. (Fahrenheit ".) 1SS9. 1890. Max. Min. Mean. Max. 05. (i tl8 3 70.1 78 Min. Mean. 58.0 6-^.0 H7.8 79.0 — 3.5 — 16.0 17.0 24.0 22.0 25. (i 41.6 50.6 — 13.0 — 20.0 — 9.0 13.8 20.8 Februiiry 24.9 36.0 April 45.2 Table No. 83. — Weekly Means of Soil Temperatures at the Depths Indicated FROM January to May for the years 1889 and 1890, at Fort Collins, Colo- rado. (Fahrenheit".) Week ending. January 5. . . Jdnuiiry 12. . January 19.. January 26. . February 2.. February 9. . Fobruarv 16. February 23. Man-h 2 .March 9 March IB. . . . M^irch 33.... March .30 . . . April 6 April 13 .... April 20 April 27 .... May 4 21.3 24..') 24.8 22.0 26.0 .30.2 32.9 25.4 31.3 .39.4 42.1 44.9 46.1 53.9 48.5 ,53.6 59.4 51.7 1889. Gin. 23.4 25.5 25.9 23.2 26.7 29 9 •32 1 27.3 30.4 .37.6 1ft. 27.6 27.7 28.2 26.2 27.9 30.2 31.1 .30.0 30.2 35.6 40.8 39.6 44.3 43.0 45.7 44 2 53 49.8 49.0 48. 2 5.3.2 51.1 58.5 55.0 52.9 51.8 33.6 32.4 32.2 31.4 .31.1 31.5 32.2 32.8 .32.3 •34.7 39.3 41.5 43.0 46.8 47.5 49.7 51.7 51.7 3 ft. 6 ft. 37.0 35.6 35.1 34 4 .33.9 33 9 34.3 31. S 34.3 35.6 38.7 41.2 42.7 45.3 46.9 48.1 49.9 51.0 44.2 43.2 42.4 41 7 41.0 4(1.5 40.2 40.2 40.1 39.9 40.5 41.4 42.3 43.5 44.7 45.7 46.9 48.0 Week ending. January 4 . . January 11. January 18. January 25 Februaiy 1 . February S. February 15 February 22 March 1 . . . . March 8 . . . March 15. .. March 22... March 29... April 5 .... April 12.... April 19 ... April 26 May 3 1890. 3 in. 28.7 27.5 2.^). 6 25.8 32.7 .35.0 31.0 .34.7 29.0 33.2 34.4 44.1 45.1 43.5 51.2 46.2 47.6 53.3 6 in. 31.1 29.5 27.2 27.1 32.2 34.4 82.5 35.8 31.2 32 5 35 3 44.1 46.0 44.2 .51.4 47.1 48.3 5;i.3 1ft. 33 5 31.5 .30.0 28. S 31 5 32.0 3:3.3 .35.1 33.3 .32 2 35.3 41.9 45.1 4.S.6 49.6 47.2 48. 7 51.9 2 ft. 8 ft. 6 ft. 36.3 34.4 .33.4 32.4 32.4 33.2 34.6 35.6 35.2 34.1 .35.8 39.5 43.3 43.0 46.8 46 7 47. S 49.3 88.6 37.0 35.9 34.9 34.5 34.8 35.9 .36.5 36.7 35. S 36.7 38.7 42.2 42 8 45.0 46.2 47.0 47.9 44.3 43.5 42.6 41.7 41.0 40.6 40.5 40.6 40.7 40.5 40.3 40.7 41.9 43.1 44.0 45.2 45.8 46.6 Table No. 84. — Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Temperatures of Air ; Mean op Terrestrial Radiation Observations and Mean Soil Temperatures fob 1890, AT Fort Collins, Colorado. (Fahrenheit.") Air 6 feet above ground. Mean terrestrial radiation. Mean soil temperatures, depth of : .1 Month. ■sg,. S •s-g eg a a JS *5 1 o ^• ^ i, ^Sfi is ^ c s c o S ^ 0. u 1 j^ e» m CO c a"'- s a a B to TO CO 1890. January 208 .39.8 24.7 9.6 4.4 88.0 29.4 .31.1 .33.8 36.2 42.0 2.1 February 24.9 45.0 30.0 15.0 9.9 10.8 11.4 32.5 33.3 .33.6 34.6 .36.0 46.0 2.3 .March 36.0 52.9 3a 2,3.2 18.4 19.9 19.7 .39.2 ,39.5 .38.6 38,2 38 3 40.S 2.7 April 45 2 611.0 46.5 33 1 29.2 .30.3 .30.4 47.1 47.7 47.3 46.1 4.5.2 44.6 4.5 May 5.5.4 71.2 .58 41.0 33.8 ,36.9 .37.7 57.6 57.5 55.9 52.9 51.0 48 6 0.8 .June 63.5 69 9 S1.-.4 87.1 610 71.1 46.8 .55.2 .37.3 46.2 40.9 Bl.l 41 8 51.6 69.3 74.3 68.1 73.8 65 5 71.0 60.6 67.3 58.0 64.7 .53.2 .58.8 July AUKURt 63.7 80 9 fiil.l 51.2 41 5 47.6 48 66.7 67.2 67.0 fi.5.9 64.9 61.7 Scptpmber.... 56 770 5.S..S 39.6 3.5.2 30.2 .57.6 5H.7 60.2 61.2 61 7 62.0 Octob'-r 41 .K 63.S 47.4 31 26.3 27.0 47.0 48.4 50.5 .53.0 .54.6 .577 NovcTiilier. . . . .30. S .54.9 38.1 21.3 12.S 16.1 17.3 36.7 ,38.2 40. s 44.2 46.7 .52.1 .3.2 December. ... 27.2 49.6 .37.. s IS 3 8.4 14.» 16.3 32.1 33.3 35.5 38.0 40.5 46.7 2.2 328 SEWAGE DISI>OSAL IN TIIH IMTEI) STATES. interest by reason of the unusual location of the station at an elevation of about 4,980 feet above tide (latitude 40°35' north, longitude 105°0'' west). The mean air temperatures, January to April inclusive, for the two years 1888 and 181)0 are shown in Table No. 82. The weekly mean soil temperature for the same months and years have been tabulated in Table No. 83, the record here used being from a set of thermometers placed in loam which sometimes receives artificial moisture from the overflow of an adjacent irrigated area. The rainfall at this station is slight, the record showing a mean of 13.58 inches annually. The larger part of this occurs in the spring and summer months. The winter months are stated to be almost entirely free from storms of every character, what little precipitation there is being in the form of snow and lasting only a short time. The average of stormy days in winter for several years has been for December, 1.3 days ; for January, 3.6 days ; and February, 3.6 days. The winter days are mostly clear with a relatively intense solar radiation. The mean total percentages, six months of the year, compared with Central New York, are as fol- lows : January. Febri:aiy. March. April. November. December. Fort Collins, Colorado 72 67 70 57 66 66 Central New York 17 25 29 39 21 Difference 55 42 41 18 41 45 The solar radiation at Fort Collins is high and generally speaking probably in excess of the terrestrial radiation. The observations, how- ever, are still in the experimental stage and this conclusion can be Table No. 85 — Differences in Temperature of the Soil at Various Depths IN Dry and Wet Ground at Fort Collins, Colorado, in the Months Indi- cated, IN 1890. (Fahrenheit.") AVeekly reading.s, 1890. July.S July 10 July 17 July 24 Julv31 Ausust 7 August 14 . . Augu>^t '22. . . August 28 . . . September 4. Means. . Noveinber 7. November 21 November 28 December 4 . . December 20 . December 2ti. 1S91. Januaiy 2. . . Means. . . Set B., wet ground, depth : in. 1 ft. 72.1 7.3.3 72 2 74.6 7.3.4 74.1 69.6 69.1 69.6 68.9 71.7 .50.1 .39 6 25.1 47.8 38. 3 3.5.0 31.7 37.5 68 1 69.4 70.9 70.7 68.7 70.4 67.7 65.3 66.2 65.1 68. a 46.6 40.9 39.9 39.8 .35.3 B5 3 .35.3 39.0 2 ft. 3 ft 63.4 64.4 66.0 66.2 • 5.9 66 6 65.6 63.5 63 8 63.8 64.9 49.6 43 7 42.9 42.4 38.7 .38.0 38.0 41.9 61 1 61.9 6.H.9 64.2 64.4 64.7 64.5 62.8 63.0 Set C dry giound, dep;h : 63.4 51 4 46.4 45.3 44.6 41.5 40.7 40.7 44:.4: 6 in. 1ft. 73 6 2 ft. 3£t. 78 4 70 65.4 77.2 74.8 70.5 62 1 76.3 76.6 72.6 57 8 80.7 76.0 72.1 68.3 76.8 72.7 .71.4 68.5 78.6 75.2 71.9 68.3 71.2 70.5 69.8 67.8 68.7 67.1 66.3 65 2 70.7 68 66.7 64.8 1 69.7 67.1 66.7 64.8 ' 74.8 7a.3 69.8 65.3 43.7 46.1 50.9 51.2 1 38.9 39 4 43 4 45 4 • 35.4 39.4 42.3 44.7 • 37.0 37.9 41.8 43.9 31.4 33.0 37 4 40.2 34.2 33.3 .34.4 39 2 31.1 33.1 37.4 39.1 35.9 37.5 41.1 43.4 AMEKICAN SOIL TK.MPEUATURE OBSERVATIONS. 329 Table No. 86. — Monthly Evaporation at Fort Collins, Colorado, from 1887 TO 1890, INCLUSIVE. (Inches.) Year. Jan. Feb. 1 Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1S8T 2.36 1.69 1 4.60 5.55 2^75 4.06 5.19 4.45 3.72 5.75 7.70 4.34 5.71 5.23 7.00 5.20 5.44 4.24 4.06 .5.15 5.7K 4.12 3.94 5.19 3.69 3.26 2.17 3.2S 271 1.48 1.35 0.62 1.32 1.19 1.60 0.99 1.42 1.10 l.>i8 1888 1S89 i.os 0.8(i 0.97 37 S3 1890 3.48 3..''>U i 4.32 40 24 Means 3.G1 4.37, 4.4:^4 5.87 1 1 1 5.7^14.80 4.a3 3.85 Table No. 87.— Solar and Terrestrial Radiation at Fort Collins, Colorado. (Fahrenheit ".) Day. Thermometer. Month. Day. Thermometer. Month. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Solar rad. Ter. rad. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Solar rad. Ter. rad. 1888. January 1 7 8 15 16 20 27 28 29 3 4 5 40 13 15 2 7 50 65 67 40 28 26 80 10 -15 -12 -28 -17 21 25 30 25 9 4 3 .33 45 48 60 65 68 60 60 8 ^7 88 76 12 11 9 7 ■8 11 21 11 9 14 4 11 18S8. 3 5 11 12 22 2 6 20 26 4 21) 27 28 71 66 (>3 80 87 64 40 53 49 68 ,57 31 41 SO 46 30 30 48 29 32 13 26 26 22 4 4 44 73 62 57 20 57 67 55 70 54 59.1 81 55 12 18 I' It y " '' 16 << November . 24 February 9 22 " ' " 5 >> .. 8 yMarch 11 15 5 u << 13 5 « 11 considered as tentative onlj^ If it turns out to be true on further study- it may be considered as possibly explaining- the relatively liig-h tem- perature of the soils in winter. Thus far trouble has been found in making- this record by reason of the ordinary solar radiation ther- mometers linally breaking because of the tube not being- long enough to accommodate the mercury when expanding- to an unusualh^ high radiation ; 117° has been registered above the thermometer in the shade close by in February.. Table No. 87 shows the record of solar and terrestrial radiation for a few days in January, February, March, November, and D(>cember, 1888. The means of the month to which the daily readings in Table 87 pertain, so far as they can be made, are as follows : (Fahrenheit ».) Afax. Min. Sular rad. Ter. rad. Jamiavy 42.7 10.0 robrnary ,53.0 '2."i 40.3 Maich 49.0 27.0 55.5 11.8 April 73.3 40.(1 46.9 Noveinbor 4H.Ct 24.7 53.7 8 8 Decembfir 4<).0 17.8 56.4 10.1 In the preceding tabulations the column of solar radiation ther- mometer gives the ditlerence between the maximum temperature of 330 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. the air in the shade and the highest temperature indicated by the solar radiation instrument phiced in full sunshine. The reading- of the latter instrument may be found by adding the numbers in the solar radiation and the maximum temperature column. The column of terrestrial radiation thermometer gives the number of degrees which that instru- ment falls below the minimum temperature of the air. Observations with the ordinary glass globe vacuum solar radiation thermometers were discontinued in 1889 and the Arago-Davy acti- nometer substituted instead. The observations with that instrument for 1890 are included in the Third Annual Report of the Colorado Ex- periment Station ; but in the absence of the reduction constants, which have not yet been determined, a comparison of the solar radiation with the soil temperature in 1889 and 1890 cannot be made. In Table No. 83 the mean soil temperatures are given by weeks from January 1 to May 4. In reference to these temperatures it is stated that there are slight corrections of the thermometer which have been applied to the readings for 1890 but not to those of 1889. The differ- ences tabulated, so far as the present discussion is concerned, are not gi'eat enough to seriously affect a comparison of the means. In Table No. 84, the temperature of the air six feet above the ground, terrestrial radiation at three different elevations, mean soil ' temperatures, and snowfalls are compared for the whole year 1890. The mean soil temjieratures are derived from the table of weekly means, and will vary slightly from a tabulation of actual monthly means by reason of the beginning and end of weeks not coinciding with the beginning and end of months. Hence the observations of one month in some cases lap into another in this table. The columns of mean terrestrial radiation illustrate the variation in mean tem- perature at various heights above the ground. In Table No. 85 we have a tabulation of weekly soil temperatures from two sets of thermometers. Set B is placed in low ground near a ditch ; set C is on a knoll in dry ground which is never irrigated. For a large portion of the year the water table is not far below the three- foot thermometer of Set B ; this set is also subject to the influence of the irrigation water applied to the adjacent field. The soil at Set B is a dark loam, while Set C is in a hard, compact, yellow clay. Studying this table it appears that in the warm months the soil temperatures range considerably higher in the dry ground, while in the cold months they range higher in the wet ground. Some of the reasons for this have been cited in the preliminary discussion, but by way of additional illustration Table No. 86, of evaporation from a Avater surface at Fort Collins, as determined by observing the loss from a galvanized iron tank three feet square and three feet deep, sunk flush with the ground, is also given. The high rate in June and July is AMERICAN SOIL TEMPEKATCTRE OBSERVATIONS. 331 specially noticeable, as for instance in 1888, when for these two months the sum was 14.7 inches, which g-ives a daily rate for the whole time of 0.245 inch. Records are also kept at Fort Collins of barometer, humidity, wind, sunshine, etc., but the foregoing are of more interest in discussing- soil temi^eratures. The mean barometer is about 25 inches. The Experiment Station at Auburn, Alabama (latitude 32°40' north, longitude 85°30' west ; elevation above tide-water 826 feet), has made a series of soil-temperature observations during- the last few years, from the record of which, as given in the several bulletins of the station. Tables No. 88 to 90 have been prepared. In Table No. 88 is given the maximum, minimum, and mean temperature of the air and soil for the mouths from October, 1888, to March, 1889, inclusive. The soil ther- mometers, of which the record is given in Table No. 88, are planted at the top of a hill in sandy soil frequently stirred during the growing season. Readings are made at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 7 p. m. A similar set of thermometers, of which the record is not here given, are also buried on the banks of a running stream in sandy bottom land. Some of the results of comparing the set in the bottom with those in the dry Table No. 88. — Te.mperature op the Air and Soil at Various Depths, for the . Years and Months Indicated at Auburn, Alabama. (Fahrenheit ".) 1888. October November December 1889. January February March Air Soil, at depth of Soil, at depth of Soil, at dept 3 inches. 1 foot. 2 feet. n s ^ 93 a as d a g X a e3 X a c s S S s S a S S S S S 81 43.0 62.5 80.5 49 65.5 73.5 55.5 64.5 70.5 63.5 78 29.0 54.7 76.0 35.5 57.0 68.5 43.5 57. 67.5 51.0 66 20.0 46.1 58.5 33.0 48.3 54.0 39.5 47.3 54.0 45.0 67 23.0 40.9 47.3 46.7 75 16.5 46.3 46.8 45.8 76 30.0 54.7 66.4 53.5 66.5 59.0 50.4 49.9 47.7 53.4 Month. Soil, at depth of 3 feet. Soil, at depth of 4 feet. Soil, at depth of 5 feet. Soil, at depth of 6 feet. Soil, at depth of 7 feet. a c c a d ii a «■ s a 13 X c* i d 1 d i d 1888. October 71.0 (1.5.5 f-hS.O 72.5 67.0 69.5 73.0 6S.0 70.0 73.0 68.5 70.5 73.0 69.0 71.0 November 67.0 .55.0 6-J.O 67.5 58.5 64.0 68.0 61.0 65.0 68.5 62.0 (iti.O 68.5 6:^.5 66.0 Dt^cember 1889. 55.5 49.5 53.0 58.0 52.5 55.2 60.5 r.5.0 .57.5 62.0 56.0 58.7 63.5 57.5 60.1 Jannnry 50.6 .52.5 53,6 54.7 55.9 48.9 53.1 50.3 53 2 .51.6 .52.4 53.3 53.4 March 54 332 SEWAC4E DISPOSAL IN TIIP: UNITED STATES. Table No. 89. — Mean of Air, Terrestkial, and Soil Thermometers at Auburn, Alabama, in 1889. (Fahrenheit °.) Mean Mean Mean soil temperatures at depth sof : Month. air temp. ter. temp. Sins. 1 ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. January 46.9 ■ 39.7 47.3 46.7 49.2 50.8 52.5 53.6 54.7 55.9 57.5 February . . 40.3 36.8 46.8 45.8 47.7 48.9 50.3 51.6 52.4 53.4 55.0 March 54.7 43.2 56.4 53 5 53.4 53.1 5.3.2 53.3 53.3 54.0 54.8 April 62.5 55.6 67.2 63.9 62.6 61.1 60.9 59.0 i58.3 58.2 58.0 May 70.1 57.2 76 7 73.9 71.6 69.3 66.7 65.4 64.2 63.3 62.4 June 76.1 65.8 81.9 78.3 76.1 74.0 72.5 70 6 69.3 68.5 67.2 July 8n.7 70.0 86.6 a3.3 80 9 78.7 77.2 74.7 7.3.3 72.5 70.8 August 77.6 67.5 81.6 79.3 79.1 78.3 77 5 76.4 75.6 75.0 73.3 September . 74.S 65.2 78.4 77.0 77.8 77.2 77.1 77.8 75.6 75.0 73.8 October 62.3 49.5 68.5 67.1 69.0 68.3 71.2 72.3 72.3 72.2 72.2 November. . 53.1 42.9 56.2 56.2 E9.6 61.6 63..') 64.7 65.7 66.6 67.0 December . . 57.8 45.5 57.9 55.2 56.7 57.5 58.7 60.0 60.5 61.5 62.9 upland may be briefly referred to. Thus it is found that the same difference exists here as at Fort Collins between the temperature of upland and lowland soil, althoug-h the differences at usual tempera- tures are not as x^i'onounced in Alabama as in Colorado. But when the air temperature falls below about 40°, at times the soil tempera- ture in the upper layers ranges several deg-rees higher in the bottom than in the upland. The daily range of the bottom land is also less than that of the upland in winter, though, as may be expected, the daily range decreases with increase of depth. In Table No. 89 the mean air, terrestrial, and soil temperatures are tabulated for the twelve months of 1889. In this series the soil-tem- Table No. 90. — Comparison op the Maximum and Minimum Air Temperature, OF Terrestrial Radiation, Air and Soil Thermometers, by Months fob the Year 1889 ; at Auburn, Alabama. (Fahrenheit".) 1889. £ "-5 1 S. c s 1-5 1-5 c .a S B a, m c O 1 S > 1 1 67.0 51.0 63.5 52.5 .53.5 59.5 33.0 31.0 33.5 46.5 51.5 56.5 75.0 •66.5 69.0 57.0 53.0 56.5 16.5 34.0 32.0 44.0 48.0 54.5 76.0 54.0 73.5 .58.5 56.5 56.0 30.0 33.0 37.0 49 50.5 54.5 83.0 63.0 82.5 67.0 63.0 60.5 38.0 37.0 4S.5 58.0 56.5 54.0 89.0 63.0 92.5 76.5 71.5 62.5 45.0 43.0 52.0 64.5 63.0 60.0 91.5 74.0 96.0 80.0 75.0 69.0 46 43.0 52.0 68.5 69.5 65.5 98-0 73.5 101 5 86.0 79 5 73.0 67.5 60.0 71.5 77.0 74.5 69.0 93.5 73.5 95.0 82 79.0 73.5 63.0 63.0 69.5 78.0 77.0 73.0 93.0 78.0 96.5 89.5 84.5 76.5 48.0 48.0 .54.5 72.0 75.0 73 5 83.0 76.0 74.0 60.0 84 5 74.0 74 5 74.5 38.0 36.0 45.(1 6-2.5 67.0 70.5 60.0 69 5 65.5 69 70. C 34.0 33.0 35.0 .52.0 58.0 64.0 59.5 Max. soil tkm. Deiith of 3 in Depth of 2 ft 69.0 60 Depth of 4 ft Depth of 8 ft 60 5 65.0 39.0 Min ter. ther Min. soil tem. Depth of 3 in 30.5 35.0 Depth of 2 ft .50.0 Depth of 4 ft 56.5 Depth of 8 ft 62.0 REMEDIES FOK FROST. 333 perature observations are carried to a depth of 8 feet, which is con- siderably deeper than most of those thus far made here. In Table No. 90 the maximum and minimum air, terrestrial, and soil temperatures are contrasted. The value of. this tabulation would be g-reater if solar radiation were included ; but thus far solar radiation observations have not been taken at the Alabama Station. The foregoing- tables, from 78 to 90 inclusive, together with the anal- ysis of the same, can hardly be considered other than a very inade- quate presentation of the information which has been receutly ac- quired in this country. Of necessitj^ the discussion and tabulations have been considerably condensed in order to bring- them within the limits of a single chapter. Observations have been made at a number of places in addition to those here cited, of which for lack of space no account has been taken in this paper. Whoever wishes to studj' the question at length will do well to consult the original data as found in the annual rejiorts and bulletins of the several Agricultural Stations.* Remedies for Frost. The foregoing discussion has indicated why frost will probably in the colder climates of this country interfere with the successful use of broad irrigation and intermittent filtration in extreme winter weather, and we may next inquire what remedies, if any, can be applied. To this it may be answered that it is doubtful if broad irrigation can be made to work at all when mean winter temperatures are for any considerable period much below about 20° to 25°. The quality of the soil irrigated and its capacity for absorbing and retaining heat Avill, however, mate- rially influence the result ; sandy, gravelly soils undoubtedly admitting of successful irrigation at lower temperatures of the air than clay and humus. The amount of snow will be also to some extent a controll- ing factor. In regard to intermittent filtration, it can probably be successfully operated by good management down to a mean air tem- perature of about, or somewhat below, 20°; and when the mean falls * The chief sources of information for the preparation of this chapter have been : (1) An. Repts. of New York St. Ag. Ex. Sta. at Geneva, 18S3-1S90. (2) An. Repts. Penn. St. Col., 1880-1890. (.3) Bulletin No. 7 of the Minn. Ag. Ex. Sta., Apr., 1889. (4) An. Repts. Maine St. Col., 1SS9-1890. (5) Fourth and Fifth An. Repts. of Neb. Ag. Ex. Sta.. 1890-1891. (6) First, Sec. and Third An. Repts. of Col. Ag. Ex. Sta., 1888, 1889, 1890. (7) Metcrological Bulletins of the Ala. Ag. Ex. Sta.. 1889, 1890, 1891. (8) Second An. Rept. of the South Carolina Ag. Ex. Sta., 1889. The authors wish to especially acknowled^'e indebtedness to Dr. Peter Collier of the New York State Station at Geneva, to Profi ssor Wm. Frear, of the Pennsylvania State College, and to Professor Louis (?. Carpenter of the Colorado Station, for data furnishe.l. Also to the directors of several of the other stations, virho have furnished the reports and bulletins of their stations as soon as published. 334 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. much lower there are four remedies either of which may be applied, namely : (1) At the approach of winter to cover the entire area with boards. (2) To cover a portion only, as for instance a series of trenches, at the aj)proach of winter. (3) To artificially warm the sewage to such temperature as will ad- mit of filtering without freezing under extreme climatic conditions and without any protective covering of the field. (4) Where the topographical conditions admit of such treatment to lay the filtration area down with special sand trenches and permanent board covering as illustrated and described in Part II. of the Massa- chusetts Special Report. As indicated in the i)receding discussion of this chapter, and also in Chapter XIY,, the areas can also be worked continuously during ex- treme cold weather, though with the chance always that the frost may interfere with successful operation. For an absolute guarantee against interruj)tion in extreme temperatures either the protective covering or artificial warming may be used ; which of these to adopt in any locality where special protection of some kind is indicated, will be chiefly a question of comparative cost. COMPAKATIVE ESTIMATES. By way of illustration let us assume favorable conditions for the construction of high-grade intermittent filtration areas ; this assump- tion implying either a nearly level or gently sloping original natural surface to which sewage can be delivered by gravity. Assume coarse, clean mortar sand within such reasonable distance as to admit of trans- porting and placing at a cost not exceeding 50 cents per cubic yard. Also assume a daily flow of 1,000,000 gallons, which at 80 gallons per head per day will represent the sewage of 12,500 people. We will further assume that the conditions of purification will be satisfied when filtering at the maximum rate of 100,000 gallons per acre per day. At this rate 10 acres will be required, but for the contingency of allowing an occasional rest of the area we will prepare 15 acres, and for liberal surroundings will purchase a total of 25 acres. The estimated cost of this with the assumed favorable conditions may be j)ut at : 25 acres of land at .§250 $6,250 14 acres leveled, tyraded, and embanked, at $300 4,500 15 acres nnderdrained to depth of 5 feet, at $250 3,750 15 acres furnished with coarse sand 3 feet deep (50c. per cubic yard), at .$2.400 , ". 36,000 Distribution carriers, tanks, straining arrangements, etc 10,000 Barns, sheds, team, wagon, tools, etc 2,000 Contingent expense about 12 per cent 7,500 Amount $70,000 COMPAKATIVE ESTIMATES. 335 Annual cost of operation : 1 foreman at S75 per month §900 4 laborers, each 835 per mouth 1,680 Keejjiug team, repairs of tools, etc 400 Annual cost of repairo and renewals 920* Amount S3, 900 83,900 capitalized at 4 per cent 897,500 Total caijitalization 8167,500 So for as present experience can guide us the foregoing may be con- sidered an ample estimate of the cost of constructing and operating without any special winter protection a high-grade filtration area of the capacity indicated, favorable conditions being as stated assumed. The total capitalized investment per inhabitant served would be ($167,500 ^ 12,500) = $13.-40. We may now consider the addition to the foregoing caused by reason of either a protective winter covering of the area or by artificial warming. A protective covering for the whole area will require the providing and renewing of the necessary lumber for covering, the construction and maintenance of sheds for storing the same in summer, the pro- viding of the labor for laying down the covering in the fall and taking up and storing in the spring. Tlie first cost of the lumber and store sheds, with the capitalization of renewals, maintenance, and additional labor will constitute the addition to be made to the jDrevious estimate in order to obtain the total capitalized cost under the new conditions. We have assumed that the conditions of purification will be satisfied when filtering at the maximum rate of 100,000 gallons per acre per day ; accordingly, it will be necessary to provide covering for only ten acres. The amount of lumber per acre, including posts, joists, and deck boards, may be estimated at 55,000 feet B. M. We have then as additional first cost : 55,000 ft. B. M. coarse lumber at 816, which for 10 acres amounts to $ 8,800 Sheds for storing same during summer 3,300 Total additional first cost of disposal works 811,800 Additional annual cost of operation will be : Kenewal of lumber and store sheds 8850 Additional labor for putting down and taking up protective cover- ing each year at 850 per acre 500 Total additional cost of operation 81,350 SI, 350 capitalized at 4 per cent 833,750 Total additional capitalization 8 45,550 Bringing forward the previous capitalization of 107.500 Total capitalization including protective covering 8213,050 * This amount, with the allowance of $l,f>80.00 per year for common labor, is considered sufficient to not only provide for ordinary repairs and renewals of buildings, tools, etc., but to further admit of chanfpn^ the upper 'I to 3 inches of sand on from one to two acres each year ; this amount of annual renewal of sand bein;^ considered sufficient, as an average, in view of the liberal i>rovi8ion of surplus area which has Vjeen made. 336 SEWAGE DISPOSAL Tisr THE UNITED STATES. In this case the total cost per inhabitant served will be ($213,050 -H 12.500) = $17.14. For covering of trenches merely, the cost of lumber and store sheds will be only about one-third of that for complete covering as per last estimate. The amount of labor, however, will be somewhat greater, the whole cost leading to a final capitalization of $201,000, which represents a total cost per inhabitant of $16.08. The advantage of operation will probably be somewhat in favor of the complete cover- ing. For the case of artificial warming we will assume that the climatic conditions are such as to require sewage which reaches the disposal works in winter at a normal temperature of 45° to be warmed to a temperature of 65° for 45 days. 1,000,000 gallons daily raised from temperature of 45° to 65° is (1,000,000 x 8.34 x 20) = 166,800,000 heat- units required per day. We will further assume the evaporation of 10 pounds of water from 212° for each pound of coal consumed in the furnace, the temperature of the steam to be high enough to yield at least 1,000 heat-units per pound of water when recondensed in the ra- diating coils. On these assumptions 10,000 heat-units will be realized from each pound of coal consumed in the furnace. The dail}^ con- sumption of coal becomes then (166,000,000 4- 10,000) = 16.600 pounds. Adding to this for warming station, operation of pump for returning water of condensation to boiler, etc., and we reach a total of 18,000 pounds = 9 net tons, as the daih' use of coal under the conditions as- sumed. We may then estimate the additional first cost as : For steam plant, including building, coal shed, boilers, foundations, and settings, connections, return pump and radiating coil, etc., complete, at $13,000. Additional cost of operation, on an average will be : 9 net tons of coal per day for 45 days, at .S3.50 per ton $1,417.50 Additional labor for 45 days ^ 180.00 Benewals and repairs of steam-heating plant 600.00 Total additional cost of operation $2, 197.50 $2,197.50 capitalized at 4 per cent gives $54,937. 50 Amount $67,9.37.50 Bring forward previous capitalization 167,500.00 Making the total caj^italization for artificial warming $235,437.50 For intermittent filtration, assisted by artificial warming in winter, the total cost per inhabitant served will therefore be, for the assumed case, $18.84. For complete comparison of methods of sewage disposal we may COMFAUATIYK KSTOIATES. 387 also estimate the cost of purifying- 1,000,000 gallons per day by chemi- cal treatment. For such works the estimate may stand as follows : 6 acres of laud at §250 §1,250 Disjjosal works jjlant, including buildings, precipitation tanks, sludge press, air compressor, grinding and mixing macbiuerv, pumps, etc., complete 30,000 Contingent expense, about 12 per cent 3,750 Amount ." $35,000 Annual cost of operation : Superintendent at .SlOO per moutb $1,200 Steam engineer, fireman, and 3 laborers at §225 per month 2,700 Fuel, water, oil, and waste 1,000 365 million gallons of sewage treated annually at S12 per million gallons for cliemicals 1,380 Disposal of sludge 300 Repairs and renewals of buildings and plant 1,600 Amount §11,180 311,180 capitalized at 1 per cent 8279,500 Total capitalization §311,500 For chemical purification the total cost per inhabitant served is therefore found to be, under the assumed conditions, §25.16. For intermittent filtration with a permanent board covering of spe- cially prepared trenches, as i^er experimental field at Lawrence, the comparative estimate of first cost for purification of 1,000,000 gallons daily may stand as follows : 25 acres of land at §250 §6,250 20 acres underdrained at .§300 * 6,000 For excavating trenches 2 feet wide and 2.5 feet deep in 20 aci'es, includ- ing removal of suridus material (trenches to be 5 feet apart), 1,630 cu. yds. per acre, at 20c. — §326 per acre §6,520 For replacing the excavated material from said trenches with coarse sand at 50c. per cu. yd. 20 acres, at .§815 16,300 For furnishing and laving foi- 20 acres the permanent board covers of coarse lumber = 360 M. ft.B. M. at §24 8,610 Distribution carriers, tanks, stiaining arrangements, etc 10.000 Barn, shed, team, wagon, tools, etc •. 2 000 Contingent expense, about 12 per cent 6,700 Amount §62,500 Annual cost of operation : For this svstem the total mav be taken at §1,300, which capitalized at 1 per ceiit gives '. §107,500 Total capitalization §170,000 * In tliis ca.«ie a somewhat greater area may be assumed as necessary by reason of only a portion of thi' total content of soil to any given dejjth l)eing actr.alh' in service. Tlie cost of underdrain- ing will also be somewhat greater than in the previous c.ises, due to greater depth of excavation re- quiring Ut be made. In the previously considered cases the drains are considered as iai SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX TIIK UXITED STATES. From which we deduce a total cost per inhahitaiit of $13.60, an amouut, it will be noted, subtantially the same as for iutermitteut filtra- tion with specially prepared sand area, without any protective cover- ing. Moreover, it is important to remember that this estimate pro- vides 20 acres of filtration area, which gives, when the whole area is in service, a daily mean rate per acre of 50,000 gallons. Although not necessary for the arg-ument we may still properly con- sider for full completion of the subject two other cases in intermittent filtration, as for instance : (1) When good material is so entirely avail- able i)i situ that preparation of artificial area by bringing coarse sand from a distance is unnecessary ; and (2) the case when some little sort- ing and selecting of material at hand will suffice for the preparation of an eflicient filtration area. We will base our estimates, as before, on the disposal of a daily flow of 1,000,000 gallons. In the first of these two cases we will assume the preparation of 20 of the 25 acres purchased at a total cost of, including first cost of land as before, together with levelling, embanking, underdraining, con- struction of barns and sheds, teams, wagons, and tools and for contin- gent expense, an amount of $32,700. Expense of operation will be the same as in the previous estimates ; whence we reach a final total capi- talization of $130,200, which gives again per inhabitant served, $10.42. In the same way for the second case the total cost per inhabitant will be $11.42. Taking into account all of the foregoing comparative estimates it appears that even when liberal allowance is made for artificial warming, which is also found to be the most expensive method of in- suring successful winter purification by intermittent filtration, we may still purify our assumed quantity of 1,000,000 gallons daily flow at na greater expense than by chemical treatment. For many localities the cost of intermittent filtration will be far below that of chemical treat- ment. Indeed, as between intermittent filtration with artificial warming in winter and chemical treatment the estimates show a diff'erence in total cost per inhabitant served of ($25.16 - $18.84) = $6.32 in favor of the intermittent filtration. We must remember, however, that our es- timate of cost of an intermittent filtration area was based upon fairly favorable conditions ; if we assume unfavorable conditions we may in- crease the original capitalized cost of filtration area with artificial warming in winter from $18.84 to about $22.00 per inhabitant served, which still leaves a balance of $3.16 in favor of high-grade, and arti- ficially warmed, intermittent filtration. Again if we refer to the estimate of annual cost of operation with artificial warming it will be observed that coal is estimated at $3.50 per ton, whereas in the vicinity of the coal regions it will be obtained at considerably less, in some places as low as $1.25 per net ton. On. DKDUCTION^S. 339 the other hand, a few of the items of cost of chemical treatment will probably be somewhat less than used in the estimates in many lo- calities. As a general statement based on present information we may there- fore say that intermittent filtration under the most unfavorable cir- cumstances and in the severe climate of our northern winters will not exceed, when all the items are taken into the account, the cost of puri- fication by chemical treatment. This statement, it will be remembered, is based upon delivery of the sewage at the purification area or station by gravity. In case it becomes necessary to include the additional cost of pumping to an elevated filtration area the balance, as a matter of total capitalization, may be in favor of chemical purification. Again no account is taken of relative length of main outfall sewer required to reach the point where the purification is applied, the as- sumption being the use of the same location in either case. Expe- rience indicates, however, that frequently the finding of a favorable filtration area necessitates going further away than for the location of a cliemicid purification station. In such cases with relative costs of outfall sewer included in the capitalization the balance may also as a matter of total cost lie in favor of chemical purification. The present discussion is not concerned, except incidentally, with the comparative efficiency of the various methods of sewage purifica- tion — the Lawrence experiments appear conclusive on that point ; and it may be merely remarked that the chemical treatment obtained at the foregoing expense would be somewhat less efficient than that obtained by intermittent filtration even in winter ; for the whole season the mean efficiency of the chemical treatment would be far below that of the intermittent filtration. Deductions. In conclusion, by way of summary, we may say : (1) That any place with a mean temperature of the air for the cold- est winter month not lower than about 20° to 25° F., and with sewage distiil)uted to the purification area at a temperature not lower than -1")' F., the purification of sewage b^^ broad irrigation may probably be effected without serious interruption from frost, although winter puri- fication will be somewhat less efficient than that during the warm months. Below a mean temperature of 20" to 25° ¥. purification by broad irrigation will probably be interrupted considerably by frost. (2) Purification by intermittent filtration can probably be sucess- fully worked at a lowc!r temperature than broad irrigation. As a safe limit we may set the lowest mean air temperature at about 18° to 20° F. 340 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. (3) The quality and temperature of the soil to be used will materially iutlueiice the result, and before deciding what can be reasonably ex- pected in any given locality we need to know the physical properties of the soil to be used as well as the mean temperature of the air dur- ing- the winter months. (4) As a corollary to (3) we may say that sandy soils are preferable for broad irrigation and intermittent filtration, not only on account of their open texture, but because of their greater capacity for retaining heat ; clay and humus are, on the contrary, the poorest soils for this purpose by reason of their relatively low capacity for retaining heat. The close texture of clay also constitutes another serious objection to its use.* The great desideratum of successful sewage disposal by broad irrigation or intermittent filtration in winter is a medium which, acting in conjunction with the water, will prolong to the utmost limit the time of congelation. Sand answers to this condition better than any other material. (5) The capacity of a filtration area to absorb and retain heat in win- ter will be increased by making the upper surface an inch or two in depth of coarse black sand or dark-colored gravel. (6) It appears that the climate of the greater portion of the United States will admit of ordinary open intermittent filtration in the aver- age winter. Exceptions to this are however found in portions of the northern belt of States. (7) In general we may say that in any of the Middle, Central, and Southern States a very efficient purification can be attained by broad irrigation and intermittent filtration at all seasons of the year. * There is a reason, however, why clay may be of vahie as a sewage purification medium, namely, its peculiar behavior with reference to urine. Professor Way, in his investigation on the Power of Soils to Absorb Manure, Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. of Eng. , vol. xi., p. SiiB, describes the following experiment : Three quantities of fre.sh mine of 2.000 grains each, were measured out into similar glasses. With one portion its own weight of white sand was mixed ; with another its own weight of white clay ; the third being left without admixture of any kind. When smelt immediately after mixt- ure, the sand appeared to have no effect, while the clay mixture had entirely lost the smell of urine. The three glasses were covered lightly with paper, and put in a warm place, being ex- amined from time to time. In a few hours it was found that the urine containing sand had be- come slightly putrid ; then followed the natural urine ; but the quantity with which the clay had been mixed did not become putrid at all, and at the end of seven or eight weeks it had only the pe- culiar smell of fresh urine, without the slightest putridity. The surface of tlie clay, however, be- came afterward covered with a luxuriant growth of confervse, which did not happen in the other glasses. Professor Way likewise found that filtering urine through clay prevented putrefaction and kept the urine as if fresh for a month or more. Professor S. VV. Johnson, cites the foregoing experiment of Professor Way in his How Crops Peed (p. o93), and discusses at length the conditions under which the nitrogen of urine is absorbed and assimilated by vegetation. As the result of his own and the researches of other agricultural chemists whose investigations are cited, Professor Johnson concludes that it is not necessary for the nitrogen of urine to undergo nitrification, but that immediately, or after undergoing a slight but easy alteration, it may bo taken up and assimilated by growing plants. The absence of bad smells from well-managed sewage farms is probably largely explained by Professor Way's experiments. DEDUCTIONS. 341 (8) 111 localities where the climate is too severe for purificatioii by ordinary open intermittent filtration the efficiency of the process may be considerably increased by covering the area, either partially or wholly, or by artificially warming- the sewag-e before application. (9) Other things being equal purification by high-grade intermittent filtration is cheaper than purification by chemical precipitation. As a general statement we may say that this still holds true even in severe winter climates where special protection of the filter area or artificial warming is required. CHAPTER XVIII. ON BEGGIATOA ALBA AND ITS RELATION TO SEWAGE EFFLUENTS. Mr. a. W. Bennett lias given in a paper on " Fungi Found in Sew- age Effluents," read before the American Society of Microscopists in 1884, an account of Beggiaioa alba as developing in immense quantities in several sewage effluents in England. Inasmuch as this organism is found in this country a short account in the way of extracts from some of the literature may be properly given in this place. Mr. Bennett says : This organism occurs abundantly in the effluent water from sewage works, and is well known to English sanitary engineers under the name of the " sewage fungus." It forms dense, flocculent, grayish-white masses attached to the bottom and side of the channel, or to ordinary green algse. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of an immense quantity of colorless threads, with but little or no chlorophyll, full of granular protoplasm, and containing a number of bright, strongly refractive, globular particles'; it is the Deggidtoa alba of Vaucher, but differs slightly from the typical form described by Zopf (Spalt-i^ilze, p. 7G). The filaments are branched, either dichotomously or laterally, and situated either at the base of the branches or elsewhere, and the cells are frequently remarkably constricted, both above and below the septa. The globular refringent particles have been determined by German experimenters to consist of pure sulphux", and are most commonly situ- ated immediately below each sejitum, but sometimes towards the centre ^f a cell, or more generally diffused. The systematic position of Beggiatoa is somewhat obscure. Zopf places it, with- out hesitation, among the lowest section of fungi, the Schizomycetes, which form one division of Sachs' primary class of Protophyta. It may, in fact, be regarded as the Leptothrix condition of an organism of this class, having also its corre- sjionding bacillus, coccus, and si^irillum conditions. On the other hand, it apjjears to be closely allied to the Oscillatorite through Crenothrix. The source of the globules of sulphur contained in this organism is a very in- teresting question. The Beggiatoa is not necessarily indicative of partially decom- posed sewage ; it occurs also in the effluent water from manufactories, especially from sugar factoi'ies, tanneries, etc., thermal sulphur springs, as well as in drains. Luerssen (Die Kryptogamen, -p. 24), gives as its habitat putrid water, noisome ditches, the effluents of manufactories and mineral springs, especially all thermal sulphur springs, as those of the Alps and Pyrenees, Aix la Chapelle, baths of Vienna, etc. It appears, therefore, to have the power of extracting siilphur, not only from decomposing organic matter, but also from the mineral sulphates dis- solved in spring water. Sulphur may be set free in this way by the mutual de- composition of soluble sulphides and siilphites. Independently of the source of sulphur in the organic matter jiresent in the sewage itself there is an abundant supply of this element in the substances used for purifying or i^recipitating the sewage, which are usually sulphate of alumina, lime, and jsroto-phosphate of iron. The growth of the so-called " sewage fungus" must undoubtedly, therefore, be regarded as evidence of the presence in the water of an abnormal amount of sul- phates, derived either directly from sewage or from the .substances used in precipi- ON BEGGIATOA ALBA. 843 tating it, or in other ways in manufactories. But there seems no reason to believe that it will itself have any injurious effects on the water. It is difficult to see how the sulphur, once set free, can again combine with hydrogen to form sulphuretted hydrogen gas as long as the organism is growing in the water. Indeed, ii allowed to accumulate and periodically removed, it may tend to purify the water by ab- stracting from it some of the undiie proportion of sulphur. At the Merton sewage disposal works of the Croydon, England, Piural Sanitary Authority, the Beygiatoa alha has been the subject of interesting legal proceedings. The outfall from these works discharges into a large pond at the head of a bye-wash from whence the effluent flows into the river Wandle. After the discharge into the pond had continued for some time, complaints were made by adjoining pro- prietors that the pond had become the source of a serious effluvium nuisance, and one of the riparian owners sought to restrain the Sani- tary Authority from discharging the effluent into the j)Ool. An exam- ination disclosed the fact that Jjeggiatoa grew extensively in the underdrains and was constantly breaking away and flowing out in the effluent, accompanied by enormous quantities of vorticella. Mr. Justice Denman, who before deciding the case himself actually viewed the alleged nuisance, in his decree, says : The water which flows into the bye-wash (and here I sj^eak partly from personal observation) contains in it a very large quantity of what is called sewage-fungus. The evidence about that substance was interesting and curious. ... It was said to be without odor whilst alive, but when dead to be capable of giving off sul- phuretted hydrogen, and so becoming foul to the nose. My own observation of what was happening last Tuesday, coupled with the aj)pearances in the jjond itself, and the evidences of the witnesses, entirely confirms this account. ... I liave no doubt whatever that that pond, which was proved to have been clear within the last four or five years, and good for perch, has been turned into a very filthy pond mainly by this agency. . . . It is, I think, as plain as anything can be, that a continual discharge, such as I myself saw running into the pond in large quantities, is " 1 discharge of sewage or filthy water " not free from all foul or noxious matters, such as would affect or deteriorate the purity and quality of the water in the bye- wasli, but that it has seriously affected and deteriorated it, and must inevitably do so. A decree of |)erpetual injunction was granted, restraining the Sani- tary Authority froui polluting the pond and imposing a fine of $1,000. To obviate this difficulty fungus filters were constructed, and the Sani- tary Authority acquired the pond and the upper part of the b^'e-wash. CHAPTEK XIX. THE EFFECT OF THE POLLUTION OF STREAMS BY MANUFACTUR- ING WASTES UPON THE LIFE OF FISH. This division of our subject, while of considerable importance, has furnished as yet comparatively little detailed information upon which to base conclusions. The principal investigations thus far are : (1) Those of Penny and Adams in Scotland ; (2) those of Saare and Schwab in Germany, and (3) a few made under the direction of the United States Fish Commissioner in this countr}^ The following g-ives some of the more important results of Penny and Adams' exper- iments. Penny and Adams' Experiments.* In order to determine the effect of various substances upon fish, two kinds were selected, namely, the minnow and the goldfish. These iwo kinds of fish are stated to possess difterent temperaments, the minnow being remarkable for its delicate vitality and for the fine sensibility it evinces toward all kinds of disturbing influences ; the goldfish, on the other hand, is comparatively tenacious of life, and possesses a sluggishness of nature that permits sufficient length of time for observing the action of poisonous agents. Before beginning the experiments, a sufficient stock of fish Avas se- cured and stored under such conditions as to satisfy the experimenters that the fish to be experimented upon were in a healthy state. The experiments included a trial of a number of the acids, sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, etc.; of the mineral salts, sulphate of copper, chloride of lime, acetate of lime, etc.; the special chemicals, chlorine, iodine, etc.; of sumach, madder, logwood, etc.; and various miscellaneous pol- luting matters, such as furnace-cinders, blood, and coal-tar. Of the mineral acids, the nitric and sulphuric, when present in the proportion of 1 part to 50,000, killed minnows ; but goldfish lived in the same proportion. In muriatic acid, both lived in a mixture of 1 part to 50,000. Tannic acid killed a minnow in the proportion of 1 part to 14,000, and a goldfish with 1 part to 7,000. In gallic acid, 1 part to 7,000, both died, while in 1 part to 14,000 both lived. * Fourth Report of the Rivers Polhition Commission, vol. ii., pp. 377-391. PENNY AND ADAMS' EXPERIMENTS. 345 In acetic acid, a minnow lived 20 hours before succumbing in a mixt- ure of 1 part to 8,750 ; a goldfish lived in a proportion of 1 part in 3,500 for 20 hours, and survived. In carbolic acid, a minnow, in one case, subjected to the action of 1 l^art in 70,000, died in 40 minutes. A goldfish died in 1 part in 3,000 but lived in one part in 7,000. The most virulent of the metallic salts was sulphate of copper. Both minnows and goldfish died in a mixture of 1 part in 100,000 : both lived in a mixture of 1 part in 200,000. Sugar 'of lead, alvim, salts of iron and potash are all destructive of fish life in about the same proportion, namely 1 part in 4,000. The salts of potash, the bicarbonate, red prussiate, and yellow prassiate are comparatively harmless ; both kinds of fish lived in all these in a mixture of 1 part in 500. With carbonate of soda a minnow died in 1 part in 17,500, and lived in 1 part in 35,000 ; a goldfish lived in 1 part in 17.500. In a saturated solution of chloride of lime a minnow died in 1 part in 16,000 ; both lived in 1 part in 21,000. In a saturated solution of chlorine both lived in 1 jjart in 2,000. Iodine and bromine killed in a mixture of 1 part in 35,000. Caustic potash, when present in 1 part in 35,000, destroyed a minnow ; a goldfish was destroyed by 1 part in 7,000, but lived in 1 part in 35,000. Galls killed a minnow in 1 part in 2,808, and goldfish, 1 part in 930. Sumach and madder solutions both killed a minnow 1 part in 7,000. In sumach solution a goldfish lived in 1 part in 7,000, but in madder of the same strength died. In boiled logwood chips both kinds of fish lived in 1 part in 2,800 ; in logwood extract both lived in 1 part in 8,750. Linseed oil was found entirel}' innocuous as regards fish life. In a solution of crude soap, 1 part in 8,750, a goldfish lived for twenty hoiirs and showed no after ill effects ; in double that strength a strong fish died in six hours. Table No. 91.— General Results op Penny and Adams' Experiments on Fish. Clai.8 of agentB. Water AcidR Metallic salts S|H>cial chernicalrt. Drysalteries MiRcellaneniig Waste discharRe . . Totals No. of agent-s. No. of fish. 6 n 16 7 10 n 10 .3(i 35 61 30 i:« 77 37 4i8 Total Nc . of fish. Died. Lived. 36 3.5 20 28 3a 23 7 20 112 60 117 8 29 174 254 Goldfish. 3 15 13 3 38 13 20 105 Minnows. Died. Lived. 3 22 6 24 20 16 4 12 74 49 4 7 2 130 119 346 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Aslies and ordinary furnace cinders were found to be specially dele- terious. With 500 grains of furnace ashes to a gallon of, or 1 part to 140, water a minnow died in 45 minutes and a vigorous goldfish in five and one-half hours. Coal-tar killed a goldfish in 1 part in 8,750. Heavy pitch-oil killed both minnow and goldfish, 1 part in 35,000 ; a goldfish lived 1 j^art in 70,000. In naphtha a minnow lived in 1 part in 8,750. The general results of these experiments are given in Table No. 91. Saare and Schwab's Experiments. Saare and Schwab experimented upon tench and trout. They found that liquids containing from 0.04 to 0.005 of one per cent, of a bleach- ing solution were fatal to tench, while a solution of 0.0008 were fatal to trout. The action of the chlorine, which is the destructive agent in bleach liquids, was found to be increased by the presence of an acid. Mercuric chloride was fatal in proportions of 0.1 to 0.05 of one per cent. Copper sulphate in 0.1 and 1.0 per cent, killed trout in a few minutes. Potassium cyanide killed in the iDroportion of 0.01 to 0.005 per cent. Carbolic acid was found fatal to trout in proportions between 0.01 and 0.005 per cent.* Experiments of the United States Fish Commission. A number of papers in regard to the influence of the pollution of streams upon the fisheries have appeared in the publications of the United States Fish Commission, the more important of w^hich are as follows : (1) A translation of a paper on The Injurious Influence on Piscicult- ure of the Betting Water of Flax and Hemp, by E. Reichard, of Jena,t in which are given the results of a series of experiments on the immer- sion of a tender fish, like the whiting as found in the river Salle, and a less delicate fish, the bastard carp, in mixtures of various proportions of clear water and retting water. The retting water used was obtained by soaking flax 5 days. In 1 part retting water and 3 parts running water the fish immedi- ately showed signs of uneasiness and both died in the course of 12 hours. A repetition of the experiment gave the result that the fish died in 3 hours. A large bastard carp lived in a 3 to 1 mixture for two days, but lost *For Saare and Schwab's experiments in detail, see Archiv fiir Hygiene, vol. lit., Part I., p. 81. + Ann. Rept U. S. Pish Commissioner, 1880, pp 545-550. EXPERIMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 847 its color and gradually grew weaker; and although again placed in running water, died after 8 days. In 1 part retting- water and 9 parts running water the fish quickly showed signs of sickness. After 24 hours in the mixture, they were again placed in running- water, where they died in a few days. In 1 part retting water and 2 parts running water small fish died very soon. A large bastard carp was at the point of death in 42 hours ; it was then removed and placed in pure running- water, where it par- tially recovered, but died in two weeks. In a mixture of 1 part retting water, 14 days old, and 4 parts fresh water the fish died in 36 hours. Fish placed in a mixture of 1 part retting water, 3 weeks old, and 4 parts fresh water became sick and changed their color, but revived on transfer to fresh water after a few days. (2) In a report by Marshall McDonald, on the Pollution of the Poto- mac river by the Discharge of Waste Products from Gas Manufacture,* the point is made that even though the discharge of the waste products should seem to have no injurious effect in driving the larger fish away, yet such discharge and the consequent deposits upon the bottom may, by destroying their food, make impossible the development and growth of young fish. In the case examined the discharge into the river amounted to at least 100 gallons per minute of the waste products of gas manufacture ; and the conclusion at which Mr. McDonald arrives is that the bottom of the stream is affected by the deposited matter for a distance of several miles. (3) A report was by Mr. McDonald upon the Effect of AVaste Products from Page's Ammoniacal Works upon Young Shad Fry.f A series of experiments were made with mixtures of the wastes from the Ammoniacal Works in Potomac river water of various degrees of strength, with the result of showing that a distinctly deleterious influ- ence is exerted when the waste products are present to the amount of 1 gallon to 400 gallons of the river water. The following gives the detail of the three last experiments of the series : One hundred newly hatched shad were put in 20 ounces of mixture, 0.5 per cent, strength ( | part refuse and 991 parts water) at 2 p.m., June 2; at 6 p.m., 9 fish dead; 6 a.m., June 3, 16 fish dead; 6 a.m., June 4, 25 fish dead, and remainder weak ; p.m., June 6, all dead. One hundred newly hatched shad were put in 20 ounces of mixture, 0.25 per cent, strength (0.25 part refuse and 99.75 parts water) at 2 p.m., June 2 ; at P.M., all well ; 6 a.m., June 3, four fish dead ; 6 a.m., June 5, 16 fish dead ; 6 p.m., Juue 6, 57 fish dead ; 6 a.m., June 7, all dead. One hundred newly hatched shad were put in 20 ounces of Potomac * Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, vol. v., pp. 125-126. i Bulletin, etc., voL v., pp. 313-iil4. 348 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. water at 2 p.m., June 2 ; but few were alive at noon on June 8, and the few showed but little vitality. Mr. McDonald observes that newly hatched shad are much less sensi- tive to the injurious influences in the water in which they are, than are the same fish after their sacs have been absorbed and they have begun feeding. It is also suggested that the minute food of young shad is more sensitive to injurious iufluence'fe than are the young fish which feed upon them. The authors' observations upon the haunts of minute life of various kinds is corroborative of this observation, and undoubtedly one very marked effect of stream pollution, as regards the life of fish, is the driving away or destruction of many kinds of favorite food. Experiments have shown that alewives, which are epecially sensitive to sewage pollution, will live in perfect health for an indefinite period in the efiiuents from intermittent sand filters. The same fish died when placed for a short time in the efiiuents from chemical processes. CHAPTER XX. CONCLUSIONS TO PART I. The Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge remarks in its second report that the satisfactor}" solution of sewage disposal problems is a matter of extreme difficulty. The additional remark may be properly made that sewage disposal will always be a matter of considerable expense. As a problem in economics, therefore, the question may be stated somewhat as follows : Having given a specific case ofseioajcje disposal, it is required to determine the method of treatment or ^purification ivhich ivill best satisfy all the attend- ant sanitary conditions whatever they may be ; expense so far as compatible ivith the foregoing to be kept at a minimum. When stated in tliis form it at once becomes apparent that the so- lution of sewage disposal problems will require the highest skill of trained sanitary specialists. As regards the various methods of disposal discussed in the preced- ing chapters it may be stated by way of final conclusion, that : (1) Discharge into tidal or other large body of water will be ordi- narily, independent of other considerations, the cheapest method of dis]iosal. Such discharge should never be permitted into bodies of fit'sh water which are the sources of public water-supplies at any point within the influence of the sewage. The range of intiuence in streams has been defined in general terms in the preceding chapters. Moreover, in order to obtain the best results from the self-purifica- tion processes, the quantity of water into which raw sewage is dis- charged should always be large enough to dilute the sewage from thirty to fifty-fold.* (•2) Sewage may be greatly improved by chemical treatment but we have as yet no reason for supposing either that chemically purified sewage is fit to drink or even that it may be safely permitted to fiow into streams used as public water-supplies. Other things being equal, the expense of chemical purification will be greater than that of either broad irrigation or intermittent filtration. AVitli reference to Anua-iean conditions it may be stated as a general *See Eng. Record, vol. xxvi., No. 24 (Nov. 1-', 1S9J), p. 380, "Purification of Sewage by Mi- crobes." 350 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. proposition that chemical treatment only applies in those places where land purification is impracticable. (3) Broad irrigation offers a rational and efiicient method of sewage purification, although the relatively high price of common labor in this country will limit its application here. The use, however, of the silo for preserving the large forage crops naturally produced by sewage farming, and the consequent extension to dairying, will be likely to lead to its gradual adoption in the more thickly settled por- tions of the country. In the arid regions of the AVest the scarcity of water has already led to a considerable development of sewage irriga- tion, as we have indicated in detail in Chapter XLIV., in Part II. From an economic point of view a marked advantage of broad irri- gation is that the sum realized from the sale of the produce assists in reducing the net cost of the purification. The most marked disad- vantage is that the sewage must be cared for in all sorts of weather, whether required for the crops or not. While, therefore, it is impossible to say that broad irrigation can always be conducted at a x>i'ofit, it is nevertheless true that it will offer in many cases a cheap and efficient method of sewage purification. The probable limit of temperature at which it can be carried on in winter has been indicated in Chapter XVII. (4) Taking into account all the elements of the problem, intermittent filtration is the most practicable method ol purifying sewage thus far worked out. Its effluents, when the best possible standard is main- tained, may flow without prejudice into streams used as public water- supplies, while the moderate areas required for its application permit its use in the majority of cases where any sort of purification is re- quired. As regards the use of intermittent filtration in winter, we may pred- icate from present information a fairly successful purification from properly managed areas, even in extreme cold weather. PART 11. DESCRIPTIONS OF WORKS. CHAPTEK XXI. PAIL SYSTEM AT HEMLOCK LAKE. The domestic water supply of the city of Rochester, New York, is obtained from Hemlock lake, in the County of Livingston, about 30 miles southerly from and at an elevation of 386 feet above the city. Hemlock lake is about seven miles long and f mile wide. It oc- cupies the northern extremity of a deep, narrow valley, 15 miles long. The shores of the lake are bluff and steep, rising to a height of from 300 to 700 feet, and along the beach are mostly covered with a growth of timber. The average depth is over 40 feet. About the time at which Hemlock lake was utilized as a source of water supply for the city the attention of the citizens of Rochester, as well as those of surrounding cities and towns, was attracted to the lake as a desirable point for summer residence.* In 1892 there were in use about 120 cottages and several hotels or summer boarding-houses, and the summer population, including transient visitors, was from 800 to 1,000 persons. The gradual growth of this large summer population, living directly on the shores of the lake, and using it not only as the source of water supply but also allowing all refuse substances, including contents of privies, to drain into it, had its natural effect in a probable marked deterioration of the quality of the water,t and the necessity for an efficient sanitary i)rotection of this watershed accordingly became self-evident. In the spring of 1885 a complete sanitary survey Avas made and sketch plans prepared of every source of pollution aboiit * See 16th An. Rept. of the Ex. Bd. of the City of Rochester for estimates in detail of perma- nent and transiont population in the various cottages, permanent residences, hotels, etc. During July and August there is stated to be, probably, a constant population of aljout 1,-00, which is largely increased on holidays and by special excursions. + See (1) On the Micro-organisms in Hemlock Water, by Geo. W. Rafter (188S) ; and (2) A Report on an Kndemic of Typhoid Fever at Springwater, N. Y., in October and November, 1889, by Geo. VV Rafter and M. L. Mallory (1S90). 352 SEWAGK DISPOSAL I\ TITE UNIT?:D STATES. T^o 20 ?v-Nt^ liiJ \l"^\VtT b ^ the lake. At the same time the State Board of Health, under the pro- visions of the act already referred to on page 71 formulated rules and regulations for the sanitary protection of this water-shed (see Appen- dix III.). These regulations provide : (1) That privies, pig-pens, and barn-yards shall not be located over or adjacent to any stream, spring, or dry water-course tributary to the lake, where the contents can reach the lake ; (2) that any j^rivy situated within 50 feet of any spring,^ stream or dry water-course, or ravine, must be constructed without a A'ault, and provided under the seats with water-tight receptacles for night-soil, which shall be frequently removed, emptied, cleaned, and returned, and the contents buried in the earth in such a manner that they cannot reach any water-course or permanent level of subsoil water. Further, no manufactur- ing waste is allowed to be discharged or drained into any spring, stream, or dry water-course on said water- shed. The same restric- tion applies to depositing- dead animals, birds, lish,. decayed fruit, leaves, saw- dust, roots, branches or trunks of trees in any spring, dry water-course,, or in the lake itself. The washing of sheep or other animals in the lake or any of its tributaries is also prohibited. The provisions relating to houses, cottages, tenements, tents, and picnic grounds within 200 feet of the shores of the lake may be sum- marized as follows: Each property is furnished with at least one privy set upon the surface of the ground, without a vault, and so con- structed that metallic pails, 15 inches high by 15 inches in diameter, can be placed under the seats and easily removed with their contents. This pail is shown by Fig. 30 A. The occupants are required daily to add dry loam in small quan- tities, as a deodorizer and absorbent. It is also made the duty of the occupant to provide a receptacle for garbage and to place the same therein. Slop or wash water is to be scattered upon the surface of ,..........k Fig. 30 A. PAIL systp:m at hemlock lake. 353 the grouud at a distance from either tlie lake, or any ravine or water- course, and the points at which slops are deposited frequently changed. Animal manures from stables are to be deposited in tight covered receptacles and the contents frequently removed. The city of liochester furnishes under the rules a sufficient number of metallic pails for the use of each privy within 200 feet of the lake and is required to remove, empty, cleanse, and disinfect the same as often as necessary. Whenever a full pail is removed an empty one is supplied in its place. The pails during removal are j)rovided with air-tight covers, so that no odor can escape. The contents of the pails, together with the dry garbage, are removed to a point below the foot of the lake and buried. In practice, the night-soil and garbage is collected and removed to the foot of the lake by means of a broad, flat-bottomed steamboat, the collections being usually made in the early morning. From the steamboat landing at the foot of the lake the night-soil and garbage are transported by a tramway about 1,800 feet to the sanitary building and disposal grounds, where it is treated as follows : Narrow trenches are excavated, care being taken that the permanent level of the sub- soil water is not reached, and the contents of the pails are deposited therein in thin layers, and immediately covered with dry loam to a depth of six inches. This process is repeated day by day until the trench is nearly filled, when the balance is rounded up with earth and a new trench started. The location of the trenches is recorded, the surface cultivated and cropped, and after a suitable period the same land again used. A trench 500 feet in length has proved sufficient for a year's operation, and as these trenches need not be more than three feet apart, a small area is sufficient for the purpose. The cans, as emptied, are taken to a sanitary building, which is provided with an elevated tank filled with a solution of copperas, and other necessary appliances for washing, cleansing, deodorizing, and drying the cans. The cans are constructed of heavy galvanized iron, coated, inside and out, with black asphalt varnish. In cleansing the cans, if necessary, more active deodorizing and disinfecting agents than copperas are employed. The ])rocess has been so conducted that local prejudice has sub- sided and fears as to possible offensive odors in the neighborhood al- layed. In the sanitary building and about the grounds no offensive odors are discernible, although during the year 1890 the contents of 3,128 cans and 80 tubs of garbage were thus removed and treated.* *See (1) Paper by J. Nelson Tubbs in Proceedinfjs of the 11th. An. .Moetins; of the Am. W. Wks. Assn. (Cleveland. 18H8). pp. 18 28. (•2) The several An. Hepts., Hoch. VV. Wks.. 188(5 to 18'.t2, inclusive. (.3) Eng. and Bldg. Ilec. , vol. xxii. , p. 412 (Nov. 29, 1890), where illustrations of appliances ma/ be found, and from wliicli F'ig. 8()A has been taken. 23 354 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES, In connection with the disposal by burial of this refuse organic mat- ter from the habitations on the shores of Hemlock lake, it may be of interest to note that the soil in the trenches which were tilled one, two, and three years before, was examined in November, 1890, to ascertain whether complete decomposition had taken place. The excavations disclosed the following- facts : In trench No. 3, used in 1888, no quick- lime was emploj^ed to hasten decomposition ; nevertheless the soil ex- hibited no trace of putrescible matter, either by appearance or odor. In trench No. 2, used in 1889, quicklime had been strewn upon each layer of organic refuse as it had been deposited and then covered with a layer of earth, but although traces of the lime and a discoloration of the soil could plainly be seen, yet the earth was entirely free from any unpleasant odor. The excavation was made about three feet deep. In trench No. 1, burial with the use of lime was commenced in May, 1890, and only partial decomposition was found to have occurred after the lapse of six or seven months. It was also found, as anticipated, that the destruction of the organic matter took place much more quickly near the surface that at a depth of three feet. The soil is a clayey loam, whose surface is from four to five feet above the level of the water in the outlet. From these examinations it appears that shallow trenches are better than deep ones, and after a period of three years the indication is that the same trench can be used again. The trenches were again examined in November, 1891, with the result that a decom- position of the organic wastes, similar to that already described, was observed.* This Hemlock lake pail system is operated chiefly by steamboat for the summer season, only a few of the habitations being in use the balance of the year. In winter the necessary collections are made by wagon. The total cost of ojjeration during the municipal year ending April 6, 1891, was as follows : f Wages of steamboat engineer and crew and other labor involved in collecting excreta, garbage, etc., during ojien season ^1,413.05 Cost of collection by contract during winter 103.03 Cartage of coal and supplies for boat 21.00 Coal for steamboat 65.57 Copperas and chloride of lime 9.80 Asphaltum paint and oil 64.40 Moving pig-jjens to other locations , 15.00 Miscellaneous expenses and repairs 47.61 Total ^1,739.46 ■*15th An. Kept. Ex. Bd. city of Rochester, for year ending April 6, 1801, p. 42. Also see 16th Rept., p. 32. t From June 1, 1891, to October 1 of the same year, there were collected by steamboat .3,060 pails of excreta. 171 tubs of garbage, and 83^ pails of dead fish. From October 1, 1891, to April 1, 1892, the collections were made by wagon and row-boat, and amounted to 1,208 pails, the cost of thia latter service being $6 per week. PAIL SYSTEM AT HKMLOCK LAKE. 355 During the year there was also expended in the way of permanent additions to plant and renewals, the sum of $352.18. The approximate first cost of the permanent plant is given by the following statement, which is made in detail in order to show what the several items making up the total cost of such a plant really are : (1) Sanitary surveys and examinations, and law expenses attending inauguration of system in 1885 §265.40 (2) Surveys for and preparation of plans of sanitaiy building, lake pier, tramway, and other permanent fixtures and superinten- dence of construction, estimated at 500.00 (3) Frame building, elevated tank, and additions to same since original construction, including inside fittings, pump, etc 850.22 (4) Flat-bottom scow in use for first three years 149.77 , (5) Original roatl from lake to sanitary building 39.59 (6) Original landing dock at lake 11.25 (7) For permanent i^ier 400 feet long, and tramway 1,800 feet long. . 4,660.55 (8) Tram-cars 57.50 (9) Flat bottom steamboat with small row-boat 1,907.20 (10) Kemodelling about 100 privies for reception of pails 69.47 (11) For metallic sanitary pails, transportation of same, etc 1.256.17 (12) Miscellaneous, including land (partly estimated) 232.88 Total approximate cost of permanent plant to April 6, 1891 . . SIO, 000.00* The total cost of ojoeration for six years is shown by the following statement : For the municipal year ending April 5, 1886 f 8497.491 " 4,1887 1,525.58 " 2,1888 1,461.53 " " 1,1889 1,740.78 " 7,1890 3,912.09J " 6,1891 1,739.46 Total cost of operation for six years $10,876.93 During the six years of operation which are here included, from 18,000 to 20,000 pails of night soil, garbage, and dead fish have been disposed of by this pail system. The expense of doing this work, both in first cost and annual cost of operation, is evidently much greater than it would be for a similar performance in a town or city. The peculiar nature of the plant and the long distances covered may be taken as the main reasons for this. * In this total of $10,000 is included the cost of all new metallic pails purchased to April 6, 1891. Some of these are properly chargeable to renewals, but by reason of the impossibility of determining from the accounts as kept just where renewal stops and legitimate increase of plant begins, all such expenses are grouped together in item (U). The plant may now be considered complete and fully adequate to perform the work required of it without further extension, and from this time on expenses of the sort under consideration may be properly charged t<> renewals. + First year, not in operation for the whole season. t The statement for this year contains a large amount of labor properly chargeable to other ac- counts which cannot now be separated. The expenses of operation proper probably did not exceed about SI, 7(K). 356 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The moving of the pails by boat, aud the construction of a pier for facilitating- such moving at all stages of the lake, is an imperative necessity due to the peculiar situation. The west side of the lake, on which is located a considerable number of the cottages, is absolutely inaccessible except by water ; the cottagers themselves, even, going to their temporary homes by boat from the opposite side. As yet we have no pail system in a town with which to compare the figures as given for this exceptional case. CHAPTER XXII. THE FULLERTON AVENUE CONDUIT AND THE BRIDGEPORT PUMP- ING STATION, AT CHICAGO. The gradual increase in the pollution of the two branches of the Chicago river on account of receiving- larger and larger amounts of sewage from year to year led in 1874 to the beginning of the construc- tion of the Fullerton Avenue Conduit, which was designed especially for the relief of the North branch. The plan adopted included the construction of an open cut and tunnel conduit from the river to the lake, and the erection of machinery for operating a screw by which a current of water could be sent at will, either from the lake to the river, or from the river to the lake, as might be necessary at different stages of the lake to secure the most thorough flushing of the river. The Fullerton Avenue Conduit. So far as the authors know, up to that time no similar plan for sew- age disposal had been carried out anywhere, probably because just the conditions which seemed to necessitate this parti ciilar arrangement had not occurred in any other place. Since then a similar arrange- ment has been carried out at Milwaukee, and we may accordingly in- clude a description of the Fullerton Avenue Conduit, and its piimpiug machinery, as involving on the whole a somewhat unique method of sewage disposal, at any rate so far as its mechanical features are con- cerned.* Owing to the failure of the original contractors, and other causes of delay, the Fullerton Avenue Conduit was not completed ready for operation until January, 1880. The following description of its pro- portions and principal mechanical features as originally carried out, taken in conjunction with Figs. 31 and 32 will give a general idea of this work.f The conduit is of l)rick, circular in section, 12 feet internal diameter, and 11,8'J8 feet long, from the lake shaft to the North Branch of the * For extended discussion of some of the engineering features of the Fullerton Avenue Conduit see a paper Fullerton Avenue Conduit, etc., by Lyman E. Cooley, C. E., in Eng. News, vol. iii., pp. 212, 220, 229 (July 1, 8, and 15, 1876). A paper descriptive of the Milwaukee plant was pre- sented Ijy Oeo. H. BenzenV)erg, M. Am. Soc. C E., before the International Engineering Congress at Chicago, in August, 18'.>3. The paper will be published in Trans. Am. Soc C. E. f Abstracted from the 4th An. Kept, of the Dept. of Public Works, etc., of Chicago, for the year ending Dec. 31, 18711, pp. 70-75. 3o8 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Chicago river. The bottom of the invert from the river to Kacine avenue, a length of 4,270 feet, is level, and 13 feet below the city datum. East of Eacine avenue there is a vertical reversed curve con- necting the upper and lower grades of the conduit, which latter at this point is 27| feet below datum. The tunnel continues by a series of THE FULLEKTOX AVENUE CONDUIT. 859 descending grades to the lake-shore shaft, where the invert is Bih feet below city datum. From the shore shaft to the lake discharge shaft, a distance of 1,000 feet, the conduit is level. From the North Branch to Racine avenue the work was in open cut, and from Racine avenue 1- < \- o o -> ■< o o d m o u u. Eh u: & u lU -1 h ■7 Q. (J o o 5 13 a o > < I o c _> o K DC ti X 1- o D c g H X ii. "A < r o ^ a o 1 I 03 III 2? X < d -I (s* eastward in tunnel, the grade followed the level of suitable ground for tunnelling. The ujopcr part of the lake shaft is a cast-iron C3'linder, \\ inches thick, 14 feet 2^i inches outside diameter, and 24 feet long, cast in six sections of four feet eacli, and bolted togetlier with internal flanges. The cylinder is lined with brick masonry, making it 12 feet internal 360 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX TllK UNITED STATES. diameter. The part of the shaft below the cylinder is also 12 feet in- ternal diameter. The top of the cylinder is 41 feet below city datum, and located in a wooden chamber, 34 x 18 feet inside, with openings on the east side into the lake. These openings are fitted with gates, which are intended to be closed only when the cover is on the shaft, in order to prevent it being- lifted or damaged bj' the violence of the waves. At this end the water may be shut off from the conduit by a conical cover of boiler plate, on the lower end of which is a strong flange, inclined at an angle of 45° with the horizon, and fitting on a similar flange, cast on the top of the shaft, with a packing of India rubber tubing between the two flanges, making a jjerfectly water-tight jcnnt. The cover pro- jects above the water, and is provided w^ith an opening to allow access to the shaft. The shaft is protected from the violence of the waves by a pier of pilework securely braced together, and filled at the ends to the level of the water with loose stones or riprap, and built so as to offer the least resistance to ice and storms ; on the pier and over the shaft is a frame house in which is fixed a winch for raising or lowering the cover of the shaft. The shafts at the lake shore, Larrabee street, and Sheffield avenue, are 12 feet internal diameter, being built of a size to atibrd suitable facilities for working during the construction of the conduit. At each street intersection are shafts of 6 feet internal diameter, with eyes or junctions formed in them at suitable depths to afibrd ready means to connect with the sewerage system if it is found desirable to do so. These shafts are carried up to the level of the street, domed over, with openings on top for access, and covered with strong covers, and all provided with ladder irons. At the river end, where the machinery is located, the conduit is divided into two semicircular channels, which pass one on each side of a wrought-iron chamber. After pass- ing the chamber the two channels are again united to form one chan- nel, of the same size and section as the main conduit, which is con- tinued to the outlet on the river. The outlet is protected by a heavy masonry dock wall, in which is fixed a screen of iron rods for the pur- pose of preventing floating debris from entering the tunnel and ob- structing the screws when the current is from the river to the lake. The water is forced through the conduit by means of two screws similar to those of an ordinary propeller, one fixed at each end of a horizontal shaft 40 feet in length, and placed in the centre line of the conduit. This shaft passes through a boat-shaped iron chamber, 10 feet in its greatest diameter, and secured to masonry foundations by 28 two-inch bolts. All joints in the chamber are calked and made water-tight. The motive power is two single-cylinder condensing en- THE FULLEKTOX AVEXUE CONDUIT. 861 gines, with cylinders 20 inches diameter and 30 inches stroke, with side valves, cut-oli" motion, and reversing- gear, in order to permit them to run either way. The engines are placed on top of the chamber at the level of the engine-house floor. The driving-shaft is 8 inches in diameter and made in three sec- tions. The engines are coupled to the middle or crank section by connecting-rods 16 feet long. This section also carries the eccentrics for working the valves and is supported on pillow-blocks bolted to the masonry foundations. The end sections are connected to the middle by couplings, which have a longitudinal play sufficient to pre- vent the thrust being communicated to the middle section. They are also provided with an adjustable device to prevent the thrust and wear from the screw coming upon the end post of the chamber. The original screws were four-bladed, 6 feet 7 inches diameter, with a pitch of 8 feet. The back and forw^ard edges of the blades were pro- jected upon a plane parallel to the axis, and parallel one to another, and the blades as foreshortened in projection were made 12 inches in width, giving the total area of the four blades of each screw one-half of the total area of a complete turn of the helicoid. The original screws were, however, removed in 1882 and a set 8 feet in diameter substituted in their place. There are three cylindrical boilers, 16 feet long and 66 inches diameter, with forty o-iuch longitudinal tubes in each boiler. Each boiler has 30 square feet of grate surface and 1,000 square feet of heating surface, and is connected with a brick chimney 3| feet square inside and 100 feet high. The boilers are designed to bear a constant pres.sure of 80 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere, although it is not intended to work them with more than 60 pounds pressure of steam. The engines are designed to work at a uniform rate of 100 revolutions per minute, and required to make as many as 125 revolutions per minute without injury. The portion of the conduit surrounding the shaft chamber and at each end of the same, a total length of 64 feet, is lined with a circular timber lining, funnel-shaped at the ends. At each end the lining is 12 feet inside diameter, from thence forward it is contracted in size, and at the screws it is only one inch more in diameter than the screws. In designing the machinery there was some doubt as to the best size and form of the screw, there being no precedent of a propeller wheel used for forcing water in a confined channel, and the lining of the screw chamber was accordingly made somewhat of a temporary character, easily altered and adapted to any size and form of wheel which from experience might be found best and most economical to perform the required work. 362 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. To afford easy access to that part of the conduit where the screws are, two circular slide-g"ates are placed, one at each end of the engine- room, about 92 feet apart ; these gates are 12 feet clear opening-, made of boiler plate and faced with brass ; in the centre of each gate is a supplementary gate 36 inches diameter, to relieve the j^ressure from the large gate when required. The g-ates are operated by worm gear placed in the engine room, and when closed the portion of the con- duit between the gates can be pumped dry in a short time, so that the necessary repairs or alterations can be made in the screws. In order to ascertain the head of water against the screws, two wells are built adjacent to each other, each connected with the conduit by a 4-inch pipe, one to the west of the shaft chamber and the other to the east of it. The original cost of the Fullerton Avenue Conduit, including the pumping machinery, was about $565,000. The Bridgeport Pumping Station. In 1883 the present pumping plant at Bridgeport, which w^as de- signed to force a larger quantity of water than had previously been possible from the South Branch of the Chicago river into the Illinois and Michigan canal was completed ready for operation. This work, as leading to disposal of the seAvage flowing into the South Branch, may be now described, reference also being had to Figs. 33 to 37, inclusive.* The building is located across the old channel of the canal, about 265 feet west of the South river, as shown in Fig. 33. The influent channel, 60 feet wide, was dredged to a depth of 10 feet below city da- tum. Its sides are vertical and maintained by a timber dock built in the usual manner. The eflluent channel was excavated to a depth of 6 feet below city datum, and the side slopes paved with stone. The position of the boiler and engine-houses in reference to the channels is so fully shown on the accompanying plan. Fig. 33, as to render description unnecessary. The machinery consists of four sets of cen- trifugal pumps, having a combined capacity of about 50,000 (nominally 60,000) cubic feet of water per minute, raised to a height of eight feet.f Each set consists of two centrifugal pumps placed in a dry well below the surface of the water in the river, and driven direct by a ver- tical condensing compound engine, with high-pressure CNdinder 18 * Abstracted from 7th An. Kept, of Ohicago Bd. Pub. Works for year 1882. + The enlargement of the pumping plant to a capacity of 100,000 cubic feet per minute has been begun since the above was written. The contract called for eight undulating pumps, each with a capacity of 12,500 cubic feet per minute, but was conditioned upon the success of the first two pumps, which were tested July 17, 1893. SeeEng. News. vol. xxx.. p. 70 (July 27, 1893), for results of tests, illustration and description of new pump, recent operation of old, and condition of the Chicago river in 1893. THE BRIDGEPORT PUMPING STATIOT^. 863 inches diameter, both being- 34 inches stroke. Surface condensation is effected by a series of pipe condensers placed in the current of water in the intiuent channel, and so devised that each may be hoisted sojiarately out of the water, and cleaned orrejiaired, and then replaced without emptying the cliannel or interfering- with the ()[)eration of the 364 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. THE BRIDGEPORT PUMPING STATION. 365 366 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATKS. others. The air-pumps are independent, and located in the dry wells. The pump-wheels are cast iron, 6 feet diameter, of the form shown by the accompanying drawings. Each is furnished with separate sup- ply and discharge pipes, which are 3| feet diameter at the pump, and increased gradually to 4^ feet by 4| feet at the outlet. They are pro- S' }^i:^---; .--■:."■ i;.-.,eo ^c,9f^<.;-, ...... y. '■•.•.•:.•. • "^'"l!^Uj__X T^ J '3''"'/ W^:^-.-P:.-:^'^}^f^;ihrf^^;^^^^7^X^ (^ ''j.^^^^iAj^'! «-*^^C^Vi.^ ^^^^f^^^T ^■ »'° ' f ^ f f Scale f^ Fig. 36. — Longitudinal Section of Onr Set of Bridgeport Pumping Engines. vided Avith gates to shut off the water, which are operated on the floor of the engine-room. Each pump is coupled direct to the engine crank-shaft, which may be conveniently disconnected, if desired, by removing the coupling- bolts. The engines are adapted for running at high speed, and are provided with adjustable cut-off valves. All wearing surfaces are of steel, with boxes of phosphor-bronze. There are eight horizontal return tubular boilers, each 6| feet in diameter, and 18 feet long, and containing 60 tubes, each 4| inches THE BRIDGEPORT PUMPING STATION. 567 diameter and 18 feet long. The boilers are designed to withstand a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, and are provided with the usual gages and valves. Each set of boilers is connected with a 9-inch steam-pipe in the engine-room, from which smaller branches lead to the different engines. The water of condensation is delivered into boiler-iron tanks, and from there returned to the 1 toilers by two steam feed-pumps, each having 8-incli steam and o-incli water cylinder. For the purpose of determining the capacity of the pumps, a mov- 368 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. able weir was constructed across the effluent channel near its junction with the canal, with four openings, each 10 feet wide, with knife edges. To prevent the water returning into the river from the canal a timber lock was constructed in the canal a short distance east of the junction of the influent channel. The walls are of crib-work, built with 2x8 inch timbers, laid flat, one on top of the other, spiked together and filled with stone. The chamber is 240 feet long between gates, and 19 feet wide. The floor is formed of 10x12 sleepers, bedded in the ground and covered with two thicknesses of 2-inch plank. This floor extends be- yond the chamber to the nose of the crib-work. Outside of the lock ar^ waste-gates, 38 feet wide, to be opened when the works are not running during flood-time, or when the works are not in operation from anv cause, so as to leave as large a way as possible for the passage of water. The gates, sills, and quoins are of white-oak timber, framed together and sheeted with pine, and have sluice-valves in the bottom operated by levers and racks. The total cost of these works was about $270,000. CHAPTEE XXIII. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION PLANTS AT CONEY ISLAND, ROUND LAKE, WHITE PLAINS, AND SHEEPSHEAD BAY, NEW YORK. The disposal plants at Cone^^ Island, Eound Lake, AVbite Plains, and Sheepshead Bay, New York, all employ the same general system of puritieatiou and may therefore be described together. This process, in brief, consists of the automatic introduction of lime and perchloride of iron to sewage in precipitating tanks, the deodorization and disin- fection of the sludge, or, if desired, of all the sewage, hj chlorine, and the removal of the sewage from one compartment of the tanks to another and finally to the effluent pipe by means of siphons, the latter also effecting the change of level in the tanks which causes the auto- matic introduction of the precipitants in the desired quantities. The system was designed b}^ J. J. Powers, C E., Brooklyn, who holds pat- ents on certain features. Coney Island. The first of the iouv plants to be put in operation Avas that at Co- ney Island, in 1887. This place is a well-known sea-side summer re- sort near New York and Brooklyn, the sanitary condition of which some ten years ago was deplorable.* In 1884 the New York Legislature empowered the Board of Health of the town of Gravesend to construct sewerage and sewage disposal systems in any district of the town upon petition of a majority of the property-owners of the district affected. Since that date the Boai-d of Health has built scM-age purification plants for both the Coney Island and She(>i)shead Bay districts, after designs by Mr. Powers. The plans for the Coney Island plant were submitted in a competition and were approved by Bobert Van Buren, M. Am. Soc. C. E. The Coney Island plant, being the first one constructed, is the sim- plest of the four, liut is essentially like the others except in minor ♦See results of an investigation by W. P. Gerhard, C. E., Eng. News, vol. xiv., pp. 1781-83 and 310-'}14 (Sept. 19 and Oct. 3, ISS.'i). These articles describe the sewage disposal methods adopted prior to Sept., 1885, by the large hotels at Brighton and Manhattan beaches, some of which seem to have been the precursors of the Powers process as applied to town sewage. 24 170 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. details aud comparative smalluess of tlie tauks. Perchloride of iron was the only precipitant used until the fall of 1892, since which time lime has also been used. A sketch plan and approximate longitudinal section of the plant are shown by Figs. 38 and 39. Two 24-inch trunk sewers join in a 30-inch pipe near the works, which branches to supply sewage to the two halves of the tanks. The sewage settles and is screened in the tirst tank, lime being used to increase the sedimentation since the fall of 1892. A T-overllow conveys the sewage into the next compartment, where perchloride of iron is added automatically. A siphon discharges Itiler ^ 5erT/in(j& . Screenina ^ Tank .[ Precipi- tating < Tank •1 ^ TOyerf/oiv'- [ ,< Sipho'h V, S i? 1 .^L_ J ^ Fig. . — Sketch Plan. 1 Oarbaqe and Sludqe Furnace Precipitatina ^. ,, Tank.^ T Oyer flow Settling and Screening Tank \. ( f \ \L£j^=i :^creen/ng larjn i pji Fig. 39. — Longitudinal Section Through Tanks and Pump Well. this compartment, when full, into the pump-well. The change in the level of sewage in this tank operates a float-valve to discharge the per- chloride of iron from a tank provided for the purpose. The method employed to introduce the chlorine into the sludge is described further on. The first year the works were operated the sludge was carried away by a scow, the works being close by Coney Island creek. For the last few years the sludge has been mixed with sawdust and burned in an Engle garbage crematory shown in plan at the end of the building. Fig. 38. Two Davidson pumps lift the effluent a few feet and discharge it through a pipe into salt water. The summer population and visitors at Coney Island probably ex- ROUXD LAKE. 8?] ceed 100,000 for a few hours on some days. The census of June, 1890, showed a population of 3,313 in the incorporated viHage of Coney Island.* KouND Lake. The second plant built under the Powers patents is located at Round Lake. It needs but brief description, since it is only an elaboration of the Coney Island plant with details chang-ed to suit local requirements. William B. Landreth, M. Am. Soc. C.E., was the designing, and J. Leland Fitzgerald, M. Am. Soc. C.E., the construct- ing- engineer, these two g-entlemen having- been associated at the time under the firm name of Landreth & Fitzgerald, of Schenectady, New York. Mr. Fitzgerald described the works in detail in Fire and Water for February 14, 1891. The following is slightly abbreviated from a condensation of the above paper, combined with later information, which appeared in Engineering ]V9ics of October 20, 1892 : Eound Lake is a summer resort near Saratoga Springs which has developed from a camp-meeting ground with tents for shelter to a col- lection of cottages and other buildings which serve a permanent popu- lation of about 400 and a summer population averaging 1,500, perhaps, with 7,000 or more people on the grounds during some daj^s. The cottages and property are owned by the Round Lake Association, of which J. D. Rogers is superintendent. AYater- works and a sewerage system were built in 1887, the sewers having been laid in the same trench as the water-mains. Money to pay for the water and sewer systems was raised by subscription and lot assessment. A restricted amount of surface water is admitted to the sewers in the centre of the village only. The buildings are so close together that a single house drain serves from two to six buildings, thus reduc- ing the total length of the sewers proper. The only available water into which the sewage could be discharged was Round lake, close by which the buildings are located. Some form of purification was therefore necessary. Broad irrigation was out of the question, as a sufficient area accessible by gravity could DOt V)e secured. An area of three acres was chosen for downward intermittent filtration, the location being governed by distance from the residence section rather than by suitability for the purpose. The land needed grading and undcrdraining. As nothing of the sort was done except to lay a few lines of tile, purification was not effected and a nuisance arose. It was finally decided to put in a plant for chemical treatment and the process of Mr. Powers was adopted. * A more detailed description of this plant is given in Eng. News, vol. xxviii., p. 368 (Oct. 20, 189-i). Mr. IJaker visited the disposal works shortly before the date just named and found them, apparently, in excellent condition. 372 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. A sectional plan of the purification works is shown by Fig. 40 and several vertical sections by Fig-. 41. The pit A, Fig. 40, in the first compartment, is designed to retain a large part of the sludge. The screens S detain all large objects which have not settled, there being a screen or stop at the surface to intercept floating matter and a mesh screen placed across the channel. The sewage j^asses into the siphon-chamber GB through the inverted trapped overflow O. The siphon SI removes the sewage automatically from GB to the long narrow chamber C, from which it overflows into D and again into L, from which the final siphon SI delivers it into the manhole N. From this manhole the eflluent passes through a pipe to the lake, 700 or 800 feet distant. The lime is admitted to the sewage, as it enters the first compart- ment, from the left end of the lime tank LI. The perchloride of iron is admitted to the sewage before it joasses through the first siphon, being discharged from the measuring tank MT, which is connected with the storage tank CI. Both the lime and perchloride of iron are discharged automatically through feed-cocks worked by lever-floats. For the lime tank a spring trijDped by a cam on the lever is used. The chlorine generators CH are in a semi-detached building at the left ventilated by louvres. When the precipitating tank AEFGB is cleaned the liquid is first drawi) off into the final settling tank through the valves shown in the plan, Fig. 40, after wliicli the more fluid portion of the sludge in the pit A is, or may be, pumped into the other side for further treatment by means of the centrifugal hand-pump located at P, in compartment E. Provision seems to have been made, also, for pumping from the pits H and M by centrifugal hand-pumps. Such sludge as is not pumped from pit A has some absorbent mixed with it (charcoal-dust has been used some of the time) after which it is shovelled into an iron bucket, lifted by a difl'erential hoist and finally convej'ed to a cart by means of an overhead trolley. Mr. Fitzgerald states that for the two seasons 1889 and 1890 it was unnecessary to remove the sludge from the pits H and M more than once or twice in the season ; but that it was necessary to remove the sludge from pit A every four days during the season ; that chemicals were not used in winter, sedimentation being suflicient for the actual population of only 400 ; that for the two years, the average cost of labor and repairs had been $200 per year, and of chemicals, $150. In August, J. D. Rogers, superintendent, wrote that during the past season lime and perchloride of iron had been used, but that chlorine had not been used, because a cock could not be obtained that w^ould " hold out against the corrosion of the chemicals more than a few weeks," after which it became dangerous. The j)lant had been run ROUND LAKE. 373 SI a— c — -IL r, 5 SI e^.4^r^^_- -b Fig. 40.— Sectional Plan of Round Lake Works. DqtumL^ Bottom of Sewer I ^~zI ~IL Section b- h . Datum Section i-j Fig. 41.— Vehtical Sections Sewage Puiufkwtfon Works at IlodNi) Lake, New Yokk. 374 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED S'lAI'KS. very well without tlie chlorine and the cost of its operation had thus been lessened. The cost of running the plant for 1892, Mr. Rogers stated, would be about $150, including chemicals and labor, while the resulting fertilizer would be worth about $30. AVhite Plains. This plant and that at Sheepshead Bay Avere built at about the same time and differ more in engineering design and construction than in the details of the i^rocess, except that no final settlement of the effluent is provided at Sheepshead Bay. The process in its latest developments is described sufficiently in detail below for an under- standing of its essential features : White Plains is a suburb of New York, located on the New York and Harlem Railroad, 22 miles from the 42d street station. Its popula- tion by the census of 1890 was 4,042. A public water supply was introduced in 1885. On Sept. 1, 1892, there were about 15 miles of Avater mains and 450 taps, the consump- tion of water being at the rate of about 350,000 gallons per da}'. The sewerage system was put in use about March 1, 1892, it having been under construction for some time previously. Wm. B. Landreth, M. Am. Soc. C.E., Schenectady, Ncav York, made the plans for the pipe system, which were approved in 1889 by the State Board of Health of New York. Wm. B. Rider, C.E., of South Norwalk, Connecticut, was made engineer of the work after construction started, and later E. D. Bolton, C.E., now of Brookline, Massachusetts, Avas made engineer, and under him the AAorks Avere completed. Geo. R. Byrne, C.E., of Byrne & Darling, W'liite Plains, Avas resident engineer in charge of construction under Mr. Bolton. About ten miles of sewers are noAV in use. From April 1 to Sept. 16, 1892, 222 sewer connections were made. Prior to April 1 about 20 connections had been made. The separate system is used, with about 50 flush tanks, mostly Rhodes-Williams Avith a feAv Van Vranken. There are about 100 man- holes in the system, Avith perforated covers. As most of the roads or streets are of dirt these perforated covers admit much dirt to the sewers, increasing the amount of sludge at the purification works. In addition, the attendant in charge of the works states that when new connections are made Avith the sewers some house-OAvners take advan- tage of the opportunity to empty their cesspools. About 2| miles of underdrains were laid about on the same level as the sewers, as deemed necessary. These underdrains discharge into brooks where most convenient. A 24-inch trunk sewer, about 7,000 feet long, leads to the purification jf3ug ^/^g Ph sui - C) a z o o O o ^ ^ CO :^ O I- < o LU CC GL -I >- O V LiJ CO o 3 CO I- O I- UJ ■< CO Q < CO < QL LU < r-t"3=±' PLATE III. PUNS AND SECTIONS OF CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION WORKS AT WHITE PUINS, N. Y. d WIIITF. PLAINS. 375 plant, Avhich is located about 5,000 feet from the villa^-e on tlie west bank of the Bronx river close by the tracks of the New York and Harlem Railroad. This outlet pipe is of cast iron, except the last 600 or 700 feet, which is vitrified pipe. Mr. Byrne states that cast-iron pipe was probably used in order to exclude "round-water. The effluent passes from the purification works through about 3,000 feet of 24-inch vitrified pipe, laid parallel to the Bronx river, into which it finally discharges just below a mill-dam. The main sewer from the village terminates in the well at the end of the building, shown in the plan, Plate III., Fig. 1. From this well the sewage may be turned into either set of tanks through the gates pro- vided for the purpose. As the first compartment of the tank is deeper than the others, much of the solid matter settles and is retained in it, going to the bottom by its own Aveight. The chemicals deposit more of the sludge as the sewage fiows slowly on. A sludge-pit is provided in the centre of each final settling tank, as shown in Plate III. The sludge from the sludge-pits and from the first compartment of the precipitation tanks may be lifted by the 4-inch centrifugal pumps through the piping shown in the plan and section, Plate III., and discharged into the opposite side for further treatment. The " primers "' of the pumps are charged through 1-incli galvanized iron pipe from the force-main described above. The pumps are driven by engines supplied with steam from the boiler-room. The sludge can be removed fiiudly by means of the bucket, car, and tramway shown in the cross-section, in Plate III., Fig. 4, the tramway being shown ex- tending the whole length of the tanks in plan in Plate III., Fig. 3. The buckets have a capacity of ^ ton, are of steel, self-dumping, and are raised by differential one-ton hoisting blocks and tackle, which rim on an overhead single-rail tramway of one ton capacity. The two dump cars are of :^-incli boiler iron, one ton capacitj^ The tramway consists of 60-pouud rails, two feet apart, clamped to the top of iron beams. Before the sludge is removed from the tanks it is rendered less litjuid and more easily handled by the addition of " German bog," said to come off the top of [)eat-beds. This bog comes in bales 2 x2i x3^ feet and is a good absorbent. All the slndge which had been removed from the tanks from the time the plant was put in operation until Sept. 2, 1892, was outside the building in a ]>ile on that date. Some of it was colored brown by tlie peat, some pink, presumably by the iron, but much of it had the ajjpearance of ordiuarv lime and sand mortar, due to the lime used as a precipitant and to the furtlnr fact tliat nnu-li dirt is admitted to the sewers tiirnugli the pcrloratcd manhole covers, as stated above. 376 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. This larg-e heap of sludg'e was perfectly free from odor, quite as in- otfeiisive as a pile of mortar. Neither was there the slightest offensive odor anywhere about the works. Thus far the sludge has been removed from the tanks and the chlorine used about once a month. The tanks may be washed per- fectly clean by the use of water from a small reservoir on the hill or by direct pressure from a small duplex pump provided to fill the reser- voir. This pump also affords fire protection for the building. The pump has 10-inch steam and 6-inch water cylinders, with 10-inch stroke. A 6-inch" suction-pipe extends to the river, only a few feet dis- tant. A 4-incli force-main extends from the pump to the reservoir on a hill near by, at a sufficient elevation to give a pressure of 47 })ounds at the works. From the force-main a 2-inch galvanized iron pipe extends through the building and connects by means of 1-inch cast- iron pipe with the chlorine generators and tanks. Connections are also made with all the plumbing where water is needed. Linen hose, 200 feet in length, is provided for washing the tanks and for fire use. The reservoir is of stone, cemented, 20 x 10 x 5 feet, and, according' to the specifications, covered with a building and connected by an electric indicator with the i:)ump-room. The settling chambers inside the building have rolling covers, the wheels running on I-beams, the wheels of one set of covers running on the upper and of another on the lower flange of the beam, so that the covers of one side may be rolled over or beneath those of the other. The final settling tanks are covered with 8-inch brick arches sup- ported by 90-pound I-beams resting on 12-inch brick piers. Openings 6 feet long and 12 feet wide, with sliding covers, are provided in each corner of the covering in these tanks. The bottoms of all the tanks are composed of 18 inches of Portland cement concrete. The specifications state that all walls and piers to the height of the cross-walls miast be laid in Portland cement mortar and plastered with the same where brick is used ; also that the entire inner surface of the tanks must be covered with two coats of asphalt paint up to the coping. Provision has been made for heating the building, including the settling tanks, by steam. There are two lime tanks, as shown in the plan and longitudinal section, Plate ITT., Fig. 1, each of riveted wrought iron, Ig x 2 x 10 feet. There are also two 2,000-gallon riveted l-inch wrought-iron tanks for holding the perchloride of iron. A hand hoist or elevator is provided in the chemical storage room, shown in the plan on Plate III., Fig. 3, for lifting the chemicals to the mixing tray of the chlorine generators and for lifting materials for storage in the second story. WHITE PLAIXS 877 Fig. 42.— Hinged Screen in Sewage Tank AT White Plains, New York. The screens for stopping- the large particles in the sewage as it passes through the tanks are shown in detail by Fig-. 42. There are two of these screens for each set of tanks, located as shown bj^ Plate III. They are made of g-inch wire, 1-inch mesh, swinging as shown in the illustration, to facilitcite cleaning. In order that the chemicals used as precipitants may be admitted to the sewage auto- matically and in lixed propor- tion, the mechanism shown in Fig. 43 is employed for the lime and that shown in Fig. ■44 for the perchloride of iron. Each of these devices depends for its action upon the varying levels of the sewage in a tank which contains a float connected by a lever with a cock, all so arranged, as described beloAv, that the chemicals will be discharged in quantities and at intervals as desired. Both Figs. 43 and 44 are designed to illustrate the principles upon which the mechanisms work, and not to show their exact arrangement at White Plains, although they do very nearly show the latter. The lime is slacked in the lime tank. Fig. 43. Water is added to make a milk of lime, which is fed into the sewage over the lip of the lime tank. Water is admitted to the lime tank through the pipe A, which is sup]»lied from an elevated tank on a hill through the pipe B and the feed -cock. The water tank gives a pressure of 47 pounds per square incli in the building. The pipe B is perforated at different levels, to cause the water to be discliiirged horizontally in order to stir uj) the lime, much of which would otherwise remain at the bottom of the tank. u._- Fig. 43.— Automatic Feed-cock from Lime Tank, White Plains, New York. 378 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The pipes A and B connect with the casing- of the cock C, as shown in the two enlarged sections. The cock is inserted in this casing and is provided with longitudinal sluts at regular intervals on its circum- ference, which are so arranged that whenever one of these slots opens against the contracted end of the pipe A another will open against the pipe B and vice versa. The Hoat is connected with the plug in such a way, that when it rises the cock is not turned, but when it falls a pawl engages with a ratchet and turns the cock so when the float is half way down the slots come opposite each pipe, and Avater is discharged into the lime tank and lime carried over the lip into the sewage. If the feed-cock PeixJilonde oflmn TcnH I Fig. 44. — Automatic Three-way Cock fou Pekchlokide of Iron Tank, was opened with the rise of the sewage it is obvious that the slower the flow of sewage the greater would be the discharge of lime. The device for admitting the perchloride of iron, Fig. 44, is slightly different, in that it is designed to measure this chemical accurately and to draw it from a storage tank of considerable size. To do this the storage tank is connected through a three-way cock with a small measuring tank i^laced on a lower level. The port of the cock which connects directly with the measuring tank is larger than the others and is always open. The third port connects, when in the proper position, with a pipe having its lower end over the sewage tank. The cock is turned automatically by the rise of the sewage so that the measuring tank is always emptied when or just before the float and the sewage are at their highest level and at no other time. The sew- age is at its highest level just liefore it is siphoned from the chamber to the large final settling tank shown on Plate III. In preparing the perchloride of iron for use, the storage tank is first WHITE PLAINS. 879 filled about half full of water, the desired amount of the chemical added and then the tank filled full. This method is followed to pre- vent injury to the valve. A 60 per cent, perchloride of iron is used, and two grains per gallon is considered a fair amount for ordinary sewage. The perchloride of iron is bought from Martin Kalbfleisch's Sons Co., New York, for 3h cents per pound, or about ^4:.15 per carboy. In passing from a consideration of the use of chemicals, attention may be called to the fact that the lime is admitted intermittently to sewage which has a contiuvious flow, and therefore some sewage may pass the series of chambers of the first tank to the weir over which the sewage flows to the first siphon chamber without receiving any direct addition of lime. Such sewage would have little or no precipitation to this point, but it would have sedimentation owing to the slow rate of flow. Since lime is discharged each time the first siphon works, every discharge of sewage into the final settling tank will contain lime, the only question being whether it is well mixed with the sewage. It would seem preferable to dischage the lime into the sewage continu- ously, or nearly so. This might be effected by arranging the float and feed-cock, Fig. 43, so that the water would be discharged into the tank with every few inches rise of the float, still maintaining a fixed rela- tion between the lime and sewage. Or, better yet, a constant flow of lime might be maintained and the quantity varied to correspond with the volume of sewage by slowly passing the latter through a rect- angular trough containing a lever-float which, rising and falling with the volume of sewage, would regulate the flow of lime through a feed- cock. The advantages of having the lime thoroughly mixed with the sewage the moment the latter reaches the first tank are obvious. The chlorine for deodorizing the sludge, or for treating the total volume of sewage if desired, is made from common salt, black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric acid. The salt and black oxide of manga- nese are mixed, 1 to 1, in a tray above the chlorine generators, and washed down into the generator with 21 parts of water. The cocks being turned to allow the chlorine to pass through the pipes and into the sewage tanks, sulphiiric acid is then slowly admitted to the tanks and the ehlcn-iiie generated. Acid should be admitted only in sufficient quantity to develop a pressure of 2 poimds, the pressure being indi- cated by a gage. A safety water-column and safety -gage are provided to keep the pressure down to 5 pounds, the blow-off pipe from the safety-gage extending up through the roof of the building. In addi- tion the covers of the tanks being treated should all be tightly closed, and it is well to have tln^ windows and door open. As inhalation of any amount of chlorines would be injurious to the nostrils, trachea, and lungs, the precautionary measures mentioned are advised on the printed directions for the generation and use of the chlorine and the 380 SEWAGK DISPOSAL I.N THE UNITKD STATES. safety -frag-e is made a part of the XDlant. lu practice, liowever, no trouble with the chlorine is experienced. It is obvious that since the chlorine is used to disinfect sludge or sewage it will be admitted to the tanks only when the perforated pipes are submerged, and if the chlorine should pass up through the sludge it would at once make the fact known, whereupon the acid could be turned off from the genera- tors. In practice it seems probable that a deficiency rather than an excess of chlorine will find its way to the tanks. The capacity of the final settling tank is about 27,500 gallons and of the small siphon tank or chamber which empties into it about 2,000 gallons, allowing for the sewage which flows into the latter while it is discharging. The sewage travels about 150 feet in the first or precip- itating tank and 50 feet in the final settling tank, making 200 feet in all. There were, early in September, about 450 tajis connected with the water- works and about 250 sewer connections, which, being taken to yield as much sewage as the consumption of water jDer tap, 780 gallons, would give 195,000 gallons per day of natural discharge into the sewers. If the above figures are all ajaproximately correct only a small amount of ground-water now finds its way into the sewers. When the plant had been in operation only a month, however, it is said that the daily flow through the tanks was 266,000 gallons. At that time there were but few sewer connections and the greater part of the flow must have been ground-water. The tanks are sunk in the old bed of the Bronx river, the river having been turned when the New York and Harlem Railroad was built, and at first there may have been some seepage into the tanks. The amount of sewage treated at White Plains in September, 1892, was said to vary from some 200,000 gallons or under per day to about 300,000 gallons, or less, for which about one barrel of lime and one car- boy, 10 to 12 gallons, of perchloride of iron was being used. To operate the plant an engineer and a laborer are required during the day and a watchman at night. About one ton of coal a week is consumed in generating steam. The coal costs $6 per ton, delivered. The contract price for the purification plant alone, without allowance for superintending construction, was $50,049. This was increased about $3,000 by errors in grade which necessitated the lowering of the foun- dations, but should not be charged to the cost of jDurification. No analyses of the sewage after purification have been made, to the authors' knowledge, and as the plant has been in operation but a short time little can be said regarding the results obtained. At the plant nothing objectionable could be seen or smelled and everything seemed to be in good shape. At the outlet into the river the efiluent was somewhat clouded, which. SHEEPSHEAD BAY. 381 might have been due, iu part at least, to the use of lime. For several hundred feet down the river some of the liner particles of sewag-e were deposited in shallow water having little motion. In places these de- posits were 3 to 4 inches deep, but they gave off little or no odor upon being stirred. The deposits may liave been the result of improper management of the plant, especially too infrequent cleanings, which, as has already been stated, have thus far taken place but once a month. It may be that the lime does not become thoroughly mixed with the sewage, for the reasons mentioned above, in which case imperfect pre- cipitation might be expected. In this connection it may be again stated that in constructing and operating sewage purification plants the controlling factor is the degree of purification desired. This decided, the next question is how to obtain it at the least possible expense.* The large and apparently inoffensive pile of sludge outside the purification building at White Plains witnesses that a great amount of pollvition has been excluded from the Bronx river and ren- dered harmless. The deposits of sewage iu the river gave no offence, even when stirred, and it is possible that the chlorine treatment had to a large extent i-endered the deposits unobjectionable so far as de- composition is concerned.f Sheepshead Bay. The permanent population at Sheepshead Bay is probabl}' less than 3,000, but its floating and summer population is much larger. Like Coney Island it is in the town of Gravesend and its works were built under the same board of health. Horace Loomis, M. Am. Soc. C.E., was consulting engineer for the system. The following condensed * Throwing out of consideration the degree of purification effected, the following approximate estimate of the daily expense at White Plains may be given : I carboy of perchloride of iron $4.75 1 barrel of lime 75 Coal 90 Engint-er 2. 25 Laborer and watchman, each, Jl..")© 3.00 (Jominon salt, black oxide of manganese and sulphuric acid 50 Oil anfl waste oO Miscellaneous .50 $1~'.95 Assuming that the present average daily quantity of sewage treated is 2.")0,000 gallons, and that the daily expense of treating this amount is $12, the cost per 1,1)00, 000 gallons would be $48. Un- doubtedly when the town is fully sewered and the daily flow has become from 40(),000 to 500,000 gallons, the cost will be somewhat less. + Condensed from Eng. News, vol. xxviii., pp. 284-5 and pp. .314-15 (Sept. 22d and Oct. 0, 1892). In Kng. News of Oct. may Ije found an account of the theoretical action of the lime and per- chloride of iron upon the sewage, extracted from a pamphlet entitled Treatment of Sewage by Chlorine, Precipitation and Seiliinentatioii, by J. H. Raymond, M.D., Professor of Physiology and Sanitary Science, Long Island College Hospital. 382 SKWAGK DISl'OSAI- IN IIII-; UNITED STATES. descriptiou, in counection with the preceding part of this chapter, will g-ive a fair idea of the purification plant.* The sewerag-e sj^stem was begun in 1891, and the purification plant was put in operation in 1892. The separate system is used. Water mains were laid by the town in the trenches with the sewers, there being- about 13 miles of sewers and 15 miles of water mains. Although the same process is used at Sheepshead Bay as at "White Plains, the details of construction are in some respects quite different, which is largely caused by the circular plan of the works and the fact that it was necessary to construct it on a pile foundation. The village is very flat and the surface of the ground is near the water-line of the bay. The purification plant is located on marsh land subject to the tide flooding near an inlet or creek. The 24-incli, egg-shaped cement outlet sew^er from the village cuts across the marsh, turns and enters the building from the water side beneath the eflluent pipe to the creek. The low levels and flat grades necessitate a deep receiving well from which the sewage is pumped to the tanks. The lime is discharged into the sewage while the latter is in the pump well, after which the sewage is pumped into the tanks. There are no final settling tanks. The perchloride of iron is discharged into the chamber, from which the sewage is siphoned to the eflluent cham- ber and pipe. A 6-inch centrifugal pump, driven by steam, and having a 6-foot lift, was provided for handling the sludge, but it is not used. Sawdust is now mixed with sludge as an absorbent, after which it is shovelled into buckets, hoisted from the tanks, and pushed out in tram-cars as at White Plains. The sludge is used to fill in about the building, and was wholly inoffensive when the writer was at Sheepshead Bay, Sept. 12, 1892, as was everything else about the plant. The whole building is heated by steam and the village water supph' is extended to the plant. The effluent, as at White Plains, was slightly clouded. This seems to be admissible here, as does the omission of the final settling tank, for the eflluent goes into a considerable creek of salt water. It is doubtful, however, whether the use of perchloride of iron at or near the time of siphoning is of especial advantage without the final set- tling tanks. *For full details and illustrations, see Eng. News, voL xxviii., pp. 308-9 (Sept. 29, 1892). CHAPTEK XXIV. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AND FILTRATION AT EAST ORANGE, NEW JERSEY. The towu of East Orang-e, New Jersey, is situated immediately to the west of the city of Newark, and further bounded by the towns of South Orange, Orange, and Bloomliekl, south, west, and north, respec- tively, as is shown in Fig. 45. The area is 2,400 acres, with a popula- tion in 1890 of 13,282. The topography is of a simple character, con- sisting of a nearly level plateau in the southern part, from which near the central part break four parallel vallej's with drainage trending to the north. Within the limits of East Orange are three ridges, or low ranges of hills, which also run nearly north and south, and separate the valleys. The valleys are somewhat undesirable for residence by reason of greater dampness of the soil than is found on the ridges, which are generally dry and underlaid by the new red sandstone for- mation ; and until recently the bulk of the building in the northern part was on the ridges, the drainage from the better class of houses mostly passing into cesspools on the lower lands. Many of these had become very offensive, and considerable areas of soil were rapidly approaching" complete saturation. The increase of this unsatisfactory condition led the citizens of East Orange, as early as 1881, to take under consideration improved meth- ods for disposing of domestic wastes, but it was not until the latter part of the year 1883 that a definite project was formulated. In that year, the matter of sewerage was taken actively in hand by the Town Improvement Society of East Orange, and a committee on sew- erage and drainage, consisting of Messrs. J. C Bayles, M. Am. Soc. M.E , Alfred P. Boiler, M. Am. Soc. C.E., and E. Fortmeyer, Esq., appointed. At the meeting of the Improvement Society, held (October 4, 1883, the committee reported that as a preliminary step toward securing a system of sewerage and sewage disi^osal they had re(piested J. J. R. Croes, M. Am. Soc. C.E., to prepare a plan for the complete s(nverage of the town, with an apjiroxi unite estimate of cost, together with suggestions as to the best method of sewage disposal. Mr. Croes' report was in substance, that inasmuch as East Orange is entirely surrounded by other densely poi)Mlat(>d areas, which further cut it off from access to any large stream or to tide-water, if the waste 384 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. products were to be disposed of or puriiied within tlie township limits, it wonhl be desirable to diminish their volume as much as practicable. Therefore the sewerage system should be chiefly conflned to carrying- house wastes. If in any case it were to be deemed desirable to carry roof water in the sewers it should be held back in cisterns and only allowed to empty gradually into the sewers. His plans provided. MONT-I ChAiR /5,100ac WEST ^4^;P-^'000 lO RANGE 7,600 oc. pp. 4,500 NEWARK, WATER-WORKS 'tJERSEYClTY s^ WATER- WORkiS 50.0RAN6E ! 5.a00cic. ' pop. 5,000, '-j^ Fig. 45.— Map op East Orange, New Jersey, and Vicinity. therefore, for carrying only a maximum of one-half cubic foot per minute for every 100 feet of street with the sewers running half full. The entire system would comprise 40 miles of sewers, 26 miles of which were to be of six-inch diameter with main outfall of an elliptical sec- tion 28 by 42 inches, computed to flow two-thirds full at the time of maximum flow. The main outfall sewer would be extended to the north-east corner of the town, where a suitable location for disposal PHKriPITA riOX AND FILTRATIOX AT EAST ORANGE. 385 works could be found, near a tributary of the Second river, a stream emptying- into the Passaic at the northern boundary of Newark. The method of disposal recommended by Mr, Croes, was to first iilter the sewage through a Farquhar-Oldham filter, the sewage having been treated with jDerchloride of iron before filtration ; the filtering- material, consisting of sawdust, was to be used, after filtration* as fuel under the boilers required for the pumping plant which would force the sewage through the filter. The efliueut from the filter was to be further purified by passing through soil before reaching the stream. The plan actually submitted provided for only one disposal station, although as an alternative plan the question was considered whether two stations on opposite sides of the town would not be preferable, ihus avoiding a long and expensive deep sewer, M^hich would other- wise be necessary for conveying the sewage from the southern district to the northern disposal ground. The cost of the whole system was estimated at $330,000. The Town Improvement Society's committee on sewerage and di'ainage indorsed Mr. Croes' recommendation as to the system of sewers, but advised, in their report of April, 1884, further deliberation in regard to the method of disposal, as recent legislation had consideral^ly enlarged the authority of the New Jersey townships in the matter of acquiring rights to drain through other towns and municipalities. Under an act passed by the Legislature a short time previously, any township in the State having a population of not less than 2,000 to the square mile, and a public water supply, may con- struct a system of sewerage or drainage, or both ; may have plans and estimates made ; may build sewers in any part of any township ; may, if necessary, appropriate any lands required by due process of con- demnation ; may build, if the township authorities shall deem it advis- able, a main outfall sewer to tide-water, and for this purpose may pass through territory situated within the bounds of any other municipal corporation ; may enter into contract with the authorities of any city whose territory adjoins that of the toAvnship, for the privilege of con- necting the sewers of the township with those of the municipality ; may purchase land and erect suitable buildings for the purpose of properly deodorizing, utilizing, or otherAvise disposing of sewage; may apply to the circuit court of the county in which the town is situated for an appointment of commissioners to condemn any re- quired lands; may borrow money, from time to time, to pay for public works, and secure the payment of the same by issuing bonds at a rate not exceeding six per cent, annual interest, and to an amount not exceeding ten per cent, of the assessed valuation of the i>roperty of the township, the legal voters at their annual meeting to decide the sum to be expended during th(> curnnit year. The Act also provides for the payment of ]n-iiicipal and interest of the bonds, and directs the town 386 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. assessor to levy assessments each year while the debt is unpaid, in a sum equal to the principal and interest which will fall due during that year. In September, 1884, the township authorities directed Mr. Croes to prepare. j)lans and estimates of the cost of conveying the town sewage to tide-water in Newark bay, below the city of Newark. Later on he was further directed to prepare additional estimates for disjjosal Avithin the township limits. The plans and estimates submitted by Mr. Croes, in accordance with these instructions, showed that the construction of a sewerage system, sufficient for immediate purposes, would cost about $77,000. If the sewage were taken to Newark bay, the necessary outfall sewer, shown on the map, Fig. 45, would cost $154,000, while if chemical treatment, supplemented by filtration through land within the township limits, were adopted, the cost would be $76,000. With disposal to Newark bay the cost of completely sewering the town, in- cluding sewerage system, outfall sewer, etc., would be $462,345 ; for local treatment within the township limits the entire cost would be $398,325. The township committee on sewerage presented a report in Febru- ary, 1885, favoring tne sewerage system recommended by Mr. Croes,. but inclining to the opinion that the sewage should be delivered into the sewers of the city of Newark, which lie between East Orange and the Passaic river, provided a suitable arrangement could be made with the Newark authorities. The committee also recommended that the question of proceeding with the construction be submitted to popular vote at the town meeting in March. The matter, however, remained in abe\''ance until the spring of 1886, when Carroll Ph. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C.E., was engaged to design the details of a plan providing for purification of the sewage within the township limits. The disposal works, in conjunction with a sepa- rate system of sewers embracing 26 miles of street mains, were con- structed under his direction during that and the following year, and placed in operation in June, 1888. Eudolph Hering, M. Am. Soc. C.E., reviewed the jjlans as consulting engineer. In designing the main sewer, it appeared advisable to Mr. Bassett to locate the disposal works as far awaj^ as possible from the northeast- ern district of the township, in which was situated the water- works supplying East Orange and the neighboring town of Bloomfield. These water supplies are derived from shallow wells in the new red sandstone. In accordance Avith this view, an intercepting sewer was designed, which crossed the northern district from east to west, lead- ing finally into the Second river valley. This sewer would intercept the sewerage of five-sixths of the total area of the township without pumping and deliver it into the northwest section instead of the north- ■^'iH •- •'4i-,*l.:SSl£?!t 388 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. east. Mr. Bassett considered the arg-umeuts in favor of the point of collection wliicli was adopted as : {a) A larger percentage of tlie area of the township could be collected to this point by gravity, than to any other ; (i^) the sewage would be united at the best point for ulti- mate gravity extension to tide-water or combination with other towns if it were desired ; (c) about the only land in the township available for sewage treatment was there reached ; (d) the stream, ofl'ering an outlet for the effluent, was larger than any other in the district. In the chapter on Quantity of Sewage and Variations in the Eate of Flow, at page 132, we have referred to the large amount of ground- water which hnds its way by infiltration into the sewers of the East Orange system. Its amount has been as high as about 50 per cent, of the total daily flow, and it has undoubtedly increased somewhat the cost of the purification treatment bj'^ necessitating the use of more chemicals than would be required provided the daily flow was confined to sewage proper. The disposal works designed by Mr. Bassett included a chemical treatment with lime and sulphate of alumina, supplemented by filtra- tion through a coke filter, further supplemented by intermittent fil- tration through land. The following is Mr. Bassett's description of the purification works, with slight abbreviations, as presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers : The land secured for the works was siupfularly unfavorable for sewage purifica- tion. The total area available was about 15 acres ; of this 5 acres were covered by Dodd's mill-pond, and the character of its bottom may be understood, when it is remembered that repeated complaint of its deposits had been made by residents to the Healtli authorities. The drainage and transformation of the pond was held out to hostile residents as consolation for the location of sewage purification works in their midst. Reference is made to the general plan of the works, Fig. 48. This, together with the views. Figs. 46 and 47, will show the residences imme- diately adjoining. The stream indicated on the j^lan originally fed the pond, but its channel has been dee]>ened and straightened — a rather exi^ensive piece of work, some of the ex- cavation being made in quicksand. It is a tributary of the Passaic, called Second river. Its volume varies froni 12 cubic feet per second, in diy weather, to 775 cubic feet per second flood volume. After a flow of about 4 miles it enters the Passaic, near the intakes for the water supply of Newark and Jersey City. Under these conditions it was necessary to secure a very high purity in any sewage effluent which was to be discharged into the stieam, and the w(jrks must be operated with- out local nuisance. No reasonable exjjense was s])ared to make the works efficient and attiactive ; the buildings constituting the works are shown in the photographs, Figs. 46 and 47. A pleasing architectural efieet is secured. The masonry is of high class ; deep blue trap-rock, with rock face and worm joints, pointed with red mortar, relieved by red brick trimmings and cut stone capitals at the front about the doors and windows, secure a permanent and attractive ajipearance to the works. The sewage enters the works in a 2-feet by 3-feet new form, egg-shaped, brick sewer ; discharges into a conduit of rectangular section, having lateral projections extending nearly to its centre on alternate sides at intervals of three feet along the axis. In this conduit, chemicals from the building join the sewage ; the lateral 3y0 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IJN' THE UINITED STATES. projections of the carrier give a wliirliug motion to the sewage, which causes a complete mixture of chemicals with it. The carrier leads the sewage to the pre- ciijitatiou tanks. The tanks are constructed in dujjlicate, one set being cleaned or lying idle while the other is in use ; Fig. 50 gives a general plan of the building and tanks, with longitudinal and cross sections. A brick wall located 10 feet in front of the inlet to the tanks, checks the velocity of entrance flow. A board floating on edge in vertical guides, intercepts the lighter floating matters, and insures their saturation before passing it. The cross-walls in each tank divide it into three compartments, and the flow passes over these with a depth of about 2 inches, the heavy matters being intercejjted and settling. With a continuous flow of low ve- locity in the tanks, the surface water is being constantly skimmed oti' into the car- rier. Drums float a swivel arm in each compartment, which connects with a low service pipe in the bottom of the tanks that discharges on the surface of the ground at a low level. These arms draw water only from the surface, but the drums fall- ing with the water enable any arm to empty the compartment in which it is located into the low service carrier, leading to the surface of the grounds. The effluent from the precipitation tanks, after entering the carriers (Figs. 48 and 49), is dis- tributed over the surface of the flltration grounds and descends to the under-drains, which are from 3 to 5 feet deep and 20 feet apart over the entire 14.7 acres in the works. The sewage effluent is aj^plied to the land on the principle of intermittent down- ward filtration, the flow being applied successively to different areas. Part of the land is laid otf in beds, 4 feet wide, separated by shallow furrows, in which the water flows and soaks laterally into the beds. The remainder of the land is di- vided into flat- beds, 100 feet long by 50 to 100 in width, over the whole of which water flows. This latter method is preferable, as more water is disposed of, and in winter, frost is more easily kept out of the ground. Italian rye-grass has given the best results on the land, and is now grown almost exclusively. Farmers from the neighborhood cut the grass and remove it as is necessary, but up to the jjresent time the town authorities have not been able to secure a sati.sfactoiy return on its sale. "Within the main building on the first floor are chemical mixing vats, fllter pi'esses, sludge pi-essing machinery (receivers, air compressors and pump), boiler, and a small office for records and tests (Fig. 50). On the second floor chemicals and ma- terials are stored. The chemical mixers are cylindrical cast-iron vats, 4 feet in di- ameter, with inverted cone-shaped bottom ovei layed with a perforated plate. The desired amount of chemicals is jjlaced on the plate, water is let into the tank, and air blown up through the bottom, causing violent agitation of the liquid and re- sulting in the rapid solution of tlie chemicals. With a known flow of sewage at a given time, it is determined how wide to open a slide-valve in the bottom of the tank after solution of the chemicals is secured, in order to add the desired number of grains per gallon of sewage. The sewage is mainly of a domestic character and somewhat constant in its alka- linity. Not more than 3 grains of lime and 2 grains of sulphate of alumina are now added to each gallon of sewage by the authorities, although when the works were l^laced in operation, the author recommended the use of 8 grains of lime and 10 grains of sulphate of alumina per gallon of the sewage. The present result is a less efficient jirecipitation. A combination of chemical precipitation and land filtration in the works makes it possible to increase the work performed by the land by reducing the efficiency of chemical treatment, and rice versa. The labor of purification now placed upon the grounds is greater than its equitable share as originally intended. Much better results could be secured by calling out the full efficiency of the chemical treatment. To relieve the filtration grounds, which have rather a retentive soil, several artificial filter-beds of coke and gravel were constructed under mv direction, and have been of material service. (See Fig. 48.) Returning now to the precipitated matter of sludge in the tanks : after the super- natant water is drawn oS' through the swivel-arm into the low-service carrier, a valve gate is opened and the sludge drawn into the deeper sludge-well within the build- PRECIPITATION AND FILTRATION AT EAST ORANGK 391 S92 SEWAGE DISrOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. ^^^^^^iCffl PKKCIPITATION AND FILTKATIOX AT EAST ORANGE. 393 ing. By forming a vacuum in a cast-iron receiver, which is connected bv an iron pipe with the sludge-well, the sludge is drawn up into the receiver, milk of lime being drawn in at the same time, by a small pipe from the mixing tank in the chemical room. This lime prepares the sludge for pressing, cutting the slime so that the water separates more readily from the solids. A pressure of 100 pounds per square inch is sccnred in one of tlie other receivers, and. being connected with the receiver containing the sludge by an air transfer main and the ]no])er valves opened, the sludge is forced into a Johnson filter-press and pressed into moist, hard, portable cakes. 394 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. An analysis of fresh sludge directly from the press, made September 11th, 1889, by Mr. Charles T. Pomeroy, of Newark, N. J., gave results as follows : Nitrogen from organic matter 326 i)er cent. Total phosphoric acid 459 " Moisture 50.625 Using the 1889 trade values adopted by the New Jersey experiment station we have an estimated worth of $1.51 per ton, 2,000 pounds. This sludge quite rai)idly lost its moisture on exposure to the air, until it contained 6.37 jicr cent, moisture. If dried at 100 degrees C. it would have an estimated value of ijrS.OO per ton, 2,000 pounds. The machinery used in manipulating the sludge was constructed by S. H. John- son & Co., Stratford, England, who have erected numerous j^lauts in England. Their machinery is the subject of several ^mtents, and no similar devices are manu- factured in this country. Not all of the machinery furnished has been .satisfactory. The combination vacuum and compression punqj and the high-jjressure water- pump gave considerable trouble, and have been rej^laced by a Clayton compressor . . . and a Worthington duplex pump The method of maintaining and securing the pressure in the hydro-pneumatic re- ceivers to press the sludge is worthy of biief comment. There are three receivers in the system (see Fig. 51); let them be rejiresented by A, B and C. Air passes out at the top, sludge at the bottom, water enters at the side near the bottom and exits at the bottom. All the receivers are emi)ty, except of air. Water is pumped into A and IJ and the air transfer mains oi)ened to transfer their air to C, raising the press- ure to 45 pounds per square inch. The valve on the air main fiom Cis closed. The water in .4 and JJ is drained back into a shallow tank in the floor of the build- ing with which the pump suction is connected — air taking its i)lace. Water is again forced into A and B, operating jjroper valves, and the jiressure in C is raisf d to 75 pounds per square inch. A repetition of this process brings the pressure in C to 105 pounds per square inch. A and B are emptied as before and a vacuum in A created, the sludge suction pipe is opened, and A is filled with sludge. "Water is now pumped into B, forcing its air into C and thence into A , to force the sludge into the press. When B is filled with water, C may be filled with air, and A with sludge and air. When a receiver is filled with water, a float valve at the top closes the outlet to the air transfer main, and weighted valves on the force main lift and relieve the pressure on the pump. The value of the process now first appears. B is emptied of water and filled with sludge, while at the same time water is being forced into C, and by connection with A forcing the remainder of its sludge into the press. Compressed air is thus never allowed to escape into the atmosphere. W'hen Cis filled with water, it is ready to be filled with sludge, while at the same time water is forced into A and the sludge of B forced in the press. The filter press shown in Fig. 52, consists of thirty-six cast-iron cells, .supported on a simi)le frame, with a central feed-passage into which the sludge is forced from the receivers. The cells are separated by canvas bags, and in the intercellular spaces tlie sludge remains, while the water is drained out through the canvas bags into a trough on the rear of the press, and returns to the tanks. On the end of the press is a capstan-screw connected with a thrust-block which i^resses the thirty-six cells of the press into close contact. It is the air pressure which separates the water from the sludge. There is nothing offensive about these cakes when pressed dry ; and if protected from water after being taken from the press, they may V)e kej^t in bulk for weeks without nuisance. In the presence of heat and moisture they become more or less objectionable. The manurial value of the sludge cakes is slight. The small amount of precipitants used fails to retain the bulk of fertilizing matters in the sew- age. At ]iresent between 9,000 and 10,000 people are contril)uting to the sewage, and about 13 tons of sludge are taken out each week. Some of the sludge cake has been sold at fifty cents per load ; but more has been given away among neigh- boring farmers, while a large amount has been carted away by the authorities for burial when no other removal offered. Wh''^*'' 396 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNTJED STATES. A committee of the " Town Improvement Society of East Orange "... deter- mined during the summer and fall of 1890 to investigate the operation of the works and their results. They secured and submitted to Professor A. R. Leeds two samples of effluent water for e.x.amination and report. The results generally are better than results secured for the author's use from time to time. . . . The summary of Professor Leeds' analyses, as quoted by Mr. Bas- sett from the committee's report, and such of Professor Leeds' com- ments as are necessary by way of exphination, are as follows : Analyses op East Orange Sewage Effluents, compared with Untreated Sewage. (Parts per 100,000.) V c ■o ■o a 1 E "3 gi^ 4> J3 S o -a . m ^'1^ t^w "C ca E i^ a e3 ffl g 1 'C o 3 ig 5 c c. E "c c ota 'S S fe cost of treatment and other feat- 398 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATKS. ures of the works was obtained by a personal visit in November, 1802, as follows : Mr. J. J. O'Neill, Township Engineer of East Orange stated that the cost of. operating the works for the nine months from January 1 to October 1, 1892, had been as follows : Labor ^3,935 Chemicals, coal, oil, canvas, rei^airs, sundries 2, 146 Total $6,081 • This is at the rate of about $675 per month, or $8,100 per year, or about 56 cents per inhabitant per year, on a basis of a population of 14,500. The decreased cost of operating the works in 1892 is said to have been due to greater efficiency of labor. The force at the disposal works in November, 1892, included a foreman, engineer, and five laborers. The tanks are cleaned three times a week, and their sides whitewashed or treated with some other disinfectant. The sludge cakes are generally drawn to the poor farm and there buried or disposed of otherwise.* Lime is bought of a local dealer at 95 cents per barrel, delivered at the works. Sulphate of alumina costs about Ij cents per pound at the works, and is bought by the carload from the New York branch of Harrison Bros. & Co., Philadelphia. In November, 1892, there were in use about 33 miles of sewers and 1,685 house connections. Most or all of the flush tanks were not in use in 1892, and the daily flow of sewage for that year is given at 1,200,000 gallons, which is said to be less than it was previously, owing to a decrease of infiltration of ground-water to the sewers.f * July 15, 1803, it was stated at the disposal works that the sludge was being drawn away by farmers, without compensation on either side ; also, that to that date two crops of gi'ass had been cut from the disposal area. t The sources of information in regard to the Sewage Disposal Works at East Orange are : (1) Mr. Bassett's paper, Inland Sewage Disposal, with Special Reference to the East Orange, N. J., Works. Tran. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. xxv. (1891), pp. 125-160. (2) The East Orange, N. J., Sewerage System. Eng. News, vol. xxi. (Jan. .5 and 19, 1889), pp. 42-43. (3) Sewerage of East Orange, New Jersey. Eng. and Bldg. Reed., vol. viii., (1883) p. 45; also vol. xi. (1SS5), p. 313 ; also vol. xix. (1889), pp. 87-88 and 107-109. (4) The East Orange Sewage Disposal Works as Compared with Other Alethods. Abstract of paper read before N. .J. San. Assoc, Trenton, Nov. 22. 1889. By Carroll Ph. Bassett, 13th An. Rept. N. J. St. Bd. Health (1889), pp. 73-82; also in revised form, Eng. News, vol. xxiii. (Feb. 1.5, 1890), pp. 100-102. (5) The reports of Mr. Croes and the Committee on Sewerage, etc., of the Town Improvement Society. (6) Sewage Purification in America. East Orange, N. J. Eng. News, vol. xxviii. (Dec. 1, 1892), pp. 520-521. CHAPTER XXV. CHEMICAL PKECIPITATION AND MECHANICAL SEPAEATION AT LONG BRANCH, NEW JERSEY. In tlie fall of 1884 the local Lealtli authorities of Long Branch, New Jersey, consulted Carroll Ph. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C.E., in regard to the introduction of sewerage into that town. On investigation it was found that, while urgent need existed for an efficient removal of sewage, the limit of the city's bonded indebtedness had been almost reached. An increase in the limit could only be secured by a popular vote, and would probably have been defeated.* It was finally decided to allow a company to build works. The neces- sary legislation was obtained, and a private company, incorporated under the State, law, introduced a system of sewerage. A number of the public-spirited citizens of Long Branch were interested in the control of the sewerage company, and it was considered that a matter so intimately related to the healtli of the town could be safely intrusted to their hands. Surveys were made and plans perfected in the winter of 1885-6, and in the following spring the main jDortion of the sewer- age system was constructed. In the agreement between the town and the company it was stipu- lated that no objectionable matters should be poured into the adjacent waters; hence the introduction of some process of purification was imperatively necessary. To meet the requirements, a system of par- tial chemical precipitation, supplemented by filtration through coke, was devised. The system has Ijeen described by the engineer as follows : The topuf^rapliv of tlie town is siin])l<\ A lidge, twonty foot above moan tide, rolls u)) from the beaeli and falls easily back to a jtarallel valley, 500 to 600 yards from th(! beach, whii-li averages nine to ten feet al)Ove mean tid(^ throngliont the length of the town. 'J'lie west slope of the valley rises gradually for a fi'action of a mile, where it again dips to form a secondary valley. This second ridge is inter- sected by several streams and depressions It would have been a simple matter to construct sewers ada])ted to the needs of the built-up portion of the town, but to design a comprehensive system capable of extension and development to meet the needs of the entire adjacent territory, and conditioned on the location of the work.s * bi regard to the sanitary condition of Long Branch previous to the construction of the sewer- age works, see (1) A Report an an Inspection of Certain Health Resorts. By E. W. Bowditch, Han. Eng., in llt. Nat. Bd. Health for yr. end. June 30, 188;3, pp. 1.5:5-187; Q2) Tth An. Kept N. J. St. Bd. Health (188:5). 400 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. for the treatment of the sewage, was a complex problem of considerable magnitude, and required an expense in construction only justified by the demands of the future, and in the making of which the company are stated to have demonstrated their good faith and determination to meet the needs of the entire community. The system constructed is the " separate " system. The sewage is collected in vitrified pipes (eight-inch being the minimum) into the main, which flows in the principal valley (twenty-four-inch being the maximum) ; passes through the build- FiG. 53. — Plan and Sections of Purification Works at Long Branch, Newt Jersey, and Sections through Tidat. Chamber. ing, where it undergoes the treatment ; thence to the tidal chamber, in which it is controlled by automatic valves and discharged on the outgoing tide into the ocean through a w^rought-iron pipe supported on piles and extending 200 feet from shore. Man-holes are placed along the lines at intervals not greater than 300 feet, and at all deviations of alignment or grade, securing control and location of troubles in the pipes. The covers are perforated to secure ventilation, and buckets are to be hung just beneath the covers to catch dirt and sand falling through the holes. As the sewers are designed to accommodate the maximum flow of the crowded season, the main does not receive cleansing flow during a large portion of the year. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AND MECHANICAL SEPARATION. 401 Arraugements are made for liberal flashing along the lines, and in some locations the brook can be turned into the sewers. lu the section of the town to which the sewage would gravitate, little available land for treatment-works could be obtained ; and the main sewer was necessarily located at so small a height above mean tide that considerations of economy de- pendent on a gravity outlet demanded that the slinrtest line to the ocean be pro- vided. This ])r(n-ented any lengthy detour of the main sewer to treatment-works, and virtually determined their location. A small ]ilot of ground, 100 x 100 feet, on Long Biancl) avenue, near Second avenue, was finally pi'ocured and the works erected tliere. The l)uilding is surrounded, close on every side, by dwellings and shops. Cliemicals (lime, alum, etc.) are mingled with the sewage at its entrance to 26 402 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. the works. Together they flow into tlie receiving tanks, which are constructed in duplicate of concrete, and receive the sewage alternately, the one being cleaned while the other is in use. The course of tlie sewage in the tanks, under planks floating on edge, over walls, through submerged arches, as shown in the accom- panying sketch (Fig. 53), is such that in the thiity-feet flow a large part of the matters in susijension settles with the chemicals into the bottom of the tank ; the sewage then enters the series of portable coke filters. Provision is made for four deep, narrow wire cages, sliding in guides and holding different sizes of coke. Sec-t'onal Ellevat-ion A- E>. Fig. 55. — Details of Sludge Compi.fssohs. Long Branch, New Jersey. "When the filters are clean a very fair purity is secured, and it is believed that the process is capable of considerable development. The coke when taken from the frames is used as fuel ; it could with care be used again as a filter, effecting- economy. The flow in the tanks is continuous. Considerable loss of head occurs in the flow through the filters, and when they are in operation the sewage has to be pumped up to the level of the gravity sewer. This is accomplished by a six-inch centrifugal pump, built by the Weber Machine Company, of Lawrence, Massachu- setts. When the filters are out the sewage passes through the worlcs by gravity. After sufficient deposit is secured in one of the tanks the flow is divei'ted to the other, and the water is drawn down in the first tank nearly to the level of the CHEMICAL PKECIPITATIOX AXD MECHANICAL SEPAKATIOX. 403 sludge (or deposit) ; the remaining contents of the tank are then drawn into a wvought-iron sludge-receiver by creating in it a vacuum with a vacuum engine. From this receiver the sludge is forced by compressed air into Johnson's tilter- press, where the liquids are jiressed from the sludge, leaving portable cakes to be used as guano. A by-pass is arranged on the main sewer near the building, so that sewage, in case of accident or emergency and during the winter season, can be made to flow by gravity directly to the tidal chamber, avoiding the works.* Fk;. no — Dktaii,s of Sluuge Compuessoks, Long Branch, New Jersey. The population of Long- Branch in winter does not exceed 7,000 ; in summer it is estimated at 80,000. The sewers receive some roof-water at the head of the lines. On a visit to the plant Dec. 1, 1892, the following additional infor- mation was secured throug-h the courtesy of the officials of the com- pany : There were in use on the above date about ten miles of sewers and * Description of Long Branch Sewerage System. By Carroll Ph. Bassett, 11th An. Rept. N. J. State Bd. Health (1887), pp. 88-91. 404 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. 400 liouse conuections. The tidal cliamber provided to permit of dis- charging' the sewage at high tides is not used, difficult construction and economy having resulted in a chamber too small for practical use. During heavy rains in the winter season no attempt at jDurification is made, the sewage passing around the station directly to the ocean. About 75 pounds of alum a day, costing 1| cents per pound in New York, has been used since the plant was put in operation. Lime is used for treating the sludge, onl}^ a small quantity of the latter, it ap- pears, being secured. The sludge is given to one of the directors of the companj' , who uses it on his farm. The sewage passes through two coke filters, and the coke is renewed only once a year at a cost of about §2. No records of the amount of sewage treated, or of the daily flow, are kej)t.* * See Eng. News, vol xxviii. (Dec. 33, 1893), pp. 580-583. CHAPTEK XXVI. THE MrSTIC VALLEY CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION WORKS. The water supply of the Cliarlestowu district of the city of Boston, aud of the towns of Chelsea, Everett, and Somerville, is derived from the upper Mystic lake, which is about 6^ miles from Charlestown, in the towns of Medford, Arling'ton, aud Winchester. Its area is about 200 acres ; drainage area, 27f square miles ; and mean surface elevation, about 7 feet above tide-water. The storage capacity is about 380,000,- 000 gallons. In Winchester and Woburn, near the head of the upper M3'stic lake, are about a dozen tanneries, the drainage from which formerly passed directly into the upper lake. A considerable amount of house-drain- age also passed into the Abbajona river (the induent stream to the Mystic lake) or into its tributaries. The effect of this drainage was to seriously pollute the Mystic lake. After the acquirement of the Mys- tic supply by the city of Boston, it was concluded to construct a server to intercept this objectionable drainage and convey it to the lower Mystic lake, which is subject to tidal action. An Act Avas passed b}' the Massachusetts Legislature in 1875, authorizing the construction of such a sewer, but by reason of defects in it nothing was done until after the passage of an amendment in 1877. Immediately thereafter an order of the City Council was approved, authorizing the construc- tion of the sewer in confcn-mity with the provisions of the original Act and the amendment. The entire work, including the main sewer and its branches, was completed in the summer of 1878. The main sewer, 11,857 feet in length, extends from the head of the lower Mystic lake to a point in Woburn, near Moseley's tannery. It is 28 inches hiizh and 2(5 inches wide, except at the outlet and along a railroad emljankment near the upper end, where cast-iron pipes 24 inches in diameti-r were used. Branch sewers, to the amount of 11,{)G4 feet, were constructed to various points, where the tannery and other objectionable drainage was to be intercepted ; G,150 feet of these are 15 inches in diameter, 2,000 feet 10 inches in diameter, with the balance (') inches in diameter. The Mystic valley sewer presents some interesting phases of legis- lation in reference to sewerage and sewage dis]i(^sal. Durinsi- the year 1880 <'(»ni])];iints were niaihi ])\- the towns of ^[(Mlford ami Arlington 406 SEWAGK DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. that the accumulation of sewag-e in the lower Mystic lake was the cause of a serious effluvium nuisance, and the Legislature was ai3pealed to for its abatement. The result of this action was the enactment of a law ordering the discontinuance of the sewer, unless the sewage be so treated as to ren- der it free from polluting substances. The peculiar nature of the tan- nery sewage, which consists mainly of the refuse of tanneries, such as spent tan bark and scrapings of hides, appeared to render it a very difficult problem to comply with the requirements of the Act, and in order to learn authoritatively what could be accomplished by chemical treatment of this particular sewage, the Boston Water Board requested Professor Wm. Ripley Nichols to examine a sample of the sewage and rejDort upon the same. The following is from his report, submitted in February, 1881 : The sewage was received by me late in the afternoon of January "iSth, having been taken from the sewer that afternoon. It was alkaline, reddish brown in color, and containing a quantity of suspended matter, the coarser part of which settled somewhat readily. The odor, when the sample was fresh, was not very considerable, but was sufficiently marked to betray its origin. On standing in the laboratoiy, the organic matter, as might be expected, began to decompose and became very much more offensive. The specific gravity was about 1,007, water being 1,000. Analysis showed that every 100,000 parts contained about 330 parts by weight of suspended matter and 1, 170 parts of matter in solution ; or, expressed in grains to the United States gallon, one gallon contained : Grains. In suspension 192 In solution 683 (Of which 432 grains were common salt.) Altogether 875 I have made a number of calculations and experiments with reference to the chemical treatment of the sewage, but I do not know that this was a fair sample of the entire daily discharge, which I have assumed to be 200,000 gallons, or say in round numbers, 1,700,000 pounds. Suhfiidence. — When the sewage stands quietly, the greater portion of the sus- pended matter settles, but the liquid still remains turbid and highly colored and liable to decompose. If the sewage were allowed simply to settle in tanks and the somewhat clarified liquid then run off directly or through coarse filters, the sedi- ment could be removed as a thin mud. The weight oldry sediment for the day's discharge would be some 5,600 ]iounds, and when wet (that is, in the form of sludge, which would mn .slowly or could be pumped) it would occupy about 12,000 gallons. I am, of course, aware that at the present time settling tanks are in use in the tanneries, and that thus a large amount of solid matter is prevented from entering the sewer. Treatment irilh liine. — The sewage, as I received it, was alkaline, no doubt from the excess of lime used in the tanneries, and the addition of a small quantity of lime had no effect on the clarification of the liquid. Even when added to the amount of two per cent, by weight (which would be 35,000 pounds of quicklime for the day's run), it failed to produce any very considerable effect. With the enormous pro- portion of g by weight (290,000 pounds of quicklime for the day's run), quite an efficient clarification was accomplished by the subsiding of the lime ; but any such projiortion as this would be out of the question from a practical point of view. Tin: MYSTIC VALLEY CHEMICAL PRECIPITATIOX WORKS. 407 Even in this case, however, the liquid still contaiueJ organic matter in too large a quantity to be discharged into a salt-water basin without being liable to cause offence. Treatment loith alum. — On the addition of alum (or sulphate of alumina) in suffi- cient amount, there separates readily from the sewage a rather bulky jjrecipitate containing almost all the coloring matter, even in solution, and leaving the liquid clear and nearly colorless. As the experiment is i^erformed in the laboratory, bet- ter results are obtained by this method than by any other ; but to produce the best effect it is necessary to add as much alum as from ^^ to ^ of one per cent, of the sewage. To treat in tliis way the daily discharge of sewage would require from 4,000 to 6,000 pounds of alum, or an eipiivalent amount of sulpliate of alumina. The expense of the chemical jjuts this out of the question, and, if it did not, we should have to face the fact that the sediment formed would, after tweutv-four hours' .standing, occupy when wet the space of 60,000 gallons ; moreover, with the best clarification that I have been able to effect, the clear liquid still contained, in solution, a large amount of organic matter ready to decompo.se. Treatment with day. — I was not able to obtain satisfactory results by using clay, although when a considerable quantity was added to the sewage and thoroughly mixed with it, a certain amount of organic matter was dragged down as the clay settled. Such treatment, if applied practically, would increase very much the weight of .sludge to be handled ; but I have made no calculations of the amount of clay required. Treatment until aiilphuric add. — When acid is added to the sewage in just suffi- cient quantity to neutralize its alkaline character^ the liquid clears itself quite well, most of the coloring matter subsiding as a flocculent sediment. The liquid still contains a large quantity of organic matter ; but if, after treatment with acid, it were filtered and then allowed to flow over fragments of limestone or marble chips, to neutralize any excess of acid, it would no doubt give less offence than at present. The amount of acid required for this particular sample would be equivalent to about 2,000 pounds of oil of vitriol for the day's discharge, and the wet sludge would occupy about 20,000 gallons. You will bear in mind that my experiments have been performed, and my con- clusions are based, on a single .sample of sewage ; I have no means of knowing how fairly it represents the average character of the entire day's run. More ex- tended acquaintance with the stuff might lead me to modify somewhat the state- ments made. With this caution I state the following CONCLUSTONS. No practicable chemical treatment will purify the sewage to such an extent that it may be discharged into the lower Mystic lake with a reasonable expectation of freedom from offence. It is pnaxible to treat the sewage so that if it were discliargod into a running stream, or into a tidal basin with considerable circulation, the risk of offence would be vei-ji mnch lenaened. Tiie most practical way of treating tlie sewage would be to collect in tanks, mix with sulphuric acid (perhaps with addition of a small amount of sulphate of alu- mina), allow to settle, filter through coke or other material, and then pass the liquid over marble chips or broken limestone to the point of discharge. The act of 1881, ordering- the discontinuance of tlio sewer unless the sewage was so treated us to render it ivw from ]iol]uting- sub- stances, was tlie subject of a larii'e amount of controversy between the city autliorities of lioston and th<^ authorities of tlie towns bordering on the hiwer Mystic hd obtained. It should be borne in mind that the precipitation tanks were inadetpiate for the purpose of precipitation. If tliey hail been twice as long, in order to give the flocculent matter ample time to precipitate, I have no doubt that a velocity of 0.50 foot per minute would have given a very fine effluent, free of suspended flocculent matter. Tri'.ntmod of crmli'. si'intqe (ind of cUtrified Hcii'iigc. — This exi^eriment consisted in tn'ating crude and claritied sewage with equal quantities of precipitant at dift'er- ent hours of the day. The total average per cent, of matter precipitated from the crude sewage was 20 percent., and the anioiint precii)itated from the clarified sewage was 30 per cent. 410 SEWAGP] DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. This small diflference might have been increased somewhat by a greater number of trials, but the difierence will always be small when the amount of reagent ap- plied to the crude sewage is adequate, because it requires a lai'ge quantity of 2)ie- cijiitant to throw down the fine particles of matter in the clarified sewage, while the same quantity applied to the criide sewage will give very nearly as good results. Admitting a slight advantage by treating the clarified sewage when the amount of precipitate alone is considered, the advantages obtained from the crude sewage, such as compact sludge, active precipitation, etc., far exceed that of the former method. The benefit of having a compact sludge cannot be too highly spoken of ; in fact, lime is frequently added as a reagent in part for this purjjose, and is one of the re- quirements in case the sludge is to be pressed. As the result of his experiiueiits, Mr. Learned recommended the fol- lowing- for the Mj-stic valley sewag-e : (1) The intermittent treatment of the sewage. (2) The construction of four precipitation tanks, each capable of holding- three hours' pumping-. (3) A sludge -well into which the sludge may be drained. (4) A sludge-pump for raising the sludge into flumes, by which it may be conveyed to shallow basins for partial desiccation until such time as pressing the sludge may become a necessity. (5) A branch sewer from the present line of main sewer to a pump- well on the city's land. (6) An engine and pump for pumping the sewage into the tanks. (7) Tanks and machinery to aid the dissolving of the crude sulphate of alumina. (8) Buildings, including engine-house, coal-shed, etc., all at an esti- mated cost of $11,000. In accordance with this recommendation the jDresent works, which are illustrated in Figs, 57, 58, and 59, were designed and constructed, ready for operation, in the latter part of the year 1888. They consist, in detail, of a pump-well connected with the main sewer by a branch sewer of brick, a sewage-pump and engine, engine-house, four settling tanks, a sludge-well, sludge-pump, and a series of settling basins for receiving the sludge. The general design of the works may be readily inferred from the illustrations. In the engine-house are three vats (marked chemical tanks on the plan), so arranged that the precipitant is fed from the middle vat, which is placed lower than the other two, in which the precipitant is dissolved ; these vats are provided with steam coils for heating the water used, and with a stirring apparatus driven by the engine. The precipitant is fed to the sewage as it flows from the branch sewer into the pump-well ; the process of pumicing thoroughly incor- porates the chemicals. As each settling tank is filled, the sewage is allowed to remain quiescent for about three hours, after which time it is found that the sedimentation process is complete. The clarified 412 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. THK MYSTIC VALLEY CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION WOKKS. 413 effluent is then drawn off by means of narrow stop -planks, wliicli are removed one by one. During the winter season the tanks can be filled six times before it is necessary to remove the nTf';-.- sludge. In warm weather the sludge, if allowed to remain too long, is liable to become otfensive, and it is necessary to remove it somewhat oftener. The re- moval is effected through sluices connecting with the sludge- well, which is placed in the middle space between the four tanks, as indicated on the plan, Fig. 58. From the sludge-well the sludge is pumped into a flume, which conve3'S it to the settling basins. A cross-section through the buildings, on the line C D on the plan, is shown by Fig. 59. The results of a number of measurements, made since the plant was put in operation, show that on the average 1 volume of sludge is deposited to every 30 volumes of sew- age treated. After the effluent has been drawn down as low as it can be Avitliont disturbing the sludg(!, the latter is found to contain about 4 parts of dry solids to 96 parts of water; a large portion of the water disappears in the settling basins, leav- ing a product sufficiently dry to permit of handling, and containing about 4 parts of solids to 12 parts of water. The volume of the dry product is in the neighbor- hood of 10 cubic yards daily. 414 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE L'jVITED STATES. The cost of tlie present works, includiug- the preparation of the set- tling basins, was $10,410. For the year ending- December 31, 1889, the total amount of sewag-e pumped and treated was 99,882,850 gallons, or 324,000 gallons per day. exclusive of Sundays and legal holidays, when the jaumps were not run ; 404,270 pounds of sulphate of alumina were used as a precijDitant. and 162 tons of coal used in the pumping. The cost of pumping and treating the sewage, exclusive of the care of the main sewer and its branches, is given as $152.46 per 1,000,000 gallons treated. For the year ending December 31, 1890, the pumps ran 335 days, working 5,147 hours, and the amount of sewage pumped and treated was 119,119,670 gallons, making an average of 355,500 gallons per day of pumping. The total amount of sulphate of alumina used during the year was 323,650 j)ounds. The coal consumption amounted to 191 tons. The quantity of sludge removed from the basins was 2,611 cubic yards. The rate of precipitant used for the year 1890 was 1 part of crude sulphate of alumina to 3,067 parts of sewage, or 1.36 net tons per 1,000,000 gallons of sewage. For the 13 months ending January 31, 1892, the total quantity of sewage pumped and treated was 133,102,028 gallons. The total amount of crude sulphate of alumina used was 331,890 pounds; the amount of coal, 210.66 tons. The quantity of sludge removed from the basins was 2,334 cubic yards, the most of which was carted away by a neighboring farmer, and used as a fei-tilizer. The rate of application of precipitant was one part to 3,354 parts of sewage, or 1.24 net tons per 1,000,000 gallons of sewage.* * The sources of information in regard to the Mystic Valley Sewage Disposal Works are the 2d, 5th, 6th, 8th. 12th, loth, 14th, 1.5th, and 16th An. Repts. of the. Boston Water Board ; and Mr. Learned's paper. Some Facts about the Chemical Treatment of Mystic Sewage, in the Jour. Assoc, of Eng. Socs., vol. vii., No. 7 (June, ISSS), pp. 244-248. Mr. Learned's paper is also to be found in Eng. & Bldg. Reed., vol. xix. (1889), p. 189. CHAPTEK XX^T:I. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS. Probably the sewage disposal of the city of Worcester, Massachusetts, has been the subject of more discussion than that of any other Ameri- can city. As long- ag-o as 1872, Phinehas Ball, C.E., presented a scheme for the utilization of the Worcester sewag^e ; and the Massachusetts State Board of Health, at the very beginning of its series of studies of river pollution, selected the Blackstone river, which receives the sewage of Worcester, as one of the streams for special examination. The re- sults of this original study of the Blackstone river by the State Board of Health are to be found in its Fourth Annual Report. The examina- tion of the waters of the river, which was thus begun in 1872, was con- tinued in the following year, and the additional results may be found in the Fifth Annual Report of the Board. In the Seventh Annual Report may be found further investigations, and a statement in detail of all the various sources of pollution which existed on the Blackstone river at that time, togetlier with anahses of the water, and a tabulation of the dry weather flow in relation to the sources of pollution, number of the same, etc., per square mile. From the sumnuay it appears that there were at that time 44 woollen mills, emploj'ing 3,003 operatives ; 27 cotton mills, emi)loyiug 3,978 operatives ; 12 iron works, employing 1.224 o])eratives ; 1 tannery, employing G ; and 1 shamble, employing 5 ])lan by whicli the city of Worcester * For a disciiBsion of the process of Relf-purilication as exoniplitied in the case of the Black- atone river, see Special Report of the Mass. St. Bd. Health, Part I. , Examination of Water Sup- plies, pp. 7'.»4-7'.tH. 21 418 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITP:D STATES. may withhold from the Blackstone river the waste organic matter pro- duced by the population and its industries, and now jaoUuting- that stream." The plan proposed by Col. Waring included the following : I. To separate the dry-weather sewage of the city and the early storm-washings of the sewers from the water of Mill brook. II. To allow the earthy matters of the sewage to subside. III. To screen out the coarser objects. IV. To expose the screened sewage in a thin sheet to the air during its rapid flow for a distance of 500 feet at a sharp fall. V. To carry it at low velocity for about 10 miles through ditches bordered by rank-growing trees or bushes ; alternating to a second set of ditches as often as necessary, say once a week, so as to give each set a dry week for the aeration of the subsided matters. VI. To spread the resultant effluent over 126 acres of wooded swamp land, giving each area two days out of three for aeration. The area selected by Col. Waring is included in the area near Mill- bury, which Mr. Ball proposed to utilize in 1872.* The Legislature of 1881 directed the State Board of Health to inves- tigate the question of sewage disposal for Worcester, with special reference to preventing the further pollution of the Blackstone river and its tributaries, and recommend a definite plan for preventing such pollution. The Board appointed, as experts, C. F. Folsom, M.D., and Joseph P. Davis, M. Am. Soc. C.E., who, acting in ct)njunction with Dr. Walcott, Secretary of the Board, designed a system of disposal by intermittent filtration. By this project the sewage would be di- verted from Mill brook and conducted, i^artly by gravity and partly by pumping from a low area, to a tract of land midway between Worcester and Millbury, and in the vicinity of the locality previously selected by Mr. Ball and Col. Waring, but at a somewhat higher eleva- tion. For this purpose it was proposed to distribute the seAvage at a rate not exceeding 40,000 gallons per acre per day, the experts express- ing the opinion that this daily quantity would not be large enough to prevent the successful raising of crops on the filtration area. The estimated cost of carrying out the plan of intermittent filtration was $408,490. The necessary pumping was estimated at $3,500 per year. The cost of construction under Col. Waring's plan was estimated at $206,500. Criticisms of Col. Waring's plan are submitted by the experts in their report, and reasons given why, in their opinion, it would not provide an efficient solution of the sewage disposal problem for Worcester.! * Col. Waring's report may be found in the Sanitary Appendix to the 8d An. Rept. of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, for the year 1881. + The experts' report may also be found in the Sanitary Appendix to the 3d An. Rept. of the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION" AT WORCESTER, MASS. 419 At the first session of the Legislature following- the presentation of this report, a bill was introduced in the interests of the residents along- the Blackstone river below Worcester, by the provisions of which the city of Worcester was required to purify its sewage before discharging it into the river, within four months from its passage, and thereafter to cease discharging into the river all matter ofi'ensive or dangerous to public health. In the extended hearing which was given before the Joint Standing Legislative Committee on Public Health, the riparian owners claimed that they were injured in health and business by reason of the presence of Worcester sewage in the stream. Testimony was given on the part of the petitioners for the bill to the effect that only a few years before, the stream, was pure and fit for all kinds of manufacturing uses ; wdiereas now the stream had become offensive to sight and smell, and its w^ater rendered entirely unfit for use in manufacturing. The city authorities denied nearly all the statements of the petitioners, claiming in effect : (1) The city was not creating any nuisance ; (2) even if the city were creating a nuisance, it still had a right to do so under the Law of 1867, by wdiich it was per- mitted to discharge crude sewage into Mill brook ; (3) the proper remedy for the petitioners was not to compel Worcester to purify its sewage, but to remove the dams built l)y the petitioners, thereby removing obstructions in the stream which prevented the sewage from flowing freely and purifying itself. The expert testimony on the side of the city was prepared by AVm. E. Worthen, M. Am. Soc. C.E., and the city engineer, Charles A. Allen, M. Am. Soc. C.E. The State's side of the case was presented by Drs. Folsom and AVolcott, and Joseph P. Davis, M. Am. Soc. C.E., who, as a commission of experts, had devised the project of disposal by intermittent filtration, already briefly described.* The opposition on the part of the city to the compulsory expendi- ture of the large amount of money which was required to effect the ]>urification, was sufficiently strong to prevent anything being done at that time, and the Legislature adjourned Avithout passing the Act. The bill was again introduced at the session of 1884, and, after a spirited opposition on the part of the city, again defeated, for reasons similar to those which had been previously urged. In his report to the Massachusetts Drainage Commission in 1885, Mr. Clarke further considers tln^ question of sewage disposal for Wor- cester, and reviews the several reports which have been made previous to that time. His conclusion was that a solution of tlie problem of sewage disposal at Worcestc^r had already been devised by the experts * For this evi(len(!e in detail, see The Sewa^^e fif Worcester in its Relation to the Blackstone River. Hearin<; before the .Joint Coniniittee on Piil)lic Health, in tiie matter of restraininij tlie city of Worcester from polluting the Blackstone river. Feb. and March, 1882, Pamphlet, 164 pages. 420 SE^YAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. of the State Board of Health in 1881, and he therefore investigated the conditions at Worcester no further than was necessary to verify the essential features of their plans. Mr. Clarke states that an exam- ination of the territory below Worcester showed that the tract of land which had been selected as a filtration area was most accessible and suitable for the purpose. Borings and test-pits also proved the adapt- ability of the soil for filtration. The estimates prepared by the experts were verified by Mr. Clarke, with the result that if they were in error at all they were larger than necessary. Mr. Clarke closes the portion of his report treating of Worcester sewage disposal with the suggestion that the Drainage Commission could, wit^Ji ijropriety and safety, recommend that Wor- cester be required to purify its sewage in some way ; but that a choice of method and its details be determined by the city itself. During the period of discussion the pollution increased from year to year, and in 1883 the City Council of Worcester directed the city engineer, Charles A. Allen, M. Am. Soc. C.E., to proceed to Europe in order to acquire a thorough knowledge of sewage disposal as prac- tised there, with special reference to the conditions obtaining at Wor- cester. Mr. Allen accordingly visited England, France, and Germany, examining the methods of sewage disposal in use at Croydon, Don- caster, Burnlej', Bradford, Leeds, Barnsley, Wigan, Leyton, Birming- ham, and Atherton in England, Paris in France, and Berlin and Dantzic in Germany. Finally, in 1886 the Legislature passed an Act directing that the city of A\'orcester should, without being limited to any particular system, within four years after its passage, remove from its sewage, before its discharge into the Blackstoue river, " the ofi^ensive and polluting properties and substances therein, so that after its discharge into said river, either directly or through its tributaries, it shall not create a nuisance which might endanger the public health." The city was also authorized by the Act to acquire rights of way or easements wherever needed for the construction of the necessary sew- erage and sewage disposal works, and for the payment of all damages sustained by any person or corporation by reason of such erection or construction ; also to raise and appropriate such sums of money as might be required to carry out the provisions of the Act. September 20, 1886, the City Council ordered that the city engineer make such investigations, examinations, surveys, plans, and estimates, and take the opinions of such experts as he deemed necessary to ascertain the best and most approved system of sewage disposal to be obtained for the cit}^ of Worcester in compliance with the law. The city engineer was also directed to report his plans as soon as possible. In his reiDort, submitted in accordance with this order, Mr. Allen first CHEMICAL PRECIPITATIOX AT WORCESTER, MASS. 421 gives an account of the several foreig-n sewage disposal works visited by bim in 1883. In regard to the disposal of the sewage of Worcester by irrigation, Mr. Allen says : Now the conditions, climatic and other, that exist at Worcester are not as favor- able to the proper treatment of sewage bv irrigation or by filtration as in England and France, or even in Germany, at Berlin and Dautzic. It has been stated, both in rejjorts made upon the subject of sewage treatment and in evidence taken in support of the claim that the city of Worcester should purify its sewage, that the climate at Berlin and Dautzic, where broad irrigation is resorted to, is substantially the same as at Worces.er, and that therefore it will be easy to purify the sewage of the city by irrigation throughout the entire year. I think, however, that there is a reasonable doubt about this. The following statements of the diflereuce in temperatures will show a decided ditierence iu climatic conditions during the winter months. The temperatures at Dautzic were obtained from Mr. Aird, the manager of the farm at that place, and are official; while the temperatures at Worcester are taken from the city records. The following table gives the differences in temi^erature for five winters, begin- ning with December 1, 1877, and ending March 31, 1883 : y^ . . Average monthly ^•"'"' temperature. December, 1878 31° Fahr. Janiiarv, 1879 28° " Februarv, " 32' " March, " " 33° " Average by months . . . 31.75'^ Fahr. December, 1879 27° Fahr. January, 1880 29° " Februarv, " 31° " March, " " 36" " Average by months . , December, 1880 34° Januarv, 1881 23° Februarv, " 28° March, ' " 31° 30.75° Fahr. Fahr. Worcester. Av-era-e monthly temperature. December, 1878 25° Fahr. January, 1879 20° " Februarv, '• 20° " March, ' " 30° " Average by months December, 1S79. January, 1880 . . . Februarv, " . . . March, " «' ... Average by months December, 1880 January, 1881 February, " March, " " 23.75° Fahr. 28° Fahr. 30° (( 27° " 29° i< 28.5° Fahr. 20° Fahr. 16° " 23° (< 32° " Average by months . . . 29.5° Fahr. December, 1881 31° Fahr. Januarv, 1882 37° " Feln-uary, " 38° " March, " 14° " Average bv months December, 1881 January, 1882 . . February, " . . March, " . . Average by months. . . 38.25° Fahr. December, 1882 26° Fahr. Januarv, 1883 27^ " Februiiiy, " 30° " March, " " 26° " 22.75° Fahr. 33° Fahr. 21° " 25° " 32° " Average bv months 29.75° Fahr. Average by months December, 1882 January, 1883 February, *' March, " 27.75° Fahr. 23° Fahr. 18° i< 22° (( 23° <( Average by months . . . 21.5° Fahr. It will 1)0 noticed that, witli tlie exception of tlie winter of bS79-80, the mercury ranged much lower at Worcester tiian at Dantzic, a difference of from 7° to 8° Fahr. 422 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. for the entire season being the general amount. This, of course, makes a great difference in frost penetration, and adds to the liability of the ground remaining frozen. An examination of the tables of daily temperature . . . shows that, in the five years covered by the tables given above, at Dantzic there were only three days during that period that the tliermometer registered below zero, the extreme being 4° degrees below ; while at Worcester, during the same period, there were forty days below zero, with an extreme of IS" below. At Dantzic there were thirty-eight days in which the temperature was between 10° and 'iO" above zero, while at \\'orcester there were 164 days. While there were 364 days at Dantzic in which the thermometer registered be- tween .20° and 32° degrees above, at Worcester there were 221 days. The total number of days covered by the observations in the five years was 606. Of this number Dantzic had 460 below the freezing point, or about 75.9 per cent., while Worcester had 542 days, or 89.4 per cent. While Dantzic had only 114 days below 20", or 18.8 percent., Worcester had 328, or 54.1 per cent.* As has been stated in the description of the woilis at Berlin, the sewage is stored in large reservoirs during the severest ])ortion of the winter, no attempt being made to purify by irrigation ; while at Dantzic it is constantly applied to the land without regard to the weather, the manager stating that while the action of the frost interfered somewhat with the oi)eration of the works, still the periods of ex- treme cold were of so short duration that no serious difficulty was exi^erienced. A glance at the tal)le of temperature will illustrate this fact. For instance, from the 25th to the 28th inclusive of January, 1881, was the coldest weather indicated for any four consecutive days in the five years. For the following twenty days the temperature averaged 33°, one degree above the freezing point, so that whatever frost had penetrated the ground during the .short cold period would undoubtedly be removed long before the twenty days had expired. In fact, there could have been very little severe frost after this time, for the average temperatuie of the month of Februarv following was 28° Fahr. , while March hud an average of 34° Fahr. It is true that here in New- England extremes of cold are followed frequently by warmer i^eriods — that is, the weather is not excessively cold for long periods of time ; but the reaction is not generally great, and it is almost too well known a fact to be commented upon, that after the frost once enters the ground here, it stays with almost constantly increasing depth until spring fairly opens. That this difference in climatic conditions is likely to prove a troublesome mat- ter, if any method of land treatment is exclu.sively relied upon, there would seem to be but little doubt. In Mr. Allen's opinion the climatic difficulty at Worcester was likely to be a serious one, and he accordingly deemed it desirable to take the opinion of some of the ablest English sanitary engineers upon this point. In response to a request from him, Mr. B. S. Brundell, M. Inst. C.E., who has constructed many sewage farms, among them the farm at Doncaster, England, which is one of the most successful (from a sanitarj^ point of view), wrote as follows : Sewage if properly applied to land may be purified ; but the ojieration is not l^rofitable. That is to say, sewage farming cannot, save in excejjtional instances, be made to pay. Given a sufficient and suitable area of land, and if the sewage is passed either over or through it you can have an effluent water fit to pass into any * For complete table of comparative dally temperatures at Worcester and Dantzic for the five winters, 187S-79 to 1882-83 inclusive, see either the Appendix to Mr. Allen's original report, or his paper on Sewage Disposal, in Trans. Am. Soc. CE. , vol. xviii., pp. 16-17. Also refer to table on page 306 for mean temperature of winter months at Dantzic for 81 years. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASS. 423 stream without polluting that stream. Wlietber what is known as sewage farming could be made to succeed in your climate it is almost impossible to sav. With a winter of extreme severity extending, as you say, from early in November to April, and with the ground frozen from three to five feet deep for a good part of that time, the apidicatiun of sewage would be extremely difficult. Our winters here, although adding to the trouble of sewage irrigation, do not make it impossible. The temperature of the sewage when it reaches the laud is sufficiently high to keep the otitfulla open ; but of course when it spreads upon the land it soon becomes frozen, and reniains a glazed surface until the thaw sets in, when it is gradually absorl>ed by the land. I do not feel able to give an opinion as to how far this process would be limited by the degree of cold to which you are liable, but I foresee very considerable dif- ficulty in the matter. Mr. James Mansergb, M. Inst, C.E., in ansAver to a similar inquiry addressed to him, A^rrote as follows : I have carefully considered, in the light of my experience in England, whether under such conditions as these, the disposal of sewage by way of broad irrigation and downward intermittent filtration may be counted on as a reliable and satis- factory mode of treatment. My experience on this matter dates from the year 1860, when, in conjunction with my then partner, Mr. Hugh U. McKie, C.E., City Surveyor of Carlisle, I laid out the first sewage farm ever made in England, to Mr. McKie being due the credit of its suggestion and initiation. Since that time, I have laid out the following sewage farms :— Bedford, Tun- bridge Wells — with two farms, Colney Hatch, Leavesden, and Caterham Metro- politan Lunatic Asylum, Lincoln County Asylum, Ormskirk, Reading. Grantham, Southborongh, Lincoln, St. Albans, Chesham, Bethesda, and Burton-upnn-Trent (now in hand), and I have advised upon Ashford, Hildenborough, Eotherham, Birmingham, Hereford. Staines, Waltham, etc., etc. I believe my practice in this branch of engineering is not second to that of any man in England. During my connection with those works, and on my visits to other sewage farms, I made myself acquainted with the circumstances of the application of sewage to land daring our English winters, and since my interviews with yourself I have made special and i)articular inquiries at several of the farms above mentioned. Tlie general experience in England undoubtedly is that with ordinary care no real ilifficulty is experienced in getting rid of sewage during frosty weather. This, I think, may be accepted as a fact. At the same time, I have myself .seen ice six or eight inches thick on a .sewage farm with a clay subsoil, and the sewage con- tinuing to freeze on the surface; and I have heard tliat, in the severe winters we have had here since 1878, it has been with some difficulty that trouble has been avoided on more than one farm. It is palpable that the risks are greater where sewage is put upon clay lands than where the subsoil is an open or loamy gravel. If the land can be kept unfrozen on the surface by the continuous application of the relatively warm sewage, all goes well. A thin coating of ice may be formed during the nights, but the sewage can, as a rule, be readily distributed under this film. In this country we rarely have long spells of hard frost itnbroken by short inter- vals of hei<,'htened temperature. Under the conditions you have described to me, I should have very great hesita- tion in recommending the process of broad irrigation and intermittent filtration as reliable modes of disposing of the sewage and preventing the jiollution of the river. I should fear that during such frosts as you tell me not unfrequently prevail, the ground would get fio/.en so hard as to render it impervious to the sewage, which would then simply flow over the sui'face into the river or its tributaries in a crude condition. In order to acquaint myself more i)arfifnlarly with the relative temperatures at 424 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Worcester, U. S., and England, I have olitained certain statistics from Mr. G. W. Symonds, F.R.S., which I have embodied in the accomi^anying diagram.* In addition to Worcester and London, all the facts are given with accuracy ia respect of Vienna and so far as concerns the " mean " in resj^ect of Berlin, but "the " minimum " of Berlin is merely the best approximation I can just now i^rocure. From this diagram I learn that, speaking broadly, the " mean " temjierature of the months from November to March in Worcester and London compare as follows : November, Worcester 3° Fahr. lower than London. December, " 12° " " " " Januarv, " 15° February, ♦' 15° " March, '« D" " " " " The lowest recorded temperatures compare as follows : November, Worcester 10° Fahr. lower than Loudon. December, " 10° January, " 21° " February, " 34° " " " ♦• March, " " 21° '• Making the comparison between the mean monthly temperatures of Worcester and Berlin (the sewage works of which city you have seen) the figures come out as follows : November, Worcester 1° Fahr. lower than Berlin. December, " 8° «' January, " 4° " " " " February, " 6° " " " " March, " 5° " " " " I find from the diagram that the mean temperatures of Worcester are as follows : November, 7° Fahr. above freezing point. December, 5° " below " " Januarv, 8° " Februarv, 7° « March, " 1° " above " " and the minimum temperatures are as follows : October, 6° Fahr. below freezing point. November, 20° " December, 35° " " " " January, 46° " FebruaW, 51° " March, ' 32° " April, 10 " All these figures confirm mo in my opinion that it would not be prudent to trust to getting rid of sewage satisfactorily at Worcester by tlie irrigation process.f Contiuuing- the discussion of objections to broad irrig-ation and in- termittent filtration, in their application to the conditions obtaining* at Worcester, Mr. Allen says : The great difference in the amount of annual rainfall is also an important factor to be considered. The greatest rainfall given at any place visited was at Wigan, where the average is about forty inches per annum, while the smallest amount was at Barnsley, where the average was given as 28-ftr inches j^er annum. The average of all places visited was 34 inches per annum. At Worcester the average is about 48 inches per annum, the lowest recorded amount for one year being .34.5 inches (or about the snme as the average amount at the places where inquiry was made), while the greatest recorded rainfall for one year at Worcester is G1.48 inches. Now it is generally the experience abroad that during storms the sewage has to * The diagram is not given in Mv. Allen's report. t For further definition of the limitations of irrigation in winter, see Chapter XVII. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASS. 425 be disposed of in some other way than by irrigation, the ground being frequently surcharged with water, rendering it incapable of purifying the sewage at all. "With the large rainfall here, this difficulty would be very much increased. Aside from the difficulties caused by climatic difl'erences, there is still another objection to irrigation that in the case of the city of Worcester should, it seems to me, jiave great weight. I refer to the loss of water by this means of sewage dis- posal. Just what the amount would be that the vegetation would absorb, and that would evaporate, can only be determined by actual trial. At Berlin, the experiments show that at least '60 per cent, is retained, while at Doncaster most of the water is lost in this way, the reason being that only a small qiiantity of sewage is applied to any one piece of land, the intention being not to apply more than would come in an ordinary rainfall. That the loss of water would be considerable there can be no doubt. For this, it is reasonable to suppose, the city would have to pay, as it is situated at the head of a manufacturing stream, where great value is jolaced upon every drop of water retained by any means, judging from the suits that have been brought against tlie city for water taken for domestic and general water supply purposes. That this claim will be made, the following quotation will show. It is taken from the " Keport of Millbury," dated Dec. 15th, 1881, and printed in connection with the report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, 1882 : " At this time, permit us to refer to a matter which we think ought not to be lost sight of in this connection. Whatever plan may eventually be adopted, there will necessarily result a greater or less loss of water, which, in the dry season of the year, when evaporation takes place rapidly, may amount to so much as to be a serious matter to the mills using the stream for water jjower. Even now the loss to manufacturers is noticeable. But it is claimed that whatever water is taken for the Worcester water sui)ply is returned to the river through the sewers. This can, of course, be true only to a certain extent. With the sewer water used for irriga- tion and restrained for jjurposes of purification, the loss will bo niueli greater. " We should urge the necf^ssity of i)roviding some means to make good this loss. And we respectfully ask th-.it, should your Board report to the Legislature a ])lan to prevent the pollution of the river, they will also rei)ort that, by means of additional storage basins to be used for this purpose, the city should make good the conse- quent loss of water." This report was signed by George A. Flagg, C. D. Morse, and Osgo(^d H. Waters, Committee of the Town of Millbury. While they do not ask to be paid for water lost, they do ask that compensating reservoirs may be constrricted, which amounts to about tlie same thing. The above are the principal objections to irrigation so far as the city of Worces- ter is concerned. While they are more or less local in their character, there is danger that l)y the adoption of irrigation, especially when a large quantity of sew- age is to be treated, the irrigation fields will become a greater nuisance than the one which is to be abated. In other words, it takes the most careful manage- ment to prevent a sewage farm from becoming offensive. What has been said in relation to the adoption of a scheme for treating the sew- age of Worcester by irrigation, applies also to intermittent downward filtration, so far as the effect of the climatic and other conditions are concerned ; in some re- spects, however, not to so great an extent. For instance, the amount of water lost by evaporation and absorjition would not be as great. The effect of severe frosts would probably be about the same, as in order to obtain an effluent that is at all satisfactory, the application (as the name of the system inii)lies) vms/ be intermit- tent. It will not do to simply turn tlie sewage constantly over a single area of un- derdrained land, and exjjcct that a clear effluent will be obtained : the haul ?uust have rest. " Tlie intenuittency is a sine f/i«i xon, (>ven in suitably constituted .soils, whenever complete success is aimed at." The danger would be that after one fil- tration area has received all tlie sewage that can be ap])lied at one time, and before the relatively warm sewage can be again ai>plied (generally after three or four 426 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. days), the ground would be frozen to such an extent that filtration would not take place. The temperature of the sewage has therefore much to do with the length of time that the ground can be kept open, and also with the extent of the area upon which sewage can be applied in cold weather. There were only two places that I visited where a record had been kept of the temi^erature of the sewage, viz., at Berlin and Paris. At the former place the lowest tempeiature reached in winter was 45° F., while at the latter place the minimum was 41° F. At \Yorcester the sewers have all been constructed to receive drainage of every nature. All surface water is conducted to them, and in consequence the tempera- ture of the sewage is at times very low. The record shows that in the main lateral sewers as low as 38° F. is readied. It is probable, therefore, that sewage taken from them and applied to the I'md would freeze quickly, and could not bedei^ended upon to keep the ground free from fi'ost. The advantage that intermittent tiltration would have over broad irrigation is that a much smaller area of land would be required, and the raising of crops would have to be made of secondary importance. In fact, it would be much better not to attempt to ya\>e crops at all, as the income derived therefrom would be small, and the tendency would probably be to neglect the purification of the sewage in order to derive as large an income as possible from the land. It must be understood that in order to obtain a good effluent, especially when the area of land is limited, some means of separating the sludge from the sewage is almost absolutely necessary to j^revent the ground from clogging. This fact is recognized by English authorities and, as before shown, this method of sewage treatment is rarely used except as an auxiliary to irrigation or precipitation. Chemical precipitation would not be subject to the objections spoken of above, and where the sewage has to be treated constantly, through the entire year, would seem to be the most favorable method for adoption at Worcester. On account of the peculiar quality of the Worcester sewag^e, due to the character of the manufacturing- wastes, it was considered desirable, before actually deciding- to use the method of chemical purification, to obtain some idea of the probable amount of chemicals which would be required irf^order to produce a satisfactory effluent. Professor L. P. Kinnicutt, of the Worcester Free Institute, was requested to make a series of analyses, and give an opinion as to the quantity and quality of precipitating- reagent best suited to the conditions. The following" is from his report : As to the chemical character of Worcester sewage a few words are necessary. Worcester sewage, in consequence of the nature and character of its manufacturing interests, contains, as may be seen from tables given below, a very large amount of soluble sulphates. It is well known that sea water cannot be used for flu.shing sewers, nor can sewage be run into the sea near the shore without a dreadful stink resulting. The cause of this stink is that the organic matter reduces the suljihates contained in the sea water to the state of sul])hides, which are then acted ujjon by the carbonic acid, aiid su]]ihuretted hydrogen is set free. That these reactions would take place if Worcester sewage was treated according to either of the first two methods mentioned, seems to me more than ])robable. The suli:)hates in the sewage would be reduced to sulphides, and not only carbonic acid but the free acid in the sewage would immediately decompose these sulphides, and sulphuretted hy- drogen, with its disgusting odor, would he continually given off. The amount of iron sni/s contained in Worcester sewage is also large. Salts of iron are decomposed by alkaline substances, an insoluble hydrate of iron being formed, which attracts to itself the suspended matter in the sewage and carries it CHEMICAL PKECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASS. 427 to the bottom. In purification of sewage by precipitation, iron salts are commonly- added after the sewage has been made decidedly alkaline by the addition of lime. The presence of these iron salts, therefore, would be an advantage in any precipi- tation process, while they would be more or less detrimental in an irrigation or intermittent filtration process. The second part of your question. What chemicals and what amount of chemicals are necessary to add to Worcester sewage, so as to produce an effluent which would be harmless when emptied into the Blackstone river ? I find difficult to answer fully at this time. Tlie answer to the question depends on the character of the sewage ; what substances and what amount of these substances are contained in the sewage. To determine this a series of careful analyses made on samples collected at lialf-liour intervals during a number of days is necessary, the sewage being at the time of collection the normal dry-weather sewage. The last part of the above condition could not be fulfilled, as the flow of Mill brook at Cambridge street for twenty-four hours is at jjresent about seventeen million gallons, which would not be tiie case if its flow depended entirely on the sewage received from the city. Such being tiie case, I have not thought it best to make a long series of analyses, as I should like to have done, and have only made four analyses, two of day and two of night sewage. Each day and night sample was obtained by uniting half- hour sam])les taken throughout the twelve hours from Mill brook at Cambridge street. Table No. 1 gives the results of the analyses in parts per 100,000. Table No. 2 gives the number of jjarts per 100,000 if the total amount of solid matter in the sewage remained the same, while the flow, instead of being 17,370,000 gallons, was reduced to the normal dry-weather flow of about 3,500,000 gallons ; and also gives, for the sake of comparison, the mean of 181 analyses of London sewage, as given by Mr. Diliden in the Rejiort of the Royal Commission on Metro- politan Sewage Discharge, Vol. 2, Page 158. Table No. 3. columns 1, 2, and 3, give the total number of poiands of the variou.s ingredients contained in twenty-foiir hours' flow of Mill brook at Cambridge street ; and column -4 gives the calculated number of jjounds that would be found in twen- ty-four hours in 1,000,000 gallons if the total amount of solids remained the same, while the flow, instead of i)eing 17,370,000, was 3,500,000, or, in other words, gives an appro.\imate idea of the amount of the various ingredients in 1,000,000 gallons of Worcester's dry- weather sewage. Table No. 1. — Analyses of Worcester Sewage. Parts per 100,000. January 14th and 15th. 6 A.M. to 6 P.M. ti P.M. to 6 A.M. Average. Total solids 43.42 43.42 29.45 29.45 36.43 36.43 Volatile 14.72 7.82 11.27 Inorganic 28.70 21.63 25.16 Snsi)ended 9.92 6.15 8.03 Soluble 33.50 33.50 23 30 23.30 28.40 28.40 Volatile 9.50 3.90 6.70 Inorganic 24.00 19.40 21.70 CliloriiH! 4.375 2.58 3.477 Sulphur trioxide 8.104 6.07 7.086 Nitric acid trace trace trace Ferrous oxide 3.130 2.783 2.956 Free ammonia ... 0.554 0.377 0.465 Albuminoid ammonia 0.178 0.105 0.141 Free acid, in terms of sul- phuric acid 3.611 3.680 3.645 428 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. January 18th and 19tli. 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. 9 P.M. to 9 A.M. Average. Total solids 48.40 48.40 21.60 21.60 35.00 35.00 Volatile 20.77 6.10 13.43 Inorganic 27.63 15.50 21.57 Suspended 16.00 4.10 10.05 Soluble 32.40 32.40 17.50 17.50 24.95 24.95 Volatile 10.40 3.50 6.95 Inorganic 22.00 14.00 18.00 Chlorine 4.017 2.25 3.133 Sulphur trioxide 8.113 3.917 6.015 Nitric acid trace trace trace Ferrous oxide 3.121 2.018 2.571 Free ammonia 0.780 0.274 0.527 Albuminoid ammonia 0.266 0.066 0.166 Free acid, in terms of sul- phuric acid 5.091 2.74 3.91 Table No. 2. Column 1. Parts per 100,000, mean value of four analyses if total amount of solid matter in the sewage remained the same, while flow was reduced to 3,500,000 gallons. Column 2. Mean of 181 analyses of London sewage. No. 1. No. 2. Total solids 177.2 177.2 123.83 123.83 Volatile 61.3 45.50 Inorganic 115.9 78.33 Suspended 44.8 39.13 Soluble 1,32.4 132.4 84.70 84.70 Volatile 33.86 27.6 Inorganic 98.49 57. 1 Chlorine 16.40 15.0 Sulphur trioxide 32.50 Ferrous oxide : 13.71 Free ammonia 2 461 4.51 Albuminoid ammonia 759 0.547 Free acid, in terms of suljihuric acid 18.745 Table No. 3. Columns 1, 2, and 3. Total number of pounds contained in twenty-four hours' flow of Mill brook at Cambridge street. Column 4. Total number of pounds in 1,000,000 gallons if the flow was 3,500,000 instead of 17,370,000 gallons, the total amount of solid matter remaining the .same. No. 1, Jan. 14. No. 2, .Ifin. 18. Total solids 52,057 52,057 51,586 51,586 Volatile 16,100 19,786 Inorganic 35,957 31,800 Suspended 11,457 14,814 Soluble 40,600 40,600 36,757 36,757 Volatile 9,570 10,230 Inorganic 31,030 26,527 Chlorine 4,970 4,617 Sulphur trioxide 10, 127 8,953 Ferrous oxide 4,224 3,793 Free ammonia 664 777 Albuminoid ammonia 201 245 Free acid, in terms of sulphuric acid. ... 5,210 5,733 CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASS. 429 No. 3, mean of No. 4. amount in 1 and -2. l.C'00,OOU gallons. Total solids 51,821 51,821 14,806 1-1,806 Volatile 17,913 5,127 Inorganic 33,878 9,678 Suspended 18,142 3,754 Soluble 38,679 38,679 11,051 11,051 Volatile 9,900 2,829 Inorganic 28,779 8,222 Chlorine 4,790 1,368 Sulphur trioxide 9,540 2,726 Ferrous oxide 4,008 1,145 Free ammonia 720 206 Albuminoid ammonia 223 63 Free acid, in terms of sulphuric acid 5,477 1,565 Tlie above tables, on account of the verv large flow of Mill brook at the present time, do not pretend to any very great degree of accuracy ; but they show the gen- eral characteristics of Worcester sewage and give a basis from which deductions can be drawn. They indicate, first, that Worcester sewage, taking the free ammonia as an index, contains about one-half as much organic matter in solution as the average English sewage, of which London sewage may be taken as a fair example. That Worcester sewage contains a very large amount of inorganic salts. That the amount of soluble sulphates and salts of iron in the sewage is very large. That the sewage has a decidedly acid character, while sewage as a rule is of an alkaline nature. These characteristics, which can easily be explained by noting the character of Worcester's chief industries, make it difHcult to draw an analogy from any of the careful experiments made in England ; and without practical experiments with our own sewage, my opinion as to the kind and amount of chemicals that are best to use can only be considered approximately correct. In dealing with this question the two most important facts to be considered are, the acid character of the sewage, and the large amount of soluble sulphates and iron salts which it contains. In all processes of chemical precipitation an alkaline sewage is necessary. To change the acid character of Worcester sewage to an alkaline character would be the first stej), no matter what chemicals are afterwards to be used. This could, I think, be best accomplished by the addition of lime. The amount of quicklime necessary to add to 1,()00,()()0 gallons of Worcester dry-weather sewage (taking Table 3, column 4, as the basis for calculation) would be about 900 poiinds. By the addition of this amount of lime the sewage would not only be made alka- line, but a part of the process of chemical ]ii-ecipitation would be accomplished. Calcium suli)hate, a heavy, fairly insoluble substance, would be formed, and a por- tion of the iron salts would tend to settle to the bottom of the liquid, carrying a part of the STispended organic matter. Tlie sewage would not be in a condition where a chemical precipitation process could be ap]»lied. Tlie various processes of chemical ]>recipitation only differ from each other in the kind of chemicals used and tlie manner in which they are applied. For Worcester sewage I belii^ve that the simplest of all processes, the addition of lime, would give an elHuent that would be harmless when emptied into the Blackstone river, es- pecially if, in very hot, dry weather, the effluent was ri;n on to a small filtering bed. If not practicable to have a small filtering area, which I should consider desirable, th(; further ])urification in very hot weather, if found necessary, might be accom- plished by the addition of a small amount of permanganate of potassium and sul- phuric acid to the effluent. I believe that the addition of lime ahme would be sufflcient. on account of the large amount of iron salts already in th»^ sewage ; the amount in 1,000,000 gallons equalling about 2,417 pounds of anliydrous iron sulphate, or 15 grains per gallon. 430 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITKI) STATES, Tliere is possibly a question whether the iron, being in the sewage before the addition of the lime, would bring about the same result as though added after the lime, as little differences like this often affect the results of a chemical process. My opinion, though not based on experiments, is that the addition of sulphate of alumina, or the further addition of sulphate of iron, would be unnecessary when the sewage contained the amount of iron given above. The exact amount of lime necessary to add is also a question that can only be answered after numerous experiments. I believe, however, that 15 grains of quick- lime per gallon, or 2,150 pounds, added in the form of milk of lime, would be amply sufficient. If the quicklime before addition was dissolved in water, for which purpose sewage water could be used, probably only one-half of the above amount of quicklime would be necessary. The precipitate thus produced, technically known as sludge, after being sub- jected to mechanical pressure by use of a Johnson filter press, would amount to about 6 tons for every million gallons of sewage, and might possibly be disposed of as a fertilizer, or could be used for the filling up of low land, or, if necessary, could be burnt in a Hoffman f iirnace, without causing any nuisance and probably without the use of any extra fuel. It lias already been stated that the sewage of Worcester is all dis- charged into Mill brook, one of the confluent tributaries which unite in the south part of the city to form the Blackstone. This brook has a known minimum flow of 2,000,000 gallons in 24 hours, and an esti- mated maximum flow of about 50,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. In designing sewage disposal works for Worcester, it appeared necessary to separate the sewage from the normal water flow of Mill brook. To effect this Mr. Allen proposes the construction of intercepting sewers, running as nearly parallel to Mill brook as possible, and so designed as to take all the dry- weather flow of the lateral sewers, only allowing the storm-water to overflow into the brook by storm overflows. For this purpose intercepting sewers are proposed for each side of the brook, which are to extend through the entire length of the city and unite in the southern portion, at the junction of Cambridge and Millbury streets, from which point a single conduit 36 inches in diam- eter, which it is proj^osed to lay in the bottom of the invert of the large sewer in Millbury street, will extend to a point near the junction of Millbury and Vernon streets. From this point the outfall sewer is to diverge from the present sewer, and after crossing under the bed of the river, follow through Millbury street to Greenwood street, along Greenwood street a distance of about 1,000 feet, and from thence nearly parallel with the Providence and Worcester railroad to the location of the purification works, a short distance further south. This section is to be of brick, 42 inches in diameter, with a grade of 1 in 2,000. Its estimated capacity is 15,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. This capacity has in view a considerable growth of the city. Alternative plans for intercepting sewers are also suggested in the report, but in- asmuch as they do not especially modify the method of purification which has been adopted, we need not separately refer to them here. The detail of the proposed scheme for chemical precipitation is suf- CHEMICAL P11P:CIPITATI0N at WORCESTER, MASS. 431 ficientlj^ exhibited for present purposes by the following- estimates as condensed from the report : Estimate No. 1. CHEjncAL Precipitation ■vstth Intercepting Sewers. East side intercepting sewer, from Lincoln square to Pond street, with changes in present system ^51,900 00 West-side intercepting sewer, from Lincoln square to Pond street, with changes in present system 62,300 00 Intercepting pipe, from Pond street to outfall sewer -41,250 00 Outfall sewer, from Mill brook to precipitation works 54,775 00 Building, Tanks, and Machinery 60,000 00 §270,225 00 Add 15 per cent for Engineering and contingencies 40,583 75 §310,758 75 Land and land damages 12,000 00 Total ; . . . . 8322,758 75 Estimate No. 2. Intermittent Filtration with Intercepting Sewers. East and West-side intercepting sewers, intercepting pipe from Pond street to outfall sewer, and outfall sewer from Mill brook to loca- tion of precipitation works as per ])re%-ious estimate §210,225 00 Outfall sewer extended from location of precipitation works to filtration area 45,135 00 Preparing 80 acres of land for filtration purposes 80,000 00 Subsiding tanks 10,000 00 8345,360 00 Add 15 per cent, for Engineering and contingencies 51,804 00 8397,164: 00 Land and land damages 42,000 00 Total 8435,164 00 In rog-ard to tliei)ossibility of combining-, at some time in the future, chemical treatment with intermittent liltration, it is stated that the additional expense, above the cost of the precipitation scheme alone, would 1)0 either §197.40.5.25 or S-214,800.00, the difference depending- upon which of two available filtration areas mig-ht be selected. In regard to the cost of operation, it is stated tli;it the estimates of annual expense are based upon a cost of 45 cents p(>r p(n'son per year. Assuming- that the sewag-e of 50,000 people, amounting- to .•{,000,000 g-allons per day, now enters the sewers, the annual cost upon this basis is found to be S22,500 per year. The annual cost of operating- intermittent filtration for 3,000,000 g-allons i)er day, constantly treated, was estimated at $11,200 ]>er year. But these estimates of cost do not, in either case, include either interest on the cost of the plant or the 432 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. annual sum to be set aside for renewals and depreciation ; tliey mere- ly include the actual running expense per year. In concluding his elaborate report, Mr. Allen states that his reasons ff^/'/ivfly 7it/i'ng\ ' 4£"Cinu/ •■'Vj'.i^c l-.'rO'-t'j'fi.'^-'.' Fig. 63. — New Chemical Agitatou, Wokcksteh, Massaciidsetts, level of the sludge. The gate at tlie mouth of the sludge-drain is then o]ioned, and the sludge flows througli tlie sludgo-drains to the slndge-W(>ll under tlie building. It is j)umpod from this well into a pipe carrier, and flows by gravity to the .sludge- beds, located on land owned by the city, situated on the easterly side of the Provi- dence & Worcester Railroad, and entirely removed from the works. This land (about 16.5 acres) was .selected for this i)ur))o.se owing to its very favorable location. It is situated l)etween tlu' r.iilroad and tlie river, is entirely isolated, there being no way to reaclj it except through land owned by the city. The liability of coiii])laint being made by reason of its near j)r()ximity to buildings is thus reduced to the 436 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. minimum. A little over one-lialf of the area is low, swami^y land ; the remainder is covered with knolls of gravel. At ijreseut 11 sludge-beds are in use, all being located on the low land. They are formed by removing the turf from the surface and constructing dikes with the soil removed. The beds are rectangular in shape, and are about 100 feet sqiaare. One day's shidge is pumped into each bed. It is then allowed to rest for 11 days, the second bed receiving the sludge the next day, and so on through the series. This is done to avoid any possible chance of a nuisance arising from any one bed being overcharged. Occasionally a layer of gravel is spread over the accumulated sludge. In this way it is intended to grade the surface of the entire area, after which it is intended to erect a destructor upon the land and burn the sludge — which, from experiments that have been made, I am convinced can be easily done. These beds have been in almost constant use since the works were put in operation, and there has never been the least trace of bad odor arising from them even during the hot summer months. This is, without doubt, due not only to the care that has been used in not allowing them to be overcharged, but also to the character of the sew- age, and therefore to the character of the sludge, it being heavily charged with iron salts and lime. Everything that would tend to create a nuisance seems to be en- tirely killed out. The precipitation takes place i^rincii^ally in the first three tanks. The sludge hfts to be removed from tanks Nos. 1 and 2 about once in 36 hours in warm weather, but during cold weather we have been able to go four days without cleaning, with- out perceptibly affecting the character of the effluent. Tank No. 3 is cleaned evei-y two or three days in warm weather, and once in 7 or 8 days in cold weather. Tanks 4, 5, and 6 accumulate very little sludge ; but they are cleaned as often as is necessary — about once a week in the hottest weather, and once in three weeks dui'ing the colder period. In the first two tanks during warm weather, or when the sludge is removed once in 36 hours, the accumulation is aboiat 10 inches deep over the en- tire bottom surface. No. 3, when cleaned once in three days, has a depth of sludge of about 8 inches. Nos. 4, 5, and 6, when cleaned once a week, have an accumula- tion of about 6 inches. The sludge is aboiit 95 per cent, water, and after it has been spread upon the sludge-beds for about 9 days this almost entirely disaj^i^ears. The precii)itant principally used at the works is Vermont lime. This has jiroved to be much better for our use than either Eastern or ^Yestern lime. It costs, de- livered at the works, about 87.00 per ton. The sulphate of alumina, which is used in limited quantities, costs about §25.00 per ton delivered. The sewage is extremely acid, owing to the fact that large quantities of sulphuric and muriatic acids are discharged into the seweis from iron manufacturing estab- lishments. This acid does not api^ear at the works in uniform quantities, but is extremely intermittent. It generally makes its appearance once in about 6 hours, although there is always acid jjresent in the sewage. The heavy flow of acid sew- age generally lasts about one and one-half hours. In order to get perfect precipitation and a good effluent, we have found that it is necessary to neutralize this acid, or, in other woids, to make the sewage alkaline. This is done by introducing a sufficient quantity of lime to accomplish the object. It is therefore necessary to test the sewage at vei-y frequent intervals during the 24 hours. Samples of the sewage are taken in glass beakers after the chemicals are introduced, and the test is made in the laboratory. As a test for alkalinity, jihenol- phthalein is used. A very small quantity is droi:)ped into the beaker of sewage, and if the liquid turns red' the sewage has been made alkaline by the lime ; if the color remains unchanged more lime must be introduced. The sulphate of alumina is used with the lime on r ccasions when there is not sufficient iron salts in the sewage to act with the lime in producing a good effluent, geneially Sundays and Mondays. The quantity of lime used varies with the vary- ing character of the sewage. We have found by exi^erience that there is no fixed lule that can be followed. The number of grains per gallon varies from 1 to 200 of lime, and from 1 to 40 of alimiina. The larger amounts are for short intervals of time, so that the average for 24 hours rarely exceeds 8 grains of lime and 4 of alumina jier gallon. When operations were first begun the tanks were used intermittently, and a fixed CHEMICAL PR?:CIPITATIOX AT WORCESTEH. MASS. 487 amount of lime per gallon was used ; that is, 15 giains, say, of lime per gallon was used without regard to the character of the sewage, as is the practice in many of the Euroj^ean works. It was soon found out that while at times the effluent would be very fine, at other times it would be very poor, and we soon found that, in order to obtain a uniformly good effluent, the quantities of lime or alumina had to be increased or diminished as the character of the sewage varied ; so the series of tests previously si^oken of were resorted to, and have been constantly adhered to since, with the result of obtaining an effluent of remarkably uniform character. After we were satisfied that we had discovered the correct iM-incii)le of applying and mixing the chemicals, the tanks were used continuously — i.e., the sewage was allowed to run through the entire series, as at present — and this plan has been fol- lowed ever since. At first, there were days at a time when as high as 4 tons of lime was used, and very much larger quantities of alumina than at present. Expeiiments without number were made to see if this excessive use of chemicals could not be reduced, and finally the following plan, which has been extremely satisfactory, was hit upon. The arrival of the acid sewage at the works is anticipated, and preparations are made so that when it arrives it is thoroughly treated with lime, making it alkaline. As tliis flow generally lasts an hour and a half at a time, tanks 1 and 2 become heavily charged with it. After this extremely acid sewage has passed into the tanks, the machinery is stopped, and no more chemicals are added until the arrival of the next dose of acid in large quantities — generally from four to five hours. During this interval of time, the sewage that passes by the works and into the tanks is so thoroughly treated by the iron salts and lime present in the extremely acid sewage that has just jn-eceded it, that the effluent is as good, if not better, than it would be if chemicals were ajiplied as it passed the works. In other words, there is an excess of chemical matter in the acid sewage after the lime is added, which is utilized as a i^recipitant by passing crude sewage through the tanks heavily charged with it. Experience has demonstrated that crude sewage passed through tanks 1 and 2, i^reviously filled with the acid sewage, will become mixed with it, and that this can be relied upon to do its work thoroughly for intervals of from 4 to 5 liours. This has resulted in the saving of large qiiantities of lime, the amount now used i^er day being about one-half the amount used for some time after the works were \)\\t in operation. All the lime and alumina used is weighed in the chemical room before it is turned into the vats. In tliis way the number of grains per gallon is determined. I have already described the manner in which the sewage is tested, the object being to have it alkaline when it enters tlie tanks. If it is necessary to increase or diminisli the quantity of chemicals used, the person making the tests gives the order through a speaking tube connecting the laboratory with the chemical room. All orders are given in grains per gallon. For instance, if it is desired to use 10 grains of lime per gallon, 12 lbs. of lime is poured into the vats once in 4 minutes. If it is necessary to increase to 20 grains per gallon, 23.75 lbs. is used every 4 minutes; thirty grains calls for 26.75 lbs. every 3 minutes ; fifty grains calls for 44.75 lbs. every 3 minutes ; 100 grains. 89 lbs. every 3 minutes ; 150 grains, 89 lbs. every 2 minutes; 200 grains, 119 lbs. every two minutes; 300 grains, 89 lbs. once a minute. The above is on a basis of 3,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. Tallies have been prepared, and are kept in the chemical room in a conspicuous ]ilace, so that the oi)erative there can tell at a glance the number of pounds of lime or ah;mina he is to put into the vats in response to the order from tlie laljoratory. It is not my purpose in this report to give the result of analyses made of the effluent. We have not sufflcient data at hand to give a correct idea of its true char- a(!t('r. The analyses should extend pver a long ]>eriod of time before a result that can be relied upon can be obtained. It is sufficient to say that we know all the suspended matter is removed, that the organic matter carried in solution is very largely reduced, and that the free and albuminoid ammonias are also largely re- duced. As a ))ractical illnstj-ation of what is accomplished, samples of the sewage and of the eflhicnt taken at the same time have been saved. Sewage five months old is the color of ink, and the odor from it is so foul that it is sickening ; while the 438 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. effluent of the same age is clear, colorless, and entirely without odor. I am per- fectly satisfied that no decomposition takes place in the effluent, and that so far as the Blackstone river is concerned, it is as unobjectionable as spring water would be. I do not claim that drinking water is manufactured at the disposal works : what I believe is, that the method of treatment is such that when the whole sew- age of the city is dealt with at the works, the Blackstone river will be entirely re- lieved of any further pollution by the city of Worcester. As to the cost of treatment, Mr. Allen states that it is constantly being- reduced, and at the time of making his report is well within his estimate of 1887, namely $22,500 for 3,000,000 gallons per day, constantly treated. On June 17, 1892, Mr. Baker visited the works and obtained the additional and later information given below. For some time after the plant was put in operation 3,000,000 gallons of sewage were treated daily. This amount was afterward increased, and on June 19, 1891, the daily treatment of 6,000,000 gallons Avas begun, it being considered better to partially treat this amount than to treat a smaller amount thoroughly. In 1892 the construction of 10 new tanks was begun, making IG in all. The information secured regarding the more recent operation of the plant and the extensions is as follows :* Originally the lime was ground at the works, but now it is slaked in a vat, a ton at a time. In this way about 23 per cent, of lime and 30 horse-power are saved, which is partially offset by the fact that the lime must be slaked by hand. Either sewage or water ma^^ be used for slaking. The agitators formerly used to mix the chemicals are still used, but this is because there is no other means of getting the lime through the pipes to the sewage below. During the year ending Nov. 30, 1891, there were treated 1,399,000,- 000 gallons of sewage, or about 3,830,000 gallons daily, from which 22,042,000 gallons of sludge was precipitated, the sludge having been pumped to sludge-pits. The solids in the sludge aggregated 1,230 tons, or about 3g tons a day, all of which was diverted from the river. The amount of lime used during the year was 757.8 tons, and of alumina 64.65 tons. These chemicals were used in varying quantities, and often the alumina was not used at all ; still, giving the averages for what they are worth, we find that for the whole year the av- erage amount of lime used per gallon was 7.6 grains, and of alumina 0.65 grains. The disposal of the sludge, the solid part of which amounted in 1891 to 3| tons per day, has been a serious problem from the start. At first the sludge was put in heaps and covered up, but this did not give satisfaction. Three different sludge-furnaces were tried, but the * Eng. News, vol. xxviii. (July 28, 1892), pp. 77-8. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT WORCESTER, MASS. 439 labor involved \vas too great, althougli the sludsre formed its own fuel after once kindled. In one of these furnaces sludge containing 50 per cent, water burned quite rapidly, while some containing 72 per cent, of water burned at the rate of 2.225 tons in nine hours, unaided by other fuel. In the spring of 1892, the sludge which had accumu- lated since September, 1891, was carted away at the expense of the city and put on to farm land. As late as the spring of 1892 there were only eleven sludge-beds, covering an area of about three acres. These had been overworked until they were almost useless. When the sludge on the beds did not exceed a few inches in depth it was found that it dried qiiite rapidly. An area of 5.7 acres was therefore added to the sludge-beds. The first beds were not underdrained, but the later ones have been. The sludge passes to the beds through wooden troughs. The new tanks will have the same capacity each as the old ones, but will be of a different shape, their dimensions being 40 x 166| feet, 5 feet deep from the top of the weir. Sewage will discharge about 18 inches deep over the weir. The old tanks were 663 x 100 feet, 5 feet deep. There will be ten of these tanks, increasing the capacity of the plant to 15,000,000 gallons per day and providing for the treatment of the entire dry-weather flow of sewage, which in April, 1893, was re- ported as varying from 11,000,000 to 15,000,000 gallons per day. On June 15, 1893, Mr. Baker visited the works for the second time, and found some interesting features being introduced in connection with the extension of the tank system. A new form of lime agitator is to l)e used, as shown in cross-section in Fig. 63 (page 435). In the new agitators the lime will be mixed and kept from settling by means of compressed air. Two masonry tanks, each 8 l)y 16 feet, will be used for the lime. The bottoms of the tanks will have an undulating sur- face, as shown in Fig. 63, and in each of throe longitudinal depressions there will be a l|-in. wrought iron pipe, perforated every 28 ins. with |-in. holes, the holes in each pipe alternating with those in the other. The air will be furnished by a Rand air compressor, with 12 x 16-in. double cylinders, there being ample boiler power available to drive it. Tlie air will keep the lime continually agitated, and it is ])roposed to 8lak(? it in lots of 2i tons. As practised in 1892 and the first half of 1893, the lime was slaked and kept stirred by means of a hose, two men sometimes being re- quired for the work. An 8-in. pipe will connect with the new lime tanks and convey the lime to the inlet channel at a point nearly 100 feet above the old lime inlet, which was just below the scr(!ens, at the throat of the salmon way or batUe-plates. The practice of i)utting the sludgt^ upon sludge-beds will hv con- 440 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. tinned, bnt the slndg'e from tlie new settling tanks will pass to an ojien channel and thence to a Shone ejector, the air for wdiich will be com- pressed by power from a 21-in. Holyoke turbine driven by the effluent from the top of the tanks, which will give a head of about 7 feet on the turbine. The ejector will have a capacity of 35,000 gallons per hour. In 1892 the city hauled the sludge to the land of some farmers, and gave it to them in order to introduce it. In 1893 the farmers have hauled the sludge themselves, but have not paid the city for it. The shidge has been found to give good results with many different crops, and especially with corn, potatoes, and rye.* * The chief sources of information in regard to the sewage disposal works at Worcester as ac- tually carried out (in addition to the references already given) are : (1) Rept. of the City Eng. to the City Coun., in re. Disposal of the Sewage, etc., 1887. (2) An. Repts. of the Com. of Sewers, the Supt. of Sewers, and the City Eng., etc., for yr. end. Nov. 30, 1890. Also see Eng. News, vol. xxiv., p. 432 (Nov. 15, 1890). CHAPTER XXYIII. DISCHAEGE INTO TIDE-WATER AND PROPOSED CHEMICAL PRECIPI- TATIOX AT PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. The city of Providence, Rhode Island, situated at the head of Nar- ragimsett Bay, is the second city in New England. The population in 1850 was 41,513 ; 1860, 50,666 ; 1870, 68,904 ; 1880, 104,857 ; 1890, 132,146. The city is intersected by the AVoonasquatucket and Mashassuck rivers, which, uniting- to form the Providence river, divide it naturally into three sections. The Seekonk river is on the eastern boundary. The eastern section is high, its extreme elevation being over 200 feet, and falling away abruptly to the west toward the Mashassuck river, and also inclining gradually toward the south to the harbor. On its easterly border are the cliffs of the Seekonk river, from 20 to 50 feet in height. A large portion of the southwestern section is from 60 to 70 feet above tide-water. The northwestern section generally rises in a northwesterly direction, with a large portion above an elevation of 90 feet, while much of it ranges from 150 to 190 feet, with the highest point in the neighborhood of 200 feet. The surface of this portion is diversified by hills and dales. The topographical features of nearly the whole city are, therefore, generally such as to give unusual advan- tages in respect to sewerage and drainage. Previous to 1871 no systematic system of sewerage existed at Prov- idence. In that year a comprehensive plan was prepared, and the construction of sewers begun under the direction of the Board of Water Commissioners, with J. Herbert Sliedd, M. Am. Soc. C.E., as chief engineer. At that time there existed about 8.5 miles of old stone sewers and drains, which were used to a considerable extent for h()us3 drainage. None of the original sewers were incorporated into the present system, although some are still used as surface-water conduits only. The original sewers, as well as those designed in 1871, discharge into the intersecting rivers and the harbor at the most convenient points. The fact was fully recognized in the formal design, that in the end the pollution of the streams and the harbor would become such as to necessitate some other arrangement ; and accordingly Mr. Shedd's plans included the ultimate construction of a series of intercepting 442 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. sewers, by wliicli the entire flow of sewage would be convej'ed to Field's Point, at the southern extremity of the harbor, and there dis- charged with the ebb of the tide into deep water. The mean range of the tide at Providence is about 4.7 feet. In 1874 Mr. Sliedd, in response to a resolution of the Board of Alder- men of November 26, 1873, asking for information in regard to the general plans on which the sewers had been constructed to that date, submitted an elaborate report, in which is discussed nearly every question of interest in connection with the design of the Providence sewerage system. The report is of special interest and value, by reason of containing the first thorough analysis of the relation of maximum rainfall to size of sewers to be found in American sanitary literature. In this particular, Mr. Shedd's report of 1874 is an engi- neering classic, and has been the model upon which nearly all the American sewerage reports since made have lieen based. Considerable opposition, however, was developed among the citizens of Providence to the plans for sewerage which Mr. Shedd had pre- pared, and in order to get an authoritative expression of opinion from a disinterested source, the Mayor of Providence requested the Board of Directors of the American Society of Civil Engineers to designate three members of that Society to make an examination of the sewer- age system adopted by the advice of Mr. Sliedd, and report as to the sufficiency of size, kind of material, division of districts, etc.; and also to recommend any changes which they might deem requisite. Gen. Geo. S. Greene, Col. Julius W. Adams, and E. S. Cliesbrough were designated as such Commission. Their report approving the system designed by Mr. Shedd was presented under date of August 7, 1876. In regard to the final delivery of all the sewage at Field's point, Messrs. Greene, Adams, and Chesbrough say : The project of ultimately carrying all the sewage into the deep-water current at Field's point is judicious and jDroper, and should be constantly kept in view in all constructions of mai'ginal or outlet sewers, and in plans for right-of-way for sewers leading toward that point. It is j^robable that, to preserve the sanitary condition of the waters of the Providence and Seekonk rivers, it will be necessary to dis- chaige the sewage ordinarily at ebb-tide, and to have a reservoir near the outlet to enable this to be done. The property of the city on Field's point contains a proper site for such works. Should the sewage ever be of sufficient value to justify the use of it for irrigation, this point will be the position from which it can be most easily carried to the dry plains on either side of the Pawtuxet river, by i^umping it to a sufficient height for distribution. The considerable increase in population, together with a corre- sponding extension of the manufacturing industries of Providence, had led to such relatively rapid increase in the pollution of the Providence river and its tributaries, as to force upon the city authorities the ques- PlIOPOSED CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 448 tion of some disposal of the sewage other thau by allowing- it to pass directly into the several streams. In September, 1882, the City Coun- cil directed Samuel M. Gray, M. Am. Soc. C.E., who was then city engineer, to report plans of main intercepting- sewers, and of any other work necessary for collecting-, conducting-, and disposing- of the sewage of the city, in accordance with the best approved methods, at such a point and in such a manner as would be the least injurious to the public health, together with the estimated cost thereof. Subsequently, on February 23, 1884, the City Council directed Mr. Gray and his assistant, Chas. H. Swan, M. Am. Soc. C.E., to proceed to Europe to investigate the various jjlans in practical operation for the disposal and utilization of sewage, together with all matters relat- ing thereto, and to report the result of such investigations, with such recommendations w4th reference to the sewage of the citj^ as might be deemed expedient. In accordance with these instructions, Messrs. Gray and Swan pro- ceeded to Europe and inspected the sewerage systems and methods of sewage disposal at the following places : The pail system at Birmingham and Manchester. The Liernur pneumatic system at Amsterdam. The Berlier system at Paris. The Shone system at Wrexham. Tlie combined system at London, Berlin, Paris, and Frankfort-on-the Main. The separate system at Oxford, and also at Paris, where it was in ex- perimental operation to a limited extent. Irrigation farms at Bedford, Berlin, Breslau, Croydon, Dantzic, Don- caster, Edinburgh, Leamington, Milan, Oxford, Paris, Warwick, Wim- bledon, and Wrexham. Precipitation works at Aylesbury, Birmingham, Bradford, Burnley, Coventry, Hertford, Leeds, and Leyton. Precipitation works in pro- cess of construction were also inspected at Frankfort on-the-Main. As the result of his investigations, Mr. Gray recommended : (1) That a system of intercepting sewers be completed. (2) Tliat the system of intercepting sewers be so designed as to convey the 8ewap;t> of tlie city to Field's point. (3) Tliat the sewage be treated at Field's point by chemicals in such manner as to precii)itate the matters in suspension and to clarify the sewage. (4) That the clarified effluent be emptied into deep water at Field's point. In regard to precipitation, Mr. Gray says : My r(>asoji for recommending precipitation is that I am confident that the sewage can be sf) clarified that the effluent will be entirely harmless when emptied into the river at Field's ])oiiit, and the ))unfication can be accom))lished at less ex]iense than by irrigation. Altlioiigh sewage is more fully purified by irrigation than by i)re- 444 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. cipitation, I have not felt justified in recommending its adojition, for, from careful and extended surveys, I am convinced that the large amount of suitable land re- quired for irrigation cann6t be obtained at any reasonable cost within reasonable distance of the city. . . . It is proposed to erect pumping works. The sewage from a ])art of the eighth ward and from most of the ninth will not require inimping. The sewage from the remainder of the city will be lifted about tw-enty-eight feet into a conduit, tlirough which this sewage, together with that from the eighth and ninth wards, already referred to, will flow to the precipitation works. .... At this ijoiut . . . it is jjroposed to construct tanks and erect suitable build- ings and works for the mixing of chemicals with the sewage, and for the handling of the sludge, etc. The sewage, after receiving the mixture of chemicals, will flow into precipitation tanks, where it will remain for a short time to cause the de2)osit of sludge; the clarified tffluent will flow oft' into deep water at the point as shown on the i^lan. The sludge left in the bottom of the tanks will then pass into receivers, from which it will be forced by compressed air into filter presses. . . . By these presses the sludge is easily compressed into a portable form. That this sludge possesses some value as a fertilizer there is no doubt ; it remains to be proved wliether there will be any sale for it in this vicinity. Therefore, for the purposes of this report, I assume that there will be no immediate income from its sale as a fertilizer. Before deciding- the questiou of discharge of crude sewage at Field's point versus precipitation before discharge, extensive experiments were made with floats, in order to ascertain what probable action the tide and currents would have on the sewage. In regard to the results, Mr.. Gray says : From a careful study of these experiments, and from a long and close observation of the causes of the present pollution of the cove, the Providence river, and its tributaries, I am of the opinion that if the crude sewage of the city be emptied into the river at Field's ])oint it will inevitably cause a nuisance, to the injury not only of the dwellers within the city, but to the occujiants of many of the shore resorts and residences bordering on the Providence river and Narragansett bay, and will seriously damage, if not destroy, many of the valuable oyster beds which now line the shores. . . . . . . . . . . . . A very important factor in the pollution of the cove, as well as the Prov- idence river and its tributaries, is the liquid wastes of manufactories emptied into the rivers. There are, as near as I can estimate from the best obtainable data, ujj- ward of 2,735,000 gallons of filthy liquid wastes emptied daily (Sundays excepted) into the Mashassuck and West rivers, and upwards of 2,088,000 gallons into the Woonasquatucket river, making a total of 4,823,000 gallons of filthy liquids, aside from town sewage, emptied into the several rivers during twelve or fourteen hours out of the twenty-four. I wish to call your attention emphatically to the fact that how- ever thoroughly the town sewage may be kej^t from the rivers, if these foul liquids from manufactoi'ies are allowed to enter the streams, as at present, the cove, to- gether with the Providence river and its tributaries, will continue to present about the same filthy appearance that they do to-day. It is only by keeping all sewage and filthy liquids out of these waters, or by clarifying them before tliey are per- mitted to enter, and by thoroughly clearing tlie river beds from all deposits of filth, that we may look for improvement in the condition of the Providence river and its tributaries. I am convinced from observations abroad that in some cases the quan- tity of liquid wastes now emptied into the rivers from manufactories might be ma- terially reduced, and that the remainder could be so clarified by the proprietors as to prevent polluting the river, and possibly result in some instances in a source of income to them. In designing the sizes of the intercepting sewers, I have thought best to make PROPOSED CHEMICAL PKECIPITATIOX AT PROVIDEXCE, K. I. 445 provisions for receiving the liquid wastes of these manufactories. It is an impor- tant question for vour consideration on what conditions it may be advisable to admit these liquid wastes into the sewers. The estimated daily dry-weather flow of town sewage in Providence at the pres- ent time (1884) is about 3,000,000 gallons. This is based on careful and extensive gaugings, made at different times, of the amount of sewage flowing in the several sewers. . . . ....... . . . It will be seen by table of gaugings that the sewers laid in wet localities furnish a much greater quantity of sewage per inhabitant connected, than do the sewers laid in drier parts of the city. This larger quantity of sewage is due in most localities to spring or ground water, which tinds its way into the sewer. The great value to the general health of the community of thus draining the ground is too ajiparent to need comment. In designing the intercepting sewers, liberal provision has been made for a popu- lation of 300,000 inhabitants wuthin the present city limits, together with small districts lying outside the present limits, whose only outlet will be through the city. The Providence sewers are entirely constructed on the combined system. In his original design of 1871, Mr. Shedd based the sizes of sewers upon an estimated maximum amount of 30^ cubic feet of rainfall per minute per acre reaching them. The reasons for adopting this figure are presented in detail in Mr. Shedd's report of 1874. Mr. Gray states in his report of 1884 that the intercepting sewers (excepting the main sewers of the ninth ward) are designed to carry y^^ inch of water per hour from the area drained, together with the manufacturing wastes and 60 gallons of sewage per inhabitant, in- cluding ground-water. The manufacturing waste is estimated as flow- ing off in ten hours, while one-half of the domestic sewage is estimated to flow off in seven hours. The balance of the flow fi-om the rainfall, when in excess of the foregoing alloAvances, is to be disposed of through storm overflows, which will discharge the excess directly into the streams. In the ninth ward the flatness of the territory, the long valleys, and the absence of streams to receive the overflow, render it desirable to provide for more surface-water than in other parts of the city, where overfloAVs can be easily and safely made. In this district, therefore, provision was made for two inches of rainfall per hour, in addition to the sewage. An overflow is to l)e provided for the ninth-ward sewer into the cove, near the proposed pumping station. The estimated cost of the whole work recommended by Mr. Gray was $3,699,504. In regard to tlie various suggestions for disposing of the sewage of Providence by irrigation and otherwise, Mr. Gray says : Experience indicates that the amount of land required for the disposal of sewage by irrigation is about one acre to one liuiidrod inhabitants. Tlio jiopulation pro- vided for in tlie proposed system of interco})ting sewers is 300,000. The amount of 446 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. land necessary to properly dispose of the sewage of that population would be about 8,000. It has been suggested to take the sewage to Seekonk plains for irrigation. Tlie great expense of conveying the sewage across the Seekonk river and to this laud, together with the fact that the available area is less than one thousand acres, forbids a consideration of this scheme. It has also been suggested that the sewage be taken to Warwick plains and there used for irrigation. From extensive surveys of this territory, I am satisfied that there is not a sufficient quantity of suitable land in that locality for the future needs of the city. The estimated cost for construction in accordance with this suggested scheme, including only sufficient quantity of land for the present needs, is $1,146,- 000 more than for the plan of precipitation herein recommended. The annual cost of pumping the sewage to Warwick plains would be double the cost of the pumic- ing required in the plan recommended. Considering the additional cost, and in view of the fact that there is not a sufficient quantity of land at Warwick plains for fu- ture needs, I deem it unnecessary to further consider this scheme. By combining precipitation with irrigation a much smaller area of land is requi- site, and should it hereafter be deemed advisable to adopt some system of irrigation, the proposed precipitation works will form a most useful auxiliary. Another suggestion has been made, which is to take the sewage down the river to Conimicut point, and there, in its crude state, discharge it into the bay. I esti- timate that the carrying out of this scheme would cost §1,194,000 more than the plan I have recommended. The annual cost of pumping to Conimicut point would be nearly double the cost of pumping in accordance with the plan recommended. Moreover, the experiments made at this point with floats show that there are strong reasons for fearing that crude sewage emptied into the bay at this point would create a nuisance in the not distant future. Considerable opposition having developed among- the citizens of Providence to the plan of intercepting- sewers and sewage disposal, as suggested by Mr. Gray in his report, the City Council again requested the American Society of Civil Engineers to appoint three members of the society, skilled in sanitary engineering, to visit Providence and examine Mr. Gray's plan for a sewerage system and for sewage dis- posal works, and to report to the City Council their opinion as to whether the said plans were the best and most economical which could be adopted for the collection and disposal of the sewage of the city ; and, if not, to recommend any changes Avhicli they might deem advisable. In accordance with this resolution, the President of the American So- ciety of Civil Engineers appointed Messrs, Joseph P. Davis, Kudolph Hering and Pvobt. Moore, Members of the Society, as a Commission for this purpose. These gentlemen visited Providence, examined Mr. Gray's plans, profiles, estimates, and computations, and submitted their report under date of December 21, 1886. After defining the various practicable methods of sewage disposal, the Commissioners say : We mav now ])roceed to a consideration of the several plans which have been proposed "for dealing with the sewage of the city of Providence. These are : 1. Disposal at Seekonk plains ; 2. Crnde disposal at Field's point ; 3. Disposal at Warwick plains ; 4. Precipitation at Field's point ; each of which we will consider in the order named. PROPOSED CHEMICAL PRECIPITATIOlSr AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 447 I. DISPOSAL AT SEEKONK PliAINS. In considering the scheme for disposing of the sewage at Seekonk plains, for which Mr. Gray, in his report of Febrnai-v 2, 1886, has submitted an estimate, the fact at once appears that if broad irrigation be adopted, the amount of land avail- able for this purpose (being less than 1,200 acres) is barely sufficient for present requirements, and leaves no margin whatever for the future needs of the city. In- termittent filtration, for which the land is fairly suitable, is the only method of dis- posal which should be seriously considered at this point. We find, however, that much cheaper land, of equally good or better quality for this purpose, exists at Warwick ])laius, a point more remote from the centre of population, and where, be- cause of this remoteness from habitation, carelessness in the management of the process will cause much less annoyance than at Seekonk plains. These and other considerations of minor importance make it evident that the advantages for dispo- sal of the sewage on the land are much greater at Warwick plains than at Seekonk plains ; and we think it is, therefore, useless to enter into any detailed discussion of plans for the latter place. n. CRUDE DISPOSAL AT FIELDS POINT. The discharge of the sewage in its crude state at Field's point, although involv- ing works of somewhat greater first cost than are required for precipitation, is yet, on account of its smaller current expenses, by far the cheapest of all the modes which have been proposetl for disposing of the sewage of the city. We understand, however, that the sentiment of the citizens of Providence is much opposed to this metliod of disposal. Nor is this surprising. The shores in this vicinity are used for summer residences and as pleasure resorts ; bathing beaches ai'e near at hand, and during the summer and fall months these watei's are much frequented by ex- cui'sion parties, attracted by the cool breezes of the bay and the beauty of its shores. Extensive oyster beds exist in this vicinity, and the fishing interests are said to be of some importance. The float experiments made by Mr. Gray show that the strong and well-defined outward tidal ciirrent, which is found opposite Field's point shortly after the ebb tide sets in, begins below this point to diminish in force and become diffused. The direction of the surface currents is greatly in- fluenced by the wind, but, as a rule, matter discharged at the Point during the hour and a half after high tido, would meet the incoming tide before reaching Gas])ee point, and would be carried backward a considerable distance toward its place of starting, unless sooner grounded on one of the shores. With a we.sterly wind, the tendency is to strand on the east shore, and probably the bathing beaches on that shore, between Squantum and Sabine's point, and even below, would be much injured. Considering all the interests at stake in preserving the bay and its shores from even the apprehension of nuisance — interests of a kind which relate to the health and pleasure of the people, and cannot, tlierefore, be measured in money values — we are of the opinion that the plan of ciude dis])osal at Field's point, by which these interests might be jeopardized, is inadmissible. m. DISPOSAL AT WAIJWICK PL.4INS. At Warwick ]^lains are found about 2,200 acres of land availal)le for irrigation. The soil is of good character for this jmrpose, and the situation is in many re- spects favorable. But looking to the future, when the city of Providence shall have a population of )U)0,000, this is not sufficient land to dispose of tlie sewage in a satisfactory manner by broad irrigation. On this account, and also because we find disposal by intermiti;ent filtration to be the cheaper and, all things considered, the better method, we liave made an estimate of the cost of a scheme for this method of disposal, and shall use it, rather than the estimate for broad irrigation given in 448 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. Mr. Gray's report, for purposes of com})arison with the scheme of precipitation at Field's point. In making this estimate, we have assumed that 1,000 acres of land will be pur- chased at once, not only to allow for the future needs of the city, when the land may be much more difficult to acquire, but also to aftbrd in the first instance greater latitute in the management of the farm. Filter beds are well adapted to a variety of crojis, particularly to those of market-gardening. But, to admit of tlie greatest possible use from such cultivation, it is advantageous to o})erate in connec- tion therewith a stock or dairy farm. The crops from the filter beds may, by this means, be j^artially utilized upon the farm with better results than from direct sale& in the market. This suri)lus land may be fertilized by broad irrigation if found advisable, but in our estimates we have made no allowance for preparing it for this purpose, either by underdrainage or by grading the surface. Mr. Gray's estimates, both for piecipitation and for irrigation, are based upon caring for a dry-weather flow of 9,000,000 gallons of sewage daily, including about 3,000,000 gallons of manufacturing waste ; that is to say, while the interce^jting- sewers and other parts of the work, whicli cannot be enlarged except at great cost and inconvenience, are made of capacity sufficient for a population of 300,000, or a dry-weather flow of sewage of, say, 24,000,000 gallons daily, those jjarts of the works which are intended for the treatment of the sewage, and which can easily be extended from time to time as required, are proportioned to a dry-weather flow of 9,000,000 gallons. In our estimate of the cost of filtration, we have assumed the same basis of sew- age flow, and have, as far as possible, adojited the same scale of prices as Mr. Gray^ which, as before stated, we consider liberal and safe. For the cost of the whole system of intercepting sewers, which is the same in this as in the precipitation scheme, we have taken Mr. Gray's figures without change, viz., $2,195,973.00. We have further assumed that, as an average through the year, each acre of land, when properly prepared by underdrainage and giading, will dis])ose of 45,000 gal- Ions daily, this being about the same as the English basis of 1,000 peoj^le pev acre. Upon these assumptions, we find the total cost of the scheme for intermittent filtration at Warwick plains, including the purchase of 1,000 acres of land and the special preparation of 200 acres for use as filter beds, to be $4, 620, 000. Sludge- tanks are provided at the farm to remove from the sewage, by simple sedimenta- tion without the use of chemicals, the solid and slimy matters which would tend to clog the pores of the soil, such removal being, in the opinion of the best judges, necessary to secure the best working of the system of intermittent filtration where so large a quantity is put on the land as is proposed in the ])resent instance.* The yearly cost of operating, including the exi:)ense of pumping the sewage and the care of the sludge, we estimate at $28,000 per year. The subsequent cost of distributing the sewage over the land and the care of the filter beds, as well as the cost of management and ojjeration of the farm, we assume will be repaid by the sale of the products. As to the expectation of profit fi om the application of sewage to the land, our opinion is decidedly adverse. Irrigation in dry climates, or even in moist cli- mates if the water be applied only at such times and in such quantities as are needed, is a most valuable aid to agriculture ; Init where the water comes, and must be cared for night and day. and every day in the year, and in largest quanti- ties in rainy weather when it is needed least, the case is very different. It tlien becomes more of a hindrance than a help. And whilst there are in England a number of towns, mostly of small size, where sewage farming on the process of intermittent filtration has resulted in a jirofit, yet in the case of Piovidence, where the climate forVnds the production of any croj^s for nearly half the year, and where no experience has been gained in such farming, we think our assumption that the cost of distributing the sewage and the management of the farm will be recovered from the sale of its products, is as favorable as it is safe to make. * See Second Report of Royal Commissioners on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge, 1884 ; pages xlv., xlviii. Also Bailey-Denton's Ten Years' Experience, etc., etc. Second Edition, page 21. PROPOSED ':::hemical pkecipitatiox at providence, p.. i. 449 IV. PRECIPITATION AT FIKLD's POINT. In this scheme it is proposed to pump the sewage from the main intercepting sewer into tanks located at Fields point, where it will be treated chemically. The claritied effluent will be conducted, by means of an outlet sewer, to a point midway between the shore and Fuller's rock light, where it will be discharged at the bottom of the channel in such manner as to secure the utmost possible diflu- sion. This is the scheme recommended by Mr. Gray, and for which he has given an estimate of cost in his report of November 14, 188i. We have made a new estimate of those parts of the work ■which are intended for the raising, storing, and treatment of the sewage, but as it gives a result not differ- ing materially from Mr. Gray's estimate, we adopt his figures, which show the total cost of the precipitation scheme to be $3,699,501, or, say, $3,700,000. As to the yearly cost of treatment, it is hardly possible to give exact figures, owing partly to the want of experience in such work in this country, and partly to a want of certainty as to the standard of purity in the effluent that will lie required at different seasons of the year. We have, however, estimated the cost of thor- ough treatment throughout the year of a sewage of average quality, believing that in i^ractice it will be found that a much less quantity of chemicals will be required in the colder months than we have jarovided. The yearly cost of pumping and treating the sewage, when the dry-weather flow shall have reached 9,000,000 gallons per day, we estimate at $65,000 ; believing, however, that in practice this may be reduced to .$53,000. COJIPARISON- OF THE SCHEME OP INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT WARWICK PLAINS WITH THAT OF CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT FIELD'S POINT. It remains now to weigh the comparative merits of the two latter schemes, as in our judgment it is between these two that the choice must lie. And, first of all, to what extent will these two schemes accomplish the end for which they were designed, and free the city from sewage nuisance ? For any plan which does not accomjilish this should be at once dismissed from consideration. In answer to this inquiry, our opinion is clear that success ma'y be attained by either scheme. That sewage may be efiectually disposed of by intermittent filtration does not now admit of any doubt. Since this method of disposal was first proposed by Dr. Frankland in 1870, it has been tried in a large number of towns in England, and in a few instances in this country — the piincijial one being at the town of Pullman, Illinois. In all cases excejit where the essential requirements of the process have been grossly violated, its success in producing an effluent clear, colorless, and free from all noxious or putresciblo matters has been complete. . . As regards the ])articular case in hand, we find the land at Warwick plains to be of a kind well suited for filtration, being very largely sand and gravel with a cov- ering of light soil, so that we have no doubt tliat. if })i-6per care were taken in the matter of underdrainage and grading tlie surface, and the sewage applied with ])roper intervals of rest, it would be thoroughly purified, and the city freed from the nuisance under wliicli it now sufi"ers. Turniijg now to the scheme for chemical precipitation at Field's jioint, we think that tills nietliod will also deal effectually with the sewage, and afford a satisfactory solution of the present problem. Preci])itation processf:*-. "'ave been in operation in England for tlio last tliirty years, and the experience thei'e gained is more than that of :dl the world besides. A committee ap])ointed iv 1880 by the city of Glas- gow to investigate the subject of sewage dis])osal,* su -> v'"> in their rejiort the results of exi)erience bearing U]>on this ])oint as follows '• There are ])roc(>ss(>s of iirecipitation now in o]ieration, which give an effluent capable of b(>ing discharged into a riv(>r with perfect inoftensiveness and without sensibly destroying its jiuiity. ])n)vi(led always that the volume of sewage is small * See Report Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge, page xxiv., paia;,'r:i])li !(>'.•. 29 450 sp:wage disposal in 'riii; i xhkd states. compared with that of the river Whatever be the iirocess of chemical purification to which the sewage is subjected, the effluent is still impure, and will Ijutrefy and give off noxious gas if kej^t for some time ; and we know of no way in which the })uritication can be completed but by oxidation. Filtration through cultivated land, i.e., irrigation, is jjrobably the best means. But oxidation of the effluent may in most cases be effected by the simple and natural process of run- ning it into the nearest water-course, when, if the proportion of clean water be sufficient, the organic matter will be gradually oxidized, and the effluent water will not become putrid or offensive in any way, even in warm weather." The fact seems to be that the nuisance of sewage is almost wholly due to the sus- pended matter. If this be taken out by the process of precipitation, dilution with a sufficient quantity of water, usually stated to be twenty times the volume of the sewage, is all that is needed to insure the complete destruction of the organic mat- ters which remain. In the present instance, the large volume of water which passes Field's point is amply sufficient to diffuse and oxidize without offence many times the quantity of clarified sewage which will ever be poured into it. We have no doubt, therefore, that a precii)itation process at this point, properly worked, will so effectually disjiose of the sewage that it will cause no further trouble. In claiming for these two schemes that they will effectiially dispose of the sew- age, we do not mean to say that there will not, at times, be unpleasant smells in the immediate neighborhood of the works. The jiumping station, screening cham- ber, and the jDreciintation tanks, as well as the sludge tanks of the filtration scheme at Warwick plains, will, under certain atmospheric conditions, not be free from objectionable odors. With good management there should ordinarily be no smell noticeable outside the works, and even at the worst the trouble will be strictly local. lu no case will there be anything detrimental to the public health, noi any- thing that can be ])roi3erly called a nuisance. Both schemes, then, being satisfactory solutions of the problem in hand, and as such substantially equal, we must comjiare them next from the financial point of view. As we have already stated, the first cost of the filtration scheme will be S4.620,- 000, whilst the cost of the iirecipitation scheme is 83,700,000, showing a difference in favor of the latter of .S920,000. This, however, is not conclusive. The question of annual cost must also be taken into account. This is made up of three elements : Interest ujTOn the first cost, operating expenses, and repairs, including in the latter the cost of maintaining and, when necessary, completely renewing such parts of the works as are of a perishable nature. Sum- ming the first two of these elements for each scheme, we get the following : For the filtration scheme : Interest upon S4, 620,000 at 3^ per cent $161,700 00 Operating expenses, including pumping and care of sludge 28,000 00 Total $189,700 00 For the precipitation scheme : * Interest upon .$3, 700,000 at 3-1 per cent $129,500 (10 Operating expenses, including j^umping and cost of precipitation 65,000 00 Total $194,500 00 The third element of the annual expenses — to wit, the repairs and renewals of perishable parts — hardly admits of a satisfactory estimate. It is evident, howevei', that when we consider the much greater cost of the machinery required to immp to the sewage farm, the larger amount of iron submitted to the action of sewage, and the liability to derangement in a complicated system of tile drainage, that this item of expense will be the greater for the filtration scheme. And when we con- sider further that the cost of treating the sewage is likely to be considerably re- duced below tlie cost given in the preceding estimate, it seems quite certain that PROPOSED CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 451 in the matter of annual cost, as well as in first cost, the balance will be in favor of precipitation. Another consideration tending, as we think, to incline the scale in the same di- rection, is the greater simplicity of the organization necessary to carry on precipi- tation as compared with filtration. The kind and quantity of chemicals required to produce a satisfactory efHuent having been once determined by the experience of the first few months, during which time the greatest care and skill will be well rewarded, the process afterward will be mainly a matter of routine. This will be especially true at Providence, where the effluent will be discharged into a large body of moving water, whereby it will be at once greatly diluted and dispersed. In discharging into small fresh- water streams, where the dilution is small, the character of the effluent has to be much more carefully watched, and, if economy be studied, the treatment varied as Mm Rock Po/r?f- ■•;., ' Zl'.IS beloif/ mean lotv w£ltei'. Fio. 64. — Plan of Outlet Sewek to Field's Point, PnovinENCE, Rhode Island. the character of the sewage vaines from the day to the night hours and from season to season. But under the conditions existing at Providence, after the kinds and quantities of chemicals best suited to the local conditions have been once deter- mined and the best methods of mani]:)ulation established, the works will need for their successful management only a small force of laboi'ers under the cliarge of a faitliful and intelligent foreman. Tlie process of intermittent filtration is also in itself, and if nothing but the pu- rification of the sewage l)e aimed at, one of routine and simplicity ; but when carried on in coniKiction with farming and market gardening, it is no longer a simple me- chanical process, but a business venture, which requires for its success the employ- ment and dismissal of many num, \\n\ handling of considerable sums of money, and the constant (>xercise of a skill and foresight of no ni(>an order. On this subject Mr. Bailey-Denton, who is one of tlie warmest advocates of the application of sewage to land, and who has done more than all others together to develop and bring into use the process of intermittent filtration, r<>niarks : "That a s(!wag(! farmer, to cpialifv himself for success, must serve a special ap- prenticeship to the occupation. Moreover, it has been made clear that an ordinary 452 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. farmer is no better qualified to deal with sewage, without such apprenticeship, than a gardener ; for not only is it necessary to know what grasses and vegetables can be best treated with sewage, and to regulate the frequency of ai)plication and the quantity of liquid to gain the best return, but it is absolutely essential that he should be able to effect the best and readiest sale of his crops when tit for market, and so conduct his operations with reference to the demands of local markets, and of such other markets as he can reach, as will conduce to the growth of only such crops as he can most readily sell. By this means he will reduce to a minimum the losses incidental to all food production ; for it is quite certain that, in the long run, the man wlio sells the most at the right mnment, anil toho aiins at con- verting into milk or meat what he cannot sell, is the person who will make the Section A3, Fig. 65. — Sections op Outlet Sewer, Providence, Rhode Island. most money. To do this it is absolutely requisite that every sewage farm should have upon it sufficient buildings to house a projier number of milch cows and pigs, to consume a portion of each season's produce. "It is essential, in fact, that a tenant of a sewage farm should combine in his own caijabilities the practical qualities of a farmer, a gardener, and a market sales- man, which will induce him to avoid all treatment of a dilettante character, and lead him to embi-ace in his management the growth of such crops only as will keep him most favorable before the market he serves."* In other words, to conduct a sewage farm of 1,000 acres is an entei'prise calling for a high oi-der of business capacity, and above all demanding a constant watchful- ness and study, which experience shows can be expected only where a strong per- sonal interest is at stake, and in which any kind of corporate management is apt *See Bailey-Denton, on "Intermittent Downward Filtration," edition of 1885, pages 98-99. PROPOSED CHEMICAL PKKCIPITATIOX AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 453 to lead to failure. So long, therefore, as another course is open for adoption, we cannot advise the city of Providence to incur the risks which a business undertak- ing such as this will involve. CONCLUSIONS. Summing up our conclusions, we find as follows : 1. That in order to cleanse the rivers and the cove, all sewage mnst be kept out of them, except in time of storms. 50 ^fTSf Fkj. 0(5— Sections of Outlet Seweu, PnovinENCE, Rhodk Island. 2. That this can l)o acconiplisliod only by a system of intercepting sewers, sub- stantially such as tliat ])rop()se(l by Mr. Gray. 3. That of tlie various scliemos for final disposal of the sewage, the two which we consider best are tlioso for Intorniittent Filtration at Warwick plains, and Chemical Precipitation at Field's point. 454 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. 4. That either of these will dispose of the sewage in a satisfactory manner, and in a way to free the city from nuisance. o. That in this respect the two plans are substantially equal. 6. Tliat of these two the precipitation scheme is, in first cost, the cheaper by $920,000. 7. That in annual cost the balance will probably be in favor of precii)itation. 8. That the organization needed for precij^itation is simple, having in view but a single object — the purification of the sewage. 9. That the organization at Warwick plains will have two objects : one, the purification of the sewage ; the other, the somewhat complicated business of con- ducting a large farm with a view to profit. In other words, it will be a business 1^ Fig. 67. — View in Stokm Outlet, Bell Motth of Providence Intehceptin© Sewers. Venture in which the city should not embark unless there be no satisfactory alter- native. 10. For these reasons, the scheme of chemical precipitation at Field's point is, in our judgment, the one best worthy of adoption. Work was beg-un upon the intercepting sewers in 1890, and to Decem- ber 31, 1891, 7.388 miles had been constructed. The outlet to Field's point may be seen by reference to the map, Fig. 64. Some of the more interesting- details may be gathered from Figs. 65 and 6G, the references of which for locations are to Fig. 64. Fig. 67 is a view taken in the mouth of a storm outlet. The proposed precipitation works are to be located on Section 2, near the point F as shown on the map. Fig. 64. The construction now in process is under the supervision of Mr. PROPOSED CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 455 Shedcl, who is again city engineer of Providence, having succeeded Mr. Gray in 1890. In regard to the authorship of the plans of the improved sewerage and sewage disposal works, as being actually carried out at Provi- dence, it ma^^ be said that the intercepting sewers are substantially as designed by Mr. Shedd, and as outlined in his report of 1874. The credit of the plan of the sewage disposal works essentially pertains to Mr. Gray. The complete system may be stated, therefore, as the joint work of these two eminent engineers. CHAPTEK XXIX. BKOAD IRRIGATION AT THE WOECESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, STATE HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. The irrig"ation works at the Worcester Hospital, wliicli were designed by Buttrick and Wheeler, civil engineers, of Worcester, in 1876, are deserving of brief description in this work, not only because they are, so far as the authors are informed, the first successful irrigation Avorks in this country, but that they have continued to successfully dispose of the sewage of about 600 people, the ordinary population of the hospital, from the date of their completion until the present time. A letter from the superintendent in January, 1892, states that no trouble has ever been exi:)erienced in disposing of the sewage of the hospital in the manner which was originally designed. It is true that some attempt had been made to dispose of sewage by broad irrigation at the State Insane Hospitals at Augusta, Maine, and Concord, New Hampshire, a short time before the sewage farm of the Worcester Insane Hospital was put in operation. Neither of these attempts were, however, entirely successful and both have been aban- doned. We may therefore give the credit to the authorities of the Worcester Hospital, of instituting the first successful sewage irriga- tion farm in the United States. The hospital building is situated on a considerable rise of ground, about 3,000 feet west of the main irrigation field, shown in plan by Fig. 68, the area of which includes about 14 acres. The several branches of the hospital sewers are all bi'ought to a common point, a few hundred feet east of the main building, and connect in a manhole from which a by -pass leads to a settling tank. The details of this tank are shown by Fig. 69. At the tank there is also located a windmill by which sewage is elevated when required, and used during the growing season to irri- gate the lawns immediately about and adjacent to the building. It is stated that no nuisance has ever resulted from a judicious use of the sewage in this way. The fall from the settling tank to the main irri- gation field is about 37 feet, and the pipe sewer leading from the tank to tlie main field is 12 inches in diameter. At manholes Nos. 8, 10, 11, and 13, Fig. 68, along this pipe, outlets are provided by which sewage can be run as required into main distributing trenches and consider- BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE WORCESTER HOSPITAL. 457 458 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. able additional area of land reached by irrigation. The total area that can be irrigated, including the specially prepared main field, is from 30 to 40 acres. The entire hospital farm includes 257 acres. The settling tank, Fig. 69, is 30 feet long, 16 feet wide, and covered by arches turned upon iron girders, with side walls and bottom of brick laid in cement, and made water-tight by a Portland cement plaster coating one-half inch in thickness. The sewage enters the tank at the west end and flows out at the east end, as indicated on the plan. About two-thirds of the distance from the inlet to the outlet a brick partition is built across the tank, in which are placed 4 plates BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE WORCESTER HOSPITAL. 459 of brass i^erforated with 60 holes one-fourth of au inch in diameter. The lower plates are 30 inches from the floor of the tank ; the entire partition is 4.5 feet high, and capped with a strong- netting- of gal- vanized wire of |-inch mesh. As stated, the sewage is received into the larger division, where the solids are detained, the fluid portion straining through the brass plates and wire netting and passing to the main sewer to be used for irrigation. The published reports do not furnish any detail as to just the method used for disjDosing of the sludge from the settling tank and the frequency with which the tank is cleansed. Definite statements are also lacking in regard to the quantity of sewage per da}^ quality of the soil of the irrigation area, etc. The niain irrigation field of 14 acres area is provided with a main carrier laid out in four difterent levels of about equal length. The first level is at an elevation of 414 feet above tide-water ; the second at an elevation of 413.33 ; the third, 412.67 ; and the fourth level at an elevation of 412 feet. The balance of the details will be readily under- stood by reference to the plans. The work was largely constructed by the inmates of the hospital, and no statements of cost can be made.* * The chief source of iuformation in regard to sewage disposal at the Worcester Hospital is the 47th An. Rept. of the Trustees, etc., for the yr. end. Sept. 30, 1879. CHAPTEK XXX. BBOAD IKEIGATION AND INTERMITTENT FILTEATION AT PULLMAN, ILLINOIS. In 1880 the Pullman Palace Car Company concluded to erect, in connection witli their Chicago Works, a model town as a place of resi- dence for their large number of artisans and mechanics. For this pur- pose a nearly level tract of land was selected on the west shore of Lake Calumet, at a point between five and six miles west of Lake Michigan and fourteen miles south of the central part of the city of Chicago. The company's large car shops and car-wheel works, employing over 4,000 operatives, are located here, as are also the Allen Paper Car Wheel Works, the Union Foundry, the Pullman Iron and Steel Works, the Standard Knitting Mills, Paint Works, Terra Cotta Works, and the Drop-Forge and Foundry Company's Works. The total number of operatives in these various manufacturing establishments, including the Car Wheel Works, is said to be 5,500. The town (now a part of the city of Chicago) owes its inception to the president and founder of the Pullman Palace Car Company, Geo. M. Pullman, Esq., who has carried out here an ideal town in which are provided, not only houses for the workmen, but all the various needs of a modern civilized community. The present population is given as 11,000. The site of the town is almost level, and on an average from 7 to 8 feet above the mean water surface of Lake Calumet. The lake drains only a small area and discharges into Lake Michigan through the Calumet river, which, however, does not flow through the lake, but is connected therewith by a small channel, through which the water flows from lake to river, or from river to lake, according to the varj'ing condition of winds and floods. The lake is about 3 miles long, 1| wide, and from 1 to 8 feet in depth. The absence of any current in this shallow lake renders it undesirable to make Lake Calumet the disposal place for crude sewage. The design and construction of the sewerage system and sewage dis- posal works were entrusted to Benezette Williams, C. E., of Chicago, who, after a review of all the circumstances, determined ux)on a purely separate system of sewerage, with disposal by broad irrigation sup- plemented by intermittent filtration, upon a tract of land about three BROAD IRRIGATIOISr AT PULLMAIS', ILLINOIS. 461 miles distant from the town. The rainfall is disposed of by a system of drains leading- to Lake Calumet by the most convenient lines. Con- straction upon the sewerage system began in August, 1880, and in Oc- tober, 1881, the entire system, including- the land disposal, was first put in operation. The plans were reviewed by E. S. Chesbrough, M. Am. Soc. C.E., as consulting engineer for the Pullman Company. The sewerage system proper is, as stated, a purely separate System to which nothing is admitted but sewage, except the small amount of water for flushing from a series of connections with the water mains. Automatic flushing basins are placed on the house drains and receive the sewage from the sinks and wash-bowls, while the water-closet sewage flows directly into the street sewers. The flushing basins also serve the purpose of grease traps, the siphons being so constructed that the grease is carried out whenever a flush occurs. The grease, having become cold while in the basin, does not adhere to the sides of the sewers when rapidly flushed out. From 4 to 6 houses are connected with one basin, as a measure of economy. The sewers converge to a common point, at which is located a storage reservoir of a capacity of about 300,000 gallons. The ventila- tion of this reservoir is secured by means of 8 flues, lined with 12-inch sewer pipe, built into the buttresses of the water tower, in the base of which the storage reservoir is located, and opening above the top of the tower at a height of 165 feet. The ventilation is further assisted by a 20-inch pipe leading to the chimney of the car shops. The bottom of the storage reservoir is about 30 feet below the surface of the ground, and the top of the groined arches covering it 10 feet below the surface of the ground. The pumping engines are two direct-acting compound condensing engines, with piston pumps. Each has a capacity of 2,500,000 gallons in 24 hours. They are located in an engine-room, directly over the storage reservoir previously described, the floor of the engine-room being supported by the groined arches which cover the reservoir. The daily average quantity of sewage for 1890 was 1,800,000 gallons, of which it is stated that about 1,375,000 gallons was from the dwell- ings and the balance from the shops. In September, October, and November, 1890, the average daily quantity of sewage pumped was a trifle over 2,000,000 gallons. The yearly amounts of sewage pumped for the ten years, 1882 to 1891 inclusive, were as follows : Year. Gallons. 188-2 211,(>'2n,l(;(> 1883 358,.3r)-t,52(l 1884 44a,H]r),4H() Year. Gallons. ISHT 573,7()0,fi40 1SS8 , . . 5(58, 007. 7t)0 188<) ri()2.2r){),0()0 1885 4(;h,3()2, 120 18!)0 r)r)7,001.3r.() 1880 472,748,080 1801 617,604,030 462 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATP:S. During the first nine months of 1892 a total of 513,996,060 gallons of sewage was pumped, or an annual rate of 685,328,000 gallons. It was considered desirable to avoid screening or settling the sewage before pumping, and with this object in view the pumps were de- signed with special reference to pumping everything which might be found in the sewage. For this purpose a rubber valve of special make frCm Pullman ^5"Vif-rified tilemaindi'sfribuh'onp^e.,^ Screening fafU< Fig. 70.— Plan of Sewage Farm at Pullman, III., as Laid Out in 1880. is in use, which is stated to work satisfactorily. Cotton waste, cloths, sticks and blocks of wood pass through the pumps frequently, without injury or inconvenience. Whatever sediment collects in the reservoir by incidental settling is washed loose with a hose from time to time, and passed through the pumps with the sewage. The pumping plant was furnished by the Cope & Maxwell Manufacturing Company, of Hamilton, Ohio. The cost of operating one of the pumps for 20 hours a day and BROAD IKRIGATIOX AT PULLMAX, ILLINOIS. 463 pumping- an average of 1,800,000 gallons per day in 1890 is stated as follows : Fuel S1.73 Oil and waste 0.57 Attendance 3.75 Total $6.05 This would be at the rate of $8.36 per 1,000,000 gallons pumped. The actual lift, not including friction in the force main, is on an average about 30 feet. A 20-inch cast-iron main, nearly 3 miles in length, connects the pumping station with the sewage farm. At the farm end of this main is located a olosed screen-tank, as indicated on the plan. Fig. 70, fitted with a screen of j-inoli mesh. This tank is 6 feet in diameter, 24 feet long, and made of :^-inch boiler-iron. The lower end is high enough above the floor to admit of wagons being driven under it, and into ■which may be received the material intercepted by the screen, by the opening of the valve at the lower end of the tank. A section through the screening tank is shown b}' Fig. 71. The distribution pipe, leading from the screening tank, is fitted with a pressure regulator set to 10 pounds. An overflow pipe is also pro- vided as an additional precaution. The object of the pressure regula- tor is to prevent heavy pressures and vibrations from the pumps from coming upon the distribution pipes, which are entirely of vitrified tile. The main distribution pipe is 15 inches in diameter, with 9-incli laterals 315 feet apart. Hydrants are located on the 9-inch lines every 320 feet, thus giving one hydrant to about each 2^ acres. The distribution pipes of vitrified tile were tested with water pressure before laying. The system of underdraining consists of parallel lines of common agricultural tile, 2 to 4 inches in diameter, laid to an average depth of 31 feet and about 40 feet apart. According to a statement made by E. F. Martin, farm superintendent in 1887, the primary drains would give better service if they were all at least 4 inches in diameter. The small drains connect with a main underdrain, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, Avhich (Miipties into a ditch discharging into Lake Calumet. The tract of land et distant, on the low bluff overlook- ing the river. Here the excess of liquid that flows out with it is allowed to leach away into the dry, porous soil, and the residue is covered (at intei'vais of about two or three days) with a light layer of dry loam, muck, or other absorbent, whereby it is rendered odorless and innocuous, and its fertilizing value develo])ed and pre- served. Before the next discharge is to occur, it is in suitable condition to be carried away and composted with more absorbents, or applied directly to the land, with results wliich demonstrate its agricultural value. In practice, with the present population serv<'d by these works, numbering about O.'jO convicts and upward of twenty officers' families, and disposing of about 1()(),()0() gallons of sewage daily, the sludge is discharged once in two weeks. The accumulations of that ])eriod furnish a deposit of from eighteen to twenty inches deep upon tlie bottom of the receiving chamber, ans be held to be a reasonable excuse for neglecting to make them. The new drains, with a minor exception, are laid in straight lines, with a man-hole at every junction and at every change of direction or grade. The ventilation of the sewers is insured by the admission of air through perforated covers upon certain of BROAD IKRIGATIOX AT THE COXCOKD REFORMATORY. 473 tlie man-boles, whence it circulates to and through the soil pipes which are carried through the roofs of the prison buildings — the soil pipes of the " strong rooms " also having been so extended iu conjunction with the work done under the Act of 18S3, with the direct result of entirely obviating the presence of objectionable odors and sewer emanations which had occasionally existed before. The ventilation uf the receiving and separating works is effectually accomi:)lished, without objectionable results of any sort, by the constant admission of air through a perforated man-hole cover, r, into the primary receiving compartment, A, and its positively induced circulation through a series of openings connecting all the com- jDartments above the level of the sewage tliereiu, and leading, by a suitaV)le ar- rangement of dampers at the base of the furnace, into either the fire-box under the boiler, or the chimney directly over the boiler, where the gases may be biarned — the draught of the chimney iu either case eflfectiug the necessary circulation. The officers' houses upon Commonwealth row were furnished with water-closets, and together with the ^Yarden's and Deputy-Warden's (now Superintendent's) houses, were connected with this system of works during the months of August and September, 1885, through sewers shown upon Fig. 72 — the expense for this addi- tion being paid out of the general appropriation for the Reformatory. Storm water is excluded from the new sewerage works, except in the case of that admitted for flushing purposes by the conductors upon the two houses at the heads of the Commonwealth row sewers, and also through connecting conductors near the heads of some of the principal drains within the prison yard. To prevent any back-flow of sewage, in case the contribution of storm water by these connections should be excessively large during the night, when the pumjjs are not ordinarily in operation, a safety overflow, d, is provided, whereby the excess automatically escapes into the sludge-pipe, and thence passing by the sludge-pits, is discharged into the river. No considerable quantity of objectionable refuse can so reach the stream, however, inasmuch as such overflow takes jjlace, as already stated, at night, when not only is the amount of normal sewage at its minimum, but the overflow itself consists of the secondary contributions of the storm water, after its primary flow has cleansed the sewers and discharged its scouriugs into the receiving chambers. With the present consumption of water, amounting, as already stated, to about 100,0()(J gallons jier day, the night flow of sewage from about 5.30 p.m., when pumping usually ceases, to 7 a.m., when it begins again. Alls the sewage reservoirs to witliin about a foot of the overflow level, or from 80 to 85 per cent, of their full capacity of about 28,000 gallons. The iiumping continues from about 7 a m. to 10.30 a.m., and again from 3 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. daily, at which time it is left empty, ready for the night flow. The large consumption of water and consequent delivery of sewage during the night, and indeed at all hours of the day, is largely due to the practice by a large number of the convicts of so placing a small bit of wood or other material under the seats of their water closets as to cause it to flow with a constant stream, thus maintaining a sense of cleansing and purifying efficacy which is only imaginary, at the expense of a considerable waste of water and the disposal of it in tlie form of .sewage. The winter care and management of the sewage does not differ in any essential degree from that at other seasons of the year, nor does it present any i)eculiai- diffi- culties or annoyances. The comparative warmtli of the sewage enables it to find its way into the ground before freezing to any injurious extent, wliile the sludge-pit, being covered by a clo.se house in which a quantity of dry absorbents is stored, is managed without difficulty. All labor recjuired in the management and operation of these works is done by convicts. The annual expense of running them may be approximately stated as follows — tlie labor being rated at what would be its fair valuation under normal con- ditions of cmplovment : 55 tons soft coal, at 81 00 8220 00 Salaiy of attendant 600 00 Repairs and sundries 80 00 8900 00 474 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN TlIK UNITED STATES. The cost of taking care of the sluJge-jjits and utilization grounds would be ad- ditional, but it is doubtless more than rejiaid by the purely agricultural value of the sewage products to be cared for and disposed of under any rational system of treatment. Most of the conductors disconnected from these works have been reconnected with the old brick sewers, whereby a complete double and separate system of sew- erage is jjrovided — the storm water thus finding its way into the river. The dye refuse and washing water from the hat shops, amounting to about 50,000 gallons daily, was disposed of by an independent method, having been collected and curried by a six-inch pipe sewer into a pair of open filter beds or sinks, contain- ing each about 500 square feet, and situated on the slope of the bluif east of the prison yard, where it soaked away without unsightly or unpleasant consequences. These beds or sinks were made in dui)licate, to enable the bottom and sloping sides of either one to be raked over, and the nearly impervious dei^osit of felting fibre thereon to be removed, wliile the other was in use. The removal of the hat indus- try last year led necessarily to the abandonment of this branch of the works, which is not therefore shown ujion the accomj^anyiug jjlans. The water from the purifiers of the gas-works, under an aii-angement made by the resident engineer of the Refoi'matory, flows into an oi:)en rectangular pit be- hind the gas-house. Across one end of the pit is a brick i)artition having an open- ing through it below the level of the liquiel standing therein. The gas liquor first enters the larger compartment, where the oil and light combustible compounds which are brought along with it gather upon its surface and remain therein, while the water itself flows through the submerged opening in the brick partition into the smaller compartment. From the latter it flows out through a submerged pipe orifice into a drain leading into one of the old brick sewers, and thence into the river. The combustible supernatant matter remaining in the larger compartment is regularly burned off twice a month. The removal of the picture moulding shop, which was in contemplation at the time of building the new works, has since been caiTied into effect, thiis taking it out of the drainage problem.* * Disposal of Sewage at the Massachusetts Reformatory. By Wm. Wheeler, C. E. , Tth An. Rept. of the St. Bd. of Health, Lunacy, and Charity of Mass. Supplement, etc. (1886), pp. 195- 208. i, CHAPTEE XXXn. BROAD IRRIGATION AT THE RHODE ISLAND STATE INSTITUTIONS. The Khode Island State Institutions, consisting- of the House of Correction, State Alms House, State Hospital for the Insane, State Prison, Sockanosset School for Boys, and the Oaklawn School for Girls, are located at Cranston, a short distance west of the city of Providence, in the midst of a tract of about 500 acres of land owned by the State. In the fall of 1884, the Board of State Charities and Corrections, which has charge of the State Institutions, requested Samuel M. Gray, M. Am. Soc. C.E., of Providence, to suggestan improved method for disposing- of the sewage, which jDrevious to that time had been utilized to some extent in irrigation, but without any special order or system. Mr. Gray, after investigation, recommended systematic broad irriga- tion, and designated a number of areas which were adapted to such use. His preliminary report was presented to the General Assembly of Rhode Island the following- spring-, and an Act passed appropriating $10,000, and authorizing the Controlling- Board to pui'chase or condemn, if necessary, not exceeding 50 acres of land to be used specially for irrigation. AVork was immediately begun on the construction of an experimental irrigation area, for the disposal of the sewage from the House of Correction, Alms House, and Insane Hospital. For this purpose the sewag-e was collected and carried to a field some 500 feet east from the buildings, where an area of 3.5 acres was prepared. This area, under favorable conditions, was considered sufficient to tempo- rarily dispose of the sewage of the population of the three institutions named, which amounted to about 850 people, and to also serve as an index of what could be accomplished by land purification at this place. The area selected was of somewhat irregular and uneven surface, with the top soil, ten inches in depth, of fine light loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil and fine g-ravel, which grows coarser as the depth in- creases, until at the depth of six feet it is composed of coarse gravel and sand in such jn-oportions as to form a nearly ideal material for the purification of sewage. A plan of the field as prepared is shown bj'' Fig. 74. The surface of the field was first graded to a uniform slope, and the field then underdraiiicd with 8-inch and 4-inch round til(\ laid from 5 to 6 feet in depth, in lines about 40 feet apart. The drains 476 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. are shown on Fig-. 74 by dotted lines, the full lines on the same figure representing- the contours, the elevation of which above tide-water are ^/^o there given. The 3-inch drains are laid nearly at right angles to the contours, and empty into the 4-inch, which are laid, as indicated, along BKOAD IRKIGATIOJT, RHODE ISLAND STATE INSTITUTIONS. 477 the lower side of the field and with a grade of 6 inches to the hundred feet. The outlet of the 4-inch drain is at the jDoint /, Fig. 74. At the junction of each line of 3-inch with the 4-inch is a brick well, 8 inches square in the clear, carried above the tiles about 4 inches and covered with brick. The chief object of these wells is to aflbrd means of ex- amining the drains when necessary without breaking the tiles. The method of laying the tiles has been described as follows : A narrow trench was excavated to a true grade, and in the trench were laid strips of spi-uce boards, one inch thick and about four inches wide, upon which were placed the tiles end to end and close together, each joint wound with strips of tarred paper about four inches in width, lapping two inches on each tile and ex- tending twice around it. The tiles, as fast as laid, were covered with screened pea-gravel, free from sand, to a depth of about three inches, and this fine gravel was in turn covered with al)out three inches of coarse gravel, an aV)undauce of this material, coarse and tine, having been obtained from excavations ou the field. The trenches were then back-filled, care having been taken to pack the earth sol- idly. The tile-drains having been completed, the surface of the field was again evened and the soil replaced where it had been previously removed in grading. In order to form a basin to retain the sewage, if necessary, in winter when the ground is frozen, and also to prevent its possible escape without filtration at any time into the Pawtuxet river near by, from which the water supply of the city of Providence is derived, an em- bankment was built around the three low sides of the field, as shown in Fig. '^4. The following is a description of the works : The sewage is conveyed to the field in a six- iiicli Akron pipe and discharged into a wire- basket (at tlie ijoint/. Fig. 74, also shown in the i)lan and section of the screening well. Fig. 75). The use of the basket is to catcli rags or other materials coming from the In- s'itutions througli tlu; six-inch pipe, which, if not removed, might interfere with the projior distribution of the s(;wago upon the field. Af- ter passing through the basket the sewage runs into a brick well, and from thence flows in a carrier or trough along the up- per or westerly side of tlie field, from wliicli carrier it is discharged at nine differ- ent points by a systcmi of gates, as described further on ; or tlie sewage may be discharged directly upon the field from the well, as sjiown at B, Fig. 7'4. The earner was constructed in the following manner (see Fig. 76) : To provide Fio. 75 . — Screening Rhode Island State TIONS. Basket, Instttu- 478 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. a foundation which should be affected as little as i:)Ossible by frost, a trench was dug, three feet wide at the top and two and one-half feet wide at the bottom, having a depth of three feet. This was filled to a point two feet and eight inches from the bottom with loose stone closely packed, the upper layer composed of pieces about one inch in diameter. On this stone foundation concrete was laid about four inches in depth, composed of one part cement and four parts gravel and sand, and upon the to]) of this the carrier rests. To form j^roperly this concrete bed, boards twelve feet long and nine inches wide were placed nearly upright and in the direction of the carrier, the bottom edges eighteen and the upper edges sixteen inches ai:)art, giving a batter of one inch to each side of the bed. To hold in position the boards thus placed, short strips of wood notched near the extremities were i^laced across the boards, near the ends and in middle, both above and below, the edges of the board fitting closely into the notches of the strips. A plan and end-view of one set of boards and cross-pieces iu position are shown at G and H, Fig. 76. P/on Fig. 76. — Details of Carrier and Drain, Rhode Island State Institutxok8. T!le Drain and Trench < The carrier itself is made of twelve-inch vitrified pipe divided longitudinally in the centre, making what is known as " sj^lit pipe." This is done by cutting grooves in the clay while soft before baking, so that when taken from the kiln the pipes are easily divided into two longitiidinal sections of equal size. These half-pipes were i:)laced to line and grade upon the concrete bed so as to form a continuous trough, and backed up with brick and cement. (See section of car- rier on Fig. 76.) Along the line of carrier, at distances of about one hundred feet, were placed iron castings, each casting taking the jilace of a section of the vitified half-pipe, having the same trough-like form, and arianged with a system of gates as before mentioned. These are shown in plan and elevation on Fig. 76, from which a better concei^tion can be formed than from description. By means of these gates the whole or part of the sewage may be discharged upon the field at any of the points where these castings and gates are placed. The most difficult eng-ineering- operation relating- to tlie sewage of the State Institutions, namely, that of disposing- of the sewag-e of the State Prison, was not entered into in 1885, there being no portion of the area already owned by the State upon which the sewage could be de- livered by gravity which was considered suitable for broad irrigation, and the alternative of pumping the i^rison sewage upon suitable areas BROAD IRRIGATION, RHODE ISLAND STATE INSTITUTIONS. 479 of the State land was tlioug-lit to have so many objectionable features that its adoption was not deemed advisable, unless it should prove imjoracticable to obtain, by purchase or otherwise, sufficient land so located with reference to the prison as to permit delivering- the sew- age thereon by g-ravity. It was to meet this difficulty that the Act au- thorizing the purchase of additional land was passed. Under its pro- visions a little over 12 acres were purchased for the sum of $3,959.79. A definite statement of the cost of the work cannot be g-iven, inas- much as the manual labor needed for draining", grading, etc., was fur- nished by the inmates, under the direction of the Superintendent of State Institutions. Aside from such labor there was paid out on ac- count of construction, up to December 31, 1885, the sum of $3,424.12. The direct supervision of the construction work was intrusted to Joseph A. Latham, C.E., who acted under the direction of Mr. Gray. In regard to the winter disposal at this place, the following state- ment was made by Frederick P. Stearns, M, Am. Soc. C.E., in a dis- cussion of sewage disposal before the Boston Society of Civil Engi- neers on February 15, 1888 : I visited the sewage disposal area of tlie State Institutions at Cranston, R. I., on the 28th day of January, 1888. The temperature of the air iu the morning was — 19.4° C. (3° below zero F.), and at one p.m., at the time of the visit, —15.6° C. (■i' F.). This was one oi the coldest days of the season, at the end of a very cold week, and near the end of the coldest January since 1857. The p()i)ulations of the institutions contributing sewage was about 1,000, and the mean flow about 90,000 gal. per day. The sewage was being turned u^jon a level tract of about 2.5 acres. The surface of the ground was generally covered with ice about 5 inches thick. Near where the sewage went upon the field it was not frozen. Beyond this it appeared to be flowing over the ice, and a new layer was forming upon the surface of the sewage. To all appearances very little sewage was enter- ing the ground. It is evident, however, either that the sewage did enter the ground or that it had been filtering •^hrough prior to this time, as the total accu- mulation of ice upon the surface did not represent more than 8 days' flow of the sewage, and a large portion of it was probably due to rain and snow, the precipita- tion for the month having been 4.5 inches. The areas were so arranged that no sewage could run off" over the surface. Not only was the weather very cold, but the temperature of the sewage, 4.7° C. (40.5° F.), was unusuallv low. The average temperatui'e of Medfield sewage in January, 1888, as d(Hluc'ed from daily observations, was 1(3° C. (60 7° F.). The mean temperature of sewage of the Concord Reformatory during the last week in Januarv was 11.1° C. (51. i» F.). The mean temperature of Boston sewage during this month was 6 3' C. (43.3° F.). Recent statements in regard to the condition of the purification woiks at Cranston are lacking, as are also statements as to the actual cost of operation ; but the latter item is quite small, since indepen- dent of the use of a portion of the sewage for the irrigation of crops it requires considerably less than the time of one man.* * The chief source of information in regard to the disposal works at Cranston is (he 17th An. Rept. of the Bd. Charities and Corrections of 11. I. for 1885. Also see Eng. i liki. Reed., vol. xiii., p. :'>:12 (March 4, IS.SC). CHAPTEE XXXIII. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AND BROAD IRRIGATION AT SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASSACHUSETTS. The town of Framing-liam, Massachusetts, of which South Framing- ham is the principal vilhig-e, is situated in the drainage area of Lake Cochituate, from which a i^ortion of the M^ater supply of Boston is de- rived, as is shown by Fig. 77. Until recently the sewage of the town has flowed into Beaver Dam brook, a tributary of Lake Cochituate. In the latter part of the year 1889 complete sewerage and sewage disposal works were completed and put in operation. A i3roject for the disposal of the sewage of South Framingham was elaborated by Eliot C Clark, M. Am. Soc. C.E., in his report to the Massachusetts Drainage Commission in 1885.* At that time it was proposed to convey the sewage from the towns of Ashland and Natick and the village of South Framingham, and also from Sherborn prison, to a common point for disposal — a tract of land just outside of the Lake Cochituate drainage area and in the area of the lower Sudbury river basin being selected for this purpose. Mr. Clark's proposition was to purify the combined sewage of the towns and the jirison by intermittent filtration at this point. His j)lan included the delivery of all the sewage at a pumping station to be located near the Boston and Albany railroad, a little w^est from the estuary of the Beaver Dam brook, and from that point to be delivered through a force main to the proposed filtration area, about one mile to the north. f The selectmen of Framingham, in the latter part of 1886, engaged * As early as 1879. Desmond FitzGerald, M. Am. Soc. C.E., from one of whose reports the map, Fig. 77, was originally taken, began to urge the importance of excluding sewage from the Boston water supply. Further details of this movement on the part of Boston are. given in Eng. News, vol. xxix.. pp. 98-C)9 (Aug. 4. 1892). + By the Public Statutes of Massachusetts, Chapter eighty, Section ninety-six, it is provided : No sewage, drainage or refuse or polluting matter of such kind and amount as either by itself or in connection with other matter will corrupt or impair the quality of the water of any pond or stream hereinafter referred to. for domestic use, or render it injuiious to health, an i no human excrement shall be discharged into any pond used as a source of water supply by a city or town, or upon whose banks any filter basin so used is situated within 20 miles above the point where such supply is taken, or into any feeders of such ponds or streams within such 20 miles. It is therefore questionable whether any town in that State has a right to discharge a purified effluent into any stream, pond, or lake which is either the source of a water supply or tributary to one within 20 miles from the point of discharge. Under the Statute it would appear necessary to show the effluent entirely free from polluting matter, before its discharge would become per- missible. SOUTH FRAMINGIIAM, MASSACHUSETTS. 481 S. C. Heald, M. Am. Soc. C.E., of Boston, to make the necessary surveys and plans for sewerage and sewage disposal works for that town alone, and proceeded to obtain from the Legislature an act au- thorizing the town to construct and maintain a system of sewage dis- posal. In the meantime H. H. Carter, C.E., acting as engineer for the Boston Water Board, had reported in January, 1887, that the best method for disposing of the sew- . age of South 1 rumingham was by filtration at substantially the loca- tion selected by Mr. Clark in 1885. Mr. Heald, as engineer for the town, submitted his report to the Sewerage Committee in August, 1887. He proposed a sei3arate sys- NOTE 5ewcraqeSvsfem,i869 Shown •■ Map of Sotjth FRAMracnAM, Massa- chusetts, AND Vicinity. tern of sewers, with disposal at the point previously indicated in the reports of Messrs. Clark and Carter. The sewage would flow by gravity to a point near the east line of the town of Framingham, where a receiving tank and pumping station would be located, from which the sewage was to be forced to a disposal area substan- tially as proposed in the original report of Mr. Clark in 1885. For the main outfall sewer in AVaverly stro(^t ho proposed a ]niie 15 inches in diameter, laid to a grade of 1 foot in 400. The present population to be provided for is about 5,000, ami a volume of about 75 gallons per capita per day was considered a safe l)asis for estimate. 31 482 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. In regard to the disposal area, Mr. Heald, in liis report of 1887, says : If we avoid the denser clays as altogether unsuitable (unless they are so altered in their condition by mixing, burning, etc., as to lose their natural character), and regulate the application of the sewage to other soils within the limits of one thou- sand persons to the acre to those most suitably constituted, and two hundred and fifty 2^ersons to the acre to those least suitably constituted, all other descriptions of cultivable land may be made capable of filtration. For the jaresent wants of the town I would advise taking about eighty-five acres of land on the northerly side of the Worcester turnpike and westerly of the road leading from said turnpike to Saxonville. Should the town at any time desire to increase the area of its farm, additional land could be obtained on the northerly side of tlie brook that crosses the Worcester turnpike near the town line, and land on the easterly side of said road to Saxonville. The soil is well suited for the purification of sewage, the surface being of light sandy loam and the subsoil for the greater part being coarse gravel. I have reserved about ten acres of the land for intermittent filtration, the re- mainder to be used for broad irrigation. The filtration area is to be divided into nine fields, each of which contains nearly an acre of land ; each field is to be sur- rounded by an earth embankment three feet high. These fields are at different elevations, depending upon the natural elevation of the land. Each field is given an elevation that would require the least amount of labor to bring it to a nearly level surface. In prei)aring a field, after it has been properly graded, a ditch or carrier about two feet wide and one foot deep is formed on one side of the field, and at right angles with the carrier a series of furrows is made. The furrows are from four to five feet apart from centre to centre, and divide the field into long, narrow beds. The beds may be used for raising root crojis, the sewage flowing through the carriers and furrows without coming in contact with the vegetables in the beds. In practice it may be fountl that the filtration fields are not needed during the summer mouths — that the area devoted to broad irrigation and the demands for sewage from the owners of land along the line of the force main, even in rainy weather, will be snflSeient to dispose of all the sewage. If such should be the case the fields may be used to take the sewage during the winter months, and in the summer any suitable crop could be laised in them with- out any esjiecial preparation of the beds. By having embankments around them, the fields can be flooded to a depth of at least two feet, should occasion require it. It is impossible to state just how a sewage farm should be conducted in order to attain the best results in respect to crops, or just what crops should be raised ; but for the area devoted to broad irrigation a grass crojj would undoubtedly be the best. Some of the land to be devoted to the broad irrigation may be ploughed in the autumn and lay fallow, receiving diiring the winter an occasional dressing of sewage, and in the spring cross-ploughed and a crop of corn or oats started. The area to be devoted to sewage farming should be thoroughly cleared of all 'trees and brush. The sewage may then be ajiplied and the land be gradually put into a suitable condition for the growth of grass or other crops. The area of land recommended to be taken will undoubtedly be sufficient to meet the wants of the town for at least fifteen years, and the additional land re- ferred to would be ample for any probable giowtli of the town. In advising your town to adopt this method of disposing of its sewage I am not advising anything experimental. In England the same treatment of sewage has been in successful operation for nearly thirty years. On the Continent the follow- ing cities, having a winter climate nearly like that of Massachusetts, dispose of their sewage upon the land. Danzig, in 1871, commenced to«^dispose of its sewage in this manner. In 1873 Berlin decided to adopt the same method, and w^as followed in a few years by Bres- lau, and quite recently by Frankfort. POUTH FRAMING II AM, MASSACHUSETTS. 483 The cost of pumping and caring for the sewage at the farm is estimated at twenty-seven hundred dollars (i?2,700) per year. Mr. Heald's report is accompanied by a report by Phinehas Ball, C.E., of Worcester, in wliicb the plans and arrangements proposed by Mr. Heald are strongly commended. The Sewerage Committee of the town, having accepted Mr. Heald's report, proceeded to negotiate with the Boston Water Board in order to ascertain how much the city of Boston would contribute toward the expense of the construction of such system of sewerage and of sew- age disposal for South Framingham as would result in preventing the flow of any of the sewage of the town into the tributary streams of Lake Cochituate. As the result of the negotiation on the part of the Town Sewerage Committee, the Boston Water Board proposed to con- tribute twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000) whenever the town should complete and put in service so much of the system devised by Mr. Heald as provided for the irrigation field, force main, pumping plant, and main trvink line sewer from Bridges street to the pumping station, provided that said work should be completed on or before December 31, 1889. Upon receipt of this proposition, the Town Sewerage Committee submitted the ofi^er of the Boston W^ater Board to the Hon. Wm. Gas- ton for a written opinion as to the validity and the power of the Water Board to bind the city of Boston to such payment. The following is the opinion received : Boston, Febniaiy 7, 1888. To THE Drainage Committee OF THE TOW^ OF FkAMINGHAM, MaSS. Gentlemen : Keferring to the letter addressed to the inliahitants of the town of Framingham by the Boston Water Board, and approved by the Mayor of Boston February 3d, 1888, concerning which our opinion has been asked, we beg leave to say that we have examined the same and are of the opinion as follows : By the provisions of Chapter 1(57 of the Acts of the year 1816, entitled an "Act for supplying the City of Boston with pure water," the city is, after an enumeration of various powers, finally authorized at the close of the second section of the Act, to do " any other acts and things necessary or convenient and jiroper for the jmrpose of this act ; " this same general ])ower was also conferred U])on the city by the pro- visions of Chapter 177 of the Acts of the year 1872, in refeience to the sui:)ply of jnu'e water to the city of Boston from Sndbiiry river and Farm ]iond. The powers tluis given to the city (which in our o])inion sliould be construed lil)erallyj were, under the provisions of (!liapter 80 of the Acts of the year 1875, and of an ordinance passed by the City ('onncil. thereunder transferred, so far as they couliT legally be delegated, to the Boston Water Board. In our judgment the general ])owers above recited in the Acts of 1810 and 1872 could tlius be legally delegated, and are now vested in the Water Board. That Board has therefore, in our o]nnion, the power to do any acts and things nec- essary or convenient and ])roper for the ])uipose of su]))ilying ])iire water to Boston, eith(>r from Lake Cocliituate or from Sudbury river or Farm ])ond. There can be no doubt that any system of sewerage wliicli lias for its object the removal and dis- charge of 8(iwag<» and polluting substances which now naturally drain into the above sources of Boston's water supply, to a point outside the watershed furnishing 484 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. such supply, is a proijer and convenient thing for accomplishing the purisose of the two acts named, viz., to give Boston pure water. And we are accordingly of ojiin- iou that the Boston Water Board has the power to contribute, or agree for the city to contribute, any sum which it deems proper towards the construction of such sewerage system. It can in our judgment make no difference so far as Boston is concerned whether the beneticial work so paid for by Boston is done by persons directly in the employ or by the town of Framingham in its municij^al character. In our view the jjroposed contract, if duly accepted by the town of Framingham, is binding on the city of Boston. Under the provisions of the new city charter (St. 1885, Ch. 266, S. 6), the city of Boston is prohibited from incurring any liability beyond the a^jprojiriation duly made therefor. We are informed by the City Auditor that the sum of .f50,000 has been duly appropriated by the City Council to be ex}>ended by the Water Board for the protection of the purity of the water supply by agreements with the towns of Framingham and Marlborough, and that the sum of money is still on hand. We find upon a recent conference with the Corijoration Counsel of Boston that he concurs in the above views. Yours respectfully, Gaston & Whitney, The Committee thereupon recommended the acceptance of the proposition of the Boston AVater Board. In the meantime Mr. Heald's plans had been submitted to the State Board of Health, which, after due consideration, reported, in regard to them as follows : Office of the State Board of Health, 13 Beacon St., Boston, May 13, 1888. To the Committee on Seweeage, Framingham, Mass. Gentlemen : In response to the application from the town of Framingham of March 1, 1888, giving notice of their intention to introduce a system of sewerage and asking advice as to the best practicable method of disjiosing of their sewage, and ajiproval of the plans presented laursuant to Chapter 403 of the Acts of 1887, the State Board of Health, after fourteen days' notice by pul)lication in the news- pa])ers of Framingham and Natick, and oflicial notice in writing to the Selectmen of the town of Natick of the ^presentation to it of such system for its apju'oval, gave a public hearing at the State House in Boston on the 24th day of April to all in- terested in said system, and after careful exaininatiou of the plans presented and of the proposed location of grounds for sewage disjiosal and their surroundings, both by personal examination and h\ its engineers, this a]iproves of the disjwsal of sew- age of Framingham by irrigation and intermittent filtration upon the tract of land, containing sixty-eight acres, selected l)y the town, which is located in the town of Natick on the northerly side of the Worcester turnpike and outside of the Boston water supply basin. As the method of disposal of sewage ui)on this tract is not presented by the town with sufficient clearness to enable this Board to apin-ove or disapprove of the same in detail, the Board therefore approves the system as modi- fied and amended as follows : The sewage should be apj^lied to so much of the surface of the tract of land as is more than four feet above the level in siimmer of the water in the brook draining the tract, and at or near this height on the sloj^e towards the brook, and near the lower border of the tract upon which sewage is to be a^^plied, in those sections not sloping directly towards the brook, there shall be constructed an embankment of earth as much as one foot high above the adjacent surface to which sewage is to be applied, and four feet wide, which shall at all times be maintained at such height as to prevent any sewage applied to the surface from flowing over the sur- face of the ground into the brook or upon adjoining land ; and the Board further amends by directing that the top of the underdrains to convey the eftiuent from the filtration or irrigation areas shall not be less than four feet below the surface of the ground to which sewage is applied ; and the Board further amends by directing that the quantity of sewage to be aj)ijlied to any filter-bed or any irrigation area SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASSACHUSETTS. 485 shall not exceed in any week the equivalent of one foot in depth over the whole area of that bed or irrigation area to which it is applied, and the times of appli- cation shall be so arranged that no liquid sewage shall remain exposed upon the surface or in open ditches more than twenty-four hours at a time. It is understood that the receiving reservoirs are to be completely covered and ventilated by fines extending to the flue of the chimney of the pumping station, and both reservoirs and pnmi)iug station are to be located within the town of Framingham. As herein modified and amended the proposed system of sewage disposal and its location are appi-oved Per order of the Board, (Signed) Samtjel W. Abbott, Secretary of State Board of Health The preliminary arrang-ements having- been all satisfactorily made, a portion of the work was advertised for letting June 18, 1888. The con- FiG. 78. — Plan ok Resi-:uvoii{s and Pumping Station, South Fiiamingham, Massachusetts. struction began immediately thereafter and proceeded as rapidly as possible. The work was practically completed about November 1, 1889. The following extracts from the report of J. J. Van Yalken- burgh, (aigineer in charge of construction, give the main facts in regard to that portion of the work which relates more particularly to the sewage disposal. 'riic two receiving leservoirs at the pumping station are each one hundred ten and a half feet long and thirty feet wide. [See Fig. 78 for plan of reservoirs and pumping station.] These are parallel to and sejiarated from each other by a wall tlir(>t> foi't thick and seven and one-half f(Hit high. The side walls are three and one-lialt feet tliick and eight and one-half feet high. The brick arclies, two feet in thickness, rest on tliese walls. Tlie bottoms of the reservoirs are inverted and are constructed of rubble concrete, varying in tliickness from one and one-lialf feet in the centre to two feet at the wUs. In the centre of the reservoirs the arches are eleven feet and nine inches 486 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. above the invert, and at the walls three and one-half feet. The reservoirs when completely tilled will hold four hundred and thirty-one thousand gallons. Both of the reservoirs may be kept free of sewage while the pumps continue to run, being fed by means of an eighteen-inch pipe extending through the centre wall from the gate house to the pump-well. The pump-well and gate house are both arranged for screens, but it is hardly probable that it will be necessary to resort to screening the sewage, since the pump valves are of the swinging type, eight by ten inches in diameter.* The pumping station and chimney in every particular are of ample size to ac- commodate a duplicate set of machinery similar to what you now have. The inimjj- ing engine is one of M. T. Davidson's improved compound d^^plex condensing tyj^e, and is guaranteed to deliver, through nine thousand feet of twelve-inch i)ipe, two million U. S. gallons of sewage per twenty-four hours, against a total head of forty feet. This total head does not include friction. This then is at the rate of thir- teen hundred and eighty-nine gallons per minute, or eighty-three thousand three hundred and thirty-three gallons per hour. Thus if the reservoirs were completely filled, i)nmping at the rated capacity of the pumps, they could be emptied in live hours and ten minutes. Water for the boilers and condenser is taken from a well, six feet in diameter and twelve feet deep, situated near the brook which flows by the easterly side of the station. This well is connected with the brook by an eight-inch pipe. The dejith of the well is such that in case said stream becomes too low to be of service, the drain in Waverly street or Beaver Dam brook can be piped so as to flow into the well. There are two steel boilers of the horizontal tubular type, each forty-eight inches in diameter, thirteen feet and two inches long, and containing fifty-two three-inch steel tubes twelve feet long. The shell of the boilers is three-sixteenths of an inch thick ; the heads three- eighths of an inch. A three-foot flue extending from the reservoir's j^asses under and in front of the boilers, and is then connected by a two-foot pipe with the thirty-inch flue leading from the boilers to the chimney. The draught for the boilers is taken from this source. You see, therefoi'e, that the reservoirs have an excellent ventilation. The twelve-inch cast-iron force main, which is ninety-seven hundred and forty feet long, extends in nearly a straight line to a point on Hartford street about four hundred and fifty feet east of Bowdoin lane. Thence following the southerly side of said street and the easterly side of Speen street (or road to Saxonville), it reaches the farm at a point three hundred feet north from the Worcester turnpike ; thence in a straight line and parallel with said turnpike one hundred and eighty feet to the first manhole, where the force main ends ; but the .same course is continued two tliousand feet further with fifteen-, twelve-, and ten-inch Akron pipe laid to a grade of one foot in a thousand. The force main is laid to grade ; that is, by opening a six-inch gate in the engine room, six thousand one hundred feet of this main will drain into the reservoirs. Through two more gates of the same size the remainder of tlie pipe can be emptied. The advantages of this arrangement will be better appreciated when it becomes necessary to repair a possible break or leak. Eleven six-inch plugged branches have been put in on line of the foi-ce main at such places as seemed to us most advantageous to those who might desire to take the sewage as a fertilizer. On lines of pijje at the farm there are fourteen hexagonal man-holes, so con- structed that when the pumps are working, by closing a gate on the pipe extending through them, the sewage will rise in them. At certain distances up the sides of the manholes there are eight-inch gates, generally four of them, at elevations one * Near the beginuing of 1892 screens were added to remove some of the coarse matters. SOUTH FRAMING nA:\r, MASSACHUsprrrs. 487 foot liigher than the bed or point of laud ujson which it is desired to let sewage flow. Regulating the ojaening of these gates regulates the amount of sewage delivered. The farm, containing sixty-nine acres, three roods, and eleven and one-tenth rods, is now in good shape to receive its first instalment of sewage. Ail wood, ex- cepting that reserved bv the town, has been cut, likewise this season's growth of sprouts. About twelve acres of land have been taken for intermittent filtration ; the remainder is to be devoted to broad irrigation. The area for intermittent filtra- tion ha-; been divided into eleven beds, with banks about three feet high and four feet Ijroad at the top, with sides slojHng one and a half to one. One embankment, througli which extends the main feed pipe, is somewhat higher in certain sections tliau the others, in consequence of giving said pipe the same depth of covering. In preparing a bed a portion of land was taken which was as generally level as i)ossi- ble, and after ploughing, grubl)ing, and removiugas much loam as was necessary to form the emba'-'knients, to smooth oft' the surface and reploughinto lands seven feet in width. Tlie ditches produced by thus ploughing are about nine inches deep and twice that in width. These ditches are met at the banks by a larger ditch or car- rier, which will conduct the sewage from the manholes into them. Eight of the beds are finished, and their embankments in proper shape and seeded. The re- maining three beds are graded, and the loam has been put on line of embankments as disposed of by the carts. Two beds have been ploughed with a swivel j^lough from one side, conserpiently these beds do not have a series of ditches similar to those possessed by the beds just described. But they have a main carrier along the upper sides, from which the sewage will flow into the furrows as ploughed. Six of the beds have a six-inch underdrain, six feet below the surface of the ground. These drains extend tlirough nearly the centre of the beds, and their outlets are in the ravines near the centre of the farm. During the most rainy season no water has been observed to come from them, excepting the case of one drain tliat is in close proximity to the bed of the pond that formerly existed near the Worcester turnpike. The point of observation of this drain is outside of the beds and eight feet below their general level. We think it advisable, therefoi'e, to defer further underdraining until the assured necessities of the l)eds demand it. We also advi.se devoting as much of the sewage as is practicable to broad irriga- tion, reserving the beds as much as possible. According- to the financial statement submitted by tlio towns sewer- age committee at the completion of tlie work, the total cost of the sewerag-e and sewage disposal works was $148,288. The statement does not show the amount properly chargeable to sewage disposal, but an idea of the cost of the same can be derived from Mr. Heald's original estimate, which stood as follows : 26,088 lin. feet of sewer, all sizes, with man-holes $63,756 50 Pumps and boilers in dui)licate 8.000 00 C!liimney, engine and boilers house 7,000 00 Foundations, screens, gates, etc :{,0()0 00 Receiving reservoirs (250,000 gallons capacitv) ' 12,000 00 10,200 lin. feet of r2-inch force main, at $1.85 18,870 00 85 acres of land at §40 ;$,4()0 00 Clearing and burning 65 acres, at $20.00 1,;30() 00 Filtration beds and carriers 10,000 00 Amount $127,826 50 Add 10 per cent, for engineering and contingencies 12,732 65 Total estimated cost $140,059 15 In regard to tin- increase in cost of the work in actual construction over the amount of the estimate, it is stated by Mr. Van Valkenburgh 488 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATP:S. in his report, from which we have already quoted, that the increase was due to the hirge number of heavy storms which occurred while the work was constructing, necessitating- extra pumping, additional underdrains, deeper foundations and more extended supervision, etc. In order to facilitate construction, 8,058.4 lineal feet of underdrain were constructed which were not contemplated in the original estimate. Mr. Baker visited South Framingham on June 17, 1892, and through the kindness of Mr. Van Yalkenburgh, obtained some additional in- formation. John H. Goodell, chairman of the Framingham Sewerage Committee has since added to this information, as has Frederick P. Stearns, chief engineer of the Massachusetts State Board of Health.* To June, 1892, none of the farmers along the line of the outfall sewer had availed themselves of the opportunity to draw seAvage from it through the eleven 6-incli branches provided for this purpose. In 1892 corn was successfully raised on three of thc^. l)eds. The following table gives an analysis, furnished by Mr. Stearns, of the sewage, effluent, and unpolluted ground-water at South Fram- ingham. Analyses of Sewage, Sewage Effluent, and Unpolluted Ground Water from THE Sewage Field at South Framingham, Massachusetts. (Parts in 100,000.) Color. o . Si <- c H Ammonia. a o s: O Nitrogen as £ '5 1 5 < .?T50 01139 .(029 .0008 a .1 'u 70 0.0(1 0.00 0.00 28.80 19.4.T 4!';o 1 .7893 .o:).35 .00(11) .0000 4.07 2.5(i 1.77 0.20 .001^0 .(iOlS .2350 .0083 .0(01 Sewage effluent at underdrains .. . .OOUti .0000 Unpolluted ground water .0000 Mr. Stearns comments upon these figures and the work of the dis- posal area as follows : In each case the analyses are the averages of several determinations. They rep- resent, tirst, the sewa.£>e'^ as it flows ont of the carrier upon the bods; second, the effluent flowing from underdrains heneath cei'tain of the beds, which afterward soaks into the ground and iw filtered the second time before reaching the brook into which the effluent finally passes ; third, the water of a spring located near the brook, which derives its supply to a large extent from the sewage effluent, and represents the general character of the effluent when it reaches the brook ; and, fourtli, the unpolluted water from a flowing well near by. Only a small part of the sewage effluent comes out at the undeidi'ains. and you will notice that this is purified to such an extent that there is only 2',r of fi ee am- monia and I'i' of albuminoid ammonia remaining, while the nitrates have increased greatly. At the spring the free ammonia is entirely removed and the albuminoid * See Eng. News, vol. xxviii., pp. 137-9 (Aug. 11, 1892). SOUTH FKAMINGHAM, MASSACHUSETTS. 489 ammonia is less than one per cent, of that in the sewage. On one occasion an analy is of the spring water showed that it contained neither free nor albuminoid ammonia, while the excess of chlorine and nitrates over the amount found in the unpolluted ground-water, as shown in the last line, proves without doubt that this si)ring contains a large proportion of sewage effluent. Bacterial examinations of the sewage and of effluent collected from the spring show that nearly, if not all, bacteria are removed l)y filtration. The effluent from this sewage field flows into a small brook, and although the works have been in operation more than two years the discharge of the effluent into this brook has not produced any noticeable eflfect. In the rei^ort of the Sewer Committee for March, 1893, it is stated that there were then 451 houses and 39 hotels and business blocks connected with the sewers — 222 new connections, or nearly one-half the total, having- been made in the year 1892-3. At the sewage farm it is stated that 400 bushels of corn (probably in the ear), three-fourths of an acre of cabbages, and some squashes were raised in 1892, and sold for a total of $174. The effect of frost and snow upon these filter beds is given in Chapter XIV., page 284.* * The chief source of information in regard to the South Framingham sewage disposal is Re- ports of the Committee on Drainage and Sewerage and Construction of the Sewerage System, etc., Nov., 1880. Compiled by Wm. A. Brown, Clerk to Selectmen. Also see Eng. News, voL xxii., p. 497 (Nov. 3o, 1889) ; vol. xxviii., pp. 127-9 (Aug. 11, 1892). CHAPTER XXXIV. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MEDFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS. In the fall of 1886 sewerage and sewag-e disposal works were con- structed at Medtield, Massachusetts, a small town on the Charles river, about 17 miles from Boston. The sewage disposal works, which include preliminary sedimentation and upward filtration throug-h ex- celsior, supplemented by intermittent filtration through natural soil, were projected by Eliot C. Clarke, M. J^m. Soc. C.E., and constructed under the supervision of Fred. Brooks^rM. Am. Soc. C.E. The plans for the sewage disposal works were approved by the Massachusetts State Board of Health in August, 1886. The chief manufacturing enterprise at Medfield is the Excelsior Straw Works, which employ for seven months of the year between six and seven hundred operatives, and during the remainder of the year about half as many. The following account of the Works is extracted and condensed from a paper by Mr. Brooks, Sewage Disposal at Medtield, Massachusetts, in the 19tli Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health : The straw-works drainage, nearly half of which comes from the vats in which straw is dyed, used to rnu into Vine brook, wliich flows past the works and is dammed np in a small pond just below, whose level is frequently raised and lowered for mechanical purposes. This produced an offensive smell around the pond, and blackened and iiolluted the water so that some residents below, on both sides of the brook immediately west of the railroad track, who had used its water for domes- tic supply, were obliged to abandon it, and made several complaints. In 1886 a pipe sewer was built chiefly for the purpose of keei^ing the sewage from the straw- works out of Vi:ie brook, and disposing of it so as to avoid the nuisance. The sewer has been entered also by the Central House (having accommodations for about forty boarders), which formerly drained into the brook, and by three private dwelling-houses which did not drain into the brook. As a result the channel of the brook lias already been washed so that it is inoffensive to sight and smell. A favorable })lace was found a little out of the village for the dischaige of the sewage and its purification by intermittent downward filtration. Much ground dye-wood is used at the straw-Avoiks, and if this in its water-logged condition were admitted to the sewer it was not to be supposed that the sewer would be self-cleansing with the gradient available. It falls at the rate of 4 per 1,000 for nearly a quarter of a mile Accordingly to exclude the spent dye-wood from the sewer there was built adjacent to the dye-house a settling basin with a filter, whose construction may be understood by the aid of the accompanying draw- ing [Fig. 79]. It is made in two parts, side by side, exactly alike, in order that one- half may be in use, if necessary, while the other is being cleaned out. Tlie dis- charge from the vats can be turned, by a wooden gate in the trough which brings it INTERMITTENT PILTRATION AT MKDFIELD. 491 from the dye-house, into either side of the settling Ijasin separately. Entering by the fonr-inch openings the liquid flows generally in both sides, with a total width of ten feet and a depth of four feet, less the thickness of the deposit of sediment. The velocity of flow is thus checked, and the ground dye-wood has a chance to settle. To get into the second pair of w ' compartments it has to pass over the brick dividing wall, fe,:,:, , m whose elevation is the same as the bottom of the inlet ^ pipe. Here is another opportunity for settlement to take ^ j)lace, but apparently very little collects in the second .^ compartments until the flrst are pretty well tilled. In the | third compartments by a tight board partition the liquid ,'S is obliged to pass downward, and escape by upward tiltra- !^ tion through a mass of excelsior held between two sets of ^ wooden slats, as exhibited by the drawing ; the ujjward flow | being preferi'ed as a precaution against choking the filter. -^ The filter was in use nearly a year before the excelsior "| was changed; it worked very satisfactorily, but the excel- ^ sior had by that time become so rotted that probably it ^ would soon after have gone to pieces and escaped through ^ the sewer. A new supply was accordingly siibstituted. ^ The sediment needs to be shovelled out and carted off once I or twice a year ; it has a similar appearance to s:iw-dust, ^ except for its black color. g^ Qtc ifi O fe Near the lower end of the sewer tlie sewage passes through a cesspool arranged as shown on the accompanying drawing [Fig. 80], so that the outflow takes place from be- neath the surface of the sewage standing in the cesspool. The effect is that objects which either float or sink are held back until they are sufficiently changed by chemical or other action to flt)w uniformly with the rest of the liq- uid, and are ])revented from being thrown out upon the ground at the outlet. . . . Very little sediment col- lects in the cesspool — only about a foot in depth in the course of a year ; when it fills up, the sediment will have to be taken out. . . . The filtering bed upon which the sewage is dis- charged consists of one acre of ground graded nearly level. It was intended to be conical, sloping at the rate of five per thousand away from the centre, where the outlet of the sewer is; but owing to slight imperfections in the work, unequal settlement, etc., it is a little irregular — gen- erally flatter. . . . The shape of the filtering bed was made a little irregular to adajit it to the existing topo- grai)liical conditions ; but it is substantially a stpiare, sub- divided into four small squares of one-quarter acre each by little einl)ankments, three of which are about a foot in heiglit ; the fourth covers the pipe to a depth of three feet for ])rotcction against fi-eezing or other injury. To prevent the sewage from running off from the filtering bed without penetrating its surfacis the filling was also embanked about a foot above the graded surface along the north-east side of the filtering bed, the only portion of the exfeiior line where the graded surface was not lower than the ground adjacent. The material is mostly gravel and stones from the size of a man's fist downward, and is well suited for the purpose of filtration. In grading tlie filtering bed tlu^ thin stratum of loam and grass u))on the surface was not removed; it was simi)ly ploughed u]) and then handled like the gravel. But the narrow strip under the embankment through whicli liic pipe is laid had its loam stii])ped ofi', and the gravel with which it was replaced was carefully puddled to make an unyielding foundation for the ])i])e. At the middle of the filtering bed the l>ipe .sewer ends [as shown by Fig. 80] in a wooden 492 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. trough having four outlets — one to each subdivision of the filtering bed — which out- lets are closed by three gates ; so that the sewage runs on to one subdivision, and is shut off from the other three. Every other day the gate is changed from one outlet to the next, so as to turn two days' sewage on to a subdivision, and then give it six days' rest, to allow the sewage to pass off through the ground, and let the sur- face of that division become dry enough for another dose. No underdrainage has been jjut in at the filtering bed. The ground-water naturally is about ten feet below the surface of the filteiing bed. Judging from the visible indications, especially the contour of the surface of the ground, the natural drainage from the filtering bed must be in the direction of a little depression leading down toward the meadow to the northward, whe^-e there is a spring of very good water which is the source of a permanent stream, as shown on the plan and profile. The artificially straight course of the little stream may be explained by the fact that the meadow through which it flows was graded up several years ago, so that better crops could be cultivated. This stream being a tributary of the Charles river, upon whose banks a long distance below are situated Fig. 80. — Plan and Section through Sewage Outi.ets and Cesspool.* the filtering galleries from which several municipalities draw their water supply, Medfield sewage requires to be purified before entering it. The success of this filtering bed during the severe cold of winter has been favored by the fact that the dye-vats are kept at a high temperature. Daily obser- vations in October, November, December, and January, 1887-88, show that the temperature of the sewage as it comes upon the filtering bed at the outlet is, while business is active at the straw-works, generally from 60° to 80' F., falling at night and on holidays from that downward to about the temperature of the ground- water, say 50° F. . . . In January, 1887, on a day when the tliermometer went down to 26° below zero F., the sewage was turned on to a division of the filtering bed that was covered with snow and ice. The writer visited it a few days later and found that from a strip five or ten feet wide, extending nearly across .the bed, the snow and ice had been melted away. The sewage had also run underiieath the remaining snow and ice a little way, so that on digging with a shovel through it — say ten feet from this open place— moist and unfrozen ground was found beneath ; still fiirther away the ground was frozen. With regard to the quantity of liquid discharged upon the filtering bed, it was estimated in the latter part of 1887 by putting a little weir at one of the wooden trough outlets and observing at intervals the height of water going over it. It fluctuates a great deal, but it is estimated that in addition to the leakage of 2,000 cubic feet per twenty-four hours of clean water above mentioned, there comes in on the average, from straw-works and the house drains, about 3,000 cubic feet per day for six days in the week for about seven months, from November to May — that INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MEDFIELD. 493 is, about half the days in the year — but only about 1,500 cubic feet per day for five months, from June to Octobei', arid on Sundays in the other seven months, i.e., the other of the year. That this estimate (though not chiiming to be minutely accurate) is substantially correct may be judged by comparing such estimates as can be made from known facts as to the number of peoj^le in the buildings and the quantities usually discharged from the dye-house and bleachery ; also by comparing the estimated quantity of water pumped from an artesian well which is the original source of most of the liquid that gets into the sewer. Most of what is pumped from this well ultimately finds its way into the sewer. More has been jjumped heretofore than the required water suj^ply, and the excess has been allowed to over- flow from a tank and escape into the sewer, making just so much unnecessary hindrance to the drying of the filtering bed ; whereas, if pumped at all, it might better have overflowed into Vine brook, being pure water. For purposes of com- parison the quantity of liquid discharged upon this filtering bed of one acre (or 4,000 square metres) may be estimated at 4,250 cubic feet (or 120 cubic metres, or 32,000 United States gallons) per twenty-four hours the year round, though the actual want of uniformity must make the effect rather different. For the purpose of comparison as to the population provided for, we may assume, as an approxi- mation, that the manufacturing waste from the straw-works takes the place of the domestic waste that would ordinarily go with the number of operatives that board outside of the sewered area ; and thus counting operatives and residents alike, may call the average population provided for about 500. The works were designed for about 3,000 to 3,500 cubic feet of sewage per twenty-four hours ; but the town secured an additional acre of ground around the present graded filtering bed with a view to extending its area, if an increase in the quantity of sewage to be disposed of should hereafter make it necessary. At present' the full area prepared is not fairly availed of, because from the neglect to grade the surface more accurately by a little harrowing there are iwrtions which stand high and dry, and have never been touched by the sewage, which collects in the low places where, after two days' discharge, it stands in a pool. The six days following hardly give sufficient opportunity for it to percolate through the soil and for the surface of the filtering bed to become dry. The natural tendency is toward the formation of a moist, pasty coating over the surface of the lowest points of the filtering bed, entirely contrary to the intention with which it was laid out. In spite of this imperfection, which it is not to be supposed will be allowed to con- tinue, the general working of the scheme has been highly satisfactory. No smell is noticeable except just at the outlet of the sewer. The work for the town was done under a contract for a " lump" sum ; the cost of the disposal works was probably about SI, 000, including cesspool, pipe from cesspool to outlet, earthwork, engineering, superintendence and profit to con- tractor, and the value of land, whicli was given to the town. The annual expense of maintenance of the work of disposal is insignificant — probably about thirty dollars. A man has to change the gate regularly, which is the principal labor re- quired. The surface ought to be harrowed over when it gets cfbgged with sedi- ment, the embankments repaired if they get trodden down or washed ; the wooden l)arts will have to be occasionally renewed as they decay, the cesspool will have to be emptied sometimes ; but a very few days' labor annually will cover all that appears to be required. No statements as to recent cost of operation have been made.* * Mr. IJroDks's paper gives a series of analyses of (1) the water of wells in the vicinity of the filter area ; (2) of a spring near by, below the filter area, which contains some of the efiiuent ; and (3) of the crude sewage ; together with the results of a few osal field, has been levelled and laid out in absorption ditches after the manner shown in the cross-section. Fig. 82. The l)alance of the field, consisting of about 12 acres, is provided with a main carrier and distribution ditches for use as an irrigation area whenever the filtration area is ovta"work(nl, or whenever during the growing season the Hewag(> can b(> profitably utiliztnl thereon for growing crops. The intermittent filtration area is divided into three 496 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. parts, into one of which the sewage is run for one day, this arrange- ment giving- two da3^s' rest for a section after each application. The construction was begun in October, 1888, and completed in June, 1889, the work being done by the Department of Public Works l« s'.O ■>!< - /O'.O Ji* -.-.-'-h_-.-li 5eciionof Bank "^ Section of Absorption Dtfth Underdrain Fig. 85. — Details of Distributing Well, Hospital for the Insane, London, Ontario. The carrier ditch has the natural fall of the land ; the distributing ditches have a fall of one in 500. At a point southeast from the level field there is a short level catch ditch, intended to intercept the surface flow of sewage down the steep slope LONDON, ONTARIO, HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. 499 near it, and distribute more evenly over the depression below. The need for tlie catch ditch may be avoided by such grading at this part of the tract as will bring the contours more nearly parallel. The main outlet from the receiving well is to be made of half pipes (vitrified). This pipe is to be without sockets, and is to be laid in vitrified collars or sleeves. If the flow through the distributing ditch is arrested at any point, as it may be by sticking a wrought-iron gate into the earth, making a dam across the top, the sewage will overflow for a greater or less distance above the dam according to the volume of the current. If the dam is placed first at the lower end of the upjjer distributing ditch it will overflow, for example, 200 feet above the dam. When the ground to be reached by this overflow has received a sufficient supply of sewage '//////''///''////%, Overflow Line %>^ '~ ~470ft. ~^millllilllll/llillllllim}J 'mmfm''' Fig. 86. — Section op Distributing Ditches. the dam is placed higher up stream, and the overflow carried over the next section of 200 feet, and then in like manner to the third section. Should the ground be- tween the two ditches not be able to absorb all the sewage discharged upon it, the overflow will he caught by tlie second distributing ditch, and if its quantity is suf- ficient can have its distribution regulated by the placing of a dam there as above.* * The sources of information in regard to the sewage disposal at the London, Ont., Insane Hos- pital are : — (1) The 7th An. Rept. of the Prov. Bd. of Health (1888), which contains Col. War- ing's Rept. to the Dept. Pub. Wks. and the Rept. of a Com. of Prov. Bd. Health, etc.; (2) Eng. & Bldg. Reed., vol. .xx. (1^89), p 119 ; (;>) a paper, " Disposal of Sewage at Large Institutions," in the American Architect for April 9, 189:i. By Col. Waring. CHAPTEE XXXVL CHEMICAL PEECIPITATION AND INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT THE ROCHESTER, MINNESOTA, HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. The original method of disposing- of the sewage of this Hospital was by turning it directly into Silver creek, a small^ stream flowing a few hundred feet distant from the buildings. The i^ollution of the stream had been for a number of years, however, the subject of complaint on the ijart of the riparian owners. The matter was finally referred to the Minnesota State Board of Health, who directed Dr. Charles N. Hewitt, secretary and executive officer of the Board, to examine the case and report thereon. Dr. Hewitt reported that the discharge of crude sewage into the stream was the source of a serious nuisance which ought to be immediately abated. The Controlling Board of the Hospital thereupon employed, in January, 1890, W. S. MacHarg, C.E., of Chicago, who proposed a scheme of chemical precipitation, supplemented by intermittent filtra- tion. Mr. MacHarg's plans were submitted to the Controlling- Board on February 5, 1890, and accepted by them, subject to the approval of the State Board of Health, which was given on February 21. Con- FiG. 87. —Plan of Disposal Works, Second Minnesota Hospital for THE Insane, Rochester, Minnesota. struction was immediately begun and the works put in operation Nov- ember 1, 1890. The general arrangement of the works and the creek are shown by Fig. 87. The detail of the precipitation tanks is shown by Fig. 88. EOCHESTEK, MINNP:S0TA, HOSPITAL EOll THE INSANE. 501 The present population of the Hospital is about 1,050 persons and the sewage, amounting- to 60,000 gallons a day, Hows to the precipita- tion tanks through a 10-inch pipe. The sewage consists only of the Baffle Boarc/ BaffleBoard, Longitudinal Section. OuHei Transverse Section Ejector Pit Zcharvber Circulaiing Channel Influenf Channel To FiH-raf ion Area ToSludqePif- U Plan Fig. 88. — Precipitation Tank, Second Minnesota Hospital fou the Insane. discharge from water-closets, baths, toilets, kitchens, laundries, etc. ; no storm-water is admitted. The tankage is of sufficient capacity to handle 75,000 gallons per day. The tanks, four in number, are ar- ranged for a depth of sewage of 4 feet ; they are worked on the con- tinuous system, one being cut out each day and cleaned jireparatory to receiving the sewage during the night, when steam is not available for pumping. Shone's Hydro-Pneumatic l^'.jector is used for pumping; the air compressor and air receiver are located in the engine house, about 502 sp:wagp: disposal in the united states. 1,000 feet from the ejector, the air supply being- carried thereto throug-h a 3-inch pipe. The ejector is set low enough to allow the sewage and sludge from the bottom of the tanks to flow to it by gravity. A 4-inch main leads from the ejector to the filtration area at the right, and also to the sludge disposal area, a short distance to the left. The soil of the filtration area is prairie loam to the depth of 16 inches, below which is sand and gravel. At about six feet is found a strong flow of ground-water in the direction of the creek. At this depth 3-inch underdrains are laid in lines about 25 feet apart, with the main outfall drain 6 inches in diameter, as indicated on the plan. No details of the method of laying these drains are furnished. The following from Mr. MacHarg's report will serve to indicate the other essential features of the project : As a conseqiience of the reasons I have adduced, I recommend that a double process be used ; that which is at the present moment the result of the best judg- ment of the facts which have accumulated from experience extending over many years and Including many processes. This process is, first, the clarification of the sewage by chemical precipitation or subsidence in tanks ; and, second, the disposal of the effiuent by intermittent filtra- tion upon land, and of the sludge by mixture with earth as manure. The filtration of the effluent water is not essential excejat where a high standard of purity is re- quired in the stream. It may therefore be so used advantageously during such part of the year as the ground is not frozen, and during extreme cold weather- or during heavy rains may be discharged directly into the stream without offence. The advantage of this process is, I think, obvious ; the clarification in the tanks removes all suspended matter, which is the most offensive, and if proper chemicals are used for precij^itation most of the dissolved impurity may be removed, and an effluent be obtained which may be discharged into any stream not used for domes- tic water supply without disagreeable consequences ; the clarified effluent water may be used in irrigation to the advantage of crojjs, and almost all the dissolved im- purity will be removed. Having alternative ways of disposing of the effluent, you are thus made indepen- dent of climatic conditions, and the drainage of the hospital is continued without offence to adjoining property. To accomplish this result I provide, as shown in the accompanying plans, a tank large enough to contain one day's flow of sewage for a probable 1,200 persons, or about 75,000 gallons (?) ; this tank is to be built of masonry or concrete, with par- titions and channels so arranged that any one section may be cut out, emjjtied, and cleaned without interference with the continuous use of the tank. For the disposal of the effluent water I propose to underdrain about two acres of land, and prepare it with the necessary banks and channels on the surface. A pipe is to be laid from effluent end of tank to the ejector, and from the ejector to the field. This pipe will be branched as shown, and the sewage be allowed to flow over one portion of the field on one day and over another on the next. By divid- ing the field into four portions, each section has one day work and three days rest. By this intermittent use the extremely efficient action of eartli filtiation is obtained. A very ordinary class of attendance is required upon the filtration area. Certain crops may be grown upon this area, but this method is not founded upon any idea of getting a money value out of sewage. To carry away the sludge deposited in the tanks an inlet pipe is connected to the ejector, branching and connecting to the bottom of each section of the tank, with an Oldening at the floor and with a branch with a floating arm. The floor connec- tion is stopped with a plug and the arm is free to rise and fall with the water. ROCHESTER, MINNESOTA, HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE. 503 and the floating end covered with a screen. From the outlet of ejector a pipe is rnn to any jaart of the low land near the brook. A portion of land is excavated to receive the sludge. The section of the tank to be cleaned is closed ofi" at the chan- nels, and the clear water allowed to flow through the arm to the ejector and de- livered on to the irrigating field ; when the floating arm has fallen to the level of the sludge, the plug in the bottom is drawn out and the sludge discharged by means of the ejector through the pipe before mentioned upon the excavation pre- pared. When all the sludge is discharged the tank is washed out and the ejector disconnected from it, and the lauk pat again in service. The .sludge is covered in the excavation with fresh earth and allowed to solidify ; several layers may be put in each excavation, and when required may be dug out and used for manure. As regards the use of chemicals to precipitate the sewage, and therefore render the effluent more nearly pure, I think that it will be necessary during the greater part of the year. While the effluent is being used upon the land, vegetation and bacterial action in the aerateel soil will accomplish all that is necessary in the puri- fication of the water, and you will only need to have recourse to the precipitants during such jjeriods as you wish to discharge into the brook. This means neces- sarily through the winter and possibly during long-continued wet weather. The chemicals most available are lime, sulphate of alumina, and, under some circumstances, sulphate or perchloride of iron. These are all used in the crude form, as purity and consequent increased cost are unnecessary. Clay is also used as an absorbent to facilitate deposition. Lime used alone is efficacious, but pro- duces a sludge which under some circumstances becomes off"ensive. Suli>hate of alumina with clay produces good results ; with either mixture a small amount of one of the iron salts is sometimes used as a deodorizer. The experience with these preparations is mostly English, and as their sewage is less diluted than ours it is probal)le that you will need to determine the mixture which will give you the most satisfactory results. The work was largely constructed by tlie labor of the hospital patients, and statements as to actual cost are lacking. For operating the works one man is specially employed, who is assisted somewhat, when necessary, by the patients. A letter from the superintendent of the hospital, received in April, 1892, states that no trouble has been experienced in securing an efficient winter purification during the two winters that the disposal works have been in operation. Both the winters, however, are stated to have been somewhat warmer than the average. The sewage prob- ably reaches the precipitation tank in cold weather ^^'ith a temperature of at least 45° F.* * The chief source of information in regard to the sewage disposal at the Rochester Insane Hospital is the 6th Biennial Rept. of the Trustees, etc., for the Biennial Period Ending July 31, 1890. Also see Eng. and Bldg. Record, vol. xxiii., p. 72. CHAPTER XXX^T:I. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MARLBOROUGH, MASSACHUSETTS. Maelboeough, Massachusetts, a town with a popiihition in 1890 of 13,805, is situated on the influent streams to Basin No. 3 of the Sudbury river water supply of the city of Boston. While the town has only just constructed a sewerage system, it has nevertheless resulted that Basin No. 3 has been considerably polluted by the drainage of Marl- borough . In 1888 an Act passed the Massachusetts Legislature authorizing the town of Marlborough to lay out, construct, and maintain a system of sewerage and sewage disposal. Xaider the provisions of this Act the town authorities designated M. M. Tidd, M. Am. Soc. C.E., of Boston, to prepare the necessary plans, which, after a number of hear- ings, were finally approved by the State Board of Health on January 7, 1890. The plans presented by Mr. Tidd included the delivery of the sewage completely outside of the Sudbury river water-shed and its purification by intermittent filtration. In consideration of carrying the sewage outside the Sudbury water-shed the Boston Water Board have agreed to contribute $62,000 toward defraying the expenses of the work of construction. Desmond FitzGerald, M. Am. Soc. C.E., represented the city of Boston in this connection. The sewerage sys- tem, which is of the separate tyjie, was completed early in 1892, and the disposal area shortly afterward. On June 23, 1892, there were about 350 sewer connections. As the total number of water connections at the close of 1890 was 1,79-4, and the population of the town in 1890 was 13,805, it is evident that the amount of sewage to be purified is small compared with what it will be in the future. The town introduced water-works in 1883, and the consumption of water in the early part of 1892 was about 325,000 gallons a day, but at 4.30 P.M., Mav 12, 1892, after a dry spell, the flow through the outlet sewer was at the rate of 330,000 gallons a day, and on May 25, 1892, at 9 A.M., after heavy rains, the rate of flow was 790,000 gallons a day. The measurements on each date were made by observing the time taken to fill the separating tank once. Ground-water is the only explanation for this large flow through the sewers, for, as has been stated, not more than one-fifth of the water i FIG. 1. MAP OF MARLBOROUGH SHOWING SEWERAGE SYSTEM PLATE V. MAP OF MARLBOROUGH TOWN AND PLAN OF FILTER BEDS. -- D Verficai Seci-ion. From Elevation. ^ PARATING TANK JGH, MASS. l; fi ^IG. 3. 18-iN. SWINGING GATE. PUTE VI. DETAILS OF SEWAGE PURIFICATION PUNT AT MARLBOROUGH, MASS. FIG 6, lO.IN, GATE TO FILTER BEDS, FIG J. 18.IN. INFLUENT GATE. =IG, 3 leiN. SWINGING GATE. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT MARLBOROUGH. 505 consumers are connected with sewers. Unfortunately, Marlborough is not the only town Avhere an excessive amount of ground-water finds its way into the sewers. The city of Boston would not allow Marlborough to put in underdrains because it feared that sewage would pass through defective sewer joints, and into the drains, and thus finally into the Boston water supi3h\ The filtration areas are located about two miles, in an air line, from the outskirts of the village, as shown by Plate Y., Fig. 1, and some 3^ miles from the last house connection, measured on the pipe line. The nearest house is about 1,000 feet from the filter areas. There are two other houses about 1,500 feet away, and no more within about a mile. The sewage passes from the village to the disposal area through an outlet sewer of vitrified pipe. A separating or settling tank removes the sludge from the sewage, after which it passes through iron pipes, to the several filter beds, of which there are now l-l in use besides the six small ones used for emptying the sludge. The arrangement and details of the purification plant are shown by- Plates V. and YI. Fig. 2, Plate Y., is a plan of the filter beds. Only 20 of these, including the G sludge beds, were in use, but it is proposed to use 51 beds eventually. The 14 filter beds now in use, with their dividing embankments, cover about 13 acres. In the whole tract bought by the city there are 60 acres. The separating or sludge tank is shown in plan and section by Fig. 1, Plate YI. It is of brick, in two compartments, with gates permit- ting sewage to be admitted to or drawn from either one at will. The course of the sewage in passing through the tank is shown by the drawings. The screens perform only a slight service, as most of the solid matter settles before the sewage reaches the screens. The sludge can bo removed from either taidv to tin; sludge cnrrier by opening the cleaning-out gate. The tioor over the tanks is formed by iron gratings supported by I beams, 3f feet centre to centre. The character of the 24-in. influent gates, and the 18-in. gate, which controls the passage of sewage directly to the beds through the pipe on the partition wall, are shown by the 18-in. lift-gate, Fig. 2, Pl.ite YI. Tliere is also shown in Fig. 3, Plato YI., an 18-in. swinging gate, whi(-li is apparently used at the effluent end of the tank. Fig. 4, Plate YL, shows in detail the screen used in the separating tank. The sewage passes from the top of the tank through iron pipes along the embankments to the several beds, and discharges on to the beds tlirough gates and sliort l)ranches, the bed at the point of dis- charges being |)aved. Fig. 5, I'lalo YL, gives a plan and section of the (jutlot to the beds, and Fig. G, I'lato YL, shows the two-way 10-in. ver- 506 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. tical gate used. A single gate constructed on the same principle as the two-way is used where only one gate is needed. The sludge passes through the cleaning-out gate, already mentioned, to the sludge carrier, shown in detail in Fig. 7, Plate YI. Sludge was first removed from the tank in April, 1892. It remained upon one of the beds for a month, instead of being speedily removed, iiiul finally became ofi'ensive. An adjacent farmer removed it without cost to the town. On May 25 the sludge was drawn from the tank the second time, and on June 11 the third time, in each case a farmer hauling it away. The tank filled full, or nearly full, of sludge, each of the last two times. The crust that forms on top of the filter beds, consisting of minute particles of matter suspended in the sewage, is harrowed in from time to time. The effluent from the beds discharges through underdrains into Hop and Wash brooks, which empty into the Sudbury river. These beds were visited by Mr. Baker, June 17, 1892, at which time they seemed, so far as casual observation could determine, to be doing good work and presented no unpleasant features. A strong breeze was blowing over the beds, but even at their leeward side only a slight odor was noticed. The cost of the tank, tank-house, filter-beds, and all appurtenances, including engineering and excluding land, was $21,720. The outlet sewer was carried 2| miles farther than it would have been had not sewage purification been adopted. The total extra cost caused by the construction of this extra pipe line and the filtration beds and appur- tenances was about $62,000, which was met by the city of Boston in re- turn for the removal of the sewage from its water-supply.* ♦See Eng. News, vol. xxviii., p. 170 (Aug. 25, 1893). CHAPTEK XXXMII. INTERMITTENT FILTEATIOX AT THE MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOL FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED. The Custodial "Ward of the Massachusetts School for the Feeble- Miuded, completed in 1889, was desig-ned to accommodate about 150 inmates. It is located near the summit of a densel}' wooded hill in AValtham. The natural course of the di'ainage from the School is into the Charles river, which is the source of a municipal water supply, at a point a short distance below where the drainage of the Custodial "Ward would naturally enter it. Under the laws of Massachusetts, to which we have already referred (p. 480), it therefore became necessary to purify the sewage before allowing" it to flow into any tributary stream of the Charles river. Frank P. Johnson, C.E., of Waltham, w^as accordingly directed to prepare plans for sewage disposal. The plan prepared by Mr. Johnson and carried out was as follows : From the Custodial Ward building and the laundry just south of it the sewage is conducted into a brick sludge-trap, shown in detail by Fig. 89, where it halts until the grease has risen in a scum to the surface, the insoluble matter settled to the bottom, and the paper, etc., become broken up and held in suspension. The 6-inch inlet enters about a foot aJDove the surface of the sewage. From the sludge-trap a -l-inch ventilating pipe runs into the boiler-house chimne}'. The 5-incli iron overflow from the sludge-trap to the detaining tank is T-shaped, and so placed as to allow the eftluent to pass over from below the scum of the grease on the surface and from above the sediment at the bottom of the sludge-trap. An 8-incli iron pipe and gate at the bottom of the sludge-trap permits the grease and sediment to be run off" to a com- post heap as often as may be necessary — probably about once in three months. From the sludge-trap the sewage passes into a brick detaining tank, 13 l)y 20 feet, capable of holding the sewage of 24 hours, amounting to 1(),000 gallons. The bottom of this tank pitches every way to one corner, where is placed a -l-inch gate through which its contents may be discharged when desired, and a siphon through which the tank automatically empties itself as often as it becomes full. Above, in the samn corner, is an overflow opening for use in case the siphon be- comes clogged, and it is so placed that the interior of the detaining 508 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX TIIP: UNITP:D STATES. tank may be viewed through it from the adjoining- man-hole. The 4-inch g-ate and the siphon are in this man-hole, the bottom of which is one foot lower than the lowest joint inside the detaining tank, so as to facilitate the action of the siphon. The siphon is primed by a priming cup on its longer leg, and at its top it is provided with a special arrangement for cleaning should it become clogged. From this point the sewage flows into and through a small distrib- uting man-hole, out of which lead three earthenware pipes controlled Irvn framp ancJ Cover 6 '/nief Inlet ^Boi/er House i. Chimney ' 'o Compost Heaff ^rSlLHf^f, To Compost Heap Fig. 89. — Details of Detaining Tank, Massachusetts School for the Feeble MiNDKD, Waltham. by as many gate valves. The sewage, if necessary, may be run through one of these pipes out over the hillside among the dense underbrush of the woods before mentioned, but each of the other pipes supplies a filtration area, of which there are two, so that one may be at rest while the other is in service. A description of one will answer for both. The subsoil of the hillside is gravel that would be excellent for road-making, and is overlaid by about 18 inches of loam. Averaging about six feet from the surface is rock. This condition, while not the most favorable, had to be made the best of, and it was first under- MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOL FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED. 509 drained with ordiuaiy 2-incli circular land tile, laid five feet deep on lines 50 feet apart following the direction of quickest descent, the tile being" extended far enoug-h above the disposal area to intercept what aei-^ r^ o* \ \ '^ ^^-^ T""^ O \ \ ^/' \ *^ ' ^» \ Ed \ \ "ji^^ 1 o\ ^» * Q Q V---^ v\^^ '\ o'i /' ^' 't — "^ ^^'•-_ *'. O''^ ;^ fWrr7'/J ■ Ed * ^ '^^^^—^Y/I^^^^^^^- •' 1' o -^ \ J^^^^^^^^^ ' i o- O '^%JJ^^^^/ / o o n lTC-^^^^i^^^^^T^5^-^^3ry'^ L-ii5f---^5r / o \i^^!!!!!i^i;;T^^:3^3f >J?/^^3*^ / o- m ^^^m"-' III H a i m D n o f~ vp; — ' — y^^^T^r^irv XK^^y^rx Y \ -^ 03 A/~^---^^ywZ?C^\\^s^ \ CO ^^^^^ ,-'*-^. ,-''° \ i <; S ^^^^^^^^:=f±^ -^^- \ ^-T"*--— IIIIHJ^S'O^'''^^ r*'**' ^ *1 \ b; '^ — '^SS^SoiV / "^^ o \ > ~~~~7?\\~^S7C^^-^^C^/^ "S,*, \ !^ ^^^^^^^^ '^ \ •<1 O. /f^ o\ \ <«^ 1 A' OQ o m o ^ 7 r-i \ JT \ // 7 < i // -c^ / / >:i '4 1* ■J 1 o 1 "^^ storm water might come from the hillside above. These underdrains tlischarge into Clematis brook, a tributary of the Charles river, and receive no sewage except as the purified etfiuent may enter them after filtration. A g(MU'ral i)lan of the disposal works, includiug the filtra- tion area, is shown by Fig. 90. 510 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. From the distributing man-hole the sewage passes into 6-inch mains, which deliver into 3-inch feeders laid in parallel lines approximately at right angles to the contour lines, or, in other words, on the lines of greatest slope. Every three feet on each feeder is a 3-inch T-branch connecting with a n -lateral, and set level, or even slightly pitching up-hill, so as to cause each lateral to be filled in succession before the flow reaches the next. The nif^terals are approximately parallel, and follow the contour lines of the surface about three feet apart. They are covered just deep enough to permit of ploughing the field without disturbing them. About 5,000 linear feet of laterals have been laid in each disposal area. The several dotted lines on Fig. 90, numbered from 70 to 160, are contours showing elevation of surface. For greater distinctness and convenience only every other one of the laterals has been drawn. The filtration system is shown in full lines and the underdrains in broken and dotted lines. No separate account was kept of the cost of doing the work, its exe- cution being mostly at odd times by laborers elsewhere at work on the grounds, as it became convenient to spare them. This was by no means to the advantage of the sewerage system. The engineer's estimate of cost was $1,500, and the probable real cost could not have been far from $1,800, It is likely that it could be duplicated under ordinarily favorable conditions for $1,400. For the sake of economy a similar but slightly different device from the tile distributors was used, and a material saving effected. The works were first operated January 1, 1890, and are reported as giving good satisfaction.* * The foregoing account of the sewage disposal at the Mass. School for the Feeble-minded is derived from a description by Mr. Johnson originally contributed to Eng. and Bklg. Reed., ap- pearing in vol. xxi. , at page 300. Mr. Johnson has kindly revised the matter there given, for use here. Since this chapter was v\Titten permission has been granted by the legislature to connect the sewers of the school with the sewerage system of the city of Waltham. The legislative act was approved March 10, 1«93. CHAPTEE XXXIX. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION AT THE LAWRENCEVILLE, NEW JERSEY, SCHOOL FOR BOYS. The Lawi'enceville School for Boys is located at Lawreiice\dlle, New Jersey, a small town about lialf-way between Trenton and Prince- ton. The late John C. Green left the bulk of a larg-e fortune to trustees to be used by them for educational and other purposes. In 1882 the trustees purchased the Lawrenceville School, and proceed- ed to erect new building-s and make other constructions necessary for placing- the institution upon a thoroughly tirst-class footing. Messrs. Peabody lSPOS.\L SY.STEM. The sewaire tank is built of brick-work underground, and is in two sections. The first or retaining section is in duplicate, and contains six compartments, three in each set. Each compartment is sixtv feet long, about three feet wide, and four feet -18. CHAPTEK XL. INTEKMITTENT FILTEATION AT GAKDNEE, MASSACHUSETTS. An intermittent filtration system was put in oi^eration in 1891 in connection with the new sewerage system. McClintock & AVoodfall, of Boston, were engineers for the works. The plant has been de- scribed as follows : * The town of Gardner is situated in the central part of the State, on the divide between the Connecticut and Merrimac rivers, all but a small part draining into the Connecticut river. The population of the town in 1890 was 8,424. It is largely engaged in the manu- facture of chairs. The daily consumption of water is about 300,000 gallons. The town is made up of four villages closely united — South, Depot, West, and Centre. Of these the West village is the most thickly settled and contains the most factories. The South is also thickly settled and has a number of factories. The Centre is strictly a residential part of the town. The Depot village is not thickly settled. The State Board of Health, fearing that in time the crude sewage, if emptied into the brook leading to Otter river, might create a nui- sance, ordered the town to purify the sewage before allowing it to flow into the river. Intermittent downward filtration was adopted. The main outfall sewer is a 12-inch pipe. A greater part of West Gardner, the Centre and Depot villages had been sewered at the beginning of 1893. The separate system was used not only on account of its costing less than the combined, but from the fact that the surface water can be at this place easily and cheaply drained into natural water-courses without doing any harm. There were in use, at the close of the summer of 1892, 5h miles of sewers, 12 to 6 inches in diameter, 128 man-holes and 23 flush gates in manholes ; also 139 sewer connections, of which 100 were from houses, 25 from business blocks, 10 from factories with a total of 1,500 em- ployees, and 4 from hotels. At the close of the summer of 1891 there was a total of 97 connections. The daily amount of sewage delivered at the filter beds was about 125,000 gallons in February, 1893. * Condensed from Eng. News, vol. xxix., pp. 163-165 (Feb. 16, 189;^). INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT GARDNER. 51' To reach the most available ground for a filter area it was neces- sary to carry the outlet sewer down through a small valley and up on to a hill. This was effected by making- the last 1,050 feet of the '- El <}94. uJ — Fio. 93 —Plan ami Section of Settling Tank, Gaudneu, Ma!>sa( iusetts. outhit sower of iron pipe, with a sag- near the middle of 24 feet. A blow-off, discharging- on to filter bed No. 50, Fig. •)(], used only in this coniu ction, was placed at the lowest point in the iron pipe. This is to be used only in case of stoppage. In February, 1893, this 518 SEWAGE DIS;PORAL IX THE UNITED STATES. g-ate had not been open for over a year, and no trouble had arisen from solids collecting- at this point and stopping- the sewer. The blow-off g-ate used is an 8-inch vertical lift gate, exactly like the 10-inch in use at the filter beds at Marlborough, Massachusetts, shown on Plate VI., Fig. 6. The outlet pipe discharges into a settling tank, shown in plan and tMillbehrten Fig. 94. — Inlet to Settling Tanks. section by Fig. 93. The tank is built of brick, with walls 12 inches thick. It is divided into two parts by a 12-inch wall, built through the centre, thus giving two compartments, each 20 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 5 feet deep. The sewage first flows into a wooden box, Fig. 95. — Gates on Outlet Pipe from Tank. shown in plan by Fig. 94, and also by the dotted lines in the plan of the tank. Fig. 93, and is diverted into either tank by means of a swinging door. Stop planks to prevent floating matter from reach- ing the gate chambers are placed near one end of the tanks. The sewage is drawn off at the surface by means of pipes leading into the gate chamber. The flow into these pipes is controlled by iron gates, a sketch of which is shown by Fig. 95. The sludge is drawn INTER.MITTKXT FILTRATION AT GARDNER. 519 off by opening similar gates, shown in plan at the bottom of the tank, Fig. 93, crude sewage being used to wash out the tanks. Extra pipes for future use have been built into the tank and gate cham- ber. The tiow from the gate chamber into the main carrier is also regu- lated by means of iron gates like the above. The gates are raised or lowered by means of chains, which pass over pulleys and through the wall of the tank, and are worked inside the tank house. The solid matter which settles in the tanks is discharged on to the sludge bed through the sludge pipe, as shown in Figs. 93 and 96. Tile Uncferara/hs^ 4 -S 'deep Vilrifjed Distnbuhnq P,p^ Out/erP/pefromBedi l/v/7 Setver P,pe Fin. !»n — Pr,AN OP Fti.tku Arkas, G.\rdner, Massaciidsetts. In constructing the filter beds the surface was first levelled, the surplus dirt being used to make the banks, and the bottoms of most of the ])eds being formed in clav. They were then covered in gravel to the depth of from 4 to 5 feet, carted on from a bank south of the settliiiLT t;nik. after which the.ontlets for the effluent and the tile drains leading into tluMu w(M-e laid. Then the banks subdividing tli(> binls Avere built. Tlie l)()ttoms of tliese banks extend 1 foot below the sui-face of the beds. .Ml of tlie banks were then sodded. The 10 inch dis- tributing pipes were then laid and connected with S(piare wooden troughs, firmly fastened to cedar posts set in the edge of the bed. These troughs are covered, but every other cov(n- is hinged, so that the int(>rior of the troughs can be examined at will. The troughs have 520 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IX THE UNITED STATES. au opening at each bed, and by means of a board sliding- in grooves the sewage can be directed on any bed, as desired. These troughs are from 21 to 3 feet above the beds, and the sewage falls on to a piece of stone pavement which prevents the washing of the beds. The tile drains are from 4 to 5 feet deep and 20 feet apart, and the banks are 2 feet higher than the surface of the beds. The surfaces of the beds are level. Beds A and B were constructed by simply levelling the bottom and building the banks. No tile or outlet pipe was laid, and the effluent simply soaked through the ground. An examination of the jjlan of the filter beds, Fig. 96, will show clearly their general arrangement. All of the beds except No. 51 discharge their effluent directly into the brook. The effluent from No. 51 is discharged into the woods, and is allowed to flow over the ground. The effluent is practically colorless and odorless, and has caused no trouble in the brook. Overflows have been built, so that the sewage cannot flow over the banks in any case. Very little trouble has been caused by the extreme cold weather, as the sewage finds its way under the snow and ice and is filtered through the gravel. The road from Broadway was built and the hill graded, greatly improving the general appearance of the field. The areas of the several beds are as follows : S'o. of Area, No. of Area, No. of Area, No. of Area, bed. sq. ft. bed. sq. ft. bed. sq. ft. bed. sq. ft. 1 9,520 5 4,300 9 3,240 51 2,300 2 8,570 6 4,400 10 3,850 52 3,370 3 8,790 l'. 4,000 11 3,850 A 5.000 4 4,400 8 3,240 50 2,500 B 11,000 Total, 82,330 square feet, or nearly two acres. The above area does not include the space occupied by the main banks, but does include the division banks, the bottoms of which are only 1 foot below the surface of the beds. Bed No. 51, Fig 96, was at first used as a sludge bed, but the odor arising from the sludge while drying, as well as from that which had previously been taken off and piled up near the bod, led to this bed being converted into a filter bed and the construction of bed No. 52 for a sludge bed. Since this change no trouble has been caused by the odor, as this bed is farther away, and is over the brow of a hill and surrounded by woods. No trouble has been caused by the filter beds, as there is no odor arising from them that can be detected a few feet away. The sludge is allowed to remain on the sludge bed until it is dry, when it is removed and placed in piles and covered with dirt. The sludge is discharged from the tank, and the filter beds are cleaned INTEIIMITTEXT FILTllATIOX AT GARDNER. 521 every two to three weeks. The sewage is discharged on to the filter beds in the following order : First day. Bed No. 1, from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. " " 2, " 10 A.M. to 1p.m. " " 3, " I P.M. to 5 p.m. " " 4, " 5 P.M. to 7 p.m. " " A and 5, from 7 p.m. to 7 a.m. Second day. Bed No. 6, from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m. " " 7, " 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. " " 8, " 11 A.M. to 1 P.M. " " 9, " 1 p.M to 3 P.M. *' " 10, " 3 p.m. to 5 p.m. " " 11, " 5 P.M. to 7 P.M. *' " 51 and B, from 7 p.m. to 7 a.m. This has been found to give satisfactory results. The cost of the filter beds and accessories, not including engineer- ing and superintendence, is stated to have been as follows : Lal)or ^8,766 Vitritied pipe §684 Tile pipe 238 Wooden troughs 305 Total cost of carriers and drains 1,227 Carting 26 Freiglit 13 Wood dams at Beds A and B '. 13 Iron gates and gate chamber ; 99 Tank GOO Tank house 344 MisceHaneous 105 Total Sll,193 The cost of iireparing the beds, with piping, was $10,046, or 12 cents per square foot, the area being 82,330 square feet. The total cost of the beds, tanks, and all accessories, was 14 cents per square foot of fil- tering area. The general pipe system in place cost $40,530, including $1,719 for the 1,050 feet of iron pipe in the outlet sewer, making the total cost of the system $51,723, not including engineering and superintendence. CHAPTER XLI. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION AT SUMMIT, NEW JERSEY. A SEWAGE system was built at Summit, New Jersey, in 1892, with C. Ph. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C.E., as eng-ineer. The natural outlet was to the Passaic river, but before discharging- the sewage into the river it was deemed best, to purify it by means of intermittent filtration. The filtration area was put in operation on August 2, 1892. In November, 1892, there were nine miles of separate sewers, 20 flush-tanks, and 180 house connections.* The filter beds are located about a mile from the village, within the township limits. One end of the disposal area borders on the Passaic river, as shown in the plan, Fig. 97. The township owns 26 acres of land, only 10 acres of which have been laid out in beds. Deducting the area occupied by embankments and a road, there are about eight acres of land available for filtration. There are only a few houses in the vicinity, and those are at some distance from the beds. A public road passes through the disposal area. The land on the side of the road nearest the river slopes toward the river, and the beds are laid out in terraces, as shown by Fig. 98, which is a reproduc- tion of a photograj)!! taken near the lower edge of the tract. The beds are separated by earth embankments. The lowest beds are some 20 feet above the river. The efliuent is discharged at the top of the abrupt river bank, and finds its way down the bank into the river. Mr. Baker visited the beds on Nov. 28, 1892, and found the effluent with only a slight cloudiness and but very faint musty odor. The river showed no sign of pollution, and there was nothing about the disposal area which indicated to smell or by offence to sight the use to which it was put, except on raising a man-hole cover, when a very slight odor was observed. Regarding the care of the beds, the attendant stated that their sur- face was raked up occasionally. He also stated that no fixed rule was observed as to the length of application of sewage to the beds, judg- ment being used in that respect. The general arrangement of the beds, sewage carriers, outlet cham- bers, man-holes, sub and main underdains, and tile man-holes to give *This description of the filtrstion area ia condensed from Eng. News, vol. xxviii., pp. 544-546 Pec. 8, 1893). Surface Camers 5u6cfra/rf " Ti/es Seiyage Oi/r/efs ■T/Je Otambers Manho/es i % ?0 259.6 '"'■ > 258.2 '■ V i.T ,'^"'261.7"'' -#^ K> 258.1 '" 264.8 5' 261.6 '^" 264.6 ' -{ 264 3 j 2617 ^ nil NEW PROVIDENCE > ROAD Fni. 07. — Plan ok Fii.tku Aueas at Summit, New Jehsey. 524 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. access to the latter, will be seen by reference to tlie plan and the accompanying explanatory symbols, Fig-. 97. The underdrains are placed with their centres at a depth of 3 feet below the surface of the beds. y V. '"ir-^ 3 fH a z; o a '■■JirV^MKt fr« m -^^m^Hi & fsW^S^ ^ a H «j O S^ fi < a ^ a .* i-( art of the tract is too much elevated to receive sewage, biit is valuable farming land and will furnish a desirable building site for the residence of a super- intendent. The northwest portion of the area north of the di'aw is very rough and cannot be utilized for sewage, except at heavy expense for gi-ading and ])iping. The central part of the western half of the area has been graded into areas, as shown on the map, each having its own level and sejiarated from the adjacent areas by a low ridge of earth. The cross section at the foot of Fig. 1, Plate VII.. shows the ar- rangement of these ridges and sloi^es. The elevations selected and the forms of these ai-eas were determined largely by the question of economy in moving the earth. These areas were brought to a uniform grade, except at the points where the sewage is received from the distributing gutters. Here the surface was slightly elevated, to secure a better distribution over the surface when the sewage is fiist discharged on an area. The sewage is discharged first into a settling tank, shown in plan and section by Fig. 2, Plate VII. This taidv is provided with east-iron gates for controlling the flow of the sewage. It was tlie intention to ])rovide a screen, but is was found that it was not necessary, as the ])ai)er and the small amount of solids which would make trouble by clogging the drains were all deposited in the lower part of this tank, from which it could be 34 580 SKWAGE DISPOSAL IX TIIP: UNITED STATES. drawn off on the lower area, No. 8, where it could be readily collected and disposed of when the water was drained out of it. From this settling tank the sewage is conducted to distributing or outlet gutters, so situated as to distribute the sewage on two or more adjacent areas. These gut- ters are built of brick laid in cement mortar and plastered with Portland cement, as shown by Figs. 3 and 4, Plate VII. The gates which regulate the flow are of ^\-inch plate iron, faced with sole leather and set at an angle from the vertical, so that their weight, which is increased by a heavy cast-iron disk bolted to the back, acts with the sewage to shut the gate snugly against the seat. The seating face is 2 inches wide and built up of cement. The gate is opened by revolving it upwaid and backward till it rests on the top of the gutter. Areas Nos. 1 and 8 receive sewage from short lines of pipe leading from the settling tank, as shown by Figs. 1 and 2, Plate VII. Areas Nos. '2, 3, 4, and 5 are supplied by an 18-inch pipe from the settling tank, the sewage being distributed to each of the four beds by the four-way gutters shown in Fig. 3. A 12-inch continu- ation of the 18-inch jiipe from the settling tank carries the sewage to areas Nos. 6 and 7, the two-way outlet gutter here being similar to that shown in Fig. 4. An ordinary wooden sluice gate is the only means provided for supplying sewage to- area No. 9. This gate is shown in plan and section by Fig. 5, Plate VII. Area No. 10 is supplied by one of the branches of the two- May gutter shown in Fig. 4. The other branch of this two-way gutter is designed to discharge sewage on to a part of the irrigable land nearest to the distributing basin, the remaining part of this sec- tion being provided for by the 8- and 12-inch outlets on the south side of the basin, all as shown in the plan, Fig. 1. The 18-inch main outlet is extended across the draw to the most distant part of the disposal area, this section being suitable for irrigation. The farm is under the care of a superintendent of sewers and water-works. He visits the farm once a day, or as often as may be necessary to change the flow from one area to another. The time of discharge on any given area is determined largely by the season and the amount of rainfall, and must be regulated by the experience and intelligence of the su])erintendent. Occasionally the areas are ploughed to facilitate absorption and to cover up deposits, which, with the carting away at inter- vals of the sludge discharged from the settling tank, is all the attention the farm receives. The works have now been in oiieration about two years. The first year was an unusually wet season, and the capacity of the soil for receiving sewage M'as for this- reason much reduced, but it was all discharged in rotation upon the areas that had been graded. No offensive odors were percejitible from the fields, as everything- ■was distributed before decomposition set in, and the sewage was not allowed to dis- charge or remain on one area long enough to become putrid. The only time when any odor is perceived is when the settling tank is opened to discharge the collected solid matter. At such times for a short interval there is a little odor when the dis- charge is first made ; but it is only perceived in its immediate proximity. Up to Jan. 1, 1893, the number of sewer connections that had been made was 119, mostly from the business part of the city and the larger residences. Outside of the business portion no attempt has been made to compel the making of connec- tions. The lands marked on the plan as suitable for irrigation cultivation are all avail- able for absorption fields ; and if a larger area is needed, the lands along tbe valley to the eastward will afibrd opportunity for increasing the areas to any extent de- sired. By means of shallow ditches and furrows along the slopes, the sewage mv.y be conducted over these lands and used for irrigating crops, as with the water horn irrigating canals in the arid regions of the West. No attempt as yet has been made to use it in this way, but at intervals the sewage is allowed to flow over the meadow land of this portion, as far as it can do so without special direction and yet not escape into the draw. The absorption areas now in use are not underdrained, but depend entirely uiion the capacity of their soil for absorption. Ultimately tiling will be necessary, and this will convert them into filtering beds discharging their effluent into the draw. When the farm was first put in use it had been freshly graded, and it was not LAND DISPOSAL AT HASTINGS, NEBRASKA. 531 thought best to put in tile until all settlement of the fills had ceased. We also wished to test the capacity of these areas without the tiling. With the amount of sewage now disposed of the results are satisfactory, but I have no doubt that in time they will all require drainage. In arranging this farm, while keeping in view the desirability and the possibility of using the sewage in the cultivation of crops and arranging for its use when the quantity of sewage would make such use jjrofitable, these two facts have been kept steadily in mind : (1) That with all crops of value, the amount of sewage that can be used with profit has very definite limits ; (2) that the time during which it can be applied to any crop is ordinarily confined to only a limited portion of the growing season. To apply in greater quantities and at other times is to ruin the crop. CHAPTEE XLin. SURFACE IRRIGATION AT WAYNE, PENNSYLVANIA.* Wayne is a surburban residence village about 15 miles from Phila- deliihia, on the Pennsylvania Railroad. It has been built up by Messrs. A. J. Drexel and Geo. W. Childs, who bought the Wayne estate some years ago. In June, 1890, its population was 997. Two years later a population of 2,000 was claimed. There are no manufactories. Water- works were built by Drexel & Childs in 1881. Shortly after, Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C.E., was engaged to extend the sewerage system of the village, which then conveyed the wastes and roof M'ater of a few buildings into a brook flowing through the valley. Col. Waring extended the system on the strictly sej^arate plan, col- lecting the sewage in a large flush tank, from which it was discharged into the brook through an 8-inch pipe 2,925 feet long, having a fall of 1 foot in 400. An additional area being secured later, a 12-inch outlet was laid parallel to the lower part of the first outlet. The brook which received the sewage had a copious flow and dis- charged into Darby creek, a stream polluted by manufactories. The brook gradually became fouled, to prevent which the sewage was finally delivered into a settling basin before passing to the brook. The effluent not being sufficiently cleared by this settlement, it was discharged into a second, and later into a third settling basin. The farm land along the brook gradually being taken up for resi- dences, complaints regarding the fouling of the stream increased, and finally an injunction to prevent the discharge of sewage into the brook was threatened. When the works described below were recommended by Col. AVaring, in the spring of 1891, the move for an injunction was stopped under verbal protest. Surface irrigation on somewhat isolated land at the lower side of the estate was decided upon. The disposal area is thus described by Col. Waring in an article in the of American Architect July 2, 1892, from which much of this information has been taken : The tract to be used was of unfavorable character, but it was the only one avail- able. It consisted mainly of an old pond surrounded by ancient pollard willows, a large area of swamp through which the brook meandered, about four acres of slightly sloping cleared land, and a very steep, thickly wooded and rocky hillside, * Condensed from Eng. News, vol. xxviii., pp. 423-4 (Nov. 3, 1892). SURFACE IRRIGATIOX AT WAYXE. 533 rising about 100 feet from the level of tlie brook to one corner of the nearly square tract. The pond was obliterated, the willows and much other vegetation were cleared away, the brook was confined within stone walls, and all excej^t the steep hillside was thoroughly uuderdrained. The disposal area includes eleven acres, divided by the creek as shown in Fisr. 103. Along- the lower course of the brook much of the Fu;. KK?. — Plan of Disposal Wouks, Waynk, Pennsylvania. land was a nearly level tussock swamp. All growth less than eight inches in diamc^ter was removed from the tract. The creek was straightened and deepened, and the banks slojied back from the walls of the creek and sodded, lint little grading was necessary on the left or south side of the creek, l)ut the whole area on the other side was grad(Ml. The header drain of six-inch pipe on the left side of the creek was laid to cut off' the effluent from some slighth' wet land. The stone drain is for the protection of the pumping station. The land on the south side of the creek was divided into three nearly 534 SEV\^\GK DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. d" equal tracts by embankments about one foot big"!!, which converge at the distiibutiuo' welL A road to the pumping- station divides the laud CD the north side of the creek into two sections. The outlet sewers already de- scribed were intercepted just above the old settling basins, from which point a 1 2 - i n c h vitrilied pipe, with a fall of 1 in 125, ex- tends to the edge of the disposal field. About 400 feet above the edge of the field an 8-inch branch, with a fall of 1 in 250, extends to a screening- chamber. From this chamber the sewag-e is delivered at will on to tract D or E, first passing over a bed of broken stone. The main outlet sewer is of vitrified pipe where in earth, and of iron and cement where on piers. It ends in a brick screening chandler with a concrete bottom near the jjumping station, shown in pliiii and 5/x 6 "Overf/oi-/ Pipes oimiL Longitudinal Section Fig, 104 Scherning Chamber. Overf/oiv-- Recewncf ro Tank Plan. VTT' 3: [ £ * Pump Bea 4"Aerai inq Pioe 4iii/ye 3==l: ' Pump Be J Boiler Chimnef 4"Va/ye Barr Duplex Pump Fig. 105.— Receiving Tank and Pump House. SURFACE IRRIGATION AT WAYNE. 535 section by Fig. 104. After passing through the screens the sewage flows into the receiving reservoir, shown in plan and longitudinal sec- tion by Fig. 105. This reservoir has a capacity of 90,000 gallons to the mouth of the inlet pipe. Its bottom is of concrete and slopes toward the sump into which the suction pipes extend. Six 6-inch pipes at the top of the tank lead to the creek as an overflow. Two Barr duplex pumps, with a capacity of about 22,000 gal- lons each per hour, or 525,000 gallons per day, force the sew- age up the hill on the left of the creek to the distributing well. This 12-iuch force main is of si^iral weld steel pipe, is 480 feet long, and has a rise of about 100 feet. The lower end of the force main was placed above ground, to obtain a grade that would allow it to drain dry through the aerating pipe, men- tioned below. Both pumps are started when the screening reservoir is nearly full, and, as designed, the sewage is first delivered back into the receiving tank through a 4-inch aerating pipe, the object being to deodorize the sewage and increase its oxygen. Aeration is maintained for from 60 to 90 minutes, after Avliich the valve in the aerating pipe is closed and the sewage is delivered into the well. The distributing well is show^i in plan and section by Fig. 106. It is of brick with a concrete bottom, and is covered by a small building shown in the distance in the view, Fig. 108. Lift gates, working in the masonry of the well, are provided to regulate the discharge of the sewage upon the tracts. A bed of broken stone, about 8 inches deep and 50 feet wide, extends across the tract below th<' distributing well. Sew- age is discharged into a depression along the upper edge of the stone bed. AVlii>n this de^iression is filled the sewage flows down the bed, which has a fall of about 1 to 4, to a catch wall of broken stone designed to check the somewhat rapid flow of the sewage and to distribute it evenly over the land below. Tlie cinder banks shown in Fig. 107 are laid on graded strips follow- FiG. 106. — Distributing Well. Fig. 107.— Cross Section THUOOGH Cinder Bank. 536 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. ing- contours. The cindei-s, mostly from locomotives, are backed, to prevent washing. These banks are designed to catch the sewage in its irregular iiow^ down the steep hillside and start it again uniformly. The receiving reservoir tills in from (5 to 12 hours, and is emptied in Fio 108, — General View of Wayne Disposal \Vork8, from North Side OF Creek. about 5 hours. The sewage disappears from the surface of the land in about a half-hour after the pumps are stopped. The field on the left side of the creek was i:)ut in operation in Sep- tember, 1891. The field at the right of the creek was put in use later, before well covered with vegetation. Col. Waring states that if the aeration of the sewage, as described above, proves sufiiciently bene- ficial, a force main will be constructed to the field at the right, and sew^age delivered to it by pumping", instead of by gravity, as now. Figs. 108 and 109 present views of the disposal works from two dif- ferent points. Oct. 27, 1892, Mr. Baker visited the Wayne purification works, and through the courtesy of Mr. Frank Smith, manager of the Wayne estate, and Mr. C. D. Slaw, superintendent of the sewerag-e system, obtained the additional information which follows. There are now about 600 acres in the estate. All buildings on the property are connected with the sewerage system, there being about 275 connections. The average daily consumption of water in Wayne is stated to be about 200,000 gallons. The average sewage pumpag"e w^as given as about the same, but from all the data at hand it would SUKFACK ir.KUiATION AT WAYNE. 537 seem to be higher. Two days out of five, according- to the informa- tion given, the sewage flows by gravity on to the north part of the area. The lirst screens used at the screening chamber at the receiving- reservoir had a 2-inch mesh. This mesh proved to be too coarse, and screens with 1-inch mesh are now used. The rakings from the screens average about two barrels a day, there being more on Saturdaj', Sun- day, and Monday than on other days. Lime is put upon the rakings as the}' accumuhite beside the chamber before removaL The pumping station is kept open throug-hout the 24 hours, and the pumps are run from 16 to 18 hours a day, requiring- about 110 pounds of buckwheat coal per hour. Two engineers are employed at the station, and the superintendent divides his time between it and the part of the sewerage system within the village. In addition, laborers are em- ployed wdieu necessary, which, it would seem, is not often. Sewage is turned upon each tract for only one day at a time, so that each tract has a rest of five days. The material in the baiiiers has never been changed, and the Fi<;. 10!). — Oem:i!.\l Vikw ok Wouks from South Side of Creek. broken stone at ilw top of the hill on the south side of the creek, Mr. Slaw stated, has never been cleaned, except that one section has had one cleaning. The broken stone at the head of the areas on both sides of the creek showed oulv a small amount of rags and paper which had been caught. At the tlani of broken stone at the to]) of the sttM-]) hill- side, and at the first barrier below, sludge accumulates and has to be 588 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. shovelled out. Except at the first or stone barrier, the sewage rarely runs over the top of the banks, unless they are stopped by leaves, as is likely to be the case in the fall of the year. The sewage has a tendency in the first part of its course to run down the steep hillside in channels, and to some extent this has been encouraged, or rather several small channels have been formed in order to keep the sew- age from flowing down in one large one. There was scarcely any trouble from frost during the winter of 1891- 2, and that at only one corner of the field. As the sewage came from the middle gate of the distributing well at the top of the hill it was cloudy, and like any sewage not affected by manufacturing wastes. At the second barrier, counting the dam of broken stone as one, little change was noticed, perhaps because the sewage came quite directly and rapidly from the first through two or three channels. At the third barrier the sewage was clearer, and a dog drank freely of it. Behind the fourth barrier a clear-looking liquid four or five inches deep was found. Below the last barrier no sewage could be seen. At Iphan creek, which flows through the grounds, there was evidence of some seepage through the walls of the creek below the section which was receiving sewage, but the seepage was slight and might have been natural. At the ends of the drain and trench of broken stone no effluent was discernible. The creek showed no signs of pollution by the effluent, and small fish were observed in it. At least five crops of grass were raised on each side of the creek in 1892. and a man was engaged in raking up a fair crop of grass from the field north of the creek on the day of Mr. Baker's visit. CHAPTER XLIV. THE USE OF SEWAGE FOR IRRIGATION IN THE WEST.* Considering the g-eneral development of the two sections of the country, the western part of the United States is about as far advanced in the purification of sewage as the eastern. This is accounted for in three ways : (1) The very low stage of western streams during the hot, dry season often renders sewage discharged into them an unbearable nuisance, or there may be no natural stream near by of sufficient size to receive sewage ; (2) the familiarity of the people with irrigation ; and (3) the value of all available water for this purpose naturally leads to the application of sewage to crops when any method of purification is necessary. For the foregoing reasons all but two of the sewage purification plants west of the Mississippi river employ irrigation, and one of the two exceptions, Hastings, Nebraska, uses intermittent filtration and will probably raise crops eventually, while the other, Leadville, Colo- rado, only strains the sewage through a small area of sand. As shown below, eight western towns are prepared to apply sewage to land for irrigation in the season of 1893. In addition, Los Angeles may also be ready to so dispose of its sewage in 1893, and until three years ago had been so doing for some time ; while at Cheyenne, AVyoming, sewage was for a period of seven or eight years delivered into an irrigating ditch and used for irrigation, this use being stopped only l)y a change in the outlet sewer. Some of the leading points regarding these sewage farms are given in the accompanying table, from which it appears that sewage was first used for irrigation at Cheyenne, Wyoming, probably in 1883. Colorado Springs, Colorado. The population of this city increased from 4,226 in 1880 to 11,140 in 1890. Water-works were built in 1879 and a sewerage system in 1888. Sewage was first used for irrigation in 1889. January 1, 1893, there were in use 20.4 miles of separate sewers, 239 man-holes, G83 house connocti(His, and 18 flush tanks. A statement of the causes which led to the use of sewage for irriga- *See Eng. News, vol. xxix., pp. 183-6 (B'eb. 23, 1893). 540 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. General Information Regarding the Use of Sewage for Irrigation in THE West. Popu- Ready T_-i„„t:„_ a^nntpd on O^nPrship Crops raised or 'l-«r' !Z accou'tf- of irrigated Rental. proposed to If-ao. use. land. be raised. Colorado Springs, I 1 1 ■. .,1 1 ceo i Litigation on account ( „ . . «,.>An* ,. ( Alfalfa hav Colo..... f"'^-^" 1889. .-j „fpo,i„tion [Private. «^00* per year, 5 years ] ^^.^^^^^^^ ( Paii ( To prevent pollution 1 Trinidad, Colo. . . 5,52a J igya ^ of water used for [- •' $500* " Blue prass pro- ' " ( domestic purpo.ses , j ' poM'o . Fresno, Gal 10,818 ■* ^onn' ^ Best avTble method " $5,000* j Chinese truck ( loJU. . i * ' ) gardens. Pasadena, Cal . . . . 4,883 1893. . . ) Evidently some puri- j j ^';l^^;j!'^ I fication necessary ..) ■* 1 veg l uitspro I To prevent pollution | «onn* «,=!. ,.„„,. + „„ , ( Grain, potatoes,. Redding, Cal ... . 1,821 1SS8...^ Sacramento water V Private. - *"™ ,^™* >''="•+ '""^' vegetables I supply i ' yearly increase. | ^^J^^ " ««' Los Angeles, Cal. ^0,3il5\ ^_ '^'[^;^;^^;^;^^'^' >^ " No rental fonnerly.t Miscellaneous. Santa Rosa, Cal.. 5.220 \ ^|^fj- ^'^^i^Z^^''°'"'' \ City.. . Leased without rental. Garden truck. Helena, Mont.... 13,834 1SS9. J M.uis of pnividing , ,. i ^I^Sov^r "^j Veg e t a bles. ' ''''' "^ * ( cash payment. ) nursery stock. r'v,..ro.i„o \v,r. 11 Ran * l'i">j'>- To provide water for I „ . ^ ,, ^ , Cheyenne, Wyo.. n,biiO-^ ,^^^3 irrigation j- Private. No rental. Stockton, Cal ... . 14,424 \ ^^^..f "^^ P.'""^'.'^'" '^^ter for ( .. ' I Ib'Ji. . irrigation ) * Paid by the o ty. t Increase yearly proportionately with assessment roll, i City may exact a rental of $3 per acre for land covered by new outfall. tiou, and a description of the sewage farm, have been furnished by Mr. H. I. Reid, city engineer and eng'ineer of the disposal pkmt, as fol- lows : In the utilization of sewag-e for irrigation purposes at Colorado Springs no attempt is made toward treatment or purification other than by natural means and in a rather primitive manner. The system was adopted as a coinj^romise measure, to avoid suits fin* damages for the alleged pollution of the stream into which the outfall sewer orig- inally emptied, " Fountain Qui Bouille," commonly known as Fountain creek. This stream has a normal flow at the sewer outlet of 50 cubic feet per second, but at times during the irrigating season this is reduced to almost nothing, although during the same season floods may be expected, when for a few hours or days the creek becomes a swift-flowing river, with a fall of 30 to 40 feet per mile. The original sewerage system was put in operation in 1888. The following year a ranchman, living some two miles below the outlet point, shown in Fig. 110, instituted injunction proceedings to prevent the sewage from being turned into the stream, claiming that his well, situated near the stream, was so polluted as to render it unfit for drink- ing purposes, and that the water in his irrigating ditch, the head gate of which is f mile below the sewer outlet, was so foul that stock would not drink it. Before the suit came to trial the city council appointed a committee to try and arbitrate the matter. This was done and the suit was withdrawn, the city paying all costs of proceedings to that COLOKADO SPRINGS, COLORADO. 541 date, and agreeing to divert tlie sewage at some point on the outfall and utilize it for irrigation on the lands designated on the accompany- ing map, Fig. 110. A contract was made between the city and the owner of this land, whereby the city was to deliver the sewage at the point B, Fig. 110, by the line A B, and to pay annually §300 i I I I I I II I . for five years, the owner to receive the I I I! I I II 1^^ /L\\ — 1^ — I sewage at this point and use the same . ' La5 Animas St.. li . for irrigation purposes in such a man- ner as he deemed best, provided, how- ever, that he prevent tlie sewage from flowing directly into the creek, and provided, further, that if the method of irrigation was not satisfactory to Fig. 110.— Plan of Sewage Farm at Colorado Springs, Colorado. the ranchman bringing the suit, or to the city, then the city sliould have possession of the land and use such methods as it thought best. At the cxiuratioii of the contract the city has the option of buying the hind at a stipulated sum, and probably will l)uy it, although th(>re are now many parties who would pay for the sewage delivered to their land. The city tapi^ed the outfall at the point A, Fig. 110, and by means of an underground wooden conduit on a less gradient than the original outlet delivered sewage on the surface of the ground at the point B, whence the lessee takes charge of it and delivers it to grounds by the ditches B E and BCD, and thence by laterals to any desired ]>oint. The map shows that many years ago the stream followed a diflerent channel than the present one, the de]iression of which extends through the entire tract from west to east, and is from 3 to 4 feet lower than 542 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITED STATES. the north bank of the creek at corresponding points at right angles thereto. The old channel is the medium whereby the surplus sewage is carried off without flowing directly into the creek. The sewage is distributed by means of small ditches or furrows through the garden tract, whence all liquid matter not absorbed by the earth flows back into this old channel, and thence into the depres- sions, forming small reservoirs at H, I, L, Fig. 110. The small laterals radiating from the main ditch irrigate the northern portion of the lands, and in a similar manner any surplus flows into the same reser- voirs. During the irrigation season, which in this instance is from March 1 to Nov. 1, there is but little surplus, the character of the soil being such that the greater portion is absorbed or carried off by underflow. In constructing the outlet sewer, throughout this entire tract of valley land, from the surface to a depth of 2 or 3 feet, loose black loam was found, then a 2 -foot stratum of sand, below which was coarse gravel and sand, through which water was flowing with considerable velocity, so that at a depth of 6 feet it was found necessary to dig a parallel and deeper trench to carry off the water, in order to facilitate pipe-laying. This probably explains the rapidity with which the sew- age is absorbed when applied for irrigation. As soon as sufficiently dry, after each application of sewage, the soil is thoroughly pulver- ized and any accumulation of solid matter turned under before receiv- ing another apj)lication. When irrigation is not in progress the entire flow is carried through the main ditch and emptied into the old channel and depressions men- tioned. The upper pools or reservoirs, Fig. 110, were ploughed out by the action of surface water ; the lower or most easterly one is a reser- voir, the dam of which was built up through a similar agency. Imme- diately north of the railway tracks are sand and gravel hills, some 200 feet higher than the valley and very steep. During the rainy season flood water flows into Fountain creek, across the valley at right angles to the old channel. At such times the debris brought down has been deposited upon the lower level of the valley, and a sand dike several hundred feet wide and 5 or 6 feet higher than the lowest portion of the valley has been formed, thus converting the valley at this point into the basin K, Fig. 110, the area of which is some three or four acres. All surplus sewage collects in this basin and rapidly seeps away into the underflow and finally into the creek. The solid matter is deposited in the basin, and that it will in time cement the bottom and fill it up is very probable ; but no trouble of this kind has been experienced to this date, and to all appearances there is very little deposit of any kind. It is said that no unpleasant odor is experienced on any por- tion of the farm at any time. TRINIDAD, COLORADO. 543 So far as practical results are concerned the disposal area is sucess- ful, inasmuch as the city is relieved of costly litigation and also from the care and maintenance of the outlet lines. The lessee is well pleased because of the enormous crops raised and lack of trouble from the vexatious problem of " priority of water rights." As illustrating- the demand for water in this section, it may be stated that the ranch- men several miles below the outlet, seeing the sewage farm well sup- plied with water at times when they have none, threaten to enjoin the city from using the sewage for this purpose, and to compel it to turn the sewage into the stream for their benefit. The sewage farm comprises at present an area of about 35 acres, but may be added to as future needs require. In 1892 the sewage was used on 25 acres — 15 in meadow and alfalfa and 10 acres in vegetables ; but a larger acreage could be covered with the present amount of sew- age. The crops produced are enormous, and owing to close jDroximity to the market the farm is a paying investment. As already stated, at present the city has nothing to do with the management of the farm, but the probabilities are that when the lease expires the city will buy the farm and enlarge the system. I'nder date of Jan. 24, 1893, Mr. Eeid ^yYote that he had recently visited the sewage farm, and found the sewage running directly into the creek through a ditch cut from the reservoirs, shown in Fig. 110. This, he states, is in direct conflict with the terms of the agreement, but that possibly it was done to flood the lands of ranchmen below, who have recently been willing to take all the sewage they can get. Trixtdad, Colorado. The city of Trinidad is divided into two parts by the Las Animas river, a comparatively small stream during much of the year. The farmers below the city depend upon ditches leading from the river for water for domestic use, which makes some form of sewage purification especially necessar\\ Following the advice of Mr. Norval AV. Wall, city engineer, it was decided to purity the sewage by irrigation. A contract was therefore made witli Mr. Jas. M. John, wlio was mayor at the time, to receive and dispose of the sewage on land owned by him, th<^ city paying $,500 per year and delivering the sewage upon the land. The population of Trinidad in 1880 was 2,226, in 1890 it was 5,523. A public water supply was introduced in 1879 by the Trinidad Water- Works Co. A sewerage system was put in operation in 1892, the out- fall sewer having been completed about three months before the close of the year. Mr. Wall was engineer of the system. On Jan. 1, 1893, there were in use two miles of separate sewers, 18 544 sp:wagk disposal ix the united states. man-holes, two ilush-taiiks, and 12 house connections, mostly to public buildings. An 18-incli vitrified outlet sewer 7,100 feet long leads from the city to the sewage farm. This outlet has a theoretical velocity, when running full, of 2.58 cubic feet per second. At the farm end of the outlet there is a masonry settling tank 50 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. The sewage farm slopes toward the Las Animas river at the rate of from 2| to S^ feet per 100, and is laid out with embankments following natural contours, as shown in Fig. Ill, except that a total of 15 em- FiG. 111.— Sketch Plan op Sewage Farm, Trinidad, Colorado. bankments have now been made. The embankments are from 25 to 50^ feet apart and average about 1,500 feet in length. Wooden sluice boxes provide means for the passage of sewage through the embankments to lower areas. To the close of 1892 about $1,200 had been expended by Mr. John in preparing the farm to receive sewage. It is stated that blue grass is proposed as a crop on the farm, for the reason that it will stand more frequent irrigation than any other crop. Fresno, California. A very interesting example of the use of sewage for irrigation is found at Fresno, California, where the city paj's $5,000 per year for the disposal of its sewage, and the contractor distributes the sewage over land which he rents to Chinamen for market gardens. The population of Fresno has increased from 1,112 in 1880 to 10,- 818 in 1890. A public water supply was introduced in 1876 by the Fresno Water Co. The city put a sewerage system in operation in January, 1890. Shepard & Teilman, of Fresno, were engineers of the system, Mr. J. C. Shepard, of that fii-m, being city engineer at the time. Sept. 5, 1892, there were included in this system about eight miles of sewers on the separate plan, not including the outlet sewer» FRESNO, CALIFOrvNTA. 545 which consists of about 41 miles of 24-inch vitrified pipe laid to a grade of 85 feet per mile. Jan. 1, 1893, there were in use about 600 house connections and six flush-tanks. In addition to the flush- tanks there is at four jjoints a continuous flow of water into the sewers, about equal to a 2-inch stream under a 6-foot head. The lower end of the outlet connects directly with an irrigating ditch. AVe are indebted to Shepard & Teilman for the information here given regarding the sewage farm, the remainder of which is presented substantially as furnished by them in September and October, 1892, as follows : Prior to the construction of the sewers the city trustees considered the disposal of the sewage the great obstacle to be overcome ; there^ fore they called for proposals to take care of the sewage for five years, the successful bidder to give a bond of $10,000 to protect the cit}^ from all damages which might arise therefrom after its delivery at the end of the pipe. Alexander McBean, of Oakland, was the lowest bidder, and his bid of $5,000 per annum was accordingly accepted. He pur- chased 80 acres of land at the end of the outlet sewer, and for one year the sewage ran u^Don it without any attention or care, except when oc- casionally some neighbor saw fit to take it for irrigation. The second year ditches were constructed and the land leased to Chinamen for vegetable gardens, and for the last two seasons it has been used for irrigating gardens and vineyards. The land is all uuder cultivation with all the various kinds of vege- tables commonly in the market, such as potatoes, yams, parsnips, let- tuce, celery, beans, peas, and corn. It is customarj^ to irrigate vege- tables in furrows only. Trees and vines are preferably irrigated in furrows also. Grasses Avoiild be flooded, but Messrs. Shepard & Teilman have no knowledge of sewage used on grasses at this farm. As to the amount of sewage used on the 80 acres, definite statementi are lacking. The 24-inch outlet sewer, on a gi'ade of 31 feet per mile, runs continuously, it is judged, about one-third full, but what propor- tion of the flow is used on the sewage farm is unknown. Mr. H. Burley, the superintendent of the farm, states that lie can see no difierence between irrigating with sewage and clear water. It is ])ossil)le that the land may produce good crops longer by the use of sewage, but that, h(^ considers, is still to be proved. Tlie general im- pression is that sewage is superior to clear water for irrigation. The sewage farm is an exceptionally poor piece of land, but nevertheless it ]iroduc('s fairly well with sewage irrigation. Neither M(»ssrs. Shep- ard A' Teilman nor Mr. Burley have any information as to what a similar piece would do if irrigated with clear water only. When sewage is ])ut ujion the land Avithont more dilution than is given by the flushing water, unless the laud is cultivated within a day 35 546 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE UNITEU STATES. or two, there is quite a stencli, but wlieu cultivated this disappears. Thus far there has been no complaint reg-arding" the sewage farm, and as the matter stands the $5,000 is in effect a yearly pension to the con- tractor. When not needed on the farm, the sewage is allowed to flow in the irrigating ditches for miles beyond ; in this way it becomes very much diluted, and in the irrigating season is used throughout the country below the sewage farm proper. Pasadena, Califoenia. After an unfortunate experience with the Pacific Sewage Co. — an organization which agreed with the city to construct a disposal system similar to that in use at Atlantic City, New Jersey, but failed to do so — and after two years of litigation over right of way for the outlet sewer, the city of Pasadena in the middle or the latter part of 1892 began the preparation of a farm for the disposal of the sewage of the city. It is expected that this farm will be put in use in the season of 1803, as de- scribed below. Pasadena is a city of comparatively recent origin, its population in 1880 having been but 391. The present population is estimated at 6,000, the census of 1890 showing 4,882 inhabitants. The construction of a sewerage system was begun in 1887, and in 1891 nearly live miles of sewers had been built within the city limits. Avigust Mayer, C.E., of Pasadena, is the engineer of the whole system, which is of the sepa- rate type. We are indebted to Mr. Mayer for the following informa- tion relating to the sewage farm, the matter having been furnished in November, 1892 : The city of Pasadena lies in the midst of the San Gabriel valley, at the foot of the Sierra Madre mountains, 10 miles northerly from the city of Los Angeles and about 30 miles from the Pacific ocean. Its elevation above the latter may be taken at 900 feet, or about 600 feet above the main part of Los Angeles. The soil around the city, and especially that close to the mountains, is sandy, with excellent under- drainage. The general slope toward the ocean in the vicinity of the city is 2 feet per 100 feet. The grades obtainable for sewerage in the city, with one or two exceptions, are excellent. The average annual rainfall amounts to 20 inches, which is precipitated chiefly during the months of January, February, March, and April. The average tem- perature during the rainless eight summer months may be taken at 85° F. The air is dry. Wherever water is obtainable for irrigation, citrus fruit is principally raised, while the unwatered land is fit only for the raising of some deciduous fruits, grapes, and barley ; the latter being chiefly cut in this PASADENA, OALIFORXIA. 547 vicinity before its maturity and used for hay. Bare land is worth $100 per acre without water, while watered land is held at about $600 per acre. Irrigation, therefore, makes the land valuable, and since water is here only obtainable from springs or storage reservoirs, of which latter there are none at this place at present, waste of water is hardly ever met with. It appears, therefore, that the circumstances for successful sewage disposal by means of irrigation, from a financial as well as sanitary standpoint, are favorable. The sewage farm is owned by the city, and comprises 300 acres of land situated about four miles from the city in a southeasterly direc- tion, in a well-settled part of the \a\\ey. The soil is a sandy loam, mixed with some alkali. It has the capacity of absorbing a consider- able quantity of water. It is estimated that for the present only 40 acres will actually be required for the disposal of the sewage, although 3'0°~- Fig. 112. — Sketch of Sewage Outlet Gate, Pasadena, California. the sewage may be spread over a much larger area for the purpose of irrigating crops on the remainder of the farm. Most of the land will proba])ly continue to be devoted, as at present, to the raising of barley- hay until fruit orchards are planted. The land originally cost $125 per acre, or a total of about $40,000, including some extra expenses. The gross yield in barley-hay, without irrigation, is $4,000 per annum, or 10 per cent, on the cost ; the net yield amounts to about $3,000, 7^ per cent, on the money invested. It is the intention to devote the land irrigated with sewage to the raising of vegetables, berries, and citrus fruits, and ]ierliaps walnuts and alfalfa. The latter yields about seven crops per annum, or about 10 tons per acre, and is sold for $10 to $15 per ton. It stands any amount of irrigation at all seasons, and the sewage may bo crowded on it at any time. Vegetables are calculated to yield $25 net per acre, while berries, as a rule, yield from $100 to S200 per acre per annum. Citrus fiuits often net from $150 to $400 ]ier acre ])('r annum. AVith sewage irrigation, Mr. Mayer thinks these figures may possibly be exceeded. 548 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN J'lIK UMTKU STATES. As seen from the section of the outlet gate. Fig. 112, the sewage is taken from the sewer in much the same manner as water from irrigating pipes, by the simple closing of a cast-iron slide gate built into a man- hole, through which the pipe leads. The sewage is thus backed up into the sewer until it rises nearly to the top of the man-hole, whence it finds its wa\" through a joint of sewer pipe into the main carrier, an earthen ditch 20 inches wide at the top, 10 at the bottom, and 10 inches deep. This carrier has a grade of from 4 to 6 inches in 100 feet. The land which the main carriers cover is divided into fields 100 feet in width and from 200 to 400 feet in length. The slope of the fields at right angles to the main carriers is 1| to 2^ feet per 100 feet. To irri- gate the fields a dam of earth or of redwood board is inserted in the carrier at the lower end of the field, and the sewage is thus diverted into numerous small furrows from 3 to 6 inches deep and one foot apart, previously made with a common cultivator. Each field is expected to take the sewage for at least 12 hours. After the first soaking the dam is removed, and the next field in order will receive its charge, and so on. As soon as the ground permits, say in about two days, field No. 1 will be thoroughl}^ cultivated, to keep the ground from baking hard and to allow the air to act upon the soil. This is the common course adojDted in this vicinity for irrigation with pure water. Fruit trees are planted in regular lines about 20 feet apart each way, which j)ermits the manner of irrigation described in the foregoing. The side and bottom walls of the main carriers will be raked over with a garden rake whenever it becomes necessary to prevent the ditch from becoming foul. Berries are to be planted in rows about 8 feet apart, and the sewage will be led in between the rows so that the ground can be well culti- vated. Vegetables may be planted in single or double rows, as the case may require, and the sewage will be conducted in between the rows or fields in flat trenches, which are to remain filled until the ground from trench to trench is thoroughly saturated with the sewage water, when the trenches will be drained, and after having dried off sufficiently they will be cultivated. Bedding, California. Redding is one of the smallest towns in the United States using sewage for irrigation or having- a sewerage system ; its poiaulation in 1890 was 1,821, and in 1880 but 600. A separate sewerage system was built in 1889 by the town, with the city engineer, S. E. Brackins, as engineer, and Bassett & Touhey, Sacramento, as contractors, who also entered into an agreement to dispose of the sewage for 40 years. REDDING, CALIFORNIA. 549 January 1, 1893, there were 2.9 miles of sewers and seven 112-g'allon flush-tanks in use. The following description of the sewage farm and matters pertain- ing- to the disposal of sewage has been prepared from material fur- nished in October, 1892, by L. F. Bassett, C.E., the present owner of the farm : Redding is situated on slighth^ rolling ground, at an elevation of 550 feet above the sea. It is bordered on the northeast and southeast b}' the Sacramento river. The climate ranges from 16° above zero in the winter to 107° F. above in summer. Most of the season the atmos- phere is dry and evaporation rapid. It was the original intention of the town to discharge its sewage into the Sacramento river, but objection was made at Sacramento, where water is taken from the river to supply the city, and the State Board of Health gave notice to the authorities of Redding not to discharge the sewage into the river. The town authorities thereupon requested bids for taking care of the sewage, and a contract was entered into for a term of 40 years, the sewage to be disposed of at S300 for the first \^ear, the amount of yearly payment thereafter to increase in propor- tion to the increase of the assessment roll. The contractors immediately purchased a tract of about 100 acres of land within the corporate limit, shown by Fig. 113, and prepared a jiortion of it, about a mile from the built-up part of the town, for the utilization of the sewage by irrigation. The land selected is com- parativel}^ level, and the soil a sandy and gravelly loam 4 to 6 feet in deiitli, underlaid with gravel. Land better adapted to the purpose would be hard to find. About 10 acres have been prepared for irriga- tion by levelling and constructing open carrier ditches, elevated above the surface of the land to be irrigated. The sewage is applied directly to the land by the broad surface irrigation system, either by being run in furrows between rows or spread over the surface, according to the requirements of the crop. The sewage has been applied to various crops, grain, asparagus, potatoes, turnips, beets, orchard and some garden truck. It has been principally us

s to either or all of the four precijutating tanks, receiving sulpliate of alumina, or copijeras, and lime on its way. The alumina or copperas is mixed with the sewage by means of a re- volving screw placed in a special casting, as shown by the illustration, and tlu^ lime by the core mixer, also shown in the illustration, Fig. 116. Difi'erent chemicals and different amounts of any chemical can be used at the same time, and the results noted by means of the frequent chem- ical and bacteriological examinations which are being made. The sludge may be drawn off while the tanks are in operation, through the sludge-pipe at the bottom of the tanks to one of three sludge-tanks, each 4 feet in diameter and 8 feet high, giving a capacity of al)()ut loo cubic feet. The sludge is forced by means of compressed * For additional information see Eng. News, vol. xxix. , pp. 520-1 (June 1, 1893), and vol. xxx., pp. 00 and 01 (July '20, IB'J'.i). 5G() sewagp: disposal in the united states. air into one of two filter presses, made by Perrin & Co., Chicag-o. Each press has 50 cells, 36 inches in diameter and 11 inches through, and each sludge-cake weighs about 47 pounds, or each pressful about Fig. 116. —Elevation and Section of Receiving and Pkecipitating Tanks, Wokld's Columbian Exposition. 2,350 pounds. The sludg-e is burned in an Engle garbage crematory, near by. The plant was put in operation April 14, 1893, and so far as the rec- ord is available treated sewage as follows : Month of May 940,000 gallons per day. " June 1,630,000 " " " First three weeks in July . 2,250,000 " " " The cost of chemicals until July 1 was at the rate of about $8 per 1,000,000 gallons treated. The plant is operated in eight-hour shifts, an engineer, fireman, pressman, chemical man, and two laborers in the. morning ; the same, less the two laborers, in the afternoon ; and again, less the laborers and pressman, at night. The plant cost from $30,000 to $33,000, excluding the building. It was built under the direction of W. S. McHarg, Engineer of Water Supply, Sewerage, and Fire Protection of the Exposition, and is run PUKIFICATION WORKS UNDER CONSTRUCTION. 567 under the supervision of Allen Hazen, Chemist of the Lawrence Ex- periment Station of the Massachusetts State Board of Health.* Purification Works Under Construction. In addition to the works described, plants are known to be under construction as follows ; Meriden, Connecticut, intermittent filtration, with Carrol Ph. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C.E., engineer ; Brockton, Massa- chusetts, intermittent filtration, F. H. Snow, engineer ; Princeton, New Jersey, Professor C. M'Millan, engineer. There are also a number of places where plans of sewage disposal works have been prepared, but where no action has yet been taken towards beginning construction. Plans have been prejiared for the following towns in New York state, on which construction is likely to begin in the course of a year or two : The village of Far Rockaway, -T. J. Powers, engineer ; the Twenty- fourth AVard of the Cit\' of Brooklyn, Robert Van Buren, M. Am. Soc. C. E., chief engineer ; the villages of Holly and Albion, Waldo and Dodgson, engineers, Geo. W. Rafter, M. Am. Soc. C. E., consulting engineer. There are also several public institutions in different parts of the United States where something has been done in the way of sewage purification plants, but which are uot referred to for the reason that so far as known to the authors the plans do not involve anything of special interest over what has been already given. * For additional information and illustrations see Eng. News, vol. xxx., p. bG (Aug. o, lt>93). APPENDICES, APPENDIX I. The following' is the English Kivers Pollution Prevention Act of 1876, under the provisions of which the large number of purification works constructed in that country during the last fifteen years have been carried out. (39 and 40 Vict. chap. 75.) AN ACT for making further Provision for the Prevention of the Pollution of Rivers. (15th August, 1876.) Whereas it is expedient to make furtlior provision for the prevention of the pollution of rivers, and in particular to prevent the estaVjlishinent of new sources of pollution : Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assem- bled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act, 1876. PART I. Solid Matters. 2. Every person who puts, or causes to be put or to fall, or knowingly permits to be put or to fall or to be carried into any stream, so as to either singly or in combination with other similar acts of the same or any other person to interfere with its due flow, or to pollute its waters, the solid refuse of any manufactory, manufacturing process or quarry, or any rubbish or cinders, or any other waste, or truction at the date of the passing of this Act for the purpose of conveying such sewage matter, the i^erson causing or knowingly permitting the sewage matter so to fall or flow or to l)c carried shall not }>" deeruod to have committed an offence against this Act if he shows to the satisfaction of the court having cognizance of the case that he is using the best 570 APPENDICES. practicable and available means to render harmless the sewage matter so falling or flowing or car- ried into the stream. Where the Local Government Board are satisfied after local inquiry that further time ought to be granted to any sanitary authority which at the date of the passing of this Act is discharging sew- age matter into any stream, or permitting it to be so discharged, by any such channel as aforesaid, for the purpose of enabling such authority to adopt the best practicable and available means lor renderino' harmless such sewage matter, the Local Government Board may by order declare that this section shall not, so far as regards the discharge of such sewage matter by such channel, be in operation until the expiration of a period to be limited in the order. Any order made under this section may be from time to time renewed by the Local Govern- ment Board, subject to such conditions, if any, as they may see fit. A person other than a sanitary authority shall not be guilty of an offence under this section in respect to the passing of sewage matter into a stream along a drain communicating with any sewer belonging to or under the control of any sanitary authority, provided he has the sanction of the sanitary authority for so doing. PART III. Manifacturing axd Mining Pollutions. 4. Every person who causes to fall or flow or knowingly permits to fall or flow or to be carried into any stream any poisonous, noxious, or polluting liquid proceeding from any factory or manu- facturing process, shall (subject as in this Act mentioned) be deemed to have committed an offence against this Act. Where any such poisonous, noxious, or polluting liquid as aforesaid falls or flows or is carried into any stream along a channel used, constructed, or in process of construction at the date of the passing of this Act, or any new channel con-structed in substitution thereof, and having its out- fall at the same spot, for the purpose of conveying such liquid, the person causing, or knowingly permitting the poi.sonous, noxious, or polluting liquid so to fall or flow or to be carried, shall not be deemed to have committed an offence against this Act if he shows to the satisfaction of the court having cognizance of the case that he is using the best practicable and reasonably available means to render harmless the poisonous, noxious, or polluting liquid so falling or flowing or car- ried into the stream. o. Every person who causes to fall or flow, or knowingly permits to fall or flow, or to be carried into any stream, any solid matter from any mine in such quantities as to prejudicially int rfere with its due flow, or any poisonous, noxious, or polluting solid or Uqtiid matter pro- ceeding from any mine, other than water in the same condition as that in which it has been drained or raised from such mine, shall be deemed to have committed an offence against this Act, unless in the case of poisonous, noxious, or polluting matter he shows to the satisfaction of the court having cognizance of the case that he is using the best practicable and reasonably avail- able means to render harmless the poisonous, noxious, or polluting matter so falling or flowing or carried into the stream. 6. Unless and until Parliament otherwise provides, the following enactment .shall take effect, proceedings shall not be taken against any person under this part of this Act save by a sanitary authority, nor shall any such proceedings be taken without the consent of the Local Government Board : Provide J, always, that if the sanitary authority, on the application of any person interested alleging an offence to have been committed, shall refuse to take proceedings, or apply for the consent by this section provided, the person so interested maj' applj- to the Local Govern- ment Board, and if that Board, on inquiry, is of opinion that the sanitary authority should take proceedings, they may direct the sanitary authority accordinglj', who shall thereupon commence proceedings. The said Board, in giving or withholding their consent, shall have regard to the industrial interests involved in the case, and to the circumstances and requirements of the locality. The said Board shall not give their consent to proceedings by the sanitary authority of any district which is the seat of any manufacturing industry, unless they are satisfied, after due inquiry, that means for rendering harmless the poisonous, noxious, or polluting liquids proceed- ing from the processes of such manufactures are reasonably practicable and available under all the APPENDIX I. 571 circumstances of the case, and that no material injur}' will be inflicted by such proceedings on tlie interests of such industry. Any person within such district as aforesaid, against whom proceedings are proposed to be taken under this part of this Act, shall, notwithstanding any consent of the Local Government Board, be at liberty to object before the sanitary authority to such proceedings being taken, and such authoiit}- shall, if required in writing by such person, afford him an opportunity of being heard against such proceedings being taken, so far as the same relate to his works or manufactur- ing processes. The sanitary authority shall thereupon allow such person to be heard by himself, agents, and witnesses, and after inquiry, such authority shall determine, having regard to all the considerations to which the Local Government Board are by this section directed to have regard, whether such proceedings as aforesaid shall or shall not be taken ; and where any such sanitary authority has taken proceedings under this Act, it shall not be competent to other sanitary authorities to take proceedings under this Act till the party against whom such proceedings are intended shall have failed in reasonable time to carry out the order of any competent court under this Act. PART IV. Administration. 7. Every sanitary or other local authority having sewers under their control shall give facilities for enabling manufacturers within their district to carry the liquids proceeding from their factories or manufacturing processes into such sewers : Provided, that this section shall not extend to compel any sanitary or other local authority to admit into their sewers, any liquid which would prejudicially affect such sewers, or the disposal by sale, application to land, or otherwise, of the sewage matters conveyed along such sewers, or which would from its temperature or otherwise be injurious in a sanitary point of view : Pro- vided, also, that no sanitary authority shall be required to give such facilities as aforesaid where the sewers of such authority are only sufficient for the requirements of their district, nor where such facilities would interfere with any order of any court of competent jurisdiction respecting the sewage of such authority. 8. Every sanitary authoritj' shall, subject to the restrictions in this Act contained, have power to enforce the provisions of this Act in relation to any stream being within or passing through or by any part of their district, and for that purpose to institute proceedings in respect of any offence against this Act which causes interference with the due flow within their district of any such stream, against any other sanitary authority or person, whether such offence is committed within or without the district of the first-named sanitary authority. Any expenses incurred by a sanitary authority in the e.vecution of this Act shall be payable as if they were expenses properly incurred by that authority in the execution of the Public Health Act, 187o. Proceedings may also, subject to the restrictions in this Act contained, be instituted in respect of any offence against this Act by any i)erson aggrieved by the commission of such offence. 9. The Con.servancy Board constituted under the Lee Conservancy Act, 18(!8, shall, within the area of their jurisdiction, have, to the exclusion of any other authority, the powers for enforcing the provisions of this .\ct which sanitary authorities have under this Act. The said Conservancy Board may also enforce the provisions of the Lee Conservancy Act, 1868, under the head or division, " Protection of Water," by application to the county court having jurisdiction in the place in which any offence is committed against those provisions ; and such court may by summary order require any person to abstain from the commission of any such of- fence, and the provisions of this Act with respect to summary orders of county courts and appeal therefrom shall apply accordingly. LP:GAL PROCEEDINGS. SAVING CLAUSES. DEFINITIONS. (1) Legal Puoceedings. 10. The county court having jurisdiction in the place where any offence against this Act is com- mitted may by summary order require any yiorson to abstain from the commission of such offence, and where such offence consists in default to perform a duty under this Act may require him to 57*2 AI'PKXDICKS. perform such duty in manner in the said order specified ; the court may insert in any order such conditions as to the time or mode of action as it may think jubt, and may suspend or rescind any order on such undertaking being given or condition being performed as it may think just, and generally may give such directions for carrying into effect any order as to the court seems meet. Previous to granting such order, the court may, if it think fit, remit to skilled parties to report on the " best practicable and available means," and the nature and cost of the works and apparatus required, who shall in all cases take into consideration the reasonableness of the expense involved in their report. Any person making default in complj'ing with any requirement of an order of a county court made in pursuance of this section shall pay to the person complaining, or such other person as the court may direct, such sum, not exceeJing fifty pounds a day for every day during which he is in • default, as the court may order; and such penalty shall be enforced in the same manner as any debt adjudged to be due by the court ; moreover, if any person so in default persists in disobeying any requirement of any such order for a period of not less than a month, or such other period less than a month as may be prescribed by such order, the court may in addition to any penalty it may impose appoint any person or persons to carry into cftect such order, and all expenses incurred by any such person or persons to such amount as may be allowed by the county court shall be deemed to be a debt due from the person or persons executing such order, and may be recovered accord- ingly in the county court. 11. If either party in any proceedings before the county court under this Act feels aggrieved by the decision of the court in point of law, or on the merits, or in respect of the admission or rejec- tion of any evi lence, he may appeal from that decision to the High Court of Justice. Tlie appeal shall be in the form of a special case to be agreed upon by both parties or their attor- nej's, and, if they cannot agree, to be settled by the judge of the county court upon the application of the parties or their attorneys. The court of appeal may draw any inferences from the facts stated in the case that a jury might draw from facts stated by witnesses. Subject to the provisions of this section, all the enactments, rules, and orders relating to proceed- ings in actions in county courts, and to enforcing judgments in county courts and appeals from de- cisions of the county court judges and to the conditions of such appeals, shall apply to all proceed- ings under this Act, and to an appe d from such action, in the same manner as if such action and appeal related to a matter within the ordinary jurisdiction of the court. Any plaint entered in a county court under this Act may be removed into the High Court of Justice by leave of any judge of the said High Court, if it appears to such judge desirable in the interests of justice that such case should be tried in the first instance in the High Court of Jus- tice, and not in a county court, and on such terms as to security for and payment of costs, and such other terms (if any) as such judge may think fit. 12. A certificate granted by an inspector of proper qualifications, appointed for the purposes of this Act by the Local Government Board to the effect that the means used for rendering harm- less any sewage matter or poisonous, no.^ious, or polluting solid or liquid matter falling or flowing or carried into any stream, are the best or only practicable and available means under the circum- stances of the particular case, shall in all courts and all proceedings under this Act be conclusive evidence of the fact ; such certificate shall continue in force for a period to be named therein, not exceeding two years, and at the expiration of that period may be renewed for the like or any less period. All expenses incurred in or about obtaining a certificate under this section shall be paid by the applicant for the same. Any person aggrieved by the grant or the withholding of a certificate under this section may ap- peal to the Local Government Board against the decision of the Inspector ; and the Board may either confirm, reverse, or modify his decision, and may make such order as to the party or parties by whom the costs of the appeal are to be borne as to the said Board may appear just. 13. Proceedings shall not be taken under this Act against any person for any offence against the provisions of Parts II. and III. of this Act until the expiration of twelve months after the passing of this Act ; nor shall proceedings in any case be taken under this Act for any offence against this Act until the expiration of two months after written notice of the intention to take such proceedings has been given to the offender, nor shall proceedings under this Act be taken for any offence against this Act until the expiration of two months after written notice of the inten- APPENDIX I. 573 tion to take such proceedings has been given to the offender, nor shall proceedings under this Act be taken for any offence against this Act while other proceedings in relation to such oflence are pending. 14. The Local Government Board may make orders as to the costs incurred by them in relation to inquiries instituted by them under this Act, and as to the parties by whom such costs shall be borne ; and every such order and every order for the payment of costs made by the said Board under section twelve of this Act may be made a rule of Her Majesty's High Court of Justice. 15. Inspectors of the Local Government Board shall, for the purposes of any inquirj- directed by the Board under this Act, have in relation to witnesses and their examination, the production of papers and accounts, and the inspection of places and matters required to be inspected, similar powers to those which the inspectors of the said Board have under the Public Health Act, 1875, for the purposes of that Act. (2) Saving Cl.\.cses. 16. The powers given by this Act shall not be deemed to prejudice or affect any other rights or powers now existing or vested in anj* person or persons by Act of Parliament, law, or custom, and such other rights or powers may be exercised in the same manner as if this Act had not passed ; and nothing in this Act shall legalize any act or default which would but for this Act be deemed to be a nuisance or otherwise contrary to law : Provided, nevertheless, that in any proceedings for enforcing against any person such rights or powers the court before which such proceedings are pending shall take into consideration any certificate granted to such person under this Act. 17. This Act shall not apply to or affect the lawful exercise of any rights of impounding or diverting water. 18. Nothing in or done under this Act shall. extend to interfere with, take away, abridge, or prejudicially aflfect any right, power, authority, jurisdiction, or privilege given by "The Thames Conservancy Acts, 1857 and 18G4," or by " The Thames Navigation Act, 1866," or by the Lee Conservancy Act, 1868, or any Act or Acts extending or amending the said Acts or either of them, or affect any outfall or other works of the Metropolitan Board of AVorks (although beyond the metropolis) executed under the Metropolis Management Act, 1855, and the Acts amending or ex- tending the same, or take away, abridge, or prejudicially affect any right, power, authority, juris- diction, or privilege of the Metropolitan Board of Works. 19. Where any local authority, or an}- urban or rural sanitary authority, has been empowered or required bj' any Act of Parliament to carrj' any sewage into the sea, or any tidal water, nothing done by such authority in pursuance of such enactment shall be deemed to be an offence against this Act. (3) Definitions. 21. In this Act, if not inconsistent with the context, the following terms have the meanings hereinafter respectively assigned to them ; that is to say, — " Person " includes any body of persons, whether corporate or unincorporate. " Stream " includes the sea to such extent, and tidal waters to such point, as may, after local inquiry and on sanitary grounds, be determined by the Local Grovemment Board, bj' order pub*- lished in the London Gazette. Save as aforesaid, it includes rivers, streams, canals, lakes, and w l^er-courses, other than water-courses at the passing of this Act mainly used as sewers, and e n)'.ying directly into the sea, or tidal waters which have not been determined to be streams wit.'iin the meaning of this Act by such order as aforesaid. "Solid matter " shall not include particles of matter in suspension in water. " Pidluting" shall not include innocuous discoloration. " Sanitary authority" means — In the metropolis, as defined by the Metropolis Management Act, 1855, any local authority act- ing in the execution of the Nuisance Removal for England Act, 1855, and the Acts amending the same. Elsewhere in England, any urban or rural sanitarj- authority acting in the execution of the Public Health Act, 1875. The ap]ili('{ition of the Act to Scotland ami Ireland is omitted, as consistin<4- chietiy in definitions and explanations, and as being", therefore, irrelevant to our circumstances. 574 APPENDICES. APPENDIX II. AN ACT to confer upon the State Board of Health power to protect from contamination, by suitable regulations, the water supplies of the State and their sources. Passed June 13, 1885 ; chapter 543, Laws of 1885. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : Section 1. The State Board of Health is hereby authorized and empowered to make rules and regulations for protecting from contamination any and all public supplies of potable waters and their sources within this State. Provided, however, any such rule or regulation shall not be oper- ative in any county until the county judge of that county shall approve the same. Sect. 2. The said State Board of Health shall also have power, and it shall be its duty : 1. To publish once a week, for at least six consecutive weeks, all such rules and regulations as it shall have made concerning the contamination of any sub-soQ waters, springs, streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, or other bodies of water contributing to the potable water supply of any munic- ipality within this State, such publication to be made in one or more newspapers published in the county in which the waters affected by such regulations are located. The cost of publishing the regulations of the State Board of Health, as above provided, shall be paid by the corporation or municipality benefited by the protection of the water supply, concerning which the rales are made. 2. To impose penalties for the violation of, or the non-compliance with, their rules and regulations, not exceeding two hundred dollars in any one case. Sect. 3. The officer or board having by law the management and control of the potable water supply of any municipality, in all cases where the said municipality derives its water supply la whole or in part from any sub-soil water, springs, streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, or other waters concerning which the State Board of Health shall make any rule or regulation, is hereby author- ized and empowered to make such inspection of the sources of said water supply as said officer or board may deem advisable to secure the said water supply from any defilement, and to ascertain whether or not the rules and regulations made by the State Board of Health are complied with. Sect. 4. In case such inspection shall disclose the violation by any person or persons of any of the rules or regulations of the said State Board of Health relating to the sources of said water supply, the officer or board mentioned in section three of this act shall serve or cause to be served a copy of the said rules and regulations, accompanied by a notice specifying the rule or regulation claimed to have been violated, upon the said person or persons violating such rules or regulations. If the person or persons so served do not immediately complj' with the said regu'a- lation, the said officer or board having charge of the water supply of the municipality affected thereby shall notify the State Board of Health of the violation of its rules ; the State Board of Health shall thereupon examine into the said violation, and if the party complained of is found to have actually violated any of the said regulations, the Secretary of the State Board of Health shall order the local board of health having jurisdiction thereof to convene and enforce obedience to the said regulation. Sect. 5. In case any local board of health having jurisdiction thereof fails to enforce the order of the Secretary of the State Board of Health within ten days after the receipt of a notification so to do, as provided in the last section, the corporation furnishing the water supply, or the munici- pality deriving its water supply from the waters for the sanitary protection of which such rules have been made, is hereby authorized and empowered to maintain an action in a court of record and which shall be tried in the county in which the cause of action arose against the person or persons violating the .said rules for recovery of the penalty therein provided. Sect. 0. Every person who shall wilfully violate or refuse to obey any rule or regulation made and published by the State Board of Health, and approved pursuant to the provisions of this act, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on a conviction thereof shall be subject to a fine or imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of the court, such fine not to exceed three hundred dol- lars, nor such imprisonment six months. But the recovery of a penalty in a civil action, as pro- vided in section five of this act, and criminal prosecution and conviction under the provisions of this section, shall not be had for the same offense. APPENDIX III. 575 Sect. 7. When the State Board of Health shall, for the protection of a water supply from con- tamination, make regulations, the execution of which will require the providing of some public means of removal or purification of sewage, the municipality or corporation owTiing the water- works benefited thereby shall, at its own expense, construct and maintain such works or means for sewage disposal, as shall be approved by the State Board of Health.* Sect. S. The State Board of Health, any local board of health, or any municipality or corpo- ration furnishmg water, may cause the affidavit of the printer, publisher, or proprietor of any newspaper publisning the rules and regulations as provided by the second section of this act, to be filed with such rules as published in the clerk's office of the county in which the municipality or corporation furnishing the water supply in any case may be situated or located, and such affi- davit and rules, or duly certified copies thereof, shall be deemed conclusive evidence of due publi- cation and of all the facts therein stated in all courts and in all proceedings or prosecutions under the provisions of this act. Sect. 9. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this act are hereby re- pealed . Sect. 10. This act shall take effect immediately. APPENDIX III. The following is the first set of Pules for the sanitary protection of water-sheds established under the New York State Act : RULES AND REGULATIONS for the Sanitary Protection of the Waters of Hemlock Lake, the Public Potable Water Supply of the City of Rochester. Privies adjacent to the Lake. Rt-LE I. Section A. All houses, cottages, tenements, tents, camp and picnic grounds, adjacent to the shores of Hemlock lake, shall be provided with, at least, one privy, which shall be placed upon the ground, without any vault beneath it, and shall be so constructed that metallic pails, fifteen inches high by fourteen inches in diameter, can be placed under the seats and be frequently and easily removed with their contents. Section B. The privies shall be so located that access to them from the lake may be had, for the purpose of facilitating the removal of the pails. Section C. Occupants of the premises should daily add earth or ashes to the contents of the pails, as a deodorizer and absorbent. Section D. The owners and occupants shall also exercise due care and oversight of the pails used in the privies. Section E. When any privy is to be used in winter as well as summer it shall be so located and arranged that the pail may be rej)laced by a water-tight box or trough i-esting on solid runners or small wheels, and having a staple by which it may be drawn out from under the seat, or be other- wise so arranged that when the box is sufficiently filled, it may be taken from under the privy and the contents emptied in some safe place, where they cannot possibly be washed into the lake or into any stream running into tlie lake, or into any well or spring. Asiies should daily be thrown into the privy box as a deodorizer. Section F. No owner or occupant shall have upon their premises any privy vault of any kind situated within two hundred feet of the shore of Hemlock lake. RlI.E II. Section A. Tiie city of Rochester shall furnish a sufficient number of pails, for the use of each privy situated within two hundred feet of the shore of Hemlock lake, and shall cause the pails to Ije placed under the seats, and to be removed, emptied, cleansed and disinfected as often as may be necessary to insure that they are kept in good sanitary condition. ♦ In 1890 this ncction was amendetl, throwing even more completely the expense of protection upon the mu- nicipality. 676 APPENDICES. Section B. When a full pail is removed from a privy, its place shall be immediately supplied by an empty one. Section C. The pails shall be made of metal, and shall be fifteen inches high by fourteen inches in diameter, outside measurement. They shall be provided with covers, to be used during removal. Section D. The removal of the pails from the privies shall be conducted in such a manner as to cause as little inconvenience or annoyance to the occupants of the premises as is compatible Avith proper management of the business. Section E. The contents of the pails shall be removed by the city of Rochester to some point below the foot of the lake, and be so treated and disposed of as to cause no nuisance nor danger to the public health. Privies near Streams, Springs or Water-courses on Hemlock Lake Water-shed. Rule III. Section A. No privy shall be located within thirty feet of any stream, spring or dry water- course, the water from which, when running, empties eventually into Hemlock lake. Rule IV. Section A. Any privy situated within fifty feet of any stream, spring or dry water-course, oa the water-shed of Hemlock lake, or vdthin fifty feet of the bank of any ravine on this water- shed^ shall be constructed without a vault, and shall have under the seats half barrels, tubs, pails, or water-tight boxes or troughs arranged to be easily and frequently removed, emptied, cleansed and returned to their place, under the privy seats. Ashes or dry earth should daily be used in thesfe privies as a deodorizer and absorbent. Rule V. Section A. The owners or occupants of premises having privies with tubs, pails or boxes, shall cause the contents to be removed and the receptacle to be cleaned as often as is necessary to keep the privy in good sanitary condition. Section B. The contents of the said privies shall be disposed of in such a manner that they can by no possibility be washed into any stream, drj' water-course, ravine, spring or well, either over the surface or through the sub-soil, and the excremental matter shall be so placed as not to cause an offensive nuisance. Rule VI. Section A. If, owing to the porous character of the soil, the height and flow of the surface or sub-soil waters, the steepness of the slopes, or other conditions of the locality, it shall be the judg- ment of the local board of health, or of the State Board, that the excremental matter from any privy may be w-ashed on the surface or through the soil into some neighboring spring or water- course, then, after due notice to the owners or occupants of these premises, their privy shall bfr made to conform to the rules governing privies situated within fifty feet of water-courses. Garbage. Rule VII. Section A. The owners or occupants of all houses, cottages, tenements, tents, camp and pic- nic grounds, within two hundred feet of Hemlock lake, shall place all garbage produced on their premises in such receptacles as may be provided therefor by the city of Rochester. Section B. No garbage shall be thrown into the lake, or upon the ground within two hundre(J feet of the lake, nor shall it be thrown upon any spot where it may possibly be washed into the; lake. APPENDIX III. 677 Rule VIII. Section A. The city of Rochester shall provide proper receptacles for receiving the garbage produced on all premises within two hundred feet of Hemlock lake, and shall cause the same to be removed and emptied as often as may be necessary. Rule IX. Section A. All house slops, and sink and laundry water, produced on premises adjacent to Hemlock lake, shall be thrown upon the surface of the ground, and distributed so as to prevent concentration and saturation at one spot, but no such polluted water shall be thrown upon the ground within one hundred feet of the lake shore, or as near that limit as the depth of the lot •will permit, nor into, nor near any spring, water-course or ravine. Rule X. Section A. No garbage or house slops, sink or laundry water shall be discharged into any stream, spring or dry water-course, on any part of the water-shed of Hemlock lake, nor shall any such putrescible or polluted waters be thrown upon the ground or into it, where they may pol- lute any spring, stream or water-course on this water-shed. Animal Afanures. Rule XL Section A. All stables situated within two hundred feet of Hemlock lake shall be provided by their owners or occupants with a tight and well-covered bin or box, in which all manures shall be placed, and from which it shall be removed as often as cleanliness may require. Rule XII. SEcnoN A. No stable, pig-sty, hen-house, barn-yard, hog-yard, hitching or standing place for horses, or other place where animal manure accumulates, shall be so constructed or located that the manure from it may wash into the lake or into any stream, spring or dry water-course run- ning into the lake. Manufacturing Waste. Rule XHI. Section A. No waste products, putrescible matters or polluted waters from any slanghter- houses, cheese factories, wine or beer vaults, cider-mills, tanneries, saw-mills or other manu- factories shall bo allowed to drain or wash into any stream, spring or dry water-course, or any part of Hemlock lake water-shed, or into the lake. Animal and Vegetable Matters. ' Rule XIV. Section A. No dead animal, bird or fish, nor any filthy or impure matter, nor any decayed fruit, vogetable substances, leaves, saw-dust, roots, branches or trunks of trees in any condition of their growth or decay shall be thrown into Hemlock hike, or so placed by any person that they shall wash into the lake, nor shall they be thrown into any spring, stream or water-course running into the lake. 37 578 APPENDICES. Wa,shing Sheep or Animals, Rule XV. Section A. No sheep or other animals shall be washed in Hemlock lake, or in any influent stream within half a mile of the lake, nor shall any diseased sheep be washed in any spring, pond or stream on the water-shed of Hemlock lake. Rule XVI. Section A. In accordance with chapter 543 of the laws of 1885, a penalty of $50 is hereby imposed upon any person or persons guilty of violation of or non-compliance with any of the above given mandatory rules or regulations, to be recovered under said act. Approved by order of the State Board of Health. APPENDIX IV. The following' is tlie Massachusetts Act for the Protection of Inland Waters as Amended in 1888 : AN ACT to protect the Purity of Inland Waters, and to require Consultation with the State Board of Health regarding the Establishment of Systems of Water Supply, Drainage and Sewerage. Be it enacted, etc. , as follows : Sect. 1. The state board of health shall have the general oversight and care of all inland waters, and shall be furnished with maps, plans and documents suitable for this purpose, and records of all its doings iu relation thereto shall be kept. It may employ such engineers and clerks and other assistants as it may deem necessary : 2^>'ovided, that no contracts or other acts which involve the payment of money from the treasury of the Commonwealth shall be made or done without an appropriation expressly made therefor by the general court. It shall annually on or before the tenth day of January report to the general court its doings in the preceding year, and at the same time submit estimates of the sums required to meet the expenses of said board in relation to the care and oversight of inland waters for the ensuing year, and it shall also recom- mend legislation and suitaljle plans for such systems of main sewers as it may deem necessarj' for the preservation of the public health, and for the purification and prevention of pollution of the ponds, streams and inland waters of the Commonwealth. Sect. 2. Said board shall from time to time, as it may deem expedient, cause examinations of the said waters to be made for the purpose of ascertaining whether the same are adapted for use as sources of domestic water supplies or are in a condition likely to impair the interests of the public or persons lawfully using the same, or imperil the public health. It shall recommend measures for prevention of the pollution of such waters, and for removal of substances and causes of every kind which may be liable to cause pollution thereof, in order to protect and develop the rights and property of the Commonwealth therein and to protect the public health. It shall have authority to conduct experiments to determine the best practicable methods of purification of drainage and sewage or disposal of the same. For the purpose aforesaid it may employ such ex- pert assistance as may be necessary. Sect. 3. It shall from time to time consult with and advise the authorities of cities and towns, or with corporations, firms or individuals either already having or intending to introduce systems of water supply, drainage or sewerage, as to the most appropriate source of supply, the best prac- ticable method of assuring the purity thereof or of disposing of their drainage or sewage, having regard to the present and prospective needs and interests of other cities, towns, corporations, firms or individuals which may be affected thereby. It shall also from time to time consult with and advise persons or corporations engaged or intending to engage in any manufacturing or other APPENDIX V. 579 business, drainage or sewage from which maj- tend to cause the pollution of any inland .vater, as to the best practicable method of preventing such pollution by the interception, disposa* or puri- fication of such drainage or sewage : provided, that no person shall be compelled to bewr the ex- pense of such consultation or advice, or of experiments made for the purposes of this aci. All such authorities, corporations, firms and individuals are hereby required to give notice to said board of their intentions in the premises, and to submit for its advice outlines of their proposed plans or schemes in relation to water supply and disposal of drainage and sewage, andall j>etitions to the legislature for authority to introduce a system of water supply^ drai/iage or sewerage shall be accompanied by a copy of the recommendation and advice of the said board thereon. Said board shall bring to the notice of the attorney -general all instances which may come to its knowl- edge of omission to comph' with existing laws respecting the pollution of water supplies and in- land waters, and shall annually report to the legislature any specific cases not covered by the provisions of existing laws, which in its opinion call for further legislation. Sect. 4. In this act the term '"drainage" refers to rainfall, surface and Bubsoil water only, and '' sewage" refers to domestic and manufacturing filth and refuse. Sect. 5. Chapter two hundred and seventy-four of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six is hereby repealed, but nothing in this act shall be construed to affect the expenditures authorized under chapter thirty of the resolves of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-eight. Sect. 6. This act shall take efiect upon its passage. (Approved May lb, 18S8.) APPENDIX V. The city of Passaic, New Jersey, liaying- proposed to turn its outfall sewer into the Passaic river at a point about -4 miles above the Newark Water- works intake, the city of Newark soug-ht to restrain Passaic from such discharg-e. The following- is the Chancellor's decision on the original applica- tion as rendered in 1889 : Newaek Aqueduct Board v. City of Passaic. (^Court of Chancery of New Jersey. July 22, 1889.) Nuisance — Pollution of Stream — Injunction. a corporation called the " Newark Aqueduct Company " was authorized by statute to use springs "and other sources of water," to supply the inhabitants of Newark with water, and to take such sources of water supply by condemnation. In 1 860 the city of Newark was empowered, by act of the legislature, to purchase the property of the Newark Aqueduct Comp)any, and to make use of its sources of water supplj', and "anj' other .sources," taking by condemnation, if necessary. The complainant, the Newark Aqueduct Board, is a public body, charged with the management of Newark's water supply, and is empowered by statute to maintain suits in equity or at law " for any injury or trespass or nuisance, done or caused, or procured to be done, to the water-courses, pipes, machinery, or any apparatus belonging to or connected with any part of the works, or for any improper use or waste of the water." In ISO" the complainant purchased for the city of Newark land bordering upon the Pas.saic river, a tidal stream, and upon the laud thus purchased constructed a pumping station, and, abandoning all other sources of water supply, for several years has taken large quantities of water, for domostic and otlior uses. l)y the inhabitants of Newark, from the Passaic river. The city of Passaic, situate upon the same river, about four miles above the complainant's pumping station, proposes to discharge its main sewer into the tidal water of the river. The complainant alleges that such discharge will materially pollute the water of the river, and thereby create a nuisance injurious to it, and by bill, in its own name and behalf, seeks an injunction to restrain the proposed discharge of sewage. Held, (a) that the 580 APPENDICES. water of the Passaic river, where the tide ebbs and flows, belongs to the state, for uses common to all its citizens; (b) that the city of Newark has no special rights in that water, either by reason of its riparian ownership on the river, or by grant from the state, which may be injured by the apprehended nuisance, and enable the complainant, by showing an apprehended injury, distinct from that which will be suffered by the other inhabitants of this state, to maintain its individual suit to restrain the nuisance ; (c) that, at best, such special rights have not Vjeen established by adjudication in this state; (d) that the complainant is not in position to ask for a preliminary injunction when the right on which it founds its claim is, as a matter of law, unsettled ; (e) that the proceeding in equity to restrain a public nuisance is Vjy information by the attorney general ; ( f) that the statutory authority to the complainant to maintain a suit in equity for nuisance to water-courses connected with its works did not constitute it a public agent to sue to restrain a public nuisance, but merely clothed it with power to sue, as an individual might, for the protection of private property; [g) that an injunction to restrain a nuisance will issue only in cases where the fact of nuisance is made out upon determinate and satisfactory evidence, and that, if the evi- dence be conflicting, and the injury be doubtful, that will constitute a ground for withholding the injunction, and. if the nuisance be merely apprehended, it must appear that apprehension of material and irreparable injury is well grounded, upon a state of facts which show the danger to be real and immediate ; (h) that such conditions of fact do not appear in this case. (Syllabus by the Court.) On order to show cause why an injunction should not issue restraining the discharge of sewage into the Passaic river. E. L. Price and Thomas K McCarter, for the order. C. P. Rust and /. W. Origgs, contra. McGiLL, C The complainant is a corporate body, composed of commissioners who are from time to time elected by the legal voters of the city of Newark, and is charged by statute with the control and management of the supply of " pure and wholesome water " for that city. Among other powers conferred upon it is authority to maintain a suit at law or in equity for injury, tres- pass, or nuisance to water-courses and apparatus connected with the water- works which are con- fided to its care. P. L. 1860, p. 443. By an act of the legislature passed in the year 1800, a corporation known as the "Newark Aqueduct Company" was incorporated by the name "The President and Directors of the Newark Aqueduct Company," for the purpose of furnishing water to the inhabitants of Newark, and was empowered to make use of any spring or springs that it might think necessary to use for the purpose of obtaining a supply of water. P. L. 1800, p. 10. By a supplement to that act of incorporation, which was approved February 17, 1857, (P. L. 19,) it was recited that the city of Newark was rapidly increasing in population, and that many additional springs and "other sources of water" were to be found in the vicinity of Newark which could be made available by the company, but which the company could not purchase through "private negotiations," and power was therefore given it to .search for water and to take by condemnation. By the act of the legislature approved March 20, 1860, (P. L. 442,) above referred to. the city of Newark was authorized to buy the property of the aqueduct company, and thereafter to take suf- ficient water to supply the city of Newark from the sources of supply which the aqueduct companjr then used or was empowered to use, and " from any other sources ; " and in order to make other sources of water supply available a method of condemning water-rights was provided. In pursu- ance of the authority thus conferred, the mayor and common council of the city of Newark purchased the plant of the aqueduct company. In 1867 the population of Newark had so largely increased, and the demand for a greater supply of water had become so urgent, that the comolain- ant purchased about 13 acres of land, having a frontage of about 3,000 feet upon the west bank of the Passaic river, about a mile above the village of Belleville, upon which, at considerable cost, it caused a pumping station to be built, from which water has since been pumped from the Passaic river to a large receiving reservoir constructed upon high ground about a mile from the pumping station, and from thence distributed to the city of Newark, two miles distant, and to adjoining towns, for domestic and other uses. In 1869, after the completion of the pumping station and the receiving reservoir, all sources of water supply, other than the Passaic river, were abandoned. In the acquisition of this plant the city of Newark expended upwards of $1,000,000. The water it takes from the river averages 13,000,000 of gallons daily, and is distributed to nearly 200.000 per- sons, who, by paying water-rates, confer a large revenue to the maintenance of the water-works, and the payment of the interest upon bonds that were issued by the city of Newark for their construction. APPENDIX V. 581 The tide ebbs and flows in the Passaic river at the point at which Newark's supply of water is taken, and for a distance of about five miles above that point, and one mile above the city of Passaic, and within the same limits, the river is in fact navigable. The city of Passaic, having a population of upwards of 10,000 persons, is situated upon the west bank of the river, four miles above the intake of the water for Newark. It was incorporated in 1S73, (P. L. 1873, p. 484,) and in 1ST5 (P. L. 1875, p. .570) was authorized to cause sewers and drains to be constructed in any part of the city. In pursuance of this power it has lately, against the complainant's protest, contracted with the other defendants herein to construct a main sewer, with several lateral sewers emptying into it, and to so build the main sewer that its contents will be discharged into the Passaic river. The plans for the proposed construction contemplate sewers aggregating 3,tj.50 feet in length, and the drainage of 110 dwelling-houses, containing 1,1'JO inhabitants, shops, stores, and manufactories, in which 113 people are employed, and a public school attended by about 400 pupils. The portion of the city in which these drains are to be located is rapidly building up and increasing Lu popula- tion. Tlie sewers will not receive the surface or rain water, but will be cleared by means of flush- tanks, and, as it is estimated, will daily discharge into the Passaic river 00,000 gallons of filth from privies, sinks, and factories. Health statistics exhibit that during the past year 20 per cent, of the deaths in Passaic were caused by typhoid and scarlet fevers, diphtheria, cholera infantum, and dj-seutery, and it is insisted that the foul excreta of patients suffering with those diseases will be carried into the Passaic river through the proposed sewers, and therefrom germs of those diseases wOl be pumped to the complainant's distributing reservoir, and be distributed to a large population, endangL-ring its health. To secure the prohibition of the proposed discharge of these sewers into the Pa-saic river is the object of this suit. The complainant takes the poisition, in the first place, that the proposed sewage will pollute the ■waters" that it supplies to Newark and other municipalities, and will thereby create a nuisance especially injurious to the complainant; and, in the second place, if it should be determined that the complainant will not sustain a special and distinct injury, it is nevertheless empowered by special statutory authority to maintain this suit, if injury will result to it at all, though it be merely in common with the remainder of the public. To this the defendants reply — First, that the complainant has no right in the waters of the Passaic river which is not common to all citizens of this state, and that an injury to such a right cannot result in such a special and peculiar injury that will enable the complainant to maintain this suit in its own name; second, that in absence of such special injury it has no authority to maintain this suit; t/iird, that if, under the legis ation from which it derives its powers, the complainant has obtained a distinct right to the water of the , Passaic, such right does not clearly appear, and should be established at law before the issuance of the injunction sought; and, fourth, that, in point of fact, the jiroposed discharge of the sewage will not pollute or otherwise injuriously affect the waters of the Passaic at the Newark intake. It is well established that the title to navigable tide- water and to lands imder navigable tide-water is in the state for the support of rights therein which are common to the entire public, such as the rights of navigation and fishing. Without express grant from the sovereign, no individual can obtain special rights in either the water itself or in the land under it. Riparian owners have no special rights in navigable streams in which the tide ebbs and flows bj' reason of adjacency to such stream, other than alluvion and dereliction. The rights common to the public are enjoyed by the riparian owner in common with others. All that he gains by adjacency to the water, in addition to the contingent rights by alluvion and dereliction, is convenience in the enjoyment of tlie common rights. Stevens v. Railroad Co., 34 N. J. Law, .532. The rule is different with respect to the riparian owner on a navigable stream in which the tide does not ebb and flow. There his title extends to the land under water to the middle of the stream, and to such use of the water as will not work injury to the rights of other riparian owners, or be materially detrimental to the public easement of navigation. Attorney General v. Railroad Co., '27 N. J. Eq. 1, 8, 638; Cobb v. Davenport, 32 N. J. Law, 309. As the Passaic river at Newark 's water intake is a tidal stream, that city has no special right in the water of the river in virtue of its riparian ownership, nor can I see how it can claim such right under tiie legislation to which I have referred. It is obvious that the legislature had in view the taking of water sources by condemnation, aijd that it did not contemplate a grant of any part of the public domain. The act of 1800 authorizes the use of springs by the aqueduct company. The act of 1857 extended the company's power of condemnation to additional springs and "other sources," and the act of 1800 gave similar powers to the complainant respecting all sources of its 582 appexdicp:s. water supply. No words indicative of an intention to grant public rights were used. Tlie rule is well settled that general and indefinite words in a statute will not pass any prerogative, right, title, or interest of the sovereign. In Trustees v. City of Trenton, 31) N. J. Eq tJ6T, 083, Mr. Justice Depue says : " The common-law doctrine is that where the king has any prerogative, right, title, or interest, and the statute is general, he shall not be barred of them by the general words of the act, for the king shall not be bound unless the statute is made by express words to extend to him. Magdalen College Case, 11 Coke, 74; Willion v. Berkley, 1 Plow. 239; Bac. Abr. tit. 'Statute' (E). Independently of any doctrine founded on the notion of prerogative, the same construction ought to prevail, founded upon the legislative intent. Where the government is not expressly or by necessary implication included, it ought to be clear from the nature of the mischiefs to be reached, or the language used, that the government itself was in contemplation of the legislaiuie, before a court of law would be authorized to put a construction on a statute which would aftect its rights." The same judge in his charge to the jury in Stevens v. Railroad Co., as reported in 34 N. J. Law, .534, made use of this language : " The distinction between the grant of a mere fran- chise and a grant of a portion of the public domain is broadly marked. With respect to the latter, the rule is invariably adhered to that, in cases of doubt, the grant is to be construed in favor 0+' the state, and most strongly against the grantee, who will take nothing not clearly given him by the grant. * * * An intent to alienate any portion of them without any consideration will not, in the absence of a formal grant, in express words, be implied, except upon the clearest necessity to effectuate the purpose of the legislature in investing the grantee with public fran- chises." In the same case in the court of errors and appeals (34 N. J. Law, .553) Chief Justice Be.\sley says : " The state is never presumed to have parted with any part of its property in the absence of conclusive proof of an intention to do so. Such proof must exist either in express terms or in necessary implications. I shall not cite authorities to sustain so familiar a proposi- tion." State v. Bentley, 23 N. J. Laws, 538; Proprietors of Bridges v. Improvement Co., 13 N. J. Eq. 94; Water Com'rs v. Hudson City, Id. 420; Townsend v. Brown, 24 N. J. Law, 87; Banking Co. v. Railroad Co., IG N. J. Eq. 419, 43(j ; Endl. Interp. St. § 354. Although it may be proper in some measure to relax the strict application of this rule in the case of a public body created essentially for a public purpose, like the complainant before me, j'et, even there, there must be some manifestation of the legislative intent to grant public rights. I have been referred to other legislation, having for its object the prevention of the pollution of the waters of the Passaic within the boundaries of the counties of Essex and Hudson, (P. L. 1873, p. 683.) as indicative of legislative recognition of right in the complainant to take water from the Passaic where the tide ebbs and iiows ; but, in view of the fact that previous to that legislation the legislature expressly authorized the city of Jersey City (P. L. 18.53, d. 419) and the Harrison Aqueduct Company (P. L. 1864, p. 754) and possibly other corporations to take the Passaic water at the locality indicated, the legislation referred to may properly be regarded as relating to pro- tection of the rights thus given. At all events, there is nothing in it to satisfy me that it should influence the construction of the complainant's rights, as here contended for. It is not necessary to determine what right, if any, the complainant may have in common with the public to take water from the Passaic for the uses to which it devotes it. If such a right is enjoyed, it is a common right, the interference with which, by pollution of the water, does not work a private, direct, and material damage to the complainant distinct from that which is suffered by the public at large, and which is necessary to enable an individual to maintain such a bill as that which is before me. It is true the injury to the complainant may be greater than to others of the public, because the complainant makes extensive use of the water for purposes which will not admit of its pollution, while others may make but little similar use of it, and others yet may not use it at all. But the injury to all is in its character and essence the same ; the difference is only in degree. In the absence of the distinct injury to the complainant, it cannot maintain this suit. Where a nuisance is purely public, the proceeding in this court to restrain it must be by informa- tion by the attorney general. The statutory authority under which it is insisted the complainant may maintain this suit is contained in the sixth section of the act of 1860, above referred to. That section provides " that the Newark Aqueduct Board " may prosecute an action or process at law or in equity against any person for money for the use of water, for the breach of any contract, " and also for any injury or trespass or nuisance done, or caused or procured to be done, to the water- courses, pipes, machinery, or any apparatus belonging to or connected with any part of the works, or for any improper use or waste of the water." As the control and management of all that per- APPENDIX V. 583 tains to Newark's water supply was committed to the complainant board, it became convenient and proper that it should be enabled to make contracts and enforce compliance with them, and at the same time to protect the properly placed in its charge. For these purposes it was given a corporate name and existence, but I find nothing in this legislation which clothes the complainant with power to do more than an individual could do in the protection of his own property. It does not authorize proceedmgs either in the name of the state or in the name of the attorney general. The injury contemplated was evidently injury to private rights only. It was to apparatu.^^, pipes, machmery, and water-courses connected with the complainant's works , that is, injury to water- courses in which the complainant's principal had some special right of property. The legislation evidently was designed to bestow a corporate e.'dstence upon the aqueduct board for certain pur- poses, and, among them, to maintain suits in its own name for the protection of the property intrusted to it in the same manner as an individual owner of that property might sue for his own protection. The conservation of public interests is with the state and its attorney general, and it.s bestowal by the legislature upon another agency, like the grant of public domain, should be IjV express language, or, at least, by that from which the power must be necessarily implied. It follows, from the views that I have taken of the questions thus far considered, that the com- plainant has not shown eitlier authority to maintain this suit in behalf of the pubUc, or such distmct special rights in the waters of the Passaic river as this court will feel bound to protect, or, at best, that it has not shown such authority and riglits established by adjudication in this state. " No rule of equity," says Chief Justice Beaslev, in Coach Co. v. Railroad Co., 29 N. J. Eq. 'i99, 304. •• is better settle;! than the doctrine that a complainant is not in a position to ask for a pre- liminary injunction wh>in tae right on which he founds his claim is, as a matter of law, unsettled." And in the late case of Haggerty v. Lee, 45 N. J. Eq. 25.""), IT Atl. Rep. 826, Mr. Justice Depue reiterates the rule thus stated, in this language : " It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the rule so often enforced in tliis court, that a preliminary injunction will not be allowed where either the complainant's right which he seeks to have protected in limine by an interlocutory injunction is iu doubt, or where the injury which may result from an mvasion of that right i.s not irivp- arable." It has been urged that the consequencss of the contemplated drainage will be so disastrous and irreparable that I should not dismiss this application without consideration of its merits, and giv- ing som" expression of opinion as to them. It is a well-settled rule of equity procedure that an injunction to restrain a nuisance will issue only in cases where the fact of nuisance is made out upon determinate and satisfactory evidence. If the evidence be conflicting, and the injury be doubtful, that will constitute a ground for withholding the injunction. 'J Story, Eq. Jur. *> 9:.'4rt ; Attorney General v. Heishon, 18 N. J. Eq 410. And, where the interposition by injunction is sought to restrain that which it is apprehended will create a nuisance, the proofs must show that the apprehension of material and irreparable injury is well grounded upon a state of facts which show the danger to be real and immediate. Brookline v. Mackintosh, Wi'-i Mass. 215. The com plainant groimds its apprehension of danger from the defendant's sewage, if discharged into th river, largely upon the opinion of Peter T. Austen, who is emploj-ed by it as its chemist, and who is also a professor of chemistry in Rutgers College, at New Brunswick, in this state. This gentle- man, assuming that both floating and dissolved matter discharged into the Passaic river will re;ich the X^-wark water intake within a few hours after its discharge, and be pumped into the reservoir and distributed to the people of Newark, proceeds to discuss the effect of the use of such polluted water upon the health of its consumers. He says : '' Experimental science has established the fact that a large number of diseases are communicated from one person to another by means of minute organisms known as m irrnb^i. bnrtfriti, barcil/i, mirrororci, etc., or more popularly as germs. The communicability of disease, as in cases of small-pox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, Bvphilis, etc., is well understood by the public. The germs or virus of these diseases comes in con- tact with the proper membranes, and proceed at once to develop and cause tlje specific functional disorders known as disease. There is good evidence to show that disease may also be coninuinicateil by water, if the water contains disease germs." The afli.ant then refers to instances in which the prevalence of typnoid fever in a community was attributed to the rxi-rcln of the typhoid fever patient in water from which the inhabitants drank. He thinks that the albuminoid matter in sewage in sufficient quantity, and under favorable circumstancs, will feed di.sea.se germs, and mul- tiply them, and that the putrefaction and decomposition of the albuminoid substances mav pro- duce poisonous nitrogenous substances deleterious to health. He further stated that although /)84 APPENDICES. a portion of the solid matter in sewage may sink to the bottom, or become entangled with tlie vegetation on the banks of the river, the soluble matter will still pass on, and the solid matter that sinks or becomes entangled may soon ferment, putref}', and decompose, and impart to the water its products, and that in process of decomposition gases will be generated which will cause the solid matter that contams them to float with the current. In adrescible constituents of the sewage of the city of Passaic will .substantially vanish during the down flow of four and a half miles from the sewer outlet to the Newark inta'ce. He also states that on the 25th of April, 1889, he examined the sewers of the city of Newark that empty into the Passaic river, and found that they number seven, and that the nearest of them to the Newark water intake is that which is called " Second River," two and a quarter miles below the pumping station. At the foot of Clay street he found two brick tunnels discharging directly into the river ''streams of black opaque water," having a thick, offensive- looking scum upon it. This sewer is three and a quarter miles below the water intake, and dis- charges about 2,000,000 of gallons of sewage during the 12 buisiness hours of each day. He further states that the tide in the river carries a portion of this sewage to the Newark intake, and that his analyses establish that seventeen-eighteenths of the present pollution of the water at that intake is caused by the Newark sewage. It is also shown that at the defendant's proposed sewer outlet the Passaic river is about 200 feet wide, and 14 feet deep in the channel, at high tide, and that because the United States government has removed the bars in the river the sewage will be swept back and forth by the continual ebb and flow of the tide, and that the tide flows above the outlet of the sewer for a mUe and a half, at the end of that distance rising about three and a half feet. It is argued that the flow of each tide will send the sewage back this distance diluted in a great body of water, and that the greater part of it will thus be obliged to traverse a much greater dis- tance than four and a half miles before it can reach the Newark intake ; and it is insisted that if the Paterson sewage from .50,000 population disappears in a flow of four and a half miles above tide-water, that the sewage in question, from only 10,000 population, must more certainly vanish in this greater flow, added to a washing by the tide. In the case of Attorney General v. Board, L. R. 18 Eq. 172, in 1874, I find that Sir George Jessel, M. R., dealt with testimony by Dr. Frankland, of the Royal College of Chemistry in England, which was somewhat simQar to that which is here given by Professor Austen. There Dr. APPEXDIX V. 585 Frankland said that no sewage could be admitted into a river without deteriorating the quality of the water. " The deterioration," he said, "for washing and manufacturing purposes, may be, as in this case, insignificant or imperceptible ; but for drinking and cooking such water becomes dangerous, because, as the rivers pollution commissioners have shown, the sewage matter is not perceptibly altered in its character by a flow of seven miles, and scarcely diminished in quantity. Neither does the failure of chemical analysis to detect any deleterious ingredient indicate that danger is absent, since the nature of the noxious ingredients which propagate small-pox, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, or cholera is unknown. A chemical analysis is therefore powerless to detect these ingi edients." In the case belorc- me Professor Austen speaks of these ingredients as germs of disease called " microbes ; " that is, germs so mfinitesimal that they derive their name, " microbes," from the powerful glass by the aid of which it is claimed they may be detected. The theory advanced by Dr. Frankland was contradicted by other experts, and the Master of the Rolls, Ijecause no impurity was detected in the intake of the Workington water-works, declared that a nuisance was not proven. In Goldsmid v. Commissioners, L. R. 1 Ch. 349, Lord Justice TruxER, referring to the testimony of scientific experts in a case of nuisance, said : " Speaking with all possible respect to the scientific gentlemen who have given their evidence, and as to whom it is but just to say that they have dealt with the case most ablj- and most impartially, I think that in cases of this nature .much more weight is due to the facts which are proved than to conclusions drawn from scientific investigations. The conclusions to be drawn from scientific investigations are, no doubt, in such cases, of great value, in aid or in explanation and qualification of the facts which are proved, but in my judgment it is upon the facts which are proved, and not upon such conclusions, the court ought in these cases mainly to rely. * * * In my view of this case, therefore, the scientific evidence ought to be considered as secondarj* only to the evidence as to the facts." This view of scientific evidence in cases of this kind s.o commends itself to me that I am con- strained to be guiaed by it in the disposition of the question of fact I am now considering. The application here is to restrain that which it i.* alleged will create a nuisance, not that which in fact creates a nuisance. The injury is prospective, and it is only possible to judge from experience in similar cases, e.xperiment. and the opinions of experts, whether the apprehension is well grounded and free fi'om doubt. Here two important circumstances appear — J^lrst, practically all traces of the Paterson sewage, as far as the same could be detected by chemical analysis, had disappeared in the flowing water of the Passaic, four and a half miles from the place at which it was dis- charged into the river, although in that part of the river there was no flux and reflux of the tide ; and, second, the sewage of Newark, washed by the tide to the Newark water intake, readily detectable by chemical analysis, has not produced an injury similar to that which is apprehended from this much smaller quantity of sewage, to be emptied into the river at a much greater distance from the intake. In the light of these circumstances, it may be asked why, if impeiceptible germs of disease, fraught with danger to health and life, continue in water afttr ail traces of the sewage from which they come, so far as they can be detected by the chemist, are lost, have not their dangerous qualities become manifested in Newark long before this? This- experience seems to be a complete negation of the danger theory atlvanced in support of this application, (U- is sufficient, at least, to render it doubtful whether the danger apprehended is more than chimerical. 1 deem it .)f sufficient weight to justify me in withholding a preliminary injunction. With reference to the Newark sewage, I should add that it is not a sufficient ground for refusal of the injunction asked to say that the Newark sewage is a greater and more dangerous nuisance than the sewage of the city of Passaic will be, and because it pollutes the river tiie court will not restrain the small addition to that pollution that the sewage of Passaic will make. The defendant woidd have no right to add to existing pollution, even though it be proportionally much less than that which exists. Attorney General v. Steward, 20 N. J. Eq. 41."); Attorney Ceneral v. Corpora- tion, L. R. .T Ch. .583 ; Attorney General v. Asylum. L. R. 4 Ch. 146. I will discharge the or.ler to show cause, and deny the complainant's application. Application for an injunction was again made in 1890 and a \tiYge additional amount of evidence taken in the fall of that year. The de- cision is still pt'iidinj^. 586 APPENDICES. APPENDIX VI. The following- is the Pollution Prevention Act passed by the Vir- ginia Legislature in 1892 : AN ACT to prevent the pollution of potable water used for the supply of cities. Approved Feb'7 29, 1892. 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Virginia, That it shall be unlawful, except as here- inafter provided, for any person to defile or render impure, turbid, or offensive the water used for the supply of any city or town of this state, or the sources or streams used for furnishing such supply, or to endanger the purity thereof by the following means, or any of them, to wit : by washing, or bathing therein, or by casting into any spring, well, pond, lake, or reservoir from which such supply is drawn, or into any stream so used, or the tributary thereof above the poiiit where such supply is taken out of such stream, or is impounded for the purposes of such supply, or into any canal, aqueduct, or other channel or receptacle for water connected with any works for furnishing a public water supply, any offal, dead lisli, or carcass of any animal, or any human or animal filth, or other foul or waste animal matter, or any waste vegetable or min- eral substance, or the refuse of any mine, manufactory, or manufacturing process, or by discharg- ing or permitting to flow into any such source, spring, wed, reservoir, pond, stream, or the tribu- tary thereof, canal, aqueduct, or other receptacle for water, the contents of any sewer, privy, stable, or barnyard, or the impure drainage of any mine, any crude or refined petroleum, chemicals, or any foid, noxious, or offensive drainage whatsoever, or by constructing or maintaining any privy vault or cesspool, or by storing manure or other soluble fertilizer of an offensive character, or by disposing of the carcass of any animal, or any foul, noxious, or putrescible substance, whether solid or fluid, and whether the same be buried or not, within two hundred feet of any watercourse, canal, pond, or lake aforesaid, which is liable to contamination by the washings thereof or perco- lation therefrom ; jirovided, that nothing in this act contained shall be construed co authorize the pollution of any of the waters in this state in any manner now contrary to law ; and provided further, that this act shall not apply to streams the drainage area of which, above the point where the water thereof is withdrawn for the supply of any city or town, or is impounded for the pur- poses of such supply, shall exceed fifty square miles. 2. That any person knowingly or wilfully violatincr the terms of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished for each off.-nce by a fine not exceeding one hundred dol- lars, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both, at the discretion of the court, and provided further, that nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to prevent the washing ol ore or minerals in any of the streams or waters of this commonwealth other than such as may be used for the water supply of any city or town. 3. This act shall take effect fifteen days after its passage. APPENDIX TIL The following- are the Kules of the New York State Board of Health governing- the preparation of such plans for Sewerage and Sewage Disposal Works as are required by law to be submitted to the Board for approval : The experience of the past year has shown the nccessitv for a statement of what the Board re- quires to he conveyed by t!ie p'ans submitted, and of the most desirable form that these plans yhould take. The following suggestions ure tl evefore made, and it is requested that those inter- APPENDIX VII. 587 ested with the preparation of plans will follow them as closely as is practicable. Certain portions must be followed, while considerable latitude can be allowed upon others, as intimated. 1. A plan of the entire village will be required, showing all streets, and so far as practicable pro- posed streets. This must not be on a smaller scale than 2.50 feet to an inch and may be larger. A comprehensive title, stating what the map purports to show, must be placed thereon. The scale of the map must be distinctly stated, and an explanation of all symbols used must be given on it. Contour lines should be carefully located and drawn to interfere as little as possible with the de- lineation of other features. A sufficient number of elevations above an assumed datum, written in figures, should be given to show the governing elevations of the ground. The elevations of sewer invert at critical and other important points should be given, each surmounted by an oval as a distinguishing mark. When the plan presented does not propose to sewer the entire village, and the street profiles do not extend to the ends of the streets or to the village Umits, the elevations of the ground at every change of slope in the streets beyond the limits of the profiles, and the eleva- tions of the bottoms of the deepest cellars, or other localities below the level of the street, should be given in their proper locations upon the plan. Upon this plan must be shown all existing sewers, with all the information obtainable regarding their depth below the surface, grades, sizes, man-holes, lamp-holes, catch-basins, flush-tanks, etc. The proposed system must be laid down in a clear and definite manner, showing the locations of the lines in the streets, the position of man- holes, catch-basins, lam[)-holes, inspection-pipes, flush-tanks, ventilators or other appurtenances, by symbols readily distinguishable and explained in the map-legend. The sizes of pipe and the grades of inclination must be given in figures alongside the line, and points of change of inclination or of alignment must be definitely located, being part of the information given by the profiles, here repeated as a great convenience. Inclinations may be given as fall in feet per hundred or as a slope ratio. A sufficient number of arrows must be drawn alongside the lines to show clearly the direction of flow of sewage. The position of outlet must be clearly shown, and the direction of current in the body of water, if any, into which the sewage flows. Location of disposal works must also be shown. Independent lines of pipe proposed for subsoil or cellar drainage should be marked by a different symbol from that for tight .sewer pipe lines, and the size of such pipes should be given. When the territory covered by the village is large the details of sewers may be given on one or more sheets on the large scale, the entire village being shown on an accompanying maj) of a convenient smaller scale, which shall contain the general information required above. 2. Profiles of the streets proposed to be sewered and of other lines of sewer must be presented on separate sheets from the plan. These profiles should be extended to the entire length of the street and .should be presented for every street in the village, unless the elevations beyond the ends of proposed sewer lines are j)laced on the plan as proposed in paragraph 1 above. These profiles should show the profile of ground surface, the elevation of particularly low points, such as cellar bottoms, low lots, etc., and their distances from the sewer line, and the grade line of the sewer. Location of man-holes, lamp-holes, catch-basins, flush-tanks, and other sewer appurtenances should be shown, also points of intersection with other streets and points of entrance of branches, with their elevations at entrance. Inclination of sewer should be given in figures, also points of change of inclination being clearly defined. A small title should appear on each sheet of profiles, giving at least name of village, scales and explanation of symbols. '■I Details of the general plans for constructions connected with the sewers, such as man- holes, catch-l)asins, lamp-holes, inspection pipes, junctions, valves, traps, should be given, and full drawings of any devices for special purposes demanded by the peculiar circum.stances of the case. Sections of sewers other than circular should be sliown. Full details of the outlet should be given, and plans, elevations, sections and details of special grounds, buildings, macliincry or other appara- tus used in connection with the disposal of the sewage and drainai^e. Definite scales for these de- tails cannot be prescribed. It is necessary that the scales used be large enough to present the in- formation clearly and definitely, and plenty of room should be left between drawings, that they may not be unintelligible on account of crowding. It will be lietter to present the details on one or more sheets separate from the ])lans and profiles. Titles and subtitles enough to give name of village, explanation of symbols, names of objects delineated an^acluisetts. 57b; Virginia, 5^(i ; Min- nesota, 5ti8 ActinoinvcD-is. -Jh. Adams, Ool. Julius \V., 6-i, A4i. Adeney, \V. E., 'i'i4. Adverse possession, relation of, to stream pollution, 108, 104. 109. Aeration and o.xidation, acting in conjunction with aquatic plants and animals, 02 ; experiments on purificatiin of sevvnge by aeration, 222; aeration at Wayne. Pa.. 535. Agricultural experiment stations, Work on soil physics, 161. Air compressor, Rand. Worcester, Mass., 430. Temperatures, see temperatures. Albanv, N. Y., ei)ide;nic of typhoid fever at. 11. Albion, N. Y., purification plant proposed, 5ti7. Alga;, number present in and effect on polluted streams. 70; in Beaver dam brook. Sl-s2 ; influence of mineral nitrates on growth of, 82; food for young fish, .'-7 : food for rhizopods, W). Alkali, effect on nitrification, 197. Allen. Chas. A., 419, 420, 461). Alum, use in paper manufacture, 49 ; woollen manu- facture, 51 ; cotton, carpet, blanket, and cloth manu- facture. 64, see Cliemical preeipitiints. Alutnina, sulphate of. see t!hemical precipitants. Amherst, Mass., disposal on land and sedimentation, .561. Ammonia, how produced, 160. Ammonias, free and albuminoid, decrease of, in Illinois and Michigan Canal, 69: relaticms of, to ammonias and organic nitrogen of Frankland and Armstrong process, 153. condition of. in sewage, 15S. Analyses (see in addition to below, list of tables, o. xxv). Comparison of methods by Henry Martin, 153 ; night soil, 157. Sewage, Rochester, N. Y., 21 ; Chicago Sto(;k Yard, 32: (^)nstituents of sewage, S^ ; American, 152 ; English, 15:5; Londcm, 1.54; Rugby. Eng., 240 ; East Orange, N. J.. 394. 3%: Mystic Valley. 406; Worce-ter, Mass., 415.427; Pullman, 111".. 465; South Framingham, Mass.. and elTltient, 4«8. Soils, how mechanical, are made, 163, 161. li''6; Pullman. Ill . 467. Sludge. Kast Oian.'e. N. J., 304. Street ilrainaue. 1.55. WatiT. Uo<;liester, N Y. (from well). 20 ; Black- stone Itiver, 43. 14 ; Connecticut River, 56. .57 ; Pa-saic Hiv.-r. 60. til. 6i ; Schuylkill River. 64; MissjKsiiipi Uiver, 65 ; Illinois and MichiL'an Cnnnl. 67. 7u: Hudsmi River. 70 sub soil water from South Framingham drain. MO. HI. Angell, on prescriptive right to pollute water-courses. 103. Anim'ds and plants, purifyinir effect of. in Passaic Riv- er. 59. 62 ; miniUe. how distinguished, 77 ; agents in purifliTjition of streams. 89 ; minute animal life in polluted water, 94. Aoiinals infections di-ea-es of, 21: diseases of. in re- lation to public health (Billings). 27 ; injury tu streams, 32. Anthrax, description, 27; outbreak at Bradford, Eng- land, 27 : literature, 28 ; Iowa case, 31. Atherton. (Jeo., 559. Atlantic (Jity, N. J., sewage flow for a year, 144 ; me- chanical separation of sewage, 562. Austin. Henry, 172. Bacillus, typhoid fever and bibliography, 7. 8 ; mal- lei, specific germ of glanders, 12 ; prodigiosu.s, ex- periments with, in sand rilter. 14 : anthrax, 27. Bacteria, harmless and pathogenic, 5 ; in sewage muds, 95 ; Lortet's paper on pathoaenic, in Lake Geneva, 95; survival of pathogenic. 96; of nitrifi<-alion, 1S8, 191; how reniovvd by chemical piecipitat on. 221 ; growth stimulated bv nitre. 224 : removed by inter- mittent filtration. 2ti7. 275. 276. 277. 278. 282, 286, 287, 288; removed at South Framingham, Mass., 489. Bartie - board for mixing chemicals, 208 ; plates, Worcester. Mass.. 435. Ball, Phinehas. 415, 483. Barl)er, Dana C, 64. Bassett, C. Ph., l:«. 386. :399, 522, 518. 549, 567. Bealey v. Shaw, case of, 103. Beggiatoa alba and its relation to sewage effluents, 342 ; legal proceedings caused by, at Croydon, Eng- land, 343. Bennett. A. W., 342. Benzenherg, Geo. H., 466. Berlier system, 1. 3. Berlin sewage farm. 251. Bitrelow, Chief .lustiee. on eminent domain, 111. Billings, Frank S., 26, 27. Blackstone on the Inw of custom. 104. Blackstone River, analyses of, 43, 44. Bio id. corpuscles fouiai in sesvnge muds. 95 ; discharge into streams, actionable pollution, 100; source of or- ganic nitrogen, lOn. Blvth, A Manual of Public Health, 29. Bolton. E, D., 374. Bond, Fred, 559. Bonnot Co., 565. Boston, decision in regard to nniintaining purity of water supply. 105: n ain drainage, 177, 182: early sewers at, 177 ; filth-hoist, deposit sewers, 183 ; sewerage tunnel. 184. Bowditch, E. W.. .56ii. Brackins, S. E.. 548. Brewsteis, X Y.. elei'trical treatment. 563. Brewer. Professor W. H., 50. Bridgeport pumpinc station, Chicago. 174. "62. Broad irrigation, sei' Irrigation Brockton. Mass.. inloriniitent filtration, 567. Brooks, Fred, 4!Hi. Brooklyn. N. Y., purification plant proposed for 26th Ward. 567. Brown, Professor Charles C, 71, 72. Byrne, Geo. R., 374. Canal. Illinois and Michigan. 6(). 174. Canton. O . chemical preeipilnlion. 56:}. Carbon, amoinit ii\ exl for the I'eehle-Minded, 592 INDEX. Waltham. Mass., 50S, 510 ; School for Boys. Law- renceville. N. J., 514: Summit, >I. J., 5J-I : Hast- irigs. Neb., 5^0; Colorado Springs, Col., 512 : Pas- adena, Cal., 548 ; Gardner, Mass., 519; Leno.x, Mass., 560. Carter, H. H., 481. Catch-work system of broad irrigation, 228. Cesspool, actionable pollution when erected near a stream. 100. Chamber, tidal. Long Branch, N. J., 400, 4C4. Chancellor. C. VV.. H. Chandler. Professor Charles F., 70. Chapin, L. E.. .568. Chautauqua. N. Y.. chemical precipitation, 565. Chemical agencies in self-pu:iticalion of a stream, 92. Clieinical ccunfosition of sewaged and unsewaged grass, 210 : milk from c .vvs fed with sewaged grass. 241. Chemical mixers, East Orange, N. .!.. •";90 ; Canton, O., 564 ; Chautauqua, N. Y., Wond's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 565 Chemical precipitants, amount used, East Orange, N. J., 390 : experimeius regarding. Mystic Valley Works, 40S. and Worcester. Mass. , 4 i6. Alum, experiments. Mystic Valley Works, 4C7 ; use and cost of. Long Biamh, N. J.. 404. Alumina, sulphate of, one of three chemicals chiefly used as a precipitant, 20-'j : chemical ac- tion of, i04 ; used in Lawrence experiments. 209, 217. 2'i6 ; precipitant for manufacturing wastes at Wanskuck Mills. Providence, R 1., 296: Kast Orange, N. .T., :iSS, ,3i)U. :!9S ; Mystic Valley Works, experiments. 409. use, 410, 414 ; Worcester, Mass., n.se and cost. 486, 487, 438 ; World's Columbian Exposition. 565. Clay, experiments, Mystic Valley Works, 407. Copperas, used with lime in Lawrence experi- ments, 209, 214. 221 ; World's Columbian Expo- sition. 565. Ferric sulphate, as precipitant in Lawrence ex- periment-:, 216, 221. Ferrous sulphate, one of three chemicals chiefly used as precipitants, 203 ; chemical action of, 204. Lime, one of three chemicals chiefly used as a precipitant, 203 ; chemic^d action of, 204 ; used in Lawrence experiments, 209. 211, 220; and copperas, 214, 220; and ferric sulphate, 216; for manufacturing wastes, Wan.skuck Mills, Providence, R. I., 296 ; Coney Island, 370 ; Round Lake, N. Y , 87-2: White Plains. N. Y., 377; Sheepshead Bay. N. Y., 382 ; East Orange, N. J., 388, 89(1. :^98 ; Mystic Valley Works, ex- periments. 406 : Worcester, Mass , use and cost, 430. 486, 487. 438. 4:!9 ; Woild's Columbian Ex- position, Chicago, 665. MangauMte of i-oda and nitre, 223. Perchloride of iron, Conev Island. N. Y'.. 370 ; Round Lake, N. Y.. 372^ White Plains, N. Y., .378 : cost of. at White Plains, 379; Sheepshead Bay, 382 ; recommended. East Orange. N. J., 385. Sulphuric acid, exi)eriments. Mystic Valley works. 407. Chemical precipitation, reagents and theory of, 203 ; conditions essential for success, 204 ; chissificition of methods, 205 : capacity of tanks, 206 ; vertical tanks, methods of sludge disposal, 207; mixing chemicals. 21 '8 ; Massachu.setts experiments, 209; results of experiments with equal mcmey values of different chemicals, CIS ; deductions from Lawrence experiments. 220 : of manufacturing wastes at Wanskuck Woollen Mills, Providence. R, I., 296: and intermittent filtration, comparative cost and effi- ciency whei-e filter-beds would have to be protected from frost. .3.37. 341 ; relative efficiency of, and in- termittent filtration, 341 : results with, generally to be adopted in America only where land treatment is impracticable. 349 ; Coney Island. N. Y., 869 ; Round Lake, N, Y,. 871 : White Plains, N. Y,, .374 : cost of constructing White Plains plant. 380 : estimated cost of operating White Plains plant, 381 : Sheepshead Bay, N. Y„ 381 : Kast Orange. N. J.. 383 ; cost, con- structing and operating, .397. 898 : Long Branch. N. J., 399 ; Mystic Valley Works, 415 ; report of Wm. Ripley Nichols on, 406 ; cost, 414 ; Worcester, Mass., 415 ; estimated cost, 431 ; why preferred by Mr. Allen, 432 ; cost of operating, 488 ; Providence, R. I.; proposed, 441, 44>i, 449 ; Hospital for the In- sane. London. Out., 500 ; Los Angeles, Cal., dis- cussed, 558, 555 ; Canton, O., 563 : Chautauqua, N. Y., World's Columbian Exposition, 565. Chemicals, list of, used in various manufacturing proc- esse.s, 52. .53, 64. See Chemical precipitants. Chesbruugh, E. S., 40. 169, 180. 461. Cheyenne, Wyo , irrigation, 559. Chicago, statistics of typhoid fever at. 19: i)4. Dilution to prevent nuisance from sewage in streams, 12. Disease germs, theory of, 4 ; in sewage muds, K\ 9(5. Diseases, communicable, intercommunicable, 4 ; list of watei'-borne, 12 ; infectious, of animals. 24. and ro'ation to nian,:W: views of natives of India re- garding causation of disea.ses, 11l(. Di-iiiifectant.s. American rublic Health Association re- port on. 8. 12 ; chloride of iime, 13 : chlorine. Coney Island, N. Y.. 370 ; Round Lake, N. Y., 3T2, 373 ; White Plains N. Y., 379. Dudge. Professor James A., 65. Doty, Duane, 465. Drainage, character of street, 154. 1 Drains, sugsestion for covered winter absorption, 289 ; t use of, for carrying excrenn'nt. 35. Drown, Dr. Thotiias M . 93, 153, 223. Duprc. A., and Dibdin, \V. .)., experiments on purify- ing sewage by aeration, 222. Dye wastes, may be actionable pollution if discharged into streams, 100. Dysentery, water-borne disease, 12. EABEJrENTS in streams, how created, 102. East Orai'gi-, N. J., ground-water in sewers of, 132; chemical precipitation and intermittent filtration at, 383. Eaton. Fred, .VI. 5'>2. Effluent, Co. lev Island, N. Y., 370 ; White Plains, N. Y.. -"SO: Sh.-epshead Bay. X. Y.. 3^2: Gardner, Mass. .■)2i) : .Summit, N. .1.. 522: ditch, .\I\sti<; Valley w Tks. 40s ; pipe, VVon-ester. Mas8.,4:i4. 435; South Framingham, Mass., 48s ; where discharged, Marl- borough. .Mass., 506 Ejei'tor. Shone, for handling sludge, Worcester. Mass., 440 ; Hiispital for the Insane, Rochester. Minn., 501, rm. Electrical treatment. Brewster.-. N. Y., and cost of, .563. Elpctrol>8is. literature of, 3. Embr2 ; sludge u.sed as. East Orange. N. J., 398 : Long Branch. N. J., 404; Mys- tic Valley Work.s. 414 ; Worcester, .Mass., 439 ; Marl- borough, Mass., 506 ; Amher.st, Mass., 561 ; provi- sion to iise sewage as. South Framingham, Mass., 486. Filth-hoist, Boston main drainage, 183. Filter, coke. East Orange. N. J., 388; recommended. Mystic Valley Works, 407; Farquhar-Oldham, rec- omuiended. East Orange, N. J., 286, tried Mystic Valley Works, 408. Beds, East Orange. N. .T., coke and gravel, .390 ; Pullman, 111., 467 ; South Framingham, .Mass., 487; Medfiehi, Mass . 491 ; MarlDorough, Mass,, 505; Atlantic City, N. J., elevated, .562. Filtering material, relation to applied sewage, 108. Filter press, literature, 208. Johnson, East Orange, N. J.. .394 ; Long Branch, N. J., 4t3 ; Worcester, Mass., recommended, 430. Bonnot. Canton, O.. Chautauqua. N. Y., 565. Perrin. World's Columbian Exposition, 566. Filters, care of, in winter, 281. Filtration. Lcadville. Col.. 562. And irrigation, statistics of foreign, 247. Continuous and intermittent, importance of dis- tinction between. 17 : advantages of continuous in cold weather, 312. Intermittent, quality of material required, 163 ; first mentioned, 261 ; definition and theory. 262 ; Frankland's discussion. 263 : a biological iiroc- ess, 264 ; Lawrence ex|)erimonls. 265 : condi- tions most essential to nitrification. 269 : by means of trenches, 270 ; different materials, 272 ; not a straining iirocess. 276: use of efnuents for drinking water. 277. 2>9 : permanency of filters, 279 : elToct of frost and snow at Lawrence, 2S0 ; South Framingham, Mass., 284 ; Summit. N. J., 285 : cultivation of filtration areas. 290. 291 ; summaiv. 286; suggestion for covered winter absorption drains, chemical precipitation vs. fil- tration. 289 : at Lawrence in 1887-88. deduc- tions, 305; relation of specific heat to. .309 ; effl- ciency promoted in cold weather by changing to continuous, 312: necessity of preventing forma- tion of ice. 315 ; heating effect of sun on wet and dry soils of different colors, 319 ; remedies for frost, :^:W ; estimated cost of various methods of protecting filtration areas from frost, 3:W ; deduc- tions regarding effect of temperature of air and soil on, 339 ; probalily most practicable moans of sewage disposal. .SfiO : examples and pmjecfs. Round Lake, N. Y.. tried. :!71 : Kast Orange, X. J., in use, .383. 3911 ; Worcester. Mass., recom- mended iind estimated cost. 418, 431. discussed, 423. 425; Providence. R. I., discns.sed. estimates of cost. 449, .150: Pullman, III., in use, 4(;0 ; South Framingham. Mass.. 480, cost, 487 ; Med- fleld. Mass.. 490, cost construction. 4'.'3 : Hospital for tlie Insane. London, Out., 494: lio.. Koches. tor, Minn.. 500; Marlborough, M-iss . 504 : Mas- sachusetts School for the Feeble Minded, 507, cost constrnclion, 510: School for Boys. Law- ronccville, N. J., recommended. 515: Gardner, Mass., in use, 516, cost construction, 521 : .Sum- 594 INDKX. mit. N. J., 533 ; Hastings, Neb., 528 ; Brockton, Mass., 507 ; Meriden. Conn., 6&i. Mechanical, as method of sewage disposal, 2 ; Long Branch. N. J , oitO ; Medfield. Mass., 491 ; of nianufactnrintr wastes at woollen mills, Provi- dence, H. I.. 2i)6 ; at woollen mills, Saylesville, R. I.. 297 ; at tannery, Winchester. Mass., 2'.»8 ; through gravel filter beds, tried, Mystic Valley Works, 4US. Upward, unsuccessful experiments with, 261. Fish, food for, cS(i, 87, 91 ; effect of manufacturing wastes on, .see Manufacturing wastes. Fisheries, sea, inexhaustible, 91. Fission-fungi, or schizomycetes, cause of communi- cable diseases, 5. FitzGerald, Desmond, -JSU, 504. Fitzgerald, J. Leiand. 371. Flash boards, Worcester, Mass., 435. Floats, current. Providence, R. I., 444. Flush tank, invention of, accelerated use of sub-surface irrigation. 292. Folsoin, Chas. F., .'^7. l&O, 418. Food for fish, 8t), 87, 91. Foods, valuation of fertilizing ingredients in, 162. Forbes, Professor S. A., 87. Fullerton Avenue Conduit and Bridgeport Pumping Station, Chicago, 111.. ^57. Franchises for .sewasre disposal works, 86. Frankland, Percy P., 79, 80, 192, 263. Frere, P. H., 1.59. Fresno. Cal . irrigation, 544. Frost, remedies for, in connection with Intermittent filtration, 33:j ; effect of frost and snow on nitermit- tent filtration, Lawrence, Mass.. 280 ; South Frani- ingham, Mass., 284 : Summit. N. .J., 2S5 : on sewage farms. 4a3 ; Pullman. 111.. 4fiH ; Massachusetts Re- formatory, Concord. 47^ : on broad irrigation, Rhode Island State Institution, Cranston, 479; on inter- mittent filtration, Medfield. Mass., 492 ; on irriga- tion, Wayne. Va... 5"^8. Ftelev, A yi(\. Fuller, i^o. W.. 8. CrAGlNGS of flow of seivage. see Sewage gaging. Gardner. Mas«., intermittent filtration, 516. Gas. permitting, to escape near streams may be action- able, 100. Gate, sewage outlet. Gardner. Mass., 518 : Pasadena, Cal.. 547; Lenox, Mass.. 561. Gencssee River. Rochester, N. Y., water supply, 20, 21 . 22. Gerhard, Wm. P., 3, 360. Germ theory of disease. 4 ; germs of typhoid fever, 6. Gilbert, J. H.. HIO. Glaniieis, bacillus mallei, specific germ of. literature, 25. Goldsmid v. TutiV)ridae Wells Commissioners, case of, 10s. Goodell, .Tohn H.. 488. Gould, law of waters. 100. Gravel as filtering materia). 275. Gray, Samuel M., 3. 140, 413, 475, 563, 565. Greene. Geo. S,, 442. Greenfield. Mass., disposal on land. 561. Ground-water, infiltration to sewers. 131 : Boston and East Orar.ge, 132 ; Marlborough, Mass.. 504. Habdt system of sewage purification, literature of , 3. Hasting.s Henry, 561. Hastings. Neb., land disposal, 528. Hat manufacture. 53. Hansen. Geo.. 552. Hazen, Allen. 18, 466. 514, 567. Heald. Simpson C . 481. Health of Tow-n-s Commission's reports, 170. Hf-ated bodies, how they cool, 312. Heat, latent, 314. Heat, specific, defined, .309 ; relation to sewage disposal, 309 : relative power of different substances to retain hcit. 311 ; of ice, 314. Hemlock L-iUe, pail system at. 3.')1. Hemlock Lake, water supply of Rochester. N. Y., legis- lative protection. 71. 352. 575 ; use of. 1.39. Hering. Rudolph, 12. 73. 386, 446, 466, 551, 552. Hewitt, Chas. N., 500. Hilgard's elutriator, appliance for soil analysis, 163. Hine, S. K , 223. Hott'man and Witt, report on London sewage, 158. Hog cholera, 25 ; water-borne disease, literature, 26. Hoiley, N. Y., purification plant proposed, 567. Holsnian c. Boiling Spring Bleaching Co.. case of, !)8. Hospital for the Insane, Worcesier, Mass., broad irri- gation, 456; London, Ont.,' iiiteimittent filtration and broad irrigation, 494 : Rochester, Minn., chem- ical precipitation and intermittent filtration. .5(0. Hospitals, broad irrigation especially adai)ted, ^25. Hoy c. Cohoes Co., case of, 113. Hoyt, W. !•:.. 42. Hudson Ri\tr, analyses of water of, used as water sup- ply. 70. Hunt, Dr. Ezra M., 25. ICF. on sewage farms, 423; effect of. Pullman. 111., 466. Illinois, studies of stream pollution in, 65. Illinois and Michigan Canal, 66 ; rate of self purifica- tion in, 66-70; relation to Chicago sewage disposal, 174. Indigo, use in w-oollen manufacture, 51; cotton manu- facture, 52 ; amount used in one carpet, blanket, and cloth mill. 64 : may be actionable pollution if dis- charged into streams. lOO. Infection, definition. 24. Infusoria, in sewage polluted sireanis, 75-79; food for young fish, 87 ; food of. ! : in polluted water, 94. Injunctions against stream pollution, 108. Inspection wells, Rhode Island State Institutions. 477; Summit, N. J., 526. Intercepting sewers at Boston, 182. Intermittent filtration, see Filtration. Irrigation, broad, special applications in United States, different ^y^tems, 295, 2o2 ; cost of distribution sy.s- tem, 229; preparation of areas, 2"0: liteiatuve re- garding anas, underdraining, 2;i2 ; treatment of heavy clay soils at Wimbledon, Eng., '!'■'.:■'>: reports of sewage of Towns C(mimi.«sion. 235 ; Royal Agricnli- ural . Society's Sewage Farm ci mpetition. ^4() ; statistics of foreign sew.nge irrigation and filtration. 247; silo-.. 248 ; sanitary aspects, Dr. Alfred ( arpcn- ter on, y50 ; Berlin GermHny. seware farm. 251 ; statistics regarding health of persons living on srw- age farms. 2.52 ; effect of teinpetattire of air and soil, 339 : efficient ineaiis of sewage disposal, 349 : recom- mended and discus.sed. Worce-ter. Mass., .11". 418, 4'.il, 423, 425 ; effect of cold weather on. in Enclmd. 428; discus.scd. Providence. R. I.. 446.447; tried State Insane Hospital. Woice.ster. Mass.. 4.56 ; Pnll- man. 111.. 4'iO. profit from crops, 465 ; Massachusetts Reformatory. Concord. 468. effect of winter temiiera- ttire. cost of operation, 473 ; Rhode Island State In- stitutions. 4'i5 : South Framingham. Mass.. 4S0 ; Hos- pital for the Insane, London, Ont., 494 ; Wayne. Pa., 532 : Colorado Springs, Col.. 539, annual cost 541 ; Trinidad, Col., annual cost, 543 ; Fresno, Cal.. 544 ; Pasadena. Cal., 546 ; Redding, Cal., 548 ; Los An- geles, Cal.. 551. periods sewage ran to waste, .554 ; Santa Rosa, Cal.. Helena. Mont . 557 : Cheyenne. Wyo., 8tockton. Cal.. 559; Amherst, Mass.. 561; Princeton, N. J., 567; use of sewage for. in the West. 539. Sub-surface, when fir.st used, 202 : plants for private houses and institutions. 292, literature of. 292, cost of. 293; School fir Boys. Lawrenceville, N. .1.. 511, co.st of construction. 514. Iron, perchloride of, see Chemical precipitants. Iron, wastes from manufacture of, 48. Jersey City, N. J., water supply from Passaic River, 58, 63. Johnson. Frank P.. 507. Jordan, E. O.. 190. Kalamazoo, sewer gagings at, 140, Keerl. J. S.. ,5.58. Kent, Chancellor, 107. Kitiebtthler. Kan, "^65. Kirk wood. James P., .36, 37. Kieldahl method of analysis, 153. Knox, Geo. C, 5.52. INDEX. 595 Lake Cochitdate, decision as to pollution of, 105. Lancet, London, article on Chicago water supply and sewerage system, 177. Landreth, Win. B., 143, 371, 374, 565. Lane, Moses, 180. Latham, J. A., 479. Lattimore, Prof. S. A., 21. Lawes and Gilbert, 157. Lawes, Sir J. B., 88, 159. Lawrence, typhoid fever and water supply, 6. Lawrence experiment station, experiments regarding nitrification, 194. 195. Leadville, Col., mechanical separation by filtration, 56-.'. Learned. Wilbur F., 408. Leeds, Professor Albert R., 64, 65. Leith, 93. Lenox, Mass., subsurface disposal, 560. Lime, waste from paper mills, 49 ; does not contami- nate New England streams, which are deficient in, 50 ; cotton manufacture. 52 ; pits for hides, action- able pollution wt'.en ni'ar streams, 100 ; phosphate of, as fertilizer, 161 ; for treating sludge. Long Branch, N. J., 404 ; used to disinfect sewage screenings, Wiyne, Pa., 537 : also see Chemical precipitants. Limestone, to counteiact effect of acid on nitrification, 198. Littoral proprietor?, definition of, 97. Liverpool, former .sanitary condition, 170. Long Branch, N. J., chemical precipitation and me- chanical separation. 399. Long, Profes.sor J. H.. .32. 66 70. Looinis, Horace, 3S1. Lortet, paper on the pathogenic bacteria of Lake Ge- neva, 95. Loi tzing system of combined mechanical and chemical purification, 2. Lus Angele.s, Cal., irrigation, 551. Lausinburgh, N. Y., effect of uncontani'nated water supply in preventing epidemic of typhoid fever, 11. Lausen, Switzerland, typhoid fever at, 15 ; literature, 17. Lowell, typhoid fever and water supply. 6, 7. Macadam, Dk. Stevenson, study of the water of Leith, 93. McClintock and Woodfall, 516. MacHarg, W. S.. 500, 51)6. McICenzie, Thos., 5(i5. M'Millan, Professor C, 567. Maine, .sanitary investigations in, 45. Manufacturing establishments, responsible for purifica- tion of sewage. 6 ; on Nashua River, 39 ; fo.stering care of. in Massachusetts, 116. Wastes, organic, from paper manufacture, lime, chloride of lime. alum, sulphuric acid, 49 : germs destroyed in boiling, per cent, of waste from different kinds of stock, 50 : amounts of various chemicals used per day in one carpet, blanket, and cloth mill, 61 ; in sewage, 1,50 ; study of paper mill. Newton Lower Falls, 299; classifica- tion, and how purified. Knglish Rivers Pollution Commission Reports, 294. American examples of purification, chemical pre- cipitation, Waiiskuck Woollen Mills. I'rovidence. R. I., 296 : extraction of grease and filtration, Lorraine Woollen Mills, Saylesville, R. I., sedi- mentation, Robt. Blakie 4i Co.'s Woollen Mills, Hyd(! Park. Mass.,2!l7; mechanical filtration, MaxwelTs Tannery, Winchester, Mass., 298; wastes. Providence. R. I,. 444 : Massachnsotts Reformatory, Concord, 474; Medfield, Mass.. 49(1. Effects upon fish, :U4, .346. Manure, placingof. in stream actionable, 100 ; valuable con.stitiients of. 1.56 ; source of nmmonia and nitric acid, 160. Marlborough, Mass., intermittent filtration, 504 ; cost of construction, 506. Martin. K. F., 46.3. Martin, Henry, 153. Martin. Mayor of Boston »'. Gleason, case of, 1(15. Marylnnil agricultural experiment station, work on soil physics, 165. Mason, Professor Wm. P., 10, 69, 223. Massachusetts School for the Feeble Minded, \Valthara, intermittent filtration, 507. Sewer Act of 17u9. 178. State Board of Health reports and recommenda- tions, 34-45: reports on stream pollution, best thus far made anywhere, 43 ; other reports of value, 45 : experiments with nitrifying organ- ism, 190 : power to protect water supplies, 578, Mayer, August, 54t). 552. Mechanical analy.sis of soils, how made, 163, 166; separation and chemical precipitation. Long Branch, N. J., 399; separation, Atlaniic City, N. J., 5(i2. Medfield, JIass., intermittent filtratidii, 490. Meriden, Conn., intermittent filtration, 567. Merrimac Rivei-, limit of sewage influence in, 9. Meters, water, effect in reducing waste, 125. Micro.scope. use of, for studying stream pollution, 77, 78. Microscopical investigation of sewage muds, methods of, 94, 95. Mill acts, origin, 110 ; how they nullify the natural rights of riparian proprietors. 112 : how just'fied. 112; development in Massachusetts and Virginia, 112 ; none in New York, 113 ; effect on common-law rule, 11.3. lis. Miller, G. N., 5.")7. Mills, Hiram F., 6. Milwaukee, sewage disposal and water supply com- mission, 87. 88. Mineral matters, amount in excrements. 157. Minnesota, studies of stream pollution in. 65; power of State Board of Health to protect water supplies, 5S8. Mixers, chemical, see Chemical. Mohawk River, used as water supply, 70. Moore, Robt , 446. Moule, Rev. Henry. 159. Mud, scwaiie. studies of, 93, 95 : study of Thames, by W. J, Dibdin, 94. Muriatic acid, used in brass manufacture, 47 ; waste from i)aper mills, 49 ; cotton mannfacturc, 52 ; amount used in one carpet, blanket, and cloth mill, 64 ; may be actionable pollution if discharged into streams, 100. National Sewage and Sewage Utilization Co., 562. Newark. N. J., water supply formerly from Passaic river, 58, 63 ; A^", 202; Warington's paper on, in 18S2, 188, in 1^4, 1^9 ; Massachusetts investigations, 190 ; experiments by Percy and Grace Frankland, 191, 192, 193 : practical experiments at Lawrence, 195: present theory of deiiitrificjition. 201 : effected by intermittent filtration. 262: formerly considered a snmnier process, 26() : results with coarse sand fil- ters, 26S : conditions mo=t favorable to, 2C9 : garden soil not favorable to, 272 : in winter in .some of the Lawrence filter tanks, 2S0, 283 : agency of organism in intermittent filtration, '^86. Nitrogen, apimrent reduction of, in sewage polluted .stream. .59, 63; value of that in sewaee, 83, 15S; in sewage muds, 94; in excrements, 155; the most valuable fertilizer. 160 ; trade value of, 162 ; stored in Lawrence experimental filters. 194. Nitrogen, organic, see Organic nitrogen and Nitrifica- tion, Nuisances, public, are crimes, 98, OnELi., FnEDK. S., 511. Oil. iHillution of streams by, 47 ; from wool, 50, 51 ; cotton, 52, 53; flowing in streams, actionable pollu- tion, 100. 596 INDEX. Olmsted, Frederick Law, 511. Organic matter in sewage muds, 94 ; percentage stored in Lawrence experimental filters, 282 ; amount re- moved by different Lawnnice tanks, 287, 288 ; nitro- gen, relation of. to ammonia. 153 ; determination of, by Kjeldahl methoil. 153; in excrements, 155; in sewage, 158; relation to ammonia and nitric acid, ItiO ; trade value. 102. Osburn's beaker method of soil analysis, 16.S, Oxidation and aeration, acting in conjunction with aquatic plants and animals, 62 ; power of soil to pro- duce, 188, 19U ; bacteria to produce, 190 ; of organic matter in water, experiments on, 223. Oxygen, free, effect on nitrification, 2U0 ; and time efr sential elements in intermittent filtration, 269. Pail system at Hemlock Lake, 351 ; cost of, ;j54, 3.55. Paquin, Paul, 26, 27. Paramecium, filth infusorian, 75 ; aurelia, bursaria, 76; food of, 90 ; in polluted water, 94. Parry, W. Kaye, 224. Pasadena, Cal., irrigation, 546. Passaic, N. J., Newark Aqueduct Board ('., 579. Passaic Iliver, pollution of, 56-63 ; purifying effect of minute animals and plants in, 59, 62. Peat, as source of organic nitrogen. 16U. Pennsylvania, investigations of stream pollution, 63- 65 : Commonvvt-alth v. Soulas, 98. Penny and Adams's experiments to detemiine effect of manufacturing wastes on life of fish. 344. Perchloride of iron, see Chemical preeipitants. Permissive pollution, principle of, 113, 119. Perriu & Co., Chicago. .566. Phenolphthaiein for alkaline test, Worcester. Mass., 436. Philadelphia, statistics of typhoid fever at, 19. Phosphates in excrements. 155; in sewage, 158; in commercial fertilizers. 160 Phosphoric acid, as element of manures, 1,56; in sew- age, 158 ; in commercial fertilizers, 160 : anhydrous, Ifil ; trade value. 162. PhusphnruR, relative value as fertilizer, 160, 101 ; trade value, 162. Pierson, Geo. S., 140. Plants and anim.als. purifying effect of, in Passaic River, 59,62; minute, how distinguished. 77 ; assist in self - purification of stream, 79 ; in Beaver Dam brook, 80, 82. Pneumatic systems. literature of, 3. Polluting matter in streams, what becomes of it, 92 ; common nuisance. 98. Pollution of streams, Connecticut River. 56; classifica- tion of streams, with reference to, 72 ; common nui- sance. 98: when actionable, 100 ; principle of per- missive, 113. 119 ; of Cliicago River. 357, Populations of American cities, 120-122. 127, 128; law of increase, 129; at ten-ye;ir periods, 129-1.30 ; gen- eralizations reearding increase of. 131. Potash, use of. in manufacture. 49. 51, 52, 54, 64 ; may cause actionable pollution if discharged into streams, 100: in excrements, 155 ; element of manures, 156; in sewage. 1.58; as fertilizer, trade value, 162. Potassium, compounds of, 161. Powers, J. J.. 3()9, .567. Precipitation, chemical, see Chemical precipitation. Prescription, discussion of, 102-8, 117. Princeton, N. J., broad irrigation, 567. Protozoa, as food for young fish, 87 ; food of other mi- nute forms, 90. Providence, R. I., sewer gagings, 140; discharge into tide-water and proposed chemical precipitation, 441. Pullman. III., broad irrigation and intermittent filtra- tion. 460. Pnmps, sewage, Fnllerton Ave. conduit. Chicago. 360 ; Bridgeport pumping station, Chicago, 362; Mystic Valley works. 410 ; Pullman, 111.. 462. cost of oper- ating, 462, 463 ; M;is-achusetts Reformatory, Con- cord, 472 ; South Framingham, Mass. , 4S6 ; Hospital for the Insane, London, Ont..494: Lawrenceville, N. J., school, pulsometer, 512; Wayne, Pa., .5,35; sludge. White Plains, N. Y., 375; Sheepshead Bay, N. Y., 382 ; Mystic Valley Works, 410, 413. QuiNCT, JosiAH, Mayor of Boston, 179. Radiation, solar and terrestrial, 317 ; at Maine State College, Orono, Me., 322 ; Fort Collins, Col., 327, ;i29 ; Auburn, Ala., 3;J2. Rainfall, provision for, in combined systems, 132; heaviest tor 24 hours, 134. Redding, Cal.. irrigation, 548. Reeder. Geo. K., 658. Reid, II. I., 541'. Reservoirs, sewage, Boston main drainage, 184 ; Pull- man, III., 461 ; South Frainingham, 51ass.,4S5, ven- tilation of, 4S6 ; Wayne, Pa., 535 ; Redding, Cal., and ventilation, 550. Rhode Island State Institutions, broad irrigation, 475. Richards. Mrs. Ellen H., 190. Rider, Wm. B., .374. Ridge and furrow system of broad irrigation, 227. Rivers pollution, limit of influence of sewage, 6 ; limit in Merrimac, 8, 9; Mohawk, pollution of 10 ; Hud- son, pollution of, 11 ; Genesee, at Rochester. N. Y., 21, 22 ; by germs of hog cholera, 25 ; Ma-ssachusetts, 36, .37, 45; Nashua, 38, 39 ; recent rejiorts of Massa- chu.setts State Board of Health, 43 ; Blackstone, anal- yses of vv-ater of, 43, 44 ; Connecticut, flow of and analyses, 56, 57 : pollution of, 57 ; in New Jer- sey, 57-63 ; Passaic River, 58-63 ; investigations in Pennsylvania, 63-65: Schuylkill. 64; studies in Minnesota, 65 ; studies in Illinois, 65 ; Chicago, dis- charge of city sewers into. 65 : commission, views on storm water, 151 ; Prevention Act, English, 569. Riparian proprietors, rights, etc., 97, 98, 100, 102, 105, 112. Rochester, N. Y., typhoid fever at, analyses of well waters, 20 ; protection of water supply, 71 ; use of water, 138. Rogers, J. D., 371. Rotifers, present in poUijted waters, 75 ; aid in self- purification of streams, 76 ; food of young fish, 87 ; food for polyzoa. etc., 90. Round Lake, N. Y., chemical precipitation at, .371. Rubber manufacture, little waste from, 55 ; use of bi- sulphide of carbon, 55. Saaee and Schwab's experiments to determine effect of manufacturing wastes on fish, 346. Salmon way for mixing chemicals. 208. Salt, common, effect on nitrification. 198. Saltpetre, effect on nitrification. 198. Sand, dian,eters of, 163 ; mechanical composition of tho.se used at Lawrence experiment station, 166 ; re- newal of, in intermittent filtration, ^79. 280. Sanitary protection. Hemlock Lake, rules for, 575. Santa Rosa, Cal., irrigation. 557. Schenectady, N. Y.. epidemic of typhoid fever at, 10, 11 : sewer gagings at, 143. Schizomycetes or fission fungi, cause of communicable diseases. 5. School for Boys, Lawrenceville, N. J., sub surface ir- rigation, 511. Schuylkill River, pollution of, 64, 98. Screen, sewage. Round Lake, N. Y.,372 ; White Plains, N. Y., 377 ; Worcester, Mass, 435 ; State Insane Hospital. Worcester, Ma.ss., 4.59 ; Pullman, HI.. 463 ; Massachusetts Reformatory, Concord, 468 ; Rhode Island State Institutions, Cranston. 477 ; South Framingham. Mass., 486; Hospital. London, Out., 494. 497: Marlborough, Mass., EOS ; Wayne. Pa., 5.34, .537 ; Redding, Cal., 550 : Lenox, Mass., 560. Sedgwick, Professor Wm. T.. 9. 14, 18. Sedimentation, conditions affecting, in streams, 73 ; favorable conditions for. 92: no guarantee of safety, 95; of wa.stes from Woollen Mills. Hyde Park. Mass., 297; tried. Mystic Valley Works, 408; Medfieid, Mass.. 490 ; Amherst, Mass., 561. Self-purification in Passaic River, 58-63 ; in Illinois and Michigan Canal, and law of, 6mniis.sion's report, 172 ; farming not profitable, 422 ; characteristics of Worcester, Mass., 4211 ; acid. 48H. Am unt of, cause of variations, 131 : maximum and minimum flow. 1.37; Boston, Mass., 184; Pullman, III., 4til ; Massacliusetts Reformatory, Concord, 473; Meifield, Mass., 492: Hospital, London, Out., 494 ; Lawrenceville. N. J., school, 514: Gardner, M,is«., 51ti: Wayne, Pa, S^ltJ ; Chautauqua, ^f. Y.. 5ti5 : World's Columbian Ex- position, Chicago, 5t)ti, also see Sewage gagings. Analyses, see Analjses. Disposal, definition and classification of methods, 1; new subject in United States, 3; fundamen- tal proposition of. 23 : works not properly sub- ject to franchise, .'•S; into tide-water. 8B ; into fresh water. 8H-89 : proposed multiple discharge. Milwaukee. Wis., 87. 88; fixed data of, 1H3 : rules of New York State Board of Health regard- ing plans for, S^fl. Farm, see Hroad irrigation. Gagings, results. 14U ; at Providence, R. I., Kala- mdzoo, Mich.. Weston. W. Va., 140 ; Schenec- tady. N. Y., Toronto, Out.. 143 ; Atlantic City, N. J.. 144. Muds, accumulation of, in harbor of Leith. 93, 94 ; study of, from Thames River. 94. 95 ; centres of distribution of pathotjeiiic bacteria, 96. Teinjieratures. see Temperatures. Sewer, definition of, 1 ; may be used for what. .35 ; Massachusetts Act of 1709, 178; Boston intercepting, 182 ; Boston deposit, 18^3 ; gagings, see -ewage gug- ing~. Sewerage, definition of, 1 : investigations by Massa- chusetts State Boaril of Health, 3() ; separate or combined systems, 1,'0 : views of English Rivers Pollution Commission, 151 ; early discussions in England. 169 ; early American systems, 169 ; results of early English systems, 171. Shedd, J. Herbert, 441. Shepard, J. C, 544. Shone ejector, see Ejectors. Silk manufa(;ture, 53 ; silk gum, 53 ; waste from, 53. Bilage, see Silos. Silos, as adjuncts to sewage farming. 248, 2.54 ; litera- ture of, 2.')7, 259 ; likely to extend use of broad irriga- tion. 350. Silt, effect of, in sewage-polluted streams, 73 ; diame- ters of. 16:^, Blat<"r, J, W., .30. IDS. BIndgc, absorbent. Round Lake, N. Y.. 372 ; White Pla ns. N. Y , 375 : Sheepshead Bay, N. Y., 382. Amount rr'movcd fiom Boston deposit sewers, 183. 184; should be removed frequently, 204; methods of disposal, 207; filter presi-es for, 208; litera- ture rci^ardng. dis|K)sal. 2'8 ; nature of. in sand removed from smface of filter beds, 280. Be Is. Worcester. Mass., 436; Marlborough, Mass., 50 1 : Gardner, Mass.. .530. Disposal. (Ninev Island. N. Y.. 370; Round Lake, N. Y.. :i72: White Plains, N, Y.. 375; Sheeps- head Bay. N. V.. :182 ; East Orange. N. J., :Wl» , Long Itrnnch. N. ,J.. 403; Mystic Vnllev works, 413, J14 : Worcester. Mass., 4-30. 436. 43\ 440 ; Massachusetts Reforniatory. Concord. 171 : Hos- pit'il. London. Ont.. 5U3 ; .M«rlborough. Mass.. 605. 506: Gardner. Muss.. 520; Lenox. .Mass., Ainher-t, Mass.. .561 : World's Columbian Kxpo- Kltion. .56.5. .566 ; drain. Woreesier. Mas-.. 434. Furnace tried. Worcester, MaH.s., 438. Pump, Mystic Valley works, 410. Well, Mystic Valley works, 410 ; Worcester, Mass., 434. Snow, F. H.. 567. Snow and frost, effect on intermittent filtration areas, Lawrence, Mass., 2?0 ; South Framingham, 284 ; Summit, N. J., 285. Soap, use in manufactures, 50, 51, 54. Sodium chloride, normal, at Rochester, N. Y., 20; in sewage at Rochester, 21. Soil, classification of particles, 163 ; mechanical analy- sis of, 163, 164, 166 ; surface area of, 165; per cent, of empty space, 165 ; oxidizing power. 18S ; Law- rence experiments with fine, for intermittent fil- tration, 272 ; character of, Pullman. 111.. 463 ; Rhode Island State Institutions, Cranston, R. I.. 475; Hos- pital, Rochester. Minn.. 502; Redding, Cal., 549 ; Helena, Mont.. 5.58 ; see Temperatures. Sorby, Dr. H. C. 77, 79, 95. South Carolina agricultural experiment station, work on soil physics. 164. South Frauiiugham. Mass , effect of frost and snow on intermittent filtration, 284 ; broad irrigation and in- termittent filtration, 480. Specific heat, see Heat. St'dker, M.. 30. 31. State Insane Hospital. Worcester, Mass., broad irriga- tion. 456. Statute of limitations. 102. Stearns. Fretierick P.. 82. 131. 479, 488. Stockton, Cal.. irrigation, 559. Stock yard. Chicago, drainage fnmi. 66. Stock yard sewage. Chicago, analysis of, 32. Stokee r. Singrotection of, Roches- ter, Fredtjnia. Norwich, Cobleskill, Oneoiita, Amsterdam, Mt. Vernon, and New York, N. Y.. 71 : )iollution of, in sewage-laden streams. 92 ; relation to sewage flow, 119, 146 ; Chicago, first. 170, present, 176, contamination of, 177. Taps, proportion of, to population, 120-122. Waters, Massachusetts act to protect purity of inland, .578. Waterford. N. Y., effect of uncontaminated water sup- ply in preventing epidemic of typhoid fever, 10, 11. Way. Professor J. T., 155, 159. Wayne. Pa., surface irrigation, 532. West, use nf sewage for irrigation in, .539. Weston, \V. Va., sewer gagings at Insane Ilosjiitai, 140. Wcs Troy, N. Y., epidemic of typhoid fever at. effect of discontinuing use of polluted Mohawk River water. 11. Wheeler, William, 470. Whitney. Profes.sor Milton, work on soil physics, 165. Williams, Benezette, 460. Willi.ston, Professor S. W., 46, 55, 56. Wilson, J. M., 528. Winogradsky's paper on the nitrifying organism, ir:i. Winsnr, Frederick. 37. Wolff and Lehmanu, 1,55-1,58. Woollen manufacture, great pollutiiii of streams from, 50. Woolf, Albert E., 563; Electric Disinfecting Co., 563. Worcester, Mass.. sewage discharge into Blackstone River, 44: chemical precipitation, 415. Worthen. William F.., 419. Wurtz. Henry, 58. Zoospores, number present in water of Beaver Dam brook, 82. LIST OW BOOKIS OlST Sanitary Science, Sewerage, and Drainage. FOR SALE BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets, New York. ADAMS, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts. 8vo, cloth, illus- trated, 1892 $2 50 BAIiCH, L. Manual for Boards of Health and Health Officers. 12mo, cloth, 1893 1.50 BAUMEISTER, R. Cleaning and Sewerage of Cities. 8vo, cloth, 1891 . 2.n0 SEARDMORE, W. L. The Drainage of Habitable Buildings. 8vo, cloth, 1892 1.50 BLYTH, A. W. Lectures on Sanitary Law. 8vo, cloth, 1893 . . . .2.50 Manual of Public Health. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1890 . . . .5.25 Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health, comprising sanitary chemistry, engineering, and legislation, etc. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1876 . . . 10.00 BOUIjNOIS, H. p. Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Hand-book Second edition. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1892 6.00 BROWN, GLENN. Healthy Foundations for Houses. 18mo, boards, illus- trated, issf) 50 BROWN, G. P. Sewer Gas and its Dangers. 16mo, cloth, 1881 . . 1.25 BURKE, U. R. Hand-book of Sewerage Utilization. 8vo, cloth, 1873 . . 1.40 COIjYER, F. Treatise on Water Supply, Drainage, and Sanitary Appliances of Residences. 12mo, cloth, 1889 1.50 Public Institutions : Engineering, Sanitary and Other Appliances. 8vo, cloth, 1889 4.20 CORFIELD, W. H. The Treatment and Utilization of Sewage. Third edition. 8vo, cloth, 1887 4 50 Sewerage and Sewage Utilization. 18mo. boards, 1875 .... .50 Dwelling Houses ; their Sanitary Construction and Arrangements 18mo, boards, 1880 50 CRIMP, W. S. Sewage Disposal Works 8vo, cloth, 1890 7.50 Sewage Treatment and Sludge Disposal. 8vo, sewed, 1893 . . . . .60 DEMPSEY, G. D. and CLARK, D. K. On the Drainage of Lands. Towns, aud buildings Second edition, revised. 12mo, cloth, illustrated, 1890 . . 1 80 DENTON, J. B. Sewage Disposal. 8vo, cloth, 1881 1.40 TANNING, J. T. Practical Treatise on Water-supply Engineering. 8vo, cloth, illnstr.-ited 5 00 FOLKHARD, C. W. Potable Water and the Different Methods of Detecting linpiiritios 18mo, boards. 1882 50 GERHARD. W. P. Recent Practice in the Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. Second edition. I81110, boards, 1890 . . . .... . . .50 Disposal of Household Wastes. ISmo, boards, 1890 50 House Drainage and Sanitary Plunibing. Fifth edition. 18mo, boards, illustrated, 1892 50 Guide to Sanitary House Inspection. Third edition. Square 16mo, cloth, 1890 1.00 LIST OF BOOKS ON SANITARY SCIENCE, SEWERAGE, AND DRAINAGE. HEIiLTER, S. S. The Plumber and Sanitary Houses Fifth edition. 8vo, cloth, 1893 $5.00 KENWOOD. H. R. Public Health Laboratory Work. 12mo, cloth, illus- trated, 1893 3 00 MAGUIRE, W. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing, Lectures on Practical Sanitation. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1890 . . . . . . 4 80 NICHOLS, W. R. Water Supply, Considered Mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary Standpoint. Fourth edition. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1892 . . 2 50 FALMBERG, A. Treatise on Public Health and its Applications in different European Countries. Translated from the French by A. Newsholme. 8vo, cloth, illustrated, 1893 5.0O PARKER, L., and WORTHINGTON, R. H. The Law of Public Health and Safety, and the Powers and Duties of Boards of Health. 8vo, sheep, 1892 . 5.25 PARKES, L. O. Hygiene and Public Health. Third edition. 8vo, cloth, illus- trated, 1892 2.75 POORE, G. V. Essays on Rural Hygiene 12mo, cloth. 1893 .... 2.00 RAWLINSON, R. The Public Health. Suggestions as to the Preparation of District Maps and Plans for Main Sewerage, Drainage, and Water Supply. Folio, paper, illustrated, 1878 . . . ' 1.20 REEVES, R. H, Sewer Ventilation and Sewage Treatment. 12mo, cloth, 9 folding plates, 1889 1.40 ROBINSON, H. Sewage Disposal ; containing Information for Sanitary Author- ities and Sanitary Engineers. Second edition. 12mo, cloth, 1882 . . . 2.00 SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN AMERICA. A Description of the Munic- ipal Sewerage Purification Plants in the United States and Canada 12mo, paper, illustrated, 1893 1.00 SIMON, SIR J. English Sanitary Institutions. 8vo, cloth, 1890 . . . 8 00 SLAGG, C Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns and Villages. Revised edition. 12mo, cloth, 1893 1.40 SLATER, J. W. Sewage Treatment, Purification, and Utilization. 12mo, cloth, 1887 2.25 SMEATON, J. Plumbing, Drainage, Water Supply, etc. 8vo, cloth, illus- trated, 1893 . 3.00 STALEY, C, and PIERSON, G. S. The Separate System of Sewerage. Its Theory and Construction. Second edition. 8vo, cloth, 1891 . . . .3.00 SYKES, J. F. J. Public Health Problems. 12mo. cloth, illustrations and maps, 1892 1.25 TAYLOR, A. Sanitary Inspector's Hand-book. 12mo, cloth, illustrated, 1893 . 2.00 TIDY, O. M. The Treatment of Sewage 18mo, boards, 1887 50 VARONA, A. de. Sewer Gases, their Nature and Origin. 18mo, boards, 1881 . .50 WARING, G. E. Sewerage and Land Drainage. Third edition. 4to, cloth, illustrated, colored plates, 1891 C.OO Sanitary Condition of City and Country Dwelling Houses. 18mo, boards, 1877 50 The Sanitary Drainage of Houses and Towns. 12mo, cloth, 1879 . . 2 00 WILLOUGHBY, E. F. Hand-book of Public Health and Demography. 16mo, cloth, 1893 1.50 Heal'h Officer's Pocket-book. A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law for Medical Ofiicers of Health, Sanitary Inspectors, etc. 16mo, cloth, illus- trated, 1893 ... 3.00 Edition, Eevised, Enlarged and New Tables and Illustrations addecL I Vol., octavo, b44 pp., 200 Illustrations, fine Cloth binding, S5. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON Water -Supply Engineering: RELATING TO THE Hydrology, Hydrodynamics, /nd Practical Consti^ijction of Watei|;Works, in Nop /merica. WITH NUMEROUS TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. By J. T. FANNING, C. E., MEMBER OF THE AMERICAX SOCIETY OF CIVIL ESGIXEERS. C OIVTEIVTS. SECTION I.— Collection and Storage of Water, and its Impurities. CnAPTEK I.— Intrnchictory. Ciiai>. II.— Quantity of Water ]^■(Hli^^'d. Ciiai". III.— Rainfall. Cfiai'. IV.— Flow of Streams Chap. V.— Storage aud Evaporation of Water. Chap. VI.— Bupplying Capacity of Watersheds. Chap VII.— Sprinjis and Wells. Chap. VIIL— Impuri- ties of Water. Chap. IX. — Well, Spring, Lake, aud River Supplies. SECTION TI —Plow of Water through Sluices, Pipes and Channels. C'^..PTEi£ X.— Weit of I'ricc. ^ICW VOKK. > .^t. ■^J^\.^Vv^^■■>^■vvA^Xv^.^^.\^.:k^>.^'SS